The Philippines: A Natural History [1 ed.] 9789715508148

Table of contents :
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Weights and Measures
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1- Pearl of the Orient Seas
Chapter 2- Topography
Luzon
Mindoro
Visayas
Mindanao
Palawan
Sulu Archipelago
Chapter 3- Climate
Chapter 4- Oceanography, Tides, and Currents
Chapter 5- Tectonic and Geological History and Soils
Tectonics
Surface Geology
Physiography
Soil Cover
Minerals
Chapter 6- Water Resources
Chapter 7- Biogeography
Terrestrial Biogeographic Regions
Marine Biogeographic Regions
Chapter 8- Biodiversity: Overview,Flora, and Ecosystems
Diversity of Flora
Overview of the Diversity of the Major Ecosystems
Philippine Vegetation Types
Chapter 9- Biodiversity: Fauna
Endemism
Threatened Fauna
Diversity of Fauna
Chapter 10- Protected Areas
Chapter 11- Preshistory andEarly Years
Chapter 12- Indigenous Cultural Groups
Chapter 13- Conserving theNatural Environment
The Challenge
The Response
Drivers of Environmental Degradation and the Solution
Appendix 1- Summary of Geological Timescale andEvents Relevant to the PhilippinesOver the Last 350 Million Years
Appendix 2- Conservation Priority Areas for Plants (Important Plant Areas or Important Plant Sites)
Appendix 3- Examination of Environmental Issues, Causes, Legal Instruments, Opportunities, Needed Responses, and Institutional Capacity
Appendix 4- Tagalog, English, and Scientific NamesCited in the Text
Bibliography
General
Climate, Geology, Water Resources
Biogeography
Flora
Mammals
Amphibians and Reptiles
Birds
Fishes
Invertebrates
Biodiversity
Anthropology
Environmental and Natural Resources Issues
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z

Citation preview

The Philippines A Natural History

The Philippines

A Natural History

Colin Rees

AT E N E O DE MA N I L A UNIV E RSITY P R E SS

ATENEO DE MANILA UNIVERSITY PRESS Bellarmine Hall, Katipunan Avenue Loyola Heights, Quezon City P.O. Box 154, 1099 Manila, Philippines Tel. (632) 426-59-84 / FAX (632) 426-59-09 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.ateneopress.org Copyright © 2016 by Colin Rees First printing 2016 / Second printing 2017 Book design by Paolo Tiausas Cover design by Faith Aldaba Images on the cover courtesy of the following: butterfly: Sam D. Cruz (www.123rf.com); eagle: Philippine Eagle Foundation; tamaraw: Gregg Yan/WWF; Cordillera mountains: Caloy Libosada; pitcher plant and pygmy forest: Mount Hamiguitan PA DENR XI; Banaue rice terraces: Jared M. Koller and The Ifugao Archaeological Project; plankton-eating anthias and grouper: Toppx2/WWF All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the written permission of Publisher.

The National Library of the Philippines CIP Data Recommended entry: Rees, Colin. The Philippines : a natural history / Colin Rees. – Quezon City : Ateneo de Manila University Press, [2016], c2016. xvi, 348 pages : illustrations, maps ; 25.4 cm

ISBN 978-971-550-814-8 Bibliography: pages 311-325

1. Natural history — Philippines — Pictorial works. 2. Biodiversity — Philippines. 3. Agricultural ecosystems — Philippines. 4. Water resources — Philippines. I. Title.

508.599 QH187 2016 P620160149

The publisher acknowledges the support of First Gen Corporation toward the publication of this book.

Contents

List of Figures vii List of Tables ix Weights and Measures x Dedication xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv CHAPTER 1. Pearl of the Orient Seas CHAPTER 2. Topography Luzon Mindoro Visayas Mindanao Palawan Sulu Archipelago





1 6 8 22 25 39 46 55

CHAPTER 3. Climate

59

CHAPTER 4. Oceanography, Tides, and Currents

67

CHAPTER 5. Tectonic and Geological History and Soils 71 Tectonics 71 Surface Geology 77 Physiography 80 Soil Cover 82 Minerals 87 CHAPTER 6. Water Resources

89

CHAPTER 7. Biogeography Terrestrial Biogeographic Regions Marine Biogeographic Regions

96 102 105

CHAPTER 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems 111 Diversity of Flora 112 Overview of the Diversity of Major Ecosystems 117 Philippine Vegetation Types 124 CHAPTER 9. Biodiversity: Fauna 162 Endemism 162 Threatened Fauna 164 Diversity of Fauna 165 CHAPTER 10. Protected Areas

203

CHAPTER 11. Prehistory and Early Years

233

CHAPTER 12. Indigenous Cultural Groups

246

CHAPTER 13. Conserving the Natural Environment 259 The Challenge 259 The Response 272 Drivers of Environmental Degradation and the Solution 281 Codicil 293 Appendix 1. Summary of Geological Timescale and Events Relevant to the Philippines Over the Last 350 Million Years Appendix 2. Conservation Priority Areas for Plants (Important Plant Areas or Important Plant Sites) Appendix 3. Examination of Environmental Issues, Causes, Legal Instruments, Opportunities, Needed Responses, and Institutional Capacity Appendix 4. Tagalog, English, and Scientific Names Cited in the Text

297 298

300 305

Bibliography 311 Index 326

List of Figures

1. Relief map of the Philippines 2. Map of Luzon and Mindoro 3. The Visayan Islands 4. Map of Mindanao and surrounding islands 5. Map of Palawan and the Calamianes 6. Climate map of the Philippines based on the modified Coronas classification 7. Climate typologies in the Philippines 8. Map of paths of typhoons in the Philippines 9. Water circulation around the Philippine Archipelago 10. Philippine Sea Plate 11. Map of Philippine Plate showing major tectonic structures 12. Postulated distribution of land and sea in Southeast Asia in the Cenozoic 13. Map of the Philippines showing the extent of late Pleistocene islands, based on the current 120m bathymetric line 14. Geological map of the Philippines 15. Distribution of some of the active and inactive volcanoes 16. Map of marine physiographic provinces 17. Soil map of the Philippines 18. Offshore areas in the Philippines, with potential for minerals 19. Major river basins of the Philippines 20. Daily mean rainfall distribution in the Philippines 21. The Malesia floristic province 22. Faunal exchange between the Oriental and Australasian Provinces 23. Prehistoric land bridges that connected the Philippines with the rest of Southeast Asia 24. Terrestrial biogeographic zones of the Philippines 25. The six marine biogeographic regions in the Philippines based on coral reef fish communities and associated benthic characteristics 26. Map of the Coral Triangle

vii

7 9 26 38 46 60 61 63 67 72 73 75 76 78 79 81 84 88 90 95 96 97 99 103

106 108

27. Philippine biogeographic areas important for marine conservation planning based on geomorphology, basins, bathymetry, species affinities, and water circulation patterns 109 28. Priority areas in the Philippines for plant conservation 114 29. Two large specimens of Shorea polysperma in a tropical lowland rainforest at 250 m altitude, Silago, Leyte Island 133 30. Profile of lowland dipterocarp forest from Mindanao 134 31. Profile of lower montane forest formation from Mindanao 143 32. Profile of upper montane forest formation from Luzon 145 33. Map of the origin of fruits of the Philippines 155 34. Distribution of seagrass in the waters of the Philippines 159 35. Foodchain in Philippine seagrass ecosystems 161 36. Habitat separation in some common frogs of the Philippines 174 37. Asian migratory bird flyways 179 38. Relationships between resident land bird faunas of the Sundaic region 182 39. Pandaka pygmaea on a Philippine ten centavo coin 190 40. Fisheries exploitation rates in major fishing areas around the Philippines 191 41. Biodiversity of coral reef fishes, showing the location of the Coral Triangle where more than 85 percent of the species in the Indo-Pacific region can be found 192 42. Distribution of coral reefs in the Philippines 193 43. Print of a coconut crab 199 44. A depiction of coastal villages situated on protected bays fronting sandy beaches and riverside settlements in the first millennium 238 45. A Tagalog couple of the Maharlika nobility caste depicted in the Boxer Codex of the 16th century 240 46. Visayan village life in the 17th century 241 47. Languages that have the largest number of speakers in a particular region 244 48. The principal branches of the Malayo-Polynesian language family 245 49. Better-known cultural minorities of the Philippines 247 50. Satellite photos reveal the extent of forest burning by small-scale farmers in much of the Philippines 260 51. Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Plan of Action 262 52. Ultimate drivers of environmental degradation in the Philippines, including habitat loss 283 53. Relationship of ecosystem services to human well-being at global, regional and local levels 285 54. Sierra Madre Corridor 288 55. Map of the Philippines showing protected, partially protected, and unprotected KBAs 289

viii

List of Tables

1. Highest and lowest tides at major tide stations 2. Major soil types in the Philippines 3. Biogeographic zones of the Philippines: Area and quality of biodiversity 4. Biogeographic zones and richness of biodiversity 5. Estimated cover of coral reef area among the different subdivisions depicted in Figure 25 6. Reef fish species observed by class in the six marine biogeographic regions in the Philippines 7. Estimated coral reef cover in the Philippines in six biogeographic regions 8. Eighteen centers of plant diversity in the Philippines 9. Estimated number of species of plants (including algae and fungi) currently known from the Philippines 10. Listing of 17 plant genera with 50 or more species 11. Estimated number of endemic plant species currently known from the Philippines 12. Number of threatened Philippine plants per category 13. The number of faunal species and the percentage of endemicity found in forest ecosystems 14. Uses of angiosperm species in the Philippines 15. Number of documented accessions per crop 16. Comparison of the number of domesticated animals in the Philippines (1991 and 2009) 17. Major plant invasives 18. Major animal invasives 19. Terrestrial vertebrate fauna and freshwater, marine and brackish fish 20. List of threatened Philippine terrestrial fauna and their categories 21. Comparison of endemism in the Philippines and Sunda Shelf Islands 22. Sources of wildlife used by indigenous peoples of the Philippines 23. Strategies and major thrusts of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 24. Strategic actions for conservation priority areas 25. Alliance for zero extinction sites within key biodiversity areas

ix

69 85 104 104 107 107 107 113 114 115 115 116 117 121 122 122 123 123 163 164 165 257 273 276 278

Weights and Measures

1 meter (m)

=

3.28 feet

1 kilometer (km)

=

0.62 miles

1 square kilometer (km2)

=

0.39 square miles

100 hectares (ha)

=

0.39 square miles

1 kilogram (kg)

=

2.2 pounds

10°C

=

50°F

x

Dedication

T

his book celebrates life—of a land and its people. Few places are richer in biological diversity but none so threatened as the Philippines. Unless substantial actions are taken, Jose Rizal’s “Pearl of the Orient Seas” will be but a fading memory. This book is therefore a reflection on what remains and what might be; it is also a call to arms, and in this spirit it is dedicated to Celso Roque, who did so much to protect this staggeringly beautiful archipelago. I had the privilege of living in the Philippines and getting to know its land and seascapes and its people; in particular I had the honor of a deep and lasting friendship with Celso. He and I established the Haribon Foundation for Natural Resources in the mid-1980s. We also spent many hours visiting the islands, holding meetings in towns and villages, poring over manuscripts and pondering new ways to protect the natural environment. Equally at home before a barangay (village) meeting or international symposium, Celso with his acute intelligence lent an eloquent and persuasive force for conservation, deftly using his humor and humanity to help people gain insight into problems, stimulate tractable solutions and mobilize commitment. He did this fully recognizing the needs of the poor and disadvantaged; the poet in him reached into people’s hearts and they responded handsomely. A physicist, Celso took up the conservation cause in the early 1980s, combining academic duties with a senior position in the Philippines’ Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) under the Corazon Aquino administration. In later years, he established the Kabang Kalikasan ng Pilipinas (WWF-Philippines), dedicated to reversing the accelerating degradation of the natural environment and building a future in which Filipinos might live in harmony with nature. He traveled constantly in his homeland and Southeast Asia to pass on his wisdom and insights. Much loved by experts, staff members and students alike, his legacy lives on through the encouragement he imparted. xi

The erosion of biodiversity has reached alarming proportions in the Philippines and many international conservation specialists have proposed to write off the country as a global biodiversity area. If we are to reverse this appalling prospect, our hope must be Celso’s hope: that we find inspiration in life about us, that we treasure and vest in this earth, a shimmering blue beauty as Celso called it, so that the Pearl of the Orient Seas shall endure. Colin Rees Annapolis, USA May 2016

xii

Preface

I

began writing this book while living in the Philippines some twenty-five years ago. Work, including extensive travel intervened and, although the manuscript lay dormant, my mind constantly mulled over its contents and form. Luckily, frequent visits to Manila allowed me to remain abreast of developments through discussions with many Filipino and international experts. But it was the encouragement of Celso Roque’s widow, Maribel Garcia, and the interest of the Ateneo de Manila University in publishing the manuscript that served to resuscitate writing and completion of the book. Chapter 1 sets the scene and establishes themes for the rest of the book. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 review the Philippines’ topography, climate, oceanography, and tides and currents which, along with Chapters 5 and 6 on tectonic and geological history, soils, and water resources, describe factors that have molded the country’s exceptional biological diversity. Chapter 7 examines terrestrial and marine biogeographic regions and explains the derivation and evolutionary steps of the archipelago’s spectacularly diverse ecosystems and flora and fauna. A profile of the Philippines’ biodiversity is provided in Chapters 8 and 9, including component ecosystems, major vegetation types, agriculture and the diversity of fauna along with details on levels of endemicity and threats to species and their habitats. Major protected areas are portrayed in Chapter 10—landscapes and seascapes essentially designed to staunch the alarming erosion of biodiversity. If biogeography has determined the composition of its flora and fauna, man’s imprint has been substantive, and Chapters 11 and 12 briefly describe prehistory and the early years, indigenous cultures and current settlement practice. The concluding chapter (13) offers a panoramic view of the current state of nature and the author’s thoughts on conserving the rapidly diminishing natural resources and biodiversity of the Philippine islands. xiii

Points of interest frequently punctuate the text. Appendixes provide additional information and means to assist local organizations and communities in defending what is left and in meeting ever more complex challenges to protect the natural environment and resource base upon which the future of the Philippines depends. It is hoped that this book will be of special value to teachers and students in schools, colleges and universities in stimulating interest in and commitment to protecting the exceptional landscapes and seascapes of the Philippines. Policymakers concerned about the natural world and its natural resources will also find the book of value as well as Philippine residents and visitors. While common English names of many species have been used along with their binomial designations, e.g., Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), Tagalog names are listed in Appendix 4. For historical dates, the convention “of the common era” (C.E.) and “before the common era” (B.C.E.) has been used: the equivalent to “in the year of the Lord” (Anno Domini, A.D.) and, “before Christ” (B.C.), respectively. Appendix 1 provides the geologic timescale for the Philippines. There are many data on the floral and faunal biodiversity of the Philippines, often with widely ranging numbers on species and degree of endemism and levels of threats to their viability. Frequent discovery of new species means that counts are constantly changing across the board. Consequently, I have used what I consider the most accurate current data. All sources are given appropriate references.

xiv

Acknowledgments

T

here are many I have to thank for formal and informal discussions on the natural history of the Philippines. For those over the years I talked to in the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Philippines, the Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources, the WWF-Philippines (Kabang Kalikasan ng Pilipinas), the United States Agency for International Development, and the Asian Development Bank, I extend my gratitude for their time and help. In Washington D.C., mention must be made of colleagues in Conservation International, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-US), the Secretariat of the Global Environment Facility and the World Bank. Claire Trazenfeld read the draft manuscript and offered valuable comments and suggestions, Tina Castro of Ateneo de Manila University Press provided constant help and guidance, and Maribel Garcia gave much encouragement and sought many a photograph to grace the pages. To them, I extend my many thanks. Lastly, I wish to thank First Gen Corporation for their generous support in publishing the book. To my wife, Valerie must be accorded lasting thanks in encouraging the completion of this book and forbearing the many hours I spent in my study.

xv

Chapter 1

Pearl of the Orient Seas

I

MAGINE A PLACE WITH THE FINEST WHITE SANDY BEACHES, magnificent coral-fringed islands, soaring limestone cliffs, tropical forest from the coast to mountaintops, exotic species of plants and animals, and red sails in the sunset and you are in the Philippines, one of the world’s great treasures. It is an archipelago of over 7,100 islands, extending from north to south along the southeastern rim of Asia. Luzon in the north and Mindanao in the south are the two largest islands comprising most of the land area of the archipelago—equivalent to the United Kingdom, Japan, or the State of Michigan in the United States. The total length of the irregular coastline with numerous bays, gulfs, and islets is about twice that of the United States. The archipelago lies within the “Ring of Fire,” a zone or belt running along the Pacific coasts of North and South America and Asia, and accounts for the complex origin 30 million years ago of the major islands of the Philippines with their varied, rugged, mountainous terrain, shallow interior plains, valleys, many gulfs and coral bays. Numerous mountain peaks ranging from 1,000 m to almost 3,000 m—often formed by volcanoes—are found along the Philippine Fault running from north to south through much of the archipelago. Marked earthquakes occur randomly and there are around 25 active volcanoes, the most recent large volcanic eruption occurring at Mount Pinatubo in Central Luzon in 1991 and causing widespread damage. The warm, humid climate of the Philippines together with its high rain and rich soil has produced a wealth of wildlife, making it one of the world’s top megadiversity countries. Although separated by 241 km, Taiwan and Northern Luzon share floristic affinities and the islands of Palawan, a mere 40 km from Malaysian Borneo, have marked faunistic affinities with both the Philippines and Borneo. There are several centers of biodiversity and the country’s biological wealth has

1

▲ Coron Island, Palawan

Ph oto b y Ko n s ta n ti n K a l is h ko So u rc e: h ttp : / / www. 12 3rf . c o m / p h oto _ 110 9 6 7 7 6 _ k a ya n ga n l a ke- o r- b l u e- l a go o n - c o ro n - is l a n d - p h i l ip p in es . h tm l

been described as “Galapagos times ten.” Of 10,000 species of plants recorded in the country, about 8,120 are native angiosperms (“flowering types”), the rest covering ferns, mosses, liverworts, fungi, and algae. Plant endemism ranges from 45 to 60 percent and certain families and genera reach 70 to 80 percent endemism in the case of primary forest species. There are over 3,800 species of native trees—many now threatened with extinction—and 300 or so introduced tree species. Latest data suggest that there are 900 endemic species of orchids. At the latest count, terrestrial animal species include 206 mammals, 576 birds, 258 reptiles, and 113 amphibians. Endemism averages 59 percent and is high in all 2

The Philippines: A Natural History

cases. Marine mammals number 25 species and fish over 3,000 species of which 329 are freshwater. Larger mammals include monkeys, deer, wild pigs, flying fox bats, and the tamaraw or dwarf buffalo. Crocodiles, geckos, flying lizards, pythons, and sea snakes are among the more obvious reptiles while amphibians include caecilians—worm-like burrowers without any indication of limbs. The Philippines is exceptional for its abundance of endemic birds (ranking fourth in the world). Some rare birds, such as the Philippine eagle, Palawan peacock pheasant, and Philippine cockatoo, are confined to the few remaining undisturbed mountain areas and remain critically endangered. As part of the world’s center of marine diversity, the archipelago possesses some of the most diverse coral flats and reefs supporting over 500 species of “stony” corals and 1,658 coral fish and other associated species. Truly, here is a vast galaxy of biodiversity in Philippines unmatched by the rest of the world. Forests covers an estimated 23 percent of the land area of which only a sixth is old-growth dipterocarp, known locally as Philippine mahogany (meranti or lauan). Over 90 percent of the dipterocarp forests have been lost during the last fifty or sixty years with consequent erasure of many species of fauna and flora endemic to the Philippines and major threats to an estimated 56 mammal species, along with 146 birds, 55 reptiles, 60 amphibians, 116 fish, and 236 plants. Agricultural lands cover about 40 percent of the archipelago, another 14 percent being considered “unproductive” open or bush land created by shifting agriculture (kaingin) or other forms of deforestation. Crops native to the Philippines include the pili nut (used for making cakes and sweets), abaca (harvested for rope), and mangoes, regarded by some as the sweetest in the world. Introduced crops include corn, tobacco, and pineapple. Although water resources become scarce in some regions and seasons, the Philippines as a whole is endowed with plentiful surface and groundwater. However, nearly 60 percent of the groundwater is contaminated and only one third of Philippine river systems are considered suitable for public water supply with water being polluted with untreated domestic and industrial wastewater. By 2025, it is estimated that water availability will be marginal in most major cities and in nearly 50 percent of the major river basins. Manila’s major river—the Pasig—is regarded as one of the world’s most polluted rivers. In the year 2010, more than 60 percent of the total population lived in more than 1,608 towns and cities pressuring water and other natural resources. Continuing environmental deterioration and unsustainable development practices will further aggravate the country’s vulnerability to climate change. Chapter 1. Pearl of the Orient Seas

3

The Philippines is the most-exposed large country in the world to tropical cyclones and their frequency and damage is increasing. The cyclones have determined settlement patterns in the northern islands where many are very sparsely populated. This is not the case in the Visayan islands. In recent times, the deadliest storm, Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda), became the strongest landfalling tropical cyclone ever recorded as it crossed the Central Philippines on November 7–8, 2013. It is estimated to have killed over 6,000 people. The first human populations are thought to have reached the Philippines about 45,000–50,000 years ago. They were of the Australoid and then the proto-Malayan types and their descendants now live in isolated mountain villages. Subsequently, some 7,000–8,000 years in the past, waves of Indo-Malayan migrants arrived venturing inland after driving out coastal inhabitants. New Malayan peoples from Borneo appeared 2,000 years later introducing iron implements and weaponry, and the cultivation of irrigated land. In more recent times, Chinese and Spanish people entered the Philippines and have had a profound impact on its culture. In 2014, the population of the Philippines was estimated at 99.14 million and has been increasing at a rate of about 1.6 percent each year—one of the world’s highest. Demographic projections indicate a level of 153.4 million by 2050. About 95 percent of the population inhabit 11 islands, Luzon and Mindanao accounting for over half. There are 70 minority groups considered to be indigenous while 70 to 170 languages are reckoned to be native to the country, most of which are part of the MalayoPolynesian language branch of the Austronesian language family. The aboriginal inhabitants, the Negritos or Pygmies (also called Aetas), now comprise only a tiny proportion of the total population. Non-indigenous ethnic groups include Hispanic, Chinese, American, European, Arab, Indian, Japanese, and Korean people. Despite its rich natural resources and human capital, the future of the Philippines’ biodiversity and its ecological infrastructure remains uncertain. The Philippines ranks ninth globally for threatened birds and eighth for threatened mammals. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species (2013) assessed 648 species of plants in the Philippines (belonging to 340 genera and 121 families) and lists 236 as critically endangered, or vulnerable. For the 1,935 vertebrate species assessed, 443 are listed as critically endangered, or vulnerable. In 2010, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) listed 19 animal species threatened with extinction and an additional 814 species that are considered vulnerable. Some 13 plants are listed as threatened and 276 as vulnerable. 4

The Philippines: A Natural History

This comprehensive erosion of biodiversity is hastened by unsustainable land use practices, degradation of forest, wetland and coastal and near shore habitats, pollution of air and water, and a high level of poverty and population density. Addressing these increasingly urgent problems will tax the policy, institutional and financial capacities of government as well as civil society at all levels well in the future. In sum, a new paradigm has to emerge if the survival of the unique and vital biological resources of the Philippines is to be assured and a prosperous future is to be sustained. As Attorney Antonio Oposa has said, “Environmental security is the highest form of national security.”

Chapter 1. Pearl of the Orient Seas

5

Chapter 2

Topography

T

H E P H I L I P P I N E S I S A C L U S T E R I N G O F O V E R 7 , 10 0 I S L A N D S , extending about 1, 810 km from north to south along the southeastern rim of Asia and measuring 1,104 km at its widest point. Formed by the complex effects of continental drift, subduction, volcanism, and sedimentation, it is bordered on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the west by the West Philippine Sea (part of the South China Sea). It is separated by the Luzon Strait from Taiwan to the north and from Malaysia and Indonesia by the Celebes Sea to the south. Its total land area is about 300,000 km2 of which only about 700 islands are inhabited, 470 of which are little more than a few square kilometers and two-thirds rocks and reefs, often nameless. The two largest islands, Luzon (103,000 km2) in the north and Mindanao (95,000 km2) in the south, account for 65 percent of the total land area. Between Luzon and Mindanao lie the Visayas Islands. In a deeply incised landscape, numerous mountain peaks range from 1,000 m to almost 3,000 m, carpeted with many forms of tropical vegetation. The total length of the irregular coastline with numerous bays, gulfs, and islets is 36,289 km with bays and coastal waters totaling 266,000 km2. Oceanic waters cover 1,934,000 km2 and the continental shelf area, of about 2,200,000 km2. It is estimated that 16 percent of the Philippines’ territorial waters lies within the 200 m bathymetric line. The Philippine Trench or Mindanao Deep is the world’s second deepest sounding, plunging 10.5 km into the ocean floor some 60 km off the east coasts of Mindanao and the Visayas. The relatively youthful landscape of the archipelago has been evolving upon the crests of great ridges created by the tectonic activity of the Pacific Basin against the vast continents of Asia. Most of the islands have hilly to mountainous interiors, extensive sloping surfaces, narrow irregular coastal fringes and shorelines with coral-rich reefs set in emerald-green seas (Figure 1). Within such physiographic diversity, five main geographic regions may be discerned: Luzon, Mindoro, the

6

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Philippines_relief_location_map.jpg

■ FIGURE 1. Relief map of the Philippines.

Chapter 2. Topography

7

Visayas, Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu Archipelago. Each is a distinct island group with numerous smaller islands dotting their coastlines.

Luzon At 103,000 km2, Luzon is the largest of the Philippine islands and the world’s seventeenth largest island and is characterized by lush mist-laden mountains, vast plains, and coastlines girdled by sandy beaches. Its rectangular-shaped northern half is the main portion, the south consisting of the long Bicol peninsula stretching to the southeast. To the west is the South China Sea (Luzon Sea in Philippine territorial waters), to the east, the Philippine Sea, and to the north, the Luzon Strait containing the Babuyan and Balintang Channels (Figure 2). There are numerous small islands such as Polillo and Catanduanes off the east coast and the Batanes islands lying off the northernmost tip—the latter’s windswept, austere beauty is more like the Scottish Highlands than the tropics. The Batanes is composed of ten islands mostly made up of basalt flows surrounded by reef limestone fringing their shoreline. Limestone terraces are notable features suggesting intermittent emergence. The main island of Batan has the largest share of level or nearly level lands, followed by Itbayat and Sabtang, respectively. Itbayat has gently rolling hills and flattish areas on semi-plateaus surrounded by massive cliffs rising 20 to 70 m above sea level with no shorelines. Sabtang has its small flat areas spread sporadically along its coasts, while steep mountains and deep canyons dominate its interior. Both Batan and Sabtang have rocky coastlines punctuated by small beaches. Tribal people live in remote villages in Luzon much as they have for centuries with strong traditions and animistic beliefs. While industry is concentrated in and around the urban areas of Metro Manila, agriculture predominates in the other regions of the island producing crops such as rice, bananas, mangoes, coconuts, pineapple, and coffee. Other agricultural activities include raising livestock and fishing. Mining is extensive in some localities and tourism deemed important. Three mountain ranges averaging about 1,800 m in height run roughly parallel in a north to south direction along the northern portion of Luzon Island—the Sierra Madre, Cordillera Central, and Zambales Ranges. The rugged Sierra Madre Range courses the length of eastern Luzon, its cliff-fringed Pacific shores with continually pounding surf being relieved by small lowlands at Palanan, Baler, and Dingalan Bays. It is wild and remote, housing the Northern Sierra Madre National Park and is separated from the Cordillera Central to the west by the Cagayan Valley—a north 8

The Philippines: A Natural History

Source: Dickinson et al. 1991.

FIGURE 2. ► Map of Luzon and Mindoro (Inset: The Batanes and the Babuyanes).

to south structural depression of deep alluvial soil. The valley is about 240 km long and 85 km wide and is drained by the Cagayan River which measures 353 km and is the longest river in the country. During the heavy rainfall of the monsoon and typhoon seasons, the river and its tributaries experience extensive flooding. Chapter 2. Topography

9

■ The Cordilleras of Northern Luzon

The rugged Cordillera Central Range, perhaps the most spectacular inland scenery in the Philippines, covers much of the northern part of the island, with a productive coastal strip to its west. Mount Pulag (2,922 m), the highest peak in Luzon supports pine forests which, along with other rounded peaks, give way to mossy forests and grasslands. The highlands bear montane rain forests and are rich in mineral resources, including gold and copper. Such a rugged landscape limits cultivation to valleys, gentler slopes, and terraces, though shifting cultivation 10

The Philippines: A Natural History

Photo by Jared M. Koller and The Ifugao Archaeological Project

(kaingin) is common on marginal land and most agriculture is subsistence. Rice is the traditional winter crop while sweet potato (kamote) is the summer crop. The eastern slopes of Mount Data (2,310 m) was developed into the famous Banaue rice terraces—thought to be 2,000 years old and dubbed “the Eighth Wonder of the World.” Mount Data’s watershed, once thickly forested, had been converted into vegetable farms and only patches of forests remain: pines grow at the base of the mountain and oak forests and at its heights. Such changing land use has caused a Chapter 2. Topography

11

Photo by Jared M. Koller and The Ifugao Archaeological Project

▲ Banaue Rice Terraces

marked decline in wildlife populations and many are under threat. To the north, the Central Cordillera ends in cliffs falling into the Babuyan Channel bordered by a narrow coastal plain containing marshy deltas. Innumerable streams feeding four main rivers drain the Cordillera, and cascades, ravines, and waterfalls are common. Fishing is practiced along much of the coast. The Cordilleras are home to various ethnolinguistic groups (including the famous Ifugao). They tend rice terraces and the land in keeping with the practices of their ancestors. Squeezed between the South China Sea and the narrow Ilocos (Malayan) Range abutting the Cordillera Central, lies a nearly 300 km long inhospitable coastal plain. Short, rushing streams dissect the plain and a few river valleys extend from the hills, partly cultivated, severely eroded and covered with coarse cogon grass. Rivers or streams have deposited gravel on much of the arable land and such a rugged, rocky terrain affords limited agriculture. The 100 km long Laoag River crosses 12

The Philippines: A Natural History

the coastal plain ending in a marshy floodplain. In the south, the hills are covered by cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica), in some cases, by white lead tree (Leucaena leucocephala), and gliricidia (Glircidia sepium) with the alluvial soil of the plains supporting some irrigated riceland. The Caraballo Mountains connect the mountains of the Sierra Madre and the Cordillera Central Ranges, to form the northern boundary of the Central Luzon Plain extending south to Manila Bay. The peaks form the headwaters of the rivers flowing north to northwest of Benguet, northeast of Nueva Vizcaya, east of the southern margin of the Sierra Madre, and south of Nueva Ecija. The Central Luzon Plain is one of the nation’s most important agricultural areas (known as the “rice bowl” of the Philippines) and includes large wetland areas, especially at Candaba near the confluence of the Angat and Pampanga Rivers. Candaba, which represents the lowest point in Central Luzon, is noted for its swamps, the habitat of mudfish and catfish, and has been declared a sanctuary for migratory birds. The plain is bordered on the east by the long, steeply sloping Sierra Madre Range and on the west by Zambales Mountain. Along with the Cagayan River (Rio Grande de Cagayan), it is drained by several other major rivers, notably the Agno and Pampanga. In the middle of the plain sits the solitary Mount Arayat, a tall, conical volcano built up by many layers of ash rising to a height of 1,026 m. There has not been any recorded eruption.

Ifugao Rice Terraces For 2,000 years, the natural contours of the mountains of Ifugao province in the Philippine Cordilleras of northern Luzon have been carefully cultivated with a seemingly endless series of rice terraces that climb hundreds of meters from valley bottoms. The most intact are clustered in four municipalities: 1) the Nagacadan in the municipality of Kiangan with two distinct ascending rows of terraces bisected by a river, 2) the Hungduan, resembling a spider’s web, 3) the central Mayoyao characterized by terraces interspersed with traditional farmers’ bale (houses) and alang (granaries), 4) the Bangaan in the municipality of Banaue that backdrops a typical Ifugao traditional village, and 5) the Batad of the municipality of Banaue nestled in amphitheatre-like, semi-circular terraces with a village at its base. The terraces epitomize a blending of the physical, sociocultural, economic, religious, and political dimensions of Ifugao life and have created a landscape of rare beauty while reflecting a mastery of engineering. They are a complex of stone or mud walls, careful carvings of

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the landscape creating terraced pond fields, coupled with the development of intricate irrigation (harvesting water from the forests of the mountain tops), and an elaborate farming system. The system is based on detailed knowledge of the rich diversity of biological resources embedded in an annual cycle respecting: lunar periodicity, zoning, and planning; extensive soil conservation; and a complex pest control regime with the use of a variety of herbs, reinforced by religious rituals. The Banaue Rice Terraces (Hagdan-hagdang Palayan ng Banaue— also called Payo), built largely by hand, is about 1,500 m above sea level and cover 10,360 km2 of mountainside. Some reckon that if the “steps” were put end to end, they would encircle half the globe. With younger Ifugaos seeking alternative employment (especially tourism), deforestation, and climate change over the last decades, the “steps” fell into disrepair. Consequently, in 2001, the site was placed on the list of the World Heritage sites in danger citing, “threats which required the development of better management and planning.” In June 2012, the World Heritage Committee removed it from the list when protective action had been implemented.

The Zambales Range or Western Cordillera extends south from the Lingayen Gulf through the Bataan Peninsula, the northern part bordered by low rolling hills merging with a small coastal plain built up by short streams draining the western

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The Philippines: A Natural History

slopes. Originally thickly forested, the area lost its trees to boat building by the Spanish and is now overgrown with cogon grass. The Zambales Range rises to 2,037 m and became famous for the enormous eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, producing the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century with surrounding areas being severely damaged by pyroclastic flows, ash deposits, and subsequently, by the lahars (mudflows) caused by rainwaters remobilizing earlier volcanic deposits. This resulted in extensive destruction of infrastructure and changed the river systems from months to years after the eruption. Complicating the eruption was the arrival of Typhoon Yunya (Diding), bringing a lethal mix of ash and rain to areas surrounding the volcano. The area is typified by arable land supports of rice, root crops, vegetables, and mango. Some mangroves survive on the shores of the Lingayen Gulf, home to the Philippines’ first national marine park, the Hundred Islands National Park, containing 123 separate islands. Destructive fishing practices and typhoons have degraded the park’s coral and marine life and its coastal marshes have become fishponds and salt beds. Despite this continuing degradation, some of the rivers support crustaceans and fishes, and oyster farming is being practiced in a few estuaries. Many of the beaches dotted along the western stretch of the Lingayen Gulf, between Bolinao and Dagupan, are working beaches, where people fish in the gulf’s rich waters and mend their nets.

■ One Hundred Islands National Park, Lingayen Gulf

Photo by seanjoh Source: http://www.123rf.com/photo_14132344_panorama-of-hundred-islands-national-alaminos-pangasinan-philippines.html

Bataan Peninsula is a rugged, dissected landscape largely covered in forest. The west coast is steep with spurs forming cliffs and headlands. Rice, vegetables, and root crops are grown on the narrow eastern plain and extensive fishponds have been established along the northern portion of Manila Bay. The rocky Corregidor Island lies 3 km to the south of the Bataan Peninsula, one of the important historic and tourist sites in the country. At the southern end of the Central Luzon Plain, Manila Bay provides one of the finest natural harbors in the world, fed by a number of major rivers often via marshy deltas, mangroves and fishponds. To the southeast of the bay, and joined to it by the Pasig River, is Laguna de Bay, at 922 km2, the third largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. Once a part of Manila Bay and infested by crocodiles, the lake now supports large-scale fish farming and duck raising. Some 20 km southwest of Laguna de Bay lies Lake Taal, with an active volcano at its center—a remnant of what may have been a 5,000 m tall volcano. The volcano contains a massive prehistoric volcano that once covered the southern portion of the province of Cavite, Tagaytay City, and the whole of Batangas province to the south.

Manila Bay Formed some 6,000 years ago, Manila Bay is a large enclosed sea bay fringed by intertidal mud and sand flats, swamps, beaches, and rocky shores. It is saline with freshwater drained from several rivers notably the Pampanga River (contributing about 49 percent of incoming freshwater), Meycauayan River, and Pasig River. The tidal variation is about 1.25 m. Across the entrance to Manila Bay are several islands, the largest of which is Corregidor, along with the island of Caballo, separating the mouth of the bay into the North and South Channels. Of the original 54,000 ha of mangroves existing at the turn of the 20th century, only 794 ha remained in 1995. Predominant are gray or white mangrove (Avicennia marina) together with 15 other species of mangrove belonging to 9 families. Numerous migratory birds use the intertidal mudflats, fishponds, and saltpans in winter and during the migration seasons, including waders such as egrets, herons, sandpipers, and plovers. The coastal waters provide feeding areas for species of terns and gulls, while the mosaic of scrubland, mangroves, and ponds are haven for migratory Siberian rubythroat (Luscinia calliope), Arctic warbler (Phylloscopus borealis), oriental reed warbler (Acrocephalus orientalis), resident

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The Philippines: A Natural History

collared kingfishers (Todiramphus chloris), barred rail or (Gallirallus torquatus), and common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus). The endangered Chinese egret (Egretta eulophotes) and endemic bar-bellied cuckoo-shrike (Coracina striata) have been sighted in the area. Large numbers of commercial fish species, such as snappers, sea catfish, and mackerels were once abundant in these waters. Their decline ushered in the limited appearance of squid, shrimp, and small pelagic species such as herrings and anchovies. Environmental pressures from multiple sources continue to degrade the bay’s ecosystem, including pollution discharges from land, sea-based sources, overfishing, uncontrolled coastal development, and habitat degradation. These have also resulted in costs to human health, social services and infrastructure. In response, the Government of the Philippines drew up an Operational Plan for Manila Bay Coastal Strategy in 2005 as part of the Manila Bay Environmental Management Project. Recent proposals for additional reclamation are subject to considerable opposition. Today, Manila Bay still remains important for commerce and industry, including fishing, although rapid urban growth and industrialization are contributing to a decline in water quality and deteriorating habitats. It also serves as an area for recreation in Metro Manila and is a popular destination for walks and for viewing the sunset. Much of the land fronting the bay along Metro Manila is reclaimed land.

The mountain system of this middle region of Luzon includes Mount Makiling (1,109 m), Mount Cristobal (1,470 m), Mount Banahaw (2,177 m), and the Tagaytay Ridge overlooking Lake Taal. Past eruptions of Taal Volcano have endowed the region with fertile soil and substantial production of rice, sugarcane, coconuts, peanuts, cacao, corn, and root crops as well as fruits and flowers. There are many hot springs at the foot of Mount Makiling and the surrounding region is being developed for geothermal energy. Mount Makiling is a forest reservation whose care is designated to the University of the Philippines, Los Baños. It holds approximately 2,048 species of plants many represented in Makiling Botanical Gardens. Lake Taal In prehistoric times, an eruption of exceptional force caused the disintegration of a 5,000 m magnificent peak which once stood in the region. A portion of the peak was blown to pieces, but the rest subsided to form a vast crater now partially filled by Lake Taal. Currently, in the middle of Lake Taal there is a crater lake on Volcano Island—the world’s

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So u rc e : e n . wi k i p e d i a . o r g / wi k i / Ta a l _ L a ke

◄ Satellite Image of Lake Taal largest lake on an island in a lake (Lake Taal) on an island (Luzon). Known as the Main Crater Lake, it contains its own small island, Vulcan Point. Once an arm of Balayan Bay, after a series of major eruptions in the 18th century, Taal’s sole connection to the sea narrowed down to the Pansipit River. Several centuries of precipitation have diluted the lake’s saline waters to freshwater. Many endemic species have adapted to the lake’s freshening waters including the giant trevally (Caranx ignobilis), the overharvested freshwater sardine (Sardinella tawilis), the gobies Gnatholepis volcanus, and Rhinogobius flavoventris. The lake is also home to one of the world’s rarest sea snakes, such as the Philippine freshwater sea snake or Garman’s sea snake (Hydrophis semperi). The bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas) was exterminated in the 1930s. The jaguar guapote (Parachromis managuensis) was introduced illegally into the lake and its presence may seriously affect the native fish population. In January 2008, the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) announced that a fish kill caused the loss of 50 MT of cultured tilapia and 6,000 giant trevally fish with low dissolved oxygen being the cause of their deaths. In May 2011, BFAR announced a fish kill of 750 MT caused by the onset of the rainy season bringing a sudden drop in water temperature and lowering the oxygen levels in the lake. In 1996, the lake was established as the Taal Volcano Protected Landscape. Source: Hargrove 1991.

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The Philippines: A Natural History

P h o t o b y G r e g g Ya n / W W F

■ Mount Mayon: The Perfect Cone

The southeastern portion of Luzon is dominated by the Bicol Peninsula, a mountainous and narrow region that extends approximately 150 km southeast, the first part of which is an extension of the Sierra Madre. Numerous gulfs and bays indent the coastline. In the north is Lamon Bay containing Alabat Island south of the Polillo Islands. Peaks of over 250 m form the interior highlands and is home to one of the rarest reptiles on the planet, the Gray’s monitor (Varanus olivaceus)—a highly endangered relative of the Komodo dragon—and at least seven endemic species and subspecies of fauna and numerous other biologically important species. Further bays and gulfs include San Miguel Bay, Lagonoy Gulf, Ragay Gulf, and Sorsogon Bay considered among the richest fishing grounds in the country. Though the terrain is extremely rugged, fertile volcanic soil, and heavy rainfall make well over 50 percent of the area agriculturally productive with rice, abaca, and coconuts as the main crops. Here is found the 2,462 m high Mount Mayon, an active volcano with one of the world’s largest symmetrical volcanic cones—often described as the most beautiful in the world—and the extinct volcanoes of Mount Masaraga and Mount Malinao. Scattered around the volcanic slopes are fertile plains and valleys intersected by small rivers and creeks. Other notable mountains are Mount Isarog (1,976 m), Mount Iriga (1,195 m), and Mount Bulusan (1,559 m and an active volcano). Mount Iriga is surrounded by three lakes—Baao, Bato, and Buhi—with land under cultivation and forest, grassland, and swamp. Lake Buhi is famous for the goby sinarapan (Mistichthys luzonensis), one of the world’s increasingly rare, smallest freshwater fish. The eastern coast of the peninsula is very irregular with deep and extensive coastal embayments with the compact, mountainous island of Catanduanes, the shallow waters of the Maqueda Channel separating it from the mainland. It is southern Luzon’s first defense against typhoons with heavy rains absorbed by largely intact rainforest. Leading to the island is the Caramoan Peninsula. Off the Chapter 2. Topography

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The Sinarapan The sinarapan is one of the world’s smallest commercially harvested fish. It is endemic to the Bicol Region, specifically to Lake Buhi, Lake Bato, Bicol River, and other bodies of water in Camarines Sur province. The sinarapan is a type of goby and transparent, except for the black eyes, and average 12.5 mm in length. Males are smaller than females. Today, the sinarapan is threatened with extinction due to overfishing wherein a very high proportion of immature sinarapan or an excessive proportion of adults are caught or die from fishing operations. Overfishing has also been manifested with the sudden occurrence of young sinarapan that fishers mistake as “worms,” freshwater shrimp, silver perch, or white goby. Sinarapan rise to the surface with the diurnal movement allowing fishermen to capitalize on this habit by providing a roosting place in which they gather in swarms. They are fried or boiled and served with vegetables and are regarded as a delicacy.

southeast tip of the Bicol Peninsula is Samar Island, separated from the mainland by the San Bernardino Strait. Rich fishing grounds surround the peninsula. Off the southwestern portion of Luzon are the islands of Mindoro and the Verde Island Passage connecting the South China Sea to the east with the Tayabas Bay. To the south of the bay is the “heart-shaped” island of Marinduque between Tayabas Bay in the north and Sibuyan Sea to the south. The highest peak is Mount Malindig (formerly called Mount Marlangga), a potentially active volcano with an elevation of 1,157 m. Marinduque (considered the geographical center of the Philippine archipelago) is surrounded by coral reefs. It is an agricultural province primarily growing rice and coconuts. Cattle are raised on the grassy uplands and rich offshore fishing grounds are supplemented by extensive fishponds. Until the Marcopper mining disaster, the island benefited from mining revenues. With its many butterfly farms, Marinduque can be considered as the “butterfly capital of the Philippines.” All four climate regimes experienced in the Philippines are found in Luzon. Western Luzon from Ilocos through Manila to Batangas has a wet season from June through October and a dry season from November to May. The Cagayan Valley and a portion of Tayabas Bay have no pronounced wet seasons, being relatively dry from 20

The Philippines: A Natural History

Photo by Edwino S. Fernando

November through May. The northeast coast down the Sierra Madre range and the Ragay Gulf, Bicol, have evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year. The Pacific side of Quezon and Bicol has no dry season with pronounced heavy rains from November through February. Typhoons occur from time to time. There are at least 31 endemic species of mammals on the island of Luzon. Sixtyeight percent of all known native non-flying mammals are endemic to the area (23 of 34). Nearly 70 percent of all native reptiles (about 160 of 235), Myer’s Snake (Myersophis alpestris) are found only in the northern highlands of Luzon. The Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), the second-largest eagle in the world, is found primarily in the Sierra Madre mountain range of Luzon though very few are left. The Sierra Madres provide one of the largest areas of intact rainforest in the Philippines thereby maintaining the naturally high level of biodiversity and protection of many species of threatened birds and other wildlife. In 2004, a presidential proclamation established the Quirino Protected Landscape covering 206,875 ha in northeastern Luzon. There is also the Quezon Protected Landscape, covering about 164 km of lowland rainforest in Southern Sierra Madres.

Agathis philippinensis

Agathis philippinensis occurs in upland tropical rainforest at 450-2,200 m, rarely as low as 250 m in northern Luzon. It is the northernmost species of Agathis, occurring north to the Cayayan islands north of Luzon Chapter 2. Topography

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Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Beach_North_Mindoro_Philippines.jpg

▲ Beach along northern Mindoro

Mindoro Mindoro, the country’s seventh largest island, lies just south of Luzon being separated by the narrow Verde Island Passage. Romblon lies to the east and Palawan some 80 km across the Mindoro Strait. Though it sits on the ancient Sunda Shelf, Mindoro is geologically and biologically more closely related to Palawan and Borneo than to the rest of the Philippines. Largely mountainous with steep, serrated ridges, and deep valleys, much of the island is covered with secondary forest, the original forest having been destroyed by slash-and-burn cultivation (kaingin) and logging. There are two major highland systems, one centered on Mount Halcon (2,587 m) in the north, the other on Mount Baco (2,487 m) in the south. The widest lowlands border the northeast and east coasts and with sporadic narrow plains to the west. Several major drainage or river systems flow on a generally westerly course: Mamburao, Pagbahan, Mompong, Biga, Lumintao, Busuanga, and Canturoy. Stands of Mindoro pine (Pinus merkusii) occur at 600 m or less in the north of the island. Lake Naujan, lies to the northeast on a moderately wide coastal lowland. The lake, partly bordered by extinct Quaternary volcanoes, is known for its fish and seasonal flocks of waterfowl from Siberia; it is also the breeding ground of the endemic Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), also known as the Mindoro crocodile 22

The Philippines: A Natural History

or the Philippine freshwater crocodile. Rocky cliffs, limestone bluffs, beach, marsh, and mangrove characterize the varied coastline. The Verde Island Passage is at the apex of the so-called Coral Triangle—covering much of the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia waters—being regarded as the “global center of marine biodiversity.” The Passage possesses the most endemic species in the “center” and includes 2,983 individual species of algae, corals, crustaceans, mollusks, fish and marine reptiles, and mammals. Tropical rainforest covers the interior and northwest of Mindoro, as extensive grasslands interspersed with forest stands, occur on the western slopes of the mountains. Rice, maize (corn), sugarcane, fruits (bananas, lanzones, rambutan), and coconuts are the main crops. Cattle, pigs, carabao, goats, and poultry are raised on much of the island. Fish are taken from coastal waters and ponds while secondary forest products, such as rattan and nipa, are used for handicrafts. Marble is quarried, coal reserves are being mined, and there are deposits of chromite ore. Logging is common. The climate is dry from November to April and wet during the rest of the year. The island lies in the path of destructive typhoons. Mindoro is renowned for the tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), a dwarf buffalo surviving in remote areas, especially the rugged Mount Iglit-Baco National Park. Three reserves are established for the remaining few hundred individuals.

P h o t o b y G r e g g Ya n / W W F

Group of ► Tamaraw

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Endangered Species: The Tamaraw The tamaraw is one of the smallest wild cattle, standing about 1.2 m high at the shoulder, with short thick-set horns, slightly curved at the tips. Though its general appearance resembles a diminutive water buffalo, it is of stocky build and its ferocity more than compensates for its small stature. The species is endemic to the island of Mindoro and has never been recorded in any other location. Early reports indicate that before the exploitation of Mindoro’s forests, when the human population was still sparse, the tamaraw was widely distributed throughout the island. Although it frequents the lowlands near swamps and marshlands, it is found in open grasslands and forests, and climbs to elevations of 2,000 m or more. It has been estimated that 10,000 tamaraw occurred on Mindoro in 1900; by 1949 numbers had dwindled to about 1,000 and by 1953 to fewer than 250. In 1969, a field survey could only locate three small populations totaling about 100 animals. A 1973–1974 study estimated the total population to be 150–200 of which 70–80 or more occurred in the Mount Iglit area. At present, the species has been reduced to three still-viable populations in Mount Iglit-Baco National Park, around Mounts Aruyan/Sablayan, and in Mount Calavite, totaling about 300 animals. Despite government regulations and conservation efforts, the tamaraw continues to suffer habitat loss (due to farming, cattle ranching, and development of infrastructure), diseases from livestock, and illegal hunting. A captive breeding program was initiated in 1982 in Mount IglitBaco National Park with 21 individuals. Unfortunately, only very few animals are being born, and as of 2006 only two tamaraw remained at the breeding center. The latest count conducted in 2012, yielded 327 in the wild. Source: http://www.ultimateungulate.com/ Artiodactyla/Bubalus_mindorensisFull.html

Some 33 km off Mindoro’s midwestern coast lies Apo Reef, a magnificent double atoll, whose waters abound with marine life. It was declared a National Marine Park in 1996 and its crystal clear waters teem with over 300 species of fish, blacktip sharks (Carcharhinus limbatus), hammerhead sharks (Sphyrnidae), manta rays (Mobulidae), and lobsters. Turtles swim above spectacular corals, including huge gorgonians. Although persistent dynamite fishing transformed great portions of the reef into sparsely populated rubble with great loss of species, Apo Reef is being protected: illegal fishing has been stopped, and the reef appears to be recovering. 24

The Philippines: A Natural History

Photo by Macoy Mejia S o u r c e : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apo_Reef#/ media/File:Apo_Island_of_Apo_Reef_Natural_Park.jpg

▲ Apo Reef

The island hosts many bird species, including the endangered Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica). The indigenous people of Mindoro are the Mangyans (Mañguianes in old Tagalog), consisting of seven distinct tribes. They have inhabited the island since pre-history and occupy the interior, especially the highlands. Their untitled lands have been taken by lowlanders.

Visayas The Visayan Islands (or Visayas) are grouped around the Visayan Sea lying between Luzon and Mindanao but belonging structurally to neither. They are sun-soaked, full of white, palm-fringed beaches and include the major islands of Masbate, Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Cebu, Negros, and Panay. Together with the numerous other smaller islands within the Visayas, they constitute 21 percent of the total land area of the Philippines (Figure 3). Most of the islands have mountainous interiors, though the Leyte Valley, the Iloilo Plain on Panay, and the plains of northern and Chapter 2. Topography

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Source: Dickinson et al. 1991.

▲ FIGURE 3. The Visayan Islands.

western Negros have sizeable lowland areas. The eastern coastlines are characterized by a series of small deltaic lowlands, isolated from one another by mountain spurs. Some 100 small islands, islets, mudflats, and rocky areas surround Samar; many of the small islands are tops of recent submarine volcanoes. The Visayans fall into three distinct cultural-linguistic groups—the Warays (Eastern Visayas), the Cebuanos (Central Visayas), and the Ilonggos (Western Visayas). The arrow-shaped island of Masbate lies at the center of the Philippine archipelago bounded on the north by the Burias and Ticao Pass, on the east by San Bernardino Strait, on the south by the Visayan Sea, and on the west by the Sibuyan Sea. It possesses two relatively low and frequently discontinuous highland ranges, 26

The Philippines: A Natural History

the higher of the two being aligned northwest-southeast and forming the long southern peninsula arm of the island. Rugged conditions are concentrated in the northeastern portion, gradually receding to blunt hills and rolling areas to the south, southeast, and southwest. Most land adjacent to the mountains is covered with tall stands of cogon and other wild grasses growing in the wake of deforestation. In the north, hills fall directly to the sea, including sheer limestone cliffs at the northwest tip. Much of the coastline is indented with several bays and coral reefs lie off the west and south coasts. The long and narrow Ticao and Burias Islands, separated from Masbate by the Masbate Pass, are rugged with little level land, their sea waters abounding with fishes, corals, and many other forms of marine life. Masbate is endowed with rich natural resources supporting large farming, livestock, and poultry raising activities; and along its coastal areas, rich fishing. Agricultural lands are planted with rice, corn, root crops, coconut, and bamboo. The province is one of the richest areas in the country in terms of gold, copper, silver, iron, manganese, and chromite. However, Masbate lies in the direct path of typhoons which often damages its natural resources and economy. The easternmost islands of Samar and Leyte act as a buffer for others against the full force of storms and typhoons originating from the Pacific Ocean. Samar Island lies southeast of Luzon and occupies the northernmost section of Eastern Visayas. It is separated from Luzon on the north by San Bernardino Strait and from Leyte on the southwest, by the narrow San Juanico Strait. Bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Leyte Gulf, and on the west by the Samar Sea, Samar is hilly, with mountain peaks ranging from 200 m to 800 m and narrow lowlands in coastal peripheries or in the alluvial plains and deltas of large rivers. The largest lowlands are located along the northern coast extending up to the valleys of Catubig River and Catarman River. Smaller lowlands in Samar are to be found in the Calbayog area of northern Samar and on the deltas and small valleys of Gandara River (west coast) and Ulot River (east coast). Slopes are generally steep and deforested. Runoff waters after heavy rains often induce flooding in low-lying areas and the erosion of the mountains is enlarging the coastal plains of the island. The Sohoton Natural Bridge National Park in western Samar is known for its striking geological formations, especially the Sohoton Natural Bridge and various caves. The park also features rivers and waterfalls with clear waters and is very rich in wildlife. In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan, the Portuguese explorer whose expedition resulted in the first circumnavigation of the world, first set foot in the Philippines on the southern island of Homonhon at the entrance of Leyte Gulf. Chapter 2. Topography

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Photo by Mike Wright Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ trota/401278325/in/album-72157594581841788/

■ Sohoton Natural Park

Leyte, a detached peninsula of Samar, has a central rugged mountain range running north-south (the Central Cordillera), with the Philippine Fault passing through it, and peaked by extinct volcanoes. To the north is Biliran Island with its numerous waterfalls (said to have the sweetest water in the world) and rice terraces. It is joined to Leyte by a narrow bridge across the Biliran Strait. To the south, Leyte is separated from Mindanao by the Surigao Strait connecting the Bohol Sea with Leyte Gulf. Leyte is partially forested and mountainous with numerous rivers flowing to the coast. The fertile, alluvium-filled Leyte Valley (one of the largest contiguous lowland areas in the Visayas) lies to the east; to the west, lies a comparatively flat highland. Both areas grow agricultural crops, including rice, corn, abaca, and coconuts. Leyte receives rain year-round and is especially exposed to typhoons coming off the Pacific. Southern Leyte wraps around Sogod Bay endowed with vast array of both soft and hard coral, nudibranchs, pygmy seahorses (Hippocampus bargibanti), pipefish (Syngnathinae), frogfish (Antennariidae), humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), and from early November to late April, whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) visit the bay for krill, jellyfish, and plankton. There are a few small islands fringing Leyte with notable white, sandy beaches and coral. Deep-water channels dissect the grouping of Cebu, Negros, and Panay. The islands are important to agriculture and form the commercial center of the region. The 225 km long, narrow island of Cebu has a central range traversing almost its 28

The Philippines: A Natural History

entire length (peaking at 1,013 m in the central region), a very irregular narrow coastline comprising alternating valleys, and ridges reaching down from the central uplands to coastal plains. Level land is limited to discontinuous coastal lowlands to the east and west of the central range. Though covered by forests until Spanish times, subsequent extensive deforestation in the 19th century led to extensive soil erosion and loss of productive land. Drought is another limiting factor but many crops and fruits are cultivated. Cebu is famous for high-quality mangoes. The mining of valuable mineral deposits found in the mountains have also taken its toll on the neighboring land. Central and southern areas of Cebu are relatively dry from January to May and relatively wet from June to October. Severe drought often occurs between February and April.

Cebu: A Haunted Landscape When the Spanish came to the Philippines in the middle of the 16th century, cotton was grown for domestic use all over the islands. On Cebu, especially the island’s southernmost portion, cotton-growing and the weaving of cotton fabrics developed beyond domestic needs and became an important large-scale industry with very active trade with China and other Asian countries. With the establishment of Spanish sovereignty, Cebu’s trading contacts were abruptly cut off and the island’s traditional cotton market suddenly terminated. Because of the diminished ability to barter rice with neighboring islands and the rugged topography of the island, the islanders turned to planting Indian corn (maize) from South America. From the end of the 16th century to the beginning of the 19th, Cebu was once again sustained by cotton exports to Mexico and local demand. Then in the second decade of the 19th century, the galleon trade with Mexico ended and a flood of English textile goods poured into the Philippines. By the middle of the 19th century, the island’s once vibrant cotton industry faded to extinction. Yet again, cotton plants were uprooted and land was turned over to the cultivation of corn. For the past 200 years, a vicious cycle has haunted Cebuano farmers: on one hand because of the diminishing productivity of soil, they were impelled to undertake the more extensive and intensive planting of the corn from year to year; conversely, such cultivation of a clean-culture crop exhausted the land through rampant erosion and reduced yields to sub marginal levels. Source: Echevarria 1974.

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Cebu has 167 surrounding islands, including Mactan, Bantayan, Malapascua, Daanbantayan, Olango, and the more remote Camotes Group. Olango Island supports mudflats and mangroves and is the Philippines’ most important site for some 50,000 migratory wetland birds en route to Australia. Sandy beaches dominate Cebu’s northern tip and the southwest coast. Coral is particularly impressive around Malapascua Island and the marine sanctuary of Gato Island—a popular breeding ground for sea snakes (balingkasaw) and for frequent sightings of pelagic thresher sharks (Alopias pelagicus) off Monad Shoal. The Camotes Islands, lying between Cebu and Leyte, are renowned for the white-sand beaches whose extensive slopes on the tiny Talog Manuc Island are covered with table and other hard coral inhabited with reef fish. Sumilon Island off Cebu’s southeastern tip is the Philippines’ first municipal marine park which was declared so in 1974. It supports healthy coral reefs with high diversity of corals, schools of jacks (Carangidae), surgeonfish (Acanthuridae), and fusiliers (Caesionidae). Cebu is separated from Negros by the deep, narrow Tañon Strait, from Leyte by the Camotes Sea, and from Bohol by the Bohol Strait. Negros and Panay, west of Cebu, are roughly similar in area and have sizable lowland plains supporting intensive agriculture. Extensive forest once occupied the mountainous portions of Negros and, until the recent introduction of aquaculture, mangrove, and nipa palm thrived on portions of the northern shoreline of Panay. Sandwiched between Panay and Cebu, Negros is an elongated island with a broad Central Cordillera running nearly its length and a double cluster of uplands at the southern end. The central range of mountains, separating Negros Oriental from Negros Occidental, is crowned by a series of volcanic peaks—Mandalagan (1,879 m), Silay (1,534 m), Sicaba Diutay (1,536 m), and Lantawan (1,049 m), and has been deeply dissected by erosion resulting in steep slopes although still possessing some stands of rainforest. Several small crater lakes lie in the mountains, including Lake Danao and Lake Balinsasayao to the northwest of Dumaguete City, the provincial capital. Lake Danao supports a thriving fishery and most of the local residents are dependent on the fish sticks, including a number of introduced species. The surrounding dipterocarp forest is rich in bird life. Negros is generally dry from December to May and wet from June to October. The Spaniards named the island Negros after its Negrito inhabitants, now a relatively small population and called Mamanwas, Ati, or Aata. Other indigenous people include the Bukidnon, Magahat, and Karolanos. The steep-sided, deeply eroded Cuernos de Negros (“Horns of Negros”) mountains of Negros Oriental—some 1,903 m high and always cloud-shrouded—are close 30

The Philippines: A Natural History

P h o t o b y R o b e r t o Ve r z o Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/verzo/2764514399/

▲ Boracay, Panay: The purest white sand and crystal clear water

to the shoreline at the southern end of the island. A sloping alluvial plain lines the southwest coast. At the northern end, astride the provincial boundary, is Mount Kanlaon (Canlaon), the highest peak on the island (2,465 m) and an active volcano. Kanlaon and its forested slopes form a national park with waterfalls, hot springs, gorges, and rock formations. Flora includes mossy forest, orchids, ferns, fauna, the rare bleeding-heart pigeon (Gallicolumba luzonica) and Philippine spotted deer (Rusa alfredi). The twin crater lakes of Balinsasayao and Danao are surrounded by virgin forest full of wildlife and is home for the indigenous Bukidnon people. With its vast fertile land resources, the primary crops of Negros Oriental are sugarcane, corn, coconut, and rice. There are cattle ranches, fishponds, and timberlands. Gold, silver, and copper deposits are mined in some areas. Fishing is the main source of income along the coast and coral reefs ring the coralline island of Siquijor off the southeast tip of Negros. Fossils of the giant clam (Tridacna gigas), are often encountered in the plowed inland fields. On the hilltops, there are numerous shells of the molluscan species presently living in the seas around the island. Chapter 2. Topography

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Negros Occidental, known as the “Sugarbowl of the Philippines,” supports broad coastal plains and gentle slopes of fertile volcanic soil making it one of the larger Philippine lowlands. The plains are drained by several rivers, including the Ilog, Binalbagan, and Bago. Only 3 percent of the island’s original forest remains with much of the land producing over half of the country’s sugar; other crops include rice, corn, coconuts, vegetables, and fruit. Fishponds dot the shoreline and fishing industries are found in the major cities. One of the country’s largest open pit copper mine (Sipalay) is located on the edge of the Tablas Plateau in the southwest. Tailings ponds collapsed from homes during 1982–1996 and damaged more than 1,000 ha of agricultural land and uprooted many families. Panay is located southeast of Mindoro and northwest of Negros separated by the Guimaras Strait. To the north is the Sibuyan Sea and the islands of Romblon; to the southwest is the Sulu Sea and the Panay Gulf. It is a relatively broad island, with its main mountain range to the west leaving a rain shadow on the narrow western seaboard and a broad, fertile valley in the center and low range to the east. The range is crowned by a series of rugged and deeply dissected volcanic peaks of which Mount Madja-as is the tallest at 2,117 m. Most of Panay’s original forest cover has been replaced with cogon grass and second-growth forest. In the north and south, relatively wide coastal and river plains supporting many rice and sugar-growing areas have spread inland to the interior hills, home of the Negritos and other indigenous groups such as the Sulod and Mundos. The island has many rivers, including Aklan, Banica, Iloilo, and Panay. Bulabog Putian, a National Park to the north of the capital Iloilo is a nature reserve with limestone outcrops and 34 caves. It is home to monkeys, red junglefowl (Gallus gallus), 18 bat species, endemic snails, and native orchids. Panay is famous for its white sandy beaches, one of its islands—Boracay— being awarded as the best island in the world by an international travel magazine. However, rapid development and lack of waste management impair unique qualities. There is still hope that the preparation of a full scale environmental impact statement has set the framework for the integration of environmental concerns in guidelines for site planning, physical development and management. North of Panay are the Romblon Islands of which Tablas is the largest and a stepping stone to Romblon and the Sibuyan Islands. Sibuyan with its dense forestry, ferns, and orchids is home to five unique mammal species—including the Philippine tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene rabori)—and has been dubbed by some local and international natural scientists as “the Galapagos of Asia” because of its isolation 32

The Philippines: A Natural History

Primary Forests of Negros Island

Tomorrow?

The scale of the rapid and wholesale destruction of the Negros forests is illustrated by the picture to the left. Today, probably less than 3.5 percent of the original primary forest remains intact. The result: when typhoon “Nitang” with torrential rain washed down the bare hillsides, it carried the sparse topsoil with it into the sea. Estuaries silted homes were washed away and livelihoods destroyed. The water supply for the city of Bacolod was endangered. An educational campaign was initiated by local people to stress the importance of the forest cover. Every week, a team of educationalists journeyed to the watershed to meet the local people, give talks, and show pictures to explain the benefits of maintaining the forest. Now the normal practice of slash and burn agriculture (and exhaustion of the thin forest soil) is giving way to replanting these areas with indigenous trees so that the forest will be regenerated. Recent estimates place forest cover on the island around 50,110 hectares or less than 4% of its original cover. Source: Negros Forest Ecological Foundation Inc. n.d. (http://www.quantum-conservation.org/PROJECTS/SEASIA/PHILIPPINES/NFEFI.html)

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■ Aerial view of Sibuyan Island

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibuyan_Island#/media/File:Sibuyan_Island.JPG

from the rest of the Philippine archipelago since its formation. One study identified 1,551 trees in a single hectare, with 123 species of trees, 54 being found nowhere else in the world. Hence, it has been proclaimed as one of the world’s most diverse and dense forests. There are estimated to be 700 vascular plant species, 131 species of birds, and 10 species of fruit bats. Many dwelling mammals, reptiles, and rodents remain to be fully catalogued. Five species of threatened mammals, one fruit bat, four rodents, seven lizards, two amphibians, and three birds are endemic to Sibuyan. Due to the steep slopes, over 30 percent of the original forest remains untouched; most of the lower altitude forest has been logged or is secondary. Mount Guiting-Guiting Natural Park (“the saw-toothed mountain”) is remarkable for its outstanding scenery with twin towering peaks set amid largely intact closed canopy forest and inclusion of the entire elevational gradient from lowland dipterocarp forest (at 200–900 m) and mangroves, through montane forest (above 700 m) to mossy forest, heathland and montane grassland around the peaks (2,058 m). For Filipinos, Romblon is famous for marble, said to be the strongest in the world and compared to Italy’s Carrara because of its spectrum of shades ranging from white to black and tints of mottled white, tiger white, onyx, and jade. Sibuyan’s rich flora and fauna is threatened by an emerging mining industry and has led to the formation of Sibuyanons Against Mining. 34

The Philippines: A Natural History

■ The “Chocolate Hills,” Bohol

Photo by Ann Dudko Source: http://www.123rf.com/photo_37815348_view-of-the-chocolate-hills-bohol-philippines.html

Situated in the middle of the Visayas, Bohol is an oval-shaped island whose mountainous southern portion is cut by deep gullies and gorges in elevated coralline limestone. In the north, the overlying volcanic materials have been weathered into level land with broad valleys and rolling hills; in the center are found the perfect domes of the 1,776 so-called “Chocolate Hills” (magotes) ranging from 30 m to 60 m in height. They are considered one of the Philippines’ natural wonders being made of limestone left over from coral reefs during the ice age when the island was submerged. Their name is derived from the brown color they turn into during the summer. The island is drained by many streams and four substantial rivers: the Inabanga and the Ipil in the north, and the Abatan and the Loboc flowing through deep ravines and gorges in the hillier south. The south’s rugged limestone terrain, with its waterfalls and hundreds of caves, drops sharply to sea level from a maximum of 850 m and the west, south and east coasts are characterized by forest and grassland and some remaining swamplands stocked with fishponds. The main agricultural areas are in the central plateau and in the north’s alluvial lowlands. Rice, corn, and coconuts are the staples, supplemented by root crops and bananas. There are extensive grazing lands and fishing is important in towns beside the Camotes Sea. Manganese is mined on Anda Plateau. Unlike Luzon and the northern part of the Visayas, Bohol Chapter 2. Topography

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is mostly unaffected by the numerous typhoons that hit the country. The weather is mostly mild all year round, generally dry, with maximum rainfall between the months of June and October. White sandy beaches characterize the coast and numerous islets have similar, yet untouched and pristine beaches whose sand is often of such high quality that it is exported to many parts of the world. The 75 small islands surrounding the west, north, and northeastern coasts of Bohol support coral reefs of variable quality. Panglao Island off Bohol’s southern coast is connected by a bridge to the mainland; its coral is severely depleted but there are still turtles and fish. To the east is Pamilacan Island (“nesting place of manta rays”) on whose northwest side are abundant clams, anemones, schools of surgeonfish, a few sweetlips (Lethrinidae), and groupers (Epinephelinae) protected in a marine reserve. It is also home to whales and dolphins earning the name “cetacean central.” Not surprisingly, the area has a long history of hunting whales and manta rays although the ban on catching and selling of manta rays is still in place, enforcement varies and the cultural practice of eating manta ray meat persists. To the south of Panglao Island is another popular diving destination, Balicasag Island, which is also a marine reserve with a well-protected coral reef. Bohol is separated from Cebu by the Bohol Strait and from Leyte by the Canigao Channel, while the north is washed by the Camotes Sea. Bohol’s mountainous interior is home to rare and endangered flora and fauna, including the Philippine flying lemur (Cynocephalus volans) and the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta).

At Risk: The Philippine Tarsier and the Philippine Flying Lemur The Philippine tarsier is one of the smallest known primates, no larger than a human hand. With enormous eyes—the biggest relative to the body weight of any mammal—it has large, membranous ears set on its rounded head and short forelimbs. The greatly elongated tarsals of its hind-limbs (a feature which is reflected in its name) culminate in rounded pads and opposable toes that provide an effective grip on any surface. Its fingers and toes have flattened

36

The Philippines: A Natural History

nails, except for the second and third toes which have claw-like nails used in grooming. The tarsier has wavy fur with a silky texture, ranging in color from buff or greyish-brown to dark brown. Mostly active at night, the tarsier feeds on small lizards, frogs, and insects. It occurs on the islands of Bohol, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao in both secondary and primary forests (although it is most abundant in the latter), from sea level up to 750 m. It is found at lower densities in edge habitats and secondary growth with many pole-sized trees and low-stature vegetation, as well as in gardens and other degraded habitats, including agricultural areas and plantations. Although it is a protected species, the number of tarsiers is falling as their forest habitat is destroyed. They are hunted for food and for pet trade. If no action is taken now, the Philippine tarsier can soon be added to the list of extinct species. The Philippine flying lemur is one of the two living species of the order Dermoptera; the other species is the Sunda flying lemur. Although called a flying lemur, it cannot fly and is not a lemur. It bears a wide head, small ears, and big eyes and its clawed feet are large and webbed for fast climbing and gliding. Its long tail is connected to the forelimbs via a membrane which helps it glide distances of 100 m or more, and is useful for finding food and escaping predators, such as the Philippine eagle. It is nocturnal, occupies hollow trees, and clings to dense foliage during daytime. The lemur usually resides in primary and secondary forests though some wander into coconut, banana, and rubber plantations. They are considered pests as they eat fruits and flowers and are hunted by humans, their flesh being cooked as a delicacy and their fur making fine material for native caps. The species was declared vulnerable in 1997 because of the destruction of lowland forests and hunting pressures. However, a 2008 report indicates the species persists in the face of degraded habitat, with a current population large enough to avoid the threatened category. At present there are no known conservation measures in place specifically for the Philippine flying lemur but it is thought that the most effective step to take to ensure its survival is the establishment and enforced protection of reserves within its range. Drawn from: The Philippine Tarsier Foundation and EDGE: http://www. edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=71

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Source: Dickinson 1991.

▲ FIGURE 4. Map of Mindanao and surrounding islands (inset: The Sulu Islands).

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The Philippines: A Natural History

Mindanao

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■ The Coast of Mindanao

Photo by Caloy Libosada

Mindanao, the second largest of the Philippine islands, comprises 31 percent of the country’s total land area (Figure 4). Of all the Philippines’ islands, it shows the greatest variety of physiographic development: high, rugged, faulted mountains, isolated volcanic peaks, high rolling plateaus, flat basins, supporting sizable swamps, incised valleys, and canyons. Its coastline is extremely long and very irregular, with many large gulfs and bays and several large peninsulas. It is surrounded by four seas: the Sulu Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, the Celebes Sea to the south, and the Mindanao Sea to the north. Mindanao has five major mountain systems of variable and complex topography, numerous rivers, and a number of large lakes. The mountain ranges on the extreme eastern and western portions of the island show broad exposures of Mesozoic rock with ultrabasic rocks at the surface in many places along the east coast. Other parts of the island consist mainly of Cenozoic and Quaternary volcanic or sedimentary rocks. Over 60 years ago, Mindanao was heavily forested, but rice, corn, pineapples, coconuts, and rubber are now planted over large areas. Kaingin clearings and extensive cogon savannah tracts occur throughout the island. Mindanao experiences a generally moderate climate with three patterns: the center and south have rainfall throughout the year; eastern Mindanao receives heavy rainfall with no dry season; and the Zamboanga Peninsula experiences little seasonal variation. There is a low incidence of typhoons. Commercial fishing occurs in the sea and local fishing in the rivers and lakes. Some mining is undertaken in the interior.

Mindanao’s eastern edge (the Eastern or Pacific Cordillera) is highly mountainous and partially forested, leaving almost no coastal lowlands. The northern Diwata Mountains are rolling low in their central portion and considerably higher and rugged to the north reaching 2,012 m in Mount Hilong-hilong (with 39 Philippine bird endemics—7 threatened—and 6 Mindanao bird endemics—3 threatened). The southern portion is broader and even more rugged than the northern section. Small coastal lowlands separated by rugged forelands extend to the water’s edge and offshore are numerous coral reefs and tiny islands. Off the northeast coast in the Philippine Sea is the Philippine or Mindanao Trench. Its deepest point, the Galathea Deep, has a depth of 10,540 m, the deepest point in the country and the third in the world. Immediately to the north of the trench is the East Luzon Trench. Forming a mountain ridge running north-south along the Pujada Peninsula in the south-eastern part of the Eastern Mindanao Biodiversity Corridor, Mount Hamiguitan possesses one of the most diverse wildlife populations in the country. Its forest is noted for its unique pygmy (bonsai) forest of century old trees and for species such as alim, almon, agoho, dao, and almaciga, and the critically endangered yakal and the orchid Paphiopedilum adductum. It is also known as the only habitat of the unique yet vulnerable Hamiguitan pitcher plant (Nepenthes hamiguitanensis). In recognition of its unique ecosystems and rare and endangered flora and fauna, the mountain was declared a national park and a wildlife sanctuary in 2003 and inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2014

■ Mount Hamiguitan

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The Philippines: A Natural History

So urce : M o u n t H am ig u itan PA D ENR XI

So u rce: M ou n t H amigu it an PA D E NR XI

▲ Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis) ◄ Lady slipper orchid (Paphiodelium ciliolare)

West of the Eastern or Pacific Cordillera range is an extensive longitudinal lowland plain, the Davao-Agusan Trough. The Agusan River (one of the longest and largest in the Philippines) flows north through almost the entire 170 km length of the trough; a second dissected north-south mountain range, the Central Mindanao Cordillera or Highlands, lies to the east with several peaks between 2,000 and 2,500 m. The Agusan River drains the vast Agusan marsh which is estimated to hold 14 percent of the country’s freshwater resources. From the highlands, which bisect much of the island from north to south, rises the 2,929 m high Mount Apo or Sandawa (“Mountain of Sulfur”), the highest peak in the country. Hot springs, thermal pools, and steam vents betray its volcanic nature and there are many lakes and waterfalls. It is home to the critically endangered Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), ■ Mount Apo, Mindanao

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11959373

Photo courtesy of The Philippine Eagle Foundation

The Philippine Eagle: One of the World’s Rarest Birds The Philippine eagle is an enormous bird with a large erectile crest. It is 90–100 cm long with a wingspan of 184–202 cm. It weighs 4.7–8.0 kg and has an exceptionally tall and narrow bill. Endemic to the Philippines, it has been declared the Philippine national bird, being found only in Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. The eagle lives in old growth dipterocarp and mid-montane forests, particularly in steep areas. It ranges from the lowlands to mountains of over 1,800 m. Although only 9,220 km2 of old growth forest remains of the bird’s range, its total range is estimated at 146,000 km2. Though previously known as the Philippine monkey-eating eagle, it exists on a diet of flying squirrels, tree squirrels, palm civets, fruit bats, rats, reptiles (snakes and monitor lizards), and birds (owls and hornbills). Its numbers have slowly dwindled over the decades, the largest population now residing in Mindanao, with between 82 and 233 breeding pairs. Only six pairs are found in Samar, two in Leyte, and a few in Luzon. Forest destruction and fragmentation, through commercial timber extraction and shifting cultivation, is the principal long-term threat. Continued persecution by humans is considered the most significant threat in the short term. A series of floods and mudslides, caused by deforestation, has further devastated the remaining population. The Philippine Eagle Foundation of Davao City, Mindanao, has bred Philippine eagles in captivity for over a decade and conducted the first experimental release of a captive-bred eagle to the wild. It has 36 eagles at the Philippine Eagle Center, of which 18 were bred in captivity. Research on behavior, ecology, and population dynamics is also underway and in recent years, protected lands have been established specifically for this species. However, as the largest proportion of the population is found in unprotected land, the eagle’s future in the wild is uncertain. Source: The Philippine Eagle Foundation

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The Philippines: A Natural History

the near threatened Philippine falconet (Microhierax erythrogenys), such endemic species as the Apo myna (Basilornis miranda) as well as exotic flora including ferns, mosses (including the world’s largest moss, Dawsonia growing to 25 cm), pitcher plants, and orchids. Between the highlands and the southwestern Cotabato Range (Southern Cordillera) lies the broad Cotabato Lowland with the Libungan and Liguasan marshes drained by the Mindanao River or Pulangi River emptying into Illana Bay. The marshes have an abundant growth of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and the dominant vegetation in surrounding areas include palms (including the betel nut and nipa), sweet flag (Calamus mallis), bird’s nest fern (Asplenium nidus), oak leaf fern (Drynaria quercifolia) and a wide variety of climbing ferns and orchids. There is a 5,000-ha patch of virgin forest within the marsh with a very rich flora. Studies in the 1990s record that the marsh supported a great variety of aquatic wildlife, including 20 species of fish, 3 species of reptiles, and over 20 species of waterfowl, herons, egrets, and ducks. It was also noted that Liguasan was one of only two places in the Philippines with the Comb-crested Jacana (Irediparra gallinacea), also known as the lotus bird or the lily trotter because of its habit of walking on the surface of water by leaping on leaves of lotus or water lilies. The marsh is under pressure from conversion to rice paddies and other agricultural land.

◄ Comb-crested Jacana (Irediparra gallinacea)

Photo by T J Collins. Source: http://www.birdforum.net/opus/ Image:Comb-crested_Jacana.jpg

The Bukidnon-Lanao Highlands form the northwest corner of the central mountain complex on the main body of Mindanao. As an undulating plateau, the highlands are interspersed with a number of extinct volcanic peaks whose slopes are dissected by deep, narrow canyons, and ravines and, at several points, spectacular waterfalls. In the southwestern corner of the highlands is Lake Lanao (348 km2), the second largest lake in the Philippines. It is 699 m above sea level and rimmed Chapter 2. Topography

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on the east, south, and west by a series of peaks reaching 2,300 m. The lake, created by the damning action of lava flows or by the collapse of a large volcano to form its current basin, is drained by the Agus River which passes through a steep precipice of falls and rapid flows eventually entering Iligan Bay. Together with Lake Lanao, the river generates 70 percent of the electricity used in Mindanao from the hydroelectric plants in the river and Maria Cristina Falls. However, the plants and the requisite regulatory dams have changed the fluctuations of the water level of Lake Lanao, affecting the indigenous people and producing conflicts with local populations. Several endemic species of fish, especially of the carp family, exist in the lake though greatly threatened. It is estimated that 6 of the 20 plus mountain peaks in this area are active; the 2,815 m Mount Ragang is the most isolated, while Mount Kitanglad is the highest at 2,896 m. Mindanao narrows to an isthmus 16 km wide just west of Lake Lanao. From here, the long Zamboanga Peninsula protrudes as very mountainous terrain (the Zamboanga Mountains) to the southwest for some 274 km with only a few coastal lowlands. The northeastern end of the mountains is marked by the twin peaks of the now extinct volcano, Mount Malindang (2,425 m); Mount Dapiak (2,565 m) marks the eastern end. However, some of the lowland soils and small river floodplains are sufficiently fertile to support commercial plantations of rubber, coconuts, and abaca. Off the Zamboanga Peninsula lies Basilan, a rounded island forming the first stepping stone to the Sulu Islands. The clearing of forests in Mindanao has led to large-scale agriculture and root crops comprising corn and rice, bananas, abaca, coconuts, vegetables, coffee, sugar, oil palm, and rubber plantations. Copper and manganese are mined in the interior and there are vast deposits of iron ore and nickel. Fishing is important in many coastal communities. ■ Small island off Siargao Island

Photo by Caloy Libosada

Siargao Island, a tear-shaped island off the northeast coast of Mindanao, is greatly influenced by the winds and currents coming uninterrupted from the Pacific Ocean and intensified by the Mindanao current running westward through the Siargao Strait. The coastline is marked by a succession of reefs, points, and white, sandy beaches and contains the largest mangrove forest reserve in Mindanao, at Del Carmen. The island’s Pacific-facing reefs are situated on the edge of the Philippine Trench, and the ocean swells have undiluted power when they encounter the reefs. Terrestrial wildlife includes tarsiers, flying lemurs, and monitor lizards. Volcanic Camiguin, a pearl-shaped island rising dramatically from the sea about 10 km off the northern coast of Mindanao, has a rugged, hilly landscape dominated by seven volcanoes. Its coastline alternates between black and white sandy beaches and volcanic rock, and its rich soil nurtures rice, coconuts, bananas, corn and root crops. Hot and cold springs and waterfalls and tiny islets suggest an island paradise and is visited by many tourists. At least four vertebrate species are believed to be endemic to Camiguin: the Camiguin forest rat (Bullimus gamay), the Camiguin forest mouse (Apomys camiguinensis), the Camiguin hanging parrot, (Loriculus camiguinensis) and the Camiguin narrow-mouthed frog (Oreophryne nana). Botanists recently identified plants they consider endemic in the island, including red and yellow colored rhododendron, begonia, nepenthes pitcher plants, spathoglottis orchid, aeschymanthus, balanophora plant, lopidium moss, and the brightly colored coral or club fungus due to their resemblance to aquatic coral.

■ The Camiguin forest mouse and the Camiguin hanging parrot. Both of these animals are endemic to Camiguin Island.

Source: M. Skakuj courtesy of The Field Museum, Chicago

Palawan Palawan lies between the South China and the Sulu Seas (Figure 5). Its almost 2,000 km of irregular coastline is dotted with roughly 1,780 islands and islets, rocky coves, and sugar-white sandy beaches scattered over a distance of 650 km from

Source: Dickinson et al. 1991.

▼ FIGURE 5. Map of Palawan and the Calamianes.

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The Philippines: A Natural History

north to south and 300 km from west to east. Its chain of mountain ranges averages heights of 1,100 m, the highest peak rising to 2,086 m at Mount Matalingahan. The terrain is a mix of coastal plain, craggy foothills, valley deltas, and virgin forest carpeting the mountains interspersed with riverine arteries that serve as irrigation. The southwest monsoon brings rain from May to December, the rest of the year being dry and hot. Consequently, whereas evergreen forest dominates other parts of the Philippines, in Palawan the forest is composed of single trees that shed their leaves during the dry season. The divergence of the main western Philippine structural arc, beginning in Mindoro, is clearly evident in the northeast-southwest structural adjustment of the islands of the Calamianes group, Palawan, and Balabac. Palawan, fifth in size among the Philippine islands, extending 425 km long with a narrow landmass of 8–40 km wide and is found approximately 225 km southwestward from Mindoro. It forms the edge of the Sunda Shelf and during the Pleistocene era, provided a land bridge between Borneo and Mindoro. Thus, structurally, biologically, and ethnically Palawan is more closely related to Borneo than to the main Philippine archipelago. It contains a diverse range of habitats, including montane forests, semi-deciduous forests, lowland rain forests, and mangroves which, in turn, support many different kinds of animals. However, two-thirds of the island has been cleared, and large areas degraded. Palawan’s varied geology has produced very different soils with distinct plant formations. Some areas are very acidic with a pH close to 4 and with a high heavy metal content, whereas the soils of limestone areas are basic with a pH above 7 and high nutrient content. Apart from Mount Mantalingahan (2,086 m), Cleopatra’s Needle (1,593 m), and Victoria Peak (2,010 m), Palawan’s rugged mountains are steep, densely forested and form watersheds for the 52 small rivers that course through deep ravines and mountain gorges. In the north, the mountains plunge to the sea forming an indented fjordlike coast of breathtaking limestone cliffs along El Nido Island and Coron Island—the haunt of the edible-nest swiftlet (Collocalia fuciphaga). Palawan’s southern coast has extensive coral reefs, and mangrove swamps line much of its shoreline. The east coast is characterized by narrow beaches and mangrove backed by plains and short valleys rising amidst rolling hills to the mountains. The west side of Palawan is much more rugged where mountains rise near the sea leaving only narrow lowlands along an exposed and sparsely populated coast. There are extensive swaths of grassland and wetlands with mangroves bordering the shoreline. Karst forests on the limestone outcroppings are common on islets and at the mouths of rivers. Chapter 2. Topography

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▲ El Nido, Palawan

Photo by Allan Ascaño. Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ allan_the_colorblind/14903603305/in/album-72157646362361676/lightbox/

◄ Palawan peacockpheasant

P h o t o b y F r a n c e s c o Ve r o n e s i . Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/francesco_veronesi/15361453469/in/ photolist-pprsW2

The forest conditions in Palawan are different from those in the rest of the Philippines, most of the cover consisting of stunted forest on steep slopes. Consequently, deforestation has proceeded at a slower pace and Palawan’s forest remains the largest expanse in the Philippines representing about 11.3 percent of its entire forest cover. In 1992, Palawan’s forest was recorded at 738,886 ha representing about 52 percent of Palawan’s total land area. The 2005 SPOT 5 satellite imageries using remote sensing techniques show that Palawan still had 666,338 ha, representing about 46 percent of its total land area and its 58,000 ha of mangrove forest some 38 percent or one-third of the entire country. The diversity of habitats support a number of endemic mammals such as the endangered Calamian deer (Axis calamianensis), Palawan bearcat (Arctictis binturong), Palawan fruitbat (Acerodon leucotis), Palawan stink badger (Mydaus marchei), and the horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus anderseni). Endemic bird fauna, also endangered, include the Palawan peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron emphanum), grey imperial-pigeon (Ducula pickeringii), red-vented or Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), blue-headed racquet-tail (Prioniturus platenae), Palawan flycatcher (Ficedula platenae), blue paradise-flycatcher (Terpsiphone cyanescens), Palawan tit (Parus amabilis), and Palawan flowerpecker (Prionochilus plateni). In response to loss of forest, coastal habitat and associated species, a Strategic Environmental Plan (SEP) for Palawan aims to ensure that forests would be protected through a total commercial logging ban in environmentally critical areas and watersheds and its biodiversity are conserved. The SEP also advocates the protection of tribal peoples and their culture, as well as rare and endangered species and their habitats. However, officials of the Palawan Council for Sustainable Development 50

The Philippines: A Natural History

The “Final Frontier” of the Philippines Before the arrival of the Spaniards, Palawan was already known to ancient civilizations. The Chinese called it “Palao-yu” (“the land of the beautiful safe harbor”), Hindu Indians, “Palavas” (“abundant plants”), and the Spanish, “Paragua” (“island of freshwater and the land of promise”). With its relatively extensive forests and coral reefs, Palawan is often called the Philippines’ “final frontier.” In 1990, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declared the entire province a Biosphere Reserve. Though Palawan’s wildlife shares similarities with Borneo and mainland Southeast Asia, its isolation has resulted in a high level of endemism—about 13 percent at the species of flowering plants and vertebrates. It is home to 15 endemic or near-endemic mammals along with 20 endemic or near-endemic bird species found nowhere else in the Philippines. The world’s smallest hoofed mammal, the nocturnal Philippine mouse deer (Tragulus nigricans), is found in the southern island of Balabac. Much of Palawan is covered with forest and its mangroves are relatively intact. However, the island’s natural resources remain fragile, deforestation continues, and seagrasses and coral suffer from the resultant siltation and erosion. Fishermen use unsound methods of capture, dynamiting vast areas of coral reefs and seagrass beds. Species such as the slipper orchid, Philippine cockatoo, blue-naped parrot, Palawan hornbill, and Palawan bear cat are heavily traded as pets. Rapid urbanization and consequent increase in utilization and extraction of natural resources do not bode well for Palawan’s biodiversity. Uncontrolled population increase due to in-migration has led to encroachment into sensitive areas where resources are exploited in unsustainable and destructive ways. It has been hoped that Conservation International and others working in the Mount Mantalingahan Protected Landscape will help to demonstrate how ecosystem services benefit humanity and how protected area management supports human well-being at the community and livelihood level as well as wildlife.

have issued SEP clearances for mining operations within natural forests and there has been a call for amending the SEP. The St. Paul Subterranean National Park with its spectacular mountains, cliffs, sandy beaches, and the Underground River is one of the natural splendors of northern Palawan. Flowing for about 8 km through limestone before emerging from a cave mouth, it is said to be the longest underground river in the world. Bats and swifts inhabit the cave mouth and small fish, crabs, and shrimp occupy the river. Chapter 2. Topography

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Bird’s Nest Soup Edible-nest swiftlets inhabit dark caves. The males construct nests on the cave walls by utilizing their own saliva to create a small, shallow basin attached to the rock face. The nests have high levels of calcium, iron, potassium, and magnesium which are traditionally believed to provide health benefits. The birds are found in El Nido, Palawan, which literally translates to “the nest.” Even before the Spanish occupation, Chinese travelers and herbalists explored the area just to harvest the rare delicacy and for centuries, El Nido residents have taken the harvesting of the nests as their livelihood. The nests are highly prized, one kilogram fetching prices of up to 1,000 USD. During the past couple of decades, demand for these nests here and elsewhere has taken a severe toll on the swiftlet population, In some areas, criminal enterprises have been generated. On the brighter side, market demand has also stimulated the development of a successful cave swiftlet farming industry, utilizing newly developed swiftlet husbandry methods and specially designed nesting structures situated largely in urban areas. In the meantime, some restaurants offer an imitation bird’s nest soup that uses noodles shaped like a bird’s nest in lieu of the real thing.

Equally impressive are the cliffs and caves towering above the small town of El Nido, a major habitat of the edible-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) producing bird’s nest soup. During the February/May nesting season, gatherers of the nests climb bamboo scaffolding supported by rattan rope. The Bacuit Archipelago to the west of El Nido comprises many jagged limestone islands leaping skyward from the 52

The Philippines: A Natural History

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Swift letBirdNests.jpg#/media/File:SwiftletBirdNests.jpg

▲ Edible-nest swiftlet in the St. Paul Subterranean Park and nest used to make soup.

Source: http://www.interaksyon.com/lifestyle/kawiltours-changing-culion-islands-image-from-former-lepercolony-to-amazing-wildlife-haven

crystal-clear waters of Bacuit Bay. Most of the islands have sheltered white sandy bays, stunning lagoons, and exquisite coral gardens. The Calamian group of islands between Palawan and Mindoro comprise three large, mountainous, forested lands—Busuanga, Culion, and Coron—and some 95 smaller ones with dozens of coral islets or barely submerged reefs. These are hilly islands often with fertile soils. Some 17 mangrove species cover the coastline of Culion, along with 9 seagrass species and 47 coral genera (representing 60 percent of the total genera found in the Philippines). The Culion Sea is teeming with a total of 201 fish species, including commercially important fish like groupers (Epinephelinae), sweetlips emperors (Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides), red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus), Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson), blue and gold fusiliers (Caesio caerulaurea) and threadfin breams (Nemipteridae). Squid, cuttlefish, shrimps, crabs, shellfish, and sea cucumber or trepang are plentiful. The Tres Reyes Islands, further south, are thought to be the breeding grounds for cuttlefish.

▲ Culion Island

Balabac Island to the south of Palawan is a small, hilly limestone island known for its uncommon plants and animals, including the Philippine mouse-deer (Tragulus nigricans). The Balabac Great Reefs, extending 14 km along the island’s west coast, host turtles, sharks, giant clams, and rare cone shells. Chapter 2. Topography

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The Tubbataha Reef, some 177 km east of Palawan, supports vast colonies of seabirds nestled in scrubby bushes but it is the fish and spectacular 400 species of coral and the diversity of sponges and tunicates that astound. Dense coral thickets and thin ledges breaking into perpendicular plunges are stocked with abundant snappers, sweetlips, angelfish, and moray eels. Schools of surgeonfish, jacks, rainbow runners, and tunas pass by. Since Tubbataha Reef Natural Park was established in 1988 and declared a World Heritage Site in 1994, its marine ecosystem has recovered so that fish high on the food chain abound and a variety of sharks and schools of humphead wrasses (Cheilinus undulates) can now be seen.

Endangered Species: The Philippine Mouse Deer The Philippine mouse-deer, also known as the Balabac chevrotain, is a small, nocturnal ruminant endemic to Balabac and the nearby smaller islands of Bugsuc and Ramos lying southwest of Palawan. It is a small deer-like creature, neither sex possessing horns. Against a brown background it has jet black hair washing its back and sides, with a sharply defined narrow white throat. The deer frequents the darkest portions of primary or secondary forests during the day; at night it roams cleared areas, often emerging from mangroves near the shoreline. Figs (locally known as tubog), commonly found lining the beach areas of Balabac, are the mousedeer’s favorite food. It also feeds on fruits that fall on the ground, leaves of small trees, and grasses. The animal is threatened because of hunting, poaching, and capture for the wild animal trade. The meat, considered a delicacy on the islands, is cooked with ogsom, a local spice that removes the characteristic meat odor. The skin is also used to make leather. Although no true estimates of the deer population have been made to date, they are assumed to be declining in numbers is regarded as endangered. Drawn from: http://www.ultimateungulate.com/ Artiodactyla/Tragulus_nigricans.html

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The Philippines: A Natural History

Remains of prehistoric Filipinos have been discovered in Palawan’s limestone (karst) topography in the southwest along with indigenous species of plants and animals and numerous archaeological materials such as stone tools, fossils, and earthenware dating from 50,000 to 700 years ago. The most important are human remains of 47,000 years recovered from a cave known as Tabon—hence Tabon Man. Although the origin of the cave dwellers is not yet established, anthropologists believe they came from Borneo.

Palawan in Ancient Times Waves of migrants arrived in the Philippines by way of land bridges between Borneo and Palawan. During the period of the Three Kingdoms, from 220 CE up to 263 CE, what were described as “little, dark people” living in Anwei province in South China were driven south by the Han people. Some settled in Thailand, others traveled farther south to Indonesia and Borneo. They were known as Aetas and Negritos from whom Palawan’s Batak tribe is descended. Other tribes known to inhabit the islands, such as the Palawano and Tagbanwa, are also descendants of the early settlers, who came via ice-age land bridges. They had a form of government, an alphabet, and a system of trading with sea-borne merchants. In 982 CE, ancient Chinese traders regularly visited the islands and referred to them as Kla-ma-yan (Calamian), Palau-ye (Palawan), and Paki-nung (Busuanga). Pottery, china, and other artifacts recovered from caves and waters of Palawan attest to trade relations that existed between Chinese and Malay merchants. In the 12th century, Malay settlers arriving on boats began to populate the island. Malay chieftains ruled the majority of the settlements whose people grew rice, ginger, coconuts, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, and bananas. They also raised pigs, goats, and chickens; and conducted fishing, farming, and hunting with bamboo traps and blowguns.

Sulu Archipelago The Sulu Archipelago is a string of more than 500 small islands of volcanic and coral origin which protrude from submarine ridges joining Mindanao to Sabah in Malaysia. Many picturesque extinct volcanic cones rise above the 610 m level. The three main islands are Basilan, offshore from Zamboanga, Jolo (Sulu), and TawiTawi, near Sabah. Extensive cultivation has replaced the original lowland rain Chapter 2. Topography

55

Source: Basilan LGU, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Basilan_Production_Framework_Map.jpg

▲ Basilan Island: Land use profile

forest, beach forest, scrub forest, and mangroves; scattered throughout are a variety of hanging reefs, atolls, and table reefs with diverse marine life. Basilan possesses a hilly and rugged landscape with fertile soils supporting rubber, oil palm, and pineapple plantations. Other crops include copra, coffee, black pepper, cacao, and abaca. Little remains of the original habitat. The Sulu-Celebes Sea provides fish such as tuna, mackerel, and sardines, grouper, squid, octopus, and marlin, while fishponds supply milkfish, prawn, and shrimp. Seaweed is cultivated along some coastal areas. Jolo (pronounced “Ho-lo”) is crossed by three mountain ranges with isolated volcanic cones emerging from rolling hills. The highest is Bud Tumatangis (793 m) whose name means “Mountain of Tears”—possibly derived from the clouds that invariably surround its peak. Of its crater lakes, the largest are Seit and Panamao. A rugged and thickly wooded landscape dominates the island’s interior and parts are fertile and support agriculture. Tawi-Tawi, with its numerous islands bordered with extensive reefs and sandy beaches, enjoys forested hills rising to 534 m and fertile plains producing cassava and coconuts. Its southern and eastern shores have dense mangroves. 56

The Philippines: A Natural History

So u rc e: h ttp : / / th ep h i l ip p in es . p h / p h ilip p in e-region s /t awi-t awi-ph ilippin es /

▲ Tawi-Tawi

The remote Turtle Islands south of Tawi-Tawi support green sea turtle or pawikan (Chelonia mydas) populations that have played an important cultural role for centuries. From the end of August to December, as the turtles come by the hundreds from the surrounding coastal waters to lay and dig their eggs into the sand, hunting them and collecting their eggs for food proved to be a source of additional income for local communities. Together with three islands of the neighboring Malaysia and the surrounding coral waters, the Turtle Islands are the only living areas for the green sea turtles in both Asia and the world. In 1996, the islands were declared a Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area by the governments of the Philippines and Malaysia as the only way to guarantee the continued existence of the turtles and their nesting sites. In parallel, conservationists have convinced local communities of the need to minimize their collecting activities and conserve the species. Chapter 2. Topography

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◄ Exceptional Turtle Islands ▼

Photos by Keith Ellenbogen

The Sulu archipelago is the home of the indigenous Tausug, various groups of Samal (or Sama), including the semi-nomadic Bajau, the land-based Sama, the related Yakan, and the Jama Mapun. Excavations in the area of Bolobok Cave on Sanga-Sanga Island, Tawi-Tawi Province, have shown the remains of humans dwelling there about 4,000 years ago.

Photo by H. Arlo Nimmo

◄ Bajau homes and boats, Sulu.

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The Philippines: A Natural History

Chapter 3

Climate

T

H E A LT E R N AT I N G S Y S T E M S O F T H E S O U T H E A S T AND NORTHwest monsoons, proximity to the Asian mainland, exposure to Pacific oceanic winds and typhoons, and topography of the islands produce more variable conditions in the Philippines than other tropical countries found at similar latitudes. Such conditions are often characterized by relatively high temperature, oppressive humidity, and heavy rainfall, much of the latter being due to southern and northern hemispheric air masses converging on the Philippines within the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and to tropical cyclones. Seasonal movement of the ITCZ is controlled by the movements of four air masses: the Indian Ocean, North Pacific, South Pacific, and Northeast Monsoon. Typhoons (tropical cyclones) usually originate near the Marianas Island some 2,600 km to the east of the Philippines. General daytime temperatures range from 30°C to 36°C and nighttime temperatures, 21–24°C. The mean temperature is 25.8°C in January and 28.3°C in May; differences between latitudes are small. Naturally, altitude makes a difference in temperature: for example, in Baguio at 1,524 m (210 km north of Manila), the annual average temperature is almost 18°C compared to 25°C at nearby coastal locations of the same latitude. For most of the lowland areas, temperatures rarely rise above 37°C. The highest temperature recorded in the country was 42.2°C in Tuguegarao, Cagayan Valley on 29 April 1912 and again on 11 May 1969. The absolute minimum temperature of 3°C was recorded in January 1903 in Baguio. The seasonal variation between the hottest and coldest months is generally less than 5°C at Aparri, on the north coast of Luzon, whereas Davao, in Southern Mindanao, has a variation of only 1.5°C. The most noticeable temperature variations are between day and night. Depending upon the season, nighttime lows and daytime highs in Manila may differ between 6°C and 9°C. Sea temperatures rarely fall below 27°C.

59

Source: http://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/index.php/climate-of-the-philippines.

▲ FIGURE 6. Climate map of the Philippines based on the modified Coronas classification.

In many parts of the Philippines, the summer months of April, May, and June tend to be hot with dry, trade winds prevailing from the east, and temperatures sometimes reaching to 35°C. In late June and early July, the temperature drops during the rains of the southwest monsoon (habagat), generally lasting until October and caused by a warm and very moist air mass flowing constantly across the islands from the Indian Ocean. During November and December, air currents originating from the cold northwest Pacific carry some moisture, providing rain along the east coast. In the south, another air mass originating from the South Pacific strikes southeast Mindanao, bringing substantial rainfall. During the height of the rainy season as much as 45 cm of rain may fall in one day. From January to March, the main winds come from the cold northeast monsoon (amihan) blowing from Siberia. During these months, areas north of Manila have cool, fairly dry weather, whereas southern Luzon, the Visayas Islands, and Mindanao experience some rain. The seasonal pattern in eastern Luzon, the eastern Visayan Islands, and northeastern and eastern Mindanao is characterized by heavy winter rains and only 60

The Philippines: A Natural History

Source: David et al. 2012.

a comparatively short, irregular dry period during summer and autumn. With year-round rainfall, these areas do not suffer drought, typical in the rest of the country during the dry season. The yearly average rainfall ranges from 500 cm in the mountainous east coast section of the country to less than 100 cm in some of the sheltered valleys. The Ilocos coast, Central Luzon, much of Central Visayas, Palawan, and parts of Central Mindanao receive slightly less rain and a few parts of the Cagayan Valley, the Central Luzon Plain, the coastal areas of southern Cebu, eastern Negros, the Davao Gulf, and Northern Mindanao receive only 152–203 cm. Figure 6 describes the four climatic types of the Philippines based upon rainfall distribution during the months of the year. Recent work by the Remote Sensing Information for Living Environments and Nationwide Tools for Sentinel Ecosystems in the Archipelagic Seas Program for Climate Change (RESILIENT SEAS Program, 2009–2012) provides a complementary classification of the seas around the Philippines crucial to understanding land and sea interactions. These and other exposure conditions that affect the various areas in the Philippines have led to the creation of 11 distinct climate typologies as seen in Figure 7. Data on

▲ FIGURE 7. Climate typologies in the Philippines. Chapter 3. Climate

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precipitation, sea surface temperature, and sea surface height were considered in the typologies. The coastal and marine climate classification shows the variability of Sea Surface Temperature Change (STC) around the Philippines. Cluster I exhibits the highest increase in observed Sea Surface Temperature (SST) data which, along with Clusters II, III, VI, VII, and X, indicate a higher intensity of Sea Surface Height (SSH) anomaly during negative Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)—occurring every 10 years. Cluster II shows the negative SST anomaly during El Niño and the positive one during La Niña. Like Clusters III and IV, it is characterized by pronounced rainfall during the southwest monsoon. Most clusters have cooler SST during the northeast monsoon except Clusters V, VI, and VII where the lowest SST increase is observed in Cluster VI. Winds are highly monsoonal in Clusters I, VIII, IX, and X with strong winds during the northeast monsoon. Coastal and marine climatology Clusters I–V extend from north to south mostly exposed to the southwest monsoon, Clusters I–III nearly corresponding to Type I climate of the modified Philippine Coronas Classification (PCC) shown in Figure 6. Cluster III overlaps with Clusters IV and V, and some parts of VI nearly coincide with Type III of PCC. Type IV of the PCC is comparable with Clusters VI–VIII and some parts of IV. The Clusters (VIII–X) that are predominantly exposed to the northeast monsoon are similar to Type II of the modified PCC. Naturally, the variability of sea surface temperatures has a measurable impact upon marine and coastal ecosystems. At least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines can be traced to tropical cyclones; in contrast, southern islands receive less than 10 percent of their annual rainfall from such cyclones. The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact the archipelago was in July 1911 which dropped over 221 cm of rainfall within a three-day, 15-hour period in Baguio City. During the last decade, the Philippines has been severely affected by natural disasters driven by changing patterns of precipitation. In 2005 alone, Central Luzon was hit by both a drought (sharply curtailing hydroelectric power), and by a typhoon that flooded most of Manila’s low-lying streets. A similar event occurred in 2013. The climate of the Philippines is constantly humid with the average monthly humidity varying from a low of 71 percent in March to 85 percent in September. Luzon has the lowest annual relative humidity and Mindanao the highest. The elevated moisture is due to different factors—the high level of evaporation from the surrounding seas, the different prevailing winds in the different seasons, and finally, the abundant rains typical of a tropical country. 62

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Source: https://wattsupwiththat.com/2013/11/11/ some-historical-perspectives-on-typhoon-haiyan-yolanda/

▲ FIGURE 8. Map of paths of typhoons in the Philippines.

Superimposed on air movements over the Philippines are frequent cyclonic storms known as typhoons (bagyo), striking the Philippines on an average of 20 each year (Figure 8) and making it the most-exposed country in the world. These originate in the western Pacific and move northwest towards the Philippines, generally hitting the country along the eastern Visayas and the eastern and northern portions of Luzon. Though they may occur during any month, they are rare between January and May, and most frequent in August. To date, an average of nine per year have made landfall or have crossed the Philippines. In 1993, a record of 19 typhoons made landfall. Typhoons are usually destructive and cause flooding, wind damage, and death. The deadliest tropical cyclone to impact the Philippines so far is believed to have been the September 1881 typhoon that was estimated to have killed up to 20,000 people. Typhoon Haiyan (known as Typhoon Yolanda in the Philippines) hit the Visayas on 8 November 2013 killing over 6,000 people and proved to be the deadliest Philippine typhoon in modern times. Haiyan is also the strongest storm recorded at landfall with one-minute sustained winds estimated at 315  km/h (195  mph), unofficially making Haiyan the strongest tropical cyclone ever observed in terms of wind speed. Gradually Chapter 3. Climate

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Source: http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/files/2013/11/yolanda76.jpg

▲ Damage wrought by Typhooon Yolanda

weakening, the storm made five additional landfalls in the country before exiting over the South China Sea. The cyclone caused catastrophic destruction in the Visayas, particularly in Samar and Leyte, Cebu, Capiz, Negros, and Northern Iloilo. The UN estimates that about 4 million people were affected with many left homeless. Recent analyses conclude that during the past 80 years, typhoon tracks have trended to shift northward from low latitudes to higher latitudes and eastward from the coastal region along Philippines Sea to the eastern region. In summary, the climate of the major islands of the Philippines may be described as follows. Northern Luzon. Lowland areas experience a dry period from November to May and a shorter wet period from June to October. Temperatures drop to the low 20°C in December and January becoming cooler and drier progressing north. April to June is very hot with typhoons coming from the Pacific in July. In contrast, the highlands may receive rain throughout the year but are especially intense from May to September, higher elevations receiving the greatest amount. During September to February, conditions are cool and nighttime temperatures may drop to single digits below 1,000 m. Southern Luzon. The wet season begins and ends a trifle later than northern Luzon commencing during late August and lasting until late February; however, 64

The Philippines: A Natural History

Source: NASA Goddard MODIS Rapid Response Team

▲ The Power of Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda)

Typhoons are categorized into four types according to its wind speed:

• Tropical depressions have maximum sustained winds of 55–64 km per hour near its center; • Tropical storms have maximum sustained winds of 65–119 km per hour; • Typhoons achieve maximum sustained winds of 120–184 km per hour; and, • Super typhoons have maximum winds exceeding 185 km per hour.

Chapter 3. Climate

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rainfall may occur at any time, particularly on the Pacific side. July to September marks the typhoon season, most passing 200 km offshore. Mindoro. Oriental Mindoro has no distinct wet or dry seasons. Average temperature ranges from 26°C to 32°C. The province experiences maximum rainfall during the months of June to October. Relative humidity is registered at 81 percent. In contrast, Occidental Mindoro has two distinct rainy and dry seasons. Rains begin in late May, intensifying through June to October, gradually subsiding in November. August and September are the wettest months, with storms directly passing through the area. The dry season starts in November, with rainfall subsiding in intensity, and ceasing in January. Palawan. Palawan has wet and dry seasons (each six months long) in the southern and northern extremities and the western coast with short dry periods (of one to three months) and no definite rainy period along the eastern coast. While the southern region is practically free from tropical depressions, the north experiences torrential rains in July and August. The greatest rainfall occurs during the month of September, but there are some days that are completely dry. Temperatures range between 25°C in January and 29°C in May. Annual average rainfall ranges from 28 mm (February) to 207 mm (October) and average relative humidity, from 81 to 83 percent. Palawan is generally free from typhoons. Visayas. May to October constitutes the dry season and November to April as the wet season with some variation across the region where rain may fall throughout the year. Typhoons occur in November and December but generally with less impact, although about once every 10 years, a major typhoon crosses the Visayas causing significant damage and deaths as witnessed in 2013 with Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda). Mindanao. The wet and dry seasons are less marked in Mindanao, but hot and humid weather occurs throughout the year with regular rainfall, particularly from May to October. In northern areas, the dry period is from November to April with low nighttime temperatures in the mountains. Typhoons rarely occur in Mindanao, the latest (Typhoon Bopha [Pablo] in December 2012) proving to be the strongest tropical cyclone to ever hit Mindanao, making landfall as a Category 5 super typhoon with winds of 282 km per hour. Sulu Islands. Rainfall is constant on these islands although January to April is considered the dry period. The mean annual temperature is 26°C and the maximum is 34°C. January is the coldest month with May to August as the hottest period, with relative humidity averaging to 86 percent. There are no recorded typhoons. 66

The Philippines: A Natural History

Chapter 4

Oceanography, Tides, and Currents

W

AT E R C I R C U L AT I O N A R O U N D T H E P H I L I P P I N E ARCHIPELAGO is a result of complex dynamics involving bathymetry, seasonally reversing monsoons, and tidal and non-tidal circulation between the West Philippine Sea and the Western Pacific (Figure 9).

◄ FIGURE 9. Water circulation around the Philippine archipelago.

Source: Nañola et al. 2010.

67

Trade winds from the northern Pacific Ocean create a wind-induced surface ocean current (the North Equatorial Current) moving from east to west. As it approaches the Philippines, this current bifurcates: one branch (Mindanao Current) flows south along the eastern coast of Mindanao bending east to form the start of the Equatorial Counter Current; the other larger branch (Kuroshio Current) flows past the northern Philippines and along Taiwan’s eastern coast towards Japan. Spanish galleons sailed eastward in April and returned in October each year to exploit these currents. Trade Winds and Spanish Galleons To settle and trade with the Philippine islands, an eastward maritime path was necessary for Spanish galleons to return to the Americas. Early attempts by Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón in 1529 and by Bernardo de la Torre in 1543 to find the eastward winds to cross the Pacific failed. The Manila-Acapulco galleon trade finally began in 1565 when Spanish navigator Andrés de Urdaneta sailed north to the 38th parallel, before heading east, and hitting the eastward winds that would take him to Mexico. He had reasoned that the trade winds of the Pacific might move in a gyre as did the Atlantic winds. Thus, if the Atlantic ships made a wide swing (the “volta”) to the west to pick up winds to bring them back to North America from Madeira by sailing far to the north from the Philippines before heading east, ships would be able to pick up eastward-blowing winds (“westerlies”) to bring them back to the west coast of North America. Though he sailed to 38 degrees north before turning east, his hunch paid off and his ships picked the winds that sent them to the Americas. They hit the coast near Cape Mendocino, California, then followed the coast south to San Blas and later to Acapulco. Most of his crew died on the long initial voyage because of insufficient provisions. Source: Hayes 2001.

Pacific water seeps into the Sibuyan Sea and Bohol Sea by way of the shallow San Bernardino Strait and Surigao Strait, respectively, and in greater volume through the 2,200 m deep Luzon Strait into the West Philippine Sea. On the western side of the archipelago, water flows from the West Philippine Sea through the straits Mindoro and Panay and reaches into the Sulu Sea and adjacent Bohol Sea and Sibuyan Sea via the Verde Island Passage and the Tablas and Dipolog straits. The West Philippine Sea also connects to the southern Sulu Sea via the Balabac 68

The Philippines: A Natural History

Strait and the Sibutu Passage, and the southern Sulu Sea to the Sulawesi Sea (Celebes Sea). Once within the confines of the Philippine Archipelago, circulation and stratification are subjected to monsoonal winds that are influenced by passages between island and landforms, by sea-air heat and freshwater influxes, and by areas with strong tidal currents. Overflow across some 500 m deep topographic sills ventilates the depths of isolated basins, the Sulu Sea, and the smaller Bohol Sea and Sibuyan Sea. Monsoonal winds (northeast and southwest) funneled by complicated topography may generate lee eddies and wind stress curl zones, particularly during monsoon surges. Winds blowing through gaps between islands can induce upwelling and downwelling along the leeward sides. Upwelling areas off the northern coast of the Zamboanga Peninsula are biologically rich and support a thriving fishing industry in the southern Philippines. Though there are some variations and inequalities, tides in Philippine waters generally follow the phases of the moon. At Davao and Legaspi ports, tides are semidiurnal (twice a day). At Jolo, the inequality is mainly in the high waters, while at Cebu and Manila, there is inequality in low and high waters. The tides at Jolo and Manila, and to a lesser extent at Cebu, become diurnal once a day around the time of the moon’s maximum declination (distance from the equator). When it is high tide, the Philippines appears to have only 7,100 islands; another seven islands appear only during low tide. Highest and lowest tides at major tide stations are shown in Table 1. ▼ TABLE 1. Highest and lowest tides at major tide stations. Lowest Tide Observed

Type of Tide – Mean Tide Range

South Harbor, Manila

Mixed diurnal and semi-diurnal – 0.758 m

4.0 m – 04 July 2000

1.16 m – 26 January 1952

Cebu City

Mixed diurnal and semi-diurnal with diurnal dominance – 1.023 m

3.25 m – 13 July 1987

0.36 m – 29 January 1983

Sasa Wharf, Davao City

Semi-diurnal 1.305 m

3.47 m – 27 September 1988

0.36 m – 29 January 1983

Legaspi Pier, Legaspi City, Albay

Semi-diurnal 1.156 m

2.92 m – 26 September 1988

0.15 m – 19 January 1969

Date Recorded All Heights: Above Zero Tide Staff

Chapter 4. Oceanography, Tides, and Currents

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Source: National Mapping and Resource Information Authority, Republic of the Philippines.

Highest Tide Observed

Tide Station Location

Currents are also affected by the moon’s declinations. The San Bernardino Strait between southern Luzon and Samar has two flood and two ebb currents each day when the moon is near the equator. As the moon’s declination increases, one ebb current gradually slows and the other increases in speed. When the moon approaches its maximum declination north or south of the equator, the daily inequality in the ebb current is so great that one ebb disappears entirely; instead of two floods and two ebbs there is only one flood in a day lasting for the greater part of the day with varying strength.

Manila Bay’s tides are increasing A recent study by scientists from the University of Southampton, UK revealed that Manila Bay’s tides have changed significantly since monitoring started in the 1980s, with an over 1 mm increase per year in average high water and over 5 mm per year in greater diurnal tidal range (GDTR). This has serious implications for the coastline concerning access to ports and other infrastructure and the natural environment.   Tides exert a major influence on the coast, affecting coastal flooding and erosion, navigation, tidal energy extraction, sediment movement, and the extent of species in coastal ecosystems. Consequently, the changes identified have wider ranging practical and scientific implications, particularly if they increase in the future. The cause of these changes is complex and appears to be a combination of mechanisms from local to global, with the primary driver being the rise in sea level associated with climate change. Further research is required to more fully understand the mechanisms causing these changes and to understand how tides might further change in the future. Source: Mawdsley, Haigh, and Wells 2015.

Each Philippine island and coastline has its unique combinations of weather, wind, waves, currents, light, and shape and the strength and direction of local currents may change daily with the tides. Coastal configurations affect the location, size, and composition of coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses, and beaches. Exposure to wind and wave action also shapes local geology and are major factors determining the abundance and diversity of marine and estuarine plants and animals.

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Chapter 5

Tectonic and Geological History and Soils

T

HE PHILIPPINES HAS A VERY COMPLEX TECTONIC AND GEOLOGICAL history being formed primarily by the forces of continental drift causing the northern and western movement of the Continental and Eurasian Indo-Australian plates against the Pacific and the Philippine Sea plates. It is one of the most highly mineralized countries in the world and its geological features may be grouped into a mobile belt (the Philippine Mobile Belt) characterized by high seismic activities and an aseismic (stable) region relatively free from crustal movement and earthquakes. The former comprises Luzon, most of the Visayas, and Mindanao, the latter mainly in Palawan and the Sulu Sea.

Tectonics The Philippine Mobile Belt, a fast deforming plate boundary zone, is composed of accretionary blocks and long and narrow strips (generally running northsouth) with the zones of convergence being usually demarcated by fault lines. The belt is compressed on the west by the Asiatic Plate and two arms of the Australian-Indonesian plate or Sunda Plate, and on the east by the Philippine Sea Plate (Figure 10). The compression of these tectonic plates has lifted parts of the Philippines causing extensive faulting, mostly on a north-south axis. All faults in the Philippines are interrelated by the tectonic forces of the belt, or its tectonic induced volcanism. The Philippine Mobile Belt is bisected by the Philippine Fault system from eastern Mindanao through the eastern Visayas on to northeastern Luzon. This system takes up part of the motion due to the subducting plates and produces strong earthquakes.

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▲ FIGURE 10. Philippine Sea Plate.

Southwest Luzon is characterized by a highly volcanic zone, called the Macolod Corridor, a region of crustal thinning and spreading. Southwest of Luzon is a collision zone where the Palawan microblock collides with southwest Luzon, producing a highly seismic zone near Mindoro. Such a tectonic history has involved a process related to the collision of oceanic plates, sedimentary basins, and subduction where sediment on a descending plate is carried beneath the leading edge of the upper slab. Luzon, in particular, has subduction zones on both the western and eastern sides. Other locations of shorter subduction zones, indicated as trenches on the seafloor, are found off the coasts of Sulu, Cotabato, Negros, and southwestern Palawan. During the early Cenozoic era, some 50 to 55 million years ago, the Indian Plate began to collide with the Asiatic plate. The volcanic complexes of eastern

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Source: US Geological Service.

▲ FIGURE 11. Map of Philippine Plate showing major tectonic structures. The lines with black triangles are active subduction zones with teeth indicating the over-riding plate. Lines with white triangles are passive subduction zones with teeth indicating the over-riding plate. The major Philippine fault zone is shown as a black line with arrows indicating the direction of movement. The Pinatubo and Mayon volcanoes are shown as red dots.

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Philippines (Bicol, Leyte, and east Mindanao) were formed from the resultant subduction. They are the archipelago’s oldest geological structures. The archipelago itself began to form underwater, along the margin of Southern China, save for the Sierra Madre and other eastern Philippine volcanic chains. By the end of the early Eocene period (40 million years ago), structures that would later become north Palawan, Mindoro, and Zamboanga rimmed the margins of Eurasia, Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and possibly Mindoro. They were created from volcanic eruptions beneath the sea when the Pacific Plate pressed the edges of the Philippine Plate. A surge of molten matter from the plate cracks became the first of a number of submerged islands that later rose above the water as narrow strips or irregularly oval pieces of land. During the mid-Oligocene period, about 30 million years ago, the Philippines began to form three major geological blocks (Figure 12A). One block, comprising present-day Mindoro and Palawan and other some small islands, drifted from the Asian continental shelf south of the current location of Taiwan. In parallel, a string of small volcanic islands developed beneath a shallow sea (proto-Luzon) and moved northwest. Southeast of proto-Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao also moved northwest. At the close of the Oligocene period (25 million years ago), the central Cordillera and other western volcanic islands began to form the western landscape of the country. In areas like the Cagayan Valley and the central plains of Luzon, sediments from the erosion of surrounding mountain ranges started to accumulate. During the Miocene era of the Tertiary period (around 20 million years ago), the Australian-Indonesian Plate moved and collided with both the Pacific Plate in the northeast and the Asiatic Plate in the northwest. The Philippine Plate was greatly compressed from the southeast and the south. The former generated the Philippine Fault and lifted the islands along the present eastern coasts. The southern compressions created the mountains and raised islands of Mindanao, and thrust up previously submerged islands, such as Jolo in the Sulu Archipelago (Figure 12 B). Sedimentation brought about what are now the Cagayan Valley, Central Luzon, and the AgusanDavao Valley. About 10 million years ago (Figure 12 C), Mindoro was uplifted and mountain buildings produced such ranges as the Sierra Madre, Cordilleras, and Caraballo in Luzon. Palawan emerged in the Pliocene, 5 million years ago (Figure 12 D), while smaller islands and peninsulas, such as Bicol, Camiguin and Sibuyan, and the Sulu surfaced much later. During the late Miocene (about 2–5 million years ago), the archipelago settled into its present position. 74

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Source: Hall 2002.

▲ FIGURE 12. Postulated distribution of land and sea in Southeast Asia in the Cenozoic. A: 30 million years ago (mya); B: 20 mya; C: 10 mya; and D: 5 mya.

Changes in the sea level during periods of continental glaciation also dramatically restructured the Philippines. During the late Pleistocene era (15,000–20,000 years ago), the sea level dropped some 120 m below its present level allowing certain islands to coalesce, forming Pleistocene island groups (Figure 13); sometimes glaciers blanketing temperate regions would melt away and disconnect these islands. The cycle was repeated several times until the last glacial episode about 12,000 years ago and helps explain the biogeographic patterns of Philippine vertebrates with each of the Pleistocene islands harboring a unique set of species. Geological evidence suggests that during the middle Pleistocene, there were land bridges within parts of the Philippines: the island of “Greater Luzon” in the north included several adjacent smaller islands; the island of “Greater Mindanao” in the south included Leyte, Bohol, Samar, and many other smaller islands; and the island of “Greater Negros-Panay” in the center that merged Cebu, Masbate, Negros, and Chapter 5. Tectonic and Geological History and Soils

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▲ FIGURE 13. Map of the Philippines showing the extent of late Pleistocene islands, based on the current 120m bathymetric line.

Panay. Thus, it is believed that every ice age island in the Philippines is a unique center of biological diversity. For example, studies have shown that some 80 percent of the nonflying mammals (tree shrews, tree squirrels, tarsiers, and flying lemurs) on Greater Mindanao are found nowhere else and on Greater Luzon there is not one of the species characteristic of Greater Mindanao; furthermore, 70 percent of its nonflying mammals are found nowhere else. The story deepens: on Greater Palawan, 48 percent of the mammals are unique; on Greater Mindoro, 44 percent; and on Greater Negros-Panay, 50 percent.

Surface Geology Almost all the principal rock types are found in the Philippines (Figure 14). Rock formations from the Paleozoic era are exposed mainly in Mindoro, Palawan, and Panay. Coralline limestones of the Carboniferous period (about 350 million years ago) have been discovered in Mindoro, while Permian fossils exist in Mindoro, Romblon, Palawan, and Panay. Mesozoic formations are more widespread. They include some Triassic and Jurassic outcrops in Mindoro, possible Jurassic rocks in Panay and northwestern Luzon, and Cretaceous rocks in the offshore area of Palawan, mid and southeastern Luzon, and Cebu. The most extensive geological formations in the Philippines are those belonging to the Cenozoic era. These are deep-seated crystalline basement rocks and are usually found only in the canyons of the central ranges where rivers have cut through the more recent overlying formations. They are particularly abundant in northern Luzon, throughout the Cordillera Central, the mountains of Palawan, the Cordilleras of Panay, the Central Cordilleras of Cebu, Leyte, the eastern Cordilleras of Mindanao, and Masbate. Large proportions of extrusive volcanic materials are found in all parts of the Philippines, especially in the Zambales Range of southwestern Luzon. In the Cordillera Central, there are large outcrops of andesitic flows and basalt occurring in the Arayat Mountains which rise from the Central Plain of Luzon. Well-developed extrusive formations in the southeastern volcanic area of Luzon comprise the wellknown peaks of Bulusan, Mayon, Isarog, and other mountains. They are also found in Masbate, western Panay, Cebu, and most of northern Negros. In central Leyte and Mindanao, a broad belt of extrusives runs north and south. Mount Malindang and other mountains were once centers of great volcanic activity. Extrusive rocks cover almost the entire islands of Basilan, Sulu, and the northern part of Palawan. Chapter 5. Tectonic and Geological History and Soils

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Legend Quaternary - undifferentiated Quaternary - sediments Tertiary - undifferentiated Tertiary - sediments Tertiary - volcanics Cretaceous - Paleogene - undifferentiated Cretaceous - undifferentiated Cretaceous - volcanics Jurassic - sediments Paleozoic and Mesozoic - undifferentiated Paleozoic and Mesozoic - metamorphics Acid intrusives Mafic intrusives, ophiolites Melange zones

◄ FIGURE 14. Geological map of the Philippines.

Source: Mines and Geological Science Bureau, Philippines.

There are about 50 volcanoes in the Philippines, 22 still being considered active (Figure 15). The most famous is Mount Mayon in southern Luzon being the world’s most perfectly shaped cone. Its first eruption was recorded in 1616, but the most destructive was in 1814, when neighboring towns were laid in ruins and more than 1,000 persons died. A series of major eruptions took place in September 1984. Mount Pinatubo on Luzon erupted in 1991 and produced the second largest terrestrial 78

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▲ FIGURE 15. Distribution of some of the active and inactive volcanoes. S o u r c e : P h i l i p p i n e I n s t i t u t e o f Vo l c a n o l o g y a n d S e i s m o l o g y

eruption of the twentieth century after the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska. The eruption was complicated by the arrival of Typhoon Yunya (Diding) bringing a lethal mix of ash and rain, mobilizing earlier volcanic deposits, destroying infrastructure and altering the river systems for many months or years after the eruption. On average, the Philippines experiences one perceptible earthquake every two days. There are many more tremors too weak to be felt by people, but strong enough to be recorded on seismographs. Although the country is crisscrossed by large fractures along which any dislocation would produce a tectonic earthquake, not all parts of the Philippines are vulnerable to destructive earthquakes.

Physiography In terms of island and submarine morphology, the Philippine Archipelago may be divided into four physiographic provinces: the Eastern, Central, Western, and Palawan. The Eastern, Central, and Western physiographic provinces constitute a region bounded on both sides by deep trenches and a series of ridges and troughs generally parallel to the trenches. In contrast, the Palawan Physiographic Province is separated by a channel connecting the Sulu and Manila trenches, the NE-SW trend of the ridges and troughs being nearly at right angles to the NS-SE trends in other provinces. The marginal sea basins, trenches and troughs are as prominent as the physiographic provinces. Small oceanic basins around the Philippines include the Philippine Sea Basin, South China Sea Basin, Celebes Sea Basin, and southeast Sulu Sea Basin. All are characteristically rhomboidal with sea floors of abyssal plains, linear ridges, and occasional sea mounts and rises. Generally, 4,000–5,000 m in depth, their sedimentary layers are invariably thin and mostly turbid in origin. Trenches and troughs in Philippine waters are extremely deep, narrow, and elongated depressions; they are also asymmetrical, being bounded on one side by abyssal plains and on the other by steep narrow ridges often emerging 2 km or more above sea level. They include the Philippine Trench, East Luzon Trench, Manila Trench, Sulu Trench, and Cotabato Trench. Troughs are less asymmetrical and include the Antique Trench, Palawan Trench, and West Luzon Trench. The Philippine Trench (also known as the Mindanao Trench) extends east of the Bicol Peninsula and is 1,400 km long with an average width of 60 km. The average depth is 8,000 m and is narrowest and deepest at east of Samar and northern Mindanao, where it attains a depth of 10,540 m. It is the fourth deepest trench in the world and is referred to as the Philippine or Mindanao Deep. 80

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Source: Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences 1981.

▲ FIGURE 16. Map of marine physiographic provinces.

Soil Cover Due to the extensive coralline limestone and materials of volcanic origin, soil types found in the Philippines are relatively more fertile than many of those found in other tropical areas. However, the most fertile soils are alluvial and found frequently in the principal lowland areas on the major islands covering about 15 percent of the land surface. Some alluvial soils are finely textured, have a high capacity to retain water, and are used for cultivating lowland wet rice in the Central Luzon Plain, Iloilo Basin on Panay, and Leyte Valley. Coarser alluvial soils with better drainage characteristics are used for sugarcane production and for growing corn in central Luzon, southern Mindanao, and especially in the Visayas. Soils developed directly from underlying coralline limestone are most prevalent in the Visayas. Corn, coconut, bananas, citrus, and cassava grow well on these relatively fertile soils, which also support any remaining forest, including species of dipterocarp. Shale and sandstone occur sporadically throughout the Philippines. Soils from the breakdown of calcareous shales are relatively fertile and characteristic in Cebu, Bohol, western Samar, portions of Leyte, and eastern Negros where they support the production of fruit, maize (corn), and root crops. Noncalcareous shale soils are found in northern southeastern Luzon, Panay, Leyte, and southern and eastern Mindanao and are of low fertility supporting only grasses and forest. Sandstone soils occur in the Cagayan Valley, in the Tayabas Isthmus of Luzon, on Masbate, and in northeastern Mindanao. However, the largest single occurrence is on the island of Bohol where they comprise 12 percent of the soils. Philippine soils derived from sandstones show a complete absence of organic matter and soil fertility is normally quite low. Andesites, basalts, and agglomerates form parent materials of the most common Philippine soils which cover about 21 percent of the country. They tend to form true lateritic soils which drain well and are usually deep. They are reddish-tinged and occur in upland areas, often well-suited to growing sugarcane, upland rice, coconuts, and tree crops. Soil derived from volcanic tuff occurs chiefly in a large area of southwestern Luzon, where it is used for growing upland rice, sugarcane, vegetables, and fruit. These soils have higher clay content than those formed in situ and retain water, making them also excellent for wet rice cultivation.

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Laterite Soils In contrast to temperate forests, there is little accumulation of leaf litter on the floors of tropical forests. Everything falling to the ground disappears almost immediately—carried off, consumed or decomposed with the result that in many places, the ground is bare. As a consequence of this rapid breakdown and recycling, the soils of tropical rainforests are relatively infertile being chiefly composed of red clay into which trees never penetrate deeply. Such soils are known as laterites, from the Latin for “brick.” When laterite soils are cleared, in many cases they either erode rapidly or form thick, impenetrable crusts on which cultivation is only possible after a season or two. This is frequently overlooked when forests are cleared for agriculture. Original forest inhabitants practiced shifting cultivation, leaving a clearing after a year or so and allowing it to regenerate and replace its soil nutrients over many years before clearing the area again. Unfortunately, modern approaches call for continuous cultivation and are not sustainable without large and expensive inputs of fertilizer. Source: Ayensu 1980.

Based on geomorphology, Philippine soils may be grouped into: a) soils in lowland areas; b) soils in young and unstable uplands; and c) soils in old and stable uplands (Figure 17 and Table 2).

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▲ FIGURE 17. Soil map of the Philippines. S o u r c e : B u r e a u o f S o i l a n d Wa t e r M a n a g e m e n t , G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Counprof/Philippines/phfig4.htm.

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Major Soil Groupings

Types of Soils

a) Soils in lowland areas – include all flatlands located near sea level. Most of these areas are underlain by recent alluvial sediments and the soils are poorly developed because of periodic deposition of sediments during flooding events.

Arenosols (entisols) – recently formed/weakly developed sandy soils common in alluvial plains and coastal areas. Gleysols (entisols, inceptisols) – poorly developed wet soils in alluvial plains and marshes used chiefly for lowland rice production. Together with histosols, gleysols are the dominant soils of wetlands. Cambisols (inceptisols) – weakly developed soils showing poor horizon development. They occur in association with gleysols although they may also be found in mountainous areas. Fluvisols (entisols) – undeveloped soils common along rivers where development is retarded by periodic deposition of river sediments. Vertisols (vertisols) – dark, clayey soils in lowland areas producing large cracks on the surface during the dry season. They are very fertile and are widely used for lowland rice production. Histosols – organic soils found in swamps, marshes, shallow lakes, and depressions. The saturated condition favors the accumulation of organic materials.

b) Soils in young and unstable uplands – undulating and hilly lands ranging in elevation from near sea level to about 1,000 m. These are underlain by young volcanic deposits or reef limestone and thus are poorly developed soils.

Leptosols (entisols, inceptisols) – shallow soils (less than 50 cm deep) in rocky areas. Many soils derived from limestone in various islands have very thin solum (surface and subsoil layers that have undergone the same soil-forming conditions) and thus they belong to leptosols. Andosols (andisols) – poorly developed soils on young volcanic landscapes in the mountains. The soil is soft and very friable and appears dark due to the high organic matter content. Chernozems (mollisols) – very fertile soils due to their organic-rich topsoil.

c) Soils in old and stable uplands – typically occur on the lower slopes of volcanic mountains. Soils in these areas are well-developed or highly weathered.

Ferralsols (oxisols) – very deep, red, acidic, and very infertile soils found in old landscapes in Palawan, Mindanao, and Samar. Acrisols and alisols (ultisols) — reddish, clayey, acidic soils widespread in hilly and mountainous areas throughout the archipelago. Luvisols (alfisols) – well-developed soils with high base saturation (fertile) found in old alluvial terraces in various areas in the Philippines.

Degraded lands are widely seen as a major contributor to the frequent occurrence of disastrous floods in certain provinces of the Philippines and to the poor economic conditions of upland farmers. Soil erosion has affected the productivity of land, limited the rehabilitation or restoration of degraded lands, impaired the quality of surface water, and modified hydrologic conditions by changing land resources. Moreover, the changing weather patterns have brought about prolonged droughts and excessive rains with farmers having to endure lower yields and income from farming. Climate change is expected to exacerbate these trends. Chapter 5. Tectonic and Geological History and Soils

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S o u r c e : B u r e a u o f S o i l a n d Wa t e r M a n a g e m e n t , G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .

▼ TABLE 2. Major soil types in the Philippines.

▲ An example of severe soil erosion and floods on often illegally denuded hillsides have killed thousands of Filipinos over the years

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Source: (Above) http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2014/01/14/1278579/landslides-floods-kill-14-mindanao (Below) http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/113597/deadly-mix-for-disaster

Minerals The country’s known mineral resources are extensive, especially gold, chromite, copper, iron, and mercury. Others are silver, manganese, lead, and zinc. Nonmetallic minerals include asbestos, diatomite, feldspar, gypsum, limestone, dolomite, marble, perlite, quartz, talc, and clays. Sulfur deposits occur in Luzon. A large sulfur deposit of volcanic origin, estimated to contain 30 million tons of sulfur, is located in Negros Oriental. Coal deposits are found from Mindoro to Mindanao and some are also located in southeastern Luzon. Extensive gold panning is practiced in Mindanao and in parts of the Visayas, frequently to the detriment of the natural environment. With continuing exploration and geological mapping, this potential for metals is expected to increase. There is an estimated additional 9 million ha of potential terrestrial sites for metallic minerals and the offshore area is another potential domain for mineral deposits: placer minerals such as gold, chromite, magnetite, and silica; manganese nodules and encrustations with associated copper, gold, zinc, cobalt; and construction aggregates such as sand and gravel; and decorative stones (Figure 18). Clearly, both operations pose great challenges to environmental planning and management for the protection of the natural environment and neighboring communities.

Soil Degradation in the Visayas and Beyond Estimates of the severity of the erosion problem in the Philippines greatly vary. The Philippine National Action Plan (2004) estimated that 33, 21, and 46 percent of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, respectively, were severely eroded. However, other data for the Visayas suggest an underestimation considering the degraded nature of many Visayan islands. For example, for Leyte island alone, in 1992, the Bureau of Soil and Water Management reported that about 40 percent of the soils in northern Leyte and about 58 percent in Southern Leyte were moderately to severely eroded. Soil degradation is a major ecological problem throughout the Philippines, a third of the total land area of the Philippines being considered excessively eroded. In terms of erosion rates, estimates vary considerably with land use systems and across different areas in the country. The highest reported erosion rate was measured in a banana-coffee-pineapple intercropping (421 t ha-1 yr) and the lowest erosion rate was recorded under a primary forest (0.2 t ha-1 yr). Source: Asio 2009.

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▲ FIGURE 18. Offshore areas in the Philippines, with potential for minerals. Source: Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

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Chapter 6

Water Resources

W

AT E R I S A M A J O R F A C T O R S H A P I N G T H E L A N D S C A P E , flora and fauna, and ecosystems of the Philippines.  The archipelago’s 421 principal rivers, including 18 major river basins, 59 natural lakes (10 of them major), numerous small rivers, streams, and swamplands cover a total surface area of about 1,260 km2 of which 1,150 km2 (91.1 percent) is freshwater. Most of the rivers are short, seasonal, and subject to flooding during the monsoon and typhoon seasons when some may swell to three times their normal size. The major river basins—with a total drainage area of 112, 473 km2 (Figure 19)—are sustained by more than 400 watersheds ranging from 41 km2 to 25,649 km2 in area. Major rivers include the Abra River, Abulog River, Agno River, Bicol River, Cagayan River, Pampanga River, and Pasig-Marikina River in Luzon; Ilabangan River, Jalaur River, and Panay River in the Visayas; and Agus River, Agusan River, Buayan-Malungun River, Cagayan (de Oro) River, Davao River, and Mindanao River in Mindanao. There are around 21 million ha of watersheds around the country, comprising 70 percent of the Philippines’ total land area. Some of these watersheds are subject to logging, upland farming, and pollution, placing 17 major watershed areas in the country on the critical list: Santo Tomas, Busol, Lonoy, Angat, Marikina, Kaliwa, Umiray, Maasin, Mananga, Kotkot-Lusaran, Binahaan, Pasonanca, Ambogoc, Mahoganao, Malagos, Koronadal, and Lanao. At 505 km, the Cagayan River is the longest in the Philippine Archipelago draining the Cagayan Valley and flowing northward dropping rapidly 91 m from 227 m above sea level before emptying into the sea at Aparri. The rare lobed river mullet (Cestraeus plicatilis) spawns in Cagayan River’s upper reaches and, in late October/ mid-November, travels down the river to release its eggs at the river mouth. The species is endangered, with fish vendors in Cagayan experiencing dramatic falls in the annual volume of catch.

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▲ FIGURE 19. Major river basins of the Philippines. Source: Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

The low-lying Central Luzon Plain is drained by the Pampanga River emptying into Manila Bay, and by the Agno River flowing northward into the Lingayen Gulf. The Pasig River flows between Laguna de Bay and Manila Bay. During the dry season, the water level in Laguna de Bay is low and the flow direction of the Pasig depends on the tides. During the wet season, when the water level of Laguna de Bay is high, the flow is normally from Laguna de Bay towards Manila Bay. Two large rivers are found in Mindanao: the Agusan River which flows north through the Agusan Valley to the Mindanao Sea and the Mindanao River or Rio Grande de Mindanao draining the Cotabato Lowland and emptying into the Moro Gulf northwest of Cotabato City. The Agusan River is the third largest river basin of the Philippines with a total drainage area of 10,921 km2 and an estimated length of 350 km. It originates in the southeast and flows northward through the wide Agusan River valley measuring 177 km from south to north, varying from 65 km to 80 km in width. It finally drains into the Butuan Bay on the Mindanao Sea. Within its basin, the river supports the Agusan Marsh covering a total area of 14,835 ha, serving a flood retention basin for the Agusan River, and absorbing some of the high discharge of water but often resulting in flash floods in the lower reaches of the river. The marsh harbors unique and pristine habitats like the sago and peat swamp forest and is home to endangered and endemic flora and fauna. Over 200 species of birds spend some of the year in the marsh (including the rare Oriental Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) and Purple Swamp Hen (Porphyrio porphyrio)). It is one of the most important stopover points for migrating birds. As a consequence, it was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1996. In 1999, it entered the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance as Waterfowl Habitat-Ramsar. Such is the value of the marsh that is now under consideration to become a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Lakes occupy 1,830 km2 of the Philippines’ landmass (0.61 percent of total area), the six major lakes being: Laguna de Bay (911 km2), Lanao (340 km2), Taal (234 km2), Mainit (173 km2— with many hot springs along its shores), Naujan (79 km2), and Buluan (61 km2). Laguna de Bay (Lawa ng Bai meaning “Mother Lake”) has an average depth of only about 2.8 m and an elevation of about 1 m above sea level. The lake, the largest freshwater body in the Philippines and the third largest inland freshwater lake in Southeast Asia is shaped like a stylized W, with two peninsulas protruding from the northern shore. Between these peninsulas, the middle lobe juts into the large remnant volcanic Laguna Caldera. Around 100 streams drain into the lake within a watershed area of 292,000 ha. The lake is one of the primary Chapter 6. Water Resources

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Laguna de Bay Under Threat Laguna de Bay is located east of Metro Manila between the provinces of Laguna to the south and Rizal to the north. The lake is home to some 269 species of plants and 33 species of fish comprising 14 indigenous species (5 of which are migratory), and 19 introduced species. These include fish of great commercial value such as carp (Labeo rohita), milkfish (Chanos chanos), Tilapia sp. (tilapya), walking catfish (Clarias batrachus), silver perch (Leiopotherapon plumbeus), and goby (Glossogobius giurus). Repeated assessments have found significant declines in water quality (due to multiple sources of pollution), and degradation of its watershed. Findings also indicated an increased lake water level and declining transparency. There are over 8 million people living around the Laguna Lake Basin contributing household and domestic wastes with additional contributions of pollution from industry and agriculture Another threat is from the closure of the Napindan Hydraulic Control Structure. Entry of seawater into the lake is suspected of having a beneficial effect in clearing the water, allowing higher primary production and fish growth. The formation of cross-sectoral river rehabilitation scheme, development of a Laguna Lake Zoning and Management Plan, and conservation areas may stabilize conditions and ultimately improve water quality; it may also increase and sustain productivity while improving biological diversity. In 2006, the Laguna Lake Development Authority implemented the Environmental User Fee System (EUFS) to “(reduce) the pollution loading in to the Laguna de Bay by enjoining all discharges of liquid wastes to internalize the cost of environmental degradation.” Thus, industries found to have unusually high concentration of pollutants in their discharges were required to pay fines or lake “user–fees.” 92

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Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ storm-crypt/2330680797

▲ Pressures on Laguna Bay

sources of freshwater fish in the country but is commonly held to being reduced to a massive septic tank receiving domestic waste from more than 25,000 informal settlers, including fish vendors who have built shanties on at least 500 ha along the lake’s banks. Lake Lanao is the largest lake in Mindanao and counted as one of the 17 ancient lakes in the world. It has a maximum depth of 112 m, and a mean depth of 60.3 m being shallowest towards the north and becoming progressively deeper towards the south. This large oligotrophic lake in the uplands of west-central Mindanao was formed by the tectonic-volcanic damming of a basin between two mountain ranges and the collapse of a large volcano. The lake is fed by four rivers and its only outlet is the Agus River flowing southwest into Iligan Bay via two channels, one over the Maria Cristina Falls and the other over the Linamon Falls.

Lake Lanao and Endemism Some reed beds of Typha sp. grow around the edges and large areas of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) cover the surface. Other common plants include the red and blue water lily (Nymphaea nouchali) and water celery (Vallisneria sp.). Most of the surrounding areas have been cleared for agriculture with some patches of primary dipterocarp forest remaining on the nearby Sacred Mountain and secondary forest at Wao. Grasslands adjacent to the lake are grazed by cattle, water buffalo, and goats. The endemic cyprinids of Lake Lanao have been described as a species flock (the only one in the entire Indo-Malayan Realm) and are thought to be an example of explosive evolution. In the 1980s, the scientific community warned that the lake’s 18 endemic cyprinid species were in danger of extinction due to the introduction of invasive alien species and to the long-term effects of the hydroelectric plant operations on lake levels. An investigation in 1992 only managed to locate two of the endemic fish species. Overfishing, pollution, and competition from introduced species are believed to have caused the extinction of the 16 endemics. Today, water inflow and outflow have declined, lake water level has decreased, and exposure of the lakebed has been observed. Despite its degraded state, the lake is an important bird area supporting waterfowl, herons, ducks, and rails. The Lake Lanao Watershed (185,640 ha) was created in February 1992. Source: De Silva, Abery, and Nguyen 2007.

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93

Groundwater contributes 14 percent of the total water resource potential of the Philippines with an aggregate area of about 50,000 km2. Some 84 percent of the estimated total demand for water (77 million cubic meters [mcm] per day) is utilized by the agriculture sector for irrigation of the 1.5 million ha of cropland. Industrial and domestic usage is limited to 14 percent. Among the primary sources of surface freshwater are rivers, lakes, and marshes. Although water is still abundant in certain areas, the country faces the threat of water scarcity. Many of the major basins are in critical condition because of overexploitation and mismanagement. Direct causes include deforestation and removal of natural vegetation, overexploitation for domestic and commercial uses, inappropriate agricultural and forestry activities, overgrazing, poor water resource management, unregulated land conversion, and pollution. Indirect causes include conflicting institutional mandates and lack of institutional support services, inconsistent policies, statutory and policy framework, and the pressures of population. Their degradation has produced accelerated soil erosion, surface runoff, siltation of dams and reservoirs, diminished water quality, flash flooding, prolonged drought and other adverse impacts upon the ecosystem. Aquifer recharge has been reduced and resulted in the decline of groundwater levels and saltwater intrusion in many parts of the Philippines. For example, industrial and domestic withdrawals in some areas such as Metropolitan Cebu are causing the intrusion of saltwater into the aquifer system and decreasing freshwater supplies. Some wells in the downtown area have been abandoned. The Philippines receives an average rainfall of 2,500 mm per year. After factoring in the effect of uneven distribution (Figure 20), slope, permeability, and other factors on water availability, the average annual supply of surface runoff is estimated at 125,790 mcm. Based on estimates of surface runoff and ground infiltration, the amount of water available for consumption is estimated at 431 mcm per day. Cagayan Valley has the highest potential source of groundwater, while Northern Mindanao has the highest potential source of surface water. In contrast, the Central Visayas has the lowest potential source for both groundwater and surface water. Some analysts predict that by year 2025, water availability deficit will occur in several river basins such as Pampanga, Agno, Pasig-Laguna, Cagayan Valley, all other regions in Luzon, in Jalaur (Panay), Ilog Hilabangan (Negros), and in Cebu.

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The Philippines: A Natural History

▲ FIGURE 20. Daily mean rainfall distribution in the Philippines; axis expressed in mm. Source: Resilient Seas Project, DOST-PCAMRD 2011.

Chapter 6. Water Resources

95

Chapter 7

Biogeography

T

H E P H I L I P P I N E S I S P A R T O F T H E I N D O - M A L AYA N R E A L M , and its flora and fauna is mostly derived from tropical Asia. It lies within a distinct floristic region known as Malesia (Figure 21), along with the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java forming part of the sub-floristic province of West Malesia. However, East Malesian floristic elements (Sulawesi, Moluccas, and New Guinea) are well represented in the Philippines, indicating that the archipelago may have been the stepping stones (corridor) through which floristic elements from both sub-provinces were exchanged. Mainland Asiatic elements are present in Philippine flora found in medium to high elevation of mountains

■ FIGURE 21. The Malesia floristic province. Source: Mackinnon 1997

mostly confined in Luzon. The flora also contains an appreciable number of Australian-Papuasian elements and elements of the Antarctic flora that originated in the ancient southern hemisphere supercontinent of Gondwana, including ancient 96

■ FIGURE 22. Faunal exchange between the Oriental and Australasian Provinces. Source: Beazley 1973

conifers like podocarps (Podocarpus, Nageia and Sundacarpus) and araucarias (Agathis). The Indo-Malayan Realm is divided into five sub-regions, the Philippines being allocated to the Sundaic sub-region (Palawan) and the Wallacean sub-region (the remainder of the Philippines). Floral and faunal species richness in the latter sub-region tends to be moderate but the level of endemism is very high; in the former sub-region, species richness is high, endemism low. This is because during the Pleistocene, elements of the Sundaic Sub-region were linked by land bridges and share many species. The Philippine Archipelago is home to a spectacular and diverse assemblage of fauna. Situated at the interface of the Oriental and Australian faunal zones, the archipelago continues to capture the attention and imagination of biogeographers and evolutionary biologists. For example, information generated from recent field surveys coupled with analyses of available data on diversity, indicates that reptile representation in the Philippines is far richer, the levels of endemicity are much higher, and the evolutionary history is far more complex than previously assumed. In the contact zone between the Oriental and Australasian provinces, a complex Chapter 7. Biogeography

97

interaction has been in progress for millions of years. Birds, bats, and insects have long exploited the narrowing gap between the areas and there has been some “island hopping” by drifting on debris and swimming. New Guinea has been invaded by Asian species and some Australasian species have moved the other way. However, the still considerable sea barriers have checked the movement of land animals. Demarcation lines have been drawn to mark the supposed boundaries of Asia and Australasia—“Wallace’s Line” for the eastern limits of Asian fauna and “Weber’s Line” for the truly Australasian fauna. Faunal mixing occurs between the two lines (Figure 22).

Prehistoric Animal Migrations The land bridges that connected the Philippines with the rest of Southeast Asia are indicated in Figure 23. The first migration took place about 2/3 million years ago as changes in the earth’s crust caused the Sunda Shelf to rise simultaneously with uplifting of the Himalayan Region and south-western China. Two land routes—Palawan and Sulu— were used by such animals as the tamaraw, wild pig, tarsier, monkey, and leopard to reach the archipelago. The second major migration took place about 400,000–500,000 years ago over land bridges created by the sudden sinking of the Himalayan Region and the uplifting of the north Pacific Ocean, the east coast of the Philippines, the Celebes, and parts of New Guinea and Australia. Mindanao was connected to the Celebes and the elephas, rhinoceros, and stegodon migrated to certain regions of the archipelago. The third and final migration occurred about 35,000 years ago via Borneo and Palawan but only as far as the Calamian islands. Ancestors of the mouse deer, anteater, mongoose, otter, and bear cat reached the Palawan island group at this time. Many Asian megafauna such as tapirs, tigers, leopards, and gibbons were prevented from reaching the Philippines, although they do inhabit the adjacent Indonesian islands of Sundaland, which were formerly linked to the Asian continent by lowered sea levels. Once there were no frogs in the Philippines. Now they have a complement of Bornean origin (Palawan has 15 species, Mindanao 16 species, and Luzon 7 species) most of which used land bridges to reach the Philippines.

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The Philippines: A Natural History

■ FIGURE 23. Prehistoric land bridges that connected the Philippines with the rest of Southeast Asia.

Chapter 7. Biogeography

99

Some 15 terrestrial and 6 marine biogeographic regions have been established for the Philippines based on recent information on its geologic and evolutionary history including studies of the distribution patterns of various taxonomic groups. During glacial events, 5 major Pleistocene island groups became prominent: • Greater Luzon: Luzon, Catanduanes, Marinduque, Polillo, and several small islands • Greater Mindanao: Mindanao, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Basilan, and adjacent small islands; • Greater Palawan: Palawan, Balabac, Busuanga, Culion, Cuyo, and adjacent small islands; • Greater Negros-Panay: Cebu, Masbate, Negros, and Panay; and, • Greater Sulu: most of the Sulu Archipelago from Tawi Tawi to Jolo. Except for Palawan, these Pleistocene island groups have never been connected to one another or to the Asian mainland. The islands of Mindoro, Sibuyan, Camiguin, and Siquijor have also remained isolated. Thus, it is not surprising that each of the 15 terrestrial biogeographic regions—a separate island or Pleistocene island group that existed during the last Ice Age—supports a large number of unique species and is recognized as a center of biodiversity. For example, 76 percent of the nonflying mammals in Greater Luzon are not found anywhere else, and the number for Greater Mindanao is even higher at 79 percent. Even the tiny island of Sibuyan in the Visayas has its own impressive array of endemic species in spite being only a few kilometers from Luzon. Other islands, like Negros and Panay, share faunal species different from those on other adjacent Visayas islands such as Leyte and Samar, whose faunal assemblages are, in turn, more similar to those of Mindanao. Masbate’s fauna are also more related to those of Negros and Panay than they are to the closer Luzon. These patterns have been observed in many vertebrates including birds, amphibians, mammals, reptiles, and fishes.  The Philippine Archipelago surrounding the important basin in the South China Sea, the Sulu Sea, and the Pacific Ocean serves as the physical framework for six marine biogeographic regions. The regions have broad transition zones based on the affinities of the associated reef fish assemblages, the evolutionary geology of the archipelago, and the predominant ocean circulation patterns.

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The Philippines: A Natural History

▲ The Palawan ark hypothesis and the Barbourula frogs. The pale arrows show the opening of the South China Sea while the pale red is continental margin.

Ancient History of Palawan and Borneo’s Flat-headed Frogs Recently, a team of scientists from the US, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines studied these frogs and their very distant relatives from mainland Eurasia to gain insights into species diversification in Southeast Asia that is much older than the Pleistocene land bridge period (2.6 million-12, 000 years BCE). Bickford (2008) and Blackburn (2010) have uncovered the oldest estimate of a cladogenic event (evolutionary splitting) in still living species that is consistent with a relatively ignored biogeographic Palawan Ark Hypothesis. The hypothesis says that because of its geological history, Palawan acts as a place or a raft (Noah’s Ark) in which species Chapter 7. Biogeography

101

from mainland Eurasia were able to move to Sundaland (present-day Borneo, Sumatra, Malay peninsula, and Java). This is different from the “usual” diversification of animals via a land bridge from Sundaland to Palawan. However, the authors state that this does not mean that the Palawan Ark Hypothesis applies to all species; it is merely an alternative route for some species, including the Flat-headed (Barbourula) frogs. The history of these frogs starts from their separation from the Bombina in the Paleogene period (50 million years ago [mya]). The separation is congruent with the drifting of northern Palawan from the Asian continent 32 to 17 mya by the opening of the South China Sea. Less than 15 mya, the frogs were able to migrate to Borneo via a land bridge. During this time, Palawan was closest to Borneo. This agrees with the divergence of the two species of Barbourula in the Late Miocene (12~5 mya). The Barbourula have been part of the Sundaland only about 10 mya. It is possible that the frogs migrated from the Sundaland to Palawan but evidence suggests that if this is the case, the Barbourula is a ‘‘relic’’ which became extinct throughout the Sundaland. Sources: Bickford et al. 2008 and 2010

Terrestrial Biogeographic Regions Based upon the floral, faunal, and geological composition of terrestrial geography, the Philippines has been divided into 15 regions or zones (Figure 24 and Table 3): areas with high (relatively intact) biodiversity include closed canopy dipterocarp forests; areas with medium (moderately disturbed) biodiversity include open canopy dipterocarp, residual, secondary growth and pine forests, and lakes and marshlands; and, areas with low biodiversity include cultivated grasslands and shrublands or agricultural lands and built-up areas. About 2.9 m ha or 10 percent of the country’s total land area is classified as high-quality biodiversity; 4.4 m ha or 15 percent as medium-quality; and 21.8 m ha or 75 percent as low-quality. Palawan and Sierra Madre have the largest proportion of land area with high biodiversity at 42 percent and 29 percent, respectively. Dipterocarp, mangrove and mossy forest, and coral reef constitute biodiversity-rich ecosystems, and their respective areas in hectares per biogeographic zone are shown in Table 4. It is evident that Northern and Southern Luzon, Sierra Madre, Palawan and Mindanao include the highest percentages of coverage within the zones and only Northern and Southern Luzon, Zamboanga and Liguasan enjoy a level of protection (percentage in a biogeographic zone) commensurate with their rich biodiversity. However, the quality of the protection continues to be highly variable. 102

The Philippines: A Natural History

Source: DENR and UNEP 1997.

▲ FIGURE 24. Terrestrial biogeographic zones of the Philippines. Chapter 7. Biogeography

103

■ TABLE 3. Biogeographic zones of the Philippines: Area and quality of biodiversity. Total Area (ha)

1. Batanes 2. Northern and Southern Luzon 3. Cordillera 4. Sierra Madre 5. Zambales 6. Mindoro 7. Calamian

Biodiversity Quality (ha) Low

Medium

High

19,887

19,887

0

0

8,760,910

7,341,208

976,010

443,692

621,627

446,225

150,571

24,831

1,680,159

646,739

54,620

492,800

322,556

283,365

24,775

14,416

1,018,068

923,259

56,564

38,245

164,554

112,251

37,126

15,177

8. Eastern Visayas

2,156,908

1,882,145

394,292

240,471

9. Western Visayas

2,649,736

2,476,122

113,247

60,367

10. Central Visayas

456,743

436,450

1,523

18,770

11. Palawan

1,258,920

589,932

135,601

533,387

12. Mindanao

7,035,944

4,486,166

1,613,906

935,872

13. Zamboanga

1,668, 032

1,323,057

249,599

104,376

1,109,423

965,260

122,587

21,576

14. Liguasan 15. Sulu Total

358,484

335,437

11,926

11,121

29,624,951

22,267,503

4,419,347

2,955,101

75

15

10

Percentage of total

■ TABLE 4. Biogeographic zones and richness of biodiversity Biogeographic Zone

1. Batanes 2. Northern and Southern Luzon 3. Cordillera 4. Sierra Madre

Mangrove Forest (ha)

Mossy Forest (ha)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

278,434

21,834

48,226

95,198

443,692

15.00

13.70

16,159

0

8,672

0

24,831

0.80

0.10

373,081

3,284

108,599

7,836

17.00

0.60

Coral Reef

Total Area (ha)

Biogeographic Zones (%)

Protected Areas (%) in Biogeographic Zones

Dipterocarp Forest (ha)

5. Zambales

10,821

53

0

3,542

14,416

0.50

3.50

6. Mindoro

19,519

2,659

12,777

3,290

38,245

1.00

10.40

0

1,944

0

13,233

15,177

0.50

0

142,326

34,385

2,617

61,143

240,471

8.00

1.40

7. Calamian 8. Eastern Visayas

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The Philippines: A Natural History

Source: Modified from DENR and UNEP 1997.

Biogeographic Zone

9. Western Visayas

40,446

1,558

1,665

16,698

60,367

2.00

2.80

10. Central Visayas

0

40

0

18,730

18,770

0.60

1.40

11. Palawan

403,896

31,582

39,372

58,535

533,387

18.00

0.40

12. Mindanao

873,617

21,443

8,500

32,312

935,872

32.0

2.80

13. Zamboanga

59,927

17,059

0

27,390

104, 376

3.5

27.80

17,387

961

0

3,237

21,576

0.70

31.60

0

6,503

0

4,618

11,121

0.30

3.50

2,235,604

143,307

230,428

345,762

2,955,101

100.00

7.50

5.00

8.00

12.00

100.00

100.00

14. Liguasan 15. Sulu Total Percentage of total area of biogeographic zones

Note: Protected areas include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, wilderness areas, game refuges and watershed forest reserves.

Marine Biogeographic Regions The morphogenesis of the Philippine Archipelago and the configuration of its seas began over 30 million years ago with the formation of the South China Sea basin and the start of the southward movement of the Palawan Block from mainland Asia. Ten million years later, the northward movement of what is now the Luzon Archipelago, together with the other southern islands (the present Visayas region), started to circumscribe the Sulu Sea basin, the inland seas of the Visayas, and the eastern Pacific Ocean. Then, about 5–10 million years ago, the movement of the Mindanao Archipelago to its present position established the northern border of the Celebes Sea. Based upon the biophysical attributes of coral reef communities, 6 marine biogeographic regions have been identified: the West Philippine Sea (South China Sea), Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, Visayas Region, Northeastern Philippine Sea, and Southeastern Philippine Sea (Figure 25). The 6 regions are further subdivided into 17 sections based on the extent of coral reef habitat. The biogeographic regions of the West Philippine Sea and Visayan Sea have by far the largest coral reef area (Table 5). In terms of island systems, the Palawan group, including the Kalayaan Islands Group to its west, has the highest proportion of coral reefs (41 percent), followed by the Visayas (29 percent), and Mindanao (18 percent), while Luzon and Mindoro have the least (12 percent). Atolls and atoll-type Chapter 7. Biogeography

105

Source: Modified from DENR and UNEP 1997.

■ TABLE 4. (Cont’d.)

Source: Nanola et al. 2000.

▲ FIGURE 25. The six marine biogeographic regions in the Philippines based on coral reef fish communities and associated benthic characteristics: WPS (West Philippine Sea), SS (Sulu Sea), CS (Celebes Sea), VR (Visayas Region), NP (Northeastern Philippine Sea), and SP (Southeastern Philippine Sea.)

reefs are found in Tubbataha of the Cagayancillo Island system in Sulu Sea and along the Sulu Island chain situated between Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea regions. A double barrier reef system is found in the Danajon Bank north of the island of Bohol. The number of reef fish species observed by class in the six marine biogeographic regions in the Philippines is listed in Table 6. Clearly, all regions are species rich and call for appropriate sustainable management. Some 721 species of reef-associated fishes identified covering 205 genera belong to 52 families, and 4 species of cartilaginous fishes in 3 genera belong to 2 families. 106

The Philippines: A Natural History

■ TABLE 5. Estimated cover of coral reef area among the different subdivisions depicted in Figure 25. Area (km2)

Biogeographic Region

% Total Area

West Philippine Sea

3,712.0

34.53

Sulu Sea

1,057.7

9.84

Celebes Sea

811.3

7.55

Visayan Sea

3,671.2

34.15

675.9

6.29

Northeastern Philippine Sea Southeastern Sea Total

821.6

7.64

10,749.8

100.00

Modified from: Ong et al. 2002 and Nañola et al. 2002.

■ TABLE 6. Reef fish species observed by class in the six marine biogeographic regions in the Philippines. Class Osteichthyes Chondrichthyes Total species

Celebes Sea

NE Phil. Sea

445

441

W Phil. Sea 484

SE Phil. Sea 331

Sulu Sea 491

Visayas Region

All Regions

386

718

0

0

0

0

3

0

3

445

441

484

331

494

386

721

Modified from: Nañola et al. 2002.

Coral reefs account for 41.5 percent of the total area of the Palawan group of islands, which includes the Kalayaan Islands group. The corresponding percentage share for the Visayas region is 29.1 percent, that for Mindanao is 18.1 percent, and for Luzon and Mindoro, 11.3 percent (Table 7). ■ TABLE 7. Estimated coral reef cover in the Philippines in six biogeographic regions. Region

Area (square km)

% Total area

West Philippine Sea (or South China Sea) West Philippine Sea (or South China Sea)

306.5

2.85

3,257.7

30.30

147.9

1.38

Sulu Sea

468.8

4.36

Calamianes/Balabac transition

222.7 108.2

2.07 1.01

Visayas transition

143.4

1.33

Sulu archipelago transition

114.4

1.07

Kalayaan Islands Western Palawan (northwest Palawan Shelf) Sulu Sea

Chapter 7. Biogeography

107

■ TABLE 7. (Cont’d.)

Mindanao

811.3

7.55

229.3

2.13

Visayas Region South Luzon facing Visayas Region Western Visayas

298.7

2.78

Central Visayas

1,750.8

16.29

Eastern Visayas

1,075.1

10.00

317.3

2.95

20.4 655.5

0.19 6.10

Northern Mindanao (including Southern Bohol) Northeastern Philippine Sea Eastern Luzon Southeastern Philippine Sea Eastern Mindanao Total

821.6

7.64

10,749.8

100.00

Source: Ong et al. 2002; Nañola et al. 2010.

Celebes Sea

The Coral Triangle Atlas (CT Atlas): an online GIS database.

The Philippines lies within the Indo-Malayan Triangle (“Coral Triangle”) considered having the highest diversity in the marine world and the second largest coral reef area in Southeast Asia (Figure 26). In 2006, a team of marine conservationists

▲ FIGURE 26. Map of the Coral Triangle. 108

The Philippines: A Natural History

declared that the Philippines is the world’s Center of Marine Biodiversity, and Verde Island Passages (between Mindoro and Luzon) as the “Center of Marine Shorefish Biodiversity.” With the archipelago forming the important physical boundaries, the marine realm is greatly influenced by the connectivity and the dispersal patterns of ocean circulation. Thus, the boundaries of each region constitute broad transition zones rich in diversity. Biogeographic subregions based on reef species diversity and affinities are being used to determine boundaries for marine protected area (MPA) networks in the Philippines as shown in Figure 27. The linkages of geomorphology of the basins and the role of bottom topography in ocean circulation provide a starting point for

▲ FIGURE 27. Philippine biogeographic areas important for marine conservation planning based on geomorphology, basins, bathymetry, species affinities, and water circulation patterns. Chapter 7. Biogeography

109

the design of MPAs along with the positions of the major marine corridors in the transition areas of the major biogeographic regions or “inland” sea basins critical to nesting, nursery, and feeding grounds for important marine species. Thus, connectivity of ecosystems as facilitated by marine corridors is critical to maintaining biodiversity and being used for planning conservation strategies in the Philippines. The observed patterns of distribution and recruitment of marine organisms in the Philippines indicate the importance of the northern areas in the South China Sea and the West Pacific. Straddling stocks of migratory species such as marine mammals, turtles, and such fish species as tuna, mackerel, and sardines are present and it is thought that the reefs of the Spratly Islands are a source of larvae for the rest of the South China Sea. Concurrently, larvae coming from Palawan may be conveyed to Borneo or Malaysia. Thus, the reefs of the Philippines may constitute a rich source of biodiversity for significant parts of Southeast Asia. Other factors exerting immediate, short-term influences, including tidal patterns, and the dominant air streams and their effects on the current systems and rainfall, may be more relevant in the present distribution of macrobenthic seaweeds. The current systems, together with their temperature and salinity profiles, are thought to dictate the distribution of flora in general, especially on the western side of the country with pronounced admixture of freshwater during the southwest monsoon. As noted earlier, during the northeast monsoon, a cyclonic pattern of surface water movement develops a southerly flow along the western boundary and a northwesterly flow along the western coasts of Palawan and Luzon. The inflow of oceanic water into the South China Sea is through the strait between Luzon and Taiwan, the outflow largely through the Flores Sea and Celebes Sea. During the southwest monsoon, water movement in the South China Sea is generally northeasterly flowing through the Strait of Taiwan and Luzon Strait. However, during both monsoons water enters the South China Sea through the Visayan Islands from the Western Pacific. Such subsidiary flow may be a causal factor responsible for the closer affinity of the seaweed flora of the western Visayas to that of the Pacific Ocean Zone.

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The Philippines: A Natural History

Chapter 8

Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

A

C O M P L E X M I X O F C L I M AT E , V A R I A B L E G E O L O G Y, D I F F E R I N G sizes and ages of islands, distances from mainland Asia, and formerly exten­ sive areas of rainforest have shaped the colonization and diversification of the flora and fauna of the Philippines and its ecosystems. It is one of the world’s megadiversity countries housing more than 5 percent of the world’s flora with 10,000 recorded species, some 50 percent of the angiosperms (flowering plants) being endemic. Over 50 percent of its vertebrate species and nearly 70 percent of its insects are endemic, and it ranks second in the world’s biological hotspots in the number of species per square kilometer. It is also the center of marine diversity with extensive coral, reef fish, and mollusks. However, such exceptional diversity is greatly endangered and the Philippines may have the most seriously threatened flora and fauna in the world; indeed, natural scientists have claimed that it could be the site of the first major extinction spasm. In 2004, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) established a list of threatened animal species including 34 mammals, 80 birds, 18 reptiles, and 14 amphibians, and in 2007, it created a national list of 694 threatened plants. Both lists underlined that these threatened species are barometers of the degradation of habitats and life support systems upon which they depend. Threatened plants include 478 angiosperms, 11 gymnosperms, 203 pteridophytes, and 2 bryophytes, more than 77 percent being listed as endemic. Of the 1,909 terrestrial, freshwater, and marine vertebrate species assessed for the 2013 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, nearly 23 percent were classified as critically endangered, or vulnerable along with 36 percent of the 648 plant species evaluated. Most of the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems of the country have centers of plant and animal diversity. The plant centers are located in 8 islands or island groups and in 10 of the 15 biogeographic zones. The main faunal centers of 111

terrestrial vertebrates are Greater Luzon, Greater Mindanao, Greater Palawan, Greater Negros-Panay, Greater Sulu, and Mindoro. They are coincident with the Pleistocene islands emerging 20,000–15,000 years ago to recent periods. Marine biodiversity is pronounced with nearly 5,000 species from offshore and inshore waters being described. Botanists published accounts of the plants and animals of the Philippines during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but the foundation for current knowledge of biodiversity in the Philippines was laid largely during the first four decades of the twentieth century by American biologists. Their efforts, supported by local expertise, resulted in an appreciation of the exceptional species diversity of the archipelago. Following the earlier efforts of Merrill (1915) and Brown (1919), Van Steenis (1950), Jacobs (1974), Tan and Rojo (1988), Trono (1988), Baltazar (1989), and Madulid (1991) contributed substantially to describing the flora. Concurrently, in the footsteps of the zoologists McGregor (1909–1910), Dickenson (1928), and Taylor (1934), Herre (1953), Inger (1954), Nemenzo (1981), Gonzales (1983), Zamora (1986), Rabor (1986), and Dickinson (1991) made prodigious efforts in compiling and describing faunal species. Since the 1960s conservationists and their organizations have undertaken numerous studies and analyses of the Philippines’ unique and globally important biodiversity. These have contributed substantially to an understanding of the current patterns of distribution and abundance of species and their diversity, and laid a foundation for conservation planning and management. Nevertheless, biodiversity continues to be lost at an alarming rate. Many parts of the Philippines remain unexplored and in need of study, especially the Sierra Madre Mountain Range of Luzon, the interior mountains, swamps and marshes of Mindanao, and the limestone forest areas of the Samar-Leyte Islands. During the last 15 years, over 20 new species of mammals have been discovered along with new species of birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish and invertebrates. Endemism has risen accordingly. A similar rate of discovery applies to plants.

Diversity of Flora Plant Centers Eighteen centers of plant diversity have been identified (Table 8) using the following criteria: 1) the site or vegetation type is species-rich although the total number of species present may not be accurately known; 2) the site or vegetation type is known to harbor a large number of endemic species; 3) the site may harbor 112

The Philippines: A Natural History

a diverse range of habitat or ecosystem types; and 4) the site may have a significant number of species adapted to special edaphic conditions, such as ultra-basic or limestone formations.

Center of Plant Diversity

Biogeographic Zone

Mount Iraya and Sabtang Island

Batanes

Sierra Madre Mountains (Isabela)

Sierra Madre

Mount Pulag (Benguet)

Cordillera

Mount Arayat (Pampanga)

Northern/Southern Luzon

Mount Makiling (Laguna)

Northern/Southern Luzon

Lobo (Batangas)

Northern/Southern Luzon

Mount Isarog (Camarines Sur)

Northern/Southern Luzon

Mount Halcon (Mindoro)

Mindoro

Coron Island (Calamianes Group)

Calamian

Palawan (mainland)

Palawan

Southern Samar

East Visayas

Sibuyan Island (Romblon Group)

West Visayas

Mount Kanlaon (Negros Oriental)

West Visayas

Mount Talinus & Lake Balinsasayao (Negros Oriental)

West Visayas

Mount Baloy (Central Panay)

West Visayas

Mount Kitanglad (Bukidnon)

Mindanao

Agusan Marsh (Agusan del Sur)

Mindanao

Mount Apo (Davao del Sur/Northern Cotabato)

Mindanao

Modified from DENR and UNEP 1997.

■ TABLE 8. Eighteen centers of plant diversity in the Philippines.

More recently the Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priorities study of 2002 (DENR, PAWB, 2002) identified 43 priority areas for plant conservation (or important plant areas or important plant sites) and 19 terrestrial biodiversity corridors reflecting their biological importance and degree of socioeconomic pressure (Figure 28).

Character of Plant Diversity Merrill (1923–1926) recognized 7,620 indigenous plant species in 1,308 genera and 194 families in the Philippines of which 5,832 (76.5 percent) he considered endemic. Revisions by the Flora Malesiana Project (Series I: Volume 11–1 [1992], 11–2 [1993], 11–3 [1994], 12–1 [1995], 12–2 [1996], 13 [1997], 14 [2000]), 15 [2001]; Series II: Volume 2–1 [1991], 3 [1998]) estimate that there are about 8,120 species of native flowering plants or angiosperms, 33 species of gymnosperms, and 1,100 Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

113

▲ FIGURE 28. Priority areas in the Philippines for plant conservation. Modified from Ong, Afuang, and R o s e l l - A m b a l l 2 0 0 2 ( D E N R - P AW B , CI and UP-CIDS)

■ TABLE 9. Estimated number of species of plants (including algae and fungi) currently known from the Philippines. Plant Group Angiosperms Gymnosperms

No. of Species 8,120 33

Pteridophytes and allies

1,100

Bryophytes: liverworts, hornworts, and mosses

1,024

Lichens

789

Fungi, slime molds, water molds

3,555

Algae

1,355

114

The Philippines: A Natural History

Modified from DENR and UNEP 1997.

species of pteridophytes in the Philippines. Other studies suggest that there are 1,024 species of bryophytes, more than 3,555 species of fungi and molds, 1,355 species of algae, and 789 species of lichens (Table 9). Table 10 shows 17 plant genera that have 50 or more species; all but one (Diplazium) are angiosperms. Angiosperms, gymnosperms and ferns and their allies constitute 22.5 percent of the Malesian region, and nearly 4 percent of the world’s vascular flora. Taxonomic revisions and the discovery of new species will change the species counts; for example, it is estimated that 5–8 percent of the flowering plants, mosses, fungi, and lichens and 5 percent of the gymnosperms in the Philippines have yet to be described.

■ TABLE 10. Listing of 17 plant genera with 50 or more species. Family

Syzygium

Myrtaceae

Species 192

Bulbophyllum

Orchidaceae

163

Psychotria

Rubiaceae

123

Begonia

Begoniaceae

105

Cyrtandra

Gesneriaceae

104

Ficus

Moraceae

104

Dendrochilum

Orchidaceae

102

Elatostema

Urticaceae

96

Hoya

Apocynaceae

95

Medinilla

Melastomataceae

86

Dendrobium

Orchidaceae

67

Piper

Piperaceae

66

Schefflera

Araliaceae

65

Saurauia

Actinidiaceae

57

Pandanus

Pandanaceae

57

Ardisia

Primulaceae

57

Diplazium

Woodsiaceae

50

Source: Pelser et al. 2011.

Genus

Plant Endemism Estimates of plant endemism in the Philippines range from 18 percent for gymnosperms to 47 percent for angiosperms (Table 11). There are no estimates for lichens, fungi, slime molds, and water molds or algae. Twenty-six genera of flowering plants and ferns are endemic (22 of them represented by single species) but no families are endemic. However, species endemism may be as high as 100 percent in families represented by a single or few genera, as in Rafflesiaceae and Daphniphyllaceae. Palm diversity and endemism are especially high with 157 species, of which 109 (69 percent) are endemic. There are about 141 genera of orchids representing about 1,100 species, 900 (82 percent) of which are considered endemic. Other plants high in endemism include gingers, begonias, gesnerids, pandans, and dipterocarps. ■ TABLE 11. Estimated number of endemic plant species currently known from the Philippines. Plant Group

No. of Species

Angiosperms Gymnosperms

Endemic Species No.

%

8,120

5,800

47

33

6

18

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115

■ TABLE 11 continued Pteridophytes and allies

1,100

285

26

Bryophytes: liverworts, hornworts and mosses

1,024

206

20

Lichens

789

?

-

Fungi, slime molds, water molds

3,555

?

-

Algae

1,355

?

-

Modified from DENR and UNEP 1997.

Threatened Plants In 2007, the DENR published Administrative Order 2007–01 and established a national list of threatened plants (Table 12). The Order also prohibited the collection and trade of species in this list unless a permit is granted by the DENR pursuant to the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (RA 9147) of 2001. Those considered critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable include: 478 angiosperms, 11 gymnosperms, 203 pteridophytes, and 2 bryophytes. Some 77 percent are regarded as endemic to the Philippines. ■ TABLE 12. Number of threatened Philippine plants per category. Category

Number of Plant Species

Critically endangered

99

Endangered

186

Vulnerable

176

Other threatened species

64

Other wildlife species

169

Total

694 Source: Fernando et al. 2008.

Most of the species identified as critically endangered belong to the families Dipterocarpaceae, Orchidaceae, and Palmae. Some critically endangered dipterocarps are Hopea acuminate, Shorea astylosa, and Vatica pachyphylla. The genus Paphiopedilum has the most number of critically endangered species in the Hetorospathe and Pinanga genera of the Orchidaceae family. Under the category of endangered, many species belong to the Orchidaceae, Cyatheaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Melastomataceae. The 2013 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species includes 648 species of plants assessed in the Philippines belonging to 340 genera and 121 families. Some 236 are considered critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable. It should be noted that some scientists consider this list unsatisfactory and many more species may belong under the critically endangered category. Conversely, some species included in the list are considered quite common. 116

The Philippines: A Natural History

Trade is threatening a number of plant species. As of 2010, species listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) include 13 listed as threatened and 276 as vulnerable. Clearly, plant species are under considerable threat across the board and calls for concerted effort for their conservation.

Overview of the Diversity of the Major Ecosystems For convenience, an appreciation of the biodiversity of the Philippines at the macro level may be achieved by examining four recognized major ecosystems: forest, wetlands, marine, and agricultural.

Forest Ecosystems The remaining natural forest areas consist mainly of primary dipterocarp forests, secondary forests, mossy forests, pine forests, and mangrove forests. Of the estimated 6,159 species of plants living only in forest, 64 percent are endemic belonging to 194 plant families and 1,524 genera of which 1,308 are indigenous. An astonishing 45 percent of the estimated 1,084 species of terrestrial vertebrates found in the forests are endemic (Table 13). Levels of endemism of invertebrates are undetermined but informed opinion suggests it is high. The extent to which these species are under threat is examined in a later chapter.

Species Number

% Endemic

Mammals

179

45

Birds

558

31

Reptiles

252

63

Amphibians

96

53

Millipedes Centipedes

54 44

? ?

20,000

?

341

?

2,782

?

Insects Spiders Mollusks

Modified from DENR and UNEP 1997.

■ TABLE 13. The number of faunal species and the percentage of endemicity found in forest ecosystems.

Wetland Ecosystems Wetlands in the Philippines cover lakes and reservoirs, high altitude volcanic crater lakes, rivers, marshes, and swamps, bays and islands, and increasingly Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

117

fishponds and rice paddies. These habitats are often covered with dense vegetation and are characterized by microalgae, aquatic macrophytes, aquatic invertebrates, fishes, and waterfowl. With 1,616 species of flora and 3,675 species of fauna, the wetlands of the Philippines are truly biologically rich. Algae include 1,117 species in 212 genera and macrophytes, 431 species of angiosperms, 1 bryophyte species, and 7 species ferns and allies in 73 families. Of the macrophytes, only 13 are endemic with most being widespread throughout the Philippines and other parts of the world. Freshwater fish species number 329, including 9 genera and more than 65 endemic species; at least 17 species are considered exotic or introduced to the archipelago. Many have extended their range assisted by human intervention; others, particularly gobies, pipefishes, and halfbeaks are restricted to isolated lakes and rivers in the major islands. Gobies represent the most diverse group among the freshwater fishes, with about 16 species known to occur only in the Philippines. Taal Lake is the only known habitat of the freshwater sardine (Sardinella tawilis). The country also has an endemic rice fish, Oryzias luzonensis, and there are about 16 species of the family Cyprinidae with species known mostly from Lake Lanao in Mindanao and Lake Manguao on the island of Palawan. Records show that there are about 121 endemic and 76 threatened freshwater species. Swamps and Marshes

Photo by Harold Magallanes Cabunoc

Liguasan Marsh Liguasan Marsh in Minda­ nao is the largest marsh in the Philippines with a total area of 220,000 ha covering three marshes: Ligawasan, Libu­­­ngan, and Ebpanan. About 30,000 ha of the marsh is a game refuge and bird sanctuary. The marsh is the last stronghold for the endemic and endangered Philippine croco­ dile and supports at least 33 species of freshwater fishes. There are 92 species of birds, 6 species of reptiles, 5 species of amphibians. The floristic composition

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The Philippines: A Natural History

Agusan Marsh Agusan Marsh, also in Mindanao, is the largest and least disturbed freshwa­ter wetland in the Philippines. It is of international importance due to its biological diversity and uniqueness as a natural wetland— being the only area in the country where swamp and peat forest are found. The marsh was declared as the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary in 1996 and a Ramsar-designated area lies within the core protected area of the marsh. It is home to a significant population of indigenous peoples (Manobos) who are dependent on the natural resources, cultural and spiritual values of the marsh.

Photo by Maria Katrina C. Constantino

includes 94 species belonging to 53 genera in 65 plant families. Of these, 12 are endemic to the Philippines. It is home to the Maguindanaon whose principal sources of livelihood are fishing when water levels are high and agriculture when water levels are low.

In Central Luzon, the Candaba Swamp is an important area for agricultural and fisheries production, water for irrigation, and natural flood retention. A privately owned portion of the swamp has been declared a bird sanctuary and is a candidate Ramsar site. However, the swamp faces considerable threats from habitat fragmentation, flooding, riverbank ero­sion, unsustainable ag­ri­­­­­­­­­cul­­­­tural practices, resource extraction and overexploitation, and introduction of invasive alien species. Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

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Photo by Maria Katrina C. Constantino

Candaba Swamp

Wetlands support 115 species of water birds, including ducks and geese, terns and gulls, large and small waders (herons, bitterns, rails, gallinules, coots, plovers, sandpipers, godwits, snipes, and stilts). The Philippine duck (Anas luzonica) and brown-banded rail (Lewinia mirificus) and several subspecies are endemic to the islands. Many of the wetlands constitute important wintering areas for numerous migratory waterfowl, including 13 species of ducks. Ten classes of invertebrates have been recorded comprising 1,703 species, with 728 species of mollusks and 498 species of arthropods other than insects. Many invertebrate groups such as sponges, annelids, and nudibranchs have yet to be inventoried. Some 1,764 species of insects have been recorded in Philippine wetlands (395 genera, 73 families, and 9 orders) with 1,146 (65 percent) considered endemic, higher at the order level (e.g., caddisflies at 82.1 percent).

Marine Ecosystems Based upon the distribution of marine fauna and flora, the Philippines may be divided into two zones: the South China Sea Zone in the west with high diversity and the Pacific Ocean Zone in the east with relatively lower diversity. As noted earlier, tidal patterns, the dominant airstreams, the influence of current systems, and the distribution of rainfall are major factors in shaping this division: • Mixed diurnal tides predominate on the west coast under the impact of the South China Sea whereas semi-diurnal tides predominate on the east coast under the impact of the Pacific Ocean; • The northeastern and southwestern monsoons and north Pacific trades are the major air streams influencing the currents around the Philippines; and, • The current systems, together with their temperature and salinity profiles, are thought to dictate the distribution of flora, especially on the western side of the country with pronounced admixture of freshwater during the southwest monsoon. Over 4,951 species of marine plants and animals are found in coastal and marine habitats, fish, non-coral invertebrates, and seaweeds making up the greatest numbers with 1,062 species. Some 16 species or 0.3 percent of fish are endemic; however, it is coral reefs that are particularly diverse with over 3,000 species. The more than 500 species of coral (including 16 endemics) and the associated 1,658 species of fish rank it second only to the Great Barrier Reef in coral and coral reef fish diversity. The 16 species of seagrasses make the Philippines the second highest seagrass species richness in the world and the second highest in terms of the number 120

The Philippines: A Natural History

of taxa. Mangrove species number 42 (representing 18 families) occurring on tidal mudflats fringing the coasts and extending inland along rivers and streams where the water is brackish. They serve as habitat for at least 54 species of crustaceans, 63 species of mollusks and 110 species of fish.

Agricultural Ecosystems The Philippines has about 118,000 km2 (40 percent) of land converted to agriculture and its agro-biodiversity may be expressed as: low (monocrops such as rice, coconut, pineapple, sugarcane, and banana plantations); medium (coconuts with multiple understories); and high (multiple crops on cultivated land or traditional farms such as corn, rainfed rice). A total of 1,210 species of plants relevant to agriculture are found in the Philippines and are part of the center of diversity for rice, coconut, mung bean, taro, and yam as well as the center of origin and diversity of bananas in Southeast Asia. There is also significant genetic diversity in spices. Some 477 angiosperm species have food values, 363 feed values, 627 medicinal/herbal values, and 201 ornamental values. About 35 species are considered as fiber crops while an unspecified number have industrial uses. Table 14 lists the numbers of angiosperm species used in agriculture and known to be endemic, introduced, or naturalized in the Philippines. ■ TABLE 14. Uses of angiosperm species in the Philippines. Food Endemic

28

Introduced

87

Naturalized

Feed

Ornamental

Medicinal

155

64

168

15

5

12

3

9

Of unknown origin

357

186

134

440

Total

477

353

201

632

Source: DENR and UNEP 1997.

The National Plant Germplasm Resources Laboratory holds ex situ germplasm collections totaling 173,205 accessions. Table 15 shows some of the documented accessions per crop. Agricultural crop species and their relatives comprise cereals, fibers, sugarcane, forage and pasture crops, fruit trees, legumes, nut trees, oil crops, plantation crops, root crops, small fruits, and vegetables of which 75 percent is of local origin. There are more than 5,500 collected and documented traditional varieties of rice and the Philippine Rice Research Institute holds 4 species of wild rice found locally in the Philippines, namely Oryza minuta, O. meyeriana, O. officinalis, and O. rufipogon. The National Tobacco Authority has 488 accessions. Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

121

■ TABLE 15. Number of documented accessions per crop. Crop

Number of Documented Accessions

Rice

5,500

Coconut

224

Banana

90

Mango

264

Corn

2,099

Sugarcane

898

Manila hemp

773 Source: Altoveros and Borromeo 2007.

Available data on domesticated animals for agriculture has shown substantial increases in numbers during a 17-year period from 1991 (Table 16). ■ TABLE 16. Comparison of the number of domesticated animals in the Philippines (1991 and 2009). Animal

1991

2009

Carabaos

2,776,000

3,318,272

Cattle

1,991,000

2,600,363

Horses

286,000

No data

Pigs

7,479,000

13,866,234

Goats

2,403,000

4,224,217

Chickens

No data

167,718,874 Source: Bureau of Agricultural Statistics 2009.

Although the loss of plant and animal genetic resources is critical to agriculture there are no data on biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems and no assessment of the genetic erosion of either plants or animals.

Invasive Species A number of invasive alien species are found in the Philippines (Table 17 and Table 18) and threaten to eradicate native species, become pests and spread diseases, and undermine ecosystem integrity. The number and proportion of introduced alien species is rising. A workshop on Biodiversity and Management of Alien Invasive Species in the Philippines in 2002 recommended management approaches and policies to regulate alien invasive species, indicating much is to be done through education, monitoring, and enforcement of inspection and quarantine regulations.

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The Philippines: A Natural History

■ TABLE 17. Major plant invasives. A. Higher plants

1. Broussonetia papyrifera, paper mulberry 2. Lantana camara, coronitas 3. Swietenia macrophylla, mahogany 4. Leucaena leucocephala, ipil-ipil 5. Mikania micrantha, mile-a-minute 6. Acacia mangium, mangium 7. Acacia a uriculiformis, auri 8. Chromolaena odorata, Siam weed 9. Coccinia grandis, ivy gourd 10. Eichornia crassipes, water hyacinth B. Insect pests

1. Ozola minor, measuring worm 2. Heteropsylla cubana, jumping lice 3. Hypsila robusta, shoot borer C. Pathogens

1. Corticum salmonicolor, pink disease/canker 2. Uromycladium tepperianum, gall rust 3. Phellinus noxius, root rot

Source: Department of Agriculture and DENR 2012.

TABLE 18. Major animal invasives. Macaca fascicularis, crab-eating macque Rattus spp., 4 rodents Anas platyrhynchos, mallard. Porphyrio porphyrio, purple swamphen Gallus gallus, junglefowl Passer montanus, tree sparrow Padda oryzivora, Java sparrow Pelodiscus sinensis, Chinese turtle Rhinella marinus, cane or giant marine toad Rana catesbeiana, American bullfrog Hoplbatrachus ruglosus, Taiwanese frog Kaloula pulchra, banded bullfrog Gambusia affinis, mosquito fish Channa striata, snakehead Cyprinus carpio, common carp Oreochromis mosambicus, Mosambique tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, Nile tilapia Carassius spp. crucian carp Monoptreus albus, rice eel Pterois volitans, scorpian fish Glossogobius giurus, white goby Hypseleotris aglis, eleotrid Acanthaster planci, crown-of-thorns starfish Cristaria plicata, freshwater mussel Pomacea canaliculata, freshwater snail Perna perfoliatum, Asian green mussel Bellamya chinensis, Asian apple snail Charybidis helleri, Indo-Pacific swimming crab Liposarcus disjunctivus, janitor fish Clarias batrachus, Thai catfish/walkingcatfish Parachromis managuensis, Jaguar guapote

Source: Department of Agriculture and DENR 2012.

Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

123

■Philippine

Vegetation Types

The vegetation of the Philippines may be divided into 13 major types, 12 of which are a mosaic of different kinds of forests that differ from each other in structure, physiognomy, and floristic composition.

Forest Before the advent of man, it is likely that the Philippines was swathed in unbroken varying types of forest from sea level to the tops of the highest mountains. Dipterocarpdominated forest (with some 45 species of dipterocarps) covered most of the islands up to about 1,000 m and rivers, streams, and swamps teemed with fish and abundant wildlife. Open grassland was largely confined to the margins of streams, floodplains, and beaches where volcanoes, floods, and typhoons destroyed vegetation. However, by the beginning of the twentieth century, only modest portions of original forest remained, largely montane because of its limited economic value. Much of the subsequent loss of forest cover has been caused by the increasing demands of the market and for agricultural cultivation, including shifting cultivation or slash and burn (kaingin). Botanists contend that the Philippines supports one of the world’s richest floral communities. The high incidence of specific endemism and low percentage of generic endemism supports the contention that the Philippines was geologically separated from its neighboring islands long enough for a remarkably high percentage of specific endemism, but not long enough for many distinctive genera to develop. The flora generally resembles that of Indonesia and Malaysia, but also contains distinctive Sino-Himalayan element (for example, pines, oaks, rhododendrons), and a small number of Australasian types, such as eucalyptus and the southern conifers of Mindanao. At least 118 endemic plant species are recognized as threatened but many others are probably also vulnerable. As temperatures between the northern and southern parts of the Philippines vary only slightly, the principal differences in the natural vegetation are related chiefly to rainfall and altitude. Accordingly, the vegetation of the Philippines has been divided by Whitmore (1984) into the following associations: A. beach forest B. mangrove and nipa forest C. freshwater swamp forest D. lowland evergreen (dipterocarp) forest E. lowland semi-evergreen forest F. lowland semi-deciduous (seasonal/monsoon) forest 124

The Philippines: A Natural History

G. forest over limestone H. forest over ultrabasic soils I. lower montane forest J. upper montane (mid-mountain or mossy) forest K. sub-alpine forest L. pine forest M. peat swamp forest Beach fore s t

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Low creepers, grasses, and maritime shrubs (tolerating brackish-water, salt sprays, high winds, and sandy soils), grow as narrow bands on beaches and adjacent dunes. Immediately behind them, dryland tree growth represents the initial establishment of beach woodland. Where sand and dunes are stable (frequently because of a mangrove barrier), low vegetation of vines, porcupine grasses, sedges or/and shrubs often flourish. Many of the species have fruits and seeds adapted for water dispersal. The dominant species are legume herbs, e.g., beach bean (Canavalia obtusifolia) and short herbs propagating by means of low runners. The beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae) is a familiar sight along many shores with its extensive twinning, non-woody vines, and pink/purplish flowers.

▲ Typical beach vegetation in the Philippines with beach morning glory (Ipomaea pes-caprae) and coconut palms

Beyond this pioneer vegetation, on relatively dry soil habitats, is a tangle of low, stunted trees dominated principally by the fish poison tree (Barringtonia asiatica) whose fruits are used as floats for fishing nets and to stun or kill fish. The screw pine (Pandanus tectorius), so named because of the spinal arrangement of the leaves, Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

125

is also found here anchored in the loose sand with its thick “prop roots.” Other trees include sweet acacia (Acacia farnesiana), beach calophyllum (Calophyllum inophyllum), Asian bulletwood (Mimusops parvifolia), balete tree (Ficus balete), coral tree (Erythrina variegata var. orientalis), skunk tree (Sterculia foetida), beach almond (Terminalia catappa), sea hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus), and white lead tree (Leucaena leucocephala). On the sandy floodplains of the larger rivers, iron wood (Casuarina equisetifolia) is the dominant species and pure stands of Terminalia catappa may occur in small patches along rich river bottoms. The leaf fall from the agoho is so heavy that undergrowth is usually confined to a few semi-herbaceous vines such as creeping oxeye (Wedelia trilobata) and thorny bushes of mesquite (Propsopis juliflora), an invasive from South America and Mexico. At one extreme, on sand dunes, pure stands of agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia) are characteristic; at the other, on rocky shores, is mixed vegetation of the Barringtonia subtype. In recent times, much of the original beach vegetation has been converted to coconut plantations or other crops or cleared for tourism development. .

Man g ro ve an d n i pa fo res t

Mangrove forests (mangal) sometimes known as “rainforest of the sea” grow in the intertidal areas occasionally reaching 30 m in height. They are found where fine sediment is deposited below high tide limits, where coastal currents are favorable, and often border shallow coral reefs in relatively quiet waters and occupy the wave-cut terraces of rocky headlands. In the Philippines, mangrove forest comprises at least 42 species representing 18 families. The dominant genera are Sonneratia (mangrove apple), Avicennia (white mangrove), Rhizophora (red mangrove), and oriental mangrove (Bruguiera or busain). Open, protected coasts are dominated generally by pioneer communities of Sonneratia alba which tend to grow on firm sandy soils, whereas Avicennia officinalis prefers softer muds. Both have special breathing roots (pneumatophores) that absorb oxygen from the air, protruding like a bed of nails at low tide. Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata dominate small creeks, their anchoring roots (prop roots) growing outward from the shore for several feet before overarching into the mud. The pure Rhizophora zone eventually mixes with Bruguiera species (known collectively as pototan) on less deeply flooded ground. Further inland, other mangrove types, such as the looking-glass tree (Heritiera littoralis), cannonball mangrove (Xylocarpus granatum), puzzle nut tree (X. moluccensis), and black mangrove (Lumnitzera littorea) 126

The Philippines: A Natural History

■ Mangrove Forest Photo by Caloy Libosada

appear. An understory of yellow mangrove (Ceriops tagal) is found in older mangrove stands, as well as lianas, epiphytes, grasses, ferns, and various algae and fungi. The following box on mangrove zonation shows the location of various species on the shoreline. Mangrove forests shelter the open coast by trapping suspended sediments and help accrete and extend the land seawards. The ecosystem is very rich and productive, introducing organic matter (detritus) into the aquatic food chain and providing a nursery and refuge for shrimp and fish larvae. As the trees have great economic value, in the Philippines, mangrove forest has been almost totally destroyed for the establishment of salt ponds or fishponds (mostly for farming milkfish [Chanos chanos]), charcoal or fuelwood production, and domestic needs. Old growth mangrove is found only in Mindanao and Palawan, the rest is secondary growth. At present, together with coral reefs and seagrass beds, mangroves support 80 percent of all commercial species of fish and shellfish. Often near the mouths of streams and along tidal riverbanks is a narrow band of brackish-water swampland in which grow sago or nipa palm (Nypa fruticans). It is Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

127

Photo by Qaalvin Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Nipa_palms.jpg

■ Nipa Palms

Photo by Maria Katrina C. Constantino

the only palm adapted to mangrove habitat growing in soft mud and slow-moving tidal zones. River waters bearing nutrients can be found as far inland as the tide can transport its floating nuts. Its long feathery fronds provide excellent thatching materials and its young leaves are used to wrap tobacco for smoking. The sap is an important source of alcohol (tuba) and vinegar.

▲ Candaba marsh in better days 128

The Philippines: A Natural History

F re s h wa t e r s wa mp fo res t

Photo by Maria Katrina C. Constantino

The Philippines is endowed with numerous lakes, rivers, ponds, inland coastal marshes, and swamps. The area of freshwater lakes has been estimated at 114, 000 ha, that of swamps 527,000 ha, and brackish ponds about 176,000 ha. In addition, there are man-made reservoirs with wetlands totaling 176,000 ha and small areas located in low-gradient valleys and along slow-flowing rivers and streams. These produce successional formations of varying species composition depending upon the water level and other local conditions. Sadly, all wetlands throughout the Philippines are being steadily reduced by drainage or flood control and major portions have been converted to aquaculture ponds and fishpens. Hunting pressure continues and many species are being threatened.

▲ Freshwater swamp forest.

The most extensive remaining freshwater swamp forests include the Agusan Marsh (occurring along the middle course of the Agusan River in east central Mindanao—in flood covering several hundred square kilometers), and the Liguasan Marsh (joining the Rio Grande de Mindanao and Pulangi River in Cotabato following the lower course of the Rio Grande de Pampanga). Vegetation includes purple nutsedge (Cyperus spp.), bulrush (Typha spp.), and common reed (Phragmites spp.) with Terminalia (Terminalia copelandii) and the Leichhardt tree (Nauclea orientalis) forming secondary forest in the middle portion of the Agusan Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

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Mangrove Zonation Mangroves attract attention because they are trees that grow in saltwater and because of their unique adaptations such as seeds that germinate on the tree, specialized roots for gas exchange and leaves with salt-excreting glands. Mangrove zonation is a subject of additional interest because it varies according to location and is governed by the interaction of many factors such as the frequency and length of submergence, salinity, substrate, and drainage. In the Philippines, Rhizophora mucronata represents the principal pioneer community with an R. apiculata community behind it. A mixed community of Sonneratia alba and Avicennia officinalis represents the frontal zone while Bruguiera gymnorrhiza dominates the high ground. Wetter or more brackish areas support a mixed community of Xylocarpus moluccensis, X. granatum, Lumnitzera littorea and Aegiceras corniculatum. The most landward community is dominated by Heritiera littoralis together with Hibiscus tiliaceus, Thespesia populnea and Glochidion littorale. Mangroves provide habitats for terrestrial and aquatic animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects, crustaceans, and mollusks. The aquatic fauna is dominated by fishes (such as the amphibious air-breathing mudskippers (pictured above), mollusks, and

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crabs . Some species also use the mangrove ecosystem as a temporary habitat for spawning, nursery, feeding grounds, or shelter. Mudskippers live as much out of water as in it moving across the mud between tides by “skipping” with the aid of flippers and fins. When in water, their periscopic eyes enable them to see above the surface. Different species of mudskippers seek different foods and occupy different niches within the mud of the mangrove. Boddart’s goggleeyed goby (Boleophthalmus boddarti) is generally found on soft mud at the seaward edge grazing on algae. The slender mudskipper (Periophthalmus gracilis) is an opportunistic feeder eating both plants and animals and occupies the mid-tidal zone, and the giant mudskipper (Periophthalmus schlosseri) inhabits the firmer mud within the fringes of Avicennia and is carnivorous. Mangroves provide humans with many products, including firewood, construction materials, reptile skins, medicines, and honey and can be used indefinitely given sustained yield harvest management. They are also a buffer against storms.

River. Wild rice, which often grows as large floating islands, and true sago palm (Metroxylon sagu) with 7–10 m pinnate leaves is found in Mindanao swamps, especially the Agusan Marsh. Liguasan Marsh is particularly rich in plants and wildlife, including 20 species of fish, and over 20 species of waterfowl. It is the only locality in the Philippines supporting the comb-crested jacana (Irediparra gallinacean). The marsh also contains the largest population of the saltwater or Indo-Pacific crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) remaining in the Philippines. It is also thought that the critically endangered Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) may be present. Until recently, the Candaba Swamp (and its neighbor, the San Antonio Swamp) was one of the Philippines’ primary wetland sites, long used as a rest stop by hundreds of species flying from the Arctic Circle and to East Asia to Australia. Bird watchers routinely counted 100,000 ducks in the 1980s. However, the greatly fluctuating reduced numbers of the annual waterbird censuses reflect a steadily degraded state of the swamp. Figures from 1990 to 2008 show a range of 15,000-20,000 waterbirds visited the swamp, and the 2011 annual census recorded just 8,725 waterbirds, 2012 recorded 12,600, and 2013 recorded 5,475. Hunting is a major threat but there has also been a dramatic shrinkage in the size of the swamp over the past 50 years as the area was converted into farmland, mainly ricefields. Two generations ago, the swamp covered 27,000 ha, but it is now less than 1 percent of Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

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■ Lowland Forest in Bukidnon

Photo by Caloy Libosada

its original size. Changes in agricultural cropping practices, particularly draining the marshes in December or January instead of March or April, have also had an adverse impact upon the waterfowl and aquatic life in general. The DENR has banned hunting of ducks on the lake, but development and recreation pressures persist. Unfortunately, Candaba swamp is a microcosm of the general state of wetlands around Asia with Wetlands International reporting in 2011 that waterbird populations in Asia were shrinking at a faster rate than anywhere else in the world because of the destruction of their habitats. Lo wl a n d e ve r g reen ( d i p t ero c a r p ) fo res t

As the typical tropical rainforest formation in the Philippines, lowland dipterocarp forests occupy volcanic soils in low rolling landscape seldom above 900 m and generally reach their fullest size below the 300 m contour. They are best developed on the western side of the archipelago where rainfall is more or less uniform throughout the year or where there is only a short dry season. The forests are noted for their humid atmosphere, tall canopy, and three “tiers” of trees followed by shrub and ground layers, and a variety of woody lianas, epiphytes (perching plants which take their nutrients and moisture from the air) and palms. The buttressed-trunked 132

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◄ FIGURE 29. Two large specimens of Shorea polysperma in a tropical lowland rainforest at 250 m altitude, Silago, Leyte Island. Photo by Edwino S. Fernando

trees—dipterocarps (two-winged fruit)—are dominant in this forest and are a valuable source of timber (Philippine mahogany), aromatic essential oils, balsam, resins, and plywood. Mature stands of dipterocarp species (lauan) range from 125 to 300 years in age: a tree with a diameter of 2–3 m and a straight trunk can attain 30–40 m in height; some reach 60 m. Not surprisingly, some dipterocarp species are now endangered as a result of overcutting, extensive illegal logging, and conversion of land to agriculture. The canopy of this formation is often destroyed by storms from the Pacific with the result that more light penetrates the understory permitting dense growth of rattans, lianas, epiphytes, herbaceous plants on the forest floor, and the seedlings and saplings of the emergents. The uppermost or first tier is dominated by dipterocarps (Figure 30). Branches and leaves occur only at the tops of trees and the canopy is quite closed. The most common species include white seraya (Parashorea malaanonan), white lauan (Shorea contorta), red lauan (Shorea negrosensis), Philippine gurjun (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus), dark-red Philippine mahogany (Shorea polysperma), red balau (Shorea guiso), and (Hopea acuminata)—a hard straight-grained wood used to build the early Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

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Source: U.P. Science Education Center 1980.

▲ FIGURE 30. Profile of lowland dipterocarp forest from Mindanao.

The profile represents forest strips 7.6 m (25 feet) in width. Undergrowth below 6 m (20 feet) has been omitted. Three tree layers can be recognized: the canopy is dominated by the dipterocarps, white luan (Shorea contorta) and red luan (Shorea negrosensis); the middle layer includes tree species of Symplocus,

Elaeocarpus, and Serocola; and the lower layer has many small trees with Macaranga spp. especially common.

Manila galleons. Associated trees are of other families, notably pili nut (Canarium ovatum), Pacific walnut (Dracontomelon dao), gutta-percha (Palaquium gigantifolium), hackberries, Celtis, Malay apple (Syzygium malaccense), and (Gonocaryum spp.). Many of these trees are critically endangered. Trees in the intermediate or second tier average 18–20 m (60–65 feet) in height, and their canopy is immediately below that of the first tier. Species found include Diplodiscus paniculatus, fragrant manjack (Cordia dichotoma), ebony or persimmon tree (Diospyros philippinensis), elephant apple (Dillenia philippinensis), nasturtuim tree (Macaranga grandifolia), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), 134

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Dipterocarps of the Philippines

Photo by Edwino S. Fernando

Dipterocarps are a medium to large, resinous trees of the Dipterocarpaceae family comprising 17 genera and approximately 500 species of mainly tropical lowland rainforest trees of Asia. The family name is derived from the Greek (di = two, pteron = wing, and karpos = fruit) and refers to the two-winged fruit. In the Philippines, about 45 species in six genera have been recorded of which 46 percent are endemic. Forests in which the dominant trees are species of Dipterpocarpaceae are often referred to as “dipterocarp forests.” The trees have smooth, straight trunks and rounded crowns and frequently buttressed bases to prop them up. The buttresses are necessary because the trees have very shallow rooting systems spreading out through the thin, nutrient-rich surface layers of the forest soil that overlay the hard, leached soil beneath. Every few years or so, a mass flowering event occurs in certain areas of the forest, wherein the dipterocarp trees all simultaneously flower and fruit. The “trigger” for such an event has been speculated to be a period of drought and sunspot activity. When such mass flowering occurs, the forest canopy is transformed into a brilliant mosaic of yellow, brown, orange, and even purple, all in varying shades of color. The reasons for the dominance of dipterocarps in Asia are various: they have oily resins and bittertasting tannins aiding defense against insect, fungal, and bacterial attack; the flowers are scented and adapted for pollination; their winged fruits settle close to the parent tree and the trees often die standing, gradually losing their branches until only the truck remains with the result that dipterocarp forest tends to be darker and more stable than Africa (where the trees are shorter and killed by periodic drought) and the Amazon (where trees have a greater tendency to fall over and create large canopy gaps soon occupied by sun-loving trees and vines). Drawn in part from: Corlett and Primack 2005.

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and species of Symplocus, Elaeocarpus, Serocola, and Livistona palms. In addition to dipterocarps, giant fig or balete trees (Ficus spp.) are conspicuous and provide much of the fruit for giant bats, parrots, monkeys, and many other species. The third or lowermost tier is composed of smaller tree growth, 10–13 m (32–42 feet) in height with trunk diameters up to 1 m. Trees include the species saptree (Garcinia spp.), the stinging herb (Laportea spp.), binunga (Macaranga sp.), red leea (Leea spp.), kalimug (Saurauia spp.) —related to the kiwi fruit, and phalsa (Grewia sp). Under the third tier, grow shrubs such as Malabar hoary (Callicarpa spp.), scrambling clerodendrum (Clerodendrum spp.) and banana bush (Tabernaemontana spp.). The ground layer or undergrowth consists of tangles of rattans (calamoid palms), ferns, herbs, and mosses, and tree seedlings. Climbing figs and lianas hang down from trees, while epiphytes include many orchids and ferns. When a broad river breaks tropical forest allowing in light, plants respond by producing a wall of foliage along the riverbank giving rise to the myth of the impenetrability of the forest. Humidity rarely drops below 90 percent and the wet conditions and high temperatures make for extremely rapid decomposition of wood and leaves and thin soil. Rattan Under Pressure Rattans are vine-like climbing palms possessing spines which act as hooks to aid climbing over other plants and to deter herbivores. They have been known to grow up to hundreds of meters long and serve as raw material for furniture. Some 70 percent of the world’s rattan exists in Indonesia, the rest from the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Bangladesh. The young shoots of edible species in the Philippines are cooked with fish and coconut milk and served to important guests. Juice from rattan fruits may be used as a dye or in the treatment of rheumatism, asthma, snake bites, and intestinal disorders. Rattan is also used to make fish traps, sleeping mats, hammocks, hats, walking sticks, toothbrushes, and twine. Of the 66 species in the Philippines, 10 are used commercially and are a source of livelihood for forest and non-forest dwelling households. However, rattans are threatened with overexploitation, as harvesters cut stems too young and reduce their ability to regenerate. This practice leads to forest degradation, affecting overall forest ecosystem services. During processing, the use of toxic chemicals and petrol affects soil, air, water resources, and ultimately people’s health. Should unsustainable practices continue, the plant’s long-term supply and the income of workers will be seriously threatened. 136

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P h o t o b y R a m o n F . Ve l a s q u e z Source: http://www.wondermondo.com/Countries/As/ Philippines/Aurora/BaleteMariaAurora.htm

■ The “Millennium Tree” at Balete Park in Barangay Quirino in the town of Maria Aurora in Aurora province Strangler Fig or Balete Tree The infrastructure of tropical trees and shrubs is exploited by many other plants for support: epiphytes grow entirely on other plants and have no contact with the ground, and climbers, such as lianas, depend upon other plants for support but have their root systems in the ground. The stranglers are a group of plants that have no counterpart outside tropical forests, the most common of which are the figs (Ficus spp.). They start life as epiphytes, germinating in the hollows of tree crowns with accumulated debris. Initially, as there is little water or nourishment for them, they grow slowly putting down long roots that descend the trunk and aerial roots that eventually touch the ground. The expanding leafy crown of the strangler starts to shade the tree crown of the host plant while its roots encircle the supporting trunk and appear to strangle the host. Competition for light and for water finally leads to the death of the support tree, leaving the strangler as a hollow trunk. In the Philippines, some believers of the occult consider that balete trees are dwelling places for supernatural beings like kapre (a filthy Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

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giant who likes to smoke huge rolls of cigars) or tikbalang or tigbalang (a half-man and half-horse creature) and can be seen sitting on the branches. In some places, sorcery rituals are performed inside the chambers formed by the tree. Some people bar them as decorative plants inside a house as they allegedly invite ghosts. Balete is found in Northern Luzon to Mindanao, in most islands and provinces in primary forests at low and medium altitudes. It also occurs in India to Southern China and Malaya. In Manila, it is planted as a graceful shade tree. Rope is made in the provinces from its bast.

In addition to their renowned species diversity, the forests and lower slopes of the Philippine mountains also yield fruits and nuts, cinnamon bark, gutta-percha (a highly resinous, rubber-like latex), resins, gums, and other useful products. Banana, abaca, eucalyptus, bamboo, and thousands of flowering plants and shrubs proliferate, including hibiscus, wild poinsettia, bougainvillea, canna, heliconia, ylang-ylang, fire trees, jade vine, jasmine, periwinkle, lilies, white ginger, and the sweet-scented sampaguita (Jasminum sambac), the Philippine national flower. Over 1,000 species of orchids grow in these forests 70 percent of which are indigenous.

The Function of Drip Tips of Tropical Leaves Drip tips, or the acuminate apices of leaves, are a common feature of understory plants in the humid tropics. Perhaps the most persistent hypothesis for their function is that they facilitate the rapid channeling of water from leaves to decrease the drying time for the leaf surface. Retention of water on leaves may be favorable for the colonization or growth of epiphylls (e.g., lichens and bryophytes) and fungi and thus reduce the photosynthetic potential of leaves through shading or necrosis. Water more rapidly flushed from leaves may also help to dislodge debris, such as dead plant material or soil. Leaves of young and mature trees of the same species often differ in size and form because of the different conditions prevailing in the understory and canopy. Source: Ivey and DeSilva 2001.

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Source: http://ak2.scstatic.net/1/cdn2-cont10.sweetcouch. com/143816823817236314-gurjun-oil.jpg

▲ Philippine gurjun (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus)

Some, like cattleya, are large and elegant; others, such as the smaller waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana) grow in great speckled sprays of rich lavender, yellow, and white. Other outstanding orchids include butterfly orchids or Phalaenopsis species, brilliant red fire orchids (Renantheras), and numerous Dendrobium such as sanggumay (Dendrobium anosmum) with hanging stalks and purplish flowers. In the 1930s, about 75 percent of forest cover was of the dipterocarp type; today, it is about only 3 percent of its original area, although larger tracts of secondary growth are present. Original shifting cultivation practices were confined to small clearings allowing animals to disperse the seeds of mature trees and thereby re-establish forest species. Small trees and dense grasses and vines now invade areas logged or claimed for agriculture and create second-growth (parang) whose canopy is slight and evaporation high. The resulting dryness hinders the regeneration of the original forest. Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

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Lo wl a n d s e m i - ever g reen r a i n fo res t

There is currently no exact delimitation of this formation in the islands, but the forests are characteristically located on volcanic soils and dominated by a single dipterocarp species, Philippine gurjun (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) or white seraya (Parashorea malaanonan). The western side of the archipelago, including Palawan and Zambales on Luzon—where this formation occurs—has a seasonally dry climate and yearly water stress of some duration. Lo wl a n d s e m i - d ec i d u o u s ( s ea s o n a l/ mon s oon ) fore s t

This type of forest is found in the eastern Sierra Madre Range, Western Mindoro, and Palawan where a distinctly seasonally dry climate predominates at 1,000 m. It is characterized by the molave tree (Vitex parviflora). In association with narra (Pterocarpus indicus), Malacca-teak (Afzelia rhomboidea), and derham mahogany (Wallaceodendron celebicum), Molave tends to shed most of its leaves during the dry season and the forest resembles deciduous woodland found in the temperate zone. Its growth is typified by short, gnarled, and fluted trunks, and wide-spreading branches with crowns reaching up to 25–30 m. Wood from the molave tree (a member of the teak family) is highly prized for its great strength, hardness, and appearance; consequently, much of this forest has been destroyed. The forest is dominantly semi-deciduous and during dry periods the newly bare trees open up the canopy layer, enabling sunlight to reach ground level and facilitate the growth of thick underbrush with abundant sprawling and climbing bamboo, many grasses, and much shallow-rooted undergrowth on broken ground. Fore s t o ve r l i mes t o n e

Forest over karst or calcareous limestone soils have reduced density and diversity compared to lowland evergreen forest but has a high level of endemism reflecting specific adaptations to the poor water retention and limited nutrient availability of the soils. It occupies low hills, either coastal or bordering large uplifted river valleys and is generally open with few scattered large trees. Usually, the trees are short-trunked, irregular, and with wide-spreading crowns. Represented are Indian spurge tree or soro-soro (Euphorbia trigona), aglaia (Aglaia argentea), tindalo (Afzelia rhomboidea), kerosene tree or supa (Sindora supa), bignay (Antidesma sp.), tulipwood (Harpullia arborea), and Drypetes, Gomphandra, Sterculia, Pleomele, and Begonia species. In such forests, found in Northern Luzon, Samar, Palawan, and Cebu below 1,000 m, the keystone species are molave (Vitex parviflora), lingo-lingo 140

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Photo by Caloy Libosada

▲ Forest over limestone, Palawan

(Viticipremna philippinensis), fragrant premna or alagaw (Premna odorata), and batete (Kingiodendron alternifolium). The open spaces are filled with small trees and growth is invariably occupied with sprawling, climbing, small, erect bamboo. Although the rugged nature of the landscape has helped protect this type of forest, the molave trees are sought for lumber and the habitat has been greatly reduced. A new species of terrestrial limestone forest frog of the genus Platymantis was found recently in Biak-na-Bato National Park in central Luzon. The bokawe or buho tree, used as a weapon during the Philippine revolution, abounds there. Fore s t o ve r u lt r a - ba s i c s o i ls

Forest vegetation over ultra-basic soils rich in heavy metals yields equally unique species and is generally characterized by a sclerophyllous (hard leaf) stunted formation with definite boundaries. Significant stands are found coincident with major fault lines in Palanan, Palawan, Siargao Island, the Zambales Range, northeastern and southeastern Mindanao, and on Dinagat Island. Some of the forests on Palawan are only 2–5 m tall and comprise duklitan (Planchonella sp.) and the heavy metal indicators Scaevola micrantha, Brackenridgia palustris, Phyllanthus spp., and the hemiparasitic broad-leaved ballart (Exocarpus latifolius). Other species include mountain agoho (Gymnostoma rumphiana), Suregada, and Archidendron. Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

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The ultra-basic forest in northeastern Mindanao is tall, reaching 15–20 m and includes brush box (Tristaniopsis decorticata), Sararanga philippinensis, and Terminalia surigaoensis. Those formations on the southeastern peninsula occur at high elevations and thus are considerably shorter in stature, barely reaching a meter in some areas. On Dinagat Island and the northeastern tip of Mindanao and Leyte, the ultrabasic forest contains the endemic hardwoods mancono (Xanthostemon verdugonianum) and bagoadlau (X. philippinensis). Lo we r m o n t an e ( mi d - mo u n t a i n ) fo res t

The lower montane or mid-mountain forest is dominant on intermediate slopes of highlands, ranging from 400 to 950 m with an upper limit up to 1,500 m. With optimal growth, the forest structure assumes two layers—a canopy at 25 m (80 feet) and a sub-canopy at 16 m (52 feet)—and with sparse undergrowth mainly of ferns, slender shrubs, and a pronounced scarcity of climbing plants, epiphytes, and mosses (Figure 31). Rainfall is high (two to three times that of sea level) and falls 142

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Source: http://www.plant-talk.org/philippines-geo-tagging-reveals-mining-threat-2.htm

▲ Forest over ultra-basic soils and brush box (Tristaniopsis decorticata), Mindanao.

Source: U.P. Science Education Center 1980

▲ FIGURE 31. Profile of lower montane forest formation from Mindanao. The profile represents forest strips 7.6 m (25 feet) in width. Undergrowth below 6 m (20 feet) has been omitted. The profile was made of the upper slopes of Mount Talomo at 1,850 m. Although dipterocarps are still present, some of the canopy trees are oaks and laurels. In the lower layer are Polystoma, Aridisia, Medinella, and Descaspermum.

during most of the year. Leaf litter (almost absent in lowland forest), is common and the canopy is often broken by the steepness of the terrain, so that ground plants are more frequent. In further contrast to lowland forests, the tree trunks are not buttressed. Dipterocarps and other truly lowland species are either no longer dominant, or have dropped out completely. Only Philippine mahogany, or light red meranti (Shorea almon) and dark-red Philippine mahogany (S. polysperma) grow beyond the 1,200 m contour, the latter species being occasionally found above 1,500 m. Oaks (Lithocarpus and Fagaceae spp.), aralia (Araliaceae), bladdernut (Staphyleaceae), and members of the laurel family (Lauraceae), including Neolitsea, Cinnamomum, and Litsea, are well represented with the result that this forest is often referred to Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

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View of lower montane forest, Mindanao

Photo by Caloy Libosada

as the oak-laurel belt of the montane tropics. Ericaceous plants are also common and shrubs of Rubiaceae and Acanthaceae are abundant in the understory. In gaps and gullies, Saurauia and Urticaceae species are frequent, including such climbers as Freycinetia. Although this formation originally only covered about 10/12 percent of the country, it has limited economic value and has not been so heavily exploited as the lowland forest. Consequently, it may represent half of the primary rainforest in the Philippines. Tree ferns, herbs, and assorted mixed undergrowth often form complete carpets on the forest floor and most of the trees support profuse epiphytic plant growth. A subtropical flavor is given by species such as Eugenia, Weinmannia, Neonauclea, Astronia, and Thea. The southern hemisphere gymnosperms Dacrydium, Podocarpus, Phyllocladus, and Agathis are found in the ridge-crest groves of Mindanao. On the upper slopes of mountains such as Talomo and Apo, mixed lower montane forest is frequent, but in northern Luzon much of this zone is occupied by open pine forests (Mount Pulag), scrubby vegetation (Mount Mayon), or a mist-depressed type forest (Mount Makiling). 144

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Up p e r m on t a n e ( mi d - mo u n t a i n o r mos s y) fore s t

Upper montane forest is found at altitudes above 1,000 m in areas of strong winds, cooler temperatures, and mist immediately above the lower montane (mid-mountain) forest extending through steep ridges and canyons to high and very rough mountain summits (Figure 32). This is a dense one-layered mossy oak forest of dwarfed, crooked-branched trees, 2–10 m high. Many plants have numerous aerial roots, and the branches and trunks of trees and the forest floor are covered with a thick blanket of lichens, mosses, liverworts, filmy ferns, rattan, and many orchids and vines. Rainfall can be as high as 12 m per year and the moss carpet may be as thick as 20 cm and seldom under 5 cm; tree ferns of up to 8–10 m are abundant. Sometimes referred to as cloud or fog forest, it is a habitat that has the highest numbers of species in the Philippines. Many endemic animal species are found as burrowers in the matty soil and species unknown to science are constantly being discovered. Principal plant species are conifers of the genera Dacrydium, Dacrycarpus, and Podocarpus (iguem), as well as broadleaf genera, such as Lithocarpus, Symplocos (balakbak), Engelhardia, Syzygium, and Myrica. Species of Ericaceae (Rhododendron, Vaccinium, and Diplycosia) are common, as is the tree fern Cyathea. Epiphytic vegetation of orchids and ferns, some small and delicate, is very striking. The pitcher plant (Nepenthes) clambers through the dense thickets and, in places, bamboos of the genera Schizostachyum and Dinochloa form impenetrable thickets. The forest may reach the mountaintops or may be replaced by almost bare slopes where ► FIGURE 32. Profile of upper montane forest formation from Luzon. The profile represents forest strips 7.6 m (25 feet) in width. Undergrowth below 6 m (20 feet) has been omitted. A low mist-shrouded mossy oak-laurel-myrtle forest from the mist-shrouded slopes of Mount Pulag at 2,450 m is depicted. Source: U.P. Science Education Center 1980.

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Two views of Mossy forest

Photo by Dodong Usyot Source: www.panoramio.com/photo/54186234

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Photo by Dodong Usyot Source: www.panoramio.com/photo/54186191

volcanic activity has cleared it or where the soil cover is unstable. Perhaps 6–8 percent of the Philippines was originally covered by this type of vegetation. Given its low economic value, it is likely to be the least disturbed habitat in the country accounting for 30 percent of all remaining primary forest. S u b -al p in e fo res t

At 2,954 m, Mount Apo in Mindanao is the highest point in the Philippines. From about 2,500 m, it has a mist-stunted, single-layered sub-alpine forest dominated by bayberry (Myrica javanica). At slightly higher levels, the forest gives way to open rock fall and scrubby vegetation of ferns and sedges as well as bushes of Vaccinium, Rhododendron and Ilex (all typical of a low temperate climate). Ferns and sedges are found right to the summit—too exposed for any montane forest growth. Dawsonia, the world’s largest moss, which grows as tall as 25 cm, is found on the eastern slopes of the neighboring Mount Talomo. The Mount Halcon—Mount Siadang range on Mindoro—also supports sub-alpine conditions with a similar complex of species, including Eurya coriacea, Leptospermum flavescens, and Styphelia suaveolens. Portions of Mount Pulag, Mount Mantalingahan, and Mount Kinasalapi may have elements of a sub-alpine forest.

▲ Mount Apo sub-alpine forest Photo by Jochled Almaden Source: http://mapcarta.com/Mount_Apo/Gallery/5952357

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Pine Forest

P h o t o b y G r e g g Ya n / L o y o l a M o u n t a i n e e r s

P in e fore s t

Pine forest is found in areas between 900 and 1,700 m with distinct wet and dry seasons and is often considered a part of the lower montane rainforest formation. Two indigenous species, the Benguet pine (Pinus insularis) and Mindoro pine (Pinus merkusii), stand above the mixed oak forests and below the higher mist forests and the upper limits of the dipterocarps. The pine forests are open type, often with scattered trees (some reaching 40 m) and a grassy cover of the dominant red grass (Themeda triandra). There are no palms, bamboos, or lianas. Benguet pine is widely distributed in the mountains of northern and central Luzon while Mindoro pine is restricted to local areas of Zambales and Mindoro. Regular fires in the dry season maintain the balance of pines and grassland, and prevent other deciduous trees and shrubs from taking hold. Protected areas for the pines include Mount Pulag, home to a number of endemic plants and birds, including the seemingly out-of-place white-cheeked bullfinch (Pyrrhula leucogenys) and red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), whose crossed mandibles enable it to extract seeds from conifer cones and other fruits. 148

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The khasia pine (Pinus kesiya), considered a conspecific with the Benguet pine, occurs in heavily disturbed areas of the lower montane forests in the high plateau of the Cordillera Mountains of Luzon known for its distinct dry season. Pea t s wam p fo res t

This formation has never been documented for it remains a controversial topic among botanists and is rarely included in the listing of Philippine vegetation types. It is characterized by a water table higher than the surrounding areas, with the peat about 50 cm deep, acidic, with a soft-crust over semiliquid interior. The only incoming water is from rain. Patches of this formation have been observed in southern Leyte and there are similar areas on Mindanao. In Caimpugan, Agusan del Sur, Mindanao, some 101 species belonging to 56 families and 81 general were recorded in surveys undertaken between 2010–2013 (Aribal and Fernando 2014). Tristaniopsis micrantha (myrtacea family) and Thoracostachyum sumatranum (saw sedge) are the most dominant species for trees and understory vegetation, respectively.

Grassland Vegetation Lo wl a n d g ra s s la n d

Grasslands are widespread, often extensive and found in forest clearings that have been burned repeatedly and on hills and mountain slopes denuded of their original forest. There are mainly two grasses: cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica) and wild sugarcane or talahib (Saccharum spontaneum). Cogon constitutes about 50 percent of total grazing area of the Philippines. In addition to talahib, other major grass community types observed are Themeda, Capillipedium and Chryosopogon. Cogon is the first grass to appear in drier areas with clay soil after forest has been erased and is maintained by fire during the dry season. It grows one and a half to two and a half meters tall, has 1 cm-wide serrated blades, and is the most tolerant of the wild grass species growing in the Philippines. Wild sugarcane (Saccharum spontaneum) is the natural successor to cogon after a favorable, damper habitat has been formed and when fully mature stands up to 3 m high. Other grasses and sedges, wild legumes, composites, spurges, and rubiaceous herbs grow intermixed with cogon and talahib on abandoned land. Open and water-logged lowland areas are usually invaded by Phragmites vallatoria (tambo), a reed often seen in pure stands. In the pine region of central and northern Luzon, other grass species replace cogon and talahib. Themeda triandra Chapter 8. Biodiversity: Overview, Flora, and Ecosystems

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Talahib

P h o t o b y G r e g g Ya n

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(bagokbok) a low, perennial grass is common in open grasslands, with a coarse, perennial grass Chinese silver grass or bilaw (Miscanthus sinensis) as its associate. Both bagokbok and bilaw are fire-resistant, their underground rhizomes regenerating after fire. Up l an d/m on t a n e g r a s s la n d

Though some scientists have expressed the opinion that the grasslands of Mount Pulag in northern Luzon represent alpine grasslands above the tree limits, doubts have been raised because the tree limits in Southeast Asia and the tropics generally are at much higher altitudes than in other climatic zones. For example, on Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, the tree limit is not reached until 3,650 m. Consequently, it is suggested that the Pulag grassland is an upland extension of mid-mountain grasslands perhaps the result of fires. Much of Mount Pulag’s summit area (above 2,750 m) is dominated by dwarf bilaw associated with dwarf bamboo (Arundinaria) and grasses, including Calamagrotis, Anthoxanthum, Deschampsia, Deyeuxia, and Danthonia. The herb species Anaphalis, Hypericum, Euphrasia, Gentiana, Haloragis, and Ranunculus suggest a sub-alpine habitat. Grasslands are estimated to cover over 20 percent of the Philippines, with Luzon possessing the most extensive areas. Their acidic soil and low fertility have resulted in low diversity.

Secondary Vegetation A large percentage of the land area of the Philippines is covered by secondary vegetation or parang produced by human activities. Along with cogon grasslands, it constitutes one of the country’s most characteristic and extensive vegetation types. In the lowlands, trees include fast-growing members of the families Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae, and Celtidaceae. 150

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Cogon Grass Cogon (Imperata cylindrica) is the perfect weed; winds carry its fluffy, light seeds long distances and when landing on soil in exposed locations (such as a cleared forest) they soon germinate and spread underground stems (rhizomes) which then produce upright shoots choking out other plants. They are very difficult to kill and can also resist occasional fires (started with the intention of finding wild game); indeed, this aids the cogon as it kills competing plants. Attempts to find good uses of cogon have failed. Cattle and goats cannot eat the mature leaves and can only nibble at the young shoots. Though it makes acceptable paper, transport costs make it too expensive to make it economic. Some people use it for roofing, others make beer from its starchy rhizomes. Cogon has also been used for medical remedies.

■

Photo by Ronnie Muring Source: http://www.tripmondo.com/philippines/ cordillera-administrative-region/binoyot/

Although logging is very widespread, about half of vegetation clearance is due to forest fires and shifting cultivation (kaingin farming). Under the latter activity, primary forest is first felled and fired in small plots and planted with crops for two or three years. The plots are then abandoned and the land reverts to secondary growth while a new plot is established. When the cycle is repeated in the same area, the succeeding regrowth becomes more and more scrubby and less productive. If the land is burned, grasses (particularly cogon), quickly colonize the area. In

Upland grassland at Mount Pulag.

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Early Botanists of the Philippines Ignacio de Mercado (1648–1698), born in the Philippines, was an Augustinian who established Philippine pharmacopeia. He started to study native plants and their therapeutic properties by seeking the views of locals and testing the plants’ effects on himself and his sick parishioners. During the last third of the 1600s, he wrote Libro de Medicinales de esta Tierra, y Declaraciones de las Virtudes de los Arboles y Plantas que están en estas Islas Filipinas documenting his findings about native plants and trees and their medicinal properties. Mercado’s book is now viewed as a “botanical curiosity” since its entries are a clear mix of fact and local superstition. However, Leon Ma. Guerrero (the first licensed pharmacist in the Philippines, and one of the most eminent botanists in the country in his time) and the American botanist Elmer Drew Merrill (1876–1956) found merit and economic value in the book, commending the way the priest tested each plant.

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Georg Joseph Kamel (1661–1706), also known as Camellus, was a Jesuit, botanist and ornithologist. Originally from Moravia, Kamel was sent to the Philippines in 1688 where he established a pharmacy in Manila supplying poor people with remedies for free. The results of his botanizing (largely of plants from the gardens of Chinese in Manila), were sent to the leading British botanist, John Ray, and the apothecary-botanist James Petiver who published Herbarium aliarumque stirpium in insula Luzone Philippinarum (Herbs and medicinal plants in the island of Luzon). The genus Camellia was named in his honor by Carolus Linnaeus.

Born in Spain, Francisco Manuel Blanco (1778–1845) was also an Augustinian. His first assignment in the Philippines was in the province of Bulacan; subsequently, he travelled throughout the archipelago and authored the first comprehensive flora of the Philippines, Flora de Filipinas. Según el sistema de Linneo (Flora of the Philippines according to the System of Linnaeus). The first two editions (Manila, 1837 and 1845) were not illustrated. Celestine Fernandez Villar (1838–1907), together with others, published an illustrated posthumous edition from 1877 to 1883. Most of his descriptions were based on fresh material collected by him or brought to him by other persons. Blanco died in Manila in 1845. The genus Blancoa of the family Palmae is named in his honor. Source: Flora de Filipinas by Padre Manual Blanco (Galende et al. 1993)

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time, underground rhizomes become well established and tree regrowth becomes increasingly difficult. However, when there is no interference by man, the forest quickly regenerates and pioneer softwood trees take over, including Ficus, Pipturus, Acacia, Antidesma, Melochia, Macaranga, Mallotus, Alstonia, Trema, Artocarpus, and Homalanthus. Eventually, primary forest species appear and the regrowth becomes a secondary forest.

Agriculture and Other Land Use Of the 300,000 km2 land area of the Philippines, 49 percent is certified as alienable and disposable and 51 percent as “forest land.” Lowlands (land with slopes below 18 percent), constitute the primary agricultural lands. Between 1950 and 1990, farm area almost doubled with forest cover and grasslands declining by 60 and 67 percent, respectively. Lowland agriculture is the most productive in the country although yields are low by Asian standards. Salinization and waterlogging pose problems in some irrigated areas and saline water intrusions affect most coastal areas. Uplands have seen a substantial increase in cultivation, some 2 million ha being used intensively which, on sloping lands (generally considered sub-marginal), often induces severe erosion and consequent flooding during heavy rains. Nonetheless, the rich soils of the valleys and deltas are heavily planted with rice and, where there is good drainage, crops of sugarcane or Indian corn (maize) are sustained. Coconut plantations occupy sandy coastal areas and on flat uplands, volcanic soils often support tobacco, coffee, or pineapple plantations. Hillsides too steep for these crops may be planted with rice, sweet potatoes, bananas, or abaca. In some areas, there may be multiple cropping with coconuts grown above bananas, or even three layers, with coconuts above papaya above pineapples. Domesticated Plants and Animals Some 80 percent of the plants found in settled areas of the Philippines have been introduced by man. In prehistoric times, when the Philippines and neighboring land masses were joined, man introduced a number of economic plants and weeds: bananas, sugarcane, and rice came from mainland Asia. Many others were introduced much later by the Spaniards from Mexico and tropical America. Melons, numerous palms, lilies, the fire tree, and many other plants came from Africa (Figure 33). Cultivated fruits native to the Philippines are few and include butter fruit or velvet apple or mabolo (Diospyros blancoi), calamondin or kalamansi (Citrofortunella 154

The Philippines: A Natural History

■ FIGURE 33. Map of the origin of fruits of the Philippines.

microcarpa). There are, however, many wild fruits that could be domesticated such as queen sago or pitogo or (Cycas rumphii), kaliso (Areca caliso), marang (Artocarpus odoratissimus), and pili (Canarium ovatum). As mentioned earlier, according to 2009 data on domesticated animals, there were 3.3 million carabaos, 2.6 million cattle, 13.9 million pigs, 4.2 million goats, and 167.7 million chickens in the Philippines. Ducks, quail, geese, turkeys, and pigeons have an aggregate total of over 30 million heads. No data were available for horses.

Inland Waters Vegetation For convenience, the vegetation of inland waters of the Philippines may be subdivided into lacustrine (lake), palustrine (marsh), and riverine types. Counts of plant species attributable to this type of ecosystem have identified 431 species of angiosperms, 7 pteridophytes, and 1 bryophyte. Usually, lake vegetation has very low diversity of vascular plants dominated by sedges and grasses, the latter largely confined to lake shores. In lowland lakes, the submerged plants include eelgrass (Vallisneria gigantean), Esthwaite waterweed (Hydrillaverticillata), duck-lettuce (Ottelia alismoides), and hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum), and floating species such as sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), water cabbage (Pistia stratiotes), and common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). Along the lake shores, are common species of grasses (Poaceae): marsh grass (Hymenachne amplexicaulis), giant cane (Arundo donax), common reed (Phragmites vallatoria), and Pseudorhaphis squarros; sedges (Cyperaceae): giant bulrush (Scirpus grossus), Cyperus spp., and Fimbristylis spp.; legumes (Fabaceae): sesbania pea (Sesbania cannabina) and scarlet pentapetes (Pentapetes phoenicea). In contrast, upland lakes that are geologically old may harbor unique plant species. Examples are Blyxa novoguineensis (Hydrocharitaceae), a submerged aquatic plant originally known from alpine lakes in New Guinea and discovered in 1972 in one of the Mount Tabayoc lakes (c. 2,400 m above sea level), and Isoetes philippinensis (Isoetaceae), also a submerged plant and the only known quillwort from the Philippines discovered in a clear pool in Lanao del Norte (c. 500 m above sea level). Rivers and creeks traverse all vegetation types in forested areas forming an exclusive biotope. Rheophytes (river plants) or stenophyllous (narrow-leaved) vegetation—typified by common willow-leaved water croton (Homonoia riparia)—occur in short, swift-flowing rivers and streams subject to periodic flash floods. There are some 400 species (in 67 families) of rheophytes worldwide, the Philippines 156

The Philippines: A Natural History

Introduction of Plants Prehistoric introduction of trees (probably by Malayo-Polynesian settlers) may have included common agricultural tree crops such as the katurai (Sesbania grandiflora), malunggai (Moringa oleifera), mango (Mangifera indica), nangka (Artocarpus heterophyllus), breadfruit (A. altilis), santol (Sandoricum koetjape), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), karamai (Cicca [Phyllanthus] acida), bignai (Antidesma bunius), kamias (Averrhoa bilimbi), balimbing (A. carambola), duhat (Syzygium jambolana) and other Syzygium spp., kawayan kiling (Bambusa vulgaris), kawayan tinik (B. spinosa), and many others. Most of these are Indo-Malayan in origin. A few escaped into the wild such as the bignai, duhat, and santol but have not grown and established themselves as persistent gregarious stands. Indian and Chinese peoples had close contact with the Philippines well over 2,000 years ago and introduced many economic plants. Some of the Indian introductions, with their Sanskrit and common names, include the lasona (onion), malissa (black pepper), spice, and kastuli (musk mallow) for medical purposes; kachumba (safflower) for dye; daua (Italian millet), malunggai (horse-radish tree), patola (sponge gourd) for food; mutha and cotton (kapas or gapas) for clothing; and jackfruit (pana) for food. The Chinese brought agricultural contributions: batao (hyacinth bean), tunghao (crown daisy), ungsoi (celery), sitau (cowpea), pechai (Chinese cabbage ), kuchai (small onion ), and kangkong (potato vine or swamp cabbage). For some 250 years, Spain used the Mexico-Manila galleon route to introduce a large number of plants, adopting Mexican (Nahuati, the Aztec language) names: kolitis (amaranths), kakaute (madre de cacao), lantana, kalachuchi (frangipani) for ornamental purposes; kamanchile or Madras thorn or Manila tamarind (Pithecellobium dulce) and kamote (sweet potato) for their edible roots, chico (Manilkara sapota) and kaimito (star apple) for edible fruits; kamate or tomate (tomato), mani (peanut), maize (corn), and cacao/cocoa (Theobroma cacao) (chocolate) for food; ayapana (ayapana tree) for medicine; maguey (century plant) for its fibers; and achuete (annatto) for dye. The Spanish regime also brought additional exotic tree species, mostly agricultural crops such as the atis, cherimoya, guyabano, anonas (Annona spp.), biriba (Rollinia deliciosa), zapote (Diospyros digyna), siniguelas (Spondias purpurea), tiesa (Pouteria campechiana), cashew (Anacardium occidentale), avocado (Persea americana), and datiles (Muntingia calabura). Woody trees such as the monkey-pod tree (Samanea saman), ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), kakawate (Gliricidia sepium), and kalachuchi (Plumeria rubra) were also introduced. Coffee (Coffea spp.) was introduced by the Spanish from Africa. Some of these plants escaped into the field, for example ipil-ipil,

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datiles, and kamanchile. Of the tropical American exotic trees, ipil-ipil may be singled-out as bio-invasive, as the species forms pure stands in open areas. Kamanchile and datiles have been dispersed but their numbers are limited. One of the results of the Malaspina Expedition of the Spanish Government in 1872 to the Philippines was the discovery in the country and description of the abaca plant or Manila hemp (manilla), a treelike herb resembling the banana, and one of the world’s toughest and hardest fibers. Following the Spanish-American War, plants were introduced into the Philippines mostly by exchange between the governments of foreign countries and the Philippine Government, through the Bureau of Forestry and Bureau of Plant Industry and by purchase from foreign countries by private citizens. Drawn in part from: Baguinon, Quimado, and Francisco 2005.

coming fourth with 26 species. Myrmeconauclea (Rubiaceae), an ant-plant genus with several species in Borneo and Palawan, is restricted to this habitat. Ficus rivularis (Moraceae), Ligustrum stenophyllum (Oleaceae), Dorystephania luzoniensis (Asclepiadaceae), Aglaia angustifolia (Meliaceae), and Desmodium unifoliolatum (Fabaceae) are some examples of endemics occurring in this habitat. Well-developed expressions of this rheophyte vegetation type in the Philippines may be observed in the Sierra Madre Mountain Range, upper reaches of the Apayao River, and possibly other regions of the Philippines, especially to the east.

Marine Vegetation Seagrasses have long and narrow leaves and often grow in large “meadows” sometimes looking like grassland. Most occur in shallow and sheltered coastal waters anchored in sand or mud bottoms and are frequently associated with mangrove forests and coral reefs, invariably forming an ecotone between these communities. They support a rich diversity of species from the adjacent systems, including green turtles, dugongs, sea urchins, crabs, and many fishes. To date, 16 seagrass species have been identified in Philippine waters (second only to Western Australia’s 17) spreading discontinuously along shallow coastlines. Seven species, comprising 40 percent of the total recorded in the Philippines and in Southeast Asia and 18 percent of global record, are found in Ulugan Bay in Palawan. Figure 35 provides current data on the distribution of seagrasses in the Philippines estimated to cover 27,282 km2. 158

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▲ FIGURE 35. Distribution of seagrass in the waters of the Philippines. Source: Fortes 2008

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Water Hyacinth: An Invasive Pest Water hyacinth is a free-floating aquatic plant native to tropical and subtropical South America. It invaded the Philippines some decades ago and has become a major pest. With broad, thick, glossy leaves and conspicuously attractive lavender to pink flowers, the plant may rise above the surface of the water as much as 1 m. It is one of the fastest-growing plants being known to double its population in two weeks. When not controlled, the hyacinth will cover lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds, disrupt hydropower schemes and block waterways—frequently altering water flow and sometimes exacerbating flooding. For example, in June 2011, a 20-ha spread of water hyacinths invaded the Rio Grande de Mindanao flowing down from the Liguasan Marsh, clogging the Delta Bridge and causing floods that affected around 1 million families. Where water hyacinth is prolific, water may be starved of oxygen— often killing fish (or turtles). Sunlight blocked from reaching native submersed plants, immersed plant communities pushed away and crushed, and animal communities impacted by blocking access to the water and/or eliminating plants they depend on for shelter and nesting cause an overall imbalance in the aquatic micro-ecosystem and can threaten fauna that relies on a diversity of plant life for its existence. Diversity of fish stocks is often affected with some benefiting and others suffering from the proliferation. The plants also create a prime habitat for mosquitos and a snail known to host a parasitic flatworm causing schistosomiasis. Currently, there are biological, chemical and physical control mechanisms for preventing the spread of or eradicating water hyacinth. Each has its benefits and drawbacks. Chemical control is the least favored due to unknown long-term effects on the environment and the communities with which it comes into contact. For short-term solution, physical control may be a solution. For long-term solution, water hyacinth must be managed and controlled throughout the year. Experts claim biological control is the most widely favored long-term control method, being relatively easy to use, and arguably providing the only economic and sustainable control. 160

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Source: Fortes 1989

The submerged areas of beaches also support vegetation, including the turtle or seagrass (Enhalus spp.)—whose narrow leaves measure 2-3 feet in length— and other species belonging to the genera Thallassina and Halophila. All play a vital role as nursery grounds and food for fish and invertebrates but have been reduced by 40-60 percent during the last 70 years. Algae or seaweeds number some 800 species, including the blue greens (Cyanophyceae), an important food for milkfish and mullet. The major green seaweeds (Chlorophyceae) include Coduim spp. (pukpuklo), leafy sea-lettuce (Ulva spp.), green sea-moss (Enteromorpha spp.), Caulerpa spp. (ararusep), and the little cup algae belonging to the genera Acetabularia and Halimedia. Among the brown algae (Phaeophyceae) are Sargassum spp. (aragan), Hydroclathrus spp. (balbalulang) and those of the genera Padina, Turbinarai and Colpomenia. Lastly, come the red algae (Rhodophyceae), Gracillaria spp. (gulaman), Eucheuma spp. (rupropook), an important source of the culture medium agar, and Porphyra spp. (gamet). Current estimates suggest that there are over 1,062 seaweeds in Philippine waters.

▲ FIGURE 35. Foodchain in Philippine seagrass ecosystems.

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Chapter 9

Biodiversity: Fauna

T

HE PHILIPPINES POSSESSES SOME OF THE WORLD’S highest levels of animal diversity in many groups of organisms and is remarkable for its very high levels of endemism. Along with plants, it is one of the world’s megadiversity countries. Its biodiversity, however, is one of the most endangered and therefore considered a major “hotspot.” The islands contain unique faunal assemblages and constitute distinct faunal regions; they also reflect evidence that Palawan was connected to Borneo during the Pleistocene.

Endemism There are five major and five minor centers of endemism, ranging in size from Luzon (103,000 km2) with 31 endemic species of mammals to Sibuyan Island (445 km2) with four endemic mammals, to the tiny Camiguin Island (265 km2) off the northeast coast of Mindanao with two species of endemic mammals. Much of the country is included in Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) or Secondary Areas: Mindoro; Luzon; Negros and Panay; Cebu; Mindanao and the Eastern Visayas; Sulu Archipelago; Palawan, Batanes and Babuyan Islands; Tablas, Romblon, and Sibuyan; and, Siquijor. These areas are coincident with Pleistocene island groupings (refer to earlier box on Prehistoric Animal Migrations and Figures 23 and 24). Centers of marine biodiversity appear correlated with prevailing types of climate, resulting from dominant air streams and their impacts upon current systems and rainfall, especially the South China Sea biogeographic zone in the west and the Pacific Ocean biogeographic zone in the east. The generally lower biodiversity of the latter is perhaps a reflection of harsher prevailing conditions. Philippine land animals constitute a distinct subdivision of the Malayan subdivision of the Oriental Life Region embracing India, South China, and Southeast Asia. Some 972 breeding species of terrestrial vertebrates have been reported, 573 (59 162

percent) of which are endemic (Table 19). Some have gauged the Philippines to be the Galapagos Islands multiplied tenfold and pointed out that Madagascar, famous for its biological diversity, has fewer species of unique mammals (90 versus 117) despite being twice the land area of the Philippines. Mammalian endemism is also very high at the generic level: of the 83 genera in the Philippines, 23 (28 percent) are endemic. However, many of the animals that may have once roamed the entire archipelago, such as the Philippine eagle, deer, some squirrels, and flying lemurs, are now confined to a few places in the country and face possible extinction. Bird endemism (fifth in the world) is relatively low but high per unit area. Reptile endemism ranks eighth and freshwater fish are accorded tenth place. The Philippines has among the highest rates of species discovery in the world with 16 new species of mammals discovered in the last 10 years and 3 species of birds only within the last three years. Because of this, the rate of endemism for the Philippines has risen and likely will continue to rise. ▼ TABLE 19. Terrestrial vertebrate fauna and freshwater, marine and brackish fish. Total Species Land mammals Marine mammals Breeding land birds/total birds Reptiles Amphibians Total terrestrial Freshwater fish Marine/brackish fish

Endemic Species

% Endemic

206

117

57

27

-

-

395/572

195

49

258

168

65

113

93

85

972-1,174

573

59

329

67

24

2,864

35

1/2

Drawn from: Heaney et al. 2013; Kennedy et al. 2000; Diesmos and Brown 2011; Nguyen and De Silva 2006; and Hiloman et al. 2000.

Species diversity and endemism for invertebrates is exceptional. Butterflies number some 895 species, of which 352 are endemic, the second highest number of endemics in the world after Indonesia. The Philippines is tenth on the global scale for tiger beetle diversity with 94 species and fifth on the scale for its 74 endemic species. There are an estimated 22,000 land, freshwater, and marine mollusks, of which 68 percent are gastropods, 27 percent bivalves, and 5 percent scaphopods, amphineurons and cephalopods making the Philippines a “Paradise of Mollusks.” For invertebrates as a whole, it is estimated that endemism is between 44 and 87 percent with a mean of 64 percent. Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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Threatened Fauna In 2004, The Philippines’ DENR Administrative Order No. 2004–15 established a national list of threatened terrestrial species including 34 mammals, 80 birds, 18 reptiles, and 14 amphibians. This has been updated in the online 2011 Red Data Book of Endangered Species published by the IUCN (Table 20). Among the critically endangered are the tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), which is endemic to Mindoro, and the Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi). The IUCN List, however, includes some non-forest dependent species of birds, a marine mammal the manatee (Dugong dugon), 4 species of marine turtles and 116 species of fish. As of 2010, animal species listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) included: 19 species under Appendix 1 (lists species that are the most endangered), 814 species under Appendix 2 (species that are not necessarily threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled), and 3 under Appendix 3 (parties regulate trade in the species and need the cooperation of other countries to prevent unsustainable or illegal exploitation). ▼ TABLE 20. List of threatened Philippine terrestrial fauna Faunal ­Species

Critically ­Endangered*

Endangered**

Vulnerable

Near ­Threatened

Total

Mammals

4

13

21

18

56

Birds

17

14

53

62

146

Reptiles

5

15

18

17

55

Amphibians

1

15

32

12

60

27

57

124

109

317

Total

*Includes all species listed under Appendix 1 of the CITES **Includes all species listed under Appendix 2 of the CITES The Administrative Order also accepted all species of terrestrial fauna and flora listed under Appendix 2 of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). In consequence and due to the vigilance of multi-sectoral watch groups and stricter law enforcement by authorities, the number of confiscations of illegally traded wildlife species regulated under the CITES increased from 513 in 2005 to 2,691 in 2007.

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Source: IUCN 2013.

and their categories.

Diversity of Fauna With such varied landscapes and seascapes, a tropical setting and formerly extensive areas of rainforest, it is not surprising that the Philippines has produced such exceptionally high levels of faunal diversity and endemism.

Mammals The mammalian fauna of the Philippines is reported at over 206 species, including 117 (57 percent) endemics (among the 103 non-flying species, 93 [57 percent] are endemic). The fauna differs from island to island and reflects the fact that the islands have undergone a long and complex history of variations in size, pattern, and land-bridge connections due to sea level changes and volcanic activity. Endemism is also high at the generic level: 23 of the 83 genera recognized in the Philippines. The exceptionally high rodent diversification has been compared to radiation of honeycreepers in the Hawaiian Islands and finches in the Galapagos. Though the data need updating, Table 21 provides a working comparison of endemism in the faunal regions of the Philippines and the Sunda Shelf Islands in terms of non-volant (incapable of flight) mammals. The exceptionally high percentage of endemicity among these species may be noted together with the fact that Palawan has lower endemism than Luzon or Mindanao having once been connected to Borneo during the Pleistocene. ▼ TABLE 21. Comparison of endemism in the Philippines and Sunda Shelf Islands. Number of Native Species

Number of ­Endemic Species

% of Endemic Species

Borneo

124

28–31

23–35

Sumatra

110

7

6

61

7

11

Faunal Region Sunda Shelf Islands

Java Malay Peninsula

112

Total (Sunda Shelf Islands)

407

45–46

11

Greater Luzon

29

20

72

Greater Mindanao

33

26

79

8

1

12

3

3

Negros-Panay Mindoro

15

6

40

Greater Palawan

25

11

44

Total (Philippines excl. Palawan)

93

79

85

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Source: Heaney 1986.

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As is typical of small islands, there are few large mammals but a diverse array of small ones, notably rodents. Deer of the genus Cervus and the warty pig (Sus spp.) occur on most of the larger islands, but there are no larger mammals, nor any large carnivores on any island. Pig species endemic to the Philippines include the Philippine warty pig (Sus philippensis), the Visayan warty pig (S. cebifrons), Mindoro warty pig (S. oliveri), and the Palawan bearded pig (S. ahoenobarbus). These have two/three pairs of fleshy “warts” on the face (thought to be a natural defense against the tusks of rival pigs during a fight) with a tuft of hair extending outwards from the warts closest to the jaw. Like most mammals, they are under threat from deforestation and hunting. The tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), the dwarf water buffalo of Mindoro, is the world’s smallest wild cattle species and may represent a relic of a very old faunal assemblage which has suffered extinction and has been replaced by new species elsewhere. Palawan and its adjacent islands unlike the other Philippine islands were joined to mainland Asia via Borneo in the mid-late Pleistocene period. Thus, the fauna of Palawan contains species found on Borneo and mainland Asia, such as the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), Palawan porcupine (Hystrix pumilus), Palawan tree shrew (Tupaia palawanensis), oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), Palawan stink badger (Mydaus marchei), and short-tailed mongoose (Herpestes brachyurus) but absent elsewhere in the Philippines. Mammals endemic to Palawan include the uncommon bear cat (Arctictis binturong)—one of the world’s smallest mammals and whose fur is used to make wraps and coats—and the rare or Philippine mouse deer (Tragulus nigricans) on Balabac Island, south of Palawan. The only monkey species occurring in the Philippines is the widespread crabeating or long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis). This may have been distributed around the islands by man along with the common Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and the Malay civet (Viverra tangalunga). Only one wild cat occurs in the Philippines—the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis)—present on Palawan and the Negros-Panay group of islands. Two unique mammals are the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta), known locally as mawmag, and the Philippine flying lemur (Cynocephalus volans) found only on Mindanao, Bohol, Leyte, and Samar. The tarsier, a nocturnal creature dwelling in coastal forests, is almost the only primate that is entirely carnivorous and the Bornean slow loris or Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) is restricted to the Sulu Archipelago. For the zoologist, it is the 66 species of rats and mice that form the most interesting mammalian group in the Philippines. No less than 17 genera are endemic to 166

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► Dinagat bushy-tailed cloud rat (Crateromys australis).

Illustration by William Oliver

Discovery of New Species of Mammals Within recent years, biologists have discovered 7 new species of mammals from Luzon Island and, with the exception of bats, increased the number from 42 to 49 (17 percent). The species are forest field mice of the genus Apomys and live only in a small part of Luzon in forested regions high in the mountains. They are often abundant though avoid humans, rarely causing any harm, preferring to eat earthworms and seeds on the forest floor. Two of the new species live only in the Zambales Mountains (on Mount Tapulao), two only on Mount Banahaw (south of Manila), and two only in the Mingan Mountains of Aurora Province; one lives only in the Sierra Madre of northeastern Luzon. In the past 10 years, formal descriptions of 15 other species have been published and more discoveries are anticipated. The new species from the Sierra Madre and Mount Banahaw live within protected areas, but those from the Mingan Mountains and Zambales do not. One of the biologists notes that “the Philippines is an ideal place to study the evolution of animal diversity, even better than the famous Galapagos Islands. These animals have been evolving in the Philippine archipelago for millions of years.” Source: Heaney et al 2011.

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the archipelago, including the cloud rats of the genera Phloeomys and Crateromys and the striped or shrew rats (Chrotomys, Celaenomys, and Rhynchomys). Rather like the marsupials of Australasia and the lemurs of Madagascar, these animals represent millions of years of evolution of a few original forms trapped on a group of islands and which have radiated into many diverse ecological niches. The 6 known species cloud rats are a group of arboreal and folivorous (leaf-eating) nocturnal rodents native to the forests. They are large and slow-moving and thought to be preyed upon by large birds and hunted by people for their meat, driving many to near extinction. The Dinagat bushy-tailed cloud rat (Crateromys australis) grows up to 0.8 m long and the Isarog shrew rat (Rhynchomys isagro) uses its snout, stout forelegs, and sturdy claws to dig out earthworms. Altogether, 19 rodents in the Philippines are listed as endangered species. Curiously, squirrels usually a successful and adaptable group of mammals worldwide, are represented by only a very few species restricted to the southern islands of the Palawan and Mindanao.

Diversity of Mammals along Elevational and Disturbance Gradients Studies involving surveys of small fruit bats and small non-volant mammals along elevational gradients extending from lowland forest to mossy forest, and disturbance gradients ranging from primary forest to severely disturbed human landscapes on four islands in the Philippines have revealed several common patterns. Species richness and relative abundance of fruit bats are highest in lowland forest and decline with elevation, whereas species richness and abundance of volant mammals are lowest in lowland forest and increase with elevation. Many endemic species in both groups occur at low population densities. Communities at higher elevations may include ecological specialists that often are local endemics. Endemic species are restricted to undisturbed or lightly disturbed habitats, whereas non-endemic species predominate in highly disturbed habitats. Thus, to adequately protect entire local faunas, protected areas must incorporate the widest elevational range possible, and be large enough to sustain viable populations of species that naturally occur at low densities. Ideally, they should be designed to include a fully protected core area of primary forest surrounded by concentric buffer zones of regenerating secondary forest and managed forest plantation. Source: Rickart 1993.

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The Philippines is home to 74 species of bats, but they are relentlessly hunted as bushmeat, and their cave roosts are subject to guano mining, recreational caving, and the commercial harvesting of the nests of the edible-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus). There are no less than 26 species of fruit bats, including 8 species of giant flying foxes. The largest of the latter is the giant golden-crowned flying fox (Aceroden jubatus) with golden fur around its head contrasting with its black body. It has a wingspan of 1.5–1.7 m and weighs 0.7–1.2 kg., and roosts in colonies on tall trees during the day and at night feeds on the fruits of forest trees, including the wild fig. Land mammals threatened with extinction include the tamaraw, tarsier, and mouse deer. The tamaraw (Bubalus bubalis), smaller than the domesticated carabao, with v-shaped horns in adulthood, is endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro where it is currently found in Mount Iglit-Baco National Park, around Mount Aruyan/Sablayan, and in the Mount Calavite Tamaraw Preserve located in open grassland and mixed forest. Hunting and loss of habitat have drastically reduced the population—in the nineteenth century there were some 10,000 animals; by 1975 only 120 remained. Today there are no more than 300 individuals spread among 3 populations. The famous Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) is found in the southeastern part of the archipelago, particularly in the islands of Bohol, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. It is one of the smallest primates (fitting in the palm of a hand) yet can jump 5 m. Huge eyes provide this nocturnal animal with excellent vision as it moves through trees and shrubs feeding on small lizards and insects. It is also an endangered species suffering loss of its habitat and from its popularity as a pet. In Bohol, until the 1960s, the Philippine tarsier was a common sight in the southern part of the island. Since then, the number has dwindled to as few as 1,000 left in the wild. The Visayan spotted deer (Rusa alfredi) is a nocturnal and endangered species of deer located primarily in the rainforests of the Visayan islands of Panay and Negros though it once roamed Cebu, Guimaras, Leyte, Masbate, and Samar. Since 1991, the range of the species has severely decreased and is now almost co-extensive with that of the Visayan warty pig (Sus cebifrons). A small, nocturnal ruminant, the Philippine mouse deer (Tragulus nigricans), is endemic to Balabac and the nearby smaller islands (Bugsuc and Ramos) south-west of Palawan. It is confined to the dense vegetation and mangrove forest and threatened because of habitat loss, poaching, and capture for the wild animal trade. The Mindanao gymnure Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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Photo by Roger D. Dolorosa Source: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/136497/0 Photo by AFP Source: http://www.rfa.org/english/news/ china/poaching-04162013183100.html

◄ Philippine or Palawan pangolin (Manis culionensis) in the wild and caught in a Chinese vessel at Tubbataha Reef. The vessel contained 400 m boxes (10,000 kg) of frozen carcasses. The crew was arrested on charges of poaching and attempted robbery.

(Podogymnura truei), Philippine tree shrew (Urogale everetti), Philippine pangolin (Manis culionensis)—a new species moderately common within its limited range, but is at risk due to heavy hunting, because of its valued scales and meat—and the Calamian deer (Axis calamianensis) are endemic to the Philippines Pamilacan Island (“resting place of the mantas”) between the deep sea of Bohol and Mindanao is part of the Bohol Marine Triangle and home to at least 13 species of cetaceans including Bryde’s and sperm whales (Balaenoptera edeni and Physeter macrocephalus, respectively). Smaller whales include the short-finned pilot whale 170

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Photo by Jürgen Freund

▲ Dugong

(Globicephala macrorhynchus), melon-headed whale (Peponocephala electra), and pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata). Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) migrate annually to the Philippines and breed off the Babuyan Islands. Dolphins commonly sighted are the Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus), spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus), spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) and Fraser’s dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei). Irrawady dolphins (Orcaella brevirostris) are found in estuaries and semi-enclosed water bodies such as bays. The dugong (Dugong dugon), also called baboy-dagat (“pig of the sea”), has been reported in southern Luzon, southern Mindoro and Palawan, Guimaras Strait and Panay Gulf, northeastern and southern Mindanao, and the Sulu Archipelago. It usually rests during the day in deep water feeding at night on seagrasses and other vegetation in shallow waters. The species is under threat and an oil spill in 2006 damaged 20 ha of seagrass beds off the island of Guimaras, the feeding grounds of a small dugong population in the area. Despite being legally protected, dugong populations are declining because of hunting, habitat degradation, and fishing-related fatalities. Entanglement in fishing nets has also caused many deaths. Administrative Order No. 55, Series of 1991, issued by the Secretary of the Philippine Department Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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of Environment and Natural Resources, declares the dugong as a protected marine mammal of the Philippines and prohibits its killing and the destruction of its habitats.

Amphibians and Reptiles The climate and vegetation of the Philippines provide ideal conditions for many kinds of amphibians and reptiles and it is estimated that there are about 110 species of amphibians and some 258 species of reptiles, of which 93 (85 percent) and 170 (66 percent) respectively, are considered endemic. These figures are being constantly adjusted, especially for amphibians, in light of the high rates of discovery—10 percent being discovered in the last 10 years. Some 60 percent of the amphibians and reptiles are rare or have a very limited distribution. At least three species of amphibians have been introduced into the Philippines: cane or giant marine toad (Rhinella marinus) brought in the 1930s to control beetle infestation of sugarcane; the American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) in the 1970s; and the Chinese edible frog (Hoplobatrachus rugulosus) in the 1990s for breeding and export as food. The amphibians comprise one legless type, the Ichthyophis, and a number of frogs and toads. No tailed amphibian (such as the salamander) has been reported in the Philippines. The three species of Ichthyophis (a genus of caecilians), are grey worm-like burrowing amphibians with no limbs. They occur only in Palawan, Basilan, and in certain parts of Mindanao, where they are found in shallow humus soil and underneath rotten logs on the forest floor up to an elevation of 1,000 m. The immature stage is passed in small forest streams. Frogs and toads (anurans) have a high level of endemicity (93 species or 85 percent) and populate many habitats; providing they have permanent sources of freshwater; even small islands usually have at least one species of frog, The majority of the 110 species of frogs occupies rain forests, their expanded tips of fingers and toes and well-developed webs on the hands and feet enabling them to climb trees and other vegetation. Their favorite microhabitats are aerial ferns, climbing Pandanus, and species of taro (Alocasia and Colocasia). A few species such as the common tree frog (Polypedates leucomystax), Philippine narrowmouth toad (Kaloula conjuncta), and paddy frog (Cornufer meyeri or Platymantis dorsalis) inhabit both forest and cleared areas. Along with other Cornufer or Platymantius species, the young undergo direct development, bypassing the tadpole stage. Other frogs, such as crab-eating frog (Fejervarya cancrivora or Rana cancrivora), inhabit mangrove swamps and marshes and is the only known modern amphibian to tolerate salt water. It does this by increasing urea production 172

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Habitat Separation of some Common Frogs of the Philippines

Kaloula conjuncta (Philippine narrowmouth toad) is a species of frog endemic to the Philippines. It occurs in forested or heavily vegetated areas on the forest floor or in banana and abaca plants and aerial ferns. Breeding usually occurs in the shallow parts close to the edges of lakes and ponds or in the depressions in grassy meadows filled with water after a heavy rain. It is threatened by habitat loss. Cornufer meyeri (Platymantis dorsalis) (paddy frog) is endemic to the Philippines occurring in subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, plantations, rural gardens, and heavily degraded former forest. It is also threatened by habitat loss. Fejervarya limnocharis (Rana limnocaris) (cricket frog) is the common frog in areas in cultivation. It is found predominantly near sea level but, given suitable habitats, also occurs in hilly areas up to at least 450 m. It usually occurs in standing waters around ponds, streams and marshy areas, often hiding under objects during the day. Fejervarya cancrivora (Rana cancrivora) (crab-eating frog) inhabits standing or very slowly moving water in mangrove swamps and marshes and is the only known modern amphibian to enter the sea and eat crabs. Rana erythraea (green paddy frog) inhabits subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, rural gardens, heavily degraded former forest, irrigated land, seasonally flooded agricultural land, and introduced vegetation. Polypedates leucomystax (common tree frog) occurs in bushes and trees but is very often found on the ground. During the day, it hides among grass or banana plants (wild and cultivated) and in the crevices of dead and decaying tree trunks.

and retention. The cricket frog (Fejervarya limnocharis or Rana limnocharis) and common green frog (Hylarana erythraea or Rana erythraea) are generally found only in rice fields, fishponds, lakes and streams, and are frequently eaten by people (Figure 36). Frogs of the genera Ansonia and Rhacophorus (moss frogs) reach altitudes of about 2,000 m on Mount Malindang in Mindanao, and two species of Platymantis are found on Mount Kanlaon, Negros, at altitudes around 1,675 m inhabiting arboreal ferns and the leaf axils of screw pines (Pandanus spp.). The islands of Busuanga and Palawan are home to the Philippine flat-headed frog (Barbourula busuangensis), a large, heavy-bodied, highly aquatic frog found in the fast-moving waters Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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▲ FIGURE 36. Habitat separation in some common frogs of the Philippines.

Photo by Joseph Brown Source: http://blogs.discovermagazine.com

▲ Gray’s monitor (Varanus olivaceus)

of lowland mountain streams. Adaptations to this life-style include a flattened body shape, dorsal nostrils and eyes, robust and muscular hind limbs and forelimbs, and webbed digits on the fore and hind limbs. The Philippines is rich in reptiles. Grasslands, forests, swamps, coastal waters and seas support some 124 species of lizards, 106 species of terrestrial snakes, 15 species of marine snakes, 6 species of terrestrial turtles, 5 species of marine turtles, and 2 species of crocodiles. Reptile endemism reaches 66 percent with lizards numbering over 100 species. Both lizards and snakes are found in all vegetation types and in microhabitats ranging from dry to wet. The familiar common house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), named for its loud, distinctive “tchak tchak tchak” call is nocturnal, hiding during the day and foraging at night when it can be seen climbing walls of houses and other buildings in search of insects attracted to lights. Other Gekkonidae include the four-clawed gecko (Gehyra mutilate) and flat-tailed house gecko (Cosymbotus platyurus). The largest Philippine lizards are the Gray’s monitor (Varanus olivaceus) and the Philippine sail fin lizard or sailfin tuko (Hydrosaurus pustulosus). The former is known only from lowland dipterocarp forest in the east of Luzon and a few smaller adjacent islands such as Polillo Island, where it is locally known as the butaan. It reaches a length of 1.3 to 2 m and is eaten widely to the extent that it is becoming rare. The Panay monitor lizard (Varanus mabitang) was only described as a new species in 2001 being found on the island of Panay specializing on a diet of fruit. The Philippine sail fin lizard, considered one of the rarest lizards in the world, is an excellent swimmer and uses scale fringes on flattened toes to run rapidly across a stream or river on its hind legs. A species of the agamid lizards, the Flying Lizard (Draco volans), possesses flaps of skin supported by extensions of the ribs allowing it to glide from tree to Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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tree over distances upwards of 8m. Like chameleons, the agamids (Calotes spp. and Gonyocephalus spp.) can change their color. The Philippines is home to both the largest snake in the world, the reticulated python (Python reticulatus) that can grow to about 7 m, and one of the smallest, the brahminy blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus) averaging 6.4–16.5 cm. Also found on the islands is one of the world’s largest venomous snakes, the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) reaching about 5.5 m. However, it is the spitting Philippine cobra (Naja philippinensis), a native to the northern regions of the Philippines that has probably caused the most deaths from snakebites. These stocky snakes are capable of accurately spitting their venom at a target up to 3 m away. The arboreal green Asian vine snake or the oriental whipsnake (Ahaetulla prasina) and the golden tree snake or golden flying snake (Chrysopelea ornata) belong to the slightly venomous or benumbing class of snakes. Before launching itself into mid-air, the flying snake contracts its ventral surface inwards to form a U-shaped concave depression along its entire length, holding the outer edges of the ventral scales rigid. The resulting concave surface acts like a parachute, allowing the snake to glide forward with the thrust of its launch and undulating through the air, in a swimming-like motion landing clumsily at the end of its flight. A very common harmless snake is the Indian wolf snake (Lycodon aulicus) found frequently in houses coiled peacefully around kitchen utensils, sometimes even laying eggs in drawers. Venomous sea snakes (Hydrophiinae) and sea kraits (Laticaudidae) inhabit Philippine seas. One species of Hydrophidae, the rare Philippine freshwater sea snake or Garman’s sea snake (Hydrophis semperi) is found only in Lake Taal, Luzon, and is noted for being one of two species of sea snake occurring almost exclusively in freshwater. The lake was formerly saltwater but gradually lost its salinity after it was closed off from the sea by an eruption in the 16th century. Thus, H. semperi has become accustomed to freshwater for a little over 500 years. The banded sea krait (Laticauda colubrina) spends most of its life at sea but comes to land to reproduce. In adapting to this curious semi-aquatic lifestyle, it has retained the ventral scales and cylindrical body shape typical of terrestrial snakes to aid climbing on land and in low trees; however, its tail is paddle-shaped allowing rapid movement in water. Little is known about the species’ reproductive habits and there have been virtually no estimates of the snake’s population. While the snake has no commercial value and is not harvested, fishermen have been known to kill them simply because of what they are. Sea snake venom is extremely poisonous, some species being more poisonous than most venomous land snakes. 176

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P h o t o b y G r e g g Ya n

Mindoro crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), known locally as bukarot This is a fairly small species, reaching breeding maturity at 1.5 m and 15 kg. It has a relatively broad snout and thick bony plates on its back (heavy dorsal armor) and is endemic and originally found throughout the Philippines. The species is critically endangered, only some 250 being left in the wild as of September 2011, and has been extirpated in Samar, Jolo, Negros Island, Masbate, and Busuanga. Very little is known about the natural history or ecology of the species, or its relationship with the salt water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), whose range it overlaps. Historically, the decline of the species was through commercial exploitation; now it is mainly from loss of suitable habitat for agriculture. In 1992, there were estimated to be less than 1000 animals in the wild. In 1995, that estimate was revised to be no more than 100 non-hatchlings. In recent years the Crocodile Conservation Society of the Philippines, the Zoological Institute of HerpaWorld, and the Dutch/ Filipino Mabuwaya Foundation have been working on conservation breeding and release programs. The Philippine crocodile became nationally protected by law in 2001. Legislation was enacted in 2012 to further strengthen and augment existing laws for the protection of the Philippine crocodile and the saltwater crocodile.

Though rare, two species of crocodiles are found in the Philippines, the salt-water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and the Mindoro crocodile or the Philippine freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) that is endemic. The salt-water crocodile Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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grows to six meters and is wide-ranging in the archipelago; the smaller, two to three meter long Mindoro crocodile is confined to freshwater marshes, estuaries, small lakes and ponds and the tributaries of larger rivers on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Busuanga, Negros, Samar, Masbate, Mindanao and Sulu. Both species are hunted and suffer loss of habitat and threatened. There are four species of land turtles, of which the Southeast Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis) is the most widespread. However, because of its heavy exploitation for food, the pet and medicinal trade the IUCN Red List has declared it as vulnerable. Five species of marine turtle occur in Philippine waters—the hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), the olive Ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) and the rare leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea). The green and hawksbill sea turtles nest on a number of beaches in the southern Philippines, particularly the Philippines or Sabah Turtle Islands and comprise one of the largest green sea turtle breeding habitats in Southeast Asia. Though there was a decline of 88 percent in egg production from 1951 to 1990, the turtles laid more than 1 million eggs in 2010 on one of the Turtle Islands—an all-time high since recording of nesting started in 1984—and 2011 figures translate to 2,844 nesting green turtles and 1.44 million turtle eggs laid. Exploitation of marine turtles pre-dates colonial times and they continue to be captured with spears, nets, and in fish corrals for meat, bones (cartilage) and eggs. Most nesting turtles in the Central Visayas end up on the table and in souvenir shops. Birds Next to fish, birds represent the greatest number of vertebrate species in the Philippines totaling 572 species, of which 395 are breeding land birds and 195 (49 percent) endemic. Three species have been introduced by humans, 52 are rare or accidental and 67 are globally threatened. The latter figures are among the highest of any country. More than 171 species are known to be migrants or irregular visitors. One entire family, the Rhabdornithidae (tree creepers), comprising 3 species, is endemic. The islands of Philippines form important stepping-stones for migratory birds using the overlapping East Asian-Australasian and West Pacific Flyways. Most migrants are northern species generally arriving in September to November and departing in February to April. Very few species, other than shorebirds, are long distance migrants passing through the Philippines to Australia; most migration 178

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Source: US Fish and Wildlife Service

▲ FIGURE 37. Asian Migratory Bird Flyways

to Borneo, Indonesia, and Australia passes through mainland SE Asia rather than crossing the South China Sea (Figure 37). Important sites for migratory waders include Manila Bay and Olongo Island off Cebu. Candaba Marsh north of Manila has long been used as a stopover for many water birds as they fly from the Arctic Circle and Australia. Among the more prominent bird species is the Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), widely recognized as the symbol for conservation in the Philippines and an indicator of the environmental health of the country. It is the second largest eagle in the world and confined to lowland rain forest of eastern Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao. The Tabon scrubfowl or megapode (Megapodius cumingii) is a representative of the primitive bird group known as mound-builders or brush turkeys and is usually found near coastal areas. It uses its powerful feet to bury its eggs under a big mount of sand and vegetative material where they are incubated by the heat generated by the decaying vegetation and solar heat on the sand. In Palawan, the shy and striking Palawan peacock pheasant (Polyplectron emphanum) occurs in lowland and upland forests and, in the north of the island is the edible-nest swiftlet (Collocalia fuciphaga) whose nests are gathered and much prized for making a local soup. Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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The bird distribution in the Philippines is influenced mainly by climate, pattern of vegetation, previous land connections, and proximity to neighboring landmasses. Most Philippine birds appear to have invaded the islands via northern Borneo and Palawan or from Java and eastern Borneo through the Sulu Archipelago. Yet, another though less numerous species have come from the north across the sea from eastern Asia by way of Taiwan and Japan through its Ryukyu Islands. A weaker though definite influence has been exercised from the island of Sulawesi in the south, the most conspicuous invaders including some parrots, the bleeding-heart pigeon (Gallicolumba spp.), pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) and some white-eyes (Zosterops spp.). Other colonists, such as the Tabon scrubfowl (Megapodius cumingii) have a Moluccan or Papuan-Australian origin.

The First Ornithologists Georg Joseph Kamel (1661–1706), also known as Camellus, was a Jesuit, botanist and ornithologist who wrote the first account of the birds of the Philippines and a description of 71 species in Observationes de Avibus Philippensibus published in 1702 in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Pierre Poivre (1719–1786) visited Manila and Mindanao described 31 species from the Philippines. Pierre Sonnerat (1748–1814) made several voyages to Southeast Asia, visiting the Philippines and Moluccas between 1769 and 1772. His books include Voyage à la Nouvelle-Guinée (1776) in which he described 30 species of birds and accompanied them with many line engravings. Hugh Cuming (1791–1865) collected 396 skins from many parts of the Philippines which were eventually housed in the British Museum of Natural History. The American ornithologist, Joseph Beal Steere (1842–1940) was one of the first westerners to make a list of birds of the Philippines. He conducted a scientific expedition to the Philippines and the Moluccas from 1874–1875 journeying to Palawan, Mindanao and the Visayas and returned to the Philippines in 1887–1888. He described 40 new bird species and is commemorated in the names of a number of birds, including Steere’s liocichla (Liocichla steerii), wattled broadbill (Eurylaimus steerii), black-hooded coucal (Centropus steerii) and azure-breasted pitta (Pitta steerii) all of which are endemic to the Philippines. Richard McGregor (1871–1936) helped several Filipino collectors and published a Manual of Philippine Birds (1909–1910). The Manual remains the standard reference on Philippine birds.

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Source: http://en.wikipilipinas.org/index.php/Dioscoro_S._Rabor

Masauji Hachisuka (1903–1953) collected widely in the Philippines and published The Birds of the Philippines, with notes on the mammal fauna (1931–1935). Jean Delacour and Ernst Meyer (1890–1985 and 1904–2005) wrote Birds of the Philippines in 1946, the first popular account of birds in the archipelago and a contribution to the Pacific World Series under the auspices of the American Committee for International Wild Life Protection.

Dioscoro Rabor (1911–1996) worked in the Philippines, zoologist and conservationist for more than half of the 20th century. His contribution to Philippine ornithology was immense, alerting the world to the endangered status of the Philippine Eagle. His field catalog for birds approached 60,000 entries, with most of his specimens deposited in many US museums. Some 69 new bird taxa, including 8 species and 61 subspecies, have been named from Rabor’s collections. Source: Dickinson et al. 1991.

The island of Palawan is of particular interest because of its being a part of the Sunda shelf and former connections with Borneo. Consequently, its fauna is a mixture Philippine Wallacean species (77 of 118 species) and Bornean species (80), with 14 species (12 percent) endemic to the island. Figure 38 shows these Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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Source: Mackinnon and Phillips 1993

▲ FIGURE 38. Relationships between resident land bird faunas of the Sundaic region.

inter-island relationships. The size of the circles is proportional to the number of resident birds on each island, the thickness of connecting lines indicates the absolute number of shared species, and the percentage shown indicates the proportion of the smaller of the two faunas shared with the larger. Terns (Sternidae) and bobbies (Sulidae) occur on the open sea and use remote rocky islets to breed. Tidal mudflats and reefs are feeding grounds for many shorebirds, egrets and herons while terns and boobies are found on the open sea and breeding on remote rocky islands providing many habitats in the varied coastal vegetation. Though no species is restricted to the mangrove zone, it provides feeding and nesting places for many, including the golden-bellied flyeater (Gerygone sulphurea), Malaysian pied or Philippine pied fantail (Rhipidura [javanica or nigritorquis]), as well as some fruit pigeons, large brown doves and sunbirds. The Tabon scrubfowl (Megapodius cumingii), the white-collared kingfisher (Halcyon chloris), and some species of owls, parrots, bulbuls, tailorbirds, white-eyes, sunbirds and flowerpeckers live among beach vegetation. The banks of rivers provide fishing grounds for little and great egrets (Egretta garzetta and E. alba), night herons (Nycticorex 182

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spp.), purple and great-billed herons (Ardea purpurea and A. sumatrana) and sandy shorelines are the major habitat of the Malaysian plover (Charadius peronei)—a near-threatened species—and other waders. In rice fields, marshes, and around the edges of ponds and streams live the white-breasted swamp hen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) along with grass birds and munias; the common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) and pheasant-tailed jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) occur in reed beds at the edges of lakes and freshwater swamps with lily pads. Uncommon greater painted-snipe (Rostratula benghalensis) inhabit rice fields and shallow lowland marshes and are joined by several species of true snipe (Scolopacidae) in the winter. Various herons, egrets, bitterns, rails and crakes and birds of prey such as the Chinese goshawk (Accipiter solonensis), inhabit swamps and marshes and neighboring rice fields. The Philippine mallard (Anas luzonica) is the only duck endemic to the islands and is joined in the winter by two species of whistling ducks (Dendrocygna spp.) and 13 other species of duck. Standing water levels are high when northern migrants arrive and many plovers and sandpipers are to be found in these habitats. In addition to winter visitors, the marshlands of Candaba in Luzon and Agusan in Mindanao, though under severe threat, support many wetland bird populations including herons, egrets, harriers, jacanas, kingfishers, snipe, rails, and warblers. Lowland dipterocarp and mountain forests harbor the richest bird life both in numbers of individuals and species; indeed, most species endemic to the Philippines are forest birds. Distribution patterns vary with the degree of changed habitat (mostly through deforestation) and season. Fewer birds are evident at higher elevations during the dry season due to their movements to wetter, lower areas to secure sufficient supplies of fruit and insects. An inexperienced observer may tramp miles in a tropical forest without meeting or hearing a bird. Then suddenly a gathering is confronted that includes nearly every species in the neighborhood. There are birds on the ground, among the bushes, on the trunks of tall trees and in the canopy of leaves high overhead. Pigeons and hornbills inhabit the tall canopy. At mid-canopy there are woodpeckers, nuthatches and drongos, flycatchers, minivets, and warblers, and numerous other species. Ground feeding birds include pittas and babblers. These mixed assemblages rove about in cooperative bands in fairly regular daily circuits: babblers foraging from a nearby look-out and woodpeckers—scuttling up a tree-trunk in search of beetles—scaring numerous winged insects resting upon the bark or lurking within its crevices and promptly caught by a vigilant flycatcher or warbler. Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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Forest Birds

P h o t o s b y L i p K e e Ya p

Birds inhabiting the lowland forest include the pompadour green-pigeon (Treron pompadora), white-eared brown dove (Phapitreron leucotis), reddish cuckoo dove (Macropygia tenuirostris), common koel (Eudynamys scolopacea), Philippine scops owl (Otus megalotis), Philippine hawk owl (Ninox sp.), blue-crowned racket-tail (Prioniturus discurus), whiskered treeswift (Hemiprocne comata), nightjars (Caprimulgus sp.) and hornbills. Goshawks, serpent eagles and falcons search for prey though they may extend their range to higher elevations. Mid-mountain forest is rich in birdlife and mixed foraging flocks are often common. Small birds found on high mountaintops include babblers (Stachyris spp.), warblers (Bradypterus spp.), thrushes (Turdus spp.), the whistlers (Pachycephala spp.), sunbirds (Nectariniidae spp.) and white-eyes (Zosterops spp.). The red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) is confined to pine forests of central Luzon.

A Male (left) and female (right) Olive-backed Sunbird (Cinnyris jugularis). Originally from mangrove habitat, it has adapted well to humans, and is now common in fairly densely populated areas, even forming their nests in human dwellings. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive-backed_sunbird

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Photo by J.C. Gonzales Source: http://focusingonwildlife.com/news/sierra-madre-ground-warbler-discovery-of-new-birdspecies/#comments

Sierra Madre Ground-Warbler: New Bird Species from the Philippines In 2013, an international team of ornithologists discovered a new species of ground-warbler on Luzon Island and named it the Sierra Madre Ground-Warbler and gave it the scientific name of Robsonius thompsoni. The bird is known only from the northern Philippines and has no close relatives. Described as a ground-walking songbird that can barely fly, the birds tend to inhabit dense forest understory, feeding on insects. Their song is extremely high in pitch and ventriloquial, sounding far away, even when they are almost at your feet. Because the bird looks similar to the other two species of ground-warblers in the Philippines, the Bicol Ground-Warbler and the Cordilleran Ground-Warbler, it was not recognized as an independent species at first. When the different plumage coloration between adult birds in the Cordillera and the Sierra Madre in northern Luzon was noted, sequencing its DNA was used to determine if the plumage differences were individual variations within a species, or if the two plumage forms were also genetically diagnosable. Tests found that Cordillera and Sierra Madre birds were highly divergent in their DNA, almost as different as the distinctive Bicol Ground-Warbler in southern Luzon. Source: Hosner et al. 2013.

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With the loss of forests in most parts of the Philippines, many bird species have come to occupy secondary vegetation. Together with cogon grasslands, such vegetation forms one of the country’s most characteristic and extensive ecosystems. Though the composition of bird life in secondary vegetation depends upon proximity to other forms of vegetation, common inhabitants include birds of prey, the Philippine coucal (Centropus viridis), eastern grass owl (Tyto longimembris), parrots, orioles, bulbuls, the dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis), grey wagtail (Motacilla cinerea), Philippine falconet (Microheirax erythrogenys), brown shrike (Lanius cristatus), and some sunbirds, flowerpeckers, and munias. Birds inhabiting grassland areas include the pied bushchat (Saxicola caprata), some warblers (Cisticola spp.), the tawny grassbird (Megalurus timorensis), two larks (Alauda gulgula and Mirafra javanica), Richard’s pipit (Anthus richardi), bluebreasted quail (Coturnix chinensis), some buttonquail (Turnix spp.) and the savanna nightjar (Caprimulgus affinis). As standing water becomes scarce, a variety of rails range through these areas such as the barred rail (Gallirallus torquatus). In villages and rice fields, in the lowlands as well as up to 1,000 m elevations, species commonly found include: the red turtle-dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica), zebra dove (Geopelia striata), blue-tailed bee-eaters (Merops philippinus), pied triller (Lalage nigra), white-breasted woodswallow (Artamus leucorynchus), Java sparrow (Lonchura oryzivora), Asian glossy starling (Aplonis panayensis), oriental magpie robin (Copsychus saularis), Malaysian pied or Philippine piedfantail (Rhipidura [javanica or nigritorquis]), black-naped monarch (Hypothymis azurea), lowland white-eye (Zosterops meyeni), and Pacific and barn swallows (Hirundo tahitica and H. rustica). Common to coconut groves, orchards, and bamboo thickets are the white-collared kingfisher (Halcyon chloris), black-naped oriole (Oriolus chinensis), large-billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos), and the copper-throated, olive-backed and purple-throated sunbirds (Nectarina calcostetha, N. jugularis and N. sperata). Also in coconut groves near the forest edge may be found the colasisi (Loriculus philippensis), coleto (Sarcops calvus), and Asian palm-swift (Cupsiurus balasiensis). Munias (Lonchura spp.) are often abundant enough to be labeled as serious pests. Most urban birds suffer heavy mortality at the hands of hunters and paucity of vegetation with the result that there are few birds in most of the cities and towns in the Philippines. Nonetheless, some colorful and attractive “songsters” may be observed, particularly during migration periods. Street and garden birds include the Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus), crested myna (Acridotheres cristatellus), 186

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yellow-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier), brown shrike (Lanius cristatus), Philippine glossy starling (Aplonis panayensis), arctic warbler (Phylloscopus borealis), white-throated and white-collared kingfishers (Halcyon smyrnensis and H. chloris), bright-capped cisticola (Cisticola exilis), and black-naped oriole (Oriolus chinensis). The grey-backed tailorbird (Orthotomus derbianus), and red turtle-dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica) may be found remaining bamboo groves.

Breeding Seasons of Birds

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There are four patterns of breeding activities in the Philippines: Generally passerines and most non-passerines have a breeding season extending from April to June, sometimes beginning in February to ending in August. During this period, much of the Philippines is emerging from the dry period and experiencing the beginning of the southwest monsoons. A second pattern extends from March to September and covers the nesting of seabirds, rails and shorebirds. Several seabirds may continue nesting beyond September if replacement clutches have been laid. A third pattern involves birds that appear to nest throughout the year. They include the quails, megapodes and munias of the genus Lonchura. A fourth pattern concerns the protracted breeding seasons of large species, especially raptors, lasting from September to March or beyond. These birds time their nesting to coincide with the later stages of nesting of other birds—an abundant supply of food for nestlings. Source: Kennedy in Dickinson et al. 1991.

Fish Over 3,000 fish species (35 endemic) have been recorded in the Philippines some 2,724 being found in marine or brackish waters. Pelagic fish species are estimated to number 177, whereas demersal (near the seabed) species total 2,351, of which 1,658 are reef-associated and 693 with other nearshore habitats. Many factors are attributed to this high level of diversity, foremost being the active geological nature of the country and an exceptionally long coastline with over 7,000 islands supporting large areas of coral reef, mangrove forest, seagrass beds, tidal flats, and wetlands (estuaries and lagoons). Changes in sea levels and shifts in ocean currents Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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have also extended the range of habitats and encouraged the evolution of distinct species. There are 336 deep-sea fish species. With few exceptions, rivers and lakes and other freshwater bodies of the Philippines are low in species (329) contrasting strongly with their abundance on Borneo—further evidence of the isolation of much of the Philippines from Asia by saltwater channels throughout the Middle and Late Pleistocene. A few fish spawn in saltwater, spending only part of their life in freshwater. The marine representatives are strongly East Indian; however Japanese and Chinese elements are evident, while

▲ Freshwater sawfish (Pristis microdon) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largetooth_sawfish

Migrating Inland Fish True freshwater fish are few in the Philippines. Inland waters nurture a good number of marine or brackish some of which travel up to 250 km from the sea. These include: the bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas) of Lake Naujan; freshwater sawfish (Pristis microdon) formerly present in Laguna de Bay and Liguasan Marsh; species of rice eel (Monopterus albus); and, the freshwater moray eel (Gymnothorax tile). The latter is one of the largest freshwater fishes and weighs 500–600 kg and can reach 4.9 m long and 2.1 m across. Its numbers are dwindling due to overfishing and habitat loss, and it is in danger of extinction. Others leave rivers to spawn in saltwater, spending only part of their life in freshwater and include: sea or flathead mullet (Mugil cephalus), a source of mullet roe or atsike in Lake Naujan; mangrove red snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus) caught for their delicate flavor as they descend rivers; the large-size milkfish (Chanos chanos), one of the most important food fish species in the Philippines; and, the giant mottled eel (Anguilla marmorata). Snakehead fish (Channa striata) is the most commercially important truly freshwater fish in the Philippines being found in all freshwater bodies. It was introduced during the early to mid-1800s.

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some fishes of the Hawaiian Islands, the Tongan and Samoan Islands and Andamans contribute to the overall composition. Two of the smallest fish in the world are found in Luzon: the endemic, translucent 9 to 11 mm dwarf-pygmy goby (Pandaka pygmaea) of the Navotas-Malabon River, near Manila Bay, and the sinarapan (Mistichthys luzonensis), a freshwater fish 10–13 mm long, found in Lakes Buhi and Bato, the Bicol River and bodies of water in Camarines Sur Province. Both species are threatened with extinction due to water pollution and land reclamation. Common freshwater fish include the climbing perch (Anabus testudineus), and several species of catfish, the most common being the broadhead catfish (Clarias macrocephalus). Members of the carp family are found in Mindoro, Palawan, Mindanao, and especially Sulu. Other strictly freshwater fish include walking catfish (Clarius batrachus) and slender walking catfish (Clarius nieuhofii) so named for their ability to “walk” across dry land to find food or suitable environments. The edible freshwater and brackish tilapia is widely cultivated in inland fish farms and rice paddies. Due to the absence of major upwellings and the presence of rugged and narrow continental shelves, Philippine seas are not particularly productive fishing grounds. However, anchovy, bonito, herring, black snoek (Thyrsitoides marleyi), grouper, sea bass, tuna, jackfish, sardine, mullet, snapper, flying fish, and squid are very common. Cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes) in the Philippine waters number at least 168 species, being second only to Indonesia with about 350 species. They include the oceanic whitetip (Carcharhinus longimanus), blacktip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus), hammerhead shark (Sphyrnidae spp.), and other sharks, rays (including sting and manta), and sawfishes. The world’s largest fish, the whale shark (Rhincodon typus)—known to reach over 12 m—is seen occasionally in Philippine waters. Reports of the last few years show steeply declining populations of sharks because their fins are highly valued as the chief ingredient of shark fin soup and they face mounting fishing pressure throughout their range. Following decades of sustained growth of the fishing practices, marine and freshwater fisheries are now suffering rapid depletion. The main causes lie in overfishing, disruption of ocean bottom habitat through trawling and loss of habitat through mangrove clearance or wetlands loss and pollution. The red-tailed mackerel scad (Decapterus kurroides) and dwarf pygmy goby (Pandaka pygmaea) are endangered. Threats for the latter may be due to the pollution of the Navotas-Malabon rivers in Metro Manila, and the reclamation of the Dagatdagatan. However, it has supposedly Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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also been collected in the sea at Culion Island, off Palawan and recently in Bali, Sulawesi and Singapore. Pandaka pygmaea was once portrayed on a Philippine 10 centavo coin (Figure 39), the genus name being derived from the Filipino word pandak, meaning “dwarf” or “short of stature.”

◄ FIGURE 39. Pandaka pygmaea on a Philippine ten centavo coin. Source: http://www.worldofcoins.eu/forum/index. php/topic,4024.0.html

Recent data on the exploitation rates of selected marine fish species show high extraction patterns in the Babuyan Channel, Lingayen Gulf, Northern Zambales, Lagonoy Gulf, Sorsogon Bay, Visayas and Camotes Seas, Honda Bay, Hinatuan and Dinagat Waters and Davao Gulf (Figure 40). Small pelagic fish—anchovies, fusiliers, mackerels, round herrings, round scads, and sardines— are the main sources of cheap protein for the country’s lower-income groups though the catch per unit of effort has continued to decline since the 1950s. Over the past several decades, the biomass of demersal stocks has also declined along with changes to species composition. This shift includes an increase in the share of squid, shrimp, and small pelagic species and a substantial decline in the share of large, commercially valuable species, such as groupers, sea catfishes, and snappers. The present exploitation rates of demersal species are reported to exceed maximum sustainable yield.

Coral Reefs The Philippines lies within the Indo-Malayan Triangle, the world’s center of marine diversity. Extensive coral reef systems surround the archipelago and, as the second largest in Southeast Asia, are estimated to cover some 26,000 sq km. The reefs comprise 1,729 coral and associated pelagic fish species, 648 mollusk species and more than 500 scleractinian or “stony” coral species (compared with 70 in the Caribbean and about 50 percent of the global reef-building coral diversity). Some 12 scleractinian species are endemic. Observers have noted that there is a higher concentration of coral reef species in the Philippines than anywhere in the 190

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▲ FIGURE 40. Fisheries exploitation rates in major fishing areas around the Philippines. RED= rate exceeds the recommended maximum; YELLOW = the rate falls within the “ideal” range of values; and, GREEN rate is lower than the minimum values. Source: Asian Development Bank 2012.

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▲ FIGURE 41. Biodiversity of coral reef fishes, showing the location of the Coral Triangle (where more than 85 percent of the species in the IndoPacific region can be found. Colors indicate total species richness. Source: The Nature Conservancy 2008.

Indo-Malayan Triangle and that it is therefore the center of the world’s marine shore biodiversity. No other part of the oceans matches this diversity and only the Amazon comes close to this “Coral Triangle” in terms of species richness (Figure 41). Extensive coral cover is largely limited to the major islands of the western seaboard and the leeward portions of islands and seas along the eastern seaboard (Figure 42). With the exclusion of northern Luzon and the southeastern half of Mindanao, major coral growths seem to follow a northeasterly belt. A barrier reef is found off northern Bohol, Apo reef off Mindoro is a double atoll, table reefs and atolls are found along the Sulu islands, and fringing reefs dot the coastlines of many small and large islands. Unspoiled reefs provide a habitat for many small blue damselfishes, tiny orange pomacentridae, wrasses, parrot, butterfly, sturgeon, clown fish, moray eels, and barracudas poisonous stonefish and the somewhat dangerous lion or turkeyfish (Pterois volitans). Spiny black sea urchins (Diadema antillarum) and royal blue (Linckia laevigata) and orange starfish (Echinaster sp.) are common.

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▲ FIGURE 42. Distribution of coral reefs in the Philippines. Source: Coral Triangle Initiative, CT Atlas.reefbase.org.

The Formation of Coral Reefs The most common type of coral reef in the Philippines is the fringing reef. It grows seaward directly from the shore forming borders along the shoreline and surrounding islands. When a fringing reef continues to grow upward from a volcanic island that has sunk entirely below sea level, an atoll is formed. Atolls are usually circular or oval in shape, with an open lagoon in the center. A classic example is Tubbataha Reef comprising two huge atolls situated on the Cagayan Ridge and formed thousands of years ago as fringing reefs on volcanic islands. When the volcanoes became extinct and the islands subsided over time, only the corals remained. The corals seen today surrounding the lagoons were originally the fringing reefs. Barrier reefs are similar to fringing reefs in that they also border a shoreline; however, instead of growing directly out from the shore, they are separated from land by an expanse of water. This creates a lagoon of open, often deep water between the reef and the shore.

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The Danajon Bank or Double Barrier Reef, located off northern Bohol Island, is the only double barrier reef in the Philippines and is a larger and better-defined structure than other known double barrier reefs in the world. The reef is spread across almost 130 km and consists of three large reefs. Its overall area is 272 sq km making it over one percent of the total area of coral reef of the Philippines. It is believed that the reef was formed over the last 6,000 years and given its location in Central Philippines, it has been an evolutionary source of fish and coral species for the entire Philippines. Danajon Bank has a high degree of diversity and endemism within the high diversity of fish, coral and other invertebrates and algae species. Its large reef structure, protection from strong currents and storms encourages a wide variety of microhabitats to flourish inside and adjacent to the reef lagoons and slopes. Its location also protects if from strong monsoon winds and heavy oceanic swells. It is also a critical pathway of the Asian southward bird migratory route. Unfortunately, over the years the Danajon Bank has been subject to extremely high fishing pressure largely through destructive illegal practices and is considered to be on the brink of collapse with grave consequences for dependent communities.

During the last few decades, widespread dynamiting (blast fishing), poisoning and infestations of coral-eating crown-of-thorns starfish and drupella snails have led to a precipitous decline in coral reefs; other factors include increasing sediment flow onto reefs largely from clearance of forests and mangroves and climate change. Bleaching of coral reefs due to climate change started in Batangas in June of 1998 with other reefs succumbing in a near clockwise pattern around the archipelago. The most severe impacts occurred at Bolinao, Pangasinan where 80 percent of the reefs were bleached. Nearly a third of all fish species live in coral reefs, while others are dependent upon them and on seagrass beds at various stages. Almost 55 percent of fish consumed by Filipinos depend upon coral reefs and it is estimated that 10–15 percent of total marine fisheries production is contributed by the reefs. Despite their importance, recent data show a decline in reef condition, with reefs in the Visayas most at risk; reefs in an excellent state (live hard and soft cover of over 75 percent) has declined from 14.3 to 4.3 percent since the late 70s. Hard corals have been reduced to 1.9 percent.

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Source: http://reefhelpline.weebly.com/ human-destruction-of-coral-reefs.html

▲ The magnificence of the coral reef

and its destruction ► Photos by Ramona Francesca de la Paz

▲ Luzon peacock swallowtail (Papilio chikae) and Magellan Birdwing (Troides magellanus) Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Papilio_chikae_male.JPG Photo by Anaxibia Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Magellana.jpg Photo by Robert Nash

Arthropods Insect species in the Philippines constitute the largest group estimated at 25,000 of which 40 percent are known to science. Endemicity is reckoned to be 68 percent in 6,185 genera and 499 families. Affinities with eastern and western Malaysia and with the Asian mainland are pronounced, especially in northern Luzon. New species are constantly being discovered and it projected that the total number of arthropod species will reach between 50,000 to 100,000. Insect inventories in forest canopies could push the number further. Because of the popularity of butterfly collection, many species are considered endangered or vulnerable. The largest order, the Coleoptera (beetles), is estimated to contain 7,500 species in the Philippines of which 4,600 are known. Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are estimated at over 900—one-third of which are endemic—and Diptera (flies, gnats and mosquitoes) at 2,500 species, of which 500 are known. Mosquitoes alone probably comprise some 200 species (50 so far having been described). Lepidoptera display remarkable patterns and colors, and the most spectacular species are found in Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. Of 915 recorded species, 365 (1079 taxa) are considered endemic. The largest of the Philippine butterflies,

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Life Cycle of the Fig Wasp Fig wasps belong to the superfamily Chalcidoidea that spend their larval stage inside figs and their continuing relationship is a masterpiece of timing and design. Each species of fig produces male, female and gall flowers. The male produces pollen, the female seed and the gall flower—a sterile or seedless female flower—acts as an incubator for the next generation of wasps. Of the wasps maturing in the gall flower, males are the first to emerge (a). Blind and wingless, they find and inseminate female wasps while the latter are still inside their flowers (b). Having performed their single function, the male dies without ever leaving the fig. The pregnant female emerges (c) and passes over the

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male flowers near the mouth of the fig collecting pollen on her body (d and e). She then flies to a tree of the same species, enters a fig (f) and starts to probe the various types of flower to find gall flowers in which to lay her eggs—one egg per flower (g). In so doing she fertilizes female flowers in which she has come into contact after having collected pollen from male flowers near the “mouth” of the fig. Source: Hrdy and Bennett 1979.

the endemic and rare black and green Luzon peacock swallowtail (Papilio chikae)— found in the highly elevated forests of Central Cordilleras of Northern Luzon— attains a wingspan of 18 cm rivaled only by the 8 cm black and yellow Magellan birdwing (Troides magellanus), named after the explorer Fernando de Magallanes who died in the Philippines in 1521. The green dragontail (Lampropelma meges Decius), with a wingspan of only four cm, occurs in many parts of Luzon and the eastern Visayas. Most butterflies found on mountain slopes belong to the families Danaidae (monarchs) and Nymphalidae (brush-footed butterflies); those on hillsides, near ground level, belong to the families Satyrinae (browns) and Lycaenidae (called gossamer-winged butterflies and famous for their small size). From February to June, the reddish-brown atlas moth (Attacus atlas) is a common sight in the Philippines. As the second largest moth in the world, it can develop a wingspan of 25 cm. Larvae of the atlas moth feed on fruit trees, such as avocado, santol, mango, casoy, and guava. The Indian moon moth or Indian luna moth (Actias selene) is found at high altitude regions. O t h e r In ve rt e b r a t es

Prawn, shrimp, crayfish and crabs are found in lakes, rivers and the sea. Among the more notable is the endangered coconut or robber crab (Birgus latro)—the world’s largest terrestrial arthropod. It can weigh up to three 3 kg, develop a leg span up to one meter and, with its strong foreleg claws, can open coconuts and lift up weights of more than 20 kg (Figure 43). Formerly widely distributed throughout the Philippines, it is now restricted to small islands, particularly those uninhabited by man. At two years of age, the crab gives up living in a shell to seek shelter in the burrows of old coral, rocks or under coconut leaves and Pandanus roots. It carries fruits, nuts, seeds, and carrion into its shelter and remains there for a few days consuming its food. With great agility it climbs coconut trees and cuts coconuts loose. The crabs use a special organ called a branchiostegal lung to breathe and, except as larvae, they cannot swim. 198

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Source: Dictionnaire d’Histoire Naturelle of 1849

▲ FIGURE 43. Print of a coconut crab.

The crab has developed a special technique to open coconuts: if the coconut is still covered with husk, it will use its claws to rip off strips, starting from the side with the three germination pores (the group of three small circles on the outside of the coconut). When the pores become visible, the crab will bang its pincers on one of them until it breaks. It will then use its smaller pincers to pull out the white flesh Decline of the coconut crab Populations of this crab are confined to small, sparsely populated islands, including Olango Island (east of Cebu City), Caluya Island (off Antique), and Digyo Island (off Leyte). Pigs, monkeys, rats, lizards, and ants eat the young crabs but the main cause for its decline is the destruction of shore habitats and hunting pressures, its meat and eggs being considered a delicacy. The crab is usually hunted at night. If they are in caves, smoke is used to drive them out; if discovered on a coconut tree, damp grass is tied on the tree, wherein the crab then assumes it has reached the terra firma and falls to the ground. The meat of the coconut crab is regarded as an aphrodisiac. In Japan, young crabs are occasionally held as pets. Despite legal regulations to prevent the export and import of these animals there is a substantial black market.

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of the coconut. Larger individuals using their strong claws can even break the hard coconut into smaller pieces for easier consumption. Six poisonous crab species are indigenous to the Philippines; they possess hairlike projections on the body and are generally colored greenish-red to reddish. One of them known in Zamboanga as kagang-bugtong (Zosimus aeneus), a brown and mottled rock crab, has poisoned to death many a victim in the Philippines and other Asian countries. Other marine invertebrates found in Philippine coastal waters include mollusca, echinoderms and sponges. As part of the Indo-Polynesian province, the Philippines is believed to harbor more species of mollusks than any other comparable area in the world. Conservative estimates suggest 5,000 species of mollusca, with mollusk species (marine and freshwater) estimated at 1,600 species. There are no estimates for levels of endemism. Among the countless mollusks, both land and aquatic, one of the most notable is the giant clam (Tridacna gigas) which, when mature, may reach 1.4 m in length and weigh 200–500 kg. Once extinct in the Philippines, giant clams are getting a boost from dedicated giant clam nurseries—the Bolinao Marine Laboratory, Pangasinan, western Luzon, and the Sagay Marine Reserve, Negros Oriental, established in 1999 to protect marine life in the Carbin and Maca reefs. Sagay is the largest marine reserve in the Philippines, covering an area of 32,000 hectares. Both freshwater and marine mollusks are favorite Philippine foods. Popular staples include oysters, mussels and clams. Shell products include pearls from oysters and mother-of-pearl from the species windowpane oyster (Placuna placenta) that is converted into buttons, windowpanes, and many handicraft items. Some include the glory-of-the-seas cone (Conus gloriamaris), golden cowrie (Cypraea aurantium), wentletraps (Epitonium scalare and E. pallasi), carrier shells (Xenophora solarioides), the intricately sculptured shells of the Murex family (e.g. Pterynotus elongatus), and the thorny oyster (Spondylus regius). The largest natural pearl was found in a giant clam off Palawan in 1934. Known as the “Pearl of Lao-Tze” or “Pearl of Allah,” it measures 24 by 14 cm and weighs 6.4 kg. The Indo-Malay archipelago and South China Sea have approximately 1,200 described sponge species with the Philippines having a remarkable 500 species; many of those found in the Sulu Sea are of commercial importance. The grass sponge (Spongia sp.) is common in rocky shoals or coral reefs and the deep-sea glass sponge or Venus’ flower basket (Euplectella aspergillum) occurs around Cebu and Leyte at depths between 100 and 1000 m where the water is very cold and the 200

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▲ Golden Cowrie and Glory-of-the-seas Cone Photo by Victor R. Boswell, Jr. Source http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/golden-cowrie/ Photo by Richard Parker Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glory_of_the_Sea_Cone_-_Conus_ gloriamaris_001.jpg

levels of silica are high. This particular sponge (in a dead, dry state) used to be given as a wedding gift because the sponge houses a pair small male and a female shrimp that live out their lives within the sponge. Sea cucumbers are found throughout the islands those in the Sulu Archipelago being the most harvested for commercial purposes. Many sea urchins and starfishes are gathered for food and are also used in the manufacture of fertilizer and poultry feed. The blue starfish (Linckia laevigata) is common on reef flats and the rhinoceros starfish (Protoreaster sp.) in seagrass habitats. In 2004, a survey in Panglao, Bohol, observed 1,200 decapod crustaceans (or different species of crabs and shrimps), some 6,000 mollusk species, including sea slugs and micro shells along with hundreds of other previously unrecorded marine species. Another survey, conducted in 2005 in the deep waters (up to 2,200 meters) of the Bohol-Mindanao-Cebu triangle, recorded some 1,000 mollusk, 600 crustacean and more than 100 echinoderm species, and over 100 fish species, many of them considered rare, very rare, or new to science. Over 1,000 species of land snails—with beautiful shells, spiral patterns and luminous tints—are also found throughout the Philippines. The number of species of millipedes and centipedes is reckoned at 54 and 44, respectively. Spiders found in rice and other habitats number 341 species, 257 of which are new to science. Clearly, much of the invertebrate fauna remains to be described. Chapter 9. Biodiversity: Fauna

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▲ Spider of the genus Araneus and fighting spiders. Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araneus#/media/File:Araneus_quatratus_MHNT.jpg http://melveracruz.blogspot.com/2006/11/spider-fight-in-la.html

Spider Fighting Spider fighting (pahibag sang damang) is a popular sport among rural children, especially in the Visayas. The game begins by placing two spiders at opposite ends of a stick, the spiders being prodded to move along the the stick until they encounter each other and fight. The stick is thin enough to ensure that the spiders have no choice but to meet. It is held by one child who ensures that the spiders do not escape by alternately switching grip from one end to the other. How a fight ends is agreed upon beforehand. Fights to the death will end with one spider being bitten, paralyzed, and swiftly wrapped in silk. Non-lethal matches end when one spider falls from the stick (once or several times, depending on the agreement). Spiders suitable for spider fighting are orb-weavers from the genus Araneus. They are carefully chosen since catching the wrong spider can result in being bitten. Spiders not resembling the typical Araneus morphology are avoided. Those with slender bodies and long legs are also favored as better fighters. Slim, black spiders from guava or tamarind trees are also prized. Top fighters can fetch up to 100 pesos (USD 2), making the sport lucrative for children. Adults also play the sport but in a way similar to cockfighting. Derbies are also held and bets could go as high as 30,000 pesos (about USD 600). The practice is now generally discouraged since it affects the educational performance of school children. Source: Barrion et al. 2001, 23: 280.

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Chapter 10

Protected Areas

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Y E S TA B L I S H I N G O F A N AT I O N A L P A R K S S Y S T E M I N 1932 , the Philippines was the first Asian nation to recognize the importance of protecting the natural environment for future generations. Unfortunately, the Second World War and subsequent reconstruction and economic development brought massive logging and frequent encroachment in many of the established parks and undermined their integrity. In addition, rapidly climbing populations around the parks became progressively dependent on the natural resources they harbored and the ability of park guards to protect flora and fauna was badly compromised. Many species become endangered and alarm bells rang in the conservation community. Consequently, by the late 1980s, international and local conservationists raised awareness of the peril faced by the parks and combined to develop and implement a National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) as a mechanism for the conservation of the Philippines’ biodiversity through the protecting examples of each of the country’s major floral and faunal regions. The nation’s national parks, watersheds, wildlife sanctuaries, game refuges, and bird sanctuaries were placed under NIPAS and were renamed in line with international practice, namely: natural parks, protected landscapes and seascapes, natural biotic areas, natural monuments, strict nature reserves and resource reserves. Initially, some 10 sites vital to conservation the Philippines’ biogeographical zones were selected as priority protected areas: • Batanes Protected Landscapes and Seascapes (a major flyway for migrating birds); • Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park (the largest remaining area of original forest in the Philippines); • Mounts Iglit and Baco National Park (runs from sea level grassland to a remote, rugged summit); 203

• Apo Reef Marine Natural Park (the country’s largest atoll reef); • Mount Kanlaon Natural Park (an active volcano rich in wildlife); • Turtle Islands Marine National Park (the country’s largest rookery of the endangered green sea turtle); • Mount Apo Natural Park (the country’s highest summit and host to rare and endangered flora and fauna); • Mount Kitanglad Natural Park (the country’s second highest peak and location of critical habitats); • Siargao Island Protected Landscape and Seascape (pristine coral and mangrove forest); and, • Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary (important wetland supporting migratory birds and a major water catchment). To these were added further sites. • • • •

Subic- Bataan Natural Park (a large lowland virgin forest); Mount Isarog National Park (one of the largest rainforests in the Visayas); Mount Malindang National Park (a major watershed forest); Sibuyan Island and Mount Guiting-Guiting Natural Park (one of the Philippines’ most intact natural environments); and, • Mount Pulag National Park (forested mountains). Palawan developed its own protected areas system and, in 1990, UNESCO declared the entire province a biosphere reserve. Many of the protected areas are in remote upland regions and are surrounded or occupied by one or more of the country’s 30 or so cultural minorities. DENR’s management of these and other protected areas depends upon the effective participation of local and indigenous communities. In recognition of the importance of the biological diversity of the Philippines, several of these protected areas and others have been designated as World Heritage Sites (Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park and Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park), Ramsar Sites (Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary, Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary, Naujan Lake National Park, and Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park), Transboundary Protected Areas (Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary) and the ASEAN Heritage Parks (Mount Apo Natural Park, Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park and Mount Kitanglad Range Natural Park). 204

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Photo by Franklin D. de Guzman

Batanes Protected Landscapes and Seascapes Batanes forms a distinct biogeographic zone because of its remoteness from the Philippine mainland. Its flora and fauna are transitional between those of the mainland and Taiwan some 200 km to the north. Most of the remaining natural forest (lowland evergreen rainforest) occurs on Itbayat Island and on the western side of Sabtang Island. On Batan Island, forests are found on Mount Iraya (a dormant volcano) and the smaller Mount Matarem. The former’s exposure to fierce winds has stunted forest growth of the lowland evergreen rainforest (200–500 m) and lower montane forest. Only grassland is to be found above 800 m. At 50–100 m is a dense thicket of regenerating or disturbed primary forest and on the upper part a dense mat of giant reed (Miscanthus sinensis var. condensatus). Mount Matarem has richer plant diversity and trees are taller on its lower slopes. The leaves of a palm endemic to Batanes called “voyavoy” (Phoenix hanceana var. philippinensis) are used by the island people to form a cape (suot) for protection against the chilling rain and scorching sun. Unfortunately, persistent gathering is threatening the viability of the species along with the endangered ebony trees (Diospyros sp.) and the wild ornamental podocarpus or arius (Podocarpus sp.). Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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Photo by Caloy Libosada

Endemic birds in the protected area include the slaty-legged crake (Rallina eurizonoides alvarezi) and the whistling green pigeon (Treron formosae). The islands are part of the northeast Asia and Japan flyway for migrating birds that are exploited for food. The brown-headed thrush (Turdus chrysolaus), found only in Batanes every September, is diminishing in number, a fate similarly befalling the grey-faced buzzard (Butastur indicus). The thrush is considered a delicacy and locals capture it on sticky traps attached to branches where it usually perches. As it is captured in the hundreds, concern about its survival has resulted in enacting legal measures to protect it. In the deeper portions of the marine environment are the few remaining sites where pink and red corals (Corallium sp.) may be found.

Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park This is the Philippines’ largest protected area positioned between the rough waters of the Pacific and the rugged and heavily forested Sierra Madre to the west. Its remoteness has protected it from logging and it remains one of the country’s 206

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last great wilderness areas and the richest in terms of genetic, species, and habitat diversity. A series of peaks along the north to south range running through the park rise to well over 1,000 m, including Mount Cresta (1,672 m), Mount Divilacan (1,311 m), Mount Palanan (1,184 m) and Mount Dipalayag (1,100 m). The limestone area south of Palanan Point exhibits karst topography, with knobby hills and numerous depressions. Because of its topography and climate there is a less pronounced dry season compared to other parts of the country and vegetation is of a monsoonal type. Recent surveys have determined the presence of over 5,000 species of plants (more than in all of Canada) in six kinds of forest, including those growing on ultrabasic soil. The species-rich primary lowland evergreen rainforest represents 25 percent of such cover in the Philippines. Among the endemic plants in the park are the various species of the dipterocarp family such as Shorea spp. and Hopea spp., various orchids such as glutinous swinglea (Swinglea glutinosa). Bird surveys have revealed 241 species (nearly 50 percent of the country’s list) along with 78 endemics of the archipelago’s 192, including the critically endangered Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) and a subspecies of the collared scops owl (Otus lettia). Some 15 of the bird species are considered endangered. Consequently, international scientists have rated the park as among the most important areas for the conservation of bird diversity in the world. Of the 30 species of mammals, there are 14 species of bats (six of which are endemic) and 9 species of endemic rodents. Threatened or near-threatened amphibians and reptiles have also been recorded in the area, including the Southeast Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis), Philippine sail-fin lizard (Hydrosaurus pustulatus), saltwater or estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and Gray’s monitor lizard (Varanus olivaceus). At least 12 amphibians and 15 reptiles are Philippine endemics. Records also include several undescribed species of tree frogs (Platymantis spp.) and other species not previously known from the park or from the Philippines. Totals of 51 species of butterflies and 192 species of fish, mollusks and crustaceans have been observed, and 29 of the butterflies are endemic to the Philippines. Along the shore, are healthy coral reefs and fish and seagrass beds supporting threatened species, including the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Philippine or Mindoro crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), saltwater/estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), the largest of all living reptiles, and dugong (Dugong dugon). In the coastal region live a nomadic population of some 400 to 1,300 Negritos (Agta) subsisting mainly on fish and game and crops. Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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While most of the park is strictly protected, a small portion includes communities and is zoned for multiple uses. However, illegal logging, hunting, and commercial fishing using illegal methods such as dynamiting, primarily by people from outside the area, are threats to the park’s integrity. Mining companies have claims that predate the park’s creation.

Photo by Fredda Ruth Rosete Source: http://www.freddaruth.com/ wp-content/uploads/2014/06/P1000604.jpg

Mounts Iglit and Baco National Park This park, situated in central Mindoro, is one of the most rugged and remote places in the Philippines encompassing some eight major river systems coursing through slopes, gorges and plateaus. It embraces Mount Baco (2,488 m) and Mount 208

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Iglit, the latter reaching 2,364 m. Unfortunately, the island is among the most deforested parts of the Philippine archipelago with less than 3 percent of primary forests intact. Remnants of lowland rain, mountain and cloud forests with critically threatened endemic animal species are protected in the national park. Due to the imposition of two climatic regimes, the western portion of the park (with pronounced rainy and dry seasons) is grassland, the main species being oat grass (Themeda triandra), cogon (Imperata cylindrica) and wild sugarcane (Saccharum spontaneum). The eastern portion (with rainfall throughout most of the year) is mainly composed of evergreen forest and dry season deciduous shrubs and trees. Portions of the park are covered by upland hardwoods, such as the common bur-flower (Nauclea cadamba), antipolo (Artocarpus blancoi), sacking tree (Ficus nota), and species of alibangbang (Bauhinia malabarica). The larger plants indigenous to the site, rarely seen in some other regions, are the kalantas tree (Toona calantas), tindalo (Afzelia rhomboidea), almaciga (Agathis philippinensis) and kamagong (Diospyros blancoi). The park also harbors the endangered jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys) and Mindoro pine (Pinus merkusii). The park is the habitat of the endemic tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), one of the world’s most seriously endangered large mammals. Because of this, the park was initially established as “game refuge and bird sanctuary” and has been declared as an ASEAN Heritage site. Other forms of wildlife include the Philippine deer, wild pig, Mindoro cloud rat and bats as well as a number of bird species which are endemic to the island such as pigeons, doves, owls, hornbills, coucals, and flowerpeckers. The black-hooded coucal (Centropus steerii) and Mindoro bleeding-heart pigeon (Gallicolumba platenae) are considered critically endangered, the Mindoro hornbill (Penelopides mindorensis) endangered and the Mindoro imperial pigeon (Ducula mindorensis), Philippine duck (Anas luzonica), and scarlet-collared flowerpecker (Dicaeum retro cinctum) vulnerable. Monitor and flying lizards are quite visible to the visitor. The park and its surroundings are home of the tribal Batangan, Hanunoo, Mangyan and Bangan who practice shifting cultivation of hill rice and hunt animals on the mountains.

Apo Reef Marine Natural Park Apo Reef, some 30 km off the west coast of Mindoro, is the second largest contiguous coral reef in the world. It comprises two triangular atolls (each containing a shallow lagoon of 2 m to 10 m depth) separated by a 30 m deep channel. The edges Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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Photo by mihtiander Source: http://www.123rf.com/photo_18344095_coral-garden-in-tropical-sea-apo-island-philippines.html

Photo by mihtiander Source: http://www.123rf.com/photo_31354990_view-from-top-of-a-hill-toapo-reef-natural-park-apo-island-philippines.html

of the atolls drop steeply with numerous mounds and patches of branching corals under the deep blue water. Diverse corals form some 34 sq km of reef sustaining different species of invertebrates, fish and marine mammals. Apo is the largest of three islands surrounded by mangrove forest serving as a source of food, nursery and spawning ground of coastal and marine species and a sanctuary for birds. Of the other islands, Binangaan is rocky limestone island with relatively little vegetation and Cayos del Bajo is a coralline rock formation devoid of vegetation. The reef’s underwater terrain of coral, caves and drop offs is home to manta rays, sharks, schools of jacks and snappers and hundreds more marine species. Over 450 species of coral have been identified in the area and nearly 380 species of fish. Apo Island also serves as a nesting ground for many species of migratory and breeding birds and endemic species such as the endangered Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica), pied imperial pigeon (Ducula bicolor) and black-naped oriole (Oriolus chinensis). Sandy beaches are nesting areas for green and hawksbill turtles (Chelonia mydas and Eretmochelys imbricata), and the clear, tranquil waters surrounding Cayos del Bajo nurture the endangered giant clam (Tridacna gigas). Though afforded protection by DENR, the use of dynamite, cyanide, and overfishing continue to threaten the fragile island system. Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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Source: http://www.cityofdumaguete.com/mt-kanlaon-canlaon-tourist-spots.html

Mount Kanlaon Natural Park Undoubtedly, the most prominent feature of the park is the active cone of Kanlaon volcano and its summit-crater that, rising at an elevation of 2,435 m, is the highest point in the Central Philippines. Remaining forest includes lowland evergreen forest, montane and mossy forest. Dipterocarps consisting of tanguile (Shorea polysperma) and white lauan (Shorea contorta) and bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan) species have been largely removed from lowland areas following extensive logging though a three-canopy layer may be discerned in places. Pandanus plants, rattan, bamboo, vines and orchids grow beneath the forest trees of the montane level (including the massive malakanayan (Podocarpus rumphii) and the brilliant pink flowers of the rare epiphyte kappa-kapa (Medinilla magnifica) with its large leaves hanging from the trees. Dwarf trees such as the corkwood or bakawan gubat (Carallia brachiata) and bayanti (Homalanthus sp.) are draped in mosses, lichens and staghorn and ribbon ferns, pitcher plants and orchids crowd in the single story layer closest to the summit. Considered to be one of the few remaining wilderness areas in the country, Mount Kanlaon still harbors a good number of endemic flora and fauna, some of which have been declared as either threatened or endangered species. The only Natural Park to

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be represented in the Greater Negros—Panay faunal region, Mount Kanlaon forms part of the Western Visayas Biogeographic Zone (WVBZ)—an area representing 9 percent of the total area of the 15 Biogeographic Zones of the Philippines. Floral endemism is relatively high with 80 endemic species found in the lowland areas, 55 in the montane forest and 15 in the mossy forest. Some 22 families of bird species have been identified within the Park, including: the blue-crowned racquet-tailed parrot (Prioniturus discurus); Visayan tarictic hornbill (Penelopides panini); flame-templed babbler (Stachyris speciosa); whitewinged cuckoo-shrike (Coracina ostenta); white-throated jungle flycatcher (Phinomylae aligularis); the Negros bleeding heart pigeon (Gallicolumba keayi); and, the Negros fruit dove (Ptilinopus arcanus), both of latter have being listed as critically endangered, if not feared to have already become extinct. Some 18 species of amphibians and reptiles have been observed and 81 species of butterflies (32 genera) frequent forest interiors, grassland and cultivated areas. Six species of fruit bats and 4 species of large mammals are mostly found in lowland and montane forests of the Park. A recent survey recorded a relatively modest level of species endemism in lowland habitats (40 percent) compared to both the montane and mossy forest habitats (66 percent). The Visayan warty pig (Sus cebifons) found in the montane forest is critically endangered as is the Philippine spotted deer (Rusa alfredi) found in the mossy forest habitat. The Malay civet (Viverra tangalunga) and leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) are also highly endangered which, along with other mammals, continue to be a food source for local hunters.

Turtle Islands Marine National Park The Turtle Islands are located at the southwestern tip of the Philippines, about 1,000 km southwest of Manila and 74 km off the north coast of Borneo. They were proclaimed a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1999 and identified as “extremely important” for biodiversity conservation. The islands (especially Baguan) are regarded as the only major nesting ground of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) in the whole ASEAN Region and one of only 10 remaining nesting sites worldwide. From the end of August to December, turtles come by the hundreds from the surrounding coastal waters to lay their eggs in the sand. The Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) also occur but with a low density nesting. Around Great Bakungan Island, the Southeast Asian Box Turtle (Cuora amboinensis), which was never seen on other islands, has been observed visiting its shores.

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Source: WWF-Philippines

The presence of monitor lizards (along with the ghost crab, and gulls—a natural predator of turtle eggs and hatchlings) and sea and terrestrial snakes has also been recorded on the islands, along with 12 species of birds and various mammals, such as rats and fruit and insectivorous bats. Ten plant families have been identified.

Pawikan Conservation Project In 1979, the Task Force Pawikan, now referred to as the Pawikan Conservation Project (PCP), became the Philippine government’s urgent response to conserving and managing the dwindling marine turtle resources of the country. The project is nationwide with pilot sites in the Turtle Island Group in Tawi-Tawi and El Nido (Bacuit Bay in Northwestern Palawan). The Philippines Turtle Islands (also known as the Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary and the Sabah Turtle Islands) have been declared as the Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area (TIHPA). It is the first transfrontier protected area for marine turtles in world and is composed of 6 islands administered by the Philippines and 3 islands administered by Sabah. Now a major nesting habitat for green sea turtles in Southeast Asia, hawksbill turtles also nest in the area.

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From 1984 to 2007, the PCP recorded egg production and number of complete nestlings at the Baguan Island Marine Turtle Sanctuary. Fluctuations in egg production and number of complete nests of mostly green sea turtles have been noted due to changes in weather patterns brought about by the El Niño or La Niña phenomenon, predation by monitor lizards (Varanus sp) and large-scale illegal harvest of eggs and collection for ornamental trade. A proposal to a phase-out the collection of turtle eggs and phase-in alternative livelihood projects in the sanctuary (under a Memorandum of Agreement among stakeholders) has been finalized and is pending approval. For a successful conservation and protection program, the support of the locals has been critical. Fishing, for most of them is a very important activity and source of income and hunting sea turtles and collecting the turtle eggs for food a possible source for additional income. With diligence, the staff of the Pawikan Conservation Project have been able to convince locals of the need to minimize their collecting activities. Source: Pawikan Conservation Project, Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,.

Mount Apo Natural Park Mount Apo Natural Park is dominated by the Philippines’ highest mountain, the majestic Mount Apo rising to 3,143 m above sea level. It is a dormant volcano, whose slopes are littered with sulphur vents from which steamy and often gaseous vapors escape. It also possesses a number of hot springs, some forming lakes. Several distinct forest formations may be distinguished: lowland rainforest of largely dipterocarp trees up to 1,000 m; montane forest of taller trees up to 1,500 m; mossy forest of gnarled trees up to 2,700 m with a canopy of only 5–10 m and thickly draped in layers of moss, ferns, orchids and other epiphytes; and the uppermost 500 m of scrub forest and rocky grassland. The park serves as a major watershed for the city of Davao and adjoining provinces and municipalities. The vegetation of Mount Apo has been considerably disturbed by logging and agricultural activities, the latter supporting bananas, coconut and hemp. Remnants of the original dipterocarp forest (Shorea spp., Parashorea spp., and Dipterocarpus spp.) assume a canopy of 50 m or more in height. The closed canopy of the montane forest ranges from 10–20 m high with emergent trees of up to 40 m. The dominant tree genera include Shorea, Quercus, Cinnamomum, Tristania, Eugenia, Astrocalyx and Ficus—the strangling fig or balete. Tree ferns (Cyathea and Saurauia) are found Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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Photo courtesy of Mary Grace Agapito

around forest edges along with some palm trees. The conifer, almaciga (Agathis dammara), much prized for its wood and resin, exists only in scattered remnants. In the mossy forest, the dominant tree species include Syzgium, Dacrycarpus, Agathis and the oaks Podocarpus and Lithocarpus. Dawsonia longifolia, the world’s tallest moss, growing up to 25 cm, is found on the eastern slope of Mount Talomo, the volcanic edifice of Mount Apo. The peak consists of massive boulders interspersed with small bushes of Vaccinium, Rhododendron and Ilex and low grasses and sedges on flattened areas. Mount Apo is considered to be one of the richest botanical mountains in the region hosting hundreds of rare, endemic and threatened species of flora. It includes 629 species in 148 families of vascular and nonvascular plants, 42 of which are endemic and 18 species considered at risk, including the Sander’s euanthe or waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana) which is recognized as the “Queen of Philippine Orchids” and may have originated from the highlands of Mount Apo. Endemics identified at each forest formation, between 300 m to 1000 m include members of the genera Pipturus, Sauravia and Poikilospermum. Mouse deer’s poplar (Homalanthus populneus), false elephants foot (Elephantopus spicatus), and Piper appanum are possibly extinct in the wild. Endemics at mild altitudes include the endangered Lithocarpus submonticolus and Peperomia elmeri. In the upper montane forest, the endemic species are Cypholopus microphyllum and pitcher plant (Nepenthes copelandii). Thirty-seven 216

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species are highly valued, such as the endangered dipterocarps Vatica mangachapoi and lauan (Shorea palita). Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis) grows to 60 m (making it the country’s biggest tree) and is becoming rare because of its valuable timber and resin. The rattan species Plectrocoma elmiri continues to suffer over collection.

▲ Pitcher plant (Nepenthes copelandii) and Sander’s euanthe or waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana) Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File%3ANepenthes_copelandii1.jpg Photo by Steward McPherson S o u r c e : h t t p s : / / e n . w i k i p e d i a . o r g / w i k i / Wa l i n g - w a l i n g # / media/File:Euanthe_sanderiana.jpg Photo by Dalton Holland Baptista

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A total of 227 vertebrate species belonging to 69 families of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals have been identified in the park and 118 species of butterflies belonging to 69 families are recorded. Of the 272 species of birds, 111 (40 percent) are endemic; two bird species are on the critical list: the Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) and the red-vented cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia). Mammalian species include shrews and gymnures, bats (such as the golden-crowned flying fox [Acerodon jubatus])—the world’s largest—rats, squirrels, civet cats, and deers. The Philippine sambar deer (Cervus mariannus), is the most threatened mammal in the region. Notable reptiles include the burrowing skinks, the rare Cuming’s eared skink (Otosaurus cumingi), and important amphibians: the Hasselt’s toad (Leptobrachium hasseltii), horned forest frog (Megophrys monticola), Mueller’s toad (Ansonia muelleri), dwarf toad (Pelophryne brevipes), narrowmouthed frog (Oreophryne annulatus) and Philippine woodland frog (Rana magna). The last species is collected for food and is considered endangered. Six different indigenous peoples have long made their home on Mount Apo’s lower slopes—the Manobo, Bagobo, Ubo, Ata, K’lagan, and the Tagakaolo. The Manobos and Bagobos are farming communities but still hunt in the forest along with the nomadic Aetas. There continues to be a significant influx of lowlanders along the logging roads and much of the lowland forest has been severely damaged or lost. The entry of the Philippine National Oil Company-Energy Development Corporation geothermal project into the buffer zone of the park and the resultant conflict, confusion and distress to the local people has been subject to an inquiry by the Committee on Ecology.

Mount Kitanglad Natural Park Mount Kitanglad Natural Park includes an extensive mountain range with about a dozen peaks, including Mount Kitanglad itself. While the park contains large areas of montane and mossy forest—one of the most complete forest ecosystems in the Philippines—there is little forest below 1,400 m. Evergreen lowland forest of many dipterocarp trees is replaced at 1,400 m by montane forest and mossy forest at 1,800–2,000 m. Dominant tree species include tanguile (Shorea polysperma) and nato (Palaquium luzonensis) as well as lichens, mosses, ferns and orchids. The area is rich in gymnosperms and tree ferns, and more than 300 species of flora are used by the indigenous people in the montane forest for herbal medicine, including ali (Drimys piperita), the pitcher plant (Nepenthes truncata), and the Philippine Orchid 218

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Photo by Caloy Libosada

(Medinilla magnifica). Hybrids in the Medinilla family are well known and popular with plant collectors. The Kitanglad area is regarded as one of the richest in the Philippines with at least 30 endemics present. Many of the threatened and restricted-range bird species of the Mindanao and Eastern Visayas area are supported in Mount Kitanglad, including the Mindanao lorikeet (Trichoglossus johnstoniae), Mindanao racquettail (Prioniturus waterstradti), Mindanao scops-owl (Otus mirus), slaty-backed jungle-flycatcher (Rhinomyias goodfellowi), red-eared parrotfinch (Erythrura coloria) and Apo myna (Basilornis mirandus). It is one of only three sites where the poorly known Whitehead’s swiftlet (Aerodramus whiteheadi) has been observed. Many lowland forest species were recorded in the Mount Kitanglad range in the past, but the lowland forests around the base of the mountains have now been almost entirely cleared. The paucity of recent records of several bird species suggests that they have declined substantially or already become locally extinct, including the spotted imperial-pigeon (Ducula carola), silvery kingfisher (Alcedo argentata), wattled broadbill (Eurylaimus steerii) and Philippine leafbird (Chloropsis flavipennis). Some mid-altitude forest birds appear to survive on Kitanglad in significant numbers, notably the Mindanao brown-dove (Phapitreron brunneiceps) and giant scops owl (Otus gurneyi), but they must be vulnerable to any further habitat loss. The park is home to a small number of Philippine eagles (Pithecophaga jefferyi). Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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The known mammal fauna consists of 58 species, including two new species of small non-volant mammals, a shrew-mouse (Crunomys suncoides) and a mossmouse (Tarsonemus sp.), discovered in the park in 1993. Other important mammals include Philippine brown deer (Cervus mariannus), bearded pig (Sus barbatus), Mindanao gymnure (Podogymnura truei), long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), Mindanao tree shrew (Urogale everetti), Philippine lemur (Cynocephalus volans), Philippine pygmy squirrel or (Exilisciurus concinnus), Mindanao flying squirrel (Petinomys crinitus), and rare bats such as the endemic Mindanao pygmy fruit bat (Alionycteris paucidentata), known only from Mount Kitanglad. The park is a critical source of water for the adjacent portions of the provinces of Bukidnon and Misamis Oriental, and is the source of numerous rivers. It is also the home of several tribal Bukidnon peoples who have been pushed from the lowlands ever higher into the mountains as urban communities expand into their ancestral lands. The human activities most severely impacting the protected area are high value crop plantations, kaingin, small-scale logging, and establishment of infrastructure for telecommunications and military camps. There are lower intensity impacts from the gathering of non-timber forest products, tourism, hunting, fishing, and grazing. Overhunting and commercial collecting of wildlife are widespread. Vast agricultural plantations have been established, such as the Dole pineapple plantation, and have displaced local people and destroyed secondary forest. Fires started to burn areas of forest have often gone out of control.

Siargao Island Protected Landscape and Seascape Siargao Island, situated off the coast of northeastern Mindanao, is a landscape and seascape of staggering beauty. It is strongly influenced by the winds and currents coming directly from the Pacific Ocean, intensified by the Mindanao current running westward through the Siargao Strait. Some few hundred kilometers to its east is the Philippine Deep. Consequently, the east coasts of the island are characterized by sandy beaches and rocky shorelines with fringing reefs in less exposed areas. The west coast is shallow and calm and possesses the largest tall-stilt mangrove (Rhizophora apiculata) stand in Mindanao. Inland on the major islands (Siargao and Bucas Grande) is a mix of plains and low rolling hills of coralline limestone, volcanic rock and alluvial soils. Ten endemic species of flowering plants have been recorded, including the ironwood

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Photo by Simon Gurney Source: http://www.123rf.com/photo_16517960_white-sand-beach-ringed-bypalm-trees-cloud-nine-surf-break-siargao-island-in-the-philippines.html

tree (Xanthostemon verdugonianus) rare in the rest of the Philippines but rich on Bucas Grande Island. Eleven species of mammals inhabit the islands, including the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta), flying lemur (Cynocephalus volans), and flying foxes (Pteropus spp.), Malay civet, nine species of reptiles and three species of amphibians. There are some 84 bird species, including the endangered Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia) and 105 species of butterflies. Offshore, classic tropical islands lie protected within their surrounding coral reefs (of lace coral and pink lace coral) coconut palms often in the center. Saltwater crocodiles, hawksbill and green turtles and various crabs, prawns and shrimp and clams live along the coasts in a maze of tidal rivers and mangroves. Over 106 species of fish have been recorded from a single reef and marine and wetland areas support 137 species of mollusks and 378 species of corals. There are thick beds of seaweeds (59 species and nearly 40 percent of those known in the Philippines) and seagrasses (8 species). The manatee lives in the seagrass but is now greatly reduced in number from destruction of its habitat, consumption, trade and accidental trapping in fishing gear.

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Photo by Maria Katrina C. Constantino

Agusan Marsh Agusan Marsh is the largest expanse of swamp forest and one of the most ecolo­ gically significant wetlands in the Philippines. It is a vast complex of freshwater marshes and watercourses with numerous small shallow lakes and ponds in the upper basin of the Agusan River and its tributaries. The river and tributaries originate in the hills of eastern Mindanao and cause extensive flooding in the marsh from November to March. The site contains nearly 15 percent of the nation’s freshwater resources and acts as storage for rainwater and as flood control in protecting neighboring communities from inundation during the wet season. Some parts of the marsh are used for traditional fishponds and rice paddies. Agusan Marsh was given Ramsar site status in 1999 reflecting its international importance. Its main habitats include freshwater swamp forest (49 percent), secondary scrub (14 percent), herbaceous swamp (7 percent), lakes, ponds and rivers (10 percent), rice paddies and other agricultural land (6 percent), and small settlements (6 percent). The forest includes a number of rare plants, most notably the sago palm (Cycas revoluta). 222

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A semi-permanent lake is at the very heart of the marsh where many square kilometers of lily pads, hyacinths and other hydrophytic plants spread out like an enormous green quilt. In the tannin-colored waters live an abundance of catfish, carp, and soft-shell freshwater turtles. The sanctuary is home to the saltwater or estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and seven species of snakes, including the reticulated python (Python reticulatus). The marsh is a valuable habitat for water birds such as species of wild ducks— especially the whistling duck (Dendrocygninae—herons and egrets. It is also the refuge of the rare oriental darter (Anhinga melanogaster), purple heron (Ardea purpurea), purple swamp hen (Porphyrio  porphyrio), the threatened Philippine hawk eagle (Nisaetus philippensis), spotted imperial pigeon (Ducula carola) and rufous-lored kingfisher (Todiramphus winchelli). Vast numbers of ducks invade Agusan Marsh to nest during the rainy season when the water rises to create large lakes. In the dry months of winter, thousands of birds arrive from as far away as Japan, China and Russia to escape the chilly climate of Northern Asia. Over 200 species have been known to spend at least part of the year in the marsh, making it one of Asia’s most important transit points for wild birds. The eastern sarus crane (Grus antigone), now extinct in the Philippines, was last recorded in the marsh in 1965. Mammalian species reported include pteropodid bats, squirrels, viverrids, wild pigs, rats and macaques. More than 65 different species of butterflies have been collected The tiny communities of mostly ethnic Manobos have made their permanent homes deep within the marsh, living on floating homes. The small houses made of bamboo and nipa lashed to large logs, freely rise or fall with the fluctuating levels of the marsh.

Subic-Bataan Natural Park In 1992, the Subic Bay Forest Watershed Reserve and the Bataan National Park became the Subic-Bataan Natural Park embracing forests that extend from Subic Bay up the north-western slope of Mount Natib in Bataan National Park, the highest point at 1,253 m. These are one of the few remaining vestiges of virgin forest in the Zambales biogeographic zone, and some of the few surviving forests of Luzon facing the South China Sea. The lowlands around the park are now predominantly agricultural land, human settlements, and lower slopes of the mountains that are covered by grasslands, croplands, and secondary growth. Forest types include the lowland tropical evergreen (dipterocarp) rainforest situated at 100–900 m and the Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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P h o t o b y R a m o n F . Ve l a s q u e z Source: https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Park_Narodowy_Bataan

upper montane tropical rainforest at 900–1250 m (much of this was damaged by the Mount Pinatubo eruption in 1992). The lowland rainforest harbors over 450 plant species some of which are greatly endangered. Dipterocarps of particular importance include palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera), apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus), tanguile (Shorea polysperma), white lauan (Shorea contorta), and yakal (Shorea laevis). Endemic species include Rhododendron guadrasianum var. marivelesense and R. kochii and members of the family Ericaceae: Vaccinium microphyllum var. whitfordii, V. tenuipes, V. cumingianum var. marivelesense, V. vumingianum var. irogotum, V. alvarezii var. alvarezii, V. jarori, V. benguetense and V. caudatum Several of the threatened and restricted-range birds of the Luzon Endemic Bird Area have recently been recorded, most notably the green racquet-tail (Prioniturus luconensis). In the lush forests are found the stork-billed kingfisher (Pelargopsis capensis), lesser tree swift (Hemiprocne comata), dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis), sooty woodpecker (Mulleripicus funebris), blue-throated bee-eater (Merops viridis) and Luzon hornbill (Penelopides manillae). During the winter months Subic 224

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Source: http://www.panoramio.com/photo/8303905 Photo by js. park

Bay teems with waterfowl, including the endemic Philippine mallard (Anas luzonica) and migrants such as the northern shoveler (Anas clypeata). The Luzon bleeding-heart pigeon (Gallicolumba luzonica), rufous hornbill (Buceros hydrocorax), red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) and cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) are common and circling over the forest are white-tailed sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), Philippine serpent eagles (Spilornis holospilus) and brahminy kites (Haliastur indus). The northern Luzon giant cloud rat (Phloeomys pallidus), Philippine brown deer (Cervus mariannus), Philippine warty pig (Sus philippensis), wild boar, civet cats are known to occur in the area. Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) are ubiquitous and bats readily visible as mixtures of the Philippine giant fruit bat (Pteropus vampyrus lanensis), and golden-crowned flying fox (Acerodon jubatus), two of the world’s largest bats with wingspans of up to 2 m. The area also houses one of the smallest bats, the lesser bamboo bat (Tylonycteris pachypus) only about 4 cm long with a wingspan of 15 cm and around 1.5 g. Hawksbill, green and olive Ridley turtles nest on the shores while blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus) patrol the inshore waters. The Subic-Bataan area is home to over 100 families of Negritos (Aeta) now engaged in farming. The migration of settlers into the unguarded forestland is leading to conversion of forests into agricultural land and kaingin. The forests and Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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Source: http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/ story/274735/newstv/weekendgetaway/ naga-city-where-bicol-s-heart-is

their wildlife are also being degraded by firewood gathering, charcoal making, illegal logging, illegal grazing, hunting and gathering, and natural threats like typhoons, fires and volcanic eruptions. The further development of a new road constructed eastward from Morong could lead to the destruction of the closed canopy forest extending from the shoreline up to the peak of Mount Natib. Earth-moving work has caused substantial erosion, silting the rivers and rice lands below. The road is reported to be used to haul logs to the sea at night via Mabayo Point.

Mount Isarog National Park Located in the far south of Luzon, exposed to the Pacific Ocean and battered regularly by typhoons, Mount Isarog rises steeply from low-lying farmland and cloaked at higher altitudes by montane and mossy forests with pandans, rattans, orchids and vines. It is one of the few places in southern Luzon bearing the country’s original biodiversity. The park is drained by 18 rivers and nine creeks with spectacular waterfalls, natural pools and numerous gorges and canyons. The park supports 45 species of mammals (48 percent of the mammals native to Luzon), mostly bats and rodents. Other wildlife includes Philippine warty pigs, Philippine deer, long-tailed macaques and snakes and lizards. Mount Isarog supports the only known population of the Isarog shrew-mouse (Archboldomys luzonensis), Isarog striped shrew-rat (Chrotomys gonzalesi), and Isarog shrew-rat (Rhynchomys isarogensis), as well as many other threatened Luzon endemics, including the Southern Luzon giant cloud rat (Phloeomys cumingi). Some 45 percent of all bird species resident on Luzon, including the green and montane racket-tail parrots 226

The Philippines: A Natural History

Source: http://www.tripadvisor.com.ph/Attraction_Review-g1392978d1637115-Reviews-Mount_Malindang_Natural_Park-Ozamiz_City_ Misamis_Oriental_Province_Mindanao.html

(Prioniturus luconensis and P. montanus) and cream-bellied and flame-breasted fruit doves (Ptilinopus merrilli and Ptilinopus marchei) are found in the park. Of the 135 species of bird identified in 1961, a subsequent study in 1988 showed that 27 of these (all lowland types) had been exterminated due to deforestation. An estimated 5,000 people live within the park, including a significant number of Aeta. Encroachment upon the park continues along with some illegal logging. However, local conservation efforts appear to have held some 60 percent of forest cover intact.

Mount Malindang National Park Mount Malindang (2,404 m) is the highest mountain on the Zamboanga Peninsula in western Mindanao and is major source of water for the adjoining provinces. Other mountains in the park include Dapitan Peak and Mount Bliss, and there are several waterfalls and a mountain lake (Dinagat) at 1,500 m. Some 7 percent of the forest area has been converted to permanent farmland or abandoned farmland. Over 50 percent of the remaining forest can be classified as lower Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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montane and over 30 percent as upper montane and mossy forest. Less than 2 percent of lowland forest is left. A variety of trees , including large, straight trunked evergreens, the endemic conifers igem (Dacrycarpus imbricatus) and almaciga (Agathis philippinensis) grow in the lower parts of the park’s forests while dwarf and crooked stem trees crowd the mossy forest found in the upper parts. Some 20 rare species of plants, including begonia and three species of orchid are found only in the forest. The park harbors a rich and unique biodiversity and is home to some of the endemic and endangered species in the Philippines such as the Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), rufous hornbill (Buceros hydrocorax), Luzon bleeding-heart pigeon (Gallicolumba luzonica) and red-vented cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta), and flying lemur (Cynocephalus volans). Other significant species found there include such mammals as the Philippine deer, wild pig, long-tailed macaque, palm civet, and civet cat. In all, 25 mammal species endemic to Mindanao occur in the park and a threatened species of small mammal, the greater Mindanao shrew (Crocidura grandis), is known only from Mount Malindang. The park is known to be home of 6 amphibians and 3 reptiles. Some 67 endemic birds include montane forest specialists such as the Mindanao racquet-tail (Prioniturus waterstradti), olive-capped flowerpecker (Dicaeum nigrilore), black-masked white-eye (Lophozosterops goodfellowi), white-cheeked bullfinch (Pyrrhula leucogenis), and the threatened blue-capped kingfisher (Actenoides hombroni). Clearance of lowland forest from the lower slopes of Mount Malindang, has put pressure on populations of the lowland and mid-altitude forest specialists recorded there in the past, such as Mindanao bleeding-heart pigeon (Gallicolumba crinigera), Minda­­nao brown-dove (Phapitreron brunneiceps) and spotted imperial-pigeon (Ducula carola). The Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) has been recorded several times on Mount Malindang. ◄ Rufous hornbill Photo by seanjoh Source: http://www.123rf.com/photo_39226464_a-captive-rufous-hornbill-buseros-hydrocorax-also-known-as-philippine-hornbill-or-kalaw.html

Source: http://miraclecello.livejournal.com/153987.html

Sibuyan Island and Mount Guiting-Guiting Natural Park This park, situated on the remote island of Sibuyan north of the Visayas, is regarded one of the most intact natural environments in the Philippines. The island is dominated by Mount Guiting-Guiting rising from the coastal plain to 2,050 m. Below 650 m lowland rainforest dominates with giant dipterocarp trees. Montane forest with tall and straight trees covered in vines and pandanus, rattans and ferns characterizes the 650–1,350 m elevation; above and up to 1,550 m is mossy forest of stunted trees draped with the usual moss, ferns and orchids. The summit is rugged terrain of bare rock, heathland and grass. Secondary forest on the coastal plain merges with extensive mangroves eventually blending with seagrass and beds of seaweed. Coral invades deeper waters building reefs encircling much of Sibuyan Island and beach forest prospers in quiet lagoons. Sibuyan Island is remarkable for its endemic flora and fauna, a result of the island’s relative isolation since the middle to late Pleistocene. There are an estimated 700 vascular plant species, including 54 species unique to the island. Five species of mammals (all threatened—one fruit bat and four rodents) are endemic to Sibuyan, and the critically endangered Philippine tube-nosed fruit Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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Photo by Benedict Kwok Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Ph_mtpulag.jpg

bat (Nyctimene rabori) in the dry forest. Commoner mammals include the Malay civet (Viverra tangalunga) and crab-eating or long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis). Bird life comprises 131 species of which 102 are reckoned to breed. Birds of note include the rufous night-heron (Nycticorax caledonicus), Brahminy kite (Haliastur indus), wandering whistling duck (Dendrocygna arcuata), bluenaped parrot (Tanygnathus lucionensis) and black-naped oriole (Oriolus chinensis). The Philippine duck (Anas luzonica), spotted imperial pigeon (Ducula carola), rufous-lored kingfisher (Todiramphus winchelli) and celestial monarch (Hypothymis coelestis) as regarded as vulnerable species. Green and hawksbill turtles nest along the shores and olive Ridley, leatherback and loggerhead turtles can be seen occasionally. Dugongs are present in coastal waters.

Mount Pulag National Park Mount Pulag National Park is in the southern part of the Cordillera Central mountain range of Northern Luzon. It is 2,930 m at its highest point and situated 230

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along a ridge running from north to south with steep terrain and deep ravines and gorges. Because of its high elevation, the climate on Mount Pulag is temperate with rains predominating the whole year. The park includes one of the largest remaining areas of pine forest, lower montane forest at lower elevations and mossy forest at 1,500–2,600 m. Mossy forest is the most widespread habitat, and contains mainly oaks, laurels, rhododendrons and tree ferns, indicating an acid soil. There is a small area of montane grassland at the summit. The area is an extremely important watershed supplying water for domestic, industrial, irrigation and hydroelectric needs for the whole region, including Central Luzon. The park contains unique vegetation types around the summit, where a dwarf bamboo (Arunolinaria niitakayamensis), bilaw (Miscanthus sinensis) and various grasses swept by fierce winds are the dominant species. Species of Ranunculus, Gentiana, and Hypericum suggest a sub-alpine habitat. There are estimated to be 800 vascular plant species inhabiting the park, including many local endemics, and the flora has affinities with those of temperate continental Asia and Australasia. Benguet pine (Pinus insularis) was logged until the early 1970s and is now almost all secondary growth. Mount Pulag National Park supports populations of many of the threatened and restricted-range birds, including almost all of the montane specialists, notably the threatened flame-breasted fruit-dove (Ptilinopus marchei), whiskered pitta (Erythropitta kochi), Luzon water redstart (Rhyacornis bicolor), and white-browed jungle-flycatcher (Rhinomyias insignis). The bat and rodent fauna is very diverse, including several endemic species of flying foxes (e.g., golden-crowned flying fox [Acerodon jubatus]), which has declined substantially in recent years. It is an important stronghold for larger mammals such as Luzon bushy-tailed cloud rat (Crateromys schadenbergi), northern Luzon giant cloud rat (Phloeomys pallidus), Philippine warty pig (Sus philippensis), and Philippine brown deer (Cervus mariannus). Two globally threatened swallowtail butterflies (Papilio benguetanus and P. chikae), both of which are confined to the Cordillera mountain ranges, have been recorded in the area. The National Park is inhabited by different tribes such as the Ibalois, Kalanguya, Kankanaeys, Karao, Ifugaos, and the Ilocanos, all considering the mountain to be a sacred place. The Ibaloi people house their mummified dead in caverns in the mountain and the Kabayan mummy burial cave is considered as a Philippine national cultural treasure. Chapter 10. Protected Areas

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The main threat to the park is the conversion of forestland to vegetable farms. In the early 1990s, the clearing of mossy forest to establish new cultivated areas occurred at an alarming rate inside the park and natural and man-made fires continue. Bird trapping (locally known as “ikik”) is widespread in this region during the months of September to February when migratory birds attracted by bonfires are caught as they fly into huge nets held fast by bamboo poles.

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Chapter 11

Preshistory and Early Years

T

HOUGH KNOWLEDGE OF THE PHILIPPINES’ PREHISTORY IS STILL buried underground, it is likely that humans first appeared on the archipelago during the Upper Pleistocene some 67,000 years ago. The earliest fossil remains have been discovered in Callao Cave, Cagayan, northern Luzon, consisting of a metatarsal, predating those of the 47,000 year-old remains of Tabon Man found on Palawan. They also become one of the oldest in the Asia-Pacific region. Systematic use of Stone Age technologies in the Philippines is estimated to have occurred around 50,000 BCE and is considered to have ceased with the rise of metal tools at about 500 BCE. Around 30,000 BCE, the Negritos (ancestors of today’s Aeta) or Aboriginal Filipinos, descended from Central Asia and passed through the Indian Subcontinent before reaching the Andaman Islands. Some settled in Malaysia to evolve into what is now the Orang Asli people; others made their way through Borneo to the Philippines. Fragments of a skull and jawbone of Tabon Man have been discovered in a cave (Tabon Cave) on the West Coast of Palawan. The cave appears to be a Stone Age factory yielding finished stone flake tools and waste core flakes. The remains belong to Homo sapiens and are considered Pre-Mongoloid. Mongoloid stock entered Southeast Asia during the Holocene, absorbing earlier peoples to produce the modern Malay, Indonesian, Filipino, and “Pacific” peoples. Over time, hunter-gathering gave way to domestication of plants and animals and improved methods for water management and cultivation of coastal and marine resources. Stone tools became more efficient and storage of surplus food encouraged the development of baskets and other goods manufactured from durable materials. Gradually, social organization was forged and the beginnings of customary law emerged along with accompanying rituals. The shift to agriculture was paralleled with the development of pottery, including burial jars. There is also evidence of thread-making and weaving. 233

Migration Theories Whether the first humans arrived in the Philippines from the south (Malaysia and Indonesia as suggested by Beyer) or from the north (via Taiwan as suggested by the Austronesian theory), is subject to much debate. According to Beyer, the ancestors of the Filipinos came to the islands first via land bridges during times when the sea level was low, and then later in seagoing vessels. Thus, he distinguished “waves of migration,” as follows: “Dawn Man,” a cave-man type who was similar to Java Man, Peking Man, and other Asian Homo erectus of 250,000 years ago; The Negritos, who arrived between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago before glacial melt severed the archipelago from the rest of Asia; The seafaring tool-using Indonesian groups who arrived about 5,000 to 6,000 years ago pushing the Negritos inland; and, The seafaring Malays who brought the Iron Age culture and who proved the real colonizers forcing the Indonesian groups inland and occupying coastal and lowland areas to become the dominant cultural group prior to colonization by the Spanish. Beyer’s theory, while still popular among lay Filipinos, has been disputed by anthropologists and historians. In 1976, Fritjof Voss questioned the first wave theory that the first migrators walked along the land bridges maintaining that the Philippines was never part of mainland Asia and that it arose from the bottom of the sea and, as the thin Pacific crust moved below it, continued to rise as it does to this day. In challenging Beyer, William Henry Scott held that geologists question the existence of land bridges; archaeologists cannot fit lithic finds into his “waves” and prehistorians are persuaded of the antiquity of trade contacts in Southeast Asia. Peter Bellwood’s Out-of-Taiwan hypothesis suggests that between 4500 BCE and 4000 BCE, developments in agriculture generated pressures driving people in continental Asia to migrate to Taiwan having already attained or begun to develop a unique language of their own (now referred to as Proto-Austronesian). About 3000 BCE, these people started differentiating into three or four distinct subcultures and, by 2500 to 1500 BCE, a group began migrating southwards towards the Philippines and Indonesia, reaching as far as Borneo and the Moluccas by 1500 BCE and forming new cultural groupings and developing unique languages. Wilhelm Solheim’s concept of maritime trading proposes that the patterns of cultural diffusion throughout the Asia-Pacific region are not to be explained by simple migration. Where Bellwood relies primarily on linguistic analysis, Solheim’s approach is based on artifact findings, suggesting the existence of a trade and communication network that first spread in the Asia-Pacific region during its Neolithic age

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(c.8,000 to 500 BCE). Accordingly, this network, of both Austronesian and non-Austronesian seafaring peoples, was responsible for the spread of cultural patterns throughout the Asia-Pacific region and not the simple migration proposed by the Out-of-Taiwan hypothesis. Another alternative model is by anthropologist F. Landa Jocano, who in 2001 contended that the existing fossil evidence of ancient humans demonstrates that they migrated to the Philippines and to New Guinea, Borneo and Australia. The only certain thing, he maintains, is that the discovery of Tabon Man proves that the Philippines was inhabited as early as 47,000 years ago. Thus, the first inhabitants of the Philippines would not have come from the Malay Peninsula and that the present Filipinos are products of the long process of evolution and movement of people. A Stanford University study conducted during 2001 revealed that Haplogroup O3-M122 is the most common Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup found among Filipinos and is also predominant among Chinese, Koreans, and Vietnamese. Another haplogroup (Haplogroup O1-M119) is also found among Filipinos and is highest among the Taiwanese aborigines, and Chamic-speaking people. Genetic data found among a sampling of Filipinos may indicate some relation to the Ami Tribe of Taiwan. A 2008 genetic study by the University of Leeds, UK, showed no evidence of a large-scale Taiwanese migration into the Philippine Islands. Lineages have been evolving within the islands of Southeast Asia since modern humans arrived approximately 50,000 years ago. Population dispersals occurred at the same time as sea levels rose, which resulted in migrations from the Philippine Islands into Taiwan within the last 10,000 years. A 2002 China Medical University study indicated that some Filipinos shared chromosome material found among Asian people, such as Taiwanese aborigines, Indonesians, Thais, and Chinese. Sources: Zaide 1999; Scott 1994; Bellwood 2005; Solheim II 2006; New DNA evidence 2008; Hong et al. 2005.

The Metal Age succeeded the Stone Age, characterized by metal tools said to have first been used in the Philippines around 500 BCE. However, the introduction of metal and consequent changes appears not to have followed the typical pattern. As Robert Fox notes, “There is, for example, no real evidence of a “Bronze Age” or “Copper-Bronze Age” in the archipelago, a development which occurred in many areas of the world. The transition . . . was from stone tools to iron tools.” Chapter 11. Prehistory and Early Years

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Although copper was the earliest use of metal in the Philippines, it was for ornamentation, not tools. Bronze tools per se have been encountered in only a few sites— attributable to the lack of a local source of tin which, when combined with copper, produces bronze. This has led some anthropologists to conclude that bronze items were imported and that bronze smelting sites in Palawan were only for re-smelting and remodeling. Metal tools simplified agricultural tasks and probably helped in constructing boats, houses, and other simple structures made from materials cut from the forests. The resultant more stable way of life created opportunities for communities to expand and promote cultural development. Where they once consisted only of small bands of kinsmen living in “campsites,” larger villages evolved—usually near water to make traveling and trading easier. The consequent ease of contact meant that communities began to share similar cultural traits reflected, in the presence of similar design at sites found throughout the archipelago. This period also saw significant improvement in pottery technology and the introduction of glass beads, shell, jade, and gold ornaments. When iron was introduced finally to the Philippines around 250/200 BCE, it became the preferred material for tools and largely ended the use of stone. Beyer thinks that it was mined locally; others point to the lack of iron smelting artifacts and conclude that the iron tools were probably imported. There are few records of movements, regional settlement, ethnic relationships, and territorial control of populations in the Philippines. However, it is probable that most of the islands were settled and began to establish various communities. Ethnic groups developed numerous city-states consisting of several small political units (barangays) headed by a Datu or headman (still in use among non-Hispanic Filipino ethnic groups) and answerable to a king (Rajah). By the 4th century CE, even scattered barangays became more culturally homogeneous and Hindu-Buddhist culture and religion flourished among the noblemen. To varying degrees, many of the barangays were under the de-jure jurisprudence of one of several neighboring empires. Each barangay consisted of some 100 families, some, such as Zubu (Cebu), Butuan, Maktan (Mactan), Mandani (Mandaue), Lalan (Liloan), Irong-Irong (Iloilo), Bigan (Vigan), and Selurong (Manila), having a population of more than 2,000. In time, the mountains of central and northern Luzon became home to villagedwelling agricultural people who grew millet and later rice on terraced fields served by irrigation systems with dams and hydraulic systems. Items prized by these and other peoples included jars (and later metal, salt and tobacco) and visitors to the 236

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islands would trade these items for feathers, hornbill beaks, beeswax, bird’s nests, resin, and rattan. In the Sulu Islands and the south, coral reef islets, marshy islands, and rocky volcanic landscapes set in a tropical sea served as a meeting ground for sea traders, shell and coral producers, fishermen, pirates and slave traders. Between these extremes were fashioned various other lifestyles. Perhaps the most common centered on coastal villages situated on protected bays fronting sandy beaches and riverside settlements (Figure 44). Studies of midden or refuse heaps at many archaeological sites indicate that fish, shrimp, mollusks, aquatic plants and seaweeds were eaten extensively. Domesticated animals, such as pigs, carabaos, chickens and other fowl, were apparently reserved for religious rituals and other festivals. Nipa palms and bamboo were important construction materials for many riverside villages. Inland from the beach lay forested lowlands, the source of many plant and animal products. Paddy rice (sawah) was grown in the lower portions of the countryside, but the basic agricultural pattern throughout the Philippines was slash and burn (kaingin) farming, where forests were cleared, burned, and cropped for a year or two and then left to lie fallow. Although kaingin did not create large surpluses, unlike the costly land development procedures of the mountain cultures, it proved an adaptable system allowing mobility and movement to new sites.

Depiction of Coastal Communities in Prehistoric Times Early ancestors of Filipinos lived in small villages usually located along sheltered bays, coastal areas or the mouths of large rivers. The lowlands of most islands embraced these settlements and provided sites for commercial transactions. In the interior, people also lived along or near the headwaters of major rivers and tributaries and it is likely that their movements from the coast to the mountains were often for security. Large stands of mangrove and nipa palm along the margins of bays encouraged communities to settle on higher ground and near cultivable lands. Centers of human habitation ranged from 50 to 2,000 people. Residential preferences for the coast were driven by access to major sources of protein from the seas and rivers and ease of transportation. For example, in the Manila Bay area, communities were inhabited by farmers, fisherman, and traders who achieved a high level of social organization sufficient to establish community alliances and conduct trade with the Chinese, Indonesians, Malays, and other foreign merchants.

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▲ FIGURE 44. A depiction of coastal villages situated on protected bays fronting sandy beaches and riverside settlements in the first millennium.

Over time, the lifestyles of coastal village matured and riverside settlements penetrated the larger valleys on the major islands. Flooded valleys or coastal marshes and hilly land gave rise to differing sociocultural patterns and agro-ecosystems and the establishment of physical structures to maximize productivity. For many centuries, the numerous islands with their diverse environments from coastlines to mountain ranges, assured the further evolution of differing life styles throughout the archipelago. Rich plant life resulted in the domestication of native plants such as abaca, calamansi (calamondin), and lanzon, and of some of the yams, taros, bananas, Indian millet, bamboos, and various fruit imported from Southwest Asia. The most important vegetable is thought to have been eggplant (Solanum melongena); others were the bath sponge (Luffa acutangula), the closely-related luffa (Luffa cylindrica), winter melon (Benincasa hispida), and cowpea (Vigna sinensis). Besides palms, a limited number of fruit trees were sometimes planted 238

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near dwellings. These included species of citrus, santol (Sandoricum koetjape), mango (Mangifera indica), breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), and lanzones (Lansium domesticum). Hunting pigs, deer, birds and other wild animals was secondary to exploiting fish and other aquatic resources. Gradually, crafts and technologies using wood, gums, resins, shell, stone and minerals were imported and developed locally. These brought the Philippines within the Asian socio-cultural realm. Overtime irrigation and rice cultivation became the core of Filipino agriculture; the foundations of a people had been laid. During the 7th century to the beginning of the 15th century, numerous prosperous centers of trade emerged, including the Kingdom of Namayan which flourished alongside Manila Bay, Cebu, Iloilo, Butuan, the Kingdom of Sanfotsi situated in Pangasinan, the Kingdoms of Zabag and Wak-Wak situated in Pampanga, and Aparri. Gradually, external contacts with Asia became institutionalized and the ethno-linguistic landscape was largely established leavened by interactions with different ecological systems. Before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers in the Philippines in the 16th century, the barangays were well-organized independent villages or cosmopolitan sovereign principalities. Because most of the people relied on fishing for protein and their livelihood, the majority of barangays were coastal or riverine. As these were readily accessible to trade with foreigners, they were ideal places for economic activity to develop with other cultures and civilizations, such as those of Japan, Han Chinese, Indian people, and Arab people. In time, these coastal communities acquired more advanced cultures, with developed social structures, ruled by established royalties and nobilities. Upon the arrival of the Spanish, smaller ancient barangays were combined to form towns. Every barangay within a town was headed by the cabeza de barangay (barangay chief), who formed part of the principalía—the elite ruling class of the municipalities of the Spanish Philippines. This position was inherited from the datu, and came to be known as such during the Spanish regime. The Spanish Monarch ruled each barangay through the cabeza, who also collected taxes (called tribute) from the residents for the Spanish Crown. In more developed barangays in Visayas—which were never conquered by Spain but were subjugated as vassals by means of pacts, peace treaties, and reciprocal alliances—the datu remained the top of the social order in a sakop or haop. A different type of culture prevalent in Luzon gave a less stable and more complex social structure to the pre-colonial Tagalog barangays of Manila, Pampanga and Laguna. Chapter 11. Prehistory and Early Years

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◄ FIGURE 45. A Tagalog couple of the Maharlika nobility caste depicted in the Boxer Codex of the 16th century. Source: Scott 1994.

Enjoying a more extensive commerce than those in Visayas, having the influence of Bornean political contacts, and engaging in farming wet rice for a living, the Tagalogs were described by the Spanish as more traders than warriors. Filipinos quickly learned to adjust to colonial requirements—the Boxer Codex shows a Tagalog wearing pantalones instead of a G-string (Figure 45). However, missionaries also wished to avoid the impression that their converts were naked savages and a manuscript of the early 1600s states (Scott 1994, 21–22): The principal clothing of all the Visayans is the tattooing . . . with which a naked man appears to be dressed in a kind of handsome armor engraved with very fine work, a dress so esteemed by them they take it for their proudest attire, covering their bodies more or less than a Christ crucified, so that although for solemn occasions they have the marlotas [smock] . . . their dress at home and in the barrio is their tattoos and a bahag, as they call that cloth they wrap around their waist.

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Source: Alcina 1668

A ruling Datu had the largest house in the community—even 30 m long—and served as his dwelling, workplace, and storehouse and as a community center with a public lounging platform below or in front. Non-Datus, on the other hand, lived in cottages built of light materials ready to be moved every few years to be near shifting swiddens—as did Datu farmers living in such houses seasonally. They used little timber and employed unsquared poles called sagbat. Much of the time, and many nights, was spent in a variety of field huts and temporary shelters convenient to their labor, e.g., the ogsoran, which had a sliding roof to serve for shade, shelter or sunning (Figure 46; Scott 1994, 60).

▲ FIGURE 46. Visayan village life in the 17th century.

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Sixteenth Century Visayans The Visayans called their natural environment “banwa” meaning mountain, countryside, terrain, climate and homeland. “Banwaan” meant overgrown and “napabanwa” gone to the hills. The banwa covered every island from sea to sea, even into the sea with mangroves. Small visayan populations cut their settlements rather precariously out of the banwa but neither destroyed nor tamed it; its fast-growing vegetation was always ready to claim their fields and gardens as were crocodiles and pythons to prey on their children and livestock. The Visayan child probably first learned the names and characteristics of wildlife from comparisons with human behavior. For example, men who strutted around in blood red pudong were red-headed piyas (woodpeckers) who pecked any branch they happened to alight on. Like all peoples of the 16th century, Visayans believed in an extensive menagerie of fabulous beasts, or ordinary beasts endowed with fabulous qualities: Bukaw – an owl which was a sure sign of death if it perched on a rooftop; Kolago or kagwang – a kind of flying squirrel whose loud clear cry at dawn meant that there would be no rain that day; Miro – a civit cat which charmed roosting hens with its eyes so that the hens fell from a branch; Bangot or sikop – hawks in whose nests could be found a root or herb containing the secret of their fishing ability and could be sold to fishermen for a good price; and, Walo-walo – a snake which spent eight days on land and then eight days at sea. Source: Scott 1984, 113–16.

Today, the majority of the population is composed of ethnolinguistic groups whose languages are Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) in origin. Many of these groups converted to Christianity, and adopted foreign elements of culture and now include the Cebuano, Ilocano, Pangasinense, Kapampangan, Tagalog, Bicolano and Waray. In Mindanao, there are indigenous groups who practice Islam and ethnic groups (known as Lumad) who maintain their animistic beliefs and traditions. Other ethnic groups form a minority around the Japanese, Han Chinese, Indians, Americans, Spanish and other Europeans, and groups from other countries. A total of an estimated 171 native languages are spoken in the country. Except for English, Spanish, Hokkien (Lan-nang), Cantonese, Mandarin and Chavacano, all languages belong to the Malayo-Polynesian family. There are 13 indigenous

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▲ Image from Francisco Ignacio Alcina’s Historia de las Islas Indios de Bisayas ( 1668). Alcina’s Historia is one of the most remarkable literary products of the Spanish period. It is an ethnographic study capturing a missionary’s intimate knowledge of his parishioners and their culture which remained the most extensive work of its kind until the 20th century. Part 1 contains four books on flora, fauna and ethnography. Part 2 on history exists only in fragments.

languages with at least one million native speakers: Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano, Hiligaynon, Waray-Waray, Kapampangan, Bikol, Albay Bikol, Pangasinan, Maranao, Maguindanao, Kinaray-a, and Tausug. One or more of these is spoken by more than 90 percent of the population (see Figure 47). A Philippine language family identified by Robert Blust (1991) includes languages of north Sulawesi and the Yami language of Taiwan, but excludes the Sama–Bajaw languages of the Sulu Archipelago as well as a couple North Bornean languages spoken in southern Palawan by ethnic groups (Figure 48).

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Source: McFarland 1993.

▲ FIGURE 47. Languages that have the largest number of speakers in a particular region. Note that in regions marked with black diamonds, the language with the most number of speakers denotes a minority of the population.

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▲ FIGURE 48.



The principal branches of the Malayo-Polynesian language family.



Orange is Outer Western Malayo-Polynesian, dark red is Inner Western Malayo-Polynesian, green is Central Malayo-Polynesian, purple is South Halmahera-West New Guinea languages, dark green is Sama-Bajaw, blue is Philippine and pink is Oceanic. Source: Adelaar and Himmelmann 2005.

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Chapter 12

Indigenous Cultural Groups

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H E D I V E R S E I N D I G E N O U S C U LT U R E O F T H E P H I L I P P I N E S reflects the country’s complex history and position on the ‘Rim of Asia.” An estimated 10 million Indigenous Peoples (IPs) or Indigenous Cultural Communities (ICCs) belong to 110 ethno-linguistic groups mainly concentrated in Northern Luzon (34 percent) and Mindanao (60 percent), with some groups in the Visayas. They occupy many protected areas and play an important role in the conservation of biodiversity and practicing sustainable development through traditional knowledge systems. Today’s IPs are generally located in the highlands, especially the Cordilleras of northern Luzon, the highlands of central Mindoro, the mountain regions of Palawan, Negros, Panay, and extensive areas in Mindanao. Muslims live mostly in the lowlands of the Sulu Archipelago, southern Palawan, and western and southern Mindanao (Figure 49). In the Cordilleras are to be found a number of ethnic groups—the Kalinga, Bontoc, Ifugao, Isneg (Apayao), Ibaloi and Kankanay, and Ifugao—the last group famous for having built the centuries old rice terraces. These groups are flanked by the Gaddang to the east, the Ilongot to the southeast in the Sierra Madre, and the Tinguian (Isneg) to the west. All developed hunting and gathering, farming cultivation and, in some cases, headhunting. The Negritos, known as Aeta in Luzon, are concentrated in the mountain ranges of Zambales, Bataan, western Pampanga, western Tarlac, and southwestern Pangasinan. They also live in the islands of Panay and Negros, on north eastern Mindanao, and in the uplands of Palawan. For thousands of years they dominated the highlands throughout the islands, but are now reduced to small populations. The Cordilleras, numbering about 500,000 and comprising various ethnic groups living in the mountains of northern Luzon, largely retain their traditional religion and way of life. They belong to the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) 246

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FIGURE 49. Better-known Cultural Minorities of the Philippines.

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family occupying rugged grassland and pine forest. Though ethnologists distinguish 10 main ethnic groups, each with its own dialect and culture, they may be divided into two broad groupings: one, by far the larger, includes the peoples of the higher country cultivating wet rice, mostly in step-like terraces on the mountainsides; the other includes peoples growing dry rice in seasonally shifting gardens in the lower rainforest. The first group (the Nabaloi or Ibaloi, Kankanaey, Lepanto or northern Kankanaey, Bontoc, southern Kalinga, Tinggian) live in populous villages except for the Ifugao whose small farmsteads of kinsmen are dotted throughout the rice terraces. The second group (the Gaddang, northern Kalinga, and Isneg or Apayao) are sparsely settled in hamlets or farmsteads around which new gardens are created; some Gaddang live in tree houses. All of the groups believe in spirits, including those of ancestors, and have complex rituals to propitiate them. The Isneg (“people who have gone into the interior”) live at the northwesterly end of northern Luzon. Two major river systems, the Abulog and the Apayao, run through Isneg country which, until recent times, has been described as a region of “dark tropical forests.” Since recorded history, they have been known to be a head-taking society. As a dry rice farmer, the male head of a household annually clears a fresh section of tropical forest where his wife will plant and harvest their rice. Isneg women also cook meals, gather wild vegetables and weave bamboo mats and baskets, while the men cut timber, build houses and take extended hunting and fishing trips. Often when a wild pig or deer is killed, its meat is skewered on bamboo and distributed to neighbors and relatives. Nearly all Isneg households also harvest a small grove of coffee trees, the main cash crop of the area. Once the fiercest head-hunters, the Kalinga are the most extensive rice farmers of the Cordillera peoples having acquired some of the best land for both wet and dry rice farming. Like the Ifugao, they are one of the extensive terrace builders in the country and have developed a peace rite (bodong) for the initiation, maintenance, renewal and reinforcement of kinship and social ties accompanied by songs such as ading, wasani and dandang. The Kalinga are also known for their basketry, loom weaving and metal works. Though mostly agricultural people cultivating rice in terraces, many contemporary Nabaloi or Ibaloi have integrated into the mainstream Filipino culture and some are employed as miners in the gold and silver mines of Benguet. They traditionally practiced mummification involving smoking the corpse for months to completely dehydrate it before encasement within a hollowed out log. It was then placed in caves thought to be spiritual. 248

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▲ Early photographs of the Aeta (top) and Igorot (bottom) peoples. Source (Top): https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Negrito_Fishing_Boat,_ Philippines_(1899).jpg So u rc e ( B ot t o m ) : http://library.ifla.org/58/1/095-villanueva-en.pdf Photo collection of Laurence L. Wilson

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Photo by Oleg Doroshenko Source: http://www.123rf.com/ photo_29518175_banaue-philippines-january24-2014-unknown-old-ifugao-man-in-nationaldress-next-to-rice-terraces-if.html

▲ Old Ifugao man

The Ifugao are former headhunters, woodcarvers and creators of the world-renowned Banaue rice terraces. Their culture revolves around rice with an elaborate and complex array of rice culture feasts embedded in taboos and intricate agricultural rites, from rice cultivation to rice consumption. Harvesting calls for imposing thanksgiving feasts, while the concluding harvest rites “tungo” or “tungul” (the day of rest) entail a strict taboo of any agricultural work. The war-dance (the bangibang), one of the cultural remnants of tribal conflict, is traditionally held on the walls of the rice terraces by the men, equipped with spears, axes and wooden shields and a headdress made of leaves. The Ifugao also have skills in making bowls, baskets, weapons and clothing Another people famed for their rich social traditions and colorful weavings are the Bontoc found in Benguet, Ifugao, Mountain Province, Kalinga, and Apayao in northern Luzon. They formerly practiced head-hunting and had distinctive body tattoos. Present-day Bontocs are a peaceful agricultural people who have retained most of their traditional culture. A hereditary class of priests holds various monthly ceremonies for the deity of their crops, the weather, and for healing. The Bontoc also believe in the “anito”—spirits of the dead—who must be consulted before undertaking anything important. Ancestral anitos are invited to family feasts when a death occurs to ensure the well-being of the deceased’s soul. This involves offering small amounts of food to show that they are invited and not forgotten. Bontoc social structure used to be centered on village wards (“ato”) containing about 14 to 50 homes. Traditionally, young men and women lived in dormitories (ulog or egban) and ate meals with their families. 250

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Source: http://www.forumbiodiversity.com/showthread. php/28339-Austronesian-people

▲ Kalinga woman

Tribal groups located in the Visayas include the Mangyan of Mindoro, the Batak and Tagbanua of Palawan, and the Sulu of Panay. In Mindanao, the major groups (the Lumad) are: the Subanon, found mostly in the upland areas of Zamboanga; the Tiruray of Cotabato; the B’laan, Mansaka, Tagakaolo, Bagobo and Mandaya of Davao; the Bukidnon in the province of the same name; the Manobo of Agusan and Cotabato; the Mamanwa in the Agusan-Surigao border region; the Bila-an, Tiruray and T’boli in the region of the Cotabato province, and the Samal and Bajau in the Sulu Archipelago. Historical and geophysical evidence suggests that the Proto-Malay Mangyans were formerly living along the coastlines of Mindoro but were compelled to move into the interior by the invading Tagalogs, the arrival of the Spanish colonizers and raids by Moro pirates. Although there is no current accurate accounting of them (since many still live in the upper regions of the island and avoid contact with lowlanders), they are estimated to number around 80,000 to 100,000 moving freely in and out in both provinces of Oriental and Occidental Mindoro. The Mangyans lead a semi-nomadic existence living in loose clusters of up to 20 bamboo huts Chapter 12. Indigenous Cultural Groups

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The Final Forest Frontiers Comprised of Dumagats, Tagalogs, and Ilocanos, the communities of Gabaldon valley of Central Luzon engage in economic activities broadly categorized as those directly or indirectly dependent upon the forest resources of the watershed. Because of gathering of rattan and hunting, the Dumagat have the greatest dependency on and knowledge of the ecological conditions of the watershed and its forest (depicted in Figure A).

Figure A. Smaller proportions of Tagalog and Ilocano families are directly involved in gathering forest products, but many lowland farmers are indirectly dependent upon upland forests for water or raw materials for cottage industries.

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Figure B. While the Dumagats originally settled the area, they are now the most disadvantaged minority population and economically and politically marginalized compared to the Ilocano landowners and merchants. Families involved in upland occupations in Gabaldon usually earn lower incomes than households engaged in lowland activities. Moreover, the political power and distribution of services by local government and NGOs is concentrated in the lowlands.

Source: Poffenberger and McGean 1993.

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▲ Mangyan (left) and Manobo (right) peoples. Source: http://www.loveinanylanguage.org/page/cultural-minorities

with thatched roofs and raised floors. They are subsistence agriculturalists, planting sweet potato, upland rice (dry cultivation) and taro and are sometimes spend weeks away from their families hunting with bows and arrows and trapping pigs, monkeys, birds and other small animals. The males wear a loincloth (ba-ag) of pounded bark while the females have a coil of woven nito, a woody black vine, and rattan around their hips. Mangyans practice animism and their languages are mutually unintelligible, though they share some vocabulary. Lowland planters employ them for “dirty work,” including converting forests into plantations thereby contributing to further loss of the habitat. Muslims form four large and distinct groups: the Maranao, who are largely concentrated in the area surrounding Lake Lanao; the Maguindanao, along the shores and in the broad valleys of the Rio Grande de Cotabato; the Bagobo of southern Mindanao; the Tausug, the predominant group living on the Jolo islands of the Sulu Archipelago; and the Samal on the islands south of the Jolo group. Minor Muslim groups are the Bajau (also known as “Sea Gypsies”) found all over Sulu, the Sangil located in Cotabato and Davao, the Palawani in southern Palawan, the 254

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P h o t o b y G r e g g Ya n

▲ Manobo tribal chieftains

Jama Mapun in Cagayan de Sulu, the Yakan on Basilan Island, and the Melegunon on Balabac Island. Although the Negritos are generally characterized as food gatherers, recent studies show that they now practice shifting cultivation and are becoming semisedentary. Historical records suggest that before Spanish colonization, the antecedents of the Indigenous Peoples lived along coastal areas with the possible exception of the Cordillera of northern Luzon and the interior of Mindanao and other larger islands. As noted in the previous chapter, over time the coastal populations were forced into mountainous areas where they adapted quickly to very different ecological conditions. However, the growing coastal/lowland populations and logging and other development activities began to invade the uplands and conflicts arose (and continue to arise) between the Indigenous Peoples who expect to live and share the wealth of the forests and the logging companies who wish to exploit this wealth for narrower benefits. Increasingly, excessive denudation of their resources and political pressures has forced some cultural groups to abandon their territories and Chapter 12. Indigenous Cultural Groups

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◄ Bagobo warrior Source: https://www.pinterest. com/pin/340232946819582982/

▼ Bajau people Source: http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/ index.php?showtopic=80134&st=20

settle elsewhere. As a result, social cohesiveness is lost, traditional knowledge is eroded, the connection of people and land is broken and individuals become squatters on land entirely foreign to their experience. Most of today’s cultural communities live in areas designated as forest by the government. Their right to these lands and their resources is enshrined in beliefs and traditional laws that are hundreds of years old and supported by an intimate relationship with forest through hunting and gathering, fishing and agro-forestry. Rituals are performed in site selection, sowing and harvesting of crops and for hunting and fishing. Land is carefully partitioned to optimize resource usage, e.g., forest as a direct source of food, tools, housing materials, adornment, medicinal plants, and pesticides. For example, the Itawe of northern Luzon use some 250 species of plants for nutritional, medicinal and religious purposes and provide longstanding values, knowledge and organization for the sustainable management of such natural resources. Frequently, rituals dictate the use of some plants, sometimes in sacred places where their presence affords protection in a larger landscape. Wildlife used by Indigenous peoples for food, medicine and other purposes is shown in Table 22. ▼ TABLE 22. Sources of wildlife used by indigenous peoples of the Philippines. Wildstock

Uses

Lizard, snake

Central and southern Luzon/ Dumagat, Aeta, Agta

Hornbill, wild pig, bato-bato

Western Visayas/ Batac, Tagbanua; Mindoro/ Hanunuo

Monkey, deer, wild pig, wild chicken, snake), lizard), bat, white wildcat), black wildcat, crabs, shrimp, eel

Food

Mindanao/ T’boli, MoroMagindanao,Manobo,MoroTanuag,Lumad-Tedurag/ Tiruray

Wild pig, hornbill

Food and decorations (the beak is burned and the smoke inhaled by asthmatic persons

Monkey (skull)

For medicinal purposes: to cure human skin diseases; anti-plague for chickens

Snake

For food, medicinal purposes, gall bladder problems and rheumatism

Deer

For decoration and clothing (the horn is burned)

Civet cat

For decoration, textile and symbol

Symbol of life; used in tombs and weaving design

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Source: Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Plan of Action. DENR and UNEP. 1997.

Location/ Indigenous Groups Cordillera and Northern Luzon/ Kankana-ey, Ifugao

Despite the Philippine Constitution and the “Indigenous Peoples Rights Act” (1997) recognizing the right of Indigenous Peoples to manage their ancestral domains, they remain among the poorest and most disadvantaged peoples in the country. They have been subject to historical discrimination and marginalization and frequently face exclusion, loss of ancestral lands, displacement, destruction of traditional ways of life and practices, and loss of identity and culture. In extreme circumstances, social and political discontent has erupted into armed conflict, a poignant example being the 45-year old armed conflict in Mindanao, involving secessionists and communist insurgents.

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Chapter 13

Conserving the Natural Environment

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O T H E E A R LY I N H A B I TA N T S O F T H E P H I L I P P I N E S , THE natural environment offered abundant sources of food and raw materials and it is likely that this continued through the early period of Spanish colonization. Around 1700, however, there was a significant erosion of these resources following increasing human population, expansion of permanent field cropping systems, breakup of lowland and coastal forest, and confinement of cultural groups. Shifting cultivators (both pagan and Christian) relied on gathering plant products and hunting of animals to sustain their lifestyles. In highly populated areas, hunting pressures reduced animal populations such that game had almost disappeared well before the end of the Spanish colonization. Since then the decline of biodiversity has been precipitous and the cumulative impacts of deforestation, watershed degradation, air and water pollution and the loss of mangrove, swamps and coral reefs and other natural assets now undermine people’s livelihood and the economic prospects of the country. Not surprisingly, in 2005 the Philippines ranked 126th of 146 countries listed in an international Environmental Sustainability Index and 66th of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index of 2016 with biodiversity and habitat ranked 73rd and tree cover loss 62nd. This state of affairs is all the more poignant when it is recalled that the Philippines is reckoned to be the most biologically diverse country in the world. As we have seen, there are more unique terrestrial and marine plant and animal species per unit area than any other country and more endemic species than many larger mega-diversity centers being the second highest of any country after Indonesia. Alas, its fauna and flora are also the most threatened.

The Challenge Although originally covering about 95 percent of the islands, by 1934 it is estimated that forest cover was reduced to 57 percent (or 17.1 million ha). Between 259

1950 and 1990, a further 3.8 million ha of old growth dipterocarp forests are reckoned to have been lost—reduced substantially to 6.1 million ha, covering less than 20 percent of the land area. During the same period, residual/secondary growth forests grew by about 200,000 ha. Between 1990 and 2000, the Philippines lost an average of 262,500 ha of forest per year or an average annual deforestation rate of 2.5 percent, the rate of forest change decreasing from by 20.2 to 2.0 percent per annum between 2000 and 2005. Thus, during 1990 to 2005, the Philippines lost 32.3 percent of its forest cover or around 3,412,000 ha. Estimates in 2010 put forest cover at around 7.6 million ha of which 861,000 ha was primary forest—estimated at only 8 percent of the original primary forest cover. Figure 50 demonstrates the

Source: Meteorological Satellite Program of the US Air Force, 1979.

▲ FIGURE 50. Satellite photos reveal the extent of forest burning by small-scale farmers in much of the Philippines.

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Photo by Brother Martin Francisco Source: http://www.rappler.com/science-nature/ environment/60761-ipo-watershed-mismanagement-denr-mwss

impact of kaingin and shows the extent of forest clearing by burning by kaingin farming in the 1970s. However, it must be recalled that during the Marcos regime in the 1970s, Timber License Agreements (TLAs) ranged from 40,000–100,000 ha. At that time, there was the construction boom in Japan and the Philippines was the main source of timber. The TLAs leaped from 58 to 230 (1969–1977); Marcos also issued “special permits” or licenses to fell trees numbering some 470 (1969–1976). Currently, deforestation is especially severe in Luzon and the Visayas and remains acute in Mindanao, the last area declining by as much as 40,000 ha per year. An increase of tree plantation cover has been achieved but does not seem to provide appropriate habitat for indigenous species. Major drivers of forest loss and degradation continue to be: forest (habitat) fragmentation from logging (legal and illegal) and shifting cultivation (kaingin) with the result that many forest species are unable to disperse across land clearings and forest gaps; the conversion to agricultural lands and human settlements, fires and mining; and the introduction of invasive species often introducing pests and diseases. Add poorly planned and managed investments in infrastructure, energy and mining operations (drawing in migrants), and poor forest management stemming from ill-defined roles and mandates of agencies handling natural resources, and one can understand why the loss of biological diversity is vast and that many plant and animal species are now considered rare or endangered. Some are already extinct.

▲ An example of the impact of kaingin

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The publication, Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Plan of Action (subsequently known as the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, Figure 51), was issued by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was issued in 1997 . It noted that: degraded and converted habitats made up a high percentage of the landscape; about half of the national parks were no longer biologically important; not all of the remaining original forest is conserved; and that protection of the terrestrial ecosystem favors the biologically poorer highland areas. Major gaps in the terrestrial system included the lowlands of Luzon and Mindanao, the Sulu islands, Negros, Basilan, Dinagat, Camiguin Sur, and Samar. A more recent study shows that protected areas for forest covers only 51 percent of the priority sites identified under the 44 percent of Important Bird Areas (IBAs), and 35 percent of terrestrial Key Bird Areas (PAWB and DENR 2012). It went on to observe that protected areas cover less than half of the priority biodiversity sites identified through scientific studies and that “there are many of little strategic value for biodiversity conservation.”

▲ FIGURE 51. Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Plan of Action (1997) 262

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The number of watersheds classified as “critical” (in need of rehabilitation and management) has dramatically increased from 85 in 1995 (3.3 million ha) to 267 in 2010 (10.6 million ha), those at most risk retaining only 30 percent of forest cover; the rest comprise a mix of open or degraded forest, grassland or cultivated land. Shifting cultivators (kaingineros) who clear an area by felling trees then burning the debris, have been encroaching on forest reserves and critical watersheds, including those in some national parks. The burning destroys small trees, shrubs, epiphytes, practically all ground plants, and microorganisms that help condition the soil. With some 12–15 percent of the total land area of the Philippines transformed by kaingin into wastelands and secondary vegetation (parang), there are now severe shortages of fuelwood, rattans, bamboos and other forest products. Most of the islands comprising the Philippines suffer soil erosion—in Cebu, Luzon, Masbate, Panay, and Bohol severe to excessive denudation of steep slopes causes topsoil erosion and siltation of reservoirs, irrigation systems, waterways, and the mouths of estuaries. This in turn causes frequent widespread flooding and disturbance of natural and human environments. A number of mining projects have induced environmental degradation, physical displacement of indigenous peoples, and cultural dislocations. A 2005, European Union commissioned study reported that legal and illegal mining operations posed serious threat to forest and river ecosystems because of forest clearing and the release of toxins. Many of these concerns stem from the failure of many small and large-scale mining companies to adhere to globally-defined standards for responsible mining. Inland waters (lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, floodplains, bogs and swamps) are under grave threat and are considered by some to be the most threatened ecosystem in the Philippines due to physical alteration, habitat loss and degradation, water abstraction, resource use and exploitation, pollution, introduction of invasive alien species, and the effects of climate change. Some 15,000 industrial firms in the Philippines have contributed to the pollution of wetlands. About 70 percent of these firms are located in Metro Manila, potentially causing significant pollution of waterways (DENR 1991). Large areas of mudflats have been reclaimed for human settlements and industry, including tourism and commercial establishments. Estuaries are also threatened by increases in intensity of floods and droughts caused by deforestation and siltation that is associated with soil erosion. Major threats to lakes in the Philippines are pollution from domestic, municipal, industrial, and agricultural sources; over-exploitation of aquatic resources; extensive aquaculture development; sedimentation from upstream sources; and Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

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human settlements at the immediate periphery of the lakes. The impact of introduced alien species to supplement aquatic-based food sources is a major ecological problem in many inland waters (PAWB/ARCBC 2001) as these alien species have displaced many native species. Collaborative efforts at the local and national levels are currently underway to rehabilitate and manage the lakes for biodiversity and sustainable use (PBCPP 2002). Dam construction and diversion of rivers and streams for irrigation has blocked movement of migratory fish species, altered ecological flows and changed the habitat of riverine flora and fauna. A National Wetland Action Plan for the Philippines (PAWB 1993) reported an overall wetland loss (through drainage and conversion) of 78 percent for the Philippines (after Singapore the highest in Southeast Asia) though some replanting may suggest a current coverage of 24 percent. Subsequently, studies found laws pertaining to wetlands were generally not enforced—largely, a lapse on the part of legislators and policy-makers, who fail to consider the realistic capacity of the implementing agency to enforce them at the time the policy was being crafted and by failing to provide the appropriate resources, e.g., funding, for its enforcement (DENR/PAWB/UNEP, 2005 and PAWB/DENR 2011) and the weakness of executives (national and local) to implement the law. The coral reefs of the Philippines are one of most highly threatened in the world, destructive fishing techniques being considered the major contributing factor. Despite being illegal, dynamiting or poisoning of stun fish and collecting corals for use in jewelry continues unabated. The reefs are also suffering damage by coverings of silt from streams and rivers carrying eroded materials from deforested slopes. The loss of coral reefs undermines dependent fish populations, invertebrates and plants. Along with overfishing and the destruction of mangroves, these practices are causing long-term and even irreversible damage to coastal ecosystems and undermining the future prospects of coastal communities dependent upon marine resources. Some marine reserves have witnessed the return of fish in adjacent areas but destruction of coral continues. Surveys during the 1970s to the 1990s found only 4 percent of Philippine reefs are in excellent condition (i.e., over 75 percent hard or soft coral cover), 28 percent in good condition (50–75 percent coral cover), 42 percent are in fair condition (25–50 percent coral cover), and 27 percent are in poor condition (less than 25 percent coral cover). More recent investigations show an estimated 98 percent at risk from human activities with 70 percent high or very high risk. Less than 1 percent may be in a steady state (ADB 2014). The Visayas have experienced the most significant decline in coral cover, exhibiting an average of 264

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▲ Effects of the Guimaras Oil Spill, Panay Gulf, 2006 Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/making waves/oil-spills-the-philippines-india-and-lebanon/blog/9318/ P h ot o by Ga vi n N e wm a n

only 11 percent hard coral. In terms of fish abundance, the Visayas Sea and Sulu Sea regions have shown a slightly decreasing trend in annual catch per unit area while the South China Sea region has shown an increasing trend. Reef Check biologists report that it is very hard to find bumphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum) in fished coral reefs and that sweetlips, snappers and moral eels are uncommon. Invertebrate indicators such as sea cucumbers, lobsters, triton shell, and pencil urchins are very low in abundance as they are specifically targeted by fishermen for the curio and ornamental trade. Seagrass ecosystems have very high primary productivity and play an important role in the food chain in the Philippine marine environment, yet over the last 50 years, about 50 percent of seagrass areas in the Philippines have been destroyed or degraded due to siltation or sedimentation, pollution, eutrophication, nutrient loading, dredging, and unsustainable fishing practices. Other site-based threats include oil pollution, tourism development, and scour from boats. Their continuing loss has severe implications for the future dugong, turtle, and fish populations and coastal villages dependent upon them for food and protection from beach erosion and buffering severe storms. Mangrove forests also face significant losses from conversion to agriculture, aquaculture, salt ponds, and human settlements, their wood being used for charcoal and the manufacture of poles and piles. In 1918, the country’s mangrove forests were estimated to be 450,000 ha. Most of this was lost in the 1970s and 1980s,

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and by 2008 it was estimated that 337,000 ha had been lost—approximately 75 percent of the country’s original mangrove forest cover. Of this area, 278,657 ha (66 percent) were lost over the period 1950–1990 (Samson and Rollon 2008). During the mid-1980s, the highest rate of mangrove exploitation was recorded in the Visayas at 72 percent, followed by Luzon at 64 percent. Exploitation rates were significantly lower in Palawan (21 percent) and Mindanao (10 percent). Thus, by 2005, the country’s natural mangrove cover had declined to 247,268 ha, while planted mangroves covered more than 44,000 ha (Primavera, Rollon, and Samson 2011). Despite greater conservation and localized replanting efforts, mangrove degradation in the Philippines is anticipated to continue and it is expected that there will be less than 100,000 ha by 2030. Some concerted efforts are underway to expand the coverage and the protection of mangrove areas and there is an upward trend in mangrove cover in Palawan, Sulu and around Bohol and Siquijor Islands in the Visayas. In 1991, about 30–40 percent of the land in the archipelago, with an average farm size of 2.2 ha, was used for agriculture (DENR 1991). FAO (1999) estimated about 9.5 million hectares were cultivated, 56 percent of which were planted to annual crops. The rate of cropland expansion through forest depletion and encroachment was 6.5 percent (ca 1975–1987). In 2004, the Philippines embarked on the commercialization of transgenic crop (mostly Bt corn) by cultivating about 100,000 ha of agricultural land (it is one of the nine developing countries that joined the 14 “mega-countries” of the world that grow 50,000 ha or more of genetically modified crops: James 2004). Unsustainable farming practices, depending on their location, scale and intensity can seriously affect biodiversity. The negative impact of the Green Revolution (ca 1970s) or food production intensification program of government may be attributed to the “standardization” of crop varieties over large areas, leading to the homogenization of the genetic base of crops and the displacement of traditional crop varieties. Traditional farming in some parts of the country is a form of agricultural biodivesity (agro-biodiversity) wherein a mixture of several crops and native species are planted in small parcel of land. Unlike the intensive monoculture of crops, there is less risk involved in mix farming in case of crop failure, diseases and epidemics. Agro-biodiversity and the diversity of agricultural systems sustain many Filipinos through soil and water conservation and maintenance of soil conditioning, biota and pollination. Wild races and ex-situ collections also provide means to offset climate change, resist disease and maintain hybrid vigor. However, though there are few 266

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https://www.flickr.com/photos/bigberto/1821033779/in/photostream/ Photo by Shubert Ciencia

data, it is increasingly recognized that there is a significant loss of genetic resources critical to agriculture. For example, of 136 land races of rice, 22 are no longer cultivated. In parallel, land devoted to agricultural ecosystems has been declining from 13.12 million ha in 1988 to 12.39 million ha in 2007 (DENR and UNDP, 2009).

▲ The plight of a white-collared kingfisher

Ethnobotanical fieldwork in 2005 in the foothills of Mount Pangasugan on the island of Leyte, found that 123 plant species belonging to 90 genera and 53 families were recorded to be used by the farmers for 77 different purposes, including 42 human ailments. The predominant life forms are trees and herbs and more than 60 percent of all recorded species are native to the Philippines. Many species are used for more than one purpose: 80 plants have medicinal value, 34 provide food and 32 serve for other uses. For the indigenous people, plant species are mainly utilized as food and construction materials. Fieldwork and other studies have emphasized the importance to be given to rural farmers as a source of ethnobotanical knowledge. As an indicator of the continued decline of national parks, wildlife refuges, sanctuaries, and other protected areas, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) noted that the number of these areas meeting international Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

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standards was 23 in 1975, 12 in 1980, and 7 in 1982. Currently, it is very probable that none of the declared national parks would meet IUCN standards. A Protected Areas Systems Review of the Indo-Malayan Realm (World Bank 1997) concluded that the Philippines ranked second only to the Irrawaddy biounit in terms of urgent need for immediate conservation action and international assistance. Biodiversity studies on Philippine plants are greatly lacking: there is no complete flora for the country and botanical surveys lag behind other comparable nearby regions. In addition, less than 2 percent of the country’s flora has also been evaluated. A Flora of the Philippines begun in 1991 languishes because of a lack of funding support. Its completion would provide biodiversity specialists, students and consultants with useful information about the distribution, habitat requirements, and ecology of native and non-native flora. It would also enhance the collection of the Philippine National Herbarium. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration reports that the Philippines, like most parts of the globe, has exhibited increasing temperatures. Observed mean temperatures anomalies (or departures from the 1971 to 2000 normal values) during 1951 to 2010 indicate an increase of 0.65 C. or an average of 0.011/year. During the last 60 years, maximum and minimum temperatures have increased by 0.36 C or 1.0 C, respectively. Statistical analysis also confirms an increasing number of hot days and a decreasing number of cool nights. There is also a very slight increase in the number of cyclones with maximum sustained winds of greater than 150 kph and above (typhoon category). Trends of increases or decreases in extreme daily rainfall are not statistically significant although there have been changes in extreme events in certain areas. Continuing environmental deterioration and unsustainable development practices will aggravate the country’s vulnerability to climate change. Coral bleaching and reef degradation are highly likely to accelerate in the next 10 to 20 years and result in the loss of coral and fisheries as well as have detrimental impacts on the country’s tourism industry. Mangrove forests will also be vulnerable. Consequently, the integration of conservation and development goals should be a priority with protected areas at the center of adaptation strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change on biodiversity, especially vulnerable species and habitats. Sea level time series monitored at Manila and Legaspi show a small rise in relative sea level before the 1960s and a more rapid increase between 20 cm (Legaspi) and 40 cm (Manila) up to the present day. For the period 1992 to 2011, sea level around the Philippines was observed to increase at a rate of 5.8 (±0.6) millimeters per year. 268

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Photo by Noel Alamar, DZMM Source: http://pamilyaonguard.abs-cbnnews.com/v3/related-information/ viewnews/nid-12/a-toxic-pastime-swimming-in-manila-bay/

Although sea levels will vary from one coastal area to another depending on local conditions, assuming that the rate of change of sea level around the Philippines for the period 1992 to 2011 does not change, waters are expected to rise by at least 20 cm in the next 40 years.  According to a World Bank study in 2013, the Philippines is the third most vulnerable country in the world to weather-related extreme events, earthquakes, and sea level rise, and the consequences of climate change. It is exposed directly to multiple climate-related hazards such as typhoons (in the northern and eastern parts), floods (in central Luzon and southern Mindanao), landslides (based on terrain), and droughts. Climate-related impacts will reduce cultivated land and thereby decrease agricultural productivity and increase food insecurity. Water pollution from industries, municipal and domestic usage continues to create many problems in the Philippines, particularly in urban areas such as Manila. According to data released by Water Environment Partnership in Asia in 2005, 42 percent of the waters in the Philippines are contaminated and harming people and the country’s aquatic ecosystem. In 2007, of the 62 percent of the 421 principal rivers classified according to their intended purpose only 5 were in class A (intended for public water supply); most were in class C (intended for fishery, recreation and

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manufacturing) and many classified as “dead” or heavily polluted due to domestic sewage, industrial wastes, and community refuse. Sugar mills, food processing plants, breweries and distilleries and factories producing plastics, paper, detergents and chemicals are major sources of pollutants, including toxic and hazardous wastes. Mining operations in Benguet Province and elsewhere have caused considerable damage to agricultural crops, irrigation facilities and aquatic life. The greatest risk arising from a medium- or large-scale mining operation is a major tailings spill introducing toxic chemicals into the neighboring environment. Environmental effects of artisanal mining are mostly related to mercury pollution, soil erosion, sedimentation of water bodies, and a total lack of land reclamation after closure. Sand and gravel mining is a common activity in coastal areas and often leads to increased coastal erosion and loss of habitat. Geothermal projects, especially in national parks have attracted much attention because of water contamination, hydrogen sulphide pollution and acid rain, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, dislocation of indigenous peoples and influx of settlers. The Philippine National Oil Corporation (PNOC) and Energy Development Impacts of Climate Change on Indigenous Peoples In recent years, the indigenous Palawans of Culasian in southern Palawan have seen their crops eaten by multitudes of rats during the driest months of the year and have suffered malnourishment threatening their existence. Aside from rat outbreaks, changes in the weather have triggered the spread of plant diseases and displaced farmers from their land. There has been a shift in the seasons and efforts to plant rice have gone to waste as sudden, heavy rains have pounded the almost ripe crops. Paradoxically, it had been noted in a previous study that the neighboring Mt. Mantalingahan Protected Landscape with its mountain range covering 120,457 ha, a key biodiversity area and extensive forest cover, contributed critical ecosystem services to the Palawan’s estimated at an economic value of US $5.5 billion. The services include water supplies, soil conservation, flood control, carbon sequestration, non-timber forest products and scenic values, including waterfalls and caves. Some 33 watersheds are crucial to the areas lowland agricultural economy. Climate change is likely to compromise these services. It would appear that along with much of the rest of the world, indigenous people will have to change their way of life to cope with the growing threats posed by climate change. Sources: Regoniel 2011; Matias 2012

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Photo by William Mirambil Source: http://marinduquegov.blogspot.com/2014/03/boac-river-mine-spill-commemorated-in.html

Corporation have developed geothermal projects such as those in Mount Apo Natural Park and Mount Kanlaon Natural Park. The Mount Apo geothermal project was especially controversial for three unique reasons: it is a national park, the mountain is considered the ancestral domain of indigenous tribes, and there was increased awareness, concern and militancy for the environment at that time. Air pollution is pronounced in Metro Manila and at times is a significant problem in other cities. The major sources of air pollutants in Metro Manila are emissions from manufacturing and industrial plants and from motor vehicles. In some locations, pollutant concentrations have reached dangerous levels and may be impairing human health and welfare. Mismanagement of waste is generating serious environmental consequences: ground and surface water contamination, local flooding, air pollution, exposure to toxins, and spread of disease. Organic waste decomposition releases greenhouse gases, and burning of waste releases toxic gases. The cumulative impacts of these pollutants have not been measured.

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Mining Damage In 1996, the breakage of a drainage plug holding toxic mining waste at the Marcopper mine on the island of Marinduque made global news. The release of over 1.6 million cubic meters of tailings along 27 km of the Makulapnit-Boac River caused flash floods along the river and the coastal areas. One village was buried in 2 m of muddy floodwater, causing the displacement of 400 families. Twenty other villages had to be evacuated. Drinking water was contaminated killing fish and freshwater shrimp. Cows, pigs and sheep were overcome and killed. The flooding caused the destruction of crops and irrigation channels. Following the disaster, the river, which is the main source of livelihood for the resident communities, was declared unusable by government officials. A report by the Department of Health indicated that residents could be harboring in their bodies amounts of zinc and copper beyond tolerable limits. Residents also complained of skin irritations and respiratory problems which could have been caused by the poisonous vapors emitted by hydrogen sulfide and nitrous oxide from the mine wastes. After the disaster, Marcopper and Placer Dome, the parent company, closed all their mines. The government attempted to cover up the fact they had not enforced environmental laws throughout the years. Evidence came to light that Marcopper knew of the leak in the drainage tunnel in advance of the accident; apparently, there had been a long history of problems regarding the tunnel and pit. On October 4, 2005, the provincial government of Marinduque sued Placer Dome, for $100 million in damages. Placer Dome was purchased in 2006 by Barrick Gold, who has joined the lawsuit.

The Response In 1994, in compliance with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Philippines began formulating the Philippine Strategy for the Conservation of Biological Diversity. It undertook an assessment of the country’s biodiversity in 1995 and in 1997 produced the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (DENR and UNEP, 1997). The plan identified six strategies and 17 major thrusts anchored in the framework of resources (human and financial) and the need to balance utilization and conservation of the country’s natural resources (summarized in Table 23).

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▼ TABLE 23. Strategies and major thrusts of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Strategies

I

Expanding and improving knowledge on the characteristics, uses, and values of biological diversity

Major Thrusts • • •

Augmenting knowledge of species and ecosystem diversity Estimating current uses and values of biological diversity Underscoring the need to hedge for the future.

•

II

III

IV

Enhancing and integrating existing and planned biodiversity conservation efforts with emphasis on in-situ activities

Evaluating on-going and identifying in-situ and ex-situ biodiversity conservation and management approaches • Consolidating research and development programs for ex-situ and in-situ conservation of biodiversity • Institutionalizing a nationwide network of conservation centers

Formulating an integrated policy and legislative framework for the conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of the benefits of biological diversity

• Integrating the planning, implementation, evaluation and monitoring of biodiversity conservation and management in government and non-governmental sectors • Strengthening human resource capability in biodiversity conservation and management

Strengthening capacities for integrating and institutionalizing biodiversity conservation and management

• Integrating the planning, implementation, evaluation and monitoring of biodiversity conservation and management in government and non-governmental sectors • Strengthening human resource capability in biodiversity conservation and management

V

VI

Mobilizing an integrated information, education and communication (IEC) system for biodiversity conservation

Advocating stronger international cooperation on biodiversity conservation and management

Increasing access to updated biodiversity information and database systems • Institutionalizing community-based biodiversity conservation education and research • Harnessing traditional and alternative media to increase public awareness and support for biodiversity conservation • Encouraging and sustaining advocacy for biodiversity conservation • Operationalizing specific country commitments made under the CBD and other similar agreements, • Creating institutions to oversee the international coordinated implementation of the CBD, and • Strengthening linkages of local non-government organizations with international counterparts for biodiversity conservation

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Modified from DENR and UNEP, 1997

•

The Strategy also identified constraints and limitations in implementation, among them: • lack of a clear cut mechanism that defines tasks, sources of funds, institutional arrangements, indicators for monitoring, and monitoring schemes; • inadequate capacity to implement biodiversity conservation initiatives (i.e., funding, overlapping jurisdictions, conflicting policies, lack of implementation support from other sectors); • lack of database development and information sharing; and, • lack of specific geographical priorities. In response, the president of the Philippines directed the integration of the strategies into the sectoral plans and programs of various government agencies. In consequence, The First Philippine National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity was published in 1998 reviewing the achievements of the Philippines in addressing this Presidential directive and in fulfilling the obligations of Philippines to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). It reviewed the country’s capacity to implement biodiversity conservation measures and financial resources earmarked for biodiversity and supportive measures and noted that “an immediate responsibility is the integration of identified efforts and the formulation of a unified approach” so that “concerned planners and stakeholders may begin working with each other.” Three years later in 2000, the national biodiversity strategy and action plan (Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Plan of Action, DENR and UNEP 1997) was reviewed by natural and social scientists from government, academic institutions, civil society organizations, national and international conservation organizations, donor agencies and the private sector under the Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priority-setting Program (PBCPP). This resulted in a report in 2002 entitled Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priorities (PBCP): A Second Iteration of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (DENR-PAWB et al. 2002). Based upon a broad-based consensus, the report identified 206 conservation priority areas (CPAs) comprising 170 terrestrial and inland waters and 36 marine areas and covering 418 threatened species on the 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2000). The CPAs cover some 57 million ha (23 percent) of the country’s land and archipelagic waters. Some 106 CPAs are of extremely high priority covering 39 million ha (69 percent) of the area covered by the 206 CPAs and 16 percent of the country’s land and archipelagic waters (refer to the Appendix 2 of the Philippine Biodiversity 274

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Conservation Priorities 2002, for further details). Combining the biological values of Extremely High (urgent) and Extremely High (critical) areas results in coverage of almost 8 million ha (73 percent) of all terrestrial and inland waters areas—approximately 27 percent of the country’s land area. Extremely High marine CPAs cover some 31 million ha—equivalent to 14 percent of the country’s archipelagic waters. The PBCP report urged actions in favor of these CPAs and review of existing economic development plans being undertaken or contemplated in these areas. Such plans were to be modified if significant conservation of the nation’s biodiversity was to be achieved. Although there is a legal framework for the establishment and management of protected areas in the Philippines, the PBCP and subsequent reports suggest it is inadequate and actions need to be taken. Major concerns focus on familiar themes: • The need to protect the only remaining lowland dipterocarp forest both inside and outside protected areas; • Enlargement of the protected areas system and redesign to provide a better representation of the Philippines’ biological diversity—habitat and species; • Withdrawal or disestablishment of protected areas that have been degraded or converted for other land use; • Identification of pragmatic solutions to reducing human pressures upon protected areas while assuring the livelihood of affected communities; • Review and modification of existing economic and development plans in and around the CPAs; and, • Application of effective means to control illegal activities reducing the continuing destruction of the country’s natural resources (especially logging), to protect ecosystems and their biodiversity underpinning human welfare. The 2002 DENR-PAWB report recognized 244 protected areas under the National Protected Areas System (NIPAS). Of these, 5 protected areas had congressional approval, 78 had presidential proclamations and 161 remained to be processed. However, the PBCP determined that of the 244 protected areas, only 132 overlapped with the Conservation Priority Areas (CPAs)—many not possessing biodiversity of significance—and that those being considered for presidential proclamations should be re-evaluated. Equally, 94 terrestrial and inland water CPAs and 14 marine CPAs not included in the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) should be accorded protection. The adoption of the 206 Conservation Protected Areas (CPAs) as proposed by the PBCP appears to constitute a sound basis for ensuring that there Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

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is at least one protected area in every biogeographic and sub-biogeographic region in the Philippines. The online IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2013) assessed 617 plant and 2879 animal species in the Philippines and provides a means to initiate conservation action plans for specific species, especially for the 236 plant and 433 vertebrate species considered critically endangered, endangered, near threatened or vulnerable. As the PBCP suggests, this should be undertaken in concert with activities for the proposed 206 terrestrial, inland waters and marine CPAs. It also urges that field-based conservation initiatives and captive breeding of species should be supported as part of an integrated conservation strategy. To implement the 206 CPAs identified in the PBCP, six major strategies were identified and immediate actions recommended (Table 24). ▼ TABLE 24. Strategic actions for conservation priority areas. Strategies

Immediate Actions

I

Harmonize research with conservation needs. Issue: lack of baseline data; existing data needs updating; lapsed biological inventory; gaps in knowledge

• Use the PBCP results as teaching and extension materials and in developing conservation-based research by the academic and scientific community • Indigenous knowledge incorporated into biodiversity databases

II

Enhance and strengthen the protected areas system Issue: PA system needs expansion; boundaries of the existing Pas should be re-assessed.

• PBCP priority conservation areas should be included in the National Integrated Protected Areas System or any existing legal framework. .

Institutionalize innovative but appropriate biodiversity conservation approaches: the biodiversity corridors Issue: fragmentation and isolation of various ecosystems; use of biodiversity corrid ors

• Use of landscape-level corridors as planning units • Integrate PBCP into the Comprehensive Land Use Plans (CLUPs) and Development Plans (CDPs) of LGUs • The private sector should use the results of the PBCP to guide corporate responsibility for investment decisions concerning their potential impacts on natural habitats.

Institutionalize monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems of projects and of biodiversity conservation activities Issue: many research and conservation projects do not include monitoring and evaluation systems

• Adopt and sustain the Biodiversity System developed by NORDECO as a basis for management of PAs • Maintain long-term monitoring plots and synthesize experience to provide cost effective methodologies in M&E for use in other areas. • Create a multi-institutional mechanism (“Network for Nature”) to disseminate, monitor and coordinate the implementation of the Philippine biodiversity conservation priorities.

III

IV

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V

VI

Develop a national constituency for biodiversity conservation in the Philippines Issue: sharing of information and creation of a national constituency for biodiversity conservation.

Advocate stronger international cooperation on biodiversity conservation and management Issue: use of PBCP results to guide future investments

• Promote and disseminate results of the PBCB priority conservation areas exercise through an integrated information, education and communications campaign to generate greater awareness of the general population concerning biodiversity conservation, especially identified priority areas. • Implement a “road show” that promotes the PBCP and helps ensure that these results are included in the decision-making process of critical stakeholders • Promote the PBCP to the legislative and judicial branches of government • Issue an Executive Order instructing government agencies to incorporate the PBCP into work plans and projects that are being planned in or near identified priority areas • Use the PPCP as springboard to develop a national and international constituency for biodiversity conservation • Adopt the PBCP as a conservation agenda and basis for securing donor commitments and investments

Progress in implementing the PBCP has been noted in several areas but cannot be quantified due to lack of a monitoring and evaluation system with specific objectives, targets, and indicators. More specificity was gained in 2006 with the identification of Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs)—sites or network of sites considered critical to the conservation of globally important biodiversity. In the study Priority Sites for Conservation in the Philippines: Key Biodiversity Areas (Conservation International et al. 2006), a total of 128 terrestrial KBAs were identified for 209 globally threatened species and 419 endemic species of freshwater fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, and 62 congregatory bird species. A previous analysis by DENR showed that protected areas cover only 51 percent of the priority sites identified under the Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priority Setting Program (DENR, CI-Philippines and UP 2002) along with 44 percent of the Important Bird Areas (IBAs), and 35 percent of terrestrial KBAs, with protected areas covering less than half of the priority biodiversity sites identified through scientific studies. It has also

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Modified from: Philippine Conservation Priorities: A Second Iteration of the N a t i o n a l B i o d i v e r s i t y S t r a t e g y a n d A c t i o n P l a n ( D E N R - P AW B e t a l . 2 0 0 2 ) .

■ TABLE 24. (Cont’d.)

been shown that there are many protected areas of little strategic value to biodiversity conservation. Conservation International et al. (2006) has cited 10 Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites from these KBAs to be given highest protection priorities namely, Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Mount Isarog Natural Park, Siburan, Mount Mantalingahan, South and North Gigante Island, Mount Kanlaon Natural Park, Cuernos de Negros, Mount Kambinlio and Mount Redondo, Mount Malindang and Tawi-Tawi Island (see Table 25). The loss of an AZE site would result in the extinction of one or more species.

▼ TABLE 25. Alliance for Zero Extinction Sites within Key Biodiversity Areas.

Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Isabella.

Mt. Isarog Natural Park, Camarines Sur.

Siburan, Mindoro Occidental.

Area (ha)

359,486

10,112

11,569

Valued (Target) Species 3 critically endangered; 6 endangered; 23 vulnerable; 30 restricted range. 2 critically endangered; 2 endangered; 9 vulnerable; 18 restricted range. 3 critically endangered; 3 endangered; 5 vulnerable; 25 restricted range.

Threats to Species Illegal logging, wildlife hunting; land conversion for cattle grazing and agricultural uses; unregulated harvesting of marine resources. Illegal logging, Land conversion (kaingin), encroachment of illegal settlers.

Land conversion (kaingin)

Small –scale timber extraction and illegal logging and land conversion (kaingin)

Mt. Mantalingahan,, Palawan.

146,004

2 critically endangered; 3 endangered; 20 restricted range.

South and North Gigante Island, Iloilo.

2,248

1 critically endangered; 1 endangered; 4 restricted range.

24, 388

4 critically endangered; 4 endangered; 6 vulnerable; 36 restricted range

Encroachment, land conversion; ornamental plant collection and other wildlife; unregulated tourism

23, 565

7 critically endangered; 8 endangered; 10 vulnerable; 36 restricted range.

Illegal logging; collection of non-timber forest products; land conversion; and wildlife hunting.

Mt. Canlaon Natural Park, Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental. Cuernos de Negros, Negros Oriental.

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Source: Conservation International, DENR and the Haribon Foundation, 2006. (not in reference list) See above paras. for details.

Name of KBA/ Province

■ TABLE 25. (Cont’d.) Mt. Kambinlio and Mt. Redondo, Surigao del Norte. Mt. Malindang Natural Park, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur and Misamis Occidental. Tawi-Tawi Island, Tawi-Tawi.

28,524

1 critically endangered; 4 endangered; 13 Illegal logging; mining; land vulnerable; 28 restricted conversion. range.

34, 694

1 critically endangered; 1 endangered; 6 vulnerable; 30 restricted range.

Illegal logging; wildlife hunting; encroachment; land conversion.

5,851

4 critically endangered; 2 endangered; 6 vulnerable; 33 restricted range.

Illegal logging, land conversion; wildlife hunting.

The Priority Sites for Conservation in the Philippines study (Conservation International et al. 2006) also designated 51 candidate KBAs that have habitat suitable for conserving valuable (target) species. The notion of biodiversity conservation corridors gained traction in 2004 when Conservation International, DENR-PAWB and the Haribon Foundation under the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund identified 19 terrestrial and 9 marine corridors (linking major sites across wide areas) with the purpose of “sustaining large-scale biological processes and ensuring the maintenance of a high level of biodiversity of intact forest habitats and marine transition zones.” The approach is compelling but dependent upon the participation of local stakeholders to build support and coordinate and sustain activities at the field level. Despite the well-intentioned efforts behind these and other studies conducted over the last two decades years, reports completed in 2009 and 2012 provide a sobering view of the conservation of the Philippines’ biodiversity. According to an analysis Assessing Progress Towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target (PAWB et al. 2009), while there has been some progress in meeting the 2010 target and implementing the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of 1997, issues concerning the conservation of natural resources and biodiversity continue to gravitate around the following: • Declining forest cover; • Loss of species and natural habitats; • Declining coastal and marine resources; • Land and water management; • Climate change; and, • Fragmented natural resources use. Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

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A more recent study on the nation’s biodiversity was commissioned by DENR in 2012: Communities in Nature: State of Protected Areas Management in the Philippines. It acknowledged biodiversity remains threatened, that much has to be done to improve protected areas management and that the Philippines is still losing its remaining forest and coastal ecosystems at an alarming rate. In particular, the study states that the government has been “slow” in addressing biodiversity conservation because of gaps in the protected areas system, funding constraints, inadequate capacity, and lack of awareness, including that of DENR employees. Among the achievements were the Tubbataha Reef in Palawan and the Mount Iglit-Baco National Park in Mindoro Occidental—home to the endangered tamaraw; however, much can be done for the Peñablanca protected area in Cagayan, the Agusan Marsh in Agusan del Sur, and Mount Makiling in Laguna. Since many of the protected areas were established long before key biodiversity areas were identified, only about 35 percent of such areas are deemed protected by law. Consequently, about 65 percent of the areas still lack protection through the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS). The Communities in Nature report (PAWB and DENR 2012) also noted the lack of systematic data on the impact of the protected area management system on “whether there is improvement in biophysical condition of (protected areas), quality of life of communities, or increased benefits to the country.” According to the report, the fact that protected areas are the “host communities”—even entire municipalities—presents a “unique challenge” to biodiversity protection. It recommended linking protected areas to the broader landscape and ensuring equitable access to natural resources, sharing a commitment to common goals but different roles, building capacity for protected areas management and maintaining protected areas for the future through sound science and policy. The report is blunt about the last recommendation: the country is neither effective in conserving its resources nor quick enough in protecting ecosystems at risk. Thus, the government has to rationalize the designation of protected areas to cover all key biological areas and broaden the policy and regulatory framework to address the drivers of biodiversity and ecosystems loss through rigorous valuation and resource/land-use allocation. The Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity (2014) reviewed actions and changes initiated during 2009–2013 by the Philippines and analyzed their value and robustness as well as deficiencies and gaps frustrating effective implementation. The Report notes that executive and judicial branches of government undertook actions to enforce biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. President Benigno Aquino III issued executive orders to curb deforestation and 280

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prohibit mining activities in protected areas and the Supreme Court introduced the Writ of Kalikasan, a legal remedy for citizens to stop projects and programs that could harm the environment. It also stressed that partnership is critical in the successful implementation of the National Greening Program, the passage of the Land Use bill into law, the inclusion of biodiversity conservation and sustainable use in local land use plans and in recognizing the importance of traditional knowledge and the role of indigenous peoples and local communities in the development of biodiversity-friendly businesses in conserving critical habitats and protected areas. Gains, however, have yet to fully cut across sectors and themes, including urban biodiversity, agrobiodiversity, and genetic resources have yet to be fully studied for their potential. The lack of nationally-agreed targets and indicators continues to pose problems in identifying trends and measurement of developments. In his assessment of the Philippines’ protected area coverage, appropriateness of management regimes and capacity to deliver protection, Mallari (2015) found that 64 percent of its Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) remain unprotected. Few protected areas have adequate management and governance infrastructures, funding streams, management plans and capacity, and a serious disparity exists between protected area land zonation and conservation needs of key species. The author concludes that for the Philippines to meet the biodiversity coverage and management effectiveness stated in the Aichi Target 11, protected area boundaries should be aligned, management systems reformed to attain biodiversity-led targets, and effective management capacity created. Persistent problems affecting biodiversity include overexploitation, the existence of invasive alien species, pollution, habitat loss and degradation and climate change. Building the capacity of local government units in fostering biodiversity-related programs and integrating them in economic and development plans is essential to creating a holistic approach in combating these drivers of biodiversity loss.

Drivers of Environmental Degradation and the Solution In the Philippines, loss of biodiversity and other forms of environmental degradation occurs in a complex of institutional, socioeconomic and cultural factors. The root causes of biodiversity loss reflect the persistence of a “frontier mentality” directed at the exploitation of natural resources and involve: • Lack of understanding and appreciation of the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services among key stakeholders;

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• Lack of commitment to and political will for environmental planning and management and the adoption of sustainable development practices; • Insufficient enforcement of legal provisions for environmental protection and weak natural resources management and governance; • Poor knowledge of the importance of ecological systems and conservation in decision-making institutions; • Inappropriate subsidies, perverse market incentives and price changes of mineral, food and biofuel commodities; • Further develop and use incentive measures as a strategy to manage and conserve biodiversity (e.g., DENR’s Environment and Natural Resources Accounting Project and the Laguna Lake Development Authority’s Environ­ mental Use Fee System); • Poorly-structured land tenure and allocation mechanisms; • Conflicting government policies; and, • Increased population density and urban sprawl. The policies and strategies of the government play a crucial role in determining the rate and extent of environmental degradation. For example, reduced fuel and other input costs or building infrastructure (including roads) can affect rates of habitat loss and ecosystem services. Similarly, favorable tax regimes supporting extractive industries and low or non-existent resource access and land costs also encourage habitat and other forms of environmental degradation (see Figure 52). In addition, government support for large-scale developments in mining, agriculture, forestry and infrastructure aimed at generating employment and wealth are invariably undertaken without full consideration of the environmental costs and liabilities. These issues are explored in more detail in Appendix 3 along with opportunities and actions needing to be taken. Many of the issues are familiar but a particularly recurrent theme has been the failure in adopting sectoral and cross-sectoral integration and mainstreaming of biodiversity conservation in development activities. Here, history is instructive. In 1989, the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development called for a shift from the conventional practice of single sector exercises in planning and decision-making to a multisectoral approach that explicitly includes concern for the quality of the natural environment and the use of such tools as Natural Resource Accounting, Environmental Impact Assessment, and Land Use. The strategy noted that the challenge for resource management is to treat the ecosystem as the unit most suitable for analysis so that the functions and integrity of an ecosystem (goods and services) may be maintained. In 1995, Presidential 282

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Modified from: USAID 2011.

FIGURE 52. ► Ultimate drivers of environmental degradation in the Philippines, including habitat loss.

Memorandum Order No. 289 was issued directing the integration of the Philippines’ Strategy for Biological Diversity Conservation in the sectoral plans, programs and projects of the national government agencies and the operationalization of the objectives of sustainable biological diversity resource management and development as embodied in the Strategy. In 2006, Executive Order No. 578 was issued establishing the national policy on biodiversity and ordering all concerned government agencies and offices and Local Government Units to integrate and mainstream the protection, conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into their policies, rules and regulations, programs, projects and development planning process. Though these Orders are laudable, lack of substantive progress in their implementation continues to exact a cost. A report in 2009 by the DENR (PAWB et al. 2009), Assessing Progress Towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target—The 4th National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity devotes a chapter to examining efforts at integrating biodiversity considerations into sectoral and cross-sectoral concerns and identifies promising partnerships and alliances forged or to be forged between and among national government, civil society organizations, private sector and communities. An instrument to help attain this is the ecosystems approach propounded under the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD). This seeks to integrate management of land, water and living resources to promote conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits while retaining cultural diversity. Two recent international initiatives, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003 and 2005) and The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB 2009) study have underscored the centrality of the ecosystem service concept. The most widely used typology for ecosystem services divides the services into four areas provided by ecosystem functions, flows, conditions, and processes: provisioning services; regulating services; supporting or habitat services; and, cultural services (Figure 53 and Box Valuing Ecosystem Services). There are many challenges to incorporating ecosystem service analysis into decision-making, including: 1) lack of understanding about ecosystem services; 2) lack of guidance; 3) absence of regulatory requirements; and, 4) absence of suitable data. However, despite such challenges, it is clear that ecosystem service analysis provides important information for policy and decision-making about the use of natural resources and the conservation of biodiversity at global, regional, and national scales. A tangible opportunity for the valuation of ecosystem services comes with the use of environmental assessments and other planning and management tools 284

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through their support for more transparent and collaborative decision-making, influence on project preparation, processing and implementation and capacity to highlight equity and poverty issues. Watersheds, river basins, and coastal areas offer a unit of management to meet the social and economic demands of the population, and the sustainability of ecosystems and address issues cutting across ecosystems. Partnerships operating at multiple levels are working on approaches combining the environmental and socio-economic needs of local communities using model sites to demonstrate the value of reforestation and agroforestry and other sustainable practices. An example of participatory management of natural resources is provided in the box below.

► FIGURE 53. Relationship of ecosystem services to human well-being at global, regional and local levels. Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

285

Valuing Ecosystem Services Rainfall patterns are changing in many parts of the Philippines resulting in extreme rainy seasons and long periods of drought. For the industrial pineapple and banana plantations of Bukidnon Province, Northern Mindanao, production costs have increased dramatically in search for sustained supplies of water. A solution was stimulated when it was recognized that the loss of water and increased temperature in the area are associated with the destruction of forest cover in Mounts. Kitanglad and Kalatungan (both protected areas). Consequently, funding was found to restore forest and conserve the protected areas with the aim of stabilizing the microclimate and restoring water resources and other services. Source: Mannava and Motha 2007.

There are current efforts in formulating and implementing master plans and action plans through arrangements for river basin management. A national blueprint for ecosystems management and the development of river basins has the support of a newly created River Basin Control Office and the preparation of an Integrated River Basin Management and Management Framework Plan. Integrated coastal management (ICM) has long been heralded in the Philippines as a vehicle to mainstreaming coastal and marine natural resources and the conservation of biological conservation. Executive Order No. c533 issued in 2006 mandated the adoption of ICM as the national strategy to achieve food security, sustainable livelihood, poverty alleviation, vulnerability reduction and ecological integrity. Thus, ICM is being implemented in many coastal and marine areas, addressing the inter-linkages among associated watersheds, estuaries and wetlands, and coastal seas, by all relevant national and local agencies, civil society, and the private sector. It is not, however, without its difficulties, namely the: a) varying capacity of government agencies and coastal municipalities, b) lack of a national training program in support of local coastal governance, and c) lack of sustainability after donors exit. Equally, there is no standard by which to measure ICM coverage or impact. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Philippines are integral to ICM and have been used extensively in addressing habitat degradation and decline of fish stocks. In 2007, there were an estimated 1,169 existing and 164 proposed MPAs compared to 439 existing and 139 proposed a decade ago. There was also a significant increase in size with about 48 percent within the range of 11 to 100 ha. In terms of biogeographic regions, the Central Visayas has the highest number of MPAs, comprising 286

The Philippines: A Natural History

about 24 percent of the existing 439 MPAs. Bohol has 180 MPAs, Cebu 115, Oriental Negros 40 and Siquijor 11. This is followed by the North Philippine Sea and the South China Sea regions. However, a salutary observation reports that most locally managed MPAs have little or no value in terms of biodiversity and efforts should be made to establish MPAs in areas of high biodiversity such as in biodiversity corridors. In the meantime, networking of MPAs is being employed to hasten MPA protection and management and to facilitate inter-Local Government Unit collaboration, alliances and partnerships. Value of Watershed Management to Biodiversity Conservation On Samar Island, the Samar Island Biodiversity Project (SIBP) has managed to facilitate participatory development of a 10-year general management plan for the Samar Island Natural Park (SINP)— the largest protected area in the Visayas—based on the principle of integrated watershed management. In preparing the plan, Samar Island was divided into eight major watersheds, with eight individual watershed management plans developed and Watershed Management Councils created. The individual plans were consolidated into a general management plan approved by the 301-member SINP/ Protected Area Management Board (PAMB), and endorsed to the DENR Secretary for approval. The SINP management plan will be supported by the Regional Development Council and further integrated into the various local planning processes of the province, and city/municipality. Management of the park is undertaken under four broad themes: biodiversity management, community outreach, community-based ecotourism, and stakeholder participation and management. Source: PAWB/DENR 2011.

In 2001, The Philippine Hotspot: Ecosystem Profile under the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) focused upon biological areas rather than political boundaries, conceiving each area as a “corridor” linking major conservation sites across wide geographic areas to sustain large-scale biological processes and ensure the maintenance of a high level of biodiversity in areas of intact forest habitats and marine transition zones. The aim is to establish an integrated landscape-scale program of conservation where transboundary or regional cooperation is likely to prove more effective than a local approach. The CEPF selected three terrestrial biodiversity corridors within the priority biogeographic regions, namely: Sierra Madre, Palawan and Eastern Mindanao. An example is provided in Figure 54. Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

287

Source: Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2001.

▲ FIGURE 54. Sierra Madre Corridor.

The Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) approach was initiated in the Philippines to help the government and stakeholders devise geographically specific strategies to protect individual species and safeguard representative habitats. The identification of the KBAs was undertaken in two phases: 128 terrestrial and freshwater KBAs were identified in 2006 and 123 marine KBAs in 2009 (Figure 55). A total of 228 KBAs resulted from the integration of the terrestrial, freshwater and marine KBAs and the representation of the known habitat of 855 globally important species of plants, corals, mollusks, elasmobranchs, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals in the country. Inclusion of these KBAs in the country’s protected area system is regarded as a significant step towards ensuring the conservation of the full range of the country’s natural heritage. 288

The Philippines: A Natural History

FIGURE 55. Map of the Philippines showing protected, partially protected, and unprotected KBAs.

Source: R.G.R. Ambal et al. 2012

■

KBAs are currently being used by the Philippine government to determine where biodiversity conservation projects are to be implemented. In 2006, the President signed Executive Order 578 declaring all KBAs to be “critical habitats” and directed the DENR to promulgate guidelines for their management and protection. The government also developed an agreed set of criteria to assess and prioritize conservation action and investments in KBAs. Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

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The Sierra Madre Corridor The Sierra Madre Corridor is mostly terrestrial within the Greater Luzon Biogeographic Region and largely defined by the Sierra Madre mountain range, the “backbone of Luzon.” Sierra Madre contains some 68 national parks, watershed forest reserves, natural monuments, marine reserves, protected landscapes and seascapes. Of these, the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is the largest and most important because it has served as a model for other regions in the Philippines. The corridor is not only rich in species diversity and endemism, but is home to many indigenous peoples. The forest cover in the Sierra Madre Corridor is one of the most extensive in the Philippines—about 1.4 million ha, accounting for 25 percent of the country’s forest resources, including more than 40 percent of the remaining old growth forests. Of the 13 forest types in the Philippines, 11 were reported present in the corridor, including tropical evergreen rainforest, upper and lower montane rainforests, limestone forest, forest on ultramafic substrate, beach forest, and wetlands such as mangrove forest and freshwater swamp. As a corridor, its biological importance is also due to the high plant biodiversity, with over 3,500 species recorded—representing about 45 percent of species recorded in the country. The highest number of endemic plant species is found in this corridor, with 58 percent endemism within the corridor and 41 percent relative to the national figure. Generic endemism is also high, with 68 percent of endemic genera found in the corridor. Threatened plant species in the IUCN Red List number 106—or 42 percent of the total threatened species of Philippine flora. The corridor has the highest species diversity of birds in Luzon, accounting for at least 80 percent of all resident breeding birds of Luzon. Fourteen (20 percent) of the country’s 65 threatened bird species have been recorded in Luzon. Diversity of other taxa is only partially documented, but species diversity generally is high, including 38 mammals, 40 reptiles and 17 amphibians. Five mammals and six reptiles are threatened with extinction. A total of 25 threatened higher vertebrates are present in the corridor, 75 percent of them endemic to the Philippines. The corridor has 12 species of endemic amphibians and 16 species of endemic reptile species. Of the endemic bird species recorded in Luzon, 84 are present in the corridor. At least 55 percent of the mammal species in the corridor are endemic (21 species, or 24 percent of all endemic mammals found in Luzon). Source: Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2001.

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It should be recognized that KBA identification is an iterative process. As new data become available KBA boundaries are likely to be modified and new KBAs identified. Some species may also undergo changes in their conservation status that can also affect the priority status of the KBAs they trigger. Although KBAs are heralded as a pragmatic means of conserving valuable assets, recent findings indicate that while the proportion of forest habitat cover within KBAs in Eastern Mindanao was lowest and in further decline, the rate of decline proved similar in all corridors. The rates of deforestation for Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites in the Palawan and Sierra Madre corridors are higher. In terms of change in fragmentation, edge fragmentation increased in Eastern Mindanao and Sierra Madre while it decreased in Palawan despite a slight decline in habitat cover. The changes in fragmentation in these corridors are considered small since the natural habitats are in one large patch (CI and CEPF Brochure, undated and quoted in the Assessing Progress Towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target—4th Philippine National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity [PAWB et al. 2009]). Nonetheless, the underlying trends are worrying. To meet the dependency of human communities in areas beyond KBAs requires integrating conservation with development and land use planning. This calls for identifying and adopting suitably-scaled interventions, such as the expansion of agroforestry systems to create biological corridors, simultaneously meeting explicit biodiversity targets and facilitating the enhancement or adoption of sustainable development practices. In terms of agricultural or rural landscapes, interventions to conserve biodiversity may be applied to such activities as range management, agronomy, soil and water management, climate change at habitat, and species and genetic levels. Using an ecological approach, these and other examples can provide gains in the use of biological resources, apply solutions to environmental problems such as soil erosion, water storage, surface/ground water pollution, invasive species and species loss, and promote sustainable development. They can also aid farmers and landowners adopt farming practices compatible with the requirements of protection of the environment as well as maintenance of the natural landscape for productive purposes. Studies demonstrate that some agricultural landscapes and traditional farming practices contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and to increased food production and rural livelihood. For example, agricultural landscapes with substantial tree cover serve as buffers for natural areas and contribute to maintaining natural pest management, carbon sequestration and soils and water conservation. Further, Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

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configurations connecting forest patches generally conserve more species and enhance forest regeneration and restoration leading to increased water flows. Other land uses such as agroforestry, silvo-pastoral systems and traditional agro-ecological practices (such as organic farming and polycultures) support high levels of wild and agricultural biodiversity For the most part, the loss of biodiversity and the erosion of ecosystem services are intimately related to governance where decisions at local and national levels determine the future use of natural resources and sustainable outcomes. Here the Philippine Development Plan 2011/2016 (National Economic Development Authority 2011) with its inclusive growth goal recognizes the need to improve environmental quality and enhance productivity. The preamble in Chapter 10: Conservation, Protection and Rehabilitation of the Environment and Natural Resources states: The country is widely acknowledged as having an outstanding endowment of natural resources, which could provide essential ecosystem services to the population. Demands arising from development and utilization activities, population expansion, poor environmental protection, and external factors such as climate change, however, have placed the country’s environment and natural resources under grave threat. For the medium-term, an environment that is healthy, ecologically balanced, sustainably productive, climate change resilient, and one that provides for present and future generations of Filipinos is envisioned. This vision will be pursued through an integrated and community-based ecosystems approach to environment and natural resources management, a precautionary approach to the environment and natural resources, sound environmental impact assessment (EIA) and cost-benefit analysis (CBA). These, then, are all anchored on the principles of shared responsibility, good governance, participation, social and environmental justice, intergenerational space and gender equity, with people at the core of conservation, protection and rehabilitation, and developmental initiatives.

Under a Strategic Framework, Chapter 10 of the Plan directs attention to achieving three discrete goals: improved conservation, protection and rehabilitation of remaining natural resources; improved environmental quality for a cleaner and healthier environment; and, enhanced resilience of natural systems and improved 292

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adaptive capacities of human communities to cope with environmental hazards, including climate-related risks. To achieve these goals, the following cross cutting strategies will be pursued: • Effective environmental governance; • Continued institutional strengthening and capability building; • Research, development, extension and knowledge management; and, • Environment and natural resource financing. Key actions on biodiversity conservation are stipulated and the Philippine Development Plan notes that “to push forward sustainable management of the country’s environment and natural resources,” the passage of priority legislation should be pursued in favor of the following legislation: • Sustainable Forest Bill; • Marine Pollution Bill; • Permanent Forestline Bill; • Bills on Enactment of Priority Protected Areas; • Integrated Coastal Management Bill; • Environment Code for Local Government Units; and, • Marine Protected Areas Bill The vision of the PDP’s conservation goals is to be applauded but political will is the grist mill of implementation and we have to hope it will not be found wanting.

Codicil In drawing to a close, we should note the exceptional efforts by local communities and NGOs helping conserve species and habitats. Their help with the recovery of the Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), Visayan wrinkled hornbill (Aceros waldeni), the Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) and Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) provide success stories that give us hope. We may also take heart in the steady emergence of environmental consciousness and understanding advanced by some government departments, national and international NGOs, and community organizations. Through their concerted actions government agencies are being increasingly held to account in implementing environmental policies and laws and recognizing the value of biodiversity for future generations. Devolution of responsibilities has allowed local governments to enforce Chapter 13. Conserving the Natural Environment

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Wa l d e n % 2 7 s _ h o r n b i l l # / m e d i a / File:A_waldeni_flying.jpg

Walden’s Hornbill The Philippine Endemic Species Conservation Project is supporting the critically endangered Walden’s hornbill (Aceros waldeni) on the island of Panay. In the late 90s, the population of this species was estimated at 60 to 80 pairs across its entire range. A nest-protection program, started with the protection of 32 nests in 2002, reported 502 successful broods in 2006. Recent work in the Central Panay Mountain Range saw the number of occupied nest holes increase to 1,108 in 2008 achieved largely through a highly successful nest guarding scheme involving local communities. The project has also helped enforce actions to control illegal logging and supported the conservation of endangered wildlife on the island. Despite unconfirmed records from Balinsasayao Twin Lakes Natural Park and Calinawan Forest, the species may be functionally extinct on Negros Island. Source: Alabado et al. 2009.

environmental regulations and begin to adopt a more systemic approach to sustaining ecological services and to mobilize grassroots experience and commitment. Progress with protected areas management continues to be slow with more than 300 parks included or being considered in the protected areas system of which 160 (58 percent) fall under the IUCN categories I-V for terrestrial protected areas. Some marine protected areas, designed with “no take” zones (with local fisherman responsible for enforcing restrictions), have witnessed enhanced resource production by fishing communities backed by the implementation of local government ordinances. However, this remains localized and there has to be substantive scaling up for this approach to natural resources management to be successful at the national level. 294

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Valuable contributions to understanding the needs of biodiversity conservation are being made by Filipino and international biologists. The information base is steadily improving and increasingly rigorous enough to inform the designation of protected areas and specifying management arrangements for the protection of endangered species and their habitats. Professional organizations are growing in influence and networking is proving effective, mediated in part through environmental networks and annual symposia on conservation and interest by the media. The use of information on the natural environment is helping enhance the rigor of environmental assessments and has the potential of better informing debate and influencing decision-making. While positive gains have been made substantial challenges remain. During the last few decades, conservation policies and programs in the Philippines have been enunciated in many national development plans and strategy documents and national conferences. However, these initiatives have seldom been successfully implemented because they have been conceived without a proper understanding of the issues involved and have not been adequately supported by regulations or commitments necessary for sustained support. Moreover, institutional fragmentation and lack of coordination frustrates the adoption of a cohesive and consistent approach. Nevertheless, experience around the world suggests that there are a common set of actions that could help in fashioning and implementing the conservation of biodiversity in the Philippines. These include: achieving greater integration of conservation considerations when fashioning government policies, programs and projects; adopting anticipatory and preventive strategies involving environmental planning and management; promoting more effective techniques or tools to help decision-making concerning the use of natural resources and protecting biodiversity; and, improving the enforcement of environmental policies tailored to local problems and circumstances. The values and considerations, on which a national environmental policy should be based, ought to be as extensive as the values and considerations that people seek to realize in the environment. Conservation science can play an important role in interpreting these values and considerations but neither science nor any other field of knowledge or experience can provide all the criteria upon which environmental policies are based. Consequently, the full range and contribution of the sciences and the humanities must be used in providing the informational basis upon which environmental policies are built.

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Innovation, as well as restructuring policy-forming institutions will be required to implement national environmental policies. The extent to which governmental reorganization may be necessary cannot be determined entirely in advance of experience. However, it does seem probable that some new facility at the highest level of policy formulation is needed so that environmental policies cutting across the jurisdiction of existing agencies can be identified and analyzed. Then, the complex problems involved in our relationships with our environment can be reduced to questions and issues that can be studied, debated and acted upon at the highest levels. It is simply unrealistic for governments, international organizations or other institutions to be involved in every aspect of protecting the natural environment. It therefore falls to the individual to adopt values and attitudes that guide conduct in relation to the environment along mutually beneficial lines. This is made all the more imperative given the precarious state of the natural environment in the archipelago and the undermining of future prospects. Many of the tools are in place— national and local conservation strategies, sustainable resource use practices, the traditional wisdom of the small farmer and ancient cultures and modern technology for information systems and remote sensing. These now need to be integrated into a coherent whole. That is the challenge before the people of the Philippines.

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Appendix 1

Summary of Geological Timescale and Events Relevant to the Philippines Over the Last 350 Million Years

Era

Period

Millions of years ago

Epoch

Holocene

0.01

Modern man

Pleistocene

3

Man’s earliest ancestors

Pliocene

10

Large carnivores

Miocene

25

Abundant grazing animals

Oligocene

40

Large running animals

Eocen

60

Many modern types of mammals evolve

Palaeocene

70

First placental mammals

Cretaceous

145

First flowering plants and extinction of dinosaurs at end of period

Jurassic

195

First birds and mammals; dinosaurs abundant

Triassic

250

First dinosaurs; abundant cycads and conifers

280

Extinction of many forms of marine animals; rise of reptiles

350

Great coal-forming conifer forests; first reptiles

Quaternary

Cenozoic

Mesozoic

Tertiary

Permian

Paleozoic

Biological events

Carboniferous

297

Appendix 2

Conservation Priority Areas for Plants (Important Plant Areas or Important Plant Sites)

Sequence Number

298

Important Plant Area

Island (Province)

1

Batanes Islands Protected Landscape and Seascape

Batanes Islands

2

Peaks of Central Cordillera (above 1000 masl)

Luzon (Abra, Mt Province, Benguet, Ifugao, Ilocus Sur Provinces).

3

Mt. Arayat National Park

Luzon (Tarlac, Pampanga, and Nueva Ecija)

4

Bataan Natural Park & Subic Bay Forest Reserve

Luzon (Bataan and Zambales

5

Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve

Luzon (Batangas and Laguna)

6

Mt. Palaypalay – Mt Mataas na Gulod National Park

Luzon (Cavite and Batangas)

7

Mt. Isarog National Park

Luzon (Camarines Sur)

8

Mt. Halcon

Mindoro (Mindoro Occidental and Mindoro Oriental)

9

Naujan Lake National Park

Mindoro (Mindoro Oriental)

10

Sibuyan Island

Sibuyan Is. (Romblon)

11

Central Panay Mountains: Madjaas-Baloi Complex

Panay (Aklan, Capiz, Antique, and Iloilo)

12

Mt. Canlaon National Park Negros

Negros (Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental)

13

Mt. Cabalantian – Mt. Capotoan Complex

Samar (Samar, Eastern Samar, and Northern Samar)

14

Dinagat (Mt. Kambinlio & Mt. Redondo)

Mindanao (Surigao del Norte)

15

Mimbilisan Protected Landscape

Mindanao (Misamis Oriental)

16

North Diwata (Bislig, Mt. Agtuuganon – Mt. Pasian)

Mindanao (Agusan Del Sur)

17

Mt. Kaluayan – Kinabalian (Kimangkil Ridge), Bukidnon – Agusan del Norte border

Mindanao (Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, Davao, Davao del Sur, Agusan del Norte, and Agusan del Sur)

18

Mt. Kitanglad

Mindanao (Bukidnon)

19

Mt. Kalatungan Range

Mindanao (Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, Lanao del Norte, and Lanao del Sur)

The Philippines: A Natural History

20

Munai Tambo Complex (Kolambugan uplands and associated mountains

Mindanao (Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur)

21

Lake Lanao

Mindanao (Lanao del Sur)

22

Mt. Piagayungan (Ragang) Complex

Mindanao (Bukidnon, North Cotabato, Lanao del Sur and Maguindanao)

23

Mt. Butig / Lake Butig National Park

Mindanao (Lanao del Sur and Maguindanao

24

Marilog Forest Reserve, Bukidnon – Davao boundary

25

Mt. Apo Range

Mindanao (North Cotabato and Davao del Sur)

26

Mt. Matutum

Mindanao (North Cotabato, Davao del Sur, Sarangani, South Cotabato, and Sultan Kudarat

27

Mt. Latian Complex (Sarangani Mountains)

Mindanao (Davao del Sur and Sarangani)

28

Mt. Malindang and Lake Duminagat

Mindanao (Misamis Occidental and Zamboanga del Norte)

29

Isabela – Sierra Madre

Luzon (Isabela)

30

Aurora

Sierra Madre Luzon (Aurora)

31

Mt. Tapulao

Luzon (Zambales)

Mindanao (Davao and Davao del Sur)

32

Northern Quezon (Central Sierra Madre) Luzon (Quezon)

33

Southern Quezon (Central Sierra Madre)

Luzon (Quezon

34

Bicol National Park – Mt. Lobo

Luzon (Camarines Sur)

35

Calamianes

Calamian Islands (Palawan)

36

Northern Palawan

Palawan

37

Central Palawan

Palawan

38

Southern Palawan, including Balabac Group of Islands

Palawan

39

Cuernos de Negros Region Negros

(Negros Oriental)

40

Sohoton – Loquilocon area

Samar (Eastern Samar and Western Samar)

41

Mt. Pangasugan and Anonang – Lobi Range

Leyte

42

Mt. Hibok-hibok

Camiguin Island (Misamis Oriental)

43

Tawi-tawi

Tawi-tawi S o u r c e : ( D E N R - P AW B , C I a n d U P - C I D S 2 0 0 2 ) .

Appendix 2

299

Declining forest cover

Problem

.

Secondary forest recovering; old – growth forest still losing ground.

Only 7.2 million of the 17.1 million hectares of forest remain; resource degradation, including loss of associated ecosystem services.

Extent/Degree of the Problem Population pressures; slash-andburn cultivation; illegal logging; poor management of forestlands (including tenure and enforcement of logging techniques); reforestation and land management; promotion of community forestry; weak implementation due to inadequate capacity at national and local levels.

Main Causes Revised Forestry Code (Presidential Decree 705); Community-based Forest Management (Executive Order 263); Local Government Code (RA 7160); National Forestry Action Plan (1995).

Policy, legal, and planning arrangements Uncertainty over rates of change in forest cover to be addressed; clarification of tenure arrangements and benefits; better control of illegal logging and application of sustainable forest management; adoption of community forestry; enhanced appreciation of linkages of natural resources management and biodiversity conservation to economic development.

Opportunities

Strengthen land use planning, zoning, especially for natural resources, including biodiversity; harmonize land use policies and plans, including laws for tenure.

Policy, legal, and planning response

Strengthen local government agencies’ capacity for natural resources management and biodiversity conservation.

Institutional and capacity building response

Examination of Environmental Issues, Causes, Legal Instruments, Opportunities, Needed Responses, and Institutional Capacity

Appendix 3

Loss of species and natural habitats

3,659 hectares of land converted each year; 284 species considered endangered (highest per unit area in the world).

Population pressures; encroachments; slash-andburn cultivation; poaching and illegal wildlife trade; unregulated land conversion; conflicting deve­lopment goals between levels of government.

National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act (Republic Act 7586); Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (Republic Act 9147); National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (1997) and its update the Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priority-Setting Program (2001); the Key Biodiversity Areas approach .

Use of legislation, local governments and communities, and national and international conservation organizations to help implement effective measures to reverse the loss of species and habitats; more effective implementation of the Plan of Action under the Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Plan of Action (1997)

Mainstream conservation of critical habitat in national policy and planning at national and local levels; rationalize institutional responsibility for resource utilization and conservation; better enforcement of environmental laws; stronger interagency cooperation to combat environmental crimes

Enhance the capacity of local government agencies for more integrated management of protected areas, including monitoring and enforcement to control poaching and other violations; promote government /public awareness of the importance of protected areas and species and habitat conservation programs, enhance research surveys and information and knowledge management .

Declining coastal and marine resources

Seagrass beds: conversion for aquaculture, impacts of land-based pollution and sedimentation.

Mangroves: less than 5% of mangrove cover are old growth.

Coral reefs: only 0.24% of coral reefs in excellent condition; Philippines lies in the “Coral Triangle” – epicenter of global marine biodiversity.

Fish stocks: decline of both inshore and offshore stocks. Population pressures and unsustainable practices producing major depletion problems and damage to coastal systems: overfishing and use of illegal and destructive fishing methods; dynamiting of coral reefs and use of cyanide; pollution of mangrove and conversion for aquaculture or for forest products; coastal strip development, including tourism; threat to species and habitats; lack of capacity to manage coastal resources management and fragmented approach.

Republic Act 8550 (1998): Fisheries Code; Executive Order 533 (2006): Integrated Coastal Management; Exploration, Exploitation, Utilization and Conservation of Corals (Presidential Decree 1219); Marine Pollution Decree (Presidential Decree 979).

Coastal protection; education and research; ecotourism; support to Fishery Conservation Program; registration and licensing of national and local fisheries, including limiting entry to open access fishery; expanded network of marine protected areas; integrated planning of environmentally-sensitive aquaculture; protection of most endangered species.

Mainstream conservation of critical habitat in national policy and planning at national and local levels; rationalize institutional responsibility for resource utilization and conservation.

Enhance the capacity of local government agencies for more integrated management of coastal and marine resources.

Land and water management

Water; 11 of 88 rivers biologically dead while 34 have high or slight pollution; siltation and sedimentation reduction of available freshwater quantity/quality; saline intrusion.

Land: 70 % of land area suffers from severe erosion and land degradation; loss of vegetative cover; waterlogging of soils, salinization and compaction; downstream (offsite) costs/ impacts: rivers, wetlands and coastal waters (including coral reefs); siltation; flooding; application of pesticides and fertilizer; loss of genetic diversity of wild races. Pollution; population pressures, especially in upland areas, inducing degradation of surface and ground water resources; unregulated use of farm inputs. Water Code (Presidential Decree 1067); Clean Water Act (Republic Act 9275); River Basin Management and Development Master Plan (2008).

Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (Republic Act 8345); People’s Small-Scale Mining Act (Republic Act 7076); Philippine Mining Act (Republic Act 7942).

Implementation of soil conservation programs (e.g., contour technology); explore tenure ( property; rights) approaches shift to permanent crops; consider payments for ecological services; develop watershed –based integrated water resources management frameworks

Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (Republic Act 8345); People’s Small-Scale Mining Act (Republic Act 7076); Philippine Mining Act (Republic Act 7942)

Enhance the capacity of local government agencies for more integrated land and water management.

Vulnerability to impacts of climate change: temperature, precipitation, and sea level

Under appreciation of the cumulative impacts of development activities

Climate change

Fragmented natural resources use Inconsistent and overlapping and uncoordinated policies/regulations; management by sectors; weak capacity for cross-sectoral management

Impacts on forestry, water resources, coastal areas, species and habitats; health; lack of linkage of climate change trends with available information on environment capacity for mainstreaming of climate concerns

Philippine Council for Sustainable Development (1992); Presidential Task Force on Climate Change (2007); Advisory Council on Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Communication.; partnerships with international organizations (e.g., ADB, World Bank)

Effective implementation of: Integrated Coastal Resource Management; Integrated Protected Area System; watershed management plans; forest management plans; Environmental Policy Act

Climate adaption at national and local levels; implementation of the Philippine Climate Change Strategic Framework and Action Plan; integration of climate change response in public sector decision-making processes; mitigation activities in addition to current attention to agriculture sector to involve reforestation, fisheries, coastal management and water resources management. Legislative review and revision of laws and regulations in favor of integration of sectors’ mandates and approaches to natural resources management and conservation; institutionalize coordination/co-management; capacity development

Philippine Council for Sustainable Development (1992); Presidential Task Force on Climate Change (2007); Advisory Council on Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Communication; partnerships with international organizations (e.g., ADB, World Bank)

Upgrade/build decision-making tools to foster mainstreaming of climate risk management at national and local levels

Appendix 4

Tagalog, English, and Scientific Names Cited in the Text

Tagalog Name

English Name

Scientific Name

abang-abang

red leea

Leea spp.

abukay

red-vented cockatoo

Cacatua haematuropygia

atchuete

annatto

Bixa orellana

agamids

dragons or dragon lizards

Calotes spp. and Gonyocephalus spp.

aglaia

aglaia

Aglaia argentea

agoho

iron wood

Casuarina equisetifolia

alagaw

fragrant premna

Premna odorata

alal

Benguet pine

Pinus insularis

alibangbang

Malabar orchid

Bauhinia malabarica

aliyakyak

parrotfish

Bolbometopon muricatum

alkaak

gutta-percha

Palaquium gigantifolium

almaciga

almaciga

Agathis philippinensis

anonang

fragrant manjack

Cordia dichotoma

annonas

custard apple

Annona reticulata

api-api

white mangrove

Avicennia manna

apitong

Philippine gurjun

Dipterocarpus grandiflorus

aragan

sargassum

Sargassum spp.

ararusep/ar-arosep/lato/ arosep

sea grapes, green caviar

Caulerpa spp.

arius

wild ornamental podocarpus

Podocarpus spp.

atis

sugar apple, sweetsop

Annona squamosa

ayapana

ayapana tree

Ayapana triplinervis

ayungin

silver perch

Leiopotherapon plumbeus

baboy kalasanon

bearded pig

Sus barbatus

bagoadlau

bagoadlau

Xanthostemon philippinensis

bagokbo

red grass

Themeda triandra

bagokbok

oat grass

Themeda triandra

bagtikan

white seraya

Parashorea malaanonan

Appendix 4

305

bakauan

red mangrove

Rhizophora mangle

bakawan gubat

corkwood

Carallia brachiata

balakbak

yellow pea bush

Symplocos cannabina

balbalulang

Hydroclathrus spp.

balete

wild fig

Ficus balete

balimbing

carambola, starfruit

Averrhoa carambola

balinsasayaw

edible-nest swiftlet

Collocalia fuciphaga

balobo

Balobo tree

Diplodiscus paniculatus

banak

sea/flathead mullet

Mugil cephalus

bangus

milkfish

Chanos chanos

banka

Leichhardt tree

Nauclea orientalis

bansalagin

Asian bulletwood

Mimusops parvifolia

banuyo

derham mahogany

Wallaceodendron celebicum

batao

hyacinth bean

Lablab purpureus

batete

batete

Kingiodendron alternifolium

bayanti

Homolanthus spp.

bignai or bignay

Bignay, Chinese-laurel

Antidesma bunius

bilang tahanan hinabi hibla

water hyacinth

Eichhornia crassipes

bilaw

Chinese silver grass

Miscanthus sinensis

binau

Philippine brown deer

Cervus mariannus

binturong

Palawan bearcat

Arctictis binturong

binuñgang-malapad

nasturtium tree

Macaranga grandifolia

bisugo

threadfin breams

Nemipteridae

buho

Chinese water bamboo

Dracaena braunii

bunga

areca palm, areca nut palm, betel palm,

Areca catechu

botong

fish poison tree

Barringtonia asiatica

butaan

Gray’s monitor

Varanus olivaceus

butanding

whale shark

Rhincodon typus

butiki

common house gecko

Hemidactylus frenatus

butones butones

purple nutsedge

Cyperus spp.

buwaya

Philippine crocodile

Crocodylus mindorensis

capiz

windowpane oyster

Placuna placenta

catang-catang

beach morning glory

Ipomaea pes-caprae

chico

sapodilla

Manilkara sapota

colasisi

Camiguin hanging parrot

Loriculus camiguinensis

dalag

Snakehead fish

Channa striata

dalagang bukid

blue and gold fusiliers

Caesio caerulaurea

dao

Pacific walnut

Dracontomelon dao

dapdap

coral tree

Erythrina variegata var. ­orientalis

306

The Philippines: A Natural History

dayungon

conifer, almacega

Agathis dammara

dugong or baboy-dagat

manatee

Dugong dugon

duhat

jambolan

Syzygium cumini

duklitan

Planchonella sp.

dungong-late

looking-glass tree

Heritiera littoralis

gulaman

gracillaria

Gracillaria spp.

gamet

hitoegusa

Monostroma nitidum

guijo

red balau

Shorea guiso

guyabano

soursop

Annona muricata

halaan, tulya

Asian clam, Asiatic clam. golden clam

Corbicula fluminea

haribon

Philippine eagle

Pithecophaga jefferyi

hito

walking catfish

Clarius batrachus

igat

giant mottled eel

Anguilla marmorata

iguem

Podocarpus spp.

ilang-ilang

ylang-ylang

Cananga odorata

ipil-ipil

white lead tree

Leucaena leucocephala

iso or aloso

mangrove red snapper

Lutjanus argentimaculatus

kaatoan bangkal

common bur-flower

Nauclea cadamba

kagang-bugtong

Zosimus aeneus

kagwang

Philippine flying lemur

Cynocephalus volans

kaimito

star apple

Chrysophyllum cainito

kalachuchi

frangipani

Plumeria rubra

kalamansi

calamondin

Citrofortunella microcarpa

kalantas

kalantas, Philippine cedar

Toona calantas

kalimug

saurauia

Saurauia spp.

kalukag / kalugi

Mindanao flying squirrel

Petinomys crinitus

kalumpang

skunk tree

Sterculia foetida

kamagon

ebony or persimmon tree

Diospyros philippinensis

kamagong, mabolo, tálang

butterfruit, velvet apple

Diospyros blancoi

kamias

bilimbi, cucumber tree, or tree sorrel

Averrhoa bilimbi

kamote

sweet potatoes

Ipomoea batatas

kanaway

terns

Sternidae

kangkong

water spinach, river spinach, water morning glory

Ipomoea aquatica

kanuping

sweetlips emperors

Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides

kappa-kapa

Philippine Orchid

Medinilla magnifica

karamai

Malay gooseberry

Phyllanthus acidus

karpa

carp

Labeo rohita

katmon

elephant apple

Dillenia philippinensis

katurai

Agate, hummingbird tree

Sesbania grandiflora

Appendix 4

307

kawayan kiling

golden bamboo

Bambusa vulgaris

kawayan tinik

spiny bamboo

Bambusa spinosa

kondol

winter melon

Benincasa hispida

kugon

cogon grass

Imperata cylindrica

kuyab

grey-faced buzzard

Butastur indicus

lampakanay

bulrush

Typha spp.

langka

jackfruit

Artocarpus heterophyllus

lansones, boboa, buahan

langsat

Lansium domesticum

lapu-lapu

groupers

Epinephelinae spp.

lauan

lauan

Shorea palita

lauan-blanco

white lauan

Shorea contorta

lingo-lingo

Viticipremna philippinensis

lipa

stinging herb

Laportea spp.

liwalo

climbing perch

Anabus testudineus

ludong

lobed river mullet

Cestraeus plicatilis

lumbia

true sago palm

Metroxylon sagu

madre cacao

gliricidia

Gliricidia sepium

makopa

Malay apple

Syzygium malaccense

malabayabas

brush box

Tristaniopsis decorticata

malakanayan

Podocarpus rumphii

malapinggan, malasamat

Gonocaryum spp.

malatabang

red lauan

Shorea negrosensis

maliputo

giant trevally

Caranx ignobilis

malunggai

horse-radish tree

Moringa oleifera

mameng

humphead wrasse

Cheilinus undulatus

manayti

arctic warbler

Phylloscopus borealis

mancono

Xanthostemon verdugonianum

mangal

mangrove forests

Various species, including Rhizophoraceae

mangga

mango

Mangifera indica

manggachapui, dalingdingan

Hopea acuminata

manggustan

saptree

Garcinia spp.

mangongot

scrambling clerodendrum

Clerodendrum spp.

mani

peanut

Arachis hypogaea

marang

johey oak

Artocarpous odoratissimus

mawmag

Philippine tarsier

Tarsius syrichta

maya-maya

red snapper

Lutjanus campechanus

molave, sagat

molave tree

Vitex parviflora

narig

thick-leafed narig.

Vatica pachyphylla

narra

amboine

Pterocarpus indicus

orbitaog

beach callophyllum

Callophyllum inophyllum

308

The Philippines: A Natural History

paayap

cow pea

Vigna sinensis

pabukang–benhi

freshwater moray eel

Gymnothorax tile

pagatpat

mangrove apple

Sonneratia alba

pakpak lawin

oak leaf fern

Drynaria quercifolia

pakpak-lauin

bird’s nest fern

Asplenium nidus

palakang saging

common tree frog

Polypedates leucomystax

palis

Malabar hoary

Callicarpa spp.

palos

rice eel

Monopterus albus

palosapis

Anisoptera thurifera

pandakaki-puti

banana bush

Tabernaemontana spp.

pandan

screw pine

Pandanus tectorius

pantat

slender walking catfish

Clarius nieuhofii

pataning dagat

beach bean

Canavalia obtusifolia

pating

bull shark

Carcharhinus leucas

patola

bath sponge

Luffa acutangula

patolang-uak

luffa

Luffa cylindrica

pawikan

green sea turtle

Chelonia mydas

wombok

Chinese cabbage

Brassica rapa

phalsa, falsa

Raisin bush

Grewia spp

pilandok

Philippine mouse deer/ Balabac chevrotain

Tragulus nigricans

pili

pili nut

Canarium ovatum

pitogo

queen sago

Cycas rumphii

piyagaw

puzzlenut tree

Xylocarpus moluccensis

rakrakit

oriental reed warbler

Acrocephalus orientalis

rimas

breadfruit

Artocarpus altiis

rupropook

eucheuma

Eucheuma spp.

salumbakutin

Mindanao tree shrew

Urogale everetti

sambali

Mindoro pine

Pinus merkusii

sangumai/sanggumay

unscented dendrobium

Dendrobium anosmum

santol

santol or cottonfruit

Sandoricum koetjape

sasala

collared kingfisher

Todiramphus chloris

sawah

padi rice

sinarapan

sinarapan

Misticthys luzonensis

siniguelas

Spanish plum

Spondias purpurea

soro-soro

Indian spurge tree

Euphorbia trigona

supa

kerosene tree

Sindora supa

tabao

black mangrove

Lumnitzera littorea

tabigi

cannonball mangrove

Xylocarpus granatum

tabios

dwarf pygmy goby

Pandaka pygmaea

tabios

goby sinarapan

Mistichthys luzonensis

Appendix 4

309

tabog

glutinous swinglea

Swinglea glutinosa

tagak

egrets

Egretta grazetta, E. alba

tagan

freshwater sawfish

Pristis microdon

tahong

Asian green mussel

Perna perfoliatum

taklobo

giant clam

Tridacna gigas

talaba

Pacific oyster

Crassostrea gigas

talahib

wild sugarcane

Saccharum spontaneum

talibungkok

Mindanao gymnure

Podogymnura truei

talisay

beach almond

Terminalia catappa

talong

eggplant

Solanum melongena

tamaraw

tamaraw or Mindoro dwarf buffalo

Bubalus mindorensis

tambalingan

Philippine pygmy squirrel

Exilisciurus concinnus

tambo

common reed

Phragmites spp.

tangal

yellow mangrove

Ceriops tagal

tangalung

Malay civet

Viverra tangalunga

tangigue

Spanish mackerel

Scomberomorus commerson

tangile

dark-red Philippine mahogany

Shorea polysperma

tanguingue

black snoek

Thyrsitoides marleyi

tapulao

Mindoro pine

Pinus merkusii

tarinting

plovers

Charadriidae

tatus or umang

coconut or robber crab

Birgus latro

tawilis

freshwater sardine

Sardinella tawilis

tibig

sacking tree

Ficus nota

tikling

barred rail

Gallirallus torquatus

tilapya

tilapia

Cichlidae

tindalo

Malacca-teak

Afzelia rhomboidea

to-ob

common moorhen

Gallinula chloropus

trepang

sea cucumber, beche- demer

Holothuroidea

tubog

tubog tree, fig tree

Ficus variegata

ulupong

Philippine spitting cobra

Naja philippinensis

unggoy

long-tailed macaque

Macaca fascicularis

valichit

brown-headed thrush

Turdus chrysolaus

voyavoy

voiavoi

Phoenix hanceana var. philippinensis

waling-waling

Sander’s euanthe

Vanda sanderiana

yakal, yakal mabolo yanipo

310

Shorea laevis Terminalia

The Philippines: A Natural History

Terminalia copelandii

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Biogeography

Alcala, A. C. 1976. Philippine land vertebrates: Field biology. Quezon City: New Day. Bickford, D., D. Iskandar, and A. Barlian. 2008. Lungless frog discovered on Borneo. Current Biology 18:R374–R375. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.03.010. Bickford, D., D. Blackburn, A. Diesmos, D. Iskandar, and R. Brown. 2010. An ancient origin for the enigmatic flat-headed frogs (Bombinatoridae: Barbourula) from the islands of Southeast Asia. PLoS ONE August 5 e12090. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012090. Dickerson, R. S., E. D. Merrill, R. C. McGregor, W. Schultze, E. Taylor, and A. W. Herre. 1928. Distribution of life in the Philippines. Philippine Bureau of Science, Monograph 21. Repr. Manila: Bookmark. Heaney, L. R. 1985. Zoogeographic evidence for Middle and Late Pleistocene land bridges to the Philippine Islands. Modern Quarternary Research S. E. Asia 9: 127–43. ———. 1986. Biogeography of mammals in Southeast Asia: Estimates of rates of colonization, extinction and speciation. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 28: 127–65. Heaney, L. R., and R. C. B. Utzurrum. 1992. A review of the conservation status of Philippine land mammals. Association of Systematic Biologists of the Philippines Communications 3: 1–13. Heaney, L. R., and J. C. Regalado Jr. 1998. Vanishing treasures of the Philippine rainforest. Chicago: The Field Museum. McGuire, J. A., and K. B. Heang. 2001. Phylogenetic systematics of Southeast Asian flying lizards (Iguania: Agamidae: Draco) as inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 72: 203–29. Morgan, J. R., and M. J. Valencia. 1983. Atlas for marine policy in Southeast Asian Seas. Berkeley: University of California Press. Oliveros, C. H., and R. G. Moyle. 2010. Origin and diversification of Philippine bulbuls. Mole­ cular Phylogenetics and Evolution 54: 822–32. Peterson, A. T., L. G. Ball and K. W. Brady. 2000. Distribution of the birds of the Philippines: Biogeography and conservation priorities. Bird Conservation International 10: 149–67. Roberts, T. E. 2006. Multiple levels of allopatric divergence in the endemic Philippine fruit bat Haplonycteris fischeri (Pteropodidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 88: 329–49. Sinha, C. C., and L. R. Heaney. 2006. Philippine biodiversity: Principles and practice. Manila: Haribon Foundation. Steppan, S. J., C. Zawadzki, and L. R. Heaney. 2003. Molecular phylogeny of the endemic Philippine rodent Apomys (Muridae) and the dynamics of diversification in an oceanic archipelago. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 80: 699–715.

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Flora

Asis, C. V. 1971. Plants of the Philippines. Manila: U.P. Science Education Center. Baguinon, N. T., M. O. Quimado, and G. J. Francisco. 2005. Country report on forest invasive species in the Philippines. University of the Philippines-Los Baños, Forest Management Bureau, and DENR. Bartram, E. 1939. Mosses of the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science 68: 1–4. Brown, W. H. 1919. Vegetation of the Philippine mountains: The relation between the environment and physical types at different attitudes. Manila: Bureau of Printing. Copeland, E. B. 1958. Fern flora of the Philippines. 3 vols. Institute of Science and Technology, Monograph B. Manila: Bureau of Printing. Corlett, R., and R. Primack. 2005. Dipterocarps: Trees that dominate the Asian rain forest. Arnoldia 63: 2/7. Cox, R. 1988. The conservation status of biological resources in the Philippines. Gland, CH: IUCN. de Guzman, E. D., R. M. Umali, and E. D. Sotalbo. 1986. Dipterocarps and non-dipterocarps. Vol. 3. of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources, and University of the Philippines. del Rosario, R. 1978. Bryophytes. Vol. 9 of Guide to Philippine fauna and flora. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources, and University of the Philippines. Dogma, I. J., G. C. Trono Jr., and R. del Rosario. 1986. Zoosporic fungi, seaweeds and endemic mosses. Vol. 1. of Guide to Philippine fauna and flora. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources, and University of the Philippines. Fernando, E. S. 2005. Philippine plant conservation strategy and action plan. Symposium conducted by the Forests and Natural Resources Research Society of the Philippines, Laguna. ———. 2009. Habitats of Philippine Dipterocarps. Soil and Water Conservation Foundation. Flora Malesiana. Series I: Volume 11-1 (1992), 11-2 (1993), 11-3 (1994), 12-1 (1995), 12-2 (1996), 13 (1997), 14 (2000), 15 (2001); Series II: Volume 2-1 (1991), 3 (1998). Fortes, M. D. 1989. Seagrasses: A resource unknown in the ASEAN region. ICLARM Education Series 5. International Center for Living Resources Management, Manila. Galende, P. G., L. P. R. Santiago, D. A. Madulid, and R. M. del Rosario. 1993. Flora de Filipinas, Vol. 1, by Padre Manual Blanco. Intramuros Manila: St Agustin Convent. Ivey, C. T., and N. DeSilva. 2001. A test of the function of drip tips. Biotropica 33(1): 188–91. Jacobs, M. 1972. The plant world on Luzon’s highest mountains. Leiden: Rijks Herbarium. Johns, R. J. 1995. Endemism in the Malesian flora. Curtis’s Botantical Magazine 12(2): 95–110. Kienholz, R. 1926. An ecological-anatomical study of beach vegetation in the Philippines. Proceeding of the American Philosophical Society, 65, no. 5: 58–100. Madulid, D. A. 1982. Plants in peril. The Filipinas Journal of Science and Culture 3: 8–16. ———. 1989. The flora of the Philippines project (abstract). Flora Malesiana Symposium, Leiden. ———. 2000. Philippine plants: Endangered plants. Manila: Island Publishing House. Merrill, E. D. 1912. A flora of Manila. Manila: Bureau of Printing. ———. 1947. Philippine moss flora. Philippine Journal of Science 50 (1): 4–13. 314

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———. 1981. Plant life of the Pacific world. Vermont: Charles Tuttle. Melana, E. E. 1994. Mangrove ecosystem: Concept and some implications to rehabilitation and management. In Proceedings of the Conference: FSP-DENR Component Trainor’s Training for CBMFM Nov. 21–Dec. 2, Lucena City. Pelser, P. B., J. F. Barcelona, and D. L. Nickrent, eds. 2011. Co’s digital flora of the Philippines. http://www.philippineplants.org. Primavera, J. H., and R. B. Sabada. 2012. Beach forest species and mangrove associates in the Philippines. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department. Santos, J. V., E. D. de Guzman, and E. S. Fernando. 1986. Bamboos, grasses and palms. Vol. 4 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines. Science Education Center. 1980. Plants of the Philippines. Repr. Quezon City: U.P. Science Education Center. Sohmer, S. H. 1989. Basic concepts for a flora of the Philippines. Flora Malesiana Bulletin 10: 138–41. Steiner, M. L. 1960. Philippine ornamental plants and their care. 2nd ed. Manila: Philippine Education Division. Tan, B. C., and J. P. Rojo. 1989. The Philippines. In Floristic inventory of tropical countries, edited by D. G. Campbell and D. Hammond. New York: New York Botanical Garden. University of the Philippines Science Education Center. 1971. Plants of the Philippines. Manila: M and L Licudine Enterprises. Whitford, H. N. 1911. The forests of the Philippines. Philippine Bureau of Forestry Bulletin 10: 113. Whitmore, T. C. 1984. Tropical rain forests of the Far East. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Zamora, P. M. 1984. Philippine mangroves: Assessment of status, environmental problems and conservation and management strategies. In Asian Symposium on Mangrove Environment: Research and Management, edited by E. Soepadmo, A. N. Rao and D. J. MacIntosh. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Zamora, P. M., and L. Co. 1986. Economic ferns, endemic ferns and gymnosperms. Vol. 2 of Guide to Philippine fauna and flora. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines.

Mammals

Ministry of Natural Resources. 1979. Philippine mammals: Nature’s treasures. Quezon City: Ministry of Natural Resources. Heaney, L. R., M. L. Dolar, D. S. Balete, J. A. Esselstyn, E. A. Rickart, and J. L. Sedlock. 2013. Synopsis of Philippine mammals. Field Museum website. http://www.fieldmuseum.org/ philippine_mammals/. Heaney, L. R., D. S. Balete, E. A. Rickart, P. A. Alviola, M. R. M. Duya, M. V. Duya, M. J. Veluz, L. VandeVrede, and S. J. Steppan. 2011. Seven new species and a new subgenus of forest mice (Rodentia: Muridae: Apomys). Luzon Island Fieldiana Life and Earth Sciences 2: 1–60. Rabor, D. S. 1977. Philippine birds and mammals. Quezon City: U. P. Science Education Center. ———. 1986. Birds and mammals. Vol. 11 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Quezon Bibliography

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Amphibians and Reptiles

Alcala, A. C. 1986. Amphibians and reptiles. Vol. 10 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines. Alcala, A. C., and W. C. Brown. 1979. A guide for the amphibians and reptiles of the Philippines. Dumaguete City: Siliman University. Brown, R. M. 2006. Recognition of Philippine amphibian diversity. In Philippine Biodiversity: Principles and Practice, edited by C. S. Catibog-Sinha and L. R. Heaney. Quezon City: Haribon Foundation for Conservation of Natural Resources. Brown, R. M., A. C. Diesmos, and A. C. Alcala. 2001 (2002). The state of Philippine herpetology and the challenges for the next decade. The Silliman Journal 42: 18–87. Diesmos, A. C., and R. M. Brown. 2011. Diversity, biogeography, and conservation of Philippine amphibians. In Biology and conservation of tropical Asian amphibians: Proceedings of the conference “Biology of the amphibians in the Sunda region, South-east Asia,” edited by I. Das, A. Haas and A. A. Tuen, 26–49. Sarawak, Malaysia: Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. Diesmos, A. C., R. M. Brown, A. C. Alcala, R. V. Sison, L. E. Afuang, and G. V. A. Gee. 2002. Philippine amphibians and reptiles: An overview of species diversity, biogeography and conservation. Paper presented at the National Biodiversity Conservation Priority Setting Workshop, Subic, Philippines. Ong, P. S., L. E. Afuang, and R. G. Rosell-Ambal, eds. 2002. Philippine biodiversity conservation priorities: A second iteration of the national biodiversity strategy and action plan. Quezon City: Department of the Environment and Natural Resources–Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Conservation International Philippines, Biodiversity Conservation Program-University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Developmental Studies, and Foundation for the Philippine Environment. Rabor, D. S. 1986. Amphibians and reptiles. Vol. 10 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines. Taylor, E. H. 1920. Philippine amphibia. Philippine Journal of Science 16: 213–359. ———. 1921. Amphibians and turtles of the Philippine islands. Philippine Bureau of Science 15: 1–193. ———. 1922a. The snakes of the Philippine Islands. Philippine Bureau of Science 16: 1–312. ———. 1922b. The lizards of the Philippine Islands. Philippine Bureau of Science 17: 1–269. ———. 1928. Amphibians, lizards and snakes of the Philippines. In Distribution of Life in the Philippines, edited by R. Dickerson et al. Monograph 21. Manila: Philippine Bureau of Science.

Birds

Alcala, A. C. 1976. Philippine land vertebrates: Field biology. Quezon City: New Day. Bruce, M. C. 1980. A field list of the birds of the Philippines. Sydney: Traditional Explorations. 316

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Collar, N. J., N. A. D. Mallari, and B. R. Tabaranza. 1999. Threatened birds of the Philippines. Manila: Bookmark Inc. and Haribon Foundation. Delacour, J., and K. Mayr. 1946. Birds of the Philippines. New York: The MacMillan Company. Dickinson, E. C., R. S. Kennedy, and K. Parkes. 1991. The birds of the Philippines: An annotated check-list. B.O.U. Checklist, no. 12. Tring, UK: British Ornithologists’ Union. DuPont, K. 1971. Philippine birds. Monograph Series No. 2. Greenville, Delaware: Delaware Museum of Natural History. Gonzales, P. C. 1983. Birds of Catanduanes. Rev. ed. Zoological Papers No. 2. Manila: National Museum. Gonzales, P. C., and C. P. Rees. 1988. Birds of the Philippines. Manila: Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources. Hachiiuka, M. 1931–1935. The birds of the Philippine islands with notes on the mammal fauna. Vol. 1, Part 1 (1931): 1–168; Vol. 1, Part 2 (1932): 169–439; Vol. 2, Part 3 (1934): 1–256; Vol. 2, Part 4 (1935): 257–468. London: Witherby. King, B. F., M. W. Woodcock, and K. C. Dickinson. 1975. A field guide to the birds of South-East Asia. London: Collins. Kennedy, R. S., P. C. Gonzales, E. C. Dickinson, H. C. Miranda Jr., and T. H. Fisher. 2000. A guide to the birds of the Philippines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mallari, N. A. D., N. J. Collar, D. C. Lee, P. J. K. McGowan, R. Wilkinson, and S. J. Marsden. 2011. Population densities of key understorey birds across a habitat gradient in Palawan, Philippines: Implications for conservation. Oryx 45: 234–42. McGregor, R. C. 1909. A manual of Philippine birds. Manila: Bureau of Printing. ———. 1940. An introduction to Philippine birds. Popular Bulletin 16. Manila: Bureau of Printing. Hosner, P. A., N. Boggess, P. Alviola, L. Sanchez-Gonzalez, C. Oliveros, R. Urriza, and R. G. Moyle. 2013. Phylogeography of the Robsonius Ground-Warblers (Passeriformes: Locustellidae) reveals an undescribed species from Northeastern Luzon, Philippines. The ­Condor 115(3): 630–39. doi:10.1525/cond.2013.120124. Peterson, A. T., L. G. Ball, and K. W. Brady. 2000. Distribution of the birds of the Philippines: Biogeography and conservation priorities. Bird Conservation International 10: 149–67. Rabor, D. S. 1977. Philippine birds and mammals. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press for the U.P. Science Education Center. ———. 1986. Birds and mammals. Vol. 11 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines. For an exhaustive bibliography, the reader is referred to the Bibliography of Philippine Ornithology by R. S. Kennedy, B. C. Dickinson, and M. D. Bruce published in Nemouria Occasional Papers of the Delaware Museum of Natural History, No. 29, December 1985.

Fishes

Broad, G. 2003. Fishes of the Philippines: A guide to identification of families. Manila: Anvil Publishing. Conlu, P. V. 1986. Fishes. Vol. 9 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural ­Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the ­Philippines.

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Invertebrates

Baltazar, C. R., and N. P. Salazar. 1979. Philippine insects: An introduction. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press for U.P. Science Education Center. Barrion, A. L. A., A. A. Barrion, and A. T. Barrion. 2001. Diversity of Philippine derby spiders Neoscona species. Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology Philippines 23: 280. Caberoy, R. A., and H. S. Tahil. 1980. A primer on sponges. Manila: National Museum. de Celi, A. K. 1981. Echinoderm fauna in the Philippine archipelago. Manila: National Museum. Dickerson, E., E. Merrill, R. McGregor, W. Schultze, E. Taylor, and A. Herre. 1928. Insects of the Philippines. In Distribution of life in the Philippines. Philippine Bureau of Science, Monograph 21: 248–66. Manila: Philippine Bureau of Science. Garcia, R., F. Natividad, and V. S. Papal-latoc. 1986. Gastropods, pelecypods and annelids. Vol. 318

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6 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Nature Resources, University of the Philippines. General, David M., and Gary D. Alpert. 2012. A synoptic review of the ant genera (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) of the Philippines. Zookeys (200): 1–111. Dogma, I. J., V. C. Gapud, L. C. Raros, and R. M. Umali. 1986a. Water bugs and mites. Vol. 8 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines. ———. 1986b. Zooplankton, barnacles and swimming crabs. Vol. 7 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines. Hrdy, S. B., and W. Bennett. 1979. The fig connection. Harvard Magazine. September-October. Lebata-Ramos, M. J. H., K. Okuzawa, R. J. Maliao, J. B. R. Abrogueña, M. D. N. Dimzon, E. F. C. Doyola-Solis, and T. U. Dacles. 2010. Growth and survival of hatchery-bred giant clams (Tridacna gigas) in an ocean nursery in Sagay Marine Reserve, Philippines. Aquaculture International 18(1): 19–33. Nemenzo, F. 1986. Corals. Vol. 5 of Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Manila: Natural ­Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the ­Philippines. Treadway, C. G. 1995. Checklist of the butterflies of the Philippine Islands (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). Nachr. Entomol. Ver. Apollo, Suppl. 14: 7–118. White, A. 1987. Philippine coral reefs: A natural history guide. Quezon City: New Day. White, A., and A. Cruz-Trinidad. 2000. The values of Philippine coastal resources: Why protection and management are critical. Cebu City: Coastal Resource Management Project of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources supported by the US Agency for International Development.

Biodiversity

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MacKinnon, J., ed. 1997. Protected areas systems review of the Indo-Malayan realm. New York: World Bank. MacKinnon, J., and K. Phillips. 1993. A field guide to the birds of Borneo, Sumatra, Java and Bali: The Greater Sunda Islands. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ong, P. S., L. E. Afuang, and R. G. Rosell-Ambal, eds. 2002. Philippine biodiversity conservation priorities: A second iteration of the national biodiversity strategy and action plan. Quezon City: Department of the Environment and Natural Resources–Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Conservation International Philippines, Biodiversity Conservation Program-University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Developmental Studies, and Foundation for the Philippine Environment. Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priorities: A Second Iteration of the National Strategy and Action Plan. n.d. Report by Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Conservation International- Philippines, and the U.P. Center for Integrated Development Studies. Pichon, M. 1977. Physiography, morphology and ecology of the Double Barrier Reef of North Bohol (Philippines). In Proceedings of the Third International Coral Reef Symposium, 261–67. Miami. Prigge, V., G. Langenberger, and K. Martin. 2005. Ethnobotanical survey among farmers in Leyte, Philippines, and comparison with indigenous Filipino plant lore. Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, Stuttgart-Hohenheim, October 11–13. PAWB and DENR. 1993. A national wetland action plan. PAWB and DENR. ———. 1998. The first Philippine national report to the convention on biological diversity. PAWB and DENR ———. 2011. The national wetlands action plan for the Philippines: 2011–2016. PAWB and DENR ———. 2012. Communities in nature: State of protected areas management in the Philippines. DENR/PAWB, Ateneo School of Government, UNDP, and the Global Environment Facility. PAWB, DENR, UNDP, Ateneo School of Government, and ASEAN Center for Biodiversity. 2009. The 4th Philippine national report to the convention on biological diversity: Assessing progress towards the 2010 biodiversity target (2005 to 2009). Posa, M. R. C., A. C. Diesmos, N. S. Sodhi, and T. M. Brooks. 2008. Hope for threatened tropical biodiversity: Lessons from the Philippines. BioScience 58: 231–40. Rickart, E. A. 1993. Diversity patterns of mammals along elevational and disturbance gradients in the Philippines: Implications for conservation. Asia Life Sciences 2 (2): 251–60. The Nature Conservancy. 2008. Coral Triangle facts, figures, and calculations: Part II; Patterns of biodiversity and endemism. USAID. 2011. Conserving tropical forests and biodiversity for human development and inclusive growth. 2011 FAA 118/119 Philippine Biodiversity and Tropical Analysis. Manila: USAID Philippines. USAID and Fish Philippines. 2011. Danajon Bank Double Barrier Reef: A unique resource in Peril. Manila: USAID and Fish Philippines Villegas, K. L., R. G. R. Ambal, C. Boyd, T. M. Brooks, O. Corzoza, N. De Silva, M. Duya, R. D. Lasco, G. Schroth, and G. Villamor. 2012. Quantitative landscape management targets for

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Anthropology

Adelaar, K. A., and N. Himmelmann. 2005. The Austronesian languages of Asia and Mada­ gascar. London: Routledge. Alcina, Francisco Ignacio. 1668. Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas. Part 1, books 1-4. Victor Baltazar transcription. University of Chicago Philippine Studies Program 1962. Bellwood, Peter. 2005. First farmers: The origins of agricultural societies. UK: Blackwell Publishing. Bellwood, P. S., J. J. Fox, and D. T. Tryon, eds. 1995. The Austronesians—historical and comparative perspectives. Australia: Department of Anthropology as part of the Comparative Austronesian Project, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. Beyer, H. O. 1948. Philippine and East Asian archaelogy and its Relation to the Origin of the Pacific Islands Population. Quezon City: National Research Council of the Philippines. Blust, R. 1993. *S metathesis and the Formosan/Malayo-Polynesian language boundary. In Language: A doorway between human cultures; tributes to Dr. Otto Chr. Dahl on his ninetieth birthday, edited by Oyvind Dahl, 178–83. Oslo: Novus. Cadelina, R. V. 1985. In time of want and plenty: The Batak experience. Dumaguete City: Siliman University. Casal, G., R. T. Jose, E. S. Casino, and G. R. Ellis, and W.G. Sondheim. 1981. The people and art of the Philippines. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, University of California. Casinoliali, E. S. 1982. The Philippines: Lands and peoples. A cultural geography. Vol. 2 of The Filipino nation. Manila: Grolier International. Cawed, C. 1981. The culture of the Igorot. Manila: Communication Foundation for Asia Dumia, M. A. 1997. The Ifugao world. Quezon City: New Day. Fox, R. B. 1967. Pre-history of the Philippines in aspects of Philippine culture. No. 1. Manila: National Museum. ———. 1970. The Tabon Caves: Archaeological explorations and excavations on Palawan Island, Philippines. Manila: National Museum. Hong, S., Y-l Dong, B. Wen, C-J Xiao, P. A. Underhill, P-D Shen, R. Chakraborty, L. Jin, , and B. Su. 2005. Y-chromosome evidence of Southern Origin of the East Asian-Specific Haplogroup O3-M122. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 77, no. 3 (September): 408–19. Howard, D. 2000. The last Filipino head hunters. San Francisco: Last Gasp. Jocano, F. L. 1975. Philippine prehistory: An anthropological overview of the beginnings of Filipino society and culture. Quezon City: Philippine Center for Advanced Studies, University of the Philippines. Leeds University. 2011. Genetic study uncovers new path to Polynesia. Science Daily, 7 ­February.

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Matias, D. M. S. 2012. Assessing adaptive capacity of indigenous Palaw’ans in Mount Mantalingahan, Palawan, Philippines. Master of Science thesis, Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy, Central European University, Budapest McFarland, C. D. 1993. Subgrouping and number of Philippine languages. Pasig City: Secretary of Education, Culture and Sports. Meteorological Satellite Program of the US Air Force. 1979. New DNA evidence overturns population migration theory in Island Southeast Asia. 2008. 23 May. Oxford University. http://phys.org/news/2008-05-dna-evidence-overturns-population-migration.html (retrieved 3 March 2011). Oxford University. 2008. New DNA evidence overturns population migration theory in Island Southeast Asia. Phys.org. May 23. Poffenberger, M., and B. McGean, eds. 1993. Upland Philippine communities: Guardians of the final forest frontiers. SE Asia Sustainable Forest Management Network, Research Network Report, no. 4. Berkeley: University of California. Peralta, I. T. 1981. The Philippine lithic tradition. In Anthropological Papers No. 8. Manila: National Museum. Regoniel, P. 2011. Climate change impact on the way of life of indigenous people. Patrick A. [email protected] Scott, W. H. 1984. Prehispanic source materials for the study of Philippine history. Rev. ed., Quezon City: New Day. ———. 1992. Looking for the prehispanic Filipino. Quezon City: New Day. ———. 1994. Barangay: sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Soares, P., J. A. Trejaut, J.-H. Loo, C. Hill, M. Mormina, C.-L. Lee, Y-M. Chen, G. Hudjashov, P. Forster, V. Macaulay, D. Bulbeck, et al. 2008. Climate change and postglacial human dispersals in Southeast Asia. Molecular Biology and Evolution 25(6): 1209–1218. Soares, P., T. Rito, J. A. Trejaut, M. Mormina, C. Hill, E. Tinkler-Hundal, M. Braid, D. J. Clarke, J.-H. Loo. 2011. Ancient voyaging and Polynesian origins. American Journal of Human Genetics 88(2): 239–47. Solheim, W. G. 2006. Origins of the Filipinos and their languages. 9th Philippine Linguistics Congress. Organized by the Department of Linguistics, University of the Philippines, Quezon City. Tenazas, R. C. P., and L. L. Trains. 1974. A map of the better-known cultural minorities of the Philippines. Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 2(1–2). Zaide, S. 1999. The Philippines: A Unique Nation. Manila: All-Nations Pub.

Environmental and Natural Resources Issues

Abadilla, D. C. 1982. The environmental crisis. Manila: Philippine Education. Aguilar, F. V., Jr. 1982. Social forestry for upland development: Lessons from four case studies. Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University. Alcala, A. C., and G. R. Russ. 2006. No-take marine reserves and reef fisheries management in the Philippines: A new people power revolution. Ambio 35: 245–54. Asian Development Bank. 2009. The Philippines: Country environmental analysis 2008. Manila: Asian Development Bank.

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Asian Development Bank and World Bank. 2011. The Philippines environment and natural resources country assessment: A call to action. Manila. Balatan, S. C. 1993. Why did you let this happen?: Photo-Reportage. Quezon City: Foundation for Philippine Environment. Broad, R., and J. Cavanaugh. 1993. Plundering paradise: The struggle for the environment in the Philippines. Berkeley: University of California Press. Castro, C. P. 1984. Uplands and uplanders. Philippines: Social Communications Center. Cruz, M. C. 1984. Population pressure and migration: Implications for upland development in the Philippines. Center for Policy and Development Studies Working Paper no. 86-06, Laguna: University of the Philippines Los Baños. Curio, E., ed. 2007. Philippine endemic species conservation project 13th annual report. http:// www.pescp.org/Reports/PESCP_Report_2007.pdf (accessed January 3, 2008.) Davies, I., and F. Lacanilao. 1986. Laguna de Bay: Problems and options. Haribon White Paper No. 2. Manila: Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources. DENR and PAWB. 2005. UNEP/GEF Project: Reversing environmental degradation trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand. Philippines National Report on Wetlands. Quezon City. ———. 2011. Forest and mountain biodiversity: Samar Island Biodiversity Project (SIBP). DENR Echevarria, R. 1974. Rediscovery in Southern Cebu. Cebu City: Historical Conservation Society. European Union. 2005. Country environment profile, 2005. EU, Belgium. Gomez, K. D., A. C. Alcala, and A. C. San Diego. 1981. Status of Philippine coral reefs. Procedings of the 4th International Coral Reef Symposium 1: 275–82. Guiang, E. S., and G. C. Braganza. 2014. National management effectiveness and capacity assessment of protected areas in the Philippines. Quezon City: DENR and Deutsche Gesellschaft fu ̈ r Internationale Zusammenarbeit.  Kowal, N. E. 1966. Shifting cultivation, fire and pine forest in the Cordillera, Central Luzon. Philippine Ecological Monograph 36: 389. IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 1989. A directory of Asian wetlands. Compiled by Derek Scott. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. LLDA (Laguna Lake Development Authority) and Federation of River Basin Councils in the Laguna de Bay Region. 2006. Laguna de bay Environment Monitor 2007. Magdarog, G. L. 1998. Environment and natural resources atlas of the Philippines. Manila: Environment Center of the Philippines. Manila Bay Environmental Management Project. 2005. Operational plan for Manila Bay Coastal Strategy. Quezon City: PEMSEA Mannava, V. K., and R. P. Motha. 2007. Managing weather and climate risks in agriculture. New York: Springer. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2003. Ecosystems and human well-being: A framework for Assessment. Washigton, D.C.: Island Press. ———. 2005. Current state and trends assessment, Vol. 1 and Scenarios, Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Myers, N. 1988. Environmental degradation and some economic consequences in the Philippines. Environmental Conservation 15: 205–14.

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National Economic and Development Authority. 2011. Philippine development plan 2011/2016. Pasig City: National Economic and Development Authority. Porter, G., and D. Ganapin. 1988. Resources, population and the Philippines’ future: A case study. World Resources Institute, Paper No. 4. Washington, DC. Posa, M. R. C, A. C. Diesmos, N. S. Sodhi, and T. M. Brooks. 2008. Hope for threatened tropical biodiversity: Lessons from the Philippines. Bioscience 58 (3): 231–40. Roque, C. 1985. Alternative policy directions for natural resources and the environment. Haribon White Paper No. 1. Manila: Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources. Sajise, P. K., and M. T. Baquiron. 1982. Some facets of upland development in the Philippines. Scientia Filipinas 2(11): 3–17. Samson, M. S. and R. N. Rollon. 2008. Growth performance of planted mangroves in the Philippines: Revisiting forest management strategies. Ambio. 37: 234–40. ———. 2011. Mangrove revegetation potentials of brackish-water pond areas in the Philippines. In Aquaculture and the environment—A shared destiny, edited by Barbara Sladonja, 31–50. InTech. TEEB. 2009. The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity. TEEB for policymakers: ­Summary. Responding to the Value of Nature. United Nations Environment Programme. Terborgh, J. 1999. Requiem for nature. Washington, DC: Island Press, Shearwater Books. USAID. 2011. Conserving tropical forests and biodiversity for human development and inclusive growth: 2011 FA 118/119 Philippine biodiversity and tropical forestry analysis. Manila: USAID Philippines. White, A. T., P. M. Alino, and A. T. Meneses. 2006. Creating and managing marine protected areas in the Philippines. Cebu City, Philippines: Fisheries improved for sustainable harvest project, Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation, and University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute. World Bank. 2009. The Philippines: Country environmental analysis. Washington, DC: Sustainable Development Department, East Asia and Pacific Region, World Bank. World Resources Institute. 2003. Millennium ecosystem assessment: Ecosystems and human well-being. A Framework for Assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press.

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325

Index

A

A Flora of the Philippines, 268 A Protected Areas Systems Review of the IndoMalayan Realm, 268 Abaca, 3, 19, 44, 56, 138 Abatan River, 35 Abra River, 89 Abulog River, 89 Acacia, 154 Acanthaceae, 144 Adesites, 82 Aegiceras corniculatum, 130 Aeschymanthus, 45 Aetas: early photograph, 249; Palawan, 55. See also Negritos Agamids (Calotes spp./ Gonyocephalus spp.), 176 Agathis, 144 Agathis philippinensis, 21 Agglomerates, 82 Aglaia (Aglaia argentea), 140 Agno River, 13, 89, 91: water availability deficit, 94 Agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia), 40, 126 Agricultural ecosystems, 121–22 Agricultural lands, 3, 102 Agricultural systems: diversity, 266 Agriculture: and land use, 154; lowland, 154 Agro-biodiversity, 266 Agro-ecological practices, 292 Agroforestry, 292 Agus River, 44, 89, 93 Agusan Marsh (Agusan del Sur), 41, 119, 129, 131, 222–23: protected area, 280; Ramsar site status, 222; UNESCO World Heritage Site, 91

Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary, 119, 204: Ramsar Sites, 204 Agusan River, 41, 89, 91, 128–31, 222 Agusan Valley, 91 Agusan-Davao Valley, 74 Aichi Target 11, 281 Air pollution, 5, 259 Aklan River, 32 Alabat Island, 19 Alfisols, 84 fig. 17 Algae, 2, 114: species of, 23 Alim, 40 Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites, 278 Almaciga, 40 Almon, 40 Alstonia, 154 Ambogoc: watershed areas, 89 American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), 172 Amphibians, 2, 3, 100, 172–75: species, 3; threatened, 111, 207 Anaphalis, 150 Anemones: Panglao Island, 36 Angat River Angat watershed areas, 89 Angelfish: Tubbataha Reef, 54 Angiosperms (flowering types), 2, 111, 113: species, 121 table 4; threatened, 111 Animals: domesticated, 154–56; diversity, 162; invasives, 123 table 18; migrations: prehistory, 98; species: threatened with extinction, 4 “Anito,” 250 Antarctic flora elements, 96 Anthoxanthum, 150 Anthropods, 196–98 Antidesma, 154

326

Antique Trench, 80 Aparri: seasonal variation, 59 Apayao River: rheophyte vegetation type, 158 Apo myna (Basilornis miranda), 43 Apo Reef, 24, 25: triangular atolls, 209 Apo Reef Marine Natural Park, 204, 209–11 Aquaculture, 30: ecosystems, 111 Aquatic wildlife, 43 Aquifer, 94 Aquino, Benigno: executive order on deforestation, 280 Aralia (Araliaceae), 143 Araucarias (Agathis), 97 Archidendron, 141 Arctic warbler (Phylloscopus borealis), 16, 187 Aridisia, 143 fig. 31 Aromatic essential oils, 133 Artocarpus, 154 ASEAN Heritage Parks, 204 Asian bulletwood (Mimusops parvifolia), 126 Asian glossy starling (Aplonis panayensis), 186 Asian megafauna, 98 Asian migratory bird flyways, 179 fig. 37 Asian palm-swift (Cupsiurus balasiensis), 186 Asiatic Plate, 71, 72, 74 Assessing Progress Towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target, 279, 284, 291 Astronia, 144 Ata, 218 Ati (Aata). See Mamanwas Atolls, 105, 193 Australasia: “Wallace’s Line,” 98 Australian faunal zone, 97 Australian-Indonesian Plate, 71, 74 Australian-Papuasian elements, 96 Austronesian language family, 4 Avicennia (white mangrove), 126 Avicennia officinalis, 130

B

B’laan (Davao), 251 Baao Lake (Bicol), 19 Babblers (Stachyris spp.), 184 Baboy-dagat (“pig of the sea”). See dugong (Dugong dugon) Babuyan Channel, 8, 12: map, 9 fig. 2 Babuyanes. See Babuyan Channel Bacuit Archipelago (Palawan), 52–53 Bacuit Bay (Palawan), 53 Bajau (Sulu archipelago), 58, 254, 251, 256 Bago River (Negros Occidental), 32

Bagoadlau (X. philippinensis), 142 Bagobo (Davao), 218, 251, 254, 256 Baguio: average temperature, 59 Balabac chevrotain. See Philippine mouse deer Balabac Island (Palawan), 53, 47 Balabac Strait, 68–69 Balanophora plant, 45 Balayan Bay (Batangas), 18 Baler (Quezon), 8 Balete trees (Ficus spp.), 126, 136, 137–38 Balicasag Island, 36 Balintang Channels, 8 Balsam, 133 Bamboos, 138, 145 Banana bush (Tabernaemontana spp.), 136 Bananas, 8, 23, 45, 82, 138 Banaue municipality, 13 Banaue Rice Terraces, 11, 12, 14 Bangaan (Banaue), 13 Bangan, 209 Banica River, 32 Bantayan Island (Cebu), 30 Barangays, 236, 239 Bar-bellied-cuckoo-shrike (Coracina striata), 17 Barred rail (Gallirallus torquatus), 17, 186 Barringtonia, 126 Basalts, 82 Basilan Island, 44, 55: land use profile, 56 Bataan National Park, 223 Bataan Peninsula, 14, 16: Negritos (Aeta), 246 Batad (Banaue), 13 Batak (Palawan), 55, 251 Batan Island (Batanes), 8, 205 Batanes: limestone terraces, 8; map, 9 fig. 2 Batanes Protected Landscapes and Seascapes, 203, 205 Batangan, 209 Batangas: climate, 20; coral reefs bleaching, 194 Batete (Kingiodendron alternifolium), 140 Bathymetry, 67 Bats, 3, 51: species, 32, 169, 207 Bayberry (Myrica javanica), 147 Beach almond (Terminalia catappa), 126 Beach calophyllum (Calophyllum inophyllum), 126 Beach forest, 124: Sulu Archipelago, 56 Beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae), 125 Beach vegetation, 125 Begonia species, 45, 140

Index

327

Bellwood, Peter. Out-of-Taiwan hypothesis, 234 Benguet pine, 148 Benguet province, 13: mining operations, 270 Betel nut, 43 Beyer’s theory, 234 Biak-na-Bato National Park, 141 Bicol Peninsula, 19, 74 Bicol River, 20, 89 Biga River (Mindoro), 22 Bignay (Antidesma sp.), 140 Bila-an (Cotabato), 251 Bilaw (Miscanthus sinensis), 150 Biliran Island, 28 Biliran Strait, 28 Binahaan watershed areas, 89 Binalbagan River (Negros Occidental), 32 Binangaan (island), 211 Binunga (Macaranga sp.), 136 Biodiversity and Management of Alien Invasive Species, 122 Biodiversity, 104–5, 259: causes, 281–82; center, 1; conservation, 3, 4, 274, 295–96, 268; ecosystems, 102; level of, 21 Biogeographic areas: marine conservation planning, 109 fig. 27 Biogeographic zones: area and quality of diversity, 104 table 3; richness of diversity, 104–5 table 4 Biogeographic Zones of the Philippines, 213 Bird’s nest fern (Asplenium nidus), 43 Bird’s nest soup, 52 Birds, 2, 100, 178–87: breeding seasons, 187; distribution, 180; endangered species, 207; endemic, 3, 206; endemism, 163; species of, 3, 25, 34, 91, 178, 186; threatened, 111 Black and green Luzon peacock swallowtail (Papilio chikae), 198 Black and yellow Magellan birdwing (Troides magellanus), 198 Black mangrove (Lumnitzera littorea), 126 Black snoek (Thyrsitoides marleyi), 189 Black-naped monarch (Hypothymis azurea), 186 Black-naped oriole (Oriolus chinensis), 186, 187 Blacktip sharks (Carcharhinus limbatus), 24, 189 Bladdernut (Staphyleaceae), 143 Blanco, Francisco Manuel. Flora de Filipinas, 153

328

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Bleeding-heart pigeon (Gallicolumba spp.), 180 Blue and gold fusiliers (Caesio caerulaurea), 53 Blue paradise-flycatcher (Terpsiphone cyanescens), 50 Blue starfish (Linckia laevigata), 201 Bluebreasted quail (Coturnix chinensis), 186 Blue-crowned racket-tail (Prioniturus discurus), 184 Blue-headed racquet-tail (Prioniturus platenae), 50 Blue-naped parrot, 51 Blue-tailed bee-eaters (Merops philippinus), 186 Blust, Robert: on Philippine language family, 243 Bobbies (Sulidae), 182 Bohol, 25, 35–36, 75: barrier reef, 192; calcareous shales, 82; Danajon Bank, 194; double barrier reef system, 106; grazing lands, 35 Bohol Marine Triangle, 170 Bohol Sea, 28: Pacific water, 68, 69 Bohol Strait, 30 Bohol-Mindanao-Cebu triangle, 201 Bokawe (buho tree), 141 Bolinao Marine Laboratory (Pangasinan), 200 Bolinao, 15 Bolobok Cave (Sanga-Sanga Island), 58 Bontoc, 246, 250 Boracay Island (Panay), 31, 32 Borneo, 22, 47, 98: flat-headed frogs, 101; sub-floristic province, 96 Botanists, 152–53 Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus), 171 Bougainvillea, 138 Boxer Codex: on clothing, 240 Brackenridgia palustris, 141 Brahminy blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus), 176 Bright-capped cisticola (Cisticola exilis), 187 Brilliant red fire orchids (Renantheras), 139 Broadhead catfish (Clarias macrocephalus), 189 Bronze Age, 235, 236 Brown doves, 182 Brown shrike (Lanius cristatus), 186, 187 Brown-banded rail (Lewinia mirificus), 120 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, 130 Bruguiera species, 126

Brush box (Tristaniopsis decorticata): Mindanao, 142 Bryophytes, 114: threatened, 111 Buayan-Malungun River, 89 Bucas Grande Island, 221 Bud Tumatangis (Mountain of Tears), 56 Bugsuc Island (Palawan), 54 Bukarot. See Mindoro crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) Bukidnon, 30, 220, 251 Bukidnon-Lanao Highlands, 43–44 Bulabog Putian (National Park), 32 Bulbuls (Bird), 186 Bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas), 18 Bulrush (Typha spp.), 129 Buluan Lake, 91 Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), 18 Bureau of Forestry, 158 Bureau of Plant Industry, 158 Bureau of Soil and Water Management, 87 Burias Island (Masbate), 26–27 Busol watershed areas, 89 Busuanga (Palawan), 53: Philippine flatheaded frog (Barbourula busuangensis), 173 Busuanga River, 22 Butterfly endemism, 163 Butterfly orchids or Phalaenopsis species, 139 Butterflies, 196: endemism, 163; fig wasp life cycle, 197–98 Buttonquail (Turnix spp.), 186 Butuan Bay, 91

C

Caballo Island, 16 Cabeza de barangay, 239 Cacao, 17, 56 Caecilians-worm-like burrowers, 3 Cagayan (de Oro) River, 89 Cagayan River (Rio Grande de Cagayan), 9, 13, 89 Cagayan Valley, 8, 74, 89: groundwater source, 94; rainfall average, 61; sandstone soils, 82; water availability deficit, 94l Calamagrotis, 150 Calamian deer (Axis calamianensis), 50, 170 Calamian group of islands, 47, 53: map, 46 fig. 5; migration route, 98 Calbayog (Samar), 27 Callao Cave (Cagayan), 233

Caluya Island (Antique): coconut crab, 199 Camiguin forest mouse (Apomys camiguinensis), 45 Camiguin forest rat (Bullimus gamay), 45 Camiguin hanging parrot (Loriculus camiguinensis), 45 Camiguin Island, 45, 74, 100: endemic mammals, 162; endemic vertebrate species, 45 Camiguin narrow-mouthed frog (Oreophryne nana), 45 Camotes Islands, 30 Camotes Sea, 30, 35, 36 Candaba Swamp, 13, 119, 128, 131–32 Cane or giant marine toad (Rhinella marinus), 172 Canigao Channel, 36 Canna (plant), 138 Cannonball mangrove (Xylocarpus granatum), 126 Canopy dipterocarp forests, 102 Canturoy River (Mindoro), 22 Capillipedium (grass type), 149 Caraballo Mountains, 13, 74 Carabao, 23 Caramoan Peninsula, 19 Carbin reefs, 200 Carp family, 44 Carrier shells (Xenophora solarioides), 200 Cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes), 189 Catanduanes Island, 8, 19 Catarman River (Samar), 27 Catfish, 13 Cattle, 23: ranches, 31 Cattleya, 139 Catubig River (Samar), 27 Cavite (Province), 16 Cayos del Bajo (Island): endangered giant clam (Tridacna gigas), 211 Cebu, 25, 75: calcareous shales, 82; cotton, 29; Cretaceous rocks, 77; deep-water channel, 28–29; extrusive formations, 77; landscape, 29; mangoes, 29; rainfall average, 61; tides, 69; water availability deficit, 94 Cebu, Metropolitan: aquifer system, 94 Cebuanos (Central Visayas), 26 Celebes Sea, 39, 98: atoll-type reefs, 106; coral reef area, 105–7 table 5 Celebes Sea Basin, 80 Celtidaceae, 150 Celtis (plant), 134 Index

329

Cenozoic era, 39, 77 Central Luzon Plain, 13, 74, 91: alluvial soils, 82; rainfall average, 61 Central Mindanao, 41: rainfall average, 61 Central physiographic province, 80 Central Visayas: groundwater source, 94; rainfall average, 61 Chalcidoidea (fig wasp), 197 Chinese edible frog (Hoplobatrachus rugulosus), 172 Chinese egret (Egretta eulophotes), 17 Chinese goshawk (Accipiter solonensis), 183 Chinese silver grass. See Bilaw (Miscanthus sinensis) “Chocolate Hills” (magotes), 35 Chromite, 23, 27, 87 Chryosopogon (grass type), 149 Cinnamomum, 143 Cinnamon bark, 138 Citrus, 82 Cleopatra’s Needle (Palawan), 47 Climate change, 3, 14, 70, 85, 194, 266, 268, 279, 291: effects, 263; impact on indigenous peoples, 270 Climate map, 60 fig. 6 Climate typologies, 61 fig. 7, 62, 64 Climbing figs, 136 Climbing perch (Anabus testudineus), 189 Club fungus, 45 Coal, 23, 87 Coastal climatology, 62 Coastal communities, 44, 264: prehistoric times, 237, 239 Coastal configurations, 70 Coastal habitat, 50 Coastal villages, 237, 238 fig. 44, 265 Cobalt, 87 Coconut or robber crab (Birgus latro): decline, 199; endangered, 198, 199 fig. 43 Coconuts, 8, 17, 19, 23, 31, 32, 35, 39, 44, 45, 82 Coffee, 8, 44, 56 Cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica), 13, 149, 151 Colasisi (Loriculus philippensis), 186 Coleoptera (beetles), 196 Coleto (Sarcops calvus), 186 Collared kingfishers (Todiramphus chloris), 17 Collared scops owl (Otus lettia), 207 Comb-crested Jacana (Irediparra gallinacea), 43, 131 Commercial fishing, 208: Mindanao, 39 330

The Philippines: A Natural History

Common koel (Eudynamys scolopacea), 184 Common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), 17 Common reed (Phragmites spp.), 129 Communities in Nature: State of Protected Areas Management in the Philippines, 280 Composites, 149 Cone shells, 53 Conservation International, 51, 278, 279 Conservation priority areas (CPAs), 274–76, 277 table 24 Construction aggregates, 87 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 272, 274, 284 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), 4, 117: endangered animal species, 164 Copper, 10, 27, 87: deposits, 31; Mindanao, 44 Copper-throated (Nectarinacalcostetha), 186 Coral bleaching, 268 Coral fish: species, 3 Coral flats, 3 Coral genera: Culion (Palawan), 53 Coral reef communities, 105 Coral reefs, 102, 190–95, 259: distribution, 193 fig. 42; diversity of fishes, 192 fig. 41; fish habitat, 192; formation, 193–94; magnifi­ cence and destruction, 195; Palawan, 47; threatened, 264 Coral tree (Erythrina variegata var. orientalis), 126 Coral Triangle: “global center of marine biodiversity,” 23 Coralline limestone” (Bohol), 35 Corals, 28, 30, 111: species of, 23: in Panglao Island, 36; in Tubbataha Reef, 54 Cordillera Central Range, 8, 10–11, 12, 74: andesitic flows and basalt, 77; indigenous peoples, 246 Cordillera ethnic groups, 12, 246–48 Corn, 3, 17, 31, 32, 35, 39, 45, 82 Cornufer meyeri (Platymantis dorsalis) (paddy frog), 173 Cornufer or Platymantius species, 172 Coron Island (Palawan), 2, 53: limestone cliffs, 47 Corregidor Island, 16 Cotabato (Province): lowland, 43, 91; subduction zones, 72 Cotabato Range (Southern Cordillera), 43 Cotabato Trench, 80

Corals: reef cover, 107–8 table 7; species, 190–91 Crab-eating frog (Fejervarya cancrivora or Rana cancrivora), 172 Crabs, 51, 53, 198 Crayfish, 198 Creeks, 156 Creeping oxeye (Wedelia trilobata), 126 Crested myna (Acridotheres cristatellus), 186 Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), 279, 287 Crocodile Conservation Society of the Philippines, 177 Crocodiles, 3: species, 175 Crops: accessions, 122 table 15; native, 3 Crustaceans: species of, 23 Crystalline basement rocks, 77 Cuernos de Negros (Horns of Negros), 30: protection priorities, 278 Culion Island (Palawan): mangrove species, 53 Culion Sea: fish species, 53 Cultural minorities, 247 fig. 48 Cuming, Hugh, 180 Current systems, 70, 110, 162 Cuttlefish, 53 Cyclones, tropical, 4 Cyclonic pattern, 110

D

Daanbantayan (Cebu), 30 Dacrycarpus, 145 Dacrydium, 144, 145 Dagupan (Pangasinan), 15 Danaidae (monarchs), 198 Danajon Bank: double barrier reef system, 106 Danthonia, 150 Dao (tree), 40 Dapitan Peak, 227 Dark-red Philippine mahogany (Shorea polysperma), 133, 143 Datu (headman), 241 Davao Gulf: rainfall average, 61 Davao River, 89 Davao (province): seasonal variation, 59; semidiurnal tide, 69 Davao-Agusan Trough, 41 “Dawn Man,” 234 Dawsonia (largest moss), 43 Decorative stones, 87 Deer, 3, 163

Deforestation, 29, 94, 259, 263: annual rate, 260; forms, 3; Palawan, 50 Degradation, 5, 94: major drivers, 261, 281–93; Palawan, 51; ultimate drivers and habitat loss, 283 fig.52 Delacour, Jean. Birds of the Philippines, 181 Dendrobium, 139 Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Administrative Order No. 2004-15, 164 Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Administrative Order No. 55 (1991), 171 Derham mahogany (Wallaceodendron celebicum), 140 Dermoptera, 37 Descaspermum, 143 fig. 31 Deschampsia, 150 Deyeuxia, 150 Digyo Island (Leyte), 199 Dinagat Island: bushy-tailed cloud rat, 167, 168; ultra-basic forest, 142 Dingalan Bay (Quezon), 8 Dinochloa, 145 Diplodiscus paniculatus, 134 Diplycosia, 145 Dipolog Strait, 68 Dipteral, 196 Dipterocarp forest, 3, 93, 102, 135, 136, 177, 215: endangered, 116; Mindanao, 134; Negros, 30; old growth, 3, 260 Dipterocarp species (lauan), 133 Diwata Mountains (Mindanao), 40 Dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis), 186 Dolphins (“cetacean central”): Panglao Island, 36 Domesticated animals, 122 table 16 Drypetes, 140 Ducks, 43, 93 Dugong (Dugong dugon), 171, 207 Duklitan (Planchonella sp.), 141 Dutch/Filipino Mabuwaya Foundation, 177 Dwarf bamboo (Arundinaria), 150 Dwarf bilaw, 150 Dwarf pygmy goby (Pandaka pygmaea), 189

E

Earthenware, 55 East Asian-Australasian: migratory birds, 178 East Luzon Trench, 40, 80

Index

331

Eastern grass owl (Tyto longimembris), 186 Eastern Mindanao Biodiversity Corridor, 40 Eastern Mindanao: biogeographic regions, 287 Eastern Negros: calcareous shales, 82 Eastern physiographic province, 80 Ebony or persimmon tree (Diospyros philippinensis), 134 Ebony trees (Diospyros sp.), 205 Ebpanan Marsh (Mindanao), 118 Ecosystem services: and human well-being, 285 fig. 53; valuing, 286 Ecosystems: agricultural, 121–22; diversity, 117–23; forest, 117; marine, 120–21; wetland, 117–18 Edible-nest swiftlet (Collocalia fuciphaga), 169, 179: Palawan, 47 Egrets (Egretta garzetta and E. alba), 16, 43, 182 “Eighth Wonder of the World.” See Banaue rice terraces El Nido Island (Palawan), 48–49, 214: ediblenest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus), 52; limestone cliffs, 47 Elaeocarpus, 134 fig. 30, 136 Elephant apple (Dillenia philippinensis), 134 Elephants, 98 Encroachment, 51, 203, 227, 266 Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs), 162 Endemism, 2–3: fauna, 162–63; level of, 97; Philippines and Sunda Shelf Islands compared, 165 Energy Development Corporation, 270 Engelhardia, 145 Entisols, 84 fig. 17 Environmental deterioration, 3, 268 Environmental Performance Index (2016), 259 Environmental Sustainability Index, 259 Environmental User Fee System (EUFS), 92 Eocene period, 74 Epiphytes, 133, 136 Equatorial Counter Current, 68 Ericaceous plants, 145, 144 Estuaries, 33; threatened, 263 Ethnolinguistic groups, 242–43 Eucalyptus, 138 Eugenia, 144 Euphorbiaceae, 150 Euphrasia, 150 Eurasia, 74 Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus), 186 Eurya coriacea, 147 332

The Philippines: A Natural History

F

Fauna, 31; diversity, 165–66; endemism, 162–63; exchange, 97 fig. 22; threatened, 164 Fejervarya cancrivora (Rana cancrivora) (crabeating frog), 173 Fejervarya limnocharis (Rana limnocaris) (cricket frog), 173 Ferns, 2, 31, 32, 43, 136, 145 Ficus, 154 Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity (2014), 280 Filipinos: prehistoric, 55 Fire trees, 138 Fish kill, 18 Fish poison tree (Barringtonia asiatica), 125 Fish, 23, 187–90: exploitation, 191 fig. 40; migrating inland, 188; species, 3, 23, 24, 43, 51, 100, 187 Fishing, 8, 12: Bohol, 35; commercial, 208; Mindanao, 44; Siquijor, 31 Fishponds, 31, 32, 56 Flathead mullet (Mugil cephalus), 188 Flat-tailed house gecko (Cosymbotus platyurus), 175 Flora Malesiana Project, 113 Flora 96, 111: diversity, 112–17; plant centers, 112–13 table 8; Sino-Malayan element, 124 Flowerpeckers, 186 Flowers, 17 Flying fox, 3 Flying lemurs, 45, 77, 163 Flying Lizard (Draco volans), 3, 175 Forest birds, 184 Forest covers, 3, 139 Forest ecosystems: endemic faunal species, 117 table 13 Forest: burning by small-scale farmers, 260 fig. 50; fires, 151, 220 Forest loss: major drivers, 261 Forest over limestone, 140–41: Palawan, 141 Forest over ultra-basic soils, 141–42: Mindanao, 142 Forest regeneration, 292 Forest restoration, 292 Forest: beach, 124, 125–26; forest over ultrabasic soils, 141–42; freshwater swamp, 129; lower montane (mid-mountain), 142–44; lowland evergreen (dipterocarp), 132–40; lowland semi-deciduous (seasonal/monsoon), 140–41;

lowland semi-evergreen rainforest, 140; mangrove/nipa, 126–28; peat swamp, 149; pine, 148–49; sub-alpine, 147–48; Sulu Archipelago, 56; upper montane (mid-mountain or mossy), 145–46 Fossils, 55 Four-clawed gecko (Gehyra mutilate), 175 Fox, Robert: on “Bronze Age” or “CopperBronze Age,” 235 Fragrant manjack (Cordia dichotoma), 134 Fragrant premna or alagaw (Premna odorata), 140 Fraser’s dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei), 171 Freshwater fish species, 3, 118, 189: endemism, 163 Freshwater mollusks, 200 Freshwater moray eel (Gymnothorax tile), 188 Freshwater sardine (Sardinella tawilis), 18 Freshwater sawfish (Pristis microdon), 188 Freshwater swamp forest, 129 Freycinetia, 144 Frogfish (Antennariidae), 28 Frogs/toads: habitat separation, 173, 174 fig. 36; level of endemicity, 172; Philippines, 98 Fruit bats: species, 34 Fruit pigeons, 182 Fruits, 17, 23, 32,138; origin, 155 fig. 33 Fungi, 2, 114 Fusiliers (Caesionidae), 30

G

Gabaldon Valley: cultural groups and organizational support, 253 fig. B; cultural groups and resource-based occupations, 252 fig. A Gaddang, 246 Galathea Deep (Mindanao Trench), 40 Galleon trade, 29, 60 Gandara River (Samar), 27 Garman’s sea snake (Hydrophis semperi), 18, 176 Gato Island: sea snakes (balingkasaw), 30 Geckos, 3 Gentiana (Grass), 150 Geologic map, 78 fig. 14 Geothermal Projects, 270–71 Giant clam (Tridacna gigas), 31, 53, 200 Giant fig, 136 Giant trevally (Caranx ignobilis), 18 Gibbons, 98

Gliricidia (Glircidia sepium), 13 Glochidion littorale, 130 Glory-of-the-seas cone (Conus gloriamaris), 200, 201 Glutinous swinglea (Swinglea glutinosa), 207 Goats, 23 Gobies Gnatholepis volcanus, 18 Goby (Glossogobius giurus), 92 Goby sinarapan (Mistichthys luzonensis), 19–20 Gold, 10, 27, 31, 87 Golden cowrie (Cypraea aurantium), 200, 201 Golden tree snake or golden flying snake (Chrysopelea ornata), 176 Golden-bellied flyeater (Gerygone sulphurea), 182 Golden-crowned flying fox (Aceroden jubatus), 169 Gomphandra, 140 Gonocaryum spp., 134 Gorgonians, 24 Grass birds, 183 Grass sponge (Spongia sp.), 200 Grassland, 102: lowland, 149–150; upland/ montane, 150; second vegetation, 150–51, 154 Gray’s monitor lizard (Varanus olivaceus), 19, 175, 207 Great Bakungan Island, 213 Greater Luzon, 75, 100: centers of terrestrial vertebrates, 112; nonflying mammals, 100 Greater Luzon Biogeographic Region, 290 Greater Mindanao, 75, 100: centers of terrestrial vertebrates, 112; nonflying mammals, 75, 100 Greater Mindoro: mammals, 77 Greater Negros-Panay, 75, 100: centers of terrestrial vertebrates, 112 Greater Palawan, 100: centers of terrestrial vertebrates, 112; mammals, 77 Greater Sulu, 100: centers of terrestrial vertebrates, 112 Green dragontail (Lampropelma meges Decius), 198 Green Revolution, 266 Green turtle. See Pawikan (Chelonia mydas) Grey imperial-pigeon (Ducula pickeringii), 50 Grey wagtail (Motacilla cinerea), 186 Grey-backed tailorbird (Orthotomus derbianus), 187

Index

333

Groundwater, 94 Groupers (Epinephelinae), 36, 53, 56 Guano mining, 169 Guerrero, Leon Ma., 152 Guimaras Strait, 32 Guiting-Guiting Natural Park (“the saw-toothed mountain”), 34 Gulls: species of, 16 Gutta-percha (Palaquium gigantifolium), 134, 138 Gymnosperms, 113, 144: threatened, 111

H

Hachisuka, Masauji. The Birds of the Philippines, 181 Hackberries, 134 Haloragis, 150 Hamiguitan pitcher plant (Nepenthes hamiguitanensis), 40 Hammerhead sharks (Sphyrnidae), 24, 189 Hanunoo, 209 Haplogroup O3-M122, 235 Haribon Foundation, 279 Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), 178, 207, 211, 213, 214, 221, 230 Heathland: Sibuyan, 34 Heliconia, 138 Hemiparasitic broad-leaved ballart (Exocarpus latifolius), 141 Herbaceous plants, 133 Herbs, 136 Heritiera littoralis, 130 Herons, 16, 43, 93 Hibiscus tiliaceus, 130, 138 Himalayan Region, 98 Homalanthus, 154 Homonhon (Leyte), 27 Hopea acuminate, 133 Hopea spp., 207 Hornbills, 184 Horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus anderseni), 50 House gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), 175 Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), 171 Humphead wrasses (Cheilinus undulates), 28, 54 Hungduan (Cordillera), 13 Hunter-gathering, 208, 233 Hypericum, 150

334

The Philippines: A Natural History

I

Ibaloi, 231, 246–48 Ichthyophis, 172 Ifugao Rice Terraces, 13–14 Ifugao, 12, 231, 246, 250 Igorot, early photograph, 249 Ilabangan River (Visayas), 89 Ilex (bush), 147 Iligan Bay, 43, 44, 93 Ilocanos, 231 Ilocos (Malayan) Range, 12 Ilocos coast: rainfall average, 61 Ilog Hilabangan (Negros): water availability deficit, 94 Iloilo Basin: alluvial soils, 82 Iloilo Plain, 25, 32 Iloilo River, 32 Ilonggos (Western Visayas), 26 Important Bird Areas (IBAs), 277 Inabanga River (Bohol), 35 Inceptisols, 84 fig. 17 Indian corn, 29 Indian luna moth (Actias selene), 198 Indian Ocean, 59, 60 Indian Plate, 72 Indian spurge tree or soro-soro (Euphorbia trigona), 140 Indian wolf snake (Lycodon aulicus), 176 Indigenous Bukidnon people, 31 Indigenous Cultural Communities (ICCs), 246 Indigenous Palawans of Culasian (Palawan), 270 Indigenous peoples, 4, 255: communities, 257; displacement, 263; rituals, 257; wildlife, 257 table 22 Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (1997), 258 Indo-Malayan Realm, 97 Indo-Malayan Triangle (“Coral Triangle”), 108 fig. 26, 109, 190–92 Inland water vegetation: lake, 156; marsh, 156; riverine, 156 Inland waters, 263, 264 Insects: endemic, 111; species, 196 Integrated coastal management (ICM), 286 Integrated River Basin Management and Management Framework Plan, 286 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species (2013), 4, 111, 116, 267, 276: of Philippine flora, 290

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), 59 Invasive alien species, 122 Invertebrates, 198–201: species discovery and endemism, 163 Ipil River (Bohol), 35 Iron, 27, 87 Iron Age culture, 234 Iron ore: Mindanao, 44 Iron wood (Casuarina equisetifolia), 126 Irrawady dolphins (Orcaella brevirostris), 171 Isarog (mountain): extrusive formations, 77 Isneg, 246–48 Itbayat Island (Batanes), 8, 205

J

Jade vine, 138 Jaguar guapote (Parachromis managuensis), 18 Jalaur (Panay): water availability deficit, 94 Jalaur River, 89 Jama Mapun (Cagayan de Sulu), 58, 255 Jasmine, 138 Java: sub-floristic province, 96 Java sparrow (Lonchura oryzivora), 186 Jellyfish, 28 Jolo (Sulu), 55, 56, 74: tides, 69 Jurassic outcrops: Mindoro, 77

K

K’lagan, 218 Kabayan mummy burial cave, 231 Kagang-bugtong (Zosimus aeneus), 200 Kaingin. See Slash-and-burn (Kaingin) Kalanguya, 231 Kalayaan Islands: coral reefs, 107 Kalimug (Saurauia spp.), 136 Kalinga, 246–48: woman, 251 Kaliwa watershed areas, 89 Kaloula conjuncta (Philippine narrowmouth toad), 173 Kamel, Georg Joseph, 153: Observationes de Avibus Philippensibus, 180 Kankanaey, 231, 246 Karao, 231 Karolanos, 30 Karst forest, 47 Kerosene tree or supa (Sindora supa), 140 Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs), 277, 278–79 table 25, 28, 288, 291: boundaries, 289 fig. 551 Khasia pine (Pinus kesiya), 149 Kiangan (Cordillera), 13

King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), 176 Kingdom of Namayan (trade centers), 239 Kingdom of Sanfotsi (trade centers), 239 Kingdom of Wak-Wak (trade centers), 239 Kingdoms of Zabag (trade centers), 239 Kiwi fruit, 136 Kla-ma-yan (Calamian), 55 Koronadal (Cotabato): watershed areas, 89 Kotkot-Lusaran: watershed areas, 89 Krill, 28

L

La Niña, 62 Lacustrine (lake), 156 Lagonoy Gulf, 19 Laguna de Bay, 16, 91: freshwater sawfish (Pristis microdon), 188; under threat, 92 Laguna Lake Basin, 92 Laguna Lake Development Authority, 92 Laguna Lake Zoning and Management Plan, 92 Lake Balinsasayao, 30, 31 Lake Bato (Bicol Region), 19: sinarapan (Mistichthys luzonensis), 189 Lake Buhi (Bicol Region): goby sinarapan (Mistichthys luzonensis), 19, 189 Lake Danao (Negros), 30, 31 Lake Lanao (Mindanao), 43, 91: endemic cyprinids, 93; endemic species of fish, 44 Lake Lanao Watershed, 89, 93 Lake Naujan (Mindoro), 22, 91: bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas), 188 Lakes, 91, 102: threats, 263 Lamon Bay (Bicol Peninsula), 19 Land bridges: prehistoric, 99 fig. 23 Land mammals, 169 Land snails, 201 Land turtles: species, 178 Land Use bill: biodiversity conservation, 281 Lands: degradation, 85; use systems, 5, 87, 266 Languages, 244 fig. 47; native 242 Lantawan (volcanic peak), 30 Lanzones, 23 Laoag River (Ilocos), 12–13 Large-billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos), 186 Larks (Alauda gulgula and Mirafra javanica), 186 Lateritic soils, 82, 83 Laurel family (Lauraceae), 143, 143 fig. 31 Lead, 87 Ledges: Tubbataha Reef, 54 Index

335

Legaspi port (Bicol Region): semidiurnal tide, 69 Leichhardt tree (Nauclea orientalis), 129 Leopard cat (Felis bengalensis), 166 Leopards, 98 Lepidoptera, 196 Leptospermum flavescens, 147 Leyte Gulf, 27, 28 Leyte Valley, 25, 27, 28, 42, 74, 75: alluvial soils, 82; calcareous shales, 82; extrusive formations, 77; noncalcareous shale soils, 82; soil degradation, 87 Lianas (plant), 133, 136 Libro de Medicinales de esta Tierra, y Declaraciones de las Virtudes de los Arboles y Plantas, 152 Libungan Marsh (Mindanao), 43, 118 Lichens 114 Light red meranti (Shorea almon), 143 Liguasan Marsh (Mindanao), 43, 118–19, 129, 131: biogeographic zones, 102; freshwater sawfish (Pristis microdon), 188 Lilies, 138 Lily trotter. See Comb-crested Jacana (Irediparra gallinacea) Lingayen Gulf (Pangasinan), 14: mangroves, 15 Lingo-lingo (Viticipremna philippinensis), 140 Linnaeus, Carolus, 153 Lithocarpus, 145 Litsea, 143 Liverworts, 2 Livistona palms, 136 Lizards: species, 175 Lobed river mullet (Cestraeus plicatilis), 89 Loboc River (Bohol), 35 Lobsters, 24 Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), 178 Logging, 22, 23, 151, 203: illegal, 208 Lonoy watershed areas, 89 Looking-glass tree (Heritiera littoralis), 126 Lopidium moss, 45 Lotus bird. See Comb-crested Jacana (Irediparra gallinacea) Lower montane (mid-mountain) forest, 142–44: Mindanao, 144 Lowland dipterocarp forest: Mindanao, 133 fig. 30; Sibuyan, 34 Lowland evergreen (dipterocarp) forest, 131–34 Lowland forest (Bukidnon), 132

336

The Philippines: A Natural History

Lowland lakes, 156 Lowland rain forests: Palawan, 47 Lowland semi-deciduous (seasonal/monsoon) forest, 140 Lowland semi-evergreen rainforest, 140 Lowland white-eye (Zosterops meyeni), 186 Lumintao River (Mindoro), 22 Lumnitzera littorea, 130 Luzon Archipelago: coral reefs, 105 Luzon peacock swallowtail (Papilio chikae), 196 Luzon Strait, 8, 68 Luzon, 8–25, 42: climate, 20; coral reefs, 107; cretaceous rocks, 77; Jurassic rocks, 77; map, 9 fig. 2; mountain system, 17; noncalcareous shale soils, 82; population, 4; relative humidity, 62; seasonal pattern, 60; sulfur deposits, 87; tribal people, 8; water availability deficit, 94 Luzon, Southwest, 72 Lycaenidae, 198

M

Maasin watershed areas, 89 Mabayo Point, 226 Maca reefs, 200 Macaranga spp., 134 fig. 30, 154 Mackerel, 17, 56 Macolod Corridor, 72 Mactan (Cebu), 30 Magahat, 30 Magellan Birdwing (Troides magellanus), 196 Magellan, Ferdinand, 27 Magnetite, 87 Maguindanao (Cotabato), 254 Maguindanaon, 119 Maharlika nobility, 240 fig. 45 Mahoganao watershed areas, 89 Mainit Lake, 91 Maize (corn), 23 Makiling Botanical Gardens, 17 Malabar hoary (Callicarpa spp.), 136 Malacca-teak (Afzelia rhomboidea), 140 Malagos watershed areas, 89 Malapascua Island (Cebu), 30 Malaspina expedition, 158 Malay apple (Syzygium malaccense), 134 Malay Peninsula: sub-floristic province, 96 Malayo-Polynesian Language Family, 4, 245 fig. 48

Malesia (floristic region), 96 fig. 21 Mallotus, 154 Mamanwa (Agusan-Surigao), 30, 251 Mamburao River (Mindoro), 22 Mammalian endemism, 163, 165 Mammals, 2, 34, 100: diversity, 168; endemic, 21, 163, 165; new species discovery, 167; species, 3, 23, 207; threatened, 111 Mananga watershed areas, 89 Manatee (Dugong dugon): endangered, 164 Mancono (Xanthostemon verdugonianum), 142 Mandalagan (volcanic peak), 30 Mandaya (Davao), 251 Manganese, 27, 87: Anda Plateau, 35; Mindanao, 44 Mangoes, 3, 8 Mangrove forest, 126–28: loss of, 265, 266; reserve: Del Carmen (Mindanao), 45 Mangrove species: Culion (Palawan), 53 Mangrove swamps: Palawan, 47 Mangrove zonation, 130–31 Mangroves, 16, 30, 102: loss of, 259; Palawan, 47; Sibuyan, 34; Sulu Archipelago, 56 Mangyan (Mindoro), 25, 209, 251, 254 Manila: climate, 20; tides, 69 Manila Bay, 16–17, 91: communities, 237; degradation, 17; mangroves, 16; migratory birds, 16; tides, 70 Manila Trench, 80 Manila-Acapulco galleon trade, 68 Manobo (Agusan/Cotabato), 218, 223, 251, 254: tribal chieftain, 255 Mansaka (Davao), 251 Manta rays (Mobulidae), 24: Panglao Island, 36 Maqueda Channel, 19 Maranao (Lake Lanao), 254 Marble, 23 Marcopper and Placer Dome, 272 Marcopper mining, 20 Maria Cristina Falls, 44 Marianas Island, 59 Marikina watershed areas, 89 Marinduque: “butterfly capital of the Philippines,” 20; mining damage, 272 Marine: biodiversity, 112; biogeographic regions, 100, 105–10; climatology, 62; diversity, 3, 111; ecosystems, 120–21; invertebrates, 200; mammals, 3; mollusks, 200; reptiles, 23; snakes, 175;

threatened, 264; physiographic provinces, 81 fig. 16 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), 109–10, 286–87: “no take” zones, 294 Marine vegetation, 158–61 Marlin, 56 Marshes, 118–20 Masbate Pass, 26 Masbate (province), 25, 26, 75: extrusive formations, 77; fauna, 100; sandstone soils, 82 Mayon Volcano. See Mount Mayon Mayoyao (Cordillera), 13 McGregor, Richard. Manual of Philippine Birds, 180 Medinella, 143 fig. 31 Megapode (Megapodius cumingii). See Tabon scrubfowl (Megapodius cumingii) Melegunon (Balabac Island), 255 Melochia, 154 Melon-headed whale (Peponocephala electra), 171 Mercado, Ignacio de, 152 Mercury, 87 Merrill, Elmer Drew, 152 Mesozoic formations, 39, 77 Mesquite (Propsopis juliflora), 126 Metal Age, 235, 236 Metallic minerals, 87 Metro Manila: air pollution, 271 Mexico-Manila galleon, 157 Meycauayan River (Bulacan), 16 Meyer, Ernst. Birds of the Philippines, 181 Mid-Oligocene period, 74 Migration theories, 234–35 Migratory birds, 13 Migratory wetland birds, 30 Milkfish (Chanos chanos), 56, 92 188 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003 and 2005), 284 “Millennium Tree” (Aurora Province), 137 Millipedes, 201 Mindanao Archipelago, 6, 8, 39–45: biogeographic zones, 102; clearing forests, 44; climate, 39, 66; coal deposits, 87; coast, 39; coral reefs, 105, 107; ethno-linguistic groups, 246; exploration, 112; extrusive formations, 77; gold mining, 87; lepidoptera, 196; lower montane forest, 143 fig. 31; map, 38 fig. 4, 74; Negritos (Aeta),

Index

337

246; noncalcareous shale soils, 82; population, 4; relative humidity, 62; seasonal pattern, 60–61 Mindanao Deep. See Philippine Trench Mindanao gymnure (Podogymnura truei), 170 Mindanao River, 89. See also Pulangi River Mindanao Sea, 39, 91 Mindanao Trench, 40, 45, 80 Mindanao, Northeast: endemic mammals, 612 Mindanao, Northeastern: ultra-basic forest, 142 Mindoro Island, 6, 20, 22–25, 47, 74, 100: Apo reef, 192; centers of terrestrial vertebrates, 112; climate, 23, 66; coal deposits, 87; coral reefs, 105, 107; coralline limestones, 77; indigenous peoples, 246; map, 9 fig, 2; Permian fossils, 77; tropical rainforest, 23 Mindoro crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), 177–78. See also Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) Mindoro pine (Pinus merkusii), 22 Mindoro Strait, 68 Mineral resources, 10, 87–88 Mingan Mountains (Aurora Province): forest field mice, 167 Mining industry, 8, 208: Cebu, 29; Mindanao, 39; Palawan, 51; Sibuyan, 34 Mining waste: Marinduque, 271 Miocene era, of Tertiary period, 74 Molave tree (Vitex parviflora), 140 Mollusks, 23, 111, 163 Mompong River (Mindoro), 22 Monad Shoal: pelagic thresher sharks (Alopias pelagicus), 30 Monitor lizards, 45 Monkey species, 3, 32, 98, 166 Montane forests: Palawan, 47; Sibuyan, 34 Montane grassland: Sibuyan, 34 Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), 183 Moray eels: Tubbataha Reef, 54 Mosaic of scrubland, 16 Mosses, 2, 43, 136 Mossy forest, 31, 102, 146: Sibuyan, 34 Mottled eel (Anguilla marmorata), 188 Mound-builders, 179 Mount Apo (Davao), 41: mist stunted, single layered sub-alpine forest, 147; mixed lower montane forest, 144 Mount Apo Natural Park, 204, 215–18: ASEAN Heritage Parks, 204; geothermal project, 271 338

The Philippines: A Natural History

Mount Arayat (Pampanga), 13 Mount Baco (Mindoro): highland systems, 22 Mount Banahaw (Quezon), 17: forest field mice, 167 Mount Bliss, 227 Mount Bulusan (Bicol Region), 19: extrusive formations, 77 Mount Calavite (Mindoro), 24 Mount Calavite Tamaraw Preserve, 169 Mount Cresta, 207 Mount Cristobal (Quezon), 17 Mount Dapiak, 44 Mount Data’s watershed, 11 Mount Dipalayag, 207 Mount Divilacan, 207 Mount Halcon (Mindoro): Dawsonia, 147; highland systems, 22 Mount Hamiguitan, 40: UNESCO World Heritage Site (2014), 40 Mount Hilong-hilong, 40 Mount Iglit-Baco National Park (Mindoro Occidental), 24, 169, 203, 208–9: ASEAN Heritage Parks, 204; biodiversity conservation, 280; “game refuge and bird sanctuary,” 209 Mount Iraya (Batanes), 205 Mount Iriga (Bicol Region), 19 Mount Isarog National Park, 278 Mount Isarog Natural Park, 19, 204, 226–27: encroachment, 227; protection priorities, 278 Mount Kambinlio: protection priorities, 278 Mount Kanlaon Natural Park, 31, 204, 212–13, 271: floral endemism, 213; protection priorities, 278 Mount Kanlaon: species of Platymantis, 173 Mount Kinabalu (Sabah): tree limit, 150 Mount Kinasalapi: sub-alpine forest, 147 Mount Kitanglad Natural Park, 44, 204, 218–20: ASEAN Heritage Parks, 204 Mount Madja-as, 32 Mount Makiling (Laguna), 17: mist-depressed type forest, 144; protected area, 280 Mount Malinao, 19 Mount Malindang, 20, 44, 77: Ansonia and Rhacophorus (moss frogs), 173; protection priorities, 278 Mount Malindang National Park, 173, 204, 227–28 Mount Mantalingahan (Palawan), 47:

protection priorities, 278; sub-alpine forest, 147 Mount Mantalingahan Protected Landscape, 51, 270, 278 Mount Masaraga, 19 Mount Mataren (Batanes), 205 Mount Mayon (Bicol Region), 19, 73, 78: scrubby vegetation, 144: extrusive formations, 77 Mount Natib (Zambales), 226 Mount Palanan, 207 Mount Pangasugan: ethnobotanical fieldwork, 267 Mount Pinatubo, 15, 73, 78 Mount Pulag, 10: mist-shrouded slopes, 145 fig. 32; open pine forest, 144; sub-alpine forest, 147; upland grassland, 150, 151 Mount Pulag National Park, 204, 230–32: threat, 232 Mount Ragang, 44 Mount Redondo: protection priorities, 278 Mount Siadang: Dawsonia, 147 Mount Tabayoc lakes, 156 Mount Talomo, 143 fig. 31: Dawsonia, 147; mixed lower montane forest, 144 Mount Tapulao (Zambales): forest field mice, 167 Mountain agoho (Gymnostoma rumphiana), 141 Mounts Aruyan/Sablayan, 24 Mudfish, 13 Mudflats: encroachment, 263 Mundos, 32 Munias (Lonchura spp.), 183, 186 Muslims, 254 Myer’s Snake (Myersophis alpestris), 21

N

Nagacadan, 13 Nageia and Sundacarpus, 97 Napindan Hydraulic Control Structure, 92 Narra (Pterocarpus indicus), 140 Nasturtuim tree (Macaranga grandifolia), 134 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 262, 272, 273 table 23, 274 National Greening Program, 281 National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS), 203, 275 National Marine Park, 24 National Park System, 203

National Plant Germplasm Resources Laboratory: germplasm collections, 121 National Tobacco Authority, 121 National Wetland Action Plan for the Philippines, 264 Nationwide Tools for Sentinel Ecosystems in the Archipelagic Seas Program for Climate Change, 61 Native non-flying mammals, 21 Native reptiles, 21 Natural environment, 259 Natural lakes, 89 Natural Resource Accounting, Environmental Impact Assessment, and Land Use, 282 Natural vegetation, 94 Naujan Lake. See Lake Naujan Naujan Lake National Park: Ramsar Sites, 204 Navotas-Malabon River: dwarf-pygmy goby (Pandaka pygmaea), 189 Negritos (Aeta), 4, 32, 207, 225, 233, 234, 246: Palawan, 55 Negros Islands, 25, 26, 30, 75: deep-water channel, 28; extrusive formations, 77; faunal species, 100; indigenous peoples, 246; Negritos (Aeta), 246; primary forests, 33; rainfall average, 61; subduction zones, 72 Negros Occidental, 30: “Sugarbowl of the Philippines,” 32 Negros Oriental, 30: primary products, 31; sulfur deposits, 87 Neolitsea, 143 Neonauclea, 144 Nepenthes pitcher plants, 45 New Guinea: Asian species, 98 Nickel: Mindanao, 44 Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica), 25 Night herons (Nycticorex spp.), 183 Nightjars (Caprimulgus sp.), 184 Nipa forest, 126–28 Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans), 23, 30, 43, 127, 128 North Pacific, 59, 60 Northeast monsoon (amihan), 59, 60 Northeastern Mindanao: sandstone soils, 82 Northeastern Philippine Sea: coral reef area, 105–7 table 5 Northern Luzon: biogeographic zones, 102; climate, 64; ethno-linguistic groups, 246 Northern Mindanao: rainfall average, 61; surface water source, 94 Index

339

Northern Sierra Madre National Park, 8, 203, 206–8, 290: endemic plants, 207; protection priorities, 278 Nudibranchs, 28 Nueva Ecija, 13 Nueva Vizcaya, 13 Nymphalidae (brush-footed butterflies), 198

O

O. meyeriana, 121 O. officinalis, 121 O. rufipogon, 121 Oak leaf fern (Drynaria quercifolia), 43 Oaks (Lithocarpus and Fagaceae spp.), 11, 143 fig. 31, 143 Oceanic whitetip (Carcharhinus longimanus), 189 Octopus, 56 Offshore areas with minerals, 88 fig. 18 Oil palm, 44: Basilan Island, 56 Olango Island (Cebu): coconut crab, 199; mudflats and mangroves, 30 Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary: Ramsar Sites, 204 Oligocene period, 74 Olive Ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), 178 Olive-backed sunbird (Cinnyris jugularis), 184, 186 One Hundred Islands National Park: degradation, 15 Operational Plan for Manila Bay Coastal Strategy (2005), 17 Orchids (Paphiopedilum adductum), 31, 32, 40, 43, 136, 145: native, 32; species, 2 Orchidaceae: endangered, 116 Oriental Darter (Anhinga melanogaster), 91 Oriental faunal zone, 97 Oriental Life Region, 162 Oriental magpie robin (Copsychus saularis), 186 Oriental mangrove (Bruguiera or busain), 126 Oriental reed warbler (Acrocephalus orientalis), 16 Oriental whipsnake (Ahaetulla prasina), 176 Orioles, 186 Ornithologists, 180–81 Oryza minuta, 121 Oxisols, 84 fig. 17

340

The Philippines: A Natural History

P

Pacific and barn swallows (Hirundo tahitica and H. rustica), 186 Pacific Basin, 6 Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), 62 Pacific Ocean biogeographic zone, 162 Pacific Ocean, 220 Pacific Ocean Zone, 27, 98, 105, 120 Pacific Plate, 74 Pacific walnut (Dracontomelon dao), 134 Paddy frog (Cornufer meyeri or Platymantis dorsalis), 172 Pagbahan River, 22 Painted-snipe (Rostratula benghalensis), 183 Paki-nung (Busuanga), 55 Palanan Point, 8, 207 Palau-ye (Palawan), 55 “Palao-yu” (“the land of the beautiful safe harbor”). See Palawan “Palavas” (“abundant plants”). See Palawan Palawan Ark hypothesis: and Barbourula frogs, 101–2 Palawan bearcat (Arctictis binturong), 50, 51 Palawan Block: coral reefs, 105 Palawan Council for Sustainable Development, 50–51 Palawan flowerpecker (Prionochilus plateni), 50 Palawan flycatcher (Ficedula platenae), 50 Palawan fruitbat (Acerodon leucotis), 50 Palawan hornbill, 51 Palawan pangolin (Manis culionensis), 170 Palawan peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron emphanum), 3, 50, 179 Palawan Physiographic Province, 80 Palawan stink badger (Mydausmarchei), 50 Palawan tit (Parus amabilis), 50 Palawan Trench, 80 Palawan, 1, 8, 22, 46–55: Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites, 291; ancient history, 55, 101; biodiversity, 51; biogeographic zones, 102, 287; as Biosphere Reserve, 51; bronze smelting sites, 236; climate, 66; coral reefs, 107; Cretaceous rocks, 77; endemic flora and fauna, 50; extrusive rocks, 77; “final frontier,” 51; forest conditions, 50; indigenous peoples, 246; land area with high biodiversity, 102; limestone (karst) topography, 55; lower endemism, 165; mammals endemic to,

166; map, 46 fig. 5, 74; migration route, 98; Negritos (Aeta), 246; Permian fossils, 77; Philippine Wallacean species of fauna, 181; protected areas system, 204; rainfall average, 61; SPOT 5 satellite imageries, 50; subduction zones, 72 Palawani (Palawan), 254 Palawano, 55 Palmae: endangered, 116 Palms, 43 Palustrine (marsh), 156 Pamilacan Island (“resting place of the mantas”), 36, 170 Pampanga: water availability deficit, 94 Pampanga River, 13, 16, 89, 90 Panamao Lake, 56 Panay, 25, 30, 32, 77: deep-water channel, 28; extrusive formations, 77; faunal species, 100; indigenous peoples, 246; Jurassic rocks, 77; Negritos (Aeta), 246; noncalcareous shale soils, 82; Permian fossils, 77 Panay Gulf, 32: effects of Guimaras Oil Spill, 265 Panay monitor lizard (Varanus mabitang), 175 Panay River (Visayas), 32, 89 Panay Strait, 68 Pandaka pygmaea, 190 fig. 39 Panglao Island (Bohol), 36: decapod crustaceans, 201 Pansipit River, 18 “Paragua” (“island of freshwater and the land of promise”). See Palawan Parang. See Secondary vegetation Parrots, 180, 186 Pasig River, 3, 16, 91 Pasig-Laguna: water availability deficit, 94 Pasig-Marikina River (Luzon), 89 Pasonanca (Zaboanga Peninsula): watershed areas, 89 Pawikan (Chelonia mydas), 57, 178, 207 Pawikan Conservation Project, 214–15 Peace rite (bodong), 248 “Pearl of Allah.” See “Pearl of Lao-Tze” “Pearl of Lao-Tze,” 200 Peat swamp forest, 91, 149 Pelagic fish, 190 Peñablanca (Cagayan): protected area, 280 Petiver, James. Herbarium aliarumque stirpium in insula Luzone Philippinarum (Herbs and medicinal in the island of Luzon), 153

Phalsa (Grewia sp.), 136 Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus), 180, 183 Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), 268 Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priorities 113, 274–75, 277 Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Prioritysetting Program (PBCPP). Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priorities (PBCP): A Second Iteration of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 274 Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment and Plan of Action, 262 fig. 51 Philippine cobra (Naja philippinensis), 176 Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), 3, 51, 293 Philippine Coronas Classification (PCC), 62 Philippine coucal (Centropus viridis), 186 Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), 22, 118, 131, 293: protection, 177 Philippine Deep, 220. See also Mindanao Deep Philippine Development Plan 2011/2016: biodiversity conservation, 292–93 Philippine duck (Anas luzonica), 120 Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), 3, 21, 41–42, 163, 179, 207, 293: endangered, 164 Philippine Eagle Center, 42 Philippine Eagle Foundation (Davao City, Mindanao), 42 Philippine Endemic Species Conservation Project, 294 Philippine falconet (Microhierax erythrogenys), 43, 186 Philippine fault system, 1, 28, 71, 73, 74 Philippine flying lemur (Cynocephalus volans), 36–37, 166 Philippine freshwater crocodile. See Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) Philippine glossy starling (Aplonis panayensis), 187 Philippine gurjun (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus), 133, 139, 140 Philippine hawk owl (Ninox sp.), 184 Philippine land animals, 162 Philippine mahogany, 3, 143 Philippine mallard (Anas luzonica), 183 Philippine Mobile Belt, 71

Index

341

Philippine monkey-eating eagle. See Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) Philippine mouse deer (Tragulus nigricans), 51, 53, 166, 169: endangered species, 54 Philippine narrowmouth toad (Kaloula conjuncta), 172 Philippine National Action Plan (2004), 87 Philippine national bird. See Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) Philippine National Herbarium, 268 Philippine National Oil Company-Energy Development Corporation, 218 Philippine National Oil Corporation (PNOC), 270 Philippine National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, 274 Philippine or Mindoro crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), 207 Philippine pangolin (Manis culionensis), 170 Philippine pharmacopeia, 152 Philippine Plate, 74: tectonic structures: map 73 fig. 11 Philippine Rice Research Institute: wild rice, 121 Philippine sail-fin lizard (Hydrosaurus pustulatus), 207 Philippine scops owl (Otus megalotis), 184 Philippine Sea Basin, 80 Philippine Sea Plate, 71, 72 fig. 10 Philippine Sea, 8, 39. See also Mindanao Trench Philippine seagrass ecosystems: foodchain, 161 fig. 35 Philippine spotted deer (Rusa alfredi), 31 Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development, 282 Philippine Strategy for the Conservation of Biological Diversity, 272 Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta), 36–37, 166, 169 Philippine terrestrial fauna: threatened, 164 table 20 Philippine tree shrew (Urogale everetti), 170 Philippine Trench, 6. See also Mindanao Trench Philippine tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene rabori), 32 Philippines Turtle Islands. See Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary Philippine waters: trenches/troughs, 80

342

The Philippines: A Natural History

Philippines’ Strategy for Biological Diversity Conservation, 284 Phragmites vallatoria (tambo), 149 Phyllanthus spp., 141 Phyllocladus, 144 Physeter macrocephalus, 170 Physiography: 80–81 Pied bushchat (Saxicola caprata), 186 Pied fantail (Rhipidura javanica), 182, 186 Pied triller (Lalage nigra), 186 Pig species, 23: endemic to Philippines, 166 Pili nut (Canarium ovatum), 3, 134 Pine forest, 11, 102, 148–49 Pineapples, 3, 8, 39: plantations, 56 Pipefish (Syngnathinae), 28 Pipturus, 154 Pitcher plant (Nepenthes copelandii), 43, 145, 217 Plankton, 28 Plant conservation, 113, 114 fig. 28 Plant diversity: characterization, 113–15 Plant endemism, 2, 115–16, 124 Plant genera, 115 table 10 Plants: domesticated, 154–56; known plant species, 114 table 9; endemic, 115–16 table 11; introduction of, 157–58; species, 2, 3: endangered, 4; invasives, 123 table 17; threatened, 111, 116 table 12 Pleistocene era, 47 Pleistocene: groups, 75, 100; island, 76 fig. 13 Pleomele, 140 Plovers, 16 Plywood, 133 Podocarpus (iguem), 97, 144, 145 Poivre, Pierre, 180 Polillo Island, 8, 19: butaan, 175 Polypedates leucomystax (common tree frog), 173 Polystoma, 143 fig.31 Pompadour green-pigeon (Treron pompadora), 184 Ponds, 16 Population density, 5 Poultry, 23 Poverty, 5 Prawn, 56, 198 Presidential memorandum Order No. 289, 284 Principalia, 239 Priority Sites for Conservation in the Philippines: Key Biodiversity Areas, 277, 279

Proto-Malay Mangyans, 251 Proto-Malayan types, 4 Pteridophytes, 114: threatened, 111 Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park: World Heritage Sites, 204 Pujada Peninsula, 40 Pulangi River (Cotabato), 43 Purple and great-billed herons (Ardea purpurea and A. sumatrana), 182 Purple nutsedge (Cyperus spp.), 129 Purple Swamp Hen (Porphyrio porphyrio), 91 Purple-throated sunbirds and N. sperata), 186 Puzzle nut tree (X. moluccensis), 126 Pygmies. See Negritos Pygmy (bonsai) forest, 40 Pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata), 171 Pygmy seahorses (Hippocampus bargibanti), 28 Python (Python reticulatus), 3, 176

Q

Quaternary volcanoes, 22, 39 Quezon Protected Landscape, 21 Quirino Protected Landscape, 21

R

R. apiculata, 130 R. mucronata, 126 Rabor, Dioscoro, 181 Ragay Gulf, 19, 21 Rails, 93 Rainfall: distribution, 94, 95 fig. 20; yearly average, 61 Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), 23, 134 Ramos (Island), 54 Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance as Waterfowl Habitat-Ramsar, 91 Ramsar-designated area, 119, 204 Rana erythraea (green paddy frog), 173 Ranunculus, 150 Rare bleeding-heart pigeon (Gallicolumba luzonica), 31 Rare leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), 178 Rattan, 23, 133, 136 Ray, John, 153 Red and blue water lily (Nymphaea nouchali), 93 Red and yellow colored rhododendron, 45 Red balau (Shorea guiso), 133

Red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), 148, 184 Red Data Book of Endangered Species (2011), 164 Red grass (Themeda triandra), 148 Red junglefowl (Gallus gallus), 32 Red lauan (Shorea negrosensis), 133, 134 fig. 30 Red leea (Leea spp.), 136 Red snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus), 188 Red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus), 53 Red turtle-dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica), 186, 187 Reddish cuckoo dove (Macropygia tenuirostris), 184 Reddish-brown atlas moth (Attacus atlas), 198 Red-tailed mackerel scad (Decapterus kurroides), 189 Red-vented or Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), 50 Reed beds of Typha sp., 93 Reefs, 3: fish species, 30, 106, 107 table 6, 111 Relief map, 7 Remote Sensing Information for Living Environments, 61 Reptiles, 2, 3, 34, 100, 172–78: endemism, 163, 175; species, 3, 43; threatened, 111, 207 Resins, 133, 138 Rhabdornithidae (tree creepers): endemic, 178 Rhinoceros starfish (Protoreaster sp.), 201 Rhinoceros, 98 Rhinogobius flavoventris, 18 Rhizophora (red mangrove), 126 Rhizophora apiculata, 126 Rhizophora mucronata, 130 Rhizophora zone, 126 Rhododendron (bush),145, 147 Rice eel (Monopterus albus), 188 Rice, 8, 11, 17, 19, 23, 31 32, 35, 39, 44, 45 Rice terraces, 12 Richard’s pipit (Anthus richardi), 186 Rio Grande de Mindanao, 91 Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus), 171 River Basin Control Office, 286 Rivers, 89, 156 River basins, 90 fig. 19 River system, 3 Rock types, 77 Rodents, 34: diversification, 165, 166; endangered, 168; endemic, 207 Romblon Islands, 22, 32: “Galapagos of Asia,” 32; marble, 34; Permian fossils, 77

Index

343

Root crops, 17, 45 Rubber, 39, 44: Basilan Island, 56 Rubiaceae, 144 Rubiaceous herbs, 149 Rufous hornbill, 228

S

Saavedra Cerón, Álvaro de, 68 Sabah Turtle Islands, 178, 214 Sabtang Island (Batanes), 8, 205 Sagay Marine Reserve (Negros Oriental), 200 Sago forest, 91 Sago palm (Metroxylon sagu), 131 Sailfin tuko (Hydrosaurus pustulosus), 175 Saltwater/estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), 177–78, 207 Samal (Sulu Archipelago), 58, 251, 254 Samar Island, 25, 27, 42, 74, 75: fishing grounds, 20 Samar Island Biodiversity Project (SIBP), 287 Samar Island Natural Park (SINP), 287 Samar Sea, 27 Samar-Leyte Islands: exploration San Antonio Swamp, 131 San Bernardino Strait, 20, 26, 27, 68: currents, 70 San Miguel Bay, 19 Sand, 87 Sandawa (“Mountain of Sulfur”). See Mount Apo Sander’s euanthe. See Waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana) Sandpipers, 16 Sandstone (soil), 82 Sanga-Sanga Island, 58 Sanggumay (Dendrobium anosmum), 139 Sangil (Cotabato/Davao), 254 Santo Tomas watershed areas, 89 Saptree (Garcinia spp.), 136 Sararanga philippinensis, 142 Satyrinae (browns), 198 Saurauia species, 144 Savanna nightjar (Caprimulgus affinis), 186 Scaevola micrantha, 141 Schizostachyum, 145 Schools of jacks (Carangidae), 30 Schools of surgeonfish: Panglao Island, 36 Sclerophyllous (hard leaf), 141 Scott, William Henry, 234 Scrambling clerodendrum (Clerodendrum spp.), 136 344

The Philippines: A Natural History

Screw pine (Pandanus tectorius), 125–26 Scrub forest: Sulu Archipelago, 56 Sculptured shells of the Murex family (Pterynotus elongatus), 200 Sea catfish, 17 Sea cucumbers, 53, 201 Sea grass distribution, 159 fig. 35 Sea hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus), 126 Sea kraits (Laticaudidae), 176 Sea level time series, 268–69 Sea snakes (Hydrophiinae) , 3, 176 Sea Surface Height (SSH), 62 Sea Surface Temperature (SST), 62 Sea Surface Temperature Change (STC), 62 Sea urchins, 201 Seagrass species, 158–61: Culion (Palawan), 53 Seaweeds, 161: Basilan Island, 56 Secondary vegetation, 102, 151–52: bird life, 186 Second-growth (parang), 139 Sedges, 149 Sedimentation, 74 Seit Lake, 56 Semi-deciduous forests: Palawan, 47 Serocola, 134 fig. 30, 136 Shale (soil), 82 Sharks, 53 Shifting cultivation. See Slash and burn (kaingin) Shorea polysperma (Silago, Leyte), 133 Shorea spp., 207 Short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus), 171 Shrimp, 51, 53, 56, 198 Shrublands, 102 Siargao Island (Mindanao), 44–45 Siargao Island Protected Landscape and Seascape, 204, 220–21 Siargao Strait, 45 Siberian rubythroat (Luscinia calliope), 16 Siburan: protection priorities, 278 Sibutu Passage, 69 Sibuyan Island, 32, 74, 100: endemic mammals, 34, 162; endemic species, 100; flora and fauna, 34; Sibuyan Island and Mount Guiting-Guiting Natural Park, 204, 228–29 Sibuyan Sea, 20, 26, 32: Pacific water, 68, 69 Sicaba Diutay (volcanic peak), 30 Sierra Madre corridors: Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites, 291

Sierra Madre Mountain Range (Luzon), 8, 13, 74: biogeographic regions, 102, 287 288 fig.54, 290; exploration, 112; intact rainforest, 21; land area with high biodiversity, 102; rheophyte vegetation type, 158 Silay (volcanic peak), 30 Silica, 87 Siltation, 263 Silver, 27, 31, 87 Silver perch (Leiopotherapon plumbeus), 92 Silvo-pastoral systems, 292 SINP/ Protected Area Management Board (PAMB), 287 Siquijor, 100: fishing, 31 Skunk tree (Sterculia foetida), 126 Slash-and-burn cultivation (kaingin), 3, 10–11 22, 124, 139, 151, 237: impact, 261 Slender walking catfish (Clarius nieuhofii), 189 Slipper orchid, 51 Snakehead fish (Channa striata), 188 Snappers, 17: Tubbataha Reef, 54 Snipe (Scolopacidae), 183 Sogod Bay, 28 Sohoton Natural Bridge National Park, 27, 28 Soil: cover, 82–87; degradation in Visayas, 87; erosion, 85, 87; grouping, 83–85; in areas with mountains, 84 fig. 17; map, 84 fig. 17; types, 82, 85 table 2 Solheim, Wilhelm: concept of maritime trading, 234–35 Some warblers (Cisticola spp.), 186 Sonnerat, Pierre: Voyage à la Nouvelle-Guinée, 180 Sonneratia (mangrove apple), 126 Sonneratia alba, 130, 126 Sorcery rituals, 139 Sorsogon Bay, 19 South and North Gigante Island: protection priorities, 278 South China Sea Basin, 80, 105 South China Sea Zone, 120 South China Sea, 8, 12: water movement, 110 South Pacific, 59, 60 Southeast Asia: distribution of land and sea, 75 fig. 12 Southeast Asian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis), 178, 207 Southeast Sulu Sea Basin, 80 Southeastern Philippine Sea: coral reef area, 105–7 table 5 Southern Leyte, 28

Southern Luzon: biogeographic zones, 102; climate, 64–66 Southern Mindanao: coarser alluvial soils, 72 Southwest monsoon (habagat), 60 Southwestern Pangasinan: Negritos (Aeta), 246 Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson), 53 Spanish regime: tree species, 157 Spathoglottis orchid, 45 Sperm whales (Balaenoptera edeni, 170 Spiders, 201: genus Araneus and fighting spiders, 202 Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), 171 Sponges: Tubbataha Reef, 54 Spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata), 171 Spratley Islands: larvae source, 110 Spurges, 149 Squid, 53, 56 Squirrels, 163 St. Paul Subterranean National Park, 51: edible-nest swiftlet, 52 Starfishes, 201 Steere, Joseph Beal, 180 Stegodon, 98 Sterculia, 140 Stinging herb (Laportea spp.), 136 Stone Age technologies, 233 Stone tools, 55 “Stony” corals: species, 3 Strangler fig. See Balete Tree Strategic Environmental Plan (SEP) for Palawan: protection for tribal peoples, 50 Streams, 89 Styphelia suaveolens, 147 Sub-alpine forest, 147 Subanon (Zamboanga), 251 Subic- Bataan Natural Park, 204, 223–26 Subic Bay Forest Watershed Reserve, 223 Submarine volcanoes, 26 Sugar, 32, 44 Sugarcane, 17, 23, 31, Sulawesi Sea, 69 Sulu Archipelago, 8, 44, 55–58, 66, 74, 237: extrusive rocks, 77; lepidoptera, 196; migration route, 98; Muslims, 246; subduction zones, 72 Sulu Sea, 39, 68, 69: atoll-type reefs, 106; coral reef area, 105–7 table 5; Sulu Sea basin, 105 Sulu Trench, 80 Index

345

Sulu-Celebes Sea: species of fish, 56 Sumatra: sub-floristic province, 96 Sumilon Island (Cebu): Philippines’ first municipal marine park, 30 Sunbirds (Nectariniidae spp.), 182 184, 186 Sunda flying lemur, 37 Sunda Plate. See Australian-Indonesian plate Sunda Shelf, 98, 22, 47 Sundaic region: resident land bird, 182 fig.38 Sundaic sub-region (Palawan), 97 Supreme Court: Writ of Kalikasan, 281 Suregada, 141 Surface freshwater, 94 Surface geology, 3, 77–80 Surgeonfish (Acanthuridae), 30 Surigao Strait, 28, 68 Swamplands, 89 Swamps, 13, 118–20, 259 Sweet acacia (Acacia farnesiana), 126 Sweet flag (Calamus mallis), 43 Sweet potato (kamote), 11 Sweetlips (Lethrinidae): Panglao Island, 36; Tubbataha Reef, 54 Sweetlips emperors (Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides), 53 Sweet-scented sampaguita (Jasminum sambac), 138 Swifts, 51 Symplocos (balakbak), 145 Symplocus, 134 fig.30, 136 Syzygium, 145

T

T’boli (Cotabato), 251 Taal Lake (Batangas), 16–18, 91 Taal Volcano Protected Landscape, 17, 18 Tablas Strait, 32, 68 Tabon Man, 55, 233, 235 Tabon scrubfowl (Megapodius cumingii), 179, 182 Tagakaolo, 251, 218 Tagaytay Ridge, 16, 17 Tagbanua (Palawan), 55, 251 Talog Manuc Island, 30 Tamaraw (Bubalus bubalis),169 Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), 23, 24: endangered, 164, 165; endemic, 209 Tamaraw (dwarf buffalo, 3, 98 Tañon Strait, 30 Tapirs, 98 Tarsiers, 98, 45. See also Philippine tarsiers 346

The Philippines: A Natural History

Tausug (Sulu archipelago), 58, 254 Tawi-Tawi Island, 55, 56, 57, 58: protection priorities, 278 Tawny grassbird (Megalurus timorensis), 186 Tayabas Bay, 20 Tayabas Isthmus: sandstone soils, 82 Tectonics, 71–77 Temperatures, 59 Terminalia (Terminalia copelandii), 129 Terminalia surigaoensis, 142 Terns (Sternidae), 182: species of, 16 Terrestrial animal: species, 2 Terrestrial biogeographic regions, 100, 102–5, 103 fig. 24 Terrestrial ecosystems, 111 Terrestrial snakes: species, 175 Terrestrial species: threatened, 164 Terrestrial turtles: species, 175 Terrestrial vertebrates, 163 table 19; endemic, 162–63 Terrestrial wildlife: Mindanao, 45 The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEE B 2009), 284 The Philippine Hotspot: Ecosystem Profile, 287 Thea, 144 Themeda (grass type), 149 Themeda triandra (bagokbok), 149 Thespesia populnea, 130 Thoracostachyum sumatranum (saw sedge), 149 Thorny oyster (Spondylus regius), 200 Threadfin breams (Nemipteridae), 53 Thrushes (Turdus spp.), 184 Ticao Pass, 26–27 Tidal mudflats/reefs, 182 Tidal patterns, 110: highest/lowest, 69 table1 Tiger beetle endemism, 163 Tigers, 98 Tilapia sp. (tilapya), 92 Timber (Philippine mahogany), 133 Timber License Agreements (TLAs), 261 Timberlands, 31 Tindalo (Afzelia rhomboidea), 140 Tinguian (Isneg), 246 Tiruray (Cotabato), 251 Tobacco, 3 Torre, Bernardo de la, 68 Tourism, 8 Trade winds: and Spanish galleons, 68 Transboundary Protected Areas, 204 Tree fern (Cyathea), 145

Tree frog (Polypedates leucomystax), 172 Tree frogs (Platymantis spp.), 207: species, 207 Trees: species of, 2, 34 Trema, 154 Trepan. See Sea cucumber Triassic outcrops: Mindoro, 77 Tristaniopsis micrantha (myrtacea family), 149 Tropical cyclones, 4 Tropical leaves: drip tips, 138 Tubbataha Reef (Palawan), 193: atoll-type reefs, 106; biodiversity conservation, 280; marine ecosystem, 54; seabirds, 54 Tubbataha Reef Natural Park: Ramsar Sites, 204; World Heritage Sites, 54, 204 Tuguegarao: average temperature, 59 Tulipwood (Harpullia arborea), 140 Tuna, 56 Turtle Island Group (Tawi-Tawi), 214: Pawikan (Chelonia mydas), 57–58 Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area (TIHPA), 57, 214 Turtle Islands Marine National Park, 204, 213–15: Transboundary Protected Areas, 204; Wildlife Sanctuary (1999), 213 Turtles, 24, 53: Panglao Island, 36; species, 175; exploitation, 178 Typhoon Haiyan (Typhoon Yolanda), 4, 63–65 Typhoons (tropical cyclones), 4, 21: category, 65; impact, 63; origin, 59, paths, 63 fig. 8

U

Ubo, 218 Ulot River, 27 Ultisols, 84 fig. 17 Ulugan Bay (Palawan): seagrasses, 158 Umiray watershed areas, 89 Underground River (Palawan), 51 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 51 University of the Philippines (Los Baños), 17 Upland lakes, 156 Upland/montane grassland, 150 Upper montane (mid-mountain or mossy) forest, 145 Upper montane forest formation: Luzon, 145 fig. 32 Upper Pleistocene, 233 Urban birds, 186 Urdaneta, Andrés de, 68 Urticaceae species, 144, 150

V

Vaccinium (bush), 145, 147 Vascular plant species, 34 Vegetables, 32, 44 Vegetation types, 124–61 Venus’ flower basket (Euplectella aspergillum), 200–201 Verde Island Passage, 20, 23, 68: “Center of Marine Shorefish Biodiversity,” 109 Vertisols, 84 fig. 17 Victoria Peak (Palawan), 47 Villar, Celestine Fernandez, 153 Visayan Sea, 25, 26 Visayan spotted deer (Rusa alfredi): endangered, 169 Visayan village, 241 fig. 46 Visayan warty pig (Sus cebifrons), 169 Visayan wrinkled hornbill (Aceros waldeni), 293 Visayas Region, 6, 8, 25–37, 74: 16th century, 242; climate, 66; coarser alluvial soils, 72; coral reef area, 105–7 table 5; ethno-linguistic groups, 246, 251; gold mining, 87; map, 26 fig.3; seasonal pattern, 60; marine protected areas, 286–87 Visayas, Western: seaweed flora, 110 Volcanic materials, 77 Volcanoes, 1; distribution of active/inactive, 78, 79 fig. 15 Voss, Fritjof, 234 “Voyavoy” (Phoenix hanceana var. philippinensis), 205

W

Walden’s hornbill (Aceros waldeni), 294 Waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana), 139, 217 Walking catfish (Clarias batrachus), 92, 189 Wallacean sub-region, 97 Wao Grasslands, 93 Warays (Eastern Visayas), 26 Warblers (Bradypterus spp.), 184, 185 Waste: mismanagement, 271 Water celery (Vallisneria sp.), 93 Water Environment Partnership in Asia (2005), 269 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), 43: invasive pest, 160 Water: circulation, 67 fig. 9; movement, 110 Water pollution, 5, 259 Water resources, 3 Water clogging, 154 Waterfowl, 93 Index

347

Waterfowl: species, 43 Watershed Management to Biodiversity Conservation: value of, 287 Watersheds, 89: critical, 263; degradation, 259 Weather patterns, 85 “Weber’s Line,” 98 Weinmannia, 144 Wentletraps (Epitonium scalare and E. pallasi), 200 West Luzon Trench, 80 West Pacific Flyways: migratory birds, 178 West Philippine Sea, 68: coral reef area, 105–7 table 5; water circulation, 67 Western Cordillera. See Zambales Range Western Pacific: water circulation, 67 Western Pampanga: Negritos (Aeta), 246 Western physiographic province, 80 Western Samar: calcareous shales, 82 Western Tarlac: Negritos (Aeta), 246 Western Visayas Bio-geographic Zone (WVBZ), 213 Wet rice cultivation: soil from volcanic tuff, 82 Wet season, 20 Wetlands, 13: ecosystem, 117–18; habitats, 5; pollution, 263 Wetlands International, 131 Whale shark (Rhincodon typus), 28, 189 Whales: Panglao Island, 36 Whiskered treeswift (Hemiprocne comata), 184 Whistlers (Pachycephala spp.), 184 Whistling ducks (Dendrocygna spp.), 183 White ginger, 138 White lauan (Shorea contorta), 133, 134 fig. 30 White lead tree (Leucaena leucocephala), 13, 126 White seraya (Parashorea malaanonan), 133, 140 White-breasted swamp hen (Amaurornis phoenicurus), 183 White-breasted woodswallow (Artamus leucorynchus), 186 White-cheeked bullfinch (Pyrrhula leucogenys), 148

348

The Philippines: A Natural History

White-collared kingfisher (Halcyon chloris), 182, 186: plight of, 267 White-eared brown dove (Phapitreron leucotis), 184 White-eyes (Zosterops spp.), 180, 184 White-throated kingfishers (Halcyon smyrnensis), 187 Wild legumes, 149 Wild ornamental podocarpus or arius (Podocarpus sp.), 205 Wild pigs, 3, 98 Wild poinsettia, 138 Wild sugarcane or talahib (Saccharum spontaneum), 149 Wildlife, 1: populations, 12; sanctuary, 91 Windowpane oyster (Placuna placenta), 200 Winds, Monsoonal, 69 World Heritage Sites, 14, 204

X

X. granatum, 130 Xylocarpus moluccensis, 130

Y

Yakal, 40 Yakan (Basilan), 58, 255 Yellow mangrove (Ceriops tagal), 127 Yellow-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier), 187 Ylang-ylang, 138

Z

Zambales: Negritos (Aeta), 246 Zambales Mountain Range, 8, 13, 14, 15: volcanic materials, 77 Zamboanga Peninsula, 39, 44, 55, 74, 207: biogeographic zones, 102; fishing industry, 69 Zebra dove (Geopelia striata), 186 Zoological Institute of HerpaWorld, 177