694 130 26MB
English Pages [240] Year 1980
APQ LIBRARY OF PHILOSOPHY
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY JOHN KEKES
1980
ROWMAN AND LITTLEFIELD TOTOWA, NEW JERSEY
©
X
American Philosophical Quarterly 1980
ISBN 0-8476-6247-0
Printed in Great Britain
for
Jean Y. Kekes
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ix
INTRODUCTION
xi
PART ONE: THE PROBLEM CHAPTER ONE: THE CASE AGAINST PHILOSOPHY I.
II.
III.
The Failure of Philosophy The Weakness of Excuses What is to Be Done?
3 3
8
13
PART TWO: PERENNIAL ARGUMENTS
AND WORLDVIEWS
CHAPTER TWO: PERENNIAL ARGUMENTS I.
II.
III.
Arguments Two Misinterpretations of Perennial Arguments
23
Conclusion
27
Characteristics of Perennial
CHAPTER THREE: PROBLEMS I.
II.
17
17
30
Introduction
30
Problems and Theories
31
Problems of Life and Problems of Reflection IV. Removable Problems and Enduring Problems
32
V. Enduring Problems and Perennial Arguments
39
III.
36
42
VI. Conclusion
CHAPTER FOUR: IDEALS
46
Introduction
46
A
46
I.
II.
Description of Ideals V
1 1
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
VI III.
Ideals
ami Presuppositions
IV. Conclusion
53
56
'
*
CHAPTER I.
II.
III.
WORLDVIEWS AND WISDOM
FIVE:
'
58
Worldviews
58
Wisdom The Autonomy
65
The State
of Philosophy
70
Argument
73
of the
PART THREE: PHILOSOPHICAL JUSTIFICATION CHAPTER I.
II.
III.
six:
THE DOMAIN OF JUSTIFICATION
Introduction
79
The The
80
Distinction Between Discovery and Justification First
Argument: The Autonomy of Philosophy
IV. Criticism of the First
V.
79
81
Argument
83
The Second Argument: Philosophy
88
as Rational
Reconstruction VI. Criticism of the Second
Argument
89 92
VII. Conclusion
CHAPTER seven: JUSTIFICATION IN PHILOSOPHY: THE CONTEXT OF INTRODUCTION I.
II.
III.
95
Introduction
95
The Background The Two Contexts
96 99
of Justification
IV. Justification and the Context of Introduction
102
V. Conclusion
107
CHAPTER eight: JUSTIFICATION THE CONTEXT OF ACCEPTANCE I.
II.
IN
PHILOSOPHY:
Introduction
111
The Three Tests of Truth-Directedness
1 1
and the Context of Acceptance IV. Justification and Truth
III.
1 1
Justification
V. Conclusion
The State
of the
'
118 121
122
Argument
126
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
PART FOUR: PHILOSOPHY AND SOME OF ITS RELATIONS CHAPTER NINE; PHILOSOPHY AND COMMON SENSE
131
I.
Introduction
131
II.
Basic Beliefs
132
III.
Basic Beliefs and
IV.
The
V.
Justification
Common
Common Sense of Common Sense
Sense and Worldviews
CHAPTER ten: PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE I.
II.
III.
143
147 147
Problem-Solving and Science
149
Metaphysics and Science
155
and Science
158
V. Conclusion
162
CHAPTER ELEVEN: PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY II.
138
Introduction
IV. Worldviews
I.
135
164
Introduction
164
Historical Understanding and Philosophical
165
Justification III.
Historical Understanding
and the Improvement of
Worldviews IV. Historical Understanding and Sensibility V. Conclusion
The State
PART
Argument
II.
III.
179
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY: CONCLUSION
CHAPTER TWELVE: PHILOSOPHY AS THE CONSTRUCTION AND JUSTIFICATION OF WORLDVIEWS I.
174 177
of the
FIVE:
173
185
Introduction
185
The Ideal of Philosophy The Presuppositions of Philosophy
186
IV. Conclusion
191
200
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
viii
CHAPTER THIR-T^EN: PHILOSOPHY AND PERENNIAL
ARGUMENTS I.
II.
III.
Introduction
203 *
External Perennial Arguments about Philosophy Internal Perennial
IV. Conclusion
Arguments about Philosophy
203
206 213 218
NAME INDEX
219
SUBJECT INDEX
221
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book
is
my A
a sequel to
Stale University of
Justification of Rationality (Albany:
New York
Press, 1976). In the previous
develop a theory of rationality;
in this
book
book
I
apply that theory to
I
some inevitable repetitions. In Chapters Three, Five, and Eight I draw on material from Chapters Eight and Twelve of the previous book. The two books, however, stand or philosophy. This results in
fall
independently of each other.
In
Two and Five incorporate the two of my articles: both were
Chapters of
contents
I
Idealistic Studies, I
one
I
an article in
1979.
I
first
am
published
in
published in the Philosophy of the
first
Social Sciences in 1977. In Chapter Seven in
first
and revised
1977, the other in 1979. In Chapter Three
in
use portions of an article
published in Inquiry
partial
I
rely
1979. Finally, Chapter
published
in
the
on an
article first
Nine overlaps with
American Philosophical Quarterly
grateful for permission to
make
use of these articles.
William Hay, Joel Kupperman, Jack Meiland, and Stephen
Nathanson have read through the penultimate version of the manuscript. My debt to them is immense. They commented in detail, they gave me the benefit of their time, energy, and judgment, and they encouraged me. I have not always taken their advice, but the book benefited enormously from the comments I have heeded.
am
I
indebted to
Max
Black for suggesting the key term,
argument, around which the book revolves, and for helping me to think along the way. Stuart Brown, Josiah Gould, and Susan Haack read parts of the manuscript and I am grateful perennial
for their
comments and
criticisms.
The Research Foundation of the State University of New York provided two summer research grants, the College of Humanities and Fine Arts and the Office of
New York
expenses.
I
for
Research of the State University
Albany underwrote typing and duplicating gratefully acknowledge their support. Helen Somich at
typed two versions of the manuscript; her intelligence, patience, tact,
and precision are beyond the
everything. IX
call of duty,
and
I
thank her for
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
X I
is
dedicate thi? ifook to Jean Y. Kekes,
more
If this
to
me and
has done more for
book has merit,
it is
than
helped to do the work by being
first
wife and friend. She I
could possibly ask.
due to her, for she has which 1 can work, but also an audience, then a critic, and
to a great extent
not only created the conditions in
then an editor.
me
my
.
INTRODUCTION prompted by a concern about the absence of a satisfactory worldview in contemporary Western society. A worldview combines a reliable account of the nature of reality and a system of ideals. Having such a worldview makes the solution of problems possible, gives meaning and purpose to life, and thus creates the conditions under which life can be good. The problem, as I see it, is not about our knowledge of reality. The growth of scientific knowledge has been steady. As a result, we live longer, we are in better health, and enjoy higher living standards than ever before. These improvements, however, merely create some of the conditions under which life can be good: by This book
is
make it we lack.
themselves, they cannot of ideals; and
it is
this
We
so.
also need a rational system
Since our society does not provide them with such ideals, and since they
do not generate them
hollow
lives.
drugs,
they
To
fill
for themselves,
most people
live
them, they turn to mindless entertainment or
rediscover
the
thrills
magic by
of
flirting
with
mysticism, witchcraft, astrology, religious revivalism, and other
Many,
unworthy options, are left with a choice between despair, cynicism, and more or less obsessive pursuit of some sysiphean activity. The difficulty is not the absence of ideals. The Western tradition has ample supply of them. The difficulty is the rational justification and systematization of those ideals. What we lack is a coherent system of reasonable ideals. It is this lack which is mainly flowers of unreason.
rejecting these
many lives not being good. The ideals we hold should be rationally justified. If they are not, we have no way of knowing whether the policies we adopt in responsible for
accordance
them
with
can
be
solutions
satisfactory
problems. Thus the rational justification of ideals interest
rational
of those ideals
is
who
hold
required
them.
by
And
the
the
is
our
of
in the best
systematization
of
having
a
desirability
of
coordinated policy for dealing with problems, rather than respon-
ding
to
them piecemeal with the
jeopardize another. XI
risk
that
one effort
may
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
xii
Though we have
to
system of rational ideals makes
not, having a
ways that shape our shape our
effort to
cope with problems whether we
lives in directions'
it
like
it
or
possible to cope in
we have
chosen.
It
this
is
accordance with a system of rational
lives in
meaning and purpose to life. And success in the effort is what makes life good. The thesis of this book is that it is the task of philosophy to show how to live well by the construction and rational justification ideals that gives
of worldviews.
It
philosophy that one should look for a
to
is
coherent system of rational ideals that gives meaning and purpose to life
and
in
accordance with which
This view of philosophy
is
its
problems can be solved.
traditional. Its statement
would have
been a commonplace until around the beginning of this century.
my
Part of
defending
reason for restating
is
old,
I
is
is
that, while the
am
I
philosophical justification.
when people
turn to
them
for help, they fail to
it.
The book
divided into five parts.
is
The
against philosophy which the rest of the book
The charge, heard is
view
have some new things to say about the nature of
this traditional view;
get
now
Another part of the that many contemporary philosophers have come to reject
philosophy and reason
it
that
The
is
states the case
designed to meet.
frequently from both philosophers and laymen,
philosophy
responsibility.
first
is
incapable of discharging
its
traditional
history of philosophy, they charge, reveals no
progress and no knowledge; recurrent discussions of the
it
is
a history of futile, endless,
same kind of
and
questions. This, they say,
explains both the gradual recognition of the insignificance of the subject and the disinclination of philosophers to continue in the useless old
manner.
The second
part begins to meet this case by describing a type of
argument which
I
have come to
call
perennial.
The
practice of
philosophy occurs mainly through perennial arguments. They are indeed
endless
and recurrent discussions of the same type of
questions, but they are not futile. Their perenniality
a
fault.
is
a virtue not
For perennial arguments aim to solve those enduring
human problems whose persistent presence is an inevitable feature of human existence. The solution of such problems cannot result in their disappearance;
them
coping
with
policies
we come
in
it
in
can only continue to produce policies for
changing
circumstances.
to accept should enable us to
accordance with our
ideals.
interpret available ideals,
What
and how
Of
course,
the
cope with problems
ideals to be guided by,
to develop policies
how
to
which solve
INTRODUCTION enduring problems as they occur
in
Xlll
changing circumstances and
yet accord with acceptable ideals, are the questions to be
answered
by perennial argumentation.
The forms
which these enduring problems occur, the
in
rationally justified ideals available for solving them, the policies at
our disposal, change from age to age. Therefore each society must
form and reform
worldview. This, and not any inherent defect
its
in
what explains the crucial importance, as well as the endlessness and recurrence, of philosophical arguments. the subject,
The
is
fication. Its
key idea
not one, as
new theory of
provides a
part
third
philosophical justi-
that there are two contexts of justification,
is
generally supposed. Each context has an objective
is
standard of justification, and these standards are shown to be independently justified.
A
justified philosophical theory
the best
is
solution of an enduring problem in a particular problem-situation.
What makes it so is that it is more likely to be true than any of its rivals. An ideal worldview is composed of a cluster of philosophical theories
thus justified;
enduring problems
in
offers
it
a
rational
accordance with rational
philosophy, according to the traditional view
develop such a worldview
The
fourth part
is
The
The aim
defending,
is
of to
each age.
sense, science,
and
history.
to further elucidate the nature of philosophy
other pursuits.
ideals.
devoted to examining the relation between
common
philosophy and
in
for
am
I
solving
policy
contrast yields
It is
an effort
by contrasting
it
with
some conclusions about the kind
down
of considerations that must be stressed or played
in
the
and rational justification of our worldview. These conclusions are that the worldview which will provide ideals for a good life must redress the present imbalance by stressing common sense, historical understanding, and cultural concerns against the inflated claims made on behalf of scientific understanding, and that the importance of science to a good life has been overrated in contemporary philosophy. construction
The final
fifth part
account
is
worldviews and porary
rivals.
gathers the threads of the previous discussions. given
this
The
of the construction
account
is
defended against
picture that
emerges
humanistic enterprise whose conduct participation
in
a
rationally
and
is
in
justified
is
the
diagnosis that
of this book
we
is
main contem-
of philosophy as
common
worldview
necessary condition for the achievement of a good
The whole
of
justification
its
A a
good. For
provides
a
life.
informed by what prompted
it:
the
are in urgent need of a systematic and rationally
•
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
XIV
and that a humanistically interpreted philosophy is our best hope for providing it. In addition to this overall concern, there are several themes running through the book. One is that philosophy cannot be done in isolation from the historical, political, scientific, social, literary, and other cultural influences upon it. The appreciation of cultural influences, however, requires historical understanding. And this means that worldview
justified
the
construction
pocentric
of
inevitably
The importance
element.
siderations,
worldviews
involves
an
anthro-
humanistic con-
of these
however, does not change the fact that worldviews
must and can be rationally justified. The recurring emphasis upon the necessity and possibility of rational justification in philosophy is another theme of the book. The book is addressed to three groups. The first is composed of my colleagues, professional philosophers. I want to persuade them to return to the traditional view of the subject. The other group includes
troubled
nonphilosophers
who
turn
to
philosophy
answers and then are turned away again by philosophers.
I
for
want
to
them that they are right in their expectations, that philosophers are wrong in not meeting them, and that they should continue to demand what an improved philosophical practice will yield. hope to show them here how philosophy is still capable of assure
I
discharging
however, often
is
come
traditional
its
for the last group: to philosophy
and purpose of
life,
unsatisfactory.
come I
my
own.
hope,
because they worry about the meaning
the point of being rational, the nature of I
want
to the right subject, even if
hope that
this
book
will
education of a new generation of philosophers
than
highest
students of philosophy. Students
morality, freedom, social justice, and so on. that they have
My
responsibility.
its
to
show them
present state
contribute
who
will
to
is
the
do better
PART ONE
THE PROBLEM
s
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