The New Science of Learning: How to Learn in Harmony With Your Brain [3 ed.] 1642675016, 9781642675016

Table of contents :
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Title Page: THE NEW SCIENCE OFLEARNING - How to Learn in Harmony With Your Brain, Third Edition
COPYRIGHT © 2022 BY STYLUS PUBLISHING, LLC.
Dedication
Table of Contents
Foreword: WELCOME TO DR. Z’S BOOK THAT COULD CHANGE YOUR LIFE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INTRODUCTION
PART ONE: SET UP FOR SUCCESS
Chapter One: LEARNING FROM MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES
Chapter Two: DISCOVERING YOURSELF AS A LEARNER
Chapter Three: DEVELOPING YOUR LEARNING STRATEGY
PART TWO: BUILD THE FOUNDATION
Chapter Four: IMPROVING THE LEARNING PROCESS
Chapter Five: EXPLORING SOCIAL INFLUENCES
Chapter Six: FINDING AND USING PATTERNS
PART THREE: SUPPORT YOUR LEARNING
Chapter Seven: THRIVING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Chapter Eight: DEMONSTRATING YOUR LEARNING
Chapter Nine: AVOIDING LEARNING PITFALLS
PART FOUR: KEEP IT GOING
Chapter Ten: SLEEPING TO ENHANCE LEARNING
Chapter Eleven: EXERCISING TO ENHANCE LEARNING
Chapter Twelve: BEING AN EFFECTIVE GROUP LEADER/MEMBER
APPENDIX A: ONLINE LEARNING
A MESSAGE FROM DR. Z
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
INDEX

Citation preview

Advance Praise for The New Science of Learning, Third Edition “An instant classic when first published in 2013, this updated third edition of The New Science of Learning should be required reading for every college student. It is an invaluable resource for educators searching for concrete, evidence-based ways to help students build academic skills, agency, and self-efficacy. It is a truly empowering book for students and instructors alike.”—Jessamyn Neuhaus, Director, SUNY Plattsburgh Center for Teaching Excellence; Author of Geeky Pedagogy: A Guide for Intellectuals, Introverts, and Nerds Who Want to be Effective Teachers “This book masterfully weaves together leading brain research and practical examples to show students ‘how to learn.’ It addresses common pitfalls that students encounter in their learning journey, and provides a clear roadmap of research-based strategies that can enhance comprehension, long-term retention, and the overall learning experience (such as spaced practice, metacognitive strategies, and yes, sleep). This book is a must-read for students who want the tools to succeed in college and beyond!”—Tolulope (Tolu) Noah, Instructional Learning Spaces Coordinator, California State University, Long Beach “Zakrajsek’s systematic, approachable, and humorous discussion of ‘the research’ makes this book both accessible and meaningful for any learner in higher education—and faculty too! He provides condensed, clear theory as well as pathways of practice for improving our learning through thought and deed. Any reader will come away with specific applications that will in turn provide profound improvements to their learning. This is a must-read for every student, regardless of previous academic success!”—Ian Wolf, Instructor of English, VanceGranville Community College

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“A must-read for our entering students . . . a distillation of the long-standing science on learning and the brain into easy-tofollow explanations and compelling real-life examples. This book encapsulates proven components of successful and enduring learning, offering numerous practical strategies that students can begin to use immediately. Kudos to the author for situating this latest edition in our current social landscape. I am constantly searching for tools to strengthen our students’ learning retention. This is a grand slam!” —Angela P. Hegamin, Assistant Dean of Academic Support, College of Optometry, Western University of Health Sciences

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T HE N E W S C IE N C E O F LE ARN IN G Third Edition

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Todd D. Zakrajsek

T HE N E W S C IE N C E O F LE ARN IN G How to Learn in Harmony With Your Brain THIRD EDITION

Foreword by John N. Gardner

STERLING, VIRGINIA

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COPYRIGHT © 2022 BY STYLUS PUBLISHING, LLC. Published by Stylus Publishing, LLC. 22883 Quicksilver Drive Sterling, Virginia 20166-2019 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, recording, and information storage and retrieval, without permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-64267-500-9 (cloth) 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-64267-501-6 (paperback) 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-64267-502-3 (library networkable e-edition) 13-digit ISBN: 978-1-64267-503-0 (consumer e-edition) Printed in the United States of America All first editions printed on acid-free paper that meets the American National Standards Institute Z39-48 Standard. Bulk Purchases Quantity discounts are available for use in workshops and for staff development. Call 1-800-232-0223 Third Edition, 2022 The content of this book is based on the author’s teaching experience and his expert interpretation of the published literature, and the publisher’s best effort to prepare the information for publication. The information and suggestions within are provided for a general audience with the hope that it will be beneficial to individuals. The suggestions and strategies contained in this book may not be suitable or appropriate for your specific situation. Readers should always work with professors, advisors, and other college personnel to ensure changes adopted are appropriate for the reader’s situation.

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To my mother, Ruth Ann Fisher, an avid reader, a lifelong learner, and my first and favorite teacher.

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Instructor’s Manual Available For a description, see https://styluspub.presswarehouse.com/landing/instructors-manual/ for/9781642675016

To request your copy, click on https://styluspub.presswarehouse.com/request-instructorsmanual/9781642675016/

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C O N TE N TS

FOREWORD

ix

John N. Gardner ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xiii

INTRODUCTION

1

PART ONE: SET UP FOR SUCCESS 1 LEARNING FROM MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES

11

2 DISCOVERING YOURSELF AS A LEARNER 

28

3 DEVELOPING YOUR LEARNING STRATEGY

46

PART TWO: BUILD THE FOUNDATION  4 IMPROVING THE LEARNING PROCESS

65

5 EXPLORING SOCIAL INFLUENCES

89

6 FINDING AND USING PATTERNS

107

vii

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contents

PART THREE: SUPPORT YOUR LEARNING  7 THRIVING IN HIGHER EDUCATION 

127

8 DEMONSTRATING YOUR LEARNING 

147

9 AVOIDING LEARNING PITFALLS 

165

PART FOUR: KEEP IT GOING 10 SLEEPING TO ENHANCE LEARNING

183

11 EXERCISING TO ENHANCE LEARNING 

207

12 BEING AN EFFECTIVE GROUP LEADER/MEMBER

224



APPENDIX A: ONLINE LEARNING

245



A MESSAGE FROM DR. Z

251



ABOUT THE AUTHOR

255

INDEX

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W E LC O ME TO D R . Z’S B O O K T HAT C O U LD C HA N G E YO U R LIF E

Yes, students, this book could change your life—if you let it . . . If you read it . . . if you apply its really clear and practical advice to the person who matters most to you—YOU. This book can be the most important book you are asked to read in college. Because this book is about you, how YOU learn, and how you could learn more effectively. And because successful learning in one of the most basic human functions you must master for every life objective you may ever have. And because most entering college students have never been taught how to learn and how to improve their learning abilities. As you’ve probably heard some say: college is about personal selfdiscovery. So, in order to make you a more successful learner in college and life, we first have to help you better understand yourself. And that’s what this book is going to do. This is a book about who you are now and what you can become—all a function of how you go about learning how to learn. You’re probably asking, as you should be, “Who’s the guy m ­ aking all these claims about how important this book is going to be for me?” Well, I’ll tell you. I am a fellow higher education professional—a ­professor and an expert on student success like Dr. Z. But I do not know him personally and have never interacted with him. Now I do feel like I know him because of being introduced to this book, which is so readable, personal (yet scholarly with a wonderful bibliography if you want to read further), friendly, and respectful in its tone and ix

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foreword

substance. And his advice is so clearly understandable and applicable to me as a learner, just like you. So how did I get to provide this foreword? Because the president of Stylus Publishing that produced this book asked me to! Why? Because he knew I am the leading authority on what is called “the first-year experience.” This is a term we in higher education give to a long-established national and international movement to improve the beginning college and university experience to make more students like you successful. Another reason I really got into this book was because Dr. Z and I have something important in common: We both came very, very close to dropping out of college in an initially unsuccessful first year. And both of us had the extreme good fortune to have some key people intercede and prevent what would have been a great misfortune for us.

Suggestions for Getting the Most Out of This Book 1. First, read the introduction and find out what Dr. Z is trying to do for you. 2. Then jump to the very end of the book to “A Message from Dr. Z.” This will tell you some important things about Dr. Z to put him into understandable context. You should be asking “Just who is this guy who could change my life?” and his concluding “message” will tell you that. 3. Before reading anything other than the introduction and Dr. Z’s message, read the Table of Contents. Look at this like it’s a restaurant menu or buffet. Make some initial decisions for what initially strikes your fancy and let your curiosity and preferences guide which chapters you would want to read and in what order. Of course, as in a restaurant, you can always change what you order. 4. Read this book, ideally, with a partner. This is like a fine meal or your favorite beverage—meant to be shared with someone special with whom you could do the “discussion exercises” and share reactions. Request honest feedback about how you apply Dr. Z’s advice to how you think you learn.

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foreword  

xi

5. Work on one chapter at a time. This book is highly readable and entertaining, but each chapter gives you a lot to think about and practice. So, take it slow and digest each chapter before moving on. 6. Consider carefully all the examples that Dr. Z provides about how students go about their learning. Where do you see yourself in these examples? Ask yourself, is this really me he is writing about? Which of these examples fits you best? What do you learn about yourself from making these comparisons? 7. Unless expressly assigned to do all the “discussion questions,” don’t let the sheer number of them overwhelm you. Just pick several for starters that look more interesting to you. 8. Apply some of the strategies to specific assignments and the way you are studying for tests right now. 9. After receiving your grades back on assignments or tests and seeing how you performed, go back and look at the strategies you attempted to practice and make some decisions about how you think they worked for you and what improvements you still need to make.

In conclusion, I hope my comments will help you get the most out of this book. I am very confident that this can be a positive game changer for you. Best wishes —John N. Gardner, Founder of the John N. Gardner Institute for Excellence in Undergraduate Education Pisgah Forest, North Carolina

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A C K N O W LE DG ME N TS

Regardless of the name on the cover, books are never the ­product of one or even a few people. This book is no exception. My ­family has provided extensive assistance on this project. My wife Debra pored over multiple drafts and helped me to shape the overall structure of the manuscript. My daughters, Emma, MaryHelen, and Kathryn, and my sons-in-law Ryan and Liam, each with varied college experience, provided insights into the life of students and added depth to concepts throughout the book. Watching my grandchildren, Matthew, Preston, and Lorelei, grow continues to inspire me with the speed at which learning transpires. Sincere appreciation goes out to John Gardner for his authority and expertise in shaping much of what the first-year experience and undergraduate education are today. His foreword for this book was beyond anything that I had hoped for and effectively set the entire book’s tone. John von Knorring continues to be a friend and mentor and provided expert feedback through every step of the writing. The Stylus team of Andrea, Patti, and Iris, along with Marianna, have all helped to make this project what it is, as it lies in your hands. Finally, I am indebted to McKenzie Baker, for without her efforts, this book would have never come to light. She is nothing short of brilliant in sifting through reams of pages and locating a common theme that ties words and ideas together. There are others, of course, too many to mention here, who have helped me to be the educator I am today. These individuals made it possible for me to share my experience in hopes that this book will help students find a way to become stronger learners by learning how to learn.

xiii

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I N TR O D U C T I O N

Welcome to the third edition of The New Science of Learning: How to Learn in Harmony With Your Brain. Across the first two editions, this title has been one of the best-selling books in higher education devoted to helping students be better, stronger learners. This edition contains the core concepts from the first two editions that made it popular, like the impact of sleep and exercise on learning. This edition also has updated and expanded research pertaining to how deep learning works and how to achieve it. Overall, my goal was to bring together information from many sources to give you research-informed strategies for learning that you can apply in any course and after graduation.

Your Host This book is a tapestry of information woven together to help you become a stronger learner, and I, Dr. Todd Zakrajsek, will be your host for this adventure. College was quite an adventure for me. I was the first person in my family to go to college. I still remember the excitement that fall as my parents drove me to a small college in northern Michigan. After settling into my dorm room, I was nervous but couldn’t wait for classes to start. As classes began, I started thinking about what it would be like to earn a college degree in criminal justice and become a Michigan State Police officer. It didn’t go as planned. Just about a month into my new ­adventure, I nearly flunked out. I received an F minus minus (it turns out they 1

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have those) on a chemistry test, an F plus (yes, those as well) on a ­physics test, and a D minus on an Intro to Criminal Justice test. I recall thinking that none of this made any sense. High school was easy—I cruised along with high Bs and low As with next to no studying. Failing a test was foreign to me; the idea of failing multiple tests was inconceivable. After doing so poorly on my first set of exams, I concluded that I was “high school smart,” but not “college smart.” Frustrated and embarrassed, I began the process of withdrawing from college. It was depressing. After getting four of the five necessary faculty signatures to complete the withdrawal form, I needed only my Intro Psych professor, Dr. Sawyer, to add his name, and college would be over for me. He asked why I decided to drop out, and then explained that it wasn’t my intelligence that was the problem. He said I had to figure out the difference between being familiar with the content and knowing the content. Motivated by his words, I told him I would figure out a solution before midterms. His advice was simple but challenging: Find a different way to learn. I went to the library and found an old copy of The Memory Book (Lorayne & Lucas, 1975). At the time, I didn’t know there were books written to help people remember, and books about learning how to learn. The book helped. The following month was a bit better, and so was the next and the next after that. I read more books on learning, and about a year later I switched my major from criminal justice to psychology. So, how did I go from nearly flunking out of college after just 1 month to graduating and then going on to earn a PhD in ­psychology? By learning how to learn in harmony with my brain, which is so important that it is the subtitle of this book. In this book you will find strategies, tips, suggestions, and research about how best to learn. I have presented the information you are about to read to undergraduate and graduate students throughout the United States. Students regularly come up after the presentations and ask why nobody told them this information before. I understand their frustration. Nobody told me this information either, and it almost took me out of college. Like many of you, I didn’t know there were strategies to make a person a stronger learner. I find it odd that learning how to learn is not taught systematically throughout school. Without knowing more

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about how to learn, many students waste hundreds of hours of study time, and way too many good students flunk out of college, just like I nearly did. Many of the students who struggle in college don’t lack the intelligence to succeed. They just don’t know how to learn effectively. The good news is that you can change that right now and take better advantage of the learning opportunities college offers.

Where This Book Came From So, where did I find the information on learning how to learn that is included in this book? It turns out there is a staggering amount of research about the science of learning, with new articles published every day. When teaching, I do my best to break the studies down so that my undergraduate students find the material interesting. To write this book, I pulled together all the information I had that applied to learning how to learn. The work presented is designed to empower you as a lifelong learner to experience more classroom success and carry forward skills outside the classroom. The research in this book comes from a wide variety of areas: neuroscience, cognitive psychology, social psychology, motivation, and others. It is a lot, but don’t worry, everything will be explained in a way that is easy to understand. Throughout this book, you will find strategies that you can use to help you take exams, write papers, interact in class, and work in groups. Often relatively straightforward changes can have a significant impact on your learning. Although not all strategies work for all people, research on information processing, learning, and memory shows remarkable consistency across a wide variety of learners. By trying different strategies, you will find what works for you and what doesn’t. You will find that everyone struggles with learning at times and that failure is a learning experience. The secret is to keep ­learning to learn. What I find fascinating about learning is that there are consistent ways humans process information. Yes, we are all unique, but nearly all people share common learning functions when encountering similar learning situations. You don’t get better just by doing something. You get better at something (e.g., taking tests, driving, baking) by working

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at getting better at some aspect of it (e.g., trying new study strategies, driving on different surfaces, experimenting with types of sugar). If you learn about and apply evidence-based strategies, like those in this book, to specific areas you wish to improve, you will get better at ­learning. You will be learning in harmony with your brain.

The Structure of This Third Edition The information in this book is carefully laid out for you. Each chapter has strategies regarding how learning works and ways to apply what you are learning. The chapters are designed to stand alone and can be read in any order. Part One sets you up for success. Chapter 1 kicks off by identifying the perspectives we hold (positive, negative, internal, external, individual, and systemic) and how interacting with others while ­critically thinking about their perspectives enriches our lives. Identifying and combating biases and nurturing awareness and understanding are key to improving higher education for all. Chapter 2 helps you to understand more about your “self,” so you can learn to work with your strengths and be a more efficient learner. Chapter 3 provides a road map for you to chart a plan for success. Research about taking control of one’s situation and setting and maintaining clear goals has consistently shown positive outcomes. By the end of chapter 3 you will be able to plan a strategy for success in any arena, academic or on the job. Part Two introduces foundational concepts of how learning works and strategies to facilitate your learning. Chapter 4 provides a quick introduction to the process of how the brain learns, from the first time you encounter a new concept to how it is stored, retrieved, and strengthened with practice. Chapter 5 embraces the social side of learning. None of us exists in a vacuum (thank goodness), and understanding how others can positively and negatively impact our perceptions is crucial for learning in harmony with our brain. Chapter 6 pieces together ways for you to look for and then use patterns. Experts in every field have two learning superpowers: They know how to chunk information and how to identify patterns that emerge from that information. Being aware of and leveraging patterns means they

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can do a great deal of heavy lifting when it comes to learning even the most complex new material. Part Three explains, step-by-step where possible, how to thrive using the traditional classroom metrics, and discusses some new, more inclusive practices you may encounter in or even introduce to your insti­‑ tution. Chapter 7 reveals resources you can utilize on campus and during your own studying to reach your personal best. Chapter 8 focuses on how to be successful in structured learning environments. Here you will find strategies for taking tests, writing papers, surviving a less than ideal lecture, and using feedback effectively. Learning how to learn is undoubtedly important, but recalling information when you need it in a class (or in your career) is what really matters. Chapter 9 exposes what most students and even some faculty members don’t know: learning pitfalls. Pitfalls give you the impression you’re doing the right thing academically, and then let you down when it matters most. Avoiding these pitfalls could be the difference between not making it through college and graduating. Part Four takes us beyond the classroom, from how to hack our innermost physiology to how we interact in group settings during and after college. Chapter 10 lays out the research on the impact of sleep on learning. Chapter 11 stretches across the research on the positive impact exercise can have on your learning. Engaging in any aerobic exercise helps you learn faster and more effectively. Chapter 12 addresses the moans heard nearly every time an instructor announces that group work will be a large part of the course. As important as group work is to your future, both in class and your future jobs, it is rare to be taught how to succeed at working in a group. Information from this chapter will help you develop as a leader and a group member, which will help you right now in school and later in your career. That may sound like a lot for one relatively small book. It is. Learning requires work, but I have done my best to make it interesting, accessible, and applicable. I hope you even find it fun at times. There are so many possibilities when you learn how to learn in harmony with your brain.

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introduction

A Note to Students This book addresses the many issues I have seen students struggle with in my time as a college faculty member. I wrote it because the demands of college are generally very different from what you’ve encountered before, and I hope that this material, together with your effort, will help you excel in your academic studies. The information throughout the book is grounded in science and may at times be a bit dense. That is because some of the concepts are a bit dense. I use examples throughout the book that I hope make those concepts understandable, but you may have to read a few paragraphs more than once to get the information. That is a learning strategy of the sort I offer in this book. I do the same thing when I read research articles. At times I even read the articles out loud, as that helps me to better understand really ­challenging information. Now that you have the opportunity to pursue a college degree, it is up to you to succeed. You can do this, but it won’t be easy. Things of value rarely are. I’ll be with you all the way through this book, and I am confident that the information you learn will help you succeed. My final piece of advice as we get started is to work through the ­challenges and celebrate your successes. I wish you well. Note: I use the word “college” in place of “college and university” throughout this book, only to make it less clunky to read. The c­ ontent is equally relevant whether you’re at a college, technical school, or university.

A Note to Faculty Although I wrote this book for students, I hope you’ll find much of it useful in your teaching. I have seen students flunk courses when they didn’t attend class or refused to do required work. I also know, from decades of teaching, that those students, although undoubtedly salient in our minds, are by far in the minority. The vast majority of students are in our courses to learn. Unfortunately, we lose too many students, filled with potential, because we fail to teach them processes necessary to succeed in college along with the content of

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our fields. It could be argued they should have these skills when they come to our classes, but if they don’t—whether due to graduating from underresourced schools, lack of support, or simply not being taught how to learn—we are morally obliged to remedy the situation. As noted earlier, I came within one signature of flunking out of college within my first 2 months. I had the motivation and the academic background. However, as a first-generation student, I didn’t know what I was doing. Four out of five faculty members that fateful fall would have watched me fail and blamed me for it. One of five went another way, and here I am today. In the years since my first months at college, I believe that many more faculty members have come to realize that navigating college presents new and major challenges for many students, and those students depend on us for the guidance and support described in these pages. I wholeheartedly believe that the students coming into our courses hold the potential to do amazing things. They just need a bit of help in the transition. I hope this book, along with your skill as an educator, enriches their journey.

Discussion Questions 1. What do you find easiest to learn? Why do you think that new information in the area you noted is so easy for you to learn? What about an area in which you struggle? What makes that area so challenging? 2. Find and read one article that contains something about how ­people learn. What was the major overall finding or point in the article about learning that would help you to be a stronger learner?

Reference Lorayne, H., & Lucas, J. (1975). The memory book: The classic guide to ­improving your memory at work, at school, and at play. Random House.

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P A RT O N E S E T U P FO R S U C C E S S

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1 L E A R N I N G F R O M M U LT I P L E P E R S P E C T IV E S

One of the most valuable aspects of attending college is the o­ pportunity to be part of a community of learners with a wide variety of perspectives. Unfortunately, books designed to help students become better learners typically omit this critical element. Why is this element critical? Many of the individuals who have chosen the same institution as you have had vastly different life experiences, which means they will have perspectives different from yours. When you begin college, your perspective is grounded in your experience, your background, and how you make sense of the world around you. Your many life experiences shaped who you are, and unchanged, that single perspective will drive (and sometimes limit) how you think (and make decisions) in the future. Here is the fantastic thing about college: It provides you an opportunity to broaden your perspective. How much will depend on who you interact with and the experiences you choose to pursue. In addition, you can actively strive to change based on your willingness to learn from others and share with them in return. It’s all up to you. Learning in harmony with your brain starts with reflecting on your perspective on life and the extent to which you choose to change how you interact with the world around you. 11

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set up for success

Perspective Taking I have long argued that dichotomous thinking is weak thinking. A ­dichotomy is something divided into two parts—one way or the other, black or white, up or down, day or night. The world is much easier to navigate using this simplistic view. By using dichotomous thinking there is loss of an ability to consider details, that circumstances change, and that nearly everything is open to interpretation. Those relying on dichotomous thinking are often very confident and unchanging in their position without even realizing the drawbacks of their opinion (Dunning, 2011). Critical thinking changes this perspective. Critical thinkers move from “knowing” their position is right to understanding the world is more complicated than that. Critical thinkers pick at the edges that dichotomous thinkers claim are so sharply drawn. As an example, a dichotomous thinker would claim confidently to know the difference between day and night. Midnight and noon are easy to classify, but what about dusk and dawn? Here we have an example of the edges that make knowing uncertain and interesting. How do we know at dusk when day stops and night begins? What about an individual who e­ xperiences dusk in Times Square in New York City, where billboards make midnight as bright as noon, or someone from Starbuck, Washington, where blazing sunsets ease into darkest night? As a c­ ritical thinker, your consideration and openness to consider other points of view make even this basic concept of day and night so much more nuanced by determining how to tell the precise moment day becomes night. But of course, college is not about discussions of a setting sun. The issues are much more complex, and I am not suggesting it is easy to use critical thinking to delve into the complexities of concepts, courses, and relationships. In reality, it is frustrating, challenging, and sometimes exhausting. Thinking critically and finding answers to the types of problems we as a society face at present will take immense effort. The challenge is finding critical thinkers from different perspectives who are willing to discuss and analyze messy issues and look for the most appropriate solutions. That is where you come in. In college, there will be courses filled with individuals, each with their perspectives, participating in discussions facilitated by

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learning from multiple perspectives  

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a professor, a content expert who has a perspective of their own. It is true of you, and it is true of me. I have a perspective based on my life. My world view is shaped by the fact that I am a late-­ middle-aged, White, heterosexual, cisgender male from a small town in Michigan, who has spent his life in higher education and traveled extensively, including riding a bicycle through Starbuck, Washington (population 137) and walking through Times Square in Manhattan (population near 8.5 million). The diverse perspectives that students bring to the discussions are why I so highly value each class I have had the privilege to teach. In the classes you take, you will encounter individuals with wildly different perspectives on learning. These contrasting perspectives bring the richness already mentioned, but they also bring challenges. The ­following concepts are just a few things to keep in mind as you encounter new, exciting, and challenging viewpoints, learn how to process them, and flourish as a result. Doing this will help you learn in harmony with your brain by thinking in ways that intersect with the perspectives of others.

Ubiquitous Struggles “Be kind; everyone you meet is fighting a hard battle.” This quote is attributed to Ian McLaren (Quote Invest, n.d.). It will enrich your understanding of others if you keep this in mind. I know upon meeting you that something in your life is a current struggle, or perhaps you carry an invisible ongoing struggle. I don’t need to know the struggle itself, only that you have one. It is important because experiences— battles lost, won, and ongoing—impact attitudes and perceptions. If someone in class is very committed to a position, or you find yourself strongly committed to one, be aware that the individual taking that strong position likely has a real connection to the issue. It may even be directly tied to their personal battle. Whether you agree or not, you can remain respectful and contribute your perspective or perhaps just listen with your undivided attention. Wise people and critical thinkers often disagree and still respect the position of others. Carry space for consideration of others’ contexts.

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First-Generation College Students First-generation students often struggle financially and with guilt for being away from their families (Beresin, 2021). College, when done right, changes a person. It changes one’s perspective. That change may be challenging for a family to accept. If you are a first-generation student, you will take on new perspectives as you proceed through college. Be mindful that these changes will, in all probability, impact relationships you have held with some family members and high school friends who knew you before college. First-generation students also often find it challenging to fit in and are confused about how the college system works. As a first-generation college student, I did not even know that a person could drop a class if it wasn’t going well. Many first-generation college students also feel insecure and like they don’t fit in. The feelings of isolation and nonbelonging make it challenging to have a positive social life. In class discussions, first-generation students may not contribute much for fear of responding in a way that might reveal perceived shortcomings. These individual concerns add up: Ives and Castillo-Montoya (2020) reported that “only 56% [of first-generation college students] earn a baccalaureate degree within six years compared to 74% of students with a parent who graduated from college” (p. 139). The good news is that research has shown that many students find relief talking to other first-generation students, and there are likely many more first-generation students on campus than you think. Approximately one-third of college students are the first in their families to enter higher education (Ives & Castillo-Montoya, 2020). Also, note that most campuses now have free, confidential resources to help with the transition to college. If you are a firstgeneration college student, seek out others who understand your position. If you are not a first-generation student, but know someone who is, keep in mind that their perspective is partly driven by their introduction to higher education.

Recognizing Individuality As already discussed, classrooms within higher education are composed of a rich collection of perspectives. But where do our perspectives

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originate? From birth we each start a journey made up of lived experiences. Those experiences are the building blocks of who you become. Two individuals, born on the same day at the same hospital, will reach the end of very different lives. How different will depend on circumstances, opportunities presented, and experiences chosen. Individuals frequently fail to consider the lived experiences that make up a person’s life when they are interacting with one another. Many events that determine how a person sees the world are subtle, like a conversation about the weather or watching the sun set. Other experiences alter one’s perspective to a larger degree, such as struggling with a language barrier, attention deficit disorder, or poor self-esteem. Nobody chooses these sorts of (or any) life experiences, but they do have to navigate them. As these examples illustrate, perspectives evolve because of factors outside one’s control. Interactions with individuals and experiencing events that seem totally innocuous at the time can radically change our lives. Imagine a middle school teacher who makes discouraging statements, and the student wilts. Performing poorly in middle school excludes the students from courses in high school that lead to college. Imagine that the same middle school teacher, for some unknown reason, comments positively on another student, and that student thrives, excels at their work, and ends up in college prep courses. When individuals interact, they rarely consider the complexity of lived experiences. A person can be seen, but their lived experience can’t. Inferences are made based only on what can be observed, such as skin color, clothing, or accents. From such information, too many people make inferences about the person, often unkind and inaccurate. In this book, we will unpack why these inferences happen. “Isms” exist in higher education, just as in society (Carrasco, 2021; National Center, 2019). They need to be addressed, and we all need to be vigilant against them, because a clearer understanding of the bias we bring to the learning environment will impede or enrich our ability to understand the perspectives of others.

Disarming Microaggressions Students of color and those identified as “different” (e.g., a nonmajority gender identity, a learning disability, or different levels of physical

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ableness) face a constant barrage of microaggressions, which are subtle statements and behaviors, intentional or unintentional, that are hostile or derogatory. Many instigators of microaggressions claim that victims of these statements are “overly sensitive,” that nobody is really hurt by such comments, and that they need to realize they are only jokes. That might be true if a person from a marginalized group heard these comments only infrequently. Unfortunately, these not-at-all innocuous statements and behaviors are a constant, daily assault on the v­ ictim’s sense of self. It would be like a friend poking you in the side with a finger. It wouldn’t be an issue at all if it happened only once, or once every 6 months. But what if it happened frequently, and several of your friends started to poke you in the side as a joke? You may tolerate it for a while, but there would likely come a moment when you would yell at a person poking you to stop. At that point, imagine if they said, “What’s the big deal, it is only a poke with a finger? Wow, you need to toughen up.” You may have responded this way because you were frustrated and infuriated, and your side started to hurt. Imagine further that the person poking you in the side was in a position of power and you had no power to make them stop. Finger poking is an innocuous example to illustrate what microaggressions are like for people from marginalized groups. It is the accumulation of insults that makes microaggressions so insidious. There are a wide variety of microaggressions. Examples include crossing the street to avoid an oncoming group of Black men on the sidewalk (implying that they are dangerous), complimenting a Japanese American student on their English (negating or refusing to acknowledge they are American), or using derogatory language to belittle particular groups. Microaggressions were initially defined as subtle discrimination toward ethnic minorities but can equally be directed to any minoritized group, such as LGBTQIA+ individuals (Anzani et al., 2021). With an increased awareness of what microaggressions are and the damage they can do, we need to call out and work to prevent such behavior. Inaction and silence support the dividing nature of microaggressions (Limbong, 2020). If you note someone committing a microaggression, and you feel safe, say something. Derald Sue and colleagues (2019) at Columbia University, in their article “Disarming Racial Microaggressions,” point out several ways to help work against

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microaggressions. One way is to be a deflector, a person who puts an end to an act of aggression, acts as an ally, and educates the transgressor. Suppose a student sitting next to you in class points at the person in front of them and says, “We should get him to do our math homework. Chinese are good at math.” To be a deflector, you might say, “I have to say, that’s not okay. It really reinforces a stereotype that we need to let go.” If you catch yourself making a ­microaggression, it is appropriate, and often greatly appreciated, to call a “foul” on ­yourself. I have said something without thinking and immediately apologized. A self-correction can be as simple as saying to a group of four women, “Hey, I just used language that I shouldn’t have. I said, ‘you guys,’ when there are no guys in the group. I’m sorry about that.” When that h ­ appened to me, one of the women in the group said, “That’s okay, I don’t mind.” I replied to her, “I am glad you were not offended, but it isn’t right. It would be equally inappropriate to say to four guys in a group, ‘hey gals.’” Individuals typically appreciate when someone is practicing personal growth.

Stereotype Threat Steele and Aronson (1995) identified the concept of stereotype threat, in which one person is assumed to stand for their entire perceived group, and such assumptions often result in a negative impact on performance. For example, if a Black student is in a predominantly White school, according to Steele and Aronson, the Black student may be concerned that if they do poorly, it will reinforce a negative stereotype about Black students not being as good as White students. Research shows that whenever an individual believes that they are being singled out for their group identity (e.g., being a woman or Black) as they embark on an activity or test, they will perform poorly. Croizet and colleagues (2001) from universities in France and Belgium noted the impact of stereotype threat based on socioeconomic status (SES). There is a negative stereotype that individuals from lower SES do not do as well academically as those with higher SES. Croizet’s study showed that when individuals were told that a test was simply a cognitive psychology study, there were no differences between the two groups. However, using the same test, if p ­ articipants were told it was a diagnostic test of abilities and limitations, lower

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SES participants missed significantly more items than did participants with higher SES (Croizet et al., 2001). When told the test was diagnostic and would differentiate based on knowledge of the ­material, students felt the pressure to do well, which typically lowers test performance. In another study, Stricker and colleagues (2015) demonstrated stereotype threat for Black test-takers. When questions about race were asked prior to taking the test, test scores were lower than when race questions were not asked prior to the test being completed (Stricker et al., 2015). This and other studies have shown that making a person from a marginalized group think about their race or ethnicity puts added pressure on them to do well. Stereotype threat and its implications on individual perspectives have been studied for many groups. Additional examples include Native Americans regarding grade point averages and hopelessness (Jaramillo et al., 2016), women’s math performance (Spencer et al., 1999), and social interaction for individuals on the autism spectrum (Botha et al., 2020).

Implicit Bias Implicit bias is an automatically triggered association between a social group and the perceived attributes of that group by third parties (Payne et al., 2018). Implicit bias is measured through reaction times on cognitive tests, which is a valuable measurement of bias. Reaction time tests are more accurate than self-report measures, which are problematic because individuals can and often do self-censor to hide their bias. Payne and Vuletich from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, along with Brown-Iannuzzi from the University of Kentucky, found that self-reports of implicit bias have declined in recent years, but cognitive tests show that this bias remains common (Payne et al., 2018). Implicit bias can be directed at any group, for any reason. Some common biases that are being studied are biases against Latinx individuals (Blair et al., 2013) and LGBTQIA+ students, causing them to receive poorer health care (Morris et al., 2019), and social exclusion of individuals on the autism spectrum (University of Texas at Dallas, 2021). If you watch your behavior across several days, you will likely note implicit biases at times. Suppose you take your car to

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the service station to check the engine, and when you pull in a woman and man are standing in the garage talking. If you assume that the man is the mechanic, that is an implicit bias. There is a very good mechanic at the garage where I take my car for repairs. I asked her how people who come in for service treat her, and she said it is awful, and it is constant. She said nearly everyone, until they get to know her, asks her if any mechanics are available.

Summary of Biases As you engage in higher education, you will interact with individuals from various groups. Your points of view will differ from theirs, and you will have preconceived ideas about those individuals. They will be prejudging you in the same way. We all have biases in some respects. The challenge is to work to mitigate those biases as much as possible. There is no harm in seeing differences among people. Differences are positive in many ways because they offer a diversity of perspectives and richness of life. The challenge is not to let those differences disparage or disadvantage anyone. As you engage in discussions about biases such as microaggressions, stereotype threats, and implicit biases, consider that bias is never restricted to a single group. We live in a country that has achieved great accomplishments and also perpetrated behaviors for which we are not proud. Avoid the dichotomous thinking discussed earlier. These are challenging issues, but we can make progress with a bit of effort, openness, and critical thinking. As Maya Angelou said, “The truth is, no one of us can be free until everybody is free” (CNN, 2013, 1:09). That includes being free from bias.

From Uneasy to Understanding As you interact with individuals who are different from you, it is perfectly normal to feel uncomfortable for a while. This happens because of how the human brain is wired. We feel comfortable when someone looks like us, acts like us, and likes what we like (Iacoboni, 2009). Why wouldn’t we feel comfortable around, essentially, ourselves? Individuals different from you represent uncertainty, and uncertainty can put people on guard and make them uncomfortable. However,

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if you are exposed to the same person repeatedly, the brain better understands what to expect with such interaction, and with time that discomfort around the unfamiliar goes away (Martinez & Derrick, 1996). The best way to feel comfortable with someone different from you is to interact with them as much as possible. As you make an effort to consistently interact with those who are different from you, and those with whom you feel unfamiliar—for fear you will not understand them or say something culturally insensitive—across time you will find it easier and faster to understand and appreciate the ­perspectives of literally anyone.

Equity, Equality, and Accommodations There are two ways to think about what is “fair”: Equality and equity (Zakrajsek, 2021). Equality is a form of fairness where everyone gets the same thing, whether that is something of value, access, or any other opportunity of value. Suppose an alumnus donates a huge sum of money to your campus, and every student gets $1,000 dollars. That is equality because everyone gets the same. Now suppose that the money is divvied up based on how big of an impact to individuals some extra funds would make. With this metric, students with families making at or below the poverty line would receive $1,100 dollars, whereas students with families who make more than 100% above the poverty line (for whom $1,000 would make no difference in their lives) wouldn’t receive anything. This second distribution based on impact is the second type of fair called equity, and it’s already happening on your campus now, by the way, if you or a friend have need-based financial aid. Given there are two concepts of what is fair, each with a different definition, how can we decide which to use? One way to look at this is to determine starting points. If everyone starts the same, and has access to the same resources, then giving everyone the same is fair. But everyone does not start the same. There are differences that begin at birth. Most societies discriminate on many dimensions, and the United States is no different. Due to accepted norms of what is perceived valuable, a person may be treated differently their entire

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life based on a seemingly irrelevant physical attribute that is out of their control. For example, consider attractiveness, a completely social ­construct. Our society determines what is considered attractive. Two classic studies on the attractiveness of defendants and judicial outcomes demonstrate the subtle ways that individuals are treated differently in our society. Downs and Lyons (1991), researchers at the University of Houston – Clear Lake, looked at judgments for fines against defendants. After fines were assessed, cases were sorted based on attractiveness ratings of defendants. On average, for the same crimes, judges fined defendants with the highest attractiveness ratings $500, versus $1,400 for defendants with the lowest attractiveness ratings. In another study, Stewart (1980) found that defendants rated as attractive received sentences of an average of 1.87 years in prison, whereas defendants rated less attractive received 4.1 years for the same crimes. There is such a notable bias toward attractive people in our society that psychology has a term for this: the beauty is good stereotype (Griffin & Langlois, 2006). Based on thousands of studies in psychology, it is evident that attractive people receive more benefits in life. That does not seem at all fair. Based on this one uncontrollable factor, lives are lived differently. Of course, attractiveness is just one example. We treat people differently based on their height, skin color, speech, mobility, ­economic status, and a host of other factors. When it comes to determining who gets what, if everyone gets the same (equality), then those born with more advantages (more affluent, better schooling and health care, travel opportunities) would seem to be getting a double, and unfair, advantage. However, if we give those who need it more than those who don’t, we can balance just a bit (equity). In thinking about the prison sentences, imagine that everyone was given 6 months off their sentences. That would be equality, but that doesn’t seem fair as attractive people already had sentences that were more than 2 years shorter. It would seem more fair to first give sentence reductions to those who had unfairly received harsher sentences. That would be an example of equity. This same principle is used for accommodations at the university. If a person has cognitive processing issues, severe ADD, or mobility challenges; is vision or hearing impaired; or is navigating other

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circumstances that hinder their chance to learn, it is “fair” to use an equity-based approach and provide those individuals with accommodations to enable them to succeed. Individuals with learning challenges are not getting anything extra; they are getting what they need to come closer to being equal to those who started at a more advantageous level. If you have a learning challenge, I urge you to visit the office that provides accommodations to be tested to identify what options may be available to you. If you are provided with accommodations, please use them to give yourself an even chance to do well. For those of you who don’t require accommodations, be considerate of those who do need them. Your peers who receive accommodations are simply getting assistance to offset the challenges that they have through no fault of their own.

Engaged Learning Remember the discussion on different perspectives that opened this chapter? Engaged classrooms make those conversations possible, but the field of active and engaged learning is relatively new to higher education. For almost 1,000 years, the lecture was the primary teaching method (Brockliss, 1996). That changed in the mid-1990s when researchers figured out that although lecturing was an “efficient” way to deliver lots of information, it was not an effective means of ensuring students understood, could remember, and could apply what was taught (Barr & Tagg, 1995; Dunlosky et al., 2013). Of course, there are still faculty who lecture all the time, as you know. Although lectures are ideal for presenting a large amount of information quickly, research has shown that including some engaged learning strategies with lectures results in significantly more learning (Freeman et al., 2014), because students have to reflect on or apply the information just presented. As a result, an increasing number of faculty are including engaged learning strategies, such as think-pairshare, discussion groups, jigsaw, and gallery walks, just to name a few. As has been the theme of this chapter, students hold many different perspectives concerning engaged learning strategies. Some students find them extremely helpful. However, I have heard more than one student say, “I pay a lot to hear what the professor has to say on the topic. I am

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not interested in what the person sitting next to me thinks.” Although some students’ knee-jerk reaction is to prefer lectures because they are used to them, most students find that participating in the class activity increases their grades (Deslauriers et al., 2011). If you tend to prefer the traditional structure of a lecture-based class, keep an open mind and give engaged learning a chance. Online courses offer an additional opportunity to be more engaged in the learning process. Online asynchronous courses not only allow for in-depth conversations and interactions between students and professor and students, but it’s also the case that some students who struggle to participate in on-site courses thrive in online classes. The ability to take time to think through answers before contributing to a discussion board or threaded discussion can be incredibly helpful, given the multiple, rich perspectives within the course. Given the prevalence of online courses, especially following the COVID-19 pandemic (Smalley, 2021), and some of the unique challenges that go along with the unique opportunities, you will find a more detailed discussion about the online learning environment and about being an online learner in Appendix A.

Chapter Summary College is an excellent place for the opportunity to have conversations with those who hold perspectives different from yours. Critical thinking requires that we avoid dichotomous thinking, as life has very few issues that require simple yes/no answers. As we engage in conversations in our courses, remember that everyone has a reason for their perspective and that everyone has a battle they have fought or are fighting. Along with those battles, some individuals have perspectives heavily influenced by their circumstances, such as being a first-generation college student. Many individuals in minoritized groups struggle with unfamiliar academic material and the different demands of college and feelings of insecurity, which are reinforced by microaggressions. Don’t be partner to them and do call them out when you’re aware of them. Along with microaggressions, marginalized groups also face stereotype threats and implicit bias.

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You will be uncomfortable at times in college, as will others in the room. With time and work, that discomfort will dissipate as you critically examine your preconceptions and biases (which we all have), and you will be left with new connections and a variety of ­perspectives rich with possibilities. As those connections develop, you will also see how equity helps bring individuals the same chance of success. Classes that are increasingly using engaged learning strategies are excellent opportunities to reinforce this work and give individuals the opportunity to learn from one another. This ­happens both in on-site courses and online. There are many ­possibilities for rich discussions and personal growth should you avail yourself of the opportunities.

Discussion Questions 1. Describe one topic you have observed that is often presented dichotomously. Does this topic have two clear positions? What points of view or arguments can you think of on either side of the issue you’ve noted? 2. To what extent do you think the average person understands that others have internal or external struggles? Select one battle related to being a college student that you think many students face (e.g., microaggressions, first-generation student status, implicit bias, racism, etc.). Describe the impact of dealing with such an issue. 3. Over the period of a few days, watch for microaggressions (behavioral or verbal, made by others or yourself ). Describe one of the microaggressions you observed and its likely impact. Explain what was hurtful and disparaging about this microaggression. 4. If you had the opportunity to have a completely open and confidential conversation with an individual from a marginalized group to learn more about their perspective and experiences, who would you like to talk to, and what general topic would you desire to know more about? What resources, books, or articles can you access to begin educating yourself? 5. What teaching strategy do you prefer and why: mostly lecture, primarily engaged learning, or a mix?

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ogy. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. https://doi .org/10.1177/1529100612453266 Dunning, D. (2011). The Dunning–Kruger effect: On being ignorant of one’s own ignorance. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,  44, 247– 296. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385522-0.00005-6 Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okorafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410–8415. https://doi .org/10.1073/pnas.1319030111 Griffin, A. M., & Langlois, J. H. (2006). Stereotype directionality and attractiveness stereotyping: Is beauty good or is ugly bad? Social Cognition, 24(2), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2006.24.2.187 Iacoboni, M. (2009). Imitation, empathy, and mirror neurons. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 653–670. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev .psych.60.110707.163604 Ives, J., & Castillo-Montoya, M. (2020). First-generation college students as academic learners: A systematic review. Review of Educational Research, 90(2), 139–178. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319899707 Jaramillo, J., Mello, Z. R., & Worrell, F. C. (2016). Ethnic identity, ­stereotype threat, and perceived discrimination among native American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(4), 769–775. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/jora.12228 Limbong, A. (2020, June 9). Microaggressions are a big deal: How to talk them out and when to walk away. National Public Radio. https://www .npr.org/2020/06/08/872371063/microaggressions-are-a-big-deal-howto-talk-them-out-and-when-to-walk-away Martinez, J. L., & Derrick, B. E. (1996). Long-term potentiation and learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 47(1), 173–203. https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev.psych.47.1.173 Morris, M., Cooper, R. L., Ramesh, A., Tabatabai, M., Arcury, T. A., Shinn, M., Im, W., Juarez, P., & Matthews-Juarez, P. (2019). Training to reduce LGBTQ-related bias among medical, nursing, and dental students and providers: A systematic review. BMC Medical Education, 19(1), 325. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-019-1727-3  National Center for Education Statistics. (2019). Status and trends in the education of racial and ethnic groups. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/raceindicators/indicator_red.asp#:~:text=The%206%2Dyear%20graduation%20 rate%20was%20higher%20for%20females%20than,44%20percent%20 for%20females%20vs

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Payne, B. K., Vuletich, H. A., & Brown-Iannuzzi, J. L. (2018). Historical roots of implicit bias in slavery. PNAS, 116(24), 11693–11698. https:// doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1818816116 Quote Investigator. (n.d.). Be kind; Everyone you meet is fighting a hard battle. https://quoteinvestigator.com/2010/06/29/be-kind/ Smalley, S. (2021, October 13). Half of all college students take online courses. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2021/10/13/newus-data-show-jump-college-students-learning-online#:~:text=The%20 number%20of%20students%20enrolled,to%2022.7%20percent%20 of%20them Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 4–28. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1373 Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.69.5.797 Stewart, J. E. (1980). Defendant’s attractiveness as a factor in the outcome of criminal trials: An observational study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 10(4), 348–361. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1980 .tb00715.x Stricker, L. J., Rock, D. A., & Bridgeman, B. (2015). Stereotype threat, inquiring about test takers’ race and gender, and performance on low-stakes tests in a large-scale assessment (ETS Research Report No. RR-15-02). Educational Testing Service. Sue, D. W., Alsaidi, S., Awad, M. N., Glaeser, E., Calle, C. Z., & Mendez, N. (2019). Disarming racial microaggressions: Microintervention strategies for targets, White allies, and bystanders. American Psychologist, 74(1), 128–142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000296 University of Texas at Dallas. (2021, February 8). Reducing biases about autism may increase social inclusion, study finds. ScienceDaily. www .sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/02/210208085441.htm Zakrajsek, T. (2021, September 21). Do we need equity or equality to make things fair? Actually, we need both. Times Higher Education. https://www .timeshighereducation.com/campus/do-we-need-equity-or-equalitymake-things-fair-actually-we-need-both

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2 D IS C O V E R I N G Y O U R S E L F A S A LE A R N E R

In this chapter, we turn our attention to several select, fundamental aspects of learning about your “self ” as a learner. After the information about regulating one’s behavior to fulfill a planned course of action, we look at the extent to which an individual believes they can be successful. As some individuals fear doing poorly, even with evidence to the contrary, there is a section on imposter syndrome. The chapter ends by offering a course of action to build your confidence about your studies.

Self-Regulation Self-regulation is the process that helps you to meet your personal goals (Inzlicht et al., 2021). Sometimes what you want and what is the best for you at that time are the same. When it isn’t, you need to regulate yourself and choose what is most appropriate. I once asked my 4-year-old daughter what she wanted for breakfast, and she said, “Hmm, how about Pepsi and a Kit Kat?” I told her she needed to pick something else, and she retorted that when she was grown, she would have Pepsi and Kit Kat bars whenever she wanted. She is grown 28

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now, and although I suspect that every so often she does start her day with soda and a candy bar, she doesn’t do so regularly, even though she would like to. She is self-regulating her behavior. The first year of college allows students a lot of freedom that was likely not available just a few months prior. Some first-year students will engage in a great deal of nonacademic behavior, whereas others will quickly establish a sustainable schedule that balances fun, relaxation, and a steady study schedule. The difference is important. Nearly one out of every three students drops out of college before sophomore year (Hanson, 2021). Many of those who don’t succeed likely struggled with self-regulation. Self-regulation requires an individual to identify a target outcome, plan how to reach the target, and stick to the planned behavior until the target outcome is reached. For example, you make a goal to be on the dean’s list your first year at college. You decide to study for 1 hour for each of your four classes every day, including Saturday, although you plan to take Sunday off to relax and do something fun. During the 4th week of the semester, a few of your friends tell you that they are going away for a biking trip leaving Friday morning and returning Sunday evening, and they have room for one more. You love biking, and the trip sounds amazing. You may start to rationalize that you can study more next week or that even if your grades drop a bit, you can get them back up later in the semester. It will take a lot of self-­regulation to turn down the trip and stick to your study plan. Self-regulation is impacted by internal and external factors, making it more nuanced than simply whether or not you do something. The following are some of the primary aspects of self-regulation that impact your ability to set your target, plan, and carry out the plan.

Study Tip 2.1: Start as small as necessary, but develop a habit of completing whatever goal you set.

Establish a Habit of Success Establishing a productive self-regulation system is critical in the first semester of college. After your 1st year, the self-regulation processes you

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establish become habits for success, which you can continue to adjust, adapt, and alter as needed. As you establish solid self-regulation, keep in mind that there are many components that must come together for this to happen. One of those components is metacognition, which is discussed in chapter 5. Metacognition is the process of thinking about your thinking (Jost et al., 1998). Metacognitive strategies are an essential component of self-regulation (Winne & Perry, 2000). Some of those metacognitive strategies are planning, carrying out an action, evaluating behavior after the fact, and adjusting behavior as needed. Self-efficacy also impacts self-regulation in several ways, most notably in your belief that you can carry out the plan you establish. Having high levels of self-efficacy will help with both delayed gratification needed to achieve some set targets and carrying out the tasks necessary to be successful (self-efficacy will be described in more detail later). Procrastination—or, more accurately, being able to avoid procrastinating—is another aspect of self-regulation. An important component of procrastination is engaging in an avoidance behavior that you would prefer to not do but engage in anyway. This comes directly into play for self-regulation. Cognitive load (discussed in detail in chapter 4) also impacts the success of self-regulation. Cognitive load is the amount of information being actively processed at any given moment. One component of cognitive load pertains to automaticity, which is repeating a task so many times that it happens automatically. This reduces cognitive load because you don’t have to think about the action, you just do it. If you can make the steps of your plan automatic, it will take less energy to process the information and you’ll have more bandwidth to focus on your goal, rather than getting bogged down in the individual steps to get there. Essentially, if cognitive load is not maxed out, you have the capacity and time to monitor your plan and how you’re accomplishing it. As with all learning, the more you practice self-regulatory behavior, the easier it will become (Panadero, 2017). As noted earlier, self-regulation is much more than just whether or not you do something. Self-regulation involves thinking about the actions (metacognition), the extent to which you believe you can be successful (self-efficacy), completing tasks when that action is desired (avoiding procrastination), and having the mental energy to complete the action (cognitive load).

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Managing Emotions Self-regulation of emotions starts at a young age and is a core behavior we teach children. It is important to note that temperament is a big part of self-regulation. If a child has an aggressive or anxious temperament, for example, it takes more effort for them to demonstrate emotional self-regulation (Rothbart, 1981). I note temperament here to bring to light that managing emotions is easier for some people than it is for others. However, society does not make allowances based on temperament; everyone is expected to manage emotions appropriately. To survive, or hopefully thrive, in society, regulating emotions is extremely important. Ideally, emotion is managed through a complex interaction of the situation, attention, modification, reappraisal, and response modification. For situations, individuals continually and actively decide whether to approach or avoid a given event. For example, if you come upon an accident that just occurred and there are already a few people helping, do you stop to see if you can assist or keep going because there are already people helping? Your decision is primarily based on the situation. Attention deployment is the extent to which you attend to the environmental stimuli. You “deploy” attention to gather information and then self-regulate accordingly. This works well for most situations. For example, if you approach an accident to assist and find one of the people in the car is bleeding, you can assess the situation, determine the cut is small, and manage your emotion: selfregulation. Sometimes, you may need to distract yourself from a very emotional situation by making yourself think of something else, so you don’t end up replaying the emotional thoughts in your head. For example, if the cut is bad, as you assist, you might pretend you are in a TV program to reduce the stress. This regulates emotion at the time, but can be a poor regulation strategy if used too often (NolenHoeksema et al., 2008). Situation modification comes into play if you decide to engage in the situation and explicitly modify the external environment while self-regulating your emotions. Imagine you decide to approach the accident just mentioned. Your affect will rise. Physiologically, you will enter a heightened state and need to keep your raised emotions

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in check. You can, however, modify the environment to change the emotional tone of the situation. Through self-regulation, even though you are nervous, you take a deep breath and then speak with a lower, slowed voice and calm demeanor. This may be a situational modification that helps the angry driver that was hit in the accident manage their emotions. Reappraisal involves cognitively changing what you recall from an event to reduce or raise the emotional impact (Davis et al., 2011). In extreme cases, individuals may convince themselves they didn’t experience the event at all. Imagine that stopping at the accident was traumatic—many people were shouting, and you were attempting to help a person who needed medical care. However, as you replay your memories, you reconstruct what happened. You remember seeing that the EMTs were on the scene and capably assisting, so you didn’t need to step in, and you left. That recreated reality is a way to regulate your emotional response to the accident in the days following. The last aspect of emotional self-regulation is response modulation, which is the extent to which a person holds their emotions in check in bad situations. Some people keep relatively calm in really tough situations, whereas others “lose it.” Unfortunately, when stressed, some people look to substances or behaviors to mute their emotional response. Turning to drugs, alcohol, or anything bad for you to moderate emotions is considered maladaptive (Sher & Grekin, 2007). There are other ways to control emotions. I think a double-hot fudge sundae after an unusually and unexpectedly rough day modulates my emotions, but if I do that too often, it will be a problem. Another way to modulate a response is through exercise. Not only will exercise change your physiological response to a situation (e.g., lowered blood pressure, more controlled heart rate), but research has also shown that those who exercise regularly are better able to control their emotions as situations emerge (Oaten & Cheng, 2006). Self-regulation of emotion can be very challenging. Emotion is part of the limbic system, the oldest and most primitive part of the brain. Emotions can emerge and escalate without the individual even knowing why they feel that way or at least why they feel that intensely. Failure to regulate emotion can be harmful. An example played out recently when I witnessed a car accident. While waiting at a stop sign

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to turn onto a main street, I saw a trailer passing a white car on a ­double-yellow line. The driver with the trailer sideswiped the white car and barely missed an oncoming car. Having seen the whole thing, I pulled up to help. After making sure there were no injuries, I asked the man pulling the trailer what happened. He was angry, and I was trying to help him modify his emotions. The man driving the trailer said the person driving the white car had cut him off about a mile back. That means the person driving the trailer was so angry that someone cut him off that he followed the white car through town for a mile, passed that driver on a double-yellow line, and almost hit an uninvolved car head-on. A lack of emotional self-regulation can cause much more than hurt feelings. Disagreements can get so heated that good friends are lost, or in some cases, a car accident occurs where a person could be hurt or killed.

Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy pertains to the extent to which you believe you can be successful at a given task (Bandura, 1997). This becomes particularly important when faced with difficulty. A person with high self-efficacy, believing they can succeed, will put forth an effort. A person with low self-efficacy, not thinking they can successfully complete the task, will typically give up. According to Bandura, as you proceed through life, you notice things that others do, how they are treated, and the extent to which they are successful. You also note within your social group what behaviors result in acceptance from the group and what is discouraged or punished. If a person in class talks to a student in the next seat, and the professor does not say anything, then it seems that ­talking to others during class is acceptable behavior. Understanding self-efficacy is important, as it impacts what and how someone thinks about something, their motivation to try something new, the feelings they have when trying something, and how the individual makes decisions. Bandura believed that four major influences determine our level of self-efficacy and, therefore, how we may behave in a given

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situation. Self-efficacy is developed through performance outcomes, verbal persuasion, vicarious experiences, and physiological feedback.

Performance Outcomes If you are asked to do a task that you have never done before, you will likely form a quick opinion as to whether you think you can accomplish this task. In judging the possibility of success, you will probably compare this task to other tasks you have done. If you have already done something very similar to this task, you will be more likely to believe this new task is also possible. If this new task is nothing like anything you have done before, you are not likely to have much selfefficacy (confidence in your ability to complete it). Another possibility is that you have tried something similar to the new task and failed. In such cases, you may still give it a solid try, but if things are not going well, it will be relatively easy to give up, as you have no prior experience of success. That lack of successful experience will diminish your self-efficacy.

Vicarious Experiences In social learning, you can watch someone else attempt a task and learn from their experience. An essential aspect of learning through modeling is that you can somehow identify with the person completing the behavior. These are your role models and may be siblings, parents, friends, teachers, and even celebrities. Anyone you look up to can serve as a social role model. If you see one of these individuals accomplish a task, it impacts your self-efficacy. You are motivated to try, because you presume you can also be successful. Think of the number of times a sibling, friend, or teacher did something to show you how it could be done or you tried a dance you saw on TikTok. This is learning through vicarious experience.

Study Tip 2.2: Seeing a task being done correctly builds your self-­ efficacy. If you don’t know how to do something, ask someone to show you, so you can see someone be successful at the task.

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Verbal Persuasion Another way for you to determine whether it seems plausible that you could complete a task is what others say to you. A p ­ erson you trust who encourages you is a powerful force. The phrase, “Come on, I know you can do it,” is a verbal persuasion. In teaching ­statistics, I regularly encourage my students this way. Unfortunately, ­verbal persuasion may also be detrimental to self-efficacy if an individual is discouraged. Imagine the self-efficacy of a 13-year-old girl in middle school if a biology teacher tells her she is struggling in class because girls are not good at science. As reprehensible as that is to imagine, the biology example actually happened to someone in my family. Verbal persuasion can also be less explicit, such as the “chilly ­climate,” where women are not treated as well as men in the classroom, p ­ articularly in STEM fields, and microaggressions, where individuals from underrepresented groups are told via implied, offhand, and (often) unintentionally cruel statements they cannot be successful because of their membership in a marginalized group (Walton et al., 2015).

Physiological Feedback Performing any action (e.g., waiting for your final exam to start, speaking to your professor for the first time, giving a presentation) results in physiological (bodily) feedback (e.g., racing heart, sweaty palms, nausea). How you interpret those feelings will impact your self-efficacy. Even though I have given a lot of presentations, I still feel my heart rate speed up, my mouth gets dry, and my stomach feels uneasy just before I start. If I interpret those sensations as standard nerves before a presentation and remind myself that feeling a bit nervous makes a person a better presenter, then my self-efficacy increases. However, if I interpret those feelings as insecurity because I don’t feel I prepared well enough, my self-efficacy may decline. Self-efficacy has a significant impact on behavior. People are much more likely to put forth energy toward a task when they are reasonably confident of success. Conversely, individuals will avoid or expend little energy in situations where they anticipate the possibility of failure. Of course, this does not mean that just because you think you can do something, you can. Self-efficacy is all about motivation to try. If you

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try harder because you know you can be successful with effort, then the probability of success is higher. That is why self-efficacy often does lead to success. There are many ways to increase your self-efficacy and probability of success. Fencl and Scheel (2005) found that just about any teaching method that included student participation increased self-efficacy. So, participate in class when collaborative and engaged learning techniques are used. Avoid negative talk, as it can lower your self-efficacy, and embrace positive attitudes instead. If you start small and work your way up to a task, you will build self-confidence and increase self-efficacy. Watch good role models do well, and keep your emotions in check. These things can help you learn in harmony with your brain.

Imposter Syndrome Clance and Imes (1978), while at Georgia State University, first described imposter syndrome after leading individual psychotherapy sessions with more than 150 successful women. Many of these women did not perceive themselves as successful, despite outstanding achievements, high praise, and professional recognition. Instead, Clance and Imes reported, these women said they felt like “imposters.” At the time (the late 1970s), it was reported that exceptionally high  achieving women were much more likely to have imposter syndrome than men. They further described these individuals as perfectionists and as setting very high goals for themselves. Other researchers confirmed this finding, reporting that this highly successful group of predominantly women had an “internal experience of intellectual phoniness” (Matthews & Clance, 1985, p. 71). Research into imposter syndrome exploded, and researchers began investigating where imposter syndrome came from and how to best describe it. For example, Ferrari and Thompson (2006) noted that those with imposter syndrome wanted to be successful and recognized by colleagues for their work, but they were cautious about working in a way that exposed their imperfections or that revealed their limitations. Other researchers picked up on this theme and asserted that those who struggled with imposter syndrome were self-conscious individuals who

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did not want others to see their vulnerabilities (Frost et al., 1995). Imposter syndrome was considered a pervasive, but individual, issue, with as many as 70% of all adults experiencing feelings of being an imposter at least once (Gravois, 2007). Current research on imposter syndrome now looks at this phenomenon in a very different light. Instead of ascribing to individual fears of coming short and being characterized as an imposter, researchers are looking at situations that cause specific groups to feel as though they are imposters (e.g., professional women, especially high-achieving women of color [Mullangi & Jagsi, 2019]; individuals from underrepresented groups; specific subgroups of men). For example, within our society, women are socialized to be nurturing, gentle rather than ­abrasive, and often present suggested changes as questions (Johnson, 2017). Suppose Alice has an idea as to the direction a new i­nitiative should take. Instead of saying, “Given the information at hand, I think we should start this in June,” she says, “With what we know, June seems a reasonable time to start. Does that make sense to the group?” When the first statement is made, it appears that Alice knows the answer, but in the second pitch, her question seems to be ­seeking validation. Framing in such a way can cause others to question ­ whether the person making the pitch actually believes in the strategy and to what extent she can commit to it, and their reaction causes her to question herself. Once you question yourself, you have succumbed to imposter syndrome. Individuals from marginalized backgrounds are constantly questioned about their abilities and contributions relative to others (Tulshyan & Burey, 2021). These individuals are put into a position where they must always be cautious to not “offend” anyone. Being assertive or questioning those in established positions is usually seen as hostility, so it is muted. After some time, those in the majority see someone in the marginalized group as uncertain about their work and unwilling to defend it. As a result, those in the marginalized group have to constantly justify their knowledge and experience, and often begin to question their own expertise. Imposter syndrome has many negative implications. Those with imposter syndrome are more likely to have stress, anxiety, depression, and are more likely to drop out of college (Chrousos & Mentis, 2020).

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Imposter syndrome is found at much higher rates for underrepresented and marginalized groups (e.g., women, LGBTQIA+, Latinx, etc.), and these individuals are much more likely to slip through the cracks of higher education. That makes understanding and combatting the traditional concept of imposter syndrome critical. Thankfully, it is much more acceptable in today’s society to share emotions and admit doubt at times (Kar, 2021). It is also essential to recognize that nearly everyone feels insecure, uncertain, not worthy, and that others are more competent than they are. As Kar (2021) notes, these are perfectly normal feelings. The point is that if you feel nervous or uncertain or wonder “What on earth am I doing here?” you are experiencing life very much as everyone else does. There is no need to question your overall ability or justify why you are part of the group. At the same time, it is vital for us to rethink what behaviors represent expertise and knowledge. If a person is asking questions instead of making statements in a meeting, they may very well be taking a more collaborative approach. If an individual from an underrepresented group makes a mistake or does not know something, do not ascribe it to their background. These outmoded and incorrect perceptions are what perpetuate stereotypes and injustices. Individuals from the majority group equally make mistakes or lack knowledge in some areas, but their lapses tend to be attributed to the difficulty of the situation. In contrast, those from underrepresented and marginalized groups in the same situation are accused of being unprepared or incompetent. It is time to stop the double standard. Given all of this, you may still question whether you are in over your head or worry that you don’t have the expertise or innate ability to be successful. The key lies in listening to feedback and evidence. If you can demonstrate you know the material, present solutions or positions others agree with, finish programs, or receive congratulations from your peers and awards for your accomplishments, you are doing well. Pay attention to feedback and recognize that a person may be nervous or uncertain of their ability in any role at any given time. I am anxious and unsure at times, my colleagues are, and I am sure you are as well. All that means is that you are like everyone else. Let’s close the discussion on imposter syndrome and find better ways to support each other as needed.

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Learned Optimism There are likely times when you will feel like there is no value in trying. In some situations, there really is no way out and giving up is justified. But what if there is a way to overcome a negative situation, but you don’t even try to find the solution? This situation may be a case of learning to be helpless (Seligman & Johnson, 1973). In 1975, Hiroto and Seligman conducted an experiment in which they divided college students into two groups. The first group could push a button to stop a loud noise, and the second group had a button with no effect on the noise. Later, when put into an environment where noise could be eliminated by moving a lever on the wall, those in the button-pushing group quickly learned how to stop the noise, whereas those who had no control earlier did not learn how to do this. Hiro and Seligman concluded that if an individual had been successful in the past, they would be confident trying again. If the person had failed in the past, they would not try in the future. In such a case, a person has learned to be helpless. In a series of later studies, Seligman and colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania studied how learned helplessness could result in depressive symptoms like loss of interest, weight loss, sleep problems, fatigue, and feelings of worthlessness (e.g., Klein et al., 1976). Learned helplessness has been used to explain why individuals fail to resolve a negative situation. If a person has tried in the past and not been able to escape a negative outcome, they have no reason to believe the situation has changed unless advised otherwise. Instead of blaming, it is helpful to understand why a strong, intelligent, and independent person can be trapped in a situation that the observer believes is escapable. For example, learned helplessness can help explain why partners stay in an abusive relationship, even when there may be programs to assist (Walker, 2017). If an abused spouse has never successfully been able to leave, they cannot imagine that they could do so “this time.” Some researchers have also noted that overparenting, where the parents do everything for their children, can later result in learned helplessness as the children do not believe they can do tasks for themselves. The parents feel they are helping their children, but overnurtured kids can become helpless (Bredehoft, 2021).

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If you have tried to pass a statistics course multiple times and failed, you may decide to stop trying. A person who has done poorly in science classes in the past may dismiss a STEM-related major, even if they are passionate readers of astronomy books in their spare time. These are all examples of learned helplessness. Even if shown a means to success, it is understandable why a person would not try “just to fail one more time.” The question becomes, how can we increase (or restore) self-efficacy so individuals feel empowered to make a change? Two areas of increased self-efficacy may prove helpful. First, try something small to achieve any sense of success. Through stepwise ­progress, a person may figure out at some point they could be successful in their overall goal. Second, share a similar person’s success in a similar situation. In 1990 Martin Seligman, the same individual who began studying learned helplessness in the 1960s, became the person who started a movement that was almost precisely the opposite: learned helplessness. He launched the new area of positive psychology and published a book called Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life. To that point, psychology was founded on pinpointing what was wrong and fixing it. In positive psychology, one focuses on a person’s assets and builds on them (Seligman, 1990, 2018). Researchers began to look at how to instill optimism, primarily by working on helping individuals develop favorable expectancies for the future (Carver & Scheier, 2014) and identify ways to think about the causes of optimism (Seligman, 2018). Individuals who focus on optimism have many positive outcomes, such as lower stress, better health, and lower blood pressure. Learned optimism starts with challenging negative thoughts, and many of these processes can be selftaught. The cognitive distortions that tend to bring about negative thoughts are: (a) personalization (this is all my fault); (b) pervasiveness (a bad outcome will impact other areas, e.g., if I lose this job, everyone will think I am a loser); and (c) permanence (I will never be able to keep a job). To learn optimism, one can adapt a strategy developed by Albert Ellis called the ABC technique (Saelid & Nordahl, 2017). ABC stands for Antecedent-Belief-Consequence. An antecedent (event) prompts a belief about the self, which leads to consequences (choosing a course of action). By carefully examining and modulating your belief so that it is rational and positive, you can avoid falling into a negativity trap and

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learned helplessness. For example, imagine before engaging in ABC you flunk a biology exam (antecedent/event). You may think to yourself, “I am stupid, and I might as well drop out of college” (belief ). As a result, you decide to withdraw (consequence). After ABC training, you could realize that your pessimistic belief is actually pervasive (identify the type of pessimism) and a bit overblown. Reframe it more rationally as “I am not doing well on biology exams right now, and could use some help.” From there, your action changes to “Get help for biology,” not “Withdraw from school.” You have moved from feeling helpless to optimistic and learned how to overcome something that moments ago felt inescapable!

Chapter Summary Self-regulation is an essential aspect of learning, as it includes setting a course of action and following that course. This is an important component of impulse control and reaching goals. Self-regulation interacts with many of the other concepts presented in this book, including metacognition, self-efficacy, procrastination, and cognitive load. These concepts by no means work in isolation. A critical area of self-­regulation is emotion control. Our society, from the classroom to the supermarket, is based on being able to control one’s emotions and behaving within certain parameters in public. Along with self-regulation, self-efficacy is exceedingly important when it comes to learning. Self-efficacy pertains to the extent to which a person believes they can be successful at a task. From taking exams to writing papers, the belief that one can succeed is an integral part of motivation. Imposter syndrome has been shown to impact academic performance, but as this concept has been studied, it has taken on new meaning. Researchers are now looking at social demands that place individuals into situations where they question their own expertise. That means what has been described as feelings of being an imposter may well be the transient feelings of nerves that everyone feels. Imposter syndrome is not a personal issue; it is a cultural and societal issue and must be addressed. Another area in which to better understand yourself as a learner is learned helplessness and now learned optimism. The extent to which successfully navigate certain circumstances may well be more a function of how you perceive

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yourself rather than any implied strength of behavior. The good news is that positive psychology in learned optimism can proactively and positively impact future behavior.

Discussion Questions 1. Being at college can bring about many emotions: missing home, navigating roommate interactions, increased scholarly expectations, and a host of other experiences and demands. What positive coping skills have you used? What maladaptive coping skills have you used? To what extent do you feel you are successful in managing your emotions? 2. Describe one area in which you have low self-efficacy and one area where your self-efficacy is relatively high. List what interactions led you to experience the high self-efficacy. Then explain what you could do to help raise your self-efficacy in the first area (consider areas of performance outcome, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological feedback). 3. Research indicates that nearly 70% of adults experience imposter syndrome at some point. Do you feel you have experienced imposter syndrome? Describe why or why not. 4. Provide examples different from those in the book of the three forms of pessimism (personalization, pervasiveness, and permanence) that might be seen in a student who is struggling in their first semester at college. Which of these forms do you think are most frequently experienced when students take an exam that is significantly more challenging than expected?

References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt. Bredehoft, D. J. (2021, January 2). Childhood overindulgence can lead to learned helplessness. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/ us/blog/the-age-overindulgence/202101/childhood-overindulgence-canlead-learned-helplessness

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Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2014). Dispositional optimism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(6), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j .tics.2014.02.003 Chrousos, G. P., & Mentis, A-F. A. (2020). Imposter syndrome threatens diversity. Science, 367(6479), 749–750. https://doi.org/10.1126/science .aba8039 Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978). The impostor phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 15(3), 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/ h0086006 Davis, J. I., Gross, J. J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2011). Psychological distance and emotional experience: What you see is what you get. Emotion, 11(2), 438. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021783 Fencl, H., & Scheel, K. (2005). Research and teaching: Engaging students– an examination of the effects of teaching strategies on self-efficacy and course in a nonmajors physics course. Journal of College Science Teaching, 35(1), 20–24. https://my.nsta.org/resource/?id=10.2505/4/jcst05_035_ 01_20 Ferrari, J. R., & Thompson, T. (2006). Impostor fears: Links with selfpresentational concerns and self-handicapping behaviours. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(2), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.paid.2005.07.012 Frost, R. O., Turcotte, T. A., Heimberg, R. G., Mattia, J. I., Holt, C. S., & Hope, D. A. (1995). Reactions to mistakes among subjects high and low in perfectionistic concern over mistakes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19, 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02229694 Gravois, J. (2007, November 9). You’re not fooling anyone. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 54(11), A1. https://www.chronicle.com/article/yourenot-fooling-anyone/ Hanson, M. (2021). College dropout rates. Education Data Initiative. https:// educationdata.org/college-dropout-rates Hiroto, D. S., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Generality of learned helplessness in man. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(2), 311–327. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076270 Inzlicht, M., Werner, K. M., Briskin, J. L., & Roberts, B. W. (2021). ­Integrating models of self-regulation. Annual Review of Psychology, 72(1), 319–345. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-061020-105721 Johnson, S. K. (2017, August 17). What the science actually says about gender gaps in the workplace. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2017/08/ what-the-science-actually-says-about-gender-gaps-in-the-workplace

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Jost, J. T., Kruglanski, A. W., & Nelson, T. O. (1998). Social metacognition: An expansionist review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(2), 137–154. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0202_6 Kar, P. (2021). Partha Kar: Imposter syndrome is no cause for shame. BMJ: British Medical Journal (Online),  373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj .n1387 Klein, D. C., Fencil-Morse, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1976). Learned helplessness, depression, and the attribution of failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,  33(5), 508–516. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.33.5.508 Matthews, G., & Clance, P. (1985). Treatment of the impostor phenomenon in psychotherapy clients. Psychotherapy in Private Practice, 3(1), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1300/J294v03n01_09 Mullangi, S., & Jagsi, R. (2019). Imposter syndrome: Treat the cause, not the symptom. Journal of the American Medical Association, 322(5), 403–404. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.9788 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination.  Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Oaten, M., & Cheng, K. (2006). Longitudinal gains in self-regulation from regular physical exercise. British Journal of Health Psychology, 11(4), 717–733. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910706X96481  Panadero, E. (2017). A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology, 28, 1–28. https://doi .org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422 Rothbart, M. K. (1981). Measurement of temperament in infancy. Child Development, 52(2), 569–578. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129176 Saelid, G. A., & Nordahl, H. M. (2017). Rational emotive behaviour therapy in high schools to educate in mental health and empower youth health. A randomized controlled study of a brief intervention. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 46(3),  196–210.  https://doi.org/10 .1080/16506073.2016.1233453 Seligman, M. E. P. (1990). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. Random House. Seligman, M. E. P. (2018). The hope circuit: A psychologist’s journey from helplessness to optimism. PublicAffairs. Seligman, M. E. P., & Johnston, J. C. A. (1973). A cognitive theory of avoidance learning. In F. J. McGuigan & D. B. Lumsden (Eds.), Contemporary approaches to conditioning and learning (pp. 69–110). V. H. Winston.

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Sher, K. J., & Grekin, E. R. (2007). Alcohol and affect regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 560–580). ­Guilford Press. Tulshyan, R., & Burey, J. A. (2021, February 11). Stop telling women they have imposter syndrome. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/ 2021/02/stop-telling-women-they-have-imposter-syndrome Walker, L. E. A. (2017). The battered woman syndrome (4th ed.). Springer. Walton, G. M., Logel, C., Peach, J. M., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. P. (2015). Two brief interventions to mitigate a “chilly climate” ­transform ­women’s experience, relationships, and achievement in engineering. ­Journal of ­ Educational Psychology,  107(2), 468–485. https://doi.org/10.1037/ a0037461 Winne, P. H., & Perry, N. E. (2000). Measuring self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidne (Eds.), Handbook of ­self-­regulation (pp. 531–566). Academic Press.

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3 D E V E LO P I N G YO U R LE A R N I N G S TR AT E G Y

I am amazed by the number of students and advisees I have talked to who have no “plan” for succeeding in college. Each semester they amass supplies, go to their classes, study, take tests, write papers, and repeat. Those are important things to do, but it isn’t a plan. Some ­students get by this way, although too many cannot, and even those who do “get by” are not reaching their full potential. I selected the topic of developing a learning strategy because as a student it took me a while to figure out the value of developing a game plan each semester. In this chapter, we look at strategies to plan for success, including setting goals and outcomes, building schedules, setting up to-do lists, being organized, and communicating with faculty. Developing a learning strategy and an action plan supporting your learning is a game changer. If you spend just a little bit of time up front, you may well find that you learn a whole lot more and spend a whole lot less time doing it.

Setting Goals and Outcomes Hundreds of studies clearly and consistently show that specific and challenging goals, just beneath maximum performance, result in better 46

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performance and greater feelings of achievement than easy goals, no goals, or general goals, such as “do the best you can” (e.g., Locke & Latham, 2006). For example, a goal of scoring 90% on an exam is ­better than aiming for 100% or just “to study.” The challenge is that if you can’t meet the goal because it’s too ambitious (missing one ­question) or too ambiguous (what counts as “best”), then the motivation to keep trying decreases. The best way to start every semester is to identify an overall goal, designed with specificity of action and maximum outcomes. If you are a first-year student, your goal may be to make a 3.5 grade point average (GPA) and see 10 historic sites near campus. If you are a senior your goal may be to line up at least five quality job interviews or apply to five graduate programs. It is also a good idea to write outcomes. Goals are statements of where you wish to go, and outcomes are the things you will be able to do once you get there. Some individuals will also discuss objectives in addition to goals and outcomes. There is a subtle difference between outcomes and objectives, but for the level at which we are working here, the difference is not important. As you plan your way, you will want both goals and outcomes. Just keep in mind that goals are larger and broader statements of what you will do, such as “study 3 hours per day, 5 days a week,” or “get an A in statistics.” Note that some goals are process goals (the study goal) and others are end goals (the goal of getting an A). Many people set end goals but forget the equally important process goals necessary to get you there efficiently (Latham & Brown, 2006). Outcomes, on the other hand, are statements of what you will be able to do at the end of a period of time or effort. An outcome might be, “by the end of this week, I will be able to write a SMART outcome without looking at any notes,” or “by the end of class today, I will be able to list all of the brain structures involved in the limbic system.” The good news is that the SMART framework can be used for both goals and outcomes. In the examples following, I will explain goals, but the same process and definitions can be used for outcomes.

Set SMART Goals The acronym SMART is frequently used to remind ­ individuals of the components of a well-written goal. There are many quick

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and easy resources regarding how to write effective SMART goals (e.g., Martins, 2021). This framework will help you write specific goals at multiple levels: course, semester, year, and even graduation goals. I use shorter goals to keep me motivated and longer goals to keep me focused across time. Without layered goals across levels, it is easy for your behavior to drift, resulting in your overall desired outcome slipping away. Organizations write mission statements, which are like really large goals, to stop mission creep. Mission creep is when the overall goal of an organization changes slowly without the organization realizing it (Jonker & Meehan, 2008). The same process can happen at the individual level. Writing SMART goals will prevent what I like to call goal creep, a slow progression away from a desired destination without realizing it. As an example, suppose you start the semester with a process goal that is not specific: “study every day.” You might start by studying several hours a day and do well on your first set of exams, so you miss a study session here and there. With less study time you don’t do as well on the next set of exams, but you still do quite well. So, you miss more study time. This is one type of goal creep, and it can happen at any goal level. It is one way a person may start a semester planning to get high grades and finish the semester scrambling to pass. Goal creep is problematic, and it is preventable if you start with SMART goals. The following is a discussion of each of the five parts of SMART goals. The letters of SMART refer to goals that are: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Timely.

Study Tip 3.1: Practice setting one SMART goal and one SMART ­outcome for each individual study session. It will become faster and easier to set quick goals and outcomes.

Specific Your goal needs to be specific, clearly defined, and identified, so you know exactly what you are striving to accomplish. Suppose you set a goal to “do well” in all your classes this semester. This is an admirable goal, but it is not specific at all. What do you mean by “well”? Will “do well” mean the same at the end of the semester as

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it did at the beginning? A specific goal removes doubt: Maintain a B- average for all assignments and exams. Measurable Set goals that are objective and quantifiable. Ask whether someone else would be able to measure your progress the same way you would. Examples of goals that are not measurable include: Do well, walk more, and be more social. Instead, use measurable metrics: Make at least a 70% on each quiz, walk 10,000 steps every day, and eat dinner with friends twice a week. Achievable Achievable means you can reach the goal. If you are averaging a 65% in your class going into the final, a goal to score a 100% on the comprehensive final exam and get an A in the class is not achievable. Set goals that are challenging, but within reach. An ideal goal is about 90% of the estimated level of the best expected outcome possible (Locke & Latham, 2002). Relevant Your goal should mean something to you. You need motivation to put in the work necessary to achieve a goal. When I taught behavior modification, I could always tell when people wanted to stop smoking for themselves versus doing it for someone else. Those who wanted it for themselves had a higher success rate. Timely It is best if your goal has a specific time element. Your goal should balance short-term gratification with long-term impact. In other words, you should have enough time to really achieve something, but it shouldn’t be so far in the future that you lose interest along the way. For example: Walk or run 5K in the Fun5K event 2 months out on May 15th.

Break Large Goals Into Smaller Goals Long-term, large goals provide a great sense of accomplishment but can be overwhelming on a day-to-day basis. For example, imagine that you set the following SMART goal: Get a 3.0 GPA for fall semester.

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That’s specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time bound, but it’s complex and requires an extended period of time. To have a better chance of success, break it into smaller SMART goals that will serve as subgoals to support your overall goal (e.g., determining the number of hours you will study each day, setting up study groups, or increasing the use of metacognitive strategies). Create subgoals that are short-term, smaller tasks that can be accomplished relatively quickly to provide motivation and feedback to long-term, larger goals designed to bring about significant overall learning or other success (Tabachnick et al., 2008).

Stretch Goals Stretch goals have a low probability of success (~10%) but are still technically attainable. If completed successfully, they can have a massive impact on individuals who weren’t sure they could actually achieve the goal. Organizations use stretch goals to motivate individuals as well as make positive organizational change (Kerr & Landauer, 2004). We can do that for ourselves.

Study Tip 3.2: Set a stretch goal for studying for each exam for each course. As stretch goals, they should be tight, but possible.

I suggest setting up a few challenging, but reachable, SMART goals for the whole semester, and one stretch goal. This stretch goal should be very challenging but offer a great personal or professional reward if you achieve it. When I was just a few years into teaching, I had the opportunity to work on a writing project on an incredibly tight ­timeline. If I hit the tight deadline (stretch goal), I would receive a large bonus. If I needed an extension, it was essentially a regular timeline (SMART goal). I figured I had about a 10% chance of ­hitting the deadline, but halfway through the project, I realized that I really had a chance. That motivated me to push harder, I ended up hitting that stretch goal, and it changed my outlook on what I could achieve as a writer. Of course, I have also developed many stretch goals that I didn’t meet, but when I do it is meaningful. Try this

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in your classes or for exercise. Maybe one million steps during the school year. Do the math. It is a stretch, but doable. The best thing about stretch goals is that even if you miss you accomplish a lot.

Managing Multiple Tasks With goals in place, the next step is to manage the tasks necessary to achieve them. Use your course syllabus to map out your academic responsibilities, and add your class, family, and work obligations to your schedule or calendar. I recognize the burden that many of you face as you juggle multiple responsibilities. Perna and Odle (2020) reported, via the National Center for Educational Statistics, that 27% of full-time students and 71% of part-time students work 20 or more hours per week. In that same article, the authors presented data from the U.S. Department of Education showing that students from historically underserved groups, independent students, and students who are single parents with a dependent child are particularly likely to work long hours in addition to their academic responsibilities. Acknowledging this heavy load, I urge you to build a written schedule to help manage your time while fulfilling responsibilities. If you have a schedule, and work ahead as much as possible, you will have more capacity to handle schedule glitches when, not if, they happen.

Build Your Schedule As far in advance as possible, write out your commitments (personal, professional, and academic) on your calendar to create a single schedule. The following are some good tips to build that schedule: •• Put all exams, quizzes, assignments, or other class deadlines from each course syllabus on your calendar. Schedule a bit of extra time before deadlines as a buffer. •• Map out exactly when you intend to study and where. Treat those study blocks like attending a meeting; they are scheduled, and you are committed to those blocks of time. •• Consider varying your study spaces to keep yourself engaged (Brook, 2019).

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•• Schedule time for yourself. Just like meetings, classes, or study blocks, if your time is scheduled, you are more likely to follow through. •• Reserve an hour every day in case something (errands, drafting an outline, picking up the kids, unexpected wait at office hours) takes longer than expected. If everything goes as planned, enjoy the luxury of some unanticipated “you time”! •• Learn to say “no.” Eventually, your calendar will be full of study time, classes, work, deadlines, “you time,” and so on. That will help you to say “no” to requests, when needed. Thank the person making the request and explain that your calendar simply has no availability (a great skill to develop).

Manage Your Schedule Once built, it is challenging to manage your schedule and all the multiple tasks. There are many systems out there, some more intuitive than others. I manage my to-do list using Todoist.com; it’s free if you want to give it a try. There’s also TickTick, Notion, Microsoft To Do, Habitica, and many more (Pot, 2021). Find whatever system works best for you, because the more consistently you can build and follow your calendar, the better you will be able to handle even a chaotic life. An ideal system will allow access from all your devices or, if you prefer, a single physical planner is also a great option. Many people like to use sticky notes, and they can be helpful reminders, but they are not a schedule management system.

To-Do Lists Find a to-do list system that works for you and stick to it. There are many ways to manage a to-do list. The following are strategies that I have found helpful over the years: •• As soon as you think of something that needs to be done, put it on your to-do list. Don’t burn brainpower trying to keep a task in mind. •• Set a date by which each list item should be done. If it is not done by that time, pick an extension. If it is not done by the extension, consider whether you need to do it at all.

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•• If you can do a task immediately, do it. Then put it on your to-do list and check it off! •• Each morning and every evening, look over your list and update it with what you’ve accomplished and what new tasks you’ve gathered. •• Put an estimated completion time for each item. As you estimate, your estimates will improve. (I still struggle with this.) •• Check the internet for other tips. There are many free resources available online (e.g., Barratt, 2019).

It’s ideal if you can integrate your to-do list with your schedule. An integration method I recommend is to schedule time for anything on your to-do list that will take more than 30 minutes. For example, you have to identify a theme for a term paper, and you think it will take an hour. Write “Theme for term paper” on your to-do list and immediately schedule an hour in your calendar to research and brainstorm. Integrating the list and the schedule right away keeps you from being overwhelmed.

Organization Have you ever noticed that some people have a very organized workspace and computer desktop, whereas others have piles of papers all over their workspace and can’t find anything on their computer desktop? I am convinced it is because the first person considers a task “done” only when the product of the task (paper, flashcards, spreadsheet) is filed and the second person considers the task done when they hit the send key. The second individual doesn’t file the completed assignment in a drawer, their hard drive, the cloud, or anywhere else. When you finish your term paper and email it to your professor, cross the task off your to-do list and take an extra 2 minutes to save it in a system where you can find it later—maybe Documents → 2023 Fall Semester → PSYCH 101 → Final Paper → COMPLETE. Don’t just trust that you’ll remember when you sent an email or that you sent an email at all. Think of it this way: Is dinner done when you finish eating or when the dishes are done and everything is thrown away or put away? To keep your workspace (computer desktop and physical work area) neat and organized, don’t consider the task done until you file everything away.

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A final tip is to be sure that what you are working on is what you need to be doing. There is little opportunity for wasted time in college. It is a good practice to check in with your professor whenever you have the slightest doubt regarding any of the items on your to-do list. I know this can be intimidating for some people. It was tough for me. The following section is designed to give you some tips on making the most of communications with your faculty.

Effective Communication Patterns Some readers might scoff at a section about talking to a faculty member, but as a first-generation college student, I had no idea what was appropriate. I have also noticed through my years as a faculty member that students from different backgrounds have different skill sets in this area. Communicating with faculty is something that all students have to do at some point, so it can only help to cover strategies for communicating successfully now and build those skills for communicating successfully in professional situations in the future.

Be an Active Listener When speaking with a professor and later, during internships, externships, and at your future place of employment, it is vital to be an active listener (Brownlee, 2020). Most importantly, listen carefully to what is being said. Monitor your thoughts to ensure that you are not thinking of something else while your professor, peer, or colleague is talking. I admit that my mind wanders at times while others are talking. I have to make a concerted effort to attend to the conversation at hand. This has nothing to do with the quality of their communication and everything to do with my tendency to think about many things at any given minute. This is a natural human condition, but especially difficult for people with attention deficit disorder. However, it’s important to make the effort to stay tuned in. If needed, practice mindfulness and being present. Stay engaged and confirm you are understanding by summarizing any significant points that your professor covered in the conversation. For example, imagine you are at your professor’s office hours

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to talk about choosing your paper topic. You decide to write about microaggressions in the classroom. You could finish the conversation by ­saying, “I appreciate you helping me to think through the paper topic. Microaggression is a great topic, and I can’t wait to read a few of the articles from the Journal of Diversity in Higher Ed that you just mentioned.” You could also ask if you could summarize the main topics to ensure you have everything right. Doing this is not wasting the faculty member’s time. It will only take about 10 to 15 seconds, and your p ­ rofessor will be impressed that you want to get it right. I suspect it goes without saying, but it’s too important not to say it: Never multitask while conversing with a professor. If you would like to take notes on your phone or laptop, that is fine. Just ask first, “Is it okay if I take notes on my phone/laptop/planner? I don’t want to forget the resource you just mentioned.” Doing so makes it clear to your professor that you are attending to the conversation and not distracted by reading texts during your meeting. Finally, if you are confused or uncertain about anything, ask for clarification. It is much better to ask rather than get something wrong in an assignment. Students will sometimes assure faculty that they understand, because they are embarrassed that they don’t or they are nervous and want to escape the conversation. Faculty want you to be successful. Most will take the time to hear you out or even schedule follow-up conversations to keep working on something that’s unclear.

How to Address Faculty Moving from high school, where nearly everyone is Mr. or Ms., to a world of professors, doctors, adjuncts, and instructors can be ­confusing. However, there are actually some straightforward and consistent rules for addressing your postsecondary instructors, whether you are at a university, college, community/technical college, or any other institution. When talking to a faculty member teaching your course, the safest way to go is to call them “Professor.” This is particularly true if they have “professor” anywhere in their title, including assistant and associate professors. These are ranks, not job descriptions. Assistant professors are typically faculty in their first

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5 years, associate professors are typically faculty in their 5th–12th year, and full professors are individuals who have been teaching for around 12 years and have met other job requirements. It takes a lot of work to get to the title of full professor. Adjunct faculty members and instructors (sometimes known as contingent faculty, these individuals are hired for set periods of time) also teach, and these individuals may all be called “professor.” They will let you know if they prefer something else. If you know the faculty member has a doctorate (PhD, EdD, PsyD, PharmD, MD, etc.), you can call them “Dr. Last Name.” If you don’t know how to pronounce their name, ask them or find out from the department office professional. This isn’t being rude—it’s being respectful of their name. Do not call faculty members “Mr.” or “Mrs.” That may seem polite, but many faculty members find this offensive. Again, when in doubt, use the title of Professor. One exception to addressing your instructors as “Professor” is graduate teaching assistants (TAs). They can be called “Mr.,” “Ms.,” or “Mx.” (pronounced mix), unless they have completed their doctorate, in which case it is appropriate to call them “Dr.” If you are unsure, it is encouraged to ask the graduate ­student how they prefer to be addressed. Overall, you will likely be told how to address your professor or teaching assistant on the first day of class or the first online class module. But if not, the previous guidelines should work well for you. By the way, if our paths should happen to cross, call me Dr. Zakrajsek (zuh-CRY-sick), Dr. Z, or Todd, whichever you find most comfortable.

Make Use of Office Hours You might not be sure what “office hours” means. Although some mistakenly think office hours are reserved times for faculty to work, that is not the case. Office hours are times set aside for students to access their faculty. This time is for you to talk about any aspect of the course, so you don’t ever need to start by saying, “I’m sorry to bother you.” It is fine to start with “Do you have a few minutes?” during an office hour. Also, if a professor is working, they are just filling time until you stop by to chat; they are not too busy for you. I mention this because once a student came to my office hour and let me know he had been by on

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two other occasions that week, but I had been on my computer, so he left. If your professor is working, simply knock. Professors who teach large lecture classes often offer appointments for office hours. I suggest making an appointment in these cases, to save you sitting or standing in line for an extended period. You don’t have to rush, but do be respectful of your professor’s time, particularly if other students are waiting to speak with the professor. I can typically cover a lot of ground with my students in 5 to 10 minutes. It is not rude to stop by, ask a question, and be on your way in a minute or two. Finally, if none of the times listed as office hours work for your schedule, it is appropriate to ask your professor if you can schedule another time to meet. That meeting does not have to be in person. It might be possible to set up an appointment on Zoom or by telephone to meet.

Emails to Faculty Most faculty haven’t realized that email is for old people. I know most students do not use email frequently, and even when they do, they don’t send many formal or semiformal emails. However, most faculty and businesses still use email as a major communication platform, so professional written communication will be a lifesaver in college and beyond. Take a few minutes and read the blog post in Figure 3.1 by Laura Portwood-Stacer (2016). Figure 3.1.  QR code for “How to Email Your Professor (Without Being Annoying AF).”

Note. Retrieved from https://medium.com/@lportwoodstacer/how-to-email-your-professorwithout-being-annoying-af-cf64ae0e4087

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Portwood-Stacer does an excellent job of covering the basics. Here are a few additional tips: •• Send your email from your college email account so your professor’s spam filter doesn’t flag it. •• Keep personal information to a minimum. If you missed a class and want to let the professor know, you can simply say that you could not attend class and note that you can provide details if needed. Most faculty members will not ask for them, but some do. •• Use professional verbiage. {{ Write words out in full. {{ Use conventional spellings. {{ Don’t include emojis, memes, or gifs. •• Close with “Best,” or “Thank you,” and your name.

Finally, be sure to include your full name, what class you are in, and the time the class meets somewhere in the email. Most institutions have faculty members teaching many classes. I once taught three introductory psychology classes with 200 students each. That semester, a student sent me an email that said, “This is Chris from your Intro Psych class. I just wanted to let you know I was sorry about missing class.” I had multiple Chris’s in every section. To this day, I haven’t figured out which Chris missed class that week.

Following Up If your professor does not reply to your email (and you need a reply, not just a confirmation of receipt), it is appropriate to resend the email. It is ideal to wait a week before resending, and include a note that references your previous email as well as an acknowledgment that you are sending it again and you appreciate their time. A week may seem like a long time, but some faculty get 200+ emails a day. I certainly do, and despite my best efforts, it can sometimes take me 4 or 5 days to reply.

Making Requests Sometimes you’ll need to miss class, make up an exam, turn in an assignment late, or something similar. Check the syllabus carefully

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and learn as much as you can about the course policies before ­emailing with a request. If the syllabus clearly states there are no extensions or makeup exams, acknowledge that you have read the syllabus’s policy about extensions, be prepared with an incredibly good reason why you need one anyway, and be prepared for a “no.” The following are the three big considerations for your professor when you make a request: 1. Time. Two minutes to respond to a request adds up fast, particularly if your professor has a hundred students. 2. Fairness. If you ask for an extension regarding a paper deadline, your professor needs to offer that to others in the class. Additionally, moving the due date means the time to return the assignments also moves. 3. Respect. Remember, you are essentially asking for a favor (even if you feel that you have an ironclad reason). Keep the exchange respectful. A student once left me a message, saying, “Hey, this is Morgan. I couldn’t make it to the exam yesterday. Give me a call, and we’ll schedule a makeup.” My syllabus clearly stated that I would give a makeup exam to anyone who needed it, as long as I was notified in advance, so that I could schedule all makeup exams at once. Morgan called after the exam, didn’t give a reason, didn’t leave a way to get in touch, and, frankly, failed in basic professional communication. Be considerate with messages. Don’t be like Morgan.

Keep the Big Picture in Mind You have to handle a lot in college, much more than simply showing up for class—navigating financial aid, scheduling courses, arranging for makeup exams, assessing tests, and untangling paper requirements. You may walk into a classroom and realize that you missed a final exam that you studied hard for and was worth 50% of your grade because you wrote the time down wrong. (Yes, that last one ­happened to me.) The point is that things are going to happen— good, bad, and average—but keep the big picture in mind through

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it all. College is a way for you to see and think about the world, to say nothing of almost being a requirement for getting a good job with good benefits (Long, 2021; Torpey, 2018). Not everyone is ­fortunate enough to attend college, and certainly lots of people who do attend don’t seriously engage or develop a successful learning strategy. I attended college at 17 and never left. I still spend my days on campus and in lecture halls. It changed my life, and with the tools in this chapter and throughout this book, it can be life-changing for you too.

Chapter Summary Setting goals motivates you to learn, especially moderately difficult goals and the occasional stretch goal. The stretch goal may not be reached, but it will push you to be better and, if achieved, will be a fantastic outcome. Use the SMART framework to ensure your goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and timely. Include subgoals in your big goals so you get regular bursts of achievement and stay motivated. Developing skills to manage multiple tasks is critical for college success. Choose and use a single calendar system, maintain a to-do list, and organize work as it is completed. College is also a time to develop and strengthen professional communication. When talking to professors and classmates, develop active learning strategies to ensure comprehension and address professors using the appropriate professional title. Use office hours or make an appointment to clarify information or ask questions. It may be that an office visit is not necessary, and an email or phone call will suffice. Use professional language in those communications as well, and always check the ­syllabus before making any requests. Finally, in setting goals, interacting with your professors, and meeting the course requirements, there will be periodic setbacks and some fantastic moments. Through that rollercoaster, keep the big picture in mind and focus on your ultimate goal for attending college.

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Discussion Questions 1. Write out one SMART goal and one stretch goal for the semester. Explain why you selected this stretch goal and to what extent you think it is possible to reach it. Also write one SMART outcome for a given study session. The stretch goal can be an extension to one of the goals written or a new goal. 2. What calendar system do you use or will you use? Explain why you prefer this system. Load the deadlines and expected time to work on classes into your calendar. How busy is the semester going to be for you? What concerns you most about your calendar, schedule, and maintaining this system? 3. What system do you use or will you use for a to-do list? Explain why you use this system or why you might switch. 4. Read through each of your syllabi. Note what requests you can and cannot make based on professors’ policies. Explain briefly why you think your professors have the policies they do for attendance, paper deadlines, exam makeups, and so on. 5. Why are you in college? Give this a bit of thought. For example, if you are in college to “get a better job,” why do you think that will happen? What will college do to help you with that?

References Barratt, B. (2019, January 30). How to write a to do list that you’ll actually stick to. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/biancabarratt/2019/01/30/ how-to-write-a-to-do-list-that-youll-actually-stick-to/?sh=8291461279e4 Brownlee, D. (2020, August 6). Are you really listening or just waiting to talk? There’s a difference. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/danabrownlee/ 2020/08/06/are-you-really-listening-or-just-waiting-to-talk-theres-adifference/?sh=77b698b76085 Jonker, K., & Meehan, W. F., III. (2008). Curbing mission creep. Stanford Social Innovation Review,  6(1), 60–65. https://doi.org/10.48558/75BEMA15

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Kerr, S., & Landauer, S. (2004). Using stretch goals to promote organizational effectiveness and personal growth: General Electric and ­Goldman Sachs.  The Academy of Management Executive (1993–2005),  18(4), 134–138. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4166134 Latham, G. P., & Brown, T. C. (2006). The effect of learning, distal, and proximal goals on MBA self-efficacy and satisfaction. Applied Psychology: An International Review,  55(4), 6060–6123. https://doi.org/10.1002/ job.70 Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.57.9.705 Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal-setting ­theory.  Current Directions in Psychological Science,  15(5), 265–268.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00449.x Long, H. (2021, April 22). Many left behind in this recovery have something in common: No college degree. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/04/22/jobs-no-college-degree/ Martins, J. (2021, January 8). Write better SMART goals with these tips and examples. Asana. https://asana.com/resources/smart-goals Perna, L. W., & Odle, T. K. (2020). Recognizing the reality of working ­college students: Minimizing the harm and maximizing the benefits of work.  Academe. https://www.aaup.org/article/recognizing-reality-workingcollege-students#.YiVJphNKhBw Portwood-Stacer, L. (2016, April 26). How to email your professor (without being annoying AF). Medium. https://medium.com/@lportwoodstacer/ how-to-email-your-professor-without-being-annoying-af-cf64ae0e4087 Pot, J. (2021, November 16). The 8 best to do list apps of 2022. Zapier. https://zapier.com/blog/best-todo-list-apps/ Tabachnick, S. E., Miller, R. B., & Relyea, G. E. (2008). The relationships among students’ future-oriented goals and subgoals, perceived task instrumentality, and task-oriented self-regulation strategies in an academic ­environment.  Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(3), 629–642. https:// doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.629 Torpey, E. (2018, November). Employment outlook for occupations that don’t require a formal educational credential. U.S. Bureau of Statistics. bls.gov/careeroutlook/2018/article/no-formal-education-outlook.htm? view_full

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P A RT T WO B U I LD T H E FO U N DAT I O N

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4 IMP R OV I N G T H E LE A R N I N G P R O C E S S

We do a lot of things that we don’t think about as they are h ­ appening. For the most part, our brains run on autopilot, so we aren’t overwhelmed by, well, everything. When you drive, you watch for other cars, but you don’t think about the amount of pressure you keep on the gas pedal or how hard to grip the steering wheel; when you walk, you avoid obstacles, but you don’t focus on tightening your core to remain upright or think about shifting your balance. At any given moment, your brain is doing a lot of work at a level you don’t notice. Running on autopilot with minimal attention works well to keep things going as they are. But what if you want to get better at something? To do that, you must turn off autopilot and focus on that specific skill. Once it is improved, you will be able to shift back to autopilot, and on a whole new level. That is what this chapter is all about. When you study, you focus on content, rather than considering your attention level, how you are processing material, or whether you are using the best learning strategy. We will look at the foundations of learning and memory, turn off autopilot for a while, improve the process of learning, and build a better learning base to become a stronger

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learner. I like to use the phrase “becoming a stronger learner,” because it is just a matter of getting into shape. When individuals decide to get into better physical condition, they identify what they want to work on and start working out. It is the same thing for your brain; you can use this book as your cognitive workout guide. If you do a bit of work, you will be a stronger learner and remember better in all your courses.

A Few Theories and Models of Learning You are already very good at learning. You should be good at it; you have been learning all of your life and almost all of the time. To give you just a few examples, you learned where to get food, which of your friends can keep a secret, and to look before crossing a road. However, most of the learning you have done is what I call “learning while living.” It’s the kind of learning you do as you go about your everyday life. Learning in school looks very different than learning while living, but the foundational principles are the same. It’s time to turn off the autopilot and learn about learning. Let’s get started with the extraordinary capabilities of the human brain. There are approximately 86 billion neurons in an average brain (Azevedo et al., 2009). It is hard to comprehend the number 86 billion, so I will use cash as an example. So, how big is 86 billion dollars? If you received $50,000 every day at noon, it would take only 20 days to hit one million dollars. It would take 55 years to get to one billion dollars. It would take you just over 4,700 years to get to $86 billion, which is approximately the number of years back to when the pyramids were built in ancient Egypt. That is a lot of dollar bills. Another amazing thing is that each one of those 86 billion neurons has up to 10,000 connections. That is approximately 40,000,000,000,000,000 connections. That number is too large for me to understand. Now, make a fist with each hand and put your two fists together. That is about the size of your brain. The 40 quadrillion connections among 86 million neurons move information around in that amount of space. That is what makes the human brain so amazing. No matter how much you learn, your brain can easily hold a lifetime of information. So how does that information get stored?

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When you experience something, the critical information from that experience hits your sensory system and races to the appropriate areas of the brain to be stored, leaving an impression on neuron pathways. This could be seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, or tasting something. If you have this same experience repeatedly, the neural network for that experience gets faster. If a neural pathway is never used, it fades away to make room for a pathway carrying new information. That gives us the ability to learn new things, and, in the process, develop complex systems of networks that support even more future learning (Rudy, 2020). This fantastic adaptive process is built for you to learn. Your ability to learn is not in question, but you do need to do a bit of work to build the right neural networks. So, what do we mean by learning? Learning isn’t something you can see. You can see the result of learning, but you can’t see learning. In teaching psychology courses across time, I have seen complicated definitions of learning. At the root, though, it comes down to something very straightforward: Learning is the process of acquiring the ability to do something new from experience. That’s it. Neuroscientists talk about brains changing because of learning, behavioral psychologists talk about learning to do new things, and cognitive psychologists emphasize how thinking changes when we learn. That is all covered with our definition: Learning is the process of acquiring the ability to do something new from experience. Note the “ability to do something” rather than “to do something.” That is because individuals can learn something before they have the opportunity to actually do it. You likely learned how to drive a car before getting behind the wheel. There are many learning theories in psychology, and there is not enough space to go over all of them in this book. However, I have provided quick summaries of three overarching theories that cover most of how we take information from experiences and turn them into learning.

Classical Conditioning If Pavlov (1927) rings a bell, you are correct. He is the researcher who launched the idea of classical conditioning. This area of learning is all about associations. For example, if you have a response (feeling queasy

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because of the flu), and that response is paired with a neutral thing (drinking a peach milkshake while having the flu), the previously neutral thing (peach milkshake) takes on the response of the original item (peach milkshake now makes you feel a bit queasy). Classical conditioning explains why some students, in their first year of college, develop a distaste for specific “flavors” that may last a lifetime. The interesting part of classical conditioning is that you don’t have to do anything other than be exposed to the stimuli. For example, when I was an undergraduate, I took calculus, and the last month of the course was a very unpleasant experience for me. The following semester, I showed up for the first day of a sociology course, and shortly after sitting down, I started to feel sick to my stomach. Why was I ­feeling queasy? After a few minutes, I realized I had been in that same room for calculus the previous semester. Calculus made my stomach hurt, and the room became paired with feeling ill. I had become classically conditioned: The objectively neutral room now made my stomach feel uneasy. These associations don’t have to be negative; they can just as easily have a positive impact. If you are nervous about taking tests and have a cherished dog or cat, try petting them while you study for an exam. When you see the material during the exam, it may well be associated with your pet, and you may be less anxious. It is important to note that this description just touches the surface of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning can explain just about any feeling you have that doesn’t seem to have a clear source: why we have phobias, how we can learn to respond negatively to something we have never seen before (most people are afraid of snakes the very first time they see them), and many of our unexpected emotional responses (like your best friend not using a baby name because of a bad association from many years ago). Some therapists use classical conditioning to eliminate fears like math anxiety and fear of flying.

Operant Conditioning The field of operant conditioning was moved forward by B.F. Skinner (1953). For this type of learning to occur, an individual must respond to something. After your response, there is a consequence. If you do

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something that has a positive consequence, you are more likely to respond similarly in the future. If you do something and a negative consequence happens, your behavior will decrease. Let’s try some examples. If you study in the library and score well on an exam, you are likely to study in the library more often. If you wear a blue shirt to a big rivalry game and your team loses, you may never wear that shirt to a game again. You play a video game and enjoy playing, so you keep on playing, even when you think you should stop. Video games are designed by people who know a lot about operant conditioning, so they know how to program the game to encourage you to keep playing even when you plan to stop. The interesting thing about operant conditioning is that what you think about the behavior is not considered essential for this kind of learning. Watch your behavior, and you will see that thinking is optional. Individuals procrastinate without knowing why, and gamblers keep playing even when they know it is having a large negative impact on them. You may take your lucky pencil to an exam, knowing it has nothing to do with how well you do, but you take that pencil anyway.

Social Learning Theory Social learning theory was popularized by Alfred Bandura (1977). In this model, we learn by observing, modeling, and imitating others. Bandura pointed out that we don’t have to actually do something in order to learn from it. We simply observe or infer someone engaged in an action in order to learn. Suppose you see a person walk across the street in the middle of the block and get stopped by the police. After seeing that, you are less likely to jaywalk in that area. If a customer gets a free ice cream cone for filling out a short survey, you may ask for a survey. The important feature here is that you learn by watching others and thinking about what they are experiencing. If you see a person raise their hand in class and the professor calls on the student and then praises the student, that may increase your likelihood of raising your hand. On the other hand, if the professor scoffs at the answer and says it is a terrible response, that action may decrease the likelihood of ­raising your hand.

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One interesting thing about social learning is that we don’t have to see the outcome of the behavior. We infer outcomes and behave accordingly. Suppose a person in a small group makes an insensitive comment about a student in class who is on the autism spectrum. If the professor stops the person after the class ends and quietly off to the side says the insensitive comment was inappropriate, the other group members, not knowing about the conversation after class, will infer there was no consequence and assume there are no consequences for inappropriate comments. Therefore, if someone engages in a negative behavior, it is important to say something about behaviors when it happens. In addition, learning is more pronounced when the person observing the behavior is similar to the person being observed. Researchers at the University of Austria found that when young adults saw an actor who seemed like themselves drinking ­alcohol on television, the students perceived drinking alcohol as a more positive behavior than when the actor was seen as different (Mayrhofer & Matthes, 2020). Observational learning has rich implications for how we learn as humans. If you watch closely, you will notice that many of us engage in many behaviors because of watching others, even when we don’t like to admit to it. We like to feel that we are making our own choices, but we frequently follow according to other people’s behavior. What sports we watch and how we dress are influenced by others. Observational learning includes modeling behavior of others in our lives. This helps us understand such varied behaviors as cycles of domestic violence and prosocial behavior (e.g., helping others). This brief description provided a quick overview; observational behavior is a deep and nuanced source for a better understanding of how we learn. The truly astounding thing is that these three general areas of learning account for most of how we learn. If these areas of learning

Study Tip 4.1: Study in the same area as students who are very focused when studying. Being around people who study well will improve your study habits.

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interest you, take a psychology class on the topic of learning or search the internet and read up a bit more on these approaches. They get very sophisticated because they are complex models of understanding how we learn. The more you know about these approaches, the more you will see them in your day-to-day life. Revisiting the definition of learning as “the process of acquiring the ability to do something new as a result of experience,” I hope you now better understand how we gather information from those experiences and learn as a result. As noted earlier in this chapter, as we must process a lot of information at any given moment, we run many aspects of our lives on autopilot so as not to be overwhelmed. We can perceive selected things and ignore others as we navigate our environment. This explains how it is possible to pay attention during a lecture. We use autopilot to filter out things like overhead lighting, sound from the air conditioner, deciding which muscles we use to sit upright, and determining how hard to grip the pen or type on the laptop. We use autopilot to save cognitive space to process important things. But how much cognitive space do we have? The answer is in the concept of cognitive load.

Managing Cognitive Load While at the University of New South Wales, cognitive psychologist John Sweller (1988) developed the cognitive load theory. This concept is now used worldwide. Cognitive load refers to the amount of information that can be processed at any given moment. Once we max out cognitive load, it becomes difficult to process any additional material, and errors increase. Learning to recognize when you have maxed out your cognitive load will help you to avoid wasting study time. Unfortunately, most people don’t understand when the max is reached and how to lower the load. We all max out from time to time. For example, you have likely become frustrated because people are carrying on a conversation in the same room where you are trying to read an assigned chapter in a challenging textbook. In this case the combination of the challenging reading and a nearby conversation is too much and cognitive load is maxed out. As a result, one of the actions must stop. Either the conversation has to move or you will

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need to find another place to read. One of the things that will make you a stronger learner is recognizing when cognitive load is causing a learning challenge and knowing how to lower the load when needed. There are three types of cognitive load: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane (Sweller et al., 1998). Once you understand these, you can make adjustments to maximize your learning.

Intrinsic Load Intrinsic cognitive load is the complexity that naturally occurs in any given task. Reading in a language you are just learning is always more difficult than reading in your first language. Reading a physics book is more challenging than reading most novels. Putting a large IKEA bookcase together for the first time is more challenging than, well, almost anything. The level of expertise you hold in an area will impact the intrinsic load because those with expertise can combine elements to reduce intrinsic load. As you become more proficient at something, the intrinsic load drops. With a bit of practice, you will become better and better at estimating your intrinsic load for an academic task, which will help you structure your study or work time. If you have to gather materials for flash cards—that’s not challenging and is a low intrinsic load, so you can plan to do that while watching a show or hanging with a friend. If you have to outline a term paper or start a challenging new organic chemistry chapter—that’s a high intrinsic load, so you’ll need to schedule focused study time in a quiet place. Taking just a few minutes to determine your task’s intrinsic load will set you up for success when planning your upcoming study time.

Extraneous Load The second type of cognitive load is extraneous load. These are distractions in your environment that take cognitive energy but do not help solve the problem at hand. Reducing extraneous load helps make your study time more effective as you have more mental energy to allocate to your academic work. You may be able to learn more content than you have in the past, and perhaps even in less time. Try something right now. Take a short pause from reading this book for

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just a few seconds and check to see what extraneous load exists in your environment. If there is none, that is fantastic. However, if the TV is on or roommates are having a debate about dorm food, that is extraneous load. Most music is also considered extraneous load, even classical music (Kumaradevan et al., 2021). However, many students tell me they prefer some sound in the room because silence is unsettling, or that sound is helpful to drown out people talking in the neighboring apartment. If you need sound while studying, try using ambient music or “music to study by” from an app, YouTube, or a streaming channel. Now you know the psychological rationale for finding a quiet, comfortable place to study. It reduces cognitive load and improves your study sessions.

Study Tip 4.2: Check your environment to minimize extraneous load before you start to study. Put your phone away when studying. Another source of extraneous load is smartphones. It greatly increases cognitive load if you text during class. Brandon Whittington (2019), a psychology faculty member at Jefferson College in Missouri, ran an experiment in his introductory psychology course whereby ­students could voluntarily put their cell phones away in a sealed envelope for the entire class period in exchange for some extra credit. Student participants scored better on exams, and at the end of the study, 79% of the students who agreed to put their phones away said the project was helpful. Additionally, 99% of the students said they would recommend that their friends participate in the project. I know it is challenging, but if you put your phone away during class and actively pay attention to what is going on, it will make a ­difference in your learning.

Germane Load The final type of load is germane cognitive load. This type of cognitive load can help you to level up academically. Germane load refers to the cognitive energy devoted to processing and handling information.

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Germane load increases cognitive load in the short term because ­processing and handling new information takes energy, but learning is much easier after completing this step. Consider it a short-term ­payment for a long-term gain. There are two important aspects of ­germane load: automaticity and schema activation. Automaticity You do many things on any given day—some of the things you do frequently, and some you do once and never do again. Your brain is very good at putting more energy toward the activities you do frequently and allocating little or no energy to things you do not repeat or do only on rare occasions. In psychology, we call these different levels of processing either controlled or automatic (Schneider & Chein, 2003). New or infrequent behavior takes focused cognitive energy. Such actions are called controlled processes because it takes cognitive control to establish a path. However, if you do something frequently, the brain decides to make that path a superhighway, ensuring that the information is delivered fast. When you do something so frequently you don’t give it a thought, we call that automatic processing, and it takes very little cognitive energy. Automatic processing tasks include tying your shoe, driving on a clear dry road with little traffic, and walking. Your brain devoted some germane load to put energy into these tasks to make them automatic. Once they are automatic, no additional germane load is needed, and the task has a lower intrinsic load. Win–win. There is an added benefit to this. With no real cognitive expenditure necessary to do an automatic task, you can combine that task with another task. If you can figure out the foundational terms, concepts, and processes in your academic work and practice them repeatedly to make them automatic, intrinsic load will drop. With foundational tasks automatic, you can then put cognitive energy toward complex work. Here is a simple example of this. As a child, you may have had to learn some words by sight and learn to recall them fast: “the,” “and,” “this,” “mom,” “dad.” You practiced these words over and over. Eventually, as soon as you saw the letter formation “a-n-d,” you just knew it was “and.” You didn’t have to think about it. Over time, you did that with a lot of words. The next thing you know, recognizing most words is

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automatic. If you see a word that is not automatic, you can look it up. If you then use the word a few times each day, it will soon join the other words that are automatic as long as you don’t get frenetic about the process. Automaticity saves a ton of cognitive energy. “Car” automatically pulls up “a small transportation device that is typically privately owned and holds one to five people” in about 0.25 seconds with no cognitive load expended. That is the power of repetition. You can read this book without stopping to think about or look up each word. Instead, you can focus on the research and strategies presented. For your coursework, identify the foundational material and make it automatic. From there, you can move like an academic ninja. This is how students ace exams and how faculty members become experts in their field. Schema Activation As you interact with the world around you, your brain puts similar information together. This grouping of information and understanding of how the pieces of information interact with one another is called a schema. Putting this information together takes a bit of brainpower, so the germane load increases as the associations are made. But once schemas are in place, it is incredible how fast you can learn new things. When you go to any McDonald’s, you know how to order and that the restroom is nearly always in the same place. Similarly, when you walk into any classroom, you can use your knowledge of how classrooms are generally set up to figure out where you’ll sit and where the lecturer will stand. By pulling up the “classroom schema,” your brain now only needs to see what things are different from your schema and to secure a few pieces of vital information, such as the front of the room, so you know where to sit. As you learn new material, if you can pull up a schema that has organized a chunk of similar, already-known information about that material, the novel information is much easier to learn. Your schemas get more complex, and it’s easier and easier to add more new information. I have taught many sections of learning and memory across a LOT of years. That means when a new study comes out, I scan it, activate a schema or two, and just like that, add the latest information to my existing knowledge structure. A novice will require some

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study time and energy in the form of germane load to build schemas. As you do that, learning additional information gets more accessible and easier.

Key Factors to Deep Learning Learning is incredibly nuanced. Many factors can go into whether you learn something, but some universal elements must always exist, or learning is very challenging, if not impossible. If you are mindful of the following universal principles, you will learn much more effortlessly.

Attention Take a minute right now, close your eyes, and listen carefully. What sounds do you hear? More importantly, what do you hear that you didn’t hear before you listened carefully? I asked you to do that to provide an example of all the stimuli in your environment. Some you notice, and some you do not. A lot of stimuli reach your body, but not all are processed. Attention is the process of attending to a stimulus. If you don’t attend to something, like those sounds you didn’t hear before, then it is as if that thing never happened. Attention is the first, and perhaps most important, step for learning (Lindsay, 2020). If you don’t attend to a stimulus, there is no way for you to learn anything from that stimulus. This doesn’t guarantee you will learn it, but there’s a chance. In class, it is important to force yourself to attend to what is happening so you have a chance at learning. If your professor is lecturing, it is important to listen. You may be tempted to text a friend or check out something on your laptop. When you do so, your attention moves from the material being presented, and you no longer attend to the lecture information. Look for ways to improve attention, like coming up with possible test questions during class as the material is being presented. If you are in a small group and a classmate is talking, you will only learn about their different viewpoint by attending to what they are saying. During typical conversations, most people “listening” are actually thinking about how they will explain their position, rather than listening to what that person is saying. When you are reading, check periodically to be sure your focus is on the material you are reading. It is common for your mind to wander as you read. By mentally completing a self-check of

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your attention, you can regain focus and return your mind to reading. At some point, everyone has finished reading something and realized that for the last 20 minutes they have been thinking about something else. In chapters 6, 7, and 9, I’ll share specific strategies you can use to focus in different learning situations. It is challenging but do your best to practice focusing your attention. That will at least start the learning process in any situation.

Value The next critical part of learning is finding some value in the information. You might be aware of two people talking at the table next to you, but you don’t hear their words until one of the two people says the name of your best friend. The value suddenly increases. At this point, you are not only going to pay more attention to the conversation; you are much more likely to remember what was said. As you attend lectures, work in groups, or read an assigned c­ hapter, keep looking for value. While reading, if you think to yourself, “I don’t know why I have to read this stuff, I am never going to have any use for it in my life,” you are signaling to your brain that the information is not worth spending the time to process this information in a way that will make it available later. Why would your brain spend the germane load to build a schema if you don’t expect to see it again? Instead, signal to your brain that it is worth spending energy to process the information. Make the information relevant to you. For example, a lecture on the inner ear, which controls balance, could conjure up visions of yourself balancing during basketball practice. There are ways to bring value to what you are learning to signal to your brain that you want to keep this for later use.

Understanding Along with attention and value, the new information must be understandable. If you don’t understand what is being presented, your brain won’t know what to do with the new information because it won’t know which schema to activate. This explains the feeling you get when a person is telling a story or explaining a concept that you just don’t “get,” even though you were paying close attention. You might say, “Wait, what happened after he walked into the restaurant?” or

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“Could you please explain again how molecules move from a trans to a cis configuration?” Maximum learning happens when you push yourself and process information just at the upper edge of what you understand. Lev Vygotsky (1978) developed the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to explain this process. There is a zone of difficulty for which an individual can learn. If the information is below this zone, the information is too easy and the learner is bored. If the information is higher than the zone, it is too complicated, and the learner is frustrated. Learning happens best in that zone between bored and frustrated, which is your ZPD. While learning, we get bored at times, and sometimes we get frustrated, but if we hang at the upper level of that ZPD and ask for help when needed, we learn the most. Speak up in class if you’ve been paying attention and don’t “get” part of the lecture or the reading. Chances are, you aren’t the only one, and getting clarification will help you and others.

Anticipate Success Another component of learning new information is the extent to which a learner expects to be able to learn. Social psychology researchers call this the self-fulfilling prophecy. It means that if you expect to succeed, you likely will, and if you expect to fail, you probably will (Cox et al., 2021). Do your best to limit thinking that you can’t learn something. There are a lot of resources if you need them, and everyone is on your side for you to be successful. You are more likely to succeed if you believe you can do it. Everyone struggles with learning at times, which simply means the information level is just a bit higher than your ZPD. If needed, back it down into your zone and be confident that you can get it with work.

Foster a Better Memory Learning is tied directly to memory. To remember something, you first have to learn it. And if you don’t remember what you learned, then learning has no value. They work together. But what exactly is memory? Memory is one of those terms that everyone knows but few can define. There are many definitions of memory, but it always comes

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down to the same simple concept: Memory is the record of learning that can be produced as needed. That is all. Forming memories is not new to you; you remember things all the time. That said, most of your experience is memory about everyday living, not memory in academic settings. If you feel you have a poor memory for academics, keep in mind that is an area everyone can work on to build a better memory system.

Memory Processes There are several memory models that you can study more deeply if this topic is of interest to you. Two of the most informative and that have been around a long time are the multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) with Baddeley’s adaptation of working memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), and the depth of processing model (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). As for this book, much of the memory theories and models can be concisely summarized with the three p ­ rimary cognitive processes involved in memory making: encoding, consolidation, and retrieval (Melton, 1963). Encoding Encoding is how the brain takes information from the world and creates a memory trace. There are different types of encoding that allow us to process external information. We have encoding for each of our senses, which is why we can have memories associated with smells (like a grandmother’s oatmeal cookies) and sounds (such as our dog barking). Of the senses, vision is most often used, and through visual encoding, we take images we see and convert them into memory traces. These memory trace images can persist for a long time. Try this out. Think of a house that you were in as a child a lot. Can you close your eyes and count the windows? Most people can because of the strength of our visual encoding. We also have elaborative encoding, an essential process of taking new information and attaching it to things we already know through the use of schemas. Elaboration will also be discussed in greater depth later in this chapter as a way to enhance your memory. Another frequently used encoding process is semantic encoding. Semantic ­ encoding lets us process the concepts we hear, stories we read in a book, or chase scenes we watch in a movie and turns the information into

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memory traces that have a precise meaning or information that can be used in a specific context. Much of the content you learn in class is coded semantically. These encoding processes mean that you are constantly pulling information from your encounters and turning them into pieces of information that you can store as different kinds of memory traces. Typically, the first time a memory trace is formed, during a novel experience, it is weak and can be lost easily by having some other inputs disrupt it. Disruption, also called interference, inhibits your recall of the new weak information. Imagine you are at a party. You are introduced to Jordan. Your friend then introduces you to Pablo, who talks to you seconds later. Although you started to encode Jordan’s name, the memory trace is still weak, so the new information of “Pablo” will replace Jordan’s memory trace. You have now met both people at this party but can only remember Pablo’s name. This can also happen in class when the material moves very swiftly. This process of interference is a massive problem for classroom learning. For any given day, if you have a political science course and right after that class you have an intro to sociology, the information you learn in sociology will interfere with the learning in the political science course. You can still learn, but it will be more challenging to remember information later. Try to avoid back-to-back classes if possible, and block off 30 minutes to review the material from the class before the memory trace is disrupted. Consolidation The second memory process is consolidation, which helps to stabilize the new memory as it is strengthened and integrated into preexisting knowledge. The more you already know about a topic or the more you repeat the information, the stronger the consolidation of the memory trace and the more stable the memory. Maybe you meet Jada, who your best friend has already told several fun stories about, so it’s easy to add her name to an existing schema at the time you see her. Or maybe you have never heard about her, but you repeat her name five times during the conversation, so it sticks. The same process is true with new information you learn in any course. Use it as often as possible right after learning it, and the memory trace will keep getting stronger. In addition to repeating information

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and creating links to already-known information, sleep is a critical part of consolidation. We’ll discuss this more in chapter 10, but suffice to say that if you decide to cram rather than sleep, you’re losing out on truly “getting” the information.

Study Tip 4.3: Review key material you learned shortly after class or completing homework, then once every few days after that to solidify it in your memory.

Retrieval The final memory process is retrieval. Retrieval is the process of accessing the memory trace of the item you are interested in and then ­making it available to you for use. Retrieval is closely tied to consolidation; you have processed the information again, so you repeat connections that help consolidate the information all over again. You may be pairing the old information with new information and reinserting the information into the same knowledge network or, if the information has changed, into a new knowledge network. This process is called ­reconsolidation, and every time it happens, the memory gets stronger (Nader & Hardt, 2009). You never know what information you will need down the road, so it is best to have as many pieces of information, schemas, and connections among information and schemas as you can.

Memory Enhancements Earlier I mentioned that you are learning and remembering information all the time. Nobody needs to teach you how to remember. However, what I suspect you will find valuable is strengthening your memory. Researchers are working on better understanding memory all the time. This all started with Ebbinghaus back in the late 1800s. Ebbinghaus (1913) tested people’s memories, from which he developed the forgetting curve, which is still being actively researched more than 100 years later (DeSoto & Roediger, 2019). The forgetting curve shows that we forget material at an exponential rate, meaning that

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we forget a lot quickly, then the loss slows over time. As an example, if you learn something in your biology, math, history, or language course, unless you work to encode, consolidate, and retrieve it, most people will forget about half of what they learned in a day or two, and 90% of the new information is gone in about a month. In other words, if your first exam is in early October, about 90% of what you learned will be gone by Thanksgiving, and by the comprehensive final in December, you will need to relearn much of the information all over again. I learned this the hard way in Calculus 1. The course started okay—there were four exams, one final, and optional homework assignments. I didn’t do any of the assignments, which in hindsight was poor idea number one, and I stayed up all night before each exam to learn that exam’s information; poor idea number two. On these unit exams, I made high Bs and low As. The problem is that although I did well on unit exams, no repetition of the material studied for each exam meant I forgot most of the information 2 days later. About 3 weeks before the final, I knew I was in trouble. Nearly everything I had learned the first half of the semester and much of the second half was gone. I studied the best I could for the final, but there was too much to relearn. I scored a 37%. I have seen this pattern of study repeatedly among my students. It even happened to a few students in my junior-level Learning and Memory course. (That hurt a bit.) The following are four ways you can keep from losing the information you worked so hard to learn. There are more, but these are the most researched at the moment.

Elaboration The word elaboration means to add detail. For memory elaboration, the idea is to create alternative paths to a memory trace (Bartsch & Oberauer, 2020). The more you can connect the information to what you already know (your preexisting schemas), the more quickly you can access and understand that new information. Elaboration strategies lighten your cognitive load. Anything that puts information into your own words is a good form of elaboration. One easy method is augmented notes. Take notes in class in a standard way, then, within 12 hours, go over the notes and rewrite concepts in your own words. If appropriate, come up with an example for concepts or terms. I’ll offer

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even more strategies on how to elaborate to strengthen memory for newly learned material in chapter 9.

Repetition Each time a memory trace is activated, it makes the memory stronger. (Remember this from the germane cognitive load section in this chapter? Congratulations! You just strengthened a memory trace!) The brain perceives information or tasks that are recalled or performed multiple times as important, and the recall or task becomes easier and easier. Maybe on the first day of the biology lab, you had a hard time focusing the microscope, or perhaps you had a hard time recalling the quadratic equation in algebra, but after using the microscope for each lab and working out some quadratic equations, things improved. It is obvious, but important to point out, that the task did not get easier. The more you did it, the lower the intrinsic load, and the better you got. In psychology studies, we call this effect of repetition “the testing effect.” When you take tests, you read a question and pull up an answer. The more tests you take, the better you become at pulling up answers. This is why some of your teachers give a lot of quizzes. They are trying to help you become better at retrieving a specific memory trace when you need it. It is also important to point out that you may have a friend or roommate who has a class with you who seems to learn the material very quickly. You practice and practice, and the other person reviews and does better than you. This can happen if that person has a stronger background in the area or has already practiced the types of problems you are solving. The point is that everyone must put in the energy to learn. Some do it well before the class and others in the class, but everyone must work to learn at some point. A team of researchers in Sweden who specialize in studying how the brain functions found that the testing effect works for students at all cognitive levels (Jonsson et al., 2021). Regardless of how you are doing in class, you will very likely benefit from the testing effect. You can do this independently by making flash cards, answering questions at the end of the chapter, doing practice tests, and working with a friend to quiz each other. Remember, it may be challenging at first, but it will get easier with repetition. I have been teaching for many years,

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but students who practice regularly always become stronger students in my classes, even if they struggle at first.

Interleaving Interleaving is a bit like weaving material. Instead of studying in blocks, such as chapter 1 and then chapter 2, you would weave the material together, maybe by using terms from the first chapter as you define terms in the second and come up with an application example that uses information from both chapter 1 and chapter 2. This is very different than how college has been taught and students have learned for a very long time. This approach is important because the learning you do in a college classroom is very different from your learning in life. As noted, college is typically taught and learned in blocks of material. Exams are even laid out so the order of the test questions matches the order of the material in the book. Learning in life is not like that at all. Maybe after work at a new job you find a shortcut to your favorite grocery store, spend a few days focusing on other things, then need to revisit that shortcut for an emergency ice cream run. In this case, if you can’t immediately recall the shortcut, you might imagine being at your new job and use that as a cue to recall the shortcut. Instead of information being sequential like it is in your courses, material in life is interleaved, repeating and alternating with new information. Interleaving your course material will make a positive difference in your recall and understanding. Researchers note that interleaving keeps material in your brain much, much longer, and even more so when the concepts are similar to one another (Brunmair & Richter, 2019). When students study material and are tested using an interleaving system, they tend to do much better on the final and remember more information in classes the following semester. This does not mean you are going to like this approach. Students at the University of South Florida looked at hypothetical math class course syllabi and were instructed to select the course they felt would be most effective (Hartwig et al., 2022). Students rated the courses with interleaving as the least desirable. I know it looks more challenging when you first study and practice quizzing using an interleaved approach, but it is much better for learning. It will help you remember information when you take final exams, in future courses, and after you graduate.

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Spaced Recall Practice As has already been noted in this chapter, retrieving information multiple times helps keep that information in memory for a more extended time. It is common in college for students to cram for exams the night before the test. Sure, that’s retrieving information, but the retrievals happen close together in time. By spacing out studying, you are spacing out when you practice recalling information, which means memory traces exist longer. Just about the time a memory may be ready to fade, there is a practice session, and the memory trace is strengthened. So, what does the research say? Overall, the spaced practice wins nearly every time. A group of psychologists from the University of California-San Diego conducted a meta-analysis (reviewed many ­studies) on cramming versus spacing out studying (Cepeda et al., 2006). Out of 271 studies, 259 showed better results for spacing out studying, and only 12 showed better or equivalent results for cramming. In one study, students took a test right after a cumulative review ­session (equivalent to a session of cramming), whereas other students had review sessions spread out over several weeks. Students who had been doing spaced reviews scored 9% higher on the actual test. When the material was tested a month later, students who had completed spaced out reviews scored 22% higher than those who only crammed. That’s a two-letter-grade difference! The research is clear: It is easy to fall into a cramming study method, but you will be a much stronger learner if you set up a schedule and regularly space out study sessions. It is also much less stressful the night before the exam.

Chapter Summary Learning is a natural process that we all do every day, but few think about the process. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory explain a great deal about how we learn. All learning is limited by how much can be processed at a given time, and the cognitive load model explains where processing challenges come from when learning something new. The components of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane loads work together to indicate the amount of information that can be processed at any given time.

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When it comes to learning, a few universal components need to be present for any learning, whether in a college course, working at a job, or teaching children to pick up toys. These elements are attention, value, understanding, and (critical) anticipation of success. Differentiating memory from learning, information regarding the fundamental process for remembering is presented in this chapter: encoding (taking in the information), consolidation (finding a place to store the memory), and retrieval (getting the desired information and making it known). In the last part of the chapter, research pertaining to forgetting is noted, along with methods to strengthen memories: elaboration, repetition, interleaving, and spaced recall. The disadvantages of cramming, otherwise known as massed practice, were also discussed.

Discussion Questions 1. Charu has a younger sibling, Noshi. How might their interactions result in learning for Noshi according to (a) classical conditioning, (b) operant conditioning, and (c) social learning? Briefly describe one example for each of these learning models. 2. Think about a place you like to study. Imagine studying for a test here, and list five sources of extraneous load. Finally, think about the last time you studied or did homework for any class. How would you rate the material in that study session on a scale of 1 (very low intrinsic load) to 10 (very high intrinsic load)? 3. What is your current primary strategy to remember new material? Describe using the concepts of encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. What new strategies could you develop to study for a test (e.g., reviewing notes 15–30 mins after class, creating quizzes for yourself, etc.)? Finally, for courses currently in your schedule, where could you go right after class to review notes for 15 to 30 minutes? Do you currently engage in that process? 4. Protecting a memory trace and strengthening it are important so as not to lose the newly learned information. Select one of the strategies noted at the end of the chapter—elaboration, repetition, interleaving, and spaced recall—and explain how you would use the technique to study material from this chapter.

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References Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89–195). Academic Press. Azevedo, F. A., Carvalho, L. R., Grinberg, L. T., Farfel, J. M., Ferretti, R. E., Leite, R. E., Filho, W. J., Lent, R., & Herculano-Houzel, S. (2009). Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 513(5), 532–541. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.21974 Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and Theory (pp. 47–90). Academic Press. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall. Bartsch, L. M., & Oberauer, K. (2020). The effects of elaboration on working memory and long-term memory across age. Journal of Memory and ­Language, 118, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2020.104215 Brunmair, M., & Richter, T. (2019). Similarity matters: A meta-analysis of interleaved learning and its moderators. Psychological Bulletin,  145(11), 1029–1052. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000209 Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). ­Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.  Psychological Bulletin,  132(3), 354–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/ 0033-2909.132.3.354 Cox, P. H., Kravitz, D. J., & Mitroff, S. R. (2021). Great expectations: Minor differences in initial instructions have a major impact on visual search in the absence of feedback. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00286-1 Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X DeSoto, K. A., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2019). Remembering the presidents. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(2), 138–144. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0963721418815685 Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H. Ruger & C. Bussenius, Trans.). Teachers College Press. https://doi .org/10.1037/10011-000 Hartwig, M. K., Rohrer, D., & Dedrick, R. F. (2022). Scheduling math practice: Students’ underappreciation of spacing and interleaving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. Advance online publication. https://doi .org/10.1037/xap0000391

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Jonsson, B., Wiklund-Hörnqvist, C., Stenlund, T., Andersson, M., & Nyberg, L. (2021). A learning method for all: The testing effect is independent of cognitive ability. Journal of Educational Psychology,  113(5), 972–985. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000627 Kumaradevan, K. S., Balan, A., Khan, K., Alji, R. M., & Narayanan, S. N. (2021). Modulatory role of background music on cognitive interference task in young people. Irish Journal of Medical Science, 190, 779–786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-020-02365-6 Lindsay, G. W. (2020). Attention in psychology, neuroscience, and machine learning. Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 14(29). https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fncom.2020.00029 Mayrhofer, M., & Matthes, J. (2020). Observational learning of the televised consequences of drinking alcohol: Exploring the role of perceived similarity. Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 37(6), 557–575. https://doi .org/10.1177/1455072520941981 Melton, A. W. (1963). Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(63)80063-8 Nader, K., & Hardt, O. (2009). A single standard for memory: The case for reconsolidation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(3), 224–234. https://doi .org/10.1038/nrn2590 Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). Oxford University Press. Rudy, J. W. (2020). The neurobiology of learning and memory (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. Schneider, W., & Chein, J. M. (2003). Controlled & automatic processing: Behavior, theory, and biological mechanisms. Cognitive Science, 27(3), 525–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0364-0213(03)00011-9 Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan. Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science,  12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709 cog1202_4 Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022193728205 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Whittington, B. L. (2019). Benefits of a voluntary cell phone abstinence intervention in general psychology courses. Teaching of Psychology, 46(4), 299–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628319872575

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5 EX P LO RI N G S O C I A L IN FLU E N C ES

Chapter 4 laid a foundation designed to help you better understand what cognitive psychologists study regarding how humans learn. In this chapter, I will extend that information by drawing on social ­psychology, which looks at how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors affect themselves and other people (Kasin et al., 2021; Stangor et al., 2011). Much of this chapter pertains to an area of psychology called social ­cognition, which is a combination of cognitive psychology and social psychology. Social cognition is critical for learning in harmony with your brain, as our brains are wired for social interaction (Schmidt et al., 2021). Although social cognition makes learning and memory much more complicated, it is unbelievably rich and interesting, making it one of my favorite areas to teach. For this chapter, I have selected four concepts that I think are important to understand and that directly relate to learning. The first is mindset, showing the importance of thinking about how learning and constructive feedback help us to get better at any task. The second area is metacognition, demonstrating that thinking about the process of learning will help to improve how well you can learn in the future. The third area is attribution, which will help you see how making 89

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judgments about causes of behavior impacts your perception of yourself and others. The final area noted in this chapter is egocentric bias, an area of research that demonstrates why we perceive as we do and ways to see a larger picture.

Mindset Carol Dweck (2007), a psychologist at Stanford University, spent much of her career developing the concept of mindset. The foundation of this work is that individuals have either a fixed mindset or a growth mindset. One’s mindset impacts the perception of events, thoughts, and interactions in their lives. A fixed-minded person believes they were born with a certain, set-for-life level of intelligence, talents, or abilities for learning or dealing with the world. Practice or work in an area might help a bit, but mostly, their belief is that you either “have it” or you don’t. Growth-minded people, on the other hand, believe that intelligence, talents, and abilities change throughout a person’s life depending on the extent to which the individual puts forth effort to improve. We have a mindset for pretty much everything we do, such as playing basketball, painting landscapes, and giving presentations. A person’s mindset is often, but not always, formed in childhood and then guides thoughts, behaviors, and feelings for the rest of their life. Most individuals have no idea of the impact a mindset has on their behavior or how that mindset influences their interaction with others. However, at the end of this section, you will know about mindset and how to better use it for your success.

The Origins of Fixed-Mindedness No reasonable person tries to instill a fixed mindset in another person. Fixed-mindedness is fostered by accident and primarily by people who are trying to be supportive. Unfortunately, it doesn’t take much for a person to become fixed-minded. Mueller and Dweck (1998) found a person can be impacted after just one trial. For example, a teacher may say to a child, “Another 100%. You are so smart,” or “Scoring two goals in a soccer game is amazing. You are a natural.” Those messages

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convey to the child that they have a gift or a natural ability. The child assumes that intelligence and talent are inherent characteristics, and they are happy to have them. The child develops a fixed mindset of being smart or being talented. Sadly, the opposite is also true: If teachers tell students that they are “dumb” or “naturally clumsy,” the students develop a fixed mindset that is negative, seeing themselves as not inherently intelligent or talented. When it comes to mindset, people often ask, “If you can’t say a child is smart, or a natural, how can you praise them?” The answer is simply to focus on the effort put into a task. For example, it is entirely appropriate to say, “Another 100%. You must have studied hard for this.” Or “Great game today, scoring two goals is amazing. I can tell you have been doing your drills!” The praises here signal that the result was due to their effort, that working at it is paying off and, ostensibly, working harder means they could do even better. This cultivates a growth mindset. The only difference between these two situations is telling a child they are smart or a natural (fixed-minded), or they worked hard (growth-minded). Fixed mindsets can also emerge or be strengthened in college. A team of researchers from the University of Georgia, Agnes Scott College, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill found that students in an organic chemistry course who struggled across an academic year developed mindsets that were significantly more fixed compared to those who did not struggle (Limeri et al., 2020). This can happen for writing, math, speaking, drawing, and almost anything else where a person was told earlier in their life that they are a natural, they are smart, or that they are just plain talented. I developed a fixed mindset regarding writing from a bad middle school experience, when I was told that some people are good writers and others are not. The teacher told me I was in the “not good” group. That stayed with me until I was several years into being a faculty member. I turned down multiple offers to write books because I had a fixed mindset toward writing. Then Laura, a colleague of mine from the English department convinced me that people can learn to be better writers. So, I worked at writing, and now you are reading one of my books. If there is any area in which you flat out say, “I am not good at (fill in the blank),” you, like me, also likely developed a fixed mindset.

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Spotting a Fixed Mindset There are several ways to spot a fixed-minded person. One easy sign is that fixed-minded people do not take criticism well. These individuals see criticism as very personal, and they will either overreact, tell you that your assessment of them not being successful was flawed, or offer justification as to why there was no way they could complete the outcome at the expected level. When goals are not met, it is almost always someone else’s fault. Another way to spot a fixed-minded person is that they see their perceptions of things as the criteria for excellence. Lots of people have opinions, which is fine, but there is a difference between a person saying baseball is a great sport (opinion) and a person vigorously positing that baseball is the best game ever and certainly better than your favorite sport (they set the criteria for best sport). When the fixed-minded person defines themselves based on being very good at something, and they are shown to be wrong, they see no way to reconcile the discrepancy, so they may fight irrationally to prove they are right. They may also quit something or not even start if there is the slightest chance that they will fail. If you are playing a game of ping-pong against a fixedminded person, and you score the first five points, your opponent may well find a very good reason to quit. Fixed-minded people avoid the risk of finding out they are not excellent at something, because they believe it’s impossible to change.

Mindsets Are Context Specific Individuals don’t have an overall fixed or growth mindset for all things. Individuals develop mindsets for each behavior or skill set. Several years ago, I had a student, who I’ll call Sam, in my statistics class. Sam explained to me that they “couldn’t do math.” A classic fixed mindset. We talked for a bit until Sam had to leave for basketball practice, looking forward to the practice even though it was exhausting. Sam was a lot better that year, because the coach had the team practicing fundamentals and drills. Sam had a growth mindset for basketball and a fixed mindset for math. If there is any area that you feel you are “just not good at,” then you likely have heard or missed out on praise for so-called natural ability, and as a result, developed a fixed mindset.

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Views of the World Based on Mindset Individuals with a fixed mindset differ in many ways from those with a growth mindset (Ackerman, 2022; Dweck & Master, 2009). Growth-minded individuals believe that putting in effort improves how well anything can be done. You are never too young to hold this view. My friend’s daughter Tegan told her kindergarten gym teacher, “You have to keep trying. It is important to have a growth mindset.” Tegan knew that putting in effort helps one to succeed. In contrast, those with fixed mindsets believe putting in a lot of effort means you are not good at something; they view intelligence and natural ability as critical and limiting components of how well something can be done. If you study algebra 2 hours every night, a fixed-minded person would assume the work was needed because you are not good at math. Those with a growth mindset believe that the more effort you put in, the more you grow. Growth-minded individuals would perceive someone doing 2 hours per night of algebra homework as building a strong math foundation. Fixed-mindset individuals are also wary of challenges, as failures define them. Their desire to win, and for ­validation, means they are not as likely to push themselves for fear of losing. Growth-minded individuals, on the other hand, seek challenges as learning opportunities. Fixed-minded individuals see constructive feedback as personal criticism that diminishes their intelligence or talent. Interestingly, most star athletes, the ones sportscasters rave about as “natural talents,” practice all the time. Michael Jordan, Simone Biles, and Steph Curry all have growth mindsets and talk about losing as growing opportunities to get better. A growth-minded person seeks out feedback and looks at criticism as a learning opportunity.

Becoming Growth-Minded There are things you can do to shift to being more growth-minded. First, change your self-talk. Instead of saying to yourself, “I can’t,” shift to saying, “I can’t yet.” Second, try to work just a little, on something small, in the area you have always felt you “couldn’t do.” As soon as you are successful on the small task, set a goal for something else a bit bigger. That is how growth works. It can be frustrating if you are way behind others, but they also had to start small at first. The idea is to

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change your mindset to see that you can work and get better at just about anything. Remember I mentioned earlier how I struggled with writing. From middle school until I was a faculty member, I turned down writing opportunities because I saw myself as someone who couldn’t write. Laura, from the English Department, told me people get better at writing by working at it. Susan, an editor at McGraw-Hill, convinced me to write one chapter. When I submitted that chapter, she told me it was one of the best she had seen in years. My immediate response was, “That’s not possible; I’m not good at writing.” Several months later, I finished that book, and thanks to Susan and Laura, I started to see writing from a growth-minded perspective. Since that first book, I have published many articles and individual chapters. As for books, the one in your hands is my fifth book, and I already have a contract for another book. It turns out I can write fairly well, and I keep working to get better. Unfortunately, for many years I didn’t think I could write, so I didn’t. Third, in your head, change “failure” to “feedback.” Getting something wrong is a great part of learning. If you always get everything right, then you are not testing your abilities. Feedback is a game plan for getting better. Fourth, when you do fail at something, realize this does not mean you are bad at it, just that you are getting better every time you try. I used to play racquetball in college. I usually played people at my level, but periodically I would play someone better who I knew could kick my butt. It was embarrassing at times, but it made me a much better player. Last, as you work to be more growth-minded you will get better at it. Yes, being growth-minded is something you also have to work at to be better. Perhaps the best message to keep at heart is a quote attributed to Nelson Mandela, “I never lose. I either win or I learn” (Pelzer, 2020, para. 3). It is important to note that working at growth-mindedness, although important, will still have different results for different people. You can always improve, but, as they say, “results may vary.” Remember that your classmates have different backgrounds—maybe your roommate took AP Biology in high school, but your school didn’t offer AP classes. If you are both in Biology 101, it’s likely that you’ll have to work harder to make up ground. It doesn’t mean that you can’t or

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won’t do as well. It does mean you may have to study 3 hours whereas your roommate only needs to study 1 hour because they already put in that study time in high school. But as you move to more advanced biology classes, you will get closer to the same skill level. Then one day you may well pass your roommate! In my many years teaching many students, there’s always been someone who looked like a “superstar” in class. Every time, that person either already had a strong background in area of the course, worked very hard to learn the concepts, or both. The more growth-minded you are, both in developing new skills and developing growth-mindedness itself, the better it will be for your academics and your future. Realize that everyone can get better at anything. Study Tip 5.1: Be growth-minded, seek out feedback whenever you can, and listen carefully to the feedback given.

Metacognition “What are you thinking about?” I suspect you have heard that a few times, from parents at the dinner table to professors in a discussion about the assigned reading. As humans, we are thinking almost all the time. In this section I will take it up a notch by asking you what you are thinking about your thinking. Metacognition is the process of thinking about one’s thinking in relation to self, including the influence of culture and others (Jost et al., 1998). When you think about why you did a particular thing, you are engaged in the process of metacognition. For example, you may have engaged in metacognition during a test when you thought to yourself, “Okay, I know this one. I learned it while cooking dinner last night.” Surprisingly, and unfortunately, people rarely engage in metacognitive thinking in any kind of systematic way. This is because we do many things with our brain on autopilot, made possible by automaticity (chapter 4). The autopilot function works well in many situations, but there are times when thinking of what is happening will allow you to make corrections so you can improve. If you practice metacognitive strategies, you will become a much stronger learner.

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Understanding Metacognition Metacognition has been a part of psychology for fewer than 50 years (Flavell, 1976), yet it is now one of the most studied areas in psychology. This concept is fascinating and extremely helpful in moving us from cognitively passive learners to cognitively active learners (StangerHall, 2012). Think about how you prepare for an exam. Looking over notes or reading the textbook without a plan are cognitively passive strategies, and I see this a lot in my students. You are cognitively active in your exam preparation when you think about what specific areas you need to study and for how long, when you turn headings of class notes into questions, and when you think about how you’ll approach answering questions on the test. The reason this is all so important is that if learners are not cognitively active in their processing, they tend to make the same errors over and over. As an example, a student (let’s call them Jules) told me they had started statistics three times but dropped the class each time after failing the first exam. Jules said flat out that they were just “bad at math and couldn’t pass this course” (which was required to get a degree in psychology). If this sounds like a story that belongs in the mindset material, because Jules obviously had a fixed mindset—great job! But I tell this story here because I helped Jules become a metacognitive learner. I told Jules I was totally confident that passing the class was not going to be a problem at all, but two thoughts were not allowed during this fourth attempt: First, no saying, “I can’t do math,” and second, no saying, “Statistics is stupid.” Jules expressed an inability to do “math.” Statistics is only one area of math, so we dumped the pressure of “all math.” Jules didn’t need to learn all of math. That is a lot. I told Jules to think only about specific concepts, such as calculating the median, and to move from “I can’t” to “I can’t yet.” Recognizing what you know and don’t know is the primary component of metacognition and a prerequisite to doing well in college. The word “yet” implied that the possibility for growth was there. For the second thought, if you convey to your brain that something is not valued, your brain won’t make room for it, and the information is typically lost. Also, statistics is not stupid. I told Jules to try a thought like “I don’t understand this yet, so I don’t yet know why Dr. Z finds this stuff so exciting.”

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To get started with metacognition, Jules regularly thought about what they were thinking regarding the material. I asked Jules to drop by my office daily and share one current thought about the course. Jules told me things such as, “When I was learning concepts, I was thinking that it seems like stats people make up words to sound superior to others. Then I started to see that the terms were needed to explain statistical measures of information.” This is a solid example of active metacognitive thinking and consistent with researchers who found that metacognition is most effective when it is used specifically to make changes in a focused learning context (Zohar & David, 2009). I will let you know what happened to Jules in a bit.

Metacognitive Regulation Metacognition is thinking about thinking, but metacognitive regulation is the way in which you direct your thinking. Three important skills when it comes to metacognitive regulation are planning, monitoring, and evaluating (Tanner, 2012). First is planning; don’t just grab a book and head to the library. Use metacognitive strategies to set yourself up for success. Start by thinking about what is expected for this assignment or exam. What resources are preferred and which are most valuable? What food can I prepare ahead of time? Where will I study, for how long, and how? Who should I study with, or should I study alone? Plan what you need to be successful before you start. The second skill is monitoring, done while you are studying. Researchers at Hofstra University looked at student success in moving from high school to college (Santangelo et al., 2021). In high school, one can get by using surface reading techniques, but metacognitive monitoring techniques are important in college. Santangelo and colleagues found that, three semesters into college, the students who engaged in metacognitive monitoring were much more likely to have persisted or graduated (81.4%) than those who did not (55%). One way to monitor while reading (or other study techniques) is to do a quick mental check-in after each section, every few pages, or every 15 minutes or so. The frequency depends on the intrinsic load of the material. All you need to do is pause, look away from the book, and explain to yourself the major concept just read. I do this while reading

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journal articles and books. If there is a quiz at the end of the chapter, take the quiz just as you would a quiz in class (no peeking at the answers!). The goal here is to use metacognitive skills to be sure your study time is effective and to know how you’ve grasped the material. The last metacognitive regulation skill is evaluating. This skill refers to you thinking about the effectiveness of the learning strategies. Is the level to which you know the material appropriate given the time and energy spent studying? If not, then some adjustment is necessary. This skill of evaluating also helps find gaps in your understanding of the material. One strong technique to do this is called the muddiest point (Angelo & Cross, 1993). At the end of study session, or class session, write down what you understand least. Then, the next time you study, start by looking that up and filling that learning gap. Evaluating can even help you reallocate study times to the time in the day when you are most effective (see p. 188 in chapter 10 for more).

Study Tip 5.2: When using metacognitive evaluation, don’t forget to note what you are doing well.

Jules used metacognitive evaluation by predicting how they would perform before starting the exam, based on the first question, and how they felt after answering the last question. These forms of evaluation are sometimes called metacognitive checks. As your skill improves, the grade you estimate at the start of the exam should be more and more similar to the grade you estimate after taking the exam. Keep a log of before-the-exam and after-the-exam estimates in a notebook or on your phone so you can track your progress. The goal is to get close estimates and evaluate how well your metacognitive strategies are working. You’ll be able to determine how much study time you need and also be able to see at a glance if your study strategies are still effective. Jules ended up with a C in my class and was as happy as anyone who’s taken any of my classes. As statistics was required in the psychology department, the C in that class let them stay in the program. Two years later, Jules told me at graduation that the metacognitive skills

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learned in statistics helped out in other classes as well. I am hoping the same will be true for you. Whether your course is statistics, chemistry, history, art, or anything else, metacognitive strategies can help you to get in the right frame of mind, identify strategies, allocate resources, and know when you are successful each step of the way. It won’t always go your way and it takes a bit of work, but in the end, you will be a stronger student with these strategies.

Attribution  In 1958, Fritz Heider, a social psychologist at the University of Kansas, published a book about how people perceive causes of human behavior. He called this perception an attribution (Heider, 1958). Imagine that you see a middle-aged person on the subway give up his seat to an elderly person who is having trouble standing. You might attribute his gesture to being kind. But suppose you then notice a police officer near that seat and a sign you didn’t see before: “These seats reserved for the elderly. Improper use will result in a $200 fine.” If you look back at the man, and he appears unhappy, you might revise your attribution a bit.

Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic A lot is happening in the example in the last paragraph. If you went from “He is a nice person” to “He didn’t want to get a ticket” as his reason for giving up his seat, it is important to note that the middleaged man didn’t change, but our perception of why he did what he did changed. According to attribution theory, we tend to make attributions that are external (about the environment) or internal (about the person). Internal attributions are also sometimes called dispositional, because they are based on the person’s disposition. In the example on the subway, when the person first gave up the seat, you may have given his behavior an internal attribution (he’s nice). However, once you saw the sign and the police officer, your attribution of his behavior may have switched to external (he didn’t want to get a ticket). For individuals you only encounter once, you have limited information, so you are forced to make an attribution of either external or dispositional based on little data.

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A Bit of Order, Please The overall goal of attribution theory is to make sense of the world (Kelly, 1967). If you are 5 minutes late to my office hours, I could attribute your lateness to an external cause, such as finding a parking spot, or to an internal cause, such as absentmindedness. My attribution is based on my social perception (that I like you) and is used to resolve the issue of your tardiness (must have been a problem parking). If a student of mine was lashing out in class because they didn’t like the cafeteria food choices, I’d probably attribute their response to anger issues (internal). Unless, of course, they said that for the 3rd day in a row, all the halal options had already been eaten and they were hungry (external). Attribution helps us make sense of the world.

Fundamental Attribution Error One deviation on general rules for attribution is the fundamental attribution error (Ross, 1977). It is called fundamental because it happens a lot of the time. According to the fundamental attribution error, when ascribing attribution to other people, we overemphasize internal factors. Because we know little about their circumstances, we assume the behavior we see is their normal behavior. However, for ourselves, we protect our ego by making attributions based on outcome. If it is a positive outcome, then we attribute the behavior to our disposition (e.g., I am so good at this game), but if it is negative, then we attribute our behavior to the environment (e.g., There were gusts of winds that made playing nearly impossible). If I am late to a meeting, it is because parking is horrendous. If you are late to a meeting, it’s because you didn’t plan ahead. If you don’t reply to a friend’s text for an hour, you can now almost predict the attributions. You will say it is not your fault you didn’t respond right away, because you were super busy (external attribution), whereas your friend is going to think that you were rude not to reply faster (internal attribution). Watch for this effect, as it is something that most people do. When you know that it is happening and why it happens, it makes it easier to address and easier to avoid judgmental internal attributions. The fundamental attribution error has many implications in our society. It’s interesting to note that the effect happens much more

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frequently in individualistic cultures compared to collectivistic cultures. Having a collaborative mindset makes a person less prone to the fundamental attribution error, so don’t expect to see it from everyone. That said, it is frequent and can have serious consequences. Flick and Schweitzer (2021), professors at the University of Wyoming, conducted a study looking at blame for traffic accidents. In mock trials, when a participant in the study was to assume that they themselves caused an accident, the participant saw the accident as due to poor visibility or bad windshield wipers (both external attributions). When a participant in the study was to assume that the other driver caused the accident, the participants said it was probably the driver’s fault (internal attribution). This is a classic fundamental attribution error. If you are on a jury, you might consider the person charged as irresponsible, because you feel you could have figured out an alternative if you had been in that person’s situation. Similarly, if you see a homeless person you may immediately think the person is lazy and needs to get a job (internal). However, if the person lost their job due to budget cuts and nobody will hire them (external) they are stuck. This has implications for judgments of many kinds. If we see others as more likely to be personally responsible for a negative outcome, due to the fundamental attribution error, it means our bias is having a negative effect.

Study Tip 5.3: If you don’t do well on an exam, do not assume it is just a poorly written test or that the questions are unfair. Doing so protects the ego but does not help you to get better.

Understanding attribution biases will have a significant impact on how you interact with others. If someone is being “rude,” it might be that they are a jerk. Their behavior might also be due to an external cause. It’s likely that whenever you are “rude” to someone, you allow yourself an external attribution. It will also help with your own behaviors in many aspects of life, including making you a stronger learner. Each of us makes attributions about our behavior

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all the time, and, as with metacognition, if reflection and understanding are not actively used, we tend to make the same errors over and over again.

Egocentric Bias Anthony Greenwald (1980), a psychology professor at the University of Washington-Seattle, appears to have been the first to publish the term egocentric bias. This bias, similar to attribution, pertains to how we see ourselves in relation to others. Most people see themselves in a positive way, typically a bit more positively than reality. For example, individuals typically remember themselves as having a larger part in something positive or a smaller part in something negative than they actually did. If you participated in a campus protest that led to change, it is highly likely that you will remember doing more work than you actually did. On the other hand, if the protest led to damage, you will likely remember your role as being very small. Interestingly, Greenberg (1983) found that this bias is reduced if a person is made self-aware. It is important to know that this bias does not imply that anyone is lying about their position. It is just how memories are stored. If I do something, then the memory consolidation regarding my role is more likely to be stored more deeply than other people’s roles. One pervasive and unfortunate outcome of egocentric bias is that individuals who aren’t self-aware tend to perceive their memories and opinions as more accurate and therefore more “right” than others’, which means they will feel that their position is more valuable than others’ (Kassin et al., 2021). This can lead to a cultural bias, where individuals feel their culture is right and other cultures are less valid or even downright inferior. These individuals will tolerate diversity only as long as the diversity meshes with their moral position. They also tend to seek out others who are similar to themselves and as a result experience positive feedback from their similar friends (Clark, 2009), which only deepens their bias (see chapter 1). This short section on egocentric bias is simply to illustrate how and why biases form and the impact they can have. As you proceed in your academic studies, understand that everyone has a somewhat

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biased perspective just because that is how human behavior, interaction, and memory work. It is impossible to be totally objective and unbiased, but just knowing that can help us to more carefully and thoughtfully consider the perspectives of others.

Chapter Summary Mindset is an explanatory model that identifies individuals’ ­perceptions of behaviors. For a given area (e.g., math, giving presentations, taking tests), Individuals are classified as fixed- or growth-minded. Fixedmindedness is generally the result of hearing and believing that ability is innate. This may come about inadvertently, and often innocently, from parents, teachers, or even personal beliefs. Individuals with fixed mindsets tend not to take criticism well, have an inflated opinion of their standards, and avoid risks in areas where they feel they naturally excel. Overall, fixed-minded individuals see talent and intelligence as personality-defining and unchangeable concepts, whereas growth-minded individuals go through life looking for challenges and opportunities to gain skills, abilities, and knowledge. Individuals can learn to be more growth-minded. Two of the most useful strategies are (a) to look at feedback as a helpful guide to improving instead of confirmation of failure, and (b) to say “I can’t yet,” instead of just “I can’t.” Metacognition is knowing what you know or thinking about thinking. Metacognitive regulation allows learners to think about the material they are learning while learning it (plan, monitor, and evaluate). Attribution helps bring order to the world by determining why people do what they do. The primary attributions for behavior are internal (dispositional) and external, and they depend on consistency and consensus. People tend toward fundamental attribution error, which is attributing behaviors of others to predominantly internal causes and our behavior to internal or external causes, depending on the situation. Most individuals also have an egocentric bias. This is not malicious or intentional and is typically based on how information is stored in our memories. However, with metacognition we can perform more successfully and with more grace both in the classroom and outside of it.

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Discussion Questions 1. Think of something you “can’t do, yet!” What strategy could you use to shift that mindset? What would success look like if you could do the thing that you “can’t do yet?” 2. Explain how you prepare for an exam, including where and how you study. Include any aspects of metacognition that you may already use. Explain one additional metacognitive thing you could add. 3. Explain the strategy you currently use when reading. What aspect of this strategy do you feel works best and what areas could be improved upon? 4. Describe a situation in which a disagreement between two people may well have been the result of the fundamental attribution error. Include both what happened and how the fundamental attribution error contributed to the situation. 5. Explain your thoughts on the impact of egocentric bias on future involvement with activities.

References Ackerman, C. E. (2022, January 27). Growth mindset vs. fixed + key takeaways from Dweck’s book. PositivePsychology.com. https://positivepsychology .com/growth-mindset-vs-fixed-mindset/ Angelo, T. A, & Cross, P. K. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers. Jossey-Bass. Clark, D. L. (2009). Aesop’s fox: Consequentialist virtue meets egocentric bias. Philosophical Psychology, 22(6), 727–737. doi.org/10.1080/09515080 903409911 Dweck, C. S. (2007). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Ballantine Books. Dweck, C. S., & Master, A. (2009). Self-theories and motivation: Students’ beliefs about intelligence. In K. R. Wenzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 123–140). Routledge/Taylor & Francis. Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231–235). Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Flick, C., & Schweitzer, K. (2021). Influence of the fundamental attribution error or perceptions of blame and negligence. Experimental Psychology, 68(4), 175–188. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000526 Greenberg, J. (1983). Overcoming egocentric bias in perceived fairness through self-awareness. Social Psychology Quarterly, 46(2), 152–156. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033852 Greenwald, A. G. (1980). The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist, 35(7), 603–618. https://doi .org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.7.603 Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. Wiley. https://doi .org/10.1037/10628-000 Jost, J. T., Kruglanski, A.W., & Nelson, T. O. (1998). Social metacognition: An expansionist review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(2), 137–154. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0202_6 Kasin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2021). Social psychology (11th ed.). Cengage. Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 192–238). University of Nebraska Press. Limeri, L. B., Carter, N. T., Choe, J., Harper, H. G., Martin, H. R., ­Benton, A., & Dolan, E. L. (2020). Growing a growth mindset: Characterizing how and why undergraduate students’ mindsets change. International Journal of STEM Education, 7(35), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s40594-020-00227-2 Mueller C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.75.1.33 Pelzer, K. (2020). Get inspired to make an impact with these 75 famous ­Nelson Mandela quotes. Parade. https://parade.com/1074913/kelseypelzer/ nelson-mandela-quotes/ Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 173–220). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/ s0065-2601(08)60357-3 Santangelo, J., Cadieux, M., & Zapata, S. (2021). Developing student metacognitive skills using active learning with embedded metacognitive instruction. Journal of STEM Education, 22(2), 75–87. https://www.jstem .org/jstem/index.php/JSTEM/article/view/2475/2215

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Schmidt S. N. L., Hass, J., Kirsch, P., & Mier, D. (2021). The human mirror neuron system—A common neural basis for social cognition? Psychophysiology, 58(5), e13781. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13781 Stanger-Hall, K. F. (2012). Multiple-choice exams: An obstacle for higherlevel thinking in introductory science classes. Cell Biology Education— Life ­ Sciences Education,  11(3), 294–306. https://doi.org/ 10.1187/cbe .11-11-0100 Stangor, C., Jhangiani, R., & Hammond, T. (2011). Principles of social-­ psychology. BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/socialpsychology/ Tanner, K. D. (2012). Promoting student metacognition. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 11(2), 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.12-03-0033 Zohar, A., & David, A. B. (2009). Paving a clear path in a thick forest: A ­ conceptual analysis of a metacognitive component. Metacognition ­Learning, 4(3), 177–195. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11409-009-9044-6

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In this chapter, we will look at how our brains use patterns to help make sense of the astronomical amount of information hitting our sensory systems all the time. I will also show you how to recognize ­patterns in your coursework. The better you get at recognizing patterns, the more you can learn and the faster you will learn it. As with other topics in this book, most individuals do not know they can get better at recognizing the patterns that are all around them, all the time. Look around for just a few seconds. You should be able to find many patterns right from where you are sitting. Floors, brick walls, photos hung on the wall, sidewalks, even a pattern on the page you are reading right now. There are patterns in your world that you haven’t needed to notice. However, there are times when noting some patterns would be a benefit to you. Nearly everyone who works has figured out patterns, even if they don’t realize it. Depending on the complexity of the job, they move up in the organization by figuring out increasingly complex patterns. Counselors recognize patterns in the way clients present ­information, and gardeners figure out weather patterns and planting seasons. Professors identify patterns in their areas of expertise 107

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that allow them to acquire new information by quickly assimilating it into an existing framework or schema. As you learn in your courses, finding patterns may make the difference between struggling to understand a concept and grasping it easily. As you will see shortly, recognizing some patterns will be particularly helpful to learning new information. I have had as many as 600 students in my undergraduate psychology courses in a single semester. In those classes, because of the sheer number of students, I saw many patterns with respect to student performance. I also saw how students responded to patterns, some good, and some not. In several situations, students would have learned more and scored higher on exams had they made a small adjustment based on patterns. This chapter presents to you patterns that you can use to support your learning.

Patterns Enhance Learning Patterns are, at times, straightforward and obvious. At other times patterns are stubbornly abstruse and hidden. When it comes to learning and memory, patterns often hold the key to success. This section addresses how patterns impact learning, their formation, and their relationship to other cognitive structures.

Chunking Your brain is incredible beyond comprehension. Under most circumstances, your sensory system is able to process millions of pieces of information each second. Your memory systems can store millions of pieces of information for years, deep in long-term memory. If these two systems worked unchecked, you could grab and put away massive amounts of information every second. However, it would likely not take long to overwhelm your cognitive processing system and probably fill your memory to capacity. To ensure the information processed, stored, and accessible upon demand has value, we have a gatekeeping device in place. Imagine a library that receives large amounts of books each day (sensory system) and just dumps them into a large building (long-term store). The building would fill rather quickly, and there would be no way to get the book you wanted. Now imagine a

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cataloging system that fits between the tons of books being dropped off and the piles in the library. In the new system, books arrive, and a selection system is put into place to decide which books to accept. Once books with value are identified, they are cataloged, given a tag, and then put on shelves so individuals can later find the books they need at the time they need them. You have a memory system that does the same thing. Tons of information is all around you; your brain decides which pieces of information have value; and the brain processes those, tags them, and enters them into your memory system. There the information waits until you need it. The gatekeeping system I just referred to is our working memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), so named because it is where work is done encoding and processing information. It takes time to do this coding work. So, even though the sensory system can handle an almost unlimited amount of information, as can our long-term store, how much do you suppose our working memory can hold at any given moment? The answer is not even close to being in the millions. It is only four to nine items (Miller, 1956; Paas & Ayers, 2014). Back in the 1950s, experimental psychologists began looking at ways to increase working memory limits, because if you can widen that restrictive path then you can process more information. George Miller (1956, 1994), a cognitive psychologist working at Harvard, found a way to hack this memory gatekeeper. Miller found that although the average person could hold an average of seven plus or minus two (or four to nine) pieces of information, those pieces could be complex or simple. In the studies he ran, the complexity didn’t seem to matter, only the number of items. So, if you were going to remember unrelated digits, such as 2,8,5,1,0,1,2, you may be able to hold these digits in your memory for a short time. The sequence 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 is also seven numbers, but the numbers possess an important pattern. This is a series that we know well, so a brain that knows this sequence would not count this as seven items, but rather only one. It would be one chunk of information with the label, “numbers up to 7.” You still have room for six more pieces, or chunks, of information! One might ask, “If the chunks were very elaborate, wouldn’t that let you process a lot more information?” The answer is yes. The key to such an act would be to know how to “chunk” efficiently.

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Schemas and Cognitive Load As you may recall from chapter 4, cognitive load theory is often used to explain the limitation on our information processing (Sweller, 1988). Sweller notes that as you start to max out your cognitive load, you begin to make errors, and if the cognitive demand continues, you either shut down or shut out some source of information. This is that feeling you get when two or three of your friends start to talk to you at the same time. Unable to process all that information you tell them, “One at a time,” because that is within your cognitive load. Cognitive load is also based on short-term memory, but instead of the “chunks” Miller (1956) talked about to increase information processing, Sweller (1988) discusses this gatekeeper in terms of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load. Germane load contains the important concepts of ­automaticity and activating schemas. When it comes to processing material to put it into chunks or manage the cognitive load, patterns can be very helpful (Sweller et al., 1998). The easier it is to see information as a cluster, grouping, schema, or any other view that puts a group of information under a single label, the easier it will be to process. With respect to schemas, an added benefit is having good retrieval cues. That means if you can call up a schema, it is easier to identify parts of it that are of interest to you. For example, suppose you are going to the grocery store to buy nine items: eggs, hamburger, potato chips, orange juice, toilet paper, shampoo, toothpaste, bacon, hamburger buns. Remembering nine individual items would be challenging, but if you can call up appropriate schemas, you can chunk your list and make it much easier to remember. For this example, you could use three schemas that you know well: bathroom (toilet paper, shampoo, toothpaste), breakfast (eggs, bacon, orange juice), and lunch (hamburger, hamburger buns, and potato chips). If you read the list twice and then later recall the three schemas of bathroom, breakfast, and lunch, those items will serve as cues and make it much easier to go to the store and get all of the appropriate items. Chunking lets you process much more material faster, and with less effort. The same concept can be used in academia, which we’ll discuss in more detail later on in this chapter.

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Pervasive Patterns There are patterns everywhere, but you likely see only a tiny fraction of the patterns that exist. The following are some of the most pervasive patterns (Koffka, 1935) that launched the area of Gestalt psychology. These patterns can help you to learn faster. The core insight of the Gestalt approach is that we do not see individual elements, we see wholes. The following are patterns that most people instinctually recognize. They are also called the Gestalt laws of perceptual organization. They are natural patterns, meaning you don’t learn them. As such, they have a positive impact on the speed in which information is processed in working memory (e.g., Peterson & Berryhill, 2013).

Similarity When items are presented in a cluster, similar items are automatically grouped together in our minds. When you look at Figure 6.1, do you see rows or columns? If individuals did not innately see this the same way, we would expect about 50% to see rows, and 50% to see columns. However, nearly everyone sees columns of Xs and columns of Os. If you look at the material you are studying carefully, you can find the similarity principle in your academic work. When you are asked to name the similarities and differences, the instructor is using this principle, whether they know it or not. When organizing information Figure 6.1.  Similarity example.

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to study, if you put similar items together, they will be easier to learn, much like the grocery list presented earlier. Remember the items on the list for breakfast? I used this principle a lot in college when I was a student. It will be easier for your brain to make an information cluster or schema, and the schema will serve as a memory clue for the individual items. It is helpful if you can name the schema or chunk, much like the previous example had headings of bathroom, breakfast, and lunch.

Proximity Items that are close together, in time or space, are perceived as being together. When you look at Figure 6.2, what do you see this time? Keep in mind these are just letters on a page; they could be perceived in any way. Although these make good columns, most individuals see rows of letters because they are in closer proximity horizontally to each other. Notice that proximity was more powerful than similarity. There are still columns of Xs and Os, but proximity is how your brain groups these items. This example is visual, but proximity works for time as well. If two things happen close in time to one another, people perceive the items as related. If you walk by a display case in a store, and seconds after you walk by it falls, you know people are going to think you knocked it over. When something like that happens, the person near it quickly says, “I didn’t touch it.” That is the power of proximity of time. Proximity is used all the time in learning and memory. If your chemistry instructor is teaching a concept at the end of class on Monday and runs out of time and then finishes the concept on Wednesday, Figure 6.2.  Proximity example.

XOXOXOXOXO XOXOXOXOXO XOXOXOXOXO XOXOXOXOXO

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because of the separation of time, your brain will see them as separate items. When you study, try to study items that go together in the same session. If you have 1 hour of sociology homework and 1 hour of psychology homework, it is best if you can put a break between the two study sessions so that terms studied do not become mistakenly mixed. If the two courses are very different from each other, the break is less necessary. The dissimilarity will keep the concepts separated. This can also be helpful when you schedule courses. It is best if you do not take courses back-to-back, but if you must, make the back-to-back courses different from one another if you can (e.g., theater followed by chemistry, or French followed by math).

Continuity The principle of continuity is that you will see the straightest line or the line that continues in the smoothest path. The continuity may be visual, auditory, or conceptual. Consider Figure 6.3. Most individuals see the lines as forming an X. It is just as easy to see this marking as two Vs or even as four line segments, but few people report seeing anything other than an X. Continuity can also be auditory, which is how music works. We hear a singing voice and a strumming guitar, and we maintain ­continuity for each so they stay together, even if one sound is dominant. Conceptual continuity occurs, for example, when a thought is continued. When you buy a book from Amazon, you see other ­suggested titles. That is a continuation of what you looked at.

Study Tip 6.1: Create a clean break where needed. A short 1–2-minute walk stretches the legs and eliminates undesired continuity.

Figure 6.3.  Example of continuity.

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For academics, continuity is extremely important in helping to organize material. When you come back from a break, and your instructor says, “Now, where were we,” your brain puts the material after the break with the material from before the break. You have continued the concept. Most books, including this one, insert a blank page or some other obvious break between chapters. That is designed to break the continuity, so your brain knows it is a different section. When you take notes or study, make sure there are clean breaks between sections to signal discontinuity. If you want to signal continuity, make lists of materials under a heading or use numbered lists.

Closure The law of closure has important implications for education. Most brains do not like unfinished things. If a figure is not quite closed, your brain will go ahead and close it. For example, check out Figure 6.4. Your brain could see eight individual lines, but most people see rectangles. Closure happens fairly frequently in our lives. If your friend calls you just before your movie is over, you may well tell your friend you will call them back in a few minutes when your movie ends. Closure is also why merchants like to sell collector sets and use punch cards. When you get close to the free item or completing a set, you are more likely to make the purchase to close it out. If you study in a group, I used to find it worked well for someone to select a number for the next chunk of material and then have the group close out the list. You might say, “The next topic is the economy. Let’s see if we can list seven things that impact the economy.” If your group lists six, instead of stopping, they will work hard to come up with the seventh. This is an example of closure. Figure 6.4.  Example of closure.

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Figure-Ground The way our vision works, we are able to focus on only one thing at a time. For an example, look at the middle of the page you are reading right now. Pick a word near the middle and keep your eyes locked on that word. Then, out of the corner of your eye, look toward the edge of the line of text. If you keep your eyes locked on the word, you should be able to clearly tell there are words out to the edge of the page, yet not be able to read the word out of the corner of your eye. If you can, then it is because you moved your eyes, even if just a tiny bit for a fraction of a second. If your eyes stay focused on the word at the middle of the page, you can’t read the words out on the edge because you don’t have enough receptors in that part of your eye to see enough detail to pick out letters. That means all around you, all the time, you are focused on one thing. That is your focal point and is the figure in your visual field. Everything else is “ground.” You can select what you want to be your figure, and your brain will automatically encode that and essentially ignore the rest. For example, in Figure 6.5, you can select any one of the statues, one of the trees, or even the small piece of sky. Whatever you select will become the “figure” and your brain will see that as important. Everything else becomes “ground.” You can shift your gaze quickly, but you won’t be able to see two things that are separated at the exact same time. Look carefully at anything around you right now. Everything is figure and ground. If something is very bright, moving, or loud, you will change your selection of figure to that. It is a way for the brain to notice things in the environment that are valuable. It could be valuable because it is helpful, such as a friend waving to catch your attention in a crowd, or lifesaving, such as avoiding a moving car while crossing the street. Figure-ground works the same way for concepts. When you are focused on one important thing you wish to learn, everything else becomes ground. It is important to figure out what is figure and what is ground. Keep looking for the focal point in what you are learning. Many students try to memorize everything. That is not a good approach. Look for what your professor sees as the focal point of the material. Sometimes your professor will even tell you. I often tell my students, when presenting a concept, “This is the important part.” If your professor does not point out the important part, you can learn

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Figure 6.5.  Example of figure-ground.

Note. Ten Thousand Buddhas Monastery; Sha Tin, Hong Kong. Photo by Todd Zakrajsek.

to find it as you listen in class. You may miss at times, but if you keep looking you will get better and better. If you can figure out what your professor feels is most important, you will be able to zero in on that material. The same is true while reading. Always be looking for key concepts and differentiate that from examples or other material.

Patterns in Academic Life Let’s return to the concept of the limiting factor in processing information, which is how many things can be held in working memory (Cowan, 2015; Miller, 1956). Researchers at MIT have found that with training working memory can be improved (Thompson et al., 2016). This is exciting for learning material in your courses because it means that with practice, you can open the bottleneck to learning. To do this we, as learners, can look for patterns and practice putting items into

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chunks. For your classes, this could be information presented during a lecture or while working in a group. Finding patterns can also help you remember what you read. As you become more skilled in finding patterns in your academic studies, you will find it much easier to learn new information.

Content It is possible to increase information held in short-term memory by very large numbers (Miller, 1956). Let’s try an example to see how much of a difference chunking, and practicing with chunking, can make. Read through the following set of letters one time. Do not study the list, just read through the letters slowly and then cover them and see how many you can recall. A V M U L H That was a set of six letters. A lot of people can do six, although there are several factors that can cause a person to struggle even with six. First is the amount of extraneous load there is in the environment. If there are people talking, a lot of movement, or anything else in the area that is distracting, that lowers your ability to remember, even for a few seconds. Second is whether you are tired. Fatigue has a very large impact on learning, as will be discussed in chapter 10. Third, fluid intake can have an impact. Lindseth and colleagues (2013) at the University of North Dakota showed in a controlled experiment that pilots who had lower fluid intake had significant decreases in cognitive performance. Finally, your performance on short-store memory tasks can be affected if you have a lot on your mind, such as a challenge at work or a quiz over this chapter in a few minutes. Now let’s try another set of letters. Same routine, read them slowly one time at a time, cover them, and see how many you can remember. I H F Q A M U Z F S That should have been a bit more of a challenge. What is important on this one is what happened if you hit a spot and realized

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you were not going to be able to remember the list. The most common response for individuals, and it happens with my students all the time, is that when it becomes apparent that a list or topic can’t be ­remembered, the individual just stops trying. As we discussed in chapter 4, that is the feeling of maxing out cognitive load. You may also have ­gotten to about the sixth or seventh letter and almost felt one of the early letters slip away. You knew right away it was gone. That is an interesting way to feel the capacity of working memory. So, that should have shown what it is like to max out on a task. Let’s try another one. Same procedure as last time. C O G N I T I V E L O A D This list of letters is 13 items long. My guess is that you didn’t even need to read through the letters slowly. You likely glanced at this and could cover the page and write out all 13 letters with no errors and barely any cost of cognitive energy. That is the power of finding a pattern. If you were to be quizzed over the last two sets, you would spend much more time on the list of 10 that started with “I” than you would for the list of 13 letters that started with “C.” The “C” list is longer, but if you were quizzed a few days later you would likely score better on that longer list. Okay, last one. Same process as the previous letter sets. Read the letters, turn the book over, and see how many you can remember. IWILLACETHEQUIZOVERTHISCHAPTER This set contains 30 items. It may take you a few seconds to be sure you have the words memorized, but I suspect that within less than a minute you would be ready for a quiz over the letters. I wanted to give you these examples to circle back to the concept of patterns in class and how to strengthen your pattern recognitions. The cognitive psychologist George Miller (1956) was very interested in what was possible in terms of hacking short-term memory. In your classes, if you practice with chunking, you will likely become a much stronger learner and may learn material faster than you have in the past. Look for ways to chunk the information where possible, and put information in schemas, similar to the grocery list example at the beginning

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of this chapter. Overall, for learning academic content, chunking and schema activation can be very helpful. If you keep working on these concepts you should see solid results. For figure and ground keep looking for the “thing” that is essential at any given point. The rest is the ground. You can shift quickly, and experts do all the time. The important part is to be able to find the important figure(s) and filter out the ground. When solving problems, reading, or taking notes, keep in mind what the figure is and what the ground is, shifting your attention at any given moment as needed. As you do this, pull up the appropriate schemas, and the new information will be tucked right into your growing knowledge system for that area. As you practice, you will get better and better at doing this.

Reading Readings assigned in college are often challenging. There can also be many pages to get through each week. Although reading at this level can be challenging, you can do it. There is a great deal of research about reading and how we process text (Moje et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2018). For your reading, you will find some very consistent patterns based on the type of text you are reading. Pattern for Reading a Textbook For the most part, textbooks are written incorrectly. Let me give you the textbook reading pattern. For most books, you start reading on page one. When you read a novel, you likely do not want to see the last few pages because you don’t want to ruin the story by finding out what it was all about. When you read a textbook, you want the story spoiled every time because you want to know what the chapter is all about. There is a concept in psychology called priming, which means that knowing a bit about a concept makes it easier to think of and remember related concepts. For reading, when you know what the chapter is about, it’s easier to process the material in the chapter. So, you want to find out as much as possible before you start reading. This strategy takes a bit more time, but it will help your reading of most textbooks. First, find the pages that were assigned or decide the number you wish to read (10 pages is often plenty for one study session). Next, find the chapter or section summary. It could be at the end or the beginning of

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the chapter or section. Read the chapter summary. This will tell you quickly what this chapter or section is about.

Study Tip 6.2: Skim material quickly before you read it for learning to activate prior knowledge you have in that area.

Next, see if there are questions at the end of the chapter. You are not answering the questions; reading them gives you an idea of what will be covered and what you will be able to do at the end of the chapter. Then, go back to the first page of what you are going to read and proceed, but only read chapter headings and subheadings. Don’t just flip through them, look at them seriously. These will also help prime you for the material. Now it is time to read. Your brain has a sense of what is coming, so it shouldn’t be surprised, meaning you can put up schemas as needed. Here you have two options. For one option, you could read the section quickly, without interruption, no highlighting and no taking notes. Then read it again slowly, taking notes as needed. If you have time, it is best to give it a quick read, but if time is tight that might not be possible. In such a case the second option is not to do the fast read and start in by taking notes immediately. Whether you do a fast read or not, the research says highlighting does not typically work (Dunlosky et al., 2013). If you really like to highlight, please do it mindfully. Look carefully at what you are highlighting and why. If you just color your pages as you go, it will not likely help you to learn and may even make learning more challenging. Pattern for Reading a Journal Article There are many different types of journal articles, and they vary in tone, depth, length, and type. In this section I am talking about research articles, not summaries or articles written about research. If the article talks about research that was done and does not ­specifically cite the work, it is a popular press article, not a journal article. It is still valuable, but reading one of those articles is relatively easy.

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Read popular press articles from start to end and take notes as needed. A journal article specifically cites the work of others and has a fairly consistent form. Journal articles can be extremely challenging. But just break it into parts and keep focus. To get started, review the assignment from your instructor. Why was this article assigned? What are you specifically supposed to attend to for this assignment? What kind of summary or report are you to give? If you don’t know, ask your professor for guidance regarding key topics or methods you should attend to while reading. If you don’t have clear guidance, check with other students in the class and talk about the anticipated purpose. It is often best to start by looking at the headings. They are typically consistent from article to article. Look at each of the headings and think of them as questions. Then, as you read, your goal will be to answer the questions. For example, the section labeled “Conclusion” becomes, “What is the conclusion?” Do that for each section. I suggest reading the abstract, then the introduction, then the conclusion and discussion. After that, read the methods and results if assigned or if you need to get that information. Methods and results are typically the most challenging parts and will be easier after you better understand what the article was all about. The most important thing to keep in mind as you read the journal article is that the content is dense. Every few paragraphs, jot down in your own words what you have just read. Try not to highlight or underline much. As noted previously, the research is consistent that those strategies do not require thought and as a result are not helpful (Dunlosky et al., 2013). Instead, once you have completed a meaningful chunk, jot down a one-sentence summary or a question. When you have finished reading the article, give a very brief ­overview to someone, or a pet, or a sofa. Just say it out loud. It helps a lot. Reread the article after a period of time, a day or so if you can. Often, the second time through is when it really connects. As a final note, professors and graduate students may tell you they read the abstract, then the conclusion, and then the methods and results if needed. Their final step may be to skim the introduction. This is a great strategy—once you are an expert. Some professors forget that the introduction is the foundation of the article and designed to inform the reader, particularly if the reader is not well versed on the topic.

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Pattern for Reading a Novel As with all kinds of reading, make sure your attention is on the material as you read. If you lose focus, stop, figure out where you lost the thread, and read from there. It doesn’t hurt to check every few pages to be sure you are not daydreaming. Reading a novel for class is different than pleasure reading. You are being assigned a novel for a reason, and it is best if you can figure out what that is. There is not a set of steps as there is for a textbook, because novels are meant to be read from front to back. There are, however, several things to look for as you read. You don’t necessarily have to take notes as you read (unless that’s part of your assignment), but it’s helpful to have a sense of the following key components as you read a novel, so you are ready for a good discussion. It’s important to look for themes. There will be obvious themes, but the real value of the material will typically be subthemes. Be sure to watch for the standard literary elements, such as narrative point of view, symbolism, characters, plot, imagery, foreshadowing, setting, and so on. In terms of patterns, also watch for repetition: That’s always important. The repetition may be a journey, moods, seasons, or anything else. Keep in mind that with novels, authors research and write carefully. It is never just a story.

Chapter Summary Our brains make sense of the world by using patterns to help organize the massive amount of sensory information in our lives. The amount of information humans can process is limited by the working memory, or how sensory information of interest is coded and stored as a long-term memory. Working memory capacity is impacted by schemas, cognitive load, and “chunking.” Some patterns are seen nearly universally the same (Gestalt psychology), and chunking is a great way to lean on existing patterns. In this chapter, we specifically ­discuss the Gestalt p ­ atterns of similarity, proximity, continuity, and closure. These patterns are f­requently found in education, in all courses and every discipline, and can be used to organize information into chunks to learn new material faster. Another Gestalt concept is figure-ground, an important ­principle to determine what is most

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relevant in our environment and in the content to be learned. This also includes ­patterns in how ­different texts are written. Whenever these Gestalt ­patterns can be found and maximized, learning is facilitated.

Discussion Questions 1. What kind of patterns have you used to help you learn or remember items in any class, going back to your 1st year of high school? If you do not recall using any patterns, list three classes that likely had strong patterns and briefly explain those patterns. 2. List and briefly describe five schemas the average first-year college student brings with them to college/university. Explain how they may be further developed in higher education. 3. Because of Miller’s (1956) work, it is frequently said that working memory holds 7±2 pieces of information. But information that can be related in some way can be gathered into and considered as one chunk. Given this, how much information do you think short-term memory can really hold? Explain your rationale. 4. Find something in your academic work this year that is an example of one of the Gestalt laws of perceptual organization: similarity, proximity, continuity, or closure. Explain the content and how what you described is an example of one of these patterns. 5. Describe the process you typically use to read textbooks. Is that different from the process you use to read novels? Explain the difference. Describe how your strategy for reading could change after reading this chapter to increase the effectiveness of your reading.

References Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 8, 47–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S00797421(08)60452-1 Cowan, N. (2015). George Miller’s magical number of immediate memory in retrospect: Observations on the faltering progression of science. Psychological Review, 122(3), 536–541. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039035

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Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & ­Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning ­techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. https://doin .org/10.1177/1529100612453266 Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt psychology. Harcourt Brace. Lindseth, P. D., Lindseth, G. N., Petros, T. V., Jensen, W. C., & Caspers, J. (2013). Effects of hydration on cognitive function of pilots. Military Medicine, 178(7), 792–798. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00013 Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158 Miller, G. A. (1994). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some ­limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 101(2), 243–352. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343 (­Original work published 1956) Moje, E. B., Afflerback, P. P, Enciso, P., & Lesaux, N. K. (Eds.). (2020). Handbook of reading research (Vol. V). Routledge. Paas, F., & Ayres, P. (2014). Cognitive load theory: A broader view on the role of memory in learning and education. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 191–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9263-5 Peng, P., Barnes, M., Wang, C., Wang, W., Li, S., Swanson, H. L., Dardick, W., & Tao, S. (2018). A meta-analysis on the relation between reading and working memory. Psychological Bulletin,  144(1), 48–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000124 Peterson, D. J., & Berryhill, M. E. (2013). The Gestalt principle of similarity benefits visual working memory. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 20(6), 1282–1289. https://doi.org/ 10.3758/s13423-013-0460-x Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning.  Cognitive Science,  12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15516709cog1202_4 Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022193728205 Thompson, T. W., Waskom, M. L., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2016). Intensive working memory training produces functional changes in large-scale frontoparietal networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28(4), 575–588. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00916

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P A RT T H R E E S U P P O RT YO U R LE A R N I N G

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7 T H R I V I N G I N HI G H E R E D U C AT I O N

Program and course curricula are essential, but they do not comprise the totality of your college experience. There is so much more to ­academics. Right now, pause your reading and think about the ­concept of “a good college student.” What comes immediately to mind? Doing homework, paying attention in class, turning work in on time, being a solid group contributor, getting good grades? It turns out there is a long list of things that make up an ideal student, because there are different ways to think of what it means to be ideal, and ideal at what. Regardless, the specifics of what is expected of students are rarely listed in the course catalog or syllabi or mentioned in advisor meetings. The expectations of behavior between professors and students are not clear and they are not out in the open. Medical schools have long talked about this concept. They call it the hidden curriculum. It is very real and very important (Jackson, 1990; Kelly, 2009). In this chapter, I will uncover a bit of the hidden curriculum in undergraduate studies. Understanding more about these elements will help you to learn in harmony with your brain.

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Individual Versus Group Study You will have to decide whether to study by yourself or find a study group. Different strategies work better under different circumstances. Uri Treisman (2013), a professor at the University of Texas-Austin, noted that Black students in his courses received failing grades at twice the rate of White students. It turned out there was an easy solution: When students worked in small groups, that difference disappeared. This demonstrates the value of working in small groups. Study groups have many benefits: They reduce procrastination, provide an opportunity to ask questions, decrease stress, and foster diverse perspectives; members also hold each other accountable. However, there are times it is better to work alone. Working alone has several advantages: studying at your own pace, fewer distractions, control over the environment, and the ability to set your schedule. Studying alone is also very good for establishing a foundation of knowledge. Another option is to study in pairs. Researchers have found the best result with students working in pairs versus students working alone or in groups of three or four (Kim et al., 2020).

Study Tip 7.1: Study alone, practice in pairs, and review in a group.

Determining the best way for you to study in a given circumstance is crucial. Try different approaches, and note which method works best under what circumstance using metacognitive strategies. For example, you could set up a group of four and then study in three “phases.” First, each group member studies alone to learn foundational material. Second, pairs meet every few days to go over the material and solidify what was learned. Finally, the full group of four could get together to review and practice at retrieval once per week and just before the exam. Actual timing might vary based on the intrinsic load of the material and the overall difficulty of the course. I have worked with many students over many years, and the

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f­ ollowing are a few strategies that proved most helpful when forming study groups: •• Identify group members based on what needs to be accomplished, not because you like them or are friends. This is a work group, not a social group. •• Make sure everyone in the group knows the goal of the group session. Identify content and process for each meeting. •• Prepare ahead of time. Group time is not for learning foundational material. It is for reviewing and expanding knowledge. •• Charge one person each meeting with keeping the group on task. •• Break up the material and take turns teaching in each group session. Teaching is the best way to learn. •• Find a comfortable, public space in which the group can meet, such as a study room at the library. Private spaces like apartments can be uncomfortable for some individuals.

As with every time you study, studying in a group is a perfect time to try out your metacognitive strategies to monitor learning. Finally, be proactive. Don’t wait for the professor to assign study groups. Also, don’t wait to be invited. Talk to classmates, find individuals who are serious about learning, and then develop an effective strategy.

Individual Versus Group Study This entire book contains material to make your study effective: ­attention (chapter 4), metacognition (chapter 5), growth m ­ indset (chapter 5), sleep (chapter 10), and Bloom’s taxonomy (directly ­following this section). Using this information will greatly increase the effectiveness of your academic work and make massive differences in how much you learn. In this section, I’ve pulled together a few tips to help you get started using your growth-minded framework and metacognitive strategies to build a powerful study and review system that works best for you.

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Recall from chapter 4 that research on attention shows that if you are not attending, you are not learning. Research on cognitive load reveals you can only process so much new material before you stop attending because your cognitive processing system is maxed out (Sweller, 1988). You may need to study for 15 minutes, take a 5-­minute break, and then review that material for 10 minutes. It is important to keep separate the concepts of “study” (learning something new) and “review” (processing material previously learned). The important part is to stop studying and switch to review when you max out your cognitive load (stop paying attention). Just watch for that feeling of, “Wait, what? What did I just read/see/listen to?” Remain focused, monitor your cognitive load, and keep your growth-minded attitude. If you struggle with the material, break it into even smaller chunks and study and review each chunk. Once it’s solidified, you can think about moving to group study to review. The strategies and study tips located throughout this book are laid out for you to learn in harmony with your brain. If you use them to study, you will be surprised at how much you can learn.

Make Good Use of Study Time The college credit hour was established a long time ago (Heffernan, 1973; Shedd, 2003). Here’s a bit of detail that won’t appear in most course catalogs. Credit hours in a course are assigned based both on time you spend in class (an hour on the clock, minus 10 minutes for a break) and how much you are expected to work outside of class on average across the semester (standard of 2 hours out-of-class work for every hour spent in class). In other words, each “credit hour” is 3 hours of your week. A 3-credit hour course is designed to take 9 hours of time per week. Here’s a sample breakdown: PSYCH 101, SECTION A (3.0 credit hours): MWF, 9:00 a.m.– 9:50 a.m. You will spend 3 hours in the classroom (there is an understood 10-minute break per hour; so, 50 minutes, three times a week). You’ll spend 6 hours (2 hours outside work per 1 hour of in-class time) working outside of class. That’s a total of 9 hours out of your week.

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PSYCH 101, SECTION B (3.0 credit hours): MW, 10:00 a.m.– 11:15 a.m. You will spend 3 hours in the classroom (75 minutes, twice a week). You’ll spend 6 hours (2 hours outside work per 1 hour of in-class time) working outside of class. That’s a total of 9 hours out of your week. SPORT 101 (1.0 credit hours), MWF, 10:00 a.m.–10:50 a.m. In this course, you spend 3 hours in class a week, but no outside work is expected. As a result, the 1 credit hour of time is all in class, which means 3 hours out of your week.

This is why 12 credit hours is considered a full-time load. That’s 36 hours of work, and the United States has a standard 40-hour workweek. I explain this to show you that college classes assume a fair amount of work outside of the class period and to show why professors assign the amount of work that they do. If you really want to ace your college experience and do well on exams, papers, and other assignments, plan your week out so that you study every day for every class. That will give you spaced learning and practice at recall. Suppose you have four courses (3 credit hours each, for a total of 12 credit hours). They meet for an hour and 15 minutes twice a week for a total of 12 hours in class every week and need 24 hours of prep time every week. Break those 24 hours of weekly prep time into just under 5 hours a day, 1 hour and 50 minutes for each course. If you block off study time each day for each of your courses and study effectively (make practice questions, review with your group, etc.) and do any other work (answer quiz questions, journal, work on term paper), you will not only be ready for each class, you will hand in assignments on time and never need to cram for any test or stay up all night getting an assignment finished. Additionally, if you keep up, there will be days when you don’t need the full block of study and preparation time. If you know the material well and are caught up on all assignments, you can certainly end that study time at that point. In that 1 hour and 50 minutes a day, you will learn the foundational material that will allow you to be ready for any depth of conversation the professor has planned for the day. You will be prepared for the concepts and able to integrate the new material into the schemas you are building and reinforcing during study time. It is entirely your

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choice to decide how much you want to get out of your college experience. There are courses that won’t require the full time you have allotted for work outside of the course. Many students also do not study this much. That is their choice. I suggest you make a schedule and try this out. You will be amazed at how much you can learn from each course and how well you will do on exams.

Memorize Bloom’s Taxonomy Cognition is a single word that describes both learning something and understanding what you are learning through thinking. Bloom (1956) identified different levels of cognition and organized them into a hierarchy where each level is dependent on the levels below. This became known as Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy. This taxonomy was later revised, although it stayed fundamentally very close to the original framework (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2000; Armstrong, 2010; Figure 7.1). College faculty frequently use this taxonomy when setting class outcomes and objectives, but it can also be a helpful learning tool. Take a few minutes to study this taxonomy and then review it once per day until the main headings become automatic: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. The levels should be relatively easy to remember as they are quite intuitive. The definitions of each level are also listed, but memorize just the names of each level. I suspect that you will have this memorized within a day or two. Then review it once per week (spaced practice) until you know it well. Study Tip 7.2: Seriously, memorize the six levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Remember means you can call something to mind. That’s it. Suppose you are asked to remember the word “chiliad” for a quiz. The next day, you write it down for the quiz. At this point, you likely don’t know what it means or how it might be used in a sentence. You just remembered the word. Say you look up the word “chiliad” and find out it means “a thousand of something.” Recalling the term and

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Figure 7.1.  Bloom’s taxonomy. create

Produce new or original work

Design, assemble, construct, conjecture, develop, formulate, author, investigate

Justify a stand or decision

evaluate

appraise, argue, defend, judge, select, support, value, critique, weigh

Draw connections among ideas

analyze

differentiate, organize, relate, compare, contrast, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test

Use information in new situations

apply understand remember

execute, implement, solve, use, demonstrate, interpret, operate, schedule, sketch

Explain ideas or concepts classify, describe, discuss, explain, identify, locate, recognize, report, select, translate

Recall facts and basic concepts

define, duplicate, list, memorize,repeat, state Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching

Source. Armstrong, P. (2010). Bloom’s taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/.

explaining its meaning is at the understand level. If someone asks you how to use the word, they are asking you to apply it. If you research the word’s origin, you have moved to the analyze level. If you decide that, “Chiliad is an interesting word and can refer to time, but I prefer ‘­millennium,’” congratulations, you have hit the evaluate level. The final level would be create, where you could identify a new way to use the word or an adaptation that would add meaning to the word. You could decide to use chiliad to mean, “What you just said is 1,000 times better than anything else.” As in, “Let’s go hang at the park. It’s chiliad this time of day.” New words appear all the time, so it is totally acceptable for you to create in this arena. Bloom’s taxonomy will help you with learning. As you study, push concepts up the taxonomy. If you are given a new word to learn in philosophy, learn the word (remember), find out what the word means (understand), and then use it in a sentence or think about it in a schema (application). You don’t need to go to the top of the taxonomy for everything, but do hit apply as often as you can. When you take exams, watch what kinds of questions your professor likes to ask and see if there is a pattern to the types you are getting wrong. For example, you might notice that you are getting all the understanding level and most of the application questions correct. However, you realize that

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your answers to analysis-level questions are mostly wrong. By knowing Bloom’s taxonomy, you now understand how to study for the next test. Without the taxonomy, if you got a D+ on a test you might then simply decide to “study harder.” The problem with a general concept of studying harder is that there is no way to know where you should focus, and, as a result, you will likely end up wasting energy. If there is one thing I have always emphasized with my students, it is to study smarter, not harder.

Staying Productive in a Less Than Ideal Lecture Sometimes we have to process material, even if we don’t enjoy it. This isn’t exclusive to lecture. For other areas, like music (playing scales over and over) and sports (drills and practices), it is accepted as a form of solidifying foundational information or processes. Apply the same mindset for your classes. Lectures sometimes emphasize learning and practicing foundational material, and that may seem less than exciting for you. If you are having trouble concentrating and maintaining attention during a lecture—maybe you are tired, maybe the material isn’t new to you, or maybe you aren’t sure how it will relate to the overall course goals—try forming questions about the material as it is presented. For example, turn foundational material into application-level questions. This will help focus your attention and give you study prompts/­ possible exam questions. I used to try and predict what was next in the lecture. If I was wrong, I would try to figure out why the professor went in that direction. If the lecturer is presenting information well below your level of knowledge, you could take notes and push the concepts up Bloom’s taxonomy or practice reinforcing automatic recall of the information so you know it exceptionally well. This is an opportunity to do your preparation for exams during the class. If you do this regularly, the spaced practice will be perfect for long-term retention. Do make sure to do this only if you have the cognitive load to handle this extra work. If the material is new to you and you are learning, focus on the material. Another consideration for lectures is that it’s increasingly likely that some of your faculty will hail from all over the world. Interacting with people from different cultures is a fantastic opportunity and

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provides different perspectives, which, as noted in chapter 1, is essential in becoming a well-rounded, critical thinker. It also helps in understanding different cultures. Talk to this faculty member during office hours and if they are comfortable with it, talk a bit about their culture. That said, your faculty may be speaking English as a second, third, or more language and you may need to accustom yourself to their pronunciations. Sit toward the front of the room, focus on the instructor’s vocal patterns, and before long you will understand the faculty member better and appreciate the information they are sharing. The office hour is also an opportunity to better adjust to their accent. A plus is that individuals from a similar area will have similar accents. Learning to hear the accent of one faculty may make several courses easier in a future semester or help you listen critically when you have a job or are traveling.

Learn Every Day and Avoid Procrastination Studying (or working on a paper, writing a lab report, practicing the French horn, etc.) a small amount every day is a powerful learning strategy. As has been noted multiple times in this book, spacing study time out is very helpful in learning material that stays in long-term memory. As a powerful addition to spaced practice, teaching others has been shown time and again to be very effective (e.g., Koh et al., 2018). At the end of every learning session, explain the main findings to a roommate, friend, parent, or someone on the subway. If no humans are available, teach a cat, dog, or fish. If no pets are available, teach the major concepts to a chair or sofa. The point is not what the person, pet, or chair learns, but that you teach the newly learned material as soon as possible. Study Tip 7.3: The best way to learn anything is to teach it, regardless of student: a person, plant, dog, or wall.

You may fall behind in studying due to procrastination, even though you know it is better not to delay the work. Research has found that up to 90% of college students procrastinate, and 50% indicate

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that procrastination is a problem (Steel, 2007). I struggled with ­procrastination while working on my master’s thesis, and my wife knew it. We had one of the cleanest refrigerators in town for about 6 months. Many procrastinators find other tasks. Cleaning was mine. A primary reason people procrastinate is fear that they cannot do the task or fear it won’t go well. Another reason is frustration that the work has to be done at all, particularly if it is seen as unfair. A third reason pertains to lack of self-regulation (see chapter 2 to review material on self-regulation, if needed). It is easy to put off an undesirable task for something more exciting, if you have the option (Wypych et al., 2018). Procrastination in college students is typically directed toward writing papers and studying for exams, although bedtime procrastination can also create challenges (Kroese et al., 2014). The actual causes of procrastination are complex, involving both behavioral and neurological causes, and unfortunately they are still not well understood (Steel, 2007). Although we might not know exactly why we are procrastinating, ending or avoiding procrastination is extremely important. Researchers from Griffith University have had success with low-intensity, highfrequency interventions in first-year college students (Wessel et al., 2020). They found that it was valuable for students set small, frequent, low-stakes goals and do their best to meet them. I have seen this supported in the behavior modification courses I teach. Most individuals find it helpful to have a small, initial goal with add-on goals. For example, if you would like to read eight pages, but that is challenging to convince yourself to do, set an initial goal to read three pages. If that goes well, read an additional five pages. If you can avoid procrastination, your academic life will be much easier. Oh, and I can tell you from my students’ and my own experiences that if you think you do best under pressure, you are wrong. If you are good under pressure, you will be phenomenal given more time.

Solicit and Incorporate Feedback Maintaining a growth mindset is an integral part of becoming a stronger student and setting up good habits that will assist you ­throughout college and your entire work career. For a growth-minded

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person, feedback is like a road map for improving. Look for feedback anywhere you can get it. The primary source will be your professor. If you have an opportunity to look over your exams, see what kinds of multiple-choice questions you answered incorrectly (Bloom’s taxonomy) and review any comments on short-answer and essay questions. The grade you receive on a test is helpful to see how you did overall, but it offers little guidance as to what specifically to change for the next test. Over the years, many of my students have looked at their overall test grades on their tests and never looked at what they missed or why. Amazingly, some of those students scored within three points across all five exams across the entire semester. However, the students who studied their exams and found patterns in what they missed (mostly analysis ­ questions, or mostly creation questions, or mostly multiple-choice questions) and sought feedback on how to make adjustments often got higher scores on each subsequent exam. Watching students’ responses to term papers was one of the biggest frustrations I faced as a faculty member. Early in my career, I would write extensive comments on 12–15-page term papers and then leave the papers with comments in a sealed envelope outside my office door for students to pick up. Typically, about 10% of students would pick up their comments. The rest were never claimed. There is no way the other 90% got any better at writing papers, given they didn’t know what areas of their writing needed attention. Please look over whatever feedback you get from your professor. The writing center will also typically read papers and give you feedback. Many students use their services, so it’s rarely possible to get the paper back the next day. Be sure to plan for this in advance. If you are not procrastinating, you should be able to give them the first draft several weeks before the paper is due. If you can go through two or three drafts, your papers will be much better. If you have a roommate, friend, or parent who is good at writing, they are another excellent source of feedback.

Cheating and Plagiarism You know what kind of person you are, so this won’t be a lecture on the importance of integrity. What I can do here is help you avoid situations

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that can lead to the desperation that causes cheating and help keep you from unknowingly cheating.

Cheating I openly acknowledge that there are many ways to get yourself into a jam where you might be more likely to consider cheating on an exam, homework, or assignment. The following are frequent causes of ­student cheating (Eberly Center, n.d.): •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

being unprepared fearing failure poor study skills fierce competition to earn and maintain a high GPA feeling that the professor is unfair or the assignment is unreasonable a social obligation to help others to cheat a perceived lack of consequences for cheating a feeling of anonymity in class

Note that these are reported causes, not acceptable justifications for cheating on an assignment, quiz, or exam. In my experience, being unprepared, whether because students simply didn’t study or they didn’t know how to study effectively, is the biggest cause of cheating. Use the strategies in this book and in this chapter to avoid being unprepared to start with. Even if it happens that you don’t prepare as well as you could have, it’s better to figure out how to recover from a bad grade than to be caught cheating or caught letting other people cheat. Even if the cheating happens before the class’s drop period, you likely won’t be able to just drop the class and move on. Colleges typically have provisions to ensure that those students still receive an F as punishment for cheating.

Plagiarism Faculty have different definitions of plagiarism, particularly concerning paraphrasing (Blum, 2009; Lang, 2015). The most common definition of plagiarism boils down to using anyone’s work without giving them

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proper credit. It is a best practice to give credit to any work you use and cite the work in the style being used in your class: Chicago, MLA, APA, AMA, or something else. These systems can be very ­different from one another. Direct quotes are the easiest to know they must be cited. It is generally a good idea to find out from your professor whether there is a preference for a substantial number of direct quotes or very few quotations. Most faculty prefer very few, if any, direct quotes, although some don’t mind more. Regardless, direct quotes must be cited. If it is a direct quote, put the words in quote marks. If you are using an idea from an article, but not using the author’s exact words, put the information in your words, then cite. If you are uncertain about what or how to cite, talk to your professor or the writing center. The writing center will always help with advice on best practice. Faculty members might say you should know better, but you can tell them delicately that you read in a really good book that it is important to always double-check to avoid plagiarism. You’ll notice that I have citations throughout this book. One writing strategy that I always give students to help them avoid even accidental plagiarism (yes, accidental plagiarism can happen and, yes, you will be punished, even if you didn’t mean to plagiarize): Jot down the gist of the information you want to use and the citation from where it came. Then, when you write your paper, expand on what you already put down in your words and be sure to include the citation. This will make sure it is in your words and that the inspiration for the idea is recorded. Most professionals agree that it is a terrible idea to be looking at the actual source while writing or to cut-and-paste the part you intend to use with the idea of putting it into your own words later. In both cases, it is too easy to write too closely to the original source and accidentally plagiarize. I have seen high-level college administrators, including ­college presidents, lose their jobs because they copied text into a document, intended to paraphrase later, and then forget to do so. This is serious, so please take it seriously. It is obviously cheating and a form of plagiarism to buy a paper or use someone else’s paper and turn it in as your own. What you may not know is that handing in one of your own papers from a different course for a current course is also considered by many faculty to be

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a form of plagiarism (self-plagiarism). Ask your professor if you are unsure at all. It is better to ask than to be wrong. Academic misconduct is a very serious and very complex concept. If you have any uncertainty about what is okay and what is not, go to the academic success or writing center. They can answer any questions you might have about academic (mis)conduct.

Office of Student Success/Student Disability Services Just over 9% (about 1 million) of students at 4-year institutions report having one disability or more. About 12% (about 700,000) of students at 2-year institutions report having disabilities (NCES, 2017). Every institution in higher education has an office to assist students with disabilities, whether online or onsite, 2-year or 4-year, public or private, at no charge to their students. These offices might be called Disability Resources, Accessibility Resources, Student Accessibility Services, or another name, but a quick search on your campus website should bring up the center where you are. Faculty attitudes regarding accommodations for both physical and mental disabilities tend to be favorable to neutral (Banks, 2019), meaning that faculty are not frustrated or angry when providing accommodations. However, some research indicates that although students tend to perceive accommodations for physical challenges as acceptable, they sometimes see accommodations for psychiatric limitations as less appropriate (Deckoff-Jones & Duell, 2018). In my experience, students sometimes feel that others are being given an unfair advantage by receiving accommodations for conditions like clinical depression. That said, if you have an accommodation, you are entitled to that accommodation, regardless of the perceptions of others. Unfortunately, we have an educational system built on equality, where everyone is treated the same regardless of where they start, rather than equity, where everyone is given what they need (note, not necessarily what they want) to move forward. Treating everyone the same only works when everyone arrives with the same resources. For example, a person with clinical depression may be allowed more excused absences, because there will be times when that person will not be

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physically able to get to campus. Everyone getting the same number of excused days is equal, but not equitable, because some people need more, through no fault of their own. Higher education is built for healthy, risk-taking, fast-talking extroverts. Those individuals have a considerable advantage. Students who do not fit that description, such as those who are deaf, on the autism spectrum, have a brain injury, psychiatric disorder, learning disability, chronic health issue(s), or attention deficit disorder, or any one of many limitations, may find it nearly impossible to get a degree without accommodations. The general rules of the educational game are stacked against them. If you had accommodations in high school, if you think you might have a disability, or if you study very hard and still can’t seem to “get” the material, visit your campus’s disability student services. There is a process to ensure you get the accommodations you need, although you may not get all that you want. The reason for accommodations is to provide individuals with a fighting chance to get a degree. Be mindful that all accommodations must come from the office of disability student services. Faculty members are never allowed to give accommodations without the proper documentation.

Know Your Campus Resources It may not feel like it all the time, but once you are enrolled, colleges are set up to do everything they can to help you be successful. They do care about you, and they also keep statistics on graduations. So, in addition to caring about you as a person, they care about you graduating, which is good for everyone. As a result, there are many resources on college campuses available to you, and they are already typically already paid for by your tuition. How can you find out what’s available? There are high school programs, college student orientation sessions, web resources, faculty advisors, dorm advisors, peer networks in living/learning communities (LCs), and more (Grim et al., 2021). Grim and colleagues at the University of Michigan found that peers, LCs, and faculty advisors were particularly good sources of information. There may even be a group chat or GroupMe you can join.

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Study Tip 7.4: It doesn’t matter how well you are doing, find resources to make your learning even better. Two points are critically important when it comes to campus resources. First, these resources are there to help you. Never worry about “bothering” anyone by availing yourself of those resources. You may ask someone who just doesn’t know the answer to something, or perhaps they are busy because their office is understaffed (unfortunately this is common in higher education). If that happens, don’t give up. Ask someone else. It is easy to forget that many campuses are the size of a small to medium-sized town. You would not expect to roll into a town, ask someone a question, and have them know everything going on in that town. The same is true of the campus. Second, there are likely many more resources on campus than you realize. Most students need assistance at some point, and it is a safe assumption that if you need assistance with something, there is likely a place on campus that offers it. If you find yourself feeling unwell, there is a health center or counseling center; if you are struggling academically, there are writing centers and tutor centers (tutors in nearly every discipline). Some campuses even have programs designed specifically for students on academic probation. See Table 7.1 for the names of resource centers and offices that are found on college campuses. Not every campus will have all of the centers and offices on this list, and the names of the centers may certainly be different. I offer this list only to get you thinking about possibilities. If you are curious about whether a resource is available on your campus, start by checking your college’s website. If you don’t see what you are after, ask your dorm advisor or LC leader. If you are not comfortable asking them, check with your academic advisor. If you still can’t seem to find what you are after, and it seems reasonable that there must be such a resource, stop by the vice president (VP) for student affair’s office and ask an administrative assistant for assistance. Just to be clear, you are not there to see the VP for student affairs. Talk to the person who answers many of the calls about resources across campus: the administrative assistant. When I am in a jam, that is what I do. The administrative assistant to the VP for student affairs knows a lot

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TABLE 7.1

Examples of Resource Centers and Offices Advising

Bookstore

Career Center

Childcare Center

Computer Lab

Counseling Center

Crisis Centers

Cultural Studies

Disability Student Services

Diversity and Intercultural Life

Financial Aid/ShortTerm Loan

Fitness/Athletic Center

Food Bank/Pantry

Health Services

Information Technology

International Students

Internships

Legal Services

LGBTQIA+ Office

Library

Math Help Center

Multicultural Center

Pre-Graduate School Advising

Printing Centers

Public Safety

Road to Resilience

Safe Space

Spiritual Life Office

Student Services

Transfer Center

Tutoring

Undergraduate Research

Veteran’s Resources

Writing Center

about the college. Let them know you have tried other resources and just need to be pointed in a direction. Overall, when in doubt, ask. The college is there for you.

Chapter Summary Many aspects of being a successful student aren’t covered in the college catalog. These “hidden” components are essential and will impact your experience in college and perhaps even determine whether you will be successful. Prepare for class by identifying the best way to study and review. Group review has several benefits, and selecting groups should be done carefully. Similarly, studying alone for foundational knowledge is valuable when done with growth-mindedness and metacognitive skills. Keeping up with course material by regularly studying is an effective learning strategy. Courses are built with the expectation

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that you will study for 2 hours outside of class for each hour in class, providing ample time to learn the material and be prepared for class. As you study, keep Bloom’s taxonomy in mind. It is a helpful way to determine how deeply you are learning inside and outside the classroom. Inside the classroom, not all lectures will be exciting for you. That said, there are specific strategies you can use to make good use of the time in class, even if the lecture is not ideally suited for you. Part of keeping up with coursework and finishing papers on time is to keep doing some work every day. However, procrastination impacts learning for many students, and if you tend to procrastinate, it will be essential to identify strategies to keep procrastination to a minimum. Another aspect of college life that is rarely discussed is making good use of feedback. Feedback can be a road map to doing better in the future. Being a strong student will also help keep you out of a situation where you might feel the need to cheat or plagiarize. There are many resources on campus for those in need of accommodations for disabilities, as well as services such as counseling, tutoring, and writing centers.

Discussion Questions 1. Do you tend to prefer to study alone or in groups? Based on how you study, what would be a good way for you to balance individual and group studying? 2. Identify something you have recently learned that you can explain at each level of Bloom’s taxonomy. Explain it as though you were teaching someone to use the pyramid of cognitive levels. 3. Do you tend to procrastinate? Select either 3a or 3b, based on your situation. 3a. If so, explain why you think you typically procrastinate. What are some strategies you might try to reduce the amount of time you procrastinate? 3b. If you don’t procrastinate, what are strategies you use to keep from procrastinating? Do you schedule time, turn your phone off, and so on? Explain as though you are helping a procrastinator get started. 4. How do you feel about accommodations for success being given to students with documented challenges? There are two definitions

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of fair, one based on equality and one based on equity. Which do you feel is more appropriate for college and potential disability services: equity or equality? Explain your choice. 5. Do some research and find three campus resources that the average student may not know about. Explain briefly what each resource does. List one resource you feel your campus should offer but does not currently offer. Explain the need it would serve.

References Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2000). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing—A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Allyn & Bacon. Armstrong, P. (2010). Bloom’s taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/ Banks, J. (2019). Are we ready: Faculty perceptions of postsecondary students with learning disabilities at a historically Black university. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 12(4), 297–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/ dhe0000100 Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook 1: ­Cognitive domain. Addison-Wesley. Blum, S. D. (2009, February 2020). Academic integrity and student­ plagiarism: A question of education, not ethics. The Chronicle of Higher ­ Education: Commentary. http://www.chronicle.com/article/ academic-integritystudent/32323 Deckoff-Jones, A., & Duell, M. N. (2018). Perceptions of appropriateness of accommodations for university students: Does disability type matter?  Rehabilitation Psychology,  63(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/ rep0000213 Eberly Center. (n.d.). Students cheat on assignments and exams. Carnegie Mellon University http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/solveproblem/stratcheating/index.html Grim, J. K., Bausch, E., Hussain, A., & Lonn, S. (2021). Is it what you know or who you know? An information typology of how first-generation college students access campus resources. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory, & Practice. https://doi.org/10.1177/15210251211068115 Heffernan, J. M. (1973). The credibility of the credit hour: The history, use, and shortcomings of the credit system. The Journal of Higher Education, 44(1), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.2307/1980626

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Jackson, P. W. (1990). Life in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Kelly, A. V. (2009). The curriculum: Theory and practice (6th ed.). SAGE. Kim, N. J., Belland, B. R., Mason, L., Lindi, A., Walker, A., & ­Axelrod, D. (2020). Computer-based scaffolding targeting individual versus groups in problem-centered instruction for STEM education: Meta-­analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 32(2), 415–461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s10648-019-09502-3 Koh, A. W. L., Lee, S. C., & Lim, S. W. H. (2018). The learning benefits of teaching: A retrieval practice hypothesis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 32(3), 401–410. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3410 Kroese, F. M., DeRidder, D. T. D., Evers, C., & Aiaanse, M. A. (2014). Bedtime procrastination: Introducing a new area of procrastination. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00611 Lang, J. M. (2015, May 4). Cheating inadvertently. The Chronicle of Higher Education: Advice. http://www.chronicle.com/article/CheatingInadvertently/229883/ National Center for Education Statistics. (2017). Characteristics and outcomes of undergraduates with disabilities. U.S. Department of Education. https:// nces.ed.gov/pubs2018/2018432.pdf Shedd, J. M. (2003). The history of the student credit hour. In J. V. ­Wellman & T. Erlich (Eds.), How the student credit hour shapes higher education: The tie that binds (New Directions for Higher Education, no. 122, pp. 5–12). Jossey-Bass. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/he.106 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem-solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science,  12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15516709cog1202_4 Treisman, U. (2013). A conversation with Uri Treisman. Journal of a­ thematics Education at Teachers College, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.7916/jmetc.v3i2.743 Wessel, J., Bradley, G. L., & Hood, M. (2020). A low-intensity, high-­ frequency intervention to reduce procrastination. Applied Psychology, 70(4), 1669–1690. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12293 Wypych, M., Matuszewski, J., & Dragan, W. Ł. (2018). Roles of impulsivity, motivation, and emotion regulation in procrastination – Path analysis and comparison between students and non-students. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 891. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00891

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8 D E M O N S TR AT I N G YO U R LE A R N I N G

We’ve all experienced not being able to recall something that we know we know. What was the last movie you saw in the theater? The name of that person you know from high school you’ve just run into in the supermarket, or the three types of Roman columns? (The Roman columns got me on a quiz in a humanities course I took as an undergraduate. I haven’t forgotten them since.) The real value of learning, encoding, and consolidating information is the ability to access and use that information when you need it. The chapters in the book to this point have shown you how to learn in harmony with your brain. This chapter is designed to help you select and adopt behaviors that reinforce learning inside and outside the classroom to apply what you have learned in the classroom setting. The topics selected represent the majority of ways in which professors assign grades: class participation, homework, extra credit, writing papers, giving presentations, and taking tests.

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Participation Many professors use participation grades, including attending class, answering questions, and contributing to discussions. Class discussion is at the heart of active and engaged learning (e.g., Freeman et al., 2014) and narrows achievement gaps that underrepresented students often face (Theobald et al., 2020). Professors use many different strategies to document participation. Be sure that you understand what they are assessing and what counts. There should be some guidance on this in the syllabus. A discussion post simply stating, “I agree with that,” probably won’t count. How often you choose to speak or post, assuming the syllabus doesn’t dictate the frequency, will depend on the class, your interest in the topic, the number of questions asked, and how much of the time is set aside for discussion. In a typical class of 10–30 students, it is reasonable to speak a few times each class session. Do watch to see if you are replying or participating substantially more or less than others in the class. Some students feel the need to talk to impress the professor or prove how much they know about the topic. Shoot for quality of responses as participation, not quantity. There are many reasons you might choose to not talk in class. Introverts and shy individuals are less likely to volunteer a response or participate in a class discussion, as are individuals who are self-­ conscious about their speaking, such as English-as-second-language speakers. Others are nervous about being wrong, have been embarrassed previously, face peer pressure, or are from a culture where interrupting and nonverbal differences make it uncomfortable to speak out in class (Zakrajsek, 2017). I mention this to let you know that if you are hesitant to speak, you are not alone. If you find it very challenging to participate, consider talking to the instructor during an office hour or sending an email about your concerns. The two of you will likely identify strategies to make it more comfortable for you to participate. If you are comfortable speaking in class, consider the many reasons others may not be participating that have nothing to do with how well they know the material. Gender bias also plays a significant role in who speaks during class. A team of researchers from Egypt, Norway, and the United

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States (specifically, Minnesota, New York, and Washington) looked at 5,300 student–instructor interactions across 2 years to identify gender biases in STEM classes (Ballen et al., 2019). The researchers noted, reinforcing earlier research, that women ask fewer questions than men in large classes, conference talks, and academic seminars. In smaller classes, women respond to professors’ questions more than men, but as class size approaches 150 students, female participation decreases by 50%. However, if small groups are used for discussion in larger classes, women participate at a rate closer to that of men. The proportion of women in the course, instructor gender, and whether it was an upper or lower division course had no impact on different rates of participation. This discriminatory gender divide in the classroom has been described as the “chilly climate” and has been present for a very long time (Hall & Sandler, 1982). Researchers noted that instructors called on men more frequently than women, gave men more time to respond, and provided more prompts to men who struggled to find the correct answer. Lee (Indiana University) and Mccabe (Dartmouth) teamed up in 2020 and found that gender differences in the classroom still persist. They observed nine courses over a 5-week period and found that men spoke proportionally more than women in all nine courses and they noted three patterns of speaking. Men were nine times more likely than women to be the dominant speaker in the course, (b) more than nine times more likely than women to deliver prolonged responses, and (c) fifteen times more likely than women to interrupt and speak without raising their hands (Lee & Mccabe, 2020). Men also tended to use more assertive and firmer language whereas women were more likely to start responses with hedging verbiage such as, “I don’t know if this is what you are looking for, but . . .” or, “I guess one way to think about this might be . . . .” This creates the illusion that men know the topic better than women, when it is really a difference in the pattern of speaking. It is important to note that when professors were aware of the gender inequity, they typically worked to give other students more opportunities to participate, sometimes interrupting men who were speaking for a long period of time. I bring up the chilly climate in hopes that both men and women will watch for such behavior to help mitigate the inequity.

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Some instructors use written, 1-minute takeaways to assess class participation as a more equitable manner. It encourages students who don’t often speak out in class to be attentive, as they will have an opportunity to participate without having to speak in front of the group (Levin-Banchik, 2022). If this activity is offered in your course, be sure to pay attention and clearly summarize what you learned or still feel uncertain about. It not only ensures participation credit, it is also good practice for the exams and will help you better understand the material. One last tip: In psychology there are two concepts relevant to speaking in class, primacy and recency. These have been heavily studied since the 1960s, and they are still applicable for your participation today (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966). In a given period of time, we tend to remember events from the beginning (primacy) and the end (recency). If you are allowed to participate only a limited number of times in class or you prefer to talk as little as possible in class, it is best to talk toward the end or the beginning of the discussion. This will help you stand out in the crowd.

Study Tip 8.1: When participating during class, listen well and talk to advance the discussion.

Homework and Reflection Journals Many courses include categories of work that do not appear to amount to a large proportion of the course grade. These categories together often make up only 10% to 15% of the course, and each assignment or journal entry may be worth only a few points. At times, you may feel like it is not worth doing the work. I assure you that it is. Something worth 10% of the overall grade can be the difference between a B and an A or even the difference between passing the course with a C versus not by earning a D. My general suggestion is to earn every point you can, because you don’t know when those points might be needed. This is why a good basketball coach is concerned when a player misses a free

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throw at the beginning of a game. Fans are typically less interested in missed shots at the beginning of a game, and tense about free throws at the end of a close game. The coach has been in enough games to realize that a point is a point, and it is best to get them as soon as you can and whenever you can. You never know when you might end the semester only a point or two short of a higher grade. Another important aspect of doing homework is that it helps you to learn the material. The best way to learn is to practice. That is noted in several places in this book, most notably in the chapter on learning how to learn. Homework assignments are an ideal way to practice for exams. It does not matter if the homework is graded, worth a small number of points, or even optional: Doing the homework is valuable and a great metacognitive opportunity. Reflection journals (a typical homework assignment or in-class activity) also allow you to think about the material, identify applications for the information learned, and offer deeper learning opportunities.

Extra Credit Professors are deeply divided on the topic of extra credit. Some professors are happy to provide extra credit, arguing that it helps students (Cohan, 2018), whereas others think it hurts students more than it helps because it shifts focus away from course content (Stauffer, 2019). Read the syllabus carefully to find out where your professor falls in this debate. Professors do not like it if you ask whether they offer extra credit and their syllabus clearly states they do not. If you checked the syllabus and you can get extra credit, the next question is whether and when extra credit is worth pursuing.

Learning Value Ideally, extra credit helps reinforce course material that you are already learning or strategies you are already successfully using. For example, you might get extra credit points if you create additional notes over the course material, write sample exam questions, and correct exam items that were incorrect. Please get those points! These are things you should do anyway, so it’s not really extra work.

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In some courses, you can get extra credit for activities that are related to the course but do not cover the exact material you are learning. Examples are summarizing a journal article, attending a community event related to the course content, or reading popular press articles about course material. For these types of options, look closely at the point value and determine if you can spare the time. Your top priority is to learn the material in the course, but expanding your scope a bit and earning a few additional points is reasonable as long as you still have ample time to study, prepare for exams, and complete writing assignments. Finally, some courses offer extra credit that has nothing to do with the course, although there may be some effort to tie in course content. These are options like donating time or resources to a food bank, working on a Habitat for Humanity house, or tutoring children at the local library. These options are typically prosocial opportunities that benefit the community. If you have time and the opportunity is something you would enjoy or could learn from, then these options are viable. That said, be careful that you do not spend hours chasing a few points when that same amount of time spent studying would likely get you more points on the next exam.

Additional Considerations Be sure that you are aware of timing for earning extra credit. Many students wait until the end of the semester to see if their professor offers extra credit, if the points are needed, or how late professors accept extra credit assignments (Elbeck & DeLong, 2015). Semesters almost always start out easier than they end. Get the extra credit done as fast as possible so that you are doing the extra credit work while your coursework is the least demanding. Then spend the semester learning the material, perhaps using extra credit opportunities to help reinforce things as you go, and focus on acing the exam at the end.

Writing Papers College is an excellent time to develop writing skills, which will benefit you the rest of your life. Use your campus resources and give yourself enough time to write the best papers you can. Also, remember Bloom’s

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taxonomy from chapter 7? In college, your papers will be toward the top levels of Bloom’s (analyzing/evaluating/creating), rather than the bottom levels (understanding/applying). Given that your professors expect these higher levels and better arguments (Dimmock, 2013), you can meet their expectation because you will use writing resources on campus and you know Bloom’s taxonomy. Start these practices as a first-year student, and watch your skills increase every year. It is important to note that most people struggle with writing, at least at first. Professor Dubicki (2015), a reference librarian at Monmouth University in New Jersey, studied how students explain their writing process. Common responses to writing a 10-page paper were that it was “a daunting task,” “overwhelming,” “[an] arduous process,” and “incredibly intimidating” (Dubicki, 2015, p. 677). This is not listed to make you nervous. Just the opposite; I mention this because if you find writing challenging, and at times painful, you are not alone. I struggle at times as well, but the end product can be satisfying and rewarding. Plus, you can earn a good grade.

Study Tip 8.2: If you have trouble getting started when writing a paper, make an outline, then annotate the outline. At that point your paper is underway. You can add more information for each level of the outline, and keep going.

It is also important to be aware that the resource material, course textbook, and any journal articles you read have been professionally edited. Students often forget that and compare their writing with the published work they read. That is a totally unfair comparison. Take the book you are reading right now as an example. The manuscript went through several drafts. I then got feedback from a knowledgeable person. After I incorporated that first round of feedback, the manuscript went to a professional editor. She moved some parts around, cut stories that ran too long, and suggested changes when I got too “science-y.” The manuscript went through multiple additional steps with another editor from the publisher before it was ready for you to read. You are not expected to write at the level of the

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resources you read. That said, write well, and your work will be better with help. I get help whenever I can. There are excellent resources on every campus, online and in person. Your tuition pays for them, and they are there for you. Use them!

Your Instructor and the Syllabus Your instructor (and their syllabus) is your first and best resource. If your writing assignment is unclear at all, ask your professor. Writing is hard enough without completing the assignment and discovering that you didn’t actually do what was expected. It is usually best to see your professor during their office hours to give you time to talk. Doublecheck the syllabus to see if there is a rubric that will be used to score your paper. If there is, follow it closely. This is a perfect way to demonstrate your learning and earn a good grade.

The Writing Center There is a misperception that writing centers are for students who are struggling with papers or who received a bad grade on a writing assignment. The writing center is intended for any student on campus who wishes to write better. Some writing centers even have writing coaches who will work with you so you can not only demonstrate your learning on the paper but also learn good habits for the future.

Reference Librarians I constantly refer to librarians as “sneaky smart.” Although everyone knows that librarians know “a lot,” the truth is that they know even more. Reference librarians can be particularly helpful to your writing process. The next time you have a paper to write, go to the library and ask for a reference librarian. Just ask them if you can run your idea by them—they will ask you questions and talk to you. In no time, you will have some really solid ideas.

Writing Tips in This Book Besides campus resources, you’re also holding a great writing resource. I have a lot of writing experience (and remember, I didn’t think I was

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any good at writing until I changed to a growth mindset). Here are some of my lessons learned from writing: 1. Start early: Even if you “thrive” on deadlines, you’ll write better than you think with less pressure and time to revise. 2. Avoid the blank screen phenomenon: Set a timer for 10 minutes and fill up your screen or paper with a mind-dump of everything you’ve read so far on your topic. You may end up editing out every word as you finish your paper. But you finished your paper. 3. Build an outline. 4. Get help from (campus) resources. 5. Review your sleep log, created in chapter 10 (p. 188, this volume) to find your productive time. Write during that window. 6. Let your writing sit for a bit, then proofread. 7. Try writing in short, focused bursts. I like to write 30 minutes a day. 8. Write. Writing should be interesting at times, but sometimes it is just work. When I don’t feel like writing, I have a secret strategy that helps me move the paper forward anyway. I set a timer and write for 30 minutes.

Writing can be a chore, but you can create some amazing work. Good writing is highly valued in college and after graduation. Seek out and value peer and professor feedback on drafts and final papers. Have a growth mindset and continue to work at getting better. Writing well has done more for me late in my career than anything else. Learn to write well, and then write whenever you have time.

Giving Presentations You will also demonstrate your learning through giving presentations. Being only mildly nervous or even comfortable speaking in front of people will serve you well in class discussions; speaking out, particularly in large enrollment courses; and in your career (Marcel, 2015). Public speaking skills are important but can be scary. I have had advisees who feared public speaking so much that they dropped classes

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where a presentation was required. Dwyer and Davidson (2021), ­professors at the University of Nebraska-Omaha, found that before taking a public speaking course, students rated fear of death and fear of public speaking at the same level. The good news is that after the course, the fear of public speaking dropped significantly. If you find it difficult to give presentations or to speak in front of others, consider taking a public speaking course. If it is required in your general education program or major, then take it as soon as possible. Putting off an undesirable thing only makes it worse, plus the skills you’ll learn in your speech course will help you work through your nerves for all later presentations. Taking a public speaking course does not mean that you will be totally rid of stress when speaking in public, but your stress will be manageable. In fact, at times a bit of stress is a good thing. The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that we perform very poorly when there is no stress (no motivation) or a lot of stress (too much pressure; Faller et al., 2019). A bit of manageable stress is the sweet spot and will keep you motivated without paralyzing you. At the writing of this book, I have given invited presentations in 49 U.S. states (all but North Dakota) and 12 countries across four continents, and I still get nervous every time I speak before a group. To see a presentation I gave in which I was stressed enough to forget an opening statement I had practiced for days, check out the following YouTube recording (Figure 8.1): “Improve Thinking by Thinking About Thinking” (Zakrajsek, 2015). If you don’t think I looked stressed, that is my point. You might feel like you are the only one who is nervous when you give a presentation. I assure you that what you are feeling is quite normal. Over the years, I’ve compiled a list of the following publicspeaking tips: •• Use a hook, something in the first 30 to 60 seconds, to get people’s attention. •• Imagine your presentation as a story with a beginning, middle, and end. This will help you feel more comfortable talking through it and keep your audience engaged with a familiar structure.

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•• Memorize anchor points (the big picture), not every single word. Anchor points occur about every 30 to 60 seconds to keep you on track. •• Use humor if it fits, but don’t if it doesn’t. Not all topics or presenters are right for humor. There are also some amazing speeches with no humor at all. •• Write out and practice your presentation until you know it well. Don’t wing it if you have time to prepare! I did that once in middle school and still recall that day. It was awful. •• Believe in your content. •• Finish strong, with a call to action. •• Be yourself.

I’d like to share one final piece of advice about a heavily studied concept in psychology called pluralistic ignorance (Prentice & Miller, 1996). This how people in a group can misinterpret an event, like when a class of students are all giving presentations. As an example, imagine you are in a class of 20 students, and everyone is going to give a short presentation on the same day. You arrive, and you are quite nervous. You look around the room and everyone else looks so calm. This makes you even more nervous. However, you don’t want to show everyone how nervous you are, so you look as calm as possible on the outside. The interesting part is that almost everyone in the room is doing the same thing, and you are one of the people they are looking at. They are getting nervous because of how calm and confident they think you are. Essentially, because everyone else looks calm, each Figure 8.1.  QR code for “Improve Thinking by Thinking About Thinking.”

Note. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tYg3sLcyLB8

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person in the group misinterprets the situation and thinks they are the only one struggling with anxiety. It is pluralistic (the entire group) and ignorance (not knowledgeable of the actual situation). I mention this because when you give a presentation, you are not the only one feeling as you do. Most of the people in the group, whether they look like it or not, are also nervous.

Test-Taking Strategies One of the most frequent ways you will be able to demonstrate learning is on exams. It is important to keep working at being a better test taker. Yes, this, too, is a skill you can develop. Getting better at taking tests, preparing for tests, and learning from tests you have taken draws heavily on information from chapter 5 (metacognition and growth mindset).

Test Anxiety Versus Test Nervousness It is perfectly normal to feel nervous when you take a test, particularly when the outcome of the test has a large impact on your overall grade in the course. There are, however, individuals who have anxiety that is off the charts and disproportionate for something like an exam. Test anxiety looks very different for each individual, but possible symptoms include lightheadedness, faintness, headaches, nausea, fear, severe negative thoughts, an inability to concentrate, or even sensations like a panic attack. Test anxiety is often triggered by tests, even early in the educational system. Donolato, at the University of Oslo, and colleagues studied test anxiety for students as young as 8 years old (Donolato et al., 2020). Knowing how to interpret the anxious feelings associated with testing can be helpful in managing the anxiety. Brady and colleagues (2018) at Stanford University conducted a study involving cognitive reappraisal. Half of students in a large, fall introductory course received text messages that recognized that taking exams can be stressful and provided details about taking the test. The other half received a text message that acknowledged exams can be stressful and shared research supporting that some anxiety could actually be helpful and lead to better scores. Students who received the reframing texts that anxiety could

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be helpful scored significantly higher. This supported their hypothesis that it is the worry that comes with feeling anxious that causes poor performance, not the physiological component of anxiety itself. This is a very important consideration for you when you take exams. As with presentations, a moderate amount of stress is an appropriate and even positive part of taking exams.

Study Strategies Many other sections of this book specifically discuss how to study for exams. I will review just a few here. Some of the best things you can do to prepare for an exam, supported by lots of research, are found in chapter 4 on learning. In that chapter, you will find information on practicing retrieval. Anything you can do to practice pulling key material from your memory is an effective study technique. Interleaving is another effective cognitive approach from chapter 4. Interleave material together as you study. This will also be very helpful when taking the final exam, as you’ll keep reviewing older material along with the new material. Spaced practice, another winner from that chapter, helps solidify information in your long-term memory store. Ideally, briefly review material once per day, say by learning new information and then quickly reviewing previously learned material from that same section. Spacing out practice helps with consolidation and will keep information available for longer periods of time. One piece of advice that is repeated more than anything else in this entire book is do not cram the night before the test. I mention it multiple times, because it is one of the most important things you should avoid—and based on past statistics of many students, it is something I am fearful you may do anyway. Study Tip 8.3: Set a timer once per week for 10 minutes and search the Web to find new study tips. Scullin (2019), the director of the Sleep Neuroscience and Cognition Laboratory at Baylor University, noted that fewer than 10% of students in college get a full 8 hours of sleep the night before an

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exam. Professor Scullin tested the effect of sleep on exam performance. Students who agreed to be in the study wore a sleep monitor. Those who slept 8 hours or more scored higher on the exam than those who stayed up to study and got less than 7 hours of sleep. Sleeping often results in better performance and long-term retention of material than does staying up very late to study. One last tip that may sound counterintuitive is to not study in groups. The best strategy I have seen through the years is for students to study individually and then review in groups. Study groups too ­frequently devolve into conversations about campus life and other life events. If you do join a group, leave yourself a way out if the group is ineffective and does not stay on track. Finally, here are a handful of additional tips you might consider for test-taking strategies: •• Your learning success center (which may also be called the student success center) likely offers fantastic test-taking strategies, and even coaches. Centers such as this often have a great deal of information on strategies for taking tests. Check these out several weeks before your first exam to see what’s available. •• Go to exam review sessions, if offered. Turn off your phone and take good notes. •• Make an appointment to speak with your professor about testtaking strategies. Bonus: You will very much impress faculty members if you set up those conversations about 2 weeks before the exam.

As the semester progresses, keep checking out strategies and keep track of how your test-taking is improving (or not) and change your direction accordingly. As with learning how to learn in harmony with your brain, you can also learn how to take tests in harmony with your brain.

Chapter Summary Learning itself cannot be measured. The only way to get an approximation of what was learned is to assess what you can apply from

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what you have learned. This chapter provides suggestions to help you to better demonstrate your learning in several ways (participation, homework, presentations, tests) that are typically used in college ­classrooms. Class discussion is an important part of many courses, allowing you to bring together ideas and share your thoughts with others in the course. There are a variety of factors that impact participation rates, including personality, cultural, and gender differences. Homework and reflection journals represent an ideal way to demonstrate learning on a day-to-day basis. Extra credit is offered in many classes. Check the syllabus to determine if extra credit is offered in your course, the type of work that counts, and when it can be handed in. Many students pass on extra credit when they should not. Writing is a challenging process, but a rewarding one that will serve you well down the road. There are many resources on campus that can assist with writing assignments. Check with your professor, the writing center, and a reference librarian. Presentations are another way to demonstrate what you have learned. Most students are at least somewhat nervous when giving a presentation, which is good because it keeps you sharp. Public speaking courses can be very helpful in developing speaking skills, and public speaking (like most assessments in this chapter) is something you can get better at, so take a growth-minded approach. There are many test-taking strategies based on material found throughout this book. Look for a metacognitive approach to getting better and better at taking tests and maintain a growth mindset so that even if you don’t do well, you are still learning.

Discussion Questions 1. Think about your participation in class discussions or answering questions in lecture. How do the length and frequency of your responses compare to the class? What most influences the extent to which you talk in a class? Do (or would) participation points impact the extent to which you participate? 2. If you were to teach an introductory course, would you offer extra credit? Explain why or why not. Write out what your policy would look like in your syllabus. (You can find examples on the Web, but use them only as guides.)

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3. How do you feel about writing? Do you enjoy writing assignments? Describe the aspect of writing that you like the best and the aspect you like the least. If you were able to attend a workshop on any aspect of writing, what workshop would you find helpful or enjoyable? 4. Many people are very nervous about speaking in public. Where would you fall on a scale from 1 (not nervous at all) to 10 (extremely nervous)? Why did you select this number? If you were to put together a “Top Five Tips for Being a Better Presenter,” which five items would you select? Explain why you chose the top two items you have on your list. 5. Explain your study routine to prepare for a large unit exam. Describe a metacognitive approach you have, or could create, to get even better at taking exams.

References Ballen, C. J., Aguillon, S. M., Awwad, A., Bjune, A. E., Challou, D., Drake, A. G., Driessen, M., Ellozy, A., Ferry, V. A., Goldberg, E. E., Harcombe, W., Jensen, S., Jørgensen, C., Koth, Z., McGaugh, S., ­ Mitry, C., Mosher, B., Mostafa, H., Petipas, R. H., . . . Cotner, S. (2019). Smaller classes p ­ romote equitable student participation in STEM. BioScience, 69(8), 669–680. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biz069 Brady, S. T., Hard, B. M., & Gross, J. J. (2018). Reappraising test anxiety increases academic performance of first-year college students. Journal of Educational Psychology,  110(3), 395–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/ edu0000219.supp Cohan, D. J. (2018, January 16). Extra, extra, read all about it. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2018/01/16/professorexplains-why-she-offers-extra-credit-her-classes-opinion Dimmock, N. (2013). Hallmarks of a good paper. In N. F. Foster (Ed.), Studying students: A second look (pp. 7–17). Association of College and Research Libraries. Donolato, E., Marci, T., Altoè, G., & Mammarella, I. C. (2020). Measuring test anxiety in primary and middle school children: Psychometric evaluation of the Test Anxiety Questionnaire for Children (­TAQ-C). Teaching of Psychology, 46(5), 839–851. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000556

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Dubicki, E. (2015). Writing a research paper: Students explain their process. Reference Services Review, 43(4), 673–688. https://doi.org/10.1108/RSR07-2015-0036 Dwyer, K. K., & Davidson, M. (2021). Take a public speaking course and conquer the fear. Journal of Education and Educational Development, 8(2), 255–269. https:// doi.org/10.22555/joeed.v8i2.456 Elbeck, M., & DeLong, D. (2015). Exploring the contribution of extra credit in marketing education. e-Journal of Business Education and Scholarship of Teaching, 9(1), 107–118. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ EJ1167366.pdf Faller, J., Cummings, J., Saproo, S., & Sajda, P. (2019). Regulation of arousal via online neurofeedback improves human performance in a demanding sensory-motor task. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(13), 6841–6490. https://doi.org/10.21227/rn3e-bp31 Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410–8415. https://doi .org/10.1073/pnas.1319030111 Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5(4), 351–360. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(66)80044-0 Hall, R. M., & Sandler, B. R. (1982). The classroom climate: A chilly one for women? Association of American Colleges. Lee, J. J., & Mccabe, J. M. (2020). Who speaks and who listens: Revisiting the chilly climate in college classrooms. Gender & Society, 35(1), 32–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243220977141 Levin-Banchik, L. (2022). Inclusive assessment of class participation: ­Students’ takeaways as a one-minute paper. PS: Political Science & ­Politics,  55(1), 171–175. https://doi.org/10.1017/S104909652100086X Marcel, M. (2015). What’s the best course? Evidence from alumni on the value of business presentations preparation. Journal of Education for ­Business, 90(1), 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2014.968515 Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (1996). Pluralistic ignorance and the ­perpetuation of social norms by unwitting actors. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 161–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/S00652601(08)60238-5 Scullin, M. K. (2019). The eight hour sleep challenge during final exam week. Teaching of Psychology, 46(1), 55–63. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0098628318816142

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Stauffer, W. (2019, January 16). Extra credit is not really extra. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2019/01/16/professorexplains-why-he-doesnt-offer-extra-credit-his-students-opinion Theobald, E. J., Hill, M. J., Tran, E., Agrawal, S., Arroyo, E. N., Behling, S., Chambwe, N., Cintrón, D. L., Cooper, J. D., Dunster, G., Grummer, J. A., Hennessey, K., Hsiao, J., Iranon, N., Jones, II, L., Jordt, H., Keller, M., Lacey, M. E., Littlefield, C. E., . . . Freeman, S. (2020). Active learning narrows achievement gaps for underrepresented students in undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and math. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(12), 6476–6483. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1916903117 Zakrajsek, T. (2015, April 9). Improve thinking by thinking about learning [Video]. TEDxUNC. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tYg3sLcyLB8 Zakrajsek, T. (April 13, 2017). Students who don’t participate in the class discussions: They are not all introverts. The Scholarly Teacher. https:// www.scholarlyteacher.com/post/students-who-dont-participate-in-classdiscussions

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9 AVOID I N G LE A R N I N G P I T F A L LS

Higher education is challenging to navigate. Fortunately, many of the learning challenges to address and decisions to make about the coursework you do are relatively innocuous. Also, mistakes like not studying as much as you should for a test or turning a paper in late are errors from which you can recover. There are also pitfalls, “a hidden or not easily recognized danger or difficulty” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). When the danger or difficulty has the potential to seriously impact a student’s educational progress, I call those learning pitfalls. This chapter is comprised of six learning pitfalls and ways to circumvent them, based on what I have seen with my students and what I experienced as an undergraduate. I hope the information in this chapter gives you ideas for navigating or avoiding these learning pitfalls, should you encounter them.

Learning Pitfall #1: Rereading and Highlighting When I ask students to name study strategies that don’t work, they always put highlighting and rereading at the top of the list. That is 165

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good news, because these two strategies have been empirically shown to not be particularly effective study techniques (Dunlosky et al., 2013; Fowler & Barker, 1974). Next, I ask the same students what strategies they use, and unfortunately, highlighting and rereading are right at the top of the list. I think students run into this pitfall for two reasons: tradition and a false sense of knowledge acquisition. Tradition is apparent any time you flip through used textbooks with bands of fluorescent colors or see a student in the library, armed with a handful of colored highlighters (Blasiman et al., 2016). Highlighting and underlining as you cruise through a dense chapter make you feel like you are learning. Unfortunately, that isn’t how learning actually works. Highlighting is a little like walking through a museum, looking at piece of art (without stopping) and thinking to yourself “I like that statue,” and walking right by as you glance over your shoulder for one last look. In a matter of seconds, the statue comes into view, is noted, and then you move on to the next room. You feel like you have seen the statue, but if you were later asked to describe your favorite works of art from this visit, it would be challenging to say much about that statue, along with any of the other pieces you glanced at as you walked along. Highlighting is a lot like that. Rereading is reportedly the most frequently used study strategy (Morehead et al., 2015) and also brings about a false feeling of learning (Weinstein et al., 2010). I have had hundreds of students through the years, disappointed with an exam grade, explain to me that they read the chapters multiple times. I always explain back that reading with focus and keeping your mind from wandering is challenging for any material and even more difficult when reading the same material for a second, third, or fourth time. Study Tip 9.1: Always read with a purpose and check for focus as you read. If you are rereading material, it is even more important to read with purpose and a goal. Obviously, the interesting part is why so many students recognize these strategies as ineffective and yet still use them. When I ask,

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I typically get blank stares, and then one student in the group will say, “It is just what we do.” With a bit of modification, these strategies can “work.” Dunlosky and colleagues at Kent State University—the team who noted highlighting and rereading are not effective—also observed that strategies that involve encoding and elaboration are effective (Dunlosky et al., 2013). So, make sure you are encoding and elaborating the information when you highlight and reread. When reading, don’t passively highlight what you think is important as you read the first time. That kind of highlighting is fleeting and will be out of your brain in minutes. Instead, identify a section of material that will take you about 5 minutes to read. Read the passage quickly to get a sense of what it is about. Then, immediately reread more purposefully to check that you really understood the concept, and highlight what you feel is important. The essential step is to mentally process the highlighted text in some way. Write a note about why it’s important, or, better yet, turn the highlighted text into a short question. Then, to study you can go to a highlighted spot, attempt to answer the question, and check your answer. Pitfall #1 Avoidance: Build cognitively engaging strategies into rereading and highlighting. Do a quick first read to get the overall sense, then read methodically and highlight with a purpose. Finally, create your own questions based on the highlighted material.

Learning Pitfall #2: Cramming for Exams If you’ve been reading this book straight through, you’ll notice this is the third time we’ve addressed cramming by studying late into the night just before an exam. If you’ve been skipping around, spoiler alert: This is important enough that you will find it two more times. You simply cannot call cramming, in any way, learning in harmony with your brain. We know cramming goes against everything the science of learning says is effective when it comes to both learning and retaining information. We’re going to look at effective learning and memory components together and summarize strategies on how to avoid this tragic pitfall.

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Intuitively, students know that spaced studying is more effective than cramming, but they often end up cramming anyway (Blasiman et al., 2016). Neuroscience tells us that at the cellular level (neurons) spaced practice is better than cramming (Feng et al., 2019). We know that students’ minds wander during cramming sessions more than during spaced out practice sessions (Metcalfe & Xu, 2016). Sleep research tells us that the sleep loss the night before a test due to staying up the night prior disrupts long-term memory formation in big ways (Mander et al., 2011). For more than 100 years, memory research has consistently shown that forgetting happens quite rapidly after something is first learned (De Soto & Roediger, 2019; Ebbinghaus, 1913). We also know that if a person reviews the material 1 day apart across multiple days, the memory is much more stable and lasts for a long period of time. This doesn’t even get into the physiological impact of sleep deprivation. Despite all this knowledge, cramming is still an easy pitfall to get caught in, because many students have fair short-term success with cramming. Cramming does tend to work in the short-term, provided the exam is shortly after the cramming session. But, then you know what comes next—the feeling of material slipping away even as the instructor is handing out the exams. If you feel knowledge dissipating in those few minutes, what shot does it have to be around in a year, a month, a week, or even a day? If you are in a class with four exams and a comprehensive final, you can cram for each exam and get a decent score. A comprehensive final in such a situation is a different story. When you cram, the recall of material over the next 24 hours is not bad. However, 1 week later there is a huge difference between recall for students who space out multiday study sessions and students who cram. After a month, the difference can easily be more than two letter grades. If you cram for a unit exam, you’ll probably need to relearn the entire semester’s material for the final. As an added loss, if you cram for a final, when you walk into your next course, you probably won’t remember much of the previous course’s material. Pitfall Avoidance #2: You will make a huge difference in your academic career if you can establish a pattern of studying a bit each day. You will do well on unit exams, and you won’t have to relearn everything for the

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final. You will retain your learning for your next courses and eventually for jobs. Building this habit takes a bit of planning and commitment, but it can be done.

Learning Pitfall #3: Following Your Learning Style Wouldn’t it be great to answer 16 questions and immediately find out how you can best process information for the rest of your life? Then, once you know how you learn, perhaps you find teachers who set up their instruction to match the way you learn. Learning styles inventory materials promise that with minimal effort, your learning will get faster and your grades will go higher. This all sounds awesome, right? Two researchers from a medical school in the United Kingdom reviewed 37 studies involving more than 15,000 teachers from 18 countries and found that nearly 90% of teachers believe in matching instruction to learning styles (Newton & Salvi, 2020). Unfortunately, this is a huge learning pitfall. People love the idea of discovering something new about themselves that can be used for good. Teachers love the idea of teaching the best way possible to meet the needs of each individual student. Who wouldn’t want that? It turns out that no data actually support the existence of learning styles (Dekker et al., 2020). This pitfall is based on a huge misunderstanding that most people miss, and it is right out in the open. Hopeful parents, teachers, and students mistakenly hear that they can find out how they learn, even though most learning style promoters are careful to say that they’ll reveal how you prefer to learn. There is a huge difference between these, particularly if you believe that “find out how you learn” means it is hard to learn any other way. Research is very clear and very consistent that how information is presented really doesn’t affect how well an individual can learn it, and yet the myth of learning styles continues to be prevalent (Nancekivell et al., 2021; Papadatou-Tastou et al., 2021). An added problem is that learning style advocates love boxing you into being a visual learner, an auditory learner, or a kinesthetic learner. When a person takes a learning styles inventory, nobody is 100% in

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any one area. You may be 45% visual, 30% auditory, and 25% kinesthetic, in which case you would be considered a visual learner, as that’s your largest percentage. But really, you are a multimodal learner, in that you have some of each and a fairly even distribution at that. Study Tip 9.2: Don’t always learn the way that you think you prefer. Experiment with other ways to see what else works well for you. A final pitfall to watch for when reading about learning styles is meshing, which is when a learning style (e.g., “visual” learning preference) and a teaching style (teacher uses a lot of visuals) match. Same finding. The overwhelming evidence is that meshing does not improve learning (Pashler et al., 2008). Imagine that you want to learn to play the clarinet, and you are a visual learner (according to a learning styles inventory test). Would the best way to learn clarinet be to look at pictures of clarinets and clarinet players? What if you are a kinesthetic learner, and you need to learn the three types of Roman columns? Do you really need to mix plaster and create models, or would you do just fine with a picture of the columns? If you would like confirmation of what I am telling you, run an internet search under “learning style myth.” There is an impressive amount of information under that heading that supports what I am presenting in this section. Don’t fall into the learning styles preferences pitfall. You don’t need a quiz to tell you that you prefer to read a book rather than look at images, or that you would rather work with your hands rather than look at graphs. These preferences don’t determine how you learn, they explain how you have enjoyed learning the most when given the opportunity. You can supplement courses to fit your preferred style of learning. If your biology teacher does not show as many visuals as you like, search the internet for image-based examples as needed and at the same time, work at improving your reading. Build your skills in all areas. Remember that we don’t process information if we don’t attend to it and that we often fall into self-fulfilling prophecies. If you think that you can’t learn from your biology teacher because they are not using

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visual examples, and you took a quiz on the internet that said you “need” visuals, then you won’t learn. Don’t tell yourself that you can’t do well on an exam because it’s not kinesthetic. Don’t put yourself in a box. Instead, use metacognition, Bloom’s taxonomy, and recall practice, and ace your courses despite, not because of, a particular format. Pitfall Avoidance #3: If you fail at something, it is an opportunity to learn, but not if you blame the failure on something that has no scientific basis. Don’t let pseudoscience lead you away from strategies to improve your learning. If your professor does not teach in a way you prefer to learn (note: prefer not can learn), you can build the skills you need to process what is given and search out resources that will help you succeed.

Learning Pitfall #4: Task Shifting Task shifting is when we direct our attention away from one task and shift to another. This can happen without our realizing it, and for that reason, among others, task shifting can be a dangerous pitfall. We fall into this pitfall because we don’t really understand how the brain decides what to pay attention to at any given second, and what it ignores. To really understand this topic, we must first separate out three concepts: multitasking, task shifting, and managing multiple tasks. Multitasking is doing two things simultaneously, like walking and talking. Task shifting is stopping one task and shifting to another task, like texting your friend while watching a movie. Managing multiple tasks is essentially task management. If you have a job, four classes, and ­exercise regularly, you are managing multiple tasks. It is not commonly understood that everyone can multitask. It would be absolutely awful if we could not. We can walk and carry on a conversation, drive while listening to music, and eat while reading the latest news on our phones. There is no debate that we can multitask. The multitasking that people think they can do, and they cannot, are things like texting (or shopping on laptops) and listening

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to a lecture at the same time. In such situations we task shift, which means we text a little (while not listening to the lecture) then shift to listening to the lecture (while not texting) and then back again. In doing this, it is easy to miss quick, but critical, pieces of information said during the lecture. This is the issue of concern for faculty (Aagaard, 2018). Task shifting is a cognitive load issue. There is a great deal of research on the cost of task shifting, although most of it incorrectly uses the term multitasking (Gartrell, 2020). We stop multitasking when we max out cognitive load, at which point something has to go, so we change to task shifting. If I try to text and listen to you at the same time, I max out cognitive load. My brain quickly begins to take turns attending to the two tasks. I can miss parts of what you say (focus on texting), or I can mess up my text (focus on listening). I can’t attend to both at exactly the same time, so I shift very quickly between the two. I can listen for a few seconds, then text a few words, then listen again. This works often enough for people to do it frequently, but this comes with two dangers. One is cognitive cost. The process of shifting takes a bit of energy every time you shift, because you have to figure out quickly what was missed (Strayer et al., 2022). The second is deciding which task gets your attention and when. When you task shift between two stimuli, it is possible to forget about one of the two tasks for longer than you expected. This happens in car accidents all too frequently. If you are fast, you may be able to send a text in about 5 seconds. It takes about 3 to 5 seconds to read a text. Five seconds might not seem long, but with all the stuff going on around you when you are driving, it is a long time. Time for an experiment. Set your phone timer for 5 seconds. Close your eyes as you hit “Start.” Driving while texting or is the same as having your eyes closed. If you were in a vehicle going 60 miles per hour, in 5 seconds you would have just driven the distance of a football field, with your eyes closed. This concept is the same in the classroom or while studying. If you are texting during a lecture, it is impossible to pay attention to both, so you task shift, lose focus, and suddenly realize you missed several minutes of class. What if your professor said, “This next part is critical and will be on the exam”? Your brain just missed that! A month or so into the semester, those 5 minutes here and there have added up,

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and entire class periods are lost. If you text periodically while studying or reading, it disrupts your flow and greatly decreases your learning. When studying, block off a time, say 30 minutes, set your phone on airplane mode or mute, and study with focus. If you are on your laptop and getting distracted, turn the Wi-Fi off. Then take a few minutes to stretch, check your phone or your email, and after a few minutes get back to studying. Pitfall Avoidance #4: In class and while studying, it is so important to put the phone away. I know it is challenging, but 50 minutes off your phone and concentrating on the course or studying will be very valuable for your learning. Researchers at Michigan State University found that task shifting is highly dependent on habits, so it is important to create good habits (Kononova & Yuan, 2017). Subpitfall: If 50 minutes without your cellphone sounds ridiculous, do a quick Web search for “cell phone addiction centers” or “­symptoms of phone addiction.” It is important for people to spend a bit of time away from their phones now and then. If you can’t, that may be a concern.

Learning Pitfall #5: Listening to Negativity Being a college student is certainly stressful, and at times things will not go well with classes. Exam grades may be unexpectedly low, or harsh comments on papers can be challenging to accept. This can lead to negativity and frustration. It can be helpful to have someone to complain to when things do not go well. The person with whom you are speaking will probably agree with you, thereby acknowledging or even reinforcing the negative tone. They might also have negative things they are dealing with, and that may result in you commiserating with them. Be wary: This is also a pitfall. In psychology, we often speak of priming and cuing. Cues serve as a guide to retrieve paired information from long-term memory. In priming, a recent experience or some kind of stimulus will facilitate the recall of similar items. Our memories are not stored as isolated

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numbers. As you may recall from the learning chapter, information is stored in schemas, so thinking of, say, the word “night” brings up schemas you have associated with that word. It may even bring up vivid memories of taking an evening walk with a grandparent years before. That is the power of priming. Given the mechanisms of priming and cuing, we need to be conscientious and guard against allowing our negativity to activate other schemas associated with negativity. In psychology this is called “mood congruent memory facilitation.” The negative mood facilitates memories of things associated with bad moods (Lewis et al., 2005). It is also important to be cautious of thinking errors that can create negativity and cloud your judgement, such as all-or-none thinking. Maybe you have felt that the course was lost because you scored less than a C on a single test, ignoring the fact that there are other exams, rewrite options, or even the possibility of gaining back points if you reviewed your wrong answers. Even without those options, don’t assume all-ornothing events will occur. I have had students who seem to assume negative outcomes all the time. They say, “I am going to flunk this test, I just know I am.” To these students, I point out that the human brain is an amazing thing. If you keep saying you expect to see something negative, your brain is more likely to oblige you. Instead, prepare yourself as best you can, tell yourself you feel you will do well, and surround yourself with positive people and events, if possible. Just as with negative thoughts having undesirable consequences, positive thoughts have many beneficial outcomes in mood, health, and learning. Sarah Whitely and her colleagues at the University of Georgia found that individuals in a positive mood were even more likely to recycle, meaning mood can even have environmental consequences (Whitely et al., 2020). Pitfall Avoidance #5: Given the pressure at college, it is easy to take on an overall negative affect. Although it is certainly understandable to be upset at things that don’t go your way and sad over a bad grade, my advice overall is do your best to keep a positive outlook. Please note that if you feel sadness, hopelessness, or a general loss of energy for more than 2 weeks, it may be a good idea to visit campus health services or your primary care provider.

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Study Tip 9.3: If you study with others, study with positive people. Positivity increases motivation and builds self-efficacy.

Learning Pitfall #6: Hanging in There Too Long This final pitfall pertains to trying save a course that can’t be saved. There are times when things just won’t go in your favor and, whatever the cause, a class is simply not going to end well. Despite this, some students grimly hang on and finish out a course with a grade that tanks their GPA because they put time into studying for the course that can’t be saved instead of shifting focus to the courses still in play. One reason students fall into this pitfall is because of sunk cost, a term often used in psychology and economics. Once you have committed resources (sunk cost), all decisions after that point should be based on the upcoming circumstances, not what you’ve already put in. You’re not going to get those resources (time, money, sleep) back, whatever you do. However, humans don’t tend to do that, resulting in the sunk cost fallacy (or sunk cost effect), which happens when sunk cost expenses drive future actions. Here is an example in my life where I used this information to avoid a sunk cost fallacy. My wife, daughter, and I went to a symphony concert. We paid $50 each for the three tickets. We were caught in a sudden downpour walking from the parking garage across the street to the music hall, and the three of arrived at the building absolutely soaked, dripping puddles, and freezing in the air-conditioned hall. I know of people who would say, “I spent $150 for these tickets, so we are staying.” However, I understood sunk cost. The $150 was gone (sunk cost), so the question was really: Would we sit for free in drenched clothes, freezing? The answer was no, so we quietly got up and left. The sunk cost fallacy has been shown across a number of areas, such as sports teams keeping poor performers because of large financial investments (Farah & Baker, 2021), people staying in bad long-term relationships, and people continuing questionable economic practices (Meyers et al., 2019). I even know a person who once ate terrible food

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for dinner because they spent hours making it. I say, the time spent cooking is gone, order a pizza. There are occasions when the sunk cost fallacy is helpful. If you have completed 3 years of college and in the 4th year, find ­yourself ­frustrated and tired of school you might think about quitting. However, if you have 3 years invested then it seems wise to finish. That is a good use of sunk cost. Sunk cost can help when waiting for 30 minutes to get served at a restaurant and have the waiter show up with food about 2 minutes after you start to seriously consider leaving. If there is a course of action into which you have put significant time and money, you are more likely to stick with it if something tempts you to change directions. This can be a good thing. So, sunk cost can be beneficial at times. The important thing is to recognize when and then do your best to make the appropriate decision. Occasionally there have been students in my classes who needed to drop the course but would not do so. They would often say that they already had so much energy invested in the course that they just wanted to make it to the end (a bit of closure there from chapter 6). Even after I explained to them that there was no way that they could pass, sometimes they would say they just wanted to finish. As a result, they spent time studying for a class they couldn’t pass instead of reallocating that valuable time for other courses. Unfortunately, they got caught by the “hanging in there too long” pitfall because of sunk cost. Pitfall Avoidance #6: I am hopeful everything goes great for every class you have, but if it doesn’t, be careful to not fall into the sunk cost pitfall. I don’t want you to give up just because a course is challenging; this situation applies only when it is mathematically impossible to pass the course. It will be fine; the professor will understand if you drop the course, and most importantly, you can use the extra time from the dropped course to focus on doing as well as possible in your other courses. Of course, always confer with your faculty and your academic advisor before making any changes to your schedule. For example, if dropping a course puts you at less than full-time, you could lose scholarships contingent on maintaining full-time student status.

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Chapter Summary In this chapter, I presented six learning pitfalls that I believe can have the biggest negative impact on student success along with suggestions for dealing with them. I have seen students get into trouble with every one of these pitfalls, every semester. These dangers are not easily recognized. Students have been reading and highlighting for a very long time. The problem is when their use provides a false sense of learning. One can read a chapter four times, highlight it, and still not have attended to anything in the chapter. If you are going to reread and highlight, do it with purpose. Similarly, cramming is a behavior seen frequently on campus. I hear many students joking about it, but it really does too much damage to joke about. It is not easy, but if you can avoid cramming and study a bit every day, learning is much easier and more permanent. Learning style is a myth that continues to be perpetuated (although it’s less prevalent than in the past). We do have learning preferences, but we don’t require a specific way to learn. Task shifting, like learning styles, is poorly understood, but this does have a large impact on learning. Understanding when cognitive load is maxed out and the implications for task shifting can keep you on more solid ground. The final two learning pitfalls feel a bit more morose. Negativity can have such an overall detrimental impact. Doing your best to avoid negative people and negative thoughts has many benefits. Finally, a topic not typically covered is centered around knowing when to hold on and knowing when to fold. Unfortunately, some situations are just not going to work out. It is important to carefully assess your situation and determine if there is still a positive way forward at all. Sometimes, the best way to handle something is to walk away and avoid the sunk cost fallacy.

Discussion Questions 1. Explain how bringing elaboration into the highlighting process would increase the effectiveness of this strategy. Describe a way (other than the example used in this chapter) that highlighting or rereading could be made more effective.

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2. Why do you think so many students procrastinate with respect to studying? Why not spread out study time? Just to make this fun, you can’t use “being too busy” as a reason. Students procrastinated when I was a student, and we didn’t even have the internet. 3. To take a kind, but informed, position, what would you tell a friend who says the study group needs to start drawing out representations of the answers because they are a visual learner? Be sure to defend your response. 4. Do you ever tuck your phone away to study? If so, explain the process to keep yourself from checking your phone frequently. If you don’t put your phone away when you study, what could you do to ignore your device long enough to study for 1 hour? 5. The sunk cost fallacy might help you but it might also cause you to waste time or money. Explain how you could improve your chances of making the right call as to whether to quit or keep going after you have already committed resources to the course of action.

References Aagaard, J. (2018). Multitasking as distraction: A conceptual analysis of media multitasking research. Theory & Psychology, 29(1), 87–99. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0959354318815766 Blasiman, R. N., Dunlosky, J., & Rawson, K. A. (2016). The what, how much, and when of study strategies: Comparing intended versus actual study behaviour. Memory, 25(6), 784–792. https:/doi.org/10.1080/0965 8211.2016.1221974 Dekker, S., Lee, N. C., Howard-Jones, P., & Jolles, J. (2020). Neuromyths in education: Prevalence and predictors of misconceptions among teachers. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 429. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00429 Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & ­Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning ­techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. https://doi .org/10.1177/1529100612453266 Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H. Ruger & C. Bussenius, Trans.). Teachers College Press.

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Farah, L., & Baker, J. (2021). Eliminating buyer’s remorse: An examination of the sunk cost fallacy in the National Hockey League draft. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 31(6), 1363–1370. https://doi .org/ 10.1111/sms.13948 Feng, K., Zhao, X., Liu, J., Cai, Y., Ye, Z., Chen, C., & Xue, G. (2019). Spaced learning enhances episodic memory by increasing neural pattern similarity across repetitions. Journal of Neuroscience, 39(27), 5351–5360. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2741-18.2019 Fowler, R. L., & Barker, A. S. (1974). Effectiveness of highlighting for retention of text material. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59(3), 358–364. https:// doi.org/10.1037/h0036750 Gartrell, J. L. (2020). The effect size of multitasking on individual task ­performance: A meta-analysis [ProQuest Information & Learning]. In Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social ­Sciences (Vol. 81, Issue 5–A). Kononova, A. G., & Yuan, S. (2017). Take a break: Examining college students’ media multitasking activities and motivations during study- or work-related tasks. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 72(2), 183–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695816649474 Lewis, P. A., Critchley, H. D., Smith, A. P., & Dolan, R. J. (2005). Brain mechanisms for mood congruent memory facilitation. NeuroImage, 25(4), 1214–1223. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.11.053 Mander, B. A., Santhanam, S., Saletin, J. M., & Walker, M. P. (2011). Wake deterioration and sleep restoration of human learning. Current Biology, 21(5), 183–184. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cub.2011.01.019 Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Pitfall. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved March 14, 2022, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/ dictionary/­pitfall Metcalfe, J., & Xu, J. (2016). People mind wander more during massed than spaced inductive learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,  42(6), 978–984. https://doi.org/10.1037/ xlm0000216 Meyers, E. A., Bialek, M., Fugelsang, J. A., Koehler, D. J., & Friedman, O. (2019). Wronging past rights: The sunk cost bias distorts moral judgment. Judgement and Decision Making, 14(6), 721–727. http://journal.sjdm .org/19/190909b/jdm190909b.html Morehead, K., Rhodes, M. G., & DeLozier, S. (2015). Instructor and student knowledge of study strategies. Memory, 24(2), 257–271. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/09658211.2014.1001992

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Nancekivell, S. E., Sun, X., Gelman, S. A., & Shah, P. (2021). A slippery myth: How learning style beliefs shape reasoning about multimodal instruction and related scientific evidence. Cognitive Science, 45(10), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.13047 Newton, P. M., & Salvi, A. (2020). How common is belief in the learning styles neuromyth, and does it matter? A pragmatic systematic review. Frontiers in Education, 5, 602451. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.602451 Papadatou-Pastou, M., Touloumakos, A. K., Koutouveli, C., & Barrable, A. (2021). The learning styles neuromyth: When the same term means different things to different teachers. European Journal of Psychology of ­Education, 36(2), 511–531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-020-00485-2 Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 105–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x Strayer, D. L., Castro, S. C., Turrill, J., & Cooper, J. M. (2022). The persistence of distraction: The hidden costs of intermittent multitasking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. Advance online publication. https:// doi.org/10.1037/xap0000388 Weinstein, Y., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2010). A comparison of study strategies for passages: Rereading, answering questions, and generating questions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 16(3), 308–316. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020992 Whitley, S., Trudel, R., & Baxter, W. (2020). The environmental consequences of people’s moods: Positive moods and disposal behavior. Advances in Consumer Research, 48, 778–781. https://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/ 2661142/volumes/v48/NA-48

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P A RT FO U R K E E P IT G OI N G

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How did you feel yesterday? How about today? Are you currently ­energized, lethargic, sanguine, irritated, or even indifferent? One of the biggest factors determining how you feel each day is the amount of sleep you get the night before. Think for a minute about how you feel after a really good sleep. Your mood is excellent, and the day may seem full of possibilities. What about days when you did not sleep well at all? Perhaps something was bothering you so you couldn’t fall asleep, or maybe you stayed up most of the night studying for a test or writing a paper. How did you feel after that terrible night of sleep? If you are similar to most people, you know that it will be a tough day as soon as you get out of bed. No one ever looks in the mirror after a terrible night of sleep and says, “Wow, today is going to be great.” Sleep has an enormous impact on just about every aspect of your life. It impacts outlook, mood, weight, health, relationships, and academic performance. Humans do not do well when sleep deprived, and it doesn’t take long for deprivation to start messing with our physiological systems. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2016) reported that individuals getting fewer than 7 hours per night over an extended period are much more at risk for developing health 183

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challenges such as “obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, and frequent mental distress” (para. 2). Given the extent to which a lack of sleep impacts our lives, it is a good thing that we have some control over how much we sleep. If you are not already actively working on getting optimal sleep each day, this is a great time to start. Due to life circumstances, you may not sleep as much as you would like. I had to work three jobs when I was an undergrad student, so I couldn’t sleep as much as I would have liked. If your situation does not allow you to sleep when you want, and for as long as you want, the key is to do the best you can with what you have. Maximize opportunities and make good use of time. The following pages can serve as a guide to make you healthier and, as a result, a stronger learner.

What Researchers Say About Sleep Researchers started studying sleep about 300 years ago. You would think they would have figured out everything by now, but we still can’t tell you what’s happening when we sleep. That said, we are learning more every day and beginning to understand the importance of getting good quality sleep. Unfortunately, a vast number of people in the United States are sleep deprived and it is no different for college students. The University of Georgia (UGA) collects health data and found that most UGA students report getting between 6 and 6.9 hours of sleep each night (UGA, 2021). The National Center for Health Statistics (2017) noted that nearly 73% of high school students got fewer than 8 hours of sleep per night.

Circadian Rhythms Certain structures in your brain work with specific hormones to make you tired at night and wake you up in the morning, your circadian rhythm. The hypothalamus, a relatively small structure in the middle of your brain, is the primary controller of the sleep and wake cycle, along with many other things. One of the things your hypothalamus controls is the pineal gland, a tiny gland about the size of a pea. The pineal gland uses light to convert serotonin (a neurotransmitter that

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stabilizes our mood, feelings, and happiness) into melatonin. When the pineal gland receives signals that you are experiencing light, it stops making melatonin. When the sun goes down, the pineal gland starts to produce melatonin, which makes you sleepy. The melatonin created in the evening will stay in your system long enough for you to go to sleep, usually about 4 to 8 hours. While you are sleeping, the melatonin breaks down, the sun coming up keeps more melatonin from being produced, and you wake up. Unless artificial light messes with your circadian rhythm and melatonin production, it all works well.

Stages of Sleep Researchers have also found that sleep is not as simple as it appears. When we sleep, we proceed through a predictable pattern of stages. While we sleep, there are two different states: rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Upon entering REM, muscles become atonic, which means you can’t use your arms and legs, and your eyes begin to move back and forth, although eyes remain closed. One hypothesis is that loss of muscle movement keeps humans from acting out their dreams. REM sleep is sometimes called paradoxical sleep because the brain is very active, almost the same as when awake. It can be challenging to wake someone in this state, and if awakened, they may be confused if they were dreaming. NREM state is divided into four stages. Stage 1 shows electrical brain wave activity consisting of very shallow waves called alpha waves. This stage typically lasts less than 7 minutes. It is easy to wake up while in this stage and can be difficult to tell if someone is asleep, just relaxed, or distracted. A person engaged in a simple activity during Stage 1 may keep doing the movement as the individual drifts in and out of sleep. The ability to persist at simple behaviors while going in and out of sleep explains why a person driving a car can continue to drive even as they drift into Stage 1 of sleep and then back out to be awake and relaxed (Carskadon & Dement, 2011). This also explains why it is so dangerous to drive while tired. If you drift through Stage 1 to Stage 2, driving ability stops—but the car keeps going. In 2017, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration said drowsy driving caused 91,000 police-reported crashes. When you feel tired while driving, it is crucial to take a break or let someone else drive. During

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Stage 1, you may experience a myoclonic jerk, otherwise called a nap jerk. People in Stage 1 often report feeling like they are floating or falling, and as a result, their whole body jerks very suddenly (Bhat & Lysenko, 2018). Study Tip 10.1: A good night of sleep will make your study time much more efficient. We learn faster and store memories more efficiently when rested, even if it doesn’t feel like it. From Stage 1, individuals proceed to Stage 2, a deeper sleep stage, but they can still wake up easily. This stage typically lasts 10 to 25 ­minutes. As the brain waves slow down through this stage, individuals move into Stage 3, an even deeper sleep. This short stage is a transition to Stage 4. Stage 4 is the deepest NREM stage where slow delta waves appear. This stage is often called deep sleep, and in the first sleep cycle of the night, it will last about 30 minutes. If someone wakes you up or an alarm clock goes off while in Stage 4, you will find it difficult to wake up. Most individuals are right in the middle of Stage 4 deep sleep 1 hour after falling asleep. From here, you move back to Stage 3 for a few minutes and then back up to Stage 2 for about 10 minutes and then typically to REM state. From this REM phase, we move again to Stage 1. Individuals often wake up for a few minutes at this time, although it is common for a person not to remember. If your roommate sits up for just a second and then lays back down, they likely just hit Stage 1 and then started into the next sleep cycle. Sleep cycles take about 90 minutes to complete. Under normal circumstances, most individuals go through five cycles, which is typically about 7.5 hours. Stage 4 deep sleep gets shorter as the night progresses, and REM gets longer. For the first sleep cycle of the night, REM may last only a few minutes (Carskadon & Dement, 2011). The cycles look very different if you are sleep deprived, have consumed alcohol, or some other factor interferes with normal sleep. If exhausted, you may move through Stages 1 and 2 rapidly and get to Stage 4 within just a few minutes.

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However, if your sleep cycles are interrupted later in the night, you may not be able to get enough REM sleep. If that happens, you will experience REM rebound the next time you sleep, which means you will go into REM much more quickly and stay in REM stages longer. This is why, at times, you may fall asleep for just a few minutes and have a vivid dream right away. All sleep is important, but REM and Stage 4 deep sleep are critical for learning and memory, so it is best not to disturb these stages of sleep.

Sleep Patterns: Larks and Night Owls Another emerging area of study is chronotypes, or individual sleep patterns of when you go to bed, wake up, and have the most mental power. Much has been written about people who tend to get up early, called larks, and those who like to stay up at night, called owls. It turns out most of us are a mix of the two (Jarrett, 2021). Research in this area has been controversial for many years. The primary ­challenge is that research in the past has been based on self-report data, which is notoriously inaccurate in social science research. Recently, researchers have begun to use smartphone data to track sleep–wake patterns (Lin et al., 2019; Schoedel et al., 2020). This research confirms that 15% to 20% are definitively larks or owls, and a full 60% to 70% have overlapping sleep patterns, meaning they have tendencies of both larks and owls. Although small differences do exist between the chronotypes, we don’t know what causes these differences, and they tend to be correlational, which means we don’t know what is causing what. For example, Lipnevich et al. (2017) found that larks are slightly more conscientious than are owls. The correlation may mean that being a lark causes or influences those individuals to be more conscientious. However, the correlation may be that less conscientious people tend to stay up later, or it might be that individuals who have sleeping disorders are both less conscientious and stay up later. If this area interests you, and I do think there are some interesting findings emerging by using smartphones, keep reading research-based journals for information and read the popular press articles to point you to research and also for a bit of fun. Just remember to follow the science.

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Instead of trying to figure out whether you are a lark or an owl by filling out a survey, it is much more accurate to simply determine when you tend to be most effective. If you figure out your peak cognitive time, you can schedule study time at that time of day. You can also schedule noncognitive tasks, such as cleaning or going for a walk, at your less cognitively sharp times. That will lead to good information that will help you academically. Keep a log for a week of how you slept the previous night, then rate how effective you feel while doing various activities throughout the day (e.g., reading, listening to lectures, doing homework problems). A pattern will likely emerge that shows when you do your best thinking and how your sleep affects your day, and it might surprise you! I kept a log like this when I was a second-year undergraduate. I thought it was a waste of time because I was sure I knew my peak performing times. I was wrong. I like to stay up late, but it turns out I am the sharpest academically early in the morning. I also found out that I am not mentally alert at all between 2:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m. To this very day, I schedule my writing and research in the early morning and meetings in the afternoon.

Sleep, Learning, and Memory Seventy percent of college students report that they don’t get enough sleep, resulting in lower GPAs and an increased risk of flunking out of school (Hershner & Chervin, 2014; Okano et al., 2019). Remember the students at UGA who were not sleeping as much as recommended? That same study reported that those who average fewer than 6 hours of sleep per night have lower overall GPAs than those sleeping an average of 8 hours or more (UGA, 2021). This isn’t confined to UGA. Researchers have found that poor sleep habits impact academic ­performance for students all over the world, such as China (Wong et al., 2013), Ethiopia (Lemma et al., 2014), and the United States (Gilbert & Weaver, 2010). Anyone who has been exhausted when ­taking a test knows that being tired makes remembering harder, thinking more clouded, and creative problem-solving more challenging. Every sleep research article I have read has shown that a lack of sleep hurts learning and memory.

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Importance of Sleep for Learning and Memory Sleep is necessary for the brain to function well, particularly for learning and memory. Recall from chapter 4 that consolidation must take place to remember something long term. It turns out that sleep is necessary to consolidate memories and information. If you do not sleep relatively soon after learning something new, consolidation doesn’t happen, and you likely won’t remember what you learned, even if you catch up on sleep later. Pulling an all-nighter and then going to classes the next day hurts on both sides of the night. Any information learned the day before the all-nighter is not consolidated, so it is lost. Research also shows that when an exhausted brain encounters new information, it is challenging to form a memory trace, so additional information experienced the day after an all-nighter is more challenging to learn. Even if you feel fine after an all-nighter, you may find your ability to learn in the neighborhood of 20% lower than if you were rested (Mander et al., 2011). Memory consolidation works best when sleep happens relatively soon after learning the new material (Gais et al., 2006). Provided you are not tired while studying, information learned closer to the time you go to bed will be consolidated better than information learned earlier in the day. This is an important consideration for your study allocation. If you have 2 hours set aside to study, one from 10:00 a.m.–11:00 a.m. and another from 9:00 p.m.–10:00 p.m., it would be best to study the easier material in the morning and the more challenging material closer to when you intend to go to bed. When we learn new information, it is temporarily stored in the hippocampus. While you are sleeping, your hippocampus reactivates the memory trace and then transfers it to the appropriate cortex area of the brain for more permanent storage. Declarative memories (facts and information, like your friend’s birthday and what you gave her as a present) are stored differently than procedural memories (how to do something, like walking through the party room or wrapping her gift). Reactivating these memory traces to consolidate information is why sleeping after studying is essential. After learning new material, the information will likely not be processed before the memory trace fades if you stay up too long. Born and colleagues at the University of Fribourg found that the deep, slow waves in Stages 3 and 4 are

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particularly important for consolidating declarative memories (Born et al., 2006). During these stages, the hippocampus reactivates facts and information you learned and transfers that information to the cortex, primarily the temporal lobe. Procedural memories, such as learning a new dance move or kicking a soccer ball, are primarily strengthened during REM sleep, which occurs mainly in later sleep cycles. An exception is that the REM stage also appears to consolidate emotional declarative memories better.

Remembering What Is Important During Sleep You process a lot of information during the day. You see cars drive by, you talk to friends, you text, and you go to classes. You are exposed to millions of pieces of information every minute, all day long. Some of the information you process is important, but other information is not needed, so it should be forgotten to free up space for future information. There is no reason to remember the color of a car parked next to yours at the grocery store. Although researchers don’t know exactly how it works, they do have evidence that much of the sorting of what to remember and what to forget happens while you sleep. Wilhelm and colleagues at the University of Lübeck asked participants to learn word pairs (declarative memory) while tapping a specific sequence with their finger (procedural memory) (Wilhelm et al., 2011). Some participants were instructed to sleep after learning tasks, and others were not. Participants who slept and were told the information was needed later performed better on the declarative and procedural memory tests. Surprisingly, participants who didn’t sleep scored the same whether they felt the information was important or not. One other interesting finding was that those who learned information was important and then slept demonstrated different deep sleep patterns than those who did not expect to use the information in the future. For long-term learning, an expectation that information will be needed in the future is helpful. An exam is undoubtedly one way to signal importance, but there are better ways. As you study, think about how this information might be used in other classes, at a job, or even to help people. Learning to calculate the strength of different types of steel may seem unimportant in life, but it is significant for those ­driving on bridges.

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Power of Naps and Restful Breaks Naps have been studied for decades across various circumstances, and the findings are consistent: Daytime naps, in some cases as short as 6 minutes, significantly improve learning (Farhadian et al., 2021). What you have learned in this chapter about sleep stages can help you select the proper amount of time to nap. Many people choose to take a nap for an hour, which is typically a poor idea. At 1 hour after going to sleep, you know what stage the sleeper is in, right? Yes, Stage 4, the hardest part of the sleep cycle to wake up. Have you ever laid down, feeling good, only to wake to an alarm 1 hour later feeling sluggish and irritated? Or perhaps you didn’t get up after the 1 hour and ended up sleeping much longer than you had anticipated? That is the challenge with waking up in Stage 4. It is best to nap less than 20 minutes or around 90 minutes. A short nap will put you in Stage 2 when it is time to wake up, which is easy. If you have more time, it is best to nap for about 90 minutes, as that will let you sleep one complete cycle and put you back near Stage 1. As a result, it will be much easier for you to wake up quickly and feel refreshed. Research on naps has been done all over the world. In Singapore, a group that napped after learning word pairs outperformed a group that watched a video (Ong et al., 2020). Research also shows that you don’t have to take a nap to get refreshed. If you don’t have time to nap, you can still take a restful break by closing your eyes and relaxing. Research shows these short breaks are helpful in keeping the new information intact. Children given a restful break recalled one-third more words on a vocabulary list than children who watched a video (Martini et al., 2019). The research is clear that naps and restful breaks are effective methods to retain information as they allow time to process information before it either fades away or is replaced by something else. This means that back-to-back classes are not a good idea. Any newly learned information is in a relatively fragile state in the h ­ ippocampus, and without a nap or restful break, that information is easily d ­ isplaced. I know full well it is attractive to stack classes so that you have days off, but do be careful of the fatigue factor and the resulting impact on your learning.

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Cramming Versus Resting I have asked college students all over the country if cramming is an effective study strategy. Know what they say? You are correct. Most say that it is not effective. Then I ask how many students cram for exams the night before the test. This response will not surprise you either: About 90% of the same students who just said it was not a good idea say they cram for exams. As noted in chapter 4 on learning and chapter 9 on learning pitfalls cramming comes with very high costs. There is typically a fair amount of stress, and information is learned, forgotten, and must then be relearned later.

Study Tip 10.2: Regularly spaced-out study sessions are much better than cramming. As a bonus, there will be less stress the night before the test and less cognitive fuzziness during the test.

The good news is that you are in a very select group of individuals who know why cramming does not work. You also know a bit of research from this chapter on naps and rests, so you know how to study smarter in harmony with your brain. Study after study shows that naps and restful breaks improve learning. Ultimately, try to avoid a situation where you have to learn 2 weeks of content in a single night. If you can do that you will have time to set up the best sequence of steps on the evening before the exam. Set up the necessary study periods to go over material, taking breaks periodically to let some of the material process. Then review the most challenging of your material just before going to sleep. This may be challenging at first, but you can get there with practice.

Managing Your Sleep As humans, we sleep roughly one-third of our lives. With just a bit of work, you can be in the exclusive club of people who manage their sleep, and the payoffs can be huge.

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Those who don’t manage their sleep well often fall behind on sleep. This is called sleep debt. Everyone has an ideal amount of sleep, with most people right around 7.5 hours. If your ideal sleep is 7.5 hours and you sleep 7 hours, then you have a sleep debt of 0.5 hours. You could make that up with a 30-minute nap in the afternoon or even two quick 15-minute naps. The exact amount of sleep is not important, but the concept is. Note that sleep debt is relative to the amount of sleep that is ideal for you. This is why two people can sleep the same number of hours with one feeling refreshed and the other person feeling sluggish. Because of the importance of sleep, whenever you are behind on sleep, your body will spend more time in deep, slow-wave sleep and REM than usual. The result is that you can make up sleep debt with just a bit of extra sleep. But don’t make a habit of it. Many people rack up sleep debt every week and then sleep a bit longer on the weekends to get out of debt. Research suggests this is not a great idea. Smith and a team of colleagues from University of Pennsylvania, Virginia Tech, and The John Space Center conducted a study on sleep debt at the NASA Human Exploration Research Analog (HERA) at the Johnson Space Center in Houston (Smith et al., 2021). The researchers kept participants in a simulated spacecraft for 45 days. During this time, the participants slept in a pattern of 5 weekday nights (accumulating debt) followed by 2 weekend nights (making up for the debt). Results showed that individuals in the experimental group had significantly lower performance on cognitive tests and attention tasks. This demonstrates that recovery sleep may work periodically, but it should not be used as a rationale to maintain a schedule with long stretches of sleep deprivation. As the best-case scenario is to not get into sleep debt to begin with, let’s look at five common causes that result in people being sleep deprived. We will then look at five strategies that help people get quality sleep. There are undoubtedly additional items for each of these lists, but this is enough to get started.

Factors That Disrupt Sleep The following five areas are the most common causes of sleep disruption for college students. As always, there are variations between

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people, and there can even be variations within people. That means that some of the following items can affect you differently at different times. All that said, there are certainly some similarities. Alcohol Consumption Consuming alcohol impacts the human body, sleep, and performance the following day. It is a good idea to be mindful of the consequences before you have that first drink. If you choose to drink, it is also crucial to be safe, have a plan for the evening, and be careful that you do not engage in any behaviors that will result in long-term harm to you or others. Because people get excited, yell, and are animated while drinking, many think alcohol is a stimulant. Actually, alcohol is a central nervous system depressant and has a negative impact on several aspects of sleep, depending on age, physical shape, biological sex, food consumption, and other factors. As alcohol is a depressant, it will make a person fall asleep quickly and typically move swiftly to deep sleep. Deep sleep can trigger sleep apnea, which causes a person to stop breathing. If the brain can catch what is going on, it will startle the person into taking a breath. In some cases, however, if the person has consumed large amounts of alcohol, the brain may not respond, and breathing could fail to resume. An extended discussion about all the ways alcohol impacts sleep is beyond the scope of this book. Suffice it to say, it severely disrupts sleep, learning, and memory formation at any and all levels of consumption (Pietilä et al., 2018). Because alcohol impacts the quality of sleep, it affects learning. Depending on the amount of alcohol, REM sleep may not happen for the entire night. Given REM’s part in memory consolidation, lack of REM sleep may make it difficult to recall what was done the evening prior. Because learning likely won’t end up being consolidated well, things learned earlier on the day of drinking may or may not be recalled. Many studies have shown that alcohol consumption negatively impacts alertness the following day. This will not come as a surprise to anyone who has had a hangover. As a general rule, when we feel that bad, nothing good can be happening on the inside. Being sleep deprived, having a hangover, and feeling sluggish will certainly impact learning new information. Frequent binge drinking may also affect

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learning for years to come. It is important to note that those who frequently drink alcohol develop chronic sleep problems, particularly insomnia. Overall, alcohol significantly impacts learning and sleep in multiple ways. That should be kept in mind whenever going out to drink. Caffeine Caffeine is the most widely consumed psychoactive drug globally, and many people depend on it to get them going in the morning (Mosley, 2020). Caffeine is a plant product found in about 60 different species, including cacao beans, kola nuts, tea leaves, coffee berries, and other forms. Yes, coffee berries, as the coffee bean is a cherry pit. Most individuals ingest caffeine through coffee, energy drinks, soda, tea, and chocolate. Caffeine pills are also available over the counter and as prescriptions. Approximately 85% of adults in the United States consume caffeine. Users of caffeine ingest an average of 180 mg per day, or about the amount of caffeine in two cups of coffee or about one 2-liter bottle of soda (Temple et al., 2017). The recommended maximum dose of caffeine is 200 mg per dose and 400 mg per day. The FDA has noted that consuming 1,200 mg in a day may induce seizures. I know of two individuals with no history of seizures who suddenly had seizures following a large caffeine intake. In the first instance, a conference attendee was fatigued. She had two cups of coffee with breakfast, an energy shot about 30 minutes later, and then one cup of coffee at the morning break. That gave her approximately 700 mg of caffeine within a few hours. She had nearly twice the recommended maximum for an entire day. She seized on the conference floor for close to an hour and was fine after a brief stay in the hospital. The other person had a seizure after two energy shots and then two cups of coffee, following an extended shift at work. If you are one of the 85% that ingests caffeine, just be careful. Caffeine is typically ingested specifically to feel more energetic, reduce headaches, boost metabolism, increase the ability to focus and pay attention, and potentially even improve memory a bit. However, more is not better when it comes to caffeine. In one study, participants studied images and then ingested 0 mg, 100 mg, 200 mg, or 300 mg of caffeine (Borota et al., 2014). When tested 24 hours later, the

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participants in the caffeine group did significantly better than the control group, but those who took 200 mg of caffeine did the best. This makes sense as too much caffeine results in many harmful effects such as irritability, anxiety, headaches, rapid heart rate, and extra fatigue when the caffeine wears off. One concern regarding caffeine is the extent to which it can disrupt your sleep. It does not help to study hard in the evening with a coffee or energy drink if that caffeine keeps you up most of the night. Caffeine has a half-life that averages about 5 hours (Temple et al., 2017). That means if you have a cup of coffee with breakfast, that caffeine will be added to the remains of the energy drink you had at 11:00 p.m. the night before. Be careful with caffeine consumption because it can last in your system for some time. Overall, you will be the best judge for what level of caffeine you can have in your system and still get quality sleep. The vital thing to note is that caffeine does last in your system for an extended time and can interfere with sleep. If you are in it for the taste, there are alternatives. The USDA notes that a typical 8-ounce cup of decaffeinated coffee has about 2 mg of caffeine, but check the label, as some brands can have as much as 15 mg per cup. Diet Individuals often don’t realize that what they eat will impact their sleep. Sodas and foods with a high fat content (e.g., fast food) have been shown repeatedly to affect sleep. Holmes and colleagues from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, found that children who consumed fast food tended to sleep less across 24 hours (nighttime sleep and naps) (Holmes et al., 2021). Children who drank soda had a similar pattern of less sleep, and it also took longer for them to fall asleep. There is a solid and consistent relationship between weight and sleeping time. Studies have shown a relationship between a short amount of sleep time and obesity in children as young as preschool age (Miller et al., 2021). It isn’t just children; those studies are listed here to show you it starts early. Sleep and weight are closely related throughout life. There are many factors involved. Low levels of sleep can change metabolism, which is the pace at which your body burns fat. Lack of sleep can also impact a body’s response to glucose in a way that can even increase the possibility of getting diabetes.

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In addition to the direct impact of lack of sleep on the way the body and brain process food, being awake more hours gives individuals more time to eat, specifically of high-fat food, which can disrupt sleep. It can be a vicious cycle. In addition to weight gain, this type of food increases restless sleep and trips to the bathroom. This means that sleep cycles are disrupted, with implications for deep sleep and REM. Overall, high-fat food diets have very little positive nutritional value for individuals and several negative consequences, including a negative impact on learning. Technology Technology has many benefits, such as connecting with friends and family at any time of day or night, looking up things you are thinking about, or just watching mindless videos to relax or pass the time. The technology you hold in your hand is an amazing device. That same device can also seriously interfere with your sleep. If you leave your phone on while you sleep, sound or light from your phone can disrupt your sleep cycles and perhaps even keep you awake. If an alert comes at just the right (actually, wrong) time, you might wake up, and depending on your stage of sleep at that moment, you may have a tough time falling back to sleep. Setting your phone to “do not disturb” will allow you to sleep without interruption but still allow you to get information from your very closest friends and family members if there is an emergency. In addition to sleep disruptions from late-night messages, technology can wind you up just before you go to sleep. Snyder and Chang (2019) report that 90% of Americans use technology within the hour before going to bed, and Harris and colleagues at Texas A&M University noted that 75% of college students in their study reported sleeping with their cellphone lying beside them (Harris et al., 2020). Your reaction to a post on politics or from a friend on social media might keep you up for hours, or you might decide to play just one more game or watch just one more inning. Regardless of what you are using your device for, having it on just before you go to sleep carries a high risk of keeping you awake for a long time and losing valuable sleep. Consider putting your phone or laptop away 1 hour before you go to bed. You can experiment with different lengths of time and find what works best for you.

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The light on your laptop, phone, and television can also cause difficulty sleeping. Technology typically uses blue-spectrum light, which allows for crisp viewing, but also disrupts sleep. Researchers have found that the blue light emitted from phones and laptops interferes with normal melatonin production, making it harder to fall and stay asleep (Snyder & Chang, 2019). Perhaps even worse, blue light in the evening can shift your circadian rhythm to a later phase, meaning you fall asleep later and get up later. The best solution to combat all of this is to simply put electronic devices away before bed, or at least change the light from blue spectrum to red spectrum by switching to evening mode or downloading an app that will change the light.

Factors That Promote Sleep Good sleep hygiene is a pattern of behaviors individuals carry out as a routine to prepare for sleep. The following considerations show up repeatedly among those providing tips on sleeping well. As with everything, there are variations between people, and there can even be variations within people from one night to the next. That means sometimes you will need one or more of the following suggestions, and at other times you will not. The most important thing is that you do your best to create a situation that helps you sleep best.

Bedroom Environment You cannot simply will yourself to sleep, as brains don’t work like that. You develop good sleep patterns by listening to your body’s cues that you are getting tired and by establishing routine actions that cue your body that rest is coming. Creating an environment conducive to sleep will help you fall asleep and stay asleep through sleep cycles. It is essential to individualize the approach to your preference; however, there are few common themes for all sleeping environments: •• Comfort: Fresh, clean sheets are a treat. You studied hard and deserve it! •• Light: Blackout curtains or a sleep mask help ensure you aren’t woken at dawn if you plan to sleep late. Conversely, sheer curtains let the light come in to help morning risers.

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•• Noise: Consider earplugs or a white noise machine to block unwanted sounds. •• Temperature: The ideal range is 66 °F to 71 °F. Get lots of blankets and get cozy.

Bedtime Routine Adopting a consistent routine provides your mind and body with reassurances and subliminal cues that sleep is natural, welcomed, and anticipated. Initiate a series of quiet activities that allow you to decompress, quiet your thoughts, and relax in your environment. For some individuals, the steps include hitting the remote key lock for your car (again), locking your doors, opening/closing windows, dimming lights, reading a book, stretching, doing yoga, or meditating. For others, it’s a light snack and that last sip of water before brushing their teeth and washing their face. Your bedtime routine may include a shower or a specific pair of pajamas. Research shows that even 10 minutes in a hot shower or soaking in a warm bath 1–2 hours before bedtime prepares your body for feeling relaxation that comes with the early stages of sleep (Haghayegh et al., 2019). It is advantageous to avoid screen time an hour before bedtime as part of your bedtime routine.

Study Tip 10.3: A good bedtime routine shortens time to fall asleep. Better sleep means better learning.

The practice of consistently performing the same activities in the same order develops positive habits that cue your brain that it is time to sleep. Once you have completed the steps, lying down in a cool room with adequate coverings and regular breathing provides a stillness that allows the body to begin the cycle of rest and initiate sleep. Physical Activity and Being Outside Being in nature—sitting in an open window, reading materials under the shade of a tree, walking through dedicated green space, and soaking up some sun—helps promote sleep at bedtime. Interacting with

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nature supports mental well-being, elevates mood, and fosters a sense of belonging and confidence. Likewise, being in nature routinely leads to measurable reduction in the stress hormone cortisol, lowers reported anxiety, and provides a greater sense of calm. The sun helps to keep circadian rhythms aligned and heavily influences the production of melatonin. Just a bit of sunlight each day has an impact on mood, mental health, and ability to sleep well (Nagare et al., 2021). Have you noticed that when you spend the day in the sun, you often feel extra tired that evening? That is the power of the sun on setting up melatonin production. Physical activity is also helpful in promoting efficient sleep with few disruptions. It is best to do more strenuous workouts, particularly intense cardio workouts, in the morning. Some researchers have found that moderate physical activity is more effective for sleep promotion than intense exercise (Wang & Boros, 2019).

Insomnia It’s common to have episodic bouts of insomnia. Insomnia is the difficulty of falling asleep or staying asleep. Medical institutions note that it is common for anywhere from 33% to 50% of adults to have occasional insomnia. Everyone has nights of tossing and turning, particularly when there is a lot on your mind. The stress and strain of juggling schoolwork, employment, and social demands along with personal goals and self-imposed expectations can negatively affect your sleep pattern. If you find you cannot get to sleep, or if you wake up in the night and can’t get back to sleep, get out of bed and develop a “sleepy routine.” When I can’t sleep, I get up, get a warm beverage, listen to a podcast, or read a book. If you stay in bed tossing and turning for long periods, it can bring about chronic insomnia. Find something that is not overly exciting, and then when you start to feel tired, head back to bed. There is a difference between chronic insomnia (having trouble either falling or staying asleep for a minimum of 3 nights per week for a minimum of 3 months) and occasional insomnia. If you have chronic insomnia, see your health-care professional. In addition, being fatigued during the day when you feel you are sleeping well at night

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could be a sign of conditions that require professional attention. It is a good idea to seek appropriate treatment through health services or your primary care provider to rule out any underlying disorders such as sleep apnea or narcolepsy and to receive expert advice on a behavioral approach to promote adequate sleep.

Long-Term Brain Health and Sleep If there is one consistency across all researchers, it’s that sleep disruptions have many negative health consequences. At the University Gronigen, Medic and colleagues looked at nearly 100 different research papers on this topic (Medic et al., 2017). They found a long list of factors that can contribute to sleep disruptions, many of which are in this chapter. They also found many short-term consequences, such as anxiety, mood disorders, thinking and memory deficits, emotional distress, increased risk-taking behaviors, mental health challenges, and lower school performance. Long-term consequences included hypertension, weight-related challenges, type 2 diabetes, and even some forms of cancer. Given the wide range of cognitive, behavioral, and general health consequences for poor sleep, getting an adequate amount of good sleep is really important. You can take control of that part of your life. Behaviors you establish right now will follow you for years. If you identify and follow good sleep practices while you are relatively young, it will not only stave off illness, cognitive issues, and health challenges, it will help you increase your health throughout your life.

Chapter Summary Researchers have been studying sleep for a very long time. Although we don’t know why humans sleep, we know sleep is essential. That said, many college students are sleep deprived, impacting many aspects of life, including GPAs. Nearly everyone goes through 90-minute sleep cycles every evening, with REM and deep sleep impacting learning. Our brains are wired to remember information that is deemed n ­ ecessary. Naps and restful breaks are helpful to get out of sleep debt, provided they are either approximately 20 or 90

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minutes in length. Studying all night puts you in a bad learning situation because it is much harder to consolidate memories, and information learned is quickly lost without sleep. Studying all night also immediately puts you into sleep debt, which has additional implications for learning. Several factors can create or add to sleep debt, such as alcohol and caffeine consumption, technology, and ingestion of certain foods before going to bed. Sodas and high-fat foods tend to negatively impact sleep, disrupting the consolidation of information, leading to memory loss of items the day prior. Factors noted in this chapter that promote sleep include the bedroom environment, a bedtime routine, physical activity, being outside, and having a nighttime waking routine. There is a long list of negative consequences of sleep deprivation. It is vital to stay out of sleep debt to the greatest extent possible. Sleep is something most people do approximately one-third of their lives. Given that time expense, it is worth the energy to manage it the best you can.

Discussion Questions 1. Describe how a poor night of sleep impacts you the following day. 2. Do you have a time of the day when you are more cognitively sharp than other times of the day? How might you (re)schedule some of your responsibilities to take into account your sleep patterns and cognitive peak time(s)? 3. What is your ideal amount of sleep each night? Do you hit your ideal sleep duration on a typical weeknight? How do your sleep patterns change on the weekend? 4. Time for a WebQuest. Go online and find a chart of typical caffeine amounts and see how much beverage caffeine (not counting chocolate and foods with caffeine this time) you consume on an average day. Mayo Clinic has a good site, and you can search under “Caffeine content for coffee, tea, soda, and more.” What typically makes your caffeine intake fluctuate? 5. What options exist for you to be outside during the day? If you live in a cold climate, what options could replace being outside during winter and help promote sleep?

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6. Do you occasionally have nights where you wake up and have trouble falling back to sleep? If so, what routines do you have, or could you have, to help you get back to sleep? If you do not have difficulty falling back to sleep, what advice would you provide to a friend who is having trouble waking and not being able to fall back to sleep? Note: You cannot use the example from the book.

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Harris, B., Regan, T., Schueler, J., & Fields, S. A. (2020). Problematic mobile phone and smartphone use scales: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(672). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00672 Hershner, S. D., & Chervin, R. D. (2014). Causes and consequences of sleepiness among college students. Nature and Science of Sleep, 2014(6), 73–84. https://doi.org/10.2147/NSS.S62907 Holmes, J., St. Laurent, C. W., & Spencer, R. M. C. (2021). Unhealthy diet is associated with poor sleep in preschool-aged children. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 182(5), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325 .2021.1905598 Jarrett, C. (2021, August 14). Early risers and night owls: A neuroscientist explains who is happiest. Science Focus: The Home of the BBC Science Focus Magazine. https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/early-risers-and-night-owlsa-neuroscientist-explains-who-is-happiest/ Lemma, S., Berhane, Y., Worku, A., Gelaye, B., & Williams, M. A. (2014). Good quality sleep is associated with better academic performance among university students in Ethiopia. Sleep and Breathing, 18, 257–263. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11325-013-0874-8 Lin, Y. H., Wong, B. Y., Lin, S. H., Chiu, Y. C., Pan Y. C., & Lee, Y. H. (2019). Development of a mobile application (app) to delineate “digital chronotype” and the effects of delayed chronotype by bedtime smartphone use. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 110, 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jpsychires.2018.12.012 Lipnevich, A. A., Credé, M., Hahn, E., Spinath, F. M., Roberts, R. D., & Preckel, F. (2017). How distinctive are morningness and eveningness from the big five factors of personality? A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(3), 491–509. https://doi. org/10.1037/pspp0000099 Mander, B. A., Santhanam, S., Saletin, J. M., & Walker, M. P. (2011). Wake deterioration and sleep restoration of human learning. Current Biology, 21(5), 183–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.01.019 Martini, M., Martini, C., & Sachse, P. (2019). Brief period of post-encoding wakeful rest support verbal memory retention in children aged 10–13 years. Current Psychology, 40, 2341–2348. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12144-019-0156-0 Medic, G., Wille, M., & Hemels, M. E. (2017). Short- and long-term health consequences of sleep disruption. Nature and Science of Sleep,  2017(9), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.2147/NSS.S134864 Miller, M. A, Bates, S., Ji, C., & Cappuccio, F. P. (2021). Systematic review and meta-analyses of the relationship between short sleep and incidence of

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obesity and effectiveness of sleep interventions on weight. Obesity Reviews, 22(2), e13113. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13113 Mosley, M. (2020, November 21). In praise of caffeine, the world’s most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Science Focus: The Home of BBC ­Science Focus Magazine. https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/ in-praise-of-caffeine-the-worlds-most-widely-consumed-psychoactivedrug/ Nagare, R., Woo, M., MacNaughton, P., Plitnick, B., Tinianov, B., & ­Figueiro, M. (2021). Access to daylight at home improves circadian alignment, sleep, and mental health in healthy adults: A crossover study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(19), 9980. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18199980 National Center for Health Statistics. (2017). Health report, United States, 2016: With chartbook on long-term trends in health. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus16.pdf Okano, K., Kaczmarzyk, J. R., Dave, N., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Grossman, J. C. (2019). Sleep quality, duration, and consistency are associated with better academic performance in college students. Science of Learning, 4. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-019-0055-z Ong, J. L., Te, Y. L., Xuan, K. L., Elaine, v. R., & Chee, M. W. L. (2020). A daytime nap restores hippocampal function and improves declarative learning. Sleep, 43(9). http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsaa058 Pietilä, J., Helander, E., Korhonen, I., Myllymäki, T., Kujala, U. M., & Lindholm, H. (2018). Acute effect of alcohol intake on cardiovascular autonomic regulation during the first hours of sleep in a large real-world sample of Finnish employees: Observational study. JMIR Mental Health, 16(5), e23. https://doi.org/10.2196/mental.9519 Schoedel, R., Pargent, F., Au, Q., Völkel, S. T., Schuwerk, T., Bühner, M., & Stachl, C. (2020). To challenge the morning lark and the night owl: Using smartphone sensing data to investigate day–night behaviour ­patterns.  European Journal of Personality,  34(5), 733–752. https://doi .org/10.1002/per.2258 Smith, M. G., Wusk, G. C., Nasrini, J., Baskin, P., Dinges, D. F., Roma, P. G., & Basner, M. (2021). Effects of six weeks of chronic sleep restriction with weekend recovery on cognitive performance and well-being in high-performing adults, Sleep, 44(8), 1–14. https://doi .org/10.1093/sleep/zsab051 Snyder, C. K., & Chang, A.-M. (2019). Mobile technology, sleep, and circadian disruption. In M. A. Grander (Ed.), Sleep and health (pp. 159–170). Elsevier.

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Temple, J., Bernard, C., Lipshultz, S. E., Czachor, D., Westphal, J. A., & ­Mestre, M. A. (2017). The safety of ingested caffeine: A comprehensive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8(80). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt .2017.00080 University of Georgia. (2021, July 12). Sleep Rocks! Health Promotion. https:// healthpromotion.uga.edu/sleep/ Wang, F., & Boros, S. (2019). The effect of physical activity on sleep quality: A systematic review. European Journal of Physiotherapy, 23(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/21679169.2019.1623314 Wilhelm, I., Diekelmann, S., Molzow, I., Ayoub, A., Mölle, M., & Born, J. (2011). Sleep selectively enhances memory expected to be of future relevance. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(5), 1563–1569. https://doi.org/10.1523/ JNEUROSCI.3575-10.2011 Wong, M. L., Lau, E. Y., Wan, J. H., Cheung, S. F., Hui, C. H., & Mok, D. S. (2013). The interplay between sleep and mood in predicting academic functioning, physical health, and psychological health: A longitudinal study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 74(4), 271–277. https://doi .org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.08.014

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11 E X E R C IS I N G TO E N HA N C E LE A R N I N G

The benefit of exercise and the dangers of inactivity were first described around 2,500 years ago by Hippocrates, a well-respected physician in Ancient Greece. Many studies and articles about exercise all reach the same overarching conclusions: Exercising is very good for you, and inactivity is very bad for you (Ruegsegger & Booth, 2018). Human bodies are built to move. Mark Tarnopolsky, a genetic metabolic neurologist at McMaster University, stated that “if there were a drug that could do for human health everything that exercise can, it would likely be the most valuable pharmaceutical ever developed” (Oaklander, 2016, para. 7). Unfortunately, many people don’t appreciate the impact of regular physical activity, including how critical it is for learning and memory. According to the CDC (2021), three out of every four adults in the United States do not reach the minimum guidelines for aerobic and muscle-strengthening exercises. The good news is that you can adopt a lifelong pattern right now. Researchers have noted that 80% to 85% of adults maintain the physical activity patterns they established as a student in their senior year of college (Sparling, 2003). That means college is the perfect time to establish a solid exercise routine.

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General Health Benefits of Physical Activity Engaging in regular exercise can help maintain a healthy weight; enhance your mood; lower your cholesterol; strengthen bones and improve balance; and lower the risk of some types of cancer, arthritis, and type 2 diabetes (CDC, 2021)! It will even help you sleep better, give you glowing skin, and spark your sex life. This is not a sales pitch or “too good to be true”: It’s the way the human body is designed. You just need to get into the habit of a regular exercise program. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS, 2018) recommends at least 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity or 150 minutes of moderate aerobic activity each week, or some combination of the two. This could be a 30-minute brisk walk every morning or evening. If you have been living a sedentary life and have not been exercising, you may not be able to do a 30-minute brisk walk right away. That’s okay—start with 5 or 10 minutes and work your way up. If that is your situation, you are not alone. The CDC notes that just a bit over 22% of Americans are inactive (no exercise other than their job for the past 30 days). The really unfortunate news is that we are instilling very bad habits in our children. In 2016 Health News reported that for children and activity levels, the United States ranked 47th out of 50 countries studied (Feller, 2016). It is easy to fall into a sedentary life; unfortunately, a sedentary life is a worst-case health scenario. Physical inactivity is the fourth leading risk factor for death worldwide (NCC, 2016). The good news is that just 1 hour of ­moderate-intensity physical activity per week lowers this risk (DHHS, 2018). Just 1 hour per week! Along with aerobic exercise, it is also recommended that you do strength training for all major muscle groups at least two times per week. If you have not been exercising or are thinking about increasing your exercise routine, it is always a good idea to check with your primary care provider. There are many options when it comes to aerobic activity. Anything that raises your heart rate and keeps it in a training zone will work, whether that is a very brisk walk, mowing your yard, or joining friends for a pickup game of basketball, volleyball, or soccer. For more information about appropriate target heart rates, see the CDC’s guide on target heart rates (CDCP, 2020).

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Not being able to find time to exercise is a primary reason for not being physically active. It can happen to any of us. Not long ago, I was living a sedentary life. Then I decided I wanted to be part of the 78% of the people exercising and not in the group of 22% lying about feeling sluggish. I know you may be saying you have no time to exercise. There are so many things that just need to be done. That was me as well. Then I did something that helped me get started in a regular physical activity schedule. I set a goal of walking 30 minutes three times a week. To find time to walk, I collected some data. Across 3 days, I wrote down what I spent my time doing each day, all day. I then looked at the list carefully for things I was doing that were more important than living a healthy life, or even living. That made it relatively easy to choose something I could reduce or even stop to carve out the 30 minutes for walking three times a week. Seriously, once you have a list that shows what you are doing, most people can find 30 minutes. If you struggle because you are tired, a 30-minute walk may well energize you. So I carved out the time and committed to walking, which led to feeling better, which led to more exercise time. Multiple studies indicate that regular physical activity makes physiological changes in your body that will help you learn faster and remember longer and that students who exercise do better academically (Prina, 2014). This is one of the best ways to learn in harmony with your brain.

Basic Brain Structures and Processes When you engage in activity that raises your heart rate, a host of things happen in your brain. Oxygen levels increase, blood flow increases, hormones are released, and even new connections between cells are stimulated. How all this happens is a complex interplay of structures and processes that are studied in neuroscience and well beyond the scope of this book. In this section we will simplify, with minimal neuroscience jargon, six items you will repeatedly see in any discussion about the impact of exercise on learning and memory: the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neurotransmitters, synapses, and neurons.

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Prefrontal Cortex Remember in chapter 4 when you put your two fists together to get a sense of the size of your brain? There is a wrinkly outside layer of the brain. Those wrinkles provide extra surface area. If you spread out the cortex, each hemisphere would be about the size of a medium pizza and the thickness of about two stacked dimes, on average. Your cortex contains about 15 billion of the 86 billion neurons in your brain and is responsible for important areas related to learning, such as attention, thinking, and memory. The prefrontal cortex is the front of your brain, right at your forehead. This part of your cortex is p ­ rimarily responsible for complex thinking, decision-making, and social behavior.

Hippocampus The hippocampus is part of the limbic system, which regulates ­emotional state and is the organ directly responsible for learning. Its performance can improve or decline over time. Your hippocampus (or more appropriately hippocampi, because you have two of them) is located deep in your brain. The word hippocampus is derived from the Greek word that means “sea horse” because the hippocampus is shaped almost exactly like a sea horse. The hippocampus coordinates with multiple areas of the brain and is critical in forming long-term memories, consolidating memories, creating long-term potentiation (automaticity), and retrieving memories (Tyng et al., 2017). If one hippocampus is damaged, the other can usually still manage. However, if both are damaged (e.g., by injury, alcoholism, a stroke, or a degenerative genetic disease), it may not be possible to form any new ­memories. This is also one of the first places in the brain that is damaged by the onset of Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia, which is why short-term memory loss is one of the first symptoms noticed in those conditions. Anything that positively impacts the hippocampus, such as exercise, will directly and positively impact learning and memory. Brain scans show that when individuals exercise, their hippocampus is very active. Conversely, a sedentary lifestyle negatively impacts the hippocampus and, therefore, makes learning and memory more difficult.

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Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a molecule in the family of neurotrophins. These molecules are located throughout the brain, primarily in the hippocampus, but also to some extent in other organs (even the liver). BDNF is critical in forming consolidated memories to be stored for long periods. It provides the tools needed for synapses to collect information, process information, match it to an appropriate schema, and store it in a way that can be recalled later (Miranda et al., 2019). BDNF is impacted by environmental actions, meaning you can take action to directly alter the levels of BDNF in your brain. Increased levels of BDNF translate directly to better learning. As BDNF is critical in learning and memory, you must have as much as possible. Reduced levels of BDNF actually impair learning (Erickson et al., 2013). With increased physical activity, you increase levels of BDNF, which makes learning easier. It’s like fertilizing a plant. Sure, the plant will grow with decent soil and water (not actively generating BDNF through exercise), but with the proper fertilizer (exercising to increase levels of BDNF), the plant thrives, and flowers bloom. Most people don’t understand the importance of exercise on learning, but you do now, and you want to cultivate and create the best conditions to support and enhance learning.

Study Tip 11.1: Aerobic exercise like fast walking or running is consistently associated with enhanced learning; just increase your heart rate.

Neurons, Synapses, and Neurotransmitters Neurons are specialized cells that transmit information throughout the body. They range from a tiny fraction of an inch to about three feet long and comprise your nervous system. They are found throughout the body, but the bulk of them are in your brain. Neurons have a particular way to send information to quickly manage whatever response is needed. Each neuron has up to 10 thousand synapses, a tiny gap of about 1 millionth of an inch between neurons that allows neurons to send signals when needed.

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Information is received at one end of the neuron from sensory information, such as touch, smell, or light. When there is enough information, the neuron “fires,” meaning it sends a signal down to the other end. A neurotransmitter is released when the signal gets to the end of the neuron, floats across the synapse, and then plugs into special slots on the next neuron when the neurotransmitter is released. When enough neurotransmitters are received, the receiving neuron fires. This process of neurons and synapses allows for adaptions between connections and whole new connections between neurons, creating new pathways for learning. It allows our brains to adapt continually depending on our needs. Whether you read a lot, use your hands a lot, think a lot, or play a sport a lot, new neurons and connections can be created to facilitate your specific needs. There are about 100 different neurotransmitters in your brain. Each is somewhat specialized but can have several functions. Some regulate mood, others stimulate appetite, and others reduce activity to keep you from getting jittery. The primary neurotransmitters for learning (Sheffler et al., 2021) include the following: •• acetylcholine, promotes the formation and consolidation of memories •• glutamate, helps modify synapses as the memory-storage elements of the brain •• dopamine, reinforces learning •• norepinephrine, vital for focus and attention •• histamine, mediates wakefulness and motivation

Effects of Long-Term Exercise on Learning Published work regarding the importance of exercise in memory dates back well over 100 years (The Washington Post, 1903). Many studies show the positive impact of regular physical activity on learning, memory, and cognition. For example, the American Psychological Association (APA) published an article on exercise and fitness, pointing out many positive aspects of exercise on the human body, including

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increased blood flow to the brain, which in turn increases thinking and energy levels. Studies in the APA review also show that brains of regular exercisers have more blood at rest than non-exercisers. Regular exercisers also have better episodic memory, the memory system that relates to “episodes” in our lives of people, places, and events. Last but not least, studies show that as people age, active people maintain cognitive functioning more than sedentary people (APA, 2020). Wendy Suzuki, a professor of neuroscience at New York University, was so intrigued by the power of exercise that she changed her line of research to focus on the impact of exercise on mood, learning, memory, and cognition. Suzuki has a TED Talk (see Figure 11.1), The Brain-Changing Benefits of Exercise, with 7.7 million views where she explains that as she started to exercise, she realized her long-term memory was getting better, her attention was getting better, and her mood was improving (TED, 2018). Suzuki notes that when you exercise regularly, you grow new brain cells in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. She explains that you can even increase the size of the hippocampus through regular exercise. In addition to the hippocampus, the prefrontal cortex also benefits from regular physical activity. Unfortunately, neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s attack these areas specifically, and the damage is permanent. However, with regular exercise, the changes that happen in your brain can protect you from these and other incurable diseases. In other words, you can’t fix the damage to your brain once it happens, but exercise will decrease the probability that the damage will occur to start with (Suzuki, 2018). Figure 11.1.  QR code for “Wendy Suzuki: The Brain-Changing Benefits of Exercise.”

Note. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHY0 FxzoKZE

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Another area of significant research in many countries is schoolbased physical activity. For just one example, Mura and colleagues (2015) at the University of Cagliari looked at 28 school-based physical

Study Tip 11.2: Schedule your exercise and most challenging learning together. Exercise and then study within 2 hours to maximize learning.

activity interventions in Italy with students aged 3 to 18 years old. Every study found that positive cognitive and academic outcomes increased significantly as a result of physical activity. Programs that took time away from physical education and recess and spent more time studying for state assessment tests typically found that scores decreased. The individuals responsible for those decisions failed to realize that exercise and movement have a strong positive impact on learning and memory, plus healthy outcomes and instilling a pattern of physical activity that may last a lifetime. For an extreme example of positive outcomes from a schoolwide physical activity program, see the case study from Naperville, Illinois, in Box 11.1. Sustained exercise programs do all kinds of great things for your brain. BDNF (the molecule in the brain [neurotransmitter] that is directly responsible for learning) is stimulated in the hippocampus BOX 11.1

Naperville High School Case Study

Administrators at Naperville High school implemented a vigorous program designed to get students physically active. Instead of increasing seat time and having students study more, they realized that fitness and classroom learning were interdependent and believed that exercise would lead to short- and long-term academic benefits. Students took a physical activity class just before their first period (the “zero-hour”), a reading literacy class. The positive

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effects of the physical exercise program on the reading literacy class were so profound that they renamed the physical education time to “Learning Readiness P.E.” Some questioned whether the physical education class immediately before the literacy course was beneficial or whether the exercise program was just beneficial in general. It turns out that some of the students had to take reading literacy later in the day, and students who had reading literacy just after exercise demonstrated about twice the improvement as those with a several-hour gap between exercise and the reading class. The school instituted a Learning Readiness P.E. class just before the afternoon reading literacy course, and the scores in those classes went up as well. By the end of the year, the students in the afternoon literacy course had the same reading level as the morning literacy course. The results were not due to exercise alone, but rather exercise before learning (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2007). John Ratey (2013), a doctor working at the Harvard Medical School, turned the Naperville experiment into a case study for his book Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain. The Naperville students did not just raise their reading scores following the introduction of the zero-hour exercise class. The students also significantly increased their scores on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) test. This is a test for which average U.S. schools struggle to get into the top 10 countries. In 1999, eighth graders from Naperville finished first in the world in science and sixth in the world in math (Ratey, 2013). Ratey also noted a 66% decline in behavioral problems, which is consistent with every study involving exercise in that it helps with focus, mood, and attention. For the students at Naperville High School, having a class right after exercise caused all sorts of learning gains.

and other areas, enhancing the learning process. The more BDNF a brain has, the more learning can occur. Additional neurotransmitters (acetylcho­line, glutamate, dopamine, and norepinephrine) are also produced. Overall, thinking and memory are positively impacted to the point that sustained exercise is one of the best things you can do to help you think more clearly, learn faster, and remember longer. The

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next time someone asks you what you are working on at the fitness center, instead of “leg day,” tell them you are working on your prefrontal­ cortex and hippocampus.

Effects of Short-Term Exercise on Learning You don’t have to exercise for hours on end to see results. Studies have consistently shown increases in attention, working memory, and problem-solving after single, light to vigorous, 1-hour exercise session (Chang et al., 2012). In another study, participants who ran learned a vocabulary task 20% faster than a control group that did not exercise. The participants in the high-impact running condition also showed increased production of BDNF, which is always a good thing. Remember, the more BDNF in the brain, the more you can learn. In a systematic review of 28 studies investigating the impact of exercise on learning, Garcia-Suárez and colleagues from Mexico, Costa Rica, and Alabama noted that averaged across studies, a significant amount of BDNF was produced in the hippocampus after just one session of moderate and high-intensity exercise (Garcia-Suárez et al., 2021). Basso and Suzuki (2017), researchers at the Center for Neural Science at New York University, found that aerobic activity increases levels of neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine, and growth factors in the hippocampus. The change suggests an improvement in longterm memories, recall of information, and reward-based learning (like hitting a new exercise goal). A single workout will improve the ability to shift and focus attention for at least 2 hours (Basso & Suzuki, 2017). Ideally, you will be studying no more than 2 hours after exercise to take advantage of these benefits. In another study, Li, a researcher at the Ministry of Education in Shanghai, China, and colleagues studied exercise among collegeaged women (Li et al., 2014). The researchers reported that a single 20-­minute workout significantly impacted brain activity associated with working memory. Although the best health outcomes result from sustained exercise over a long time, many studies, like the ones in this section, show that a single exercise session benefits learning and ­memory areas in the human brain. In other words, there are specific

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benefits from each exercise session in addition to the long-term cumulative effect of exercise.

Timing of Exercise and Learning Multiple researchers have shown a temporal effect of physical activity. In other words, when you exercise has an impact on how well you learn. Researchers at Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm University found that BDNF levels increased during a cognitive task only when the task was preceded by physical activity (Nilsson et al., 2016). There is value in exercising right before learning. Conversely, there is no—or at least, less—value in exercising right after learning. A team of researchers in the Netherlands tested participants’ recall of images if they exercised immediately after seeing the images or waited 4 hours to exercise after seeing the images (van Dongen et al., 2014). Compared to a control group, there was no increase in recall for those who ­exercised immediately after seeing the photos, but there was a considerable increase in recall for those who waited 4 hours to exercise. The researchers suggested that this finding is a result of the consolidation factors dopamine, noradrenaline, and BDNF as well as increased hippocampus activity. Overall, research indicates it is best to exercise no more than 2 hours before learning or, if the exercise is after learning, it is best to wait about 4 hours after studying.

Therapeutic Exercises Benefits aren’t limited to aerobic exercise. Several physical activities have demonstrated benefits to the learning process. Whether you ­prefer a less vigorous exercise or you are differently abled, and find ­vigorous exercise a challenge, therapeutic exercises are a great alternative. Therapeutic exercises are those that help the individual focus, use core muscles, develop strength, or quiet the mind. They can include resistance bands, balance ball chairs, pedal exercisers, meditation, walking, yoga, tai chi, and a host of other potential activities. Walking and yoga/tai chi are discussed more in depth in the following sections. Keep your primary learning goals in mind and identify whether you

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notice a difference after engaging in these activities. For example, you may find that a stability ball chair helps you focus, or perhaps a meditation session quiets your mind to allow you to process course content more readily. If you realize a benefit and there are no ill effects, then to me, it seems worth a try.

Walking Walking has many positive outcomes, including increasing fitness and enhancing mood, creativity, and cognitive functioning while lowering risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes (DHHS, 2018). Erickson (2013) noted that walking at least 1 mile per day at an increased heart rate changes the brain and has also been associated with an increased hippocampus and prefrontal cortex size. In one study, all participants who walked outside could generate high-quality, creative answers to a test question, versus half of those who remained seated inside, and those who walked indoors on a treadmill scored 60% higher on a test than those who remained seated (Wong, 2014). Walking is also an excellent way to get started moving if you have not exercised in a long time. The CDC also notes that there are many significant health benefits for individuals who are overweight, independent of any weight loss (DHHS, 2018).

Low-Impact, Nonaerobic Therapeutic Exercise Rogge and colleagues from the University of Hamburg and Friedrich Schiller University collaborated to study the impact of systematic balance training on memory in adult participants (Rogge et al., 2017). They found that after 3 months of training, both memory and spatial cognition of participants improved. Researchers at the University of South Florida collaborated with Fudan University in Shanghai to study the impact of tai chi, walking, and social interaction on the brain (Mortimer, 2012). One hundred and twenty seniors were randomly assigned to a regular tai chi class, a walking group, a social group, or a control group (no interventions) for 40 weeks. MRI scans showed brain volume increases in the tai chi and social groups, and the individuals who participated in tai chi

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outperformed all other groups on memory tests. Finally, Brunner and ­colleagues at Texas State University, San Marcos, studied the impact of weekly hourlong yoga sessions on cognition (Brunner et al., 2017). University students participated in the sessions for 6 weeks, along with a 10-­minute guided meditation each session, and the researchers reported improvement in working memory functioning and attentive mindfulness as a result. Harvard Health (2021) confirms this finding, reporting that yoga improved cognitive skills associated with learning and memory and that those who practice yoga and meditation may enhance mental acuity.

Chapter Summary Exercise impacts many aspects of the learning process. These include attention, encoding, consolidation, and automaticity. Although there are many health-related benefits to exercising, nearly three out of four adults in the United States do not engage in regular physical activity. As we have seen, exercise physically impacts the brain, including the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, BDNF, neurotransmitters, and synapses. When these structures are changed, they directly impact learning, as demonstrated by a wide variety of studies looking at the impact of long-term exercise patterns. One-shot exercise programs can also bring about physiological changes in the brain that support learning, memory, or cognition. All exercise is beneficial, but researchers find that exercising directly before a learning episode or 4 hours after the learning seems ideal. Therapeutic exercises tend not to have an impact on neurotransmitters, the hippocampus, and the frontal lobe, but learners benefit from enhanced mood, creativity, and attention. There are many benefits to being physically active, and the patterns you set now will likely determine the rest of your life. By adhering to exercise, you are changing your life and making learning easier. Consider timing and intensity as possible options for even greater gains. If you are not physically active, there is no better time to start than now. Not only will exercise make it easier for you to learn, it will improve your quality of life.

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Discussion Questions







1. If you engage in regular physical exercise, briefly describe the exercise, why you prefer this exercise, and what you see as the ­primary outcome of exercising regularly. If you do not engage in physical activity regularly, what are your primary reasons for not doing so? Explain what would motivate you to get started and maintain an exercise routine. 2. Watch Dr. Suzuki’s TED talk. Describe the major points you learned from this talk. What information surprised you the most? 3. Why is it important to study one-shot or very brief exercise programs? Explain what you believe is gained by studying these brief exercise findings. 4. Beyond what you’ve learned in this chapter, what do you think might contribute to learning when you attend a course or informa­ tion is presented relatively soon after exercise? Think about the case at Naperville. Why would students who struggle in reading end up doing so well in those courses right after exercising? 5. Suppose you were required to take one course that emphasizes a therapeutic exercise. Which of the following would you choose as the focus for the course: Brisk Walking, Yoga, Tai Chi, Balance Training, or Pilates? Explain your choice and what learning benefits you might expect to see.

References American Psychological Association. (2020, March 4). Working out boosts brain health. http://www.apa.org/topics/exercise-fitness/stress Basso, J. C., & Suzuki, W. A. (2017). The effects of acute exercise on mood, cognition, neurophysiology, and neurochemical pathways: A review. Brain Plasticity, 2(2), 127–152. https://doi.org/10.3233/BPL-160040 Brunner, D., Abramovitch, A., & Etherton, J. (2017). A yoga program for cognitive enhancement. PLoS One, 12(8). https://doi.org//10.1371/journal .pone.0182366 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Target heart rate and estimated maximum heart rate. https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/ measuring/heartrate.htm

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Benefits of physical activity. https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/pa-health/index.htm Chang, Y. K., Labban, J. D., Gapin, J. I., & Etnier, J. L. (2012). The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis. Brain Research, 1453, 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.068 Department of Health and Human Services. (2018). Physical activity guidelines for Americans (2nd ed). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/Physical_Activity_ Guidelines_2nd_edition.pdf Erickson, K. I., Gildengers, A. G., & Butters, M. (2013). Physical activity and brain plasticity in late adulthood. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 15(1), 99–108. https://doi.org/ 10.31887/DCNS.2013.15.1/kerickson Feller, S. (2016, September 22). U.S. ranks near bottom among countries for youth fitness, study says. Health News. https://www.upi.com/Health_ News/2016/09/22/US-ranks-near-bottom-among-countries-for-youthfitness-study-says/3581474552993/ García-Suárez, P. C., Rentería, I., Plaisance, E. P., Moncada-Jiménez, J. & Jiménez-Maldonado, A. (2021). The effects of interval training on peripheral brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Science Reports, 11(1), 8937. https://doi .org/10.1038/s41598-021-88496-x Harvard Health. (2021, June 12). Yoga for better mental health. Harvard Health Publishing: Harvard Medical School. https://www.health.harvard .edu/staying-healthy/yoga-for-better-mental-health Li, L., Wei-Wei, M., Yu-Kai, C., Ming-Xia, F., Liu, J., & Gao-Xia, W. (2014). Acute aerobic exercise increases cortical activity during working memory: A functional MRI study in female college students. PLoS One, 9(6), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099222 Miranda, M., Morici, J. F., Zanoni, M. B., & Bekinschtein, P. (2019). Brainderived neurotrophic factor: A key molecule for memory in the healthy and pathological brain. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13, 363. https:// doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00363 Mortimer, J. A., Ding, D., Borenstein, A. R., DeCarli, C., Guo, Q., Wu, Y., Zhao, Q., & Chu, S. (2012). Changes in brain volume and cognition in a randomized trial of exercise and social interaction in a community-based sample of non-demented Chinese elders. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 30(4), 757–766. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2012-120079 Mura G., Vellante, M., Nardi, A. E., Machado, S., & Carta, M. G. (2015). Effects of school-based physical activity interventions on cognition and academic achievement: A systematic review. CNS & Neurological Disorders –

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Drug Targets, 14(9), 1194–1208. https://doi.org/10.2174/18715273156 66151111121536 Nilsson, J., Ekblom Ö., Ekblom, M., Lebedev, A., Olga, T., Moberg, M., & Lövdén, M. (2020). Acute increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor in plasma following physical exercise relates to subsequent learning in older adults. Scientific Reports, 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598020-60124-0 Oaklander, M. (2016, September 12). The new science of exercise. Time. https://time.com/4475628/the-new-science-of-exercise Prina, L. L. (2014). Physically fit students do better on academic test scores, says study funded by a Kansas foundation. Health Affairs Forefront. https:// doi.org.10.1377/forefront.20140207.037053 Ratey, J. (2013). Spark: The revolutionary new science of exercise and the brain. Little Brown. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. (2007). Active education: Physical education, physical activity, and academic performance [Research brief ]. https:// files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED541165.pdf Rogge, A. K., Röder, B., Zech, A., Nagel, V., Hollander, K., Braumann, K. M., & Hötting, K. (2017). Balance training improves memory and spatial cognition in healthy adults. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 5661. https:// doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-06071-9 Ruegsegger, G. N., & Booth, F. W. (2018). Health benefits of exercise. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine,  8(7), a029694. https://doi.org/ 10.1101/cshperspect.a029694 Sheffler, Z. M., Reddy, V., & Pillarisetty, L. S. (2021, May 9). Physiology, neurotransmitters. StatPearls. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539894/ Sparling, P. B. (2003). College physical education: An unrecognized agent of change in combating inactivity-related diseases. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 46(4), 579–587. https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2003.0091 TED. (2018, March 21). Wendy Suzuki: The brain-changing benefits of exercise [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHY0FxzoKZE The Washington Post. (August 23, 1903). Training the memory: Fresh air, sunlight, and exercise are the principal stimulants. The Washington Post (1877– 1922). https://www.proquest.com/docview/144416002?parentSessionId= a7oSgOQAtgv0bTXEGO5hV5D7lQ3p1wyi%2F82H4ZyBkQ8% 3D&pq-origsite=summon&accountid=14244 Tyng, C. M., Amin, H. U., Saad, M. N. M., & Malik, A. S. (2017). The influences of emotion on learning and memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1454. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01454

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Van Dongen, E. V., Kersten, I. H. P., Wagner, I. C., Morris, R. G. M., & Fernández, G. (2016). Physical exercise performed four hours after learning improves memory retention and increases hippocampal pattern similarity during retrieval. Current Biology, 26, 1722–1727. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.cub.2016.04.071

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12 B E I N G A N E F F E C T IV E G R O U P LE AD E R /ME MB E R

Most books written for students that discuss groups talk about being an effective group leader. I thought about that for a long time. In the end, I decided we need both effective leaders and members in order to have effective groups. As a result, this chapter is for those who desire a ­better experience working in semester-long intact groups. That said, there are many suggestions for those who desire to lead. Many of the suggestions are also suitable for short-term projects. This is all-­important, because being an effective group member is critical in today’s world. As a result, most students are assigned group projects throughout their entire educational experience. Unfortunately, doing a task the same way repeatedly does not broaden skills; it just solidifies the repeated routine action. Without guidance or preparation, group work is often an unsatisfying and negative experience, as you have already experienced. Researchers from the University of Central Oklahoma and Angelo State University surveyed students and found that although students had an overall negative view of group projects, they saw value in learning to work in groups and indicated that professors should teach students to work well in groups (Ludlum et al., 2021). Others have reached 224

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these same findings (e.g., Hillyard et al., 2010). It is important to note that, done well, group work can be pleasant and is undeniably a valuable educational experience, particularly for ­marginalized groups. For example, Linda Hodges (2018) at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, found that structured groups helped all students, particularly first-generation college students, Black students, economically disadvantaged students, and educationally ­disadvantaged students. Interestingly, students are taught things like the scientific method, how to write research papers, and how to use the library. It would be helpful if faculty added effective group work skills to this list. Some faculty do teach this skill, but, unfortunately, most do not—probably because they assume that by now you have learned how to work in groups. I hope this chapter provides foundational information to establish or expand on your group work skills.

Benefits of Group Work Teamwork is a critical soft skill to develop during college. Eighty-one percent of job recruiters cite working in a team as a top-of-the-list attribute in job applicants, whereas less than 60% screen college grads based on GPA (Koncz & Gray, 2021). Think for a moment about why employers want employees with good skills with respect to working in teams. A well-organized team can accomplish amazing outcomes by bringing together individuals with different perspectives. Therefore, recruiters are always looking for people with those skills.

Develop Soft Skills Soft skills are essential for thriving professionals. What is the difference between hard skills and soft skills? Hard skills are the specific behaviors needed to do a job (e.g., bookkeeping, sales, surgical proficiency, computer programming, and analytical skills). They are also often referred to as job-dependent skills. These skills constitute the content of job training programs. Soft skills, unlike specific psychomotor or cognitive tasks, refer to areas such as creativity, adaptability, collaboration, communication,

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interpersonal communication, and persuasion. Employers now know that although hard skills are needed to get a job done, soft skills are needed to advance an organization. Working effectively in teams is an excellent way to build your soft skills.

Incorporate Diverse Perspectives Let’s face it: Sometimes, it is just easier to do a task alone rather than having a group of people come together to complete it. Unfortunately, when we do a task alone, only one perspective is represented. I have no idea how often I have come up with a brilliant idea, only to have a teammate point out a flaw that I should have caught but didn’t. Incorporating diverse perspectives is one of my top reasons group projects are so important. As discussed in chapter 1, diverse perspectives create more substantial outcomes. Admittedly, it has to be a good team that works well together. That is the point of this chapter, how to build good teams and be successful in groups.

Complete Large or Complex Projects Individuals working well together as a group complete more extensive and complex projects than individuals can working independently. Teams create a synergy that generates more ideas than each individual could alone. There are also typical ebbs and flows in an individual’s contributions. When a team works together, if one person slows for a bit or gets ill for a few days, the team can continue to make progress. Group cohesiveness is based on coordination, interdependency, and striving for team goals over individual agendas. When those factors are present, it is incredible what a team can accomplish. If your group is allowed to select the topic, make it as applied as possible, and something that, if done successfully, could be noted on the résumés of each group or team member. Your group will put a lot of work into the project, and your role within the group and the importance of a team working well together is something that you will be able to refer to in future interviews. For example, suppose you are taking a course that includes a section on community health. Your project could be to work with a homeless shelter regarding better food security or processes to make shelters safer for women. After ­graduation, when an interviewer asks you to “talk about a time

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that you led a group to a positive outcome,” there is an answer right there. If you participate in applied and relevant group projects in your undergraduate experience, you can list them on a résumé. Some of those 81% of job recruiters who have team work on the top of their list of desirable qualities will be interested in such experiences.

Inventory Your Strengths and Challenges Before working in a group, it is good to get a sense of your strengths and challenges. What do you bring to the group? What are areas in which you struggle? When the group first forms, you can select tasks and roles congruent with your skills or alternatively decide to take on a role where you can enhance less established skills or develop entirely new skills. For example, if you enjoy and want to strengthen your written communication, volunteer to be the notetaker for the meetings and work on new ways to make notes more effective.

Study Tip 12.1: Use your strength as a base and build out into other areas. Growing requires strong footing.

Similarly, if you struggle with research and finding information, you could agree to be one of the subgroup members who looks for information about the group topic. For online, asynchronous courses it is particularly important to identify the group members with project tracking skills, as online courses take a great deal of planning, and it is easy for tasks to drop off the radar.

Get to Know Group Members As you will be working together for an extended time, it is helpful to learn some things about one another that can benefit the team. Groups who know and trust each other often become powerful collaborators.

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Introductions and Icebreakers At the group’s first meeting, suggest that individuals take a few minutes and introduce themselves. This can be relatively fast and may include sharing something to see yourselves as a team. Your name, major, favorite academic area (may hint at who will be helpful at what!), and a hobby are good prompts. If you are in an asynchronous course, it is beneficial to set up a time to meet virtually to get to know one another. Try to avoid collaborating only through a discussion board or email chain, at least for the first meeting. Human connection is critical. If you feel an icebreaker (or warm-up) would be helpful, search the Web for a good option. There are many from which to choose. Good icebreakers pertain to the group or the activity. If your group is doing a project on the natural wonders of the world, you could ask individuals to share their favorite trip and why. Do keep in mind that not everyone likes icebreakers (Mather, 2020) and that the icebreakers are better when they have a purpose (Dixon, 2016). Take time to explain why you are using the icebreaker you chose. A final consideration: Avoid getting too personal. “What is something you have never told anyone?” is a poor choice. If someone has a secret they have never told anyone, a group of strangers is not a healthy place to do that. Remember that the individuals have just met, and trust has not yet been built. Trust isn’t gained from sharing personal information; you share personal information once trust is established.

Commitment to the Project This may feel a bit awkward, but it is important to get a sense of the commitment of each group member. Everyone should be honest with the group about what they need or want from this project. Just wanting a C to pass the course is different than wanting an A for graduate school, but both positions may well be appropriate for each of those two students. This is a good discussion to have right away. It can get tricky if you wait until the team is working on the final report.

Competing Demands It is essential to get a sense of who has competing responsibilities inside and outside of academics. Information about responsibilities

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such as a small child, a job, or volunteer obligations will help as you schedule meeting times and task due dates. In addition, for online students, a group member may have caretaking responsibilities or live in an environment where the noise level fluctuates. Understanding these limitations allows your group to select a time that works best for each student.

Clarify Intended Project Goal Once group members have gotten to know each other a bit, it is time to shift to the work at hand. Pull up the assignment and talk it through as a group: •• How will the work be graded? •• What options are there for the final project (e.g., paper, presentation)? •• When is the project due? •• How must information be submitted (e.g., there may be a presentation, but also a summary paper)? •• To what extent is it acceptable to ask the faculty member questions or for input during the semester? •• Can you submit draft material for a cursory read with no grade to ensure the group is going in the right direction?

Once the scope of the project is determined, develop an outline and establish some SMART goals to help keep to the plan (see pp. 47–50 in this book for a refresher). The outline can change, but it’s important to start with a shared vision. SMART subgoals will minimize misunderstandings. These are important because individuals can perceive “soon” to mean the next day or within a month.

Facilitate Group Processes Tuckman (1965), a psychologist at Ohio State University, created a model of five stages that nearly all groups go through: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. These stages are also a­ pplicable to small-group, semester-long projects (Cresswell-Yeager, 2020). In the

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forming stage, the group members get to know each other, learning boundaries and expectations. A good leader in this phase makes sure task expectations are clearly laid out, and, most importantly, checks in with and listens to each group member. In the storming stage, conflicts appear, and there may be a leadership challenge. This is natural and, if appropriately managed, can be navigated. During this step, focus on support, respect, and communication. Encourage group members to focus on the progress being made and to let go of minor problems. The next stage is norming, during which conflicts generally resolve, and members feel that their work is respected and contributing to progress. The next stage is performing, where the group gets productive. Each team member should be recognized for their contribution, and note how their work moves the group ahead. Tuckman and Jensen (1977) later added the adjourning stage, providing guidance for bringing a sense of closure to the group. The adjourning stage is a time for group members to celebrate the work done, recognize each member’s contributions, and reflect on what was learned along the way. Keep in mind that not all groups go through all stages, but behaviors associated with the stages are helpful to anticipate if you are leading a group, so you can recognize them as they emerge. If you are a group member with someone else as a leader, knowing these stages is helpful for you to assist the leader.

How the Group Will Be Led After the introductions, confirmation of the task at hand, and the other steps to set the group up to work, the next task is to decide how the group will be led. Different situations call for different structures and arrangements. A leader may be the way to go, or the group members may divide up the activities and get to work without a specific leadership role. The important thing here is to have a conversation to determine what is best for the group.

How Decisions Will Be Made As you decide how the group will be led, consider how the group will make decisions. The two most common decision-making strategies are voting and consensus. For either approach, agree as soon as possible

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regarding how decisions will be finalized. If voting, many groups use a simple majority, but you could also require a higher percentage to “pass” a proposal (e.g., four out of five members must agree). Another approach commonly used is consensus, which is reaching a conclusion through a discussion process and a general agreement of all members. Consensus involves discussing and modifying what is at issue until everyone in the group agrees to a given action plan to reach specific outcomes. The advantage of this process is that everyone’s ideas are considered, and each member agrees with the action plan. The disadvantage is that it can take extra time, and goals and desired outcomes can become muddled as the proposed course of action is reworked to get everyone’s agreement.

Brainstorm Ideas for Consideration Brainstorming is a great way to get started on the project. The first step is to review the overall goal or what the faculty member for the course expects from your group. Once you have the problem or goal laid out, the next step is to generate possible ways to approach the task. It is helpful to allow a bit of time for individuals to write down ideas independently. Next, share ideas with the group and generate as many additional options as possible. Remember that this is not a competition. There are many different lived experiences, and although some may know more than others at the start, it may well be that a person who knew the least had a new and valuable perspective on the situation. Remember that the idea is to generate ideas for the group to consider. One of the most common errors during brainstorming is to rule out ideas as they are presented. This is not the time to evaluate ideas. Once the group has listed all items they can think of, then narrow the list of ideas. Discuss which look most promising, which might be modified, and which should be discarded. From here, make an action plan.

Proceed With Work Once you have a plan, it is time to consider implementing it. Some groups divide tasks, head out to do their individual pieces, and then assemble the final product as a group. That is certainly a process, but

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it is not the only option, nor is it considered a cohesive group strategy. Effective group work is about working together and learning from the experience. A better strategy is to identify subgroups to work on different project parts and report back to the overall team. If possible, shift team members or tasks to understand what is going on in other project parts. It is also helpful to have review teams quickly look over a completed task. For example, when the review of the research is completed, a review pair could look at what was found and review the literature quickly to see if anything new emerges. Review teams can identify what might have been overlooked (e.g., a mistake in a literature review or a missed follow-up in community outreach) as well as celebrate other teams’ accomplishments (e.g., developed working tracking system, made a community connection). Keep everyone up to date and keep a backup of all your action items by posting work in a shared location. This allows for team members to rotate tasks, provides coverage if a member has an emergency, and addresses other unanticipated problems.

Finding the Time to Meet Scheduling meetings is a challenge. Everyone juggles responsibilities inside and outside academia (e.g., jobs, caretaking, other courses, volunteering). Scheduling meetings well in advance, on a regular basis (e.g., every other Tuesday), and scheduling more meetings than you think you’ll need are two strategies used by successful leaders. Emphasize individuals doing their work, showing up to meetings online or in person, and being productive. Suggest you will cancel unnecessary meetings as the group accomplishes specific tasks. If you do need the time, particularly just before the project is due, you’ve already got it blocked off in your members’ calendars.

Group Updates and Check-Ins At each meeting, check on progress and your timeline. It is also valuable for the group leader to check in on group members between meetings to see how work is progressing and whether roadblocks or barriers have arisen. If there is a challenge, it may be possible to immediately bring it up to the group and work toward a solution

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rather than wait for the next meeting. If there is no single group leader, then pairs can be formed to check in on one another. This is particularly important for online courses, as it is easy for time to slip between meetings.

Set Ground Rules for the Group I believe the best way to approach any group project is to assume that everyone wants to be effective collaborative colleagues. Talk briefly about past group experiences, what has worked well for each person, and what has not. Life sometimes gets in the way of meetings or completing tasks; do your best to show grace toward that person because we all have issues and challenges we are facing on any given day. If a team member needs support, provide it. That said, it is always a good idea to set ground rules for any class or group. Online courses typically focus on netiquette and proper ways to post items in a discussion thread. Synchronous courses have ground rules for whether cameras need to be on, taking turns speaking, and what is appropriate to post in the chat. On-site courses may focus on being on time, being respectful to colleagues who do not agree with your views, and the policy on makeup exams. The following are a few more general areas in which you might consider having ground rules for your group.

What If Someone Doesn’t Do Their Work? This is a crucial group discussion as it’s common for people to fall behind for any number of reasons. Start with a quick conversation between the leader and the group member who isn’t completing the work and find the root cause of the behavior (O’Hara, 2017). They may have a sick child, their car may not run, they might not understand how to do the work, or they might simply not want to do the work. You won’t know unless you talk to the person. Other group members can often help pick up a bit of work for a person with an issue, but the person missing the work will need to make up for what was missed, not simply continue with others doing the work for them. Before there is an issue, identify a group policy

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on handling a situation should a person not complete the work they agreed to do. One of the most important things I have figured out in my leadership roles is that it is always better to develop a rule or policy before you need it. If you come up with a policy or rule because of a group member, it will become personal.

What If Someone Misses a Meeting? There are valid reasons to miss meetings, but members are still responsible for the work they promised to do or are assigned to do. Shared project management trackers or calendars are beneficial in this situation. The person who missed the meeting can send a status report of their work to the group, read notes from the meeting, and do whatever action items were assigned. Set reminders for group meetings, share a work calendar within the LMS, and message an absent member during or immediately after the meeting to ensure their well-being and clarify how the missed work will be shared. Recurrent absences must be addressed; the group leader can privately and constructively address the behavior. It may be necessary to revisit meeting times to accommodate new demands. Being a functional team means joint responsibility and holding each other accountable. Practicing and developing assertive, open communication is as valuable as completing the content of the project. Your instructor may have a policy in place for how to handle a group member who stops communicating with the group, stops coming to meetings, or continuously shows up with no work completed. If there is no such policy, it may work well to ask your professor to come up with such a policy to assist group accountability.

How to Ensure All Voices Are Heard Another ground rule for the group may be to affirm that all voices matter and everyone will be heard. Build opportunities for everyone to speak and consider all ideas. Too much of higher education is built for fast-talking, risk-taking, loud extroverts. There is nothing wrong with being any one—or all—of these things. But others should also be given an opportunity to speak and be heard. It is well worth your time to research reflective and active listening. It will help you be an

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Figure 12.1.  QR code for “Celeste Headlee: 10 Ways to Have a Better Conversation.”

Note. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1vskiVDwl4

excellent group leader or group member and help you throughout life. Osten (2016) notes that only about 10% of people listen effectively; most are looking for an opportunity to jump in and offer advice or turn the conversation to themselves. Celeste Headlee has an excellent TED Talk (see Figure 12.1) on listening (TED, 2016). It is possible to learn how to be a better listener. By practicing the art of listening, you’ll stand out among a sea of poor listeners.

Addressing Group Conflicts Some amount of disharmony is almost inevitable. However, if the group openly discusses issues with one another and uses reflective listening, conflicts should be minimal. Expressing differences need not be divisive; there is nothing wrong with disagreements. After all, our goal as educated people is to talk about different perspectives and learn from one another. Group work is about building social skills, understanding each other, and making a great product, so there can be a healthy discussion when members disagree. When disagreement escalates to conflict, personal jabs can occur, and conversation breaks down. Once two parties dig in and emotion escalates, they feel alienated, and dialogue is typically over. Understand early in the project that escalated conflicts are counterproductive. In addition, snide comments and microaggressions must be addressed immediately, as it only emboldens a person who gets away with it. I have at times said to colleagues, “Hey, that

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comment’s not okay. What’s up with that?” I said it in a way that certainly was not joking but was also not overly harsh. Whenever there is a chance for a discussion to escalate, rely on assertive communication without blaming when expressing your point of view. When your team member is talking respectfully, listen without interrupting or planning how to respond—listen to hear and learn about their position (revisit your reflective listening resources, chapter 3). Discussions that aim to share and understand differing viewpoints can often curb or prevent conflict. Of course, if there is a severe conflict, it is appropriate to talk to the course instructor about the situation, particularly if any group member feels unsafe.

Effective Group Meetings There are many resources in business literature related to running effective meetings. Unfortunately, many people in higher education seem not to know this. When I ask groups of faculty and students to raise their hands if they have been at a poorly run meeting within the past 2 weeks, most hands go up. Running effective meetings does not need to be an impossible goal. Spend a modicum of time learning how to run an effective meeting, and you will be respected by your peers at college and years later at your work.

Agenda It is an excellent idea to have an agenda and post it ahead of time in your shared meeting notes space. Start with announcements but keep them short. Announcements should take less than a minute or so; a lot can be covered in that time. Post them on the shared space, and let the group know they are there for anyone desiring more information. Next, list the action items with short reports from the members who agreed to complete them. Finally, list what needs to be done next.

Study Tip 12.2: Use an agenda for your study group. List what you will do and note times on the agenda to keep the group on track.

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Add a line at the bottom of the agenda that says, “Please list here any items you would like to discuss if there is time.” Those who have things they want to talk about can add their items to the bottom of the agenda to discuss if there is time. If a person has something they want to bring up at the meeting, their concern goes to the bottom of the list, unless the group agrees that their item is critical and time sensitive.

Start and End on Time I can confidently state that if you start the first meeting of any group 5 minutes late to allow for people to get to the meeting, you will need to give them 5 or more minutes at the next meeting. You can combat this by starting every meeting right on time. People tend to come to meetings on time that start on time. If a person is even 2 minutes late, they may miss the first agenda item. Don’t revisit it. Engage in the behavior you would like to see. If you always start on time, people will come to the meeting on time. Also, be efficient and end as quickly as is reasonable. An hour is “what is done,” but probably much more than you need. Try to complete the meeting in 25 minutes—you will probably surprise yourself with the response (Bryant, 2017).

Assign Group Roles Whether you are having a formal, scheduled meeting, or just a quick chat among members, it’s helpful to have some roles in place to get the most out of your time and keep track of what was done this time and decided for next time. Some of the most common roles are: •• Notetaker – They record what was discussed and summarize each part of the meeting, any action items, and who will do each item and by when. •• Monitor – They keep the group on time and make sure everyone has a chance to speak. •• Moderator – If two people are having difficulty understanding each other and seem to be moving toward conflict, the moderator can summarize their statements and explain in different words.

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•• Counterpointer  – They provide a position opposite of what is being seriously considered to avoid groupthink. This is more commonly called “devil’s advocate,” but who wants to advocate for the devil? •• Supporter – This could be a specific role for a group member, or everyone could agree to support one another when ideas are voiced, goals are met, or someone is struggling.

Brief Well-Check of Group Members It is good practice to watch out for each other. Consider asking about members’ well-being at the start of every meeting. If someone shares information that sounds distressing, ask if they want to talk after the meeting. If they minimize the need to chat, check in again with them just as the meeting ends. You are there to support them, but you shouldn’t take time during the meeting to talk about the issue unless it appears that they really need to or if the entire group wishes to help the person by talking.

End Meeting With Next Steps At the end of every meeting, reserve about 5 minutes to review the action items to be done before the next meeting. If someone is working on a large task, break it down so that they can report out on the part that they are to have done at the next meeting. In a New York Times article, Adam Bryant (2017) notes that meetings should end with a fast summary recapping who is going to do which tasks by what date, and when to reported back to the group.

Cancel the Meeting if Possible I worded this in a provocative way on purpose. Few people like to go to a meeting and be read a list that could have been emailed. Items on the agenda should be things for which the group needs to come together for synergy. It is also a time to support one another. If those things happen, a meeting is a valuable use of time. If synergy and discussions are needed, hold the meeting. If not, then cancel the meeting. Never have a meeting just to see if anyone needs anything. Your members’ time is worth much more than that (McGeorge, 2019).

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Common Group Challenges After being in countless academic groups and assigning many group projects, the following issues have popped up frequently enough to merit discussion in this book. It is better to be ready rather than be surprised.

Hogs and Logs There is often someone in the group who wants to take over (a hog)— and just as often someone who doesn’t want to do anything (a log). If they are in the same group, the situation resolves itself, although not positively. If either of these two personalities arises, it needs to be addressed or it is almost guaranteed to get worse (O’Hara, 2017). The first step is to talk to the person away from the group. Alternatively, you could add two questions to your meeting check-in: “Do you feel you have been able to contribute as much as you would like? If not, what is an area in which you would like to contribute more or differently?” If the focus is on giving everyone a chance, a hog will have to give up some space. If a log has not been doing expected work, during check-in the group can say, “Quinn, this is the second time you have not done any of the tasks you agreed to do. What is making this challenging for you, and how can we help?” Note that help is not doing the work for Quinn, it is how you help Quinn accomplish the work.

Losing the Way A group may struggle to make progress because they start over multiple times or second-guess their approach. It might also be that group members are not meeting deadlines and just stop doing their work. The best-case scenario is that the group recognizes the issue, and individuals briefly state what they feel should be done next. Either the leader chooses what direction to take, or the group members come to a consensus on what should be done next. The point is to address the issue and keep trying to find a way forward. The worst-case scenario is that the group is stuck and just keeps spinning, not realizing they need a course of action to get out. Due to the individual nature of asynchronous classes, be sure to stay on top of the schedule and check in with the group.

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Rushing to Wrap Sometimes a group member just wants the talk to stop and action to start. Moving forward is good; moving too swiftly can cause problems later. Ask the group what needs to be done and how it can be done well but swiftly.

Drama I have seen more than one group meltdown because of drama. By drama, I do not mean disagreements because of differing perspectives but rather unprofessional behavior. Unprofessional behaviors are ­nonproductive and can be harmful. They may include gossiping, blaming, negativity, harassment, undermining, or sabotage. Address these behaviors when setting the group ground rules. There are times that individuals do not get along, but they can still work together. If a conflict breaks out during a meeting, summarize the two positions and ask how it relates to the group task. Another option is to point out that individuals won’t have to be together as long as everyone does their assigned work quickly. Arguing and nitpicking result in more time together. These are just a few examples of what can go wrong. Keep in mind that most groups are functional; they perform well and demonstrate professional dynamics. Yet, it must be noted that occasionally groups struggle to function. There are two ways to minimize the issues that derail group work noted in this section. The first way is to handle things proactively. If there are group policies, norms, discussions, check-ins, and processes for group members to vent, problems are much less likely to appear. The second way is to immediately address any dynamic that looks like it could become an issue. It can be uncomfortable to have questions about someone doing their part, but I don’t recall a time that ignoring a problem didn’t end up being a bigger problem.

Chapter Summary Group work is an important skill rarely explicitly taught in higher education. Effective groups have several benefits, including developing soft skills, incorporating diverse perspectives, and completing complex projects. When groups begin to work together it is important to first

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know your strengths and weaknesses and then work with the group to build community through short discussions related to group membership. As you begin working on the project, clarify the assignment so everyone understands the identified successful outcome. Once a decision has been made regarding how best to work together, the group will get rolling but should be mindful of the common group formation stages of forming, storming, norming, and performing. To help navigate how the group will be led, outline expectations of group members, and determine consequences for breaking group policies. To ensure an effective meeting, set an agenda, start and end on time, assign roles to group members, check in on the well-being of members, and cancel the meeting if it is not needed. Finally, note that common group challenges require attention, or they will get worse. It is important to balance the final output of the assigned group work with the development of professional behaviors within the group

Discussion Questions 1. What has been your overall experience working in groups? Think of a time when a group you were in worked well and a time when a group did not work well. List factors that have been present in good and bad experiences. To what extent do you feel you are, or would be, a good group leader? Explain your position. 2. Suppose, as part of an Introduction to Sociology course, you are in a group with four students for an entire semester with an assignment of researching natural disasters with the end product of a 15-page paper and a 10-minute presentation. Describe your strengths and challenges (what might you excel at, and what might you struggle with) for this project. 3. What do you think is important for group members to know about one another when building community and trust? What is your perspective on icebreakers? If you like them, explain briefly one you like. If you do not like them, explain what could be done instead to build community and trust in the group.

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4. Explain three ground rules you feel are essential for any group. Explain with enough detail that someone reading them would understand your position only from what is written. You may identify three from this chapter or another source.

References Bryant, A. (2017, April 24). How to run a more effective meeting. New York Times: Business. https://www.nytimes.com/guides/business/how-to-runan-effective-meeting Cresswell-Yeager, T. (2020). Forming, storming, norming, and performing: Using a semester-long problem-based learning project to apply ­small-group communication principles. Communication Teacher,  35(2), 155–165, https://doi.org/10.1080/17404622.2020.1842476 Dixon, N. (2016, October 5). Please! No more icebreakers: 5 ways to get a group connected without icebreakers. Conversation Matters. https://www .nancydixonblog.com/2016/10/please-no-more-icebreakers-5-ways-toget-a-group-connected-without-icebreakers.html Hodges, L. C. (2018). Contemporary issues in group learning in undergraduate science classrooms: A perspective from student engagement. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 17(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.17-11-0239 Hillyard, C., Gillespie, D., & Littig, P. (2010). University students’ attitudes about learning in small groups after frequent p ­ ­articipation. Active Learning in Higher Education,  11(1), 9–20. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1469787409355867 Koncz, A., & Gray, K. (2021, April 13). The key attributes employers seek on college graduates’ resumes. National Association of Colleges and Employers. https://www.naceweb.org/about-us/press/the-key-attributes-employersseek-on-college-graduates-resumes/ Ludlum, M., Conklin, M., & Tiger, A. (2021). Group projects in higher education: How demographic factors affect student perceptions of grading, leadership roles, assessment, and applicability. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 21(1), 13–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.3757526 Mather, K. (2020). Why are we still forcing each other to play icebreaker games?  In the Know. https://www.intheknow.com/post/why-are-we-stillforcing-each-other-to-play-icebreaker-games/

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O’Hara, C. (2017). How to work with someone who isn’t a team player. Harvard Business Review Online. https://hbr.org/2017/04/how-to-work-withsomeone-who-isnt-a-team-player Osten, C. (2016, October 5). Are you really listening, or just waiting to talk? Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-rightbalance/201610/are-you-really-listening-or-just-waiting-talk TED. (2016). Celeste Headlee: 10 ways to have a better conversation [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1vskiVDwl4 Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63(6), 384–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022100 Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. C. (1977) Stages of small-group development revisited. Group & Organization Studies, 2(4), 419–427. https://doi .org/10.1177/105960117700200404

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A P P E N D IX A O N LI N E L E A R N I N G

The number of students taking online courses has increased ­steadily over the years but shot up after the COVID-19 pandemic forced all of education online for a few semesters. In 2019, before COVID-19, approximately 37% of college learners took at least one class online. That number is now at 52% (Smalley, 2021). There are, of course, many other reasons that students are taking online courses in increasing numbers, including convenience, getting into on-campus classes that are full and closed, and because some students perform better in an online environment. One of the most valuable benefits for both students and institutions is that students who take online courses are more likely to graduate and even graduate sooner (Fischer et al., 2021). To help with your success, we’ve gathered some tips on online/ asynchronous courses here. First and foremost, check with your academic advisor before enrolling in any online courses. Colleges have a wide range of rules and regulations regarding which courses may be taken, how many courses in a major may be taken online, and when they may be taken. Advisors will assist you with this information to ensure that you receive ­academic credit for any online courses taken. 245

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Synchronous Online Courses Taking online, synchronous courses is relatively similar to onsite courses once you have a device with audio and video capabilities and any software required by the course, a decent internet connection, and a place from which you will join the class with as few distractions as possible. Whether to have the camera on or off has been an extensive discussion recently (Terda, 2021). If you are comfortable having your camera on, definitely keep it on. I have taught classes where all the cameras are off. It is challenging when you lose subtle nonverbal feedback. From my perspective, I teach better and engage the class more when looking at faces rather than photos of students and black boxes. Terda (2021) also noted that when cameras are on, students in the class build more trust and rapport with one another. You may also have an opportunity to participate in the synchronous class by typing in the chat, participating in a poll, collaborating with other students on a project, or volunteering to speak up during the class. If these engaged learning strategies are offered, I urge you to participate. Anything you can do to participate in the course will help you pay attention, learn, and retain information. See chapter 4 for more information about how participating and paying attention greatly improves learning and memory.

Asynchronous Online Courses Taking an online, asynchronous course, in contrast, is very different from onsite and synchronous classes. For one thing, onsite courses have specific meeting times. If your onsite class in the spring semester meets Monday and Wednesday from 10:00 a.m.–11:15 a.m., you know where you need to be, when you need to be there, and what work needs to be done to prepare for class. For an asynchronous, online course you may well be on your own right from the beginning. Deadlines will be posted in the syllabus instructing you what to do and by what day you will need to complete the work. In some courses, you will receive email reminders, but in other courses, you are entirely on your own to get into the course shell and do the work. There are windows of time in online courses, and you must do what is needed as early as possible in

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those windows. Windows of time may well exist for posting on discussion boards and responding to posts, accessing particular resources, turning in work, and exams. Using the exam as an example, an exam that will take an hour may be open for 2 or 3 days. However, if you try to log in to take an exam 15 minutes after the window is set to close, you will not be able to access the exam. Online asynchronous courses require a lot of independence and self-efficacy (see chapter 2 for more on self-efficacy). Some students find this format very effective, whereas others struggle with the isolation and independence of online learning. It depends heavily on the extent to which you enjoy the classroom experience and your perspectives on learning. The New England Board of Higher Education surveyed more than 25,000 students enrolled at 2-year and 4-year institutions and identified the following four critical elements for success in online learning (O’Hara, 2020): 1. Set a schedule. This was overwhelmingly the prime piece of advice, particularly for asynchronous courses. Students suggested setting a regular schedule and sticking to it, recording due dates in advance, working ahead where possible, and regularly checking emails and the course website. Many students shared that it wasn’t that hard to keep up with assignments by applying a little discipline and completing projects as soon as they were posted. 2. Create a comfortable study space (but not in bed). An excellent general rule is to never study in bed (see chapter 10 on sleep). Having a dedicated place that you use as your study space signals to you and anyone living with you that if you are in that space, you are studying. 3. Ask for help. Ensure that you know how to contact your professor before you may need to contact them, and, if possible, set up a GroupMe or some form of a chat with classmates. If you get stuck, ask for help right away. The longer you put off asking for help, the more challenging your issue will become. 4. Be accountable. If you are going to take an online asynchronous class, you will need to set schedules, build a plan, stick to your plan, and hold yourself accountable. The students in O’Hara’s

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(2020) study noted that if you can succeed in an onsite course, you can succeed in an online course. The only difference is that instead of an instructor two or three times a week telling you what to do, you have to be able to get the work done on your own. This will be highly challenging for some individuals, but it is possible if you build good habits (see chapter 2 on self-regulation).

Tips for Setting and Sticking to Your Schedule Although creating and sticking to a schedule is important, you also have to be realistic and have contingency “if-then” plans if, or rather when, you hit bumps in the scheduling road. First, set goals for where and when you will do your work for the day. Make these specific, such as “I will review for the quiz at noon over lunch.” Next, set up the “if-then” plan, such as “If I don’t get a chance to review over lunch, then I will review during my 3 p.m. break.” Having an if-then plan helps to keep you on track when your original study plan breaks down. A strategy of, “I missed my planned review over lunch. I will just do the review later,” isn’t really a strategy and will likely turn stressful relatively soon. Procrastination is a challenge for many students, but it’s even more important not to procrastinate with online classes. If you are the type of person who procrastinates frequently, it is probably not a good idea for you to take an online course. If you take an asynchronous course, you need to find and use a study strategy/strategies that work for you. One popular technique that makes studying a bit less arduous is the Pomodoro Technique, developed by Francesco Cirillo (n.d.) in the late 1980s. It is straightforward and works well for many students. Find a place to study, put your phone in airplane mode (or, better yet, turn it off and put it away; see the section on cognitive load in chapter 4 for reasons why), and set a timer for 25 minutes. When the timer goes off, give yourself a 5-minute break. Next, do another 25 minutes of study and a 5-minute break. You will have a solid 50 minutes of focused study time in 1 hour. This technique is noted frequently in association with online courses.

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Online and asynchronous courses provide an excellent opportunity for students to take classes in a nontraditional format. These courses are not more demanding in terms of content, but they are challenging in terms of the self-resiliency needed to complete them successfully. If you take an online course, particularly an asynchronous course, build out a learning schedule and stick to it.

References Cirillo, F. (n.d.). The Pomodoro Technique. Cirillo Consulting GmbH. https:// francescocirillo.com/products/the-pomodoro-technique Fischer, C., Baker, R., Li, Q., Orona, G. A., & Warschauer, M. (2021). Increasing success in higher education: The relationships of online course taking with college completion and time-to-degree. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737211055768 O’Hara, R. E. (2020, November 9). Hearing what students have to say about success in online learning. New England Board of Higher Education. https:// nebhe.org/journal/hearing-what-students-have-to-say-about-success-inonline-learning/ Smalley, S. (2021, October 13). Half of all college students take online courses. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2021/10/13/newus-data-show-jump-college-students-learning-online#:~:text=The%20 number%20of%20students%20enrolled,to%2022.7%20percent%20 of%20them Terda, Y. (2021, February 5). The camera-on/camera-off dilemma. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/camera-oncamera-dilemma

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A ME S S A G E F R O M D R . Z

Welcome to the end of this book! If it is the end of the semester for you, I hope that things went well, that the experiences you had over the past few months brought added richness to your perspective. If you received this book as a high school graduation gift and are heading off to college soon, I hope you spend your first semester building a better understanding of the individuals you are fortunate enough to meet. Now for the rest of my story. In the introduction of this book, I noted that if Dr. Sawyer had signed my drop slip, I would have dropped out of Lake Superior State College and returned to my small hometown of Cadillac, Michigan. I would have gotten a job at one of the factories there and made a life. However, Dr. Sawyer didn’t sign the paper, so I continued my studies. My family didn’t have the means to provide financial support, so I worked, a lot. I understand what it is to work to exhaustion and then some to pay for college. It is so hard. If that is you, keep your head up and keep moving ever forward. I got married just before the start of my junior year. We found strength in each other and continue that bond today. My wife was also a first-generation college student who ended up with a master’s degree in nursing. Because of my rough first year, I needed extra time to graduate. If it takes you an additional year or two or three to graduate, persevere and keep moving forward. I completed my psychology degree and ended up being the ­student speaker at graduation. There I was, on a stage in front of ­thousands of people, and just a few years prior I was terrified to give a presentation in a speech class of 15 students. Fear will give way if 251

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you push at it long enough, gentle pressure relentlessly applied. Stay brave and always move forward. I went to graduate school at Ohio University. As an undergraduate, I didn’t have great grades, but I had relevant experiences and a passion for what I wanted to pursue and was admitted to a graduate program. If your grades are not great, don’t give up. There will come a day when the degree is essential, but the grades are irrelevant. Do the best you can and keep moving forward. My wife and I had our first child while I was in graduate school, so I understand balancing academic and family demands. It was challenging to find a full-time teaching job following graduate school, but I knew what I wanted to do. You may have trouble finding your first professional job; hang in there and keep pushing forward. I finally got a teaching job at Southern Oregon State College, 7 years later I moved to Central Michigan University, then 7 years later I moved to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and then to their medical school. In 2019 I returned to Lake Superior State University as the commencement speaker, where I received an honorary doctorate. On that stage, looking at the same size audience that I had stood before many years prior, the numbers seemed smaller, because my world had gotten larger. I told the graduates and their parents about my F minus minus, the withdrawal slip almost signed, and that I am now a first-generation college student teaching teachers how to teach at a school I could never have gotten into as a student. In the graduation speech, I talked about possibilities, drive, and, of course, always moving forward. You will not have the same battles I did, but you will have battles. Fight through your challenges and celebrate your wins. Keep a growth mindset and you will have many victories. I can say w ­ ithout reservation that the world needs the person you can become. You are a steward of our future. I wrote chapter 1 about perspectives, ­acceptance, and enriching who you are because I believe that above all else. Surround yourself with bright, positive, and accepting individuals, and you will achieve great things. Regardless of how busy you are, take time to explore as you move forward. I leave you with the following to consider in the months ahead. Be mindful of your past but look to the future. Listen carefully to the

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voices of others and find respectful ways for your voice to be heard. Find ways to get what you work so hard for without taking anything away from others. Most importantly, always strive for more so that you have more you can share. Ever forward. If you find this book of value, or if you see something in need of correction, send me an email: [email protected] Respectfully, Dr. Z

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AB O UT T HE A UT HO R

Todd D. Zakrajsek, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Family Medicine at UNC–Chapel Hill and president of the International Teaching Learning Cooperative (ITLC). He currently directs five ITLC-Lilly conferences on evidence-based teaching and learning. Todd was a tenured associate professor of psychology and built faculty development efforts at three universities before joining the University of North Carolina (UNC) School of Medicine. At UNC, he provides resources for faculty on various topics related to teaching/learning, leadership, and scholarly activity. Todd has served on many educationally related boards and work groups, including The Journal of Excellence in College Teaching, International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, College Teaching, and Education in the Health Professions. He has consulted with o­ rganizations such as The American Council on Education (ACE), Lenovo Computer, Microsoft, and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. He has delivered keynote addresses and campus workshops at over 300 conferences and university campuses in 49 states, 12 countries, and 4 continents. Todd’s recently coauthored books include Dynamic Lecturing (2017, Stylus); Teaching for Learning, Second Edition (2021, Routledge); and Advancing Online Teaching (2021, Stylus). Follow and connect with Todd on Twitter@ toddzakrajsek and LinkedIn.

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I N D EX

ABC technique, 40–41 abuse, learned helplessness within, 39 academics, patterns and resources within, 116–122, 141–143. See also higher education accommodations, 21–22, 140–143 acetylcholine, 212 active listening, 54–55 adjourning stage, of group work, 230 aerobic exercise, 211. See also exercise agenda, for meetings, 236–237 alcohol, sleep and, 194–195 analyze (Bloom’s taxonomy), 133 anxiety, test, 158–159 apply (Bloom’s taxonomy), 133 artificial light, sleep and, 185, 198 asynchronous online courses, 246–248 attention, 31, 76–77 attractiveness, benefits regarding, 21 attribution, 99–102, 103 augmented notes, 82–83 automaticity, 30, 74–75 automatic processing, 74 autopilot, 65

beauty is good stereotype, 21 bias, 18–19, 101–103, 148–149 Black students, 18, 128 Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy, 132–134, 144, 152–153 bodily feedback, 35 brain. See also memory brain-derived neutrotrophic factor (BDNF), 211, 215, 216, 217 capabilities of, 66 encoding of, 79–80 exercise and, 209–212, 219 food processing and, 197 hippocampus, 210 neurons, 211–212 neurotransmitters, 211–212 prefontal cortex, 210 sleep and, 184–185, 201 structures and processes of, 209–212 synapses, 211–212 brain-derived neutrotrophic factor (BDNF), 211, 215, 216, 217 brainstorming, within group work, 231 breaks, restful, 191

257

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caffeine, sleep and, 195–196 cheating, 138 children, diet of, 196 chilly climate, of classrooms, 149 chornic insomnia, 200–201 chunking, 108–109, 110, 118–119, 122 circadian rhythms, 184–185 classical conditioning, 67–68 classrooms, participation within, 148–150. See also courses classroom schema, 75 closure, 114 cognition, 132 cognitive load automaticity, 74–75 defined, 30 extraneous, 72–73 germane, 73–74 intrinsic, 72 management of, 71–76 overview of, 110 schema activation, 75–76 task shifting and, 172 cognitive load theory, 71–72 commitment, within group work, 228 communication active listening within, 54–55 addressing faculty, 55–56 emailing, 57–58 with faculty, 55–59 follow-up, 58 within group work, 234–235 within office hours, 56–57 overview of, 60 patterns within, 54–59 requests within, 58–59 community, importance of, 11 consensus, within group work, 231

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consolidation, 80–81 content, patterns and, 117–119 contingent faculty, 56 continuity, 113–114 controlled processes, 74 counterpointer, within meetings, 238 courses discussion within, 161 expectation within, 143–144 extra credit wtihin, 151–152 gender bias within, 148–149 hanging too long within, 175–176 homework within, 150–151 participation within, 148–150 presentations within, 155–158 reflection journals within, 150–151 study time for, 130–131 syllabus for, 154 task shifting within, 172–173 test-taking within, 158–160 writing papers within, 152–155 COVID-19 pandemic, 245 cramming, 167–169, 192 create (Bloom’s taxonomy), 133 critical thinking, 12 criticism, 92 cuing, 173–174 cultural bias, 102 decision-making, within group work, 230–231 declarative memories, 189 deep learning, 76–78 deep sleep, 186 deflector, 17 dichotomous thinking, 12 dichotomy, 12

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index  

diet, sleep and, 196–197 direct quotes, 139 disability services, 140–141 dispositional attribution, 99 disruption, 80 dopamine, 212 drama, within group work, 240 driving, distractions regarding, 172, 185–186 egocentric bias, 102–103 elaboration, 82–83 elaborative encoding, 79 emails, to faculty, 57–58 emotions, management of, 31–33 encoding, 79–80 engaged learning, 22–23 episodic memory, 213 equality, 20–22 equity, 20–22 evaluate (Bloom’s taxonomy), 133 evaluating, within metacognition, 98 exams, 158–160, 161, 167–169, 188, 192 exercise brain and, 209–212, 219 health benefits of, 208–209 learning and, 212–216, 216–217 long-term, 212–216 low-impact, nonaerobic therapeutic, 218–219 memory and, 213–214 overview of, 207, 219–220 response modulation through, 32 school-based, 214–215 short-term, 216–217 sleep and, 199–200 therapeutic, 217–219 walking as, 218

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259

experience, 13, 15, 34, 67 extra credit, 151–152, 161 extraneous cognitive load, 72–73 extrinsic attribution, 99 faculty accommodations and, 140–141 addressing, 55–56 Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy and, 132 communication with, 55–59, 60 contingent, 56 emailing, 57–58 extra credit viewpoints of, 151 follow up with, 58 lecture process of, 134–135 office hours of, 56–57 requests to, 58–59 respect of, 59 task shifting and, 172 writing resources from, 154 failure, 93, 94 feedback, 35–36, 38, 94, 136–137, 144 figure-ground, 115–116 first-generation college students, 14 first-year college students, 29–30, 47 fixed-mindedness, 90–92, 93 focal point, 115 follow-up, with faculty, 58 forgetting curve, 81–82 forming stage, of group work, 229–230 fundamental attribution error, 100–102 gender bias, 148–149 germane congitive load, 73–74 Gestalt psychology approach, 111, 122

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260  

index

glutamate, 212 goal creep, 48 goals, 46–51, 60 grade point average (GPA), 188 group study/work adjourning stage of, 230 agenda for, 236–237 avoidance of, 160 benefits of, 225–227 brainstorming within, 231 challenges of, 239–240 check-ins for, 232–233 commitment within, 228 competing demands within, 228–229 conflicts within, 235–236 decision-making within, 230–231 diverse perspective incorporation within, 226 drama within, 240 forming stage of, 229–230 ground rules for, 233–236 group member learning within, 227–229 hogs within, 239 icebreakers within, 228 implementation within, 231–232 individual study versus, 128–130 introductions within, 228 lack of completion of, 233–234 large/complex problems within, 226–227 leadership within, 230 logs within, 239 losing the way within, 239 meetings within, 234, 236–238 microaggressions within, 235–236 missed meetings regarding, 234 norming stage of, 230

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overview of, 240–241 performing stage of, 230 process facilitation within, 229–233 project goal clarification within, 229 roles within, 237–238 scheduling of, 232 SMART goals within, 229 soft skill development within, 225–226 speaking and listening within, 234–235 storming stage of, 230 strengths/challenge inventory within, 227 updates regarding, 232–233 viewpoints regarding, 224–225 growth-mindedness, 93–95, 136–137 hard skills, 225 helplessness, learned, 39–40 hidden curriculum, 127, 143–144 higher education accommodations within, 140–141 benefits of, 11 misconduct within, 138–140 online learning within, 245–249 patterns within, 116–122 resources within, 141–143 highlighting, as learning pitfall, 165–167 hippocampus, 210 histamine, 212 hogs, within group work, 239 homework, 150–151, 161 hypothalamus, 184–185

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index  

icebreakers, within group work, 228 implicit bias, 18–19 imposter syndrome, 36–38, 41 individuality, 14–15 individual study, group study versus, 128–130 insomnia, 200–201 interference, 80 interleaving, 84 intrinsic attribution, 99 intrinsic cognitive load, 72 introductions, within group work, 228 journal articles, patterns for reading, 120–121 journals, reflection, 150–151, 161 larks, 187–188 leadership, within group work, 230 learning anticipating success within, 78 attention within, 76–77 brain capabilities regarding, 66 classical conditioning, 67–68 cognitive load theory, 71–76 daily, 135–136 deep, 76–78 defined, 67, 71 engaged, 22–23 of helplessness, 39–40 models of, 66–71 observational, 70 operant conditioning, 68–69 of optimism, 39–41 social learning theory, 69–71 theories of, 66–71 understanding within, 77–78 value within, 77

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261

learning pitfalls cramming for exams, 167–169 defined, 165 following learning style, 169–171 hanging too long, 175–176 highlighting, 165–167 listening to negativity, 173–175 overview of, 177 rereading, 165–167 task shifting, 171–173 learning style, 169–171, 177 lecture, productivity during, 134–135, 144 librarians, reference, 154 limbic system, 32 listening, 54–55, 76, 173–175, 234–235 logs, within group work, 239 long-term goals, 49–50 low-impact, nonaerobic therapeutic exercise, 218–219 Mandela, Nelson, 94 marginalized groups, imposter syndrome of, 37–38 McLaren, Ian, 13 meetings agenda for, 236–237 cancelling, 238 for group work, 234, 236–238 next steps following, 238 roles within, 237–238 starting/ending time for, 237 summary within, 238 well-check within, 238 melatonin, 185 memory chunking, 110, 118–119, 122 chunking within, 108–109 closure and, 114

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262  

index

cognitive load and, 110 consolidation, 80–81 content within, 117–119 continuity and, 113–114 declarative, 189 defined, 79 elaboration, 82–83 encoding, 79–80 enhancements to, 81–85 episodic, 213 exercise and, 213–214, 216–217 figure-ground and, 115–116 improvement of, 78–81 interleaving, 84 overview of, 122 procedural, 190 processes of, 79 proximity within, 112–113 repetition, 83–84 retrieval, 81 schemas within, 110, 119 short-term, 118–119 similiarity and, 111–112 sleep and, 188–192 spaced recall practice, 85 working, 109 metabolism, 196 metacognition, 30, 95–99, 103 metacognitive regulation, 97–99 microaggressions, 15–17, 23, 235–236 mindset, 90–95, 103 mission creep, 48 moderator, within meetings, 237 monitor, within meetings, 237 monitoring, within metacognition, 97–98 mood congruent memory facilitation, 174 multimodal learner, 170 multitasking, 55, 171, 172

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music, 73, 113 myoclonic jerk, 186 Naperville High School, 214–215 nap jerk, 186 naps, 191 Native American students, stereotype threat regarding, 18 nature, sleep and, 199–200 negativity, 173–175, 177 nervousness, 158–159 neurons, 211–212 neurotransmitters, 211–212 night owls, 187–188 non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, 185–186 norepinephrine, 212 norming stage, of group work, 230 notetaker, within meetings, 237 novels, patterns for reading, 122 observational learning, 70 office hours, 56–57 Office of Student Disability Services, 140–141 Office of Student Success, 140–141 online courses, 23, 245–249 operant conditioning, 68–69 optimism, learned, 39–41 organization, 53–54 outcomes, 34, 46–51 overparenting, learned helplessness within, 39 participation, within learning, 148–150 patterns in academic life, 116–122 chunking, 108–109, 110, 118–119, 122

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index  

closure, 114 cognitive load, 110 content, 117–119 continuity, 113–114 examples of, 107–108 figure-ground, 115–116 learning enhancement and, 108–110 overview of, 122–123 pervasive, 111–116 proximity, 112–113 schemas, 110, 119 similiarity, 111–112 of sleep, 187–188 performance outcomes, 34 performing stage, of group work, 230 permanence, 40 personalization, 40 perspective, 11, 12–13, 14–15, 23, 226 persuasion, verbal, 35 pervasiveness, 40, 41 physical activity brain and, 209–212 health benefits of, 208–209 learning and, 212–216, 216–217 long-term, 212–216 low-impact, nonaerobic therapeutic, 218–219 overview of, 207, 219–220 school-based, 214–215 short-term, 216–217 sleep and, 199–200 therapeutic, 217–219 walking as, 218 physiological feedback, 35–36 pineal gland, 184–185 pitfalls, learning cramming for exams, 167–169 defined, 165

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263

following learning style, 169–171 hanging too long, 175–176 highlighting, 165–167 listening to negativity, 173–175 overview of, 177 rereading, 165–167 task shifting, 171–173 plagiarism, 138–140 planning, within metacognition, 97 pluralistic ignorance, 157–158 Pomodoro Technique, 248 prefontal cortex, 210 presentations, 155–158, 161 primacy, 150 priming, 119, 173–174 procedural memories, 190 procrastination, 30, 135–136, 144, 248 productivity, during lecture, 134–135 proximity, 112–113 public speaking, 155–158, 161 rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, 185–187, 193 reaction time tests, 18 reading, automaticity and patterns within, 74–75, 119–122 reappraisal, 32 recall practice, 85 recency, 150 reconsolidation, 81 reflection journals, 150–151, 161 remember (Bloom’s taxonomy), 132–133 repetition, 83–84 rereading, as learning pitfall, 165–167 respect, to faculty, 59 response modulation, 32

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264  

index

restful breaks, 191 retrieval memory process, 81 schedule building of, 51–52 for group work, 232 management of, 52 for online courses, 247–249 organization within, 53–54 to-do lists, 52–53 schemas, 75–76, 110, 112, 119 self-correction, 17 self-efficacy, 30, 33–36, 41 self-plagiarism, 139–140 self-regulation, 28–33, 41 semantic encoding, 79–80 sensory system, 67 serotonin, 184–185 short-term goals, 49–50 short-term memory, 118–119 similiarity, 111–112 situation modification, 31–32 situations, emotion within, 31 sleep alcohol and, 194–195 bedroom environment for, 198–199 brain and - MATCH, 201 caffeine and, 195–196 circadian rhythms, 184–185 debt, 193 deprivation of, 183–184 diet and, 196–197 disruption factors regarding, 193–194 hygiene, 198 impact of, 183–184 insomnia, 200–201 learning and, 188–192 management of, 192–201

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memory and, 188–192 naps, 191 overview of, 201–202 patterns of, 187–188 physical activity and, 199–200 research regarding, 184–188 restful breaks, 191 routine for, 199 stages of, 185–187 technology and, 197–198 test-taking and, 159–160, 168, 188 SMART goals, 47–51, 229 smartphones, 73, 187 social cognition, 89 social learning theory, 69–71 socioeconomic status (SES), stereotype threat and, 17–18 soft skills, 225–226 spaced recall practice, 85 stereotype threat, 17–18 storming stage, of group work, 230 strengths, inventory of, 227 strength training, 208. See also exercise stretch goals, 50 struggle, 13–19 study individual versus group, 128–130 process of, 168–169 spaced, 168 strategies for, 159 time use within, 130–132 tips regarding, 129, 130 style, learning, 169–171, 177 substance abuse/misuse, 32 success, 29–30, 39, 78 sunk cost, 175–176, 177 sunlight, sleep and, 200 supporter, within meetings, 238

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index  

syllabus, 154 synapses, 211–212 synchronous online courses, 246 tai chi, 218–219 task management, 51–54 task shifting, 171–173, 177 technology, sleep and, 197–198 temperment, self-regulation and, 31 tests, 158–160, 161, 167–169, 188, 192 textbooks, patterns for reading, 119–120 texting, 172 themes, within reading, 122 therapeutic exercise, 217–219. See also exercise to-do lists, 52–53 understand (Bloom’s taxonomy), 133

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265

understanding, within deep learning, 77–78 value, within deep learning, 77 verbal persuasion, 35 vicarious experience, 34 vision, 115 visual encoding, 79 voting, within group work, 231 walking, as exercise, 218 women, 19, 36, 37–38, 148–149 working memory, 109 writing, 152–155, 161 writing center, 154 yoga, 219 zone of proximal development (ZPD), 78

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The Student Companion to Community-Engaged Learning What You Need to Know for Transformative Learning and Real Social Change David M. Donahue and Star Plaxton-Moore Foreword by Tania D. Mitchell Afterword Chris Nayve “This book is a powerful tool for the field and for inviting students to be community engaged learners. We’ve been waiting for a tool like this to use with students. This book is a guide, a companion, and a way to prepare students to be engaged in the community in critical ways that address the macro and micro issues that we confront in community engaged learning and social change.”—Marisol Morales, Vice-President for Network Leadership, Campus Compact “The authors face head on the most urgent issues that affect communities, and encourage us to embrace the notion that it is through reciprocal relationships that one earns the privilege of working alongside leaders in the community not as saviors but as partners. As you begin your journey in the community, this book will serve as a meditative companion and roadmap. When used as a guide, this book will help you develop a daily practice of discovering assets in yourself and your community, and lead you to a destination that experiences community engagement as ‘desire-centered’ work.”—Chris Nayve, Associate Vice President for Community Engagement and Anchor Initiatives. Mulvaney Center, University of San Diego This text is a guide to what’s involved in community-engaged learning, from understanding the pervasiveness of social, economic, and environmental problems, to learning about how individuals and organizations in communities work to overcome them. You will discover through a process of reflection how service connects to personal development and the content of your courses, build your ability to engage with people different from yourself, and develop new life skills, all in the context of working with communities to overcome systemic injustice.

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Demystifying Dissertation Writing A Streamlined Process from Choice of Topic to Final Text Peg Boyle Single Foreword by Richard M. Reis “Whether you’re inching toward a dissertation topic, choosing an advisor, or already coping with the last stage of doctoral work, this book will be a life-saver. Demystifying Dissertation Writing is for anyone who wants to increase their writing productivity and especially for those who experience anxiety, blocking, impatience, perfectionism, or procrastination when they write. Through easy-tofollow steps, Single helps you rise above all these barriers and become a fluent writer. She has managed to package into this book her expertise as a writing seminar organizer and a writing coach and it is just what academe needs.” —Moody, Faculty Development and Diversity Specialist This book is for anyone who needs help in preparing for, organizing, planning, scheduling, and writing the longest sustained writing project they have encountered, particularly if he or she is not receiving sufficient guidance about the process, but also for anyone looking to boost his or her writing productivity. The author uncovers much tacit knowledge, provides advice on working with dissertation advisors and committee members, presents proven techniques for the prewriting and writing stages of the dissertation, sets out a system for keeping on schedule, and advocates enlisting peer support.

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Authoring Your Life Developing Your INTERNAL VOICE to Navigate Life’s Challenges Marcia B. Baxter Magolda Foreword by Sharon Daloz Parks “Geared for a popular rather than an academic audience, this book is designed to assist young adults in moving from dependence on external authorities to taking charge of their own life decisions.”—Journal of College Student Development “Authoring Your Life provides a fine guide to addressing life’s challenges and demands, but goes beyond most self-help guides to offer the stories of over 30 adults whom she has followed and interviewed for over 20 years. Their life stories are meant to reflect parallels in reader experiences; offering keys to individual values, identity, and how self-reliance may be developed.”—Midwest Book Review “No one has carried the concept of ‘self-authorship’ forward more richly, or with greater use for the reader, than Marcia Baxter Magolda. Anyone interested in supporting their own, or others’, adult development will benefit enormously from this book.”—Robert Kegan, Meehan Professor of Adult Learning, Harvard University, and Coauthor of Immunity to Change Who am I? What do I want in relationships? How do I know what to believe? How do I manage the stresses of living? This is a guide to addressing life’s challenges and competing demands. It will help you to reflect on the problems and setbacks you encounter to discover your own voice, uncover your authentic sense of values, build your confidence, and find meaning in your life. Because everyone’s circumstances differ, and life is unpredictable, this book does not offer simplistic solutions and steps to follow. Instead, Marcia Baxter Magolda immerses you in the stories of 35 adults whom she has followed and interviewed for over 20 years. With her guidance, and using the selfauthorship framework she has developed, you will recognize in yourself many patterns and parallels from the protagonists’ stories of emotional and intellectual growth. By reflecting on these life stories, you will gain insights about your individual values and identity, and strengthen your sense of self-reliance to handle significant transitions and unexpected circumstances.

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Also available from Stylus Teach Yourself How to Learn Strategies You Can Use to Ace Any Course at Any Level Saundra Yancy McGuire With Stephanie McGuire Foreword by Mark McDaniel “Saundra McGuire has extended her expertise directly to students in this companion to Teach Students How to Learn. After impacting faculty and academic support professionals’ approach to helping students learn best, she now introduces and guides students to deeper understanding of concepts at different levels. By reframing their approach to studying in college using her methods, they can become better motivated, manage their study time effectively, earn higher grades, and develop successful college careers.” —Johanna Dvorak, Director Emerita, Educational Support Services, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Saundra McGuire’s message is that “Any student can use simple, straightforward strategies to start making A’s in their courses and enjoy a lifetime of deep, effective learning.” Beginning with explaining how expectations about learning, and the study efforts required, differ between college and secondary school, the author introduces her readers, through the concept of metacognition, to the importance and powerful consequences of understanding themselves as learners. This framework and the recommended strategies that support it are useful for anyone moving on to a more advanced stage of education, so this book also has an intended audience of students preparing to go to high school, graduate school, or professional school.

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