The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume I: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space 9780192692542, 9780192866943

Table of contents :
Cover
The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii: Volume I Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
PART I
Chapter 1: Introduction
The social making of the Porta Stabia neighborhood
The structural making of the Porta Stabia neighborhood
Contextualizing the Porta Stabia neighborhood
Approaching our questions: insula excavations
Using this volume
Conclusion
Chapter 2: Methodology
Excavation strategy
Finds recovery and processing
Architecture and spatial studies
Bioarchaeological and environmental material studies
Archival studies
Recording the site
Phasing and dating the site
Contextualizing the site
Conclusion
Chapter 3: The Database
The database and the project
The database in the field
The database as an analytical tool
The database after publication
Database structure
Data model
User interface
Conclusion
Chapter 4: The History of Excavation and Research Activity in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
History of excavation activity
Documentary sources and the mapping of visual and material evidence
Reading the records
Wall paintings and their spatial contexts
Fixtures and finds: some case studies
Conclusion
Chapter 5: A Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) Survey of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
A brief background to geophysical prospection
The survey of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Some potential evidence for the earlier shapes of buildings during Phases 3 and 4
Identification of features associated with production (Phase 4)
Reformation of space and final developments
Conclusion
Chapter 6: The Architecture of the Porta Stabia Neighborhood: Method, Design, and Construction
Methodology
Building the relative sequence
Adding complexity to the relative sequence
From relative to absolute chronology
Designs of Porta Stabia buildings
Inns and stables
Restaurants and bars
Restaurants
Bars
Construction
Chapter 7: The Geomorphology and Topography of the Area of the Porta Stabia Excavations: (Insulae VIII.7 and I.1)
PART II
Chapter 8: Phase 1: The Earliest Structures and Surfaces (Sixth–Third Centuries BCE)
Phase 1a: structures in pappamonte alongside a series of earthen road surfaces
Road surfaces in Mercato ash
The earliest structures
Phase 1b: the fifth-century BCE “hiatus” in building activity
Phase 1c: the resumption of building activity
Road surfaces in gray ash
Traffic on lava bedrock
Structures of mixed material containing reused pappamonte
Votive deposits associated with construction activities
Other activity: terracing
Other activity: quarrying
Conclusion
Chapter 9: Phase 2: The Beginning of Production Activity (Third–Second Centuries BCE)
Ceramics production
Possible fish-saltingactivities
Sidewalks alongside the via Stabiana
Conclusion
Chapter 10: Phase 3: The Establishment of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (c. 125–c. 80 BCE)
Phase 3a: widespread development
Construction of Property VIII.7.1–4
Construction of Property VIII.7.5–8
Construction of Property VIII.7.9–13
Construction of Property I.1.1–2
Continuing ceramics production
The public well
Quarrying and other activity in the area of Properties I.1.3–5 and I.1.6–9
First stone paving of the via Stabiana; interventions at the gate
Phase 3b: subsequent developments
Activities in Insula VIII.7
Activities in Insula I.1
Developments to the street and sidewalk
Conclusion
Chapter 11: Phase 4: Fish-Salting and Other Activities across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (Early First Century BCE–Early First Century CE)
Phase 4a: widespread redevelopment
New properties in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Construction of Property VIII.7.13–15
Construction of Property I.1.3–5
Construction of Property I.1.6–9
Installation of fish-saltingvats across the Porta Stabia neighborhood
Fish-saltingin Property VIII.7.5–8
Fish-salting(and tanning) in Property VIII.7.9–12
Fish-saltingin Property I.1.1–2
Fish-saltingin Property I.1.6–9
Other activities in Property VIII.7.1–4
Reorganization of access to the public well
Phase 4b: the subsequent developments to Phase 4a
Redevelopment of Property I.1.3–5
Architectural developments in Property I.1.6–9
Alterations to the production activities in Property VIII.7.5–8
Separation of Properties VIII.7.9–11 and VIII.7.12
Phase 4c: the subsequent developments to Phase 4a and Phase 4b
Relatively minor developments in Property I.1.3–5
Relatively minor developments in Property I.1.6–9
Relatively minor developments in Property VIII.7.5–8
Relatively minor developments in Property VIII.7.12
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Phase 5: The Rise of Retail in the Early Imperial Period (Early First Century CE)
Phase 5a: a truly pervasive change
Abandonment of fish-salting
New activities in Property VIII.7.9–11
New activities in Property VIII.7.7–8 (formerly VIII.7.5–8)
New activities in Property VIII.7.12
New activities in Property I.1.1–2
New activities in Property I.1.6–9
Other developments of the Early Imperial period
Reconstruction of VIII.7.1–4
Retailing in Property VIII.7.5–6
Developments in Property VIII.7.13–15
Expansion of Property I.1.3–5
Reconstruction of the Quadriporticus
Paving of the street; addition of the Porta Stabia fountain
Phase 5b: the subsequent developments to Phase 5a
Redevelopment of Property I.1.1–2/10
Redevelopment of Property VIII.7.1–4
Minor construction in Property VIII.7.9–11
Introduction of the Porta Stabia sewer
Conclusion
Chapter 13: Phase 6: The Julio-Claudian Years (Mid-First Century CE)
Minor developments to Property VIII.7.1–4
Some modifications in Property VIII.7.5–6
A new drainage system in Property VIII.7.7–8
Absent remains in Property VIII.7.9–11
A reopened cesspit in Property VIII.7.12
Minor reconstruction in Property VIII.7.13–15
Construction in Property I.1.1–2/10
Small alterations to Property I.1.3–5 and its sidewalk
A few developments in Property I.1.6–9
Conclusion
Chapter 14: Phase 7: The Final Years Following the Earthquake/s (Early 60s–79 CE)
Phase 7a
The separation of I.1.1/10 and I.1.2
Expansion of Property I.1.3–5
Construction and reconstruction
Property I.1.6–-9
Property VIII.7.1–4
Property VIII.7.5–6
Properties VIII.7.7–8 and VIII.7.9–11
Property VIII.7.12
Property VIII.7.13–15
Property I.1.1/10
Property I.1.2
Phase 7b: activities and material associated with the 79 CE volcanic eruption
Conclusion
Chapter 15: The Properties through the Phases
Property I.1.1–2 (later Properties I.1.1/10 and I.1.2)
Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce)
Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce)
Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce)
Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce)
Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)
Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)
Division of Properties I.1.1/10 and I.1.2
Property I.1.1/10
Phase 7
Property I.1.2
Phase 7
Property I.1.3–5
Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce)
Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce)
Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce)
Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce)
Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)
Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)
Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce)
Property I.1.6–9
Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce)
Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce)
Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce)
Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce)
Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)
Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)
Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce)
Property VIII.7.1–4
Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce)
Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce)
Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce)
Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce)
Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)
Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)
Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce)
Property VIII.7.5–8 (later Properties VIII.7.5–6, VIII.7.7–8, and VIII.7.9–11)
Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce)
Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce)
Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce)
Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce)
Division of Properties VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.7–8
Property VIII.7.5–6
Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)
Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)
Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce)
Property VIII.7.7–8
Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)
Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)
Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce)
Property VIII.7.9–13 (later VIII.7.9–11, VIII.7.12, and VIII. 7.13–15)
Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce)
Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce)
Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce)
Separation of Room 67 (at Entrance 13) from VIII.7.9–13
Property VIII.7.9–12
Phase 4a (c. 80–1 bce, earlier)
Division of VIII.7.9–11 from VIII.7.12
Property VIII.7.9–11
Phase 4b (c. 80–1 bce, later)
Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)
Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)
Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce)
Property VIII.7.12
Phase 4b (c. 80–1 bce, later)
Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)
Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)
Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce)
Property VIII.7.13–15
Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce)
Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce)
Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce)
Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce)
Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)
Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)
Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce)
PART III
Chapter 16: The Porta Stabia Gate and Fortification
Introduction
Physical remains
History of excavation
The excavations
Phase 1a: Mercato ash road (600–500 bce)
Phase 1c: gray ash road (400–250 bce)
Phase 2 (begins in late Phase 1c site wide): building the new Porta Stabia (400–250 bce)
Phase 3 (Phase 3a site wide): adding the altar (c. 125 bce)
Phase 4 (Phase late 3b/early 4a site wide): monumentalizing the gate (c. 80 bce)
Phase 5 (Phase 5a–5b site wide): Augustan repaving and drain (up to 35 ce)
Phase 6: post-Augustan(Phases 6 and 7 site wide)
Conclusion
Chapter 17: The Porta Stabia Necropolis
The standing tombs at the Porta Stabia
Other tombs at the Porta Stabia
The zone outside the Porta Stabia as a suburb
Conclusion
Chapter 18: Conclusions
The structure of the city: site taphonomy and urban excavation
The social city: urban life in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia
From production to retail: the socio-economic development of the neighborhood during (especially) the Early Imperial period
Conclusion
PART IV
Chapter 19: Appendices
Chapter 19.1: The Bar Counters of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 19.2: The Cisterns of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Construction and form
Development over time
Capacity, filling, and use
Catalog
Chapter 19.3: The Cooking Facilities of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Types of cooking facilities
Development over time
Spatial distribution
Catalog
Chapter 19.4: The Doorstops of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 19.5: The Drains of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Function
Construction and form
Development over time
Catalog
Chapter 19.6: The Fish-Salting Vats of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 19.7: The Floors of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Chronological patterns
Opus signinum: expectations versus observations
Catalog
Chapter 19.8: The Quarry Areas of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 19.9: The Ritual Contexts in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 19.10: The Soak-Aways of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 19.11: The Thresholds of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Introduction
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 19.12: The Votive Objects of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 19.13: The Toilets and Cesspits of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 19.14: The Graffiti and Dipinti of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1
Introduction
Jenny R. Kreiger
List of essays
Analysis
Catalog
Chapter 20: The Contexts
Chapter 21: The Harris Matrices
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

Citation preview

T H E P O RTA S TA BI A N E IG HBORHOOD AT POM PE II

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii Volume I Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space

ST EV E N  J.   R .   EL L IS, ALLISO N  L .   C .   E M M E R S O N, AN D K E V IN D. DICU S With major contributions by Eric E. Poehler, Jenny R. Kreiger, Gina Tibbott, Mark Robinson, Christopher F. Motz, Ivo van der Graaff, Ambra Spinelli, Jacqueline DiBiasie-­Sammons, Catherine K. Baker, Gregory Tucker, Sarah Wenner, Aimée Scorziello, and John Wallrodt

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2023934094 ISBN 978–0–19–286694–3 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.001.0001 Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

TA B LE O F C O N T EN T S

vii ix xviii xix

Preface and Acknowledgments List of Illustrations List of Tables List of Abbreviations

PART I 1. Introduction 3 2. Methodology 23 3. The Database  Christopher F. Motz and John Wallrodt31 4. The History of Excavation and Research Activity in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Ambra Spinelli and Aimée Scorziello42 5. A Ground-­Penetrating Radar (GPR) Survey of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Gregory Tucker60 6. The Architecture of the Porta Stabia Neighborhood: Method, Design, and Construction  Eric E. Poehler70 7. The Geomorphology and Topography of the Area of the Porta Stabia Excavations (Insulae VIII.7 and I.1)  Mark Robinson90

PART II 8. 9. 10. 11. 1 2. 13. 14. 15.

Phase 1: The Earliest Structures and Surfaces (Sixth–Third Centuries bce)101 Phase 2: The Beginning of Production Activity (Third–Second Centuries bce)121 Phase 3: The Establishment of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (c. 125–c. 80 bce)129 Phase 4: Fish-­Salting and Other Activities across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (Early First Century bce–Early First Century ce)155 Phase 5: The Rise of Retail in the Early Imperial Period (Early First Century ce)200 Phase 6: The Julio-­Claudian Years (Mid-­First Century ce)246 Phase 7: The Final Years Following the Earthquake/s (Early 60s–79 ce)260 The Properties through the Phases 281

PART III 16. The Porta Stabia Gate and Fortification  Ivo van der Graaff309 17. The Porta Stabia Necropolis  Allison L. C. Emmerson334 18. Conclusions344

vi  ·   table of con t e n t s

PART IV 19. 2 0. 21.

Appendices 357 19.1 The Bar Counters of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Sarah Wenner358 19.2 The Cisterns of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Christopher F. Motz361 19.3 The Cooking Facilities of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Jenny R. Kreiger378 19.4 The Doorstops of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Steven J. R. Ellis384 19.5 The Drains of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Christopher F. Motz388 19.6 The Fish-­Salting Vats of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Christopher F. Motz404 19.7 The Floors of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Jenny R. Kreiger413 19.8 The Quarry Areas of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Eric E. Poehler417 19.9 The Ritual Contexts in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Jenny R. Kreiger and Ambra Spinelli429 19.10 The Soak-­Aways of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Catherine K. Baker435 19.11 The Thresholds of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Steven J. R. Ellis445 19.12 The Votive Objects of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Kevin D. Dicus452 19.13 The Toilets and Cesspits of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Kevin D. Dicus460 19.14 The Graffiti and Dipinti of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1  Jacqueline DiBiasie-­Sammons468 The Contexts 476 The Harris Matrices 687

Bibliography Index

729 745

P R E FACE A N D AC K N OW L ED GMEN T S

Bringing archaeological excavations of any size and scale to publication is often an insuperable challenge. The types of data we create are not always suited to a clear description and an ordered narrative, irrespective of print or digital media. The data are normally incomplete, the information often unclear. Moreover, the time it takes to undertake the fieldwork, and then to commit that data and information to text can seem endless; indeed, the whole process can often outlast the various individuals and groups and teams responsible for bringing it all together. So in spite of the necessity to sufficiently publish archaeological excavations, the experience of doing so serves as a reminder as to why too few arch­aeo­ logic­al projects reach this milestone. That we have ourselves arrived at this point comes with another, overwhelming reminder: all of what follows is entirely due to the excellent and tireless efforts of many individuals and institutions that supported our fieldwork, the research, and the ultimate publication of our efforts. The excavations were carried out under the auspices of the University of Cincinnati, with generous financial and institutional support from the Semple Fund of the Department of Classics at the University of Cincinnati. More than supporting the excavation of each field season since 2007, the financial support from Cincinnati allowed for ongoing field research throughout the off-­seasons as well as, and crucially, the provision of multiple study seasons. Further financial and institutional support came through grants and fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Geographic Society, the Loeb Classical Library Foundation, the American Council of Learned Societies, the American Academy in Rome, and the Archaeological Institute of America. We remain ever-­g rateful for the financial support of Ann and Harry Santen, John Yarmick, Charlotte and David Ackert, and an anonymous donor. At the heart of our endeavors was the Parco Archeologico di Pompei, to which we remain ever grateful. Having begun in 2005, our project has experienced multiple generations of administrative support and on-­site collaborations with staff. Among the many we take pride in thanking, we want first to thank Pier Giovanni Guzzo for his invitation to carry out the research and for his kindness and hospitality in those first years to help ensure that our team became established. A succession of superintendents followed, and we thank them all for their continued support: Mariarosaria Salvatore, Giuseppe Proietti, Jeannette Papadopoulos, Teresa Cinquantaquattro,

Massimo Osanna, and not least Gabriel Zuchtriegel. Especial thanks is due to both Massimo Osanna and Gabriel Zuchtriegel for providing such critical support for our project once we had transitioned from excavation campaigns to the study of the materials. Their leadership and support extended throughout the Superintendency, and we are forever grateful to the following for their ongoing assistance and guidance of our fieldwork, and not least their friendship: Grete Stefani, Antonio Varone, Antonio D’Ambrosio, Ernesta Rizzo, Giuseppe Di Martino, Patrizia Tabone, Ulderico Franco, Enrico Busiello, Laura Desposito, Luana Toniolo, Stefania Giudice, Giuseppe Scarpati, and Raffaele Martinelli. At risk of singling out one individual from among the many, still something special must be said of Giuseppe Di Martino. To him we owe our highest gratitude, and echo the same from all of the many members of our team from over the years. Peppe took a keen interest in enabling not only our work on site but also our well-­being on a daily basis in Pompei. His care and friendship continues to this day, now long after his retirement. The project owes an enormous debt to the American Academy in Rome. As an affiliated archaeological project of the Academy, we enjoyed enormously generous infrastructural and intellectual support over the years. From the use of various spaces for the storage and study of the materials to the hosting of regular meetings and events that brought the three affiliated projects together (Morgantina, Gabii, and ourselves), the Academy provided the perfect Italian base for our efforts beyond Pompeii itself. Moreover, the three primary authors of the present volume each were awarded Rome Prizes, which helped the production of this volume enormously: Steven Ellis in 2012–­13 (National Endowment for the Humanities / Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Post-­Doctoral Rome Prize), Kevin Dicus in 2016–­17 (Andrew Heiskell Post-­ Doctoral Rome Prize), and Allison Emmerson in 2018–­19 (Emeline Hill Richardson Post-­Doctoral Rome Prize). Thanks to a Frederick Burkhardt Residential Fellowship from the American Council of Learned Societies, Steven Ellis was able to return to the Academy for the academic year of 2015–­16 to focus on the production of the present volume. Thus, the American Academy in Rome has played a very special role in the success of our field seasons as much as our ongoing publication program. Beyond the institutional support itself, we thank especially the individual efforts of Chris Celenza, Kim Bowes, John Ochsendorf, and Lynne Lancaster. And with much of our time at the Academy being spent in the library,

viii  ·   prefac e an d ac k n ow l e d gme nt s we give warm thanks to Sebastian Hierl and Paolo Imperatore for their endless support along the way. Critical to the success of reaching publication are the publishers themselves, Oxford University Press. We thank OUP for their trust, support, and willingness to take on projects of this type. And central to all of this was Charlotte Loveridge, who has been with us from the beginning. Charlotte’s guidance through all the many steps of the process was always delivered with a kindness and patience that will forever be appreciated. Our thanks on this front goes also to Joanna Harris, Jamie Mortimer, Saraswathi Ethiraju, and Gillian Northcott Liles. We are also very grateful to Jennifer Sacher for her advice on so many matters of the publication process. Of all the challenges of bringing an archaeological project to publication, one of the most pressing is that of conveying the gratitude we have to the many members of our team. Their critical role in publishing the excavation should at once be evident in their many contributions throughout this volume. But as for any successful archaeological project, their efforts have underpinned the project at every stage from setup through fieldwork and post-­excavation seasons, and now the publication. And with so much time being taken by field seasons, we extend our appreciation to their families and loved ones for supporting their efforts and their time away from home. Gary Devore deserves our first expression of ap­pre­ci­ ation, given his essential role in the earliest years of our project. Aimee Scorziello and Ambra Spinelli were instrumental in helping to manage all the various moving pieces of the project. To the supervisors of each trench, we owe a special note of thanks: John Bennett, Christian Cloke, Flint Dibble, Alex Marko, Amanda Pavlick, Nick Ray, Taco Terpstra, Gina Tibbott, and Sam Wood. Eric Poehler brought together the study of the architecture, and was instrumental in helping us to think through the phasing as well as the final writing of the present volume. The total station survey was undertaken by Sydney

Evans, its conversion to a model by Gregory Tucker. The studies of the bioarchaeological and artifactual materials, which will feature in successive volumes but of course underpin much of the present, were carried out by: Leigh Lieberman, Catherine Baker, Laure Marest, and Allison Sterrett-­Krause on the artifacts; Archer Martin, Esperança Huguet Enguita, Sedef Kinacioglu, and Albert Ribera on the ceramics; Giacomo Pardini on the coins; and Mark Robinson, Andrew Fairbairn, Michael MacKinnon, and Jennifer Robinson on the bioarchaeological remains. Many of the illustrations for the present volume were prepared by Gina Tibbott, while it was Gareth Blayney who built the site reconstruction. Alison Whyte expertly led our conservation program. Chris Motz deserves much praise for managing, maintaining, and developing the database–first designed by John Wallrodt–on which so much of our project and this publication depends. And it was Jenny Kreiger who brought together all of the appendices and their authors in the present volume, which we believe are a real highlight of our work. As much as we take pride in thanking everyone here, our one main hope is that the many students and other in­di­vid­ uals who joined us each year will know the extent of our ap­pre­ci­ation for the time they spent with us and the contributions they have each made to the field work, the research, and the publication. It is impossible to thank everyone adequately, but we are ourselves reminded of our appreciation on every page that follows. Finally, we extend heartfelt thanks to our own families, who supported us through so many years of work at the Porta Stabia, and without whom this volume would not have been possible. Steven Ellis Allison Emmerson Kevin Dicus

LI S T O F IL LU S T R AT IO N S 1.01 Aerial view of the Porta Stabia neighborhood (Insulae VIII.7 and I.1) 1.02 Map of Pompeii, indicating the location of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 1.03 The site-­wide Harris Matrix for the excavations of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1; each unit represents the phase of a trench (the horizontal arrangement is according to the spatial relationships of and between each property) 1.04 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 1 1.05 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 2 1.06 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 3a and 3b 1.07 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 4a, 4b, and 4c 1.08 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 5a and 5b 1.09 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 6 1.10 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 7 1.11 Reconstructed view of the Porta Stabia neighborhood, looking north (digital reconstruction by Gareth Blayney on behalf of the project) 2.01 The location of excavated trenches across Insulae VIII.7, I.1, and the Porta Stabia 2.02 The principal categories of contexts excavated by PARP:PS 3.01 Illustration of the technical components of the PARP:PS data model 3.02 The main data tables in the PARP:PS database 3.03 Screenshot of the Structural diagram of the PARP:PS data model 3.04 Screenshot of the Context tab including the main SU page 3.05 Screenshot of the Finds tab including the main small finds list page 3.06 Screenshot of the list of small finds recovered from selected SU 3.07 Screenshot of the list of absolute dates for artifacts from SUs in selected phase 3.08 Screenshot of the detailed information about the selected small find (cf. Figs. 3.05 and 3.06) 3.09 Screenshot of the page for analyzing spatial, chronological, and contextual distributions of artifact classes. The number of structural fragments is shown here as a percentage of all small finds recovered from different contextual categories of SUs 4.01 La Vega’s 1809 map of what would become the Porta Stabia neighborhood, indicating the partial exposure of the northern limits of Insula VIII.7 4.02 Tascone’s 1879 map of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 4.03 Jacob Hackert’s 1799 oil painting of Pompeii, with the highest parts of insula VIII.7 exposed and those of Insula I.1 not yet excavated. Attingham Park, The Berwick Collection, National Trust; inventory no. 608992 4.04 Close-­up of Jacob Hackert’s 1799 rendering of the rear (westernmost) area of Insula VIII.7; the awning against the Quadriporticus may have covered the lime pit. Attingham Park, The Berwick Collection, National Trust; inventory no. 608992 4.05 The outline of the lime pit survives against the outside of the Quadriporticus (WF 178) 4.06 The distribution of paintings and inscriptions across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (courtesy of G. Tibbott) 4.07 The quantity of portable finds sorted by material class across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (courtesy of Gina Tibbott) 4.08 The distribution of stray coins found in the 79 ce contexts for Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (courtesy of Gina Tibbott) 4.09 Drawing by Discanno of the painted lararium (Hospitium Hermetis) in Room 23 of I.1.6–9, WF 1220 (after PPM I, 7, no. 4) 4.10 The triclinium and masonry table in Room 46 of VIII.7.6–9, viewed from the south 4.11 Close-­up of masonry table in Room 46 of VIII.7.6–9, with a staging of the various objects found nearby 4.12 The military diploma of Marcus Surus Garasenus, in two leaves. Side A is the visible, principal text; Sides B and C are the inner, concealed “copies” of the text; Side D is the visible collection of witnesses (with evidence for the bindings and seals). Leaves are 16.5 cm × 12.5 cm. Photos courtesy of MANN

4 4 9 10 11 12 14 18 20 21 22 25 29 33 34 36 38 38 39 39 40

40 43 45 46

46 47 52 54 55 56 57 57

58

x  ·   list of i l lu st r at i on s 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06

7.07 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15

Aerial image of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 with GPR data indicating shallow depth results 60 The presence of walls from Phase 4 in the GPR survey of I.1.3–5 (Time-­slice 06: ~0.64–0.81m) 64 The presence of wall (SU 1050) in Room 7, farther north of its excavation in Room 1 of VIII.7.1–4 64 The corner of the Phase 4a tank in Room 9 of VIII.7.1–4; note the potential presence of tanks at a similar level in Room 7 (Time-­slice 06: ~1.05–1.30m) 65 The presence of Fish-­Salting Vat 5 in the GPR survey of Room 101 of I.1.1–2 (Time-­slice 06: ~0.64–0.81m) 65 The presence of Drain 25 northward of its excavation in Room 78 of VIII.7.13–15; note also the potential presence of Drain 30 (Time-­slice 04: ~0.63–0.88m) 66 The presence of Drain 3 in VIII.7.1–4 (Time-­slice 03: ~0.42–0.67m) 66 The shallow, structural feature in Room 51 of VIII.7.9–11 (Time-­slice 04: ~0.63–0.88m) 68 Reconstructed view of the Porta Stabia neighborhood, looking north (drawing by Gareth Blayney on behalf of the project) 71 The retail shops, bars, restaurants, and inns of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 75 The inns at the Porta Stabia neighborhood 76 VIII.7.12 in its final phase 78 The restaurants at the Porta Stabia neighborhood 79 The bars at the Porta Stabia neighborhood 81 The shops at the Porta Stabia neighborhood 82 An example of the use of opus incertum at the Porta Stabia neighborhood (the south wall (WF 1061) in Room 108 at I.1.2) 84 The “zig-­zag” brickwork at the northern entrance to VIII.7.7–8 85 The Wall Construction Units (WCUs) for Insula VIII.7 86 The Wall Construction Units (WCUs) for Insula I.1 87 The urban landscape of the Porta Stabia as seen from the air, looking north 90 The lava cliff to the west of the Porta Stabia, beneath Insulae VIII.2 92 Exposed lava in the north face of Trench 26000 in Room 65 of VIII.7.12 92 Exposed lava in the courtyard of the house at I.2.2–4. Photo courtesy of Eric Poehler 93 The location of excavated trenches across Insulae VIII.7, I.1, and the Porta Stabia 94 The typical geological sequence (as encountered here in Trench 51000) of lava (SU 51131) beneath the yellow Mercato ash (with white lapilli at the top; SU 51125), and the brown prehistoric paleosol/ash above (also SU 51125). (scale = 50 cm) 95 Accumulation of colluvial soil in Trench 54000 (within later Room 106 of I.1.2). (scale = 50 cm) 96 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 1a 102 The Phase 1a road surface, with possible wheel rut, in Trench 52000 under (later) I.1.6–9 103 Location of the pappamonte foundations of a Phase 1a building in the southern area of (later) Insula I.1 103 The pappamonte foundations in Trench 54000 (SU 54121); Room 106 of (later) I.1.2 104 Section view of the construction trench for the pappamonte foundations in Trench 54000; Room 106 of (later) I.1.2105 The two pappamonte blocks in the northeast corner (right of photo) of Room 37 in (later) VIII.7.7–8 106 The tree-­throw pit (SU 50094) in Trench 50000; viewed from the west. (scale = 50 cm) 107 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 1c 108 The hard-­packed gray volcanic ash road (of Phase 1c) overlying the earlier Mercato ash road (from Phase 1a); Room 118 of (later) I.1.3–5 109 Section of sequence of gray ash road revealed in Trench 54000; Room 106 of (later) I.1.2. (scale = 50 cm) 109 Section of gray ash surface in window trench southeast of later Fish-­Salting Vat 6; Room 106 of (later) I.1.2. (scale = 50 cm) 110 The gray ash and cobblestone road (SU 54058) in Room 106 of (later) I.1.2. Shown from above (top) and in section (bottom) 111 Phase 1c wall (Sus 55113 and 55118) in Room 120 of (later) I.1.3–5, viewed from the south 114 Phase 1c wall formed by three irregularly shaped pappamonte blocks (SU 16071); Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6 115 One of the two irregularly shaped pappamonte blocks that had been incorporated into the foundation of a later wall; Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6 115

l i st o f i l lust r at ions   ·   xi 8.16 The single pappamonte block in the southeast corner of Room 1 in (later) VIII.7.1–4, topped by courses of small lava stones; viewed from the north 116 8.17 Ritual pit cut in association with the pappamonte foundation (Ritual Context 11) in Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6; viewed from the north 117 8.18 Ritual pit (Ritual Context 11) in Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6 during excavation; viewed from the east 117 9.01 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 2 122 9.02 Kiln 1 under Room 103 of (later) I.1.1/10; viewed from the north 123 9.03 Outline of the shape of Kiln 1 under Room 103 of (later) I.1.1/10; viewed from the south 123 9.04 The rounded tank in Room 37 of (later) VIII.7.7–8 124 9.05 The rounded tank with the pipe and perforated lead sheet in Room 37 of (later) VIII.7.7–8 125 9.06 Fish-­Salting Vat 9 in Room 106 of (later) I.1.2 126 9.07 Tank in Room 106 of (later) I.1.2 126 9.08 The “sidewalk” surface beneath (the later) Room 9 of VIII.7.1–4; viewed from the west 127 10.01 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 3a 130 10.02 Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 3a 131 10.03 Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 3a 132 10.04 Plan of Property VIII.7.9–13 during Phase 3a 133 10.05 The cesspit (Waste Feature 14) in Room 58 of (later) VIII.7.12 135 10.06 The eastern tank in Room 48 of VIII.7.9–13 136 10.07 Waste Feature 13 in (later) Rooms 57/66 of VIII.7.12 136 10.08 Soak-­Away 17 built with WCU 014 in Room 68 of (later) VIII.7.14–15; viewed from the north 137 10.09 Plan of Property I.1.1–2 during Phase 3a 137 10.10 The poured mortar foundation for the eastern boundary wall of I.1.1–2 (WCU 1030); viewed from above 138 10.11 The poured mortar foundation for the eastern boundary wall of I.1.1–2 (WCU 1030); viewed in section 139 10.12 Kiln 2 in Room 105 of I.1.1–2 140 10.13 Interior of Kiln 2, with sections of the floor surface 141 10.14 Interior of Kiln 2 during excavation with an olla in situ; form of the vessel pulled from the kiln 142 10.15 Ritual Context 12 in Room 103 of I.1.1–2 during excavation; below: the nine votive cups at the time of excavation144 10.16 The public well in Room 102 of I.1.1–2; note the increased wear marks along the western internal face 146 10.17 The four sections of the well in Room 102 of I.1.1–2, with the coring to indicate the nature and depths of the deposits147 10.18 The paving of the via Stabiana148 10.19 The earlier curbstones of the via Stabiana; note also the later lead pipe that fed the fountain, as well as Drain 1 (at left). Viewed from the south 149 10.20 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 3b 150 10.21 Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 3b 151 10.22 Plan of Property VIII.7.9–13 during Phase 3b 152 10.23 Drain 21 leading toward Waste Feature 14 in Room 58 of VIII.7.9–13 153 10.24 Plan of Property I.1.1–2 during Phase 3b 153 11.01 Aerial view indicating the properties (VIII.7.13–15, I.1.3–5, and I.1.6–9) that were newly constructed in Phase 4; viewed from the west 156 11.02 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 4a 157 11.03 Plan of Property VIII.7.13–15 during Phase 4a 158 11.04 Drain 25 in the northwest corner of (later) VIII.7.15; viewed from the west 158 11.05 Stone structure (SU 28047) in the northwest corner of (later) VIII.7.15; viewed from the south 159 11.06 Terracotta fragments of a left foot (TC28-­5) and a face (TC28-­6); both from SU 28012 160 11.07 Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 4a 161 11.08 The “workbench” along the southern side of (later) Room 118 of I.1.3–5 162 11.09 Soak-­Away 8 within Waste Feature 20 in (later) Room 118 of I.1.3–5 163 11.10 Soak-­Away 8 (Punic amphora of type: T-­7.4.1.1) within Waste Feature 20 after the removal of the fills (SUs 51072 and 51087); in (later) Room 118 of I.1.3–5, viewed from the south 164

xii  ·   list of i l lu st r at i on s 1 1.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 1 1.18 11.19 11.20 11.21 11.22 11.23 1 1.24 11.25 11.26 11.27 11.28 11.29 11.30 11.31 11.32 1 1.33 11.34 11.35 11.36 11.37 1 1.38 11.39 11.40 11.41 11.42 11.43 11.44 11.45 11.46 1 1.47 11.48 11.49 11.50 1 1.51 11.52 11.53 11.54 12.01

The pit (SU 55098) in Room 120 of I.1.3–5 following excavation; viewed from the south The lava bedrock at the bottom of the pit (SU 55098) in Room 120 of I.1.3–5 The footholds cut into the pit (SU 55098) in Room 120 of I.1.3–5 Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 4a Fish-­Salting Vat 7 in Room 122 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the south Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 4a Fish-­Salting Vat 1 (at left, beneath entrance) in Room 32 of VIII.7.5–8; note also Cistern 5 (center) and the column base (at right), both of Phase 5a Waste Feature 12 in Room 37 of VIII.7.5–8 The opus signinum surface (SU 25023) in Room 20 of VIII.7.5–8 The Sarno limestone blocks that formed the latrine (Waste Feature 2) in Room 20 of VIII.7.5–8 Plan of Property VIII.7.9–12 during Phase 4a Fish-­Salting Vat 2 just inside the entrance (at left) to Room 38 of VIII.7.9–10; viewed from the north Cistern 4 in Room 38 of VIII.7.9–12; visible also is Fish-­Salting Vat 2 at left (not yet fully excavated), and Soak-­Away 1 Fish-­Salting Vat 3 in Room 48 at entrance VIII.7.11 Fish-­Salting Vat 4 in Room 58 at entrance VIII.7.12 The tannery tanks in Room 56 of VIII.7.9–12; viewed from above looking west The tannery tanks in Room 56 of VIII.7.9–12; viewed from the south with footholds visible in the southern tanks The amphora base, with the ash-­based contents, in situ in Room 55 of VIII.7.9–12 Plan of Property I.1.1–2 during Phase 4a Fish-­Salting Vat 5 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the east. Note also Threshold 16 and Bar Counter 1 Fish-­Salting Vat 6 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the west. Note also Bar Counter 2 The bronze spatula (BR54-­14) and lead weight, shaped in the form of a Greco-­Italic amphora (PB54-­3), recovered from the lowermost deposit of Fish-­Salting Vat 6 (SU 54044) in Room 106 of I.1.1–2 The tile (SU 58067) and amphora (SU 58066) in situ in Room 107/8 of I.1.1–2, and after excavation Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 4a The tank (SU 24033) and dolium base (SU 24026) in Room 9 of VIII.7.3–5; viewed from the west Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 4b The architectural terracottas recovered from I.1.3–5 (above), with one (the larger) alongside those from I.9.9 (below) Locations for the architectural terracottas recovered from I.3–5 and I.9.9 Foundations for the brick pillar (WCU 1058) in I.1.3–5; viewed from the west Cistern 8 in Room 118 of I.1.3–5; viewed from the west Doorstop 3 in Room 118 of I.1.3–5 Part of the shaft of the well in I.1.3–5, beneath the later (Phase 5a) Cooking Facility 9; viewed from the west Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 4b Fish-­Salting Vat 8 in Room 122 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the south Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 4b Cistern 3 in (later) Room 44 of VIII.7.5–8: left southern end (note the Phase 5a blockage and the Phase 7 repairs); right northern end; bottom mouth Plan of Property VIII.7.9–11 during Phase 4b Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 4b Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 4c The collapse of the surface (SU 59047), and Cistern 9 (SU 59039) in Room 114 of I.1.3–5; viewed from the north Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 4c Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 4c The basin (SU 16020) in Room 15 of VIII.7.5–8 Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 4c An indication of the types of properties (as they will appear in their final form), noting the predominance of retailing and hospitality activities that mostly appear from Phase 5

164 165 165 166 166 168 169 169 170 171 172 173 174 174 175 175 176 176 177 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 185 186 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 201

l i st o f i l lust r at ions   ·  xiii 1 2.02 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 5a 12.03 Plan of Property VIII.7.9–11 during Phase 5a 12.04 Drain 18 along with the filling of Fish-­Salting Vat 3 in Room 48 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the west. Note also Threshold 11 12.05 The viewshed from the street through to the rear room (Room 56) of VIII.7.9–11 12.06 a. Drain 17 passing through the newly opened doorway that had previously separated properties VIII.7.5–8 (at right) and VIII.7.9–11 (at left); viewed from the west. b. Inlet basin to Drain 17 in Room 44 of VIII.7.9–11 12.07 The catchment in Drain 17 (above) with lava capstone (below) in VIII.7.9–11 12.08 The projection of the downpipe (SUs 15009 and 2065) from Room 55 southward into a basin (SU 2034) in Room 46 in VIII.7.9–11; note the north wall of the tank from Phase 4b 12.09 The water system in Room 46 of VIII.7.9–11: top, overflow from the first settling (and display) basin; middle, the second settling basin; bottom, access to Cistern 3 12.10 Cooking Facility 4 in Room 44 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the north 12.11 The exposed eastern part of the triclinium in Room 46 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the north 12.12 Plan of Property VIII.7.7–8 during Phase 5a 12.13 Cistern 5 in Room 32 of VIII.7.7–8 12.14 Inside Cistern 5 in Room 32 of VIII.7.7–8; the three votive cups during excavation 12.15 Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 5a 12.16 The above-­g round tank and Cooking Facility 6 in Room 66 of VIII.7.12: above, viewed from the west (and above); below, viewed from the south 12.17 Plan of Property I.1.1–2 during Phase 5a 12.18 The Phase 5a fills of Fish-­Salting Vat 5 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2; note Drain 33 (Phase 5b) 12.19 The storage vessel (SU 54052) during excavation in Room 106 of I.1.1–2 12.20 Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 5a 12.21 Decorated wall plaster and opus signinum flooring in the northeast corner of Room 132 of I.1.6–9; note also Bar Counter 4 12.22 Bar Counter 4 and Drain 41 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9 12.23 Drain 41 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9: above, the eastward stretch (with capping removed) along Bar Counter 4; below, the southward stretch toward Room 123 12.24 Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 5a 12.25 Plan of Property VIII.7.5–6 during Phase 5a 12.26 The capping of Waste Feature 2 in Room 20 in VIII.7.5–6 (at right); note the new opening formed from an amphora 12.27 Waste Feature 3 in Room 20 of VIII.7.5–6; viewed from the east 12.28 Waste Feature 1 in Room 20 of VIII.7.5–6; viewed from the east 12.29 Plan of Property VIII.7.13–15 during Phase 5a 12.30 The arrangement of two small, narrow rooms uncovered in (later) Room 78 of VIII.7.13–15; viewed from the south 12.31 Waste Feature 5 in (later) Room 78 of VIII.7.13–15; viewed from the west 12.32 Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 5a 12.33 Doorstop 4 (above Doorstop 3) directly behind the “night-­door” of Threshold 20 in Room 118 of I.1.3–5: above, viewed from the west; below, viewed from the east 12.34 Bar Counter 3 in Room 118 of I.1.3–5; viewed from the west 12.35 The low-­walled feature on the sidewalk fronting I.1.5; note the cobblestone surface of Phase 4c 12.36 Cooking Facility 9 in Room 110 of I.1.3–5: above, viewed from the west; below, viewed from the south to show opening 12.37 The eastward extension of the Quadriporticus 12.38 The (northern) section of fill in Drain 25 in VIII.7.13–15 12.39 Drain 30 in the vicolo north of Insula VIII.7; viewed from the north 12.40 Plan of Property I.1.1–2/10 during Phase 5b 12.41 The Fountain at the Porta Stabia; note also Drain 1 12.42 Drain 33 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2/10; viewed from the west 12.43 Bar Counter 1 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2/10; viewed from the north

202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 216 217 218 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 230 231 232 233 233 235 236 237 237

xiv  ·  list of i l lu st r at i on s 1 2.44 12.45 12.46 12.47 12.48 12.49 12.50 12.51 12.52 1 2.53 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 1 3.09 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 1 3.14 13.15 13.16 13.17 1 3.18 13.19 13.20 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15

14.16

The facade of I.1.1–2/10, with Bar Counter 1 blocking Entrance 1a 238 Doorstop 6 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2/10; viewed from the west 239 Bar Counter 2 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2/10 240 Cooking Facility 8 in Room 108 of I.1.1–2/10; viewed from the east 240 Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 5b 241 The four tanks along the north of Room 1 of VIII.7.1–4 242 Plan of Property VIII.7.9–11 during Phase 5b 243 Cooking Facility 5 in Room 53 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the north 244 The construction fills associated with each phase of development, indicating the spike in both Phase 4 and Phase 5 244 The number of finds associated with each phase of development, with a pronounced spike in Phase 5 244 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 6 247 Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 6 248 Plan of Property VIII.7.5–6 during Phase 6 249 Amphora set into the basin (from Phase 5a) in northwest corner of Room 11 of VIII.7.5–6 250 Possible base to a staircase in the southwest corner of Room 11 of VIII.7.5–6 250 Plan of Property VIII.7.7–8 during Phase 6 251 The course of Drain 10 and Drain 11, running west–east, in VIII.7.7–8 251 The overflow system of Drain 11 between the cesspit (SU 17020), its new head (SU 17006), and secondary catchment basin (SU 17100) in Room 37 of VIII.7.7–8; viewed from the northeast 252 The merging of Drain 10 and Drain 11 in Room 32 of VIII.7.7–8 before exiting onto the via Stabiana252 Plan of Property VIII.7.9-­11 during Phase 6 253 Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 6 254 Doorstop 2 (at left and above Doorstop 1 from Phase 5a) in Room 58 of VIII.7.12; viewed from the west 254 The passage of Drain 24, passing to the south of Waste Feature 14 in Room 58 of VIII.7.12; viewed from the west 255 Plan of Property VIII.7.13–15 during Phase 6 255 Plan of Property I.1.1–2/10 during Phase 6 256 Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 6 256 Threshold 32, between Rooms 110 and 114 of I.1.3–5, raised in Phase 6 (on fill SU 59041); viewed from the west (Room 110) 257 The slight widening of the via Stabiana outside I.1.3–5; viewed from the west 257 Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 6 258 Bar Counter 4 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the southwest 258 Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 7 261 Plan of Property I.1.1/10 and Property I.1.2 during Phase 7a 262 Plan of Property I.1.1/10 during Phase 7a 262 The toilet (Waste Feature 6) in the southeast corner of Room 103 of I.1.1/10 263 Plan of Property I.1.2 during Phase 7a 264 Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 7a 265 Out-­of-­plane failure in the rear (easternmost) wall of I.1.3–5 266 Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 7a 266 The portion (of a once larger section?) of lava pavement across Room 126 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the south 267 Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 7a 268 The blocking of Ritual Context 3 in the southeast corner of Room 1 of VIII.7.1–4 269 The course of Drain 3 in Room 5 of VIII.7.1–4; viewed from the west 269 The course of Drain 3 in Room 9 of VIII.7.1–4 during excavation; viewed from the west. Note also Threshold 4 270 The outlet of Drain 3, from VIII.7.1–4, onto the via Stabiana270 The opus signinum surface in Room 5 of VIII.7.1–4; note the missing features along the southern side of the room (at right), the masonry bench along the northern side of the room (at left), and the blocked doorway to Room 10 271 Plan of Property VIII.7.5–6 during Phase7a 272

l i st o f i l lust r at ions   ·   xv 1 4.17 14.18 14.19 14.20 1 4.21 14.22 14.23 14.24 14.25 14.26 14.27 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 15.17 15.18 15.19 16.01 16.02 16.03 1 6.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 1 6.10 16.11 1 6.12 16.13 1 6.14 16.15 16.16

Cooking Facility 1 in southeastern corner of Room 15 of VIII.7.5–6; viewed from the north 273 Construction of Cooking Facility 1 over the opus signinum surface and the layer of ash in Room 15 of VIII.7.5–6 273 The partial inscription (I16-­1) that formed part of Threshold 35 between Room 15 and Room 16 of VIII.7.5–6 273 Waste Feature 22 in the northwest corner of Room 20 in VIII.7.5–6; note also the head to Cistern 7 against the western wall 274 Plan of Property VIII.7.7–8 during Phase 7a 275 Plan of Property VIII.7.9–11 during Phase 7a 276 Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 7a 277 Threshold 12 at VIII.7.12 277 Plan of Property VIII.7.13–15 during Phase 7a 278 The pumice within Cistern 3 of VIII.7.9–13 278 Impressions of both the wooden beams and the basket in the ash that filled the well in Room 102 of I.1.1/10 279 The ten properties of insulae VIII.7 and I.1 in 79 ce282 The location of trenches in I.1.1–2 (later I.1.1/10 and I.1.2) 283 The phases of development for I.1.1–2 (later I.1.1/10 and I.1.2) 284 The location of trenches in I.1.3–5 285 The phases of development for I.1.3–5 286 The location of trenches in I.1.6–9 288 The phases of development for I.1.6–9 289 The location of trenches in VIII.7.1–4 291 The phases of development for VIII.7.1–4 292 The location of trenches in VIII.7.5–8 (later VIII.7.5–6, VIII.7.7–8, and VIII.7.9–11) 293 The first four phases of development for VIII.7.5–8 (later VIII.7.5–6, VIII.7.7–8, and VIII.7.9–11) 294 The development of VIII.7.5–6 from Phase 5 296 The development of VIII.7.7–8 from Phase 5 297 The location of trenches in VIII.7.9–13 (later VIII.7.9–11, VIII.7.12, and VIII.7.13–15) 299 The first four phases of development for VIII.7.9–13 (later VIII.7.9–11, VIII.7.12, and VIII.7.13–15) 300 The development of VIII.7.9–11 from Phase 4b 301 The development of VIII.7.12 from Phase 4b 302 The location of trenches in VIII.7.14–15 (later VIII.7.13–15) 303 The development of VIII.7.14–15 (later VIII.7.13–15) 304 Plan of the Porta Stabia with phases marked. After Van der Graaff 2018, fig. 3.2 311 Overview of the Porta Stabia; viewed from the south 312 Before (left) and after (right) the restoration. Left image after BSR ppm-­0753; right after Cotugno et al. 2009, fig. 008 313 First drawing of the Porta Stabia. After Fiorelli 1873, pl. 14 314 Plan of the Porta Stabia with the presumed guardhouse marked. After Overbeck-­Mau 1884, 50, fig. 15. 316 Overview of areas A, B, and C in Trench 14000 (Area B incorporates Trench 10000) 317 Mercato ash layer (SU 14227) in Trench 14000; viewed from the south 318 Surface (SU 14225) in Trench 14000; viewed from the west 318 The closing mechanism and construction surface of the earliest gate (SU 14121 and SU 14120); viewed from the east 320 The first surface (SU 14233) and the later altar; viewed from the west 320 Closing mechanism (SU 14212) with the underlying block of the earlier mechanism (SU 14234; outlined in purple); viewed from the west 321 Altar (Ritual Context 8) and the two niches (above, Ritual Context 1; below, Ritual Context 2) 321 The Oscan inscription at the Porta Stabia: above, the copy shown in the original location, in situ; below, the original on temporary display in the Scuderie del Quirinale (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli) 323 Northern section of Area A in Trench 14000 showing the foundation of the vault 324 The Phase 4 surface (SU 14109) associated with the vault; viewed from the west. Note also the semicircular concrete base (at left) 325 The Phase 4 altar with its deposit of votive objects in situ; the vessel that held the votives and the votive cup 327

xvi  ·  list of i l lu st r at i on s 1 6.17 16.18 16.19 16.20 1 7.01 17.02 1 7.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 1 7.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 1 9.1.01 19.2.01 19.2.02 1 9.2.03 19.2.04 19.2.05 19.2.06 19.2.07 19.2.08 1 9.2.09 19.2.10 1 9.2.11 19.2.12 19.2.13 19.3.01 19.3.02

1 9.4.01 19.4.02 19.4.03 19.5.01 19.5.02

The terracotta figurine (TC10-­1) associated with the Phase 4 altar Phase 5 sidewalk in Trench 14000; viewed from the west Inscription of L. Avianius Flaccus and Q. Spedius Firmus at the Porta Stabia Holes for a closing mechanism cut into the vault of the Porta Stabia: above, the eastern hole; below, the western hole The tombs of the Porta Stabia at Pompeii. After Osanna 2018, fig. 1 The two schola tombs at the Porta Stabia (the tomb of Marcus Tullius below, that of Marcus Alleius Minius above); viewed from the northwest The tomb of Marcus Tullius at the Porta Stabia Boundary stone of Marcus Tullius built into the northern end of the tomb The tomb of Marcus Alleius Minius at the Porta Stabia View south toward the tombs built over the paving stones of the via Stabiana; note also the opus reticulatum wall that flanked the western sidewalk beyond the Porta Stabia The southernmost of the two altar tombs built upon the via Stabiana; viewed from the south Charcoal graffiti upon the southern door to the tomb at the Porta Stabia The northernmost of the two altar tombs built upon the via Stabiana; viewed from the north The Tomb of the Magistrate at the Porta Stabia. After Osanna 2018, fig. 2 The marble relief from the Tomb of the Magistrate at the Porta Stabia. After Stefani 1998, 34 The excavation of complex urban deposits by members of the PARP:PS team A more “typical” taphonomic process (with construction, occupation, and abandonment contexts) recovered by the University of Cincinnati excavations at Tharros, Sardinia The spatial and chronological distribution of stratified coins at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1. After Ellis 2017, figs. 10.3 and 10.8; the chronological distribution is normalized to thirty-­year ranges The numbers of non-­ceramic finds associated with each Phase of development at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1; note that Phase 5 constitutes c. 46 percent of the total finds The distribution of bar counters across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 The distribution of cisterns across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Cistern cross-­section, indicating terminology and features found in the present text. After Klingborg 2017, fig. 1 The cistern head for Cistern 3 in Room 45 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the south The puteal found in Room 20 of VIII.7.6 (Archival Find 403) Water running down the via Stabiana towards the Porta Stabia following a rainstorm on July 5, 2011 A reconstruction of the roofed areas of each property The evolution of the water capture systems in properties VIII.7.5–8, VIII.7.7–8, and VIII.7.9–11 Estimated number of times each cistern could have been filled by the rain that fell on its roof catchment area (taking an estimate from June through August of the modern era) The size of each cistern relative to its roof catchment area Drain 9 and the masonry tank (SUs 17042, 22012) in Room 37 of VIII.7.7–8; note Drain 7 to the right and Drains 10 and 11 in the bottom left The row of amphorae next to Cistern 6 in Room 32 of VIII.7.7–8 Water filtration system at Emporiae. Photo courtesy of C. Motz The interior of Cistern 10 in Rooms 123–124 of I.1.6–9 The distribution of cooking facilities across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Examples of the three principal types of cooking facilities: top, hearth (Cooking Facility 4 in Room 44 of VIII.7.9–11); middle, stove (Cooking Facility 8 in Room 108 of I.1.2); and bottom, small oven (Cooking Facility 9 in Room 110 of I.1.3–5) Plaster cast of doorstop system at I.7.10. Inset: in situ doorstop (Doorstop 6) in Room 106 of I.1.2 The distribution of doorstops across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 The replacement of Doorstop 3 (below) with Doorstop 4 (above) in Room 118 of I.1.3–5 The distribution of drains across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Drain 26, fed by a downpipe, in Room 78 of VIII.7.13–15; viewed from the south

329 330 331 332 334 335 336 336 337 338 339 339 340 340 341 345 346 348 353 359 362 363 364 364 366 367 368 369 371 372 373 374 376 379

380 384 385 386 389 390

l i st o f i l lust r at ions   ·   xvii 1 9.5.03 19.5.04 19.5.05 1 9.5.06 19.5.07 19.6.01 19.6.02 19.6.03 19.6.04 19.6.05 19.6.06 19.6.07 1 9.6.08 19.6.09 19.7.01 19.7.02

1 9.8.01 19.8.02 1 9.8.03 19.9.01 19.9.02

1 9.9.03 19.10.01 19.10.02 19.10.03 19.10.04 19.10.05 19.11.01 19.11.02 19.11.03 19.12.01 19.12.02 1 9.13.01 19.14.01 1 9.14.02 19.14.03 19.14.04

Drain 12 in Room 37 of VIII.7.7–8 390 Drain 3 in Room 5 of VIII.7.1–4 391 Drain 28 and Drain 29 in Room 68 of VIII.7.13–15; viewed from the north. Note the masonry feature of Phase 7a 392 Drain 1 at the southwestern limit of the via Stabiana392 The chronological distribution of the drains at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 394 The distribution of Fish-­Salting Vats across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 405 Fish-­Salting Vat 3 in Room 48 at entrance VIII.7.11 406 Fish-­Salting Vats 7 and 8 in Room 122 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the south 406 Fish-­Salting Vat 5 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the east 407 Fish-­Salting Vat 4 in Room 58 of VIII.7.9–12 408 Fish-­Salting Vat 1 in Room 32 of VIII.7.5–8 408 Fish-­Salting Vat 2 (with Cistern 4 at right and Soak-­Away 1 at top) in Room 38 of VIII.7.9–12; viewed from the north 409 Fish-­Salting Vats 6 and 9 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the west. Note also Bar Counter 2 410 Fish-­Salting Vat 9 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the west 410 The various floor construction events by phase 413 The main floor types encountered across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1: top, packed earth (SU 24035 in Room 9 of VIII.7.1–4); middle, mortar (SU 56027 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9); and bottom, opus signinum (SU 5003 in Room 5 of VIII.7.1–4) 414 The distribution of quarry areas across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 419 Evidence of wedging and fracture of the lava in Quarry Area 14 in Rooms 126 and 127 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the west. Note also the masonry platform for a lifting device 420 Number of events of quarrying for lava stone (black) and Mercato ash (gray) per phase 422 The distribution of ritual contexts across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 430 Examples of the principal types of ritual context across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1: a. the niche (above, also below) and altar (below) at the Porta Stabia; b. the painted lararium in Room 23 of I.1.6–9 (see Fig. 4.09); and c. the in situ votives in Ritual Context 11 from Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6 (see Fig. 8.18) 431 The altar (Ritual Context 9) outside the southeast corner of Insula I.1 433 Reconstruction of a generic soak-­away system (drawing by Gina Tibbott) 435 The distribution of soak-­aways across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 436 The opening to Soak-­Away 9 in Room 122 of I.1.6–9 438 Soak-­Away 14 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9 (drawing by Gina Tibbott) 438 The chronological distribution of the soak-­aways at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 440 The distribution of thresholds across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 446 A standard, retail threshold (Threshold 10 into VIII.7.10); plaster casting of the shuttered door at IX.7.10, Pompeii 447 Threshold 5 at VIII.7.5; note the socket for a wooden lintel at right (northern end); viewed from the northeast448 The distribution of votives among the excavated trenches at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (numbers indicate the number of votives per location) 453 The types of contexts in which votive objects were found (gray = Secondary Context; black = Primary Context)454 The distribution of waste features across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 461 The distribution of graffiti and dipinti across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (note that all examples, except #2, are no longer extant and thus precise location is less than certain) 469 CIL IV.1014 at the (south end) entrance to I.1.1 (unenhanced photograph) 470 CIL IV.1014 at the (south end) entrance to I.1.1; DStretch image with CRGB (above) and LABI colorspace (below) 471 Programma for Cuspius Pansa at the (south end) entrance to I.1.1/10 (CIL IV.1014 add.199); DStretch image with LBK colorspace 472

LI S T O F TA B L ES 4.01 5.01 19.2.01 19.7.01 19.7.02 19.7.03 19.7.04 19.12.01

The archive of finds from the first excavations of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Survey details Estimates of water entering each cistern during a rainstorm Packed-­earth floors Packed-­earth floors with mortar Opus signinum floors Other floors Contexts in which votive objects of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 were found

49 61 370 416 416 416 416 456

LI S T O F A B B R EV IAT I O N S Primary source abbreviations follow the Oxford Classical Dictionary; journal abbreviations follow the American Journal of Archaeology. AP CAD cm elev. GIS GPR m masl pres. SR SU UUID WCU WF WS

Ante-Plinian Computer-Aided Design centimeter elevation Geographic Information System Ground-Penetrating Radar meter meters above sea-level preserved Stratigraphic Relationship Stratigraphic Unit Universally Unique Identifier Wall Construction Unit Wall Face Wall Segment

AAR APSS BSR MANN MoLAS PARP:PS PQP SAP

American Academy in Rome Archaeological Prospection Services of Southampton British School at Rome Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli Museum of London Archaeology Service Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia Pompeii Quadriporticus Project Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei (now Parco Archeologico di Pompei)

AE CIL CTP GdS GdS NS GdS UP ILS Librette Notamenti PAH PPM

L’Année Epigraphique Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Vander Poel, H.B. 1977–81. Corpus Topographicum Pompeianum, Vols. 1–5 (Roma) Giornale degli Scavi di Pompei Fiorelli, G. 1868. Giornale degli Scavi di Pompei, Nuova Serie, Vol. 1 (Napoli) Giornale degli Scavi di Pompei (unpublished) Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae Librette pel rinvenimento degli oggetti antichi Notamenti di spedizione degli oggetti trovati negli scavi di Pompei Fiorelli, G. 1860–1864. Pompeianarum Antiquitatum Historia (Napoli) Baldassarre, I. 1990. Pompei. Pitture e mosaici (Roma)

PART I

c h a pt e r 1

Introduction This volume, the first of four in a series, presents the results of the archaeological excavations undertaken by the Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia (PARP:PS), a project of the Department of Classics at the University of Cincinnati. Excavations began in 2005 following a conversation between then Superintendent, Pier Giovanni Guzzo, and the project’s director, Steven Ellis, about the necessity of asking new questions of the city of Pompeii, and on the potential value of systematic investigations of under-­studied neighborhoods. Although Pompeii had experienced a flurry of subsurface excavations during the 1990s, still we saw an opportunity for an international collaboration that could make a new contribution to the study of the city and to Roman urbanism more broadly, one that went beyond individual elite buildings, or even individual insulae, to examine the social and structural development of an entire, seemingly sub-­elite, Pompeian neighborhood.1 The neighborhood under investigation encompassed more than 4,500 m2, and by 79 ce comprised ten (structurally) independent properties across two insulae—­VIII.7 and I.1—on either side of the southern length of the via Stabiana (Figs. 1.01 and  1.02). Even from cursory observation, it was clear that these properties had once functioned as shops, workshops, and modest residential and hospitality oriented spaces. While the non-­elite, and non-­monumental character of the remains has contributed to their general neglect in scholarship, it was precisely these qualities that drew us to this particular corner of the city where we could explore new questions about Pompeii’s socio-­economic life. Given that we sought the fullest possible understanding of the area, our work necessarily encompassed not only the properties themselves, but also the  principal thoroughfare that divided the insulae (the via Stabiana), as well as the Porta Stabia and the necropolis beyond it. Beyond simply investigating the urban landscape as it stood in 79 ce, we sought to unravel the full sequence of historic development in the area, from identifying the important layer­ing of geological events, to charting the sequence of human activities predating the construction of the standing properties, to delineating the dynamic history of each building, each business and household, destroyed in 79 ce. By ­excavating 1  In those earliest years the project was co-directed by Steven Ellis and Gary Devore.

multiple neighboring properties rather than individual ­structures, as well as by focusing on a neighborhood with a distinctly sub-­elite character, we aimed: to uncover the livelihoods of the Pompeian sub-­ elite by reconstructing their socio-­economic developments over generations, indeed centuries; to reveal the structural and social relationships over time between neighbors with variable economic portfolios; to determine the role that sub-­elites played in shaping Roman urban networks; and to register their responses to city- and Mediterranean-­ wide historical, political, and economic developments.2 In addition to targeting these social questions, we also looked to develop a new understanding of the ­connections between urban infrastructure (especially waste management) and the construction of cities. One primary goal was thus to move beyond the more trad­ ition­al, hyper-­localized approaches that normally are limited to documenting the structural development of one property or another. This is not to unfairly criticize archaeological publications that take this aim as their focus; such outlines of course provide the essential foundations for any given research program. It is rather to demonstrate that we should expect more from certain sites, particularly those as “data-­ rich” as Pompeii. The city’s complexity as an archaeological dataset can hardly be overestimated. More than a site that can boast over 1,000 exposed properties across an urban area of about 627,000 m2, with artifact assemblages that number in the hundreds of thousands, Pompeii has attracted more intensive academic research across more languages and over a longer period than any other. We should expect more from a Pompeian excavation because the site simply has more of every­thing. Thus, our approach was to target three broad, interrelated questions relating to ancient urbanism: • How could the results of our excavations contribute to an understanding of the social making of the city? • How could the results of our excavations contribute to an understanding of the structural making of the city? • How could the results of our excavations be more broadly contextualized, both within the macrohistory of the Roman Mediterranean as well as the microhistory of the creation of this particular archaeological site? 2  Kim Bowes took a relatively similar approach to the Roman rural poor, but we regret that her landmark volume appeared too recently for its results to be properly integrated with our own work—­see Bowes 2020.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0001

Fig. 1.01  Aerial view of the Porta Stabia neighborhood (Insulae VIII.7 and I.1).

Fig. 1.02  Map of Pompeii, indicating the location of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

I n t ro d uc tion ·   5 From the commencement of the project, we framed our methodology around these questions, using them to unite the many disparate tasks and teams of a large-­scale excavation and to guide each step of the work.

The social making of the Porta Stabia neighborhood Our desire to make a new contribution to Roman urban studies lay behind the decision to examine a seemingly sub-­elite neighborhood of Pompeii. Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, located just inside the Porta Stabia, are entirely populated by notably modest structures; here there are none of the atrium-­style houses that are a typical signature of upper-­scale living. This situation is unusual for Pompeii, where most city blocks feature at least one such house. The area thus presented an opportunity to move beyond the prevalent focus on elites in order to test hypotheses about Pompeian, Roman, and ancient urban social stratigraphy. Our approach thus recalled some of the tenets of the French Annales School, but with a concurrent recognition that focusing on the “masses” can obscure the extensive diversity within that group, as well as the social and economic hierarchies that structured it.3 By studying an entire neighborhood, we aimed to illuminate the sub-­elite with as much subtlety as possible, adopting questions, methods, and ways of thinking that could recognize heterogeneity. Our interests in the social making of the city were thus both specific and broad, and our questions targeted overall patterns as well as the specific textures of social stratigraphy within the neighborhood. For example: could we recognize socio-­ economic distinctions between one property and its neighbor? Could our study of the neighborhood as a whole help us to learn more about the role of sub-­elites in shaping urban space? Could we generate a more detailed understanding—­ even def­in­ition—­of urban living conditions? And could we effectively monitor the response of sub-­ elites to broader socio-­ economic changes? While some of these questions could be approached more productively through the material remains than others, each was essential for framing the Project’s intentions, methodologies, and ultimate results.

necessary for the construction of a city—­from quarrying and terracing the landscape, to managing and storing water and other resources, to removing and recycling waste—­and to understand how these events shaped the volumetric matrix of the site. Consequently, we prioritized the taphonomic formation of artifact assemblages that made up the series of excavated fills, floors, and features, seeking to discern the processes of their deposition, the locations from which they had ori­g in­ated, and why they took on their ultimate forms and locations in the soil deposits. Archaeological scholarship, and not just of the Roman period or of the Mediterranean region, often seems to lack a consistent model for interpreting the complex taphonomic processes at multi-­phased urban sites, which can lead to misinterpretation of recovered artifacts. Among the problematic results are artifact and archaeobotanical studies that assume that the presence of an artifact within a stratified arch­aeo­ logic­al context directly pertains to its use in that very space.4 In reality, the vast majority of excavated contexts within a Roman urban site resulted from the reuse of refuse as building material within a sophisticated construction industry. For example, the spatial distribution of the more than 1,000 coins recovered in stratified contexts during our excavations reveals that 70 percent of them came from shopfronts. The first impression, therefore, is that we find them where they were used and dropped. Closer analysis, however, shows that only a handful of the coins were recovered on a floor or in some other association with the use of that space. The overwhelming bulk came from leveling fills, which consisted of debris imported to the site during phases of construction and reconstruction in order to raise the space in preparation for laying a new floor. The coins’ find-­spots, therefore, have no direct relationship with the use of the room; they appeared in shopfronts more often than in other spaces simply because these rooms were remodeled most often, requiring the greatest volume of infill.5 In all stages of our work, we aimed to prioritize taphonomy, focusing not just on what we recovered, but on why it was found in one deposit or another.

Contextualizing the Porta Stabia neighborhood

The structural making of the Porta Stabia neighborhood

Important as these social and structural questions were, the ultimate aim of the project was to situate our results, as

Beyond these social questions, we also sought to illuminate the structural making of urban space. In this we had, essentially, two objectives: to examine the infrastructural components

4  In spite of the principles of archaeological and systemic context having been canonized some forty years ago by Michael Schiffer (Schiffer 1972), there are countless examples in archaeological scholarship that demonstrate a lack of awareness of those principles; some prominent examples include Binford 1981 (cf. Schiffer 1985) and Blackburn 1989; more recently, see Beliën 2009; Feugère and Py 2011; Kemmers and Myrberg 2011; Reece 2011; Hobbs 2013; and Murphy, Thompson, and Fuller 2013. 5  Ellis 2017.

3  For some useful introductions, see Storey 1999, 209–12; Knapp 1992; Bintliff 1991.

6  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i completely as the data might allow, within a broader cultural and historical framework. Of course, such contextualization should be an expectation for any archaeological project, but the scale of data that emerges from a site like Pompeii can challenge even the best of intentions. Certainly, the variety and enormity of available datasets, each of which can be tied into a wider framework of published studies, can feel overwhelming. The rewards of undertaking such an effort, however, are many. As just one example from our excavations, the wholesale changes that will define the fifth phase of site-­wide development, dated to the Early Imperial period, were shaped by contemporary events and economic currents that ran across the (especially western) Mediterranean. Without an understanding of those broader developments, we would not have been able to connect the local dismantlement of fish-­ salting vats at that time to wider economic history. If we had not prioritized cultural/historical context from the start of the excavations, we might have described the vats—­or any other uncovered feature, for example, bar counters, cisterns, doorstops, thresholds, waste features6—while overlooking how the physical remains related to the larger sweep of history, and how they might inform new understandings of Pompeii and its world.

excavation of the subsurface deposits.9 A recent count finds that some eighteen insulae have been studied with some approximate (albeit inconsistent) level of fullness.10 First and foremost among these, to judge by publication record and overall contribution to scholarship, were the excavations of Insula I.9 by the University of Reading and the British School at Rome.11 Other significant and near-­contemporary efforts were made by the University of Bradford at Insula VI.1,12 and  not least by Filippo Coarelli and Fabrizio Pesando in Region VI; the latter group had an arguably different focus, with their individual excavations being many in number but smaller in size, and scattered across various parts of the region.13 The Swedish Pompeii Project aimed their excavations at the development of Insula V.1,14 while a team from the University of Helsinki focused on Insula IX.3.15 More recently, a detailed study has been made of Insula IX.7.16 Similar impulses guided these projects: to create detailed docu­men­ta­tion of each property in the area of interest and to reveal their developmental his­tor­ies. But valuable as the idea of conducting excavations over entire insulae has been, the ultimate challenge has been to match the ambition necessary for engaging with so much data with the ability to fully—­or even adequately—­publish the results.17

Approaching our questions: insula excavations

Using this volume

Owing to the scale of our questions, answering them required equally extensive fieldwork. While much can, of course, be gained from a systematic study of a single Pompeian building, examining groups of properties facilitates a clearer understanding and more meaningful contextualization of each story. In short, our excavation of ten adjacent properties within two insulae provided an opportunity to detail the developmental histories of each building, as well as the activities of its inhabitants, across an entire urban neighborhood.7 Excavations at this scale were certainly not new to Pompeian archaeology when we began the project. Though Pompeianists had long thought of the city in terms of its insulae, the first effort to target a whole town block in a detailed, systematic way normally is attributed to Roger Ling’s architectural survey of the Insula of the Menander (I.10) in the 1980s.8 Following Ling’s work, a flurry of activity in the 1990s targeted the diachronic history of entire Pompeian insulae through both architectural survey and 6  For more on such features, see Chapter 19. 7  Valid doubts have been raised, since the 1960s and 1970s, about the danger of placing too much value on any series of targeted, “keyhole” excavations across a sizable urban area. See, for example, the concerns raised by Hurst 2013, 64–5; also Barker 1986, 77–85. 8  Ling 1978; 1997. See also Painter 2001; Allison 2004.

The present study represents the first part of a series of volumes and online material intended to provide the full publication of the Porta Stabia neighborhood. The primary aim of the present volume is to tell the story. That is, this book narrates the overall structure and shape of the site and of its history, as well as introduces the organization of the project itself. It is thus something of a bedrock for the remaining publications, particularly with regard to outlining the structural and chronological organization of the datasets. The three subsequent volumes will focus on different material aspects 9  See Guzzo and Guidobaldi 2005;  2008; Dobbins and Foss 2007; Ellis 2011b; 2011c. 10  For the list, see Zanella 2019, 187, n. 461. 11  Fulford and Wallace-Hadrill 1999; Hay 2016. 12  One of the properties of the Insula VI.1 excavations has since been published (Anderson and Robinson 2018). 13  Coarelli and Pesando 2006b; 2011; Annibolettit et al. 2007; Giglio 2008; Verzár-Bass and Oriolo 2009; Pesando 2010; Zaccaria Ruggiu and Maratini 2017. 14  Boman and Nilsson 2008; Karivieri and Forsell 2008; Leander Touati 2008; Staub Gierow 2008; for potential updated bibliography, see http:// www.pompejiprojektet.se/index.php. 15  Castren 2008; for potential updated bibliography, see http://blogs.helsinki.fi/pompeii-project/. 16  Pesando and Giglio 2017. 17  Many have published individual, preliminary reports of the fieldwork, others synthetic treatments, but few full publications. On dissatisfaction in the model of publishing urban excavations, see Hurst 2013, 64.

I n t ro d uc tion ·   7 of the project, but all depend on the foundational material presented here. The three volumes to follow are: • Vol. 2, The Artifactual Record • Vol. 3, The Environmental Record • Vol. 4, The Ceramic Record Additional online material can be found at: https://classics. uc.edu/pompeii. At the time of publication, this online ma­ter­ial includes the primary datasets such as the database; photographs, drawings, and spatial files (CAD, etc.); as well as searching aids to enable the retrieval of information. Some of the digital data necessarily mirrors that found in the present volume, but in many cases (say the attendant information for an SU) we are able to include more and more detailed information in the online version. And though much of this information is presently available, still we intend for the repository to include increasingly more datasets and information over time, during the “post-­publication” phases, as additional findings are made available or updated and improved. As is necessary for any series of publications centered around an archaeological excavation, we have sought to connect the information included in each volume and to tie it as well to the online content. To that end, cross-­referencing has been included where we believe necessary and appropriate, but the reader should expect that for a project of this scale not all opportunities to cross-­reference have been taken or even identified. In several instances, particularly with regards to assemblages of finds within certain contexts, we give ­relatively general descriptions here, since more detailed information on such assemblages—­collectively or as single objects—­can be found in the relevant volume or online dataset; these indirect cross-­references are navigable by the Stratigraphic Unit (SU) number. Turning our attention more directly to the book at hand, this first volume of the full publication of the Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia is divided into four parts. The first (Part I) provides some necessary background to the project and the site, and thus includes a series of chapters that outline our approach and methodology, the structure of our database, the history of excavations prior to our arrival in 2005, the geophysical and architectural surveys, and the topographic landscape of the site. Part II, outlined more fully below, can be described as the principal component of the volume. It comprises eight chapters that chronicle the history of the entire neighborhood, by phase, and concludes with a chapter that highlights the architectonic phases of each individual property. The third part of the volume (Part III) provides some broader context by including chapters on our work on the Porta Stabia gate itself and the adjacent extramural necropolis. A conclusion further contextualizes the results. There follows Part IV of the volume, which provides a series of appendices that provide concise statements

and essays, with catalogs of the relevant data, on various structural fixtures that feature regularly throughout the phase narratives of Part II (cooking facilities, drains, thresholds, vats, etc.). A selection of the most important data to the volume is included in this fourth part, which includes a table of (abbreviated) data for each context, as well as the Harris Matrices for each trench as well as that for the phases across the whole site. This volume—­and indeed the series of publications that will follow—­hinges on the phase narratives of Part II, which provide the overall history of the Porta Stabia neighborhood. These chapters present our results as a synthetic narrative rather than a detailed description of each and every deposit and their sequences, in this way tracing the diachronic occupational history of the site.18 While our approach privileges synthesis and story, the data is essential to the narrative; consequently, relevant stratigraphic units, architectural features, and artifacts are listed throughout. They can be used with the Harris Matrices provided in Part IV of this volume as well as with the digital datasets; we hope that these resources allow the reader to engage with the narrative in as much detail as necessary for their own interests. It is also worth noting that in most but not every instance we have preferred to include relatively more color photographs of the archaeological contexts—­ with coverage of their relationships in plan and in section—­ than two-­ dimensional line drawings of the same. While (essentially stylized) line drawings can simplify otherwise complicated archaeological relationships, color photographs, when accompanying the text, can offer a heightened clarity of the same information. By structuring the text in this way, our chief aim has been to present the story of the site rather than simply to describe its components. There were several reasons for our approach. First, we wished to produce a volume that was both digestible and realistically publishable. Given the scale of the project, attempting to engage with each context and its multiple relationships to others, even at the most basic descriptive level, would have required a text that was both too long for a press to produce and too unwieldy and granular for a reader to navigate. We also felt that traditional publication can ask too much of the reader: careful description of the data creates a valuable record but demands that the reader undertake the task of understanding and analysis. Approaches that prioritize description over interpretation are a product of archaeology’s general “archival anxiety,” the desire to create records that will remain accessible for the researcher of the near and 18 For a more conventional, trench-by-trench record, see our annual reports published in the Journal of Fasti Online and Rivista di Studi Pompeiani (Devore and Ellis 2005;  2008; Ellis and Devore 2006;  2007; 2008;  2009; 2010; Ellis et al. 2011; 2012;  2015). Where details and conclusions diverge, this full publication, of course, takes precedence over those interim reports.

8  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i d­ istant future. While we share that desire and have structured our records to encourage future work, the fact remains that no matter how well presented and recorded archaeological data might be, few can understand it in as much detail and complexity as those involved in the original excavations. Of course, we do not imagine that we have exhaustively covered all possible interpretations of the site; readers will find and—­we hope—­fill the gaps in data and knowledge we have left behind, ignored, or overlooked. Nevertheless, we feel that it is our ethical duty as the archaeologists responsible for the excavations to present the first full interpretation of the site, rather than simply publishing its description, since we can engage with the material in a different capacity than will future researchers. The narrative presented here is organized by what we call subphases and phases. In simplest terms, the subphases represent identifiable periods of development within the relative chronology of a particular trench. Because many of these developments connect—­ physically and analogically—­ to ­others within and beyond the trench, even the property, we collect groupings of subphases into phases (for more on this process, see Chapter  2). The phases therefore represent broader, contextualized sequences of activity that can be linked to historical periods of development at Pompeii and in the Roman world more generally. Thus, while the subphase records activity from one area of excavation—­usually one room or parts of neighboring rooms—­the phase collects the relevant subphases into an intelligible grouping so as to tell the story of the site as a whole, stretching the interpretation and the narrative across rooms, properties, insulae, and beyond. Within our seven phases of development (some of which we further divide into earlier and later parts, e.g., Phase 5 encompasses Phases 5a and 5b), we have situated 220 subphases, of which the site-­wide Harris Matrix offers a synoptic view (Fig. 1.03).19 To expand on that Harris Matrix, the seven ancient phases of development in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia can be summarized as:

Chronologically wedged between datable activity of the sixth and fourth centuries bce, Phase 1b likely relates to the general period of fifth century bce hiatus recognized by others at excavations across Pompeii.20 In Phase 1c we see the resumption of activity, attributable to the later fourth and early third centuries bce, with the arrival of some new buildings that used a combination of (likely reused) pappamonte and other stone types for their foundations. As in Phase 1a, their poor state of preservation precluded us from delineating the shape of any single building. The buildings were located to either side of a road surface of packed gray ash; the road appeared to have been in use over a long period and to have received regular patchings and resurfacings.

Phase 1: The earliest phase of development is divided into three parts (Fig.  1.04). Phase 1a saw the introduction of the first structures, which can be dated to the sixth century bce. The remains were minimal, consisting of two short lengths of foundations in the soft volcanic stone known as pappamonte, and no coherent plan can be drawn from them. They were located to either side of an early road made of  hard-­packed ash derived from the Mercato eruption of Vesuvius (see Chapter  7) and following generally the same alignment as the later via Stabiana. There followed a period—­ Phase 1b—­ of what can only be described as inactivity.

Phase 4: From the early first century bce, around the time of the foundation of the colony, a series of significant structural and functional developments characterized Phase 4 (Fig. 1.07). We divided this phase into Phases 4a, 4b, and 4c; the latter two phases mostly involved minor alterations from the first. The northern properties of each insula (VIII.7.14–15, I.1.3–5, and I.1.6–9) were added in Phase 4a, bringing to near completion the final shape of the area. The properties now appear to have centered their economic activities on production. Several fish-­ salting vats operated in street-­front rooms on either side of the via Stabiana, while a tannery was installed in the rear of one property.

19  Phase 8 represents modern interventions pre-dating our excavations. The 220 subphases do not include another 32 that were encountered in the natural, geological sequences, nor the 42 modern subphases.

Phase 2: Evidence for standing architecture also was sparse in Phase 2, although activity in the form of a ceramics workshop was introduced at this time (Fig. 1.05). Belonging to the later third and second centuries bce, this period was marked by small, simple, and scattered structures that likely utilized some architecture still standing from Phase 1c. Although the road appears to have underlay the final paving of the via Stabiana, making it inaccessible to excavation, we identified some mortar sidewalks that had been laid down to either side of it. Phase 3: The insulae underwent their most dramatic structural changes in Phase 3, with the construction of four large buildings, three on the western side of the via Stabiana and one to the east (Fig.  1.06; Properties VIII.7.1–4, VIII.7.5–8, VIII.7.9–13, and I.1.1–2). This major event, which can be dated to the second half of the second century bce, coincided with the “Golden Age” of Pompeii’s development. It is here assigned to Phase 3a, while some minor alterations followed in Phase 3b. Also associated with Phase 3a was the cutting of a public well in the southwestern corner of Insula I.1, alongside the via Stabiana and just inside the Porta Stabia. Some ceramics production continued into this period, but otherwise there were few indications for the specific types of activities that took place in the neighborhood in this period.

20  Coarelli and Pesando 2011, 47–8; Esposito et al. 2011, 131–3.

Fig. 1.03  The site-­wide Harris Matrix for the excavations of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1; each unit represents the phase of a trench (the horizontal arrangement is according to the spatial relationships of and between each property).

10  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 1.04  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 1.

I n t ro d uc t ion  ·  11

Fig. 1.05  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 2.

12  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 1.06  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 3a and 3b.

I n t ro d uc t ion  ·  13

Fig. 1.06  continued

14  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 1.07  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 4a, 4b, and 4c.

I n t ro d uc t ion  ·  15

Fig. 1.07  continued

16  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 1.07  continued

I n t ro d uc t ion  ·  17 Phase 5: A significant development in the use of (especially street-­front) space swept across all properties and both insulae during Phase 5, which dates to the Early Imperial period (generally being placed in the first thirty-­five years of the first century ce; Fig. 1.08). At this time the production activities that had characterized the neighborhood in the previous phase came to an end, replaced for the most part by retail. This shift from workshops to shops, production to commerce, had a profound impact on the socio-­economic life of the neighborhood, essentially recharacterizing the streetscape. With the introduction of spaces dedicated wholly to retail came a specialization in their forms. New shopfronts were designed to showcase the shop counter; their masonry forms signal a commitment to, and confidence in, the retail economy writ large. These massive changes affected not only the activities occurring in the neighborhood but also the volume of ma­ter­ials brought in to make the new spaces; one consequence is that we register more finds for this period than for any other. While most developments of this period are assigned to Phase 5a, a few related changes followed in Phase 5b, including the enclosure and privatization of the public well that had been in place since Phase 3a. Phase 6: Given the scale of change that characterized the preceding period, Phase 6 is noted rather for minor, localized renovations to various buildings (Fig.  1.09). Thus for this period we can record some new surfaces and walls, but no major changes in terms of activity. The phase dates broadly to the mid-­first century ce. Phase 7: The final phase of ancient activity is well known to Pompeian scholarship, catalyzed as it was by the earthquake/s of the early 60s ce (Fig.  1.10). Whether one earthquake or more, the seismic impact was pervasive across both insulae; essentially every property was affected, with almost all walls showing signs of having been rebuilt. It is noteworthy that these efforts prioritized rebuilding the preexisting structures and spaces rather than exploring opportunities to design new and different buildings or to alter the types of activities happening inside. Also significant is the loss of most soil stra­tig­ raphy from this phase; excavations of the eighteenth to twentieth centuries had removed most of the latest deposits (see also Chapter 4). These seven phases form the focus of the present volume and structure the chapters to follow. The phased narrative con­ text­ual­izes the neighborhood as a whole, but we recognize that a phase-­by-­phase presentation disjoints the story of any individual property, severing its sequence from one phase to the next. Thus, at risk of redundancy, heavily abbreviated summaries of the development of each property are included in Chapter  15. These summaries should allow the reader, if interested in the development of one property or another, to follow that story more easily; more detailed treatments will remain, however, in the phase narrative chapters.

The third component of the volume, Part III, includes two chapters (Chapters 16 and 17; the first on the Porta Stabia gate itself, the second on the Porta Stabia necropolis just beyond) and a conclusion (Chapter  18) that attempt to draw the focused research on Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 into a broader context. Part IV then comprises a series of appendices on common features uncovered in our excavations (Chapter 19.1–14). These were written not only to collect complementary information into easily located and digestible essays, most of which are accompanied by a catalog, but also to reduce redundancy within the narratives. The appendices allow a reader interested in a specific type of fixture or feature—­for example, cisterns, soak-­aways, vats, cesspits, shrines, etc.—to more readily find all relevant examples from our excavation. At the same time, the appendices simplify our narrative; rather than (re)introducing and describing a particular drain, for ex­ample, each time we mention it in the text, we instead identify it by its appendix catalog number. We invite readers to consult these appendices as their needs and interests dictate. Moreover, the topics selected for them were, we believe, ­worthy of individual treatment; some compelling and significant stories not directly related to the phased development of  the neighborhood—­for example, the widespread use of small and hyper-­ localized quarry pits during phases of reconstruction—­risked being lost in the larger narrative. By isolating each topic into its own appendix, we could explore it in more detail and elucidate its wider significance more clearly. We hope the appendices prove useful as a foundation for still larger studies, by students and scholars alike.

Conclusion What follows is a volume that aims to document a large urban excavation at one level, while on another outlining the social and structural making of a city. To be clear, the analyses communicated in the present volume necessarily supersede those expressed in the earlier preliminary reports, and, to a lesser degree, our more synthetic readings.21 Even so, the value of the periodic publications for developing our understanding of the site should not be diminished. Apart from providing the immediate results of each season, the creation of the reports required us to develop clear ideas during the ongoing process of field research, furnishing the seeds grown throughout the present publication. Our main hope now is that this volume, together with those that will follow, provide the necessary data and ideas for others to develop their own conclusions or to improve on our own (Fig. 1.11). 21  For example, Emmerson 2010 (on the Porta Stabia necropolis); Ellis 2011d (on the fish-salting industry); Ellis 2017 (on coin-finds); Ellis 2018 (on the retailing of food and drink); Holt and Palazzo 2013 (on rodents); Dicus 2014 (on refuse and finds assemblages); and Van der Graaff and Ellis 2017 (on the Porta Stabia shrine).

18  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 1.08  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 5a and 5b.

I n t ro d uc t ion  ·  19

Fig. 1.08  continued

20  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 1.09  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 6.

I n t ro d uc t ion  ·  21

Fig. 1.10  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 7.

22  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 1.11  Reconstructed view of the Porta Stabia neighborhood, looking north (digital reconstruction by Gareth Blayney on behalf of the project).

c h a pt e r 2

Methodology This chapter aims to outline the methods by which we ­conducted our fieldwork and generated the datasets that underpin our interpretations. Given the purview of the present volume, we will focus especially on excavation strategies here; the meth­od­olo­g ies that we developed for processing ceramics, bioarchaeological material, and other artifacts will receive more detailed treatments in their relevant volumes. Though much of what follows is straightforward and accords with what we might define broadly as “best practices,” still our methods and processes require some explanation; after all, while the broad outlines are grounded in common practice, the nature of the site and of the project—­as any—­required various deviations. Moreover, because not all archaeological projects follow the same methods, it is necessary to spell out our own approaches and the rationale behind them; we have in mind also the reader of the near and distant future, who will surely be governed by a different sense of basic standards. Even the briefest survey of current, university-­led archaeological projects finds a considerable variety in method: for example, while some projects record data on digital tablets, others do so on paper; while some conduct and record their excavations with both trained and novice students, others employ experienced workmen assisted by student recorders; and while some screen all of their deposits for artifacts and employ flotation tanks to retrieve organic remains, others prefer to recover what they can in the trench through eyesight alone. Many other methodological differences shape contemporary archaeological fieldwork, regardless of region or period, and this reality has a significant impact on how we engage with datasets and publications. What follows is thus as necessary as it is necessarily brief. Certainly the discussion could be expanded to include fuller treatments of the developmental histories of various ­methods and approaches, as well as their current practice in the dis­cip­line, but our mo­tiv­ ations are simply to outline our decisions and to explain how they have shaped our fieldwork and publication processes. Apart from basic practicalities, the methodologies outlined below were shaped by a set of common goals, defined by the project’s research questions targeting the social, structural, and contextual making of the Porta Stabia neighborhood (see Chapter 1). This meant that those studying (for example) metal artifacts had similar frameworks through which to

a­ nalyze their materials as those working with gemstones or microfauna or courseware pottery, not to mention those undertaking the excavation of the trenches or analyzing the standing architecture. Some questions we outlined from the beginning of the project, while others surfaced in response to our ongoing results. For example, project-­wide questions ­circled around the extent to which we could: • detect variability in living conditions between neighbors and across the neighborhood, and/or over time; • detect patterns in the presence of various imported products, and whether any such patterns had chrono­logic­al ­dimensions; • identify wear patterns in various artifact classes that might suggest common post-­use life cycles; • identify certain datasets that contributed to our developing awareness of the transition across the site from production activities to more retail-­based ones in the early Imperial period. Critical to this approach was clear communication across the project and its (potentially disparate) parts. At the most basic level, our principal areas of enquiry included, but were not limited to: archaeological excavation, architectural ana­ lysis, pottery studies, artifact studies, bioarchaeological and environmental material studies, geophysical and topographic landscape studies, and archival studies; our approach to each area was guided by a wide range of historical and theoretical enquiry. The first eight summer field seasons (2005–12) were dedicated to excavations and fieldwork. The first five of these (2005–9) were centered on trenches within Insula VIII.7 and the court of the Porta Stabia itself. The following three years (2010–12) targeted the properties of Insula I.1. The remaining seasons (2013–present) focused on publication: the so-­called “study-­seasons.” Thanks to the generosity of the American Academy in Rome, all of our pottery was sent, in stages, to the Academy where it could be studied year-­round by Archer Martin and his team. Other materials, particularly faunal remains, were sent first to Ann Arbor, then to Cincinnati, where they were studied by Emily Holt (when the material was in Michigan) and Michael MacKinnon and his team. All  of the coins were sent to Rome to the Laboratorio di Restauro del Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità della Sapienza Università di Roma where they were cleaned and

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0002

24  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i conserved by Sara Carraro, then studied by Giacomo Pardini. Otherwise, all material remained in Pompeii and is at present stored in the magazzino of the San Paolino building.

Excavation strategy The project followed the conventional “single-­ context” method, maintaining excavation and recording standards required by the Parco Archeologico di Pompei and the Ministero dei Beni Culturali. The principal components were thus the stratigraphic units (SUs), which as expressions of physical events (typically deposition or removal) constituted the physical and spatial units for the site. Our method was to delineate the stratigraphic sequence of events as they could be measured by single, identifiable activities known as contexts. In other words, we followed the customary system of excavation through single context recording that was codified through the 1980s and 1990s by the Museum of London Archaeology Service (MoLAS), expressing each uniquely numbered SU and its relative relationship to others in a Harris Matrix.1 The Harris Matrix, familiar to almost all modern excavations, allowed us to record complex stratified sequences of events in an abstract yet intelligible way, organized by immediate relationships as well as related groups of activities. For example, the matrix can express the addition of a layer of wall-­plaster over an earlier finish (an immediate stratigraphic relationship), but also can collect series of approximately contemporary events—­the laying of a new floor along with construction of new architectures, for example—­and group them together. Our Harris Matrices allowed us to express these immediate and aggregate relationships at the level of the trench, which is, of course, standard practice. Moreover, we were able to visualize each group of relatively dated activities within a trench, a unit we conceive as a “subphase,” onto a site-­wide Harris Matrix (see Fig. 1.03), that organized all excavated contexts into seven primary periods of ancient activity, conceived as “phases” and linked to an absolute chronology (as summarized in the preceding chapter and detailed in the chapters to follow). Some of these phases (Phase 1, 3, 4, 5, 7) contain minor groups of relatively dated developments within them, indicated by letters. Readers should note that any mention in the text of activity within such a phase refers more generally to all of these groups; references to “Phase 5,” for example, encompass both Phase 5a and Phase 5b. All excavated contexts (SUs) below the modern topsoil were hand troweled and dry sieved through a 1 cm mesh. More select contexts, such as the organic-­rich fills within drains, cesspits, downpipes, soak-­aways, and ritual deposits, were wet sieved in their entirety. Approximately 20 liters 1  For the MoLAS guide, see Westman 1994. Also Harris 1975; 1989.

(the first two buckets) of many other contexts also were wet sieved so as to build a sense of the “background noise,” that is, the normal distribution of organic material in deposits of various types. The consistency with which all contexts were screened ensured a high level of recovery in our process. We excavated a total of forty-­one trenches across the site (Fig.  2.01), two of which (4000 and 30000) essentially were marked-­off areas for careful cleaning rather than subsoil excavation. As an urban excavation, the presence of standing architecture meant that there were some rather obvious spatial restrictions on the size and shape of each trench. One important outcome of this circumstance was that our trenches rarely were regularly sized squares or rectangles, an observation that has some bearing on how numbers, dens­ities, and volumes can be compared between one trench and the next. Furthermore, trench depth varied depending upon the elevations of the earliest human activities and geological strata, while in some cases depth was conditioned by the complexity of the stratigraphic deposits and the human resources required in a space. The locations of all trenches were selected according to ongoing interpretations and developing lines of enquiry. In this way the trenches were targeted rather than randomly located. For example, we quickly realized that street-­front spaces revealed more signs of development—­and so more useful information in both quality and quantity—­than rooms at the rear of any given property. Moreover, we prioritized spaces along identifiable property boundaries with the hope of revealing information about the architectural development not only of individual rooms but also of the properties themselves. Because large trenches yield more useful and clearer information than “keyhole” investigations, we excavated as much of a given room as was practical.2 The utility of ­visualizing as much of the site as possible can hardly be overemphasized; the trenches were large enough to answer broad questions of architectural development, as well as to extract sizable assemblages from the contexts related to the making and use of those spaces. Their average size was about 18m2, the largest being Trench 12000 at 54.5m2. While the number of excavated trenches was significant, still more areas of the site were investigated through the non-­ invasive methods of architectural and geophysical analysis. This difference between excavated and unexcavated areas reflected a balance between accessing as much information as possible to develop our narrative, but not excavating so much that our datasets became too unwieldy to analyze and publish in a reasonable amount of time. We also considered our responsibility to future scholarship at the site, not wishing to 2  See Hurst 2013, 64–5 on problems of keyhole excavations. Also Biddle and Kjolbye-Biddle 1969, 211–13.

m et h o d o lo g y   ·  25

Fig. 2.01  The location of excavated trenches across Insulae VIII.7, I.1, and the Porta Stabia.

26  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i jeopardize any future projects that might wish to conduct new excavations in the area. Our decision to stop excavating and refocus on the more important matter of publication came once we felt we had developed a clear understanding of the structural and social development of the two insulae.

Finds recovery and processing Given the complex nature of the site, as well as the extent of our excavations over so large an area, both the pottery and finds records represent an enormous range of materials that reflect urban life over several centuries. Accessioned artifacts numbered close to 10,000, and pottery sherds over 150,000. While fuller accounts of the sampling and processing of the artifactual and ceramic records are reserved for their relevant volumes, for the present it is necessary to offer the following abbreviated account. Following the screening process (discussed in “Excavation strategy” above), pottery was washed, dried, and preliminarily sorted by class. Artifacts also were sorted at this stage into classes, which were determined by a combination of type and material (loom weights, iron, glass, coins, etc.). They were then quantified, preliminarily qualified, and photo­ graphed for reference. Secondary, more detailed, analyses of both ceramics and other finds were undertaken during post-­ excavation seasons. At this stage, the non-­pottery artifacts were qualified in more detail, typologies were created, and artifacts were reorganized by function (weaving, structural, personal adornment, etc.). The pottery was similarly studied in closer detail, by class of material, to develop an understanding of the range of forms, as well as their manufacture, use, and ultimate distribution over time and space.

Architecture and spatial studies Our study of the architecture and of the overall spatial arrangement of the neighborhood proved something of a hallmark of our method, as will be more properly detailed in Chapter 6. For present purposes, our method can be sum­ mar­ized as having combined a total station survey of every standing wall and feature (along with exposed architectures and structural fixtures from the trenches), a manual field survey to record wall construction styles and stratigraphic information within and between each architecture, a geophysical survey of the subterranean structures (on which, see Chapter 5), and an aerial photography campaign. One additional point on the architecture deserves a brief mention here, concerning our division of properties. Throughout the text, we refer to ten properties present in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 in 79 ce; these developed gradually from four properties in Phase 3, to seven in Phase 4a, to eight in Phase 4b, to nine in Phase 5, and finally to ten in Phase 7 (see Figs. 1.04–1.10). Through all phases, our categorization is

based on the largest possible areas covered by a series of united architectures without evident connections between them (e.g., shared drains and/or open doorways). Nevertheless, we recognize that this system does not ne­ces­sar­ily represent the reality of how spaces were owned or used. In Phase 3, for example, each of the three discernable “properties” of Insula VIII.7 were subdivided with interior walls that gave them simi­lar tripartite structures. Therefore these might represent nine “row houses” of the type uncovered elsewhere in subsurface excavations at Pompeii.3 We lacked the evidence, however, to confirm or deny that suspicion, and so defined the properties by their broadest constituent parts. In later phases, on the other hand, various pieces of circumstantial evidence indicated that certain properties might have shared management or ownership. For instance, the similar structures of Properties I.1.3–5 and I.1.6–9 suggested a connection between them, a supposition made stronger by the fact that walls in Property  I.1.3–5 appeared to have been built with materials quarried from below Property I.1.6–9 (see Chapter 19.8). Nevertheless, the spaces did not feature any clear intercommunication through doorways, drains, or other fixtures, and so our model separates them.4

Bioarchaeological and environmental material studies While a fuller explanation of our methodologies for collecting and studying the bioarchaeological data is reserved for Volume III, some outline is given here for the benefit of the present volume and its readers. Macrofauna, including larger animal bones, seashells, and land snail shells, were collected and preliminarily sorted trench-­side during troweling and dry sieving. Smaller organic remains, including microfauna, were recovered during wet sieving. A team of environmental archaeologists, led by Mark Robinson, Michael MacKinnon, Emily Holt, and Andrew Fairbairn processed the bioarch­aeo­ logic­al material (from c. 2000 liters of wet sieved samples) to target questions about the natural environment in the area, diet, and the economy of food production and consumption.

Archival studies A team of archivists focused their attention on locating, accessing, and retrieving all relevant archival information on the history of exploration in this corner of the ancient city. Beyond developing a timeline of past investigations and 3  See Nappo 1997. 4  See also Property VIII.7.13–15, which might have consisted, at least originally, of two separate properties (VIII.7.13–14 and VIII.7.15), as well as Properties VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.9–11, which shared a small doorway between their rear gardens.

m et h o d o lo g y   ·  27 identifying prior interpretations of the neighborhood, they charted the full extent of (lost) knowledge, tracking the locations of missing architectures, structural fixtures, and dec­or­ation, as well as findspots for “stray” finds recovered (or at least recorded) from each property. The archival ­survey thus revealed crucial information about long-­forgotten objects and ideas. A more detailed explanation of this work is reserved for Chapter 4.

Recording the site The range of documentation across the various areas of the project included standardized context forms for the basic datasets (soil stratigraphy and standing architecture),5 diary-­ style entries for daily expression of ideas and interpretations, as well as digital photography, technical and sketch illustration, topographic (total station) survey, and 3D laser scanning. Field recording initially was conducted with paper forms and notebooks, the information from which was transcribed into the Project’s central database while the original copies were scanned for the digital archive. The standardized paper forms provided a consistent framework for recording data, while journal entries in notebooks organized by trench allowed for fuller treatments of various descriptions and ideas. The journals also provided a running account of daily activities and processes. With the arrival of tablet computers in 2010— specifically Apple’s iPad—­all data became “born digital.”6 Nevertheless, the broader framework of data collection remained unchanged, with essential data entered directly into digital forms within the central database, while narrative journals for each trench were maintained digitally on iPads. In addition to the written descriptions entered into the database, which included spatial, stratigraphic, and mor­pho­logic­al information, digital photographs and illustrations were made for each SU. The illustrations were hand drawn in plan and/or section, initially on mylar at a scale of 1:20 (for plans) and 1:10 (for sections); with the arrival of the iPad for trench-­side recording, all drawings (still hand drawn, using a stylus) were made digitally at a scale of 1:1. Levels of targeted contexts were taken with an EDM theodolite (Total Station); relative levels from these points were taken with the dumpy level. Given the variety of finds recovered from the excavations—­ from ceramics to coins to charcoal—­and that these classes of materials were studied by various specialists who each had their own, often idiosyncratic and time-­honored systems of recording, there is no single explanation for how we recorded objects. In general, the process was much the same as for the 5  The standardized forms included all of the information required from the Italian Catalogue Office of the Ministero dei Beni Culturali. For a fuller outline of our recording procedures and data structures, see Chapter 3. 6  Wallrodt et al. 2015; Ellis 2016; Wallrodt 2016.

stratified contexts in that some datasets were recorded directly into the central database with an iPad, while others were recorded in paper notebooks that were later digitally scanned and/or had their data entered into the database. A full set of records was lodged each year with the Parco Archeologico di Pompei in digital format. The documentation was otherwise housed in the Department of Classics at the University of Cincinnati. Here all of the hard-­copy data has been stored and maintained in a climate-­ controlled, secure location within the storage facility of the Department of Classics’ archaeology laboratory. All of the digital data—­ whether born digital or as digital copies of the paper forms—­is stored, curated, and routinely backed up on multiple servers. Apart from the online companion to these volumes, finding aids for both digital and hard-­copy data are available to interested parties.7

Phasing and dating the site Given the scale of the site, and owing to the various lenses through which we can follow the story of its development (from the trench/room, to the property, to the site at large), some explanation is required of the phasing and dating conventions used throughout this and the other volumes. Even if what follows is to be expected, still there is some value in defining our terms. As discussed in brief above, we have created two levels of phasing: subphases and phases. The subphases are the grouped sequences of approximately contemporary SUs—­typically representing construction events—­ that were identified and sorted into a relative chron­ology within a single trench. So, for example, when a room was remodeled, we combined all relevant SUs, representing both the deposits that formed the space and those that survived from its subsequent habitation (with the latter, “use-­phase” deposits being much rarer, in spite of the greater period of time they represented), into a subphase. Essentially, the subphase represents a significant and identifiable development to the shape and/or use of an individual space.8 In all of this we acknowledge that a good many urban developments, even important ones, left no physical mark on the arch­aeo­logic­al record. Thus a shop could have transitioned from trading in one good or service to another, or might have changed ownership, without leaving any identifiable evidence for either phase of development. In other scenarios, there might have been periods of relative stasis that, while being important to the overall story of development, are otherwise phases of (in)activity that are difficult to recognize or understand through the archaeological remains.

7  See: https://classics.uc.edu/pompeii. 8  The subphases might also be identified as “trench phases.”

28  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i While the subphases are essential for understanding the development of an individual space, they remain, over forty-­one trenches, “micro-­histories.” When viewed in sum, the 220 subphases across 10 separate properties revealed certain patterns, both functional and chronological, that could be connected and organized into the broader developmental framework of phases.9 In fact, it was rare that any subphase was truly isolated from another. The renovation of one room often shared a relationship with construction events elsewhere, crossing properties, insulae, or even the site as a whole. We recognized many such relationships through direct stratigraphic connections; for example, the same construction trench might appear in separate trenches excavated to either side of a wall, or the same drain might run through multiple rooms, coming to light in a number of trenches. Clear physical connections of this type allowed us to tie subphases together into the same phase, providing a skeleton for the site as a whole. Other relationships were determined by more analogical forms of reasoning, relying on shared features such as similar floor elevations or similarity of activities to associate subphases (e.g., separate rooms of a property receive new surfaces of the same type). In these cases, the suggested dates provided by pottery and other finds were especially helpful for clarifying and supporting our in­ter­pret­ations (see further below). Apart from helping us to better contextualize the developments within each trench, assigning subphases to phases ne­ces­sar­ily reduced the complexity of the site by collapsing 220 subphases into 7 primary phases of development. This method of connecting each SU to a subphase and each subphase to a phase enabled us to readily adjust our focus as ne­ces­sary for interpreting the site, whether “zooming in” to a particular SU or taking a broad view of an entire phase of activity. To facilitate that reading, we developed a site-­wide Harris Matrix to express the relationships of subphases to phases (see Fig. 1.03). Thus, apart from the more standard Harris Matrices that indicate the relationships of SUs to subphases within each trench (see those collected in Chapter 21), the site-­wide Harris Matrix illustrates all of the subphases and their grouping within the seven phases of development (see Fig. 1.03; also Chapter 21). Creating these levels of interconnected matrices allowed us to fully contextualize all of the identified soil SUs (some 5072 in number) and to understand the relationships that each shared not only with other SUs in the same trench but also with every other SU excavated in all trenches across both insulae. As abstractions of the site’s development, the Harris Matrices organize the SUs, subphases, and phases into a 9  The 220 subphases do not include another 32 that were encountered in the natural, geological sequences, nor the 42 modern subphases. Note that the relatively dated groups of activities within phases (e.g., Phases 5a and 5b, which together encompass Phase 5) should not be considered “subphases” within our system.

rela­tive chronological order. Assigning absolute dates—­or at least approximate date ranges—­is a related goal, and indeed a ne­ces­sary one for developing a more meaningful narrative. Of course the finds were the essential element here, helping us both to collect subphases and to identify date ranges for the resulting phases. We followed normal principles, assigning each context a terminus post quem based on its latest diagnostic materials. Still we want to be clear that, in reality, the absolute dating of a multi-­phased urban site like Pompeii is in no way straightforward. Of course, complexity is common to every archaeological site, but the absolute dating of this excavation relied on the sequencing of thousands of stratified contexts covering hundreds of subphases for ten neighboring properties over many centuries of development. The pace and concentration of ancient construction, particularly following the second century bce, posed particular challenges. Essentially, the site underwent many and sometimes substantial urban redevelopments within a relatively brief time-­span of less than two centuries, during which time all of the construction events were compressed within a shallow sequence of deposits (typically confined to a depth of no more than two meters below ground level). The outcome was that later construction episodes damaged or even obliterated the sequences of earlier ones. Few deposits were truly “sealed,” and so we had to remain aware of the possibility that contexts might contain intrusive material, regardless of the care with which they had been excavated.10 Further potential for con­tam­in­ ation came from more recent interventions: these included the historic excavations in the area, Allied bombing during World War II, and the introduction of infrastructure necessary for operating Pompeii as a major tourist attraction (at the Porta Stabia, modern subsurface infrastructure included drains, power lines, and septic tanks). In order to develop our absolute chronology, therefore, we had to accept some tolerance for the realities of a complex urban excavation, rather than adhere strictly to the watertight expectations of textbook archaeology. We determined date ranges by considering each potentially datable object’s diagnostic characteristics, such as style and type, along with the object’s overall condition. This meant not only noting whether fractures were present but also paying careful attention to other details of the object’s condition; heavily worn surfaces and edges can speak to use over time as well as to ongoing disturbance of the object after having been broken. Furthermore, many objects—­including pottery, coins, animal bones, and other artifacts—­had surfaces or edges covered with mortar, denoting a cycle of (potentially repeated) discard and reuse. That is, after the conclusion of the object’s primary uselife, it had been discarded, only to be later incorporated 10  On issues of residuality in the dating of contexts, see the collected papers in Guidobaldi et al. 1998. See also Giannichedda 2007; Evans and Millett 1992.

m et h o d o lo g y   ·  29 into the matrix of a mortared wall, floor, or structural fixture. That secondary life ended when the structure into which the  object was incorporated was itself destroyed and its components—­including the object now partly covered with mortar—­were once more discarded. Its afterlife continued, however, with another (tertiary, or beyond) phase of use when it became part of the context from which it was excavated, most often a construction fill.11 How many ­ times the cycle might have repeated itself is difficult to discern in most cases, but it is clear that this process ­ ­significantly devalues any chronological association of the original object. Our dating is thus based on the most recent objects—­ normally diagnostic ceramics and coins—­found within the deposit, but with an eye towards the potential effects of re­sidual and intrusive anomalies. In most cases, the presence of the latest individual diagnostics was considered in relation to the sum of all of the other objects contained within a phase; here, consideration was given to the quantification of diagnostic artifacts to ensure that single “outliers” were flagged for attention, to be considered against the bulk of the datable material. Because each phase contained many individual stratigraphic units and because we remained aware of the possibility of intrusive and residual materials, the dating—­or rather, date range—­of a phase normally relied less on the date of the single latest object, and instead considered all of the evidence in aggregate.

Contextualizing the site Essential to our understanding of the site has been a focused and critical engagement with context, both macro and micro. By macro context, we mean the broader, con­text­ ual milieu—­whether cultural, social, historic, economic, urban, religious, or any number of other categories—­in which Pompeii, as a city and as a people, participated; we have already introduced our thoughts on the macro con­ text­ual­iza­tion of Pompeii in the first chapter. Here we want to make plain the role of micro context to our in­ter­pret­ ation of the site and its d­ evelopment over time. By micro context, we mean the physical taphonomy of a deposit: how it came to be; its immediate relationship to others above, below, or around it; and how all of this information relates to the processes by which the volu­met­ric matrix of the site was formed. As obvious as much of this stratigraphic analysis should seem, particularly given a disciplinary focus on site formation processes since the mid-­ twentieth century, certain recent trends in archaeological fieldwork demonstrate some loss of awareness about how sites develop and why we should find 11  Peña 2007; Dicus 2014; 2022; Ellis 2017; Emmerson 2020, 108–24.

certain objects within certain spaces. New technologies now allow us to plot our finds ever more precisely, certainly a positive development in the recording of archaeological sites. Nevertheless, interpretive issues can arise when the space itself, and the space alone, is used to explain artifact distribution, without regard to morphological context. Of course there can be meaning in whether an artifact is recovered from a shop or a house, a room or a garden, but before attempting a spatial analysis we must first determine whether the object derives from the construction of that space or from the use of it. In order to engage more effectively with the volumetric matrix of the site, as well as to understand the actual context of thousands of deposits, along with the hundreds of thousands of objects found within them, we grouped all of the stratified units according to an urban site’s most constituent parts. Because Pompeian archaeology does not normally deal with the abandonment contexts that are typical at most sites, almost all of our deposits could be placed into one of two principal categories: contexts associated with the making of space (the construction contexts) and those associated with the use of space (the occupation contexts).12 The structuring of these categories can be outlined as a graph (Fig. 2.02). Thus a terracing fill or floor surface, for example, was contextualized as part of the construction of space, and we would understand that any artifacts recovered from 12  Beyond construction and use contexts, we assigned a smaller number of deposits to additional categories: natural (in a geological sense), collapse, 79 ce eruption, and cuts (these last were normally treated separately to the construction and use contexts because they were non-volumetric and so could not contain artifacts or material).

Abandonment/ Collapse 0.8% 79 CE Eruption 0.1% Geological/Natural 2.1% Occupation/Use 3.6%

Creation/ Construction 93.4%

Fig. 2.02  The principal categories of contexts excavated by PARP:PS.

30  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i within those contexts were less useful for interpreting how the space itself was used. The contents of a ritual pit or drain, however, could be read differently, being deposited as a result of occupation or use-­activity. Of the two primary categories, the former vastly outnumbered the latter, with 93.4 percent of all SUs belonging to construction contexts, and only 3.6 percent to occupation contexts. The vast majority of our finds, therefore, were not, of necessity, reflective of the use of the spaces in which we find them but were imported as construction material—­as hardcore—­ for the making of those spaces. This most basic premise had a significant impact on how we interpreted the site and its finds assemblages.

Conclusion To very briefly conclude, our methods were essentially based on accepted best practices in archaeological excavation, recording, and publication, but necessarily applied in ways designed not only to derive as much information as possible from our particular research site but also to facilitate a clearer and more contextualized understanding of the many pieces of information that survive the development of a complex and rapidly changing city. The focus of all of these meth­od­ olo­g ies was to move beyond the creation and collection of information to demonstrate how it might be read and interpreted in both conventional and new (or renewed) ways.

c h a pt e r 3

The Database Christopher F. Motz and John Wallrodt

From the first year of excavation in 2005 until the final e­ dits of the present volume, the PARP:PS database provided a centralized, organizational structure for the creation, storage, and analysis of the project’s many and varied datasets. Given the central role of the database in the project’s overall op­er­ation and productivity, what follows is a brief description and discussion of its essential structure and organization. In the first section, we begin by discussing the use of the database as a tool for gathering and storing archaeological data during fieldwork. We then turn to its role during post-excavation analysis, focusing on how the publication team used the data­base to organize information and to answer research questions. The section concludes with a note about the future of the data­ base. In the second section, we outline the database’s or­gan­ iza­tion and interface. Our intended audience for this chapter is not the experienced database developer, although we have tried to offer enough detail to satisfy a techno­logic­al­ly proficient reader. Instead, the chapter primarily serves those inter­ est­ed in engaging with examples of effective data­base use, as well as those seeking a general understanding of how the database informed the conclusions reached elsewhere in the present volume.

The database and the project The database in the field The database was the repository for nearly all non-spatial data gathered during fieldwork, as described in the previous chapter. The information entered into it included detailed descriptions of stratigraphic units and architectural elements; descriptions, measurements, and identifications of small finds, ceramics, faunal remains, and botanical materials; as well as photographs, drawings, and digitized trench notebooks and Harris Matrices. In addition to these sets of primary data, the database also housed synthetic documents such as the phasing reports and trench summaries that were produced after every season. In effect, it was home to all text­ual, numeric, and image data produced by the project that was not contained in the CAD model or in other specialized software.

The database’s role as an information repository has remained constant since the project’s inception, but revolutions in mobile computing allowed us to push its use in new ways. During the first five seasons of excavation (2005–9), all stratigraphic and finds data were recorded on paper in the field. The forms, notebooks, and drawings were subsequently transcribed manually into the database and scanned at the end of each season. In 2010 the project became “paperless” and implemented an innovative iPad-based recording system that was employed throughout the final three years of excavation.1 Paper forms were replaced with direct entry into the database. Excavators produced digital vector drawings at the side of the trench using the TouchDraw app and supervisors wrote their notebooks in Apple’s Pages. The database was now present, both physically and conceptually, at every stage of the fieldwork process.

The database as an analytical tool After completing fieldwork, the team was confronted with the daunting task of turning a mountain of archaeological data into an accurate and cohesive narrative account of the history of the Porta Stabia neighborhood. Hundreds of thousands of digital records resided in the database, with each record containing up to a few dozen pieces of information. The magnitude (number of records), breadth (variety of records), and detail (volume of information in each record) of our data set presented the opportunity—indeed, the obligation—to search for meaning in all of those data, not just in the more charismatic objects like carved gems, exotic animal bones, kilns, or masonry triclinia. As a project whose subject was the neglected corners of Pompeii, we sought to tackle our body of evidence in its entirety. To do this required finding ways to combine and organize all the records carefully so that the otherwise incomprehensible mound of data could be purposefully structured and queried. The nearly 6,000 stratigraphic units recorded during excavation provide a good example of how we drew on our 1  For more on the paperless system, see Wallrodt et al. 2015; Ellis 2016; Wallrodt 2016.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0003

32  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i data­base as an analytical tool. We came to question, for example, what these entities (i.e., the SUs) actually represented with regard to the making of the site: so, beyond how these SUs might reflect chronological development over time, how could these SUs be better categorized to reflect the essential, ­constituent parts of those urban processes? This led us to the construction and organization of context categories (construction, ­occupation, etc.), as already described in Chapter 2. We built further interconnections and interpretive cat­egor­ies to explore an even larger data set of 9,500 non-ceramic small finds. With the typology of SUs established, the relational structure of the database allowed us to move beyond the web of individual relationships between the thousands of objects and the SUs in which they were found, to explore the connections between categories of objects and categories of SUs in aggregate across the entire excavation. In taking this approach we placed depositional micro context, rather than spatial find spot, at the heart of our analyses. The results have profound implications for how we interpret objects recovered at Roman urban sites. In one case study for the analytical power of this aggregation, Ellis has demonstrated that although our coins were found most frequently in shopfronts, they do not directly reflect coin loss during retail activities in those very places.2 Instead, their deposition was unrelated, a result of their presence in hardcore fills that were imported from outside city walls to fill depressions and raise the level of floors during construction. Although this correction to the traditional numismatic narrative would have been possible using analog methods or even non-relational digital approaches, with the database we could quickly prepare and, more importantly, easily explore multiple lines of questioning simultaneously. The ease and speed with which we could collate information simplified the task of recognizing patterns and drawing connections, allowing a question such as, “What percentage of coins came from use contexts?” to prompt follow-up questions like, “What types of contexts produced material related to craft and industrial production?” and, “Are materials from textile and metal manufacture found in the same types of contexts, and how did they get there?” These principles could be applied to any categories of material or context. In the end, our database has allowed us to make broad, ­evidence-driven statements about how the residents of Pompeii used and built their city by using most if not all of the data, supplementing the impact of finds with more intrinsic in­ter­pret­ive value. Even the humble leveling fill containing only a few objects can prove informative when considered alongside all other leveling fills or, at a still larger level, other high-volume construction contexts. The database helped us to answer questions and solve problems by presenting a massive amount of information in manageable and com­pre­hen­sible ways. 2  Ellis 2017; see also Chapter 2 and Chapter 18.

The database after publication The database described below is the version that the PARP:PS team employed during the final phases of publication, but it will not mark the end of the story. The next phase is to curate the data, the data structure, and the user interface to produce a data set suitable for online dissemination so that future generations of scholars can continue to ask new questions of our materials. The outcome of this work will be available via the project’s website at: https://classics.uc.edu/pompeii.

Database structure Data model The PARP:PS database is a digital representation of many of the material, spatial, temporal, and conceptual entities that have been defined in the project’s ontologies. As such, it was guided by and codifies these abstract categories and relationships. In this section, we offer a short explanation of the project’s data model. This is intended to define some ter­min­ ology that may be employed throughout the final volumes, and to lay out the ways in which the physical and conceptual components of the project were represented and recorded in the digi­tal database. Each ontological category of entities, such as insulae, trenches, chronological phases, and non-ceramic artifacts, is represented in the database by a table (Fig.  3.01). Tables are made up of records, which represent individual entities; for example, SU 50002 is one record in the Stratigraphic Units table. The main tables can be grouped into six categories: stratigraphic, spatial, chronological,3 material, material at­tri­ butes, and universal (Fig. 3.02).4 These are supplemented by tables that describe schemata for classifying and describing SUs, features, and artifacts, as well as tables with administrative or technical functions. All of these entities are connected to each other by relationships, which define the criteria (based on paired fields; see below) for linking a record in one table with a record in another (see Fig.  3.01).5 The core of the project’s relational data model (Fig.  3.03) is the Stratigraphic Unit, or SU, which was the 3  Three tables represented the relative chronological groupings of entities from excavation and architectural analysis. Absolute dates derived from excavated finds were stored in the Dates material attribute table. A more complete discussion of the project’s phasing and dating system is offered in Chapter 2. Chapter 6 explains the phasing of architectural elements. 4  The three “universal” tables stored information that could be related to many other tables. 5 Note that these relationships between database entities are different from the stratigraphic relationships (e.g., above/below or later/earlier) between individual SUs, which are not stored in the database. They are recorded in digital, graphical Harris Matrices that are stored on the project file server. The stratigraphic relationships between individual Wall Segments, however, are stored in the database by means of an intermediate table.

Tables Trenches

Records

Trench Number

Supervisor

Description

50000

Kevin Dicus

51000

Stratigraphic Units Trench Number

Trench Number

SU Number

Trench Number

Description

Subphase

South front room of Property I.1.1-2 from the south of the bar in Room 1, to the well in Room 2.

50001

50000

Modern topsoil over Trench 50000

50.9

50002

50000

Opus signinum floor surface

50.6

Center front room of Property I.1.3-5, Room 18. Trench outline moves around a square built feature of indeterminate date.

50003

50000

Opus signinum floor surface

50.6

Allison Emmerson

50004

50000

Opus signinum floor surface

50.6

50005

50000

Modern fill under topsoil

50.9

52000

Amanda Pavlick

South front room of Property I.1.6-9. Most of Room 22 at doorway 6.

51001

51000

Modern fill over Trench 51000

51.7

51002

51000

Modern fill

51.7

51000

Repagulum

51.6

Kevin Dicus

South middle room of Property I.1.1-2. All of Room 3 and a small part of Room 1.

51003

53000

51004

51000

Threshold stone in entrance I.1.4

51.6

Fields

Relationship

Identifier (Human-readable)

Identifier (Human-readable)

t h e data ba s e  ·   33

Fig. 3.01  Illustration of the technical components of the PARP:PS data model.

34  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i Category

Table

Description

Identifier(s)

STRATIGRAPHIC

Stratigraphic Units

These records are the primary stratigraphic (thus, spatial and chronological) elements identified during excavation or architectural analysis. Each SU represents an action or set of actions that can be identified archaeologically.

“54060” Serial number (within trench, beginning with trench number + 1)

Insulae

Each of the two Insulae investigated by the project was represented “VIII.7”, “I.1” by its own record.

Properties

Each Properties record represented one property at the time of the eruption in 79 CE.

Trenches

“54000” A Trench is a unit of archaeological excavation. Each trench was assigned to the property that contained most of its area in the final Serial number (universal; in thousands) phase of the city.

Features

This table groups SUs that are part of a single feature like a drain or soak-away. For example, during excavation the capping, walls, and base of a drain might be assigned different SUs, sometimes with multiple SUs per element (e.g., a long drain excavated in multiple trenches).

Wall Construction Units

SPATIAL UNIVERSAL

132

6,049

11

2

11

13

67

46

21

203

A Wall Construction Unit is a group of related construction activities. “WCU1085” Several Wall Segments can be grouped into one Wall Construction “WCU” + serial number Unit. (universal)

12

307

Wall Segments

A Wall Segment represents a three-dimensional portion of a wall or “WS1096” “WS” + serial number other architectural element. (universal)

15

453

Phases

A Phase is a site-wide chronological period. It groups multiple Subphases and Architectural Subphases; each Phase contains no more than one Subphase from each trench.

“Phase 5A” Serial number [+ serial letter, if necessary, within serial number]

54

17

Subphases

“54.4” Subphases gather SUs from a single trench into discrete groups based on relative chronological data. Subphases are unique to each Trench prefix + serial number (within trench) trench and are numbered accordingly.

21

343

Architectural Subphases

Architectural Subphases group Wall Construction Units based on relative chronological data.

19

33

82

17,909

SPATIAL EXCAVATION

SPATIAL ARCHITECTURE

CHRONOLOGICAL

Fields Records*

Ceramics

“Property 1” Serial number (universal)

“Cooking Facility 1”, “Drain 1” Feature type + serial number (within type)

“SP015” “SP” + serial number (universal)

The Ceramics table contains the final classification, description, and “54060-K1”, “54060-C2” quantification of the project’s ceramics. Each record represents a SU number + dash + group of analytically identical ceramic sherds from the same SU. functional group code + serial number (within SU)

Fig. 3.02  The main data tables in the PARP:PS database.

t h e data ba s e  ·   35 Category

Table

Description

Identifier(s)

Finds

This table contains all non-ceramic artifacts. Most records (95%) represent the extant remains of one identifiable ancient object; thus, one record may include multiple fragments. The remaining 5% of records represent items or groups of items that cannot be identified as part of a distinct ancient object, such as unidentifiable pieces of metal or fragments of plaster.

“FE50-24a”, “FE50-24b” Material code + trench prefix + dash + serial number (within trench) [+ serial letter, if necessary, within serial number]

67

7,116

Soil Samples

One Soil Samples record represents a single sample of sediment, with a summary description of its contents. Some of the contents were also entered as artifacts or ecofacts.

“18099 upper”, “18099 lower” SU number + description or serial letter (within SU)

33

309

Macrofauna (NISP)

A Macrofauna (NISP) record represents a single, hand-collected faunal ecofact with an identifiable taxonomy.

UUID

53

6,597

Macrofauna (UNID)

A Macrofauna (UNID) record represents a group of hand-collected faunal remains with an uncertain taxonomy.

UUID

83

950

Microfauna

A record represents a group of faunal remains gathered from a soil UUID sample.

71

2,231

Botanical

A Botanical record represents a group of botanical ecofacts.

UUID

68

1,120

Archival Finds

These records represent artifacts recovered during previous excavations in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth centuries. These artifacts often can only be linked to a property, although some have more precise locations.

“FND17” “FND” + serial number (universal)

50

434

Finds Attributes

A Finds Attributes record represents an additional attribute of a single artifact (a Finds record). The list of attributes varies depending on the type of artifact.

UUID

17

6,879

Measurements

Each record represents a dimension or weight of an artifact (a Finds record). The list of measurements varies depending on the type of UUID artifact.

22

26,085

Dates

This table contains all absolute dates derived from individual finds, ceramics, and SU spot dating. This centralized table allows project UUID members to view all the dates for any SU, phase, or other entity, regardless of what type of object provided the information.

26

1,982

Edit Trail

This table preserves the history of edits throughout the database. Each record captures the changes made to the data in one field, in one record, between when a user clicks or taps into a field and when they leave the field.

UUID

19

487,635

Bibliography

The Bibliography table stores references to published and archival materials that can be linked to multiple records in different tables.

“Mau 1875” Short reference, usually author + year

10

154

59

30,801

MATERIAL EXCAVATION

MATERIAL ARCHIVAL

MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES EXCAVATION

UNIVERSAL

Media

The Media table contains the photographs and drawings produced Several file naming formats: by the project. “ps12016.jpg”, “24DR27.jpg”

* Some database tables contain more records than appear in the text or catalogs of the final publication volumes. These additional records served organizational or administrative purposes. For example, Phase 8 does not appear in the matrices or phase narratives; it was used to gather SUs that had been assigned to the modern period.

Fig. 3.02  continued

Fields Records*

36  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Entity Type

Phases

Stratigraphic Spatial - Universal Spatial - Excavation

Architectural Subphases

Subphases

Spatial - Architecture

Insulae

Chronological Material - Excavation Material - Archival Properties

Material Attributes - Excavation Universal Degree of Relationship One-to-one

Trenches

One-to-many

Wall Construction Units

Features

Many-to-many Optionality Minimum of one, maximum of many (always one or more) Minimum of zero, maximum of many (optional one or more) Minimum of one, maximum of one (always one) Minimum of zero, maximum of one (optional one)

Measurements

Stratigraphic Relationships

Stratigraphic Units

Finds

Ceramics

Finds Attributes

Dates

Soil Samples

Fig. 3.03  Screenshot of the Structural diagram of the PARP:PS data model.

Macrofauna Macrofauna Microfauna (NISP) (UNID)

Botanical

Archival Finds

Wall Segments

(Multiple Tables)

Edit Trail Bibliography

Media

t h e data ba s e  ·   37 p­ rimary stratigraphic element identified during excavation or architectural analysis. The project followed the “single ­context” recording methods developed by the Museum of London Archaeology Service (MoLAS), which define a context or SU as “[a]ny single action, whether it leaves a positive or negative record within the sequence.”6 Thus, the SU acts as the primary spatial and chronological entity, as well. The properties or characteristics of any entity are called, generically, attributes. In the database, most attributes are stored in fields on the record that represents that entity (see Fig. 3.01); for example, the Subphase field in the Stratigraphic Units table captures the chronological phase to which each SU was assigned. Some attributes of artifacts and ecofacts are stored in separate tables. Most attributes contained in the database are not spatial; plan and section drawings are stored alongside photographs as images in the database, but the three-dimensional shapes and locations of stratigraphic and spatial en­tities are stored in the project’s CAD and GIS models. The co­ord­in­ates of individual artifacts and ecofacts were not recorded, in keeping with our focus on the taphonomic micro context of SUs (see Chapter 2). Most entities were assigned a human-readable identifier, such as stratigraphic units “50002” and “15051,” or coin “C56-14,” that was used throughout the documents produced by the project, such as labels, field notebooks, and publications. In the database, these identifiers are stored in fields that differentiate the records of individual entities; these identifiers often are used to establish relationships between records in different tables (see Fig.  3.01). A computer algorithm also assigned every record a “universally unique identifier,” or “UUID.” This string of thirty-six semi-random, alphanumeric characters (such as “9FE1A6DB-A962-4DA6-B5EB-B64254084DD5” for SU 15051) is permanent and is guaranteed to be unique. The  UUID field allows digital records to be identified and differentiated even if their human-readable identifier was deleted, was entered incorrectly, or was identical to that of another record, or if a set of entities has no such identifiers.

User interface It is impossible to both accurately and succinctly describe the entire user interface of the PARP:PS database, so what follows is a brief outline of its primary elements, illustrated by representative examples. Most types of entities represented in the database have a primary page; these are organized in the tabbed ribbon at the top of the interface. The “Context” tab, for example, contains chronological, spatial, and stratigraphic entities (Fig. 3.04) and the “Finds” tab provides access to ­artifact lists (Fig. 3.05).

6  Westman 1994, §1.2; see also Chapter 2.

Below this ribbon, each page contains identifying and descriptive data about the selected entity; sometimes, this information is organized into additional sets of tabs. Most of the descriptive data displayed on these pages is stored in fields in the entity’s main table, but some of it is drawn from related records situated above the current one in the data model (see Fig. 3.03). On the SU page (see Fig. 3.04), for example, the series of relationships stretching from Stratigraphic Units to Phases allows one to easily view the identifier and chrono­logic­al range of the phase that encapsulates the SU’s subphase, even though these data are stored in the Phases table. Likewise, on the Finds list page one can see the phase of the SU that ­contained each artifact (see Fig. 3.05). Many pages also contain a set of “portals” into related entities that are positioned below the current entity. For example, the SU page features a list of all non-ceramic artifacts that were recovered from the SU, along with summaries of their most important attributes (Fig. 3.06). A portal on the Phases page displays related records from the Dates table, which demonstrates the power of the cumulative, relational structure—the database collates information provided by the ceramics and small finds teams to automatically generate absolute date ranges for SUs, Subphases, and Phases, flagging potential residual or intrusive materials for further attention (Fig. 3.07); this tool has helped us to develop the phasing of the site. The records shown in these portals can also be accessed from pages that are dedicated to those entities, like the sort­able and searchable Finds list (see Fig.  3.05). This page contains every record from the Finds table, not just those from a ­single SU. Clicking on a record in this list brings the user to a second page where the entry can be viewed in greater detail (Fig.  3.08). Note that one can seamlessly view not only the attributes that are stored in fields in the Finds table but also the attributes that are stored as individual records in the Measurements, Finds Attributes, and Dates tables. Finally, there are numerous auxiliary pages that display charts and offer specialized re-presentations and amal­gam­ ations of information, such as the prominence of structural fragments among the artifacts recovered from different contextual categories of SUs (Fig.  3.09). Along with the portals described above, these auxiliary pages display the system’s full capabilities. It is here where the database’s rigorous under­ lying structure is deployed to harness our massive and complex data set. The relationships encoded in it provide extraordinary power by flowing through each other—linking one record to the many that match it and, in turn, to the many that match them—helping us to interpret an immense body of information.

Fig. 3.04  Screenshot of the Context tab including the main SU page.

Fig. 3.05  Screenshot of the Finds tab including the main small finds list page.

Fig. 3.06  Screenshot of the list of small finds recovered from selected SU.

Fig. 3.07  Screenshot of the list of absolute dates for artifacts from SUs in selected phase.

Fig. 3.08  Screenshot of the detailed information about the selected small find (cf. Figs. 3.05 and 3.06).

Fig. 3.09  Screenshot of the page for analyzing spatial, chronological, and contextual distributions of artifact classes. The number of structural fragments is shown here as a percentage of all small finds recovered from different contextual categories of SUs.

t h e data ba s e  ·   41

Conclusion Like all databases, ours is, on a basic level, simply a centralized system that allows users to record and access detailed ­information on all aspects of the project. Yet it also became a power­f ul analytical tool. Some of the most significant in­ter­ pret­ive and methodological contributions of this project, such as the chronological phasing of the site, the new classification

systems and ontological frameworks, and the micro-contextual analysis of artifactual remains, were developed dialectically with the structure and interface of the database itself. We hope this system can serve as a model for how the creation and use of digital tools can aid in both asking and answering archaeological and historical questions.

c h a pt e r 4

The History of Excavation and Research Activity in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Ambra Spinelli and Aimée Scorziello

The history of the first excavations in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 spans over one hundred years—­from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century—­and so corresponds with some of the earliest investigations in Pompeii.1 This chapter outlines our attempt to learn about these activities by searching for, and then analyzing, the archival and published records that survive from the first excavations and studies in and around this corner of the ancient city.2 While the first systematic study is attributed to Giuseppe Fiorelli,3 from 1872 to 1874, the longer history of excavations and interest in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 has resulted in a rich but complicated archival dataset. This chapter represents the first attempt to reconcile the archi­tec­tural, art-­historical, and artifactual data that is 1  For a general overview of the history of the excavations and docu­men­ ta­tion at Pompeii, see Zevi 1981, 11–21; De Caro 2015; Moormann 2015, 7–94; Osanna 2015; Zanella 2017a. A list of the main bibliographical sources for Pompeii (including excavation reports, periodicals, and volumes from the Bourbon period to the 1960s) can be found in Laidlaw 1985, 2–13; also 2007. 2  The first version of this work was presented in poster form at the 113th Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America (AIA, Seattle, 2013), where it received the “Best Poster Award.” We thank, therefore, the AIA audience for their generous feedback and, in particular, Gina Tibbott for designing the graphical layout of the poster. The authors express their gratitude to the entire staff of the Library and Archivio Storico in the Naples Archaeological Museum (hereafter MANN), and in particular to Maria Rosaria Esposito, Andrea Milanese, Angela Luppino, Michela Staiano, Olga Capretto, and Caterina Cozzolino, for assisting in the archival research. A special thanks also goes to Paolo Giulierini, Luisa Melillo, Valeria Sampaolo, and Alessandra Villone for helping the authors in gaining access to the vari­ ous depositories and archives of the MANN. While working in Pompeii, we remain grateful to Massimo Osanna, Grete Stefani, Antonio Varone, Ernesta Rizzo, Michele Borgongino, Elena La Rosa, and Giuseppe Di Martino, as well as the various “consegnatari” in the Casa di Bacco (Domenico Busiello, Luisa Pagano, and Ulderico Franco) for facilitating the authors’ research through several summers of work. 3  Giuseppe Fiorelli was appointed Chief Inspector of the excavations at Pompeii in 1860 and became Superintendent in 1863: Grifoni 1987, 431; García y García 1998, 1136. On Fiorelli’s system of excavation, reforms, and contributions, see Scatozza Höricht 1987; Barbanera 1998, 19–34; García y García 2015; and recently Moormann 2015, 74–83, esp. n. 303 (with further bibliography). For a list of the various Superintendents and Directors of Pompeii from 1738 to 2012, see: .

found in the archives, and to connect that information with the standing remains as well as the information from our own excavations and research. What follows is: 1. an overview of the chronological sequence of the various explorations carried out across the Porta Stabia neighborhood prior to the initiation of our project in 2005; 2. an outline of the methodology by which we were able to locate, access, and study the various archival records;4 and 3. a record for the visual and material culture discovered—­or at least recorded—­from the first excavations, one that is plotted to the various locations and find-­spots to provide some spatial context. A combined analysis of the architectural, decorative, epigraphic, and artifactual evidence is undertaken in Phase 7 (see Chapter 14), and allows for a better understanding of the social, cultural, and economic aspects of these insulae during the last years of the city.

History of excavation activity The first excavations at Pompeii began in 1748 under the Bourbon King of Naples, Charles III.5 The ancient town, however, was subjected only to sporadic investigations during the first decade following its discovery, as the Bourbon efforts then were particularly concentrated on unearthing the finds in the nearby cities of Herculaneum and Stabiae.6 By 1764, under the new director of the excavations, Francesco La Vega,7 Pompeii received renewed attention with the excavation of the two theaters and the Quadriporticus (referred to then as the “Quartiere” and still known today, if misleadingly,

4  On the value of studying the types of evidence found in archival sources, see Wallace-Hadrill 1994, 7; Allison 1997, 2001; 2004; Berry 1997; Laidlaw 2007; Monteix 2016b; Coralini 2018; and recently Berg and Kuivalainen 2020. 5  See above note 1. 6  For a discussion on the earliest Bourbon explorations and documentation: Parslow 1998; Moormann 2015, 17–48 (with further bibliography). 7 Zevi, 1981, 11. Francesco La Vega was director of the excavations at Pompeii from 1764 until his death in 1804. For La Vega’s contributions: Pagano 1997; García y García 1998, 701–3.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0004

T h e H i story of E xcavat i on a n d Re se a rch A ct i v i ty i n I n sula e V I I I . 7 a n d I. 1   ·   43 as the “Caserma dei Gladiatori”).8 These buildings, however, were not fully investigated until the 1790s, at which time it appears that the northernmost properties of Insula VIII.7 (at least entrances 11–15) also were exposed.9 8  July 25, 1764: Discovery of the Theater, in PAH I.1 (1748–80), 158; October 25 and 31, 1766: Discovery of the Quadriporticus, in PAH I.1 (1748–80), 195–6; March 25, 1769: Discovery of the Theatrum Tectum (“roofed theater”), in PAH I.1 (1748–80), 227. On the first excavations in this area of the town, see Laidlaw and Stella 2014, 21, n. 19 with excavation dates. For the eighteenthcentury methodologies of excavation and restoration, see Parslow 2001. 9  Corpus Topographicum Pompeianum (CTP) V, 115. A passage from the PAH (I.2 [1781–1807], 58) notes that on: “5 Marzo [1795] – Si continua lo scavo per fare strada da introdurre alli tre consaputi edificj, cioè Quartiere, Odeo, e Teatro. Si è evacuato un comprensivo di abitazione, che attacca con l’ingresso del Quartiere.”

To judge from La Vega’s excavation reports, which were not available to Fiorelli and consequently were not included in the Pompeianarum Antiquitatum Historia (PAH),10 there ­followed until 1798 sporadic excavations in VIII.7.11–15. This early work is confirmed by an examination of several cartographic sources, in particular Francesco and Pietro La Vega’s map completed in 1809, which incorporates excavations from the late eighteenth century and shows the properties at VIII.7.11–15 as partially uncovered (Fig. 4.01).11 Equally noteworthy is the 10  Pagano 1997, with information on various daily reports that were not included in the PAH (a collection of official excavation reports from the period 1748 to 1859 that was compiled by Fiorelli). 11  For issues regarding the dating of this map, see García y García 1998, 703, n. 7800.

Fig. 4.01  La Vega’s 1809 map of what would become the Porta Stabia neighborhood, indicating the partial exposure of the northern limits of Insula VIII.7.

44  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i fact that once Fiorelli came to excavate in this neighborhood some seventy or so years later, his team recorded a strikingly small number of artifacts in this area in comparison to the number of finds recovered in the rest of Insula VIII.7.12 This imbalance in finds further supports the idea that this area had already been explored. The cartographic sources reveal inconsistencies in the information, showing these properties as both buried and exposed over time.13 Though we cannot be certain, it is possible that there may have been some reburial of those properties in order to ­facilitate access to the excavations in the theaters and Quadriporticus.14 Fiorelli’s excavations from 1872 to 1874 represent the first insula-­wide investigation of I.1. and VIII.7. The attention of Fiorelli and his “Soprastanti” to both the architectural and visual evidence, as well as to the material culture, provides the main corpus of archaeological data about this neighborhood for the period preceding our excavation project.15 Luigi Viola and August Mau later compiled—­and expanded upon—­these efforts in the insulae. Mau provided greater details about the architectural and decorative evidence, while Viola was responsible for compiling a brief description of the properties excavated between 1863 and 1878, including a map by Giacomo Tascone that shows the areas uncovered during those years (Fig. 4.02).16 12  See Fig. 4.07 for the map showing the assemblage of artifacts in their context of discovery. Any attempt to retrieve information about finds re­covered during these early excavations is problematic due to the incomplete nature of the records. Although La Vega’s reports list a selection of finds, it is impossible to place them with any accuracy in the northernmost properties of VIII.7. On La Vega’s diaries of excavation and the list of finds possibly recovered from VIII.7.11–15, see Pagano 1997, 128–53. In general, for the archaeological records and finds uncovered during the Bourbon period, see Pagano and Prisciandaro 2006. For a discussion on the limitations of docu­men­ta­tion pre-dating Fiorelli, see Allison 1992; 2004, 30–4. 13  For a selection of maps showing VIII.7.11–15 partially excavated see: La Vega and La Vega 1809 (in CTP V, 116, pl. 4); Mazois 1824, I, pl. 2; De Jorio and Russo 1825; Breton 1855. In the following maps the area appears instead to be untouched (and thus, covered): Gell and Gandy 1817, II, pl. 64; Wilkins 1819, pl. 2; Cockburn and Donaldson 1827, I, 40; Fumagalli 1833, pl. 3; Zahn 1842, II, pl. 100; D’Aloë 1858; Fiorelli 1868, pl. 1. Images of these and other maps are also collected in the Halsted B. Vander Poel Campanian Collection Archive in the Getty Research Institute (GRI) in Los Angeles, boxes 506–7: see infra n. 39. For further bibliography on each of the authors listed above, see  García y García 1998. 14  Mau (1875, 169) describes the properties at VIII.7.13–14 as not fully excavated. The notion of a pre-eruption abandonment has been taken as pos­sible explanation for the recovery of a few finds in the case of a number of private residences at Pompeii: Allison 2004, 20, 192–8. In our case, however, such relatively small quantity of finds is better explained by the earlier Bourbon ex­plor­ations. For an overview of the scholarly debate on the abandonment or growth of Pompeii after the 62 ce earthquake, see Lazer 2009, 70–8. 15  On the role of the “Soprastanti”: Castiglione Morelli del Franco 1993; De Caro 2015, 16–17. 16  García y García 1998, 783–94 (for Mau’s work); 1208–9 (for Viola’s contribution). Fiorelli gave Tascone the task of preparing a comprehensive map of Pompeii: see García y García 1998, 1164.

A few additional targeted excavations were later undertaken by Giuseppe Spano, who extended the excavations of Insula VIII.7 westward toward the eastern limits of the Quadriporticus, unearthing the two summer triclinia in VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.9–11.17 Hitherto, the excavations into the rear portions of these properties had exposed only their uppermost limits; the excavations had essentially stopped at the floor level of the adjacent Quadriporticus, leaving the ground level of at least the southern properties in VIII.7, which are 2–3 m lower, to remain buried. That earlier situ­ ation is illustrated in Hackert’s oil painting of the neighborhood from 1799 (Fig. 4.03). Further evidence for this difference in ground level and the extent of the earliest excavations may also be found on WF 178 where the vertical face of a Bourbon lime pit—­to aid in early (re)construction efforts—­survives high against the southwesternmost wall of Insula VIII.7, ­precisely at the upper ground level of the Quadriporticus; the pit, or at least an awning to cover it, may even have been included in Hackert’s illustration (Figs. 4.04 and 4.05). Lastly, Matteo Della Corte conducted a small excavation in 1912. Though just a single trench in the back of I.1.1/10, documented only by a sketch in the archives, it still has some value in that it is the first and only sub-­79 ce excavation prior to our own efforts.18 The history of the excavations can be thus summarized according to street entrances rather than specific, known properties: March 5, 1795–December 20, 1798: VIII.7.9–11; VIII.7.12; VIII.7.13–15 roughly (possible periodic excavations).19 May 20, 1851–March 13, 1852: Porta Stabia and along via Stabiana (periodic excavations).20 May 1872: I.1.1–2; VIII.7.3–5.21 17  Spano 1910a, 263–68. Mau (1875, 168) notes the presence of a possible triclinium in the garden of VIII.7.9–11. The summer triclinium, however, was not fully excavated until the efforts of Spano. On these triclinia, see infra further discussion in the text as well as Chapter 12. 18 Seven bronze coins were found during Della Corte’s excavations, including four from Greece and one from Egypt dating to the first half of the second century bce: Della Corte 1912, 333. On Della Corte’s work at Pompeii: García y García 1998, 385–408. 19  PAH I.2 (1781–1807), 58–72. Cf., Fiorelli (1875, 347), who names the area VIII.8 and has as dates: from July 25, 1764 to June 17, 1769; from December 10, 1791 to December 20, 1798 (which includes the work carried out in the ­theaters and in the Quadriporticus), as well as CTP V, 116, in which the excavations in VIII.7.11–15 are dated from 1792 to 1795. An examination of Fiorelli’s PAH and La Vega’s reports (see Pagano 1997, 128–53), instead, narrowed down the possible dates for when the northernmost properties of VIII.7 could first have been exposed: see further discussion in the text. 20  PAH III.6 (1851–60), 502–18. 21  The first certain mention of an excavation in a shop in I.1 is on May 25 in the Giornale degli Scavi di Pompei Nuova Serie (GdS NS, that is the published version of the Giornali) 1873, 422. Cf. Fiorelli (1875, 32), with excavation dates for I.1: from March 4 to June 29, 1872; from July 15 toDecember 24, 1873. The broad range of dates listed by Fiorelli for the “Isola Prima,” therefore, seems to also include excavations along the via Stabiana and in the area of the Porta Stabia.

T h e H i story of E xcavat i on a n d Re se a rch A ct i v i ty i n I n sula e V I I I . 7 a n d I. 1   ·   45

Fig. 4.02  Tascone’s 1879 map of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

46  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 4.03  Jacob Hackert’s 1799 oil painting of Pompeii, with the highest parts of Insula VIII.7 exposed and those of Insula I.1 not yet excavated. Attingham Park, The Berwick Collection, National Trust; inventory no. 608992.

June 1872: I.1.2; I.1.3–5; I.1.8, VIII.7.1, VIII.7.5–6. September 1873: I.1.7–8; VIII.7.9.22 May–­October 1874: VIII.7 (all properties).23 January 1905: VIII.7.5.24 July–­October 1906: VIII.7.6, VIII.7.9–11, VIII.7.14 (targeted excavations in the back half of properties VIII.7.6, VIII.7.9–11, and VIII.7.14 near the western wall that is shared with the Quadriporticus). September 12, 1912: brief excavation in a single trench in I.1.1.

Fig. 4.04  Close-­up of Jacob Hackert’s 1799 rendering of the rear (westernmost) area of Insula VIII.7; the awning against the Quadriporticus may have covered the lime pit. Attingham Park, The Berwick Collection, National Trust; inventory no. 608992.

22  Cf. Fiorelli (1875, 32), who dates the end of the excavations to December 24, 1873. After September 1873, however, work continued in the area, with some excavations carried out in I.5. 23  Cf. Fiorelli (1875, 347), with excavation dates: September 7 to October 31, 1874. Excavations in properties VIII.7.1–15 ended on October 15, 1874 and were resumed in 1906. The dates from October 15 onwards apply for the rest of the insula. Excavations in VIII.7.9–11, and VIII.7.13–15 were never specifically mentioned in the published or unpublished GdS, but the properties were described both by Fiorelli (1875, 347–50) and Viola (1879, 16–18), and appear as excavated in Tascone’s map (cf. Fig. 4.02). 24  Stratigraphic excavation in the garden of VIII.7.5 was undertaken by Innocenzo Dall’Osso, who uncovered prehistoric remains. See further information in Avagliano 2016, esp. 241.

T h e H i story of E xcavat i on a n d Re se a rch A ct i v i ty i n I n sula e V I I I . 7 a n d I. 1   ·   47

Fig. 4.05  The outline of the lime pit survives against the outside of the Quadriporticus (WF 178).

It is also worthwhile to note that the excavations carried out  between the 1790s and 1870s were done under various nomenclature systems;25 until each system is identified and essentially compared to the present one, the differing addresses can play havoc on the archival research.26 Equally, the result of those earliest excavations is that each of the properties became identified with a functional type, and in some cases associated with a named individual.27 Spaces within the ­various properties, in particular, were labeled according to 25  CTP V.1981, 104–5; 505–10; Laidlaw 1985, 2. Earlier attempts to introduce a numbering system at Pompeii were prompted by Bonucci and Spinelli: see Borriello 2008. 26  The former enumerations for VIII.7 were: II.7; VIII.5; VIII.6–5; VIII.7–8; and VIII.8: see CTP II 1983, 307. For I.1, in Viola (1879, 8), we read that having uncovered part of I.1 first, the investigators then divided the insula into two separate city blocks (I.1 and I.5) once they moved farther west and discovered the small street (or alleyway) that divided them. 27  The descriptions of the properties in both insulae come from Fiorelli 1875. While Mau (1875), and to a lesser extent, Viola (1879), also write about these properties, their identifications of space do not differ materially from Fiorelli’s interpretations.

ancient terminology found in primary literary sources, sometimes also adding a translation and interpretation of the ancient terms in contemporary Italian.28 Insula I.1 Property  I.1.1/10: Taberna/caupona/“bottega”29 [I.1.10: exit door] Property I.1.2: Taberna Property I.1.3–5: Hospitium/“albergo” with stables [I.1.4 and I.1.5: tabernae] Property  I.1.6–9: Hospitium Hermetis with stable [I.1.6: “bottega”; I.1.7: Staircase; I.1.9: thermopolium] 28  The application of such nomenclature comes attached to expectations of assigned functions and sets of activities that would have taken place in each area. Recent scholarship, however, has demonstrated that ancient texts do not provide useful information on the physical location of rooms nor the spatial distribution of activities: Allison 1993, 2001, 2004 (11–12); Leach 1997. For a brief overview of the ancient terminology used for the hospitality business, see Monteix 2007; Ellis 2018, 29–35. 29  Fiorelli 1875, 32: “La prima taberna di questa isola . . . fu una caupona.” Later on, Fiorelli describes this property with the general Italian translation “bottega.”

48  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Insula VIII.7 Property VIII.7.1–4: Hospitium with stable [VIII.7.2: staircase; VIII.7.3–4: “botteghe”] Property VIII.7. 5–6: “Bottega” with house Property VIII.7.7–8: Taberna  M.  Suri with house [VIII.7.7: staircase] Property VIII.7.9–11: “Botteghe” with living spaces (“dormitorii e triclinii”) in the back [VIII.7.9: staircase] Property VIII.7.12: Taberna with house Property VIII.7.13–15: “Botteghe”

Documentary sources and the mapping of visual and material evidence A substantial body of documentary evidence on the earlier excavations was collected and examined (Table 4.01).30 In particular, for the study and interpretation of the assemblage of artifacts recorded by earlier excavations, two sources were crucial for tracking and accessing a number of objects that were shipped to the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli (MANN) between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: the Librette pel rinvenimento degli oggetti antichi and the Notamenti di spedizione degli oggetti trovati negli scavi di Pompei. The Librette,31 which are kept in the archives of the Parco Archeologico di Pompei, contain the list of artifacts recovered, their shipment date to the MANN or, sometimes, to the “Museo Pompeiano” (built next to the Porta Marina and later destroyed during the 1943 Allied bombing of the city),32 as well as their preliminary progressive numbers. These preliminary progressive numbers were essential to locating the objects received and recorded by the MANN. This information was then transferred to the Notamenti (kept at the MANN), where each find received a final inventory number.33 Both the Librette and the Notamenti, therefore, were indispensable for retrieving the current inventory numbers of our artifacts stored in the MANN. Nevertheless, some artifacts like coins were impossible to locate in the MANN’s storerooms because they were shipped in groups several years after their discovery.34 Furthermore, despite the identification of many 30  See Table 4.01 for a detailed list of documentary sources related to each property. The full list of finds uncovered and recorded by excavators includes more than one thousand portable items (i.e., 287 finds of various types; 1366 coins; 258 corals for necklace; as well as various—­unknown—­fragments of broken vessels, burned textiles, etc.). 31 The Librette are currently being digitally scanned by the SAP and may be more accessible at a future date. 32 García y García 2006, esp. 173–205 for the history of the “Museo Pompeiano.” 33  For an overview of the several "historical" inventories of the MANN, see Morisco 2012. 34  Not all objects mentioned in the daily journal of excavations were later recorded in the Librette, thus making it impossible to locate them at the MANN. On the Librette, see also Coralini 2018, 186.

finds in the inventory, it has not been possible to locate the full body of objects in the MANN’s database and, consequently, in its storerooms. Those objects that we were able to access and examine allowed us to get a sense of the type of materials associated with these insulae, stripped of the often-­confusing labels given to the finds in the excavation diaries.35 Also consulted was the classic corpus of bibliographic sources necessary to build a picture of the excavations at Pompeii in VIII.7 and I.1 over the past centuries. This includes: Fiorelli’s Pompeianarum Antiquitatum Historia (PAH), the unpublished and published versions of the Giornale degli Scavi di Pompei (hereafter GdS UP and GdS NS, respectively),36 Fiorelli’s Descrizione di Pompei, Viola’s “Gli Scavi di Pompei dal 1873 al 1878” (in Pompei e la Regione Sotterrata dal Vesuvio nell’Anno LXXIX), the Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità (NSc), the Bullettino dell’Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica (BdI), and Francesco and Pietro La Vega’s map of Pompeii, “Pianta di parte della città ed adiacenze di Pompei” (see Fig.  4.01).37 Other sources include photos in the Archivio Fotografico of the Parco Archeologico di Pompei, currently accessible only on site,38 and in the Photo Archive of the American Academy in Rome. Also consulted was the Halsted  B.  Vander Poel Campanian Collection Archive at the Getty Research Institute (GRI) in Los Angeles, which in addition to extensive notes and bibliography on the insulae, provides photographs and copies of many of the early maps of Pompeii.39 Carrying out a study of Pompeian finds assemblages associated with the 79 ce layers and their archival records is by no means unproblematic. First, the various data (e.g., excavation journals, photographs, lists of inventories, ancient artifacts, etc.) are not collected and accessible in a single location. For instance, a published version of the GdS detailing the main 35  In defining the various artifacts, we followed in large part the glossary of terms developed by Allison in her study of material culture from the atria houses at Pompeii: see . 36 The GdS NS often present a shorter description of the data that is fully recorded in the unpublished journals (e.g., lacking many of the measurements of the objects), thus both the unpublished and published accounts were consulted to provide the most complete picture of the artifact assemblage. For discussion regarding the discrepancies of recording in the GdS UP and in other original sources (e.g., NSc—­Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità), see Berry 1997, 186–7; Allison 2004, 30–3. 37  For a general overview of the main Pompeian literary sources: Laidlaw 1985, 2–13; 2007, 620–36; Zanella 2017a. 38  As with the Librette, the photographic collection at Pompeii is currently in the process of being scanned. While there are a limited number of photographs of objects from VIII.7.1–15, what is available provides valuable information about finds that are no longer extant. The authors would like to thank in particular Michele Borgongino and Elena La Rosa for helping in researching and accessing the original images in the Archivio Fotografico at Pompeii. 39  The Halsted B. Vander Poel Campanian Collection Archive at the Getty Research Institute comprises records that Vander Poel and his team collected from about forty years of investigation at Pompeii, and as well as—­to a lesser extent—­at nearby sites in the Bay of Naples, such as Herculaneum and Stabiae. For more information on this collection, see Bonfitto 2017.

T h e H i story of E xcavat i on a n d Re se a rch A ct i v i ty i n I n sula e V I I I . 7 a n d I. 1   ·   49 Table 4.01  The archive of finds from the first excavations of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 PROPERTY BIBLIOGRAPHY I.1.1/10 Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 75; GdS UP 1872 (May); GdS UP 1912 (September); GdS NS 1873, Vol. 2, 422; Librette 13, 24; Fiorelli 1873, 76; Notamenti 1861–6; Fiorelli 1875, 32–3, 35; Mau 1875, 25; Sogliano 1879, 9, no. 6; Viola 1879, 7–9; Della Corte 1912, 333; Warscher 1937, no. 11; Schefold, 1957, 8; Della Corte 1965, 265–6; Kleberg 1957, 39; CTP V, 1981, 137, 146, 200; CTP 1983, II, 225; CTP 1986, IIIA, 2–3; PPP 1981, I, 1; PPM 1990, I, 1–3; Fröhlich 1991, 64; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 13; CIL IV.1015; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, box 194; Inserra 2008, 19–20, no. A 01; Ellis 2011d, 59–71, figs. 2, 7–8; Ellis 2018, 21–3, 154–61, (type A.4); Ellis et al. 2011, 1–6, 16. I.1.2 Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 75; GdS UP 1872 (May–­June); GdS NS 1873, Vol. 2, 423; Libretta 13; Notamenti 1861–6, 1887–9, 1889–96; Fiorelli 1873, 76, 106, no. 25; Fiorelli 1875, 33; Mau 1875, 25–7; Sogliano 1879, 11, no. 19, 27, no. 103, 38–9, no. 16, 101, no. 549; Viola 1879, 8; Boyce 1937, 21, no. 1; Warscher 1937, nos. 11a–­c; Schefold, 1957, 8; CTP V, 1981, 137, 146, 200; Fröhlich 1991, 249 (L1); Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 13; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, box 194; PPM 1999, XI, 857, 859, no. 28; Ellis et al. 2011, 1, 16; Ellis 2018, 21–3, 159–63, (type A.3). I.1.3–5 Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 75; GdS UP 1872 (May–­June); GdS NS 1873, Vol. 2, 424–5; Libretta 13; Notamenti 1861–86, 1887–9, 1889–96; Fiorelli 1873, 76; Fiorelli 1875, 33; Mau 1875, 27–30; Viola 1879, 8–9; Warscher 1937, nos. 12–13; Kleberg 1957, 33; CTP V, 1981, 137, 146, 200; CTP 1983, II, 225; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 13; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, box 194; Ellis et al. 2011, 1, 7–10, 16; Ellis 2018, 21–3, 159, (type B.2). I.1.6–9 Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 75; GdS UP 1872 ( June); GdS UP 1873 (September); GdS NS 1873, Vol. 2, 425–6; GdS NS 1874, Vol. 3, 63–4; Librette 13, 14; Notamenti 1861–86, 1887–9, 1889–96; Fiorelli 1873, 76, 107, no. 31; Fiorelli 1875, 33–5; Mau 1875, 30–2; Sogliano 1879, 12, no. 27; Viola 1879, 9; Boyce 1937, 21, no. 2; Warscher 1937, nos. 14–15; Di Capua 1950, 72; Kleberg 1957, 34–5; Schefold 1957, 8; Ruddell 1964, 70; Della Corte 1965, 265; De Franciscis 1975, 219 n. 35; Packer 1978, 6–9, figs.1–2; 45–6; CTP V, 1981, 137, 146, 201; Mau 1882, 401–2, fig. 232; CTP 1983, II, 225; CTP 1986, IIIA, 2–3; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, box 194; PPM 1990, I, 4–7; PPM 1991, XI, 860–1, no. 29; Fröhlich 1991, 64, 169, 175, 177, 249–50 (L2); Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 14; CIL IV.3355; DeFelice 2007, 77; Ellis et al. 2011, 1, 10–16; Ellis 2018, 21–3, 162–3, (type A.2). VIII.7.1–2 La Vega 1809 (map); Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 68; GdS UP 1872 ( June); GdS NS 1873, Vol. 2, 423–4; GdS NS 1875, Vol. 3, 136, 139; Librette 13, 15; Notamenti 1861–86; Fiorelli 1875, 348; Mau 1875, 126–8, 163; Viola 1879, 16, pl. 1; Kleberg 1957, 35–6; Schefold 1957, 230; Jashemski 1964, 344; 1993, 220, no. 451, fig. 253; CTP V 1981, 396; CTP II 1983, 307; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 388; CIL IV.3603; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, boxes 153, 196; Mouritsen 1988, 148; Camodeca 2002, 70–1, n. 20; Devore and Ellis 2005, 1, 6–7; Ellis and Devore 2006, 1–6; Ellis and Devore 2007, 119–21, figs. 1–2; 3604; Ellis and Devore 2008; Ciarallo 2012, 631–2, no. 452; Ellis 2018, 21–3. VIII.7.3–4 Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 68; GdS UP 1874 (May, July, September); GdS NS 1875, Vol. 3, 135, 137, 139; Libretta 14; Notamenti 1861–86; Fiorelli 1875, 348; Mau 1875, 126–7; Viola 1879, 16, pl. 1; CTP V 1981, 396; Fröhlich 1991, 50; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 388; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, box 196; Ellis and Devore 2008; Ellis and Devore 2009, 1–5; Ellis 2018, 1–4, 21–3, 233. VIII.7.5 Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 68; GdS UP 1872 ( June); GdS NS 1873, Vol. 2, 426; GdS NS 1875, Vol. 3, 139; Libretta 13; Fiorelli 1875, 348–9; Mau 1875, 126, 164; Viola 1879, 16, pl. 1; CTP V 1981, 396; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 389; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, box 196; Ellis and Devore 2008; Devore and Ellis 2008, 1–4; Ellis and Devore 2010, 1, 5–8, 18–20; Ellis 2018, 21–3. (continued)

50  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Table 4.01  continued PROPERTY BIBLIOGRAPHY VIII.7.6 Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 68; GdS UP 1874 ( July–­September); Sogliano 1874, GdS NS 1874, Vol. 3, 54–5; GdS NS 1875, Vol 3, 137–9; Libretta 14; Notamenti 1861–86; Fiorelli 1875, 348; Mau 1875, 164–5; Viola 1879, 16–17, pl. 1; Spano 1910a, 263–5, fig. 5; Boyce 1937, 78, no. 376; Soprano 1950, 301–2, no. 17; Schefold 1957, 230; Jashemski 1964, 187; 1993, 220, no. 452, fig. 254; CTP V 1981, 396; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 389; CIL IV.5528; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, box 196; Ellis and Devore 2008; Devore and Ellis 2008, 1–4; Ellis and Devore 2009, 1–5, 17–18; Ellis and Devore 2010, 1, 5–8, 18–20; Ciarallo 2012, 632–3, no. 453; Ellis 2018, 21–3. VIII.7–8 Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 68; GdS UP 1874 ( July–­August); GdS NS, Vol. 3, 52–3; GdS NS 1875, 137–8; Libretta 15; Notamenti 1861–86; Fiorelli 1875, 349; Klein 1875, 55–6; Mau 1875, 165–6; Viola 1879, 17, pl. 1; CIL X.867; Della Corte 1965, 263, no. 518; CTP V 1981, 396; CTP II 1983, 307; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 389; Vander Poel Campanian ­Collection, boxes 153, 196; Cooley and Cooley 2004, 177; Ellis and Devore 2008; Devore and Ellis 2008, 1, 4-­8; Ellis and Devore 2009, 1, 5-­9; Ellis 2011d, 59, 61–6, 77, 83, figs. 1–2, 5, 9, 14; 2018, 21–3. VIII.7.9–10 Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 68; Fiorelli 1875, 349; Mau 1875, 166–8; Viola 1879, 17 pl. 1; GdS UP 1906 (August); Spano 1910a, 265; Boyce 1937, 78, no. 377 (with old insula address as VIII.8.10); Soprano 1950, 302, no. 18; Schefold 1957, 230; Jashemski 1964, 187; CTP V 1981, 396; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 389; Jashemski 1993, 221, no. 453; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, boxes 153, 196; Devore and Ellis 2005, 1–5; Ellis and Devore 2006, 1, 6–8; Ellis and Devore 2007, 119, 121–2, figs. 1, 3; Ellis and Devore 2008; Ellis 2011d, 59, 61–6, 75–7, 83, figs. 1–4, 9, 11–12, 14–15; 2018, 21–3, 153, 233; Ciarallo 2012, 633, no. 454. VIII.7.11 La Vega 1809 (in CTP V, 116-­17, pl. 4); Mazois 1824, I, pl. 2; De Jorio and Russo 1825; Breton 1855; PAH I.2, 1860, 58, 63; Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 68; GdS UP 1906 ( July); Fiorelli 1875, 349; Mau 1875, 166–9; Viola 1879, 17, pl. 1; Spano 1910a, 265–6, 268, figs. 5–6; CTP V 1981, 397; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 390; Jashemski 1993, 222, no. 454; Ellis and Devore 2007, 119, 121–2, figs. 1, 3; Devore and Ellis 2008, 1, 8–11; Ellis and Devore 2008; Ellis and Devore 2009, 1, 13–15; Ellis and Devore 2010, 1, 15–18; Ellis 2011d, 59, 61–6, 75–7, 83, figs. 1–4, 9, 11–12, 14–15; 2018, 21–3, 153, 233; Ciarallo 2012, 633–4, no. 455. VIII.7.12 La Vega 1809 (in CTP V, 116–17, pl. 4); Mazois 1824, I, pl. 2; De Jorio and Russo 1825; Breton 1855; PAH I.2, 1860, 58, 63; Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 68; GdS UP 1874 (May); GdS NS 1875, Vol. 3, 135; Fiorelli 1875, 349–50; Mau 1875, 169; Viola 1879, 17 pl. 1; CTP V 1981, 397; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 390; Ellis and Devore 2006, 1, 10–12; Ellis and Devore 2007, 119, 123, figs. 1, 4; Ellis and Devore 2008; Ellis and Devore 2009, 1, 9–13; Ellis and Devore 2010, 1, 8–9; Ellis 2011d, 59, 61–6, 77, 83, figs. 1–2, 6, 9; 2018, 21–3; Ciarallo 2012, 634, no. 456. VIII.7.13–15 La Vega 1809 (in CTP V, 116–17, pl. 4); Mazois 1824, I, pl. 2; De Jorio and Russo 1825; Breton 1855; PAH I.2, 1860, 58, 63; Niccolini and Niccolini 1862, II, 68; GdS UP 1906 ( July); Fiorelli 1875, 350; Mau 1875, 169; Viola 1879, 17, pl. 1; Spano 1910a, 268; CTP V 1981, 397; Eschebach and Müller-­Trollius 1993, 390; Ellis and Devore 2006, 1, 8–10; Ellis and Devore 2007, 119, 123–4, figs. 1, 5; Ellis and Devore 2008; Ellis and Devore 2010, 1, 9–15; Ellis 2018, 21–3.

excavations in our area (from 1872 to 1874) is available online. From 1876 onwards, excavation activities were published in the Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità (NSc), which are less detailed than the GdS since they include excavations conducted throughout Italy.40 Consequently, the handwritten diaries of 40  See Laidlaw 1985, 2–4, with further documentary sources on other periodicals including occasional excavation reports.

excavations (GdS UP) remained the more detailed account and had to be consulted for the activities that occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century.41 Even so, not all of the 41 These unpublished reports are kept in the Archivio Storico of the MANN and in the archives of the Parco Archeologico di Pompei. A copy can also be found in the Archivio Centrale dello Stato in Rome. The Librette and Notamenti may also be accessed at separate locations: the Librette in Pompeii, the Notamenti in the MANN.

T h e H i story of E xcavat i on a n d Re se a rch A ct i v i ty i n I n sula e V I I I . 7 a n d I. 1   ·   51 features or finds are recorded in the GdS UP. This is the case, for instance, of the garden painting on the rear wall of Room 6 in VIII.7.1–4, the summer triclinia and the “serving table” in Room 46 of VIII.7.9–11, and the few painted inscriptions and graffiti which unfortunately are no longer extant (Fig. 4.06 for the distribution of wall paintings and inscriptions).42 Information about this archaeological evidence has been supplied by other volumes and periodicals, such as the Bullettino dell’Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica (BdI), Fiorelli’s Descrizione, and the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL).

Reading the records The primary goal of this study was to document the ­artifactual, decorative, and architectural evidence once re­covered or recorded from each property. As valuable as this information might prove to be, particularly for leading our team toward a richer reading of the site in 79 ce, still we recognized that there were some significant limitations to the process. For example, a conventional approach to interpreting the use of space based on the spatial distribution of any one class of material or another could not be strictly followed. There are simply too many problems of missing, misleading, and erroneous datasets to allow for any confidence in such a task; these issues have fueled debates about the “Pompeii Premise” and the notion that the total assemblage of Pompeii’s 79 ce stray finds reflect the location of their use.43 Several factors make the premise difficult to apply to the site, among them the evidence for activity in the city before and during the excavation and recording process, as well as the common fabrication of the records (even from recent generations) themselves.44 As early as the 1870s, for example, Fiorelli had found that earlier, unrecorded activities in the northernmost properties of VIII.7 had destroyed the latest layers,45 while our own efforts found that the latest layers were mostly missing from the central properties of each insula. If developing firm ideas on the function of one space or property or another—­based on the distribution of artifacts—­is problematic, still there is some value in spatially plotting those finds, even if only as an organizational tool for the archive. To that end we recorded the finds listed in the GdS NS and UP, along with the features and fixtures documented in 42  See, for instance, the electoral programma of “Epagatus” painted on the facade of I.1.1 (CIL IV.1015). For more information on the graffiti and painted inscriptions, see Chapter 19.14. 43  Binford 1981; Schiffer 1985. 44 Allison (1992, 50) points out how the complexities of dealing with Pompeian materials is in part due to the disturbances of the “treasure hunting” activities of the pre-eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, “traceable only by the disturbed stratigraphy noted in the day books of the later excavators and possibly by the large holes cut into house walls, for access.” 45 Fiorelli (1875, 350) records the back rooms of VIII.7.15 as having “­completely disappeared.”

other publications, to “re-­integrate” the information on a map of the properties and insulae.46 Certain materials were plotted in specific locations when their relative find-­spots were stated or inferred in the excavation records. Because early excavators usually indicated finds by property rather than specific room, it has been particularly difficult to locate definitive find-­spots for the majority of the artifacts.47 These artifacts have been defined as “loose finds”48 and distributed more broadly throughout each property to give a visual idea of the breadth and variety of the objects recovered.49 In certain cases, furthermore, it has only been possible to locate the insula, not the property, in which the find was discovered.50 With rare exceptions, the artifacts found across both insulae span the same, broad range of materials, such as lamps, cooking and serving wares, food storage containers, tools of various kinds, objects for personal hygiene and adornment, bells,51 horse tack equipment, and coins.52 What emerges is an assemblage of mixed materials, with items that would be suitable for both domestic and commercial contexts.53 Taken in sum, the entire recorded assemblage for VIII.7.1–15 includes: 472 portable items54 (258 of which are recorded as corals for a 46  See Table 4.01 for the complete list for each property, including date of discovery, as well as find-spots and MANN inventory number whenever pos­sible. 47  To illustrate this, the entry for the excavations in VIII.7.6 on July 15, 1874 notes: “Nella Regio VIII. Is. 5, sesta bottega a sinistra di chi viene dalla porta Stabiana si è raccolto: Bronzo. Una lucerna a due lumi, una moneta di modulo medio, ed un piccolissimo uccello mal conservato ...” (GdS NS 1875, Vol. 3, 137). Additionally, the way modern archaeologists named and numbered the various properties also contributes to the confusion. In the GdS NS 1873, Vol. 2, 423, for example, several items are noted from “la prima bottega a sinistra salendo dalla Porta [Stabiana],” among which is listed a marble table with a relief of a small Faun on its supporting leg. Yet in Fiorelli (1875, 348) and Mau (1875, 126), the same table is said to have been in the second shop. These discrepancies, particularly in the case of VIII.7.1, lead us to assign materials from it to the property as a whole, rather than to specific rooms within it (e.g., VIII.7.3 or VIII.7.4). 48  In this respect, we have followed Allison’s approach (2004, 51). For a comparative study of the artifacts and possible activities undertaken in some commercial outlets at Herculaneum: Monteix 2006; at Pompeii: Gallo 2001. 49  e.g., 401 bronze coins located generally in I.1.6–9 on account of having been described as being found (on September 1, 1873) in “Insula 1, Regio 1, nella parte superiore della località sul lato occidentale, verso l’angolo nordovest” (GdS NS. 1874, Vol. 3, 63). 50  See, for instance, a marble herm of Bacchus said to be found generally on the upper levels (“fra le terre superiori”) of I.1, without further details. For image and further discussion on this herm, see Inserra 2008, 19–20, no. A 01. 51  Small bronze bells were found in several properties (I.1.8; VIII.7.4, 5, 6, and 8), but their specific contexts were not given in the excavation diaries. On the apotropaic properties of bells as items to cast away the malevolent spirits, see Deiss 1989, 119. For a general discussion on the apotropaic powers of bronze and other metals, see Wünsch, 1961, 461–5. 52  Coins were found in several properties, and in particular in I.1.8. 53  See also Allison 2004, 112–13, 174. Similar limits in identifying spatial activity according to the finds alone can be also seen in the Greek world, on which see Lynch 2016. 54  This list does not include the following items whose number was not specified by earlier excavators such as fragments of textile (in VIII.7.1) and some buttons in glass paste (in VIII.7.5).

52  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 4.06  The distribution of paintings and inscriptions across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (courtesy of G. Tibbott).

T h e H i story of E xcavat i on a n d Re se a rch A ct i v i ty i n I n sula e V I I I . 7 a n d I. 1   ·   53 necklace) and 43 coins; and in I.1.1–10: 73 portable items55 and 915 coins (437 of which were found all together in Room 126 of I.1.6–9, and 401 more that were unearthed during the upper level excavations of the same property).56 The majority of the finds were made of bronze and iron. Very few items in ceramic (such as plates and lamps) were found, or at least recorded. Such an apparent dearth of ceramic items is prob­ ably attributed to the early archaeological disruption (in the case of VIII.7), as well as to the recording methods of contemporary excavators. At this time, indeed, excavators seem to have been less interested in fragmentary objects (especially pottery and glass), which have thus gone unrecorded.57 The portable finds, sorted by classes of material, as well as the coins have here been plotted to the properties in which they were found (Figs. 4.07 and 4.08).58

In reading the various accounts and excavation diaries, we have been able to trace some information about the spatial distribution not only of artifacts but also of wall paintings, which today are no longer visible. Through the analysis of the archaeologists’ descriptions and drawings,59 as well as of the “Plastico di Pompei,” the large-­scale model of Pompeii completed in 1879 and on display in the MANN,60 it has been

pos­sible to get a better idea of the kind of decoration that once faced the walls of the various properties. Images of Lares (the household tutelary deities) represent the subject matter most frequently recorded.61 Many of the painted lararia, such as those found in I.1.2, Room 106 (Ritual Context 6; see Fig.  4.06) and in I.1.6–9, Room 123 (Ritual Context 7; see Fig. 4.06; Fig. 4.09), were once visible from the street and located in areas where goods were prepared, served or sold, as is typical in other Pompeian food and drink ­outlets.62 With regard to Insula VIII.7, a painted niche lararium was discovered in VIII.7.5–6, Room 21 (Ritual Context 4; see Fig. 4.06), where it was associated with two areas of food consumption possibly as early as Phase 5a: the outdoor triclinium in Room 30, and the indoor triclinium in Room 22.63 Another painted niche lararium was found in Room 44 of VIII.7.9–11 (Ritual Context 5; see Fig. 4.06) adjacent to the hearth near the outdoor triclinium in Room 46.64 Property  I.1.2 also contained examples of mythological painting. A Bacchus appears on a painted pillar visible from the street and at the entrance to Room 107, which was likely associated with the consumption of food and drink (see Fig. 4.06).65 Excavators also recorded two Fourth Style mytho­ logic­al frescoes representing Apollo with a lyre66 and Phrixus and Helle67 (both in I.1.2, Room 107; see Fig. 4.06). Both motifs are well represented throughout Pompeii.68

55  Fragments of burned canvas, vessels in fragments, corals, and stones for buttons (all found in I.1.4). 56  The total number of coins that can be attributed to the Hospitium Hermetis is 888. Specifically: I.1.8: 4 bronze coins ( June 22, 1872); I.1.8, Room 126: 5 silver coins and 437 bronze coins (September 11, 1873); 13 bronze coins and 1 silver coin (September 16, 1873); I.1.8, Room 130: 27 bronze coins (September 12, 1873); I.1.6–9 (from the upper level excavations): 401 bronze coins. 57  For the issue of “unrecorded” finds, especially fragmentary pottery and glass, prior to 1930s excavations, see Allison 2004, 31–3. For the same problems in other buildings excavated at Pompeii between Fiorelli’s time and the 1920s: Berry 1997, 118; Coralini 2018, 167. At Herculaneum, still during Maiuri’s twentieth-century excavations: Monteix 2016b, 426. 58  We extend our gratitude to Gina Tibbott, who designed and illustrated the various maps in this chapter. 59  In the case of I.1, only three frescoes were drawn by Geremia Discanno: a lararium painting in I.1.2 (Room 106; MANN inv. ADS 1): PPM XI, 857, 859, no. 28 (bottom drawing); a male figure partially naked (whose upper part of the body is missing) interpreted by archaeologists as Bacchus leaning against a pilaster and with a panther nearby, found in I.1.2 (Room 106; MANN inv. ADS 1): PPM XI, 857, 859, no. 28 (upper right corner drawing); and another lararium painting with the inscription “HERMES” in I.1.8 (Room 123. MANN inv. ADS 2): PPM I, 7, no. 4; XI, 860–1, no. 29. For a more detailed discussion of the Hermes inscription, see Chapter 19.14. In the case of VIII.7, none of the frescoes found by the archaeologists were reproduced in drawings. The diar­ ies of excavation also inform us about other types of decorative elements found in the properties, such as on shop counters and masonry tables that were either painted or embellished with colored marbles: see, for instance, the counter dressed in colored marble from I.1.2, Room 106 or the masonry tables in VIII.7.6, Room 30, and VIII.7.10, Room 46. 60  For the “Plastico di Pompei,” which was made between 1861 and 1879 and provides a scaled model (1:100) of the city as excavated in 1879, see

Sampaolo 1993. Although not drawn, some of the painted walls from both insulae were represented in the Plastico. See, for instance, the elaborate garden wall painting with birds, fountains, and a gate in VIII.7.1 (Room 6), which was also recorded in detail by Mau (1875, 127–8). This fresco may have provided the illusion of a garden in place of a real one in the property. 61 For more detailed discussion of the lararia in both insulae, see Chapter 19.9. 62  On the painted lararium in I.1.2, see in particular Fiorelli 1873, 106, no. 25; Fiorelli 1875, 33; Mau 1875, 25–6; Sogliano 1879, 11, no. 19; Boyce 1937, 21, no. 1; PPM XI, 857, 859, no. 28. For the one in I.1.8 see note 59 above, as well as GdS NS 1873, Vol. 2, 425; Fiorelli 1873, 76, 107, no. 31; GdS NS 1874, Vol. 3, 49; Fiorelli 1875, 34; Mau 1875, 31; Sogliano 1879, 12, no. 27; Boyce 1937, 21, no. 2; PPM I, 4–7, no. 4; PPM XI, 860–61, no. 29; and Chapter  19.14 with discussion of the Hermes graffito. For a fuller list of bibliographic information on both lararia, see Table 4.01. 63  Mau 1875, 165. 64  On the relationship between lararia, food production, and consumption, see Foss 1994, 158–64; 1997. Another painted lararium was mistakenly assigned to VIII.7.3 by later sources according to an entry by Mau (1884, 136): see Boyce 1937, 78, no. 373; Anderson 1982, 252. The present-day enu­mer­ation of the Insula VIII.7, indeed, was VIII.8 at the time of Mau, thus leading modern scholars to misplace the location of this fresco. 65  See Table 4.01 (with bibliography). 66  To the left of Apollo must have stood another figure, which was already missing at the time of the discovery: Mau 1875, 26; Sogliano 1879, 27, no. 103; Schefold 1957, 8. Not drawn and lost today. 67  Mau 1875, 26. On this fresco, which was not drawn and today is lost, see also: GdS 1874, Vol. 3, 49; Fiorelli 1875, 33; Sogliano 1879, 101, no. 549 (who notes how the painting was already gone); Schefold 1957, 8; LIMC VII 1994, 402, no. 36, s.v. “Phrixos et Helle” (L. Kahil). 68  For more examples of wall paintings of Bacchus in commercial properties at Pompeii, see I.8.8, V.6.1, and VII.6.34–5, as well as Boyce 1937, Appendix II.

Wall paintings and their spatial contexts

54  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 4.07  The quantity of portable finds sorted by material class across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (courtesy of Gina Tibbott).

T h e H i story of E xcavat i on a n d Re se a rch A ct i v i ty i n I n sula e V I I I . 7 a n d I. 1   ·   55

Fig. 4.08  The distribution of stray coins found in the 79 ce contexts for Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (courtesy of Gina Tibbott).

56  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 4.09  Drawing by Discanno of the painted lararium (Hospitium Hermetis) in Room 23 of I.1.6–9, WF 1220 (after PPM I, 7, no. 4).

Fixtures and finds: some case studies Among the archeological evidence recorded by earlier excavators, some fixtures and finds deserve particular attention. The triclinium in VIII.7.9–11 (Room 46), for instance, was recorded with several items that are no longer extant today, such as an unusual piece of furniture that the excavators described as a “masonry-­serving table” (“mensa in muratura:” h. 0.87 m × l. 1.11 m × d. 0.73 m), which was painted and decorated with colored marbles (see Phase 5a).69 Two terracotta vessels (a single-­handled vase and a two-­handled cup) were found in the eastern compartment of the table. A few photographs show a On the portrayal of Bacchus in Pompeii, Kuivalainen 2021. For further discussion of Bacchus’ role as a propitious deity in commercial contexts, see Clarke 2007, 115–19 (esp. 118). Frescoes with representations of Phrixus and Helle have been found, for instance, in the cubiculum (6A) of the Casa del Poeta Tragico (VI.8.3,5), in the cubiculum (7) of the Casa di Marcus Lucretius (IX.3.5,24; MANN inv. 8896), in the ala (d) of the Casa dell’Ercole Ebbro (IX.5.6,17), and in the triclinium (14) of the Casa dei Postumii (VIII.4.4,49). For further representations of this myth in Roman material and visual culture: LIMC VII 1994, 398–405, pls. 333–8, s.v. “Phrixos et Helle” (L. Kahil); Hodske 2007, 218–19. For an overview of mythological paintings at Pompeii, see Hodske 2007. 69  This masonry table, rectangular in shape, faced the northern side of the triclinium and had a small water feature behind it (still visible today; see discussion in Chapter  12). The upper surface of the table was dressed in thin

number of objects found around this masonry table, including two marble statuettes (one of a child, h. 0.38 m., and the other of a crouching dog), a small marble capital, a marble base for a missing statue (and another one that once held the feet of the child statuette), as well as several vessels, whole and broken (Figs. 4.10 and 4.11).70 The triclinium itself was painted with scenes of cupids (with one depicted as warding off a peasant who tries to steal the grapes he is holding), a motif that echoes the decorative theme of the marble statuette of the child holding grapes in his left hand and an unidentified animal (described as possibly a rabbit) nibbling the grapes in his right hand (for the condition of the triclinium in 2005, see Fig. 12.11).71 Such repetition of a similar motif in  ­different media would have created a sort of thematic ­harmony.72 Among the various artifacts discovered in VIII.7, the military diploma of M.  Surus Garasenus (found in Room 33 of VIII.7.7–8, also known as taberna M. Suri; see Fig. 2.01 for the location) deserves particular attention since it represents, thus far, the only example of this type of document found at Pompeii (Fig.  4.12).73 It consists of two thin sheets of rect­ angu­lar bronze with incised text on both sides of the sheets (l. 16.5 cm; w. 13.5 cm) that records the military service of Marcus Surus Garasenus, a Syrian veteran of the fleet at Cape Miseno who retired during the reign of Vespasian. The military diploma documents M. Surus Garasenus’ right to full Roman citizenship, granted to him on April 5, 71 ce.74 Together with slabs of colored marble and the body painted a light red with bands of color underlined by an “egg and dart motif ” framing the opening of its six compartments (c. 0.25 m square each—­two on the north and south sides, one each on the east and west sides): Spano 1910a, 265, fig. 5; Jashemski 1993, 221–2; Ciarallo 2012, 633, no. 454. 70  For descriptions and images of the summer triclinium and the masonryserving table: GdS UP, August 6, 1906; Spano 1910a, 263–6, fig. 6; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, box 153. These photographs, which most probably show the finds staged around the masonry table, are kept in the archives of the Parco Archeologico di Pompei, Negativo Pompei “C 86.” For further information on these artifacts, see Table 4.01. 71  For description of the triclinium’s decoration, see Spano 1910a, 265. Spano is equivocal in his description of the animal, while in the GdS UP 1906 a rabbit is mentioned. Unfortunately, the photographs available do not allow us to identify this figure definitively, nor to better examine the decoration of the triclinium. 72  For the use of visual mnemonic devices recalling rhetorical parallels, see Bergmann 1994; Bartman 1988. 73  MANN inv. 110043. The military diploma was found on July 16, 1874 and sent to Naples a few days after, on July 19: see, GdS UP 1874; GdS NS 1874, Vol. 3, 52–4; GdS NS 1875, Vol. 3, 137; Libretta 15. For the full inscription, see CIL X.867 = CIL XVI.15 = ILS 1990. For further information on the diploma: Fiorelli 1875, 349; Mau 1875, 166; Klein 1875, 55–6, 220; Viola 1879, 17, 38–40, no.  10; Della Corte 1965, 263, no. 518; Roxan 1981, 284, table 4.11, no. 15; Vander Poel Campanian Collection, box 196, f. 4; Cooley and Cooley 2004, 271, no. H89, with wrong provenience (i.e., found in a cubiculum of VIII.v at Pompeii). The diploma has not been published in any of the five volumes of Roman Military Diplomas (by Margaret Roxan and/or Paul Holder). 74  The right of citizenship was traditionally conferred upon veterans who had served for a minimum of twenty-five years (for normal auxiliary) or twenty-six years (for the fleets) in the Roman army: Maxfield 1987; Valvo 2000.

T h e H i story of E xcavat i on a n d Re se a rch A ct i v i ty i n I n sula e V I I I . 7 a n d I. 1   ·   57

Fig. 4.10  The triclinium and masonry table in Room 46 of VIII.7.6–9, viewed from the south.

Fig. 4.11  Close-­up of masonry table in Room 46 of VIII.7.6–9, with a staging of the various objects found nearby.

58  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 4.12  The military diploma of Marcus Surus Garasenus, in two leaves. Side A is the visible, principal text; Sides B and C are the inner, concealed “copies” of the text; Side D is the visible collection of witnesses (with evidence for the bindings and seals). Leaves are 16.5 cm × 12.5 cm. Photos courtesy of MANN.

another bronze military diploma, dated to 70 ce and found in Herculaneum,75 the military diploma of M. Surus Garasenus offers important information about members of the Misene

fleet.76 Notably, in discussing the five known military dip­lomas granted to veterans of this fleet who were sent to Paestum to settle, Roxan and Holder note that none of these documents

75  CIL X.1402 = CIL XVI.11; Roxan 1981, 284, table 4.11, no. 11. On the geographical distribution of military diplomas of members of the Misene fleet, see Roxan 1981, 283–5, table 4.11.

76  Main sources on Roman military diplomas are the CIL XVI (1936) and its Supplement (1955), as well as the five volumes of Roman Military Diplomas, which present periodical updates to the CIL. For an overview of the several aspects of the military diplomas, see Eck and Wolff 1986.

T h e H i story of E xcavat i on a n d Re se a rch A ct i v i ty i n I n sula e V I I I . 7 a n d I. 1   ·   59 was found in Paestum.77 As Fiorelli inferred, it is reasonable to conclude that M.  Surus Garasenus might have moved to Pompeii and set up his own workshop there in the years before the final eruption.78 Beyond the diploma, the first excavators also recorded a variety of finds throughout VIII.7.7–8, including working tools,79 coins, lamps, small amulets; and one horse brooch, one horse bridle, and two horse bits. Discussing this shop, Fiorelli noted the impossibility of determining the industry practiced by its owner.80 Interestingly, almost the same amount of material related to horses was recorded here in VIII.7.7–8 as across the road at I.1.6–9, a property that features a stable.81 In general, both insulae present loose finds and similar types of material that would have been suited to a variety of purposes: personal adornment and/or hygiene, cooking, eating, gaming, etc. The heterogeneity of such assemblages speaks to the utilitarian and/or commercial activities carried out in these spaces prior to the eruption and demonstrates how blurry the distinction can be between commercial and domestic activities.82 Moreover, the discovery of utensils and 77  Roman Military Diplomas IV (2003), 395. In mapping the distribution of the Fleet diplomas, Roxan (1981, 284) notes that in general “members of the Fleet preferred to return home than settle near their former station . . . Even those settled by Vespasian, either at Paestum or in Pannonia, preferred to go back to their home.” 78  Fiorelli 1875, 349. 79  e.g., two hammers (respectively, “martello” and “martellina”) and a hatchet (“accetta”). 80  Fiorelli 1875, 349. No mention of this property appears in PPM. 81  I.1.6–9: one iron horse bridle and three bronze horse brooches; VIII.7.8: two bronze horse brooches, two bronze horse bridles, one iron horse brake. For stables in the Porta Stabia neighborhood, see Chapter 6. 82  According to Allison (2004, 174), the shops flanking the atrium houses’ entrance (generally labeled as tabernae and named by Allison “Room type 20”)

tools in combined assemblages83 contributes more toward an understanding of Roman storage habits and the collective organization of various objects than it does to a functional analysis of the spaces.84

Conclusion This work has amassed the available archival information for the earliest excavations of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, along with any relevant published materials, in order to inform our own research of the neighborhood. We also hope the work serves as a useful guide for those who may also want to find ways into the maze of archival information for Pompeii. The ana­lysis of the excavations and studies of these insulae has produced a substantial body of material, which embraces artifactual, decorative, epigraphic, and architectural evidence. The readings of the various archival records have also allowed us to retrieve information on vari­ ous objects—­portable or fixed—­that no longer survive. The method of re-­inserting the finds into property-­wide contexts, in conjunction with the full corpus of data, lays the foundation for the larger analysis of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 in Phase 7 (Chapter 14).

present the same kind of fixtures and finds usually found in residential spaces. Such evidence, therefore, “is insubstantial to identify them as commercial space.” 83  See, for instance, the storage of miscellaneous items inside a box found in I.1.4. Same tendency to store miscellaneous material all together can be also seen in Pompeian domestic spaces: Berg and Kuivalainen 2020, 62. 84  For a similar conclusion for domestic spaces, see Berry 1997, 193–4; Berg 2014; Berg and Kuivalainen 2020.

c h a pt e r 5

A Ground-­Penetrating Radar (GPR) Survey of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Gregory Tucker

The Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia (PARP:PS) commissioned two seasons of ground-­penetrating radar (GPR) survey in and around Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 to locate, map, and identify features related to the development of this area of the city leading up to 79 ce (Fig. 5.01). These survey seasons took place as the project was nearing the conclusion of excavations in Insula VIII.7 and only beginning to turn attention to Insula I.1. One aim was thus to determine the extent to which known excavated remains might appear in the survey of Insula VIII.7, which could

then help in ­determining the strength of the results for the survey across Insula  I.1. A team from the British School at Rome (BSR) and the Arch­aeo­logic­al Prospection Services of Southampton (APSS) carried out these surveys in early 2009 and 2011 (Table  5.01).1 This chapter presents an overview of 1 The 2011 season data were processed and interpreted in an internal report by Nicholas Crabb (BSR). His work, and the work of the rest of the BSR and APSS staff, proved invaluable in the ultimate production of this chapter. Please refer to Table 5.01 for technical details of the surveys.

Fig. 5.01  Aerial image of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 with GPR data indicating shallow depth results. The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0005

a grou n d -pe n et r at i n g r a da r ( g p r) surv ey o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   61 Table 5.01  Survey details Insula

Dates

Geophysical Survey Specialists

Instrumentation

Processing Software

VIII.7

30 March– 3 April 2009

Sophie Hay, Stephen Kay, Gregory Tucker

Mala X3m 500MHz Shielded Antenna, Mala XV Series Monitor, Rough Terrain Cart

GPR-­Slice 6.0

I.1

1–10 June 2011

Nicholas Crabb, Sophie Hay, Stephen Kay, Elizabeth Richley

Mala X3m 500MHz Shielded Antenna, Mala XV Series Monitor, Rough Terrain Cart

GPR-­Slice 7.0

the technique and a synthesis of the work, including some highlights of these two seasons of geophysical prospection to demonstrate the contribution of geophysical survey to our understanding of ancient Pompeii. While many of the methodological and technical approaches that underpinned the survey are well established, this chapter eschews a detailed description of these aspects for a more broad overview of the methods employed.2 Instead, this chapter presents the results of the survey and our interpretations of them, with an overall aim to contextualize the outcomes within the phased narratives developed by PARP:PS; this kind of contextual analysis has been called for by the geophysical prospection community repeatedly since the turn of the millennium.3

A brief background to geophysical prospection Geophysical prospection first formed a part of the archaeologist’s toolkit in the middle of the twentieth century and has since matured in stride with advances in computing technologies and the growth of a robust community of practitioners who interrogate all types of sites and landscapes with a wide array of methods.4 Ground-­penetrating radar (GPR) is an intensive method of geophysical prospection that allows buried archaeological deposits and features to be located, identified, and mapped with relatively high resolution. A GPR survey is conducted by passing an antenna, or multiple antennae, over a surface while it emits pulses of energy. The pulses are reflected by interfaces between materials with different physical properties and returned to the surface, where the two-­way travel time and energy in each reflection is then 2 For recent innovation in data collection and processing methods for archaeological applications of GPR, see Trinks et al. 2010; Novo et al. 2013; Piro and Goodman 2013; Verdonck et al. 2013; 2015; Linford 2014; Conyers 2015 and 2016b. 3 For example: Kvamme 2003; Aspinall et al. 2008; and Conyers and Leckebusch 2010. 4  See Aspinall et al. 2008 for a history of the publication Archaeological Prospection. Gaffney 2008 for a broader look at the history of the discipline, and Gaffney et al. 2016 for a more recent “state of the field” review.

recorded.5 Alongside magnetics, electrical resistance, and electromagnetic induction, GPR is one of the most well-­ developed and commonly applied geophysical prospection techniques within archaeological research.6 Each of these non-­invasive methods, along with others such as seismic or microgravity, can be employed to gain a better understanding of the subsurface remains of an archaeological site in tandem with more invasive excavation. GPR has been applied successfully on a range of arch­aeo­ logic­al sites and has proven effective in urban and non-­urban settings, including other sites with significant volcanic strata.7 The site of Pompeii itself has been the focus of intensive geo­ phys­ic­al prospection by a number of projects, with some exploring the unexcavated areas still covered in material from the 79 ce eruption, others focusing on probing beneath this level to the developmental layers which led to the form of the city at the moment of the eruption, and even others focusing on conservation issues.8 The physical constraints of the surviving architecture from 79 ce impose practical limitations on the selection of what technique to employ, inhibiting many of the broad-­scale two dimensional techniques more suitable for open spaces, such as magnetic survey, but still allowing for the passage of a GPR antenna. These walls, some of which were constructed in much earlier periods, represent the final phase of architectural development of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 prior to the eruption of 79 ce, but this architecture rests upon hundreds of years of anthropogenic activity that modified the natural landscape and deposited a wide variety of materials in and around earlier structures. This complex stratigraphy permits the radar signal to pass through the near surface, as opposed to sites with thick clays, but also encourages signal scattering, which induces noise that makes interpretation somewhat more difficult. Even so, when integrated with, and refined by, traditional excavation practices GPR can be highly 5  Conyers 2016a, 12–13.    6  Conyers 2010, 176. 7  From among several, see Conyers 1995; Trinks et al. 2015. 8  There are several published surveys through volcanic material, but a more recent example is Matthaei et al. (2016). For surveys in excavated areas see Ogden et al. 2012; Silani et al. 2017.

62  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i effective at revealing the state of subsurface features even in complex environments like Pompeii.9 The selection of GPR as the preferred method for survey of the insulae by PARP:PS was based on its suitability to detect anthropogenic activity in the complex stratigraphic environment presented by the urban development of the city, the limitations of the standing architecture on the site, and the research questions of the project.

The survey of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 After four years of excavation in Insula VIII.7, PARP:PS commissioned a GPR survey to help identify areas which could most effectively respond to the project’s research questions through excavation while also filling in gaps where excavation could not, or would not, take place (see Fig. 5.01). The geo­ phys­ic­al prospection team from the BSR and APSS surveyed Insula VIII.7 in wet, rainy conditions during late March and early April 2009. This survey covered some of the smaller spaces at the street fronts of the insula, some of the larger spaces removed from the road, and in the vicolo bordering the insula to the northwest. In the late spring of 2011 the BSR and APSS team returned to focus on Insula I.1, however this time after only one season of excavation (see Fig. 5.01). This survey was thus more comprehensive in its coverage of the insula, exploring almost all of the available space, as a means to guide the selection of areas for excavation, but also to develop connections between the results and interpretations from the excavated areas. Data was collected during both surveys with a Mala X3M antenna with a center frequency of 500Mhz on a Rough-­ Terrain Cart. Each area was surveyed in two directions, using a perpendicular x/y grid system, to ensure the best possible coverage and to avoid interpretation errors where features were either misidentified, omitted, or otherwise misinterpreted because they aligned directly beneath or between tra­ verses with the antenna. The main difference between the two seasons was the traverse spacing, which was 0.50 m in 2009 for Insula VIII.7 and was 0.25 m in 2011 for Insula I.1 to increase the spatial resolution.10 This change resulted in a higher resolution survey, but broadly speaking the results are comparable due to similar equipment, operating settings, site conditions, and processing strategy. The data, which were collected as profiles in dozens of traverses across the site, were processed in a standard sequence, similar to that described by Goodman and Piro, using Goodman’s GPR-­Slice software.11 After this signal 9  Conyers 2016a, 113–14. 10  Notably, the maximum recommended spacing is suggested by Conyers and Leckebusch (2010, 118); see also the similar strategy described by Piro et al. (2018) in a recent high-resolution survey at the site of Norba. 11  Goodman and Piro, 2013, 37–61.

processing, the data were plotted and interpolated in order to create amplitude time-­slices of equal time depth, a standard and robust approach at visualizing near-­surface GPR results.12 The spatial depth of each of the amplitude time-­slices has been estimated by comparison with excavated features where excavation and survey areas overlapped, for instance in the correlation of a cylindrical cistern unearthed in the course of the 2005 excavations (Cistern 4 in Room 38 of VIII.7.9–13; see Phase 4a) with a high amplitude anomaly visible in amplitude slices from the 2009 survey over the same area. Although the velocity of the signal can differ based on the dielectric permittivity of the material it passes through and thus can be expected to vary throughout the insulae, and even within individual traces of data, the signal velocity used for  depth estimates here will be constant, averaging our estimations from across the site.13 The results are presented here as amplitude time-­slices, as these appear to be the most effective way of viewing the GPR data for PARP:PS, as opposed to other techniques such as overlay analysis and isosurfaces. Beyond features which were previously identified through excavation and confirmed in the GPR results, this survey was best able to identify buried walls, tanks, and drains. The presence and identification of these features in the subsurface ul­tim­ate­ly lent support to our interpretation of the relative phasing in the properties across both insulae, including the transition in the overall use of space from production to retail (see esp. Phase 5, Chapter 12). By contributing data beyond the excavated areas and standing structures, these results can help to build and expand our understanding of the social and structural development of this sub-­elite neighborhood.

Some potential evidence for the earlier shapes of buildings during Phases 3 and 4 The earliest phases of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 are defined by natural events and terracing activity, as well as features such as Mercato ash layers and pappamonte blocks which were not detected in the GPR results (see Phase 1, Chapter  8). Unfortunately, many of these significant developmental features either are preserved in an ephemeral way that makes 12  See Conyers 2006 and Conyers 2013, 166–7 for a brief overview of this method; see Conyers 2016a, which defends this as the most effective method for complex sites; see Goodman and Piro 2013, which argues that this technique is most effective for near-surface interpretation, as well as for a history of the technique. Notably Nuzzo et al. 2002 have expressed concern in using this technique for complex datasets over small areas, and even Conyers has often insisted that multiple visualizations, including viewing the radargrams themselves, are necessary for a complete interpretation. 13  Leckebusch 2007 identifies and describes how variation in velocity can be corrected in some cases.

a grou n d -pe n et r at i n g r a da r ( g p r) surv ey o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   63 them difficult to detect or may not be present in the results due to signal scatter from the complex stratigraphy which covers them. For instance, the line of pappamonte blocks (see Figs. 8.03–8.05; SU 54122) running north–­south one meter below the surface in Room 106 of Property I.1.2 should be the type of feature that GPR can detect in ideal circumstances, but was absent from the results of the survey. An early architectural development was identified in the GPR survey of Property  I.1.3–5, which was established in Phase 4a but with a different footprint to the one that would be developed by 79 ce (Fig. 5.02). GPR results revealed a feature running north–­south across Room 110 at depths ranging from 0.20 to 0.80 m; excavations in Trench 59000 confirmed that they were buried walls (SUs 59095, 59011). The Phase 4a wall (SU 59095) appears to be contiguous at the shallower ­levels but then a gap appears in the center of the room, as if an east–­west running feature, which could be an extension of the central wall of the property, once cornered with an ori­ gin­al course of this north–­south feature. The shallower time-­ slices may coincide with the Phase 4b wall (SU 59011) which extended across this entire space.

Identification of features associated with production (Phase 4) Many of the features associated with the productive nature of the neighborhood, particularly during Phase 4, as confirmed through excavation, include masonry structures like vats and tanks and drains. The GPR survey was able to contribute to this narrative by identifying features related to these industries as well as developments to the shape of space that appears to correspond to the subsequent period of expansion and development. In Property VIII.7.1–4, a north–­south wall (SU 1050) was constructed to bisect the existing long southwest–­northeast rooms in Phase 4a but later was truncated in Phase 5a to re­open the space (Fig. 5.03). The room surveyed just within the entrance of VIII.7.3 has an anomaly that begins in the same level as the top of this buried wall, along a similar orientation. It rests in the later doorway to the rear rooms, perhaps suggesting that this room was closed to the west during this production phase, and then reopened in the later phases to provide access to the rear spaces. An unlined stone tank (SU 24033; see Fig. 11.35) was ­identified in a somewhat deeper level in the excavation of Room 9 in Property VIII.7.1–4, correlating with Phase 4a. Only parts of this room could be surveyed in the 2009 GPR season, meaning that only one corner of this tank appeared as an anomaly in the survey (Fig. 5.04). Its depth and form allow us to identify similar anomalies in the unexcavated Room 7 to the south (Property VIII.7.3) as tanks. These

tanks would measure approximately 1.75 × 1.00 m and 1.70 × 1.50 m in plan view and cross a number of time-­slices, which is consistent with other such features in the insulae from this phase. A similar circumstance in which known tanks or vats can appear across multiple time-­slices is confirmed in insula I.1, where Fish-­Salting Vat 5 was installed in the street-­side room of I.1.1–2 in Phase 4a (Fig.  5.05; see also Fig. 11.31). These large, linear features are a prime example of the type of anomaly which is most easily discernible in the GPR results. In this case the later development in this room was not in the form of rubble fills nor other architectural features which may have obscured this tank in the GPR data, and the fact that it was not destroyed, but rather was only truncated, meant that it was readily detectable and interpretable in the prospection results. Other identifiable features from this period likely represent drains or cisterns. In the rear space (room 78) of Property VIII.7.13–15 a large water channel was excavated (Drain 25); it had likely directed water from the roof of the Theatrum Tectum toward a large cistern under the eastern colonnade of the Quadriporticus (see Figs. 11.04 and 12.38). This feature lies approximately 0.63–0.88 m below ground level. In the area surveyed outside of the final limits of the insulae, in the vicolo associated with the Theatrum Tectum, this feature may continue at 0.60–0.75 m below the surface, along a ­similar line (Fig.  5.06). Although this can provide a good idea of the course of the channel, it unfortunately does not help pinpoint its source. The other high amplitude features visible on the southeastern wall of the vicolo may be related to the drain that was installed in this area in Phase 5a (Drain 30; see Fig. 12.39).

Reformation of space and final developments One of the more pronounced developments across the ­neighborhood, as seen from the excavations, occurred during Phase 5 when many of the production spaces from earlier phases were replaced by spaces dedicated to retailing.14 While these developments are mostly known from the excavations, still the results of the geophysical prospection were able to make some valuable contributions to the overall narrative, particularly for parts of the neighborhood not subject to excavation. One of the latest features uncovered in VIII.7.1–4, for ex­ample, was a drain (Drain 3; see Figs. 14.12–14.14) that was first excavated—­prior to our GPR survey—­in Room 5. The trajectory of the drain indicated it would pass through both 14  See Chapter 12 for a discussion of the changes that took place during Phase 5.

Fig. 5.02  The presence of walls from Phase 4 in the GPR survey of I.1.3–5 (Time-­slice 06: ~0.64–0.81m).

Fig. 5.03  The presence of wall (SU 1050) in Room 7, farther north of its excavation in Room 1 of VIII.7.1–4.

Fig. 5.04  The corner of the Phase 4a tank in Room 9 of VIII.7.1–4; note the potential presence of tanks at a similar level in Room 7 (Time-­slice 06: ~1.05–1.30m).

Fig. 5.05  The presence of Fish-­Salting Vat 5 in the GPR survey of Room 101 of I.1.1–2 (Time-­slice 06: ~0.64–0.81m).

Fig. 5.06  The presence of Drain 25 northward of its excavation in Room 78 of VIII.7.13–15; note also the potential presence of Drain 30 (Time-­slice 04: ~0.63–0.88m).

Fig. 5.07  The presence of Drain 3 in VIII.7.1–4 (Time-­slice 03: ~0.42–0.67m)

a grou n d -pe n et r at i n g r a da r ( g p r) surv ey o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   67 Room 10 and Room 9 before discharging onto the via Stabiana. The GPR survey had physical access to all of Room 9, and the easternmost part of Room 10. Here an anomaly appeared along the same alignment as Drain 3, first visible in time-­slice 02 but most clearly in time-­slice 03, with the top of the feature estimated to lay between 0.20 and 0.35 m below the surface, corresponding to a continuation of the Phase 7a drain from Room 5 (Fig. 5.07). Indeed, our later recovery in Room 9 of the same drain at the same depth (c. 30 cm below the surface) adds some confirmation to the GPR process, but perhaps more importantly serves as a demonstration of how features of a certain depth can be both visualized and connected to other such features of this period. For (another) example, a  curvilinear anomaly running approximately northeast–­ southwest, from our survey of Room 51 within property VIII.7.9–11, can be clearly identified in amplitude time-­slices of similarly shallow depths (Fig. 5.08). Although this feature does not appear to fit the typical form or scale of other production installations identified in the GPR survey, it does appear to match the approximate shape and depth of a water ­management system, or a number of drains, found slightly farther south in the insula during excavations in Trench 17000 (see  Fig. 13.08). A comparison of the location, depth, and shape of these features could support the identification of this feature as a drain connecting two water features which are outside the surveyed area but still accessible via the high amplitude features which are at the edges of the resulting data plot. The identification of this late phase water management system with drains connecting two tanks would not have been pos­sible without the close dialogue between excavation and survey at PARP:PS, further reinforcing the value of this approach.

Conclusion The geophysical prospection conducted for PARP:PS by the BSR and APSS was successful in identifying a variety of subsurface features which contribute to the broader narrative of development in this corner of Pompeii. Many of these features take the form of secondary elements to the built en­vir­on­ment, such as tanks, drains, and cisterns; even buried walls indicative of earlier definitions of space are visible throughout the surveyed area. These aspects of the built environment could, of course, be detected by direct excavation, but by conducting this GPR survey the project could more efficiently and ef­fect­ ive­ly distribute resources to target areas of interest for complementary investigation and to elaborate in­ter­pret­ations across unexcavated areas of the insulae. In some cases the GPR results were confirmed in excavation results; in ­others, we can be confident that the results help to extend our understanding and interpretation of spaces where we did not excavate but where there is a direct relationship with known features.

These different levels of confidence in the in­ter­pret­ations of the data can be, and have been, integrated in discussions about our overall understanding of the site, even while recognizing the limitations of GPR in a complex environment such as is found at Pompeii. The survey fostered dynamic communication among the excavation team throughout the processing and in­ter­pret­ ation of the survey data as well as during subsequent ­project seasons. While it is becoming more common for arch­aeo­logic­al projects to have a long-­term, dedicated geophysical survey team throughout the duration of the project, it is still not uncommon for geophysical prospection to take place in isolation from other complementary project ac­tiv­ ities. Often it becomes solely a means of guiding the location of future excavations or is done without the contextual interpretation and synthesis made possible by dialogue with the broader team membership.15 The PARP:PS project survey team was fortunate to have access to the full project data from both before and after the geophysical survey seasons, facilitating revisions to interpretations and improving conclusions. Although practical constraints of the survey strategy presented some limitations, these surveys were successful in identifying features of interest in the subsurface and contributing to our understanding of the development of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1. Future surveys in Pompeii and other complex urban environments should be confident in GPR’s ability to define subsurface features. Advances in both GPR technology and software should only heighten the future utility of such work. In addition, the author would advise those undertaking geophysical prospection at urban sites to consider collecting data at high resolutions, especially over small areas such as those seen here.16 The successes of these two short seasons of GPR survey manifest themselves in the identification of tanks and other structural features related to the production phases (broadly linked with Phase 4) of the insulae, of walls from earlier divisions of space, and of drains that commonly represent later arrangements.17 The identification of earlier events or other anthropogenic activity such as leveling fills, dump layers, or floor surfaces, however, proved more difficult. The ability of GPR results to aid in the interpretation of these types of ­layers at sites with complex stratigraphy depends on the conditions of the site and the distinction between the material properties of the layers. Here, the survey identified architectural and structural fixtures more successfully than fill layers and 15  See, for instance, recent projects such as The Portus Project (Fiumicino, Italy), The Olynthos Project (Olynthos, Greece), The Kaymakçı Archaeological Project (Kaymakçı, Turkey), and the OeAI work at Ephesus (Selçuk, Turkey), among ­others. 16  For a discussion of ideal profile spacing, see Verdonck et al. 2015. 17  See Chapter 11 for a complete discussion of Phase 4 and Chapter 15 for a summary of the development of the properties.

68  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 5.08  The shallow, structural feature in Room 51 of VIII.7.9–11 (Time-­slice 04: ~0.63–0.88m).

floors. This pattern is in fact quite common in geo­phys­ic­al prospection results from other projects exploring Pompeii and the surrounding region. A survey conducted in the Casa dell’Atrio a Mosaico at Herculaneum, for example, was able to identify a few buried walls, as well as a cistern and a pipe.18 The authors were able to interpret a shallow, weak response as a basement for the mosaic installation, thus suggesting that GPR has the potential to identify these types of surfaces in ideal conditions.19 Recent prospection work on the villas of Oplontis by the University of Texas has tentatively identified “earlier structures, cisterns, or drainage works” in the results of a GPR survey at Villa B.20 In Pompeii, furthermore, a similar pattern has been identified as regards the types of features which can be identified and interpreted from GPR data. For instance, pipes and other water features were the most common feature interpreted in 18  Carrara et al. 2001, 128–31.    19  Carrara et al. 2001, 129–32. 20  Thomas et al. 2013, 2.

a survey at the Casa dei Vettii.21 GPR survey at the Domus del Centenario revealed water features and earlier phases of the structure that later excavation confirmed.22 Similarly, survey by Catapano et al. at the Casa di Centauro also identified buried walls and water features passing through the subsurface, some of which were further documented via excavation.23 In a project in the same corner of the city as PARP:PS, Poehler and Ellis found a cistern and a large drain over two seasons of GPR survey in the Quadriporticus.24 A more recent survey in the Casa di Obellio Firmo as part of the Grande Progetto Pompei was able to detect “buried infrastructures, such as pipelines and tanks” in addition to impressive results representing buried foundation walls that reveal earlier divisions of space.25 Some projects report that earlier phases of their structures were the most exciting results from GPR surveys that they conducted, without any discussion of water or industrial 21  Di Filippo, Prisco, and Toro 2001, 72–6. 22  Di Filippo et al. 2005, 297–8.    23  Catapano et al. 2012, S97–S99. 24  Poehler and Ellis 2012; 2013.    25  Silani et al. 2017, 365.

a grou n d -pe n et r at i n g r a da r ( g p r) surv ey o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   69 ­features.26 Many of the other GPR surveys conducted in the city explored the unexcavated areas and were targeting different types of features, namely the architectural form as it existed in 79 ce, such as the work by Barone and Pettenelli in Regio III.27 Rarely, if ever, have any of these projects identified buried surfaces or floors in their results. In a review of these other geophysical prospection projects and the results from the survey conducted by PARP:PS a pattern emerges of the efficacy and efficiency of GPR as a tool for detecting built archaeological features in the near surface 26  Bustamente et al. 2010. 27  Barone et al. 2007; Pettinelli et al. 2011, 125–6; Pettinelli et al. 2012.

of a complex site like Pompeii. Extracting any further information about geological features, terracing, fills, and/or deposits may require a more targeted approach, but for many of the questions which are being asked of the earlier developmental sequences at Pompeii, and indeed around the Bay of Naples, the contributions possible by GPR may be sufficient. With the benefit of the consistent advancements in the theory and method of non-­invasive prospection, such as we have witnessed in recent years, future work will more likely be able to define layers, deposits, and fills. At PARP:PS, the identification and mapping of archaeological features has proven a positive contribution to our understanding of the development of these insulae throughout their developments.

c h a pt e r 6

The Architecture of the Porta Stabia Neighborhood Method, Design, and Construction Eric E. Poehler

Upon entering Pompeii through the Porta Stabia, the ancient visitor was confronted by the facades of a distinctly commercial neighborhood (Fig.  6.01). With these buildings standing at least two stories tall, the ground beneath them rose nearly 4 m in a series of steps, which along with the narrowing of the via Stabiana near the intersection with vicolo delle Conciapelle, restricted the view farther into the city. These facades were pierced by twenty-­five doorways, making the ground floor appear to be made up more of entrances than architecture.1 Most noticeable among these were the large doorways with stone-­paved ramps leading off of the street and into wide, open courtyards. Also among the many other wide doorways of shops, bars, and restaurants were narrow stairwells leading directly into second-­story apartments. Missing from all the commercial buildings of the Porta Stabia neighborhood, however, was the upward slope and mosaic decor that marked the entrance to an atrium house. In fact, not only were elite houses entirely absent from these insulae, a characteristic shared by only a handful of other city blocks, but none of the buildings appears to have been primarily residential space. Likewise, the masonry between the doorways was varied in style and in material and was largely lacking in elite pretensions. Large, ashlar blocks of tuff near the gate give way to orthostats in Sarno limestone and piers of brick, one of which employed a distinctive “zig-­zag” quoining method. Some of these frontages were covered in frescoes as well as graffiti and painted programmata (see Fig. 19.14.02).2 These facades, however, were only a tiny fraction of the blocks’ architectures. To create the 10, two-­story buildings and their more than 100 rooms,3 builders required approximately 2,350 tons of stone for use in the dozens of opus incertum walls as well as scores of travertine orthostats and hundreds of bricks and blocks to 1  Insula VIII.7’s 60.6 m facade length is 68.8 percent (41.7 m) doorway, while Insula I.1 is 66.2 percent (27.8 m) doorway. 2  See Chapter 19.14. 3  The count of rooms only includes the first floor. Those of the second story would have significantly increased that number, but they do not survive to be counted.

quoin their ends within another estimated 265 tons of mortar to bind these all together.4 None of this is to even mention the estimated 105.3 tons of wood and tiles needed to create the second stories and to roof them.5 Moreover, before these materials could be turned toward their intended architectures, another 2,500 cubic meters of soil, ash, and sorted urban trash had to be imported to level and in some cases, elevate, the ground at the building site.6 Although these insulae at the Porta Stabia are some of the smallest in Pompeii,7 the scale of the effort to build them—­ including the procurement, transportation, preparation, and finally arrangement of these materials—­remains impressive. That being said, none of the buildings extant in 79 ce was built as a single act. In fact, the largest individual bonded unit of construction (termed a Wall Construction Unit, or WCU) is 20 m long and makes up only 13 percent of even that building’s total architecture (see Figs. 6.10 and 6.11). Instead, these buildings were created out of 321 total WCUs, each 3.1 m in length and 0.40 m wide on average. The impact of this observation is the recognition that the architecture of the neighborhood was generated through a series of more manageable projects, each adding to (and subtracting from) a preexisting architectural landscape. Rather than a sequence of whole buildings that completely replaced earlier ones, we see extant 4  At a minimum of 6 m in height for the two stories, the building materials of the walls comprises nearly 2,450 cubic meters, or almost exactly enough to fill an Olympic-sized swimming pool. Using the composition of an average wall (estimated at 35 percent lava stone, 30 percent Sarno limestone, 20 percent mortar, and 8 percent, 5 percent, and 2 percent of brick and tile, tuff, and cruma di lava, respectively), these materials weigh over 4.7 million kg. 5  We estimate that more than 4,000 roof tiles (each 0.69 m × 0.475 m × 0.02 m), 1,910 imbrices, and 570 beams (0.16 m in diameter, averaging 6.3 m in length) were required to roof the buildings. 6  The depth of leveling and terracing is based on the average depth of fills found in quarries areas across the insulae, which we calculate as 92.7 cm. 7 Insula  I.1 is the second smallest completely exposed city block at Pompeii. The smallest is Insula VI.4, which is less than 18 m² smaller than Insula I.1. Only Insula IV.5, which remains incompletely exposed, might be smaller than Insula VI.4. The area of VIII.7.1–15 is the eighth smallest completely exposed insula at Pompeii.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0006

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   71

Fig. 6.01  Reconstructed view of the Porta Stabia neighborhood, looking north (drawing by Gareth Blayney on behalf of the project).

72  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i structures expanded, contracted, and/or adapted to new ­purposes. This series of interventions, embellishments, and deconstructions took place over approximately three cen­tur­ ies and in some cases radically altered the form and function of earlier buildings, making a full reconstruction of the earliest structures impossible. In what follows, we first describe the method used to study and to sequence the architecture into both relative and then absolute chronologies, before exploring the design and construction of buildings at the Porta Stabia as they stood in 79 ce.

Methodology Much of the architectural chronology in the Porta Stabia neighborhood is recoverable without excavation, through the careful scrutiny of the differences in the materials and styles of construction and (more importantly) the stratigraphic relationships between walls. To study the architecture of these two insulae we employed and adapted a particular type of masonry analysis with a circuitous history. Originating from a critique of traditional methods and their over-­reliance on typological assertions, our method was first defined for the Roman architecture at the Panhellenic sanctuary of Isthmia and further refined in our sister project, the Pompeii Quadriporticus Project (PQP). Running concurrently, these three campaigns examined three different architectural en­vir­on­ments—­a quotidian neighborhood (PARP:PS), a monumental palaestra (PQP), and the infrastructure for a sanctuary site (Isthmia)— that consequently offered a crucial set of comparanda against which to hone our method. In particular, it was the relatively scant remains at Isthmia and the consequent simplicity of its surviving architecture, compared to Pompeii, at least, that permitted the core of our method to be conceptualized and described. At its heart, the study of architecture at PARP:PS relied on a hierarchical sequence of procedures that privileges stratigraphy over typology, but not to exclusion. We call these procedures the “Isthmia Engine” for the way they drive our architectural evidence from individual stratigraphic observations into larger and larger units of analysis representing both abstract and actual sections of masonry.8 These procedures first break down the architecture into its smallest constituent parts (Wall Segments), and then reassemble those parts by using stratigraphic evidence (Stratigraphic Relationships) to create large, bonded units of masonry (Wall Construction Units), which are themselves grouped into larger con­fig­ur­ ations (Subphases) by appealing to non-­stratigraphic evidence such as construction style, materials, mortar type, etc. Finally, 8  For a more fulsome description of the “Isthmia Engine” and the philosophy behind its operation, see Ellis et al. 2008 and Ellis, Poehler, and Emmerson forthcoming.

these Subphases are recombined and reconciled with the evidence from excavation, allowing each to be placed within its chronological phase.

Building the relative sequence In preparation for study in the field, our first step is to “atomize” the plan of the architecture into its smallest elements, Wall Segments (WS), which represent the sections of masonry as defined by their intersection with other segments. By this definition, the Wall Segment is not (necessarily) the same thing as the wall the ancient Pompeians built, but is instead an  abstraction that defines the junctions between sections of  masonry where Stratigraphic Relationships (SR) might be  identified and interpreted. It is by determining these relationships—­whether a WS is bonded to another WS (or several) or whether it abuts, cuts, or underlies/overlies that WS9—that enables walls separated by our atomization to be reunited to form the largest units of architecture remaining in the insulae, termed Wall Construction Units (WCU) (Figs. 6.10 and 6.11). The WCU thus represents the remnants of the actual lengths of walls planned and built in antiquity. At the same time, the abutting, cutting, and under-/overlying relationships that separate WCUs are of equal importance and represent valuable evidence for their chronological arrangement; which were earlier, later, or contemporary. Only once all stratigraphic evidence among these WCUs has been exhausted are considerations such as construction style, materials, or mortar type brought to bear on the ana­ ­ lysis. This is perhaps a counterintuitive decision as ­construction style has been the basis of many campaigns of masonry analysis and the chronologies that underpin them.10 Nonetheless, by forestalling the application of these ana­ logic­al forms of reasoning—­that is, finding similarities and dissimilarities of construction style, materials and mortars, elevations, and symmetries—­it is possible to make these ­ana­lyses more effective. This is necessary because many construction styles have a centuries-­long lifespan at Pompeii, which limits their utility as a chronological indicator. Moreover, when dates from a construction style are actually applied, it is the period of that style’s florit that tends to be assigned, eschewing the possibilities of precocious experimentation or, more importantly, the long afterlife of a useful building technology.11 By first producing groups of architectures bounded 9  Definitions of Stratigraphic Relationships are found in Ellis, Poehler, and Emmerson forthcoming. 10  For a detailed summary of recent developments in masonry analysis at Pompeii, see Hay 2016, 5–56 and Poehler 2021. 11 For example, brick was precociously early at Pompeii according to Adam (1994, 61, 64). As recently as 1988, Richardson chose to organize his architectural history of Pompeii around the presumed chronology of ma­ter­ ials and construction techniques (e.g., a Tufa Phase 200–80 bce), even as he rejected the earlier notion of a Limestone phase (1988, 370).

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   73 by their stratigraphic relationships to other such groups (WCUs), the value of a common construction style within that group is amplified because such appeals to analogy no longer have to struggle with their chronological ambiguity.12 These groups of WCUs reunited by the combination of stratigraphic and analogical reasoning are called Subphases in our hierarchy and establish the largest possible framework for the architecture prior to the introduction of evidence from excavation.13 Such evidence, whether that was from our own trenches or it came as legacy data from the earlier efforts,14 provides an opportunity not only to define absolute chron­ ology of these walls but also to offer clues as to the function of the spaces they created. Once the Subphases have been joined together with excavation data and with one another, they form the final level in our hierarchy, the Phase, and represent elements of entire buildings with known chronologies. Subphases and Phases are discussed in more detail below, but first we must take a brief detour to explore how our method incorporates the exceptional level of preservation—­and consequently the volume of evidence available—­that Pompeii offers.

Adding complexity to the relative sequence As the core of our method, the “Isthmia Engine” served our purposes very well at Pompeii as we looked at the evolution of primary constructions, that is, walls built for the first time. Unlike most other sites, however, the two to three (or more) meters of preserved masonry at Pompeii retain a large number of interventions that occurred long after the wall had been first built: previous doorways were blocked up, downpipes from upper floors were cut in, and entire walls were rebuilt both in the post-­earthquake(s) period and in the modern era. Therefore, whereas our “Isthmia Engine” could help to build the relationships in the architecture among many walls, the Pompeian architecture required that we consider the relationships within a single wall and adapt the method to incorporate that evidence as well. Our adaptation was to add the concepts of the Wall Face (WF) and the Stratigraphic Unit (SU) to the beginning of our hierarchy. That is, we inserted into our analysis the evidence for an individual element of the 12 For example, three WCUs (WCUs 1034, 1035, and 1036) use opus vittatum in construction style, a technique used mostly in the late second century bce (Phase 3a). The stratigraphic relationships of these walls, however, show them all abutting earlier walls. This fact makes them some of the last walls built in Insula I.1 and are not—­as the style of construction might lead one to argue—­the remnants of much earlier buildings, butted up against by later constructions. 13  As a term within the method of architectural analysis, “Subphase” is not to be confused with the same word used in the phase narrative chapters, which indicates the segments of a phase that are identified within individual trenches. 14  See Chapter 4.

construction of a wall (SU), as observed on the face of that wall (WF), which is attached to one side of a Wall Segment. In practice, this addition meant the careful study of all 753 wall faces of the insulae and the identification of thousands of stratigraphically distinct and meaningful units of ­construction.15 The addition of the evidence from Wall Faces shifted our ­perspective from planimetric to three-­dimensional, adding a “vertical” stratigraphy that revealed a more complex life history for these walls and the spaces they defined. Furthermore, by using the SU as our unit of analysis, we were able to integrate this vertical stratigraphy seamlessly with the “horizontal” stratigraphy of the excavated soil deposits. Indeed, those walls that surrounded a trench were studied as part of that trench, creating direct and explicit relationships between soil and wall SUs, linking, for example, the cut of a foundation trench, the masonry of that foundation, and a niche cut into the wall itself within a tight relative chronological framework.16 Despite being the smallest and most abstract elements in our hierarchy, and despite initially being conceived as belonging at the beginning of our nested sets of procedures, the process of incorporating all of the complexity these individual SUs was best done after the initial interpretation of the relationship among WSs and the creation of WCUs. There are several reasons for this, both practical and theoretical. The first reason is simply that recording, analyzing, and interpreting hundreds of wall faces takes a considerable amount of time that would have delayed the team’s ability to incorporate the architecture into the interpretations developed throughout the excavation seasons. Conversely, the process of generating WCUs, at least of their original construction, can be done in a relatively short amount of time, often in as little as one season.17 Having a basic structure in place can have other practical benefits, including operating as a guide to future research. For example, if the architectural analysis suggests that a wall had been removed from a space, one might consider targeting that area with a trench to explore its architectural development. We also delayed the integration of stratigraphic units from wall faces not only because beginning the process of building the larger units (i.e., WS, WCU) from the thousands 15  The southern side of WF 1034, serves as a useful example of this work. Here eleven stratigraphic units were identified, from the wall’s foundations (SU 55548) and its initial construction (Phase 4b; SU 55550 in WCU 1114 and SUs 55555, 55556 in WCU 1064), including its original plaster layer (SUs 55552, 55554), which was preserved by the masonry of a blocked doorway (Phase 7; SU 55553). Analysis of the wall also recorded modern reconstructions (SU 55557) and consolidations (SU 55558). 16  Those walls not within an excavation area were studied by the architecture team and likewise divided into SUs that could be incorporated into the larger understanding of the site, even without related soil stratigraphy. 17  This depends, of course, on the number of walls to be studied, the physical size of those walls, the recording regimes used and the technologies employed to support that, as well as the size and experience of the architecture team.

74  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i of individual SUs would add unnecessarily to the overall complexity by the simple weight of their numbers but also because of the fact that most of these SUs have little interpretive impact beyond the Wall Segment to which they belong. In this way, we added the complexity found in Pompeii’s architecture back into a framework established by the interpretation of primary constructions. Of course, as mentioned above, the presence of such evidence within an individual WS is the reason why the Wall Face and SUs were introduced in the first place. Indeed, there are important factors that wall face analysis can add to a site’s architectural history. For example, we found several instances in which, in the primary construction, two wall segments were abutting one another and therefore assigned to different WCUs, but in their upper levels, the reconstruction of these walls occurred together, bonding their masonry and their later history within a third, larger WCU. This phenomenon of “abutting lower, bonding higher” was seen across the Porta Stabia neighborhood, especially in the final period, when buttresses were added to create additional strength in the seis­ mic­al­ly active years of the 60s ce.18 Where they were inserted, we observed the masonry of the buttress first to abut, or in some cases, to have been cut into the preexisting wall it would support, then to be quoined into the other wall as each was reconstructed together. In the end, we have come to conceive of Wall Face analysis as a path in parallel with Wall Segment analysis, one that enriches and tests the study of primary constructions.

From relative to absolute chronology Returning to the discussion of Subphases and Phases, the addition of absolute dating information to the relative architectural sequence requires a process of reconciliation between the date ranges from excavation and the relative chronologies of the masonry analysis. Most often the results of these m ­ ethods do match and contradictions are immediately obvious.19 Like the level, zig-­zagging path that leads at once to the top and to the bottom of a waterfall in the drawing by M. C. Escher, the contradictions between the relative and absolute sequences can appear coherent on paper, but not in reality. Consider, for 18  Several examples exist along the southern boundary wall of VIII.7.12, which saw significant remodeling in Phase 7. These include the relationship of WCU 045 to WCU 030, WCU 032 to WCU 030 and WCU 031, and WCU 040 and WCU 150 to WCU 039. 19  One variety of contradiction will commonly occur and prove to be a benefit to generating the Phases. That is, some Subphases that demonstrate discontinuity in construction (stratigraphically and/or analogically) with other Subphases might be shown to have great similarity in time. In this case, two abutting Subphases might be found to have been built close in time, perhaps even as part of the same project, though clearly not in the same moment of construction. The rear walls of I.1.3–5 (WCU 1037) and I.1.6–9 (WCU 1081) are prominent examples.

example, a situation in which the end of one wall in a Subphase that dates to the second century bce abuts (and is therefore later than) another long wall in a second Subphase that dates to the first century bce. In such instances, though rare, one must return to and reconsider both the stratigraphic relationships between WCUs and the material evidence that defined the absolute chronologies. Perhaps the dating evidence, to continue this example, reflects a terminus post quem that does not necessarily bind the first WCU to the second century bce. Similarly, perhaps the abutment between the two WCUs was observed only at the top of the walls, where they had been reconstructed, while the bonding at the bottom of the walls was missed because it was unclear or obscured by plaster. It is possible that these kinds of contradictions were generated in the initial steps to build the relative sequence (i.e., in the WS and WCU analyses) and similarly these are revealed by the introduction of stratigraphic evidence from Wall Faces into the groups of WCUs.20 That is, those Stratigraphic Units that are interpreted to stop abruptly at the edge of their WF (abutting, cutting, over-/underlying) or that continue beyond it and onto another WF (bonding) serve to confirm, challenge, or add to the current interpretation of the architectural analysis conducted between WSs. When the stratigraphic evidence from the WF analysis (i.e., SU) matches that of the WS analysis (i.e., SR), then one can be further confident in the interpretation. When the results of these two processes differ, one is given the opportunity to reconsider the basis of each interpretation and to reconcile them, or at least document why one interpretation was given more credence. Paradoxically, it is the rare contradiction that arises within the architectural analysis—­these “Escher Problems” as we have come to call them—­that demonstrates the strength of this methodology. That is, not only does the method produce a natural test upon the interpretations applied at each stage, but also because the different types of evidence and the different forms of reasoning they require have been explicitly sep­ ar­ated and scaffolded, it is possible to walk backward through the steps of analysis and to identify the specific in­ter­pret­ations that lead to the contradiction. Thus, although the primary purpose of this method is to reduce the incredible complexity of evidence that the architecture represents by placing it into a sequence of procedures (privileging stratigraphic over 20  For example, if a hypothetical WCU 1 is found to underlie WCU 2, and WCU 2 underlies WCU 3, but there is a problem if WCU 3 also then bends back to underlie WCU 1. Like in the Escher drawing we have walked up the stairs of time, only to return to our beginning. Finally, it will be necessary to point out here that these problems are, if based on chronology, not really impossible in most cases, just incredibly improbable. So, a wall that bends back on itself, as described above, if for some reason built over a generation, might in fact come to bend back on itself and cut across a now defunct wall or to reflect how the design had changed in that period.

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   75

Fig. 6.02  The retail shops, bars, restaurants, and inns of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

analogical reasoning) that result in spatially larger, logically coherent units, each ready for further interpretive steps, it is of equal benefit to occasionally disassemble those unit and reexamine the choices that created them.

their environment. Thus, rather than creating or expanding a typology of building forms, the following discussion attempts to identify how these buildings were conceived and instituted within a particularly commercial landscape.

Designs of Porta Stabia buildings

Inns and stables

The Porta Stabia neighborhood was made up of ten individual buildings by 79 ce, comprising three functional categories of spaces: inns, bars and restaurants, and retail shops (Fig. 6.02). It should be noted that although these categories represent the primary economic functions of these spaces, it is not meant to imply that inhabitation did not also occur here. Indeed, we believe some number of people must have lived as well as worked in these buildings. Careful scrutiny and comparison with other buildings of similar type permits a better understanding of how well these buildings served their ­presumed functions and whether such designs were common at Pompeii or were uniquely fitted (or retrofitted) into

The Porta Stabia neighborhood, due to its proximity to a major city gate, is disproportionately made up of establishments offering an array of hospitality services. In fact, there are more inns (hospita) with stables (stabula) offering food for consumption both on (caupona) and off the premises (taberna) concentrated here than at any other part of Pompeii. What is more, the evidence for their operation is among the clearest in the city, such that DeFelice used the example at I.1.6–9 to explain this type of building, the inn.21 The design of the three inns at the Porta Stabia (VIII.7.1–4; I.1.3–5; and I.1.6–9), as 21  DeFelice 2007, 477.

76  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i well as of their counterparts in the rest of Pompeii (and beyond), comprises three basic spaces in sequence (Fig. 6.03). These are: (1) a broad entrance corridor leading from a ramp off the street to (2) an open courtyard space for vehicle storage that was further divided to create (3) a long, narrow room to serve as a manger. At all the Porta Stabia inns, four add­ ition­al rooms flanked the entrance corridor to offer other services while (at least) two more spaces encroach upon edges of the courtyard at the back of these properties.22 It may be safely assumed that these back rooms were intended for storage of materials requiring a roof (e.g., fodder).23 While all three inns follow this general design, there are some minor variations. For example, inns VIII.7.1–4 and I.1.6–9 also have a stairway leading directly from the street to upper floors,

indicating independent second-­story properties.24 The inn at I.1.3–5 also had a second story, but it was accessed internally. One staircase was located in Room 110, which gave access to spaces along the frontage. The other staircase was in Room 112, which was part of a southward extension that doubled the animal storage areas on the first floor and equally expanded potential lodgings above the entire eastern edge of the building.25 More important than these minor variations was that each property had three major divisions at the facade, and while VIII.7.1–4 and I.1.3–5 placed their entrance corridors on one side of those properties, I.1.6–9 set its corridor in the middle. For  I.1.3–5, this arrangement offered the opportunity to ­create a block of interconnected rooms (118–21) in support of

22  These rooms were largely destroyed by bombing in 1943; see García y García 2006, 37. 23 Remains of fodder from Pompeii and surrounding villas have been recovered and studied. See Ciaraldi 2007, 75–85.

24  These are entrances VIII.7.2 and I.1.7, respectively. 25  Traces of plaster were documented on the west (SUs 59502, 59518) and north (SU 59540) internal faces of WCU 1037 above Rooms 114 and 115.

Fig. 6.03  The inns at the Porta Stabia neighborhood.

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   77 the food retailing function revealed by the bar counter (Bar Counter 3) in I.1.4. A similar suite of rooms (7–10) was created in VIII.7.1–4, though evidence for the activities in them is less forthcoming.26 Conversely, the consequence of the inn at I.1.6–9 placing its entrance corridor in the middle of the property was to split up these rooms, reducing the scale of the food retailing at I.1.9, but also opening the possibility of an entirely different set of activities in I.1.6. These different arrangements encouraged intensified (VIII.7.1–4; I.1.3–5) or diversified (I.1.6–9) investments in services complementary to the inn’s core functions. Another distinction among these designs is that the courtyard in VIII.7.1–4 was reduced in favor of an enlarged manger area, which seems to have been separated from its courtyard by a wall built to full height.27 In Insula I.1, the western walls of each manger area show no sign of having been built in masonry much higher than their current states (c. 70 cm above the floor level that relates to them). Instead, these low walls likely served as platforms upon which we expect were set beams to support the roof of upper floors and between which were troughs for water or fodder. This arrangement is commonly seen in other Roman cities, such as Ostia or Timgad, where terracotta or cut stone troughs (respectively) have been found in situ.28 No indication of such troughs was found in Insula I.1, or anywhere else in the city, and so these must have been made of perishable materials.29 Compared to other commercial inns at Pompeii, those at the Porta Stabia appear particularly cohesive in terms of their design. An inn located at the Porta Ercolano (VI.17.1), for example, was equipped with a broad, paved ramp,30 but the absence of an entrance corridor meant that its courtyard occupied the front of the building, competing with add­ ition­al retail space along the facade. Another inn near the Porta Vesuvio (VI.15.18) was only half the size of VI.17.1, and ne­ces­sar­ily compressed the functions of the corridor and courtyard in one large rectangular room accessed by a rut ramp. An L-­shaped room behind the attached bar (VI.15.17) may have been the manger.31 These space-­saving measures are similar to those found in the stables of exceptionally large 26  By 79 ce, doors connecting to these rooms from the area of the inn would be sealed and access, if any, became more indirect via a passage beneath the stairs at VIII.7.2. 27  Additional evidence for animals comes from objects—­bits and tack—­ recorded in the original excavations. See Chapter 4, Table 4.01, nos. 242, 244, and 270. 28 For the documenting of ninety-two stone troughs at Timgad, see Poehler 2017, 234–5. Terracotta troughs can be seen at Ostia in A15 and A19 of the Porta Romana necropolis. See Heinzelmann 2000, 150–1, 157. 29  Remains of a wooden trough were recovered in the one-room stable of I.11.12. Fullford et al. 1995–96, 87. See also Hay 2016, 152, 167. 30  On ramp types, see Poehler 2011. 31  The long room at the back of this property is also a candidate for the manger, and might even be a better candidate if not for the so-called sacellum believed to have been in this room.

houses such as the Casa del Menandro and the Casa del Citarista. Other large houses devote only a single large room to stab­ling.32 Although the inns at the Porta Ercolano were built at approximately the same time as those in the Porta Stabia neighborhood,33 those in the north were all carved almost entirely out of extant buildings, while the inns of Insula  I.1 were built upon less densely occupied lands (see Phase 4a for their initial construction). In part, this explains the difference between the two sides of the via Stabiana and the relative percentage of each building that would be invested in animal and vehicle storage.34 The limiting constraints from previous architecture also likely explains why the properties in I.1 are so efficient in their designs, expressing such a close connection between the shape of space and the service it was intended to perform. Finally, there is good reason to suspect that both inns in Insula I.1 were designed together as part of a singular reconception of the northern two-­ thirds of the insula. Thus, not only did these buildings expand outward into less occupied and even unoccupied space, but also the western walls of I.1.3–5 appear to have been built from lava stone quarried out of the area of the courtyard in I.1.6–9. This is supported by the different construction materials available (mix of lava stone and Sarno limestone) for the eastern and southern walls of I.1.6–9, which could only be built once the quarry they surrounded had been closed and the flow of lava stone into I.1.3–5 had ended.35 A final property (VIII.7.12) in the Porta Stabia neighborhood deserves discussion as it too may have been an inn, though one that catered only to the muleteers (Fig. 6.04). A wide threshold made of white limestone (rather than a ramp, Threshold 12) suggests a retailing function for the front room (58), but behind it is a narrow corridor that leads past a large, open room to the north (60/61) and three small service rooms to the south (62–4). At the end of the corridor is a very large open area (65) with a covered space at the back (66), the roof of which was supported by a single brick column. Likely it did not carry a second story. Built against the northern wall within this covered room was a large tank lined in hydraulic mortar and united with a preexisting cesspit (Waste Feature 13) by a mortar surface (see Fig. 12.16). This tank is not dissimilar to that found within the inn at VIII.7.1–4. The absence of particular architectural features or artifacts from the 79 ce 32  For example, Casa delle Vestali (VI.1.26); Casa di Pansa (VI.6.13); Casa di Marte e Venere (VII.1.43). 33  The large inn at VI.1.4, for example, was built out of the Casa delle Vestali’s so-called “agricultural court” in the last decades of the first century bce. See Jones and Robinson 2007, 398. 34  VIII.7.1 devotes 38.2 percent of its space to vehicle storage and 26.7 percent to animal storage. Conversely, these ratios in Insula I.1 are 44.4 percent and 25.7 percent for I.1.3 and 56 percent and 14.3 percent for I.1.8, respectively. 35 See Quarry Area 14 in Chapter 19.8.

78  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 6.04  VIII.7.12 in its final phase.

floor levels makes confirming this supposition difficult.36 Nonetheless, the recent discoveries of mule and/or donkey skeletons inside rooms that otherwise have no features to indicate their presence demonstrates that animal storage was both more necessary and more common than our archival evidence allows us to detect.37

Restaurants and bars The greatest investment in the architecture of the Porta Stabia neighborhood, by far, was given over to buildings providing food and drink to those entering and leaving Pompeii each day. Measured in terms of the number of doorways that  opened onto the street—­the primary experience many people would have had with these properties—­ t hese ­restaurants and bars appear to make up nearly one-­third (eight of twenty-­five doors) of the insulae. What the average Pompeian would not know, however, was that when meas­ ured by area, fully 48.5 percent of the area of these blocks were devoted to production and sale of food and drink. These ranged from simple, take-­away cook shops (I.1.9), to bars with interior seating space (I.1.4–5), to restaurants with surprising levels of investment in architectural design and decor (VIII.7.6). 36  On specific artifacts associated with mules and/or horses from the arch­ ival records of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, see Chapter 4. 37  For example, in the Insula dei Casti Amanti (IX.12.6, room f, room p), see Varone 1989, 234–6. Also in the Casa di Amarantus (I.11.12, room 4), see Ciaraldi 2007.

Although the evidence for them is scarce, we might also expect sellers of raw foodstuffs to have occupied one or more of the retail shops where features of food production and cooking are absent (e.g., VIII.7.4).38 These types of commercial enterprises were not spread evenly between the insulae: all four masonry counters by which bars are identified were found in Insula I.1, while both of the large restaurant facilities were situated in VIII.7.

Restaurants The entire middle and southwest of Insula VIII.7 is taken up by two very large properties dedicated to the production and consumption of food (Fig. 6.05); their scale and overall design require that we acknowledge them as rather upscale restaurants (they are VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.9–11). Each contains several rooms for eating, multiple service areas, and at least one masonry triclinium set within a well-­arranged garden area. Moreover, as establishments created out of earlier buildings, the designs of both restaurants reveal a strong concern by their architects to curate a sequential and sensory experience for their guests similar to those found in large residential spaces.39 The first such experience was visual: from the street the potential ­customer was invited into the space by a view down a long corridor that promised either a well-­appointed dining room 38  For example, the scale recovered in “the upper levels” of VIII.7.4. See Chapter 4. 39  On elite dining in garden spaces, see Salza Prina Ricotti 1987. On the so-called “Garden Houses” at Pompeii, see Richardson 1988, 329–43.

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   79

Fig. 6.05  The restaurants at the Porta Stabia neighborhood.

or the shade of a garden. With the architecture providing both a destination and a path, the customer was led past add­ ition­al dining spaces, increasingly immersed in the sights, sounds, and smells of the kitchens where the food was produced. In VIII.7.5–6, for example, one passed through the edge of an open cooking area (Room 15) that served the needs of those on the street at VIII.7.5 and possibly also those waiting in an elevated dining room (16) beside it. Once into the narrow corridor (Room 18; 90 cm wide), the visitor passed the only door along it, which opened onto another service area (Room 19). Entrance to the garden (Room 30) was still c. 10 m to the west. In VIII.7.9–11 the design was similar but not identical. The large front room (Room 48) was separated from a similar space (Room 49) by two short partition walls, which then gave way to a narrow corridor (Room 50) flanked by a potential dining area to the left (Room 52) and a cooking area to the right (Room 53). At the end of this corridor the well-­ appointed triclinium (Room 56), likely visible from the street, stood open to the guest (see Fig. 12.05).

It was at this point inside VIII.7.9–11, and at the end of the similar corridor in VIII.7.6, that the compression upon the guest’s view was released to produce a dramatic revelation of the garden dining spaces. In VIII.7.9–11 a narrow door connected the hallway to the north (Room 55) to a short flight of stairs that descended into the garden area (Room 46). From the bottom of the stairs, a masonry couch and table presented itself directly ahead, while decorative water features were set to the left, visible from the position of the diners (see Figs. 4.10–11, 12.09, 12.11). Small scale statuary also adorned the space, though where exactly is unknown.40 Within VIII.7.5–6 a similar experience unfolded. At the end of the corridor (Room 18) the visitor suddenly found himself standing within a colonnade (Room 21), its columns invisible from the corridor, which overlooked a large garden area. Two well dec­or­ ated dining rooms looked out through the colonnade and into the garden: the larger northern room (Room 22) was painted 40  See Chapter 4.

80  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i in white plaster, including perhaps its vaulted ceiling, while the smaller, southern room (Room 23) was given a red color.41 At the southern end of the colonnade (Room 21) a stairway led up to a second story. This stairway may have only accessed an area above the five rooms of the service quarter (cooking, storage areas, and a toilet),42 but the vaulted roof over the northern triclinia supports speculation into the existence of one or more dining rooms on the second floor as well.43 Certainly, these would have had excellent views of the garden and the masonry triclinium set within it, near the eastern wall of the Quadriporticus.44 These restaurants not only were large in size, offering indoor and outdoor amenities as well as take-­away services, but also were carefully arranged for a competitive commercial market; the ground-­floor footprint alone for VIII.7.5–6 was c. 540 m2, that for VIII.7.9–11 c. 450 m2. Establishments such as these were somewhat less common in Pompeii, with relatively fewer commercial properties dedicated to “sit-­down” eating approaching this scale.45 More common were buildings that lacked the space to accomplish the “corridor—­adjacent kitchen—­triclinium” sequence. These properties instead ne­ces­sar­ily compress these components together, so that the visitor may have a contrived view from the street, but had a less serial experience of the space once inside. Conversely, most restaurants at the scale of those at the Porta Stabia, and some far larger, tend to take on an open-­plan garden design, relying on topiary to structure the visitor’s experience. For example, the restaurant at the Garden of Hercules (II.8.6) lured potential guests off the busy via Nocera by a row of three columns adorning an atrium-­like space. From here, a small room made the connection to an enormous garden area (1,137 m2), where excavations by Jashemski found evidence for an arbor made of wooden poles above the masonry triclinium. More interestingly, Jashemski also found parallel rows of trees and bushes arranged to create a long corridor through the open garden, which was likely a commercial flower garden, at least in season.46 This vegetation hid the triclinium itself from view even after the guest had made a turn and walked another ten meters toward it.47 Although we did not find direct evidence for them in the Porta Stabia restaurants, it is probably best to reconstruct a decorative arbor covering the masonry couches, shielding the dinners from sun (and possibly also rain). We should further expect some ornamental arrangement of 41  These were found on WF 503, WF 504, and WF 505 in Room 22 and WF 138 and WF 139 in Room 23. 42  Rooms 24–9, Waste Feature 1. 43  On upstairs dining, see Ellis 2018, 76. 44  See Chapter 12 on VIII.7.5–6. 45 For comparanda, see Ellis (2018, 75, n. 139) on area and number of rooms in Pompeii’s largest bars. 46  Jashemski 2018, 143–4. 47  The vineyard at II.5.2 was similarly arranged. See Jashemski 2018, 125–31.

foliage in the eastern area of VIII.7.9–11 and the southern ­portions of VIII.7.5–6 as there is sufficient room in the garden of the latter property (Room 30) to have an add­ition­al dining area against the south wall (WCU 108), sep­ar­ated by means of topiary from the masonry couch in the north. Because these buildings are as big as the average residential building at Pompeii and as architecturally elaborate, some of  the best comparanda for the designs of the Porta Stabia restaurants are actually found in domestic architecture.48 As mentioned above, high status homes may even have been the inspiration of the upscale restaurants’ designs. The clearest illustration of the concept comes from the Casa del Fauno, which used the arrangement of its reception and dining spaces for social rather than economic capital, but nonetheless gave its visitors a deep view through its architectures before forcing them to wind their way throughout the house, squeezing them into narrow corridors that burst out into open spaces of exceptional elaboration and scale.49 The major distinction from the commercial properties, of course, is that the work to produce the food, drink, and entertainment at the Casa del Fauno was sequestered and secluded in the eastern wing of the house, in space unavailable within the Porta Stabia restaurants. It seems especially likely that the design concept was the same in each—­a sequence of compression, expansion, and surprise—­but the ability to execute that design was compromised in a sub-­elite setting.50

Bars While restaurants took up just over half of the area of western side of the via Stabiana, their entrances occupied only 22.3 percent of the facade. On the eastern side, conversely, the doorways opening into the four bars and their accompanying spaces took up 41.5 percent of the frontage but occupied only 38.1 percent of the space of the insula. This means that, except for the two ramped entrances leading into the inns, every doorway in Insula I.1 but two (I.1.6 and I.1.7) lead into a bar (Fig. 6.06). These distinctions gave each insula a rather different appearance and certainly a different economic profile: more bars and inns along the eastern side, more restaurants and shops along the west. The bars at Porta Stabia were, like the restaurants, above average in size and unusual in their features. On average, bars at Pompeii tend to be very small, with nearly two-­ thirds having fewer than three ground floor 48  The average area of the 440 properties listed as “Private Dwellings” by Eschebach and Müller-Trollius (1993) is 386.36 m2. Calculations from Navigation Map 2 of the Pompeii Bibliography and Mapping Project. https://digitalhumanities.umass.edu/pbmp/?p=1565 [Accessed Nov 19, 2018]. 49 Room numbers, following the Pompei Pitture e Mosaici (vol. V, 80) nomenclature are: corridors 26/53, 35, and 3; atrium 27; peristyle 36/54 and peristyle 39/40. 50  Wallace-Hadrill (1994, 14) expressed this notion with the idea that “[t]here is not one language for the rich and one for the poor, but a common language in which the rich are eloquent and the poor dumb.”

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   81

Fig. 6.06  The bars at the Porta Stabia neighborhood.

rooms. At the Porta Stabia, only one bar has two rooms (I.1.9); the others have three (I.1.2), four (I.1.4–5), and six (I.1.1/10), placing half of these bars in the top third in terms of room numbers in the city.51 There is also a general trend that the farther from the gate one goes, the smaller the bars become in this neighborhood. In fact, on the rest of via Stabiana, only five (of twenty) bars approach those of I.1 in area or number of rooms.52 Within the properties, the distinctive masonry bar counters are all oriented such that their long sides face to the south, presenting themselves especially to those entering the city.53 Two of these have an L-­shape (Bar Counter 1, Bar Counter 4), turning another face westward, perhaps facing those walking on the opposite side of the street. One of these (Bar Counter 4), 51  Ellis 2005, 82–6; 2018, 37, 62–76. 52  These are I.2.12–13, I.4.11, VIII.4.17–17a, IX.1.3, and IX.3.10–12. Only IX.1.3, which includes a large cooking area including an oven, is larger in area (180.63m2). 53  Ellis 2004, 381.

however, began as an I-­shaped counter like all the remaining masonry counters (in Phase 5a), only later adding a second side (in Phase 6). Even if in I.1.2, the two I-­shaped counters were joined by a wooden structure to create a U-­shape (Bar Counter 2), the design of these counters is rare outside of this neighborhood. Across the city in 79 ce, the L-­shaped counter had become the Pompeian standard, with 118 of 160 (72 percent) counters being in this form. The I-­shape is represented by only eighteen examples (11.3 percent), of which one in six were clustered at the Porta Stabia. Excavation has shown that these bar counters immediately followed the decommissioning of the fish-­processing vats in the Augustan period (Phase 5) and their I-­shaped forms may represent an early design for masonry retail counters, with the L-­shape coming to dominate only later, whether as part of an original conception for a bar or being added later, as at I.1.9.54

54  See Chapter 19.1.

82  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Shops There are nine doorways within the Porta Stabia neighborhood that open into spaces lacking architectural features specific enough to define the activities that occurred within them (Fig. 6.07). At the same time, these spaces do possess a more generic characteristic that places them in the broader cat­ egory of shops: a wide doorway, some with threshold stones cut for shuttered doors.55 At three of these doorways, VIII.7.5, VIII.7.10, and I.1.6, the room along the facade is directly connected to a restaurant (in VIII.7) or an inn (I.1), and likely had retailing functions related to those of their primary establishments. For example, a cooking surface is adjacent to each within their larger properties, indicating that sales of hot foods were likely.56 Compared to the nearby restaurants, 55  Ellis 2018, 36–40; Lauritsen 2015, 299. See Chapter 19.11, esp. Threshold 3, Threshold 4, Threshold 5, and Threshold 13. 56  See Chapter  19.3, Cooking Facility 1, Cooking Facility 4, Cooking Facility 5, and Cooking Facility 11.

Fig. 6.07  The shops at the Porta Stabia neighborhood.

room to sit could be limited,57 and these might therefore be understood as take-­away shops as well as more modest eating establishments. One building (VIII.7.7–8) with an especially wide door contained both the facilities and the tools to prod­uce and sell goods of bronze and bone.58 Judging by the number of bits, bridles, and brooches,59 the likely proprietor—­ one Marcus Surus Garasenus, known from his military diploma found here as well (see Fig. 4.12)60—might have catered to the needs of the surrounding inns, their patrons, and many others who passed through the nearby gate. For the rest of the shops at the Porta Stabia, we can only assess how these buildings were used by their forms and by 57  I.1.6 offers a single space (Room 122), VIII.7.5 has two (Room 11 and Room 12), while VIII.7.10 has as many as three (Room 39, Room 39, Room 41). 58  Tools include: two archipendulae, a chisel, hatchet, two hammers, and a razor. See Chapter 4, Table 4.01, nos. 31, 38–42, 51 (tools) and 48, 49, 116 (bone). 59  See Chapter 4, Table 4.01, nos. 32, 37, 71, 260. 60  See Chapter 4, Table 4.01, no. 26.

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   83 comparison to others like them. There are three basic shapes to consider: (1) a single room, open directly onto the street; (2) two rooms, separated by short antae, the front room open to the street; (3) a “corridor shop,” with a front room open to the street and additional spaces indirectly connected to it. The first of these, the single room shop, is one of the most common types of retail spaces across Pompeii. The Porta Stabia neighborhood, however, is once more unusual in having only two such shops: I.1.6, discussed above, and VIII.7.13.61 For the latter, our analysis of the masonry surrounding Room 67 has shown that it had once been (from Phase 3a) connected both to the space behind it to the west (Room 60) and to the front room of VIII.7.12 (Room 58), to the south. From as early as Phase 4a, however, and remaining so until 79 ce, it became connected to the building to the north (VIII.7.14). Such a process of reorienting a front room away from the rest of a building and dedicating that space to retail activities is common in domestic settings as a means to engage with the service economy along busy streets. In fact, the scarcity of such one-­room shops in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 might well relate to the absence of primarily residential properties. That is, being an architectural landscape already intensely invested in commercial activities, carving out even a single room from these already small properties would subtract rather than add to its engagement in the economy at the gate. The two-­room shop, represented by two examples (VIII.7.3 and VIII.7.4), was a simple expansion of the single room type, with the second room only defined (at least in terms of masonry) by two short walls. Although the front room is usually larger in area (Room 7, Room 9), the large doorway connecting the two rooms made it unlikely that there was a significant distinction in the activities between each room. These short walls in VIII.7.3 were quoined in opus vittatum mixtum and may not have been part of the original design of this space, even though both shops were once connected to the inn at VIII.7.1 by doors in their western walls. In 79 ce these two shops remained associated with this inn, as well as with each other, by means of doorways through their southern walls. Such a reorientation of movement suggests that while these three properties (as well as the upstairs apartment at VIII.7.2) were under the same ownership, the activities in these two, two-­room shops were separate from those of the inn, and perhaps from each other. At the northernmost edge of insula VIII.7, two spaces (VIII.7.14 and VIII.7.15) were developed on an almost identical blueprint. In each example, behind the large front room (Room 68, Room 73) open to the street was a second, smaller room (Room 69, Room 74). This second room appears as an 61  That is, it has already been pointed out above that Insula I.1 is unusual for having some I-shaped bar counters and for the design and size of its restaurants and inns.

appendage to the front room, an office or storage space supporting the activities at the front. By truncating the northern wall of this second room, a corridor (Room 70/72, Room 75) was created that led westward to a third room (Room 71, Room 76/77) and then to additional spaces and an open area at the back.62 A short return extending north from the second room created enough space for a stairway to upper floors, though there is little other evidence for such a stairway.63 The separation of the westernmost parts of these properties from the front two rooms by means of a corridor creates a more private, potentially residential section apart from the commercial spaces along the frontage. The absence of any clearly industrial facilities in the rear of either of these properties gives further weight to the residential character of these spaces as well as indicating that any goods and ­services provided on the premises were likely not processed there as well.

Construction How the inhabitants of the Porta Stabia neighborhood actually built their buildings is as particular and as varied as the manner in which they designed them. A close examination of the walls, including their materials and styles of construction reveals a good deal about the sourcing of building material, the knowledge of and/or preferences for building technologies, units of measure, and aesthetic preferences. For ex­ample, the extant architecture demonstrates a long-­standing and overwhelming preference for opus incertum as the arrangement of building materials in these two insulae (Fig.  6.08). This is matched across the entire city as well. In the first instance, the prevalence and persistence of opus incertum is in part a function of pozzolanic soils at Pompeii and the high quality mortars that can be made from them. In fact, no fewer than eight pits discovered in the excavations were cut primarily to recover the Mercato ash for use in mortars, and the regu­lar yellow-­brown color of many mortars in the standing architecture reflects this.64 The natural characteristics and local availability of building stone (in some cases, within the building plot itself ), especially lava stone and Sarno limestone, also supported the continued building in opus incertum. 62  A similar layout is also found in a good many buildings at Pompeii (e.g., I.3.13, I.11.2, VI.16.12, VII.1.27, VII.4.20, VII.13.9, IX.2.4) as well as several spaces in Herculaneum’s Insula Occidentalis II building: entrances 3, 10–11, and 14–15. 63  Note that in VIII.7.14 this stairway ascends to the east, and was invisible from the doorway; in VIII.7.15 the stair ascends to the west and was visible from the door. 64 See Chapter  19.8 on Quarrying Areas. Not all mortar made from Mercato ash was of high quality as lime and silica in their correct proportions were also required. Lancaster 2005, 51–3. See Vit. De Arch II.4–6, II.8.1–2. Examples of soft, friable mortars are found across the insulae including earlier constructions (lower portions) of WCU 1011, WCU 1013, WCU 1016 in I.1 and the upper portions of WCU 141 and WCU 162 in VIII.7.

84  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 6.08  An example of the use of opus incertum at the Porta Stabia neighborhood (the south wall (WF 1061) in Room 108 at I.1.2).

That is, while Vesuvian lava stone was never far away and travertine never much farther, the latter was easily shaped into blocks to provide a framework into which the more roughly worked lava stones could be inserted and bonded. The continued use of opus incertum in the Porta Stabia neighborhood, even when other building technologies were known and experimented with, thus has much to do with the ease of sourcing these materials. As a method of erecting a wall, opus incertum is also long-­ lived because many of its materials were almost endlessly recyclable. Thus, if in the foundations of some constructions (e.g., WCU 1019, 1020) and the superstructures of others (e.g., WCU 172), the presence of especially fresh and angular lava stones (often in the shape of long, flattened triangles) can be understood to have come directly from nearby quarries, then some of the many other, more rounded stones might be expected to have had a longer route to their architectures and/or longer life as building materials.65 Moreover, we also see in the opus incertum walls that at the time of minor ren­ov­ations or in the aftermath of major destructions, new varieties of building materials became available and even overly abundant. 65  Evidence from lava stone quarries in Pompeii, including from stones that were abandoned when the quarries closed, indicates that large stones were extracted and shaped at the work sites. These stones retain sharp edges, a low-angled triangular shape, and tend to be relatively larger in size. The actions to dismantle a wall, load and unload its stones in transport, and the reuse of those stones in the creation a new wall all serve to degrade the size and angularity of stones, resulting in smaller, rounder stones.

These commonly include broken pieces of brick and tile, large slabs of wall plaster, chunks of cocciopesto flooring and subflooring,66 as well as architectural fragments such as pieces of threshold stones,67 an inscription (see Fig. 14.19),68 and sections of stucco69 and entablature.70 Blocked doorways, which are already especially useful in demonstrating the changes in movement between and within properties, often record the scale and the variety of these recycled materials at those moments of change.71 In the post-­earthquake(s) period, entire walls were rebuilt or built for the first time with a significant proportion of the materials in them being, perhaps unsurprisingly, easily identifiable as the debris of previous architectures. The wall dividing Room 107 and Room 108 in I.1.2,72 for example, was built using as much architectural debris as stone.73 What is more surprising and more interesting is that along with the increasing availability of architectural debris, new building materials begin to arrive in exponentially greater quantities than before. Small sections of cut and/or broken gray tuff, yellow tuff, pieces of white limestone, and especially brown-­to-­red-­to-­purple 66  e.g., WCUs 032, 1059.    67  e.g., WCU 014, 045. 68  e.g., SU 16013 in WCU 093. See Phase 7a.    69  e.g., WCU 021. 70  e.g., SU 22005, in WCU 162. 71  For example, the blocked doorway between Room 12 and Room 15 in VIII.7.5–6 contains a large number of stones with a fine, white wall plaster still attached. 72  WCU 1031. 73  Similarly, the blocked doorway in VIII.7.6, Room 15 (WCU 174) is comprised of many pieces of a fine, white wall plaster.

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   85 colored scoria (cruma di lava) all are found in the walls built as early as the Augustan period (Phase 5), but especially in the final decades before the eruption in 79 ce (Phase 7).74 Not only is the explosion in the use of these new materials found in later walls, but also they are strongly correlated with the new ways of framing opus incertum. As mentioned above, the primary manner of quoining walls in the Porta Stabia area was by using large blocks of Sarno limestone (and sometimes tuff ) arranged as ashlars, orthostats, or in a framework pattern.75 True opus africanum, however, is known in only a single fragmentary example.76 The first new quoining method was opus vittatum (cut stone blocks of tuff or Sarno limestone), a style that appears to have arrived in Pompeii in the second century bce and continued in (declining) popularity into the Imperial age.77 By the arrival of the colony (and certainly before), brickwork was flourishing at Pompeii as attested in the distinctive “zig-­zag” quoining in the Theatrum Tectum, 74  The use of cruma di lava stone becomes especially common in the reconstructed walls of the adjacent Quadriporticus following the earthquake(s). Poehler and Ellis 2013, 9–10. 75  Because of the height of preservation, it is sometimes impossible to know if a wall was ended in multiple orthostats or if a cross-piece of framework was missing. 76  WCU 1066. On limestone framework construction, see Peterse 1999. 77  Adam (1994, 135–9) believes the first uses of opus vittatum were in the third century bce. Its earliest use in the Porta Stabia neighborhood (Phase 3a, late second century bce) is in the foundation of the Quadriporticus (WCU 041). Several contemporary buildings nearby also employ this style: Temple of Asclepius (VIII.7.25); the enclosure before the Temple of Minerva. Extensive use of opus vittatum continued in the early years of the colony in the

the Porta Marina, and the Forum Baths.78 Although the Porta Stabia neighborhood has one of the very few examples of this “zig-­zag” patterns at Pompeii (Fig.  6.09),79 the use of brick was not adopted evenly across the insulae. Compared to the expansive use in even contemporary phases of construction in the Quadriporticus,80 as well as a common usage in Insula I.1, brickwork was rare in Insula VIII.7, even as a quoining mechanism. It may have been that brick was comparatively expensive to procure, an idea supported by the fact that several large brick constructions are made up of significant quantities of reused ceramic roofing tiles rather than actual bricks.81 True opus testaceum is represented only in a few places and from several periods.82 The last quoining mechanism employed was opus vittatum mixtum. This technique consistently abuts earlier constructions, amphitheater, and in Tower VII. See Van der Graaff 2019, 134. At Porta Stabia only the door jambs (WCU 186, WCU 187) to Room 6 in VIII.7.1 used this technique. The latest (Phase 7, post-62 ce) use of opus vittatum was in the southern stable area (Rooms 111–13) of the inn at I.1.3–5 (WCU 1034, WCU 1035) and in walls forming corridor 59 of VIII.7.12. 78  At Forum Baths, doorways VII.5.2 and a small fragment at VII.5.24. 79  Other examples include a small remnant in the northern door frame of I.2.1, the southern door frame of VII.11.17, in the western wall of the atrium in VII.3.29, and an “inverted” example at V.1.26. 80  See Poehler and Ellis 2013, 9–10. 81  For example, WCU 131, WCU 1090. Adam (1994, 65, 147) notes such reuse is common at Pompeii, and cites Vit. De Arch II.8 as a source for its general practice. 82  For example, Phase 4b: WCUs 183, 1054, 1056, 1058; WCU 1124; Phase 5a: WCUs 026, 043, 1039, 1040, 1041; Phase 5b: WCUs 1001, 1003.

Fig. 6.09  The “zig-­zag” brickwork at the northern entrance to VIII.7.7–8.

86  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 6.10  The Wall Construction Units (WCUs) for Insula VIII.7.

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   87

Fig. 6.11  The Wall Construction Units (WCUs) for Insula I.1

88  ·  the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i including brickwork, although it is also used concurrently with brick. There are two examples of opus vittatum mixtum dated to the Early Imperial era in Insula  I.1, which support research placing the origin of this technique prior to the early 60s ce.83 Opus vittatum mixtum was often used to adjust the final shape of extant buildings and to buttress walls. Walls quoined with or built entirely in this technique also have a high coincidence of scoria as a building material, including one wall that uses a cut block of cruma in its quoining.84 On the other hand, there is a distinct absence of tiles reused as brick in opus vittatum mixtum constructions, suggesting that later builders placed more value in the condition of quoining materials than those in the main walls. These means of quoining the opus incertum walls offer another opportunity to understand their chronologies as well as the use and reuse of building materials and construction styles. Because many large blocks were cut for these walls and the constructions using blocks and or bricks were set to a particular width, the ends of many walls in the Porta Stabia neighborhood lend themselves to metrological analyses. Indeed a substantial proportion of all the walls and materials that can be measured fall into the orbit of whole and half feet in either Oscan or Roman systems of measure; the Oscan foot measuring at 27.5 cm, the Roman foot at 29.5 cm. If one permits a tolerance of difference from the exact measure of one-­twentieth of an Oscan or Roman foot,85 fully 41.6 percent of the 1,297 measurements we made of blocks of tuff or Sarno limestone and quoining in forms of brick corresponded to a unit in whole or half feet. Of course, some of the matches found will be due to error in measurement (by us or the ancients) and others will be merely coincidental. On the other hand, confusion between metrical systems is almost entirely impossible as only at the one half foot and one foot measurements do Oscan and Roman feet overlap by 18.5 mm and 8.5 mm, respectively.86 Clearly, architecture at the Porta Stabia was built to specific standards and units of measure, and the chronologies of these metrological signatures are of particular interest. Naturally, our earliest known walls fall into Oscan measures, while the last constructions match Roman units.87 Those walls built in the late second century bce (Phase 3) through the middle of the first century bce (Phase 4), however, demonstrate a high degree of metrological heterogeneity. Of the 436 measurements that matched a metrical system in these 83  WCUs 1135, 1137. cf. Richardson 1988, 379; Frohlich 1995. 84  WCU 1011, second story, southeast corner of insula. 85  1.38 cm, 1.48 cm respectively. 86 There are fifty potential overlapping measurements between one half foot and four feet, which represent 3.8 percent of total measurements, 9.3 percent of the matching measurements, or 7.5 percent of the half-foot measurements and 32.9 percent of the whole foot measurements. 87  In Phase 2, 83 percent of the matching measurements were in Oscan feet, while in Phase 7, 77 percent of the measurements were in Roman feet.

phases, 62 percent were in Oscan feet, while 38 percent were found to be in Roman feet. These findings indicate that Roman builders and their units of measure arrived in Pompeii before their political hegemony in 80 bce and that local masons using Oscan measurements continued long-­standing traditions.88 It is also clearly the case that blocks of stone already cut to Oscan measures were reused in later periods and in some cases the dimensions of these blocks determined the sizes of Roman-­era structures.89 These ideas are further supported by measurements of materials in the Imperial period, which transition to Roman feet along with their construction types. Thus, in Phase 5a 80 percent of the Roman units were found in blocks of Sarno, but by Phase 7, 83 percent of Roman units were recorded in sections of opus vittatum mixtum.90 Still, even in the post-­earthquake(s) period (Phase 7), extant structures and/or materials continued to implicate Oscan units of measure, most likely in the form of reused materials.91 Finally, the buildings of the Porta Stabia preserve some of the architectural aesthetics and decorative choices of the ­people who inhabited them. As we have already seen in the design of many of these properties, the architects had intentions to adopt and adapt elite architectural devices, and the construction of the spaces appears to reflect this as well. Ashlar blocks and especially large orthostats along the frontages echo those of more affluent neighborhoods in the city center, but without the quality and consistency of materials. Likewise, the example of “zig-­zag” brick so near to its greatest use in the Theatrum Tectum perhaps alludes to, or trades on, similar pretensions. Conversely, the Theatrum Tectum also reveals an early colonial interest in the opus quasi reticulatum construction style, which is never represented in the buildings of the Porta Stabia neighborhood. Instead, a very few late walls built in opus incertum picked up on a chromatic effect of alternating stones of lighter and darker colors, known from both very late public and residential buildings.92 88  Using the measurements from Laidlaw and Stella (2014, 129, fig. 3.5), we also find this result in the constructions on the facade of the House of Sallust: of the twenty-three measurements 30.4 percent match Oscan feet, 34.8 percent match Roman feet, including several sections of masonry that are clearly later than the original tuff facade. For similar findings in the widths of wheel rut pairs, see Poehler 2017, 114–23. 89  Because Oscan feet (0.275 m) are slightly smaller than Roman feet (0.295 m), it is impossible to recut a stone from Oscan to Roman units without reducing the original length of the stone. Similarly, the addition of only two centimeters of masonry would not seem to be worth the effort. 90  The use of brick set to Roman feet peaked in the middle of the first century ce, with plurality of Roman units recorded in Phase 5b (44 percent) and Phase 6 (45 percent) being in brick. 91  We recorded two blocks of Sarno limestone and three sections of opus vittatum mixtum in Phase 7 architectures. In Phase 6 there were three Sarno blocks, three sections of brick, and two sections of opus vittatum mixtum in Oscan feet. 92  Examples of comparanda can be found in the north wall of the Central Baths (between entrances IX.4.17 and IX.4.18) and in the shop (VI.6.1) of the

t h e a rch i t e ct ure o f t h e p o rta sta b i a n e i g h b o r h o od   ·   89 Despite these decorative patterns of stone work, most of the walls of these insulae were covered in a layer of painted plaster, at least prior to the earthquake(s) of the early 60s ce. Although its preservation varies across these buildings, remnants of plaster were documented in almost every building, with some of the smaller spaces in insula VIII.7 lacking evidence for plaster.93 Some decorative treatments did survive, however, such as the garden scene in Room 6 of VIII.7.1–4 that included painted inscriptions.94 Insula  I.1 has fared better since its excavation, and perhaps recovered from the earthquake(s) better as well. In the initial excavations, vibrant and detailed frescoes with mythological scenes were found in Room 107 of I.1.2,95 a room only created after its southern Casa di Pansa. Additionally, several buildings in Ostia’s Porta Romana necropolis (e.g., A15-A17-B15-B16b-B17) use this technique, alternating red and black stones. See Heinzelmann 2000. 93  These are VIII.7.3, VIII.7.4, VIII.7.13, and VIII.7.14. 94  See Chapter 4, Table 4.01, nos. 138, 143, and 788; also Chapter 19.14. 95  See Chapter 4, Table 4.01, nos. 161, 162, and 181.

wall was built in Phase 7a, largely out of architectural debris.96 This room was likely a well-­appointed dining area for the bar in the front room (Room 106), an idea further supported by the panel painting recovered from the back room (133) of the bar at I.1.6–9.97 One of the area’s most famous images—­ the lararium in which a man labeled as Hermes decants an amphora—­comes from the vehicular entrance to the Inn at I.1.8, giving the building its modern appellation, Hospitium Hermetis (see Fig. 4.09). Graffiti were also recovered in service areas of both insulae, documenting names and even perhaps caricaturing the emperor (see Fig. 19.14.01).98 In the end, these decorative elements add a splash of color to the gray and yellow stone of the Porta Stabia neighborhoods’ architecture and help to further paint the picture of daily life in these entirely sub-­elite spaces.

96 WCU 1031.   97  See Chapter 4, Table 4.01, nos. 412. 98  For the caricature, see Graffiti and Dipinti 9 in Chapter 19.14.

c h a pt e r 7

The Geomorphology and Topography of the Area of the Porta Stabia Excavations (Insulae VIII.7 and I.1) Mark Robinson

The via Stabiana lies in a natural north–­south valley which dissects the plateau on which ancient Pompeii is situated (Fig. 7.01). The valley is relatively shallow to the north of the via dell’Abbondanza but is much more marked closer to the

study area at the Porta Stabia. The valley slopes southwards from the Porta Vesuvio, the slope becoming steeper south of the via dell’Abbondanza and, at the time of the foundation of the city, would have joined the floodplain of the River Sarno

Fig. 7.01  The urban landscape of the Porta Stabia as seen from the air, looking north.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0007

The Ge omor ph olo gy an d T opo g r a ph y o f t h e A re a o f t h e P o rta Sta b i a E xcavat ions  ·   91 south of the Porta Stabia. Before Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 were built up, the study area would have been overlooked by the high ground of the Triangular Forum to the northwest and, to a lesser extent, by high ground in the locality of the House of Menander (see Fig. 1.02). The main determinant of the topography of the plateau including the valley of the via Stabiana is the geo­morph­ ology of the lava edifice of Pompeii. The landscape has also been shaped, however, by subsequent events, including: a major ash fall from an early Holocene eruption of Vesuvius, soil formation with colluviation at least partly consequent upon prehistoric agricultural activity, further deposition of tephra, and the effects of urbanization. The topography of the plateau greatly influenced the location and morphology of the town. It has been suggested that the valley of the via Stabiana formed a routeway of great antiquity which pre-­ dated the Archaic town of the sixth century bce and the ­valley certainly influenced the alignment of the street grid of Pompeii.1 Probably the strongest aspect of continuity in the archae­ ology of the study area until the dense building developments of the second century bce was that of the via Stabiana itself. It is argued here that rather than being prehistoric its origin was in the sixth century bce and it was re-­surfaced several times in the fourth–­third centuries bce. There were two early episodes of building construction: one, it is suggested, in the sixth century bce, the other in the fourth century bce, but the site appears to have been without buildings in the fifth century bce (see Phase 1, Chapter 8). Associated with these developments were limited terracing and quarrying/cutting away of lava but possibly on a small scale in comparison with the activities immediately prior to the urban development of the mid-­ second century bce.2 While it is possible the site was entirely abandoned during the fifth century bce (Phase 1b), at least limited activities were occurring in the third century bce including pottery manufacturing (Phase 2). The evidence for the early periods of the site was limited both by the depth to which it was necessary to excavate to expose early deposits and the scale of destruction caused by the mid-­second-­century bce terracing of the site. While these are not serious problems for the study of the geological deposits because those were extensive, it meant that the pres­ ence of a building was argued from three wall blocks and a phase of road from a square meter of surface. It is very likely that some early buildings either had been entirely destroyed by the later activity or were missed because of the placement of the archaeological trenches. The evidence for the geological sequence of the excavations is presented and interpreted chronologically, divided into a 1  Mau 1907, 32–3. See also Poehler 2017, 72. 2  See Chapter 19.8.

series of major phase units. It begins with the earliest deposits reached in the excavations of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, the lava bedrock.

The lava of Pompeii The effusive product of the Vesuvian system is a viscous slowly moving lava. The surface soon hardens to form a crust which tends to become deformed into ripples by the flow of the lava. The edges of the lava flow are often steep and, at the tip of a flow, layers of lava often pile up as earlier material hardens. These properties made the lava edifice of Pompeii a defensible structure; indeed, to the west of the Porta Stabia the town walls follow the lava cliff (Fig. 7.02). It has recently been discovered that the lava edifice is not a tongue of lava which has run down the slope of Vesuvius but was from vents at Pompeii itself which were active from the Late Pleistocene into the early Holocene.3 Lava was recorded in about half the trenches. Where the surface of the lava has been cut or quarried away, for ex­ample the expanse along the north face of Trench 26000, it comprises a very hard dark gray aphanitic (too fine to see the individual crystals) matrix with irregular gas vesicles up to 8 mm across, but mostly smaller, greenish-­black rod-­like phenocrysts of pyroxene about 3–6 mm across and some rounded colorless phenocrysts up to 10 mm across that may be of leucite (Fig.  7.03; see Fig.  7.05 for the location of all trenches mentioned in the text).4 The surface lava is somewhat wea­thered and crumbly. It has abundant rounded phenocrysts (or clusters of phenocrysts) of a chalky-­white mineral that is/was most likely leucite, the bright white color indicating that these have most likely been altered to low-­temperature products. The crystals or clusters sometimes surround a black mineral core. Also present are blocky black pyroxene phenocrysts and numerous gas vesicles. The gray matrix is  again aphanitic. These are alkaline lavas. Where the undisturbed surface of the lava survives in situ it tends to be ­covered by degraded lava, for example in Trench 28000 there was 0.33 m of broken fragments of gray lava above the solid lava and these were in turn below 0.21 m of purple-­ gray lava-­derived grit. Elsewhere at Pompeii, the dense gray lava often grades into a light bubbly maroon-­colored rock towards the surface which is used as the building ­material cruma. It is not easy to reconstruct the topography of the lava surface of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 because they experienced a

3  Cinque and Irollo 2004. 4  I am grateful to Professor Dave Waters, Curator of Mineralogy at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, for hand descriptions of the lava.

92  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 7.02  The lava cliff to the west of the Porta Stabia, beneath Insulae VIII.2.

Fig. 7.03  Exposed lava in the north face of Trench 26000 in Room 65 of VIII.7.12.

phase of lava quarrying followed by terracing which included the cutting away of lava;5 it is for this reason that the inclusion of precise levels (masl) is less useful than a more general pro­ vision of depths and heights. The height of the lava in Trench 5  See Chapter 19.8.

28000 (Room 65 of VIII.7.12) to the west of the via Stabiana, however, as well as the exposed lava within the house at I.2.2–4 (Fig. 7.04), about 15 m east of the via Stabiana, is much greater than that of the current road surface in between. The slope towards the road could also be seen from the relative heights of the lava in Trenches 25000 and 24000 in Insula VIII

The Ge omor ph olo gy an d T opo g r a ph y o f t h e A re a o f t h e P o rta Sta b i a E xcavat ions  ·   93

Fig. 7.04  Exposed lava in the courtyard of the house at I.2.2–4. Photo courtesy of Eric Poehler.

to the west of the road (Fig. 7.05). The eastern side of the valley was shown by the steep slope on the lava exposed on the surface of the vicolo between Insulae I.1 and I.2. The southernmost extent of the lava edifice was possibly close to the line of the city walls at the Porta Stabia. Lava was found at the base of Trench 53000. This would place the entire study area towards the front of the tongue of lava. Two steps could be detected in the lava of Insula VIII.7 where flows had piled up on top of solidifying lava. The highest level, to the north, extended from Trench 28000 to the northern part of Trench 26000, although the edge itself has been lost to subse­ quent terracing. The intermediate level ran to the east–­west wall (WCU 66 and WCU 190 in Trench 7000) along the property line between Properties VIII.7.7–8 and VIII.7.9–11, where it was founded on the crumbling lava surface to the step edge. The third level was defined by a layer of degraded lava with hard white silt between the lava fragments at the base of Trench 25000 (SU 25057). There was a fourth, even lower, level just inside the Porta Stabia. Although lava was reached neither in Trench 50000 nor in Trench 1000 on the other side of the road, it was found by coring to the bottom of the public well on the south­ west corner of Insula I.1 (Room 102 of I.1.1/10; see Fig. 10.17).6 The trenches along the frontage of Insula I.1 also showed a stepping-­down of lava levels, although this could not clearly be correlated to Insula VIII.7; their relative depths are also 6  The coring of the well in (later) Room 102 of I.1.1 (see Phase 3a) was undertaken on the Project’s behalf by Giovanni Di Maio.

made difficult by the quarrying activities made into them dur­ ing antiquity. Even so, and thus in relative terms, the highest level of lava was in Trench 56000 (SUs 56034, 56046), the next level in Trenches 52000 (SU 52097, 52129) and 55000 (SU 55104), while lava was not reached by the very deep excavations in Trenches 54000 and 50000. Quarrying for lava had an even more substantial effect on the local topography beyond the study area. The southern front of the relatively higher lava flow on which the Triangular Forum is situated probably had a series of rounded steps down to a level similar to that of the lava in the vicinity of the Porta Stabia. This was cut back to give the vertical-­faced lava edifice which defines the limit of the town. The northeast corner of the Large Theatre was cut into the eastern side of this lava flow, possibly utilizing an earlier quarry. To the east of Insula I.1, the southern part of Insula I.5 was a large quarry for lava which was never entirely filled.7

The Mercato ash Where the lava had not been disturbed, the crumbly or degraded surface of the lava was sealed by a layer of yellow sandy silt to silt volcanic ash with many white pumice lapilli up to 15mm, occasionally more (Fig. 7.06). This deposit was described in detail in eight trenches but was noted in most

7  Brun 2008; Brun et al. 2010.

94  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 7.05  The location of excavated trenches across Insulae VIII.7, I.1, and the Porta Stabia.

The Ge omor ph olo gy an d T opo g r a ph y o f t h e A re a o f t h e P o rta Sta b i a E xcavat ions  ·   95

Fig. 7.06  The typical geological sequence (as encountered here in Trench 51000) of lava (SU 51131) beneath the yellow Mercato ash (with white lapilli at the top; SU 51125), and the brown prehistoric paleosol/ash above (also SU 51125). (scale = 50 cm).

trenches which reached an appropriate depth. It has generally been assumed to be the air-­fall product of the Mercato erup­ tion of Vesuvius, a major explosive event which occurred around 7,000–6,700 bce.8 It can be observed at depth through­ out Pompeii and the surrounding countryside. Chemical analysis of this ash from Scafati gave an attribution to the Mercato eruption.9 Yellow volcanic ash with white lapilli at House  V.1.13 was also attributed chemically to the Mercato eruption but apparently similar material at the Republican Baths did not show the appropriate chemistry.10 Although chemical analysis of the ash was not undertaken for the Porta Stabia excavations, it is thought likely that it too was from the Mercato eruption. The greatest thickness of Mercato ash seen on the excava­ tion was 0.95 m recorded in the side of an unfinished well in Trench 55000 (Room 120 of I.1.3–5; see Phase 4a and Figs. 11.13–15) but its depth was very variable both as a result of the uneven level of the lava and subsequent erosion. Other 8  Rolandi et al. 1993; Civetta et al. 1998, 12; Robinson 2008, 132. 9  Vogel et al. 2016.    10  Robinson 2008, 125–6; Kent 2020.

deeper deposits of Mercato ash were 0.50 m in Trench 51000 (SU 51125, 51134), in both cases truncated by human activity. The exposure in Trench 51000 had a band within it 0.04 m thick with a higher concentration of lapilli, some up to 20 mm across (SU 51125). Several of the sequences showed a layer with a higher concentration of larger lapilli. The effect of the deposition of Mercato ash would have been to smooth off the rugged topography and rough surface of the lava. Soil formation would also have been greatly fa­cili­ tated. Until the establishment of continuous vegetation cover, however, the deposit would have been very vulnerable to ero­ sion. The underlying laval topography would probably have concentrated rainwater runoff along the line of the via Stabiana. It is even possible that the elevation and slope along the valley bottom were determined by a series of lava nick points, although with the lack of excavation beneath the cur­ rent road surface this could not be confirmed. The Mercato ash was quarried as a building material over much of Pompeii; indeed the first road surface of the via Stabiana was a thin layer of Mercato ash (see Phase 1a, Chapter 8). Later, this ash and the prehistoric paleosol above it were greatly valued for their pozzolanic properties. When mixed with lime and water, the silica of the fine particles of volcanic glass in it react to give a cement, the “earth mortar” of Pompeii.11 Unlike lime mortar, this mixture is relatively quick-­ setting, hard, and will set under water. Pozzolana is perhaps most famous as the basis for Roman concrete, such as the unsupported domes of the “temples” at Baia and the Pantheon in Rome. However, it can also be poured for foundations and floors, and used for cementing together stonework. Indeed, it was the copious use of pozzolanic mortar which enabled the large-­scale construction of lava incertum walls on the site in the second century bce. It tended to be extracted from pits, but the study area was not so extensively quarried as some parts of Pompeii and there was not the topo­graph­ic change on the scale of that caused by the lava quarries.

Colluviation and soil development A brown sandy silt soil with the occasional pumice lapillo developed from the Mercato ash as a result of weathering and biogenic soil formation processes. Air fall of ash from the numerous Third Epoch Eruptions of the Campi Flegrei is likely to have contributed to the prehistoric soil.12 However, colluvial slope processes also resulted in much movement and in places accumulation of sediment, as well as delaying soil maturation. The greatest depth of soil was recorded in Trench 54000 where there was 1.78 m of material above the Mercato ash and beneath an archaic road surface (Fig. 7.07). There were 11  Blezard 1988; Massazza 1988, 471–8, 487–92. 12  Kent 2020; Vogel et al. 2016.

96  ·  the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 7.07  Accumulation of colluvial soil in Trench 54000 (within later Room 106 of I.1.2). (scale = 50 cm)

two darker bands within this sequence, one 0.31 m thick immediately above the Mercato ash, the other 0.20 m thick towards the top of the sequence. They possibly represented more stable episodes when soil formation was able to proceed further. A second deep soil sequence was recorded in Trench 24000 where 0.97 m of brown sandy silt with some brown/ buff and gray grit underlay the urban deposits and was above the Mercato ash. This sequence did not appear as weathered as that in Trench 54000. Other deeper deposits of the soil included 0.57 m in Trench 25000 and at least 1.38 m in Trench 50000. However, where the Mercato ash survived to a greater height in relation to the surrounding topography, the accumulation was less or there was erosion instead of accumulation. For example in Trench 55000 the exposure in the side of the unfinished well, mentioned above, showed only 0.25 m of soil and in Trench 28000, where the top of the Mercato ash has its greatest absolute height in the excavated area, any ancient soil has now been lost. The effect of the soil movement would have been further to smooth out the topography such that in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 it was reduced to a general southerly slope with the small valley on the line of the via Stabiana dividing what were to

become the two insulae. It must be stressed that the transport of soil was through the process of colluviation whereby a slurry of storm water with the full size-­range of soil particles moves down a slope. There was no evidence for soil particles being taken fully into suspension by water, which would have resulted in the sorting of grain sizes. Similar soil sequences have been exposed elsewhere in Pompeii. The deepest so far seen was in the side of an unlined well in the kitchen of House V.1.13 where 1.7 m of soil overlay the Mercato ash.13 Holocene colluviation is often associated with agriculture and prehistoric pottery has been found in the sequences above the Mercato ash and especially in Regio V.14 The sequence from the garden of V.5.3, the House of the Gladiators, comprised 0.8 m of colluvial soil above the pre­ sumed Mercato deposit and below gray volcanic ash from one of the AP (Ante-­Plinian) eruptions of Vesuvius, probably AP3. Pottery was found throughout the sequence ranging from Serra d’Alto sherds of the middle Neolithic (4,700–4,300 bce) through the middle Bronze Age of the Appenninico (1,500– 1,350 bce) to limited material that was possibly younger. Artifacts were, however, absent from the equivalent soil sequences of the Porta Stabia excavations. This was possibly a reflection of the distance of the site from a likely prehistoric settlement in Regio V but there is a very low concentration of prehistoric pottery in the equivalent soil elsewhere in Pompeii. Although a very few residual impasto sherds were found in the archaeological contexts of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, there is no reason to believe any is earlier than Archaic. Another feature that was lacking from the prehistoric soil sequence was that it was not sealed by the gray ash of an AP eruption. This deposit is very extensive in Pompeii although it is absent from parts of Regio VI, 1–2.15 It is possible that the flow of this ash did not reach Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 but, given the relatively steep slope of this point of Pompeii, it could have been lost to erosion. Recent excavations at the Stabian Baths found a thin layer of the gray ash in the western half of the palaestra but it was not present immediately to the west of the via Stabiana. The gritty component to the colluvial soil sequence in Trench 24000 could have been the result of some incorporation of the gray ash. The valley of the via Stabiana perhaps served as a natural drainage feature for part of the lava plateau of Pompeii although there was no evidence from the excavations for any surface flow of water pre-­dating the town. Once there were compact roads and roofed buildings, there would have been more potential for surface water accumulation during rain­ storms, indeed runoff sediments were encountered related to the early surfaces of the via Stabiana.

13  Robinson 2008, 125–6.    14  Robinson 2011, 20–5. 15  Robinson 2011, 23.

The Ge omor ph olo gy an d T opo g r a ph y o f t h e A re a o f t h e P o rta Sta b i a E xcavat ions  ·   97 Consideration ought to be given to the claim by Marturano et al. that, at the Insula of the Casti Amanti at Pompeii, the Mercato ash and at least some of the material above it were shallow-­water marine sediments which were subsequently raised above sea level by a local uplift event.16 Since the Insula of the Casti Amanti is at a higher altitude than the Porta Stabia, this would imply that the equivalent contexts in the study area were also marine. In a later paper, microfossil evi­ dence was presented from a series of cores into the sediments on the north side of the Sarno coastal plain from the modern coast to the edge of the Pompeii escarpment.17 Detailed ana­ lysis of the foraminifera and ostracods from them showed that there was a late Pleistocene to early Holocene gradual rise in relative sea level starting 15,000 years ago and continuing until 9,000 years ago resulting in a marine incursion extending inland beyond Scafati. After 7,000 year ago, the younger marine sediments emerged from the sea and began to experience non-­ marine erosional processes. Marturano et al. argued that this was the result of two processes, the absolute rise in sea level which occurred at the end of the last gla­ci­ation and seismic uplift of the Vesuvius complex. Initially the rate of sea level rise prevailed, but as this declined in the Holocene, it was insufficient to counter the uplift, so the sea retreated. Cinque also argued for a Holocene marine transgression then ­progradation of the lower part of the Sarno valley on the basis of geomorphological features such as marine erosion at the foot of the Pompeii lava plat­eau.18 Their argument that the marine transgression flooded the high ground of Pompeii was based on the rare presence of marine calcareous microfossils including the spines of Echinodermata (sea urchin) and fragments of marine mol­ lusk shell.19 However, the evidence was derived from cultural levels and, as the Porta Stabia excavations showed, remains of marine invertebrates including sea urchin spines and seashells were widespread in the archaeological contexts, where they had been derived from food processing. Their photograph captioned bryozoan fragment strongly resembles mamma­ 16  Marturano et al. 2009.   17  Marturano et al. 2011. 18  Cinque and Russo 1986; Cinque 1991.    19  Marturano et al. 2009.

lian cancellous bone tissue.20 No evidence was presented for Casti Amanti and none observed in the pre-­Archaic deposits at Porta Stabia that any of the sediments were water-­lain. Sea urchin and marine mollusk shells were absent from the pre-­ Archaic contexts at the Porta Stabia and the only items resem­ bling the tubes of serpulid worms (another find at Casti Amanti) were calcareous casts which had formed around small root holes. Although the Porta Stabia area was possibly very close to sea level in the Neolithic, the idea that the early sediments encountered were marine is therefore rejected. No evidence was found that the valley which became the via Stabiana was used as a major routeway prior to the estab­ lishment of the Archaic town at its full extent. There were not even signs of disturbance and trampling, as might be expected with the use of a trackway, let alone any Iron Age road sur­ face. Indeed, until bridgeworks and causeway construction had been undertaken, there would not necessarily have been an easy route along the coast to Stabia. The valley would have led to the coastal backswamp of the River Sarno.

Conclusions The underlying deposits of the study area follow the same sequence that has been observed elsewhere in Pompeii, with lava overlain by volcanic ash and ash-­ derived paleosol. Where they differ is that the lava is, in places, closer to the surface than in much of the city. This is because the site is on the sloping edge of the lava plateau. There were two conse­ quences of this: our site experienced large-­scale quarrying of readily accessible lava, but there were insufficient fine superficial deposits for there to have been much digging of pozzolana. No evidence was found of a human presence in the area prior to the foundation of the city. The topography of the valley of the via Stabiana influenced the layout of the street system of Pompeii and the newly created road became an important thoroughfare. This in turn facilitated the eco­ nomic developments on the site in the last two centuries before the eruption. 20  Marturano et al. 2009, fig. 6.6.

PART I I

c h a pt e r 8

Phase 1 The Earliest Structures and Surfaces (Sixth–­Third Centuries bce)

The first structural sequences in the Porta Stabia neighborhood consist of abbreviated sections of wall foundations in­corp­or­ at­ing the friable volcanic tuff known as pappamonte, a con­ struction style that marks the earliest identifiable stone architecture across the Pompeian plateau. The structures to which the foundations belonged had been destroyed almost entirely by later activity in the neighborhood, but the remains confirm that here, as elsewhere in the city, the original build­ ings followed similar alignments to those standing at the time of the eruption and were scattered along a network of early roads that would persist to form the backbone of the Roman-­ era grid.1 In the Porta Stabia area, the use of pappamonte construction stretched from the sixth to the late fourth or early third century bce, over Phases 1a and 1c, with an inter­ vening period of inactivity (Phase 1b). Throughout Phase 1, the road was made of packed volcanic earth: Mercato ash local to the area of the Porta Stabia in Phase 1a and gray ash that had been imported from elsewhere (possibly the north­ ern or eastern area of the city, where this material is preserved in natural volcanic sequences) in Phase 1c.

Phase 1a: structures in pappamonte alongside a series of earthen road surfaces Road surfaces in Mercato ash The earliest road surface in the Porta Stabia neighborhood ran down the same valley as the later via Stabiana, on much the same alignment (Fig. 8.01; Subphases 14.1, 52.1, 55.1a, 54.1). The road consisted of hard-­packed, redeposited Mercato ash with a matrix of yellow sandy silt containing white pumice lapilli (Fig. 8.02; see Chapter 7). Heavily disturbed by subse­ quent activities, the road was fragmentary and degraded, surviving in small patches that ranged between 0.2 to 10.0 cm thick. Excavations revealed it along the western extent of Insula I.1 in Trench 52000 (SU 52134, 80 × 80 cm), Trench 55000 (SU 55112, 20 × 70 cm), and in two areas of Trench 54000 (SU 54154, 1.00 × 1.00 m; and SU 54104, 1.00 × 1.50 m). A third 1  Avagliano 2018, 124; Holappa and Viitanen 2011. For the development and shape of the Pompeian street network, see Poehler 2017, 22–52.

segment in Trench 54000 (SU 54088) was exposed only in section. It also was uncovered in the passageway of the Porta Stabia itself (SU 14227/14232). This first phase of activity was contemporary with Pompeii’s earliest pappamonte fortifica­ tion wall, and the road probably led through a gate that was removed and replaced by later architecture (see Chapter 16). This road extended farther east than the Roman-­ era via Stabiana—­one excavated section (SU 54154), for example, ter­ minated 3.25 m east of the Phase 5a paving—­but given that no sections were identified to the west under Insula VIII.7, its original width cannot be determined. From the recovered segments, we can reconstruct the road’s course, at least in approximation. In Trench 52000, a possible wheel rut was detected (SU 52138, 10 × 70 cm and 10–15 cm deep; see Fig. 8.02) that ran north–­south, suggesting an alignment that differed slightly from the via Stabiana’s pre­ sent northwest–­southeast course.2 Coarse water-­washed sand filled the rut (SU 52137) and topped the surface inside the pas­ sageway of the Porta Stabia (SU 14231). Similar material ­covered surfaces and filled ruts in later sequences, including above the exposed Roman-­period pavers. The road followed the north–­south downward slope of this neighborhood’s natural topography. At the north, in Trench 52000, it reached an elevation of 9.37 masl; 1 m south, in Trench 55000, its elevation was slightly lower, at 9.26 masl; far­ ther south, in Trench 54000, it had descended to 8.69 masl, an approximately 3.6 percent grade (slightly gentler than the c. 5.3 percent grade for the later paved road). Within the area of the gate itself, its elevation dropped quickly from 6.54 masl at its northernmost exposed point to 5.39 masl at its south­ ernmost, a little more than 20 m away.

2  That the early road followed a more properly north–­south alignment than the later is supported by the orthogonal alignment of the Porta Stabia itself, which contrasts with the northwest–­southeast alignment of the final via Stabiana (see Chapter 16). Similar ruts worn into the early roads have been identified elsewhere in Pompeii. Excavations north of V.1.13, beneath the Vicolo delle Nozze d’Argento, for example, uncovered an unpaved road that showed evidence of ruts (Nilsson 2008, fig. 5). This road was the earliest ­surface discovered in that area; it sealed a much earlier deposit that contained Palma Campania pottery sherds from the Early Bronze Age.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0008

102  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 8.01  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 1a.

ph a se 1: T h e E a rl i e st St ruct ure s a n d Sur fac es   ·   103

Fig. 8.02  The Phase 1a road surface, with possible wheel rut, in Trench 52000 under (later) I.1.6–9.

In all areas excavated, this early road lay directly atop the natural paleosol that developed from the Mercato ashfall (SUs 52120, 54071, 54116, 55083, 55138; see Chapter 7). The few re­covered artifacts from these underlying SUs, all small frag­ ments of unidentifiable pottery and bone splinters, likely became incorporated into this deposit as a result of con­tam­ in­ation from later phases or runoff from other areas of the city. To the south, in the area of the gate, excavations did not continue below the early surface. Notably, a continuation of this Phase 1a Mercato ash ­surface might have been uncovered recently along the via Stabiana north of the area of our excavations. In May of 2011, Catello Imperatore, on behalf of the Parco Archeologico di Pompei, opened a trench along the via Stabiana opposite Insula  I.4. A sequence of roads was detected, the lowest of which consisted of compacted Mercato ash, yellow with white lapilli inclusions.3 Imperatore’s findings support our interpretation that the Mercato ash surface represents an early iteration of the via Stabiana. Based on diagnostic ma­ter­ ial from within the deposit, he dated the road to the late sixth century bce. No diagnostic materials, however, were re­covered from the deposits in our excavations.

54.1). Although later activities largely destroyed the building, two fragmentary stretches of wall foundation indicate its approximate location (Fig.  8.03). Carefully cut blocks of pappamonte comprised the foundations. The longer of the two segments consisted of three blocks set end to end and running northwest–­southeast (Fig. 8.04; SU 54122). The segment followed a similar alignment to the latest plan of the insula and was preserved to a length of c. 2.00 m. Each block ori­g in­ al­ly measured c. 0.36 m wide × 0.75 m long × 0.40 m high. Later construction, including a tank built in Phase 2 (see Fig. 9.07; SU 54134), cut the southernmost block and obscured

The earliest structures At least one structure can be assigned to this phase, identified in Insula I.1 during the excavation of Trench 54000 (Subphase 3  Catello Imperatore, pers. comm.

Fig. 8.03  Location of the pappamonte foundations of a Phase 1a building in the southern area of (later) Insula I.1.

104  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 8.04  The pappamonte foundations in Trench 54000 (SU 54121); Room 106 of (later) I.1.2.

the wall’s route farther south. The second stretch (SU 54092) was found to the northeast of the first and likely ran perpen­ dicular to it. It was significantly more fragmentary, consisting of a single block that had been cut by later construction on both its western and northern sides; it was preserved to only 0.44 × 0.17 m, although it seemed to retain its full height at 0.41 m. The construction techniques employed in the two stretches suggest that the walls belonged to the same structure. The blocks of the longer northwest–­southeast stretch were set hard against the eastern edge of a squared construction trench (SU 54121) that neatly cut the Mercato road surface (SU 54154). The trench was nearly double the width of the blocks themselves, 0.66 m wide, and had been cut to a depth of 0.14 m (Fig. 8.05). It was filled with a deposit of brown silty sand (SU 54148) that contained many off-­cut chips of pappamonte, the result of stone working. The construction of the shorter stretch to the north mirrored that of the longer. A wide trench (SU 54099) was dug, into which the block was set, and then filled with brown silty sand (SU 54089) containing off-­cut chips of pappamonte. Interestingly, attached to the block was a hard yellow material, possibly pozzolana. A similar material was found clinging to pappamonte blocks uncovered in recent excavations at V.3.5 (the House of the Gladiators), where the excavators interpreted it as a part of the wall’s superstructure.4 The two stretches of pappamonte foundation un­covered in 4  Esposito 2005, 156–66; 2008, 71–80 (fig. 8 for a distribution map of ­pappamonte found in Pompeii).

our excavation likely joined to form a corner on the north­ eastern side of Trench 54000. The longer foundation appears to represent the facade line of this earliest architec­ tural phase of the neighborhood, and the shorter one a related perpendicular wall. The road sloped away from the pappamonte blocks, dropping c. 20 cm from the east, where it was cut by the foundation trench, to the west, where we  encountered its lowest point in a section opened through the wall of a later fish-­salting vat (Fish-­Salting Vat 6 of Phase 4a). The slope could represent wear to the road, with the center more degraded than the edges, but alterna­ tively might have been intentional, designed to channel water away from this and any other structures erected alongside it. We recovered no diagnostic materials from the fills of the construction trenches. Eleven small coarseware and cook­ ware sherds, as well as one chicken and one sheep/goat bone derived from the longer, northwest–­southeast stretch (SU 54148); finds from the more fragmentary stretch to the north­ east consisted of a small nugget of bronze (BR54-­23), a few fragmentary animal bones, and several ceramic sherds, includ­ ing two joining fragments of a cookware vessel and a single piece of bucchero (SU 54089). The bucchero sherd could sug­ gest an early date for the construction, but bucchero was pro­ duced and used over a range of several centuries, and a single piece might be residual. Although the finds assemblage could not clarify this early structure’s chronology, the soil composition of the construction

ph a se 1: T h e E a rl i e st St ruct ure s a n d Sur fac es   ·   105

Fig. 8.05  Section view of the construction trench for the pappamonte foundations in Trench 54000; Room 106 of (later) I.1.2.

trenches supports an early date. Pompeii in the fourth century bce underwent what has been described as a “limestone period,” when Sarno “limestone,” presumably imported by boat along the Sarno River from the foothills of Monte di Sarno, was introduced for the fortifications and quickly exploded in popularity among domestic buildings.5 Despite its common identification as limestone, this material is in fact a highly friable freshwater tuff. When worked, small yet distinctive particles of this tuff scatter widely. Indeed, inclusions of Sarno limestone are apparent throughout Pompeii’s soils from the fourth century bce throughout the rest of the city’s history. It is notable, therefore, that no such inclusions were evident in the soil recovered from the Phase 1a construction trenches, nor from the Mercato surface. This observation strongly suggests a pre-­fourth century bce date for Phase 1a. Based on the material Imperatore recovered within the Mercato surface excavated alongside Insula  I.4, a date in the sixth century seems most likely. The widespread introduction of buildings with foundations in pappamonte in the same century provides further support, as does the construction of Pompeii’s first  defensive wall—­built entirely in pappamonte—­at the same time.6 Farther south, a single pappamonte block (SU 57158) found in Trench 57000 also belonged to Phase 1a (Subphase 57.1). The block overlay natural and redeposited natural soils formed 5  On the use of Sarno limestone in the Pompeian fortifications at this time, see Van der Graaff 2019; Chapter 16. Also Descoeudres 2007, 13. 6  De Caro 1985, 80–90.

from the Mercato ash (SUs 57169, 57174). Later construction activities removed all traces of a construction trench. Judging from what was exposed, the block’s dimensions matched those found to the north, being 0.35 m wide and 0.40 m high. Because a later wall (WCU 1107 of Phase 5b) covered it to the south, we could not determine its full length. Although the pappamonte block was oriented northwest–­southeast, it did not run parallel to the blocks in 54000, and so might have represented the foundation of a different structure or a solitary block in a secondary deposit. On the western side of the via Stabiana, two pappamonte blocks (SUs 17076, 17077) potentially reveal incipient building activity west of the Phase 1a Mercato ash road (Subphase 17.1a). They were situated farther from the early road than the structures to the east, having been uncovered in the north­ eastern corner of Trench 17000 (Fig. 8.06; see also Fig. 8.01). They sat atop a natural paleosol and were oriented northeast–­ southwest, again following the same alignment as the later insula. The eastern block was exposed in full; its dimensions were quite similar to those included in the longer foundation recovered in Trench 54000, c 0.50 × 0.80 × 0.40 m. The west­ ern block had matching dimensions where exposed, but it ran beneath a later wall (WCU 172 of Phase 3a) to the west, obscuring its full length. Later construction events further damaged the context in which the blocks had been set. To the north, a later foundation (for WCU 072, of Phase 3b) was built against the blocks; to the south, a tank (SU 17078, of Phase 2; see Fig.  9.04) was cut into the paleosol below them; while various construction events to the east removed any further

106  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 8.06  The two pappamonte blocks in the northeast corner (right of photo) of Room 37 in (later) VIII.7.7–8.

material contemporary with them. Because of these later interventions, we were unable to identify any associated construction trench. Nevertheless, their size and shape match those incorporated into the Phase 1a structure found to the east of the via Stabiana in Trench 54000, and they might have been incorporated into a building constructed in the same way. If this were the case, the blocks probably were set against the southern side of a wide construction trench that extended north under the later wall (WCU 072, of Phase 3b). Notably, these pappamonte blocks were quite different in appearance from those recovered in Phase 1c contexts, which were smaller and less carefully shaped, possibly having been reused from earlier structures (see below).

Phase 1b: the fifth-­century bce “hiatus” in building activity During the fifth century bce, the data indicates a pause in con­ struction and occupation in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia, with a concomitant period of abandonment or at least neglect. We identified no structural features arising from this period. Recovered contexts were limited to several pits that shared the features of tree-­throw holes, suggesting a zone that was more overgrown than in the previous Phase 1a (Subphases 50.1a, 24.1a).7 Tree-­throw holes form when a tree falls, pulling up its root ball and forming an irregular pit, into   For tree-throw holes, see Robinson 1992.

7

which layers of material gradually accumulate. These layers often include sand and grit, washed in by moving water. One such tree-­throw hole was uncovered on the southwestern side of Insula I.1. Our removal of the floor of a later fish-­salting vat (Fish-­Salting Vat 5) revealed a pit immediately below (SU 50094), which cut the natural paleosol. The pit was analyzed in section; it was 69 cm deep, c. 65 cm in diameter, and of an irregular shape with sides that were undercut in places (Fig.  8.07). It was filled with yellow-­brown sandy silt with some bands of water-­washed sand and grit (SU 50093). The only finds were some nondiagnostic fragments of coarseware pottery, likely to be no earlier than the sixth century bce. The pit must have pre-­dated the fourth–­third century bce, since a road surface of that period overlay it (see Phase 1c, below). The pit, therefore, might represent the location of a tree that had become established during a period of neglect before falling. Two additional pits, excavated under Insula VIII.7, might also have been created by falling trees (SUs 24067, 24068). The pits cut through redeposited and natural paleosols (SUs 24059, 24060, 24089), and the fills of both included bands of water-­washed sand (SUs 24065, 24066). One of the pits had been heavily cut away by later activity, making impossible any reconstruction of its original dimensions (SU 24067), and the other was recognized only in section (SU 24068). It  is possible that some quarrying of the natural lava ­bedrock preceded the development of these pits (Quarry Area 1).

ph a se 1: T h e E a rl i e st St ruct ure s a n d Sur fac es   ·   107

Fig. 8.07  The tree-­throw pit (SU 50094) in Trench 50000; viewed from the west. (scale = 50 cm).

Phase 1c: the resumption of building activity Road surfaces in gray ash The fourth-­century bce revitalization of the area was marked by a new road overlying the earlier Mercato ash road (Subphases 10.1, 14.2, 24.1b, 27.1, 29.1, 50.1b, 51.1, 52.2, 54.2, 55.1b, 56.1) (Fig. 8.08). It was made of hard-­packed gray volcanic ash from an AP (Ante-­Plinian) eruption of Vesuvius (Fig.  8.09). This ash was not encountered at the Porta Stabia as a natural deposit and was imported, perhaps from the northern or east­ ern area of the city, where it is abundant (see Chapter  7).8 Remnants of the road were found in all six trenches located along the frontage of Insula  I.1—50000, 51000, 52000, 54000, 55000, and 56000, as well as under the eastern sidewalk leading through the passageway of the Porta Stabia itself (excavated in trenches 10000 and 14000). Across the via Stabiana, along the frontage of Insula VIII.7, remnants of the same or a simi­ lar surface were found in three trenches: 24000, 27000, and 29000. Almost everywhere it was encountered, the gray ash surface had multiple layers, suggesting a long period of patch­ ing, repair, and resurfacing. The most complete sequence of the gray ash surface was revealed in Trench 54000, seen in section after cutting through the wall of a later vat (Fish-­Salting Vat 6 of Phase 4a) (Fig. 8.10). Overlying the earlier surface of Mercato ash (SU 54088 of 8

  See also Robinson 2011.

Phase 1a) was 6 cm of hard-­packed gray sandy silt containing gray volcanic grit (SU 54165, elev. 8.75 masl). Topping that layer was 2–3 cm of water-­sorted gray volcanic grit (SU 54164, elev. 8.78 masl) and similar-­sized particles of Sarno limestone and red tile, likely a runoff deposit from water movement along the road. The grit had been sealed by a second layer of compacted gray volcanic ash (SU 54163, elev. 8.87 masl), pre­ served to 9 cm thick, above which was 11 cm of yellow-­brown sandy silt (SU 54162, elev. 8.98 masl), apparently redeposited Mercato ash, with some white pumice lapilli up to 0.8 cm across and Sarno limestone rubble up to 10 cm.9 This material was unconsolidated and perhaps related to construction or leveling activity. A third layer of compacted gray volcanic ash 4 cm thick (SU 54087, elev. 9.02 masl) covered it. That layer was sealed by a final surface preserved to c. 15 cm thick, which consisted of the same hard gray volcanic sandy silt with grit inclusions (SU 54086, elev. 9.20 masl). Within and overlaying the uppermost surface were light-­ colored, water-­ worn limestone cobbles (possibly travertine) measuring up to 8 cm across. They were probably sourced from the Sarno river or coast and added to the ash matrix to create a more durable paving. An additional 2–3 cm of water-­washed grit topped this cobblestone surface (SU 54161). The sequence suggests that the road had a long uselife and required occasional re­sur­ facing, accomplished through the reapplication and repacking 9   Although roads of Mercato ash were hallmarks of Phase 1a, this material would remain valuable for construction projects in the neighborhood up to the eruption of Vesuvius (see Chapter 19.8).

108  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 8.08  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 1c.

ph a se 1: T h e E a rl i e st St ruct ure s a n d Sur fac es   ·   109

Fig. 8.09  The hard-­packed gray volcanic ash road (of Phase 1c) overlying the earlier Mercato ash road (from Phase 1a); Room 118 of (later) I.1.3–5.

Fig. 8.10  Section of sequence of gray ash road revealed in Trench 54000; Room 106 of (later) I.1.2. (scale = 50 cm).

of gray ash directly over any earlier surface and accumulated sandy runoff. At least once, however, a leveling fill of Mercato ash, widely available in the area of the Porta Stabia, was used as a preparation. Also in Trench 54000, the gray ash surface appeared in a small window trench (c. 80 × 70 cm) excavated to the south­ east of the later tank that revealed the well-­defined sequence described just above (Fish-­Salting Vat 6). Here, four distinct layers of hard gray ash sealed the Phase 1a Mercato ash sur­ face (Fig. 8.11; SU 54104). The lowest layer was medium gray with small inclusions of volcanic grit up to 0.5 cm (SU 54168); the next was darker, and contained larger inclusions of gray to purple-­g ray lava fragments up to 1.5 cm (SU 54167); while the third layer was pale gray, and topped by a deposit of water-­washed sandy grit with micro-­inclusions of gray and black volcanic material, Sarno limestone, and a few red terra­cotta particles (surface: SU 54091; grit: SU 54166). The uppermost surface (SU 54058; elev. 8.99 to 9.05 masl) was a continuation of the gray ash and cobblestone road observed in the tank section (SU 54086) (Fig. 8.12; see also Fig. 9.07). Here again a layer of water-­sorted dark gray coarse sand and grit covered the cobblestone surface (SU 54055). Many loose cobbles were recovered from within this runoff deposit and from the Phase 4a construction fill above it (SU  54043). The loose cobbles suggest the degradation of the road during its uselife as well as its destruction by later interventions in the area. Given that the gray ash surface was revealed in such small areas of Trench 54000—a section and a window—­it is difficult

110  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 8.11  Section of gray ash surface in window trench southeast of later Fish-­Salting Vat 6; Room 106 of (later) I.1.2. (scale = 50 cm).

to determine whether the resurfacings were limited repairs, such as to potholes, or represent broader roadwork projects. Further evidence for regular resurfacings emerged elsewhere in the insula. In Trench 50000, a portion of gray ash surface (SU 50060; elev. 8.29 masl) filled the area of an 80 × 80 cm sondage opened through the floor of a later vat (Fish-­Salting Vat 5). South of the vat was a patch of the same material (SU 50100; elev. 8.31 masl), heavily cut by later activity; it overlay an additional layer of hard-­packed gray ash (SU 50114; elev. 8.29 masl). Most of the few sherds that came from these deposits were nondiagnostic, but an etched basal fragment of a buccheroid vessel—­dated to the late fourth or early third century bce—­was recovered from SU 50100. Additional evidence for patching or resurfacing of the Phase 1c road emerged in the southern side of Trench 52000. A gray ash surface (SU 52106; elev. 9.49 to 9.35 masl) with a possible wheel rut topped the Phase 1a Mercato ash surface (SU 52134); here the surface had received a stabilizing subsur­ face comprised of crushed fragments of Sarno limestone (SU 52136). Overlying the surface was a later stratum of similar, but somewhat darker, hard-­packed gray ash material

(SU 52027; elev. 9.52 to 9.45 masl). Neither surface contained finds. Elsewhere, multiple layers of the gray ash surface were not as apparent. Heavily compacted gray ash deposits were encountered to the north (SU 51122; elev. 9.04 masl) and south (SU 51147; elev. 8.92 masl) of Trench 51000. The northern portion measured c. 1.0 × 1.2 m, while the southern portion, preserved in an L-­shape around a later cistern (Cistern 8 of Phase 4b), measured c. 2.2 × 0.8 m. Subsequent construction events had greatly altered the width and depth of both sur­ faces; consequently, it survived to a thickness that ranged from only 2 to 6 cm. Three tesserae cut down from coarse­ ware ceramics (TE51-­2) and four small, nondiagnostic sherds were found within the northern surface; the southern surface was exposed but not excavated. The surface continued to the north, on the other side of (later) WCU 1063, where a 1.1 × 1.5 m portion was encoun­ tered in a window excavated in the southwestern corner of Trench 55000 (SU 55084; elev. 9.11 to 9.01 masl). A layer of water-­washed gray grit, ranging from 5 to 10 cm thick, topped it (SU 55117). Nondiagnostic finds including sherds, small pieces of tile, charcoal, marine shell, and fragmentary faunal remains were recovered from within the surface and the lev­ eling fill below; there were no finds within the runoff material above. To the northwest, another gray ash surface (SU 55102) filled a 1.25 m by 1.00 m window cut into the sidewalk, but the road itself was left unexcavated. Farther north, in Trench 56000, a Phase 1c surface com­ bined both gray ash and Mercato ash (SU 56123; elev. 10.00 to 9.93 masl). This deposit overlay lava bedrock (SU 56125), which possibly had been abraded by foot-­traffic (see further below). A vestige of a second gray ash surface (SU 56094; elev. 10.10 to 10.07 masl), measuring 20 × 10 cm and 3 cm thick, topped the first. Like the earlier of the two gray ash surfaces recovered in trench 52000 (SU 52106), it was stabilized with a subsurface (SU 56115) made of crushed Sarno limestone mixed with vol­ canic cruma. No artifacts were present. Though less evident on the western side of the later via Stabiana, gray ash surfaces were nevertheless recovered under Insula VIII.7 in three Trenches: 29000, 27000, and 24000. Whether they were part of the same road observed in the trenches to the east was unclear, but the gritty runoff material that topped many of the deposits supported the idea that they were part of one or more thoroughfares. In Trench 27000, a layer of compacted gray ash (SU 27077, 27098, 27099; elev. 11.50 masl) sealed the fill of a quarry in use earlier in Phase 1c (Quarry Area 8). Set within the deposit were water-­worn cobbles of hard, light-­colored limestone up to 6 cm in diam­ eter. The cobbles were preserved in situ only in a patch on the south side of the exposed surface. They were topped by a deposit of up to 15 cm of fine and coarse gray gritty runoff material (SUs 27071, 27073, 27111, 27114). As elsewhere, loose cobbles were found within the runoff, suggesting degradation

ph a se 1: T h e E a rl i e st St ruct ure s a n d Sur fac es   ·   111

Fig. 8.12  The gray ash and cobblestone road (SU 54058) in Room 106 of (later) I.1.2. Shown from above (top) and in section (bottom).

112  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i of the road during the period of its use. Above were fills of Phases 3a and 3b that were associated with the construction of the property immediately to the south and also contained many cobbles, likely disturbed during construction (see Chapter 10). A cobblestone surface also was recovered in Trench 29000. Here, a layer of consolidated gray volcanic ash with dark gray volcanic grit c. 8 cm deep (SU 29051; elev. 10.32 to 10.19 masl) covered the lava bedrock, the uppermost layer of which had been quarried away (see below). Several diagnostic sherds emerged from the gray ash, including a Campanian black gloss cup rim (29051-­F1) from the early third century bce. Above the surface was a layer of runoff material consisting of a further 12 cm of water-­sorted black lava and Sarno limestone grit with occasional ceramic particles. That deposit was topped by a thick, c. 30–40 cm, leveling fill (SUs 29032, 29043, 29047) that consisted of unconsolidated dark gray sandy silt with cultural debris, very large redeposited lava stones (SUs 29037, 29045), and off-­cut pieces of quarried lava (from Quarry Area 4). As observed across the street in Trench 54000, the final deposit in the sequence was a consolidated gray ash surface (SU 29044), topped by hard, light-­colored limestone cobbles of c. 5–8 cm diameter (SU 29042; elev. 10.86 to 10.66 masl). Another sequence of gray ash surfaces could be detected in the ephemeral early deposits in Trench 24000. Above the natural and redeposited paleosols, which had possibly been cut by tree-­throw holes in Phase 1b (see above), was a gray ash deposit topped by dark, sandy grit (SU 24092; elev. 8.51 masl). The gray ash was not as compacted as in other areas, but the grit topping it was likely the same runoff seen elsewhere, sug­ gesting that the deposit was part of a road surface. Above was c. 23 cm of leveling fill made from uncompacted, mixed gray and Mercato ash (SUs 24062, 24091), which itself was topped by a better preserved and compacted gray ash surface (SUs 24036, 24057, 24090; elev. 9.15 to 8.93 masl). Farther south, the series of gray ash surfaces continued through the gate. In the fifth century bce, the earlier pappa­ monte fortification wall was replaced with the so-­ called Orthostate enceinte, the earliest phase for which gate archi­ tecture still exists at the Porta Stabia (see Chapter  16). The earliest gray ash surface associated with this gate (SU 14225; elev. 6.76 masl) was hard-­packed and laid down over a less con­ solidated fill of similar materials (SU 14226).10 Another gray ash surface was constructed above (SU 14223; elev. 6.91 masl), along with its own leveling fill featuring much rubble (SUs 10023, 14224); it was topped by a layer of coarse, water-­washed sand and grit (SU 14222). The final gray ash surface (SU 14220; elev. 7.15 masl) also had a rubbly construction fill (SU 14221). Because the gray ash road was patched and/or resurfaced many times throughout Phase 1c, no two deposits can be con­ nected as precisely contemporary. Indeed, we had difficulty 10   Some second-century bce pottery found in these deposits was intrusive; the deposits abutted a cut made for modern pipes.

even making confident associations between gray ash sur­ faces found in different areas of the same trench. For example, in Trench 54000, the gray ash sequence observed in section through the tank wall differed from that excavated in the win­ dow to the southeast, despite the two areas being located less than 1.5 m apart. Although the two sequences had similar elevations at top and bottom, the section revealed far more strata than were apparent in the sequence excavated in the southeast window. One potential exception to this observation was the gray ash surface topped with cobblestones, which appeared as the final surface in the sequence in both areas of Trench 54000, as well as in Trenches 27000 and 29000. Although the cobbles could represent isolated patching events, they are as likely to indicate a period in which the gray ash road was fully cobbled, presaging the later pavings of the via Stabiana. Like the Mercato ash surface before it, the gray ash road followed the natural topography of the neighborhood, descending from north to south. On the eastern side of the via Stabiana, the northernmost extent of the road (SUs 56123, 56094) was 10.10 masl at the north and descended to 9.93 masl at the south. The earlier gray ash surface in Trench 52000 descended from 9.49 to 9.35 masl (SU 52106) and from 9.11 to 8.92 masl in Trenches 55000 and 51000 (SUs 51122, 51147, 55084, 55102). Farther south, in Trench 54000, the cobblestone and gray ash surface that was the latest of the road sequence exca­ vated under Insula I.1 (SU 54058) was elevated between 9.05 to 8.99 masl; the earlier gray ash surface below, which could rep­ resent a continuation of that found to the north, was elevated at 8.89 masl (SU 54091). On the southern side of the insula, in Trench 50000, a gray ash surface was revealed at 8.29 masl (SUs 50060, 50114). Finally, in Trenches 10000 and 14000, exca­ vated within the gate itself, the uppermost gray ash road dropped from 7.84 masl at the northernmost point where it was encountered, to 7.15 masl at the southernmost. Whether the smaller number of gray ash surfaces found on the western side of the via Stabiana also constituted a road is unclear; nevertheless, the deposits did drop in elevation from north to south, echoing those found across the street. In Trench 27000 on the northern side of the insula, the earlier gray ash surface (SU 27144) was elevated at c. 11.02 masl; the later cobblestone surface at 11.50 masl. To the south, in Trench 29000, the earlier gray ash surface (SU 29051) was encoun­ tered at c. 10.32 masl in the north of the trench and 10.20 masl in the south, with the cobblestones surface (SU 29042) at c. 10.85 masl at the north and 10.66 masl at the south. To the south of the insula, in Trench 24000, the surfaces were much lower, with the earlier (SU 24092) elevated at 8.51 masl and the later (SUs 24036, 24057, 24090) at 9.15–8.93 masl. Although the road followed the natural landscape, we also recovered some evidence for human intervention intended to mitigate the steep slope formed by the natural paleosols. This was clearest in Insula VIII.7, where the earliest iterations of the road were placed directly on the lava bedrock, but where

ph a se 1: T h e E a rl i e st St ruct ure s a n d Sur fac es   ·   113 the final cobblestone surface sat atop a thick terracing fill. The trenches in Insula I.1 also showed evidence for terracing. In Trench 52000 and on the northern side of Trench 55000, the gray ash sat directly on the Phase 1a Mercato ash road surface. On the southern side (SU 55084) of Trench 55000, however, it overlay a layer of redeposited Mercato ash mixed with cultural material 0.50 m deep (SUs 55089, 55135). This deposit appears to have been used to level a depression in the natural layers within the central area of the insula. The natural ­paleosol formed from Mercato ash was encountered at 9.64 m on the northern side of Trench 55000 (SU 55083), but it dropped to 8.89 m to the south (SU 55138). The terracing fill was identified only on the southern side of the trench, and it continued south into Trench 51000 (terracing fill: SUs 51135, 51136, 51151). This fill contained occasional cultural artifacts, primarily coarseware, cookware, and amphora sherds, but also bucchero and black gloss, including one bowl dated to the third century bce (51136-­ F1). The unconsolidated layer of redeposited Mercato ash observed within the section in Trench 54000 (SU 54162), as well as that of mixed Mercato and gray ash in Trench 24000, might have served similarly to level earlier deposits for later phases of the road. If all of these gray ash surfaces represent a single road appearing east and west of the later via Stabiana, the thor­ oughfare of Phase 1c must have been significantly wider than the final iteration paved in basalt (of Phase 5a). In the trenches abutting the frontage of Insula I.1, the gray ash appeared up to 1.5 m east of the later facades (see Fig. 8.08). In Insula VIII.7, gray ash surfaces extended throughout the full width of Trenches 29000, 27000, and 24000, between 2.0 and 2.5 m west of the later buildings’ thresholds. Furthermore, the deposits continued into the western balks, leaving their full dimen­ sions unknown. The superimposed leveling fill supporting the uppermost cobblestone surfaces likewise appeared over the full extents of Trenches 27000 and 29000. The cobblestones themselves were recovered only on the eastern sides of both trenches, within a meter of their eastern balks, but each had been cut by later construction and so might have extended farther west originally. There is ample evidence, therefore, that a road of hard-­ packed gray volcanic ash ran below the later via Stabiana. Based on recovered diagnostic materials, it is best placed in the later fourth and early third centuries bce. The gray ash was an excellent choice for building roads since it could be compacted into an extremely hard and durable surface, and easily imported for regular repairs or resurfacings. Indeed, some of the vicoli of Pompeii were surfaced with this material in 79 ce. The cobblestones incorporated into at least some portions of the final phase of the road would have made it even more substantial; such cobblestone roads have been found in other third-­century bce contexts in Pompeii.11 They   See Poehler 2017, 61–2.

11

disappeared from road pavings in the second century bce but continued to be used in surfaces that experienced less wear; the sidewalk in front of Entrance  I.1.5, for example, was patched or surfaced with the same type of cobbles in the mid-­first century bce (Phase 4c). Furthermore, such cobbles appear in construction fills throughout Pompeii’s history, suggesting a widespread early use and later destruction of cobble­stone surfaces across the city. Although our excavations did not reveal any evidence for a seasonal stream in the valley of the via Stabiana, much water moved along the gray ash road.12 Both the surface top­og­ raphy and the relatively impermeable underlying lava would have concentrated much of the drainage of the Pompeii plat­eau in this area. Water-­sorted coarse sand and grit covered road surfaces on both sides of the via Stabiana, but the de­posits were thicker on the western side (as recovered in Trench 29000; they seem to have been cut away by later activity in Trench 27000), where they included coarser particles and showed stronger banding from repeated episodes of sedi­ mentation. The situation suggests that storm waters tended to flow along the western side of the road.

Traffic on lava bedrock The abraded volcanic bedrock (SU 56125) observed below a gray ash surface in Trench 56000 might indicate movement through this area in an early period of Phase 1c. The wear pattern, polished rather than pitted, differed from the natural weathering on other exposed portions of bedrock. We observed only a small area of this abrasion, measuring ap­proxi­mate­ly 1.5 × 0.8 m; subsequent quarrying activities had removed any continuation (Quarry Area 13). Like the gray ash surface, it too descended north–­south, from 9.989 masl to 9.749 masl. Additional polished abrasion was found on the lava bedrock that underlay gray ash deposits across the via Stabiana in Trench 29000 (SU 29053). It descended from 10.039 masl at its northern extent to 9.859 masl at its southern, closely matching the elevation of the lava across the street and indicating that the two might have been exposed contem­ poraneously. The wear likely indicates their incorporation into roads, with the polish resulting from traffic. Indeed, the water-­washed material typical of Pompeian road surfaces—5 cm of black volcanic sand to grit with particles of Sarno limestone—­topped the lava in Trench 29000.13 In the relative sequence, both surfaces were earlier than the gray ash road, which overlay them (gray ash road: SUs 56123, 29051). Nevertheless, the quarrying that predated the abrasion in 12   We found, for example, no evidence of marsh deposits with shells of hygrophilous to amphibious mollusks. 13   The use of in situ lava bedrock in roads is attested elsewhere in later contexts from Pompeii. Indeed, the Vicolo di Conciapelle, located immediately north of Insula I.1, included exposed lava bedrock without any overlying pav­ ing in 79 ce (see Poehler 2017, 55).

114  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i Trench 29000 (Quarry Area 4) suggests that they best belong in Phase 1c, since quarrying for lava appears to have arrived in the neighborhood only in the later parts of Phase 1 (see Chapter 19.8).

Structures of mixed material containing reused pappamonte The gray ash surface excavated in Trench 54000 partially ­covered the two southernmost pappamonte blocks that com­ prised the longer north–­south foundation course of Phase 1a (see Figs. 8.04, 8.05). The Phase 1a building, therefore, was not only out of use by Phase 1c, but at least portions of its superstructure had decayed or been removed. In Phase 1c new buildings rose up on either side of the gray ash road (Subphases 1.1, 16.1, 25.1, 55.1b). As in the preceding phase, these had been heavily damaged by later construction activity in the area of the Porta Stabia, and their presence was indicated only by poorly preserved and short lengths of wall or wall founda­ tion. All incorporated pappamonte, but their construction was distinct from the structures of Phase 1a. In contrast to the earlier structures, pappamonte was used alongside other materials; additionally, the stones were irregularly shaped, roughly worked, and smaller than the large, carefully cut blocks that had defined the remains of the preceding period. Such pappamonte stones were most likely reused, having been spoliated from the abandoned structures of Phase 1a. A Phase 1c wall foundation (SUs 55113, 55118) was uncovered on the southeastern side of Trench 55000, north of the Phase

1a structure that was excavated in Trench 54000. Later ac­tiv­ities had removed all but merely 50 cm (Fig. 8.13). With so little of the wall remaining, its orientation was difficult to determine, but it appeared to run north–­south. The foundation was composed of an irregularly shaped block of pappamonte (SU 55113) measuring 30 cm long, 11–23 cm wide, and 40 cm high. Its height matched that of the blocks used in the Phase 1a structure to the south, supporting the idea that the block had been cut down from materials spoliated from that or a similar structure. Surrounding the block were smaller stones of various materials (SU 55118), including Sarno limestone, lava, and tuff. These were unmortared and had partially ­collapsed to the east and west. Given the location of the gray ash surface in Trenches 51000 and 55000, the foundation in 55000 probably represents the frontage of a structure. Other structures from this phase appeared on the opposite side of the gray ash road, under later Insula VIII.7. Two walls in Trench 16000 shared the alignment of the final building here. A southern wall, underlying and sharing the same orien­ tation as (later) WCU 174, was indicated by three irregularly shaped pappamonte blocks (SU 16071) (Fig.  8.14). Between two of the blocks were several smaller pieces of Sarno limestone; a second course made up of lava stone and Sarno limestone topped the pappamonte (SU 16537). The foundation was unmortared and placed into a narrow cut in the natural ­paleosol formed from the Mercato ash. To the north, under (later) WCUs 080 and 163, two irregularly shaped pappamonte blocks were recovered, with smaller pieces of Sarno limestone and lava stone between (pappamonte blocks: SU 16086).

Fig. 8.13  Phase 1c wall (SUs 55113 and 55118) in Room 120 of (later) I.1.3–5, viewed from the south.

ph a se 1: T h e E a rl i e st St ruct ure s a n d Sur fac es   ·   115

Fig. 8.14  Phase 1c wall formed by three irregularly shaped pappamonte blocks (SU 16071); Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6.

The remains had been incorporated into the foundation for the later wall, which obscured what might have been original to the Phase 1c course, but they sat atop the same natural deposit as the southern wall (Fig. 8.15). The two walls dis­covered in Trench 16000 indicate a space of the same alignment and width as the later Room 15. Moreover, the southern wall (SUs 16071, 16537) might have extended some 6 m to the west; a block of lava tenera discovered in Trench 25000 (25 × 85 cm), excavated in Room 20, was aligned precisely with it (Subphase 25.1, SU 25067). To the west, the later walls did not follow the earlier as they did to the east, and the later WCU 028 was con­ structed to the north of the lava tenera block. A fragment of another structure incorporating pappa­ monte mixed with other materials was excavated in Trench 1000 (Subphase 1.1). A single pappamonte block (SU 1091) was uncovered in a small sondage on the southeastern side of the trench. It overlay the natural Mercato ash paleosol and was topped by several courses of smaller lava stones, all of which were unmortared (SU 1097) (Fig.  8.16). To its north was a hard-­packed surface (SU 1098), formed from the same gray ash as the Phase 1c road. This surface did not exist to the south of the wall. The series of deposits in Trench 1000 is unusual for several reasons. In particular, the wall followed an align­ ment that was entirely different from the later insula as well as from the other structures belonging to Phase 1c. This ex­ample was aligned northwest–­southeast, diagonal to the founda­ tions in Trenches 16000, 25000, and 55000. The surface to its north also was unusual. Given that it abutted the northern side of the wall, it does not seem to have been part of the gray

Fig. 8.15  One of the two irregularly shaped pappamonte blocks that had been Incorporated into the foundation of a later wall; Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6.

116  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 8.16  The single pappamonte block in the southeast corner of Room 1 in (later) VIII.7.1–4, topped by courses of small lava stones; viewed from the north.

ash road. Perhaps the surface represents a second road, with the wall in Trench 1000 part of a structure on its southern side. If so, the unusual alignment of the wall might be explained by its physical separation from the other Phase 1c structures by the potential road. Alternatively, the surface might not represent a road, a possibility that remains for all of the gray ash surfaces recovered under Insula VIII.7. Given that the remains of Phase 1c architecture were unbonded and in no cases preserved above two courses, they are best interpreted as stone foundations for walls in wood, mudbrick, and/or pisé that once rose above. As a whole, the buildings might have been of lower quality than the preced­ ing structures of Phase 1a; certainly less care was taken in the arrangement of their foundations.

Votive deposits associated with construction activities While little can be known of the shape and functions of the structures of Phase 1c, their construction yielded more de­fini­ tive evidence for ceremonies associated with their establish­ ment (Subphase 16.1, 55.1b; see Chapter  19.9). The most impressive example was found in Trench 16000. Alongside the Phase 1c wall at the southern side of the trench was a small, rectangular pit, cut into the same Mercato ash paleosol as the wall itself (Fig. 8.17; pit cut: SU 16079). The shallow pit ranged from 10 to 15 cm deep; the preserved area measured c. 40 cm north–­south, but it was truncated to the east (min. length being c. 42 cm) by the cutting of a later pit from above (Fig. 8.18). The pit contained a deposit that was burned in situ

(Ritual Context 11; pit fill: SUs 16080, 16081). The material consisted of organic remains, burned at a high temperature. Along with much wood charcoal, it contained carbonized bread, grapes, hazelnut shells, walnut shells, and cereal grains. Animal bones and shells were notably absent. These contents gave the deposit a specific character that was immediately distinct from the more common fills at the site and were strongly suggestive of ritual activity. The artifacts included in the pit further emphasized its spe­ cific activity. The pottery consisted almost entirely of black gloss dining ware, among which were a black gloss juglet and a two-­handled cup that were either complete or ritually ­broken and deposited with all their pieces (16080-­F1, 16080-­F3; Votive 28); the few missing sherds likely were extracted dur­ ing the cutting of the later pit. Also recovered was a black gloss salt cellar (16080-­F2; Votive 29) and a single coin (C16-­25; Votive 30) with a hole punched through its center. All of the black gloss dated to the early third century bce; the coin dates only approximately to the later fourth century bce.14 Such a high degree of completeness is rare in the ceramics recovered at the Porta Stabia. The location of the pit alongside a Phase 1c wall (SUs 16071, 16537), and not least the fact that it was cut into the same deposit as the wall, strongly suggest that it was

14   We thank Albert Ribera for consulting on this material for us. These included shapes associated with Morel 1512 a1; Morel 24137 c1; similar to Morel 4222 b1; similar to Morel 2227. Thanks also to Giacomo Pardini for his study of the coins.

ph a se 1: T h e E a rl i e st St ruct ure s a n d Sur fac es   ·   117

Fig. 8.17  Ritual pit cut in association with the pappamonte foundation (Ritual Context 11) in Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6; viewed from the north.

Fig. 8.18  Ritual pit (Ritual Context 11) in Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6 during excavation; viewed from the east.

cut and (ritually) filled as part of a ceremony that ac­com­pan­ied the foundation of the building.15 15   See Ciaraldi and Richardson 2000, 79–80 for similar ritual pits associated with the foundation of the House of the Vestals and House of the Wedding of Hercules.

Another, more modest, ritual deposit was associated with the construction of the Phase 1c wall located across the street, in Trench 55000 (Ritual Context 14). Immediately below the pappamonte stone (SU 55113) was a black gloss votive bowl (55113-­F1) of the fourth century bce that contained a single piece of wood charcoal (Votive 117). The cup was deposited

118  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i upright, and the stone sat directly above it with no intervening fill; its deposition seems to have occurred during the wall’s construction and not to have been a part of the surrounding terracing fill (terracing fill: SU 55139). This cup and its fill could represent ritual activity similar to that reconstructed for Trench 16000 (Ritual Context 11); that is, the burning and deposition of a votive offering along with the foundation of a structure.

Other activity: terracing Although prepared floor surfaces were not recoverable for the Phase 1c structures, there was some evidence for associated terracing—­similar to that carried out to mitigate the slope of the gray ash road (see above)—intended to level the slopes of the natural topography within and around buildings. In Trench 25000 the lava tenera block (SU 25067) topped a thin (c. 5 cm) fill of gray-­brown silt loam with Sarno limestone grit (leveling fill: SU 25078; elev: 9.96 masl). This material had been placed directly on top of the undisturbed paleosol; the level­ ing fill crushed organic material growing at the top of the paleosol, leaving a thin (c. 2 mm) iron pan (SU 25082) that was discernible in section below the lava tenera. The fill seems to have leveled undulations in the natural topography; it was probably thicker elsewhere, with the 5 cm depth here repre­ senting a shallow edge. Beyond the redeposited Mercato ash, which contained a few nondiagnostic sherds, the lava tenera block had been further stabilized with several tiles placed under its northeastern corner (SU 25081), perhaps to compen­ sate for slight irregularities in its shape. Potentially related to the terracing deposit in Trench 25000 was similar material uncovered to the north, in Trench 17000. Here, redeposited Mercato ash containing cultural material leveled natural deposits that dropped over a meter from north to south (leveling fill: SUs 17085, 17094, 17095, 17106). A number of ceramic sherds were recovered from the fill, including a black gloss cup base (17094-­F1) dated to the early third century bce. The fill was located south of the pappamonte blocks found in this trench and did not touch them (pappamonte: SUs 17076, 17077); a relative chronology for the two, therefore, could not be established. The fill most likely was put in place later than the pappamonte, considering that the construction style of the blocks closely resembled the wall foundations of Phase 1a and were distinct from those of Phase 1c.

Other activity: quarrying Trench 27000 (Phase 27.1) revealed extensive evidence for quarrying already in Phase 1c (Quarry Area 8). Below the gray ash road sequence recovered here, the solid lava bedrock had been cut to form a level ridge that descended towards the east (ridge elev. 10.827 masl). The higher, friable stone had

been entirely removed, likely for construction in the immediate area. Immediately above bedrock was a brown, silty layer that might represent a working surface associated with the quarrying activity or with the infilling of the quarry (SU 27144; elev. 11.02 masl). The deposit contained a number of artifacts, including a black gloss skyphos base dating to the fourth century bce and two buccheroid sherds. A fill above closed the quarry with a c. 50 cm thick layer of redeposited, unconsoli­ dated mixed Mercato and gray ash with inclusions of the fri­able natural lava that had been removed in the quarrying process (SUs 27074, 27115). The fill also included large, off-­cut pieces of quarried lava stone up to 40 cm diameter (SUs 27095, 27119). It was sealed by the gray ash road. Evidence for Phase 1c quarrying also emerged immediately below the gray ash road in Trench 29000 (Quarry Area 4). Here, the bedrock had been cut down to be nearly level across the entirety of the excavated area; it showed evidence for abrasion by traffic (see above) prior to the introduction of the gray ash road (SU 29053, elev. 10.024 masl). Quarrying also began in Insula I.1 already by this phase, particularly on the northern side, in the area of (later) Property  I.1.6–9. The abraded bedrock surface (SU 56125) indicates that here, too, the friable upper layers of the lava had been removed already by Phase 1c. Quarrying of the lava bedrock in this area, how­ ever, does not appear to have begun until Phase 4a (Quarry Area 13).

Conclusion The events and activities of Phase 1 covered a significant period of time during the early formation of the city, with Phase 1a, best dated to the sixth century bce; Phase 1b belong­ ing more or less to the fifth and earlier fourth centuries bce; and Phase 1c to approximately the late fourth and early third centuries bce. Thus, although they are collected here under a singular Phase, we ought not imagine some coherent, ­systematic development between each period and the next. What the phases have in common is the use of a type of construction in pappamonte that would not be adopted in any significant form in the phases that follow, an outcome that accords with evidence found elsewhere throughout Pompeii.16 Moreover, the structures of Phase 1 constituted a different built environment to what would come in the following phases. This is not to say that important developments did not occur during the time. Indeed, in this earliest period of activity we can identify shared techniques of construction with a collective use of local resources, the layout of a street system that would persist through centuries, and the establishment of civic infrastructure (the road as well as the gate) and cult 16   On the use of pappamonte at Pompeii, see Esposito, Kastenmeier, and Imperatore 2011; Avagliano 2018, 27–52.

ph a se 1: T h e E a rl i e st St ruct ure s a n d Sur fac es   ·   119 activity (the votive deposits). Drawn together with finds recovered across the city, the material speaks to the creation of a Pompeian urban form and a Pompeian civic identity already in this early stage of life at the site. The developments of Phase 1a—­represented by scattered buildings with foundations of carefully shaped pappamonte blocks placed alongside a consolidated road of Mercato ash—­ are in keeping with the current, even if still limited, under­ standing of Pompeii’s urban form in the sixth century bce. At this time, the city is thought to have been a largely open space of c. 66 ha, surrounded by a defensive wall in pappamonte and populated with dispersed structures.17 The alignment of both the road and structures supports the increasingly accepted idea that Pompeii’s street grid was established, at least in broad strokes, along with the first fortification wall.18 Beneath the latest-­phase via Stabiana, following the same nat­ ural topography, the Mercato ash road shared a similar, although more cardinal, alignment toward the original pap­ pamonte fortification wall and an early gate in the area of the later Porta Stabia (see Chapter  16). As revealed in Trench 54000, the road dipped away from the foundations of the Phase 1a building. If that slope was intentional, it could indi­ cate that the Mercato ash road was intended to channel storm water down the valley and away from adjacent structures; that is to say, that the road was constructed with the intention that buildings be erected alongside it.19 The architectural remains from Phase 1a are, unfortunately, too ephemeral to invite many conclusions about the build­ ings’ original forms. Elsewhere in Pompeii, pappamonte blocks generally were laid down in one of two ways: either lengthwise, with their shorter ends abutting (as at the Porta Stabia), or crosswise, with the longer sides abutting.20 In both cases, the blocks seem to have been used as foundations, arranged as a single course and supporting a less durable superstructure.21 The crosswise blocks, given that they would form a stronger foundation, are thought to have supported more substantial buildings or to have terraced the landscape (in some cases, they might have done both). The lengthwise blocks, meanwhile, would have made sturdy foundations for residences or other modest structures with walls in wood, mudbrick, or pisé.22 The structure(s) at the Porta Stabia likely were of this type; the yellow material—­possibly pozzolana—­on the northernmost block uncovered in Trench 54000 could  have been part of a superstructure. Although we can

say little of their original appearance or function, the ­presence of these buildings is meaningful, showing activity in this  area dating to the earliest period of urbanization at Pompeii. These activities of Phase 1a, however, led toward some kind of “hiatus” in construction, or what Poehler has termed a “regression,” in Phase 1b.23 What follows for much of the fifth century bce is a widely accepted but still not very well understood—­and necessarily so, given that it is reconstructed from a lack of evidence—­decline in settlement-­related ac­tiv­ ities.24 As well as a notable drop in the number of votives found among Pompeian sanctuaries around this time,25 most (but notably not all) of the subsoil excavations that reach these early levels across all parts of the city report some kind of cessation in building activity. For example, the House of the Gladiators (V.5.3) is known to have been abandoned in the fifth century bce,26 and excavations at Insula IX.3 recovered no trace of activities from this period.27 What has proved frus­ trating is the degree to which later disturbance has prevented the possibility of identifying any distinctive earthworm-­sorted soil horizon that would have developed over the remains of sixth-­century bce structures during a period of complete abandonment either at the Porta Stabia excavations or else­ where in Pompeii. Thus the evidence for the hiatus is very much dependent upon the lack of continuity of buildings and the relative chronology provided by artifacts. While the scale of decline itself is difficult to judge with any precision, still the balance of evidence points at least to a significant, city-­ wide decrease in urbanization. Its causes, however, remain uncertain. While some emphasis has been placed on regional political upheavals of the time, tied to Syracuse’s elimination of the Etruscan power dynamic across Campania, still we are short of any clear understanding. Thus everything from the scope of the regression to its causes and broader consequences remain one of the more significant mysteries in Pompeii’s history. Better understood are the developments of Phase 1c, even if this period of early fluorescence also demands more on­going investigation. Much of what we know hangs on the recovery of road surfaces rather than on the disconnected pieces of architecture that reappeared at this time; as Poehler has shown, the street systems give shape to the city at every stage of its development.28 The evidence for Phase 1c suggests a similar organization to Phase 1a, with a road of hard-­packed,

17   For a thorough, recent overview of Pompeii’s urban development, see Poehler 2017, 22–52. 18   Fulford and Wallace-Hadrill 1999, 105–12. 19   Alternatively, however, the slope might have resulted from wear and runoff. 20   Esposito 2008. 21   See the overview in Esposito, Kastenmeier, and Imperatore 2011. 22   Esposito, Kastenmeier, and Imperatore 2011.

  Poehler 2017, 27.  Esp. Avagliano 2018, 118–22; also Coarelli and Pesando 2011, 47–8; Esposito, Kastenmeier, and Imperatore 2011, 131–3. 25   De Caro 1986, 23–34; De Caro 1992b, 75. 26   Esposito 2008, 76; Esposito, Kastenmeier, and Imperatore 2011, 131–3. 27   On the excavations in IX.3, see Castren 2008; Holappa and Viitanen 2011. See also Avagliano 2018, 118–22 for a summary. 28   Poehler 2017, 22. 23

24

120  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i redeposited volcanic material leading towards a gate built into a fifth-­ century iteration of the fortification wall (see Chapter 16). The datable road surfaces we recovered were sig­ nificantly later than any such gate, dating to the late fourth or early third century bce. Along either side of the road were one or more structures, likely with open spaces between, also constructed significantly later than the nearby fortification. These structures had walls, or at least foundations, that in­corp­or­ated reused, irregularly shaped pappamonte stones mixed with other materials. Such remains are known from elsewhere in the city and have sometimes been interpreted as contemporaneous with walls that featured foundations of large, carefully cut pappamonte blocks. Given their lower quality, the walls of mixed materials have been reconstructed as the foundations of interior cross-­ walls that were not intended to be load bearing.29 Nevertheless, in the area of the Porta Stabia at least, the difference in style depended on chron­ology, with the walls of large blocks being earlier than those incorporating mixed materials. The relaying of roads and the construction of buildings in this neighborhood together point to a period of heightened activity in Phase 1c, which is further evidenced by the scale of the efforts. More than dirt roads and buildings formed of reused pappamonte, we see extensive quarrying and terracing of the local landscape as well as the importation, likely from the northern or eastern part of the city, of tonnes of gray ash to form these new levels. This was clearly a civic effort of a significant scale, and one that was part of a wholesale effort to establish the ultimate shape of Pompeii as a city.30 This is the   Esposito, Kastenmeier, and Imperatore 2011. 30   On a Pompeian “Master Plan”, see Poehler 2017, 31–46. 29

urban center that swept together, through some form of synoecism, what had until now been discrete settlements.31 Along with the ritual deposit of votives associated with these buildings, the sum of these efforts points to a new—­or at least renewed—­civic identity. But while the scale of this work was considerable, still the scope of the settlement we should imagine remains uncertain. By 310 bce, after all, Livy (9.38.2–3) could describe Pompeii as a fortified city, yet one incapable of posing any threat to Publius Cornelius when he landed with the Roman fleet at Pompeii to plunder the territory. Thus the picture that emerges for Phase 1 can appear dis­ tinctly incomplete, given the lack of complete architectural footprints of buildings. At the same time, however, the results of our delineation of Phase 1 activities are strikingly in­form­ ative, given that we can now: 1. place sequences of roads that would be maintained over centuries, as well as understand their formation to a high degree; 2. plot parts of buildings in this area of the city that appear as early as the sixth century bce; 3. identify a period of relative inactivity covering what would appear to be the fifth century bce; and 4. witness the rebirth of an urban form and the collective effort and identity behind that creation. Whether we define Pompeii, as Richardson once did, as so “obviously a very inconsiderable place” at this time,32 or recognize—­in its earthworks, street systems, and local cult offerings—­the makings of a civic identity, we are in any case able to piece together the parts of a neighborhood at the Porta Stabia that was soon to respond to the series of monumental developments that swept the city—­indeed, or arguably, created the city—­in the century that followed. 31  This theory of a synoecism of settlements is owed to Coarelli and Pesando 2011. 32   Richardson 1988, 7.

c h a pt e r 9

Phase 2 The Beginning of Production Activity (Third–­Second Centuries bce)

Few architectural developments were evident during Phase 2, which we date from the mid-­third through the first two or three quarters of the second century bce. To be clear, the comparatively few architectural developments also min­im­ izes the number of contexts with reliable dating material. The phase is thus dated to this period in part because of the more secure dating material that comes from Phase 1 and Phase 3 on either side, but also some numismatic material supports the chronological scheme: for example a third–­ second-­century bce Roman uncia from a Phase 2 fill below Room 48 of (later) VIII.7.9–11 (C29-­44; SU 29026), and a Roman half litra (234–231 bce) that was recovered from the area of the city gate (C14-­26; SU 14219). The relative lack of building activity moreover suggests that at least some of the structures constructed in Phase 1c continued to be used in this period. We have thus to imagine a modest scene of a few small and simple structures, scattered across a largely open landscape. Developments were concentrated in the south, probably due to the proximity of the Porta Stabia and its related traffic (Fig. 9.01). The primary identifiable activity of this phase was ceramics production, established just inside the Porta Stabia. Although disturbed by later construction events, potential features of a workshop were identified on both sides of the via Stabiana. At the southern extent of Insula I.1, a kiln was brought to light; a tank located across the via Stabiana may have been used to levigate clay. Our view is far from complete, but the fixtures suggest a sizable installation spread over a relatively large area. The earliest indications of fish-­salting in the neighborhood also emerged during this period, presaging an activity that would come to dominate the area by Phase 4.

Ceramics production Potential evidence for ceramics production was found to both sides of the via Stabiana (Subphase 6.1; 17.2, 53.1). Providing the clearest indication of such activity, a kiln of this period (Kiln 1; SU 53062) was uncovered on the far south side of Insula I.1, in (later) Room 103 (Fig. 9.02). The kiln structure was preserved to a height of 40–5 cm, constructed of a rubbly mix of clay-­ bonded stones, bricks, and tiles; refractory clay was used as

the inner facing. Two interior chambers were arranged ­perpendicularly in a T-­shape, oriented west (Fig.  9.03). The western chamber (internal dimensions: 1.13 × 0.50 m) had an opening 0.55 m wide at the center of its western side. On its eastern side, it joined the second chamber, which was longer and narrower (internal dimensions: 1.35 × 0.43 m). This second chamber’s northern wall ran straight, terminating in a large block (measuring 35 × 40 cm); its southern wall ran c. 88 cm east, cornered south, and continued below the (later) southern boundary wall of Property  I.1.1–2 (WCU 1005, of Phase 5b), beyond which we were unable to trace it. Although rectangular kilns are well attested in the ancient Mediterranean, we have found no direct analogues to this example.1 This could be due to its state of preservation: not enough of it survived to reconstruct its full form. That it ori­ gin­al­ly functioned as a kiln, however, was clear. It had been exposed to high heat: the bricks, tiles, and stones of the walls were discolored from direct contact with flames, and the refractory clay facing was scorched and chipped. The kiln was found filled with a thick deposit of ash and refuse, apparently derived from a later kiln found just six m to the east (Kiln 2, of Phase 3a), which replaced Kiln 1 following its failure (Phase 3a refuse deposit: SUs 53077, 53080). Surrounding the kiln was an ashy, packed-­earth surface overlying a friable paleosol (SUs 53095, 53096, 53112; elev. 8.976 masl). The surface was degraded and much had been removed by later construction activity, but clearly it had been patched or relaid several times. Immediately east of the kiln the lower half of a large storage vessel had been inset into the surface (see Figs. 9.02, 9.03; SU 53088; diameter: 65 cm). The vessel was damaged by the much later construction of a toilet above (Waste Feature 6, of Phase 7) but might originally have been present in its entirety, used for storage of water, raw ma­ter­ ials, or otherwise in support of the kiln. Similar features have been found in other ceramics workshops.2 Like Kiln 1 itself, 1  The type generally follows the Class II a–­d typology of kilns in Cuomo di Caprio 1971/2, 1978/9 and 1979 (for Italy and Sicily), and Hasaki 2002, 165–76 (for Greece). No certain analogue with this kiln was found in Olcese 2012. 2  See, for example, workshop 5 at Morgantina in Cuomo di Caprio 1992, 27–8, 46; tav. 19a.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0009

122  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 9.01  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 2.

P h a se 2 : T h e B e g i n n i n g o f P ro d uct i on A ct iv ity   ·   123

Fig. 9.02  Kiln 1 under Room 103 of (later) I.1.1/10; viewed from the north.

Fig. 9.03  Outline of the shape of Kiln 1 under Room 103 of (later) I.1.1/10; viewed from the south.

refuse from the later firings of Kiln 2 (Phase 3a) filled the vessel upon its excavation. Possibly operating along with Kiln 1, a plaster-­lined tank (SU 17078) found across the via Stabiana in the area of later Room 37 (Trench 17000) may have been used to levigate clay

for the preparation of paste or slip, or simply to store clay in a moist state to prevent it from dehydrating.3 Although the 3  For comparanda to the tank, see Nijboer 1998, 50–135. For tanks used in paste and slip production see Peña and McCallum 2009, 70–1.

124  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 9.04  The rounded tank in Room 37 of (later) VIII.7.7–8.

uppermost portions of the tank had been removed, its lower walls were intact (Fig. 9.04; see also Fig. 8.06). The tank was rectangular with rounded corners, constructed simply by lining a pit in the subsoil with plaster. It measured 85 × 60 cm, with a preserved depth of 33 cm, but given that the upper walls were destroyed, it originally might have been deeper. A terracotta pipe (SU 17091; interior diameter: 7.8 cm at the front, 10.5 cm at the end) led southward from its southeastern corner (Fig. 9.05). Liquids passing from the tank to the pipe were filtered through a perforated lead plate that remained in-­situ (SU 17082). The plate measured 14 cm × 14 cm and featured forty-­two small perforations that were arranged in a circle at its center; it was affixed to the tank by four iron nails driven through each corner. The associated pipe was preserved for 78 cm, at which point it was cut by later construction. Although its ultimate destination was unrecovered, a course of mortared lava stones (SU 17105) found to the southwest of the tank—­under (later) WCU 172—could represent the remains of an additional, more substantial, tank that received the channeled liquids; alternatively, this feature might have been part of a contemporaneous wall through which the pipe passed. A second ephemeral course of lava stones joined with mortar was found to the southeast of the tank (SU 17096), perhaps indicating the shape of a small room that enclosed the tank. Upon excavation, the tank contained fill related to later phases rather than any material resulting from its use. Nevertheless, a deposit of heavily burned ceramics and tile (SU 17117) was recovered just south of it. Given its location

c. 40 m from Kiln 1, if the tank was devoted to working clay, it might have been associated either with Kiln 1 or with an add­ ition­al, undiscovered kiln located nearer to it. One final Phase 2 feature that might have related to the ceramic production activities just inside the Porta Stabia was a deposit of mixed mortar, clay, and tiles found south of the tank in Trench 17000, in the area of later Room 6 (excavated as Trench 6000). The deposit (SU 6031) measured c. 2.10 × 0.40 m and was elevated at c. 9.30–9.60 masl. It was associated with a  fill of redeposited Mercato ash that contained few finds (SU  6045). No other material dating to such an early phase was recovered from the area.

Possible fish-­salting activities While most evidence for fish-­salting across both insulae is associated firmly with the developments of Phase 4, one feature suggests that such activities had begun—­if on a small scale—­ already in Phase 2 (Subphase 54.3). To the north of Kiln 1, in the area of (later) Room 106, we uncovered the southeastern corner of a tank that had been almost entirely destroyed by later construction (SU 54056). The tank, Fish-­Salting Vat 9, originally was rectangular with rounded corners; its surviving walls framed an area of 63 × 42 cm (Fig. 9.06). Although preserved to a depth of 1.2 m, the tops of its walls had been sheared off, indicating that it had once been deeper (upper elevation: 9.125 masl; floor elevation: 7.92 masl). Its construction was simple and echoed that of the tank dis­covered across

P h a se 2 : T h e B e g i n n i n g o f P ro d uct i on A ct iv ity   ·   125

Fig. 9.05  The rounded tank with the pipe and perforated lead sheet in Room 37 of (later) VIII.7.7–8.

the via Stabiana in the area of (later) Room 37. First, a rect­ angu­lar trench was dug into the terrain, cutting through the cobblestone surface of Phase 1c (SU 54058; elev. 9.00 masl) and the underlying gray ash road (SU 54104; elev. 8.869 masl and SU 54091; elev. 8.89 masl). A layer of mortar (4 cm thick) then was added to define the tank’s floor and walls. Unlike the example located across the street, however, a thin deposit recovered from the floor of the tank appears to have related to its use (SU 54078). This deposit, a dense silt, contained hundreds of fish scales and bones, representing the second

highest concentration of such material found in any of the fish-­salting vats in the area of the Porta Stabia (see Chapter 19.6). Of course, fish-­salting was a seasonal activity and vats were cleaned periodically, meaning that such ma­ter­ial is not essential for identifying fish-­salting activities. When re­covered, however, high concentrations of fish remains can point towards that function. In this case, the ephemeral nature of the tank—­as well as the later destruction of almost the entire space surrounding it—­prevented any secure reconstructions, but the material within the tank suggested that fish-­salting

126  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i was underway in the neighborhood as early as the later third century bce. Fish-­Salting Vat 9 likely shared some functional relationship with an additional tank that was located just east of it. This second tank, however, preserved even less evidence of its intended purpose (SU 54134). Like Fish-­Salting Vat 9 the second tank was preserved only in part, and the surviving portions were highly ephemeral. It was cylindrical with a diameter of about one meter; our excavations did not reach its base (Fig.  9.07). Like the other tanks belonging to this phase, it was constructed simply, by cutting a pit through underlying strata—­in this case, including the gray ash roads of Phase 1c and the southernmost block of the Phase 1a ­pappamonte wall foundation (see Fig. 8.04; SU 54122)—and lining the resulting pit’s walls and floor with plaster.

Sidewalks alongside the via Stabiana

Fig. 9.06  Fish-­Salting Vat 9 in Room 106 of (later) I.1.2.

The gray ash road was no longer in use by the time the ceramics workshop arose in Phase 2. In this period, the so-­ called Orthostate enceinte of the fifth century bce had been replaced by the earliest version of the fortification wall that still stands, consisting of ashlar masonry in brown tuff and yellow travertine (see Chapter 16). The via Stabiana of this period appears to have run underneath the final paving in place in 79 ce, and we did not encounter it in our excavations. Packed-­earth surfaces topped with mortar, however, were

Fig. 9.07  Tank in Room 106 of (later) I.1.2.

P h a se 2 : T h e B e g i n n i n g o f P ro d uct i on A ct iv ity   ·   127

Fig. 9.08  The “sidewalk” surface beneath (the later) Room 9 of VIII.7.1–4; viewed from the west.

found under both Insula  I.1 and VIII.7, likely representing sidewalks flanking the road (Subphases 11.1, 24.2, 29.2, 56.2). The southernmost exposed portion of the sidewalk (SU 24055) was excavated below later Room 9 (Trench 24000). It survived only in one small patch (c. 40 × 30 cm), having been cut away elsewhere by later construction activity (Fig. 9.08). The surface consisted of compacted mix of gray ash and Mercato ash, topped by a smooth, pinkish gray mortar (elev. 9.04 masl). The Phase 2 surface was largely sterile but did contain one small impasto sherd. It was laid on a shallow subsurface (SU 24061), likewise devoid of diagnostic finds, which covered the Phase 1c sequence of gray ash roads. The Phase 2 mortar sidewalk continued under the (later) northern wall of Room 9 (WCU 117, of Phase 3a) where it was encountered in (later) Room 11 (Trench 11000). No Phase 1c gray ash road sequence was evident in this trench, and the mortar sidewalk (SU 11204) sat over a fill of redeposited ­paleosol (SU 11144). If a gray ash surface had once been present here, it must have degraded or been removed prior to the installation of the Phase 2 sidewalk. In this area, several add­ ition­al deposits provided evidence for patching or resurfacing of the sidewalk. Above the mortar smear was a second packed-­earth surface (SU 11199), which overlay a thin leveling

fill (SU 11200). The second surface was itself topped with another leveling fill (SU 11191), over which a final packed-­earth surface (SU 11190) was laid down. The sequence was preserved only in a small area in the northeastern corner of the trench, and all of these Phase 2 deposits were cut for the installation of the standing architecture in Phase 3a (Phase 3a construction trench cut: SU 11202, fill: SU 11203). A final small patch of the Phase 2 mortar sidewalk on the western side of the via Stabiana was observed in the northern area of Insula VIII.7, below later Room 48 (Trench 29000). Above the Phase 1c gray ash road surface preserved in the southeast corner of the excavated area was a Phase 2 packed-­ earth surface topped with mortar (SUs 29034, 29036), elevated at 10.83 masl. Across the via Stabiana, a patch of a similar Phase 2 mortar sidewalk was uncovered under later Room 132 (Trench 56000). The surface (SUs 56091, 56092) was identified only within a small sondage, but it overlay the earlier gray ash road (SU 56094). Two layers of mortar were apparent; the lower was gray (SU 56092; elevated at 10.15–10.20 masl) and the upper was yellow (SU 56091; elevated at 10.239 masl). A roughly hewn, c. 50 × 25 cm, block of Sarno limestone (SU 56096; elevated at 10.29 masl) abutted the mortar surface to its west. This block may have served as a curbstone alongside the sidewalk; by 79 ce, about 30 percent of all curbstones in Pompeii were of Sarno limestone.4 Notably, Imperatore’s excavations through the via Stabiana opposite Insula I.4 found that the final basalt paving had been placed directly on top of an earlier road made of compacted gray ash.5 Although we did not encounter the Phase 2 road in our excavations, it is possible that by this time, the via Stabiana had narrowed but continued to be surfaced with the same imported gray ash material that had formed the surfaces of Phase 1c, flanked to the east and west by the mortar sidewalks we recovered under the later architecture.

Conclusion While the destructive nature of later urban developments obscures much of the Porta Stabia neighborhood in Phase 2, still we can detect that most of the activities were concentrated toward the southern side of the site, near the fortifications and gate. These activities largely were focused on production—­particularly the production of ceramics, but also some salted fish products—­and probably occupied architecture still standing from Phase 1c. These activities responded to important urban and economic developments happening across Pompeii in the third and second centuries bce. This was a fundamental period in the city’s urban history, a floruit 4  Poehler 2017, 77. 5  Pers. Comm. with Catello Imperatore; see also Rispoli and Paone 2011.

128  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i often referred to as the Pompeian “Golden Age.”6 The production activities near the Porta Stabia thus served a rapidly growing city, one that was at the same time giving rise to multiple important constructions such as the neighboring theater, as well as the monumentalization of the civic forum. And while much of this florescence can be better assigned to the later part of the second century bce—­that is, our Phase 3 (see Chapter 10)—still the foundations for this growth, and certainly some of its constructions, correspond squarely with our Phase 2. The establishment of nearby Puteoli as a Roman 6  Ellis 2018, esp. 137–8; see also Richardson 1988, 67–127; Wallace-Hadrill 2008, 129–37.

colony in 194 ce, after all, will have done much to catalyze this period of development.7 But the city’s growth was fueled especially by Pompeii’s participation in the civitates foederatae, particularly through their role in supporting Rome’s sacking of Corinth in 146 bce.8 In this light of increased wealth and urban development we can better situate the modest but contemporary developments in the Porta Stabia neighborhood. 7  Frederiksen 1984, 319–49. 8  Wallace-Hadrill 2008, 130; Ellis 2018, 136–7. On the extraordinary inscription that documents these events, particularly Mummius’ gift of booty for the Pompeian participation at Corinth, see Martelli 2002; also Coarelli and Pesando 2011, 54; cf. Ball and Dobbins 2013, 487–90.

c h a pt e r 1 0

Phase 3 The Establishment of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (c. 125–c. 80 bce)

The origins of the Porta Stabia neighborhood as it stood in 79 ce emerged for the first time in Phase 3 with the construction of four properties, three to the west of the via Stabiana (VIII.7.1–4, VIII.7.5–8, VIII.7.9–13) and one to the east (I.1.1–2). The new buildings cut through and covered the surfaces, structures, and fixtures of Phases 1 and 2, eliminating much of the evidence for earlier centuries of activity (Fig.  10.01). Alongside the substantial new buildings constructed at this time, a public well was added just inside the Porta Stabia, on the eastern side of the via Stabiana adjacent to the newly established Insula I.1. The events of the phase date from the later second century bce through the early first century bce, a period of wide-­scale urban development across the Pompeian plateau.1

Phase 3a: widespread development Construction of Property VIII.7.1–4 Property VIII.7.1–4, the southernmost property of Insula VIII.7, was established in Phase 3a (Fig. 10.02; Subphases 1.2, 5.1a, 6.2, 21.1, 24.3). Its northern and southern boundary walls (WCUs 117 and 120, respectively) are the same that continued to frame the space up to 79 ce. The foundations (SU 1103) of the southern wall (WCU 120) were exposed in the excavation of (later) Room 1 (Subphase 1.2). An ephemeral construction trench (cut: SU 1107, fill: SU 1108) was identified in a sondage in the southeastern corner of the room; elsewhere it had been removed elsewhere by later construction.2 The lower foundation course (SU 1103) consisted of loose rubble primarily of lava stone and Sarno limestone. Over this was a course of small Sarno limestone blocks joined with mortar (SU 1051), above which rose the opus incertum wall of mixed materials (SU 1052). Farther west, a brief stretch (c. 1.10 m long) of the foundation was exposed (SU 1104), contemporaneous with, 1  See Richardson 1988, 67–127 for an overview of urban construction at this time. See also Wallace-Hadrill 2008, 129–37; Ellis 2018, 133–47. 2  The construction trench fill was excavated together with the overlying leveling fill (SU 1044); the cut was seen in section only following excavation.

and occupying the same construction trench as, the eastern foundation. The lower foundation course was more regu­lar here, incorporating carefully-­set cut blocks and larger stones. It was topped by a course of Sarno limestone joined with mortar, with the opus incertum wall above, like that of the eastern one. An ephemeral packed-­earth surface (SU 1096; elev. 8.97–9.02 masl), preserved on the northeastern side of the room, was contemporaneous with the earliest architectural delineation. On the northern side of the property, the foundations of the boundary wall (WCU 117) were explored in (later) Room 9. They were exposed in the northeastern corner of the room and displayed similar construction techniques to those at the south, except that the upper foundation course of mortared cut Sarno limestone was absent. Here, the opus incertum wall (SU 24095) sat directly on a foundation course of unbonded stone (primarily lava stone: SUs 24096, 24097). The course of Sarno limestone, however, was not present. The area received a series of packed-­earth surfaces during this period, some topped with mortar. The earliest consisted of packed earth and purple/gray mortar (SU 24048; elev. 9.05 masl); its color likely came from crumbled volcanic cruma. Above was a second surface of similar material that ranged in color from brown to purple (SUs 24041, 24050; elev. 9.15 masl), over which lay a third, of lighter mortar (SUs 24039, 24042, 24043, elev. 9.25 masl). The uppermost and best-­preserved surface, stretching across the southern half of the trench, was of packed earth without preserved mortar (SU 24035; see Fig. 19.7.02). Thin subsurface fills supported each surface (SUs 24040/24045, 24044/24051, 24053). Apart from the latest surface (SU 24035), these deposits survived only in small patches, and the superimposed layers might represent localized repair rather than complete resurfacings. The western boundary of the property, which would remain in place up to 79 ce, also was established, defining in this early period the space of Room 6 (with WCUs 108, 115, 116, and 168). Despite the early formation of the room, there were no contemporaneous material remains suggesting its function in this first phase. It likely functioned as a garden or other, largely undeveloped, space. A preserved patch of yellow

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0010

130  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 10.01  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 3a.

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   131 wall plaster over white (SUs 6010, 6011) appears to have belonged to the original construction of the western wall (WCU 115, SU 6009). Interior walls within Property VIII.7.1–4 divided the building into additional discrete spaces during Phase 3a. Long walls ran east–­west through the center of the property to create distinct northern, central, and southern areas (see Fig. 10.02; WCUs 118, 119, 137, 143). The walls were similarly constructed, consisting of opus incertum primarily made up of Sarno limestone with some lava stone and cruma. On the northern side of the property, in the area of Room 5, the foundations of an additional wall, later destroyed, were uncovered (SU 5059). It ran east–­west under the later wall that divided Rooms 3 and 5 (WCU 124). Other cross walls, destroyed and buried prior to 79 ce, must have given further shape to the rooms within this property but remain unidentified. The southern wall (WCUs 120, 116) continued west, beyond the rear of the property. This wall (WCU 108) defined the southern limit of the undeveloped space behind the building, but how that area was used remains unclear. No architectural fixtures illuminated the function of Property VIII.7.1–4 in Phase 3a. Upon its construction in this phase, however, the building already had established the ex­ter­ior boundaries and the major interior dividing walls that would define it for the remainder of its existence.

Construction of Property VIII.7.5–8 Property VIII.7.5–8 also was constructed in Phase 3a (Fig. 10.03; Subphases 3.1, 7.1, 12.1, 16.2, 17.3, 25.2a). The original structure covered all of VIII.7.5–8; although, it would later (in Phase 5a, see below; also see Figs. 12.12 and 12.25) be divided between three properties (VIII.7.5–6, VIII.7.7–8, and VIII.7.9–10), the original structure covered all of VIII.7.5–8. It shared a partition wall with Property VIII.7.1–4 to the south (WCU 117) and a partition wall (WCUs 066 and 067) with VIII.7.9–13 to the north, which was established also in Phase 3a (see below). The foundations of this northern wall were explored in Rooms 32, 38, and Corridor 42, where excavations confirmed that the doorway here was a later addition (opened in Phase 5a). In Phase 3a, therefore, the northern wall was unbroken to divide neighboring properties. The foundations (SUs 3106, 7050, 12045) were made primarily of lava stones bonded with lime mortar, set directly on natural volcanic bedrock. The wall was built against the southern edge of its construction trench; a narrow fill braced it to the north (construction trench fill: SU 3076). Together with its northern and southern boundary walls, much of the property’s original facade can be reconstructed. The eastern wall of (later) Room 32 was built in this period (WCUs 067, 083); this facade wall likely continued across (later) Entrance 8, with the property accessed by a narrower entrance to the north (later blocked by WCU 182). Likewise, Entrance 7 probably did not exist at this time. To the south,

Fig. 10.02  Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 3a.

the facade wall of Room 13 also was built in Phase 3a (WCU 085); originally it turned and extended west to form the wall between Rooms 11 and 13 (WCU 086; foundation of wall: SU 11205=11150; cut for foundation trench: SU 11202; fill of foundation trench: SU 11203). Later, the wall was truncated when a wide doorway was introduced between those rooms (Phase 4b). In the southeastern corner of Room 11, the southernmost extent of the property’s facade (WCU 133) originally extended northwards across Entrance 5; if an entrance existed here at this time, it was significantly narrower than its final version. Quarrying identified in (later) Room 32 supported these construction activities (Quarry Area 2). On the northern side of the property, a few interior walls provide some idea of the original division of space. Two walls, later destroyed, were located in the northwestern corner of (later) Room 32, suggesting the presence of one or more small rooms along the northern property boundary (east–­west running wall: SU 12090; north–­south running wall: SU 12091; cut of construction trench for SU 12090: SU 12082; fill of construction trench for SU 12090: SU 12084; no construction trench was recognized for SU 12091). To the west, the western wall of (later) Room 37 (WCU 172) was built at this time. Given its alignment with the rear wall of Property VIII.7.1–4, to the south (WCU 115), this wall could represent the line of the property’s rear boundary during this period. Two walls that were later removed abutted the eastern side of the wall (walls: SUs 17087, 17088/17089), suggesting add­ ition­al small rooms at the rear of the property.3 A small soak-­away was installed in this area, made from a reused amphora (Soak-­Away 5). In the southern area of the property, additional interior walls were identified, defining spaces in the areas of (later) 3  Plaster that still covered parts of the faces of the walls matched the earliest plaster layer of WCU 072.

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Fig. 10.03  Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 3a.

Rooms 11–17 (WCUs 086, 090, 092, 181). Of these, the wall that divided Rooms 12 and 15 (WCUs 086 and 090) was founded directly on the mixed pappamonte wall of Phase 1c; it was unclear whether the wide doorway that would later provide access between Rooms 12 and 15 was already in place in this period (it would be blocked in Phase 7 with WCU 174). Two short and possibly low walls (SUs 16104, 16109), later dismantled, ran northward from this wall, framing and confining a cesspit (Waste Feature 11) where the doorway between Rooms 15 and 17 would later pass. The feature underwent several renovations in subsequent phases, but originally consisted of a simple, unlined pit 65 cm in diameter and descending just over a meter into natural paleosol. To the west, in (later) Room 20, a round cistern was installed (Cistern 7). Most of the surfaces in use across VIII.7.5–8 during its earliest phase were removed by later construction in the area.

For example, no Phase 3a surface was evident in (later) Room 11, although preserved plaster (SU 11193) on the western edge of the north wall (WCU 86) lipped horizontally to indicate the original surface level. This was only a few cm above the mortar sidewalk surface of Phase 2 (SU 11190), suggesting that the new floor had been placed directly over the earlier sidewalk without any construction or leveling fill. In (later) Room 32, a packed-­earth surface of Phase 3a was re­covered in a small patch of c. 1.0 × 0.8 m (SU 12068; elev. 10.457 masl), and a similar surface was uncovered in (later) Room 37 (SU 17071; elev. 11.077–11.112 masl). Plaster (SUs 17066) from the western wall (WCU 172) lipped onto this surface. Furthermore, a series of packed-­earth surfaces or patching events (SUs 7086, 7088, 7107, 7117) was recognized on the northernmost side of the property, in Corridor 42. These were elevated from c.  10.75–10.95 masl. A more substantial

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   133 surface of opus signinum was recovered in (later) Room 20 (SUs 25050, 25051, 25053, 25054), elevated at c. 10.40 masl. It abutted the northern side of Cistern 7. The surface probably surrounded the cistern in its original form, with the southern portion removed by later construction. The construction of this property also involved some lev­el­ ing events, especially on its northern and western sides, where many of the recovered surfaces were set on construction fills. In (later) Room 20, the opus signinum surface overlay a deep fill of redeposited natural soil that contained many discarded construction materials, pottery, and other finds (SUs 25052, 25055, and 25065). The Phase 2 features in the area of (later) Room 37 also were destroyed by a deep construction fill (SUs 17079, 17080, 17081), which leveled the area for the insertion of the Phase 3a mortar surface (SUs 17071, 17075). A fill also lay below the packed-­earth surface in (later) Room 32 (SUs 12063, 12112), leveling and removing the quarry of this phase that provided materials for the building’s construction (Quarry Area 2).

Construction of Property VIII.7.9–13 The northern area of the insula was occupied in Phase 3a by Property VIII.7.9–13 (Fig. 10.04; Subphases 3.1, 7.1, 9.1, 13.1, 18.1, 27.2, 28.1, 29.3). It comprised a large space bounded by a

t­ erracing wall on the north (WCUs 011, 014, 157) and by Property VIII.7.5–8 to the south (with WCUs 066, 067 as the partition wall); later, in Phase 4, this building would be divided between Properties VIII.7.9–11, VIII.7.12, and (one room of ) VIII.7.13–15. To the west, it was defined by the original eastern wall of the Quadriporticus, which ran slightly west of its final iteration;4 the precise chronological relationship between the two structures is thus (and unfortunately) impossible to determine. The northern terracing wall (WCUs 011, 014, 157) was examined from the north in the area of (later) Room 68 and from the south in the area of (later) Rooms 65 and 57/66. The wall was founded on natural volcanic bedrock and terraced the landscape to the north. A narrow foundation trench (filled with SU 27102) was detected on the northern side of WCU 011, where the terraced landscape had been cut back for the construction of the wall. The wall continued to the west, below the later eastern wall of the Quadriporticus (see Chapter 12). A north–­south running wall of Phase 3a (SU 13054; potential construction trench for wall: SU 13055) was encountered c. 50 cm east of the property’s (later) western wall (WCU 184), in the area of (later) Room 56. The wall suggests an original interior division that remains obscured below the eastern suite of the 4  Poehler and Ellis 2013.

Fig. 10.04  Plan of Property VIII.7.9–13 during Phase 3a.

134  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i Quadriporticus. Lava bedrock quarries encountered below (later) Rooms 48 (Quarry Area 4), 57 (Quarry Area 5), 58 (Quarry Area 7), and 65 (Quarry Area 6)—probably among others—­provided materials for this significant phase of construction. Interior walls show that in Phase 3a a wide corridor ran east–­west through the center of the property, similar to the configuration that defined Property VIII.7.1–4 to the south (corridor formed by WCUs 031, 039, and 042 to the north, as well as WCUs 060, 061, and 064 to the south). The foundations of the northern wall (WCU 042) were exposed from the north and south in (later) Rooms 48 and 58. The wall was founded on lava bedrock, and no construction trench was recognized on either side. The foundations of the southern corridor wall (WCU 64) were explored also from (later) Room 48. A construction trench (SU 29054) was found to have been cut into the natural deposit north of the wall. A brown sandy silt (SUs 29048 and 29049) filled the trench and contained a small fragment of a black gloss cup/bowl (29049-­F1) of the late third or early second century bce and sherds of cookware and coarseware. Most of the doorways within both the northern and southern corridor walls seem to have been later additions; likely the only opening of this period was a doorway between Rooms 48 and 38. On the northern side of the corridor, the western wall of Room 67 was built at this time (WCUs 021, 173); to the south, the western wall of (later) Room 41 also was in place (WCU 056). Additionally, the foundations of two walls (SUs 3086 and 7012) that ran north–­south to abut the southern partition wall were found in (later) Corridor 40 and in Room 38. Dismantled in later phases, the walls suggest additional divisions on the southern side of the property in Phase 3a. Portions of the original facade wall of Property VIII.7.9–13 also were uncovered (WCUs 015,0 25, 044, 065). As with other properties in their earliest phases of construction, the locations and sizes of entrances from the street were unclear, but most were likely narrower than their final iterations, with some not yet in existence. A packed-­earth surface associated with this earliest phase of the property was recovered in Room 38. All but two small patches (SU 3077; elev. 10.77 masl; and SU 3078; elev. 10.84 masl) had been cut away by later construction. Better ­preserved packed-­earth surfaces were found to the north. In the area of (later) Room 58, the surface (SUs 18068, 18100), elevated at 11.33 masl, continued under the later northern wall (WCU 024, of Phase 4a), perhaps running all the way to the terracing wall that defined the northern side of the property. In the area of Room 48, the floor level was slightly lower. A packed-­earth surface of Phase 3a was recovered on the northern side of the room, elevated at c. 10.95 masl (SU 29023). All these Phase 3a surfaces were built above construction fills (SUs 3081, 3084, 18072, 18074, 18091, 18104, 29027, 29033).

A cesspit (Waste Feature 14), found near the northeastern corner of (later) Room 58, was associated with the earliest packed-­earth surface here (Fig. 10.05; see also Fig. 13.13). Its circular shaft, lined in opus incertum masonry, was 65–75 cm in diameter and descended nearly 2 m where a smaller opening led to an underground chamber cut into the lava bedrock. We were unable to excavate the chamber due to issues of access and safety, and so its full size remains unknown. All waste material recovered from within the shaft (SUs 18071, 18099, 18102) dated to a much later phase of use, when the fixture was reopened following a period of disuse (see below: Phase 4a for its closure and Phase 6 for its reopening). Like other cesspits throughout the city, Waste Feature 14 probably had been cleared—­possibly multiple times—­in antiquity, removing at least most of the material related to this earliest phase of use.5 The northern side of the shaft, however, showed signs of early use: a thick encrustation of mineralized liquid waste (SU 18094) suggests that ­discharges had entered the shaft from the north, prior to the construction of the room’s northern wall (WCU 024 of Phase 4a). Evidence of production activity was uncovered in Room 48. Associated with the packed-­earth surface of this phase (SU 29023) were two tanks that abutted the room’s southern wall and framed the doorway to Room 38. The western tank had been almost entirely destroyed, surviving only as a rectangular layer of pink hydraulic plaster (SU 29507) that curved slightly outward from the wall. Its original form, however, was probably similar to the eastern tank (SU 29015). This better-­preserved tank was rectangular (c. 1.6 × 0.8 m) and simply constructed (Fig. 10.06), beginning with a rectangular pit cut through the leveling fill of this phase (cut for tank: SU 29035). The walls of the pit were then lined in poor quality opus incertum, lined in turn with pink hydraulic plaster that rose above the room’s floor. Construction in Phase 4 partially destroyed the masonry, obscuring the tank’s original depth; it was preserved to 0.8 m deep. No use-­phase contents were preserved, thus precluding any inferences regarding function. In the western half of property VIII.7.9–13, no interior dividing walls were identified as belonging to Phase 3a; all were apparently later. This area may have been left open for  cultivation or other purposes, although early interior dividing walls might have been present in areas where we did not open trenches. A single feature of Phase 3a was recognized in this space: a round cesspit (Waste Feature 13) recovered at the boundary of (later) Rooms 57/66, just south of the terracing wall that defined the northern property boundary (Fig. 10.07). The cesspit featured upper walls constructed of 5 See Jansen 2000, esp. 38–9; also the several discussions throughout Jansen, Koloski-Ostrow, and Moormann 2011.

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   135

Fig. 10.05  The cesspit (Waste Feature 14) in Room 58 of (later) VIII.7.12.

opus incertum joined with thick mortar; it descended into the lava bedrock. Its exterior diameter was 1.25 m, with an interior diameter of 0.95 m. The cesspit was essentially vertical with no bowing. Its interior walls indicated several phases of reconstruction. It held a dense stratum of ash and lapilli, likely redeposited during modern interventions in the area (SU 9008), which con­tinued beyond our 1 m deep excavations. A downpipe set into the northern partition wall (WCU 014) shows that at least some of Property VIII.7.9–13 had an upper story during this phase. The lowest portion of the downpipe fed into an exterior soak-­away (Soak-­Away 17) that in­corp­or­ated

two amphorae of the mid-­second century bce (Fig. 10.08; SUs 27081, 27090). The fixture was built into and con­tem­por­ary with the wall. The soak-­away suggests that the property also controlled the open area north of it, a zone that was terraced with a ground level of c. 11.85 masl. Two blocks of Sarno limestone found below the later facade at VIII.7.14 (SUs 27117, 27118), one of which was topped by an additional course of masonry (SUs 27142, 27143, topping SU 27117), suggest that this area was defined and divided from the public zone of the street by pillars or ephemeral architecture. A cesspit located farther north (Waste Feature 15) might also have been controlled by the property to the south.

136  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 10.06  The eastern tank in Room 48 of VIII.7.9–13.

Fig. 10.07  Waste Feature 13 in (later) Rooms 57/66 of VIII.7.12.

Construction of Property I.1.1–2 The developments of Insula  I.1 were concentrated in the southern area during Phase 3a. In this period Property I.1.1–2 was constructed (Fig.  10.09; Subphases 50.2, 53.2, 54.4, 57.2, 58.1, 59.1). The property’s original form was rectangular, with

several interior walls defining spaces similar to those of the final rooms of 79 ce. The foundations of the property’s facade wall (WCUs 1000, 1027, 1028, 1029) were excavated in Room 106. They consisted of a lime-­rich mortar foundation (SUs 54074, 54109, 54114) poured into a construction trench (SU 54069). Above this

Fig. 10.08  Soak-­Away 17 built with WCU 014 in Room 68 of (later) VIII.7.14–15; viewed from the north.

Fig. 10.09  Plan of Property I.1.1–2 during Phase 3a.

138  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i mortar slurry, a more standard packing of soil and mixed materials filled the rest of the construction trench (SUs 54067). The wall in opus incertum rose above (SUs 54068, 54108). An irregularly shaped pit, cut into the natural Mercato ash layer in the northeastern corner of Room 106, likely provided pozzolanic soil for these construction activities (Quarry Area 10). To the south, in Room 101, the natural bedrock was deeper, and the wall’s opus incertum foundations (SU 50069) continued beyond the final excavated depth (7.856 masl). Most of this facade wall was obscured by later activities, including the insertion of a later vat (Fish-­Salting Vat 5 in Phase 4a) and a masonry bar counter (Bar Counter 1 in Phase 5b). The wall terminated at a quoin of large Sarno blocks (WCU 1000; SUs 50055, 50066, 50050) that marked the original southwestern corner of the building, located just over 2 m north of the property’s final southwestern corner. On the western side of the property, the foundation course of the property’s southern boundary wall (WCUs 1000, 1006) also descended below the limits of the excavation. Like the western wall, this southern wall was built in opus incertum (SUs 50027, 50119, 53039) and incorporated a quoin of large Sarno blocks (SUs 50068, 50071, 50010). Farther east, the wall continued on a slightly different alignment (as WCU 1019). The foundations of this eastern portion were shallower; excavations uncovered the lowest courses on the north and south sides in (later) Rooms 108 and 103. Here, a series of terracing fills using redeposited paleosols (SUs 58072, 58089, 59045, 59071, 59077, 59105, 59123, 59127) had leveled the landscape prior to the construction of the building. A construction trench cut them and the natural paleosols below (cut: SUs 53119, 58087; fill: SU 58088; paleosol: SUs 58083, 58086, 58091). The opus incertum foundations of the southern wall (SU 58514) were set in the center of the construction trench. In its original it­er­ation, this wall met the eastern boundary wall of Property I.1.1–2 (WCU 1030) at the southeastern corner of Room 108, but a buttress added in Phase 5b separated them. The foundations of the property’s eastern boundary wall (WCU 1030) were recovered in the excavation of (later) Rooms 108 (west) and 111 (east). As for the southern wall, its construction trench (SUs 58035, 59125) cut through the terracing fills that had been laid down in this area. Echoing the construction style of the property’s facade wall, a lime-­ rich mortar ­foundation (SUs 58064, 59128) was poured into the bottom of the cut and the opus incertum wall was built above (Figs. 10.10 and 10.11). The upper portion of the cut was then filled with a sandy gray deposit that contained many micro-­inclusions of mortar and plaster (SU 59124). The northern boundary wall (also WCU 1030) of Property I.1.1–2 was constructed as a unit with the eastern wall, as the bonded masonry of the two demonstrates. A small portion of the northern construction trench was excavated in Room 106 (cut: SU 54072, fill: SUs 54073, 54077), where it cut the earlier (Phase 1a) pappamonte foundation (SU 54092).

Fig. 10.10  The poured mortar foundation for the eastern boundary wall of I.1.1–2 (WCU 1030); viewed from above.

Three rooms comprised the interior of the building in this phase: Rooms 101, 106, and 107/108. A long north–­south wall (WCUs 1020, 1021, 1023, 1104) bisected the space. It was built in much the same way as the boundary walls. A construction trench was cut (cut: 54063, 58097, 58082) into the surrounding soil (SU 58099) and filled with a poured mortar slurry (SUs 58096, 58080) that supported the opus incertum construction above (SU 54158). The east–­west running wall that divided Rooms 101 and 106 (WCU 1025) was constructed similarly, although without the mortar slurry (construction trench cut: SU 54066; construction trench fill: SU 54065). A doorway at the eastern end of this wall (later blocked by WCU 1024) allowed access between the two rooms; a wider doorway in the same corner (later blocked by WCUs 1022 and 1109) provided communication between Rooms 101 and 108. A vestige of a surface of Phase 3a was recovered inside the building, with the rest having been removed or obscured by later construction. The surviving surface (SU 50059; elev. 9.04 masl) was found in a small patch in the southwestern corner of Room 101. The only structural fixture recovered in the property was a deep, unlined pit—­likely a cesspit—­located in the southwestern corner of Room 108 (Waste Feature 18). The pit was c. 1 m in diameter and was excavated to a depth of 2 m but continued deeper. It was unlined on three sides, but to the west, where it

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   139

Fig. 10.11  The poured mortar foundation for the eastern boundary wall of I.1.1–2 (WCU 1030); viewed in section.

touched the room’s western wall (WCU 1021), the wall foundation was reinforced with thick gray mortar. In this earliest architectural delineation of the property, the eastern boundary wall of I.1.1–2 (WCU 1030) continued south of its final iteration, crossing (later) Room 104 and extending into the area of the eventual vicolo south of the insula. This portion of the wall (SU 57104) would be destroyed by Phase 5b at the latest. Its construction trench was detected in (later) Room 104, cut into a soft, sterile paleosol (cut: SU 57159; fill: SU 57160; paleosol: SU 57161). Like the other walls on the southern side of the property, the construction trench for this wall continued below the limits of the excavation, and if a foundation of lime-­rich mortar was used here, as elsewhere in the property, we did not encounter it. The southern extension of the property’s eastern wall defined two areas to the south of the new building. West of the wall, where Kiln 1 had operated in Phase 2, an open, public zone provided access to a large public well that was installed in this period along the via Stabiana (see further below). To the east, a room roughly equivalent to the space of (later) Rooms 104/105 was devoted to a different use.6 A doorway between this room’s western (SU 57104) and southern (SU 57157) walls allowed it to be accessed from the south. The room’s eastern wall (SU 57178) ran below the final eastern wall of Room 105 and continued north into the area of (later) Room 112, which was left unexcavated. Consequently, the 6  New walls would be constructed here in Phase 5b, which were themselves reconstructed in Phase 6 and again in Phase 7, with the ori­g in­al walls used as a foundation.

room’s full size could not be determined. Its northern wall likely was located somewhere under (later) Rooms 111/112/113. A portion of the room’s packed-­earth surface was excavated in (later) Room 104 (SU 57153, elev. 8.78–8.80 masl). Moreover, a kiln (Kiln 2) was discovered in its southeastern corner, apparently a replacement for the now-­defunct Kiln 1 from Phase 2.7 Ceramics production, therefore, continued through even the substantial changes brought about by the introduction of new buildings to the neighborhood.

Continuing ceramics production Kiln 2 in Room 104/105 was a cylindrical updraft kiln that we uncovered in a remarkable state of preservation. Oriented east–­west, it had an ovoid combustion chamber, in the center of which was a single pillar that supported the oven’s per­for­ated platform; the praefurnium extended from the western side of the combustion chamber and opened to the west (Fig. 10.12).8 The exterior wall (SU 57114) was preserved to a height of 1.25 m, 0.80 cm of which walled the combustion chamber and 0.45 cm framed the oven platform and firing chamber. There was no evidence for a permanent roof.

7  Kilns often are found built into corners of architectural structures for added support. See for example the workshops at Morgantina, in particular Workshop 1 (Kilns 1–3) in Cuomo di Caprio 1992, 11–15. 8  This plan corresponds to Class 1a types as set out in Cuomo di Caprio’s (1971/72; 1978/79 and 1979) typology of pre-Roman and Roman kilns of South Italy and Sicily. It is the most common kiln type and is found throughout the Mediterranean over a wide chronological arc.

140  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 10.12  Kiln 2 in Room 105 of I.1.1–2.

The combustion chamber had a roughly cylindrical form with a maximum diameter of 92 cm. The exterior wall, composed of clay-­bonded brick, tile, and stone (SU 57114) was built within a narrow construction trench cut into a surrounding fill of redeposited or heavily disturbed paleosols (fill: SU 57149; cut of construction trench: SU 57152; fill of construction trench: SU 57156). The inner face of the chamber was coated with two layers of refractory clay, which had been cracked and discolored from the high heat of firing. The chamber’s floor (SU 57165; elev. 8.90 masl) was composed of refractory clay about 5 cm thick; it too had been exposed to high heat,

which caused its color to vary from orange to purple to dark gray as it approached the praefurnium (Fig. 10.13). This floor overlay an earlier one (SU 57175; elev. 8.85 masl), also made of refractory clay c. 5 cm thick, which, in turn, overlay a shallow leveling fill (SU 57177) composed of a hard-­packed silty matrix that contained numerous sherds of pottery. Below this was a natural deposit of Mercato ash (SU 57190; elev. 8.745 masl). The successive floor layers indicate that the kiln had been rebuilt at least once, within or subsequent to Phase 3a. At the center of the combustion chamber was a pedestal that supported the perforated oven platform above. Such

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   141

Fig. 10.13  Interior of Kiln 2, with sections of the floor surface.

supports typically are constructed from brick or tile, but in this case the builders repurposed an amphora (SU 57166; AT57-­5).9 Its form was Dressel 1, made from a local Vesuvian fabric. The amphora had been cut in half and the upper portion, from the lower shoulder to the rim, stood on the floor of the combustion chamber (see Fig. 10.14). It was topped with a square block of tuff to provide a sturdy foundation for the 9  See Peña 2007 for examples of pottery reuse in the Roman world even though, notably, the reuse of amphorae to support a kiln floor does not appear in the study; the present example is thus unusual.

oven platform above. To reinforce the amphora, the kiln’s builders had filled its interior with raw clay, which, ideally, would have hardened during the reconstructed kiln’s first firing, bonding the amphora and tuff block. The builders had further bolstered the amphora by coating its exterior in the same refractory clay used for the (second) floor of the combustion chamber, embedding it securely within the floor. Over the amphora pedestal, the perforated oven platform (SU 57032; elev. 9.43 masl) was composed of four triangular terracotta tiles (64 cm segments, 48–50 cm from vertex to rim; 10 cm thick) that capped the cylindrical combustion chamber.

142  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 10.14  Interior of Kiln 2 during excavation with an olla in situ; form of the vessel pulled from the kiln.

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   143 Their vertices came together on top of the central pedestal (formed by the amphora and tuff block), and their rims rested on the leveling course of the combustion chamber’s wall. Three large perforations (diameter: 8 cm) pierced each tile to allow heat from the combustion chamber to rise into the firing chamber. The eastern and parts of the northern and southern quadrants were found in situ. The western quadrant was missing, likely removed when Matteo Della Corte partially exposed the uppermost parts of the kiln in 1912.10 The walls of the firing chamber had been removed almost entirely prior to excavation. Furthermore, no architectural elements of a permanent roof, such as terracotta tubuli through which hot gases passed, could be identified. The roof might have been destroyed by later construction or removed by Della Corte; remnants of it also lay on the kiln’s floor. It probably consisted of a temporary dome of clay-­ coated bricks, intended to be dismantled after each firing to retrieve the pottery from within. Such systems were common in the Roman world.11 At the rear of the kiln, a terracotta pipe with a diameter of 10 cm (SU 57074) passed through the eastern wall of Room 104/105 (SU 57178; see Fig. 10.13). Its full trajectory could not be established. This pipe likely regulated the flow of oxygen to control the intensity of the heat within the firing chamber.12 At the front of the kiln, a narrow (internal width: 47 cm) praefurnium ran westward 62 cm from the combustion chamber. On its floor, a substantial deposit of wood ash (SU  57168) attested to the kiln’s final firing. A single miniature votive cup was found among the artifacts inside the praefurnium (Votive 121).The kiln clearly had been rebuilt at least once during its uselife. Belonging to its first phase were the walls of the combustion chamber and praefurnium (SU 57114), with the lower coating of refractory clay that covered the interior wall faces and combustion chamber floor (SU 57175). At some point, the original firing chamber walls, per­for­ated oven platform, and central pedestal were removed. The walls and floor of the firing chamber then received fresh coats of clay and the amphora-­pedestal was installed. Next, a newly made per­for­ ated oven platform was positioned on the pedestal, and the walls of the firing chamber were built above. Despite this careful process, the reconstructed kiln failed on its first firing. Although clearly intended to support the perforated platform, the raw clay within the amphora shrunk 10  The sketch of the kiln’s location is on the first page of Della Corte’s notebook nr. 17 (dated Sept 24, 1912–Dec 18, 1912; Vander Poel Campanian collection, series I.C, box 47, f. 5). 11  See Cuomo di Caprio 1978/79. 12  Another kiln, located on the via Nocera (I.XX.3) in Pompeii, has similar tubes in the firing chamber: six terracotta tubes pierce the back (west) wall against which the kiln abuts, and one pierces the side (north) wall. These have been seen to function in the same way, namely “to rectify problems with the draw” (Peña and McCallum 2009, 67).

as it solidified in the course of firing. The amphora, in turn, was unable to support the load of pottery in the firing chamber above; it suffered a series of stress fractures and partially collapsed. A chain reaction followed: the perforated platform caved into the combustion chamber, followed by the walls and roof of the firing chamber. Upon excavation, the kiln was filled with the remnants of this collapse (SUs 57014, 57048, 57111, 57141, 57143, 57167). The collapsed material covered another deposit, comprising about sixty vessels that had been inside the chamber, in the midst of firing, during the collapse (Fig. 10.14). The vessel forms were all a typical class of commonware ollae, varying only slightly in size.13 The workers do not seem to have attempted to recover any of them; after the destruction, they abandoned the kiln. The area of the workshop would not be redeveloped until the Early Imperial period (see Phase 5b, below). Prior to its failure, Kiln 2 had itself replaced the earlier Kiln 1 from Phase 2, located to the east. By Phase 3a the area of Kiln 1 appears to have been used for refuse disposal, where waste from the continuing use of Kiln 2 was dumped. A large deposit of workshop waste, including wood charcoal and ash, was recovered from within the destroyed Kiln 1 (SUs 53060, 53077, 53080, 53086). Notably, several ollae of the type found in Kiln 2, some of them overfired wasters, came from this deposit. It also contained miniature votive cups similar to the example found within the praefurnium of Kiln 2, most of which had been broken or cracked by overfiring (Votives 89–94; 105–12).14 Further speaking to the deposit’s character as workshop waste, other misfired and waster sherds, including examples derived from black gloss vessels, also came from the fill, along with eight vessel separators, used to support pots during firing.15 Similar waste was found within the base of the large storage vessel (SU 53088) that stood alongside Kiln 1 (deposit within vessel: SUs 53089, 53100). Indeed, some of the material may have been mixed waste from both earlier and 13  Chiaramonte-Treré 1984, 160–1 writes that the olla is the most common class of commonware found in Pompeii. The ollae recovered in the kiln correspond to Chiaramonte-Treré’s type 1a or type 1b (1984, table 97 5–7), which circulated around the western Mediterranean, above all in the late Republican period. 14  P53-22, 23, 40, 41, and 42 from SU 53086; P53-24 (2), 25, 27, 28, 34 from SU 53060; P53-18 from SU 53077. Additional miniature votive vessels of the same or similar types were found in later fills above the kilns, perhaps representing materials that originated in the workshop but were disturbed and redistributed by later construction (P53-2, 3, 5, and 6 from SU 53010; P53-31, 37, and 38 from SU 53028; P53-20 from SU 53033; and P53-8 from SU 53063). 15  From SU 53077, two terracotta fragments (P53-19) join to create a circular disk that projects toward the center where a hole is pierced, resembling a small lid. This infrequent example is similar to Type IV of vessel separators identified by Vincenzo Cracolici (2003, 45–6, fig. 10). From SU 53086, one ­complete and six incomplete vessel separators were recovered, all of them resembling Type III of Cracolici’s typology (ring) (2003, 38–45). Cracolici’s examples, coming from the kilns at the Kerameikos workshop in Metaponto, date between the fifth and second centuries bce.

144  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i later kilns; black gloss vessels from SUs 53060, 53086, and 53089 have been dated to c. 200 bce and are probably residual here.16 Distinct from this workshop waste was an additional deposit, placed in a small pit of c. 25 cm diameter that had 16  Martin and Ribera i Lacomba forthcoming.

been cut through the fills in Kiln 1 (Ritual Context 12) (Fig.  10.15). The pit was filled with organic materials mixed with sand, among which were nine miniature votive cups (P53-­9-­17; Votives 96–104; see Fig.  10.15). Unlike those ­recovered in the surrounding fill, these nine cups were in excellent condition and did not appear to have been dumped

Fig. 10.15  Ritual Context 12 in Room 103 of I.1.1–2 during excavation; below: the nine votive cups at the time of excavation.

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   145 as workshop waste. The cups contained bread or small cakes burned whole, figs burned whole, walnuts, almonds, carob, and beans, contents that—­together with their preservation—­ suggest instead that they were part of a ritual deposit. Given that the pit had been cut into workshop waste, the ritual activity might have followed the failure of Kiln 2. Alternatively, it might have accompanied the rebuilding of that kiln, made with good wishes for its productive uselife. If that were the case, then the rebuilt kiln’s disastrous first firing certainly did not fulfill such hopes. The ceramics workshop just inside the Porta Stabia, therefore, continued to function in Phase 3a. The assemblage found within Kiln 1 and the storage vessel located next to it, which included not only commonware ollae but also black gloss and other fineware vessels, suggests that the workshop produced a variety of small kitchen and table wares. Moreover, the mini­ature votive cups used in the ritual deposit perhaps were produced here as well, given that similar examples were included in the workshop refuse (see Chapter 19.12). That the ceramics workshop just inside the Porta Stabia produced votive cups suggests an intertwining of economic and ritual behaviors in this area of the city. The workshop’s location appears calculated to capitalize on regular and sometimes heavy traffic, which would have provided a ready market for the goods it produced. The desire for votives might have been especially strong near the gate, which not only was impregnated with sacred meaning but also by this phase ­contained a small shrine (see Chapter 16). On the one hand, the potters who worked here must have viewed the votives much like any other product: as merchandise that could turn a small profit. On the other, they did not ignore the (future) sacred status of such votives, which appears to have influenced whether misfired examples were retailed or rejected. Clearly, misfired tablewares could not be sold; such mistakes would have greatly impaired their functioning. In the case of votive cups and bowls, however, faint cracks and other minor firing mistakes would not have greatly impaired their functioning; after all, they simply needed to survive long enough to receive an offering and be placed in a shrine. Nevertheless, many of the discarded votive cups recovered from the waste in Kiln 1 and the vessel beside it had neg­li­ gible defects. Apparently, the votives had been inspected carefully before sale, and even those with minor imperfections were tossed onto the trash heap with the other flawed vessels. These imperfect votives could speak to the per­ forma­tive nature of Italic ritual behavior, which focused above all on the correctness of ritual p­ erformance. Perhaps a cracked votive bowl or cup threatened this c­ orrectness. Any imperfection, therefore, made the votive object as useless as flawed tableware. Notably, the misfired votive cups were deemed unsuitable even for ritual activity within the work-

shop itself; no example from Ritual Context 12 showed evidence for misfiring or other production errors. After the failure of Kiln 2, ceramics production might have moved elsewhere in the neighborhood, echoing the earlier move between Kilns 1 and 2. A new kiln could have been located either in an area of Insula I.1 that we did not excavate or even farther afield. Indeed, a kiln of the Julio-­Claudian period has been found in Insula I.5, just 25 m away from Kiln 2.17

The public well Another significant development of this phase occurred in the open space to the west of the ceramics workshop, where a public well was constructed at the southeastern corner of Insula I.1 (Fig. 10.16; well: SUs 50016, 50021, 50023, 50029, 50034, 50120). The well cut through the natural paleosol and its shaft (at least the uppermost parts) was lined with massive Sarno blocks in the form of opus quadratum; the courses of these blocks presumably extended through the paleosol until the shaft reached the lava beneath (Fig. 10.17).18 The upper shaft measured 1.3 m north–­south by 1.25 m east–­west (see also Phase 7b). The depth of the well was c. 11.70 m, as determined by coring.19 The Sarno limestone blocks lining the shaft ­differed in size from course to course, ranging in height from 41 cm to 61 cm. In some courses, a single block spanned the entire width of the shaft, while in others two blocks were used instead of one. One course on the eastern face, meanwhile, used five smaller blocks, which ranged in width from 18 cm to 40 cm; these continued below the limits of excavations, so their depth was not established. Topping the shaft were two larger, more irregularly cut Sarno limestone blocks; the western block 1.85 × 0.5 × 0.5 m, and the eastern block 1.93 × 0.5 × 0.5 m. The well was located immediately south of the original southern boundary wall of Property  I.1.1–2 (WCUs 1000, 1006); the wall and the masonry of the well abutted one another. Determining their chronological relationship was impossible, but it seems most likely that the public well came first, with the building responding to its location. The well would be enclosed and incorporated into the property in a later phase (Phase 5b), and fully closed to the public prior to

17  Cavassa 2009. The terminus post quem of the kiln’s construction is the end of the Augustan period into the reign of Tiberius. 18  The public well previously uncovered just inside the Porta Vesuvio, having been discovered more or less unfilled, provides the best example of the strata the Porta Stabia well’s construction would encounter and cut through. There, opus quadratum blocks descended 3.10 m to rest upon a 2.5 m deep stratum of sterile compacted volcanic material. Below this was a stratum of lava 10.7 m thick, followed by 0.7 m of compacted ash and then a second stratum of lava 5.0 m thick. Below this were various strata of prehistoric volcanic ejecta descending the final 16.26 m (see Maiuri 1931, 546–52). 19  The coring was undertaken on our behalf by Giovanni Di Maio.

146  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 10.16  The public well in Room 102 of I.1.1–2; note the increased wear marks along the western internal face.

the eruption (Phase 7a), but in this period was open to public use. Attrition marks in its uppermost Sarno limestone blocks show that it was accessed originally from its eastern and western sides. On each side, the block topping the shaft exhibits vertical grooves along its inner face, the result of friction caused by ropes pulling up vessels of water (see Figs. 10.16, 10.17, 14.27). The shaft walls on both the western and eastern sides, ­f urthermore, were worn from the vessels themselves banging against the walls as they were raised, creating wide, shallow grooves. The attrition marks were deeper on the western side of the well than the eastern; apparently more people accessed the well from the via Stabiana than from the open area south of Property  I.1.1–2, between the well and the ceramics workshop. Additionally, the eastern access would be blocked entirely in a reconstruction of the well’s superstructure in the early first century bce (Phase 4a), forcing subsequent access to come from the west.20 The zone surrounding the well had 20  Until the well’s incorporation into the property in Phase 5b, from which point it was accessed from the north.

been heavily affected by later construction, but a patch of mortar surface (SU 50147) that appears to have belonged to this earliest phase of use abutted the well’s western side. West of the surface, beneath the (later) facade wall of the expanded Property I.1.1–2 (WCUs 1001, 1002, 1003), two Sarno limestone blocks (SUs 50528, 50529) laid end-­to-­end provided a stepped approach to the well from the via Stabiana. The public well uncovered in Insula  I.1 is one of fewer than ten such known from Pompeii. Others have been found in the Forum, the Triangular Forum, and just inside the Porta Ercolano, while the two remaining have come from elsewhere along the via Stabiana: one just inside the Porta Vesuvio (VI.16.22) and the other about midway along the road, at the northwestern corner of Insula IX.2.21 These 21  Forum and Triangular Forum: Maiuri 1931, 552; Porta Ercolano: Spano 1910c, 563–7; Porta Vesuvio: Maiuri 1931, 546–52; Insula IX.2: Coarelli and Pesando 2006b; Pender 2008. Other large wells of this period, possibly open for public use, were associated with bath complexes, having been found in the Stabian Baths, Forum Baths, and Republican Baths.

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   147 East Section

South Section

West Section

North Section

10.00 masl 9.84 masl

1.0 m 9.00 masl

0m 0m

1.0 m

Excavated well opening (2.0 m) 2.0 m 2.3 m

Pumice and pyroclastic fills mixed with post-eruption debris (0.3 m)

Pyroclastic fills mixed with painted plaster and building debris (1.0 m)

8.00 masl

7.00 masl

3.3 m Post-eruption debris of ceramics and plaster (0.6 m) 3.9 m 4.1 m

5.3 m

6.0 m

Pyroclastic fills with some pumice, mixed with ceramics and building materials (0.2 m) Anthropogenic material associated with final occupation of 79 CE: some white pumice and mostly many bone fragments increasing with depth, tiny ceramic and glass sherds, and carbonized organic fragments, also increasing with depth (1.2 m) Heterogeneous accumulation of coarse fragments of mortar and masonry, large bone fragments, and bi-valve shells in a clayey, silty matrix, much carbonized (0.7 m)

Empty void, lost to movement (2.0 m)

Coarse black sand, essentially pyroclastic in nature. Ceramic pebbles and many minute ceramic fragments (2.0 m)

10.8 m

11.7 m 12.0 m

5.00 masl

4.00 masl

3.00 masl

2.00 masl

8.0 m

10.0 m

6.00 masl

Coarse black sand and gravel, with many (40% of the volume) minute ceramics with sharp edges of mainly small containers (thin-walled). Abundant bone remains and teeth (0.8 m) Coarse ceramic fragments with sharp edges (exceeding 50% of the volume) in a matrix of black silt. Includes bone and small glass fragments (0.9 m) Lithoid lava with abundant presence of vacuoles, leucite, and augite phenocrysts. Lava related to effusive events of the Paleolithic period (0.3 m)

1.00 masl

0.00 masl

–1.00 masl

–2.00 masl

Fig. 10.17  The four sections of the well in Room 102 of I.1.1–2, with the coring to indicate the nature and depths of the deposits.

148  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i locations reflect particularly important zones for the city, which was rapidly urbanizing in the second century bce. The well at the Porta Stabia indicates the neighborhood’s centrality in this period, as an important path into the city from the south.

Quarrying and other activity in the area of Properties I.1.3–5 and I.1.6–9 To the north of the well and the newly constructed Property  I.1.1–2, Insula  I.1 remained relatively undeveloped (Subphases 51.2, 55.2a, 52.3). In this period, the area was u ­ til­ized

as a quarry, with only one structure apparent in the area of (later) Property  I.1.3–5. All that survived of this structure were five opus quadratum pillars, later incorporated into the corners of Rooms 120 and 121 (see Fig.  10.01; WCUs 1048, 1049, 1050, 1062, 1067). A sixth pillar might have stood with them originally, in what would become the southeastern corner of Room 121; if so, it was removed in antiquity. Each pillar was constructed of large blocks of Sarno limestone. Where the pillars’ foundations were excavated, they were extremely sturdy. The foundations of the southwestern pillar (WCU 1062) were quite similar to those noted throughout Property I.1.1–2, with the pillar founded on a layer of lime-­rich

Fig. 10.18  The paving of the via Stabiana.

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   149

Fig. 10.19  The earlier curbstones of the via Stabiana; note also the later lead pipe that fed the fountain, as well as Drain 1 (at left). Viewed from the south.

mortar (SUs 51103, 51104, 55093) that had been poured into place as a slurry. On the northern side of the pillar, the slurry had run down one side of a quarry pit that was open during the construction process (Quarry Area 12, Pit 12a). The pillar to the north (WCU 1067) was founded somewhat differently, on a large Sarno limestone block that had been set into a foundation trench, cut from the north (foundation trench cut: SU 52030; foundation block: SU 52029; looser fill surrounding block: SU 52108). Whatever the precise form of the architecture that incorporated the pillars, it was clearly substantial, and might even have supported an upper floor. The pillars could have defined an open area or might have framed a building with walls in wood, wattle and daub, or some other ephemeral material.

First stone paving of the via Stabiana; interventions at the gate The earliest known paving in stone of the via Stabiana belongs to Phase 3a, having been part of a larger project to resurface Pompeii’s eponymous street along with other

major thoroughfares (Fig.  10.18; Subphases 4.1, 10.3, 14.4).22 Although our excavations did not target the via Stabiana itself, this early paving was attested by the presence of four steppingstones of  lava stone, which once crossed the via Stabiana to connect the sidewalks fronting Entrances  I.1.2 and VIII.7.2. These were flush with the final paving of Phase 5 (see Chapter 12). Likewise, four tuff blocks were revealed in the cleaning surrounding the Porta Stabia fountain (Fig. 10.19; SUs 4018). Like the steppingstones, the blocks were flush with the final paving but appeared to belong to the curb and sidewalk of the earlier iteration underlying it. Alongside and slightly underlying the blocks was a hard-­packed deposit that contained many off-­cut pieces of Sarno limestone, probably representing a subsurface for a contemporary sidewalk (SU 4019). This period at the end of the second and beginning of the first century bce was a time of major infrastructural re­invest­ment in Pompeii. The new pavement not only provided a durable surface for traffic entering and exiting the city but also fixed the border of the via Stabiana for the next two centuries. Within the Porta Stabia neighborhood, the paving project accompanied, or perhaps more likely—­presaged—­ this period of rapid development in the insulae. Where the road passed through the Porta Stabia itself, a packed-­earth sidewalk was excavated on its eastern side (SU 14216). At this time, an altar was constructed against the passageway wall (Ritual Context 8); an arcuated niche cut into the wall above (Ritual Context 2), the first in a series of two niches here, completed the shrine and might even have predated the altar (see Figs. 16.06, 16.12, 16.16). The god worshipped at the shrine appears to have been Minerva Patrua, who served as the protector of this important entryway into the city (see Chapter 16).23

Phase 3b: subsequent developments Activities in Insula VIII.7 We noted structural developments of Phase 3a primarily within Property VIII.7.5–8 (Fig.  10.20). Such developments included the construction of new walls to reconfigure the property’s central area around a narrow corridor, giving it a tripartite form reminiscent of the properties to the north and south (Fig. 10.21; Corridor 18, formed by the construction of WCUs 079, 080, 081, 093, 096, 097). Two doorways in the northern corridor wall (which, like the wall closing the southern side of Room 15 since Phase 3a, followed the alignment of the earlier, Phase 1c, mixed pappamonte wall) allowed for passage through the property (the doorways would be later blocked by WCUs 162 and 163). Although no evidence for it was revealed in our trenches, the southern corridor wall 22  Poehler and Crowther 2018, 588–91. 23  Van der Graaff and Ellis 2017.

150  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 10.20  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 3b.

might have continued eastward in this period, through Rooms 14 and 15 (and below later WCU 084) to mirror the northern wall. This construction activity closed the northern side of Room 16, but it remained open to Room 15 to the east. A few other spaces within the property also were restructured at this time. The northern wall of (later) Room 37 was added, constructed as a bonded unit with a reconstructed version of the room’s western wall (WCUs 072, 172). To the south, Room 22 was created with the construction of WCUs 028, 070, 096, 097, 098. In this phase, doorways—­later blocked (with WCUs 164 and 166)—led through the room from north to south, and the wide doorway in the western wall, between WCUs 097 and 098, probably did not yet exist. The western wall might have represented the rear boundary of the property in this period, although the presence of Corridor 18 could suggest that its owners had gained access to the undeveloped zone to the west, between the property and the Quadriporticus. Despite these architectural changes, few new surfaces of Phase 3b were found in Property VIII.7.5–8. The only exception

was in Room 20 (Phase 25.2b), where the opus signinum surface (SU 25050) surrounding Cistern 7 was repaired or resurfaced in packed earth (SUs 25033, 25035). We observed no evidence for changes in activity within the property. Immediately north, in Property VIII.7.9–13, some minor developments also belong to this Phase (Fig. 10.22; Subphase 18.2). Room 58 remained open to the north (accessing Room 67), but two walls (later removed) were installed to form a smaller room at the front of the property. One wall ran north–­south (SU 18061) to abut the southern wall of Room 58 (WCU 042). It formed a corner with an east–­west running wall (SU 18030), which continued under the later threshold of Room 58. To the north of the small room, the cesspit of Phase 3a (Waste Feature 14) continued in use, now accessed by a drain that ran from the west (Fig. 10.23) (Drain 21). The cesspit probably remained open at the top as well, receiving waste via the new drain as well as via direct deposit. In the still undeveloped area to the north of the property, a few infrastructural fixtures were added to the space later

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   151

Fig. 10.21  Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 3b.

accessed by Entrance 14 (Subphase 27.3). A large and rocky leveling fill (SUs 27026, 27051) raised the ground level by 30 cm to c. 12.15 masl and covered the soak-­away of the preceding phase. Into this fill, a new drain (Drain 27; partially visible in Fig. 14.26) was constructed along the outside of the northern partition wall of Property VIII.7.9–13 (WCUs 011, 014, 157), while a second exterior soak-­ away (Soak-­Away 6) was installed immediately to the north. The drain channeled li­quid from the west to the east and showed no evidence of having been covered, instead functioning as an open sluice.

Activities in Insula I.1 Across the street, property I.1.1–2 underwent some minor reconstruction in Phase 3b (Fig. 10.24; Subphases 50.3, 59.2b). A wall (SU 50111), later destroyed, ran east–­west across (later)

Room 101 to divide it into a smaller northern and a larger southern room. A doorway at the center provided access between the two. The building’s facade also was reconstructed, with a narrow entrance from the street only into the northern room (new facade wall: SU 50069). In the southern room within (later) Room 101, a packed-­earth surface was installed (SU 50043; elev. 9.32 masl). To the north, the surface was more ephemeral, but appears to have been packed earth topped with mortar (SU 50064). Like the outdoor sluice added to the north of Property VIII.7.9–13 (Drain 27, see above) in this period, a smaller and less substantial open drain was constructed behind Property I.1.1–2 (Drain 37). It was narrow (c. 25 cm wide) and uncovered, constructed with a thin layer of plaster (c. 7 cm thick) that abutted the rear (eastern) property boundary wall. The drain was quite ephemeral and survived in a portion that was c. 1 m

152  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 10.22  Plan of Property VIII.7.9–13 during Phase 3b.

long; elsewhere it had been removed by later activity. It carried waste from north to south and likely served to remove rainwater. Whether the kiln to the south in (later) Room 105 continued to function in this phase is unclear; its final firing and destruction might have occurred already in Phase 3a.

Developments to the street and sidewalk Other developments of this period were evident in the central area of Insula I.1, where the Phase 3a quarry (Quarry Area 12) was closed and covered with a thick, hard-­packed deposit that appears to have functioned as a new sidewalk (Subphases 52.4, 55.2b). The sidewalk was exposed in a small window excavated in front of Entrance 5 (SUs 55090, 55132); the same deposit continued into the western side of (later) Room 120 (as SUs 55127, 55128) and also was found in (later) Room 122 (SUs 52022, 52023, 52037). Its elevation dropped gradually from north to south, from c. 9.80 masl at its northernmost point, to c. 9.60 masl at its southernmost.

Conclusion The arrival of four properties—­VIII.7.1–4, VIII.7.5–8, VIII.7.9–13, and I.1.1–2—at more or less the same time represents a foundational phase in the development of the Porta Stabia

neighborhood. Their construction marks the first physical and conceptual establishment of the two insulae that would remain in more or less the same shape through to 79 ce (see Fig.  10.01). As with the activities of Phase 2, developments concentrated toward the south; the northern parts of both insulae would be built up in Phase 4. The construction of four properties of considerable size, yet in the service of arguably modest activities, represents a sizable and committed investment in both production ac­tiv­ ities (at least ceramics in Insula  I.1, but the soak-­aways and tanks could suggest other efforts in manufacture in both insulae) and property portfolios. Property investment is, of course, a difficult subject to understand fully (and one we will return to in Chapter 18), particularly when associated with the urban sub-­elite. And even if not all of these spaces were roofed at this time, at least the footprints of each property, as well as the materials, labor, and technical know-­how that went into their construction alone constitute levels of investment that would have required some elite involvement: the properties at this time measure c. 285m2 for VIII.7.1–4; 845m2 for VIII.7.5–8; 450m2 for VIII.7.9–13; and 175m2 for I.1.1–2. To put these numbers in some context, the standard size for an urban plot for a Vesuvian city, and notably for 79 ce, was c. 200m2.24 24  Wallace-Hadrill 2011, 240. For Maiuri 1958, the size was smaller still, at 185m2.

ph a se 3: t h e e sta b l i sh m e n t o f i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1   ·   153

Fig. 10.23  Drain 21 leading toward Waste Feature 14 in Room 58 of VIII.7.9–13.

Fig. 10.24  Plan of Property I.1.1–2 during Phase 3b.

Even if we are missing internal divisions—­if, for example, the tripartite structures of the properties in Insula VIII.7 indicate that each was divided into a series of row houses (see Chapter 2 for the principles by which we divided properties)— the buildings themselves represent substantial investments. These Phase 3 developments thus could hardly have occurred within a social or economic vacuum. Their construction coincided with the height of Pompeii’s “Golden Age,” a period of increased urban development that had begun in the earlier part of the second century bce (Phase 2), but which hit its peak by the later part of the same century (Phase 3). Not only do we see the construction at (or by) this time of all of the largest houses that would ever be built within the walls of Pompeii, but also we observe the monumentalization of civic spaces like the forum and triangular forum, the equally important installation of essential infrastructure like street

154  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i curbs and raised sidewalks,25 the quarrying of local lava as we uncovered in the north of Insula I.1, and the digging of deep, public wells like that we discovered in Room 102 at I.1.1–2. Within all of this development, the centrality of the Porta Stabia neighborhood is made clearest by contemporaneous investments into the via Stabiana itself. Whereas nearly all of Pompeii’s stone-­paved streets received their lava stone 25  On which see Poehler 2017, 59–60.

s­ urfaces in the Augustan period—­and some streets, particularly on the eastern side of the city, had yet to be paved at the time of the eruption—­the via Stabiana/via Vesuvio featured silex paving already in the later second or very early first century bce, our Phase 3.26 As such, it was among the first of the city’s streets to boast this substantial, not to mention expensive, urban infrastructure. 26  See Poehler 2017, 63–9; Poehler and Crowther 2018, 588–91.

c h a pt e r 1 1

Phase 4 Fish-­Salting and Other Activities across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (Early First Century bce–­Early First Century ce)

The construction of new buildings that filled out the northern area of each insula defines the development of the Porta Stabia neighborhood in Phase 4. This period dated from the early years of the colony, or at least the early years of the first century bce, until about the end of the same century. While most of the developments are associated with Phase 4a, subsequent modifications characterize Phase 4b and Phase 4c. The sum of these events brought both insulae nearly to their final shapes, if not their final divisions of space (Fig.  11.01). Though the new, northernmost property of Insula VIII.7 incorporated a room that had previously belonged to its southern neighbor (Room 67, previously part of VIII.7.9–13 and now incorporated into VIII.7.13–15), property divisions were otherwise maintained, with four properties on the western side of the via Stabiana (VIII.7.1–4, VIII.7.5–8, VIII.7.9–12, and VIII.7.13–15) and three on the eastern side (I.1.1–2, I.1.3–5, and I.1.6–9). At this time, much of the neighborhood was occupied by manufacturing activities, with salted fish making up one significant focus of production. Additionally, a tannery was added to the rear (Room 56) of Property VIII.7.9–12. Such production facilities would typify the overall character of the neighborhood until Phase 5, when we see a wholesale replacement of manufacturing by the introduction of more dedicated retailing activities.

Phase 4a: widespread redevelopment New properties in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Construction of Property VIII.7.13–15 The northernmost area of Insula VIII.7 was a site of significant activity in Phase 4a (Fig. 11.02; Subphases 8.1, 20.2, 27.4, 28.2). At this time, a new property arose to occupy much of the area that had remained undeveloped in previous phases (Fig. 11.03). In fact, this new building at Entrances 14 and 15 could be considered two properties; wide entrances led into each, and whether their interior spaces were interconnected with doorways remains unclear. Additionally, the two had

slightly different footprints from the time of their construction, with the rear (westernmost) wall at VIII.7.14 extending slightly farther west than that of VIII.7.15. Nevertheless, their construction histories run parallel throughout the life of the neighborhood and, given that their separation or unification remains an open question, we will consider them together here (see also discussion of our methods for dividing properties in Chapter 2). The earliest architectures present in Property VIII.7.13–14 included its northern boundary wall (WCU 001); the long east–­west running wall that divided the area accessed through Entrance 14 from that accessed through Entrance 15 (WCU 002; construction trench cut: SU 2U 27048, fill: SU 27032); the facade walls (WCUs 013, 015); the rear (westernmost) wall behind Entrance 14 (SU 28058), which abutted the earlier terracing wall to the south (WCUs 011, 014, 157); and the rear (westernmost) wall behind Entrance 15 (SUs 8019, 28062), which covered the earlier Waste Feature 15 (of Phase 3a). Upon the destruction of that cesspit, which was filled in a single dumping event (with SUs 28065, 28069, 28074), a new cesspit was added c. 5 m to the east (Waste Feature 23). This unlined pit was capped by a series of local and imported African amphorae laid in a row (SU 8024), three of which were nearly complete; unfortunately, the deposit had been disturbed by the installation of a modern pipe, obscuring the precise relationship of amphorae to cesspit (see also Waste Feature 11). The new fixture was located in Room 78, which was defined by the single interior wall that could be placed in this phase (WCU 003). With the new property (or properties) established, a doorway was opened through the earlier terracing wall dividing VIII.7.14 from VIII.7.13 (with the removal of WCU 157), providing access between Room 67 and Room 68. Room 67 received its southern wall (WCU 024) at the same time, dividing it from the spaces to the south. This front room, therefore, which had previously been a part of Property VIII.7.9–13, was now in­corp­or­ated into the new property to the north. Most surfaces of this earliest phase were missing from areas excavated within VIII.7.13–15, but one was recognized in

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.00011

156  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.01  Aerial view indicating the properties (VIII.7.13–15, I.1.3–5, and I.1.6–9) that were newly constructed in Phase 4; viewed from the west.

Room 68. It was made of packed earth covered in mortar, preserved only in patches that were elevated at c. 12.25 masl (mortar surface: SU 27035, SU 27044; packed-­earth subsurface: SU 27038), destroying Drain 27 and Soak-­Away 6 (of Phase 3b). On the northern side of the room, plaster on the long interior wall (WCU 002; plaster: SU 27033) lipped out just above the wall foundations at the level of the mortar surface; matching plaster was observed in the southeastern corner, on the interior of the facade wall (WCU 015; plaster: SU 27129). Along with or soon after this construction activity, a large quarry was opened in the still-­undeveloped zone to the west of the new construction (Quarry Area 9). The quarry respected the new walls and continued beyond the limits of

our excavation. It likely provided building materials for the property’s construction, and given its large size, might even have served the contemporaneous construction of the Theatrum Tectum to the north. The quarry might also have been associated with the major—­and very likely civic—­water management that took place in this area in Phase 4a, as indicated by a massive water channel (Drain 25) that curved across the northwestern corner of Insula VIII.7, behind the newly established Property VIII.7.13–15 (Fig. 11.04; see also Fig. 12.38 for its later, Phase 5a fill). After Quarry Area 9 had been partially filled, this large drain was inserted into it. The interior of the drain was c. 1.3 m wide where it emerged from the northern side of Insula

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   157

Fig. 11.02  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 4a.

158  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.03  Plan of Property VIII.7.13–15 during Phase 4a.

Fig. 11.04  Drain 25 in the northwest corner of (later) VIII.7.15; viewed from the west

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   159 VIII.7 but narrowed to c. 0.9 m where it exited below the Quadriporticus wall (WCU 010). It was lined with a high-­quality hydraulic plaster that was beveled at the base to protect the junction between its floor and side walls (construction of channel: SUs 28027, 28034, 28035, 28039; hydraulic plaster: SUs 28030, 28036, 28046). Based on its size and quality, the chron­ ology of its creation and (later) destruction, and on its pos­ ition leading directly away from the center of the Theatrum Tectum, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that Drain 25 served the drainage needs of one of the largest roofed structures at Pompeii. Similarly, based on the alignment of its exit, the drain’s destination appears to have been the set of large cisterns below the eastern colonnade of the Quadriporticus.1 Finally, an enigmatic square structure (SU 28031) was inserted behind (to the west of ) Property VIII.7.13–15, between the building and Drain 25 (Fig. 11.05; see also Fig. 11.04). This fixture measured c. 1.40 m square, and like Drain 25 had been built into the fill of Quarry Area 9.2 It appears to have been constructed from material derived from the quarry itself, being built of large and highly angular lava stones that were apparently freshly quarried. The stones were bonded sparingly by a light gray mortar, not dissimilar to that used for the construction of nearby Drain 25. Unfortunately, the fixture was insubstantial and relatively poorly constructed; it might have served as a foundation for another structure that was removed when the area was renovated in Phase 5a. On the

other hand, this unusual fixture is, like Drain 25, itself centered on the Theatrum Tectum (a position made possible only by the curve in Drain 25) and may once have had some relationship with that building. The final infilling of Quarry Area 9, around the square fixture and the drain, contained tantalizing clues as to the fate of nearby structures that might have been demolished—­or at least renovated—­in Phase 4a. To the south of the square fixture, a series of deep fills (c. 1.7 m from bedrock to ground modern level) were deposited in immediate succession within Quarry Area 9. The uppermost layer (SU 28011) contained a large amount of building debris, including stone, broken roof tiles, and many fragments of plain and painted plaster. More unusually, it also contained a large piece of molded plaster cornice (PL28-­3), a fragment of gilded bronze (AU28-­1), an anatomical votive foot in terracotta (TC28-­8; Votive 52), and a second—­ more fragmentary—­ piece of sculpted terracotta, perhaps representing part of an anatomical votive womb (TC28-­9; Votive 53). Below this uppermost fill were two add­ ition­al layers (SUs 28012 and 28013) that also were rich in cultural materials that were uncommon elsewhere at the site (Fig.  11.06), including more pieces of painted and molded plaster (PL28-­1a-­e, PL28-­2a-­c), parts of terracotta figurines (TC28-­1, TC28-­2, TC28-­3, TC28-­6, TC28-­7), and fragmentary anatomical votives (TC28-­4, TC28-­5; Votives 55, 56).3 At the

1  See Poehler and Ellis 2013, 12–13. 2 Quarrying, however, likely continued within Quarry Area 9 to the south of the structure and Drain 25 (see Chapter 19.8).

3  Despite the consistency in the assemblage as a whole, we should note that later activities of the Augustan period introduced some contamination into the uppermost fills (SUs 28011 and 28012).

Fig. 11.05  Stone structure (SU 28047) in the northwest corner of (later) VIII.7.15; viewed from the south.

160  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.06  Terracotta fragments of a left foot (TC28-­5) and a face (TC28-­6); both from SU 28012.

base of the quarry, the lowermost deposit of fill (SU 28015) contained large quantities of building material as well as add­ ition­al fragments of molded terracotta (AT28-­3a–­h). Taken together, these distinctive fills suggest that those closing

Quarry Area 9 drew from stored hardcore material derived from the dismantlement of a sizable structure, perhaps even a public building that preceded the Theatrum Tectum. Broadly contemporaneous construction elsewhere in the neighborhood

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   161 of that theater, including within Property I.1.3–5 in Phase 4b (see below), might have utilized the same material (see Fig. 11.37; also Chapter 18).

Construction of Property I.1.3–5 Property  I.1.3–5 was established in Phase 4a to define the central area of Insula I.1 (Fig. 11.07; Subphases 51.3, 55.3, 59.3). The southern boundary of the new property was delineated by the northern boundary of the earlier Property I.1.1–2 (see Fig.  10.09; WCU 1030 of Phase 3a), while its new northern boundary enclosed the northernmost line of pillars that had stood in the area since Phase 3a (see Fig. 10.01; northern wall: WCUs 1043, 1066, 1110; pillars: WCUs 1048, 1049, 1067). Likewise, the western pillars (WCUs 1062, 1067) defined its facade line, and the opus testaceum pillar immediately to the south of them (WCU 1061) was added at this time, originally as part of a longer facade wall that crossed later Entrance 4 to form a narrower access into the property. At Entrance 5 a facade wall that consisted of Sarno limestone blocks (SUs 51059, 55025) underlay the later threshold stones (Threshold 21), indicating that it too was narrower or entirely absent in this period; a later robbing trench indicated the removal of one or more of the blocks to widen or add a doorway here in

Phase 4b (robbing trench cut: SU 55136; robbing trench fill: SU 55024). The property in this phase did not extend as far east as its final iteration; its rear (easternmost) wall ran just east of the northeastern corner of Property  I.1.1–2, where it was excavated in Room 110 (SU 59095). Although unexcavated for much of its length, it likely continued north to meet WCU 1043, which would survive until 79 ce. Only the wall’s foundations were preserved, constructed of unmortared Sarno limestone and lava within a narrow construction trench (cut for construction trench: SU 59096; fill of construction trench: SU 59097). The wall would be substantially rebuilt in Phase 4b (reconstruction of wall: SU 59011). A narrow doorway led from the area of (later) Room 110 to the open space behind Property I.1.1-­2 (later Room 111) in Phase 4a. The original interior organization of Property I.1.3–5 differed from its final arrangement. In the area of (later) Room 118, the foundation of an east–­west running cross wall of unmortared lava stones abutted the Sarno block foundation of the facade (cross wall: SU 51094). The cross wall’s foundation was centered within a construction trench (cut of construction trench: SUs 51113, 51115; fill of construction trench: SUs 51105, 51108). It survived only to c. 50 cm in length, being truncated by the later construction of Cistern 8 (in Phase 4b; see Fig. 11.40). The

Fig. 11.07  Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 4a.

162  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.08  The “workbench” along the southern side of (later) Room 118 of I.1.3–5.

wall supported by this foundation likely formed a northeastern corner with a second wall of this phase, constructed in the same way and running north–­south on the eastern side of the room (SU 51034/51077; construction trench cut: SU 51143; construction trench fill: SU 51106). To the south was a “workbench” fixture that crossed the entire southern side of (later) Room 118 (Fig. 11.08; workbench: SU 51033). Built in opus incertum, this fixture was at least 3.50 m long and 0.45 m wide. It continued under the later brick pillar in the southeastern corner of (later) Room 118 (WCU 1058) as well as below the later southern wall (WCU 1059), obscuring its full size. It was elevated at c. 10.00 masl, and we found no evidence that it ever had been finished with a layer of plaster or any other material. Due to the later wall above, we could not determine whether the feature abutted a southern wall of this period or stood open to (later) Room 109 to the south. Several quarry pits, apparently intended to remove Mercato ash for the construction activities of this phase, were detected alongside the workbench (Quarry Area 11). To the north, the area of (later) Room 120 appears to have remained largely open in Phase 4a. The pillars of the previous phase were still in place, perhaps supporting walls in wood or some other perishable material. All of the surfaces encountered within this early phase of the property were made of packed earth. Within (later) Room 118, the surface (SU 51057) was encountered at c. 9.70 masl and covered in light gray, crushed lava. This surface was in use with the “workbench” fixture (SU 51033), which rose c. 30 cm above it. Very similar surfaces were uncovered elsewhere: to the east, in the area of (later) Room 119 (SU 51092; elev. c. 9.60 masl) and in the southeastern corner of the property, in (later) Room 10 (SU 59098; elev. c. 9.60 masl). There was no evidence of an intentional surface to the northwest, in (later) Room

120; if one existed at this time, extensive later interventions in the area might have removed it. Cut into the surface in (later) Room 110 and used along with it was a shallow tank that abutted the western side of the rear boundary wall of Property I.1.3–5 (wall: SU 59095; tank: SU 59053). The tank was 0.90 m wide, with a minimal length of 1.15 m; its northern edge was not recovered. Its southern and western edges were built of opus incertum of Sarno limestone, lined in gray plaster (plaster: SU 59058). An opus signinum sluice drain fed into the tank from its southwestern corner (sluice: SU 59056), and a weathered lava stone placed on its southeastern side might have served a similar purpose (lava stone: SU 59060). The tank was shallow, only 20 cm deep, and although its uppermost edge was weathered, the presence of the sluice drain suggests that it was preserved to its full depth. Its purpose remains unclear. It might have related to activities associated with the “workbench” at the front of the property, but we could determine no physical or precise functional relationship between the two. Sometime after the construction of the property but still within Phase 4a, a few modifications were made to the areas of (later) Rooms 118 and 119. Discernible interventions were minor in (later) Room 119, where a new packed-­earth surface was laid (surface and subsurface fill: SU 51066; elev. c. 9.87 masl). Developments to (later) Room 118 were more substantial. Here as well, the floor level was raised 15–20 cm and a new packed-­earth surface, preserved ephemerally above the fill, was introduced at c. 9.87 masl (surface and fill: SUs 51044, 51126). This activity lowered the height of the workbench feature, bringing it to about 10 cm above ground level. Apparently at the same time, a semicircular sluice drain, lined with hydraulic plaster, was cut into the northeastern side of the

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   163 workbench (see Fig. 11.08; sluice: SU 51137, plaster lining: SU 51138). The drain sloped toward a cesspit that had been added just north of it (Waste Feature 20), in the corner formed by the workbench and the eastern cross wall (SU 51034/51077). The cesspit was round, c. 0.9 m in diameter and c. 1.6 m deep (see Fig. 11.09). It was unlined and cut through the packed-­earth surface of this phase as well as earlier cultural and nat­ural deposits below. The lower portion of its fill might have consisted of material deposited into the pit as primary waste; the matrix was a dark, rich loam that contained a high concentration of charcoal, many small animal bones, and many ceramics related to cooking, dining, and food storage (fill: SU 51088). At some point during the same phase, the cesspit was restructured into a soak-­away (Soak-­Away 8). This involved filling the pit with a loose deposit of secondary waste that contained an usually large amount of sizable rubble (SUs 51072; Fig. 11.09), including portions of terracotta pipe, several chunks of thick mortar that had derived from a barrel vault, and several pieces of an eastern Heavy Utilitarian Ware basin or brazier (P51072–K8=P51-­1). This fill supported a Punic amphora that functioned as the soak-­away itself (Fig. 11.10). Notably, the fill within Soak-­Away 8 (SUs 51086, 51087), like contemporaneous soak-­ aways associated with fish-­ salting vats (and as significantly, unlike those in rooms without vats), contained a large quantity of fish bones and fish scales. The fill raises the possibility that Room 118 also housed a fish-­salting vat in this period, which was destroyed by the subsequent construction of a large cistern (Cistern 8) in Phase 4b.

On the northern side of the property, in the open area of (later) Room 120, a pit with an unusual shape was dug c. 2.50 m through earlier cultural and natural deposits, stopping at the hard lava bedrock (Figs. 11.11 and 11.12). At its northern end, the pit cut (SU 55098) was cylindrical, c. 75 cm in diam­eter. Its walls were nearly straight, and access was facilitated by footholds, three cut on the northeastern side and two on the southwestern side (Fig.  11.13; a third might have been lost during our excavations). Each foothold was reinforced with a thin layer of plaster. To the south, the round cut extended out into a c. 2 m long channel that curved toward the southwest. The channel led down into the pit via two large steps cut into the Mercato ash, in which ancient shovel marks were still visible. The entire pit was filled in a single event, seemingly soon after it had been cut (fill: SUs 55051, 55087, 55097, 55099, 55120). The fill contained much rubble, in a gritty matrix with lenses of green clay and redeposited Mercato ash. Finds were small and heavily broken. All of this suggests that the fill was secondary waste, imported for the express purpose of closing the newly opened pit. While we can be sure that useful construction materials were extracted from this pit, at the same time it might have been intended for a different purpose. The cylindrical northern portion was made with particular care, perhaps representing the attempted, but aborted, construction of a well, cistern, cesspit, or other subterranean water or waste management feature. For reasons unknown, however, the construction was abandoned before its completion. Work seems to have stopped when the round pit hit the extremely hard lava bedrock; if the original intention was to excavate a deeper void,

Fig. 11.09  Soak-­Away 8 within Waste Feature 20 in (later) Room 118 of I.1.3–5.

164  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.10  Soak-­Away 8 (Punic amphora of type: T-­7.4.1.1) within Waste Feature 20 after the removal of the fills (SUs 51072 and 51087); in (later) Room 118 of I.1.3–5, viewed from the south.

Fig. 11.11  The pit (SU 55098) in Room 120 of I.1.3–5 following excavation; viewed from the south.

workers might have been thwarted by the difficulty of removing this bedrock within the narrow northern cut. At that point, the pit might have been expanded southwards into the larger channel, from which workers removed no less than 1.6 cubic meters of natural Mercato ash paleosols (Quarry Area 12b).

Construction of Property I.1.6–9 The earliest architectural delineation of Property I.1.6–9 also belongs to Phase 4a (Fig. 11.14; Subphase 52.5, 56.3). The new property’s southern boundary was defined by the northern boundary of Property  I.1.3–5, which incorporated the

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   165

Fig. 11.12  The lava bedrock at the bottom of the pit (SU 55098) in Room 120 of I.1.3–5.

Fig. 11.13  The footholds cut into the pit (SU 55098) in Room 120 of I.1.3–5.

northernmost of the pillars of Phase 3a. Where the wall extended west of the facade line of I.1.3–5 (WCU 1110), it was made of and founded upon large Sarno limestone blocks, which were perhaps reused from the reconstruction of the northwestern pillar. The rest of the wall was in opus incertum, with a foundation of the same style, bonded with thick mortar (SUs 52021, 55501). Only a small area of the construction trench was recognized, located north of the wall (construction trench cut: SU 52031, construction trench fill: SUs 52083, 52052). Significant later intervention to both sides (in Rooms 120 and 122) had removed it elsewhere. All that can be identified of the property’s original interior arrangement is limited to Rooms 122 and 125 on its southwestern side. These were defined in Phase 4a by northern and eastern walls (WCUs 1072, 1074, 1079, 1134), and a pillar at the northwestern corner (WCU 1075). The rooms were at least partially separated in this phase by a wall running north–­ south between them (WCU 1071). Room 122 was further subdivided by walls that were removed later, defining smaller spaces along the southern side of the property (walls: SUs 52039, 52069). The foundations of these cross walls were constructed similarly to those of Property  I.1.3–5 to the south, being unbonded and consisting of mixed materials, primarily lava stone. In the northwestern corner of Room 122, a poor-­quality fish-­salting vat was installed in this phase (Fig.  11.15; Fish-­Salting Vat 7; see further below). In use with the vat was a packed-­earth surface (SUs 52131, 52132) elevated at c. 10.08 masl.

166  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.14  Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 4a.

To the north, the area of the property remained largely open, defined by two pillars along the facade line (WCUs 1090, 1124). Beyond these, the only evident delineation of space was discovered on the southeastern side of (later) Room 132. Here, an additional pillar made of large Sarno blocks was installed in this phase (WCU 1087). More activity is indicated towards the rear (eastern) side of the property, where the northwestern and southwestern corners of the large Space 126/127/128/129/130/131 were defined (with WCU 1103 to the north and WCUs 1043, 1066, and 1079 to the south). Otherwise, the area appears to have been undivided. Quarrying might have occurred here in this period; if so, the far more substantial quarry of Phase 5a (Quarry Area 14) removed all traces of it.

Installation of fish-­salting vats across the Porta Stabia neighborhood One of the more recognizable activities that occurred across the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia began in Phase 4a: the salting of fish in street-­side, subterranean vats known as cetariae.4 Almost all of the identifiable fish-­salting vats from the area of the Porta Stabia dated to Phase 4 (see Fig. 19.6.01): seven were constructed in Phase 4a (Fish-­Salting Vats 1–7), an eighth was added in Phase 4b (Fish-­Salting Vat 8), while a Fig. 11.15  Fish-­Salting Vat 7 in Room 122 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the south

4  For an earlier discussion on fish-salting at Pompeii, see Ellis 2011d.

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   167 more ephemeral vat belonged to Phase 2 (Fish-­Salting Vat 9; see above). Although we cannot know exactly what product was manufactured in these vats—­garum, salsamenta, liquamen, or something else besides—­still the installation of so many examples in a single phase, across multiple properties on either side of the via Stabiana, appears to mark an activity that defined the productive capacity of this neighborhood. Furthermore, that these vats would not survive the Early Imperial period, either here or anywhere across Pompeii (all examples at the Porta Stabia were dismantled in Phase 5a), attests to the intimate connection between this activity and (at least) city-­wide socio-­economic trends. Although we have argued elsewhere for the identification of these structures as fish-­salting vats, and keeping in mind that more information on them is provided in the relevant appendix (Chapter 19.6), still a very brief outline of the evidence that assigns these fixtures to fish-­salting is worthwhile here.5 Morphologically, the vats were nearly identical to one another, being rectangular, subterranean, and lined with hydraulic plaster. They also shared a common location, with all examples found just behind the threshold of a street-­side entrance. Opening at ground level and abutting thresholds, they must have had wooden covers to allow passage in and out of their respective rooms.6 Again and importantly, their chronological pattern is striking: their dominant period of construction was in Phase 4, and all would be dismantled in Phase 5a. This much demonstrates the extent to which our vats conform—­morphologically, spatially, and chrono­logic­al­ ly—­to a singular type that is present across multiple properties at the Porta Stabia. But they can be compared by the same metrics to others uncovered throughout Pompeii and which date in general to the Republican period, most notably the identifiable fish-­salting vats at VI.1.7 Scanning farther afield, they generally conform to the type as attested across the western Mediterranean, except that these Pompeian examples lack a curved ovolo molding between the floor and the base of the walls, as well as the small depression found in the center of the floor that sometimes characterizes those (normally later) examples. To be sure, such elements were never applied consistently across the Roman world and certainly are rare among the earliest examples, contemporaneous to those we uncovered at the Porta Stabia. Finally, if structure and form were not enough to identify these vats as intended for fish-­salting, then the contents associated with them certainly leads us towards this conclusion. 5  Our preliminary interpretation that these vats were for fish-salting has been questioned—­without recourse to any evidence to the contrary, or even argument—­by Monteix 2017, 220–1 and Botte 2015, 685; See Chapter  19.6 “Fish-Salting Vats.” 6  On such structures, see Ellis 2011d, 63–6. 7  For example, those at Vl.1.2; Vl.1.4; Vl1.5; VI.1.13; Vl.l.14; VI.1.17. See Jones and Robinson 2007, 394.

Though all nine vats ultimately were abandoned and filled with secondary refuse, several retained some primary residue on their floor surfaces that could be associated with their use. Unusually high concentrations of fish bones were recovered from these occupation contexts, particularly from those recovered on the floors of Fish-­Salting Vats 5 and 6 (SUs 50020, 50031, 54044; see below).8 Similar concentrations of fish remains were entirely absent from other large subterranean vats and tanks excavated at the Porta Stabia. The tanks of the tannery in Property VIII.7.9–12, for example, or those in Room 111 of VIII.7.5–6 (see below), had none of the same ­concentrations of fish bones or scales as seen with these street-­front vats.9 Furthermore, as we shall see in the discussion just below, the waste disposal systems (in particular the soak-­aways) associated with the Phase 4 fish-­salting vats contained the highest concentrations of fish bone and scale that we found across the entire site (see also Chapter 19.10).

Fish-­salting in Property VIII.7.5–8 One fish-­salting vat of Phase 4a was identified in Property VIII.7.5–8, while other activities carried out in the property might have supported or complemented that production (Fig. 11.16; Subphases 2.1, 11.3, 12.2, 16.3a, 17.4a, 21.2, 25.3). Fish-­ Salting Vat 1 was located in the street-­side Room 32 (Fig. 11.17). The vat was in use with a packed-­earth surface elevated at c. 10.10 masl, which survived only in small patches on the northern side of the room (SUs 12136, 12164, 12173). This period also saw some minor architectural changes to Room 32: the walls in the northwestern corner, put in place in Phase 3a, were destroyed to open the space, and the northern facade wall was reconstructed. Some further developments within VIII.7.5–8 may have related to the activities associated with Fish-­Salting Vat 1. In Room 11 to the south, Phase 4a began with the cutting of a circular pit in the center of the room; the cut was made through the earlier packed-­ earth surfaces and into the Mercato ash paleosol, apparently to remove pozzolanic soil to be used in the construction activities of this phase (cut: SU 11188). The fill within this pit had compressed and collapsed in the modern period, contaminating it and everything directly above, but it seems to have been filled as part of a general raising of the floor level of the room prior to the establishment of a new packed-­earth surface (surface: SU 11064; subsurface fill: SU 11122; collapsed fill within the pit, contaminated with modern: SU 11052). Cut into the packed-­earth surface in the northwest corner of the room was a rectangular tank in unlined opus incertum (tank: SU 11115). Its base utilized the natural Mercato ash through which it was cut, with no 8  Fish-Salting Vat 9, from Phase 2, also had high concentrations of fish remains (SU 54078). 9  The tannery vats did contain exceptional quantities of rodent bone and other microfauna, suggesting that, at least for a short period, the tanks remained open after their use-phase and became de facto rodent traps.

168  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.16  Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 4a.

add­ition­al lining. The function of this tank was unclear, but certainly it was not of the type identified as fish-­salting vats. Developments also occurred beyond the street-­side rooms. Associated with the construction activities of Phase 4a, a pit was sunk in the southeastern corner of Room 15, likely also meant to quarry the Mercato ash paleosol, before being filled with a mixed deposit of secondary refuse (pit cut: SU 16066; pit fill: SU 16062). The Phase 3a cesspit (Waste Feature 11) in the southwestern corner of the room remained in use, but access to it was changed slightly by the destruction of the earl­ier north–­south running wall that had stood to its west (SU 16109) and the construction of an east–­west running wall immediately to its north (SU 16031). This new northern wall abutted the earlier wall that stood to the east of the cesspit, which was reconstructed in this period (earlier wall: SU 16104; reconstructed wall: SU 16017). It is unclear how far the new

northern wall extended toward the west; it may not have con­ tinued beyond the western edge of the cesspit. In any case, in this phase the cesspit appears to have been accessed from the area of (later) Room 16 to its west. As for the walls that surrounded the cesspit in Phase 3a, it is possible that these were not full walls that rose to the ceiling, but rather lower partitions intended to delineate the pit. To the east of the cesspit was a work surface or platform made of four flat roof tiles bonded by mortar (SU 16046). Farther north, another interior cross wall was established in this phase, running east–­west (SU 16033; construction trench cut: 16099, construction trench fill: SU 16100). The wall had been heavily destroyed by later construction, and its original extent was unclear. The packed-­ earth surface in use during this phase (SU 16060) was preserved only in the southeastern corner of the trench, elevated at c. 10.15 masl.

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   169 On the western (rear) side of Property VIII.7.5–8, some minor developments were identified in Room 37. The eastern boundary of the room was constructed at this time (WCU 068); this wall also defined Space 36/43 to the east, Corridor 35 to the south, and Corridor 42 to the north. Installed along

with the wall was a fill in Room 37 (SU 17022) and a round cesspit in the center of the room (Waste Feature 12). The cesspit was c. 1.0 m in diameter, with an opening of c. 0.4 m (Fig. 11.18). It was made of opus incertum bonded with thick mortar. Because it could not be fully excavated, its depth

Fig. 11.17  Fish-­Salting Vat 1 (at left, beneath entrance) in Room 32 of VIII.7.5–8; note also Cistern 5 (center) and the column base (at right), both of Phase 5a.

Fig. 11.18  Waste Feature 12 in Room 37 of VIII.7.5–8.

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Fig. 11.19 The opus signinum surface (SU 25023) in Room 20 of VIII.7.5–8.

remains unknown. The floor surface of Phase 4a had been entirely removed, but based on the elevation of the top of the cesspit and the surrounding fill it stood at c. 11.30 masl. To the south, some additional modifications were made to the space surrounding the cistern in Room 20, which had been in place since Phase 3a (Cistern 7). An opus signinum surface was installed surrounding the earlier cistern, which remained in use (Fig.  11.19; surface: SU 25023). Its elevation was c. 10.65 masl. Unusually for the neighborhood, the surface was tessellated, with inclusions of white marble fragments. It survived only in the southern area of the room; later construction seems to have removed it from the north. A shallow sluice drain (Drain 4) was incorporated into this surface; it abutted the southern wall of Room 20 (WCU 115) and carried liquid to the west, beyond the (later) western wall  of  the room. One additional feature, a small toilet (Waste  Feature 2), was found on the northeastern side of Room 20, abutting the eastern wall (WCU 181). Two Sarno limestone blocks abutted the wall, framing a steep chute lined in thick plaster over opus incertum (Fig.  11.20). The blocks would have supported a latrine seat, but all evidence for it was lost when the feature was redesigned in a subsequent phase (Phase 5a). The chute allowed the toilet to be flushed, carrying waste under the wall and towards an unexcavated cesspit to the east (beneath Room 17). Unfortunately, ­environmental samples collected from within the chute (SUs 25039, 25043, 25044) were nearly sterile, suggesting that the accessible fill had filtered in after the toilet had gone out of use.

In this period an additional latrine was located to the north, in the area of (later) Room 46. The latrine was indicated only by a cesspit (Waste Feature 21). This feature would be partially covered by a masonry triclinium in Phase 5a and was further damaged by a collapse prior to our excavations. Its upper walls were lined with hydraulic plaster, but it was unlined below. The uppermost fill was heavily contaminated due to the collapse (SU 2025), but below this was a light colored deposit made up of almost pure human waste (SUs 2080, 2081). Other finds within the deposit included very small fragments of bird bone, fish bone, and fish scale, as well as a few larger pig bones and a handful of coarseware and amphora sherds. The lower deposit was only 20 cm deep and sat directly on the floor of the cesspit, suggesting that it represented the remnant of material that had been cleaned out of the fixture in antiquity.

Fish-­salting (and tanning) in Property VIII.7.9–12 The most extensive evidence for fish-­salting production in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia was recovered in Property VIII.7.9–12 (Fig. 11.21; Subphases 3.2, 13.2, 15.1, 18.3, 29.4). Fish-­ salting vats of Phase 4a were uncovered in all three of the property’s street-­side entrances. These do not, however, represent the full extent of productive activity here and the building hosted a tannery in the same period (see below). Beginning on the southern side of the property, Fish-­Salting Vat 2 was located behind Entrance 9/10, within Room 38.10 The cut for 10  Entrance VIII.7.9 did not yet exist in this period.

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   171

Fig. 11.20  The Sarno limestone blocks that formed the latrine (Waste Feature 2) in Room 20 of VIII.7.5–8.

the vat’s construction destroyed the Phase 3a surface and con­tinued into the natural deposits below (cut: SU 3092). Like Fish-­Salting Vat 1 in Room 32 to the south, Fish-­Salting Vat 2 was rectangular, located against the threshold, and constructed of opus incertum with walls and floor lined in hy­draul­ic plaster; here the plaster had been replaced at least once (Fig. 11.22; vat construction: SU 3041; two distinct plaster layers: SUs 3072, 3073). Together with the construction of Fish-­Salting Vat 2, a new packed-­earth surface was installed in Room 38 in this phase (SUs 3049, 3064, 3067), burying the north–­south running cross wall that had abutted the room’s southern wall (buried wall: SU 3086, of Phase 3a). The Phase 4a surface had been severely degraded by later construction activity and was recovered only in small patches, all of which were elevated at c. 10.95 masl. Cut into this surface were two additional features, likely associated with the fish-­salting activities carried out here. On the southern side of the room was a small soak-­away made from a single amphora (Soak-­Away 1; cut for soak-­ away: SU 3093). Unfortunately, modern activity had destroyed the upper portion of the soak-­away and con­tam­in­ated its contents (see Fig. 11.23; soak-­away fill: SU 3030). To the north of Soak-­Away 1, in the center of the room, was another fixture consisting of a round shaft reinforced with opus incertum masonry and lined in hydraulic plaster, with a floor of opus signinum (Fig.  11.23; cut for shaft: SU 3090; construction of shaft: SUs 3046, 3059). The shaft was c. 1.20 m deep and c 0.90 m in diameter; its walls were nearly vertical. It continued through all of the earlier cultural and natural deposits encountered in the trench and rested on lava bedrock. As with

Fish-­Salting Vat 2 and Soak-­Away 1, its uppermost walls had been destroyed by later construction, but the preserved portion curved slightly inwards at the top, suggesting a narrower opening above. The pit probably functioned as a small cistern (Cistern 4). In this phase, a doorway provided access between Room 38 and Room 48, located immediately to its north, where a second vat (Fish-­ Salting Vat 3) was installed just inside Entrance 11 (Fig. 11.24; Threshold 11). The two earlier (Phase 3a) tanks located against the room’s southern wall were destroyed in Phase 4a, and a new packed-­earth surface was installed over them, raising the floor c. 25 cm to an elevation of c. 11.10 masl (surface: SUs 29012, 29016). Immediately to the north, Fish-­Salting Vat 4 was installed behind Entrance 12 in Room 58. In this phase, the room was delineated by the construction of its northern wall (WCU 024). The earlier walls in the southeastern corner of the room (SUs 18061, 18030) were destroyed, the western boundary wall was constructed (WCU 040), and the doorway between Rooms 48 and 58 was closed (with WCU 158), giving the room the shape it would maintain until 79 ce. Located in the southeastern corner of Room 58, Fish-­Salting Vat 4 was constructed of opus incertum and lined with hydraulic plaster (Fig.  11.25; vat: SU 18024). Its southern extent had been destroyed in antiquity, but hydraulic plaster recovered on the northern face of the southern wall of Room 58 (WCU 042) matched that on the interior of the preserved tank structure, indicating that the vat originally extended south to abut the wall (hydraulic plaster on WCU 042: SU 18069).

172  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.21  Plan of Property VIII.7.9–12 during Phase 4a.

With the establishment of Fish-­Salting Vat 4, the Phase 3a cesspit in the northeastern corner of Room 58 (Waste Feature 14; see Fig. 10.05) went out of use. Its mouth was capped with tiles (one of these, SU 18037, would survive a later reopening of the cesspit in Phase 6), and the drain that had accessed it from the west (Drain 21) was destroyed and replaced with a new version (Drain 22). The later drain followed a similar alignment to the earlier, but rather than emptying into the cesspit it continued over its capped mouth to empty onto the via Stabiana. The drain was installed within a substantial fill, which raised the floor level by c. 30 cm (fill: SUs 18051, 18092). An opus signinum floor surface (SU 18082), elevated at 11.60 masl, was laid above the fill.

West of Room 58, new walls (WCUs 030, 036, 037, 040, 159) defined Space 62/63/64 in this period, but no other developments were discernible. Construction projects were more extensive in the southwestern corner of the property, where Room 56 was established as a tannery in Phase 4a.11 The north–­ south running wall (SU 13054) from Phase 3a was destroyed and buried by a c. 80 cm deep leveling fill (SU 13060), while new walls were introduced to define the room (WCUs 046, 050, 051, 188). The full east–­west extent of Room 56 during this phase is unknown, since it was truncated by the eastward 11 This is only the second such structure known from Pompeii; see Leguilloux 2004; Brun 2016, esp. 84–5.

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   173

Fig. 11.22  Fish-­Salting Vat 2 just inside the entrance (at left) to Room 38 of VIII.7.9–10; viewed from the north.

expansion of the Quadriporticus (WCU 184) in Phase 5 (see  Chapter  12). Originally, the room probably extended c. 1 m farther west to abut the original eastern wall of the Quadriporticus. The new walls of Room 56 framed four cylindrical tannery tanks (Fig. 11.26; tanks: SU 13023). These were constructed of opus incertum covered with thick hydraulic plaster. A single foothold cut into the wall of each tank allowed workers to climb in and out more easily (Fig. 11.27). The cylindrical tanks occupied most of the room. Each tank measured c. 1.0 m in diameter and 1.4 m in depth. They were arranged in pairs—­ two to the north, two to the south—­with c. 1.1 m separating the two.12 At the center, between the paired vats, a rect­angu­lar fixture had been removed during later construction ac­tiv­ities (of Phase 5a). The original form of the missing fixture is unclear, but it might have incorporated iron or another ma­ter­ial that could be recycled or reused, explaining its removal. On the southern side of Room 56, we recovered a substantial surface of packed earth c. 30 cm thick, finished with brownish yellow 12 The tanks were numbered 1–4 starting from the northwest and p­ roceeding clockwise. Tanks 1 and 2, therefore, make up the northern pair, and Tanks 3 and 4 make up the southern pair.

mortar (SUs 13024, 13027, 13036, 13047; elev. 11.80–11.90 masl). A rectangular tank constructed in unlined opus incertum (SU 13040), which measured 1.5 × 1.0 m, and 0.8 m deep, was located in the southeastern corner. A drain emptied into this tank from east of Room 56 (Drain 15), cutting through the room’s eastern wall (WCU 051). The configuration of these tannery tanks and fixtures closely recalls those recently uncovered in the excavations of the via delle Mura Portuensi at Rome.13 In Phase 4a the spaces to the east of Room 56 were organized entirely differently from their final iteration. Beyond the walls surrounding Room 56, none of the final architecture dividing Rooms 50 to 57 was in place at this time. Excavation in the area of (later) Room 55, however, gave some limited indications of contemporary architectures and fixtures surrounding and probably associated with the tannery. A wall ran east–­west across the space (SU 15017) to abut the eastern wall of Room 56 (WCU 051), creating a narrow room or corridor, c. 1 m wide, along the southern property boundary wall (WCU 066). We traced the wall for 1.2 m, but were not able to determine whether it continued farther east. To both the north and south of the wall a mortar surface, elevated at c. 11.60 masl, topped a leveling fill (surface: SUs 15015, 15029; fill: SUs 15031, 15032). The drain that emptied into the tank in Room 56 (Drain 15) passed below this surface to the south of the east–­west running wall (SU 15017), continuing along the southern property boundary wall (WCU 066). The eastern portion of the drain had been destroyed by later activity, and it might have originated in the area of (later) Room 55 or in a space farther east. A series of platforms in opus signinum and masonry (SUs 15004, 15007, 15011, 15025) suggest a fixture of unclear type in the southeastern corner of (later) Room 55. Some other structural fixtures in this area likely were connected to the activities carried out in the tannery. The lower half of a globular amphora of unclear type (SU 15022) was inserted into the mortar surface just north of the east–­west running wall (SU 15017). Its interior was pitch-­sealed, and it held a black ashy deposit (SU 15023). Olive pits found within could indicate that the amphora held materials burned as fuel (Fig. 11.28). To the west of the vessel, just outside the doorway to Room 56, was a tile surface that could have served as a work surface or to reinforce an area of high traffic (SU 15018).

Fish-­salting in Property I.1.1–2 Across the via Stabiana, the southernmost property of Insula  I.1 also participated in fish-­salting activities during Phase 4a (Fig. 11.29; Subphase 50.4, 54.5, 58.2). In this phase, a doorway was added to the northwestern corner of Room 101 (later blocked with WCU 1026). The earlier doorway on the eastern side of the same wall remained open, allowing easy movement between Rooms 101 and 106. The interconnectivity 13  See De Cristofaro et al. 2017.

Fig. 11.23  Cistern 4 in Room 38 of VIII.7.9–12; visible also is Fish-­Salting Vat 2 at left (not yet fully excavated), and Soak-­Away 1.

Fig. 11.24  Fish-­Salting Vat 3 in Room 48 at entrance VIII.7.11.

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   175

Fig. 11.25  Fish-­Salting Vat 4 in Room 58 at entrance VIII.7.12.

Fig. 11.26  The tannery tanks in Room 56 of VIII.7.9–12; viewed from above looking west.

of space appears to reflect the shared function of the rooms, both of which received fish-­salting vats in this phase: Fish-­ Salting Vat 5 and Fish-­Salting Vat 6. These were the largest of such vats recovered from either insula. Fish-­Salting Vat 5 was constructed just inside of Entrance 1 to Room 101, in­corp­ or­at­ing the two interior cross walls of Phase 3b (SUs 50069,

50111), which were dismantled to ground level at this time (Fig. 11.30). In addition to serving as the western wall of the vat, one of these walls (SU 50069) also supported the foundation for three new threshold blocks installed in Entrance 1, which was widened to its final form in this phase (foundation: SU 50156; Thresholds 16 and 17). The uppermost walls of the

176  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.27  The tannery tanks in Room 56 of VIII.7.9–12; viewed from the south with footholds visible in the southern tanks.

Fig. 11.28  The amphora base, with the ash-­based contents, in situ in Room 55 of VIII.7.9–12.

vat and the surface in use with it were not identified, all having been removed by later construction. Three soak-­aways were installed at this time near Fish-­ Salting Vat 5: Soak-­Aways 7, 10, and 11. One of these, Soak-­Away 7, was located on the eastern side of Room 101, to the north of the vat. The others were recovered in the outdoor area south of Property I.1.1–2 (later Room 103), between the well and the earlier ceramics workshop (of Phase 3a, now out of use). The more substantial Soak-­Away 10 was found just outside the doorway from Room 101; Soak-­Away 11 was located to the southeast. Both of the outdoor soak-­aways were preserved more poorly than the example within Room 101, with upper halves that had been sheared off by later construction. Nevertheless, environmental analysis showed high concentration of fish bones and fish scales within all three fixtures, suggesting that they supported the fish-­salting activities carried out in Property I.1.1–2 (fill of Soak-­Away 7: SUs 50132, 50133; fill of Soak-­Away 10: SUs 53032, 53041; fill of Soak-­Away 11: SUs 53046, 53048). Also during this phase, Fish-­Salting Vat 6 was constructed just inside Entrance 2 to Room 106 (Fig.  11.31). Like Fish-­ Salting Vat 5, it used the preexisting facade wall for its western edge; the earlier wall was cut down to ground level at this point, becoming the foundation for the wide threshold at Entrance 2 (Threshold 18). A leveling fill (SU 54043) raised the room’s floor level by c. 20 at this time; above was a mortar surface elevated at c. 9.50 masl (preserved only in three small patches: SUs 54039, 54049, 54051). Soak-­Away 12 was installed

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   177

Fig. 11.29  Plan of Property I.1.1–2 during Phase 4a.

Fig. 11.30  Fish-­Salting Vat 5 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the east. Note also Threshold 16 and Bar Counter 1.

into this surface, to the southeast of Fish-­Salting Vat 6. Like the soak-­aways found in Room 101 and to the south of the property, the material recovered within this example (fill: SU 54132) was dominated by fish bone and scale. Once again, much of the waste disposed within the fixture almost certainly

derived from the fish-­processing activities that dom­in­ated this property in Phase 4a. Material recovered from both vats in Property  I.1.1–2, furthermore, contained high concentrations of fish remains. When they went out of use in Phase 5a, the vats—­like others

178  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.31  Fish-­Salting Vat 6 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the west. Note also Bar Counter 2.

found on both sides of the via Stabiana—­were filled with secondary waste to support new floors above (fill: SUs 50012, 50018, 50019, 50031, 54041, 54046; see Phase 5a below). Such fills appeared to have been imported from elsewhere, and so the waste they contained could not be associated with the use of the vats themselves. Thin deposits recovered on the floor of each vat, however, differed substantially from the fills above them. Within Fish-­Salting Vat 5, this deposit (SUs 50020, 50031) was about 5 cm thick, with a rich organic matrix of humus and silt that contained a significantly higher concentration of ecofacts than the sandy fill above. It included much wood charcoal, some bird eggshell, marine shell, and land snail shell, some fragments of rodent bone (house mouse and rat), sea urchin spines, and a high concentration of fish bone and scale. Despite its small volume (only about 40 liters of the fill’s total volume of nearly 3500 liters), the deposit also contained a wide variety of artifacts, not limited to a complete bronze brooch (BR50-­14), two glass game counters (GL50-­13, 21), a stone die (S50-­13), and fourteen small bronze coins (C50-­42,

73–5, 82–6, 95–9), as well as more fragmentary iron, bronze, and ceramic objects. Similar material was recovered from the floor of Fish-­ Salting Vat 6. The lowermost deposit within the vat (SU 54044) contained more, larger, and better-­ preserved iron, bronze, and lead objects than nearly every other context excavated across the site, including a complete bronze spatula (BR54-­14) and a lead weight shaped like a Greco-­Italic amphora (PB54-­3; Fig. 11.32). It also produced fifteen coins (C54-­8, 56–9, 61, 63–5, 67, 81, 83–4, 102–3), all of which were small and heavily worn, a few ceramic sherds, and a wide variety and dense concentration of ecofacts, including mammal, bird, and fish bone, bird eggshell, fish scale, land snail shell, marine shell, sea urchin spines, and many bones of rodents, including house mouse. Taken together, the deposits recovered over the floors of Fish-­Salting Vat 5 and Fish-­Salting Vat 6 suggest a time during which the vats were used not for processing fish, but for receiving primary refuse generated within Property  I.1.1–2.

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   179

Fig. 11.32  The bronze spatula (BR54-­14) and lead weight, shaped in the form of a Greco-­Italic amphora (PB54-­3), recovered from the lowermost deposit of Fish-­Salting Vat 6 (SU 54044) in Room 106 of I.1.1–2.

Apparently, the vats had been left open following their final production, probably with some fish remains still within. During this period they were used to corral garbage, and vari­ ous scavengers—­ represented by the rodent bones—­ made their way into them. Eventually, a decision was made to close the vats and dedicate the street-­side rooms to new activities (in Phase 5a). At this point, the vats were filled with secondary waste to take them permanently out of use. The primary refuse found below these secondary fills might represent the remains of larger deposits that had been removed for reuse and recycling prior to this final filling. Given that fish processing was a seasonal activity, this material might even indicate that vats shifted functions throughout the year, between fish-­ salting, refuse disposal, and possibly other uses. Returning to the construction activities of Phase 4a, extensive changes were made at this time to Room 107/8, which had not yet been divided. First, a leveling fill was introduced to the

space, raising the ground level by nearly a meter (fill: SUs 58053, 58054, 58070). Contained within the fill were a number of intact amphorae, including a complete Dressel 1, a complete Dressel 1a, and the lower portion of what seemed to be an additional generic Dressel 1 (SUs 58040, 58077, 58041). A mortar surface topped the fill; it was preserved in a small patch against the southern wall (WCU 1019) and as a lip on the western wall (WCU 1021), elevated at c. 9.36 masl (mortar patch: SU 58098; mortar lip: SU 58052). The cesspit in the southwestern corner of Rooms 107/8 remained in use during this phase (Waste Feature 18, of Phase 3a), when it might have received fittings for a latrine above. Contained within the fill that closed the fixture in the following phase (Phase 5a), but potentially associated with this preceding period of activity, was part of what appeared to be a tile latrine seat (SU 58067; Fig.  11.33). The fill also contained a Punic amphora that had been altered for use as a

180  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.33  The tile (SU 58067) and amphora (SU 58066) in situ in Room 107/8 of I.1.1–2, and after excavation.

ur­inal (SU 58066), which may have served as a fixed installation or as a more portable vessel for emptying human waste into the cesspit. The amphora’s neck had been removed and a large hole had been cut through its body. Deposits both within the amphora (especially a high concentration of mineralized fruit seeds in SU 58074) and on the ceramic seat confirmed that they had been exposed to human waste.14 There was some indication that a substantial masonry fixture, perhaps designed to hold liquid, occupied the central area of (later) Room 108 in this phase (fixture: SU 58012). This fixture would be almost wholly destroyed later (in Phase 5a), 14  We are grateful to Mark Robinson and Andrew Fairbairn for confirming our in-field observations.

thereby rendering it difficult to identify, describe, or understand. Only parts of its plaster-­lined walls survived in a concentrated deposit of debris, occupying a roughly circular area of about 1.5 m in diameter. Whatever the nature of this fixture, the various functions of this space were likely in service to the fish-­salting activities at the front of the property.

Fish-­salting in Property I.1.6–9 Fish-­ salting also was evidenced within the newly-­ constructed Property I.1.6–9. A long and narrow tank situated just inside Entrance  I.1.6 shared enough similarities with ­others in the neighborhood to confirm that it functioned as a low quality fish-­salting vat (Fig. 11.15; Fish-­Salting Vat 7). The

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   181 vat was sizeable, measuring 2.5 m long and 0.8 m wide on the interior. The uppermost portions of its walls had been cut away, but it was originally at least 1.2 m deep. The vat was constructed of opus incertum consisting of small stones bonded with coarse brown mortar; the same mortar lined its walls. Its base lay on bedrock and was unlined.

Other activities in Property VIII.7.1–4 There was no evidence for fish-­salting in the southernmost property of Insula VIII.7, but the building did undergo some developments in Phase 4a (Fig. 11.34; Subphases 1.3, 5.1b, 24.4). On its southern side, the western (rear) wall of Room 1 was installed in this phase (WCU 132), abutting the southern property boundary wall and covering the earlier wall plaster (plaster: SU 1021). Although truncated later, in Phase 4a the wall extended across the entirety of the room; part of its northernmost portion (SU 1524) would be incorporated into a tank abutting the room’s northern wall (WCU 119) in Phase 5b (see Fig. 12.49). To the east, a second wall (SU 1050), parallel with the first, was installed at the same time to divide Room 1 into eastern and western halves. Two additional walls (later destroyed) further divided the eastern half of Room 1 into three small rooms, one larger to the east with two smaller chambers west of it (SUs 1037, 1068). All of these spaces within Room 1 received new surfaces in Phase 4a. At the front of the property, the area inside Entrance

1 was floored a packed-­earth surface installed over a gray mortar subsurface (subsurface: SU 1047; surface: SU 1105; elev. 9.16 masl). Set into the surface was a fixture consisting of a central Italian amphora set upside-­down with a pit; it had been badly damaged by later activity, but probably functioned as a soak-­away (Soak-­Away 16). No surfaces or fixtures survived in the two small rooms immediately to the west, but an associated leveling fill remained in place (SUs 1035, 1081). A  similar lev­el­ing fill was recovered in the western half of Room 1 (SUs 1065, 1066, 1067, 1080), topped by a packed-­earth surface (SU 1040; elev. 9.35 masl). Here, in the southwestern corner of the room, a square opus signinum surface with a round cut in its center (SU 1073) abutted the western and southern walls (WCUs 120 and 132). Its original function was unclear, but the cut could represent the removal of a fixture following its uselife. To the north, the western (rear) walls of Room 9 were constructed at this time, dividing it from Room 10 (WCUs 127, 128). At the same time, the room’s elevation was raised c. 40 cm with a leveling fill topped by a mortar surface (fill: SU 24034; surface: SUs 24028, 24029; elev. 9.65 masl). Together with the new surface, an unlined opus incertum tank (SU 24033) was constructed abutting the room’s northern wall (Fig. 11.35; see also Fig. 5.07; WCU 117). Across the room, the base of a dolium was installed alongside the southern wall (dolium base: SU 24026). The vessel might have been used for storage, mixing, or some other purpose; whether it was truncated

Fig. 11.34  Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 4a.

182  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.35  The tank (SU 24033) and dolium base (SU 24026) in Room 9 of VIII.7.3–5; viewed from the west.

prior to its use in the room or in the course of a later reconstruction was unclear. Its fill (SU 24027) consisted of secondary waste related to the construction activities of the next phase, identical to the material that surrounded and covered the fixture, and so did not give any indication of the vessel’s function. To the west, the wall dividing Room 5 from Room 10 was erected in this phase (WCUs 121, 122, 177), leaving a doorway open between the two rooms (the doorway would be closed with WCU 177 in Phase 7). At the same time, the wide doorway between Room 5 and Room 6 was narrowed (with WCUs 186 and 187). No deposits related to this phase were dis­cern­ ible in the area; all might have been removed by later construction. The only identifiable activity of Phase 4a in the central rooms of the property was the erection of the wall between Rooms 4 and 7/8 (WCU 123). A doorway on the northern side of the wall continued to provide access between these spaces.

Reorganization of access to the public well Access to the public well at the southeastern corner of Insula I.1 was reorganized in this phase, when a new superstructure was added to the well (see Fig. 11.29; Subphases 50.4, 53.3). Water had previously been drawn via buckets and ropes, the majority of which were lowered from the western, via Stabiana side of the well. The wear marks along the Sarno

limestone blocks of the well attested clearly to this pattern (see Figs.  10.16 and  10.17). In Phase 4a, however, a type of windlass or pulley system appears to have been introduced. The remains suggest a structure primarily of wood; cuttings for its support were preserved in the uppermost blocks of the well. Additional upright blocks of Sarno limestone—­later incorporated into the walls of an expanded Property I.1.1–2 (blocks: SUs 50139, 50142, 50143, 50146, 50527; see Phase 5b below) probably also were part of the new structure, having been mortared in place at this time. The new system lifted buckets from the center of the well, bringing an end to the dragging of ropes against its western face.15 Together with the installation of the new superstructure, the western access to the public well received a more durable surface in this phase. The leveling fill for the surface contained many water-­worn river cobbles, perhaps derived from an earl­ ier cobblestone surface located here (fill: SUs 50112, 50116). Above the fill was a sandy subsurface that contained several clay lenses and few finds (SU 50110). The surface itself was paved with flagstones of Sarno limestone set in mortar (paved surface: SU 50091; mortar supporting the pavement: SUs 50098, 50101). The flagstones were elevated at c. 9.72 masl, level with the upper structure of the well, and had been worn smooth by regular foot traffic.

15  On water-lifting devices, see Oleson 1984; 2000; Wilson 2009, 350–1.

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   183 This new flagstone surface was identified only to the west of the well, towards the via Stabiana. To the east, the space that would later be enclosed as Room 103 (in Phase 5b) was resurfaced in packed earth in Phase 4a (surface: SU 53025; lev­el­ing fill: SU 53052). As excavated, the surface was elevated at c. 9.60 masl; it might originally have been level with the limestone paving but was worn by traffic and/or removed by later construction. The less substantial nature of this eastern surface as compared to the western paving suggests that the well continued to be accessed primarily from the west. Still, the area to the east might have retained some f­ unctional as­so­ci­ation with the well, if only to surmise by the condition of the surface: it was rough and porous in its consistency, with an unusually dense concentration of terracotta inclusions that would have allowed water to drain easily. Soak-­ Away 10 and Soak-­Away 11, both apparently associated with Fish-­Salting Vat 5 (see above), were installed within this surface. Farther east, in the area of (later) Room 105, the kiln of Phase 3a had already been destroyed in its final firing and gone out of use. The walls surrounding it, however, might have remained standing, at least in part; the southern and eastern walls would be incorporated into a new construction in the following Phase (Phase 5b).

Phase 4b: the subsequent developments to Phase 4a Redevelopment of Property I.1.3–5 Property  I.1.3–5 underwent a significant redevelopment during Phase 4b (Fig. 11.36; Subphases 51.4, 55.4, 59.4). In Room 118 the earlier (Phase 4a) walls of the small room at Entrance 4 were dismantled (walls: Sus 51094, 51034/51077), and the northern wall dividing Rooms 118 and 120 was added (WCUs 1063, 1064, 1114). Originally, the doorway between the two rooms was located to the east of its final iteration; it would be blocked (with WCU 1106) and moved west in a subsequent phase (Phase 7a). A construction trench was identified only on the northern side of the wall (original construction: SUs 51534, 55514; construction trench cut: SU 55063; construction trench fill: SU 55028); the area to the south had been heavily damaged by later activity, including the installation of modern elec­ tric­al wires. An unusual but informative find from the fill of the construction trench (SU 55028) was a nearly complete terra­cotta metope painted in vibrant red, blue, yellow, and white (AT55-­1).16 Apart from recalling the architectural and 16  Two paw prints across the face of the nearly complete example attest to a four-legged visitor to the workshop where the tile was made.

Fig. 11.36  Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 4b.

184  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i figural terracottas in the fills within Quarry Area 9 (discussed above), these pieces precisely matched examples recovered from the excavations of Property I.9.9, some 250 m away, and thus serve as further evidence for the distribution of architectural waste as fill material in this corner of the city (Figs. 11.37 and 11.38).17 Another architectural change to the space was the addition of a large brick pillar, c. 1.4 m2, which was constructed in the southeastern corner of Room 118 (pillar: WCU 1058). The pillar used the earlier (Phase 4a) work surface and wall as part 17  For a brief report on those excavations, see Tuffreau-Libre et al. 2014. We thank the Soprintendenza for allowing access to this material for comparative purposes.

Fig. 11.37  The architectural terracottas recovered from I.1.3–5 (above), with one (the larger) alongside those from I.9.9 (below).

of its foundation; the rest of the foundation consisted of opus incertum of Sarno limestone and lava stone rubble bonded by a thick mortar (Fig. 11.39; foundation: SUs 51067, 51130). A matching, although slightly smaller, pillar was also installed to the east, in the southeastern corner of Room 119 (WCU 1056). Although Room 118 was now organized largely along its final lines, the southern wall was not yet constructed, and it remained open to Room 109 to the south. A large cistern was added to the center of Room 118 in this period (Cistern 8). The cistern measured 2.40 × 1.80 m and was 2.00 m deep (Fig. 11.40). Allowing for the thickness of its walls, the internal volume could have been as large as 8 m3. It was unusual for its rectangular (rather than circular) mouth. No other examples of cisterns with rectangular mouths were excavated in the area of the Porta Stabia, but other such cisterns are known from Pompeii, such as in the house of P. Casca Longus (I.6.11). To allow for its construction, a massive cut was made through the center and northern area of the room, removing many of the earlier deposits (cut: SU 51121). Following construction, the cut was filled with mixed material (SUs 51070, 51082, 51120). The edges of the cut showed some evidence for burning while it was still open: the clay inclusions in the soil had hardened and turned orange. The purpose and extent of this burning was unclear (burned edges of the cut: SU 51089). Other construction events in this period included the cutting of several small pits on the southern side of the room (cuts: SUs 51049, 51068, 51096). These were all made through the surface of the previous phase and filled prior to the installation of the Phase 4b surface (fills: SUs 51050, 51051, 51064, 51069, 51095). One of the pits was unusually shaped; it was ovular and measured c. 55 × 40 cm, 40 cm deep, with walls that were nearly vertical (pit cut: SU 51068; pit fill: SU 51069). In this case, the pit might actually have been a large posthole. It was located immediately north of the large brick pillar and might have supported a beam for the scaffolding of these constructions. As the final stage of Phase 4b construction activity in Room 118, a new opus signinum surface was installed over a leveling fill, raising the room’s elevation to c. 10.00 masl (surface: SUs 51031, 51036; fill: SUs 51046, 51091). The surface covered the earl­ier workbench (SU 51033), taking it out of use. It was well preserved in a single patch, where it had collapsed partially into the now abandoned Soak-­Away 8 from the preceding phase. A doorstop was installed within this surface (Doorstop 3) to bolster the locking of the street-­side doorway to I.1.4 (Fig. 11.41; see also Fig. 12.33). Accompanying the reconstruction of Room 118, a large quarry pit was cut to the north, through the center of Room 120 (Quarry Area 12c; c. 2.35 × 2.00 m). The street-­side facade at Entrance 5 also was reconstructed at this time. Stones were robbed from the original facade wall, and the entrance was

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   185

Fig. 11.38  Locations for the architectural terracottas recovered from I.3–5 and I.9.9.

Fig. 11.39  Foundations for the brick pillar (WCU 1058) in I.1.3–5; viewed from the west.

either inserted for the first time or widened to its final form (cut of robbing trench SU 55136; fill of robbing trench: SU 55024). One of the ashlar blocks of Sarno limestone from the original facade was cut down to support a threshold stone (Sarno limestone block under threshold: SU 55025; cut in Sarno limestone block: SU 55080). Another block from the facade seems to have tumbled into the quarry pit and was incorporated into its fill (block: SU 55023). Following this activity, the pit was filled (fill: SUs 55064, 55075), and a c. 30 cm thick leveling fill was deposited across the room to support a new packed-­earth surface, elevated at c. 10.05 masl (leveling

fill: SU 55026; packed-­earth surface: SU 55042). Finally, Soak-­ Away 13 was installed just inside Entrance 5. East of Room 120, Room 121 was enclosed with the ­construction of its rear (eastern) and southern walls (WCUs 1047, 1053). A wide doorway provided access between Rooms 120 and 119; the latter remained open to the east and south, defined by the pillar at its southeastern corner. On the southern side of the property, the southernmost facade wall was reconstructed with a new quoin (WCU 1095), likely widening Entrance 3, and a wall or wall stub was added to separate Rooms 109 and 110 (WCU 1094).

186  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.40  Cistern 8 in Room 118 of I.1.3–5; viewed from the west.

Fig. 11.41  Doorstop 3 in Room 118 of I.1.3–5.

Notably, the reconstruction of I.1.3–5 extended all the way to the rear (eastern) boundary of the property. At this time, the rear boundary wall was reconstructed to form a southeastern corner with another new wall, which ran below the later southern wall of the property (eastern wall: SU 59011; southern wall: SU 59117), blocking the narrow doorway that

had been open here in Phase 4a. Like the earlier iteration, the eastern wall probably continued across (later) Room 110 to define the rear of the property (meeting WCU 1043 to the north). Here too, a leveling fill raised the interior space by c. 30 cm (leveling fill: SUs 59040, 59059). The surface associated with this fill had been destroyed by modern activity, but its

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   187 level was indicated by plaster that lipped from the western side of the rear boundary wall at an elevation of c. 9.95 masl (plaster: SU 59038). It would appear, therefore, that I.1.3–5 underwent a massive reconstruction during this phase, which included raising the floor level of every area we excavated, an activity that might have extended throughout the entire property. If we calculate the volume required for this undertaking, averaging the depth at 25 cm and accepting that the voids of some features (like Cistern 8) will have made up part of that volume, then we are left to imagine some significant effort—­ even expense—­in procuring as much as 40 or 50 m3 of material to raise these surfaces. Further noteworthy developments occurred in the outdoor space behind the property, where a square cut was made through the early terracing and the natural material below it for the construction of a well (cut: SUs 59074, 59085; well construction: SU 59034). The well, which was cylindrical in shape, measured c. 2 m in exterior diameter. Its walls were c. 20 cm thick, constructed of opus incertum, and lined in hydraulic plaster (Fig.  11.42; see also Fig.  12.36). The interior was not excavated; the exterior was revealed to a depth of c. 2.5 m, but it continued (likely much) deeper. After the well had been built, its construction trench was filled with a sandy loam that contained many heavily broken artifacts and building ma­ter­ ials (construction trench fill: SUs 59067, 59084, 59075). The same material was then used to raise the surface level around the well by c. 50 cm (leveling fill: SUs 59028, 59042, 59043,

59048). The fill continued to the south behind Property I.1.2; due to the natural slope of the landscape, it was slightly deeper here, c. 80 cm (leveling fill: SU 59100). An opus signinum surface was installed over the leveling fill to the east of the well (surface: SU 59047). Topping this surface was a layer of gritty gray/green, water-­washed sand (SU 59051), reinforcing the identification of the area as outdoors, and perhaps alongside a road located in the same area as the vicolo east of the insula in 79 ce. Any surface to the west, between the well and property I.1.3–5, appears to have been removed by later construction. To the south, behind property I.1.1–2, was a small cesspit (Waste Feature 19), with a mouth made of opus incertum mortared to a slab of opus signinum that had been covered in thick hydraulic plaster (cesspit mouth: SU 59112). The cesspit itself was unlined (cut: SU 59130). A series of tiles, laid flat south of the pit, may have served as a sort of sluice associated with it (Drain 38). At a later point but still within Phase 4b, a better-­preserved sluice made of Sarno limestone blocks and reused tiles was installed beside the cesspit (Drain 36). The new well behind Property I.1.3–5 was substantial but of significantly lower quality than the earlier example found to the southeast, just inside the Porta Stabia. Additionally, it was in a more private location behind the buildings of the insula, and not along a main road comparable to the via Stabiana. It was most likely a private construction, meant for the use of a single property or a group of neighboring properties, rather than a piece of public infrastructure. Even so, its presence

Fig. 11.42  Part of the shaft of the well in I.1.3–5, beneath the later (Phase 5a) Cooking Facility 9; viewed from the west.

188  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i represents a substantial effort, not only to dig the well itself but also to import construction material to level the landscape behind Properties I.1.3–5 and I.1.1–2.

Architectural developments in Property I.1.6–9 Property  I.1.6–9 received additional architectural definition during Phase 4b, especially along its northern side (Fig. 11.43; Subphase 52.6, 56.4). The northern boundary wall (WCU 1093) was constructed at this time, abutting the earlier walls that surrounded the open zone to the east (earlier walls: WCU 1103). Extensive quarrying on the western side of the property accompanied this construction activity (Quarry Area 13). First, a deep cut was made through the lava bedrock (cut: SU 56025; bedrock: SU 56034); stone retrieved from the cut likely was used to build the new wall, which primarily consisted of this material. Following the quarrying, the bottom of the cut was covered with an extremely hard packed earth (SU 56030), which leveled the steep quarrying cut and served as a solid foundation for the wall itself. The rest of the quarry was then filled with a mixed deposit of the type typical for construction fills at the site, with a sandy matrix that contained a variety of fragmentary objects (SU 56026). The eastern walls of Room 132 also were erected at this time (WCUs 1092, 1122), abutting the northern side of the earlier Sarno pillar (of Phase 4a) and leaving a doorway into Room 133 to the east. Another wall,

preserved only as a foundation in opus incertum (SU 56100), ran east–­west for c. 1.6 m. in the southeast corner of Room 132, beneath later WCU 1088. The central part of the facade wall was reconstructed at this time (as evidenced by the construction of WCU 1076). Entrance 7, which would later lead to an upstairs apartment (by Phase 7 but possibly as early as Phase 5), most likely remained closed in this period. Also in Phase 4b, Room 132 received a new surface of packed earth, set over a leveling fill (surface: SUs 56077, 56080; fill: SUs 56081, 56075) that raised the room’s floor level by 20 cm, to c. 10.60 masl. Constructed within this surface was an unusually deep soak-­away (Soak-­Away 14), located on the southeastern side of the room (see Fig.  19.10.04). Three amphorae were stacked upside-­down within a cut (cut: SUs 56051, 56106, fill: SU 56098), each with its neck and foot removed to create a downward channel that extended c. 2 m below the floor. The lowest 1.5 m of the cut was made through lava bedrock, representing a significant effort. None of the amphorae was perforated on its sides, indicating that the primary drainage outlet was at the bottom of the soak-­away. Material recovered from within Soak-­Away 14 was dom­in­ ated, as for most soak-­aways at the Porta Stabia, by fish bone and scale, suggesting a connection with activities in Room 122 to the south. Here Fish-­Salting Vat 7 from Phase 4a was destroyed and a new and more substantial fish-­salting vat was

Fig. 11.43  Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 4b.

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   189

Fig. 11.44  Fish-­Salting Vat 8 in Room 122 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the south

constructed alongside the room’s northern wall, just inside Entrance 6 (Fish-­Salting Vat 8). Its morphology in terms of construction, size, and location, as well as its proximity to the soak-­away just mentioned, increase the likelihood that it operated similarly to the other fish-­salting vats in the neighborhood (Fig. 11.44; see also Fig. 11.15). It did, however, include a small buttress in its northwest corner, a feature of unclear purpose that was not found in other vats in the area of the Porta Stabia. Fish-­Salting Vat 8 was installed within a deep leveling fill, which filled and covered Fish-­Salting Vat 7 and raised the floor level of the room by c. 40 cm (fill: SUs 52017, 52080, 52085, 52090). A packed-­earth surface elevated at c. 10.40 masl topped this fill and was in use with the vat (packed-­earth surface: SUs 52012, 52033).

Alterations to the production activities in Property VIII.7.5–8 A number of minor modifications were made during this phase within Property VIII.7.5–8 (Fig. 11.45; Subphase 2.2, 7.2, 11.4, 12.3a, 16.3b, 17.4b, 21.3). The western wall (WCU 152) was added to Room 11, narrowing the access between it and Room 12, while the wide doorway between Room 11 and Room 13 was opened (cut in wall for doorway: SU 11120). Meanwhile, the earlier unlined tank (of Phase 4a) in the northwestern corner of Room 11 was filled and destroyed (tank: SU 11115; fill of tank: SU 11116). A similar fill raised the level of the room, and a new packed-­earth surface topped with mortar was installed above it, surviving at an elevation of c. 9.90–9.96

masl (fill: SUs 11106, 11187; surface: SU 11102). As part of this reconstruction, two opus incertum tanks were added to the room (tanks: SUs 11066, 11067). Both abutted the southern wall (WCU 117), and the easternmost tank abutted the interior of the facade wall (WCU 133), which continued farther north than its final iteration to frame a narrower Entrance 5 (con­ tinu­ation of wall, later dismantled: SU 11078). Both tanks were damaged by later building activity, and hydraulic plaster was preserved only in the western tank (tank: SU 11066, plaster: SU 11068). They were smaller than the fish-­salting vats located elsewhere in the insula during this period; the westernmost measured c. 50 × 120 cm and the easternmost c. 50 × 70 cm. Their purpose remains unclear. Sometime following the installation of the tanks, but still within Phase 4b, the room was resurfaced with packed earth elevated at c. 10.05–10.10 masl (SU 11046). Further modifications were made in the central area of the same property. In this phase, Room 13 was defined by the construction of its northern and western walls (WCUs 084, 087). Within Room 15 the Phase 3a cesspit remained in use but only after undergoing another reconstruction. The upper shaft of the pit was lined in opus incertum masonry (SUs 16022, 16085, 16110) that served to support three amphorae, arranged horizontally and mortared together below the room’s floor (amphorae: SU 16043; mortar: SU 16068). Each amphora was punctured to facilitate drainage through them into the earlier cesspit. The system might have been intended to separate solid waste from liquid waste that drained into the cesspit below, but it had been badly damaged and was difficult to

190  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.45  Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 4b.

understand fully.18 An opus signinum surface, elevated at c. 10.40 masl, was laid above the amphorae, filling the small space between the earlier walls that still framed the northern and eastern sides of the cesspit (opus signinum surface: SU 16012; earlier walls: SUs 16017, 16031). In its center was a rect­ angu­lar access point to the cesspit. Beyond, the rest of the room received a new packed-­earth surface in this phase. It was elevated at c. 10.30 masl and covered the tile work surface from the previous phase (SUs 16011, 16094). Sometime after this restructuring of the cesspit, but still within Phase 4b, the western wall of Room 15 (WCU 091, 180) was built, cutting the opus signinum surface that surrounded the cesspit and narrowing its entrance from the west (wall: 18  Compare the restructuring of Cistern 6 in Phase 5a, which was topped with a similar structure of reused amphorae, possibly intended to filter water entering the cistern (see Chapter 19.2).

SUs 16054, 16057). The wall originally extended north to abut the southern wall of corridor 18 (WCU 093), with a narrow doorway between Rooms 15 and 16 on its southern side. The wide doorway here would be opened only later, in Phase 7a. On the northern side of the room, a small soak-­away was inserted north of the east–­west running wall of the previous phase, which remained in place (Soak-­Away 3; wall: SU 16033). The soak-­away’s contents, which were dominated by fish bone and scale, suggest that it supported activities surrounding Fish-­Salting Vat 1 in Room 32, to the north. Four latrine objects found within, however, could indicate that human waste also was disposed of here, at least occasionally. Also within Phase 4b, a drain (Drain 13) was added to the northern side of the property, running from west to east through Corridor 42, into the area of (later) Rooms 33 and 32, before emptying onto the via Stabiana. Later developments destroyed both its capping as well as most of the surface

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   191 installed with it; just two small patches of the packed-­earth surface survived in (later) Room 32 (SUs 12062, 12106). The drain’s inlet was likely in the area of (later) Room 44, although the fixture’s poor preservation made it impossible to locate with precision. Beyond the installation of the drain, several further developments arose in that room during Phase 4b. The earlier cesspit (Waste Feature 21 of Phase 4a) was filled at this time (fill: SU 2025; note that this fill compressed and collapsed sometime after the eruption of 79 ce, and so it was

heavily contaminated), and a new, large cistern was constructed (Cistern 3). The cistern was substantial and well built and would remain in use up until the eruption of 79 ce (Fig. 11.46; see also Fig. 14.27). A circular cistern head at its northern end, abutting WCU 066, provided access to the in­ter­ior (SU 2055). In this period, Cistern 3 was fed by Drain 8, which carried water from a downpipe that likely originated in the southwestern corner of Corridor 35 (a precursor to SU 17047, of Phase 6, in WCU 080) and below the floor of Room 37 to

Fig. 11.46  Cistern 3 in (later) Room 44 of VIII.7.5–8: left southern end (note the Phase 5a blockage and the Phase 7 repairs); right northern end; bottom mouth.

192  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i access the cistern via an opening in its southern wall (SU 2515; this access point would be blocked with the division of Properties VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.7–8 in Phase 5a: see Fig. 19.2.07). An outlet (SU 2059) on the eastern side of the cistern head prevented overflow, probably carrying excess water east through Drain 13 and out of the property. A tank lined in hydraulic plaster also was installed in Room 44 in this phase, just west of the cistern (see Fig. 12.06). It was destroyed almost entirely by interventions of the following phase (Phase 5a), and only its northern wall survived, abutting the room’s northern wall (tank: SUs 2021, 2028, 2029).

Separation of Properties VIII.7.9–11 and VIII.7.12 Finally, in Phase 4b Property VIII.7.9–12, which had already lost its northernmost street-­side room (Room 67 at Entrance

Fig. 11.47  Plan of Property VIII.7.9–11 during Phase 4b.

13) in Phase 4a (see Fig. 11.21), was divided into two properties: VIII.7.9–11 and VIII.7.12 (Figs.  11.47 and  11.48; Subphase 9.2a, 19.1). Other than the division itself, however, few developments were discernible in the northern Property VIII.7.12. Fish-­salting continued in Fish-­Salting Vat 4 (see Fig.  11.25); the only other activity evident in our trenches was the installation of a new opus signinum surface in Room 66 (SU 9032), elevated at c. 12.10–12.15 masl. This discussion, therefore, will focus on the more substantial interventions in Property VIII.7.9–11, to the south. Despite its division from the property to the north, fish-­ salting also continued in both street-­side rooms of VIII.7.9–11; the vats located just inside Entrance 9/10 (Fish-­Salting Vat 2) and Entrance 11 (Fish-­Salting Vat 3) operated without any evident changes throughout this period (see Figs.  11.22 and 11.24). Architectural changes to the front of the property

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   193

Fig. 11.48  Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 4b.

also were relatively minor: the walls separating Rooms 48 and 49 were built (WCU 062, 150), along with the northern wall dividing Rooms 38 and 39 (WCU 063). Developments were more significant to the west, where a series of walls now divided the spaces accessed via Entrances 9/10 and 11 from those accessed via Entrance 12. As part of this activity, several large quarry pits were cut in the area of (later) Room 53 to access the natural deposits (Quarry Area 3). The pits had been further cut by later construction, and their precise size and shape could not be determined, but they were partially filled with redeposited natural soils (fill: SUs 19010, 19011, 19023, 19027, 19056). These fills were then cut by a continuous construction trench for the northern and western walls of the room, which also served to divide Property VIII.7.9–11 from Property VIII.7.12 (WCU 045; construction trench cut: SU 19059; construction trench fill: SU 19026). An additional wall (WCU 047) was constructed to the south, framing the space of Rooms 51 and 53, which remained united. An opus signinum surface was installed together with the walls, elevated at c. 11.72 masl (surface: SUs 19008, 19016, 19025). On the northwestern side of the property, the new suite of walls abutted the cesspit between Rooms 57 and 66 (Waste Feature 13, of Phase 3a); an additional wall installed south of the cesspit appears to have redirect access to it (wall: SU 9037), but any other elements of the new arrangement were destroyed by later construction, rendering unclear how exactly the division of the properties affected this area. The cesspit, therefore, might have remained accessible to both Property VIII.7.9–11 and VIII.7.12.

In the southwestern corner of the Property VIII.7.9–11, the tannery in Room 56 remained in use during this phase, although the construction of the wall separating Rooms 54 and 55 (WCUs 052, 053) must have, to some extent at least, restructured the operations immediately surrounding it. Nevertheless, no further developments in the area could be placed in this phase.

Phase 4c: the subsequent developments to Phase 4a and Phase 4b Relatively minor developments in Property I.1.3–5 The modifications to Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 4c can be considered relatively minor additions to those of Phase 4b, leaving the building’s architecture unchanged (Fig.  11.49; Subphases 51.5; 55.5; 59.5). Unfortunately, many of the relevant deposits had been damaged by modern activities prior to our excavations, and so we could reconstruct less of this period than of the property’s previous phases. In Room 118 a series of packed-­earth surfaces (SUs 51014, 51021, 51022, 51028, 51035, 51038, 51058)—perhaps representing occasional repairs in isolated areas, rather than a united effort to floor the entire room—­g radually raised the floor level around Cistern 8 from Phase 4b. These surfaces eventually covered the Phase 4b doorstop (Doorstop 3), taking it out of use (see Fig. 11.41; see also Fig.  12.33).19 The uppermost surface (SU 51014) was 19  A new doorstop (Doorstop 4) would replace it in Phase 5a.

194  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.49  Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 4c.

p­ reserved to an elevation of c. 10.13 masl, but was surely higher still. Interventions were more extensive in Room 120, to the north. Here, quarry pits were cut into the packed-­earth surface of the previous phase, likely seeking materials for the resurfacings or repairs conducted concurrently in Room 118 (Quarry Area 12d–­e; surface: SU 55042 of Phase 4b). The lar­ gest of the pits (SU 55035) was c. 1.1 m in diameter and located on the northern side of the room. The cut extended 1.3 m into an earlier fill (see Phase 4a, SU 55097) before the effort appears to have outweighed the reward. The second pit (SU 55034), which measured c. 1 m in diameter and 0.75 m deep, was more effective, reaching the Mercato ash paleosol (SU 55083) just beneath the surface. Even so, the pit cut partially into the fill (SUs 55064 and 55075) of the earlier (Phase 4b) pit in Room 120 (Quarry Area 12c; SU 55069). A third pit of this phase (SU 55105) was identified in the southeastern balk of the trench, having been cut into the same surface (SU 55042). An add­ ition­al cut (SU 55081) was made alongside the facade in this period, possibly for a reconstruction of Entrance 5 that was otherwise indiscernible. Following these activities, the various pits were filled, and the surface from the previous phase (SU 55042) was concealed by a leveling fill (SUs 55004, 55014, 55020, 55033, 55041) in prep­ar­

ation for a new mortar surface, unfortunately preserved only in three small patches, the largest of which was only 40 × 20 cm (SUs 55003, 55011, and 55018). These suggest that the floor surface of the room was elevated at c. 10.25 masl, indicating either that there was a step between Rooms 118 and 120, or more likely, that the surface of Room 118 matched the elevation of Room 120, but the uppermost portion had been cut away by later interventions. The only indication of occupation activity within Room 120 during this period is a paved ramp that led from the via Stabiana (related to its first paving; see Chapter 10) to the sidewalk in front of Entrance 5 (ramp: SUs 55058, 55062). The ramp was constructed of large blocks of tuff, with some smaller stones incorporated. The stones appeared to have been scored to provide traction but showed little wear. Whatever purpose this ramp served, it does not appear to have been in use for long, likely because it was rendered useless by the Early Imperial paving of Pompeii’s streets and raising of their elevation that occurred not long after its construction (see Chapter  12). Unfortunately, modern pipes had been laid through the sidewalk alongside the ramp, erasing the precise relationship between it, the sidewalk, and Room 120, but the top of the ramp was elevated at c. 10.20 masl, suggesting that it is best placed in Phase 4c. Although

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   195 the heavy stone of the ramp showed little wear, the preserved sidewalk at this elevation was notably worn, showing extensive evidence for patching and resurfacing, all at roughly the same elevation of 10.15–10.20 masl (sidewalk surfaces or patches: SUs 55049, 55065, 55067, 55068, 55070, 55077, 55094, 55123, 55124, 55125). At least some portion of the packed-­earth sidewalk, furthermore, was reinforced with cobblestone paving during this period (see Fig. 12.35; SUs 55065, 55123). It seems, therefore, that in this period carts could access Room 120. The room’s wide doorway suggests that it served as a shop, but other evidence for its use is lacking. As at the front of the property, the architectural arrangement of the rear remained unchanged during this period. Even so, the collapse of some subterranean void—­perhaps a cistern—­to the east of the insula and thus beyond the boundaries of the excavated area caused the Phase 4b opus signinum surface east of the well to slump sharply to the southeast (Fig. 11.50; surface: SU 59047). To repair the collapse, a massive leveling fill was laid down across the open space behind Properties  I.1.3–5 and I.1.1–2 (SUs 59004, 59009, 59010, 59024, 59027, 59036, 59061, 59078, 59080, 59107). The earlier cesspit (Waste Feature 19), apparently damaged in the collapse, was filled and buried by the same material (fill within cesspit: SU 59063, 59066). Several cuts alongside the rear boundary wall of Property I.1.2 (WCU 1030), which were themselves filled with the same material, indicate that the wall might have been damaged or undermined at the same time, necessitating repair (cuts: SUs 59104, 59106, 59129; fill: SUs 59050, 59079, 59102, 59113, 59114).

Additionally, a new drain (Drain 39) was installed behind Property I.1.3–5. Running from north to south, it abutted the eastern side of the rear property boundary wall and con­tinued into the area behind Property I.1.2. Farther south, however, it was missing, having been removed by later construction or modern intervention. In addition to Drain 39, a new cistern (Cistern 9) was installed in this phase, abutting the eastern side of the well of Phase 4b (see Fig. 11.50). The cistern might have replaced or supplemented the well (see Fig. 11.42), which was perhaps damaged by the collapse to the east. Without any architectural changes at this time, it seems that the area east of Property  I.1.1–5 remained open and outdoors. After Drain 39 and Cistern 9 were installed, a new surface was added above the large leveling fill (surface: SU 59014; elev. 10.16 masl). The surface was highly degraded but consisted of packed earth topped with mortar (preserved in small patches). To the west of the eastern boundary wall, within the property, a leveling fill raised the floor level by at least 10 cm (fill: SU 59003). The fill was recovered immediately below modern material; the surface itself had been removed prior to our excavations (top of fill elev. c. 10.15 masl).

Relatively minor developments in Property I.1.6–9 A few small developments were discernible in Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 4c (Fig. 11.51; Subphases 52.7, 56.5). On the southern side of the property, Soak-­Away 9 was added to Room 122, immediately north of the Phase 4b tank that remained in use (see Fig. 19.10.03). A sloping opus signinum surface with a

Fig. 11.50  The collapse of the surface (SU 59047), and Cistern 9 (SU 59039) in Room 114 of I.1.3–5; viewed from the north.

196  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.51  Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 4c.

central drainage inlet capped the soak-­away (soil foundation for the surface: SU 52088; surface: SU 52075; elev. 10.30 masl). Once again, remains within the soak-­away showed a preponderance of fish bone and fish scale. To the north, in Room 132, Soak-­Away 14 of Phase 4b remained in use (see Fig. 19.10.04), now supplemented by Soak-­Away 9 to the south. A series of new surfaces were installed within the room in this phase. The first was of packed earth, elevated at c. 10.75 masl (SUs 56031, 56061, 56067, 56068). The second was of white mortar, elevated at c. 10.95 masl (SUs 56027, 56054; see Fig. 19.7.02). The final surface was of orange plaster, elevated at c. 11.05 masl. All of these had been heavily degraded by use and cut away by later activity.

Relatively minor developments in Property VIII.7.5–8 Several minor changes occurred in Property VIII.7.5–8 in Phase 4c (Fig. 11.52; Subphases 7.3, 12.3b, 16.3c, 17.4c, 22.1, 23.1) In Room 15, an opus signinum basin (SU 16020) put Soak-­Away 3 (Phase 4b) out of use. The basin measured c. 60 × 70 cm (Fig. 11.53). Its edges lipped upward but had been cut away by later building activity, making their original elevation uncertain. The floor of the basin was elevated at c. 10.40 masl. It was filled with a gray, sandy deposit (SU 16021). Together with this activity, a new packed-­earth surface with mortar smear was laid down throughout the room (SUs 16032, 16036, 22004,

22007; subsurface fill: SUs 16034, 16049). It abutted the basin at the same elevation as the basin floor. The earlier cesspit (Waste Feature 11) remained in use, but the walls that had surrounded it were dismantled and covered by the new surface, apparently leaving the cesspit accessible to the rest of the room. Along the northern side of Room 15, a new drain (Drain 6) was installed along with the new surface, running from west to east alongside the room’s northern wall (WCU 080; for Drain 6, see Fig. 19.5.01). This drain provides excellent evidence for the continued unity of property VIII.7.5–8 throughout Phase 4. It originated from a basin installed in the open doorway between Room 37 and Corridor 18 (basin: SUs 17042, 22012; see Fig. 19.2.10). The basin measured c. 70 × 70 cm; its uppermost course was destroyed by later construction, but the fixture seemed to have been quite shallow, c. 10 cm. Drain 6 exited the southern side of the basin and turned east to run down Corridor 18 and across the northern side of Room 15. It then turned to the north, passing through an open doorway between Rooms 15 and 32 before emptying into a cistern on the southern side of Room 32 (Cistern 6). The shallow basin (SUs 17042, 22012) not only fed Cistern 6 but also supplied Cistern 3 (of Phase 4b) in Room 44. In this period, the earlier Drain 8 (of Phase 4b) was destroyed and replaced with Drain 9, which ran below the floor of Room 37 to fill Cistern 3 through the access point in its southern wall (SU 2515). The

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   197

Fig. 11.52  Plan of Property VIII.7.5–8 during Phase 4c.

basin, therefore, appears to have served as a valve, allowing occupants of the property to fill either or both cisterns simply by opening or closing apertures within it (see Fig. 19.2.07).20 The basin itself probably was fed by the same downpipe that had earlier filled Cistern 3 through Drain 8 (in Phase 4b; this downpipe would be replaced in Phase 6 by SU 17047 in WCU 080). The outlet on the eastern side of the cistern head (SU 2059) continued to prevent overflow, now probably carrying excess water through Drain 14, which replaced the earlier Drain 13 (see below). Beyond the basin and its associated drains, further water features belonging to Phase 4c were uncovered in Room 37. A soak-­away (Soak-­Away 4) was added to the southern side of 20  Unfortunately, most of the interior of the basin was covered by the construction of WCU 079, and we were unable to identify these apertures.

the room at this time. It was fed from the south by Drain 7, but that drain’s origin and original course had been obscured by later construction. Additionally, two tanks abutted the western wall of the room (WCU 172; SUs 17009, 17011). Both were lined in hydraulic plaster (SUs 17067, 17068, 17069). They had been damaged by later activity, and their original function was unclear. Given that both were significantly smaller and more ephemeral than contemporaneous fish-­salting vats, they likely served some other purpose. At the center of the room, the cesspit of Phase 4a (Waste Feature 12) remained in use. At the front of the property, Fish-­Salting Vat 1 remained in operation within Room 32. Another new drain (Drain 14) was installed north of it, running from west to east alongside the room’s northern wall (see Fig. 19.5.01). A series of cuts removed the earlier drain located here (Drain 13 of Phase 4b),

198  ·   the p orta stab i a N e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 11.53  The basin (SU 16020) in Room 15 of VIII.7.5–8.

along with much of the surrounding floor surface. The new drain was then placed above the earlier iteration, following the same route and elevated only slightly above. A new mortar floor was put in place over the drain (SUs 12012, 12022, elev. c. 10.65–10.70 masl). Like Drain 13, Drain 14 likely traveled from Room 44 and through Corridor 42, but it was not recognized in either area. Probably it was lost when a third drain (Drain 17) was inserted over it in Phase 5a; this final drain passed along the same route from Room 44 but turned north to enter Room 38 through Room 41 and Corridor 40 (see below, Phase 5a). Because Drain 17 did not continue into Room 32, both Drains 13 and 14 were recognized only there.

Relatively minor developments in Property VIII.7.12 Only one minor change was noted in Property VIII.7.12 (Fig. 11.54; Subphase 9.2b). At the rear of the property, in the area of Room 66, a new opus signinum surface (SU 9031) was put in place to the east of the cesspit (Waste Feature 13, of Phase 3a). The new surface was elevated at c. 12.30–12.35 masl and overlay a c. 20 cm leveling fill (fill: SU 9038). The cesspit remained in use, possibly still accessible to both Property VIII.7.9–11 and Property VIII.7.12.

nearly to its final size, even if significant modifications within and between individual properties would continue to bring change in the following phases. The Phase 4 expansion ties the neighborhood to concurrent developments in the city’s street system. This is not to say that the Pompeian “Master Plan” changed in a significant way at this time, but rather that the establishment of our insulae largely inhibited the opportunity for further adjustments to the street network in this now densely built-­up area of the city.21 The extent to which Phase 4 construction related to the Roman colonization process is difficult to know. In general terms, the documented resettlement to Pompeii of some 4,000–5,000 veteran soldiers, as well as their dependents, must have had a major impact on urbanization. Whatever we im­agine the early first-­century bce Pompeian population to have been, these new citizens could have represented as many as half of the preexisting population.22 How so many inhabitants could have been accommodated within the preexisting urban layout is difficult to imagine, and indeed there is no real evidence for sizable new neighborhoods in this period. So while the new properties at the Porta Stabia could arguably have played some limited role in this process, they cannot be seen to explain or to document such extreme demographic growth.

Conclusion The construction of three new properties—­VIII.7.13–15, I.1.3–5, and I.1.6–9—represents an important chapter in the history of the Porta Stabia neighborhood, which saw each insula expand

21  For the street system at the time of the Roman colony, see Poehler 2017, 46–7; also Poehler 2017, 31–52 for the “Master Plan.” 22  For a recent overview of the debates on Pompeian demography, see Flohr 2017.

ph as e 4 : f i s h - s alt i n g a n d ot h e r act i v i t i e s acro ss i n sula e v i i i . 7 a n d i. 1  ·   199

Fig. 11.54  Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 4c.

While the impact of Pompeii’s new colonists is difficult to find in the city’s physical layout, their influence is clearly evident elsewhere: in the introduction of a new administrative language, a new political structure, and new monumental constructions like the Theatrum Tectum and the amphitheater. The substantial changes of this period reverberated as strongly through the urban economy, where a new population brought energy and investment. In the economic realm, the developments at the Porta Stabia—­and in particular the rise in urban production during Phase 4—can be linked most closely to the economic changes sweeping through the city. To some degree, the pronounced increase in production in our neighborhood in the early first century bce is also an ­artifact of the archaeological process: the evidence survives

better than that for the (production) activities of the previous phase in part because later developments were not as wholly destructive to the Phase 4 vats and tanks as their own construction was to the earlier remains. Even so, it is now that we first can identify a pronounced character for the neighborhood, one dominated by production and labor, as indicated by the installation of several salted-­fish vats along the fronts of buildings as well as a tannery at the rear of VIII.7.9–12. Regardless of where the veteran colonists were housed, it was the establishment of Pompeii as a Roman colony—­as Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum—­that ultimately drove the construction of new buildings in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia while also defining the various activities that took place within the structures of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

c h a pt e r 1 2

Phase 5 The Rise of Retail in the Early Imperial Period (Early First Century ce)

With Phase 5 came a series of neighborhood-­wide developments that reshaped both the structural and socio-­economic character of this corner of the city. The scale of these developments—­ both functional and physical—­ is striking: that is, while we have the so-­called “Golden Age” of Pompeii beginning in the second half of the second century bce (coinciding with our Phases 2 and perhaps parts of 3), and the significant rebuilding of the neighborhood and city in the final period following the earthquake/s of 62/3 ce (our Phase 7), it was during the Early Imperial period and our Phase 5 that we can chart not just significant developments to the area of the Porta Stabia, but truly pervasive change. In particular, the majority of the production activities that had defined the neighborhood (at least through most of the first century bce—­our Phase 4) ceased at this time, with the spaces remodeled to accommodate more dedicated retail functions such as shops and food and drink outlets (Fig. 12.01). One point of clarification: by defining the chronological range of Phase 5 as “Early Imperial,” we mean the period that conventionally covers the later first century bce and the early first century ce, from the rise of Augustus through about the reign of Tiberius. At one level this chronological framework allows one to make more direct connections to the excavation data from other projects, many of which describe material from approximately this period simply as “Augustan.” Nevertheless, our period is somewhat broader than the reign of the first emperor, roughly covering the years between 30 bce and 30 ce. However defined, it remains difficult to genuinely date urban contexts—­even on the basis of stratified coins and fineware pottery—­much more precisely than to a half century, and narrowing that range to the era of an individual emperor typically is very difficult.1 Where we are able to reconstruct more precise dates, the activities of Phase 5 tended toward the later range of our definition—­so the first decades of the first century ce—­but even so we hesitate to tie them to one emperor or another. The activities of Phase 5 are subdivided into Phases 5a and 5b. As for Phases 3a–­b and 4a–­c, the developments of 1  See discussion in Chapter 2.

Phase 5b not only were subsequent to those of Phase 5a but also were more limited in scale.

Phase 5a: a truly pervasive change Among the significant events of Phase 5a, the most notable was the wholesale reorganization of the properties that had formerly participated in fish-­salting activities (Fig. 12.02). In the Early Imperial period, all the fish-­salting vats were buried for the creation of new floors and the introduction of new activities. Together with this substantial change, nearly every property on both sides of the via Stabiana was reconstructed. The developments of Phase 5a indicated a wholesale shift to the neighborhood in this period, as bars, restaurants, inns, and shops took the place of the production facilities that had preceded them.

Abandonment of fish-­salting New activities in Property VIII.7.9–11 The widespread reorganization of space in Phase 5a was most pronounced in Property VIII.7.9–11 (Fig.  12.03; Subphases 2.3, 3.3, 7.4, 13.3, 15.2, 19.2, 29.5). Here, Fish-­Salting Vats 2 and 3, in operation through Phase 4, were each decommissioned at the beginning of Phase 5a; the tannery at the rear of the property also went out of use. The entire space was reorganized, with the property incorporating a large area that had formerly made up the northwestern side of neighboring Property VIII.7.5–8.2 All of these physical changes served a larger, functional alteration to this structure of Insula VIII.7. The building, formerly devoted to urban production, now became a restaurant, complete with indoor and outdoor dining rooms and extensive service areas. At the front of the property, the most notable change of the Early Imperial period was the filling of Fish-­Salting Vats 2 and 3 from Phase 4a, located in Entrances 9/10 and 11 (Rooms 38 and  48, respectively). Fish-­Salting Vat 2 in Room 38 was 2  This property would be further divided in Phase 5a into VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.7–8, on which see below.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven Ellis, Allison Emmerson, and Kevin Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0012

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   201

Fig. 12.01  An indication of the types of properties (as they will appear in their final form), noting the predominance of retailing and hospitality activities that mostly appear from Phase 5

202  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.02  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 5a.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   203

Fig. 12.03  Plan of Property VIII.7.9–11 during Phase 5a.

decommissioned in the same way as all the others up and down the street: the upper parts of its walls were destroyed and the vat’s interior was filled with material that incorporated its own rubble (fills: SUs 3056, 3058, 3061). All of the material in the vat was consistent, being a gray-­brown gritty matrix that included mixed building materials, broken pottery, fragmentary iron, bronze, glass, and bone objects, small and heavily worn coins, and a variety of ecofacts. The fill was clearly unrelated to the use of the vat; rather, it consisted of mixed-­up refuse, likely imported into the space for the express purpose of decommissioning the vat. This ma­ter­ial also filled the circular cistern (Cistern 4) of Phase 4a; sherds of the same vessel were re­covered from within Cistern 4 and Fish-­Salting Vat 2, confirming that the fills used to destroy both derived from the

same source (see Fig.  11.23; fill of Cistern 4: SUs 3010, 3016, 3037, 3039, 3045). With the subterranean fixtures having been destroyed, a leveling fill was laid across Room 38 to conceal their remains and raise the room’s surface by c. 35 cm (SUs 3020 and 3040). This material was in all ways indistinguishable from that found within the fixtures, and included rubble apparently derived from the destroyed upper structure of the vat. A new packed-­earth surface topped with mortar was then laid above (SUs 3003, 3007, 3011, 3017, 3031, 3033, 3034). The surface was preserved in small patches—­some of which might represent resurfacings—­and remained only in the northeastern corner of the room; it was elevated at c. 11.20–11.28 masl. Notably, this was the latest surface we were able to identify

204  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i here; in most areas of the room, modern material extended down to the sub-­floor deposits for this phase. A similar sequence of events closed Fish-­Salting Vat 3 in Room 48, to the north. The uppermost portion of the vat was destroyed and its interior space was filled (with SUs 29020, 29025, 29030). This fill, which was consistent throughout, was similar to that found in Fish-­Salting Vat 2 in Room 38, being composed of mixed, fragmentary materials within a sandy gray-­brown matrix. Certainly the fill was not related to the use of the vat and probably had been imported into the space as part of this reconstruction process. The same type of ma­ter­ial made up a c. 50 cm deep leveling fill (SUs 29009, 29010) that covered the entire room for a new mortar surface (SUs 29029, 29038), elevated at c. 11.30 masl. A new drain (Drain 18) was installed along with these activities, running west–­east toward the via Stabiana. The drain incorporated the northern wall of the vat, now destroyed, into its construction (Fig. 12.04). The location of its inlet remains unknown, but it must have been in one of the rear rooms. Together with these events, the facade and entrance (Entrance 11) to Room 48 was reorganized in Phase 5a, as discernible by a reorientation of its threshold stones ­ (Threshold 11). The raising of the surface naturally resulted in the raising of the threshold (Drain 18 ran below the northernmost threshold stone), but the facade was also reconfigured at this time to create a narrower entrance (see Fig. 12.04). Two side-­by-­side entrances now opened into the space, the northernmost being a “night-­door” (represented by SU 29006) with a threshold that consisted of a single lava stone 50 × 68 cm

(see Chapter 19.11).3 The southern, wider, and more “public” entrance now had a double-­door (represented by threshold SU 29007); this and the night-­door probably were separated by a wooden partition. Additionally, a new doorway was opened in the eastern end of the room’s southern wall (with the removal of WCU 170), providing access between Room 48 and Room 38; this event likely coincided with the blocking of an earlier doorway between these rooms, located to the west (WCU 169). Reconstruction activities continued in the western area of the property. Phase 5a saw the first division of Rooms 51 and 53. This activity first involved cutting a quarry pit through the earlier floor surface into the volcanic soils to extract pozzolana (Quarry Area 3; cut: SUs 19057, 19060). This was a major undertaking that removed most previous archaeology from the area. The large void was then filled (with SU 19012, 19024, 19032, 19033) and the new wall was raised above (WCU 049). Material similar to that filling the pit raised the floor level of the room c. 10 cm (fill: SUs 19009, 19022) and a mortar surface, heavily degraded upon excavation, was laid (surface: SUs 19002, 19003, 19004, 19005, 19006, 19007, 19015, 19019, 19020, 19021). An unusually high number of coins—­ fifty-­ five in total—­were recovered from within the construction of this new floor and its subfills. Changes were more dramatic to the southwest, particularly in Room 56. In this period, the room was truncated from the west (with the construction of WCU 184) as the 3  See also Ellis 2011a, 164.

Fig. 12.04  Drain 18 along with the filling of Fish-­Salting Vat 3 in Room 48 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the west. Note also Threshold 11.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   205 Quadriporticus expanded eastwards and northwards to occupy its final footprint (see below). Here, the tannery from Phase 4a was destroyed and its tanks filled to completely transform the space (see Figs. 11.26 and 11.27). All four tannery vats contained deposits similar to those that filled the fish-­ salting vats at the front of the property: gray-­brown sandy soils containing a heavy concentration of mixed, broken materials, including much construction debris (fill: SUs 13032, 13033, 13034, 13035). This reconstruction process caused significant damage to the structure of the vats themselves, particularly to the space between the paired northern and southern vats, where some structural fixture appears to have been removed at this time. The tank in the southeastern corner also was filled and destroyed at this time (tank: SU 13040; fill: SU 13050). As for the reconstructions at the front of the property, the same material used to fill the tannery vats also covered the room above, raising its floor level by as much as 50 cm (SUs 13028, 13041, 13042). An opus signinum surface was installed above, recovered only in a small patch in the southeast, where it had collapsed into the tannery tank (SU 13040). Elsewhere, the surface appears to have been destroyed by later intervention in the area: modern deposits sat directly above the subsurface fill in most of the room. Nevertheless, plaster on the room’s southern wall (WCU 051) lipped horizontally at c. 12.20 masl, indicating the floor level of this or a subsequent phase (plaster: SUs 13018, 13019). The reconstruction of Room 56 also involved moving the doorway that provided access between it and Room 55, a seemingly minor change that played a larger role in the reimagining of the property at this time. The doorway that had accessed the room since Phase 4a was blocked (with WCU 160) and a new, wider, doorway was opened immediately to the north (with the removal of WCU 188). The ori­ gin­al doorway had opened Room 56 to Rooms 55 and 54, immediately to its east, but had otherwise concealed the tannery from the rest of the property. The new doorway, however, aligned Room 56 with not only the central corridor but also the newly installed double-­door from the street at Entrance 11 (Fig.  12.05). While we otherwise have few clues as to the function of Room 56 in this phase, there is every likelihood that the room had become a “destination” for those entering (or contemplating entering) the property. Changes in Room 55, to the east, were tied to those in Room 56. A leveling fill (SU 15014) raised the floor level c. 20 cm and a new opus signinum surface was installed at an elevation of 11.82 masl (SU 15008). As in Room 56, this Phase 5a surface was the final ancient soil deposit un­covered in the space; here it survived better than in Room 56. It was also in this period that a downpipe was installed in the room’s southern wall. No portions of this downpipe survive, but its presence is indicated by other features; most likely it was located

Fig. 12.05  The viewshed from the street through to the rear room (Room 56) of VIII.7.9–11.

in the western end of WCU 066. At ground level, the downpipe led to a shallow basin (Archival Find 455)—lost prior to our excavations but recorded in early reports4—which fed a drain (Drain 16) that projected southward through the wall and into a semicircular basin (Archival Find 754) in Room 46, to the south (see below, and Figs. 12.08 and 12.09; pipe: SUs 2065, 15009; basin: SU 2034). Further changes in this area of the property were indicated by the installation of new architecture; the walls defining Rooms 52 and 54 were added at this time (WCUs 054 and 055). Even more substantial architectural renovations of this phase are attested by a new drain, Drain 17, which ran through—­ and therefore united the stratigraphy of—­ the ­central space of Insula VIII.7 (Fig. 12.06; see also Fig. 19.5.01). The inlet consisted of a shallow basin uncovered in Room 44 (SU 2109). Drain 17 then continued through Corridor 42, following the same west–­east path as the earlier, Phase 4b and 4c drains that had run along the northern side of Property VIII.7.5–8 (Drains 13, 14). In a departure from those, however, it did not continue through Rooms 33 and 32 to pass below 4  Mau 1875, 167–8.

206  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Entrance 8 and empty onto the street. Instead, Drain 17 snaked north, through a newly opened doorway in the wall that had previously marked the boundary between Properties VIII.7.5–8 and VIII.7.9–11 (with the removal of WCU 190). The drain then turned east down Corridor 40 before passing through Room 38 to exit under Entrance 9 onto the street. At the same time, a series of new walls defined Rooms 33, 34, 36, and 37, isolating the space accessed through Entrances 7 and 8 from the western area it had formerly controlled (see further below). Together with the added walls, therefore, the new doorway and the drain that passed through it represent a fundamental redevelopment of the social and structural shape of these properties. At a time when the production facilities of VIII.7.9–11 were replaced by commercial activities, this central property acquired the rear spaces of its southern neighbor, significantly expanding its own footprint. Excavation in Rooms 44 and 45 revealed the inlet of Drain 17 and illuminated some aspects of its use. In Phase 5a the walls defining Rooms 44, 45, 46, and 47 (WCUs 074, 075, 076, 077, 078) were introduced. Of these, the foundations of the eastern wall of Room 46 were explored (WCU 074; construction trench cut: SU 2008; fill: SU 2009). As part of the same reconstruction, leveling fills were introduced throughout the area (SUs 2098, 2110). The floor surface above was packed earth, preserved only in ephemeral patches at c. 11.30 masl (SUs 2011, 2013, 2019, 2091, 2099, 2107, 2108, 2113).5 Drain 17 was constructed within the leveling fill, running just south of the earlier Drain 13 (of Phase 4b). The new drain was fed through a rectangular basin (c. 45 × 40 cm, c. 15 cm deep) that must originally have been accessible from ground level, but extensive modern disturbance in this area had destroyed its upper structure (SU 2109). The drain’s interior also was accessible farther east, where it turned through the newly opened doorway leading from Corridor 42 to Corridor 40 (created by the removal of WCU 190). Here, the drain channel led into a circular settling basin with a base 20 cm deeper than the bottom of the drain, before the channel narrowed once more and continued through Room 38 to empty onto the street (basin: SU 7035, 7040). This basin allowed for the periodic collection of larger refuse items from the drain, while also providing a water-­trap likely intended to prevent rodents and other vermin from passing through the drain and into the property (Fig. 12.07). A circular stone lid (SU 7013), complete with an iron handle, closed the basin at ground level.6 The drain and basin in Room 44 were not isolated projects, but part of a much larger system of water and waste

Fig. 12.06  a. Drain 17 passing through the newly opened doorway that had previously separated properties VIII.7.5–8 (at right) and VIII.7.9–11 (at left); viewed from the west. b. Inlet basin to Drain 17 in Room 44 of VIII.7.9–11.

5  It is possible that some of these represent a patching or resurfacing of the surface; extensive modern disturbance in this area made it difficult to distinguish any sequence to these patches. 6  A similar lid is seen in a drain uncovered in the House of Caecilius Iucundus (V.1.22–7); on which, see Karivieri and Forsell 2008, 127, fig. 12.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   207

Fig. 12.07  The catchment in Drain 17 (above) with lava capstone (below) in VIII.7.9–11.

­ anagement in this area that centered on Cistern 3, which m had been installed in Phase 4b and remained in use. The cistern ori­g in­al­ly had been fed via a watershed that covered the ­central area of Property VIII.7.5–8, via a series of two drains recovered in Room 37: Drain 8 (of Phase 4b) and Drain 9 (of Phase 4c). With the division of the properties, however, Drain 9 was destroyed, the access point in the southeastern wall of Cistern 3 was plugged with mortar (access point: SU 2515; plugging: SU 2507), and the cistern’s watershed shifted (see Fig.  11.46). Water was now carried from the north via Drain 16 (see above). In Room 46 a spout poured the water into a small, semicircular basin that abutted the southwestern side of WCU 066 (Archival Find 754; SU 2034; Fig. 12.08; see also Figs. 4.10 and 4.11). The basin was lined in hydraulic plaster (SU 2036); a strip of decorative plaster projected above, in which two iron nails were visible (plaster: SU 2037, nails: SUs 2051, 2052). The nails could have secured some type of decorative feature (a mask?) through which the water may have poured. Below, the basin likely functioned both as a decorative feature and as a settling basin. It was not equipped with any form of drainage in its base; instead, water must have exited near the top, which was poorly preserved. Nevertheless, part of a ceramic pipe, which ran eastward from Room 46 to Room 45, was found at the proper elevation to have ori­g in­ated from the basin. Water flowed through this pipe (SU 2065) and into a second, rectangular, settling basin (SU 2057) before entering Cistern 3 through an additional length of pipe and a new inlet (SUs 2054, 2058) that was opened at this time in the western wall of the cistern head (Fig. 12.09). This sophisticated system allowed the water to serve as a decorative feature before being cleaned via the double settling basins and stored for use in the cistern. On the eastern side of the cistern head, the earlier overflow outlet (SU 2059) now carried excess water towards Drain 17. The redevelopment of Room 44’s water-­ management system, complete with an entirely new inlet to Cistern 3, suggests a new use for this space in the Early Imperial period. Other features installed at this time help to illuminate the change, making clear that Room 44 now functioned as a kitchen. A cooking fixture (Cooking Facility 4) was installed in Phase 5a on the southern side of Room 44. It consisted of a hearth (or stove) and a small oven set side-­by-­side in the corner formed by WCUs 071 and 072 (Fig. 12.10). A plastered bench incorporating a reused grinding stone, presumably intended for food preparation, was installed to the north against the southern side of WCU 066 and just east of the mouth to Cistern 3 (see Figs. 11.46; 12.09; SU 2023). Upon ori­gin­al excavation of the insula, an arcuated niche shrine was recovered on the northern side of Room 44, cut into WCU 066. It featured a painting of the genius familiaris, a flute player, and a pair of Lares flanking an altar; in a lower register, a snake approached a second altar (Ritual Context 5). Although this shrine is now

208  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.08  The projection of the downpipe (SUs 15009 and 2065) from Room 55 southward into a basin (SU 2034) in Room 46 in VIII.7.9–11; note the north wall of the tank from Phase 4b.

lost and its precise chronology is impossible to establish, it might have been installed in this phase of significant reconstruction. To the south, a toilet was added in the space east of Cooking Facility 4 (Waste Feature 4). New walls (WCU 071) framed the toilet, defining a small room of c. 1.10 × 0.70 m. A packed-­ earth surface (SU 2091) surrounded the toilet shaft, which descended c. 1 m before turning west and continuing below Cooking Facility 4, at which point our excavations closed (fill of Waste Feature 4: SU 2095). The facilities in Room 44 apparently serviced a garden dining space in Room 46, immediately to the west. A large masonry triclinium (Sus 2002, 2096) was constructed here in this phase, abutting the northern side of WCU 075 (WF 263), and looking northwards to the semicircular basin associated with Cistern 3, which was both decorative and served as the

first settling basin for the cistern (Fig. 12.11; see also Fig. 4.10 for the condition of the structure when first discovered). In  front of this triclinium, the original excavators found an un­usual masonry table, decorated with colored marble and with six compartments in its sides (see Figs.  4.10 and  4.11).7 The table was painted with scenes of cupids, which seem to have been echoed in surrounding statuary, fragments of which they also discovered here. All of this evidence indicates significant investment in the space in this phase, all focused around dining and the service activities related to it. Phase 5a, therefore, saw not just a reconstruction of Property VIII.7.9–11 (see Fig. 12.03), but a wholesale reimagining of the space’s organization and function. All activities 7  See discussion in Chapter 4.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   209 related to fish-­salting and tanning ceased, and the property expanded to the southwest, at the expense of its southern neighbor. Its newly acquired space was developed as a large garden with luxurious dining facilities, complete with the service spaces of a kitchen and latrine. These service rooms, furthermore, communicated with another suite of rooms to the north (Rooms 39–41), which perhaps supported activities in Room 38 at Entrance 10. Based on its threshold, that room was a shop. Entrance 9 gave access to a separate space on an upper floor, probably a rented apartment. Entrance 11, into Room 48, appears to have been the main entrance into the redeveloped property. The double doors here provided a view down the central corridor (Corridor 50), past a series of rooms to either side, and directly into Room 56 (see Fig.  12.05). Although little evidence for its use derived from the remains of the room itself, this axial arrangement recalls the city’s luxurious atrium houses, and the emphasis on Room 56 suggests its importance. Considered alongside the garden triclinium and its associated kitchen to the south, Room 56 might have functioned as an indoor dining room, suggesting that much of Property VIII.7.9–11 now was devoted to commercial dining. If the double doors at Entrance 11 were left open, a view of the dining room in Room 56 could encourage guests into the space. The rooms to either side of Corridor 50 might have provided other spaces to dine, or perhaps functioned as service areas (note that Cooking Facility 5 would be added to Room 53 in Phase 5b). This central corridor probably served as the chief access for guests both to Room 56 and to the garden triclinium at Room 46, with workers more likely to use the winding access through Rooms 40, 41, and Corridor 42. A property that had once salted fish and tanned hides, therefore, now became a restaurant.8

New activities in Property VIII.7.7–8 (formerly VIII.7.5–8) Similarly large-­scale changes were carried out during Phase 5a in the property immediately to the south, formerly VIII.7.5–8. Beyond the significant loss of western space to Property VIII.7.9–11 (see above), the once-­united property at VIII.7.5–8 was divided into two: VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.7–8 (Fig. 12.12; also Fig. 12.25; Subphases 11.5, 12.4, 16.4, 17.5a, 21.4, 22.2, 23.2, 30.1). As with VIII.7.9–11, the reorganization of VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.7–8 was indicated both by the restructuring of architecture and by the subterranean alteration of drains. Likewise, the new properties abandoned fish-­ salting in the Early Imperial period, with both now devoted more expressly to retail over production activities.

Fig. 12.09  The water system in Room 46 of VIII.7.9–11: top, overflow from the first settling (and display) basin; middle, the second settling basin; bottom, access to Cistern 3.

8  Similar structures featuring (likely) commercial outdoor dining also can be found immediately inside the Porta Nocera, at Properties I.20.1–3, II.8.2–3, II.8.4–5, and possibly II.8.6.

210  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.10  Cooking Facility 4 in Room 44 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the north.

As part of this phase of reconstruction, Fish-­Salting Vat 1, located within Entrance 8 in Room 32 (of Phase 4a; see Fig.  11.19) was destroyed in the same manner as those in Property VIII.7.9–13: its upper walls were dismantled and it was filled with mixed construction debris and general waste (fill: SUs 12069, 12107, 12110). Rather than being destroyed, Cistern 6 was restructured and topped with a series of four interconnecting amphorae (SUs 23013, 23014, 23015, 23021; all Punic type T-­5.2.3.1 from Tunisia, dating between 220/210 and 175/170 bce), which might have functioned together as a water-­filtration system (see Fig.  19.2.11).9 A new mouth (SU 12162) was put in place above the restructured cistern. The water supply of Cistern 6 also was reorganized in this phase, when Drain 6—which in Phase 4c had originated in Room 37, traveled down Corridor 18 and into Room 15 before turning north to enter Cistern 6—was cut by the blocking of the doors between Rooms 37 and Corridor 18, as well as between Rooms 15 and 32 (with WCUs 162 and 163; see Figs.  19.2.07; 19.5.01). In Room 37, the origin of Drain 6, the Phase 4c basin in Room 37 (SU 17042) also was filled and destroyed (fill: SU 17044), along with the corresponding drain (Drain 9) that had fed Cistern 3 in Room 44. Soak-­Away 4, the drain that fed it (Drain 7), and the tanks against the western wall (SUs 17009, 17011) were removed as well. Of the earlier fixtures here, therefore, only the cesspit at the center of Room 37 (Waste Feature 12) remained in use. These interventions marked the Fig. 12.11  The exposed eastern part of the triclinium in Room 46 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the north.

9  See Chapter 19.2.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   211

Fig. 12.12  Plan of Property VIII.7.7–8 during Phase 5a.

clear separation Property VIII.7.5–6 from VIII.7.7–8, a division that would endure until the eruption of 79 ce.10 Returning to Room 32, in the street-­side room that provided entrance to the now much reduced Property VIII.7.7–8 (see Fig.  12.12), the destruction of Fish-­Salting Vat 1 and the associated basin was followed by the construction of two large, interconnected cistern chambers that together we call Cistern 5 (Fig. 12.13). The larger chamber of Cistern 5 occupied much of the north–­south length of Room 32, abutting the northern property wall (WCU 067). This chamber was over 6.5 m long, 2.7 m wide, and at least 1.5 m deep, with a barrel-­ vaulted ceiling, large enough to contain at least 26,325 liters of water at full capacity (Fig. 12.14). The construction of the cistern may have involved a ritual dedication: four votive cups, each containing burned organic remains, were re­covered from within the leveling fill surrounding it, but we cannot be certain of the association (Votives 21, 22; fill: SU 12009). At its southern end, this larger chamber accessed a second of only slightly smaller dimensions. The southern chamber ran east–­west along the southern property wall (WCU 081). The two chambers operated together as a single system, with one mouth providing access to both (SU 12115). Cistern 5 abutted and was closely

related to the earlier Cistern 6, and in this phase, the heads of both cisterns were constructed as part of the same structure (visible in top-­right of Fig. 11.17). We re­covered no traces of the drain or drains that carried rain­water from the building’s roof into the cisterns in this phase, but most likely they were fed by a downpipe in Corridor 35, either the same one that had earlier filled Cistern 3 and Cistern 6 or a new iteration. This fixture appears to have been destroyed by the installation of a new downpipe in Phase 6 (SU 17047 in WCU 080), which would fill Cistern 5 via Drain 10 in Corridor 35. The construction of Drain 10 and its pair, Drain 11, in Phase 6 likely obscured the earlier drain that had accessed the cisterns in Phase 5a. The substantial reconstruction activities of this period also were attested by a series of cuts into the earlier archaeology within Room 32, associated with the construction of the new cistern as well as the removal of earlier materials (Sus 12016, 12038, 12064). These cuts were filled with material in all ways indistinguishable from that which decommissioned Fish-­ Salting Vat 1. Similar material also surrounded Cistern 5 (fill: Sus 12005, 12006, 12009, 12011, 12015, 12041, 12123). Above the fill, a new opus signinum surface extended across Room 32 (SU 12121; elev. 10.75 masl).11 A single column was then installed on the

10  Note, however, that a doorway still provided access between Rooms 30 and 46, the gardens at the rear of each property.

11  Some traces of a packed-earth surface (SU 12067) below the opus signinum and immediately above the filled Fish-Salting Vat 1 could represent a tem­por­ary working surface used during these extensive construction events.

212  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.13  Cistern 5 in Room 32 of VIII.7.7–8.

northwestern side of the room, around one meter from its northern wall (WCU 067). The column (SU 12040), of which only the lowermost portion survived, was constructed of brick and sat on a mortar base (SU 12039). It was preserved to a height of about 0.20 m, with a diameter of 0.45 m (see Fig. 11.17). Together with these events, the façade wall (WCU 067) of Room 32 was rebuilt on the foundations of the preexisting frontage from Phase 3a. The wide Entrance 8 suggests that Room 32 functioned as a shop, while the narrower Entrance 7 probably provided access to an upstairs apartment. Additional new walls defined Rooms 33, 34, and 36 to the west (WCUs 069, 153, 154), which likely functioned in support of the retail space. Precisely what might have been retailed here remains unclear, but the sheer scale of Cistern 5 suggests some need for large quantities of water, particularly considering the degree to which the property’s footprint had been reduced in this phase.

New activities in Property VIII.7.12 Fish-­salting activity also disappeared from Property VIII.7.12 in the Early Imperial period (Fig. 12.15; Subphases 9.3, 18.4). At this time, Fish-­Salting Vat 4, located within Entrance 12 in Room 58, was filled with material largely indistinguishable from that found elsewhere, consisting of construction debris and a variety of broken objects set within a sandy, gray-­brown matrix (SU 18025). A leveling fill of similar ma­ter­ial (SUs 18023, 18027, 18031, 18050), c. 15 cm deep, supported a new packed-­earth surface above the vat, elevated at c. 11.75 masl (SU 18019). Drain 23 now replaced Drain 22 (see Phase 4a above), on the same west–­east alignment. Additionally, a doorstop (Doorstop 1) was installed within the new surface, 1.24 m behind Entrance 12 to ensure a more secure closure of the door (see Fig. 13.12). Because a doorstop works best when positioned directly behind the door it bolsters, this example’s placement near the center of the room is significant: it could have functioned only with a

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   213

Fig. 12.14  Inside Cistern 5 in Room 32 of VIII.7.7–8; the three votive cups during excavation.

­ arrower entrance into the property than that in use by n 79 ce (Threshold 12). Some minor changes to the rear of the property were discernible in Room 66. A tank was constructed on the northern side of the room (SU 9013), abutting the earlier cesspit (SU 9004) and the room’s northern wall (WCU 011). The tank was made of quasi-­opus reticulatum and lined in hydraulic plaster, with internal measurements of 1.65 × 0.85 m, and a depth of at least 1.30 m (Fig. 12.16). The bottom edges had curved, ovolo moldings, contrasting it with the Phase 4a fish-­salting vats from the neighborhood.12 Its original function was unclear, but might have been related to the cesspit (Waste Feature 13 from Phase 3a), still in use here. A masonry platform, potentially 12  For some discussion of these ovolo moldings, Ellis 2011d, 66–7.

a cooking bench (Cooking Facility 6), also was added to Room 66 at this time, located just west of the tank (see Fig. 12.16). The deposit immediately above the bench, as well as the fills within the tank, were heavily contaminated with modern material (SUs 9012, 9017, 9020).

New activities in Property I.1.1–2 Crossing the street to Insula  I.1, fish-­ salting ceased in Property  I.1.1–2 (Fig.  12.17; Subphases 50.5, 54.6, 58.3). In Room 101, Fish-­Salting Vat 5 (of Phase 4a) was destroyed and filled. The process was identical to that used to decommission the vats across the street: the upper parts of the vat’s walls were dismantled, and it was filled with a deposit of mixed construction materials (including some from the upper walls of the vat itself ) and general refuse within a gray-­brown,

214  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.15  Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 5a.

sandy matrix (Fig. 12.18; SUs 50012, 50018, 50019, 50031). This secondary fill  covered the thin deposit of primary waste material (SUs 50020, 50031) that had accumulated at the ­bottom of the vat following its final phase of production (see Phase 4a, above). Likewise, the upper walls of Fish-­Salting Vat 6 in Room 106 were dismantled at this time, and the vat was filled with a sandy deposit (SUs 54041, 54046) that covered the primary waste that had collected just over its floor (SU 54044; see Phase 4a, Figs. 11.32 and 11.33). The closure of the vats, therefore, ended not only their original uselife for fish-­ salting but also any concurrent or secondary functions. In this case, the deposits found at the bottom of each vat might suggest that these fixtures made convenient places to pitch garbage during the parts of the year in which they were not actively pro­du­cing fish products. With both of the property’s fish-­salting vats destroyed, new surfaces were laid in the front rooms. In Room 101 the surface of Phase 4a had been cut away entirely by the same destruction events that removed the upper portion of the vats, and a new subsurface fill sat directly atop the earlier subsurface (SUs 50048, 50052, 50057). The new surface itself was of packed earth and survived best where it covered the southern wall of the now defunct vat (see Fig. 12.18; surface: SU 50028; elev. c. 9.60 masl). Both the surface and its subsurface fills had been heavily disturbed by the later construction of a drain (Drain 33, Phase 5b) through the room (see Fig. 12.18). Nevertheless, the fills contained significant inclusions: tuff off-­cuts that appeared to have derived from a reconstruction of the property’s facade at this time, which involved shaving back the northernmost

portion of the southern facade wall (WCU 1000). Thus, Entrance 1 was widened, if only slightly, in this period. To the north, in Room 106, a sizable leveling fill (SU 54032)—in all ways similar to the material that filled both vats—­was deposited across the room.13 Above this was a very hard mortar surface (SUs 54015, 54016, 54030, 54031), itself about 8–10 cm deep and elevated at c. 9.80 masl.14 Installed along with the surface was a large, flat-­bottomed storage vessel, located just north of the earlier vat (Fig. 12.19; SU 54052). The vessel was locally made.15 Its uppermost structure had been removed by later construction. Although this fixture was structured much like a soak-­away, the fact that no holes punctured its walls suggests that it had been used for storage rather than drainage. The deposits within the vessel (SUs 54053, 54054) appeared related to its destruction in the subsequent phase (Phase 5b), and so provided no further information on how it was used. Also belonging to Phase 5a was a worn lava stone of unclear function (SU 54023). Given its location behind the threshold, it might have served as a doorstop (see Fig. 19.4.02; Doorstop 5). Alternatively, it could have served another function, possibly related to an additional fixture located about 1.5 m to the east. This fixture incorporated two square postholes c. 10 × 10 cm each, separated from one another by about 65 cm (SUs 54021, 54035). The precise form of the fixture to which they belonged was unclear. 13  The total volume of material required for this fill was 6,690 liters. 14  This surface had been much destroyed by the cutting of a modern utility trench for laying subsurface power lines. 15  Similar to Type CA D2 4255 in Bustamante Álvarez et al., 2012.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   215

Fig. 12.16  The above-­g round tank and Cooking Facility 6 in Room 66 of VIII.7.12: above, viewed from the west (and above); below, viewed from the south.

The significant changes to the street-­side rooms in this phase coincided with a few developments to the east, in Room 108. The structure in the center of the room (SU 58012, of Phase 4a) was dismantled at this time. Likewise, the cesspit in the southwestern corner (Waste Feature 18) was filled with a thick deposit. As elsewhere across both insulae, this fill had all the

characteristics of imported secondary waste; it contained a large variety of fragmentary objects and rubble, mixed together in a sandy gray-­brown matrix (SUs 58031, 58044, 58065).16 A new 16  Sometime after 79 ce, this fill compacted and collapsed, introducing much mixed lapilli into the uppermost part of the cesspit’s void (collapse: SU 58010; uppermost fill: SU 58009).

216  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.17  Plan of Property I.1.1–2 during Phase 5a.

Fig. 12.18  The Phase 5a fills of Fish-­Salting Vat 5 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2; note Drain 33 (Phase 5b).

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   217

Fig. 12.19  The storage vessel (SU 54052) during excavation in Room 106 of I.1.1–2.

opus signinum surface then covered the room (SUs 58013, 58037), founded on a leveling fill (SU 58043). The surface was degraded and much of it had been removed by later activity, but where it survived it was elevated at c. 9.47 masl. This surface was patched or resurfaced with mortar at some later point within the same phase (SUs 58032, 58033). With the removal of the fish-­salting vats, activities within Property I.1.1–2 underwent a significant change in Phase 5a. Precisely identifying the spaces’ new functions remains difficult, but the wide entrances into Rooms 101 and 106 suggest that retail activities had replaced the production of the preceding phase. The later additions of structural fixtures in both rooms (see Phase 5b below), indicates increasing specialization, as the property reoriented itself around food retailing.

New activities in Property I.1.6–9 On the northern side of Insula  I.1, the fish-­salting vat in Room 122 (Fish-­Salting Vat 8), also was destroyed in Phase 5a (Fig.  12.20; Subphases 52.8, 56.6, 60.1). A fill that was in all ways similar to those utilized in other properties, made up of a gritty gray-­brown matrix with many inclusions of rubble and fragmentary artifacts, filled the vat (fill in vat: SUs 52035, 52046, 52053) and raised the floor level of the room c. 30 cm

(leveling fill: SU 52040). The same material covered Soak-­ Away 9 (Phase 4c). Above was a new mortar surface, elevated at c. 10.65 masl (SUs 52024, 52098, 52100). Drain 40 was installed within this surface, running east–­west along the southern side of the room to empty onto the via Stabiana. Unfortunately, a large pit cut through the southern area of the room during the following phase (SU 52013, of Phase 6), removing much of the drain and contaminating its contents. To its east was a plaster-­lined void, at least 2 m deep, that was identifiable by the collapse of the modern surface, but which otherwise remained unexcavated. The only other feature of this phase in Room 122 was indicated by two narrow ridges of plaster (SUs 52042, 52094, 52095) that overlay the mortar surface and abutted the room’s northern wall (WCU 1130). They were extremely ephemeral, preserved to only 6 cm in height. They framed an area of c. 1.0 × 2.0 m and curved slightly, as if surrounding a fixture that had been removed. The missing fixture was located just inside the later doorway into Room 122, which would be opened in the subsequent phase (Phase 6). At that point, the fixture was destroyed, leaving only the plaster ridges to indicate its presence. In Phase 5a, therefore, the production fixtures of Room 122 were removed, leaving an open space accessed through a wide entrance from the street. To the east, another wide doorway led to Room 125. A retail function for this space seems most likely, although little more can be said of the specific type of retail that might have taken place here. To the north, however, Room 132 clearly retailed food in Phase 5a. The room received its southeastern wall at this time (WCU 1088), and a buttress was added to the southwest (WCU 091), leaving a wide doorway into Room 123. A layer of decorated plaster was applied to the room’s walls (plaster: SU 56004). It survived best in the northeastern corner (Fig. 12.21). The decoration was simple, consisting of colored, rectangular panels on a white background. The panel of the preserved portion was red, and a single black vertical border survived. At the same time, a masonry counter (Bar Counter 4) was installed in the room, at the center of Entrance 9 (Fig. 12.22). While most of what remains of the counter is a modern reconstruction, enough of the lowest course survived to show its development over two phases. When installed in Phase 5a, it was I-­shaped, oriented east–­west from the threshold (Threshold 25), and devoid of any inset containers. It was only later (see Phase 6, below) that the front arm of the counter was added to form the more typical L-­shaped structure. The bar indicates that this area of the property was devoted in Phase 5a to retailing food. Supporting this function, a cooking bench (Cooking Facility 11) was installed along the southern wall of Room 123 in the same Phase. Built alongside the counter, and likely functionally related to it, was a drain (Drain 41) with several unusual features

218  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.20  Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 5a.

Fig. 12.21  Decorated wall plaster and opus signinum flooring in the northeast corner of Room 132 of I.1.6–9; note also Bar Counter 4.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   219

Fig. 12.22  Bar Counter 4 and Drain 41 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9.

(Fig. 12.23). Its inlet, for example, appears to have been either just inside the street-­side threshold and adjacent to the northwestern corner of the original I-­shaped counter, or more likely via a downpipe in the northern wall or northwestern facade wall. Unfortunately, this area of the room was covered by the later construction of the north–­south arm of the counter, obscuring the inlet. Although most drains in the neighborhood ran towards the via Stabiana, this one channeled in the opposite direction, into Property I.1.6–9. At the eastern limit of the counter, it turned sharply southward (at an angle of almost 90 degrees), then passed through the room’s new southeastern wall (WCU 1088). A second access point formed by a vertically set terracotta pipe (SU 56029) was installed here, alongside the southeastern wall. The drain then con­tinued into Room 123, beyond the limits of our excavation. If Drain 41 originated with a downpipe from the roof in the northwestern corner of Room 132, then the ­secondary access represented by the terracotta pipe likely channeled water from a second downpipe in the room’s southeastern corner. In this case, the drain probably ter­min­ ated with a cistern in Room 123 or 124.17 Alternatively, the system might have channeled waste to a cesspit, or even to a larger drain that carried its contents below Entrance 8 and onto the via Stabiana. A new surface of tessellated opus signinum was laid across the room in this phase (SUs 56006, 56040). Most of this surface was lost in the central areas of the room, whether in antiquity or more recently, but it was well preserved in the northeastern corner of the room and along the northern wall. It was elevated at c. 11.20 masl. The broken off-­cuts of marble in­corp­or­ ated into the surface had various shapes, but were of similar size, being mostly 2–4 cm wide and 4–8 cm long. The surface sat on a relatively shallow subsurface fill (SU 56008), c. 10 cm in depth. To the rear of Property  I.1.6–9, significant architectural changes were made in the area of Room 126/7. The space that had previously been open was defined at this time with the 17 Possibly Cistern 10; see Fig. 19.2.01.

construction of new walls (WCUs 1042, 1081, 1083, 1101); Property  I.1.3–5 would expand similarly in the same period (see below). Accompanying this construction was a massive quarrying project, the last and largest of the quarries re­covered in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia (Quarry Area 14). After the closure and infilling of the quarry, the wall was constructed to separate Rooms 126 and 127 (WCU 1080, on substantial foundation SU 60003), and a new opus signinum surface was laid over the fill, elevated at c. 10.80–10.85 masl (SUs 60010, 60036). These developments at the rear of I.1.6–9 likely included Room 131 becoming, for the first time, indoor space. Its southwestern corner was now reconstructed in opus testaceum (WCU 1085); a wide doorway remained open between it and Room 126. Whether Rooms 128, 129, and 130 existed in this period is unclear: the walls in the northeastern corner of the property are modern reconstructions that followed World War II bombing, and so could not be phased. The architecture of the building suggests that in this phase it served as a commercial complex, with retailing in the front rooms and a ­stable/inn at the rear.

Other developments of the Early Imperial period The changes of this time impacted not only the properties involved in fish-­salting but also all of the other structures in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia, with the street-­side rooms of all now given over to retail of various types.

Reconstruction of VIII.7.1–4 Phase 5a saw some reconstruction to the southernmost property on the western side of the via Stabiana (Fig.  12.24; Subphases 1.4, 5.2, 6.3, 24.5). In Room 1 the smaller rooms of Phase 4a were eliminated and the space opened. The walls themselves were dismantled and covered by a leveling fill (walls of Phase 4a: SUs 1037, 1050, 1068; fill of Phase 5a: SU 1025, 1045, 1049, 1064). Incorporated into the fill were concentrations of construction debris apparently derived from the destruction of the walls, as well as a large pile of opus signinum that could represent the missing Phase 4a surface of the rooms. A new opus signinum surface was then laid down, elevated at c. 9.35 masl (SU 1032). Together with the opening of Room 1, a new cistern (Cistern 1) was installed. Its interior was left unexcavated, but the cistern head (SU 1015) was circular and constructed of opus incertum lined in thick hydraulic plaster (plaster: SU 1077). Along the northern wall of the room (WCU 119), a circular tank was installed (SU 1522); it would be incorporated into four tanks installed here in Phase 5b, thus little could be determined of its original form and function. To the south, an upside-­down amphora of local manufacture might have functioned as a soak-­away (Soak-­ Away 15; amphora: SU 1031).

220  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.23  Drain 41 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9: above, the eastward stretch (with capping removed) along Bar Counter 4; below, the southward stretch toward Room 123.

The elimination of the smaller rooms and opening of Room 1 suggest a significant change to the use of this space. Further developments were carried out in Room 9 to the north, where both the unlined tank (SU 24033) and dolium base (SU 24026) of Phase 4a were filled (with SUs 24032 and 24027, respectively).

The fills within each fixture were much the same, consisting of the usual array of construction debris within a sandy matrix, although the finds included an un­usually high number of iron objects (mostly nails), as well as much iron slag. Iron was especially concentrated within the fill of the tank.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   221

Fig. 12.24  Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 5a.

With the fixtures removed, a leveling fill (SUs 24023, 24024) raised the room’s surface by c. 25 cm. The fill echoed that found within the tank and vessel, also containing an unusual concentration of iron, particularly nails and slag. Above was a new beaten earth surface, elevated at c. 9.90 masl (SUs 24017, 24022). Once again, iron dominated the finds within the matrix of the surface. Given their volume, the fills that made up the construction material of this phase are unlikely to have derived from this property; as elsewhere at the Porta Stabia, they probably had been imported into the space. The high quantities of iron contained within them, therefore, reflects not the activities carried out in Room 9, but the likelihood that all of the deposits originated from the same source, probably a waste deposit outside Pompeii’s walls (see Chapter 18, below). The only evidence for the use of the room in Phase 5a was its architecture: as a featureless space open to the street through a wide entrance, it almost certainly functioned as a shop at this time. At the rear of the property, Room 5 was divided by a wall (later destroyed) that ran north–­south across the eastern side of the room (SU 5022). The wall abutted the room’s southern wall (WCU 118) and was cut by a later drain (Drain 3), obscuring whether it continued across the entire space to abut the northern wall as well. A new opus signinum surface (SU 5051) was added at this time, topping a leveling fill (SUs 5014, 5018, 5019, 5023). The surface was elevated at 10.04 masl and was  preserved only in one small patch on the northeastern side of Room 5. Also added were two fixtures of unclear

function, both made of unlined opus incertum. The larger one (SU 5032) was located in the center of the room, just west of the Phase 5a wall, and measured c. 1.2 m in diameter. The smaller one (SU 5016) was uncovered to the southwest, and measured c. 0.6 m square. They were severely damaged by later interventions, both ancient and modern. To the southwest, the walls of Room 6 might have been replastered in this phase (plaster: SUs 6035, 6036, 6037, 6038). No surface or other finds were recovered here, but a partially compacted fill (SUs 6008, 6020) could represent a subsurface. It is likely that this area continued to function as a garden or otherwise largely undeveloped space through this time and until the eruption of 79 ce.

Retailing in Property VIII.7.5–6 The division of earlier property VIII.7.5–8 into a southern and northern property (VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.7–8, respectively) was discussed above (see Fig. 12.12) in the context of the northern property’s transition from fish-­salting to retailing. The new southern property also underwent developments in Phase 5a, which were likewise focused on retail activities (Fig.  12.25; Subphases 11.5, 16.4, 22.2, 25.4, 21.2, 30.1). In the street-­side Room 11, accessed through Entrance 5, the two tanks of Phase 4a were filled (tanks: SUs 11066, 11067; fill: 11062, 11069, 11111, 11112, 11113, 11127, 11128).18 The lowermost of 18  Due to a later collapse, some of these uppermost fills had been contaminated with modern material.

222  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.25  Plan of Property VIII.7.5–6 during Phase 5a.

these fills (SUs 11113, 11127, 11128) had an organic-­rich, loam matrix; the upper fills were the typical gritty and sandy materials with mixed and fragmentary finds that were common to secondary fills across the site. It is possible, therefore, that as with Fish-­Salting Vats 5 and 6 in Property  I.1.1–2, these tanks had received deposits of primary refuse prior to their final filling with imported debris. With the vats destroyed, a leveling fill (SU 11053) was laid over them to support a new opus signinum surface, preserved ephemerally but elevated at c. 10.20 masl (SUs 11017, 11042). A new drain (Drain 5) also was added in this phase, running west–­east along the southern side of the room, abutting the southern wall (WCU 117). The drain channel was well built and cut through the two tanks of Phase 4 to pass under the sidewalk and empty onto the via

Stabiana (drain cut: SU 11075). We recovered no part of the drain’s course outside of Room 11; given that it was not present in Room 20, the inlet probably was located in Room 12 or Room 17. Also added to Room 11 in this phase was a low-­ walled opus signinum basin (see Fig. 13.04). The fixture was built into the northwestern corner of the room, abutting the northern and western walls. It measured c. 1.0 × 1.0 m and featured curved ovolo moldings; its precise function was unclear.19 The architecture of Room 11 also was reoriented in this phase. A new wall (WCU 142) narrowed and centered the doorway between Rooms 11 and 12, and the doorway between 19  An amphora (SU 11021) would be built into the center of the basin in the subsequent phase (Phase 6).

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   223 Rooms 12 and 17 was blocked (with WCU 175). The wide doorway between Rooms 12 and 15 remained, as did that between Rooms 11 and 13. This suite now took the form of a three-­ room shop, oriented around Room 11. To the northwest, in Room 15 and Corridor 18, the major intervention of this phase was the destruction of Drain 6, which formerly united the property with VIII.7.7–8, as discussed above. Together with the closing of the drain, the doorways that had allowed communication through the property were blocked, ending all access between them (blocked with WCUs 162, 163). Other architectural changes came at the same time, reorienting access between the rooms in this area of the property. The doorway between Rooms 15 and 16 was moved to the north and widened (with the destruction of WCUs 091 and 180, and the construction of WCU 165), inviting a view from Entrance 6 into Room 16. A new doorway was opened in the southwestern corner of Room 15, providing access to Room 17, while the older doorway that had connected Room 17 to Room 16 was blocked (with WCU 148). Farther west, the wide doorway in the western wall of Room 22 likely was added at this time, and the doorways that had led from Corridor 18 through Room 22 and into Room 23 were blocked (with WCUs 164, 166). At the rear of the property, the walls defining the small Room 31 were added (WCUs 076, 077, 078); these probably joined the northern wall of Room 30 (WCU 075) to divide the gardens behind Property VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.7–8 while still providing a narrow doorway between them. Some necessary materials for these reconstructions

came from a large pit (SU 16018) that was cut into the center of Room 15, through earlier fills and into the Mercato ash paleosol. Like other fills across the site, the deposit that filled the pit consisted of mixed and fragmentary construction materials and other waste within a sandy matrix. In the small Room 20, some developments can be connected to this broader period of reconstruction. The western wall (WCU 141) was constructed, giving the room its final form. At the same time, the eastern wall was reconstructed (with WCU 178), blocking the doorway that had allowed access between Rooms 17 and 20. Cistern 7, which had been in use since Phase 3a, was destroyed; its mouth was broken down and capped by a block of Sarno limestone that was mortared in place (plugging of cistern: SU 25042). Furthermore, the chute of the toilet on the northeastern side of the room (Waste Feature 2 of Phase 4a) was capped, but a pipe made from a small amphora with its neck and toe removed was incorporated into the capping, allowing for the continued disposal of liquids into the associated cesspit in Room 17 (Fig.  12.26). A curved tile served as a sluice to direct liquids towards the amphora. A sizable leveling fill, 15 cm thick, supported a new packed-­earth surface with a thin mortar skim, elevated at c. 10.80 masl (surface: SU 25011; fill: SUs 25024, 25027, 25028, 25030). The new surface did not cover the full extent of the room but to the south ran up against a new toilet (Waste Feature 3) that was built into a niche in the southern wall (WCU 117; Fig.  12.27). The toilet was framed by low masonry wall

Fig. 12.26  The capping of Waste Feature 2 in Room 20 in VIII.7.5–6 (at right); note the new opening formed from an amphora.

224  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.27  Waste Feature 3 in Room 20 of VIII.7.5–6; viewed from the east.

foundations—­ likely supporting wooden partition walls above—­to the north and west (SU 25026); it was accessed from Room 20 via a narrow doorway. The toilet itself was constructed by covering the opus signinum surface of Phase 3a with several layers of tile and mortar (SU 25072), over which a mortar surface (SUs 25019, 25075) sloped towards a cesspit. The toilet was destroyed and its cesspit widened in a subsequent phase (Phase 7), making its original form difficult to discern, but it was no deeper than 1.5 m. Another service area for Property VIII.7.5–6 was discovered to the southwest. In Phase 5a a suite of small rooms (Rooms 25, 26, 27, 28, and 29) was established in the southwestern corner of the property. Of these, we excavated Room 27; it contained a toilet (Waste Feature 1) constructed in Phase 5a that continued to be used up to the eruption of 79 ce. The toilet was located on the western side of the room (Fig. 12.28). It had a heavy opus signinum surface (SU 21007), which overlay a mortar subsurface (SU 21046). A tiled threshold (Threshold 26) ran north–­south across the middle of the room, abutting the northern and southern walls (WCUs 107 and 108). On the eastern side of the room, an area with a mortar surface (SU 21011) served as a vestibule to the toilet. In the northwestern corner of the toilet space were the remains of a masonry support for a seat (SU 21005); the corresponding support to the southwest was almost entirely missing, represented only by a small masonry protrusion from the southern wall (possible remains of support: SU 21029, within WCU 108). The upper portion of the cesspit took the form of a circular shaft of c. 70

Fig. 12.28  Waste Feature 1 in Room 20 of VIII.7.5–6; viewed from the east.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   225 cm in diameter (SU 21050). It descended to a depth of about one meter before opening into a larger subterranean cesspit that could not be excavated fully. The excavated portion was filled with a heavily contaminated mix of materials, including much lapilli that clearly had been redeposited and so must have derived from the modern period (fill: SU 21009). To the north of this new suite, Room 23 was divided from Room 20 and took on its final shape (with the construction of WCUs 140 and 141). Like Room 22 immediately to the north, it looked westwards towards a colonnade (WCU 100–3) that divided Rooms 21 and 30. An arcuated shrine located in the northern wall of Room 21 (WCU 074), just beyond Corridor 18, might have been established in this period; upon original excavation it was decorated with a painting of Lares, snakes, and an offering table (Ritual Context 4; painting now lost). Room 30, like Room 46 to its north, functioned as a garden in Phase 5a; the masonry triclinium on the northwestern side of the garden was likely was put in place at this time (SU 30007). Although we undertook some cleaning in this area, the construction of a modern cesspit in service of the tourist toilets in the Quadriporticus rendered any further exploration impossible; the cesspit has malfunctioned since its installation and now the entire area is inaccessible owing to sanitation and health concerns. By Phase 5a, therefore, Property VIII.7.5–6 had taken on the form it would maintain, with only minor changes, until the eruption in 79 ce. Although the permanent cooking facility in Room 15 (Cooking Facility 2) would not be constructed until Phase 7, the garden triclinium could indicate that this

property, like VIII.7.9–11 to its north, hosted commercial dining in this period.

Developments in Property VIII.7.13–15 New suites of rooms defined the space within the northernmost property of Insula VIII.7 in Phase 5a (Fig. 12.29; Subphases 8.2, 27.5, 28.3). Behind each street-­side room (Rooms 68, 73), a smaller room was added (Rooms 69, 74). Each smaller room opened to the east, apparently supporting the activities of the street-­side rooms. Behind the smaller rooms, slightly larger rooms were added (Rooms 71, 76/77). These three-­ room suites created parallel corridors (Rooms 70/72, 75) to the north that provided access to additional spaces at the rear of the property. To the west, several shallowly founded walls divided (later) Room 78 into a series of smaller spaces (Fig. 12.30). A central wall (SUs 8046, 8009) extended across the room from the north to south, abutting the northern boundary wall (WCU 001). Bonded to this was a second wall (SU 8047) that ran east–­ west to abut the eastern face of the rear property boundary wall (SU 8019, of Phase 4a), forming a small room in the northwestern corner of (later) Room 78. To the east of the central wall (SUs 8046, 8009), another east–­west running wall (SU 8037) bonded with it and continued eastwards to meet the eastern wall of Room 78 (WCU 003), creating a narrow corridor along the northern side of the room. Bonding with this wall and running southwards, an additional north–­south running wall (SU 8038) paralleled the central wall and divided the southeastern area of (later) Room 78 into two unusually

Fig. 12.29  Plan of Property VIII.7.13–15 during Phase 5a.

226  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.30  The arrangement of two small, narrow rooms uncovered in (later) Room 78 of VIII.7.13–15; viewed from the south.

narrow rooms (see Fig. 12.30). The small and narrow rooms on the eastern side of (later) Room 78 were unparalleled elsewhere in the neighborhood, and their precise function was unclear. Both were 2.4 m long; the western was 0.75 m wide (total space: c. 1.8 m2) while the eastern was slightly wider at 1 m (total space: c. 2.4 m2). They were paved with a thick opus signinum surface (SU 8041). The only fixture identified here was a toilet, installed in the southeastern corner of the larger (eastern) room (Fig. 12.31; Waste Feature 5). It had a square mouth (40 cm on a side) lined with uncut stones joined by mortar; the unlined shaft ran eastwards to empty into a cesspit below the floor of Room 77 (Waste Feature 16). The fill within was excavated only in part and had been heavily contaminated by a redeposited mixture of lapilli and soil (SU 8033). The street-­side rooms of Properties VIII.7.13–15 appear to have undergone fewer changes in this period. In Room 68 a leveling fill buried the mortar surface of Phase 4a (fill: SUs

27020, 27024, 27034, 27039, 27046, 27100, 27113) and raised the room’s surface by c. 15 cm. The nature of this deposit was somewhat different from the more common fills used across both insulae, consisting of a hard-­packed matrix of re­deposit­ed gray ash and Mercato ash that incorporated some construction debris but relatively few sherds or other finds. The distinction could suggest that this material had been imported from a different source than most construction fills in the neighborhood, but little more can be said of it. The fill supported a packed-­earth surface with a mortar skim (SUs 27019, 27023, 27030, 27042, 27087, 27091; elev. 12.35 masl). The southernmost facade of VIII.7.13–15 also was r­ econfigured at this time, with a new brick quoin introduced at the southern end of Entrance 14 (WCU 179; cut of construction trench: SU 27080; fill: SU 27045). Following its installation, the walls in (at least) Room 68 were replastered; some of this plaster (SU 27029) lipped onto the new surface from the northern

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   227

Fig. 12.31  Waste Feature 5 in (later) Room 78 of VIII.7.13–15; viewed from the west

wall of the room (WCU 002). A corresponding layer of plaster (SU 27130) was recovered on the interior wall of the newly constructed quoin. With this reconstruction, the room received the wide doorway that would remain in place until 79 ce, suggesting that it now served as a shop. Room 73, to the north, probably had the same function. Behind the property, some quarrying of Mercato ash was conducted in the area of the large quarry of the previous phase (Quarry Area 9).

Expansion of Property I.1.3–5 Across the street, Property  I.1.3–5 underwent a significant reconstruction in Phase 5a (Fig.  12.32; Subphases 51.6, 55.6, 59.6). In Room 118, Cistern 8 (installed in Phase 4b) was taken out of use and filled; at least the uppermost fill consisted of a sandy deposit of crushed volcanic stone, possibly unused construction material that was dumped into the cistern as a means of discard (fill: SU 51146). The room then received a new mortar surface, preserved only in a few small patches on its southern side, elevated at c. 10.25 masl and immediately below modern topsoil (SUs 51010, 51012, 51053). To the north, this surface had been removed entirely by a large cut made to lay modern electrical cables. A few patches of a c. 10 cm deep leveling fill survived between this surface and that of the

previous phase (fill: SUs 51018, 51056). By this period at the latest, the three lava stones that comprised the threshold from the street had been installed (Threshold 20; see Fig.  12.33). These included the grooved shutter and “night-­door” typical of shop entrances; the “night-­door” was at the southern end (thus on the right side upon entering from the street). A new doorstop (Doorstop 4) was installed directly behind the night-­ door (about 1.2 m behind the door), and thus almost directly above the earlier example from Phase 4b (Doorstop 3; Fig. 12.33). With the removal of Cistern 8, an L-­shaped masonry counter was erected on the northern side of Room 118 (Fig. 12.34). All that survives of this fixture, however, is one end of its inward-­extending arm, and even this appears to be almost entirely a modern reconstruction (Bar Counter 3). That an ancient structure existed within the modern masonry is suggested, however, not only by the effort at reconstruction (reconstructions at Pompeii rarely fabricate from nothing)20 but also by scarring in the masonry of Cistern 8. Two circular cuts through the masonry of the cistern, one just inside the threshold and the other immediately west of the cistern mouth, suggest the installation of ceramic storage vessels into the counter (see Fig. 11.40; cuts: SUs 51016, 51026); the ancient surface was missing from this area, and both cuts were filled with modern material. Their alignment conforms with an L-­shaped counter in Entrance 4, which contained at least two inset ceramic vessels: one along the street-­front arm (represented by SU 51026) and the other along the inward arm (represented by SU 51016). To be sure, it is not uncommon for a masonry counter to leave so little trace of its existence. The majority were constructed directly onto the floor surface of their respective rooms, without a construction trench. Removed counters, therefore, typically are represented only by scarring associated with inset storage vessels, since in most cases the vessels were sunk deeper than the counters themselves.21 The southern opus incertum wall of Room 118 (WCU 1059) was now constructed to overlay the earlier workbench (SU 51033, out of use since Phase 4b), separating the room from Room 109 to the south. This construction must have involved some cutting away of the Phase 4b and 4c surfaces that c­ overed the workbench, but the deposits were so shallow and ephemeral in this area that no construction trench was evident. To the north, any deposits from this phase were almost entirely missing from Room 120. Indeed, the only discernible remains were those of a structural fixture installed outside the room, in the small street-­front corner formed by the northernmost facade of Property  I.1.3–5 and the projecting boundary wall of Property I.1.6–9 (WCU 1067 and 1110). The fixture (SU 55039), which measured c. 1.40 × 0.40 m, consisted of two small walls, preserved to c. 25 cm in height and just 20  Ellis 2018, 59. 21  Ellis 2018, 51.

228  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.32  Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 5a.

16 cm in width (Fig. 12.35). It directly overlay the cobblestone sidewalk surface of Phase 4c and was in use with a mortar sidewalk that was poorly preserved at c. 10.25 masl (SUs 55048, 55052). Originally, the fixture’s walls were decorated; small patches of solid red plaster remained in situ, while matching red pieces were found in the modern fill surrounding it along with coordinating red and black plaster decorated with stripes and a few pieces painted as imitation marble (fill: SU 55037). The fixture was interpreted as a bench by the original excavators, but its walls seem to have framed an open space. Thus it may have enclosed a small garden, or even served as a cage for small animals like the example at III.6.1.22 Two rectangular bracket holes, set in a row within the southern face of WCU 1110 directly above the fixture and c. 1.20 m above the sidewalk of Phase 5a, might have supported the upper portion of an associated cage or other subsidiary feature.23 22  Ellis 2018, 50–1. 23  A third, larger hole was out of alignment with the others but might originally have been associated with them. It was located in the westernmost Sarno limestone block incorporated into WCU 1110, which showed signs of having been reconstructed incorrectly in the modern period, with the relevant block placed upside-down. If the block were reversed, the hole within it would be aligned with the two farther east.

The rear of this property also was redeveloped in this period, when the building, like I.1.6–9 located immediately to the north, was reshaped and significantly expanded. In Phase 5a, Property  I.1.3–5 extended eastward by about 6 m to occupy what had been open space behind it; this significantly increased its area from 156m2 to 249m2 (with the construction of WCUs 1037, 1039, 1040, 1041, 1042, 1111, 1112, 1135). Thus the preexisting rear (easternmost) wall of the property (SU 59011, constructed in Phase 4b), was dismantled and buried, and Rooms 110, 114, 115, and 116 were established. This major construction event caused the abandonment of both the well of Phase 4b (SU 59034) and Cistern 9 of Phase 4c (see Fig. 11.50; fill: SU 59033). The new walls (WCUs 1112, 1135) also destroyed the drain that had run behind the property (Drain 39, Phase 4c). A row of joist holes in the new rear wall (WCU 1037) indicated a second story or mezzanine above (at least) Rooms 114 and 115. The large quarry to the north (Quarry Area 14) probably supplied ma­ter­ ials for this reconstruction as well as that of Property I.1.6–9. As at the front of the property, at the rear the surfaces of this phase were almost entirely lost. A leveling fill survived in Room 114 (SU 59005), preserved immediately below modern topsoil. Preservation was only slightly better in Room 111, where one patch of ­yellow mortar surface, measuring c. 1.70 × 1.15 m,

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   229

Fig. 12.33  Doorstop 4 (above Doorstop 3) directly behind the “night-­door” of Threshold 20 in Room 118 of I.1.3–5: above, viewed from the west; below, viewed from the east.

indicated an outdoor surface elevated at c. 10.30 masl (SU 59049). Any equiva­lent contexts were entirely absent from Room 110, where modern topsoil covered the Phase 4c de­posits. A significant feature of this phase, however, survived in the (today at least partially reconstructed) remains of an oven in the southeastern corner of Room 110 (Cooking Facility 9).

The oven (Fig. 12.36; see also Fig. 11.42), which originally was domed, was built directly on top of the Phase 4b well (SU 59034). It abutted the newly built southeastern wall of Room 110 (WCU 1039). Access to its interior was from the south, where it created a narrow corridor from Room 110 into Room 114 (WCUs 1037, 1112).

230  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.34  Bar Counter 3 in Room 118 of I.1.3–5; viewed from the west.

Fig. 12.35  The low-­walled feature on the sidewalk fronting I.1.5; note the cobblestone surface of Phase 4c.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   231

Fig. 12.36  Cooking Facility 9 in Room 110 of I.1.3–5: above, viewed from the west; below, viewed from the south to show opening.

In the Early Imperial period, therefore, Property I.1.3–5, like its neighbors on both sides of the street, seems to have been dedicated to commerce. At the front was a four-­room bar, with a sales counter in Room 118, while the rest of the property

took the common form of an inn, with an area for stab­ling animals (Room 115), several independent rooms (Rooms 114, 117), and a second story above. The oven in Room 110 served these hospitality activities.

232  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.37  The eastward extension of the Quadriporticus.

Reconstruction of the Quadriporticus Major changes of the Early Imperial period were not ­limited to the private properties in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia, but also extended to the public space of the Quadriporticus. In Phase 5a, a new suite was added to the structure, expanding its footprint to the east while also extending it north all the way to the vicolo that bordered Insula VIII.7 (Fig.  12.37; Subphases 8.2, 20.3, 28.3).24 On the southern side of the Quadriporticus, a new rear (eastern) wall (WCU 184) truncated the rear rooms (Rooms 56 and 57) of Property VIII.7.9–11. To the north, a continuation of the rear wall (WCU 010) ran through the open space behind Property VIII.7.13–15, destroying the large water channel (Drain 25) of Phase 4a. The wall’s foundations were constructed within the channel, abutting its floor (foundations: SU 28052, 28057). Otherwise, the destruction of the drain was undertaken much like that of the vats and tanks throughout the neighborhood: its upper portions were broken away, and the long void of the channel was filled with mixed debris of rubble and general refuse that included parts of the structure itself (Fig. 12.38; see also Fig. 11.04; fill: SU 28032, 28033, 28038, 28041). This fill continued within the channel to the north, past the boundary of Insula VIII.7 and beyond the area of our excavation. 24  See also Poehler and Ellis 2013; 2014.

Given its date and position, the water channel behind Property VIII.7.13–15 (Drain 25) probably had channeled water from the roof of the Theatrum Tectum to the cisterns below the Quadriporticus (see Chapter  11). The water channel’s destruction in Phase 5a, therefore, suggests changes to the theater’s water-­management systems. Indeed, our excavations in the vicolo north of Insula VIII.7 revealed an open drain (Drain 30) installed at this time to abut the exterior of the northern boundary wall of Property VIII.7.13–15 (Fig. 12.39). This drain’s construction was substantial. A layer of mortared rubble formed a foundation (SU 20029) for a base of reused rooftiles (SU 20027, c. 50 cm2), which were secured in a thick layer of mortar (SU 20028). The opus incertum walls of the drain were constructed over the base and covered with hydraulic plaster (walls of the drain: SUs 20025, 20026). The interior channel of the drain measured 30 cm wide and 30 cm high, significantly larger than all other drains known from the site (with the exceptions of Drain 1, the Porta Stabia drain, and Drain 25, the Theatrum Tectum-­Quadriporticus water channel of Phase 4a). Finally, a mortar surface (SU 20020), which sloped downward towards Drain 30, was laid across the vicolo. No evidence suggests that the drain ever had been covered; it carried water from west to east, towards the via Stabiana. Its position suggests that it originally functioned as a drip line for the Theatrum Tectum, replacing Drain 25 as the chief means by which the building removed water from its roof.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   233

Fig. 12.38  The (northern) section of fill in Drain 25 in VIII.7.13–15.

Fig. 12.39  Drain 30 in the vicolo north of Insula VIII.7; viewed from the north.

234  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Paving of the street; addition of the Porta Stabia fountain Closely related to the changes surrounding the water-­ management systems of the Theatrum Tectum, two add­ition­al, but by no means minor, interventions further contributed to the substantial changes of the Early Imperial period. At this time, the via Stabiana received its final paving in lava stone slabs, and a public fountain was added just inside and to the west of the Porta Stabia (Subphase 4.2).25 The paving raised the level of the street, drawing it flush with the tops of the earlier steppingstones as well as with the curbstones of Phase 3 (see Fig. 10.18; SU 4018; see Chapter 10). A public fountain (SU 4031) was installed along with the new pavement, one of nearly fifty such fixtures known from the city (see Fig. 12.41). The fountainhead was decorated with a relief sculpture of a face surrounded by radiating lines, possibly a representation of a water deity. As with other examples, it emptied into a rectangular basin made of lava stone orthostats, once plastered; a drain on the eastern side of the basin could be closed or opened to allow water to collect or to drain out and through the Porta Stabia. Wear marks on the basin indicated that most users had originally accessed the fountain from the west, possibly via a road that ran south of Insula VIII.7. This route of access would change in Phase 5b, when it was cut off by the installation of the Porta Stabia drain (Drain 1, see below). The fountain was fed via a lead pipe that ran from a water main on the eastern side of the via Stabiana and crossed the street under the paving stones of Phase 5a (pipe: SU 4032). The pipe cut through the earlier curb (cut: SU 4010) and approached the fountain by continuing under the sidewalk from the north; unfortunately, most of its length was not preserved (see Fig. 10.19). The fountain provided piped water from the Serino Aqueduct, which was channeled into the city through the Castellum Aquae, located at the far northern end of the via  Stabiana/via Vesuvio.26 From Phase 5, aqueduct, public fountains, and new pavings worked as constituent parts of a unified system that introduced useful water through pressurized pipes and removed wastewater via targeted sewers and (on a larger scale) the surface of the city’s streets.27 The system made use of a large watershed around the valley of the via Stabiana, which originally drained via the Porta Stabia itself. The introduction of these infrastructures further contextualizes the closing of the water channel that had crossed the northwestern corner of Insula VIII.7 in Phase 4 (Drain 25). Apparently, with the arrival of the aqueduct to Pompeii, 25  For more and detailed information on paving events of the via Stabiana, see Poehler and Crowther 2018. 26  See Keenan-Jones 2015. 27  See Keenan-Jones, 2010, 240–4; Poehler 2012, 101, 104–5, 113–16; 2017, 74; Poehler and Crowther 2018, 591.

collecting water from the roof of the city’s largest covered building no longer was considered worthwhile. Now, removal was prioritized over storage. The drip line installed at this time in the vicolo north of Insula VIII.7 (Drain 30) channeled water away from the Theatrum Tectum and towards the via Stabiana, which would carry it through the gate and out of the city (for a later alteration to this system with the addition of Drain 1, see below).

Phase 5b: the subsequent developments to Phase 5a Redevelopment of Property I.1.1–2/10 Sometime following the abandonment of the fish-­salting vats in I.1.1–2, a series of new developments swept across the southernmost property of Insula  I.1 (Fig.  12.40; Subphases 50.6, 53.4, 54.7, 57.3, 58.4). At this time, the property expanded southward and eastward to incorporate the space of the earlier ceramics workshop of Phases 2 and 3 (with the construction of WCUs 1005, 1119, 1108, 1011, 1016, 1017); the new architectural arrangement incorporated the first iteration of Entrance 10 (located slightly east of its final position). Furthermore, new masonry bar counters were installed behind both of the property’s street-­front entrances to facilitate the sale of food and drink (Bar Counters 1 and 2). The newly enclosed space to the south of the original property, which would be subdivided into three rooms in Phase 6 (Rooms 103, 104, and 105), was accessed through the doorway in the southeastern corner of Room 101, which earl­ ier had led to the outdoor space east of the public well. Entrance 10, originally located just east of its final position, provided access between the property and the unnamed vicolo that ran along the southern side of the insula. Upon the rooms being enclosed and incorporated into the property, a massive leveling fill was introduced to raise the ground level of this southern space by c. 80 cm (SUs 57039, 57066, 57101, 57112, 57113, 57126, 57138, 57148); a packed-­earth surface was installed above (SUs 53010, 57041, 57145; elev. c. 9.60 masl). By this point, the earlier wall (SU 57104, of Phase 3a) that had divided the Phase 3a kiln (Kiln 2) from the zone of the public well had been dismantled. As part of the Phase 5b reconstruction, a new drain (Drain 34) was founded on top of the wall’s remains, running below the packed-­earth surface installed at this time to empty onto the vicolo to the south. Unfortunately, later activities had removed the drain’s northern course. It might have originated on the northern side of the room, or perhaps in the open area farther north, which remained outdoors (in Phase 7 this area would be occupied by Rooms 111, 112, and 113 of Property I.1.3–5). Internal divisions within this newly incorporated space were attested by the remains of two poorly preserved walls in

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   235

Fig. 12.40  Plan of Property I.1.1–2/10 during Phase 5b.

opus incertum (SUs 57071, 57075), which defined a small, rect­ angu­lar room (c. 2.86 m2) along the southern side of (later) Rooms 104 and 105. To the north, a freestanding pillar (WCU 1015) might have supported ephemeral interior walls. Also in this phase, the public well at the southwestern corner of Insula  I.1 was enclosed into Room 102 of Property  I.1.1–2/10 (with the construction of WCUs 1001, 1003, 1004, 1005). A doorway provided access from Room 101. The new walls unambiguously privatized the well, but the property owner/s preserved some public access. Indeed, narrow doorways were left open to the west and south, allowing access from the via Stabiana and the vicolo south of the insula (blocked by WCUs 1002, 1105, 1120, 1121 in Phase 7). Despite any continuing public access, the significance of this event cannot be overstated: once an integral civic feature in one of Pompeii’s most heavily trafficked areas, the well was now incorporated into Property I.1.1–2/10. This act appears to have been tied closely to contemporaneous developments in the Pompeian water supply. With the arrival of the aqueduct (see above), fountains sprang up across Augustan Pompeii, and earlier public wells became impractical and ul­tim­ate­ly obsolete. As we have seen, one such fountain (of Phase 5a) was constructed just inside the Porta Stabia and directly across the street from the neighborhood’s public well (Fig. 12.41). Under these new and thriving civic conditions, the well must have become something of an aged infrastructural item that could be procured by a private individual; a

similar circumstance has been argued for the large public well at the southern end of Insula VI.1.28 Equally significant developments reshaped the street-­front rooms of Property I.1.1–2 at this time. An opus signinum surface (SUs 50002, 50003, 50004, 50008, 50037, 50061) was laid across Rooms 101 and continued into Room 102. This was the final surface recovered in both rooms, and it underscored the newly established connection between them. In Room 102 the surface topped the upper blocks of the well and surrounded its shaft, which presumably was lidded—­most likely with wood—­to prevent falls (surface elev. c. 9.91 masl). The surface of Room 101 was c. 20 cm lower, requiring a step up into Room 102 (surface elev. c. 9.71 masl,). In Room 101, a new drain (Drain 33) was installed below the surface. It originated in the southeastern corner of the room, where a shallow basin (SU 53116) of about 60 × 45 cm served as its inlet (Fig. 12.42; see also Fig. 12.18). This system is similar to that used during the same period across the street in Property VIII.7.9–11, where a shallow basin served as the inlet to Drain 17 (installed in Phase 5a). Drain 33 ran east–­west, passing under the southern side of Entrance 1 (Threshold 16) to empty its contents onto the street. A masonry counter (Bar Counter 1) was now installed on the northern side of Room 101, indicating a new focus on 28  On the Augustan era abandonment of the well at VI.1, see NSc 1910, 563–7.

236  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.41  The Fountain at the Porta Stabia; note also Drain 1.

food retailing in this period (Figs. 12.43 and 12.44). This counter was thus the first such structure encountered by anyone entering the city from the Porta Stabia.29 As was typical for masonry counters at Pompeii, its construction required no 29  On the distribution of bar counters, Ellis 2004; 2018, 85–125.

foundation trench and the fixture was built directly onto the subsurface below the room’s opus signinum surface (subsurface: SU 50073).30 As it survives today, only the lowest courses 30  On the construction of bar counters (almost always without foundation trenches), see Ellis 2018, 51–5.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   237

Fig. 12.42  Drain 33 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2/10; viewed from the west.

Fig. 12.43  Bar Counter 1 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2/10; viewed from the north.

(SU 50065) are original; the rest is a modern reconstruction that approximates the original design. The counter was originally L-­shaped. The U-­shaped cooking facility (Cooking Facility 7) at its easternmost end is almost entirely a modern (re)construction. The construction of the counter blocked access to the via Stabiana from Entrance 1a (see Fig. 12.44). It also necessitated that the westernmost doorway between Rooms 101 and 106 be blocked (with WCU 1026); the new counter abutted this blocking. Nevertheless, the doorway to the east remained open (later blocked with WCU 1024), preserving access between the two rooms (that doorway would be blocked with WCU 1024 in Phase 7). On the eastern side of Room 101, the doorway that led to Room 107/8 was narrowed at this time (with the construction of WCU 1022), but access between the rooms was maintained. The preserved doorways indicate a relationship between the activities carried out in Rooms 101, 106, and 107/8, an idea that was further emphasized by structural changes to the latter two rooms. As in Room 101, a leveling fill was imported to Room 106 (SUs 54011, 54018), raising the surface level by c. 15 cm. The same material filled most of the earlier flat-­bottomed storage vessel that had been installed in Phase 5a (SU 54052;

fill: SU 54053), which was further capped with mortar (SU 54050). The lowest few centimeters of fill within the vessel, however, were siltier, darker, and more organic-­rich than that found above (SU 54054). Within this deposit was a lead weight, set on the bottom of the vessel, directly over four Augustan coins (C54-­74, C54-­75, C54-­80, C54-­85; see Ritual Context 13). This careful arrangement of weight and coins suggests deliberate placement and raises the possibility that these objects function as a ritual deposit, related to the reconstruction of Phase 5b. A new mortar surface was laid above the leveling fill and the fixtures it destroyed (SUs 54003, 54004, 54005, 54006, 54007, 54014; elev. 9.96 masl). While only small segments of this floor survived, it was recognizably of a poorer quality than the Phase 5a mortar surface it replaced.31 A doorstop (Doorstop 6) was installed within the surface, 0.85 m behind the swinging “night-­door” of Threshold 18 (Fig. 12.45). Echoing the developments in Room 101 to the south, a pair of I-­shaped counters (Bar Counter 2) were built directly onto the new surface of Room 106 during Phase 5b (Fig. 12.46).32 31  It is unfortunate that a modern trench to lay electrical wires caused some contamination (including modern glass, as well as ancient objects of a later date) of the assemblages contained within the sub-floor of this phase. 32  For the various types of counters see Ellis 2018, 40–62.

238  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.44  The facade of I.1.1–2/10, with Bar Counter 1 blocking Entrance 1a.

One counter (SU 54012) abutted the northern wall (WCU 1030) and measured 0.92 m wide × 2.97 m long, and 0.82 m high; three large ceramic vessels were built into it.33 The other (SU 54013) was slightly smaller, measuring 0.70 m wide × 2.83 m long, and 0.76 m high. The counters ran almost parallel to one another, with a 1.4 m gap between the two at their western (street-­side) ends, and a 1.1 m gap at their eastern (interior) ends. Their arrangement is somewhat unusual, and a wooden addition might originally have connected the two along the facade to resemble a more common U-­shaped counter. The counters had been reconstructed in the modern period, but appear to have originally consisted of opus incertum, mostly of Sarno limestone.34 According to the earlier excavators, at least one had been decorated with pieces of colored marble.35 In the same period, the doorway between Rooms 106 and 107/8 was widened by approximately 20 cm. The earlier eastern wall of Room 106 was partially dismantled, and a new brick pillar was installed (WCU 1032), using the buried wall as a foundation. The southern wall of Room 107/8 (WCU 1019) also was reconstructed at this time, likely in relation to the expansion of the property to the south. Additionally, a lev­ el­ing fill raised the surface of Room 107/8 by c. 20 cm (SUs 58004, 58030), and a new mortar floor was installed, surviving 33  Ellis 2005, 212–13. 34  The northern counter features a plaque indicating that the reconstruction was carried out in 1986. 35  See Chapter 4.

only as a small patch preserved under the later blocked doorway (WCU 1109, of Phase 7) on the western side of the room (SU 58517; elev. c. 9.66–9.88 masl). Fixtures installed in Room 107/8 in Phase 5a indicate that this space supported contemporaneous food retailing in Rooms 101 and 106. At this time, a new cesspit was added to the  southeastern corner of the room (Waste Feature 17), re­ placing the earlier cesspit in the southwestern corner (Waste Feature 18, installed in Phase 3a and removed in Phase 5a). The new cesspit was excavated to a depth of c. 2 m but continued deeper. Its uppermost structure consisted of mortared rubble and was nearly flush with the floor; its rect­ angu­lar mouth was c. 1 × 1 m. The upper walls of the shaft were lined in opus incertum and joined with mortar. A downpipe, built into a buttress (WCU 1033) in the southeastern corner of the room, drained into the cesspit. A toilet located in Room 108 might also have accessed this cesspit. Although no phys­ ic­al evidence for a latrine construction survived, this area had been heavily disturbed by later interventions, and the structure of the latrine might have been ephemeral, as elsewhere in the neighborhood.36 The cesspit appears to have remained open until the eruption of 79 ce. Upon excavation, it was filled with lapilli mixed with ashy soil and various fragmentary finds. Rather than a direct deposit from the eruption, the material appeared to have been redeposited, likely following 36  See, for example, the Phase 7a toilet (Waste Feature 6) in Room 103 and the Phase 5a toilet (Waste Feature 3) in Room 20.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   239

Fig. 12.45  Doorstop 6 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2/10; viewed from the west.

the clearing of the insula in the nineteenth century or sometime later (fill: SUs 58016, 58022, 58036). More directly related to activities in the street-­ front rooms, a cooking fixture (Cooking Facility 8) was built on the western side of Room 107/8, alongside the (newly narrowed) doorway to Room 101 (Fig.  12.47). The fixture was of the platform type, and its

location allowed for easy service to the counters of Room 101 as well as Room 106. Thus, Phase 5b saw the further commercial development of Property I.1.1–2/10. While the structure appears to have been devoted to retail since Phase 5a, at this time its owners made a significant investment in a specific type of retail: the

240  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.46  Bar Counter 2 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2/10.

Fig. 12.47  Cooking Facility 8 in Room 108 of I.1.1–2/10; viewed from the east.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   241

Fig. 12.48  Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 5b.

sale of prepared food. Their decision to install masonry bar counters in both street-­side shops of their property speaks to their confidence in this particular branch of the retail economy.

Redevelopment of Property VIII.7.1–4 Property VIII.7.1–4 underwent some minor redevelopment in Phase 5b (Fig.  12.48; Subphase 1.5a). All discernable activity concentrated in Room 1. On the northern side of the room, the circular tank of Phase 5a (SU 1522) was destroyed by the construction of four new tanks (SU 1514; WCU 147) that abutted the room’s northern wall (Fig. 12.49; WCU 119). The tanks were constructed in opus incertum, and the earlier partition wall (SU 1524, of Phase 4a) divided Tanks 1 and 2. The floors of Tanks 1 and 3 consisted of a reused dolium base (SU 1517) and the bottom of the vat from the previous phase, respectively. The floors of Tanks 2 and 4 were missing, likely having been cut away in the modern period. A small patch of hydraulic plaster lining (SU 1513) survived in Tank 4. No lining survived within the other tanks, although all probably were lined originally. To the east of the tanks, a new wall was added (WCU 131). The wall, which abutted the northern wall of the Room (WCU 119) and ran 1 m toward the south to frame the southern side of the tanks, was constructed in opus testaceum, one of the rare instances of this building style in Insula VIII.7. At the same time, an opus testaceum quoin (WCU 183) was added

to the southeastern corner of the property’s facade, and the upper course of the southern boundary wall (WCU 120) was rebuilt (with SUs 1056, 1057, 1059, 1060, 1061, 1062). The arcuated niche shrine (Ritual Context 3) in WCU 120 might have been added in this phase (see Fig. 14.11; niche: SU 1088; mortar and rubble inserted into wall to shape niche: SU 1089; plaster lining of niche: SU 1090). Together with these changes to the architecture, a leveling fill (SUs 1028, 1029) c. 10 cm thick, topped by a new packed-­ earth surface (SU 1005), was laid across the room, bringing its elevation to c. 9.45 masl. The surface and fill covered Cistern 1 and the other fixtures of Phase 5a. Set into the new surface of Phase 5b and abutting the southern wall (WCU 120) was a rectangular block of lava stone, 50 × 47 cm, with a depression of c. 5 cm at the center (SU 1006). Although it resembled a doorstop, it was c. 3.5 m from the entrance of the room, too far to make that function likely. Three shallow postholes, all found filled with tightly packed lapilli (postholes: SUs 1012, 1018, 1019) were aligned with the northern edge of the feature and extended c. 2 m east of it, perhaps indicating that the block served to support a large wooden shelf or cabinet placed against the southern wall of the room.

Minor construction in Property VIII.7.9–11 A few small changes were made to Property VIII.7.9–11 in Phase 5b (Fig.  12.50; Subphases 3.4, 19.3). Most significantly, Cooking Facility 5 was added to the southeastern corner of

242  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 12.49  The four tanks along the north of Room 1 of VIII.7.1–4.

Room 53 (Fig. 12.51). This L-­shaped fixture was built over the mortar surface installed in Phase 5a, which remained in use, and covered painted wall plaster of the same phase (SU 19050). The new fixture surely supported continuing food retailing within the property. The only other discernible activity of the phase was the installation of a new mortar surface, preserved only ephemerally, in Room 38 (SU 3015; elev. 11.59 masl).

Introduction of the Porta Stabia sewer In the midst of what were—­for the most part, at least—­ relatively minor changes that came about in the later part of Phase 5, there was one major addition to the neighborhood’s public infrastructure in this period (Subphase 4.3). Sometime after the Phase 5a paving of the via Stabiana (see above), a large sewer (Drain 1) was added to the west of the Porta Stabia, abutting the western side of the public fountain (see Figs. 12.41 and 19.5.10). Originally, the sewer was barrel vaulted in opus incertum; today, the vault survives only against the city wall. Its walls were lined with blocks of tuff and its floor with blocks of lava stone. A step reinforced with lava stone pavers (SU 4013) led down into the channel itself, which measured 0.65 m wide × 0.75 m high and extended for 17 m. One of four such “through-­gate” sewers known from Pompeii (others were located at the Porta Nocera, Porta Sarno, and Porta Nola), the Porta Stabia sewer passed through the city wall to channel wastewater from the via Stabiana, draining into the now-­obsolete defensive fossa that was located outside and to

the west of the gate (see Chapter 17).37 Its presence cut off the earlier-­preferred access to the Porta Stabia fountain from the west (see above), redirecting traffic to approach it from the north and east. Standing at the lowest point in the city, the Porta Stabia sewer was the ultimate destination for all wastewater introduced to the streets of the eastern parts of Regions VI, VII, and VIII, as well as the western parts of Regions V, IX, and I.38 As such, it was the outlet for Pompeii’s single largest drainage basin, responsible for 30 percent of the street-­drainage system.39 Prior to its installation, all of this water would have drained through the Porta Stabia itself, likely causing issues with flooding and deposition of runoff grit and other solid waste. The sewer, therefore, represents a substantial modification to the street-­drainage system in this area. Along with its construction, the paving stones along the frontage of Insula  I.1 were modified. Relaid at a slightly higher elevation, the stones created a raised section on the eastern side of the street that led water away from the gate and into the mouth of the sewer.40

Conclusion In sum, the many and various developments of Phase 5 reflect a fundamental period in the history not only of the Porta 37  Poehler 2012, 104–5. 38  Poehler 2012, 112–16. 39  Poehler 2012, Table 3. 40  Poehler 2012, 104–5.

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   243

Fig. 12.50  Plan of Property VIII.7.9–11 during Phase 5b.

Stabia neighborhood but also of Pompeii more broadly. More than the development of one building or another, what we see at this time is true change, distributed across the entire district. Whereas for the past century or more the character of the neighborhood had been fixed on production (possibly with concurrent and small-­scale retailing), from this phase we see a shift towards more focused retail, with the installation of new architecture and fixtures to support that activity. This process represents much more than a simple conversion of workshops to shops. The general displacement of manufacturers by merchants would have transformed the social and economic character of the neighborhood, as the sights, sounds, and smells of urban production gave way to those of the retail market. The scale of these developments was unprecedented for a single phase in the life of the neighborhood at the Porta

Stabia. Indeed, the changes of Phase 5 impacted not only the shape of each (otherwise seemingly independent) property but also many of the livelihoods of their inhabitants. Given this situation, the social and economic motivations that underpinned this phase are likely to have been city-­wide, and even more likely to have stemmed from regional or even broader catalysts. At one level, the extent of these developments can be seen in rather practical—­ but certainly significant—­ terms. The developments of Phase 5 had an enormous impact on the physical remains of the site. This observation is meaningful for a number of reasons. The first is that the volumetric change of Phase 5 was in part a product both of the contemporaneous infrastructural projects that affected the entire city, including the paving (or in the case of the via Stabiana, repaving) of streets and the introduction of the aqueduct, and of

244  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Number of Stratified Finds per Phase 4,000 3,199 3,000 2,000 1,000

1,958 1,004

465 256 77 18 0 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 6 Phase 7

Fig. 12.53  The number of finds associated with each phase of development, with a pronounced spike in Phase 5.

Fig. 12.51  Cooking Facility 5 in Room 53 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the north. Number of Creation/Construction SUs per Phase 962 957

1,000 750

503

500

237

250 122 0

Phase 1

180

53 Phase 2 Phase 3

Phase 4 Phase 5

Phase 6

Phase 7

Fig. 12.52  The construction fills associated with each phase of development, indicating the spike in both Phase 4 and Phase 5.

the slow buildup of habitation throughout the city in the second and first centuries bce that resulted in more and more of the city’s footprint being covered by roofs that first directed water into cisterns, then conducted an ever-­increasing volume of excess runoff onto the street system. As one of the more direct outcomes of the establishment of the street drainage system, sidewalks rose to curb flooding from the streets; the stepping stones that appeared across the city in the

same period aided passage from one sidewalk to the next.41 With the new, significantly higher sidewalks installed, the properties at the Porta Stabia raised the elevations of their own floors, not only in the street-­front rooms but throughout each building. This sudden change in elevation across both insulae required the importation of massive amounts of hardcore fill material (Fig. 12.52). As a result, Phase 5 yields many, many more artifacts than any other phase whether earlier or later (Fig. 12.53). The difference relates not to the activities carried out in the properties during Phase 5, but to the intensity of the construction activities that created it; nearly all of the recovered artifacts of this phase were essentially suspended within the floors and fills. On another level, that all of these properties undertook significant structural and functional changes at this time, and (thus) that so many of our finds are attributable to Phase 5, demonstrates the importance of understanding both the causes and the consequences of contemporaneous developments. Much of this situation can be attributed to broader processes spread across the Mediterranean in the Augustan and Early Imperial periods, particularly upturns in economic growth and urban investment.42 It is now, for example, that we see the construction of most of the retail outlets found across Pompeii, and indeed at many Roman cities, with tabernae coming to dominate the Roman street-­front more than any other singular type of space: a veritable retail revolution.43 The evidence for this pattern extends beyond our own excavations; a survey of available data from other Pompeian projects 41  On the addition of steppingstones at this time, see Poehler 2017, 93–4; note that the Porta Stabia neighborhood was a significant forerunner in this respect, as it boasted a street paved and with steppingstones already in Phase 3 (see Chapter 10). 42  The bibliography on the urban developments at this time is enormous and certainly not limited to Ward-Perkins 1970; Hopkins 1978; Jones 1987; Zanker 1988; Brunt 1990; Purcell 1996; Woolf 1997; Fentress 2000; MacMullen 2000; Witcher 2006; Eck 2007; Wallace–­Hadrill 2008, 275–312; Ellis 2011c; 2018, 151–86; De Ligt 2012, 193–246; Emmerson 2020, 19–51. 43  Ellis 2018, ch. 5 (esp. 173–83).

Ph ase 5 : T h e Ri se o f Reta i l i n t h e E a rly I m pe ri a l P e r iod   ·   245 shows a significant period of development at this time, while a similar survey shows as much to be true for the Roman world more broadly.44 At the same time, and to return to the fish-­salting vats that were decommissioned to open this phase, a survey of similar installations across the Roman world shows that those of the Porta Stabia participated in a broader change of Early Imperial period: by which small-­scale workshops of one or two vats declined, while larger extra-­mural factories arose.45 At the Porta Stabia, as elsewhere, this wide scale transition from industrial to retail space was indicated through changes to both structural fixtures and spatial arrangements. Our excavations, however, also provide a bioarchaeological record that speaks to an important transition in the use of urban space. For example, and as will be more fully explored in our forthcoming environmental studies volume, the by-­products of crop-­ processing—so the charred remains of grains, chaff, and weed seeds and culm remains—­known from the ­preceding, production-­oriented phases of life at the Porta 44  Ellis 2018, 157 (for the Pompeian examples), 173–5 (for the Roman world). 45  Motz 2021.

Stabia disappear from the soils of Phase 5a and all subsequent phases. From this point on, recovered food-­waste instead was dominated by the pre-­processed products that mark a developed retail landscape. The significant changes of Phase 5 thus situate our site within both Pompeii and the Roman world as a whole. Likewise, the phase is critical to our understanding of the social, economic, and physical shape of Pompeii and how it changed over time. Underscoring the value of these developments is the fact that this period also represents not only a major chapter in the history of the city but also one of the last for which we have so much information. As discussed above, the scale of this period’s rise in floor levels was unprecedented at the site, providing more data for this phase than any preceding. Additionally, however, the volume of our recovered evidence begins to wane as we approach, in the subsequent phases, stratigraphic levels that are more often disturbed—­ even lost—­to modern incursions. In other words, and as we shall see in the following chapters, the Phase 5 deposits are often the latest fully intact contexts beneath modern fills, with much of Phases 6 and 7 removed by the earliest excavations or lost through years of subsequent neglect.

c h a pt e r 1 3

Phase 6 The Julio-­Claudian Years (Mid-­First Century ce)

Between the massive reorganization of the Porta Stabia neighborhood during the Early Imperial period (Phase 5) and the large-­ scale repairs that would follow the devastating earthquake of 62/3 ce (Phase 7), the properties in this area received several small-­scale, piecemeal renovations during Phase 6 (Fig. 13.01). In Insula VIII.7 modifications were relatively inconsequential, for the most part limited to the add­ ition of new floors and the (re)installation of drains in their subsurfaces. In Insula I.1 changes were slightly more substantial, with the definition of some new rooms in the central and northern properties.

Minor developments to Property VIII.7.1–4 Property VIII.7.1–4 retained the architectural delineations that had been in place since Phase 5a, and only one small development could be attributed to Phase 6 (Fig.  13.02; Subphase 24.6). On the northern side of the property, in Room 9, a mortar surface was laid, elevated at c. 10.15 masl (SUs 24005, 24006, 24009). A remnant of plaster (SUs 24100, 24101) from this phase adhered to the room’s northern wall (WCU 117). No other developments could be observed in the property.

Some modifications in Property VIII.7.5–6 Like its neighbor to the south, Property VIII.7.5–6 saw few modifications in this phase and no architectural changes to its spatial arrangement (Fig.  13.03; Subphases 11.6, 22.3, 25.5). Opus signinum surfaces were installed in the three-­room shop of Rooms 11 (SU 11020), 12 (SU 11143), and 13 (SU 11103), elevated at c. 10.50 masl. In the northwestern corner of Room 11, an amphora (SU 11021) was set within this new surface, overlying and partially cutting the opus signinum basin installed in Phase 5a (Fig.  13.04; SU 11080). The neck of the amphora opened at floor level. Its walls were not perforated, and so it did not function as a soak-­away. Its precise purpose, however, remains unclear. A black, silty deposit—­ suggesting the decomposition of a small amount of organic material—­ occupied the bottom few centimeters of the amphora (SU 11073). Finds included a large number of rodent bones, likely the remains of scavengers, a relatively high number of

f­ragments from glass vessels (GL11-­12a, GL11-­12b), one glass bead (GL11-­11), and one glass paste counter (GL11-­13). Overlying it was a thicker—9 cm—­deposit of clay-­heavy silt (SU 11071). It too contained a concentration of rodent bones and fragments of glass vessels (GL11-­8, GL11-­10). Above these was a Phase 7 deposit of sandy silt (SU 11056) that contained much lapilli to indicate that it had been contaminated in the modern period. Nonetheless, this later deposit shared ­ some  characteristics with the lower fills, including a high concentration of rodent bones and an unusual find: an orange intaglio gemstone depicting the goddess Fortuna standing frontally with her head turned to the right and holding a cornucopia (GJ11-­ 2). The deposit, therefore, might be a mixed assemblage of secondary material meant to fill the amphora in Phase 7 and primary material left within it during or at the end of Phase 6. The only other feature of this phase was a stepped opus incertum platform (SU 11002), located in the southwestern corner of the trench, which perhaps supported a staircase to an upper story (Fig.  13.05). The Phase 6 reconstruction of Room 11 destroyed Drain 5 of the previous phase, and its egress onto the via Stabiana was blocked by a stone (SU 11146). To the west, Room 20 also received a new opus signinum surface in this phase (SU 25009; elev. c. 10.95 masl). A layer of material composed of primarily ash and charcoal topped this floor (SU 25008). The deposit could represent a destruction layer from a fire or a primary context of waste (including cooking ash) generated during the use of the room.1 In the southeastern corner of Room 20, the toilet of Phase 5a continued to function. To the north, a new packed-­earth surface was laid in Corridor 18 (SU 16301, 22001).

A new drainage system in Property VIII.7.7–8 Phase 6 activities in Property VIII.7.7–8 also were relatively minor (Fig.  13.06; Subphases 12.5, 17.5b, 23.3). In Room 32, Cistern 6 of Phase 4c continued to function, possibly filtering 1  Fiorelli, Mau, and Viola all identified this room as a kitchen (Fiorelli 1875, 131; Mau 1875, 164; Viola 1879, 17); see Cooking Facility 2.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0013

ph a se 6 : t h e j ul i o -claud i a n y e a r s  ·   247

Fig. 13.01  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 6.

248  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 13.02  Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 6.

water through the amphorae installed above it in Phase 5a.2 Cistern 5 of Phase 5a also remained in use, and some type of damage to its northern chamber was patched (SU 12161). The repair involved cutting through the opus signinum surface of Phase 5a (surface: SU 12121; cut: SU 12133). A new opus signinum surface (SU 12131; elev. 10.85 masl) then replaced the earlier; it was preserved in a c. 1.0 × 1.0 m patch on the southern side of the room. At the rear of the property, Room 37 also received a new opus signinum surface in this phase, set over a leveling fill (fill: SU 17017; surface: SUs 17002, 17004, 17039, 17041; elev. c. 11.40 masl). Both Phase 6 surfaces sat immediately below modern deposits and had been disturbed by modern activity. Running under these new opus signinum surfaces and over the northern side of Cistern 6 was a complex drainage system that originated at the rear of the property. This system was unique in the neighborhood, consisting of two channels that ran side-­by-­side from west to east (Fig. 13.07). The southern channel (Drain 10) originated at a new downpipe installed in the southwestern corner of Corridor 35, which likely destroyed earlier iterations of the same feature (SU 17047 in WCU 080). The drain ran down the corridor to Room 32, curved slightly around the heads of Cisterns 5 and 6, and continued onto the street. As it passed the cisterns, its southern wall opened into a terracotta pipe (SU 12146) that led into the head of Cistern 5 (SU 12115). Rather than a standard capping below the floor, this section of drain was capped with a square 2  See Chapter 19.2.

terracotta plaque (SU 12122) with a circular hole in its center that appears to have been accessible from ground level (the plaque measured 0.30 × 0.30 m; the central access point was 0.14 m in diameter). This fixture likely served as an access hatch, allowing occupants to use a piece of wood or terracotta as a sluice to direct water either into Cistern 5 or out onto the via Stabiana. The northern channel (Drain 11) ori­g in­ ated farther west than the southern one, in Room 37. Here, the cesspit that was originally installed in Phase 4a (Waste Feature 12) remained in use, but in Phase 6 its uppermost portion was reconstructed, and it received a new head, made of a monolithic piece of lava (Fig. 13.08; SU 17006). The northern drain channel exited from the upper part of the reconstructed cesspit and carried waste southeast, where it encountered a settling basin (SU 17100), from which trapped solid waste could be removed periodically. The basin was topped with a round lid of lava (SU 17024). The deposit within (SU 17101) contained mainly small fragments of bone, as well as fish scale and eggshell; rodent bones within probably represent scavengers. From the settling basin, Drain 11 exited Room 37 and abutted Drain 10, and together the two ran east down Corridor 35. Arriving in Room 32, Drain 11 passed over Cistern 6 and continued past the access hatch that allowed Drain 10 to empty into Cistern 5. Only after that point did the two drains merge into a single channel and continue eastward to empty onto the via Stabiana (Fig. 13.09). These two drains, although part of the same water system, performed entirely different functions. The northern

ph a se 6 : t h e j ul i o -claud i a n y e a r s  ·   249

Fig. 13.03  Plan of Property VIII.7.5–6 during Phase 6.

drain (Drain 11) served as an overflow from the cesspit in Room 37 (Waste Feature 12). After any solid waste had been deposited in the settling basin (SU 17100), liquid waste traveled through the property to be discharged directly onto the via Stabiana. The southern drain (Drain 10), on the other hand, received clean rainwater, collected from the roof and channeled into the property through a downpipe (SU 17047). Drain 10 carried this water to Room 32, where it could be either stored within Cistern 5 or directed farther east to merge with the waste from Drain 11 and be discharged onto the road. This system of hydraulic infrastructure, therefore, saw to both the collection of useful water and the disposal of wastewater.

Absent remains in Property VIII.7.9–11 Remains of Phase 6 had been removed almost entirely from the central property of the insula; all that was left of the phase was a heavily disturbed and contaminated fill in Room 56 (Fig. 13.10; Subphase 15.3; SU 15013).

A reopened cesspit in Property VIII.7.12 Property VIII.7.12 underwent a few noteworthy alterations in Phase 6 (Fig. 13.11; Subphases 9.4, 18.5). A packed-­earth surface was laid in Room 58, raising the floor level 15 cm to c. 11.90 masl (SUs 18009, 18056). The Phase 6 surface buried the earlier

250  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 13.04  Amphora set into the basin (from Phase 5a) in northwest corner of Room 11 of VIII.7.5–6.

doorstop of Phase 5a (Doorstop 1), which was replaced with a new version set slightly to the north (Doorstop 2) (Fig. 13.12). Threshold 12 likely was installed at this time, but still in a narrower form that its final iteration, with two stones (SUs 18015, 18016) that would in Phase 7 be lifted and each set to the outside of a third grooved stone to widen the shuttered entry. On the northern side of the room, a fourth subsurface drain (Drain 24) ran from east to west across the excavated area, aligned almost perfectly above the iterations that had preceded it. The new drain differed, however, in one respect: rather than continuing above the capped cesspit of Phase 3a (Waste Feature 14), it angled southwards to avoid the cesspit, which was reopened and returned to use in this phase (Fig. 13.13; see also Fig. 10.05 for the cesspit). Most of the earl­ ier capping (remnants: SU 18037) was removed along with parts of the overlying drains to create a new, rectangular access from ground level. The pit received waste throughout Phase 6 (waste deposit: SUs 18071, 18099, 18102). Although we were unable to excavate the entirety of the cesspit due to safety concerns, we did recover a large quantity of material from within. Finds included rodent bones, mammal and bird bones, fish remains (scale and bones), eggshell, glass counters and shards of glass vessels, slag and small iron objects, worked bone, latrine objects, and a variety of ceramics. Noteworthy for the site, the lowest portion of excavated fill was waterlogged, and preserved fragments of textiles and wood. The textiles (MISC18-­1, MISC18-­2a–­j) included fragments of woven fabric, as well as portions of a drawstring pouch that closed

Fig. 13.05  Possible base to a staircase in the southwest corner of Room 11 of VIII.7.5–6.

ph a se 6 : t h e j ul i o -claud i a n y e a r s  ·   251

Fig. 13.06  Plan of Property VIII.7.7–8 during Phase 6.

Minor reconstruction in Property VIII.7.13–15

Fig. 13.07  The course of Drain 10 and Drain 11, running west–­east, in VIII.7.7–8.

with a cord. The fragmentary pieces of wood (WD18-­1) derived from a number of small, unidentifiable objects. The only other evidence for the period came from the rear of the property, where a new packed-­earth surface (SUs 9002, 9005; elev. 12.64 masl) was laid around the cesspit in Room 66, which remained in use (Waste Feature 13, of Phase 3a).

Alterations in Phase 6 to the northernmost property of Insula VIII.7 were minor (Fig. 13.14; Subphases 8.3, 27.6). Two parallel drains were added to Room 68, both running west–­east to empty onto the via Stabiana. Drain 29 ran just south of the room’s northern wall; it originated s­ omewhere west of the room (see Fig. 19.5.05). Drain 28 ran through the center of Room 68. It also must have ­originated to the west but was truncated in Phase 7a by a masonry feature of unknown purpose (see Fig.  14.25; SU 27003). Both drains were installed below a new mortar floor (SU 27008; elev. c. 12.35 masl), which was heavily degraded upon excavation. At the rear of the property, a few developments were evident. The property maintained the boundaries that had been in place since Phase 4a (see Fig.  11.03), but in Room 78 the interior walls that divided the space in Phase 5a (see Fig. 12.29) were dismantled and covered with a leveling fill (fill: SUs 8008, 8012, 8043). A new opus signinum surface was installed above, elevated at c. 14.25 masl (SUs 8002, 8006). A threshold of Sarno limestone (Threshold 28) indicated that Room 78 was sep­ar­ ated from Corridor 75 by a door; scarring on the northern boundary wall (WCU 001) might have been related to its

252  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i installation. The only other features of this phase related to waste disposal. A downpipe located in the northern wall of Room 78 (WCU 001) carried waste from an upper floor to a drain (Drain 26) that ran under the room’s new floor (see Figs. 12.30 and 19.5.02). The drain curved to the southeast and terminated at the northern edge of the wall that divided Rooms 77 and 78 (WCU 003), where a lead pipe channeled its contents into the Phase 5a cesspit in Room 77 (Waste Feature 16; see Fig. 12.31). The toilet installed in the southeastern corner of Room 78 in Phase 5a (Waste Feature 5) might also have continued to function in this phase, although modern dis­turb­ ance in that area of the trench made the situation somewhat unclear.

Construction in Property I.1.1–2/10 Developments to Property  I.1.1–2/10 in this phase were ­limit­ed to the southern suite of rooms, which had been added to the property in Phase 5b (Fig.  13.15; Subphases 53.5, 57.4). In Phase 6, this space was divided into Rooms 103, 104, and 105 with the construction of interior north–­south walls (construction trench cut: SU 57060, fill: SU 57061; construction trench cut: SUs 57085, 57062, fill: SUs 57086, 57063). The walls of Room 105 were reconstructed at this point. This work was detected on the eastern wall (reconstruction: SUs 57005, 57006, 57007, 57008) and the southern wall (SUs 57183, 57185, 57186). Into the southern wall, workers had set a series of six joist holes (SU 57184) from which wooden beams would have extended to opposite holes in the northern wall to support a second story. Meanwhile, on the main floor, the interior walls of the ­previous phase were destroyed (SUs 57071 and 57075). Access to the southern suite of rooms remained via the doorway between Rooms 101 and 103, as well as through Entrance 10 from the southern vicolo, now moved slightly west to its final location. All three rooms received new surfaces in this period. A small patch (c. 20 × 80 cm) of opus signinum surface was excavated on the northern side of Room 103 (SU  53017; elev. 9.67 masl), over a leveling fill (SUs 53029, 53061, 53026, 53027, 53022) that covered the previous packed-­earth surface (SU 53010). The area of Room 104 had been disturbed by later activities, but one patch (c. 1.05 × 0.46 m) of its packed-­earth surface was recovered (SU 57100; elev. 9.67 masl). In Room 105, to the east, a packed-­earth surface that was subject to repeated patching or relaying was evident (SUs 57036, 57037, 57053, 57079, 57090; elev. 9.67–9.77 masl). No permanent structural fixtures survived to provide clues to the function of the rooms in this period. Numerous postholes (SUs 57098, 57099, 57096, 57097, 57094, 57095, 57105) were detected in Room 104, but their purpose was unclear; possibly they were related to the construction (or reconstruction) of the second story in this phase.

Fig. 13.08  The overflow system of Drain 11 between the cesspit (SU 17020), its new head (SU 17006), and secondary catchment basin (SU 17100) in Room 37 of VIII.7.7–8; viewed from the northeast.

Fig. 13.09  The merging of Drain 10 and Drain 11 in Room 32 of VIII.7.7–8 before exiting onto the via Stabiana.

ph a se 6 : t h e j ul i o -claud i a n y e a r s  ·   253

Fig. 13.10  Plan of Property VIII.7.9-­11 during Phase 6.

Small alterations to Property I.1.3–5 and its sidewalk Most remains of Phase 6 were absent from the central area of Insula I.1, but some evidence indicates minor reconstructions in Property I.1.3–5 (Fig. 13.16; Subphases 55.7, 59.7). This activity was demonstrated by a rounded cut on the facade wall south of Entrance 5, showing the original location of a threshold stone, now missing and likely carried away in the modern period (WCU 1062; cut: SU 55045). The top of the cut, elevated at 10.56 masl, was c. 15 cm above modern ground level, clearly showing that ancient deposits have been removed from the area. The rooms at the rear of the property also seem to have received a new floor at this time; the threshold (Threshold 32) that led from Room 110 to Room 114, via the small corridor

formed by the oven (Cooking Facility 9), was raised in Phase 6. The foundation (SU 59035) for the walls built in this area in Phase 5a extended across the doorway, suggesting that it had originally supported the threshold. As recovered, however, the threshold sat above a fill of c. 10 cm (SU 59041), indicating that the floor level had been raised to c. 10.60 masl (Fig. 13.17). The ancient fill was preserved only under the threshold stone, where it abutted modern deposits to either side; it had been removed entirely from the rest of the area excavated. A few small architectural changes were made within the property at this time. A buttress (WCU 1060) was added to the southwestern corner of Room 118, abutting the southern wall and southwestern facade wall. To the east, Room 119 became fully defined for the first time with the construction of its eastern and southern walls (WCUs 1055 and 1057); additionally, the

254  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 13.11  Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 6.

doorway between Room 119 and Room 121, to the north, was narrowed (with the construction of WCUs 1051 and 1115). Farther east, the southern and eastern walls of Room 117 were reconstructed (WCUs 1044 and 1045). Cooking Facility 9 in Room 110 remained in use (see Fig. 12.36), and the function of the property as a stable or inn, with an in­corp­or­ated shop or shops, appears to have remained unchanged. Additionally, the property’s spatial relationship to the via Stabiana was adjusted in this phase, when the curbstones (SU 55140) of the via Stabiana were moved c. 40 cm eastward, toward the property. The street, therefore, was widened, and the view up it from the Porta Stabia was realigned (Fig. 13.18). Indeed, all of the curbstones in front of Property I.1.3–5 appear to have been shifted at this time: they stood c. 30 cm from the eastern edge of the street paving, and all were smaller and rounder than the curbstones fronting other properties of the insula. Resurfacings of the sidewalk likely removed the small structure built here in Phase 5a (see Fig. 12.35); if the sidewalk in Phase 6 was elevated at least close to the floor level at the interior of the property, it would have covered the structure.

A few developments in Property I.1.6–9 Developments in Property  I.1.6–9 were likewise minor (Fig. 13.19; Subphase 52.9, 56.7). The wide doorway between Rooms 122 and 125 was closed (with the construction of WCU 1070), and a new doorway between Rooms 122 and 123 was added (with the removal of WCU 1134). This doorway opened

Fig. 13.12  Doorstop 2 (at left and above Doorstop 1 from Phase 5a) in Room 58 of VIII.7.12; viewed from the west.

ph a se 6 : t h e j ul i o -claud i a n y e a r s  ·   255

Fig. 13.13  The passage of Drain 24, passing to the south of Waste Feature 14 in Room 58 of VIII.7.12; viewed from the west.

directly north of the plaster feature of Phase 5a in Room 122, necessitating its removal. Related to these construction activities, a large pit was cut through the center of Room 122, likely to retrieve pozzolanic soil (SU 52013). Like other such pits, it was afterwards filled with a mixed deposit typical of secondary construction fill (SUs 52011, 52020). A leveling fill of similar material raised the room’s floor level, but it had been largely removed by modern activity, along with the surface that must have been laid above it (fill: SUs 52002, 52096, 52099, 52110). In Room 132 to the north, there were some additional changes in Phase 6. First, the room’s southwestern wall (WCU 1089) was constructed, abutting the Phase 5a buttress. Bar Counter 4, previously I-­shaped, now took on the more common L-­shape with the addition of a north–­south arm along the eastern side of the threshold (Fig. 13.20; addition to counter: SU 56124). Its construction cut through the Phase 5a opus signinum surface (SU 56006) and destroyed part of the drain of the same phase, taking it out of use (Drain 41). A single storage vessel was included within the new construction. Following this addition, the entire counter was refinished with white plaster (SU 56005). Together with the reconstruction of the counter, a thin leveling fill was put in place across the room (SU 56003). It was topped with a rubbly, gray mortar subsurface (SU 56002), which itself supported a finer and harder light brown mortar surface, elevated at c. 11.40 masl (SU 56039). The surface was preserved only in a narrow strip of c. 10 × 50 cm, abutting the southern face of the

Fig. 13.14  Plan of Property VIII.7.13–15 during Phase 6.

256  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 13.15  Plan of Property I.1.1–2/10 during Phase 6.

Fig. 13.16  Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 6.

ph a se 6 : t h e j ul i o -claud i a n y e a r s  ·   257

Fig. 13.17  Threshold 32, between Rooms 110 and 114 of I.1.3–5, raised in Phase 6 (on fill SU 59041); viewed from the west (Room 110).

Fig. 13.18  The slight widening of the via Stabiana outside I.1.3–5; viewed from the west.

258  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 13.19  Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 6.

Fig. 13.20  Bar Counter 4 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the southwest.

ph a se 6 : t h e j ul i o -claud i a n y e a r s  ·   259 counter. To the east, Room 131 received its final configuration with the construction of its southern wall (WCU 1084).

Conclusion Set against the significant developments of the Early Imperial period that preceded it, as well as compared to the major reconstruction activities of the following phase, the events of Phase 6 might seem rather minor. This impression is made all the stronger by the fact that many of the deposits associated with Phase 6 had been lost to the earliest excavations and the general weathering and neglect of the uppermost deposits since the site was first cleared. That which we can know about the middle decades of the first century ce is therefore rather minimized and overshadowed by the more significant developments that both preceded and followed. These

c­ircumstances are unfortunate and make difficult any ­reconciliation of this relatively “dark” phase in the archaeological record of the Porta Stabia neighborhood with what we know to have been a dynamic period of Pompeian history. Nevertheless, the maintenance of Phase 5 activities across the site suggests some degree of sustained prosperity, in keeping with patterns observable across the city. The Julio-­Claudian period was a time of significant social, economic, and political growth at Pompeii, which can be witnessed in the rise of such families as the gens Umbricia,3 in the establishment of the Imperial cult, and in the (concomitant) founding of major structures such as the Eumachia building, some five monumental arches, and the grand palaestra.

3  Curtis 1984, 562–564; Ellis 2011d.

c h a pt e r 14

Phase 7 The Final Years Following the Earthquake/s (Early 60s–79 ce)

The final phase of ancient activity leading to the eruption of 79 ce was marked by the reconstruction of several walls across both insulae, and with many others showing signs of damage (Fig. 14.01). The pattern of the reconstruction efforts is strik­ ing: standing walls were essentially rebuilt directly upon pre­ vious foundations, wall stubs, and alignments. At no other time in the structural history of this neighborhood do we see this phenomenon of a widespread rebuilding of architecture. Given that the datable evidence for these developments points to the “final years” of life at the site, this phase can be pinned with some confidence on the earthquake(s) that struck the city in 62/3 ce.1 Moreover, this rebuilding effort shows evi­ dence of haste: reconstructed walls of this period included various debris, such as chunks of mortar and plaster, pieces of opus signinum floor paving, broken tiles and amphorae, reused stones, and even groups of stones mortared together, these last apparently deriving from earlier walls. In many cases, the reconstruction appears to have resulted in walls of poorer quality than those of earlier phases. And while we recognize that it has become unfashionable in recent years to pin ren­ov­ ations at Pompeii to a single earthquake and its aftershocks, still it is all the more tenuous to explain such a wholesale rebuilding of the same walls of so many properties, without interest in redesign, on anything else.2 Beyond reconstruction, most observable developments of Phase 7a were minor, typically limited to the erection of some minor interior walls and the laying of new surfaces. The key exceptions came on the eastern side of the via Stabiana, where Property  I.1.2/10 divided into two (Properties  I.1.1/10 and I.1.2) and Property I.1.3–5 expanded behind them to take over the final area of unoccupied land in the insula. These changes were discernible primarily in the architecture; across both insulae, evidence for the latest activity had suffered badly from modern intervention. This observation was particularly true for the central properties, where most subsurface de­posits had been cut away entirely by modern activity prior to our excavations. In many trenches, the latest surviving 1  Andreau 1973; Monteix 2010, 1–36; Dessales 2022. 2  For arguments for continued seismic activity, see Allison 1995; Cooley 2003, 23; and Lazer 2009, 68–70.

material related not to the phase immediately preceding the eruption but to earlier ones; in some cases, even structural fixtures present in 79 ce, like masonry counters and stone thresholds, had been removed before our work began. Our reading of this phase thus has been supported by a careful investigation of the archival records. Although we divide Phase 7 into Phases 7a and 7b, the latter is not a true representation of human activity in the past, as are our other phases. Instead, Phase 7b gathers the (rare) con­ texts encountered at the Porta Stabia that resulted directly from the eruption of 79 ce.

Phase 7a The separation of I.1.1/10 and I.1.2 One of the key developments of Phase 7a was the splitting of the southernmost building of Insula  I.1 into two separate properties: now I.1.1/10 and I.1.2 (Fig. 14.02). Direct evidence can be found in the blocking of two doorways: that which had connected Rooms 101 and 106 (blocked with WCU 1024), as well as that between Rooms 101 and 108 (with WCU 1109). Together, the blocking of these doors eliminated all direct movement between properties I.1.1/10 and I.1.2, at least at the ground-­floor level, suggesting separate ownership or op­er­ ation of the two. As a result, we will deal with each property separately here.

Property I.1.1/10 The properties at the southern ends of both insulae preserved the largest number of soil deposits related to Phase 7a, likely because their relatively lower elevations led to the accumula­ tion of deeper modern fills, which provided some protection for the archaeology below. The southernmost property of Insula  I.1 provides a good example of this phenomenon (Fig.  14.03; Subphases 50.7, 53.6, 57.6). In Room 101 the food retailing that had been established in Phase 5b continued. The well in Room 102 was now accessible only from within Property I.1.1/10, following the blocking of its earlier access from the streets to the west and south (blocked by WCUs 1002, 1105, 1120, 1121). This change of access to the well is

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0014

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  261

Fig. 14.01  Plan of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 during Phase 7.

262  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 14.02  Plan of Property I.1.1/ 10 and Property I.1.2 during Phase 7a.

Fig. 14.03  Plan of Property I.1.1/10 during Phase 7a.

s­ ignificant, as it fully privatized a resource that had long been publicly accessible. A toilet (Waste Feature 6) was installed at this time in the southeastern corner of Room 103 (Fig. 14.04). The construc­

tion of the toilet required a large construction trench (3.04 × 2.30 m) that covered much of the eastern half of the room and cut through the material of previous phases down to the Phase 3 surface (cut: SU 53015). The construction trench

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  263

Fig. 14.04  The toilet (Waste Feature 6) in the southeast corner of Room 103 of I.1.1/10.

allowed access to make a yet deeper cut in the southeastern corner of the room; this cut continued down through bed­ rock for an additional 1 m to form a cesspit for the toilet. The superstructure of the toilet was then erected in the larger, shallower area of the construction trench. Notably, a vessel support (P53-­1) and three votive vessels (P53-­31, 37, 38; Votives 86, 87, 88) were recovered within the fill of the construction trench (SUs 53011, 53028). The vessels were of the type manufac­ tured in Kiln 2 and disposed of within the ruins of Kiln 1 dur­ ing Phase 3a (see above). It seems, therefore, that the material removed in the cutting of the construction trench was kept nearby and deposited into the trench in the final phases of reconstruction. Even beyond the complexity introduced by the importation of secondary fills, these distinctive finds reflect the circuitous lives of artifacts at the site, which could reappear as residual material in contexts far later than those that had originally produced them. To return to Waste Feature 6, its cesspit was capped with a half-­dome shaped superstructure, formed by pouring mortar over wooden shuttering (SUs 53072, 53073). A rectangular opening (1.0 × 0.5 m) was left open at the top of the mortar pour. Here, along the interior sides of the mortar, impressions of wooden planks were still visible. Originally, the planks

crossed the opening to create the wooden seat. A small enclosure surrounded the toilet and provided privacy.3 A wall foundation consisting of a narrow (17 cm) block of Sarno limestone stood to the north, likely supporting a wooden par­ tition wall above (SU 53115). About 50 cm to the west of the foundation, a doorpost was found in situ (SU 53087), suggest­ ing that the toilet was accessed from the north via a swinging door, which closed against the Sarno block. A second wall foundation closed the western side of the toilet (SU 53120). Abutting both of the wall foundations and surrounding the opening to the cesspit was a thick (10 cm) opus signinum sur­ face, elevated at 9.77 masl (SU 53114). Upon excavation, the cesspit of Waste Feature 6 was filled with lapilli (SU 53076) to a depth of nearly 2 m. The lapilli appeared to have been redeposited within the void following early excavations, rather than to have been a direct result of the eruption of 79 ce. Below the lapilli, we were able to recover a small amount of material that might have been pre­ sent within the cesspit at the time of the eruption, but it had been heavily contaminated (SUs 53102, 53113). Along with the construction of Waste Feature 6, Room 103 received a leveling fill and a new opus signinum surface ele­ vated at c. 9.80 masl (leveling fill: SUs 53007, 53014). The sur­ face was preserved in one large patch abutting the northern foundation for the toilet partition wall (SU 53121) as well as in a smaller patch in the southwestern corner of the room (SU 53012). The only other discernible development was the instal­ lation of a downpipe (SU 53013) within a new buttress (WCU 1007) in the southwestern corner of the room; this might have been a response to seismic activity. At floor level, the down­ pipe passed through the southern property boundary wall (WCU 1005) and deposited its contents—­likely waste from the second floor—­into an exterior drain (Drain 31) that ran west toward the via Stabiana. Also in this Phase, the walls of Rooms 104 and 105 showed significant evidence of reconstruction, again likely associated with post-­seismic activity. As part of this activity, a large cut was made through the center of Room 104, measuring at least 80 cm east–­west and continuing beyond the excavated area (pit cut: SU 57064; pit fill: SU 57038). The cut may have sought pozzolanic soil or related to some repairing of the walls, but its precise function was unclear. A series of four postholes ran northwest–­southeast alongside the southern wall of Room 104, east of Waste Feature 6, possibly related to additional construction activities (collectively assigned to SU 57042). The postholes measured c. 7 × 10 cm. Their form and edges sug­ gest that the posts leaned towards the south, supporting the southern property wall above Entrance 10.

3  Regardless of the public nature of multiple-seat toilets in Roman cities, those within private residences were typically enclosed and private.

264  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i The posts in Room 104 do not seem to have been in place for long, having been covered with a leveling fill c. 20 cm thick (SU 57022). The same fill continued into Room 105 (SU 57031). Repairs to the southern wall were not completed, however, and another series of four postholes, cut into the leveling fill in Room 104 above the first series, suggests the presence of further support beams or scaffolding (SUs 57027, 57028, 57029, 57030). Once more the posts ran northwest–­southeast, but those belonging to the second series were slightly larger and rounder than those they had replaced, each measuring c. 12–15 cm in diameter. They were also more widely spaced, running alongside the southern half of Entrance 10 up to the wall stub that separated Rooms 104 and 105 (WCU 1012). After the removal of the posts, an opus signinum surface—­a con­tinu­ ation of that located in Room 103—was put in place in Room 104, elevated at c. 9.85 masl (SUs 57021, 57035, 57078, 57080). The equivalent surface was missing from Room 105, having been removed by modern intervention.

Property I.1.2 A few additional developments of Phase 7a were evident in Property I.1.2, now separated from the neighboring Property I.1.1/10 (Fig.  14.05; Subphases 54.8, 58.6). Most not­ably, the northern and eastern property boundary wall was recon­ structed (as WCU 1030), and Rooms 107 and 108 were divided (with the construction of WCU 1031), giving the property its final architectural form. Upon original excavation, a lararium painting (Ritual Context 6) was recovered on the southern

wall of Room 106 (WCU 1025); it depicted a genius familiaris standing before an altar and holding a patera and cornucopia, accompanied by a snake and a pair of Lares (one of which had been lost). Likewise, a painting of Bacchus adorned the pillar (WCU 1032) along the eastern side of Room 106, where it was visible from the street. No evidence attests to when these paintings had been added to the room, but given the signifi­ cant reconstruction that Property I.1.2 underwent in Phase 7, both might have been painted as late as this phase (for more on these wall paintings, see Chapter 4). More securely, Room 106 received a new packed-­earth surface topped with a mortar (SU 54002) at this time. The floor was preserved only ephem­ erally against the southern arm of Bar Counter 2—which remained in use—elevated at c. 9.95 masl. The final surface in  Room 108 had been removed by modern interventions. Room 107, which we did not excavate, was decorated with fourth style mythological frescoes upon earliest excavation, including a scene of Apollo with a lyre and another of Phrixus and Helle. Given its location and the paintings, the room likely served as a dining space at the time of the eruption.

Expansion of Property I.1.3–5 The Phase 7 developments in Property I.1.3–5 were some of the most significant undertaken in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia (Fig. 14.06; Subphase 59.8). In Phase 7a, Property I.1.3–5 took over the formerly open space behind Property I.1.2, an area that was now divided into Rooms 111, 112, and 113

Fig. 14.05  Plan of Property I.1.2 during Phase 7a.

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  265

Fig. 14.06  Plan of Property I.1.3–5 during Phase 7a.

(with the construction of WCUs 1034, 1035, 1036). A masonry foundation or base in Room 112 might have supported a stair­ case to a second story or mezzanine above. Based on its simi­ larity to Room 115, Room 113 probably provided additional stabling space for the inn. A few minor changes to the front rooms of the property accompanied this construction: the doorway between Rooms 119 and 121 was closed, and that between Rooms 118 and 120 was moved slightly westward. No soil deposits, however, could be placed in this phase; appar­ ently all had been removed in the modern period. Other iden­ tifiable activity consisted of post-­seismic reconstruction of the standing architecture. The most significant example was identified in the rear (easternmost) property boundary wall (WCU 1037). A large, approximately semicircular repair indi­ cates that the wall had suffered from out-­of-­plane failure, typ­ ical of earthquake damage and evident throughout the city (Fig. 14.07).4 As elsewhere in the insula, the wall was rebuilt precisely as it had stood prior to the damage. The construc­ tion style and mortar of this repair closely resemble that used for the new walls of the southern expansion, further indicat­ ing their contemporaneity. 4  On which, see Martini 1998. See also Dessales 2022.

Construction and reconstruction Property I.1.6–-9 Physical evidence for the final phase of activity in I.1.6–9 was limited to a few developments in Room 126, but still they indi­ cate some noteworthy activity (Fig.  14.08; Subphase 60.2). A lava stone pavement (SU 60004; elev. c. 11.1 masl) was installed on the eastern side of the room (Fig. 14.09). That the surface was missing from other parts of the room raises the question of whether it was still under construction in 79 ce. Alternatively, the activity conducted here might have required only one area of such substantial flooring, or some of the stones might have been robbed out at some point following the eruption (not excluding the modern period). We exposed twenty-­six lava blocks of the surface in total, but it extended beyond the northern and western limits of our excavation. This floor was a substantial construction by any measure. To prepare for the lava slabs, a thick subsurface was first deposited across the room (SUs 60005, 60011, 60042, 60043). The lava slabs were then set into this bedding, much in the style of a paved street or the paved courtyard of a Pompeian stable (see Chapter 6).5 5  On stables at Pompeii, see also Poehler 2011.

266  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 14.07  Out-­of-­plane failure in the rear (easternmost) wall of I.1.3–5.

Fig. 14.08  Plan of Property I.1.6–9 during Phase 7a.

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  267

Fig. 14.09  The portion (of a once larger section?) of lava pavement across Room 126 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the south.

Especially noteworthy are the stray finds attested in the archival record of Property I.1.6–9. No other property at the site yielded as many portable finds, and the number of re­covered coins was especially high, totaling 888 examples (see Chapter 4). From Room 126 alone came 456 coins (6 of them silver, the others bronze, with 437 being found together), 1 statuette of Venus, 2 shovels, 2 amphorae, 1 flask or flagon (“lagena”), and 1 weight.6 Another 401 coins were uncovered during the excavations of the upper floor above the bar in Room 132. Other finds included horse equipment (bits and bridles) and two bronze cauldrons associated with Cooking Facility 11, originally installed in Phase 5a in Room 123; the bronze cauldrons no longer survive, having been melted down in the summer of 1874.7 Additionally, a small painting on a wooden panel, now lost, was recovered on the rear (east­ ern) wall of Room 133 (WCU 1103).8 The archival record also preserves the rationale for how the property came to be known as the “Inn of Hermes.” A lararium painting (Ritual Context 7) once survived on the northern wall of Room 123 (see Figs. 4.06 and 4.09; WCU 1088). Part of the image depicts a man readying to pour the contents from an amphora into a dolium; our man is labeled Hermes.9 6  GdS UP 1873; GdS NS 1874, Vol. 3, 63. 7  The bronze cauldrons were melted down on June 20, 1874: see, Librette 13. See Table 4.01. 8  Fiorelli 1875, 35. 9  CIL IV, 3355. More information can be found in Chapters 4, 19.9, and 19.14.

Property VIII.7.1–4 As in Insula I.1, the depth of modern fills in the southern area of Insula VIII.7 meant that more Phase 7a soil deposits sur­ vived from the southernmost property than elsewhere (Fig. 14.10; Subphases 1.5b, 5.3, 24.7). Beneath the uppermost modern deposit in Room 1, which had accumulated to about 1.0 m in depth, was a layer of lapilli c. 0.3 m deep, mixed with earth and some modern material (SU 1004). The lapilli clearly had not survived in situ from the eruption of 79 ce, an inter­ pretation that can too readily be affixed to such deposits across the city, but was instead redeposited (or at least heavily disturbed) by early excavators during their work in the insula. Below the modern deposits, however, the archaeology of Phase 7a was unusually well preserved. At this time, a new packed-­earth surface was laid (surface: SU 1075; subsurface fill: SU 1082). Elevated at c. 10.20 masl, the surface sloped upwards to the north to abut the tanks against the northern wall (SU 1514 from Phase 5a; see Fig. 12.49). A few minor architectural developments in Room 1 suggest larger alterations to the property. The central portion of the facade was fully reconstructed at this time (with the construc­ tion of WCUs 134, 136, 139), and Rooms 7 and 8 were split by the construction of new walls (WCUs 129, 130); the wide retail thresholds (Threshold 3 and Threshold 4) into the street-­side Rooms 7 and 9 indicate the commercial nature of those spaces (see Fig.  14.13). Threshold 4 probably was installed at this time; although it could have been in place as early as Phase 5a  (and so reinstalled with the reconstruction of Phase 7a),

268  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 14.10  Plan of Property VIII.7.1–4 during Phase 7a.

it displayed very little wear, making a late date more likely. At this time, a new mortar surface was laid in Room 9 (surface: SU 24002; leveling fill: SUs 24003, 24004, 24008), while its walls received a final layer of plaster, either dark blue or black in color (recognized on WCU 117; painted plaster: SU 24107; sub-­ layer of plaster: SU 24102). Additionally, a wall (WCU 138) was built on the northeastern side of Room 1 to create a narrow corridor that also served to support a staircase leading to an upper story. That the staircase opened directly onto the via Stabiana (at Entrance 2) suggests that the space it accessed was available for rent. To the southwest, in Room 3, a large buttress (WCU 126) was added against the southern wall (WCU 120), perhaps in response to earthquake damage and fears of future instability. Mau described Room 1 as the entrance to a stable, an inter­ pretation built on the presence of a paved ramp from the via Stabiana (SU 4015).10 The width of Entrance 1 certainly would have provided room for the movement of animals and carts, and if we accept this reading then the tanks from Phase 5b might have functioned, at least by 79 ce, as feeding or water­ ing troughs.11 The final observation that can be suggested for this phase relates to the shrine in the southeastern corner of Room 1 (Ritual Context 3). The arcuated niche was blocked by this phase, but for reasons uncertain (Fig. 14.11). The block­ ing may have reflected a change of ownership of the property, 10  Mau 1875, 126–8. See also, Fiorelli 1875, 348. 11  This was certainly the reading of Mau 1875, 127; Fiorelli 1875, 348; Viola 1879, 16.

and thus of the “household” gods, but we acknowledge that this interpretation is speculation. On the northern side of Property VIII.7.1–4, some minor reconstruction was apparent in Room 5, where a drain (Drain 3) was added to run west–­east towards the via Stabiana (Fig.  14.12). The earlier wall (SU 5022, of Phase 5a) was dis­ mantled and the surviving portion was cut for the insertion of the drain through the center of the room (cut: SU 5053). Drain 3 passed through the doorway between Rooms 5 and 10, then continued eastward where it was encountered also in Room 9 (Fig. 14.13; see also Fig. 5.10). It then passed below Threshold 4 and under the sidewalk to empty onto the via Stabiana, where its outlet is still exposed (Fig. 14.14). The drain’s inlet was not encountered in Room 5, possibly indicating that it originated in Room 6. In the northwestern corner of the latter room, Mau had observed a basin (Archival Find 437) and tank (Archival Find 438) that might have been associated with the drain.12 Room 6 itself appears to have continued functioning as a garden in the final phase of its life. At the time of the eruption, one of the most elaborate wall paintings recovered in the neighborhood was located here, showing a garden scene (see Chapter 4). The early excavators also recorded a painted inscription in the room, which was likely a programma in support of a candidate for office.13 The presence of the programma could indicate that this was a busy and heavily frequented space. 12  Mau 1875, 128.    13  CIL IV.3603, CIL IV.3604 (see Chapter 19.14).

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  269

Fig. 14.11  The blocking of Ritual Context 3 in the southeast corner of Room 1 of VIII.7.1–4.

Fig. 14.12  The course of Drain 3 in Room 5 of VIII.7.1–4; viewed from the west.

Together with the addition of Drain 3, the eastern walls of Room 5 (WCUs 121, 122) were reconstructed, each with a lower course of gray tuff blocks and opus incertum above (reconstruction: SU 5011). The doorway between them also was quoined primarily with tuff blocks, suggesting that it might have been inserted for the first time or entirely recon­ structed in this phase. Likewise, the southern wall of the room was reconstructed at this time (WCU 118; SU 5065). Together with these reconstruction activities, a new opus signinum surface was installed (surface: SUs 5003, 5010; subsurface: SU 5026; leveling fill: SUs 5027, 5031, 5037). Elevated at c. 10.70 masl, it covered the drain and abutted two s­ tructural fixtures that were later removed from the room (Fig.  14.15; see also Fig. 19.7.02). As indicated by lipping in the opus signinum floor, one of these (now missing) fixtures abutted the southern wall (WCU 118). It took the form of a long rectangular structure, extending c. 60 cm from the wall and running the length of the room. On its eastern end was a circular edge; a second circular fixture was present in the northwestern corner of the room. The missing circular fixtures might have been dolia, while the long rectangular fixture probably was a bench of  some sort. It most likely was made of wood, since the

adjoining wall showed no evidence of the scarring that would be expected from the installation of a masonry structure. Sometime after this reconstruction, but still within Phase 7a, Room 5 underwent some additional developments. Both the bench fixture along the southern side of the room and the circular fixture in its northwestern corner were removed, and a new masonry counter or workbench was installed along the northern wall (see Fig. 14.15; WCU 117; counter: SU 5013, WCU 149). Additionally, the doorway accessing Room 10 was blocked (with WCU 177; see Fig. 14.15), necessitating that the room be entered from the south, through a doorway now formed by the addition of a western extension (WCU 124) to the southern wall. Also best placed in Phase 7a is the construction of a new wall to the south of Property VIII.7.1–4, abutting the city wall immediately west of the Porta Stabia (Subphase 4.4; see Fig.  12.41). The northernmost portion of this wall was reconstructed in the modern period, but a doorway ori­g in­ al­ ly opened through it (indicated by Threshold 29) to ­provide access to the area south of Insula VIII.7.14 This area 14  The blocking of the doorway at Threshold 29 is modern.

270  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 14.13  The course of Drain 3 in Room 9 of VIII.7.1–4 during excavation; viewed from the west. Note also Threshold 4.

Fig. 14.14  The outlet of Drain 3, from VIII.7.1–4, onto the via Stabiana.

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  271

Fig. 14.15 The opus signinum surface in Room 5 of VIII.7.1–4; note the missing features along the southern side of the room (at right), the masonry bench along the northern side of the room (at left), and the blocked doorway to Room 10.

remains unexcavated and its nature is unclear; our core ­samples indicated the presence of thick ancient fills, rising nearly to modern ground level.15 Whether these were waste deposits or fulfilled some other purpose is a question best left to future exploration.

Property VIII.7.5–6 In Phase 7a we see direct evidence for an intensification of cooking activities in Property VIII.7.5–6, particularly toward the front of the building (Fig. 14.16; Subphases 11.7, 16.5, 25.6). The archival record attests to further evidence for the con­ sumption of food and drink within the final years of the prop­ erty’s life. At this time, the wide doorway between Rooms 12 and 15 was blocked (with WCU 174), and a cooking bench was installed against it, in the southeastern corner of Room 15, with a domed oven projecting into Room 13 (Fig.  14.17; Cooking Facility 1).16 This fixture was installed directly over the opus signinum surface of the previous phase, which itself had been built over a layer of burned material (Fig. 14.18; opus signinum: SUs 11103, 11020, 11143; burned material: SU 16089). The cooking bench appears to have been in use with a final surface that was indicated only by a plaster lip (SU 16551) on the northern wall of Room 15 (WCU 151); the surface itself had been entirely removed by modern activity. Two new thresholds, however, had been inserted along with it and were still in situ, one in the wide doorway between Rooms 15 and 15  We thank Giovanni Di Maio for undertaking the coring on our behalf. 16  Mau 1875, 164 mentions that a cauldron—­now lost—­was found within the oven.

16 (Threshold 35) and the other in the narrower doorway between Rooms 15 and 17 (Threshold 27). While Threshold 27 consisted of a single stone, Threshold 35 was instead formed by seven irregularly shaped, reused slabs of marble and limestone set on a leveling fill (slabs: SU 16013; fill: SU 16042). At least one of the slabs was spoliated (I16-­1): this was a broken and heavily worn limestone fragment, perhaps sepulchral, with a barely legible inscription (Fig. 14.19). At the front of the property, the three-­room shop represented by Rooms 11, 12, and 13 likely retailed food in this period. The fixed amphora from Phase 6 was filled and destroyed at this time (SU 11021, filled with SUs 11022, 11051, 11056), but most other evidence for the phase had been removed by modern activity. Further evidence of cooking activity in the property emerged in Room 20. A deposit of black ash and debris (SU 25008) stretched across most of the room, topping the earlier opus signinum surface (SU 25009 of Phase 6) and underlying the final, Phase 7, surface, which was a low quality and heavily pitted packed-­earth elevated at c. 11.07 masl (surface: SU 25006). The final surface was preserved only in the center of the room. In the southeastern corner, the toilet installed in Phase 5a (Waste Feature 3) was repurposed; its latrine seat was destroyed, any latrine material was cleared from its cess­ pit, and the cesspit (or at least its mouth) was widened (see Fig. 12.27). The superstructures of the toilet’s walls appear to have been removed at this time, leaving it defined by wall foundations that framed the pit while allowing access from the north and west (SU 25026). Additionally, the narrow door­ way between the toilet and the rest of Room 20 was closed with masonry (SU 25068) and the niche in the southern wall

272  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 14.16  Plan of Property VIII.7.5–6 during Phase7a.

of the room was filled (with SU 25529). From this point, the pit received kitchen waste. The shaft was filled with this pri­ mary waste (waste deposit: SU 25063), which included a high quantity of charcoal and butchered animal bones, along with much pottery relating to cooking, dining, and food storage. Other finds included small and fragmentary bronze, iron, and glass objects. The deposit contained relatively little soil, but that was a rich organic humus, apparently derived from the decomposition of organic materials deposited within. A second waste feature was installed in the northwestern corner of Room 20 (Waste Feature 22). It had a tank-­like con­ struction of two unlined, masonry walls in opus incertum that abutted the northern and western walls of the room (Fig. 14.20). Though a Phase 7a construction, the tank’s walls

were founded directly upon the Phase 6 opus signinum surface and rose c. 40 cm above the Phase 7 packed-­earth surface. Within the feature, a square cut (SU 25031) extended through the opus signinum and down to the room’s Phase 4 packed-­ earth surface. Like the former toilet in the southeastern corner of the room (Waste Feature 3), the tank in the north­ western corner (Waste Feature 22) was filled almost entirely with primary waste related to cooking and dining, set within a rich humus (SU 25010). A deposit with a slightly different character (SU 25007) topped this, filling the tank to its brim. This final deposit also contained cookware and dining ware, but within a heavily burned matrix that included extensive charcoal. Many food remains also came from the uppermost deposit, including fish bone and scale, land snail and marine

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  273

Fig. 14.17  Cooking Facility 1 in southeastern corner of Room 15 of VIII.7.5–6; viewed from the north.

Fig. 14.18  Construction of Cooking Facility 1 over the opus signinum surface and the layer of ash in Room 15 of VIII.7.5–6.

Fig. 14.19  The partial inscription (I16-­1) that formed part of Threshold 35 between Room 15 and Room 16 of VIII.7.5–6.

274  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i snail shell, sea urchin spines, grape seeds and other fruit pits, and a variety of animal bones: sheep/goat, pig, chicken, and smaller birds. Some of these remains had been burned. In addition to waste management, water collection and storage once more became a primary function of Room 20 in Phase 7a. Cistern 7 was original to the space, having been installed already in Phase 3a, but it had been closed since Phase 5a (capping: SU 25042). In Phase 7, it was reopened with a new cistern head constructed along the western wall (see Fig. 14.20; new head: SU 25004). This event of reopening a cistern may have coincided with a renewed need to divert rainwater to cisterns given the seismic damage to the city’s aqueduct in the earthquake/s that preceded the eruption. The masonry cistern head (SU 25004) was circular and con­ structed of opus incertum, c. 40 cm in diameter, and rose slightly over the Phase 7a packed-­earth surface (SU 25006). It led to a round shaft that cut through the upper western side of the original cistern wall (cut: SU 25032). The cistern head might have been accessed via a terracotta puteal (Archival Find 403) that stood in the area of Room 20 when we began our work at the site, but which was later removed for storage elsewhere. With the cistern reopened, the western wall of Room 20 (WCU 141) was reconstructed with a relieving arch above the cistern head. The reopening of a cistern that had been concealed beneath the floor for as long as half a century demonstrates the extent to which those who controlled the property retained knowledge of its earlier infrastructure. As a final discernible change, the columns that had divided Room 21 from the large garden of Room 30 were partially

engaged in this phase with the construction of a wall—­likely a low wall—­to connect them (WCU 099). Graffiti recovered on the columns and walls of Room 21 in the course of the earliest excavations of the insula attested to the high traffic through this area of the property (see Chapter 19.14). Clearly the scale of cooking activity throughout VIII.7.5–6 in Phase 7a was designed to meet a sizable demand in the ­consumption of food and drink. Beyond the present arch­aeo­ logic­ al record, some information about these activities ­survives in the archival records. For example, Mau identified cuttings in the floor for a triclinium in Room 23, as well as a space for a single bed or couch in the adjacent Room 22.17 He further believed that Rooms 16 and 17 could have served the same purpose, owing to their configuration and proximity to Cooking Facility 1 in Room 15. The masonry triclinium in the garden at the rear of the property (Room 30), most likely installed in Phase 5a, survives as additional evidence for dining—­and very likely commercial dining—­in this property in the final phase of its ancient life.

Properties VIII.7.7–8 and VIII.7.9–11 In the central properties of Insula VIII.7, all deposits related to Phase 7a had been removed by a combination of the earliest excavations and ongoing neglect (Figs.  14.21 and  14.22). Limited activity was apparent, however, in some of the pre­ existing structures (Subphases 12.6, 17.6, 23.4, and 2.4, 3.5, 7.5, 29.6). Cistern 3 in Room 44/45 of VIII.7.9–11, for example, 17  Mau 1875, 165.

Fig. 14.20  Waste Feature 22 in the northwest corner of Room 20 in VIII.7.5–6; note also the head to Cistern 7 against the western wall.

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  275

Fig. 14.21  Plan of Property VIII.7.7–8 during Phase 7a.

shows signs of having been repaired, perhaps following seismic activity: several cracks within the interior walls had been patched in antiquity with a lime-­based mixture (see Fig.  11.46; SU 2509). The rear wall of the property, more­ over, which separated it from the Quadriporticus (WCU 184) was reconstructed. Furthermore, the final fills within drains—­all found heavily contaminated—­might have belonged to this phase, and several walls in the area of Room 48 received repairs at this time (e.g., WCU 064 with SU 29502; WCU 042 with SU 29530). From Property VIII.7.7–8, furthermore, came one of the most noteworthy finds of the original excavations in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia: the military diploma of one M. Surus Garasenus, the only example of such a docu­ ment known from Pompeii (see Chapter 4; see Fig. 4.12). The diploma was recovered in Room 33 and suggests that Surus—­a Syrian veteran who had served in the fleet stationed at Misenum and had gained his citizenship under Vespasian—­ lived in, worked in, and/or owned the Property in 79 ce.

Property VIII.7.12 Soil deposits were slightly better preserved on the northern side of the insula. In Property VIII.7.12 several developments of Phase 7a were discernible (Fig. 14.23; Subphases 9.5, 18.6). In Room 58, the cesspit of Phase 3a (Waste Feature 14), which had been capped in Phase 4a and reopened in Phase 6, once

more was capped with a mixture of tiles and rubble, which were mortared in place between the drain of the preceding phase (Drain 24) and the northern wall of the room (WCU 024; cesspit capping: SU 18035, 18036, 18038, 18080). Above the now-­defunct cesspit, the floor level was raised by c. 30 cm and a new opus signinum surface was laid down at c. 12.22 masl (surface: SU 18003; subsurface fill: SUs 18002, 18004). As else­ where in the insula, the surface had been largely destroyed by modern activity; a small patch of opus signinum was recog­ nized only in the southwest corner of the room. At the same time, the street-­side entrance into the room was widened (Threshold 12; threshold foundation: SU 18012). The two blocks that had made up the earlier and narrower threshold (SUs 18015, 18016 of Phase 6) were placed to the north and south, while a new stone (SU 18013) was inserted between them to allow for a typical shuttered shop entrance (Fig. 14.24; see also Fig. 13.12). The widening of the threshold necessarily brought with it a reconstruction of the facade, and the two opus testaceum quoins to either side of the doorway were reconstructed. Some additional changes were evident to the west. In Phase 7a, a series of walls and pillars were inserted to define Rooms 60–6 (WCUs 018, 019, 020, 022, 027, 029, 033, 034, 035, 038). Framed between the pillars that divided Rooms 65 and 66 (WCUs 018 and 027), furthermore was a single column, made of brick (SU 9018). A tessellated opus signinum floor, including

276  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 14.22  Plan of Property VIII.7.9–11 during Phase 7a.

pieces of colored marble, was laid down throughout Room 66, elevated at 12.46–12.53 masl (SU 9016).

Property VIII.7.13–15 The northernmost property in the insula had been heavily affected by modern intervention and thus only a few devel­ opments were evident (Fig.  14.25; Subphases 8.4, 27.7). In Room 68, a masonry structural fixture of unclear function was added at this time (see Fig. 19.5.05; SU 27003). It was located in the center of the room, and only its eastern half was exposed. It was rectangular, measuring c. 1.3 × 2.0 m, with thick walls c. 0.4 m wide and a rectangular central opening measuring c. 1.2 × 0.4 m. Its construction destroyed Drain 28 (from Phase 6) and cut through earlier surfaces and subsurface fills (cut for construction: 27067). The fix­ ture itself was made of poor-­quality opus incertum bonded with equally poor-­quality mortar (mortar: SU 27004). No

facing of any kind was preserved and the stones themselves did not create any smooth edge; thus, the exposed portion might represent a buried foundation for a fixture that rose above. The associated surface and any other material of Phase 7a was missing from the trench; the rectangular fix­ ture was found directly below the modern topsoil and was filled with modern material.

Phase 7b: activities and material associated with the 79 ce volcanic eruption Though most of the activities and deposits associated with the 79 ce volcanic eruption have been lost to the earliest excavations and subsequent neglect of the site, still two ­ areas—­one in each insula—­provided some information for this final event. Both are essentially deposits of pumice (lapilli)

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  277

Fig. 14.23  Plan of Property VIII.7.12 during Phase 7a.

Fig. 14.24  Threshold 12 at VIII.7.12.

that did not appear to have been redeposited and so could be associated with the eruption. In Rooms 44/45 of VIII.7.9–13, Cistern 3 contained a large deposit of pumice that had formed a mound beneath the entrance to the structure, but did not entirely fill the void (Fig. 14.26; see also Fig. 11.47; SUs 2508, 2512, 2513, 2514). The deposit was “clean,” containing no traces of artifacts, pottery, structural material, or soil other than a small amount of ash, suggesting either that the mouth to the

cistern was open at the time of the eruption or that a wooden lid had decayed away following that event, causing lapilli to collapse in from above; the exact circumstances of the deposit are difficult to know with certainty. A similar event, but with a different outcome, was encoun­ tered in Room 102 of I.1.1/10. Here again we found a large deposit of clean pumice, but in this case it incorporated ­significant amounts of ash to fill the large (once public) well

278  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

Fig. 14.25  Plan of Property VIII.7.13–15 during Phase 7a.

from Phase 3a (SUs 50030, 50041, 50058; see Phase 3a for the construction of the well; also see Figs.  10.16 and  10.17). Notably, the uppermost layer of the volcanic material con­ tained an abundance of artifactual and architectural ma­ter­ ial, most likely derived from the (eventual) collapse of the surrounding structures. Furthermore, the ash preserved ­ impressions of objects that had fallen within but had not sur­ vived the millennia between the eruption and our excava­ tions, including wooden beams and—­especially ­unusual—­a wicker basket (Fig. 14.27). For safety reasons, only about 2 m of the deposit within the well was excavated: SU 50030 was the uppermost (c. 760 liters of material), separated from SU 50041 (c. 380 liters) by an irregular void in parts close to 1 m in depth that had been caused by the settling of the material below, with SU 50058 (c. 150 liters) being the lowermost por­ tion of the excavated deposit. From within this material, we re­covered finds including many iron nails, broken glass, stone tesserae, painted plaster, and of course ceramic sherds. These finds could indicate that the well had been encountered by earlier excavators who disturbed some of the fill within, although the impressions of organic objects confirm that other portions of the fill remained in situ from the eruption. To determine the full depths of the deposit within the well, thus also of the well itself, we undertook a coring of  the structure.18 The core data shows that the well was

Fig. 14.26  The pumice within Cistern 3 of VIII.7.9–13.

18  We extend our gratitude to Giovanni Di Maio for undertaking the coring of the well on our behalf.

ph a se 7 : t h e f i na l y e a rs f o l lo w i n g t h e e a rt h qua k e / s  ·  279

Fig. 14.27  Impressions of both the wooden beams and the basket in the ash that filled the well in Room 102 of I.1.1/10.

280  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i 11.7 m deep, and that the volcanic debris came down onto a series of deposits (dropped and discarded items) associated with its use (see Fig. 10.17).

If a relatively significant number of Phase 6 contexts and deposits were lost to the earliest modern incursions and subse­ quent degradation of the site, as we saw in the previous chap­ ter, then it is all the more so that we see a significant loss of the final, Phase 7 deposits, particularly the floors. We have evi­ dence for floors of this period in only nine rooms (Rooms 1, 5, 9, 58, and 66 in Insula VIII.7, and Rooms 103, 104, 106, and 126 in Insula I.1).19 Thus it is a useful, perhaps even ironic reminder that for as much as Pompeii is revered for preserving some­ thing of a snapshot of 79 ce, any systematic and stratigraphic study of the city through its various developments over the centuries will normally find fuller datasets for the earlier (but not earliest) periods, especially that of the Augustan era (our Phase 5). And while the archival research into the first ­excavations can flesh out the information for this final period, par­ticu­lar­ly with regard to the artifactual records, still this information is not without its inaccuracies and biases.20 In spite of these limitations on the available evidence, there is much new information to be learned from the Porta Stabia excavations about this final period of Pompeii; and of course the loss of evidence is information in itself. In the first instance, apart from the deposits of Phase 5 surviving relatively more fully than those of the final period, also the shape of urban space from the Augustan era remained much the same through to Phase 7. This is a significant outcome, not least because the event that catalyzed the (re)building ac­tiv­ities of Phase 7 was a catastrophic earthquake—­documented by Seneca (QN 6.1.1–3), and even more briefly by Tacitus (Ann. 15.22)—that caused the collapse of almost every wall across the entire neighborhood. Whether we are to imagine a single earthquake assigned to either 62 or 63 ce, or perhaps more likely a series of earth­ quakes through the early 60s, the precision of the dating itself becomes somewhat less r­elevant for our purposes; certainly we can add little of value to the debates surrounding these dates.21 More relevant to our current interests, we not only can document a wholesale rebuilding of the properties at the Porta Stabia in Phase 7, but perhaps even more significantly, can demonstrate that nearly all of these rebuildings sought to pre­ serve the footprints established in Phase 5.

To some degree this wholesale rebuilding effort cor­res­ ponds to the widely held view that the entire city undertook a major reconstruction in the final years of its life. But ­connected to that understanding is the equally common idea that the structural rebuilding of Pompeii brought about a social rebuilding as well, with new economic opportunities bringing about a change in the shape and identity—­but especially func­ tion—­of many properties. That is, it has long been thought that the post-­earthquake rebuilding of the city caused the en-­masse arrival of retail spaces, with shops and bars now fronting houses that had otherwise gone without this kind of social and economic activity.22 Nevertheless, Phase 7 brought few changes to the retail landscape of the Porta Stabia, and here as in the rest of the city, the transition to retail was a product of the Augustan period rather than the final, post-­ earthquake rebuilding of the city.23 Naturally we can document some exceptions to this overall pattern of development. As we have seen in the present ­chapter, various adjustments were made to the shape and infrastructure of certain properties in the Porta Stabia neigh­ borhood. The expansion of the property at I.1.3–5, along with the concurrent division of properties I.1.1/10 and I.1.2, consti­ tute some significant efforts to reshape property divisions. The extent to which these reconfigurations were catalyzed by the earthquake/s, however, cannot easily be known. More likely connected to seismic activity were some developments to local infrastructure. These were evident in a number of places, some of which being: the scaffolding postholes found in Room 104 of I.1.1/10; the buttressing of the downpipe in Room 103, also in I.1.1/10; the visible evidence for out-­of-­plane failure of the eastern wall (WCU 1037) in Room 115 of I.1.3–5;24 the repair of Cistern 3 in Rooms 44/45 of VIII.7.9–11; and the reopening of Cistern 7 in Room 20 of VIII.7.5–6. These activ­ ities support the more general rebuilding of walls across both insulae to indicate a widespread response to the earth­ quake activity of the early 60s ce. It is difficult to gauge fully the supply of materials required for such efforts, and not least the availability of skilled labor, particularly when an entire city needed to be rebuilt. The competition for these resources must have placed significant social and economic strain on the city. But the (re)incorporation of so much ­broken debris, and even broken segments of walls themselves, into the Phase 7 architecture—­and again the fact that we see relatively few new spatial arrangements—­speaks to a concerted effort to repair rather than redesign, and surely as quickly as possible.

19  For an overall analysis of the floors of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, see Chapter 19.7. 20  See Chapter 4. 21  Esp. Fröhlich and Jacobelli 1995; Also Adam 1986; Monteix 2010, 233–5, who proposes even more earthquakes or aftershocks for the early years of the 70s ce.

22  For the earthquake paradigm, see especially Maiuri 1942, 216–17; 1960; also Jashemski 1964, 343. Opponents to the ideas of Maiuri include: WallaceHadrill 1994, 122–31; Monteix 2010, 1–36; Ellis 2018, 167–73. 23  These ideas are more fully fleshed out in Ellis 2018, 167–73. 24  For the connection of out-of-plane failure in Pompeian architecture to the seismic activity, see Martini 1998. Also Dessales 2022.

Conclusion

c h a pt e r 1 5

The Properties through the Phases This chapter summarizes the archaeological sequences of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 across the seven occupational phases, outlining the history of each property by presenting a concise sequence of its development through time. Beginning at the southern side of Insula  I.1, we briefly describe our observations within each property from the earliest ­identifiable activities up to 79 ce, before moving again from south to north through the properties of Insula VIII.7 (Fig. 15.01). All of the information provided appears across the phase chapters; here it is reformatted to foreground each building separately rather than to explain the chronological development of the neighborhood as a whole. Thus, readers will note redundancy within this highly abbreviated narrative, which we believe the utility of the information justifies. To maintain brevity and ease readability, we have eschewed all SU and WCU numbers here, as well as c­ itations and footnotes. For more detailed treatments, the reader should refer to the relevant pages in the associated phase chapters.

Property I.1.1–2 (later Properties I.1.1/10 and I.1.2) Evidence for the development of Property  I.1.1–2 was ­un­covered in five trenches, excavated from 2010 to 2012: 50000, 53000, 54000, 57000, and 58000 (Figs. 15.02 and 15.03). Architectural remains of the sixth century bce, among the earliest evidence for activity in the area of the Porta Stabia, come from this area. Two kilns indicate pottery production in the third and second centuries bce, anchoring what was likely a larger zone devoted to the manufacturing of ceramics. The property itself, like others on both sides of the via Stabiana, arose in the second century bce. In the first century bce, its street-­side rooms featured two of the largest fish-­salting vats recovered from the neighborhood, which remained in use up to the Early Imperial period. At that time, the property was reconstructed to retail food, with masonry bar counters constructed at its entrances from the via Stabiana. At the end of its life, the property split into two (physically) separate spaces, I.1.1/10 and I.1.2, both of  which continued retail activity up to the eruption of Vesuvius.

Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce) The southernmost area of what would become Insula  I.1 provides the best evidence of Phase 1 development on the eastern side of the present via Stabiana. Excavation in two areas, (later) Rooms 104 and 106, uncovered pappamonte foundation blocks related to buildings that were constructed as early as the sixth century bce (Phase 1a; see Figs. 8.03–8.06). Below (later) Room 106, three pappamonte blocks set ­end-­to-­end formed a wall segment, likely representing the frontage of a building; what survives was approximately 2 m in length. Immediately to the northeast, a single pappamonte block, heavily cut away by later construction, was all that remained of another wall on a different alignment, running east–­west. No join between the two wall segments was pre­ sent, but they might have formed the northwestern corner of a building that was destroyed prior to Phase 2.1 To the west, a hard-­packed stratum of yellow Mercato ash was identified as a con­tem­por­ary surface, probably an early iteration of the via Stabiana or a sidewalk alongside it (see Fig.  8.02). To the southeast, in (later) Room 104, a single pappamonte block was brought to light. The block might represent a wall that ran north–­south and possibly even continued north to meet the structure excavated in (later) Room 106. In Phase 1b, this area—­like the rest of the neighborhood—­ appears to have been abandoned. Likewise, there is no evidence for architecture of Phase 1c, but a series of road surfaces of gray ash, some paved with cobbles, ran through the zone at this time. The roads were in use from the later fourth through the first half of the third century bce (see Figs. 8.09–8.12).

Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce) Ceramics production activities occupied the space of Property I.1.1–2 in Phase 2. This is indicated most clearly by a Kiln (Kiln 1) discovered under (later) Room 103. The kiln had been largely destroyed by subsequent construction, but it was square in shape (see Figs. 9.02 and 9.03). Three tanks of this phase, two located immediately to the north under (later) Room 106 and a third found across the via Stabiana under 1  A Phase 2 tank cut through a surviving block of the Phase 1a wall, indicating that the building had been abandoned and destroyed prior to that phase.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0015

282  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 15.01  The ten properties of insulae VIII.7 and I.1 in 79 ce.

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   283

Fig. 15.02  The location of trenches in I.1.1–2 (later I.1.1/10 and I.1.2).

(later) Room 37 suggest additional production in the area (see Fig. 9.04). Two of the tanks might have been levigation tanks or otherwise supported ceramics manufacturing, but the re­covered contents of the third suggest that it functioned for fish-­ processing, an activity that would become prominent in the neighborhood in the second and (especially) first ­centuries bce.

Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce) Phase 3a represents the first major architectural development of both the property and the insula itself. Property  I.1.1–2 began as a simple rectangular structure with internal divisions defining Rooms 101, 106, and 107/8 (united at this point). To the south, in the area of (later) Room 102, a large (1.35 × 1.25 m, with a depth of c. 11.70 m) public well was constructed, which probably served as both the main water access for the neighborhood and a central gathering area (see Figs.  10.16 and  10.17). Ceramics production continued outside the new building, as indicated by a second kiln (Kiln 2) located in the area of (later) Room 105 (see Figs. 10.12–10.14).

Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce) Fish-­salting vats were added to Rooms 101 and 106 in Phase 4a; these were two of the largest such vats excavated at the Porta Stabia.2 The vat in Room 101 (Fish-­Salting Vat 5) was 2  No changes were evident in this property in Phase 4b or 4c.

rect­angu­lar and at least 1.17 m deep with steps built into its northwest corner (see Fig. 11.30). The example in Room 106 (Fish-­Salting Vat 6) was trapezoidal in shape and was at least 1.6 m deep (see Fig. 11.31). No fewer than four soak-­aways, the fills of all of which were dominated by fish remains, served these vats (Soak-­Aways 7, 10, 11, 12) Together, all of these fixtures indicate relatively large-­scale production of salted fish products in the property at this time.

Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce) The fish-­salting vats (Fish-­Salting Vat 5 and Fish-­Salting Vat 6) and associated soak-­aways were filled and covered with new floors during Phase 5a, heralding a change in the use of space. Additional changes came in Phase 5b, when the property’s footprint expanded significantly. The expansion included the addition of Room 102, which restricted access to the well. To the east, new architecture enclosed Room 103/104/105 (still united). This space was accessed via Entrance 10 from the vicolo south of the insula, which originally was located slightly east of its final location. At the front of the property, masonry counters were constructed in Rooms 101 and 106 (Bar Counter 1 and Bar Counter 2; see Figs.  12.43,  12.44, 12.46), and both rooms received new opus signinum surfaces. Furthermore, in Room 107/8 (still united), a cooking facility was installed (Cooking Facility 8; see Fig. 12.47). These features suggest a shift in the property’s function, from salted fish production to the retailing of food.

284  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 15.03  The phases of development for I.1.1–2 (later I.1.1/10 and I.1.2).

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   285

Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce) Some architectural modifications came in Phase 6: rooms 104 and 105 were divided, Entrance 10 shifted slightly west to its final location, and the walls of Room 105 were reconstructed for the addition of a second story. At the front of the property, food retailing continued in Rooms 101 and 106.

Division of Properties I.1.1/10 and I.1.2 Rooms 106 and 107 were divided in Phase 7, and blocked doorways between Rooms 101, 106, and 108 split the property into two: I.1.1/10 and I.1.2. Most of the soil stratigraphy for the phase had been lost prior to our excavation, but both properties appear to have continued functioning as food retailers.

Property I.1.1/10 Phase 7 In Room 103 of Property I.1.1/10, a new toilet (Waste Feature 6) was constructed in Phase 7, enclosed within ephemeral walls preserved only as foundations (see Fig.  14.04). Additionally, the narrow doorways that had allowed access from the street to the well in Room 102 were blocked, “privatizing” that feature by making it accessible only to those within the property.

The well was filled with lapilli from the 79 ce eruption upon discovery, suggesting that it had remained open through the final phase of the city’s life.

Property I.1.2 Phase 7 Property I.1.2 underwent a large-­scale reconstruction to open Phase 7, likely as a result of damage caused by seismic activity. As elsewhere in the neighborhood, however, nearly all walls were reconstructed on the same plan that had been in place since Phase 5. The new wall added to divide Rooms 107 and 108 was the only exception to this pattern of rebuilding. The property was well decorated in its final phase; wall paintings of Bacchus, Apollo, and Phrixus and Helle all were re­covered here in the earliest excavations, as was a painted lararium on the southern wall of Room 106 (Ritual Context 6).

Property I.1.3–5 The area of property I.1.3–5 was explored between 2010 and 2012 in three trenches: 51000, 55000, and 59000 (Figs.  15.04 and 15.05). This central property would, by the end of its life, be the largest of those in the insula, but it grew gradually and did

Fig. 15.04  The location of trenches in I.1.3–5.

286  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 15.05  The phases of development for I.1.3–5.

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   287 large pillars in opus quadratum were installed; these would later define the corners of Rooms 120 and 121. Unfortunately, the function of the pillars remains unclear, but their sturdiness suggests that they supported a roof or even an upper floor; they might have been connected with the quarrying carried out in the area of (later) Room 120 already by this phase (Quarry Area 12a).

Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce)

Fig. 15.05  continued

not develop its final plan until the years immediately preceding the eruption of 79 ce. Its function remains difficult to reconstruct prior to the Early Imperial period. From that time until the eruption, however, it was devoted to retail, with shops (including food retailing) along the street and much of the rest of the property devoted to the stable and courtyard of an inn.

Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce) The earliest activity (Phase 1a) in the area of the property was the creation of a Mercato ash surface, probably representing the first formal road in the valley of the later via Stabiana, which is best placed in the sixth century bce (see Fig. 8.02). This was replaced in the fourth century bce by another road, surfaced in gray ash (Phase 1c; see Fig. 8.09). At this time, at least one structure stood in the area of the later property, repre­sented by the highly fragmentary remains of a wall foundation of pappamonte and other materials, excavated under (later) Room 120 (see Fig. 8.13). A miniature black gloss bowl of the fourth century bce that contained a single piece of wood charcoal was found immediately below the pappamonte block, possibly representing a foundation ritual (Ritual Context 14; Votive 103).

Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce) No remains associated with Phase 2 were recovered below Property  I.1.3–5. Given that a ceramics workshop operated immediately to the south, the area might have served related activities too ephemeral to have left archaeological traces, such as shaping or drying pots.

Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce) The central area of Insula I.1 remained open during Phase 3. On the northern side of (later) Property I.1.3–5, however, five

Property I.1.3–5 was constructed in Phase 4a, incorporating the pillars of the previous phase into a far smaller footprint than the building would have by the time of the eruption. A few structural fixtures, found in (later) Rooms 110 and 118 could suggest spaces dedicated to production (for example a tank and a “workbench”; see Fig. 11.08); changes to these fixtures, conducted later in Phase 4a, could indicate alterations to that activity. To the north, in the area of (later) Room 120, we uncovered an unusual pit, perhaps the beginnings of a well or other subsurface feature that was abandoned in the course of construction and used instead for the recovery of building materials (Quarry Area 12b; see Figs. 11.11–11.13). The property underwent a large-­scale reconstruction in Phase 4b, giving it a central suite that consisted of a two-­ roomed shop on the northern side (Rooms 120 and 121), with open space to the south. In the southern area, a large cistern (Cistern 8; see Fig. 11.40) was added to the center of Room 118. In the outdoor space behind the property a well was constructed (in the southeastern corner of later Room 110; see Fig. 11.42). Given its location, the well might have been shared between the owners of the properties of Insula I.1 and pos­ sibly neighboring insulae, providing an additional source of water to supplement the larger well near the gate. A few minor developments marked Property I.1.3–5 in Phase 4c. A ramp from the via Stabiana led up from the street and into Room 120, perhaps indicating the movement of heavy goods by cart. The cistern remained in use in Room 118. At the rear of the property, a subterranean collapse might have damaged the well, which was either replaced or supplemented by a cistern.

Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce) The footprint of Property I.1.3–5 expanded by more than 50 percent in Phase 5a with the establishment of Rooms 110, 114, 115, and 116. As part of this reconstruction, the cistern and well formerly located behind the property were closed and covered, and a domed oven (Cooking Facility 9) was installed in the southeastern corner of Room 110, above the now-­ defunct well (see Fig. 12.36; also Fig. 11.42). At the front of the property, the cistern in Room 118 and the ramp leading to Room 120 also were destroyed, and a counter (Bar Counter 3) was added to Room 118 (see Fig.  12.34). The property was devoted to hospitality from this period throughout the rest of

288  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i its life, with Rooms 118–120 functioning as a four-­room bar (supported by the oven in Room 110), and the rest of the space occupied by an inn and stable.

Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce) A few minor architectural changes occurred in Phase 6, better defining the rooms in the central area of the property. Along its facade, the via Stabiana was widened and its curbstones realigned (see Fig.  13.18). Otherwise, activity here seems to have continued without interruption.

Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce) In the final phase of activity, Property  I.1.3–5 grew once more, expanding southward with the addition of Rooms 111, 112, and 113 to occupy the area behind Property I.1.2. Room 113, like Room 115, appears to have been a stable; a foundation in Room 112 suggests a second story above, accessed by a staircase. In the retail suite at the front of the property, a few minor architectural changes accompanied this reconstruction. Throughout the property, repairs indicate earthquake damage; this was most evident in the rear (eastern) boundary wall, which showed a large area of out-­of-­plane failure (see Fig. 14.07).

Property I.1.6–9 Three trenches were opened in Property  I.1.6–9: 52000, 56000, and 60000 (excavated between 2010 and 2012; Figs. 15.06 and 15.07). This was the northernmost property in the insula, and its construction history was closely linked to that of Property I.1.3–5. The natural deposits of basalt and Mercato ash were shallowest here, and the area was marked by extensive quarrying, complicating the stratigraphic sequence (Quarry Areas 13 and 14). Nevertheless, the property’s growth through time was evident, and much like its neighbor at I.1.3–5, by the time of the eruption it was devoted to hospitality and retail, incorporating a two-­room shop, a bar, and an inn with a stable.

Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce) Phase 1 activity in the area of (later) Property I.1.6–9 was repre­ sented by the series of packed-­earth roads of the sixth and fourth centuries bce: the earlier Mercato surface (Phase 1a; see Fig. 8.02) and the later gray ash surface (Phase 1c). Some polished lava bedrock in the area might attest to traffic across exposed bedrock within the early sequence of thoroughfares, a practice well attested later in Pompeii’s history. No evidence suggested the presence of a structure in this area in Phase 1.

Fig. 15.06  The location of trenches in I.1.6–9.

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   289

Fig. 15.07  The phases of development for I.1.6–9.

290  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i In Phase 4b, the property received further definition with the establishment of Rooms 132 and 133. At this time, a deep soak-­away (Soak-­Away 14) was added to Room 132, and the fish-­salting vat in Room 122/25 was replaced with a higher-­ quality iteration (Fish-­Salting Vat 8; see Fig. 11.44). An add­ ition­al soak-­away was installed just north of the vat in Phase 4c (Soak-­Away 9).

Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)

During the period in which the pottery workshop was functioning at the southern end of the insula, activity to the north seems to have been limited to the creation of a new road or sidewalk surface, observed under the facade of the later property (under Room 132). This iteration, made of packed earth topped with mortar, was more ephemeral than the ash surfaces present in Phase 1.

As elsewhere in the two insulae, Phase 5a saw the establishment of dedicated retail in the street-­side rooms of the property. An I-­shaped masonry bar counter with an inset hearth (Bar Counter 4) was added to Room 132, indicating the sale of food (see Fig. 12.22). A durable opus signinum floor with inset marble chips and some preserved wall painting serve as rare evidence for the decoration of the space. In Room 122/25 the vat (Fish-­Salting Vat 8) and soak-­away (Soak-­Away 9) of the previous phase were destroyed and a new packed-­earth floor was laid. The wide doorway at Entrance 6 suggests that this space was, like the rooms to the north, devoted to retail. Much like Property I.1.3–5 to the south, Property I.1.6–9 expanded eastward in this period, more than doubling in size. The latest and largest of the quarries in the area of the Porta Stabia (Quarry Area 14) probably provided materials for the reconstruction of both properties, before being closed and covered by the new Rooms 126 and 127.

Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce)

Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce)

This area on the northern side of Insula  I.1 remained open and undeveloped in Phase 3. A road or sidewalk surface was identified under the western facade of the (later) Property I.1.6–9 (under Room 122); it continued along the frontage of the structure with pillars in the area of (later) Property I.1.3–5, and likely past the first iteration of Property I.1.1–2.

The property took on its final architectural form in Phase 6 with the construction of a few new walls and the definition of a few new rooms. In Room 132 the I-­shaped bar counter (Bar Counter 4) was expanded to take on the more typical L-­shape, with a single dolium included in the new construction (see Fig. 12.22).

Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce)

Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce)

Property I.1.6–9 was established in Phase 4a, at which point only the space of Room 122/125 (united at this time) appears to have been enclosed with masonry walls. A fish-­salting vat was located in Entrance 6 (Fish-­Salting Vat 7; see Fig. 11.15), and the rest of the enclosed space was subdivided into small rooms by a series of interior walls. To the north, pillars defined the facade line and the southern boundary of (later) Room 132; ephemeral walls likely filled the spaces between the pillars, as suggested by the presence of postholes. At the rear of the property, walls defined the northwestern and southwestern corners of a large open space (Room 126/127/128/129/130/131) that might already have been used as a quarry; this activity would accelerate (with Quarry Area 14) in Phase 5a.

The only significant development of Phase 7 was the add­ition of a paved surface of large lava stone slabs to Room 126 (see Fig. 14.09). The surface was of an extremely dur­able type used to pave major streets or in certain production contexts, such as surrounding millstones. It did not fill the entirety of the room; the uppermost deposits around the slabs were too disturbed to determine whether the surface was under construction in 79 ce or if some portion had been removed either in antiquity or more recently. Although the ramped access to this space (through Entrance 8) suggests carts and equine traffic, such a surface would be unusually sturdy for a stable. The function of the space, therefore, might have changed, or been in the process of changing, at the time of the eruption.

Fig. 15.07  continued

Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce)

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   291

Fig. 15.08  The location of trenches in VIII.7.1–4.

Property VIII.7.1–4

Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce)

The southernmost property of Insula VIII.7 was excavated between 2005 and 2009 in four trenches: 1000, 5000, 6000, and 24000 (Figs. 15.08 and 15.09). The use of space here was difficult to define for its earlier periods, but like others in the neighborhood, many rooms were devoted to retail by the Early Imperial period (Phase 5) at the latest.

The property received its first architectural delineation in Phase 3a. While its footprint would remain unchanged throughout the history of the neighborhood, most interior divisions were not yet evident in this early period. Room 6 was defined, but otherwise only the long central walls certainly were in place, framing three large areas: Rooms 1/2/3, Rooms 7/8/4, and Rooms 9/10/5. There was no evidence for the function of the property during this phase.

Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce) The only remains of Phase 1 recovered in the southernmost area of Insula VIII.7 belonged to Phase 1c. Among the contexts dated to this early period was a single pappamonte block, recovered on the southern side of (later) Room 1. It was set at a diagonal to the other remains of pappamonte re­covered in the neighborhood, perhaps indicating that it was not in its original location (see Fig.  8.16). A hard-­packed gray deposit abutting the block to the north appears to have been a surface distinct from the contemporaneous roads and sidewalks discovered elsewhere in the neighborhood. On the northern side of the property, in the area of (later) Room 9, a sequence of hard-­packed gray ash strata seemed to represent a continuation of the archaic road surfaces observed under Insula I.1.

Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce)

Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce)

Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce)

Phase 2 was represented here only by a packed-­earth surface, recovered in the area of (later) Room 6.

Several structural fixtures were added to Room 1 during Phases 5a and 5b. First, in Phase 5a, a cistern (Cistern 1) was

A number of interior divisions defined rooms within the property in Phase 4a. A soak-­away (Soak-­Away 16) was installed in Room 1, while both a tank and the lower portion of a dolium were added to Room 9, but no other indications of how these spaces might have functioned were evident (see Fig.  11.34). On the western side of the property, the doorway between Rooms 5 and 6 was narrowed. Besides ephemeral resurfacings, this was the last discernible change to Room 6. The space might have functioned as a hortus throughout its life, which could explain the general lack of structural evidence recovered from it.

292  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 15.09  The phases of development for VIII.7.1–4.

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   293 constructed on the northeastern side of the room, with a circular tank to the west. Later, in Phase 5b, the circular tank was reconstructed as part of a structure of four tanks that abutted the northern wall of Room 1 (see Fig.  12.49). The ramp leading from the via Stabiana at Entrance 1 was added at this time, suggesting that the tanks were used to feed or water animals. An arcuated niche shrine (Ritual Context 3) might have been added to the southern wall of Room 1 at this time. In Room 9 to the north, the tank and dolium of Phase 4 were destroyed in Phase 5a; a wide doorway leading into the room suggests that it functioned as a shop from this time until the eruption of 79 ce.

Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce) Discernible changes were minor in Phase 6, being limited to resurfacings and replasterings.

Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce) The property was reconstructed in its final phase, and the central facade wall, to either side of Entrance 3, was entirely rebuilt. In this period, walls were added to divide Rooms 7 and 8, making the space a two-­room shop of the type known elsewhere in the neighborhood and throughout the city. The narrow doorway at Entrance 2 also was added at this time, providing access via a staircase (no longer preserved) to an upper floor. Towards the rear of the property, several fixtures were added to Room 5 (see Figs. 14.12–14.14). Sometime prior to the eruption, these earlier Phase 7 fixtures were taken out of use, the doorway between Rooms 5 and 10 was closed, and a workbench was added to the northern wall of the room (see Fig. 14.15). Room 5, therefore, was now largely isolated from the rest of the property. Its function remains unclear, but it may have related to the production of objects sold in

Fig. 15.10  The location of trenches in VIII.7.5–8 (later VIII.7.5–6, VIII.7.7–8, and VIII.7.9–11).

294  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 15.11  The first four phases of development for VIII.7.5–8 (later VIII.7.5–6, VIII.7.7–8, and VIII.7.9–11).

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   295 the street-­side shops. Room 1, 2, and 3 remained largely unchanged, although a buttress was added to the southern wall of Room 3, arguably as a response to seismic activity predating the eruption of 79 ce. The shrine in the southern wall of Room 1 (Ritual Context 3) may also have been blocked in this phase (see Fig. 14.11).

Property VIII.7.5–8 (later Properties VIII.7.5–6, VIII.7.7–8, and VIII.7.9–11) The central area of Insula VIII.7 was excavated between 2005 and 2009 in ten trenches: 2000, 7000, 11000, 12000, 16000, 17000, 22000, 23000, 25000, and 30000 (Figs. 15.10 and 15.11). Although the entirety of the space accessed from Entrances 5 to 8 appears to have been united upon the first construction of the building in Phase 3a, it broke apart in the Early Imperial period (Phase 5a), when access ceased between Entrances 6 and 7, while at the same time Property VIII.7.9–11, to the north, took over a significant portion of the rear (western) space behind Entrances 7 and 8. Property VIII.7.5–8 followed the pattern seen across both insulae; prior to its separation, it featured spaces devoted to production (including the production of salted fish); with its division in the Early Imperial period (Phase 5a), that activity was replaced with retail.

Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce) Two pappamonte blocks excavated below (later) Room 37 represent the only Phase 1a activity in this area and might date as early as the sixth century bce (see Fig.  8.06). The remains of Phase 1c are more substantial, consisting of two fragmentary, unmortared wall foundations of irregularly shaped stones of pappamonte and other materials that ran east–­west under the later northern and southern walls of Room 15, defining a space almost identical to the later room in orientation and size (at least from north to south; see Figs. 8.14 and 8.15). The southern wall, furthermore, seemed to have extended westwards: a lava tenera block discovered just south of the northern wall of (later) Room 20 was aligned precisely with it, and could be placed strati­g raph­ic­ al­ly in the same period. Located below (later) Room 15 just north of the southern Phase 1c wall was an unusual deposit, consisting of a shallow pit containing the remains of carbonized foodstuffs and black gloss pottery dated to the late fourth or early third century bce, all of which had been burned in place (see Figs.  8.17 and  8.18). Given the pit’s location alongside the wall and the fact that both pit and wall were cut into the same Mercato ash paleosol, we interpret the pit as a votive deposit related to ritual activity that ac­com­pan­ied the construction activities of Phase 1c (Ritual Context 14).

Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce) A few fixtures from Phase 2 were uncovered under (later) Room 37, including what might have been a clay levigation tank serving the ceramic production activities occurring to the southeast in the same period (see Figs. 9.04 and 9.05).

Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce) The property at VIII.7.5–8 was constructed in Phase 3a. Its original plan is difficult to reconstruct: the northern and southern walls were in place, and its facade followed the alignment it would maintain until 79 ce, but its rear wall and interior divisions were opaque. On the northern side of the property, a few small rooms were evident in the areas of (later) Rooms 32 and 37. To the south, Rooms 11/12 and 17 appear to have been defined, but the central area of the property might have remained open until walls defined a number of rooms in Phase 3b. The function of the property in this period is unclear; some structural fixtures in the area of (later) Room 37 could indicate production activities, while a cistern was found in Room 20 (Cistern 7).

Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce) Like other properties in both insulae, Property VIII.7.5–8 participated in fish-­salting in Phase 4a, when a vat (Fish-­ Salting Vat 1; see Fig.  11.17) was installed in Room 32 at Entrance 8. Some architectural redefinition accompanied this activity; other minor architectural developments followed in Phase 4b and 4c. Likewise, structural fixtures were added to several rooms in Phase 4a, for example, a cesspit in Room 37 (Waste Feature 12; see Fig. 11.18), a toilet in Room 20 (Waste Feature 2; see Fig. 11.20), and two tanks in Room 11. In Phase 4b, a new cistern was constructed in Room 44 (Cistern 3; see Fig.  11.46). A number of drains managed water, two of which attested to the continued connection between the spaces accessed from Entrances 5 through 8 through Phase 4c. In Phase 4b, Drain 8 carried water below the floor of Room 37 and into Cistern 3 in Room 44. In Phase 4c, this system became more complex: a downpipe (likely the same) now filled a shallow tank in Room 37, from which water could be directed either into Cistern 3 through Drain 9 (which had replaced Drain 8) or into Cistern 6 in Room 32 through Drain 6. The latter drain ran down the property’s central corridor (Corridor 18) and into Room 15 before turning north through a doorway to enter Room 32 to access Cistern 6.

Division of Properties VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.7–8 The Early Imperial period brought significant changes to the central area of Insula VIII.7. At this point the space that had

296  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 15.12  The development of VIII.7.5–6 from Phase 5.

once belonged to Property VIII.7.5–8 was divided into three separate properties: Property VIII.7.5–6 (Fig. 15.12), Property VIII.7.7–8 (Fig. 15.13), and Property VIII.7.9–11 (see Fig. 15.16), which now occupied the westernmost area once accessed through Entrances 7 and 8. The changes in control of the space were evidenced by the opening and closing of doors and the destruction of earlier drains. Given that the properties remained separate from this point until the eruption of 79 ce, they will be treated individually from this point in the narrative.

Property VIII.7.5–6 Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce) New construction in this phase gave the property the architectural delineation that it would maintain, with only some

minor alterations, up to the eruption of 79 ce (see Fig. 15.12). The earlier structural fixtures underwent a few changes; the two tanks in Room 11 were destroyed and replaced with a single, shallow tank. The toilet in Room 20 (Waste Feature 2; see Fig. 12.26) was converted for wastewater disposal, and a new toilet was added in the southeastern corner of the same room (Waste Feature 3; see Fig.  12.27). Meanwhile, the cistern (Cistern 7) in the center of Room 20 was sealed with a block of Sarno limestone mortared in place over its mouth. To the west, the service suite of Rooms 24 to 29 was added to the property, along with a colonnade dividing Rooms 21 and 30. The masonry triclinium in Room 30 likely was constructed at this time. Based on its architectural organization, the property was now devoted to retail activities, with a three-­room

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   297

Fig. 15.13  The development of VIII.7.7–8 from Phase 5.

shop along its facade (Rooms 11, 12, and 13), and dining spaces (including the garden triclinium) within.

Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce) Developments of Phase 6 in VIII.7.5–8 were limited to a few resurfacings of floors and the replacement of several fixtures in Room 11. Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce) The only architectural change associated with Phase 7 came on the western side of the property: the columns that had divided Rooms 21 and 30 were joined with a wall, making them partially engaged and turning Room 21 into a corridor leading to the service area to the south. To the east, a cooking

bench with oven was added to Room 15 (Cooking Facility 1; see Figs. 14.17 and 14.18). In Room 20 the original cistern of Phase 3a (Cistern 7) was reopened with the construction of a new mouth, installed against the western wall (see Fig. 14.20). This reopening of the cistern perhaps reflects some dis­turb­ ance in the property’s—­or even the city’s—­water supply, pos­ sibly as a result of seismic activity. As the cistern was reopened, the latrine in the southeastern corner of the room was removed, but its cesspit (Waste Feature 3) continued to function, receiving what appears to have been kitchen waste (see Fig. 12.27). A second waste feature (Waste Feature 22), consisting of an unlined rectangular tank was added to the northwestern corner of the room (see Fig. 14.20); it too was full of kitchen refuse upon excavation. The garden triclinium

298  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i in Room 30 certainly was present by this time (but again, likely belongs to Phase 5a), while Rooms 16, 22, and perhaps 23 also appear to have functioned for dining. All of this cooking and dining activity almost certainly served commercial purposes.

Property VIII.7.7–8 Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce) Beyond its division from Property VIII.7.5–6, at this time Property VIII.7.7–8 lost much of its western space—­Rooms 44 to 47—to its northern neighbor, Property VIII.7.9–11 (see discussion below; see Fig. 15.13). As elsewhere, the property’s primary activity appears to have shifted in Phase 5a. In Room 32 the fish-­salting vat (Fish-­Salting Vat 1) was filled and decommissioned, while most of the earlier features in the room were destroyed by the installation of the massive Cistern 5 alongside the earlier Cistern 6 (see Figs. 11.17, 12.13, 12.14). A new opus signinum surface was laid above. Judging from the wide doorway at Entrance 8, the room functioned as a shop; the narrower doorway at Entrance 7 accessed a stairway to what was likely an upstairs apartment. To the west, in Room 37, features connected to the Phase 4 water systems were destroyed and a new floor was installed.

Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce) A few additional changes were made to the property during  Phase 6. Most notably, a new hydraulic system—­one of  the more elaborate of such systems recovered in the neighborhood—­was added (see Figs. 13.07–13.09). It ori­gin­ated in Corridor 35 and Room 37 with two side-­by-­side drains (Drains 10 and 11). One carried water from the roof (Drain 10) to the cisterns in Room 32 (Cisterns 5 and 6), and the other removed waste from the rear of the property and deposited it onto the via Stabiana (Drain 11). Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce) No remains of this phase were recovered in the property, since the late phase stratigraphy had been removed by modern interventions.

Property VIII.7.9–13 (later VIII.7.9–11, VIII.7.12, and VIII. 7.13–15) The area that was originally accessed via Entrances 9 to 13 was excavated from 2005 to 2009 in nine trenches: 3000, 7000, 9000, 13000, 15000, 18000, 19000, 26000, 29000 (Figs. 15.14 and 15.15). Like the property to its south, the original structure was divided over time and, in this case, incorporated into three separate properties: VIII.7.9–11, VIII.7.12, and VIII.7.13–15. As elsewhere, the narrative will treat the property as a whole up to the phases of division, then continue through the phases of each separated property individually.

Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce) In this area finds of the earliest phase were limited to surfaces—­possibly roads or sidewalks— belonging to Phase 1c, as well as to some contemporaneous quarrying below (later) Room 48 at Entrance 11 (Quarry Area 4). No architectural remains were recovered.

Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce) Phase 2 was represented by the remains of road or sidewalk surfaces, particularly beneath (later) Room 48 at Entrance 11.

Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce) Property VIII.7.9–13 was constructed in Phase 3a. The original building occupied the entirety of the space accessed via Entrances 9 through 13, and continued westward until meeting the eastern Quadriporticus wall (also constructed during this period, although slightly west of its final iteration, beyond the area of our excavations). Early interior divisions separated the front (eastern) side of the property into three spaces: Rooms 38 to 41, Room 48/49, and Rooms 58 to 64. All three of the Phase 3 properties of Insula VIII.7 appear, therefore, to have had similar tripartite plans, defining large, open spaces with  only a few smaller rooms framed by masonry walls: VIII.7.1–4, VIII.7.5–8, and VIII.7.9–13. As we have noted elsewhere (see Chapter 2), these might have been conceived as row houses of the type known from elsewhere in Pompeii at this time, but we lacked the evidence to confirm or deny that idea. Whatever the case, other rooms and spaces likely were defined by ephemeral walls of wood or other materials. In this phase, Property VIII.7.9–13 was the northernmost property of the insula; to its north, the ground level rose steeply, and the property’s northern boundary also served as a retaining wall. A downpipe set into this wall indicates an upper story over at least part of the property already in Phase 3a (see Fig. 10.08). Structural fixtures of this phase included two cesspits, one at the front of the property (Waste Feature 14; see Fig. 10.05) and the other at the rear (Waste Feature 13; see Fig. 10.07). A third cesspit of the period was located outside the property to the north (Waste Feature 15) and was not certainly associated with it. To the south, two tanks of unclear function were found in the area of (later) Room 48. In Phase 3b, one of the interior cesspits (Waste Feature 14) was modified with a drain (Drain 21) that carried waste to it from the west (see Fig. 10.23).

Separation of Room 67 (at Entrance 13) from VIII.7.9–13 Room 67 at Entrance 13 was incorporated into the newly constructed Property VIII.7.13–15 in Phase 4a (see Fig. 11.03); it will be discussed with that property below.

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   299

Fig. 15.14  The location of trenches in VIII.7.9–13 (later VIII.7.9–11, VIII.7.12, and VIII.7.13–15).

Property VIII.7.9–12 Phase 4a (c. 80–1 bce, earlier) In the slightly reduced property VIII.7.9–12, walls of Phase 4a defined new rooms, and structural fixtures indicate production activities at both the front and the rear of the property. Fish-­salting vats were added to Rooms 38, 48, and 58 at Entrances 9/10, 11, and 12 (Fish-­Salting Vats 2, 3, and 4; see Figs.  11.22–11.25), and four tannery vats occupied Room 56 (see Figs.  11.26–11.28). The second tannery identified in Pompeii (the first was not far from the Porta Stabia, at I.5.2), and one of only a handful known from all of Roman Italy, its location in an isolated room at the rear of the property might

reflect the noxious nature of the activity it hosted. As part of this reconstruction, the cesspit in Room 58 (Waste Feature 14) was capped and went out of use, with a new drain (Drain 22) running across it from the west to empty onto the via Stabiana. The cesspit at the rear of the property (Waste Feature 13) remained open.

Division of VIII.7.9–11 from VIII.7.12 In Phase 4b the construction of a series of new walls divided Property VIII.7.9–12 into two properties: VIII.7.9–11 and VIII.7.12. Each will be discussed separately below.

300  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 15.15  The first four phases of development for VIII.7.9–13 (later VIII.7.9–11, VIII.7.12, and VIII.7.13–15).

Property VIII.7.9–11 Phase 4b (c. 80–1 bce, later) Despite the division of the properties in Phase 4b, an action that represented a significant change to this area of the insula, few further alterations were discernible within the newly reduced Property VIII.7.9–11 (Fig. 15.16). Fish-­salting con­tinued in the front rooms, and the tannery still operated at the rear. Furthermore, the earlier waste pit at the rear of the property (Waste Feature 13) remained in use and might have been accessible from both this and the separate property at VIII.7.12 to the north.

Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce) Property VIII.7.9–11 expanded substantially in Phase 5, when doorways were opened into Corridor 42 and Room 46, and

new walls were erected to isolate those spaces from Property VIII.7.7–8. The owners of Property VIII.7.9–11, therefore, now had complete access to and control over a large zone that had once belonged to its southern neighbor (Rooms 42–7). The new acquisition was used as an outdoor dining area with associated service rooms. A garden triclinium was constructed at the rear of the property (Room 46), with a kitchen and latrine added to Rooms 44 and 45 (see Figs. 4.10, 4.11, 12.9–12.11). A drain carried waste from the service rooms to the street; it originated in Room 44, then snaked north to pass through a newly opened doorway and below Room 38, emphasizing the connection between these spaces (Drain 17; see Figs.  12.06 and  12.07). The water-­ management system surrounding Cistern 3—which had once carried water from the central roofed area of Property VIII.7.5–8 and into the cistern—­was

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   301

Fig. 15.16  The development of VIII.7.9–11 from Phase 4b.

302  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 15.17  The development of VIII.7.12 from Phase 4b.

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   303 redesigned to bring water from Property VIII.7.9–11, to which the cistern now belonged. The new system not only filled the cistern but also created a decorative fountain facing a garden triclinium in Room 45. Equally significant changes were made at the front of the property. Both fish-­salting vats were destroyed (Fish-­Salting Vats 2 and 3; see Figs. 11.23, 11.24, and 12.04), and new walls gave the property much of its final form. The tannery vats at the rear of the property also were filled and covered, and the doorway that led into Room 56 was moved, with a new and wider doorway creating a direct line-­of-­sight from Entrance 11, and so the street, into the property’s rearmost room (see Fig. 12.05). This space might have served as an indoor dining room, accompanying the garden dining available immediately to its south (in Room 45). From this period, the property appears to have been a restaurant, and other rooms might also have functioned as dining or service spaces. A cooking bench added to Room 53 in Phase 5b (Cooking Facility 5) supports the interpretation (see Fig. 12.51).

Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce) No developments of Phase 6 were evident in this property, which apparently continued functioning as defined in Phase 5. Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce) The stratigraphy from Phase 7 had been entirely removed from this area of the insula, and the only discernible changes were repairs made to the earlier cistern in Room 44 (Cistern 3; originally constructed in Phase 4b when the Room was a part

of Property VIII.7.5–8), perhaps as a response to seismic activity preceding the eruption of 79 ce (see Fig. 11.46). Certain walls were also reconstructed in this period, most notably the rear wall of the property, possibly as a result of earthquake damage.

Property VIII.7.12 Phase 4b (c. 80–1 bce, later) Beyond the laying of some new surfaces, little activity was evident within Property VIII.7.12 during the later parts of Phase 4, after its division from Property VIII.7.9–11 (Fig. 15.17). In Room 58 fish-­salting activities continued.

Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce) As with those elsewhere in the neighborhood, the fish-­salting vat in the entrance to Room 58 (Entrance 12) was destroyed and covered in Phase 5a (Fish-­Salting Vat 4). The room’s wide entrance, complete with a doorstop (Doorstop 1) for locking the space, suggests that, like many other street-­side rooms in the neighborhood, it was devoted to commercial activity (see Fig. 13.12). A new drain (Drain 23) replaced the earlier version that ran from west to east across the northern side of the space. At the rear of the property, in Room 66, a plaster-­lined tank and opus signinum platform—­possibly a cooking surface (Cooking Facility 6)—were installed (see Fig. 12.16). Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce) Alterations to the front of the property were minor in Phase 6 and do not seem to indicate any changes in function. Room 58 received a new floor and doorstop set above that of the

Fig. 15.18  The location of trenches in VIII.7.14–15 (later VIII.7.13–15).

304  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 15.19  The development of VIII.7.14–15 (later VIII.7.13–15).

T h e P ro pe rt i e s t h ro ug h t h e P h a s es   ·   305 previous phase (Doorstop 2; see Fig.  13.12). A final drain (Drain 24) replaced the earlier versions on the northern side of the room. Rather than running straight from west to east like the earlier ones, this iteration curved south around the cesspit of Phase 3a (Waste Feature 14), which was reopened and began once more to receive waste in this period (see Fig. 13.13).

Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce) Discernible changes of Phase 7 consisted of the construction of a few new walls and the laying of new floors, including a tessellated opus signinum floor in Room 66. The cesspit in Room 58 (Waste Feature 14), furthermore, was capped and went out of use for a second time. These alterations did not appear to represent any significant changes to the primary activities carried out within the property.

Property VIII.7.13–15 Property VIII.7.13–15 was explored between 2006 and 2009 in three trenches: 8000, 27000, and 28000 (Figs. 15.18 and 15.19). This northernmost area of the insula might have been divided into two properties through its occupational phases (VIII.7.13–14 and VIII.7.15), but, given that the situation is not entirely clear and that developments within both structures were closely connected through all phases, they will be discussed together here.

Phase 1 (c. 600–250 bce) The earliest phase of activity in the northern zone of (later)  Insula VIII.7 was represented by recovered portions of  a Phase 1c road surface, as well as by some evidence for quarrying under (later) Room 68 at Entrance 14 (Quarry Area 8). We recovered no evidence for architecture in this area.

Phase 2 (c. 250–125 bce) No remains of Phase 2 were evident here.

Phase 3 (c. 125–80 bce) The northernmost area of the insula was terraced as part of the construction of Property VIII.7.9–13 during Phase 3. A downpipe in the northern wall of the new property led to a soak-­ away below (later) Room 68 (Soak-­Away 17), but the space remained outdoors and undeveloped (see Fig.  10.08). To the north, a cesspit (Waste Feature 15) was located below (later) Room 78; it might have related to Property VIII.7.9–13 or to a structure somewhere beyond the borders of our excavation.

Phase 4 (c. 80–1 bce) Property VIII.7.13–15 was established in Phase 4a, when architecture filled out the northernmost area of the insula.

At the same time, new walls divided Room 67 (accessed via Entrance 13) from the older property to the south, in­corp­ or­at­ing it into the new property to the north. This construction activity was accompanied by extensive quarrying, which provided building materials for the property itself and pos­sibly supplied contemporaneous construction nearby (Quarry Area 9). To the west of Property VIII.7.13–15, a massive water channel (Drain 25) curved through the open space behind the property, entering from the north and turning towards the west, into the area of the Quadriporticus (see Figs. 5.06, 11.04). Given its size and trajectory, the channel likely collected water from the roof of the newly constructed Theatrum Tectum, one of the largest roofed spaces in the city, carrying it to the enormous cistern beneath the eastern colonnade of the Quadriporticus. A square fixture of unclear function, established just southeast of the drain and aligned with the central axis of the Theatrum Tectum, might also have related to the infrastructure surrounding that public building.

Phase 5 (c. 1–35 ce) A major change of Phase 5a occurred behind Property VIII.7.13–15, when the water channel of the previous phase  was decommissioned and filled (see Fig.  12.38). The Quadriporticus then extended northward to reach its final extent, closing the western side of the open space behind Property VIII.7.13–15. The interior walls that gave the property its final organization were added in Phase 5a, by which time the wide doorways at Entrances 13, 14, and 15 suggest the street-­side rooms were dedicated to retailing. At the rear, a series of interior walls divided Room 78 into smaller spaces; one of these housed a latrine, but the function of the others is unclear (see Figs. 12.29 and 12.30).

Phase 6 (c. 35–62 ce) Developments of Phase 6 were minor and generally limited to the installation of new surfaces and drains (Drains 26, 28, and 29; see Fig. 19.5.05). The interior walls in Room 78 were destroyed, but there were no other discernible alterations to the property’s architecture or function. In the outdoor space to the west, between Property VIII.7.13–15 and the Quadriporticus, a leveling fill and new surface were installed.

Phase 7 (c. 62–79 ce) As elsewhere, most of the stratigraphy for Phase 7 had been removed by modern activities. A masonry fixture of unclear function was added to Room 68 (see Fig. 19.5.05), but it had been heavily destroyed and little could be determined of its ori­g in­al character.

PART I I I

c h a pt e r 1 6

The Porta Stabia Gate and Fortification Ivo van der Graaff

Introduction The fortifications of Pompeii are one of the oldest continuously used structures in the city and arguably one of the most dis­ cussed in the literature. This circumstance is largely because the defenses lie at the fringe of the city and are composed primarily of an earth embankment. Unlike most of Pompeii, which is excavated almost exclusively to the level of the Vesuvian eruption, the composition of the fortifications has allowed archaeologists to reach beyond the pavements and buildings of 79 ce to understand the development of the city. Since the discovery of the Porta Ercolano in 1763, at least fif­ teen research campaigns have investigated the fortifications ranging from surveys to chart their course to deep context excavations.1 Nevertheless, the sheer magnitude of the defenses—­some 12 m high and 3.2 km long—­means that many questions concerning the development of single structures including its seven gates and twelve towers remain un­answered. Three primary research goals drove the Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia (PARP:PS) to investigate the sidewalk that passes through the Porta Stabia. The first was to understand the paving activities of the side­ walk, and any information that may give on the construction sequence of the gate and its relationship to the city. The sec­ ond was an effort to understand the date/s, developments, and dedications of two niches preserved in the walls of the passageway. In antiquity they functioned to evoke a deity for the protection of the fortifications and travelers passing through the gate court. Finally, the trenches would allow for the collection of comparative artifact assemblages to those produced in the broader excavations of PARP:PS; that is, an opportunity to examine the difference in assemblages between those of the buildings and those of the sidewalk and of the construction of a major civic structure. The excavations of the sidewalk beneath the niches occurred over two summers: Trench 10000 in 2006 and Trench 14000, an extension of the first, in 2007 (see Figs. 2.01 1  PAH I.1 (1748–80), 153. See also Fiorelli 1875, 75.

and  16.01).2 These areas represent only a fraction of the space in and around the gate, but any further investigations were difficult because an excavation campaign that targeted the area in the 1920s had disturbed large parts of the ­stratigraphy. In addition, four modern pipes carrying electric cables set at about one meter in depth within the sidewalk and a collector on the exterior of the gate had disturbed much of the arch­ aeo­logic­al deposits (see Figs. 16.09, 16.14, 16.19). These circum­ stances have led to occasional unclear results because the trench became too narrow to get a full picture. Moreover, a full under­ standing of a structure as complex as the Pompeian defensive system would require a much more systematic campaign of targeted research that fell outside of the PARP:PS mandate. Despite these limitations, the excavations have solved some long-­standing issues about the development of the gate. Together with archival research, a new perspective emerges on the relationship between the gate and urban districts it served.

Physical remains The physical remains of the Porta Stabia are part of the broader development of the Pompeian fortifications. The cir­ cuit encompasses the entirety of the Pompeian plateau, hug­ ging a natural ridge that added to its defensive capability. This route was the basis of three different circuits that included most of the current gates. The so-­called Pappamonte wall dates to the mid-­sixth century bce. It consisted of a simple earthen embankment held back by a low wall composed of pappamonte blocks—­a friable tuff rock that gives the circuit its name. At the turn of the fifth century bce, engineers built a new fortification where they opted for a freestanding wall. Workers used thin vertical orthostat blocks composed of a local yellow travertine to build two opposing wall faces and filled the intervening space with earth in a typically Greek construction technique known as emplecton. In the late fourth century bce, as a marker heralding renewed urban development, the city built an entirely 2  Preliminary results of these campaigns were published elsewhere see, Ellis and Devore 2006, 12–14; Ellis and Devore 2008, 317–19; Devore and Ellis 2008, 11–15. The results presented here may differ from those published previ­ ously, but that is only because those were preliminary reports which by nature are subject to revision in subsequent study seasons.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0016

310  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i new circuit that forms the basis of the current remains. The new defenses employed the fossa-­agger system, which in its most basic form is an earthen mound created with the spoils dug from an outward ditch. At Pompeii the embankment received an outer revetment of regular ashlar masonry composed of a brown tuff and yellow travertine socle.3 In the following upgrade, and perhaps in response to the Second Punic War, workers extended the agger with the addition of a secondary inner support wall at the end of the third century bce. It is only in the late second century bce that the circuit received twelve towers and new vaults at the gates built in opus incertum, a cement material with an exterior revetment of fist-­sized stones.4 The construction sequence is subject to vigorous debate and uncertainties when it comes to dating, but most major developments fall within this commonly accepted narrative. One of the major issues concerns the renovations that occurred with the opus incertum used to build the towers, the vaults at the gates, as well as repair large tracts of walls as exemplified by the tract immediately to the east of the Porta Stabia. Scholars have lumped their construction into a single event dating to the period immediately before the Social War when Pompeii upgraded its defenses in response to the gath­ ering war clouds. Although a few investigations have broadly confirmed this development, such generalizations do not take into account the complexity and size of the monument. As attested in nearby towns, such as Telesia and even at the Porta Nola in Pompeii, the towers and vaults at the gates may repre­ sent individual construction episodes financed by local patrons that took place over longer periods of time. Recent approaches also identify the long tracts of wall as repairs that occurred after the Sullan siege, perhaps in response to the threat of Spartacus or the civil war under Caesar.5 In light of these considerations, the excavation of the sidewalk at the Porta Stabia had the potential to re-­assess the dating sequence of the gate. Within the traditional framework, the physical remains of the Porta Stabia date back to the construction of the third main circuit in the late fourth century bce. The design is straightforward and practical, following the layout of a fore­ court gate, which featured two forward bastions, a long cor­ ridor through the earth embankment, and a threshold into the city (Fig.  16.01). The bastions are the oldest part of the fortifications preserved in this section of the city walls. They are flush with the exterior of the agger revetment wall and reach a height of nine courses built in dry stacked travertine ashlar masonry. About seven of these courses are immediately visible. A causeway built in front of the gate in antiquity masks the remainder from view. The western left bastion is 3  See Van der Graaff 2019. 4  This phasing and dating follows Chiaramonte 2007, 140–9. Fabbri et al. 2021, 85–92. 5  See Van der Graaff 2019, 97–105, 112–35, 197–201 for full discussion of these issues and further references.

composed of uniform travertine ashlar blocks, whereas the eastern flank displays four courses of travertine surmounted with three upper levels in a brown-­g ray tuff stone. West of the gate a large portion of the fortification wall is missing because it acted as a quarry to help rebuild the city in the post-­ earthquake (post-­62 ce) period.6 To the east a much later opus incertum wall replaced the earlier fortifications in the first cen­ tury bce. In antiquity an exterior ditch would have enhanced the defensive capabilities of the gate because it opened on flat terrain and was therefore particularly vulnerable to attack.7 As opposed to the bastions, the corridor through the earth embankment features the emplecton construction technique (Fig.  16.02). Thin vertical slabs set out as orthostats in a sequence of four to five blocks are stacked to reach about five courses high. Midway through the courses is a string of alter­ nating header slabs set into the wall with their short side fa­cing the viewer. They lace into a second parallel interior wall set about 50 cm away from the exterior. At the end of the passageway, a monumental arch built entirely in opus incertum marks the threshold into the city. To the east of the arch are the remains of a staircase that led to the parapet, which has otherwise completely disappeared. On its western side a solid concrete wall with a sewer (Drain 1) at its base, built in the Augustan period, presumably replaced a matching earlier staircase; a fountain next to the gate, and ornamented with a gorgon head, provided refreshment to passersby (see Fig. 12.41). The plan of the Porta Stabia responds to the agger fortifica­ tion and is one of the most common designs known from Republican Italy. From a military perspective, the design could trap any attackers in the court of the gate, allowing defenders to pelt enemy troops from an elevated position. About 50 of the roughly 100 known gates from the period share this layout.8 The Porta Stabia is among the earliest known examples. Only the Porta Sanqualis in Rome and the Castrum gate in Ostia precede it, whereas the gates of Herdonia and Ardea are contemporaries.9 The design would eventually evolve into the powerful multistory cavaedium gate types of the Imperial period, with evident remains still extant at Torino, Spello, Autun, and the fourth century ce Porta Nigra in Trier.10 Given the continuity of this basic plan at this and other Pompeian gates, it seems that the Porta Stabia maintained its military effectiveness for a considerable period.

History of excavation The character of the earliest excavation work that occurred at or near the gate remains largely unknown and the evidence scattered. The published excavation records, known as the Pompeianarum Antiquitatum Historia (PAH), report that in 1782 6  De Jorio 1828, 155.    7  Maiuri 1929, 197.    8  Brands 1988, 8–29. 9  Brands 1988, 17.    10  Kähler 1942, 10.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   311

A: Oscan Inscription B: Roman Inscription

drain

Area A Trench 10000 Area B shrine

A

B

Area C

Orthostat

N

1st Samnite 2nd Samnite 3rd Samnite

0

1 2

5

10m

Porta Stabia excavators began uncovering the fortifications on the southern side of the city somewhere near the Temple of Isis.11 The ­location is vague because a considerable distance separates 11  PAH I.2 (1781–1807), 13–14, Sept 12–Dec. 26 briefly mentions the walls south of the portico associated with the great theater as excavated in 1782.

Roman

1:300

Fig. 16.01  Plan of the Porta Stabia with phases marked. After Van der Graaff 2018, fig. 3.2.

the temple from the town walls. However, André De Jorio, who wrote one of the earliest guidebooks on Pompeii some four decades later, mentions that excavations occurred near the Quadriporticus to the west of the gate that same year.12 12  De Jorio 1828, 155.

312  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 16.02  Overview of the Porta Stabia; viewed from the south.

Unlike the PAH, which is just a series of brief entries, De Jorio described a tract of the fortifications as razed by earthquakes and re-­used for their material. Presumably, even though we have no way of telling what exactly he saw, De Jorio referred to the large, demolished section of wall curtain west of the Porta Stabia. It is unclear whether these excavations found any trace of the gate. It would be nearly seventy years before workers would return to the area of the Porta Stabia when excavations began on April 22, 1851. Excavators would discover the gate itself shortly thereafter on June 10. About nine months later, in March 1852, the work ended with a large part of the structure exposed to its current level.13 The exterior edge of the gate was un-­excavated until 1853 when Giulio Minervini, seeking to publish a full plan, dug a tunnel to find the exterior corner of the eastern bastion.14 The first description of the gate comes from Guglielmo Bechi. Writing in 1851, shortly after the excavations began, he describes the concrete vault at the back of the gate as col­ lapsed, suggesting that workers restored much of this struc­ ture soon after its discovery.15 Bechi also provides a rare account of the white stucco that covered the vault, describing

it as ornamental and in the same First Style fashion as the Porta Ercolano on the north side of the city.16 The First Style imitates in plaster more luxurious marble revetments of walls in a formulaic layout of four tiers of imitative architectural features: a low socle, orthostats, ashlars, and an upper frieze. Although the Second Style would replace it in domestic spaces in the early first century bce, the First Style would stay in use on public structures, where it tended to be a plain white to reflect the proper image of civic buildings. The Pompeian for­ tifications are an example of its durability where the towers (late second century bce) and the Porta Ercolano (post-­62 ce)—separated by about 180 years—­display the same style.17 Although Bechi describes the vault of the Porta Stabia as dec­ orated in the First Style, the surviving plaster is smooth, sug­ gesting that the ornamentation did not include the typical imitative ashlars and orthostats. Instead, only the interior of the vault has a slight elevated socle that was once painted yellow. Such a scheme is relatively straightforward, but the stucco at the time of discovery was of the highest achievable quality, which in turn says something about the status of the gate as a public structure.18

13  PAH II.6 (1851–1860), 520. The PAH stops mentioning the excavations of the gate itself on March 15, 1852. Fiorelli states May 20, 1851–March 13, 1852 as the dates for the full excavation of the gate. See Fiorelli 1875, 27. 14  Minervini 1853, 185–7. 15  See below with discussion on period photographs.

16  Bechi 1852, 42. 17  Evidence from recent excavations at Tower IX indicates that the towers had First-Style ornamentation from their very beginning. See Etani 2010, 307–9, pl. 20. 18  Mau 1879, 236; Mau 1882, 58; Gell 1832, 90.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   313 Further ornamentation of the gate included two inscriptions recovered during the early excavations. A copy of the first inscription, written entirely in Oscan, still sits along the western passageway wall facing those who leave the city (see “A” in Fig.  16.01).19 In subsequent excavations conducted somewhere between 1861 and 1872, workers exposed the eastern wing and exterior of the gate where a second inscription emerged in Latin (see “B” in Fig. 16.01).20 Both the Oscan and the Latin inscriptions are typical for the late Republic, when private individuals used them to announce their sponsorship of public works as part of their role as community bene­factors and political careers. Each inscription at the Porta Stabia also marks construction events for which definitive association or even approximate dates are lacking―the PARP:PS excavations hoped to answer such questions. Both inscriptions are more fully discussed below. The fragmentary remains of some ­numerals and a possible date, painted red within the gate court but no longer visible, represent a third inscription (see Chapter 19.14; Graffiti and Dipinti 7; CIL IV.2965). Starting in 1874 through the end of the century, excavations resumed to expose the area in front of the gate. Further orna­ mental elements emerged in addition to various tombs (see Chapter  17). Excavators recovered a spout fashioned from a tuff block carved in the shape of a lion’s head. At first, they believed that it was the keystone to the gate vault until August Mau identified it as one of many spouts that functioned to drain the wall-­walk.21 Simpler versions of such spouts are still present in the fortifications near the Porta Ercolano on the north side of the city, but it remains unclear why Mau 19  The original is in the Naples Museum, see Crawford et al. 2011, 637 (Campania/Pompeii 13). 20  Fiorelli 1873, 74. 21  See Anonymous 1899, 406–7; Mau 1890, 283; Sogliano 1904, 301; Krischen 1941, pl. 5.

envisioned the lion’s head type as a repetitive adornment on the entire circuit.22 The lion’s head spout is a unique example and its presence here may be part of a specific ornamentation related to the Porta Stabia. As period photographs attest (Fig.  16.03), Mau’s observation led to the restoration of the lion spout on the eastern bastion, where it was still in place, covered in plants, when Maiuri began his investigations in the 1920s, but has since vanished.23 The modern restoration of this block included the addition of further masonry in an event that has otherwise gone un­noticed in the literature on the gate. In 1873 Giuseppe Fiorelli (Fig. 16.04) published a highly accurate drawing of the eastern flank of the gate. Each rendered block corresponds to an existing example and the accompanying text carefully records their measurements. The drawing displays some differences with the current remains. A block from the top course of the passageway wall has since tumbled onto the ancient sidewalk below where it still lies today and has hindered our excava­ tion. The eastern exterior bastion in the drawing displays fur­ ther differences: it rises a mere five courses, as opposed to the seven visible today. Period photographs (see Fig. 16.03) show how the top two wall courses, as well as the lion head spout, are part of a later reconstruction. As if to drive home the point, the courses on the eastern bastion are composed of tuff blocks—­a brown-­g ray volcanic material, which contrasts to the yellow travertine otherwise used throughout the gate. Although the exact date is unknown, the repositioning of the 22  Mazois 1824 (1), pls. II, X, fig. II; Mau 1902, 24; Maiuri 1943, 284. 23  See Maiuri 1929, fig. 23. The British School in Rome preserves an image (ppm-0753) taken in 1898 where the lion head is not present on the gate. The German Archaeological Institute preserves two photographs (neg. # 1932.1312 and 1932.1313) where the lion head is still visible. The first four letters of the negative are the date of entry into the archive, not of when the image was taken.

Fig. 16.03  Before (left) and after (right) the restoration. Left image after BSR ppm-­0753; right after Cotugno et al. 2009, fig. 008.

314  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 16.04  First drawing of the Porta Stabia. After Fiorelli 1873, pl. 14.

lion head and therefore of the blocks must have occurred after the 1890s and well before the 1920s when Amedeo Maiuri began his investigations of the fortifications. The immediate implication of this observation seems trivial were it not for the fact that the modern masonry gives the erroneous impression that workers built the passageway first and added the bastion later—­a circumstance that would similarly mislead Maiuri when he established the construction sequence of the gate (see below). Because of this later refur­ bishment, the casual observer sees the orthostat blocks of the passageway wall continue behind the new ashlars com­ posing the bastion in an arrangement suggesting that the outer masonry came later. After the works to expose the gate ended, only two ­campaigns have sought to understand the area as it d­ eveloped before the eruption of 79 ce. Giuseppe Spano led a minor intervention at the gate in October 1911 aimed at restoring running water to the fountain next to the gate. It included the removal of a few of the basalt blocks that compose the road pavement through the gate in order to lay the lead supply pipe. Among the artifacts recovered on October 7 were the fragment of an inscription and a sestertius coin dating to the time of Claudius.24 At just 27 cm long, the broken fragment of the inscription contained the following text: 24  Spano 1911, 377.

SVb TRIBV GRAD

According to the report, the inscription may have once read Sub(structiones), tribu(nalia), grad(us) and possibly belonged to the nearby theater. Amedeo Maiuri, perhaps one of Pompeii’s most well-­ known superintendents, conducted the most extensive exca­ vations at the Porta Stabia as part of his broader investigation of the fortifications carried out in the 1920s.25 In typical fash­ ion of the time, excavators left the trenches uncovered at the end of the campaign, leaving exposed parts of the earlier Orthostat circuit as well as large portions of the gate’s inner architecture that remained hidden in the agger. Less visible is a trench that Maiuri’s workers sunk on the exterior of the west­ ern bastion, which alluvial deposits must have since filled in. This massive campaign has left little in terms of intact stratig­ raphy to investigate or revisit. Maiuri’s proposed development sequence for the gate and the fortifications is the background to the PARP:PS investigations. In this succession of events the earliest architectural remains of the Porta Stabia belong to the Orthostat fortifications dat­ ing to the early fifth century bce. Any traces of the earlier Pappamonte enceinte are otherwise notably absent with the potential exception of scant remains recently re­covered in the 25  Maiuri 1929, 191-202.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   315 courtyard of the tannery in Insula I.5.26 The presence of the blocks in the tannery would suggest that the Pappamonte enceinte ran through the area of the Porta Stabia. Our excava­ tions have not produced any further evidence to support this claim, suggesting instead that Pappamonte circuit ran on a slightly different course than the current gate. The traces of the fifth-­century gate belonging to the Orthostat enceinte (see below) suggest that it opened at a slightly different orien­ tation, which may explain why the road currently approaches the Porta Stabia at an acute angle. Our excavations confirm the presence of a road contemporaneous to this early version of the Porta Stabia, but its orientation after it exits the gate is somewhat unclear. Maiuri relied primarily on the construction techniques pre­ sent in the remains of the gate to determine its development, which led to a misinterpretation of the building sequence. He dated construction of the main gate to the early fourth cen­ tury bce—­an event now down-­dated to the end of the same century.27 Maiuri believed that the differing building tech­ niques of the bastions (regular ashlar masonry) and the pas­ sageway (emplecton) represent separate construction events where the orthostat blocks composing the gate court came first. The bastions would then come later. Unsure of their temporal separation he left the matter unresolved: the two construction events could be placed days or even years apart anywhere between 420–300 bce.28 However, Maiuri, unaware of the unreported restoration of the lion’s head, came to an inaccurate conclusion. Our results suggest the reverse where the workers first built the bastions followed by the passage­ way walls. Although their chronological separation remains uncertain, the construction of both structures probably occurred in the same building event. If we were to follow Maiuri’s sequence, after these events the Porta Stabia would then go on almost as an architectural relic in the fortifications for quite some time. All of the gates in the circuit resembled the Porta Stabia in their use of yellow travertine as the primary construction material until the following upgrade of the late third century bce. Engineers would reinforce the entire circuit with a wider and taller agger and in sections a secondary internal wall to support it. With the upgrade workers substituted the travertine composing the passageway walls in all of the gates with tuff stone. The Porta Stabia was, according to Maiuri, the sole exception where this substitution of construction materials never occurred. Similarly, the adjacent fortifications would not receive the second internal wall as the rest of the circuit despite the widening of the agger. Instead, the intervention resulted in

the construction of a new set of stairs set within the passageway walls to reach the wall-­walk.29 Maiuri followed the notion—­ well established by this point and little challenged since—­ where different building materials such as yellow travertine and brown tuff used in a single structure indicate equally distinct construction events. Such distinctions are not as clear-­cut, but such assumptions have affected previous studies of the Porta Stabia. Maiuri identified two further major phases of the gate. Perhaps the most radical overhaul included the construction of the interior concrete vault, which he dated to the late second century bce. In this intervention, engineers again expanded the agger and eventually built the extensive concrete wall facing on the exterior of the gate. This construction event, Maiuri believed, preserved the stairs on either side of the gate that were set within the emplecton of the passageway wall. Maiuri concluded workers simply built the arch up against the existing masonry, using the old travertine blocks as the jambs of the new arch. However, scrutiny of the masonry suggests that the intervention was more invasive. The new arch must have truncated or at least led to a partial rearrange­ ment of the old passageway walls, including the steps set within them that reached the wall walk. Two gray tuff blocks, one set on either side of the vault, mark the springing of the arch on the interior of the city. The blocks also signal the level where the opus incertum composing the barrel vault behind them rests on travertine masonry which, in turn, is at a much lower level than surviving masonry of the passageway. Ancient engineers clearly partially demolished or even re­arranged the previous travertine masonry to accommodate the arch. In the Augustan period the gate saw the addition of the ­paving and sidewalk. This event also coincides with the ­construction of the elevated roadway on the exterior of the gate, which would bridge the exterior defensive ditch. The elevated road is set between two retaining walls that rise slightly higher than its paved surface. This raising of the exterior road in front of the gate probably impeded the natural drainage of the via Stabiana through the gate. As a result, engineers built the sewer (Drain 1) that passes through the agger to the west of the gate (see Fig. 12.41), which in turn led to the dis­mant­ling of the stairs that accessed the parapet. Parts of this road south of the gate appear to have been repaved not long before the eruption.30 With this phasing in mind, a number of questions concern­ ing the Porta Stabia remain. Since it was first uncovered, the gate has featured in almost every single (guide) book written on Pompeii. Some early guides contain a rudimentary plan that on occasion preserves information now lost to us.

26  See Pesando 2010, 227. Their presence is unverifiable because the report of the recovery is still unpublished. 27  Maiuri 1929, 191-202; Chiaramonte Treré 1986, 48; Van der Graaff 2019, 19. 28  Maiuri 1929, 205.

29  See Maiuri 1929, pl. 7. This conclusion also means that the corridor into the city existed well before the agger needed any further expansion. 30  The sequence of paving events is more fully outlined in Poehler and Crowther 2018.

316  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i stone preceded the current vault.33 These discussion points relate to the forecourt design of the gate, which elsewhere often included an overhead passage bridging the external ­bastions and internal thresholds. Our excavations have man­ aged to answer a few of the remaining open questions and revisit some of the phasing. Others, such as the question of an arch on the exterior bastions, will have to remain unanswered due to a lack of physical evidence.

The excavations

Fig. 16.05  Plan of the Porta Stabia with the presumed guardhouse marked. After Overbeck-­Mau 1884, 50, fig. 15.

Johannes Overbeck and August Mau describe the remains of a small space, possibly a gatekeeper lodge, adjacent to the stairs leading up to the parapet on the eastern side of the gate (Fig. 16.05).31 Any trace of this space has since disappeared. Presumably, given the closing mechanisms found in the paving of the other gates, some sort of gatekeeper must have existed for Pompeii. However, the structure next to the Porta Stabia would be unique for the city since none of the other gates preserves the remains of such lodges.32 There is no shortage of discussion surrounding the actual appearance of the gate, most of which occurred before Maiuri’s excavation campaign. Many of the issues centered on details that are difficult to solve and remain unanswered. They include whether an arch connected the exterior bastions, if  the steps next to the vault had an intermediate landing, the  initial length of the inner passageway, the number of gates closing the passageway, and whether an arch built in tuff

31  Overbeck and Mau 1884, 50; Mau 1902, fig. 111. 32  Scholars originally identified the niche next to the Porta Ercolano as a similar gatekeepers’ shelter. They based this idea on the recovery of a dead soldier inside the niche, who they assumed was still standing guard at the time of the eruption. Since then the niche has been identified as the tomb of Marcus Cerrinius Restitutus. See Clark 1831, 73; Adams 1873, 50; Overbeck and Mau, 1884, 44.

Our team excavated portions of the eastern sidewalk during two seasons. The first excavation began with a small unit, Trench 10000, consisting of a square area of 1.5 × 1.5 m, set directly beneath the niches in the passageway wall (see Figs. 2.01 and 16.01). A large block (see above) that had fallen from the wall formed the northern limit of the excavation. Almost immediately, the team encountered four large plastic ducts, stacked in a series of two, that carried various utilities. At about a meter deep this modern intrusion covered roughly half the unit. No records of this intervention exist, and it has severely disrupted the stratigraphy, complicating both the excavation and interpretation of the contexts. Despite these conditions, enough stratigraphy remained for the team to recover the remains of an altar (Ritual Context 8) built up against the foundation of the passageway wall and at least four phases of occupation. In 2007 the team expanded the excavation to either side of Trench 10000 and designated the new areas as Trench 14000 (Fig. 16.06). Because the modern pipes made the undisturbed sections too narrow for more than one excavator, the trench was excavated in three sections by a single person. Area A (approx. 3 m long × 2 m wide × 1.8 m deep) ran from the southern edge of the opus incertum vault. It received the reserved stratigraphic units (SUs) 14100–14199. Area B (approx. 3 m × 2 m × 3 m) was a continuation and southern expansion of Trench 10000. Its southern edge abutted the bastion wall just passed the groove in the masonry, while the fallen block once again determined its northern extent. It received the reserved SUs 14200–14299. A balk about one meter wide between Areas A and B allowed for the preservation of some stratigraphy in the sidewalk. A modern utility collector dis­ turbed much of the stratigraphy in the adjacent Area C. The excavated area extended about 6 m from the southern end of Area B, continuing outside the gate to reach the northwestern corner of the Tomb of M.  Tullius. Area C received SUs 14300–14399. Even though the developments of the Porta Stabia as a civic infrastructure need not necessarily conform directly 33  For a summary, see Brands 1988, 177–91. Surprisingly only Krischen, based on Mau and Maiuri’s descriptions, has ever attempted to reconstruct the gate in its various phases; see Krischen 1941, Pls. 2, 3, and 5.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   317

Fig. 16.06  Overview of areas A, B, and C in Trench 14000 (Area B incorporates Trench 10000).

318  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i to specific developments across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, the phasing outlined below has been, where possible, reconciled with the site-­wide phasing.34

Phase 1a: Mercato ash road (600–500 bce) The team identified the earliest phase at a depth of 5.39 masl in area B of Trench 14000 (Subphase 14.1). A thin ash-­like 34  Not all of the phases identified for the project were present in these units. See the Harris Matrix for clarification.

deposit and a layer of coarse, water-­washed sand—­similar to the material deposited today by water runoff on the streets of Pompeii—­covered a surface composed of compacted Mercato ash mixed with yellow sandy silt and small inclusions of white lapilli (SU 14227; Fig. 16.07).35 This surface belonged to a road recovered farther north in units 52000, 54000, and 55000. A series of postholes and/or a pit (SUs 14228 and 14230) would cut through this layer in Phase 1c. The exact nature of these features is hard to define with certainty because the trench at this deep level was a mere peephole. Although architectural evidence for the Pappamonte fortification at the Porta Stabia is missing, this surface is likely associated with this earliest defensive circuit. Given the lack of further surfaces and that Maiuri recovered traces of the later Orthostat fortification in the adjacent agger, this road probably also functioned for the second defensive circuit. Without further interventions, the surface seems to have functioned in the sixth century and in the subsequent phase of urban contraction in the fifth ­century bce.

Phase 1c: gray ash road (400–250 bce) This phase is associated with a series of road surfaces ­composed of hard-­packed, reworked gray volcanic ash (see Fig. 8.08). Trenches located elsewhere in the excavated area yielded similar layers, perhaps representing resurfacing or ­leveling events stretching from the fourth and into the Fig. 16.07  Mercato ash layer (SU 14227) in Trench 14000; viewed from the south.

35  See also Chapter 8, Phase 1a.

Fig. 16.08  Surface (SU 14225) in Trench 14000; viewed from the west.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   319 third  century bce. A hard-­packed layer of earth with many embedded pottery inclusions probably represents a road surface that predates the current architecture of the gate (Fig. 16.08; SU 14225). Above it, SU 14224 featured large lava stones that were part of a leveling layer for a following road surface (SU 14223). Another layer of coarse, water-­ washed sand (SU 14222) ­covered it. Two further strata—­one composed of rock and gravel (SU 14126/14221) and a water-­washed level of brown-­black volcanic sand (SU 10020/14123/14125/14220)—continued the succession of road and use surfaces dating to this period. How long each of these surfaces were in use is elusive, but they all seem to predate the construction of the current gate. Although we cannot definitively disassociate the earliest pav­ ing with the Pappamonte fortification, SU 14225 most likely belongs to the so-­called Orthostat enceinte. The construction of the Orthostat wall heralded a period of urban contraction for Pompeii associated with the conquest of large parts of Campania by Osco-­ Samnite tribes from the Apennine Mountains. Even in this period of semi-­abandonment, the cir­ cuit, and perhaps more importantly the gate, would continue to function. The reason for the continued use of the Porta Stabia in this period has to do with the natural topography where the gate formalized the access between the Pompeian plateau and the Sarno river valley from the very inception of the city. The gate opens onto the via Stabiana, which continues up to the high­ est point in the city marked by the Porta Vesuvio on its other end, thereby creating a major axis or cardo in the orthogonal street plan. The road sits in a natural topographic depression offering easy passage through the Pompeian plateau, other­ wise defined by sharp cliffs. The topographic depression was a regional waypoint for the slopes of Vesuvius that are a nat­ural bottleneck for roads along the coast, forcing any traffic between the Sarno river valley and Naples to the north through Pompeii.36 The Porta Stabia, at one of the lowest points in the city, gave direct access to the valley and the port at the mouth of the Sarno river. This made Pompeii a port city and a key trading post for the region linking the inland towns of Nocera and Nola with the sea and the regions to the north.37

Phase 2 (begins in late Phase 1c site wide): building the new Porta Stabia (400–250 bce) The earliest architecture visible at the Porta Stabia is part of the construction of an entirely new enceinte, the third at this stage of Pompeii’s history. It would herald a new period of urban expansion, including in the district immediately inside the gate starting in the late fourth century bce. A construction/ 36  De Caro 1992b, 69; Kastenmeier et al. 2010, 40–1; Pesando 2010, 226. 37 Strabo Geog. V.4.8.

use layer (SUs 14120, 14219) composed of hard-­packed earth with many pottery and tile inclusions ran through areas A and B. It likely represents the original work surface used to build the gate toward the end of Phase 1c. A shallow cut in the surface is part of a foundation trench used to build the ­passageway wall. Subsequently, workers filled the cut with at least two foundation courses for the wall, which rested on the previous surface SU 14126. A layer of rough mortar, designed to strengthen the foundation (SU 14121) also filled the cut (Fig. 16.09). The fill included a large patch of packed masonry (about 40 cm wide) that was probably associated with some sort of closing mechanism. A well-­defined surface (SU 14120) abutted the closing mechanism. It represents the first secure sidewalk of the finished gate and perhaps belonged to a via glareata (gravel road) that Maiuri found and associated with this phase.38 In area B a large part of this surface is missing, but traces of a plaster or concrete-­like surface—­still attached to the top of the third tier of the foundation for the passageway wall—­may have corresponded with it (SU 14233; Fig.  16.10). How long this surface remained in use is unclear, and, for reasons unknown, it was deliberately dismantled in antiquity. Several chunks of a similar concrete rubble were mixed in with the fill used to raise the passage through the gate in Phase 4. This stratigraphic sequence suggests that the passageway wall had four tiers of horizontal ashlars composing its founda­ tions. The upper two were visible after the gate’s first con­ struction in antiquity, whereas the lower two lay buried in the foundation trench. As if to emphasize the point, masons left the lowest tiers in an unfinished state as opposed to the upper two courses, which they polished to a finished surface. These horizontal courses formed a deliberate contrast against the thin vertical orthostats composing the wall above. This seems to be equally an ornamental effect as much as it is a structural choice to support the wall. The results also indicate a construction sequence that con­ trasts Maiuri’s commonly accepted hypothesis for the gate. The exposed foundations show that the masonry of the pas­ sageway wall abuts that of the exterior bastion, which, in turn, continues into the agger. This layout counters Maiuri’s belief that the passageway wall came before the bastion. Instead, the opposite scenario is true where the bastion came before the passageway wall. It is important to note that the results cannot fully discount the idea that the passageway walls were built much later, perhaps even in conjunction with the other gate courts in the late third/early second century bce. However, the recovered evidence suggests that each structure is part of a single construction episode. The collective evidence indicates that closing mechanisms existed on both the exterior and interior thresholds of the 38  Maiuri 1929, 205.

320  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 16.09  The closing mechanism and construction surface of the earliest gate (SU 14121 and SU 14120); viewed from the east.

Fig. 16.10  The first surface (SU 14233) and the later altar; viewed from the west.

gate for most of its history. If we extend the presence of such mechanisms to other gates then this conclusion puts to rest the debate concerning how the Pompeian gates were closed during the Samnite period.39 The interior device (SU 14121) 39  For a summary of all the debates, see Brands 1988, 177–91.

employed a concrete base of sorts, which must be one of the earliest attested examples of the use of this material in con­ struction. The excavation in Area B encountered another matching mechanism (SU 14212) in correspondence with a deep groove in the masonry on the interior side of the ­bastion. The first, which corresponds to SU 14121, was hardly visible,

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   321 buried beneath the concrete of the subsequent phase. Fig.  16.11 displays the edge of a block that must have func­ tioned as an earlier door support. It is still unclear if this par­ ticular block included a groove or hole to accommodate a door. The concrete pad that covered the original mechanism did not display any sort of posthole to hold the end of a door, suggesting that a portcullis may have closed the gate. A matching groove on the opposing western bastion indicates a similar sequence where a gate closed the exterior side of the passageway in three successive phases (Phases 2, 3a, and 4). In its first form the architecture of the Porta Stabia created a tripartite division that included two forward bastions built with ashlars, a passageway composed of vertical orthostats and a threshold into the city. The twin closing mechanisms had practical and conceptual purposes, confronting a viewer with three distinct steps of passage through the gate. The double layers of defense allowed defenders to trap any in­truders in a deadly cul-­de-­sac and added emphasis to the gate court as the liminal space in between the interior and the exterior of the city. Although engineers employed the emplecton technique as a reinforcement to hold back the agger, the masonry differentiation between the gate court and the

Fig. 16.11  Closing mechanism (SU 14212) with the underlying block of the earlier mechanism (SU 14234; outlined in purple); viewed from the west.

b­ astions created an aesthetic effect that highlighted the steps in and out of the city. The tripartite layout emphasized the role of the gate as a liminal space and its protection by means of a deity evoked at the two niches (Ritual Contexts 1 and 2) cut into the wall (Fig.  16.12). Although we cannot be certain, the low place­ ment of the smaller niche (Ritual Context 2) in the overall architecture of the gate suggests that it could have been in use with the earliest surface (SU 14120) in this phase. Arnold van Gennep describes three distinct stages for territorial passages: the separation or pre-­liminal, the transitional or liminal, and the incorporation or post-­liminal.40 The two closing mech­an­ isms at the gate mark the pre-­and post-­liminal steps, whereas the emplecton technique marks the passage space through the gate. In other Pompeian gates, architects would employ brown-­g ray tuff stone in the passageways as a contrast to the yellow travertine that composes the exterior bastions to add further emphasis to the ritual of passage. The use of ortho­stats and the emplecton technique is therefore both a practical necessity as well as an aesthetic choice where the 40  Van Gennep 1961, 18–25.

Fig. 16.12  Altar (Ritual Context 8) and the two niches (above, Ritual Context 1; below, Ritual Context 2).

322  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i masonry enhances the three steps of inclusion and exclusion to the community.

Phase 3 (Phase 3a site wide): adding the altar (c. 125 bce) The stratigraphic sequence indicates that the construction of an altar (Ritual Context 8) occurred during the third phase dating to the mid-­second century bce. Its remains are crude, composed of Sarno travertine and tile mortared together into square shape set against the highest two courses of the pas­ sageway wall foundations. Remnants of a coat of yellow plas­ ter are still present which workers must have applied to mask the crudity of the mortar (see Fig. 16.12). The altar rests on a small basalt block that acted as a podium of sorts associated with a new surface (SU 14216). The altar—­attached as it is to the wall foundation—­represents a subsequent construction event, but it is hard to tell how much later it occurred. A fol­ lowing deposit (SUs 14119, 10016, 14215) is likely associated with the use of the area. Equally difficult is to correlate the altar with the niches above (Ritual Contexts 1 and 2). The new surface (SU 14216) supplies a terminus post quem for the con­ struction of the altar to the mid-­second century bce. The lower and smaller of the two niches (Ritual Context 2), as discussed above, might have pre-­dated the altar as the first shrine in the area. Although absolute archaeological proof is lacking, the evi­ dence suggests that the construction of the vault at the Porta Stabia coincides with the Oscan inscription set inside the gate court (see “A” in Fig.  16.01). At the time of its recovery, the inscription generated a considerable scholarly debate that centered on the exact translation and the actual lettering pre­ sent on the stone and entirely neglected the architectural remains.41 Today a replica of the stone sits adjacent to the groove cut into the western outer bastion that once accom­ modated the gate’s closing mechanism (Fig. 16.13). Its place­ ment here might be the result of a modern restoration since an early plan indicates that it sat at more of an angle to the bastion than it does today, suggesting that it did not obstruct the gate’s closing mechanism (see Fig.  16.05).42 The inscrip­ tion sits within a slight inset compared to the pavement of the later Phase 5 indicating that it was already present in Phase 4. The Oscan inscription becomes the first public marker of a construction event carried out at the gate. It reads: +·siuttiis m· n· púntiis·+ [a]ídilis· ekak· viam· teremn[a-] 41  See Garrucci 1851, 21–38; 1852, 81–4; Minervini 1851, 1–19; Quaranta 1851; Bechi 1852, 21–2; Henzen 1852, 87–91; Fiorelli 1875, 29; Conway 1897, 58; Crawford et al. 2011, 637; Dupraz 2012, 103; Poehler and Van der Graaff 2022. 42  Overbeck and Mau 1884, Fig. 15.

[t]tens· ant· húnttram· staf[ii-) anam· víu· teṛẹmnatust· per(ekais) X∙ íussu· vía(m)· púmpaiiana(m) teremnattens· perek(aís)· III· ant· kaíla(m)· iúveís· meelíkiieís· ekass· víass· íní(m)· vía(m)· iuviia(m)· íní(m)· dekkviarím· medíkevs· púmpaiianeís serevikidimaden· uupsens·íụ(s)su· aídilis·prúfattens 43

Crawford et al. translate it as follows:44 [-?-] Suttius, son of M(?), N(?) Pontius, son of [-?-], aediles, delimited this road up to the lower Stabian (road). The road was delimited for 10 perticae. The same men delimited the Via Pompeiana for 3 perticae up to the *kaíhí of Zeus Meilichios. These roads and the Via Iouia and the Via *Dekkviars under the authority of the meddix of Pompeii they built, the same men as aediles passed (the work) as completed.

The inscription commemorates the completion of road works and stresses the role of the gate as the boundary of the urban matrix. It announces how the aediles Sittius and Pontius repaired the road up to the gate, perhaps from the pons Stabianus crossing the Sarno River, and the via Pumpaiiana up to the Temple of Jupiter Meilichios, as well as the via Iouia and the via Dekkviars (see Fig. 16.13).45 The inscription hints at the wider religious role of the Porta Stabia through its mention of the Temple of Jupiter Meilichios and the via Pumpaiiana which must have passed through or reached the gate. The common consensus now identifies the Temple of Jupiter Meilichios in the nearby extra-­ urban sanctuary known as the Fondo Iozzino. The via Stabiana and its side street, the via del Tempio d’Iside leading to the Triangular Forum, are identified, not without controversy, as the via Pumpaiiana (Viu Pumpaiianu/a in Oscan).46 A prom­in­ ent theory views the via Pumpaiiana as a sacred processional route that passed through the gate to reach the Temple of Minerva in the Triangular Forum.47 It relies on various authors in late antiquity who mention how Pompeii received its name from the triumph, or “pompé” (πομπή) in Greek, that Hercules carried out as he led Geryon’s cattle to Eurystheus from Spain.48 During the drive, Hercules rested the cattle at the site of the future Doric Temple dedicated to Minerva and Hercules in the Triangular Forum. The via Pumpaiiana would 43  Conway 1897, 39 first supplied a text later modified in Crawford et al. 2011, Pompei 13, 637–8. 44  Crawford et al. 2011, 637–3. 45  See Sgobbo 1942, 20 who uses it to define Pompeian topography. See also Pesando and Guidobaldi 2006, 67. 46  Sogliano 1937, 34–7; Sgobbo 1942, 26–7. For an identification of the via Pompeiana with the road outside of the city leading to the sanctuary known as the Fondo Iozzino, see Osanna 2019, 57–78 with associated bibliography. 47  Van der Graaff and Poehler 2021. 48 Servius ad Aen. 7.662; Solin. 2.3; Mart. Cap. 7.642; Isid. Etym. 15.1.51.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   323

Fig. 16.13  The Oscan inscription at the Porta Stabia: above, the copy shown in the original location, in situ; below, the original on temporary display in the Scuderie del Quirinale (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli).

324  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i have received its name as locus of the yearly procession that would take place to honor the deities. Admittedly, because most of these sources post-­date the destruction of the city by several hundred years, the origins of the name Pompeii and the road may be doubtful. However, the presence of a named thoroughfare on an inscription inside the gate frames the Porta Stabia as a landmark in the city.

Phase 4 (Phase late 3b/early 4a site wide): monumentalizing the gate (c. 80 bce) In the following phase, the gate received a new arch on its city side built in opus incertum. Engineers first cut through the low­ est strata (cut: SU 14115) to create a foundation trench in which they put a large travertine block and built the mold for the base of the arch (Fig. 16.14). Workers then built the arch and raised the sidewalk (Fig. 16.15) with a succession of fills (SUs 14114, 14115, 14116, 14117, 14118) upon which they laid out a sur­ face composed of hard–­beaten earth (SUs 14109/14111 in area A, 14210/14211 in area B, and 14312/14314 in area C). This side­ walk was probably in heavy use for a prolonged period as attested by several repair patches (SUs 14109, 14210, and 14312). A slight cut (SU 14112) at the base of the arch may be part of this wear pattern or is the result of water damage in antiquity. Of note is a semicircular concrete feature that abutted the base of the vault (SU 14110) and that was part of its construction fill. Although the function of the feature remains unknown, the semicircular shape suggests that base may have supported

an ornamental addition to the vault, perhaps even an engaged column. Area B indicated that the closing mech­an­ism on the exterior of the gate was refurbished in concrete with this paving event, which together with the vault indicates a twin closing mechanism on either side of the passageway. Although the artifacts recovered from the contexts indicate that the construction of the vault occurred broadly in the early to mid-­first century bce, it is hard to be more specific. The foundation trench associated with the vault was heavily disturbed by the modern lighting system. The results are somewhat ambiguous. Coins from the sidewalk fills point to a terminus post quem of no earlier than 130 bce, whereas the pot­ tery from the fills strongly suggests a date no earlier than the 80s bce. This would seem to be a minor detail were it not for the fact that scholars such as Maiuri and Seiler have dated the arches built at the other gates in the city to the period immediately before the Social War (i.e., c. 120–88 bce).49 The PARP:PS excavations suggest that the vaults at the gates date to the post-­colonial period or that the vaults were built at separate dates and not in a single event. Each scenario carries important consequences for our understanding of the city gates. If the vaults at the gates are all pre-­colonial or postcolonial then they must have acted as stronger identifiers for Samnite or Roman Pompeii. The dat­ 49  Maiuri 1929, 205; Seiler reports on excavations in the western sidewalk of the Porta Vesuvio that uncovered a sequence of road surfaces and a con­ text associated with the vault dating between 200 and 80 bce. These results broadly confirm Maiuri’s sequence. Seiler 2005, 232.

Fig. 16.14  Northern section of Area A in Trench 14000 showing the foundation of the vault.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   325

Fig. 16.15  The Phase 4 surface (SU 14109) associated with the vault; viewed from the west. Note also the semicircular concrete base (at left).

ing of the vault at the Porta Stabia to after the foundation of the colony would make it an important marker for the city. It would presumably coincide with the long stretches of opus incertum dotting the circuit that seem to represent repairs carried out to rebuild sections damaged by the Sullan siege.50 If the arch at the Porta Stabia is later than those at the other gates, then it displays a remarkable continuity in design that suggests an overarching aesthetic principle guiding the appearance of the gates at Pompeii that spans the period before and after the foundation of the colony. Only further excavations along the circuit can resolve these questions. The desire to add such monumental structures to the gates must have been part of the growing urban identity of Pompeii. The arch at the Porta Stabia and those at the other gates in the city would be among the first vaulted structures in a city otherwise built using post-­and-­lintel construction techniques. It was an architectural novelty and the population must have greeted it as such. In keeping with the ornamental tradition established previously, each vault further empha­ sized the tripartite transition in and out of the city. If the vault dates to the period before the Social War, then it acted as a marker to the urban growth that Pompeii experienced in the second century bce. If the vault is indeed a structure dating to after the foundation of the colony, then it associated with the massive construction activity occurring in neighboring Regiones I and VIII as well as the adjacent Theatrum Tectum, the Amphitheater, the refurbishment of many temples, and 50  See Van der Graaff 2019, 115–22

rearrangement of lavish private luxury dwellings.51 It is within these growing urban identities that the construction of the vault at the Porta Stabia is part of a wider ornamental program of architectural embellishment. As a civic monument, the Porta Stabia would act as a social identifier for the urban district it served. Structures such as the Dipylon gate in Athens, built in the fourth century bce, offer an immediate example of such a role in the social landscape of a city. This monument was a crucial monument in the urban landscape that acted as a gathering point for religious rituals such as the Panathenaic procession before it  headed up to the Parthenon. Located on the city side in between the twin main entrances was a small altar dedicated to Jupiter Herkeios (protector of forecourts), Hermes as the patron of travelers, and Acamas—­a mythical figure who was a son of Theseus and a hero in the Trojan war. Acamas was an eponymous hero and a protector of the Akamantis tribe who occupied this part of the city.52 His presence at the shrine is undoubtedly part of his role as a strong identifier for the gate and those who lived in this part of the city. Another example comes from Pompeii itself and the shrine in the house of the wealthy banker and freedman Caecilius Jucundus (V.1.26). In 62 ce a series of powerful earthquakes hit Pompeii, destroying large parts of the city. Caecilius Jucundus decided to 51  Pesando and Guidobaldi 2006, 18–25. If it were a pre-colonial structure, then it would associate with the massive architectural expansion of the city with monuments such as the theater, the basilica, and lavish private houses to name a few. 52  Fields and Delf 2010, 25; Greco et al. 2014, 1279.

326  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i c­ ommemorate and perhaps ward off further events with two reliefs carved in a household shrine dedicated to the Lares. Together they depict the earthquake with various buildings toppling in the Forum and the Porta Vesuvio. Located just a few hundred meters away from his house along the via Stabiana, that gate must have acted as a social and civic identi­ fier for Jucundus in a similar way that other inhabitants attached meanings to the Porta Stabia. Such strong intergroup identification with city gates prob­ ably played a role in their ancient names. The so-­called eituns inscriptions are a series of six painted notices that are relics pointing the way to defending forces during the Sullan siege. They give us two names: the veru sarinu or salt gate, identified as the Porta Ercolano because it opened onto nearby salt flats, and the veru urublanu, identified variously as the Porta Nola, Porta Sarno, or the Porta Nocera.53 This latter gate received the name from a rural settlement it led to or its associated quarter in the city. The gate names also tied to the political and social structure that divided Pompeii into five tribes responding to independent electoral colleges: the urbulanenses in Regio III and IX, the campanienses in Regio IV and V, the salinienses in Regio VI, and the forenses in the area around the Forum. The tribe names are then closely associated with the neighboring gates: the Porta Nola as the veru urublanu (porta urbulana in Latin), Porta Vesuvio as porta campana (in Latin), Porta Ercolano as veru sarinu (salienses in Latin), and the Porta Marina as the porta forensis.54 The Porta Stabia stands out as the only gate that is unnamed, also because the fifth tribe that occupied Regio I and II is still unknown. However, its im­port­ ance as the gateway to the nearby entertainment structures such as the theater must have made the gate an instrumental identifier in the urban and social landscape. The construction of the arch and the sidewalk caused the partial burial of the altar (Ritual Context 8). Craftsmen applied a second coat of plaster upon the altar before bringing in the fill, indicating its continued use. It is in this fill context (SU 14214 = 10014) that we recovered evidence of a ritual deposit placed just to the south of the altar (Ritual Context 10). Within an incense bowl (of the type “bruciaprofumi a bacino – Type E”)55 were a small votive cup, a partially burned pig mandible and sheep/goat vertebra, and three pieces of a small terracotta figurine that itself had likely once been part of the rim of the bowl (Fig.  16.16). These votive objects 53  For the Porta Nola, see Sogliano 1918, 168; Coarelli 2000, 107; Pesando and Guidobaldi, 2006, 33. For the Porta Sarno, see Della Corte 1921, 80; Spano 1937, 276. For the Porta Nocera, see Sakai 1992, 9. 54  See Sgobbo 1942, 15–41; Coarelli elaborates on Sgobbo’s thesis using the compital altars located on the main roads to mark the borders of the vici. He sees the division of Pompeii into five electoral regions, which relates to its Oscan name “pentapolis” or city of five: Coarelli 2000, 97. 55  D’Ambrosio and Borriello 2001, 46–60. The project appreciates the help of Johannes Eber in helping us to understand the objects and their context.

s­uggest the presence of a prophylactic cult. The animal bones—­a pig mandible and a sheep/goat vertebra—­may represent intrusions from the main body of the fill. They may also be part of a dedicatory offer somewhat similar to a much grander suovetaurilia. The ritual involved the offering of a bull, sheep, and a pig as a purifying rite to keep out evil spirits.56 Further evidence for such rites in the Italic sphere comes from the Iguvine Tablets dating between the third and first centuries bce. They preserve instructions for purificatory rites conducted by a college of priests, the Atiedian Brothers, in front of and behind the city gates of ancient Iguvium (modern Gubbio). The tablets describe the sacrifice of a series of triplets to various divinities: three oxen to Jupiter Grabovius in front of the Trebulan Gate and three pregnant sows to Trebus Jovius behind it; three oxen to Mars Grabovius in front of the Tesenacan Gate and three pigs to Fisus Sancius behind it; three oxen to Vofionus Grabovius in front of the Veian gate and three lambs to Tefer Jovius behind it.57 Although the remains of a bull or oxen are missing, such rituals—­or some­ thing similar on a smaller scale—­seem particularly apt for a liminal space such as the Porta Stabia. Assessing which deity (or deities) was evoked at the Porta Stabia in a protective role to travelers, the fortifications, and the city is difficult through excavations alone.58 A clue comes from the top of the two niches (Ritual Context 1) that work­ ers cut into the masonry in the later phase 5. The first excava­ tors recovered it fully coated in plaster that has now largely vanished. This plaster carried a graffito in the back reading PATRVA—­a reference to Minerva Patrua.59 Other gates at Pompeii preserve further references to a prophylactic cult. The Porta Vesuvio preserves the remains of two altars in its western bastion dedicated perhaps to the city Lares.60 Maiuri uncovered numerous votive female figurines and erotes in a deposit associated with a vanished sacellum at the Porta Ercolano. The Porta Nola on the north side of the city preserves a bust of Minerva as the keystone of the arch facing the city.61 56 Cato Agr. 141. 57  The tablets also describe that offerings should be made to the Fisian Mount, which presumably was the arx of Iguvium. They should also include offerings of grain, mead, and wine should accompany the sacrifices. The offering of lambs to Tefer Jovius should be supplemented with a further offering of a swine to Stabilis Jovius. See tablet Ia 1–34 as translated in Poultney 1959, 158–62. 58  See Van der Graaff and Ellis 2017, 283–300. 59  See CIL IV, 5384. Also Fiorelli 1875, 29; Calderini 1924, 87. 60  Sogliano 1906, 99–100. 61  For an exhaustive discussion, see Van der Graaff and Ellis 2017, 283–300. The original location of the inscription next to the keystone of the arch is disputed by Crawford et al. 2011, 628–9 (Campania/Pompei 8), who believe that it was incorrectly restored and has no relationship to the gate. The evidence is murky both for and against its placement next to the bust of Minerva. I tend to agree with the traditional interpretation of the inscription that it was located next to the bust in antiquity. This hypothesis rests on the restoration carried out soon excavation crews recovered the gate in 1813.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   327

Fig. 16.16  The Phase 4 altar with its deposit of votive objects in situ; the vessel that held the votives and the votive cup.

An adjacent inscription now in the British Museum proclaimed how Vibius Popidius—­a local dignitary and wine merchant—­ financed construction of the vault that is almost identical to the one at the Porta Stabia. This was a political message that connected Vibius with the goddess and their dual role in the protection of the community.

The figurine (TC10-­1) suggests a connection between the Pompeian fortifications and a civic and regional cult that infers a complex political and religious link between the defenses and the protection of Pompeii.62 It was broken in 62  See Van der Graaff and Ellis 2017, 283–300.

328  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 16.16  continued

three pieces; only the head and upper torso survived (Fig. 16.17). The arms each displayed a slight flanging at the edge, enough to suggest that it perhaps was once part of a bowl-­shaped incense burner. Although the lack of defining attributes makes any further identification difficult, the front­al pose of the figurine is strikingly similar to other votive statuettes related to a regional cult dedicated to Minerva. Archaeological exca­ vations have discovered smaller figurines that are identical in pose and carry the same attributes as the one recovered at the

Porta Stabia. They were dumped in votive pits associated with the Temple of Minerva in Pompeii, at Stabia, Paestum, and Minerva’s regional sanctuary at Punta della Campanella on the Sorrento Peninsula.63 A further indication comes from a 63  Van der Graaff and Ellis 2017, 283–300; Devore and Ellis 2008, 11–14. Also Ellis and Devore 2006, 1–15. For some discussion on the identification of the figurine by Stefano de Caro, Ida Baldassare, Filippo Coarelli, and Lara Anniboletti, see Guzzo and Guidobaldi 2008, 512–13.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   329 pieces form the lower portion of a half life-­size female figure standing in a gentle chiastic pose that once held a shield with her left arm. Excavations have recovered votive figurines in a similar guise and pose from the localita’ Privati at Stabia and from Paestum.65 The Minerva worshipped at these sanctuar­ ies also carried the appellative Phrygia, which derived from her Trojan background and association with the Palladium and its transport to Rome by Aeneas.66 The excavations show a remarkable continuity of worship spanning the roughly 400 years between the construction of the Porta Stabia and the eruption of Vesuvius. The gate fits into a long tradition regarding the use of apotropaic devices or the religious protection of liminal spaces. Gates and doorways were vulnerable in-­between spaces that allowed the passage of the evil eye, amongst other things. The carvings on the Lion gates at Mycenae and the Hittite capital of Hattusa exemplify how such apotropaic devices go back to the late Bronze Age. Contemporary examples to the Stabian gate still exist in the Porta all’Arco in Volterra and the Porta Marzia in Perugia, where the carved figures also acquired political overtones from the local elite who financed the structures.

Phase 5 (Phase 5a–5b site wide): Augustan repaving and drain (up to 35 ce) In the following phase, a series of fills (SUs 14108, 14206, 14209, 14308, 14309, 14310, 14311) created a homogenous sidewalk (Fig. 16.18) recovered throughout the trench (SU 14105 in area A, SU 14208 in area B, and SU 14305 in area C). The relatively high elevation of the stratigraphic sequence indicates that this event was part of the construction of a causeway on the ex­ter­ ior of the gate. In order to build it workers erected contain­ ment walls (see Fig. 17.06) using the opus reticulatum technique to hold the current road entering the city and bridge the defensive ditch in front of the gate. The work surface buried and put out of use the previous closing mechanism (SU 14212) on the eastern exterior bastion suggesting that the outer clos­ ing gate ceased to function. At the same time, the new fills completely buried the altar in the sidewalk (Ritual Context 8). The exigencies of cult continuity probably led to the carving of the upper niche (Ritual Context 1; SU 14412) in the pas­ sageway wall (see Fig. 16.12). It is likely that the inscription on the exterior of the gate commemorates the event (Fig. 16.19). It reads: Fig. 16.17  The terracotta figurine (TC10-­1) associated with the Phase 4 altar.

niche still present on the southern side of the Porta Marina, which preserved the remains of a terracotta statue of Minerva in her guise as protectress of the fortifications. Although ­broken into three parts at the time of excavation in 1862,64 the 64  Von Rohden 1880, 44, pl. 31.

L ∙ AVIANIVS ∙ L ∙ F ∙ MEN ∙ FLACCVS ∙ PONTIATVS ∙ Q ∙ SPEDIVS ∙ Q ∙ F ∙ MEN ∙ FIRMVS ∙ II ∙ VIR ∙ I ∙ D ∙ VIAM ∙ A ∙ MILLIARIO ∙ AD ∙ CISIARIOS ∙ 65  see Miniero et al. 1997, fig. 15; Tocco Sciarelli 1988, pl. 53. 66 Apollod. 3.12.3; Ov. Met. 13.337; De Caro 1992a, 175–6; Carafa and D’Alessio 1999, 34–9; Carafa 2008, 13.

330  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 16.18  Phase 5 sidewalk in Trench 14000; viewed from the west.

QVA ∙ TERRITORIVM ∙ EST ∙ POMPEIANORVM ∙ SVA ∙ PEC∙ MVNIERVNT ∙67 The inscription announces how the duumvirs L.  Avianius Flaccus and Q. Spedius Firmus repaved the road from the gate to the station of the cisarii (the drivers used a light two-­ wheeled cart known as a cissum) at the limits of Pompeian territory at their own expense.68 Both were prominent men who served right about the time of Augustus in the Early Imperial period.69 This event represents a formalization of the area that provided better access into the city. It also allowed for the construction of the fountain on the interior side of the gate as well as the schola tombs (see Chapter 17) on the exterior.70 Once completed the new road would change the con­fig­ur­ ation of the gate which in turn spurred the construction of the sewer (Drain 1 of Phase 5b) that runs on the western side of the gate. The causeway probably caused drainage problems with the rainwater coming downhill from the via Stabiana. The new sidewalk also disrupted the old closing mechanism of the arch. Interestingly, unlike the other gates where stones 67  CIL X, 1064.    68  Mau 1902, 243.    69  Castrén 1975 62, 383. 70  A detail of interest is a section of wall that directly abuts the first schola tomb that is composed of mortar and travertine as opposed to the standard mortar and lava of the rest of the wall. This is clearly a repair, but it remains unclear when this was carried out.

were set into the pavement as closing mech­an­isms, only one exists at the Porta Stabia on the western side of the vault. The new sidewalk seems to have buried its counterpart on the eastern side. This can only mean that the architect did not manage to negotiate the new narrow road through the older arch. This circumstance explains the massive beam holes cut into the opus incertum (Fig. 16.20) which seems to be an ad hoc measure to ensure that the gate could still close and lock. The raising of the road, the removal of the exterior closing mechanism, and the formalization of the drainage system allowed for easier access into the city and signals a loss of the gate’s defensive capabilities. This was a period when Pompeii entered a phase of renewed prosperity. With an eye to improve trade, authorities either raised or lowered the roads through most of the gates, such as the Porta Nola and Porta Nocera, to ease passage into the city. The emphasis had shifted from a defensive structure to one meant to ease movement and even separate pedestrians from cart traffic with the creation of a raised sidewalk. These changes are in tune with developments throughout Italy, where many cities would undergo programs of urban renewal to include the construction of monuments, renovations, and new fortifications or gates as essential accou­ trements of their civic identity. Pompeii was no exception with many politically inspired buildings, such as the Eumachia building, the Temple to the Genius of Augustus, the shrine to the public Lares, and the private Temple to Fortuna Augusta. The emphasis on the gates and the construction of a fountain

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   331

Fig. 16.19  Inscription of L. Avianius Flaccus and Q. Spedius Firmus at the Porta Stabia.

332  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i and (relatively later) a formalized sewer (Drain 1) at the Porta Stabia would be included in this program of urban renewal (for the fountain and Drain 1, see Fig. 12.41). After these events, the gate would remain a formal barrier to those tran­sit­ing through.

Phase 6: post-­Augustan (Phases 6 and 7 site wide) Given the length of time between the Augustan reconstruc­ tion of the gate and the eruption of 79 ce, it is likely that the area of the gate saw some activity in the form of repairs to the sidewalk and the road. In the final configuration of the gate, workers built the sidewalk with a fill layer (SU 14104 in area A, SU 14205/14207 in area B, SU 14304 in area C) and containment blocks to reach its current level (SU 10002, SU 14101 in area A, SU 14201 in area B, SU 14302 in area C). In this phase workers also closed off the access to the agger with the construction of a new opus incertum wall (see Fig. 12.41) Further repaving events are also possible and are repre­ sented by ephemeral stratigraphy. The Porta Stabia opened onto the nearby riverine port and must have been one of the busiest routes in and out of the city. Recent cleaning of the paving outside the city has revealed a smooth basalt road deck that contrasts with the heavily rutted pavers on the city side of the gate. Such a phase reflects the inconsistency of the sidewalk surface that includes small dips and cuts (Sus 14201 and 14202). Unfortunately, modern intrusions have destroyed the associated stratigraphy, making further reading difficult. Nevertheless, this circumstance also can explain the presence of the Claudian coin mentioned above that Spano recovered beneath the paving stones of the road.71 The evidence from excavations elsewhere in the city has suggested that the fortifications would acquire a new symbol­ ism in the reconstruction effort after the earthquake of 62 ce. The presence of deep deposits in areas such as the section between the Porta Vesuvio and Porta Ercolano on the north side of the city as well as on the schola tomb outside of the Porta Stabia itself have suggested a scenario where dumping grounds developed for the rubbish and debris coming from the damaged city.72 Large sections of the curtain wall, as exemplified by the tract west of the Porta Stabia gate, would become open-­air quarries for the retrieval of building ma­ter­ ial for the reconstruction effort.73 These actions may have also affected the gate itself, leading to the partial dismantling of the exterior bastions and the removal of the parapet in the years before the eruption.

Fig. 16.20  Holes for a closing mechanism cut into the vault of the Porta Stabia: above, the eastern hole; below, the western hole.

71  Spano 1911, 377. 72  Maiuri 1943, 279–80; De Vos 1977, 29–47; Chiaramonte Trerè 1986, 57–9; Anonymous 1889, 281. 73  Maiuri 1939, 233; De Caro 1985, 79.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a G at e a n d F o rt i f i cat ion  ·   333 The timing of the spoliation is difficult to assess with c­ ertainty. The authors who proposed the theory imply a wholesale abandonment of the fortifications despite the fact that some towers show post-­earthquake repairs, the Porta Ercolano was entirely rebuilt and a new Porta Vesuvio may have been under construction.74 Recent research also argues against such a narrow interpretation associated with the spoli­ation of the fortifications, suggesting instead that the deposits of demolition materials outside of the walls represent temporary dumps of materials that would be regularly reused in construction, whether for leveling fills or for new buildings.75 The timing of the spoliation must therefore remain open to a  debate that would involve further excavations as well as assessing the symbolism associated with the individual components of fortifications such as gate, towers, and curtain walls that is too complex to tackle here.

74  See Van der Graaff 2019, 115–35. 75  Dicus 2014, elaborating on Peña 2007; Emmerson 2020, 108–23.

Conclusion In the end, even though our work is but a peephole into the wider structure of the urban fortifications, the PARP:PS exca­ vations have shed new light onto one of the oldest and largest public buildings of the city. The results slightly modify Maiuri’s construction sequence. Five principal phases of development have emerged for the Porta Stabia that mirror some of the main historical periods and main socio-­economic trends that swept through Pompeii in the Samnite, Colonial, and Imperial periods. The structure would evolve from a primarily defen­ sive gate to acquire a more symbolic role where its military function would become almost ancillary. At the same time, the gate would retain a religious element throughout most of its existence with a prophylactic cult dedicated to Minerva protecting the walls and the city right up to the eruption of Vesuvius. The Porta Stabia would also influence the develop­ ment of its associated neighborhood through trade and the buildup of its urban layout, operating as a continuous architectural and psychological landmark in the socio-­ economic and urban framework of Pompeii.

c h a pt e r 1 7

The Porta Stabia Necropolis Allison L. C. Emmerson

Our excavations focused on the built environment of the neighborhood inside the Porta Stabia, but that district’s close relationship with the zone immediately outside the gate warrants a brief treatment of the latter.1 Today, a small group of funerary monuments survives beyond the gate. Two schola tombs (semicircular benches) stand to the east of the road upon exiting the city, with a pair of poorly preserved altar tombs some 10 m beyond, placed directly over the paving 1  Our interventions in this area were limited to cleaning the two schola tombs immediately outside the gate and exposing a section of the sidewalk and paved road that fronted them.

stones of the road itself (Fig. 17.01).2 The foundation of another tomb was uncovered recently just south of the altars, along with a large, marble-­revetted tomb podium to the southeast. Upon first comparison to the extensive necropoleis cleared outside the Porta Ercolano and Porta Nocera, the six known tombs outside the Porta Stabia suggest a quiet and depopulated district, less utilized for burial and com­mem­or­ ation than other zones outside Pompeii’s walls. This impression is misleading. In fact, the tombs at the Porta Stabia—­ both the examples still standing and those that have been 2  See also Emmerson 2010.

Fig. 17.01  The tombs of the Porta Stabia at Pompeii. After Osanna 2018, fig. 1.

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0017

T h e P o rta Sta b i a N e cro p o lis  ·  335 excavated but reburied—­suggest that it was one of the most prestigious funerary landscapes in Pompeii, rivaled only by the Porta Ercolano necropolis and perhaps even surpassing it. Appearing by the Early Imperial period (Phase 5a), the funerary monuments at the Porta Stabia indicate the district’s centrality, while at the same time establishing an elite-­focused and display-­oriented environment that passersby experienced in tandem with the commercial neighborhood of Insulae I.1 and VIII.7. These monuments, furthermore, likely once stood alongside other structures and spaces—­ including shops, apartments, workshops, and villas—­that extended the urban zone of Pompeii beyond its fortification wall.

The standing tombs at the Porta Stabia Upon exiting Pompeii at the Porta Stabia, the via Stabiana widened, continuing its downward grade. To the right, on the western side of the road, a narrow sidewalk flanked a wall of opus reticulatum 1.25 m high and 0.45 m wide (see Fig. 17.06).3 Beyond the wall, the ground level dropped two meters into a large ditch, a remnant of Pompeii’s pre-­Roman defense ­system, where the Porta Stabia sewer (Drain 1) discharged wastewater runoff from the street (see Chapters 12 and 16).4 The ditch could be accessed by a ramp that led down from a small opening between the opus reticulatum wall and the city wall. To the left, on the eastern side of the road, a wider opus signinum sidewalk (excavated in the gate as Trenches 10000 and 14000; see Chapter 16) fronted a row of tombs, including the two schola tombs that remain exposed today (Fig. 17.02). Although the Porta Stabia itself had been recovered already in 1851 (see Chapter 16), nearly a quarter century would pass before the tombs at the gate came to light. The first un­covered was the northernmost schola, excavated by Antonio Sogliano in 1874 (Fig. 17.03).5 The semicircular bench was built of tuff and measured 6 m in width, with arms carved in the shape of griffins’ legs on either end. It stood on a podium that was paved with slabs of lava stone and raised a half-­meter above the level of the sidewalk, accessed by stone steps. At the center rear of the bench was an altar-­like base, which perhaps supported a column and stone urn, as for the tomb of Aesquilia Polla at the Porta Nola.6 The base likely held the original inscription, which was missing upon excavation. Further work carried out in the summer of 1889, however, revealed two small boundary stones included in the masonry on either side of the tomb, which identified the tomb’s owner as Marcus Tullius, son of Marcus, and specified that the location for the tomb was granted by decree of the town council 3  Mau 1890, 277–8; D’Ambrosio 2001/2, 220. 4  Mau 1890, 278; Sogliano 1891, 273. 5  Sogliano 1874, 52. 6  Spano 1910b, 385–93; Pozzi 1960.

Fig. 17.02  The two schola tombs at the Porta Stabia (the tomb of Marcus Tullius below, that of Marcus Alleius Minius above); viewed from the northwest.

(Fig.  17.04).7 Given the location of the tomb in a privileged position immediately outside the gate and the honor implied by the council’s decree, this Marcus Tullius almost certainly was the Augustan period duovir, duovir quinquennalis, augur, and military tribune who had constructed the temple of Fortuna Augustae.8 His tomb, therefore, is best placed in our Phase 5. A second schola tomb was identified to the south of that belonging to Marcus Tullius during the course of the excavations conducted in 1889 (Fig. 17.05). The tomb likewise was in tuff, also nearly 6 m wide and with arms carved as griffins’ legs on each end (although the southernmost was missing). Its podium was paved in opus signinum lined in tuff blocks along the front side, accessed by steps from the sidewalk. The tomb was at a slightly lower level than that of Marcus Tullius, reflecting the continuing decline in the elevation of the street as it moved away from the city. The epitaph was carved into the back of the bench, much like that of the Tomb of Mammia 7  M. Tullio/M. f/ex d d. See Sogliano 1889, 280–1. On burial grants in loca publica at Pompeii, see Campbell 2015, 84–90. 8  As Sogliano already had recognized (Sogliano 1890, 329). See also Castrén 1975, 231, n. 420.4. For other inscriptions of Marcus Tullius: CIL 10 820–2.

336  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 17.03  The tomb of Marcus Tullius at the Porta Stabia.

Fig. 17.04  Boundary stone of Marcus Tullius built into the northern end of the tomb.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a N e cro p o lis  ·  337

Fig. 17.05  The tomb of Marcus Alleius Minius at the Porta Stabia.

located at the Porta Ercolano.9 The inscription recorded that the tomb belonged to Marcus Alleius Minius, son of Quintus, of the Menenia tribe, who had served as a duovir, and to whom the location for the tomb on public land was granted by decree of the town council.10 Less is known of this individual than Marcus Tullius, and his name is preserved only on his tomb. Nevertheless, the gens Alleia is one of the best attested families in Pompeii, and this Alleius might have been the father of Alleia Decimilla, daughter of Marcus, a priestess of Ceres who built a tomb for her husband and son at the Porta Ercolano necropolis.11 The tomb of Marcus Alleius Minius is difficult to date precisely, but given its similarity to the Augustan or early Julio-­Claudian tomb of Mammia, it likely belongs to our Phase 5.12 Behind the tombs of Marcus Tullius and Marcus Alleius Minius was a funerary enclosure, divided into two by a wall between the tombs (see Fig.  17.01; see also Fig.  17.02).13 Although the function of the enclosure has been debated, it 9  For Mammia, see Kockel 1983, 57–9 (Tomb 4 South). 10  AE 1891, 166: M Alleio Q f Men Minio IIvir id locus sepulturae publice datus ex d d. 11  Kockel 1983, 166–8 (Tomb 37 North). 12  Kockel 1983, 19. 13  A drain running through the city wall empties into a basin at the northeastern corner of the enclosure. It is unclear if this feature was uncovered in the course of Sogliano’s excavations or came to light later. For the drain, see Poehler 2012, 106.

probably was used to house the interments of the two men honored by the scholae, perhaps along with those of their relatives or other dependents.14 Both Sogliano and Mau reported that at the time of excavation, this enclosure was filled with a mound of ancient earth that rose about a meter above the back of Tullius’ tomb. Sogliano carefully excavated the mound, paying attention to its internal stratigraphy, and concluded that it was a large pile of garbage, generated both inside and outside the walls and dumped behind the tombs.15 It contained building materials, burned and broken bone, fragments of wood and iron, glass and terracotta vessels, several coins and figurines, as well as two marble columelle—­typical interment markers of southern Campania, shaped to resemble human busts—­and other, more fragmentary, funerary inscriptions.16 The top layer of the mound consisted of ancient topsoil and degraded vegetation, indicating that de­pos­ition had stopped sometime prior to the eruption. The mound seems to indicate that the tombs were out of use by 79 ce: its size would have prevented access to the enclosures, and it ­covered the wall that divided the two, suggesting that typ­ical 14  The precise location of associated burials was long a topic of interest surrounding Pompeii’s schola tombs. See Mau 1890, 281–2; Spano 1910c; Borrelli 1937, 31–2; Pozzi 1960, 185–6; Jashemski 1970, 110; Pellegrino 1979, 115; Frischer 1982, 79–84. 15  Sogliano 1889, 281, 368–9; 1890, 44–5; Mau 1890, 280; also Emmerson 2020, 108–23. 16  For columelle, see Emmerson 2017.

338  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 17.06  View south toward the tombs built over the paving stones of the via Stabiana; note also the opus reticulatum wall that flanked the western sidewalk beyond the Porta Stabia.

funerary activities such as shared meals or offerings for the dead no longer took place here. Notably, however, it did not cover either bench. Although the deposit implies a cessation of funerary activities associated with the scholae—­perhaps indicating the dying out or dispersal of family lines—­the tombs continued to function as public gathering and resting areas just outside the gate. The garbage gathered behind them, meanwhile, was of a type that could have been collected for reuse as fill in construction projects, including the many ongoing projects carried out just within the gate in Insulae I.1. and VIII.7. As the road outside the Porta Stabia continued south past the schola tombs, it angled towards the east and widened significantly. The road was wide enough, in fact, to allow two tombs to be constructed directly above its paving stones, aligned with the gate (Fig.  17.06). The monuments were uncovered in the early twenty-­ first century during work intended to open a new tourist entrance at the Porta Stabia.17 Both were poorly preserved, but traces of stepped upper podia suggest that they originally took the form of altar tombs, a type best attested at the Porta Ercolano but which can be found also at the Porta Vesuvio and Porta Nocera. Both had small interior chambers for interments within their podia. The tombs’ location echoes that of Tombs 33, 34, and 35 North at the Porta Ercolano necropolis, three funerary monu­ ments likewise installed over the wide paved street just before

17  D’Ambrosio 2001/2; 2003.

the via Superior split from the via dei Sepolcri.18 Presumably, the placement of all of these tombs over public roads required permission from the town council. The southernmost of the altars at the Porta Stabia featured a limestone door in its southern wall, secured by a bronze lock (Figs. 17.07 and 17.08). Two pieces of graffiti were left in charcoal on the door, where they might be encountered by travelers approaching the Porta Stabia. The bottom graffito read HABITO SAL, “greetings to Habitus,” and was crossed out at some point in antiquity. The top was less clear and seemed to contain several misspellings, but might have read LARINUS EXPECTATO AMBALITER (perhaps a misspelling of amabiliter) UNIQUE (perhaps for ubique) SAL, “Larinus sends greetings to Expectatus as a friend forever(?).”19 Salutation graffiti of this type is common on the tombs of Pompeii.20 Inside the tomb, the chamber was paved in opus signinum and the walls and vault were covered in white plaster. The eastern, western, and northern walls each contained two small rect­ angu­lar niches, nearly all of which held glass or ceramic cinerary urns at the time of excavation. One of these urns contained, in addition to ash and burned bone, seven glass unguentaria and a lamp. The northern tomb, which is in worse condition, also was entered from the south and featured niches, although all the recovered cinerary urns were 18  See Kockel 1983; the wide road at the Porta Stabia might suggest a similar fork just beyond the excavated area. 19  Thanks go to Peter van Minnen for providing this reading. 20  See Della Corte 1958, 138–84.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a N e cro p o lis  ·   339

Fig. 17.07  The southernmost of the two altar tombs built upon the via Stabiana; viewed from the south.

Fig. 17.08  Charcoal graffiti upon the southern door to the tomb at the Porta Stabia.

340  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i placed on low masonry benches that lined the walls (Fig. 17.09).21 Neither tomb preserved clear indications of a date, but their location—­over a paving of the via Stabiana that appears to have been installed not long before the eruption—­suggests that they were late, best placed in our Phase 7.22 The human remains and other finds from the tombs are still awaiting publication. More recent excavations, beginning in 2017, have cleared additional space surrounding the altar tombs, exposing the foundation of a third tomb to the south, which was either destroyed in antiquity or never completed.23 Arousing more interest, however, is the monument found just to the east, which originally stood on the eastern side of the road, south of the scholae.24 As preserved, the tomb consists of a large, marble-­revetted podium with a circular interior chamber and concave outer walls (Fig. 17.10).25 It was discovered—­or more accurately, rediscovered—­in the course of a construction project intended to stabilize the foundations of the San Paolino

Fig. 17.09  The northernmost of the two altar tombs built upon the via Stabiana; viewed from the north.

21  D’Ambrosio 2003, 287. 22 See Poehler and Crowther 2018; Chapter 16 above. The comparable tombs installed over the paving outside the Porta Ercolano (Tombs 33, 34, and 35 North) likewise appear to have belonged to the years immediately preceding the eruption; Tomb 35 North might have been under construction in 79 ce. 23  Toniolo 2021. The construction of this tomb cut through the paving of the street. 24  See Osanna 2018; Bodel et al. 2019. 25  In type, it resembles some tombs from Puteoli; see, e.g., Amalfitano, Camodeca, and Medri 1990, 142.

Fig. 17.10  The Tomb of the Magistrate at the Porta Stabia. After Osanna 2018, fig. 2.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a N e cro p o lis  ·   341

Fig. 17.11  The marble relief from the Tomb of the Magistrate at the Porta Stabia. After Stefani 1998, 34.

offices of the Parco Archeologico di Pompei, but it had first been encountered nearly two centuries earlier, prior to the construction of the building above.26 At that time, an intricate marble relief was removed from the tomb; it showed in three registers from top to bottom a procession, gladiator combat, and a venatio, or staged animal hunt (Fig.  17.11).27 At more than 4 m long and 1.5 m high, this is by far the largest marble funerary relief known from Pompeii.28 Continuing below the uppermost levels of the tomb, which had been heavily damaged by modern interventions (not least the early excavations and the construction of the San Paolino building), the modern excavators found something as extraordinary: a massive funerary inscription, the longest known from Pompeii, detailing the res gestae of a prominent magistrate.29 Both the tomb’s architectural type and state of preservation suggest that it was erected in the years immediately prior to the eruption (our Phase 7), a date in keeping with paleographic details of the inscription. Although no name was preserved—­a more typical epitaph must have been located on the upper part of the tomb—­excavators immediately tied the monument to Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius, the aedile, duovir, duovir quinquennalis, priest of the Imperial Cult, princeps coloniae, and “princeps munerum” of the Neronian period.30 That association remains open to question, and surely the tomb and its remarkable epitaph will continue to inspire debate for years to come.31 We can be certain, however, that the dedi­

catee was unusually wealthy and prominent—­very likely an Equestrian—­and his commemoration at the Porta Stabia in the final years of the city’s life attests to this neighborhood’s continued vitality.

26  Avellino 1845, 86–8, 90. 27  Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, inv. 6704. 28  In comparison, the well-known marble relief that decorates the front of Naevoleia Tyche and Gaius Munatius Faustus’ tomb at the Porta Ercolano (Tomb 22 North) is just over 2 m long. 29  Osanna 2018, 311–14; Bodel et al. 2019, 150–1. 30  Osanna 2018, 320–2. 31  See Bodel et al. 2019.

32  For now-reburied tombs found farther from the gate—­along and to the south of the ring road that flanked the southern side of the city—­see Emmerson 2010. 33  Avellino 1845, 85–6; Sogliano 1891, 274–5. 34  CIL X, 1065: “. . . N Clovatio Cn f IIvir id tr mil loc . . .” It is also possible that the praenomen of the deceased was Numerius, but given the fragmentary nature of the epitaph and his father’s praenomen, Gnaeus seems more likely (see Stefani 1998, 33–4, n. 8).

Other tombs at the Porta Stabia Additional tombs known from the area just outside the Porta Stabia, including examples that were never fully cleared as well as those that have been reburied since their original discovery, further the impression of a high-­status funerary zone outside the gate.32 One of these was discovered in 1845, along with the relief of games now known to belong to the so-­ called tomb of Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius.33 The second tomb took the form of a bench, but in a variation on the typ­ ical form of a schola. Instead of semi-­circular, it was pi-shaped, with squared corners. A partial epitaph was preserved along the back of the seat, naming the deceased as the duovir and military tribune Gnaeus Clovatius, son of Gnaeus.34 The letters “LOC” were also recorded as part of the fragmentary inscription, perhaps the remnant of “locus datus decreto decurionum” or some variation, indicating that the tomb location had been granted to Clovatius by decree of the town council. The same tomb might have been encountered again in 1889. According to Mau, a third schola was located on the ­eastern side of the road from the Porta Stabia, just south of

342  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i the Tomb of Marcus Alleius Minius; the tomb was excavated only partially due to the presence of a modern house above.35 That Mau did not mention the unusual shape of the bench, however, could indicate that the schola encountered alongside that of Marcus Alleius Minius was a fourth example, other­wise unknown. The presence of at least three and possibly four schola tombs outside the Porta Stabia is noteworthy, since no other Pompeian necropolis seems to have featured so many ex­amples of the type. A pair each are known from outside the Porta Ercolano and Porta Nola, while one stood outside the Porta Nocera (destroyed already in antiquity) and another has been recovered at the Porta Vesuvio. Schola tombs are firmly associated with high-­status Pompeians—­all with surviving inscriptions belonged to members of the ordo or their close family members—­making this the only Pompeian tomb type that can be clearly connected to a certain status group. Furthermore, every known example stood in a locus publicus, a position that required approval by the town council.36 The schola tombs outside the Porta Stabia, therefore, suggest that the neighborhood was particularly desirable for this style of elite commemoration. Although travelers of all statuses passed through this district, the monumental background created by the tombs was undeniably elite, advertising leading families and prominent individuals at a key entrance to the city.

The zone outside the Porta Stabia as a suburb The collection of elite tombs immediately outside the Porta Stabia recalls the landscape encountered upon exiting the Porta Ercolano, where tombs of many of the city’s most eminent citizens—­including both of the schola tombs known from that area—­clustered in the locus publicus between the fortification wall and the ring road that flanked it.37 At the Porta Ercolano, however, clearance of the volcanic overburden has continued past the gate for more than 200 m, exposing far more of the extramural landscape than is available at the Porta Stabia. Beyond the ring road, the street that exited the Porta Ercolano was flanked not only with monumental tombs but also with large complexes of shops and workshops—­at least one of which featured upstairs apartments—­as well as no fewer than four massive luxury villas.38 The neighborhood, therefore, is better classified as a suburb than a necropolis, given that it devoted more space to the living than to the dead.39 Whether the Porta Stabia also incorporated 35  Mau 1890, 278. 36  See Borrelli 1937; Pozzi 1960; Pellegrino 1979; Campbell 2015, 84–109. 37  See Kockel 1983. 38  See Emmerson 2020, 21–6. 39  For other suburbs at Pompeii, see Emmerson 2020, 149–51.

non-­f unerary buildings is open to question, but there is good reason to expect that situation. Just as the Porta Ercolano was Pompeii’s chief entrance from the north, the Porta Stabia was its “front door” to the south, connecting the city to the port and providing access inside the walls to the public district of the theaters and Triangular Forum as well as to the via Stabiana/via Vesuvio, the city’s primary north–­south thoroughfare. The flow of traffic here likely was comparable to that through the Porta Ercolano, and the standing tombs suggest that this zone outside the walls to the south was just as prestigious, if not more prestigious, than its counterpart to the north.40 If the Porta Stabia followed the pattern evident at the Porta Ercolano, we should expect shops, workshops, houses, and possibly other non-­funerary structures to have stood to the south of the ring road that flanked the southern side of the city. That road has not been uncovered here, but it likely ran just beyond the cleared area, below the modern buildings flanking the via Plinio.41 Additional work to the south of the ring road could do much to clarify the character of the district beyond the Porta Stabia. Notably, a recent rescue excavation conducted about 300 m south of the city, along the modern via Stabiana, has uncovered an ancient structure that the excavators interpreted as part of a rural villa.42 Nevertheless, the building was roughly the same distance from the Porta Stabia as the Villa of the Mysteries from the Porta Ercolano. If the developed area outside the Porta Stabia approximated that outside the Porta Ercolano, this structure might have been part of a contiguous suburb running from the gate. Indeed, various evidence suggests that even the Villa of the Mysteries did not mark the outermost limit of the suburb at the Porta Ercolano, which continued along the via dei Sepolcri towards Oplontis.43 We might, therefore, posit the existence of a similarly extensive zone of urban development running from the Porta Stabia and continuing south, towards the ancient settlements at Murecine and Bottaro (the latter likely the location of Pompeii’s Port).44

Conclusion Although only a small area outside the Porta Stabia currently is available for research, the monuments that remain in place evoke the distinctly elite character of the zone just outside the gate, which passersby experienced in tandem with the commercial district inside the walls. Farther from the gate, to 40  See Poehler 2017, 198–200 for estimates on how many visitors might be expected to have passed through the gates of Pompeii. 41  See Emmerson 2010. 42  De Carolis and Pardi 2018, 147–50. 43 For example, the ceramics workshop and tomb recently uncovered along that road beyond the Villa of the Mysteries (Fergola 2011; Brun 2016, 89). 44  See Emmerson 2020, 161–2.

T h e P o rta Sta b i a N e cro p o lis  ·   343 the south of the ring road, we know less of the neighborhood. That being said, we have every reason to believe that here—­as beyond the ring road at the Porta Ercolano—­houses, shops, and workshops mixed among tombs to create a con­ tigu­ous suburb stretching south from Pompeii. We can hope that future research will do more to clarify this district. In the

meantime, the standing tombs confirm that the Porta Stabia was a highly desirable location for burial, a situation that surely reflects traffic and activity at this important entrance to the city. Indeed, some of Pompeii’s most elite individuals and families were honored here, a trend that continued right up to the eruption.

c h a pt e r 1 8

Conclusions Although its title might suggest otherwise, our essential aim with this chapter is to review the results of our excavations in Insulae I.1 and VIII.7, rather than to conclude them. As established from the outset of this volume, our hope throughout the publication process has been to provide substantial datasets and information, along with our own analyses of them, so as to fuel ongoing research and discussions about Pompeian and Roman urbanism more generally. The present discussion will focus on our ideas and interpretations, but with the assumption that these are starting, rather than ending points of enquiry, presenting what we have learned while inviting ­others to carry the work in new directions. Three broad but interrelated sets of topics (or questions) had guided us throughout the work, related to: 1. The social making of the city; 2. The structural making of the city; and 3. How to contextualize the results of our excavations more broadly. With these themes scaffolding our work, we targeted a series of more specific lines of enquiry, which sought to examine the role of sub-­elites in the shaping of urban space, to recognize socio-­economic distinctions between neighboring properties, to illuminate urban living conditions, and to monitor the responses of sub-­elites to broader social and economic changes. Another aim was to better understand and explain the physical structure of the Porta Stabia neighborhood through a critical assessment of the taphonomic conditions that form an urban site. A considered approach to the volumetric matrix of the neighborhood would, we imagined, help us to assess in some detail how certain finds and assemblages came to be recovered where they were, pinpointing when and why they arrived there. Ultimately, our work has addressed some of these aims more fully or directly than others, an outcome that is to be expected for any archaeological project, and specifically for any of this scale. More significant, however, are the ways that the data themselves have fundamentally reshaped our inquiry over the years, shining a light on some of our own assumptions while also prompting both more subtle questions and more complex approaches to answering them. We see the key value of our work, therefore, as inextricably tied to the unforeseen results, which relate both to ancient life and to

modern archaeological practice. Much like the project itself, the present discussion draws from the original themes and questions as guiding principles, but at the same time highlights how they merged, changed, and led us in new directions over more than a decade of work at the Porta Stabia. Thus the chapter is very much about the lessons we ourselves have learned from the project. We begin with some thoughts on the site’s physical structure and how we might better understand the processes that shaped its volumetric matrix, before moving toward themes that reflect the socio-­economic life of the site, seeking always to situate our readings of Pompeian urban development within the broader context of the cultural milieu in which the city and its inhabitants once participated.

The structure of the city: site taphonomy and urban excavation One of our primary aims from the earliest stages of the project was to delineate and analyze the volumetric matrix that forms the Porta Stabia neighborhood: to understand as fully as possible the site’s formation processes, as well as to develop a clear awareness of the origins of the finds assemblages and how they became associated with each context (Fig.  18.01). Our approach required more than simply excavating the site in a single context manner and maintaining the connections between finds and the contexts in which they were associated. Apart from prioritizing the taphonomic formation of the stratigraphic units, our approach to delineating the physical formation of the site benefited from finding ways to reduce its complexity. In keeping with this aim, each context was assigned to a principal formation category (see Fig.  2.02), dividing those associated with the making of the space (the construction category), from those resulting from its op­er­ ation (the occupation category); this process is more fully explained in Chapter 2. So while we naturally assigned granular definitions to each context and recorded them in as much detail as possible, considering them also as broad groups en­abled us to “zoom in and out” of a particular SU or broader space according to the level of focus necessary to understand the context and its assemblage. In short, our approach and method allowed us to reduce the otherwise unwieldy complexity that comes from excavating many thousands of contexts across many centuries of development over ten separate

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0018

con clu s ions  ·  345

Fig. 18.01  The excavation of complex urban deposits by members of the PARP:PS team

buildings within two Pompeian insulae. In this way we ­established a robust understanding of how Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 were built, highlighting the extensive infrastructural interventions necessary for the construction of each property, from the quarrying and terracing of the landscape, to managing and storing water and other resources, to the organization

and removal of waste as well as its reuse and recycling through ongoing construction in the neighborhood. Especially im­port­ ant was the way in which this approach helped us to con­text­ ual­ize both the deposits and the various finds associated with them. Though not all excavation reports carry this most primary level of contextual information, we believe it

346  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i essential for readers—­with interests from urban infrastructure to architectural development to finds assemblages—­who wish to engage with the data. For those examining a certain find, for example, accurate interpretation depends on knowing whether it came from a context that formed part of the terracing of a landscape or the fill of a sub-­floor, both relating to the making of space, or that it was part of a primary cesspit fill and thus more closely tied to the occupation of a space. In many cases, such information is more valuable than the find’s precise location or even its detailed description. Of the many lessons that came from our approach, certainly one of the more critical was identifying so many contexts—­ indeed, a full 93.4 percent of those we excavated (see Fig. 2.02)— as associated with the making of space. This circumstance

Abandonment/Collapse (0.8%) 79 CE Eruption (0.1%) Geological/Natural (2.1%) Occupation/Use (3.6%)

PARP:PS

at  once presents a rather different statistic to most other excavations of Roman urban sites, where the l­ ayers associated with the abandonment of a site are more voluminous and impactful, particularly regarding the numbers and types of finds as well as the interpretative value of their find-­spots; the excavations at Tharros, for example, pre­sent a more “typical” balance between construction, occupation, and abandonment contexts (Fig.  18.02).1 Recognizing the  prevalence of construction contexts at the site made abundantly clear how many of these deposits were made up of objects not directly associated with the use of the buildings of Insulae  I.1 and 1  The data are taken from the ongoing University of Cincinnati excavations of the Punic–­Roman city of Tharros, Sardinia.

Tharros (cleared) Abandonment/Collapse (0.8%) Geological/Natural (3.8%) Occupation/Use (0.4%)

Creation/ Construction (93.4%)

Tharros (uncleared) Abandonment/Collapse (9.7%) Geological/Natural (2.7%) Occupation/Use (1.6%)

Creation/ Construction (95.1%)

Creation/ Construction (85.9%)

Fig. 18.02  A more “typical” taphonomic process (with construction, occupation, and abandonment contexts) recovered by the University of Cincinnati excavations at Tharros, Sardinia.

con clu s ions  ·  347 VIII.7, but which had been imported from elsewhere to form them. Many of our questions, therefore, circled around the concept of urban waste and its recycled use as urban fill: what constitutes waste; how it was organized (by material); where it was deposited (whether locally or more distant); and how it could be recycled within (and as) hardcore material in the ongoing construction and reconstruction of the city.2 Waste material reused as construction deposits formed the very essence of the urban matrix in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia, indicating a waste-­management system that was complex and circular and in every way critical to our understanding of the city as a whole. The distribution of coins, for example, was especially telling of both the complexity of waste-­management systems and the circularity that guided how certain objects came to be found where they were. As has been discussed more fully elsewhere, the distribution patterns of our more than 1,000 stratified coins showed them to be more directly associated with the construction of shops than with the monetized use of those spaces.3 The vast majority of the coins, after all, were found within the fills used to make the surfaces rather than as dropped items on—­ or even stomped into—­ those floors. What especially complicates the matter is that though their spatial distribution patterns show them to be most often found within shop-­fronts, this pattern was a direct result of the increased volumes of fills used to make those spaces during, especially, the Early Imperial period (Phase 5; Fig. 18.03). There are important implications to recognizing that, as objects, the coins were, along with other items of urban waste, entrapped within the hardcore debris and that most of this waste was imported from elsewhere, most likely the mounds of urban waste collected outside of the city.4 In one of the more demonstrable case studies, several pieces of an architectural terracotta metope (AT55-­ 1) from what must have been a sizable and well-­ decorated building were re­covered from a construction trench (fill: SU 55028) in Phase 4b of Property I.1.3–5. The metope had clearly never decorated the property itself. Even beyond demonstrating that objects from an entirely different space were reused as hardcore material elsewhere, however, the lesson in this case was amplified by the fact that precisely matching pieces of the same type of metope were recovered from the construction fills of a property at I.9.9, some 250 m away (see Figs. 11.37 and 11.38).5 Clearly, the same source of urban waste—­including broken building debris—­was exploited in the construction of both buildings. Like the coins, the terracottas (and many other objects besides), show that such objects were incorporated 2  See also Dicus 2014; 2022; Ellis 2017; Emmerson 2020, 108–23. 3 Ellis 2017.   4  See Emmerson 2020, 108–23; Dicus 2022. 5  For a brief report on those excavations, see Tuffreau-Libre et al. 2014. We thank the Soprintendenza for allowing access to this material for comparative purposes.

among the significant volumes of building materials imported to level spaces and to create surfaces. What complicates this picture of recycled debris, however, is the fact that more localized waste objects could be included in the same fills along with the imported debris, even if statistically and volumetrically they constitute a strikingly smaller percentage of the total assemblage.6 For example, vessel sep­ ar­ators from the Phase 3a kiln (Kiln 2) found below (later) Room 105 of Property  I.1.1/10—which had been discarded within the earlier kiln (Kiln 1) under Room 103—were in­corp­ or­ated into hardcore fills (both SUs 53011 and 53028) of Phase 7; both of these contexts also included earlier votive material that was otherwise disconnected from the space and the phase (see Chapters 9, 10, 14, 15). While a casual treatment of the relationship between objects and space might assume that the kiln objects reflected ongoing ceramics manufacturing in  the area,7 in this case their archaeological context was disassociated from their systemic context. In fact, they had been incorporated into the Phase 7 fills when a toilet (Waste Feature 6) was added to Room 103, necessitating that a cesspit be cut through the earlier deposit of workshop waste below. A more rigorous understanding of urban site formation processes offers an awareness that imported materials in most cases will far outnumber objects directly associated with the spaces in which they were found. Furthermore, even when objects are recovered in or near the spaces where they were used, full interpretation requires careful consideration of the taphonomic processes that created their contexts.

The social city: urban life in the neighborhood of the Porta Stabia Our developing understanding of the site formation processes that created an urban neighborhood allowed us to build a robust foundation from which to approach—­and in several cases, to revisit or re-­articulate—­our original questions about the socio-­economic shape of the city. One of our early lines of enquiry had concerned the extent to which we could determine the (what we assumed to be varied) standard of living within a seemingly sub-­elite neighborhood. Could our excavations, for example, reveal nuanced distinctions in the socio-­ economic texture of neighboring properties? Urban living conditions are of course a slippery issue, and there exist almost countless lenses through which to measure 6  Dicus 2014; 2022. 7  From among many, see for example Hobbs, 2013, 100 (cf. Ellis 2017); Cool 2016, 166–9, 277–9; 2018, 437–8. It is noteworthy that Hilary Cool believes that the finds—­not just the coins, as Richard Hobbs—­from the excavation of Insula VI.1 and (so) the House of the Surgeon at Pompeii are directly related to the activities of each space of recovery, an interpretation that is at once in contradiction to the analyses of the directors of the excavations themselves (see Anderson and Robinson 2018, 535, 540–1).

348  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

500 435

375

250 164 125 71

73

30 0

2

2

4th c.BCE 3rd c.BCE 2nd c.BCE 1st c.BCE Augustan

Julio Post Claudian Earthquake

Fig. 18.03  The spatial and chronological distribution of stratified coins at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1. After Ellis 2017, figs. 10.3 and 10.8; the chronological distribution is normalized to thirty-year ranges.

con clu s ions  ·  349 them.8 At one level, the various readings of an urban standard of living in the Roman world have taken as subject the city (generic or otherwise) at large, but with differing outcomes: from Rodolfo Lanciani’s picture of a squalid Republican Rome that was cleansed and modernized by Augustus and his ­partisans, to Alex Scobie’s argument for fetid and diseased Roman cities that were crowded with the short-­lived masses, to more recent readings of the data that emphasize the ef­fect­ive­ness of ancient systems of waste management, or the relatively good health of various communities of Romans as indicated by isotopic analysis of their skeletal remains (even as other studies continue to show urban insalubrity).9 Without delving too deeply into so rich a topic at this point, which would take us much too far from the present purpose of this chapter, our own interests in the subject matter were focused more directly on a neighborhood than on a city, as well as more practically on determining which types of data could contribute anything of value to those grappling with such complex issues. To that end we offer the following brief thoughts. To begin at a microscopic level, one of the more notable features of the food remains recovered from across the neighborhood at large was its variety; this topic is naturally a key theme of Volume III, and so will be more fully outlined and documented there. Food consumption at the Porta Stabia can be argued to have reflected something of a relatively good diet. The presence of imported commodities intended entirely for their flavor, rather than for any nutritional value, is one such indicator of the relatively high quality of consumption: sesame seeds and peppercorns, for example.10 At least two species of dormouse (the Garden and the European) add to this picture of the presence of at least some luxury items. One especially notable find was the femoral head of a ju­ven­ile giraffe; the bone, which showed signs of butchering, was associated with the settling basin of Drain 17, which led from the kitchen in Room 44 of VIII.7.9–11 toward the street. While the bone’s identification can be confirmed as the unfused proximal epiphysis of a femur (left),11 its further study has proven both mysterious and somewhat controversial. It is at once an extremely unusual find, the first of its kind 8  From among very many, see Veyne 2000; Scheidel 2006; Scheidel and Friesen 2009; Rathbone 2009. Temin 2006 serves as a useful introduction. 9 Lanciani 1888; Yavetz 1958; Scobie 1986; Rodríguez Almeida 2000; Dossey 2010, 31–61; Killgrove and Tykot 2013; 2018; Liu 2017; Killgrove 2018. Cf. Koloski-Ostrow 2015. That the ancient economy “raised living standards well above subsistence level for tens of millions of peasants and citydwellers,” see Morris et al. 2007, 6. 10  For the value of pepper in the Roman city, see Plin. HN 12.29. The seminal work on pepper and other such spices is Miller 1969. See also Wallace-Hadrill 2014, 72–5. 11  We thank Melinder Zeder of the Smithsonian Institution for confirming the identification, and the Parco Archeologico di Pompei for allowing passage of the bone to the Smithsonian for analysis; we also thank Emily Holt and Richard Redding for facilitating the transport of the bone for study.

known to have come from Pompeii; it is worth noting that other unusual specimens have surfaced in the excavations at  Pompeii, including bones of a Barbary ape and ostrich eggshell.12 Perhaps even more unusual, however, were the collagen results which we submit here briefly for transparency.13 These showed that the bone contained atomic bomb-­derived carbon, which would thus date the specimen to after 1955.14 In whichever way we read these results, they remain a mystery: we have either to accept some error in the sampling (or transport) of the sample, or the less plausible situation that a singular bone of a modern giraffe found its way not just into the back room of a property within the archaeological site of Pompeii, but into a stratified context associated, quite coincidentally, with ancient cookery. Beyond the exceptional items, one valuable measure of the quality of food consumption is the abundant—­and notably widespread—­evidence for highly nutritious foods like fish and other seafood, as well as eggshell (chicken) and pork. Fresh fruits also were well represented, along with locally available flavor enhancers like coriander and olives. Taken as a whole, the corpus suggests a flavorful and calorie-­rich diet that was not immediately distinguishable from that known from the more overtly elite, atrium-­style houses.15 That so many of these foods were recovered from contexts (mostly drains and cesspits) associated with the neighborhood during its later phases of dedicated retail activity brings us toward the other end of the scale in measuring urban living conditions. The very buildings themselves, particularly from the Early Imperial period (Phase 5), reflect in general but meaningful terms a new-­found confidence and commitment in the products of an urban life. That is, the increasing avail­ abil­ity of various foods and drinks for retail sale—­in quantity and variety—­speaks to a new, arguably heightened level of urbanism. Given the density and distribution of their type across Pompeii and all other Roman cities, and their entangled socio-­economic integration and connection to vast and sophisticated commercial networks, the retail outlets that come to typify our neighborhood ultimately represent much of what it meant to be urban.16 The properties are themselves, in many ways, the measure of urban living. 12  On the barbary ape, see Bailey et al. 1999; on the ostrich eggshell, pers. comm. with Mark Robinson who found and identified the shell in excavations of the garden at the House of the Greek Epigrams. 13  Fuller details of the study are reserved for the forthcoming Environmental volume. 14  These studies were carried out in the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Lab at the University of Arizona in collaboration with the Archaeological Research Laboratory at Oxford University. 15  We concede that this observation demands bolstering that can only come through the publication of more (and relevant) bioarchaeological assemblages from Pompeian excavations; for now see Ciaraldi 2007; Murphy et al. 2013; Murphy 2015; Rowan 2016. 16  Ellis 2018, 227–48.

350  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i Though we may speak in somewhat generalized terms about the living conditions across the Porta Stabia neighborhood, still we have sought to pursue our initial question on variation, seeking ways to parse the datasets in order to recognize socio-­economic distinctions between the various properties. Nevertheless, whether we approached the question through the bioarchaeological remains or the structural his­tor­ies of the buildings themselves, we have been challenged to ­reconcile the apparent richness of our datasets with the ­difficulty of creating a delineated understanding of socio-­ economic differentiation. Again the range and scale of evidence allowed for various approaches to the question. Architecturally and spatially, for example, uncomplicated assumptions about socio-­economic differentiation readily emerged from the differing scale of certain buildings. Not only were some properties larger than ­others, which arguably may have reflected some level of socio-­economic differentiation, but some could be shown (perhaps more meaningfully) to have grown or contracted in size at different rates and scales to others. The property at VIII.7.9–11, for example, increased in size when in Phase 5 it came to occupy (through whatever means) a significant portion of land from the neighboring property at VIII.7.7–8. The development reflects a range of processes that were both social and economic, and our initial reading saw the growth in size of VIII.7.9–11—at the spatial cost of its neighbor—­as repre­sentative of relative economic success and decline. Beyond the rather generalized distinctions of architectural form and the urban footprint, we remained hopeful that the abundance of artefactual and bioarchaeological data would help us to discern some of the socio-­economic texture and variability of an otherwise homogenized “sub-­elite” neighborhood. This brings us again to the remains of food and its waste, which revealed certain noteworthy examples of ­consumption habits tied to particular properties. That some forty mineralized peppercorns and sesame seeds came from the same cesspit in Room 58 of Property VIII.7.9–11 (Waste Feature 14) appeared meaningful; peppercorns were otherwise entirely absent from the rest of the site, regardless of period. Nonetheless, drawing the overall bioarchaeological information into a comparison between neighboring properties was more difficult than we had anticipated or hoped. Despite the scale of our excavations, the deposits suitable for such a comparison were either too minimal in volume or too indifferently preserved (few cesspits contained mineralized remains, for example) to develop numerable, comparable samples; the problem was compounded by the fact that some of the best-­preserved samples came from different chronological phases. Our attempts to draw distinctions between neighboring properties ultimately led us to realize that any such framework is itself somewhat invalid, or at least represents an anachronistic

concept of property and household divisions. We came to wonder, for example, if our attempts to find socio-­economic distinction across the neighborhood ori­g in­ated from a misunderstanding of the complex relationships between neighboring spaces. That is, the more we looked at the operational engagement between adjacent or even nearby buildings—­so beyond the binary, characteristic features of those properties such as their architectural arrangements—­the more we recognized the urban practice of sharing common and combined resources. This urban interconnectedness is most readily displayed in the infrastructural features of our neighborhood and (at least) Pompeii more broadly: in the wells, cisterns, cooking facilities, toilets, and storage spaces that were apparently shared between the occupants of different spaces.17 A brief summary of some of these shared features brings the present discussion into focus. The cesspit installed at the rear of Property VIII.7.9–13 in Phase 3a (Waste Feature 13), for example, remained in use as the property split in Phase 4b, apparently still accessible from both Property VIII.7.9–11 and VIII.7.12 up to the time of the eruption. Also in Insula VIII.7, the large gardens established at the rear of Properties VIII.7.5–6, VIII.7.9–11, and VIII.7.12 in Phase 5a were interconnected and inter-­accessible throughout the life of the neighborhood. In Insula I.1, the quarry at the rear of Property I.1.6–9 (Quarry Area 14) provided some building materials for the Phase 5a expansion of the property, but almost fully supplied the concurrent reconstruction in Property I.1.3–5, to the south. The well installed behind Property I.1.3–5 in Phase 4b, meanwhile, was accessible to multiple properties, while the earlier well added to the southwestern corner of Insula  I.1 in Phase 3a clearly was a public resource, which notably remained ac­cess­ ible even after it had been incorporated into Property I.1.1–2 in Phase 5b. On the one hand, this realization problematizes some popu­lar approaches to urban archaeology (e.g., the listing of facilities per property, a common pastime for those working at Pompeii), but more positively on the other, it can help us to better understand and identify—­whether anticipated or otherwise—­the social and economic relationships that connected neighbors. Significantly, shared resources suggest that we should rethink our assumption that separate people must control spaces that are architecturally distinct. The developmental history of the Porta Stabia indicates the growth of buildings that gradually subdivided through time, with boundaries that shifted and transformed over several cen­tur­ies of urban life. From a distance, the architecture suggests the varying fates of the buildings’ owners, who gained space and 17  On shared resources between Pompeian properties, especially between retail and domestic units, see Ellis 2018, 70–5, 119–21. The chief exception comes with drains, likely due to the liabilities of running a drain through a neighbor’s property (see discussion in Chapter 19.5).

con clu s ions  ·  351 lost space as their relative fortunes boomed and busted, seeming to indicate the various types of sub-­elite living conditions we had set out to find. A closer look, however, complicates the matter. The shared quarry of Properties I.1.3–5 and I.1.6–9, for example, as well as the highly similar final arrangement of the two buildings and their construction in the same period, could indicate that they shared not only a quarry, but also an owner. That they lacked communicating doors does not invalidate the idea; we might think, for example, of recent excavations outside the Porta Ercolano, which have revealed a single ceramics workshop that operated out of several neighboring, but not architecturally communicating, shop fronts.18 The interconnected gardens and similar functions of the central properties of Insula VIII.7, likewise, could point towards a similar situation, with the buildings divided not due to sep­ar­ate ownership, but to targeted strategies for best commercializing those spaces. At the Porta Stabia, therefore, one outcome of our desire to add greater depth and texture to our understanding of a sub-­elite neighborhood—­taking something of a subaltern approach—­was the realization that these properties might have been controlled by a very small number of individuals, themselves almost certainly members of the social and economic elite, and potentially not even an elite resident in the city of Pompeii.19 When considering urban investment at any level, we should anticipate a range of options in ownership that are each as likely as they are difficult to determine and measure: each property might have been independently owned and operated by a single individual or household; fall under the ownership of a neighboring property, or at least one within the neighborhood (the common model here is that of Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius, Pompeii’s best-­known landlord, even if his prominent example is itself unusual);20 or be one small part of a larger rental portfolio, whether under the control of a local landlord or by someone farther afield, such as Martial’s Afer (Mart. 4.37), who is known to have kept rental portfolios across several distant cities.21 Much of our challenge comes in conceiving of the “neighborhood.” Whether through the architectural and spatial delineation of one property from another, or through the very process of researching one singular structure separately from the next, there exists a necessity to focus on the physical parts of an urban district that can come at the cost of en­gaging with their many and varied—­and all too often kaleidoscopic, multivalent, and blurry—­relationships and connections. 18  Cavassa et al. 2013, 2014, 2015; Zanella 2020. 19  On urban investment, particularly that of retail space, Ellis 2018, 85–125. 20  While he is often paraded as the shining example of what is imagined by Pompeianists to have been a system of city-wide tenancy, readily overlooked is the fact that only two such tenancy notices survive for the entire city. If his painted advertisements survive as they do, why don’t we find more of others elsewhere? It is not for a lack of potential evidence. 21  Ellis 2018, esp. 102–3, 122–5.

From production to retail: the socio-­economic development of the neighborhood during (especially) the Early Imperial period One of the more definitive outcomes of our excavations that should have an important impact on how we understand the socio-­economic development of the city relates to both the production and retail activities that characterize the Porta Stabia neighborhood. Moreover, there is much to be learned from the overall—­indeed, overwhelming, in terms of the evidence—­transition of those various production activities and spaces to a more dedicated commitment to retailing during the Early Imperial period (Phase 5). The evidence for urban production, particularly in the earli­est phases (until Phases 4 and 5), is relatively abundant and strikingly varied: from microscopic plant remains to masonry structures and architecture. For example, the earlier phases reveal the by-­ products of crop-­ processing, as evidenced by the charred remains of grains, chaff, weed seeds, and culm remains (so, stalk/straw); this evidence will be laid out more fully in Volume III. These pre-­processed grains and threshing debris show that the final cleaning of cereal grain occurred on site, within the properties themselves. The evidence for these activities plummets by about the first century bce, when we see a demonstrable transition toward the relatively more industrialized processing of food elsewhere, somewhere that was arguably outside the city; from this point on, flour and bread arrived in the city as semi-­prepared and prepared commodities. The production of salted fish at the Porta Stabia (in Phase 4) is especially illuminating, given its implications for understanding urban production across Pompeii more generally, as well as for understanding the shape and development of the fish-­salting industry more broadly still. Some have called into question our identification of the vats we have excavated across the street-­side rooms of Insulae I.1 and VIII.7 as those used in the fish-­salting process, but have not offered any evidence or argument to the contrary, or even posited alternative interpretations.22 Nevertheless, the evidence that these vats salted fish is not only extensive but also conspicuously more complete than that which has prompted the identification of fish-­salting vats elsewhere.23 At the broadest level, the vats share the same morphology with those that are more confidently known as having operated as fish-­salting vats (see Fig. 19.6.01). In some cases, associated deposits on the floors of the vats were shown to have unusually high concentrations 22  Botte 2015, 685. 23  The fullest survey of the evidence for fish-salting across the Mediterranean is in Motz 2021.

352  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i of fish bones and scale. It is noteworthy that the same fish material was not recovered from the fills that would later bury these structures. Moreover, we do not see any of the same concentrations of material associated with fish processing being recovered from the floor surfaces of any of the other tanks. The soak-­aways are also important to this narrative, given their common structural and stratigraphic as­so­ci­ation with the vats themselves, and seeing that their contents were dominated by fish bone and scale. That multiple neighboring properties were engaged in fish-­ salting activities during the first century bce throws important light on urban production (not only of salted fish) at this time. The scale of production, discussed in more detail elsewhere,24 clearly was intended for local consumption rather than regional export. Pompeii’s famed export market in salted-­fish products would come later, indeed at the cost of these smaller establishments.25 It seems that as mass-­produced salted-­fish products flooded the Italian market in the late first century bce and early first century ce, smaller-­scale (urban) production centers competed by reorganizing production to a larger scale and moving it elsewhere—­likely outside the city walls.26 It is significant, and not unrelated to any debate about the identification of these vats, that in spite of Pompeii being regarded for its salted-­fish production by the 70s ce, no spaces devoted to the manufacture of those products has been located within the city in that period. Indeed, by the early first century ce (our Phase 5), urban retailing came to dominate—­indeed largely to replace—­what had earlier been a neighborhood associated with ­production activities. This was a major urban episode for Pompeii: the transition from workshops to shops marks a significant development in the socio-­economic organization of the city as much as to its physical streetscape. This transition from production to products, and from makers to merchants can have had no small impact on urban life. Retail outlets now made up the vast majority of the streetscape of the Porta Stabia neighborhood. To contextualize this development more broadly, an urban survey of retail landscapes across and beyond Pompeii shows that much the same happened elsewhere at the same time.27 Our stratified excavations of the Porta Stabia neighborhood thus provide a valuable, data-­rich case study for understanding broader developments in Roman urbanism. Beyond an increase in the number of shops in the Early Imperial period, our Phase 5 also marked a rise in their specialization. In general it remains difficult to identify archaeologically one type of shop from another, given the absence in 24  Ellis 2011d, 74.    25 Pliny comment. See also Ellis 2011d, esp. 79–83. 26  For urban expansion outside city walls at this time, see Emmerson 2020, esp. 19–51, 125–62. 27  Ellis 2018, ch. 5.

the archaeological record of particular features or finds assemblages that could be associated with certain retailing activities. In spite of this, and perhaps even because of it, at this time we see the advent of the masonry shop counter, which can be more readily associated with—­and indeed stand as a statement about the commitment toward—­the retail sale of food and drink.28 Four such counters appeared at the Porta Stabia in the Early Imperial period,29 a trend that accords precisely with the known chronologies of all datable counters found elsewhere, whether at Pompeii or more broadly throughout the Roman world (see Fig.  19.1.01).30 A surely not unrelated development can now be seen also with the cooking installations. As Jenny Kreiger identifies below (see Chapter 19.3), permanent fixtures for cooking also appear only from this period of the Early Imperial period. Given the conformity of these developments to those known elsewhere, some thought should be given to questions of chronology. That the Early Imperial period—­our Phase 5— represents such a pervasive stage of development in the physical and social structure of the Porta Stabia neighborhood has important implications for how we understand the city’s overall shape and its changes through time. Although the social causes and repercussions have been much debated, it is still broadly accepted that Pompeii’s final architectural form largely resulted from the series of earthquakes that struck the city beginning in the 60s ce.31 The results of our excavations, however, show that while much of Insulae I.1. and VIII.7 was rebuilt as a result of seismic activity (see Phase 7), still it was during the Early Imperial period (Phase 5) that the buildings developed the shapes they would maintain until 79 ce. An important lesson here is that nearly all of the final (re)construction efforts rebuilt walls and spaces as they previously had stood; that is, more than the establishment of new spaces and architectures in the last years of Pompeii, we instead see a reestablishment of the neighborhood along a footprint that had been established decades earlier. Another lesson is that we can now point to the Early Imperial period as one of considerable urban innovation. As is explained more fully in some of the appendices that follow—­ particularly those on counters (Chapter  19.1), thresholds (Chapter  19.11), and doorstops (Chapter  19.4)—this was a period that saw the first arrival of certain urban fixtures. Notably, none of these features predate this period, whether at Pompeii or elsewhere; they thus represent a development that could not have been identified or understood without systematic excavations into these earlier levels. Equally significant is the fact that so few of these structural fixtures are easily counted among even the relatively well-­preserved Roman cities of the third century ce or later. They thus repre­sent a 28  Ellis 2018, 29–83.    29  See Chapter 19.1. 30  Ellis 2018, esp. 157–67.    31  See esp. Maiuri 1942, 216–17; 1960, 188.

con clu s ions  ·  353 particular period of urbanization, one that can be pinned to the early empire. Given their utility, these particular features also speak to an increase in the specialized use of space across Pompeii and other Roman cities in the first century ce. The early first century ce thus played a prominent role in the story of Pompeian urbanization. This is a result that we might have anticipated, given what we know about Roman urbanization in this period more broadly. Nevertheless, the rebuilding of the city in its final years (our Phase 7)—and particularly the understandable scholarly focus on Pompeii’s ul­tim­ate form, fueled as it is by more readily undertaken urban surveys rather than stratified excavations—­has minimized knowledge of earlier urban growth spurts. Our project made clear that the Early Imperial period (our Phase 5) was far more critical in the structural shaping of the neighborhood than was the final period of building activity, a conclusion demonstrated most succinctly by the chronological patterns represented in the site-­wide Harris Matrix (see Fig. 1.03). Beyond recording such patterns, the matrix revealed the scale of development across the neighborhood and illustrated its focus, both chronologically and spatially, on the street-­front rooms. At one level the extensive interventions in these street-­front spaces resulted from changes to the street itself: with the paving of the via Stabiana and concurrent raising of its level in the Early Imperial period, so too did each property raise their floor levels to account for issues of drainage. As a result, more material was brought into the neighborhood in this phase than at any other time, meaning that more artifacts—­the vast majority of which had no functional relationship with the spaces in which they were found—­derive from Phase 5 than any other (Fig.  18.04). On the other hand, and perhaps more importantly, these developments were both social and economic: they reflect changes in activity, which were often located at the street-­front for practical purposes (drainage, light, availability of street infrastructure, and not least access to traffic). Concentrated in the street-­front rooms, those most visible to passersby and most accessible to traffic, the changes of our Phase 5 came to reflect the identity of each property in

Number of Stratified Finds per Phase

4,000

3,181 3,000 1,958

2,000

1,004

1,000

0

77

18

256

465

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 6 Phase 7

Fig. 18.04  The numbers of non-­ceramic finds associated with each Phase of development at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1; note that Phase 5 constitutes c. 46 percent of the total finds.

the Porta Stabia neighborhood, identities they maintained from the Early Imperial period to the time of the eruption.

Conclusion As much as we have strived throughout this volume to move beyond the basic outline and description of the excavations and of its many and various datasets, still the readings and interpretations of them are far from total. Though we wanted to provide some of our own analyses and a “bigger picture” reading, a sense of totality was never our ultimate goal. The more meaningful aim of this volume has been to provide a thorough foundation from which to approach the site, to record its immediate archaeological information, and to pre­ sent interpretations that might serve as a first step toward a more plural engagement with the Porta Stabia neighborhood. And just as our own initial questions and approaches have now been reformulated and reshaped, we hope that one contribution of this volume will be that it demonstrates some new ways in which we can approach and understand Roman cities more broadly.

PART I V

c h a pt e r 1 9

Appendices

Introduction Jenny R. Kreiger The following fourteen essays provide a detailed look at ­selected features from Insulae VIII.7 and I.1. Our purpose in creating these was to highlight features that tell particular stories of the Porta Stabia neighborhood’s structural and social development over time. We also wanted to allow readers with interests in various aspects of Pompeian studies, Roman archaeology, or ancient urbanism to quickly and easily access the data that could be most useful to them. In practical terms, we aimed to make the chronological narrative easier to read and less redundant by collecting detailed information on the most common types of features in a separate location. We recommend that the reader uses these essays both as a reference when reading the Phase chapters and as a starting point for research on the features themselves. To this end, we have included references to numbered features in the Phase chapters and lists of relevant SUs in the essay catalog entries. Although each essay is somewhat freestanding and represents its author’s priorities and interpretations, certain clusters of essays can be read in concert to gain a balanced perspective on a particular realm of activity in the Porta Stabia neighborhood. Chapter  19.1 (Bar Counters), 19.4 (Doorstops), and 19.11 (Thresholds), for example, offer three views on the structural fixtures of street-facing retail spaces. Chapter  19.10 (Soak-Aways) should be read along with both 19.6 (Fish-Salting Vats) and 19.13 (Waste Features) to better understand the role soak-aways played both in the fish-salting industry and in waste disposal systems. Chapter 19.9 (Ritual Contexts), 19.12 (Votives), and 19.14 (Graffiti and Dipinti) present different but complementary views on ritual, political, and social activities in this neighborhood. Each of the essays makes a valuable contribution to the study of Pompeii and of Roman archaeology more generally. Chapter 19.7 (Floors) offers what we believe to be the first systematic consideration of all floor-construction activity over the whole history of a Pompeian neighborhood. Chapter 19.8 (Quarrying Activities) presents the richest dataset to date on this subject at Pompeii and sheds light on land use in the Porta Stabia area early in its development.

Chapter  19.1 (Bar Counters), 19.3 (Cooking Facilities), and 19.6 (Fish-Salting Vats) trace the evolution of economic activity in the Porta Stabia neighborhood from industrial to commercial investments between the first century bce and the first century ce. Taken together, Chapter 19.2 (Cisterns), 19.5 (Drains), 19.10 (Soak-Aways), and 19.13 (Waste Features) provide a comprehensive look at the water and waste-management systems of a sub-elite neighborhood, and they show how the infrastructure of such a neighborhood can diverge from models based on atrium houses. Chapter 19.12 (Votives) argues for careful consideration of formation processes in the interpretation of votive assemblages, and 19.9 (Ritual Contexts) juxtaposes archival data on domestic and public shrines with en­vir­on­mental analysis of burned offerings to provide a holistic view of religious activity in the Porta Stabia neighborhood. Chapter  19.14 (Graffiti and Dipinti) analyzes the eight painted and five incised inscriptions recorded in the Porta Stabia neighborhood in terms of their social, political, and architectural contexts. Finally, Chapter  19.4 (Doorstops) and 19.11 (Thresholds) demonstrate how the seemingly mundane details of door-locking mechanisms can shed light on commerce, social life, and superstition in Roman cities. These essays are not an exhaustive catalog of structural fixtures recovered in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1; there are many other interesting features described elsewhere in this volume. Instead, these essays represent “slices” of our ­ data—across trenches, properties, and phases—that we thought our ­readers might find most useful and that we ourselves found compelling in considering the long history of the Porta Stabia neighborhood.

List of essays 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7

Bar Counters Cisterns Cooking Facilities Doorstops Drains Fish-Salting Vats Floors

19.8 19.9 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 19.14

Quarry Areas Ritual Contexts Soak-Aways Thresholds Votives Toilets and Cesspits Graffiti and Dipinti

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0019

c h a pt e r 1 9. 1

The Bar Counters of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Sarah Wenner

Four shop counters survive—even if in a largely reconstructed form—across our area of investigation; all four were located in Insula  I.1, none in Insula VIII.7 (Fig.  19.1.01). The Parco Archeologico di Pompei had partially reconstructed these coun­ters in the twentieth century, but the modern creations approximate the original designs. All of the counters were built directly onto the floor surface. Two of the four counters each featured a large ceramic vessel built into its structure, with a third producing evidence that two vessels had previously been incorporated. The inclusion of these vessels, because of their greater depths relative to the counters themselves, meant that they were partially sunk into the floor surface. The counters themselves consist of a simple opus incertum construction. While they would have been decorated with broken pieces of marble and/or painted plaster, no such evidence of their decoration survives today.1 All four counters were located on the northern side of their shop-fronts, (primarily, if not exclusively) configured to the oncoming movement of traffic from the Porta Stabia as it entered the city.2

Analysis The Porta Stabia counters were all built in the early first ­century ce, a period in Pompeii characterized by some of the city’s most significant economic developments (see our Phase 5). One of the more notable economic developments at this time was the increased specialization in the retail market. The four shop-fronts discussed here are evidence of this trend, having all been converted from various cottage-scale production activities to food and drink outlets (bars) in the Early Imperial period. The likelihood that some of these outlets served food as well as drinks is evidenced by the fact that three of the counters—in I.1.1, I.1.2, and I.1.9—were located in shops containing a cooking facility. Within Pompeii it is common for such counters to be directly associated with cooking 1  At least the upper horizontal surface of the counter against the north wall in I.1.2 was covered with marble (GdS 1874, 49). Ellis 2005, 48; 2018, 162. For a discussion of the decoration of bar counters, see Ellis 2018, 58–62. 2  Ellis 2004, 379.

hearths. Indeed, 82 percent of the total properties with a counter have such a feature.3 In general, masonry counters were a distinguishing f­eature of tabernae specializing in the sale of food and drink, so much so that they even appeared in the shop-front scenes of second century ce Roman art. The existence of the masonry coun­ters—decidedly more permanent and expensive than wooden versions—suggest confidence in the market and the ability to make a living through the sale of food and drink.4

Catalog Bar Counter 1 (see Figs. 12.43 and 12.44) Location: I.1.1/10 Room 101; Trench 50000 Form: L-shaped counter Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 50.6) Relevant SUs: 50065 (see also Cooking Facility 7) Brief description:5 This L-shaped counter was set back from the left side of the threshold (Threshold 17) to allow customers access from the busy sidewalk. A hearth was built into the end of the inner arm; however, no earthenware vessels were inserted into the remainder of the counter. The earliest reports do not describe the type of surface treatment, nor if any display shelves were present. Most of what remains of the counter today has been reconstructed (SU 50155), although the lowest courses are original. Bar Counter 2 (see Fig. 12.46) Location: I.1.2 Room 106; Trench 54000 Form: Two I-shaped counters Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 54.7) Relevant SUs: 54012, 54013; embedded vessels SUs 54080, 54081, 54082 Brief description:6 Two I-shaped counters extend from the threshold (Threshold 18), one along the northern wall of Room 106 (SU 54012), the other parallel but farther south (SU 54013). It is possible that a wooden structure closed off 3  Ellis 2018, 65.    4  Ellis 2018, 175. 5  For further details, see Ellis 2005, 207–10; 2018, 160. 6  For further details, see Ellis 2005, 210–12; 2018, 160–2.

a p pe n dic es  ·  359

Fig. 19.1.01  The distribution of bar counters across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

360  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i the front end along the threshold as a barrier from customers, forming a U-shaped structure. It is also possible that the ori­g in­al part of some masonry structure was destroyed without leaving any trace. In any case, the arrangement of two such I-shaped counters is known only at this bar. Three earthenware vessels were sunk into the counter along the wall (SUs 54080, 54081, 54082); early records indicate that (at least) this counter of the two had its uppermost surface covered with pieces of marble.7 According to a plaque set into the northern counter, the counters were reconstructed in 1986 (SUs 54079, 54096, 54097, 54098). Bar Counter 3 (see Fig. 12.34) Location: I.1.4 Room 118; Trench 51000 Form: L-shaped counter Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 51.6) Relevant SUs: 51007, 51154; evidence of embedded vessels SUs 51016, 51026 Brief description:8 All that survives of this L-shaped counter is a small part of the end of its inward arm. The entire streetfront portion of the counter is missing, and has been since its earliest (recorded) discovery; Mau thought that the

7  GdS 1874, 49.    8  For further details, see Ellis 2005, 212–13.

missing front arm of the counter, which would have occupied the northern side of the facade, must have been made of wood.9 Part of the counter was reconstructed in modern times (SU 51007). Excavation revealed two circular scars (SUs 51016, 51026) on the masonry of Phase 4b cistern (Cistern 8). The location of these scars, just inside the threshold conforms with the typical placement of vessels in L-shaped bar coun­ters. Bar Counter 4 (see Figs. 12.21, 12.22, 13.20) Location: I.1.9 Room 132; Trench 56000 Form: L-shaped counter Phase installed: SUs 56007, 56108 in Phase 5a (Subphase 56.6); SU 56124 in Phase 6 (Subphase 56.7) Relevant SUs: 56007, 56108, 56124 (see also Cooking Facility 12) Brief description:10 This reconstructed L-shaped counter occupied the northern side of the facade. It was equipped with a single earthenware vessel and a hearth. No evidence survives of the original cladding or of the hearth once attached to the inner arm.11 Note also that the counter was originally I-shaped (Phase 5a), before being remodeled into the more conventional L-shaped design (Phase 6). 9  BdI 1875, 29.    10  For further details, see Ellis 2005, 214–16; 2018, 162–3. 11  BdI 1875, 30–2; Fiorelli 1875, 35.

c h a pt e r 1 9. 2

The Cisterns of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Christopher F. Motz

Along with wells and springs, cisterns were a critical element of urban infrastructure prior to the introduction of a pressurized water distribution system. Ancient medical writers held that rainwater was healthier than water drawn from springs, wells, streams, or lakes, but opinion was divided on rain­water collected in cisterns.12 Medical theories notwithstanding, ancient populations plainly relied on stored water to meet some of their needs, as demonstrated by the countless arch­ aeo­logic­al remains of cisterns found throughout the ancient world. Despite their importance to urban life, much less attention has been dedicated to private cisterns at Pompeii or in other Roman urban environments than to aqueducts or other elements of pressurized water supplies.13 Many of the cisterns across Pompeii received water from an impluvium or a guttered peristyle, and such a setup often is presented as ca­non­ic­al.14 Since the Porta Stabia neighborhood had no atrium houses or private pressurized water pipes, the water systems of these properties were rather different from this idealized picture and, indeed, from many of the other published ex­amples.15 What follows is thus a new contribution to our understanding of sub-elite water collection and storage in Pompeii.

Analysis Construction and form Thirteen cisterns were discovered in our excavations (Fig. 19.2.01). There was no clear pattern guiding their placement, and we recovered cisterns both in roofed, street-facing 12  e.g., Hippocrates, De aere aquis et locis 8; Pliny, Nat. Hist. 31.21. Vitruvius (De Arch. 8.2.1) agrees with the medical writers about rainwater but does not comment on cistern water. On Greek and Roman attitudes toward sources of drinking water, see Tilburg 2015, 85–106. 13  On water in Roman life, see Malissard 1994; Rogers 2018. One prominent book on water in Roman cities ( Jansen 2002) contains two pages on groundwater, four on cisterns, and thirty-two on pressurized water; cf. Klingborg and Finné 2018, 115. There are only a handful of detailed and well contextualized treatments of private cisterns, such as Burés Vilaseca 1998 and Klingborg 2017. 14  e.g., Jansen 1991; 2002; Keenan 2004; Jansen 2007; Ohlig 2015, 6. 15  This makes it more difficult to identify clearly the sources and roof catchment areas that would have fed our cisterns.

spaces (Cisterns 1, 4, 5, 6, 8) as well as outdoor areas at the rear of properties (Cisterns 2, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12). The cisterns were simple constructions composed of three elements: a subterranean body in which water was stored, an inlet through which water entered the body, and a neck through which water was retrieved by means of a bucket and rope (Fig. 19.2.02).16 The last two elements often were combined in our cisterns and in others throughout Pompeii.17 In Insulae I.1 and VIII.7, most of the visible cistern bodies were rectangular in plan (Cisterns 3, 5, 8, 10); the three largest ones were roofed with barrel vaults (Cisterns 3, 5, 10), while Cistern 8 was not visible from the interior but appears to have had a flat roof. One cistern was bottle-shaped (Cistern 4); its body was a vertical cylinder that tapered at the top to form a neck.18 Each cistern was lined with waterproof plaster on the walls; only two floors were exposed (Cisterns 3 and 4) and both were covered in opus signinum, but presumably the rest were simi­larly coated; Cistern 3 had horizontal molding where the walls met the floor; none had depressions at the bottom (see Fig.  11.46).19 All seven that had an identifiable 16  For terminology see Klingborg 2017, 15–16. Most cisterns at Pompeii were subterranean, but see an exception in the peristyle of VI.1.7 (Jones and Robinson 2004, 121–2). The cisterns would have been fed by a system of downpipes and drains (see Chapter 19.5). We have identified nine downpipes in the two insulae, some of which can be linked to excavated drains and cisterns: VIII.7.5–6, Rooms 12 (SUs 11036, 81091) and 14 (SU 16505); VIII.7.7–8, Room 35 (SU 17047); VIII.7.9–11, Room 56 (SU 13012); VIII.7.13–15, Rooms 78 (two: SUs 8050, 20036) and 68 (SU 27081); I.1.1–1a, Room 103 (SU 53013); I.1.3–5, Room 115 (SU 59503). 17  Cf. the cisterns at Cosa, which were fed by separate channels (Brown 1951, 87). 18  Burés Vilaseca (1998, 57–62) suggested that elliptical cisterns are a sign of Punic influence, bottle-shaped ones are predominantly early and Greek, and rectangular examples are primarily later and Roman. Her analysis, which made no claim to being comprehensive, was based on a handful of sites. The issue bears revisiting with a fuller data set. For example, we now know that both bottle-shaped and rectangular cisterns are found at Pompeii during the Roman period. 19  Bottom depressions, also known as settling basins or cuvets, are found in many cisterns throughout the Greek and Roman world, including ones at Pompeii (Laidlaw and Stella 2014, 90, 255–64), Cosa (Bruno and Scott 1993, 43–4), Emporiae (Burés Vilaseca 1998, 207–8, 226, 297, 342, 344), Gadara (Keilholz 2007, 210, fig. 17; Keilholz 2014, 31), and throughout Greece (Klingborg 2017). They are also found in many types of basins and vats (Motz 2021, 219-28, 380). They are commonly thought to have aided in cleaning but their function is debated; see Klingborg 2017, 48–50.

362  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.2.01  The distribution of cisterns across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

a p pe n dic es  ·  363

Fig. 19.2.02  Cistern cross-section, indicating terminology and features found in the present text. After Klingborg 2017, fig. 1.

wall construction were built of stone masonry (Cisterns 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12). The visible necks (Cisterns 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) were masonry constructions with waterproof linings.20 All of the openings were circular except for one semicircular (Cistern 6) and one rectangular (Cistern 8) opening (see 20  See Jansen 2002, 24, for a brief discussion of cistern access points.

Fig. 11.40), and all were 0.4–0.7 m across.21 When the upper extent of the necks have been preserved (Cisterns 2, 3, 5, 6, 7), 21  Other cistern openings at Pompeii are of similar size and shape. The Australian architectural survey of Insula VII.4 has published the diameters of eight cistern heads and necks: VII.4.56: 40, 42, and 55 cm; VII.4.48: 42 cm; VII.4.51: 34 and 42 cm; VII.4.57: 38.5 and 49 cm (Sear 2004; 2006), and four more measurements are available from the House of Sallust: VI.2.4: 37, 45, 55, and 82 cm (Laidlaw and Stella 2014, 90, 93–4, 108).

364  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.2.03  The cistern head for Cistern 3 in Room 45 of VIII.7.9–11; viewed from the south.

they rose to or just above the floor, where they terminated in a mouth over which the lining continued (Fig. 19.2.03). Atop the mouth, there was usually a separate cistern head (with the same diameter as the neck) in the form of a low, masonry construction (Cisterns 5, 6, 7) or a capstone with a hole and a recessed lip to support a lid (Cistern 11).22 Sometimes the heads were topped by puteals (Fig.  19.2.04).23 In one case (Cistern 2), a tall (at least 50 cm) head was built directly above the cistern mouth, likely in lieu of a puteal.

Development over time Most of the cisterns (six of the nine datable installations) were added throughout the late second and first centuries bce (Phases 3 and 4), with no apparent common impetus. Some 22  Similar blocks can be found throughout Pompeii. Published examples include cisterns in VI.1.9–10.23, Rooms 3–5, the cistern head on the northern side of the peristyle in VII.4.48, and the opening of the so-called cesspit in VII.4.51 (Sear 2006; Anderson and Robinson 2018). See also the head for our Waste Feature 12. Because Cistern 11 was not excavated, we cannot know for certain whether it is a cesspit or a cistern. 23 Three puteals were found during the original excavations of Insula VIII.7. One (Archival Find 403) was in VIII.7.6, Room 20 (Mau 1875, 164) and presumably was linked to Cistern 7 (Fig. 19.2.04); while this puteal was present during our earliest excavations, it was later removed by the superintendency to a location that has since been lost. The other two (Archival Find 767) were in VIII.7.8, Room 32 (Viola 1879, 17), and probably provided access to Cisterns 5 and 6. See Chapter 4 in this volume.

Fig. 19.2.04  The puteal found in Room 20 of VIII.7.6 (Archival Find 403).

showed evidence of repairs and a few remained in use for over a century.24 The Early Imperial period (Phase 5a) brought about the wholesale demise of four cisterns in this area of the city. Three were destroyed during extensive renovations to shift the functions of properties (Cistern 4 in VIII.7.9–11, and Cistern 8 and Cistern 9 in I.1.3–5), while one (Cistern 7 in 24  On cistern maintenance, see the Pergamon astynomoi inscription (e.g., Klaffenbach 1954) and Brinker 1990, 70–4.

a p pe n dic es  ·  365 VIII.7.5–6) was capped and decommissioned without any structural changes to the surrounding room.25 It is tempting to link the capping of Cistern 7 to the introduction of pressurized water to the city, and thus the obsolescence of private water storage facilities, if only because its later reopening coincided with disruptions to the civic water supply (see below).26 Just inside the Porta Stabia gate, in fact, there sits a large, public fountain (SU 4031). Fed by the aqueduct, the fountain arguably could have met most of the neighborhood’s water needs. But as significant a development as this was for the city’s infrastructure, it does not appear to have had much of an impact on how Pompeians obtained water for daily use. We found no private connections to this water supply in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1. If the introduction of pressurized water to our neighborhood impacted only the public water supply, then one must wonder whether merely switching to the public fountain from the public well (which was not sealed and remained active; see below) would have had any effect on private water storage needs. Indeed, at this time most houses in the city continued to rely on collected rainwater even if they also received piped water.27 Furthermore, in the same period the largest and most complex cistern in the Porta Stabia neighborhood (Cistern 5) was installed during the ren­ov­ ations that demolished an earlier fish-salting workshop. While there was a conspicuous rise in cistern deactivations during the Early Imperial period, it probably should be attributed to the general increase in construction activity during this time, rather than to a shift in domestic water sources. A few decades later, Cistern 7 was recommissioned around the same time that seismic activity connected to the earthquake/s of 62/3 ce interrupted the water supply from the Augustan aqueduct.28 Nevertheless, even if this resurrection was a response to an ensuing water crisis, it does not mean that the construction of the aqueduct prompted the original deactivation. Cistern 7 and five others (Cisterns 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11) remained in use until the 79 ce eruption.

Capacity, filling, and use We can calculate the volumes of five cisterns (Cisterns 3, 4, 5, 8, 10). By combining these capacities with roof reconstructions and modern rainfall data, we can estimate the rates at

25  Alterations elsewhere in the property that contained Cistern 7 suggest that it may already have been devoted to commercial dining in this period. 26  While its dating is disputed, this system of a castellum aquae, neighborhood water towers, and pipes was likely introduced to take advantage of the aqueduct built by Augustus (for a review of the debate, see KeenanJones 2015). 27  See, e.g., Jones and Robinson 2005; Keenan-Jones 2015, 209. 28  A recent starting point on this topic is Keenan-Jones 2015. A renewed desire for water collection has been documented elsewhere in the city ( Jones and Robinson 2004, 119–23).

which the cisterns might have filled and how much of the available rainwater they could have held. Unfortunately, we cannot calculate how much of this water the occupants of the properties would have used. Estimates of daily water consumption in antiquity vary widely, and it is nearly impossible to account for the use of water in any commercial or industrial applications.29 Likewise, we cannot know how many people occupied each property. In this section I demonstrate that despite these challenges, still there is something to be gained by comparing our cisterns to others from Roman Italy. Not only are our examples smaller than many others, but they also may have been able to capture less of the rainwater that was available to them. It is reasonable to assume a priori that outside of exceptionally dry years, the households and shop owners of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 met their water needs through a combination of sources.30 The question of fill rates and capacity therefore becomes a technical question of the performance and efficiency of the sources, and of their seasonality. In the Bay of Naples, as in much of the Mediterranean, most rainfall occurs from late fall to early spring. Since the summer months are the driest and thus would have been the time when the need for water storage was greatest, they will be the focus of the following discussion. A normal summer afternoon rainstorm in modern Pompeii produces roughly 5–10 mm of rainfall, or 5–10 liters of rain deposited per square meter (Fig. 19.2.05).31 By applying this figure to reconstructions of the roofed areas of our properties (Figs. 19.2.06 and 19.2.07), we can estimate the amount of water that could have been directed into each cistern during such a rainstorm (see Table  19.2.01).32 The three large cisterns that should be considered the primary ones for their re­spect­ive properties (Cisterns 3, 5, 10) all would have received volumes of water equaling 11 percent to 22 percent of their capacities. Assuming they were not already close to full, each of these primary cisterns would have comfortably captured all of the water that fell on their roof systems from even the largest summer rainstorm. Stepping back to view the entire dry period, we find that on average modern Pompeii receives approximately 90 mm of 29  Two recent studies (Burés Vilaseca 2000; Dessales 2008, 37, n. 43) employ an estimate of 25 liters per person per day for all tasks, excluding agriculture and industry. See also the sophisticated estimates in Klingborg and Finné 2018. 30  Hodge (2002, 59–60) offers one of the best, albeit brief and highly speculative, discussions of these questions. He continues with a more detailed examination of water supplies in North Africa, a popular topic (see, e.g., Wilson 2001). 31  Based on rainfall data recorded in Pompeii and Naples on dates during which we had observed such a storm ( July 5, 2011 [shown in Fig. 19.2.05]; July 7–9, 2013; July 21–22, 2014), obtained from https://www.wunderground.com and https://www.worldweatheronline.com. 32  To simplify the calculations, I assume that the entire roof runoff of each property would be directed to the cisterns.

366  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.2.05  Water running down the via Stabiana towards the Porta Stabia following a rainstorm on July 5, 2011.

rain from June through August.33 If we assume that the cisterns would have been full at the end of the spring, we can estimate how many times they could have been replenished (and thus emptied) during the summer (see Table 19.2.01). Of the three main cisterns, one could have been refilled to its full capacity, while each of the other two could have been refilled to their full capacity and then filled again to around two-thirds to three-quarters of their volume (Fig. 19.2.08). We can compare our cisterns’ fill rates to those on other Roman sites. The most common method for expressing water capture and storage capabilities is as a ratio of cistern volume to roof surface area (Table 19.2.01). The ratios for our sample range from 1:11 to 1:22, ignoring the outliers of Cistern 4, which cannot have been intended to be the property’s primary cistern, and Cistern 8, the volume of which is highly speculative. Our cisterns were smaller relative to their catchment areas than those from Cosa (1:5 to 1:11) or those in six atrium houses and one set of shops at Pompeii (1:2 to 1:7).34

Large cisterns are to be expected at “waterless” Cosa, where nearly every building had a cistern.35 Thus, the difference between the cisterns in our neighborhood and those from elsewhere in Pompeii is all the more stark; those at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 not only had smaller dimensions, but they also could hold far less of the rainwater that was available to them (Fig. 19.2.09). This statistic may reflect limited investment in such infrastructure by those at the Porta Stabia neighborhood, as well as a shared reliance on other nearby sources of water. The residents of our insulae had access to several such sources. The most important was the Augustan fountain, as well as three identifiable wells in the area.36 One well (SU 50016), which was likely the main source of water for the neighborhood since its installation in Phase 3a, was outdoors and public until the early first century ce (Phase 5b), when it was enclosed by Room 102 and connected to the rest of Property  I.1.1–1a.37 The fountain was installed around this

33  Based on historical data for Herculaneum and two locations in Naples, obtained from the Servizio Meteorologico dell’Aeronautica Militare (www. meteoam.it). 34  Cosa: Thomas and Wilson (1994, 153–4) give ratios of 1:3–1:8, but the sources they cite (Brown 1980 and “Brown 1957,” by which they must mean Brown 1951) do not offer any measurements. I have recalculated both the cistern volumes and the roof areas from the original publication (Bruno and Scott 1993). Pompeii: Sear 2006, 199; Dessales 2008, 38–9; Laidlaw and Stella 2014, 90, 93–4; Michel 1990, 54. I have excluded Cistern 3 at the House of Sallust (Laidlaw and Stella 2014, 108). This cistern is very small for its catchment area, but it likely was not alone. A drain that leads to this area from the

impluvium prompted the excavators to hypothesize the presence of another cistern, but this is destined to remain unproven due to a bomb dropped here in 1943 (Laidlaw and Stella 2014, 48–51, 258). 35  Brown 1951, 84. Natural springs and effective wells can only be found at the base of the Ansedonia promontory, and the bedrock easily absorbs rainwater. 36  See note 12 in this chapter on ancient preferences for water sources. 37 Public access may, however, have been maintained. The Digest of Justinian (43.20–2) included an edict granting individuals the right to raise water from a private well as long as they had done so within the last year. For private water rights in Roman law, see Bannon 2009. This well remained in use until the eruption (see Chapter 14).

15 14 13 12 11

10

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0 Fig. 19.2.06  A reconstruction of the roofed areas of each property.

10

20 m.

a p pe n dic es  ·  367

Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia

368  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i 8

9

8

9

8

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7 6

6

Drain 13

Drain 13

Cistern 6 Drain 6

Drain 9

Cistern 3

Cistern 3

Drain 8

Phase 4b

Phase 4c 8

9 8 Cistern 5

8

9 8

7

7

Cistern 5

6

6

Drain 11

Cistern 6

Cistern 6 Drain 10

Drain 16 Cistern 3

Drain 16 Cistern 3

Waste Feature 12 (built in 4a)

Phase 5a

Phase 6

Fig. 19.2.07  The evolution of the water capture systems in properties VIII.7.5–8, VIII.7.7–8, and VIII.7.9–11.

time across the street.38 The continued existence of this well may have proved a blessing to the neighborhood during the disruptions to the water supply in the years before 79 ce. Even if public access to the well had been prevented after the renovations of Phase 7, it could have been restored officially or unofficially to alleviate the hardship.39 A new private well (SU 59034) was sunk in the rear of I.1.3–5 (Room 110/114) in the mid-first century bce (Phase 4b) to supplement the public well; in turn, this second well was replaced or supplemented a few decades later (Phase 4c) by Cistern 9.

A third well (SU 30006) was observed in Room 30 at the back of Property VIII.7.5–6 but it could not be dated.40

38  Most of the new fountains were placed near earlier wells, maintaining the sites’ functions as gathering points (Keenan-Jones 2015, 196). 39  See Keenan-Jones 2015.

40  This well was mentioned by Spano (1910a, 267–8). See Archival Find 450. 41  None of the fills excavated from inside the cisterns were primary use contexts.

Catalog Cistern 1 Location: VIII.7.1–4 Room 1; Trench 1000 Relevant SUs: 1015, 1077 Measurements:   Neck Interior: 0.7 m diameter Fill:41 1016, 1033, 1043

a p pe n dic es  ·  369 Pompeii (PARP:PS)

16

Pompeii (Other)

Cosa

Number of times filled.

14 12 10 8 6 4

Square V-D, West Block, Southwest House

Squares V/VI-D/E, East Block, House of the Skeleton

Squares V/VI-D/E, East Block, Northeast House

Square V-D, West Block, Lot 5

Casa di Pansa (VI.6.1): cistern for the shops

Casa di Pansa (VI.6.1): two cisterns for the house

Casa dei Ceii (I.6.15)

House of Sallust (VI.2.4): Cistern 3

House of Sallust (VI.2.4): Cisterns 1 and 2

Casa dei Capitelli Colorati (VII.4.51)

Casa della Caccia Antica (VII.4.48)

Casa dei Capitelli Figurati (VII.4.57)

Cistern 10 (1.1.6–9)

Cistern 8 (I.1.3–5)

Cistern 5 (VIII.7.7–8)

Cistern 4 (VIII.7.9–11)

Cistern 3 (from Phase 5a onward; VIII.7.9–11)

0

Cistern 3 (through Phase 4c; VIII.7.5–8)

2

Fig. 19.2.08  Estimated number of times each cistern could have been filled by the rain that fell on its roof catchment area (taking an estimate from June through August of the modern era).

Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 1.4) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5b (Subphase 1.5a) Brief description: The neck was excavated to a depth of 0.9 m but continued to an unknown depth. The cistern body was not observed. Cistern 2 Location: VIII.7.5–6 Room 30 Relevant SUs: 30002, 30003, 30004 Measurements:   Mouth Interior: 45 cm diameter Phase installed: unknown Phase decommissioned: likely in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b), since it was visible to the first excavators Brief description: Cistern next to a triclinium and a well in the rear garden of VIII.7.5–6.42 The masonry cistern head sat atop a thick, circular, opus signinum base that served the 42  For another garden cistern, see Jashemski 1977. She argues that its large size and location suggests the presence of young trees and, especially, veget­ ables ( Jashemski 1977, 223–4). See also the garden cisterns and triclinia in I.14.12 and III.7.7, and the cistern and triclinium off a peristyle in I.13.16. On water technology in Roman gardens, see Jansen 2018.

unobserved cistern neck. A semicircular feature attached to the northern side of the cistern head could represent either a secondary head or a small basin. An inlet passes horizontally through the eastern side of the cistern mouth. This feature was described and drawn by Spano, who wrote that it was fed by a large semicircular tank for capturing rain­ water, abutting the triclinium.43 Cistern 3 Location: VIII.7.5–8 (later VIII.7.9–11) Rooms 44, 45; Trench 2000 Relevant SUs: 2055, 2056, 2059, 2501, 2502, 2503, 2504, 2505, 2506, 2509, 2511, 2515, 2516 Measurements: Body Interior: 7.4 m long; 1.5 m wide; 1.8 m high; volume 17.5 m3   Neck Interior: 0.6 m diameter Fill: 2508, 2512, 2513, 2514 Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 2.2) 43  See Archival Finds 380 and 383 in Chapter 4. Spano 1910a, 264, fig. 5. The well (Archival Find 450) also was mentioned by Spano (1910a, 267–8).

Table 19.2.01  Estimates of water entering each cistern during a rainstorm

PARP:PS Cistern 3 (through Phase 4c; VIII.7.5–8) PARP:PS Cistern 3 (from Phase 5a onward; VIII.7.9–11) PARP:PS Cistern 4 PARP:PS Cistern 5 PARP:PS Cistern 8 PARP:PS Cistern 10 Pompeii: Casa dei Capitelli Figurati (VII.4.57)45 Pompeii: Casa della Caccia Antica (VII.4.48) Pompeii: Casa dei Capitelli Colorati (VII.4.51) Pompeii: House of Sallust (VI.2.4): Cisterns 1 and 246 Pompeii: House of Sallust (VI.2.4): Cistern 347 Pompeii: Casa dei Ceii (I.6.15)48 Pompeii: Casa di Pansa (VI.6.1): two cisterns for the house49 Pompeii: Casa di Pansa (VI.6.1): cistern for the shops Cosa: Square V-D, West Block, Lot 550 Cosa: Squares V/VI-D/E, East Block, Northeast House51 Cosa: Squares V/VI-D/E, East Block, House of the Skeleton52 Cosa: Square V-D, West Block, Southwest House53

Capacity44 (1 m3 = 1,000 L)

Area of roof Ratio of cistern draining into capacity to roof cistern area (m3:m2)

17,500 L 17,500 L 1,200 L 20,000 L 2,000–4,000 L 11,500 L 99,000 L 75,380 L 69,000 L 94,190 L (total) 4,000 L 44,580 L 75,000 L (total) 80,000 L 29,000 L 28,000 L 65,000 L 9,000 L

385 m2 192 m2 192 m2 385 m2 185 m2 204 m2 225 m2 220 m2 200 m2 340 m2 210 m2 90–130 m2 450–510 m2 400–500 m2 140 m2 150 m2 310 m2 100 m2

1:22 1:11 1:160 1:19 1:93–1:46 1:18 1:2 1:3 1:3 1:4 1:52 1:3–1:2 1:7–1:6 1:6–1:5 1:5 1:5 1:5 1:11

Volume of rainwater falling on property during a summer storm (10 mm) 3,850 L (22% full) 1,920 L (11% full) 1,920 L (160% full) 3,850 L (19% full) 1,850 L (46–93% full) 2,040 L (18% full) 2,250 L (2% full) 2,200 L (3% full) 2,000 L (3% full) 3,400 L (4% full) 2,100 L (52% full) 900–1,300 L (2–3% full) 4,500–5,100 L (6–7% full) 4,000–5,000 L (5–6% full) 1,400 L (5% full) 1,500 L (5% full) 3,100 L (5% full) 1,000 L (11% full)

Volume of rainwater falling on property during June–August (90 mm) 34,650 L (198% full) 17,280 L (99% full) 17,280 L (1,440% full) 34,650 L (173% full) 16,650 L (416–833% full) 18,360 L (160% full) 20,250 L (21% full) 19,800 L (26% full) 18,000 L (26% full) 30,600 L (33% full) 18,900 L (473% full) 8,100–11,700 L (18–26% full) 40,500–45,900 L (54–61% full) 36,000–45,000 L (45–56% full) 12,600 L (43% full) 13,500 L (48% full) 27,900 L (43% full) 9,000 L (100% full)

44  To simulate the performance of cisterns during extreme circumstances we have utilized their maximum theoretical capacities. Many cistern linings preserve water marks at or below the spring of the vault, which some have argued indicates the normal fill level (e.g., Sear 2006, 189–90; Wilson 2008, 289). We know little about the dynamics of hydraulic wear and residue deposition on ancient plasters, though. It has not been proven which water levels these marks indicate—we do not know how long water must sit in order to leave a mark on opus signinum (do the marks reflect long periods of stagnation, such as a wet spring when the cistern is not needed and is closed off, or perhaps the abandonment of the site?) or how marks might be affected by repeated filling, emptying, and even cleaning (are we left with only the most recent marks?). 45  Sear 2006, 199, which also provided the data for the Casa della Caccia Antica (VII.4.48) and the Casa dei Capitelli Colorati (VII.4.51). 46  Both fed by the same roof system; Laidlaw and Stella 2014, 90, 93–4, 179–80, 255–64.    47  Laidlaw and Stella 2014, 108, 255–64. See the comment about this cistern in note 34, above. 48  Michel 1990, 54.    49  Dessales 2008, 38–9, which also provided data for the cistern employed by the shops. 50  Bruno and Scott 1993, 19.    51  Brown 1980, fig. 81; Bruno and Scott 1993, 43. 52  Brown 1980, fig. 91; Bruno and Scott 1993, 122. Instead of using Bruno and Scott’s smaller volume of 58 m3 without the vault, the volume was recalculated to include the vault and thus facilitate a more appropriate comparison to the cisterns at PARP:PS. 53  Bruno and Scott 1993, 68.

Pompeii (PARP:PS)

0.5

Pompeii (Other)

Cosa

0.4 0.3 0.2

Square V-D, West Block, Southwest House

Squares V/VI-D/E, East Block, House of the Skeleton

Squares V/VI-D/E, East Block, Northeast House

Square V-D, West Block, Lot 5

Casa di Pansa (VI.6.1): cistern for the shops

Casa di Pansa (VI.6.1): two cisterns for the house

Casa dei Ceii (I.6.15)

House of Sallust (VI.2.4): Cistern 3

House of Sallust (VI.2.4): Cisterns 1 and 2

Casa dei Capitelli Colorati (VII.4.51)

Casa della Caccia Antica (VII.4.48)

Casa dei Capitelli Figurati (VII.4.57)

Cistern 10 (1.1.6–9)

Cistern 8 (I.1.3–5)

Cistern 5 (VIII.7.7–8)

Cistern 4 (VIII.7.9–11)

0

Cistern 3 (from Phase 5a onward; VIII.7.9–11)

0.1

Cistern 3 (through Phase 4c; VIII.7.5–8)

Ratio of cistern volume to roof catchment are (cubic meters ÷ square meters)

a p pe n dic es  ·  371

Fig. 19.2.09  The size of each cistern relative to its roof catchment area.

Phase decommissioned: Phase 7b (Subphase 2.5) (in use until the 79 ce eruption) Brief description: A large, vaulted cistern (see Fig. 11.46). Originally, it was fed by the central roof watershed of VIII.7.5–8 (see Fig. 19.2.07). An inlet (SU 2515) in the southeastern wall of the cistern may have housed the end of Drain 8, which probably was fed by a downpipe in the southwest corner of WCU 080. The northeastern wall of the cistern neck is pierced by a hole that may have been an overflow outlet (SU 2059), perhaps leading to Drains 13 and 14. In Phase 4c, Drain 8 was blocked (SU 17104) and the supply to Cistern 3 was replaced by a new hydraulic assembly in Room 37 (Fig.  19.2.10). This complex consisted of a masonry tank (SUs 17042, 22012), which likely was fed by the same downpipe, and two newly built drains that led away from the tank: Drain 9, which headed southwest toward Cistern 3, and Drain 6, which led to the newly built Cistern 6. The assembly may have been built specifically to allow the occupants of the property to direct water from a single downpipe to either or both of these two cisterns,

simply by opening or plugging the holes in the floor of the tank.54 It is also possible that this hy­draul­ic assembly merely took advantage of some other need to rebuild the supply to Cistern 3; perhaps there was a problem with Drain 8, or the changes may have been made to accommodate the other con­tem­por­ary alterations made in the southern corner of Room 37—the installation of several large stones (SUs 17059, 17060) along the former course of Drain 8. In the early first century ce (Phase 5a), the property boundaries in the middle of Insula VIII.7 were reconfigured and Rooms 44, 45, and 46 were converted for outdoor dining (see Fig. 19.2.07). The location of the cistern’s mouth would have been convenient for the cooking activities that now took place in Room 44 (Drain 17 and Cooking Facility 4). As a result of these changes, Cistern 3 was separated from its water supply—the cistern now belonged to VIII.7.9–11 but its original roof watershed remained with property VIII.7.7–8. Therefore, a new drainage system 54  Cf. the settling and diversion systems along Drain 10, which fed Cistern 5, and Drain 16, which later fed Cistern 3.

372  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.2.10  Drain 9 and the masonry tank (SUs 17042, 22012) in Room 37 of VIII.7.7–8; note Drain 7 to the right and Drains 10 and 11 in the bottom left.

was built to supply the cistern with water from the rear half of VIII.7.9–11 and possibly from the roof immediately above the cistern (Drain 16; see Figs. 4.10, 4.11, and 12.09). The system funneled the runoff from a set of downpipes (now lost or obscured) through an ornamental tank and at least one settling basin, then into the cistern via a new inlet that was bored through the southwestern wall of the cistern neck.55 Finally, the original inlet in the southeastern end of the cistern was blocked (SU 2507; see Fig. 11.46). The ren­ov­ations also cut Drain 13, which likely had handled any overflow from the cistern, while the overflow outlet itself was blocked by the construction of a masonry platform against the northeast side of the cistern neck that  may have been  related to food preparation (SU 2023; see Cooking Facility 4). The cistern was repaired in Phase 7a (Subphase 2.4), pos­ sibly in response to damage from seismic activity. It was filled by lapilli during the eruption (SUs 2508, 2512, 2513, 2514; see Fig. 14.26). Cistern 4 Location: VIII.7.9–11 Room 38; Trench 3000 Relevant SUs: 3046, 3059, 3068, 3090 55  Settling basins for removing dirt and debris are a common element of roof runoff systems. In an atrium house, the impluvium performs this function. Both of these methods are more efficient than Vitruvius’ (De Arch. 8.6.15) suggestion of setting up successive cisterns. See Jansen in Binnebeke and Kind 1996, 195–8; Jansen 2007, 259; Klingborg 2017, 38–40.

Measurements:   Body Interior: 1.6 m high; 0.95 m diameter; volume 1.2 m3 Fill: 3005, 3010, 3016, 3037, 3039, 3045 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 3.2) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 3.3) Brief description: An inward curve at the top of the cy­lin­dric­al cistern suggests that it may originally have been bottleshaped.56 It was likely associated with Fish-Salting Vat 2, in use simultaneously; both features were destroyed and filled with the same material (see Figs. 11.23 and 19.6.07). Cistern 5 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 32; Trench 12000 Relevant SUs: 12008, 12115, 12124, 12127, 12161, 12178, 12179 Measurements: Body Exterior (N chamber): 6.8 m long; 2.6 m wide; at least 1.5 m high; walls 22 cm thick Body Interior (S chamber): 4 m long; 1.3 m wide; at least 0.85 m high Total Interior Volume: at least 20 m3 (N chamber: 16 m3; S chamber: 4 m3) Neck Interior: 0.45 m diameter Fill: 12010, 12125, 12142, 12145 Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 12.4) 56  Bottle-shaped cisterns are usually found in colonnades at Pompeii. There are two cisterns of similar shapes and sizes in the atrium of VII.4.56 (Sear 2004). Two unexcavated ones are in the southern peristyle of VII.4.51 (Sear 2006).

a p pe n dic es  ·  373

Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: In Phase 5a the tank in Room 37 that had diverted water from a downpipe in the southwest corner of WCU 080 into Cisterns 3 and 6 was destroyed by the ren­ ov­ations that divided property VIII.7.5–6 from VIII.7.7–8 (see Fig.  19.2.07). The downpipe, and the sizable roof watershed that supplied it, was now directed (via SU 17047 or an earlier termination) into a new cistern (Cistern 5) that was built in the front of VIII.7.7–8.57 This T-shaped cistern was composed of two connected chambers, the northern of which has collapsed (SU 12060; see Fig. 11.17). The southern chamber abutted the earlier Cistern 6. Possible water lines are visible 26 and 37 cm below the top of the southern vault, roughly at the spring of the vault (see Fig.  12.14).58 No trace survived of the original drain that must have supplied the cistern; it likely was destroyed and replaced in Phase 6 by Drain 10, which was able to be diverted either to the street or to the cistern.59 The cistern was repaired in the middle of the first century ce (Phase 6, 57  A ritual dedication may have been made during construction of the cistern (Votives 21 and 22; see Chapter 19.12). The volume of Cistern 5 was only 15 percent greater than that of Cistern 3, which may be a further indication that Cistern 5 was a direct replacement of Cistern 3 and that both were built to receive water from the same source. 58  Cf. Sear 2006, 189–90. 59  This allowed one to flush away the dirt and debris that accumulated on roofs during dry spells. The occupant could watch through the access hatch for the water to become clear, then block the drain and divert the clean water into the cistern (see Chapter 19.6). Some impluvia had two drains for this reason (see note 55 above). Such a system could also prevent overfilling the cistern, but since Cistern 5 is quite large, it is unlikely that this would have happened and it cannot have been the primary intent.

Subphase 12.5). Lapilli found in Drain 10 and a puteal (Archival Find 767) uncovered during the initial excavations indicate that the system remained in use until 79 ce.60 Cistern 6 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 32; Trenches 12000 and 23000 Relevant SUs: 12162, 23006, 23020 Measurements:   Body Interior: at least 0.5 m high   Neck Interior: 0.56 m diameter Fill: 12163, 12167, 12168, 23022 Phase installed: Phase 4c (Subphase 23.1) Phase decommissioned: possibly in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: This cistern was fed by Drain 6, which flowed out from a tank (SUs 17042, 22012) in Room 37 that allowed rainwater to be directed from a downpipe in WCU 080 into Cistern 3 and/or Cistern 6. In the early Imperial period (Phase 5a, Subphases 12.4 and 23.2), Drain 6 was put out of use as a result of shifting property boundaries and the outlet was sealed (SU 23012; see Fig. 19.2.07). The upper part of the cistern neck was partially destroyed (SU 23024) and the feature was heavily modified. A preparatory layer of compacted sediment was put down (SU 23023) and at least four amphorae were laid on top (east to west: SUs 23013, 23014, 23015, 23021; Fig. 19.2.11). The amphorae were arranged sideby-side horizontally with alternating orientations. Large, 30 cm holes were drilled through the sides of each amphora, placed so that each vessel communicated with the next. 60  See note 23 above.

Fig. 19.2.11  The row of amphorae next to Cistern 6 in Room 32 of VIII.7.7–8.

374  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i The eastern amphora had a larger hole to allow access between it and the cistern neck. The vessels were mortared together (SU 23010) and a new cistern mouth and head were built above them (SUs 12162, 23006).61 These changes occurred at the same time that Cistern 5 was installed abutting Cistern 6 to the east. A few decades later (Phase 6), Drains 10 and 11 were installed above the amphorae feature and the upper neck of Cistern 6 was cut back to accommodate the side of Drain 10. The addition of the new cistern mouth indicates that the feature remained in use after the amphorae were installed. The probable presence in 79 ce of a puteal (Archival Find 767) atop the head suggests it remained open alongside Cistern 5.62 The cistern was filled by nearly sterile layers (SUs 12163, 12167, 12168, 23022) that probably date from after the eruption. The amphorae also remained empty until sometime after the city’s destruction, when they were partly filled (SUs 23016, 23017, 23018) by soil mixed with a significant amount of lapilli, a large quantity of modern roots, and assorted ­artifactual and ecofactual material. This

fill may have entered the system through breaks in one or more amphora bodies, through the opening in the cistern neck, or through a hypothetical ori­g in­al access point to the system. All four amphorae are the Punic type T-5.2.3.1 from Tunisia, dating between 220/210 and 175/170 bce and ori­g in­ al­ly intended to carry wine or fish sauce.63 It is a cy­lin­ dric­al, neckless shape that is not commonly found at Pompeii—in fact, the typology’s developer was not aware of any ex­amples found in mainland Italy, although a few have been found since.64 They are, however, found in the Mediterranean coast of Iberia, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Sicily, and North Africa. A similar installation exists at Emporiae (Fig. 19.2.12).65 This set of twenty-one to twenty-four upright amphorae arranged in an oval was excavated by Emili Gandia in 1909 and immediately described as a water filter.66 It is difficult to determine the original number of amphorae, as the excavation notebooks, drawings, and current reconstruction all give different counts. Just like the four examples

61  A similar construction sat above Waste Feature 23. It consisted of a row of seven amphorae in alternating directions on top of a masonry void. Five of the amphorae were cylindrical Maña C2 variants with Tunisian fabrics (third to first century bce); the other two were Dressel 1 amphorae from the Vesuvian area (second to first century bce). I will note, without agenda, that Waste Feature 23 is not far from the mouth of an undated and unexcavated possible cistern (Cistern 11). The group of three amphorae atop Waste Feature 11 also bears some similarity to this structure. Unfortunately, little of either feature survives so their precise purposes remain obscure. 62  See note 23 above.

63  Ramon Torres 1995. 64  Ramon Torres 1995, 625, map 63. A sherd was found at Velia, for example (Gassner and Trapichler 2010, 167–8). No other sherds of this type were recovered in our excavations, but one sherd of the related form T-5.2.3.2 was found in SU 60012. 65  For a detailed discussion of this installation, see Burés Vilaseca 1998, 162–4. 66  This interpretation has been repeated without question for the last century. See, e.g., Hodge (2002, 273–9) who also discusses water filtration systems attached to aqueducts.

Fig. 19.2.12  Water filtration system at Emporiae. Photo courtesy of C. Motz.

a p pe n dic es  ·  375 from PARP:PS, all of the amphorae are of the Tunisian type T-5.2.3.1.67 Each amphora is oriented with its mouth at the top and a hole has been punched in the body wall at a uniform height toward the bottom of each amphora. All the holes face toward the interior of the oval. According to the common reconstruction, the amphorae would have been filled with sand, gravel, or another filtering substance. Water would have been poured into the mouths of the amphorae where it would have been filtered by the matrix inside, and clean water would come out through the bottom hole. The am­phorae were mortared together, but the amphorae are functionally independent and there are no side holes that would allow water to circulate among them. There is no sign of supply or drainage channels leading to or from the fixture.68 It is not certain that the structure at Emporiae was a utilitarian water filter. The lack of a conduit or other per­ man­ent source poses a real problem, as it would require manual filling of the structure. Since there is no lateral communication between the amphorae, each one would need to be filled individually. The structure’s proximity to the sanctuary of Asclepius has prompted the suggestion that it may have been the site of a purifying initiation ritual for which facilities have been found at other sanctuaries of Asclepius.69 This proposed activity differs only in having a religious rather than functional nature, and it would still involve pouring water through the amphorae. A structure at Utica that utilizes the same amphora type has been offered as comparanda, but the details of its construction remain obscure.70 Despite the uncertainty surrounding the interpretation of the feature at Emporiae, alignments or groupings of am­phorae excavated elsewhere have frequently been identified as filters, often by comparison to this installation. Most of these, however, do not feature any holes or, in the cases where the amphorae are lined up end-to-end, can be more easily interpreted as drains or water channels.71 There are countless more examples of amphorae being used in the construction of walls, floors, and other features, often to help lighten the structure.72 Once again, these do not feature the characteristic holes (aligned or not) punched

67  Ramon Torres 1995, 37, nn. 172 and 173. 68  Emporiae did not have an aqueduct, so the residents obtained their water from cisterns and wells. 69  Ruiz de Arbulo 1995. 70  Cintas 1976, 86–7, pl. LIV. 71  See Peña 2007, 180–1. The cylindrical shape of the T-5.2.3.1 type lends itself to reuse as a drainpipe or in situations where one might wish to have little or no gap between vessels or pipes set side-by-side. The type was used in several drains at Emporiae (Burés Vilaseca 1998, 135–6). 72  e.g., Pesavento Mattioli 1998; Peña 2007, 170–92.

into the amphora bodies, which must have a functional purpose. In conclusion, it is possible that the four amphorae leading into Cistern 6 functioned as a water filter fed by an unknown source, although we must allow for the alternate explanation that they formed part of some other geo­tech­ nic­al or hydrogeological feature that may or may not have been connected to the cistern.73 We can make favorable comparisons to the examples at Emporiae and Utica, especially since all three installations employ exactly the same type of reused amphora. The lack of evidence for a filtering medium does not necessarily pose a problem. Even if our amphorae were not filled with sand, charcoal, or another substance, they may still have acted to remove impurities in exactly the same way that Vitruvius describes setting up successive cisterns to filter water, although that method relies on gravity to slowly pull sediment out of the water rather than removing it by passing the water through a true filter.74 Unfortunately, these am­phorae were revealed within a very small excavated area, and the wider phys­ic­al context of the subsurface remains is unknown. Cistern 7 Location: VIII.7.5–6 Room 20; Trench 25000 Relevant SUs: 25004, 25045, 25046 Measurements:   Body Exterior: at least 2.5 m high Neck Interior: (first) 0.6 m diameter; (second) 0.4 m diameter Fill: 25005 Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 25.2a); recommissioned in Phase 7a (Subphase 25.6) Phase decommissioned: first decommissioned in Phase 5a (Subphase 25.4); the second phase was in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: Only part of the body was exposed. In Phase 5a a roof was added to cover Room 20 and the first cistern mouth was destroyed and covered by a limestone block (SU 25042). A new neck was later built to reopen the cistern in Phase 7a (SU 25004; see Fig. 14.20). A puteal found in this room during the earliest excavations (Archival Find 403; Fig. 19.2.04) suggests that this latest version of the cistern remained in use until the eruption.75 Cistern 8 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 118; Trench 51000 Relevant SUs: 51015, 51121, 51155 Measurements:   Body Exterior: 2.4 m long; 1.8 m wide; 2.0 m high

73  For amphorae reused in geotechnical or hydrogeological features, see Peña 2007, 181–92. 74 Vitruvius, De Arch. 8.6.15.   75  See note 23 above.

376  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.2.13  The interior of Cistern 10 in Rooms 123–124 of I.1.6–9.

Body Interior: volume approximately 2–4 m3, assuming the walls are 20–40 cm thick   Neck Interior: 0.7 m long; 0.6 m wide Fill: 51020, 51145, 51146 Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 51.4) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 51.6) Brief description: This cistern had an unusual flat roof and rect­ angu­lar opening (see Fig.  11.40). It was resurfaced during the late first century bce (Phase 4c, Subphase 51.5), the same period when heavy traffic prompted the laying of new floors (SUs 51022, 51021, 51014). When Rooms 118 and 119 were converted for retail in Phase 5a, the cistern was filled and covered to make way for a masonry counter. Cistern 9 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 114; Trench 59000 Relevant SUs: 59032, 59039 Measurements:   Neck Interior: 0.4 m diameter Fill: 59031, 59033 Phase installed: Phase 4c (Subphase 59.5) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 59.6) Brief description: Only a meter of the cylindrical, truncated neck could be observed. The cistern replaced or supplemented a well located less than a meter to the west. It was destroyed when the rear of the property was renovated to create Rooms 110 and 114, among other changes.

Cistern 10 Location: I.1.6–9 Rooms 123, 124 Relevant SUs: none Measurements: Body Interior: 4.8 m long; 1.3 m wide; 1.9 m high; volume 11.5 m3   Mouth Interior: 0.45 m diameter (current opening) Phase installed: during or before Phase 5a Phase decommissioned: likely in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b), since the cistern was not filled and is in relatively good condition Brief description: Unexcavated, vaulted cistern that remains accessible from the surface (Fig. 19.2.13). An inlet (10.5 cm diameter) is visible in the northeastern wall. When inspected in 2017, the mouth in the southwest corner had begun to collapse and debris from the surface had fallen in. The cistern sits below the southeastern walls of Rooms 131 and 133, which date to Phases 5a and 6, providing a terminus ante quem. Cistern 11 Location: VIII.7.13–15 Room 78 Relevant SUs: none Measurements: Capstone Interior: 39.0 cm diameter with 2.5 cm lip (allowing a 44.0 cm diameter cover) Phase installed: unknown

a p pe n dic es  ·  377 Phase decommissioned: possibly in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b), since the cistern head may have been at the final floor level Brief description: Unexcavated capstone visible on the surface in the southeast corner of Room 78. Cistern 12 Location: VIII.7.9–11 Room 55 Relevant SUs: 15042

Brief description: The exterior of a probable cistern wall was discovered in the northwest corner of Trench 15000. Only a small portion was visible but a large void was identified behind it. Cistern 13 Location: I.1.2 Room 17 Brief description: This square anomaly was identified by ground penetrating radar and may be a cistern or a well (see Chapter 5).

c h a pt e r 1 9. 3

The Cooking Facilities of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Jenny R. Kreiger

The cooking facilities found in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 form a representative sample of the types of permanent cookingrelated features used by the residents of these insulae, especially from the era of transition toward the more commercialized neighborhood in the Early Imperial period (Phase 5) through to the last years of occupation. Many of the rooms across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 could have served a variety of functions, so a “cooking facility” does not designate a room used exclusively for cooking, but rather a permanent fixture or group of closely related fixtures that could have been used for cooking (among other functions, like heating). Much of the domestic cooking in Pompeii prob­ ably took place on portable cooking equipment like braziers, so the permanent fixtures represent only part of the cooking activity that may have taken place within a property.76 Permanent fixtures, however, represent a commitment on the part of a building’s inhabitants to cooking in a given space, and so they are important for understanding the functions of spaces.77 Given the limits of the evidence, we can still safely infer that the nature of cooking in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 changed over time; we may also speculate about an increase in output in the early first century ce, when permanent cooking fixtures grew more common. Through both excavation and archival research we identified twelve cooking facilities in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 with varying degrees of certainty. In order to better understand our cooking facilities in a citywide context, we refer to Foss’s typology of Pompeian hearths, stoves, and ovens whenever possible.78 At the end of this chapter, a catalog provides brief descriptions of each cooking facility and some salient measurements for reference. Additional information on cooking and diet can be inferred from food remains found in drains or other deposits; see Chapter 19.5 (Drains) and refer to the forthcoming publication of environmental finds from this site. 76  On the range of equipment used in domestic and commercial cooking, see Foss 1994, 17–20; Liversidge 1958. 77 Ellis frames this commitment as a form of “confidence” that an investment in building a permanent cooking facility would be rewarded, as in a taberna or other food retailing space. Ellis 2018, 175. 78  Foss 1994, 78–83.

Analysis Types of cooking facilities Across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 we found cooking features appropriate for domestic and commercial food production (Fig. 19.3.01). Five of these are hearths or stoves (Foss type HE or ST), three are small ovens (Foss type SO), and the other six are of unknown, ambiguous, or mixed types (Fig.  19.3.02). Notably lacking are large ovens (Foss type LO) of the sort used in commercial bakeries; perhaps the inhabitants of these insulae obtained their bread at the pistrinae identified in nearby I.3, I.4, and VIII.4.79 Hearths, stoves, and small ovens allow for the production of a range of foods, whether cooked in vessels over charcoal, baked, or simply prepared cold.80 Two of the hearths (Cooking Facilities 7 and 12) were in­corp­ or­ated directly into bar counters (Bar Counters 1 and 4), bringing the cooking (or at least reheating) of food into direct contact with its sale to the public.

Development over time The first evidence for cooking on permanent fixtures in these insulae appears in the Early Imperial period (Phase 5), when seven new facilities appeared. Property I.1.1–2 gained two bar counters at this time.81 The counter in Room 101 contained a U-shaped hearth at one end (Cooking Facility 7), while nearby a large stove (Cooking Facility 8) probably supplied hot food for the double-counter in Room 106.82 Property I.1.3–5 gained an oven (Cooking Facility 9) around the same time (see Figs.  11.42 and 12.36), perhaps to serve the new bar in street-front Room 118, and in Property I.1.9 a hearth (Cooking Facility 12) appeared in a new bar counter (Bar Counter 4) in 79  Monteix 2016a, fig. 7.1. 80  Salza Prina Ricotti (1987, 118–19) and Foss (1994, 81) disagree on whether stove-like features without raised edges were used for cooking or only cold work; I would argue that any flat work surface could be used for cold work if needed. 81  For additional discussion of the Augustan-period bar counters in I.1, see Ellis 2018, 159–63, and Chapter 19.1 “Bar Counters,” above. 82  When these features were built, properties I.1.1/10 and I.1.2 were united; they split into two separate properties in Phase 7.

a p pe n dic es  ·  379

Fig. 19.3.01  The distribution of cooking facilities across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

380  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Room 132. Across the street in Property VIII.7.9–11, a hearth and oven (Cooking Facility 4; see Fig. 12.10) were built around the same time as a masonry triclinium (SU 2002) at the rear of the building in Rooms 44–6, while another possible cooking facility was constructed in Room 66 of Property VIII.7.12 (Cooking Facility 6; see Fig. 12.16). Slightly later in Phase 5b, a large L-shaped bench including a hearth or small oven was added to Room 53 of Property VIII.7.9–11 (Cooking Facility 5). However the residents of and visitors to this neighborhood may have fed themselves before, in the Early Imperial period they acquired at least seven new cooking facilities, three of which probably supplied hot food directly to retail counters as well as to other parts of their respective properties. The growth of cooking facilities continued through the mid- to late first century ce, albeit at a slower rate. The Phase 5a bar counter in I.1.6–9 (Bar Counter 4, containing Cooking Facility 12) gained a new wing shortly before 62 ce. Property VIII.7.5–6 saw the installation of a small oven and a large stove (Cooking Facility 1) in Phase 7, between 62 and 79 ce (see Figs.  14.17 and 14.18). Facilities that we identified through archival records (Cooking Facility 2, 10, 11) could not be dated securely, but the fact that they were visible to the early excavators suggests that these facilities were in use from Phase 7, if not earlier.

Spatial distribution

Fig. 19.3.02  Examples of the three principal types of cooking facilities: top, hearth (Cooking Facility 4 in Room 44 of VIII.7.9–11); middle, stove (Cooking Facility 8 in Room 108 of I.1.2); and bottom, small oven (Cooking Facility 9 in Room 110 of I.1.3–5).

The spatial distribution of the cooking facilities may also reflect the commercial nature of much of the cooking in this neighborhood (see Fig. 19.3.01). Four cooking facilities are located in rooms that open onto the street, and three more would have been at least partly visible from the street.83 Two cooking facilities not visible from the street (Cooking Facilities 4 and 5) were located near dining areas at the back of VIII.7.9–11 (see Figs. 12.10 and 12.51). Many of the cooking facilities also had close spatial relationships with water- and waste-related features (cisterns, drains, toilets, and cesspits); this clustering of cooking, waste disposal, and water supply functions is typical of Pompeian domestic and commercial architecture.84 Overall, the chronological and spatial distributions of the cooking facilities reflect the transition from industrial to commercial activities in the area of the Porta Stabia in the Early Imperial period (Phase 5). The catalog below describes each cooking facility in turn, noting the dimensions, nature of the structure, and any problems of interpretation.

83  This assumes, of course, that there were no curtains, screens, or other barriers in addition to the walls. 84  See especially Cooking Facilities 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8. On the relationships of kitchens to toilets and other water features, see Jansen 1997, 128–33.

a p pe n dic es  ·  381

Catalog Cooking Facility 1 Location: VIII.7.5–6 Rooms 15 and 13 Relevant SUs: 11104, 11183, 11145, 16008, 16015 Measurements: Oven exterior: c. 130 cm high (above contemporary floor), 70 × 60 cm at base Oven interior chamber: 80 cm deep at center, 40 cm wide, 60 cm high at center Oven aperture: 37 cm wide, 42 cm high Platform: c. 140 cm wide, c. 90 cm deep, 113–25 cm high “Bridge”: c. 20 cm high, c. 62 cm wide, c. 90 cm deep Phase installed: Phase 7a (Subphases 11.7, 16.5) Brief description: Part of a kitchen-building project in Rooms 13 and 15 in Phase 7a, this cooking facility includes both a small oven and a platform (either a stove or a cold work surface; see Figs. 14.17 and 14.18). The small oven (Foss type SO) was built in the small segment of wall that forms the southern part of the doorway between the two rooms, with its opening in Room 15. The opening, framed by four stone blocks and a few pieces of tile, gives onto a U-shaped tile cooking surface of the same width. The interior chamber has the “beehive” profile typical of this type of domestic oven at Pompeii. The oven rests on a masonry pedestal abutting the southern wall of Room 15, and in the exterior one can clearly see the large piece of roofing tile that serves as the cooking chamber’s floor. The stove (Foss type ST1) or cold work surface comprises two parts: a rectangular opus incertum platform, plus a lower “bridge” that runs from under the stove to the wall below the oven’s opening, effectively connecting the two features. The top of the platform lacks any tile cooking surface, backsplash, or raised edge of the sorts usually associated with stoves; perhaps a layer of tile was lost over time, or perhaps the feature was never intended for hot work, given the proximity of the oven. Cooking Facility 2 Location: VIII.7.5–6 Room 20 Relevant SUs: n/a (archival identification) Measurements: n/a (archival identification) Phase installed: unknown Brief description: Fiorelli, Mau, and Viola all identify VIII.7.5–6 Room 20 as a kitchen; Mau specifies that he saw a possible hearth here.85 Identified during excavation were a cistern (Cistern 7, originally built in Phase 3a, closed in Phase 5a, and reopened in Phase 7a), three features for waste disposal (Waste Feature 2, Phase 4a; Waste Feature 3, Phase 5a; Waste Feature 22, Phase 7a), and some deposits of cooking 85  Fiorelli 1875, 131; Mau 1875, 164; Viola 1879, 17. See Chapter 4.

ash and kitchen waste (SU 25008, Phase 6; SU 25007, Phase 7a). It is not clear which of these features, if any of them, was Mau’s “hearth.” At any rate, waste or ash from Cooking Facility 1, built a few rooms away in Phase 7a, may have made its way here for disposal. Cooking Facility 3 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 32 Relevant SUs: 23005 Measurements: Platform: c. 170 cm wide at front edge, c. 75 cm deep at the left end Phase installed: Phase 6 (Subphase 23.3) Brief description: This feature was identified as a hearth/ stove (cf. Foss type ST1, SU 58093) or bench in the archival records. SU 23005 is the construction of the platform itself; SUs 12403, 12404, 12405, 81848, 81849, and 81850 form the wall and tile “hood” above the platform (some of which is modern reconstruction). The feature is framed by WS 127 and 129. Also in Room 32, and in use at the same time as this cooking facility, were two large cisterns (Cisterns 5 and 6); the mouth of Cistern 6 abutted the base of the hearth/stove. This property is associated with M. Surus Garasenus, whose military diploma was found in one of its rooms.86 Room 32, with its hearth/stove, massive cisterns, and wide retail threshold (Threshold 8), appears to have been a workshop or retail location of some sort, but the exact nature of the work done there remains unknown. Cooking Facility 4 Location: VIII.7.9–11 Room 44 Relevant SUs: 2070 Measurements:   Tile hearth: c. 63 cm deep, c. 35 to 38 cm wide Oven: c. 69 cm deep, c. 71 cm wide; interior chamber diameter c. 38 cm Maximum preserved height over contemporary floor: c. 63 cm at back left corner of hearth, c. 18 to 25 cm at right of oven Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 2.3) Brief description: The feature, located against the southern wall of Room 44, combines a small hearth or stove (Foss type HE2 or ST3) on its left side with a small oven (Foss type SO) on its right side (see Fig. 12.10). It consists of tiles set vertically to frame a rectangular space, topped by a tile cooking surface. The pieces of tile forming the front half of the cooking surface come in several colors and have high lips of various profiles; most likely they are reused pieces of roofing tiles. Covering the rear half of the cook86  CIL X 867 = XVI 15; Della Corte 1965, 263; GdS 22 (1874), 53–4. See Chapter 4.

382  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i ing surface, there seems to be a “burner” of tile and cement: two stacks of mortared tile with a space between for a heat source and additional tiles across the top to support a vessel.87 We originally interpreted the right portion of the feature as a masonry cooking stand, but on closer exam­in­ ation (and in comparison with Mau’s description), a small oven seems more likely. A square foundation of mortared rubble contains a circular cooking chamber that opens to the front, with a piece of tile forming the “lintel” of the opening. The rubble cleared from above the cooking chamber may represent the collapse of the oven’s superstructure.88 In the same room there is another feature that may have been related to food preparation (SU 2023). This rect­angu­ lar masonry platform had a plaster coating and a reused grindstone (or cistern head?) set into one end.89 Users of the feature may have taken advantage of the adjacent cistern (Cistern 3) or drain (Drain 17). Otherwise, the feature’s exact function remains unclear. Waste Feature 4 is also near Cooking Facility 4, located in the alcove in the southeast corner of Room 44. Cooking Facility 5 Location: VIII.7.9–11 Room 53 Relevant SUs: 19014 Measurements: Portion abutting the south wall of Room 53: c. 170 cm long, 52 cm deep Portion extending into the center of the room: c. 200 cm long, c. 40 cm wide Maximum preserved height of counter: c. 80 cm (but badly damaged and reconstructed) Chamber: 49 cm wide, 50 cm deep, 37 cm high Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 19.3) Brief description: This unusual feature takes the form of an L-shaped bench or counter with one wing against the southern wall of Room 53, the other projecting northward into the middle of the room (see Fig. 12.51). Near the southeastern corner of the room, the feature contains a hearth or oven (or perhaps some combination of the two; Foss type ST3 or SO). A rectangular recess in the vertical face of the feature has the stone bottom and sides and tile “lintel” typical of oven openings, but the recess is low and shallow in proportion to its width, making for a strangely small, undomed oven chamber. The large tile 87  See description of burners in Jansen 1997, 128–33. 88  Cf. the small ovens identified by Foss in I.4.13–16, I.4.5+25, VII.14.5+17–19, VII.14.19 (Foss 1994, 81–2). 89 There remains some doubt about the purpose of this grindstone/ puteal; it may have some relation to the system of drains and cisterns in Room 44. See also Cistern 3.

“lintel” could have served as a cooking surface in its own right, and the square recess may have offered storage space for fuel rather than a cooking chamber. The rest of the feature was poorly preserved, but in its original state the counter probably offered additional space for cooking or preparation. Cooking Facility 6 Location: VIII.7.12 Room 66 Relevant SUs: 9011 Measurements: 90 × 95 cm Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 9.3) Brief description: Fiorelli noted the presence of a kitchen in VIII.7.12, but did not specify the room.90 A masonry platform covered in opus signinum was found in Room 66 in as­so­ci­ ation with a tank (SU 9013) and a cesspit (Waste Feature 13). The opus signinum coating on the platform had originally extended over the tank as well (see Fig. 12.16). Although the exact functions of the platform and tank are not known, it is clear that they were constructed to be used together, and we identified the platform as a potential cooking surface. Cooking Facility 7 Location: I.1.1 Relevant SUs: 50065 (see also Bar Counter 1) Measurements: n/a (modern reconstruction) Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 50.6) Brief description: Archival records indicate that this bar counter contained a U-shaped hearth (Foss type HE4), now reconstructed after Mau’s description.91 Cooking Facility 8 Location: I.1.2 Room 108 Relevant SUs: 58093 Measurements: Heights: 115 cm at high end of left side wall; 90 cm at low end of left side wall; cooking surface is c. 56 cm above con­tem­por­ary floor   Width: 148 cm   Cooking surface: 95 cm wide, 107 cm deep Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 58.4) Brief description: This stove feature, built against the western wall of Room 108, consists of a tile-topped masonry platform with short side walls on top of the platform at either end (cf. Foss type ST1 and a similar stove in I.7.10; see Fig. 12.47). The tops of the side walls are degraded, so their original heights and finishes are unknown. The distance between them (95 cm), however, suggests that they ­prob­ably served to contain the cooking taking place on the 90  Fiorelli 1875, 131; Mau 1875, 169; Viola 1879, 17. 91  Fiorelli 1875, 32; Mau 1875, 25; Viola 1879, 8.

a p pe n dic es  ·  383 platform, rather than to support a vessel, a grill, etc., over the platform. There was a cesspit (Waste Feature 17) in the same room. Cooking Facility 9 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 110 Relevant SUs: 59002 Measurements: Surviving oven architecture: 176 cm wide, 150 cm deep, 61 cm high   Oven opening: c. 20 × 20 cm   Chamber diameter: 79 cm Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 59.6) Brief description: An oven (Foss type SO) abuts WF 1101 and encloses the superstructure of a closed well in its foundations (see Figs. 11.42 and 12.36). The oven had a round, tile-floored cooking chamber over a square foundation, and its opening consisted of large tiles for the “lintel” and “threshold” and stones forming the “posts” on each side. These remains appear to have been heavily reconstructed in modern times. Cooking Facility 10 Location: I.1.3 Room 112 Relevant SUs: n/a (archival identification) Measurements: n/a (archival identification) Phase installed: n/a (archival identification) Brief description: Fiorelli and Viola identify I.1.3 Room 112 as a kitchen, while Mau describes it only as a room with a latrine.92 92  Fiorelli 1875, 33; Mau 1875, 29; Viola 1879, 9.

Cooking Facility 11 Location: I.1.6–9 Room 123 Relevant SUs: n/a (archival identification) Measurements: Hearth: c. 185 cm wide, c. 80 cm deep, c. 100 cm high (above modern ground level) Phase installed: unknown Brief description: Fiorelli and Viola describe a hearth with a “cooker” in its right end in I.1.8, Room 123. Mau elaborates: the hearth has a cooking pot at its left end and three spots for warming vessels (burners?).93 The feature is poorly preserved but still visible in the niche in the southern wall of the room. Cooking Facility 12 Location: I.1.6–9 Room 132 Relevant SUs: 56007, 56108, 56124 (see also Bar Counter 4) Measurements: n/a (archival identification) Phase installed: 56007, 56108: Phase 5a (Subphase 56.6); 56124: Phase 6 (Subphase 56.7) Brief description: This earlier part of this bar counter (SUs 56007, 56108) is believed to have included a hearth at its eastern end, now completely obscured by modern reconstruction.94 The later part (SU 56124) contained one inset dolium.

93  Fiorelli 1875, 33; Mau 1875, 30–1; Viola 1879, 9. 94  Ellis 2018, 162–3.

c h a pt e r 1 9. 4

The Doorstops of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Steven J. R. Ellis

Stone doorstops, used to lock street-side doorways of varying widths, are a curious and often overlooked feature of Vesuvian cities. These U-shaped blocks of lava were set into the floor about 1.5 m behind the doorway; one end of a beam (the repagulum) would be wedged into the block, the other end jammed against the door to prevent it from being pushed open from the outside (Fig. 19.4.01).

Analysis Our excavations recovered six doorstops, notably all in sequences of two; that is, in each case one was ultimately

Fig. 19.4.01  Plaster cast of doorstop system at I.7.10. Inset: in situ doorstop (Doorstop 6) in Room 106 of I.1.2.

replaced by another in a later phase (Fig. 19.4.02). In the Early Imperial period (Phase 5), three shopfronts—VIII.7.12, I.1.2, and I.1.4—were outfitted with shuttered thresholds, masonry counters, and street-side doors with doorstops, and all of these doorstops were later replaced with newer (but essentially identical) versions. Doorstop 2 (Phase 6) replaced Doorstop 1 (Phase 5a) (see Fig. 13.12), Doorstop 4 (Phase 5a) replaced Doorstop 3 (Phase 4b) (Fig. 19.4.03), and Doorstop 6 (Phase 5b) replaced Doorstop 5 (Phase 5a). Why these shopfronts in particular required this type (or this extra level) of locking mechanism is unknown, but it is clear that they also required it over successive developments to each space. It is also unknown why the earlier doorstops were not simply lifted and reused, particularly when their replacements appeared in the following phase. In only one instance is there an apparent reason for the redundancy: Doorstop 3 (Phase 4b) was completely concealed by a phase of activity (Phase 4c) before the newer Doorstop 4 was installed in the following phase (Phase 5a), almost directly above the (forgotten and lost?) earlier piece. Whatever the exact circumstances of their obsolescence and replacement, these locking devices reflect ongoing, localized, and deliberate planning for the security of these three particular streetside spaces. Setting these doorstops within a broader urban context is difficult given that any systematic survey of the distribution of doorstops throughout Pompeii is thwarted by the modern layers of gravel that so often conceal the latest floor surface, as well as by a general failure to report on them in the archival sources. Doorstops of this type are not well known beyond the Vesuvian cities for a few possible reasons. The first is a general scholarly disinterest in the locking devices of buildings, commercial or otherwise. Another is the plain fact that, if doorstops are difficult to plot in Pompeii, they are all the more so elsewhere due to overgrown vegetation on the one hand, and efforts to cover and protect ancient floor surfaces on the other. Perhaps more interesting in terms of urban developments, however, is that these locking mechanisms may not have remained in use beyond the first century ce, and thus among the majority of surviving Roman cities. No examples are known at Ostia, for example, where we might

a p pe n dic es  ·  385

Fig. 19.4.02  The distribution of doorstops across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

386  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.4.03  The replacement of Doorstop 3 (below) with Doorstop 4 (above) in Room 118 of I.1.3–5.

otherwise expect to see them as regularly as we do in Pompeii. What type of locking device replaced this most basic of systems in the cities that post-date the Vesuvian eruption is not presently known. The cuttings that survive in the door jambs and frames from all periods suggest a range of locking systems. Alternatively, the answer might simply be that this kind of specialized feature—which, like shuttered thresholds and masonry counters—were signatures of the Early Empire and came to be regarded as unnecessary in later periods.

Catalog Doorstop 1 Location: VIII.7.12 Room 58; Trench 18000 Relevant SUs: 18018 Measurement: 21 × 20 cm Stone type: Lava Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 18.4) Brief description: This doorstop was installed within the floor surface (SU 18019) of Room 58, 1.24 m behind the threshold (Threshold 12; see Fig.  13.12). The northern portion was later destroyed, probably during the raising of the floor surface in Subphase 18.5 (Phase 6); it was at this time that Doorstop 2 was installed almost directly above Doorstop 1. Doorstop 2 Location: VIII.7.12 Room 58; Trench 18000 Relevant SUs: 18010 Measurement: 24 × 21 cm

Stone type: Lava Phase installed: Phase 6 (Subphase 18.5) Brief description: This doorstop was installed into the floor surface (SU 18009) during Subphase 18.5 (Phase 6), 1.23 m behind the threshold (Threshold 12; see Fig.  13.12). It ef­fect­ive­ly replaced the earlier Doorstop 1 almost directly underneath it. Doorstop 3 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 118; Trench 51000 Relevant SUs: 51025 Acc. No. S99-6 Measurement: 30 × 30 cm Stone type: Lava Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 51.4) Brief description: This doorstop was installed into the floor surface (SU 51036) during Phase 4b (Subphase 51.4), 1.39 m behind the threshold (Threshold 20; see Fig. 11.41). It was later buried by the introduction of the floor surface (SU 51021) in Phase 4c (Subphase 51.5). In the following phase (Phase 5a, Subphase 51.6), Doorstop 4 was installed in almost the same location. XRF analysis found that the stone for Doorstop 3 (S99-6) was of the same type of lava that was used in the construction of Pompeii’s c. 300 steppingstones.95 95  We thank Mike Worthing for undertaking this analysis on our behalf. For the broader XRF study, see Worthing et al. 2020. For steppingstones at Pompeii and other Roman cities, see Poehler 2017, 85–94.

a p pe n dic es  ·  387 Doorstop 4 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 118; Trench 51000 Relevant SUs: 51003 Acc. No. S99-7 Measurement: 35 × 25 cm Stone type: Lava Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 51.6) Brief description: This doorstop was installed into the floor surface (SU 51010) during Phase 5a (Subphase 51.6; see Fig. 12.33), 1.62 m behind the threshold (Threshold 20). XRF analysis of the stone found that it was of the same type of lava that was used in the construction of Pompeii’s c. 300 steppingstones.96 Doorstop 5 Location: I.1.2 Room 106; Trench 54000 Relevant SUs: 54023 Measurement: 34 × 26 cm Stone type: Lava Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 54.6) Brief description: This doorstop was installed into the floor surface (SU 54016) during Subphase 54.6. The insertion of the stone may not have been contemporary to the construction of this surface, given that it appears to have been placed in a

96  We thank Mike Worthing for undertaking this analysis on our behalf. Worthing et al. 2020.

cut made into the surface (a fill, SU 54024, surrounded the stone to keep it in place). To be clear, this stone may not have functioned in the same way as the other doorstops. Although of the same size, material, and location as the ­others, its form does not include the hollowed area into which the repagulum could more easily be wedged. It might thus have served a different function, but it has been included here based on the similarity of its location and sequence to Doorstop 6, and the fact that no other example of its type exists anywhere across the site against which to compare it. Doorstop 6 Location: I.1.2 Room 106; Trench 54000 Relevant SUs: 54010 Acc. No. S54-3 Measurement: 30 × 31 × 22 cm Stone type: Lava Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 54.7) Brief description: This doorstop was installed into the floor surface (SU 54014) during Phase 5b (Subphase 54.7), 2.03 m behind the threshold (Threshold 18; see Fig.  12.45). XRF ana­lysis of the stone found that it was of a slightly different composition to Doorstop 3 and Doorstop 4, its geochemistry revealing more of a pyroclastic flow of rock than the flow of lava associated with the other two samples.97 97  We thank Mike Worthing for undertaking this analysis on our behalf. Worthing et al. 2020.

c h a pt e r 1 9. 5

The Drains of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Christopher F. Motz

The forty-one ancient drains found in our excavations include roofed and unroofed channels, pipes, and the small features found along them (Fig.  19.5.01).98 These drains fall into two broad, functional contexts:99 those that were part of wastemanagement systems that included soak-aways, cesspits, toilets, extramural refuse heaps, and more;100 and those that were dedicated to water management and retention, and so should be considered alongside downspouts, cisterns, wells, and fountains.101 We have endeavored to maintain the reader’s awareness of these broader contexts, when they are known. There is much profit in the study of private drains. Their location and dating can offer, for example, some of the strongest evidence for the shifting of boundaries between neighboring properties. Existing drains that were blocked or cut during renovations can help confirm and even date the division of a space (Drains 6, 9, 13); new drains would have been constructed primarily within one’s own land, so drains that cross an earlier property line can provide confirmation for the merging of two areas as well as a terminus ante quem (Drains 16, 17).102 The crucial role of drains in removing waste and directing rainwater, combined with their status as one of the most frequent and protected locations of use contexts, means that they and their contents can provide glimpses of the daily lives of the neighborhood’s inhabitants and the operation of their properties.103 Careful analysis of 98  This is essentially the same as the ancient legal definition of drains contained in the Digest of Justinian (43.23.1.4, 6; trans. Watson 1998): “A drain is a hollow place through which certain waste matter should flow . . . . Under the term ‘drain’ are included tubes and pipes” (cloaca autem est locus cavus, per quem colluvies quaedam fluat . . . cloacae appellatione et tubus et fistula continetur). 99  Good overviews of drainage at Pompeii are Jansen 2000 and Poehler 2012. See also Jansen 1991. An early discussion is found in Mygind 1921, 268–81. 100 See Chapters  19.10 and  19.13. For waste in the Roman world, see Koloski-Ostrow 2015. 101  See Chapter 19.2. 102  Roman law permitted entry to a neighboring property to clean and repair existing drains, but there were social and legal liabilities to exercising this right (Digest of Justinian 43.23.1). The repairer was obligated to restore any resulting damage to the neighboring property, and the inevitable disruptions from the work would have been a potential source of conflict between neighbors. Therefore, when a property was divided it may have been easier in many cases to construct new drains that respected the new property lines. For private water rights in Roman law, see Bannon 2009. 103  In the catalog we list the fills that were found within each drain, but a full discussion of their contents will be reserved for the Environmental volume.

the methods and materials used to build drains—including the frequent use of recycled materials—can illuminate our understanding of object life cycles, approaches to construction, and the spread of technical construction knowledge in the ancient world. Despite this potential, there are almost no comprehensive studies of these features, which have been unfortunately described as “decidedly unglamorous and not likely to promote anyone’s academic career.”104 The aim of the present study is to provide new, detailed information on Pompeian drainage that lays a foundation for future, fuller studies of the topic.

Analysis Function Most of the drains removed waste rather than captured water. Of the thirty-one drains with identifiable destinations, nineteen (or two-thirds) led onto the street (Drains 3, 5, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18, 22–4, 27–31, 33, 34, 40).105 Five fed into cisterns (Drains 6, 8–10, 16). Five more emptied into cesspits (Drains 19, 20, 21, 26, 38), one into a soak-away (Drain 7), and one outside the city walls (Drain 1). We can confirm the sources of eighteen drains. Four were fed by open inlets in a room with a cooking facility (Drains 4, 13, 17, 33; see Fig. 12.42), three by inlets in other rooms (Drains 19, 20, 32), eight by downpipes (Drains 2, 6, 8–10, 16, 26, 31; Fig. 19.5.02), one by a vat (Drain 12; Fig. 19.5.03), one by a cesspit (Drain 11), and one by street runoff (Drain 1). Beyond those that removed cooking waste or fed cisterns, only a few drains can be linked to specific activities. One (Drain 12) may be linked to clay ­levigation, another (Drain 15) to tanning. Two drains can perhaps be connected to fish-salting activity: Drain 22, which is con­tem­por­ary with and adjacent to Fish-Salting Vat 4, and Drain 7, which leads into Soak-Away 4.106 104  Reimers 1989, 137. For an example of an enthusiastic and detailed study of the construction and use of fixtures for water supply and drainage at another site, see Burés Vilaseca 1998. 105  All but one of these exited out the front of the property, fitting the citywide trend that Poehler (2012, 99) has noted. 106 On the relationship between soak-aways and fish-salting, see Chapters 11, 19.6, and 19.10.

a p pe n dic es  ·  389

Fig. 19.5.01  The distribution of drains across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

390  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.5.02  Drain 26, fed by a downpipe, in Room 78 of VIII.7.13–15; viewed from the south.

Fig. 19.5.03  Drain 12 in Room 37 of VIII.7.7–8.

Pompeii did not have a comprehensive network of underground sewers, relying instead on a combination of surface and subsurface components to remove waste and excess water.107 In the Porta Stabia neighborhood, wastewater emptied onto the street where it was washed away by fountain- and rainwater 107  Poehler 2012.

that accumulated throughout the Stabiana Basin, eventually passing through the Porta Stabia gate or Drain 1.108 The drains that emptied onto the street were fed by a combination of open inlets in cooking areas or shopfronts (Drains 13, 17, 33), 108  For overviews of street drainage and wastewater management, see Koga 1992; Jansen 2000; Liebeschuetz 2000; Jansen 2002; Hori 2012; Poehler 2012.

a p pe n dic es  ·  391 downpipes (Drains 10, 31), and cesspit overflow (Drain 11). Thus, while it is true that most solid waste was disposed of in cesspits and soak-aways rather than being flushed onto the street via drain channels,109 it is equally true that surface drainage was not reserved solely for excess rainwater, as is often implied.

Construction and form Most of the drains consisted of a base, walls, lining, and capping, although some were made of pipes or other onepiece elements. Half of the drains (twenty-one) were lined on the floor and/or walls with opus signinum or another type of waterproof mortar. Another fifteen were constructed of materials that did not require a lining, and the remainder were too poorly preserved to identify any interior coating. Capping survives on only fifteen drains; the rest may have been open to the air, but most were probably covered. The drains can be grouped by their construction materials and styles.110 The largest, Group A (seventeen drains, or 41 percent), had bases and walls made of rough stones, reused tile and brick, and other rubble bonded with mortar (Fig. 19.5.04; see also Fig. 19.5.02 and 12.06).111 Just two of these had floors that were not lined with opus signinum or another waterproof plaster—Drain 17 had a base of broken pieces of tile and amphora, and Drain 30 had a base of complete roof tiles with opus signinum lining on the walls. Most of the drains in this group were capped with the same type of construction as the base and walls (Fig. 19.5.05), but three were topped exclusively by tile or other large terracotta pieces (see Fig. 19.5.04).112 Group B comprises six drains made mostly of mortar that was formed into shape (see Fig. 12.42).113 Most of these were fragmentary or shallow sluices, but Drains 13 and 33 were quite substantial. Only Drain 13 had an additional lining applied to its mortar body and none had surviving capping. Four more drains were built with unlined, purpose-made terracotta pipes, making up Group C (see Figs.  11.46,  12.09, 19.2.10,  19.5.03).114 One of these was made entirely of pipes 109  Poehler 2012, 96. 110  Note that some drains were too fragmentary to be assigned to any group. The types listed here align well with the typology of water conduits at Emporiae, which is the only major typology I have discovered so far (Burés Vilaseca 1998, 135–44; note that she does not discriminate between supply and drainage). Across Emporiae, drains were built of squared stones far more frequently than at PARP:PS, although the Roman city made greater use of mortar and rubble constructions (the dominant types at PARP:PS) than did the Greek Neapolis. 111  Drains 3, 6, 10, 11, 17, 18, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33 (split between Groups A and B), 34, 39, 40. This corresponds roughly with Type 5 at Emporiae (Burés Vilaseca 1998, 137). 112  The most notable of these is Drain 3. See the two drains in the atrium of VII.4.56 (Sear 2004, 133, 140). 113  Drains 4, 5, 13, 32, 33 (split between Groups A and B), 37. See Type 4 at Emporiae (Burés Vilaseca 1998, 137). 114  Drains 8, 9, 12, 16. Only one conduit of this type was recorded at Emporiae (Burés Vilaseca 1998, 136).

Fig. 19.5.04  Drain 3 in Room 5 of VIII.7.1–4.

(Drain 12), one was made mostly of pipes (Drain 16), and two included pipes at their outlets but had no identifiable construction along the rest of the drain (Drains 8 and 9). Three of the drains fed into cisterns. The three drains of Group D were constructed primarily of reused roof tiles, all without the use of waterproof linings (see Fig.  12.23).115 Drain 24 was built of coursed, flat tiles bonded by mortar, set on a tile base, and capped by mortared rubble. Drain 41 was made of inverted imbrex cover tiles, capped by a mix of imbrex tiles and pan tiles that were broken in half. The short Drain 15 ran through a wall and consisted of flat roof tiles pitched together, and its base construction type is unknown. Finally, there are the stone street drains in Group E (Fig.  19.5.06).116 The two drains in the street by the Porta Stabia were the only ones made entirely or primarily of unmortared, unlined stone. Drain 1 was constructed entirely of stone, including the capping, but Drain 31 had two unlined 115  Drains 15, 24, 41. This aligns with Type 3 at Emporiae: compare Drain 24 to Type 3.1 and Drain 41 to Type 3.2 (Burés Vilaseca 1998, 137). 116  Drains 1, 31. These are broadly similar to Types 1 and 2 at Emporiae (Burés Vilaseca 1998, 136–7). No drains made solely of sequential squared channels carved into stone blocks (Type 1.1 at Emporiae) were found in our Insulae, although they existed elsewhere at Pompeii (e.g., VI.1.9–10.23, Room 5: Anderson and Robinson 2018).

392  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.5.05  Drain 28 and Drain 29 in Room 68 of VIII.7.13–15; viewed from the north. Note the masonry feature of Phase 7a.

Fig. 19.5.06  Drain 1 at the southwestern limit of the via Stabiana.

a p pe n dic es  ·  393 roof tiles forming the base of its southwestern end. This is the only drain with large, unmortared capstones. Drain 30 was also located in a side street, but it used a different style of construction. A few drains included features along their length that ensured their smooth operation. Two of the drains (Drains 10, 16) that fed cisterns included measures to ensure the cleanliness of the water that passed through them (see Figs. 11.46 and 12.09).117 Drains 11 and 17, which emptied onto the street, included settling basins with a slightly different purpose— removing large waste debris that could clog the drains (see Fig.  12.07).118 Finally, Drain 41 contained a short section of vertical pipe that provided access to the middle of the drain; this may have been an inlet or a vent for air and gas. The inlets to Drains 33 and 17 also deserve mention. These drains were fed by small, shallow, rectangular basins that may have facilitated dumping liquid waste—acting like a funnel, they provided a larger target and a lower likelihood of overflowing than if one poured directly into a small channel (see Figs. 12.06 and 12.42). Both inlets were associated with food production or serving spaces, so they may have been specially designed to accommodate cleaning such rooms or disposing of food refuse. The drain channels fall into a narrow range of widths and heights.119 All but two channels are under 40 cm in both dimensions. Most (80 percent) of the drains with known internal dimensions are 10–30 cm wide and most (77 percent) are 10–30 cm high. The four sets of pipes are smaller, with diameters of 7–10 cm.120 Three-quarters (77 percent) of the measurable drains have cross sections under 400 cm2. The exceptions to these rules are Drains 1 and 25, which are between 50 and 100 cm in both dimensions and have cross sections of roughly 4,800 cm2 and 6,400 cm2, respectively. The large capacity of Drain 1 is to be expected, since it received huge amounts of runoff from the Stabiana Basin. Drain 25 may also have been involved in the removal or storage of rain­ water from a large catchment area, the roof of the Theatrum Tectum. Proper sloping is another essential element of drain construction. If a drain is too flat, it will be prone to clogging; if it is too steep, it can become blocked when the liquids flow faster than any solids. Two-thirds of the drains found in the PARP:PS excavations have slopes between 0.020 and 117  For similar features, see Jansen 2007, 259; also the comments of Jansen in Binnebeke and Kind 1996, 195–8. C.f. Vitruvius, De Arch. 8.6.15. 118  Similar features are present in the drains leading from the impluvia of VII.4.56, VII.4.48, and VII.4.57 to the street (Sear 2004, 137; 2006, 188, 197). 119  They match the internal dimensions of other published drains in Pompeii (expressed as width × height). VII.4.56: 10.4–11.4 × 10.3–13.1 cm, 15 × 16 cm, 12.6 × 16 cm, 12.5–13 × 11–16 cm; VII.4.51: 20 × 13 cm (Sear 2004; 2006). Two in VII.4.48 (20 × 8 cm, 20 × 24 cm) and one in VII.4.57 (12 × 6 cm) are known only from their openings. 120  All three pipes in VII.4.56 are of similar sizes (Sear 2004, 140, 144, 148).

0.070 (thirteen out of nineteen measurable slopes), and half are between 0.020 and 0.040—meaning that over a length of a meter, they fall just 2–4 cm.121 If we restrict the data set to include only those drains for which we have a distance of greater than 2 m between elevations, thus minimizing the impact of minor variations along their lengths, we find that eight of the nine qualifying examples have slopes between 0.020 and 0.040.122

Development over time All of the drains can be assigned dates of installation and deactivation (Fig. 19.5.07).123 Phases 4 (first century bce) and 5 (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) were the periods of greatest activity, accounting for 66 percent (twenty-seven) of all installations and 74 percent (twenty) of all deliberate deactivations. Phase 5, which saw the most activations (fourteen) and deactivations (also fourteen, three of which had been built earlier in the phase) of any period, was a time of transition for the water and waste-management structures of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1. None of the eighteen drains built before 1 ce was still active after 35 ce. Of the twenty-three drains built after 1 ce, however, 61 percent (fourteen) remained in use in 79 ce. Much of this activity was the product of broader changes that had occurred throughout the city during this period, not least the introduction of the civic aqueduct and the numerous street-side public fountains it supplied. This new infrastructure resulted in a constant flow of water through the low-lying streets, which, coupled with the ever-increasing volume of waste water during rainstorms (see Drain 1 below), presented an opportunity for efficient and effective waste disposal. Roughly half of the pre-Augustan drains had flowed onto the street and half into cesspits or soak-aways within the property; in contrast, nearly all drains built during or after the Augustan period emptied onto the street where their contents could be washed away by the increased volumes of water.124 121  The slopes provided in this appendix are expressed as the vertical distance between the measured points, divided by the horizontal distance. Roman aqueduct slopes are only 0.007–0.0003. Vitruvius (De Arch. 8.6.1) re­com­mends building aqueducts at a slope of 0.005 (but see Rowland and Howe 1999, 277, on competing readings of the manuscripts) and open-air floors at a slope of 0.0125 (De Arch. 7.1.6). 122  It appears that Roman builders stuck remarkably close to the modern international standard for pitching drains, which is a slope of 0.021 (¼ inch of fall for every foot of length: 2018 Uniform Plumbing Code, 132, §708.1; 2018 International Plumbing Code, §704.1). When necessary, modern drains and ­sewers larger than 3 or 4 inches in diameter may have a smaller slope of 0.010 (⅛ inch per foot) with approval of the local authority. The codes do not offer guidance for maximum grades, but a common rule of thumb is no greater than a slope of 0.25 (3 inches per foot). 123  Twenty-seven drains were deliberately put out of use by human activity; the other fourteen were in use in 79 ce. 124  See Chapter 19.10.

7B 7A

3

31

6 5B

10 11 16 17 18 19 6

4B

7

9

28 29

23

30

40 41

14

8

4A

39

13

4

36 15

3B 2

26

32 33 34 35 5

4C

3A

24

1

5A Phases

20

22 21

2 12

1C 1B 1A Drains

Fig. 19.5.07  The chronological distribution of the drains at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1

38

25 27

37

394  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Drain Life Cycles

a p pe n dic es  ·  395

Catalog125 Drain 1 (see Fig. 19.5.06) Location: At the southern end of the via Stabiana, west of the Porta Stabia gate Relevant SUs: 4003, 4012, 4013, 4014 Measurements: 17 m long (rec.), 5.25 m (exposed); int. 65 cm wide, 75 cm high; slope 0.023 along 4.75 m Construction:   Base: large lava stone blocks   Walls: large Sarno stone blocks Capping: outside the gate, a barrel vault of tuff and Sarno stone; inside the gate, in some places the drain is open and in others it is covered by a flat ceiling of large stone blocks Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 4.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: Unlined sewer running along the western side of the via Stabiana. Runoff from the street flowed into the sewer via a set of steps. The drain then passed just west of the fountain (SU 4031) at the Porta Stabia, continued through the city wall, and emptied through an opening in the outer side.126 This was arguably the most pivotal drain in the neighborhood, as it would have helped to channel the significant volumes of rainwater that descended from across the Stabiana Basin, the city’s largest drainage area.127 Yet the drain was a late addition to the gate, suggesting that it was built in response to a problem that was of less sig­nifi­ cance at the time of the gate’s last renovation, most likely an increase in the volume of water that was passing through the neighborhood; this rise may have been a by-product of Pompeii’s urban development. Before the Augustan period, around 26 percent of the town’s runoff ultimately exited the city at high velocity through the Porta Stabia. It is expected that prior to the second century bce, the total volume of rainwater that reached the via Stabiana would have been greatly reduced since large parts of the town were only partially developed, allowing runoff to have been absorbed by the soil. As the density of habitation increased throughout the city in the second and first cen­ tur­ies bce, more and more of the city’s footprint was ­covered by roofs that first directed water into cisterns, then conducted excess runoff onto the street system. By the Augustan period, the volume of water that was funneled down the via Stabiana during rainstorms had grown to such a degree that the existing management systems were no longer sufficient to cope with the destructive torrent. 125  Abbreviations used in this catalogue: pres. = preserved; int. = interior; rec. = reconstructed 126  See Poehler (2012, 104–5) on the four through-gate sewers at Pompeii. For a cutaway plan of the gate and drain, see Adam and Varène 2008, 44, fig. 7. No drain exits the fountain basin, so it may have overflowed onto the street. 127  Poehler 2012, 112–16.

This onslaught of wastewater increased the risk of flooding and prompted building owners to raise the floor levels in street-side rooms and even throughout properties. Civic bodies also took meas­ures to mitigate the impact. Above the Porta Stabia at the intersection of via dell’Abbondanza, some of this runoff was diverted into the Altstadt sewer to lessen the total flow that would reach the Porta Stabia, while Drain 1 was installed to channel the rest around, rather than through, the gate itself.128 Drain 2 Location: VIII.7.1–4 Room 6 Relevant SUs: 6033 Measurements: 35 cm long (thickness of the wall through which it passes); int. 10 cm diameter Construction: Other: amphora neck used as a one-piece drain Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 6.2) (late second to early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 6.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: One-piece, unlined outlet in the western wall of Room 6 (the east face of WCU 115), possibly fed by a downspout since no opening is visible on the other side of the wall. Drain 3 Location: VIII.7.1–4 Rooms 5, 9, and 10 Relevant SUs: 5029, 5041, 5063, 24010, 24021 Measurements: 13.3 m long (rec.), 5.12 m and 2.18 m (pres.); int. 20 cm wide, 18 cm high; slope 0.012 along 12.75 m Construction:   Base and walls: mixed rubble with mortar Capping: reused fragments of very large, very thick (34–44 mm) dolia, broken to fit the width of the drain (AT24-1a–i); at least two fabrics are present; some pieces of tile may have been used in the portion excavated in Trench 5000 Lining: waterproof plaster Fill:129 5043 (unsealed and contaminated), 5044, 5045, 5046, 5047, 5048, 5049, 5050, 24018, 24019, 24020 Phase installed: Phase 7a (Subphases 5.3, 24.7) (62–79 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 7a (Subphases 5.3, 24.7) (62–79 ce) Brief description: The drain passed through wall WCU 177 and under Threshold 4 before emptying onto the street (see Figs.  5.07,  14.13, and 14.14). Its construction was uniform, sturdy, and of high quality (see Figs. 19.5.04, 14.12). It may have been related to the basin (Archival Find 437) and tank (Archival Find 438) Mau observed in the northwest corner of Room 6.130 128  Poehler 2012, 115–16. See Chapter 12. 129  All fills listed in this catalog are primary use contexts. 130  Mau 1875, 128. See Chapters 4 and 14.

396  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Drain 4 Location: VIII.7.5–6 Room 20 Relevant SUs: 25029 Measurements: 88 cm long (pres.); int. 30 cm wide, 2 cm high; slope 0.029 along 0.85 m Construction:   Lining: opus signinum Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 25.3) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 25.4) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: Open sluice along the southern wall of Room 20, which might have been a kitchen (Cooking Facility 2). Drain 5 Location: VIII.7.5–6 Room 11 Relevant SUs: 11016, 11074, 11146, 11147, 11151 Measurements: 1.45 m long (pres.); int. 7.5 cm wide, 8.4 cm high Construction:   Base and walls: mortar Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 11.5) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 6 (Subphase 11.6) (mid-first century ce, 35–62 ce) Brief description: The channel ran northeast, passing between two curb stones and out to the street. Drain 6 Location: VIII.7.5–8 Rooms 15, 18, and 32 Relevant SUs: 16016, 16026, 16027, 16555, 22005, 22018, 23012, 23019 Measurements: 10.1 m long (rec.), 0.5 m and 3.5 m (pres.); int. 20 cm wide, 19 cm high Construction:   Base and walls: stone with mortar bonding Capping: stone, tile (including AT22-1), and pottery with mortar bonding Lining: opus signinum lining on the base but not reported on the walls Fill: 16023, 16024, 16025, 16030, 22019 Phase installed: Phase 4c (Subphase 16.3c, 22.1, 23.1) (late first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 23.2) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: The drain flowed from a tank (SUs 17042, 22012) located in the doorway between Room 37 and Corridor 18, ran along Corridor 18 against the southern face of WCU 080, then turned north to pass through the doorway into Room 15 where it drained into Cistern 6. The tank collected rainwater from a downpipe in WCU 080, allowing the water to be directed into this drain and/or into Drain 9, which fed Cistern 3.131 When Property VIII.7.5–6 was separated from VIII.7.7–8, the 131  See Chapter 19.2 for further discussion of this hydraulic assembly.

source tank was filled and the drain’s outlet to Cistern 6 was sealed (SU 23012). Drain 7 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 37 Relevant SUs: 17059, 17060, 17072, 17073, 17115, 17551 Measurements: 73 cm long; int. 22 cm wide, 33.5 cm high Construction:   Walls and roof: stone   Lining: opus signinum lining on the walls Phase installed: Phase 4c (Subphase 17.4c) (late first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 17.5a) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: This drain consisted of a stone passageway through WCU 079 that transitioned into a channel that ran into Soak-Away 4. It was later blocked by SU 17115. Drain 8 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 37 Relevant SUs: 17102, 17103 Measurements: 64 cm long; int. 7.5 cm diameter Construction:   Other: one-piece terracotta pipe Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 17.4b) (mid-first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4c (Subphase 17.4c) (late first century bce) Brief description: This drain may have fed Cistern 3 with rain­ water supplied by a downpipe in the southwest corner of WCU 080 (see Fig. 19.2.07). The entirety of the drain may have been made of terracotta pipes, like the sole surviving piece that is mortared into place between the north face of WCU 079 and a large stone (SU 17060). In Phase 4c the drain was blocked (SU 17104) and the supply to Cistern 3 was replaced by a new hydraulic assembly in Room 37 that included Drain 9. Drain 9 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 37 Relevant SUs: 17025 Measurements: 1.5 m long; drain channel int. 12 cm wide, 10 cm high; pipe int. 8 cm diameter Construction:   Capping: stone with mortar bonding   Other: one-piece terracotta pipe Fill: 17033, 17074 Phase installed: Phase 4c (Subphase 17.4c) (late first century bce). Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 17.5a) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce). Brief description: This drain is part of the hydraulic assembly in Room 37 that was installed in Phase 4c to replace Drain 8 (see Fig. 19.2.07). Rainwater was funneled through a downpipe in WCU 080 that emptied into a masonry tank (SUs

a p pe n dic es  ·  397 17042, 22012). The tank allowed water to be directed into Drain 9, which swerved around the large stone SU 17060 before heading southwest to supply water to Cistern 3, and/or into Drain 6, which headed northeast to supply Cistern 6. Like Drain 8, the entirety of Drain 9 may have been made of terracotta pipe segments (perhaps even cannibalized from Drain 8), all but one of which were removed in antiquity, pos­sibly when the tank was filled during the ­separation of properties VIII.7.5–6 and VIII.7.7–8 in Phase 5a. Drain 10 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Rooms 32 and 35 Relevant SUs: 12122, 12129, 12140, 12146, 12165, 17046, 23002, 23004 Measurements: 16.5 m long (rec. to the street), 0.82 m and 4.10 m (pres.); int. 18 cm wide, 12 cm high; slope 0.038 along 13.83 m Construction:   Base and walls: opus incertum Capping: stone and a terracotta access hatch, all with mortar bonding   Other: one-piece terracotta pipe outlet into Cistern 5 Lining: opus signinum lining on the base, waterproof plaster on the walls Fill: 12137, 12141, 12147, 12169, 12170, 12171, 12172, 23003 Phase installed: Phase 6 (Subphases 12.5, 17.5b, 23.3) (mid-first century ce, 35–62 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: The southern part of a double drain (see Fig. 13.07). This drain probably replaced an earlier one that fed Cistern 5 (see Fig.  19.2.07). The drain received rainwater runoff from a terracotta downpipe (SU 17047) in the southwest corner of WCU 080. It then ran northeast, bending around the heads of Cisterns 5 and 6 before continuing to the street. As it passed the cisterns, its southern wall opened to a horizontal, terracotta pipe, which emptied into Cistern 5. A terracotta plaque (SU 12122; 30 × 30 cm) with a circular hole in the middle (14 cm diameter) capped the drain above this spot. This hatch allowed one to block the drain immediately downstream of the terracotta pipe, diverting water into Cistern 5.132 A meter beyond this point, Drain 11 finally flowed into Drain 10 after having run parallel to it for 12 m (see Fig. 13.09); the contents of both drains were mixed together along the remaining 5 m to the street. This arrangement likely was the product of two competing desires: the desire to simplify the construction process by consolidating the drains at the earliest opportunity and the desire to ensure that the cistern would not be con­tam­in­ ated with Drain 11’s domestic waste. Drain 10 was still active in 79 ce, as indicated by the presence of lapilli that entered the system from the roof either during or after the eruption. 132  See Chapter 19.2, n. 59.

Drain 11 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Rooms 32, 35, and 37 Relevant SUs: 12174, 12175, 17023, 17024, 17055, 17057, 17100 Measurements: 14.1 m long (rec.), 2.5 m and 2.0 m (pres.); int. 19 cm wide; 12 cm high; slope 0.038 along 11.31 m Construction:   Base and walls: rubble Capping: stone with mortar bonding for the drain, lava capstone for the settling basin Lining: opus signinum lining on the base, waterproof plaster on the walls Fill: 12137, 12138, 17030, 17053, 17056, 17101, 17107 Phase installed: Phase 6 (Subphases 12.5, 17.5b) (mid-first century ce, 35–62 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: This drain channeled overflow from a waste pit (Waste Feature 12) into a settling basin (SUs 17024, 17100; see Fig. 13.08). It then ran alongside Drain 10 before emptying into it in Room 32 and continuing to the street (see Figs. 13.07 and 13.09). Drain 12 Location: VIII.7.7–8 (later) Room 37 Relevant SUs: 17091 Measurements: 85 cm long; int. 10 cm diameter Construction:   Other: one-piece terracotta pipe Phase installed: Phase 2 (Subphase 17.2) (250–125 bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 3a (Subphase 17.3) (late second to early first century bce) Brief description: The drain flowed south out of a possible clay levigation tank (SU 17078; see Fig.  19.5.03) after being filtered by a perforated lead sheet (SU 17082). It was cut by later walls (WCU 172, SU 17087). Drain 13 Location: VIII.7.5–8 Rooms 32, 33, 42, and 44 Relevant SUs: 2157, 7059, 7114, 12019, 12023, 12024, 12025, 12030 Measurements: 18.56 m long (rec.); 1.80 m, 1.32 m, 1.12 m, and 0.70 m long (pres., W–E); int. 25 cm wide, 25 cm high; slope 0.021 along 11.63 m Construction:   Base and walls: mortar Lining: opus signinum on the base and walls, continuing onto the surrounding floor Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphases 2.2, 7.2, 12.3a) (mid-first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4c (Subphases 7.3, 12.3b) (late first century bce) Brief description: The drain began in Room 44, where it may have received overflow from an outlet in the northeast side of the neck of Cistern 3 (SU 2059). The drain went out of

398  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i use around the end of the first century bce, in either Phase 4c or 5a. Sediment found inside the channel has been assigned to Phase 4c, but it is unclear whether this layer relates to the drain’s abandonment or to its potential replacement by Drain 14. Due to the ephemeral nature of the fills and floors from this period in Corridor 42, it is difficult to determine the precise chronology of the drain’s disuse, which may have shortly preceded or even coincided with its destruction in the subsequent phase. What is certain is that Drain 13 was cut in Phase 5a by the construction of a wall (WCU 153) during the division of properties VIII.7.7–8 and VIII.7.9–11; Drain 14 also was deactivated at this time. In the same period, most traces of the drain in Corridor 42 and Room 44 were destroyed by the installation of Drain 17 and a masonry platform built against the northeast side of the cistern neck that may have been related to food preparation (SU 2023; see Cooking Facility 4). Drain 14 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 32 Relevant SUs: 12034, 12035 Measurements: 60 cm long; int. 16 cm wide, 15 cm high; slope 0.017 along 0.58 m Construction:   Capping: stone rubble with mortar bonding   Lining: opus signinum lining on the base and walls Fill: 12036 Phase installed: Phase 4c (Subphase 12.3b) (late first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 12.4) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: This drain presumably emptied onto the street. Only a small segment is preserved in the northeast corner of Room 32, but its size, location, and direction suggest that it may have been a later phase of Drain 13; it may have reused the southeastern length of Drain 13 in Rooms 42 and 44, or its traces here may have been destroyed by the installation of Drain 17. Drain 15 Location: VIII.7.9–11 Rooms 55 and 56 Relevant SUs: 13051, 15046 Measurements: 41 cm long (thickness of wall WCU 051); int. 25 cm wide, 30 cm high Construction:   Walls: reused roof tiles Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphases 13.2, 15.1) (early first ­century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 13.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: This passage running northeast through WCU 051 was built of two roof tile fragments pitched against each other. It may have been related to the con­ tem­por­ary tanning vats (SU 13023) in Room 56.

Drain 16 Location: VIII.7.9–11 Rooms 44, 46, and 55 Relevant SUs: 2054, 2057, 2058, 2065, 15009 Measurements: 2.3 m long (rec.), 40 cm (western pres.) and 93 cm (eastern pres.); int. 7 to 9 cm diameter Construction: Base and walls: stone and mortar (drain passes through a wall) Other: two one-piece terracotta pipes as inlet; terracotta pipe outlet into Cistern 3 Lining: opus signinum lining on the base, walls, and roof where it passes through the wall   Settling Basin: mortar Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphases 2.3, 15.2) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 7b (Subphase 2.5) (in use until the 79 ce eruption) Brief description: This drain system was built to provide a new water supply for Cistern 3 after the cistern was cut off from its original watershed when Rooms 44, 45, and 46 were integrated into VIII.7.9–11 (see Fig. 19.2.07). A set of gutters and downpipes (now destroyed or not visible) prob­ably channeled rainwater into what was described in one early account as a “rectangle” covered by opus signinum (Archival Find 455) in Room 55; this feature may have been a settling basin.133 From here a pipe (SU 15009) ran southeast through WCU 066 and flowed out a spout into a semicircular tank (SU 2034; Archival Find 754; see Figs. 4.10 and 4.11) next to the outdoor dining space in Room 46 (see Figs.  11.46, 12.09).134 Two ancient nails above the spout may have held a decorative mouth. Once water reached the top of the tank, it likely flowed east into Room 44; unfortunately, modern disturbances have destroyed the stra­tig­raphy in this corner. The flow then con­tinued through a pipe (SU 2065) that passed through the wall dividing Rooms 44 and 46 and fed into a settling basin (SU 2057) before flowing into Cistern 3 via a pipe (SUs 2054, 2058) that passed through the southwestern wall of the cistern neck.135

133  Mau 1875, 167–8: “Al di là finalmente del podio del giardino, la cui porta è qui vicina, sta appoggiata al muro una vasca semicircolare, nella quale a guisa d'una fontana mette un tubo di mattoni, dal quale scolava l'acqua d'un rettangolo coperto di opus Signinum, situato nel vano adiacente verso N e che s’abbassa verso quello scolo.” Spano (1910a, 268) describes the semicircular tank (SU 2034) in Room 46 as being fed by a terracotta tube that gathered rainwater from Room 55. 134  Because the drain crosses through an earlier property line, it helps to date the merging of the two areas. Roman law was not clear on whether one had a right to build a new drain in someone else’s private property (Digest of Justinian 43.23.2), so cross-boundary drains will be more reliable for dating merged properties than divided ones (see note 136 below). 135  See Chapter 19.2, note 55.

a p pe n dic es  ·  399 Drain 17 Location: VIII.7.9–11 Rooms 38, 40, 41, 42, and 44 Relevant SUs: 2060, 2109, 2115, 3043, 3044, 3050, 3054, 7010, 7013, 7040, 7047, 7065, 7066, 7067, 7074, 7076 Measurements: 19.84 m long (rec.), 4.20 m and 12.59 m (pres.); int. 17.7 cm wide, 19.0 cm high; slope 0.023 along 19.06 m Construction:   Base: reused roof tiles and amphora body sherds   Walls: stone, roof tile, mortar, and soil Capping: stone, brick, and reused roof tile with mortar bonding Fill: 2101, 3051, 3052, 7022, 7032, 7034, 7036, 7037, 7038, 7069 Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphases 2.3, 3.3, 7.4) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: This drain replaced Drain 13 during the ren­ ov­ations that shifted property boundaries in this area (see Fig. 12.06).136 This unlined drain was fed by a shallow, rect­ angu­lar basin much like the one at the beginning of Drain 33 (see Fig. 12.42). Its initial course took it farther north at the bend (SUs 7066, 7067), but this had to be rerouted slightly (SUs 7052, 7068) when walls were added to create Room 39. A small settling basin was located in the middle of its length, where it turned through the doorway between Room 41 and Corridor 42 (see Fig. 12.07). It then passed under Threshold 10 and emptied onto the street. Room 44, where the drain ori­gin­ated, had several contemporary cooking and food prep­ar­ation features (see Cooking Facility 4), so this drain must have been used to dispose of cooking waste and excess water drawn from Cistern 3. The drain was probably in use until the eruption, but a definitive determination is im­pos­ sible due to nineteenth-century interventions. Drain 18 Location: VIII.7.9–11 Room 48 Relevant SUs: 29003, 29018 Measurements: 1.7 m long (pres.); int. 10.0 cm wide, 17.5 cm high Construction:   Base and walls: rubble with mortar bonding   Capping: stone and rubble with mortar bonding Fill: 29019 Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 29.5) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 29.5) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: Short section of unlined drain that passed under Threshold 11 before emptying onto the street (see Fig. 12.04). The drain was solidly built, with thick and sturdy walls, base, and capping. 136 Had Drain 13 not been cut by the construction of the wall (WCU 153), the new owner of VIII.7.9–11 would have been under no legal obligation to move it or construct a new one, as Roman law would have permitted him entry to the neighboring property (VIII.7.7–8) to clean the old drain and perform repairs (Digest of Justinian 43.23.1).

Drain 19 Location: VIII.7.12 Room 66 Relevant SUs: 9033 Measurements: 65 cm deep; int. 25 × 32 cm widths Construction:   Walls: stone Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 9.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: This vertical, open channel into Waste Feature 13 was added about a century after the cesspit had been installed in Phase 3a (late second to early first ­century bce). Drain 20 Location: VIII.7.9–11 Room 57 Relevant SUs: 9022 Measurements: 24 cm long; int. 14 cm wide, 25 cm high Construction:   Walls: stone and roof tile with mortar bonding   Roof: roof tile with mortar bonding Phase installed: Phase 6 (Subphase 9.4) (mid-first century ce, 35–62 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: This second open channel into Waste Feature 13 was added several decades after Drain 19 as part of the late renovations (SU 9009) to the cesspit. Drain 21 Location: VIII.7.12 Room 58 Relevant SUs: 18083 Measurements: 1.69 m long (pres.); int. 15 cm wide, unknown height Construction:   Base: mortar   Lining: opus signinum lining on the base Phase installed: Phase 3b (Subphase 18.2) (late second to early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4a (Subphase 18.3) (early first century bce) Brief description: The earliest of four drains built here. It emptied into a cesspit (Waste Feature 14; see Fig. 10.23). Drain 22 Location: VIII.7.12 Room 58 Relevant SUs: 18065, 18077 Measurements: 2 m long (pres.); int. 18 cm wide, 17 cm high Construction:   Base and walls: mortar Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 18.3) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 18.4) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: The second of four drains, built above Drain 21. It passed under Threshold 12 before presumably empty­ing onto the street.

400  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Drain 23 Location: VIII.7.12 Room 58 Relevant SUs: 18017, 18043, 18047, 18055 Measurements: 2.1 m long; int. 14 cm wide, 20 cm high; slope 0.010 along 1.09 m Construction:   Base and walls: stone with mortar bonding   Capping: reused roof tiles   Lining: opus signinum lining on the base and walls Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 18.4) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 6 (Subphase 18.5) (mid-first century ce, 35–62 ce) Brief description: Third of four drains, built above and reusing part of Drain 22. It passed under Threshold 12 before presumably emptying onto the street. Drain 24 Location: VIII.7.12 Room 58 Relevant SUs: 18022, 18045, 18059 Measurements: 3 m long; int. 16 cm wide, 20 cm high Construction:   Base: reused roof tiles   Walls: reused roof tiles with mortar bonding   Capping: stone and reused roof tiles with mortar bonding Phase installed: Phase 6 (Subphase 18.5) (mid-first century ce, 35–62 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 7a (Subphase 18.6) (62–79 ce). Brief description: Last of four drains built here. It in­corp­or­ated part of Drain 23, which had incorporated part of Drain 22, but it angled south to avoid Waste Feature 14 before passing under Threshold 12 and presumably empty­ing onto the street (see Fig. 13.13). Drain 25 Location: VIII.7.13–15 Room 78 Relevant SUs: 28027, 28030, 28034, 28035, 28036, 28039, 28046 Measurements: 4.56 m long; int. 51 to 94 cm wide, 89 cm high; slope 0.044 along 1.40 m Construction:   Walls: stone with mortar bonding   Lining: opus signinum lining on the base and walls Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 28.2) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 28.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: Curved channel with a very large cross section (see Figs. 5.06, 11.04, and 12.38). It may have collected water from the roof of the newly constructed Theatrum Tectum, then the largest roofed space in the city, and carried it to cisterns below the Quadriporticus. This space was open to the street when the drain was constructed. The drain was put out of use when the Quadriporticus expanded northwards and the drain was cut by the construction of WCU 010.

Drain 26 Location: VIII.7.13–15 Room 78 Relevant SUs: 8011 Measurements: 2.15 m long; int. 12 cm wide, 10 cm high; slope 0.061 along 1.89 m Construction:   Base and walls: rubble with mortar bonding   Capping: reused roof tiles   Other: lead pipe outlet   Lining: waterproof plaster Phase installed: Phase 6 (Subphase 8.3) (mid-first century ce, 35–62 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: Fed by downpipe SU 8050 in WCU 001 (see Fig. 19.5.02), the drain curved east and entered WCU 003, where it transitioned to a lead pipe that ran through the wall and angled down into the ground, in the direction of Waste Feature 16. Drain 27 Location: VIII.7.13–15 Room 68 Relevant SUs: 27049 Measurements: 1.27 m long; int. 17 cm wide, 16 cm high; slope 0.021 along 0.94 m Construction:   Base: unknown   Walls: stone with mortar bonding   Lining: waterproof plaster on the base Phase installed: Phase 3b (Subphase 27.3) (late second to early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4a (Subphase 27.4) (early first century bce) Brief description: Southernmost and earliest of three drains in the doorway of the property. It passed under an ex­ter­ ior wall (WCU 015) before presumably emptying onto the street. Drain 28 Location: VIII.7.13–15 Room 68 Relevant SUs: 27014 Measurements: 1.1 m long; int. 17 cm wide, 17 cm high; slope 0.004 along 1.37 m Construction:   Walls: stone and reused roof tiles with mortar bonding Phase installed: Phase 6 (Subphase 27.6) (mid-first century ce, 35–62 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 7a (Subphase 27.7) (62–79 ce) Brief description: Central of three adjacent drains, it passed under Threshold 14 before emptying onto the street (see Fig. 19.5.05). In Phase 7a its western end was blocked by a tank (SU 27003).

a p pe n dic es  ·  401 Drain 29 Location: VIII.7.13–15 Room 68 Relevant SUs: 27007, 27058, 27086 Measurements: 1.95 m long; int. 12 cm wide, 15 cm high; slope 0.009 along 1.59 m Construction:   Base: stone   Walls: stone with mortar bonding   Capping: stone and reused roof tile with mortar bonding   Lining: opus signinum lining on the base and walls Fill: 27054, 27055, 27056, 27057 (all are unsealed and con­tam­ in­ated) Phase installed: Phase 6 (Subphase 27.6) (mid-first century ce, 35–62 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: Northernmost of three drains; it passed under Threshold 14 and emptied onto the street (see Fig. 19.5.05). Drain 30 Location: street north of Insula VIII.7, outside of room 78 Relevant SUs: 20025, 20026, 20027, 20028, 20029 Measurements: 2 m long; int. 30 cm wide, 28 cm high; slope 0.027 along 1.49 m Construction:   Base: reused roof tile on top of rubble with mortar bonding   Walls: rubble with mortar bonding Lining: opus signinum lining on the walls and flowing up over the top of the walls Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 20.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: Channel in the alley north of Insula VIII.7, sloping toward the via Stabiana (see Fig. 12.39). Drain 31 Location: street south of Insula I.1, outside of rooms 102 and 103 Relevant SUs: 50531 Measurements: 4 m long; int. 18 cm wide, unknown height Construction:   Base: stone and roof tiles   Walls: stone Phase installed: Phase 7a (Subphase 50.7) (62–79 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 7b (Subphase 50.8) (in use until the 79 ce eruption) Brief description: The drain was fed by downpipe SU 53013, which passed through WCU 1005. It then ran along the southern wall of Insula I.1 before veering south into the via Stabiana. Drain 32 Location: I.1.1–1a Room 102 Relevant SUs: 50053, 50054

Measurements: 1.9 m long; int. 18 cm wide, 10 cm high Construction:   Base: hard-packed soil Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 50.6) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5b (Subphase 50.6) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: Open channel adjacent to the well (SU 50016). Drain 33 Location: I.1.1–1a Room 101 Relevant SUs: 50013, 53116, 53117 Measurements: 4.85 m long (rec.), 2.07 m (western pres.) and 2.15 m (eastern pres.); int. 10 cm wide, 10 cm high; slope 0.063 along 3.86 m Construction:   Base: mortar   Walls: mortar with some rubble Lining: mortar lining on base and walls; one imbrex roof tile acts as wall lining at the end Fill: 50033 (unsealed and contaminated) Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphases 50.6, 53.4) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 7b (Subphase 50.8) (in use until the 79 ce eruption) Brief description: The drain was fed by an open, shallow, rect­ angu­lar basin much like the one that fed Drain 17 (see Fig. 12.42). It passed under or to the side of Threshold 16 and emptied onto the street (see Fig. 12.18). It was added at the same time as Cooking Facility 7/Bar Counter 1, suggesting that it was associated with food preparation. Drain 34 Location: I.1.1–1a Room 104 Relevant SUs: 57056 Measurements: 49 cm long; int. 16 cm wide, 20 cm high Construction:   Walls: stone and reused roof tiles with mortar bonding   Lining: opus signinum lining on the base and walls Fill: 57055 Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 57.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5b (Subphase 57.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: The drain ran under Threshold 30 and emptied onto the street. Drain 35 Location: I.1.1–1a Room 105 Relevant SUs: 57004 Measurements: int. 22 cm wide, 24 cm high Construction: Base, walls, and roof: stone and mortar (drain passes through a wall)

402  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 57.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: Drain opening in the southern end of the east wall of the room (WCU 1011). Drain 36 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 111 Relevant SUs: 59103 Measurements: 72 cm long (pres.); 35 cm wide (pres.) Construction:   Base: stone with mortar bonding Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 59.4) (mid-first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4c (Subphase 59.5) (late first ­century bce) Brief description: Large, fragmentary sluice feature. Drain 37 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 111 Relevant SUs: 59118 Measurements: 70 cm long (pres.); 32 cm wide (pres.) Construction:   Lining: opus signinum lining on the base Phase installed: Phase 3b (Subphase 59.2) (late second to early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4b (Subphase 59.4) (mid-first ­century bce) Brief description: Plaster sluice along the east face of WCU 1030. Drain 38 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 111 Relevant SUs: 59111 Measurements: 30 cm long (pres.); 20 cm wide (pres.) Construction:   Base: reused roof tiles Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 59.4) (mid-first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4b (Subphase 59.4) (mid-first century bce) Brief description: Possible tile sluice that may have channeled into a cesspit (Waste Feature 19).137 Drain 39 Location: I.1.3–5 Rooms 110 and 111 Relevant SUs: 59015, 59020, 59091, 59092 Measurements: 3.25 m long (rec.), 1.75 m (northern pres.) and 1.00 m (southern pres.); int. 27 cm wide; 15 cm high; slope 0.286 along 0.77 m Construction:   Base and walls: rubble   Capping: stone and roof tile with mortar bonding   Lining: mortar lining on the base Fill: 59021, 59090 137  Cf. Jones and Robinson 2005, 276.

Phase installed: Phase 4c (Subphase 59.5) (mid-first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 59.6) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: In Phase 5a, a wall (WCU 1135) was built to divide Rooms 10 and 11, cutting the drain. The drain fills on both sides of the wall were very similar, but post-depositional processes caused the southern one (SU 59090) to contain many mineralized plant remains while the northern one (SU 59021) had none. When the drain was cut, it contained a primary fill of household waste, including botanical remains. Over time the southern part of the drain, which was now blocked and isolated, trapped sufficient rainwater to create conditions for mineralization of plant remains, while the northern part was able to shed water and allow its botanical material to decay. Drain 40 Location: I.1.6–9 Room 122 Relevant SUs: 52003, 52004, 52018, 52044, 52118 Measurements: 3.55 m long; int. 12.5 cm wide, 16.0 cm high; slope 0.033 along 2.56 m Construction:   Base and walls: rubble with mortar bonding   Capping: stone   Lining: mortar lining on the base and walls Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 52.8) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 6 (Subphase 52.9) (mid-first ­century ce, 35–62 ce) Brief description: Mortar drain that passed under Threshold 22 to the street. Drain 41 Location: I.1.6–9 Room 132 Relevant SUs: 56011, 56018, 56022, 56028, 56029 Measurements: 5.2 m long; int. 11.0 cm wide, 7.5 cm high; slope 0.047 along 4.68 m Construction:   Base: reused roof tile with mortar bonding   Capping: reused roof tiles   Other: terracotta pipe vent or inlet Lining: opus signinum as the western part of the base, mimicking the shape of the tiles Fill: 56019, 56020, 56023 (all are unsealed and contaminated) Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 56.6) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Phase decommissioned: in use until the 79 ce eruption (Phase 7b) Brief description: The base of the drain was made of inverted imbrex cover tiles and a stretch of opus signinum formed to mimic their shape (see Fig. 12.23). The eastern capping was made of six imbrex tiles. The western capping was made of five pan tiles cut in half with their flanges removed. The drain flowed from west to east, beginning under the (later, second stage of construction in Phase 6) shop counter

a p pe n dic es  ·  403 (Cooking Facility 12/Bar Counter 4; see Fig.  12.22) and heading into the center of the property. The first phase of the counter (then I-shaped) and drain were added during the same phase, making it likely that Drain 41 was linked to the preparation or sale of food. It may have collected rainwater from a downpipe in the northwest corner of the room and directed it into a cistern. Alternatively, if it was intended to remove unwanted liquid, perhaps the proprietor did not want the waste to discharge directly in front of the counter and chose instead to direct it into a cesspit or soak-away rather than onto the street. A short, vertical terra­cotta pipe at the southeastern end of the drain prob­ ably served as a second inlet, perhaps for another downpipe in WCU 1088, or allowed air and gas to escape. Drain 42* Location: street north of Insula VIII.7, outside of room 78 Relevant SUs: 20021, 20032 Measurements: 1.25 m long (southern section), 1.52 m (northern section); int. 9.5 cm diameter; slope 0.031 along 0.99 m (southern section)

Construction: Other: at least seven terracotta pipes mortared together; lead spouts attached by mortar Phase installed: Phase 8 (Subphase 20.4) (modern, 79–2005 ce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 8 (Subphase 20.4) (modern, 79–2005 ce) Brief description: This drain is believed to be modern and it has not been included in any of the discussion above. It is included at the end of the catalog due to its intriguing construction and to allow for any possible revision. Its two sets of terracotta pipes ran along the alley north of Insula VIII.7. The northern section was terminated at its northeastern end by a closed pipe. The southern section was fed by an ancient downspout (SU 20036) in the northern wall of the Insula (WCU 001). A lead fitting, the attachments of which are still visible, allowed liquid to flow from the northern section into the southern pipes, which probably emptied into the via Stabiana. Sometime after its installation, the lead junction was damaged and a brick and mortar construction was built on top, which was then covered with a large lava stone (SU 20007).

c h a pt e r 1 9. 6

The Fish-Salting Vats of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Christopher F. Motz

At least eight subterranean fish-salting vats, or cetariae, were excavated across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (Fig.  19.6.01).138 The vats were located in street-front rooms along the via Stabiana, just behind their entrances. They formed part of a small industry active in Pompeii from the first century bce until the Early Imperial period, when Iberian salted fish products flooded Italian markets and pushed out local, independent producers, perhaps prompting them to reorganize into a consortium with larger, extramural factories like those of their new competitors around the Strait of Gibraltar.139 A possible ninth fish-salting vat was built earlier, in the late third to midsecond century bce; its form, chronology, and identification will be addressed separately, after the others.

Analysis The vats are quite similar in form and construction.140 Except for Fish-Salting Vat 6, which is trapezoidal, all the vats are rectangular (Fish-Salting Vats 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8; Figs.  19.6.02 and  19.6.03) or square (Fish-Salting Vat 5; Fig.  19.6.04), like most fish-salting vats elsewhere. The walls were built of opus incertum, although some vats (Fish-Salting Vats 4, 5, 6, 8) incorporated existing walls to make up one or two of their sides. The sub-floors of Fish-Salting Vats 1 and 4 consisted of leveling fills of stones and soil (Fig. 19.6.05); no other sub-floor preparations could be observed. All of the vats were lined with waterproof plaster; none used true opus signinum (Fig.  19.6.06).141 None of the vats employed ovolo or quarter-round molding around the base or the vertical joins of the walls, and none featured any depressions, or cuvets, in their 138 Ellis 2011d first presented some of these vats to reconstruct the Pompeian fish-salting industry. This appendix updates that publication. 139  The proportion of fish-salting workshops that had only one or two vats decreased from the second century bce (50 percent) to the first and second cen­tur­ies ce (15 percent and 20 percent), reflecting the construction of larger factories during the height of the Roman industry. Many of these new workshops were extramural—the construction of suburban fish-salting workshops peaked sharply in the first century ce. On the industry’s chron­ ology and geography, see Motz 2021, 188–202. 140  For more on the form and construction of fish-salting vats, see Motz 2021, 202-36. 141  Opus signinum is characterized by crushed pieces of terracotta embedded in a mortar matrix.

floors. These features are often cited as characteristic of fish-salting vats, but they are not unique to the industry (see Cistern 3), nor do all fish-salting vats include them.142 The dimensions of the vats vary, but all fall within the ranges seen at other fish-salting workshops. The sides of each vat are 0.85–2.27 m long, giving footprints of 1.0–2.5 m2. Because the upper portions of the vats were destroyed by later construction activity, their original depths are unknown. Since their original volumes cannot be calculated, their footprints offer the easiest way to compare their sizes. Like other fishsalting workshops, these vats probably rose not much higher than the surrounding floor surfaces.143 When not being actively filled or emptied, their contents would have been protected by a wooden cover. If the tops of the vats sat flush with the floor level, these covers would have allowed traffic to pass through the entire width of the doorways in which they were placed. Even if they were raised, there was enough space for traffic to pass through one side of the doorways.144 The commonalities extend to their chronologies and life histories. All of the vats were built in the early–to–mid–first century bce and survived until the first third of the first ­century ce, placing them in the earliest years of the Roman fish-salting industry.145 All of the vats were put out of use in Phase 5a; Fish-Salting Vats 1, 4, 5, and 6 showed signs of having gone out of use prior to their destruction, but the 142  e.g., the fish-salting workshops at Levanzo, Maratea (Capo la Secca), Roses, Cerro da Vila, Málaga (Calle Cañón), Combrit (Kerobistin), Douarnenez (Le Ris, Workshop 1), Chersonesos (Sector XV), and Tyritake (Workshops 4 and 6). See discussions in Ellis 2011d, 67; Motz 2021, 185–8. 143  The tops of many fish-salting vats have been destroyed, as ours were, but some survive intact (e.g., the workshops at Lixus, Ilha do Pessegueiro, Tróia, Baelo Claudia, Almuñécar, Torre García, and Barcelona). At some of these workshops the vats end at floor level but often they continue slightly above the floor, no farther than waist-height. 144  Most raised fish-salting vats were not located in a doorway, but some were. For example, a vat blocks half the entrance to the salting room of workshop 10 at Lixus, although it does not open onto a street; a doorway into workshop A at Tipasa is entirely blocked by vats, although the shop has other entrances and the layout of its early phase is not clear; some of the urban vats at Banasa and Sabratha also may block doorways, but the properties have been only partially excavated. 145  Note that this is slightly later than the preliminary dating provided in Ellis 2011d, 66. For the historical development of the fish-salting industry, see Motz 2021, 188–202.

a p pe n dic es  ·  405

Fig. 19.6.01  The distribution of Fish-Salting Vats across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

406  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.6.02  Fish-Salting Vat 3 in Room 48 at entrance VIII.7.11.

Fig. 19.6.03  Fish-Salting Vats 7 and 8 in Room 122 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the south.

duration of this interval is unknown.146 The upper portions of all vats were dismantled and similar material was dumped 146  The floor of Fish-Salting Vat 1 had been damaged; the bottoms of Fish-Salting Vats 4, 5, and 6 contained fills that had accumulated after the final uses of the vats but before the vats were destroyed.

into the remains of each vat. The fills were composed of mixed, fragmentary refuse imported as part of the reconstruction process, often combined with debris from the destruction of the upper parts of the vats, all within a sandy, gray-brown matrix. The latest narrowly datable material was a Tiberian as (C12-4) struck in 15/16 ce, recovered from the fill of Fish-Salting Vat 1. Although the vats near the Porta Stabia were not arranged in batteries like some of the better known examples elsewhere, small, urban fish-salting workshops like these were just as common as the massive factories located around the Strait of Gibraltar.147 Notable examples of workshops with one to three vats can be found at Banasa and Sabratha, as well as elsewhere at Pompeii.148 The eight vats at the Porta Stabia belonged to just four properties at the time of their installation, and to five (because of developments to property divisions) when they were deactivated. Only Fish-Salting Vats 1 and 7 (and its replacement, Fish-Salting Vat 8) stood alone in their respective properties. Originally, Fish-Salting Vats 2, 3, and 4 belonged to one large property, VIII.7.9–12. Not long after they were installed (Phase 4b), the property was divided into VIII.7.9–11 (containing Fish-Salting Vats 2 and 3) and VIII.7.12 (containing Fish-Salting Vat 4). FishSalting Vats 5 and 6 were part of one property for the dur­ ation of their use—the space was divided after the vats were 147  See Motz 2021, 236–40, 257–62. 148  Banasa: Cerri 2007; 2009. Sabratha: Wilson 1999; 2002a; 2002b; 2007. Pompeii: Jones and Robinson 2004; 2005; 2007; Ellis 2011d.

a p pe n dic es  ·  407

Fig. 19.6.04  Fish-Salting Vat 5 in Room 101 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the east.

destroyed. Furthermore, one could circulate easily among the vats within each property. In Phase 4a doorways provided direct access between the rooms containing Fish-Salting Vats 2 and 3 (Rooms 38 and 48 in Insula VIII.7), and between those hosting Fish-Salting Vats 5 and 6 (Rooms 101 and 106 in Insula  I.1); when the vats were built, a second doorway was added to the northwest corner of Room 101 (on the western side of WCU 025), supplementing the earlier doorway on the eastern side of the same wall and allowing even freer movement between Fish-Salting Vats 5 and 6. There are many parallels between these shops and the cluster of perfume workshops along the via degli Augustali, just north of the forum, where at least nine contemporaneous vats have been excavated in properties VII.4.24–5, 27, 28, 30, and 32.149 These installations were active in the first half of the first century ce, roughly—but also importantly—at a time

when the fish-salting vats at the Porta Stabia were being decommissioned. The perfumeries were put out of use in the middle of that century, possibly following the earthquake of 62 ce.150 The vats are similar in form, size, construction, and location to those near the Porta Stabia: they are rectangular or square, up to 1.5 m deep (none survives to its original height), and range in floor area from 1 to 3 m2; their walls are in opus incertum, occasionally making use of existing walls; they are lined with waterproof plaster; and they are located just inside or not far from the shop doorway. Unlike the properties along the via Stabiana, those on the via degli Augustali contained the remains of presses and boilers used in oil production and treatment. Although the identifications of these industries differ, it is notable that the owners in each industrial cluster took similar approaches to locating and laying out their production spaces, and that each set of workshops seems to

149  Borgard et al. 2003; Ribera et al. 2008; Brun and Monteix 2009; Brun et al. 2012; Bustamante Álvarez et al. 2012; Ribera et al. 2012.

150  The tank that was built in VII.4.27 following the earthquake was above ground and quite different from the earlier ones. Like the second-century bce vat at VII.4.28, it need not be linked with the perfume industry.

Fig. 19.6.05  Fish-Salting Vat 4 in Room 58 of VIII.7.9–12.

Fig. 19.6.06  Fish-Salting Vat 1 in Room 32 of VIII.7.5–8.

a p pe n dic es  ·  409 appear and disappear from its respective neighborhood in concert.151 In light of these similarities, it is worth reviewing the key sets of evidence that our vats were used to process fish, rather than perfume or other goods (see also Chapter 11, Phase 4a). First, several of them retained some primary residue on their floor surfaces. These use contexts contained unusually high concentrations of fish remains, far higher than the neighborhood’s other large subterranean tanks. Second, the vats were accompanied by soak-aways that were built and destroyed at the same time as the vats, indicating that the features supported the same set of activities (see Chapter 19.10; Fig. 19.6.07). These waste disposal systems contained the highest concentrations of fish bones and scales in the two insulae, which notably differed from the mixed household waste found in the neighborhood’s many drains. This collection of ecofactual 151  See Goodman (2016, 312) on shared characteristics among economic clusters.

evidence indicates that large numbers of fish were processed in these spaces, then were disposed of using entirely different mechanisms from the household (even cooking) waste found elsewhere in the same properties. This discussion of marine remains brings us, finally, to a possible ninth vat (Fish-Salting Vat 9) that was built at least half a century earlier than the rest. A corner of it was excavated below Fish-Salting Vat 6, revealing that it shared the same alignment as the later vat and the rest of the property (Fig. 19.6.08); it seems that the placement of the street in this early phase was the same as in 79 ce (see Chapter 9), so the vat likely was located alongside the sidewalk, like the later ex­amples. Too little of the vat or of its surrounding en­vir­on­ ment survive to be certain of its function, but its location and the high concentration of fish remains found directly above its floor suggest that it may be an early predecessor of the neighborhood’s first-century fish-salting industry. Unlike the others, this vat did not have masonry walls. Instead, a rect­ angu­lar pit with rounded corners was dug into the soil and

Fig. 19.6.07  Fish-Salting Vat 2 (with Cistern 4 at right and Soak-Away 1 at top) in Room 38 of VIII.7.9–12; viewed from the north.

410  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.6.08  Fish-Salting Vats 6 and 9 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the west. Note also Bar Counter 2.

Fig. 19.6.09  Fish-Salting Vat 9 in Room 106 of I.1.1–2; viewed from the west.

plaster was applied directly to the sides and base of the void (Fig.  19.6.09). This construction technique is similar to that used in two contemporary (Phase 2) tanks: a small one west of the via Stabiana in later Room 37 (see Fig. 9.04; SU 17078), which differed from Fish-Salting Vat 9 by draining through a perforated lead plate (see Fig. 9.05) into a terracotta pipe and

which might have been connected to the local pottery industry, and a poorly preserved cylindrical tank just east of FishSalting Vat 9 (see Fig. 9.06; SU 54134). Thus, the differences in construction between Fish-Salting Vat 9 and Fish-Salting Vats 1–8 likely reflect changing construction practices rather than different functions. The vat was decommissioned and

a p pe n dic es  ·  411 filled with mixed refuse (SUs 54060, 54070) in the late second to early first century bce, shortly before the other vats were built; like the others, its top was sheared off, either during this phase or during the course of even later activity.

Catalog152 Fish-Salting Vat 1 (Ellis 2011d: Vat A) Location: VIII.7.5–8 Room 32 Relevant SUs: 12059 Measurements: int. 1.88 m long; 1.07 m wide; 0.96 m high (pres.); 1.93 m3 volume (pres.) Fill:153 12069, 12107, 12110 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 12.2) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 12.4) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: The vat seems to have been in use with a packed-earth surface (SUs 12136, 12164, 12173; see Figs. 19.6.06, 11.17). Damage to the vat’s floor (SUs 12108, 12117) suggests that it may have gone out of use before it was filled. Fish-Salting Vat 2 (Ellis 2011d: Vat B) Location: VIII.7.9–12 Room 38 Relevant SUs: 3041, 3072, 3073 Measurements: int. 2.24 m (N) and 2.08 m (S) long; 0.87 m (E) and 0.84 m (W) wide; 0.87 m high (pres.); 1.62 m3 volume (pres.) Fill: 3025, 3038, 3056, 3058, 3061 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 3.2) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 3.3) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: Together with the vat, a new packed-earth surface (SUs 3049, 3064, 3067), Soak-Away 1, and Cistern 4 were installed in this phase; all were likely associated with fish-salting activities (see Figs. 19.6.07, 11.22). The lining of the vat was refreshed at least once. The cistern and vat were put out of use at the same time; the excavators noted that sherds of the same vessel were recovered from both fills. Fish-Salting Vat 3 (Ellis 2011d: Vat C) Location: VIII.7.9–12 Room 48 Relevant SUs: 29013, 29014, 29024, 29046 Measurements: int. 1.17 m (NE) and 0.97 m (SW) long; 1.06 m (SE) and 0.95 m (NW) wide; 1.10 m high (pres.); 1.18 m3 volume (pres.) Fill: 29020, 29025, 29030 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 29.4) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 29.5) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: The vat was built immediately north of two earlier (Phase 3a, Subphase 29.3) tanks (SUs 29015, 29033; 29507) of uncertain function that were destroyed at this 152  Abbreviations used in this catalogue: pres. = preserved; int. = interior. 153  Fills in regular type are primary use contexts; italicized fills are not.

time. Each wall of the vat was constructed with a bottom course of large stones, a middle course of recycled roof tiles, and an upper course formed of smaller stones, all bonded with the same mortar. The walls were built sep­ar­ ate­ly and abutted each other (see Fig. 19.6.02). Fish-Salting Vat 4 (Ellis 2011d: Vat D) Location: VIII.7.9–12 Room 58 Relevant SUs: 18024, 18069 Measurements: int. 1.81 m long; 0.85 m wide (visible); 0.60 m high (pres.); 0.92 m3 volume (pres.) Fill: 18025, 18029 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 18.3) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 18.4) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: The northeastern extent of the vat con­tinued outside of the excavation area (see Fig. 19.6.05). A segment of the southern wall of the property (WCU 042) was used as the southeastern wall of the vat. Below the main fill, a layer of sediment sat immediately above the floor of the vat, suggesting that the vat had remained open following its final use but before its destruction. Fish-Salting Vat 5 (Ellis 2011d: Vat E) Location: I.1.1–2 Room 101 Relevant SUs: 50014 Measurements: int. 1.60 m long; 1.55 m wide; 1.17 m high (pres.); 2.80 m3 volume (pres.) Fill: 50012, 50018, 50019, 50020, 50031 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 50.4) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 50.5) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: In Phase 4a, two Phase 3 walls in Room 101 (SUs 50069, 50111) were dismantled to ground level. Their foundations were reused as the northwestern and southwestern walls of Fish-Salting Vat 5, which was inserted just inside of Entrance 1 (see Figs. 19.6.04, 11.30). There are two steep, sloping, stepped protrusions in its northwest corner. The function of this feature is open to debate; it may be the remnant of an earlier structure or phase of the vat, like the small construction in the northwest corner of Fish-Salting Vat 8.154 An organic deposit (SUs 50020, 50031) with abundant artifacts and ecofacts, including a high concentration of fish bones and scales, sat on the floor of the vat. This deposit could have been local refuse that was dumped for disposal after the vat had gone out of use but prior to its final filling. 154  The few similar features that have been found in fish-salting vats appear too steep, narrow, or rounded to have been used as stairs. See discussion in Motz 2021, 229–30, the appendix of which also provides fuller details about the known examples. Rectorado de Málaga, Vat 31 (Chacón Mohedano and Salvago Soto 2005); Cerro da Vila, Vats 3, 5/A60.7, J7, J25, J31, J42, and J52A (Teichner 2007, 120, fig. 7B [J7 mislabeled as J28.5]; 2008, 164, fig. 1). For larger steps, see Berrocal Caparrós 1993; Expósito Álvarez 2004; 2011. Cf. the foothold set into the wall of each of the four contemporary tannery tanks (see Fig. 11.27).

412  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Fish-Salting Vat 6 Location: I.1.1–2 Room 106 Relevant SUs: 54040 Measurements: int. 2.52 m (SW) and 2.02 m (NE) long; 1.09 m wide; 1.80 m high (pres.); 4.50 m3 volume (pres.) Fill: 54041, 54044, 54046 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 54.5) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 54.6) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: In Phase 4a, the outer southwestern wall of Room 106 was cut down to ground level, becoming the foundation for the wide doorway at Entrance 2. FishSalting Vat 6 and Soak-Away 12 were built together (see Fig. 19.6.08). Like its neighbor, Fish-Salting Vat 6 used the foundations of the recently destroyed exterior wall as its southwestern edge. At the bottom of the vat was an organic-rich layer (SU 54044) with a wide variety of artifacts and ecofacts, similar to the deposit in Fish-Salting Vat 5; it appears to have accumulated after the final use of the vat. Fish-Salting Vat 7 Location: I.1.6–9 Room 122 Relevant SUs: 52070, 52071, 52081, 52082 Measurements: int. 2.5 m long (visible); 0.8 m wide; 1.2 m high (pres.); 2.4 m3 volume (pres.) Fill: See Fish-Salting Vat 8 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 52.5) (early first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4b (Subphase 52.6) (mid first century bce) Brief description: The vat extended north beyond the excavated area (see Fig. 19.6.03). It was destroyed and replaced by the smaller Fish-Salting Vat 8 in Phase 4b, possibly to permit the construction of the northern wall of Room 122. Fish-Salting Vat 8 Location: I.1.6–9 Room 122 Relevant SUs: 52036, 52041, 52509 Measurements: int. 1.5 m long; 0.9 m wide; 1.0 m high (pres.); 1.35 m3 volume (pres.)

Fill: 52035, 52046, 52053 Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 52.6) (mid first century bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 52.8) (late Augustan, 1–35 ce) Brief description: In Phase 4b (Subphase 52.6), Fish-Salting Vat 7 (Phase 4a) was destroyed; its upper section was removed and the northern half of its southwestern wall was cut away. Fish-Salting Vat 8 was constructed partially inside the earlier vat, possibly on top of a low fill, and incorporated the room’s new northern wall (SU 52043; see Figs. 19.6.03, 11.44). The small buttress (SU 52509) in the vat’s northwest corner might be a remnant of Fish-Salting Vat 7. The void left between the southeastern walls of the new and old vats was filled with construction debris and imported refuse (SUs 52067, 52068, 52079, 52080, 52085, 52090). A packedearth surface (SUs 52012, 52033) topped this fill and was in use with the vat. Fish-Salting Vat 9 Location: I.1 (later) Room 106 Relevant SUs: 54056 Measurements: int. 0.6 m long (pres.); 0.6 m wide (pres.); 1.2 m high (pres.); 0.43 m3 volume (pres.) Fill: 54060, 54070, 54078 Phase installed: Phase 2 (Subphase 54.3) (250–125 bce) Phase decommissioned: Phase 3a (Subphase 54.4) (late second to early first century bce) Brief description: Only the southeast corner of the vat was excavated but it appeared to continue northwest under Fish-Salting Vat 6 (see Figs.  19.6.08,  19.6.09, and 9.06). A  deposit directly above the floor of the vat (SU 54078) contained an unidentified bronze coin and a variety of ecofacts, including a high density of fish remains. After its disuse, human or animal waste was dumped into it along with other refuse: ten latrine objects were recovered (see the forthcoming Environmental volume) and seeds found within the fill were mineralized, a process that occurs through exposure to urine or feces.

c h a pt e r 1 9. 7

The Floors of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Jenny R. Kreiger

From packed earth to polychrome mosaic, floor surfaces have long played an important role in the analysis of architecture, room function, and decorative schemes at Pompeii. The latest floors reflect the activities of the city in its last days (and the explorations of archaeologists and others in later times); below the 79 ce floors, we catch a glimpse of the city’s development over centuries. Given that our excavated trenches ­covered approximately one-third of the surface area of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, the data can speak not only to how floors developed in a particular room over time, but also to broader patterns in the construction of different types of floors among the various buildings of both insulae. What follows is the first systematic consideration undertaken at Pompeii of all of an insula’s known floor surfaces, from the earliest occupation to 79 ce (see Table 19.7.01).155 To conduct this analysis, I collected information on the floors detected in every trench in each major site-wide phase

(Fig. 19.7.01). Rather than compare floors by surface area (not a fair comparison, since many floors were fragmentary), I treated each distinct floor detected as a “minimum construction event,” defined as an instance of a floor-like surface of a given type built in a given trench during a given phase. By this reckoning, a complete wall-to-wall surface and one that survives only in traces both carry the same analytical weight.156 I further classified the floors by type (Fig. 19.7.02): packed earth, mortar over packed earth, opus signinum, and “other” (including floors of brick, tile, stone, or cobbles joined with mortar). The results of this analysis take the form of chronological and spatial patterns observed in both insulae, as well as some more specific insights on sequences of floor types and reflections on possible links between floor type and room function.

Analysis Chronological patterns

155  None of the major studies of opus signinum shares our particular interest and scope. On tessellated opus signinum as a decorative medium, see Blake 1930; Joyce 1979; Tsakirgis 1990; Vassal 2006. On opus signinum as a component of water features (rather than as a floor type), see Sear 2004; 2006. For studies of opus signinum outside of Pompeii, see Blake 1930; Joyce 1979; Tsakirgis 1990; Vassal 2006; Trümper 2007.

Floor Construction Events by Phase Minimum construction events

50 40 30 20 10 0

1a 1b 1c 2 3a 3b 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 6 7a Phase Other Opus signinum

Packed earth with mortar Packed earth

Fig. 19.7.01  The various floor construction events by phase.

From the sixth century bce to the first century ce floor construction activity followed an arc that rose slowly to peak in the Early Imperial period (Phase 5a) before tapering off during the city’s last years. The earliest permanent human occupation in the area of VIII.7 and I.1, which dates from the sixth to third century bce (Phase 1a to 1c), saw relatively simple surfaces mostly of packed earth flanking or forming part of the Mercato ash road (Phase 1a) and the later gray ash road (Phase 1c) that ran from the Archaic gate under the space now occupied by the front rooms of I.1; some of these surfaces were also associated with the quarrying that was happening at this time (especially Phase 1c). Much of the road and adjacent surfaces remained in use during the third and second centuries bce, although some packed-earth floors were replaced with mortar-topped ones (Phase 2). During the late second and early first centuries bce (Phases 3a and 3b), however, there was a boom in floor construction across the site as the architecture of both insulae was established. New mortar and packed-earth surfaces (and 156  My definition of a “minimum construction event” also means that when a single floor surface extended across two or more trenches, it was counted sep­ar­ate­ly in each trench where it appeared.

414  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i later, the via Stabiana itself ) covered the area of the old gray ash road. The central properties of VIII.7 received their first identifiable floors, and opus signinum made its initial appearance in these insulae.157 The first century bce (Phases 4a to 4c) saw another wave of widespread renovation across the site, with few floors preserved from the previous phase, and many spaces received more than one type of floor surface over the course of this century. Opus signinum became more widespread throughout the properties, and tessellated opus signinum appears for the first time in these insulae. Another flurry of floor building took place in the Early Imperial period (Phases 5a and 5b). This phase marks the peak of floor construction in the two insulae. Afterwards, floor construction activity appears to have declined (Phase 6), but some later floors may have been destroyed by early excavations in the area; there is simply less evidence available for floors in Phases 6 and 7. The evidence that remains gives the impression that after the earthquake of 62 ce (i.e., in Phase 7a), many of the floors from the earlier first century ce remained in use; it is difficult to say for certain if this was the case. The overall trajectory reflects the development of this area from open quarry, to minor industrial neighborhood, to commercial district, with later disruption perhaps attributable to the earthquake of 62 ce, or perhaps to early excavations. Focusing on the “minimum construction events” of each of the major floor types, one can observe some interesting patterns. The emergence of different floor types over time reflects technological development: packed earth appeared first while mortar was still rare (Phases 1a to 1c), then mortar grew in popularity (Phase 2),158 and opus signinum appeared later (Phase 3a).159 But the more advanced technologies never completely replaced the simpler ones; rather, all three major floor types coexisted in the later phases.160 Over the whole history of this neighborhood, the residents never stopped making new packed-earth floors, even once more durable types were widely used. Packed earth accounted for nearly all construction events in Phases 1a to 1c, eventually decreasing to just one-tenth of new construction by Phase 7a. After its initial appearance in Phase 1c, mortar flooring made up half of new construction in Phase 2, declining to one-third by Phase 7a. The use of opus signinum started small, with one-tenth

Fig. 19.7.02  The main floor types encountered across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1: top, packed earth (SU 24035 in Room 9 of VIII.7.1–4); middle, mortar (SU 56027 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9); and bottom, opus signinum (SU 5003 in Room 5 of VIII.7.1–4).

157  The earliest occurrences of opus signinum in these insulae were SUs 24025, 25050, 25051, 25053, and 25054, all in VIII.7 in Phase 3a. 158  Some of the floors we identified as “mortar” had much in common with heavily degraded opus signinum, so it is possible that opus signinum may have first appeared in these insulae in Phase 2. For the sake of this analysis, I use the more secure identifications. 159  Opus signinum is first attested at Pompeii in the late third century bce, shortly after its first appearance in Italy at Sant’Omobono, Rome ( Joyce 1979, 259; Vassal 2006, 43). 160 Tessellated opus signinum and “other” floor types are rare; in each stratum where they appear, they account for no more than two and four construction events, respectively.

a p pe n dic es  ·  415 of new construction in Phase 3a, growing steadily to account for half of new floors in Phase 7a. Clearly, improving technology was not the sole factor governing the residents’ choice of floors; they probably considered cost, ease of repair, suitability for room function, or aesthetic factors as well. Looking at all the floors in each site-wide developmental phase—both new construction and those presumably still remaining from the prior phase and not built over—we see a similar pattern. After the initial appearance of opus signinum in Phase 3a, the three principal floor types tend toward roughly equal proportions, each accounting for one-quarter to one-third of the extant floor surfaces from the early first century bce to the late first century ce (Phases 4a to 7), with “other” floors making up the rest. Despite differences in their installation costs, maintenance requirements, and practical and aesthetic qualities, the three major floor types seem to have been equally popular in practice from early first century bce onward.

Opus signinum: expectations versus observations Early in the process of excavating Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, we began to note patterns in the use of opus signinum that challenged our assumptions about the value of this construction medium. As noted above, site-wide distributions of floor types show that opus signinum never totally replaced packed earth or mortar; the builders of these insulae seem to have valued each floor type for different reasons. Assuming that opus signinum is a more expensive, durable, and techno­logic­ al­ly advanced type of floor construction than packed earth or mortar, we expected to see certain patterns in its use. Firstly, we expected to see a progression from packed earth to mortar to opus signinum in a given space over time, assuming that a proprietor would seek to “improve” the floors in a room when possible. Secondly, we expected that, once opus signinum appeared in a space, subsequent floor construction would also be in opus signinum, barring drastic changes to the function of the space or the budget for construction. In several of our annual excavation reports, we noted deviation from these expected patterns: some opus signinum floors were replaced with packed-earth or mortar floors, sometimes after a fairly short period of use, especially after the earthquake of 62 ce.161 Now that we can consider the site as a whole, we see that the pattern of floor replacement is more complex. Of the thirty-eight opus signinum floors identified over all phases, 161  “This sequence, in which a typically sturdier opus signinum floor was replaced by a poorer mortar surface, was something of a ‘signature’ event for the post-earthquake recovery phase across both insulae I.1 and VIII.7” (Ellis et al. 2015, 10, n. 42). See also, for example, Room 20 of VIII.7.5–6 in Phase 7, as well as—and albeit slightly earlier—Room 132 of I.1.6–9 in Phase 6.

fifteen were replaced by mortar, packed earth, or one of the “other” types of floor construction (usually stone). In eight cases, another opus signinum floor replaced an existing one, while fifteen opus signinum floors (including some of those replacing older opus signinum) apparently were never replaced and were more or less extant in 79 ce (or any later floors were undetected). Floor-replacement activity peaked in Phase 5, but out of twelve replacement floors built at this time, only four were of opus signinum. Three opus signinum floors were replaced in the post-earthquake period: one by another opus signinum floor, one by opus signinum and mortar; and the third by “other.” The trend we thought we observed earlier was based on what turned out to be a minority of cases. In short, neither our initial expectations nor our previous observations turned out to be wholly correct. The decision to replace an opus signinum floor, and how to replace it, probably depended on the specific circumstances of a space and its proprietor, rather than on broader trends. Given that opus signinum is more durable (and especially more water resistant) than either packed earth or mortar, we expected to find it in close association with water-related features.162 We assumed that the builders of a fish-salting vat or a toilet would have wanted to surround it with a floor surface that would not absorb liquid and that could be cleaned with water without softening or eroding.163 Although many such features incorporate opus signinum, mortar, or water-resistant plaster into their construction, the correlation between wet features and opus signinum floors was not as strong as expected. Out of forty-eight examples of fish-salting vats, cisterns, soakaways, and waste features datable after the invention of opus signinum, up to fifteen may have been in use with floors of that type, and the rest with packed earth, mortar, or other surfaces.164 In short, pairing wet features with opus signinum floors seems not to have been a priority for the occupants of these insulae, although they often incorporated opus signinum or other forms of mortar into the features themselves. The chronological patterning of floor construction in these insulae reflects the ancient residents’ responses to both major events (rapid economic development, earthquake) and mundane factors like room function, renovation budgets, and aesthetic preferences. 162  Trümper, for example, also uses “waterproof pavements” as a criterion for determining the functions of rooms (Trümper 2007, 323, 326). 163  I omitted drains from this reckoning because they tend to occur under floors, in walls, or inside other features; in general, they do not have the same relationship with a floor surface that a built-in container (cistern, soak-away, or vat) does. 164  Features that may have been in use with opus signinum floors: Cisterns 1, 2, 5, and 7; Fish-Salting Vat 4; Soak-Aways 3, 4, 7, 9, 15, and 16; and Waste Features 2, 5, 6, and 19. By contrast, some examples of wet features in use with packed-earth floors include Fish-Salting Vats 1 and 2 (both Phase 4a), Waste Feature 4 (Phase 5a); and Soak-Aways 1 (Phase 4a) and 13 (Phase 4b).

416  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Catalog Table 19.7.01  Packed-earth floors Phase SU 1a 14227, 14232, 52134, 54088, 54104, 54154, 55112 1c 1098, 14123, 14126, 14223, 14225, 14226, 24036, 24057, 24090, 24092, 27077, 29044, 29051, 50114, 51122, 51147, 52027, 52028, 52076, 52106, 54091, 54115, 54163, 54165, 54167, 54168, 55084, 55102, 56094, 56123 2 6045, 11190, 11199, 29040, 29041, 53081, 53090, 53095, 53096, 53112 3a 1096, 3077, 3078, 7086, 7107, 7117, 7120, 12068, 18068, 18100, 24035, 50044, 50059, 52034, 53056, 53071, 57153, 59119 3b 18063, 18066, 18093, 25033, 25035, 50043, 50088 4a 1040, 1105, 3049, 3064, 3067, 11064, 12136, 12164, 12173, 15016, 16060, 17019, 28070, 29012, 29016, 51044, 51057, 51066, 51075, 51078, 51081, 51092, 51097, 51100, 51107, 51110, 51116, 51119, 51131, 51132, 59098 4b 11046, 11102, 12062, 12106, 16011, 16094, 51065, 52012, 52033, 55042, 56024, 56077, 56080, 56087 4c 7009, 16036, 16304, 22004, 51014, 51021, 51022, 51028, 51035, 51038, 51058, 55077, 55094, 56031, 56061, 56067, 56068, 59054 5a 2013, 2019, 2091, 2099, 2107, 2108, 2113, 7039, 7082, 9021, 12070, 14301, 18019, 24017, 24022, 25011, 25012, 50028, 50074, 52038, 52065, 60013, 60035, 60063 5b 1005, 1039, 53010, 54034, 57041, 57145 6 9002, 9005, 16301, 18009, 18056, 22001, 23007, 57036, 57037, 57053, 57079, 57082, 57090, 57100, 57103, 57109 7a 1075

Table 19.7.02  Packed-earth floors with mortar Phase 1c 2 3a 3b 4a

SU 10020 11204, 14120, 24055, 29034, 29036, 56091, 56092 7125, 10016, 17071, 17075, 17522, 24039, 24042, 24043, 24048, 50046, 50104, 50147, 54112, 58057 50039 10013, 13024, 13027, 13036, 13047, 15015, 15029, 17016, 24028, 24029, 27035, 27044, 28066, 29506, 50101, 51128, 54039, 54049, 54051, 56042, 58052, 58098

Phase SU 4c

5a

5b 6 7a

7060, 7061, 7073, 12012, 12022, 12066, 12151, 16032, 22009, 55003, 55011, 55018, 55049, 55067, 55070, 55124, 56009, 56027, 56050, 56054, 56060, 59014 2011, 7005, 7006, 7018, 7042, 7054, 7105, 12005, 12006, 14204, 16303, 19002, 19003, 19004, 19005, 19006, 19007, 19015, 19020, 19021, 20020, 21011, 21016, 22003, 27019, 27023, 27030, 27042, 27087, 27091, 51010, 51012, 51053, 52024, 52098, 52100, 54015, 54016, 54030, 54031, 55048, 55052, 58033, 59049, 60020 50026, 53118, 54003, 54004, 54005, 54006, 54007, 54014, 57068, 58517 24005, 24006, 24009, 27008, 56002, 56039, 57102, 57115, 57131 24002, 53019, 54002

Table 19.7.03  Opus signinum floors Phase 3a 4a 4b 4c 5a

5b 6 7a

SU 24025, 25050, 25051, 25053, 25054 1073, 14111, 14210, 14211, 14312, 14314, 18082, 25023 9032, 16012, 19008, 19016, 51031, 51036, 59047 9031, 17021, 17028, 17032, 17043, 52075, 59055 5051, 8041, 10002, 11017, 11042, 11148, 12121, 13021, 14101, 14201, 14302, 14303, 15008, 56006, 56040, 58013, 58037, 60010, 60036, 60048, 60049, 60065 50002, 50003, 50004, 50008, 50037, 50061 8002, 8006, 11020, 11103, 11143, 12131, 17002, 17004, 17039, 17041, 25009, 53017 5003, 5010, 5024, 9016, 18003, 53012, 53114, 53121, 57016, 57035, 57078, 57080

Table 19.7.04  Other floors Phase 1c 4a 4c 5a 5b 6 7a

SU 54058 4018, 4019, 50091, 50098 55058, 55062, 55065, 55068, 55123 4020, 4022, 12111, 12118 4015 17007, 55066 60004

c h a pt e r 1 9. 8

The Quarry Areas of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Eric E. Poehler

To date, academic interest in stone quarrying has rarely extended to those small-scale operations that targeted basic building stones. Attention has focused instead on more valuable stones, especially marbles, the ownership and operation of large-scale Imperial period quarries, and the economics around the trade of their outputs. On the one hand, such attention is unsurprising as ancient literary sources focused more on these materials and concerns.165 On the other hand, most architecture in the ancient world was non-monumental and nearly all of it was built from small, local, and temporary quarries.166 Archaeological fieldwork has been no less focused on the largest and most valuable stones: of the nearly 800 attested quarries, only 12 have been identified for the extraction of basalt or lava stone, a total equaled by the known alabaster quarries.167 When the source of these utilitarian materials is in question, it is most often in service of major constructions or particular objects, specifically Roman road surfaces and millstones.168 Among the many studies on Pompeian architecture, the sourcing of building stone is regularly overlooked: in neither The World of Pompeii nor The Complete Pompeii—both published in 2007 and both containing rich treatments of architectural topics—does the index contain an entry for quarrying.169 Even when quarrying is addressed, such as the ten pages in Adam’s Roman Building, the lack of evidence from Pompeii necessarily morphs the discussion to ancient quarrying more generally.170 Even the evidence that has been available at Pompeii, such as the paintings in the House of Siricus and the 165  For example, Greek and Roman Technology: a Sourcebook (Humphrey, Oleson, and Sherwood 1998) devotes five of its six pages about quarries to marble and The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Engineering and Technology in the Classical World (Oleson 2012) offers nothing on quarrying of stones other than marble. 166  Russell 2014, 4–5, 53–61. 167 Russell. 2013. Gazetteer of Stone Quarries in the Roman World. Version 1.0. Accessed (16 AUG 2018): http://oxrep.classics.ox.ac.uk/databases/stone_quarries_database/. 168 On roman roads: Black, Browning, and Laurence 2008; Capedri, Grandi, and Venturelli 2003; Laurence 1999, 65–73, 2004; Renzulli et al. 2007. On millstones: Buffone et al. 2003; Gluhak and Hofmeister 2009; Mangartz 2008; Peacock 1980, 1986; Williams-Thorpe 1988. 169  Berry 2007; Dobbins and Foss 2007.    170  Adam 1994, 20–29.

terracotta plaque of Diogenes Structor, only served to shift the focus from extraction to construction, from quarrymen to masons.171 Research on Pompeii’s stones, therefore, has been devoted to the sourcing of materials already in use, such as building materials, street pavements and other features,172 threshold blocks and steppingstones,173 marble recuts on bar counters,174 and (again) millstones.175 The studies on lava stone have found that “mineralogical and petrographic data indicate that most of the shoshonite samples used as building stones could derive from the same lavas that constitute the bedrock of ancient Pompeii. Indeed, for at least some of the millstones from Pompeii Buffone et al. (2003) have already hypothesized a provenance from the basaltic trachyandesites cropping out in the Pompeian area itself, or at Castello di Cisterna (Naples).”176 The absence of interest in quarrying is hardly a surprise, however, as the ancient ground level on the slopes of Vesuvius lies below more than 7 m of eruptive material.177 The few outcrops that have been discovered show modern quarrying, perhaps masking earlier Roman extractions.178 Within Pompeii, where the volcanic debris has been cleared, this situation is similar as the subsurface excavations below the 79 ce levels that might reveal quarrying have been prioritized only in the last four decades. Lava stone quarries are almost unknown, save for cuttings along the escarpment of the city, especially in the southwest,179 and two brief but important mentions of quarrying in Insula I.5 and in the alleyway beside it.180 Drill 171  PPM VI 1996, 294–6, figs. 117–19; Ling 1990, 56 (B3). 172  Balassone et al. 2009; Kastenmeier et al. 2010; Kawamoto and Tatsumi 1992, 92–7. 173  In 2017 a study of 20 threshold blocks in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 and 303 steppingstones was conducted by Worthing et al. (2020) using a portable XRF spectrometer. 174  Ellis 2005, 50–1; 2018, 169–72; Fant 2009; Fant, Russell, and Barker 2013. 175  Buffone et al. 1999, 2003.    176  Kastenmeier et al. 2010, 51. 177  Vogel and Marker 2010, 72–6, fig. 5. 178  Marra et al. 2013, 573. The authors show that quarrying continued after the 79 ce eruption as Vesuvian materials are found within later buildings at Rome. 179  Cinque and Irollo 2004, 109–12; Kastenmeier et al. 2010, 44–50. 180 Brun (2008, 63) finds the quarry within the block related to postearthquake(s) reconstruction, but the quarry at the northern end of vicolo I.1–I.5 (Brun et al. 2010, 273) dates to the fourth century bce. See more discussion

418  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i cores have located travertines with the same lithographies as the Sarno limestones used at Pompeii, but their actual quarry sites are only conjectural.181 Evidence for quarry­ing of still softer materials, especially the natural ash deposits and the more friable upper sequences of the lava flow, is growing in abundance. A cursory survey of published excavations reveals quarry pits mentioned from the northwest (VI.1.14, VI.2.4, VI.2.16, VI.16.27) and the southeast of the city (I.9.11–12).182 Even excavations in the streets are now finding large pits cut into the natural layers apparently for the extraction of those materials.183 Most often, however, quarry pits are recovered in larger, outdoor spaces where digging was easier to initiate and accomplish.184 These relatively small scale endeavors were likely associated with localized construction events and analysis of the sediments recovered shows they would have served well in the production of mortars.185 Within the Porta Stabia neighborhood, quarrying consisted of two primary activities: the breaking and extraction of the hard, lava stone bedrock and the excavation, usually in pits, of the yellow-brown Mercato ash deposits. The geo­ morph­ology of the area is described in detail by Robinson in this volume (see Chapter 7), so only the briefest recitation of the geological sequence is required here. When quarrymen initially cut through the soil, the first natural material encountered was the Mercato ash deposit, which varied in depth between a few tens of centimeters to nearly a meter.186 Where undisturbed, this ash often overlaid a light, vesicular stone, varying in color from gray to purple to red (cruma di lava), which transitioned into a darker, softer, and more fri­ able variant (soft lava/lava tenera) of the solid dark gray lava farther below.187 Although the recovery of Mercato ash would become common no later than the beginning of first century bce (Phase 4a),188 stone quarrying occurred (if periodically) in Quarry Area 14. Lorenzoni, Zanettin, and Casella (2001, 40, 47–8) mentions the presence of lava tenera at the southeast exterior of Pompeii as a source for the earliest fortifications, but does not cite any specific quarrying activity. 181  Kastenmeier et al. 2010, 55. 182  Northwest: VI.1.14 ( Jones and Robinson 2005, 271); VI.2.16 (Coarelli 2005, 97); VI.2.4 (Laidlaw and Stella (2014, 170–91) regularly encountered sterile stata they called Level II, a “tufaceous yellow earth” and Level III, “black cinders”); VI.10.11 (Coarelli and Pesando 2006b, 322, 332–4); VI.16.27 (Robinson 2005, 110, Seiler et al. 2005, 229). Southeast: I.9.11–12 (Robinson 2005, 110; Stannard 2005, 121). 183  Befani 2007, 6, fig. 6 (US 20); Befani 2008, 3 (US 8, 15, 28, and 34); Sorriento 2008, 4 (US 21). 184  I.9.11–12; VI.10.11; VI.16.27; Quarry Area 12. 185  Robinson 2005, 110–13. Jackson et al. 2010. 186  Deepest example was the most southerly deposit (SU 53111), while shallower fills were recovered in the north. 187 See Quarry Area 9. Laidlaw (1993, 229–30; Laidlaw and Stella 2014, 171, 198) found a similar sequence in the Casa del Sallustio, including a red crumalike layer. On the definition of lava tenera, see Lorenzoni, Zanettin, and Casella 2001, 40, 47–8. 188  Using micro-Raman spectroscopy, Castriota et al. (2008) found that local soils made up the binder for all mortars tested at the House of the Wedding of Hercules (VI.9.47).

from at least the fourth century bce and continued into the Imperial period.

Analysis In aggregate, the sixteen trenches that encountered quarrying activities in the Porta Stabia neighborhood offer an expansive view of how, where, and when quarrying was conducted in this part of Pompeii (Fig. 19.8.01).189 It is likely that some of these observations apply to quarries elsewhere in Pompeii, nearly all of which are awaiting rediscovery. Where the lava bedrock was already exposed, whether as natural prom­on­tor­ ies or through prior human interventions, quarrying was done by working in steps, cutting the stone into a series of ledges running across the natural (predominantly southward) slope.190 To accomplish this, Pompeian quarrymen used several procedures, perhaps in combination. Wedging and breaking the stone from the face of the ledges was the most common technique as nearly all quarry areas show the highly irregular profiles of fractured rather than cut stone (Fig. 19.8.02). In one example, we identified scoring marks near the top edge of a ledge, indicating further work was anticipated but not realized.191 There is also some evidence that fire-setting was used. This technique involves building a fire above and/or against the stone and then dousing it with liquid to produce fractures that ease extraction.192 Although gray ash deposits were documented in the fills of a few areas,193 the only direct evidence for fire-setting is the orange-red discoloration of the bedrock discovered in Quarry Area 9.194 Once quarrying activities had ceased, the lava bedrock remained as a series of descending steps. In some instances, these steps are broad, forming wide plateaus between steep ledges (Quarry Area 9). The founding of walls directly onto these plateaus and their precise locations in relationship to the quarry cuts indicates that such broad platforms were intentionally created and that the actions of the quarrymen and masons were well coordinated. In other examples, bedrock survives as a series of narrow but highly fractured ridges running across the slope, between which are valleys left by the quarried out stone. Although these ridges seem to become subject to quarrying themselves, a few (or portions) remained

189  Four other trenches—2000, 7000, 25000, and 59000—revealed features that could not conclusively be connected to quarrying o. 190  Ledges were found in Quarry Areas 1–2, 4–6, 8, 9, 13, 14. See Adam 1994, 25–6, fig. 21. 191  Quarry Area 13, SU 56034. See Adam 1994, 23, 30–1. 192  Pliny (Nat. Hist. XXIII.27, XXX.21), Livy (Hist. XXI.36–7), and Polybius (Hist. III.54.5–55.1) all describe the use of fire and vinegar to split rock for removal. 193  SUs 29041, 54075, 60014, 60022, 60061. 194  The discolored bedrock (SU 8015) was observed at the extreme southeastern corner of the quarry and its survival suggests these stones were burned but never fully quarried away.

a p pe n dic es  ·  419

Fig. 19.8.01  The distribution of quarry areas across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

420  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.8.02  Evidence of wedging and fracture of the lava in Quarry Area 14 in Rooms 126 and 127 of I.1.6–9; viewed from the west. Note also the masonry platform for a lifting device.

to serve as foundations for masonry platforms from which simple lifting devices, such as an A-frame (with or without a winch), could be used to raise the stone out of the quarry for transport.195 One such platform in Quarry Area 14 was found to be well preserved (see Fig.  19.8.02), not least for having been built over by the nearly contemporary rear wall of Insula I.1 (WCU 1081). Another such platform, itself built over and protected by a line of curbstones, was found above a ledge of bedrock within the vicolo delle Conciapelle only 13 m to the north.196 Parts of two other structures were recovered, each built directly onto the flattened bedrock. These also might be lifting platforms or another form of (as yet) unknown quarry infrastructure.197 Because other means of cutting this hard lava stone, such as trenching, were possible—if significantly (perhaps prohibitively) more labor intensive—it is important to note that the techniques described above necessarily produced moderately sized, irregular pieces of lava stone that anticipate their use  within rubble and mortar/cement building techniques, 195  On cranes see Adam 1994, 43–51;Van der Graaff 2019, 160. 196  This street was under reconstruction at the time of the eruption (see Poehler 2017, 82–4). 197  Adam (1994, 26) suggests a forge for reworking iron tools would commonly be present in quarries.

­specifically opus incertum. In addition to other quarrying techniques, avoiding lava stone entirely was also a possibility. Gray tuff and Sarno Limestone were abundant, lightweight, and easy to cut into shapes. Despite these opportunities, the rise of cement and the efficiency of its related construction techniques, opus incertum in particular, meant that demand for moderately sized pieces of heavy lava stone only increased. Indeed, the chronology of these lava stone quarries at Pompeii and the shapes of stone they generated add to the mounting evidence for a rapid development of cement and its attendant construction techniques in the later second century bce (Phase 3a) as seen in Rome.198 So too did the demand increase for a pozzolanic binder for mortars that could hold together these rubble walls. Fortunately for these builders, a layer of Mercato ash was abundant and easily available. When quarries were first cut down, the Mercato ash was often available just below the ancient ground level and always just above the sequence of lava stones. In Quarry Area 9, no less than 160 m3 of this material was dug out and set aside for potential use. These enormous quantities, however, meant that re­depos­ition as a terracing fill—now regularly mixed with fragments of friable black lava and cultural 198  Mogetta 2015.

a p pe n dic es  ·  421 material—was a common form of reuse. Still, this re­deposit­ed natural ma­ter­ial was often dumped late or even last in the sequence of deposits that filled a quarry back in, indicating it was understood not to be merely overburden. Pit quarrying for Mercato ash, even into its redeposited fills, was also common and documented across both insulae. This activity can be implied already by the sixth century bce (Phase 1a) by the presence of this material in contemporary road surfaces (SU 54104).199 Later pit quarrying of areas previously mined for lava stone was not uncommon;200 the largest pit documented in the Porta Stabia neighborhood is of this type.201 Indeed, quarrying for Mercato ash seems to have been repeatedly undertaken in areas that could permit it, especially as the density of occupation increased from the second century bce onward. Quarry Area 12, for example, has five quarry pits extending over two centuries that grew increasingly smaller and shallower as they intercut the debris of previous pit fills rather than Mercato ash. Five individual Mercato quarry pits, rather than concentrated areas of quarry­ing, were also identified. Chronologically, these range in date from the end of the second century bce (SU 54061; Phase 3a), to the early Imperial era (SU 16018; Phase 5a), but the majority are from the beginning of the first century bce (SU 11188, SU 16066, 51152; Phase 4a). A final note should be made on incidental extractions not included in this discussion, such as the insertion of cisterns and tanks or the digging of construction trenches.202 Although these activities removed many cubic meters of the natural sequence, and it is even likely these materials were used in related constructions, we cannot disentangle the intentions of those doing the extraction from those doing the construction. Therefore we cannot tell the difference between quarrying and construction. For the ancient Pompeians, of course, such a distinction was often meaningless. The fourteen quarry areas of the Porta Stabia neighborhood are thus intimately tied to the predominant construction techniques of the second and first centuries bce and it is therefore unsurprising that the Porta Stabia quarries are most active at this time. Moreover, it is no coincidence that as these quarries were closing, the architectures of the insulae were being erected in the very same materials. There may even be some implicit chronological indicators to follow. For example, the first opus incertum building in Insula I.1 (Phase 3a; I.1.1) was built with an especially dark lava stone with many large, white leucite inclusions.203 This stone is slightly less dense and is 199 See Chapter 8.   200  Two such pits were found in Quarry Area 9. 201  Quarry Area 14. 202  For example, Cistern 3 (Chapter 19.2) in the back of VIII.7.11 was cut through natural layers, but intentional quarrying cannot be distinguished from simple removal. For walls and construction trenches within quarry areas, see Quarry Area 3, Quarry Area 9, and Quarry Area 10. 203  WCUs 1006, 1020, 1021, 1023, and 1025.

found relatively high in the lava flow; an outcrop of this ma­ter­ial is still visible at ground level 55 m to the north in Insula I.2 (see Fig. 7.04). No later building will predominantly use this stone type, suggesting the upper layers of the local bedrock had been exhausted or built over and deeper and different quarries needed to be dug. Although it is difficult to identify the specific source of stones in a particular building,204 two quarries have especially close spatial and temporal relationships to their surrounding architectures. Quarry Area 9, for example, not only created solid, level platforms for the northern boundary wall of VIII.7.15205 and the southern facade of the Theatrum Tectum (both built directly onto bedrock), but also carried the great drain of the latter building, even using some of the friable lava stone in the drain’s construction (see Fig. 11.04).206 Similarly, Quarry Area 14 shows extensive quarrying activity was undertaken immediately preceding—and possibly con­tem­ por­an­eous­ly with—the redefinition of Insula  I.1’s eastern edge. Large and long walls were built immediately south of the quarry (rear wall of I.1.3–5)207 using hard, black lava stone exclusively. When the area of the quarry itself was finally enclosed, the eastern boundary wall of I.1.6–9208 was built directly over both bedrock and a masonry lifting platform. Moreover, this wall was constructed using a mix of lava and Sarno limestone pieces, suggesting that quarrying had ended (even as the quarry was not completely filled in) and that building materials were arriving from other sources. The in-filling of these quarry areas also connects them to their surrounding construction activities and offers a more fulsome glimpse of the life cycle of a Pompeian quarry. For example, once a shallow valley had been cut into the bedrock, it could easily be transformed into a mixing vat for mortars,209 as evidenced by the concrete-like slurry that flowed over and solidified along the bottom of Quarry Area 14.210 Such vats were needed later as well; a small tank with mortar still adhering to its base was discovered built high up within the fill of the same quarry.211 Also found within the fills are level, hard packed layers that appear to be temporary working surfaces created between periods of more intense deposition.212 Likewise, some of these large fills were used strategically: 204  On sourcing specific building materials, see Worthing, Laurence, and Bosworth 2018. 205  WCU 001. 206  Friable lava bedrock in situ: SU 28077; SU 28039 is used in Drain 25 (see Chapter 19.5). 207 WCU 1037.   208  WCU 1081. 209  Serving as a vat may have been the function of the “L”-shaped feature (SU 8014) in Quarry Area 9, though only a small remnant of a flaky, disintegrating covering was found attached to the feature and only in one area. 210  Similar slurries were found in construction contexts across the insulae: SUs 50137, 50141, 54109, 55093, 59052. 211  Tank (SU 60059), fill (SU 60060), and mortar (SU 60075). 212  Packed-earth surfaces: SUs 12068, 28070, 60013, 60035, 60063.

422  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i brown soils were brought in from outside the quarry to level the valleys between ridges, which supported the extraction of stone nearby and preserved the natural soils for other uses.213 Again, all this evidence for the contemporaneous use of the quarry as a builders’ yard serves to connect the extracted materials more closely to the construction of the con­tem­por­ an­eous architectures that surround it. It is odd, therefore, that the filling in of many quarries regularly comprises large, lava stone pieces that seem as if they could easily be used for construction purposes.214 It may be the case that, like the Mercato ash, all the local needs had been met and these stones were no longer needed, perhaps even in the way of subsequent occupation. It is also possible that stones were “cured,” that is, left exposed to the elements to test their durability, but the quarry closed around them before that test was completed. Vitruvius advised this procedure, though he intended it for the softer tuff stones that surround Rome. For lava stone at Pompeii, there would seem to have been less need and less time (two years in Vitruvius’ opinion) for this harder stone to be cured, even if Vitruvius included stones intended for use in rubble construction techniques.215 Chronologically, quarrying events in the Porta Stabia neighborhood reveal four periods of activity with three primary motivations (Fig. 19.8.03). The oldest interventions into the natural sequences preceded the creation of a new road surface for the via Stabiana, dating back to the fourth century bce (Phase 1c). These deep and early quarries reveal ledges and platforms (Quarry Area 1s, 4, 8) as well as flattened areas (Quarry Area 13) of solid lava cut in prior to or in preparation for an exceptionally wide road (or roads) made from gray ash (see Figs. 8.09–8.12). The fragmentary remains of con­tem­por­ary buildings show construction primarily used blocks of pappamonte tuff, so the lava stone extracted at this time cannot be directly connected to the most of the local architecture of the period. (see Figs. 8.14–16).216 Elsewhere in the city, in the fourth century bce and earlier,217 lava tenera was cut into large ashlar blocks and used along with pappamonte stone in building projects. It is possible, therefore, that the removal of the soft, friable lava above these hard lava quarries in the Porta Stabia neighborhood was the purpose of such quarrying. 213  Thus, brown soil fills were found below the masonry platform (SU 60040), packed-earth surface (SU 60064), and below gray ash deposits (SU 60023) in Quarry Area 14; west of the “L”-shaped feature (SU 8030) and surrounding the large drain (SUs 28054 and 28073) in Quarry Area 9; at the bottom of the ledges in Quarry Area 2 (SU 12160) and Quarry Area 8 (SU 27144). In vicolo IX.11–12/13, Berg (2005, 211) found a deep layer of brown soil above the undisturbed natural Mercato ash. See also Fant (1989, 42–7) on constructions within the quarry at Docimium in support of further quarrying activity. 214  SUs 27095, 27119, 29039, 29045, 60069; within fill of SU 12160. Brun et al. 2010, fig. 58. 215 Vitruvius, De Arch. 2.7.5. 216  See Phase 1a. SU 55118 provided a rare exception. 217  Lorenzoni, Zanettin, and Casella 2001, 42–8.

Quarrying Events by Phase 8 7 2

6 5

4

4 3 5 2

2 3

3

1 1 0

Phase 1b, 1c

Phase 2 Phase 3a Phase 4a-c Phase 5a Phase 6 Phase 7 Lava Quarrying Events

Mercato Ash Quarrying Events

Fig. 19.8.03  Number of events of quarrying for lava stone (black) and Mercato ash (gray) per phase.

If the stones were used here in contemporary structures, the evidence has not survived; only one block of lava tenera was recovered in our excavations (SU 25067). It is also possible that quarrying for lava tenera occurred in earlier centuries (for example, in support of the first fortification wall in the sixth century bce), which left outcrops of hard lava to be built directly over as witnessed in Quarry Area 13. A second wave of quarrying accompanied the reapportionment and reconstruction of the insulae in the middle of the second century bce (Phase 3a). New walls dividing Insula VIII.7 were built over bedrock218 along with new infrastructures219 while quarry pits for Mercato ash were excavated in support of new buildings along the frontage of Insula  I.1.220 In this period, the presence of fragments of soft lava stone intermixed with redeposited Mercato ash suggests this stone was no longer deemed of use to builders, which is confirmed by its near-complete absence in those contemporary structures listed. The development of rubble and mortar construction techniques drove a demand for harder and heavier lava stones. Finally, evidence from geophysical survey in the nearby Quadriporticus suggests that while these modest, mid-century quarrying activities were taking place within the Porta Stabia neighborhood, massive excavations and extractions (and later in-filling operations) were underway just to the west.221 By the last quarter of the second century bce (Phase 3b), the construction of the theater and its portico closed these 218  WCU 067 in Quarry Area 2; WCU 042 and WCU 064 in Quarry Area 4; WCU 011 in Quarry Area 5 and Quarry Area 6. 219  Waste chute in Quarry Area 7. 220  WCU 1030 in Quarry Area 10; multiple WCUs in Quarry Area 12. 221  Poehler and Ellis 2012, 3–4, fig. 6.

a p pe n dic es  ·  423 major quarries, a fact that pushed the third period of quarrying (Phase 4a) farther east and the fourth period (Phase 5a) farther still. Both of these latest quarries served specific, but large scale building projects. At the beginning of the first century bce Quarry Area 9 was opened, likely in support of the Theatrum Tectum’s addition to the (so-called) entertainment district and the formalizing of a building at VIII.7.13–15. Nearly a century later, another substantial quarry, Quarry Area 14, was opened to supply material for the eastern expansion of Insula  I.1 and a massive new boundary wall. In sequence, these later periods of quarrying show a demonstrable west to east movement of quarrying activity, running just ahead of major building projects over approximately a century. Finally, while it is certain that the creation of these monumental buildings and large-scale constructions drove the demand for stone and, once complete, foreclosed further quarrying activity,222 these same activities often obscured what preceded them and how long the quarries were open previously. For example, although we can follow the cut into the natural sequences and along the boundary of pre-existing walls in Quarry Area 9 and observe that the area was likely undeveloped into the first century bce, there is nothing known preceding the quarrying ac­tiv­ities in Quarry Area 14, which were active into the beginning of the first century ce. The undeveloped character is also supported by the chronology of occupation in these insulae, which was developed earlier in the south and later to the north.223 It is possible our excavations missed any earlier traces of occupation or that ancient quarrying destroyed them all, but it is also conceivable that this part of Insula I.1 (and perhaps I.2 as well), where bedrock was naturally high, remained undeveloped because—for a time—periodic ex­ploit­ation of the lava stone outcrops made the area more valuable as a quarry than as an insula.

level top surface and then cut away to form a ledge that fell off farther to the south. At the north edge of the trench, in another window trench, bedrock was found at a significantly higher elevation, 8.889 masl, suggesting another ledge exists below the unexcavated middle of the trench. The quarry was subsequently covered by a thick layer of redeposited Mercato ash (SUs 24089, 24059, 24060), which seems to have been disturbed by the fall and uprooting of a large tree (SUs 24067 and 24068) that later became filled (SUs 24065 and 24066). Later layers of redeposited Mercato ash containing small fragments of friable lava stones (24092, 24093) subsequently covered the area. These fills are likely the redeposition of materials excavated out to reach the hard lava stone prior to, or possibly in prep­ar­ation for the construction of a road surface or at least a sidewalk surface (SU 24055) in the third–second century bce, which sealed these activities.

Quarry Area 1 Location: VIII.7.4, Room 9. Trench 24000 Relevant SUs: 24064 (bedrock), 24059, 24060, 24065, 24066, 24067, 24068, 24092, 24089, 24093 (fills) Depth of Quarrying Activity: highest elevation: 8.889 masl (north edge of trench); lowest elevation: 6.874 masl (south edge of trench). Phases of activity: 1b Brief description: In a window trench at the south edge of Trench 24000, the hard lava stone bedrock was encountered at a depth of 6.874 masl, the lowest point known anywhere within Insula VIII.7. The bedrock was flattened to create a

Quarry Area 2 Location: VIII.7.7–8, Room 32. Trench 12000 Relevant SUs: 12092, 12166, 12177 (bedrock); 12063, 12112 (fills) Depth of Quarrying Activity: highest elevation: 9.687 masl (northeast corner of trench); lowest elevation: 9.257 masl (southern interior of Cistern 5) Phases of activity: 3a Brief description: Bedrock was encountered in excavations to the north (SU 12177) of a large cistern (Cistern 5) and beneath its southern interior (SU 12166) in Trench 12000. Both sections of bedrock were found to have been flattened to a roughly level surface, although the southern section may have taken such shape to serve as the base of the later cistern. The cut into this southern section of bedrock, however, formed a ledge and the abandoned stones within that cut demonstrate that quarrying of this hard lava stone occurred here. In the northeast of Trench 12000, the foundations of the northern wall224 of the later Room 32 were built directly upon the flattened bedrock. The stones of these foundations, including both larger, irregular polygons and smaller, more lozenge-shaped shims, are particularly sharp and angular, suggesting they had been recently quarried. Further evidence for quarrying is found in the large deposits of mixed Mercato ash and friable, lava stone fragments used to terrace the area (SUs 12063 and 12112). Finally, the presence of a natural layer of the more friable lava stone (SU 12092) in situ between these fills and the solid bedrock discovered at deeper levels demonstrates that the entire area of Trench 12000 was not quarried.225

222  Closure is only true of lava stone quarrying. As mentioned above, later pit quarrying for redeposited and natural Mercato ash was common. 223 The northernmost properties of each insula are developments of Phase 4a.

224  WCU 066. 225  This layer of friable lava stone likely indicates the extent of Quarry Area 3, but it is possible this is only a small remnant in a larger quarry as seen in Quarry Area 14.

Catalog

424  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i event occurred in the fourth or third century bce (Phase 1c), and prevented further access to the lava bedrock. Later, when the north and south walls228 of Room 48 were built in the mid-second century bce (Phase 3a), the road was cut through and the bedrock was quarried to provide materials for this new architecture. That these construction activities also cut though and quarried the natural ­formations in this area is demonstrated by the contents of the leveling fills (SUs 29032, 29043, and 29047) for the new Room 48, which included large, abandoned stones (SUs 29037 and 29045) as well as lumps of Mercato ash and friable lava stone.

Quarry Area 3 Location: VIII.7.11, Room 53. Trench 19000 Relevant SUs: 19013, 19028, 19034 (bedrock); 19057, 19058, 19060, 19061 (quarry cuts); 19011, 19012, 19023, 19024, 19027, 19029, 19033, 19056 (fills) Depth of Quarrying Activity: highest elevation: 11.022 masl; lowest elevation: 10.533 masl (south edge of trench) Phases of activity: 4b (stone quarry); 5a (ash quarry pit) Brief description: Solid bedrock (SU 19034) was encountered in Trench 19000 at an average depth of 10.666 masl while a section of more friable natural lava stone (SU 19013) was found still slightly higher at c. 10.983 on average. The solid bedrock was cut to a flat surface and subsequently covered by a series of fills that began with a layer of sterile mercato ash (SU 19029), followed by a mix of ash and friable lava stone (SU 19010), and finally large pieces of the friable lava stone (SUs 19011, 19027, and 19056). This reverse order of the natural fills (i.e., the clean Mercato ash being the lowest, first deposited layer, while the mix of ash and large pieces of friable lava—that latter which is naturally lying above and connected to the solid lava bedrock—are the highest and last deposited layer) suggests these fills are likely the redeposition of quarrying or excavation activities nearby, such as in Quarry Area 6. In the mid-first century bce (Phase 4b), the northern and western walls of Room 53226 were cut into these redeposited layers and an opus signinum floor was laid over the area, demonstrating that quarry­ing activities had ceased by this time. A second quarrying event occurred in the early first ­century ce (Phase 5a) when a large cut (SU 19057, 19060) was made through the opus signinum floor and into the layers of natural and redeposited natural stone and Mercato ash. These materials extracted from this quarry pit (later filled with dirt and rubble; SUs 19012, 19024, 19033, 19024, 19033) were likely used in the construction of new wall dividing Rooms 53 and 51 to the east, and possibly also the masonry oven in the south (Cooking Facility 5), built slightly later.227

Quarry Area 5 Location: VIII.7.11, Room 57. Trench 9000 Relevant SUs: 9024 (bedrock); 9029 (fill) Depth of Quarrying Activity: highest elevation: 12.272 masl (north edge of trench); lowest elevation: 11.996 masl (south edge of trench) Phases of activity: 3a Brief description: Bedrock (SU 9024) was encountered at an average depth of 12.134 masl just below the first construction activities in the area, which occurred in the mid-second century bce (Phase 3a). The top surface of the hard lava flow had been flattened to a roughly level surface, except at the extreme south end where a deep cut was found, forming a ledge in the bedrock. Due to the depth and small area available in the trench, this cut was not excavated. Additionally, there is a depression in the bedrock in its northern section, from which other material had been removed. Stones from these quarry­ing activities may have been used to construct the northern terrace wall229 as this wall is founded directly on bedrock and its large and angular stones suggest their recent extraction. Moreover, the first fill (SU 9029) above bedrock is a redeposit of the friable lava stone, which the quarrymen first removed and set aside in their search for harder lava stone.

Quarry Area 4 Location: VIII.7.11, Room 48. Trench 29000 Relevant SUs: 29053 (bedrock); 29055 (quarry cut); 29032, 29037, 29043, 29045, 29047 (fills); 29051 (feature) Depth of Quarrying Activity: 10.009 masl, 10.029 masl. Phases of activity: 1c, 3a Brief description: Bedrock (SU 29053) was encountered in Trench 29000 at an average depth of 10.024 masl and revealed that two events of quarrying had occurred in this area. Both of these actions are related to construction activities. First, the bedrock was flattened and stripped of natural overburden to produce a slightly inclined surface onto which an early roadbed (SU 29051) was laid. This

Quarry Area 6 Location: VIII.7.12, Room 65. Trench 26000 Relevant SUs: 26005 (bedrock); 26006 (quarry cut); 26003, 26004 (fills) Depth of Quarrying Activity: 10.815 masl Phases of activity: 3a Brief description: A deep (at least 1.7 m), vertical cut was made in antiquity down into the natural, friable lava stone, creating a long ridge in the bedrock, which slopes slightly outward to the south at the bottom (10.815 masl). The east–west terracing wall230 separating VIII.7.12 from VIII.7.13–14 to the north was built directly above the remaining bank of friable lava stone. This wall is dated to the mid-second century bce

226 WCU 045.   227  East: WCU 049; South: WCU 048.

228  North: WCU 042; South: WCU 064.    229  WCU 011. 230  WCU 011.

a p pe n dic es  ·  425 and the quarrying activity here likely occurred in the same period as the wall’s construction. Layers of fill (SUs 26003 and 26004)—including bands of clays, lapilli, and lenses of ash—accumulated in the void left by the quarrying ac­tiv­ ities, but no artifacts were recovered to date these events. All that can be said is that by the post-earthquake(s) period, the ground level had risen to approximately 12.526 masl, the same level of the threshold (Threshold 12) leading between Room 65 and Room 61 to the east. Quarry Area 7 Location: VIII.7.12, Room 58. Trench 18000 Relevant SUs: 18084, 18101 (bedrock); 18076 (fill); 18103 (feature) Depth of Quarrying Activity: highest elevation: 10.321 masl (south edge of trench); lowest elevation: 9.446 masl (bottom of waste chute) Phases of activity: 3a Brief description: Bedrock was encountered in two places within Trench 18000 at significantly different elevations: underlying the southern wall231 of Room 58 at c. 10.309 masl and at the bottom of a large waste chute at 9.557 masl. The higher, southern section of bedrock (SU 18084) consisted of a hard, flat lava surface which sloped slightly south to the point where the wall built over it.232 The bedrock was found to be covered by a layer of Mercato ash (SU 18076), which must have been redeposited here as no construction trench for the southern wall as found within this layer. Only a few meters to the north, the level of bedrock was nearly 0.80 m lower. Whether this drop in level was due to natural changes in the geological topography or was the effect of quarrying at the time of the waste chute’s construction (or earlier) cannot be determined. What is certain, however, is that the hard lava found at the bottom of the chute (SU 18101) was not only worked to a flat surface, but also it was quarried into for the purpose of creating a channel (SU 18103) leading away from the chute, toward the east. Finally, the absence of the friable lava stone from either location is instructive as it demonstrates these ma­ter­ ials either were absent naturally (unlike elsewhere in the insula) or were quarried away prior to all activity within the area of Trench 19000. Quarry Area 8 Location: VIII.7.14, Room 68. Trench 27000 Relevant SUs: 27145 (bedrock); 27074, 27095, 27115, 27119, 27144 (fills) Depth of Quarrying Activity: 10.803 masl Phases of activity: 1c Brief description: Bedrock was encountered in a small window trench of Trench 27000 at an average depth of 10.827 masl. Black to purplish in color, this solid lava that was cut to a 231  WCU 042. 232 See Quarry Area 4 for the continuation of bedrock farther south.

flat top surface and broken on its eastern side to form a ledge descending farther east. That the bedrock had been stripped of its higher, more friable layers and quarried for building stone is supported by the redeposition of some of these materials when the quarry was closed, likely in the late fourth century bce (Phase 1c). In the deepest levels, abuting the scarp of the bedrock, was a brown, silty layer (SU 27144) containing many ceramics. Above this were fills made up of yellow Mercato ash and pieces of friable, dark purple lava (SUs 27074 and 27115), buried within which were many large, angular stones (SUs 27095 and 27119) that appear to have been abandoned at the end of the quarrying process. Quarry Area 9 Location: VIII.7.14–15, Room 78; VIII.7.16, alleyway leading to Quadriporticus. Trench 8000, Trench 20000, Trench 28000 Relevant SUs: 8015, 8016, 8017, 8048, 8049; 20014, 20015; 28010, 28053, 28060, 28061, 28075, 28077 (bedrock); 20012, 20018; 28009 (quarry cut); 8018, 8027, 8031, 8032; 20009, 20010, 20013, 20019, 20030; 28051, 28054, 28067, 28073, 28076 (fills); 8014; 28045, 28058, 28071 (buried walls) Depth of Quarrying Activity: highest elevation: 14.06 masl (top of Theatrum Tectum plataeu); lowest elevation: 12.473 masl (southwest corner of trench) Phases of activity: 4a (stone and ash quarrying); 5a (ash quarry pit) Brief description: At the northern edge of the Porta Stabia neighborhood is an extensive area of quarrying activities that encompassed the area of at least three trenches (8000, 20000, and 28000). Excavation in these trenches shows that the nat­ural topography was extensively quarried, leaving the bedrock flattened on top and cut into a series of steps, each descending between 0.40 m and 0.60 m. The highest section of bedrock (SU 20014) was found at approximately 14.00 masl within the alleyway north of VIII.7.15. This broad section of hard lava stone, which occupied over onethird of the area of Trench 20000, was cut down to a level, though undulating, top surface. Additional quarrying actions were documented on the east and west (SU 20018) edges of this platform. The southern edge was broken away and even undermined by the wedging off and extraction of the lava stone. The bottom of this quarry­ing ledge (SU 20015, 13.40 masl) formed a second platform with a gentle southward slope that continued beyond the later, northern boundary wall and into the property VIII.7.5 (SU 8015, 13.20 masl). This second platform simi­larly was found fractured and quarried into a long ledge, which descended to 12.800 masl (SU 8015) in the east and 12.755 masl in the west (SU 8049), creating another roughly level surface. The easternmost of these fractures was stained with a reddish-orange patina, suggesting fire-setting may have been used in the quarrying process.

426  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i These two ledges and three plateaus are the extent of the quarrying activity recovered in the northern part of Quarry Area 9; a few meters farther south (SU 8048) and east (SU 8017), banks of the more friable dark lava were recovered at slightly higher elevations bounding the third, and lowest, plat­eau. These friable remnants indicate that the upper portion of the original lava edifice had not been removed here in search of the harder stone below. Still ­farther south, a narrow strip of the complete natural sequence was found undisturbed, descending from the yellow Mercato ash (SU 28010) at the top, to a friable, purple cruma that begins the lava sequence (SU 28060), which turns to a harder and darker fri­able lava stone (SU 28061), finally becoming a hard lava stone (SUs 28053 and 28075) at the base. It is clear that this strip of the natural topography survived because the initial quarrying cut down from the ancient ground level followed and respected the edges of pre-existing walls.233 This connected group of walls have been dated to the very beginning of the first century bce (Phase 4a),234 which therefore dates the quarry­ing ac­tiv­ ities to the north and east of these walls—an area that appears to be not less than 40 m2—to no earlier than that time. In fact, based on contemporary building activities, it is certain that Quarry Area 9 was active during the first decades of the first century bce (Phase 4a). Two early features were built directly over the quarried lava plat­eaus (SU 8014 over SU 8015 and SU 28071 over SU 28077) and were likely part of the infrastructure for quarrying as they were buried within the fills brought in to level the area once quarrying had ended.235 These fills consisted first of a large deposit of brown soil with varying amounts of charcoal, construction debris (SUs 28051 and 28054), and other refuse. This was followed by layers of re­deposit­ed natural materials that included fragments of the friable dark and purple lava stones mixed in with the yellow Mercato ash (SUs 8026, 8031, 20013, 20019, 28067). Built on top of the quarried bedrock and abutted by (rather than cut into) the deposits filling the voids left by that activity were two major constructions: the architectural delineation of a new building (VIII.7.13–15) to the east and the insertion of a massive drain236 to carry runoff from the Theatrum Tectum to the west. In fact, the location of the quarry cut and presence of this drain running through it indicates that Quarry Area 9

233  Buried walls: SUs 8003, 28045, 28058. 234  See also Quarry Area 5, where WCU 011 is seen built over quarried bedrock. 235  On masonry platforms, see also Quarry Areas 14 and 15. 236 It is noteworthy that the eastern side of the drain (SU 28027) cut through and was embedded in the friable, dark lava stone (SU 28077), some of which was found to have been used in the upper portion of the drain’s construction (SU 28039).

was likely opened in support of this new public building and necessarily closed when that building was completed. A century later, additional quarrying for the natural and redeposited Mercato ash occurred in the west of Quarry Area 9. This included two pits (SUs 8009 and 8018) and a large diagonal cut made prior to the installation of a new mortar floor surface (SU 8002). Quarry Area 10 Location: I.1.2, Room 106. Trench 54000 Relevant SUs: 54061 (cut of pit); 54062, 54076 (fills cut by pit) Depth of Quarrying Activity: 8.915 masl (bottom of pit) Phases of activity: 3a Brief description: A pit (SU 54061) of irregular shape was dug approximately 0.40 m down into the redeposited Mercato ash fills (SUs 54062 and 54076) used to level this area sometime between the fourth and the early second century bce. Although the eastern edge of this pit continued eastward beyond the northeast wall of Room 106,237 and so its dimensions cannot be established, the foundation of this wall cut the fill of the pit, dating the quarry pit to no later than the middle second century. Quarry Area 11 Location: I.1.4, Room 118. Trench 51000 Relevant SUs: 51152 (cut of Pit 11a), 51085 (cut of Pit 11b); 51147, 51150, 51151 (fills cut by Pit 11a); 51071, 51076 (fills cut by Pit 11b); 51033, 51044 (features) Depth of Quarrying Activity: 8.329 masl (bottom of Pit 11a); 8.534 masl (bottom of Pit 11b) Phases of activity: 4a Brief description: There were two quarry pits cut into the re­deposit­ed Mercato ash fills used to level this area between the fourth century and the mid-second century bce.238 Although both pits were cut in during the first century bce (Phase 4a), Pit 11a (1.10 m wide, 0.75 m deep; SU 51152) was the earlier of the two as it was built over by a masonry workbench (SU 51033), while Pit 11b (0.90 m diameter, 1.30 m deep; SU 51085) was cut into a packed-earth surface (SU 51044) that abutted that same workbench. Pit 11b would subsequently be used to house Soak-Away 18,239 functioning together with the workbench. Quarry Area 12 Location: I.1.5, Room 120. Trench 55000 Relevant SUs: 55104 (bedrock); 55083, 55138 (natural Mercato ash); 55034, 55035, 55069, 55088, 55098, 55109 (pit cuts); 52022, 52023,

237  WCU 1104. 238 Part of the natural sequence was also recovered in Trench 51000. Natural Mercato ash (SUs 51125 and 51134), with inclusions of lapilli that increased in density with depth, covered a friable black lava stone (SUs 51131 and 51144). 239  See Appendix 19.10.

a p pe n dic es  ·  427 55037, 55026, 55027, 55040, 55064, 55075, 55085, 55090, 55097, 55110, 55127, 55128, 55132 (fills); 55042, 55084, 55093 (features) Depth of Quarrying Activity: 9.845masl (bottom of Pit 12a); 7.350 masl (bottom of Pit 12b); 8.865 masl (bottom of Pit 12c); 9.290 masl (bottom of Pit 12d); 9.635 masl (bottom of Pit 12e). Phases of activity: 3a (Pit 12a), 4a (Pit 12b), 4b (Pit 12c), 4c (Pits 12d and 12e) Brief description: Retained as an outdoor space throughout most if not all its life, Quarry Area 12 was a location of regular and extensive quarrying for its natural and re­deposit­ed nat­ural fills. No fewer than five quarry pits were excavated between the last quarter of the second century bce (Phase 3a) and the end of the first century bce (Phase 4c). This earliest of these, Pit 12a (SU 55088), was found in the southwest corner of Trench 55000 cutting through an early road surface (SU 55084) from the fourth century bce to reach the natural Mercato ash (SUs 55083 and 55138). The pit was roughly circular (c. 0.80 m in diameter), almost 0.60 m deep, and filled with material (SUs 55110) dating to the later decades of the second century. Pit 12a was likely excavated at the same time as the construction of the insula’s new pillared frontage (SU 55093), defined at this time by large piers. In subsequent phases it would be buried under a series of deep terracing fills that extended beyond the final division of space (SUs 52022, 52023, 55037, 55026, 55027, 55064, 55075, 55085, 55090, 55127, 55128, 55132),240 which would themselves become the source for later quarrying ac­tiv­ities. The second excavation was the most substantial, comprising as much as one quarter of the area of the trench and descending nearly 2 m to bedrock (SU 55104).241 Pit 12b (SU 55098) at first appears to have been an abandoned project to dig a well based on the three hand-holds scored in the pit’s northern face, although other interpretations are possible. Associated excavation, however, cuts into this shaft and curves away to the south and west at a higher level in a series of steps. These actions suggest that if a well were initially desired, those plans were abandoned in favor of further extraction of the natural and redeposited nat­ ural materials. The fill of Pit 12b (SU 55097) dated the clos­ ure of the quarry to the early first century bce and our excavation of that fill shows that the ancient Pompeians extracted no less than 1.6 m3 of materials for their use. Three other quarry pits in the north (Pit 12c), west (Pit 12d), and center (Pit 12e), were cut for the extraction of re­deposit­ed natural layers. Pit 12c (SU 55069, SU 55109) was 240 The lowest of these deposits (SUs 55090 and 55127), recovered just above the fourth century bce road surface, was a layer of brown loam later covered by fills of redeposited Mercato ash. This sequence is reminiscent of that found in Quarry Area 9. 241  The natural sequence of Mercato ash followed by a friable and then solid black lava was recovered at the bottom of Pit 12b, demonstrating that no lava stone quarrying had occurred here.

the earliest, largest, and deepest of these, occupying most of the north of the area, dated to the first century bce. Pits 12d (SU 55034) and 12e (SU 55035) were smaller and later extractions that cut through a packed-earth surface (SU 55042) laid in the middle of the first century bce. Demonstrating the long history of extraction in Quarry Area 12, both Pit 12d and 12e cut into the fills of earlier excavations, Pit 12c and Pit 12b, respectively. The small dimensions of these final quarry pits might also suggest that there were diminishing returns on the effort of quarry­ ing activities in Room 120. Quarry Area 13 Location: I.1.9, Room 132. Trench 56000 Relevant SUs: 56034, 56046, 56110, 56125 (bedrock); 56025, 56048, 56049 (quarry cut); 56026, 56030, 56098 (fills); 56100 (structures) Depth of Quarrying Activity: 10.05 masl (bottom of quarry­ing at northwest of trench, within SU 56034) Phases of activity: 4b Brief description: Bedrock was encountered in three places within Trench 56000, all showing significant evidence for quarrying activity. In the east (SU 56046), the hard lava stone was found flattened on its top surface and fractured along the southern and eastern edge forming a ledge, from which quarried stone was wedged off and extracted. At the lip of this ledge a minor structure (SU 56100) was built of small, triangular lava stones directly onto the flattened bedrock (56110). This structure extended south beyond our excavations but is likely part of the infrastructure of quarry­ing, perhaps the edge of a lifting platform like the one more fully exposed in Quarry Area 14. To the west within Quarry Area 13, another ledge was found cutting into the north side of the same flattened bedrock (SU 56034), including three scoring marks on top of this surface, cut in prep­ar­ation for further fracturing and extraction that never took place. This phase of quarrying activity can be dated to the middle of the first century bce (Phase 4b) by the fills (SUs 56026, 56030, 56098) and architectures that supersede it.242 Although the activity documented here was relatively late, bedrock was relatively high and appears to have been exposed in this area from an early time. Supporting this idea is the presence of a fourth-century bce road surface found throughout Insula I.1 that used a section of smoothed bedrock (on SUs 56034 and 56125) as part of its surface.243 This use demonstrates that bedrock had been cleared already of the friable black lava and Mercato ash by this time. This use as part of the road surface also 242  WCU 1093; Soak-Away 14, Appendix 19.10. 243  Bedrock was also used as a street surface to the north in vicolo delle Conciapelle as demonstrated by the ruts worn into it. The relationship of these ruts to adjacent quarrying activities—the ledge and masonry platform beside them—show a much later (first century bce) period of use as a street surface.

428  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i likely protected this outcrop from quarrying during the subsequent three centuries. Quarry Area 14 Location: I.1.9, Room 126, Room 127. Trench 60000 Relevant SUs: 60016, 60021, 60032 (bedrock); 60024, 60051 (quarry cut); 60014, 60022, 60040, 60047, 60056, 60057, 60061, 60064, 60069 (fills); 60009, 60013, 60020, 60035, 60059 (structures) Depth of Quarrying Activity: highest elevation: 10.73 masl (northeast corner of trench); lowest elevation: 9.198 masl (south edge of trench) Phases of activity: 5a Brief description: Quarry Area 14 contains the latest known lava stone quarry in the Porta Stabia neighborhood and offers the best preserved evidence for not only how quarry­ ing was done at Pompeii, but also how its products were deployed. Excavations by L’École française de Rome have revealed the quarry continued into the alleyway (vicolo I.1– I.5) behind Insula I.1, but stopped at the edge of Insula I.5’s western wall, respecting the existence of this previous architecture.244 Like Quarry Area 9, the solid black lava bedrock was stripped of its upper crust of friable stone and then fractured and extracted, leaving behind a series of ridges and valleys. Rather than the broad east–west running platforms found in Quarry Area 9, which seem to have been left in anticipation of new architectures, the bedrock was cut down into narrow north–south running ridges that were quarried on either side. This activity seems to have moved down hill from east to west as bedrock can be seen descending from 10.723 masl, to 10.193 masl, to at least 9.60 masl.245 Support for this sequence of quarrying comes from the easternmost section of Trench 60000, where a masonry lifting platform (SU 60009) was found constructed from the top of one ridge to the top another ridge that would later support the rear wall of Insula I.1.246 This platform is nearly identical to another masonry structure found within the space of vicolo delle Conciapelle, itself resting on the ledge of previously quarried bedrock. To be built, the valley in the bedrock beneath the platform in Trench 60000 had to be filled in to support it. Once built, those quarrymen working the next ridge to the west, who were necessarily losing elevation, could use this platform to lift and remove the large, irregularly fractured stones out of the quarry and onto a level working area. At the same time that the Quarry Area 14 was open and providing building stone, the eastern edge of Insula I.1 was being defined for the first time and it seems impossible that these activities were not related. Certainly, they were

closely related in time. For example, the new rear wall of the Insula in I.1.3–5247 was built exclusively of freshly fractured, highly angular pieces of solid black lava stone within a hard lime mortar. The back wall of I.1.6–9 that bounds Quarry Area 14,248 however, is neither built together with nor in the same manner as this wall. Instead, this wall rests upon bedrock (and the masonry platform) and is built from a mix of lava and Sarno limestone pieces that increases in heterogeneity farther up the wall. This change in material suggests that the quarry beside (and certainly under) this wall had closed and the availability of lava stone had changed. A second wall,249 approximately 2 m west of the new rear wall, was built both within the fill of the quarry and out of its materials: smaller pieces of lava stone bonded by a thick yellow mortar consisting of a Mercato ash matrix with large pieces of lime and the friable black lava stone. Finds from these fills show Quarry Area 14 was closed at the beginning of the first century ce. The filling-in of the quarry for subsequent occupation of the area also reveals important clues about the life cycle of an ancient stone quarry. As described above and witnessed in other quarries,250 the uneven bedrock was filled in to level particular areas in support of ongoing quarry activities (SU 60040). This procedure is also supported by the presence of hard-packed layers that appear to be surfaces (SUs 60013 and 60035) within the fills. These surfaces in Quarry Area 14 were then covered by large, sloping fills of redeposited Mercato ash, that contained fragments of friable black lava stone mixed with rubble and other cultural materials. Also in these fill ­layers were large large sections of solid black lava stone and areas of gray ash (SUs 60014, 60022, 60061). The latter is unsurprising, as treating bedrock with fire is a common quarry­ing technique. Considering the contemporary construction surrounding this quarry, it is surprising that these large pieces of solid stone, usable as building material should have been discarded within the fill of the quarry. This is especially true due to other evidence for construction while the quarry was open, such a cement-like slurry (SU 60020) running over the eastern bedrock (SU 60027) or the creation of a tank within the filling-deposits of the western part of Trench 60000. Reconstruction in the area following the earthquake(s) of the 62/3 ce appears to have spurred one final quarrying activity as a large pit (at least 4 m in diameter; SU 60018) was excavated into the deposits filling the earlier quarry and then filled (SU 60015) in preparation for a new surface in lava paving stones. This action appears to have remained incomplete at the time of the eruption.

244  Brun et al. (2010, 273–4, fig. 58), however, date their excavation to the fourth century bce. 245  Bedrock was not reached below brown fill SU 60064. 246  WCU 1081.

247 WCU 1037.   248  WCU 1081. 249 WCU 1080.   250 See Quarry Area 9.

c h a pt e r 1 9. 9

The Ritual Contexts in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Jenny R. Kreiger and Ambra Spinelli

Ritual behavior can be difficult to access archaeologically, and caution is essential in assigning ritual meaning to a deposit or feature. As Dicus points out in Chapter 19.12 (Votives), the mere presence of objects usually associated with ritual behavior in a particular context does not necessarily attest to ritual behavior in that context. The nature and formation processes of the context itself, as well as any associated finds, inscriptions, or decorations, must inform any interpretation of the context’s function.

Analysis In Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 we identified fourteen likely contexts of ritual behavior, comprising excavated deposits, structural fixtures, and additional features documented in the archival records (some of which are no longer extant; Fig.  19.9.01). The identifications are based on each context’s similarities to known ritual features (e.g., shrines, lararia, altars), finds or other contents (e.g. burnt food remains, votive-type objects), location in relation to other contexts or features, and inscriptions or decorations. Taken together, these fourteen contexts paint a picture of ritual behavior in these insulae that was focused partly inwardly, on propitiating household deities (Ritual Contexts 3 to 7), and partly outwardly, on the  boundaries of the city and the neighborhood (Ritual Contexts 1, 2, 8, 9, 10).251 The catalog below orders the ritual contexts by type (Fig. 19.9.02). Shrines are here defined as recessed niches built or cut into walls, creating a small shelf on which to place sta­tu­ettes or offerings.252 Lararia may take a range of forms (recessed niches, engaged or freestanding aedicula, or just a 251  Some residents of these insulae were also involved in the production of votives for others to use; see Chapters 9, 10, and 19.12 for detailed discussion of ceramic production in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1. 252 Cf. Herring-Harrington’s definition of shrines, which requires that they also include images of some kind (Herring-Harrington 2011, 21–3). The shrines in the eastern wall of the Porta Stabia (Ritual Contexts 1 and 2) and in the south wall of VIII.7.1 Room 1 (Ritual Context 3) do not preserve images, but there is other evidence for their ritual function (see below). We have excluded from the catalog any architectural niches that did not present some additional evidence for ritual use. On the typical characteristics of shrines built into walls, see also Boyce 1937, 10–12.

painted area of wall over a shelf or altar),253 but they share the essential characteristic of paintings representing some com­ bin­ation of Lares with a Genius familiaris, snakes, other deities, or sacrificants.254 Altars are freestanding or engaged pedestals intended to support offerings; they may be made of stone, masonry, or terracotta.255 Ritual deposits are assemblages of votive-type objects, burned food remains, charcoal, or ash found in their primary depositional contexts during excavation.256 Many of these features are also discussed elsewhere in this volume, and the reader is directed to the relevant chapters for additional information.

Catalog Ritual Context 1 Type: Shrine Location: Porta Stabia, east wall Identification: SU 14412 Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 14.6) Brief description: An arcuated niche was cut into the east wall of the Porta Stabia 1.75 m above the buried altar (Ritual Context 8). The niche measured 50 cm wide × 72 cm tall × 30 cm deep, with a piece of brick forming a flat surface at its base. At one time the niche was coated in plaster with an inscribed dedication to Minerva Patrua 253  On the various forms of private religious facilities for Lares at Pompeii: Boyce 1937; Orr 1978; Fröhlich 1991; Giacobello 2008. 254  Here we limit lararia to those ritual contexts that explicitly depict Lares (cf. Herring-Harrington 2011, 23). For the sake of brevity, we adopted the word lararium although such term does not appear until the third and fourth centuries ce: see, CIL IX.2125; SHA Marc. Aur. 3.5; Alex. Sev. 29.2, 31.5; Tac. 17.4. Earlier texts refer to household shrines for Lares with the terms: aedicula, ara, sacraria, or sacellum. Today, however, the term lararium has become standard in modern scholarship to describe household shrines for Lares also for such earlier periods: Giacobello 2008, 54–8. 255  On the many forms that altars take in Pompeii (with a focus on domestic shrines only), see Boyce 1937, 14–17. For a discussion on the types of street shrines at Pompeii that included altars, niches, and paintings, see Flower 2017, 145–56 (with further bibliography). 256  More information on the organic finds, including plant and animal products in ritual deposits, will be presented in the forthcoming volume on en­vir­on­mental studies in the Porta Stabia neighborhood by Mark Robinson et al.

Fig. 19.9.01  The distribution of ritual contexts across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

a p pe n dic es  ·  431 Identification: SUs 1088, 1089, 1090 Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 1.5a) Brief description: An arcuated niche was built into the east end of the south wall in this room in Phase 5b (SUs 1088 and 1089), on the south side of Room 1 (see Figs. 14.11 and 19.9.02). The niche was lined with fine-grained white plaster (SU 1090), painted light blue, which survived only in a few places. It was likely in Phase 7a that the niche was blocked up with an ir­regu­lar fill of volcanic stones and brick pieces. Little else can be known about this niche, but it is included among the ritual contexts because it resembles other Pompeian shrines in form, decoration, and location. See also: Chapter 12.

Fig. 19.9.02  Examples of the principal types of ritual context across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1: a. the niche (above, also below) and altar (below) at the Porta Stabia; b. the painted lararium in Room 23 of I.1.6–9 (see Fig. 4.09); and c. the in situ votives in Ritual Context 11 from Room 15 of (later) VIII.7.5–6 (see Fig. 8.18).

(see Chapter 16), but today it is bare. This niche may have been created to replace the lower niche and altar (Ritual Contexts 2 and 8) when they went out of use in Phase 5a. See also: Chapter 16. Ritual Context 2 Type: Shrine Location: Porta Stabia, east wall Identification: SU 14413 Phase installed: Phase 2 (Subphase 14.3) Brief description: This arcuated niche was the earliest of the three ritual contexts in the east wall of the Porta Stabia (see Ritual Contexts 1 and 8). It was cut directly into the wall and measured 30 cm wide × 35 cm tall × 20 cm deep. This niche may have gone out of use at or before the time when the upper niche (Ritual Context 1) was created. See also: Chapter 16. Ritual Context 3 Type: possible shrine or lararium Location: VIII.7.1 Room 1, south wall

Ritual Context 4 Type: Lararium Location: VIII.7.6 Room 21, north wall Identification: FND140 Phase installed: Phase 5a(?) Brief description: On the north wall of Room 21 were a niche and a painting depicting Lares, snakes, and an offering table.257 These features are no longer visible today, but given their position, they would have been visible to guests passing through the property to reach the triclinium in Room 30 in 79 ce. Boyce measured the niche at 32 cm high × 40 cm wide × 20 cm deep.258 See also: Chapter 4, Fig. 4.06. Ritual Context 5 Type: Lararium Location: VIII.7.9–11 Room 44, north wall Identification: FND256 Phase installed: Phase 5a(?) Brief description: This lararium includes a niche and an adjacent painting depicting the Genius familiaris and a flute player on either side of an altar, with Lares flanking the group, and a lower register containing a snake and another altar.259 Although this feature is no longer visible, it was located in a room that may have served as a kitchen (containing Cooking Facility 1) from Phase 5a onward.260 See also: Chapter 4, Fig. 4.06.

257  Fiorelli 1875, 348; Mau 1875, 164–5, Sogliano 1879, 19; Boyce 1937, 78; Schefold 1957, 230; Van der Poel 1981, box 196, f. 4. 258  Boyce 1937, 78. 259 Mau 1875, 167; Sogliano 1879, 12; Boyce 1937, 78; Schefold 1957, 230; Vander Poel 1981, box 196, f. 4. 260  On the relationship between lararia, food production, and consumption, see Foss 1994, 158–64; 1997. Another painted lararium was mistakenly assigned to VIII.7.3 by later sources according to an entry by Mau (1884, 136): see Boyce 1937, 78, no. 373; Anderson 1982, 252. The present-day enumeration of Insula VIII.7 was VIII.8 at the time of Mau, thus leading modern scholars to misplace the location of this fresco.

432  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Ritual Context 6 Type: Lararium Location: I.1.2 Room 106, south wall Identification: FND160 Phase installed: Phase 7a(?) Brief description: This lararium painting included (from left to right) a snake, one Lar, an altar, and the Genius familiaris with patera and cornucopia. A second Lar may have been depicted to the right of the Genius, but the plaster there was lost. An upper register contained garlands and a Medusa head.261 The lararium was located on the south wall of Room 106, probably visible from the street, and opposite a pair of I-shaped bar counters installed in Phase 5b and apparently still in use in 79 ce (Bar Counters 1 and 2). See also: Chapter 4, Fig. 4.06. Ritual Context 7 Type: Lararium Location: I.1.8 Room 123, north wall, to the right of the doorway into Room 132 Identification: FND163 Phase installed: unknown Brief description: This lararium painting included figures on two registers. In the upper, smaller register, the Genius familiaris is depicted making an offering between the two Lares, a camillus (“young male assistant of the priest”), and a tibicen (“flute player”).262 Below, and on axis with the Genius, a man empties the contents of an amphora into a large olla set into the floor while flanked by two snakes. Above his head appears the painted inscription HERMES, which inspired the name that modern excavators gave to the establishment (see Catalog number 8 in Chapter 19.14).263 Although no longer visible, the painting was located op­pos­ ite the hearth (Cooking Facility 11) extant in 79 ce in the same room, and it probably would have been visible from the street.264 For drawing of this lararium painting, see Chapter 4, Fig. 4.09. See also: Chapter 4, Figs. 4.06 and 4.09. Ritual Context 8 Type: Altar Location: Porta Stabia, east wall 261  Fiorelli 1873, 106, no. 25; 1875, 33; Sogliano 1879, 11–12, no. 19; Mau 1875, 25–6; PPM XI, 857, 859, no. 28; Fröhlich 1991, 249; Boyce 1937, 21, no. 1; Schefold 1957, 8; GdS NS 1874, 49; Eschebach and Müller-Trollius 1993, 13; Vander Poel 1981, box 194, f. 1; Fiorelli 1873, 106, no. 25. 262  For a discussion on the tibicen, see Fröhlich 1991, 115–17; on the camillus: Fröhlich 1991, 114–15; Pollini 2012, 243, 167, n. 147. 263  Mau 1875, 31; Sogliano 1879, 12, no. 27; GdS UP 1872; GdS NS 1873, 425; Fiorelli 1875, 34; Viola 1879, 9; PPM I, 4–7, no. 4; CIL IV, 3355; PPM XI, 860–1, no. 29; Fiorelli 1873, 76, 107, no. 31; Fröhlich 1991, 249–50; Della Corte 1965, no. 528; Boyce 1937, 21, no. 2; Schefold 1957, 8; Packer 1978, 6–8; Eschebach and MüllerTrollius 1993, 14; GdS NS 1874, 49; Vander Poel, box 194, f. 1. 264  Mau 1875, 25–6.

Identification: SUs 14414 and 10025 Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphases 14.4, 10.3) Brief description: In Phase 3b an altar of mortared Sarno limestone and tile (SUs 14414 and 10025) was constructed against the east wall of the Porta Stabia, over a volcanic stone base (SU 10024), and 45 cm below the lower of the two shrines in that wall (Ritual Context 2). The altar had two tiers, meas­ured 66 cm high (maximum) by 40 cm wide by 35 cm deep, and was finished with a coat of ­yellow plaster (SU 10026). The altar may have been constructed after the lower of the two shrines in the wall above (Ritual Context 2), perhaps to be used in tandem with that shrine (see Chapter 16). In Phase 4a the altar was replastered and then partially buried by a fill (SUs 10014 and 10015) containing a votive deposit (Ritual Context 10). In Phase 5a the altar was completely buried, and its ritual function may have been taken over by the upper of the two niches in the wall above (Ritual Context 1). See also: Chapter 16. Ritual Context 9 Type: Altar Location: Southeast corner of I.1 Identification: FND261 Phase installed: unknown Brief description: A masonry altar decorated with red plaster and paintings of two large snakes between plants stood at the southeast corner of the Insula  I.1, visible when one looks to the right after entering the city through the Porta Stabia (Fig. 19.9.03).265 The images of snakes are no longer extant, though some of the red remains. Ritual Context 10 Type: Ritual deposit Location: Associated with the altar SU 14414, abutting the east wall of the Porta Stabia Identification: in fill SUs 10014, 10015, 14213, and 14311 (no sep­ar­ ate SU number assigned) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 10.4) Brief description: A fill (SUs 10014 and 10015) placed against the altar in the east wall of the Porta Stabia (Ritual Context 8) contained several votive objects, which may have comprised one or more votive deposits. In SU 10014 was found a miniature votive cup containing burned material (Votive Object 14). In SU 10015 excavators found an incense bowl (of the type “bruciaprofumi a bacino – Type E”) holding three pieces of a terracotta figurine representing a draped 265  GdS NS 1874, 50; Fiorelli 1875, 35; Mau 1875, 32; Sogliano 1879, 9, no. 6; Schefold 1957, 8; Vander Poel, box 194; Flower 2017, 150, n. 29. For a discussion on the “altar at crossroads” at Pompeii, many of which are accompanied by paintings showing snakes without any other figures, see Van Andringa 2000; Flower 2017, esp. 150–2.

a p pe n dic es  ·  433

Fig. 19.9.03  The altar (Ritual Context 9) outside the southeast corner of Insula I.1.

woman (Votive Object 15; the figurine likely was originally affixed to the rim of the bowl) and some fragments of animal bone.266 In SU 14213 was found a miniature votive cup (Votive Object 24) and in SU 14311 was found a phallic pendant (Votive Object 25). The environmental finds in these fills are typical of generic fills in Pompeii, with the exception of nine carbonized fruit stones, which could indicate ritual activity.267 See also: Chapters 19.12 and 16. Ritual Context 11 Type: Ritual deposit Location: VIII.7.6 Room 15 Identification: SUs 16079, 16080, 16081 Phase installed: Phase 1c (Subphase 16.1) Brief description: A small, shallow (10–15 cm deep) pit cut into sterile soil (cut: SU 16079) contained fills (SUs 16080 and 16081) that included fragments of four black gloss vessels (dating to the second half of the fourth or early third century bce), a black gloss salt cellar, and a pierced coin (Votive Objects 28, 29, 30). SU 16081 contained charred foodstuffs that strongly suggest ritual activity, including 421 266  Mark Robinson reads the animal bone fragments as intrusions from the main body of fill SU 10015, not as part of the votive deposit itself. The project appreciates the help of Johannes Eber in helping us to understand the objects (particularly the incense bowl and figurine) and their context. For the incense bowl, see D’Ambrosio and Borriello 2001, 46–60. 267 Special thanks to Mark Robinson, Jennifer Robinson, and Andrew Fairbairn for their interpretation of the environmental finds in these SUs.

fragments of bread, 25 grapes, and smaller quantities of hazelnut shells, walnut shells, and cereal grains. Animal bones and shells are notably absent from SU 16081.268 Ritual Context 11 seems to have been associated with the foundations of a Phase 1c wall (SUs 16071 and 16537). See also: Chapter 19.12. Ritual Context 12 Type: Ritual deposit Location: I.1.1–1 Room 103 Identification: SUs 53064 and 53065 Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 53.2) Brief description: A pit cut into SU 53060 (cut: SU 53065) contained a fill (SU 53064) of burned organic material mixed with sand, as well as nine miniature votive cups (Votive Objects 96, 97, 98, 99, 110, 101, 102, 103, 104). The burned remains included bread or cakes, figs (flesh, not just seeds), walnut, almond, carob (pulp and seeds), and beans—foods indicative of ritual activity.269 See also: Chapter 19.12. Ritual Context 13 Type: Possible ritual deposit Location: I.1.2 Room 106 Identification: SU 54054 268 Special thanks to Mark Robinson, Jennifer Robinson, and Andrew Fairbairn for their interpretation of the environmental finds in these SUs. 269 Special thanks to Mark Robinson, Jennifer Robinson, and Andrew Fairbairn for their interpretation of the environmental finds in these SUs.

434  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Phase installed: Phase 5b (Subphase 54.7) Brief description: This fill inside of a fixed vessel (SU 54052) included a distinct deposit of four bronze coins (C54-74, C54-75, C54-80, C54-85) and a lead weight (Votive Object 113) against the very bottom of the vessel’s interior. Excavators interpreted these items as a possible votive deposit given their location and the fact that they seemed to have been deposited purposefully and distinctly from the rest of fill SU 54054. See also: Chapter 19.12. Ritual Context 14 Type: Ritual deposit Location: I.1.5 Room 120

Identification: Abutting wall foundation SU 55118, under pappamonte block SU 55113 (no separate SU number assigned) Phase installed: Phase 1c (Subphase 55.1b) Brief description: This deposit consisted of a miniature black gloss votive cup of the fourth century bce (Votive Object 117), filled with a piece of wood charcoal. The bowl was placed against the bottom of the lowest stone in the foundations of a wall (SU 55118), under pappamonte block SU 55113, and was identified while excavating SU 55136. Compare Ritual Context 11, which also seems to have been associated with the founding of a wall. See also: Chapter 19.12.

c h a pt e r 1 9. 1 0

The Soak-Aways of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Catherine K. Baker

Soak-aways—subterranean systems for drainage and removal of wastes—are common in Pompeii. These drainage systems were constructed by means of an amphora cut off at the toe and neck, with holes punched into the body to aid in the dispersal of liquids into the surrounding soil. The amphora was placed upside down in a pit beneath a floor and accessed by a small hole in the floor’s surface. Liquid waste was swept or channeled into this hole and ideally flowed both downward and outward through the modified amphora (Fig. 19.10.01). While these waste-management systems often are found singly, in the excavation of a house, for example,270 our excavations have recovered fourteen soak-away systems (and

three more probable systems) across a variety of properties and property types in Insulae VII.7 and I.1 (Fig.  19.10.02), offering a unique opportunity to study these systems from a neighborhood perspective in order to better understand their form and function. This sample of soak-aways can shed light on several aspects of life in this part of the city, including pottery reuse,271 the infrastructure of waste management, and the types of waste actually being disposed of in such systems. The p­ resence of so many of these soak-away systems in one neighborhood also enables an examination of their spatial and chronological distribution. In the case of these two insulae, the spatial and chronological distribution of the soak-aways, as well as the environmental evidence

270  E.g. the single soak-away found in the Casa del Centauro (see Pesando 2005, 82).

271  For the wide range of ways in which amphorae were reused in the Roman world, see Peña 2007.

Fig. 19.10.01  Reconstruction of a generic soak-away system (drawing by Gina Tibbott).

436  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.10.02  The distribution of soak-aways across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

a p pe n dic es  ·  437 recovered from within them, indicates that their use was often closely connected with the fish-salting industry, and that the end of their use in this neighborhood largely coincided with the cessation of that industry.

Our excavations recovered a total of fourteen soak-away ­systems as well as three probable systems, which were either too damaged to identify with certainty (Soak-Aways 15 and 16) or connected with a downpipe rather than a floor opening (Soak-Away 17; see Fig.  10.08). The soak-away systems ­re­covered from these two insulae exhibit some degree of variety in their form and construction, suggesting that there was not a fixed method of soak-away construction but rather a general model which could be modified as necessary depending on the specific needs of the space and availability of amphorae for reuse. Pompeian soak-aways were typically constructed using a single reused and modified amphora, with the toe removed to create a small opening at the bottom of the vessel. The amphora was also cut partway down the neck, and the handles were removed, leaving a larger opening than on the bottom of the vessel. The body of the amphora was punctured with several holes, and then the vessel was inverted and placed in a pit, with the new opening at the toe of the vessel facing upward and aligned with an access point in the floor surface above. Soil and sometimes larger materials were packed into the pit around the amphora to hold it in place.272 The amphorae used in the majority of these systems in Pompeii are either Greco-Italic or Dressel 1 amphorae.273 Most soak-away systems outside of the Porta Stabia neighborhood have been dated to the second or first centuries bce; these dates are based not solely on the dates of the amphorae themselves but on the stratigraphic evidence available for their construction.274 The presence of these two types of amphorae in systems dated stratigraphically to the second and first centuries bce suggests two important conclusions about amphora reuse in these waste systems: first, that the amphorae were not in circulation for a long period before their reuse, and ­second, that Greco-Italic and Dressel 1 am­phorae were the most readily available amphorae, the preferred shapes for soak-aways,275 or some combination of these two.

Soak-aways in the Porta Stabia neighborhood exhibit some deviation from this general pattern in both the number of amphorae employed and in the modifications to these am­ phorae. While many of the Porta Stabia soak-aways include the more typical, single amphora, punctured around the body (anywhere between eight and sixteen times), three systems (Soak-Aways 2, 9, and 14) were constructed using more than one amphora, indicating a need for deeper and wider dispersal of liquid waste. In these deeper systems, either none of the amphorae, or only the bottom amphora, were punctured to allow waste to move farther away from floor level. The most notable variations come from one property: Property I.1.6–9. Soak-Away 9, in Room 122, was composed of two full and one half amphorae, all stacked in a pit that was cut half a meter into bedrock and accessed via a small hole in an opus signinum surface (Fig.  19.10.03). The bottom amphora in this system was also left largely intact, with neck, rim, and handles still present, perhaps in order to allow the soak-away to extend farther downward into the bedrock pit.276 Soak-Away 14, located nearby within the same property (Room 132), was also placed into a pit dug into bedrock (nearly 1.5 m deep, in this case), and consisted of three am­phorae, none of which had holes punched into the body, suggesting that this soak-away was not intended to drain waste outward, but only downward (Fig.  19.10.04). Both of these soak-away systems reached far deeper than the soakaways seen elsewhere in the neighborhood. They are also unusual for their placement in pits carved into bedrock rather than soil. The natural bedrock is higher in elevation in this property than elsewhere in these insulae, so drainage with a typical, single amphora system may not have been effective or possible, thus resulting in the need to create much deeper soak-away systems. Whether this setup actually would have been effective with only a small amount of soil packing under and around the amphorae in these systems, however, is unclear. The types of amphorae used in the soak-away systems in Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 follow the patterns seen elsewhere at Pompeii; most are Greco-Italic or Dressel 1 amphorae.277 Two soak-aways (Soak-Aways 8 and 9) used Punic amphorae, one as the single amphora in the system (Soak-Away 8), and the other as the top amphora in one of the deep systems cut into bedrock (Soak-Away 9). The tendency to use Greco-Italic

272  The soak-away in the House of the Gladiators, for example, is packed in with large chips of limestone (Esposito 2008, 74), while one found in the House of the Surgeon was packed around with small stones at top (Anderson and Robinson 2018, 168). 273  For example: D’Ambrosio and De Caro 1989, 190 (Greco-Italic); Uroz Sáez, Poveda Navarro, and Uroz Rodríguez 2008, 270 (Dressel 1c). 274  At least twenty-seven soak-aways (beyond those in this neighborhood) have been documented for Pompeii in Regions I, V, VI, VII, and IX. 275  The broad body of the Greco-Italic and Dressel 1 amphorae at the shoulders, when these are placed upside down in soak-away systems, would

likely have facilitated a wider dispersal of liquid wastes into the surrounding soil than narrowed bodied vessels. 276  There are other examples from our excavations (Soak-Away 8, for example) where the neck, handles, and rim were not removed (see Figs. 11.09 and 11.10). 277  At least five of the Porta Stabia neighborhood soak-aways contained Greco-Italic amphorae, five contained Dressel 1 amphorae, and another contained either a Greco-Italic or a Dressel 1 amphora. Several other Central Italian amphorae likely fall into these categories as well but were too fragmentary to identify.

Analysis

438  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.10.03  The opening to Soak-Away 9 in Room 122 of I.1.6–9.

Fig. 19.10.04  Soak-Away 14 in Room 132 of I.1.6–9 (drawing by Gina Tibbott).

amphorae or Dressel 1 amphorae in soak-away systems both in the Porta Stabia neighborhood and elsewhere in the city suggests that these were likely the most readily available amphorae for those constructing these systems, and that the amphorae were obtainable immediately after their initial use for transport or perhaps found in waste dumps around the city. The wide upper bodies of these amphora forms may also have aided in the broad dispersal of liquids outward (when inverted), and prevented soak-away systems from filling and becoming clogged too quickly. Punic amphorae, with their relatively narrower bodies, are less suited to the dispersal needs of a soak-away system, although the one used in SoakAway 9 as the top amphora may have been selected in part for its ability to work, in essence, as a narrow pipe, channeling waste farther down into this deep soak-away system. On the other hand, Punic amphorae may simply appear infrequently in these systems because of their relative scarcity in the city in comparison to more local Greco-Italic and Dressel 1 am­phorae. The floor types found in association with soak-aways in this neighborhood include opus signinum surfaces, beaten-earth floors, and simple mortar surfaces (for floor types in VIII.7 and I.1, see Appendix 19.7). Two soak-aways exhibit a variation in terms of their access points from floor surfaces: SoakAway 14 was equipped with a stone and mortar construction

a p pe n dic es  ·  439 which raised the top height of the soak-away access point by several centimeters, while Soak-Away 8 had a narrow tube placed at its top, encased in mortar, which lined up with the broken toe of the amphora (see Figs. 11.09 and 11.10).278 In theory, primarily liquid waste was intended to be washed down into a soak-away system; the openings were typically no more than 5 cm in diameter. Little data exists for the en­vir­on­ mental content of soak-aways elsewhere in Pompeii,279 and thus the sample from the Porta Stabia neighborhood provides the rare opportunity to consider the types of materials which were disposed of in these systems, especially in comparison to the drains in the same neighborhood. Soak-aways in the Porta Stabia neighborhood, like the drains, yielded evidence for animal-based waste, including fish scale and bone, and sea urchin. Rodent bones, possibly the result of rodents entering these systems searching for food and being unable to escape, are also found on occasion. In terms of the proportions of different materials, however, the soak-aways in this neighborhood contain predominantly fish-related waste (scales and bones), while drains contain a more typically mixed sample of household waste. This suggests that, at least in the Porta Stabia neighborhood, soak-away installations were closely associated with the fish-salting processes taking place within these insulae in the same time period. It is especially note­ worthy in this regard that the fish-salting vats are frequently found in the same rooms or properties as soak-aways and in the same or adjacent phases of development (for fish-salting, see Chapter 18 and Appendix 19.6).280 That the high concentration of fish-related waste in many of these soak-aways is not solely due to a fish heavy diet but directly related to the fish-salting industry is confirmed by the contents of those soak-aways not located in spaces with fish-salting vats (e.g. Soak-Away 5), which more closely resemble household waste and have a much lower concentration of fish-related ma­ter­ ials. A single soak-away (Soak-Away 3) deposit also yielded evidence for human waste in the form of four latrine objects,281 perhaps suggesting that this soak-away at one point worked in concert with a downpipe from an upper floor or served as a dumping location for chamber pots. A final characteristic of 278  The access point into this soak-away system from the opus signinum surface above is unclear, and it is possible the surface actually served to cap the system and put it out of use. The presence of the tube in alignment with the broken amphora toe, however, clearly indicates that, at some point, ma­ter­ial was meant to drain into this system. 279  Only one publication includes information regarding the content of soak-away fills: a soak-away in IX.8 contained “rara fauna, frequenti elementi vegetali, frammenti di intonaco e laterizi” (Santoro and Scagliarini 2005, 222). 280  See also Ellis 2011d. In those cases where a fish-salting vat was not found in concert with a known soak-away or vice versa, this may be a result of the distribution of trenches across the insula, rather than the actual absence of an associated vat or soak-away. It is also possible that multiple soak-aways operated in concert with a single vat. In several properties with a fish-salting vat, more than one soak-away has been recovered. 281  See the forthcoming Environmental volume for the project.

many of the soak-away deposits in this neighborhood was the presence of charcoal. Given the significant presence of fish waste alongside this charcoal, it is possible that the charcoal was deliberately employed in these systems as a means of reducing smell and/or facilitating more efficient drainage. The presence of at least fourteen soak-away systems in the Porta Stabia neighborhood also allows us to examine their spatial and chronological distribution across these two insulae; this distribution further highlights the close connection of soak-away systems, at least in the Porta Stabia neighborhood, with the fish-salting industry. Soak-aways were re­covered almost exclusively from street-front rooms or spaces near to the street within their respective properties, suggesting that these were mainly a feature of highly trafficked areas. Their distribution further shows a close connection with industrial activities; a number are found in the same rooms or spaces as fish-salting vats. The chronological distribution of soak-aways in these two insulae (Fig.  19.10.05) also sheds light on changing patterns and priorities in waste management over time, as well as shifting patterns in the kinds of activities taking place in this neighborhood. Most soak-aways elsewhere in Pompeii have been dated to the second or first century bce.282 Similarly, the majority of soak-aways recovered by our excavations appear in the first century bce in this neighborhood, mainly during Phase 4, suggesting these systems were a common solution for waste and wastewater removal throughout the city during this period. In the early first century ce (Phase 5), however, in these two insulae soak-aways were frequently replaced with, or, more rarely, began to work in tandem with drains out to the street (for drains, see Appendix 19.5). This shift from soak-aways to drains coincided with the shift from industry in this neighborhood, especially fish-salting, to more service-oriented ac­tiv­ ities, which likely generated less noxious, more household type waste (as evidenced by the contents of these drains). Soak-aways ceased to be used in precisely the same period when fish-salting vats were filled in and the industry disappeared from this part of the city, which, alongside the en­vir­ on­mental evidence, clearly highlights their connection with this industry. When the need to remove the noxious waste of the fishsalting industry no longer existed and these properties were producing more typical household waste, soak-aways, which were likely difficult to maintain and clean out, were replaced with drains which moved wastewater outward, into the streets, where it was washed away. The chronological shift in soak-aways thus also suggests, more broadly, a shift in the way in which public and private infrastructure were integrated in the city and this neighborhood; while wastewater once was 282  Pesando 2012, 537.

440  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Soak-Away Life Cycles 7B 7A ?

6 5B

2

5A

15

Phases

4C

4 3

4B 4A

9 13

1

7

10

11

12

16

6

3B 3A

8

14

5

17

2 1C 1B 1A Soak-Aways

Fig. 19.10.05  The chronological distribution of the soak-aways at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

disposed of locally, beneath the floors of individual properties, in the Imperial period it became acceptable to direct waste outward, via drains, into the streets. While the shift from soak-aways to drains was clearly connected with the shift away from the fish-salting industry, the choice to employ drains rather than some other wastewater disposal mech­an­ism or simply new soak-aways suggests that wastewater in the streets was now an acceptable solution. This choice may be connected to the construction of the aqueduct in the city in this same period; excess water from fountains could at this point, perhaps, be counted on to remove waste entering the streets from household drains. In addition, the final paving of the via Stabiana (in Phase 5a), as well as the installation of the large sewer at the Porta Stabia (in Phase 5b, Drain 1) to drain water outside the city gate, would have allowed for quicker and more efficient removal of wastewater drained into the streets. The soak-aways from these two insulae offer the single largest sample of soak-aways recovered from excavations in Pompeii and represent the first large scale en­vir­on­mental sampling of this type of infrastructure from the city. Their character, distribution, and contents thus offer an important window into the wastewater disposal strategies of the pre-79 ce city, the nature of the fish-salting industry and its attendant waste, and the ways in which approaches to wastewater removal shifted alongside changing industries, water access, and infrastructure.

Catalog Soak-Away 1 Location: VIII.7.9–10 Room 38 Relevant SUs: 3047 (amphora); 3030; 3032; 3035 (fills inside soakaway amphora, from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 3.2) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 3.3) (covered by leveling fill) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted amphora (Dressel 1), with toe and neck removed, and holes punched around the entire body. Associated with a packedearth surface (SUs 3049, 3064, 3067; see Figs. 11.23 and 19.6.07). Contents: Fill was heavily contaminated by modern activity and root damage and was, therefore, not sampled. Soak-Away 2 Location: VIII.7.9–10 Room 41 Relevant SUs: 7084 (amphora and fill) Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 7.4) Phase decommissioned: Unknown (top elevation of soak-away destroyed by later construction, but gone by Phase 7a, Subphase 7.5) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of two inverted am­phorae, the upper of which was largely destroyed by subsequent construction (see Fig.  19.6.07). The lower

a p pe n dic es  ·  441 amphora (Greco-Italic) had the toe and neck removed down to the handle attachments and holes punched around the entire body. Stone and ceramic packing around lower amphora. Associated floor surface not recovered. Contents: primarily fish bone (376)283 and fish scale (1231), small amounts of eggshell (194), rodent (91) and other bone (213). Other contents included small amounts of land (59) and marine (3) shell, and sea urchin (23). Soak-Away 3 Location: VIII.7.5–6 Room 15 Relevant SUs: 16058 (amphora); 16059 (fill) Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 16.3b) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4c (Subphase 16.3c) (replaced by an opus signinum basin) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted amphora (Dressel 1), with toe and neck removed down to handle attachments, with holes punched around entire body. Associated with a packed-earth surface (SUs 16011, 16094). Contents: primarily fish bone (468) and fish scale (2662), small amounts of eggshell (19), rodent (2) and other bone (191), as well as land snail (14), and sea urchin (3). This soak-away deposit also contained four latrine objects, suggesting that, at some point in time, human waste was disposed of in the soak-away. Soak-Away 4 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 37 Relevant SUs: 17026 (amphora); 17027; 17029; 17031 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4c (Subphase 17.4c) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 17.5a) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of the upper portion of single inverted Central Italian amphora, with bottom, neck, and handles removed. No holes visible in body, but vessel is highly fragmentary. Associated with an opus signinum surface (SU 17028), as well as Drain 7; both angled to drain towards the amphora. Contents: No significant environmental finds in this soak-away, but the highly fragmentary nature of the amphora suggests that the contents may have been lost when the soakaway was broken and put out of use. Soak-Away 5 Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 37 Relevant SUs: 17086 (amphora); 17092; 17097 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 17.3) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4a (Subphase 17.4a) (covered by a fill layer) 283  Numbers in parentheses represent total number of items counted.

Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted Dressel 1 amphora, broken at the toe and at the neck down to handle attachments, with holes punched around the entire body. Associated with a packed-earth surface (SU 17071). Contents: Small amount of rodent (14) and other animal bone (311), eggshell (16), and charcoal. Soak-Away 6 Location: (later) VIII.7.13–15 Room 68 (located in an exterior space) Relevant SUs: 27107 (amphora); 27108 (fill) Phase installed: Phase 3b (Subphase 27.3) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4a (Subphase 27.4) (covered by packed-earth and mortar floor) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted amphora (Greco-Italic), broken on neck, fragmentary on the bottom, but likely broken at toe, and with two holes punched into body. No associated floor surface recovered. Contents: Primarily rodent (2) and other bone (26), eggshell (4), and presence of charcoal. This soak-away was heavily remodeled to accommodate a later drain above, however, suggesting that the contents may have been disturbed. Soak-Away 7 Location: I.1.1 Room 101 Relevant SUs: 50122 (amphora); 50133; 50132 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 50.4) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 50.5) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted amphora (Greco-Italic), broken on neck just above handle attachments, broken just above toe, with holes punched around the entire body. No associated floor surface was re­ covered in this area. Contents: primarily fish bone (237) and fish scale (139), sig­nifi­ cant amount of charcoal, along with eggshell (232), sea urchin (26), and rodent bone (25), other bone (209), land snail (86), and marine shell (19). Soak-Away 8 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 118 Relevant SUs: 51080 (amphora); 51073 (pipe); 51087; 51086 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 51.3) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4b (Subphase 51.4) (pit containing soak-away capped by opus signinum surface) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted amphora (Punic amphora, T-7.4.1.1), toe removed but neck, rim, and handles left intact (see Figs. 11.09 and 11.10). A single round hole was punched in one side of the vessel, about halfway down the body. A large portion of the

442  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i upper part of body, just above this hole, is missing on one side; based on en­crust­ations on the edges of this break, this large hole was open during the soak-away’s uselife. The soak-away amphora was attached at the top of the system to a small terracotta pipe (SU 51073), which would have led to the (now missing) associated floor surface. This amphora soak-away was in use only briefly and ­covered by the second part of Phase 4. Associated with a packed-earth surface (SU 51044). Contents: primarily fish bone (958) and fish scale (101), sig­nifi­ cant amount of charcoal, along with eggshell (42), rodent bone (91), sea urchin (9), other bone (515), land snail (43), and marine shell (5). Soak-Away 9 Location: I.1.6–9 Room 122 Relevant SUs: 52089 (top amphora); 52111 (middle amphora); 52112 (bottom amphora); 52086; 52116; 52126; 52127 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4c (Subphase 52.7) Decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 52.8) (covered over with leveling fill) Brief description: Deep soak-away located in pit partially dug (50 cm) into bedrock. Soak-away consists (from top to bottom) of three inverted amphorae, including: one whole amphora, a half amphora, and another whole amphora. Top amphora (SU 52089, a Punic amphora) cut at neck, down nearly to handle attachments and at toe (see Fig.  19.10.03). Punched holes concentrated in uppermost portion of amphora body (towards the bottom when installed). Top amphora was embedded into a second (half ) amphora (SU 52111, a fragmentary unidentified Italian amphora), also inverted, which was cut well below the neck, at mid-body, and high above the toe, creating a much wider container for li­quids moving through the system. No holes were punched into this half amphora. This middle amphora was placed atop the final amphora (SU 52112, Dressel 1), also inverted, which was nearly complete, with a small cut at the toe to allow passage of liquids from above. The handles, neck, and rim of this final amphora were left intact, while only the upper part of the body, which would have been at the very bottom of the soakaway system, was punched through with several holes all the way around. The whole system reached quite deep, draining waste more than a meter from the top, which was accessed through a small hole in an opus signinum floor surface (SU 52075). Contents: primarily fish bone (95) and scale (145), significant amount of charcoal, with small amounts of eggshell (10) and rodent (8) and other bone (136), as well as sea urchin (4), and marine shell (1).

Soak-Away 10 Location: (later) I.1.1–1a Room 103 (located in an exterior space) Relevant SUs: 53045 (amphora); 53032; 53041 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 53.3) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5b (Subphase 53.4) (covered by a leveling fill) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted amphora (Greco-Italic), heavily damaged by subsequent construction in the same area. Bottom part of amphora destroyed by later construction, so the extent of original opening at the top of system is unknown. At top of amphora, neck removed down to handle attachments. Holes punched into the body of amphora. Associated with a mortar surface (SU 53025). Located very near to second soak-away system in this area (Soak-Away 11), suggesting a greater need than normal for removal of waste. Contents: primarily fish bone (358) and fish scale (277), a sig­nifi­ cant amount of charcoal, with eggshell (168) and rodent (30) and other bone (109), as well as land snail (60), marine shell (27), and sea urchin (34). Soak-Away 11 Location: (later) I.1.1–1a Room 103 (located in an exterior space) Relevant SUs: 53047 (amphora); 53048; 53046 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 53.3) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5b (Subphase 53.4) (covered by a leveling fill) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted amphora (Greco-Italic), heavily damaged by subsequent construction in the same area. Large portion of amphora destroyed by later construction, so the extent of original opening at the top of system (bottom of amphora) is unknown. Amphora had neck and handles removed completely and holes punched into the body. Associated with a mortar surface (SU 53025). Located very near to second soak-away system in this area (Soak-Away 10), suggesting a greater need than normal for removal of waste. Contents: large concentrations of fish bone (948), fish scale (2260), and eggshell (836), moderate amounts of charcoal, with small amounts of rodent (5) and other bone (107), as well as land snail (28), marine shell (15), and sea urchin (13). Soak-Away 12 Location: I.1.2 Room 106 Relevant SUs: 54123 (amphora); 54124; 54132 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 54.5) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 54.6) (covered over with leveling fill)

a p pe n dic es  ·  443 Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted amphora (a fragmentary, unidentified Italian amphora), heavily damaged by subsequent construction in the same area. Amphora is fragmentary, especially on the bottom, making it difficult to identify the size of the original modification/removal of the toe. At the top, one handle attachment is still preserved, probably indicating that the original modification removed part of the neck, nearly down to the shoulder. Given the fragmentary nature of the amphora, it is difficult to determine the extent of modifications to the body, but at least two holes appear to have been punched into the body of the amphora. Associated with a mortar surface preserved only in patches (SUs 54039, 54049, 54051). Contents: very little in terms of contents, which is unsurprising given the fragmentary nature of the amphora and destruction of the system, but these are mainly fish bone (17) and fish scale (17), a significant amount of charcoal, and a some eggshell (3), sea urchin (8), and rodent (4) and other bone (19). Soak-Away 13 Location: I.1.3–5 Room 120 Relevant SUs: 55021 (amphora); 55022; 55032 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 55.4) Phase decommissioned: Phase 4c (Subphase 55.5) (covered over with leveling fill) Brief description: Soak-away consisting of a single inverted Central Italian amphora, heavily damaged by subsequent construction in the area. Bottom part of amphora destroyed, so the extent of the original opening at the top of the system is unknown. At top of amphora, neck removed down to handle attachments. Holes punched into the body of amphora. Associated with packed-earth surface (SU 55042). Contents: primarily fish bone (118) and fish scale (126), some wood charcoal, with a small amount of eggshell (6), rodent (3) and other bone (91), as well as land snail (18), marine shell (11), and sea urchin (9). Soak-Away 14 Location: I.1.6–9 Room 132 Relevant SUs: 56038 (top amphora); 56103 (middle amphora); 56109 (bottom amphora); 56037 (construction of mouth); 56099; 56105; 56111 (fills from top to bottom) Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 56.4) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 56.6) (new opus signinum floor installed) Brief description: A deep soak-away consisting of three inverted amphorae stacked one on top of the other (see Fig. 19.10.04). This soak-away system was placed into a deep and narrow pit dug 1.5 m into bedrock, with a gap of approximately 10 cm between the bottom of the lowest amphora and the

bedrock bottom of the pit. Above the topmost amphora in this system, a stone and mortar construction (SU 56037), with a small opening at the top, raised the top elevation of the system by about 15 cm and provided the access point from the floor. The top amphora (SU 56038, a fragmentary Dressel 2-4) in the system was shattered in a later phase but appears to have had its toe and top removed down to the handle attachments. The second amphora (SU 56103, a Greco-Italic or Dressel 1) was modified to create wider holes on both ends, with the toe and several centi­meters above it removed, and the neck removed all the way down to the shoulders, thus creating a much wider distribution point. The bottom amphora (SU 56109, Dressel 1) also had a large portion of its bottom section removed, and its top down to the handle attachments, just above the shoulder. None of these three amphorae had holes punched in their sides, suggesting that the system was not meant to function like a typical soak-away system, dispersing liquid waste outward, but rather was meant to drain it away from the surface, as far as possible downward into the bedrock pit. Associated with a packedearth surface (SUs 56077, 56080). Contents: primarily fish bone (246) and scale (636), some charcoal, with a small amount of eggshell (9), rodent (27) and other bone (98), sea urchin (8), marine shell (11), and land snail (76). Probable Soak-Aways: Soak-Away 15 Location: VIII.7.1–4 Room 1 Relevant SUs: 1031 (amphora); 1030 (fill) Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 1.4) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5b (Subphase 1.5a) (new packedearth surface installed) Brief description: Possible remains of a soak-away destroyed by later construction. Top third of a Dressel 1 amphora (rim, partial handles, and neck preserved), found upside down. Found partially embedded in a subsurface (SU 1027) and associated with an opus signinum floor (SU 1032). Contents: Not sampled. Soak-Away 16 Location VIII.7.1–4 Room 1 Relevant SUs: 1106 (amphora) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 1.3) Phase decommissioned: Phase 5a (Subphase 1.4) (covered by a leveling fill and opus signinum floor) Brief description: Possible remains of a soak-away later replaced by probable Soak-Away 15 (above). Portion of a Central Italian amphora (shoulders and neck) found upside down. Associated with a packed-earth surface (SU 1040). Contents: Not sampled.

444  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Soak-Away 17 Location: (later) VIII.7.13–15 (located in an exterior space north of property VIII.7.9–13) Relevant SUs: 27081 (top amphora); 27090 (bottom amphora); 27096 (fill of amphora); 27089 (stones installed around hole punched in amphora) Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 27.2) Phase decommissioned: Phase 3b (Subphase 27.3) (covered by a leveling fill) Brief description: Inverted Dressel 1 amphora (SU 27090), which may have served as a soak-away in connection with a downpipe system running down the outside of WCU 014 (see Fig. 10.08). At the top of the amphora, rim and handles left

intact, and at the bottom of the amphora, toe removed. One single, large hole was punched into the side of the amphora which faced away from the wall. This amphora was connected to the downpipe system by a second amphora, a Punic amphora (SU 27081), with rim and neck removed and most of the lower body removed, which was inserted into the hole created by the removal of the amphora toe of the Dressel 1. Not a typical soak-away system in that drainage seems to have been directed in one single direction, partly through the incorporation of two stones around the hole in the amphora, directing the flow of waste materials. Contents: Rodent (154), bird (12), reptile (8), sheep/goat (6), and many other bones (774), as well as eggshell (6).

c h a pt e r 1 9. 1 1

The Thresholds of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Steven J.R. Ellis

Introduction Evidence for thirty-five thresholds survives throughout the site, though not all of them were (or remain) visible for study (Fig. 19.11.01). The vast majority of them were located in the street-front doorways, some twenty-seven (twenty-one extant) in total. These street-front thresholds were mostly of the type typical to Roman tabernae,284 and thus conform to Type C of Hori’s threshold typology at Pompeii (Fig. 19.11.02).285 Wherever thresholds of this type are found in the Roman world, they are almost always located on the street-front and lead onto identifiable retail spaces.286 Their design allowed for the entrance to the shop to be closed by sliding wooden shutters into a narrow groove, with the opening of that groove at one side or the other allowing for a “night-door” to swing inward.287 The cuttings for the shutters and door correspond in the (usually wooden) vertical jambs at each side, and would have been mirrored in the (usually missing) lintel above; evidence for the footing for a wooden lintel survives at the closed end of Threshold 5 at VIII.7.5 (Fig.  19.11.03). Some of the examples in this neighborhood retain evidence for both the socket-hinge mechanism—the pivot shoes—for the nightdoor (for example, Threshold 18 and Threshold 20; see Fig. 12.33) and for the locking devices (for example, Threshold 10; see Fig. 19.11.02; Threshold 11 is a good example of the locking devices for a double-leaf door; see Fig. 12.04). These common thresholds are typically described as “wide” relative to the narrower forms of street-front thresholds that normally led into houses.288 The average width of the retail thresholds 284  On domestic doorways and thresholds at Pompeii, Ivanoff 1859; Hori 1992; Lauritsen 2011; 2013; 2015; Proudfoot 2013. Good studies have been made on those at Corinth (Broneer 1954, 48–59), Morgantina (Kyllingstad and Sjöqvist 1965), Olbia (Bouet 1994), and Ostia (Stöger 2007); a fuller survey of the scholarship can be found in Lauritsen 2015, 299. On retail thresholds at Pompeii and elsewhere, Mac Mahon 2003, 91–9; Ellis 2011a; 2018. 285  Hori 1992; see also Type D1 in Bouet 1994. 286  On wide entrances as signifying retail space, see Girri 1956, 3; DeLaine 2005, 33; Holleran 2012, 113–16; Ellis 2018, esp. 36–40. 287  On the term “night-door,” see Packer 1971, 22; also Ellis 2011a, 164. 288  Those giving onto Pompeian houses are typically between 1 and 1.5 m; a study by Lauritsen found the average to be 1.2 m (I am grateful to Lauritsen for sharing this information with me). Packer 1971, 21 measured Ostian domestic doorways to determine an average width of 1.3 m.

at Pompeii is about 3.2 m, and the extant wide retail thresholds throughout our neighborhood average 3.0 m. Retail thresholds were normally carved from local volcanic stone; those in the present survey were typically of basalt lava, though limestone could also be used.289

Analysis Though readily overlooked as objects of study, stone thresholds—whether belonging to retail, domestic, or other types of space—can prove informative on a number of urban matters. Beyond the Vesuvian cities, where architecture rarely reaches the same heights and levels of detail, the wide, shuttered thresholds constitute some of the most common structural elements of a city’s street-front architecture. After all, a retail threshold is often the single largest architectural elem­ ent for the most common type of property that survives across most Roman cities. Thresholds thus must have had considerable functional and financial value: several ex­amples at Minturnae show evidence for having been flipped and reworked, once worn down, to economize on their replacement.290 In an example from the Porta Stabia neighborhood, the street-front threshold to the shop at VIII.7.12 (Threshold 12) serves as a noteworthy case study: the two stones that formed the threshold of Phase 6 were later lifted and reset (in Phase 7); this reuse of the stones coincided with the addition of a new stone, cut to match the others, and inserted between them to widen the door (see Fig. 14.24). Beyond—or rather, because of—their value and number in antiquity, retail thresholds also provide abundant evidence about a range of social and urban customs, from changes over time in the use (and specialization) of retail space, to the roles of mass production and knowledge networks in urban construction, to cultural anxieties about where to place the nightdoor.291 One difficulty in studying them, however, is that their chronological range can be so difficult to determine. Firstly, it

289  On the availability of certain stone types at Pompeii, see Kastenmeier et al. 2010. Also Chapter 19.8 in the present volume. 290  Ellis 2018, 40, fig. 2.7. 291  For a fuller account of these, see Ellis 2011a; 2018.

446  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.11.01  The distribution of thresholds across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

a p pe n dic es  ·  447

Fig. 19.11.02  A standard, retail threshold (Threshold 10 into VIII.7.10); plaster casting of the shuttered door at IX.7.10, Pompeii.

is difficult to date the insertion of many of the examples because of the common practice of reusing the threshold over successive phases. Even so, none of the canonically shuttered, retail thresholds that can be confidently dated was introduced earlier than Phase 5, the Early Imperial period. Beyond our own datasets, chronological information for the

stone thresholds is unfortunately minimal. Shops are rarely targeted for excavation, and their thresholds are even more rarely the point of focus. Still, from the Porta Stabia dataset and the few examples that have been subjected to stratigraphic excavation and publication elsewhere, it would appear that we are here witness to a broader chronological development

448  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.11.03  Threshold 5 at VIII.7.5; note the socket for a wooden lintel at right (northern end); viewed from the northeast.

that saw the advent of the shuttered threshold in the Early Imperial period.292 None of the shuttered thresholds at Herculaneum or Puteoli dates to earlier than this time. Likewise, and farther afield, those at Olbia are all dated to the early first century ce;293 those connected to the macellum at Baelo Claudia in Spain, or in the recent excavations at Chemtou in Tunisia, are similarly dated.294 It is noteworthy that the standard retail threshold appears as a type at about the same time as both the related doorstop and the masonry counter.295 Of the narrower form of street-front thresholds, most of these led directly to staircases (see Threshold 2, Threshold 7, Threshold 9, and Threshold 23); while there is no evidence for the (wooden) staircases themselves, that the narrow thresholds appear to have given access to rooms that were also equipped with a wide entrance suggests that the narrow thresholds instead gave entrance onto other, upper floor spaces. Only eight thresholds survive from inside the properties (Thresholds 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, and 35). To some degree this number is conditioned by the nature of the excavations— not as many of the internal doorways were targeted for 292  Ellis 2018, 200–2. 293  While the earliest dated example in Gaul (notably just a single example at Glanum) has been attributed approximately to the mid-first century bce, Bouet himself acknowledges that this dating applies to the building rather than to the (potentially later) insertion of the threshold; in any case, the majority at Glanum are dated to the early first century ce. Bouet 1994, 39. 294  I extend much appreciation to Philip von Rummel and Stefan Ardeleanu of the DAI for sharing this very recent and (thus) unpublished information with me. For their preliminary thoughts, see Khanoussi and von Rummel 2012. 295  See Chapters 19.1 and 19.4.

excavation. Even so, there is a notable absence of internal thresholds that might reflect a general disinterest in using stone thresholds to lock—or at least close off—passages within the properties.

Catalog Threshold 1 Location: VIII.7.1, streetfront doorway (Trench 1000 and 4000) Relevant SUs: 1076, 4021 Measurements: c. 273 cm × 38 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 3 Phase installed: 7a (Subphases 1.5b and 4.4) Brief description: Not fully excavated, but likely a wide doorway (double-leaf ?) (Hori Type A). Threshold 2 Location: VIII.7.2, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: not recovered Measurements: unknown Stone type: unknown Number of stones: unknown Phase installed: unknown Threshold 3 Location: VIII.7.3, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: 295 cm × 53 cm Stone type: Basalt lava

a p pe n dic es  ·  449 Number of stones: 5 Phase installed: unknown Threshold 4 Location: VIII.7.4, streetfront doorway (Trench 24000) Relevant SUs: 24108, 24109 Measurements: 334 cm × 44 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 2 Phase installed: 7 Brief description: Shuttered retail, right-side entry (Hori Type C; see Fig. 14.13). Threshold 5 Location: VIII.7.5, streetfront doorway (Trench 11000) Relevant SUs: 11076 Measurements: 343 cm × 39 cm × 30 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 3 Phase installed: 6 (Subphase 11.6) Brief description: Shuttered retail, left-side entry (Hori Type C; see Fig. 19.11.03). Threshold 6 Location: VIII.7.6, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: unknown Stone type: unknown Number of stones: unknown Phase installed: unknown Threshold 7 Location: VIII.7.7, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: 107 cm × 36 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 1 Phase installed: unknown Brief description: Narrow with marginal check, access to staircase (Hori Type A). Threshold 8 Location: VIII.7.8, streetfront doorway (Trench 12000) Relevant SUs: 12181, 12182 Measurements: 351 cm × 52 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 2 Phase installed: 5a Brief description: Shuttered retail, left-side entry (Hori Type C); but multiple phases of use with several (re)cuttings and grooves. Threshold 9 Location: VIII.7.9, streetfront doorway (Trench 3000) Relevant SUs: 3074

Measurements: 112 cm × 41 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 2 Phase installed: 5a (Subphase 3.3) Brief description: Narrow with marginal check, access to staircase (Hori Type A). Threshold 10 Location: VIII.7.10, streetfront doorway (trench 3000) Relevant SUs: 3075 Measurements: 365 cm × 30 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 3 Phase installed: 5a (Suphase 3.3) Brief description: Shuttered retail, left-side entry (Hori Type C; see Fig. 19.11.02). Threshold 11 Location: VIII.7.11, streetfront doorway (Trench 29000) Relevant SUs: 29006, 29007 Measurements: 245 cm × 47 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 2 Phase installed: 5a (Subphase 29.5) Brief description: Double-leaf entry (Hori Type A); the narrower of the two stones (northern side) may have served as a separate door (see Fig. 12.04). Threshold 12 Location: VIII.7.12, streetfront doorway (Trench 18000) Relevant SUs: 18011, 18012, 18013, 18015, 18016 Measurements: 284 cm × 58 cm Stone type: limestone Number of stones: 3 Phase installed: 6 (Subphase 18.5) (as two-stone threshold), 7a (Subphase 18.6) (as three-stone threshold) Brief description: Shuttered retail, right-side entry (Hori Type C); but multiple phases of use with several (re)cuttings and grooves (see Fig. 14.24). Threshold 13 Location: VIII.7.13, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: 333 cm × 43 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 3 Phase installed: unknown Brief description: Shuttered retail, right-side entry (Hori Type C). Threshold 14 Location: VIII.7.14, streetfront doorway (Trench 27000) Relevant SUs: n/a Measurements: n/a

450  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Stone type: n/a Number of stones: n/a Phase installed: n/a Brief description: Missing threshold, likely removed in the modern era. Threshold 15 Location: VIII.7.15, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: unknown Stone type: unknown Number of stones: unknown Phase installed: unknown Brief description: Missing threshold, likely removed in the modern era. Threshold 16 Location: I.1.1, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: 50006, 50007 Measurements: 235 cm × 46 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 2 Phase installed: 4a (Subphase 50.4) Brief description: Shuttered retail, right-side entry (Hori Type C; see Fig. 11.30). Threshold 17 Location: I.1.1a, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: 50040 Measurements: 167 cm × 48 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 1 Phase installed: 4a (Subphase 50.4) Brief description: Narrow threshold with groove running full length, and various (re)cuttings; likely reused. Threshold 18 Location: I.1.2, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: 54017, 54106, 54107 Measurements: 440 cm × 36 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 3 Phase installed: 5b (Subphase 54.7) Brief description: Shuttered retail, right-side entry (Hori Type C); includes a recut (or precut) groove within the beveled night-door. Threshold 19 Location: I.1.3, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: 285 cm × 43 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 3 Phase installed: unknown

Brief description: Double-leaf entry (Hori Type A); the ­southern end of the threshold served as a separate, narrow door. Threshold 20 Location: I.1.4, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: 51004, 51005, 51006 Measurements: 294 cm × 39 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 3 Phase installed: 5a (Subphase 51.6) Brief description: Shuttered retail, right-side entry (Hori Type C). A groove to the socket allowed for insertion/ removal of night-door (see Fig. 12.33). Threshold 21 Location: I.1.5, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: unknown Stone type: unknown Number of stones: unknown Phase installed: 6 Brief description: Missing threshold, likely removed in the modern era. The cuts made for the installation of this threshold have been dated to Phase 6. Threshold 22 Location: I.1.6, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: unknown Stone type: unknown Number of stones: unknown Phase installed: unknown Brief description: Missing threshold, likely removed in the modern era. Threshold 23 Location: I.1.7, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: 114 cm × 44 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 1 Phase installed: undetermined Brief description: Narrow threshold (Hori Type A1). Threshold 24 Location: I.1.8, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: 265 cm × 37 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 2 Phase installed: undetermined Brief description: Double-leaf entry (Hori Type A).

a p pe n dic es  ·  451 Threshold 25 Location: I.1.9, streetfront doorway Relevant SUs: 56071, 56129 Measurements: 298 cm × 36 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 2 Phase installed: 5a (Subphase 56.6) Brief description: Shuttered retail, right-side entry (Hori Type C). Threshold 26 Location: VIII.7.5-6, between rooms 27 and 28 Relevant SUs: 21003 Measurements: c. 99 cm × 19 cm Stone type: tiles Number of stones: 4 Phase installed: 5a (Subphase 21.4) Brief description: Threshold to Waste Feature 1 formed by four broken roof tile fragments. Threshold 27 Location: VIII.7.5–6, between rooms 15 and 17 Relevant SUs: 16106 Measurements: c. 81 cm × 33 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 1 Phase installed: 7a (Subphase 16.5) Brief description: Narrow threshold (Hori Type A1). Threshold 28 Location: VIII.7.15, between rooms 75 and 78 Relevant SUs: 8036 Measurements: 75 cm × 29 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 1 Phase installed: 6 (Subphase 8.3) Brief description: Narrow threshold with no cuttings. Threshold 29 Location: in WF 2, south of VIII.7.1 Relevant SUs: 81125 Measurements: 130 cm × 26 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 2 Phase installed: 7 Brief description: Only partially visible, but with evidence of socket at southern end. Threshold 30 Location: at entrance 10 to I.1.1/10, Room 104 Relevant SUs: 57139 Measurements: c. 128 cm × 31 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 2

Phase installed: 8 (Subphase 57.6) Brief description: Modern insertion. Threshold 31 Location: I.1.1/10, between rooms 101 and 103 Relevant SUs: 53020, 53021, 53039 (Phase 3a wall used as ­foundation) Measurements: c. 124 cm × 55 cm Stone type: mixed (opus incertum construction) Number of stones: unknown Phase installed: 5b (Subphase 53.4) Brief description: Narrow threshold formed of opus incertum. Threshold 32 Location: I.1.3–5, between rooms 110 and 114 Relevant SUs: 59007 Measurements: 90 cm × 31 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 1 Phase installed: 6 (Subphase 59.7) Brief description: Narrow threshold, heavily worn (Hori Type A1; see Fig. 13.17). Threshold 33 Location: VIII.7.12, between rooms 59 and 64 Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: 102 cm × 38 cm Stone type: limestone Number of stones: unknown Phase installed: unknown Brief description: Narrow threshold of limestone. Threshold 34 Location: I.1.6–9, between rooms 122 and 123 Relevant SUs: no SUs assigned Measurements: 94 cm × 32 cm Stone type: Basalt lava Number of stones: 1 Phase installed: unknown Brief description: Narrow threshold (Hori Type A). Threshold 35 Location: VIII.7.5-6, between rooms 15 and 16 Relevant SUs: 16013296 Measurements: unknown Stone type: marble, limestone Number of stones: 7 Phase installed: 7a (Subphase 16.5) Brief description: Narrow threshold formed of broken pieces of limestone, one of which (I161) preserves an inscription (see Fig. 14.19). 296 This threshold may have been the foundation for larger threshold stones removed in modern times.

c h a pt e r 1 9. 1 2

The Votive Objects of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Kevin D. Dicus

Material remains of ritual behavior appeared in many trenches excavated in Insulae VIII.7. and I.1 (Table 19.12.01). On the one hand, this ­artifactual evidence can potentially provide valuable information about the extent and nature of private domestic religion in Pompeii, specifically in the area adjacent to the Porta Stabia. On the other hand, one can overestimate the degree to which the material traces of ritual behavior cor­ rel­ate to actual ritual performance in the areas under investigation. Consequently, patterns of past behavior derived from the artifactual evidence can be undermined by a misreading of that same evidence. Before we can make inferences about human behavior, ritual or otherwise, we must understand the formation processes affecting each artifact and its in­corp­or­ ation into the archaeological record.

Analysis We identified ritual objects based on their forms or arch­aeo­ logic­al contexts. Most of them took the form of miniature bowls and cups, a class of artifact that has been found throughout not only Pompeii but also Campania and beyond (see Figs.  10.15 and 12.14).297 Other votive classes include fragments of figurines and anatomical terracottas, which relate to the so-called “E-L-C” (Etruscan-Latian-Campanian) cult observed throughout primarily central Italy during the mid-Republic (see Figs. 11.06 and 16.16).298 Over the two insulae, 157 votive objects were recovered, appearing in 28 of the 41 trenches: 15 of the 26 trenches within VIII.7.1–15, 10 of the 11 trenches within I.1.1–10, and 3 of the 4 trenches located directly outside of the two insulae (Fig. 19.12.01). The distribution of votive objects across these trenches was fairly consistent. Most, twenty-one trenches, contained between one and five votives, and five trenches contained between six and twelve votives. Two trenches

297  For other Pompeian examples, see Chiaramonte Treré 1984, 175–6; De Caro 1986, 110–11; Fulford and Wallace-Hadrill 1999, 71–2; Cool and Griffiths 2015. A typology of Pompeian miniature vessels has been arranged by Grasso 2004. For outside of Pompeii, see Pelagatti 1970 and Poli 2006. 298  On the E-L-C votive tradition, see, e.g., Comella 1981; MacIntosh Turfa 1986; Gentili 2005.

produced exceptionally high numbers of votives: thirty in one case (Trench 28000) and thirty-two in the other (Trench 53000). On the one hand, the votive objects are broad-stroke indicators of ritual practice. On the other hand, their distribution can be a red herring when we seek to localize ritual practice over the site. We must first establish the finds’ contexts before we can say what, if anything, the votives can say about behaviors in these spaces. If we read the presence of votives as prima facie evidence of ritual behavior in the spaces in which they were found, then we must accept a one-to-one correspondence between the function of an artifact and the function of the space it came from. The great majority of the finds, however, come not from primary contexts, that is, undisturbed from the place where they were made and/or used, but from secondary contexts, that is, deposited away from the locus of manufacture and/or use. In examining the finds contexts of the votives over Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, we find that a relatively small number of them derive from ritual depositions; most of them arrived at their finds contexts via other behaviors completely unrelated to ritual observance. Furthermore, there is no positive cor­rel­ ation between the number of votives in a space and the sacred significance of that space: a large number of votives—thirty from Trench 28000 or thirty-two from Trench 53000, for example—does not necessarily earmark that space with special sacral significance. The following study examines the finds contexts to clarify the degree to which our votives denote ritual activities happening across the properties. At the northern extent of Insula VIII.7, Trenches 8000 and 28000 at the back of VIII.7.13–15 brought to light thirty-one votives, the second largest grouping that comes from the excavations. Examples included fragments of votive figurines (fifteen), anatomical terracottas (twelve), and miniature cups (four). They appeared in what was an outdoor (garden?) area behind the property, which had seen minimal architectural development but had been used heavily for quarrying (Quarry Area 9).299 In order to close the quarry area, the open pit was filled with a heterogeneous collection of elements, including 299  The votives came from two trenches in the property, 8000 (1 votive) and 28000 (30 votives).

a p pe n dic es  ·  453

Fig. 19.12.01  The distribution of votives among the excavated trenches at Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (numbers indicate the number of votives per location).

454  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

300  Trenches 8000 (1) and 28000 (27). 301  Trenches 7000 (1), 12000 (2), 16000 (2), 19000 (1), 25000 (1), and 29000 (1). 302  Trenches, 52000 (1), 53000 (7), 55000 (2), 57000 (1), 59000 (1), and 60000 (1). 303  See Chapter 19.6 in this volume. 304  The votive vessels from VIII.7.1–15: Trenches 2000 (3), 3000 (2), and 11000 (3), 25000 (1), and 28000 (1); and from I.1.1–10: Trench 52000. The two anatomical votives were found in Trench 28000.

60 58 Number of votives found

nearly all of the votives—twenty-eight of the thirty-one.300 The fill material, given the richness of the assemblage and the volume of it needed to cover the void, almost certainly was imported from outside the insula. In this secondary context, none of the objects comprising our fill speaks to any activity happening in the property or over the property or even over the insula, for that matter. The votive objects were not deposited or dedicated here during ritual events; thus, the unusually strong presence of the votives is not linked in any way to the sacredness of the space where they were found. Pits dug for quarrying or other construction-related events were found elsewhere, and the formation processes behind their filling are very much the same. In Insula VIII.7, seven trenches contained these pits, from which came eight votives.301 In Insula I.1, six trenches had pit or construction trench fills that held a total of thirteen votives.302 The volumes of materials required to fill the voids were such that the individual households most likely did not have enough ma­ter­ial at hand, and it was sourced from elsewhere. It is in this case necessary to treat each of these fills as a secondary deposit; thus, the twenty-two votives included in such contexts can be discounted as evidence for ritual behavior in these insulae. Other voids were penetrating the space that also needed filling when their uselife ended: in particular the fish-salting vats found along the frontage of many properties.303 Other examples of the type include tanks, cesspits, and drains. The composition of their fills displayed a high measure of richness, comprising numerous different classes of pottery, fragments of architectural debris, and a wide range of small finds types. The heterogeneity of the compositions and the sheer volume of materials needed to fill these large features suggest that the material was sourced from elsewhere and brought into the space. From these fill contexts, we recovered ten mini­ature votive cups and two anatomical votives from five trenches across Insula VIII.7 and one cup from one trench in I.1.1–10.304 These thirteen imported votives, in secondary contexts and unrelated to the function of the spaces in which they were found, say nothing about ritual activity around the Porta Stabia. Finally, one fill type, labeled here collectively as “leveling fills,” contributed most strongly to the development and subsequent changes of the insulae. In the first phases of occupation, leveling fills evened out the terrain for initial construction; later, they were employed during property renovations and other construction projects to separate new

49 40

20

21 13

0

Pit Fills

Tank Fills

16

Leveling Fills Commercial Type of context

Ritual

Fig. 19.12.02  The types of contexts in which votive objects were found (gray = Secondary Context; black = Primary Context).

floor surfaces from earlier ones. Because of their ubiquity among the subsurface strata, they contained the highest number of votive objects in secondary contexts. In Insula VIII.7, leveling fills in twelve trenches contained a total of forty-four votives,305 while in Insula I.1, leveling fills in eight trenches contained a total of fourteen votives.306 Thus, while 157 votive objects were recovered from the trenches at the Porta Stabia, each of which had the potential to reveal ritual behaviors here, upon closer analysis of the contexts from which they came, it is evident that most of them—120—appear in secondary contexts, having been imported within an assemblage for a filling application (Fig.  19.12.02). Only thirty-six votive objects appear in their primary contexts, just under one-quarter of the total number. They come from one trench in Insula VIII.7,307 four trenches in Insula  I.1,308 and from both trenches sunk inside of the Porta Stabia itself.309 We must be careful not to conflate votives in a primary context with those in a ritual one, however. A primary context is one in which an object is deposited at its place of manufacture or use. How the objects are used, exactly, makes no difference. Any element can be used in ways that are far removed from their intended function. In the sacred sphere, for ex­ample, a utilitarian object can become a votive simply 305  Trenches 2000 (6 ), 3000 (1), 7000 (2), 11000 (2), 12000 (4), 16000 (1), 17000 (12), 18000 (2), 19000 (1), 20000 (1), 24000 (9), and 27000 (3). 306  Trenches 50000 (3), 51000 (1), 52000 (1), 53000 (1), 55000 (1), 56000 (2), 57000 (1), and 59000 (4). 307  Trench 16000 contained six votives in primary context. 308 Trench 53000 contained twenty-four votives in primary context; Trench 54000 contained one votive in primary context; Trench 55000 contained one votive in primary context; Trench 57000 contained one votive in primary context. 309  Trench 10000 contained two votives in primary context; Trench 14000 contained two votives in primary context.

a p pe n dic es  ·  455 through the act of dedicating it to the gods; a votive object, conversely, is not sacred until it is dedicated to the gods. Sometimes, elem­ents can enter an archaeological context through discard before use. We need to clarify if the primary contexts from which the votives come are also ritual contexts. It turns out that the primary contexts from which many votives come are not ritual contexts. Behaviors not related to dedicating ex-votos to the gods were responsible for the de­pos­ ition of these votive objects found in the neighborhood. This observation is best borne out in Trench 53000, in Room 103 of Property  I.1.1, where twenty-four votives appear in primary contexts, just under two-thirds of the total number. If the primary context was also ritual, then we might be justified in arguing for some special sacral importance to the space. A closer examination of the contexts in which these votives were found reveals that most of them were deposited by means other than ritual performance. In the second century bce (Phases 2 and 3) the southernmost area of the insula functioned as a ceramics workshop. In what would become Room 103 of Property I.1.1, excavations uncovered the remains of a square kiln (Kiln 1, of Phase 2) that, after it ceased to function, received the waste products of a second kiln 6 m to the east (Kiln 2, of Phase 3a), in what would become Room 105 of the same property. Filling the interior of the earlier kiln’s walls and of a large sunken pot that functioned with the kiln were fifteen miniature chalices and bowls, mixed in with pottery sherds, wasters, and vessel supports (small rings used to stack and separate vessels during the firing process). All the mini­ ature vessels exhibited imperfections from misfiring, cracks, or breaks, which rendered them ritually impotent. The rejection of votive products that were flawed, even mildly, may speak to the performative nature of Italian religion—rituals had to be performed correctly. Just as cracked tableware would no longer be functional for meals, cracked votives would not be functional or appropriate for symbolic ritual meals. They were disposed of like any misfired vessel. Within the destruction layer of Kiln 2, brought to light in Trench 57000 in Room 105, one miniature votive chalice was found with about sixty small ollae that were being fired when an accident destroyed the kiln. It appears that this potter’s workshop produced small votives for sale as well as serving vessels and tableware; this group of sixteen votives, therefore, speaks more to the economy of religion than to ritual practice. The remaining votives, 21 from the original 157, are in either unequivocal or probable ritual contexts. In Room 103 of Property  I.1.1, Kiln 1, after the workshop no longer functioned, was covered by a thick fill, comprising, among other objects, waste products from Kiln 2. Into this leveling fill, a pit was dug just over the kiln containing the pottery workshop’s waste materials (see Ritual Context 12).310 Its fill (SU 53064), 310  The pit is SU 53065. It measures 59 × 30 cm and 21 cm deep.

which showed signs of burning, contained many faunal and other food remains as well as nine miniature votive chalices holding small food offerings and set against the pit’s northern edge.311 The assemblage is part of a small-scale, localized ritual, of which many other examples occur around Pompeii.312 The date of the deposition is around the mid-second century bce (Phase 3a) when construction of the domestic spaces was just commencing directly to the north, and following the failure of Kiln 2. A similar feature was found across the street in Room 15 in Property VIII.7.6. Here, a small rectangular pit was cut into the natural paleosol in Phase 1c. It was partially destroyed by later cutting; the surviving portion measured 30 × 25 cm and 15 cm deep. It was filled with a heavily burned deposit consisting of organic food remains, fragments of four black gloss bowls, a salt cellar, and one coin (see Ritual Context 11; see Fig. 19.9.02).313 This example is significantly earlier than the other one, dating to the final quarter of the fourth century bce or slightly later. Beneath the Porta Stabia, four votives were recovered. As liminal spaces, city gates often took on sacred meaning. Set within the east wall of the Porta Stabia are two niches, one directly above the other. The higher niche (Ritual Context 1) responded to the rising elevation of the area and was likely made when the latest stones of the via Stabiana were set down, and it was in use, receiving offerings, up to Pompeii’s destruction in 79 ce. Approximately one meter below this niche was an earlier one (Ritual Context 2), in use around the second century bc, when the level of the street was much lower. A square altar (Ritual Context 8) abuts the wall beneath this niche. In Phase 4a the gate was monumentalized: it received a new arch on the inner side, and a leveling fill was brought in, raising the ground level and partially covering the square altar, which remained in use. It was during this phase that a votive assemblage was deposited. Found in association with the altar were one miniature votive cup and an incense bowl (of the type “bruciaprofumi a bacino – Type E”)314 containing a terracotta figurine of a woman, whose physi311  The fill is SU 53064. Faunal remains include pig/sheep goat (8 pieces), bird phalanx (1), fish bone (22) and scale (4), land snail shell (10), marine shell (4), rodent bone (2), and miscellaneous unidentified bone (97). Other food remains include hazelnut (13) and walnut (8) shell fragments, almond (1), seeds of locust bean (10), wheat grain (1), fig (1), and the carbonized remains of bread. 312  See Robinson 2002 and 2005. 313  The fill is SU 16080 and 16081. Faunal remains include fish bone (4 pieces) and scale (1), land snail shell (2), marine shell (1), rodent tibia (1), and pig and sheep/goat bone fragments (8). Black Gloss Ware: Morel 1512 a1 (end of the fourth/beginning of the third century bce); Morel 24137 c1 (325–275 bce); Morel 4222 b1 (second half of the fourth century bce); Morel 2227 (fourth century bce). 314  D’Ambrosio and Borriello 2001, 46–60. The project appreciates the help of Johannes Eber in helping us to understand the objects and their context.

456  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i ognomy is suggestive of Minerva, broken into three pieces (see Figs. 16.16 and 16.17). Nearby was a fragmentary stone phallus plaque and another cup. Also appearing here was a partially burned pig mandible and sheep vertebrae. The remains are suggestive of a ritual not unlike the suovetaurilia.315 Finally, there are two probable ritual contexts. In one case, a single miniature vessel was found in a primary context that likely represents a ritual foundation deposit made during construction events in the area. The vessel appeared in Room 120 of Property I.1.3–5. The miniature black gloss vessel, holding a piece of wood charcoal, was found associated with the collapse of an early (Phase 1) wall that was destroyed sometime before the later (Phase 3) development of the insulae (see Ritual Context 14). The vessel was found pressed against the bottom of a stone at the northwest of the feature. The second probable ritual context involves four coins and a lead weight placed into a terracotta vessel, which was then deposited in a fill (see Ritual Context 13). This special deposition could indicate ritual motivations for their presence. There are very real problems that arise when using artifacts coming from a space to determine the function and meaning of that space. We can never presume that there is a constant one-to-one relationship between findspots and past ac­tiv­ ities. This volume on the excavations conducted by PARP:PS has focused on foregrounding the contexts from which the finds are recovered, whether they come from primary or secondary deposits. What we conclude is that the majority of the contexts identified across the insulae are secondary contexts, brought in during major overhauls to the forms of 315  The SUs include 10014, 10015, 14213, and 14311. See Chapter 16.

the properties. These events introduced many classes of artifacts as part of the fill materials, including objects that were meant to function in ritual contexts. Of the 157 votive objects we re­covered, all but 37 of them came from secondary contexts. But even some of those thirty-seven votives in primary context do not necessarily reveal ritual activity in the insulae. In a potter’s workshop, sixteen miniature votive cups were re­covered. They were likely made in the workshop to be sold just as other vessels were. Instead, because these ritual vessels were cracked due to misfiring, they were discarded as waste. Of course, by identifying intrusive votive objects, we have the opportunity to narrow the focus onto those that can help us understand the various types of ritual activity over the insulae. From the twenty-one votives in primary ritual contexts, we detect several different motives for localized ritual performances. The im­port­ance of boundaries and their protection by the gods is manifest not only with the niche shrines set into the wall of the Porta Stabia but also by the votives deposited beneath them. Builders sought divine help when developing VIII.7 and I.1, placing ex-votos into construction trenches so that, in return, the gods would oversee and support their work. Above all, we see how ritual observance is a personal matter. No context uncovered in the insulae represents state-sponsored events; instead, we detect the presence of individuals acting on their desire to establish a connection with the divinities, by placing votives next to shrines and walls, but also in small pits which they had dug to place their modest gifts of miniature vessels and bits of food. They were active agents in establishing and strengthening their relationships with the gods.

Catalog Table 19.12.01  Contexts in which votive objects of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 were found Number

SU

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

2001 2010 2010 2025 2025 2114 2150 3038 3038 3081 7063 7086

Inventory TC2-1 TC2-2 P2-2 TC2-3 TC2-4

P3-5 P12-3 P7-1

Class

Count

Context

Cup Figurine Anatomical Cup Cup Figurine Figurine Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup

1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2

Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Tank Fill Tank Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Tank Fill Tank Fill Leveling Fill Pit Fill Leveling Fill

a p pe n dic es  ·  457 Number

SU

Inventory

Class

Count

Context

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

8027 10014 10015 11018 11058 11062 11069 11116 12009 12009 12135 14213 14311 16019 16062 16080 16080 16081 16307 17071 17071 17080 17080 17080 18019 18066 19009 19024 20004 24015 24034 24034 24034 24035 25030 25063 27026 27084 27094 28011 28011 28012 28012 28012 28012 28013 28013 28013

TC8-1 P10-1 TC10-1 P11-2 P11-4 P11-5 P11-3 P11-6

Figurine Cup Figurine Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Phallus Cup Cup Bowl Salt Cellar Coin Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Bowl Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Figurine Cup Cup Anatomical Anatomical Figurine Anatomical Anatomical Figurine Cup Cup Anatomical

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 5 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Pit Fill Ritual Ritual Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Tank Fill Tank Fill Tank Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Pit Fill Ritual Ritual Pit Fill Pit Fill Ritual Ritual Ritual Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Pit Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Pit Fill Tank Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill

P12-1 P12-2 P14-1 S14-4 P16-10 P16-11 P16-1, 2, 6, 7 P16-8 C16-25 P16-13 P17-4 P17-1 P17-2 P17-3 P18-2 P18-3 P19-1 P19-2 P20-1 P24-6 P24-2 P24-4 P24-5 P24-3 P25-2 P25-4 TC27-3 P27-4 P27-3 TC28-8 TC28-9 TC28-2 TC28-4 TC28-5 TC28-1 P28-3 P28-4 TC28-7

(continued)

458  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Table 19.12.01  continued Number

SU

Inventory

Class

Count

Context

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107

28015 28016 28016 28016 28020 28020 28033 28040 28040 28041 28041 28052 28054 29048 50035 50070 50101 51071 52011 52017 52073 53010 53010 53010 53010 53028 53028 53028 53033 53060 53060 53060 53060 53060 53063 53064 53064 53064 53064 53064 53064 53064 53064 53064 53077 53086 53086

AT28-3a-h TC28-11 TC28-16 TC28-18 TC28-13 TC28-19 P28-6 TC28-14 TC28-17 TC28-12 TC28-15

Figurine Anatomical Figurine Anatomical Anatomical Figurine Cup Anatomical Anatomical Anatomical Anatomical Cup Figurine Bowl Bowl Bowl Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Cup Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Bowl Bowl Bowl

8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Tank Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Drain Fill Drain Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Pit Fill Tank Fill Leveling Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Kiln Kiln Kiln Kiln Kiln Kiln Leveling Fill Ritual Ritual Ritual Ritual Ritual Ritual Ritual Ritual Ritual Kiln Kiln Kiln

TC28-20 P29-1

P51-2 P52-2 P52-1 P53-6 P53-2 P53-3 P53-5 P53-38 P53-31 P53-37 P53-20 P53-28 P53-24 P53-25 P53-27 P53-34 P53-8 P53-12 P53-14 P53-16 P53-13 P53-17 P53-11 P53-9 P53-15 P53-10 P53-18 P53-23 P53-22

a p pe n dic es  ·  459 Number

SU

Inventory

Class

Count

Context

108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128

53086 53086 53086 53089 53089 54054 55014 55028 55040 55118 56017 56061 57128 57141 57171 59010 59010 59036 59037 59084 60014

P53-40 P53-42 P53-41 P53-32 P53-33 PB54-5

Cup Bowl Bowl Bowl Cup Weight Cup Cup Cup Bowl Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Cup Figurine (?) Cup Cup Cup Cup

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Kiln Kiln Kiln Kiln Kiln Ritual Leveling Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill Ritual Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Kiln Pit Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Leveling Fill Pit Fill Pit Fill

P55-1 P56-1 P56-2 P57-1 P57-2 P57-5 P59-1 P59-2 P59-6 P59-5 P59-7

c h a pt e r 1 9. 1 3

The Toilets and Cesspits of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Kevin D. Dicus

Ancient Roman methods of discarding waste materials that domestic contexts generated—be they solid inorganic elements, organic putrescible waste, or sewage—have received considerable attention recently. Archaeological investigations, particularly in Pompeii, enable us to understand more clearly the various disposal strategies that residents employed to maintain standards of hygiene for their homes and for the ­urban fabric.316 From the advances in our understanding, new models arise that compel us to reconsider and push back on earlier models that depict the Roman city as a dystopian environment overwhelmed by unmanaged waste.317 It would be problematic, however, to swing the pendulum to the other extreme and argue that the waste-management infrastructure necessarily solved the problem of ridding the urban core of its waste.318 When we look at Pompeian provisions to manage human waste, for instance, the solutions might strike our modern sensibilities as woefully unhygienic. Very few toilets were connected to the urban sewer system. Instead, most toilets used large cesspits, found beneath or adjacent to the toilets, into which the urine and feces collected. At Pompeii, the porous subsoil allowed the liquid waste to seep into the ground and laborers (the stercorarii, perhaps) cleaned out the remaining solids. Toilets on upper stories were often connected to downpipes descending to the ground floor where drains channeled the waste to the cesspits. The following inventory intends to contribute to the understanding of the form and function of private waste-management features in 316  On the archaeology of toilets and sewerage in Pompeii and the Roman world at large, see Jansen 2000; Hobson 2009; Jansen, Koloski-Ostrow and Moorman 2011; Koloski-Ostrow 2015. The archaeology of waste management in Roman Spain has received considerable attention in Vallverdú and Pérez 2011 and Pérez 2018. 317  The classic work constructing Roman cities as dystopian wastelands is Scobie 1986. This perspective was preceded by Mumford’s influential, if not hyperbolic, description of Rome as a pathopolis, the rotten core of the Roman Empire (Mumford 1961, 221). Works succeeding Scobie, and echoing his conclusions, include Liebeschuetz 2000 and, to a lesser degree, Arthur 1993, who explores the problem of waste disposal in Pompeii. For counter arguments, see Laurence 1997, Lo Cascio 2006, and Kron 2012. 318  Koloski-Ostrow 2015, for example, argues that even the relatively widespread distribution of toilets, both public and private, and sewer systems, could not keep up with the quotidian production of ordure, with the result that cities still remained squalid.

domestic contexts, and, it is hoped, to offer more data to help elucidate (but certainly not solve) the intractable question concerning the success of Roman waste management infrastructure to improve the salubrity of the city.

Analysis Our excavations throughout the Porta Stabia neighborhood uncovered six toilets (Waste Features 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6): five were in Insula VIII.7, one in Insula I.1 (Fig. 19.13.01). It is likely that others exist but remain undiscovered simply because their locations were in areas outside of the excavated trenches.319 Archival attestations of toilets (Waste Features 7, 8, 9, 10), identified during the early clearing of the properties, demonstrate that they are present in numbers greater than what our excavations had uncovered. Furthermore, the presence of downpipes within several of the walls denote the likely presence of toilets in upstairs rooms that no longer survive.320 We must advise caution when making this assumption, however, since downpipes also channeled rainwater, captured from the roofs, to cisterns. The cesspits in the properties took on different forms, of which twelve were identified, eight in Insula VIII.7 and four in Insula I.1 (see Fig. 19.13.01). Most common were unlined and stone-lined vertical channels descending into the paleosol, but underground chambers resembling small cisterns (Waste Features 14, 16, 18, 21, 23) were also detected, and one aboveground unlined opus incertum tank (Waste Feature 22) has been identified as functioning to receive waste products. As in the case of the toilets, there are certainly others that simply 319  One example is in Property VIII.7.12. No toilet was found here, but either one of two small rooms (Rooms 63 and 64) could be likely candidates to hold a latrine. Since neither room was excavated, we cannot state for certain how they functioned. 320  On upstairs toilets, see Hobson 2009, 71–7 and Koloski-Ostrow 2015, 193, fig. 96 for a depiction of how private toilets would function both upstairs and downstairs. The illustration indicates that toilets, above and below, would be situated against the same wall so that both could use the same cesspit for the waste—the ground-floor toilet flushing directly into it and the upstairs toilet channeling the waste to the cesspit through the downpipe. While this is a logical setup, we found no evidence that toilets were situated in exactly the same spot in both the ground floor and in the second story.

a p pe n dic es  ·  461

Fig. 19.13.01  The distribution of waste features across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1.

462  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i were not brought to light because trenches were not opened at their locations. This inventory and the distribution map, therefore, should not be considered to be the actual number of waste features present in the properties; even so, enough evidence remains to allow us to identify patterns in the chron­ ology, distribution and function of these features. The distribution and typologies of the waste features from Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 correspond to the patterns detected from previous inventories. Gemma Jansen’s studies of Pompeian toilets show that most houses, regardless of status, had at least one. They were not luxury items, but instead were necessities.321 Most often they were located in working spaces, primarily kitchens, so that other types of waste (such as organic kitchen waste) could be easily disposed of, or in better-ventilated areas, near doors or in open gardens.322 Often the toilets were enclosed by simple walls. Ground-floor toilets directed the feces and urine into cesspits, accomplishing this by means of a simple flushing system in which water was poured onto surfaces, usually made of waterproof opus signinum, sloping toward the toilet’s opening. The toilets appeared mainly in rooms dedicated to utilitarian purposes. Four were located in what were identified as service areas. Three of them were within the same property (VIII.7.5–6). One toilet (Waste Feature 1) was located at the back of the property (Room 27), inside a small complex of five rooms that likely functioned as the working area for the property’s large viridarium and triclinium (see Fig. 12.28). The other two (Waste Features 2 and 3) were found in a central room dedicated to water management and waste disposal (Room 20), and probably also cooking (see Figs. 11.20, 12.26, 12.27). In Property VIII.7.9–10 the toilet (Waste Feature 4) was situated in a room also used for food preparation (Room 44), found just meters away from the cooking surface. At the northern extent of the insula, Property VIII.7.13–15 had a toilet (Waste Feature 5) toward the back (Room 78), installed during a phase associated with some undetermined industrial or commercial activity (Phase 5a). In Property I.1.1/10 the toilet (Waste Feature 6) was constructed in the final, post-earthquake, phase (Phase 7). No archaeological evidence suggested the room’s function (Room 103). The toilet was built in its southeastern corner, near entrance 10 that gave access to the vicolo at the south of the insula. Remains of wall foundations on the northern and western sides indicate that the toilet was enclosed. As far as toilet typology, flush toilets were most common on the ground floor. This type included a surface, usually made of waterproof opus signinum and sometimes of reused roof tiles, that sloped toward the toilet’s opening so that a bucket 321  Jansen 1997. On locations of toilets in both public and private space, see Pérez, Flohr et al. 2011, 113–30. 322  Jansen 1997, 128–9; Koloski-Ostrow 2015, 39.

of water could flush the waste into a subsurface cesspit.323 Waste Features 1, 2, 3, and 4 included sloping mortared surfaces, while Waste Feature 5 employed reused roof tiles. Across the street in Property  I.1.1/10, the toilet did not ­function in this manner. Instead, the wooden seat was built directly over a deep cesspit, into which excreta fell. Upperstory toilets were situated in niches directly over downpipes, which led the waste down through the walls and to drains connected to the downpipes’ outlets.324 The drain then led the waste to a subsurface cesspit. An interesting example of the former alternative appears in Property VIII.7.14–15, where the cesspit in Room 77 was fed by both the toilet (Waste Feature 5) in Room 78 and by a drain (Drain 26) beneath the latest-phase floor of Room 78 that originated at a downpipe within the northern property wall. Another notable example appears in the front room (Room 58) of Property VIII.7.12. Here, an early (Phase 3a) drain (Drain 21) ran west to east and emptied into a stone-lined vertical channel (Waste Feature 14; see Figs. 10.05, 10.23, 13.13). Although the origin of the drain was not located, one possibility is that it began at a downpipe that channeled toilet waste. When the cesspit was capped and closed off, a new drain ran over it and emptied its contents onto the via Stabiana. Other cesspits or waste pits were physically separated from toilets and drains, indicating that residents transported waste products—excreta and other solid refuse—to them for dumping. In the backyard of Property VIII.7.13–15, an unlined pit (Waste Feature 15) was dug into the paleosol. Its fill consisted of a huge quantity of pottery and other durable objects, but this fill likely arrived here when the pit was out of use and needed to be filled in and is not representative of the types of waste that was deposited into it during its uselife. In Property VIII.7.12 a rather substantial stone-lined pit (Waste Feature 13) was found embedded within the rear property wall (see Fig.  10.07). In the northern and southern sides of the wall were channels (Drains 19 and 20) that appeared to have functioned as drains that brought liquid waste into the pit. Neither the pit’s extent nor the origin of the channels could be reached. NB: Soak-aways (also used for the disposal of waste) and drains are treated in separate appendices. See Chapter 19.10.

Catalog Waste Feature 1 Type: Toilet Location: VIII.7.5–6 Room 27 Identification: SUs 21007, 21050 323  Jansen 2007, 262; Jansen et al. 2011. Cesspits were particularly good for storing excreta because the porous soil allowed liquid waste to drain through, leaving the solid waste to be periodically collected ( Jansen 2000, 38). 324  Hobson 2009, 71–7; Koloski-Ostrow 2015, 193, fig. 96.

a p pe n dic es  ·  463 Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 21.4) Brief description: In the southwestern corner of the viridarium (Room 30) of Property VIII.7.6 an enclosure with five rooms was constructed and likely functioned as service rooms for activities occurring in the garden and outdoor triclinium. The southwestern room was a purpose-built latrine (see Fig. 12.28). The front of the room had an opus signinum surface (SU 21007), overlying leveling fills (SUs 21044 and 21046), that sloped down toward the latrine shaft (SU 21050) at the west. Over the shaft was a simple superstructure, likely a simple wooden seat, the remains of which exist only with a masonry mound at the northwest corner of the space. The shaft itself was not fully excavated. The doorway was at the southern extent of the eastern wall, the tiled threshold (Threshold 26) still in situ. Waste Feature 2 Type: Toilet Location: VIII.7.5–6 Room 20 Identification: SU 25041 (Phase 4a); 25020 (Phase 5a) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 25.3) Brief description: At the northeastern side of Room 20 in Property VIII.7.5–6, two Sarno blocks extended out from the eastern wall (see Figs. 11.20 and 12.26; WCU 093). In the space framed by the blocks, a thick mortar chute descended east through the wall, destined for a cesspit that likely had been dug beneath the floor of the adjacent eastern room (Room 17). The Sarno blocks supported the toilet seat, presumably made of wood. Contents from the period of use of the toilet, if present, were inaccessible; samples of the fill that were extracted yielded no remains. In Phase 5a the chute was capped, but it remained in use: an amphora, cut at the toe, was inserted into it, channeling waste into the cesspit. (See also Cooking Facility 2.) Waste Feature 3 Type: Toilet Location: VIII.7.5–6 Room 20 Identification: 25019, 25026, 25064, 25066, 25072, 25073, 25074, 25075, 25076 (Phase 5a); 25068 (Phase 7a) Fill:325 25063 Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 25.4) Brief description: In Phase 5 a latrine was built into a niche, which was likely constructed at the same time for the latrine, in the southern side of Room 20 (see Fig. 12.27; WCU 117). The earlier (Phase 3) floor was covered in several courses of brick/tile (SUs 25073 and 25076). Overlying the courses was a mortar smear (SUs 25019 and 25075) that sloped south toward the mouth (1 m diameter) of an unlined cesspit (SU 25064) dug 1.5 m into the underlying 325  Unless noted otherwise, fills listed in the catalog are sealed use contexts.

anthropogenic strata and natural paleosol. The space was enclosed, indicated by remains of masonry walls (SU 25026) running to the west and north of the cesspit, which was interrupted along the north side by the doorway; this doorway was restricted in Phase 7a by the add­ition of a wall stub (SU 25068). The toilet seat did not survive, but scars in the opus signinum at the east of the cesspit may indicate its construction: two small pits (SUs 25066 and 25074) were cut into the surface, possibly to stabilize the beams of the superstructure. Later in its uselife it seems to have functioned to receive food waste: the later fill contains pottery, bones, ash and other ecofacts, while evidence of human waste is absent. Waste Feature 4 Type: Toilet Location: VIII.7.9–10 Room 44 Identification: 2091, 2094, 2095 (Phase 5a) Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 2.3) Brief description: In the kitchen (Room 44) of property VIII.7.9–10, east of Cooking Facility 4, a toilet was added to the space. The space was privatized with the construction of two walls running north and cornering east up to the doorway (WCU 071). A packed-earth surface (SU 2091) surrounded the toilet pit at the south. The pit continued down c. 1 m and then continued west, running under Cooking Facility 4. Mau (1875: 166–7), Viola (1879: 17), and Fiorelli (1875: 349) identified this space as a kitchen as well, with a toilet in the corner. Waste Feature 5 Type: Toilet Location: VIII.7.13–15 Room 78 Identification: SU 8034 Phase installed: Phase 5a (Subphase 8.4) Brief description: In the southeastern corner of Room 78 a toilet fixture was built (see Fig. 12.31). One either side of the opening, opus incertum mounds were all that remained of the seat. A tile sloping down toward the hole at the east channeled the waste into a cesspit. The cesspit was beneath the floor of Room 77, directly to the east. Because it was outside of the trench, the cesspit was not excavated. Waste Feature 6 Type: Toilet Location: I.1.1/10 Room 103 Identification: SUs 53072, 53073, 53087, 53102, 53103, 53104, 53105, 53113, 53114, 53115, 53120 Fill: 53075 Phase installed: Phase 7a Brief description: A toilet was one of the latest additions to the southernmost Property of I.1–1a, arriving in the south­

464  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i eastern corner of Room 103 sometime after the mid-first century ce, and more than likely as part of repairs after the earthquake(s) in the 60s ce (see Fig. 14.04). Its construction involved digging a pit (3.04 × 2.30 m, 0.67 m deep) across nearly all of the eastern half of the room down to the paleosol strata on which the Phase 1 features rested. In this pit a rough mortar framework (SUs 53072 and 53073) was erected; it rose from the hard paleosol strata and abutted against the southern wall and eastern wall stub. Once the framework was set, the remaining space of the construction pit was filled in, with the same material that had been extracted being used again as the infill, of course with any previous stratigraphic relationships now lost. The toilet’s shaft inside of the framework continued farther down into the paleosol strata, descending ap­proxi­ mate­ly 2 m to a hard clay matrix (SUs 53102 and 53113) and opening up into a larger subterranean void. At the top of the toilet shaft—a rectangular opening 0.50 × 1.00 m— two holes were cut in the southern wall (SUs 53103 and 53104) and matching holes were found in the mortar framework on the opposite side to accommodate the beams of the wooden superstructure—a toilet seat—that capped the shaft. A thick opus signinum floor (SU 53114) ran up to the toilet shaft and on top of this simple wall foundations (SUs 53115 and 53120) that likely supported wooden partitions at the west and north of the toilet to privatize the space. The door to the enclosed latrine was in the northern partition and sat on a stone post with pivot hole, still in situ (SU 53087, acc. no. S53-6). The toilet was open and in use up to the eruption in 79 ce: the entire shaft was tightly packed with lapilli and ash deposits.

Waste Feature 10 Type: Toilet (Archival attestation) Location: I.1.8 Room 126 Identification: FND763 Bibliography: GdS NS 1874 v. 3, 50; Fiorelli 1875, 35; Mau 1875, 30; Viola 1879, 9; Eschebach and Müller-Trollius 1993, 14 Waste Feature 11 Type: Cesspit Location: VIII.7.6 Room 15 Identification: SUs 16104, 16108 (Phase 3a); 16022, 16085, 16110 (Phase 4b) Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 16.2) Brief description: During the initial construction of Property VIII.7.15, a cesspit was dug into the natural paleosol in what would become Room 15 near the doorway to Room 17. In this early period it was a simple roughly circular pit meas­ ur­ ing 75 cm in diameter (the bottom extent was not reached). It was originally unlined, possibly to allow liquid waste to seep into the porous paleosol. It cannot be ruled out, however, that a larger subterranean chamber farther below collected other solid waste, as is seen with some other cesspits and toilets. In Phase 4b the cesspit was reinforced. Sarno limestone blocks (SU 16085) lined the interior and with rubble (SU 16022) and a large lava block (SU 16110) were packed against the outside of the shaft. Overlying the shaft three amphorae (SU 16043) lay side by side, secured by mortar. An opus signinum surface (SU 16012) overlay the amphora, and directly over the shaft a rectangular masonry lip served as the new access point.

Waste Feature 8 Type: Toilet (Archival attestation) Location: I.1.3 Room 112 Identification: FND761 Bibliography: Mau 1875, 29 (see also Cooking Facility 10)

Waste Feature 12 Type: Cesspit Location: VIII.7.7–8 Room 37 Identification: SUs 17020 (Phase 4a), 17006 (Phase 6) Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 17.4a) Brief description: A probable cesspit was installed in the center of Room 37 of Property VIII.7.7–8 early in Phase 4 (see Fig. 11.18). The mouth of the cesspit consisted of a torus of mortared opus incertum stones, approximately 1 m in diameter, surrounding an unlined cylindrical shaft, 40 cm in diameter. The fill of the shaft could not be removed completely and so the depth was not ascertained. In Phase 6, the mouth was capped by a monolithic lava block (SU 17006).

Waste Feature 9 Type: Toilet (Archival attestation) Location: I.1.3 Room 116 Identification: FND759 Bibliography: Fiorelli 1875, 33; Mau 1875, 28; Viola 1879, 9

Waste Feature 13 Type: Cesspit Location: VIII.7.11–12 between Rooms 57 and 66 Identification: SUs 9004 (Phase 3a), 9009 (Phase 6) Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 9.1)

Waste Feature 7 Type: Toilet (Archival attestation) Location: I.1.3 Room 110 Identification: FND184 Bibliography: Mau 1875, 28 Brief description: Next to the stable, on the northeastern corner of the court, was a latrine.

a p pe n dic es  ·  465 Brief description: At the rear of Property VIII.7.11–12, a robust pit, with an interior diameter of 80 cm was found (see Fig. 10.07). An opus incertum wall descended 1.4 m where it hit lava bedrock, which was cut through and the shaft descended deeper into the bedrock. At the top of the opus incertum, channels were cut into both the northern and southern sides (Drains 19 and 20), possibly used to lead waste into the pit, although the origins of the channels are indeterminate today. During Phase 4b the pit was no longer free standing. Rooms 57 and 66 were delineated by a wall running north– south abutting the southern face of the pit. To the north of the pit, a short stretch of wall continued up to the east– west terracing wall (WCUs 011 and 014). The waste pit stayed in use for a remarkably long time. Later (Phase 6) repair was detected, where mortared stone and tiles were added to the rim of the pit as some sort of repair (SU 9009). The interior, furthermore, contained a deposit of ash and lapilli that we were unable to clear completely. After descending 1.5 m into the shaft, the attempt to reach the bottom was abandoned. Waste Feature 14 Type: Cesspit Location: VIII.7.12 Room 58 Identification: SUs 18070, 18103 (Phase 3a); 18037 (Phase 4a); 18036 (Phase 7a) Fill: 18094 (Phase 3a); 18071, 18099, 18102 (Phase 6) Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 18.1); reinstalled Phase 6 (Subphase 18.5) Brief description: At the front of Property VIII.7.12, between what would eventually become Room 58 and Room 67 of VIII.7.13–15, a cesspit (SU 18070) was dug approximately 2 m into the natural paleosol and underlying lava bedrock (see Figs. 10.05, 10.23, 13.13). The cylindrical shaft, 65–75 cm in diameter, was reinforced with opus signinum. At the bottom of the shaft, a small opening (10 × 10 cm) led into a larger subterranean space. Because of the narrowness of the opening into the space and the depth of the shaft, it was decided, both for reasons of safety and because of other priorities, not to enlarge the opening to access the space. Full measurements of the subterranean area could not be obtained. We were able to observe, however, a mound of variegated waste products within it, which, to the great regret of the team, could not be reached and analyzed. Both liquid and solid wastes entered the cesspit. On the northern side of the shaft, a thick encrustation of min­eral­ ized liquid waste (SU 18094) lined the opus incertum wall, indicating that the cesspit has been accessed from the north prior to the construction of the north wall of Room

58 (WCU 024). Access was altered later, when a drain (Drain 21) was added to carry waste into the shaft from the west. We did not uncover the origin of the drain, but ­presumably it channeled waste products from the second story down to the first, or from a service area farther back in the property. When the cesspit was put out of use in Phase 4a, a new drain (Drain 22) was installed to channel the waste onto the via Stabiana. The cesspit remained closed until Phase 6, when the capping was removed and the cesspit mouth restructured to return it to functionality. All of the waste recovered from within the shaft dated to this phase. The material included pottery fragments and glass shards; because of a consistently damp environment at the bottom, preservation was better here than in other contexts, and more fragile finds were re­covered, including wood and small bits of woven textile. The cesspit once again was capped in Phase 7a, and remained closed and out of use until the time of the eruption. Waste Feature 15 Type: Cesspit Location: VIII.7.14–15 Room 78 Identification: SU 28064 Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 28.1) Brief description: At the rear of Property VIII.7.14–15, a pit was dug into the natural paleosols and descended at least one meter down to the lava bedrock. It was unlined, suggesting that the liquid waste that was poured into it was allowed to seep into the porous strata. In Phase 4a the pit was filled (SUs 28065, 28069, 28074) as part of a construction event that saw a new north–south wall (SU 28062) covering the eastern half of the mouth. The fill contained a high concentration of waste—pottery fragments, including three nearly intact amphorae, loom weights, many iron nails and bronze pieces, and faunal remains. Waste Feature 16 Type: Cesspit Location: VIII.7.14–15 Room 76 Identification: Unexcavated Phase installed: Phase 5a Brief description: During the excavation of Waste Feature 5, it was observed that deposits entering the toilet ended up in a subfloor void in the adjacent room to the east. In Phase 6, when the toilet had been covered, a drain (Drain 26) ori­ gin­at­ing at a downpipe in the northern boundary wall (WCU 001) ran toward the wall separating Rooms 77 and 78. Where the drain abutted the wall, a lead pipe ran through the wall, channeling the contents of the drain to the same space.

466  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Waste Feature 17 Type: Cesspit Location: I.1.2 Room 108 Identification: SUs 58017 (Phase 5b); 58022 (Phase 7a) Phase installed: Phase 5b Brief description: Within property I.1.1–2/10, a large pit was dug into the southeastern corner of Room 108. Mortared rubble surrounded the mouth, which measured 1 × 1 m. The cesspit was excavated to a depth of 2 m and descended past the limits of excavation. The upper part of the shaft was lined in opus incertum. A downpipe built into the buttress of the corner channeled waste into the cesspit. The cesspit was tightly packed with lapilli, suggesting that it remained open up to 79 ce. Fiorelli (1875: 33), Mau (1875: 26), Viola (1879: 8) and Eschebach and Müller-Trollius (1993: 13) all identified a latrine feature in this room as well. Waste Feature 18 Type: Cesspit Location: I.1.2 Room 108 Identification: SUs 58081 (Phase 3a); 58066, 58067, 58078 (Phase 4a) Phase installed: Phase 3a (Subphase 58.2) Brief description: In the southwestern corner of the room a cesspit (SU 58017) was in use from the earliest phases of the building’s construction. Within the fill that buried the cesspit in Phase 5, evidence of further toilet construction was un­covered. In the top of the cesspit’s fill (SU 58010) a large terracotta tile (SU 58067, AT58-9) was recovered. The sides of the tile were roughly parallel; the ends were shaped with what can be called male and female fittings. On one end, a rounded tab projected from the center; on the other end, a rounded recession, more or less the same size as the tab, was cut into the center, into which may have fit the tab of another tile to link them together. Both sides of the tile had a heavy mineral encrustation, most likely resulting from urine running down the surface and into the cesspit. Farther into the fill was an amphora body (SU 58066), its neck removed, and a large hole cut into the body. Inside the amphora was a thick mineral encrustation, also the result of regular contact with urine. The fill (SU 58078) within the amphora was further analyzed and contained remnants of human waste. Waste Feature 19 Type: Cesspit Location: I.1.3–5 Room 111 Identification: SUs 59112, 59130 Phase installed: Phase 4b (Subphase 59.4a) Brief description: Found in the northeastern corner of Room 111, three large lava stones and a smaller Sarno limestone block, mortared together, overlie an opus signinum surface covered in hydraulic plaster (SU 59112). The stones surrounded a

cylindrical pit (SU 59130) that cut through the Phase 4a leveling fill and the underlying natural strata. The sides of the pit were unlined. To the south was a deposit of tiles, loosely arranged to resemble a sluice (Drain 38) running toward it, but later disturbance makes this in­ter­pret­ation far from certain. Soon after the construction of the pit, two other sloping features (SUs 59103 (Drain 36) and 59110), made of Sarno limestone blocks, were installed around it. In Phase 4c the pit was filled (SUs 59063 and 59066) during a major leveling and repair event in the room. Waste Feature 20 Type: Cesspit Location: I.1.3–5 Room 118 Identification: SU 51085 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 51.3b) Brief description: In Phase 4a the elevation of Property I.1.3–5 was raised by 15–20 cm. The workbench installed in the previous phase remained, albeit truncated, and a sluice was cut into it, lined with hydraulic plaster. The sluice channeled waste materials into a waste pit (SU 51085), newly cut into the early anthropogenic and natural strata (see Figs. 11.09 and 11.10). The cylindrical unlined shaft was 0.90 m in diameter and 1.60 m deep. Waste matter found at the bottom of the shaft included a dark loam with a high concentration of charcoal (SU 51088). Later in the same phase, a pierced amphora was inserted into the shaft to function as a soak-away (Soak-Away 8). Waste Feature 21 Type: Cesspit Location: VIII.7.5–8 Room 46; Trench 2000 Identification: SU 2084 Fill: 2080, 2081 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 2.1) Brief description: The presence of a latrine in Room 46 of Property VIII.7.5–8 is indicated by the cesspit that served it. The walls were lined in hydraulic plaster. Inside a fill deposit was recovered. The uppermost part of the fill (SUs 2025, 2082, 2083) was contaminated and surely accumulated after the use of the cesspit. The underlying strata (SUs 2080, 2081) are sig­nifi­cant because they clearly accumulated during the uselife of the cesspit. The finds ­comprised a few fragments of coarseware and amphora vessels as well as faunal remains of animals consumed in the property, including small fish bones and scales, bird bones, and pig bones. The rest of the fill, consisting of a light-colored deposit, was human waste. Waste Feature 22 Type: Cesspit Location: VIII.7.5–8 Room 20; Trench 25000

a p pe n dic es  ·  467 Identification: SUs 25003, 25031 Fill: 25007, 25010 Phase installed: Phase 7a Brief description: A tank, constructed on the earlier opus signinum surface from Phase 6, abutted the northern and western walls of Room 20 in Property VIII.7.5–8 (see Fig. 14.20). The tank extended 0.40 m above its contemporary Phase 7a surface, which was laid down around it. On the tank’s floor we detected a cut for a square shaft (SU 25031) that descended even farther down, reaching as deep as the Phase 4 surface, likely to increase the volume of the tank after it had been constructed. Within both the tank and the deeper shaft sat a fill comprising a large quantity of artifacts that were thrown in during the uselife of the feature. The composition was characterized by a high concentration of cookware and commonware fragments at the bottom of the fill (SU 25010) and, topping this deposit, another deposit containing

not only simi­lar types of vessels related to food production and consumption, but also charcoal and food remains (SU 25007). Waste Feature 23 Type: Cesspit Location: VIII.7.15 Room 80 Identification: SUs 8023, 8024 Phase installed: Phase 4a (Subphase 16.2) Brief description: A small space was created by a short wall bonded to the western face of the rear wall of the property (SU 8019) and running west c. 50 cm. From there it ran south. A series of amphorae (SU 8024), upwards of seven, although only three were nearly fully intact, situated side-by-side, capped the feature. Due to subsequent damage, especially during the installation of a subsurface moden pipe, little more can be said about the feature.

c h a pt e r 1 9. 14

The Graffiti and Dipinti of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 Jacqueline DiBiasie-Sammons326

Eight painted inscriptions (dipinti) and five inscribed graffiti were once visible (and to varying degrees recorded) across Insulae  I.1.1–10 and VIII.7.1–15, though only one, perhaps, remains extant today (Fig. 19.14.01).327 Of the eight painted inscriptions, four are certainly programmata (Graffiti and Dipinti 1, 2, 3, 4), that is, painted political posters that urged the populace to vote for a candidate (or candidates). One might expect more programmata on a busy street such as the via Stabiana. Indeed, the most popular place for this type of writing is on main streets that terminate at the walls of the city.328 Even if the paucity of programmata recorded in these insulae can be related to the early excavation date of this area,329 still other factors likely impacted the currency of programmata here, as other areas of the site excavated around the same time are known to have higher numbers of such inscriptions.330 Indeed, the scarcity of programmata in 326  I wish to thank Ambra Spinelli and Aimée Scorziello who compiled the bibliography on several of the graffiti which I have used in the catalog. I also thank Steven Ellis for inviting me to contribute to this volume and taking measurements and photographs of Graffiti and Dipinti 2. All errors are my own. 327  CIL IV.1013, found at VIII.7.17–18, is outside the study area but is included in this chapter as CIL IV.1014, found at I.1.1, was erroneously thought to be a reduplication of this inscription (see below). This set of inscriptions illustrates the difficulty in using the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (hereafter CIL) to research ancient inscriptions. The findspot of CIL IV.1016 is unknown. This graffito (along with several others) is listed in the CIL under “uncertain locations on the Via Stabiana.” Furthermore, several locations within the second supplement of CIL IV (Mau and Zangemeister, eds.) differ from the current numbering system used for the site. Entries labeled under VIII.8 (CIL IV.4958–74) actually belong in Insula VIII.7, and entries labeled under VIII.7 (CIL IV.4942–57) belong to VIII.6. This is noted in the index of the volume (Mau and Zangemeister 1909, 455), but not within the body of the text. 328  Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 121. 329  See Chapter 4 in this volume for the excavation history of these two insulae. Mouritsen notes that the frequency of inscriptions recorded in the areas excavated during the first third of Pompeii’s excavation history (1748– 1860) is significantly fewer than areas excavated later (Mouritsen 1988, 49–50). The latest-excavated areas of the via dell’Abbondanza, for example, have four times the number of inscriptions as areas excavated earlier (Mouritsen 1988, 50). Viitanen and Nissin disagree with Mouritsen and posit that the distribution of recorded programmata is not the result of changing documentation methods throughout Pompeii’s excavation history (2017, 123). 330  As comparandum, Regio VI.1 was one of the first areas excavated in the site (during the late 1700s), yet several programmata were recorded along this stretch of the via Consolare (CIL IV.97–103, 1223–31).

this area may relate to the character of this stretch of the via Stabiana itself. It is largely composed of shops and bars and is adjacent to the Porta Stabia. Programmata tend to cluster in the central part of the city with fewer in the periphery.331 And though they tend also to line the main streets that had wheeled traffic, such as the via Stabiana, in this area of the city programmata are mostly to be found along the narrower streets. The distribution of programmata in this area of the city is thus atypical, due to the presence of other elements like a crossroads shrine and fountain that made these side streets part of an im­port­ant walking route.332 To sum­mar­ ize, the increased foot traffic along the side streets of Regio I can account for the relative paucity of inscriptions along the wheeled route at the end of the via Stabiana and higher number of programmata along the side streets. Finally, programmata also tend to be located near entrances to dwellings, especially large dwellings,333 of which there are very few on this stretch of the via Stabiana.

Analysis Two of the programmata (Graffiti and Dipinti 3 and 4) date from the Flavian era of the 70s ce. Most support candidates who may have lived nearby. CIL IV.1015 (Graffiti and Dipinti 3) supports Lucius Ceius Secundus, who may have lived at nearby I.6.15.334 Many of the programmata supporting him were located in Regio  I.335 Likewise, Quintus Postumius Proculus, supported in CIL IV.1016 (Graffiti and Dipinti 4), may have lived at VIII.4.4.336 Overall, this set of four programmata is not distinctive. The name Cerialis does appear as the rogator in several other programmata supporting a variety of candidates.337 Epagathus, the rogator of CIL IV.1015 (Graffiti 331  Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 121. 332  Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 123. This included the streets to the south (vicolo del Conciapelle) and east (vicolo del Citarista) of I.2 and the streets to the south (unnamed) and east (vicolo di Paquius Proculus) of I.10. Viitanen and Nissin Nissen suggest that these streets were closed to wheeled traffic (2017, 123), but Eric Poehler’s recent work indicates that they did have wheeled traffic, albeit tending in one direction (2017, 173). 333  Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 124.    334  Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 139. 335  Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 135.    336  Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 141. 337  CIL IV.7669 and 7671.

a p pe n dic es  ·  469

Fig. 19.14.01  The distribution of graffiti and dipinti across Insulae VIII.7 and I.1 (note that all examples, except #2, are no longer extant and thus precise location is less than certain).

470  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i and Dipinti 3), does not appear as the rogator in any other programma. It was thought that none of these programmata remained extant, as very little plaster survives on the facades in this area,338 yet the PARP:PS team located an inscription to the right of I.1.1 painted directly on the tuff, precisely where CIL IV.1014 (Pansam · aed) (Graffiti and Dipinti 2) and CIL IV.1015 (Ceium · II · v(irum) · i(ure)· d(icundo)/Epagat(h)us · G̣ỵ l ọ ̣ rog(at)) (Graffiti and Dipinti 3) were located according to the CIL. The entry for these two dipinti in the CIL illustrates some of the difficulty in using this earliest volume of the CIL IV in which the editors relied on the notes and information from earlier publications. CIL IV.1014 is presented above CIL IV.1015 in one entry in the volume. Zangemeister relied on three publications in editing these two inscriptions and he does not seem to have seen the inscriptions himself.339 Two of the earl­ ier publications (Bechi and Garrucci in 1852) did not include Pansam · aed (CIL IV.1014) above CIL IV.1015. However, Minervini’s 1853 publication presents the two texts together and an O (seemingly larger than the rest of the text) to the left. In his commentary in the CIL, Zangemeister notes that only Minervini included Pansam · aed and he wonders whether this is in fact an error and a reduplication of CIL IV.1013, which is the same text. Later in the Corrigenda et Addenda section of the same volume, Zangemeister notes (without further ex­plan­ation) that CIL IV.1014 could not have been written above CIL IV.1015 and that CIL IV.1014 is a reduplication of CIL 338  None of these inscriptions was recorded in Varone and Stefani 2009. 339 Typically, Zangemeister and the other editors of the CIL include Descripsi in the apparatus criticus for those inscriptions they saw personally.

IV.1013 (Zangemeister 1871, 199). He also notes that CIL IV.1015 was painted on whitewashed tuff. It would seem from this evidence, therefore, that the entry for CIL IV.1014 was an accidental reduplication of CIL IV.1013 and this is what has been repeated by later scholars (Mouritsen, Chiavia, Weber). Yet, on the very pilaster on which this inscription was supposed to be located, painted with red paint directly on the tuff, a text with the word Pansa was found by the PARP:PS team. The inscription is well worn, though it is still possible to make out some letters of the programma with the naked eye (Fig.  19.14.02). With the use of Decorrelation Stretch (DStretch), however, it is possible to see the first line of the programma clearly and many of the letters of the second line (Figs. 19.14.03; 19.14.04).340 The inscription can be read as follows: C(uspium) · Pansa[m] ạẹḍ(ilem) ọ(ro) ṿ(os) f̣(aciatis)341 The first line is certain. The tuff stops nearly after the a, so it is unclear whether the inscription ever included the m at the end of this line. The second line is much more unclear and can only be read using DStretch. It appears that the second line should read aed ovf, which accords with many other 340  The DStretch algorithm, developed by Gillespie et al. (Gillespie et al. 1986) and adapted for rock art by Jon Harman (Harman 2005), enhances pictographs or painted inscriptions by exaggerating the difference in hue within an image. See DiBiasie-Sammons 2020 on applying DStretch to painted inscriptions. 341 Gaius Cuspius Pansa is represented in ninety-six programmata in Pompeii (Mouritsen 1988, 46), yet there is only one other example (CIL IV.289) in which Cuspium is abbreviated. It is therefore not likely that this inscription is located somewhere else in the CIL.

Fig. 19.14.02  CIL IV.1014 at the (south end) entrance to I.1.1 (unenhanced photograph).

a p pe n dic es  ·  471

Fig. 19.14.03  CIL IV.1014 at the (south end) entrance to I.1.1; DStretch image with CRGB (above) and LABI colorspace (below).

programmata supporting Pansa.342 There appears to be some marks after the f of this line, but they cannot be read with certainty. We have, therefore, a programma on this pilaster for the same candidate as noted by Minervini in his 1853 publication, yet much of the text is different. Minervini ­published only Pansam · aed in one line, yet we clearly have 342  For example, CIL IV.509, 525, 623, 708, 785, 855, 948, 959, 1153, 7129a, 7159b, 7188, 7220, 7320, 7404, 7445, 7463, 7492, 7518, 7601, 7743, 7772, 7875, 7919, and 7959.

two lines here and the letter C and interpunct before Pansa. What could account for this deviation? This inscription can tell us much about the documentation process of these early epigraphers. It is possible that this inscription was missed by earlier epigraphists (Bechi, Garrucci). Then, Minervini recorded it, but Zangemeister, noting the similarity between it and CIL IV.1013 nearby, surmised that it was a reduplication. The text recorded in the CIL differs, though, from what we can see on the wall today. Perhaps the two entries got mixed up in the field and the two similar

472  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i

Fig. 19.14.04  Programma for Cuspius Pansa at the (south end) entrance to I.1.1/10 (CIL IV.1014 add.199); DStretch image with LBK colorspace.

inscriptions (CIL IV.1013 and 1014) were conflated. It is also possible that the whitewash on top of the second line (perhaps containing CIL IV.1015) fell off the wall, revealing this second line which was not recorded in the CIL. It is unclear why Zangemeister thought that it was not possible for CIL IV.1014 to have been written above CIL IV.1015. Since CIL IV.1015 is no longer extant,343 it may be impossible to know. This text is of an early date, deducible due to the fact it was painted directly on the tuff 344 and its paleography,345 which accord with other programmata antiquissima. Given this, it is 343  Using DStretch it is possible to detect some faint traces of red pigment underneath the second line of CIL IV.1014, but no letters could be reconstructed. 344  Mouritsen 1988, 80. Mouritsen suggests that no programmata recentiora (i.e., those dated between 62 and 79 ce) have been found on bare, unplastered tuff. 345 The paleography of programmata antiquissima is more angular and with wider letter forms (Mouritsen 1988, 80). See the table of letterforms in Zangemeister 1871: Tav.1.

likely that this Cuspius Pansa is the Cuspius known from one dipinto of the Republican era.346 In conclusion, it is remarkable that this programma has survived and can still be read today. Because of its similarity to CIL IV.1013, located nearby, its veracity was discounted by the editors of the CIL and later scholars. This hypercorrection seems to have been made in error, though the extant text differs from the text presented in the CIL. Still, I believe this is the inscription referred to in the entry of CIL IV.1014. Two other painted inscriptions were found in the viridarium (Room 6) of VIII.7.1–4. The first, CIL IV.3603 (Graffiti and Dipinti 5), is a series of painted letters. The second, CIL IV.3604 (Graffiti and Dipinti 6), contains the name Postumius, the same name as was found in CIL IV.1016 (Graffiti and Dipinti 4). This is a confusing inscription. It was painted, which is the medium we associate with programmata or other official notices. The name Postumius is found in many programmata but few graffiti.347 Yet it was located in an interior garden room. Programmata are nearly always found on the facades of buildings, though some were located in interior spaces as well.348 I agree with Mouritsen, Camodeca, and Chiavia and assert that it was likely a programma, though already badly damaged by the time Fiorelli saw it.349 The location of a programma in this space (as well as Graffiti and Dipinti 5, painted just above) perhaps indicates it was a frequently visited space, as programmata were most often written in highly visible and busy areas.350 In addition to these certain and possible programmata, there were two other painted inscriptions recorded in the two insulae. CIL IV.2965 (Graffiti and Dipinti 7), which was recorded in the corrigenda et addenda of the first volume of CIL IV, was located under the arch of the Porta Stabia. While the inscription is fragmentary, it seems to record a date and numerals. Zangemeister reported that there were traces of many other letters near this inscription. Given its location under the main gate of the city and medium in red paint, perhaps it served as an official notice of some kind. Finally, CIL IV.3355 (Graffiti and Dipinti 8) is the name Hermes painted above a figure emptying a wine amphora into a dolium within a lararium painting in I.1.8 (see Fig. 4.09).351 Several paintings in Pompeii have captions painted near major figures.352 While Fiorelli suggested that Hermes was depicted 346  CIL IV.23 add. 189, see Castrén 1975, 161; and Mouritsen 1988, 83–4. 347  Programmata: Nearly fifty examples (Mau and Zangemeister 1909, 771); graffiti: CIL IV.8506, 8598, 8674, 8710a, 8733, 8805, and 10167. 348  Viitanen and Nissin found thirty-seven examples of programmata in interior spaces of Regiones I, V, VI, VII, and IX (Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 132, n. 48). 349  Mouritsen 1988, 148; Camodeca 2002, 70, n. 20; Chiavia 2002, 307. 350  Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 122. 351  See Chapter 4 and Ritual Context 7 in Chapter 19.9. 352  In  I.2.6 (Casa degli Attori), names in Greek were painted under the characters in a painting depicting the theft of the Palladium (CIL IV.3356)

a p pe n dic es  ·  473 in this painting as a protective deity, others have concluded it was simply the name of the proprietor of this establishment.353 Hermes is a name attested in many inscriptions in Pompeii, several times near or associated with tabernae or shops.354 Given that many of the paintings with captions near mythological figures (such as those in I.6.2 and I.2.6) are written below and in Greek letters, I find it likely that the caption here is meant to represent the proprietor of the shop rather than the deity. In addition to these painted inscriptions, a few graffiti were recorded within these insulae. This paucity is not al­together surprising, as only about 5 percent of graffiti in Pompeii were recorded in small shops and about 4 percent in small workshops.355 One pictorial graffito (Graffiti and Dipinti 9), found in the main room of the taberna at I.1.8, was discussed by Fiorelli in his notes on the excavations, but was not included in the CIL. This drawing of a male head crowned with a wreath depicted the emperor Vespasian, according to Fiorelli. Pictorial graffiti were often omitted by the editors of the CIL or, if they were included, were only discussed in the notes of a textual graffito. Several other pictorial graffiti perhaps depicted emperors including drawings of Claudius,356 Tiberius,357 Nero,358 and Domitian.359 One comparandum to Graffiti and Dipinti 9 is a drawing of a head in profile perhaps depicting the emperor Caligula (not yet published in the CIL) that was found on a piece of plaster in Herculaneum; the word ΓΑΙΟϹ was repeated numerous times to the right of the drawing.360 The remaining graffiti (Graffiti and Dipinti 10, 11, 12, 13) were all found in VIII.7.5–6, though notably their location is mislabeled in the CIL as VIII.8.6. These three names and traces of an alphabet were found in the porticus of this building (Room 21). They are single names, which is common at Pompeii. This property once contained a masonry couch (triclinium) in Room 30,361 so we must imagine it was a busy, (MANN inn 109751). Other examples of painted captions include those within the House of the Cryptoporticus (I.6.2), which were written below the figures in Greek, and the names Dido and Aeneas in a painting in IX.6.d (CIL IV.3722). There are several comparanda for the names of gods painted or inscribed in paintings depicting the same gods. For example, CIL IV.812 found in VII.11.13 contains the name Mercurius painted in red within a painting of Mercury. Another potential caption for a god is CIL IV.1626 (Lib/Liber), which was scratched under a painting of Bacchus. 353  Fiorelli 1875, 34; Mau 1875, 31; Della Corte 1965, 265; Fröhlich 1991, 250. 354  CIL IV.85, 241, 544, 545, 1365, 1466, 1511, 1723, 2164, 2261, 2341, 2367 add. 210, 2508, 3101, 3145a, 3961, 4512, 4893, 5083, 5230, 5281, 7489, and 7722. 355  Lohmann 2018, 128–9. 356  Langner 2001, n. 412. See Langner 2001, 41–2 for sources on each identification. 357  Langner 2001, n. 266.    358  Langner 2001, n. 317. 359  Langner 2001, n. 318. 360  Benefiel and Sypniewski 2018, 215; Catalano 2002, 111. Catalano cites another helmeted head in profile (also unpublished) that perhaps depicted the emperor Galba (Catalano 2002, 111 and tav. XXXIX,14). 361  Ellis and Devore 2010, 19.

well-visited place, making the columns and walls of the ­portico likely areas for graffiti writing. The graffiti and dipinti of Insulae VIII.7 and I.1, while few, provide tantalizing clues about the use of space within this area of Pompeii. The commercial nature as well as the early excavation date of this area of the city likely affected the dens­ ity of programmata recorded here. The few graffiti recorded tend to distribute in busy and visible areas: the garden areas. Still more graffiti were certainly once written here, but never identified and recorded.

Catalog Graffiti and Dipinti 1 CIL IV.1013 add.199 Bibliography: Mouritsen 1988, 133; Chiavia 2002, 287; Weber et al. 2011, 1298 Location: facade, between VIII.7.17 and 18 Text: Pansam aed(ilem) Translation: Pansa for aedile Measurements: height 26.0 cm Date: Unknown362 Graffiti and Dipinti 2 CIL IV.1014 add.199 Bibliography: Minervini 1853, 186; Mouritsen 1988, 133; Chiavia 2002, 287 Location: I.1.1, facade, right of door (see Figs. 19.14.02-04) Text (DiBiasie-Sammons): C(uspium) · Pansa[m]/ạẹḍ(ilem) ọ(ro) ṿ(os) f̣ (aciatis) Text (CIL): Pansam · aed(ilem) Translation: I ask that you elect Cuspius Pansa aedile Measurements (PARP:PS team): height 58.0 cm, width 94.0 cm, height from ground363 to top of inscription 188.0 cm, letter height c. 24.0–26.0 cm Other: This inscription was previously identified as a reduplication of CIL IV.1013 (Mouritsen 1988, 133; Chiavia 2002, 287; Weber et al. 2011, 1298). Date: Republican Graffiti and Dipinti 3 CIL IV.1015 add.199, 461 Bibliography: Bechi 1852, 22; Garrucci 1852, 7;364 Minervini 1853, 186; Fiorelli 1875, 32; Della Corte 1965, 265, n. 529; Castrén 1975, 151, n. 109, 3; Mouritsen 1988, 131, 165; Chiavia 2002, 283, 335, 337; Weber et al. 2011, 1298 362  A Gaius Cuspius Pansa ran for aedile in 79 ce (Viitanen and Nissin 2017, 128), but this programma may instead refer to the same Pansa as CIL IV.1014, which I believe dates to the Republican era. 363  Measurement taken from height of threshold since sidewalk level is not known. 364  Note that the CIL mistakenly printed Garrucci 1853 instead of 1852.

474  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Location: I.1.1, facade, right of door Text: Ceium · II · v(irum) · i(ure)· d(icundo)   Epagat(h)us · G̣ ỵl ̣ọ  rog(at) Translation: Epagathus Gylo asks that you elect (Lucius) Ceius (Secundus) as duovir with judicial power Measurements: Line 1: height 18.0 cm, Line 2: height 13.0 cm Other: Line 2: Bechi: cito; Garucci: Gyḷo; Zangemeister (CIL): cito, copo? Gylo; Fiorelli: Gylo; Della Corte: copo; Mouritsen: G̣ ỵl ̣ọ; Chiavia: Epagatus G̣ ỵl ̣ọ rog(ant) Date: Flavian (Franklin 2001, 174) Other: The name Epagathus is attested in several graffiti: CIL IV.2242, 2462, 4539, 4540, and 4897. Graffiti and Dipinti 4 CIL IV.1016 Bibliography: Minervini 1853, 50; Magaldi 1931, 67; Della Corte 1965, 266, n. 530; Castrén 1975, 210, n .322, 4; Franklin 1980, 103, n. 45 (p. 118); Łoś 1987, 856, n. 50, 873; Mouritsen 1988, 148, 162; Chiavia 2002, 308, 333; Weber et al. 2011, 1298 Location: In the extreme southern part of the via Stabiana. It was written in a lower layer that was exposed when the top layer fell off (Minervini 1853, 50). Minervini says it was above an external wall (1854, 50), while Della Corte suspects it was found in the extreme southern part of the via Stabiana (1965, 266). Text: Q(uintum) · Post(um)ium · Proculum · aed(ilem)  C̣ ẹṛi ̣ạlị ̣ṣ rog(at) · cliens Translation: Cerialis a client asks that you elect Quintus Postumius Proculus aedile Measurements: none Other: CIL IV.195 also has Postium pro Postumium. Cerialis appears as a rogator in two other programmata: CIL IV.7669 and 7671. Date: Flavian (Castrén 1975, 210) Graffiti and Dipinti 5 CIL IV.3603 Location VIII.7.1–4 (the location of VIII.8 in the CIL is incorrect), north wall of the garden (Room 6), color of pigment unknown Text: CRDI Translation: unclear Measurements: none Graffiti and Dipinti 6 CIL IV.3604 Bibliography: Fiorelli 1875, 348; Mouritsen 1988, 148; Camodeca 2002, 70, n. 20, Chiavia 2002, 307; Weber et al. 2011, 1374 Location: VIII.7.1–4 (the location of VIII.8 in the CIL is incorrect), north wall of the garden (Room 6) below CIL IV.3603 (Graffiti and Dipinti 5) Text: [—] vix̣ Postumiuṃ

Translation: [—] just Postumius Measurements: none Other: Line 1: Fiorelli: vix possum [—]; Mau (CIL): [—] via Postumium. Mouritsen, Camodeca, and Chiavia identify this inscription as a programma. Weber doubts this identification given its location in the viridarium. Fiorelli says it was painted in black, though this is not recorded in the CIL. Graffiti and Dipinti 7 CIL IV.2965 add n.199 Location: East wall of the Porta Stabia, to the right of the pila which is located below the vaulted roof, painted with red color on white plaster Text: CNA   X X̣ X ·   [---] XII · k(alendas) Translation: (unclear) 12 before the kalends . . . Measurements: Line 3: height 14.5 cm Other: Besides this inscription, Zangemeister records that many traces of letters were extant (unrecorded). Date: unknown Graffiti and Dipinti 8 CIL IV.3355 Bibliography: GdS NS 1873, Vol. 2, 425; GdS NS 1874, 49; Fiorelli 1873, 76, 107, no. 31; Fiorelli 1875, 34; Mau 1875, 31; Sogliano 1879, 12, no. 27; Viola 1879, 9; Boyce 1937, 21, no. 2; Schefold 1957, 8; Della Corte 1965, 265, no. 528; Packer 1978, 6–8; Fröhlich 1991, 249–50; Eschebach and MüllerTrollius 1993, 14 Location: I.1.8, main room of the taberna (Room 123), north wall, written above the head of a man emptying an amphora into a dolium, painted in red pigment Text: Hermes Translation: Hermes Measurements: height: 2.8 cm Graffiti and Dipinti 9 Bibliography: Fiorelli 1875, 34–5; De Franciscis 1975, 219; Packer 1978, 8, n. 8 Location: I.1.8, main room of the taberna (Room 123), on the plaster of the oven Text: Drawing of a male head, crowned with a wreath, rem­in­ is­cent of Vespasian (according to Fiorelli) Translation: n/a Measurements: none Graffiti and Dipinti 10 CIL IV.4958 Bibliography: Fiorelli 1875, 349 Location: VIII.7.5–6 (the location of VIII.8 in the CIL is incorrect), in the front wall of the porticus (Room 21), which is before the garden, on the left as you enter

a p pe n dic es  ·  475 Text: Iucundus Translation: Iucundus Measurements: height 1.1 cm Other: Line 1: Fiorelli: Secundus. For Iucundus cf. CIL IV.1376, 1379, 1380, 1381, 1385, 1398, 1936, 2122, 2131, 2319n, 3428, 3473, 3570, 3991, 4264, 4295, 4697, 5197, 5248, 6786, 6787, and 6800. Graffiti and Dipinti 11 CIL IV.4959 Bibliography: Fiorelli 1875, 349 Location: VIII.7.5–6 (the location of VIII.8 in the CIL is incorrect), in the same place as CIL IV.4958 (Room 21), on the right as you enter Text: Magius Translation: Magius Measurements: height 2.2 cm Other: Lucius Magius Celer is known from CIL IV.3871 and 3873. For Magius cf. CIL IV.488.

Graffiti and Dipinti 12 Bibliography: Fiorelli 1875, 349 Location: VIII.7.5–6, near CIL IV.4958–9 Text: First letters of the alphabet and other unidentified names Translation: n/a Measurements: none Other: This inscription is not recorded in the CIL. Graffiti and Dipinti 13 CIL IV.4960 Location: VIII.7.5–6 (the location of VIII.8 in the CIL is ­incorrect), on the first column from the south of the ­porticus (Room 21) Text: Gallus Translation: Gallus Measurements: none Other: For Gallus cf. CIL IV.2107, 3980, 4490.

c h a pt e r 20

The Contexts

Trench SU 1000

1001

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Fill

1.6

8

Modern fill over trench 1000

Topsoil

Modern Activity

1002 1.6

8

Loose rubble abutting SU 1003 Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

1003 1.6

8

Modern wall collapse

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1004 1.6

8

Lapilli fill under SU 1001

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1005 1.5a

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

1006 1.5a

5

Stone feature

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

1007 1.6

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1008 1.6

8

Packed earth deposit, possibly Fill modern ramp

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1009 1.6

8

Lapilli fill under SU 1008

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1010

1.6

8

Fill of posthole SU 1019

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1011

1.6

8

Fill of posthole SU 1012

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1012

1.5a

5

Posthole (?) cut in SU 1005, filled by SU 1011

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

Plaster over SU 1052 on WF 5

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

1014

1.6

8

Modern consolidation of plaster SU 1013 on WF 5

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

1015

1.4

5

Cistern head

Structural Fixture Cistern

1016

1.5a

5

Deposit in cistern (=SU 1005)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

1017

1.6

8

Fill in posthole SU 1018

Fill

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

1018

1.5a

5

Posthole (?) cut in SU 1005, filled by SU 1017

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

1019

1.5a

5

Posthole cut in SU 1005, filled by SU 1010

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

1020 1.3

4

Construction of WF 6

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1021

1.2

3

Plaster on WF 6

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

1022 1.3

4

Plaster under SU 1023 on WF 6

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

1023

1.6

8

Modern plaster on WF 5, 6

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

1024 1.6

8

Modern plaster on WF 6

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

1025 1.4

5

Leveling fill in SU 1028

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

1013

Feature

Creation/Construction Cistern 1

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0020

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   477 Trench SU 1000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

1026 1.5a

5

Plaster fill in pit SU 1027

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

1027 1.5a

5

Pit cut in SU 1005, filled by SU 1026

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

1028 1.5a

5

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 1005

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

1029 1.5a

5

Leveling fill (=SU 1028)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

1030 1.4

5

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 1031

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

1031

1.4

5

Possible soak-away amphora in SU 1028, cut by pit cut SU 1027

Structural Fixture Soak-away

1032

1.4

5

Opus Signinum floor

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum Creation/Construction

1033

1.5a

5

Fill of cistern SU 1015

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction

1034

1.5a

5

Plaster surface

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1035

1.3

4

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

4

Fill in cut in SU 1035

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

1037

1.3

4

Construction of buried wall under SU 1028, abutting SU 1050

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1038

1.6

8

Lapilli fill between SU 1034, 1032

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1039 1.5a

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

1040 1.3

4

Packed earth surface west of SU 1006

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

1041

1.4

5

Fill in pit cut SU 1046

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

1042 1.4

5

Fill under SU 1028, abutting buried wall SU 1037

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1043

5

Fill in cistern under SU 1033

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction

1044 1.2

3

Fill under SU 1028

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

1045

1.4

5

Leveling fill associated with destruction of buried wall SU 1037

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

1046 1.4

5

Pit cut in SU 1040, filled by SU 1041

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

1047 1.3

4

Mortar under packed earth SU 1105

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

1048 1.6

8

Lapilli fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1049 1.4

5

Leveling fill abutting SU 1037

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

1050 1.3

4

Construction of buried wall abutted by SU 1037

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1051

1.2

3

Small Sarno limestone blocks joined with mortar

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1052 1.2

3

Opus incertum wall of mixed materials

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1053

3

1.2

Soak-away 15

Creation/Construction Soak-away 15

1036 1.3

1.5a

Feature

Sarno block in WF 5

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1054

Plaster on WF 5

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

1055

Plaster on WF 5

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

478  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 1000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

1056 1.5a

5

Sarno fill in window in WF 5

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

1057

5

Tile under SU 1056 in WF 5

Architecture

Window

Creation/Construction

Collapse under SU 1055, 1056 in WF 5

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

1.5a

1058 1059 1.5a

5

Fill in window in WF 5

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

1060 1.5a

5

Tiles under SU 1059 in WF 5

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1061 1.5a

5

Fill in WF 5

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1062 1.5a

5

Tiles under SU 1061 in WF 5

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Collapse/void in WF 5

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

1063 1064 1.4

5

Leveling fill in SU 1028

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

1065 1.3

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 1040

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

1066 1.3

4

Fill under SU 1065, over SU 1067

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1067 1.3

4

Fill under SU 1066 (=SU 1065)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1068 1.3

4

Construction of buried wall over surface SU 1096

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Opus signinum over SU 1055 in WF 5

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

1069

Feature

1070 1.4

5

Leveling fill with opus signinum fragments, abutting WF 5, part of fill SU 1028

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

1071

1.3

4

Tile attached to WF 5 by mortar SU 1072

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1072 1.3

4

Mortar on tile SU 1071 abutting WF 5

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1073

1.3

4

Opus signinum surface abutting WF 5, 6

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

1074

1.2

3

Fill under SU 1044

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1075

1.5b

7

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

1076 1.5b

7

Threshold stones in streetfront entrance VIII.7.1 (=SU 4021)

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 1

1077 1.4

5

Plaster lining of cistern

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 1

1078 1.4

5

Fill in opus signinum feature SU 1073

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1079 1.3

4

Mortar over SU 1065, abutting Fill SU 1040

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

1080 1.3

4

Fill under SU 1040

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1081 1.3

4

Fill under SU 1035

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1082 1.5b

7

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 1075

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

1083 1.6

8

Modern deposit abutting tank Fill SU 1514 (=SU 1075)

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1084 1.4

5

Fill under SU 1028

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Fill

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   479 Trench SU 1000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

1085 1.5b

7

Fill in cut SU 1086

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

1086 1.5b

7

Pit cut in SU 1028, 1074; filled by SU 1085

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

1087 1.5a

5

Brick quoin in WF 5

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1088 1.5a

5

Construction of niche in WF 5

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction Ritual Context 3

1089 1.5a

5

Fill in WF 5

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction Ritual Context 3

1090 1.5a

5

Plaster facing on niche SU 1088

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction Ritual Context 3

1091 1.1

1

Pappamonte block in construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1092 1.2

3

Fill under SU 1074

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1093 1.3

4

Fill in construction trench of wall SU 1050

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

1094 1.3

4

Fill under SU 1067

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Mortar deposit abutting WF 6, 7

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1095 1096 1.2

3

Packed earth surface under SU 1028

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

1097 1.1

1

Stones over pappamonte block SU 1091

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1098 1.1

1

Possible road surface under SU 1094

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

1099 1.2

3

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 1096

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

1100 1.4

5

Fill in SU 1042

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

1101

1.0

0

Paleosol under SU 1094

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

1102

1.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

1103

1.2

3

Foundation of WF

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1104

1.2

3

Foundation of WF 5

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1105

1.3

4

Packed earth surface over SU 1047, abutting WF 5

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

1106 1.3

4

Soak-away amphora

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 16

1107

1.2

3

Construction trench cut for WF 5, filled by SU 1108

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

1108 1.2

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 1107; redeposition of SU 1044

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

1501

1.6

8

Modern tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

1502

1.6

8

Modern tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

1503

1.6

8

Modern tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

1504

1.6

8

Modern fill in tank feature SU 1514

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1505

1.6

8

Modern fill in tank feature SU 1514, under SU 1501

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1506 1.6

8

Modern fill in tank feature SU 1514

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

480  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 1000

2000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

1.6

8

Fill in tank SU 1514

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1508 1.6

8

Modern fill in tank feature SU 1514, under SU 1505

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1509 1.6

8

Modern fill in tank feature SU 1514

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1510

1.6

8

Fill in tank

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

1511

1.3

4

Plaster on tank feature SU 1514, under SU 1519

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

1512

1.6

8

Modern fill in tank SU 1514

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

1513

1.5a

5

Plaster on tank SU 1514

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

1514

1.5a

5

Construction of four tanks

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

1515

1.5a

5

Construction of WF 36

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1516

1.5a

5

Foundation of WF 36

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1517

1.5a

5

Dolium fixed in tank SU 1514

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

1518

1.6

8

Modern rendering

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

1519

1.3

4

Plaster on tank SU 1514, over SU 1511

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

1520 1.3

4

Plaster on tank SU 1514

Architecture

Creation/Construction

1521

1.6

8

Modern plaster on tank SU 1514

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

1522

1.4

5

Tank feature under tank SU 1514

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

1523

1.6

8

Modern rendering

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

1524

1.3

4

Construction of buried wall reused in tank feature

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

1525

1.6

8

Modern mortar on tank construction SU 1514

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

1526 1.6

8

Modern mortar on WF 36

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

2001 2.6

8

Modern topsoil/fill

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

2002 2.3

5

Triclinium in Room 46, VIII.7.9-11

Structural Fixture Triclinium

2003 2.6

8

Lapilli fill in cut/collapse 2004 Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

2004 2.6

8

Cut/collapse associated with SU 2003

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

2005 2.6

8

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

2006 2.0

0

Compacted fill

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

2007 2.6

8

Modern cut in SU 2006

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

2008 2.3

5

Construction trench cut for WF 262 in SU 2006

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

1507

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   481 Trench SU 2000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

2009 2.3

5

Fill in construction trench cut SU 2008 of WF 262

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

2010 2.6

8

Modern fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2011

2.3

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

2012 2.3

5

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

2013

2.3

5

Packed earth surface under SU 2011

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

2014 2.6

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2015

Creation/Construction

2.6

8

Modern deposit

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2016 2.6

8

Lapilli fill of cistern

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2017 2.0

0

Mixed loam/volcanic deposit

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

2018 2.6

8

Mixed loam/lapilli deposit

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

2019 2.3

5

Packed earth surface under triclinium

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

2020 2.6

8

Mixed fill of collapse of several SUs

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

2021 2.2

4

Construction of tank

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

2022 2.2

4

Deposit in tank

Fill

Occupation/Use

2023 2.3

5

Food preparation feature

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

2024 2.6

8

Fill of collapse of cistern

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

2025 2.2

4

Fill of waste feature 21, under SU 2024

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

2026 2.6

8

Lapilli fill in drain

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2027 2.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

2028 2.2

4

Construction of tank

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

2029 2.2

4

Plaster associated with tank

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

2030

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2031

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Foundation of WF 273

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 273

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of basin

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

Repair to basin SU 2034, on WF 273

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

2032 2.1

4

2033 2034 2.3

5

2035

Vat/Tank Fill (primary)

Modern Activity

2036 2.3

5

Plaster on tank construction SU 2034

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

2037 2.3

5

Plaster associated with tank SU 2034

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

2038

Plaster on WF 273

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2039

Cut in plaster (?) lip of basin SU 2034 (?)

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

2040 2.1

Construction of WF 273

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2041

4

Construction of WF 273

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2042

Quoin in WF 273

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

482  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 2000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 273

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2044

Void in WF 273

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/Collapse

2045

Collapse in WF 273

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/Collapse

Construction in bedrock SU 2027

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

Cut in plaster (?) lip of basin SU 2034 (?)

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

Construction trench cut for tank in bedrock

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

2049

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2050

Lava rock in WF 273

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2043 2.1

2046 2.2

4

4

2047 2048 2.2

4

Feature

2051 2.6

8

Nail in WF 273

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

2052 2.6

8

Nail in WF 273

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

2053 2.6

8

Modern fill?

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2054 2.3

5

Pipe connecting tank SU 2057 to cistern (=SU 2058?)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 16

2055 2.2

4

Cistern head

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2056 2.2

4

Cistern head

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2057 2.3

5

Tank associated with pipe SU 2054, cistern SU 2055

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Drain 16

2058 2.3

5

Pipe connecting tank SU 2057 to cistern (=SU 2054?)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 16

2059 2.2

4

Pipe opening into cistern

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2060 2.3

5

Stone/tile capping of drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

2061 2.3

5

Construction of WF 266

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2062 2.3

5

Foundation of WF 262

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2063 2.3

5

Fill under foundation SU 2062, Fill WF 262

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

2064 2.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

2065 2.3

5

Pipe in WF 262

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 16

2066

Foundation of WF 263

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2067

Construction of WF 263

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2068

Plaster on WF 263

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

2069 2.6

8

Modern wire in WF 263

Miscellaneous

2070 2.3

5

Oven/hearth feature

Structural Fixture Cooking Facility

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 4

2071 2.6

8

Probable modern wall collapse onto oven

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

2072 2.6

8

Modern fill in cut SU 2079

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 272

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2073 2074 2.6

8

Wall collapse fill in oven

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

2075 2.6

8

Wall collapse fill in oven

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   483 Trench SU 2000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

2076 2.6

8

Lapilli fill of pit

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2077 2.3

5

Cut filled by SU 2076

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

2078 2.6

8

Modern fill in cut SU 2079 (=SU 2072)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2079 2.6

8

Pit cut filled by lapilli

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

2080 2.2

4

Fill of cesspit SU 2084: human Fill waste

Cesspit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

2081 2.2

4

Cesspit fill of SU 2084: human Fill waste

Cesspit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

2082 2.2

4

Mortar deposit in cesspit

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

2083 2.2

4

Fill in cesspit 2084

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

2084 2.1

4

Cesspit feature

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 21

2085 2.3

5

Sarno blocks in WF 262

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2086 2.3

5

Sarno block in WF 262

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on Sarno block in WF 266

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 266

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 266

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction Creation/Construction

2087 2088 2.3

5

2089 2090

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

2091 2.3

5

Packed earth surface associated with toilet

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction Waste Feature 4

2092 2.6

8

Lapilli fill in toilet/waste pit cut SU 2094

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2093 2.6

8

Lapilli fill of SU 2095 (=SU 2092)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2094 2.3

5

Construction trench cut for toilet/waste pit

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 4

2095 2.3

5

Cut in toilet (=SU 2094)

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

2096 2.3

5

Rubble fill feature

Structural Fixture Triclinium

Creation/Construction

2097 2.3

5

Fill under packed earth SU 2019, over SU 2098

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2098 2.3

5

Leveling fill under SU 2097

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

2099 2.3

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

2100 2.6

8

Fill in drain SU 2060

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2101

2.4

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

2102 2.6

8

Rubble collapse

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

2103

2.6

8

Lapilli fill in toilet/waste pit cut SU 2094

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2104 2.3

5

Fill/foundation associated with oven (=SU 2115)

Structural Fixture Cooking Facility

Creation/Construction

2105

5

Pit cut filled by rubble

Cut

Creation/Construction

2.3

Pit Cut

484  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 2000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

Modern Activity

Waste Feature 4

2106 2.6

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

2107 2.3

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

2108 2.3

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

2109 2.3

5

Drain feature

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

2110

2.3

5

Leveling fill under packed earth floor

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

2111

2.3

5

Cut in SU 2106

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

2112

2.3

5

Plaster associated with SU 2110

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2113

2.3

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

2114

2.3

5

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

2115

2.3

5

Fill under drain capping (=SU 2104)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

2116

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2117

Sarno blocks in WF 277

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2118

Plaster on WF 277

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2119

Construction of WF 277

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of wall Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Plaster on WF 277

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2120 2.6

8

2121 2122

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 277

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2.1

4

Construction of WF 253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2124 2.1

4

Construction of WF 253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2125

Plaster on block in WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2126

Plaster on block in WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2127

Plaster on block in WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2128

Plaster on block in WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2129

Plaster on WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2130

Plaster on WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2131

Plaster on WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2132

Plaster under oven feature SU 2070 on WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2133

Plaster on WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2134

Plaster on WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2135

Plaster on WF 253

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

2136

Construction of WF 247

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2137

Construction of WF 253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2138

Voids in WF 247

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

2139

Collapse of Opus incertum WF 253

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

Modern consolidation of WF 247, 253

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

2123

2140 2.6

8

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   485 Trench SU 2000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

2141 2142 2143

5

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 247

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Collapse of WF 253, 247

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/Collapse

Plaster associated with feature Structural Fixture Bench/Platform SU 2023

Creation/Construction

2144

Fill of doorway

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

2145

Sarno block in WF 277

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2146

Construction of WF 277

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2147

2.3

Type

Feature

2.6

8

Modern consolidation of wall Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

2148 2.3

5

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

2149 2.3

5

Fill over drain cap SU 2060

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2150

2.2

4

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

2151

2.none

99

Drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction

2152

2.none

99

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2153

2.6

8

Fill in pit

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

2154

2.0

0

Natural deposit

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

2155

2.none

99

Stray find: animal horn

Miscellaneous

Stray Finds

Research Process

2156

2.0

0

Paleosol

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

2157

2.2

4

Drain feature

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 13

2158

2.1

4

Rubble fill; possible construction trench

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

2159

2.1

4

Construction trench cut filled by SU 2158

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of buried wall under oven feature SU 2070

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

2160 2.none 2161 2162 2.0

0

Volcanic deposit

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

2163

2.0

0

Natural deposit

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

2164 2.3

5

Fill over SU 2163

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2165

2.3

5

Fill over SU 2164

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

2501 2.2

4

Cistern wall

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2502 2.2

4

Cistern wall

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2503 2.2

4

Cistern vault

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2504 2.2

4

Hydraulic plaster on cistern

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2505 2.2

4

Hydraulic plaster on cistern

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2506 2.2

4

Cistern floor

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2507 2.3

5

Plug of access point SU 2515 in cistern’s southern wall

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2508 2.5

7

Lapilli fill

Miscellaneous

AD 79 Eruption

2509 2.4

7

Lime patches in cistern walls

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2510 2.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Research Process

2511

2.2

4

Cistern wall

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2512 2.5

7

Lapilli fill

Miscellaneous

AD 79 Eruption

79 AD Eruption Event Canceled 79 AD Eruption Event

486  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 2000

3000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

2513

2.5

7

Lapilli fill

Miscellaneous

79 AD Eruption Event

AD 79 Eruption

2514

2.5

7

Fill in cistern

Miscellaneous

79 AD Eruption Event

AD 79 Eruption

2515

2.2

4

Access for drain in southern wall of cistern

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

2516 2.2

4

Hydraulic plaster in cistern construction

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 3

3001 3.6

8

Modern deposit (=SU 3060)

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

3002 3.6

8

Lapilli fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3003 3.3

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

3004 3.6

8

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

3005 3.6

8

Fill in plaster feature (=SU 3001)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

3006 3.3

5

Fill under SU 3001

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

3007 3.3

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

3008 3.6

8

Modern fill in cut SU 3019

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

3009 3.6

8

Lapilli fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3010 3.3

5

Fill in cistern SU 3046

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction

3011

3.3

5

Mortar surface under SU 3007

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

3012

3.6

8

Pit cut in SU 3027, filled by SU 3002

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

3013

3.4

5

Fill under SU 3001, over SU 3020

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3014

3.6

8

Cut in cistern SU 3046, 3010, 3016

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

3015

3.4

5

Mortar surface over SU 3006

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

3016 3.3

5

Fill in cistern SU 3046, under SU 3010, cut by SU 3014

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction

3017

3.3

5

Packed earth surface under SU 3011

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

3018 3.3

5

Cut in cistern SU 3046 (=SU 3014?)

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

3019 3.6

8

Pit cut in SU 3006, filled by SU 3008

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

3020 3.3

5

Fill under 3006, abutting cistern SU 3046, soak-away SU 3047

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

3021

3.4

5

Fill possibly associated with SU 3013

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3022 3.4

5

Fill under SU 3001, 3013

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3023

3.4

5

Fill under SU 3013

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3024 3.3

5

Fill over SU 3020, in cut SU 3048

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3025 3.3

5

Fill associated with fill in tank SU 3041

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

3026 3.4

5

Fill under SU 3013

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3027 3.3

5

Fill over drain cap SU 3043

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

3028 3.3

5

Fill (=SU 3006)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   487 Trench SU 3000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

3029 3.3

5

Fill under SU 3036

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3030 3.3

5

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 3047

Fill

Soak-away Fill

Creation/Construction

3031

3.3

5

Mortar/packed earth surface over tank SU 3041

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

3032

3.3

5

Fill in soak-away feature SU 3047

Fill

Soak-away Fill

Creation/Construction

3033

3.3

5

Packed earth surface over SU 3027

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

3034 3.3

5

Mortar surface over SU 3027

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

3035

3.3

5

Fill in soak-away vessel SU 3047, under fill SU 3032

Fill

Soak-away Fill

Creation/Construction

3036 3.4

5

Fill over SU 3027, 3029

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3037

3.3

5

Fill in cistern SU 3046, under SU 3016

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction

3038 3.3

5

Fill in tank SU 3041

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

3039 3.3

5

Fill in cistern SU 3046, under SU 3037

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction

3040 3.3

5

Fill cut by drain construction SU 3089 (=SU 3020)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

3041

3.2

4

Fish-Salting Vat 2

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

3042 3.3

5

Fill over drain cap SU 3043, cut Fill by SU 3019 (=SU 3027)

3043

3.3

5

Stone capping of drain, associated with drain SU 3050, 3054

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

3044 3.3

5

Mortar/rubble construction cut by SU 3055 to form drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

3045

3.3

5

Fill in cistern SU 3046, under SU 3049, over SU 3059

Fill

Creation/Construction

3046 3.2

4

Cistern

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 4

3047 3.2

4

Soak-away feature in surface SU 3067, abutted by fill SU 3020

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 1

3048 3.3

5

Pit cut filled by SU 3024

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

3049 3.2

4

Packed earth surface cut by cistern construction SU 3046, drain construction SU 3089

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

3050 3.3

5

Stone capping of drain, associated with drain SU 3043, 3054

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

3051

3.5

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

3052 3.5

7

Fill in drain SU 3050, 3054

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

3053

3.6

8

Lapilli fill over SU 3052

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

3054 3.3

5

Drain channel associated with drain SU 3043, 3050; filled by SU 3027

Structural Fixture Drain

Leveling Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 2 Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction Drain 17

488  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 3000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

3.3

5

Construction trench cut for drain in SU 3044

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

3056 3.3

5

Fill in tank SU 3041, under SU 3038

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

3057 3.3

5

Fill over SU 3062

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3058 3.3

5

Fill in tank SU 3041, under SU 3056

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

3059 3.2

4

Floor of cistern SU 3046, removed

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 4

3060 3.6

8

Modern deposit (=SU 3001)

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

3061 3.2

4

Fill in tank SU 3041 (FishSalting Vat 2)

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

3062 3.2

4

Fill under SU 3067, possibly associated with construction of Fish-Salting Vat 2 SU 3041 (=SU 3070)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3063 3.3

5

Fill under SU 3060, 3001 (=SU 3006)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

3064 3.2

4

Packed earth surface cut by cistern construction SU 3090, drain construction SU 3089 (=SU 3049, 3067)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

3065 3.3

5

Fill under SU 3063, WF 295

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

3066 3.6

8

Modern fill

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

3067 3.2

4

Packed earth surface over SU 3069 (=SU 3049)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

3068 3.2

4

Mortar surface under cistern floor SU 3059, over bedrock SU 3071

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 4

3069 3.2

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 3067, abutted by SU 3055

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

3070 3.2

4

Fill under SU 3069

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3071

3.0

0

Bedrock outcropping under SU 3046

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

3072 3.2

4

Plaster on tank SU 3041

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 2

3073

3.2

4

Plaster on tank SU 3041

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 2

3074

3.3

5

Threshold stone in streetfront Structural Fixture Threshold entrance VIII.7.9

Creation/Construction Threshold 9

3075

3.3

5

Three threshold stones in streetfront entrance VIII.7.10

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 10

3076 3.1

3

Construction trench of WF 235

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

3077 3.1

3

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

3078 3.1

3

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

3079 3.1

3

Fill under tank construction SU 3041, over SU 3081

Fill

Generic Fill

3055

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   489 Trench SU 3000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

3080 3.0

0

Paleosol (possibly redeposited)

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

3081 3.1

3

Fill under floor of tank SU 3041, over natural

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

3082 3.2

4

Fill under SU 3070, over SU 3077

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3083 3.2

4

Cut in redeposited paleosol

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

3084 3.1

3

Leveling fill with volcanic stones under SU 3041

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

3085 3.2

4

Fill under SU 3082

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

3086 3.1

3

Construction of buried wall associated with SU 3070

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3087 3.0

0

Paleosol under SU 3081

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

3088 3.0

0

Paleosol under SU 3081, 3084

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

3089 3.3

5

Construction trench cut for drain in SU 3020, 3041, 3038, 3064, 3049, 3067

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

3090 3.2

4

Construction trench cut for SU 3046 in SU 3049

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction Cistern 4

3091 3.0

0

Paleosol

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

3092 3.2

4

Construction trench cut for vat SU 3041

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

3093 3.2

4

Construction trench cut for soak-away SU 3047 in SU 3067

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

3094 3.6

8

Modern mounting bracket (=SU 3095)

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

3095 3.6

8

Modern mounting bracket (=SU 3094)

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

3096

Sarno stone in WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3097

Blocks in WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3098

Mortar over bracket SU 3001 and 3002 in WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3099

Sarno blocks in WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3100

Construction of WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3101

Plaster on WF 235

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

3102

Plaster over Sarno stone in WF 235

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

3103

Mortar over SU 3011, on WF 235

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

3104

Sarno stone in WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3105

3.6

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 235

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

3106 3.1

3

Construction of WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3107

3

Construction of WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3.1

490  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 3000

4000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

3.6

Modern mortar on WF 235

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

3502

Mortar on WF 235

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

3503

Construction of WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

3504

Mortar on wall

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

3501

8

Feature

4001 4.5

8

Modern concrete over SU 4002

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

4002 4.5

8

Modern fill under SU 4001

Fill

Modern Deposit

4003 4.3

5

Stone capping of drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 1

4004 4.5

8

Modern fill

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

4005 4.5

8

Probable modern deposit

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

4006 4.5

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

4007 4.5

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

4008 4.5

8

Modern consolidation abutting fountain SU 4031

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

4009 4.5

8

Fill abutting drain wall SU 4012

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

4010 4.2

5

Construction trench cut of pipe in SU 4009

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

4011

4.2

5

Fill in construction trench cut SU 4010

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

4012 4.3

5

Sarno block walls of drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 1

4013

4.3

5

Stone steps into drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 1

4014 4.3

5

Floor of drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 1

4015 4.3

5

Ramp east of trench 1000

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

4016 4.5

8

Cut filled by SU 4006

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

4017 4.5

8

Cut filled by SU 4007

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

4018 4.1

3

Tufa stones over SU 4019

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

4019 4.1

3

Sarno stones under SU 4018

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

4020 4.2

5

Paving stones in Via Stabiana

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

4021 4.4

7

Threshold stones in streetfront entrance VIII.7.1 (=SU 1076)

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 1

4022 4.2

5

Sarno sidewalk stone cut by modern ramp

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

4023 4.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

4024 4.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

4025 4.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

4026 4.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

4027 4.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

4028 4.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

4029 4.none

99

CANCELED. Cut in SU 4009, filled by Sarno stones SU 4019

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

4030 4.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Modern Activity

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   491 Trench SU 4000

5000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

4.2

5

Fountain adjacent to Via Stabiana

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

4032 4.2

5

Lead pipe leading to fountain 4031

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

5001 5.4

8

Modern fill

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

5002 5.4

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

5003 5.3

7

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

5004 5.4

8

Modern mortar deposit

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

5005 5.2

5

Fill cut by SU 5016, 5017

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

5006 5.3

7

Fill in niche in WF 24

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

5007 5.3

7

Plaster of niche under SU 5006 in WF 24

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

5008 5.4

8

Modern deposit between SU 5006, 5007

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

5009 5.4

8

Modern fill over opus signinum surface SU 5010

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

5010 5.3

7

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

5011

5.3

7

Construction of WF 20

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5012

5.3

7

Fill of doorway in WF 20

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

5013

5.3

7

Counter feature abutting WF 19, 20; over SU 5003

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

5014

5.2

5

Leveling fill under SU 5005 (=SU 5018)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

5015

5.3

7

Fill under SU 5001

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

5016 5.2

5

Tank or drain feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

5017

5.2

5

Lapilli fill in SU 5016

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

5018 5.2

5

Leveling fill (=SU 5014)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

5019 5.2

5

Leveling fill under SU 5005 (=SU 5023)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

5020

Plaster on WF 24

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

5021

Plaster on WF 25

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

4031

SubType

Formation Category

5022 5.2

5

Construction of buried wall in fill SU 5018

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5023 5.2

5

Leveling fill (=SU 5019)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

5024 5.3

7

Opus signinum surface associated with SU 5003

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

5025 5.3

7

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 5026

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

5026 5.3

7

Mortar subsurface of opus signinum SU 5003

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

5027 5.3

7

Leveling fill under mortar SU 5026 (=SU 5031)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

492  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 5000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

5028 5.2

5

Terrace fill

Fill

5029 5.3

7

Mortar/tile capping of drain under WF 20

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 3

5030 5.2

5

Collapsed in SU 5003, over SU 5032

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

5031

5.3

7

Leveling fill under opus signinum SU 5003 (=SU 5027)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

5032 5.2

5

Possible tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

5033

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Plaster on SU 5033 in WF 19

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

5.none

5034 5035

5.4

8

Modern pointing on WF 19

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

5036 5.4

8

Modern mortar on WF 19

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

5037

7

Leveling fill under opus signinum SU 5003, abutting drain construction SU 5041 (=SU 5027)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

3

Construction of WF 21

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on SU 5038 in WF 21

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

5.3

5038 5.1a 5039 5040 5.4

8

Modern consolidation of WF 21

Architecture

5041

5.3

7

Rubble/plaster construction of drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 3

5042 5.4

8

Modern fill in drain

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

5043

5.3

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

5044 5.3

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

5045 5.3

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

5046 5.3

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

5047 5.3

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

5048 5.3

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

5049 5.3

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

5050 5.3

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

5051

5.2

5

Opus signinum surface under bench SU 5013, opus signinum surface SU 5003

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

5052 5.3

7

Mortar fragment in fill SU 5027

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

5053

5.3

7

Cut in buried wall SU 5022

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

5054 5.3

7

Fill under SU 5018

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

5055

5.2

5

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

5056 5.2

5

Sub-floor for SU 5051

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

Construction of WF 24

Architecture

Wall

5057

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   493 Trench SU 5000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

SubType

Formation Category

5058 5.3

7

Threshold stone abutting WF 23

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

5059 5.1a

3

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5060 5.4

8

Modern consolidation of WF 24

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 22

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

5061

Feature

5062 5.4

8

Modern consolidation of WF 22

Architecture

5063 5.3

7

Rubble foundation of drain SU 5041

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 3

5064 5.4

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

5065 5.3

7

Construction of WF 21

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5066 5.1a

3

Plaster on WF 21

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

5067 5.3

7

Fill in construction trench cut SU 5071 for drain SU 5061

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

5068 5.1b

4

Construction of WF 20

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5069 5.1b

4

Plaster on WF 20

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

5070 5.1a

3

Foundation of WF 14

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5071

7

Construction trench cut for drain SU 5041 in SU 5068

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 23

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5.3

5072 5073

Construction of WF 25

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5.4

8

Modern consolidation of WF 25

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

5075 5.4

8

Modern consolidation of WF 22

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

5076 5.3

7

Construction of WF 21

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5077 5.1b

4

Plaster on WF 20

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

6001 6.4

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

6002 6.4

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

6003 6.4

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

6004 6.4

8

Modern packed earth surface

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

6005 6.4

8

Ceramic fragments abutting WF 16

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

6006 6.4

8

Modern fill over SU 6007, abutting SU 6004

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

6007 6.4

8

Lapilli fill of cut SU 6014

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

6008 6.3

5

Sub-surface under SU 6014

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

6009 6.2

3

Construction of buried wall under WF 17

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

6010 6.2

3

Plaster on buried wall SU 6009

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

5074

6000

Type

494  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 6000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

6.2

3

Plaster on buried wall SU 6009

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

6012 6.2

3

Rubble deposit abutting WF 16 (=SU 6018)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

6013 6.4

8

Modern consolidation of WF 16, 17

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

6014 6.4

8

Modern cut in SU 6008, filled by SU 6001

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

6015 6.2

3

Fill in SU 6009

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

6016 6.4

8

Deposit (including coins) in foundation of buried wall SU 6019

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

6017 6.2

3

Construction of WF 16

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

6018 6.2

3

Foundation of WF 16

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

6019 6.2

3

Foundation of buried wall SU 6009

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

6020 6.3

5

Sub-floor fill under fill SU 6008

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

6021 6.2

3

Construction of WF 16

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

6022 6.4

8

Fill of doorway in WF 16

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

6023 6.4

8

Fill of doorway in WF 16

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

6024 6.4

8

Modern mortar on fill of doorway in WF 16

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

6025 6.4

8

Modern mortar on fill of doorway in WF 16

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

6026 6.4

8

Modern pointing on WF 16

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

6027 6.4

8

Modern pointing on WF 15

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

6028 6.4

8

Collapse in WF 16

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

6029 6.4

8

Collapse in WF 16

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

6030 6.4

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 16

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

6031 6.1

2

Fill possibly associated with SU 6045

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

6032 6.2

3

Construction of WF 17

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

6033 6.2

3

Possible drainage feature in WF 17

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 2

6034 6.3

5

Fill (intentional blockage) in possible drain in WF 17

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

6035 6.3

5

Plaster on WF 17

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

6011

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   495 Trench SU 6000

7000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

6036 6.3

5

Plaster on WF 17

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

6037 6.3

5

Plaster on WF 17

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

6038 6.3

5

Plaster on WF 17

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

6039 6.4

8

Modern collapse of WF 31

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

6040 6.4

8

Modern collapse of WF 31

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

6041 6.4

8

Modern fill under SU 6007

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

6042 6.2

3

Fill under WF 16, 17 (=SU 6008, 6015)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

6043 6.4

8

Modern nail in WF 17

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

6044 6.4

8

Modern consolidation of WF 17

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

6045 6.1

2

Redeposited Mercato ash fill under 6031

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

6046 6.0

0

Paleosol under SU 6041

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

6047 6.0

0

Paleosol

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

7001 7.6

8

Modern topsoil over trench 7000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

7002 7.6

8

Lapilli deposit

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

7003 7.6

8

Pit cut in SU 7004, filled by SU 7002

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

7004 7.4

5

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7005 7.4

5

Plaster floor surface over SU 7010

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7006 7.4

5

Plaster floor surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7007 7.4

5

Fill under SU 7004

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7008 7.4

5

Fill over drain construction SU 7023

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7009 7.3

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

7010 7.4

5

Stone capping and fill of drain Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

7011

7.4

5

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7012 7.1

3

Construction of buried wall cut by drain construction SU 7047/7052/7053

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7013

7.4

5

Capstone of drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

7014 7.6

8

Modern mortar on WF 283

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

7015

7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 283

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7016 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 283

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7017 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 283

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7018 7.4

5

Mortar floor surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7019 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 236

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7020 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 236

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7021 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 236

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7022 7.5

7

Fill in drain under capstones SU 7010, 7013

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

496  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 7000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

7023 7.4

5

Cut for drain filled by SU 7022 Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

7024 7.6

8

Modern mortar on WF 236

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

7025 7.4

5

Construction of buried wall under WF 236

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7026 7.4

5

Construction of WF 236

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7027 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 284

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7028 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 284

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7029

Quoin in WF 284

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7030

Construction of WF 284

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7031

Construction of WF 284

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Fill in drain, under modern fill SU 7022

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Collapse of WF 284

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

7032 7.5

7

7033

Feature

7034 7.5

7

Fill in drain, under fill SU 7032 Fill

7035

7.4

5

Drain settling basin

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction

7036 7.5

7

Fill in drain SU 7035, over SU 7037

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

7037 7.5

7

Fill in drain SU 7035, under SU 7036 (=SU 7034, 7038?)

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

7038 7.5

7

Fill in drain (=SU 7034)

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

7039 7.4

5

Packed earth surface under SU 7008, 7041, cut by SU 7023

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

7040 7.4

5

Tile surface at bottom of drain settling basin

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

7041 7.4

5

Fill over drain construction SU 7023

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7042 7.4

5

Plaster floor associated with foundation SU 7011

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7043 7.4

5

Cut in drain SU 7039

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

7044 7.4

5

Fill under SU 7001

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7045 7.4

5

Earth/rubble fill; possible fill in construction trench of WF 280

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

7046 7.4

5

Fill cut by construction trench Fill SU 7048

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7047 7.4

5

Earth/amphora construction of drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

7048 7.4

5

Construction trench cut for WF 280

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

7049 7.4

5

Fill under drain construction SU 7039

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7050 7.1

3

Foundation of WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   497 Trench SU 7000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

7.4

5

Fill under SU 7001 (=SU 7008)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7052 7.4

5

Cut in drain

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

7053

7.4

5

Fill associated with construction of drain SU 7047

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7054 7.4

5

Mortar surface over SU 7044

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7055 7.4

5

Amphora and its fill in SU 7049

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

7056 7.4

5

Amphora and its fill in SU 7049

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

7057 7.4

5

Fill in construction trench cut of WF 235

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

7058 7.4

5

Construction trench cut for WF 235, filled by SU 7057

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

7059 7.2

4

Drain construction under SU 7039

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 13

7060 7.3

4

Plaster surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7061 7.3

4

Plaster surface abutting WF 236

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7062 7.4

5

Fill under SU 7001 in SU 7004

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7063 7.3

4

Fill in construction trench cut for drain SU 7059

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

7064 7.3

4

Fill in construction trench cut for drain SU 7059

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

7065 7.4

5

Stone capping of drain (=SU 7010)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

7066 7.4

5

Drain in WF 284

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

7067 7.4

5

Capstone of drain under WF 284, over SU 7066

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

7068 7.4

5

Cut for later drain in drain SU 7066

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

7069 7.5

7

Fill in drain under SU 7065

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

7070 7.4

5

Cut filled by SU 7069 (=SU 7023, 7043?)

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

7071

7051

Feature

7.3

4

Fill under SU 7063

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7072 7.3

4

Fill under SU 7063

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7073 7.3

4

Mortar floor under drain Fill SU 7074 (=SU 7009, 7060, 7061)

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7074 7.4

5

Mortar construction of drain cut by SU 7070, filled by SU 7069

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

7075 7.4

5

Construction trench cut for drain SU 7074 in SU 7009, 7063

Cut

Creation/Construction

7076 7.4

5

Amphora lining of drain SU 7074

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 17

7077 7.1

3

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

7078 7.4

5

Pit cut filled by SU 7044

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

7079 7.4

5

Fill cut by SU 7078

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

498  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 7000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category Creation/Construction

7080 7.4

5

Fill abutting soak-away SU 7084, over SU 7077

Fill

Generic Fill

7081 7.4

5

Fill associated with drain feature SU 7035

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

7082 7.4

5

Packed earth surface cut by SU 7078

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

7083 7.1

3

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

7084 7.4

5

Soak-away amphora and its fill in generic fill SU 7080

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

7085 7.4

5

Fill under SU 7040

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

7086 7.1

3

Packed earth surface cut by SU 7059, 7078, 7091

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

7087 7.2

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 7091 for drain SU 7059

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

7088 7.1

3

Floor surface under SU 7086

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

7089 7.4

5

Cut in drain SU 7059, probably Cut associated with construction of WF 236

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

7090 7.2

4

Fill under SU 7087

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

7091 7.2

4

Construction trench cut for drain SU 7059 in SU 7086, filled by SU 7087

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

7092 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 239

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7093 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 239

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7094 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 239

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7095 7.4

5

Construction of WF 239

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7096 7.4

5

Construction of WF 239

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7097 7.6

8

Modern pointing on WF 239

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

7098 7.4

5

Construction of WF 239

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7099 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 238

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7100 7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 238

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7101

7.4

5

Quoin in WF 238

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7102 7.4

5

Construction of WF 238

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7103

7.6

8

Modern pointing on WF 238

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

7104

7.4

5

Plaster on WF 238

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

7105

7.4

5

Mortar surface abutting WF 238

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7106 7.4

5

Construction of WF 238

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7107

7.1

3

Packed earth surface under SU 7088, cut by SU 7091, associated with WF 236

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

7108 7.1

3

Fill under WF 235

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 238

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern nail in WF 278

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7109 7110

7.6

8

Feature

Soak-away 2

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   499 Trench SU 7000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

7111

7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 278

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7112

7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 279

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7113

7.1

3

Construction of WF 279

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7114

7.2

4

Hydraulic plaster on WF 278

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 13

7115

7.6

8

Modern pointing on WF 278

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

7116

7.4

5

Quoin in WF 278

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7117

7.1

3

Packed earth surface under SU 7107, 7088; associated with WF 236

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

7118

7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 243

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7119

7.6

8

Modern nail in WF 243

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

7120 7.1

3

Packed earth surface under SU 7090

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

Quoin in WF 243

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on WF 243

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 243

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7121 7122

7.6

8

7123

8000

7124

7.1

3

Fill under SU 7120

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

7125

7.1

3

Mortar floor surface over SU 7124

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

7126 7.4

5

Plaster on WF 236

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

7127

7.4

5

Sarno stones in WF 236

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7128 7.4

5

Construction of WF 236A

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

7129 7.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

7130

7.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

7131

7.0

0

Bedrock under SU 7050

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

8001 8.5

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

8002 8.3

6

Opus signinum surface and subsurface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

8003 8.1

4

Construction of buried wall abutted by SU 8002, 8004, 8006

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8004 8.4

7

Uncertain feature in SU 8002

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8005 8.3

6

Waste collection area (?)

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

8006 8.3

6

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

8007 8.3

6

Construction of wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8008 8.3

6

Quarrying fill under SU 8002

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

8009 8.2

5

Construction of buried wall under floor SU 8002

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8010 8.0

0

Paleosol around SU 8009, cut by SU 8008

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

8011

6

Drain channel over SU 8041, under SU 8002

Structural Fixture Drain

8.3

Feature

Creation/Construction Drain 26

500  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 8000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

8012 8.3

6

Leveling fill abuts SU 8013, 8018

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

8013 8.0

0

Paleosol

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

8014 8.1

4

Construction of buried wall on natural lava

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8015 8.0

0

Bedrock under SU 8014

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

8016 8.0

0

Paleosol under SU 8013 and 8047 (=SU 8017)

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

8017 8.0

0

Paleosol under SU 8047, 8046

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

8018 8.3

6

Fill in quarrying pit under SU 8002

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

8019 8.1

4

Construction of buried wall over SU 8014

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8020 8.1

4

Fill over amphorae SU 8024

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

8021 8.5

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

8022 8.0

0

Paleosol

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

8023 8.1

4

Construction of buried wall associated with SU 8019 and Waste Feature 23

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 23

8024 8.1

4

Three whole amphorae and amphora fragments in fill SU 8020

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 23

8025 8.5

8

Modern deposit under topsoil Fill SU 8021

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

8026 8.1

4

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

8027 8.3

6

Quarry fill under SU 8025

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

8028 8.1

4

Construction of WF 460

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8029 8.2

5

Construction of WF 459

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8030 8.3

6

Fill of quarrying pit under SU 8027

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

8031 8.1

4

Fill of quarrying pit

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

8032 8.3

6

Fill of quarrying pit under SU 8030, over 8031

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

8033 8.5

8

Fill in toilet SU 8034

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

8034 8.2

5

Toilet/waste disposal feature, filled by SU 8033

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 5

8035 8.5

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Modern Activity

8036 8.3

6

Threshold stone between Rooms 75, 77 in VIII.7

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 28

8037 8.2

5

Construction of wall cut by SU 8011, abutted by SU 8041

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8038 8.2

5

Construction of buried wall abutted by SU 8041

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8039 8.4

7

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

8040 8.3

6

Cut in SU 8028

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

Topsoil

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   501 Trench SU 8000

9000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

8041 8.2

5

Opus signinum floor surface abutting walls SU 8009, 8037, 8038

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

8042 8.2

5

Construction of wall face 491 (WCU 003)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8043 8.3

6

Leveling fill under SU 8002, over SU 8041

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

8044 8.0

0

Paleosol under opus signinum SU 8041

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

8045 8.0

0

Paleosol

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

8046 8.2

5

Construction of buried wall under SU 8009

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8047 8.2

5

Construction of e-w buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

8048 8.0

0

Bedrock under SU 8019, 8023

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

8049 8.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

8050 8.3

6

Downpipe in WF 460

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

9001 9.6

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

9002 9.4

6

Packed earth surface (=SU 9005?)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

9003 9.6

8

Lapilli layer above SU 9002

Fill

Modern Deposit

9004 9.1

3

Cesspit

Structural Fixture Cesspit

9005 9.4

6

Packed earth surface under SU 9010 (=SU 9002?)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

9006 9.2a

4

Construction of buried wall abutted by SU 9004, 9010

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

9007 9.4

6

Fill abutting SU 9026

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

9008 9.6

8

Lapilli deposit in SU 9004

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

9009 9.4

6

Buttressing of cesspit SU 9004 Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 13

9010 9.5

7

Construction of wall abutting Architecture SU 9025

Creation/Construction

9011

9.3

5

Opus signinum platform

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 6

9012 9.6

8

Modern lime deposit in SU 9013

Fill

Modern Activity

9013 9.3

5

Tank

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

9014 9.5

7

Construction of N wall stub abutting SU 9013

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

9015 9.4

6

Tile/pottery deposit under SU 9002

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

9016 9.5

7

Opus signinum (tessellated) surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

9017 9.6

8

Modern fill (=SU 9020)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

9018 9.5

7

Column construction abutting SU9016

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

9019 9.4

6

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Wall

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity Creation/Construction Waste Feature 13

502  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category Modern Activity

Feature

9020 9.6

8

Fill in tank (=SU 9017)

Fill

Modern Deposit

9021 9.3

5

Packed earth surface under SU 9019

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

9022 9.4

6

Drain feature over cesspit SU 9004

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 20

9023 9.3

5

Fill under SU 9021

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

9024 9.0

0

Paleosol under SU 9027

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

9025 9.1

3

Construction of WF 340

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

9026 9.1

3

Construction of WF 339

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

9027 9.2a

4

Construction of buried wall abutting SU 9004

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

9028 9.1

3

Construction of buried wall (=SU 9025)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

9029 9.1

3

Quarry fill under SU 9027; possible foundation trench

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 5

9030 9.4

6

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 9016, over fill SU 9031

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

9031 9.2b

4

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

9032 9.2a

4

Opus signinum floor surface under SU 9031

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

9033 9.3

5

Drain into cesspit SU 9004

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 19

9034 9.6

8

Lapilli fill in drain SU 9033

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

9035 9.2a

4

Fill under SU 9037

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

9036 9.2a

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 9032

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

9037 9.2a

4

Construction of buried wall under SU 9016

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

9038 9.2b

4

Leveling fill under floor SU 9031, over floor SU 9032

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

10000 10001 10.7

8

Modern deposit

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

10002 10.6

7

Opus signinum sidewalk surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

10003 10.7

8

Modern fill in cut SU 10008

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

10004 10.7

8

Modern fill in cut SU 10005

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

10005 10.7

8

Modern cut filled by SU 10004 Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

10006 10.6

7

Sub-floor fill under sidewalk SU 10002

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

10007 10.6

7

Fill under SU 10006

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

10008 10.7

8

Modern pit cut in SU 10002, 10006, 10007; filled by SU 10003

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

10009 10.6

7

Fill under SU 10007

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

10010 10.5

5

Sandy deposit over clay deposit SU 10011

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

9000

Quarry Area 5

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   503 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

10000 10011 10.5

5

Fill under SU 10010, over SU 10012

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

10012 10.5

5

Lava stone rubble deposit over SU 10013

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

10013 10.4

4

Mortar/packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

10014 10.4

4

Sub-floor fill under mortar/ packed earth SU 10013

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

10015 10.4

4

Fill under fill SU 10014

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

10016 10.3

3

Mortar/packed earth surface fragments found in SU 10015

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

10017 10.3

3

Fill under SU 10015

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

10018 10.2

2

Fill under SU 10024

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

10019 10.2

2

Sandy loam deposit

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

10020 10.1

1

Mortar/packed earth surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

10021 10.2

2

Cut in packed earth SU 10020

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

10022 10.2

2

Fill in cut SU 10021

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

10023 10.1

1

Leveling fill under SU 10020

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

10024 10.3

3

Volcanic stone under altar SU 10025, over SU 10018, abutting WF 528, SU 10017

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

10025 10.3

3

Altar/podium feature

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction Ritual Context 8

10026 10.3

3

Plaster on altar SU 10025, WF 528

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

10027 10.4

4

Plaster on altar SU 10025, WF 528

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 528

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Topsoil

Modern Activity

10028 11000

11001 11.8

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

11002 11.6

6

Mortar/stone platform and step feature over SU 11017, 11046, 11053, 11054, 11058

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

11003 11.2

3

Construction of WF 88

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11004 11.2

3

Plaster on doorway construction SU 11003 in WF 88

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11005 11.2

3

Construction of WF 88

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11006 11.2

3

Plaster on doorway construction SU 11005 in WF 88

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11007 11.7

7

Fill of doorway in WF 88

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

11008 11.7

7

Plaster on WF 88

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11009 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of WF 88

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11010

Construction of WF 117

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11011

Mortar on WF 117

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11012

Plaster on WF 117

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

504  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 11000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

11013 11014

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Plaster on WF 117

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

Plaster on WF 117

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11015 11.6

6

Fill abutting SU 11002

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11016 11.5

5

Drain abutting WF 82, associated with opus signinum SU 11017

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 5

11017 11.5

5

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

11018 11.8

8

Modern fill over trench 11000

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

11019 11.8

8

Fill of drain SU 11016, below 11018

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

11020 11.6

6

Opus signinum floor surface abutting SU 11021, SU 11023; abutting plaster layer of WF 92

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

11021 11.6

6

Amphora abutted by opus signinum surface SU 11020

Structural Fixture Fixed Vessel (not soak-away)

Creation/Construction

11022 11.7

7

Fill in amphora SU 11021

Fill

Amphora Fill

Creation/Construction

11023 11.4

4

Plaster on WF 92 (=SU 11027)

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11024 11.2

3

Plaster on buried wall SU 11045

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11025 11.4

4

Construction of WF 90

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11026 11.7

7

Fill in construction of WF 91

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11027 11.4

4

Plaster on WF 91

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

11028 11.7

7

Plaster on WF 91

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11029 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of WF 91

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11030 11.4

4

Construction of WF 90

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11031 11.4

4

Construction of WF 89

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11032 11.4

4

Plaster on WF 81

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11033 11.5

5

Construction of WF 89

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11034 11.7

7

Cut for drainage pipe in WF 89

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

11035 11.7

7

Fill in construction trench cut for downpipe SU 11036

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

11036 11.7

7

Downpipe in WF 89 (=SU 81091)

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

11037 11.8

8

Modern fill in downpipe SU 11036

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

11038 11.7

7

Plaster on WF 89

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11039 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of plaster SU 11038 on WF 89

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11040 11.6

6

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 11020

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

11041 11.6

6

Fill under opus signinum SU 11020

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   505 Trench SU 11000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

11042 11.5

5

Opus signinum surface

Fill

11043 11.5

5

Threshold stone abutting WF 84

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

11044 11.6

6

Fill under SU 11041

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11045 11.2

3

Construction of buried wall under SU 11043; reused as threshold

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11046 11.4

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

11047 11.2

3

Sarno block under WF 103

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11048 11.7

7

Fill in downpipe in WF 89

Fill

Downpipe Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

11049 11.7

7

Fill in downpipe in WF 89

Fill

Downpipe Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

11050 11.8

8

Modern fill under SU 11018

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

11051 11.7

7

Fill in amphora SU 11021

Fill

Amphora Fill

Creation/Construction

11052 11.4

4

Collapse in packed earth SU 11046, over fill SU 11101

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

11053 11.5

5

Leveling fill under opus signinum SU 11017, over packed earth SU 11046

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

11054 11.6

6

Mortar under SU 11002

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11055 11.4

4

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11056 11.7

7

Fill in amphora SU 11021

Fill

Amphora Fill

Creation/Construction

11057 11.5

5

Fill over tank SU 11066

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11058 11.4

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 11046, over packed earth SU 11102

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

11059 11.4

4

Fill in collapse SU 11052 in packed earth SU 11046

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11060 11.4

4

Fill (=SU 11058)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11061 11.5

5

Opus signinum basin cut by amphora SU 11021

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

11062 11.5

5

Fill in tank SU 11067

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

11063 11.8

8

Fill in drain SU 11016

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

11064 11.3

4

Packed earth surface associated with wall plaster SU 11194

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

11065 11.2

3

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

11066 11.4

4

Tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

11067 11.4

4

Tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

11068 11.4

4

Plaster on tank SU 11066

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

11069 11.5

5

Fill in tank SU 11066

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

11070 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of WF 117

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11071 11.6

6

Fill in amphora SU 11021

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Creation/Construction

Feature

506  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 11000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

11072 11.5

5

Fill under drain SU 11016

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

11073 11.6

6

Fill in amphora SU 11021

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary)

11074 11.5

5

Mortar construction of drain SU 11016

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 5

11075 11.5

5

Construction trench cut for drain SU 11016 in SU 11046, 11066, 11067

Cut

Creation/Construction

11076 11.6

6

Threshold stones in streetfront entrance VIII.7.5

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 5

11077 11.4

4

Construction of stone feature in tank SU 11066

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

11078 11.4

4

Construction of buried wall; reused in tank feature

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11079 11.4

4

Plaster on SU 11078, WF 11082

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11080 11.6

6

Construction trench cut for amphora SU 11021 in SU 11061

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

11081 11.5

5

Fill in feature SU 11077 in tank SU 11066

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 58

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 58

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11084

Mortar on WF 58

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11085

Construction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11086

Construction of WF 600

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11087

Reconstruction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11088

Fill of eastern doorway in WF 187

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

11089

Fill of western doorway in WF 187

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

11090

Fill in window feature in WF 187

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

11091

Locking mechanism in WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11092

Plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11093

Plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11094

Plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11082 11083 11.8

8

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Occupation/Use

11095 11.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 187

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11096 11.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 187

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11097 11.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 187

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   507 Trench SU 11000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

11098 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of plaster SU 11092 on WF 187

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11099 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11100 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of plaster SU 11093 and 11094 on WF 187

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11101 11.8

8

Rubble fill in pit under SU 11052

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

11102 11.4

4

Packed earth surface under SU 11046, 11058

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

11103 11.6

6

Opus signinum surface under oven SU 11104

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

11104 11.7

7

Construction of oven feature

Structural Fixture Cooking facility

11105 11.6

6

Fill in construction trench cut for fixed vessel SU 11021

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

11106 11.4

4

Leveling fill for surface 11102

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

11107 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of SU 11100

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11108

Creation/Construction Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 1

11109 11.4

4

Cut in SU 11102

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

11110 11.4

4

Fill in cut SU 11109

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

11111 11.5

5

Fill in tank SU 11067

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

11112 11.5

5

Fill in tank SU 11067, surrounding fill SU 11111

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

11113 11.5

5

Fill in tank SU 11066, under fill Fill SU 11069

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11114 11115 11.3

4

Construction of tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

11116 11.4

4

Fill in tank SU 11115

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

11117 11.7

7

Construction of buried wall in threshold between WF 95, 98

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11118 11.7

7

Plaster on buried wall SU 11117 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11119 11.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

11120 11.4

4

Construction of doorway in buried wall SU 11065

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11121 11.4

4

Plaster on SU 11120

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11122 11.3

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 11064

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

11123 11.2

3

Construction of WF 94

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11124 11.2

3

Plaster on WF 94

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 94

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

11125 11126 11.8

8

Feature

508  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 11000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

11127 11.5

5

Fill in tank SU 11067, under fill Fill SU 11112

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

11128 11.5

5

Fill in tank SU 11067, under fill Fill SU 11127

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

11129 11.1

2

Fill under WF 82, SU 11066, 11067

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11130 11.4

4

Fill under tank SU 11066, abutting SU 11129

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11131 11.5

5

Construction of WF 81

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11132 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of WF 81

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11133 11.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 81

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11134 11.2

3

Construction of WF 82

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11135 11.5

5

Reconstruction of WF 82

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11136 11.5

5

Reconstruction of WF 82

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11137 11.5

5

Plaster on WF 82

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11138 11.6

6

Plaster on WF 82

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11139 11.6

6

Mortar over SU 11138 on WF 82

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11140 11.6

6

Plaster on WF 82

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11141 11.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 82

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11142 11.8

8

Modern mortar for gatepost on WF 82

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11143 11.6

6

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

11144 11.1

2

Redeposited paleosol cut by SU 11188 (=SU 11129)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

11145 11.7

7

Cooking Facility 1 abutting WF 108, 107

Structural Fixture Cooking Facility

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 1

11146 11.6

6

Stone blocking drain SU 11016 at its outlet into street

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 5

11147 11.5

5

Outlet of drain SU 11016 onto Structural Fixture Drain opus signinum sidewalk surface SU 11148

Creation/Construction Drain 5

11148 11.5

5

Opus signinum sidewalk surface cut by SU 11131

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

11149 11.5

5

Possible foundations of WF 81 Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11150 11.2

3

Foundation of buried wall SU 11065 (=SU 11205)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11151 11.5

5

Outlet of drain SU 11016 into street, between curbstones

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 5

11152 11.2

3

Construction of WF 108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11153 11.2

3

Construction of WF 108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Miscellaneous

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   509 Trench SU 11000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

11154 11.2

3

Plaster on SU 11152 in WF 108

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11155 11.2

3

Plaster on SU 11153 in WF 108

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11156 11.7

7

Fill of doorway in WF 108

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

11157 11.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 108

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11158 11.2

3

Construction of WF 103

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11159 11.5

5

Construction of WF 83

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11160 11.2

3

Foundation of SU 11045, under SU 11159

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11161

Plaster on WF 83

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11162

Plaster under SU 11163 on WF 83

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11163

Plaster over SU 11162, under feature SU 11002, on WF 83

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11164 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of SU 11159 in WF 83

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11165 11.4

4

Construction of WF 89

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11166 11.2

3

Plaster on buried wall SU 11065

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11167 11.2

3

Plaster on WF 103

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11168 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of SU 11167, 11158 in WF 103

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11169 11.8

8

Modern pointing on SU 11167 in WF 103

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11170 11.8

8

Modern address plaque

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11171 11.8

8

Modern nail in WF 103

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

11172 11.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

11173 11.0

0

Paleosol under SU 11144

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

11174 11.7

7

Construction of WF 96

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11175 11.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 96

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11176 11.2

3

Construction of WF 93

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11177 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of WF 93

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

11178 11.7

7

Foundation of WF 95

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11179 11.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

11180 11.7

7

Construction of WF 95

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11181 11.8

8

Modern pointing on SU 11104, 11180 in WF 95

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Feature

510  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 11000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

11182 11.7

7

Construction of WF 107

11183 11.7

7

Cut for oven feature in WF 95, Architecture WF 107

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 1

11184 11.7

7

Construction of WF 98

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11185 11.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

11186 11.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

11187 11.4

4

Fill associated with tank construction SU 11066, 11067

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

11188 11.3

4

Cut of a pit

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

11189 11.7

7

Sarno block under cooking feature SU 11145

Structural Fixture Cooking Facility

11190 11.1

2

Packed earth surface over fill SU 11191

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

11191 11.1

2

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 11190, over packed earth SU 11199

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

11192 11.2

3

Construction of WF 92

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11193 11.2

3

Plaster on SU 11192 in WF 92, associated with packed earth surface SU 11199

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11194 11.3

4

Plaster over SU 11193 on WF 92, associated with SU 11064

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11195 11.2

3

Reconstruction of WF 92

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11196

Plaster on WF 92

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

11197

Mortar over SU 11196 on WF 92

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Creation/Construction

11198 11.8

8

Modern consolidation of SU 11023 in WF 92

11199 11.1

2

Packed earth surface under fill Fill SU 11191, over fill SU 11200

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

11200 11.1

2

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 11199, over mortar SU 11204

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

11201 11.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

11202 11.2

3

Cut for foundation trench

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

11203 11.2

3

Fill of construction trench 11202

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

11204 11.1

2

Mortar/packed earth surface under fill SU 11200, over fill SU 11144

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

11205 11.2

3

Construction of WF 92

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

11206 11.4

4

Cut for tank construction

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

11207 11.3

4

Cut for construction of tank

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   511 Trench SU 11000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

11515 11584

12000

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Plaster on WF 117

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

Reconstruction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12001 12.7

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

12002 12.5

6

Plaster on WF 232

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12003 12.7

8

Stray find: fragment of tile column

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

12004 12.7

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

12005 12.4

5

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

12006 12.4

5

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

12007 12.7

8

Modern fill of cistern SU 12008

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

12008 12.4

5

Cistern

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 5

12009 12.4

5

Leveling fill under mortar SU 12005, 12006

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

12010 12.7

8

Modern fill under SU 12004, over SU 12008, filling 12060

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

12011 12.4

5

Leveling fill associated with construction of cistern SU 12008

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

12012 12.3b

4

Mortar floor surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

12013 12.4

5

Construction trench cut for cistern SU 12008 in SU 12012

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

12014 12.4

5

Construction trench cut for cistern SU 12008 in SU 12015

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

12015 12.4

5

Leveling fill cut by construction trench SU 12014

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

12016 12.4

5

Pit cut in SU 12012

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

12017 12.4

5

Cut in SU 12012, 12016, 12018, filled by SU 12009

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

12018 12.4

5

Charcoal fill in SU 12016

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

12019 12.3a

4

Fragment of mortar from Structural Fixture Drain drain channel, associated with fragments SU 12023, 12024, 12025, 12030

Creation/Construction Drain 13

12020 12.3b

4

Cut in SU 12019

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

12021 12.3b

4

Cut in drain SU 12019

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

12022 12.3b

4

Packed earth surface with mortar skim under SU 12015, cut by SU 12014

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

12023 12.3a

4

Fragment of plaster from Structural Fixture Drain drain channel, associated with fragments SU 12019, 12024, 12025, 12030

Creation/Construction Drain 13

12024 12.3a

4

Fragment of plaster from Structural Fixture Drain drain channel, associated with fragments SU 12019, 12023, 12025, 12030

Creation/Construction Drain 13

512  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 12000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

12025 12.3a

4

Fragment of plaster from Structural Fixture Drain drain channel, associated with fragments SU 12019, 12023, 12024, 12030

Creation/Construction Drain 13

12026 12.4

5

Cut in drain SU 12019

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

12027 12.3b

4

Cut in drain fragment SU 12024

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

12028 12.3b

4

Cut in drain fragment SU 12025

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

12029 12.3b

4

Cut in SU 12025 (possible construction trench cut of WF 230)

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

12030 12.3a

4

Plaster drain channel, associated with fragments SU 12019, 12023, 12024, 12025

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 13

12031 12.3a

4

Fill in construction trench cut for drain SU 12019, 12023, 12024, 12025

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

12032 12.3a

4

Fill under drain SU 12030

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

12033 12.3b

4

Possible drain in surface SU 12012

Fill

Surface – Mortar

12034 12.3b

4

Drain abutting WF 231, 232

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 14

12035 12.3b

4

Mortar/stone construction, probably capping of drain SU 12034

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 14

12036 12.3b

4

Fill in drain SU 12034, 12035

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

12037 12.4

5

Fill in pit cut SU 12038

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

12038 12.4

5

Pit cut in SU 12022, filled by SU 12037

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

12039 12.4

5

Construction of column SU 12040

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12040 12.4

5

Construction of column

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12041 12.4

5

Leveling fill over SU 12011, associated with cistern construction SU 12008 (=SU 12005, 12006)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

12042 12.7

8

Modern consolidation of WF 231

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12043 12.7

8

Modern nail in WF 231

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

12044 12.7

8

Modern nail in WF 231

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

12045 12.1

3

Construction of WF 231

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12046 12.1

3

Construction of WF 231

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12047 12.1

3

Plaster on WF 231

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12048 12.1

3

Plaster on WF 231

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12049 12.1

3

Plaster on WF 231

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12050 12.1

3

Plaster on WF 231

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   513 Trench SU 12000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

12051 12.1

3

Sarno blocks in WF 231

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12052 12.1

3

Construction of WF 231

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12053 12.1

3

Construction of WF 231

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12054 12.1

3

Plaster on WF 231

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on WF 231

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12055

Feature

12056 12.4

5

Cut in SU 12012 (possible construction trench cut)

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

12057 12.3b

4

Construction trench cut for WF 232 in SU 12030

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

12058 12.4

5

Floor surface (?) under SU 12011

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

12059 12.2

4

Fish-salting vat

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 1

12060 12.7

8

Modern collapse void over SU 12008

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

12061 12.3a

4

Stones under fill SU 12012

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12062 12.3a

4

Packed earth surface under SU 12012, over SU 12061, abutting WF 230

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

12063 12.1

3

Quarrying fill under SU 12009, Fill 12039, 12068; associated with construction of cistern SU 12008

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 2

12064 12.4

5

Pit cut in SU 12063, filled by SU 12065

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

12065 12.4

5

Fill in cut SU 12064

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

12066 12.3b

4

Plaster over SU 12022

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

12067 12.4

5

Floor surface under SU 12058, over plaster feature SU 12059

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

12068 12.1

3

Packed earth surface under drain fill SU 12031, WF 230; over SU 12063

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

12069 12.4

5

Fill of fish salting vat SU 12059 Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

12070 12.4

5

Packed earth surface under SU 12009, abutting SU 12039

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

12071 12.3b

4

Brick tiles, upper course

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12072 12.3b

4

Joist hole cut in SU 12071

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

12073 12.1

3

Construction of WF 232

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12074 12.3b

4

Construction of WF 232

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12075 12.1

3

Construction of WF 232

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 232

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on WF 232

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12076 12077 12.7

8

12078

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 232

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12079 12.1

3

Construction of WF 232

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12080 12.1

3

Construction of WF 232

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 232

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12081

514  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 12000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

12082 12.1

3

cut of construction trench for SU 12090

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

12083 12.1

3

Pit cut in SU 12068

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

12084 12.1

3

Fill in cut SU 12082

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

12085 12.1

3

Cut in floor SU 12068

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

12086 12.1

3

Fill in cut SU 12085

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

12087 12.4

5

Fill in pit cut SU 12016

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

12088 12.4

5

Pit cut into SU 12058

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

12089 12.4

5

Fill in cut SU 12088 in floor SU 12058

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

12090 12.1

3

Buried wall over SU 12063

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12091 12.1

3

Wall under SU 12068

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12092 12.1

3

Redeposited paleosol under SU 12063

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 2

12093 12.3b

4

Construction of WF 230

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12094 12.3b

4

Construction of WF 230

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12095 12.3b

4

Sarno blocks in WF 230

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12096 12.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 230

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12097 12.3b

4

Construction of WF 230

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12098 12.3b

4

Sarno stones in WF 230

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12099 12.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 230

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12100 12.7

8

Modern nail in WF 230

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

12101 12.7

8

Modern nail in WF 230

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

12102 12.7

8

Modern pointing over SU 12093 in WF 230

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12103

Plaster on SU 12095 in WF 230 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12104

Plaster on SU 12095 in WF 230 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12105

Plaster on SU 12097 in WF 230 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

12106 12.3a

4

Packed earth surface under SU 12022

Fill

12107 12.4

5

Fill in tank SU 12059, under fill Fill SU 12069

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

12108 12.3b

4

Cut in tank floor SU 12059

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

12109 12.4

5

Construction trench cut for cistern SU 12124 (=SU 12013, 12014)

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

12110 12.4

5

Fill in SU 12108

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

12111 12.4

5

Mortar/brick/tile surface associated with tank SU 12059

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

12112 12.1

3

Redeposited paleosol (=SU 12092)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 2

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   515 Trench SU 12000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

12113 12.3b

4

Fill over SU 12114

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

12114 12.3b

4

Fill under SU 12113

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

12115 12.4

5

Cistern head over cistern SU 12124, abutting WF 195

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 5

12116 12.4

5

Construction trench cut for cistern SU 12008 in tank SU 12059

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

12117 12.3b

4

Collapse in tank SU 12059

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

12118 12.4

5

Mortar/stone surface under SU 12111

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

12119 12.4

5

Cut in tank SU 12059

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

12120 12.3a

4

Fill under SU 12106, cut by SU 12038

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

12121 12.4

5

Opus signinum floor surface over SU 12009, 12123; cut by SU 12130

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

12122 12.5

6

Access hatch over drain SU 12129

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 10

12123 12.4

5

Leveling fill under SU 12121 (=SU 12005, 12006, 12041)

Fill

Creation/Construction

12124 12.4

5

Cistern abutting WF 195, associated with cistern SU 12008

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 5

12125 12.7

8

Modern fill in cistern SU 12124, over SU 12142

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

12126 12.7

8

Collapse of cistern SU 12127

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

12127 12.4

5

Plaster over cistern SU 12124

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 5

12128 12.4

5

Fill abutting cistern SU 12124

Fill

Creation/Construction

12129 12.5

6

Mortar/stone capping of drains SU 12140, 12174

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 10

12130 12.5

6

Construction trench cut for drain SU 12129/12140/12174 in SU 12123

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

12131 12.5

6

Opus signinum floor surface fragments over drain capping SU 12129

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

12132 12.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

12133 12.5

6

Cut in phase 5a opus signinum floor

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

12134 12.5

6

Fill in cut SU 12133

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

12135 12.5

6

Fill under SU 12134 in cut SU 12133

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

12136 12.2

4

Packed earth surface under SU 12032, 12120

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

12137 12.6

7

Fill in drains under capstones SU 12129

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Leveling Fill

Generic Fill

Occupation/Use

516  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 12000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

12138 12.6

7

Fill in drain SU 12129/12174, under fill SU 12137

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

12139 12.5

6

Fill (=SU 12135)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

12140 12.5

6

Opus signinum/plaster drain construction under capstones SU 12129

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 10

12141 12.6

7

Fill in drain SU 12140

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

12142 12.7

8

Modern fill in cistern SU 12124, under SU 12125

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

12143 12.3b

4

Cut in drain SU 12030

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

12144 12.4

5

Cut in tank SU 12059

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

12145 12.7

8

Modern fill in cistern SU 12124, under SU 12142

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

12146 12.5

6

Terracotta tube connecting Structural Fixture Drain drain SU 12129 to tank/cistern SU 12124, opening into cistern SU 12115, associated with drain SU 12140

Creation/Construction Drain 10

12147 12.6

7

Fill in drain SU 12146

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

12148 12.3b

4

Sarno block in WF 224

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12149 12.3b

4

Sarno blocks at corner of WF 224, 225

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12150 12.3b

4

Construction of WF 224

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12151 12.3b

4

Plaster floor under WF 224

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

12152 12.3b

4

Construction of WF 224

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12153 12.3b

4

Construction of WF 224

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12154 12.3b

4

Construction of WF 224

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12155 12.7

8

Modern nail in WF 224

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

12156 12.7

8

Modern nail in WF 224

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

12157 12.7

8

Modern plaster on WF 224

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12158 12.3b

4

Degraded half of Sarno block Architecture SU 12149 in WF 224

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 224

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

12159 12160 12.2

4

Terrace fill under tank SU 12059

Fill

12161 12.5

6

Stones under SU 12135

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 5

12162 12.4

5

Water feature opening associated with cistern SU 12115

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 6

12163 12.7

8

Modern fill in cistern SU 12162 Fill

Modern Deposit

12164 12.2

4

Packed earth floor under SU 12136

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

12165 12.5

6

Reused capstone associated with SU 12129

Structural Fixture Drain

Modern Activity

Creation/Construction Drain 10

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   517 Trench SU 12000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature Quarry Area 2

12166 12.0

0

Bedrock outcropping under SU 12160

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

12167 12.7

8

Fill in cistern SU 12162, under modern fill SU 12163

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction

12168 12.7

8

Modern fill of cistern SU 12162, under modern fill SU 12167

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction

12169 12.6

7

Fill under drain capstone SU 12165

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

12170 12.6

7

Fill under drain capstone SU 12165 (=SU 12141)

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

12171 12.6

7

Fill under drain capstone SU 12165

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

12172 12.6

7

Fill associated with drain SU 12140

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

12173 12.2

4

Packed earth surface under SU 12164, abutting WF 231

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

12174 12.5

6

Double drain feature, northern portion

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 11

12175 12.5

6

Mortar/stone construction between northern and southern portions of double drain feature

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 11

12176 12.2

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 12173

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

12177 12.0

0

Bedrock under SU 12176

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

12178 12.4

5

Plaster lining of cistern SU 12124

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 5

12179 12.5

6

Plaster on tank SU 12008

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 5

12180 12.2

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 12136

Fill

Creation/Construction

12181 12.4

5

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 8

12182 12.4

5

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 8

12300 12.7

8

Modern nail in WF 239

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

12301 12.7

8

Modern nail in WF 239

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

12302 12.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 234

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12303

Construction of WF 234

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12304

Left hole of two cut in WF 239

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

12305

Right hole of two cut in WF 239

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

12306

Construction of WF 274

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12307

Construction of WF 234

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12308

Plaster on WF 239

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12309

Plaster on WF 239

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Sub-floor Fill

Quarry Area 2

518  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 12000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

12310 12.7

8

Modern mortar on WF 239

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12311 12.7

8

Modern plaster on WF 239

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12312 12.7

8

Modern pointing on SU 12306, Architecture 12307, 12319 in WF 234

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12313 12.7

8

Modern hook in WF 234

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

12314 12.7

8

Modern hook in WF 239

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

12315 12.7

8

Modern hook in WF 239

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

12316

Sarno block in South Odeon Wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12317

Construction of WF 234

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12318

Quoining under SU 12317 in WF 239

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12319

Construction of WF 234

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12320

Construction of WF 234

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12321

Sarno quoin in WF 234

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12322

Cut for drain in WF 239

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

12323

Mortar on WF 239

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12400

Sarno blocks in WF 196, 197, 198

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12401

Stone in WF 197, 198

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12402

Plaster on WF 197, 198

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12403

Construction of WF 199; back wall of a hearth (with SU 12404, 12405, 81848, 81850)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12404

Construction of WF 199; back wall of a hearth (with SU 12403, 12405, 81848, 81850)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12405

Construction of WF 199; back wall of a hearth (with SU 12403, 12404, 81848, 81850)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12500

Sarno blocks in WF 195

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 195

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12502

Construction of WF 195

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12503

Collapse/void in WF 195

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

12504

Construction of WF 195

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12505

Construction of WF 195

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12506

Construction of WF 195

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

12507

Window in WF 195

Architecture

Window

Creation/Construction

12508

Fill in window cut SU 12507 in Architecture WF 195

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

12501 12.7

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   519 Trench SU 12000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Collapse/void in WF 195

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

Modern plaster on WF 195

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

12511

Plaster on WF 195, 196

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12512

Plaster on window SU 12507 in WF 19

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12513

Plaster on SU 12507 in WF 195

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12514

Plaster on WF 195

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

12509 12510 12.7

13000

8

13001 13.4

8

Modern nail in WF 333

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

13002 13.4

8

Modern nail in WF 333

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

13003 13.4

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

13004 13.4

8

Modern nail in WF 333

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

13005 13.4

8

Collapse of WF 331

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

13006 13.4

8

Modern construction of WF 333

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

13007 13.3

5

Fill of northern doorway in WF 331

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

13008 13.2

4

Construction of WF 331

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13009 13.2

4

Construction of WF 332

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13010 13.2

4

Construction of WF 333

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13011 13.4

8

Fill under SU 13003, over SU 13017

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

13012 13.2

4

Downpipe in WF 332

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

13013 13.4

8

Lapilli fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

13014 13.2

4

Construction of WF 333

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13015 13.2

4

Construction of WF 334

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13016 13.2

4

Possible niche in WF 334

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

13017 13.4

8

Modern fill under SU 13011

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

13018 13.3

5

Plaster on WF 332

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

13019 13.3

5

Plaster on SU 13009 in WF 332

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

13020 13.3

5

Plaster on WF 332

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

13021 13.3

5

Opus signinum floor surface over tank SU 13040

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

13022 13.2

4

Wall construction

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13023 13.2

4

Four-tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

13024 13.2

4

Mortar floor abutting WF 332

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

13025 13.4

8

Modern topsoil abutting SU 13022

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13026 13.4

8

Modern fill under SU 13025

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

13027 13.2

4

Mortar floor surface over tank Fill SU 13023

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

13028 13.3

5

Fill under SU 13017

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

Fill

Feature

520  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 13000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

13029 13.4

8

Modern construction

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

13030 13.4

8

Modern fill abutting SU 13006

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

13031 13.2

4

Plaster on WF 334

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

13032 13.3

5

Fill in NW tank SU 13023

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

13033 13.3

5

Fill in NE tank SU 13023

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

13034 13.3

5

Fill in SE tank SU 13023

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

13035 13.3

5

Fill in SW tank SU 13023

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

13036 13.2

4

Mortar surface associated with tanks SU 13023

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

13037 13.2

4

Plaster on WF 333

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

13038 13.4

8

Possible mortar floor

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

13039 13.2

4

Fill in NW tank SU 13023

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

13040 13.2

4

Tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

13041 13.3

5

Leveling fill under opus signinum SU 13021, in tank SU 13040

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

13042 13.3

5

Leveling fill under opus signinum SU 13021, in tank SU 13040

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

13043 13.2

4

Soil sample from SW tank SU 13023

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

13044 13.2

4

Soil sample from SE tank SU 13023

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

13045 13.2

4

Fill in NE tank SU 13023

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

13046 13.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

13047 13.2

4

Mortar floor associated with tanks

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

13048 13.2

4

Cut in WF 331

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

13049 13.3

5

Fill of hole SU 13048 in WF 331 Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

13050 13.3

5

Fill in tank SU 13040

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

13051 13.2

4

Drain in WF 331

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 15

13052 13.3

5

Fill in drain SU 13051

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

13053 13.2

4

Fill under SU 13027

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

13054 13.1

3

Construction of buried wall under SU 13009

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13055 13.1

3

Construction trench for buried wall SU 13054

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

13056 13.1

3

Fill under SU 13053, 13054; over Fill SU 13056, 13057

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

13057 13.0

0

Bedrock under SU 13054, WF 332, 333

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

13058 13.0

0

Paleosol

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

13059 13.3

5

Fill in tank SU 13040, under SU 13041, 13050

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

13060 13.2

4

Fill under SU 13028

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   521 Trench SU 13000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

13061

Mortar on WF 333

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13500

Construction of WF 329

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13501

Construction of wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13502

Fill in doorway

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

13503

Construction of wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13504

Construction of WF 336

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13505

Construction of WF 336

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13506

Construction of WF 336

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13507

Niche built in WF 336

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

13508

Plaster on WF 329

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

13509

Wall construction

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13510

Fill of doorway

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

13511

Plaster on SU 13510

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

13512

Cut for niche in WF 354

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 362

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on WF 350

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Possible cut for niche in WF 350

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

Sarno quoin in WF 350

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

13520

Stone in WF 350

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13521

Construction of WF 350

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13522

Sarno stone in WF 350

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13523

Construction of WF 358

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13513 13516 13.4

8

13517 13518 13519 13.none

99

13524 13.4

8

Modern pointing covering SU 13023 in WF 358

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

13525 13.4

8

Modern pointing on Sarno stone in WF 358

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

13526

Tile in SU 13027 in WF 358

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13527

Construction of WF 358

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13528

Construction of WF 358

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

13529

Cut for possible niche in WF 358

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

13530

Cut for niche in WF 358

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on SU 13528, Architecture 13529 in WF 358

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 358

Wall

Creation/Construction

13531 13.4

13532

8

Architecture

Feature

522  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 14000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

14001 14.8

8

Modern deposit

14002 14.8

8

Modern cut in SU 14101, 14201, Cut 14302

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

14003 14.8

8

Modern fill in cut SU 14002

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

14101 14.7

7

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14102 14.8

8

Cut in opus signinum surface SU 14101

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

14103 14.8

8

Modern fill in SU 14102

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

14104 14.7

7

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 14101

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14105 14.6

5

Possible work surface under SU 14104, 14101

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14106 14.6

5

Fill under opus signinum SU 14105

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14107 14.6

5

Fill under SU 14106

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14108 14.6

5

Fill under SU 14107

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14109 14.5

4

Opus signinum on SU 14111

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14110 14.5

4

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

14111 14.5

4

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14112 14.5

4

Construction trench cut in SU 14109, 14111

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

14113 14.5

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 14112

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

14114 14.5

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 14109

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14115 14.5

4

Cut in SU 14116

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

14116 14.5

4

Fill cut by SU 14115

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

14117 14.5

4

Fill in SU 14114

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14118 14.5

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 14111

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14119 14.4

3

Fill under SU 14118

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14120 14.3

2

Mortar/packed earth surface under SU 14009, abutting SU 14121

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

14121 14.3

2

Construction abutting WF 528 Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

14122 14.5

4

Fill in construction trench cut Fill SU 14115 of WF 515 (=SU 14402)

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

14123 14.2

1

Gray ash surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14124 14.5

4

Fill under SU 14116

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

14125 14.2

1

Construction layer for cement/sand surface SU 14120, 14123

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

14126 14.2

1

Gray ash surface under SU 14125

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14127 14.7

7

Fill of amphora

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   523 Trench SU 14000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14201 14.7

7

Opus signinum floor surface

14202 14.7

7

Construction trench cut for Cut amphora SU 14203 in SU 14201, 14204-14208

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

14203 14.7

7

Fill in amphora in cut SU 14202

Amphora Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

14204 14.7

7

Plaster repair to opus signinum Fill surface SU 14201

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

14205 14.7

7

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 14201

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14206 14.6

5

Fill under opus signinum SU 14208

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14207 14.7

7

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 14201, in SU 14205

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14208 14.6

5

Possible opus signinum work surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14209 14.6

5

Fill under opus signinum SU 14208

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14210 14.5

4

Patching of opus signinum surface SU 14211

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14211 14.5

4

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14212 14.3

2

Construction abutting WF 525, 528

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

14213 14.5

4

Fill under opus signinum SU 14211

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14214 14.5

4

Fill under opus signinum SU 14211 (=SU 14215)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14215 14.4

3

Fill under opus signinum SU 14211 (=SU 14214)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14216 14.4

3

Packed earth under opus signinum SU 14211

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14217 14.4

3

Fill in SU 14216

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

14218 14.4

3

Fill in SU 14216

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

14219 14.3

2

Construction trench fill for WF 528

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

14220 14.2

1

Gray ash surface above SU 14221

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14221 14.2

1

Construction fill for gray ash surface 14220

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14222 14.2

1

Water washed sand and grit

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

14223 14.2

1

Gray ash surface under WF 528

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14224 14.2

1

Leveling fill over SU 14225

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

14225 14.2

1

Gray ash surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14226 14.2

1

Gray ash under packed earth surface SU 14225

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

Fill

Feature

524  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 14000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

14227 14.1

1

Mercato ash road surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14228 14.2

1

Pit/posthole cut in natural

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

14229 14.2

1

Fill in cut SU 14228

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

14230 14.2

1

Pit cut in SU 14231, 14232

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

14231 14.1

1

Rock/pebble deposit over SU 14232

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

14232 14.1

1

Mercato ash road surface over Miscellaneous SU 14227

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14233 14.3

2

Opus signinum surface abutting Porta Stabia

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14301 14.7

7

Packed earth surface over SU 14302

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

14302 14.7

7

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14303 14.7

7

Opus signinum floor surface under SU 14302

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

14304 14.7

7

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 14303

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14305 14.6

5

Possible opus signinum work surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14306 14.6

5

Cut in opus signinum surface SU 14305

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

14307 14.8

8

Modern fill in cut SU 14306

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

14308 14.6

5

Fill under opus signinum SU 14305

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14309 14.6

5

Fill over SU 14310, abutting SU 14307

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

14310 14.6

5

Fill under SU 14309, over SU 14311

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

14311 14.6

5

Fill under SU 14310

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

14312 14.5

4

Opus signinum sidewalk surface over SU 14313

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14313 14.5

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 14312

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

14314 14.5

4

Opus signinum sidewalk surface under SU 14313, abutting SU 14424

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

14315 14.5

4

Fill under opus signinum SU 14314

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

14401

Construction of WF 515

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

14402

Construction of buried wall under WF 515

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

14403

Plaster on WF 515

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

14404

Plaster on WF 515

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on SU 14404

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

14405 14.8

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   525 Trench SU 14000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

14406 14.8

8

14407

SubType

Formation Category

Modern reconstruction of SU 14401

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 528

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

14408 14.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

14409 14.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

14410 14.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

14411 14.2

1

Construction of WF 528

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

14412 14.6

5

Cut for niche in wall directly above altar SU 14414

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction Ritual Context 1

14413 14.3

2

Cut for niche contemporary with altar SU 14414

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction Ritual Context 2

14414 14.4

3

Altar feature associated with shrine SU 14413

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction Ritual Context 8

14415 14.4

3

Plaster on altar SU 14414, under SU 14416

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

Plaster on altar SU 14414, over SU 14415

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

14416 14417 14.8

8

Modern mortar on SU 14411 in WF 528

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

14418 14.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

14419 14.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

14420 14.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

14421

Construction of WF 523

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

14422

Cut at interface of WF 524 and 523

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

14423

Reconstruction of WF 523

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

14424

Construction of WF 522

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

14425 14.8

8

Modern plaster and reconstruction of WF 522

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

14426 14.6

5

Inscribed stone in WF 522

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

14427 14.8

8

Modern cut in WF 522/SU 14424

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

Monumental bench feature

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

14428 15000

Type

15001 15.4

8

Modern nail

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

15002 15.4

8

Modern nail

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

15003 15.4

8

Modern topsoil over trench 15000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

15004 15.1

4

Sarno block

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15005 15.4

8

Modern mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

15006 15.4

8

Lapilli deposit

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

15007 15.1

4

Opus signinum platform under Structural Fixture Bench/Platform SU 15006

Creation/Construction

15008 15.2

5

Opus signinum floor surface

Creation/Construction

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

526  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 15000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

15009 15.2

5

Drain in WF 327

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 16

15010 15.4

8

Modern construction trench cut in SU 15008

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

15011 15.1

4

Mortar and stone construction abutted by floor SU 15008

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15012 15.4

8

Fill under SU 15010

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

15013 15.3

6

Fill (heavily contaminated)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

15014 15.2

5

Fill under SU 15008, over SU 15015, abutting SU 15011, 15025

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

15015 15.1

4

Mortar floor surface under SU 15014, 15016, 15017, 15018

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

15016 15.1

4

Packed earth surface associated with WF 329, over SU 15015, abutting wall SU 15017

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

15017 15.1

4

Construction of buried wall abutting SU 15019

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15018 15.1

4

Tile surface under SU 15012

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

15019 15.1

4

Construction of WF 329

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15020 15.2

5

Fill of doorway in WF 329

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

15021 15.1

4

Sarno block in WF 329

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15022 15.1

4

Vessel abutting SU 15017, 15018 Structural Fixture Fixed Vessel (not soak-away)

Creation/Construction

15023 15.1

4

Fill in vessel SU 15022

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

15024 15.1

4

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

15025 15.1

4

Construction under SU 15004

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15026 15.1

4

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 15015

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

15027 15.2

5

Uppermost hole of three cut in WF 327

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

15028 15.2

5

Middle hole of three cut in WF 327

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

15029 15.1

4

Mortar surface under SU 15018

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

15030 15.1

4

Threshold stones under doorway fill SU 15020

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

15031 15.1

4

Fill over SU 15032 (=SU 15015)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

15032 15.1

4

Fill under SU 15031

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

15033 15.1

4

Fill under SU 15032

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

15034 15.1

4

Four stones abutting WF 329

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

15035 15.1

4

Lowest hole of three cut in WF 327

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

15036 15.1

4

Construction of WF 327

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   527 Trench SU 15000

16000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Feature

15037 15.4

8

Modern fill of doorway over SU 15038

Architecture

15038 15.1

4

Threshold stones under modern doorway fill SU 15037

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

15039 15.1

4

Iron door hinge in threshold stone 15030

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

15040 15.1

4

Fill above natural bedrock

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

15041 15.1

4

Fill of a cut in SU 15042

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

15042 15.1

4

Construction of WF 336

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction Cistern 12

15043 15.1

4

Void left by rock removed from baulk

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

15044 15.1

4

Threshold construction under Structural Fixture Threshold WF 319/326

Creation/Construction

15045 15.1

4

Sarno stones in WF 329

Architecture

Creation/Construction

15046 15.1

4

Drain in WF 331, cutting wall SU 15019

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 15

15047 15.1

4

Construction of buried wall between WF 329, 337

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15048 15.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

15049 15.1

4

Construction of WF 326, abutting wall 327

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15050 15.1

4

Construction of WF 326

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15051 15.1

4

Construction of WF 326

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15052 15.1

4

Construction of WF 327

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

15053 15.1

4

Sarno block in WF 327

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16001 16.6

8

Modern topsoil over trench 16000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

16002 16.6

8

Lapilli fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

16003 16.6

8

Vessel under SU 16002

Structural Fixture Fixed Vessel (not soak-away)

Creation/Construction

16004 16.6

8

Modern collapse of WF 118, 122

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

16005 16.6

8

Modern packed earth surface

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

16006 16.6

8

Fill in vessel SU 16003

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

16007 16.6

8

Modern tiles over power lines

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

16008 16.5

7

Masonry foundations of Structural Fixture Cooking facility Cooking Facility 1 (=SU 16015)

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 1

16009 16.5

7

Fill under SU 16005, 16008

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16010 16.5

7

Fill under SU 16009, over SU 16012, 16011

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16011 16.3b

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

16012 16.3b

4

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

16013 16.5

7

Threshold stones between Rooms 15 and 16, VIII.7.5-6

Structural Fixture Threshold

Wall

Creation/Construction Creation/Construction Threshold 35

528  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 16000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

Feature

16014 16.6

8

Lapilli fill

16015 16.5

7

Cooking Facility 1 (=SU 11145) Structural Fixture Cooking facility

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 1

16016 16.3c

4

Stone/tile/opus signinum capping of drain SU 16026, abutting WF 187

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 6

16017 16.3a

4

Construction of buried wall associated with SU 16031

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16018 16.4

5

Cut in bedrock

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

16019 16.4

5

Fill in quarrying cut SU 16018

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

16020 16.3c

4

Opus signinum basin

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

16021 16.3c

4

Fill in opus signinum basin SU 16020

Fill

Occupation/Use

16022 16.3b

4

Rubble/Sarno construction associated with cesspit, abutting SU 16017

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 11

16023 16.3c

4

Fill in drain SU 16026

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

16024 16.3c

4

Fill in drain, over SU 16025

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

16025 16.3c

4

Fill in drain SU 16026

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

16026 16.3c

4

Drain capped by SU 16016; associated with drain feature SU 16023, 16024, 16025, 16030

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 6

16027 16.3c

4

Mortar in drain channel SU 16026

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 6

16028 16.0

0

Bedrock outcropping under natural deposit SU 16072

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

16029 16.3a

4

Plaster on WF 108

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16030 16.3c

4

Fill in drain SU 16026

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

16031 16.3a

4

Construction of buried wall abutting SU 16012

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16032 16.3c

4

Mortar/packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

16033 16.3a

4

Construction of buried wall Architecture under SU 16054, over SU 16072

Wall

Creation/Construction

16034 16.3c

4

Sub-floor under mortar/ packed earth SU 16032

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

16035 16.3a

4

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16036 16.3c

4

Packed earth surface abutting SU 16020, 16053, cut by drain SU 16026

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

16037 16.3c

4

Fill under SU 16020

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

16038 16.3c

4

Fill under SU 16010, 16009, 16037

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16039 16.6

8

Modern fill abutting SU 16015

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16040 16.3c

4

Stones under SU 16082

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16041 16.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

16042 16.5

7

Fill under threshold SU 16013

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   529 Trench SU 16000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Formation Category

Feature

16043 16.3b

4

Amphorae filled by SU 16014

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 11

16044 16.3c

4

Fill under SU 16010, over 16072 Fill (=SU 16045, 16067)

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

16045 16.3c

4

Fill under SU 16038 (=SU 16044, 16068)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

16046 16.3a

4

Tile feature under mortar SU 16070

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

16047 16.3c

4

Construction trench cut for drain SU 16026

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

16048 16.3c

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 16047 for drain SU 16026

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

16049 16.3c

4

Sub-floor fill under mortar/ packed earth SU 16032

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

16050 16.3b

4

Fill under collapse in feature SU 16046

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16051 16.3b

4

Fill under SU 16020, 16037

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

16052 16.3b

4

Construction trench cut for soak-away (?) SU 16058 in SU 16038

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

16053 16.3a

4

Possible construction of buried wall associated with SU 16017

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16054 16.3b

4

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16055 16.4

5

Construction of buried wall cutting drain SU 16026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16056 16.3a

4

Fill under tile feature SU 16046 Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16057 16.3b

4

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16058 16.3b

4

Possible soak-away amphora

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 3

16059 16.3b

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 16058

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

16060 16.3a

4

Packed earth surface under SU 16011, 16046, abutting SU 16056

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

16061 16.3b

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 16012

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

16062 16.3a

4

Rubble fill in pit cut SU 16066, Fill under surface SU 16060

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

16063 16.6

8

Modern fill over drain SU 16026

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

16064 16.1

1

Construction of buried wall under WF 108 (=SU 16537)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16065 16.3a

4

Construction trench cut for tile feature SU 16046 in SU 16060

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

16066 16.3a

4

Cut of a pit

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

16067 16.3a

4

Fill under SU 16038, over SU 16072

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

530  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 16000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

16068 16.3b

4

Mortar over amphora SU 16043

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 11

16069 16.3a

4

Plaster on buried wall SU 16017

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16070 16.3a

4

Plaster on buried wall SU 16017

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16071 16.1

1

Pappamonte blocks in construction of WF 108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16072 16.0

0

Fill over natural

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

16073 16.3a

4

Plaster on buried wall SU 16017, over tile feature SU 16046

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16074 16.3a

4

Fill under SU 16017

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

16075 16.2

3

Fill under SU 16056, cut by SU 16066, 16018

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16076 16.3b

4

Fill under SU 16012, over SU 16068

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16077 16.3a

4

Pit cut in SU 16072, filled by SU 16096

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

16078 16.4

5

Construction trench cut for buried wall SU 16055 in SU 16026

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

16079 16.1

1

Cut for Ritual Context 11

Cut

Ritual Pit Cut

Occupation/Use

Ritual Context 11

16080 16.1

1

Fill of Ritual Context 11 (=SU 16081)

Fill

Ritual Pit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Ritual Context 11

16081 16.1

1

Fill of Ritual Context 11 (=SU 16080)

Fill

Ritual Pit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Ritual Context 11

16082 16.3c

4

Mortar abutting stones SU 16040

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16083 16.6

8

Modern fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16084 16.5

7

Fill under SU 16083

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16085 16.3b

4

Masonry construction of cesspit

Structural Fixture Cesspit

16086 16.1

1

Pappamonte block under Architecture WF 187, over natural SU 16028

Wall

Creation/Construction

16087 16.1

1

Construction trench cut for pappamonte blocks SU 16071 in SU 16072

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

16088 16.3a

4

Cut associated with SU 16108, 16538, 16539, 16537

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

16089 16.5

7

Burned fill over SU 16090

Fill

Burned Layer

Occupation/Use

16090 16.4

5

Fill under SU 16089

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16091 16.3a

4

Plaster on buried wall SU 16031

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16092 16.2

3

Fill in cut SU 16093

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16093 16.2

3

Cut in WF 187?

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

16094 16.3b

4

Possible packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 11

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   531 Trench SU 16000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

16095 16.3b

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 16094, 16011

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

16096 16.3a

4

Fill in cut SU 16077

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

16097 16.2

3

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 16060

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

16098 16.2

3

Fill cut by SU 16099

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16099 16.3a

4

Construction trench cut for buried wall SU 16033

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

16100 16.3a

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 16099 of buried wall SU 16033

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

16101 16.3b

4

Fill under SU 16012

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16102 16.6

8

Lapilli fill in cesspit under modern fill SU 16014

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

16103 16.4

5

Fill under SU 16090

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16104 16.2

3

Wall framing cesspit (waste feature 11)

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 11

16105 16.4

5

Fill in Waste Feature 11 under fill SU 16102

Fill

Creation/Construction

16106 16.5

7

Threshold stone between Rooms 15 and 17, VIII.7.5-6

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 27

16107 16.4

5

Sarno block with plaster

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16108 16.2

3

Construction trench cut for waste pit

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 11

16109 16.2

3

Construction of buried wall under WF 113

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16110 16.3b

4

Stone associated with cesspit

Structural Fixture Cesspit

16301 22.3

6

Packed earth surface (=SU 22001)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

16302 22.3

6

Fill (=SU 22002)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

16303 22.2

5

Mortar surface (=SU 22003)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

16304 22.1

4

Packed earth surface (=SU 22004)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

16305 22.1

4

Capping of drain (=SU 22005) Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction

16306 22.1

4

Fill (=SU 22006)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

16307 22.1

4

Sub-floor fill under SU 22004 (=SU 22007)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 105

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16501

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 11

16502 16.6

8

Modern pointing on WF 105

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

16503 16.6

8

Modern consolidation of WF 105

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction trench cut for downpipe SU 16505

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

16504

532  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 16000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

16505

Downpipe in WF 105

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

16506

Fill in construction trench cut SU 16504 for downpipe SU 16505

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

16507

Plaster on WF 105

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16508

Reconstruction of WF 105

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 105

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 105

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

16511

Construction of WF 106

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16512

Plaster on WF 106

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16509 16510 16.6

8

16513 16.6

8

Modern consolidation of WF 106

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

16514 16.6

8

Modern consolidation of WF 106

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

16515

Construction of WF 116

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16516

Plaster on WF 116

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16517

Plaster on WF 116

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16518

Plaster on WF 116

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16519

Fill of doorway in WF 116

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

16520 16.6

Modern iron bit in WF 116

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

16521

Construction of WF 109

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16522

Reconstruction of SU 16521 in WF 109

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16523

Fill of doorway in WF 109

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

16524

Plaster on WF 109

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on WF 109

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

16526

Construction of WF 110

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16527

Plaster on WF 110

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16528

Construction of WF 111

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16529

Plaster on WF 111

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of plaster on WF 111

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

16531

Construction of WF 112

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

16532

Plaster on WF 112

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16533

Fill of doorway in WF 112

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

16534

Reconstruction of WF 112

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16525 16.6

16530 16.6

8

8

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   533 Trench SU 16000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

16535 16.6

8

16536

SubType

Formation Category

Modern consolidation of WF 112

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Reconstruction of WF 112

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16537 16.1

1

Early wall below WF 108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16538 16.2

3

Plaster on SU 16537 in WF 108

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16539 16.3a

4

Plaster on WF 108

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16540 16.2

3

Plaster on SU 16017 in WF 108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16541 16.3a

4

Plaster on WF 108 (=SU 16029)

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16542 16.2

3

Construction trench cut for wall SU 16537 in pappamonte block SU 16086

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

16543

Cut for threshold stone SU 16016 in SU 11153, WF 108

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

16544

Reconstruction of WF 108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16545 16.2

3

Construction of buried wall over pappamonte block SU 16086

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16546 16.2

3

Foundation of buried wall SU 16545

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16547 16.3b

4

Reconstruction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16548 16.3c

4

Reconstruction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16549 16.3c

4

Construction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16550

Feature

Reconstruction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

16551 16.5

7

Plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16552 16.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

16553 16.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

Plaster on SU 16545 in WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Cut for drain through pappamonte block SU 16086

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction Drain 6

Plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

16554 16555 16.3c

4

16556 17000

Type

16557 16.3c

4

Construction of WF 113

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17001 17.7

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

17002 17.5b

6

Opus signinum floor surface (=SU 17004)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

17003 17.5b

6

Mortar/stone feature abutting Structural Fixture Bench/Platform WF 208

Creation/Construction

17004 17.5b

6

Opus signinum floor surface (=SU 17002, 17039)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

17005 17.5b

6

Fill in tank SU 17009

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17006 17.5b

6

Stone head of cesspit SU 17020

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 12

17007 17.5b

6

Tile surface

Fill

Creation/Construction

Surface – Other

534  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 17000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

17008 17.5b

6

Fill in tank SU 17009, under SU 17005

Fill

17009 17.4c

4

Tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

17010 17.5b

6

Fill in tank SU 17011, over SU 17015

Fill

Creation/Construction

17011 17.4c

4

Tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

17012 17.7

8

Modern fill in cesspit SU 17020 Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17013 17.4c

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 17021

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

17014 17.7

8

Modern fill in cesspit head SU 17006

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17015 17.5b

6

Fill in tank SU 17011, under SU 17010

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17016 17.4a

4

Mortar smear under SU 17013, Fill over SU 17064

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

17017 17.5b

6

Leveling fill under opus signinum SU 17002, 17004

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17018 17.7

8

Modern collapse

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

17019 17.4a

4

Packed earth surface under tank SU 17011, 17015

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

17020 17.4a

4

Cesspit cutting fill SU 17080

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 12

17021 17.4c

4

Opus signinum floor surface under tank SU 17009, over fill SU 17013

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

17022 17.4a

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 17021, 17028, 17032

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

17023 17.5b

6

Mortar/stone capping of drain, associated with opus signinum floor surface SU 17002/17004

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 11

17024 17.5b

6

Lava capstone of catchment 17100, associated with drain SU 17023, opus signinum floor surface SU 17002/17004

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 11

17025 17.4c

4

Mortar/stone/terracotta pipe Structural Fixture Drain construction of drain over SU 17059

Creation/Construction Drain 9

17026 17.4c

4

Terracotta fragments of soak-away feature

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 4

17027 17.5a

5

Fill of soak-away SU 17026

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17028 17.4c

4

Opus signinum floor surface associated with amphora SU 17026

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

17029 17.5a

5

Fill in amphora SU 17026

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17030 17.6

7

Fill in drain SU 17100

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

17031 17.4c

4

Fill in soak-away feature SU 17026, under leveling fill SU 17029

Fill

Soak-away Fill

Creation/Construction

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   535 Trench SU 17000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

Feature

17032 17.4c

4

Opus signinum floor surface under tank SU 17009

17033 17.4c

4

Fill in terracotta tube SU 17025 Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

17034 17.5b

6

Cut in opus signinum floor SU 17028 (=SU 17035?)

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

17035 17.5b

6

Cut in opus signinum floor SU 17032

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

17036 17.4a

4

Fill in construction trench cut for waste pit SU 17020

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

17037 17.7

8

Modern fill abutting downpipe SU 17047

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17038 17.5b

6

Generic fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

17039 17.5b

6

Opus signinum surface abutting WF 207

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

17040 17.5b

6

Tile feature under SU 17007

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

17041 17.5b

6

Opus signinum floor surface abutting WF 207, 208

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

17042 17.4c

4

Tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

17043 17.4c

4

Opus signinum floor surface under SU 17007, 17003; over SU 17064

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

17044 17.5a

5

Fill in tank SU 17042

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

17045 17.5b

6

Mortared stone construction abutting tank SU 17042

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

17046 17.5b

6

Plaster construction of drain channel, associated with downpipe SU 17047; southern portion of a double drain feature

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 10

17047 17.5b

6

Downpipe associated with drain SU 17046

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

17048 17.7

8

Fill in drain SU 17046

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17049 17.5b

6

Sarno block

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17050 17.5b

6

Plaster on Sarno block SU 17049

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17051 17.4c

4

Construction trench cut for soak-away SU 17026 in SU 17022

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

17052 17.7

8

Fill in downpipe SU 17047

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17053 17.6

7

Fill in drain SU 17023

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

17054 17.5b

6

Fill in tank SU 17011, under SU 17003

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17055 17.5b

6

Drain feature associated with SU 17100, 17046

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 11

17056 17.6

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Occupation/Use

17057 17.5b

6

Capstone of drain SU 17055

Structural Fixture Drain

Drain Fill (primary)

Creation/Construction Drain 11

536  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 17000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

17058 17.5a

5

Fill of drain feature in WF 207, blocked by stone SU 17115

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

17059 17.4c

4

Sarno block under opus signinum fragment SU 17041, abutting drain SU 17058

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17060 17.4c

4

Sarno block associated with drain SU 17058

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17061 17.4c

4

Fill abutting Sarno block SU 17059, WF 207

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17062 17.5a

5

Fill in drain SU 17500

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

17063 17.5a

5

Fill in drain over blocking stone SU 17115

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

17064 17.4a

4

Fill under tile feature

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17065 17.5b

6

Fill in tank, under opus signinum fragment SU 17041

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17066 17.3

3

Plaster on WCU 172

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17067 17.4c

4

Plaster in tank feature SU 17011 on WF 208

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17068 17.4c

4

Plaster on WCU 172

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17069 17.4c

4

Plaster from western wall (WCU 172)

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17070 17.3

3

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

17071 17.3

3

Mortar/packed earth surface (=SU 17075)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

17072 17.4c

4

Construction associated with drain

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17073 17.4c

4

Plaster facing on drain construction SU 17072, 17059

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 7

17074 17.4c

4

Fill in drain SU 17025

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

17075 17.3

3

Mortar/packed earth surface under opus signinum surface SU 17022 (=SU 17071)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

17076 17.1a

1

Pappamonte foundation block Architecture under WF 208

Wall

Creation/Construction

17077 17.1a

1

Pappamonte foundation block Architecture associated with SU 17076

Wall

Creation/Construction

17078 17.2

2

Tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

17079 17.3

3

Fill in tank SU 17078 (=SU 17080)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17080 17.3

3

Fill under SU 17071

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17081 17.3

3

Construction Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17082 17.2

2

Lead drain cover in tank SU 17078, leads into drain SU 17091

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

17083 17.3

3

Fill under mortar/packed earth SU 17075

Fill

Creation/Construction

Sub-floor Fill

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   537 Trench SU 17000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

17084 17.3

3

Fill in tank SU 17078, under SU 17079

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17085 17.1b

1

Fill cut by construction of tank SU 17078 (=SU 17095)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17086 17.3

3

Soak-away amphora in SU 17087, filled by SU 17092, 17097

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 5

17087 17.3

3

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17088 17.3

3

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17089 17.3

3

Sarno block in construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17090 17.3

3

Plaster on Sarno block 17089

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17091 17.2

2

Terracotta pipe leading from vat SU 17078, through lead filter SU 17082

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 12

17092 17.3

3

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 17086, over soak-away fill SU 17097

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

17093 17.1a

1

Terrace fill (=SU 17113, 17108)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17094 17.1b

1

Fill cut by construction of tank SU 17078

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17095 17.1b

1

Fill under buried wall SU 17096, abutting tank SU 17078

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17096 17.2

2

Construction of buried wall over fill SU 17095

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17097 17.3

3

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 17086, under soak-away fill 17092

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

17098 17.3

3

Fill in terracotta tube SU 17091 Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

17099 17.3

3

Construction trench cut for WF 208

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

17100 17.5b

6

Catchment of drain feature, associated with SU 17055

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 11

17101 17.6

7

Fill in drain catchment SU 17100

Fill

Occupation/Use

17102 17.4b

4

Mortar/stone construction around terracotta drain channel

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 8

17103 17.4b

4

Terracotta drain pipe

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 8

17104 17.4c

4

Fill in drain SU 17103

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

17105 17.2

2

Mortared lava stones under WF 208

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17106 17.1b

1

Leveling fill under SU 17080

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17107 17.6

7

Fill under SU 17101

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

17108 17.1a

1

Fill under SU 17094, 17078, cut by SU 17109

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

17109 17.3

3

Construction trench cut for wall SU 17087 in SU 17108

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

Drain Fill (primary)

538  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 17000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

17110 17.3

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 17109 of wall SU 17087

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

17111 17.1a

1

Cut in fill SU 17108, filled by SU 17112

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

17112 17.0

0

Natural deposit

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

17113 17.1a

1

Terrace fill (=SU 17093, 17108)

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

17114 17.5b

6

Construction trench cut for drain channel SU 17023

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

17115 17.5a

5

Fill in drain SU 17058, WF 207

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

17116 17.7

8

Volcanic rock deposit

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

17117 17.2

2

Deposit of charred ceramics under WF 208, SU 17105

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

17118 17.0

0

Paleosol under SU 17106

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

17119 17.7

8

Deposit adhering to amphora SU 17122

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17120 17.7

8

Deposit adhering to amphora fragments SU 17123

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17121 17.7

8

Deposit adhering to amphora fragments SU 17124

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17122 17.7

8

Amphora in collapse SU 17116, Fill filled by SU 17119

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17123 17.7

8

Amphora fragments in collapse SU 17116, filled by SU 17120

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17124 17.7

8

Amphora fragments in collapse SU 17116, filled by SU 17121

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

17125 17.5b

6

Fill associated with drain SU 17023

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

17500 17.4c

4

Collapse/void in WF 207

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

17501 17.5a

5

Sarno blocks in WF 207

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17502

Plaster on WF 207, 206

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17503

Fill of doorway in WF 207

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

17504 17.4c

4

Construction of WF 207

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17505 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 207

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17506 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 207

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17507

Foundation of WF 210

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17508

Construction of WF 210

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17509

Tile construction of WF 210

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17510

Plaster on tile SU 17509 in WF 210

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17511

Construction of WF 210

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   539 Trench SU 17000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

17512

Sarno blocks joining WF 210, 211

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17513

Collapse in SU 17508, WF 208

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

17514 17.7

8

Modern collapse of SU 17511 in WF 210

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

17515 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 210 (WF 209)

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17516 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 210 (WF 211)

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17517 17.3

3

Construction of WF 208

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17518

Reconstruction of WF 208

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17519

Plaster on WF 208, 207

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17520 17.3

3

Sarno stone in WF 208

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17521 17.none

99

Opus signinum floor surface abutting wall SU 17518

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

17522 17.3

3

Mortar surface over foundation of WF 208

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

17523 17.3

3

Foundation of WF 208

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17524

Plaster on SU 17517 in WF 208

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17525

Posthole cut in WF 208

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

17526

Posthole cut in WF 208

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

17527 17.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 208

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

17528 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 208

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17529 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 208

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17530

Opus signinum floor surface Fill associated with wall SU 17518/ WF 208

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

17531

Construction of WF 208

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17532

Foundation stone in WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17533

Foundation of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17534

Construction of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17535

Plaster on SU 17534 in WF 209

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17536

Plaster on SU 17532, 17533 in WF 209

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17537

Construction of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17538

Construction of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17539 17.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 209

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

17540 17.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 209

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Feature

540  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 17000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

17541 17.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 209

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

17542 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 209

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17543

Construction of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17544

Possible threshold stone under WF 209

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on WF 209

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

17546

Construction of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17547

Construction of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17548

Collapse/void in WF 209

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

17545 17.7

8

17549

Feature

Construction of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17550 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 209

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17551 17.4c

4

Sarno stones construction Structural Fixture Drain associated with drain SU 17500

Creation/Construction Drain 7

17552

Plaster on WF 207

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17553

Plaster on WF 207, 208

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17554 17.4c

Foundation of WF 207

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17555

Reconstruction of WF 211

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17556

Sarno stone in WF 211

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17557

Sarno quoin in WF 211

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on WF 211

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

17559

Sarno stone in WF 211

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17560

Construction of WF 211

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17558 17.7

4

8

17561 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 211

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17562 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 211

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17563

Construction of WF 203

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17564

Construction of WF 203

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17565

Collapse/void in WF 203

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

17566

Mortar on SU 17564 in WF 203 Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on SU 17564 in WF 203

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

17568

Collapse/void in WF 203

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

17569

Construction of WF 203

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17570

Plaster on SU 17569 in WF 203 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

17571

Sarno quoin in WF 203

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern nail in WF 203

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17567 17.7

17572 17.7

8

8

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   541 Trench SU 17000

18000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

17573

Construction of WF 217

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17574

Sarno quoin in WF 217

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17575

Collapse/void in WF 217

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

17576

Collapse/void in WF 217

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

17577

Reconstruction of SU 17573 in WF 217

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17578

Construction of WF 217

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

17579

Sarno quoin in WF 217

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

17580 17.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 217

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

17581 17.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 217

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

17582 17.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 217

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

17583 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 217

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

17584 17.7

8

Modern nail in WF 217

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

18001 18.7

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

18002 18.6

7

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 18003

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

18003 18.6

7

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

18004 18.6

7

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 18003

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

18005 18.6

7

Plastered cut in WF 368

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

18006 18.7

8

Modern packed clay surface

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

18007 18.7

8

Fill in pit cut SU 18039

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

18008 18.7

8

Modern deposit

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

18009 18.5

6

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

18010 18.5

6

Doorstop 2 in floor SU 18009

Structural Fixture Repagulum

18011 18.5

6

Threshold construction under Structural Fixture Threshold WF 367 in streetfront entrance VIII.7.12

Creation/Construction Threshold 12

18012 18.6

7

Threshold construction under threshold stones 18013, 18015, 18016 in streetfront entrance VIII.7.12

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 12

18013 18.6

7

Middle threshold stone in streetfront entrance VIII.7.12

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 12

18014 18.6

7

Fill in pit cut SU 18039

Fill

Creation/Construction

18015 18.5

6

Southern threshold stone in streetfront entrance VIII.7.12

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 12

18016 18.5

6

Northern threshold stone in streetfront entrance VIII.7.12

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 12

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Doorstop 2

542  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 18000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

18017 18.4

5

Part of drain SU 18055 reused by drain SU 18022

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 23

18018 18.4

5

Doorstop 1 associated with floor SU 18019

Structural Fixture Repagulum

Creation/Construction Doorstop 1

18019 18.4

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

18020 18.3

4

Foundation under WF 369

Architecture

Wall

18021 18.4

5

Fill in construction trench for drain SU 18017

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

18022 18.5

6

Drain feature under SU 18009, Structural Fixture Drain associated with drain feature SU 18017

Creation/Construction Drain 24

18023 18.4

5

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 18019

Fill

Creation/Construction

18024 18.3

4

Fish-Salting Vat 4

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 4

18025 18.4

5

Fill in Fish-Salting Vat 4 SU 18024

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

18026 18.5

6

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18027 18.4

5

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 18019

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18028 18.7

8

Modern fill over cesspit tiles

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

18029 18.4

5

Fill over tank SU 18024

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18030 18.2

3

Construction of buried wall cut by SU 18024, 18015

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18031 18.4

5

Leveling fill under packed earth Fill SU 18019, abutting WF 368

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18032 18.6

7

Fill in pit SU 18041

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

18033 18.4

5

Fill abutting drain SU 18017

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

18034 18.6

7

Foundation under quoin SU 18116

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18035 18.6

7

Mortar and stone capping of waste pit SU 18070

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction

18036 18.6

7

Capping of waste feature 14, well/cesspit SU 18070

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 14

18037 18.3

4

Tile cover of well/cesspit SU 18070

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 14

18038 18.6

7

Capping of waste feature 14 over SU 18036, 18037

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction

18039 18.6

7

Pit cut in SU 18009, 18019

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

18040 18.4

5

Fill in foundation trench of WF 368

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

18041 18.4

5

Fill under SU 18040

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

18042 18.4

5

Fill under SU 18027, 18021

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18043 18.4

5

Tile capping of drain SU 18017 Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 23

18044 18.6

7

Fill in drain SU 18017

Fill

Creation/Construction

18045 18.5

6

Part of drain SU 18022; abuts drain SU 18017, 18047

Structural Fixture Drain

Leveling Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction Drain 24

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   543 Trench SU 18000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

18046 18.4

5

Fill under floor SU 18019

Fill

18047 18.4

5

Mortar construction of drain channel SU 18017, associated with drain channel SU 18055

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 23

18048 18.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

18049 18.5

6

Fill under drain SU 18045

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

18050 18.4

5

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 18019

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18051 18.3

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 18082

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

18052 18.4

5

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 18019

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

18053 18.4

5

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 18019

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

18054 18.5

6

Construction trench cut for later drain SU 18045 (=SU 18049)

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

18055 18.4

5

Drain channel associated with Structural Fixture Drain drain SU 18047, 18017

18056 18.5

6

Packed earth surface over SU 18022, abutting SU 18058 (=SU 18009)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

18057 18.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

18058 18.4

5

Plaster on WF 422

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

18059 18.5

6

Rubble fill under SU 18028, abutting well/cesspit feature SU 18070, WF 422

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 24

18060 18.5

6

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 18056

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

18061 18.2

3

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18062 18.4

5

Fill in cut SU 18067

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

18063 18.2

3

Packed earth surface under SU 18030

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

18064 18.4

5

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill

18065 18.3

4

Drain over well/cesspit feature SU 18070, abutted/cut by drain SU 18017/18055

Structural Fixture Drain

18066 18.2

3

Packed earth surface cut by SU 18067

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

18067 18.4

5

Pit cut in SU 18063, 18066

Cut

Pit Cut

18068 18.1

3

Packed earth surface under SU 18024, 18030

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

18069 18.3

4

Plaster on WF 368, associated with tank SU 18024

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 4

18070 18.1

3

Cesspit feature

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 14

18071 18.5

6

Fill in cesspit SU 18070

Fill

Occupation/Use

Cesspit Fill (primary)

Creation/Construction Drain 23

Creation/Construction Creation/Construction Drain 22

Creation/Construction

544  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 18000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

18072 18.1

3

Fill near WF 368

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18073 18.2

3

Fill in pit cut

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

18074 18.1

3

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 180568

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

18075 18.1

3

Fill in construction trench of WF 368

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

18076 18.1

3

Redeposited paleosol over SU 18084, abutting SU 18082

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 7

18077 18.3

4

Mortar construction of drain SU 18065, reused by drain SU 18055

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 22

18078 18.4

5

Fill under drain SU 18055

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18079 18.3

4

Fill under SU 18078

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18080 18.6

7

Capping of waste feature 14 over SU 18070, abutting WF 422

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction

18081 18.6

7

Fill in cut in opus signinum floor SU 18082

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

18082 18.3

4

Opus signinum floor surface under SU 18019

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

18083 18.2

3

Drain under drain feature SU 18065

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 21

18084 18.0

0

Bedrock under WF 368

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

18085 18.1

3

Foundation of WF 368

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18086 18.6

7

Fill in niche SU 18005

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

18087 18.3

4

Construction of WF 368

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plastering on SU 18085 in WF 368

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

18088 18089 18.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 386

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

18090 18.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 368

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

18091 18.1

3

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 18068

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18092 18.3

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 18082

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

18093 18.2

3

Packed earth surface under fill Fill SU 18092

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

18094 18.1

3

Accumulation of waste on wall of cesspit SU 18070

Fill

Cesspit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

18095 18.3

4

Construction of WF 369

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18096 18.3

4

Construction of WF 369

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18097 18.3

4

Construction of WF 369

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Quarry Area 7

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   545 Trench SU 18000

19000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

18098 18.3

4

Construction of WF 369

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18099 18.5

6

Fill in cesspit SU 18070

Fill

Cesspit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

18100 18.1

3

Packed earth surface abutting well/waste disposal feature SU 18070

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

18101 18.0

0

Bedrock in pit SU 18070

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

18102 18.5

6

Fill in cesspit SU 18070

Fill

Cesspit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

18103 18.1

3

Pit below shaft of cesspit SU 18070

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 14

18104 18.1

3

Leveling fill for packed earth SU 18100

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

18105 18.3

4

Construction of WF 422

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18106 18.4

5

Construction of WF 422

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18107

Construction of doorway in WF 422

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

18108

Fill of doorway in WF 422

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

18109

Plaster on WF 422

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

18110

Plaster on WF 422

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

18111 18.7

8

Modern consolidation of SU 18106 in WF 422

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

18112 18.3

4

Construction of doorway in WF 422

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

18113

Construction of WF 422

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18114

Construction of doorway in WF 422

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

18115 18.7

8

Modern consolidation of SU 18114 in WF 422

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

18116 18.6

7

Quoin in WF 424

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

18117 18.6

7

Quoin in WF 366

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19001 19.4

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

19002 19.2

5

Mortar floor (=SU 19003, 19004, 19005, 19006, 19007, 19015, 19019, 19020, 19021)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

19003 19.2

5

Mortar floor (=SU 19002, 19004, 19005, 19006, 19007, 19015, 19019, 19020, 19021)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

19004 19.2

5

Mortar floor under oven SU 19014 (=SU 19002, 19003, 19005, 19006, 19007, 19015, 19019, 19020, 19021)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

19005 19.2

5

Mortar floor under oven SU 19014 (=SU 19002, 19003, 19004, 19006, 19007, 19015, 19019, 19020, 19021)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

Quarry Area 7

546  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 19000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

19006 19.2

5

Mortar floor over fill SU 19031 (=SU 19002, 19003, 19004, 19005, 19007, 19015, 19019, 19020, 19021)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

19007 19.2

5

Mortar floor (=SU 19002, 19003, 19004, 19005, 19006, 19015, 19019, 19020, 19021)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

19008 19.1

4

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

19009 19.2

5

Leveling fill under mortar SU 19002 (=SU 19022)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

19010 19.1

4

Fill over bedrock SU 19028, abutting WF 347

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

19011 19.1

4

Quarrying fill over bedrock SU 19013

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 3

19012 19.2

5

Quarry fill under SU 19009, 19022, over bedrock

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 3

19013 19.0

0

Bedrock under SU 19009

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

19014 19.3

5

Oven feature abutting WF 347, 348

Structural Fixture Cooking Facility

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 5

19015 19.2

5

Mortar floor (=SU 19002, 19003, 19004, 19005, 19006, 19007, 19019, 19020, 19021)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

19016 19.1

4

Opus signinum floor surface (=SU 19008)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

19017 19.2

5

Sub-floor fill (=SU 19009, 19022)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

19018 19.4

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

19019 19.2

5

Mortar Surface (=SU 19002, 19003, 19004, 19005, 19006, 19007, 19015, 19019, 19020, 19021)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

19020 19.2

5

Mortar floor (=SU 19002, 19003, 19004, 19005, 19006, 19007, 19015, 19019, 19021)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

19021 19.2

5

Mortar floor (=SU 19002, 19003, 19004, 19005, 19006, 19007, 19015, 19019, 19020)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

19022 19.2

5

Leveling fill (=SU 19009)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

19023 19.1

4

Quarrying fill under opus signinum floor

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 3

19024 19.2

5

Quarry fill under SU 19022 (=SU 19012)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 3

19025 19.1

4

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

19026 19.1

4

Fill in construction trench of WF 345, 346

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

19027 19.1

4

Quarry fill over natural soil SU 19029

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 3

Quarry Area 3

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   547 Trench SU 19000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature Quarry Area 3

19028 19.0

0

Bedrock cut by SU 19057, 19053 Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

19029 19.1

4

Redeposited paleosol in quarry cut over SU 9034, under SU 19027, 19011; under/ abutting SU 19056

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 3

19030 19.2

5

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

19031 19.2

5

Fill in cut SU 19057

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

19032 19.2

5

Fill (=SU 19024)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

19033 19.2

5

Quarry fill under SU 19032 (=SU 19024)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 3

19034 19.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

19035 19.1

4

Construction of WF 345

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19036 19.1

4

Construction of WF 345

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19037 19.2

5

Plaster on WF 345, 346

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

19038 19.1

4

Sarno block in WF 346

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19039 19.1

4

Construction of WF 346

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19040 19.1

4

Sarno blocks in WF 346

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19041 19.1

4

Construction of WF 346

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19042 19.1

4

Sarno block over SU 19040, 19041 in WF 346

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19043 19.1

4

Construction of WF 346

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19044 19.1

4

Plaster on SU 19043, under SU 19045, on WF 346

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster over SU 19044 on WF 346

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

19045

Quarry Area 3

19046 19.4

8

Modern pointing on WF 346

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

19047 19.2

5

Construction of WF 347

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19048 19.2

5

Construction of WF 347

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19049 19.2

5

Plaster on WF 347

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

19050 19.3

5

Plaster on WF 347

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

19051 19.4

8

Modern construction of WF 347

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

19052 19.4

8

Modern pointing on WF 347

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

19053 19.1

4

Sarno block in WF 348

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19054 19.1

4

Construction of WF 348

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

19055 19.2

5

Plaster under oven feature SU 19014 on WF 348

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

19056 19.1

4

Fill over SU 19029

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 3

548  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

19057 19.2

5

Quarrying cut in bedrock; filled by SU 19009, 19031

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

Quarry Area 3

19058 19.1

4

Quarrying cut in bedrock, filled by SU 19023

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

Quarry Area 3

19059 19.1

4

Construction trench cut for WF 346 in SU 19027, 19011

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

19060 19.2

5

Quarrying cut in SU 19025, 19026; filled by SU 19022, 19024, 19012, 19032, 19033

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

Quarry Area 3

19061 19.1

4

Quarrying cut in bedrock

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

Quarry Area 3

20000 20001 20.4

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

20002 20.4

8

Modern cut filled by modern pipe/wire

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

20003 20.4

8

Modern fill in cut SU 20002

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

20004 20.4

8

Mortar skim sidewalk surface surrounding SU 20007, over SU 20032

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

20005 20.4

8

Modern cut in SU 20004, 20011, filled by SU 2006

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

20006 20.4

8

Modern fill in cut SU 20005

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

20007 20.4

8

Modern brick, mortar, lava construction over SU 20032

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

20008 20.4

8

Modern fill in SU 20007

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

20009 20.3

5

Redeposited Paleosol over SU 20014

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

20010 20.2

4

Redeposited Paleosol under SU 20011 (=SU 20009)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

20011 20.4

8

Mortar skim sidewalk surface cutting SU 20002, 20006 (=SU 20004)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

20012 20.3

5

Quarrying cut (?) in SU 20014

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

20013 20.3

5

Quarry fill in cut SU 20012

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

20014 20.0

0

Bedrock under SU 20009/20010

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

20015 20.0

0

Bedrock under SU 20014

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

20016 20.4

8

Modern fill abutting WF 464

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

20017 20.4

8

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 20004

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

20018 20.2

4

Quarrying cut in SU 20014

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

20019 20.3

5

Quarry fill in cut SU 20012

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

20020 20.3

5

Mortar sidewalk surface under SU 20004, 20017; abuts SU 20019

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

19000

Quarry Area 9

Quarry Area 9

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   549 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

20000 20021 20.4

8

Mortar associated with pipes SU 20032 and drain channel SU 20020, 20025, 20026

20022 20.4

8

Fill in drain channel SU 20020, Fill 20025, 20026; under pipes SU 20032

Construction Trench Fill – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

20023 20.4

8

Construction trench cut for pipe in SU 20025, 20026

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

20024 20.4

8

Fill in construction trench cut SU 20023

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

20025 20.3

5

Wall of drain channel, associated with drain channel SU 20020, 20026

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 30

20026 20.3

5

Mortar/rubble construction of drain channel, associated with drain channel SU 20020, 20025

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 30

20027 20.3

5

Tile construction of drain channel SU 20020, 20025, 20026; over mortar SU 20028, mortar/rubble SU 20029

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 30

20028 20.3

5

Mortar construction of drain channel SU 20020, 20025, 20026; under tiles SU 20027; over mortar/rubble SU 20029

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 30

20029 20.3

5

Mortar/rubble/earth Structural Fixture Drain construction of drain channel SU 20020, 20025, 20026; under mortar SU 20028, tiles SU 20027

Creation/Construction Drain 30

20030 20.3

5

Quarry fill in construction trench cut under SU 20029

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

20031 20.4

8

Fill under SU 20016

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

20032 20.4

8

Terracotta pipes and lead fittings associated with drain channel SU 20020, 20025, 20026; under modern reconstruction SU 20007

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 42

20033 20.4

8

Fill under SU 20031

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

20034 20.1

3

Construction of buried wall cut by channel SU 20020, 20025, 20026, 20027

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

20035 20.2

4

Foundation of WF 464, abutting SU 20026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

20036 20.4

8

Capping of downpipe in WF 464

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

20037 20.2

4

Construction of WF 464

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

20038 20.4

8

Construction of WF 464

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

20039 20.4

8

Plaster on WF 464

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 42

550  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern pointing and consolidation of WF 464

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

20041

Foundation of Odeion

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

20042

South Odeon Wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

20043

Threshold stones in second doorway in south Odeion wall

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

20000 20040 20.4

21000

8

Feature

20044 20.4

8

Modern pointing on South Odeon Wall

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

21001 21.5

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

21002 21.5

8

Modern lapilli fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

21003 21.4

5

Threshold construction in entrance to toilet in Room 27, VIII.7.5-6

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 26

21004 21.5

8

Modern mortar associated with WF 157

Architecture

Modern Activity

21005 21.4

5

Stone feature-remains of a masonry support for a seat, possible collapse

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction

21006 21.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Research Process

21007 21.4

5

Opus signinum surface of toilet, filled by SU 21009

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 1

21008 21.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

21009 21.5

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

21010 21.5

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

21011 21.4

5

Mortar surface vestibule to toilet, abutting WF 156

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

21012 21.4

5

Possible sub-floor fill under mortar SU 21011

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

21013 21.5

8

Modern construction trench cut under SU 21004

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

21014 21.5

8

Lapilli fill in cut SU 21013

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

21015 21.3

4

Fill under WF 157, over SU 21020

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

21016 21.4

5

Possible mortar surface abutting SU 21003

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

21017 21.4

5

Fill under SU 21012

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

21018 21.3

4

Fill under SU 21017

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

21019 21.2

4

Plaster on buried wall SU 21020

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

21020 21.2

4

Construction of buried wall under WF 157

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

21021 21.2

4

Fill under SU 21018

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

21022 21.1

3

Plaster on buried wall SU 21047

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Canceled

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   551 Trench SU 21000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

21023 21.5

8

Modern cut in SU 21011

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

21024 21.4

5

Construction of WF 156

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

21025 21.5

8

Modern pointing on WF 156

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

21026 21.5

8

Modern consolidation of WF 156

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

21027 21.5

8

Modern construction of WF 157

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

21028 21.5

8

Modern pointing on WF 157

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

21029 21.4

5

Sarno construction of toilet

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction

21030 21.4

5

Construction of WF 158

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

21031 21.5

8

Modern pointing on WF 158

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

21032 21.5

8

Modern collapse in WF 158

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

21033 21.5

8

Modern collapse in WF 158

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

21034 21.4

5

Mortar/rock deposit associated with WF 158/SU 21030

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

21035 21.4

5

Construction of WF 159

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

21036 21.4

5

Void in WF 159

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

21037 21.5

8

Modern pointing on WF 159

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

21038 21.4

5

Construction of WF 159

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

21039 21.5

8

Modern pointing on WF 159

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

21040 21.4

5

Construction of WF 160

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

21041 21.4

5

Construction of WF 160

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

21042 21.5

8

Modern pointing on WF 160

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

21043 21.4

5

Plaster lipping onto SU 21003, associated with toilet

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction

21044 21.4

5

Fill under SU 21046, associated Structural Fixture Toilet with toilet

Creation/Construction

21045 21.4

5

Reconstruction of WF 159

Architecture

Creation/Construction

21046 21.4

5

Mortar subsurface of toilet under opus signinum SU 21007, over SU 21044

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction

21047 21.1

3

Construction of buried wall under SU 21020

Architecture

Creation/Construction

Wall

Wall

Feature

552  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

21048 21.1

3

Fill under buried wall SU 21047

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

21049 21.1

3

Fill under SU 21048, 21021

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

21050 21.4

5

Masonry construction of toilet

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 1

21051 21.3

4

Construction of WF 157

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

22000 22001 22.3

6

Packed earth surface cut by SU 16007

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

22002 22.3

6

Soil deposit under packed earth surface SU 22001, over opus signinum surface SU 22003

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

22003 22.2

5

Mortar floor surface abutting WF 187, cut by SU 22011

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

22004 22.1

4

Packed earth surface under SU 22003

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

22005 22.1

4

Mortar/tile capping of drain SU 22018, 16026

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 6

22006 22.1

4

Fill (=SU 17022)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

22007 22.1

4

Packed earth floor surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

22008 22.2

5

Plaster on WF 122

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

22009 22.1

4

Plaster under SU 22008

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

22010 22.2

5

Construction trench cut for Cut mortar floor SU 22003, plaster on WF 22008 in SU 22009

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

22011 22.4

8

Modern cut filled by modern wire SU 22014

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

22012 22.1

4

Tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

22013 22.2

5

Plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

22014 22.4

8

Modern fill, tiles, wires

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

22015 22.1

4

Pit cut in SU 22006, filled by SU 22016

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

22016 22.1

4

Fill in cut SU 22015

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

22017 22.1

4

Construction trench cut for drain

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

22018 22.1

4

Drain (=SU 16026) under capstones SU 22005, filled by SU 22019

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 6

22019 22.1

4

Fill in drain SU 22018 (=SU 16023, 16024)

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

23001 23.5

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

23002 23.3

6

Capstone of drain SU 23004, over fill SU 23003

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 10

23003 23.4

7

Fill in drain SU 23004

Fill

Occupation/Use

23004 23.3

6

Plaster/stone construction of double drain, associated with drain SU 17046, 17055

Structural Fixture Drain

21000

23000

Drain Fill (primary)

Creation/Construction Drain 10

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   553 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

23005 23.3

6

Bench feature bounded by WF 198, 199, 200

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 3

23006 23.2

5

Upper course of cistern SU 12162

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 6

23007 23.3

6

Packed earth surface abutting SU 23005

Fill

23008 23.3

6

Threshold stone in doorway between Rooms 32 and 35, VIII.7.7-8

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

23009 23.3

6

Fill under topsoil SU 23001

Fill

Creation/Construction

23010 23.2

5

Mortar/stone construction under drain SU 23004, associated with soak-away SU 23011, 23013, 23014, 23015, 23021

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 17

23011 23.2

5

Amphora/plaster Structural Fixture Soak-away conglomerate under SU 23010, associated with soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 17

23012 23.2

5

Tile blocking drain SU 23019, associated with construction of tank SU 23020

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 6

23013 23.2

5

Amphora under SU 23006

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction

23014 23.2

5

Amphora associated with amphorae SU 23013, 23015, 23021

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 17

23015 23.2

5

Amphora associated with amphorae SU 23013, 23014, 23021

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 17

23016 23.5

8

Fill in amphora SU 23013

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

23017 23.5

8

Fill in amphora SU 23014

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

23018 23.5

8

Fill in amphora SU 23015

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

23019 23.1

4

Drain in cistern SU 23020, associated with construction of WF 195

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 6

23020 23.1

4

Earliest phase of basin SU 23006, abutting WF 195

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 6

23021 23.2

5

Amphora associated with amphorae SU 23013, 23014, 23015

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 17

23022 23.5

8

Fill in tank SU 23006, 23020

Fill

Creation/Construction

23023 23.2

5

Fill under soak-away amphorae SU 23013, 23014, 23015, 23021

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 17

23024 23.2

5

Cut in tank SU 23020

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

24000 24001 24.8

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

24002 24.7

7

Mortar surface abutting WF 62

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24003 24.7

7

Leveling fill under mortar SU 24002

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

23000

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

Sub-floor Fill

Leveling Fill

554  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

24000 24004 24.7

7

Bioturbated fill

24005 24.6

6

Mortar surface cut by SU 24007, Fill filled by SU 24008; possible repair to floor SU 24006

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24006 24.6

6

Mortar floor

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24007 24.7

7

Construction trench cut for drain in SU 24005, 24009

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

24008 24.7

7

Leveling fill over drain cap SU 24010

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

24009 24.6

6

Mortar floor surface cut by SU 24007, filled by SU 24008

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24010 24.7

7

Mortar/tile capping of drain

Structural Fixture Drain

24011 24.7

7

Fill in construction trench cut SU 24007 for drain SU 24021

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

24012 24.7

7

Fill in construction trench cut SU 24007 for drain SU 24021

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

24013 24.6

6

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 24009

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

24014 24.6

6

Fill in SU 24015

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

24015 24.6

6

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

24016 24.6

6

Fill under SU 24013

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

24017 24.5

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

24018 24.7

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

24019 24.7

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

24020 24.7

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

24021 24.7

7

Mortar/rubble construction of drain channel

Structural Fixture Drain

24022 24.5

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

24023 24.5

5

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 24022

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

24024 24.5

5

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 24017

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

24025 24.3

3

Opus signinum surface abutting WF 62

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

24026 24.4

4

Dolium filled by SU 24027

Structural Fixture Fixed Vessel (not soak-away)

Creation/Construction Soak-away 18

24027 24.5

5

Fill in dolium SU 24026

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

24028 24.4

4

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24029 24.4

4

Mortar surface (=SU 24028)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24030 24.7

7

Fill under drain construction SU 24021

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

24031 24.7

7

Fill under drain, over SU 24028, 24029

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

24032 24.5

5

Fill in tank SU 24033

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction Drain 3

Creation/Construction Drain 3

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   555 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

24000 24033 24.4

4

Mortar and rubble tank construction abutting WF 62

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

24034 24.4

4

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 24028, 24029

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

24035 24.3

3

Packed earth surface under SU 24028, 24029, 24034

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

24036 24.1b

1

Hard packed gray ash road

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

24037 24.3

3

Mortar in SU 24035

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

24038 24.3

3

Fill in cut SU 24052, under Fill packed earth surface SU 24035

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

24039 24.3

3

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24040 24.3

3

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 24039, over SU 24041

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

24041 24.3

3

Surface under mortar SU 24039, 24040

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24042 24.3

3

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24043 24.3

3

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24044 24.3

3

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 24021

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

24045 24.3

3

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 24042

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

24046 24.3

3

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 24043

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

24047 24.3

3

Mortar over SU 24048, under SU 24040

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

24048 24.3

3

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24049 24.3

3

Redeposited mortar in pit fill SU 24038

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

24050 24.3

3

Mortar surface under SU 24045

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24051 24.3

3

Fill under mortar SU 24050

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

24052 24.3

3

Cut in SU 24039/24040/ 24041/24042/24043/24044, filled by SU 24038

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

24053 24.3

3

Fill cut by SU 24052

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

24054 24.3

3

Fill over SU 24055

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

24055 24.2

2

Proto-mortar surface under SU 24096

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

24056 24.3

3

Fill over SU 24055

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

24057 24.1b

1

Gray ash surface under SU 24038 (=SU 24036, 24090)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

24058 24.4

4

Fill under tank construction SU 24033

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

24059 24.1a

1

Redeposited paleosol

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 1

24060 24.1a

1

Redeposited paleosol under SU 24059

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 1

556  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

24000 24061 24.2

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

2

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 24055

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

24062 24.1b

1

Fill under tank SU 24036, WF 62

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

24063 24.1b

1

Deposit under SU 24055, over SU 24062

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

24064 24.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

Quarry Area 1

24065 24.1a

1

Fill of tree fall hole SU 24067

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

Quarry Area 1

24066 24.1a

1

Fill of tree fall hole SU 24068

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

Quarry Area 1

24067 24.1a

1

Natural cut created by tree Miscellaneous fall in SU 24059, filled by 24065

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

Quarry Area 1

24068 24.1a

1

Natural cut created by tree Miscellaneous fall in SU 24059, filled by 24066

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

Quarry Area 1

24069 24.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

24070 24.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

24071

Construction of WF 67

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

24072 24.8

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 67

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24073 24.8

8

Modern gate brackets and mortar on WF 67

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24074 24.8

8

Mortar consolidation of WF 67

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24075

Construction of WF 80

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

24076

Construction of WF 80

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern mortar on WF 80

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 64

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

24077 24.8

8

24078 24079 24.8

8

Mortar consolidation of WF 64

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24080 24.8

8

Modern gate brackets and mortar on WF 64

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24081

Construction of WF 81

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

24082

Construction of WF 81

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

24083 24.8

8

Modern consolidation of WF 81

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24084 24.8

8

Modern mortar on WF 81

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   557 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

24000 24085 24.8

8

24086

25000

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern mortar on WF 81

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 65

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

24087 24.8

8

Mortar consolidation of WF 65

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24088 24.8

8

Modern mortar on WF 65

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24089 24.1a

1

Redeposited paleosol

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

24090 24.1b

1

Gray ash surface (=SU 24036)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

24091 24.1b

1

Fill under ash road SU 24090

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

24092 24.1b

1

Deposit over SU 24064

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 1

24093 24.1b

1

Redeposited paleosol under SU 24092

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 1

24094 24.0

0

Paleosol under SU 24090, 24091, 24092, 24093

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

24095 24.3

3

Construction of WF 62

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

24096 24.3

3

Foundation of WF 62

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

24097 24.3

3

Foundation of WF 62

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

24098 24.3

3

Construction trench cut

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

24099 24.6

6

Plaster on WF 62

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

24100 24.6

6

Plaster on WF 62

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

24101 24.6

6

Plaster on WF 62

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

24102 24.7

7

Sub-surface plaster on WF 62

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

24103 24.3

3

Plaster on WF 62

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

24104 24.3

3

Plaster layer associated with opus signinum surface SU 24025

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

24105 24.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 62

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24106 24.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 62

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

24107 24.7

7

Plaster on WF 62

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

24108 24.7

7

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 4

24109 24.7

7

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 4

25001 25.7

8

Modern deposit

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

25002 25.7

8

Modern fill under SU 25001, over SU 25007

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

25003 25.6

7

Waste Feature 22

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 22

25004 25.6

7

Cistern head

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 7

558  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 25000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category Modern Activity

Feature

25005 25.7

8

Lapilli fill in feature SU 25004

Fill

Modern Deposit

25006 25.6

7

Packed earth surface under SU 25004, cut by SU 25032, abutting SU 25003

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

25007 25.6

7

Fill in tank feature SU 25003, under fill SU 25002

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

25008 25.5

6

Fill under SU 25003, 25004; over opus signinum SU 25009; cut by SU 25031, 25032

Fill

Burned Layer

Occupation/Use

25009 25.5

6

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

25010 25.6

7

Fill of square cut 25031

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

25011 25.4

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

25012 25.4

5

Packed earth surface in feature SU 25003

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

25013 25.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

25014 25.5

6

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 25009

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

25015 25.7

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

25016 25.7

8

Modern relocation of Sarno blocks

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

25017 25.4

5

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 25011

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

25018 25.3

4

Opus signinum surface associated with toilet SU 25026 (=SU 25023)

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction

25019 25.4

5

Plaster in toilet feature SU 25026

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25020 25.4

5

Amphora/terracotta toilet channel under packed earth surface SU 25011

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 2

25021 25.7

8

Modern relocation of a Sarno Fill block

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

25022 25.7

8

Bioturbation of SU 25011

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

25023 25.3

4

Opus signinum surface abutting cistern SU 25046 (=SU 25018)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

25024 25.4

5

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 25011

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

25025 25.7

8

Modern fill under Sarno stone Fill SU 25021

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

25026 25.4

5

Masonry construction of toilet/waste pit

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25027 25.4

5

Leveling fill under SU 25024 (=SU 25030)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

25028 25.4

5

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 25011

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   559 Trench SU 25000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

25029 25.3

4

Drain associated with opus signinum surface SU 25023, WF 125

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 4

25030 25.4

5

Leveling fill over cistern cap SU 25042

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

25031 25.6

7

Construction trench cut for masonry feature SU 25003 in SU 25008, 25009, 25014

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

25032 25.6

7

Construction trench cut for cistern head in SU 25006, 25009, 25011, 25023, 25046

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

25033 25.2b

3

Packed earth surface under SU 25030, over SU 25050

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

25034 25.4

5

Fill over cistern cap SU 25042

Fill

Leveling Fill

25035 25.2b

3

Packed earth surface (=SU 25033)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

25036 25.7

8

Modern fill under Sarno stone Fill SU 25016

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

25037 25.3

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 25037

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

25038 25.4

5

Fill under drain SU 25020

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

25039 25.5

6

Fill in toilet SU 25041

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

25040 25.3

4

Construction trench cut for drain in SU 25050

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

25041 25.3

4

Sarno construction of toilet over mortar SU 25050, under WF 123

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 2

25042 25.4

5

Stone cap of cistern SU 25046

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction

25043 25.5

6

Fill in toilet SU 25041

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

25044 25.5

6

Fill in toilet SU 25041

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

25045 25.2a

3

Construction trench cut for cistern SU 25046 in SU 25056

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction Cistern 7

25046 25.2a

3

Cistern construction over SU 25056, filled by SU 25052, 25055

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 7

25047 25.3

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 25023 (=SU 25037)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

25048 25.3

4

Fill associated with SU 25023

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

25049 25.3

4

Possible sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 25023

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

25050 25.2a

3

Opus signinum surface abutting cistern SU 25046

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

25051 25.2a

3

Opus signinum surface abutting WF 128 (=SU 25050)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

25052 25.2a

3

Fill under SU 25050 (=SU 25055)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

560  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 25000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

25053 25.2a

3

Opus signinum surface (=SU 25050)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

25054 25.2a

3

Opus signinum surface (=SU 25055)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

25055 25.2a

3

Fill under floor SU 25050

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

25056 25.1

1

Fill over bedrock SU 25057

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

25057 25.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

25058 25.7

8

Modern fill under Sarno stone Fill SU 25016; over opus signinum floor SU 25018, 25023

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

25059 25.4

5

Pit cut in SU 25018

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

25060 25.6

7

Fill in pit SU 25059

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

25061 25.7

8

Modern fill in cut SU 25064, under SU 25036, 25058

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

25062 25.3

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 25023, drain SU 25029

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

25063 25.6

7

Fill in unlined Waste Feature 3 SU 25064

Fill

Cesspit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

25064 25.4

5

Construction trench cut for toilet

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25065 25.2a

3

Terrace fill under SU 25062

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

25066 25.4

5

Cut in SU 25018 in toilet feature SU 25026

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25067 25.1

1

Volcanic stone over fill SU 25056

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25068 25.6

7

Masonry extension of SU 25026, associated with toilet/waste pit

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25069 25.0

0

Paleosol (probably redeposited)

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

25070 25.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

25071 25.5

6

Fill in toilet SU 25041

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

25072 25.4

5

Mortar/tile construction under plaster SU 25019, in SU 25026, above SU 25018; associated with toilet

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25073 25.4

5

Opus signinum surface over Structural Fixture Toilet SU 25059, associated with toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25074 25.4

5

Pit cut in SU 25018

Cut

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25075 25.4

5

Plaster over SU 25026, associated with toilet

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25076 25.4

5

Plaster on WF 125, associated with toilet feature SU 25026

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 3

25077 25.4

5

Tiles in plaster SU 25076, associated with toilet SU 25026

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction

Pit Cut

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   561 Trench SU 25000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

25078 25.1

1

Fill under SU 25067

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

25079 25.0

0

Paleosol under SU 25067

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

25080 25.0

0

Paleosol over bedrock SU 25057

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

25081 25.1

1

Tiles under SU 25067 in construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25082 25.0

0

Iron pan under volcanic stone Geological SU 25067

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

25083 25.6

7

Extension of toilet construction trench cut SU 25064

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

25501 25.7

8

Modern reconstruction of lintel in WF 128

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

25502 25.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 128

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

25503 25.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 128

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Blocked window in WF 128

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

25504 25505 25.4

5

Construction of WF 128

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25506 25.2b

3

Construction of WF 128

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25507 25.4

5

Plaster on WF 128

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 128

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 126

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 126

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 126

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

25508 25509 25.2a

3

25510 25511 25.7

8

25512

Plaster on WF 125

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

25513 25.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

25514 25.2a

3

Construction of WF 125

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25515 25.4

5

Cut in WF 125

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

25516 25.6

7

Construction of WF 129

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25517 25.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 129

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

25518 25.4

5

Construction of WF 129

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25519 25.4

5

Plaster on WF 127

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 127

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25522

Construction of WF 123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25523

Construction trench cut for drain SU 25041

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

25520 25521 25.2a

3

Feature

562  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 25000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

25524 25.4

5

Plaster applied to the wall around the toilet

Architecture

25525 25.4

5

Plaster visible in cut SU 25064

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction

25526 25.4

5

Construction of doorway to toilet/waste pit SU 25026

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

25527 25.2a

3

Construction of WF 124

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25528 25.6

7

Cut for niche in WF 124

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

25529 25.6

7

Fill of niche in WF 124

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

Fill in WF 124

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

25530

Feature

25531 25.3

4

Plaster applied to WF 123 after Architecture construction of toilet

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

26000 26001 26.2

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

26002 26.2

8

Modern deposit

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

26003 26.1

3

Quarry fill

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 6

26004 26.1

3

Quarry fill

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 6

26005 26.0

0

Bedrock outcropping under WF 404, cut by SU 26006

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

Quarry Area 6

26006 26.1

3

Quarrying cut in bedrock

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

Quarry Area 6

Foundation of WF 404

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

26500 26501 26.2

8

Modern pointing on WF 404

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

26502 26.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

Construction of WF 404

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

26503

27000

26504 26.2

8

Modern nail in WF 404

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

26505 26.2

8

Modern nail in WF 404

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

27001 27.8

8

Modern fill

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

27002 27.6

6

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

27003 27.7

7

Masonry structure

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

27004 27.7

7

Mortar on possible tank SU 27003

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

27005 27.7

7

Fill in feature SU 27003

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27006 27.8

8

Modern construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27007 27.6

6

Capping of drain, associated with SU 27058

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 29

27008 27.6

6

Mortar floor surface over SU 27010

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

27009 27.8

8

Modern plaster on buried wall Architecture SU 27006

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

27010 27.6

6

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

27011 27.6

6

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   563 Trench SU 27000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

27012 27.6

6

Construction trench cut for feature SU 27007

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

27013 27.6

6

Plaster on WF 496

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

27014 27.6

6

Drain cut by SU 27027

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 28

27015 27.6

6

Fill under SU 27010 (=SU 27037)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27016 27.6

6

Mortar in construction trench cut SU 27021 for drain SU 27014

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

27017 27.7

7

Fill in drain SU 27014

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27018 27.6

6

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

27019 27.5

5

Packed earth surface with mortar skim

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

27020 27.5

5

Leveling fill under mortar SU 17019

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27021 27.6

6

Construction trench cut for drain SU 27014 in SU 27019

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

27022 27.6

6

Mortar in construction trench cut SU 27021 for drain SU 27014

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

27023 27.5

5

Beaten earth surface with mortar skim (=SU 27030)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

27024 27.5

5

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27025 27.3

3

Fill under SU 27006

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27026 27.4

4

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27027 27.8

8

Modern stones in streetfront doorway VIII.7.14

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

27028 27.5

5

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 27019

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

27029 27.5

5

Plaster on WF 496

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

27030 27.5

5

Beaten earth surface with mortar skim (=SU 27023)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

27031 27.6

6

Fill under SU 27006

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27032 27.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 27048 of WF 496

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27033 27.4

4

Plaster on WF 496, over fill SU 27032

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

27034 27.5

5

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27035 27.4

4

Mortar floor surface cut by SU 27012

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

27036 27.6

6

Fill in construction trench cut SU 27012 for drain SU 27007

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

27037 27.6

6

Fill under SU 27010 (=SU 27015)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27038 27.4

4

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 27035

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

564  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 27000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

27039 27.5

5

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27040 27.6

6

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

27041 27.4

4

Fill under SU 27025

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27042 27.5

5

Beaten earth surface with mortar skim (=SU 27019)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

27043 27.3

3

Fill under SU 27038, cut by SU 27048

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27044 27.4

4

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

27045 27.5

5

Fill in construction trench of WF 437, 438 (=SU 27101)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27046 27.5

5

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27047 27.4

4

Sub-floor fill under plaster SU 27044

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

27048 27.4

4

Construction trench cut for WF 496 in SU 27080, 27043, filled by 27032

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27049 27.3

3

Drain abutting WF 439

Structural Fixture Drain

27050 27.3

3

Fill associated with drain SU 27049

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

27051 27.4

4

Fill under drain SU 27007, 27058

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27052 27.4

4

Stones associated with SU 27041

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27053 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27043, over SU 27071

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27054 27.7

7

Modern fill in drain SU 27058, under capstones SU 27007

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

27055 27.7

7

Fill in drain SU 27058, under capstones SU 27007

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

27056 27.7

7

Fill in drain SU 27058, under capstones SU 27007

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

27057 27.7

7

Fill in drain SU 27058, under capstones SU 27007

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

27058 27.6

6

Mortar/rock construction of drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 29

27059 27.4

4

Fill in drain SU 27014

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27060 27.3

3

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27061 27.2

3

Sarno block under SU 27123, 27118; over SU 27053

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27062 27.5

5

Fill over construction trench fill SU 27045

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27063 27.4

4

Fill under SU 27051, over SU 27053

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27064 27.8

8

Modern topsoil in sidewalk

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

27065 27.8

8

Modern fill on sidewalk

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

27066 27.8

8

Modern fill under topsoil SU 27064

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

Creation/Construction Drain 27

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   565 Trench SU 27000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

27067 27.7

7

Construction trench cut for feature SU 27003 in SU 27019/27042

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

27068 27.8

8

Modern fill under topsoil SU 27065

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

27069 27.3

3

Fill under SU 27032

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27070 27.6

6

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27071 27.1

1

Sandy deposit

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

27072 27.3

3

Fill under SU 27059

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27073 27.1

1

fine and coarse gray gritty run-off under SU 27071

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

27074 27.1

1

Redeposited volcanic rock leveling fill

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 8

27075 27.3

3

Fill under construction trench Fill fill SU 27045

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

27076 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27072, 27075

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27077 27.1

1

Packed earth surface abutting SU 27074

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

27078 27.4

4

Fill in drain SU 27049

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

27079 27.3

3

Fill under SU 27003

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27080 27.5

5

Construction trench cut for WF 438, filled by 27045

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27081 27.2

3

Downpipe in WF 439

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

27082 27.8

8

Fill in downpipe in WF 439

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

27083 27.2

3

Fill under drain SU 27049

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27084 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27083

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27085 27.4

4

Fill abutting WF 438

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27086 27.6

6

Capstones of drain; associated with capstones SU 27007, drain construction SU 27058

Structural Fixture Drain

27087 27.5

5

Beaten earth surface with mortar skim cut by SU 27012

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

27088 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27084

Fill

Generic Fill

27089 27.2

3

Stones associated with soak-away

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

27090 27.2

3

Amphora associated with downpipe SU 27081

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

27091 27.5

5

Beaten earth surface with mortar skim in streetfront doorway VIII.7.14

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

27092 27.3

3

Fill under SU 27026

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27093 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27092, over SU 27071

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27094 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27076

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27095 27.1

1

Redeposited lava stones in/ under SU 27074

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 8

Creation/Construction Drain 29

Creation/Construction

566  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 27000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

27096 27.2

3

Fill in downpipe amphora 27090

Fill

Downpipe Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

27097 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27088

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27098 27.1

1

Compacted gray ash surface under packed earth SU 27077

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

27099 27.1

1

Compacted gray ash surface under packed earth SU 27077

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

27100 27.5

5

Leveling fill under SU 27020

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27101 27.5

5

Fill in construction trench of WF 437, 438 (=SU 27045)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27102 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27097 (=SU 27125)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27103 27.3

3

Fill under SU 27014

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27104 27.3

3

Construction of buried wall (=SU 27120)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27105 27.3

3

Fill under SU 27103

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27106 27.5

5

Fill under SU 28087

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27107 27.3

3

Amphora in fill SU 27105, under drain SU 27014

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 6

27108 27.3

3

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 27107

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

27109 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27105, over SU 27111

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27110 27.3

3

Fill between Sarno blocks SU 27061, 27118

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27111 27.1

1

Sandy deposit under SU 27094, 27109

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

27112 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27094, over SU 27114

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27113 27.5

5

Leveling fill under mortar SU 27087

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

27114 27.1

1

Mixed fill under sandy deposit Fill SU 27111

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

27115 27.1

1

Redeposited volcanic rock leveling fill

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 8

27116 27.2

3

Fill under SU 27090

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

27117 27.2

3

Sarno blocks under WF 438

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27118 27.2

3

Sarno block under WF 496, SU 27123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27119 27.1

1

Redeposited volcanic stones in SU 27115

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 8

27120 27.3

3

Construction of buried wall (=SU 27104)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27121 27.4

4

Construction of WF 496

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27122 27.8

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 496

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   567 Trench SU 27000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

27123 27.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

27124 27.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

27125 27.2

3

Fill under WF 439 (=SU 27102) Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27126 27.2

3

Construction of WF 439

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27127 27.2

3

Plaster on WF 439

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

27128 27.4

4

Construction of WF 438

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27129 27.4

4

Plaster on SU 27128 in WF 439 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

27130 27.5

5

Plaster on SU 27128 in WF 439 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on SU 27128 in WF 439 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

27131

Feature

27132 27.8

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 438

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

27133 27.8

8

Modern mortar on WF 439

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

27134 27.5

5

Quoin in WF 438

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27135 27.8

8

Modern quoining over SU 27134 in WF 438

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

27136 27.2

3

Stones under fill SU 27105

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27137 27.4

4

Construction of WF 438

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27138 27.5

5

Construction of WF 438

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27139 27.8

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 438

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

27140 27.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

27141 27.4

4

Fill under WF 438

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

27142 27.2

3

Volcanic stone over SU 17117, under WF 438

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27143 27.2

3

Sarno block over SU 17117, under WF 438

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

27144 27.1

1

Gray ash quarry fill under SU 27095

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 8

27145 27.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

27146 27.8

8

Modern pointing on SU 27122 in WF 486

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

28000 28001 28.4

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

28002 28.4

8

Modern nail in WF 459

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

28003 28.4

8

Modern nail in WF 459

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

28004 28.4

8

Metal pipe in SU 28001

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

28005 28.4

8

Modern PVC pipe abutting SU 28006

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

28006 28.4

8

Modern metal pipe

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

Quarry Area 8

568  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

28000 28007 28.4

8

Modern cable cutting SU 28000

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

28008 28.4

8

Modern PVC pipe cutting SU 28001

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

28009 28.2

4

Quarrying cut in SU 28010

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

28010 28.0

0

Paleosol under SU 28001

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

28011 28.2

4

Fill under SU 28001

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

28012 28.2

4

Fill under 28011

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

28013 28.2

4

Fill under SU 28001

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

28014 28.4

8

Modern construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

28015 28.2

4

Fill under SU 28012, 28013; abutting WF 459

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

28016 28.2

4

Fill under topsoil

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

28017 28.4

8

Modern construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

28018 28.4

8

Modern fill in feature SU 28031

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28019 28.4

8

Modern construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

28020 28.2

4

Fill under topsoil

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

28021 28.4

8

Modern fill in square feature SU 28031

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28022 28.4

8

Modern deposit on SU 28019

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28023 28.4

8

Modern deposit on SU 28014

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28024 28.4

8

Modern deposit on SU 28017

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28025 28.4

8

Modern secondary deposit of drain cover

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28026 28.4

8

Modern construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

28027 28.2

4

Construction of water feature Structural Fixture Drain SU 28035

Creation/Construction Drain 25

28028 28.2

4

Opus signinum fragment in fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

28029 28.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

28030 28.2

4

Hydraulic plaster on construction SU 28027 of water feature SU 28035

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 25

28031 28.2

4

Square feature near large water channel

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

28032 28.3

5

Fill in channel feature SU 28035

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

28033 28.3

5

Fill in water/drain feature SU 28035

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

28034 28.2

4

Construction of water feature Structural Fixture Drain SU 28035

Quarry Area 9

Creation/Construction Drain 25

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   569 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

28000 28035 28.2

4

Opus incertum/hydraulic plaster construction of water feature; associated with construction SU 28027, 28034, plaster SU 28030

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 25

28036 28.2

4

Hydraulic plaster on drain construction SU 28034, WF 34

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 25

28037 28.4

8

Fill in construction trench of WF 460

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

28038 28.3

5

Fill in channel SU 28035

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

28039 28.2

4

Rock in drain construction SU 28027

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 25

28040 28.3

5

Fill east of channel SU 28035

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

28041 28.3

5

Fill in channel SU 28035

Fill

Drain Fill

Creation/Construction

28042 28.4

8

Sand lens fill in construction Fill trench of WF 460 (=SU 28037, 28043)

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

28043 28.4

8

Fill in channel SU 28035; fill in construction trench cut SU 28050 for WF 460

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

28044 28.4

8

Modern fill in square feature SU 28031

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28045 28.2

4

Construction of buried wall abutted by buried wall SU 28062

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

28046 28.2

4

Hydraulic plaster on water feature SU 28035

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 25

28047 28.4

8

Modern fill in square feature SU 28031

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28048 28.4

8

Modern fill in square feature SU 28031

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28049 28.4

8

Modern fill in square feature SU 28031

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

28050 28.4

8

Construction trench cut for WF 460, filled by SU 28043

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

28051 28.2

4

Fill possibly associated with feature SU 28035

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

28052 28.3

5

Foundation of WF 459

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

28053 28.0

0

Bedrock under SU 28031

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

28054 28.2

4

Quarry pit fill

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

28055 28.4

8

Modern deposit on SU 28026

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

28056 28.3

5

Fill associated with destruction Fill of channel SU 28035

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

28057 28.3

5

Foundation for WF 459 in SU 28035

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

28058 28.2

4

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

570  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

28000 28059 28.4

8

Packed earth surface abutting SU 28058, 28045

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

28060 28.0

0

black friable scoria

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

28061 28.0

0

Bedrock with quarrying cut

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

28062 28.2

4

Construction of buried wall abutting SU 28045

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

28063 28.0

0

Deposit under topsoil

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

28064 28.1

3

Construction trench cut for waste pit in SU 28063

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Waste Cut – Structural Fixture Feature 15

28065 28.2

4

Fill in Waste Feature 15 under SU 28062

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

28066 28.2

4

Mortar surface abutting SU 28045

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

28067 28.2

4

Fill over SU 28010

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

28068 28.none

99

Fill (=SU 28065)

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

28069 28.2

4

Fill in waste pit SU 28064

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

28070 28.2

4

Packed earth surface under SU 28020,

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

28071 28.2

4

Construction of buried wall abutting WF 460

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

28072 28.3

5

Fill in SU 28056

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

28073 28.2

4

Fill associated with feature SU 28035

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

28074 28.2

4

Fill of 28064 waste disposal pit Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

28075 28.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

28076 28.2

4

Fill

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 9

28077 28.0

0

Bedrock under SU 28035, 28058, 28071

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

28078 28.3

5

Fill under SU 28037

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

28079 28.3

5

Construction of WF 459

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

28080 28.4

8

Modern construction

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

28081 28.4

8

Modern construction in WF 459

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

29000 29001 29.7

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

29002 29.7

8

Modern fill under topsoil

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

29003 29.5

5

Mortar/stone capping of drain SU 29018

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 18

29004 29.7

8

Modern under topsoil

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

29005 29.7

8

Modern mortar surface

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

29006 29.5

5

Northern threshold stone (night door?) in streetfront entrance VIII.7.11

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 11

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   571 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

29000 29007 29.5

5

Southern threshold stone (public entrance?) in streetfront entrance VIII.7.11

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 11

29008 29.5

5

Brick/tile pieces abutting SU 29006, 29007

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

29009 29.5

5

Fill under floor SU 29029

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

29010 29.5

5

Fill associated with destruction of tank SU 29013

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

29011 29.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

29012 29.4

4

Packed earth surface associated with construction of tank SU 29013

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

29013 29.4

4

Fish-Salting Vat 3

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 3

29014 29.4

4

Plaster on Fish-Salting Vat 3 SU 29013

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 3

29015 29.3

3

Plaster tank construction abutting WF 301

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

29016 29.4

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

29017 29.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

29018 29.5

5

Mortar/stone/terracotta construction of drain, under capstones SU 29003

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 18

29019 29.5

5

Fill in drain SU 29018

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

29020 29.5

5

Fill in tank SU 29013

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

29021 29.5

5

Construction of quoin foundation abutting WF 300

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29022 29.5

5

Construction of quoin foundation abutting WF 364

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29023 29.3

3

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

29024 29.4

4

Construction trench cut for tank SU 29013 in SU 29016

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Cut – Structural Fixture Vat 3

29025 29.5

5

Fill in tank SU 29013, under SU 29020

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

29026 29.2

2

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 29041

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

29027 29.3

3

Fill under SU 29023

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

29028 29.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

29029 29.5

5

Mortar floor fragment

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

29030 29.5

5

Fill in tank SU 29013, under SU 29025

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

29031 29.7

8

Modern cut in SU 29029

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

29032 29.1

1

Leveling fill under tank SU 29013, over SU 29037

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 4

29033 29.3

3

Fill under tank SU 29015

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

29034 29.2

2

Packed earth surface associated Fill with mortar smear SU 29036

Research Process

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

572  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

29000 29035 29.3

3

Construction trench cut for tank SU 29015 in SU 29034

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

29036 29.2

2

Mortar surface fragment

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

29037 29.1

1

Redeposited lava stone quarry fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 4

29038 29.5

5

Fragmentary floor abutting WF 301

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

29039 29.5

5

Fill abutting SU 29501

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

29040 29.2

2

Packed earth surface under SU 29034, over SU 29042, cut by SU 29024, 29035

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

29041 29.2

2

Packed earth surface under SU 29027, abutting SU 29046

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

29042 29.1

1

Cobblestone surface under packed earth SU 29040

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

29043 29.1

1

Leveling fill under fill SU 29026

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 4

29044 29.1

1

Packed earth road surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

29045 29.1

1

Stone in SU 29044

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 4

29046 29.4

4

Construction of Fish-Salting Vat 3 SU 29013

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 3

29047 29.1

1

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

29048 29.3

3

Fill in construction trench of WF 301

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

29049 29.3

3

Fill under SU 29047, 29048

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

29050 29.3

3

Mortar on WF 362

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

29051 29.1

1

Redeposited ash surface cut by SU 29054

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

29052 29.3

3

Mortar on WF 301

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

29053 29.1

1

Bedrock outcropping with polished abrasion (like 56125) cut by SU 29054, 29055

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 4

29054 29.3

3

Construction trench cut for WF 301 in SU 29051, 29053

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

29055 29.1

1

Quarrying cut in SU 29053

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

29056 29.4

4

Cut in tank SU 29015

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

29501 29.3

3

Construction of WF 301

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29502 29.6

7

Repair of wall in Room 48

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29503

Fill in WF 301

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29504

Construction of WF 301

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29505 29.5

5

Stone in WF 301

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29506 29.4

4

Mortar floor under SU 29505

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

29507 29.3

3

Hydraulic plaster on WF 301

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Quarry Area 4

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   573 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

29000 29508 29509

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 301

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Quoin in WF 301

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29510 29.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 301

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

29511 29.7

8

Modern nail in WF 301

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

29512 29.7

8

Modern nail in WF 301

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

Cut of doorway through SU 29502, 29503/WF 301

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

29513 29514 29.3

3

Quoin in WF 363

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29515 29.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

29516 29.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

29517 29.7

8

Modern consolidation of WF 363

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

29518 29.7

8

Modern nail

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

29519 29.3

3

Quoin in WF 297

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29520 29.3

3

Quoin in WF 297

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29521 29.7

8

Modern pointing on WF 297

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

29522 29.7

8

Modern nail in WF 297

Miscellaneous

Modern Nail

Modern Activity

29523 29.7

8

Modern fill in WF 362

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

29524 29.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 362

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

29525 29.3

3

Construction of WF 362

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29526 29.3

3

Stone in WF 362

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29527 29.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 362

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

29528

Plaster on WF 362, associated with floor SU 29029

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

29529

Construction of WF 362

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Repair of wall in Room 48

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

29531

Plaster in lararium in WF 362, under SU 29532

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

29532

Plaster in lararium in WF 362, over SU 29531, under SU 29533

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

29533

Plaster in lararium in WF 362, over SU 29532

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

Fill

Creation/Construction

29530 29.6

30000

Type

7

Surface – Opus signinum

Feature

30001 30.1

5

Opus signinum (tessellated) surface

30002 30.none

99

Cistern head / small well head Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 2

30003 30.none

99

Tank feature

Creation/Construction Cistern 2

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

574  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

30004 30.none

99

Drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Cistern 2

30005 30.none

99

Stray find: worked bone

Miscellaneous

Research Process

30006 30.none

99

Well in VIII.7.5-6 Room 30

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

30007 30.1

5

Triclinium couches

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

30008 30.1

5

Triclinium table

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

30009 30.1

5

Construction of wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

30010 30.1

5

Construction of WF 186, 263

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

30011 30.1

5

Construction of threshold between WF 181, 182

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

30012 30.none

99

Foundation of WF 268

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

30013 30.1

5

Opus signinum (tessellated) floor

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

50000 50001 50.9

8

Modern topsoil over trench 50000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

50002 50.6

5

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

50003 50.6

5

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

50004 50.6

5

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

50005 50.9

8

Modern fill under topsoil

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50006 50.4

4

Southern threshold stone (Threshold 16) in streetfront entrance I.1.1

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 16

50007 50.4

4

Northern threshold stone (Threshold 16) in streetfront entrance I.1.1

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 16

50008 50.6

5

Opus signinum floor surface under SU 50005

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

50009 50.9

8

Modern fill throughout I.1.1-1a Fill Room 102

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50010 50.2

3

Foundation block in WF 1016

Wall

Creation/Construction

50011 50.9

8

Modern fill under SU 50005, in Fill SU 50013

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50012 50.5

5

Fill in vat SU 50014, under SU 50011

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

50013 50.6

5

Drain under SU 50008

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 33

50014 50.4

4

Fish-Salting Vat 5

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 5

50015 50.9

8

Lapilli fill in I.1.1-1a Room 102

Fill

Modern Activity

50016 50.2

3

Well in I.1.1-1a Room 102

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50017 50.9

8

Fill between SU 50021, 50022

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

50018 50.5

5

Fill under SU 50012 in tank SU 50014

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

50019 50.5

5

Fill under SU 50018 in tank SU 50014

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

30000

Architecture

Stray Finds

Modern Deposit

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   575 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Vat/Tank Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Feature

50000 50020 50.4

4

Fill in tank SU 50014 (FishSalting Vat 5)

Fill

50021 50.2

3

Sarno block in wellhead SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50022 50.6

5

Sarno block in wellhead SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50023 50.2

3

Sarno block in wellhead SU 50016

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50024 50.4

4

Floor surface under SU 50002, over SU 50023, 50044, 50046

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

50025 50.2

3

Mortared stone feature abutted by WF 1011, 1012

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

50026 50.6

5

Mortar under WF 1013

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

50027 50.2

3

Construction of buried portion of WF 1008, 1010; threshold of I.1.1-1a Room 102

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50028 50.5

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

50029 50.2

3

Stone construction in wellhead SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50030 50.8

7

Lapilli fill of well

Miscellaneous

79 AD Eruption Event

AD 79 Eruption

50031 50.4

4

Fill in tank SU 50014 (FishSalting Vat 5), under fill SU 50019

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

50032 50.6

5

Mortared stone abutting wellhead block SU 50021

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50033 50.7

7

Fill in drain SU 50013

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

50034 50.2

3

Sarno block in wellhead SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50035 50.6

5

Fill under SU 50012, 50013

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

50036 50.6

5

Fill abutting SU 50055, 50067

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

50037 50.6

5

Opus signinum floor surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

50038 50.6

5

Sub-floor fill under surface SU 50037, over SU 50039

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50039 50.3

3

Mortar floor surface under SU 50038

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

50040 50.4

4

Threshold stone (Threshold 17) in streetfront doorway I.1.1a

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction Threshold 17

50041 50.8

7

Lapilli fill in well, under fill SU 50030

Miscellaneous

79 AD Eruption Event

AD 79 Eruption

50042 50.6

5

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50043 50.3

3

Packed sandy surface under SU 50036, cut by SU 50014, abutting SU 50048

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

50044 50.2

3

Packed earth surface under SU 50002, over SU 50023

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

576  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

50000 50045 50.6

5

Pit cut in SU 50047, under SU 50042

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

50046 50.2

3

Mortar surface under SU 50042, over SU 50023

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

50047 50.6

5

Fill under SU 50042

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50048 50.5

5

Sub-floor fill under SU 50036, 50049, 50014; over SU 50050, 50052; abutting SU 50043

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50049 50.2

3

Mortar over SU 50048, 50066; associated with SU 50067

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50050 50.2

3

Sarno block under SU 50055

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50051 50.6

5

Fill over SU 50053

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50052 50.5

5

Sub-surface fill under SU 50048, abutting SU 50043, 50050, 50014

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50053 50.6

5

Drain feature (=SU 50054)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 32

50054 50.6

5

Packed earth construction of channel (=SU 50053)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 32

50055 50.2

3

Volcanic stone block over SU 50050

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50056 50.5

5

Cut in SU 50043, filled by SU 50057

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

50057 50.5

5

Sub-surface fill of cut SU 50056 Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50058 50.8

7

Fill in well under SU 50041

Miscellaneous

79 AD Eruption Event

AD 79 Eruption

50059 50.2

3

Packed earth surface under SU 50043, over SU 50075, cut by SU 50014, 50069, 50050

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

50060 50.1b

1

Gray ash surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

50061 50.6

5

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

50062 50.9

8

Modern fill under topsoil

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50063 50.0

0

Paleosol under fill SU 50060

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

50064 50.3

3

Cement/plaster surface under Fill 50062, over SU 50082

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

50065 50.6

5

Bar counter over SU 50073, Structural Fixture Counter under modern reconstruction SU 50155

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 7 / Bar Counter 1

50066 50.2

3

Mortared stone under SU 50055, over SU 50081

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50067 50.2

3

Construction of buried wall over SU 50068

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50068 50.2

3

Sarno block under SU 50067, 50071

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50069 50.2

3

Construction of buried wall abutting SU 50050

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   577 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50070 50.9

8

Modern fill under SU 50062, abutting SU 50064, 50076

50000 50071 50.2

3

Sarno block under SU 50010 in Architecture buried wall SU 50027

Wall

Creation/Construction

50072 50.3

3

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 50043

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50073 50.6

5

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 50061

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50074 50.5

5

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

50075 50.2

3

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 50059

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50076 50.9

8

Modern fill in pit cut SU 50134, Fill under SU 50070 (=SU 50092)

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50077 50.6

5

Construction of WF 1013

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50078 50.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

50079 50.6

5

Plaster on WF 1013

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

50080 50.2

3

Fill under SU 50075

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

50081 50.2

3

Sarno block under SU 50050, 50066; abutted by SU 50075, 50069

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50082 50.3

3

Sub-floor fill under cement/ plaster SU 50064

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50083 50.3

3

Fill (=SU 50082)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50084 50.2

3

Fill abutting SU 50087, 50027, 50081

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50085 50.2

3

Fill under SU 50080, abutting SU 50014, 50069, 50081, 50087

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50086 50.9

8

Modern fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50087 50.2

3

Block under SU 50080, 50014; cut by SU 50089; abutted by SU 50084

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50088 50.3

3

Packed earth surface over SU 58001, under SU 50014, 50069; fills cut SU 50089

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

50089 50.3

3

Cut in SU 50087

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

50090 50.9

8

Modern fill (=SU 50076)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50091 50.4

4

Stone surface under WF 1013, SU 50026

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

50092 50.9

8

Modern fill under SU 50076 (=SU 50076)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50093 50.1a

1

Fill of tree fall hole SU 50094

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

50094 50.1a

1

Natural cut in paleosol created by tree fall in SU 50063, filled by 50093

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

50095 50.6

5

Fill in pit under SU 50026

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

50096 50.5

5

Fill between buried wall SU 50069 and block SU 50081

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

578  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

50097 50.3

3

Fill over SU 50103

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50000 50098 50.4

4

Mortar fill in SU 50091, under SU 50095

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

50099 50.9

8

Cut in packed earth surface SU 50097

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

50100 50.1b

1

Gray ash surface under stone SU 50087

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

50101 50.4

4

Mortar surface under SU 50091, abutting Sarno block SU 50021

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

50102 50.6

5

Fill of cut SU 50105

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50103 50.3

3

Fill under SU 50097, over SU 50104

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50104 50.2

3

Mortar/packed earth surface cut by tank SU 50014, under/ abutting SU 50103, over 50109

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

50105 50.6

5

Cut in SU 50101, filled by SU 50102

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

50106 50.2

3

Construction trench of wall SU 50081

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

50107 50.2

3

Fill cut by SU 50106

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50108 50.2

3

Fill cut by SU 50107

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

50109 50.2

3

Fill under SU 50104, over SU 50113

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

50110 50.4

4

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 50101

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50111 50.3

3

Construction of buried wall abutting SU 50118

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50112 50.4

4

Fill under SU 50110

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50113 50.2

3

Fill under SU 50109

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50114 50.1b

1

Compact volcanic ash surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

50115 50.2

3

Fill abutting buried walls SU 50081, 50027

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50116 50.4

4

Fill under SU 50112

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50117 50.6

5

Fill abutting SU 50029

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50118 50.2

3

Construction of buried wall under WF 1038, abutted by SU 50111

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50119 50.2

3

Construction of buried wall under SU 50027

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50120 50.2

3

Stone in wellhead abutting block SU 50021

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50121 50.4

4

Semicircular feature under counter SU 50065

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction

50122 50.4

4

Fill under SU 50062

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction Soak-away 7

50123 50.3

3

Fill under SU 50088, possible construction trench fill

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   579 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

50000 50124 50.4

4

Construction trench fill abutting WF 1013, under SU 50116

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

50125 50.4

4

Fill over SU 50147

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50126 50.2

3

Fill cut by SU 50134, under SU 50113, abutting SU 50127

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50127 50.2

3

Fill under SU 50113, abutting SU 50126

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50128 50.none

99

Fill in amphora

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50129 50.none

99

Fill in amphora

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50130 50.none

99

Fill in amphora

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50131 50.none

99

Fill of amphora

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

50132 50.4

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 50122

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Soak-away 7

50133 50.4

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 50122

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Soak-away 7

50134 50.9

8

Cut filled by modern fills SU 50076, 50092

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

50135 50.6

5

Plaster on WF 1012

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

50136 50.6

5

Plaster on WF 1012

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

50137 50.4

4

Cement deposit under Sarno block SU 50139, associated with well SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50138 50.6

5

Construction of WF 1012

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50139 50.4

4

Sarno block in WF 1012, associated with well SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50140 50.9

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1012

Architecture

Modern Activity

50141 50.4

4

Mortar under cement SU 50137, in WF 1012, associated with well SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50142 50.4

4

Stone under cement SU 50137 and mortar SU 50141 in WF 1012, associated with well SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50143 50.4

4

Stone under WF 1012, associated with well SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50144 50.4

4

Plaster on WF 1012

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

50145 50.6

5

Sarno blocks in WF 1012

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50146 50.4

4

Sarno block in WF 1012, associated with well SU 50016

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

50147 50.2

3

Mortar surface under fill SU 50125

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

50148 50.2

3

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 50147

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

50149 50.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

580  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

50000 50150 50.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

50151 50.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

50152 50.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

50153 50.2

3

Construction of WF 1010

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50154 50.6

5

Plaster on WF 1010

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

50155 50.9

8

Modern reconstruction of bar Structural Fixture Modern counter SU 50065 Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

50156 50.4

4

Construction of buried wall under SU 50006, over SU 50069

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50500 50.9

8

Modern topsoil over sidewalk

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

50501 50.9

8

Modern pavement over SU 50502, 50503, 50504, 50505

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50502 50.4

4

Curbstone under SU 50501

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

50503 50.4

4

Curbstone under SU 50501

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

50504 50.4

4

Curbstone

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

50505 50.9

8

Modern fill under SU 50500, 50501

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50506 50.9

8

Modern fill under SU 50505, Fill abutting SU 50507, 50509, 50511

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50507 50.9

8

Modern fill under SU 50505

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50508 50.9

8

Modern cut in SU5 0506, filled Cut by SU 50505

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

50509 50.9

8

Modern stone/mortar reconstruction of SU 50516

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

50510 50.9

8

Modern pipes in sidewalk

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

50511 50.4

4

Mortared construction debris over SU 50517, abutting foundations of WF 1018

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50512 50.9

8

Modern fill associated with Fill modern pipes SU 50510, under SU 50506, over SU 50513

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50513 50.9

8

Modern fill associated with Fill modern pipes SU 50510, under SU 50512, over SU 50511

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50514 50.9

8

Modern cut in SU 50511, filled by SU 50512

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

50515 50.9

8

Modern fill under SU 50515, over SU 50511

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

50516 50.4

4

Opus incertum feature under modern reconstruction SU 50509

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

50517 50.2

3

Construction of buried wall under SU 50511, 50522

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50518 50.2

3

Fill of cut SU 50519

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Fill

Modern Activity

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   581 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

50000 50519 50.2

3

Cut in Sarno stone SU 50520, filled by SU 55028

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

50520 50.2

3

Sarno block under SU 50515

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50521 50.2

3

Foundation block for quoin in Architecture WF 1018

Wall

Creation/Construction

50522 50.2

3

Sarno block under SU 50521, 50517

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50523 50.2

3

Sarno block under SU 50522

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50524 50.2

3

Fill of cuts SU 50519, 50526

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

50525 50.none

99

Fill in downpipe

Fill

Downpipe Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

50526 50.9

8

Modern cut in SU 50520

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

50527 50.4

4

Sarno block under WF 1013

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50528 50.2

3

Sarno block under SU 50527, abutting SU 50521

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50529 50.2

3

Sarno block under SU 55027, abutting SU 50528

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

50531 50.7

7

Drain feature

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 31

50532 50.7

7

Fill of doorway in WF 1038

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

51001 51.7

8

Modern fill over trench 51000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

51002 51.7

8

Modern fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51003 51.6

5

Repagulum

Structural Fixture Repagulum

Creation/Construction Doorstop 4

51004 51.6

5

Northern threshold stone (Threshold 20) in streetfront entrance I.1.4

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 20

51005 51.6

5

Middle threshold stone (Threshold 20) in streetfront entrance I.1.4

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 20

51006 51.6

5

Southern threshold stone (Threshold 20) in streetfront entrance I.1.4

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 20

51007 51.7

8

Modern reconstruction of bar Structural Fixture Modern counter Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

51008 51.7

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

51009 51.6

5

Fill over packed earth floor SU 51014

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51010 51.6

5

Mortar surface (=SU 51012)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

51011 51.7

8

Modern capping tiles over power lines

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

51012 51.6

5

Mortar surface (=SU 51010)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

51013 51.6

5

Fill over opus signinum surface SU 51014

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51014 51.5

4

Packed earth floor surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51015 51.4

4

Cistern

Structural Fixture Cistern

51000

Bar Counter 3

Creation/Construction Cistern 8

582  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 51000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

51016 51.6

5

Cut in SU 51015, filled by SU 51017

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

51017 51.6

5

Fill in pits SU 51016, 51030

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51018 51.5

4

Fill under opus signinum surface SU 51014, over opus signinum surface SU 51015

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

51019 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51020 51.7

8

Lapilli fill of cistern SU 51015

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

51021 51.5

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51014

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51022 51.5

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51021

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51023 51.5

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth surface SU 51022

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

51024 51.3

4

Sarno stone in buried wall SU 51033

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51025 51.4

4

Doorstop 3 under SU 51021

Structural Fixture Repagulum

Creation/Construction Doorstop 3

51026 51.6

5

Cut in SU 51015, filled by SU 51027

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

51027 51.6

5

Fill in cut SU 51026 in cistern SU 51015

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51028 51.5

4

Packed earth surface abutting SU 51015 (=SU 51022)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51029 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51030 51.6

5

Pit cut in SU 51016, filled by SU 51017

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

51031 51.4

4

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction Soak-away 8

51032 51.4

4

Packed earth surface under mortar SU 51036

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51033 51.3

4

Counter feature

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction

51034 51.3

4

Construction of buried wall; associated with blocks SU 51077

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51035 51.5

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51015 (=51022)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51036 51.4

4

Degraded opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

51037 51.7

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

51038 51.5

4

Packed earth surface abutting SU 51015 (=SU 51022)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51039 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51040 51.5

4

Pit cut in SU 51032, filled by SU 51041

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

51041 51.5

4

Fill in cut SU 51040

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51042 51.5

4

Fill in cut SU 51047

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51043 51.4

4

Beaten earth surface under Fill mortar SU 51036, over SU 51032

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   583 Trench SU 51000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

51044 51.3

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51032

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51045 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51046 51.4

4

Fill in cut in opus signinum surface SU 51031

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51047 51.5

4

Pit cut

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

51048 51.5

4

Fill in pit

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51049 51.4

4

Pit cut in SU 51044

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

51050 51.4

4

Fill in pit SU 51049

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51051 51.4

4

Fill in pit cut SU 51096

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51052 51.7

8

Modern fill

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

51053 51.6

5

Mortar surface (=SU 51010, 51012)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

51054 51.6

5

Mortar on WF 1164

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51055 51.5

4

Fill under surface SU 51038

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51056 51.6

5

Leveling fill under SU 51053

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

51057 51.3

4

Packed earth surface (=SU 51110)

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

51058 51.5

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51059 51.3

4

Sarno stones under threshold in streetfront entrance I.1.4

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

51060 51.3

4

Plaster on buried wall SU 51034

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

51061 51.3

4

Fill at arbitrary level in pit cut SU 51047, pit fill SU 51048

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51062 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51063 51.5

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 51058

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

51064 51.4

4

Fill in pit cut SU 51096, under fill SU 51051

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51065 51.4

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51063

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51066 51.3

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51065

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51067 51.4

4

Foundation of brick pillar in WF 1166 (=SU 51130)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51068 51.4

4

Pit cut in SU 51066, 51074

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

51069 51.4

4

Pit fill in cut SU 51068

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51070 51.4

4

Fill of cut 51121 under SU 51055 Fill (=SU 51082)

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

51071 51.3

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 51057 (=SU 51111)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

51072 51.3

4

Fill in cut SU 51085, under SU 51031

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

51073 51.3

4

Mortared construction over soak-away amphora SU 51080

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Feature

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction Soak-away 8

584  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 51000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category Creation/Construction

Feature

51074 51.3

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 51066

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

51075 51.3

4

Fill in pit cut SU 51047 (=SU 51057)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51076 51.3

4

Fill under SU 51071

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

51077 51.3

4

Blocks associated with buried wall SU 51034

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51078 51.3

4

Packed earth surface over SU 51077

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51079 51.3

4

Fill in pit cut SU 51047, under fill SU 51075

Fill

Pit Fill

51080 51.3

4

Soak-away amphora

Structural Fixture Soak-away

51081 51.3

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51079

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51082 51.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 51121 (=SU 51070)

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

51083 51.7

8

Modern fill under power cables, over SU 51084

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

51084 51.7

8

Modern fill under SU 51083, over SU 51070

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

51085 51.3

4

Cut filled by SU 51072, 51080, 51088

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Waste Cut – Structural Fixture Feature 20

51086 51.3

4

Lower fill in soak-away amphora SU 51080

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

51087 51.3

4

Upper fill in soak-away amphora SU 51080

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

51088 51.3

4

Fill of cesspit below SU 51072

Fill

Cesspit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

51089 51.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 51121

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

51090 51.3

4

Fill cut by SU 51121

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51091 51.4

4

Fill over buried wall SU 51094

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51092 51.3

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51074

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51093 51.3

4

Fill under packed earth surface SU 51092

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51094 51.3

4

Construction of buried wall abutting SU 51059

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51095 51.4

4

Fill in pit cut SU 51096

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

51096 51.4

4

Pit cut filled by SU 51051, 51064, 51095

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

51097 51.3

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51098 51.3

4

Fill in construction trench cut 51121, under SU 51089

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

51099 51.3

4

Fill cut by SU 51121?

Fill

Generic Fill

51100 51.3

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51093

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51101 51.2

3

Construction trench cut for SU 51123

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction Creation/Construction Soak-away 8

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   585 Trench SU 51000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

51102 51.2

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 51101

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51103 51.2

3

Slurry/fill under WF 1151 (=SU 51104)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51104 51.2

3

Slurry/fill under WF 1150, cut by SU 51101 (=SU 51103)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51105 51.3

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 51115

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51106 51.3

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 51143

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51107 51.3

4

Packed earth surface (=SU 52044)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51108 51.3

4

Fill in construction trench cuts Fill SU 51113, 51114

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51109 51.3

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 51107

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

51110 51.3

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51109 (=SU 51057)

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

51111 51.3

4

Sub-floor fill under surface SU 51110 (=SU 51071)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

51112 51.3

4

Fill abutting buried wall foundation SU 51059

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51113 51.3

4

Construction trench cut for Sarno stones, filled by SU 51112, 51108, 51118

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51114 51.3

4

Construction trench cut Cut associated with SU 51094, filled by SU 51108

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51115 51.3

4

Construction trench cut for buried wall SU 51094, filled by SU 51105

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51116 51.3

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51111 (=SU 51132)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51117 51.3

4

Terrace fill (=SU 51076)

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

51118 51.3

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 51113

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51119 51.3

4

Packed earth lens under SU 51116

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51120 51.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 51121, under SU 51082

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

51121 51.4

4

Construction trench cut for cistern, filled by SU 51080, 51082, 51120

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction Cistern 8

51122 51.1

1

Compact surface under SU 51120

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

51123 51.2

3

Block in construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51124 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51125 51.0

0

Mercato ash layer under SU 51124 cut by SU 51152

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

586  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 51000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

51126 51.3

4

Packed earth surface under repagulum SU 51025 (=SU 51044)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51127 51.3

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 51126 (=SU 51109)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

51128 51.3

4

Mortar surface under SU 51127 Fill (=SU 51057, 51110)

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

51129 51.3

4

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 51128 (=SU 51071, 51111)

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

51130 51.4

4

Foundation for pillar WCU Fill 1058/Construction over buried wall SU 51034 (=SU 51067)

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

51131 51.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

51132 51.3

4

Packed earth surface under SU 51129 (=SU 51116)

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

51133 51.3

4

Fill (=SU 51076)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51134 51.0

0

Paleosol under cut SU 51121

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

51135 51.1

1

Terrace fill under SU 51122

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

51136 51.1

1

Terrace fill under SU 51135

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

51137 51.3

4

Construction trench cut in SU 51033

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

51138 51.3

4

Plaster lining of cut SU 51137

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction

51139 51.3

4

Fill (=SU 51076)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

51140 51.3

4

Fill associated with construction trench fills SU 51105, 51112, 51118

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51141 51.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

51142 51.3

4

Fill under SU 51133

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51143 51.3

4

Construction trench cut associated with buried wall SU 51034/51077, filled by SU 51106

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51144 51.3

4

Fill under Sarno stones SU 51059, over road SU 51147/ 51122 (=SU 51103, 51104)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

51145 51.7

8

Modern lapilli fill in cistern (=SU 51020)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

51146 51.6

5

Fill under SU 51145 in cistern

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

Creation/Construction

51147 51.1

1

Packed earth surface (=SU 51122)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

51148 51.3

4

Fill (=SU 51133)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51149 51.3

4

Fill under SU 51148 (=SU 51142)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51150 51.1

1

Fill over possible early road SU 51147

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

51151 51.1

1

Terrace fill under potential early road surface SU 51147

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

51152 51.3

4

Quarry cut in SU 51150, 51147, 51151, 51125; under SU 51033

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

Fill

Feature

Quarry Area 11

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   587 Trench SU 51000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

51153 51.3

4

Fill in pit cut in SU 51150, 511047, Fill 51151, 51125; under SU 51033

51154 51.6

5

Bar counter obscured by modern reconstruction SU 51007

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction Bar Counter 3

51155 51.5

4

Resurfacing of cistern

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 8

51501 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51502 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51503 51.7

8

Modern construction of WF 1165

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51504 51.4

4

Construction of WF 1165

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51505 51.4

4

Plaster on WF 1165

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

51506 51.7

8

Modern mortar on WF 1165

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51507

Mortar and Sarno stone in WF 1165

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51508

Mortar on WF 1165

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51509 51.7

8

Modern mortar on WF 1165

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51510 51.6

5

Construction of WF 1164

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51511 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51512 51.7

8

Modern construction of WF 1164

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51513

Plaster on WF 1164

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

51514

Mortar on WF 1323, abutting WF 1164

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51515 51.4

4

Construction of WF 1323

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51516 51.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1323

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51517 51.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1322

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51518 51.4

4

Construction of WF 1322

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51519 51.7

8

Modern mortar on WF 1322, 1163

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51520 51.4

4

Construction of WF 1163

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51521 51.3

4

Sarno stone in WF 1163

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51522 51.7

8

Modern construction of WF 1163

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51523 51.4

4

Construction of WF 1162

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51524 51.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1162

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

588  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 51000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

51525 51.7

8

Modern construction of WF 1162

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51526 51.2

3

Sarno blocks in WF 1153

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51527 51.7

8

Modern mortar on WF 1153

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51528 51.2

3

Construction of doorway in WF 1152

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

51529 51.7

8

Modern mortar on WF 1152

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51530 51.7

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1152

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51531 51.2

3

Construction of doorway in WF 1151

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

51532 51.7

8

Modern mortar on WF 1151

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51533 51.7

8

Modern mortar on WF 1150

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51534 51.4

4

Construction of WF 1150

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51535 51.4

4

Plaster on WF 1150

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

51536 51.4

4

Foundation of WF 1150

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51537 51.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1150

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51538 51.7

8

Modern electrical wire in WF 1150

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

51539 51.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1149

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51540 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51541 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Plaster on WF 1132

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

51542 51543 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51544 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51545 51.7

8

Modern construction of WF 1131

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51546 51.7

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1131

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51547

Construction of WF 1130

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51548

Construction of WF 1130

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51549

Quoining of SU 51548 in WF 1130

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   589 Trench SU 51000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

SubType

Formation Category

51550

Construction of WF 1130

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51551

Construction of brick pillar in Architecture WF 1130

Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51552 51.none

99

51553

Construction of WF 1130

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51554 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51555 51.7

8

Modern reconstruction over SU 51551 in WF 1130

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51556 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51557 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of brick pillar in Architecture WF 1128, abutted by WF 1129

Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Quoining of WF 1168 (=WF 1157)

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1157

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 1168, abutting WF 1167

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

51558 51559 51.none

99

51560 51561 51.7

8

51562

52000

Type

Feature

51563 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51564 51.7

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1167

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

51565 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51566 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

51567 51.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

52001 52.10

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

52002 52.9

6

Fill under topsoil

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52003 52.8

5

Mortar drain channel (=SU 52018)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 40

52004 52.8

5

Mortar over drain channel SU 52003

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 40

52005 52.8

5

Leveling fill under SU 52118, over SU 52016

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52006 52.5

4

Plaster on WF 1172

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52007 52.5

4

Plaster under SU 52006, over SU 52008, on WF 1172

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52008 52.5

4

Plaster under SU 52007 on WF 1172

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52009 52.none

99

Plaster over SU 52019 on Sarno Architecture block SU 52014

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52010 52.10

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1247

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

52011 52.9

6

Fill in cut SU 52013

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

590  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 52000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

52012 52.6

4

Packed earth surface under SU 52016, 52003; cut by SU 52013; associated with tank SU 52036, soak-away SU 52075 (=SU 52033)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52013 52.9

6

Pit cut in SU 52003, 52004, 52012, 52015, 52016, 52017; filled by SU 52011, 52020

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

52014 52.5

4

Sarno block associated with buried portion of WF 1171

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52015 52.7

4

Fill over SU 52012, cut by SU 52013

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52016 52.8

5

Fill under SU 52003, 52005; associated with drain construction

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52017 52.6

4

Leveling fill associated with construction of vat SU 52036

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52018 52.8

5

Fragment of mortar drain channel associated with drain channel SU 52003

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 40

52019 52.none

99

Plaster under SU 52009 on Sarno block SU 52014

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52020 52.9

6

Fill in cut SU 52013, under SU 52011

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

52021 52.5

4

Foundation of WF 1172

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52022 52.4

3

Fill cut by SU 52026, 52030, 52031 (=SU 52023)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

52023 52.4

3

Fill cut by SU 52026 (=SU 52022)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

52024 52.8

5

Degraded mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

52025 52.8

5

Tank feature

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

52026 52.5

4

Cut in SU 52022, 52023

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

52027 52.2

1

Packed earth surface over SU 52106, under SU 52022/52023, cut by SU 52030

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52028 52.2

1

Packed earth surface (=SU 52027)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52029 52.3

3

Sarno block within cut in surfaces SU 52134, 52106, 52027

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52030 52.3

3

Construction trench cut for wall SU 52029, filled by SU 52108

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

52031 52.5

4

Construction trench cut in SU 52022, filled by SU 52083

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

52032 52.3

3

Plaster on SU 52029 in WF 1172

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52033 52.6

4

Packed earth surface under Fill drain SU 52018, associated with tank SU 52036 (=SU 52012)

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   591 Trench SU 52000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

52034 52.3

3

Packed earth surface Fill associated with wall SU 52029, under SU 52017, 52014

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52035 52.8

5

Fill in tank SU 52036

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

52036 52.6

4

Fish-Salting Vat 8

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 8

52037 52.4

3

Fill above SU 52023

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

52038 52.8

5

Packed earth surface abutting SU 52024/52100

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52039 52.5

4

Construction of buried wall associated with surface SU 52131, 52132

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52040 52.8

5

Fill over tank SU 52036, soak-away SU 52075; under mortar SU 52024, 52100

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52041 52.6

4

Plaster on inside of tank SU 52036

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 8

52042 52.8

5

Plaster over SU 52024/52100 (=SU 52094)

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

52043 52.6

4

Construction of buried wall; Architecture reused in construction of tank SU 52037

52044 52.8

5

Capstone over drain SU 52003

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 40

52045 52.4

3

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 52037

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

52046 52.8

5

Fill in tank SU 52036, under fill Fill SU 52035, over fill SU 52053

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

52047 52.8

5

Fill under 52025 (=SU 52040)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52048 52.8

5

Vessel in SU 52040

Structural Fixture Fixed Vessel (not soak-away)

Creation/Construction

52049 52.8

5

Fill under SU 52047

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52050 52.none

99

Stray find: bronze object

Miscellaneous

Stray Finds

Research Process

52051 52.8

5

Fill under SU 52024, 52100

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52052 52.5

4

Fill abutting SU 52022 and 52029, associated with fill SU 52083

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

52053 52.8

5

Fill in tank SU 52036, under fills SU 52035, 52046

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

52054 52.5

4

Posthole (?) cut in SU 52039

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

52055 52.8

5

Rubble construction of unidentified feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

52056 52.8

5

Fill under tank bottom SU 52055

Fill

Creation/Construction

52057 52.8

5

Vessel mortared in SU 52055, filled by SU 52058

Structural Fixture Fixed Vessel (not soak-away)

Creation/Construction

52058 52.8

5

Fill in fixed vessel SU 52057

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52059 52.5

4

Fill in cut SU 52060, under fill SU 52017

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

Wall

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

592  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 52000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

52060 52.5

4

Construction trench cut for SU 52014 in SU 52037, filled by SU 52059

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

52061 52.6

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 52038

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

52062 52.6

4

Vessel in fill SU 52061, filled by Fill SU 52063

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

52063 52.6

4

Fill in vessel SU 52062

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

52064 52.8

5

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 52038

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

52065 52.8

5

Packed earth deposit over SU 52075

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52066 52.8

5

Fill in SU 52040

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52067 52.6

4

Fill in tank SU 52070/52071/52082

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

52068 52.6

4

Fill in tank SU 52070/52071/52082

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

52069 52.5

4

Construction of buried wall under fill SU 52017, abutted by packed earth surface SU 52131/52132

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52070 52.5

4

Construction of tank SU 52036 Structural Fixture Vat/Tank (=SU 52071, 52082)

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 7

52071 52.5

4

Construction of tank SU 52036 Structural Fixture Vat/Tank (=SU 52070, 52082)

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 7

52072 52.6

4

Fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52073 52.5

4

Fill under SU 52017 (=SU 52074)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52074 52.5

4

Fill under SU 52017 (=SU 52073)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52075 52.7

4

Opus signinum surface of soak-away

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

52076 52.2

1

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52077 52.none

99

Fill on north side of buried wall SU 52069

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52078 52.none

99

Fill on south side of buried wall SU 52069

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52079 52.6

4

Fill in tank SU 52070/52071/52082, under fill SU 52068

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

52080 52.6

4

Fill in tank SU 52070/52071/52082, surrounding fill SU 52079, under fill SU 52068

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

52081 52.5

4

Mortar on tank construction SU 52070=52071=52082

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 7

52082 52.5

4

Construction of tank SU 52036 Structural Fixture Vat/Tank (=SU 52070, 52071)

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 7

52083 52.5

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 52031

Creation/Construction

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   593 Trench SU 52000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

52084 52.5

4

Fill over SU 52037, cut by SU 52123

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52085 52.6

4

Fill under tank SU 52080

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

52086 52.7

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 52089

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

52087 52.7

4

Fill in construction trench cut for soak-away SU 52089

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

52088 52.7

4

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 52075

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

52089 52.7

4

Soak-away amphora filled by SU 52086, over SU 52111, 52112

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 9

52090 52.6

4

Fill in tank SU 52070/52071/52082, under fill SU 52085

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

52091 52.9

6

Fill on north side of plaster feature SU 52094, 52095

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52092 52.8

5

Plaster on WF 1174

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52093 52.8

5

Plaster on WF 1174

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52094 52.8

5

Plaster feature abutting WF 1174, associated with SU 52095

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

52095 52.8

5

Plaster feature abutting WF 1174, associated with SU 52094

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

52096 52.9

6

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52097 52.0

0

Bedrock under tank SU 52070/52071/52082

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

52098 52.8

5

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

52099 52.9

6

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52100 52.8

5

Mortar surface, under SU 52094, 52095 (=SU 52024)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

52101 52.8

5

Plaster on WF 1174

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52102 52.8

5

Plaster on WF 1174

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52103 52.8

5

Plaster on WF 1174

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52104 52.8

5

Plaster on corner of WF 1174, 1173

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52105 52.8

5

Plaster over SU 52101, under SU 52103 on WF 1174

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52106 52.2

1

Gray ash surface under SU 52027

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

52107 52.9

6

Fill in possible cut in mortar surface SU 52100

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52108 52.3

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 52030

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

52109 52.2

1

Cut in SU 52106, 52027

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

52110 52.9

6

Leveling fill over SU 52005

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52111 52.7

4

Soak-away amphora under SU 52089

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Soak-away 9

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction Soak-away 9

594  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 52000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

52112 52.7

4

Soak-away amphora

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 9

52113 52.5

4

Mortar surface cut by SU 52114, associated with soak-away

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction

52114 52.5

4

Posthole (?) cut in SU 52113

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

52115 52.3

3

Fill over SU 52106

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52116 52.7

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 52111

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Fill over SU 52017

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

52117

Soak-away 9

52118 52.8

5

Rubble construction of drain SU 52003

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 40

52119 52.5

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52120 52.0

0

Paleosol under SU 52115

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

52121 52.0

0

Paleosol in pit SU 52124

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

52122 52.5

4

Construction trench cut for tank in SU 52037, 52022

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

52123 52.5

4

Construction trench cut for SU 52014 in SU 52084, 52037

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

52124 52.7

4

Construction trench cut for soak-away in SU 52088

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

52125 52.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

52126 52.7

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 52112

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Soak-away 9

52127 52.7

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 52112

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

Soak-away 9

52128 52.8

5

Mortar/rubble construction

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

52129 52.0

0

Bedrock under SU 52120

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

52130 52.0

0

Bedrock under soak-away SU 52112

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

52131 52.5

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52132 52.5

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

52133 52.8

5

Fill under SU 52100

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

52134 52.1

1

Road surface of compact paleosol under SU 52136, 52137

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

52135 52.6

4

Sub-floor fill under tank

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

52136 52.2

1

Stabilizing subsurface of crushed Sarno limestone under SU 52106

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52137 52.1

1

Sandy deposit over wheel rut SU 52138

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

52138 52.1

1

Potential wheel rut in SU 52134 Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

52139 52.6

4

Construction of WF 1173

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52501 52.8

5

Construction of WF 1173

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52502 52.8

5

Mortar on WF 1173

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52503 52.8

5

Plaster on WF 1173

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   595 Trench SU 52000

53000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Feature

52504 52.10

8

Modern pointing on WF 1173

52505 52.9

6

Construction of brick pillar in Architecture WF 1173, abutting WF 1172

Wall

Creation/Construction

52506 52.9

6

Plaster on brick pillar SU 52505 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52507 52.10

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1173

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

52508 52.10

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1173

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

52509 52.6

4

Construction of brick pillar abutting SU 52043; projects into Fish-Salting Vat 8, probably a remnant of FishSalting Vat 7

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 8

52510 52.10

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1247

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

52511 52.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

52512 52.9

6

Sarno blocks in WF 1174

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52513 52.5

4

Sarno block in WF 1171

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52514 52.5

4

Construction of WF 1172

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52515 52.8

5

Construction of WF 1174

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

52516 52.none

99

Unidentified

Miscellaneous

Unknown

Research Process

52517 52.9

6

Plaster on WF 1172

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

52518 52.10

8

Modern pointing on WF 1247

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

52519 52.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

52520 52.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

53001 53.7

8

Modern topsoil over trench 53000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

53002 53.7

8

Modern fill over SU 53007

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

53003 53.7

8

Modern fill in construction trench

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

53004 53.7

8

Modern fill abutting WF 1035

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

53005 53.7

8

Modern construction trench cut in SU 53007, filled by SU 53003

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

53006 53.7

8

Modern cut in SU 53007, filled by SU 53004

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

53007 53.6

7

Leveling fill under SU 53002, cut by SU 53005, 53009

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

53008 53.7

8

Modern construction trench fill abutting WF 1007

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

53009 53.6

7

Fill in SU 53007

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

596  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 53000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

53010 53.4

5

Packed earth surface under SU 53007, cut by SU 53015, abutting WF 1006, 1007

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

53011 53.6

7

construction fill in cut SU 53015 (=SU 53028)

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

53012 53.6

7

Opus Signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

53013 53.6

7

Downpipe construction in WF 1300

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

53014 53.6

7

Leveling fill under SU 53002 (=SU 53007)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

53015 53.6

7

Cut in SU 53014, 53007, 53010, 53033, 53035, 53038, filled by SU 53011 and 53028

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

53016 53.6

7

Fill over SU 53017

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53017 53.5

6

Opus signinum surface

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum Creation/Construction

53018 53.6

7

Cut in SU 53017

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

53019 53.6

7

Mortar floor over SU 53017

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

53020 53.4

5

Opus incertum threshold between Rooms 102 and 103, I.1.1-1a

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 31

53021 53.4

5

Opus incertum threshold (Threshold 31) between Rooms 101 and 103, I.1.1-1a

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 31

53022 53.5

6

Leveling fill under mortar SU 53017

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

53023 53.6

7

Fill in cut SU 53024

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53024 53.6

7

Cut in SU 53017, 53022, filled by Cut SU 53023

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

53025 53.3

4

Degraded mortar over hearth Fill SU 53053, soak-aways SU 53045, 53047

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction Soak-away 10

53026 53.5

6

Leveling fill under SU 53016

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

53027 53.5

6

Leveling fill under mortar SU 53017

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

53028 53.6

7

Construction fill in cut SU 53015 (=SU 53011)

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

53029 53.5

6

Leveling fill over SU 53010

Fill

Leveling Fill

53030 53.4

5

Fill abutting SU 53025, under SU 53010

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

53031 53.4

5

Fill abutting SU 53025, cut by SU 53029

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53032 53.3

4

Fill in soak-away vessel SU 53045, over soak-away fill SU 53041

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

53033 53.4

5

Fill under SU 53030

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53034 53.2

3

Sub-floor fill under packed Fill earth SU 53010, abutting WF 1006, abutted by SU 53030, cut by SU 53015 (=SU 53060)

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

Soak-away 10

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   597 Trench SU 53000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

Feature

53035 53.4

5

Construction trench cut for SU 53025 in SU 53033, filled by SU 53030

53036 53.4

5

Fill in construction trench cut, Fill abutting WF 1007

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

53037 53.4

5

Fill in construction trench cut (=SU 53036)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

53038 53.4

5

Fill under SU 53030

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

53039 53.2

3

Opus incertum wall between Rooms 101 and 103, I.1.1-1a

Structural Fixture Threshold

53040 53.4

5

Fill over SU 53036

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

53041 53.3

4

Fill in soak-away vessel SU 53045, under soak-away fill SU 53032

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

53042 53.4

5

Fill in posthole cut SU 53043 in Fill SU 53036

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

53043 53.4

5

Posthole cut in SU 53036, 53025 Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

53044 53.4

5

Fill under SU 53036, cut by SU 53049, 53070

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53045 53.3

4

Soak-away in SU 53025, filled by SU 53041, 53032

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 10

53046 53.3

4

Fill in soak-away vessel SU 53047, under soak-away fill SU 53048

Fill

Occupation/Use

53047 53.3

4

Soak-away in SU 53025, filled by SU 53046, 53048

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 11

53048 53.3

4

Fill in soak-away vessel SU 53047, over soak-away fill SU 53046

Fill

Occupation/Use

53049 53.4

5

Possible drainage feature cutting SU 53036, filled by SU 53040

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction

53050 53.4

5

Fill of posthole SU 53051, associated with fill SU 53030

Fill

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

53051 53.4

5

Posthole cut in SU 53060

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

53052 53.3

4

Foundation of feature SU 53025

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

53053 53.2

3

Tiles around hearth fill SU 53054

Structural Fixture Cooking Facility

Creation/Construction

53054 53.2

3

Fill in tiles SU 53053

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

53055 53.3

4

Cut in hearth fill SU 53054

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

53056 53.2

3

Packed earth surface cut by SU 53036

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

53057 53.3

4

Cut in SU 53056, 53025, filled by SU 53036

Cut

Generic Cut

53058 53.3

4

Construction material around Structural Fixture Soak-away soak-away SU 53045

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Creation/Construction Threshold 31

Creation/Construction Creation/Construction

Soak-away 10

Soak-away 11

Soak-away 11

598  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 53000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

53059 53.3

4

Fill under soak-away vessel SU 53047

53060 53.2

3

Kiln debris under packed earth Fill SU 53010

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

53061 53.5

6

Leveling fill abutting WF 1035, Fill 1036 (=SU 53026)

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

53062 53.1

2

Construction of kiln

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53063 53.4

5

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 53010

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

53064 53.2

3

Fill in ritual pit cut SU 53065 in Fill SU 53060, under SU 53063

Ritual Pit Fill (primary) Occupation/Use

53065 53.2

3

Pit cut in SU 53060, filled by SU 53064

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction Ritual Context 12

53066 53.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

53067 53.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

53068 53.4

5

Posthole cut by SU 53015

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

53069 53.4

5

Fill of posthole SU 53068

Fill

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

53070 53.4

5

Fill in construction trench cut for stone-lined pit SU 53049

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

53071 53.2

3

Packed earth surface under Fill SU 53011, 53028; cut by posthole SU 53068 (=SU 53056)

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

53072 53.6

7

Mortar and channel associated Structural Fixture Toilet with toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 6

53073 53.6

7

Lower Mortar pour under mortar channel SU 53072,

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction

53074 53.4

5

Construction trench for WF 1006 in SU 53070, 53063

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

53075 53.6

7

Fill in mortar channel SU 53072 (Waste Feature 6)

Fill

Cesspit Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

53076 53.7

8

Lapilli fill of SU 53072

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

53077 53.2

3

Deposit in kiln SU 53062, under fill SU 53060

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

53078 53.3

4

Fill under SU 53033

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53079 53.0

0

Paleosol

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

53080 53.2

3

Deposit in kiln SU 53062, under fill SU 53060, associated with ash deposit SU 53077

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

53081 53.1

2

Packed earth surface under Fill kiln SU 53062, under SU 53077, 53080

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

53082 53.2

3

Fill in cut SU 53084, under SU 53071

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

53083 53.4

5

Fill abutting feature SU 53062

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53084 53.3

4

Cut in SU 53082

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

53085 53.0

0

Paleosol under cut SU 53084

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

53086 53.2

3

Fill over feature SU 53062

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53087 53.6

7

Doorpost associated with toilet

Structural Fixture Toilet

Ritual Context 12

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 6

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   599 Trench SU 53000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

53088 53.1

2

Vessel under SU 53072

Structural Fixture Fixed Vessel (not soak-away)

Creation/Construction Soak-away 19

53089 53.2

3

Fill in vessel SU 53088

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

53090 53.1

2

Packed earth surface under SU 53086, 53080

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

53091 53.4

5

Construction trench cut for SU 53074

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

53092 53.2

3

Construction under SU 53086

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53093 53.6

7

Posthole cut in SU 53073, 53074 Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

53094 53.1

2

Stone feature under fill SU 53028

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53095 53.1

2

Packed earth surface over SU 53096

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

53096 53.1

2

Packed earth surface under kiln

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

53097 53.2

3

Fill over SU 53111

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

53098 53.2

3

Fill over SU 53095

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

53099 53.2

3

Fill in vessel found in soak-away fill SU 53089

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary) Occupation/Use

53100 53.2

3

Fill in vessel SU 53088, under fill SU 53089

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary) Occupation/Use

53101 53.1

2

Construction trench cut for vessel SU 53076 in paleosol

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

53102 53.7

8

Deposit in toilet SU 53072, under fill SU 53113

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

53103 53.6

7

Cut for toilet in WF 1007

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 6

53104 53.6

7

Cut for toilet in WF 1007

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 6

53105 53.6

7

Cut of toilet opening

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Waste Cut – Structural Fixture Feature 6

53106 53.6

7

Construction under SU 53105

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53107 53.2

3

Pit cut

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

53108 53.2

3

Fill in soak-away vessel SU 53088 (=SU 53089)

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary) Occupation/Use

53109 53.2

3

Fill of posthole SU 53110

Fill

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

53110 53.2

3

Posthole cut in bedrock

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

53111 53.0

0

Paleosol under SU 53079

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

53112 53.1

2

Packed earth surface over SU 53095

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

53113 53.7

8

Deposit in toilet SU 53072, under fill SU 53102

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

53114 53.6

7

Opus signinum surface associated with toilet

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 6

53115 53.6

7

Sarno foundation stones Architecture associated with toilet; abutted by surfaces SU 53116, 53114

Wall

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 6

Waste Feature 6

Waste Feature 6

600  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 53000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

53116 53.4

5

Square trough associated with Structural Fixture Drain drain SU 53117

Creation/Construction Drain 33

53117 53.4

5

Drain channel associated with Structural Fixture Drain trough SU 53116

Creation/Construction Drain 33

53118 53.4

5

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

53119 53.2

3

Construction trench cut for early walls

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

53120 53.6

7

Toilet wall

Structural Fixture Toilet

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 6

53121 53.6

7

Opus Signinum surface (=SU 53012, 53114)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

53122 53.4

5

Brick quoin in WF 1034, abutting SU 53123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53123 53.2

3

Sarno block in WF 1034, abutting WF 1035

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53124 53.2

3

Sarno block in WF 1037, over Architecture SU 53059, abutted by SU 53020, 53021

Wall

Creation/Construction

53125 53.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1035

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

53126 53.4

5

Reconstruction of WF 1035

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53127 53.4

5

Construction of WF 1035

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53128 53.2

3

Construction of WF 1035

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53129 53.2

3

Foundation of WF 1035

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53130 53.7

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1007

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

53131 53.6

7

Reconstruction of WF 1007

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53132 53.4

5

Construction of WF 1007

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53133 53.4

5

Foundation of WF 1007

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53134 53.7

8

Modern reconstruction of downpipe at interface of WF 1006, 1007

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

53135 53.6

7

Sarno block in WF 1007

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53136 53.4

5

Brick quoin in WF 1005, abutting WF 1006

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53137 53.4

5

Construction under quoin SU 53136 in WF 1005

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53138 53.7

8

Modern reconstruction on WF 1006

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

53139 53.6

7

Reconstruction of WF 1006 over SU 53140

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53140 53.4

5

Construction of WF 1006

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53141 53.4

5

Foundation of WF 1006

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53142 53.6

7

Quoin block in WF 1036

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53143

Construction of WF 1036

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

53144

Block in WF 1036

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   601 Trench SU 54000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

54001 54.9

8

Modern fill

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

54002 54.8

7

Mortar surface abutting counter SU 54013

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54003 54.7

5

Mortar floor surface abutting counter SU 54012, WF 71, 72 (=SU 54004, 54005, 54006, 54007, 54014)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54004 54.7

5

Mortar floor surface under counter SU 54012, over fill SU 54018 (=SU 54003, 54005, 54006, 54007, 54014)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54005 54.7

5

Mortar floor surface under counter SU 54013, over fill SU 54011 (=SU 54003, 54004, 54006, 54007, 54014)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54006 54.7

5

Mortar floor surface under Fill counter SU 54013, fill SU 54002; over SU 54011 (=SU 54003, 54004, 54005, 54007, 54014)

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54007 54.7

5

Mortar floor surface under counter SU 54013, over SU 54011 (=SU 54003, 54004, 54005, 54006, 54014)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54008 54.9

8

Modern cut filled by modern brick/wire SU 54009

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

54009 54.9

8

Modern brick over electrical wire in cut SU 54008, over 54032

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

54010 54.7

5

Doorstop 6

Structural Fixture Repagulum

Creation/Construction Doorstop 6

54011 54.7

5

Leveling fill under mortar SU 54003 (=SU 54018)

Fill

Creation/Construction

54012 54.7

5

Counter feature abutting WF 71, over SU 54003, 54004

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction Bar Counter 2

54013 54.7

5

Counter feature over SU 54004, 54005, 54006, 54007, 54014

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction Bar Counter 2

54014 54.7

5

Mortar floor surface over fill SU 54011, abutting WF 53 (=SU 54003, 54004, 54005, 54006, 54007)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54015 54.6

5

Mortar floor surface (=SU 54016)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54016 54.6

5

Mortar floor surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54017 54.7

5

Southern threshold stone (Threshold 18) in streetfront entrance I.1.2

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 18

54018 54.7

5

Leveling fill under mortar SU 54003 (=SU 54011)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54019 54.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

54020 54.7

5

Plaster associated with floor SU 54003, on WF 1017

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

54021 54.6

5

Posthole cut in SU 54016

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

Leveling Fill

602  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 54000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

54022 54.6

5

Fill of posthole SU 54021 (=SU 54036)

Fill

54023 54.6

5

Repagulum in floor SU 54016

Structural Fixture Repagulum

54024 54.6

5

Fill in construction trench cut for repagulum stone SU 54023

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

54025 54.7

5

Cut/collapse in floor

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/Collapse

54026 54.7

5

Fill of collapse SU 54025

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/Collapse

54027 54.9

8

Modern fill in repagulum SU 54010

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

54028 54.7

5

Fill in construction trench cut for repagulum stone SU 54023

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

54029 54.7

5

Cut in floor SU 54015, 54016

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

54030 54.6

5

Mortar floor fragment (=SU 54016, 54031)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54031 54.6

5

Mortar floor fragment under floor SU 54015, counter SU 54013 (=SU 54016, 54030)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54032 54.6

5

Leveling fill under floor SU 54016

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54033 54.6

5

Fill under SU 54032 (=SU 54043, 54045)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54034 54.7

5

Packed earth surface over SU 54016, under SU 54007

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

54035 54.6

5

Posthole cut in SU 54016, filled Cut by SU 54036

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

54036 54.6

5

Fill of posthole SU 54035 (=SU 54022)

Fill

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

54037 54.6

5

Fill alongside southern wall

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

54038 54.6

5

Fill in potential drain SU 54037 Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

54039 54.5

4

Mortar floor fragment under SU 54032, cut by SU 54025

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54040 54.5

4

Fish-Salting Vat 6

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 6

54041 54.6

5

Fill in tank SU 54040, over SU 54044

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

54042 54.6

5

Fill in collapse SU 54025

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54043 54.5

4

Fill under SU 54052

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54044 54.5

4

Fill in tank SU 54040 (FishSalting Vat 6), under fill SU 54041

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

54045 54.6

5

Fill abutting amphora SU 54052 (=SU 54033, 54043)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54046 54.6

5

Fill in tank SU 54040

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

54047 54.7

5

Fill under SU 54032

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54048 54.7

5

Cut in SU 54033, filled by SU 54047

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

54049 54.5

4

Mortar floor fragment over fill Fill SU 54047

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction Doorstop 5

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   603 Trench SU 54000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

54050 54.7

5

Mortar capping storage vessel Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction Soak-away 20

54051 54.5

4

Mortar floor/sub-floor fragment over SU 54043, abutting WF 1052, 1053

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

54052 54.6

5

Vessel in SU 54093, abutted by fill SU 54045

Structural Fixture Fixed Vessel (not soak-away)

Creation/Construction

54053 54.7

5

Fill in vessel SU 54052

Fill

Amphora Fill

Creation/Construction

54054 54.7

5

Fill in vessel SU 54052

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary) Occupation/Use

54055 54.2

1

Sandy deposit over cobblestones SU 54058

Fill

Accumulation

54056 54.3

2

Tank feature, possibly a Fish-Salting Vat

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction Fish-Salting Vat 9

54057 54.4

3

Fill in pit cut SU 54061, under SU 54033

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

54058 54.2

1

Cobblestone surface under SU 54055

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54059 54.2

1

Fill over cobblestones SU 54058

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

54060 54.4

3

Fill in tank SU 54056

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

54061 54.4

3

Quarry cut

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

54062 54.3

2

Fill over SU 54075, cut by pit SU 54061

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

54063 54.4

3

Construction trench cut for WF 1071

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54064 54.4

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 54063 of WF 1071

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54065 54.4

3

Fill in construction trench cut of WF 1053 (=SU 54043)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54066 54.4

3

Construction trench cut for Cut WF 53 in SU 54055, 54058; filled by 54059

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54067 54.4

3

Fill in construction trench of buried wall SU 54068

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54068 54.4

3

Construction of buried wall (=SU 54108)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54069 54.4

3

Construction trench cut for Cut buried wall SU 54068, filled by SU 54067

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54070 54.4

3

Fill in tank 54056

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

54071 54.0

0

Paleosol under tank SU 54040

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

54072 54.4

3

Construction trench cut for WF 1072

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54073 54.4

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 54072 of WF 1072, over fill SU 54077

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54074 54.4

3

Fill cutting tank SU 54069, tank fill SU 54070; fills cut SU 54069

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

Ritual Context 13

Occupation/Use

Quarry Area 10

604  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 54000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

54075 54.3

2

Deposit over leveling fill SU 54076

Fill

Burned Layer

Occupation/Use

54076 54.3

2

Redeposited paleosol under SU 54075, cut by SU 54061

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

54077 54.4

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 54072 of WF 1072, under fill 54073

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54078 54.3

2

Fill in tank SU 54056 (Fish-Salting Vat 9)

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

54079 54.9

8

Modern reconstruction of counter SU 54012

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

54080 54.7

5

Dolium in counter SU 54012

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction Bar Counter 2

54081 54.7

5

Dolium in counter SU 54012

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction Bar Counter 2

54082 54.7

5

Dolium in counter SU 54012

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction Bar Counter 2

54083 54.9

8

Modern pointing on SU 54080 Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

54084 54.9

8

Modern pointing on SU 54081

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

54085 54.9

8

Modern pointing on SU 54082 Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

54086 54.2

1

Cobblestone surface

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54087 54.2

1

Compacted gray volcanic ash road surface under SU 54086

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54088 54.1

1

Mercato ash surface under SU 54087

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54089 54.1

1

Fill in construction trench cut SU 54099, under stone SU 54092

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54090 54.0

0

Paleosol under SU 54061, 54057

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

54091 54.2

1

Road surface under SU 54058

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54092 54.1

1

Pappamonte stone in construction trench cut SU 54099, fill SU 54089

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54093 54.6

5

Construction trench fill surrounding storage jar (SU 54052)

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

54094 54.6

5

Construction trench cut for vessel SU 54052 in SU 54093, 54095

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

54095 54.6

5

Sarno foundation of work surface associated with storage vessel SU 54052

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

54096 54.9

8

Modern pointing on bar counter SU 54013

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   605 Trench SU 54000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

54097 54.9

8

Modern pointing on counter SU 54013

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

54098 54.9

8

Modern pointing on counter SU 54013

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

54099 54.1

1

Construction trench cut filled by SU 54089

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54100 54.9

8

Packed earth sidewalk surface, Fill with modern contamination

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

54101 54.9

8

Modern metal pipe

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

54102 54.9

8

Modern plastic pipes

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

54103 54.9

8

Modern cut in SU 54100, 54105; Cut filled by modern pipes 54102

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

54104 54.1

1

Packed earth road surface under SU 54091 (=SU 54154)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54105 54.7

5

Fill under SU 54100

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54106 54.7

5

Middle threshold stone in streetfront entrance I.1.2

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 18

54107 54.7

5

Northern threshold stone in streetfront entrance I.1.2

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 18

54108 54.4

3

Construction of buried wall (=SU 54068)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54109 54.4

3

Fill in construction trench of buried wall SU 54108 (=SU 54074)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54110 54.none

99

Stray find: bronze coin

Miscellaneous

Stray Finds

Research Process

54111 54.4

3

Foundation stone in WF 1073

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54112 54.4

3

Mortar abutting SU 54111

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54113 54.4

3

Block under SU 54112, 54111

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54114 54.4

3

Fill under stone SU 54113

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54115 54.2

1

Packed earth surface under SU 54114, cut by SU 54105

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

54116 54.0

0

Paleosol under road surface SU 54104 (=SU 54076)

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

54117 54.9

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1064

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

54118

Plaster on WF 1064

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

54119

Plaster under SU 54118 on WF 1064

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

54120 54.2

1

Sarno block cut by SU 54052, over SU 54093

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54121 54.1

1

Construction trench cut filled by pappamonte blocks SU 54122, fill SU 54148

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54122 54.1

1

Pappamonte foundation blocks in cut SU 54121

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

606  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 54000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

54123 54.5

4

Soak-away amphora

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 12

54124 54.6

5

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 54123, over soak-away fill SU 54132

Fill

Soak-away Fill

Creation/Construction Soak-away 12

54125

Sarno block in WF 1050

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54126

Sarno block in WF 1050

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54127

Sarno block in WF 1050

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54128

Sarno block in WF 1050

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54129 54.9

8

Modern pointing between Architecture SU 54125 and 54126 in WF 1050 (=SU 54130)

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

54130 54.9

8

Modern pointing between quoins SU 54126 and 54127 on WF 1050 (=SU 54129)

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

54131 54.6

5

Fill in SU 54032

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54132 54.5

4

Fill in soak-away amphora 54123, under soak-away fill SU 54124

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

54133 54.3

2

Fill under SU 54032

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54134 54.3

2

Tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

54135 54.5

4

Fill in construction trench cut for soak-away SU 54123

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

54136 54.4

3

Fill in tank SU 54134

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

54137 54.4

3

Fill in tank SU 54134

Fill

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

54138 54.4

3

Sarno stones in tank SU 54134, Fill abutting WF 1053 (=SU 54065)

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54139 54.4

3

Sarno block in WF 1073

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54140 54.4

3

Sarno block in WF 1073

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54141 54.4

3

Sarno block in WF 1073

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54142 54.4

3

Sarno stones between SU 54139/54140/54141 and SU 54143/54144

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54143 54.4

3

Sarno stone in WF 1073

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54144 54.4

3

Sarno stone in WF 1073

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54145 54.7

5

Brick facing on WF 1073

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54146 54.9

8

Modern pointing on WF 1073

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

54147 54.4

3

Fill in tank SU 54134, under fill Fill SU 54137

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

54148 54.1

1

Fill in construction trench cut SU 54121

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54149 54.6

5

Fill (=SU 54032)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

54150 54.7

5

Fill under counter SU 54013

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

54151 54.7

5

Pit cut in floor SU 54016, under counter SU 54013, filled by gravel SU 54150

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 1072

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

54152

Creation/Construction

Soak-away 12

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   607 Trench SU 54000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

SubType

Formation Category

54153 54.4

3

Fill in construction trench in tank SU 54134 (=SU 54074)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

54154 54.1

1

Archaic road surface cut by SU 54121, over SU 54076 (=SU 54104, 54088)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54155 54.3

2

Pit cut in SU 54154

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

54156 54.4

3

Construction of WF 1053

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54157 54.4

3

Sarno foundation stone in WF 1052

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54158 54.4

3

Construction of WF 1064, 1071 Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54159 54.4

3

Construction of WF 1072

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

54160

55000

Type

Plaster on WF 1072

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

54161 54.2

1

Deposit over road SU 54086

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

54162 54.2

1

Fill (redeposited Mercato ash) under SU 54087

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

54163 54.2

1

Gray ash road surface under SU 54162, over SU 54164

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54164 54.2

1

Deposit over road SU 54165

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

54165 54.2

1

Gray ash road surface over SU 54088, under SU 54164

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54166 54.2

1

Deposit over road SU 54091, under cobblestones SU 54058

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

54167 54.2

1

Gray ash road surface over SU 54168, under SU 54091

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

54168 54.2

1

Gray ash road surface over SU 54104, under SU 54167

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55000 55.none

99

Baulk trim

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

55001 55.9

8

Modern topsoil over trench 55000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

55002 55.9

8

Lapilli fill of collapse SU 55013

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

55003 55.5

4

Mortar surface (=SU 55011, 55018)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

55004 55.5

4

Leveling fill under mortar SU 55011 (=SU 55014)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55005 55.5

4

Plaster on WF 1144

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55006 55.4

4

Plaster on WF 1134

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55007 55.9

8

Modern fill over power lines

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

55008 55.9

8

Modern tiles over power lines

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

55009 55.9

8

Modern power lines (=51011)

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

55010 55.9

8

Modern fill under power lines Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

55011 55.5

4

Mortar surface (=SU 55003, 55018)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

55012 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55013 55.9

8

Collapse filled by SU 55002

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

55014 55.5

4

Leveling fill under SU 55003, 55011, 55018

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

608  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 55000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

55015 55.9

8

Fill of bioturbation pit in SU 55014

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55016 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55017 55.9

8

Bioturbation cut of SU 55014, filled by SU 55015

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

55018 55.5

4

Mortar surface (=SU 55003, 55011)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

55019 55.5

4

Fill in SU 55014

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55020 55.5

4

Leveling fill in clay ring SU 55019

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55021 55.4

4

Soak-away amphora cutting SU 55027, 55069

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 13

55022 55.4

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 55021, over soak-away fill SU 55032

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

55023 55.4

4

Sarno block in fill in pit cut SU 55069

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55024 55.4

4

Fill of robbing trench 55136

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55025 55.3

4

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55026 55.4

4

Leveling fill under packed earth surface SU 55042, over cut SU 55069

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55027 55.3

4

Quarry fill of cut SU 55129

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55028 55.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 55063

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55029 55.5

4

Fill in quarrying cut SU 55034

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

55030 55.5

4

Fill (=SU 55014, 55033)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55031 55.5

4

Lime deposit over SU 55040

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55032 55.4

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 55021, under soak-away fill SU 55022

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

55033 55.5

4

Leveling fill over pits SU 55034, Fill 55035 (=SU 55014)

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55034 55.5

4

Quarrying cut in SU 55042, Cut 55026; filled by SU 55029, 55038

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

55035 55.5

4

Quarrying cut in SU 55042, filled by SU 55040

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

55036 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55037 55.9

8

Modern fill under SU 55001

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

55038 55.5

4

Fill in pit cut SU 55034, under SU 55029

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55039 55.6

5

Mortar/stone feature

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

55040 55.5

4

Fill in Quarry cut SU 55035, over fill SU 55097

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55041 55.5

4

Leveling fill under SU 55033; over SU 55035, 55031, 55040

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55042 55.4

4

Packed earth surface cut by pit Fill cuts SU 55034, 55035

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

Soak-away 13

Soak-away 13

Quarry Area 12

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   609 Trench SU 55000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

55043 55.9

8

Modern plaster surface

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

55044 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55045 55.7

6

Cut for threshold stone in WF 1154 (=SU 55509)

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

55046 55.6

5

Plaster on SU 55039

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55047 55.6

5

Plaster on SU 55039

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55048 55.6

5

Mortar surface west of SU 55039

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55049 55.5

4

Mortar sidewalk under SU 55048, cut by SU 55053 (=SU 55067)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55050 55.5

4

Posthole (?) cut in SU 55042, filled by SU 55033

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

55051 55.3

4

Fill in cut 55035, under fill SU 55040

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55052 55.6

5

Mortar surface (=SU 55048)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55053 55.9

8

Modern cut in SU 55048, 55049 Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

55054 55.9

8

Modern cut in SU 55052

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

55055 55.9

8

Modern fill over drain pipes in Fill sidewalk

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

55056 55.7

6

Fill under curbstones

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55057 55.8

7

Deposit abutting curbstones SU 55140

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

55058 55.5

4

Stone ramp (=SU 55062)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55059 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55060 55.9

8

Modern fill under SU 55037, abutting exterior of feature SU 55039

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

55061 55.9

8

Modern fill in feature SU 55039, under SU 55037

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

55062 55.5

4

Stone ramp under SU 55052 (=SU 55058)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55063 55.4

4

Construction trench cut in SU 55059, 55027; filled by SU 55028

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55064 55.4

4

Continuation of fill SU 55026 in cut SU 55069

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55065 55.5

4

Cobblestone sidewalk

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55066 55.7

6

Lava stone and mortar surface Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55067 55.5

4

Mortar sidewalk (=SU 55049)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55068 55.5

4

Plaster sidewalk over SU 55065, Miscellaneous 55067

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55069 55.4

4

Quarrying cut in SU 55059, 55027; filled by SU 55064, 55075

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

55070 55.5

4

Mortar sidewalk under SU 55067, 55065

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55071 55.9

8

Modern fill under SU 55043 (=SU 55037)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

Cut

Feature

610  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 55000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

55072 55.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 55074 for soak-away SU 55021

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

55073 55.3

4

Fill (=SU 55027)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55074 55.4

4

Construction trench cut for soak-away amphora SU 55021 in SU 55026, 55023, filled by SU 55072

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

55075 55.4

4

Fill in cut SU 55069, under SU 55064, over SU 55083

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55076 55.7

6

Construction of buried wall Architecture under SU 55066, over SU 55025

Wall

Creation/Construction

55077 55.5

4

Packed earth sidewalk under mortar SU 55070

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55078 55.5

4

Fill under SU 55077, 55076

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55079 55.5

4

Terrace fill under sidewalk SU 55078

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

55080 55.4

4

Cut in Sarno stone SU 55025

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

55081 55.5

4

Cut in SU 55059, 55021, 55027, filled by SU 55014

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

55082 55.4

4

Plaster-lined cut in Sarno stone SU 55023

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

55083 55.0

0

Paleosol cut by SU 55069, 55034, 55035 (=SU 55138)

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

55084 55.1b

1

Packed earth surface (=SU 55112, 55102)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55085 55.3

4

Fill under construction trench Fill fill SU 55027

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55086 55.9

8

Fill in/around collapse SU 55013 Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

55087 55.3

4

Fill in pit SU 55035

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55088 55.2a

3

Quarry cut in SU 55084; filled by SU 55110, 55085

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

55089 55.1b

1

Terrace fill under SU 55084

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

55090 55.2b

3

Thick fill over SU 55102 (=SU 55127)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55091 55.5

4

Pit cut in SU 55090

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

55092 55.5

4

Fill in pit SU 55091

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55093 55.2a

3

Slurry/Fill associated with construction of WF 1067

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55094 55.5

4

Packed earth sidewalk or lens in fill SU 55077/55078/55079

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55095 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55096 55.9

8

Modern fill below power cables

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

55097 55.3

4

Fill under collapse fill SU 55086 Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55098 55.3

4

Quarry cut in SU 55115/55027, 55104

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

Cut

Feature

Quarry Area 12

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   611 Trench SU 55000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

55099 55.3

4

Fill in amphora in SU 55097

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55100 55.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 55108

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55101 55.4

4

Fill under SU 55096

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

55102 55.1b

1

Packed surface under SU 55090 (=SU 55084)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55103 55.none

99

Baulk trim

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

55104 55.0

0

Bedrock in cut of feature SU 55098

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

55105 55.5

4

Pit cut filled by SU 55106

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

55106 55.5

4

Fill in SU 55105

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55107 55.2a

3

Sarno foundation stone in packed earth SU 55093

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55108 55.4

4

Construction trench cut in SU 55101, filled by SU 55100

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55109 55.4

4

Quarrying cut in SU 55084 (=SU 55069?)

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

55110 55.3

4

Fill in quarry SU 55088, under SU 55085

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55111 55.3

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 55129 (=SU 55027)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55112 55.1a

1

Packed earth road surface (=SU 55084, 55102)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55113 55.1b

1

Pappamonte stone in collapsed wall SU 55118

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55114 55.3

4

Fill over SU 55113, 55118, 55115

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

55115 55.3

4

Fill below SU 55114

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55116 55.1b

1

Cut in surface SU 55084

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

55117 55.1b

1

Sandy deposit over packed earth surface SU 55084/55102/55512

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

55118 55.1b

1

Collapsed wall; associated with pappamonte SU 55113

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55119 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55120 55.3

4

Continuation of fill SU 55087 in SU 55098

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

55121 55.none

99

Baulk trim

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

55122 55.none

99

Baulk trim

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

55123 55.5

4

Cobblestone sidewalk in SU 55039 (=SU 55065)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55124 55.5

4

Plaster sidewalk in SU 55039 (=SU 55049/55067)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55125 55.5

4

Sidewalk in feature SU 55039, under SU 55123

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55126 55.5

4

Fill in feature SU 55039, under SU 55124, 55125

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

55127 55.2b

3

Fill (=55090, 55132, 55128)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

Quarry Area 12

612  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 55000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

55128 55.2b

3

Fill cut by SU 55129 (=SU 55090/55127)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

55129 55.3

4

Construction trench cut filled by SU 55027

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

55130 55.3

4

Fill of construction trench cut Fill SU 55129 (=SU 55111, 55027)

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55131 55.5

4

Fill under SU 55126

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

55132 55.2b

3

Fill under SU 55131 (=SU 55090/55127)

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55133 55.3

4

Construction trench cut for WF 1148 in SU 55133

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55134 55.3

4

Fill of construction trench cut Fill SU 55133 (=SU 55027)

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55135 55.1b

1

Terrace fill under SU 55089

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

55136 55.4

4

Cut in SU 55027, filled by robbing trench SU 55024

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

55137 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55138 55.0

0

Paleosol under SU 55135 (=SU 55083)

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

55139 55.1b

1

Fill below SU 55115

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

55140 55.7

6

Curbstones over SU 55058/55062

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

55501 55.3

4

Construction of WF 1144, abutting WF 1143, 1145

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55502

Plaster on WF 1144

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55503

Reconstruction of WF 1144

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55504 55.9

8

Modern mortar on WF 1144

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55505 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55506 55.2a

3

Construction of WF 1154

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55507 55.9

8

Modern mortar on WF 1154

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55508 55.9

8

Modern mortar on WF 1154

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55509 55.7

6

Construction trench cut filled Cut by threshold stone of WF 1154 (=SU 55045)

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

Possible construction trench cut for earlier threshold stone of WF 1154

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

55510

55511 55.9

8

Probable modern cut in SU 1154

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

55512 55.2a

3

Construction of WF 1155

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55513 55.9

8

Modern construction of WF 1155

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   613 Trench SU 55000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

55514 55.4

4

Construction of WF 1156

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55515 55.9

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1156

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55516 55.9

8

Modern mortar on WF 1156

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55517 55.9

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1149

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55518 55.2a

3

Construction of WF 1145

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55519 55.9

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1145

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55520 55.9

8

Modern mortar between stones of SU 55518 in WF 1145

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55521

Plaster on WF 1145

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55522

Plaster on WF 1145

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55523 55.2a

3

Construction/quoining of WF 1146

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

55524 55.9

8

Modern reconstruction on SU 55523 in WF 1146

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55525 55.9

8

Modern mortar between stones of SU 55523 in WF 1146

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55526 55.9

8

Modern mortar on WF 1146

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55527 55.9

8

Modern mortar on WF 1146

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Cut for threshold stone in WF 1146

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

55528 55529 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55530 55.2a

3

Construction of WF 1147

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55531 55.9

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1147

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55532

Mortar on WF 1146 (=SU 55526)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55533

Plaster on WF 1147

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55534

Plaster on Sarno block in WF 1147

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55535

Plaster on Sarno block in WF 1147

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55536

Plaster on WF 1147

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of feature SU 55039, abutting WF 1147

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

55537 55.6

5

Creation/Construction

Feature

614  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 55000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

55538 55539 55.3

4

55540

SubType

Formation Category

Cut in Sarno quoin block

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1148

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 1148

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55541 55.9

8

Modern mortar between ashlar blocks of WF 1148

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55542 55.9

8

Modern construction of WF 1148

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55543

Two cuts in Sarno ashlar block Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

55544

Cut in Sarno orthostat block

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

55545

Repositioning of Sarno block in WF 1148

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of feature SU 55039, abutting WF 1148

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

Cut in Sarno quoin block

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1134

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 1134

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1134, abutting WF 1135

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55551

Plaster on WF 1134, abutting WF 1135

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55552

Plaster on WF 1134

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55553

Fill of doorway in WF 1134

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

55554

Plaster on WF 1134

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

55555

Construction of WF 1134

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

55556

Construction of doorway in WF 1134

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

55546 55.6

5

55547 55548 55.4

4

55549 55550 55.4

56000

Type

4

55557 55.9

8

Modem reconstruction of WF 1134 extending up to SU 55556

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55558 55.9

8

Modern mortar between stones of SU 55556 in WF 1134

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

55559 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55560 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

55561 55.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

56001 56.9

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

56002 56.7

6

Mortar subsurface

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56003 56.7

6

Leveling fill under mortar subsurface SU 56002

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

56004 56.6

5

Plaster on WF 1232, 1231

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

56005 56.7

6

Plaster associated with bar counter SU 56124

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

56006 56.6

5

Opus signinum floor surface under SU 56003 (=SU 56040)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   615 Trench SU 56000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

56007 56.6

5

Stones associated with counter feature

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 12

56008 56.6

5

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 56006

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56009 56.5

4

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

Plaster under SU 56004 on WF 1231

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

56010 56011 56.6

5

Tile capping of drain, over fills Structural Fixture Drain SU 56019, 56020, 56023

Creation/Construction Drain 41

56012 56.5

4

Fill in SU 56009

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56013 56.5

4

Collapse in SU 56016, filled by SU 56015

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

56014 56.5

4

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 56009

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56015 56.5

4

Fill in collapse SU 56013 (=SU 56012)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56016 56.5

4

Fill under plaster subsurface SU 56014

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

56017 56.5

4

Fill under SU 56027

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

56018 56.6

5

Tile/opus signinum drain construction

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 41

56019 56.8

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

56020 56.8

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

56021 56.6

5

Construction trench cut for drain SU 56011, 56018 in SU 56016, filled by SU 56022

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

56022 56.6

5

Fill in construction trench cut for drain

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Drain 41 Fill – Structural Fixture

56023 56.8

7

Fill in drain

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

56024 56.4

4

Packed earth surface cut by SU 56025

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

56025 56.4

4

Quarry cut in SU 52024, filled by SU 56026 (probable construction trench cut of WF 1232)

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

56026 56.4

4

Fill in quarry cut SU 56025, over SU 56030

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 13

56027 56.5

4

Plaster surface under fill SU 56016, over fill SU 56017

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

56028 56.6

5

Tile drain construction under mortar SU 56022

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 41

56029 56.6

5

Terracotta pipe associated with drain

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 41

56030 56.4

4

Construction trench fill of WF 1232, fill in quarry area 13

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

56031 56.5

4

Packed earth surface cut by SU 56032

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

56032 56.5

4

Cut in packed earth SU 56031

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

56033 56.5

4

Fill under SU 56017

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

Occupation/Use

Quarry Area 13

616  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 56000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature Quarry Area 13

56034 56.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

56035 56.5

4

Fill under SU 56033

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56036 56.5

4

Sub-floor fill under plaster SU 56027

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56037 56.4

4

Mortar/stone construction over soak-away SU 56038

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 14

56038 56.4

4

Soak-away amphora under SU 56037, over amphora SU 56103

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 14

56039 56.7

6

Mortar surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

56040 56.6

5

Opus signinum floor surface (=SU 56006)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

56041 56.none

99

Baulk trim near SU 56016

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

56042 56.4

4

Mortar surface cut by soak-away construction trench cut SU 56106

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

56043 56.4

4

Fill under SU 56035

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56044 56.5

4

Fill contaminated by SU 56009, Fill 56012, 56016

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56045 56.7

6

Mortar over SU 56044, abutting WF 1236, 1237

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56046 56.0

0

Bedrock

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

56047 56.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

56048 56.4

4

Quarrying cut in bedrock

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

Quarry Area 13

56049 56.4

4

Quarrying cut in bedrock

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

Quarry Area 13

56050 56.5

4

Plaster subsurface (=SU 56014) Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

56051 56.4

4

Construction trench cut for soak-away in SU 56042

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

56052 56.4

4

Fill under SU 56042

Fill

Generic Fill

56053 56.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 56051 for soak-away

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

56054 56.5

4

Plaster surface (=SU 56027)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

56055 56.4

4

Sub-floor fill under mortar SU 56055

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56056 56.5

4

Sub-floor fill under plaster SU 56054

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56057 56.9

8

Modern cut filled by modern brick/wire SU 56058

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

56058 56.9

8

Modern bricks over electrical cord

Miscellaneous

Modern Infrastructure Modern Activity

56059 56.6

5

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 56006 (=SU 56008)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56060 56.5

4

Plaster surface (=SU 56009)

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

Quarry Area 13

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   617 Trench SU 56000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

56061 56.5

4

56062

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Packed earth surface under SU 56056

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

56063 56.5

4

Sub-floor fill under plaster SU 56060 (=SU 56014)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56064 56.5

4

Fill abutting WF 1222

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56065 56.5

4

Cut in SU 56061 (possible construction trench cut of threshold SU 56071)

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

56066 56.5

4

Fill in cut SU 56065

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

56067 56.5

4

Packed earth surface abutting Fill WF 1329, 1328; cut by SU 56070

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

56068 56.5

4

Packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

56069 56.5

4

Fill under SU 56063 (=SU 56016)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

56070 56.5

4

Cut in SU 56067

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

56071 56.6

5

Southern threshold stone in streetfront entrance I.1.9

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 25

56072 56.5

4

Fill under SU 56069

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

56073 56.none

99

Baulk trim near SU 56069, 56072

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

56074 56.5

4

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 56061

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56075 56.4

4

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 56077, fill SU 56074

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

56076 56.5

4

Fill under SU 56072

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56077 56.4

4

Packed earth surface under SU 56074, over 56075

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

56078 56.5

4

Fill under SU 56076

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56079 56.5

4

Fill under SU 56078

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

56080 56.4

4

Packed earth surface (=SU 56077)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

56081 56.4

4

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 56080

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

56082 56.4

4

Construction trench cut for buried wall SU 56100, filled by SU 56083

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

56083 56.4

4

Fill in cut SU 56083

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

56084 56.4

4

Fill under SU 56081, filled by SU 56086, cut by SU 56085

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56085 56.4

4

Posthole cut in SU 56084

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

56086 56.4

4

Fill around posthole 56085, in fill SU 56084

Fill

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

56087 56.4

4

Packed earth surface cut by posthole SU 56088, under SU 56081

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

56088 56.4

4

Posthole cut in SU 56087

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

618  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 56000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

56089 56.4

4

Cut in SU 56084, 56087

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

56090 56.4

4

Posthole cut in SU 56092

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

56091 56.2

2

Mortar surface over SU 56092, Fill cut by SU 56090, 56095

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

56092 56.2

2

Packed earth surface under mortar SU 56091, cut by SU 56093, 56090

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

56093 56.2

2

Cut in SU 56091, 56092

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

56094 56.1

1

Gray ash surface (=SU 55084?) Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

56095 56.3

4

Pit cut in SU 56092, 56094

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

56096 56.2

2

Sarno block over SU 56097

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56097 56.2

2

Fill under SU 56075

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

56098 56.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut Fill for soak-away SU 56038, 56103, 56109

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

56099 56.4

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 56103, over soak-away fill 56105

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

56100 56.4

4

Construction of buried wall cut by SU 56120

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56101 56.6

5

Possible threshold stone under Structural Fixture Threshold WF 1222

Creation/Construction

56102 56.4

4

Terrace fill under 56087, over bedrock SU 56110

Fill

Creation/Construction

56103 56.4

4

Soak-away amphora under amphora SU 56038, filled by SU 56099, 56105

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 14

56104 56.2

2

Fill under SU 56097

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56105 56.4

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 56103, under soak-away fill SU 56099

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

56106 56.4

4

Construction trench cut for soak-away in SU 56122

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

56107 56.none

99

Baulk trim

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

56108 56.6

5

Bar counter abutted by counter SU 56124

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 12

56109 56.4

4

Soak-away amphora

Structural Fixture Soak-away

Creation/Construction Soak-away 14

56110 56.0

0

Bedrock cut by SU 56106

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

56111 56.4

4

Fill in soak-away amphora SU 56109

Fill

Soak-away Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

56112 56.4

4

Cut in SU 57102

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

56113 56.4

4

Fill in cut SU 56112

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

56114 56.6

5

Construction of buried wall under WF 1223

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56115 56.1

1

Terrace subsurface under gray ash road SU 56094, over packed earth surface SU 56123

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

56116 56.3

4

Cut in packed earth SU 56092

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

Terrace Fill

Soak-away 14

Soak-away 14

Research Process

Soak-away 14

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   619 Trench SU 56000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

56117 56.3

4

Cut in or edge of packed earth Cut SU 56092

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

56118 56.2

2

Cut in ash surface SU 56094

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

56119 56.1

1

Cut in bedrock

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

56120 56.4

4

Cut in buried wall SU 56100

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

56121 56.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

56122 56.4

4

Construction trench cut for soak-away in SU 56110

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

56123 56.1

1

Gray ash road surface over SU 56125

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

56124 56.7

6

Bar counter abutting counter SU 56108

Structural Fixture Counter

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 12

56125 56.1

1

Bedrock surface cut by SU 56119, under SU 56123

Miscellaneous

Roads and Sidewalks

Creation/Construction

56126 56.4

4

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56127 56.7

6

Construction trench cut for bar counter SU 56124 in opus signinum surface SU 56006

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

56128 56.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

56129 56.6

5

Middle and northern Structural Fixture Threshold threshold stones in streetfront entrance I.1.9

Creation/Construction Threshold 25

56500 56.4

4

Construction of WF 1232

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56501 56.4

4

Mortar on foundations of WF 1232

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56502 56.5

4

Plaster on WF 1232

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 1232

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

56503

Creation/Construction

56504 56.9

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1232

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

56505 56.9

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1232

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

56506 56.9

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1232

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

56507 56.4

4

Construction of WF 1231

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56508 56.9

8

Modern construction of WF 1231

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

56509 56.4

4

Sarno blocks WF 1223

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56510 56.4

4

Construction of WF 1223

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56511 56.4

4

Construction of WF 1223

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 1223

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

56512 56513 56.9

8

Modern construction of WF 1223

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

56514 56.6

5

Construction of WF 1222

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

620  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 56000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

56515

SubType

Formation Category

Plaster on WF 1222

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

56516 56.7

6

Construction of WF 1237

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56517 56.9

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1237

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

56518 56.6

5

Foundation of WF 1329

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56519 56.6

5

Construction of WF 1329

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56520 56.9

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1329

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

56521 56.9

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1328

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Foundation of WF 1236

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56522 56523

57000

Type

Feature

Construction of WF 1236

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

56524 56.9

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1236

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

56525 56.4

4

Plaster on Sarno blocks SU 56509 in WF 1223

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

57001 57.6

8

Modern topsoil over trench 57000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

57002 57.6

8

Modern topsoil over trench 57000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

57003 57.3

5

Construction of WF 1026, abutting WF 1025, 1027

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57004 57.3

5

Drain channel in WF 1026, surrounded by SU 57003

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 35

57005 57.4

6

Construction of WF 1026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57006 57.4

6

Construction of WF 1026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57007 57.4

6

Construction of WF 1026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57008 57.4

6

Construction of WF 1026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57009 57.6

8

Modern topsoil under SU 57001

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

57010 57.3

5

Opus incertum feature associated with drainage channel SU 57004, abutting WF 1025, 1026

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction

57011 57.6

8

Modern fill under SU 57002

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

57012 57.6

8

Modern mortar deposit

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

57013 57.6

8

Fill under SU 57011, 57009

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

57014 57.2

3

Fill with modern contamination, associated with kiln

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

57015 57.2

3

Stone block abutting WF 1026, Structural Fixture Kiln associated with kiln

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   621 Trench SU 57000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

57016 57.5

7

Opus signinum floor surface Fill abutting buried wall SU 57033, wall SU 57026

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

57017 57.6

8

Modern construction near interface of WF 1002, 1003

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

57018 57.6

8

Modern fill abutting SU 57023, Fill WF 1021

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

57019 57.6

8

Backfill from an earlier Fill excavation; material associated with collapse of kiln

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

57020 57.6

8

Cut from an earlier excavation, filled by SU 57019

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

57021 57.5

7

Bottom of opus signinum surface abutting SU 57033

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

57022 57.5

7

Leveling fill under floor SU 57035

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57023 57.4

6

Construction of buried wall Architecture under SU 57025, over SU 57117, abutting WF 1025, 1021

Wall

Creation/Construction

57024 57.6

8

Modern fill in cut SU 57034, abutting feature SU 57017, WF 1002, 1003

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

57025 57.6

8

Modern construction abutting Architecture WF 1021, 1025

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

57026 57.3

5

Construction of buried wall over SU 57070, abutted by SU 57033

Wall

Creation/Construction

57027 57.5

7

Posthole cut in SU 57022, filled Cut by SU 57013

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

57028 57.5

7

Posthole cut in SU 57022, filled Cut by SU 57013

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

57029 57.5

7

Posthole cut in SU 57022, filled Cut by SU 57013

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

57030 57.5

7

Posthole cut in SU 57022

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

57031 57.5

7

Subsurface leveling fill for missing opus signinum surface under SU 57013

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57032 57.2

3

Kiln interior perforated platform

Structural Fixture Kiln

57033 57.4

6

Construction of buried wall Architecture abutting SU 57026, abutted by surfaces SU 57016, 57021/57022

Wall

Creation/Construction

57034 57.6

8

Cut in SU 57022, filled by SU 57024, associated with stone feature SU 57017

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

57035 57.5

7

Opus signinum floor over SU 57022, under SU 57018, abutting SU 57023

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

Architecture

Fill

Architecture

Creation/Construction

Feature

622  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 57000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

57036 57.4

6

Packed earth surface under SU 57031, cut by modern cut over kiln (SU 57020)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57037 57.4

6

Packed earth surface under SU 57036, 57031

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57038 57.5

7

Fill under 57022, abutting SU 57039, cut by SU 57042, 57028

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

57039 57.3

5

Fill over SU 57077, 57101; abutting SU 57044, 57071

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57040 57.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

57041 57.3

5

Packed earth surface under Fill SU 57022, abutting buried wall SU 57044; over SU 57056, 57065; cut by SU 57064, 57060

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57042 57.5

7

Four posthole cuts in SU 57038, filled by SU 57022

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

57043 57.3

5

Construction of buried wall abutting 57026, WF 1002

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57044 57.3

5

Construction of buried wall associated with surface SU 57041

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57045 57.2

3

Fill associated with collapse of Miscellaneous kiln SU 57032

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

57046 57.4

6

Pit cut in SU 57037, filled by SU 57047

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

57047 57.4

6

Fill in cut SU 57046

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

57048 57.2

3

Kiln collapse fill over kiln SU 57014

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

57049 57.3

5

Cut in SU 57048

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

57050 57.3

5

Fill in construction trench cut SU 57049 for feature SU 57010

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

57051 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57022; over SU 57063; abutting SU 57023, 57040

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57052 57.3

5

Fill in SU 57075; abutting Fill WF 1025; under SU 57023, 57037, 57054 (=SU 57076, 57072)

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

57053 57.4

6

Packed earth surface under SU 57037

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57054 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57053, 57037; over SU 57052, 57032; cut by SU 57046

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57055 57.3

5

Fill in drain SU 57056

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

57056 57.3

5

Drain channel through wall SU 57044, filled by SU 57055

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 34

57057 57.3

5

Fill under SU 57054 (=SU 57073)

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

57058 57.3

5

Construction trench cut for WF 1025, filled by SU 57059

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   623 Trench SU 57000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

57059 57.3

5

Fill in construction trench cut 57058, abutting WF 1025

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57060 57.4

6

Construction trench cut for buried wall SU 57033 in SU 57041

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57061 57.4

6

Fill in construction trench cut SU 57060

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57062 57.4

6

Construction trench cut

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57063 57.4

6

Fill in construction trench cut SU 57062

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57064 57.5

7

Cut in SU 57041, 57056, 57039, filled by SU 57038

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

57065 57.3

5

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 57041

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

57066 57.3

5

Leveling fill under SU 57038, 57065

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57067 57.3

5

Fill under SU 57065

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

57068 57.3

5

Plaster under SU 56065, 57070; over SU 57116; abutting SU 57066, 57067

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

57069 57.3

5

Construction under SU 57026, Architecture 57061; abutting SU 57070, 57044

Wall

Creation/Construction

57070 57.3

5

Construction of buried wall under SU 57033, abutting SU 57069, associated with SU 57116

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57071 57.3

5

Construction of buried wall (=SU 57075)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57072 57.3

5

Fill (=SU 57052, 57076)

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

57073 57.3

5

Fill representing collapse of kiln SU 57032; under SU 57037, 57054; over SU 57052, 57032

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

57074 57.2

3

Ceramic pipe and mortar in WF1026, SU 57003, 57048; associated with kiln

Structural Fixture Kiln

Creation/Construction

57075 57.3

5

Construction of buried wall (=SU 57071)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57076 57.3

5

Fill (=SU 57052) under kiln collapse SU 57073

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

57077 57.6

8

Modern topsoil (=SU 57001, 57002, 57009, 57011, 57013)

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

57078 57.5

7

Opus signinum surface (=SU 57035)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

57079 57.4

6

Packed earth surface under SU 57080 (=SU 57036)

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57080 57.5

7

Opus signinum floor surface Fill under SU 57077, abutting buried wall SU 57023 (=SU 57031)

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

57081 57.6

8

Fill of collapse (=SU 57019)

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

Fill

Feature

624  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 57000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

57082 57.4

6

Packed earth surface abutting WF 1026

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57083 57.6

8

Cut in SU 57079, 57082; filled by SU 57081 (=SU 57020)

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

57084 57.4

6

Packed earth matrix under Fill SU 57078; over SU 57093, 57100; cut by SU 57085

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57085 57.4

6

Construction trench cut for wall SU 57023 in SU 57084, filled by SU 57086

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57086 57.4

6

Fill in construction trench cut SU 57085

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57087 57.3

5

Fill under SU 57065 (=SU 57067)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

57088 57.3

5

Cut in SU 57066, abutting Cut buried wall SU 57070, filled by SU 57067, 57087

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

57089 57.3

5

Fill in vessel in SU 57087

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

57090 57.4

6

Packed earth surface under SU 57079, over SU 57075, abutting wall SU 57023, cut by SU 57083

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57091 57.5

7

Cut in SU 57090, filled by SU 57092

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

57092 57.5

7

Fill in cut SU 57091

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57093 57.4

6

Packed earth fill abutting feature SU 57071; cut by SU 57085, 57094, 57096, 57098; under SU 57100, 57084

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57094 57.4

6

Posthole cut in SU 57093, 57108, filled by SU 57095

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

57095 57.4

6

Fill of posthole SU 57094

Fill

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

57096 57.4

6

Posthole cut in SU 57093, 57108, filled by SU 57097

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

57097 57.4

6

Fill of posthole SU 57096

Fill

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

57098 57.4

6

Posthole cut in SU 57093, 57108, filled by SU 57099

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

57099 57.4

6

Fill of posthole SU 57098

Fill

Posthole Fill

Creation/Construction

57100 57.4

6

Packed earth surface under SU 57084, over SU 57093, abutting SU 57071

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57101 57.3

5

Leveling fill under SU 57039

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57102 57.4

6

Mortar floor under SU 57079; over SU 57075, 57103

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

57103 57.4

6

Packed earth surface under Fill 57090, 57102, 57023; over SU 57121, 57124, 57128; abutting SU 57075

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57104 57.2

3

Construction of buried wall Architecture under SU 57006, 57044; abutted by SU 57071, 57112, 57113

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   625 Trench SU 57000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

57105 57.4

6

Posthole cut in SU 57093, 57108; under SU 57084

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

57106 57.6

8

Modern cut

Cut

Modern Cut

Modern Activity

57107 57.6

8

Modern fill under SU 57092, abutting SU 57103

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

57108 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57093; over SU 57109, 57120; cut by SU 57094, 57096, 57105

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57109 57.4

6

Packed earth surface under SU 57108, 57093

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57110 57.2

3

Rubble of collapse of kiln SU 57032, under SU 57082, abutting SU 57015

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

57111 57.2

3

Fill in ceramic pipe SU 57074

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

57112 57.3

5

Leveling fill under SU 57101

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57113 57.3

5

Leveling fill under SU 57066 (=SU 57101)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57114 57.2

3

walls of the kiln’s combustion Structural Fixture Kiln chamber and praefurnium

Creation/Construction

57115 57.4

6

Mortar under SU 57090

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

57116 57.3

5

Sub-floor fill under SU 57068, 57070; abutting SU 57104; cut by SU 57067

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

57117 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57109, 57023; over Fill SU 57119

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57118 57.3

5

Fill under SU 57066

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57119 57.4

6

Fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

57120 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57125, 57023, 57071; abutting SU 57119

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

57121 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57023, 57103; over Fill SU 57133; cut by SU 57091

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

57122 57.3

5

Fill under SU 57071, 57066; Fill abutting SU 57023, 57044, 57113, 57101

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57123 57.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

57124 57.4

6

Sub-floor fill under packed earth SU 57103

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

57125 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57023; over SU 57119, 57120; abutting SU 57071

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57126 57.3

5

Leveling fill under SU 57118

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57127 57.3

5

Cut in floor SU 57126

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

57128 57.none

99

Baulk trim above SU 57124

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

57129 57.2

3

Mortar slurry under block SU 57015, abutting WF 1026; associated with kiln

Structural Fixture Kiln

57130 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57071, 57120; over Fill SU 57145; abutting SU 57119

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

Feature

626  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 57000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

57131 57.4

6

Plaster under SU 57128, Fill 57124; over SU 57133; abutting SU 57075, 57121; cut by SU 57132

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

57132 57.4

6

Cut in SU 57124, 57131

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

57133 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57131, 57128, 57121 Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57134 57.2

3

Fill under SU 57128, over SU 57135, cut by SU 57144, abutting SU 57114

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57135 57.2

3

Fill under SU 57128, 57134; cut by SU 57144; abutting SU 57129, 57114

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57136 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57071, 57120, 57023; abutting SU 57130, 57119

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57137 57.3

5

Fill under SU 57076

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57138 57.3

5

Fill under 57112, 57142; abutting Fill SU 57044, 57104

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57139 57.6

8

Modern threshold stones in Room 104, I.1.1-1a

Structural Fixture Modern Reconstruction – Structural Fixture

Modern Activity

57140 57.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Research Process

57141 57.2

3

Fill in kiln praefurnium, abutting SU 57137, cut by SU 57058

Structural Fixture Kiln

Creation/Construction

57142 57.3

5

Fill in wall feature SU 57071

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

57143 57.2

3

Fill of kiln SU 57032 (=SU 57141)

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

57144 57.4

6

Cut in SU 57134, 57135

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

57145 57.3

5

Packed earth surface under Fill SU 57071, over SU 57148, cut by SU 57146, 57147

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57146 57.4

6

Cut in packed earth surface SU 57145

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

57147 57.4

6

Cut in SU 57145

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

57148 57.3

5

Leveling fill under packed earth SU 57145

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57149 57.2

3

Fill under SU 57135, cut by SU 57152, 57144

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57150 57.3

5

Fill under SU 57138

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57151 57.4

6

Fill under SU 57133

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57152 57.2

3

Construction trench cut for kiln in SU 57149

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

57153 57.2

3

Packed earth surface under SU 57150, abutting buried wall SU 57104, cut by SU 57154

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

57154 57.3

5

Construction trench cut for buried wall SU 57044 in SU 57153, filled by SU 57155

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57155 57.3

5

Fill in construction trench cut SU 57154

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

Canceled

Feature

Threshold 30

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   627 Trench SU 57000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

57156 57.2

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 57152 for kiln SU 57114

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

57157 57.2

3

Earlier wall below WF 1026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57158 57.1

1

Pappamonte block under SU 57044, over SU 57169

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57159 57.2

3

Construction trench cut for buried wall 57104 in SU 57161

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57160 57.2

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 57159 fill

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57161 57.0

0

Friable upper bedrock cut by construction trench SU 57159

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

57162 57.1

1

Fill over SU 57169, 57174; abutting SU 57161, 57158, 57044

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57163 57.2

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 57152 for kiln SU 57114 (=SU 57156)

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

57164 57.3

5

Construction fill associated with floor SU 57126

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

57165 57.2

3

Kiln floor

Structural Fixture Kiln

Creation/Construction

57166 57.2

3

Central amphora-column of kiln

Structural Fixture Kiln

Creation/Construction

57167 57.2

3

Fill in kiln under fill SU 57143

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

57168 57.2

3

Fill in kiln praefurnium; abutting SU 57175, 57114; over kiln floor SU 57165; under SU 57176

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

57169 57.1

1

Fill under SU 57162, 57171, Fill 57153; in cut SU 57173; abutting SU 57174

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

57170 57.2

3

Fill under SU 57023, 57137; over Fill SU 57172 (=SU 57142)

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57171 57.2

3

Fill in pit under SU 57162

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

57172 57.2

3

Fill under SU 57137, 57170, 57023; over SU 57168, 57176; abutting SU 57114, WF 1025

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57173 57.1

1

Cut in SU 57174, filled by SU 57169

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

57174 57.0

0

Mercato ash under SU 57162, 57158; abuts SU 57161, 57044, 57169; cut by SU 57173

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

57175 57.2

3

Earlier kiln floor under SU 57165, over SU 57177, abutting SU 57114, 57168

Structural Fixture Kiln

Creation/Construction

57176 57.2

3

Fill under SU 57172, 57141, 57023; over SU 57168; abutting SU 57114, WF 1025

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57177 57.2

3

Leveling fill for kiln SU 57114, under SU 57175, 57177

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

57178 57.2

3

Earlier wall below WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57179 57.2

3

Construction of WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

Feature

628  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 57000

58000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

57180 57.3

5

Construction of WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57181 57.3

5

Construction of WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57182 57.2

3

Construction of pillar in WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57183 57.4

6

Construction of WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57184 57.4

6

Joist holes in WF 1025

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

57185 57.4

6

Construction of WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57186 57.4

6

Construction of WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

57187 57.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

57188 57.3

5

Construction trench cut for WF 1025 in SU 57190, filled by SU 57189

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57189 57.3

5

Fill in construction trench of WF 1025

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

57190 57.0

0

Paleosol under SU 57176

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

57191 57.6

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1002/1001

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

57192 57.6

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1020/1021

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

58001 58.6

8

Modern topsoil over trench 58000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

58002 58.6

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

58003 58.6

8

Modern fill under topsoil SU 58001

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

58004 58.4

5

Leveling fill

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58005 58.6

8

Lapilli fill in cut SU 58006

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

58006 58.4

5

Posthole (?) cut in SU 58004, filled by SU 58005

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

58007 58.6

8

Fill in cut SU 58008

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

58008 58.4

5

Cut in SU 58017, filled by SU 58007

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

58009 58.6

8

Lapilli fill in collapse SU 58010 Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

58010 58.6

8

Possible collapse filled by SU 58009

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

58011 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58012 58.2

4

Possible tank feature

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

58013 58.3

5

Opus signinum floor surface under sub-floor SU 58004, cut by SU 58012

Fill

Creation/Construction

58014 58.6

8

Tile cover of cesspit, in SU 58017, over fill SU 58016

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction

58015 58.4

5

Fill under SU 58004, over cesspit opening SU 58017

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58016 58.6

8

Lapilli fill in SU 58017

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

58017 58.4

5

Entrance to cesspit

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Surface – Opus signinum

Feature

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 17

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   629 Trench SU 58000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

58018 58.4

5

Fill under SU 58015

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58019 58.4

5

Pit cut in SU 58023

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

58020 58.4

5

Fill in pit cut SU 58019

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

58021 58.3

5

Plaster fill in collapse SU 58010, under SU 58009

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

58022 58.5

7

Substructure of cesspit entrance SU 58017

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 17

58023 58.3

5

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

58024 58.4

5

Construction trench cut for WF 1061 in SU 58050, filled by SU 58025

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58025 58.4

5

Fill in construction trench cut SU 58024

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58026 58.3

5

Sarno stones in construction trench fill SU 58025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58027 58.3

5

Construction rubble (=SU 58012)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58028 58.6

8

Modern topsoil (=SU 58001)

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

58029 58.6

8

Modern fill under topsoil SU 58028 (=SU 58003)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

58030 58.4

5

Leveling fill (=SU 58004)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58031 58.3

5

Mixed fill in collapse SU 58010

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

58032 58.3

5

Resurfacing under plaster SU 58033

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

58033 58.3

5

Mortar surface over fill SU 58032

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

58034 58.4

5

Fill in cut SU 58055, cut by SU 58019, 58035

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

58035 58.1

3

Construction trench cut for WF 1062 in SU 58034, filled by SU 58064

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58036 58.6

8

Fill in cesspit SU 58017

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

58037 58.3

5

Opus signinum floor surface Fill under SU 58032, 58033; abutting WF 1060 (=SU 58013)

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

58038 58.4

5

Construction trench cut for feature SU 58017, filled by SU 58039

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

58039 58.4

5

Fill in construction trench cut SU 58038

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

58040 58.2

4

Amphora abutting WF 1061

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

58041 58.2

4

Amphora abutting amphora SU 58040, filled by SU 59048

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

58042 58.6

8

Wood fragments in fill SU 58036

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

58043 58.3

5

Leveling fill under SU 58032, 58033, 58037; cut by SU 58045

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58044 58.3

5

Fill in cesspit 58081, under SU 58031

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

630  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 58000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

58045 58.3

5

Construction trench cut for WF 1060 in SU 58043

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58046 58.3

5

Fill in construction trench cut SU 58045

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58047 58.2

4

Mortar on amphora SU 58040

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

58048 58.2

4

Fill in amphora SU 58041

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

58049 58.2

4

Fill in amphora SU 58040

Fill

Amphora Fill (primary) Occupation/Use

58050 58.3

5

Fill abutting cesspit SU 58017 (=SU 58032)

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

58051 58.3

5

Fill under SU 58043

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58052 58.2

4

Mortar surface abutting WF 1060

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

58053 58.2

4

Fill under amphora SU 58040

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58054 58.2

4

Sub-floor fill under plaster SU 58052

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58055 58.4

5

Cut in SU 58054, 58056, filled by 58034

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

58056 58.1

3

Fill under SU 58050, cut by SU 58055, 58058

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

58057 58.1

3

Fill under SU 58034

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

58058 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58059 58.3

5

Possible threshold stone under Structural Fixture Threshold blocked doorway in WF 1060

Creation/Construction

58060 58.2

4

Amphora in fill SU 58054

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

58061 58.1

3

Fill under SU 58056

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58062 58.2

4

Stone under SU 58059

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58063 58.2

4

Mortar on stone SU 58062

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58064 58.1

3

Mortar fill in construction trench of WF 1062

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58065 58.3

5

Fill in collapse SU 58010, under Fill SU 58044

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

58066 58.3

5

Amphora in fill SU 58068, in collapse SU 58010

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 18

58067 58.3

5

Cut tile in fill SU 58065, in collapse SU 58010

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 18

58068 58.3

5

Fill under SU 58065, in collapse SU 58010

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

58069 58.1

3

Fill under SU 58034, cut by SU 58035

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

58070 58.2

4

Fill under SU 58054

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58071 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58072 58.1

3

Fill under SU 58069

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

58073 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58074 58.3

5

Fill of amphora SU 58066

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

58075 58.1

3

Probable bioturbation cut in SU 58072, under SU 58064, filled by SU 58076

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   631 Trench SU 58000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

Feature

58076 58.1

3

Gravel fill of cut SU 58075

58077 58.3

5

Amphora in collapse SU 58010, Fill in fill SU 58068

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

58078 58.3

5

Fill of amphora SU 58077

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

58079 58.3

5

Tile deposit in collapse SU 58010

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

58080 58.1

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 58082 of WF 1060

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58081 58.1

3

Construction under WF 1060

Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 18

58082 58.1

3

Construction trench cut for WF 1060 and mortar arch SU 58080, in SU 58083

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58083 58.0

0

Paleosol under SU 58080, cut by SU 58082

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

58084 58.1

3

Fill under SU 58061

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

58085 58.1

3

Silt deposit under SU 58084, abutting SU 58515/WF 1061

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

58086 58.0

0

Paleosol under SU 58083, cut by SU 58087

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

58087 58.1

3

Construction trench cut for WF 1061 in SU 58086, filled by SU 58088

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58088 58.1

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 58087

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58089 58.1

3

Terrace fill under WF 1062

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

58090 58.1

3

Redeposited natural deposit under SU 58085

Miscellaneous

Collapse Material

Abandonment/ Collapse

58091 58.0

0

Paleosol under SU 58090, abuts WF 1061 (=SU 58086)

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

58092 58.none

99

Baulk trim (=SU 58054)

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

58093 58.4

5

Cooking Facility 8

Structural Fixture Cooking Facility

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 8

58094 58.4

5

Construction trench cut for stove feature SU 58093 in SU 58004

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

58095 58.1

3

Plaster over SU 58096, abutting WF 1060

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

58096 58.1

3

Mortar fill in construction trench of WF 1060 (=SU 58080)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58097 58.1

3

Construction trench cut for WF 1060, filled by SU 58096

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

58098 58.2

4

Mortar floor fragment over SU 58056

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

58099 58.1

3

Fill cut by construction trench Fill SU 58097, under SU 58072

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

58501 58.none

99

CANCELED

Canceled

Research Process

Miscellaneous

632  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 58000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

58502 58.6

8

Modern pointing on WF 1063

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

58503 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58504 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58505 58.6

8

Modern pointing on WF 1063

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

58506 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58507 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58508 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58509 58.none

99

Void in WF 1062

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/Collapse

58510 58.1

3

Construction of WF 1062

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58511 58.6

8

Modern pointing on WF 1310

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

58512

Construction of WF 1310, abutting WF 1061, 1062

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58513

Construction of WF 1310

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58514 58.1

3

Construction of WF 1061

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58515 58.3

5

Construction of WF 1060

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58516 58.1

3

Construction of WF 1060

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58517 58.4

5

Mortar floor surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

58518 58.3

5

Sarno quoin in WF 1060

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

58519 58.4

5

Sub-floor fill under plaster SU 58517

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

58520 58.5

7

Fill of doorway in WF 1060

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

58521 58.3

5

Sarno quoin in doorway in WF 1060

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58522 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of WF 1060

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern pointing on SU 58523 in WF 1060

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 1060 under stove feature SU 58093

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58523 58524 58.6

8

58525 58526 58.3

5

Sarno construction of doorway in WF 1060

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58527 58.6

8

Modern wooden lintel over doorway in WF 1060

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

58528 58.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

58529

Plaster on SU 58526 in WF 1060

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

58530

Sarno stone in SU 58523 in WF 1060

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1061

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

58531 58.4

5

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   633 Trench SU 59000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Topsoil

Modern Activity

Feature

59001 59.8

8

Modern topsoil

Fill

59002 59.6

5

Domed oven abutting WF 1101, over SU 59034

Structural Fixture Cooking Facility

Creation/Construction Cooking Facility 9

59003 59.5

4

Leveling fill under SU 59001

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59004 59.5

4

Leveling fill (=SU 59009, 59036, Fill 59061)

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59005 59.6

5

Fill under SU 59001

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59006 59.8

8

Lapilli/loam fill of bioturbation pit SU 59030 in SU 59003

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Material

Modern Activity

59007 59.7

6

Threshold stone between Rooms 110 and 114, I.1.3-5

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 32

59008 59.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

59009 59.5

4

Leveling fill (=SU 59004, 59036, Fill 59061)

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59010 59.5

4

Leveling fill (=SU 59024, 59027)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59011 59.4

4

Construction of buried wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59012 59.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

59013 59.5

4

Sub-floor fill over drain cap SU 59015

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

59014 59.5

4

Mortar surface and subsurface Fill under SU 59005

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

59015 59.5

4

Stone/tile capping of drain (=SU 59091)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 39

59016 59.5

4

Construction trench cut for drain SU 59020, 59015 in SU 59024

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

59017 59.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

59018 59.6

5

Foundation of WF 1096

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59019 59.6

5

Foundation of WF 1097

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59020 59.5

4

Drain construction (=SU 59092)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 39

59021 59.5

4

Fill in drain under capstones SU 59015 (=SU 59026)

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

59022 59.5

4

Sub-floor fill over drain SU 59015, 59016, 59020

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

59023 59.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

59024 59.5

4

Leveling fill under drain Fill SU 59015, abutting buried wall SU 59011 (=SU 59010, 59027)

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59025 59.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

59026 59.8

8

Modern fill in drain SU 59015/59016/59020 (=SU 59021)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

59027 59.5

4

Leveling fill (=SU 59010, 59024) Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59028 59.4

4

Leveling fill (=SU 59042, 59043, Fill 59048)

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59029 59.none

99

CANCELED

Canceled

Research Process

Miscellaneous

634  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 59000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

59030 59.8

8

Bioturbation pit abutting WF 1023, filled by SU 59006

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

59031 59.8

8

Lapilli fill in cistern SU 59039

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

59032 59.5

4

Construction trench cut for Cut feature 59039 in SU 59073, 59094

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cistern 9 Cut – Structural Fixture

59033 59.6

5

Fill in cistern SU 59039, under SU 59031

Fill

Cistern/Well Fill

59034 59.4

4

Well under oven SU 59002

Structural Fixture Well

Creation/Construction

59035 59.6

5

Mortar foundations of WF 1023, 1099, 1096

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59036 59.5

4

Leveling fill under SU 59014, over SU 59055 (=SU 59004, 59009, 59061)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59037 59.5

4

Fill under SU 59003

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59038 59.4

4

Plaster on buried wall SU 59011

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

59039 59.5

4

Cistern construction under WF 1099, SU 59007, 59005

Structural Fixture Cistern

Creation/Construction Cistern 9

59040 59.4

4

Leveling fill under SU 59037

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59041 59.7

6

Fill under threshold stone SU 59007

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59042 59.4

4

Leveling fill under 59010 (=SU 59028, 59043, 59028)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59043 59.4

4

Leveling fill under SU 59042 (=SU 59028, 59042, 59048)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59044 59.8

8

Modern topsoil (=SU 59001)

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

59045 59.1

3

Fill under SU 59043

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

59046 59.8

8

Fill under SU 59044

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

59047 59.4

4

Opus signinum floor surface Fill over SU 59048, under SU 59036

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

59048 59.4

4

Leveling fill under opus signinum SU 59047 (=SU 59028, 59042, 59043)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59049 59.6

5

Mortar/packed earth surface

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

59050 59.5

4

Fill of cuts alongside the rear boundary wall of Property I.1.2

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59051 59.4

4

Sandy deposit over SU 59036, 59047

Fill

Accumulation

Occupation/Use

59052 59.4

4

Fill in tank SU 59053, under fill Fill SU 59040

Vat/Tank Fill

Creation/Construction

59053 59.3

4

Construction of tank

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

59054 59.5

4

Packed earth surface under SU 59049, over SU 59050

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

59055 59.5

4

Opus signinum surface under SU 59049, over SU 59050

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

59056 59.3

4

Opus signinum sluice in tank SU 59053

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction

Creation/Construction Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   635 Trench SU 59000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

59057 59.3

4

Construction trench cut for tank abutting wall SU 59095

Cut

59058 59.3

4

Plaster lining cut SU 59057 of tank SU 59053

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

59059 59.4

4

Leveling fill (=SU 59040)

Fill

Creation/Construction

59060 59.3

4

Stone associated with tank SU 59053

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

59061 59.5

4

Leveling fill over collapse SU 59068 (=SU 59004, 59009, 59036)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59062 59.8

8

Collapse under SU 59066

Miscellaneous

Modern Collapse Void

Modern Activity

59063 59.5

4

Fill of cesspit collapse over feature SU 59112

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

59064 59.4

4

Cut in tank SU 59052, 59053, filled by SU 59065

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

59065 59.4

4

Fill in cut SU 59064

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

59066 59.5

4

Tile fill over feature SU 59112, fill SU 59063

Fill

Cesspit Fill

Creation/Construction

59067 59.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 59085 for feature SU 59034

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

59068 59.5

4

Collapse in SU 59047, 59048, 59069, 59070, 59073; filled by SU 59036

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

59069 59.4

4

Fill under SU 59036

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59070 59.1

3

Terrace fill under SU 59069

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

59071 59.1

3

Fill cut by construction trench Fill of tank SU 59053

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

59072 59.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

59073 59.1

3

Terrace fill under SU 59048

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

59074 59.4

4

Construction trench cut for Cut well SU 59034 in SU 59073, filled by SU 59075 (=SU 59085)

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

59075 59.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 59074

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

59076 59.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

59077 59.1

3

Fill (=SU 59045)

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

59078 59.5

4

Leveling fill in SU 59050, 59079 Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59079 59.5

4

Fill of cuts under SU 59078 (=SU 59050, 59114)

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59080 59.5

4

Leveling fill under SU 59078 in Fill SU 59079

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59081 59.1

3

Fill in cut SU 59082

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

59082 59.1

3

Cut in SU 59073, filled by SU 59081

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

59083 59.1

3

Fill under SU 59077, cut by SU 59085

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

59084 59.4

4

Fill in construction trench cut for well SU 59034

Fill

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Fill – Structural Fixture

Fill

Leveling Fill

Feature

636  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 59000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

59085 59.4

4

construction trench cut in SU 59045, filled by SU 59084

Cut

Construction Trench Creation/Construction Cut – Structural Fixture

59086 59.1

3

Fill in cut SU 59087

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

59087 59.1

3

Pit cut in ash SU 59983

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

59088 59.1

3

Posthole cut in SU 59083

Cut

Posthole Cut

Creation/Construction

59089 59.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

59090 59.5

4

Fill in drain SU 59015/59020 (=SU 59021, 59026)

Fill

Drain Fill (primary)

Occupation/Use

59091 59.5

4

Stone/tile capping of drain (=SU 59015)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 39

59092 59.5

4

Drain construction (=SU 59020)

Structural Fixture Drain

Creation/Construction Drain 39

59093 59.5

4

Construction trench cut for drain SU 59015, 59020 in fill SU 59050, 59079 (=SU 59016)

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction

59094 59.0

0

Paleosol

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

59095 59.3

4

Construction of buried wall under SU 59011

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59096 59.3

4

Construction trench cut for buried wall SU 59095 in SU 59071, 59105

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59097 59.3

4

Fill in construction trench cut SU 59096

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59098 59.3

4

Packed earth surface over tank Fill construction SU 59053

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

59099 59.5

4

Amphora under drain Fill SU 59092, in cut SU 59106, abutted and filled by SU 59102, 59101

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59100 59.4

4

Leveling fill under SU 59079, cut by SU 59129, 59106

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59101 59.5

4

Fill under drain SU 59029, in amphora SU 59099, over SU 59100, 59102

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59102 59.5

4

Cut fill under drain SU 59029, in amphora SU 59099 and pit SU 59106

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59103 59.4

4

Mortar/Sarno/tile work surface possibly associated with similar feature SU 59110

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction Drain 36

59104 59.5

4

Cut in SU 59100, filled by SU 59079

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

59105 59.1

3

Fill under buried wall SU 59095, 59011 (=SU 59071, 59045)

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

59106 59.5

4

Pit cut in SU 59100, under amphora 59099, filled by SU 59102, 59116

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

59107 59.5

4

Leveling fill (=SU 59050, 59079)

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   637 Trench SU 59000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

59108 59.0

0

Paleosol under SU 59105, Geological 59095/59011 (=SU 59071, 59083)

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

59109 59.0

0

Paleosol under SU 59011/59095 Geological (=SU 59108, 59083)

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

59110 59.4

4

Mortar/Sarno/tile work surface below SU 59107, over waste disposal feature SU 59112

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

59111 59.4

4

Tiles under work surface feature SU 59110

Structural Fixture Drain

59112 59.4

4

Construction of round feature Structural Fixture Cesspit

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 19

59113 59.5

4

Cut fill under SU 59110 (=SU 59102)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59114 59.5

4

Cut Fill (=SU 59079)

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59115 59.5

4

Half pipe under amphora SU 59099, in pit SU 59106, filled by SU 59113

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

59116 59.5

4

Fill in pit cut SU 59106, under SU 59113

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

59117 59.4

4

Construction of buried wall under WF 1023

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59118 59.2

3

Plaster drain abutting WF 1067 Structural Fixture Drain

59119 59.1

3

Packed earth surface under SU 59100, 59118; cut by SU 59122

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

59120 59.2

3

Fill in cut SU 59000

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

59121 59.2

3

Fill under SU 59118

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

59122 59.2

3

Cut in SU 59119, filled by SU 59120

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

59123 59.1

3

Fill under SU 59119

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

59124 59.1

3

Fill in construction trench cut SU 59125 of WF 1067

Fill

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59125 59.1

3

Construction trench cut for WF 1067 in SU 59123, 59127; filled by SU 59124, 59128

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59126 59.0

0

Paleosol under SU 59109 (=SU 59094)

Geological

Paleosol

Geological/Natural

59127 59.1

3

Terrace fill under SU 59123

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

59128 59.1

3

Mortar fill in construction Fill trench cut SU 59125 of WF 1067

Construction Trench Fill – Architecture

Creation/Construction

59129 59.5

4

Cut in SU 59100; over SU 59104, Cut 59106; filled by SU 59090, 59079, 59102, 59113, 59114

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

59130 59.4

4

Construction trench cut for waste disposal feature SU 59112 in SU 59100, filled by SU 59050

Construction Trench Cut – Structural Fixture

Creation/Construction Waste Feature 19

Cut

Creation/Construction Drain 38

Creation/Construction Drain 37

638  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 59000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

59501

Construction of WF 1107

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59502

Plaster on WF 1107

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

59503

Downpipe in WF 1107

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

59504 59.8

8

Modern pointing on WF 1107

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

59505 59.8

8

Reconstruction of WF 1107

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

59506 59.8

8

Modern consolidation of plaster SU 59502 on WF 1107

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Mortar on WF 1107

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59507 59508 59.6

5

Construction of WF 1023

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59509 59.6

5

Quoining of WF 1023

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

59510 59.8

8

Modern reconstruction over SU 59508 in WF 1080

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

59511 59.8

8

Modern quoining on WF 1023 Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

59512 59.8

8

Modern mortar on WF 1023

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

59513 59.6

5

Foundation of WF 1097

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59514 59.6

5

Construction of WF 1097

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59515 59.8

8

Modern reconstruction over SU 59514 in WF 1097

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

59516 59.8

8

Modern consolidation of SU 59514 in WF 1097

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Mortar on WF 1097

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59517 59518

Plaster on SU 59514 in WF 1097 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

59519 59.6

5

Construction of quoin in WF 1099

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59520 59.6

5

Construction of WF 1099

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59521 59.6

5

Quoin in WF 1099

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59522 59.6

5

Construction of quoin in WF 1100

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of quoin in WF 1101

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59523 59524 59.6

5

Construction of WF 1101, over Architecture SU 59035

Wall

Creation/Construction

59525 59.6

5

Quoin in WF 1101

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59526 59.6

5

Quoin in WF 1098

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59527 59.6

5

Construction of WF 1098

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 1098

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

59528

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   639 Trench SU 59000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

59529 59.8

8

59530 59531

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern mortar on WF 1098

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 1106

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Quoin in WF 1106

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59532 59.6

5

Construction of WF 1096

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59533 59.8

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1067

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

59534 59.1

3

Construction of WF 1067

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59535 59.6

5

Quoin in WF 1096

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59536 59.8

8

Reconstruction of WF 1096

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

59537 59.8

8

Modern mortar on WF 1096

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

59538

Plaster on SU 59532 in WF 1096

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

59539

Mortar on WF 1096

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

59540

Plaster on SU 59532 in WF 1096 (=SU 59518)

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

59541 59.8

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1096

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

60000 60001 60.3

8

Modern topsoil over trench 60000

Fill

Topsoil

Modern Activity

60002 60.3

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

60003 60.1

5

Foundation of WF 1196

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

60004 60.2

7

Lava stone pavement

Fill

Surface – Other

Creation/Construction

60005 60.2

7

Sub-floor fill under lava pavement SU 60004

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

60006 60.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

60007 60.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

60008 60.2

7

Fill under SU 60002 (=SU 60044)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

60009 60.1

5

Opus incertum feature under WF 1191

Structural Fixture Bench/Platform

Creation/Construction Quarry Area 14

60010 60.1

5

Opus signinum floor surface abutting SU 60003, cut by SU 60018

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

60011 60.2

7

Fill abutting SU 60010

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

60012 60.1

5

Sub-floor fill under opus signinum SU 60010

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

60013 60.1

5

Packed earth surface under Fill SU 60012, over SU 60019/60057

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

60014 60.1

5

Quarry fill under 60008, over SU 60017

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60015 60.2

7

Fill in cut SU 60018

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

640  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

60000 60016 60.0

0

Bedrock cut by SU 60024

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

60017 60.1

5

Fill under SU 60014

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

60018 60.2

7

Pit cut in SU 60010, filled by SU 60015, 60052

Cut

Pit Cut

Creation/Construction

60019 60.1

5

Terrace fill over SU 60031

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

60020 60.1

5

Mortar/packed earth surface associated with SU 60009

Fill

Surface – Mortar

Creation/Construction

60021 60.0

0

Bedrock under SU 60008

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

60022 60.1

5

Quarry fill cut by pit cut SU 60018, under fill SU 60015

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60023 60.1

5

Fill under SU 60022

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

60024 60.1

5

Quarrying cut in SU 60016

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

60025 60.3

8

Modern fill (=SU 60002)

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

60026 60.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

60027 60.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

60028 60.1

5

Construction trench cut for WCU 88

Cut

Construction Trench Cut – Architecture

Creation/Construction

60029 60.none

99

Baulk trim (=SU 60019)

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

60030 60.3

8

Modern fill

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

60031 60.1

5

Terrace fill under terrace fill SU 60019 (=SU 60058)

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

60032 60.0

0

Bedrock under SU 60019

Geological

Bedrock/Lava

Geological/Natural

60033 60.3

8

Modern fill under SU 60030

Fill

Modern Deposit

Modern Activity

60034 60.1

5

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

60035 60.1

5

Packed earth subsurface of SU 60036

Fill

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

60036 60.1

5

Opus signinum surface over SU 60035

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

60037 60.1

5

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

60038 60.1

5

Fill over bedrock

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

60039 60.1

5

Sub-floor fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

60040 60.1

5

Fill in quarry pit under SU 60009

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60041 60.1

5

Fill

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

60042 60.2

7

Fill under SU 60030, over SU 60043

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

60043 60.2

7

Fill

Fill

Sub-floor Fill

Creation/Construction

60044 60.1

5

Fill (=SU 60008)

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

60045 60.1

5

Fill under SU 60042, over SU 60046

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

60046 60.1

5

Fill under opus signinum SU 60048, cut by SU 60018

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

60047 60.1

5

Fill under SU 60044, 60008

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

Feature

Quarry Area 14

Quarry Area 14

Quarry Area 14

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   641 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

60000 60048 60.1

5

Opus signinum surface under SU 60043, cut by SU 60018 (=SU 60049)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

60049 60.1

5

Opus signinum surface cut by SU 60018 (=SU 60048)

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

60050 60.1

5

Fill under SU 60042

Fill

Generic Fill

Creation/Construction

60051 60.1

5

Quarrying cut in SU 60021

Cut

Quarrying Cut

Occupation/Use

60052 60.1

5

Fill in pit cut SU 60018

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60053 60.none

99

Baulk trim

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

60054 60.1

5

Terrace fill over bedrock SU 60021

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

60055 60.1

5

Fill in cut SU 60018, over SU 60056, under SU 60050, 60052

Fill

Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60056 60.1

5

Quarry fill under SU 60046, over SU 60058, cut by SU 60018

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60057 60.1

5

Quarry fill cut by SU 60073, 60018 (=SU 60019)

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60058 60.1

5

Terrace fill under SU 60056 (=SU 60031)

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

60059 60.1

5

Construction of tank

Structural Fixture Vat/Tank

Creation/Construction

60060 60.1

5

Fill in tank SU 60059

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

60061 60.1

5

Quarry fill under SU 60057

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60062 60.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

60063 60.1

5

Packed earth surface under Fill SU 60020, abutted by SU 60064

Surface – Beaten Earth Creation/Construction

60064 60.1

5

Quarry fill under SU 60020

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60065 60.1

5

Possible opus signinum surface over SU 60056

Fill

Surface – Opus signinum

Creation/Construction

60066 60.none

99

Baulk trim (=SU 60046)

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

60067 60.1

5

Fill over bedrock

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

60068 60.1

5

Fill over bedrock

Fill

Terrace Fill

Creation/Construction

60069 60.1

5

Quarry fill

Fill

Quarrying Pit Fill

Creation/Construction

60070 60.1

5

Vessel under SU 60056, over Fill fill SU 60056, filled by SU 60071

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

60071 60.1

5

Fill in vessel SU 60070

Fill

Leveling Fill

Creation/Construction

60072 60.1

5

Cut in bedrock

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

60073 60.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

60074 60.1

5

Cut in bedrock

Cut

Generic Cut

Creation/Construction

60075 60.1

5

Mortar under fill SU 60060 in tank SU 60059

Fill

Waste/Use Debris of Fixture

Occupation/Use

60076 60.none

99

Baulk trim (=SU 60008)

Miscellaneous

Baulk Trim

Research Process

60500 60.1

5

Construction of WF 1191

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

60501 60.3

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1191

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Feature

Quarry Area 14

642  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

60000 60502

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Plaster on SU 60501 in WF 1191 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

60503 60.3

8

Modern consolidation on WF 1191

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

60504 60.1

5

Construction of WF 1195, 1196, 1197, 1198

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

60505 60.3

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1198

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

60506 60.3

8

Modern pointing on WF 1196

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Collapse in southern portion of WF 1191

Miscellaneous

Collapse Void

Abandonment/ Collapse

8

Crack in modern mortar patch in WF 1191

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

 

Quoin in WF 1018

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1018

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of SU 80002 in WF 1018

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Fill of doorway in WF 1018

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

Modern fill of doorway in WF 1018

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80006

Construction of WF 1018

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80007

Construction of WF 1018

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of SU 80007 in WF 1018

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80009

Construction of WF 1018

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80010

Construction of WF 1000

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1000

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 1000

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1000

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80014

Construction of WF 1000

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80015

Construction of WF 1000

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80016

Tufa blocks in WF 1000

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80017

Construction of WF 1000

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80018

Threshold stone reused in construction of WF 1000

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

60507 60508 60.3

80000 80001   80002 80003 80.1

8

80004 80005 80.1

80008 80.1

80011 80.1

8

8

8

80012 80013 80.1

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   643 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern reconstruction of WF 1019

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80020

Construction of WF 1019

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80021

Tufa blocks in WF 1019

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80022

Construction of WF 1019

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80000 80019 80.1

8

80023 80.1

8

Modern quoin in WF 1019

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80024 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80025 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of quoin in WF 1002

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 1003

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80026 80027

Quoin in WF 1004

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80028 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80029 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80030 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80031 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of drain cover over downpipe SU 80032, abutting WF 1004, 1006

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80032

Terracotta downpipe

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

80033

Quoin in WF 1033

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80034

Quoin in WF 1032

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80038

Quoin in WF 1308

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80039

Quoin in WF 1308

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80040

Plaster on WF 1124

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1031

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1031

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80043

Plaster over SU 80041 in WF 1031

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80044

Construction of WF 1027

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80045

Reconstruction of WF 1027

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80046

Quoin in WF 1027

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80049

Construction of WF 1117

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80050

Construction of WF 1117

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1117

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 1117

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80053

Joist holes in WF 1086

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

80054

Construction of WF 1086

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80041 80042 80.1

8

80051 80052 80.1

8

Feature

644  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern construction of WF 1086

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80056

Construction of WF 1038

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80057

Construction of WF 1038

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80058

Quoin in WF 1038

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80059

Quoin in WF 1038

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80060

Quoin in WF 1038

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80061

Fill of doorway in WF 1040

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80062

Quoin in WF 1042

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80063

Construction of WF 1042

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80064

Construction of doorway in WF 1042

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80065

Fill of doorway in WF 1042

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80000 80055 80.1

8

80066 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80067 80.1

8

Modern construction of WF 1060

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80068 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80069

Threshold construction under Structural Fixture Threshold doorway fill SU 80073

Creation/Construction

80070 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80071 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80072 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80073 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80074

Block in WF 1060

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80075

Construction of WF 1062

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80076

Construction of WF 1062

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80077

Construction of WF 1062

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1068

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80079

Construction of WF 1068

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80080

Construction of WF 1068

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80081

Construction of WF 1091

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80082

Construction of WF 1109

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80083

Construction of WF 1109

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80084

Construction of WF 1111

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80085

Construction of WF 1111

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80086

Plaster over SU 80076 in WF 1068

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80078 80.1

8

80087 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80088 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80089 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   645 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Reconstruction of WF 1066

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1066

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1066

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80093

Construction of WF 1084

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80094

Construction of WF 1084

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80095

Quoin in WF 1087

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern quoin in WF 1087

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80097

Quoin in WF 1086

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80098

Construction of WF 1252

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80099

Quoin in WF 1252

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80100

Reconstruction of WF 1252

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80101

Construction of WF 1252

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80102

Quoin in WF 1252

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80103

Block in WF 1252

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1252

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Plaster on WF 1252

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80000 80090 80091 80092 80.1

80096 80.1

80104 80.1

8

8

8

80105 80106 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80107 80.1

8

Modern construction of WF 1025

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80108 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80109 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80110

Construction of WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80111

Plaster on WF 1025

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80112

Block in WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80113

Construction of WF 1255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80114

Quoin in WF 1255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80115

Quoin in WF 1255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80116

Plaster on WF 1255

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80117

Construction of WF 1255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80118

Reconstruction of WF 1025

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80119

Construction of WF 1255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80120

Construction of WF 1255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80121

Construction of WF 1255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80122

Construction of WF 1255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1255

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 1083

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80123 80.1

80124

8

Feature

646  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

80000 80125 80.1

Type

SubType

Formation Category

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1083

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of WF 1303

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1303

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80129

Construction of WF 1092

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80130

Construction of WF 1092

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 1092

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80132

Construction of WF 1093

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80133

Construction of WF 1093

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80134

Construction of WF 1093

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80135

Construction of WF 1093

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1093

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 1094

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1094

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80139

Quoin in WF 1094

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80140

Quoin in WF 1102

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80141

Construction of WF 1103

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80142

Quoin WF 1103

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80143

Quoin in WF 1104

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80144

Quoin in WF 1105

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80145

Construction of WF 1105

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80146

Quoin in WF 1110

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80147

Reconstruction of WF 1108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80148

Construction of WF 1108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80149

Block in WF 1108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80150

Blocks in WF 1108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80151

Construction of WF 1108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80152

Construction of WF 1108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80153

Blocks in WF 1135

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80154

Blocks in WF 1136

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80155

Blocks in WF 1137

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80156

Reconstruction of WF 1138

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80157

Fill of doorway in WF 1138

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1138

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80126 80.none 80127 80128 80.1

80131 80.1

80136 80.1

8

8

8

80137 80138 80.1

80158 80.1

8

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   647 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

80000 80159

Quoin in WF 1138

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80160

Quoin in WF 1138

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80161

Fill of doorway in WF 1138

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80162

Quoin in WF 1138

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80163

Construction of WF 1138

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80164

Quoin in WF 1138

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80165

Blocks in WF 1141

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80166

Blocks in WF 1141

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80167

Blocks in WF 1143

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Quoin in WF 1158

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1158

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1178

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80172

Construction of WF 1180

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80173

Construction of WF 1181

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80174

Construction of WF 1182

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80175

Construction of doorway in WF 1182

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80176

Construction of doorway in WF 1183

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80177

Construction of doorway in WF 1184

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80178

Construction of WF 1184

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80179

Construction of WF 1185

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80180

Construction of WF 1185

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80181

Construction of WF 1185

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80182

Construction of WF 1186

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80183

Construction of WF 1186

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80184

Construction of WF 1186

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80185

Plaster on WF 1186

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80186

Construction of WF 1187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80187

Construction of WF 1187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80188

Quoin in WF 1187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80189

Construction of WF 1188

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80190

Construction of WF 1189

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80191

Construction of WF 1189

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80192

Construction of WF 1189

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80193

Construction of WF 1190

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80194

Construction of WF 1190

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80195

Blocks in WF 1190

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80196

Fill of doorway in WF 1190

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80168 80.none

99

80169 80170 80171 80.1

8

Feature

648  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Fill of doorway in WF 1190

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80198

Construction of WF 1190

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80199

Blocks in WF 1190

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80200

Construction of WF 1190

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80201

Blocks in WF 1190

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80203

Construction of WF 1191

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80204

Construction of WF 1191

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80205

Construction of WF 1179

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80206

Construction of WF 1207

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80207

Plaster on WF 1207

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80208

Construction of WF 1210

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80209

Construction of WF 1139

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80210

Construction of WF 1139

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80211

Construction of WF 1139

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80000 80197

80202 80.none

99

80212 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1139

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80213 80.1

8

Modern construction of WF 1206

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80214

Construction of WF 1192

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80216

Construction of WF 1192

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80217 80.1

8

Modern construction of WF 1200

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80218 80.1

8

Modern construction of WF 1192

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80219

Construction of WF 1200

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80220

Construction of WF 1211

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80221

Plaster on WF 1211

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80222

Construction of WF 1211

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80223

Construction of WF 1212

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1212

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80225

Plaster on WF 1212

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80226

Construction of WF 1213

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80227

Construction of WF 1213

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80228

Construction of WF 1213

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80229

Plaster on WF 1213

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80230

Construction of WF 1213

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80231

Construction of WF 1214

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80232

Construction of WF 1214

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80224 80.1

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   649 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 1215

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1216

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 1216

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80236

Construction of WF 1216

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80237

Block in WF 1216

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80238

Construction of WF 1217

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 1217

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80240

Construction of WF 1218

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80241

Construction of WF 1218

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80000 80233 80234 80235 80.1

80239 80.1

8

8

80242 80.1

8

Modern construction of WF 1218

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80243 80.1

8

Modern construction of WF 1218

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80244

Quoin in WF 1218

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80245

Construction of WF 1327

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80246

Construction of WF 1325

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80247

Construction of WF 1219

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80248

Construction of WF 1324

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 1324

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80250

Construction of WF 1221

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80251

Quoin in WF 1224

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80252

Construction of WF 1225

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1225

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80254

Construction of WF 1225

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80255

Construction of WF 1225

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80256

Construction of WF 1226

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80257

Reconstruction of WF 1226

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80258

Construction of WF 1227

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80259

Construction of WF 1227

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80260

Construction of WF 1227

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80261

Plaster on WF 1227

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80262

Construction of WF 1228

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern plaster on WF 1228

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80264

Construction of WF 1000

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80265

Construction of WF 1229

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80249 80.1

80253 80.1

80263 80.1

8

8

8

Feature

650  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

80000 80266 80267 80.1

8

80268

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 1229

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern plaster on WF 1229

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 1230

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80269 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1252

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80271 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80272 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80273 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80274 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80275 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Blocks in WF 1014

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80276 80277 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80278 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80279

Construction of WF 1046

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80280

Construction of WF 1049

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80282

Construction of WF 1044

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80283

Construction of WF 1043

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80284

Fill of doorway in WF 1043

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80285

Fill of doorway in WF 1043

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80281 80.none

99

80286 80.1

8

Modern lintel and reconstruction of WF 1043

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80287 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80288

Construction of WF 1053

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80289

Fill of doorway in WF 1053

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80290

Fill of doorway

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80291 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1053

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80292 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80293 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80294

Quoin in WF 1090

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80295

Construction of brick pillar in Architecture WF 1127

Wall

Creation/Construction

80296 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1125

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80297 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of WF 1317

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80298

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   651 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

80000 80299 80.1

Type

SubType

Formation Category

8

Modern construction of WF 1301

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80300 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80301 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80302

Quoin in WF 1011

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80303

Reconstruction of WF 1011

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80304

Reconstruction of WF 1011

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80305

Plaster on WF 1011

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80306 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80312 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80313

Quoin in WF 1015

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80314

Quoin in WF 1305

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80315

Quoin in WF 1048

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80316

Quoin in WF 1047

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80317

Construction of WF 1047

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80318

Quoin in WF 1046

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80319

Construction of WF 1046

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80320

Quoin in WF 1049

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80321

Construction of WF 1049

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Quoin in WF 1045

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Quoin in WF 1051

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80322 80323 80.none

99

80324 80325 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80326 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80327

Quoin in WF 1016

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80328

Quoin in WF 1017

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80329

Construction of WF 1017

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80330 80.none

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80331

99

Quoin in WF 1304

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80332

Quoin in WF 1309

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80333

Quoin in WF 1309

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80334 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80335 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80336

Construction of WF 1030

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80337

Quoin in WF 1030

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80338

Quoin in WF 1029

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80339

Quoin in WF 1307

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80340

Construction of WF 1307

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80341

Quoin in WF 1306

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80342 80.none

99

80343 80344 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of WF 1026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Feature

652  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80346

Reconstruction of WF 1026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80347

Plaster on WF 1026

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of WF 1026

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80000 80345 80.none

80348 80.none

99

99

80349 80350 80.none

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80351

99

Construction of WF 1024

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80352

Construction of WF 1021

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80353

Quoin in WF 1021

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80354 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80355 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80356

Quoin in WF 1008

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80357

Construction of WF 1008

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 1009

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 1023

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80360

Construction of WF 1310

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80361

Construction of WF 1063

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80362

Construction of WF 1063

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1063

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80364

Quoin in WF 1063

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80365

Quoin in WF 1065

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80366

Quoin with window in WF 1311

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1311

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80368

Quoin in WF 1069

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80369

Construction of WF 1069

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation and lintel in WF 1069

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80371

Quoin in WF 1070

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80372

Quoin in WF 1071

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80373

Construction of WF 1071

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation and lintel in WF 1071

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 1072

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of WF 1072

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1072

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80358 80359 80.1

80363 80.1

80367 80.1

80370 80.1

80374 80.1

8

8

8

8

8

80375 80376 80.none

99

80377 80378 80.1

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   653 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Quoin in WF 1312

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Quoin in WF 1313

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern address plaque and gate mounts in WF 1313

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80382

Quoin in WF 1315

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80383

Quoin in WF 1315

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80384

Quoin in WF 1314

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80385

Quoin in WF 1074

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80386

Quoin in WF 1075

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80387

Quoin in WF 1075

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80388

Quoin in WF 1064

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80000 80379 80380 80381 80.1

8

80389 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1065

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80390 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1063

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80391 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1311

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80392

Plaster on WF 1311

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80393

Quoin in WF 1077

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80394

Construction of WF 1076

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80395

Construction of WF 1076

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1076

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80397

Quoin in WF 1078

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80398

Quoin in WF 1079

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80399

Quoin over SU 80430 in WF 1081

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1081

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80401

Construction of WF 1080

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80402

Construction of WF 1080

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1080

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 1080

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of quoin in WF 1080

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 1082

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern quoin in WF 1082

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80396 80.1

80400 80.1

80403 80.1

8

8

8

80404 80405 80.1

8

80406 80407 80.1

8

Feature

654  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 1082

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1082

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80410

Construction of WF 1085

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80411

Construction of wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80412

Construction of WF 1088

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80413

Construction of WF 1088

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1088

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 1088

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1088

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80417

Quoin in WF 1090

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80418

Construction of WF 1112

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1112

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80420

Quoin in WF 1113

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80421

Fill of doorway in WF 1113

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80422

Quoin in WF 1113

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80423

Construction of WF 1113

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80424

Quoin in WF 1114

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80425

Construction of WF 1115

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80426

Quoin in WF 1116

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80427

Construction of doorway in WF 1118

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80428

Fill of doorway in WF 1118

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80429

Reconstruction of WF 1118

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80430

Quoin in WF 1120

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80431

Quoin over SU 80430 in WF 1120

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80432

Quoin in WF 1121

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80433

Quoin in WF 1122

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80434

Quoin over SU 80433 in WF 1122

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80435

Quoin in WF 1123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80436

Construction of WF 1123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80437

Quoin in WF 1123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80438

Quoin in WF 1124

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1124

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80000 80408 80409 80.1

80414 80.1

8

8

80415 80416 80.1

80419 80.1

80439 80.1

8

8

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   655 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

80000 80440 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80441 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of WF 1129

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Quoin in WF 1316

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Quoin in WF 1131

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1131

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80447

Construction of WF 1132

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80448

Quoin in WF 1132

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1132

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 1133

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80442 80443 80.none

99

80444 80445 80446 80.1

80449 80.1

8

8

80450 80451 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80452 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80453 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80454 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80455

Quoin in WF 1130

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80456

Fill of doorway in WF 1130

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Reconstruction of WF 1130

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80457 80.none

99

80458 80459 80.1

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1130

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80460 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80461 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80462

Quoin in WF 1159

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80463

Quoin in WF 1318

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80464

Quoin in WF 1319

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80465

Construction of WF 1160

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Reconstruction of WF 1160

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1160

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 1320

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1320

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 1321

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1321

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 1161

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80466 80467 80.1

8

80468 80469 80.1

8

80470 80471 80.1

80472

8

Feature

656  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

80000 80473 80.1

Type

SubType

Formation Category

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1161

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80474 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80475 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80476 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80477 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Reconstruction of WF 1164

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80479 80480 80.1

8

Modern consolidation of WF 1164

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80481 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80482 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80483 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Construction of WF 1166

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1166

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80484 80485 80.1

8

80486

Construction of WF 1167

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80487 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80488 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Quoin in WF 1169

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Quoin in WF 1169

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1169

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 1170

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1170

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80494

Quoin in WF 1171

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80495

Quoin in WF 1171

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1171

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80497

Construction of WF 1172

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80498

Construction of WF 1172

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1172

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80500

Quoin in WF 1175

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80501

Construction of WF 1175

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80502

Quoin in WF 1175

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80503

Quoin in WF 1176

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80504

Construction of WF 1176

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80505

Construction of WF 1174

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80506

Quoin in WF 1174

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80489 80490 80491 80.1

8

80492 80493 80.1

80496 80.1

80499 80.1

8

8

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   657 Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 1177

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80508

Quoin in WF 1251

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80509

Quoin in WF 1251

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80510

Quoin in WF 1251

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80000 80507

80511 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 1251

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80512 80.1

8

Modern address plaque

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80513

Construction of WF 1239

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80514

Quoin in WF 1239

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80515

Quoin in WF 1238

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80516

Construction of WF 1237

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80517

Quoin in WF 1237

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80518

Quoin in WF 1329

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80519

Quoin in WF 1328

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80520

Plaster on WF 1328

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80521

Quoin in WF 1235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Quoin in WF 1240

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1240

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 1331

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1331

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80526

Quoin in WF 1330

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80527

Plaster on WF 1330

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80528

Quoin in WF 1244

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80529

Quoin in WF 1245

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80530

Construction of WF 1245

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80531

Construction of WF 1246

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80532

Construction of WF 1247

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80533

Construction of WF 1248

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80534

Construction of WF 1249

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80535

Construction of WF 1250

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80536

Construction of WF 1254

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80537

Quoin in WF 1301

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80538

Quoin in WF 1095

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80522 80523 80.1

8

80524 80525 80.1

8

80539 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80540 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

80541

Construction of doorway in WF 348

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

80542

Blocks in WF 1326

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

658  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU

SubPhase Phase Short Description

80000 80543

SubType

Formation Category

Block in WF 1015

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80544 80.1

8

Modern reconstruction of quoin in WF 1013

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80545 80.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Quoin in WF 1304

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 1304

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80548

Reconstruction of WF 1140

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80549

Construction of WF 1140

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1140

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Plaster on WF 1140

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 1302

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80553

Fill of doorway in WF 1302

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

80554

Construction of WF 602

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80555

Plaster on WF 602

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

80556

Construction of WF 1253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80557

Reconstruction of WF 1253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 1235

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

80559

Quoin in WF 1253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80560

Construction of WF 1253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80561

Construction of WF 1253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80562

Reconstruction of WF 1253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Quoin in WF 1037

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 298

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81002

Blocks in WF 290

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81003

Construction of WF 291

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81004

Construction of WF 292

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81005

Blocks in WF 292

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81006

Construction of WF 293

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81007

Blocks in WF 293

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81008

Block in WF 294

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81009

Construction of WF 295

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81010

Quoin in WF 296

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81011

Construction of WF 297

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81012

Construction of WF 298

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81013

Construction of WF 299

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81014

Block in WF 300

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

80546 80547 80.1

80550 80.1

8

8

80551 80552 80.1

80558 80.1

8

8

80563 81000

Type

81001  

 

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   659 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern construction of WF 301

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81016

Construction of WF 302

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81017

Block in WF 302

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81018

Fill of doorway in WF 288

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81019

Fill of doorway in WF 288

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81020

Construction of WF 287

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81021

Construction of WF 286

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81022

Block in WF 285

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81023

Construction of WF 284

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81024

Construction of WF 283

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81025

Construction of WF 282

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81026

Construction of WF 282

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81027

Reconstruction of WF 281

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81028

Construction of WF 281

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81029

Construction of WF 280

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81030

Construction of WF 230

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81031

Block in WF 279

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 247

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81033

Construction of WF 247

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81034

Construction of WF 246

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81015 81.1

81032 81.1

8

8

81035 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 246

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81036 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 245

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81037 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 244

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81038

Construction of WF 242

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81039

Construction of WF 241

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 241

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 240

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 240

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81043

Construction of WF 239

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81044

Construction of WF 238

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81045

Construction of WF 237

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81040 81.1

8

81041 81042 81.1

8

Feature

660  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81046

Construction of WF 236

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81047

Reconstruction of WF 236

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81048

Construction of WF 234

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81049

Construction of WF 234

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81050 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 234

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81051 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 233

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 233

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 232

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81054

Construction of WF 232

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81055

Plaster on WF 232

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81056

Construction of WF 231

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81057

Construction of WF 231

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81058

Plaster on WF 231

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81059

Construction of WF 230

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81060

Construction of WF 230

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81061

Construction of WF 229

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81052 81053 81.1

8

81062

Construction of WF 175

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81064 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 175

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81065 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 175

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81066

Construction of WF 173

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81067

Construction of WF 171

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 171

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 170

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 170

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81068 81.1

8

81069 81070 81.1

8

81071

Construction of WF 169

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81072 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 169

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81073 81.1

8

Modern consolidation of WF 169

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 168

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 168

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81074 81075 81.1

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   661 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81076

Construction of WF 167

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81077

Construction of WF 166

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81078

Construction of WF 165

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81079

Construction of WF 164

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81080

Construction of WF 163

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 162

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 162

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81083

Construction of WF 161

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81084

Construction of WF 160

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81085

Construction of WF 157

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81086

Construction of WF 701

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81087

Construction of WF 702

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern brick in WF 90

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81089

Quoin in WF 90

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81090

Construction of WF 89

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81091

Downpipe in WF 89 (=SU 11036)

Structural Fixture Downpipe

Creation/Construction

81092

Construction of WF 89

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81093

Plaster on WF 89

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81094

Plaster on WF 89

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81095

Fill of doorway in WF 88

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81096

Plaster on WF 88

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81097

Plaster on WF 97

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81098

Construction of WF 88

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81099

Construction of WF 87

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81100

ancient quadratum threshold

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction

81101

Construction of WF 87

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81102

Reconstruction of WF 86

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81103

Construction of WF 86

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81104

Construction of WF 85

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81105

Quoin in WF 84

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 84

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81107

Construction of WF 83

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81108

Construction of WF 83

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 82

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 82

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 81

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81081 81082 81.1

81088 81.1

81106 81.1

8

8

8

81109 81110 81.1

81111

8

Feature

662  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Feature

81112 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 81

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81113 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 81

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81114 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 64

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 64

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 63

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81117

Construction of wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81118

Construction of WF 62

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81119

Plaster on WF 62

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81120

Construction of WF 4

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81121

Construction of WF 3

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81122

Construction of WF 2

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81123

Construction of WF 2

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81124

Fill of doorway in WF 2

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81125

Threshold in WF 2

Structural Fixture Threshold

Creation/Construction Threshold 29

81115 81116 81.1

8

81126 81.1

8

Modern consolidation of WF 2

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81127 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 1 Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81128

Construction of WF 1

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81129 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 65

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81130 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 65

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 65

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 66

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81133

Construction of WF 66

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81134

Block in WF 66

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 80

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81136

Construction of WF 80

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81137

Construction of WF 80

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81138

Block in WF 80

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81131 81132 81.1

81135 81.1

8

8

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   663 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

81139 81.1

8

81140

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern reconstruction of WF 80

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 67

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81141 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 67

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81142 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 67

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81143 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 67

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81144

Construction of WF 68

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81145 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 68

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81146 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 68

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81147 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 69

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81148

Construction of WF 69

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81149

Construction of WF 70

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81150

Block in WF 71

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81151

Construction of WF 72

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81152 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 72

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81153 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 72

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 73

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81154 81155 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 73

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81156 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 74

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 76

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 77

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 77

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81157 81158 81.1

8

81159 81160 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 78

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81161 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 79

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Feature

664  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81162

Construction of WF 317

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81163

Quoin in WF 318

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81164

Construction of WF 319

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81165

Construction of WF 172

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81166

Construction of four testaceum columns (WF 172)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81167

Construction of WF 203

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81168

Construction of WF 203

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81169

Construction of WF 211

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81170

Construction of WF 217

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81171

Construction of WF 217

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81172

Construction of WF 217

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81173

Construction of WF 277

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81174

Plaster on WF 277

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81175

Construction of WF 277

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81176

Construction of WF 278

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81203

Quoin in WF 53

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81204

Quoin in WF 55

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81205

Construction of WF 56

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81206

Construction of WF 57

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81207

Construction of WF 57

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81208

Construction of WF 58

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81209

Reconstruction of WF 58

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81210

Block in WF 59

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81211

Quoin in WF 60

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81212

Quoin in WF 61

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81213

Construction of WF 540

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81214

Construction of WF 516

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 515

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of Porta Stabia arch (WF 515)

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81217

Plaster on WF 515

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81218

Construction of WF 514

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of Porta Stabia arch (WF 514)

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81220

Plaster on WF 514

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81301

Construction of WF 360

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81302

Construction of WF 359

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81303

Construction of WF 357

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81304

Construction of WF 356

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81215 81216 81.1

81219 81.1

8

8

81305

Construction of WF 355

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81306

Construction of WF 354

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   665 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81307

Plaster on WF 354

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81308

Fill in niche in WF 354

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81309

Construction of WF 353

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81310

Construction of WF 351

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81311

Quoin in WF 349

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81312

Construction of WF 348

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81313

Construction of WF 347

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 347

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 347

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81316

Construction of WF 346

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81317

Plaster on WF 346

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81318

Fill of doorway in WF 346

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81319

Plaster on WF 346

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81320

Construction of WF 345

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81321

Plaster on WF 345

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81322

Construction of WF 344

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81323

Construction of WF 343

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81324

Construction of WF 342

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81325

Construction of WF 338

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81326

Fill of doorway in WF 338

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81327

Construction of WF 335

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81328

Construction of WF 334

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81329

Fill of doorway in WF 334

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81330

Construction of WF 339

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81314 81315 81.1

8

81331

Reconstruction of WF 339

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81332 81.1

8

Modern mortar on WF 339

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81333 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 333

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Reconstruction of WF 333

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 333

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81336

Block in WF 276

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81337

Block in WF 275

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81338

Block in WF 274

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81339

Quoin in WF 273

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81340

Quoin in WF 237

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81334 81335 81.1

8

Feature

666  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81341

Construction of WF 237

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81342

Plaster on WF 237

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81343

Fill of doorway in WF 272

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 272

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 271

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 271

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81347

Construction of WF 271

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81348

Reconstruction of WF 271

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81349

Construction of window in wall

Architecture

Window

Creation/Construction

81350

Plaster on WF 271

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81344 81.1

8

81345 81346 81.1

8

81351 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 271

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81352 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 270

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81353 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 270

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81354 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 269

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81355 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 269

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81356

Construction of WF 263

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81357

Quoin in WF 262

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81358

Construction of WF 262

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81359

Quoin in WF 256

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81360

Construction of WF 256

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81361

Construction of WF 255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81362

Construction of WF 255

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81363

Plaster on WF 255

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81364

Quoin in WF 254

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81365

Construction of WF 254

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81366

Reconstruction of WF 254

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81367

Construction of WF 253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81368

Reconstruction of WF 253

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81369

Construction of WF 252

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81370

Construction of WF 251

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81371

Construction of WF 250

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   667 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

81372 81373

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 249

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 248

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81374 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 339

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81375 81.1

8

Modern door frame in WF 339 Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81376 81.1

8

Modern window in WF 339

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81377 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 339

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81378 81.1

8

Modern door fill and window in WF 339

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81379 81.1

8

Modern window in WF 333

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81380 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 333

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81381

Construction of WF 228

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81382

Reconstruction of WF 228

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81383

Construction of WF 227

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81384

Reconstruction of WF 227

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81385

Reconstruction of WF 227

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81386

Construction of WF 226

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81387

Reconstruction of WF 226

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81388

Construction of WF 225

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81389

Construction of WF 224

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81390

Quoin in WF 223

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81391

Construction of WF 222

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81392

Construction of WF 221

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81393

Construction of WF 221

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81394

Construction of WF 220

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81395

Reconstruction of WF 220

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81396

Construction of WF 219

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81397

Construction of WF 218

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81398

Construction of WF 216

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81399

Construction of WF 215

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81400

Construction of WF 214

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81401

Construction of WF 214

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81402

Quoin in WF 212

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81403

Construction of WF 210

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

668  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81404

Fill in niche in WF 210

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81405

Construction of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81406

Reconstruction of WF 209

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81407

Fill of doorway in WF 209

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81408

Construction of WF 208

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81409

Quoin in WF 115

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81410

Fill of doorway in WF 115

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81411

Quoin in WF 114

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81412

Quoin in WF 113

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81413

Fill of doorway in WF 113

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81414

Quoin in WF 113

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81415

Construction of WF 112

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81416

Fill of doorway in WF 112

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 112

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81418

Construction of WF 111

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81419

Construction of WF 109

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81420

Fill of doorway in WF 109

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81421

Quoin in WF 108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81422

Plaster on doorway in WF 108 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81423

Fill of doorway in WF 108

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81424

Fill of doorway in WF 108

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81425

Plaster on doorway in WF 108 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81426

Construction of WF 108

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81427

Construction of WF 107; cut by SU 11183 for oven feature

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81428

Construction of WF 106

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81429

Construction of WF 104

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81430

Block in WF 104

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81431

Construction of WF 103

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 103

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern address plaque in WF 103

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81434

Quoin in WF 102

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81435

Quoin in WF 101

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81436

Construction of WF 100

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81417 81.1

8

81432 81433 81.1

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   669 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81437

Construction of WF 100

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81438

Construction of WF 99

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81439

Construction of WF 98

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81440

Quoin in WF 97

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81441

Construction of WF 96

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81442

Construction of WF 95

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81443

Construction of WF 94

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81444

Plaster on WF 94

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81445

Quoin in WF 93

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81446

Construction of WF 92

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81447

Plaster on WF 92

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81448

Quoin in WF 91

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81449

Plaster on WF 92 (?), abutted by WF 91

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81450

Plaster on WF 91

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81451

Plaster on niche in WF 91

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81452

Fill in niche in WF 91

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81453

Construction of WF 50

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81454

Reconstruction of WF 50

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81455

Construction of WF 49

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81456

Quoin in WF 48

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81457

Construction of WF 47

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81458

Construction of WF 46

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81459

Reconstruction of WF 46

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81460

Construction of WF 45

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81461

Fill of doorway in WF 45

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81462

Construction of WF 44

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81463

Construction of WF 44

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 44

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81465

Construction of WF 43

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81466

Quoin in WF 42

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81467

Construction of WF 41

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81468

Construction of WF 40

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81469

Construction of WF 39

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81470

Construction of WF 38

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81471

Quoin in WF 37

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 37

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 36

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81464 81.1

81472 81.1

81473

8

8

Feature

670  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern reconstruction of WF 36

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81475

Quoin in WF 35

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81476

Construction of WF 33

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81477

Quoin in WF 33

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81478

Construction of WF 31

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81479

Construction of WF 30

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81480

Construction of WF 29

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81481

Fill of doorway in WF 29

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81482

Construction of WF 28

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81483

Reconstruction of WF 28

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81484

Construction of WF 27

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81485

Quoin in WF 26

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81486

Construction of WF 25

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81487

Construction of WF 24

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81488

Quoin in WF 23

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81474 81.1

8

81489 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81490 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81491 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81492 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81493 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81494

Construction of WF 19

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81495

Construction of WF 19

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81496

Construction of WF 18

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81497

Plaster on WF 18

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81498

Plaster on WF 18

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81499

Plaster on WF 18

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81500 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81501 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81502 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81503

Quoin in WF 340

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81504

Construction of WF 13

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 13

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 12

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 12

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 12

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 12

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81505 81.1

8

81506 81507 81.1

8

81508 81509 81.1

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   671 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Quoin in WF 10

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 10

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 10

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 9

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 9

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81515

Construction of WF 8

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81516

Construction of WF 7

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81510 81511 81512 81.1

8

81513 81514 81.1

81517 81.none

8

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81518

Construction of WF 522

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81519

Inscribed stone in WF 522

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 522

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81521

Construction of WF 523

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81522

Construction of WF 523

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81523

Construction of gate wall

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81524

Plaster on WF 510

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81525

Plaster on WF 510

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 510

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81527

Quoin in Porta Stabia (WF 511)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81528

Plaster on WF 511

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern lintel and reconstruction of WF 511

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81530

Quoin in Porta Stabia (WF 512)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81531

Quoin in Porta Stabia (WF 513)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81532

Plaster on WF 513

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern lintel and reconstruction of WF 513

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81534

Construction of WF 517

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81535

Construction of WF 525

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81536

Construction of WF 527

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81537

Construction of WF 526

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81538

Construction of WF 529

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81539

Plaster on WF 529

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81540

Plaster on WF 529

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81520 81.1

81526 81.1

81529 81.1

81533 81.1

99

8

8

8

8

Feature

672  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern reconstruction of WF 529

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in Porta Stabia (WF 530)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern Porta Stabia plaque

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81544

Construction of WF 531

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81545

Plaster on WF 531

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 531

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 531

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 543

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 543

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81550

Construction of WF 543

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81551

Construction of WF 549

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81552

Quoin in WF 15

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81553

Construction of WF 15

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 15

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81555

Quoin in WF 15

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

81556

Quoin in WF 15

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81557

Quoin in WF 15

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81558

Construction of WF 15

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81559

Plaster on WF 15

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81560

Quoin in WF 17

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81561

Fill of doorway in WF 17

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81541 81.1

8

81542 81543 81.1

8

81546 81547 81.1

8

81548 81549 81.1

81554 81.1

8

8

81562 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 17

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81563 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81564 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81565 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81566

Construction of WF 34

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81567

Construction of WF 34

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81568 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 34

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81569 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 507

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 505

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81570

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   673 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81571

Fill of doorway in WF 505

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81572

Fill of window in WF 505

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81573

Fill of niche in WF 505

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81574

Plaster on niche in WF 505

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81575

Plaster on WF 505

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81576

Plaster on WF 505

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81577

Construction of WF 177

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81578 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 177

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81579 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81580 81.1

8

Modern consolidation of WF 5

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81581 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81582 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81583 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

81584

Construction of WF 503

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81585

Fill of doorway in WF 503

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

Modern lintel in WF 503

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81586 81.1

8

81587

Plaster on doorway in WF 503 Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81588

Fill of niche in WF 503

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81589

Plaster on niche in WF 503

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81590

Plaster on SU 81584 in WF 503

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81591

Plaster on fill SU 81588 of niche in WF 503

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81592

Construction of WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 235

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81593 81.1

8

81594

Reconstruction of SU 81595 in Architecture WF 235

Wall

Creation/Construction

81595

Construction of WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81596

Construction of WF 235

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81597

Reconstruction of SU 81598 in Architecture WF 105

Wall

Creation/Construction

81598

Construction of WF 105

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81600

Quoin in WF 463

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81601

Quoin in WF 462

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81602

Quoin in WF 461

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

674  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81603

Quoin in WF 455

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81604

Quoin in WF 454

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81605

Construction of WF 454

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81606

Quoin in WF 456

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81607

Construction of WF 456

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81608

Quoin in WF 447

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81609

Quoin in WF 453

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81610

Quoin in WF 451

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81611

Construction of WF 452

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81612

Quoin in WF 459

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81613

Blocks in WF 459

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81615

Quoin in WF 446

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81616

Construction of WF 446

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81617

Quoin in WF 445

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81618

Construction of WF 445

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81619

Construction of WF 444

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81620

Construction of WF 443

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81621

Construction of WF 441

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81622

Quoin in WF 440

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81623

Block in WF 440

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81624

Construction of WF 440

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81614 81.1

8

81625

Construction of WF 440

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81626 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 439

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81627 81.1

8

Modern quoin in WF 438

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81628 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 438

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81629

Quoin in WF 437

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81630

Construction of WF 436

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81631

Construction of WF 436

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81632

Construction of WF 436

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81633

Construction of WF 435

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81634

Construction of WF 435

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81635

Construction of WF 434

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81636

Construction of WF 434

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81637

Construction of WF 433

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81638

Construction of WF 432

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81639

Construction of WF 452

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   675 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81640

Quoin in WF 431

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81641

Quoin in WF 430

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81642

Block in WF 430

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81643

Construction of WF 430

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81644

Block in WF 439

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81645

Construction of WF 429

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81646

Construction of WF 428

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81647

Quoin in WF 427

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81648

Quoin in WF 427

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81649

Quoin in WF 426

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81650

Quoin in WF 426

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81651

Quoin in WF 465

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81652

Construction of WF 465

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81653

Quoin in WF 466

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81654

Quoin in WF 466

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

81655

Quoin in WF 467

Architecture

Doorway

Creation/Construction

81656

Quoin in WF 467

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81657

Construction of WF 468

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81658

Construction of WF 469

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81659

Construction of WF 474

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81660 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 436

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81661 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 437

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81662 81.none

99

CANCELED

Miscellaneous

Canceled

Research Process

Blocks in WF 472

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 472

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 473

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81663 81664 81.1

8

81665 81666 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 463

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81667 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 463

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81668

Reconstruction of WF 463

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81669

Construction of WF 463

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81670 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 462

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81671 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 462

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 462

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81672

Feature

676  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

81673

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 462

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81674 81.1

8

Modern construction of WF 461

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81675 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 461

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81676

Reconstruction of WF 461

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81677

Construction of WF 461

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81678

Block in WF 476

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81679

Construction of WF 476

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81680

Block in WF 477

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81681

Block in WF 478

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81682

Construction of WF 478

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81683

Construction of WF 479

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81684

Construction of WF 480

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81685

Block in WF 480

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81686

Block in WF 481

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81687

Construction of WF 481

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81688

Construction of WF 482

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81689

Construction of WF 486

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81690

Block in WF 486

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81691

Construction of WF 487

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81692

Construction of WF 488

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81693

Construction of WF 491

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81694

Block in WF 493

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81695

Block in WF 491

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81696

Construction of WF 491

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81697

Construction of WF 492

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81698

Block in WF 492

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern construction of WF 497

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 497

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 498

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 423

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 423

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 424

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 424

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 425

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81699 81.1

8

81700 81701 81702 81.1

8

81703 81704 81.1

8

81705 81706 81.1

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   677 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 425

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Block in WF 425

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81710

Plaster on WF 422

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81711

Construction of WF 422

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 422

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81713

Construction of WF 703

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81714

Construction of WF 703

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81715

Construction of WF 421

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81716

Block in WF 421

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81717

Construction of WF 421

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 421

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81719

Construction of WF 421

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81720

Construction of WF 420

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81721

Construction of WF 420

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81722

Construction of WF 419

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81723

Construction of WF 418

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81724

Construction of WF 418

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81725

Construction of WF 417

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81726

Block in WF 417

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 417

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 417

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81729

Construction of WF 417

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81730

Construction of WF 416

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81731

Blocks in WF 416

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 416

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 416

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81734

Construction of WF 415

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81735

Plaster on WF 414

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81736

Construction of WF 414

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81737

Construction of WF 414

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81738

Block in WF 413

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81739

Construction of WF 413

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81740

Construction of WF 411

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81741

Construction of WF 412

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81707 81708 81709 81.1

81712 81.1

81718 81.1

8

8

8

81727 81728 81.1

8

81732 81733 81.1

8

Feature

678  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern reconstruction of WF 412

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 409

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 408

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 408

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81746

Construction of WF 408

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81747

Plaster on WF 407

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81748

Construction of WF 407

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81749

Construction of WF 406

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81750

Construction of WF 405

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81751

Construction of WF 404

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 404

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81753

Construction of WF 394

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81754

Plaster on WF 394

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81755

Construction of WF 394

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81756

Construction of WF 393

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81757

Construction of WF 392

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81758

Construction of WF 391

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81759

Construction of WF 390

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81760

Construction of WF 389

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81761

Construction of WF 388

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81762

Construction of WF 387

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81763

Construction of WF 386

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81764

Construction of WF 385

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81765

Construction of WF 384

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81766

Construction of WF 383

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81767

Construction of WF 382

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81768

Construction of WF 381

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81769

Construction of WF 381

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81770

Construction of WF 380

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81771

Construction of WF 379

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81772

Construction of WF 379

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81773

Construction of WF 378

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81774

Construction of WF 377

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81775

Construction of WF 376

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81776

Construction of WF 375

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81777

Construction of WF 374

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 374

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81742 81.1

8

81743 81744 81745 81.1

81752 81.1

81778 81.1

8

8

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   679 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 373

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 373

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81781

Construction of WF 372

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81782

Construction of WF 371

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81783

Construction of WF 370

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81784

Construction of WF 369

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 368

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 367

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 367

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 366

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 366

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 365

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 365

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 365

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 365

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 364

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 364

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Quoin in WF 363

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81779 81780 81.1

81785 81.1

8

8

81786 81787 81.1

8

81788 81789 81.1

8

81790 81791 81.1

8

81792 81793 81.1

8

81794 81795 81.1

8

81796 81797 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 363

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81798 81.1

8

Construction of WF 362

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81799 81.1

8

Construction of WF 361

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81800

Construction of WF 331

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81801

Construction of WF 331

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81802

Construction of WF 331

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81803

Construction of WF 332

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81804

Construction of WF 330

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81805

Construction of WF 329

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81806

Construction of WF 329

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81807

Construction of WF 329

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

680  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern reconstruction of WF 328

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81809

Construction of WF 327

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81810

Construction of WF 326

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81811

Construction of WF 326

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81812

Construction of WF 324

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81813

Construction of WF 324

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81814

Construction of WF 323

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81815

Construction of WF 322

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81816

Construction of WF 321

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81817

Construction of WF 316

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81818

Construction of WF 315

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81819

Plaster on WF 315

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 315

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 313

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 313

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 311

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81808 81.1

81820 81.1

8

8

81821 81822 81.1

8

81823 81824 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 308

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81825 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 310

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81826

Construction of WF 310

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81827

Plaster on WF 310

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81828

Construction of WF 309

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81829 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 309

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81830 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 307

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81831

Construction of WF 306

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81832

Fill of doorway in WF 306

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81833

Construction of WF 306

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81834

Quoin in WF 306

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81835

Cut for niche in WF 306

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

81836

Plaster in niche in WF 306

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81837

Fill in niche in WF 306

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81838

Construction of WF 305

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   681 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81839

Quoin in WF 304

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81840

Construction of WF 303

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81841

Construction of WF 202

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81842

Quoin in WF 201

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81843

Construction of WF 200

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81844

Block in WF 194

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81845

Block in WF 193

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81846

Block in WF 192

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81847

Block in WF 191

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81848

Construction of WF 199; back wall of a hearth (with SU 12403, 12404, 12405, 81850)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 199

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81850

Construction of WF 199; back wall of a hearth (with SU 12403, 12404, 12405, 81848)

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81851

Construction of WF 198; side Architecture wall of a hearth (see SU 12403)

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 198

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 197; side wall of a hearth

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 197

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 196; side wall of a hearth

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 196

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 196

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81858

Construction of WF 195

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81859

Construction of window frame in WF 195

Architecture

Window

Creation/Construction

81860

Fill in window SU 81859 in WF 195

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81861

Plaster on WF 195

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 195

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81863

Construction of WF 207

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81864

Construction of WF 207

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81865

Plaster on WF 207

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81866

Quoin in WF 206

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81867

Plaster on WF 206

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81849 81.1

81852 81.1

8

8

81853 81854 81.1

8

81855 81856 81857 81.1

81862 81.1

8

8

Feature

682  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81868

Quoin in WF 190

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81869

Quoin in WF 189

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81870

Quoin in WF 188

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81871

Plaster on WF 188

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81872

Construction of WF 176

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 176

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 151

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 151

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81876

Construction of WF 150

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81877

Construction of WF 151

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 151

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 157

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 157

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 156

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 156

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 158

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 158

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81885

Quoin in WF 155

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81886

Construction of WF 154

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81873 81.1

8

81874 81875 81.1

81878 81.1

8

8

81879 81880 81.1

8

81881 81882 81.1

8

81883 81884 81.1

8

81887 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 154

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81888 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 154

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81889

Construction of WF 150

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81890

Quoin in WF 149

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81891

Construction of WF 148

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81892

Construction of WF 147

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 147

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81894

Construction of WF 146

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81895

Construction of WF 142

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81896

Construction of WF 142

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81893 81.1

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   683 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Modern reconstruction of WF 142

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81898

Construction of WF 142

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81899

Construction of WF 143

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81900

Quoin in WF 144

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81901

Construction of WF 145

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81902

Construction of WF 140

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81903

Construction of WF 139

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81904

Plaster on WF 139

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 139

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81906

Construction of WF 138

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81907

Plaster on WF 138

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 138

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81909

Construction of WF 137

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81910

Plaster on WF 137

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81911

Fill of doorway in WF 137

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81912

Plaster on niche in WF 137

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 137

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81914

Construction of WF 136

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81915

Plaster on blocks in WF 136

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81916

Construction of WF 134

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81917

Construction of WF 133

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81918

Cut for downpipe in WF 133

Architecture

Cut for Wall Feature

Creation/Construction

81919

Quoin in WF 132

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81920

Quoin in WF 131

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81921

Construction of WF 506

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81922

Construction of WF 504

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81923

Plaster on WF 504

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81897 81.1

81905 81.1

81908 81.1

81913 81.1

8

8

8

8

81924

Construction of WF 502

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81925 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 502

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81926 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 501

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

Construction of WF 500

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 500

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81927 81928 81.1

8

Feature

684  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 128

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 128

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81931

Construction of window frame in WF 128

Architecture

Window

Creation/Construction

81932

Construction of WF 127

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81933

Construction of WF 126

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81934

Plaster on WF 126

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81935

Construction of WF 125

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 125

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81937

Construction of WF 125

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81938

Construction of WF 124

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81939

Construction of WF 124

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81940

Indentation in WF 124

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81941

Construction of WF 118

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 118

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 118

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81944

Construction of WF 117

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81945

Plaster on WF 117

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81946

Plaster on WF 117

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Plaster on WF 117

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 117

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81949

Plaster on WF 118

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81950

Construction of WF 116

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81951

Fill of doorway in WF 116

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 116

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81953

Construction of WF 704

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81954

Construction of WF 496

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81955

Construction of WF 496

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of WF 496

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81957

Construction of WF 350

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81958

Construction of WF 518

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81959

Construction of WF 524

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81960

Construction of WF 544

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81929 81930 81.1

81936 81.1

8

8

81942 81943 81.1

8

81947 81948 81.1

81952 81.1

81956 81.1

8

8

8

Feature

T h e Con t e xt s  ·   685 Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

81961

Plastered surface of upper niche in wall (=SU 14412)

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

81962

Cut for lower niche in wall (=SU 14413)

Structural Fixture Religious Structure

Creation/Construction

81963

Construction of WF 460

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81964

Construction of WF 460

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81965

Construction of WF 460

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81966

Blocks in WF 460

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81967

Construction of WF 460

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81968 81.1

8

Likely modern construction of WF 460

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81969 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 460

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81970 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 460

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81971 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 460

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81972

Construction of WF 1089

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81973

Construction of WF 1119

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81974

Construction of WF 1119

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81975

Plaster on blocks in WF 1119

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81976

Fill of doorway in WF 1119

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81977

Construction of WF 399

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81978

Construction of WF 464

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81979

Construction of WF 464

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81980

Construction of WF 464

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81981 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of quoin in WF 464

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81982 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of quoin in WF 464

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81983 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 464

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81984 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 464

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81985 81.1

8

Modern reconstruction of WF 464

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81986

Reconstruction of SU 81987 in Architecture WF 130

Wall

Creation/Construction

81987

Construction of WF 130

Wall

Creation/Construction

Architecture

Feature

686  ·   the P orta S tab i a N e i gh b or h o od at P o m pe i i Trench SU 81000

SubPhase Phase Short Description

Type

SubType

Formation Category

Construction of WF 75

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern reconstruction of quoin in WF 75

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81990

Construction of WF 123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81991

Reconstruction of WF 123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81992

Fill in niche in WF 123

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

81993

Plaster on niche in WF 123

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81994

Construction of WF 123

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

81995

Plaster on WF 123

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81996

Plaster on WF 123

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81997

Plaster on WF 123

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

81998

Quoin in WF 2

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Construction of WF 122

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

Reconstruction of SU 82001 in Architecture WF 122

Wall

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 112

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

82004

Fill in doorway in WF 122

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

82005

Construction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

82006

Fill in window in WF 187

Architecture

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

Modern consolidation of WF 187

Architecture

Modern Reconstruction – Architecture

Modern Activity

81988 81989 81.1

82000 82001  

8

 

82002 82003 82.1

82007 82.1

8

8

82008

Reconstruction of SU 82005 in Architecture WF 187

Wall

Creation/Construction

82009

Fill of doorway in WF 187

Blocking of Architectural Feature

Creation/Construction

82010

Reconstruction of SU 82011 in Architecture WF 187

Wall

Creation/Construction

82011

Construction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

82012

Construction of WF 187

Architecture

Wall

Creation/Construction

82013

Plaster on WF 122

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

82014

Plaster on WF 187

Architecture

Plaster Facing on Wall

Creation/Construction

Architecture

98000 98888 98.none

99

Stray finds from VIII.7

Miscellaneous

Stray Finds

Research Process

99000 99999 99.none

99

Stray finds from I.1

Miscellaneous

Stray Finds

Research Process

Feature

c h a pt e r 21

The Harris Matrices

The Porta Stabia Neighborhood at Pompeii, Volume 1: Structure, Stratigraphy, and Space. Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus, Oxford University Press. © Steven J. R. Ellis, Allison L. C. Emmerson, and Kevin D. Dicus 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192866943.003.0021

POMPEII ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROJECT: PORTA STABIA SITE PHASE VIII.7.13–15

7A 6

VIII.7.9–11

8.4

27.7

9.5

18.6

8.3

27.6

9.4

18.5

29.6

20.3

8.2

28.3

27.5

9.3

9.2A

1B 1A

I.1.1–1a

I.1.2

I.1.3–5

I.1.6–9

3.5

7.5

23.4

12.6

17.6

23.3

12.5

17.5B

16.5

25.6

11.7

24.7

25.5

11.6

24.6

5.3

1.5B

4.4

15.3

22.3

18.4

29.5

19.2

3.4

15.2

13.3

2.3

3.3

7.4

23.2

12.4

17.5A

22.2

17.4C

22.1

16.4

30.1

25.4

11.5

21.4

24.5

5.2

6.3

1.5A

4.3

1.4

4.2

10.5

50.8

57.5

53.6

57.4

53.5

57.3

53.4

14.6

50.7

54.8

55.8

58.5

59.7

50.6

54.7

58.4

50.5

54.6

58.3

60.2

55.7

52.9

56.8

56.7

59.6

51.6

55.6

52.8

60.1

56.6

20.2

8.1

28.2

7.3

19.1

27.4

18.3

27.3

18.2

29.4

2.2

15.1

13.2

2.1

7.2

3.2

23.1

12.3B

16.3C

59.5

51.5

55.5

52.7

56.5

12.3A

17.4B

16.3B

12.2

17.4A

16.3A

25.3

11.4

21.3

59.4

51.4

55.4

52.6

56.4

11.3

21.2

24.4

5.1B

1.3

4.1

10.4

14.5

53.3

50.4

54.5

58.2

59.3

51.3

55.3

52.5

56.3

55.2B

52.4

51.2

55.2A

52.3

51.1

55.1B

52.2

55.1A

52.1

80 BCE

3B

1C

Porta Stabia

1 CE

4B

2

2.4

19.3

9.2B

3A

VIII.7.1–4

35 CE

4C 4A

VIII.7.5–6

62 CE

5B 5A

VIII.7.7–8 2.5

VIA STABIANA

7B

VIII.7.12

79 CE

20.1

28.1

27.2

26.1

9.1

18.1

50.3

25.2B

29.3

13.1

3.1

7.1

12.1

17.3

16.2

25.2A

16.1

25.1

11.2

21.1

24.3

5.1A

6.2

1.2

10.3

14.4

10.2

14.3

10.1

14.2

57.2

53.2

50.2

59.2

54.4

58.1

59.1

125 BCE 29.2

17.2

29.1

17.1B

11.1

24.2

6.1

53.1

54.3

56.2

250 BCE 27.1

24.1B

1.1

50.1B

54.2

400 BCE 24.1A

50.1A

500 BCE 17.1A 600 BCE

INSULA VIII.7

14.1

57.1

54.1

INSULA I.1

56.1

t h e h a rri s m atr ic es   ·   689

TRENCH 1000

HARRIS MATRIX

7.A

1057

1059

1060

1062

1061

1520

690  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 2000

HARRIS MATRIX 2508

7B 2.5

7A

2512 2513

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·   691

TRENCH 3000 7A 3.5

HARRIS MATRIX 3051

3052

3030 3032 3035

692  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 4000

HARRIS MATRIX

7A 4.4

4021

5B 4.3

4015

1076

4013

4003

4012

4032

5A 4.2 4022

4020

4018 3A 4.1

4014

4019

4031

4011 4010

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·  693

TRENCH 5000

HARRIS MATRIX

5043

7A

5058

694  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 6000

HARRIS MATRIX

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·  695

TRENCH 7000 7A 7.5

5A 7.4

4C 7.3

4B 7.2

3A 7.1

7.0

HARRIS MATRIX

696  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 8000

HARRIS MATRIX

7A 8.4

8.3

5A 8.2

4A 8.1

8032

t h e h a rri s m atr ic es   ·   697

TRENCH 9000 7A 9.5

HARRIS MATRIX

698  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 10000 & 14000 HARRIS MATRIX

7A 10.6 14.7

14426

14412

3A

14415 14414

14413

14233

14233

14411

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·  699

TRENCH 11000 HARRIS MATRIX 11022

7A

11051 11056

11052

11106

11.0

700  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 12000 HARRIS MATRIX 12137

7A 12.6

12181

14233

12182

12072

12071

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·   701

TRENCH 13000 HARRIS MATRIX

702  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 15000 HARRIS MATRIX

15.3

15013

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·   703

TRENCH 16000 HARRIS MATRIX

16551

16555

16057

704  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 17000 HARRIS MATRIX 7A 17.6

17030

4C 17.4c 17104 4B 17.4b

17103

17102

17066

17090

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es  ·   705

TRENCH 18000 HARRIS MATRIX

706  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 19000 HARRIS MATRIX

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·   707

TRENCH 20000 HARRIS MATRIX

5A 20.3

708  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 21000 HARRIS MATRIX

4B 21.3

4A 21.2

3A 21.1

t h e h a rri s m atr ic es   ·   709

TRENCH 22000 HARRIS MATRIX

6 22.3

22001

16301

22002

16302

22013

22008

22003

5A 22.2

16303

22010

16023

16024

22019

22009

22004

16304

22007

16307

4C 22.1 22016

16016

22005

16026

22018

22015

22017 17022

22006

16306

16305 22012

17042

710  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 23000 HARRIS MATRIX

7A 23.4

23003

23005

6 23.3

17057

12129

23002

23004

17046

17055

23007

23008

23009

23006

12162

23010

23011

5A 23.2 23013

23014

23015

23021

23012

23023 23024

4C 23.1

23020

23019

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·  711

TRENCH 24000 HARRIS MATRIX

7A 24.7 24109

24108

24004

1B 24.1a

712  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 25000 HARRIS MATRIX

25529

7A

25528

25524

25525

25531

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·   713

TRENCH 26000 HARRIS MATRIX

26003

3A 26.1

26004

26006

26.0

26005

714  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 27000 HARRIS MATRIX 27057 27056 27055 27054

27130

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es  ·   715

TRENCH 28000 HARRIS MATRIX

28066 28031

716  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 29000 HARRIS MATRIX

7 29.6

6 5B

29.5

4C 4B

29507

29.3

2 29.2

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·  717

TRENCH 30000 HARRIS MATRIX

30001

30007

5A 30.1 30013

30008

30009

30010

30011

718  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 50000 HARRIS MATRIX 50030 7B 50.8

50041 50058

7A 50.7

50033

50133 50132

50029

50069

50.0

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·   719

TRENCH 51000 HARRIS MATRIX

5a 51.6

4c 51.5

4b 51.4

4a 51.3

3a 51.2

1c 51.1

51.0

51027

720  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 52000 HARRIS MATRIX

52.9

5a 52.8

4c 52.7

4b 52.6

52509

4a 52.5

3b 52.4 52032

3a 52.3

52109 1c 52.2

1a 52.1 52.0

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·  721

TRENCH 53000 HARRIS MATRIX 53075 53009 7a 53.6

53.0

722  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 54000 HARRIS MATRIX 7A 54.8

1A 54.1

54.0

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·  723

TRENCH 55000 HARRIS MATRIX 7A 55.8

55.0

55057

724  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 56000 HARRIS MATRIX

7

7A 56.8

56019

56020

56023

6

56129

56013 56015

2

2 56.2

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·  725

TRENCH 57000 HARRIS MATRIX 7A 57.5

57.4 57132

5B 57.3

3A 57.2

1A 57.1

57.0

726  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 58000 HARRIS MATRIX

7A 58.5

5B 58.4

5A 58.3 58079

4A 58.2

3A 58.1

58.0

t h e h a rri s m at r ic es   ·  727

TRENCH 59000 HARRIS MATRIX

728  ·   the p orta stab i a n e i gh b or h o od at p o m pe i i

TRENCH 60000 HARRIS MATRIX

7A 60.2

60042 60043

5A 60.1

B IB L I O GR A PH Y

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For the benefit of digital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52–53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages. abandonment of Pompeii  44n14 American Academy, Rome  23–4 Ann Arbor  23–4 Archaeological Prospection Services of Southampton (APSS)  60–2 architecture  26, 70–89, 101 detected by GPR  62–3 facades 70 masonry 70 research methods  72–5 archival information  26–7 different names and terminology  47 locating evidence  48–51 reading 51–3 artifacts distribution 29–30 reading the records  51–4 recovery and processing  26 “unrecorded” 53n57 ashlar blocks  70, 88, 126–7, 184–5, 309–10 Augustus 200 Bacchus paintings  53 Bar Counter 1  81, 177, 234–7, 283 blocking Entrance 1a  238 Phase 5b  136–8 Bar Counter 2  81, 178, 234, 240, 283 Phase 5b  237–8 Phase 7  264 Bar Counter 3  76–7, 227, 230, 287–8 Bar Counter 4  81, 218–19, 290 development 217 shape  255–9, 290 bar counters  281–3 masonry 81 shape 83n61 Barone, P. M.  68–9 bars  75, 78–81, 201 bells 51n51 bibliographic sources  48–51 bioarchaeological material, recording practices 26 Bowes, Kim  3n2 British School at Rome (BSR)  60–2 buildings 75–83 construction with mortar  95 decorative features  88–9 materials 84 multiple stories  70

Phase 1  103–6 urban development  91 Bullettino dell’Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica (BdI) 48–51 Caecilius Iucundus/Jucundus  206n6, 325–6 Carraro, Sara  23–4 Casa dei Vettii  68–9 Casa del Citarista  77 Casa del Fauno  80 Casa del Menandro  77 Casa dell’Atrio a Mosaico, Herculaneum  67–8 Casa delle Vestali (VI.1.26)  77n33 Casa di Centauro  68–9 Casa di Obellio Firmo  68–9 Casa di Pansa  88n92 Central Baths  88n92 ceramics 116–18 black gloss  116–18, 134, 143–4, 287, 295 bucchero 104 classification 34 database 37 pipes 206–7 production  121–4, 139–45, 176, 281–3, 295, 350–1 in the public well  147 roofing tiles  85 storage vessels  227, 237–8 cesspits 77–8 see also Waste Feature # chambers  121, 134, 139–43, 211, 338–41 chronologies, relative and absolute  74–5 chronology see Phases; phasing practices Cinque, A.  97 Cistern 1  219, 241, 291–3 Cistern 3  190–2, 196–7, 206–11, 274–8, 280, 295, 300–3 Cistern 4  62, 171, 174, 200–3 Cistern 5  169, 211–13, 246–9, 298 Cistern 6  190n18, 196–7, 210–11, 246–8, 295, 298 Cistern 7  131–3, 150, 170, 223, 274, 280, 295–8 Cistern 8  110, 161–3, 184, 186–7, 193–4, 227, 287–8 Cistern 9  195, 228–9 Cistern 10  219n17 cisterns 62 evidence from GPR survey  63, 67–9 in the Quadriporticus  156–9, 232 rectangular mouthed  184 water directed from roofs  243–4

Coarelli, Filippo  6 coins  23–4, 204, 267 distribution  55, 348 historical finds  44n18 in the Hospitium Hermetis 53n56 ritual deposit  237 from sidewalk fills  324 used in construction  5, 32, 347 colluviation 95–7 colonnades 79–80 communication, interdisciplinary  23–4 contextualization 5–6 micro 29–30 cooking equipment  179 cooking facilities  78–9, 82, 271–4, 352 Cooking Facility 1  271, 273–4, 297–8 Cooking Facility 2  225 Cooking Facility 4  207–8, 210 Cooking Facility 5  208–9, 241–2, 244, 303 Cooking Facility 6  213, 215, 303 Cooking Facility 7  235–7 Cooking Facility 8  238–40, 283 Cooking Facility 9  187, 229, 231, 253–4, 287–8 Cooking Facility 11  217, 267 Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL) 48–51 data ground-penetrating radar (GPR)  62 recording practices  23, 26–7 database for analysis  31–2 data model  32–7 in the field  31 user interface  37–40 dating practices  27–9 decorative features  88–9 Della Corte, Matteo  44 Descrizione di Pompei (Fiorelli)  48–51 diary recording  27 digital data  31 Discanno, Geremia  56, 53n59 Domus del Centenario  68–9 Doorstop 1  212–13, 249–51, 254, 303 Doorstop 2  249–51, 254 Doorstop 3  184, 186, 193–4, 227, 229 Doorstop 4  193n19, 229, 227 Doorstop 5  214 Doorstop 6  237, 239

746 ·  in dex doorways of bars  80–1 to shops  82 drains  113, 189–90, 311, 353 see also soak-aways alterations 209 Drain 1  149, 232–4, 236, 242, 310, 315, 330–2, 335 Drain 3  63–7, 221, 268–70 Drain 4  170 Drain 5  221–2, 246 Drain 6  196–7, 210–11, 223, 295 Drain 7  197, 210–11 Drain 8  190–2, 196–7, 206–7, 295 Drain 9  206–7, 210–11, 295 Drain 10  211, 248–9, 251–2, 298 Drain 11  211, 248–9, 251–2, 298 Drain 13  190–2, 196–8, 205–6 Drain 14  196–8, 205–6 Drain 15  173 Drain 16  205–7 Drain 17  197–8, 205–7, 235, 300–3, 349 Drain 18  204 Drain 21  150, 153, 172, 298 Drain 22  172, 212–13, 299 Drain 23  212–13, 303 Drain 24  249–51, 255, 275, 303–5 Drain 25  63, 66, 156–9, 232–4, 305 Drain 26  251–2, 305 Drain 27  150–2, 155–6 Drain 28  251, 276, 305 Drain 29  251, 305 Drain 30  63, 66, 232–4 Drain 31  263 Drain 33  214, 216, 235, 237 Drain 34  234 Drain 36  187 Drain 37  151–2 Drain 38  187 Drain 39  195, 228–9 Drain 40  217 Drain 41  217–20, 255–9 evidence from GPR survey  63–7 Phase 5  329–32 in Property VIII.7.12  249–51 in Property VIII.7.13–15  251–2 in Property VIII.7.7–8  246–9 sluice drains  162–3 street drainage  242–4 Early Imperial Period see Phase 5 Ellis, Steven  3, 32, 68–9 “Escher Problems”  74–5 excavations 6 history 42–8 methods 23–30 facades 70 Fairbairn, Andrew  26 faunal remains  23–4 recording practices  26 field recording  27 database 31

finds reading the records  51–4 recovery and processing  26 “unrecorded” 53n57 Fiorelli, Giuseppe  42–4, 48, 56–9 Fish-Salting Vat 1  166–71, 190, 197–8, 210–12, 295, 298 Fish-Salting Vat 2  166–7, 170–1, 173–4, 192–3, 200–4, 299, 303 Fish-Salting Vat 3  166–7, 171, 174, 192–3, 200, 204, 299, 303 Fish-Salting Vat 4  166–7, 171–2, 175, 192, 212–13, 299, 303 Fish-Salting Vat 5  63, 65, 106, 109–10, 136–8, 166–7, 173–9, 183, 213–14, 216, 221–2, 283 Fish-Salting Vat 6  104, 107–10, 166–7, 173–9, 213–14, 221–2, 283 Fish-Salting Vat 7  165–7, 180–1, 188–9, 290 Fish-Salting Vat 8  166–7, 188–9, 217, 290 Fish-Salting Vat 9  124–6, 178, 166–7, 167n8 fish-salting vats  5–6, 8, 104, 200, 351–2 abandonment 234 development 200–19 early indications  121–6 evidence from GPR survey  63, 65 largest 281–3 Phase 4  155 Forum Baths  85 Garden of Hercules  80 gardens, attached to restaurants  80 geomorphology 91 lava 91–3 Mercato ash  93–5 soil development  95–7 geophysical prospection  61–2 Giornale degli Scavi di Pompei (published: GdS NS)  48–51 Giornale degli Scavi di Pompei (unpublished: GdS UP)  48–51 “Gli Scavi di Pompei dal 1873 al 1878” (Viola) 48 “Golden Age” of Pompeii  200 graffiti 89 Grande Progetto Pompei 68–9 gray ash  96 road surfaces  107–15, 118, 127, 318–19 ground-penetrating radar (GPR) survey  60–9 architecture 62–3 benefits 67–9 evidence of production  63 evidence of retail  63–7 Guzzo, Pier Giovanni  3 Hackert, Jacob  44 Halsted B. Vander Poel Campanian Collection Archive 48 Harris Matrix  8–9, 24 and phasing practices  28 Hermes 89 history of excavations  42–8

Holder, Paul  56–9 horse related finds  59, 267 Hospitium Hermetis  47, 53n56, 56, 89 House of Caecilius Iucundus (V.1.22–7)  206n6, 325–6 House of Menander  90–1 House of Sallust  88n88 House of the Gladiators (V.5.3)  96, 104, 119 hydraulic plaster  134, 156–9, 162–3, 167, 170–3, 187, 197 preserved 189 identifiers 37 Imperatore, Catello  103–5 inns  75–8, 201 inscriptions, distribution  52, 53n59 Insula I.1  9–14, 18–21 1879 map  45 excavated trenches  25 GPR survey  60, 62 Phase 5  202 public well  182–3 retail, bars, restaurants and inns  75 Insula I.2, lava  93 Insula I.4  103–5, 127 Insula I.5  93, 145, 314–15 Insula I.9 6 Insula IX.3  6 Insula IX.7  6 Insula of the Casti Amanti  97 Insula of the Menander (I.10)  6 Insula V.1 6 Insula VI.1  6 Insula VI.4  70n7 Insula VIII.7  9–14, 18–21 1879 map  45 excavated trenches  25 GPR survey  60, 62 lava cliff   92 Phase 5  202 properties 26 retail, bars, restaurants and inns  75 inventory numbers  48 iron  173, 220–1 Isthmia, study  72 “Isthmia Engine”  72–3 Jashemski, W. M. F.  80 journals 27 kilns  121–4, 139–45, 262–3, 347 La Vega, Francesco  42–4 lapilli 93–5 lararia  53, 56, 89, 264, 267, 285 latrines see Waste Feature # lava 91–3 bedrock  110, 112–14, 118, 133–4, 163–5, 288 quarrying 93 lava stone  84n65

in dex  ·  747 leucite 91 leveling fills  32, 70n6, 133, 150–1, 203–4 see also Stratigraphic Units (SUs) covering walls  172–3 Mercato ash  107–9 nondiagnostic finds within  110 in Property I.1.1/10  263–4 in Property I.1.1–2  176–7, 179, 214–17, 234, 237–8, 252 in Property I.1.3–5  184–7, 194–5, 227–9 in Property I.1.6–9  188–9, 217, 254–9 in Property VIII.7.1–4  181–2, 219, 221, 241, 267–8 in Property VIII.7.5–6  221–3, 271 in Property VIII.7.7–8  211, 246–8 in Property VIII.7.9–11  203–6 in Property VIII.7.12  198 in Property VIII.7.13–15  226, 251–2, 305 public well  182–3 on road surfaces  318–19 on sidewalk surfaces  127 for tanks  134 in trenches  112–13, 118, 129n2 votive cups found within  211 lime pit  47 limestone period  104–5 Ling, Roger  6 MacKinnon, Michael  23–4, 26 Maiuri, Amedeo  313–16, 318–19, 326–7 manger areas  77 marble table  51n47 Marcus Surus Garasenus, military diploma  56–9, 82 marine deposits  97 Martin, Archer  23–4 Marturano, A.  97 masonry  82–3, 173, 180, 223–5, 227, 251, 269, 276, 305, 313–15 aesthetic effects  321–2 analysis 72–3 around a tomb  335 ashlar  126–7, 309–10, 315 bar counters  81, 136–8, 217, 234–7, 239–41, 281–3, 290 benches  271, 338–40 bonded 138 cooking bench  213 couches 79–80 between doorways  70, 271–2 foundations 264–5 grooved 316–21 later additions  88nn88–89 opus incertum  134, 171, 189–90, 272–4 of the public well  145–6 shop counters  352 on shopfronts  17 tables 208 triclinia  78–80, 170, 208, 225, 274, 296–7 walls  290, 298, 319

masonry-serving tables  53n59, 56–7 Mau, August  44, 268, 274, 313, 315–16, 337–8, 341–2 measurement systems, Oscan and Roman  88 Mercato ash  83–4, 93–7, 136–8, 140, 318 marine deposits  97 mixed with gray ash  110, 112, 127 overlaid  107–10, 112–13 paleosol  114–16, 163–4, 167–8, 194, 223, 295 quarries  161–4, 226–7, 288 redeposited  118, 124, 226 road surfaces  101–6, 119, 287–8, 318 yellow 281 metope  183–4, 347 micro contextualization  29–30 military diploma  56–9 Ministero dei Beni Culturali  24 mortars  83–4 see also opus # Mount Vesuvius see Vesuvius Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli (MANN) 48 Museum of London Archaeology Service (MoLAS)  24, 32–7 mythological paintings  53 Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità (NSc) 48–51 ollae 143–5 online material  7 opus africanum 85 opus incertum  70, 83–5, 88, 129–31, 134–9, 161–2, 164–5, 167–71, 173, 180–2, 184, 187–90, 219, 221, 227, 232, 234–5, 237–9, 241–2, 246, 269, 272–4, 276, 309–10, 315–18, 324–5, 330, 332 opus quadratum  145, 148–9, 287 opus quasi reticulatum  88, 213 opus reticulatum  329, 335, 338 opus signinum  132–3, 150, 162, 170–3, 181, 184, 187, 189–90, 192–3, 195–6, 198, 205, 211–12, 215–19, 221–6, 235–7, 246–8, 251–2, 255–60, 263–4, 269, 271–6, 283, 290, 298, 303, 305, 335–40 opus testaceum  85, 161, 219, 241, 275 opus vittatum  73n12, 85, 85n77 opus vittatum mixtum  83, 85–8 Oscan systems of measurement  88 Overbeck, Johannes  315–16 Pages app  31 paintings 56 distribution 52–6 paleosol 95 Panhellenic santuary, Isthmia  72 pappamonte  62–3, 101–6 Parco Archeologico di Pompei  24, 27, 48, 103 Pardini, Giacomo  23–4 Pesando, Fabrizio  6 Pettenelli et al.  68–9 Phases  8–21, 73

phasing practices  27–9 phenocrysts 91 pillars  53, 139, 148–9, 161–2, 164–6, 184–5, 234–5 brick 238 decorative features  264 opus quadratum 287 in Property I.1.6–9  290 in Property VIII.7.12  275–6 pipes evidence from GPR survey  68–9 terracotta  123–4, 143, 163, 217–19, 248 “Plastico di Pompei”  53n60 Poehler, Eric E.  68–9 Pompeianarum Antiquitatum Historia (PAH; Fiorelli) 48 Pompeii abandonment 44n14 complexity 3 map 4 oil painting (Hackert)  46 Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia (PARP:PS)  3–5 database see database “Pompeii Premise”  51 Pompeii Quadriporticus Project (PQP)  72 Porta Ercolano  77, 146–8, 309, 312–13, 326, 332, 342 ceramics workshop  350–1 necropolis 334–8 tombs  340n22, 341n28, 342 Porta Marina  85 Porta Stabia 1809 map  43 arial view photograph  4, 90 buildings 75–83 contextualization 5–6 photograph 22 reconstruction 71 Porta Vesuvio  77, 90–1, 146–8, 319, 325–6, 332 altars  326–7, 338 public well  145n18 road surfaces  324n49 tombs 342 see ceramics pottery 23–4 categorization 26 found in soil sequences  96 pozzolana 95 production, evidence from GPR survey  63 properties categorization 26 evidence of production in  63 Property I.1.1 excavations 44 painted inscriptions  51n42 Property I.1.1/10  47, 260–4, 285 downpipe 280 excavations  44, 49 kiln  123, 347 plan 262

748 ·  in dex Property I.1.1/10 (cont.) portable finds  51–3 public well  93, 279 Room 102  277–9 Room 103  123, 263, 280 Room 104  280 Room 105  347 scaffolding postholes  280 separation from Property I.1.2  260–4, 280, 285 toilets 263 Property I.1.1–2 281–5 chamber through  121 construction (Phase 3)  129, 136–9 development  151–2, 213–17 excavations 44 fish-salting vats  63, 65, 173–80, 216 kiln 140 Phases 281–5 plan  137, 153, 177, 216 public well  145–7, 350 Room 101  177, 216 Room 102  146–7 Room 103  144 Room 105  140 Room 106  178–9, 217 Room 107/8  180 Sarno limestone  145–6, 182 storage vessel  217 trenches 283 votive cups found within  144 walls 138–9 Property I.1.1–2/10 bar counters  237–8, 240 construction 252–3 cooking facility  240 development 234–41 doorstop 239 drains 237 plan  235, 256 Room 101  237 Room 106  239–40 Room 108  240 Property I.1.2  47, 264, 285 decorative features  89 excavations  44, 49 fish-salting vat  126 function as an inn  81 paintings 53 plan  262, 264 Room 106  62–3, 96, 104–5, 109–11, 126 Room 107  89 Room 108  84 separation from Property I.1.1/10  260–4, 280, 285 tanks 126 walls 84–5 Property I.1.3–5  47, 285–8 aerial view  156 bar counters  230 cisterns  186, 195 construction  161–4, 350

cooking facility  187, 231 development  183–8, 193–5, 253–4 doorstop  186, 229 excavations  44, 49 expansion  227–32, 264–5, 280 foundations 185 function as an inn  75–8 GPR survey  63–4 metope 347 opus vittatum 85n77 out-of-plane failure  266, 280 Phases 286–8 plan  161, 183, 194, 228, 256, 265 quarrying  148–9, 350–1 Room 110  231 Room 114  195 Room 115  266, 280 Room 118  109, 162–4, 186, 229–30 Room 120  95, 114, 164–5 sidewalks 230 Subphases 74n19 terracottas 184 threshold stones  257 trenches 285 unfinished well  95 walls 26 water management systems  163–4 well shaft  187 widening of via Stabiana 257 Property I.1.4, portable finds  53n55, 59n83 Property I.1.6–9  47, 288–90 aerial view  156 bar counters  258 coins 51n49 construction  164–6, 265–7 decorative features  89 development  188–9, 195–6, 217–19, 254–9 excavations 49 fish-salting vats  166, 180–1, 189 function as an inn  75–8, 80–1 horse related finds  59 lava pavement  267 painted lararia  53, 56 Phases 288–90 plan  166, 188, 196, 218, 258, 266 portable finds  51–3 quarrying  118, 148–9, 350–1 retail 82–3 road surface under  103 Room 23  56 Room 122  166, 189 Room 126  267 Room 132  218–20, 258 Room 133  89 Subphases 74n19 trenches 288 Property I.1.7–8, excavations  44 Property I.1.8 bronze bells  51n51 coins 51n52 excavations 44

Property I.2.1 85n79 Property I.2.2–4 91–3 Property I.5.2 299 Property I.6.11 184 Property I.9.9 183–4 metope 347 terracottas 184–5 Property II.5.2  80n47 Property II.8.6 (Garden of Hercules)  80 Property III.6.1  227–8 Property V.1.13 93–6 Property V.1.22–7 (House of Caecilius Iucundus)  206n6, 325–6 Property V.5.3 (House of the Gladiators)  96, 104, 119 Property VI.1.26 (Casa delle Vestali)  77n33 Property VI.6.1  88n92 Property VI.6.13  77n32 Property VII.3.29  85n79 Property VII.5.2  85n78 Property VII.5.24  85n78 Property VIII.4.4  53n68 Property VIII.7.1  83 doorways 85n77 excavations 44 gate 53n60 Property VIII.7.1–2, excavations  49 Property VIII.7.1–4  47, 267–71, 291–5 construction  129–31, 219–21 decorative features  89 development  181–2, 241, 246 drains  63–7, 269–70 function as an inn  75–7 manger area  77 opus signinum 271 paintings 48–51 pappamonte 116 Phases 291–5 plan  131, 181, 221, 241, 248, 268 production 63 ritual context  269 Room 1  116, 242, 269 Room 5  269, 271 Room 6  48–51, 89 Room 9  65, 127, 270 Room 10  271 sidewalks 127 tanks  65, 242 trenches 291 walls  64, 131, 134 Property VIII.7.2  83 entrances 149 staircase  47, 77n26 Property VIII.7.3 entrances 63 Room 7  63 walls 83 Property VIII.7.3–4, excavations  47, 49 Property VIII.7.3–5 excavations 44 Room 9  182

in dex  ·  749 Property VIII.7.4, retail  78, 83 Property VIII.7.5 excavations 49 plan 151 retail 82 Property VIII.7.5–6  271–4 amphora 250 cisterns  274, 280 cooking facility  273 development 246 doorways 84n71 excavations 44 function as a restaurant  78–80 gardens 350 inscriptions 273 lararia 53 pappamonte 115 Phases 296–8 plan  222, 249, 272 retail 221–5 ritual context  117 Room 11  167, 250 Room 15  115, 117, 273 Room 16  273 Room 20  223–4, 274, 280 separation from Property VIII.7.7–8  209, 295–8 triclinia 44 waste management  223–4, 274 Property VIII.7.5–8  295–8 cisterns 191 construction 131–3 development  149–50, 189–92, 196–8 drains 205–7 fish-salting vats  167–70 opus signinum 170 Phases 294–8 plan  132, 168, 190, 197, 293 Room 15  198 Room 20  170–1 Room 32  169 Room 37  169 Room 44  191 Sarno limestone  171 waste management  169 Property VIII.7.6 doorways 84n73 excavations  44, 51n47, 49 function as a restaurant  78–80 masonry tables  53n59 Room 15  84n73 Room 30  53n59 Property VIII.7.6–9 masonry tables  57 Room 46  57 triclinia 57 Property VIII.7.7–8 activity in Phase 7  274–5 cisterns 212–13 development 209–12 excavations 47 horse related finds  59

land 350 military diploma  56–9 pappamonte 106 Phases 298 plan  211, 251, 275 retail 82 Room 32  212–13, 252 Room 33  56–9 Room 37  106, 124–5, 252 separation from Property VIII.7.5–6  209, 295–8 tanks 124–5 votive cups found within  213 walls  93, 223, 300–3 water management systems  246–9, 251–2 “zig-zag” quoining  85 Property VIII.7.8, horse related finds  59n81 Property VIII.7.9–11 (Phase 4b onwards)  295, 300–3 absent remains  249 activity in Phase 7  274–5 cesspits 350 development  200–9, 241–2, 294, 301, 350 drains  206–8, 235 excavations 44 plan  192, 203, 243, 253, 276 rear wall  232 restaurant spaces  78–80 Room 44  53, 210, 349 Room 46  48–51, 56, 210 Room 48  121, 204 Room 51  63–8 Room 53  244 Room 56 (tannery)  205 Room 58  350 trenches 293 triclinia 44 water management systems  206–9, 300–3 Property VIII.7.9–12 (Phase 4)  299–305 fish-salting 170–3 plan 172 Room 38  173–4 Room 55  176 Room 56 (tannery)  155, 167, 175–6 separation in Phase 4b  192–3, 299–305 Property VIII.7.9–13  8 cesspits 350 Cistern 3  276–8, 280 construction (Phase 3)  129, 133–6, 152–3, 305 development  150–1, 300 division 299–305 plan  133, 152 Room 38  62 Room 48  136 Room 58  153 trenches 299 Property VIII.7.10, retail  82 Property VIII.7.11 excavations 49 fish-salting vats  174 Room 48  174

Property VIII.7.11–15, excavations  43–4 Property VIII.7.12  77–8, 133, 350 boundary wall  74n18 development  198, 212–13, 275–6, 302–5 excavations  47, 49 fish-salting vats  175 Phases 1–4a  298–305 plan  193, 199, 214, 254, 277, 302 reopened cesspit  249–51 retail 82–3 Room 58  82–3, 135, 175, 254–5 Room 65  91–3 Rooms 57/66  136, 215 separation from Properties VIII.7.9–11  192–3, 299–305 Threshold 12  277 waste management  135–6 Property VIII.7.13–15  26n4, 276, 305 aerial view  156 construction 155–61 development 225–7 drains  66, 232–3 excavations  44, 47, 49 Phases  300, 304–5 plan  158, 225, 255, 278 production 63 retail 82–3 Room 67  298 Room 78  66, 227 trenches  299, 303 waste management  227 Property VIII.7.14–15 Phases 304 Room 68  137 soak-away 137 trenches 303 Property VIII.7.15 drains 158 stone structure  159 Property VIII.7.25  85n77 public well  8, 129, 145–8, 182–3, 283 enclosure and privatization  17, 235 lava found in  93 pumice  93–6, 101, 107–9, 276–8 Quadriporticus  42–4, 46–7, 63, 305 brickwork 85 eastern wall  133–4, 156–9, 172–3, 298 expansion  204–5, 232, 305 GPR survey  68–9 lava stone  85n74 modern facilties in  225 opus vittatum 85n77 Pompeii Quadriporticus Project (PQP)  72 reconstruction 232–3 triclinium 79–80 quarrying 118 for lava  93 Mercato ash  95 Quarry Area 2  131, 133 Quarry Area 3  193, 204

750 ·  in dex quarrying (cont.) Quarry Area 4  113–14, 118, 133–4, 298 Quarry Area 5  133–4 Quarry Area 6  133–4 Quarry Area 7  133–4 Quarry Area 8  110–12, 118, 305 Quarry Area 9  156–61, 183–4, 226–7 Quarry Area 10  136–8 Quarry Area 11  161–2 Quarry Area 12  148–9, 152 Quarry Area 12a  287 Quarry Area 12b  163–4, 287 Quarry Area 12c  184–5, 194 Quarry Area 12d–e  194 Quarry Area 13  113–14, 118, 188, 288 Quarry Area 14  166, 219, 228–9, 288, 290, 350 quoining  70, 85–8 ramps  77, 194–5, 268, 287–8, 291–3, 335 Republican Baths  93–5 restaurants  75, 78–80, 201 retail  75, 201 evidence from GPR survey  63–7 Ritual Context 1  321, 326–7, 329 Ritual Context 2  149, 321–2 Ritual Context 3  241, 268–9, 291–5 Ritual Context 4  53, 225 Ritual Context 5  53, 207–8 Ritual Context 6  53, 264, 285 Ritual Context 7  53, 267 Ritual Context 8  149, 316, 321–2, 326, 329 Ritual Context 10  326 Ritual Context 11  116–18 Ritual Context 12  144–5 Ritual Context 13  237 Ritual Context 14  117–18, 287, 295 road surfaces  91–3, 288–90, 298 basalt blocks  314, 332 construction  322, 330–2 evidence from  119–20 gravel 319 gray ash  107–13, 115–16, 118, 124–7, 281, 291, 318–19 lava bedrock  113–14 Mercato ash  8, 95–6, 101–3, 119, 287, 318 overlaying a pit  106 paved 334–5 in the Porta Vesuvio  324n49 sloped 104 water on  96 Robinson, Mark  26 Roman systems of measurement  88 Roxan, Margaret  56–9 San Paolino building  23–4 Sapienza University  23–4 Sarno limestone  70, 85, 104–5, 107–9 altars 322 ashlar blocks  184–5 curbstones 127 foundation 263

measurements 88 opus incertum  184, 237–8 pillars  148–9, 166, 188 in Property I.1.1–2  136–8 in Property I.1.3–5  161–2 in Property I.1.6–9  164–5 in Property VIII.7.1–4  129–31 in Property VIII.7.5–6  296–7 in Property VIII.7.5–8  170–1 in Property VIII.7.9–13  135 public well  145–6, 182 River Sarno  97, 107–9, 319 via Stabiana 149 scaffolding postholes  280 Seiler, F.  324 shops  75, 82–3, 201 early excavations  44n21 sidewalks  126–7, 194–5, 230, 281, 290, 298 coins from  324 construction  290, 315, 326 development  152, 254, 329 drains under  268 excavations  309–10, 313–14, 316 in front of tombs  335–8 overlaid  132–3, 227–8 paving  113, 149 Phase 5  330–2 Phase 6  332 raised 243–4 repair patches  324 stratigraphy 316–18 window cut into  110 single-context method  24, 32–7 soak-aways 152–3 see also drains; tanks associated with fish-salting vats  283, 351–2 Soak-Away 1  171, 174 Soak-Away 3  190, 196 Soak-Away 4  197, 210–11 Soak-Away 5  131 Soak-Away 6  150–1, 155–6 Soak-Away 7  176, 283 Soak-Away 8  163–4, 184 Soak-Away 9  195–6, 290 Soak-Away 10  176, 183, 283 Soak-Away 11  176, 183, 283 Soak-Away 12  176–7, 283 Soak-Away 14  188–9, 196, 290 Soak-Away 15  219 Soak-Away 16  181, 291 Soak-Away 17  135, 137, 305 Sogliano, Antonio  335, 337–8 soil 95–7 Spano, Giuseppe  44, 314 spatula 179 stables 75–8 storage areas  75–7 for animals  77–8 storage vessels  121–3, 143–5, 214, 217, 227, 255–9 Stratigraphic Relationships (SRs)  72 Stratigraphic Units (SUs)  7, 24, 34, 73–4 categorization 31–2

connected to subphases  28 number per Phase  244 relative and absolute chronologies  74 SU 1004  267 SU 1005–1006  241 SU 1012  241 SU 1015  219 SU 1018–1019  241 SU 1021  181 SU 1025  219 SU 1028–1029  241 SU 1031–1032  219 SU 1035  181 SU 1037  181, 219 SU 1040  181 SU 1044  129n2 SU 1045  219 SU 1047  181 SU 1049  219 SU 1050  63–4, 181, 219 SU 1051–1052  129 SU 1056–1057  241 SU 1059–1062  241 SU 1064  219 SU 1065–1067  181 SU 1068  181, 219 SU 1073  181 SU 1075  267 SU 1077  219 SU 1080–1081  181 SU 1082  267 SU 1088–1090  241 SU 1091  115–16 SU 1096  129 SU 1097–1098  115–16 SU 1103  129 SU 1103–1104  129 SU 1105  181 SU 1107–1108  129 SU 1513  241 SU 1514  241, 267 SU 1522  219, 241 SU 1524  181, 241 SU 2002  208 SU 2008–2009  206 SU 2011  206 SU 2013  206 SU 2019  206 SU 2021  190–2 SU 2023  207–8 SU 2025  170, 190–2 SU 2028–2029  190–2 SU 2034  205–8 SU 2036–2037  206–7 SU 2051–2052  206–7 SU 2054  206–7 SU 2055  190–2 SU 2057–2058  206–7 SU 2059  190–2, 206–7 SU 2065  205–8 SU 2080–2081  170

in dex  ·  751 SU 2091  206–8 SU 2095  207–8 SU 2096  208 SU 2098–2099  206 SU 2107–2108  206 SU 2109  205–6 SU 2110  206 SU 2113  206 SU 2507  206–7 SU 2508  276–7 SU 2509  274–5 SU 2512–2514  276–7 SU 2515  190–2, 196–7, 206–7 SU 3003  203–4 SU 3007  203–4 SU 3010  200–3 SU 3011  203–4 SU 3015  241–2 SU 3016  200–3 SU 3017  203–4 SU 3020  203–4 SU 3030  171 SU 3031  203–4 SU 3033–3034  203–4 SU 3037  200–3 SU 3039  200–3 SU 3040  203–4 SU 3041  170–1 SU 3045  200–3 SU 3046  171 SU 3049  171 SU 3056  200–3 SU 3058  200–3 SU 3059  171 SU 3061  200–3 SU 3064  171 SU 3067  171 SU 3072–3073  170–1 SU 3076  131 SU 3077–3078  134 SU 3081  134 SU 3084  134 SU 3086  134, 171 SU 3090  171 SU 3092  170–1 SU 3093  171 SU 3106  131 SU 4010  234 SU 4013  242 SU 4015  268 SU 4018  149, 234 SU 4019  149 SU 4031–4032  234 SU 5003  269 SU 5010–5011  269 SU 5013  269 SU 5014  221 SU 5016  221 SU 5018–5019  221 SU 5022  221, 268 SU 5023  221

SU 5026–5027  269 SU 5031  269 SU 5032  221 SU 5037  269 SU 5051  221 SU 5053  268 SU 5059  129–31 SU 5065  269 SU 6008  221 SU 6009–6011  129–31 SU 6020  221 SU 6031  124 SU 6035–6038  221 SU 7012  134 SU 7013  206 SU 7035  206 SU 7040  206 SU 7050  131 SU 7086  132–3 SU 7088  132–3 SU 7107  132–3 SU 7117  132–3 SU 8002  251–2 SU 8006  251–2 SU 8008  251–2 SU 8009  225–6 SU 8012  251–2 SU 8019  155, 225–6 SU 8024  155 SU 8033  225–6 SU 8037–8038  225–6 SU 8041  225–6 SU 8043  251–2 SU 8046–8047  225–6 SU 9002  249–51 SU 9005  249–51 SU 9008  134–5 SU 9012–9013  213 SU 9016  275–6 SU 9017  213 SU 9018  275–6 SU 9020  213 SU 9031  198 SU 9032  192 SU 9037  193 SU 9038  198 SU 10002  332 SU 10014  326 SU 10016  322 SU 10020  318–19 SU 10023  112 SU 11002  246 SU 11017  221–2 SU 11020  246, 271 SU 11021  222n19, 246, 271 SU 11022  271 SU 11042  221–2 SU 11046  189 SU 11051  271 SU 11052  167–8 SU 11053  221–2

SU 11056  246, 271 SU 11062  221–2 SU 11064  167–8 SU 11066–11067  189, 221–2 SU 11068  189 SU 11069  221–2 SU 11071  246 SU 11075  221–2 SU 11078  189 SU 11080  246 SU 11102  189 SU 11103  246, 271 SU 11106  189 SU 11111–11113  221–2 SU 11115  167–8, 189 SU 11116  189 SU 11120  189 SU 11122  167–8 SU 11127–11128  221–2 SU 11143  246, 271 SU 11144  127 SU 11146  246 SU 11187  189 SU 11190  127, 132–3 SU 11191  127 SU 11193  132–3 SU 11199–11200  127 SU 11202–11203  127, 131 SU 11204  127 SU 12005–12006  211–12 SU 12009  211–12 SU 12011  211–12 SU 12012  197–8 SU 12015–12016  211–12 SU 12022  197–8 SU 12038–12041  211–12 SU 12045  131 SU 12062  190–2 SU 12063  133 SU 12064  211–12 SU 12067  211n11 SU 12068  132–3 SU 12069  210–11 SU 12082  131 SU 12084  131 SU 12090–12091  131 SU 12106  190–2 SU 12107  210–11 SU 12110  210–11 SU 12112  133 SU 12115  211, 248 SU 12121  211–12, 246–8 SU 12122  248 SU 12123  211–12 SU 12131  246–8 SU 12133  246–8 SU 12136  167 SU 12146  248 SU 12161  246–8 SU 12164  167 SU 12173  167

752 ·  in dex Stratigraphic Units (SUs) (cont.) SU 13018–13019  205 SU 13023–13024  173 SU 13027  173 SU 13028  205 SU 13032–13035  204–5 SU 13036  173 SU 13040  173, 204–5 SU 13041–13042  205 SU 13047  173 SU 13050  204–5 SU 13054  133–4, 172–3 SU 13055  133–4 SU 13060  172–3 SU 14100–14199  316–18 SU 14101  332 SU 14104  332 SU 14105  329 SU 14108  329 SU 14109  324–5 SU 14110–14112  324 SU 14114–14119  324 SU 14120  319–22 SU 14121  319–21 SU 14123  318–19 SU 14125  318–19 SU 14126  318–19 SU 14200–14299  316–18 SU 14201  332 SU 14202  332 SU 14205  332 SU 14206  329 SU 14207  332 SU 14208–14209  329 SU 14210  324 SU 14212  319–21, 329 SU 14214  326 SU 14215  322 SU 14216  149, 322 SU 14219  121, 319 SU 14220–14224  112, 318–19 SU 14225  112, 318–19 SU 14226  112 SU 14227  101, 318 SU 14228  318 SU 14230  318 SU 14231  101 SU 14232  101 SU 14233  319–20 SU 14234  321 SU 14300–14399  316–18 SU 14302  332 SU 14304  332 SU 14305  329 SU 14308–14311  329 SU 14312  324 SU 14412  329 SU 15004  173 SU 15007  173 SU 15008  205 SU 15009  205, 208

SU 15011  173 SU 15013  249 SU 15014  205 SU 15015  173 SU 15017  173 SU 15018  173 SU 15022–15023  173 SU 15025  173 SU 15029  173 SU 15031–15032  173 SU 15051  37 SU 16011  189–90 SU 16013  84n68, 271 SU 16017  168, 189–90 SU 16018  223 SU 16020  196, 198 SU 16021  196 SU 16022  189–90 SU 16031  168, 189–90 SU 16032  196 SU 16033  168, 190 SU 16034  196 SU 16036  196 SU 16043  189–90 SU 16046  168 SU 16049  196 SU 16054  190 SU 16057  190 SU 16060  168 SU 16062  168 SU 16066  168 SU 16068  189–90 SU 16071  114–17 SU 16079–16081  116 SU 16085  189–90 SU 16086  114–15 SU 16089  271 SU 16094  189–90 SU 16100  168 SU 16104  131–2, 168 SU 16109  131–2, 168 SU 16110  189–90 SU 16301  246 SU 16537  114–17 SU 16551  271 SU 17002  246–8 SU 17004  246–8 SU 17006  248, 252 SU 17009  197, 210–11 SU 17011  197, 210–11 SU 17017  246–8 SU 17020  252 SU 17022  169–70 SU 17024  248 SU 17039  246–8 SU 17041  246–8 SU 17042  196–7, 210–11 SU 17047  190–2, 196–7, 211, 248–9 SU 17066  132–3 SU 17067–17069  197 SU 17071  132–3

SU 17076–17077  105–6, 118 SU 17078  105–6, 123–4 SU 17079–17081  133 SU 17082  123–4 SU 17085  118 SU 17087–17089  131 SU 17091  123–4 SU 17094–17095  118 SU 17096  123–4 SU 17100  248–9, 252 SU 17101  248 SU 17105  123–4 SU 17106  118 SU 17117  123–4 SU 18002–18004  275 SU 18009  249–51 SU 18012–18013  275 SU 18015–18016  249–51, 275 SU 18019  212–13 SU 18023  212–13 SU 18024  171 SU 18025  212–13 SU 18027  212–13 SU 18030  150, 171 SU 18031  212–13 SU 18035–18036  275 SU 18037  172, 249–51 SU 18038  275 SU 18050  212–13 SU 18051  172 SU 18056  249–51 SU 18061  150, 171 SU 18068  134 SU 18069  171 SU 18071  134, 249–51 SU 18072  134 SU 18074  134 SU 18080  275 SU 18082  172 SU 18091  134 SU 18092  172 SU 18094  134 SU 18099  134, 249–51 SU 18100  134 SU 18102  134, 249–51 SU 18104  134 SU 19002–19007  204 SU 19008  193 SU 19009  204 SU 19010–19011  193 SU 19012  204 SU 19015  204 SU 19016  193 SU 19019–19022  204 SU 19023  193 SU 19025–19027  193 SU 19050  241–2 SU 19056  193 SU 19057  204 SU 19059  193 SU 19060  204

in dex  ·  753 SU 20020  232 SU 20025–20029  232 SU 21005  224–5 SU 21007  224–5 SU 21009  224–5 SU 21029  224–5 SU 21046  224–5 SU 21050  224–5 SU 22001  246 SU 22004  196 SU 22005  84n70 SU 22007  196 SU 22012  196–7 SU 23013–23015  210–11 SU 23021  210–11 SU 24002–24004  267–8 SU 24005–24006  246 SU 24008  267–8 SU 24017  221 SU 24022–24024  221 SU 24026  181–2, 220 SU 24027  181–2, 220 SU 24028–24029  181–2 SU 24032  220 SU 24033  63, 181–2, 220 SU 24035  129 SU 24036  112 SU 24039–24045  129 SU 24048  129 SU 24050–24051  129 SU 24053  129 SU 24057  112 SU 24059–24060  106 SU 24061  127 SU 24062  112 SU 24065–24068  106 SU 24089  106 SU 24090  112 SU 24091  112 SU 24092  112 SU 24095–24097  129 SU 24100–24101  246 SU 24102  267–8 SU 24107  267–8 SU 25004  274 SU 25006  274 SU 25007  272–4 SU 25008  246 SU 25009  246, 271–2 SU 25010  272–4 SU 25011  223 SU 25019  223–4 SU 25023  170 SU 25024  223 SU 25026  223–4, 271–2 SU 25027–25028  223 SU 25030  223 SU 25031  272–4 SU 25032  274 SU 25033  150 SU 25035  150

SU 25039  170 SU 25042  223, 274 SU 25043–25044  170 SU 25050  132–3, 150 SU 25051  132–3 SU 25052  133 SU 25053–25054  132–3 SU 25055  133 SU 25057  93 SU 25063  271–2 SU 25065  133 SU 25067  114–15, 118 SU 25068  271–2 SU 25072  223–4 SU 25075  223–4 SU 25078  118 SU 25081–25082  118 SU 25529  271–2 SU 27003  251, 276 SU 27004  276 SU 27008  251 SU 27019–27020  226 SU 27023–27024  226 SU 27026  150–1 SU 27029  226–7 SU 27030  226 SU 27032  155 SU 27033  155–6 SU 27034  226 SU 27035  155–6 SU 27038  155–6 SU 27039  226 SU 27042  226 SU 27044  155–6 SU 27045  226–7 SU 27046  226 SU 27048  155 SU 27051  150–1 SU 27071  110–12 SU 27073  110–12 SU 27074  118 SU 27077  110–12 SU 27080  226–7 SU 27081  135 SU 27087  226 SU 27090  135 SU 27091  226 SU 27095  118 SU 27098–27099  110–12 SU 27100  226 SU 27102  133–4 SU 27111  110–12 SU 27113  226 SU 27114  110–12 SU 27115  118 SU 27117–27118  135 SU 27119  118 SU 27129  155–6 SU 27130  226–7 SU 27142–27143  135 SU 27144  112, 118

SU 28011  159–61 SU 28012  159–61 SU 28013  159–61 SU 28015  159–61 SU 28027  156–9 SU 28030  156–9 SU 28031  159 SU 28032–28033  232 SU 28034–28036  156–9 SU 28038  232 SU 28039  156–9 SU 28041  232 SU 28046  156–9 SU 28047  159 SU 28052  232 SU 28057  232 SU 28058  155 SU 28062  155 SU 28065  155 SU 28069  155 SU 28074  155 SU 29006–29007  204 SU 29009–29010  204 SU 29012  171 SU 29015  134 SU 29016  171 SU 29020  204 SU 29023  134 SU 29025  204 SU 29026  121 SU 29027  134 SU 29029–29030  204 SU 29032  112 SU 29033  134 SU 29034  127 SU 29035  134 SU 29036  127 SU 29037  112 SU 29038  204 SU 29042  112 SU 29043–29045  112 SU 29047  112 SU 29048–29049  134 SU 29051  112–14 SU 29053  113–14, 118 SU 29054  134 SU 29502  274–5 SU 29507  134 SU 29530  274–5 SU 30007  225 SU 50002  32, 235 SU 50003–50004  235 SU 50008  235 SU 50010  138 SU 50012  177–8, 213–14 SU 50016  145 SU 50018–50019  177–8, 213–14 SU 50020  167, 177–8, 213–14 SU 50021  145 SU 50023  145 SU 50027  138

754 ·  in dex Stratigraphic Units (SUs) (cont.) SU 50028  214 SU 50029  145 SU 50030  277–8 SU 50031  167, 177–8, 213–14 SU 50034  145 SU 50037  235 SU 50041  277–8 SU 50043  151 SU 50048  214 SU 50050  136–8 SU 50052  214 SU 50055  136–8 SU 50057  214 SU 50058  277–8 SU 50059  138–9 SU 50060  109–10, 112 SU 50061  235 SU 50064  151 SU 50065  235–7 SU 50066  136–8 SU 50068  138 SU 50069  136–8, 151, 173–6 SU 50071  138 SU 50073  235–7 SU 50091  182 SU 50093  106 SU 50094  107 SU 50098  182 SU 50100  109–10 SU 50101  182 SU 50110  182 SU 50111  151, 173–6 SU 50112  182 SU 50114  109–10, 112 SU 50116  182 SU 50119  138 SU 50120  145 SU 50132–50133  176 SU 50139  182 SU 50142–50143  182 SU 50146  182 SU 50147  145–6 SU 50156  173–6 SU 50527  182 SU 50528–50529  145–6 SU 51010  227 SU 51012  227 SU 51014  193–4 SU 51016  227 SU 51018  227 SU 51021–51022  193–4 SU 51026  227 SU 51028  193–4 SU 51031  184 SU 51033  161–2, 184 SU 51034  161–3, 183–4 SU 51035  193–4 SU 51036  184 SU 51038  193–4 SU 51044  162–3

SU 51046  184 SU 51049–51051  184 SU 51053  227 SU 51056  227 SU 51057  162 SU 51058  193–4 SU 51059  161 SU 51064  184 SU 51066  162–3 SU 51067  184 SU 51068  184 SU 51068–51069  184 SU 51069  184 SU 51070  184 SU 51072  163–4 SU 51077  161–3, 183–4 SU 51082  184 SU 51086  163 SU 51087  163–4 SU 51088  162–3 SU 51089  184 SU 51091  184 SU 51092  162 SU 51094  161–2, 183–4 SU 51095–51096  184 SU 51103–51104  148–9 SU 51105–51106  161–2 SU 51108  161–2 SU 51113  161–2 SU 51115  161–2 SU 51120  184 SU 51122  110, 112 SU 51125  95 SU 51126  162–3 SU 51130  184 SU 51131  95 SU 51134  95 SU 51135–51136  112–13 SU 51137  162–3 SU 51143  161–2 SU 51146  227 SU 51147  110, 112 SU 51151  112–13 SU 51534  183–4 SU 52002  254–5 SU 52011  254–5 SU 52012  188–9 SU 52013  217, 254–5 SU 52017  188–9 SU 52020  254–5 SU 52021  164–5 SU 52022–52023  152 SU 52024  217 SU 52027  110 SU 52029–52030  148–9 SU 52031  164–5 SU 52033  188–9 SU 52035  217 SU 52037  152 SU 52039  165 SU 52040  217

SU 52042  217 SU 52046  217 SU 52052  164–5 SU 52053  217 SU 52069  165 SU 52075  195–6 SU 52080  188–9 SU 52083  164–5 SU 52085  188–9 SU 52088  195–6 SU 52090  188–9 SU 52094–52095  217 SU 52096  254–5 SU 52097  93 SU 52098  217 SU 52099  254–5 SU 52100  217 SU 52106  110, 112 SU 52108  148–9 SU 52110  254–5 SU 52120  103 SU 52129  93 SU 52131–52132  165 SU 52134  101, 110 SU 52136  110 SU 52137–52138  101 SU 53007  263 SU 53010  143n14, 234, 249 SU 53011  262–3, 347 SU 53013–53014  263 SU 53015  262–3 SU 53022  252 SU 53025  183 SU 53026–53027  252 SU 53028  143n14, 262–3, 347 SU 53029  252 SU 53032  176 SU 53033  143n14 SU 53039  138 SU 53041  176 SU 53046  176 SU 53048  176 SU 53052  183 SU 53060  143–4 SU 53061  252 SU 53062  121 SU 53063  143n14 SU 53072–53073  263 SU 53076  263 SU 53077  121, 143–4 SU 53080  121, 143–4 SU 53086  143–4 SU 53087  263 SU 53088  121–3, 143–4 SU 53089  143–4 SU 53095–53096  121–3 SU 53100  143–4 SU 53102  263 SU 53112  121–3 SU 53113  263 SU 53114–53115  263

in dex  ·  755 SU 53116  235 SU 53119  138 SU 53120  263 SU 53121  263 SU 54002  264 SU 54003–54007  237 SU 54011  237 SU 54012  237–8 SU 54014  237 SU 54015–54016  214 SU 54018  237 SU 54021  214 SU 54023  214 SU 54030–54031  214 SU 54035  214 SU 54039  176–7 SU 54041  177–8, 213–14 SU 54043  176–7 SU 54044  167, 179 SU 54046  177–8, 213–14 SU 54049  176–7 SU 54051  176–7 SU 54052  214, 217, 237 SU 54053–54054  214, 237 SU 54055  109 SU 54056  124–6 SU 54058  109, 111–12, 124–6 SU 54065–54066  138–9 SU 54067–54069  136–8 SU 54071  103 SU 54072–54073  138 SU 54074  136–8 SU 54077  138 SU 54078  124–6, 167n8 SU 54086  107–9 SU 54087  107–9 SU 54088  101, 107–9 SU 54089  104 SU 54091  109, 112, 124–6 SU 54092  103–4, 138 SU 54099  104 SU 54104  101, 109, 124–6 SU 54108–54109  136–8 SU 54114  136–8 SU 54116  103 SU 54121  104 SU 54122  62–3, 103–4, 126 SU 54134  103–4, 126 SU 54148  104 SU 54154  101 SU 54158  138–9 SU 54161  107–9 SU 54162  107–9, 112–13 SU 54163–54165  107–9 SU 54166–54168  109 SU 55003–55004  194 SU 55011  194 SU 55014  194 SU 55018  194 SU 55020  194 SU 55023  184–5

SU 55025  161, 184–5 SU 55026  184–5 SU 55028  183–4, 347 SU 55033  194 SU 55034–55035  194 SU 55037  227–8 SU 55039  227–8 SU 55041  194 SU 55042  184–5, 194 SU 55045  253 SU 55048  227–8 SU 55049  194–5 SU 55051  163 SU 55052  227–8 SU 55058  194–5 SU 55062  194–5 SU 55063  183–4 SU 55064  184–5, 194 SU 55065  194–5 SU 55067–55068  194–5 SU 55069  194 SU 55070  194–5 SU 55075  184–5, 194 SU 55077  194–5 SU 55080  184–5 SU 55081  194 SU 55083  103, 112–13, 194 SU 55084  110, 112–13 SU 55087  163 SU 55089  112–13 SU 55090  152 SU 55093  148–9 SU 55094  194–5 SU 55097  163, 194 SU 55098  163–5 SU 55099  163 SU 55102  110, 112 SU 55104  93 SU 55112  101 SU 55113  114, 117–18 SU 55117  110 SU 55118  114 SU 55120  163 SU 55123–55125  194–5 SU 55127–55128  152 SU 55132  152 SU 55135  112–13 SU 55136  161, 184–5 SU 55138  103, 112–13 SU 55139  117–18 SU 55501  164–5 SU 55514  183–4 SU 55548  73n15 SU 55550  73n15 SU 55552–55556  73n15 SU 55558  73n15 SU 56002–56003  255–9 SU 56005  255–9 SU 56006  219, 255–9 SU 56008  219 SU 56026  188

SU 56027  196 SU 56029  217–19 SU 56030  188 SU 56031  196 SU 56034  93, 188 SU 56039  255–9 SU 56040  219 SU 56046  93 SU 56051  188 SU 56054  196 SU 56061  196 SU 56067–56068  196 SU 56075  188 SU 56077  188 SU 56080–56081  188 SU 56091  127 SU 56091–56092  127 SU 56092  127 SU 56094  110, 112 SU 56096  127 SU 56098  188 SU 56100  188 SU 56106  188 SU 56115  110 SU 56123  110, 112–14 SU 56124  255–9 SU 56125  110, 113–14, 118 SU 57005–57008  252 SU 57014  143 SU 57021–57022  264 SU 57027–57029  264 SU 57031  264 SU 57032  141–3 SU 57035  264 SU 57036–57037  252 SU 57038  263 SU 57039  234 SU 57041  234 SU 57042  263 SU 57048  143 SU 57053  252 SU 57060–57061  249 SU 57062–57063  252 SU 57064  263 SU 57066  234 SU 57071  234–5, 252 SU 57074  143 SU 57075  234–5, 252 SU 57078  264 SU 57079  252 SU 57080  264 SU 57085–57086  252 SU 57090  252 SU 57094–57096  252 SU 57098–57099  252 SU 57100  249 SU 57101  234 SU 57104  139, 234 SU 57105  252 SU 57111  143 SU 57112–57113  234

756 ·  in dex Stratigraphic Units (SUs) (cont.) SU 57114  139–40, 143 SU 57126  234 SU 57138  234 SU 57141  143 SU 57143  143 SU 57145  234 SU 57148  234 SU 57149  140 SU 57152  140 SU 57153  139 SU 57156  140 SU 57158  105 SU 57159–57161  139 SU 57165  140 SU 57166  140–1 SU 57167  143 SU 57169  105 SU 57174  105 SU 57175  140, 143 SU 57177  140 SU 57178  139, 143 SU 57183  252 SU 57185–57186  252 SU 57190  140 SU 58004  238 SU 58009  215n16 SU 58012  180, 215–17 SU 58013  215–17 SU 58016  238–9 SU 58022  238–9 SU 58030  238 SU 58031–58033  215–17 SU 58035  138 SU 58036  238–9 SU 58037  215–17 SU 58040–58041  179 SU 58043–58044  215–17 SU 58052  179 SU 58053  179 SU 58054  179 SU 58064  138 SU 58065  215–17 SU 58066–58067  179–80 SU 58070  179 SU 58072  138 SU 58074  179–80 SU 58077  179 SU 58080  138–9 SU 58083  138 SU 58086–58087  138 SU 58089  138 SU 58091  138 SU 58096  138–9 SU 58098  179 SU 58099  138–9 SU 58514  138 SU 58517  238 SU 59003  195 SU 59004  195 SU 59005  228–9 SU 59009–59010  195

SU 59011  63, 161, 186–7, 228–9 SU 59024  195 SU 59027  195 SU 59028  187 SU 59033  228–9 SU 59034  187 SU 59035  253 SU 59036  195 SU 59038  186–7 SU 59039  195 SU 59040  186–7 SU 59041  253, 257 SU 59042–59043  187 SU 59045  138 SU 59047  187, 195 SU 59048  187 SU 59049  228–9 SU 59050  195 SU 59051  187 SU 59053  162 SU 59056  162 SU 59058  162 SU 59059  186–7 SU 59060  162 SU 59061  195 SU 59067  187 SU 59071  138 SU 59074–59075  187 SU 59077  138 SU 59078–59080  195 SU 59084–59085  187 SU 59095  63, 161–2 SU 59096  161 SU 59098  162 SU 59100  187 SU 59102  195 SU 59104  195 SU 59105  138 SU 59106–59107  195 SU 59113–59114  195 SU 59117  186–7 SU 59123  138 SU 59124–59125  138 SU 59127  138 SU 59128  138 SU 59129  195 SU 59130  187 SU 59502  76n25 SU 59518  76n25 SU 59540  76n25 SU 60003  219 SU 60004–60005  265 SU 60010  219 SU 60011  265 SU 60036  219 SU 60042–60043  265 structures see buildings Subphases  8, 72–3 data recording  27–9 relative and absolute chronologies  74 surfaces, GPR surveys  67–8 Swedish Pompeii Project  6

tanks  103–6, 109, 121–4 see also water management systems absence of fish remains  167–8 evidence from GPR survey  63, 65 Fish-Salting Vat 7  180–1 Fish-Salting Vat 9  124–6 in Property I.1.1–2  126, 281–3 in Property I.1.3–5  162 in Property I.1.6–9  180–1, 195–6 in Property VIII.7.1–4  181–2, 219–21, 241–2, 268, 291–3 in Property VIII.7.3–5  172 in Property VIII.7.5–6  221–2, 272–4, 296–8 in Property VIII.7.5–8  167–8, 189–92, 197, 295 in Property VIII.7.9–11  208 in Property VIII.7.9–12  171, 173, 175–6 in Property VIII.7.9–13  134, 136, 298 in Property VIII.7.12  77–8, 213, 215, 303 tannery  173, 175–6, 204–5 Tascone, Giacomo  44–5 terracing 118 terracotta 183 architectural 184–5 figurines  159–61, 326, 329 metope  183–4, 347 molded  159–61, 184 pipes  123–4, 143, 163, 217–19, 248 puteal 274 statue 327–9 tiles 141–3 vessels 56 Theatrum Tectum  63, 85, 88, 156–61, 199, 232–4, 305, 325 Threshold 3  267–8 Threshold 4  267–8, 270 Threshold 11  171, 204 Threshold 12  77–8, 212–13, 249–51, 275, 277 Threshold 16  173–7, 235 Threshold 17  173–6 Threshold 18  176–7, 237 Threshold 20  227, 229 Threshold 21  161 Threshold 25  217 Threshold 26  224–5 Threshold 27  271 Threshold 28  251–2 Threshold 29  269–71 Threshold 32  253, 257 Threshold 35  271, 273 threshold stones  82, 84, 161, 184–5, 204 thresholds  316, 319–21 toilets see Waste Feature # tombs  313, 334 altar tombs  339–40 schola tombs  330, 332 standing 335–41 suburbs outside Porta Stabia  342 Tomb of Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius  341–2 Tomb of Marcus Alleius Minius  335–7 Tomb of Marcus Tullius  316–18, 336 Tomb of the Magistrate at the Porta Stabia 340–1

in dex  ·  757 topiary 80 topography 91 lava 91–3 Mercato ash  93–5 soil development  95–7 TouchDraw app  31 Trench 1000  93, 115–16, 291 Trench 2000  293, 295 Trench 3000  298–9 Trench 5000  291 Trench 6000  124, 291 Trench 7000  93, 293, 295, 298–9 Trench 8000  303, 305 Trench 9000  298–9 Trench 10000  107, 112, 309, 311, 316–18, 335 Trench 11000  127, 293, 295 Trench 12000  24, 293, 295 Trench 13000  298–9 Trench 14000  107, 112, 309, 316–18, 324, 330, 335 Trench 15000  298–9 Trench 16000  114–18, 293, 295 Trench 17000  63–7, 105–6, 118, 123–4, 293, 295 Trench 18000  298–9 Trench 19000  298–9 Trench 20000  303 Trench 22000  293, 295 Trench 23000  293, 295 Trench 24000  91–3, 96, 107, 110–13, 127, 291 Trench 25000  91–3, 96, 114–16, 118, 293, 295 Trench 26000  91–3, 298–9 Trench 27000  107, 110–13, 118, 303, 305 Trench 28000  91–3, 96, 303, 305 Trench 29000  107, 110–14, 118, 127, 298–9 Trench 30000  293, 295 Trench 50000  93, 96, 107, 109–10, 112, 281, 283 Trench 51000  95, 107, 110, 112–14, 285–7 Trench 52000  93, 101, 103, 107, 110, 112–13, 288 Trench 53000  93, 281, 283 Trench 54000  93, 95–6, 101, 103–10, 112–14, 119, 281, 283 Trench 55000  95–6, 101, 107, 110, 112–18, 285–7 Trench 56000  93, 107, 110, 113–14, 127, 288 Trench 57000  281, 283 Trench 58000  281, 283 Trench 59000  63, 285–7 Trench 60000  288 trenches 94 construction  104–6, 129, 131, 134, 136–40, 161–2, 164–5, 183–4, 193, 262–3 data model  33 data recording  27, 31 database 34 excavation 24–6 foundation  131, 133–4, 148–9, 319, 324 gray ash in  107–13, 318–19 lava in  91, 93, 113–14 Mercato ash in  318 mixed material in  114–16 modern disturbances  237n31, 251–2 Phases 9 plan 283 quarrying 118

robbing  161, 184–5 soil in  95–6 subphases 28 and surrounding walls  73 terracing 118 window 109–10 Triangular Forum  90–1 triclinia  44, 48–51, 53, 56–7, 78–80, 170, 208–10, 225, 274, 297–8 construction  296–7, 300–3 troughs 77 universally unique identifiers (UUIDs)  37 University of Cincinnati  27 University of Helsinki  6 urban development  91 UUID fields  37 Vander Poel, Halsted B.  48n39 Vesuvius, Mercato eruption  93–5 via dell’Abbondanza 90–1 via delle Mura Portuensi, Rome  173 via Nocera 80 via Stabiana 90–1 bars 80–1 drainage 96 previous road surface  101–3 Viola, Luigi  44, 48 votive deposits  116–20, 295, 326–9, 347 see also Ritual Context # anatomical 159–61 reduction of   119 Votive 21–22  211 Votive 28–30  116–17 Votive 52–53  159–61 Votive 55–56  159–61 Votive 86–88  262–3 Votives 89–94  143–4 Votives 96–104  144–5 Votive 103  287 Votives 105–12  143–4 Votive 117  117–18 Votive 121  143 votive cups  143–5, 211, 213 Wall Construction Units (WCUs)  34, 70–3 abutting lower, bonding higher  74 construction 73–4 Insula I.1 87 Insula VIII.7  86 relative and absolute chronologies  74 WCU 001  155, 225–6, 251–2 WCU 002  155–6, 226–7 WCU 003  155, 225–6, 251–2 WCU 010  156–9, 232 WCU 011  133–4, 150–1, 155, 213 WCU 013  155 WCU 014  84n67, 133–5, 137, 150–1, 155 WCU 015  134, 155–6 WCU 018  275–6 WCU 018–020  275–6 WCU 021  84n69, 134 WCU 022  275–6

WCU 024  134, 155, 171, 275 WCU 025  134 WCU 026  85n82 WCU 027  275–6 WCU 028  114–15, 149–50 WCU 029  275–6 WCU 030  74n18, 172–3 WCU 031  74n18, 134 WCU 032  74n18, 84n66 WCU 033–035  275–6 WCU 036–037  172–3 WCU 038  275–6 WCU 039  74n18, 134 WCU 040  74n18, 171, 172–3 WCU 041  85n77 WCU 042  134, 150, 171, 274–5 WCU 043  85n82 WCU 044  134 WCU 045  74n18, 84n67, 193 WCU 046  172–3 WCU 047  193 WCU 049  204 WCU 050  172–3 WCU 051  172–3, 205 WCU 052–053  193 WCU 054–055  205 WCU 056  134 WCU 060–061  134 WCU 062–063  192–3 WCU 064  134, 274–5 WCU 065  134 WCU 066  93, 131, 133, 173, 190–2, 205–8 WCU 067  131, 133, 211–12 WCU 068  169–70 WCU 069  212 WCU 070  149–50 WCU 071  207–8 WCU 072  105–6, 131n3, 149–50, 207–8 WCU 074  206, 225 WCU 075  206, 208, 223 WCU 076  206, 223 WCU 077–078  223 WCU 079  149–50, 197n20 WCU 080  114–15, 149–50, 190–2, 196–7, 211, 248 WCU 081  149–50, 211 WCU 083  131 WCU 084  149–50, 189–90 WCU 085  131 WCU 086  131–3 WCU 087  189–90 WCU 090  131–2 WCU 091  190, 217, 223 WCU 092  131–2 WCU 093  84n68, 149–50, 190 WCU 096–098  149–50 WCU 099  274 WCU 100–103  225 WCU 107  224–5 WCU 108  80, 129–31, 224–5 WCU 112  228–9 WCU 115  129–31, 170 WCU 116  129–31

758 ·  in dex Wall Construction Units (WCUs) (cont.) WCU 117  127, 129, 131, 181–2, 189, 221–4, 246, 267–9 WCU 118  129–31, 221, 269 WCU 119  129–31, 181, 219, 241 WCU 120  129, 131, 181, 241, 267–8 WCU 121–122  182, 269 WCU 123  182 WCU 124  129–31, 269 WCU 126  267–8 WCU 127–128  181–2 WCU 129–130  267–8 WCU 131  85n81, 241 WCU 132  181 WCU 133  131, 189 WCU 134  267–8 WCU 136  267–8 WCU 137  129–31 WCU 138–139  267–8 WCU 140  225 WCU 141  83n64, 223, 225, 274 WCU 142  222–3 WCU 143  129–31 WCU 147  241 WCU 148  223 WCU 149  269 WCU 150  74n18, 192–3 WCU 151  271 WCU 152  189 WCU 153–154  212 WCU 157  133–4, 150–1, 155 WCU 158  171 WCU 159  172–3 WCU 160  205 WCU 162  83n64, 84n70, 149–50, 210–11, 223 WCU 163  114–15, 149–50, 210–11, 223 WCU 164  149–50, 223 WCU 165  223 WCU 166  149–50, 223 WCU 168  129–31 WCU 169–170  204 WCU 172  105–6, 123–4, 131–3, 149–50, 197 WCU 174  84n73, 114–15, 131–2, 271 WCU 175  222–3 WCU 177  182, 269 WCU 178  223 WCU 179  226–7 WCU 180  190, 223 WCU 181  131–2, 170 WCU 182  131 WCU 183  85n82, 241 WCU 184  133–4, 172–3, 204–5, 232, 274–5 WCU 186–187  85n77, 182 WCU 188  172–3, 205 WCU 190  93, 205–6 WCU 1000  136–8, 145–6, 214 WCU 1001  85n82, 145–6, 235 WCU 1002  145–6, 235, 260–2 WCU 1003  85n82, 145–6, 235 WCU 1004  235 WCU 1005  121, 234–5, 263 WCU 1006  138, 145–6 WCU 1007  263

WCU 1011  83n64, 88n84, 234 WCU 1012  264 WCU 1013  83n64 WCU 1015  234–5 WCU 1016  83n64, 234 WCU 1017  234 WCU 1019  84, 138, 179, 238 WCU 1020  84, 138–9 WCU 1021  138–9, 179 WCU 1022  138–9, 237 WCU 1023  138–9 WCU 1024  138–9, 237, 260 WCU 1025  138–9, 264 WCU 1026  173–6, 237 WCU 1027–1029  136–8 WCU 1030  138–9, 161, 195, 237–8, 264 WCU 1031  84n72, 89n96, 264 WCU 1032  238, 264 WCU 1033  238–9 WCU 1034  85n77, 264–5 WCU 1034–1036  73n12 WCU 1035  85n77 WCU 1037  74n19, 76n25, 228–9, 264–5, 280 WCU 1039  85n82, 228–9 WCU 1040–1041  85n82, 228–9 WCU 1042  219, 228–9 WCU 1043  161, 166, 186–7 WCU 1044–1045  253–4 WCU 1047  185 WCU 1048–1049  148–9, 161 WCU 1050  148–9 WCU 1051  253–4 WCU 1053  185 WCU 1054  85n82 WCU 1055  253–4 WCU 1056  85n82, 184 WCU 1057  253–4 WCU 1058  85n82, 185, 161–2, 184 WCU 1059  84n66, 161–2, 227 WCU 1060  253–4 WCU 1061  161 WCU 1062  148–9, 161, 253 WCU 1063  110, 183–4 WCU 1064  73n15, 183–4 WCU 1066  85n76, 161, 166 WCU 1067  148–9, 161, 227–8 WCU 1070  254–5 WCU 1071–1072  165 WCU 1074–1075  165 WCU 1076  188 WCU 1079  165–6 WCU 1080  219 WCU 1081  74n19, 219 WCU 1083  219 WCU 1084  255–9 WCU 1085  219 WCU 1087  166 WCU 1088  188, 217–19, 267 WCU 1089  255–9 WCU 1090  85n81, 166 WCU 1092–1093  188 WCU 1094–1095  185

WCU 1101  219 WCU 1103  166, 188, 267 WCU 1104  138–9 WCU 1105  235, 260–2 WCU 1106  183–4 WCU 1107  105 WCU 1108  234 WCU 1109  138–9, 238, 260 WCU 1110  161, 164–5, 227–8 WCU 1111  228–9 WCU 1112  228–9 WCU 1114  73n15, 183–4 WCU 1115  253–4 WCU 1119  234 WCU 1120–1121  235, 260–2 WCU 1122  188 WCU 1124  85n82, 166 WCU 1130  217 WCU 1134  165, 254–5 WCU 1135  88n83, 228–9 WCU 1137  88n83 Wall Faces (WFs)  73–4 relative and absolute chronologies  74 WF 138–139  80n41 WF 178  44, 47 WF 263  208 WF 503–505  80n41 WF 1034  73n15 WF 1061  84 WF 1220  56 wall paintings  56 distribution 52–6 Wall Segments (WSs)  34, 72–4 Room 106  281 walls, evidence from GPR survey  64 Waste Feature 1  80n42, 224–5 Waste Feature 2  171, 223, 295–7 Waste Feature 3  223–4, 238n36, 271–4, 296–8 Waste Feature 4  207–8 Waste Feature 5  225–7, 251–2 Waste Feature 6  121–3, 238n36, 262–3, 285 Waste Feature 11  131–2, 155, 168, 196 Waste Feature 12  169–70, 197, 248–9, 295 Waste Feature 13  77–8, 134–6, 198, 213, 249–51, 298, 300, 350 Waste Feature 14  134–5, 150, 153, 172, 249–51, 275, 298–9, 303–5 Waste Feature 15  135, 155, 298, 305 Waste Feature 16  225–6, 251–2 Waste Feature 17  238–9 Waste Feature 18  138–9, 179–80, 215–17, 238–9 Waste Feature 19  187, 195 Waste Feature 20  162–4 Waste Feature 21  170, 190–2 Waste Feature 22  272–4, 297–8 Waste Feature 23  155 water features, evidence from GPR survey 68–9 weights 179 wheel ruts  101, 103 “zig-zag” quoining  85, 88