The microprocessor: a biography 9780387943428

Table of contents :
Frontmatter (page N/A)
Preface (page ix)
1. A Calculating Risk: Inventing the first Microprocessors (page 3)
2. A Revolution in Miniature: The Importance of the Microprocessors (page 23)
3. Fire, Water, Earth and Air: Fabricating the Microprocessor (page 37)
4. The Cities of the Planar: How the Microprocessor Works (page 87)
5. History I: Beginnings (page 125)
6. History II: The PC Era: The Second Decade (page 165)
7. History III. Break-Out: The Third Decade (page 203)
8. The Future: Dreams of Light: the Microprocessor in the 21st Century (page 251)
Footnotes (page 289)
Glossary (page 301)
Index (page 319)

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fae HG ne . Y/ (ENS a — —e —n . ae . ELECTRONIC CO NS a Eo } “{) OF NO LL cl onl Mrreeliraecett | SCIENCE

Publisher: Allan M. Wylde Publishing Associate: Kate McNally Young Product Manager: Carol Wilson Production and Manufacturing Manager: Jan V. Benes Copyeditor: Nicholas Baran Cover Designer: Ark Stein Cover Illustration: Iva Frank

Production Artist: Jim Predny Photo Research: Stuart Kenter Associates © 1995 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. Published by TELOS, The Electronic Library of Science, Santa Clara, California TELOS is an imprint of Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.

All rights reserved. The book may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA) except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use of the work in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation computer software or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed other than those expressly eranted in the diskette copyright and disclaimer information is forbidden.

Malone, Mike, 1954The microprocessor: a biography / by Mike Malone.

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-387-94342-0 1. Microprocessors--United States--History. I.Title.

The use of general descriptive names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used by anyone. Dust Jacket Printed by Phoenix Color, New York Printed by Hamilton Printing Co., New York

987654321 ISBN 0-387-94342-0 ISBN 0-540-94342-0

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A Calculating Risk

There had even been a few attempts to build such a chip. At Rockwell, a team under Michael Ebertin had constructed a primitive processor. So too had

Fairchild (the company Noyce and Moore had left to found Intel),

where a brilliant semiconductor scientist named Federico Faggin had la 8

invented a new kind of MOS process called silicon gate technology / i ductor process for advanced circuits. Intel quickly adopted silicon tT gate MOS and perfected it, a skill that would play a crucial role in the _ 7 =

-. = =. ~~ * = = i F re Meanwhile, ‘Ted Hoff, a bright young ex-Stanford (gi |i research associate who'd joined Intel as its twelfth employee, (iI. si at\ aaa

the Busicom model, “but it was going to involve a lot of chips and SSS)

Hoff saw in that combination an opportunity for an end-run with }iaiiins

7

The Microprocessor: A Biography

on the simplification and they were out to design calculators and nothing else. They were simply not interested.” 3

Frustrated, Hoff turned to Intel founders Noyce and Moore, president and executive vice-president of the company, respectively. In a crucial decision

for a company that was still struggling to survive, they told Hoff to ignore Busicom and keep working on his idea. Soon Hoff began to realize he had something important and far-reaching in his hands. Then an unexpected thing happened. Busicom did a complete about-face. “Tt finally came to a point in October 1969. We held a meet-

ing in which the managers of the Japanese company came over here for a presentation by their engineering group and by a group representing our firm. At that time we presented our idea, that our new approach went well beyond calculators and that it had many other possible applications. They liked that and they went for the design.” 4

Within months, Hoff, working with Stan Mazor (who gained a certain industry immortality for the phrase: “Never trust a computer you can’t lift’)

_ and their Busicom contact, Shima, had defined a new four

Le. chip calculator architecture that included a 4-bit logic “a chip (CPU), read only memory (ROM) to store program

a... So far so good. But Hoff and Mazor didn’t

(Courtesy of Stan Mazor)

A Calculating Risk In fact, probably only one person in the world did know how to do the next step. That was Federico Faggin, but he was at Fairchild. But again, another crucial event: sensing that Intel was going to be doing more exciting things with his silicon gate MOS than Fairchild, Faggin jumped ship and joined the younger firm. His arrival, in April 1970, was fortuitous, because he was immediately assigned to take the Hoff architecture and design the Busicom chip set. Recalled Faggin two decades later:

“Presumably, Hoff and Mazor had already completed the architecture and logic design of the chip set, and only some circuit design and chip layouts were left to do. However, that’s not what I found when [I started at Intel, nor is it what Shima found when he arrived from Japan. Shima expected to review the logic design, confirming that

Busicom could indeed produce its calculator, and then return to Japan. He was furious when he found out that no work had been Federico Faggin in the late 1960s. (Courtesy of Federico Faggin)

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The Microprocessor: A Biography

the product of its operating environment, the microprocessor begins to define

the world around it. |

As we noted in Chapter 2, including those used in computers, consumer products, military equipment and communications systems, there are approximately 10 billion microprocessors now in use around the globe. No invention in human history has been developed and disseminated so quickly. Civilization has been turned upside down with far less. It will be generations before we fully assimilate what has happened to us. Yet, in the end the microprocessor is simply a collection of switches, turning on and off as fast as they can. How this simple device became the most important invention of our time is a story of thousands of engineers and scientists each making a contribution, small or large. Moreover, like any history involving inventive people and great reward, the story of the microprocessor has more than its share of ambition, greed and glory; of noble failures and mind-boggling success; of feuds and friendships; and most of all, of a shared dream. It is to that story that we go next.

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have notyonly endured, but have been hugely ful lave n¢ endured, ave been hugely successful by any measure but the shooting star of the mi i e shooting star icroprocessor market itself | ooung or the microproces KEL LSE.

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The Microprocessor: A Biography

The first of these eras, which might be called BBB (Before Big Blue),

because it ended with IBM’s decision of which microprocessor to use in its Personal Computer, is the subject of this chapter. This period, from the invention of the microprocessor in 1970 to the great industry shake-out of 1980, was a decade of exploration and entrepreneurial frenzy. First the microprocessor had to be perfected as a product. At the same time, markets had to be found for it... or, more accurately, markets had to be invented to make use of it. It was

also a time when a score of companies, both semiconductor and computer makers, giant firms and small, captive suppliers and independents, threw their hats in the ring and made a go at this exciting new technology. The microprocessor revolution followed, and consolidated, a pattern for new technology industries that first appeared as far back as automobiles and would soon be duplicated by consumer electronics, personal computers and most recently, consumer telecommunications: 1. Initial demand so outstrips supply and market entry is so comparatively inexpensive that numerous companies decide to test the water with their own proprietary designs;

- 2. Response is so great that the companies rarely

ff (Compete with one another, but simply try to stay atop

Ga gs es 2 wiceofpresident (Courtesy Intel Corp.) 126

History [: Beginnings 6. The industry, now focused, but also compromised by reduced competitiveness and the loss of important designs that disappeared with the losers, enters into a period of strong, steady growth that rewards the victorious companies. 7. Later, after years of industry dominance, the winning firms, now huge themselves, are challenged by a new generation of start-up companies with different technologies, large customers who feel threatened by the possibility of

their suppliers becoming competitors, and even by the federal government responding to the possible violation of anti-trust laws. — The story of the microprocessor passes through each one of these steps, plus a few more can only be described as bizarrely unique.

From the point of view of the present, the unfolding of this story might seem inevitable. But that’s hindsight. The reality is that at any given moment, all of the competitors in the microprocessor industry were simply trying to meet this month’s shipments, hire the right people, take care of their cus-

tomers, and get their new products developed on time. Even the most prescient of industry leaders, such as Intel’s Gordon Moore, could at most look out into the future and see a trend of continuous improvement in power, size and price. But even that came without guarantees. No one could have pre-

dicted the sudden bursts of demand for microprocessors that came with the invention of the personal computer or the engineering workstation, or even the automobile engine controller. Thus, while the pioneers of the early microprocessor industry saw numerous competitors racing forward along a wide front to push the tech-

nology forward, looking backwards what we see instead is all of these companies hurtling along converging roads towards a massive smash-up. And from that pile of twisted corporate heaps, only two companies would emerge intact. But that story is in the next chapter. For now, the microprocessor industry is still young and newly-minted, with the prospect of infinite potential. It is a time for staking out claims in unexplored territory. For six months after the introduction of the 8008, Intel had the microprocessor business to itself. It was a rare perfect opportunity to take over an entire market .. . except that Intel had no idea what that market was. In fact, the company was pretty much dragged kicking and screaming into the microprocessor business by a handful of its own employees, including Hoff and Faggin. Even the company’s reasoning for finally pursuing microprocessors— that they would help sell memory chips—was backwards. 127

The Microprocessor: A Biography

This is not to Intel’s discredit. It is instructive to remember that in the late 1940s, at the other great transition point in the history of electronics, it was generally accepted that the entire U.S. market for computers was no more

aU een Se all of them for use by the federal gov

Be er Ts omens IBM reasoned ha tight be

OO suffering from the di | ocation of having Mountain View facility, moved to a new headquarters in Santa Clara, California. But most

satheres mre eeroun importantly, having perfected MOS technology, Intel was now photo in 1970. beginning to see a booming business in memory chips. Why dis(COUrTESY OF IMIEN OID.) tract itselfi—especially when business survival was still tenuous—with a new, and unproven, product line? And, it wasn’t as if the market was screaming for the microprocessor.

Like the computer gurus of a quarter-century before, Intel management wracked its brains and still could come up with only a handful of potential applications for the new device. Thus, there was every argument to either abandon

the technology, or simply offer it as a value-added custom capability for specialty applications. But a series of events changed Intel’s mind.

The first of these was the unique pairing of Ted Hoff and Federico Fagein. For all of their later disputes about authorship, Hoff and Faggin 128

. .* . ,;: |:Beginnings | History Beginni

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The Microprocessor: A Biography

Meanwhile, the company continued building new plants and introducing products. For example, 1982 not only saw the 68010, but also a 6800-based device, the 6805, with an on-board EPROM (erasable programmable readonly memory) for use as microcomputers in consumer and industrial applications. The next year the company announced three new members of this family, an identical family in CMOS, as well as versions with on-board EEPROM

(electrically erasable PROM), enabling them to be reprogrammed while in use. And, again trying to find a home in computers, Motorola reached an agreement with AT&T to put the latter’s new UNIX system, which appeared to be the hot new operating system for the emerging market of engineering workstations, on the 68000.

As if that weren’t enough, Motorola’s design teams spent all of 1983 preparing the next generation of the 68000, a 32-bit model for introduction in 1984. That would be three microprocessor generations in five years, an awesome pace that has never been matched, before or since. Starting nearly two years behind Intel, Motorola would beat it to a practical, mass market 32-bit microprocessor by more than a year. What’s more, the Motorola line was generally considered a more elegant and technically superior architecture to Intel’s 8088 family, notably because it used a “linear” addressing model versus Intel’s less effective and more complicated “segmented” addressing scheme. This achievement, and those that have followed, underscores one of the ereat ironies of the microprocessor story. Intel has long enjoyed a reputation

as the microprocessor industry’s leading innovator .. . even though at every step it has been matched, if not surpassed, by Motorola. It works the other way as well: Motorola is often credited with superior marketing, yet in reality Intel ranks with Apple as the leading marketing innovator in electronics history.

By 1984, Motorola had spent four years if not in the microprocessor wilderness, at least out of the limelight. It had more than paid penance for being beaten by Operation CRUSH (see previous chapter) and for not landing the IBM contract. In the interim it had built up its manufacturing capabilities,

increased in sales, nailed down numerous alternative source suppliers and expanded its sales in both Europe and Japan. Most importantly, it had driven the technology forward, making its processors the only real alternative to Intel.

Motorola now capped this long march with the introduction of the 68020, a CMOS 32-bit microprocessor that stuffed 200,000 transistors into a 3/8ths inch square silicon square and could operate in bursts up to 8 million instructions per second. Upwardly compatible with the rest of the 68000 family, 178

History ll: The PC Era

the 68020 was designed for the new generation of engineering workstations, telephone switching systems and robots. Towards that end, it was the first microprocessor capable of addressing 4 billion bytes of memory, the kind of capacity needed for graphics and multi-media.

stunned even current Motorola micro- | oy 2... thought we had overstated our case until | = si KO, oO they tried the chip out,” said Murray | og GER, |

Like other momentous microproces- | QSOs i a easy birth. Trying to play catch-up with a Pee Gy |

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processor, Motorola initially leaped into ae a8 oe >: aa Lo a

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it waffled on the project, revertingtoits | old “ponderous pachyderm”’ style by show- Motorola MC 68020 microing up at a New York City press conference in March 1982 with ‘Courtesy of Motorola Museum of

slides describing two different chip designs. One was for a chip — 17078 01999 Motorola, Inc.)

only slightly more sophisticated than the 68000; the other for a “superchip” with three times the power of the earlier device. Only hours before the press conference did the Motorola team finally swallow hard and go with the more powerful version.!° Now having publicly committed to the new design, Motorola had to fig-

ure out a way to build it. It took two years to construct the prototype. As described by the New York Times:

“Murray Goldman swears that for as long as he lives, he will always remember March 29, 1984, as a “white-knuckle day.” That day Mr. Goldman, who heads Motorola’s microprocessor division, and scores of his colleagues pressed against ropes in

a cramped testing laboratory in Austin, Texas. Their eyes were fixed on a small cluster of engineers applying the first electric current to the 68020, Motorola’s newest computer chip—and one of the most powerful ever turned out by the semiconductor industry. 179

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The Microprocessor: A Biography

According to Myles Suer of Irvine Sensors, his firm went to the new design because it saw a limit to performance for traditional single chip packaging at 50 MHz to 75 MHz as the sheer physical distance between the micro-

processor and attendant memory begins to degrade performance. By comparison, Suer claims a 3-D cubelet with all of the interconnections lined up on one side, can reach 400 MHz, yet require less power.29 It is possible in the future that we may see a single very powerful microprocessor in the form of a cubelet. More likely however, will be cubelets composed of multiple microprocessors aligned for parallel processing, or cubelets that contain the entire chip set—-CPU processor, memory, peripheral processors, and so forth—for a fully powered workstation. But that is still a good ways off. Between now and then, a number of as yet unanswered questions about fabrication, testing, cooling and repair (some of these cubelets will be worth thousands of dollars—too much to just scrap) will have to be resolved. Still, when that handheld multi-media supercomputer finally appears on the market sometime early in the twenty-first century, it will probably not have a silicon chip, but a cubelet at its heart.

All of these innovations will take semiconductor technology, and microprocessors with it, through the next several generations of new products. But the limitations of physics awaits, and it has begun to haunt the theorists of the semiconductor revolution. Already, in anticipation of that collision, university and corporate laboratories are experimenting with alternatives to silicon and semiconductors. As already noted, there is gallium arsenide, but in all likelihood, it will hit the same physical wall as silicon, though perhaps a generation or two later.

Why will this happen? Writing in Scientific American in June 1993, Robert W. Keyes of IBM listed some of the things that may go wrong: “Several kinds of physical limitations might emerge as the size of the transistor continues to shrink. The task of connecting minute

elements to one another might, for example, become impossible. Declining circuit size also means that researchers must cope with ever stronger electric fields, which can affect the movement of elec280

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trons in several ways. In the not too distant future the transistor may

span only hundreds of angstroms. At that point, the presence or absence of individual atoms, as well as their behavior, will become significant. Diminishing size leads to increasing density of transistors on a chip, which raises the amount of waste heat that is thrown off. Today’s chips |already| shed about 10 times as much heat as does a cooking surface of comparable size . . . As the size of the circuit elements drops below the wavelength of usable forms of radiation, existing manufacturing methods may reach their limits.” 3° Let’s look more closely at some of the dangers Keyes describes. At the molecular level, strange things begin to happen to chips, things that can only be explained by quantum mechanics. For example, Keyes predicts that within a decade transistors in MOS circuits will sit so close together

(300 angstroms) that electrons tunneling their way through the insulating material will become a problem. Furthermore, as electron pathways shrink, the electric fields required to block their passage (when the transistor is switched to the off/zero mode) must get ever stronger. This ever higher voltage will throw off enough heat to melt the chip unless it is cryogenically cooled —

an expensive and unpopular solution. And even if you cool it, the electrons may still pick up enough energy from the field to set off a chain reaction that shorts out the chip——a scenario that, occurring at 500,000 volts per centimeter, is not far from the current field operating level of 400,000 volts/cm.3! None of this may matter much, Keyes argues, because it may not be possible to build these devices. As we discussed in the fabrication chapter, chip companies have had to move further and further out on the light spectrum to

find wavelengths short enough to produce the features needed on modern integrated circuits. Each movement outwards, from visible light to ultraviolet to deep ultraviolet to X-rays, becomes more difficult and expensive to produce

and to control. In addition, manufacturing devices with this degree of miniaturization will require manufacturing laboratories so clean—essentially vacuums—as to be wildly cost-prohibitive. And, finally, even if you do manage to build such super-integrated microprocessors, they will have so many features—a billion transistors, say—-that producing a defect-free chip may be essentially impossible. When will all this occur? An important speech given in 1989 by James Meindl, provost of Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, gives a clue.32 Meindl pro281

Ihe Microprocessor: A Biography

posed a measurement called the Chip Performance Index that combined key features in performance of semiconductor components. For MOS transistors, he predicted the theoretical limit of integration was an increase of 10!? times over 1960 levels. His estimate of the current CPI was 10!°—suggesting that the CPI factor for MOS semiconductor was down to an increase of just one million times. Expecting the miniaturization process to slow as obstacles increased, Meindl’s index suggested the limit to silicon would be reached in the second or third decade of the twenty-first century. Wrote Byle magazine to its computer industry readers: “For at least the next ten years, you can expect MOS |[transistor| technology to provide ever-improving price/performance ratios. The rate of increase will not be as great as in the past, but it will be enough to handle just about any problem you can devise.

By the year 2000, one or more of the newer technologies will emerge as a practical alternative to MOS [microprocessor technology.” 33

Sounds simple. But there is always the sneaking possibility that no practical alternative to silicon will be found and the semiconductor revolution will end. Expressing just that concern, in 1992, Don Lindsay of Carnegie Mellon University took a look at Meindl’s findings and asked if there was any alternative to silicon that offered a way around this technical barrier. Surveying the industry, what he found was a sufficient number of promising technical options to make him optimistic. For instance, the key to the ability of an electron to move through a material is defined as that substance’s drift velocity, and that in turn is based on

the material’s “mean free path,” the distance an electron can go before it bumps into an atom, an experience Lindsay compared to “a person making their way through a crowded room.” 34 Make a circuit sufficiently small, that is, less than one mean free path, and the device can suddenly make a huge performance leap—conceivably down

into the range of one picosecond (a trillionth of a second!) gate speeds. In Lindsay’s words, performance “goes ballistic.” 35 The problem with silicon is that, at room temperature, you need surface features smaller than 0.1 micron to pull off this trick. That will be very hard to do. But gallium arsenide “goes 282

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ballistic” with less miniaturization. Other interesting materials, such as silicon carbide and even diamond, do the same thing and have the added advantage of superior heat dissipation. Or, designers might choose a heterostructure that sandwiches different materials in such a way that the electrons can jump up into a higher velocity material for transport, then hop back down into the circuit. Another way to get a doubling of performance, Lindsay found, is to cryosenically cool the circuits or their interconnections. With the new “high-temperature” superconducting materials, one no longer needs liquid helium to cool the circuit to nearly absolute zero, but only liquid nitrogen to bathe the device at -50° C. Though you would never carry such a cryogenic refrigerator around with a pocket calculator, it could still be very practical in a networked computer. With inventions such as the free-piston Stirling engine (for which Intel holds the patent), liquid nitrogen coolers for a chip could be reduced to the size of a two-quart milk carton, says Lindsay, and that would make it eminently practical for many applications.3¢ None of these alternative materials will be as easy to work with as good old silicon, but as processed wafer values climb into the millions of dollars and silicon grows unworkable, they will no doubt look increasingly appealing. Another approach to the problem is to replace the electrical signals on the chip with beams of light. This would circumvent many of the power and stray charge problems associated with electrons. However, going optical poses some real design challenges. For example, the current interconnections for electricity, essentially miniature flat wire grids on the chip surface, would have

to be replaced by hollow-tube optical waveguides. Optical circuitry also requires a number of new architectural features, such as emitters, detectors and modulators, that would have to migrate onto the processor surface. One solution to this has been developed by researchers at Georgia Tech.37 This approach uses “chiplet” technology to grow gallium arsenide devices onto

the surface of a silicon chip to create a hybrid of optical and electronic technologies dubbed an optoelectronic integrated circuit, OEIC. The appeal of this OEIC technology is that it offers an intermediate step, one that still can use silicon wafer fab techniques, to save on cost and keep yield rates high. Optical chips, for all of their advantages, still face some of the same problems that threaten silicon fabrication, notably the need to create the small feature sizes. What’s more, the optical signals must be converted in the chip to electrical signals which in turn create an optical response. Needless to say, during that translation, many of the old electrical problems will reappear. 283

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Yet another possible solution is to go back to first principles and rethink the idea of the gate itself. Are there other ways to perform the same function? And what would these technologies be like?

One possibility that has been around for several decades is the Josephson junction Gj) .38 IBM experimented with Josephson junctions all through the 1970s, only to abandon it in 1983 because it deemed that the technology’s commercialization would take too long and be too expensive. Ten years from now that may no longer be true. Josephson junction technology replaces the gate with a switch that is formed by placing an insulator between layers of a superconductor that has been cryogenically cooled, usually with liquid helium. Jj switches are very fast

(1 nanosecond per instruction) and use very little energy (just a few milliwatts). The only problem is that liquid helium is required for the cooling, which is not only expensive, but having to be cooled to nearly absolute zero, is not exactly practical. Nevertheless, for specialty computers with exotic and critical applications, Jj-based computation is already appealing. What makes J} technology suddenly very exciting has been the discovery in the last few years

of high-temperature superconductors. While none of these materials yet operate at room temperature, they are getting closer, and each improvement means a commensurate improvement in the economic viability of Josephson junctions. Even more amazing are Quantum switches. Here we are getting in the world of nanoelectronics, designing electronic devices at the atomic level. In this world different rules apply than we are accustomed to, and it is precisely this difference, especially with what are called “quantum effects”, that scientists are taking advantage of in devising new types of circuits.9° Rather than suffering from electrical wave interference, as very small silicon transistors do, quantum switches use that interference to control the passage of electrons through ring-like structures of gallium arsenide only a few atoms thick created by epitaxy. These switches are in turn connected by “wires” that are really very pure optical fiber-like conduits or waveguides

that are also laid down upon the chip surface by an epitaxial layer only a couple of atoms thick. To designers, these features, the ring and the wire, are respectively two- and one-dimensional quantum structures. Even more exotic is the research into zero-dimension quantum structures. “Quantum dots” as they are called, can be packed far more densely than transistors, and best of all, might interact with one another directly without the need for interconnections.“

284 :

The Future: Dreams of Light Besides size, quantum switches offer other advantages as well. Whereas in silicon transistors trillions of electrons shoot through each time the gate is opened or closed, quantum switches can choke down to open and close on one electron at a time—meaning billions of times per second. This offers the potential of computers blasting along at millions of times the speed of the most powerful current machines. Not only that, but the new quantum switch computers wouldn’t even have to be binary, but could allow multiple states—making the new computers even more powerful and adaptive. That’s why scientists are excited about the long term potential of quantum switches. Here’s why they also aren’t optimistic about the short-term potential: quantum switches only work well at about -450 degrees E: that is, like the Josephson

junction, down near absolute zero. At room temperature, the quantum switch is always on. But that can change: at a certain level of miniaturization, still a decade or sO away, quantum switches will work in normal conditions. Building such miniaturized switches in volume will be a different story. Finally, and most remarkable of all, is the possibility of replacing silicon semiconductor with organic neural circuits. Here we are entering into a brave, and very strange, new world. Already bionic nerve chips, made of silicon, have been used to connect

the severed ends of animal nerves, the existing nerve fibers growing up through tiny holes in the chip to touch its electrical interconnects. These bionic

nerve chips restore some nerve activity, and hold the potential to one day reconnect severed or damaged major nerve bundles like the spinal cord, or help control artificial limbs as if they were real. That’s just the beginning. Early in 1994, researchers at the University of Maryland announced they had successfully grown rat nerve cells atop a silicon substrate. Bizarre as that may sound, the advantages of organic neurons are considerable. Though they are comparatively large, their multiple interconnects make up for that disadvantage through the extraordinary performance that results from their parallel operation. They also regenerate and thus can

overcome flaws and damage from use. And they are identical to animal nerves—meaning they will “think” the same way we do. Then, in late 1994, the scientific world was amazed to read of an experiment by Dr. Leonard Adleman of the University of Southern California in which he used biological reactions involving strands of DNA as a sort of molecular computer.4!

It took Adleman six months to come up with the technique, which 285

The Microprocessor: A Biography

involved translating data into sequences of letters represented by the chemical units of the DNA. The problem to be solved—the shortest path linking multiple cities—is a difficult one even for computers because the number of potential paths increases exponentially . . . until, at 100 cities, the problem becomes too creat for any modern computer. Adleman chose seven cities as a challenging enough problem, assigned the cities their DNA “flight numbers,” and mixed together all the different strands in a solution no bigger than one-fiftieth of a teaspoon in the bottom of a test tube. The DNA did the rest, combining almost instantaneously into every possible com-

bination, including the right answer. The entire calculation occurred in trillionths of a second, a thousand times faster than the fastest supercomputer, and

was stored in a space a trillionth the size of a silicon chip. | The bioprocessor. A growing, thinking, learning chip, made from the raw stuff of life. It is almost too much to imagine. And what you can imagine is both

thrilling and disquieting at the same time. It will certainly be the greatest triumph and the ultimate irony of the microprocessor. Devised to mimic and replace the brain, the microprocessor, the greatest invention of the twentieth century, may in the end outstrip its inventors’ greatest fantasies and become a living brain itself. se

In October 1994, nearly four decades after he helped found Fairchild,

and a quarter-century after his company, Intel, had invented the microprocessor, Dr. Gordon Moore addressed the annual Semiconductor Industry Association forecast dinner. Twenty years before, at just such an event, he had first enunciated the law of semiconductor development that would forever bear his name. Now, nearing the end of his career, Moore had found a powerful image to describe the impact of the revolution he’d helped to create. Once again, he said, he’d done a little figuring—and come up with an estimate of the total number of transistors that the world semiconductor industry would build in 1995. The number, he said, was 10!°: ten guadrillion. An impressive figure in itself, said Dr. Moore, but even more impressive when one realized that it was equal to the sum of all of the raindrops that would fall on California during that same year. What Dr. Moore didn’t have to say was that the semiconductor revolution had only begun. That the next year the number would equal all of the rain286

The Future: Dreams of Light

drops that fell on the entire United States . . . and eventually the entire world. Or that the total number of those transistors used in microprocessors was only a few years behind.

Indeed, implicit in what Dr. Moore said was something his audience already knew: in the span of a single human lifetime, the transistor, the semiconductor, and most of all, the microprocessor itself, had grown from a laboratory experiment to become, truly, a force of nature.

287

CHAPTER 1

1 Sources for this chapter include the author’s interviews with Robert Noyce and Ted Hoff while preparing Tbe Big Score, The Billion Dollar Story of Silicon Valley, Doubleday, New York, 1985; and “The Birth of the Microprocessor” by Federico Faggin, Byte, March 1992, pp. 145-150. 2 The Big Score, pg. 141.

3Ibid. pp. 141-142. 4Ubid. pg. 143.

>From correspondence with Masatoshi Shima, April 25,1995. 6Fagein, “The Birth of the Microprocessor”, pg. 146. 7 bid. 8[bid.

9The Big Score, pg. 143. 10 Interview with Regis McKenna, June 24, 1994.

\iTbid. pg. 145. i2]bid. pg. 143. 13. The Chip, by T.R. Reid (New York: Simon and Schuster 1984), pg. 142. 14“The Birth of the Microprocessor,” pg. 148.

STbid. pg. 150. 16 Tbid.

CHAPTER 2

1“The End of the Book?” by D.T. Max, Allantic Monthly, Sept. 1994, pg. 71. 2Source: “A Revolution in Progress”, Intel publication, c. 1984. 3Source: Doug Andrey, Semiconductor Industry Association, July 22, 1994. 4tbid. CHAPTER 3

'Source: correspondence with Jerry Hart, UniSil, Inc., Mountain View, CA, May 24, 1995. 4Source: correspondence with Stanley Wolf, California State University, Long Beach, August 10, 1994.

289

The Microprocessor: A Biography 38, Wolf and R.N. Tauber, Silicon Processing for the VLSI Era, Volume 1: Process Technology (Sunset Beach, CA: Lattice Press), 1986. pg. 5.

4The Czochralski process is popular with large scale integration circuits like microprocessors because of its ability to withstand thermal stress. The other process, ‘float zone’ (FZ) growth, is done without a crucible or container, and results in higher purity —— it typically is used for high voltage, high power devices. Source: Silicon Processing for the VLSI Era, Volume 1, pp. 5-6. 5 Miller indices of 111, 110 or 100. Source: D.E Horne, Microcircuit Production Technology (Bristol and Boston: Adam Hilger Ltd. 1986), pg. 59.

6Peter Jackson, 7e Chip (New York: Warwick Press 1986), pg. 15. 7Microcircuit Production Technology, pg. 59. 8Ibid. pg. 60. 9 Needless to say, in a business as volatile as semiconductors, prices and values rapidly change. 10 William H. Davidow and Michael S. Malone, The Virtual Corporation (New York: Harper Collins 1992).

Ujbid. pg. 91-93. 12 George Gilder, Microcosm (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989) pp. 199-203. 13 More precisely, a more sophisticated system called a “hardware emulator” made by Quickturn Design Systems. Source: Bob Johnstone, Wired Magazine, Japan. 14Richard Brandt, “Tiny Transistors and Cold Pizza’, Business Week, March 29, 1993. pg. 95. 15 Michael S$. Malone, The Big Score, (New York: Doubleday 1985) pp. 14-15. 16 ENIAC was actually the first vaccuum tube computer project. But in the UK, a scientist named Wilkes learned of the ENIAC project and actually beat it to completion with a computer called EDVAC. So, officially, EDVAC was the world’s first electronic digital computer, but ENIAC was

the first true design—and by far the most influential. Source: Harold Stone, IBM. 17The photons of the light beam produced enough power to the atoms in the silicon to push off electrons and create a tiny current. 18“History of the Semiconductor Industry’, Circuit News compilation of articles, 1979, pp. 1-7.

19This reduced power consumption also meant less heat, small battery size and less wear on supporting circuitry. Source: Eric Schuster, Motorola Museum. 20Note: this is a description of a bipolar transistor, which was the original type. A field-effect transistor replaces the collector, emitter and base with, respectively, a source, drain and gate. A FET transistor, the most popular type today, is designed like a silicon sandwich, with layered regions of p— and n-type silicon. Current flows from the source to the drain controller by the gate electrode. The gate is electrically insulated from the source and drain by a thin layer of silicon oxide. When a positive voltage is supplied to the gate, electrons flow freely, closing the circuit between source and drain. When the gate voltage is near zero, no current flows between the source and drain. From Harold Stone: “There are two kinds of FETs, ‘depletion-mode devices’ and ‘enhancement mode devices’. For both types of devices, the sources and drains are both doped with carriers of the same charge type. For NMOS devices, the source and drain are

290

Footnotes doped negatively, and for PMOS devices, they are doped positively. . . A depletion-mode device is normally off, and the gate turns it on. Hence, a depletion-mode NMOS device has positive carriers in the channel in the absence of any gate voltage. To attract negative carriers into the channel, the gate voltage is raised above the threshold. Positive charges on the gate attract negative carriers to the channel and the device turns on. Enhancement-mode NMOS devices are normally on in the absence of voltage on the gate because they have negative carriers in the channel. The gate voltage is lowered to a negative voltage below a device threshold. The negative voltage on the gate attracts positive carriers to the channel, which prevent current flow.” 21 Shockley believed that, because of evolution, different races exhibited different median IQs. Though Shockley claimed to come to this view by purely objective means, there is anecdotal evidence (private remarks, etc.) of a personal racial bias. None of Shockley’s claims, which led to considerable outcry, have ever been proven.

22Circuit News, History of the Semiconductor Industry, compilation of articles by various reporters, published c. 1980, pg. 17. 43 Ibid.

44 Ibid. pg. 18. 25 Ibid.

26D.E Horne, Microcircuit Production Technology, Bristol and Boston: Adam Hilger Ltd., 1986, pg. 2. 27Julie Pitta, “Cleanliness is next to competitiveness”, Forbes, February 17, 1992, pe. 134. 28 Ibid. 29 Tbid.

30 Sources for this section include Microcircuit Production Technology; The Chip, pp. 16-17; Dennis W. Hess & Klavs FE Jensen, ed., Microelectronics Processing (Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, Advances in Chemistry Series 221), pp. 5-6, 28-30.; From Sand

to Semiconductor: How Intel Manufactures Integrated Circuits, Intel company brochure 1986.

31 The use of these chemicals proved a major problem to the semiconductor industry in the 1970s, as employees were injured, and nearby land and the groundwater it contained were contaminated. After a public outcry, government investigation and numerous lawsuits, the industry introduced numerous safeguards to the fabrication —— such that now nearly all modern fabrication factories are essentially “spillproof”, and all of the chemicals they use recycled.

32 Microcircuit Production Technology, pp. 66-67. 33 [bid. pg. 67. 34 Ibid. pg. 75.

35Source: Bob Johnstone, Wired. 36 Source: Harold Stone. For a full description of this story, see Big Blues, by Paul Carrol. 37 Microelectronics Processing, pg. 4.

291

38 Jeffrey Y. Tsao, Material Fundamentals of Molecular Beam Epitaxy, San Diego: Academic Press Inc., 1993. pp. xi-xiii.

The Microprocessor: A Biography 39 Source: Stanley Wolfe.

40 From Sand to Semiconductor. 41 Jack Shandle, ““Testing ICs to the Max”, Electronics, May 1990, pp. 39-41.

42 From Sand to Semiconductor. CHAPTER 4

‘Source: John Crawford, Intel. He notes that this is the historical form. In the RISC computer industry (see later in the article) 32 bits is a word, 64 bits a double word. By the way, instruction size and bus width don’t always go up by powers of two. Nevertheless, doubling in size is the most common generational jump. One reason is that some key software languages, notably C, work better in this format (or one divisible by 8, such as 48-bit) because it requires a minimum of computation to calculate addresses. 3John R. Mashey, “64-bit Computing”, Byte, September 1991, pg. 135. At the time of his article, Mashey listed as the only 64—bit processor the Mips (Now Silicon Graphics) R4000. The DEC Alpha and the PowerPC have subsequently joined that list, with the

Intel P6 expected shortly. ,

4 bid. 5¥For additional reading on this topic, see “Fighting Fatware”, Byte Magazine, April 1993. 6Tbid. pg. 142.

7Lon Poole, “Inside the Microprocessor”, 3-part Series “Your Computer Revealed,” MacWorld, October 1992, pg. 143. 8Rodney Zaks The Microprocessor, (Berkeley: Sybex 1980), pg. 40 9 Michael S. Malone, Going Public (New York: Harper Collins 1991). pg. 31. 10 Direct source.

11Source material for the ALU section includes “Inside the Microprocessor”, pg. 141, and Peter Jackson, The Chip (New York: Warwick Press 1986), pp. 22-23, 26-27. !2And that’s nothing. This adder design was only used as an example. Modern microprocessors have much more powerful and complicated designs, such as parallel adders, whose operation are beyond the range of this book and the intelligence of its author. 13Here’s how subtraction works: Remember the NOT function creates the complement of a binary number (not its negative, as with decimal). Thus, the number five in decimal becomes 0101, in four bit binary. Call that X. Give Y the decimal value of six, or 0110). Now, to subtract X from Y, 6-5, the processor takes the complement of X, designated X’, adds 1 (0001,) in four bit binary, then adds the sum, X’ + 1, to Y. The answer, 0110, + 1010, + 0001, = 0001, (6-5=1), with the carry out bit ignored. This may seem awfully convoluted, but remember: the key to digital computation is simple actions done very fast. It is as easy for the computer to apply the NOT inverter function to a number, as it is for it to add 1. What’s more, by simply placing a 1 on the carry input to the first stage, the actual addition step can be bypassed and an always-critical machine cycle can be saved.

\4‘Tnside the Microprocessor’, pg. 140. This is correct as far as it goes, according to John Crawford of Intel. More precisely, the AND function only works like this when isolating a sub-field of bits within a large collection, such as a 3-bit field within a 32-bit word. For larger operations, another function, called the XOR, is used. 292

Footnotes 15 Not always, though. IBM used this eighth digit for its extended character set. 16 Microprocessors, pg. 47. 17Source: Harold Stone. 18], Brett Glass, “Math Co-Processors”, Byte, January 1990, pg. 337.

20Tbid. pg. 136. |

19 Nick Stam, “Inside Pentium”, PC Magazine, April 27, 1993. pp. 123-144.

21 Source: John Crawford.

22*The Green PC”, white paper prepared by National Semiconductor, 1992. 23 ‘The Green PC.”

24The Intel 4004 and 8008 actually operated at +5 volts and -12 volts, the Intel 8080 at +5 volts and +12 volts. The Motorola 6800 and the Zilog Z80 started the trend to 5 volt only that continues to this day. 25 Power used is proportional to the size of the chip times the frequency, times the square of the voltage. Thus, going from 5 volts to 3.3 volts reduces power in half. Source: John Crawford, Intel. 26For more detailed information on system power management, see the last chapter. 27 Information for this section from Andrew Davis & Joe Burke, “Digital Signal Processing”, Byte, August 1992, pp. 269-275. 28 Tukey, Rabiner and Schaeffer at Bell Labs; Cooley at IBM.

CHAPTER 5

i Interview with Regis McKenna, June 24, 1994.

Regis McKenna letter to Upside magazine, November 1994. 3 Texas Instruments, First Quarter and Shareholders’ Meeting report 1976, pg. 11. 4 The Big Score by Michael S. Malone (New York: Doubleday & Co. Inc.) 1985, pg. 144. 5 Ibid.

6Source: Bob Johnstone, Wired. 7Note: the other great calculator maker, Hewlett-Packard, did not make four function models. Its story will be discussed later in the chapter. 8 Author conversation with Dr. Moore.

9 Perspectives on Experience (Boston: The Boston Consulting Group, Inc. 1968). This book marks the codification of the Learning Curve model; various (and simpler) versions of the model had been around for at least a decade. 10 Fire in the Valley by Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine (Berkeley: Osborne/McGraw-Hill,

1984), pg. 29. 11HP, as a rule, doesn’t break out revenues or profits for individual product lines. However, the author was publicist for HP’s calculator group from 1977-1979. 2'The author was a publicist for Hewlett-Packard calculators during this era. Though the time period addressed in this section certainly credits HP’s business acumen, it should be noted that the company would soon make its own major blunders, including the HP-01 calculator/watch and its first desktop computers.

293

The Microprocessor: A Biography 13“Trip or Fall”, West Magazine, San Jose Mercury-News, May 1, 1994, pg. 14-15. 14The Big Score, pg. 342. Is Tbid. pg. 343.

16“Trip or Fall”, pp. 16-17. 17The Chip, by T.R. Reid (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984), pg. 140. 18Tbid. pg. 145. 19 Tbid. pg. 144.

20Not to be confused with Mostek Inc., another, slightly later, semiconductor company.

2! The Big Score, pg. 133. 22Source of this early Motorola history: Motorola Museum of Electronics. 23 The Big Score, pg. 122. Hogan’s version of the story is disputed by Motorola. According to the company, “Mr. Hogan was mistaken. Closing the semiconductor operation was never in

the cards.” 24“Motorola makes remarkable strides in semiconductors,” by Joseph Winski, Chicago Tribune, August 26, 1979, pp. B1-B2. 25 Motorola then and now denies this rumor. 26 Tbid. 27 Tbid.

2830 Year Anniversary of Integrated Circuits: September 1988. 29 Tbid.

30 Fire in the Valley, pp. 111-112.

31 “Motorola makes remarkable strides in semiconductors” 32 The Big Score, pp. 234-235.

33 Status ‘79, A Report on the Integrated Circuit Industry, Integrated Circuit Engineering Corp. (Scottsdale: 1979), pg. 3-12. 34]bid. pg. 3-1.

351979 Texas Instruments annual report. pg. 2.

36“A Revolution in Progress” Intel Corp. publication, c. 1985., pg. 14. 37 ‘Defining Intel: 25 years/25 events” Intel Corp. publication, 1993. pg. 14. 38 Ibid. The 432 finally appeared in 1982 and quickly died. 39“*A Revolution in Progress”, pg. 14.

40 Marketing High Technology by William H. Davidow (New York: The Free Press 1986) pg. 4. 41Jbid. pg. 6 42 Tbid.

43 Ibid. pg. 8. , 44 Regis McKenna letter to Upside magazine, November 1994. 45 Relationship Marketing by Regis McKenna (Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1991). pg. 167 46 Big Blues by Paul Carroll (New York: Crown Publishers 1993), pg. 2. 47 ‘Defining Intel”, pg. 16.

294

Footnotes CHAPTER 6

! Author interview with Dr. Moore for Silicon Valley Report television program, 1992. 2 The Virtual Corporation, by William H. Davidow & Michael S. Malone (New York: Harper Collins, 1992). 3 Correspondence with Harold Stone, July 11, 1994. 4Source: Harold Stone

5“Confrontation with Andy Grove” by Rebecca Smith, West magazine, San Jose Mercury-

News, October 17, 1993, pg. 8. | 6Tbid. 7 Ibid.

8 The Big Score, by Michael S. Malone (Garden City: Doubleday, 1985) pg. 150. 9“Confrontation with Andy Grove.”

104 Revolution in Progress, Intel publication, c. 1985., pg. 47. , l1Tbid., pg. 48.

12Source: Motorola, Inc. Corporate Archives, Motorola Museum of Electronics. 13 Fire in the Valley by Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine, (Berkeley: Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 1984) pg. 279. 144Source: Motorola, Inc. Corporate Archives, Motorola Museum of Electronics. 15“*The chip family that’s a major plus,” by Keith Holder, Computer Weekly (U.K.), February 14, 1985. 16“The Great War Over Superchips,” by David E. Sanger, The New York Times, c. 1984. 17 [bid.

18 Fire in the Valley, pg. 235. 19 Tbid. pg. 240.

20 It was ten years later, on September 16, 1994, that Apple, facing the inevitable, announced that it would allow the cloning of its computers. 21 Source: Motorola, Inc. Corporate Archives, Motorola Museum of Electronics.

22The author, who directed HP’s corporate publicity for calculators during that period, was involved in the planning for the Capricorn introduction. 23 Fire In the Valley, pg. 18.

24‘ Nisital Signs Second Alpha Chip Producer”, by Josh Hyatt, Tbe Boston Globe, March 16, 1993, pg. 42.

25 Mitsubishi was also named in the indictment on trade secrets theft, but was not caught in the FBI sting. 26 The Big Score, pg. 249.

27 The author attended just such an Intel sales meeting in Phoenix in 1984. 28 Source Eric Schuster, Motorola Museum of Electronics, July 6, 1994.

29Some operations at Motorola are moving towards defect rates in the parts per billion. 30 Source: Intel corporate documents.

295

The Microprocessor: A Biography 31 Quote from Intel brochure Designing Intel: 25 Years/25 Events, pg. 24. 32 Tbid.

33 Source: Intel publications and announcements. 34Apple had a ‘closed’ architecture with the Macintosh; that is, it did not make it publicly available for use by software developers and clone makers. IBM, by comparison, had an ‘open’ architecture, which led to the proliferation of clones by scores of companies throughout the world. Which was the better choice? IBM’s design became the dominant industry standard, but IBM also lost control over its own business. Apple, by comparison, held its market and could hold profits high —— but by the 1990s, it was operating in a dwindling market share and facing the prospect of losing key software designs . . . hence the company’s embrace of the PowerPC. 35 Source: Motorola archives. CHAPTER 7

1 “Shortage of Intel Chips Threatens Small Firms” by Valerie Rice, San Jose Mercury-News, February 7, 1990. pg. 1A.

2The Virtual Corporation, pg. 63. 3ibid., pg. 64. 4“Zilog is Back from Surgery, But Some Say Firm May Have Cut Too Much’, by Christopher H. Schmitt, San Jose Mercury-News, June 29, 1987, pg. 1E. 5 Tbid.

6“Zilog Coming Into View: Campbell Chip Maker is Carving Out a Niche”, by Valerie Rice,

San Jose Mercury-News, April 24, 1991, pg. 1D. 7Thanks to Matthew Quint for noticing this remarkable fact. 8““What’s behind the boom in 8-bit embedded controllers?” by J. Robert Lineback, Electronic Business Buyer, May 1994. pp. 85-90. Thanks to Joel Spira, chairman of Lutron, for article. 9Source: Semiconductor Industry Association. 10Source: Dataquest 11 Source: WSTS/Motorola

12 By the way, even the 6502, the heart of the Apple II, still survives. Originally built by MOS

Technologies, it was passed on to Synertek, then Rockwell, and is now being built by tiny (10 person) Western Design Center of Mesa, Arizona. Lest you think it has become a technological orphan, it should be noted that among the current customers for WDC’s 6502 are AT&T, ITT, Sanyo, and Siemens, all among the world’s largest corporations. 13Source for product information: Hitachi product backgrounder, March 1994. 14“Making a Grab for the Computer Market” by Michael Feibus, San Jose Mercury-News,

pg. ID. 15 Meanwhile, the software side of the business was also buried in its own legal battles, most notably Apple versus Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard over the rights to the user interface of windows-type operating systems. 16“Hello Mr. Chips?” by Joyce Gemperlein and Pete Carey, San Jose Mercury-News,

296

Footnotes December 2, 1990, pg. 18. 17“Microprocessor Patent Holder Lives Life of a Researchaholic” by Therese Lee (Associated Press), San Jose Mercury-News, August 31, 1990, pg. 16E 18“Hello Mr. Chips?”, pg. 18. 19 Tbid.

20 Ibid.

21°The Great Patent War,” by Michael S. Malone, Upside, January 1991, pg. 49. 22‘ If Hyatt Didn’t Invent the Microprocessor, Who Did?” by Joyce Gemperlein and Pete Carey, The San Jose Mercury-News, December 2, 1990. 23‘Aello Mr. Chips?” 24Thid. 25 Vbid.

26 The author interviewed Gilbert Hyatt on the television program “Malone”, syndicated nationally on public television in 1992.

27*The Great Patent War,” pg. 32. 7 8 Tbid., pg. 49. 29“Microprocessor Inventor Hyatt Enlists Philips’ Aid in Patent Deal” by Valerie Rice, San Jose Mercury-News, pg. 1E. 30“The Great Patent War,” pg. 34.

31PC Market Centers on Growing 486 Family,” by Michael Slater, Microprocessor Report, January 24, 1994, pp. 1-13. The partnership between Cyrix and TI broke up later over the 486. 32‘“What Does Microcomputer Mean? Grove Tries to Clarify in Intel-AMD Retrial” by Rebecca Smith, San Jose Mercury-News, pg. 1E.

33 This perceived early lack of commitment to SMOS cost AMD one of its great managerial talents, T.J. Rogers, who left to found Cypress Semiconductor. 34The 80386 could run Windows too, albeit slowly. 35“Intel Not Inside” by Dean Takahashi, San Jose Mercury-News, March 19,1995, pg. D2. 36 “The PowerPC Alliance”, by Charles R. Moore and Russell C. Stanphill, Communications of the ACM, June 1994, pg. 25. 37 Ibid. 38 Ibid.

39Tntel’s Fastest Chip Yet to Debut in ‘95” by Rebecca Smith, San Jose Mercury-News, January 28, 1994, pg. 1E. 40“Sanders Defends Practice of Copying Intel’s Chips,” by Rebecca Smith, San Jose MercuryNews, February 17, 1994, pg. 1G. 41 “What Does Microcomputer Mean?” 42 “AMD Victory Over Intel to Swell PC Chip Supply” by Rebecca Smith, San Jose Mercury-

News, March 11, 1994, pg. 1A. 43“Tntel Not Inside,” pg. D2.

297

The Microprocessor: A Biography 44 Source: John Woodget, Intel Northern European Sales Manager, October 1994. 45 Defining Intel, pg. 29. 46 “Tn the Chips”, book review by Michael Stern of Regional Advantage, San Francisco Examiner/Chronicle, June 26, 1994, pg. Review 6. 47“*PowerMac Outsells Pentium”, USA Today, August 29, 1994. Source: America On-Line.

48 Source: The Wall Street Journal, April 26, 1993, pg. B1.

49Battle for the Desktop” by John Clyman, PC Magazine, May 31, 1994. 50“Intel Shows Off Secret Weapon,” by David Einstein, San Francisco Chronicle, February 17, 1995, pg. BI. 51Sources for the Nicely/Pentium story: “The Pentium Principle,’ by Dean Takahashi, San Jose Mercury-News, pg. D1. 52 [bid.

53“A ‘Lesson’ for Intel” by Michael Meyer, Newsweek, December 12, 1994, pg. 58.

54Tntel;-)Inside ” by Barbara Kantrowitz and Carla Koehl, Newsweek, ibid., pg. 12. 55 Intel BusinessWire press release, October 12, 1994. 56 Ibid.

57“The Bug That Ate Silicon Valley” by Lorraine Gengo and Barbara Wilcox, Metro (San Jose), February 9, 1995. pg. 13. 58“Sales of PCs with Pentium Chip Hold Up Despite Flaw’, by Jim Carlton, The Wall Street

Journal, December 20, 1994, B7. 5)““Heavy-duty Users Reassess Work’, Associated Press, reported in the San Jose MercuryNews, December 24, 1994, pg. 8D. 60‘Divide and Flounder” by Adrian Mello, MacWorld, March 1995, pg. 20. 61“Intel’s Bill for Pentium Debacle: $475 Million” by Dean Takahashi, San Jose MercuryNews, January 18, 1995, pg. 1A. 62‘Intel’s Candid Stance,” by Dean Takahashi, San Jose Mercury-News, January 24, 1995, pg. E1.

63“Investors Dump Intel Lawsuits” by Michelle Quinn, San Francisco Chronicle, February 11, 1995, pg. BI. 64°Tntel Seeks to Settle Pentium Suit” by Tech Ticker, San Jose Mercury-News, March 28, 1995, pg. D1. 65‘Tntel Not Inside,” pg. D2. 66‘°*The Pentium Bypass” by Dean Takahashi, Sav Jose Mercury-News, January 16, 1995. pg. D1. 67“A ‘Lesson’ for Intel” 68°Tntel, AMD End War’ by Dean Takahashi, Sam Jose Mercury-News, January 13, 1995. pg. 1A.

69The source of this story about the AMD-Intel resolution is from “How Intel, AMD Settled” by Rory J. O'Connor and Dean Takahashi, San Jose Mercury-News, January 13, 1995. pg. 1A.

70“Sanders: The Man, the Image, the Truth” by Dean Takahashi, San Jose Mercury-News, March 20, 1995. pg. D5. 71Quotes from “Intel, AMD End War” and “How Intel, AMD Settled”. 72“The Chip Wars: Bloody and Brutal for Intel” by Martin Cheek, Computer, January 1995, pg. 9.

73 bid. pg. 10.

298

, Footnotes 74Source: Dataquest. 75“The Chip Wars”, pg. 10. 76Tbid., pg. 10.

77™“Room for Three Architecturews in the 2000s” by Linley Gwennap, Microprocessor Report,

July 11, 1994, pp. 14-16. 78°The Reinvention of the Microprocessor” by Steven A. Geissen, /ris Universe, Number 30,

pp. 36-37. 79 Ibid.

80“Microunity is a wild card in processor technology” by Dean Takahashi, San Jose MercuryNews, May 8, 1995. pg.1D.

CHAPTER 8 |

1 Hoeneisen and Mead: “Fundamental Limitations in Microelectronics -1, MOS Technology”, Solid State Electronics, vol. 15, 1972, pp. 819-829. Bob Ryan, in “Farewell to Chips?” Byte Magazine, January 1990, pg. 240, credits Robert Dennard of IBM, who, with others, published papers on the subject a year later in an Electrochemical Society magazine and in 1974 in Solid State Circuits. Dennard is also the inventor of the one transistor memory cell, the basis for the DRAM.

“Farewell to Chips?,” pg. 244. 3Ibid. pg. 240. 41979 Status Report on the Integrated Circuit Industry, William I. Strauss editor, (Scottsdale, Arizona: Integrated Circuit Engineering Corp., 1979. pg. 8-10. > Another is Indium Phosphide. It has found little interest outside the laboratory.

61981 Status Report on the Integrated Circuit Industry, William I. Strauss editor, (Scottsdale, Arizona: Integrated Circuit Engineering Corp., 1981, pg. 93. 7“The High-Octane Semiconductor’, by Phillip Robinson, Byte Magazine, January 1990, pg. 251.

8Ibid. pg. 252.

Ibid. pg. 258. 10“A Mask of Light,” The Economist, October 24, 1992, pg. 98. 11“Manufacturing Chips By ‘Growing’ Them May Prove Possible,” by David P. Hamilton,

The Wall Street Journal, May 12, 1994, pg. BS. 12“Future of Electronics Looks Fuzzy,” by 'T.R. Reid, Washington Post. Reprinted in San Jose Mercury-News, January 5, 1991, pg. 8E. The best overall source for information on fuzzy logic is Fuzzy Logic by Daniel McNeill and Paul Freiberger (New York: Simon & Schuster), 1993. 13 Sources for this section include the EPA ENERGY STAR™ documents and ‘““The Green PC”, a

1993 National Semiconductor Corp. White Paper.

14The most exotic research on power conservation involves “reversible computation”, which essentially saves the charge that would normally be lost in a computation. Thus, in adding 2+2, the device would not only pass on the 4, but also keep one of the 2s, so that the chip can then work its way backwards and return most of the charge back to its original location, thus recycling it. This idea, initially met with skepticism, has now been proven in

299

The Microprocessor: A Biography CMOS by researchers Bill Athos, Josh Hall and Ralph Merkle. See “Silicon in Reverse” by Peter Wayner, Byte, August 1994, pg. 67. 15“Neural Networks are Being Taught How to Learn,” by Andrew Pollack, New York Times, republished in San Jose Mecury-News, Dec. 8, 1987, pg. 3E. 16S J. Firm Gets Neural Network Patent,” New York Times, republished in San Jose MercuryNews, Feb. 20, 1989, pg. 11D.

17To give you an idea of the power of the mind: the human brain performs 1016 (ten quadrillion) operations per second with less than 10 watts of power dissipation —that’s ten million times the performance of the PowerPC on half the power!

20 Ibid. | 18“Neural Networks are Being Taught How to Learn.”

19 [bid.

41 Source: Federico Faggin, July 1994.

22 “Hardware-Only Computer Works like a Brain,’ New York Times, republished in San Jose Mercury-News, June 20, 1992, pg. LIE 23 “Chips for the Nineties and Beyond”, by Janet J. Barron, Byte Magazine, November 1990, pg. 344. 24 Tbid.

25 ibid., pg. 345.

26 Correspondence with Dr. Faggin, July 22, 1994. 27“Cubelets and Chiplets”, by Janet J. Barron, Byte Magazine, February 1992, pg. 144. 28“The Next Dimension: 3D Semiconductors Help Chip Makers Save Time and Space”, by Dean Takahashi, San Jose Mercury-News, September 11, 1994. pg. 1D. 29ibid., pg. 145

30The Future of the Transistor”, by Robert W. Keyes, Scientific American, June 1993, pg. 70. 31 Ibid. pg. 72. |

32‘Farewell to Chips?” by Bob Ryan, Byte Magazine, January 1990, pg. 237. 33 Ibid. pg. 249. 34°The Limits of Chip Technology”, by Don Lindsay, Microprocessor Report, Jan. 25, 1993. pg. 23. 35 Ibid. 36 Tbid.

37“Cubelets and Chiplets”, pg. 144.

38Chips for the Nineties and Beyond”, pg. 350. 39“Computers Take a Quantum Leap” by Shalom Wind and Theoren Smith, Byte Magazine, February 1992, pg. 140. 40 Ibid. pg. 141.

41 Information in the Adleman story from “How Scientist Used DNA as a Computer” by Gina Kolata, New York Times, reprinted in the San Jose Mercury-News, Nov. 22, 1994, pg. F1.

300

4004: Intel’s 4-bit microprocessor designed by Federico Faggin and introduced in early 1971. The 4004 was the precursor to Intel’s 8-bit 8080 processor.

6800: Motorola’s 8-bit microprocessor introduced in 1974 and the forerunner of the 68000 series. 68000: Motorola’s 68000 series of microprocessors began with a 16-bit version introduced in 1979, which eventually became the first microprocessor for the Apple Macintosh. Later versions of the 68000 include the 32-bit 68020, 68030

and 68040, all of which have appeared in Macintosh models as well as in a variety of engineering workstations. Motorola has continued to advance the 68000 line with a 68060 model but this processor is primarily aimed at the embedded processor market, while the new PowerPC processor line (see

PowerPC) is intended to replace the 68000 line as Motorola’s primary processor for computers. 8080: Intel’s 8-bit microprocessor introduced in 1974, which powered what is considered by many to be the first microcomputer, the Altair 8800, introduced later that same year. 80x86: The Intel microprocessor line that has powered IBM-compatible personal computers starting with the 8088 (an offshoot of the 8086 as described below) in 1981. The 8086 was the first of the series, a 16-bit processor introduced in 1977. It was followed by the 8088, 80286, and the 32-bit 80386, 80486, and Pentium microprocessors. These processors make up the 80x86 or X86 platform.

301

The Microprocessor: A Biography

8087: Intel’s math coprocessor (see Math coprocessor) to accompany the 8088. The 80287 and 80387 are similar models to complement the 80286 and 80386 respectively. Note that later processors (80486 and Pentium) have built-in math coprocessing. 8088: The 8088 was the processor that sparked the personal computer revolution beginning with the IBM PC introduced in 1981. The 8088 was basically a low-cost version of the 8086, using an 8-bit external bus rather than the full 16bit implementation of the 8086 (the 8088 internally is identical to the 8086). Adder: a logic circuit in a transistor consisting of gates that provide a sum and a carry when adding two numbers. Alpha AXP: Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC) introduced the RISC-based Alpha AXP in 1992 and it remains one of the fastest microprocessors on the market, with some models running at speeds close to 300 MHz. DEC has introduced a

series of “Alpha” workstations that use the and also run a version of the Windows NT operating system from Microsoft.

Analog/digital conversion: The process of converting an analog signal to its digital equivalent. The analog signal is represented in digital form by a series of binary values that approximate the shape of the signal. This process is often

done “in hardware” using a special purpose processors such as ASICs or digital signal processors.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU is the basic component of the microprocessor, consisting of a series of logic gates that perform arithmetic and logic operations. ASCII: The American Standard Code for Information Interchange is the standard

format for exchanging text between computer systems. ASI€s: Application Specific Integrated Circuits are devices designed to perform a specific application using a custom blueprint of logic circuits, which can be mass produced at low cost. Instead of using more expensive general-purpose microprocessors, electronics manufacturers use ASICs for everything from video cameras to microwave ovens.

302

Glossary

Base: (see Bipolar) BiCMOS: Bipolar complementary metallic oxide semiconductor is a hybrid of the two basic transistor technologies, bipolar and CMOS, using CMOS for internal gates and bipolar to send signals off the chip. For example, the Pentium is

a BiCMOS based microprocessor. | Binary numbers: The binary number system consists of two numbers: 0 and 1, while the more familiar decimal number system consists of the digits 0 to 9.

Bipolar: Bipolar junction transistors consist of a base, a collector, and an emitter. In an n-p-n (negative-positive-negative) transistor, the base is positively charged and acts as the conduit for the electrons travelling from the negatively

charged emitter (n) to the base (p) and from the base to the negatively charged collector (n).

Bit: short for “binary digit,” a bit is a single zero or one. Thus, an 8-bit instruction, for example, consists of a combination of 8 zeroes or ones Cit could also be all zeroes or all ones). Bootstrapping: the term comes from the phrase “by one’s own bootstraps,” implying independent operation. Webster’s Dictionary defines bootstrap in the technical sense as: “designed to function independently of outside direction: capable of using one internal function or process to control another (a bootstrap operation to load a computer) .”

Breadboard: a prototype circuit board used to test early versions of microprocessors and other circuits. Buffer: a temporary holding area for data or instructions being passed between the computer’s memory and the microprocessor.

Bus: the path by which data and instructions are passed between the microprocessor and other devices such as disk drives and printers. width: the width of the bus is determined by the number of bits that can be transmitted along the bus simultaneously. For example, an 8-bit bus can 303

The Microprocessor: A Biography

transmit 8 bits of information simultaneously. Buses for most modern microprocessors are 32 bits in width. Byte: there are eight bits in a byte, which is one character (numeric or text) as defined in the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCID. Cache memory: a storage area in high speed memory designed for frequently used data or instructions, which are readily accessible from the cache rather than from the much slower magnetic storage such as disk drives.

CISC: Complex Instruction Set Computing describes the architecture traditionally used in microprocessors until the advent of Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) architectures, which are used in many new generation microprocessors. While the intent of RISC was to simplify the instruction set and thus the design of the microprocessor, the distinction between the two architectures is blurring as RISC-based microprocessors often have instruction sets that are as large as those of modern CISC processors.

Clock speed: the operation of a microprocessor is controlled by a quartz crystal oscillator called “the clock.” The number of cycles of operation or “machine cycles” per second is the clock speed, measured in Hertz (cycles per second). The performance of the micro processor is generally proportional to its clock speed. The 8088 microprocessor used in the first IBM PC had a clock speed of 4 MHz (millions of cycles per second), while today’s microprocessors such as the 80486 have speeds of 33 MHz or greater. Clone: in the microprocessor world, a copy of another microprocessor that is completely compatible (see Compatibility) with the original and generally offering some advantage over the original either in cost or performance or both. An example is Advanced Micro Devices’ version of the 80386 and the Cyrix version of the 80486. CMOS: complementary metal oxide semiconductor transistors are devices that have both a p-channel and an n-channel combined into a single unit.

Collector: see Bipolar

304 |

Glossary

Compatibility: different microprocessors or computers are said to be compatible when they can run the same software without modification. Conductivity: the ability of a material to transmit electrons is called its conductivity, which depends on the type of material and its geometric properties. For example, copper is a highly conductive material and the greater the diameter of the copper wire, the greater its conductivity. Insulating materials such as rubber are poor conductors. CPU: in conventional single-processor computers such as personal computers, the central processing unit is the microprocessor governing the operation of the computer.

Data registers: a region of random access memory (RAM) for temporarily storing input and output data being manipulated by the microprocessor.

Die: the silicon wafer on which the microprocessor and other integrated circuits are fabricated generally hold hundreds of identical patterns which are then diced to yield individual chips. Technically, each chip is a die from the wafer.

Digital: microprocessors work with digital signals consisting of zeroes and ones, which correspond to the two states “on” or “off.” Analog signals can be converted to digital equivalents, allowing digital signals to represent a wide variety of information, including music and video.

Digital signal processor (DSP): a special purpose processor used for digital/analog and analog/digital conversion. DSPs generally have computational capabilities beyond signal conversion making them useful as auxiliary computing devices.

Digital/analog conversion: see Analog/digital conversion (this is the opposite process). DIP: Dual In-line Package was one of the early plug-in packaging schemes for microprocessors, in which the rectangular chip had its pins along the parallel

longer edges of the rectangle (hence the name dual in-line). Used in the 305

The Microprocessor: A Biography

original 8088, DIP is now virtually obsolete due to the high pin-count of modern microprocessors (see PGA and PLCC).

Doping: the process of adding impurities to a material to alter its properties such as conductivity. Impurities added to silicon or germanium are generally from the adjacent third or fifth columns of the periodic table. P-type (positive charge) doping involves the addition of a material from the third column (e.g. boron), while n-type doping (negative charge) involves materials from the fifth

column (e.g. phosphorous). Downward compatibility: a processor or computer system that is compatible with earlier generations or less powerful versions of the same processor or system is said to be “downwardly compatible” (see also Compatibility). DRAM: dynamic random access memory is the primary type of (see RAM) used in microcomputers. It is dynamic because its contents can be changed at will by applications running on the system (of course, under the control of the computer’s operating system).

processor: a microprocessor built into a machine or other piece of equipment to perform a particular function is called an embedded processor. For example, modern automobiles employ embedded microprocessors to control a variety of devices and systems such as the fuel injection system or the automatic transmission.

Emitter: see Bipolar ENIAC: one of the earliest computers, constructed in 1945 at the University of Pennsylvania and containing eighteen thousand vacuum tubes.

Epitaxy: in the fabrication of integrated circuits, the deposition of the doped material on the substrate (the underlying silicon surface) results in the formation of an “epitaxial” layer. Epitaxy is defined as “the growth on a crystalline substrate of a crystalline substance that mimics the orientation of the substrate.” (Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary)

306

Glossary

EPROM: erasable programmable read-only memory is used with microprocessors (often integrated on the chip) in industrial and commercial applications

to allow them to be programmed by the user. For example, programmable calculators or telephones that can store phone numbers use EPROM. FET: the field effect transistor consists of a source, drain, and gate. Current flows from the source to the drain according to the voltage applied to the gate.

Firmware: the term for programming code that is built into hardware using read-only memory (ROM). For example, personal computers generally have some basic operating system instructions built into ROM. This built-in ROM is called firmware.

Floating point unit: a term for numeric or math coprocessors, since these processors deal with so-called floating point or non-integer arithmetic, which includes exponents as well as decimal fractions. FPGAs: field programmable gate arrays are a type of ASIC (see ASIC).

Fuzzy logic: first proposed by Lofti A. Zadeh of U.C. Berkeley in 1964, the application of vagueness and approximation to computer logic, allowing computers to respond to less clearly defined inputs.

GaAs: gallium arsenide is a semiconductor material that researchers have hoped to use as a replacement for silicon because of its much faster operating speeds and higher operating temperatures. However, GaAs is still primarily in the experimental stage due to difficulties in producing GaAs crystals of sufficient purity for large-scale integrated circuits. Gate: the basic logic device of the transistor. Logic circuits use combinations of different types of logic gates (AND, NOT, OR), which respond to input voltages and return combinations of “on” and “off” signals, allowing processing of complex instructions and data.

Germanium: see Semiconductor

307

The Microprocessor: A Biography

instruction decoder: the component of the microprocessor that interprets instructions passed from the instruction register, and decomposes the instructions into specific commands in the microprocessor’s operating language.

instruction register: the holding area in the microprocessor for storing instructions before they are passed to the instruction decoder.

instruction set: microprocessors are designed to operate with a specific set of instructions, called the instruction set. The instruction set is the basic binary machine language of the microprocessor. It is a set of binary codes that directly manipulate the registers, memory locations, and other devices of the microprocessor. These codes are also referred to as machine code or language or microcode. Integrated circuit: invented by Jack Kilby in 1958, and perfected by Robert Noyce, an integrated circuit is a single chip of semiconductor material containing all the necessary components and devices (e.g. transistors, capacitors, diodes, resistors) to form a complete electrical circuit, designed to perform specific functions.

{/O: input/output is the process of entering information into the computing device and obtaining the results from that input. Devices that control this process are called I/O devices, such as keyboards and printers.

Junction: the boundary between two semiconducting materials is called a junction. pn junctions consist of positively and negatively charged materials which conduct current across their junction. LED: light emitting diodes are frequently used in microprocessor design to emit light indicating that a circuit is “on.”

Logic circuit: a series logic gates connected together to perform a specific function.

LSI: metallic oxide semiconductor (MOS) technology makes it possible to integrate thousands of components or elements on a single chip. This level of

| 308

Glossary

integration is called Large Scale Integration. LSI and its successor VLSI (very large scale integration) are the levels of integration used in the design and fabrication of microprocessors. The first integrated circuits contained far fewer

components or elements on a single chip and that level of integration was called Small Scale Integration (SSI).

Machine language: see Instruction set Mainframe: mainframe and mini-computers are the predecessors of the modern microcomputer and desktop workstation made possible by the increased power and capabilities of the microprocessor. Mainframe computers are large centralized computer systems used for high volume data and transaction processing and cost hundreds of thousands, often millions of dollars. They are still widely used in banking, manufacturing, government, and other institutions requiring large scale centralized data processing capability (a good example is the California Department of Motor Vehicles, which processes thousands of transactions per hour). Minicomputers are basically smaller versions of the mainframe computer and have been replaced in many applications by microcomputers or workstations. IBM remains the largest supplier of mainframe computers and the 360 and 3270 models are standards for the industry.

Masks: a transparency or map of the circuits that are to be fabricated on the silicon wafer. Until recently, masks were created using photographic reduction processes. Today, computer controlled electron beams “draw” the mask, with features smaller than 1 micron or one millionth of a meter. Math coprocessor: a special-purpose microprocessor for performing numeric calculations involving floating point or non-integer arithmetic and exponentiation. Also called the floating point unit or numeric coprocessor. Many modern

microprocessors have floating point capabilities built-in, making a separate math coprocessor unnecessary. MBE: in molecular beam epitaxy, the wafer is placed in an ultra-high vacuum chamber in which the silicon to be used as the epitaxial source material is vaporized into a gas and then directed via an aimed molecular beam at the wafer. (see also Epitaxy).

309

The Microprocessor: A Biography

Memory unit: the part of the microprocessor that manages memory operations such as space allocation in memory for applications and data.

Microcode: see Instruction set Microcomputer: traditionally defined as a desktop or “small footprint” com-_ puter controlled by a single microprocessor.

Microcontroller: 2 microcontroller is essentially a “stripped down” version of a microprocessor designed to perform a specific function such as controlling an automotive fuel injection system, for example. The microcontroller generally has less memory management capabilities and a smaller instruction set than general-purpose microprocessors. Micron: one millionth of a meter

Minicomputer: one of the larger and more expensive predecessors of the microcomputer, minicomputers were popular in the 1970s and early 1980s for small to medium-sized business applications as well as for science and engineering. The IBM’s System 38 and its successor the AS/400, the Hewlett-Packard 9000, and the VAX minicomputer from Digital Equipment Corp. are probably the most famous models and are still in wide use today. However, modern desktop workstations have replaced minicomputers in many applications.

MIP: millions of instructions per second is the standard method of measuring performance of microprocessors, although it is now considered a fairly crude approximation since it doesn’t account for floating point performance. In any case, the microprocessors of the early 1980s offered performance of under 10 MIPs while some of today’s microprocessors perform over 100 MIPs. Moore’s Law: the generalization proposed by Dr. Gordon Moore that the processing speed and capacity of memory chips doubles every two years, which

has so far held to be true. | MOS: metal oxide semiconductor is the basic metal on silicon technology that forms the basis of the modern transistor.

310

Glossary

Motherboard: the main computer system board on which the central processing unit, main memory, and other critical system devices are located. MSI: medium scale integration (see also LSI)

N-channel: the current in a transistor flows between junctions or source and drain by means of a conducting channel. An n-channel is a negatively charged channel while a p-channel is positively charged (see also Bipolar) Neural networks: the application of microprocessors and other integrated circuits to the simulation of the architecture of the brain. Neural nets are used for pattern and voice recognition, and other applications requiring cognitive skills. NMOS: negatively-charged metal oxide semiconductor (see also MOS)

N-p-m: negative-positive-negative denoting the path of the current in an n-p-n

transistor (see also Bipolar) , Object oriented code: a modular form of computer programming in which programming routines or functions called objects can be re-used and put together with other objects in many different applications, rather than starting from scratch each time as in conventional programming.

One-bit adder: see Adder | Operand: the item of data to be operated on (computed or calculated) by the

microprocessor. Oxidation: similar to the process by which iron turns to rust, the silicon wafer is covered with a protective layer of silicon dioxide by exposing it to oxygen.

the Pentium. 7

P6: the code name for the next generation Intel microprocessor to succeed

Package: the way the microprocessor is connected to other components is termed its “packaging,” which refers to the lay-out and configuration of the

311

The Microprocessor: A Biography

microprocessor’s connecting pins, ranging from dual in-line packaging (DIP) to pin grid arrays (PGA). Parity check: to check if the number of ones in an array of bits is odd or even. Parity checks are used in digital telecommunications as well as in memory systems to determine if the system is transmitting data accurately.

P-channel: see N-channel Pentium: the Intel microprocessor that succeeded the 80486, introduced in 1993, containing some 3 million transistors and capable of processing speeds of up to 300 MIPs at 100 MHz (see also 80x86).

Peripheral: a device attached to a computer to perform auxiliary functions such as printing, storing data (disk drives or CD-ROM), or performing data communications (modems), among others. Peripheral processor: a special processor designed to control a peripheral as described above. PGA: pin grid array packaging in which the perimeter of the chip is filled with an array of as many as 200 pins, three or four rows deep. PGAs are popular in the latest generation of high performance microprocessors, primarily because

of the high pin count. |

coherence: a technique involving aligned laser light beams, whose wavelengths are in phase, to produce distinct light and dark edges to eliminate blurred masks or circuit patterns in the mask lithography process.

Photolithography: the process of transferring a pattern to a surface for etching using photographic techniques; the basic process for transferring patterns

of integrated circuits to the silicon wafer. , Photoresist: a material that is resistant to photolithography so that the desired pattern is only transferred to areas not containing the photoresist material.

Pipelining: a method used in modern microprocessors allowing several 312

Glossary

instructions to be processed simultaneously, rather than one at a time, as in older generation microprocessors.

Planar process: the basic transistor fabrication process developed by Jean Hoerni in 1960, in which a flat surface (or plane) is used as the basic foundation of the integrated circuit. PLCC: plastic lead chip carrier is a type of packaging, in which the microprocessor is a flat square with little pin nubs around the perimeter. Popular because of their small size, low profile and low cost, as well as good shock resistance.

PMOS: positively charged metal oxide semiconductor (see also MOS) PowerPC: the microprocessor resulting from the collaborative effort of Apple, IBM, and Motorola, announced in 1991, based on IBM’s POWER or Performance Optimization With Enhanced RISC architecture. The PowerPC is in direct competition with Intel’s Pentium for the high performance desktop computing

market.

Processor engines: special-purpose microprocessors designed for specific functions such as high performance graphics, digital communications, multimedia, and so forth. One of the most prominent of these type of processors is National Semiconductor’s 64-bit Swordfish processor.

Program counter: the register containing the address of the next instruction is called the program counter. It keeps track of the instruction sequence specified by the program that the microprocessor is executing. Projection printing: the use of projection systems to transfer the circuit pattern (mask) to the wafer. PROM: programmable read-only memory is often used in microprocessors to store basic operating system instructions and commands in the microprocessor.

Proximity printing: photolithographic printing process in which the mask is suspended above the wafer to avoid direct contact. This process significantly improved yield rates. 313

The Microprocessor: A Biography

Queue: operations to be executed by the microprocessor are placed in a queue and then executed sequentially. Some advanced microprocessors use a technique called pipelining which essentially sets up multiple queues of operations that are executed simultaneously.

R2000, R4000, R6000: series of RISC-based microprocessors produced by MIPS, Inc. These processors mainly appear in high performance workstations and in particular those from Silicon Graphics, which now owns MIPS. RAM: random access memory stores data and applications temporarily during execution. It is also called “volatile” memory since all data in is lost when the computer is turned off.

Registers: storage areas in the microprocessor for holding data and instructions that are being operated on by the microprocessor. Reverse engineering: to design a clone or imitation of a product by working with the finished product to be imitated as a starting point. The objective of reverse engineering is generally to avoid infringing on patented designs or production techniques but yet to produce an identically functional product. RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computing is a microprocessor design concept developed at IBM and at several research universities in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with the objective of simplifying conventional microprocessor instruction sets to accelerate performance. Many workstations and high performance desktop PCs are now based on RISC designs, although the distinction between RISC and CISC is becoming increasingly blurred (see also CISC). ROM: read only memory cannot be altered by the user and generally contains

permanent data or instructions built in to the microprocessor or computer system. Recent ROM designs use eraseable programmable ROM (EPROM), so that instructions stored in ROM can be updated without having to replace the ROM chips.

RIL: resistor-transistor logic is a type of logic circuit used in transistors

Semiconductor: elements in the periodic table that have the property of high 314

Glossary

conductivity at high temperatures and nearly zero conductivity (property of an

insulator) at low temperatures. The most prominent of these semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium, which are located in the fourth column of the periodic table. Silicon: see Semiconductor

Silicon compilers: a software tool for designing integrated circuits which automates many of the basic design tasks such as specifying interconnects and finding inconsistencies or incompatibilities. Carver Mead of Cal Tech is credited with creating the first silicon compiler in 1979.

Silicon foundries: factories set up to manufacture custom silicon chips independently of major manufacturers such as Intel and Motorola. The advent of silicon foundries enabled smaller and less established microprocessor designers to get their chips manufactured. Notable products from silicon foundries include Sun Microsystems’ SPARC processor and MIPS’ R2000 series of processors.

Small scale integration (SSI): see LSI | SPARG: a RISC-based microprocessor developed by Sun Microsystems in the early 1980s, which powers most of the company’s high performance desktop workstations.

spectrophotometer: a device used for examining the oxygen and carbon content of silicon wafers. Sputtering: a process using ion beams by which polysilicon and metal coatings are deposited on the silicon wafer.

SRAM: static random access memory is considerably more expensive than DRAM and is primarily used for storing critical operating system data and instructions during execution. It is also faster than DRAM, but its contents cannot be altered without restarting the system (hence it is called static RAM).

Substrate: the base material of the chip, usually silicon. 315

The Microprocessor: A Biography

Superscalar: simultaneous execution of more than one instruction, a feature of advanced microprocessors such as the PowerPC. Thermal diffusion: a method for creating charged regions on the silicon substrate using high temperature gas. Transistor: an electronic device capable of amplifying electronic signals similar to the vacuum tube but made from a semiconductor material such as silicon or eermanium.

TIL: transistor-transistor logic is a type of logic gate used in transistors. Upward compatibility: a processor or computer system that is compatible with later generations or more powerful versions of the same processor or system

is said to be “upwardly compatible” (see also Compatibility). , tube: the predecessor of the transistor, used to amplify electrical signals by passing electrons through an evacuated tube. Vapor deposition: a method of depositing layers of material (coatings) on the silicon substrate.

Virtual addressing: a technique by which the main memory of the system is extended to other storage devices such as disk drives by assigning memory addresses to these devices. These additional memory locations are called virtual memory. The trick is to store the least used data and instructions in virtual memory until they are needed and then to swap them into main memory. Virtual addressing allows computer systems to work with programs and data requiring

more memory addresses than are physically available in main memory. , Virtual memory: see Virtual addressing VLSI: very large scale integration (see LSI)

Wafer: a slice of silicon on which semiconductor chips are fabricated.

316

Glossary

Word: a group of bits that are treated as a unit. An “8-bit word” is a group of 8 bits, for example. The “word length” of a bus on a computer system specifies the number of bits that can be operated on simultaneously. X-ray lithography: the use of x-rays for the lithographic process of transferring the circuit pattern or mask to the wafer. Yield rate: the percentage of fully operational units resulting from the mass production process. Hundreds of microprocessors and other semiconductor devices are produced from a single wafer, but only a certain percentage are fully operational and ready for commercial distribution. This percentage is the yield rate, which exceeds 90% in most microprocessor production. 280: the Zilog Z80 was an 8-bit microprocessor developed by Federico Faggin

and introduced in 1976. The Z80 was popular in early microcomputer models before the domination of the IBM PC and Intel’s 8088. Nevertheless,

more Z80 microprocessors have been sold than any other microprocessor model. They are still widely used in embedded processor applications.

O17

1201 processor, 13-15, 17 80186, 174

125% Solution, 171-172 80188, 174

16000, 147 80286, 174, 195

16-bit device, 94 80287, clone of, 222 16-bit market, Intel’s dominance of, 80386, 196

156-161 shortage of, 204

16-bit processors, 149 80386SX, 94

32-bit device, 94 80486, 115, 224 32-bit processors, 178-179, 195 AMD clone of, 225

3.3 Volt standard, 119, 268 8051, 208-209

4000 Family, 10-15 8080, 18-20, 141, 153 4004 processor (see also MCS-4), 8085, 154

10-15, 94, 143 8086, 113, 155-161

4-bit device, 94 8087, 171

64-bit 8088, 94, 159, 168, 248

applications, 98 8096, 209 devices, 95 80x86 processors, Clones of, 222 processors, 185 82586, 174

6502, 140, 146, 296.fn.12 8-bit device, 94 6800, 94, 144, 146, 153 68000, 147 68000, 155, 175-182, 181

family, last device of, 233 Acid etch, 63, 66

68010, 178 Actel, 206

68020, 178-179, 198 Activision, 137 68030, 182, 199 Adder, one-bit, 108-110 injunction against, 221 Adding binary digits, 108 Cillus.)

68040, 44, 46, 116 Address calculator, 107

6805, 178 Addresses, 68060, 232 memory, 95 | 6809, 94, 175 virtual, 96

8008, 14, 17, 20, 127, 132, 143 Adleman, Leonard, 285 319

The Microprocessor: A Biography

Advanced Micro Devices, 148 ASICs, 204-206 Intel versus, 221-229, 243-245 Asteroids, 137

Allen, Matthew, 50 Atari, 136-138 Alpha (see also DEC), 185, 242 AT&T, 178 ALPS Electric, 193 Audion, 49 Alternative, The, 16, 19, 132 Automobiles, microprocessors in, 31, ALU, 105, 114 illus.) 145-146, 176, 199 AM29000, 229 AMD 486, 225 AMD K5, 235

Amelio, Gil, 211 Bader, Rich, 156

Analog/digital conversion, 120 Bally, 137

AND Bardeen, John, 51-52

function, 111 Barrett, Craig, 198, 244 gate, 109-110 Bell Laboratories, 51, 56

Apple Computer, 175 Bennett, Tom, 144 Motorola and, 180-183 BiCMOS, 256

Apple I, 95 , Binary digits,

Apple I, 180, 296.fn.12 adding, 108 (illus.)

Apple Ill, 180 subtracting, 292.fn.13 Apple Lisa, 181 Bipolar, 13, 254

Apple Macintosh (see also Macintosh), transistors, 52, 254

111, 182-183, 224 Bit mapping, 111

shipments of, 231 Bits, 90, 92

Apple PowerMac, 233 Blank, Julius, 53 Apple/IBM joint venture, 226 Boolean logic, 92 Appliances, microprocessors used in, Boone, Gary, 132

28-32, 208-212 Bootstrapping, 10

Application Specific Integrated Circuits Borovoy, Roger, 132

(see also ASICs), 204-206 Bowmar, 132 Applications software, 262 Branch prediction logic unit, 116

Aptronix, 265 Brattain, Walter, 51-52

Arcade games, 137 Breadboard prototypes, 45 Architecture, Brookhaven National Laboratory, 69

common, 112 | Buffer, 100, 112

new developments in micro- Burn-in test, 68

processor, 269-275 Bus, 90, 93

Architectures, competing in 1995, 246 high speed I/O, 104

Arithmetic, binary, 108-110 internal, 104

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), 105 low-speed I/O, 105

Artificial intelligence, 271 memory, 105 ASCH, 111 off-chip, 104 320

Index

Bus designs, 112 Chi-Shin Wang, 247 Bus Unit, 114 Cilllus.) Christie, Dave, 229 Bus width, 93, 94, 292.fn.2 Chrysler (see Automobiles) Bushnell, Nolan, 95, 136-138 Circuit, integrated, 54

Busicom, 3-15, 19 Circuit diagram, 45

Byte, 92 Circuits, Bytes, adding, 108 control, 113-115 erowing semiconductor, 261 integrated, 58 optical, 283

C4 wiring, 79 organic, 285 Cache memory, 115 RTL, 57-58

CAD, 43 wiring, 79 Calculators, CISC, 101-103

chip designs for, 5 Classification, 82

desktop, 4 Clean room, 42, 60

four-function, 132-133 experimental, 61 Hewlett-Packard, 135-136, Clients, 278

2.93 fin. 12 Clock, microprocessor, 99

pocket, 4, 132-136 Clock

scientific, 135-136 cycles, 100 |

Canon Pocketronic, 132 rate, 90 Captive suppliers, 148 speed, 99 Carsten, Jack, 203 Clones, — Carter, Dennis, 230 IBM PC, 182 Casio, 133 legal battles over, 221-229, 243-245 Cathode ray tube (CRT), 49 CMOS, 119, 255-256

Charette, Robert, 167 Coating, 72

Chemicals, fabrication, 291.fn.31 Cochran, Michael, 132

Chip, 4-bit, 8, 10-15 Coherence, phase, 70 Chip Performance Index, 281 Coleco, 137

Chip set, Busicom, 9 Collector, 52, 254

Chiplets, 279 Collimated beams, 65, 70 Chips (see also Microprocessors, COLUSSUS computer, 50 Processors) Commodore, 140, 148 4000 Family of, 10-15 Common architecture, 112

custom, 5-6 Compaq Computer, 150, 196-197, 245

DRAM (see also DRAM), 98 AMD 486 and, 225

general-purpose, 5-6 Compatibility, 166

Japanese versus U.S. manufactured, software, 265-267

186-195 Compiler,

silicon, 77 reduced instruction set, 101 321

The Microprocessor: A Biography

Compiler, (Cont.)

silicon, 43-45 Daily life, microprocessors in, 28-32

Complex Instruction Set Computing Daniels, R. Gary, 145

(CISC), 101-103 Data cache, 107

Computer aided software engineering Data General, 148, 185

(CASE), 266 Data registers, 105

Computer aided design (CAD), 43-46 DataMath, TI, 132 Computer on a chip (see also CPU on Datamation, 130

a chip), 23, 131 Datapoint, 13

Computer Space video game, 136 Davidow, William, 156 Computer Terminals Corp. (CTC), 13, De Forest, Lee, 49

130, 132 DEC (see also Digital Equipment) , 235

Computers, Alpha 185, 242, 286 early, 50-51 Rainbow, 185

neural, 273 Vax, 185

personal (see also Apple, IBM PC, Decoder, 107, 114 (illus.)

Macintosh), 32 Defenders, 137

Connors, Thomas J., 144 Dell, 196 Continuity test, 82 Deming, W. Edwards, 189 Contourama IV, 217 Dennard, Robert, 299.fn.1 Control circuits, 113-115 Dense-Pac Microsystems, 279

Control unit, 114 (illus.) Deposition, 66, 71-74

Core memory, 96 Design, microprocessor, 42-47 Cornet, Jean Claude, 155 Desktop calculators, 4

Couch, John, 182 Destructive testing, 75

CPU, 8 Development systems, 151

CPU on a chip, 6, 13 Devices,

CRUSH, Operation, 156-161 discrete, 53 Crystal growth, 66, 258 microprocessor-based, 28-32

Crystals, Dham, Vinod K., 46

gallium arsenide, 258 Diamond cubic lattice, 39

silicon, 39 Dicing, 68

CTC (see Computer Terminal Corp.) Diffusion, 71-74

CTC Model 2200, 13 Digital Equipment Corp. (see also

Cubelets, 279 DEC), 141, 153, 184-186

Cubic Memory, Inc., 279 Digital signal processing (DSP), 120,

Custom circuits, 5-6 247

Customization, 25-26 Digital watches, 133, 143 Cycles, clock, 100 Digital/analog conversion, 120 Cyrix, 221, 235, 243 Digits, adding binary, 108 Cillus.)

CZ process, 39 DIP package, 77

Czochralski process, 39, 290.fn.4 Discrete devices, 53 322

Index

Division, binary, 110 ETANN, 273 DNA, using for computing, 285-286 Etching,

Doping, 71 chemical, 72 Double precision, 93 plasma ion, 72 Double word, 93 ETI, 3

Dragonkat, 199 Execution unit, 107 DRAM, 98, 115 EXORciser, 151 advances in, 279 Exponent, 93 market, Japanese dominance of, 188 Exxon Corp., 140 Drift velocity, 282 DSP, 120, 247 Dual In-Line (DIP), 77

Dummar, G.W.A., 54 Fabrication, 37-86 Dunlap, Thomas, 244 improvements in, 259-261 wafer, 59-61 Fabrication steps, semiconductor, 61-68, 66-68 Cillus.)

Eastman, Dean, 69 Faggin, Elvia, 20 |

Ebertin, Michael, 7 Faggin, Federico, 7, 9-15, 17-20, 128,

EDVAC, 290.fn.16 140, 206, 218, 251 EEPROM, 178 neural networks and, 273-274 Eisenhower, Dwight, 189 Failure rates, reducing, 193

Electricity, conserving (see also Fairchild, 5, 7, 19, 53, 55-58, 128,

Power), 117-119 138, 140, 143, 148

Electromechanical switch, 48, 88 Andrew Grove and, 170

Electron beam micro-metrology, 75 Camera & Instrument, 55

Electronic News, 130 Semiconductor, 53, 55-58 Electronics magazine, 13, 130 Farnsworth, Philo, 49

Embedded microprocessors, 174, Fernandez, M., 206

208-212, 276 FET, 53, 254, 290.fn.20

Emitter, 52, 254 Field-effect transistor ( see FET) coupled logic, 143 Field-programmable gate arrays, 205

Encapsulation, 68 Float zone, 290.fn.4 ENIAC computer, 51, 290.fn.16 Floating gates, 272

Environmental Protection Agency, U.S., Floating point, 93, 115, 116

118 Ford (see Automobiles)

Epitaxy, 72, 143 , FPGAs, 205 Epoxy attachment, 68 Freiberger, Paul, 181 EPROM, 178 Fresnel diffraction, 65 Erasable programmable read only Frosch and Derrick, 57 memory, 178 Fujitsu, 195, 220

, 323

Error detection, 90 Furnace, silicon, 39

The Microprocessor: A Biography

Fuzzy logic, 263-265 calculators by, 135-136, 293.fn.12 neural networks and, 275 High Output Management, 174 High speed I/O buses, 104 Historical significance of microprocessor, 23-25

Gallium arsenide, 257 Hitachi, 71, 192, 195, 220

Galvin, Paul, 141 embedded processors from, 212 Galvin, Robert, 189, 193 theft of IBM documents, 191 Galvin Manufacturing, 141 Hobbyists, computer, 139

Games, video, 136-138 Hoefler, Don, 141

Gate, current flow through, 53, 55 Hoeneisen and Mead, 299.fn.1

Gate arrays, 204 Hoerni, Jean, 53, 56 Gates, 109-110 Hoff, Ted, 7-15, 12, 19-20, 128, 218 floating, 272 Hogan, Lester C., 142 multiple, 54 Homebrew Computer Club, 139°

Gelbach, Ed, 15-16, 146 Howard, William, 165 General Instrument, 148 HP-01, 293.fn.12 General Motors (see Automobiles) HP-35, 135

General-purpose chips, 5-6 HP-45, 135

Germanium, 52, 56 HP-85, 184

Gilder, George, 44, 87 HP-9000 workstations, 184

Goldman, Murray, 179 Hull, John, 211

Graphics engines, 276 Human brain, computational power of,

Green PC, 119, 267-269 300.fn.17

Grinich, Victor, 53 Hyatt, Gilbert, 132, 215-219

Grove, Andrew, 129, 156, 169-171, 244 AMD case and, 228 book by, 174

reaction to Pentium flaw, 238 iAPX 432, 153-154, 168

response to Japan, 192 IBM, 56, 141, 184

Gunter, Tom, 147 486 chips from, 226 Gwennap, Linley, 247 competition in PC market, 196 Gyrator, 142 Intel’s contract with, 159-161 investment in Intel, 173

suspended shipment of Pentium, 237

Haggerty, Patrick, 16, 139, 146 X-ray lithography and, 69-70

Ham radios, 48 IBM PC, 160, 168 Hennessy, John, 214 clones of, 182 Heterostructure, 282 success of, 175 Hewlett-Packard (see also HP), 3, 102, IBM PC AT, 195

183-184, 213, 246 IBM PS/2 Model 80, 197 324

Index

IBM/Apple joint venture, 226 Intel

Impurities, 1201 (see also 8008), 13-15

doping with, 71 4004, 10-15, 17, 20, 94, 143

effect on semiconductors, 59 8008, 14, 17, 20, 127, 132, 143

reduction of, 61 80186, 174

silicon, 38 80188, 174

Ingot, silicon, 38-40 80286, 174, 195

Initial oxidation, 62-63 80287, clone of, 222

Innes, Tom, 125 80386, 196

Input/output (1/0), 90 shortage of, 204 Instruction, how microprocessor 80386SX, 94

executes, 106 (Cillus.) 80486, 115, 224

Instruction 8051, 208-209

block, 93 8080, 18-20, 141, 153

cache, 107 8085, 154 decoder, 104 8086, 113, 155-161 execution unit, 90 8087, 171

register, 100, 104 8088, 94, 159, 168, 248 Instruction set size, 96, 292.fn.2 8096, 209 | Instructions, RISC, 103 82586, 174 Instructions per clock cycle, 100 Intel iAPX 432, 153-154, 168

Integrated circuit, 54, 58 Intel Inside, 134, 229-231, 239-240 Integrated Information Technology, Intel

247 Microma watch, 133

Intel, 5, 7, 148, 150 Overdrive, 246

125% Solution, 171-172 P6, 234, 246, 248

Advanced Micro Devices versus, P86, 234

221-229, 243-245 Intel Pentium, 45, 113, 115, 116,

beginnings of, 5-20 22.7, 234

changing relations with IBM, 197 flaw in, 236-243

compatibility with, 245 Intellec 4-40, 151 contract with IBM, 159-161 Intellectual property rights, 245

early products of, 5-20 Internal bus, 90, 104, 112 early years of, 127-130 Internal parity check, 117 erowth in late 1980s, 197 Interrupt signals, 278

installed base of, 231 Intersi, 148

mistakes by, 152-155 Invention of transistor, 51-52 neural network projects, 273 Inventor of microprocessor, 19-20

Operation CRUSH, 156-161 _ V/O, 90

Red X campaign, 229 Ion implantation, 72 response to Japan, 192 Irvine Sensors, 279 the early 1980s, 168-174

325 ,

The Microprocessor: A Biography

Israel, role in microprocessor design, Leveson and Schellenberg, 70

211 Lid placement, 80

Light emitting diode (LED), 8 Light frequencies, wafer fabrication, 69

Japan, threat of, 186-195 Light sources, mask aligner, 69

Jobs, Steve, 181 Lindsay, Don, 282

Johannson, David, 43 Liquid crystal displays (LCD), 189

Johnson, Mike, 229 Liquid nitrogen cooling, 283

Josephson junction, 284 , Lisa, Apple, 181

Junction, 51, 56 Lithography, 63 Josephson, 284 limitations of, 257

p-n, 53-54, 56 X-ray, 69, 260

Juran, Joseph, 189 Litigation, 215-225 Litronix, 134 Local area network, 174 Logic, 90

Kaleida Labs, 235 Boolean, 92

Katz, Jeff, 156 Logic circuit, one-bit adder, 108-110 Keyes, Robert, 280 Logic gates, 109-110

Kilby, Jack, 54 Loveren, Richard, 244 Kits, microcomputer, 150 Low speed I/O bus, 105 Kliner, Eugene, 53 LRU, 115

Klystrons, 50 LSI, 5, 58

Konrad, Gerhard, 50 LSI Logic, 205, 235 KPR photoresist, 63 KTFR photoresist, 63

Macintosh, 111, 182-183, 224 closed architecture of, 296.fn.34

Lally, Jim, 156 shipments of, 231

Large scale integration (LSI), 5, 58 Macroparallelism, 278

Laser beams, use of, 70, 261 Magnavox, 137

Last, Jay, 53 Mainframe, 14 Laveil, Jeff, 144 Mantissa, 93

Lawsuits, 147, 215-229 Manufacturers,

Layers, microprocessor in 1979, 148 masking, 71 table of microcontroller, 27 semiconductor, 61-74 table of microprocessor, 27

Lead attachment, 68 Mark I computer, 50 Lead-frame packaging, 143 Mashey, John R., 95

Least Recently Used (LRU), 115 Mask aligner, 64-65

LED, 8 | Mask alignment, 63-65

Levenson, Mark D., 70 light sources for, 69 326

Index

Masking layers, 71 Microprocessor,

Masks, 47 applications of, 129

improvements in, 261 archictectures in 1995, 246

Massively parallel computing, 277 early years of, 125-161

Math co-processors, 116, 171 historic importance of, 23-25

Matsushita, 195 how it executes instructions, 106 Matsushita/Panasonic, fuzzy logic and, (illus. )

264 how it works, 87-122

Mattel, 137 inventor of, 19-20

Matthews, Al, 235 architectures, new developments in,

Mazor, Stan, 8-10, 18, 20 269-275

MBE, 73 organization and operation, 114

McKenna, Regis, 12, 129-130, 156 (illus. )

McKenzie, Ken, 147 organization of, 277 McMahon, Tom, 228 packaging, 77-81

MCS-4 (see also Intel 4004), 16 patents on (see Patents)

Mead, Carver, 43, 218 pervasiveness of, 28-32 Media processors, 247 power consumption (see also Medium scale integration (MSD), 5 Green PC), 117-119

Meindl, James, 281 Microprocessors,

Memory, 90 bus width of, 94-95

cache, 115 competitors in 1979, 148

physical versus virtual, 96-97 designing, 42-47 random access, 95, 98, 104 devices which use, 28-32

read only, 104 | early reaction to, 14-15, 17

slave, 115 embedded, 174, 208-212 virtual, 96-97 fabrication of, 37-86 Memory future improvements of, 253 addresses, 95 gallium arsenide, 257

bus, 105 manufacturers of, 27

management unit, 97, 114 Cillus.) number in use, 26

Mesa process, 56 peripheral, 208-212

Metal-on-silicon (see MOS) RISC, 213-215 Micro Computer Inc., 216 Microsoft, 176 Microcode, 221, 262 Windows (see also Windows NT), 97 Microcomputer kits, 150 MicroUnity Systems Engineering, 235, Microcomputer System 4-bit (MCS-4), 248

16 microVAX, 185 Microcontrollers, 120-121, 146, Miniaturization, limits of, 253 208-212 Minicomputer, 17

manufacturers of, 27 Minuteman missile, 142 Microma watch, 133 MIPS Corp., 102, 213-215, 235, 246 Microprocessor Report, 246 MIPS R10000, 246 327

The Microprocessor: A Biography

MIPS R2000, 214

MITS, 146 Nanoelectronics, 284

Mitsubishi, 195, 220 National Semiconductor, 112, 138, Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), 73 140-141, 147, 148, 181, 189,

Molecular computer, 285 276

Monolithic Memories, 222 peripheral processors by, 211-212, Moore, Gordon, 5, 6, 23, 33, 53, 56, 276

129, 133, 218, 286 N-cube computer, 277

Moore’s Law, 5, 165-167 NEC, 177, 192, 195

Morita, Akio, 193 Negative photoresist, 63 MOS, 4, 7, 10, 13, 19, 58, 128, Nestor, 273

254-255 Neural networks, 252, 269-275

limitations of, 281 Nexgen, 235, 242-243 MOS Technology Inc., 140, 146, 148 Nicely, Thomas, 236

Mostek, 139,148 Nippon Calculating Machines, 3

Motherboard, 98 Nippon Telegraph & Telephone (NTT) Motorola, 5, 141-147, 148, 169, 226, NMOS, 255

242, 246, 265 — devices, 290.fn.20

Apple Computer and, 180-183 Noble, Daniel E., 141

srowth in late 1980s, 198 Noetzel, Richard, 261 PowerPC strategy of, 233 Norman, Robert, 57

response to Japan, 192 NOT gate, 109-110

Motorola Noyce, Robert, 6, 12, 53, 57, 58, 129,

6800, 94, 144, 146, 153 190, 219

68000, 147, 155, 175-182 death of, 198

68010, 178 n-p-n structure, 254

68020, 178-179,198 n-type silicon, 41, 51 68030, 182, 199 Numbers, floating point, 93 injunction against, 221 Nx586, 242

68040, 44, 46, 116 6805, 178

68060, 232

6809, 94, 175 Object-oriented code, 266

Motorola University, 193 Off-chip buses, 104 | Moussouris, John, 214, 235, 248 Ohio Scientific, 146

MSI, 5 Ohl, Russell S., 51

Multibus designs, 112 Ohnoe, Kaiichi, 189

Multimedia, 275 Operands, 93, 96, 107 Multiplication, binary, 110 Operating systems, use of virtual memory in, 97 Operation, microprocessor, 114 Cillus.) Operation CRUSH, 156-161

328

index

Optical circuits, 283 Phase shifting, 70, 260 Optoelectronic integrated circuit Philips Corp., 219, 247 (OEIC), 283 OR gate, 109-110 Photolithography, 63

Oracle Corp., 277 new developments in, 261 Organic neural circuits, 285 Photoresist, 57

OS/2, 97 types of, 63 Osafune, Hiroe, 190 Pin Grid Array (PGA), 79 Overdrive processor, 246 Pipelines, 115

Oxidation, 41, 72 Planar process, 57 initial, 62-63 Planar transistor, 56-58

oven, 66 Plastic Leaded Chip Carrier (PLCC), 78 PLCC package, 78 PMOS, 255

P-n junction, 53-54

P6, 234, 246, 248 Pocket calculators, 4, 132-136

P86, 234 Pompa, Phillip, 233

Packaging, 77-81 Pong, 95, 137 Pac-Man, 137 Popular Electronics, 139 Page fault, 97 Positive photoresist, 63 Parallel processing, 277 Powell, Casey, 156

Parity check, 111, 117 Powell, Doug, 144

Pass/fail test, 82 POWER architecture, 227

Passivation layer, 74 Power

Patents, microprocessor, 131-132, consumption, 117-119, 267-269

142, 215-225 PDP-11, 184 management, 268

PDP-8, 184 Power transistor, Motorola, 142 flaw in, 236-243 PowerOpen, 227 Perceptron, 270 PowerPC, 116, 226-227, 231-233, 246 Performance, - Precision Architecture, 246

Pentium, 45, 113, 115, 116, 227, 234 PowerMac, 233

limitations of, 281 Prefetch unit, 114 Cillus.) microprocessor, 32, 95, 99, 116 Previte, Rich, 244

Moore’s Law and, 166-167 Probe cards, 76

virtual memory and, 97 Processors,

276 media, 247

Peripheral processors, 90, 208-212, gallium arsenide, 257

Peripherals, microprocessors in, Program counter, 100

208-212 Programming, object-oriented, 266

Personal computers, 32 Projection printing, 64

green, 119 PROM, 178

Pfeiffer, Eckhard, 245 Proximity printing, 64

PGA package, 79 p-type silicon, 41, 51 329

The Microprocessor: A Biography

RPN, 136

Quad-precision, 93 RTL circuits, 57-58 Quantum dots, 261, 284 Quantum switches, 284 Queue, 100 Sack, Edgar A., 206 Sanders, Jerry, 221-223, 244 Scalability, 255

R10000, 246 Schriber, Gene, 144, 147 R2000, 214 Scientific calculator market, 135-136 Radios, ham, 48 Scratch pad, 104 RAM, 95, 98, 104 Screen, bit-mapped, 111 dynamic (see also DRAM), 115 Seiko, 133 Random access memory (see also Sejnowski, Terrence, 271

DRAM), 95, 98, 104 Sematech, 198, 259

Raphael, Howard, 147 Semiconductor, fabrication processes,

Rattner, Justin, 153 61-74

Raza, Atiq, 242 Semiconductor Industry Association

RCA, 148 (SIA), 26

Read only memory (ROM), 8, 104 Semiconductor market, Japan’s threat

Reduced Instruction Set Computing to U.S., 186-195

(RISC), 101-103 Semiconductors, Refining, silicon, 38-41 beyond, 280-287 Register, instruction, 100 early, 48

Registers, 90, 96, 107 fabrication of, 37-86

data, 105 physical limitations of, 281

Reid, T.R., 16, 139 Servers, 278 Resistor-to-transistor logic (RTL), Sharp, 133 57-58 Shima, Masatoshi, 4, 8, 9, 18, 20, 140 Reverse engineering, 141, 191 Shockley, William, 51-53, 291.fn.21 Reversible computation, 299.fn.14 Shockley

Ricoh, 273 Laboratories, 53

RISC, 101-103 Semiconductor, 129 devices, 184 Shottky effect, 52

processors, 213-215 Siegel, Murray, 56 ,

RISC/System 6000, 226 Signetics, 148 Roberts, Sheldon, 53 Silent 700 terminals, 132

Robotics, 60, 259 Silicon,

Rockwell International, 7, 141, 148 early application of, 51

ROM, 8, 104 fabrication steps, 66-68 Cillus.) Rosen, Benjamin, 150 n-type and p-type, 41, 51 Rosenblatt, Frank, 270 processing of, 38-41 330

Index

purity of, 38-41 Sun Microsystems, 102, 213-214

Silicon Superscalar integer execution unit, 115 compiler, 43-45 Superscalar technology, 278 foundries, 213 Swaine, Michael, 181 gate technology, 7, 10, 13 Silicon Sweet, Bill, 147

Graphics, 102, 214, 246 Switch,

Silicon wafer, 41 electromechanical, 48 fabrication of, 59-61 quantum, 284

Six Nines, 38 Swordfish, 212 Six Sigma, 193 Synaptics, 272

Slave memory, 115 TouchPad, 252 Small scale integration (SSD), 5 Synertek, 139

Software, System

compatibility with earlier, 265-267 management software, 119

improvements in, 262-265 _ power management, 119, 268 system management, 119 Systems Research, 146

Sole sourcing, 197 Systems software, 262

Sony, 193, 235 Syzygy, 136-138 Southwest Technical Products, 146 SPARG, 214, 246

Spectrophotometer, 41

Spectrum computers (HP), 213 Taligent, 226

Speed-power product, 255 Teal, G.K., 38

Sperry, 57 Technological revolutions, patterns of,

Sphere, 146 126 Spiral model, 167 Television, 49

Sporck, Charles, 189 Terasawa, Tsuneo, 71

Sputtering, 72 Testing,

SRAM, 115 burn-in, 68 SSI, 5 microprocessor, 74-83 Stack notation, 136 Texas Instruments (see also TI),

Staktek, 279 13-14, 16, 54, 130-136, 143, Stamping, 79 146, 148, 150, 210, 279 Standard cells, 204 lawsuits by, 220

Stanford Linear Accelerator, 50 stumbling of, 151

Static RAM, 115 Texas Instruments Datamath, 132

Stein, Alfred J., 146 Text, 111

Stone, Harold, 167 Thermal diffusion, 72 Store result unit, 107 Thomson, 279

Substrate, improvements in, 254-259 Three volt standard, 119, 268 Subtraction, binary, 110, 292.fn.13 Three zone refining, 41

Suer, Myles, 279 TI 9900, 151 331

The Microprocessor: A Biography

TI-58, 135

TMS-1000, 131-132, 133, 151, 210 Wafer, silicon, 41

Toshiba, 187, 192, 193 Wafer

Toyota, 190 fabrication facilities, 59-61

Traitorous Eight, 53 fabrication, breakthroughs in, 143 Transistor, components of, 52 probing, 75, 81

Transistors, sort, 81 bipolar-junction, 52, 254, 290.fn.20 stepper, 65, 68

field effect (see FET) Wafers, testing, 74-83

gates and, 109-110 Wake-up test, 82 how they work Cillus.), 55 Wang, 185

invention of, 51-52 Watches, digital, 133, 143

mesa, 56 Weisz, William J., 144, 193 planar, 56-58 Welty, John, 144 power, 142 Western Digital, 148 number of in microprocessor, 46 Weitek, 248 | Transistor-transistor logic (TTL), 118 Whetstone, Earl, 159

Triode, 49 Width, Trumbull, Patricia, 244 bus, 93

TIL, 118 semiconductor, 60 Wiles, Mike, 144 Wilkes, Maurice, 115 Windows NT, 185, 233

Ultraviolet light, 69 Wire bonding, 80

Unix, 97, 178 Wiring, microprocessor, 79 Upward compatibility, 166 Wolfe, Stanley, 37 Word, 93

, ~— double, 93 Word length, 90

Vacuum tube, 49 Workstations, Vadasz, Les, 125, 126 engineering, 179 Vapor deposition, 72 HP, 184

Varian brothers, 49 used in microprocessor design, 45

VAX, 101 Wozniak, Stephen, 95

Very large scale integration (VLSD, 5 Video games, 136-138 Virtual addresses, 96

Visual inspection, 75 Xerox PARC, 181

VLSI, 5 Xilinx, 206 VLSI Technology, 205 XOR, 292.fn.14 332

Index

X-ray wafer lithography, 69, 260-261

Yield rate, 74, 81 Japanese, 186

Z280, 207 Z80, 140, 152 DEC Rainbow and, 185 success of, 207-208 78000, 152, 206 Zadeh, Lofti A., 263 _

Zilog, 20, 140, 147, 148, 169, | 206-208, 276 failure of, 152 Zitel, 173

333

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