The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making [1 ed.] 0226401227, 9780226401225, 0226401219, 9780226401218, 9780226401232

Table of contents :
Contents......Page 10
List of Illustrations......Page 12
Acknowledgments......Page 16
A Note on Conventions......Page 20
1/ INTRODUCTION: The Book of Nature and the Nature of the Book......Page 24
2 / LITERATORY LIFE: The Culture and Credibility of the Printed Book in Early Modern London......Page 81
3/ "THE ADVANCEMENT OF WHOLESOME KNOWLEDGE": The Politics of Print and the Practices of Propriety......Page 210
4 / JOHN STREATER AND THE KNIGHTS OF THE GALAXY: Republicanism, Natural Knowledge, and the Politics of Printing......Page 289
5 / FAUST AND THE PIRATES: The Cultural Construction of the Printing Revolution......Page 347
6 / THE PHYSIOLOGY OF READING: Print and the Passions......Page 403
7 / PIRACY AND USURPATION: Natural Philosophy in the Restoration......Page 467
8 / HISTORIES OF THE HEAVENS: John Flamsteed, Isaac Newton, and the Historia Gelestis Britannica......Page 566
9 / CONCLUSION......Page 645
Index......Page 11

Citation preview

THE

NATURE

OF THE

BOOK

THE

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THE PHYSIOLOGY OF READING

The experience of reading is extremely difficult to describe in words. If Collins's and Polanyi's arguments about the ineffable character of skill are correct, then capturing it may even be impossible.1 2 The place of a reading practice, and its consequences as expressed in subsequent writings, are often traceable, being preserved in textual, pictorial, and material archives; but the immediacy of reading itself is not. Nevertheless, we may still hope to arrive at a useful understanding of how particular appropriations of books could come to be articulated in particular circumstances (and why others could not), why they had an impact, and why that impact was as it was. 13 The conventions adopted in the Stationers' court, which were investigated in chapter 3, and those developed at the Royal Society, which are the subject of chapter 7, are examples. Both could be assessed in terms of conventions of reading pursued in particular social spaces. The history of reading aims to trace and account for such dynamic processes, by appreciating the different practices by which readers in various times and places attribute meanings to the objects of their reading. It explains the global by rigorous attention to the local. One approach to the subject lies through what Roger Chartier calls "object studies." This involves tracing the different appropriations accorded a single book as it traverses a number of distinct social spaces. Such studies combine attention to the book itself, with its format, layout, and typography-the cluster ofcharacteristics connoted by the term mise en page-with research into the diverse conventions of reading in operation in its places of use. 14 An alternative is to concentrate not on one object, but on one reader. The opportunity to do this arises when such a reader has left traces of his or her reading, generally in the form of annotations on, or about, a set of books. The most impressive claims for the history of reading in Anglophonic historiography have probably been those based on the study of such annotations. 15 These traces are not necessarily rare. In the seventeenth century, especially, printed sheets bought at a bookshop would often be 12. Collins, Changing Order, chap. 3; Polanyi, Personal Knowledge. 13. Chartier, Cultural History, 6; Chartier, Pratiques de fa Lecture, 8, 62; Martin, "Pour une Histoire de la Lecture"; Chartier, Order ofBooks, 16-17; Bourdieu and Chartier, "La Lecture." 14. Chartier, Culture ofPrint, 3; Chartier, Cultural Uses ofPrint in Early Modem France, 6-7; Chartier, "Texts, Printings, Readings"; Chartier, "Postface," 624-5; Chartier, Culture ofPrint, 4-5; Chartier, Cultural History, 11-12; Martin and Vezin, Mise en Page et Mise en

Texte du Livre Manuscrit. 15. Sherman, John Dee, is the most sustained example of this work. Other important examples include Jardine and Grafton, '''Studied for Action,''' adapted as Grafton, "Discitur ut Agatur," and Grafton, Commerce with the Classics, esp. 185 -224. A thoughtful defense of the approach is presented in Grafton, "Is the History of Reading a Marginal Enterprise?" esp. 155 - 6. The possibilities for the history of science are suggested by Gingerich, "Copernicus's De Revolutionibus."

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regarded not as complete, but as remaining to be individualized by readers' additions. 16 The study of the resulting hybrids, half printed book and half unique manuscript, shows convincingly that "scholarly" reading, at least, was, as Grafton and Jardine put it, a "goal-orientated" enterprise. It aimed at immediate, active purposes, the "interpretation" of a given work varying according to what those purposes were. The efforts ofseveral historians have provided us with an incipient taxonomy of annotation strategies that may eventually revolutionize our understanding of how such interpretations were constructed. This chapter employs an approach rather different from these, but at the same time one complementary to both object studies and the analysis of annotations. It begins from experiences like Boyle's. In describing such powerful effects, Boyle's cautionary statements directed attention to what he thought actually occurred at the decisive moment of face-to-face confrontation between reader and read. Historians have remained remarkably reticent about this moment of confrontation, perhaps because it seems to embody so self-evident, so natural an act that there appears little they could usefully say about it. Even historians of reading have largely left it alone. Yet it ought to be central to an account of the history of reading, ifonly because, as a matter of fact, descriptions of it have varied widely in different periods. What is it that passes from page to mind when someone reads, and how does it have an effect? This is the fundamental question with which the analysis presented here begins. It is properly answered, however, not in out own terms, but in those of early modern England. 17 The following account does not propose that all individuals theorized the act of reading in the same way-nor even that most theorized it at all. But it does identify the most important anatomical, physiological, philosophical, and moral resources available to them when they did need to understand it. And it shows that when they wished to propose radical new kinds of knowledge, the need to deploy those resources could become extremely urgent. The most important resources available to early modern readers for describing their experiences derived from what contemporaries called the passions. Human beings perceived letters on a page through the mediation of their bodies; the passions were the emotional, physiological, and moral responses of the human body to its surroundings, and thus played an unavoidable part in the reading process. This chapter provides an account of these composite entities. They were discussed and analyzed by all branches of society, providing an extensive array of knowledge usable in understanding one's own and one's neighbors' conduct. The chapter argues that accounts 16. McKitterick, History ofCambridge University Press, xiii. 152.

17. Robert Damron calls in passing for such an approach in his "History of Reading," See also his "Readers Respond ro Rousseau."

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF READING

of reading generated with the aid of such knowledge became central to the attempted discrimination of true insight from dangerous error. Individuals who failed to control their passionate reading practices, and thereby fell prey to them, could then be diagnosed by a series ofsymptoms that were likewise understood in terms of the passions. And remedies could be proposed for them, disciplining the passions into conformity. By recovering this extensive and influential repertoire, the chapter provides a fresh perspective on the most personal aspects of reading. It also helps to bring the histories of reading and knowledge together. SEEING PHYSIOLOGY

There is a fundamental problem with which to start. In early modern England, what was it to "see"? When one exercised vision, what actually passed through the air and into the eye, and how did it have an effect when it got there? Patrick Collinson has suggested that this question is really "where an account of protestant culture ought to begin." What follows will largely confirm his suggestion. IS Once this problem has been addressed, we shall then be able to move on to the more specific question of how one saw letters on a page. These two issues are the subject of this section. As an initial strategy, one can try interpreting Boyle's words at face value. "Prejudice," "fancy," "impressions," "habitude," "thoughts"-to an informed early modern reader these were readily recognizable terms. They were in regular use both in lay contexts and, more formally, in a variety of sciences relating to the mechanisms of perception and the workings of the mind. They should perhaps be read literally, then, to refer to processes of the mind and body. Knowledge of such processes was widely available in early modern England. It was staple to any number of discourses, ranging from everyday medicine, through casuistry and the moral advice of ministers, to highly specialized anatomical practice. Contemporaries felt able to use such resources to describe their experiences of perception and reasoning, including those involved in reading, and invested enough faith in them to act on those descriptions. The following discussion attempts to recover their knowledge and its uses. Discussions of vision began with the eye. They typically represented it as the natural equivalent ofa camera obscura (fig. 6.1).19 This was a well-known 18. Collinson, Birthpangs ofProtestant England, 122. An interesting examination of the physiology of viewing for a slightly earlier period is Summers's Judgment ofSense. Saenger, "Physiologie de la Lecture," "Silent Reading," and Space between WOrds, 1-17, use the perspective of modern physiology. 19. Kepler, Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena, 176-7; Molyneux, Dioptrica Nova, 103-4; Newton, Opticks, 9-II. Compare Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 162-3. See also Malet, "Keplerian Illusions," and Alpers, Art ofDescribing, 50 -51 and passim.

FIG. 6.1. The eye represented as a camera obscura. (left) Beverwyck, Werken. (By permission of the British Library, 773.k.6.) (below) Scheiner, Rosa Ursina. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge Universiry Library.)

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF READING

device, familiar to a vast range of readers from Giambattista della Porta's Natural Magick and countless books of secrets. It could be made easily and bought cheaply. By 1655, Meric Casaubon could assume that most people "that have any curiosity" would have seen one, and the apparatus remained popular throughout the succeeding century, not least as an aid for drawing. 20 A camera obscura consisted of a darkened chamber of any size, ranging from a small box to a room large enough to contain a human being, with a pinhole in one wall. Light admitted through this hole formed an inverted image of the scene outside on the opposite surface. 21 In the eye, correspondingly, an image was thought to be "imprinted" or "painted" (both words were used) on the retina. The process could be reconstructed using specimen eyes from cadavers or, human bodies being scarce commodities, from animals (fig. 6.2). William Briggs used sheep's eyes to demonstrate his own theory before the Royal Society. Based on such studies, artificial eyes could be constructed on the camera obscura model, Wren suggesting that one would represent a suitable gift for Charles II should he ever deign to visit the Society.22 Such gadgets served to demonstrate the casting of an inverted image onto the retinal surface. From thence, it was assumed, "spirits" channeled in the optic nerves transmitted this image instantly to the brain. There it was again "impressed" onto something called the sensus communis, and thus perceived by the mind. 23 In what was by the Restoration probably the most influential general treatment of the subject, Rene Descartes famously placed this sensus communis at the pineal gland. Whether or not this was accepted, contemporaries universally believed that the sensus communis was imprinted at the same instant as the retina and in a manner mediated by the structure of the human body. 24 Such a camera obscura model provided a convincing account of correct perception. But impressions incident upon the sensus communis need not come from the eyes. They could equally have originated from any of the senses of smell, taste, hearing, or touch. Or, more interestingly, they might not have derived from outside the body at all. For images produced by the imagination were apprehended by the same process of imprinting as those generated by the senses from exterior phenomena. Whenever the mind 20. Eamon, Science and the Secrets ofNature, 308; [Hoofnail] , Art ofDrawing, 7-9. Robert Boyle's operator gave an interesting account of the camera obscura and imaginative imprinting: G[regg], Curiosities in Chymistry, 72-82. 21. Porta, Natural Magick, 363 -5; Casaubon, Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme, 43. 22. Briggs, Ophthalmo-graphia, 73-4; Briggs, Nova Visionis Theoria; Birch, History, I, 288-91, 391; IV, 136, 137, 203· A model eye was indeed stored in the Society's repositoty: Grew, Musaeum Regalis Societatis, 359. For Robert Boyle's experiments supporting the principle, see Royal Society Ms. Boyle P. 38, fols. 68'-7°', 141'-142'. 23. Descartes, Philosophical Writings, I, 41-2, 166-7; Kepler, Dioptrice, 23-5. 24. Descartes, Philosophical Writings, I, 39-40, 152-6.

Rene Descartes tests the camera obscura theory by peering through the eye ofa bull. Descartes, La Dioptrique, in Oeuvres, VI. (By permission of the Syndics ofCambridge University Library.) FIG. 6.2.

FIG. 6.3. (above right, below) The physiological mechanisms permitting perception and response. Descartes, L 'Homme, in Oeuvres, Xl. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.)

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF READING

S~t1~

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391

FIG. 6+ Isaac Newton's description of experimenting on his own eye. This was one of an intermittent series of trials that Newton undertook privately over a period of at least a year in the mid-166os. He had already concluded that his "fantasie" could excite the spirits in his optic nerve sufficiently to generate apparent images; now he "tooke a bodkin & put it betwixt my eye & y< bone as neare to y< backside of my eye as I could." Pressing the surface of his eye with this bodkin, he found that he could generate "white darke & coloured circles." Together the experiments illuminated the reliance of vision on physical and imaginative capacities. CUL Ms. Add. 3975, p. 15. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.)

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either imagined or perceived an object, then, it was really considering an image traced on the surface of the sensus communis-and it could not always be sure which it was doing. Descartes himself therefore insisted that the term idea must be applied rigorously to any such "impressions," whether imaginative or perceptive in origin. Ideas of either source then acted as the spur to physical actions, the impulses inducing such actions being transmitted through the body by the same nervous system that mediated perception (fig. 6.3).25 This intimate and continuous interaction of body, imagination, and perception had at least one important consequence. It meant that camera obscura models of vision could never be as straightforward as their proponents had perhaps hoped. Far from having been rendered regular, and even mechanical, vision remained liable to corruption and counterfeiting, either by the imagination or by physiological conditions. Qualifications to camera obscura models accordingly became as routine as the models themselves. In 25. Descartes, Philosophical Writings, I, 42,105-6.

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fact, even Della Porta had noted the problem. Describing the camera obscura, he had remarked that observers had to be conditioned in order for it to function properly, because of the role of "affection" in conditioning perception. 26 Descartes, too, observed that his anatomical demonstration of the eye as a camera worked only as long as it kept its "natural" shape-"for if you squeeze it just a little more or less than you ought, the picture becomes less distinct." 27 Just what constituted proper squeezing he left unclear. And Isaac Newton endorsed such qualifications in his Opticks, which came to be recognized as the most authoritative of all discussions. Newton warned that vision could be corrupted if the eye were either colored, too "plump," or not plump enough. Only in the proper circumstances, and only if the perceived phenomena were not "produced or altered by the power of imagination," could knowledge of colors be considered a Newtonian science. This he had actually verified on himself, managing solely through the exercise of his "fantasie" to create an illusory perception of the Sun in his rooms at Trinity College, Cambridge (fig. 6.4).28 The structure of the brain and nervous system thus played an essential part in the reception, manipulation, and effects of ideas. Even with a camera obscura model of the eye, this part could not be gainsaid, since it was built into the human frame. On the contrary, it must be confronted and understood. Although mechanical philosophers might call in principle for explanations to be couched in reductionist terms, in practice this further understanding had to be physiological (and, as we shall see, even moral) in character. To account for the construction of knowledge from perceptions, one needed an appreciation of the "affections" attendant upon the human constitution. The most significant contemporary account of this subject was to be found in the work of Oxford's Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy, Thomas Willis. In the early 1660s Willis undertook a series of detailed dissections of the brain and nervous system, accompanied by Richard Lower, who probably did much of the more grisly work, and by Christopher Wren, who drew the results. 29 Theirs was an epic enterprise. "Hecatombs" of cadavers were dissected- not only humans, but horses, sheep, calves, goats, hogs, dogs, cats, foxes, hares, geese, turkeys, fish, and even a monkey. In 26. Porta, Natural Magick, 363. 27. Descartes, Philosophical Writings, I, 167. 28. Newton, Opticks, 9-II, 48, 135-7; Westfall, Never at Rest, 93-5. For similar cases see Schaffer, "Self Evidence." 29. Willis, "The Anatomy of the Brain" and "The Description of the Nerves," in Remaining Medical WOrks, 55-136 and 137-92. For the circumstances surrounding this work see Willis, Thomas Willis's Oxford Lectures, 37- 49, 52 ff.; Frank, "Thomas Willis and His Circle"; and Bynum, "Anatomical Method." The main source for anatomical work in the period is Frank, Harvey and the Oxford Physiologists.

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London, Robert Boyle was kept informed of their labors, Walter Charleton repeated them, and Henry Oldenburg spread news of their findings across Europe. 3o Together these men created the most importanr work on neurology to be produced before the nineteenth century. And technical though it was, it proved extraordinarily influential in a range of contexts. Aspiring gentlemen were even exhorted to study it as a central part of their education. It was thereby also to prove of prime importance to representations of reading,31 It is important to convey some impression of the motivations driving Willis's enterprise, since that enterprise was a specific and unusual one. Willis was a convinced Church of England man, to the extent of having orchestrated clandestine Common Prayer services during the Interregnum. His project reflected this. Its printed representation, dedicated to his patron, the archbishop of Canterbury, revealed that Willis was not engaged in routinely didactic morbid anatomy. His true subject was what he called "Psycheology," or the "Discourse of the Soul." Willis began from a widely shared belief that the soul was divisible into two parts: a rational component, which was immaterial, immortal, and intellectual, and a sensitive one, which was corporeal and mortal. The former could not be subjected to physiological study, but the latter could, and on this he focused. This "sensitive soul" conducted all the physical processes of perception and movement, acting through the vehicle of "animal spirits" sublimed from the blood and channeled through the nervous system. These were the same spirits as those that transmitted perceptions to the sensus communis. They were like internal, corporeal "Rays of Light," Willis declared: "For as light figures the Impressions of all visible things, and the Air of all audible things; so the Animal Spirits, receive the impressed Images of those, and also of Odors, and tangible Qualities." Their essence was the conveyance of perceptions. Imagination and perception were thus difficult to distinguish precisely because they depended on this same vehicle. It was a vehicle not confined to any particular organ, let alone to the mind, but "Coextended to the whole Body." Willis wanted his anatomy to elucidate its workings to the full. 32 Believing that the sensitive soul functioned by the flow of animal spirits through material channels, Willis thought it possible to reveal those channels by anatomical practice. He especially hoped to identify in the brain 30. Birch, History, I, 416, 421-2, 436, 444; Oldenburg, Correspondence, II, 141-5, 300-9, 631-3. 31. Rousseau, "Nerves, Spirits, and Fibres"; Rousseau, "Science and the Discovery of the Imagination"; Mullan, "Hypochondria and Hysteria"; Lawrence, "Nervous System and Society in the Scottish Enlightenment." 32. Willis, Two Discourses, sigs. [A3 v l-[A4 v l, 5, 18, 38ff.

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FIG. 6.5. Thomas Willis's anatomy of the human brain. These engravings show the brain from the base (left) and the top (right). In (left), B is the cerebellum, C the "oblong marrow," E the optic nerve, and F and G the motive and "pathetick" nerves of the eyes. In (right). the halves of the brain have been pulled up and apart to reveal inner structures. Here, P is the cerebellum, B the callous body (which in an intact brain would touch the pineal gland, F), and E the oblong marrow. Willis, Remaining Medical WOrks. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Libraty.)

physical features associated specifically with such functions as memory, imagination, and the appetites. This required a novel method of dissection. He advocated "a new way of opening ye Brains," observers reported. Rather than slicing horizontal sections through the head, he uncovered the brain layer by concentric layer, thereby revealing "the order of Nature" (fig. 6.5).33 It was their embodiment in practice that lent such legitimacy to Willis's views. His anatomical works were not just texts: they were representations of practical procedure, performed before authoritative audiences, and this afforded them their unique prestige. Briefly, Willis's technique revealed two membranes enveloping the brain. The first of these membranes was loose, and in four places it formed cavities called "bosoms." Blood flowing into the brain collected in these bosoms, before fine vessels carried it down into the interior of the head. Beneath lay 33. Willis, "Anatomy of the Brain," 55-62, 91, 95-7; Willis, Two Discourses, 23-5; Isler, Thomas Willis, 25. For Willis's treatment of vision as analogous to the camera obscura, see Two Discourses, 33, 75-86.

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the second membrane, tightly fitting the three inner structures ofcerebrum, "oblong marrow," and, to the rear, cerebellum. Its purpose was to distinguish these parts of the brain one from another, and thereby to act as a "fence" restraining the animal spirits in their proper "orbs." 34 All physicians and anatomists knew that the animal spirits had their origin in the blood. But Willis could now discern exactly where, and hence how, they were generated. He could see within each of the bosoms a matrix of strong "Fibres" that, like "flood-gates," must control the flow of blood into the brain. Additional ligaments traversing the bosoms controlled their expansion and contraction. 35 Together these fibers regulated the flow of blood through the bosoms. When full, the bosoms acted as heat sources, gradually warming the blood flowing onward in tiny vessels beneath. Eventually, "as if it were a certain Chymical operation," this blood underwent a distillation. Its subtle extracts were then channeled toward the brain by vessels in the inner membrane, which, when injected with an ink solution, could be displayed to an audience as resembling "little serpentine chanels hanging to an alembic." Like this alchemical apparatus, they served as extra "distillatory Organs," rendering the refined blood still more "subtil and elaborated" as it proceeded. At length, they admitted only the finest "Chymical Elixir" into the inner brain, in the form of animal spirits. There they circulated "as in a publick Emporium or Mart" in a "free and open space" at the base of the brain. This was the "common Sensory"-the sensus communis. Here the brain registered the "Strokes of all sensible things." It was here that impressions from the senses and the imagination were combined, and remembered ideas received. This was also the center from which the animal spirits were "directed into appropriate Nerves" for all responsive actions. A "fountain" of animal spirits continuously flowed out from the semus communis, through the spinal cord, to all parts of the body, there to "irradiate" it and spark such actions (fig. 6.6).36 The sensus communis was a space of open exchange, where the animal spirits mingled freely. But some differentiation of the motions they stimulated nevertheless remained. Most important, while the cerebrum was the site of imaginative and rationative actions, the cerebellum directed all those functions that did not rely on imagination, memory, or reason: that is, all the regular motions necessary for life. The nerves controlling respiration, nutrition, and similar functions derived their spirits from here. It seemed essential, indeed, that this distinction be maintained, for otherwise the most 34. Willis, "Anatomy of the Brain," 56-9, 81-4. 35. Willis, "Anatomy of the Brain," 80. 36. Willis, "Anatomy of the Brain," 79, 80, 82-3, 87-8, 93, 95, 96; Willis, Thomas Willis's Oxford Lectures, 54-6, 65-7.

CHAPTER SIX

FIG. 6.6. The human nervous system. Extending to all parts of the body, this network of channels for the animal spirits transmitted perceptions to the brain and responses from it. Willis, Remaining Medical WtJrks. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.)

basic life-preserving activities of the body would have lain vulnerable to "the winds of Passions and Cogitations." Yet even separated in this way they were not immune, for a mechanically transmitted "sympathy" linked the spirits in the cerebellum and those in the cerebrum, so that any passion excited in the latter could still produce physical symptoms. In fact, whenever "a violent passion, as Joy, Sadness, Anger, [or] Fear" arose, its "impression" would produce "notable mutations in the Organs." Hence someone subject to a fit of rage, say, experienced changes in body temperature, heart rate, and stomach functions. 37 This, then, was the dynamic system in which vision and imagination participated. Willis went on to describe how. He began by accepting the 37. Willis, "Anatomy of the Brain," 96, J08, IIo-6; Willis, Thomas Willis's Oxford Lectures, 145 - 50.

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camera obscura theory of the eye. On seeing an object, the "Optick Species" generated by the eye at the retina was transmitted through the optic nerves and into the brain. There a variety of things might happen. It might simply be reflected from the callous body back through the nervous system, yielding the sort of reflex action maintained even in sleep. But if it disturbed the spirits circulating in the sensus communis, then it gave rise to a passion. It could also pass still further into the cortex, when "it impresse[d] on it the image or character of the sensible Object." This generated a memory. Perception, imagination, and memory were therefore part of a single, continuous process. Seeing an object, imagining one, and reasoning with the resulting ideas and memories could never be separated from the circulation of the blood and the movements of the body. 38 Willis showed how much a skilled anatomist could do to elucidate the nature, routes, and purposes of the animal spirits, despite the impossibility of actually seeing them in action. His work was exemplary of the efforts of anatomists and natural philosophers to understand and account for such processes. More than any other, however, it was Willis's description that became influential. The fundamentals of his account came to be widely known in succeeding years, and were put to use in an extensive range of debates. The notion that vision, imagination, and the body were intimately linked, long a commonplace, had been given a newly authoritative explanation. The proper way to approach that special instance of vision that was reading would therefore need to embrace both physiology and the faculties of the mind. Fortunately, Willis's anatomical investigations had led him to a readily available set of resources to aid such an approach: those developed in the extensive literature devoted to the passions.

A DISCOURSE OF THE PASSIONS

In order to appreciate the significance of that literature, it is necessary to grasp the meaning of the term passion in early modern England. Passions were "Apprehensions, resentments, or emotions of the Soul," caused by "some motion of the spirits." That is, they were the responses excited by the senses and other stimuli, such as the imagination, when they impressed the sensus communis: passiones correspondent to the actiones of motions impinging on the brain. They included and affected both reasoned and corporeal responses. 39 38. Willis, Two Discourses, 33, 35-6, 55-60, 77-8; Willis, "Anatomy of the Brain," 634, 96; Willis, "Description of the Nerves," 139-40; Willis, Thomas Willis's Oxford Lectures, 54-6,100; Frank, "Thomas Willis," 134. 39. Descartes, Passions, 23. One of the few modern writers to stress this relation of passio to actio was Collingwood: see his Autobiography, 128 n. 1, and Principles ofArt, 219.

CHAPTER SIX

The wide scope of this definition meant that the range of early modern passions embraced some that we would not now recognize as passions at all, the desire for knowledge being a significant example. Their study, accordingly, was reckoned to be extremely important. The philosophy of the passions, wrote Catholic priest Jean Senault, might be less formally prestigious than other branches of learning, but in reality it was fundamental to them all. "For it is she that makes Philosophers, and which purifying their understanding, makes them capable of considering the wonders of Nature." In short, all knowledge rested on a foundation of knowledge of the passions. Such learning was "to Philosophy, the same as Foundations are to Buildings." Someone possessing adequate knowledge of-and thereby control overthe passions was in a good position to become "an honest man, ... a good Father of a Family, a wise Politician, and an understanding Philosopher." Those without such knowledge would soon be forced to confess that "our Passions are chains, which make us slaves to all such as know how to manage them well" (fig. 6.7).40 In accordance with this principle, a large and popular literature had grown up-as extensive, probably, as that dealing with civility-describing the passions and drawing moral and practical conclusions from them. One of its contributing authors, Rene Descartes, had anticipated that by its title alone his own account of the passions would sell better than any ofhis other books; and the only one of his works that the young Boyle would admit to reading was this one. 41 Willis, Descartes, royal physician Walter Charleton, and others created a market for such discussions that was still flourishing in the mid-eighteenth century.42 Willis's anatomical work, which demonstrated that every "passion of the sensitive Soul" affected both the physical body and its perceptions "whether we will or no," became one of their central foundations (fig. 6.8). Chapter 2 argued that Stationers were amphibious creatures. They traversed what could be seen as essentially separate realms of commerce and civility. But there was a more profound sense, expressed by Sir Thomas Browne and others, in which every human being was a "great and true Amphibium." Each person was a soul forced to live in the alien environment of the body. It was therefore reasonable to consider the experiences, achievements, and anxieties of such a creature in terms of this disjunction. The Use ofPassiow, sig. CIV, 163. See also Kroll, Material Word, 219-23. 41. Descartes, Passions, sig. B3 v • 42. See, for example: Wright, Passiow of the Minde; Reynolds, Treatise of the Passiow; Descartes, Passiow; Senault, Use of Passiow; [Charleton), Natural History of the Passiow; Mandeville, Treatise of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Passiow; Hutcheson, Essay on the 40. Senault,

Nature and Conduct ofthe Passiow andAffectiow.

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FIG. 6.7. Reason, enthroned, enchains the passions: an ideal sought by almost all readers but, it seemed, attained by few. Frontispiece to Senault, Use ofPassions. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.)

discourse of the passions did just that. 43 Physicians and ministers, in particular, felt themselves qualified to use this branch of knowledge, which, traversing the gulf separating body from soul, embraced embodied morality-the morality of amphibians. As Bishop Edward Reynolds expressed it when introducing his own treatise on the subject, "whereas the principall acts of mans Soule are either of Reason and Discourse, proceeding from his Understanding; or of Action and Moralitie, from his Will; both these, in the present condition of mans estate, have their dependance on the Organs and faculties of the Body." With respect to the understanding, the body was "an Eye, through which it seeth"; with respect to the will, the body was "a 43. Browne, WOrks, I, 45, 66.

FIG. 6.8. Superstition and the Passions. Hogarth's engraving, originally entitled "Enthusiasm Delineated," was intended to ridicule what its artist called "the Idolatrous Tendency of Pictures in Churches and prints in Religious books." At first designed to attack Catholics, in this state the engraving substitutes Methodists as its target. Various examples of "credulity" and "superstition" are prominent, including Mary Toft, the Surrey woman who had claimed to give birth to rabbits in 1726. On the right-hand side, a thermometer of passionate states appears, its summit being that of "raving" (the same state, perhaps, as that induced in the young Boyle by reading romances). The fount of the passions is a brain recognizably descended from the illustrated dissections ofThomas Willis. (By permission of Dr. K. C. Knox.)

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Hand, by which it worketh." This being so, the body, while it did not possess an absolute dominion over reasoning, could exercise a "disturbing power." Its conditions and distempers affected the impressions perceived at the sensus communis, and could therefore distort the conclusions derived from them. 44 This was why the interaction between body, reason, and action that was summed up in the passions was so crucial to practical morality. What made the passions especially problematic to such writers was the postlapsarian state of humanity. Before the Fall, everyone agreed, human apprehensions had been in perfect accord with nature. The senses had "made no false reports," and, being "uninterressed," had remained in conformity with Reason. The expulsion from Eden had destroyed this harmony, throwing distortive passions between the human mind and the rest of Creation. The corrupted senses of a representative early modern reader were therefore thought to be "subject to a thousand illusions." Guided by their passions, the mind was almost certain to go wrong. 45 Charleton, for one, declared that "most commonly false Opinions are occasioned ... by our Passions." 46 The serious problem of knowledge that this implied was the reason why understanding the passions was so important. At stake were the discrimination of truth from falsity and the moral propriety of all actions resultant upon such discrimination. Contemporary understanding of the passions was complex and highly developed and can only be summarized here. In any case, it was impossible to enumerate all the passions that could affect one's knowledge. The variety of impressions constantly arriving at the brain from the senses, memory, and imagination made their number simply too great. But writers nevertheless did frame a standard taxonomy in terms of which they and their effects could be discussed. First, they recognized a division between metaphysical and physical passions. These were relatively simple: the former were restricted to the rational soul, and were familiar to divines as the affections appropriate to religious contemplation, while the latter affected the sensitive soul through material, effiuvial mechanisms. As well as these two relatively straightforward types, however, there also existed what writers called moral passions. These were much more complex, since they engaged the body and the soul in concert. It was in relation to these that writers articulated the full physiology of the passions. The first stage in generating a moral passion occurred when the senses presented a "new and strange object" to the soul, thus "giv[ing] her hope 44· Reynolds, Treatise ofthe Passiom, 3-5. 45. Senault, Use ofPassions, sigs. c2'-q', 61, 105. 46. [Charleton], Natural History ofthe Passions, sig. A3'; a similar point about the Fall is made in Reynolds, Treatise ofthe Passiom, 5-6, 27-8.

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of knowing somewhat that she knew not before." Instantly the soul "admire[d]" this image. This admiration was the primary ofall passions. It then entertained an "appetite" to know the object better, "which is called Curiosity or desire of Knowledge." Curiosity was thus the second passion. This passion was nothing less than "the mother of knowledge." On it depended all further intellectual inquiry; in particular, "all natural Philosophy, andAstronomyowe themselves to this passion." Typical genealogies then went on to recognize five more simple varieties of passion: love and hatred, desire, and joy and grief. All others were best regarded as compounds or species of these. 47 There were ways of diagnosing such passions. Their concomitant motions of spirits, as Charleton reported, "change the very countenance, gestures, [and] walking." Writers thus linked a wide variety of visible symptoms, through the physiology of the passions, to processes ofperception and imagination. For example, the primary passion, admiration, caused the animal spirits to be called into the brain to hold the image in place for consideration. Simultaneously they were also directed into the muscles holding the body in position and the eyes focused, so as to keep the organs in contact with the object. By such symptoms could it be recognized. 48 Such a repertoire of diagnostic signs permitted laypeople to become skilled interpreters of their neighbors' bodies. There is evidence that such knowledge was routinely used in the realm of face-to-face trust and suspicion described above in chapter 2. "Men judg of meanings by actions," observed Senault, "and read in the eyes, and face, the most secret motions of the soul." The benevolent use of such insight to temper one's own and others' social interactions was in large part what contemporaries meant when they spoke of prudence. By the same token, however, early modern citizens also became accustomed to concealing and "counterfeiting" their own passions. Governing the passions was essential if one were not to be left vulnerable to observers able to deploy skilled observation, and then employ what was called "craft" to put their knowledge to evil ends. Craft, to be precise, was the perversion of prudence: it was knowledge of the passions dedicated to immoral ends. Servants, with privileged access to the "upstairs" of one's premises and to one's less guarded moments, were among its more noted exponents. For those lacking such access, alcohol was a good way to circumvent dissembling 47. [Char!eton], Natural History o/the Passions, 75-89, 164. See also the similar genealogies in Descartes, Passions, 47-55, and [Ramesay], Gentlemans Companion, 139-82. For Willis on taxonomies of the passions, see Willis, Two Discourses, 45 -55. 48. Willis had provided a detailed physiology fot such phenomena, showing how, fot example, contraction of the ligaments in the bosoms in conditions of "fear and great sadness" caused the blood to accelerate noticeably to the heart: Willis, "Anatomy of the Brain," 80.

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strategies: a drunk, John Earle said, was "an uncover'd man," since "all his passions come out." 49 In extreme cases, however, passions might prove not only revealing, but physically dangerous. The passion of admiration, for example, while harmless enough in normal circumstances, could produce "Stupor, or Astonishment"-perhaps even catalepsy-if suffered in excess. Such "immoderate" admiration could not but be harmful to the health. This was a pattern common to all the passions. Their physical symptoms merely revealed one's passionate state in normal circumstances, but became actively harmful in extreme ones. Physicians, above all, became familiar with the complaints accompanying such intense states. The symptoms they encountered included leanness, defects of nutrition, melancholy, scurvy, consumption, rheumatism, lameness, bloated faces, swollen limbs, amenorrhea, green sickness, fevers, and death. As Charleton warned, excessive passions could result in "the whole Oeconomy of nature" being "perverted." 50 The problem of knowledge that the passions posed had not only personal implications, but also a much wider and even more serious political significance. The conflicts wracking seventeenth-century Europe were so violent, it was argued, because central to the human condition itself was a constant civil war. Human beings contained two distinct "faculties of Knowing": the understanding, which was seated in the rational soul, and the imagination, which was seated in the sensitive. Ideally, the faculty producing knowledge should have been the understanding,51 However, the sensitive soul mediated between this faculty and the body that provided its raw materials, and was the main seat of both the imagination and the passions. By consequence a highly unstable entity, it was subject to both diseases of the body and "impressions of sensible Objects." 52 All reasoning was thus liable to be subjugated to a strife between the two candidates for knowledge. Neither could be dispensed with. Only the understanding could perform the essentially 49. [Charleton), Natural History ofthe Passions, II3-4, 159ff.; Descartes, Passions, 88-90; Senault, Use ofPassions, 159-62; [Earle], Micro-cosmographie, s.v. "A Drunkard"; [Charleton], BriefDiscourse concerning the Different Wits ofMen, 31-2, following Hobbes, Leviathan, 53. Anger was the other state in which passions were revealed. See also Charleton, BriefDiscourse, 40 - 46, for citation ofWillis on the site of the soul and the mechanisms ofperception. For the practices of prudence see Shapin, Social History of Truth, 238-42. Images of faces in various passionate states were provided by Le Brun as what Revel calls "an alphabet of the passions that everyone had to learn to read": Le Brun, Method to Learn to Design the Passions; Revel, "Uses of Civility," 170. 50. [Charleton], Natural History ofthe Passions, 89-92, 109-10, 141-3; Wright, Passions ofthe Minde, 61-3. 51. [Charleton], Natural History ofthe Passions, sigs. A3 v -A4', 2-3. For the divisions of the soul, see Park, "Organic Soul." 52. [Charleton], Natural History ofthe Passions, 9-10, 22-5.

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judicial processes of constructing "trains of notions convenient either to Speculation, or to practice." These "royal prerogatives" meant that only the rational soul was properly entitled to "the whole Encyclopaedia or Zodiac of Arts and Sciences; Theology, Logic, Physic, Metaphysics, Mathematics, Algebra, Geometry, Astronomy, Mechanics." All these sciences were properly regarded as "the products or creatures of Mans Mind" (with the possible exception of theology, which was of a higher order). Nonetheless, that mind still relied on the sensitive soul for the ideas with which it worked. The imagination alone was sufficient to compound and divide sensations, thus forming ideas. A constant" intestin war" raged between the two, as Willis himself testified. The "twofold Knowing Power" in every subject, he declared, led necessarily to "wicked Combinations, troublesom Contests, and more than Civil Wars." It was a vital struggle, on the outcome of which rested the fate of every individual human being, and hence that of the polity as a whole. If the sensitive soul won, then the "divine Politie" of the rational soul would be lost forever to "the brutish lusts of the insolent usurper," and hence to its appetite for "triumphs of libidinous carnality." Moralists might with justification say that the devil "mingles himself with our most intimate corruptions, and the Seate of his warfare is the inward man." In Willis's terms, the sensitive appetite "seduces in us the Mind or Chief Soul, and snatches it away with it self, to role in the Mud of Sensual Pleasures." Charleton for one considered this the more likely outcome, "for, it is from the Imagination alone that [the soul] takes all the representations of things, and the fundamental ideas, upon which she afterward builds up all her Science." 53 Proposals to tackle this problem of knowledge consequently lay at the heart of attempts to reconstruct some degree of social and moral order out of the chaos of the Civil War-and, more widely, of the Thirty Years' War. In their various ways, such diverse figures as Charles I, Thomas Hobbes, and even the notorious republican Algernon Sidney all aimed at producing polities that could successfully discipline the inescapably passionate nature of humanity and channel it to correct ends. 54 As we have seen in chapter 4, John Streater's republicanism also partook of this aim. Their answers depended on proper forms of self-discipline, social organization, literary representation, and communication. As that implies, reading and writing were profoundly implicated. Reading consequently became an important ele53. [Charleton], Natural History of the Passions, sig. A4 v ff., 48-5°,54-9,64; Browne, \%rks, I, 29-30; Lawrence, History ofAngells, 1, 35-40; Willis, Two Discourses, sig. A2V, 423. Compare Sawday, Body Emblazoned, 16-22, 36, for a different account of this microcosmic conflict. 54. Sharpe, Personal Rule, 189-91, 227-30; Hobbes, Leviathan, 37-59, 483-91; Scon,

Algernon Sidney and the English Republic, 35-8.

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ment-perhaps the important element-in these civil wars of both microcosm and macrocosm. The immediate reason for this lay in the very fundamentals of the practice, beginning, again, with vision. In many instances the exercise ofvisual perception seemed fairly straightforward, as when one simply "saw" a block of wood. The camera obscura model accounted for these cases perfectly well. But even in such straightforward perceptions, as everyone acknowledged and Willis explained, vision was necessarily refracted through the natural economy of the passions. There were other cases in which this became extremely clear, because some active conditioning of that economy must be involved in them. Speaking, listening, writing, and reading were examples. In each of these cases, simple camera obscura-like perception must necessarily be abetted by a degree of unconscious conditioning. An agreed account of this conditioning was widely available, according to which "habits" had grown up in each individual facilitating the practice in question. The motions of the animal spirits, and thence the passions and imagination, in response to certain particular sensations had been regularized over long periods of repetition. A habit of this sort was in effect a tamed, artificial passion. In learning to speak, for example, one "habituated" the motions of the spirits so that one had only to imagine what one wished to say, rather than specifying the countless individual movements of the body that together produced audible speech. The "habit" acquired in developing speech, said Descartes, had "taught us to joyn the action of the Soul, ... the tongue, and the lipps, with the signification of the words which follow out of these motions, rather than with the motions themselves." Similar habituation allowed a subject to understand speech immediately, without having to undergo a conscious parsing ofheard sounds into intelligible syllables. And it was again habituation that permitted one to read words "by the figure of their letters, when they are written." Accustomed responses rendered the translation of seen images into legible characters virtually instantaneous and entirely indiscernible. Reading itself depended upon a habituated passion. 55 The concept of habits was also central to the essential task of disciplining and pacifying the passions themselves. Habits were held to be the best hope an individual had of countering immoral, unhealthy, excessive, or erroneous passions. Habituation provided the key to exerting some practical "Regulation" or "mitigation" of them and their effects. Such action was regarded as essential for English gentlemen. Without effective control of their passions, human beings remained slaves to their own corporeality, denied the freedom 55. Descartes, "Regles pour la Direction de I'Esprir," in Oeuvres, X, 412; Descartes, Pas-

sions, 35-6, 43-4; Lawrence, History ofAngells, 1.

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of action definitive of the gentle state. 56 Although the rational soul could not simply remove such passions, it could perhaps habituate the individual to physiological responses taming them. There were two principal means by which this might be effected, both of which could be seen to depend on the labyrinthine matrices of vessels in the brain that Willis had revealed. First, one could imagine objects producing a passion contrary to that being experienced. Pursued intensely and at length, this could eventually produce a habit separating the motions of the blood and spirits from the impressions to which they would naturally be consequent, by accustoming them to passing through alternative channels. And second, one could learn to delay judgment of an impression, perhaps by doggedly reciting the letters of the alphabet or the Lord's Prayer. This would allow the turbulence of the spirits to recede, permitting the rational soul a more detached interpretationY Contrariety and hesitation: these were the roures to virtue. Senault in fact proposed that the history of the arts and sciences constitured a series of "documents" of such efforts, urging that "the government of Passions is of such importance, and so difficult, as the better part of sciences seem only to have been invented to regulate them." 58 The habituation process reckoned so fundamental to reading was thus the same as that proposed as the solution to the political problem of the passions. This was one reason why both Hobbes and Locke reckoned habituation "the great Thing to be minded in Education." "Education, and Discipline" were conceived to be vital for channeling and restraining the passions. Prudence should be cultivated; its depraved counterpart, "craft" or "cunning," must be shunned. 59 Locke believed that "the great Principle and Foundation ofall Vertue and Worth" was "that a Man is able to deny himself his own Desires, cross his own Inclinations, and purely follow what Reason directs as best, tho' the appetite lean the other way," and insisted that education was the key to "imprinting" such prudence. He envisaged education in terms of the instilling of "Habits" into the minds of children by "little, and almost insensible Impressions." His recipe for bringing up young gentlemen was therefore strongly reminiscent of many recommended remedies for excessive or inappropriate passions. "By repeating the same Action till it be grown habitual in them, the Performance will not depend on Memory,

56. [Ramesay], Gentlemans Companion, 183-214, esp. 183. 57. Descartes, Passions, 36 -7, 171; [Charleton], Natural History ofthe Passions, 182-5; [Ramesay], GentLemans Companion, 184-5. 58. Senault, Use ofPassions, I05, 165-73- For Hobbes on the possibility of "imprinting" passions on the mind of an audience, see Leviathan, 56. 59. [Locke], Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 18; Hobbes, Leviathan, 483-4; [Charleton], BriefDiscourse concerning the Different Wits ofMen, 31-2, following Hobbes, Levia-

than, 52-4.

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or Reflection," he insisted, "but will be natural." By following this strategy to eradicate every unwanted habituation, the tutor could eventually "weed them out all, and plant what Habits you please." Bowing to a gentleman, for example, would become "as natural ... as breathing." According to Locke, only one appetite was carefully to be fostered by the pedagogue: the passion of "Curiosity." This was because his aim should be to inculcate "a love of Credit." The inescapable role of curiosity in the pursuit and acquisition of knowledge made it a central element in the formation of a gentleman. Its importance applied especially in the process of learning to read, which must be encouraged by manipulating a child's curiosity through its desire for enjoyment. The early development of reading skills demanded delicacy and care. Choosing the right materials, and ensuring that children approached them in the right ways, would rarely be straightforward, and mistakes at this stage could result in danger later. The provision of cautionary advice started early. Parents were urged "above all" to keep their offspring from pamphlets, "the Primers of all Vice." One manual of childbirth opened by showing that printing had done more harm than guns, by at least a factor of ten. And even Locke himselfseemed unsure what to recommend from the many titles competing for parents' favor. But in the end he insisted that early reading experiences must be in the form of games, not chores. By such means, he claimed, "Children may play themselves into what others are whipp'd for." When they graduated to reading their first books, works such as Aesop would be most suitable, since they combined moral lessons with "entertainment." Editions with pictures were best of all, since the images would provide a Lockean child with the necessary "Idea's" to comprehend the text. To disregard this advice and set formal tasks was to risk permanently damaging the children in one's care. "Neither their Minds nor Bodies will bear it," Locke warned. "It injures their Healths." 60 Locke believed that education made his contemporaries "Wellftshion'd" and able to display an "internal Civility of the Mind." And there is evidence that English subjects were indeed fashioned in this way. Throughout the early modern period, and on into the Victorian era, practicing tutors put just such notions of the nature of the child into effect, especially during the most elementary stages of education. Their catechizing and similar techniques were not (or not just) the mindless rote-learning drudgery familiar from later caricature. In fact, they rested explicitly on the assumption that correct habits must be imprinted on children while they were still malleable, and improper appetites drained of all potency through constant drilling. 60. [Locke], Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 33-4, 64, 175-89; Quarles, Enchiridion, century 4, no. XCIX; Oliver, Present to be Given to Teeming WOmen, "To the Christian Reader."

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The resulting pedagogic practices, and the genres of literature they employed, helped form generations of men and women. Represenrations of the physiology of reading were thus perhaps instrumenral in creating an entire British population notoriously ready to rein in its passions. 61 But improper education could be correspondingly harmful. Bemoaning his own wandering mind, Boyle himself remarked on the misery attending "Persons that are borne with such Busy Thoughts, not to have congruent Objects propos'd to them at First." 62 Citing Willis, John Webster likewise argued that an "evil education" could cause "a most deep impression of the verity of the most gross and impossible things" to be "instamped in [pupils'] fancies, hardly ever after in their whole life time to be obliterated or washt out." He thought this true especially of pupils of melancholic disposition. It was a conventional opinion-and it meshed perfectly with Boyle's diagnosis of his own reading of romances. A poor education could instill inappropriate habits into the human frame, and thereby condition the subject for the rest of his or her life to experience improper, and perhaps even harmful, responses while reading. Unfortunately, not all pupils were appropriately trained. Physicians, Willis among them, became as accustomed to treating the symptoms of improper or excessive reading as those of the passions. They found that excessive reading could bring on a vast range of conditions. Many of them were experienced disproportionately by women, as could be explained readily enough in terms of the heightened sensitivity regularly attributed to the female body. One seventeenth-century physician thus noted that his patients complained to him that their reading brought on insomnia, breathlessness, trembling, upset stomachs, vertigo, headaches, ringing ears, "rising" sensations, and swooning. Such complaints persisted in the face of even the most fearsome seventeenth-century remedies. 63 For women in particular they were to prove highly consequential. PASSIONATE VISIONS: READING, CREDIT AND EXPERIMENTAL FAITH

Protestantism rested on Scripture. In reading lay its definition, practice, power, and propaganda. Accounts of what constituted creditable Scripture 61. Green, Christian's ABC, 233 - 43; Spufford, "First Steps in Literacy." 62. Boyle, "Account of Philarerus in his Minority," in Hunter, Robert Boyle by Himself and His Friends, 8-9. 63. Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, 174, 181-3, 185-92, 288 n. 59; compare Willis, Oxford Casebook, 145 - 6 for a case involving Willis himself as physician. For women's experiences of

such illnesses and remedies see also Beier, Sufferers and Healers, chap. 8. For the construction of passions and sensibility in the eighteenth century, see Barker-Benfield, Culture ofSensibility, 1-36. In the late eighteenth century, Benjamin Rush recorded the rumor that booksellers sometimes became deranged as a result of their sudden movements from one book to another: Medical Inquiries, 37 (a reference lowe to Steven Shapin).

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and what idolatrous forgery, of how Scripture should be represented and read, and ofwhat effects it should have on which readers consequently stood at the heart of its identity.64 The making of authoritative, recognized texts of Scripture-the Authorized Version being by far the most importantstructured its history. But Protestants felt themselves under threat. The dangers posed by popery, superstition, enthusiasm, and atheism appeared both all too real and all too united. 65 In these circumstances, the credit of books professing religious knowledge became a key battleground. And arguments connecting the reading of Scripture to the human frame and the soul became central to the discrimination of true faith from error, and even from heresy. This was most prominently displayed in the combats, well known to historians, over what antagonists called "enthusiasm." As defined by two of its major opponents, Henry More and Meric Casaubon, enthusiasm was "nothing else but a mis-conceit of being inspired." It was the conviction, held especially by some of the Interregnum's more notorious religious radicals, that at certain moments God would enter into direct communication with them, and that at such moments he would grant them privileged knowledge by immediate personal revelation. 66 Such a belief clearly warranted drastic action on the part of its holder. It threatened social upheaval of unlimited extent and duration. Whether or not it actually incited violent rebellion, this led to its increasing stigmatization as a leading cause of the Civil War. More and Casaubon in the 1650s, and the Latitudinarians thereafter, were in the front line of the assault. Their campaign against enthusiasm has long been identified as an element in the articulation of "modest" schemes for experimental learning, although again the true extent of its importance remains controversial. This section presents a new account of enthusiasm and its repudiation. It argues that concepts of the passionate character of reading, and of the proper self-management that they demanded, were central to the experiences and arguments of both "enthusiasts" and their enemies. The debate over enthusiasm was a debate over the political and personal ramifications of reading. It is appropriate to begin with the experiences recorded by an enthusiast himself. John Rogers, born in 1627, is an excellent candidate. He was among the most notorious of all enthusiasts, and, for reasons shortly to become clear, we can trace the role of reading in Rogers's development with 64. This is adumbrated in Kroll, Material WOrd, 239-74. 65· E.g., Hickes, Spirit ofEnthusiasm Exorcised, sig. A2V, 37-9; Baxter, Holy Commonwealth, 31; [Ramesay], Gentlemans Companion, 19, 21. 66. [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, 1-2; Casaubon, Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme, title page, 3, 17. For the origins and scope of the term, see Heyd, "Be Sober and Reasonable," 15 -23. These characterizations, of course, were polemical and contested: Smith, Pe/fiction Proclaimed, is the best attempt to recover "enthusiasts'" own perspectives.

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exemplary clarity. Rogers's life was repeatedly punctuated by two kinds of confrontation with God: reading and visions. Hellfire sermons heard in his boyhood had filled him with terror, and, propelled by his fear, he had scoured the Scriptures. The young Rogers had "read every day," he recalled: "I knew not what I read, but only thought the bare reading was enough." He learned his catechism by heart, reciting it as a talisman against the demons he knew were lurking under every bush; he wrote down the sermons he heard, and learned those too; he memorized morning and evening prayers, "out of a book, for I knew no better yet." All this reading threw Rogers into despair over his prospects for salvation, and he descended into suicidal despondency. Distraught, he "took the Bible," turned to the relevant pages, and "read them over and over and over again." It did little good: "the more I read the more I roar'd in the black gulf of despair." He would "read, and weep, and ... fall flat (all along) with my face on the ground, and cry, and call, and sigh, and weep, and call for help." At length Rogers gave up reading altogether, feeling tempted to conclude that "there was no God" and that "all things come by Nature." It was a classic symptom of the despair leading to atheism and damnation. 67 He began to see demons not just under the bushes but in them, and to sit up all night in a turret in his father's orchard, wailing and drawing strange figures. Finally, as he was about to commit suicide, he was seized and tied to a bed until his fits subsided. From this point Rogers's condition had improved somewhat, stabilizing at an "inward malady" of "melancholy." He dreamed about Scriptute itself-"the letter which killed me"-and that the righteousness of Christ would be sufficient for his salvation. He awoke from this dream transformed. Rogers had long acknowledged that his dreams "seised much upon my spirits." But he had regarded them as products of his own "fancy" (that is, his imagination). This dream was different: far from emerging out of his body, it had transformed it. "I was so much changed that I was amazed at my self," he recalled. Now it was his previous reality that seemed imaginary. He leaped up, exclaiming, "Why, I am not damned! what's the matter? am I so filled with afancy?" Again his response was to turn to the Bible. He pored over its pages with new attention until, "divine infusions ... writing it within me," he achieved "assurance of salvation." It was only now that Rogers could begin "plainly to see my self (and by my self others)." Expelled from his family's home, Rogers wandered to Cambridge. There he called the devil's attempts to lure him into necromancy a ''passion.'' He would "fall to prayer [or] reading" in an attempt to ward it off. At his lowest 67. Pantheism was a stereotypical "atheistic" opinion: e.g., Hill, World Turned Upside Down, 139 - 40.

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ebb, reduced to near-starvation in a Cambridge garret, Rogers had another dream. He dreamed that he was walking, staff in hand, to his father's house. At first he could hardly see the path, and even began to question its existence; but at length he noticed footprints from others who had passed the same way before. He followed them, and as he did so the path became clearer. Before long a fine mansion appeared to his left, from which emerged a beam of light that partially blocked Rogers's way. He walked around it. But as he did so he happened to touch the beam, and the house immediately butst into flame. He was soon overtaken by an angry posse violently accusing Rogers himself of having started the conflagration. The furious mob dragged him off to prison, at which, terrified, he awoke. Finding himself safe in his Cambridge garret, Rogers chided himself for being scared at "a foolish fancy." He fell asleep again. But immediately he sank back into the same dream, which repeated itself from beginning to end-except that this time Rogers the pilgrim found himself accompanied by an old, bearded man, who provided reassurance that God had selected him to preach his Word. This "grave ancient man" proceeded to interpret the whole of Rogers's dream from within the dream itself. The house represented heaven, his father, God, and his staff, God's Word. Rogers would be troubled by the various ways of men, he but would follow the example (the footprints) of the saints and would find his path becoming clearer. The magnificent house represented the "great ones of the world." They were at present proud and ostentatious, and Rogers was to preach against themthe beam represented the cluster of powers and opinions he must circumvent in order to do so. The worldly powers would soon fall, but they would pursue Rogers and blame him for their catastrophe. With that, Rogers awoke again and found that it was finally dawn. The Cambridge "dream and vision," as he now called it, changed Rogers to the extent that his entire identity was transmuted. As he himself succinctly put it, "I am not I." Assured of salvation, and with his self freshly refashioned, Rogers set forth on a pilgrimage that would lead to both Fifth Monarchism and, eventually, medicine. 68 Preaching in Dublin in the early 1650s, Rogers collected from his listeners a long series of what he called "experiences," which he later caused to be printed. The origin of these testimonies lay in the procedure for admitting new members to his church. Before joining, he explained, every would-be congregant must attest to "some EXPERMENTAL [sic] Evidences of the work of GRACE upon his SOUL . . . whereby he (or she) is convinced, that he is regenerate." That is, everyone was expected to provide a record (often an oral 68. Rogers, Ohel,419-38.

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record, since the subject was unlikely to be an accomplished writer) of a transformation such as Rogers himself had enjoyed-a transformation, that is, into a new and "assured" self. This was summed up in a simple formula: "Experience, we say, proves principles." 69 Rogers's own Cambridge "experience"-indeed, his entire self-fashioning as constructed in this extensive testimony-constituted his personal contribution to this effort. The history presented here was an artifact of his experimental faith. Rogers's own experience was innocuous compared to some ofhis congregants', which reflected in full the disease, murder, and war destroying Irish life in the 1640s. Yet the resulting accounts do betray certain common characteristics, showing the extent to which Rogers's experience was typical of so-called enthusiasts. Like Rogers himself, his subjects had often been brought up in families they described as godly. But they had at first practiced merely what they called "book" (or "legal") religion. They had then passed through a critical period, characterized as a death and rebirth, and emerged transformed, assured of their salvation. The conversions themselves generally came about by one or more of a relatively small number of possible mechanisms that, it was said, "wrought upon" and thereby "affected" the individual concerned. Hearing sermons, reading books, and having visions were the three main ones. Each was described in intimate terms. In each case success was then ascribed to the holy spirit's having "wrought" within the subject: their accounts of reading Scripture, for example, often displayed a sense of helplessness before the Word. Thus one Raphael Swinfield described how he was first "affected" by hearing Puritan preachers, becoming "disconsolate" and "diseased." Then, he related, a "place in Isa. 50.10. came into me" and 'fasten[edl upon me," insisting that Swinfield should trust in God. To reinforce the point, he had a dream that convinced him of his assurance. John Cooper was also converted by a dream, as were a number of others. Francis Bishop, condemned to be shot, "turned open the Bible" and read a passage enjoining him to trust in God; when he resolved to do so, he was freed. Hugh Leeson was first "wrought upon" by his wife, "whom God made the first Instrument of my good; by her often reading of the Scriptures to me ... and by the Spirits working within me, with it." Adrian Strong testified that "by the word preached, and read out of good Books and the Bible, I was brought in to God." Finally, Mary Barker was converted by all means short of visions: by "preaching, and praying, and reading, in private and publique." 70 69. Rogers, Ohel, 354-5, 362. 70. Rogers, Ohel, 396-8, 398-402, 407, 409, 41I-12, [2,9-10 (new pagination)], 4134. Margaret Aston describes the articulation of death and resurrection as a motif in iconoclasm: England's Iconoclasts. I, 460.

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These people, whose testimony was either written down by themselves or taken down from their own words, claimed that visions-and inspiration in general-occurred in definite cultural and practical conditions. They particularly stressed their experiences of reading Scripture, and how those experiences changed in the course of their descent into "disease" and transforming ascent into "assurance." In fact, one could characterize their personal experiences as transformations in reading practices. 71 The torpid routines of "book religion" were swept aside as God "irradiated" them directly during their exposure to Scripture. Radicals even referred to themselves as possessing an internal "Book of Conscience," "imprinted" by God's spirit to produce their visions. Appropriating mystical, alchemical, and Paracelsian sources, they spoke of the imagination, or "fancy," representing such images to the reason, which could then elaborate them into knowledge. 72 Analyzing their "experiences" of reading thus meant representing states of mind and of the body simultaneously. Rogers and his like clearly thought about the body as well as the soul. Some actually pursued medicine: William Walwyn, Laurence Clarkson, and Abiezer Coppe practiced physic, while Rogers himself eventually gained medical degrees from both Utrecht and Oxford. Medical practitioners or not, however, radicals commonly described their religious transformations by reference to the passions.?3 This being so, it should not be surprising that women in particular found their experiences transforming. As Mack remarks, "seventeenth-century men and women felt certain kinds of knowledge"-and women felt them more strongly than men. Their bodies, conventionally represented as far more sensitive than those of men, purportedly rendered them all the more prone to the passions. That was why they were deemed particularly susceptible to the pathologies of reading, such as the violent headaches experienced by Anne Conway and Queen Mary. But it also had more ambivalent consequences in a society that denied advanced educational opportunities to almost all women. On the one hand, female creativity of all kinds was liable to denigration and distrust as a mere product of the passions. It was thus readily identifiable, as chapter 2 showed, with other supposedly female traits such as gossip, inconstancy, and even infidelity. To hostile eyes, the women prophets of the 1640S and beyond therefore merely displayed with unusual 71. Compare also the transformation of Jane Turner "by reading": Turner, Choice Experiences, 11-13, 49-58, 64, 82-3, 86, 198. 72. Smith, Perfection Proclaimed, 73-8; Rogers, Ohel, 375-6, 449-50. 73. Smith, Perfection Proclaimed, 5, II, 13-17; Smith, "Charge of Atheism," 157-8. Some radicals even displayed themselves as contracting "divinely instituted madness": Smith, Perfection Proclaimed, 26-9, 32-5, 38-9, 50, 56, 57 n. 117. For other examples see Turner, Choice Experiences, 36-8; Henry, "Matter of Souls," 89, 95.

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vividness a physiological difference that existing medical and ethical authorities insisted to be universal between the sexes. On the other hand, however, male scholars could also choose to see this sensitivity as liberating. Themselves irredeemably reliant on the tortuous mechanisms of reason, they might envy the untutored immediacy with which women prophets could seem to experience their "conversations with God." John Rogers himself remarked that women were often quicker to perceive spiritual truths than men, since they were "more readily wrought upon." This had immediate consequences extending beyond the epistemic value attached to women's readings. Through their claims to privileged knowledge, it affected the development of women's authorship itself. .AJ; noted in chapter 2, women authors began to appear on an appreciable scale only in the 1640S. When they did, most were prophets newly transformed by the kinds of experience just described. About three hundred women are known to have become vociferously active in the radical religious movements thrown up by the disorder of the Civil War. Inspired, as Rebeckah Travers put it, not by "ink and paper" but by "spirit, life, and power," many either published their experiences or saw them published by others. The contrast was qualitative as well as quantitative. The most prolific woman writer of the sixteenth century had probably been Queen Elizabeth I; the most prolific of the entire seventeenth was Lady Eleanor Davies, the extraordinary prophet who emerged at Charles I's court and remained active into the 1650s. This unprecedented development sprang directly from arguments exploiting the physiology of reading. For once, the peculiar predicament in which contemporary representations of female nature placed them allowed women to venture into print while averting conventional charges ofimmodesty and insubordination. Some actually attempted to transcend a realm of epistemic authority that was so consistently gendered by denying their womanhood altogether. Several explicitly claimed to have become men-not just by adopting male pseudonyms, but by announcing themselves as possessing male souls in their female bodies. These were surely the most amphibious of amphibians. Even more radical was the strategy of suppressing one's human nature altogether. Some could infer such suppression even while preserving the unique female sensitivity to visions generated through the passions. Appropriating traditional forms dating from the Middle Ages, women thus testified while struck dumb, while in a trance, or while emaciated and bedridden in the grip of a harrowing fast. What more legitimate authority for publication could there be than a direct message from the Holy Spirit, apprehended with vivid intensity and unshackled from the corrupt forms of human learning? The possibilities opened up by this unanswerable ques-

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tion survived the Restoration and changed the conditions of authorship for good,74 Such possibilities were always likely to raise terrors in many minds. John Rogers, Rebeckah Travers, Mary Cary, Elizabeth Poole-these were precisely the people whom Samuel Parker, Henry More, Meric Casaubon, and others had in mind when they condemned "enrhusiasts." Medical knowledge could be of value on their side of the conflict too. Antienrhusiast polemics generally charged that talk of inspiration was either deliberate imposture or evidence of madness. Credit and the human frame were brought into collision in such polemics. The imagination was well known to be unstable and capricious, the seat of "distempers" affecting the mind. "Without better evidence then their bare word," Joseph Sedgwick argued in 1653, "we may modestly suspect that [enthusiasts' visions] are nothing but the distempers of a disaffected brain." Others simply manifested "counterfeit inspiration." George Hickes agreed, defining enthusiasm as "Spiritual drunkenness, or Lunacy." It "distemper[ed] the minds of men," he elaborated, "with extravagant phancies." William Ramesay likewise opined that those who "in their Enthusiasm" aspired to prophesy typically went mad. 75 A major problem with such argumenrs, however, was that they threatened to outlaw much that their proponents themselves wanted to defend. Sedgwick, for instance, acknowledged the importance of "experience" in much the same sense as Rogers's, and Ralph Cudworth accepted that of "irradiation." Quite as much as Rogers's congregants, Cudworth went out of his way to reject the idea that religion was simply "Book-craft." Only when a spiritual truth was found "within our selves," he maintained, could we be said to be "experimentally acquainted with it." "All the Books and Writings which we converse with," Cudworth told Parliament, "can but represent Spiritual Objects to our understandings; which yet we can never see in their own true Figure, Colour and Proportion, until we have a Divine Light within, to irradiate and shine upon them." Such irradiated representation could happen only in the imagination. Cudworth also defined holiness as "nothing else but God stamped and printed upon the Soul." Such language was strikingly similar to that of the very enthusiasts whom 74. See especially Mack's excellent Visionary WtJmen, I, 7-10, 23-33, 57-8, 84-5 and passim (quoted from 23, italics in original); and also Hannay, Silent but for the WtJrd, 1-14; Crawford, WtJmen and Religion, 163; Crawford, "Women's Published Writings," 2II-7, 2246; Hobby, Virtue o/Necessity, 26 -53; Keeble, Cultural Identity o/Seventeenth-Century WtJman, 264-79. The medieval precedents for such claims are described in Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast, 208-18, 251-9, 261-76. For a related discussion of the implications of adducing natural characteristics for the sexes, see Daston, "Naturalized Female Intellect." 75. Sedgwick, Sermon, I, 5-6, 31; Hickes, Spirito/Enthusiasm, 2; [Ramesay]' Gentlemans Companion, 40 - 41.

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Cudworth, along with More, Sedgwick, Smith, and Casaubon, wished to proscribe. The crux of the conflict would therefore lie in the practical application of these arguments: the actual discrimination of proper "irradiation" from improper, and of true reading from false.?6 Sir Thomas Browne provided one clue as to how to exercise such judgment. He reckoned that grounds for discrimination lay in the apparent mode of conveyance of candidate visions, alleging that the "the revelations of heaven are conveied by new impressions, and the immediate illumination of the soul; whereas the deceiving spirit, by concitation of humors, produceth his conceited phantasmes." 77 That is, true visions partook of the immaterial soul. False visions, like ordinary perceptions of the outside world, relied on corporeal mediation and therefore always arose in the body. They could never engage directly and exclusively with the rational soul. Henry More likewise alleged that "Enthusiasts for the most part are intoxicated with vapours from the lowest region of their Body." His fellow Platonist John Smith agreed, describing false visions as "seated only in the imaginative power," and ascribing the "many enthusiastical impostors ofour age" to this phenomenon. This was no mere academic distinction: it suggested ways to discriminate in practice between true prophecy and self-idolatry. A false vision was one that could not "rise up above this low and dark region of sense or matter." Aristotelian reasoning straightforwardly implied that since it originated in the realm of change, it must always manifest instability and conflict. The "prophetical spirit" could therefore be discerned from the "pseudo-prophetical," Hales affirmed, because the latter could "rise no higher than the middle region of man, which is his fancy, there dwells as in storms and tempests, and ... is also conjoined with alienations and abruptions of mind." Such symptoms, he added, were "commonly observed by physicians." 78 Hales was not the only person to reckon that physicians were well acquainted with the corporeal signs accompanying false inspiration. Reference to commonly held beliefs about the structure of the body and a physician's role in interpreting its signs recurred widely. By the end of the seventeenth century, and probably before, such criteria constituted the main resource for defining enthusiasm and visions. Antagonists therefore alleged that an ex76. Sedgwick, 'E1rU7'K01rO~ jtljaKTtK6~, 51; Cudworth, Discourse, 39-41, 52, 55. Hickes was an exception, since he repudiated the need for any sort ofinspiration at all: Hickes, Spirit ofEnthusiasm, 34-5. 77. Browne, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, 30. 78. [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, 17; Smith, Select Discourses, 194-6, 200-1; Henry, "Matter of Souls," 92-5, 98-100. The Bakhtinian resonances of "high" and "low" are particularly clear in such sentiments: Stallybrass and White, Politics and Poetics ofTransgression, 2-5, 43·

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perience of apparent inspiration was in fact a "distemper." It was a physiological condition, needing to be cured rather than exorcized or idolized. 79 In short, it had natural causes. Analysis of visions was therefore a diagnostic exercise, the chief tool for which was knowledge of the passions. Henry More exemplified the approach. More knew Cartesian philosophy better than anyone else in the country at this time-he it was who introduced it into English intellectual culture, in the context of this very struggle against enthusiasm-and he singled out Descartes's Passions ofthe Soule as an influential work. 50 it is unsurprising that, like Descartes, More placed the passions at the center of his analysis. 80 According to his trearment, enthusiasm was nothing more than the consequence of an excess of "ecstatical passion," reinforcing an "illusion of the imagination." This was the consequence of a broader account of the human perceptions and reasoning. Although his own proffered physiology did not agree with Willis's, which he regarded as materialist, More concurred with the 5edleian Professor that in practice reasoning could never be separated from corporeal perceptions. It therefore must always be prey to "Phantasmes." "Thoughts," he believed, "offer or force themselves upon the mind, ... according to the nature or strength of the complexion of our Bodies."81 In certain individuals (especially women), and in certain circumstances, the images thus presented in the imagination became as strong as those sensed in the outside world-and in such a case the party concerned could scarcely fail to confuse the two. The dreams experienced while sleeping were a canonical instance. Here was the real source for alleged experiences of inspiration. In their dreams, enthusiasts attained a state of "Extasie," in which the imagination was able to dominate the sensus communis to such an extent that the memory was "as thoroughly sealed therewith, as from the sense of any external Object." 82 Thomas Hobbes reputedly died with this explanation on his lips: "Dreams are the Reverse of our waking Imaginations; the motion when we are awake, beginning at one end, and when we dream, at the other." 83 The most systematic analysis of the political implications was to be found 79. Casaubon, Treatise, 28-9; [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, sigs. [A5 v ]-[A6 v ] , 220; Casaubon, O/Credulity and Incredulity, 29-30; Schwartz, Knaves, Fools, Madmen, and That Subtile Effluvium, 31-70, esp. 50 -I; Heyd, "Be Sober and Reasonable," 191-210. 80. More, "The Immortality of the Soul," in Collection, sig. [Ll4 v ]. For More's fight against enthusiasm see Heyd, "Be Sober and Reasonable," 92-108; for his appropriation of Descartes see Gabbey, "Philosophia Cartesiana Triumphata." 81. [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, 2-4; Casaubon, Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme, 2ll. For conflicts between More and Willis see Henry, "Matter of Souls." 82. [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, 4-5,27. 83. This is the final aphorism in Last sayings, or Dying Legacy 0/Mr. Thomas Hobbs.

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in the greatest of all discourses on the passions, Hobbes's Leviathan. His most perceptive critic, Seth Ward, told Hobbes that his reasoning had "never risen beyond imagination, or the first apprehension of bodies performed in the brain." 84 He had a point. The passions played a central part in Hobbes's work. Since they stimulated all human actions, and no polity could ever reach such a state of perfection that their disruptive consequences could be eradicated, the passions lay at the root of both social order and social disorder. Hobbes analyzed the processes of reasoning, will, and memory as dependent on them-understanding, for example, was achieved as the result of that passion, the"desire of Knowledge." 85 Appropriating the common interpretation of passions writers, Hobbes maintained that the experience of a dream, along with false apparitions and spurious claims to prophecy, derived from the difficulty of distinguishing perceptions received from the outside world from imagined ones generated internally. He thus maintained that those who worshiped such nonexistent spiritual beings were in effect idolaters, "in awe of their own imaginations," and that the observable variety of such religions in the world was but a simple consequence of "the different Fancies, Judgements, and Passions." 86 Madness, similarly, was "nothing else, but too much appearing Passion," which could appear in certain circumstances as "inspiration." Enthusiasts and madmen alike were liable to be "cast out of Society" altogether, whence they existed in a state of "perpetuall war, of every man against his neighbour." That is, they occupied a position that was as close as Hobbes's contemporaries ever came to the state of nature-"that miserable condition of Warre, which is necessarily consequent ... to the naturalI Passions of men." If unrestrained, such "singular Passions" became "the Seditious roaring of a troubled Nation." This was why Hobbes pursued with such dedication the advocates of priestcraft and scholasticism. Their philosophy was merely "a description of their own Passions," and therefore "rather a Dream than Science." It warranted claims to inspiration, whether by priests or sectaries, and therefore led inexorably to civil warY In an enthusiast, then, the sensitive soul was well on the way to winning the microcosmic civil war: the "Imaginative facultie has the preheminence above the Rationall." 88 As writers on the passions declared, at the height of that war the subject "acted little less than like a Daemoniack possess'd with 84. [Ward], Philosophical! Essay, sig. A}'-[A4'l. For Leviathan and rhe passions see also Smith, Literature and Revolution, 159- 62. 85· Hobbes, Leviathan, 13-17,19,24-5,3°-31,37-49,53-4,59-60,69-7°,172-3. 86. Hobbes, Leviathan, 17-19, 75-6, 78-9. 87. Hobbes, Leviathan, 50-56, 62, 106, 109-Il, Il7-8, 130-1, 148-9, 153-4, 187, 461. 88. [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, 40-1, 43-6, 50-I, 294-5.

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a Legion." 89 Since enthusiasts effectively surrendered their reason to their passions, far from being emancipated by their "visions," as they themselves claimed, they were in fact delivering themselves up to merely mechanical reflexes. More and his friend Ralph Cudworth had a name for such individuals. They called them "Neurospasts." Enthusiasts were marionettes, "meer Puppets" subjugated to the mechanisms of their bodies. Since they had let the sensitive soul dominate completely, they had reverted to the status of mere beasts. The body ofsuch a person became "perfectly Cartesius his Machina." 90 But More now faced the same problem of practical demarcation encountered by Cudworth and others. In the 1640S, he himself had published Platonic poems that had expressed what looked very like ecstasies. Was he then, as his opponent Thomas Vaughan claimed, "sick of that Disease I would pretend to cure others of"? More could see the point. He himself confessed that he had "a natural touch of Enthusiasm in my complexion." 91 To illustrate the difference between his own experiences and the professed inspirations of the enthusiast, however, he now recounted a dream he himself claimed to have had at around the time of the outbreak of the Civil War. More had experienced this remarkable dream at much the same time as Rogers, on the other side of Cambridge, was falling asleep to dream ofGod. A comparison between the two is highly instructive. More had dreamed that he was at a friend's house on the road between England and Scotland. Leaving this house on a bright moonlit night, he saw a series of huge figures in the sky, most prominent among them that of an old man with a long beard. Lying on his side in the heavens, this figure made a number of gestures with his arm; and finally, as More reentered the house, he intoned, "There is indeed love amongstyou, but onely according to theflesh." Back indoors, More was able to tell his companions the import of the vision, "expounding the generall meaning of my dream in my dream." He interpreted the movements of the old man's arm as "an Embleme of the proceedings of God when he chastises a nation," adducing "reasons out of Aristotles Mechanicks, which I had very lately read," for the precise nature of the movements. It appeared to have been a true vision, with a valid and substantial message. But then More revealed that "the Vision (as I may so 89. [Charleton], Natural History ofthe Passions, 62-4, 86-7; Descartes, Passions, 25-9, 33-5; Willis, Two Discourses concerning the Soul ofBrntes, 43. 90. More, Collection, 132-3; Cudworth, Discourse Concerning the Trne Notion ofthe Lord's Supper, 64; Ingelo, Bentivoglio and Urania, 91; [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, 315-6. See also Gabbey, "Cudworth, More, and the Mechanical Analogy." 91. More, Collection, x; [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, 309. Sir Thomas Browne made a similar admission: Browne, WOrks, I, 12.

FIG. 6.9. Frontispiece to Ptolemy's Geographia, printed in 1618. It was such an image that generated Henry More's supposed vision. Hondius, Theatri Geographiae Veteris Tomus Prior. (By permission of the Canon Librarian of Peterborough Cathedral.)

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42 1

call it) in this dream" had a terrestrial origin after all. He had been reading Ptolemy's Geographia the evening before, and seeing a particular iconographic figure on the engraved frontispiece, "my fancy it seems having laid hold on his venerable beard, drew in thereby the whole scene of things that presented themselves to me in my sleep" (fig. 6.9). Both More and Rogers described remarkable dreams springing from impressive reading experiences. Both identified their dreams as moments of personal transformation. But they were important to them in directly contradictory ways. Rogers had moved from dismissing his dreams as artifacts of "fancy" to respecting them as genuine visions, and simultaneously from despair at the impossibility of his salvation to assurance that that was itself mere "fancy." More had pursued the opposite trajectory. From a belief that he had experienced a real vision, he had convinced himself that his striking dream was the product of his own "Fancy." One's imagination could evidently be imprinted entirely naturally by an image on the frontispiece of Ptolemy, without one's being aware ofany unusual effects. 92 It could happen to anybody, and could produce a seeming vision of utterly convincing reality. More went on to mention an even more convincing" Vision or Enthusiasme" that he had again experienced after reading Aristotle's Mechanicks. A description he had read there of a lever-based machine for timber moving had raised such a "Temper and frame of spirit" in him, he recalled, that "I should be prone to suspect something more then naturall in what preceded it, did I not consider that sometimes there may be of it self such a Terrour and Disposition of body, that may either suggest or imitate what is most holy or divine." 93 Such an awareness of the power of reading to create visions through the mechanisms of the body was far from unique to More. The effects of representing images seen in print in the imagination were well known. For example, natural magic books and books of secrets often suggested that would-be parents concerned to produce handsome children should place in their bedchambers "images of Cupid, Adonis, and Ganymedes, ... that they may alwayes have them in their eyes." The imagination also raised difficult problems of idolatry, especially when, as here, the mental images involved were of bearded old men. Puritans had long wanted to discipline such imaginative constructs out of existence, replacing them with schemes of words 92. [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, 309-12. More's dream should be compared to the remarkably similar experience of interpretation while still asleep that was recorded by Descartes (Oeuvres, X, 181-8) and to the dream of George Starkey described in Newman, Gehennical Fire, 64-5. 93. Tryon, Treatise o/Dreams & Visions, 9, 20, 44, 48-51, 203-4; [More], Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, 2-5, 27, 40-I, 43-6, 50-I, 294-5, 309, 312-6; More, Collection, x, 132-3. Compare [Trenchard], Natural History o/Superstition, 12-14.

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able to act as their own mnemonics: that is, by printed Ramist diagrams. As Aston puts it, every Protestant was obliged to "act the iconoclast on the idolprocesses of his mind." 94 As this strategy itself implied, however, words themselves could have similar effects. Who could wonder that Chrysostom had dreamed of Saint Paul, Sir Thomas Browne asked, since he read Paul's Epistles "dayly"? These were "butt animal visions." In his own attack on enthusiasm, Meric Casaubon likewise concentrated on what he called "the strange, but natural effects" produced by words. Metaphors, for example, worked by the "representation of shapes and images" to the imagination-that is, they worked "by a kind ofEnthusiasme." Casaubon himself could testify that when he read a passage from a classical poet, "I do not only phansy to my self, that I see those things that they describe; but also find in my self (as I phansy) the very same content and pleasure, that I should, if my eyes beheld them in some whether coloured, or carved representation of some excellent Artist." The error of the enthusiast lay in attributing to such experiences the status of certain, even divine, ttuth. 95 Casaubon agreed that enthusiasts were suffering from a medical condition: they should go to a "Physician of the body." But he did not want such a strategy to be too widely applied. In particular, Casaubon did not wish to deny the reality of demons altogether. Those who had done so, he noted, had attempted to attribute all spirits to "a depraved fancy, or imagination." He had in mind men like John Webster, who applied his account of the power of educating the passions to explain away spirits entirely, alleging that they were "effects of the imaginative function depraved by the fumes of the melancholick humor." Angelologists, on the contrary, reckoned that angels could manipulate images already present in the imagination in order to produce apparent visions, although they could not generate new ones ex nihilo. According to Webster, reading could either cause such "effects" or, indeed, eliminate them. Webster even cited the case ofa student who, by the careful reading of sacred books, had been able to expel a devil from his posterior. 96 Such writers, like Casaubon, had pointed out "how easily [the imagination] may represent to it self Devils, and Spirits," which "may make great im94. Aston, England's Iconoclasts. I, 452-66, esp. 460. For details of the production, origin, and use of images in frontispieces and broadsheets, see Watt, Cheap Print and Popular Piety, esp. 131-253. 95. Browne, WOrks, III, 230-I; Casaubon, Treatise, 135ff., 150-I, 17off., 175-6, 182-4. Compare Tryon, Treatise ofDreams and Visions, 9, for the restriction of dreams to the sensitive soul. For Casaubon's antienthusiast campaign, see Heyd, "Be Sober and Reasonable," 72 -9 2 . 96. Reynolds, Treatise, 8-10; Hobbes, Leviathan, 483-4; Webster, Displaying ofSupposed Witchcraft, 32- 4, 313, 321-2, 343 -5; Lawrence, History ofAnge/Is, 35 - 6, 40, 72.

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pressions in the brain, and offer themselves in sleep, or when the brain is sick." But Casaubon insisted that demons did exist. Moreover, theyoperated, like angels, precisely by casting "false species" into the imagination. Denying spirits meant also denying angels. In this too Casaubon agreed with Willis, Glanvill, and More. But he now found himself facing an extraordinarily delicate problem. Casaubon believed that those denying the existence of spirits were "Atheists." Yet such "atheists" relied on almost exactly the same arguments from imagination and the passions that he himself employed to crush enthusiasts. The difference was that the atheist relegated every spirit phenomenon to the imagination. But if there were absolutely no such phenomena not reducible to the passions, Casaubon demanded, then "What hath he left to us, that we can call truth"?97 This question-the question of what could still be trusted as truth, if experience were entirely subjected to the imagination-was fundamental. It was especially fundamental when related to reading. Such an error was at its most dangerous, needless to say, when what was being read was Scripture itself. A Protestant reading the Bible was using the eyes provided by God to "satisfie himself and others" in matters of "trust and consequence." It was this that made the correct habituation of reading so important. But enthusiasts' reading practices were dangerous. Casaubon illustrated this by the example of an ancient bishop, Synesius. Synesius used to begin reading a text, then close his eyes and extrapolate from what he had read a passage so harmonious with the work that nobody listening could tell that he was no longer reading. "It is likely that he often practised it by himself, before he adventured to do it before others," Casaubon admitted, and the applauding audience probably did not know any more of the work being read than what they had just heard. Nonetheless, "what he so supplied by his extemporary wit, did sometimes prove to be the very same that he found afterwards in the book." Such performative reading captured the fundamentals of delusive inspiration: deceit, prodigy, and display. That was why it should "very properly be referred to some kind of enthusiasme." 98 A fundamental reason for this lay in the culture of discredit surrounding printed books. Enthusiasts, pursuing their professed inspirations to the exclusion of all prudence, credited the imaginative passions generated in their reading far too readily. That was why they fell foul of the sort of strong 97. Casaubon, OfCredulity and Incredulity, 29-30, 38, 44; Reynolds, Treatise, 27; Willis, "An Essay of the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous Stock," in Dr. Willis's Practice ofPhysick, separately paginated, 43-4; Browne, Works, I, 40-1; Casaubon, Letter, 30 (for the ex-

perimental philosophy and spirits). For insistence on the reality of witchcraft, compare Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus, 25 - 6. 98. Casaubon, Treatise, 160 -1. For the use of books to create atheism and the attribution of miracles to the imagination, see Hunter, '" Aikenhead the Atheist.'''

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impressions that had caused More's dream (and Rogers's). At the same time, this also meant that they credited printed books in general far too readily. By contrast, in Casaubon's eyes books were not necessarily trustworthy. Writers and printers were prone to produce "lyes, or frauds," especially if convinced that the end justified doing so. "What a world of lyes and counterfeit books" had "the conceit of piae fraudes" produced, for example, and "how many have been gulled and deceived by them, who doth not know, or hath not heard?" Casaubon insisted that reading must therefore be not a passive imprinting on the mind-the writing of a supposedly divine spirit-but an active and critical labor. Given the culture that he perceived around him, the production of safe (and true) knowledge depended utterly on this. He had a point. Even the Bible itself could be corrupted, his contemporaries feared, and small variations in such a text could have momentous consequences. The entire Arian schism could be explained by the misconstrual ofa single Greek letter. And the "errors" could indeed be deliberate. As early as 1538, Thomas Elyot had found it necessary to list heresies so that they could be "the sooner espyed and abhorred in suche bokes, where they be craftily enterlaced with holsom doctrine." William Bentley claimed that a notorious 1653 misprint of I Corinthians 6: 9-"Know ye not that the unrighteous shall inherit the Kingdom of God?"-had generated sectarian enthusiasm in Casaubon's own time, since "many Libertines and licentious people did produce, and urge this Text from the authority of this corrupt Bible ... , in justification of their vicious and inordinate Conversations." Proposals for a polyglot bible therefore stressed its purity from errors generated "by the wilful corruption of Sectaries, and Hereticks, which (as was foretold) abound in these latter times." Isaac Newton too endorsed the likelihood of intentional corruption, warning of an elaborate Catholic plot to obliterate sound Scripture by printing debased Trinitarian copies in vast numbers at presses in Spain and Italy. In Newton's eyes, the Trinitarians were powerful not because they were right, but because they possessed the most sophisticated of printing houses and distribution networks. All modern editions of the Bible were therefore suspect to him, whatever critical apparatus they might display-or, more precisely, the more elaborate the apparatus, the more suspect the edition. Others made a theological point of the concern. Before the Fall, Hales argued, just as the senses had apprehended Creation faithfully, so God had communicated his laws directly into the mind. With such communication there had been no possible doubt about "who the author was, and how far his intent and meaning reacht." But this certainty had ceased as soon as the Word was written down. It was "a great argument of our shame and imperfection," then, "that the holy

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425

things are written in books." The press had not obviated the problem. Edmond Halley might assert that "since the Invention of Printing" the survival of "exactly the same" texts had been virtually assured, but the veracity of those texts and the validity of their applications depended on their printers and readers. Yet, Ward cautioned, the literal variations encountered in different bibles ought not to lead readers "to conclude the books not to be credited." Otherwise, he pointed out, "upon the same reason it will be concluded that no Book in the world is to be credited." On the contrary, God himself had preserved such variations deliberately. He had done so to prove a point: that comparison by appropriately laborious readers could reveal "both the true sence and the true reading" of Scripture. Errata were matters of providence. 99 Such writers argued that there was no labor more noble and more necessary than that devoted to revealing false books. It required enormous skill in obscure languages, customs, and fashions. This was one major reason why Casaubon questioned the faith placed by some of his contemporaries in experimental philosophy. Casaubon-the son of perhaps the greatest of all detectors of printed fraud, Isaac Casaubon-believed that those who, he claimed, reduced all knowledge to that produced through "natural experiments" ran the risk of losing the skills needed to ward off enthusiastic reading habits. In a learned world inhabited solely by experimental philosophers, there would be no techniques left to discriminate between true "Oracles" and "abominable forgeries," and to ward off the imaginative effects of the latter. Casaubon defended the legitimacy of the scholar in the face of such a threat. The classical learning that suggested Homer's debt to Scripture, for example, thereby confirmed the truth of the Old Testamentsomething profoundly necessary "in this visible sad increase of Atheism every where." In contrast, Casaubon charged that in their naIvete experimental philosophers even questioned "whether those works, generally ascribed to Aristotle, were, or are his indeed?" Should this perilous blend of credulity and skepticism hold sway, and people be "made incapable to uphold their faith" by an erosion of the scholarly skills needed to establish or contest 99. BL classmark 675.a.1; Starnes, Renaissance Dictionaries, 55; Kilburne, Dangerous Errors, 4 -7, 10; BriefDescription ofan Edition ofthe Bible; Propositions concerning the Printing ofthe Bible; Newton, Correspondence, III, 83 -146; Hales, "Abuses of Hard Places of Scripture," 1-3; [Halley), Miscellanea Curiosa, II, 1-8; [Ward), Philosophicall Essay, 1-2, 147-8. Compare also Bacon, WOrks, III, 287; Galileo's "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina," in Finocchiaro, Galileo Affair, 87-n8; Redondi, Galileo: Heretic, 104-5; and the comment of the greatest classical scholar of the time, Richard Bentley, that Scripture had "been under a hard fate since the invention of printing." Bentley identified printer Robert Estienne as a "Protestant Pope" whose ownership of the copy of the Bible had led to two thousand corruptions in the editions "set out and regulated by himselfalone": Kroll, "Mise-en-Page," 37-8 n.

-THRVS

E ANTIQ..VI .

FRAGM

LIBER

P

FIG. 6.10. Etruscan antiquities of dubious credit. Encountering these images, Meric Casaubon was almost transported. Only hard critical labor could reveal their fraudulence. Inghirami,

Ethruscarum Antiquitatum Fragmenta. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.)

textual credit, then a "new Religion" would be the inevitable consequence. Instead of their present damaging labors, then, Casaubon suggested that the Royal Society appoint a committee to try the techniques in a book such as Porta's Natural Magick, "that so we might know what men may certainly trust to." 100 Casaubon, like More, exploited his own vivid experiences of reading books to expose enthusiasm. Unlike More, however, Casaubon recalled, not a dream derived from a book, but a direct and industrious confrontation with a book. He described an encounter with a work on Etruscan antiquities which he had come across in a Stationer's shop in London (fig. 6.10). Helped, no doubt, by the bookseller, Casaubon had found its engravings so impressive that he had all but lost control of his body: "the first sight of the book did so ravish me," he affirmed, "that I scarce knew where I was, or what I did." Had he left things at that, the result might have been similar to 100. Casaubon, Letter, 7, 15-16, 17-18, 27.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF READING

the experiences of More and Rogers. Instead, buying the volume, Casaubon began to read it as he embarked on a boat for Gravesend. Before long he had realized his mistake. "The truth is, when once the heat or violence of my expectation (which did almost transport me) was once over," he recalled, "I began to wonder at my self." Every line of the work was fraudulent. But the point was that many other readers did credit it-even to the extent of voyaging to Italy to see the monuments it purported to represent. This convincingly demonstrated how "prone" readers were not only to "entertain an imposture," but to resist its overthrow thereafter. The question this raised was enormously consequential. "What wonder then," Casaubon asked, "if Christianism was so soon turned into Mahometism," when so limited was the dedication of readers "to discover the impostures of pretended Enthusiasts?" The implication of his experience when confronting this forgery was, then, both clear and immense. "Had these Antiquities been received generally, as a true piece," Casaubon warned, "halfthe world would have been Conjurers, and Enthusiasts by this time." 101 Casaubon, More, and others thus used accounts of the effects of reading-accounts based in knowledge of the passions-to characterize and attack false claims to knowledge under the label of enthusiasm. Enthusiasts, they charged, were those who did not properly habituate their reading and their passions. Knowledge, civility, and the physiology of reading intersected here, as they put ideas of the nature and effects of reading to work in the most controversial of circumstances, to discriminate true knowledge from error, and safe veneration from rebellious sectarianism. In general terms, the view was widely shared. As the greatest of all anatomists, William Harvey, had put it, those who read a book and did not "by the aid of their own Senses, abstract true representations of the things themselves (comprehended in the authors expressions)" would apprehend not "true Ideas" but "deceitful Idols, & Phantasms." As a result, Harvey concluded, "they frame

101. Casaubon, Treatise, 160; Casaubon, OfCredulity and Incredulity, 294-300; Shapin, Social History ofTruth. The work in question was Inghirami, EthruscarumAntiquitatum Fragmenta; it was exposed in Allacci, Animadversiones. Casaubon also identified as an important

example Annius ofViterbo, who has recently been studied by Grafton as a key figure in the history of both forgery and criticism: Grafton, Defenders ofthe Text, 76 - 103; Grafton and Blair, Transmission ofCulture, 8-38. Compare Sedgwick, Sermon, 13-14, for his stress on the need for "industry" in reading Scripture. For a slightly later example, compare also [Trenchard], Natural History ofSuperstition, 8 -9, 28, on the effects of the "Forgeries of the Papists, and the Frauds and Follies of some who call themselves Protestants." Such falsities could not have enjoyed so great a success, Trenchard felt, "unless something in our Constitutions made us easily to be susceptible of wrong Impressions." So he felt that "it is incumbent upon us, first of all to examine into the frame and constitution of our own Bodies." Trenchard described from this how "a poor Enthusiast with his Brains intoxicated with reading the Revelations" could seem to make "a lucky discovery that the last Day is at hand."

CHAPTER SIX

to themselves certaine shadows and Chimaera's, and all their theory and contemplation (which they count Science) represents nothing but waking mens dreams, and sick mens phrensies." 102

DISPASSIONATE KNOWLEDGE: IMAGES, CREDIT, AND EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY

Harvey was by this time revered by a certain group of men as providing something that they, at least, "counted science." The life of the early Royal Society will be introduced in chapter 7. Its "experimental" philosophy was designed partly to overcome the problem of knowledge that was thought to have fostered the turmoil of the Great Rebellion. At the forefront of this effort stood the victim of passionate reading already introduced, Robert Boyle. 103 Many sources could be used to illustrate the Society's involvement with issues of knowledge and the passions, not least Boyle's own writings. However, by common consent the most impressive single document produced during the first decade of its existence was Robert Hooke's Micrographia. It is therefore appropriate to concentrate on this work. Moreover, while the spectacular engravings for which it has been remembered were indeed unprecedented, contemporaries also recognized in the volume a prescriptive model for the practice of natural philosophy itself, and therefore for the safe and reliable attainment of knowledge. 104 If the Royal Society had an answer to Casaubon's arguments, it was to be found here. Hooke began by expressing concerns similar to those of Casaubon and More. He pronounced it no wonder that existing knowledge was imperfect, since "the forces ofour own minds conspire to betray us." His book was dedicated to circumventing this problem, "by rectifying the operations of the Sense, the Memory, and Reason." Hooke was thus proposing nothing less than a "universal cute of the Mind." He aimed to achieve this cure by using instruments (fig. 6.11). He believed that the senses could give false information for two reasons. They might be disproportionate to the objects of interest and thus unable to perceive them at all (as was the case, for example, with atoms); or they might err in their perception of those things that they could perceive. As a result, even the most "solid" notions of philosophers were "rather expressions of our own misguided apprehensions then of the true nature of the things themselves." The remedy had to reach to the essential cause of the problem. For Hooke this meant "the adding of artificial Organs to the natural." If the operation of perception could thereby be reguHarvey, Anatomical Exercitations, sig. [lJIrJ. Schaffer, "Godly Men and Mechanical Philosophers." 104. Harwood, "Rhetoric and Graphics in Micrographia"; Dennis, "Graphic Understanding." 102. 103.

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429

Robert Hooke's principal instrument to discipline the passions. Hooke, Micrographia. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.) FIG. 6.II.

lated, then the reformation ofknowledge at which he professed to aim might be achieved. Reliance on the "strength of Imagination" would be replaced simply by "a sincere Hand, and afaithful Eye." The "Science of Nature" had been too long "only a work of the Brain and Fancy," Hooke proclaimed, and it was time for his artificial organs to rectify them. If his approach proved fruitful, it might even be possible to recapture the original "unpassionate" knowledge that had existed before the Fall. Meric Casaubon found such aspirations incredible. Indeed, so determined was he to repudiate them that he risked breaking the prime convention ofcivil conversation by flatly denying the truth ofa recounted incident. He questioned the power of experimental philosophy to "moralize men" by recalling a story given by Gassendi in his biography of Peiresc. According to Gassendi's version, Peiresc had enclosed a louse and a fly together under a microscope and observed the deleterious physical effects of the consequent passions excited in the louse. By seeing how damaging excess passions could be, the story went, Peiresc had "profited more to rule his passions in the rest of his life, then he had done by anything he had heard, or read before." Casaubon flatly refused to believe it. Peiresc could not possibly have been influenced more by cwo insects than by the countless writings of philosophers on the passions, which had included extensive accounts of their physiological effects. Reading, not experiment, had the potential to calm one's passions. Casaubon referred in particular to the reading of histories, which

43°

CHAPTER SIX FIG. 6.12. Hooke's representation of a period seen through the microscope. Hooke,

Micrographia. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.)

could even cure physical diseases: at least two monarchs had been cured after all medical advice had proved fruitless by reading Livy and Quintus Curtius (Boyle's own favorite). He remained flatly unconvinced "what use can be made, . . . in point of life and manners, of a microscope." And in the meantime, Casaubon insisted, "I have not faith enough to beleeve Gassendus in this." 105 Hooke preempted such denials. Imitating classical conventions, Micrographia began as if it were a work of geometry. Instead of a mathematical point, though - the classic starting element of that science-Hooke began with its physical equivalent, the tip of a pin. Under his microscope this sharpest of material points was revealed to be blunt and pitted. Natural points such as an insect's sting displayed no such imperfections, and Hooke took this to be powerful evidence of a Creator. The argument proved persuasive, and was frequently repeated. lOG But Hooke then turned the microscope onto "a point commonly so call'd": "that is, the mark of a full stop, or period" (fig. 6.12). Through the microscope, any such character, printed 105. Casaubon, Letter, 24-5, 31-3. 106. Hooke, Micrographia, 1-4; Wilkins, O/the Principles and Duties o/Natural Religion, 80; Memoirs for the Ingenious, I, 208-11. The point was also stressed in the review in the Journal des 5ravans: Morgan, Histoire du Journal des 5ravans, 162-3.

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or written-and Hooke examined "multitudes" of each-appeared "like smutty daubings on a matt or uneven floor [made] with a blunt extinguisht brand or stick's end." Thanks to a combination of irregularity of type, uneven cloth-based paper, and rough use of ink, the result resembled nothing so much as "a great splatch of London dirt." All letters, Hooke reported, were like this, so that seeing them as letters was not simple. The microscope revealed some much-vaunted tiny writing as barely readable without "a good [antsy well preposest to help one through," and in fact a good fancy was needed for all reading. Since the "Imaginations" we had of objects were not decided by "the Nature of the things themselves" so much as by "the peculiar Organs, by which they are made sensible to the Understanding," different organs would have produced different perceptions. Hooke had himself been able to read letters in what would otherwise be reckoned darkness, thanks to one of his artificial organs contrived from "an ordinary double Convex Spherical Lens." The postlapsarian disproportion of the senses to nature, and their alliance with the passions and imagination, were both necessary and precisely sufficient to allow human beings to read. 107 The variations of perception obviously had serious consequences for knowledge: in the brain, the understanding was "apt to be sway'd to this or that hand, according as it is more affected ·or prest by this or that Instance." Hooke now pointed out a still greater implication of the corporeality of human beings. There existed fundamental causes of prejudice particular to individuals, he maintained, by virtue of "every Man's own peculiar Structure." Every philosopher was born to "a Constitution of Body and Mind, that does more or less dispose him to this or that kind of Imagination or Phant'sy of things." This affected the sort of philosophy he produced: "some kind of Constitutions of Body does more incline a Man to Contemplation, and Speculation, another to Operation, Examination, and making Experiments." 108 The history of natural philosophy demonstrated as much. Previous philosophers, Hooke indicated, had become "habituated" against "any thing that offered it self as a Novelty or New Discovery," and as a result they had embraced dogmatism-the Royal Society's professed antithesis, and to many a sure sign of enthusiasm. Hooke could even provide real examples to 107. Hooke, Micrographia, 1-4; Hooke, Posthumous W0rks, 8-9, 13. Compare Porta, Natural Magick, 363. It should be noted that reading letters through telescopes was being

suggested at this juncture as a way of calibrating the quality of lenses when too far apart for direct comparison: Bonelli and Van Heiden, "Divini and Campani," 13. Thus Molyneux (after Flamsteed) suggested that the best way to test an object glass was to put it in a telescope tube, fit an eyepiece, and look through it at the distant title page of a large book, "wherein there are generally Letters printed of divers Magnitudes." Cassini apparently used this method in the French royal observatory, fixing his title page a quarter of a mile away on a steeple window. Molyneux, Dioptrica Nova, 223. 108. Hooke, Posthumous W0rks, 5-6, 9, 47. Compare Reynolds, Treatise ofthe Passions, 6-7·

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prove the point, relating some of the most eminent schools of philosophy to the passions and physiology of their founders: Just as a Man that is troubled with the Jaundice, supposes all things to be Yellow, and all things he eats, till otherwise prevented, serve to augment his Choler, by being chang'd into it: Or a melancholy Person, that thinks he meets with nothing but frightful Apparitions, does convert all things he either sees or hears into dreadful Representations, and makes use of them to strengthen his Phant'sy, and fill it fuller of such uneasy Apprehensions, so is it in Constitutions of Mind as to Philosophy. Thus Aristotle's Physick is very much influenced by his Logick: Des Cartes Philosophy savours much of his Opticks: Vtm Helmonts, and the rest of the Chymists of their Chimical Operations: Gilberts of the Loadstone: Pythagoras's and Jordanus Brunus's, Kepler's, &c. ofArithmetick and Harmony of Numbers. The Philosophy, of some Divines, is intermingled with Divinity; of others with Spirits and immaterial Agents: Astrologers endeavour to bring all things under the Power and Influence of Celestial Bodies, and would have them the chief Efficients of the World, and indeed every one according to the things he most fancies naturally, ... endeavours to make all things he meets with, agreeable or subservient thereto. 109

If Hooke was right, then there was no way, even in principle, to produce true knowledge on one's own. The history of natural philosophy was a catalogue of demonstrations of that fact. I 10 Hooke did maintain, however, that the best "Remedy" for this was selfstudy. The philosopher must "find out of what Constitution ones self is, and to what one is either naturally or accidentally most inclin'd to believe." Then one must "accustom ones self" to "a quite contrary Supposal or Practice." It was the standard tactic, as we have seen, for remedying the passions. According to Hooke, education, breeding, and social background likewise served to "sway" the affections of the individual. He especially stressed the importance of education, which, being imbibed while young, could exercise "a kind of Soveraignty" over the understanding. l l l During schooling, Hooke opined, "the Reason of a Man is very easily impos'd on by Discourse," whether that of a tutor or that of a persuasive book. The best remedy, again, was to concentrate on imagining a directly contrary idea to the one proposed, or, if the tutor were particularly liked, to imagine a speaker against whom one held a grudge. Alternatively, one could "accustom 109. Hooke, Posthumous Works, 3-4, 9-10. Compare Descartes, Philosophical Writings, 1,47· lIO. John Wilkins, for one, probably agreed, if his stricrures against "singularity" are to be read in this sense: Johns, "Prudence and Pedantry." III. Hooke, Posthumous Works, 9-lI.

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the Mind to an Equilibrium or Indifferency." Yet again, this is familiar as a major tactic for counteracting the passions. But such countermeasures could only mitigate the effects of the passions; they could not eliminate them altogether. Since humans were intrinsically passionate, knowledge must be produced collectively. This was, of course, exemplified by the practice of the Royal Society. To a substantial degree, the Society's great virtue was that in creating a disciplined, polite, and above all collective judgment it went as far as humanly possible to eliminate passionate error. Its reading, writing, and printing practices were a core element in this scheme. Hooke's recommendation, since it valued social processes of legitimation so highly, thus necessarily brought him back to the issue of the proper recording and transmission of knowledge. During his four decades at the Society, Hooke returned repeatedly to the problems associated with reading and writing experimental knowledge. Experiments must be "registered" as soon as they had been conducted, he insisted, in as much incidental detail as possible. They should be written down on "a very fine piece of Paper" and entered in a large book called a "Repository." Just as the quality of the lens in a microscope was allimportant, moreover, so was the visual layout of this register. Its contents must be "ranged in the best and most Natural Order" so as to be "manifest to the Eye." Throughout, everything must be expressed in as few words as possible, perhaps even in shorthand, so as to be "the more obvious, and ... thereby the less disturb the Mind in its Inquiry." It was best to write in different inks, with consistent color coding to aid immediate perception. For it was not the mere fact of registration that Hooke thought so important, but the precise manner in which information was traced out on the page. This involved constructing a visual convention of typography contiguous with the conventions of engraved images that were so prominent a part of his Micrographia. Only if recorded in a correct manner, pictorially and typographically, could experimental matters of fact help in his project to "rectify the Mind." 112 The pictorial aspect of this enterprise deserves particular emphasis. Micrographia itself was justly renowned for its innovative use of images, of course. But in Hooke's broader schemes, typography effectively fused into illustration, as the layout and impression (in both senses) of the page conditioned the knowledge a reader took from it. Printed letters were, after all, 1I2. Hooke, Posthumous Works, 18-19, 24, 34, 36, 42, 63-5, 138-48 (esp. 139-40); Mulligan, "Robert Hooke's 'Memoranda,'" 50-3. A possible inspiration for Hooke's scheme lay in the diverse systems still being proposed for commonplacing: see esp. Moss, Printed Commonplace-Books, 153, 226-30; Blair, "Humanist Methods in natural Philosophy"; Blair, Theater ofNature, 49-81, 166-79.

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images of a sort, and this was how the imagination recognized them. His friend Joseph Moxon realized this. He exemplified it in his call for characters to be crafted along Vitruvian lines. 1l3 Exactly analogous problems of credit therefore attended engravings and woodcuts as were created by the printing of texts. And this was a conclusion applicable in general, not just in Hooke's own context. Corporeality, credit, and commerce were all implicated in the proper use of images. Were images to be trusted as truthful representations of the world? On what basis? 114 The issue was perhaps especially pertinent in a Protestant realm avowing emancipation from the imaginative manipulation allegedly facilitated by Catholic iconography and emblems. 115 Similar interpretative strategies to those deployed around texts were therefore called for in approaching images, including the investigation of personnel, places, and technologies associated with their production and distribution. Willughby's Historia Piscium, the natural history of fish that almost proved the Royal Society's undoing in the 1680s, was one example; the Atlas Gelestis of John Flamsteed, treated in chapter 8, was another. Both testified to the problems of funding, making, and believing engraved images of natural bodies. 116 Evelyn's Sculptura was partly intended as an answer to such questions. By enabling virtuosi to understand the engraving process, it aspired to help them rid pictorial representations of"Envy, and imposture." When even this book was challenged by a commercial engraver, as chapter 7 shows, the Society responded by moving to develop its own machineries of publication. A sizable community of practitioners existed that could be called upon to generate reproducible images of all kinds. As with the Stationers-but with less formality-this community had developed its own conventions ofcommerce and civility. Like the Stationers, too, these conventions repeatedly clashed with the concerns of men and women wishing to become authors. The engravers had their own patentees, monopolists, and, of course, pirates.

I13. Above, p. 89. See also Evelyn, Sculptura, I1-23, for a history of pictorial representation that described letters and images as enjoying a common origin and early history. I14. For the accreditation and counterfeiting of images, see Evelyn, Sculptura, 54, 62, 634,75,93-4,96,101-3, II?, 128-9. Evelyn cited Hevelius as a model of the gentleman knowledgeable enough to overcome the problem: 82-3. I15. E.g., Stafford, Artful Science. I16. Willughby's book is a particularly interesting case, remarkable for its participants' extensive reflections on the processes of collection, recording, negotiation, and imprinting involved in making trustworthy images. Those processes may be followed by the modern historian, since Willughby's collections of pictures drawn from his European travels, along with comments by Ray (the editor) and others, and proof sheets in various stages of correction, are stored at NUL Ms. MiLM25. These provide what is perhaps a unique opportunity to trace in detail the construction of standard images of creatures from a variety of sources. I hope to examine them in detail in future work.

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FIG. 6.13. William Hogarth's engraving celebrating the passage in 1735 of an Act against "the Tyranny Frauds & Piracies of Monopolising Dealers," 1754. (In the possession of the author.)

They had their own notions of propriety, just as flexible and controversial as those of the Stationers' "copy." Exasperated complainants discovered that plates could be amended to an indeterminate degree by such workers, so that in a realm of unauthorized reproduction the artist bade "farewel to Accuracy, Expression, [and] Invention." The unlucky ones ended up yoked to the piracy mill themselves, becoming "no better than the Lowest of Robbers." Thus the whole enterprise seemed dominated by "the Tyranny Frauds & Piracies of Monopolising Dealers" (fig. 6.13). It was a situation replete

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with disturbing implications-for modern historians as well as contemporary readers, both being forced to rely on images the very creation of which cast doubt on their credit. ll7 As with texts, the credibility of pictorial reproductions could best be secured by manifesting clear control over every aspect of the reproductive process. Alexander Pitfield implied as much when he remarked that the images of dissections performed at the Academie des Sciences that he reproduced in 1688 "were not graved, till all those which were present at the Dissections found that they were wholly conformable to what they had seen." Novel techniques had to be developed for such a strategy to succeed, for, as Pitfield said, "in this the importance is not so much to represent well what is seen, as to see well what should be represented." Every author who saw an intricately designed draft for a frontispiece subjected to the caprice of an unlearned engraver knew as much. In the Royal Society, Pitfield and others drew upon the talented yet unsung Richard Waller. A protege of Hooke, Waller uniquely combined craft skill with the civility of a Society fellow. The most spectacular instance, however, was that of the Danzig astronomer Johannes Hevelius. Van Helden and Winkler show how Hevelius worked to create a "visual language" for his astronomy. An essential part of his enterprise was the establishment of credit in his engravings for users who might reside half a continent away. Hevelius tried to achieve this end by providing a complete, circumstantial account of their making. He covered the entire transit ofan observation from telescope to printed page, including such arcane subjects as lens grinding and the different rates of shrinkage in breadth and height of damp paper as it dried. Hevelius himself may not actually have done any engraving or printing, although it is quite possible that he did (his printer certainly observed the stars with him). But he did pay for and control these processes, and the credit of the engraver and II7. Or, worse, the images might not exist at all. Pictorial representations oflabor, retailing, and similar activities (and of printing and bookselling in particular) were far more likely to be made in Continental Europe than in London; that is why those used in chapter 2 often display French, Dutch, or German scenes. It is hard to say exactly why, although an explanation will clearly rest on the different criteria by which the engraving and publishing communities of these different regions reached their creative decisions-criteria involving representations of skill, economy, credibility, and audience. In fact, the images used above were generally meant to be normative as well as representative. They have been used for this reason, as well as because they are the most accurate images of printing houses and bookshops available to us. Pictures ofexperiments being done are another, even more striking, example: these do not seem to have been published anywhere. See Case ofDesigners, Engravers, Etchers for a polemic against the London print trade and its corruption by monopolists and pirates, and below, pp. 6t5 - 6, for the consequences of alleged piracy in the case ofJohn Flamsteed's star charts. Schulze, Leselust, beautifully reproduces a wide range ofContinental images related to the reading and symbolic value of books, but not to their manufacture or commerce.

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437

printer was therefore to be "included in" his own. His images of the stars were stamped with the certificates "Observator sculpsit" (in Cometographia) or "Autor sculpsit" (in Selenographia).l18 These signaled that he was staking his reputation on a quite extraordinary claim to veracity. In Hevelius's books, the page was to be accounted a direct representation of the heavens. It was, however, possible to question Hevelius's images. Flamsteed referred to one instance. In his Mercurius in Sole Visus, Hevelius had displayed an engraving of the transit of Mercury across the Sun in 1661 that, he claimed, was of just this order of veracity. He had produced the seven recorded positions by marking them with a pin on a single sheet of paper onto which he had projected the face of the Sun (fig. 6.14). But Oldenburg communicated to him doubts about this image raised by Thomas Streete, who had observed the same transit in London with Huygens. Streete pointed out that the angle of Mercury's path displayed by Hevelius seemed to contradict Streete's own calculations based on accepted observations of the planet's angle to the ecliptic (fig. 6.15). Perhaps Hevelius had in fact constructed the printed picture not directly from observation, but by combining other sheets on which observed positions had been marked. Hevelius's first response was to insist again upon the observational veracity of the figure and to remark that the angle of Mercury's orbit could be obtained "mechanically" by constructions from his engraving (fig. 6.16). This failed to satisfy Streete, who now proposed further doubts about the viability of Hevelius's technique for obtaining truthful numbers. The necessary movement of the sheet of paper between each observation, he argued, meant that important angles must vary between each of the seven traces. Hevelius now saw that Streete was in effect directly questioning the truth of his account of the marking of these positions. He reaffirmed that he had noted them on the same sheet. He had appointed the vertical point of the Sun's limb, then referred the paper to that vertical in making each observation. This, he maintained, was a more direct and truthful method that any based on calculated figures. Since it relied on no prior information, it was an instantiation of the principle of nullius in verba. Yet, in true Royal Society tradition, he also cited witnesses to confirm that he had indeed acted as he said, and that the recorded observations accorded to those engraved in the book. This effectively ended the mild controversy, since the stakes of continued questioning were too high. As Flamsteed remarked, Streete's insinuation of a u8. Evelyn, Sculptura, esp. sigs. A2'-A4'; Pitfield, Memoirs, sig. [brJ; Ezell, "Richard Waller," 214-22; Hevelius, Selenographia, 210 -15; Hevelius, Machina Gtlestis, 446 -7; Winkler and Van Helden, "Johannes Hevelius and the Visual Language of Astronomy"; Winkler and Van Helden, "Representing the Heavens." For the need for authors to oversee engravers' work, see Corbett and Lightblown, The Comely Frontispiece, I, 34-5,45.

FIG. 6.14. Hevelius's projection technique for observing solar rransits. Hevelius, Machina ClElestis. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.) FIG. 6.15. Huygens's portrayal of Mercury's rransit across the face of rhe Sun, observed in London with Thomas Srreete on 23 April/3 May 1661. Huygens, Oeuvres, III. (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library.)

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IN 0 E X

Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables. alchemy, unauthorized publication of, 460 alcohol: printers' use of, 94, 96-97; revealing of passions, 402-3 Aldersgate Street, printers in, 73 Alexander VI (Pope), 369 Alexander the Great, 382 Alfred (King), 372 Algebra (Kinckhuysen), 449 Alkyn, Elizabeth ("Parliament Joan"), 130,

Abbot, George, 241- 42

ABC, printing of, 164 Abridgement (Croke), 302-3 Abridgment (Rolle), JI6, 316-17 abridgments: cases of, 246n. 161; as offense, 455-56, 607; of Philosophical Transactions, 579 n. 83; restrictions on, 226,227; works as, 302-3, 3I6, 316-17 absolutism: absence of in England, 48; arbitrary government and, 251-52, 252n. 182; Cromwell and, 273-74; Hobbes and, 308; patronage and, 24; property and, 253, 255; royal authorship oflaws and, 312, 317, 336n. 29; royal prerogative and, 251, 253-54 Academie Royale des Sciences (France), 436, 491 n. 91, 510, 554 Accademia del Cimento (Florence), 483

155 Alkyn, John, 155 n. 179 Allacci, Leone, 127, 427n. 101 Allamand, Jean Nicolas Sebastien, 18182n.229 Allen, Benjamin, 77 Allen, Charles, 157 Allen, William (pseud. of Edward Sexby), 29 2-93,294 Allestry, James: foreign reprints and, 169, 169 n. 205; as Printer to the Royal Society, 492-93, 496; proofing for, 103; Register Book and, 216; reputation of, 147-48,5°1 Allestry, Richard, 147-48, 481 almanacs: almost outlawed, 319; Catholic, 207n. 63, 260n. 217, 319n. 164; counterfeit, 218; credit of, 191-92, 616-17; definition of, 260, 455 n. 18; Parker's warnings in, 543; patents for, 200, 223, 227, 256, 262, 366; printers for illicit, 320, 454; profits from, 260; Sta(ione~s' court on, 221; Streater's attacks in, 292 Alpers, Svetlana, 60 Alsop, Benjamin, 150 Alured, Col. Matthew, 276 n. 20, 286, 29 2 -93,295 Amadis de Gaule, 380 - 81

Account ofthe ReverendJohn Flamsteed (Baily), 618-19 accreditation, Flamsteed and, 565n. 47. See also credit, epistemic (credibility) Acheson, Lady Martha, 304 Acton, George, 514

Acts and Monuments (Book ofMartyrs, Foxe), 190, 226n. 113, 227, 300, 329, 335 n. 25 Addison, Joseph, 64, 160, 183, 454, 458 admiration, passion of, 402, 403 Aesop, 407 affections, in perception, 392 agriculture, Royal Society's Committee for, 538. See also bees air-pumps, 44-45, 447, 449 The Alchemist (Ryckaert), 46 alchemists: bees as, 269; caricature of, 47 2 n·52

709

710

INDEX

Amen Corner, booksellers in, 66 Ames, Joseph, 364-65 amphibian/amphibious: humans as, 39899; morality of, 399; Stationers' character as, 138-39, 398; Tonson as, 120, 138; women authors as, 414 Ampsing, Samuel, 332 anatomy. See physiology The Anatomy ofMelancholy (Button), 381 Anatomy ofPlants (Grew), 535 Anchoran, John, 224 -25, 226 angels, 422-23 anger, passions and, 403 n. 49 Anglicanism, Stationers' civility and, 142 -43 animals. See creatures animal spirits: circulation of, 276, 289-90, 395 -97,396, 405, 44 2; concept of, 39394; control of, 406; origins of, 395; passions modulated by, 276. See also passions Anima Mundi (Blount), 160 n. 189 Annalen der Naturphilosophie (periodical), 635 Annales historiography, 28-29, 633

Annales Typographici ab Artis Inventae Origine (Maittaire), 355 -57,356 Anne (Queen of England), 148, 486n. 81, 549, 60 7 Annius ofViterbo, 427n. IOl annotations, 226 n. II3, 386. See also citation practices anonymity, 482; of printers, 34 antedating, 507, 516, 516n. 147 antiquarianism, 123-24, 346-47, 360 Aphorismi (Boerhaave), 167 apiaty, Mewe's. See bees apprentices: behavior of, II5, II7; book exchanges among, 152-53; customers' relations with, 120; examples of male, 76-77; freeing of, 95-96; involvement in illicit printing, 129; kinship ties of, 76 -77; period of service as, 157, 202; politics and, 148; status of, II4-15; women as, 78 Arber, Edward, 215 Arbuthnot, John: accusations by, 461; on Flamsteed, 619 n. 179; Historia C(Elestis

and, 55-56, 580, 594n. 124,598-601, 604-5; on Newton, 565; on patents, 486n. 81; on piracy, 459 Archaeologia Philosophica (Burnet), 228 Areopagitica (Milton), 58-59, 264, 274n. 16

Arguments Relating to a Restraint upon the Press, II3 n. I04 Aristotle: as authorial archetype, 247; critique of, 35, 462; on law, 277-78; philosophy and character of, 432; reading of, 421; Streater on, 278-85 Armachanus (pseud. ofJames Ussher), 451n. IO army: clandestine printing in, 273 n. 13; control of, 293, 295 -96; interest of, 281, 286; licenser for, 241; Streater's experience in, 272-74,276 -77, 281n. 34, 29 2 -97 Arthur (King), 372 artisans, status of, 139, 255 Art Worlds (Becker), 59n. 2 Arundel House, 466n. 40, 487-88 Asgill, John, 160n. 188 Ash, Simeon, 166 n. 197 Assembly of Divines, 267 Assistants, Table of: ceremonies and, 212; conventions of, 199, 200, 204, 208-9, 223; definition of, 204; English Stock and, 259; L'Estrange and, 318; members of, 319; precedence and, 208-9; Register Book and, 219; resolution of disputes and, 223; on royal prerogative, 317-18; on Sparke/Slater dispute, 223, 224-25,226; status of, 202, 202,204-5, 213. See also court, Stationers' Aston, Francis, 540, 580, 584 Aston, Margaret, 412n. 70, 422 astrology: almanac printing and, 260 n. 217; in ancient Egyptian society, 283; polemical use of, 544,544-46; women writers on, 180 Astronomer Royal. See Flamsteed, John Astronomia Carolina (Streete), 453 Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica (Bralre): completion of, 17-18; as gift/tribute, 14-16; illustrations from, 7, 8, I2, I3; reprinting of, 18, 30

Astronomiae Instauratae Progymnasmata (Bralre), 17 n. 25

INDEX

astronomy: Galileo's works on, 20 -21,2223, 24; histories in, 35, 325, 549-50, 550n. 13, 6II, 613; images in, 436-37, 438, 439, 440; "performance" in, 560, 566 - 67; priority disputes in, 605; propriety in, 569-7°; skills needed in, 548-49,617-18; status of raw observations, 55; tables and calculations in, 453, 554-56, 569-70n. 61, 602-3· See also Brahe, Tycho; comets; Historia ClElestis (Flamsteed); Flamsteed, John; Royal Observatoty (Greenwich Hill) Astwood, James, 134 atheism, 410, 423 Athenian Mercury (periodical): contents of, 457; rivals for, 155, 247; success of, 537 Athenian Society, 457 Atkyns, Edward, 304, 316 Atkyns, Richard: attempt to redefine print, 309-II, 322-23; on booksellers, 309II, 313 -14,463; death of, 317; on history of printing, 35, 339-43, 347-49, 356,362-63,365,37°,3730 624-25; law book patent and, 162, 205, 206, 304-5, 314,317-18,326,338-39,342-44,624; on patents/privileges, 3°5,306, 307-12 Atlas ClElestis (Flamsteed), 434, 600n. 144, 613, 6I4, 617-18 atlases: Flamsteed's, 434, 600n. 144, 613, 6I4, 617-18; Pitt's, 145, 349, 440, 44749,448, 451-53,491 n. 92, 535; Ptolemy's, 420, 421; subscriptions for, 451-53 Atterbury, Francis, 141- 42, 143 n. 159, 144 attorneys: Stationers' clerk as, 198; for Stationers' Company, 219-20n. 102 Aubrey, John: accusations by, 461; on Birkenhead, 347; catalogue proposed by, 495-96; Hooke and, 5II, 533; on Ogilby, 167 n. 201; on propriety, 5II auctions, 153 Austen, Stephen, 182 authenticity: of evidence, 346; repertoires for claiming, 174-82. See also authorship; credit, epistemic (credibility) authority: attributed to book, 271; of print, 24-25,369-7°,622-23; of unauthorized texts, 460; of writers, 228 -29, 3II,

446-47. See also credit, epistemic (credibility) authors: access to printing houses, 61, 1013, 126, 158-59, 463- 64, 590, 592; booksellers and, 158-59, 177-79,463-64; credibility of, 34, 126-27,344-46, 35 8 - 60 ,3 6 5,37 2 -730 445-46 , 457-5 8; discredited by premature publishing, 563-64; in diurnals, 175; evaluation of, 36-37; false names for, 457-58; as gentlemen, 126, 175-80, 240, 345-46; groups as, 186; legitimacy of, 50-51; paid to write tracts, Fn. 88; power of, 228-29, 3II, 446-47; printers and, 88, 101-2; printers as, 359-61; proofing issues for, 103-4; propriety and, 454-61; Register Book and, 229-30; reliable knowledge about, I, 4; reputation of, 143; responsibility of, 185 - 86; Stationers' character and, 146-47; Stationers' Hall and, 196; tradesmen as, 345; women as, 158-59, 180-81, 41415,442 authorship: aspiration to, 52-54; as attributor, xxi, 137-38, 159-60, 271; as collective enterprise, 290 -91, 635 -36; of correspondence, 459; definitions and development of, xxi, 159- 60, 372, 620, 632-34,635-36; of globes and maps, 615-17; identity constructed in, 17982,223,226,247-48; legitimacy of, 50-51; piracy's impact on, 33, 171-74, I72, 175-77; printing's impact on, 5455, 372; priority disputes and, 481, 488, 501-3, 507; responsibility and, 159- 60; uncettainty of, 183, 186 - 88. See also authors; copyright Ave Maria Lane: booksellers in, 66; locale of, 65; Stationers' Hall and, 193 Babbage, Charles, 627 n. 5 Bachelor, John, 240 Bacon, Sir Francis, 41; appeals to, 120, 145, 478-80; on inventors, 49,329; on knowledge and the state, 49-51; on mathematical study, 383; reputation of, 382, 468; on royal prerogative, 251-52; on Stationers' propriety, 230

712

INDEX

Bacon, Nathaniel, 318 Bacon, Roger, 352, 495-96 Baer, Nicolai Reymers (Ursus), 16-17, 19, 35, 588 - 89 Bagford, John, 347, 347 n. 61, 349, 350n . 70, 352 Baily, Francis, 550, 567n. 52,618-19,627 Baldwin, Abigail, 150 Baldwin, Richard, 150 Ball, William, 308 n. 121 Balle, Peter, 483 Balzac, Honore de, 93 n. 70 Banks,Richard,77 Barber, John, 68, 584 Barberini, Maffeo (Pope Urban VIII), 25- 27 Barker, Christopher, 122-23, 256n. 199 Barker, Mary, 412 Barlow, Thomas, 459 Barnard's Castle: booksellers at, 69n. 24; . locale of, 65; printers at, 73 Baroccian manuscript, 346 n. 56 Barrow, Isaac, 449-50, 473 Bartholomew Close, printers in, 73 Bartholomew Square, booksellers in, 69 Batavia (Jonghe), 331, 333, 367 Bayer, Joha~n, 600 beadles: civility and, 200; duties of, 199200, 222; election of, 204 n. 49 Beale, John, 55, 71-72n. 26, 484, 513 "bears." See pressmen Beaumont, John, 538 n. 187 Becker, H. S., 59n. 2 Bee, Cornelius, 250, 263, 447 n. 3 bees: apiary for, 267-71; political and moral lessons of, 268-70, 280-82, 288-89; sounds of, 268n. 3, 283 Beg, Ulugh, 496-97, 549, 599 Behn, Aphra, 180 Belanger, T., 464 Bellamy, John, 148, 150 Bellarmine, Cardinal Robert, 27 Bennet, Thomas: Battle of the Books and, 177-79; bookshop and coffeehouse of, III; funeral sermon for, 141-42, 143; testimony of, 143 "Bensalem" (Glanvill), 479, 479n. 61 Bentley, Richard (bookseller), 243

Bentley, Richard (royal librarian): in Battle of the Books, 177-79; on bible printing, 425 n. 99; Cambridge Press and, 100; on compositors, 94n. 73, 103; editing of Milton and, 127; on setting book prices, 445; Society for Encouragement of Learning and, 464 Bentley, William, 61 n. 5, 424 Berigard, Claude, 507-8 n. 130 Berith Anti-Baal (Crofton), 134-35 Bernard, Edward, 444 Bethel, Slingsby, 297 Biagioli, M., 25n. 37, 27, 60n. 3, 524n. 167 Bible: Book of Nature and, 147n. 78; other worlds and, 144; subject to Stationers' court, 221 bibles: Boyle and, 491-92; as common property, 336 -37; continental piracy of, 170; for foreign countries, 491-92; king as author of, 336-37; on natural order, 282; patents on, 258, 287 n. 48, 300, 314n. 139, 328, 336-m polyglot, subscriptions for, 451 n. 10; printing of, 145,170, 288n. 51,3°0,336-37; Prynne on, 336-37; textual corruption of, 31, 91,424-25; on wisdom, 48. See also Bible; God; Scripture bibliographers, 42n. 66 The Big Sleep (Marlowe), 14 Billingsley, Sir Henry, 50 Bingham, Joseph, 512n. 137 biographical statements, Boyle's, 381 n. I, 50 4 n . 124 biotechnology, piracy issues and, 4 n . 3 Birch, Thomas, 454, 504n. 123 Birkenhead, John, 347 Bishop, Francis, 412 Black, Jeremy, 372 n. 142 Blackfriars, printers in, 73, 76 Blackmore, Edward, 236-38 Blackmore, Sir Richard, 575 n. 76 Blades, William: Caxton celebrated by, 367,374; on historical evidence, 37475,376-77, 628; influence of, 326; on print culture, 628-29 Blaeu, Willem Jansen, 84-85, 85 n. 58, 86, 107

INDEX

Blagden, c., 190n. 9 Blancanus, Josephus, 325 Blayney, P. W M., 190 n. 9 blindness, as effect of excessive reading, 383, 383 n . 7 Bloch, M., 33-34 blocking entrances, 218, 228 blood, 394-95; transfusions of, 481, 502 n. 121, 553 Blount, Charles, 160, 228, 240, 264, 494 Blount, Thomas: on booksellers, 463; on bookshops, II7; on history of printing, 343n. 46; law dictionary of, 314-16, 455-5 6 Blue Anchor Alley, illicit printing in, 129 Bodleian Library: books sent to, 199 n. 33; Flamsteed's manuscript in, 620 -21 Bodvell, Peter, II9-20, 122, 134 body. See humans; passions; physiology body politic, language of, 341 n. 41 Boerhaave, Hermann, 167, 457 Bohme, Jakob, 287-88 Bohun, Edmund: on ctedit of historians of ttade, 345-46; as licenser, 240-41, 573 n. 72; lodgings of, 68; publications of, 537 Boileau, Jean, 169 Bolton, Lord Charles Paulet, 607 Bond, William, 140-41n. 156 bonds: for Churchill, 586; fot Stationers, 199 bookbinders: charges of, 449; political and religious views of, 148; tasks and status of, 99, 99 n. 82 Booker, John, 239 Book of Common Prayer, 260, 455n. 18 book of nature, 47, 47 n. 78, 145 books: attributing errors in, 127-28; categori2ation of, 237-38, 239; for children, 407; comprinting of, 79-80n. 47, 164, 200,222, 226n. II3, 248, 250, 256, 259, 261,299-300, 314n. 139, 361; cost of, 258,447-49; discrimination of true from false, 425-28; distribution of, 153-57,154; in experimental philosophy, 446-47; as gifts/tributes, 14-16, 18n. 28, 24-25, 166, 482-83, 6°9-10; as mediators, II, 14; nature of, 1-6,

713

622-23; in parts, 79, 107-8, 278; piracies, 454-57, 493; responsibility for, 159-60; sold in sheets, II8-19, II9 n. II3; supernumerary copies of, 152-53,164,49°,585-86,590,592; as vehicles for disputes, 15 - 16, 4849,51,56-57,621. See also atlases; authorship; English Stock; law books; learned works; medical works; naturalphilosophy books; piracy; text(s); title pages; titles booksellers: advice to, 108; alliances with writers, 158-59, 197; character of, 13748; as copy-owners, 105, 246-47; credit and, 33-34, 39-40, II3-14, 125-26; criticisms of, 309-II, 313-14, 463-64; customers of, II7-19; Flamsteed's rejection of, 463; government regulation and, 37-38, 234n. 134; on hawkers, 156; identity of, 37, 120-24,121,446-47; locations of, 65, 66 -72; morality of, 145-47; networks of, 157-58, 169-70, 513-14; powers of, 137-38; printers' relations with, 212-13, 255, 309-10; Register Book and, 218-19; responsibility of, 125-26; social conventions adopted by, 60-61; status of, 212-13, 255,309-10,314; strategies of, 34, 165; on unlicensed books, 234n. 134; warehouses of, 98; wholesale vs. retail, 15153, 163- 64; women as, II4, 122. See also bookshops; hawkers; mercuries; Stationers; undertakers bookshops: access to, 26-27, 61, II7-20; characteristics of, 37,40, II9-25, 121, 177-79; coffeehouses and, III-13; contents of, II7-18; conversation in, 12021,124,14°,142,145,178-79; cost of establishing, 156; customers of, II7-20; displaying and hiding books in, II920; domesticity in, II4-15, II7, 125-26; impressions of, 109, IIO, II6-IJ, II7; locations of, 65, 66-69,71,72,108; numbers of, 66; owned vs. rented, III; reputations of, 122-24; signs for, 1089; as Stationers' domains, 60-62, 12022, 121. See also booksellers; printing houses

714

INDEX

book trade: agents of, 59-60; booksellers in, 105-6, 156-57; civil order in, 18890; credit in, 113-14; English Stock and, 260; foreign imports in, 169-70; involvement in learned disputes, 51-52; kinship ties in, 76 -78; nonhouseholders in, 156-58; occupation hierarchy in, 212-13; publishing alliances and, 315-16; size of, 65-66; as threat to civility,52 Boom, Henry, 518, 519 n. 154, 521 n. 159 Boom, Theodor, 518, 519 n. 154, 521 n. 159 Bosse, Abraham, II6-17 Bosvile, Alexander, 145-46 Boudet, Anthony, 169 Boulter, Robert, 135 Bourchier, Thomas, 340, 362 Bow Street, Literatory in, 124 Bowyer, William, 357, 359, 359n. 101, 58586 Bowyers (printers), 167 Boyle, Charles, 177-79 Boyle, Robert: accusations against, 461; "advertisement" by, 5°8,5°9; Andrew Crooke and, 158, 167; bibles and, 49192; books owned by, 69; communicativeness of, 473; craftsmen and, 486; on errors, 127; experimental philosophy and, 44-46,54,382,428,445-46, 469-70, 504; on Hartlib, 288; identity of, 504; licensing and, 244-45; perusal by, 503; Philosophical Tramactiom and, 5H; piracy of works by, 30, 447, 50410; Pin and, 145; portrait of. 505; reading practices of, 380-84, 386, 387, 398; reclusiveness of, 473. 506; register and, 484-86; on romances, 380-84, 408; spring watch dispute and, 529; Stubbe and, 244-45; type used by, 80; usurpation and, 462, 501, 504-10, 515; vision and, 389 n. 20, 389 n. 22; works of. 83 n. 54, 482, 502 Braddyll, Thomas, 134 Brahe, Tycho: on anonymity of printers, Hn. 56; astronomical legacy of, 56364,566,577; Blaeu and, 84-85; exile of. 18; Flamsteed and, 18, 587- 89; illustrations from works of, 7, 8-9,12; as model, 8, 10, II, 13-14, 17, 49, 85, 463,

491,564,587-89; patronage for, 14-16, 18, 20, 21; press of, 462; printing house of, II, 12-13, 14-15, 17-19, 20, 39; representations of, 7, 17 n. 23, 474, 587; star catalogue by, 17 n. 25, 18, 18 n. 28, 20; Ursus's feud with, 16-17, 19, 35, 588-89; uses of print, 6, 7, 17-18, 35, 52. See also Astronomiae Imtauratae Mechanica (Brahe); Uraniborg

brain, dissection of, 392-97,394 Bremont, Sebastian, 243 Brent, Sir Nathaniel, 237, 239 brewers' company, compared to Stationers' Company, 309 Brewster, Thomas, 119-20, 135, 141 Briggs, William, 389 Bringhurst, John, 117 Bristol, booksellers in, 157 Britannia (Camden), 102, 583 Brome, Henry, 78 Brome, Joanna, 78, 122 Brougham, Henry, 630 Brouncker, Lord William: accusations against, 495, 523-24; correcting the press, 90, 103; licensing and, 244-45; Moxon and, 80; opposition to, 533; perusal by, 503; on Royal Society's Printer, 492; spring watch dispute and, 523-24,526-28,531; Stubbe and, 239, 244-45 Brown, Tom, 139,536 Browne, Sir Richard, 195 Browne, Sir Thomas: on Chrysostom, 422; on foreign books, 169 n. 207; on his ecstasies, 419 n. 91; on Norwich bookseller, 158; piracy of works by, 30, 462n. 32; on plagiarism. 35, 462; on reading, 422; on the soul, 398-99; on visions, 416; works of, 168 Browning, Robert, 369 n. 140 Brunei, Sir Mark Isambard, 367 n. 136 Bruno, Giordano, 259 n. 209, 432 Buchan, William, 67 Buckingham, Duke of (George Villiers), 242 Buckner, William, 240, 245 Bunyan, John, 128 Burghley, Baron (William Cecil), 327 Burnet, George. 228

INDEX

Burnet, Gilbert, 346 Burnet, Thomas, 228, 265 n. 225, 354 Burroughs, Jeremiah, 218 Burton, Robert, 138, 176-77, 381 Bury, Arthur, 460 Buder, Samuel, 217. See also Hudibras Byrom, Ellen, 383 Byrom, John, 102 n. 89, ll8 n. llO, 359 n. 100, 383 Cabeo, Nicolas, 325 Caccini, Tommaso, 52n. 88 Caesar, Julius, 285 Caillou, Jean, 169 calendars. See almanacs Calvert, Elizabeth, 78 Calvert, Giles: apprentice of, 278; Hartlib and, 271, 289; politics of, 124, 147, 289, 453; Richard Moon and, 278; Simmonds's relation with, 158; works printed for, 271, 274, 287 Calvino, Italo, 380 Cambridge University, 245, 372. See also Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press: compositors for, 88 n. 61; difficulties of, 447; legal status of, 72; pressmen at, 93 n. 71; printing house of, 75; research on, 60n·4 Camden, William, 102, 333, 583 camera obscura, eye represented as, 38792,388,390,397,4°5,442 Campbell, R., 9In. 68, 147, 151n. 171, 161, 455,45 8 Carnan, Thomas, 457 Caroline (Princess), 582n. 92 Carpenter, Nathaniel, 50, 53, 450 Carr, Thomas, I54 carriages, trials of at Royal Society, 481 Cary, Mary, 180, 415 Casaubon, Isaac, 425 Casaubon, Meric: on camera obscura, 389; on enthusiasm, 409, 415-16, 422-24, 427, 443; on experimental philosophy, 425-26,429-3°; on Fludd's work, 170 n. 209; on printers' errors, 127; on reading, 423-27,426 Cases a/Conscience (De Obligatione, Sanderson), 229

Cassini, Gian Domenico, 431n. 107, 565 n. 47, 587 n. 107 castle: household as, 130, 298; Stationers' Hall and, 192-93; structure of, 192-93, I95,196 Castle Tavern, 67, 582, 584, 594 Catenaro, J. B., 605 Catholic Almanack (Hills), 76, 207 n. 63, 319n.164 Catholicism: almanacs and, 207 n. 63, 260 n. 217, 319 n. 164; Digby and, 23638; English Stock and, 260; natural magic and, 283-85; popular opposition to, 148, 544; royal prerogative and, 253, 264,3 19- 20 Cato, works of, 221 caveats, 218, 219 n. 98 Cavelier, Guillaume, 512 Cavendish, Margaret, 50, 180-81 Caxton, William: biographies of, 345, 364, 367; commemoration of, 367, 374, 378; Corsellis and, 340, 343; evidence in support of/against, 348- 49,375,37677, 628; illustrations of, 334,345; printing of, 329, 336, 339, 348; travels of, 34I Cellier, Elizabeth, 120 censorship: consent for licensing system and, 37-38, 189, 235, 264; historiographyof, 189-90; rationale for, 37-38, 187-9°. See also licensing Centlivre, Susan, 180 ceremonies (Stationers'), 210-12, 2II Chambers, Ephraim, 350-52 Champion, J. A., 346 n. 56 chapel, in printing house, 94-97 Chapman, Livewell, 77, 130, 131 chapmen: bibles sold by, 171 n. 2ll; books sold by, 153-54, I54, 157-58; piracy and, 154, 164, 171 n. 2ll Chapter coffeehouse, 67 Charles I (King of England): court of, 48, 414; on craft skills, 313 n. 138; on disciplining the passions, 404; execution of, 231, 573 n. 72; legal reports for his reign, 301-3,302-3; licensing and, 241-42; patents granted by, 249, 254, 257, 304; Stationer's opposition to, 150; Stationers' support for, 130, 150; works of, 22on·103

INDEX

Charles II (King of England): apiary of, 269; corporations remodeled by, 319; gifts for, 389; illustration of, 306; language of copy under, 365-66n. 126; preferring Presbyterians to Cavaliers, 31I n. 130; restoration of, 231; Royal Observatory and, 389, 551, 559; royal prerogative and, 253, 255, 307 n. 1I4; Royal Society and, 486, 504; satire about, 243; spring watch dispute and, 524 Charleton, Walter, 393, 398, 401, 402, 404, 494 n ·97 Charlewood, John, 259 n. 209 Chartier, Roger: on authorship, 159-60, 241; on books and revolutions, 57; on labor of reading, 29-30; on object studies, 385 Chelsea College, 475, 55ln. 18 Chetwood, William, 228 Cheyne, George, 565 Child's coffeehouse, 67-68, 554, 600 Chiswell, Richard: Philosophical Col!ectiom printed by, 534; piracy and, 207; proofing for, 103-4, 137; reputation of, 147, 583 Chodowiecki, Daniel, print bY,37I

Chronology ofAncient Kingdoms Amended (Newton), 354 Chrysostom, Saint John, 422 churches, pews in, 209 n. 71 Churchill, Awnsham: Historia CfE!estis and, 583-86,589-95,6°5, 609n. 162, 610; location of, 66, 582; meeting place of, 67 n. 18; as model bookseller, 152n. 173, 583; Newton and, 102, 158, 310, 583-84; political and religious views of, 148, 582-83; testimony of, 352; works printed by, 583 Churchill, John, 121, 354-55 Churchill, John (brother of Awnsham), 583 Ciampoli, Giovanni, 27 Cicero, patents on works of, 250, 26162n.220 cider production, 462n. 33, 484, 494 citation practices, 357-58, 461 n. 30. See also annotations civility: in commerce, 108, 139-40; conjoined with credibility, 561-63; Olden-

burg and, 499; piracy and, 162; print culture and, 632-33; proofing and, 103-4; repertoires of, 140-44; Royal Society's imprimaturs and, 495; of Stationers, 188 -90, 262- 63; Stationers' Register and, 220; transformation of, 636 -38. See also conversation; propriety civil war, corporeal, 403-5 Civil War (English), 404, 409, 418; piracy during, 167; prerogative power and, 253; religious radicalism and, 414 Clarendon, Earl of (Edward Hyde), 306, 383 Clarke, Benjamin, 124 Clarkson, Laurence, 124, 413 classical texts, credit and patents of, 352. See also learned works Clavis Americae, 221 Clements, Henry, 77, 142-43 clerk, Stationers': power of, 198-99, 213, 217-19,222,227; Register and, 217-19. See also Register Book of Copies Cleveland, John, 175 Clonmel (Ireland), 266-67 coffeehouses: book auctions in, 153; bookshops and, 1I1-13; conversation in, 153, 553 -55; correcting sheets in, 600; discussion tables in, 1I3; disputes in, 55358; hawkers' access to, 156; illustrations of, II2, 555; lecturers in, 579 n. 82; lottery tickets sold in, 450; meetings at, 67-68,45°,534,554-56,582,585,599, 600; printing houses and, 305 n. 1I0; reading in, 62, 1I2-13, 472; regulation of, 1I3, 1I3 n. 104; wit in, 472, 615; women in, 1I3. See also Rota; taverns Coga, Arthur, 553 coinage crisis, 1I4 Coke, Sir Edward: on law, 278, 321; on royal prerogative, 252-53; works of, 317, 321 Coke, Thomas, 124 Cole, Peter: agency of, 453; bankruptcy of, 221 n. 105; Culpeper and, 228; as informant, 219 n. 97; publishing by, 447 n. 3; suicide of, 218 -19 n. 97; tactics of, 218; works published by, 228, 230

INDEX

Cole, R. c., 162n. 193 Colepresse, Samuel, 516

Collection ofLetters for the Improvement of Husbandry and trade (periodical), 538, 54° collectivity: of authors, 186; experiments and, 47°-72; of narural philosophers, 464; of Stationers, 150 -51, 186. See also civility; conversarion College of Physicians, 239, 245 Collins, Anthony, 583 Collins, H., 44-45, 385 Collins, James, 498 n. 108 Collins, John: on book prices, 448; on market for learned books, 449; on primers, 68; Royal Society and, 476; on srrategies for publication, 476, 491 Collinson, Patrick, 387 Colwall, Daniel, 487, 534> 535 Comenius, Jan Amos, 66, 223,224 -25, 226 Cometographia (Hevelius), IS, 437 comers: booksellers and, 158; Flamsteed on, 568; gathering information on, 158, 571; sweeping for, 618-19 commerce: anti-Calvinists and, 144n. 160; artisanal testimony and, xxxi; civility in, 138 - 41; developmem of, 105 - 6; familial strucrures in, 76-77, 134-35; letters patem in, 249; London as epitome of, 138-39; magic and, 76; piracy embedded in, 166, 309; polite, 4°-41; political nature of, 139, 255; royal prerogative vs. common law in, 254-55. See also book trade Commercium Epistolicum (Newton), 512 Committee for Priming (House of Commons), 231, 328 n. 8 Committee for Trade and Foreign Affairs (Parliamemary),268 commonalty,202, 203; English Stock, 259 common law: charter and, 254; custom and, 321; defense of, 316 n. 143; patents and, 328; precedem and, 328; propriety and, 253-54; royal prerogative and, 252-55. See also courts oflaw; custom; law books; royal prerogative commonplacing, 433 n. II2 Commonwealth: bees as model for, 268-

717

7°,280-82; circulation and, 275-76, 289; cosmology, 289-9°, 292; end of, 273 -74; human physiology and, 27576,281-82,289-9°; knowledge as basis for, 274-77, 279, 288-9°,321-23; natural order and, 279-85; primed records in, 277-78, 288; Ragusa as model for, 293; reading and, 274-75, 321; spirits and, 276 The Common- Wealth ofOceana (Harrington): authorship of, 290 -91; bookseller for, 304; cosmology of, 289, 291-92; hostility toward, 291-93; illustration from, IOI; priming of, 100, 289; title pages of, 289 company of primers, 106, 193, 254, 310-II Company of Stationers. See Register Book of Copies; Stationers; Stationers' Company; Stationers' Hall Compleat Angler (Walton), 221 Compleat Practise ofPhysick (Smith), 288 compositors: author's dictation to, 135; cases for, 86; composing stick of, 83, 94; creativity of, 87-88, 101-5; Franklin as, 97; practices of, 87-88, 90; room for, 85, 87; wages of, 90 compriming, 79-80n. 47, 164, 200, 222, 226n. II3, 248, 250, 256, 259, 261, 299300, 314n. 139, 361. See also piracy Condorcet, Marquis de, 248, 373-74, 375, 378 conductbooks,78-79 confederates, 150 -51, 152 Conftssion ofFaith (Assembly of Divines), 227 confessions (of condemned criminals), primed, 174-75 congers, 151, 315, 320, 354-55, 583 Congreve, William, 71, 214, 475 n. 56, 55051 Continem. See Europe Continuation . .. Justified (Streater), 29 2n . 67 Convemicle Act, 298 conversation: in bookshops, 120-21, 124, 14°,142,145,178-79; in coffeehouses, 153,553-55; experimemal philosophy and, 470-71, 471n. 48, 474, 483- 84,

718

INDEX

conversation (continued) 488, 495> 560; genteel/civil, 140, 429, 547,560,573-74; with God, 414; of Halley, 545; licensing and, 244- 45; Register Book and, 219; republicanism and, 274-75; of Stationers, 188; Stationers' Court and, 221; uncivil, 156, 424, 429. See also civility; social gossip; speech Convocation controversy, 346 n. 56 Conway, Anne, 383, 413 Cooke, Margaret (Margaret Flamsteed), 612-13,617,620-21 Cooper, Anthony Ashley, 295 Cooper, John, 412 Cooper, William, 145, 153 Copernicanism: disputes over, 52-54,53; Galileo's work on, 26-27; Harrington and, 289; Republicanism and, 292; Stationers' endorsement of, 144 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 42n. 67 Coppe, Abiezer, 52n. 87, 413 copy: authenticative, 182; changed by compositors, 87-88, 101-3; definitions of, 105,246; disputes and, 126-27; ownership of, 105, 164, 176, 246-47, 354-55, 366, 446; piracy of, 164; propriety of, 187,-88,238,353; in Register Book, 213 -21, 214, 223; Stationers' civility and, 146-47, 187-88. See also copyright; piracy; propriety copy-holders, 105 n. 93 copy-money, 94-95 copyright: copy and, 105; definitions of, 31I-12; development of, 246 -48, 353, 365 - 66, 372, 637; early use of term, 365 - 66 n. 126, 583; historiography of, 189, 637,; legal cases, 365 - 66; piracy and, 4n. 3; propriety and, 189. See also copy; Copyright Act (1710); piracy; propriety; Register Book of Copies Copyright Act (1710), 215,233, 234, 353, 454,620 corantoes, 175 Cornand de la Crose, Jean, 127, 539 Cornhill: booksellers in, 66, 69, 69 n. 24, 72; Gresham College in, 466; searches of premises in, 130 n. 134

correction /correctors: in astronomical work, 594-95; authors as, 103-4, 590; fines for mistakes of, 91; historiography of, 91 n. 66; neglect of, 258; practices of, 90 -91; of seditious materials, 136; shortcomings of, 572n. 71; Stationers' judgment and, 137 correspondence: book presentations and, 482-83; civility of, 498n. 108; dates on, 508; legal status of, 459; in natural philosophy, 485-86, 497-98; registration and, 484-85; Stationers and, 498 n. 108; Tycho's, 16-17 Corsellis, Frederick: eclipsed, 378; evidence in support of/against, 339, 340,347-50, 357,362-65,367,37°,627; printing press and, 340,341, 342, 343, 344; type used by, 366 Cosmographicall Glasse (Cunningham), 250 Coster, Laurens: Blount and, 343n. 46; context of, 332-33; eclipsed, 378; evidence in support of/against, 95, 34951,355,360-67,37°,627; illustrations of,333, 334, 344,345; printing house of, 84, 331-32,333, 335-36; statue of, 349; in trade ceremonies, 95; type used by, 366 Cotes, Roger, 103, 598 Cotterell, James, 260n. 216 Cottington, Lord Francis, 185 Council of State, 227, 277, 278; polyglot Bible approved by, 451 n. 10 counterfeits: books labeled as, 237-38; in Civil War, 272-73; use of term, 187; violation and, 456 -57. See also comprinting; forgety; piracy; plagiarism; usurpation Counter-Reformation, 29, 632 Course 0/Experimental Philosophy (Desaguliers),181 court, Stationers': access to, 196-200; on almanacs, 260n. 216; Digby case and, 236 -38; influence of, 208-9, 213; jurisdiction of, 221-22; on law book patent, 301, 312; licensing system and, 236; procedure for complaints, 222-23; propriety in, 222; protocol of, 197, 221, 227; quorum for, 204n. 49; reading in,

INDEX

222; Register Book and, 219-20; on similarities/differences between books, 226 -28; on Sparke/Slater dispute, 223, 224 -25, 226; Stationers' civility and, 222; Stationers' Hall and, 192-93; on unauthorized printing, 512 n. 137 courts: in England, 48-49; Flamsteed and, 559-60,586; Galileo and, 21-28; patronage in, 24-25; reading in, 14-16, 25-27; royal disputes in, 15-16, 25-26, 51; Tycho and, 14- 18. See also Charles I (King of England); Charles II (King of England) courts of law: concept of property in, 24648,353-54; on dispute over law book patent, 301; patent cases in, 250 -51; royal prerogative and, 251-54; Stationers' court compared to, 221, 353; on trade customs, 249 n. 171. See also Star Chamber; King's Bench Covent Garden, Literatory in, 124 coverture, 134 Cowell, John, 300 n. 99, 315 n. 142 Cowley, Abraham, 322, 383, 478, 480-81 craft, concept of, 402-3 Cranford, James, 236-37, 244 creatures: experiments on, 282-83, 39294; eyes of, 389,39°; images of, 434; natural order of, 282 credit, epistemic (credibility): of authors, 34,126-27,175-77,344-46,358-60, 365,372-73> 445-46, 457-58; authorship and, 52-54; civility conjoined with, 104n. 91, 561, 563; creation of, 33-34, 346; domesticity and, 151; experimental philosophy and, 43, 446, 541-42; fragmentation of, 540; Hevelius's attempt at securing, 38-39, 39,436-40; piracy and, 33, 171-74, I72, 183; politicization of, 322-23; printers' practices and, 127-28; readers' decisions on, 31-33, 353-54; repertoires for claiming, 3637,174-82,262,357-58,372,445-46, 636; Royal Society and, 445-46, 47275,494; subscriptions and, 450-52; unauthorized printing and, 30 -31; uncertainty of, 324, 330-31, 344-45, 37°-71,423-25,460,462-63,618,

623-24,627,637. See also authenticity; fixity credit (financial), in Stationers' dealings, 1I3-14 Creek, Thomas, 99-100 criminals, printed confessions of, 174-75 Critici Sacri (John Pearson et a1.), 250 Crofton, Zachary, 134-35 Croke, Sir George, Reports of, 300-304, 3°2-3,315,321-22, 342n . 43 Cromwell, Oliver: appropriation of prerogative, 253; as beekeeper, 270; in Ireland, 266-67; opposition to, 27477,285-87,292-95; press regulation under, 231, 314 n. 139; reading of, 287 n. 48; Rump Parliament and, 273-74 Crooke, Andrew, 158, 167, 206, 31213 n. 135 Crooke, John, 510 Cross, Robert, 245 Crosthwait, Joseph, 170, 612-13, 615 -16 Croune, William, 531, 533 Crowe, Eyre, 97 crown. See monarch Crums ofComfort (Sparke), 185 Cudworth, Ralph, 415-16, 419 Culpeper, Nicholas, 228 Cunningham, William, 250 curiosity, 407 Curll, Edmund: bookshop of, 108, 1I2; characters invented by, 456; judgment of, 137 n. 148; "Literatory" of, I23, 12324; as pirate, 168; Pope's dispute with, 108,459,55°; reputation of, 457, 459 n . 26 Curtis, Jane, 134 Curtis, Langley, 108-9,134 Curtius, A1bertus (Lucius Bartettus, Albrecht Curtz" pseuds.), 9, 18 n. 29, 2I, 587 n . 108 Curtius Rufus, Quintus, 382, 430 custom(s): Coke on, 317-18; definition of, 253-54,321; historiography of, 326-38; origins of, 254 n. 189; Stationers' Register and, 355. See also common law Customs House, printing press in, 75 Cutlerian lectures (Hooke), 526, 528 Cyclopaedia (Chambers), 350

72 0

INDEX

Daily Gazeteer, on hawkers, 156 Danegeld, paying, 251 Dark Lane, printers in, 73 Darnton, Robert, 386n. 17, 455 Darwin, Charles, 42n. 67 dates: on correspondence, 508; in historiography, 361; Julian vs. Gregorian calendar, xix; on piracies, 507-16; of publication, 17, 42, 363-64, 489; on reports of experiments, 509-10; in translations, 519 Davies, Lady Eleanor, 180, 414 Davies, Sir Thomas, 205 Davis, Edward, 382n. 6 Davis, Richard, 77, 500-501 Dawson, Paul, 181 Day, John, 256 Dear, Peter, 325 De Bry, Johann Theodore, 170 n. 209 Dee, John: on architects, 81, 82n. 51; on Jonghe, 333; reading of, 385 n. 15; as would-be philosopher-mathematician, 24n. 36, 48n. 80 defamation, print used in, 63-64 defense of trade, 141, 150-51 Defoe, Daniel: on backstage/upstairs, 12122; on booksellers, 120-21, 122; on Faustus, 351; on good credit, 113, 140; on licensing system, 263-64, 265, 455; on London, 65; on Newton and Flamsteed, 621; on piracy, 234, 455; on social distinction, 139; Tonson and, 120-21 De Grazia, Margreta, 215 Dekker, Thomas, 156 Delaune, Thomas, 195, 210 demons, 422-23. See also angels Denis, Jean-Baptiste, 512, 514, 516

De Ortu et Progressu Artis Typographicae (Mallinckrodt), 334, 335

Depositio Comuti Typographici (Blades/de Vise),95-96 Desaguliers, Jean Theophilus, 181, 182, 192, 61 5 Desborough, John, 286n. 46, 286-87, 287 n. 48, 294 Descartes, Rene: as authorial archetype, 247; dream of, 421 n. 92; effects of reading, 382-83; influence of, 417; More

and, 417; on passions, 398; physiology and philosophy of, 432; on vision, 389,

390 ,39 1-9 2

Description ofHeIioscopes (Hooke), 524-28 Desmaizeaux, Pierre, 583 devotional works: identity of, 227; licensers for, 239-40; reading of, 422; Sparke's, 185; women as translators of, 180 - 8I. See also Bible; bibles; Scripture Dial and Bible (Fleet Street), 145

Dialogo ... sopra i due Massimi Sistemi del Mondo (Galilei), 25, 27-28, 29, 4 2n . 6 7 Dickens, Charles, 629 dictionary, denied citation by Stationers' clerk, 218, 223 Diderot, Denis, 248 Digby, Sir Kenelm, 236-39, 245, 265 digester of bones (Papin), 229 Digges, Sir Dudley, 253 Digges, Thomas, 50 Discourse ofEcclesiastical Polity (Parker), 24° discovery. See expeditions

Discovery ofa World in the Moone (Wilkins), 52-54,53 displacement strategy, for attributing errors, 127 dissection, 392-97, 436 A Dissertation on Royal Societies ([Hill?)), 445 diurnals: during plague of 1665, 500; proclaimed permanence of, 172; truth claims of, 174-75 doctors. See physicians Doctrine ofthe Sphere (Flamsteed), 443 n. 127, 585 dogmatism, 468 domains: construction of, 60-61, 623-24; definition of, 59; gender issues in, 7879; of industrialized printing, 629. See also bookshops; printing houses; Royal Society; social space; Stationers' Hall; Stationers' Company domesticity: in bookshops, 114-15, 117, 125-26; in printing houses, 75-79, 125-26,128; representation of, 78-79; terminology of, 76 -78, 94. See also public/private

INDEX Donne, John, 30, 251-52 Doolittle, Sarah, 77 dreams: More on, 419, 420, 421; Rogers on, 410-11,417-18,421 Dring, Thomas, 261-62n. 220 Dryden, John, 441- 42, 473 n. 53 Dublin Philosophical Sociery, 498 n. 108, 554, 583 Dubrovnik (Ragusa), 293 Ducarel, Andrew, 365 Duck Lane, book trade in, 68, 338 duels: Flamsteed, 617; mathematical, 555; Pope vs. Curll, 459; at Royal Sociery, 481; Woodward, 459 Dugard, William, 91n. 66, 130 Du Moulin, Peter, 245, 515 Dunciad (Pope), 69 Dunghill Lane, printers in, 73 Dunton, Eliubeth, 78 Dunton, John: on abridgments, 455; on apprentices, 115; on Athenian Sociery, 457; on booksellers, 151-52; bookshop of, III; on bookshops, 108; on changes by printer, 101-2; on character of Stationers, 144, 145-47; on Churchill, 583; on collective publishing, 151; on congers, 354; on domesticiry, 115; marriage of, 77, 78; on master printer, 83 n . 53; Register Book and, 220n. 103; rivals of, 155, 247; unauthorized printing by, 459. See also Athenian Mercury (periodical); Athenian Society Dupont, Paul, 367 Eamon, W, 47n. 76 Earle, John, 67 n. 17, 403 Eastington (England), Mewe's apiary in, 267-71, 280, 282, 283, 288 EcclesiasticalAntiquities (Bingham), 512n . 137 Echard, Lawrence, 512n. 137 editions: anachronistic assumptions about, 29,91; antedating, 507, 576; credibility of, 30-31. See also piracy; specific books editors: civility maintained by, 499, 539; definition of, 59-60 education: of children, 406-8; role ofhabituation in, 406-8, 432-33; role of print in, 374. See also reading

721

Edwards, Thomas, 135, 218-19n. 97, 219, 236, 240 Edward VI (King of England), 342 Egglesfield, Francis, 236 - 38 Egypt, magic in, 283 Eikon Basilike (Charles I), 461n. 30 Einstein, Albert, 42 Eisenstein, Elizabeth L.: Enlightenment historiography and, 373-74; on fixiry, 10-11,13-14,19; importance of, 10, IOn. 7, II, 13; on McLuhan, 1314n. 16; on Plattes, 51n. 86; on print culture, 2n. I, 10, 18-19, 29; on printers, 37-38; on printers and regulation, 234n. 134; on Tycho Brahe, II, 17 Elements o/Catoptrics and Dioptrics (Gregory),168 Elephant and Castle, 108 elephants, wisdom of, I84 Elias, N., 41n. 64 Eliubeth I (Queen of England), 48, 249, 326,414 Ellis, Charles, 349 Elyot, Thomas, 424 Elzevir, imports by, 138n. 149, 26162n.220 Encyclopedie (Diderot and d'Alembert), 454 England: focus on, 40 - 41, 44; national identity of, 40 n. 61; natural knowledge in, 48-57; printing locations in, 61n. 5. See also London England's Birthright (Lilburne), 131 English Atlas (Pitt): Coster and, 349; costs of, 447-49, 491n. 92; frontispiece of, 448; Hooke's role in, 349, 440, 451-52; proposal to revive, 583; Royal Society and, 535; scale of, 145; subscribers for, 45 1-53 English Stock: administration of, 259-60; definition of, 259; importance of, 25962; law book patent and, 304; origins of, 257; printing houses for, 259n. 210; threat to, 319 engravers/engraving: absence of images of experimental practice, 474-75; conventions and civiliry of, 434-35; credibiliry and, 435-37, 44°-41; Hevelius and, 436 - 40; hiring of, 612; works on, 434, 49 2

722

INDEX

enthusiasm: dogmatism and, 431, 468; experience of, 409-13, 442; hostile definition of, 409; physiological interpretation of, 416-17; reading and, 42324,426-27; repudiation of, 409, 41523,426-28,442-43; signs of, 431; as threat, 468 Ephemeris (Parker), 543 -45,544, 616 "Epistles of Phalaris," dispute over, 177-79 Epistolarum Astronomicarum Libri (Brahe), 7, 17 n . 23 epitome: calendar and, 260; concept of, 260; Flamsteed's use of, 566; as offense, 226, 250, 455; Royal Society and, 493, 493 n ·95

Epitome ofall the Common and Statute Laws (Sheppard), 276n. 19 Equisse d'un Tableau Historique des Progres de l'Esprit Humain (Condorcet), 373 Erickson, Amy, 134

Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke), 265, 583

Essay for the Press (Asgill), 160n. 188 Estienne, Roben, 425n. 99

Ethruscarum Antiquitatum Fragmenta (Inghirami),426, 427n. 101 Etruscan antiquities, forged, 426, 426-27 Europe: books printed in, 169-71,455; corantoes from, 175; history of printing in, 349-50; images from, 436n. Il7; Philosophical Transactions and, 51421; plagiarism in, 510; printing costs in, 447-48, 507; progress as destiny of, 373; unauthorized books printed in, 170, 507, 515. See also France; Germany; Holland; Italy Evelyn, John: bees and, 269; books of, 514; on engraving process, 434, 492; on images, 434n. Il4; inventions of, 462; on libraries, 478, 488; Moxon and, 81; on register, 478; on Royal Society, 46869; on Stationers and copy ownership, 214-15; Sylva, 494; on usurpation, 461 - 62 evidence: authenticity of, 346, 370 -71, 374-75; availability of, 364-65; definition of, 330-31, 469n. 44; typography as, 362; uncertainty of, 358

exclusion crisis, 148. See also Restoration cnsls expeditions: attitudes toward, 479-80; to study stars, 560, 563 experimental papers: perusal of, 483 - 84, 503; Philosophical Transactions and, 499; publication of, 489-9°; in register, 484-85; significance of, 466 experimental philosophy: authorial identity and, 181-82; concept of, 467-68; as conversational practice, 47°-72; credibility of, 43, 446, 541-42; criticism of, 425, 429-30, 443; development of, 41, 54, 282n. 38, 379, 446, 626-27; gentility and, 467-69; leader in, 382-83; reading and writing of, 384, 433-34; replicability and, 44-46, 46, 474; in Royal Society, 389, 428, 443, 446, 46971,626-27; satire of, 456-57; usurpation and, 504-14. See also Boyle, Roben; experimental papers; experiments; Royal Society; vinual witnesses; virtual witnesses/virtual witnessing Experimental Philosophy (Power), 103 experiments: audience for, 469-72; concept of, 469, 626-27; as conversational practice, 47°-72; on creatures, 28283; criticism of, 429-30, 443 n. 127; dates on, 509-10; independence of, 379; locale vs. replication of, 44-46, 46, 474; pictures of, 436 n. Il7; practice of, 469; reports on, 433-34, 474-75, 506-7, 5Il; Streater on credibility of, 282-83,5°8-10; as vindicating honor, 481; on vision, 388, 389-92,390, 39I. See also experimental papers; experimental philosophy; laboratories Expositio in Symbolum Apostolorum (Rufinus), 339,339, 347, 357 n. 94 eye, representation of, 387,388, 389-92, 390, 39I , 397,442

Fables (Gay), 184 Fairfax, Nathaniel, 510 fairs: book distribution at, 153; Waygoose festivities and, 95 Faithorne, Henry, 77, Il5, 538, 540 Faithorne, William, 492

INDEX

family, tetminology of, 76 -77. See also domesticity Fataday, Michael, II5 Fatge, Arlette, 109 Fatio de Duillier, Nicolas, 565 Faustbuch, 333,334, 335 Faust / Faustus, Johann: accusations of magic against, 351-52, 360-61, 363, 369; eclipsed, 378; evidence in support of/against, 349-52, 355-56, 360-65, 367,368-69,37°,372; history and legend of, 332, 333,334, 335 -36,344, 35152,367-69; illustration of, 367-68, 368; travels of, 334, 34I Faustus (Klinger), 368-69 Fawne, Luke, 148, 150, 207 Fayram, Francis, 246n. 161,512, 512n. 137 Feather, John, xx, 162n. 193, 372 n. 144 Febvre, Lucien, 28 n. 46, 622 Fell, John: accusations against, 128 n. 129, 245; Oxford University Press and, 39, 100,186, 450n. 8; "piracy" coined by, 32, 313n. 136, 344; proposals of, 450n. 8 Ferdinand II (Holy Roman Emperor), 2I Ferdinand III (Holy Roman Emperor), 2I Field, John, 75, 167, 300 n. 97, 314n. 139 Fielden, Johannidian/Thomas. See Flamsteed, John, accusations against/by Fielding, Henry, 175, 456-57 Fifth Monarchism, 4II Figala, K., 512 Filmer, Robert, II4, 235n. 137, 279n. 29 Finch, Heneage, 254n. 192 Fish, John, II5 fish, treatise on, 434, 489-9°,49°, 579 Fitch, Thomas, 293-94 fixity: civility and, 632; credit and, 31; efforts underlying, 36, 371-72, 378-79, 625; Eisenstein on, IO-II, 13-14, 19; emergence of, 632-38; research on, 628; as transitive quality, 19, 21; as uncharacteristic, 31. See also credit, epistemic (credibility) Flamsteed, John: accession of George I and, 607-8; accusations against/by, 461,544, 544-47; achievements of, 549, 572; almanacs of, 260, 546; appointment of, 49, 325, 551; on astron-

72 3

mer's role, 564-65; coffeehouses and, 554-56; Continental reprinting and, 448; on control of printing, 463 - 64, 595; correspondence of, 550 n. 14, 569; defense of, 550-51; on economics of printing, 454; Halley's dispute with, 560-68,572,574,587,588 - 89,601-II, 616-17; on Hevelius, 39, 437, 440; histories written by, 35, 48-49, 325, 54950,569,577,587-98,600, 6II, 613, 619; Hooke's dispute with, 538 n. 187, 551, 553,554-60, 56tn. 37, 564-65; identity of, 325, 550-51, 568-69, 619-20; lunar theory and, 565 n. 47, 569-72; meeting place of, 67 n. 18; Newton's feud with, 35,310,55°-51,566-77,6°4-5,610II, 613, 619, 621, 627-28; observatory of, 49, 56, 551; periodicals endorsed by, 538, 571, 585, 592, 610; on Philosophical Tramactiom, 501; piracy of works of, 30, 436n. 117, 615-16; politics of, 573 n. 72; portrait of, 610, 6II; on printing house practices, 99, 584-85; on property, 589-90; on propriety, 569-71,601,604; on Psalmanazar, 359 n. 100; on reading and errata, 443n. 127; religious views of, 560n. 35, 573 n. 72, 574-75; Royal Society and, 229, mn. 182, 558-59, 579, 596, 620; spring watch dispute and, 526 n. 169, m; star charts of, 575-76, 581-82, 584, 59°,593-94,613, 6I4; Tycho Brahe and, 18, 587-89; on undertakers, 310. See also Atlas CO!lestis (Flamsteed); Historia CO!lestis Britannica (Flamsteed); Historia CO!lestis Libri Duo (Flamsteed/ Halley) Flamsteed, Margaret, 612-13, 617, 620-21 Flecknoe, Richard, 68 Fleet Street: booksellers in, 66, 69 n. 24, 71, 72,145; meetings in, 466n. 40; printing house in, 122 n. 120 Fleetwood, Charles, 273, 293-95 Flesher, James, 305 Flesher, Miles: as Master of Stationers' Company, 307; as patentee, 245, 299301, 304, 305 n. 109 Flesher, Miles, Jr., 586 n. 105

724

INDEX

Fludd, Robert, 50, 51n. 85, 64n. 12, 170 forgery: history of, 427 n. 101; medievalists on, 32-33 n. 54. See also counterfeits; piracy Formosa, 359 Foster, Marmaduke, 471n. 51 Foster, Samuel, 239, 473-74 Foster, William, 64n. 12 Foucault, Michel, 120n. 116, 159-60, 21920n.102 Foxe, John, 190,227, 300,329,335n. 25 France: astronomy in, 617; bookshops in, 118; book trade guilds in, 201; history of printing in, 329 n. 10; journals in, 499 n. 114; literary property in, 355 n. 89, 372; plagiarism and piracy in, 169, 510, 512; printing house terminology in, 76; Revolution in, 373-74. See also French Revolution; Paris Franklin, Benjamin, 76, 87, 96-97,97, 144 Fraser, James, 349 Freemasons, 76, 192, 615 freemen: English Stock of, 259-60; status of,202, 202-3. See also commonalty Frege, Gottlob, 635 Freind, John, 457 French Revolution, 373-74 Freret, Nicolas, 512 frontispieces: imitation of, 456; implications of, 474-75; in More's dream, 419, 4 2 0,421

Fuller, John, 196 n. 21 funeral sermons. See sermons Fust, Johann, 329,334. See also Faust/Faustus, Johann Gadbury, John, 260 n. 217, 543 Gale, Thomas, 452, 495, 535 Galen, 281-82 Galileo Galilei: cost of books by, 448; court disputes of, 25 -26; patronage and, 2425, 26; as totemic figure, 264; uses of print and, 24-26, 51-52; works of, 2021, 24, 42 n. 67. See also Dialogo . ..

sopra i due Massimi Sistemi del Mondo; Sideres Nuncius Gangraena (Edwards), 219, 236 Garraway's coffeehouse, 450, 534, 554-55, 555, 582, 585, 599

Garthwait, Timothy, 148 Gascoigne, Sir Bernard, 482 Gassendi, Pierre, 247, 429, 588n. 110 Gay, John, I84 Gellibrand, Henry, 473 gender: authorship and, 50-51; in book trades, 37, 78-79; passions and, 413-15; of Stationers, xx, 201-2, 203n. 46. See also women General History o/Printing (Palmer), 35962 general warrants, 132 genome research, 4n. 3 gentlemen: as authors, 126, 175 - 80, 240, 345-46; credibility of, 503; disputes between, 177-79; freedom of action for, 126,176,240; vs. mechanicks, 313-14, 470; as natural philosophers, 467-73; passions and, 405-6; as patentees, 256, 3°7,310; royal prerogative and, 256-58; Shapin, 467-68 Geographia (Ptolemy), 420, 421 Geography Delineated (Carpenter), 450 geomagnetism, 560 geometry, used to produce typographical characters, 89, 89-90 George (Prince of Denmark): death of, 595; as patron of Historia Cr.elestis, 549,577, 579-82,586; as patron of other publications, 579nn. 83-84 George I (King of England), 607 George II (King of England), 617 Germany: book trade guilds in, 201; initiarion rires in, 95 -96; literary property in, 355 n. 89; publishing in, 633 Gibson, Edmund, 102, 104 gifts: books as, 177, 482-83,572,6°9-10, 621; as evidence in prosecutions, 135; patents as, 248-49, 493; patronage regimes and, 14-16, 18 n. 28, 190 n. 8, 389, 482n. 68, 482-83, 541, 6°9-10, 621 Gilbert, William, 50, 184-85, 325, 432 Gingerich, 0., I7n. 23, 47n. 76 Glanvill, Joseph: as apologist of Royal Society, 35, 107; on Aristotle, 35, 462; attestation and, 468 n. 41; as licenser, 245; Pitt's relation to, 145; on spirits, 145, 423; on usurpation, 462

INDEX

globes: Blaeu's, 85; books on, 84-85; makers of, 79, 80 n. 48; Moxon's, 81 n. 49; unauthorized use of maps for, 174, 61 5- 16 Globe Tavern, searches of, 130 n. 134 Glossographia (Blount), 314-15

A Glympse ofthatJewel, Judicial, Just, Preserving Libertie (Streater), 274 God: communication from, 409, 4II; invention of press and, 329,334; laws and, 277; political and moral lessons of, 288 - 89. See also Providence Godbid, William, 68, 302-3 Goddard, Jonathan, 493, 503 Godfrey, Sir Edmondbury, 108-9 Goffman, Erving, 121-22 Goldsmith, Oliver, 67 Goodwin, John, 137-38 Goodwin, Thomas, 230 gossip, 554. See also conversation; speech Gottingen, 618 n. 177 Gough, Richard, 209 n. 71 government: as art, 279, 290; bees as model for, 280-82; castle's role in, 192-93; control of knowledge and, 49-51; invention of, 324; natural knowledge and, 279-80; purpose of, 248. See also absolutism; monarch; republicanism Graaf, Reginald de, 489 Grafton, A., 386 The Grand Politick Informer (Streater), 276 La Grante Danse Macabre (Huss), 38n. 59 Grassi, Orazio, 26, 37 Graunt, John, 483 Great Britain, 40 n. 61, 68. See also England; London Great Fire of 1666: effects on book trade, 68,74,448-49; records destroyed in, 342n. 43, 347; records saved from, 198n ·30 The Great Instauration (Webster), 268 Greaves, John, 239, 496 Greenwich observatory. See Royal Observatory (Greenwich Hill) Gregory, David: in committee of referees,

580; Elements ofCatoptrics and Dioptrics, 168; Flamsteed/Newton dispute and, 573-74, 591, 593; on Newton, 127, 565 - 66; Savilian chair and, 567

Gresham College: book auctions in, 153; infotmation on, 159 n. 186; licensing and, 239; meetings at, 465-67,466, 467. See also Royal Society Grew, Nehemiah: Anatomy ofPlants, 535; book of nature and, 47 n. 78; on experiments, 470-71; Musaeum Regalis Societatis, 474-75,487, 535; Philosophical Transactions and, 534; as Secretary of Royal Society, 533 Grimstone, Sir Harbottle, 301-4 Groening, Johann, 127 Ground ofArts (Recorde), 69 n. 24 Gtub Street: booksellers in, 69; map of, 7I; writers in, 139

Grub-StreetJournal, 363 Guernier, Louis du, 605 Gunning, Peter, 245 gunpowder, 272, 329n. 10 Gunther, Edmund, 473 Gutenberg, Johann: commemoration of, 366-67,369,372-74,378; evidence in support of/against, 349-50, 355-57, 360 - 65; illustrations of, 334, 344,345; printing press of, 329-31, 335-36, 340; in Stationers' rituals, 95 Guy, Thomas, 69, 71, 140 n. 154, 148 Guy's Hospital, bequest for founding, 140n . 154 Haarlem (Holland): printing in, 84, 95> 330-32,349-50,357,362-65; as Protestant emblem, 332-33; statue in, 349. See also Coster, Laurens habeas corpus, Streater's use of, 277, 293 habits: disciplining of, 406 - 8; education and, 405-6; physiology of, 405-7; reading and, 405, 423 Hale, Sir Matthew, 50, 254, 302, 316, 322 Hales, John, 416, 424, 443 Half-Moon (bookshop), 177-79 Halifax, Earl of (Charles Montagu), 607 Hall Book. See Register Book of Copies Halley, Edmond: accusations against, 461; activities of, 548; as Astronomer Royal, 613-14; challenge to, 481n. 67; coffeehouses and, 554; elected to Royal Society, 81; Flamsteed's dispute with, 549, 560-68,572,574,587,588-89,610-

726

INDEX

Halley, Edmond (continued) II, 616-17; Hevelius and, 144-45; Historia ClE/estis and, 598, 599- 601,603, 604-7, 609nn. 161-62, 6IO, 619; lunar theory and, 570 -71, 573; meeting place of, 67; Moxon and, 80; on navigational books, 31; as Newton's apostle, 544, 565; Newton's Principia and, 464, 512; on Noachian deluge, 50In. II9; Parker and, 544-45; Philosophical Tramactiom and, 540, 548n. 9; piracy and, 615-17; portrait of, 562; on printing, 425; on Psalmanazar, 359; on publishing of Academie Royale des Sciences, 49In. 91; religious opinions of, 547, 567, 600601; reputation of, IOO-IOIn. 86, 615; on stars, 55-56, 144-45, 563- 64, 567, 600-601 Hamlet (Shakespeare), 147 Hannaway, 0., I7n. 23 Hans, Nicholas, I24n. 22 Hargrave, Francis, 365 - 66 Harington, Sir John, I02n. 88 Harrington, James: associates of, 271 n. IO; attacks on, 291-93,461; on London, 138; Oceana, 100,101, III-I2, 289-91; "priestcraft" coined by, 285 n. 43 Harriot, Thomas, 48n. 80, 495 Harris, Benjamin: accusations against, 7778; bookshop and coffeehouse of, III; paper resold by, 173; seditious works and, II9, 134 -35; trial of, 135 Harris, John, 350 -52 Harrison, Thomas, 274 Hartlib, Samuel: bees and, 268-71, 28889; on circulation of knowledge, 288; manuscript circulation and, 458-59; on mitigating the fall, 289; on registration practices, 478 Harvey, William: accusations against, 461; as author, 50; context of, 41; Continental publishing and, 170; Harrington and, 289; on reading, 427-28; Royal Society and, 428; unpublished manuscripts of, 495 Hattige (G. de Bremond), 243 hawkers, 154,154, 156-57 Head, Richard, 258

Hearne, Thomas, 573 n. 72, 619 Heath, Sir Robert, 185 Heereboord, Adrianus, 507-8n. 130 Heine, Heinrich, 368 helioscope, 524-26 Helmont, Jan Baptista van, 432 Henrietta Maria (Queen of England), 236 Henry VI (King of England), 340, 342 Henry VIII (King of England), 249, 355 Henshaw, Thomas, 517, 534 Herbert, Thomas (Earl of Pembroke), 355, 356, 359, 597 n. 134 Herbert, William, 365 Hercules, symbolism of, 21 heresies, propagation of, 424. See also sedition Hermes Trismegistus, 279 Herne, Richard, 130 Herschel, Caroline, 618-19 Herschel, William, 618 Hesse, Carla, 159-60 Hevelius, Johannes: astronomical images by, 436-37, 438, 439,440; book dedicated by, 15; as controller of his own press, 14; correspondence of, 558 n. 29; engraving and, 436 - 37; on Flamsteed and printing, 572n. 68; Halley's relation to, 144-45; on Hooke/Fiamsteed dispute, 56In. 37; as model, 434n. II4, 564; new constellations of, 609n. 161; Royal Society and, 483 n. 71, 496; Stellaeburg and, 38-39, 39,474; widow of, 6I2n. 167; works of, 6I2n. 167 Hewson, John, 295 Heylyn, Peter, 83n. 54,383 Hickeringill, E., 308 n. 121 Hickes, George, 415, 416 n. 76, 442 Hickman, Spencer, 496n. I05 higglers, 153 Hill, Abraham, 533-34 Hill, "Sir" John, 456 Hills, Henry: accusations against, 77-78, 148; as courtier. 287n. 48; Cromwell and, 287n. 48, 3I4n. 139; historiographyof, 343-44; as informer, 129; L'Estrange and, 235; as Master of Stationers' Company, 207, 319-20; as notorious pirate, 167-68; patents and,

INDEX

300 n. 97, 314 n. 139, 343-44; political and religious views of, 147, 148; printing house of, 75-76, 148 Hills, Henry, Jr., piracy of, 143 n. 59, 168 Hindmarsh, Joseph, 573 Hipparchus, 601

Histoire de I'Origine et des Premiers Progres de I1mprimerie ([Marchand]), 334, 335, 357

histoire du livre, 28 -29 Historia C(£lestis Britannica (Flamsteed): calculations for, 586-87, 588n. III, 591, 596; components of, 35, 575-77, 590, 598-99, 608n. 160, 6u, 621; distribution of, 612-13; estimates for, 577,578, 579; Flamsteed's instruments and, 558; historiography in, 550-51; identiry of, 620 -21; illustrations in, 587 n. 108, 603; implications of, 627; ptinting of, 577, 605, 610, 612; problems with, 606 -7; prolegomenon in, 588 n. Ul; registration of, 620; use of, 617-18 Historia C(£lestis (Curtius), 9, 587 n. 108 Historia C(£lestis Danica (Longomontanus), 587 Historia C(£!estis Libri Duo (Flamsteedl Halley), 600n. 142, 603,608, 608 n. 160, 621; calculations fot, 604; components of, 590, 598-99; "correction" of, 600 - 601, 604; delays in, 586-87; destroyed, 607-9; distribution of, 48-49, 6°9-10; estimates for, 580-81; Flamsteed's opposition to, 547-48; funding for, 579, 582, 586-87, 589-90,593-94,596-97; identity of, 620; illustrations in, 595, 603; observatory's status and, 597-98; printing of, 454,512,583-85,589-94,599-600; referees and, 55-56, 512, 580-86, 58995> 59 8, 607, 61 9 Historia Cycloeidis (Groening), 127 Historia Piscium (Willughby), 434, 48990,490,579 histories: by Ames, 364, 365; in apprentices' rituals, 95; by Atkyns, 3°5,306, 307, 338-41,625; by Bagford, 347; by Blades, 367, 374-75; by booksellers, 342; by Browne, 462; by Chambers,

72 7

35I-52; by Condorcet, 373 -78; by Defoe, 139, 351; by Dupont, 367; by Flamsteed, 325, 549-50, 569, 577, 58798, 600, 6u, 613, 619; by Foxe, 329; by Glanvill, 462; by Harris, 350 -52; by Hooke, 432; by Hooker, 326; by Jonghe, 33I-32; by Kepler, 17, 325; by Leybourn, 350; by Luckombe, 364; by Maittaire, 355 -57; by Marchand, 35758; by Meerman, 364-66; by Middleton, 363; by Moxon, 106, 344; by Palmer, 358-63; by patentees, 327; by Pitt, 349; by Prynne, 328,335-36; by Renouard, 367; by Royal Society, 5034; by Senault, 406; by Smyth, 348-49; by Sprat, 216, 504; by Streater, 274-75, 280,282,285,288,305,306, 3°7,33843, 625; by Turgot, 373; uses of, 34-35, 325; by Wallis, 343, 504; by Yates, 343 historiography: credibility and, 344 - 46; of custom, 326-38; dates in, 361; importance of, 35-36, 324-26,441-42; piracy and, 161- 62. See also history of printing history: credibility of print, 370; reading of, 429-30, 442; representations of, 324-25. See also history of printing; history of science History and Art ofPrinting (Luckombe), 36 4 History ofColours (Boyle), 515 History ofEngland (Echard), 512n. 137 history of printing: antiquarian movement and, 346-47; authors of, 344-46; debates over, 328-29, 344, 349-69, 62425; evidence on, 347-50; Faustus in, 333,334, 335; implications of, 369-79; inventor's identity and, 375, 378; patents challenged by, 327- 28, 335-37; royal prerogative and, 338 - 43; theft stories in, 331-32, 335, 351-52, 360-61, 36~-65; uncertainty in, 329-31 history of science: approach to, 6; cultural identity and, 325; as document of disciplined passions, 406; focus of, 42-43, 45-46; journals in, 532; practices and, 42-48; print's role in, 42, 47-48, 46667; publication dates in, 42

INDEX

History ofthe Athenian Society (Gildon), 457

History ofthe Royal Society (Birch), 50 4 n . 123

History ofthe Royal Society (Sprat): as ambassador for Society, 541 n. 191; contents of, 494n. 100, 504, 526n. 169; as evidence, 523, 527; frontispiece of, 475; Latin version of, 515; licensing and, 494n. 100; perusal of, 483; in Stationers' Register, 214, 216 Histriomastix (Prynne), 67, 128, 185, 235, 240,245 Hoadly, Benjamin, 142 Hobbes, Thomas: accusations against, 461; on Aristotle, 279 n. 29; Continental reprinting and, 448; on corporations, 254; on dreams, 417; on Egyptian priests, 283 n. 41; on habituation, 406; on journals, 501-2; on law books, 321; on laws and citizens, 275 n. 18; on passions, 404, 417-19; on politics of tradesmen, 123; printers' practices and, 127,138,167; on royal prerogative, 308; on Royal Society, 471-72, 488 Hodgkinson, Richard, 300-304 Hodgson, James: as Flamsteed's ally, 577, 579, 585, 599, 610, 617; funds for, 594n. 126; printing overseen by, 591-93 Hody, Humphrey, 346n. 56 Hogarth, William, 400, 435 Holborn area, booksellers in, 66 Holden, Mary, 180 Holder, William, 498, 504, 514 Holland: bookshops in, 116-17; books printed in, 449-50, 452-53; book trade guilds in, 201; corantoes from, 175; printing costs in, 447-48, 507; unauthorized printing in, 170, 454, 507, 515, 516 n. 146, 518, 621 Holy Roman Emperor, patronage of, 18, 21, 24n. 36 Homer, Pope's translation of, 97-98 honey, 268 honor, disputes over, 480n. 65, 481, 61920. See also civility; duels; propriety Hooke, Robert: accusations against/by, 461, 495> 498; book perusal by, 483; books borrowed by, 98, 118; Boyle and,

69, 382 n. 6; challenge to, 481 n. 67; coffeehouses and, 554; communicativeness of, 473-74; Flamsteed's dispute with, 551,553,554- 60, 561n. 37, 564-65; on history of printing, 349-50, 529 n. 176; identity of, 451 n. II, 470, 555; on inventions and propriety, 480 - 81; inventions of, 462, 524-25,529; Leybourn and, 192n. 14; licensing tactics of, 23839; Moxon and, 80-81; opposition to, 533; on passions and knowledge, 43133; perusals of, 495 -96; Philosophical Collections and, 145, 533-35, 540; Philosophical Transactions and, 519, 532-33; Pitt's atlas and, 451-52; proofing by, 103; quarters of, 467; register and, 442, 487,488,510-11,513; repository and, 487, 487 n. 83; as Secretary, 533; spring watch dispute and, 523-3°,525,529; on typography, 433-34, 44 0,440 -41; usurpation and, 510-11; works of, 145, 478 - 80, 482, 489, 564. See also Micrographia (Hooke) Hooker, Richard, 136, 326 Hooper, George, 529 Horne, Robert, 71 Horne, Thomas, 226 Horrocks, Jeremiah, 496, 501 n. 119, 56 5 n . 47, 573 horses, misuse of, 282 "horses." See pressmen Horsley, Thomas, 284-85 Hoskins, Robert, 272 Hoskyns, John, 229, 529, 533 Houghton, John, 108, 537-38 households: as building blocks of society, 114; printing houses as, 37-38; privacy issues and, 298. See also domesticity; houses House of Lords: search rights and, 131-32; Streater's appeal to, 317. See also courts oflaw houses: Stationers' meetings in, 198-99; structure of early modern, 195- See also domesticity; households; printing houses housewifery, 78-79, 180 How, John, 167 n. 202 Howard, Henry, 487-88

INDEX

Howell, James, 62, 138 Howgil, Francis, 137 Hudibras (Butler), 172 Hue and Cry (Nedham), 240

De Humani Corporis Fabrica (Vesalius), 42 humans: disciplining of, 405-6; experiments on cadavers, 392-97; postlapsarian state of, 401, 424-25; prejudices in, 431-33; reason vs. imagination in, 4034. See also passions humor, use of, 73-74 Hunscot, Joseph, 130-31, 150, 314n. 139 Hunt, Paul, 284-85 Hunter, Ian, 124n. 122 husbandry, reform of, 268. See also agriculture; bees Huss, Jan, 38 n. 59 Huygens, Christiaan: correspondence of, 519; inventions of, 462, 497; observations by, 437,438, 484-85; printing errors and, 127; on registration, 522-23; spring watch of, 520,522, 522-24, 52629,53 1 Hven (Danish island), 8, I2, 14. See also Uraniborg Hyde, Sir Robert, 124, 135-36, 141, 159 Hyde, Thomas, 496 -97 hydrographer royal, 79-80n. 47 ichthyology, works on, 434, 489-9°, 490, 579 iconoclasm, 421-22 identity: in authorship, 179-82, 223, 226, 247-48; genteel, 175-77; historiographyand, 35; of printers, 107-8; Stationers' construction of, 59 - 60, 13840, 453. See also Stationers, character of; specific people illicit/illegal books: cases about, 134-36; Company searches for, 130-34; concurrent printing of, 99-100, IOI, 104, 136,15°-51,289,454; distribution of, 130-31; hiding presses of, 128-31; implications of, 460; licensing system and, 239, 244-46; printers of, 69, 73, 99-100, II7; responsibility for, 134-35; tactics for, 259 n. 209, 358. See also counterfeits; forgery; obscene books; piracy; sedition

illnesses: enthusiasm and, 410, 415; reading as cause of blindness, 380 - 81, 383, 383 n. 7. 408; reading as counter to, 380 -82, 383, 429-30. See also melancholy illustrationslimages: absence of, 436 n. II7, 474-75; credibility of, 434-37, 44041; imagination and, 442; sources of, 436n. II7; in Stationers' Court, 226. See

also under specific authors and books II Saggiatore (Galileo), 25-27 imagination: conversions and, 413; credibility and, 423 -24; enthusiasm and, 415-19; idolatry and, 421-22; images and, 419-21, 426-27; linked to perception and memory, 397, 398; typography and, 434; women and, 413-14. See also passions immigrants, in book trade, 129, 169, 336 immutable mobiles, II imported books: ofElzevir, 261-62n. 220; impact of, 169-71, 191; property issues and,354-55 imprimaturs, 23°-48; civility and, 495; contents of, 495; effects of, 494-96; for Galileo's work, 26-27; removal of, 234. See also licensers; licensing indexes: for Flamsteed's atlas, 618; for Pitt's atlas, 452 India. 4 industrial printing, 628-29. See also steam press Ingelo, Nathaniel, 268 Inghirami. Curzio, 426, 427 n. 101 Ingoldsby, Richard, 296 ink, 83, 83 n. 52, 92 Innys, John, 124n. 122, 613 Innys, William, 151, 613 Inquisition, Galileo condemned by, 25, 27-28 Institutes (Coke), 317-18 instruments: competence with, 548, 55758,591; demonstrations of, 524-25; for disciplining passions, 428-29,429; engravings of, 474-75; Flamsteed's, 551, 558, 596, 6°4-5, 613. See also inventions; microscopes; spring watches; telescopes Interpreter (Cowell), 300n. 99, 315 n. 142

73°

INDEX

Interregnum, the: coffeehouses in, III; printing houses in, 135; radical literature in, 77, 124; republicanism in, 27291; Stationers' use of term, 207 inventions: assigning credit for, 329-33, 335, 351; attitudes toward, 479-80; Bacon on, 49-50; international accreditation of, 520; ownership of, 487; patents for, 312; register of, 229n. 125, 485-87; registration of, 477; related to printing, 462- 63. See also instruments; history of printing Ireland: bibles for, 491; books printed in, 162n. 193, 171, 354-55, 455; English troops in, 266-67, 273-74; preaching in, 411-12 Israel, Joseph Ben (Thomas Ramsey, Thomas Horsley), 284-85 Italy, Royal Society and, 483 Jacob, M. c., 124n. 22 Jacobites, 168, 545, 573> 607 James I (King of England), 48, 48n. 81, 125, 252, 257, 302 James II (King of England): oaths required by, 206; opposition to, 582-83; royal prerogative used by, 253, 255, 264, 31920; Secret Service of, 129 n. 133 Janeway,'Richard, 132, 133n. 141 Janssen, Laurens. See Coster, Laurens Janua Linguarum (Comenius), 223, 224 -25 Janua Linguarum Reserata (Comenius), 226 Jardine, L., 386 Jardine, N., 325 Jeffreys, George, 255 n. 197 Jervas, Charles, portrait by, 576 Jesuite Discovered (Streater), 285 n. 43 Jesuits, 26-27, 284-85 Johnson, Samuel, 359, 456, 463-64 Johnston, Stephen, 79 Jonathan's coffeehouse, 349, 532, 533, 540 Jonghe, Adrien de (Hadrianus Jusius): on history of printing press, 331-33, 33536, 349-50, 364; manuscript of, 367 Jonson, Ben, 130 Journal des Sravam (France), 499 n. 114, 521 n. 159, 523, 528, 538 journals. See periodicals

journeymen: complaints of, 106 n. 95; mobility of, 96; status of, 201, 212 Jupiter, Galileo on, 21,22-23, 24 Justel, Henri, 516n. 147 Keill, John, 181-82n. 229 Kelso, Ruth, 468 Kennett, White, 546-47 Kepler, Johannes, 17, 25, 325, 432, 550 n. 13 Kersey, John, 538, 540 Kettilby, Walter, 245 Kilburne, William, 314n. 139, 337 n. 31 Killing Noe Murder (Sexby), 292-93, 314 Kinckhuysen, Gerard, 449 king. See monarch King, William: on civility, 178-79; on credibility of printed texts, 173; on Flamsteed, 619 n. 179; satire by, 350n. 68, 352n. 78,456 King's Bench, patent / Register trial at, 317 Kings Grant ofPrivilege ([Atkyns and/or Streater]), 307 n. 113 King's Printing House: correctors in, 90n. 65; customs in, 94; location of, 65,73; patents for, 343-44; status of, 72, 94; workmen in, 76

King William and Queen Mary Conquerors, 240 -41 Kircher, Athanasius, 474 Kirkman, Francis: on apprentices, 115, 120; on booksellers, 152; bookshop of, 118; credit of, 114; illustration of, I63; on piracy, 162-64, 166-67, 168-69, 203; on politics, 148; on printers, 125 Kit Cat Club, 121 Klinger, Friedrich Maximilian von, 36869 Knaplock, Robert, 512 n. 137 Knightrider Street, booksellers in, 69 n. 24 Knights of the Galaxy, description of, 29297. See also Harrington, James knowledge: circulation of, 289; in commonwealth, 274-77, 279, 288-90, 321-23; control of, 49-50, 160; credit and, 125-26; definition of useful, 62930,6p, 632; as dispassionate, 428-41; instruments and, 428-29, 429; location of, 41-48, 74, 183; passions and, 398,

73 1

INDEX

402, 403 - 4; patent arguments and, 258 -59; prejudices affecring, 431-33; print and, 36-37, 137, 171-74, I72, 188- 89,271,272 -73> 370-79, 623; property and, 246 - 48; registration and, 287-88; role of readers/reading in, 353 -54, 384; textual stability as component of, 5-6; trust in, 31-32; uncertainty of, 344- 45. See also natural knowledge; passions laboratories, 13-14, 51, 74n. 35. See also experiments; knowledge, location of; printing houses Lacedemonian Mercury (periodical), 155 Lackington, Dorcas, 78 la Hire, Philippe de, 567 Lambe, Sir John, 231 Lambert, John, 293, 296 Lambert, S., 234n. 134 Lambeth Palace: access to, 347-48; Atkyns's record in, 339-40, 347-49, 356, 363; licensing practice at, 240, 244-45, 493, 529 Lampas (Hooke), 528-29 The Lancet (periodical), 122n. 120 Langford, Paul, 189 language: distribution issues and, 515; usurpation issues and, 508-10. See also translations Lansberg, Philip van, 564 n. 44 Larkin, George, 155 -56 n. 180, 331 Larkin, Philip, 40 Larner, John, 77 n. 40 Larner, William: apprentices of, 77n. 40; bookshop of, 118-19; character of, 141; Lilburne and, 131; political and religious views of, 148, 150; as radical, 79; testimony of, 148 n. 169 last words. See confessions Lathom, William, 157 Latitudinarianism, 409, 479n. 61 Latour, Bruno: McLuhan and, 13-14n. 16; on power, 20n. 33; on print and power of science, II, 13-14, 19; on Tycho's preprinted forms, 17-18 Laud, William: Abbot's debate with, 242; on Histriomastrix, 67, 185; Oxford Uni-

versity Press and, 39, 77; trial of, 148, I49,17° Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent, 42n. 67 law: king as author of, 312; physiology as model for, 275-76; printed records of, 275-78,290; Register's implications for, 307, 341-42. See also common law; custom; law books law books: booksellers for, 304; cost of, 315; dispute over, 300 -305,302 -3; injunctions against printing, 305, 307, 314; patents in, 162, 205, 206, 249-50, 258, 299-3°0,304,311-19,326,328,33840,342-44,624; printers of, 299; in Register, 307; significance of, 321-22

Lawlesse Kneelesse Schismatical! Puritan (Widdowes),126

Laws ofEcclesiastical Polity (Hooker), 136, 32 6 Lawson, Vice Adm. John, 293 -95

Learned rico Brahae his Astronomical! Conjectur (Sparke), 7 learned works: credibility of, 173; imitations of, 456 -57; printing houses for, 39, 49, 100 -101 n. 86, 447; reading of, 381, 386; schedules for, 103; in Stationers' commonwealth, 182-83. See also natural-philosophy books Le Brun, Charles, 403 n. 49 Le Clerc, Jean, 539 Lectiones Opticae (Barrow), 449-50 Lectures ofExperimental Philosophy (Desaguliers), 181 Lee, Samuel, 146 Leeson, Hugh, 412 legal memory, 254n. 189 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 465, 493 n. 95, 512, 521 , 524 Leigh, Luke, 587 Leopold (Prince), 483 Leopold I (Holy Roman Emperor), 2I L'Estrange, Sir Roger: accusations against, 77-78, 122, 148; on bookshops/booksellers, 118, 186, 463; on bylaws, 255, 318; coffeehouses and, 113; concurrent printing and, lOon. 84; on confederacy, 151; on hiding seditious materials, 131; on imprimaturs, 234; informers for,

73 2

INDEX

L'Estrange, Sir Roger (continued) 124, 155-56n. 180; as licenser, 239-40; on manuscript libels, II3; nickname for, 155; on piracy, 166, 541; politics of, 124, 240, 255; on politics of commerce, 255; on printers, 106, 255, 31O-II; on Regisrer Book, 220, 235; on regulation, 129, 132, 150 -51, 189; searches by, 122, 13336, 243; Srationers' Hall and, 19697 n. 23; translations by, 214 Letter Concerning a new way ofcuring sundry diseases (Denis), 514 letters patent. See patents Levellers, 241, 273 n. 13, 275 n. 18, 277 Leviathan (Hobbes), 279n. 29, 417-18 Lewis, John, 364 Lexicon Technicum (Harris), 350 Leybourn, William: on history of printing, 350; natural philosophy and, 145; perusal by, 227; on Stationers' Hall, 192, 194; survey by, 109, lIO, 125-26 libel laws, conttol of press and, 234n. 133 liberty: concept of, 293; property issues and, 457-58; Streater on, 274-77 licensers: authority of, 244 - 45; collusion with, 245; conventions expected of, 239-44,264; fees of, 239; importance of, 230; ousting of, 240 - 41; politics and, 240-44; Royal Society as, 239, 242,245,264,445,493-96; workload of, 239 licensing: censorship and, 189, 264; collapse of, 327; as distinction, 263-64; legal basis for, 230-31,2]2-33,234; polirics of, 190, 240-44; practice of, 234-45,263-64,624; Royal Society and, 239, 264,493-96; shortcomings of, 189, 241; Stationers' role in, 24546; support for, 620; as suppression mechanism, 235. See also imprimaturs; licensers; Register Book of Copies Licensing Act, 583. See also Press Act (1662) Lichfield, Leonard, 150 Lift ofJohn Milton (Toland), 235 Lightbody (compositor), 94n. 73 Lilburne, John, II8, 130 -31, 141, 277 Lilly, John, 198 n. 26 Lincoln's Inn Fields, printers in, 96 -97 Lintot, Bernard, III

Lister, Martin, 502, 504, 533 literacy, implications of, 62 literary credit, 31-32. See also authorship; literary property; piracy literary property: as anachronistic, 246; concept of, 189, 247-48, 352, 354-55; debate over, 355-57, 365; legal cases on, 365-66; propriety's relation to, 222; Register's implications for, 219-20. See also authorship; copyright; property; propriety Literatory (Curll's), 123, 123-24 lithography, 374-75 Little Britain: booksellers in, 66, 68-69, 72; map of, 70; printers in, 71-72n. 26 liverymen: English Stock and, 259; status of, 202, 202, 203 - 4 LiVY,43 0 Lloyd, Richard, 452 Locke, John: on children's reading, 407-8; Churchill and, 582-83; on habituation, 406-7; on licensing system, 247-48, 264-65,494; printers and, 126n. 126, 336 n. 28, 352, 583; on privacy, 130, 132; on property, 352; safe house for, 583; Transactions and, 518 Logarithmo-technia (Mercator), 487n. 82 Lombard Street, booksellers in, 69, 146 London: attitudes toward, 52; building ownership in, III; characteristics of, 56, 61,138-39; control of trades in, 201, 249, 254; focus on, 40, 42, 44; government of, xix, 209-10; literacy in, 62; print culture in, 37-38, 58-62, 257; reading in, 58; Stationers' Company's role in, 209-10; topography of, 63-74, 64, 65, 70, 71. See also specific streets and areas London Bridge: book trade at, 71; printers at, 71-72n. 26 London Committee for the Militia, 231 London Gazette, 81, 155 longitude: problem of, 551; watch designs and, 522-23. See also astronomy Longomomanus, Christian, 474 lord mayor (of London), 209-10, 249 n ·171 Lord Mayor's Day, 204 Lost Illusions (Balzac), 93 n. 70

INDEX

lottery tickets, 192 n. 12, 450 Louis XIV (King of France), 15 Lovver, FUchard,393 Lovvndes, Samuel, 468 n. 41 Lovvther, Sir John, 534 Lovvthorp, John, 574, 574 n . 75, 579 n . 83, 610 The Loyal Messenger (periodical), 278 n. 27 Luckombe, Philip, 364-65 Ludlovv, Edmund, 296-97 lunar theory. See Moon Luther, Martin, 31, 173 Mabbott, Gilbert, 241, 243 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 256 n. 199 Machin, John, 573 n. n 581 n. 89, 5% 610 Mack, P., 413 Madan, E, 367 Magalotti, Lorenzo, 471, 482 magic: accusations of, 351-52, 360-61, 369; Streater on, 283 - 85. See also narural magic Magna Carta, 132,277 De Magnete (Gilbert), 184-85 magnerism, 184-85 Mainz (Germany): ceremonies in, 366-67; early printing in, 95, 329-32, 340, 3495°,357,360,362-65 Maittaire, Michel, 355-58,356, 360,37°,373 Malice defeated (Cellier), 120 Mallinckrodt, Bernard,334, 335 Malpighi, Marcello, 488, 535 Man, Samuel, 206, 208-9, 209n. 69 Manilius, Bendey's edirion of, 464 Manley, Thomas, 315 Mansion, Colard, 375, 376-77 Manuel, Frank, 550 manufactures, reforms in, 268. See also Hardib, Samuel manuscripts: access to, 496 -97; Atkyns's, 339-40; catalogue proposed for, 49596; circulation of, 458-59; early printed books resembling, 351, 366; as evidence, 372n. 142, 503-4; presentations of, 484; reproduction of, 5- 6, 10; search for unpublished, 495 -96; shortcomings of, 459; status in printing houses, 104-5; as vehicles in disputes, 15-16, 48 -49,5 1

733

Marchand, Prosper: on history of printing, 38 n. 59>334, 335, 356 -58, 370, 373; reputation of, 358; on theft of books, 183n.232 Mariner's Magazine (Sturmy), 71-72n. 26 markets, book distribution at, 153 Marlovve, Philip, 14 Marshall, Alan, 244n. 156 Martin, Henri-Jean, 42n. 66, 126 Martyn, John: alleged piracy of, 167; apprentice of, 115; on author's vvishes, 229; bookshop of, 103; books printed for, 315, 535; death of, 534; foreign reprints and, 169; Hooke's relations vvith, 52328, 530 -31, 579; as Printer to the Royal Society, 77, 81, 492-93, 496-97; in Register Book, 216; spring vvatch dispute and, 525-28, 530-31; Transactions and, 516, 521, 535 Marvell, Andrevv, 100, 218 Mary II (Queen of England), 383, 413 Mary I (Queen of England) , 59, 201 Master Printers, 81-83,105-8,212-13. See also printers Masters (of the Stationers Company): accusations against, 207; adjudication of, 223; ceremonies and, 211-12; election for, 205, 206-7, 208-9; importance of, 200; povver of, 206-7, 210, 213, 300; records and, 198-99; statue of, 210

Mathematical Elements ofNatural Philoso-

phy CsGravesande), 181 "Mathematicall Praeface" (Dee), 81 Mathematical Principles ofNatural Philosophy (Nevvton). See Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Nevvton) mathematical sciences: attitudes tovvard, 468 n. 41; cost of printing, 90; licenser for, 239; market for, 449; natural philosophy contrasted to, 54; optical calculations in, 554-56; political importance of, 279-80; printers for, 68, 79; printing as, 107 n. 96; reading of, 381, 383; typographical considerations in, 8889; unpublished vvorks in, 449-50. See also astronomy Matthevvs, John, 586n. 105, 592 May Day feast, 211-12 McKenzie, D. E, 60n. 4, 83-84 n. 55

734

INDEX

McLuhan, Marshall, 13-14, 13-14n. 16 Mearne, Samuel, 206, 261-62n. 220 Mears, William, 181-82n. 229

Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art 0/ Printing (Moxon): on compositors, 85, 87-88; on correctors, 90-91; illustrations from, 82, 86, 345; on invention of printing press, 344; on Master Printer, 81-83,105-8; motive for publishing, 106-8; on pressmen, 91-93; on printers, 81-83; on printing houses, 84-85; significance of, 79; subscriptions for, 81; on typography, 88-90, 89 mechanicks: alleged incivility of, 556 -58, 562-64; vs. gentlemen, 313-14, 470; patentees and, 307, 309, 313-14; testimony of, 470; use of term, 309, 314 Mechanicks (Aristotle), 421 Mechanics o/Nature (Harrington), 290 medals, printed forgeries of, 174n. 217 mediators, II, 14 medical works: Cole's disallowed in Register, 218; issued by congers, 355; journals for, 464 - 65 n. 37; printer's specialty in, 168; Stationers' appraisal of, 137; vernacular, 288; women writers of, 180. See also physicians Medici, Cosimo II de', 24-25 Meerman, Gerard, 359-60, 364-66 melancholy, 380-81, 410 Memoirs fOr the Ingenious (periodical), 539 memory, 397, 398 Mendle, M., 337n. 30 Mentel, J., 332n. 19 Mentelin, Johann, 332n. 19, 361 n. 106, 362 Mercator, Nicholas, 487 n. 82, 523 n. 165 Merchant Taylor's School, 130 mercuries, 154-55, 310, 499, 513 Mercurius Aulicus (periodical), 278 n. 27 Mercurius in Sole Visus (Hevelius), 437 Mercury, images of, 437, 438, 439, 440 Merret, Christopher, 483, 489n. 88 meta-articles, in quo warranto cases, 255 Mewe, William: apiary of, 267-71, 280, 282, 283, 288; politics of, 289 Micrographia (Hooke): as ambassador for Royal Society, 541 n. 191; on cure of the mind, 428-29; images in, 429,430,

433-34; importance of, 428; on instruments, 428-31,429; period (.) compared to splotch of London dirt, 430, 430 -31; review of, 464- 65 n. 37; unauthorized translation of, 516 n. 146 microscopes: criticism of, 429-30; passions and, 428-31; type viewed through, 430, 43 0 -3 1 Middle Ages, forgery and plagiarism in, 32 -33 n ·54 Middleton, Conyers, 363-65 midwifery, 180 Millar, Andrew, 366, 455 Milton, John: Bentley's edition of, 127; on licensing, 189, 264, 494; piracies of, 354; on politics of reading in London, 5859; Toland's biography of, 235 Miscellanea Curiosa (Halley), 516, 571n. 65 mise en page, 385, 441 Molyneux, William, 431n. 107, 443n. 127, 554,557,559, 56o , 561n . 37, 594 monarch: as author, 312, 336-37; charters and, 254-55, 319; patents from, 24850; prerogatives of, 251-55, 305, 308-12, 317-19,322,338-43,362-63,372; restrictions on crafts by, 336; social hierarchy and, 209-10. See also absolutism; royal prerogative; specific royalty Monck, George, 293, 295-96,3°6 Monopolies Act (1624), 249, 254, 257, 328 monopolies/monopolists: Adam Smith on, 248; challenges to, 327-28; engraving on, 435; patents as, 254, 259, 327-28, 342-43 Moon: calculations on, 569-7°; Galileo on, 20,22-23, 24; theory of, 565 n. 47,

569-71. See also Historia Gelestis (Flamsteed) Moon, Richard, 278-79 Moore, Sir Jonas: almanac of, 319 n. 164; patronage by, 551, 553 n. 19, 558-59, 560, 564, 613; spring watch dispute and, 523 Moorfields area: booksellers in, 69, 72, 139; map of, 7I; riots in, 69 morality: conjoined with civility, 561, 563; development of Stationers', 189-9°; expectations of, 567 Moray, Sir Robert, 486, 502-3

INDEX

More, Henry: on booksellers, 468 n. 41; on Descartes, 417; dream of, 419, 420, 421; on emhusiasm, 409, 415-16, 417, 427, 442-43; licensing and, 244, 245; managemem of publishing, 450; on passions, 417, 419, 421; Pitt's relation to, 145; on priming, 103; on reading, 383; on spirits, 423 More, John, 299-300, 304, 315-16, 340 Morland, Sir Samuel, 73 Morphew, Elizabeth, 150 Morphew, John, 150 Morrice, William, 216 Morton, Serjeam William, 135-36 Moseley, Anne, 227 n. II7 Moseley, Humphrey, 228-29 Moses, 283 Motte, Benjamin, 353 Moxon, Joseph: amagonism to Stationers' Company, 106-8; attempted suppression of, 318 n. 153; background of, 79; on compositors, 85,87-88; on correctors, 90 -91; on history of priming, 35,343-44; as hydrographer royal, 527n. 172; illustration of, 80; invemions of, 462; on Master Primer, 81-83, 1068; on mathematical sciences, 81, 106-7; natural philosophy and, 145; on pressmen, 91-93; on primers, 81-83, 12829, 144, 309; on priming houses, 35, 79-80; on priming presses, 84-85, 86; reputation of, 453; in Royal Society, 80 - 81, 471 n. 51; on textual corruption ofTychonic materials, 588n. IIO; translations by, 107 n. 96; typography and, 79- 80,88-90,89, 434 mural arcs, Flamsteed's, 558, 558 n. 31, 590 Murdin, Lesley, 550 Murray, John, dining room of, I2I Murray, William, 242 Musaeum Regalis Societatis (Grew), 47475,487,535 mysticism, works on, 287-88

Naked Gospel (Bury), 460 Napier, John, 474 Naples, museum in, 16 Nashe, Thomas, 67

735

nationalism, prim culture and, II

Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills ofMortality (Graum), 483 natural knowledge: alternatives in, 43; approaches to, 6, lO-II, 47; articulation and reception of, 49-57; bees as model in, 281; as collaborative emerprise, 56; comrol of, 49-51; as key to commonwealth, 271; vs. licensing, 494; list of periodicals on, 536-37; location and, 8, 10,4°-48; overview of, 48-57; piracy's implications for, 33; politics of, 27980, 290; print's role in, 373, 623; replication and, 44-46, 46; Royal Society as cemer for, 465; social mechanisms for administration of, 480-81; Streater's program for, 282-83; transcendence vs.locale of, 10, 40-45. See also astronomy; history of science; mathematical sciences; natural magic; natural philosophy; Royal Society natural magic, 283-85, 421. See also visions (spiritual) Natural Magick (Porta), 389, 426 natural philosophy: books used in disputes in, 15-16, 48-49, 51, 56-57; credibility and, 445-46; Harringtonian, 289-90; individuals' passions in, 431-33; licenser for, 239; mathematical sciences comrasted to, 54; new literary forms and, 464-65; Paracelsian, 287; printing houses' role in, 74; in Stationers' commonwealth, 183-85, 184; Stationers involved with, 144-45; women writers on, 181. See also experimental philosophy; natural-philosophy books natural-philosophy books: credibility of, 462-64; difficulties in publishing, 445, 447-49; in disputes, 15-16, 48-49,51, 56-57; economics of, 447-48, 450, 492; manuscripts of, 458-59; plagiarism charges against, 460-61; in printing houses, 453-54, 464-65; reading of, 475-78,482-84; reluctance to publish, 449-5°,547-48; Royal Society's role in, 465-67; subscriptions for, 450-54; unauthorized work on, 460; usurpation charges against, 461-62

73 6

INDEX

nature: book of, 47; changing representations of, 444; as model, 275-76, 28183, 288-89. See alro natural magic; physiology Naude, Gabriel, 329n. 10, 350, 478 navigation, books on, 31. See alro longitude Nedham, Marchamont, 240, 3I4n. 129 Needham, Walter, 489 Negus, Samuel, 72 Nero, 285 networks, as categories of analysis, 13I4 n. 16 neurospasts, 419. See alro enthusiasm Neville, Henry, 294n. 76 The New Athenian Comedy (Settle), 457 New Atlantis (Bacon), 50 New Atlantis . .. Continued ([Hooke]), 478 - 80 ,5 10 Newcomb, Thomas, 2II

New Experiments and Observations Touching Cold (Boyle), 83 n. 54 New Experiments Physico-Mechanical (Boyle), 502 Newport, Thomas, 607 news, concept of, 175 newspapers, 151, 174-75, 456. See alro spe-

cific newspapers Newton, Sir Isaac: accession of George I and, 607-8; accusations against, 461, 528, 550, 601, 604; as authorial figure, 247, 565, 627; on Bible's corruption, 424; Churchill's relation with, 102, 158; communicativeness of, 473; Continental reprinting and, 448; different kinds of philosophical knowledge and, 54; Flamsteed's feud with, 35, 310, 550-51, 566-68,569-77,604-5, 61O-II, 613, 619, 621, 627-28; Historia Ccrlestis and, 580-98,604-5,607,6°9-10,616-17; Hooke's dispute with, 523 n. 164; knighting of, 585; licensing and, 264; lunar theory and, 569-72, 577, 617 n. 175; manuscript circulation and, 458-59; meeting place of, 67n. 18; natural philosophy of, 445; observatory appropriated by, 597-98; portrait of, 576; on printing houses, 94, 94 n. 73; publication of works by, 42 n. 67, 54,

354; public persona of, 544-45; religious opinions of, 424-25, 547; royal mint and, 575; Royal Society and, 465, 471,575,597; seventeenth-century England and, 41; on star, 577; unauthorized and pirated works of, 30, 246n. 161, 460; usurpation and, 51214; on vision, 39I, 392. See alro Philoso-

phiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Newton) Newtonianism, 43, I24n. 22, 513 Nicholas, Sir Edward, 3II Nichols, John, 357, 359 Nicolson, William, 170, 171 Norman, Robert, 50 North, Francis, 254n. 192 Norton, Bonham, 299 Norton, Roger, I24n. 124, 227, 300, 337-38 Notwich, booksellers in, 158 Novum Organum (Bacon), 382 Nutf, John, 150 Obeyesekere, G., 325n. I, 373n. 145 objectivity, concept of, 41-42, 636n. II obscene books, 120, 127-28. See alro pornography

Observations Historical Political, and Philosophical (Streater), 268n. 2, 278-86 Observations upon Aristotles Politiques (Filmer), 279n. 29

Observator (L'Estrange), 78, 133 Oceana, origins of term, 291. See alro The Common- Wealth ofOceana (Harrington) Office of Ordnance, 551, 596-97, 6I3n.I7° "Of the first Invention of the Art of Printing," 348 Ogilby, John, 167, 196 n. 21,450 Okey, Col. John, 286, 294, 295-96 Old Bachelor (Congreve), 214 Old Bailey, 67 Oldenburg, Henry: accusations against, 498, 5II, 523-27, 529-30, 532; background of, 498 n. 108; Barrow and, 449; on bees, 269; brain dissection and, 393; civility of, 498, 498 n. 108, 553; communication network of, 514-18, 532-33;

INDEX

death of, 81n. 49, 451, 531-32; on Hevelius's images, 437; Hooke's dispute with, 499 n. 113; importance of, 49798; as licenser, 242-44, 264,495; manuscript circulation and, 458-59; Philosophical Transactiom and, 498503, 515 -21, 542; portrait of, 497; presentations of books and, 482-83; printing and, 496 - 97; reading of Oceana, 291; registration and, 486; spring watch dispute and, 522-31; usurpation and, 508 - 10 Oliver, Philip (apprentice), Il7 Oliver, William, 158 Opticks (Newton), 392, 576-77 Ordnance, Office of, 551, 596-97, 613n·l70 otiginal, definition of, 105 Original and Growth ofPrinting (Atkyns), 3°5,306, 3°7-9,33 8 -4 2 Origin ofFormes and Qualities (Boyle), 515 Origin ofSpecies (Darwin), 42n. 67 Orion, constellation of, 582, 614 Osborne, Francis, 459 Ostwald, Wilhelm, 635 Overron, Richard, 135, 219 Oxford (city), early printing in, 340, 347, 349,362 04VrdPost(newspapeq, 456 Oxford University: astronomy chair at, 561; Bodleian Library at, 199 n. 33, 620 -21; Bury expelled from, 460; discredited under George I, 607; history of, 343, 372. See also Oxford University Press Oxford University Press: book dedicated to, 106; books printed by, 145, 496 -97; books suggested for, 491; Corsellis and, 343-44,348; dealing with, 198, 205, 206,476-77; difficulties of, 447; legal status of, 72; opposition to, 162, 313 n. 136; origins of, 39; patents for, 343; printing house of, 75, 540; warehouse keeper at, 98. See also Fell, John

PacquetofAdvice, 196-97n. 23 Pakeman, Daniel, 1I1-I2, 304 Pakistan, 4 Palmer, Samuel: accusations against, 359-

737

60; on history of printing, 351, 358-64, 370, 37 1, 373 pamphlets: attitudes toward, 407; licensing system and, 217, 231, 234, 241; Register Book and, 220; warnings about, 543; writers of, 183. See also almanacs; scribblers pantheism, 410 n. 67 paper: as basis of science's success, II, 1314; cost of, 91, 91n. 68,447; custommade, 173; in printing process, 92; Tycho's mill for, 11,12-13, 17-18 Papin, Denis, 229 Paradise Lost (Milton), 127, 354 Paramour Pink (ship), 548 paraphrase, as offense, 226 Paris: book trade in, 66, 69 n. 25, II6,· printing houses in, 75; printing regulations in, 37-38 Parish Clerks' Hall, printing press in, 75 Patis Universal Exposition (1900), 633 Parker, George: accusations against/by, 544,544-47,547, 568n. 58, 616-17; almanac of, 543-46,544 Parker, Henry, 222, 337 n. 30 Parker, Samuel: on enthusiasm, 415; on gentility and Test Act, 470n. 46; as licenser, 240, 244; on need for regulation, 190, 263; on opposition printing, 150 -51; on politics of tradesmen, 123; on Press Act, 72, 263; on Streater, 297 Parliament: authorship and, 337; Barebone's, 278; Convention, 296; on copyright, 366; dissolved, 295-96; on hawkers, 156-57; on law book dispute, 303, 315-16; on licensers, 239; Monopolies Act passed by, 249; printed records of, 172,173-74; printing for, 295, 298-99; Protectorate, 286 - 87; Prynne's case against prerogative in, 328; on regulation of printers/printing, 128-29, 231; republican rationale for, 275-76; Rump, 273-74, 292-96, 293, 296; status of, 252; Streater's arrest and, 277-78; trade secrecy in, 195 n. 18. See also House of Lords; Press Act (1662) Partridge, John, 453, 456, 568 n. 58 Pascal, Blaise, 469

INDEX

passions: alphabet of, 403 n. 49; animal spirits and, 276; diagnosis of, 402-3; disciplining of, 402-8, 428-29,429, 432-33,442-43; discourse on, 398408,400; female creativity and, 41314; habits and, 405 - 6; knowledge and, 431-32; knowledge of, 417; meaning of, 397-98; political implications of, 41719; in reading, 386-87, 429-30; symptoms of, 396, 403; taxonomy of, 401-2. See also enthusiasm Passions ofthe Soule (Descartes), 417 patentees: becoming pirates, 257, 261; challenge to, 327; characteristics of, 39, 250, 256, 307; Company licenses and, 261; controversy over, 237, 250; criticism of, 256, 258, 313 - 14; defenses of, 258; as gentlemen, 39, 256; history of printing and, 339-43; politics of, 256-58; printers' skills and, 309-10; Stationers' Company challenged by, 318-19 patents: authority of, 248 -50, 355; benefits of, 258; charters for companies as, 201, 254-55; contested legality of, 253, 25758,336; disputes over, 250-59; English Stock and, 259-61; establishment of, 249-5°,362; for Faust, 360-62; generic, 227; gift-giving and, 248, 248n. 169; as gifts, 248-49, 493; history of, 248-49, 336; infringement of, 250-51,256-57; in Interregnum, 300, 300n. 97; as monopolies, 254, 259, 327-28,342-43; opposition to, 25658, 311, 327- 28, 335 -38,365; politics of, 256-58,624; for printing books, 200; rationale for, 250, 263, 3°5,306, 307-9, 311-12,327,338-43; Register's conflict with, 299-305, 307-18, 326, 341-42; for spring watch, 523-24; Stationers' Company and, 198n. 27, 259-62, 300; triumph of, 317-18, 343-44. See also Atkyns, Richard; law books; patentees; Register Book of Copies Paternoster Row: bookshops in, 66 - 67; locale of, 65; meeting places in, 67-68 Patriarcha (Filmer), 114 patrimony, 202 n. 44 patronage: concept of, 15-16, 24-26, 48;

Flamsteed and Moore, 551, 553 n. 19, 558-59,560,564,613; Flamsteed and Perkins, 560; Galileo and, 24-25, 26; necessity of, 447-48; Newton and, 583, 607; Prince George, 577; Royal Society's role in, 482; Tycho and, 14-16, 18, 20, 21. See also George (Prince of Denmark); gifts; subscriptions Pauli, Daniel, 516-17 Paul (Saint), 422, 622 Peacham, Henry, 175 Peene, Peter de, 73 Peiresc, Nicolas-Claude Fabri de, 429-30 Pel!, John, 90, 452 Pembroke, Earl of (Thomas Herbert), 355, 356, 359, 597 n. 134 Penguin (publisher), 4 Penn, William, 124, 135 Penny Cyclopaedia, 630 Penny Magazine, 630, 631, 632 pensions, for Stationers, 201 Pepys, Samuel, 80, 321, 383n. 7, 450, 489 perception. See vision performance: as astronomer, 560, 566-67; in Royal Society, 558. See also experiments periodicals: books issued as, 79, 107-8, 278; credibility of, 174-75, 532, 538, 540; development of, 445, 535-37; dispute over, 533-34; distribution of, 53435; frequency of, 535; list of, 536-37; piracy of, 538; problems with, 538- 40; in republic of letters, 514-15; translations of, 515 -21. See also Philosophical Transactions (periodical); specific

periodicals Perkins, Peter, 560 Perry, William, 535 perusal: in Royal Society, 483-84, 503, 530, 542; in Stationers' Company, 222-27. See also reading Petty, William, 462, 495, 513 Philips, Katherine, 180 philosophers: communicativeness of, 47274, 547; gentlemen as, 467-n; implications of piracy for, 33, 615-17; legitimacy of, 50 -51; prejudices of, 431-33; self-knowledge of, 432-33

INDEX

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Newton): distributor for, II5; importance of, 321, 565; price of, 445; publication date of, 42 n. 67; publication of, 54, 100-lOIn. 86, 320, 454, 464,466,49°-91,512; published comments on, 127, 493n. 95; readers of, 565; second edition of, 94, 103, 572, 598; Streater's role in, 272; third edition of, 124 n. 122, 167, 613; title page of, 320; unauthorized reprints of, 30 Philosophia Naturalis (Heereboord), 5078n.130 Philosophical Collections (periodical): Flamsteed's work in, 559, 561 n. 37; origins of, 533-34; printing of, 145; status of, 534-35,540 Philosophical Transactions (periodical): abridgment of, 579 n. 83; absence of, 451; attempted revival of, 539-40; correspondence regarding, 532-33; cost of, 90; demise of, 531-34, 535, 537, 542; development of, 498-99, 560; distribution of, 500-501, 521; finances of, 499500; Flamsteed's work in, 561, 565, 607, 613; on history of printing, 349; identity of, 514; imitations of, 456-57, 502n. 121; imprimatur on, 494; Oldenburg's projected Latin edition, 500, 515-16; plagiarism from, 616; printer of, 320, 493, 535; priority disputes and, 5°1-3,5°8-10,513-14; satire of, 45657; significance of, 54, 242, 466, 53738; spring watch dispute and, 522, 523, 528,53°-31; status of, 81n. 49, 514-15, 532, 541, 596; survival of, 540; translations of, 515 -21; unauthorized reprinting of, 515-21; witnesses in, 470n. 47. See also Oldenburg, Henry

The Phoenix ofthe Solemn League and Covenant, II9-20 Physical Reflections (Acton), 514 physicians: enthusiasm and, 413, 416-17; passions and, 403, 408; reading and, 408 physiology: commonwealth compared to, 275-76,281-82,289-9°; of habits, 406-7; resoutceS on, 387; role in creating ideas, 391-92; souls trapped in,

739

398-99,4°1; of speech, 283; works on, 494n. 97. See also brain; passions; vision (physiological) Picture ofa New Courtier (I.S.), 287 piracy: apprentices organized for, II5, 15253, 256; definition of, xx-xxi, 32, 16162, 313 n. 136, 344, 458; detection of, 169-74, 460; economics of, 164, 507; effects of, 4-5, 361- 62, 37I; examples of, 22-23, 25, 181-82, 634-35; foreign publications and, 169-71; highwaymen linked with, 150, 151 n. 171; images and, 434-35,436 n. II7; licensing system and, 231, 234, 236, 264; manipulation of, 512-13; modern historians on, 21516; oath against, 203; opportunities for, 353,365-66,371-72; of periodicals, 538; practices of, 3-4, 162-66, 168, 507; printers involved in, 99, 152-53, 166-69; ptivacy and, 128-29; Register Book and, 220-21; reprinting as, 45457; restriction of, 160, 182, 458-60, 541-42; as routine, 30-31, 162, 16668,171-72,183,356 -57,462-63,585; Stationers' civility and, 146; Stationers' disputes' and, 314-15; title pages and, 147-48; of women's writing, 181. See also counterfeits; plagiarism; usurpation Pitcairne, Archibald, 290 Pitfield, Alexander, 436 Pitt, Moses: apprentice of, II5; bankruptcy of, 221 n. 105, 453, 534; book costs and, 447-49; bookshop of, mn. 102; correspondence of, 498 n. 108; on customers, 120; identity of, 68, 453; on lawyers, 322n. 173; natural philosophy and, 90, 120, 145; on Stationers' character, 144. See also English Atlas (Pitt) place. See domains; social space Place, Francis, 552, 580 - 81 plagiarism: condemnation of, 5°8-9, 510II, 560; definition of, 461 n. 31; effects of, 473, 481, 503; fear of charge of, 181; in natural-philosophy books, 460 - 62; opportunities for, 187-88; prevalence as accusation, 460 - 61; as routine, 30; written history of, 32-33 n. 54, 35. See also usurpation

74°

INDEX

plague, effects on book trade, 500 planispheres, 563, 615 - 16 Plant, Margaret, 66 Plattes, Gabriel, 51 Pleas ofthe Crown (Hale), 322 Plot, Robert, 101, 496, 539-40 Pocock,]. G. A., 271n. 10, 325 Polanyi, M., 385 polite commerce, emergence of, 40-41 political tracts, licensers for, 240, 242-43. See also pamphlets

Politick Commentary Upon the Life ofCaius Julius Caesar (Streater), 285 politics: in bookshops, 122-24, 179; oflicensing system, 240 - 44; of patents, 256 -58; public and private interests in, 281-82; of regulation, 190. See also absolutism; radicals; republicanism; Tories; Whigs The Politique Informer, 277 n. 23 Ponder, Nathaniel, 115, 217-18 Poole, Elizabeth, 129 n. 131, 131, 180, 415 Poole, Matthew, 250 Poor Robin, on almanacs, 192 Pope, Alexander: book perusal by, 483; on book trade, 69; Curll's dispute with, 108, 168, 459, 550 -51; fleecing of, 108; on Tonson, 120; on usurpation, 508 n. 131 Pope, Mary, 180 popery. See Catholicism Pope's Head (shop), 108, 459 popularization, historiography of, 43 - 44 pornography, 100-lOin. 86, 320,454. See also obscene books Porta, Giambattista della, 389, 392, 426 Porta Linguarum (Comenius), 224 -25, 226 Porter, T. M., 41n. 65, 636n. II Pound, James, 579, 612 Power, Henry, 103 Power and Practice ofCourt-Leets (Speed), 313 n . 137 Practicae Medicinae Liber (Wood), 125 Prague, printers in, 18 precedence, in Stationers' Company, 207-9 prerogative. See royal prerogative Presbyterians: licensing system and, 231, 236; politics of, 293, 295, 3II; Stationers

as, 137-38, 185, 231, 237. See also Prynne, William Press Act (1662): on book deposit requirements, 199n. 33; Charles's support for, 299 n. 92; effects of, 72, 131, 157, 251, 263,314; exemptions from, 298-99; imports and, 170 -71; lapsed, 106, 131n. 137, 21 7, 231, 234, 352, 583; on licensing/patents, 239, 307-8, 338; passage of, 131-32, 231: on reprints, 455 n. 17 pressmen: exploitation of, 258; hours and wages of, 93 n. 71: practice and skills of, 91-93 Pretender, Old (James Francis Edward Stuart), 544. See also Jacobites Prevost, Abbe, 453 Prideaux, Humphrey, 36

Principia. See Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Newton) Principles ofNatural Philosophy (Worster), 182 print: development of knowledge and, 137, 188 -89, 271, 272-73> 623; historical construction of, 2-3, 47-48, 373-74, 636-38: modes oflabor required for, 29-30: politics of, 258-59: transcendence vs.locale of, 10, 40-45. See also credit, epistemic (credibility); history of printing; print culture; printing print culture: approaches to, 28-29, 47, 325 -26; as cause and result, 19, 21; challenges to, 297, 321; civility and, 3536,624,632-33,636-37: comparisons of, 636: crown vs. Stationers' concept of, 258-59: debates over, 320: development of, 2-3, 19, 34-35, 373, 625, 628, 636-37; Eisenstein on, 2n. I, 10, 1819, 29; historical experience and, 18 - 19: London's, 58-62; modern, 1-2, 62223,636-38; redefinition of, 310 printers: accusations against, 77-78; as authors, 359-61; autonomy and creativity of, 37-38, 101; character of, 34, 81-82, 139-40,144; complaints against booksellers, 310-11: credit manufactured by, 33-34,39-40; definition of, 59-6o: description of, 81-83: identity of, 107-

INDEX

8; of illicit or unauthorized books, 69, 73,99-100, II7; marks of, 173; master, 81-83,105-8,212-13; numbers and locations of, 72-74; patentees and, 39, 310; records kept by, 98 n. 81; regulation and, 37-38, 72-73, 106, 128-30; responsibility of, 125-26; searches resisted by, 130 -32, 298; social conventions adopted by, 60-61, 94-97; status of, 105-7, 212-13, 255, 258, 314; strategies of, 34; training for, 374. See also apprentices; Stationers Printer's Grammar (Stower), 366 printing: authorial control of, 585-86; costs of, 250; cultural specificity of, 35, 19, 21; dangers and benefits of, 2-3, 5, 28; effects of, 37, 265; Eisenstein on, 19; Flamsteed and, 558 - 69, 572, 577; identity of, 34, 305, 324; images of, 38 n. 59, 84, I23, 333; indeterminacy associated with, 36; practice of, 81-93; preservation and, 5-6; private, 128-31; of reprints, 454-57; responsibility for, 348-49; Restoration politics and, 72, 145, 150, 297-320. See also history of printing; print printing houses: alleged errors attributed to, 127; authors' access to, 61, 101-3, 126,158-59,463-64,59°,592; as collective, 94-95; compositor's room in, 85,87; concurrent printing in, 99-100, IOI, 104,136,15°-51,289,454; conventions in, 60-61, 94-97; definition of, 82-83; description of, 79-85, 82, 95, 98; domesticity in, 75-79, 125-26, 128; drying and collating pages in, 97-99; economic concerns of, 454; illustrations of, 84, I23, 333; manuscripts in, 104-5; payment in, 93n. 71, 94-95; publici private distinctions in, 75-79, 128-29, 135 -36, 629; readers' access to, 61, 12627; regulation of, 128-30; searches of, 103n. 134, II8-I9, 122-23, 130-36, 243, 3°0,318; social space of, 60-62, 12627; status of, 85; term for, 74-75; workers in, 76, 93. See also apprentices; chapel; compositors; correction/correctors; history of printing; pressmen;

74 1

printers; printing press; type; typography printing press: access to, 128-29; assigning credit for, 328-29; construction of, 85, 86; control of, II, I2-I3, 14-15, 17-18, 49-51; historiography of, 327; location of, 75, 77, 83-85, 84,129-3°; numbers of, 73; origins of, 329-34, 335, 375, 378; process for using, 91-93. See also history of printing; steam press; type; typography

The Printing Press as an Agent ofChange (Eisenstein), 10 printing revolution: concept of, 35-36, 636 -37; ideology of, 374-75, 378-79; scientific revolution and, II; timing of, 628-29 privacy: meanings of, 128 -29; piracy and, 128; propriety and, 565 privileges: definition of, 248 - 49; legal status of, 250-51; rationale for, 305, 306, 307-9. See also royal prerogative; patents Privy Council: on licensing and patents, 235, 307 n. II4, 314; printing encouraged by, 209-10, 336; Stationers' Company challenged by, 317-18; on Wolfe case, 257 progress: concept of, 373, 375, 378; print's role in, 378-79 proofing. See correction/correctors property: booksellers on, 342; concepts of, 246-48,352-55; imitations as threat to, 457-58; printing defined as royal, 305; right to, 589-9°; royal prerogative and, 253, 255, 307-9, 479; skills as, 342; use of term, 222, 3II. See also authorship; copyright; Copyright Act (1710); literary property propriety: authors and, 454-61; basis for, 325-26,503; of bookshops, 34, II9- 20; books on, 78-79; construction of, 35, 248; Continental reprinting and, 51421; credit and, 34-35, 127-28; credit (financial) and, II3-I4; debates over, 236, 620, 624; development of, 18990,246-48; Flamsteed on, 569-71, 60I, 604; in goods and customs, 253-

742

INDEX

propriety (continued) 54; patentees' role in, 39; role of, 7778; spring watch dispute and, 521-31; strategies for ensuring, 122-23, 141; threats to, 454-57, 456-58,520-21; use of term, 222; virtue linked to, 14546. See also civility; licensing; property; Register Book of Copies; regulation of the press Prosser, Enoch, 152 Protestantism: press regulation's relation to, 190; role of reading in, 384, 408-9 Providence: errata and, 425; Flamsteed on, 588; identity of printing and, 95, 190, 265,335,37°-71; invention of press and, 95, 329, 335; law and, 277; Restoration and, 296-97 prudence, 140,402, 406 Ptynne, William: on history of printing, 335-39,342-43,365; importance of, 326; on laws, 312; on locations of printing, 128; Parliament and, 295-96; patents challenged by, 327-28, 335-37; Sparke's relation with, 158, 185, 235, 245, 327-28; Stationers' Company and, 317n. 147, 347n. 63; tactics of, 126-27; trial of, 67, 185, 235, 240. See also Histriomas#x (Prynne) Psalmanazar, George, 359-60, 363, 373 Psalms, printing of, 300 Ptolemy, Claudius, 420, 421, 577, 580 n. 88, 600-601 public: good/interest and, 281, 288, 311, 313; knowledge and, 277, 279, 288, 297, 321; vs. private, 119, 128, 178; reason and, 321,353,357-58; sphere, 353-54, 374; Stationers' court and, 218; understanding of science and, 637 n. 12 publication dates. See dates, of publication public opinion, 353 -54. See also public; readers public/private distinction: in bookshops, 119-25,178-79; interests and, 281-82, 313; in piracy disputes, 171; in printing houses, 75-79, 128-29, 135-36, 629; Stationers' character and, 142-43. See also domesticity; privacy publisher: definitions of, xix, 59 - 60; labors of, 28; as wholesalers, 151-52

publishing, use of term, 150 Pulleyn, Octavian, 236-38 Pumfrey, S., 325, 574n. 75 Puritans, imagination and, 421-22 Pythagoras, 432 quadrants, Hooke's, 557-58 Quakers: books by, 69, 135, 137; information about, 124; leaders of, 278n. 28; oaths and, 203; printing practices of, 186; translations by, 180 Queen's Head Tavern, 67 quo warranto cases, 255, 317-19, 344 radical literature: authorship and, 165 - 66; outlets for, 124; printers and, 77, 147; trial for printing of, 135-36 radicals: passions and, 413; Penny Magazine and, 630, 63I, 632 Ragusa (Dubrovnik), 293 Rainbow coffeehouse, 305 n. 110 Ramesay, William, 415 Ramism,421-22 Ramsey, Frank, 635 Ramsey, Thomas, 284 - 85 Ranters, 231 Ra-Ree Show (Colledge), 134 Rawlins, William, 318 Raylor, Timothy, 268-69 Rayner, William, 168 readers: access to printing houses, 126 -27; autonomy of, 378 -79, 385 - 86, 62526; interpretation by, 183-85; judgments made by, 31-33, 36-37, 58, 62, 138,188,357,460,624; labors of, 2830, 46; passion of, 47; replicability and, 44-46,46; as tribunal, 353-54, 374. See also credit, epistemic (credibility); trust reading: act of, 385-86, 431, 442; authorship and, 632-34; children's, 407-8; commonwealth and, 274-75, 321; conversion through, 412-13, 415-16; as cure, 383-84; curiosity's role in, 407; discrimination of true from false, 41617,423-28; enthusiasm and, 409-10; of experimental knowledge, 433 -34; habituation and, 405, 406-7, 423; history of, 46-48, 384-86, 441-43, 62526,636-38; as labor, 424; passions in,

INDEX

386-87,4°4-5,429-3°; piracy's impact on, 171-74, I72; policing, 445; power of, 380-84, 408, 421-22, 42627; Royal Society conventions of, 5455,626; uncertainty in, 183-86; understanding of, 379; "useful" knowledge in, 629-30, 631, 632. See also perusal; readers; vision reason: imagination and, 403-4, 417-19; postlapsarian, 401, 424 -25; representation of, 399 reciprocation, 17, 482 - 84,524, 535, 56 5n. 47, 569-71, 573-74 Recorde, Robert, 50, 69 n. 24 rectifying (displacing error), 127 Reekes, Joseph, II5 Reformation, II, 329

The Reformed Common- Wealth ofBees (Hartlib): background of, 269-70,270, 288-89; publication of, 271; title page of, 271n. 9 The Reformed Virginian Silk-worm (Hartlib), 271 n. 9 refraction calculations, 570 -71, 573 Regiomontanus, Johannes, 14 register: concept of, 478-80; proposals for, 513-14. See also Register Book of Copies; Royal Society's Register Register Book of Copies (Stationers' Company): authority of, 219-21, 223, 307, 308-9, 3II, 355; authors' use of, 22930,620; books entered in, 213-21, 2I4, 25°,316, 316-17, 337-38; format of, 216-17; importance of, 200, 246, 263; legal defeat of, 317-18, 624; modern historians on, 215-16, 217n. 92; moral implications of, 222; patents' conflict with, 299-305, 3°7-18, 326, 341-42; royal prerogative and, 319-20. See also licensing regulation of the press: attitudes toward, 37-38,189-9°; beadle's role in, 199200; booksellers and, 37-38, 72-73; coffeehouses and, II3; development of, 189-9°; domesticity and, 156-57; hawkers and, 156 -57; justifications for, 230-31,232-33, 234, 327; printers and, 37-38,72-73,106,128-3°; recommendations for, 38-39, 189-9°; searches

743

and, 130 -31. See also censorship; licensing; patents; Press Act (1662); Stationers' Company; wardens Rehearsal! Transpros'd (Marvell), 218 Religio Medici (Browne), lOon. 85 Religion ofNature Delineated (Wollaston), 247 religiosity: divisions in, 285; metaphysical passion and, 401; in Stationers' civility, 139-40 ,14 2 -43 religious practices: accusations about, 544, 547; images and, 434-35; magic in, 283-85; mocked in engraving, 400; political uses of, 287; printed laws on, 136, 326; standardization of, 29; steam press and, 630n. 7; testimonies and conversions in, 4II-13; Willis's, 393. See also atheism; bibles; Catholicism; devotional works; God; Protestantism; Puritans; Quakers; Scripture; visions (spiritual) Renaissance, fixity and, II Renouard, Antoine Augustin, 367 renter warden (or renter), tasks of, 204-5 Reports (Croke): cost of, 315; destroyed in fire, 342n. 43; dispute over, 300-303; title pages of, 302 -3; use of, 321 republicanism, 34-35, 100, 124, 272-91, 293, 404, 573 n. 72. See also Commonwealth; The Common- Wealth ofOceana (Harrington); Harrington, James; politics republic ofletters, 75, 457, 499, 514, 634· See also public opinion Restoration: acceptance of, 296 -97; coffeehouses in, III-13; Company searches during, 131-32; law's place in, 321-22; morality in, 142; opposition to, 29596; piracy in, 163; printers' impropriety during, 77-78; printing in, 72, 145, 150, 297-320; prophecy on, 284; Stationers' elections during, 209; suspicion in, 297-98; women writers in, 180-81 Restoration crisis, 81, 148, 231 revise, printing of, 91 De Revolutionibus (Copernicus), 42 Reynolds, Edward, 399 rhetoric, in experimental philosophy, 4547,474

744

INDEX

Rhodes, Henry, 98-99, 120 ritual, 210 -II. See also ceremonies; natural magic; religious practices Robartes, Francis, 580 Roberts, James, 150 Robinson, Tancred, 594 Robotham, John, 226 Roche, Daniel, 109 Rochester, Earl of (John Wilmot), 100IOI n. 86, 320 Rochester, Earl of (Lawrence Hyde), 597 n . l 34 Rogers, John: dreams/visions of, 410 -II, 421; as enthusiast, 409, 415; as physician, 411, 413; preaching of, 411-13; on reading, 410; on women and spiritualiry,414 Rolle, Henry, p6, 316-17,322 rolling press, 463 n. 34 Roman, Adriaen, 84, 332-33,333 Roman Catholicism. See Catholicism romances, effects of reading, 380-82 Rome (ancient): as model, 312; republicanism in, 274-75 Rood, Theodore, 362 Rooke, Lawrence, 495 Roper, Abel, 317n. 146, 318 Rose, Mark, 161 Ross, Alexander, 52-54, 52n. 88,53,476 Rota: coffeehouse meetings of, 112; Royal Sociery protocols based on, 471n. 50 Rothmann, Christopher, 19 Rousseau, G. S., 124n. 22 RoyalAlmanack (Stephenson/Moore), 319 n . 164 Royal Astronomical Sociery, 550, 618 Royal Exchange, printer at, 71 royal mint, Newton as master of, 575 Royal Observatory (Greenwich Hill): character of, 559- 60; control over, 551, 553, 558-59,596-98,604-5,607; Flamsteed's residence in, 546, 551; foundation of, 548, 551; Halley's visit to, 6067; illustrations of, 552,580 -81, 587; instruments at, 604-5, 613; location of, 56,580-81; Newton's appropriation of, 597-98, 607; Uraniborg compared to, 49. See also Flamsteed, John

royal prerogative: commerce and, 249, 255; controversy over, 249, 252-53; corporations and, 255; definition of, 251; households and, 298; identification of sedition and, 250-51, 256, 305; licensing and, 230-31,232-33, 234,327; patents and, 248-62, 305; printing subsumed by, 363; properry and, 253, 255; Prynne on, 327-28, 336-37; Stationers' precedence and, 209; vs. Stations' Company, 3°7-9,317,319,338,342 royal printing house. See King's Printing House Royal Society: access to, 471-72; books and manuscripts presented to, 482-84, 613; character of, 559-60; charter of, 254, 465; civility and conventions in, 434,556-58; collectivity of, 433, 47072; communication and, 467-68, 47274,486-87,497-98,520-21,554; credibility in, 445-46, 472-73> 475, 494; criticism of, 244-45, 426, 461n. 29, 471-72, 495, 502-3; development of, 41, 382, 553; disagreements in, 471,596-97; experimental philosophy of, 389, 428, 443, 446, 469-71, 62627; Flamsteed/Hooke dispute in, 55658; history of printing and, 349; knowledge-making in, 54-55; lack of images of, 474-75; library of, 487-88; licensing and, 239, 242, 245, 264, 493-96; meeting place of, 40, 67, 465 - 67, 466, 467,475; members of, 80-81, 81n. 49, 467-70; minutes of, 485 n. 76; modest authorship and, 108; motto of, 357, 478; "performance" in, 558; Pitt's atlas and, 451-52; power of, 492-93, 49697,596; presidents of, 533-34, 575; Printers to, 77, 77 n. 41, 81, 167, 169, 492-93,496-97,516,521,535,583; print realm influenced by, 44, 49, 5455; prizes in, 481 n. 67; propriety conventions in, 466-67, 485,5°3-4,51421; publishing enterprises of, 54-55,72, 81,186,434,465-66,489-9°,515,54142,579; reading in, 54-55, 483-84, 626; repository of, 487- 88; Royal Observatory and, 551, 553, 558 -59, 596 -98,

INDEX 6°4-5, 607; satire on, 457; Stationers' relations with, 491-5°4; submission process in, 475; survival of, 542; trust developed in, 475-76; usurpation and, 512-13. See also Oldenburg, Henry; Philosophical Collections (periodical); Philosophical Transactions (periodical); Royal Society's Register; specificfellows Royal Society's Register: concept of, 47880, 508, 541- 42; editing entries for publication from, 535; format of material registered in, 411, 5II; guardian of, 497-98, 501; illustration of, 411; items in, 484-87; models for, 476-80; priority disputes and, 481, 488, 501-3, 51O-II; vs. publication, 489; spring watch dispute and, 521-31 Roycroft, Thomas, 227 Royston, Richard, pn. 88, 150, 206, 207, 216,300 Rudolf II (Holy Roman Emperor), 18, 18n. 28,21, 24n. 36 Rupert (Prince), 462 Rusden, Moses, 494n. 100 Rush, Benjamin, 408 n. 63 Rushdie, Salman, 4 Rushworth, John, 124, 172 Russell, Bertrand, 635 Ryckaert, David, III, 46 Sabean, David, 203

Sacred Theory o/the Earth (Burnet), 354 Saducismus Triumphatus (Glanvill), 468 n. 41 Saenredam, Pieter, 84, 332-33,333, 344

Saggi di Naturali Esperienze (Magalotti), 4 82 - 83 Saint Faith's (church), 68 Saint Helena, expedition to, 560, 563 Saint James's Palace, access to, 580 St. John, Henry (Viscount Bolingbroke), 597, 60 7 Saint Paul's Cathedral: Company's pew in, 209n. 71; as formidable project, 574, 574 n ·75 Saint Paul's Churchyard: book trade in, 66-68,69,72-73, Illn. 102, 125, 139, 177, 256; customers in, 67; Fire's destruction of, 68, 74; Flamsteed in, 610;

745

locale of, 65; soldiers in, 93 n. 71; warehouses in, 98 Salmasius (Claudius; Claude de Saumaise), Charles I defended by, 130 Salusbury, John, 146 salvo, meaning of, 217 Sam's (coffeehouse), II3n. 104 Sand, Christoph, 518-21, 541n. 191 Sanderson, Robert, 229 Sare, Richard, 458 n. 24 Sarsi, Lotatio (pseud. ofOrazio Grassi), 26,37 Satanic Verses (Rushdie), 4 Saturn, rings of, 484-85 Saunders, David, 124n. 122 Saunders, Col. Thomas, 286, 293 Sawbridge, Thomas, 140 Schaffer, S. ]., 447, 474 Scheiner, Christoph, 27, 37 Schoeffer, Peter, 329, 351, 355-56 scholarly works. See learned works scholars, stereotype of, 473 n. 52. See also philosophers scholastics, opposition to, 51 schoolbooks, patent on, 200, 249-50

The Schoolo/Venus, or . .. Ladies Delight, 320 Schulz, Gottfried, 517-18, 521 Schulze, S., 436n. II7 science: disputes in, 25 -26, 51; fixity and, II; imagination and, 404; networks in, 13-14n.16; objectivity and, 6n. 5; paper as basis of success of, II, 13-14; printing as, 107; public understanding of, 637 n. 12; transcendence vs. locale of, 10, 40-45; use of term, 6, 42-43, 107. See also history of science; scientific revolution; scientists scientific revolution: authorship in, 628; historiography of, 42- 43; printing revolution and, II, 57,378-79 scientists: fixity and, II; use of term, 6 n. 4, 43

Scintilla, or a Light Broken into Darke Warehouses (Sparke), 327 Scot, Thomas, 294-95 Scotland: army in, 293; books reprinted in, 354-55; printing house in, 135

INDEX

Scott, Robert, 68, 169 n. 205, 259- 60,449 scribblers, 183 Scriblerians, 456, 598-99n. 137 Scripture: Authorized Version of, 409; corrupred versions of, 424-25, 444; credibility of, 601; discrimination of truth, 4°8-9,423: printing of, 300; reading of, 384, 410, 412-13, 415-16. See also bibles; devotional works Scroggs, Sir William, 159, 183, 254n. 192, 255 Scu/ptura (Evelyn), 434 search and seizure: Company policies in, 234-35: funds for, 129n. 133, 133; impetus for, 298; patents and, 300: of printing houses, 103n. 134, 1I8-19, 122-23, 130 -36, 243, 300, 318; resistance to, 13°-32,298; wardens' role in, 206 Second Part ofthe Growth ofPopery (Marvell), 100 Secret Service fund, searches funded from, 129 n. 133, 133 Sedgwick, Joseph, 415 -16,442 sedition: foreign imports and, 169-70: issues of knowledge linked to, 16o: patent infringement as, 250 -51, 256 -58: patents as counter to, 307, 312: privacy as component of, 128 -29. See also illicit/illegal books Selden, John, 451 n. 10 Selenographia (Hevelius), 437 Senault, Jean, 398,399, 402, 406 Senex, John, 615-16, 621 senses: false information from, 428-29: images from, 387, 389: postlapsarian, 401: role in passions, 401-2. See also vision (physiological) semus communis, 389,391,393,395-97 Seres, William, 256 A Sermon Prepared to be Preach'd (Younkercrape),136 sermons: content of, 141-43, 560n. 35; conversions through, 412; licensers for, 230,241-42; piracy of, 143n. 59; publication of, 165, 218: registration of, 230: uses of, 143-44 servants: craft of, 402: employment of, 99, 99 n. 82: in Stationers' court, 196; testi-

monyof, 134-36, 470. See also apprentices; mechanicks Settle, Elkanah, 457 Several Cases ofConscience (Sanderson), 229 n. 123 Sexby, Edward (William Allen, pseud.), 29 2 -93,294 Seymour, John, 162, 312-13n.135 'sGravesande, Willem Jacob van, 181 Shadwell, Thomas, 457 Shakerley, Jeremiah, 468 n. 41 Shakespeare, William, 30, 31, 91, 215, 373 n . 146 Shakespeare's Head (shop), 108 Shank, M. H., 25 n. 37 Shapin, Steven: on cost of air-pump, 447; on gentility, 175 -76; on the gentleman and the natural philosopher, 467-68; on trust and knowledge, 31-32, 633, 636n. II; on virtual witnessing, 474 Sharp, Abraham: arc constructed by, 558 n. 31; calculations of, 586; in Flamsteed/Halley dispute, 589 n. 1I2, 604-5, 610; role in publishing Atlas Crelestis, 612-13; shorthand of, 627n. 5 Sharp, Jane, 180 Sheares, William, 150 Sheldon, Gilbert (Archbishop of Canterbury), 306 Shepheards Calendar (Spencer), 221 Sheppard, William, 276n. 19 shoplifting, 140 Sibthorpe, Robert, 241-42 Sideres Nuncius (Galileo): credibility of, 30; as gift/tribute, 24, 25: illustrations from, 22-23; as model for Wilkins, 52, 53; printing of, 20-21, 24, 29 Sidney, Algernon, 324, 404 signatures: as evidence of authorship, 182: in natural magic, 282; printers', 364 Simmonds, Martha, 158, 180 Simmonds, Thomas, 158 Simmons, Samuel, 127 Sinclair, George, 443n. 127, 461, 469, 502 -3 skills: of astronomers, 548, 615: attribution of, 127, 158-59, 348, 469-70; communication of, 44-45, 474-75; of com-

INDEX

positors, 87-88; concealment of, 128; in dissection, 393-94; in experimental practice, 44, 469-70; gentlemen and, 101,102,107,307,309-10,313 n. 138, 314; of Halley, 548; historical evidence and, 345, 359, 360, 362; of Hooke, 55657; oflicensers, 238, 239-44; oflithographers, 375 n. 150; of pressmen, 9193; as property, 342; reading, 45-46, 425 -26, 632; of Stationers, 187, 190, 309-10,313-14; steam printing and, 374 Skippon, Sir Philip, 553 Slater, Thomas, 223,224-25,226 Sloane, Sir Hans, 347 n. 61, 471, 568 n. 59, 59 6 Sluse, Rene Fran~ois de, 517 Smiles, Samuel, 326, 367 Smith, Adam, 248 Smith, Charles Manby, 96 Smith, Francis: accusations against/by, 77-78,206; arrests and prosecution of, 132, 255 n. 197; on authorship, 159; bankruptcy of, 221 n. 105; bookshop of, 108; religious activities of, 148; searches of premises of, 130n. 134; wife's actions and,l34 Smith, John, 288, 416, 442 Smith, Ralph, 134-35 Smith, Samuel: accusations against, 207; apprenticeship of, 115; bookshop of, III n. 102; Newton's Principia and, 464; patent infringement and, 26162 n. 220; on pirated books, 507; as resource, 349; Socinian works and, 518 n. 152; testimony of, 352 Smith, Thomas, 573 n. 72 Smithfield area, book trade in, 68-69, 7172n. 26,73 smouting, definition of, 96 Smyth, Richard, 348 Soane, George, 369 n. 140 social gossip, mathematical sciences and, 554. See also conversation; speech social ranks: in bookshop/home layout, 109, IIO; in commerical world, 139; Stationers' Company's role in, 209-10. See also gentlemen; working class

747

social space: concept of, 41- 44; craft customs and, 60; internal, 126-27; knowledge creation and, 40-42; in London, 63-74,64, 65; of printing houses, 12627; of reading, 385-86; replication and, 44-46,46; transformation of, 636-38. See also domains; domesticity Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 375, 629-30 Society for the Encouragement of Learning,464 Society for the Gentlemen Lovers of Musick,192 Socinianism, 459, 460, 518

Sodom, or the Quintessence ofDebauchery (Rochester), 320 solacing, 94, 96 Somerset, Edward, 463 n. 34 Somerset group of virtuosi, 498 n. 108

Some Thoughts on the Present State ofPrinting and Bookselling (How), 167 n. 202 Sorbiere, Samuel de, 66, 98, 108, 461 souls: rational and sensitive pans of, 39394,4°3-6,417-19; trapped in bodies, 398-99,4°1. See also amphibian/amphibious; animal spirits; passions Sowle, Andrew, 129 Sparke, Michael: bible printing and, 300 n. 97; on changes during printing, 101; on chapmen, 171 n. 211; on idle Stationers, 140n. 153; illustration issued by, 7; judgment of, 139-40; patents challenged by, 259, 327-28, 337-38; Prynne's relation with, 158, 185, 235, 245, 327-28; publications of, 125, 218, 223,224-25,226; reputation of, 52, 237; on Stationers' assistants, 208; testimonyof, 147, 148,149; wholesale business of, 152 speech: as habit, 405; labor and, 283; as open publication, 159, 527; physiology of, 283. See also conversation; social gossip

The Speeches and Prayers ofsome ofthe late Kings judges (Harrison et a1.), 119-20 Speed, Samuel: arrest of, 305, 313 n. 137; bankruptcy of, 221; bookshop of, 1lI12; comparing wives to servants, 134;

INDEX Speed, Samuel (continued) illustration of, 306; printing Cromwellian laws, 313; recalcitrance of, 227n. II7; on tradesmen, 345 Spelman, Clement, 301 Spencer, L., 300n. 100 Spenser, Edmund, 221, 383 Spinoza, Baruch, 515 spirits: belief in, 422-23; as imagination vs. demons, 422-23; testimony on, 145; in vision, 389, 39I. See also animal spirits; passions Sprat, Thomas, 74, 107, 461, 468, 498 n. 109. See also History ofthe Royal Society (Sprat) spring watches: dispute over, 495, 521-31, 525,529, 553; illustrations of, 497, 522; impetus for, 522-23 stage plays: in apprenticeship rituals, 9596; printer's specialty in, 168 - 69; publication process for, 104-5 standardization, implications of, 10. See also fixity Star Chamber: collapse of, 231, 327; on licensing, 230-31, 257; as prerogative court, 251, 257; trial in, 67, 128, 147, 159 n. 187, ,170, 185. See also Prynne, William Starkey, George, 421 n. 92 Starkey, John, loon. 84 stars: Brahe's catalogue of, 17 n. 25, 18, 18 n. 28, 20; Galileo's publication on, 21, 22-23, 24; names of, 599-600; Ulugh Beg's manuscript on, 496-97. See also astronomy; Atlas GtElestis (Plamsteed); Historia Cre!estis Britannica (Plamsteed) state/bureaucracy. See government Stationers: bequests from, 140; character of, 137-44, 146-48, 152, 157-58; church of, 68; civility/philosophy of, 81-82,144-47,187-9°; commonwealth of, 182-86, I84, 257,262; congers used by, 354-55; gender of, xx, 202, 203n. 46; group actions of, 15053; identity of, 59-60,138-4°,453; kinship ties among, 76 -77; meanings of term, xix-xx, 59; natural philosophy and, 74; oaths of, 203, 206; political and religious views of, 148, I49, 150-51,

157-58; power of, 137-38, 446-47; relations among, 584-85; responsibility of, 125-26, 159-60; seditious materials and, 131; self-representations of, 13844; social conventions adopted by, 6061; subscriptions and, 453-54. See also booksellers; printers; Stationers' Company; Stationers' Hall Stationers' Company: activities of, 79, 204-5, 261; almanac distribution and, 153; on bible printing, 337 n. 30; books seized by, 98 n. 80; buildings owned by, 65, 109, IIO; buildings surveyed by, 109, IIO; bylaws of, 255, 318, 365 - 66 n. 126; ceremonies of, 210 - 12, 2II; challenges to, 317-19, 322-23, 338 -39, 352-54, 626; characteristics of, 78-79, 201; charter of, xx, 59, 201, 308 -9, 3II, 31819,341-42,347-48; civil order developed by, 188-90; on concurrent printing, lOon. 84; control of, 105-6, 31920; counsel for, 328; criticism of, 305, 307-9; foreign imports and, 169-71; law book patent and, 299-300n. 95, 3°1,3°4-5,313-18; litigation pursued by, 162; members of, xix-xx, 128-29, 166,167,201-2,2°4; officers' term in, 275-76,281; opposition to, 106-7, 171; patents for, 259-62, 300; personnel of, 198-200; power of, 186, 196, 309; precedence in, 207-10, 260; records of, 198-99; regulation and, 76, II9, 31718; Royal Society's relation to, 476-77; searches conducted by, II8-19, 122-23, 130-34, 130n. 134, 300; social and administrative structure of, 201-13,202, 262, 31O-u; as threat to monarchy, 308-9; warehouses of, 98. See also beadles; court, Stationers'; English Stock; licensing; Register Book of Copies; regulation of the press; Assistants, Table of; wardens Stationers' Hall: access to, 194-97, 364n. 1!7; as castle, 192-94; communal culture of, 200-213; dress and conduct in, 197, 212; events at, 192, 2II-12; gatekeeper for, 192; imported books brought to, 170 -71, 191; locale of, 65; meetings at, 191; structure of, I9I, 192-

INDEX

96, I94, 200; use of, 190 -92, 263; warehouse at, 163, 191 steam press: credibility and, 375; fixity and, 628-29,633; inventors of, 367n. 136; possibilities created by, 629-3°, op, 632; training on, 374 Steele, Sir Richard, II3-14, 181 stellar parallax, alleged observation of, 572 Stephens, Robert, 132, 133 Sterpin, John, 516 -17, 519, 521 Stockkeepers, 261 Stow, John, 66, 144, 175, 339 Stower, Caleb, 366 Strafford, Earl of (Thomas Wentworth), 154-55, 287n. 48, 573 n. 72 Strahan, William, 106, 455 Strasbourg: early printing in, 330, 332n. 19, 357, 361n. 106,362; puppet play in, 368 Streater, Aaron, 272 Streater, John: accusations of piracy by, 167; arrests of, 276-78,286-87,29798; background of, 272-73; bankruptcy of, 221 n. 105; bees and, 26668,270,280-81,283,288; Bohme and, 287-89; on commonwealth and law, 274-91,293-94; death of, 320; election of, 208 n. 64; end ofInterregnum and, 292-97; on experiments, 282-83; on flatterers, 287n. 48; in hiding, 28586,294; on history of printing, 34-35, 342- 43, 624-25; importance of, 320, 326,453; law book patent and, 304-5, 312-17,322,326,338-39,342-44,45556,624; natural knowledge and, 27172,279-80; on natural magic, 283-85; on patents, 305, 3II-12; political and religious views of, 148, 150, 274-91, 305, 323; printers' status and, 106, 463; printing house of, 295, 298-99, 305, 320; on privacy, 130, 298; Restoration accepted by, 296-97; Rump Parliament and, 273-74, 293-96; searches of premises of, 132, 318; sources on, 271 n. 10; Starioners' court and, 227n. II6; as symbol, 271-72; works printed by, 108, 147, 274, 276-86, 288, 288n. 51,289-9°,314,322-23 Streater, Joseph, 100 -101 n. 86, 320, 454 Streater, Susan, 78, 297, 320

749

Streater, Thomas, 272n. II Streete, Thomas, 437, 438, 440,453, 501n . II9 Strong, Adrian, 412 Strype, John, 67, 103-4, II7 n. 109, 137, 159 n . 186 Stuarts: monopolies under, 249; patents and, 624; politics of, 251-54; press regulation under, 189; restoration of, 231. See also absolutism; specific

monarchs Stubbe, Henry: accusations by, 461 n. 29, 495; on experiments, 470n. 47; licensing and, 160, 239, 244-46; on Royal Society's perusal practice, 483; on virtual witnessing, 470n. 47 Sturmy, Capt. Samuel, 71-72n. 26 subscriptions: concept of, 450, 463; issues of credit and, 450 -51; for Pitt's atlas, 451-53; problems of, 450-51; Royal Society and, 486; Stationers' role in, 45354; viability of, 453-54 Sun, image of, 437,438,439,44° superstition, satire on, 400 Supportfor the sinking Heart (Ash), 166 n. 197 Surveyor of the Press, 132, 239. See also L'Estrange, Roger Sussex, Giles, 210 Swammerdam, Jan, 489 Swan, Sir William, 518 Swift, Jonathan, 68, 175,456-57 Swinfield, Raphael, 412 Switzerland, unauthorized books printed in, 508-10 Sylva (Evelyn), 494 Symmons, Matthew, 220 n. 103 Synesius of Cyrene, 423

Synopsis ofthe Critical and Other Commentators upon the Bible (Poole), 250 System ofthe World (Newton), 246 n. 161, 512 Table of Assistants. See Assistants, Table of Tacitus, 62 Tamerlane, 496 n. 103 Tatler, 175, 180, 458 taverns: meetings at, 67-68, 582, 584, 594; printed materials in, 62; reputation of, 147. See also coffeehouses

75°

INDEX

Taylor, Randall, 65, 109n. 100, 150, 199200 technology: consequence of, 19, 637-38; construction of, 628-29; cost of, 447; historiography of, 35-36, 628-29; piracy facilitated by, 4 telescopes: books accompanied by, 24; disputes over, 554-56; observations with, 576-77; reading through, 431n. 107 Test Act (1678), 470n. 46 text(s): authority of, 17-19; definition of, xxi; differences among, 226-27; identity of, 223, 226; juxtaposition of, lOII; replication and, 44-46,46; stability vs. instability of, 5- 6, 358, 371, 375, 378. See also books; experimental papers; manuscripts theaters: Faust's legend in, 351, 367-68; printing presses in, 75 theft, 140, 183 n. 232. See also history of printing; piracy Thevet, Andre, 344 Thirty Years' War, 332, 404 Thomas, William, 298 Thomason, George, 124, 236-38 Thompson, Nathaniel, 124, 148 Thoresby, Ralph, 87, 104, 347n. 61, 350, 589 n . 1I2 Thornhill, Sir James, 612 Thurloe, John, 285, 286 n. 46 tides, 26, 545, 559, 561 n. 37 Tillinghast, Mary, 180 Tindal, Matthew, 264, 265 title pages: displayed/hidden by Stationers, 119-20; in law book dispute, 3023; locations identified on, 73-74, 259 n. 209; of Oceana, 289; printers listed on, 73-74, 147-48,150,159,164; printers omitted from, 320 titles, in Register Book, 213 -21, 214, 223, 245 Toft, Mary, 400 Tokefield, George, 217 n. 92 Toland, John, 235 n. 141, 289-90 Tompion, Thomas, 523,529 Tonson, Jacob: Bentley's Milton and, 127; bookshop of, 71, 108; Byrom's meeting with, 102 n. 88; character of, 120 -21,

138; on Register Book,. 214; as victim of piracy, 512 n. 137 Tooke, Andrew, 159n. 186 Tooke, Benjamin, 98n. 80, n8-19, 124, 457 Topography ofLeeds (Thoresby), 104 Tories: bookshops frequented by, 179; center for trade publishing, 150 -51; concepts of property, 255 Tottel, Richard, 299 Tower Hill, ptinters in, 71-72n. 26 Tower of London: attempt to seize, 29395; book trade around, 71; Lambert's escape from, 297 Towneley, Richard, 557, 565n . 47 Town's End Lane, printers in, 73 Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (Wittgenstein), 633-36 Tracy, Ebenezer, 145-46 trade: London social topography organized by, 63, 65; printing as, 342-43 trade publishing, use of term, 150 tradesmen: as authors, 345; monopolies challenged by, 327; in Royal Society, 471 n. 51; Royal Society's register rejected by, 488; status of, 255 Tragedie ofDr. Faustus (Marlowe), 333,334> H5

Traite Elementaire de Chimie (Lavoisier), 42n . 6 7 transfusions (blood), 481, 502n. 121, 553 translations: of Boyle's work, 508-10; of F1amsteed's work, 612; of periodicals, 515-21; restrictions on, 226, 227-28; Royal Society and, 476, 483; by women, 180-81 travel accounts, credibility of, 174-75 Travers, Rebeckah, 414, 415 Treadwell, Michael, 65 - 66 treasurer, English Stock's, 98-99 A Treatise ofthe Execution ofJustice, 135-36 Trenchard, John, 427 n. 101 Trinitarians, press strategies of, 424, 465 Trundle, John, 147 trust: knowledge and, 31-32, 633, 636 n. II; practical criteria for, 187-88; in Royal Society, 475-76; Stationers' disputes and, 314-15. See also credit, epistemic (credibility)

INDEX

truth claims: discrimination of, 401, 409; repertoires for, 174-82 Tudors, press regulation under, 189 tuition of deaf children, 502n. 121, 504 Tumble-Down Dick (tavern), 168 Tupper, A. c., 375 n. 150 Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques, Baron de I'Aulne, 373, 378 Turner, Jane, 413 n. 71 Turnour, Robert, 340, 34 I , 349

Tutor to Astronomy and Geography (Moxon), 8o, 80n. 48

Two Treatises (Digby), 236-39, 245 Twyford, Henry, 124, 300, 305, 319 Twyn, John, 135-36, 176 Twynne, Brian, 347 Tyacke, Nicholas, 144n. 160 Tyler, Evan, 173 Tyndale, William, 336 type: cases for, 83, 85, 86, 87; cost of, 447; as evidence, 362; hiding of, 130; metal, 87, 351, 366; under microscope, 430, 430-31; preferences in, 80; production of, 89, 89-90; as resource for press regulation, 72n. 28; sets needed of, 88-89,447; wooden, 331, 360, 363, 365, 366 typefounders, 72n. 28, 79-81 typographers: definition of, 81-82; training of, 376 TypographicalAntiquities (Ames), 364-65 typography: credibility and, 440 - 41; as evidence, 375,376-77; as mechanism of regulation, 72n. 28; as product of skill, 88; for recording experiments, 433-34; as science, 89 tyrant /tyranny: assassination of justified, 285,292-93; distribution of knowledge as counter to, 274-76, 290; mathematical sciences as counter to, 279-80; printed records as counter to, 276-79; revealed by speech, 283 Tyson, Edward, 101 underbeadle (porter), 199 undertakers: criticism of, 310, 592; for Historia Ceelestis, 582-83; meaning of, xix; responsibility of, 91, 159 n. 187; sub-

75 1

scribers sought by, 450-51, 453. See also booksellers Union Fire Office, 192 Universal Historical Bibliotheque (periodical), 537 universality, attainment of, 41-42. See also objectivity; social space unlicensed books. See illicit /illegal books Uraniborg: Blaeu at, 84-85; centrality of, 13; printing house at, I2-I3, 17; representation of, 8, 8-9, I2, 474; Royal Observatory compared to, 49; visitors to, 48n.81 Urban VIII (Pope), 25-27 Ursus (Nicolai Reymers Baer), 16-17, 19, 35,5 88 - 89 Use o/Passions (Senault), 398,399 Ussher, James, Archbishop of Armagh (Armachanus), 451n. 10 usurpation: concept of, 461-62; effects of, 508-9; experimental philosophers and, 504-14; Newton's manipulation of, 512-13; Philosophical Transactions as counter to, 501-2; register as counter to, 486; as routine hazard, 462 - 63 Vane, Sir Henry, 267 Van Heiden, A., 436 Vaughan, Thomas, 419 Venice, patents issued in, 249-50n. 173 Vere, Thomas, 218 Vernon, Francis, 517 Vertue, George, 605 Vesalius, Andreas, 42 Veyne, Paul, 625 Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da, 107 n. 96 Vignola (Vignola), 107 n. 96 virtual witnesses/virtual witnessing, 45, 474, 50 7, 508 , 53 2 Virtuoso (Shadwell), 457 vision (physiological): affection's role in, 392; animal spirits' role in, 397; concept of, 387, 397, 398, 442; corruptibility of, 391-92; experiments on, 388, 389-92, 390, 39I; passions' influence on, 405; representation of eye, 387,388, 389-92, 390, 39I. See also brain

75 2

INDEX

visions (spiritual): conditions for, 413; conversions through, 412-13; creation of, 421-22; diagnosis of, 417; discrimination of true from false, 416, 419, 420, 421,442-43; enthusiasm and, 410-12; implications of, 418-19; interpretation of, 416-17; women's, 414-15 Vitruvius, 35, 80, 81, 107, 434 Vogel, Martin, 516-18 voluntaries, 50-51 Vossius, Isaac, 452

Waygoose (Wayzgoose) feast, 95 Weavers' Company, 79-80n. 47 Weber, Max, 140, 143-44, 629 Webster, Charles, 268 Webster, John, 184, 408, 422 Weekes, Thomas, lI5

Weekly Intelligencer ofthe Common-wealth, 182n. 230

Weekly Medley, lI8 Weekly Memorials for the Ingenious (periodical), 538, 540

Weekly Register, 362-63 Waesberge, Johann Jansson Van, 521 n. 159 Waghenaer, Lucas Janssen, 79-80n. 47 Wakley, Thomas, 122n. 120 Walker, Joseph, 136 Wall, Thomas, 157 Waller, Richard, 436, 483 Wallis, John: accusations against/by, 461, 498; advice to Flamsteed, 572-73; disputes of, 504, 520; on history of printing, 106, 343; Hooke and, 5II; on mathematics, 445, 450; Oxford press and, 476-77; on patents and licensing, 258, 343, 620; Philosophical Transactiom and, 516; on register, 487; on reprints, 455; works of, 50, 106 Walpole, Robert, 607 n. 159 Walton, Izaak, 221 Walwyn, William, 413 Wanley, Humphrey, 352 Ward, Edward (Ned), 120, 168, 554 Ward, Seth, 50, 418, 425, 476, 488-89 wardens, Stationers': accusations against, 207; activism of, 205-6, 300; ceremonies and, 2II-12; election for, 205; place in hierarchy, 210; records and, 198-99; role in disputes, 222-23; suits against, 273; tasks of, 200, 205 - 6, 217 warehouses: keeper for, 98-99; uses of, 98-99,163-64; for wholesalers, 151-53 Warner, Walter, 461 Warwick Castle, 296 Warwick Lane, printing in, 150 watches. See spring watches watermarks, credibiliry established via, 173 Watson, James, 85, 173, 258 Watts, John, 76, 96-97, 102n. 89

Westfall, Richard, 550, 596n. 131, 59899 n . 137 Westman, Robert S., 17n. 23, 47n. 76 Westminster area, booksellers in, 66, 71 Weston, Thomas, 581 n. 91 Wharton, Henry, 103-4, 137 Wheare, Degory, 442 Whewell, William, 325, 619 Whigs: books favored by, 316; center for trade publishing, 150-51; concepts of property, 255 Whiston, William, 565, 612, 617 Whiting, John, 301-3 Whitley, Robert, 294 Whitlock, Elizabeth, 150 Whitlock, John, 150 Whole Duty ofMan (Allestry), 147-48 wholesalers: booksellers' dealings with, lI4n. 105; definition of, 59-60 Widdowes, Giles, 126 Wight, Thomas, 299 Wild, Jonathan, 457 Wilkins, John: accusations by, 461; apiary of, 269; as author, 50, 52-54; book of nature and, 47 n. 78; on civility of communication, 472; Copernicanism and, 52-54,53; experimental philosophy and, 382, 432, 469; Oxford press and, 476; proofing by, 103; on register, 488; Society Printers and, 493, 496; universal character and, 80,525, 525 -26; on wisdom, 140 William III (King of England), 320, 583 Williams, John, 236-38 Williamson, Sir Joseph: coining of "pirate," 344; on expertise in publish-

INDEX

ing, 491; licensing and, 242-44, 253; Moxon and, 81; Philosophical Transactions and, 502, 534; Pitt's atlas and, 452; as president of Royal Society, 533; spring watch dispute and, 524 Willis, Thomas: brain dissection by, 39297,394,396, 406; influence of, 398, 423; on passions, 397, 398,4°0, 408, 417; as physician, 408, 408 n. 63; on physiology of passions, 402 n. 48; on reading, 383 n. 8; on reason vs. imagination, 404; on spirits in blood, 289-9°; on vision, 396-97, 405 Willmoth, Frances, 550n. 14, 553n. 19 Will's coffeehouse, 124 Willughby, Francis: Historia Piscium, 434, 489-90,49°, 579; reading of, 383; work completed by wife, 612 n. 167 Wing, Vincent, 227 Winkler, M. G., 436 Winstanley, Gerrard, 51 n. 86 Wither, George, 146-47, 182, 257 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 633-36 Wftty, John, 581 n. 91 Wolfe, John: accusations against/by, 12223,326-27; as Printer to City of London, 257; reputation of, 167, 256, 259 Wolfe, Reyner, 144 Wollaston, William, 247 Wolley, Hannah, 180 women: authority of, 78-79; as booksellers, 114, 122; claiming to be transformed into men, 414-15; at coffeehouses, Il3; completion of husbands' work and, 612; coverture laws and, 134-35; creativity of, 413-14; English Stock held by, 260; exclusion from craft customs, 96; as prophets and authors, 158-59, 180-81,413-14,414-15, 442; reading and illness of, 408, 408n. 63, 413-14; in Royal Society, 471 n. 51; spirituality of, 413 -14; in Stationer's Company, 202, 203n. 46; as translators, 180 - 81. See also gender; merCUrIes Wood, Anthony :I., 128 n. 129, 343

753

Wood, George, 128-29, 167 Wood, John, 125 Woodmansee, Martha, 159-60 Woodward, James, 181-82n. 229 Woodward, John, 461, 471, 596 Woolrych, Austin, 273n. 13 working class, printed works for, 629-30, 6p,63 2 "Works of Darkness" (Chodowiecki), 37I Worsley, Charles, 286 n. 46 Worster, Benjamin, 124n. 22, 182 Wren, Christopher: on affections, 393; beehive illustration by, 269-7°,27°; coffeehouses and, 554; communicativeness of, 472-73; experimental philosophy and, 382; on the eye, 389; Flamsteed and, 580, 587, 589, 591, 595; Flamsteed/ Newton dispute and, 574-75, 587; inventions of, 462-63, 477; mathematical challenge by, 481 n. 67; observatory designed by, 551; Pitt's atlas and, 452; on priority and publication date, 489; reputation of, 526 n. 169, 587, 595; Royal Society and, 487 n. 86, 533; spring watch dispute and, 523-25, 527n. 172, 528-29 Wren, Matthew, 277n. 23, 291-92 writers: definition of, xxi; locale for, 68; payment for, 165 - 66. See also authors; scribblers writing: invention of, 10 n. 9; inventions for, 463n. 34 Yarranton, Andrew, 472 Yates, Sir Joseph, 247 n. 163 Yates, Thomas, 343, 344, 347 Yeo, Richard, 325 Yetsweirt, Charles, 299, 340 Young, James, 226 Young, Robert, 226 Younkercrape, Toryrorydammeeplotshammee,136 Zetzner, Lazarus, 351n. 74 "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Karper" (Einstein), 42n. 67