The Mercantile Ethical Tradition in Edo Period Japan: A Comparative Analysis with Bushido [1st ed.] 978-981-13-7337-4;978-981-13-7338-1

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xii
Introduction (Ichiro Horide)....Pages 1-27
Why Study the Ethical Thought of Merchants in the Edo Period Japan? (Ichiro Horide)....Pages 29-34
From “Bushido” to “Shonindo” (Ichiro Horide)....Pages 35-59
Case Analysis of the Shonindo (Ichiro Horide)....Pages 61-179
Shonindo: Characteristics and Criticisms (Ichiro Horide)....Pages 181-216
Conclusion (Ichiro Horide)....Pages 217-225
Back Matter ....Pages 227-233

Citation preview

Advances in Japanese Business and Economics 20

Ichiro Horide

The Mercantile Ethical Tradition in Edo Period Japan A Comparative Analysis with Bushido

Advances in Japanese Business and Economics Volume 20 Editor in Chief RYUZO SATO C.V. Starr Professor Emeritus of Economics, Stern School of Business, New York University Senior Editor KAZUO MINO Professor Emeritus, Kyoto University Managing Editors HAJIME HORI Professor Emeritus, Tohoku University HIROSHI YOSHIKAWA Professor, Rissho University; Professor Emeritus, The University of Tokyo TOSHIHIRO IHORI Professor Emeritus, The University of Tokyo; Professor, National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies (GRIPS) Editorial Board Members YUZO HONDA Professor Emeritus, Osaka University; Professor, Kansai University JOTA ISHIKAWA Professor, Hitotsubashi University KUNIO ITO Professor Emeritus, Hitotsubashi University KATSUHITO IWAI Professor Emeritus, The University of Tokyo; Visiting Professor, International Christian University TAKASHI NEGISHI Professor Emeritus, The University of Tokyo; Fellow, The Japan Academy KIYOHIKO NISHIMURA Professor Emeritus, The University of Tokyo; Professor, National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies (GRIPS) TETSUJI OKAZAKI Professor, The University of Tokyo YOSHIYASU ONO Professor, Osaka University JUNJIRO SHINTAKU Professor, The University of Tokyo MEGUMI SUTO Professor Emeritus, Waseda University KOTARO SUZUMURA Professor Emeritus, Hitotsubashi University; Fellow, The Japan Academy EIICHI TOMIURA Professor, Hitotsubashi University KAZUO YAMAGUCHI Ralph Lewis Professor of Sociology, University of Chicago

Advances in Japanese Business and Economics showcases the research of Japanese scholars. Published in English, the series highlights for a global readership the unique perspectives of Japan’s most distinguished and emerging scholars of business and economics. It covers research of either theoretical or empirical nature, in both authored and edited volumes, regardless of the sub-discipline or geographical coverage, including, but not limited to, such topics as macroeconomics, microeconomics, industrial relations, innovation, regional development, entrepreneurship, international trade, globalization, financial markets, technology management, and business strategy. At the same time, as a series of volumes written by Japanese scholars, it includes research on the issues of the Japanese economy, industry, management practice and policy, such as the economic policies and business innovations before and after the Japanese “bubble” burst in the 1990s. Overseen by a panel of renowned scholars led by Editor-in-Chief Professor Ryuzo Sato, the series endeavors to overcome a historical deficit in the dissemination of Japanese economic theory, research methodology, and analysis. The volumes in the series contribute not only to a deeper understanding of Japanese business and economics but to revealing underlying universal principles. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11682

Ichiro Horide

The Mercantile Ethical Tradition in Edo Period Japan A Comparative Analysis with Bushido

Ichiro Horide Reitaku University Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan Translated by Edward Yagi The Department of Economics and Business Administration Reitaku University Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan Stanley J. Ziobro II The Division of Humanities and Social Sciences Trident Technical College Charleston, SC, USA

ISSN 2197-8859     ISSN 2197-8867 (electronic) Advances in Japanese Business and Economics ISBN 978-981-13-7337-4    ISBN 978-981-13-7338-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7338-1 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

For my late, beloved wife, Atsuko, in gratitude for her constant, loving assistance and support for this project

Preface

This book is the result of an encounter with the name “Suzuki Shosan” in Ronnie Lessem’s 1991 work, Developmental Management: Principles of Holistic Business. I am ashamed to say that I had neither heard nor read about Shosan Suzuki at that time. Checking the references, I found that Lessem quoted from Shichihei Yamamoto’s 1979 work: Nihon Shihonshugi no Seishin (The Spirit of Japanese Capitalism). Reading intensively through the Suzuki Shosan Zenshu (Complete Works of Shosan Suzuki), I recognized that Shosan Suzuki was a pioneer who advocated Japanese occupational ethics, saying that working hard to benefit those living in the world is precisely a Buddhist practice itself. Hajime Nakamura, a noted Japanese scholar of Indian philosophy, writes: “Thus, in the history of Japanese Buddhism, the development of occupational ethics on a large scale, and the emphasis that one’s secular occupational life is itself Buddhist practice, likely originates with Shosan Suzuki” (Nakamura 1949, Kinsei Nihon ni okeru hihanteki seishin no ichi kosatsu (A discussion on the critical spirit in early modern Japan), in “Gendai Bukkyo Meicho Zenshu (Complete Works of Great Books of Buddhism)” Ryubunkan, p.  309). Shosan Suzuki’s professional ethics inspired my research interest. Eventually, I was motivated to make further, deep investigations into historical documents published throughout the Edo period. These led to an in-depth study of the mercantile ethical tradition of Edo Japan. Happily, Japanese publishing businesses were at the zenith of prosperity at that time: Edo people enjoyed a variety of publications, from which I picked up documents related to commercial ethics written by merchants themselves, rather than professional writers, to gain practical knowledge about the daily business behavior of merchants. The more I read, the more my research motivation increased, which finally resulted in this publication of my research of business ethics of Edo merchants. When discussing any research of merchant ethics throughout the Edo period, it is not easy to find comprehensive, empirical inquiries as compared with descriptive studies. Thus, I preferred an intensive, empirical study focusing on daily matters such as “proprietor’s behavior”; “apprenticeship”; “family and employee management”; “marketing, financing, buying and selling, and inventory control”; “the worship of ancestors, Gods, Buddhas, and Sages”; and “charity and donation.” vii

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Preface

Bushido is famous, and, even in the modern business world, Bushido is often used as a word expressing the ethical spirit of Japanese businesspeople. However, as this work proves, merchants in the Edo period had their own merchant paths, “The Way of the Merchant,” or “Shonindo” in Japanese. My ultimate purpose in this work is to clarify a relationship between the way of the merchant, “Shonindo,” and the way of the warrior, “Bushido.” After intensive, comparative research of Shonindo with Bushido, I found evidence that Shonindo essentially corresponds to Bushido, with the sole exception of matters of life and death. This work consists of six chapters. Chapters 2 and 3 discuss Shonindo and Bushido as the groundwork for a case analysis in Chap. 4. Chapter 4 is a case analysis of Shonindo based on passages selected from documents sorted by religious doctrine, which reveals evidence for Shonindo, “The Way of the Merchant.” Chapter 5 describes characteristics of Shonindo based on comparative and behavioral analyses of merchant ethics, including Western merchant morality. This book is addressed not only to researchers but also to everyday readers. Thanks to a man named Inazo Nitobe, nearly everyone has heard of Bushido, while very few have ever heard of anything like Shonindo. It is thus no wonder that modern businesspeople refer to Bushido when they discuss the Japanese “business spirit.” Therefore, this work intends to provide knowledge of Shonindo to the world and to introduce readers to Japanese mercantile ethical tradition discovered through historical, empirical analysis. Chiba, Japan November 2018

Ichiro Horide

Acknowledgments

This work would not have been possible without the help of three people: Dr. Ryuzo Sato, C.V. Starr Professor Emeritus of Economics at New York University’s Stern School of Business; Professor Edward Yagi, at present with Reitaku University in Japan; and Professor  Stanley J.  Ziobro II with  Trident Technical College in Charleston, South Carolina, USA. I am especially indebted to Dr. Sato, who initially encouraged me to write this book and consistently pushed me to proceed with my research and writing until the project was complete. Without his strong, steadfast, and warm advice, this project would never have seen the light of day. Professor Yagi supervised the overall translation despite a heavy, full-time workload of research and classes. He majored in Japanese Language and Literature at UC Berkeley, was the first Westerner to ever graduate from a Japanese-language MBA program at Keio Business School, teaches classes in Japanese, and often writes articles and academic papers in that language. Without his heartfelt, considerate support driven by the Western chivalrous spirit, this project would never have been completed. I deeply appreciate his thoughtfulness and good will. Professor Ziobro was responsible for converting most of the original Japanese manuscript into English. His translation skills, which allowed him to put into English even the most technical terms of religious philosophy, are truly extraordinary. I am deeply grateful to him.

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Contents

1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.1 Research Subject������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.2 Previous Research ����������������������������������������������������������������������������    2 1.3 Research Method and Criteria����������������������������������������������������������   22 1.4 Review of Historical Records ����������������������������������������������������������   24 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   25 2 Why Study the Ethical Thought of Merchants in the Edo Period Japan? ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   29 2.1 Japanese Merchants Had a “Path” Comparable to Bushido ������������   29 2.2 Why and How “The Way of the Merchant” Arose����������������������������   30 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   34 3 From “Bushido” to “Shonindo” ������������������������������������������������������������   35 3.1 The Significance of Bushido������������������������������������������������������������   35 3.2 Inazo Nitobe and Bushido����������������������������������������������������������������   37 3.3 The Theory of Bushido During the Edo Period��������������������������������   43 3.4 The Ethical Code of the Mikawa Samurai, Suzuki Shosan��������������   53 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   58 4 Case Analysis of the Shonindo����������������������������������������������������������������   61 4.1 What Is Shonindo?����������������������������������������������������������������������������   62 4.2 The Early Edo Period: Shonindo in the Seventeenth Century����������   63 4.3 The Middle Edo Period: Shonindo in the Eighteenth Century ��������   76 4.4 The Late Edo Period: Shonindo in the Nineteenth Century ������������  141 4.5 The Shonindo Movement Viewed Throughout the Edo Period��������  176 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  178 5 Shonindo: Characteristics and Criticisms ��������������������������������������������  181 5.1 Comparative Analysis of Shonindo with Bushido����������������������������  181 5.2 Behavioral Analysis of Shonindo������������������������������������������������������  189

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Contents

5.3 Shonindo and the Terakoya (Private Elementary Schools in the Edo Period) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  205 5.4 Comparison with Western Shonindo������������������������������������������������  208 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  215 6 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  217 6.1 Consequences of Hypothesis Verification����������������������������������������  217 6.2 Summary of Findings on How Merchants in the Edo Period Japan Put Morality into Practice ������������������������������������������������������  218 6.3 Future Research��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  224 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  225 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  227

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1  Research Subject The purpose of this work is to research and demonstrate, using evidence from contemporary documents, that the early modern Japanese merchant class in the Edo period Japan (1603–1868) held to a remarkable but little-examined ethical code roughly comparable to the well-known Way of the Warrior, or Bushido. Evidence demonstrates that many and perhaps most merchants—who were deeply despised and roundly devastated as unethical by Japan’s ruling samurai class—in practice acted in accordance with strict moral standards. During the Edo period, Japan had four exquisitely delineated social classes. These were, in descending order, the samurai or military administrator class, farmers, craftsmen, and merchants. The samurai exercised absolute rule as the aristocratic class of soldiers and bureaucrats. Merchants, by design, were at the very bottom. To make things worse for them, the samurai point of view made it clear that the merchant was not merely a low-class person, but an immoral one who endured no hardship or physical exertion: he was, to put it simply, an “unethical person who merely earned commissions as a middleman between producers and consumers” (Sorai Ogyu 1722 Seidan, Tsuji 1987, p. 132). An anonymous author universally portrayed merchants as cunning and greedy. “Merchants dutifully humbled themselves before samurai, farmers, and craftsmen in public, while at the same time in private they skimmed off profit margins while possessing no tangible assets themselves and engaged in risky commercial pursuits and speculation”(Buyo Inshi 1816 Seji Kembun Roku, Honjo and Naramoto 1994, p. 229). This work brings to light evidence contesting these representations, regardless of whether some of these criticisms were contemporaneously valid or whether some merchants in fact lacked an objective ethical code and engaged in dishonest transactions that earned the contempt of the samurai. However, the scorn historically heaped upon the Edo merchant class is so one-sided that it practically begs for a © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 I. Horide, The Mercantile Ethical Tradition in Edo Period Japan, Advances in Japanese Business and Economics 20, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7338-1_1

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1 Introduction

reassessment. This reassessment has uncovered enough evidence to attest to the strong possibility that Edo merchants in fact had an ethical code of their own, one that may be termed Shonindo in Japanese or “The Way of the Merchant” in English. This work suggests that the Way of the Merchant compares favorably with the Way of the Warrior and provides a balanced perspective on a crucial aspect of Japanese history. In the following pages we shall compare shonindo, exemplifying merchant ethical thought, with Bushido, exemplifying the ethical thought of the samurai. To determine the extent to which the former compares with the latter, we shall compare historical records describing shonindo with the Koyo Gunkan, the Budo Shoshin Shu, and the Hagakure, historical records related to Bushido and published during the same era, as well as with Inazo Nitobe’s Bushido, which was published later. It may be a stretch to suggest that shonindo might have “exceeded” Bushido as a moral code overall, inasmuch as the latter includes a willingness—and in some perhaps unnecessarily extreme interpretations, an outright eagerness—to die. We may, however, demonstrate that the rules of shonindo, as its ethical thought was expressed or realized in the details and actions of daily conduct, in some respects may have equaled those of Bushido.

1.2  Previous Research As far as we can discern at the time of this writing, previous research on the specific subject at hand, also drawing extensively upon original source material covering the whole of the Edo Period, is not to be found. Accordingly, we must begin with a considerably broad survey of prior literature in Japanese and English which we consider useful for both academic researchers and general readers interested in the subject of ethical thought in Japan. In general, the literature examined is limited to what is quoted throughout this work.

1.2.1  Studies by Japanese Researchers 1.2.1.1  Bushido Watsuji, Tetsuro (1952) Nihon Rinri Shisoshi, Vol. 2 (History of Japanese Ethical Thought, Vol. 2), 2 vols. This work takes up Bushido in Chap. 5: “Bushido as the Tradition of the Virtue of Dedication.” Tetsuro Watsuji (1889–1960) was a professor at Tokyo University in the Faculty of Letters. Watsuji was the foremost Japanese ethicist of his time and the originator of Watsuji Ethics, a discrete ethical system. Tetsushi Furukawa and Toru Sagara, both mentioned below, were disciples of his. Watsuji focused approvingly on the intense master-retainer relationship described vividly in the Mikawa

1.2  Previous Research

3

Monogatari, a work by the Mikawa samurai Hikozaemon Okubo. He indicates, however, that the self-sacrificing spirit of Bushido had the dual nature of being both an advantage and a disadvantage for the Tokugawa government. Also, as noted in the Hagakure, a collection of works on Bushido published around 1716, it could be dangerous (Watsuji 1952, Vol. 2, pp.  482–483). One of the first Bushido topics Watsuji treats in detail is that of junshi, committing suicide after one’s lord has died. He notes that the upper echelon of the Tokugawa government tended to view this type of suicide negatively:Yuzan Daidoji, in his Budo Shoshin Shu, places emphasis on the morality of self-sacrifice generally rather than the extreme of suicide associated with junshi (Vol. 2, pp.  490–491). Watsuji notes that views opposing such extremism appear on the Hagakure as well (Vol. 2, p. 493). Watsuji makes another observation, that revenge is a manifestation of Bushido (Vol. 2, p. 496). Research into Bushido pioneered by Watsuji was further developed by Furukawa and Sagara, as described below. Furukawa, Tetsushi (1957) Bushido no Shiso to Sono Shuhen (Bushido Thought and Its Background). Tetsushi Furukawa (1912–2011) was an immediate disciple of the noted ethicist Tetsuro Watsuji, professor at Japan’s illustrative Tokyo University. Furukawa was himself an ethicist and was active as a professor at the same institution. Compared to the many studies and commentaries that exist on Bushido for the general reader, this book is an academic research work that focuses tightly on three works: the Koyo Gunkan, the Budo Shoshin Shu, and the Hagakure. In writing the present work we have utilized this volume of Furukawa’s research as one of its foundational texts. Furukawa notes that in addition to the term “Bushido,” one finds during the Edo period active use of such terms as Samuraido (the Way of the Samurai), Bushi no Michi (the Way of the Warrior), and Shido (the Samurai Code). Bushido per se apparently was not the dominant term; it was used only by very few people (Furukawa 1957, pp. 2–4). Furukawa divides Bushido into two parts (pp. 4–6). One is the Bushido of the Edo period, and the other is Bushido of the Meiji Period. His treatment of the former subject is based in large part on the above-noted three works. His analysis of the latter relied heavily on the classic Bushido by Inazo Nitobe (1899, see vol.1 Nitobe Inazo Zenshu 1987) and its criticism by Basil Hall Chamberlain (1912). These will be discussed in detail in Chap. 3. Sagara, Toru (2010) Bushido. Toru Sagara (1921–2000) was, like Tetsushi Furukawa, a professor of ethics at Tokyo University. This book narrowly focuses on “social position (or renown) and shame” and “preparedness for death,” and ranges over extensive literature to identify evidence to establish and clarify these themes. The Kamakura-era (1185–1333) Azuma Kagami, for example, takes up passages that attach importance to “renown,” and demonstrates “renown and shame” as characteristic of Bushido (Sagara 2010, pp.  80–81). The amount of literature Sagara covered is impressive. The Hogen Monogatari, which also appears during the Kamakura period, describes the ­presence of Bushido during the period in which the political power of the samurai was first

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becoming established in Japanese society. This point is the special characteristic of the book. Sagara begins his discussion on “preparedness for death” with this rather unambiguous line from the Hagakure: “The way of the warrior is found in death.” He takes up this idea as it is expressed also in the Koyo Gunkan, the Budo Shoshin Shu, and, additionally the Gorui (Parts of Speech) by the noted author Soko Yamaga (p. 123). Sagara also develops Bushido theory by a unique perspective recognizing the influence of Buddhism on Bushido, based in large parts on language in the Hagakure. Kasaya, Kazuhiko (2014) Bushido: Samurai Syakai no Bunka to Rinri (Culture and Ethics in Samurai Society). Furukawa and Sagara were associated with Tokyo University; by contrast, Kazuhiko Kasaya (1949–) is a Kyoto University-educated ethicist. As did Furakawa and Sagara, Kasaya takes up Chamberlain’s denial of Nitobe’s Bushido, adding to the discussion the astringent criticism leveled against Nitobe by the historian Sokichi Tsuda, a professor of history at Waseda University. Kasaya, however, does not side with these criticisms. Examining Bushido from a positivist perspective, he makes his arguments after investigating samurai conduct as described in historical records, indicating what sort of reality comprised Bushido, and what sorts of conduct Bushido pointed towards. To borrow a phrase from Kasaya (2014, p. viii), “Developing an argument based on documentary examples involving the term ‘Bushido’ differs from the efforts of Furukawa and Sagara, who attempt theoretical development based on speculation.” Perhaps due to space constraints, however, the “examples” on which Kasaya relies are few. Katsuragi, Takao (2014) Jihi to Shojiki no Kokyo Tetsugaku (Public Philosophy of Benevolence and Honesty). The author is a legal philosopher and professor at Gakushuin University. He pursues an analysis of Bushido in Chaps. 3 and 4 of this work. In Chap. 3, he takes up Inazo Nitobe’s Bushido and JochoYamamoto’s Hagakure while developing his own views. Katsuragi conceives Bushido as based on the relationship between lord and retainer, considers the complex influences of the concepts of honor, benevolence, and public service, and notes in the background the syncretistic influences of Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism (Katsuragi 2014, p. 85). In Chap. 4, he further seizes upon the issues and concludes that Bushido is, at its core, grounded in the concept of benevolence resulting from the ethical thought of a religious syncretism of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism (p. 91). Acknowledging the Koyo Gunkan and the Mikawa Monogatari as expressing the basis of Bushido – and basing his analysis on the notions of benevolence found therein – he concludes that Bushido is not at the service of death, but rather honesty and wisdom based on the notions of benevolence found in the Toshogu Goikun1 and resulting in a “trinity of thought” grounding Bushido (p. 109). 1  Toshogu Goikun is said to be the last instructions of Ieyasu Tokugawa, the first Shogun in the Edo Shogunate. According to Wakao, it had a wide circulation among Daimyos (vassal lords) as a text book for local governing. There is no accepted notion of the author. Wakao stated that Ekiken Kaibara published its revised edition in 1681 (Wakao 2001, pp. 219–271).

1.2  Previous Research

5

According to Katsuragi, the three notions that form the fundamental concepts of Bushido are: (1) Japanese egalitarianism (the concept that policymakers descend to the level of the common people and share in their joys and sorrows), (2) governmental benevolence (the application of authority to eliminate excessive luxury), and (3) intergenerational ethics (public service for the sake of future generations) (pp. 131–132). 1.2.1.2  Shonindo Fukuda, Tokuzo (1920) Gendai no Shogyo oyobi Shonin (Commerce and Merchants in Modern Days). Tokuzo Fukuda (1874–1930) was a professor of economics at Hitotsubashi University, formerly the Tokyo Higher School of Commerce. While still young, he studied abroad in Germany where he became a direct disciple of the economist Lujo Brentano (1844–1931). Especially for a book written by an economist, his seminal 1920 work was an exceptionally practical volume for general readership. The book was written in an easy-to-understand style, unerringly pointing out the essence of commerce and the merchant, and the high quality of its contents held true to Fukuda’s high reputation. Fukuda asserted (Fukuda 1920, p. 2) that the objective for anyone in business had to be to have a mercantile code—and not just any code, but one applicable to the times. A new type of code was needed for a new era. Fukuda says that the samurai demonstrates Bushido in practice by loyally serving his master, even at the risk of his life. The merchant, by design, is different: he cannot demonstrate his ethical code at the cost of his life. Rather, the way of the merchant is in gaining and preserving trust (pp. 46–47). The merchant code Fukuda proposes divides the term “businessperson” into “business” and “person,” then stresses the importance of “person,” placing the focus on just what constitutes being human. In short, he disavows the merchant who, absorbed in the pursuit of profit, forgets how to be a good person (pp.  111–114). The objective of shonindo is to achieve success as a merchant while admirably preserving virtue as a person (p. 52). This assertion, true, is nothing particularly novel: a similar fundamental disposition considered desired in a merchant can be found in both the more distant past as well as in the present. A comparison of Fukuda’s ideal theory of shonindo with the actual shonindo of the Edo period reveals no new prominent or distinctive characteristics. In the final chapter of his book, however, Fukuda includes the phrase “contribution to society,” which for the merchant is the old (as well as new) ultimate proposition. In Fukuda’s view, the ultimate goal of shonindo henceforth resides in its overall contribution to society. This single phrase is what is most representative of Fukuda’s concept of a merchant ethical code. Arima, Sukemasa (1923) Shin Shonindo (The New Shonindo). Sukemasa Arima (1873–1931) was a professor and researcher of the history of Japanese thought at the Tokyo University of Commerce (the present Hitotsubashi University). One of the distinctive characteristics of this book is its forward, written

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by the Meiji economic giant Eiichi Shibusawa (1840–1931). Shibusawa postulates the integration of economics and morality and expounds upon the necessity of ethics to homo economicus, economic man. In all epochs the human heart is thrown into chaos and morality declines whenever the world is characterized by turbulence (as is very demonstrably the case today). One notes that in Japan, during the period of confusion following upon the Meiji Restoration, the tendency of the times was to uncritically abandon the old and embrace the new. More or less as a matter of course, unethical trends proliferated in the commercial world in order to take financial advantage of the turmoil. Lamenting this state-of-affairs, Eiichi Shibusawa, by then an influential financier, took the initiative to vigorously contend with men of commerce that economics and morality were of equal importance. Quickly and unhesitatingly adopting Western European models because they were new—the process of abandoning the old because it seemed entirely antiquated—resulted in an extreme bias towards Western European thought, exemplified in the “Asian-Out-European-In” strategy of Meiji pioneer Yukichi Fukuzawa. From here it was only a short step toward belittling Eastern morality based on Confucianism, Shinto, and Buddhism which, while if not perfect, had in fact been the moral foundation for every Japanese during the entire Edo period. Notwithstanding the merits or demerits of either system, it was not, in hindsight, reasonable to expect an entire society to docilely and quickly move to replace thousands of years of Eastern morality with a totally new, Western European-style morality. The end result was that the period witnessed the birth of a kind of moral interregnum; in other words, a state of moral irrelevancy was reached (as is apparently the case now). This period called forth—again, as now—the perceived necessity for moral education, even in institutions of higher learning, and there appeared textbooks, including ones like this related to business ethics. According to Arima, the essence of commercial morality lay in the perfection of “amicably benefiting oneself and others simultaneously” (Arima 1923, pp.  7–8). This is precisely in alignment with the spirit of Buddhism. A deeply interesting point here is that Arima, who graduated from Tokyo University’s Department of Sinology, rendered the three significant virtues not in Chinese characters but rather in English; they were: justice, gentility or mildness, and strong-mindedness or courage. Arima elucidated a merchant ethical code by correlating each of these three virtues (again, in English) with traditional Japanese morality. Taking this into consideration, it is clear at a glance how one’s being educated during the early Meiji period profoundly influenced one’s orientation towards the West. Watsuji, Tetsuro (1952) Nihon Rinri Shisoshi, Vol. 2 (History of Japanese Ethical Thought, Vol. 2), 2 vols. Watsuji’s views of Bushido were examined earlier, in Chap. 5. In Chap. 7 of this work, “Ethics and Philosophies of Townspeople,” he takes up shonindo. Of great significance is the fact that it was in the Edo period that samurai occupied the highest level in the class system and merchants were placed at the bottom (Watsuji 1952, Vol. 2, p. 589). However, although the samurai held the highest social ranks, the Edo period was a peaceful era in which military prowess was seldom needed and large-­scale

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conflict was non-existent. Although there was political intrigue and violence was not unknown, raw military force could not be utilized. This put the samurai, simply put, in an awkward situation since the total absence of war led logically to the total absence of a warrior’s traditional sources of income, namely loot and plunder. Although the merchants were placed at the lowest level of recognized society, the advent of peace provided merchants, traders, and shopkeepers with multiple avenues of activity that effectively proved to be extremely profitable for them (ibid, pp.  589–590). To say that the Edo period was a profitable age for the merchant would be an understatement; in fact, the Edo period was a golden age for them. Merchant activity became especially lively from the latter half of the seventeenth century onward, once it became clear that the countrywide grip on power by the Tokugawa clan in Edo (later Tokyo) was carved in stone. In 1688, the Edo period writer Saikaku Ihara wrote his merchant success story, Nippon Eitai Gura, or “Japan’s Treasury for the Ages.” Watsuji, citing Chikamatsu Monzaemon’s work Yamazaki Yojihei Nebiki no Kadomatsu, finds: “Become a samurai if you would teach the Way of the warrior, and become a merchant if you would teach the Way of commerce. The samurai disdains profit and seeks glory; the merchant disdains renown and seeks profit” (ibid, p.  603). Watsuji cites Chikamatsu extolling the virtues of the merchant and identifying collaborating historical records explaining mercantile ethics from the perspective of the merchant: Mitsui Takafusa’s Chonin Koken Roku (The Failures of Merchants) and the Edo-period ethicist Baigan Ishida, originator of Sekimon Shingaku, a popularized blend of Confucian, Shinto, and Buddhist ethics, as well as his disciples Toan Tejima and Doni Nakazawa. In conclusion, Watsuji writes (ibid. pp. 623–624): “The morals of Bushido and the morals of the merchant are perfectly aligned” and accordingly “During the Edo period, there was no formation of merchant ethics that differed from Bushido.” Miyamoto, Mataji (1982) Nihon Chonindo no Kenkyu (Studies in the Japanese Way of Townspeople). Mataji Miyamoto (1907–1991) was an historian of Japanese economics and a professor at Osaka University. He was a foremost authority on the merchants of the Edo period. He published Kinsei Shonin Ishiki no Kenkyu (A Study of Early-Modern Merchant Attitudes) in 1941, pioneering mercantile ethics studies. Miyamoto explained the construct of “townspeople consciousness” using six concepts: apprenticeship, honor, social standing, resourcefulness, management, and calculation (Miyamoto 1982, p. 9). Apprenticeship is a broad term describing the relationship between employer and employee, with emphasis placed upon loyalty to the employer, or master. This concept extends to family and community relations, and awareness of service obligations is required in the relations between parent and child, husband and wife, ancestor and descendant. Honor is the emphasis placed on one’s appearance in the eyes of society; one’s “face.” Social standing is knowing one’s place, acting in accordance with precedent, and conforming to tradition, including traditions of the family business or family history. An awareness of social standing was especially strong among Osaka merchants, many of whom were “born and bred” to support the family business (ibid, pp. 24–26). Resourcefulness meant

8

1 Introduction

managing with foresight; in other words, to be wise and creative in one’s business affairs. This manifested in meticulous business dealings and exquisite attention to detail. Management is associated with the merchant being ever more frugal and diligent in his personal and professional life because he is well-acquainted with the wastefulness of others. Unlike the samurai, who were provided with a fixed income by their master, management was the method by which the merchant, through frugality and saving, built his fortune. Osaka merchants especially loathed losses and focused on how to minimize them (ibid, p. 47). Calculation is establishing one’s profits and losses without wasting even a small amount of money. One strives to make the family business permanent by minutely calculating small profits, saving them, and building up one’s assets. This is the essence of the Osaka merchant. The above represents the structure of Chonindo as taken up by Miyamoto. The current work’s primary purpose is to define shonindo by comparing research on two phenomena. One is the ethical code that supports external factors of macro-­economic commerce. The other is internal factors providing support for the actual execution of business operations; in other words, the ethical code underlying business administration. Miyamoto’s research places the emphasis on the former. 1.2.1.3  Merchant Thought Naito, Kanji (1941/1978) Nihon no Shukyo to Shakai (Religion and Society in Japan). Kanji Naito (1916–2010) was a sociologist and professor at Kyushu University. His research was innovative, analyzing the connection between Buddhism and the economic ethics associated with merchants. Naito surveyed the commercial activity of merchants from the Omi region of Japan and illustrated the strong connection between Buddhist doctrine and Omi merchant thought regarding the reconciliation of self-interest and helping others (Naito 1978, p. 69). The undeniable influence of Max Weber appears frequently in Naito’s writings, and indeed Weber is cited frequently in Naito’s works (ibid, p. 264). Watanabe, Shoichi (1961) Nihon Kinsei Dotoku Shisoshi (History of Japanese Early-Modern Moral Thought). At first glance, the development of the examples and articles covered in this work seems to be relatively close in content to the Watsuji essay mentioned previously. If, however, one looks more closely at the breadth and depth of its theme development and compares it to Watsuji’s admittedly pioneering research, one will note a considerable difference in its sweep and profundity. Watanabe considers Bushido to be the moral thought of rulers basing their values on Confucianism, and in contrast perceives “merchant values” as the utilitarian moral thought of those subject to the rulers (Watanabe 1961, pp. 337–338). He focuses on the flexible moral views of the merchants who, making free use of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism, acknowledge

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and adapt to the real world (ibid, pp. 339–340). Watanabe concludes, however, in a manner similar to Watsuji’s,writing: “The development of early-modern moral thought in the mid-Edo period does distinguish Edo period ethics as based on the consciousness and everyday needs of the common townspeople. Still, one is challenged to find any active, significant development that became a dynamic force for epochal change” (ibid, p. 343). Imai, Jun (1966) Kinsei Nihon Shomin Shakai no Rinri Shiso (Ethical Thought of the Common People in Early-Modern Japanese Society). The author is a graduate of Tokyo University, Faculty of Letters, Department of Ethics, and a professor of ethics at Musashi University. The most distinguishing characteristic of this book is the notion that the ethical thought of the common people is not based on arguments related to social class, but on a universal ideology in which everyone equally pursues living an ethical way of life (Imai 1966, p. 7). This thought is not restricted to Confucianism; it extends as well to Buddhism and Shinto. For Buddhist theory Imai draws upon the works of Shosan Suzuki and Eitaku Bankei2; for the ethical thought of townspeople he touches upon Baigan Ishida, Toan Tejima, Doni Nakazawa,3 and also, examining the ethical awareness of the early-modern farmer, Sontoku Ninomiya.4 Imai’s final chapter reflects upon the spontaneous and positive attitudes common people held towards education and learning, focusing on the efforts of the educators of the common people in striving to shift their awareness in social directions. Another distinctive characteristic of this book is that it discusses the connection between ethical thought and religion. Sakata, Yoshio (1968) Chonin (Townspeople). Yoshio Sakata (1906–2000) was an emeritus professor of history at Tokyo University. This book provides an analysis of how, in stark contrast with the samurai and Bushido, the commercial activities and ethics of Edo period townspeople5 changed as a result of socio-economic transformations. Dividing the Edo period into four eras, and further distinguishing between Edo and Osaka townspeople, Sakata clearly illustrates the reality of gradually weakening samurai power and heightened townspeople influence. The distinctive characteristic of this book lies in how well it substantiates the influence exercised by the townspeople in periods of socio-economic change. The expansion of economic activity by the samurai, who were almost pure consumers not engaged in the production of goods, was directly 2  Bankei, Eitaku was a priest (1622–1693) who maintained that a daily life is comparable to mediation im Buddhism. 3  Nakazawa, Doni (1725–1803) was a preacher and disciple descended from Baigan Ishida. 4  Ninomiya, Sontoku (1787–1856) was a profound thinker in agriculture who was famous for diligence and filial piety. 5  The Japanese word “chonin,” literally “townspeople,” generally means craftsmen and merchants: the two classes who lived in the towns (the farmers lived near their fields; the samurai lived in separate enclaves). In this book, however, the terms “merchants” and “townspeople” are used interchangeably.

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1 Introduction

linked to increases in revenue for the townspeople, who provided the consumer goods needed or demanded by the samurai. Direct contact between the samurai, who were concentrated heavily in Edo, and the Edo townspeople increased drastically. Osaka townspeople were exempt from land taxes and, while managing to remain aloof from politics, nonetheless handled the rice transactions that formed the basis of the economy during the Edo period. Changes in the times divided the fate of the two regions. The townspeople of Osaka persisted in preserving a strong merchant ethical tradition, but not so among most of the townspeople of Edo, whose increase in material wealth coincided with the decline of influence by the samurai. A few among the Edo townspeople managed to preserve a stronghold of tradition and modesty, but the majority could not resist taking advantage of opportunities as the fate of the samurai waned (Sakata 1968, pp. 144, 146–147, 150, 153). Sakata’s distinctive characteristic is how precisely he portrays the merchants of Osaka, who managed to preserve “the way of the townspeople” and the merchants of Edo, who largely consigned it to oblivion. Kyoto Prefecture (1970) Shinise6 to Kakun (Multi-generational enterprises and Family Precepts). This is an extensive archival study compiled by the Prefecture of Kyoto documenting Kyoto’s longest continuously running enterprises and the business precepts of the families who without exception run them. It is a primary source describing enterprises with histories exceeding 100 years, and the family business precepts that have allowed them to survive. The first chapter, entitled “The Secret to a Permanent Family Enterprise,” was written and compiled by Masao Adachi (see below) based on research identifying common family precepts. The operation is almost without exception a private family enterprise in which the head of a household holds complete control. He (or occasionally she) admonishes and cautions the younger family members concerning their future posterity and preserving the family name and honor (Kyoto Prefecture 1970, p.  3). Adachi itemizes the concepts he identifies under 15 headings: (1) family succession, (2) veneration of ancestors and faith, (3) filial piety, (4) preservation of health, (5) honesty, (6) diligence, (7) patience and endurance, (8) contentment, (9) social standing, (10) frugality, (11) compliance with the law, (12) prudence, (13) secret charity, (14) harmony, and (15) house rules. All of the virtues typically associated with mercantile activity are thus covered. Takenaka, Seiichi (1972) Sekimon Shingaku no Keizai Shiso (Economic Thought of Sekimon Shingaku). Seiichi Takenaka (1906–1985) was one of the world’s premier scholars of Sekimon Shingaku, an academic fellowship founded by Baigan Ishida (1685–1744). Himself a practitioner of Shingaku, Takenaka revived and for a time assumed leadership of the Shingaku research group Meiseisha, originally established in 1785 by Ishida’s disciples after his death. The circumstances surrounding his study of 6  The Japanese word “shinise” literally means “old store” but in practice should be translated as “a venerable company that has existed successfully for many generations.”

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Shingaku were such that Takenaka came to understand that most modern researchers into the history of economic thought were unfamiliar with the ethics of Shingaku. He therefore initiated renewed researching on Shingaku and, considering it suitable for applied practice, initiated a new movement proposing an economic morality for everyday people, just as Baigan Ishida had done among the townspeople in the Edo period two centuries before (Takenaka 1972, p.  3).7 This book, a comprehensive inquiry into the economic thought found in Shingaku, ranges from Ishida himself to his disciples, and its pages are replete with sophisticated research on the subject. A reader who peruses this work in minute detail can easily grasp a full picture of Shingaku; for Shingaku researchers there is presently no study which surpasses this work. The following three chapters of the 2nd Edition contain Takenaka’s comments on mercantile ethics: Chap. 2: “Townspeople’s Awareness and Sekimon Shingaku,” Chap. 3: “The Social Significance of the Existence of Townspeople and Mercantile Ethics,” and Chap. 4: “Applied Ethics in Economic Life.” “Mercantile ethics” appears in the title of Chap. 3, and “keizaido” (The Way of Economics) appears in Chap. 4. Minamoto, Ryoen (1973) Tokugawa Shiso Shoshi (A Short History of Tokugawa Thought). Ryoen Minamoto (1920–) is an historian of thought and Professor Emeritus in the Faculty of Letters at Tohoku University. The subject of his research is Edo period thought in general. The sections of this book relevant to the present research are Chap. 4, “Samurai Morality,” and Chap. 5, “Thought Related to the Townspeople and the Affirmation of Commerce.” Their content is concise and of high quality. Chap. 4 contains an analysis on samurai ethics in times of peace, where he suggests a way of viewing the samurai that corresponds with the social changes that were occurring in Japan during the era of Confucian ethicist and statecraft scholar Seiryo Kaiho (1755–1817). Next, based on the Confucianism of Soko Yamaga (1622– 1685), Minamoto transitions to a discourse on the shido (the Samurai Code), the spirit of Bushido depicted in the Hagakure, and the Confucian ethics of the samurai found in the Budo Shoshin Shu, which in turn correlate strongly to the principles of shido. In Minamoto, however, one detects a certain reluctance regarding his acceptance of traditional Bushido ethics. The fifth chapter indicates that, from their position of commercial superiority, the merchants gained influence by leveraging their economic status. Minamoto states that even while they were despised by the samurai, the merchants, especially the great merchants, generally had a pro-government stance. However, the merchants were unable to channel their abundant economic power into social progress (Minamoto 1973, p. 98). According to Minamoto, the merchants’ ethical awareness 7  The noted scholar of Japanese history, Koya Nakamura (1885–1970), in discussing economic thought in his Genroku oyobi Kyho Jidai ni okeru Keizai Shiso no Kenkyu, Vol. 1 (Researches in Economic Thought in the Genroku and Kyoho Eras, Vol. 1) (1942), takes up townspeople’s thought in the section “Theory of Economic Policy as the Basis of the Samurai Class,” (ibid, pp. 159–188).

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1 Introduction

improved with their gains in status, and Minamoto cites Shosan Suzuki, Baigan Ishida, and Toan Tejima as the spiritual pillars of this progress. Minamoto suggests that it was Baigan Ishida who, by advocating the affirmation of commerce, provided the greatest positive influence in the actual lives of the townspeople (ibid, p. 106). Adachi, Masao (1974) Shinise no Kakun to Kagyo Keiei (Precepts for Multi-­ generational Enterprises and the Management of Family Businesses). Masao Adachi (1925–2001) was a scholar of economic history and business administration. This work is a compilation of his detailed research into Kyoto’s many existing multi-generational businesses. In his research, he states that as many as 1000 Kyoto enterprises, family businesses, and shops have continued to operate for at least 100 years (Adachi 1974, p. 6). The book analyzes family precepts and shop rules associated with these enterprises, and at the same time scrupulously examines their management organization and actual business conditions. The first section takes up principles of management. The second section examines succession, bekke (branch houses),8 apprentices, and merchant guilds.9 The third section examines case studies (ibid, p. 2). The defining characteristic of this work is in how it connects management principles to business administration (ibid, p. 2). Adachi’s objective is to encourage a revival in Japanese-style management in business administration – not as a matter of ethno-economic centrism, but out of a desire to promote human-centered management (ibid, Forward). Adachi’s 15 rules comprising the “secrets” of old family businesses in Sect. 1, Chap. 2 overlap with the Adachi-written Chap. 1 of the Kyoto Prefectural work previously cited (Shinise to Kakun). In Chap. 3, Adachi describes “Kyoto-type codes of commerce as compiled from the shop rules of long-established businesses,” calling the long-term strategy seen in Kyoto’s multi-generational enterprises the “Kyoto-type commercial code.” Although Adachi’s research was focused exclusively on Kyoto, in general his conclusions may be thought of as applicable throughout Japan. The great merchant houses of the Edo period did business in Edo and Osaka as well as Kyoto; their ­commercial operations were countrywide. While certain practices may have differed in the details, the outlines of all multi-generational enterprises were similar. Takenaka, Seiichi (1977) Nihonteki Keiei no Genryu (Origins of the Japanese Management). This author’s previously-mentioned work focused on the economic awareness of common townspeople and ethical thought from the perspective of real economic activity. The present work takes up Sekimon Shingaku as a key source of Japanese-­ style management by focusing on management principles that motivated influential 8  The bekke (branch house) is an independent business established by an apprentice in which the apprentice has been permitted by his master to set up in the same business: shop name, financial assistance, and client base. 9  A merchant guild is a commercial monopoly authorized to operate as such and protected by a government authority.

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merchant families. Takenaka identifies three practices that comprise key source material in Sekimon Shingaku: familistic management, lifetime employment and promotion by seniority, and workplace harmony (Takenaka 1977, pp.  174–183). Takanaka researches as well principles of management prior to the work of Baigan Ishida, citing Soshitsu Shimai,10 the Choja Kyo (Teachings on Becoming Wealthy), Shosan Suzuki, Saikaku Ihara, Joken Nishikawa, Takafusa Mitsui’s Chonin Koken Roku (The Failures of Merchants), and Muneyoshi Uekawa. Takenaka ultimately focuses on Baigan Ishida and Toan Tejima to discuss the influence exerted on merchant business management by Shingaku, the results of which comprise the three practices mentioned above. Miyamoto, Mataji (1977) Kinsei Shonin Ishiki no Kenkyu (Studies in Early-Modern Merchant Awareness. In: Miyamoto Mataji Zenshu (The Complete Works of Mataji Miyamoto), Vol. 2. As mentioned earlier, Mataji Miyamoto was a professor of history at Osaka University. At the time of its publication, the present work represented pioneering work into merchant awareness, then an unexplored subject of inquiry (Miyamoto 1982, p. 9). This book is organized into two parts. Part I is an analysis of social history, the shop rules of merchant houses, and family precepts. It throws into relief awareness of the principles by which Edo period merchants acted. Part Two deals specifically with the merchants, analyzing their actual state-of-affairs from a contemporary perspective. The family precepts and shop rules that comprise the heart of Miyamoto’s investigation are predominately taken from cases associated with merchants from Osaka, Omi, and Ise; however, the Ito and Okaya families and the beginnings of the Ogawa clan, all in Nagoya, are examined as well. Merchant families are the main subject of this study, but the inquiry broadens to include family rules of the samurai houses, which were significant patrons of the merchants. Additionally, this book includes special research into the Ono family of the Omi region, who fell into bankruptcy after the Meiji Restoration. Serikawa, Hiromichi (1987) Shukyoteki Keizai Rinrin no Kenkyu (Studies in Religious Business Ethics). This work is a detailed study concerning the relationship between religion and business ethics. Divided into four parts, Part I is an investigation into Max Weber and takes up Christianity and business ethics. Part II deals with business ethics relative to Buddhism – Chap. 2 and beyond provide an analysis of Japanese Buddhism and business ethics (including a section that analyses the rules of professional conduct according to Shosan Suzuki) and Chap. 3 has a discussion of Sekimon Shingaku, again, the movement which originated with Baigan Ishida. Part III is devoted to case studies of Omi merchant house precepts and shop rules. The considerably broad scope of these case studies is rather distinctive. Part IV is entitled “The Economic Spirit of the Omi Merchants,” and summarizing the  Shimai, Sousitsu (1539–1615) was a Hakata merchant in southern Japan. His family precept that employees are thieves is notorious.

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1 Introduction

case studies in Part III, Serikawa argues for the connection between the practices of Omi merchants and Buddhism. Serikawa deserves great credit for recognizing that one of the primary sources of modern Japanese capitalism—or what is now widely known as “Japanese-style management,” is the economic spirit and practices of the early-modern Omi merchants. Nonetheless, it should be noted that the strongest research concerning the relationship between the Omi merchants and modern Japanese business ethics was the pioneering work of Kanji Naito. Irie, Hiroshi (1996) Kinsei Shomin Kakun no Kenkyu (Studies in the Early-Modern Family Precepts of Townspeople). Hiroshi Irie is a researcher of the history of education. Irie states in the introduction that this work describes the results of his research into house precepts and family codes, focusing on the connection between management and education. He analyses the importance of the history of education observed in these precepts and codes; it is not a study of business management. Irie takes up farmers, craftsmen, and merchants equally as representatives of the common people, but the well-­ ordered family precepts and house codes that he describes pertain chiefly to the merchants. His analysis, therefore, centers on these merchants. The distinctive characteristic of this book lies in Irie enlisting specific virtues in his analysis. He first identifies virtues from all the material he can identify, rank orders them by their frequency of mention, and finally makes a list of 50 of them. He then proceeds with his analysis by categorizing the 50 virtues into the following four main groups: Social Ethics (e.g., public affairs, Gonin Kumi,11 business partners), Family Ethics (family precepts, family systems); Workplace (or apprentice) Ethics (shop system, shop work, service rules), and Personal Ethics (townspeople ethics,12 or ethics generally expected of the individual). The time period under review is the entire Edo period. His source material comprises both primary and secondary sources. Irie organizes his book into five parts: an overview article and the four parts comprising the main body of the text. The second section of the ­overview lists the virtues forming the basis of his analysis. The remaining four parts are case studies. The first is an analysis of the Mitsui Family. The second is an analysis of Sanoya Kobei, a textile wholesaler in the Nihonbashi district of Edo. The third is an analysis of regional merchants, and the fourth is analysis of farmers. Irie’s “Early-Modern Merchant Clan Family Codes and Virtue Classification Table” (Irie 1996, pp. 61–65), which superbly summarizes the relationship between specific virtues and the source material that describes them, arguably provides one of the best sources for serious researchers of Edo mercantile thought. This is a significant accomplishment altogether indispensable for research into early-modern Japan’s family precepts.  Gonin Kumi (five family neighborhood unit), organized by farmers, craftsmen, and merchants, was an Edo period mutual aid organization. 12  Irie considers all “townspeople ethics” to be “Chonindo” and places them in the fourth category. 11

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Yoshida, Jitsuo (2010) Shoka no Kakun (Precepts of the Merchant Families). Jitsuo Yoshida (1945–) is a former government official who served in the Osaka Regional Taxation Bureau. In this work, he identifies the views of Shosan Suzuki and Baigan  Ishida as representative of shonindo (Yoshida 2010, pp.  22–31). The concrete examples used to form this conclusion come from his assessing almost all the representative family precepts currently known to be available to the public. This work, therefore, serves as a valuable document considering just the extent of the collection alone. In the final chapter, Yoshida consolidates all of the virtues noted therein (pp. 555–570, 578–591). He points to the virtues of diligence, control, honesty, reliability, trust, self-reliance, and independence as forming the canon of conduct for the rich merchants. For the spirituality of the same he identifies harmony in the home, reverence of ancestors, calculation and ability, religious piety, secret charity, and good deeds. Yoshida performed exhaustive research and the sum of his achievements is great. For researchers focusing on the study of merchant ethics, this book is an extremely useful document collection, introduction to the subject, and reference work. Katsuragi, Takao (2014) Jihi to Shojiki no Kokyo Tetsugaku (The Public Philosophy of Benevolence and Honesty). Chapter 5 in this book provides an analysis of shonindo. Katsuragi conceives of the merchant as one who seeks profit with impeccable honesty rather than one who is covetous, focusing on the relationship between honesty and profit (Katsuragi 2014, p. 132). He begins by reviewing Shosan Suzuki, indicating the importance of honesty in shonindo (pp. 144–145). He touches upon Hakuin13 and Baigan Ishida, stating that a good merchant charged interest or profits honestly, and that the honesty of the merchant could be measured by how fairly he charged interest or took a profit (p.  148). The honesty of a merchant, however, was not merely a matter of profit. The basis of honesty was bound up in all the public and private aspects of one’s daily life. Katsuragi is neither an economist nor a business management scholar, but a philosopher whose area of expertise is public philosophy. Thus, Katsuragi’s taking up Bushido and shonindo from the perspective of a philosopher is rather novel.

1.2.2  Studies by Non-Japanese Authors Marshall, Alfred (1907) Social Possibilities of Economic Chivalry. In: A.C. Pigou (Ed.) (1966) Memorials of Alferd Marshall. This essay is a short treatise of only 23 pages. “Economic chivalry” is based on a “cool heads but warm hearts” spirit that formed the basis of Marshall’s economics,  Hakuin (1685–1768) was a Zen Buddhist priest. He was instrumental in the popularization and reformation of Zen, and was accomplished in poetry, prose, and Zen painting.

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1 Introduction

or to put it another way, he wrote a research paper about Bushido for businessman. Marshall divides his text into 11 sections. He states in Sect. 5: “Chivalry in war and chivalry in business,” that just as there is chivalry for the knight, so is there economic chivalry for the businessman (Pigou 1966, pp. 329–331). In Sect. 6, he states that a good businessman must be possessed of economic chivalry, especially citing that “more than for the money it brings them, the ablest and best businessmen value success. Assuming that a man’s career is free from the suspicion of fraud, the malign destruction of rivals, and oppression of employees, success is good prima facie evidence of leadership” (ibid, pp. 331–332). Furthermore, he adds that “Men of this class live in constantly shifting visions, fashioned in their own brains, of various routes to their desired end; of the difficulties which nature will oppose to them on each route…” (ibid, p.  332). According to Marshall, the most important characteristics of business are a “chivalrous desire to master difficulties and obtain recognized leadership” (ibid, p. 331). In the final section, he concludes that “the most important and progressive business work is scarcely ever without a large chivalrous element and is often mainly dominated by chivalrous motives.” (ibid, p. 342). Marshall rejects any definition of success that is the result of gain achieved by “chicanery, by manufactured news, by fraudulent dealing, or by the malignant destruction of rivals,” (ibid, p.  343). He states that “the rich man would further cooperate with the State, even more strenuously than he does now, in relieving the suffering of those who are weak and ailing through no fault of their own, and to whom a shilling may yield more real benefit than he could get from spending many additional pounds.” (ibid, p. 345). He closes the essay by writing: “I submit, then, that a most pressing immediate call on us is to associate in our own minds and those of others economic studies and chivalrous effort.” (p. 346). Marshall’s short essay has lost none of its novelty, and even now retains its lively character. It is a must-read, significant document for all businessmen and scholars. Bellah, Robert (1957 & 1985) Tokugawa Religion—The Cultural Roots of Modern Japan 2nd Edition The 1985 paperback edition discusses how the three doctrines of Shintoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism during the Tokugawa Period in Japan contributed to the establishment of the foundation for Japanese modern industrial economy. The author added a subtitle “The Cultural Roots of Modern Japan,” which more accurately reflects its contents than the original 1957 edition did (Bellah 1985, p. xi). The book is divided into seven chapters. Chapter 4 discusses Bushido, while Chap. 5 takes up the economic ethics of the merchant class as well as those of the farmer. Chapter 6 advances discussion centered on Shingaku and its founder, Baigan Ishida. Chapter 7 is the conclusion. In Chap. 4, the author posits that Bushido is the central value of Japan, and he regards the ethics of Bushido to be the national ethic of the Tokugawa Era… and of the present day. As specific examples, he presents the words and deeds of Mitsukuni Tokugawa (1628–1700), the Hagakure, Budo Shoshin Shu, Shingen Takeda, Soko Yamaga, Sadatake Ise, and Ekiken Kaibara.

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Chapter 5 focuses on the economic ethics of the merchant class. To begin, he considers the economic ethics found in Zen, specifically the keen attention on frugality and thrift. More precisely, he deals with the relationship between government and economic ethics and compares the ethics of the merchant with those of the farmer. In discussing economic ethics and its relationship with government, he raises the influence of Confucianism, and when he takes up the economic ethics of the merchant he emphasizes the relationship with Buddhism, using as a specific example the study “Religion and Economic Ethics” by Kanji Naito (1948). His significant use of primary sources is to be commended, but his overall dependence on secondary sources should be noted. The author’s approach has much in common with the sociological framework of Talcot Parsons; in one sense it can be viewed as an analysis of an ethical model. If one thinks in these terms, then this work can be viewed as a masterpiece conspicuous more as having the character of a sociological study rather than an empirical study. Carter, Robert E. (2001) Encounter with Enlightenment: A Study of Japanese Ethics (SUNY Series in Modern Japanese Philosophy). This book first analyzes the ethical philosophy of Japan as greatly influenced by three religions: traditional Japanese Shintoism, Confucianism and Indian Buddhism as introduced to Japan through Korea from China. Then it describes how a new global ethical philosophy may be coming to fruition resulting from its fusion with current Western thought. The primary feature of this analysis is the further development of a personal theory using primarily one’s own literature as the source material. There are three key differences between Carter’s approach and our own research. First, Carter’s research relies on secondary historical research on Japanese ethics; it does not touch on primary sources that reference concrete examples of practical ethics. Second, he does not touch on any aspects of ethical thought of the Edo period that may be thought to have a profound influence on Japan’s ethical thought of the present time. Third, the literature references primarily used are that of non-Japanese; references to Japanese-origin primary literature are relatively few. Najita, Tetsuo. (1987) Visions of Virtue in Tokugawa Japan: The Kaitokudo, Merchant Academy of Osaka; (2009) Ordinary Economies in Japan, A Historical Perspective in 1750–1950. Tetsuo Najita is a Robert S. Ingersoll Distinguished Service Professor, Emeritus, of History and East Asian Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago. He specializes in the eighteenth-century Tokugawa thought and the intellectual history of modern Japanese politics. He is one of the most distinguished researchers in the field of Japanese history in the world. Here we review his recent two studies, indicated above. In 1987, he published a book that focused on the Kaitokudo, or the Osaka Merchant Academy (1724–1869), which was first established as a private school and in 1726 became a legally chartered academy while a few leading merchants remained to direct the management of Kaitokudo. The teachers lectured on Confucian concepts using the nine Chinese classics: “The Analects of Confucius,”

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“Mencius,” etc. “The Kaitokudo was in those years a proud and thriving educational institution of higher learning that was open to all classes and to the merchants of the Osaka area in particular.” (Najita 1987, p. 2). Najita stated that Kaitokudo was an educational institution for merchants to learn the basics of ethics by attending the lectures of Confucianism, just as samurai learned at traditional schools for warriors. School rules stipulated that the content of lectures should be strictly centered on the nine Chinese classics; thus, the historical documents cited in his first book were mostly limited to ones written by eminent Confucianists. For example, the following passage clearly reflects what Najita strongly insists in his first book: “Out of the very Confucianism which defined their lowly status, they sought a philosophy defining their own moral and practical worth. Such an effort would aim to create a moral center for merchants from which they could view themselves as not inferior in an ultimate sense to the other functional classes” (Najita 1987, p. 18). In his second book, published in 2009, Najita extended the scope of his first book. He includes a history of commoner thinking about the political economy taking place outside the academy. As a useful source to understand the visions of virtue in the practice of business, Najita drew attention to “handbooks for other commoners about the importance of engaging in commerce” (Najita 2009, p. 29) written in ordinary language by common folk. He wrote, “Perhaps most importantly, commoners wrote for other commoners to persuade them about the whys and wherefores of commerce and to urge them to seize economic initiatives from their everyday world. And commerce, they repeatedly argued, was essential to maintaining human life from the present into the future” (Najita 2009, pp. 28–29). The Edo period merchants, through these handbooks, mastered the basic rules of daily business such as employer wisdom, human resource management, education, business and financial management, etc. Our purpose is to demonstrate how merchants in the Edo period behaved in a moral way. Accordingly, the handbooks that Najita strongly recommended provide us with abundant documentary materials. When we started our research ten years ago, we did not know then that Najita had examined the handbooks to study ­commoner thinking. We found the handbooks in the process of writing a research paper about Shosan Suzuki in 1999, although the collection of handbooks Najita recommended did not include the writings of Suzuki Shosan. We discovered them through historical documents related to the morality of merchants. Based on the handbooks, we began studying the morality of merchants, so therefore our research owes them a great debt of gratitude. Najita highly values the contribution of the handbooks to demonstrate the ethical business practice of merchants in the Edo period and elicits the idea of “Ko,” or a cooperative organization for mutual assistance. His second book mainly sheds light on the “Ko.” He states in the preface that a conspicuous theme throughout is the commoners’ ethical imperative to “save one another” (Najita 2009, p. x) and he has adorned the title page with the well-known ideographs sogo fujyo to indicate this. Hunter, Janet. (2014) Koseina Shudan de Tomi wo Eru (Growing Rich by Fair Trade: Business Ethics and Shibusawa Eiichi); (2016) ‘Deficient in Commercial

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Morality?’ Japan in Global Debates on Business Ethics in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries. Janet Hunter is the Saji professor of economic history at the London School of Economics. According to her personal website at the London School, Hunter focuses on the economic history of modern Japan and has engaged in collaborative work with scholars in Japan, the United States and Turkey as she looks at the historical evolution of ideas related to business ethics in Japan and their potential application to developing economies. Hunter is an outstanding scholar in Japanese studies and has published many books and papers written from a broad perspective. These two books discuss and analyze the morality of Japanese merchants at the Yokohama settlement in the late nineteenth century. As shown in the title of Chap. 3, Hunter demonstrates how Japanese merchants in the Yokohama settlement transacted unethical business practices with Europeans and Americans. Hunter writes, “Chapter 3 considers the discourse on commercial morality as it applied to international transactions, focusing in particular on Western views of Japanese trade and commerce. Criticisms that the Japanese could not be trusted had their origins in the early days of port trade treaties and the personal experiences of Western merchants and diplomatic representatives, but they gained increasing currency from the 1890’s when Westerners for the first time became subject to Japanese law.” (Hunter 2016, p. 33). Furthermore, Hunter adds, “At the time of treaty revision, in 1899, Japanese commercial morality was said to be far lower than ‘those of Hindus and Turks.’ Even commentators less convinced of the high standards of Chinese commercial agents agreed that in this area of life the Chinese were far superior to the Japanese. Despite its obvious progress towards industrialization and the growing international recognition that culminated in the conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902, Japan remained firmly at the bottom of the commercial morality hierarchy.” (Hunter 2016, pp. 33–34). Hunter lists concrete evidence of the dishonest behavior of Japanese trading at the Yokohama settlement on the basis of documents such as Mario Emilio Cosenza (ed.) (1959) The Complete Journal of Townsend Harris; Kevin C. Murphy (2003) The American Merchant Experience in nineteenth Century Japan; E. Hoare (1994) Japan’s Treaty Ports and Foreign Settlements: The Uninvited Guests; Yuki Allyson Honjo (2003) Japan’s Early Experience of Contract Enforcement in the Treaty Ports; Longford (1905) The Commercial Morality of the Japanese, Contemporary Review 87 (January–June); and documents in The Economist and the Manchester Guardian. Hunter writes that the leading source of information for the above documents came from the Yokohama Consular Reports. (Hunter 2016, p. 33). Thus, most of the criticism of illicit activities of Japanese merchants at the Yokohama Treaty Ports depends a great deal on the same sources of information. Although Hunter does not deny this criticism, she concludes, “Evidence of Japan’s growing success in world trade supports the suggestion that the criticisms were, at least in part, the outcome of a fear of growing Japanese competition” (Hunter 2016, p. 33). It is also interesting that such criticism “gained increasing currency from the 1890’s when Westerners for the first time became subject to Japanese law.” (Hunter

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2016, p. 33). In the year 1868, the start of the Meiji Restoration, the Tokugawa family handed their offices to the Emperor. To put it another way, the 1890’s were a time of change in the people’s sense of values, which led to social and economic chaos, and finally to a depravation of morals according to Nishimura,14 a great enlightenment thinker of that era. Thus, we agree with Hunter, who advocates that Japanese had low morals for a period of years after the 1890’s. However, Hunter focuses mainly on a Western view in this research and does not seem to look at other viewpoints. Before we look at another view, we examine reports by foreign diplomats for a better picture of foreigners’ perspective on the Japanese people at the time. Earnest Satow, a British diplomat, wrote in his book, A Diplomat in Japan (1921), that “The foreign community of Yokohama of that day was somewhat extravagantly described by an English diplomat as ‘the scum of Europe.’ No doubt there was a fair sprinkling of men who, suddenly relieved from the restraints which social opinion placed upon their class at home, and exposed to the temptations of Eastern life, did not conduct themselves with the strict propriety of students at a theological college. That they were really worse than their equals elsewhere is unlikely.” (Satow 1921, p. 25). Townsend Harris wrote in his journal, “I will cordially meet any real offers of cooperation, but simply words will not do. They are the greatest liars on earth” (Cosenza 1930, p. 300). However, William E. Griffis wrote in his book, “Mr. Harris, in his later journals, in his public and private letters, and in his conversations with friends and with the editor, showed that he never included the Japanese people under such a sweeping generalization. On the contrary, he praised highly the common folks for their honesty and the government for keeping its plighted word when given in treaty” (Griffis 1895, p. 105). Finally, we look at an opposite view based on documents by Japanese and foreigner as follows: Kennchou Suematsu, a Japanese statesman, said in the New York Times, March 19, 1906, “Mr. Longford’s picture is painted blacker on the side of the Japanese and brighter on the side of the foreigners than the figures warrant. He speaks of much to be criticized in the bearing of foreign merchants who came out there to trade—that they were mostly inconsiderate adventurers, and even arrogant in their dealings with the native traders. Besides acting dishonestly themselves, they often didn’t understand their market.” R. Ichinomiya, manager of the New York branch of the Yokohama Specie Bank, describes in The Journal of Race Development, Vol. 3, No.1, that, “Primary and perhaps most serious was the ignorance of the foreigners and Japanese of one another’s language and customs. Merchants, whether Japanese or foreign, could not, except in the rarest instances, confer with each other on business matters directly,  Shigeki Nishimura (1828–1902) was an Enlightement thinker and educator. He published “Japanese Morality” in 1878 and insisted on the importance of morality, emphasizing virtues such as diligence, frugality, sturdiness, patience, faith, initiative spirit, patriotic spirit, and Emperor worship.

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and were compelled to employ special clerks, generally Chinese, as interpreters. The one aim of these clerks was to obtain their commission, so it was natural that they should be indifferent to the development of good trade practices. The only alternative was that one of the two parties, either the foreigners or the Japanese, would learn the other’s language, trade customs and needs, and so master the situation.” (Ichinomiya 1912, pp. 33–34). Makoto Matsuyama wrote a research paper titled “Japan and the Western Powers” in North American Review, Vol. 127, No. 265. He illustrates with a case as follows: “During the last spring a certain English merchant, Hartley by name, was detected trying to smuggle a large quantity of opium through customs. The customs authority seized it and brought action against Hartley before the British court, with a fine as specified in the treaty. After a long and exhaustive trial, Mr. H. S. Wilkinson, ‘acting law-secretary of H.  B. Majesty’s legation’ in Tokyo, sitting as judge in a British court, decided in favor of the defendant. A decree was recorded that he, and as a matter of course all English subjects, might freely import opium as a medicinal product, after paying an ad valorem duty of 5%. The ground upon which the acting law-secretary based his judgment was that the opium in question was, in his opinion, ‘medicinal opium,’ and as such was not subject to the prohibitory clause of the treaty. But our readers will remember that the prohibition of opium, set forth in the treaty, is absolute and unconditional.” (Matsuyama 1878, p. 419). In 1881, leading Japanese merchants established the Japanese Raw Silk Dealers Association at Yokohama for promoting fair trade of raw silk through foreign exporters who had a monopoly due to the treaty commitments. A public announcement notified the members of unfair deals practiced by foreign traders, giving examples such as: (1) Foreign traders set a buying price based on samples. (2) They carried merchandise to their warehouse without payment. (3) When prices went down, they canceled the deal and returned merchandise without payment. (4) When prices went up, they forwarded payment” (Unno 1967, pp. 86–87). According to Jiro Higuchi (Higuchi and Oyama 1987), his grandfather, Henry S. Palmer was a British army military engineer and surveyor who came to Japan in 1885 and stayed until his death in 1893. As a press correspondent of the Times in Tokyo, he wrote in the Times, June 6, 1884, that extraterritorial jurisdiction tended to overlook and decriminalize illicit activities by foreigners, while they were also immune from taxation. In particular, he emphasized that a considerable number of foreigners opposed the treaty revision with the support of local newspapers, which were sometimes quoted in reputable newspapers in the foreigners’ home countries. According to his view, some opponents of the revision were uneducated, and their business partners were fortune seekers of a low status (Higuchi and Oyama 1987, p. 45). Even some high-class persons were opposed to the abolishment of extra territorial rights. However, he believed that more cultured persons at the Yokohama settlement did not think in this narrow way and that the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps would be intelligent enough to understand the Japanese proposal of treaty revision (Higuchi and Oyama 1987, p. 46–47).

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1.3  Research Method and Criteria The purpose of the present study is to examine ethical conduct noted in contemporary historical records as a method of clarifying the ethical conduct observed at the time in the daily actions of merchants during Japan’s Edo period. This allows us to investigate how merchant behavior corresponded to specific ethical conduct known as “virtue,” and to examine on which virtues, and from what cultural traditions, the actions in their daily lives were based. It is a given that the values upon which modern Japan exists have their foundation in the Edo period, which lasted nearly three centuries and during which Japan was almost entirely isolated from the rest of the world. Accordingly, a clear understanding of Edo values and actions provides vital clues to understanding present-day Japan (both positive and negative). As a first concrete step, we identify and classify passages from the contemporary documentary record related to virtue, especially those virtues related to religious or spiritual beliefs. Compared to most of those who adhere to mainstream world religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Japanese traditionally have considered religion as something that is inherently diverse; or to put it another way, situation-specific. Religious traditions or rites are employed more based on purpose than belief. To many devout non-Japanese of other faiths, this must seem unimaginably peculiar. For example, it is generally the case that modern marriage ceremonies in Japan are performed by Christian or Shinto officiants, and funerals by Buddhist officiants. (A growing number of ceremonies in Japan are entirely secular and non-religious.) Shinto traditionally regards death as impurity, something abhorrent, therefore Shinto funeral services are rare. Something similar can therefore be expected in the overlapping of numerous virtuous traditions as reflected in the ethical activities of the merchant class, both past and present. With this in mind, we then search for specific examples based on discrete classifications. Seven such classifications appear relevant: Shinto, Shinto-Buddhism, Shinto-Confucianism, ShintoBuddhism-Confucianism, Confucianism, and Confucianism-Buddhism, Buddhism. We may call these classifications “value systems.” Within each value system are any number of values, or “virtues.” Although there is of course much overlap, some systems objectively tend to emphasis some concepts more than others. While definitive categorization may be elusive, the values this research considers representative from among the numerous instances cited are as follows: Shinto: honesty (shojiki) and simplicity (shisso). Confucianism: benevolence (jin), justice (gi), propriety (rei), sincerity (makoto), fidelity (shin), frugality or thrift (kenyaku or shimatsu), diligence (kinben), secret charity (intoku), compassion (sokuin), filial duty (koko), patience or endurance (nintai or shinbo), and modesty (kenjo). Buddhism: mercy or benevolnce (jihi), harmony (wago), wisdom (chie), and prudence (funbetsu).

What, then, are the origins of these virtues? Moreover, through what circumstances and to what extent did these virtues come to regulate the daily conduct of merchants in the early modern Japan? Research into etymology helps to clarify the origin of

1.3  Research Method and Criteria

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the above-listed virtues. For example, honesty comprises one of the fundamental spirits of Shinto. At the same time, it appears as a virtue in the poem Xiao Ming from the Classic of Poetry in the Chinese canon; the virtue of frugality is related to the virtue of simplicity in Shinto and appears in the Shui-Yuan collection. The virtue of diligence is Buddhist but is related to the Confucian Mengzi (Mencius). The Buddhist virtue of harmony is found in the Chinese canon Xun-zi, the virtue of secret charity in the Huain-zi, and the virtue of patience in the Zhu-zi Yu-lei. The Buddhist virtue of mercy approximates the Confucian virtue of benevolence. Clearly, the influx of Confucian virtues into Japan’s cultural tradition is quantitatively extremely significant. In short, it would seem that all of the listed virtues are linked to worship of ancestors, animist Shinto gods, the buddhas, and to the time-honored Chinese canon centered on Confucianism. Accordingly, it may be assumed that the casual behavior of ordinary Japanese in their daily lives was both consciously and unconsciously influenced by ideas accumulated and passed down over long periods of time and submerged in the depths of their traditions. It could be argued that the virtues distinctive of Bushido are primarily Confucian, handed down from China and based on the Shinto virtue of honesty; similarly, merchant values were naturally tied in a broad and loose way to Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism. What types of ethical conduct, then, are born of virtue? Irie studies the family precepts of merchant houses in the early-modern Japan, and, as summarized below, he demonstrates the relationship between virtue and concrete ethical conduct (Irie 1996, pp.  32–34). Virtues (abstract concepts) and their real-world manifestations (actions) include: Honesty (sincerity, reliability), Frugality (thrift, simplicity, saving), Diligence (industry, success in life, early rising), Faith (worship of Gods and Buddhas, devotion to religion), Harmony (unity with friends, respect for one’s seniors, supervisor-subordinate interdependence, peer group agreement, mutual consultation in the workplace, consensus building), Mercy (benevolence, compassion,), Secret acts of charity (anonymous donations to persons and organizations), Forbearance (patience toward the failings of others, endurance, submission), Trust (valuing the customer, being reliable in business), Family business (inheritance of the family name, respecting the primacy of the main family), Veneration of ancestors (adherence to ancestral traditions, taking care of family heirloom), Propriety (abstaining from alcohol, gambling, quarrelling; manners; modesty), Compliance with the law (showing respect for authority), Social standing, Knowing one’s limitations (restraining one’s ambition, prudent risk-taking), Dedication, Preservation of health (healthy lifestyle, abstention from excess), Apprenticeship, and Loyalty.

Merchants in the Edo period Japan, on a daily basis, performed the above actions and activities, allowing for a real, comprehensive consolidation of the above virtues.

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Concrete examples and their details will appear in the chapters that follow. It bears noting, however, that many of the youth of the merchants of the era had already studied the above virtues and their applications in the terakoya (private elementary schools). One can well imagine that when they began their apprenticeships at home or left their native places to find employment in the merchant houses of Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto, that they had already been exposed to the spiritual and ethical basis for their future careers in addition to the basics of reading, writing and elementary arithmetic learned at the terakoya.

1.4  Review of Historical Records The primary objective of this study is to bring to light the distinctive characteristics of the ethical thought of merchants in the Edo period based on historical records of the time. In the Edo period, publishing was in full flourish and a massive amount of material was published. Moreover, literacy in Japan was at the same time exceptionally high, particularly among the merchants.15 Literary materials, including works on moral issues, were published in great quantities and widely distributed. Works on commerce, furthermore, were typically published in printed book form, and in 1930, facsimile editions comprising 54 volumes were re-published as Takimoto, S. (Ed.) Nihon Keizai Taiten (Encyclopedia of Japanese Economics) and made commercially available. This was subsequently republished between 1966 and 1971, and in 1976 all six volumes of Takimoto, S. (Ed.) Nihon Keizai Taiten, Supplment (Tsūzoku Keizai Bunko) (Collection of Popular Economics) were published as a supplement thereto. The Tsūzoku Keizai Bunko is a collection of easy-to-understand commercial works written for the populace at large, and their authors were not scholars, but chiefly merchants. Our original sources are therefore basically the Nihon Keizai Taiten and the Tsūzoku Keizai Bunko, both edited by Seiichi Takimoto16. Although the content is popular, they are nevertheless collections of valuable knowledge acquired from actual business practices, allowing one to understand how the merchants of the time repeatedly devised business strategies and fully supported the Japanese economy in the Edo period. The distinctive characteristics of these works are the many points touching upon the then new science of “business administration,” and which discuss not only standard business measures and policies applicable to buying and selling, but also what today is known as marketing. Amid the debates and discourse of early-modern Japanese-style personnel management, labor management, and organizational management one here and there comes upon precious kernels of priceless information.

15  Herbert Passin (Professor emeritus of Columbia University) wrote “40 to 50 per cent male literacy would not appear unreasonable” (the Edo period), in his Society and Education in Japan (Passin 1982, p. 47). 16  Takimoto 1928–1930/1966–1971; Takimoto 1976.

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Additionally, we have relied heavily on the Complete Works of Shosan Suzuki (Suzuki 1962), Complete Works of Baigan Ishida (Shibata 1972), Complete Works of Toan Tejima (Shibata 1973), Shingaku Sosho (Akahori 1904), Nihon Shiso Taikei (Ienaga et al. eds. 67 vols. 1970–1982), and Complete Works of Inazo Nitobe (Nitobe Inazo Zenshu Henshu Iinkai 1987). This study has researched and carefully examined a total of 39 volumes and collections: four from the seventeenth century, twenty-four from the eighteenth century, and eleven from the nineteenth century. From these we selected passages including ethical concepts, then investigated the ethical conduct contained therein. We verified that Edo period merchants acted ethically based on a level of moral thought rivalling that of the samurai and their code of Bushido. The passages used to reach this verification, however, reached excessive amounts. Due to space constraints, it was not possible to introduce all of them in this book. Accordingly, we have selected for inclusion only those passages we judged capable of best serving as representative of the historical material from each century. In other words, this work is only an introduction to the reader of what comprised the ethical thought of merchants of this period as captured in works of the same era.

References Adachi, M. (1974). Shinise no Kakun to Kagyo Keiei (Precepts for multi-generational enterprises and the management of family businesses). Kashiwa: Hiroike Gakuen Shupanbu. Akahori, M. (Ed.). (1904). Shingaku Sosho (Collected works of Shingaku). Tokyo: Hakubundo. Arima, S. (1923). Shin Shonindo (The new Shonindo). Tokyo: Dobunkan Shupan. Bellah, R. (1957 & 1985). Tokugawa religion—The cultural roots of modern Japan (2nd ed.). New York: Free Press. Carter, R. E. (2001). Encounter with enlightenment: A study of Japanese ethics (SUNY series in modern Japanese philosophy). Albany/New York: State University of New York Press. Chamberlain, B. H. (1912). The invention of a new religion. Tokyo: University of Tokyo. Cosenza, M. E. (Ed.). (1930). The complete journal of Townsend Harris, first American consul general and minister to Japan; introduction and notes by Mario Emilio Cosenza. New York: Doubleday, Doran And Company. Fukuda, T. (1920). Gendai no Shogyo oyobi Shonin (Commerce and merchants in modern days). Tokyo: Daitokaku. Furukawa, T. (1957). Bushido no Shiso to Sono Shuhen (Bushido thought and its background). Tokyo: Fukumura Shoten. Griffis, W.  E. (1895). Townsend Harris, first American envoy in Japan. Boston/New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. Higuchi, J. & Oyama, M. (Eds.). (1987). Joyaku Kaisei to Eikokujin Janarisuto (Treaty revision and a British journalist). Kyoto: Shibunkaku Shupan. Honjo, E., & Naramoto, T. (Eds.). (1994). Buyo Inshi. Seji Kembun Roku (A record of worldly affairs), Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Hunter, J. (2014). Koseina Shudan de Tomi wo Eru (Growing rich by fair trade: Business ethics and Shibusawa Eiichi). In T. Kikkawa, & T. P. Fridenson (Eds.), Gappon capitalism: The economic and moral ideology of Shibusawa Eiichi in global perspective (Japanese). Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Shinpo.

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Hunter, J. (2016). Deficient in commercial morality? Japan in global debates on business ethics in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Ichinomiya, R. (1912). The foreign trade of Japan. The Journal of Race Development, 3(1), 33–42. Ienaga, S., et  al. (Eds.). (1970–1982). The Nihon Shiso Taikei (Collected works of Japanese thought), 67 vols. Tokyo: Iwanami. Imai, J. (1966). Kinsei Nihon Shomin Shakai no Rinri Shiso (Ethical thought of the common people in early-modern Japanese society). Matsudo: Risosha. Irie, H. (1996). Kinsei Shomin Kakun no Kenkyu (Studies in the early-modern family precepts of townspeople). Tokyo: Taga Shuppan. Kasaya, K. (2014). Bushido: Samurai syakai no bunka to rinri (Culture and ethice in samurai society). Tokyo: NTT Shuppan. Katsuragi, T. (2014). Jihi to Shojiki no Kokyo Tetsugaku (Public philosophy of benevolence and honesty). Tokyo: Keio Daigaku Shupankai. Kyoto Prefecture. (1970). Shinise to Kakun (Multi-generational enterprises and family precepts). Kyoto: Kyoto Prefecture. Matsuyama, M. (1878). Japan and the western powers. North American Review, 127(265), 406–426. Minamoto, R. (1973). Tokugawa Shiso Shoshi (A short history of Tokugawa thought). Tokyo: Chuko Shinsho. Miyamoto, M. (1977). Kinsei Shonin Ishiki no Kenkyu (Studies in early-modern merchant awareness). In: Mataji Miyamoto Zenshu (The complete works of Mataji Miyamoto), Vol. 2. Tokyo: Kodansha. Miyamoto, M. (1982). Nihon Chonindo no Kenkyu (Studies in the ways of Japanese townspeople). Kyoto: PHP. Naito, K. (1941/1978). Nihon no Shukyo to Shakai (Religion and society in Japan). Tokyo: Ochanomizu Books. Najita, T. (1987). Visions of virtue in Tokugawa Japan: The Kaitokudo, merchant academy of Osaka. Honolulu: University of Hawaii. Najita, T. (2009). Ordinary economies in Japan, a historical perspective in 1750–1950. Berkley: University of California Press. Nitobe Inazo Zenshu Henshu Iinkai. (Ed.). (1987). Nitobe Inazo Zenshu (Complete works of Inazo Nitobe) (25 vols.). Tokyo: Kyobunkan. Palmer, H. S. (1884, June 6). The Times. Passin, H. (1982). Society and education in Japan. Tokyo: Kodansha. Pigou, A. C. (Ed.). (1966). Memorials of Alfred Marshall. New York: A.M. Kelley. Sagara, T. (2010). Bushido, Kodansha gakujutu bunko. Tokyo: Kodansha. Sakata, Y. (1968). Chonin (Townspeople). Tokyo: Shimizu Kobundo. Satow, E. (1921). A diplomat in Japan. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. Serikawa, H. (1987). Shukyoteki Keizai Rinrin no Kenkyu (Studies in religion-based business ethics). Tokyo: Taga Shupan. Shibata, M. (Ed.). (1972). Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Complete works of Baigan Ishida), 2 vols. Osaka: Seibundo. Shibata, M. (Ed.). (1973). Tejima Toan Zenshu (Complete works of Toan Tejima). Osaka: Seibundo. Suematsu, K. (1906, March 19). New York Times. Suzuki, T. (Ed.). (1962). Suzuki Shosan Dojin Zenshu (Complete works of Shosan Suzuki). Tokyo: Sankibo. Takenaka, S. (1972). Sekimon Shingaku no Keizai Shiso (The economic tought of Sekimon Shingaku). Kyoto: Minerva Shobo. Takenaka, S. (1977). Nihonteki Keiei no Genryu (Origins of Japanese-style management). Kyoto: Minerva Shobo. Takimoto, S. (Ed.). (1928–1930/1966–1971). Nihon Keizai Taiten (Encyclopedia of Japanese economics), 54 vols. Tokyo: Hobun Shokan.

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Takimoto, S. (Ed.). (1976). Nihon Keizai Taiten, Supplment (Tsūzoku Keizai Bunko), 6 vols. Tokyo: Meiji Bunken. Tsuji, T. (Ed.). (1987). Sorai Ogyu. Seidan (A discussion on politics), Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Unno, F. (1967). Meiji no Boueki (Trading in the Meiji period). Tokyo: Hanawa Shobo. Wakao, M. (2001). Toshogu Goikun (The last instructions of Tokugawa Ieyasu): Goikun no Sisoushiteki Kenkyu Josetu (An introduction to the historical study of thought at the root of Toshogu Goikun). Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies, 39, 219–271. Watanabe, S. (1961). Nihon Kinsei Dotoku Shisoshi (History of Japanese early-modern moral thought). Tokyo: Sobunha. Watsuji, T. (1952). Nihon Rinri Shisoshi, Vol. 2 (History of Japanese ethical thought, Vol. 2), 2 vols. Tokyo: Iwanami. Yoshida, J. (2010). Shoka no Kakun (The precepts of the merchant families). Osaka: Seibunsha.

Chapter 2

Why Study the Ethical Thought of Merchants in the Edo Period Japan?

This chapter consists of two sections. The first section explains how merchants had a “Way” which compares favorably with Bushido. The second section demonstrates why and how “The Way of the Merchant” Arose.

2.1  J apanese Merchants Had a “Path” Comparable to Bushido It would not be unusual if the notion of hara-kiri for the Japanese warrior came to mind when considering the Japanese spirit. Nonetheless, the idea of what the Japanese spirit means to the Japanese themselves is perhaps not that simple. The spirit of the samurai class (Bushido), the highest class in Japanese society of the time, became a globally-noted term taken from the book Bushido (1899, see Nitobe Inazo Zenshu 1987), authored by the internationally popular Inazo Nitobe, who later served as the Under-Secretary General of the League of Nations. To this day the word “Bushido” is widely representative of the Japanese spirit. Yet, is it really the case that Bushido is most illustrative? May one rightly consider that only the spirit of the warrior class—which accounted for merely the top 7% of all Japanese in 18711—that is, Bushido, is representative of the Japanese spirit? What, in 1  The figures for the various occupations during the Edo Period are incomplete, and accurate numbers are imprecise. According to government surveys in 1871, very soon after the Meiji Restoration, the samurai population was 6% of the total population. Moreover, there are no clear numbers for the percentage of the population comprising merchants, but according to historical records for the various fiefdoms, of the total population in the Akita domain in 1849 the samurai comprised 9.8% of the population, and the townspeople (craftsmen, merchants) 7.5%. The numbers for the Tsuwano domain in 1801 were, respectively, 7.16% and 3.32% (cf. Sekiyama 1958).

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addition to the samurai, of the farmers, craftsmen, and merchants? To resolve these questions is the object of the present study, and we attempt an inquiry into the merchant regulations and behavioral ethics comprising what one might call the mercantile spirit, or Shonindo. The purpose of this book is to demonstrate, on the evidence of historical records produced at the time, that there existed among the townspeople ethical commercial practices encompassing what can be termed Shonindo, which was not unequal to the samurai codes. There is no question of samurai ethical conduct in the Edo period clearly found in the literature of the time, among which the Koyo Gunkan, the Budo Shoshin Shu, and the Hagakure are representative. On the other hand, the samurai, as previously noted, reproached and held in disdain the merchants of that era, claiming that merchants lacked ethical ideas, and that instances of immoral behavior on their part were numerous. The present work, however, suggests that that view represents a misunderstanding, and more specifically, a misunderstanding originating with the samurai themselves. Contemporary records indicate the existence of mercantile ethical thought among the merchants that was on a par with Bushido, and it negates the contempt the samurai had for merchants and their criticism that merchants were deficient in ethical thought. But why did the samurai disdain merchants and censure their commercial activities? This study considers the following realities relative to these questions. During the period of ceaseless war and disturbance the samurai gave themselves to military exploits in battle and could expect a raise in status and increases in income. However, with the advent of peace and the end of war the chances for the samurai to rise in status and enlarge their income diminished. For the merchants, however, it was otherwise. The advent of peace signaled the arrival of the god of wealth, the ground of chance for expanded economic activity. The income of the townspeople increases, and commerce prospers if they worked industriously. On the other hand, the income of the samurai was an emolument of a fixed amount inherited from one’s forebears. Accordingly, from an economic perspective, when peace came the merchants grew wealthier the more they worked, but a qualitative disparity of income was engendered among the samurai, whose incomes were fixed in accord with the feudal system. This disparity represented a disgrace for the samurai, whose social status was superior. That merchants would become objects of hatred was simply a matter of course.

2.2  Why and How “The Way of the Merchant” Arose The following three points focus on and set forth the basis of this “Way.” First, what defined the Edo Period. Second, why the samurais disdained and stigmatized the merchants. Third, why the merchants acted ethically.

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2.2.1  What Defined the Edo Period The Edo period was an era of peace with no wars. It was a period wherein the social position of merchants rose, and the influence of the samurai, who occupied the top social position, weakened.2 Mitsunari Ishida, revered as the Commander-in-Chief of the Western army, was defeated at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, and in 1603 Ieyasu Tokugawa, who had effectively achieved dominion over all of Japan, established the central government, the Bakufu (Shogunate), at his daimyo castle in Edo. The Tokugawa Bakufu endured till 1868, and the period from 1603 to 1868 is known as the Edo Period. However, it is not the case that the establishment of the Bakufu immediately produced an era of peace. Hideyori Toyotomi, the son of the previous supreme ruler, Hideyoshi Toyotomi,3 occupied Osaka Castle and was formally the successor to the late ruler; for Ieyasu Tokugawa, his existence was an obstacle. Tokugawa, however, was victorious in two battles in 1614 and 1615 and toppled the House of Toyotomi; it was then that the actual power of the Bakufu was immovably solidified. Thereafter, excepting the Amakusa and Shimabara rebellions lasting from 1637 to 1638, and again, the struggle that resulted in the change in government in 1868, an era of peace persisted with no wars and disturbances. The Keicho Kenmon Shu, written by Joshin Miura and said to have been written around the time of the Osaka campaign, lauded the peace that had fully arrived at the height of his prosperity, “Those now living have broken free from the world of suffering, and to the highest degree live in a world of happiness. They are allowed to live most pleasantly by the grace of the Buddha governing this realm” (Haga 1906, pp. 2–3). “The era of Maitreya Bodhisattva is now. Let us fully enjoy life in this Buddha world” (Haga 1906, p.  170). Edo, which was but a solitary village on the Kanto plain, was where the Bakufu, administering governance, established itself. All the daimyos and the low-ranking retainers under the direct control of the Shogun were, with their families, summoned to Edo. Odawara, Mikawa, Ise, Omi, Kyoto, and Osaka merchants all set up shop in Edo to supply the various commodities for the samurai to maintain themselves. This, in turn, initiated business transactions of products from all regions of the country and an unprecedented rise of the great consumer city. The numbers of samurai beginning a new life in Edo significantly increased because the Bakufu compelled the daimyos to reside there. Enormous business was generated, and merchant activity increased by dealing with these samurais. A massive, urban consumer market was generated for the first time in Japanese history. However, in contrast to the merchants, whose social status rose with the expansion of economic power and who had become economically prosperous, the original role of the samurais became a thing of the past as warfare, the function of the samurais, came to an end and the conditions of peace endured. It was a matter of 2  Cf. Yokota, Fuyuhiko (2009) Tenka Taihei (Universal Peace); Takano, Toshihiko (2015) Tenka Taihei no Jidsai (The Age of Universal Peace). 3  Hideyoshi Toyotomi (1536–1598) who rose through the ranks from farmer to the head of the samurai, succeeded in unifing the whole country. After his death, his son, Hideyori (1593–1615), was killed by Ieyasu Tokugawa, which led to the change of government.

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course that discontent arose among the samurais, who no longer had anything to do, who gave voice to deep resentments, and whose criticisms of the despicable merchants grew strong. Accordingly, the merchants, restraining themselves from unlawful actions, acted virtuously in their commerce and exercised self-control in endeavoring to carry out ethical business transactions, all for the sake of facilitating smooth transactions with their samurai customers.

2.2.2  W  hy the Samurais Scorned and Stigmatized the Merchants There is a Japanese saying: “A merchant and a folding screen are the same: if they do not bend, they cannot remain upright.” In other words, a folding screen is stable when its partitions are bent (if they are all aligned in a straight line, the screen will fall over). Similarly, a merchant cannot remain in business if he is perfectly straight, or honest. In the literature of the period, many merchants were said to “depart from the correct path, bend, and engage in immoral commerce.” For instance, from Sorai Ogyu’s Seidan (1722) (A Discussion on Politics): “Merchants differ from craftsmen and farmers. They make money effortlessly without stirring. The clever merchant makes commissions without directly involving himself in buying and selling” (Tsuji 1987, p. 132). Inshi Buyo offers this harsh criticism in his Seji Kenbun Roku (A Record of Observations of Worldly Matters) (1816): “Merchants, like farmers, hold no stable assets. They are spiritually base and, while humbling themselves before samurais and farmers, skim off the margins when buying and selling their products” (Honjo and Naramoto 1994, p. 229). The existence of the merchant—skimming off commissions and profits—is said to stand between the producer and the consumer. Contemporary sensibilities seemed to accord no work ethic to the merchant. The illustrative texts above indicate that, from the viewpoint of the samurais merchants were despicable. Even Eiichi Shibusawa,4 whose life spanned across the closing decades of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the early part of the Showa era, and who was very active as a top leader in the economic world, similarly considered that the economic man lacked virtue. On occasion he expounded the notion of the unification of economics and morality for the economic man (Shibusawa 1938, pp. 145– 151). It may indeed be difficult to deny whether all merchants are honest and moral. The severe criticism that there exist immoral merchants is simply a fact. Presenting, as is done below, concrete examples of discourse impugning merchants undoubtedly indicates they were objects of scorn. • The samurai and the farmer possessed land and lived off the agricultural products produced thereon. This, then, formed the basis for the convenience of ­government 4  Cf. Shibusawa, Eiichi (1938) Economics and Morality. Eiichi Shibusawa (1840–1931) was a leading businessman. Before the Meiji Restoration he was a samurai serving Keiki Tokugawa, the last Shogun, and after the Restoration he participated actively as a top leader in the business world.

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for the samurai and the farmer. There is no concern that the merchant may go bankrupt (Tsuji 1987, p. 162). • Merchants are like thieves. One can live with the sense that they resemble thieves and beggars (Honjo and Naramoto 1994, p. 256).

2.2.3  Why the Merchants Acted Ethically The samurais of the Edo period sent their sons to their hanko, or feudal domain schools, the educational facilities operated by the feudal domains to which they belonged, where they were made to study the texts of Confucianism and aim at cultivating their attitudes as samurai.5 The merchants, on the other hand, also focused on educating their children, first beginning with a strict familial upbringing, then, at the age of eight, sending them to a terakoya where, till around the age of twelve, they were made to assimilate the knowledge needed to be a full member of society focusing on reading, writing, and arithmetic. The merchant families of the time had a shelf shrine in their homes for the gods where the kami were enshrined, and a Buddhist altar where the enshrined figures of Amitabha Buddha or Shakyamuni Buddha, as well as the ancestors, were venerated. Morning and evening venerations associated with them were incorporated as daily occurrences in the life of the family. The texts used in the terakoya, teachings based on such Shinto, Confucian, and Buddhist notions as honesty, diligence, frugality, and benevolence, were gently and carefully incorporated into the lives of the students. By the time they graduated they had gone through a system where they had made their own—in addition to reading, writing, and arithmetic—a general propriety required of full members of society, judging between right and wrong, and consideration for others. One cannot, of course, say that all people are impeccable human beings. It is undeniable that there are those who knowingly commit errors and rush to do evil. It becomes a crime, however, when one does the evil, knowing the pros and cons of a matter and discerning the good or evil associated with it. One may easily note in books and movies today how rare it has become for a criminal apprehended by the authorities to apologize and express any sorrow for his deeds. The following provide actual examples concretely demonstrating the ethical view of merchants.

5  As illuminating research on this subject, we recommend the following literature: Ishikawa, Ken (1960) Terakoya; Kasai, Sukeharu (1960) A Comprehensive Study of Hanko in the Early Modern Period, Yoshikawa Kobunkan; Furukawa, Tetsushi (1961) Ethical Education in Japan; Dore, R.P. (1965) Education in Tokugawa Japan; Kubota, Nobuyuki (1988) Human Development in the Edo period; Ogata, Toshio (1988) Issues of the History of Education in the Early-Modern Period of Japan, Azekura Shobo; Takahashi, Satoshi (2007) Educational Power in the Edo Period; and Koizumi, Yoshinaga (2007) Ten Ways of Child Rearing.

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• The gods extend divine protection to the honest man, even if he is not a Buddhist (Joshin Miura, Keicho Kenmon Shu (Record of Worldly Affairs) 1614. Haga 1906, p. 35). • One cannot achieve one’s goals without effort (Choja Kyo (Teachings on Becoming Wealthy) 1627. Nakamura 1975, pp. 9–10). • The moon illumines the benevolent and honest man (Masachika Samukawa, Shison Kagami (Lessons for Offspring to Learn) 1673. Nakamura 1975, pp. 39–40). • To become wealthy, one must be honest and act with propriety (ibid, p. 64). • Do not replenish one’s stock with illegal goods, however cheap they may be (ibid, p. 77). • Loyalty to one’s employer is to be on good terms with one’s associates, regardless of social position (ibid, p. 25).

References Dore, R. P. (1965). Education in Tokugawa Japan. Berkley/Los Angeles: University of California Press. Furukawa, T. (1961). Nihon Dotoku Kyoiku-shi (Ethical education in Japan). Tokyo: Kadokawa. Haga, Y. (Ed.). (1906). Joshin Miura. Keicho Kenmon Shu (Record of worldly affairs). Tokyo: Fuzsanbo. Honjo, E., & Naramoto, T. (Eds.). (1994). Buyo Inshi. Seji Kembun Roku (A record of worldly affairs), Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Ishikawa, K. (1960). Terakoya: Syomin Kyōiku Kikan. Tokyo: Shibundo. Koizumi, Y. (2007). Edo no Kosodate 10 Kajyo (Ten ways of child rearing). Tokyo: Kashiwa Shobo. Kubota, N. (1988). Edo Jidai no Hito Zukuri (Human development in the Edo period). Tokyo: Nihon Kyobunsha. Nakamura, Y. (Ed.). (1975). Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59. Kinse Chonin Shiso. Tokyo: Iwanami. Nitobe Inazo Zenshu Henshu Iinkai. (1987). Nitobe Inazo Zenshu (Collected works of Inazo Nitobe), vol.1, Bushido. Tokyo: Kyobunkan. Sekiyama, N. (1958). Kinsei Nippon no Jinko Kozo: Tokugawa Jidai no Jinko Chosa to Jinko Jotai ni Kansuru Kenkyu (The Japanese structure of population in early-modern times. The census and population in the Tokugawa period). Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan. Shibusawa, E. (1938). Keizai to Dotoku (Economics and morality). Tokyo: Shibusawa Memorial Project. Takahashi, S. (2007). Edo no Kyouiku Ryoku (Education in the Edo perioid), Chikuma shinsho. Tokyo: Chikuma. Takano, T. (2015). Tenka Taihei no Jidai (The age of universal peace), Iwanami Shinsyo. Tokyo: Iwanami. Tsuji, T. (Ed.). (1987). Sorai Ogyu. Seidan (A discussion on politics), Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Yokota, F. (2009). Tenka Taihei (Universal peace), Kodansha gakujutsu bunko. Tokyo: Kodansha.

Chapter 3

From “Bushido” to “Shonindo”

This chapter is composed of four sections. The first section takes up the significance of Bushido and clarifies why we discuss it. The second section takes up Inazo Nitobe and shows why and how Nitobe wrote Bushido in English. The third section verifies the theory of Bushido during the Edo period. The last section takes up the ethical code of the Mikawa samurai, Shosan Suzuki.1

3.1  The Significance of Bushido The present study aims at demonstrating the ethical thought of merchants, that is, the existence of Shonindo in the Edo period based on the literature of the time. It therefore will not touch upon any current aspect of the so-called theory of Japanese-­ style business management. The scope of this study is limited to the Edo period, and its goal is to research contemporary merchant ethical conduct disclosed in historical records to search out one aspect of the reality of Shonindo. It is highly unlikely that there would be no clues indicating the birth of Shonindo. It is inconceivable that, in an environment of what can be termed samurai society, Shonindo would have no relation to Bushido, the spiritual basis for the samurai, who stood above the common people and wielded absolute power over them. Accordingly, in this section, we shall first examine Bushido, then consider whether it contains ethical ideas with which merchants, as well, are conversant. A systematic change became apparent within the samurai class when wars and disturbances ceased, tranquility arose, and the society became stable. Those who in times of war performed meritorious deeds in battle were highly valued, and success 1  Suzuki, Shosan (1579–1655), as a samurai, was an immideate retainer of the first Shogun, Ieyasu Tokugawa, and the second, Hidetada Tokugawa. He became a priest after obtaining Hidetada Tokugawa’s permission. Mikawa is the name of the birthplace of Tokugawa family.

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in life came quickly. This situation completely changed when the wars were settled, however. Those who excelled in the martial arts, especially those who had nothing to recommend apart from these arts, did not fare well at strange clerical work in times of peace. The standards of evaluating human resources changed in samurai society when the best people moved from being masters of the martial arts to masters of pushing paper. The influence of internal officers grew with the increase of such administrative operations as human resource management and organization management. The Mikawa Monogatari (1626–1632), authored by Hikozaemon Okubo (1560–1639) (Saito et al. 1974)—active in numerous battles as a samurai directly under Ieyasu Tokugawa—for his children, is a heartbreaking record passionately chronicling the grief of a samurai in peacetime and focusing on the details of the master-retainer relationship over several generations between the House of Tokugawa and the House of Okubo. Despite having fallen upon hard times the samurai in the Edo period were the privileged class occupying the top position of the four classes of samurai, farmers, craftsmen, and merchants. The establishment and preservation of this class system was the paramount problem for preserving the samurai in power. To this end, besides taking precedence over the three classes of the people subordinate to them, the farmers, the craftsmen, and the merchants, authority and personal superiority were expected of the samurai. Put otherwise, they were expected to establish themselves as spiritually superior. They were held to an ethical standard that regulated the whole concept of what it meant to be a samurai, and this was nothing other than the new Bushido. This novel form of Bushido will later be taken up when we examine Article 6, “Chivalry,” in Yuzan Daidoji’s Budo Shoshin Shu (1726–1730). Bushido, required of the samurai as warrior, is called the Art of War, and it homologizes with chivalry. It can be perceived as the appeal of an age where the samurai style of resorting to force of arms in an era of war is no longer admissible. Speaking of Bushido, the book Bushido (1938) by Inazo Nitobe, whose experience included being an Under-Secretary General of the League of Nations, and who counted among his friends Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th President of the United States of America, was a notable work read widely throughout the world. We first clarify what comprised the ideological background under which Bushido was formed. Next, we consider three works absolutely required for inquiry into Bushido, Masanobu (Danjo) Kosaka’s Koyo Gunkan (1656–1659), Yuzan Daidoji’s Budo Shoshin Shu (1726–1730), and Jocho Yamamoto’s Hagakure (1716), which define the spiritual basis supporting samurai conduct during the Edo period, in short, what the reality of Bushido entails. The Hagakure was banned during the Edo period and was therefore forbidden reading. In the last section we consider the Banmin Tokuyo (Virtuous Action for All Peoples) by Shosan Suzuki, a samurai who became a Zen Buddhist monk who, basing himself on the Bushido spirit, contributed to establishing a code of professional ethics for farmers, craftsmen, and merchants; in this work he expounds the same for all four classes of society.

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3.2  Inazo Nitobe and Bushido 3.2.1  The Occasion for Writing Bushido Bushido was published in English in 1899 with a non-Japanese, chiefly Euro-­ American readership in mind. It is an enlightening book, taking up the subject of Bushido as a moral standard for the Japanese people and articulately explaining its special characteristics by contrasting it with Western codes of chivalry (Karube 2017, pp. 80–83).2 Written after the Meiji Restoration of 1868, its perspective is somewhat removed from the samurai era. Moreover, Nitobe was but a child of eight years old when this Restoration marked the end of that age. In today’s terms, he was just the age at which a child attends elementary school. At the age of seven, he learned kendo (the Japanese art of fencing) at a kendo school, while he is thought to have studied the texts of Confucianism such as the Daigaku and The Analects, at a terakoya.3 The household policy of the Nitobe family, however, included a vigorous acquisition of English, and one can surmise that their interests focused on Western branches of learning rather than the Eastern classics (Matsukuma 1985, p. 10). The occasion for writing Bushido came when a Belgian acquaintance asked Nitobe whether Japanese schools provided religious instruction. Hard pressed for an answer Nitobe responded in the negative (Bushido, Nitobe 1938, p.  11). Astonished at this response, the acquaintance again asked how they imparted moral instruction without religion. Nitobe was unable to give a satisfactory reply. He began to consider that he had no memory of learning morality at school, but that he had acquired the notions of right and wrong, good and evil. Could this not be due to the discipline he had undergone as a child in a samurai household? The answer was found in Bushido. The concept of Bushido was not learned from books; it is discovered in a great lineage of hereditary virtue transmitted to this day by the so-called communion of mind with mind (Nitobe Inazo Zenshu, Nitobe 1987, Vol. 6, p. 33). When was it that Nitobe himself acquired what he called heredity virtue? Judging from historical sources, the education of his childhood focused on Western learning centered on the English language. Nitobe may have spent this period studying at an educational institution in his hometown of Morioka, but this period of study could only have been no more than 3 years, from the ages of sevent to nine, since he went to Tokyo at the age of nine. Bushido was published in 1899. The period till publication, comprising his experience with Western culture, totaled 15 years, 7 years from 1884 until he returned to Japan in 1891, and 8 years from 1891 until the book was published in 1899, coinciding with his first years of married life. One can infer from this that it was Western culture, rather than Japanese culture, that greatly influenced the formation of his character.  Tadashi Karube (1965–) is a political scientist and a professor of the University of Tokyo.  Cf. Sato, Zenko and Fujii, Shigeru (2013) An encyclopedia on Nitobe Inazo, p. 372. See: Oshiro, George (1992) A Pioneer in Internationalism, Nitobe Inazo, which shows how Nitobe learned reading Confucianism texts. 2 3

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It is likely that Nitobe acquired his cultural awareness of Bushido only after his education in Tokyo. He started living in Tokyo at the age of nine, where he entered a higher-level school. In addition to studies in Japanese the school required 2 h of English study per day under a foreign instructor. Nitobe detested his Japanese studies and skipped these classes (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 19, p. 623, 626). In his later years, Nitobe provided a critique of this school: “The school at that time did not concern itself with the moral instruction of its children. The school was established on the pattern of those in foreign countries, and we were confronted with an era where the State had become great with the absence of virtue … and only might made right. Accordingly, the ancient Chinese precepts were belittled as useless, and Buddhism was discarded as superstitious and unscientific. Support for Shinto had made a strong comeback, but the general wave of demoralization was unstoppable” (ibid, p. 624). The experience of the age must have led him to say in his later years that he did not recall receiving moral instruction at the school (Nitobe 1907, Kigan no Ashi, p.  27), and one detects no remarks expressing an interest in the study of ancient Japanese literature and culture or of the Chinese classics. Nitobe, however, at one point met with a significant turning point. The study of the natural sciences was most lacking to Japan at that time, and he was struck to his core at the assertion that, regardless of her laws and politics, Japan was incapable of surpassing the excellence of the natural sciences in the West. Moreover, the Emperor Meiji had stopped at the Nitobe residence in Morioka while touring the Tohoku region and personally encouraged the members of his family to apply themselves to agricultural development, which exercised a strong influence over Nitobe. These two points became the factors that decisively set the course of his studies (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 19, pp.  651–655). The development of Hokkaido was, at that time, a pressing need in Japan, and the government established at its own expense the Sapporo Agricultural College to cultivate necessary human resources. Nitobe at once applied to the college and entered as a member of its second class. The first Vice-Principle of Sapporo Agricultural College was Dr. William Smith Clark, a former president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. The faculty members as well were all from Massachusetts (Matsukuma 1985, p.  37). The courses and texts at the college were, as a result, in English. None of the courses were in Japanese. Nitobe’s studies during those 4 years, from the time he was 16 till he was 20, were in English. Effectively, this was no different than if he had studied abroad. Being proficient in English was a matter of course for people in the early part of the Meji Era. Now, other than the period of his youth when he studied at the terakoya, Nitobe lacked an opportunity to study traditional Japanese thought. His was a Christian religion and faith. He had embraced Christianity and was baptized during his second year at the college, at the age of 17, in an educational environment that was heir to the ardent tradition of faith left by Dr. Clark. One can therefore surmise that, relative to faith, he had not read the original texts concerning Shinto and Buddhism. Nitobe graduated from Sapporo Agricultural College in 1881 and became a government bureaucrat. He took his leave from government service in 1883 to enter Tokyo University. The anecdote of his interview at the time with Dr. Shoichi

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Toyama, member of the Faculty of Letters at the university, is famous (Matsukuma 1985, p. 115). To Toyama’s question of what he would study, Nitobe replied, “To study agricultural administration I’d like to study economics, statistics, and politics, among other subjects. I’d like to study English Literature as an amusement.” Toyama further asked what he intended to do with English Literature. Nitobe responded, “I want to be a bridge across the Pacific Ocean, to be a go-between communicating Japanese thought to foreign countries and disseminating foreign thought through Japan.” He later left Tokyo University and went to America. This marked the conclusion of Nitobe’s education in Japan. One can say that, excluding his terakoya education in childhood, he was educated almost entirely in the English language. The basis on which Nitobe’s character was formed, through his youth into the impressionable period of young manhood, was based largely on Euro-American thought. An interpretation of Nitobe’s Bushido, therefore, will be uniquely formed against the backdrop of Western thought, including his childhood experience as the child of a samurai prior to the Meiji Restoration, and through his interactions with his fellow samurai school friends; there are noticeable differences here between his way of conceiving Bushido and of that written by the samurai.

3.2.2  The Content of Nitobe’s Bushido In keeping with the contents of Nitobe’s work we shall offer an interpretation of what sort of reality he claims Bushido to be. There has ensued from academic intellectual history associations and historical associations that study Japanese thought a somewhat destructive controversy concerning the question of Nitobe’s Bushido. No conclusions regarding the pros and cons have been reached, however, and we shall not discuss the matter here (Kasaya 2014, pp. v–vii). Nitobe writes of Bushido that, “Bu-shi-do means literally Military-Knight-Ways—the ways which fighting nobles should observe in their daily life as well as in their vocation; in a word, the ‘Precepts of Knighthood,’ the noblesse oblige of the warrior class” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p.  30). He continues, “Bushido, then, is the code of moral principles which the knights were required to observe. It is not a written code; at best it consists of a few maxims handed down from mouth to mouth or coming from the pen of some well-­ known warrior or savant. More frequently it is a code unuttered and unutterable, a law written on the fleshly tablets of the heart. Unuttered and unwritten, it possesses all the more the powerful sanction of veritable deed. It was founded not on the creation of one brain, however able, or on the life of a single personage, however renowned. It was an organic growth of decades and centuries of military career” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 31). Bushido, in other words, is not a written law, but an unwritten code that is handed down. The content of Bushido Nitobe expounds, therefore, cannot be said to be the whole of Bushido. Grasping the sense of one case example can provide the proper perspective. Questions of religion and faith must by no means be avoided in considering ethical problems. Nitobe himself sought their origins in Buddhism, Shinto, and

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Confucianism. Buddhism furnished “a sense of calm trust in Fate, a quiet submission to the inevitable, that stoic composure in sight of danger or calamity, that disdain of life and friendliness with death” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 35). Shinto indicates the origins of loyalty to the nation and the sovereign, and filial piety to one’s ancestors and parents: “Such loyalty to the sovereign, such reverence for ancestral memory, and such filial piety as are not taught by any other creed, imparting passivity to the otherwise arrogant character of the samurai. Shinto theology has no place for the dogma of ‘original sin.’ On the contrary, it believes in the innate goodness of Godlike purity of the human soul, adoring it as the adytum from which divine oracles are proclaimed…. The tenets of Shintoism cover the two predominating features of the emotional life of our race – patriotism and loyalty” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 36). Regarding Confucianism, Nitobe emphasizes its association with Bushido: “As to strictly ethical doctrines, the teachings of Confucius were the most prolific source of Bushido” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 36). The doctrines referred especially to what are known as Confucianism’s five human relations, associating Bushido with the human relations between master and servant, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger, and mutual friends. Nitobe, however, was devoted to the notion that Bushido is first realized after the knowledge of Confucianism, as a branch of learning becomes one’s own mental makeup and is manifested in one’s character. The acquisition of knowledge is undeniably nothing more than a means to a greater end. Nitobe considers the following eight virtues as the primary virtues of Bushido: gi (rectitude, justice, righteousness), yu (courage, valor), jin (benevolence, love), rei (propriety, politeness), makoto (sincerity), meiyo (honor), chugi (loyalty), and kokki (self-control). 1. Nitobe first takes up the virtue of rectitude (gi), writing that it is the most rigorous precept in the code of the samurai (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 41). Rectitude (gi) can be defined in various ways, but Nitobe treats of it as giri, that is, as justice accompanied by sense of duty. This is a circumlocution; however, it is born out where Nitobe writes: “The instant duty becomes onerous, right reason [(giri)] steps in to prevent our shirking it. Giri thus understood is a severe taskmaster, with a birch-rod in his hand to make sluggards perform their part” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, pp. 43–44). 2. Concerning the virtue of courage (yu), he writes: “Courage was scarcely deemed worthy to be counted among the virtues, unless it was exercised in the cause of righteousness” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p.  45). One finds, in the Analects of Confucius, a related saying, “Perceiving what is right, yet failing to do it, portends a lack of courage.” Nitobe states that, “A truly brave man is ever serene” and “In the heat of battle he remains cool; in the midst of catastrophes he keeps level his mind” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p.  47). The sons of samurai in the Edo period were made to undergo trials of courage to refine their spirit of courage. One such trial, for example, was to have the boy go alone at night to an execution ground and leave the mark of his seal on the decapitated head of a criminal (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 46).

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3. Of benevolence (jin) and the mind of compassion Nitobe observes, “Love, magnanimity, affection for others, sympathy and pity, were ever recognized to be supreme virtues, the highest of all the attributes of the human soul” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 49), deeming benevolence to be supreme among all the virtues. Benevolence occupies the highest position among the Confucian five relations. Nitobe states that, “Under the regime of feudalism, which could easily degenerate into militarism it was to benevolence that we owed our deliverance from despotism of the worst kind” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 50). When the sovereign felt affection for his subordinates the subordinates would begin to follow him with peace of mind. Nitobe declares, “The bravest are the tenderest, the loving are the daring” and “… not that the mercy of a samurai was generically different from the mercy of any other being, but because it implied mercy where mercy was not a blind impulse, where it recognized due regard to justice, and where mercy did not remain merely a certain state of mind, but where it was backed with power to save or kill” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 52). He compares Mencius’ mind of compassion with Adam Smith’s notion of “sympathy,” pointing out that Mencius had long ago already elucidated the matter (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 52). Again, Nitobe asserts, “Bushi no nasake—the tenderness of a warrior—had a sound which appealed at once to whatever was noble in us” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 52). As an example of bushi no nasake he treats of the narrative concerning Naozane Kumagai and Atsumori Taira no during the Genpei War (1180–1185) (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 54). Naozane Kumagai, the victor in a single combat, learns that the enemy he has pinned down is but a young prince of the Taira clan, whom he hesitates to kill. Another example is that of a Satsuma warrior, famous for his warlike temperament, who quiets his spirit by playing a lute (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 56). He indicates thereby the aspect of refinement that coexists on the secret side of courage. Nitobe closes this section, “The cultivation of tender feelings breeds considerate regard for the sufferings of others. Modesty and complaisance, actuated by respect for others’ feelings, are at the root of politeness” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 57). 4. Propriety (rei), also called politeness or courtesy (reigi). Nitobe writes of this virtue that it is, “a sympathetic regard for the feelings of others,” “a due regard for the fitness of things,” and “due respect to social positions” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 57). Therefore, “politeness ‘suffereth long, and is kind; envieth not, vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up; doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh so not her own, is not easily provoked, taketh not account of evil” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 57). Nitobe expounds the goal of propriety by quoting the fundamental principles beneficially and aptly enunciated by the originator of the Ogasawara-ryu school of etiquette: “The end of all etiquette is so to cultivate your mind that even when you are quietly seated, not the roughest ruffian can dare make onset on your person” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 69). 5. One must esteem sincerity (makoto) and truth, and refrain from lying and equivocation (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 64). The accomplishment of the samurai lies in not lying and making excuses. Nitobe quotes Confucius, “Sincerity is the ­beginning and end of all things, without sincerity there would be nothing”

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(Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 64). Sincerity is also called honesty (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 69). 6. Nitobe conceives of honor (meiyo) as comprising a clear sense of one’s dignity and worth (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 70). He indicates that, in Japan, this sense is conveyed by such notions as na (name), men-moku (face, appearance), and gaibun (reputation; literally “outside of hearing”). He further indicates that this sense of honor/sense of shame (renchishin) was one of the first virtues cultivated in the education of youth, and is exemplified by such phrases as, “You will be laughed at,” “This will sully your reputation,” and “Are you not ashamed?” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 70). Nitobe closes this section, “Life itself was thought cheap if honor and fame could be attained therewith: hence, whenever a cause presented itself which was considered dearer than life, with utmost serenity and celerity was life laid down” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 74). 7. Of loyalty (chugi) Nitobe observes that its distinctive feature is obedience and fealty to a superior, that personal fidelity morally adheres existing among peoples of all types and stations in life, and that it is only in the code of the samurai honor that loyalty is possessed of supreme importance (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 75). Nitobe, citing the example of Taira no Shigemori,4 alleges that loyalty takes precedence over filial piety (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 79). 8. Self-control (kokki) consists in displaying no emotion. It was customary for the samurai to endure, to control his emotions. Nitobe observes, “This may seem to a foreign observer hard-hearted … To show no sign of joy or anger (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 87) expresses the trait of the samurai, for example, he leisurely uses his toothpick even when he has not eaten. In like manner, he would seem entirely at peace so that others would not notice he lived in poverty.

3.2.3  How Nitobe Viewed the Social Influence of Bushido Was the Bushido of the samurai class nothing more than the code of behavior to which the samurai adhered in the Japanese society of the time? Was only the samurai class ethical, comprising as it did merely less than 10% of the total population? Nitobe recognizes the influence it had over the greater part of the public (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 119). He notes that there were two aspects to Bushido, the unmixed virtue of the samurai class, and the social influence it had for those outside of this class, that is, the farmers, the craftsmen and the merchants (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 120). Taking up Japanese society’s estimation of Bushido, singing its praises in the aphorism “As the cherry blossom among flowers, so the samurai among men,” he strongly asserts that, intellectually and morally, Japan was both directly and indirectly the product of Bushido. Bushido, in other words, is symbolic, not only of the ethical sense of the samurai, but of the Japanese people, as well (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 4  Taira, Shigemori (1138–1179) agonized over whether to be filial to his father or loyal to the Royal Family.

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1, p. 121). Nitobe writes that one does not find the least diminishment of influence of the spirit of Bushido when the Edo period, in which the samurai were the bearers of authority, ended, and after the Meiji Restoration gave birth to a new government centered around the Emperor, and that the spirit of Bushido became the spiritual support of the statesmen and government officials who took up the new administration. After the Restoration the doors opened to foreign influences, and Japan imported and assimilated various products of culture through its interactions with foreign nations. One can naturally surmise the influences were great. The Japanese people, however, adapted Western cultural products in their own way, and in their unique manner advanced a period of modernization for a new Japan. This way of adaption was the so-called wakon yosai, the Japanese spirit and Western learning. Nitobe points to the barrier of Bushido as characteristic of Japanese culture when he relates, relative to Christian missionary work, “One cause of the failure of mission work is that most of the missionaries are entirely ignorant of our history” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 131). He indicates that the kind of missionary work and change that “may be possible in Hawaii,” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 70), would be very difficult to bring about in Japan, because Bushido is so powerfully and deeply rooted in the minds of the Japanese people (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 131). How long will Bushido continue to live on? What are its prospects? Nitobe, in closing his work, writes: “Bushido as an independent code of ethics may vanish, but its power will not perish from the earth; its schools of martial prowess or civic honor may be demolished, but its light and its glory will long survive their ruins” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 139). There are opposing views to Nitobe’s thought that the form of Bushido may disappear, but that its spirit will long continue to be handed down. We shall bring this introductory and interpretive section of Nitobe’s thought to a close here without entering in these criticisms.

3.3  The Theory of Bushido During the Edo Period Now, we begin by examining the Edo period theory of Bushido held by the samurai themselves in contrast with the Bushido of Inazo Nitobe, considered from a Western perspective, to clarify what comprised the ethical thought regulating the conduct of the samurai in that same era. The ethical actions of the samurai appearing in books on Bushido comprised what were proper to the samurai and what were universally applicable to those outside of samurai circles, namely, farmers, craftsmen, and merchants—in short, those concerned with the martial arts (budo) and those concerned with chivalry (shido). The object of this section is to clearly articulate the connections of mercantile ethics with warrior ethics. It explores, therefore, whether one can discover the extent to which the types of virtues common among the samurai provide clues to those that form the basis of ethical conduct in the world of the merchants.

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The question of what the ethical thought of the samurai would become during the Kamakura Bakufu,5 the period during which their political power was established, naturally enters in any consideration pertaining to the samurai. The subject of the present study, however, concerns the ethical thought of the merchant during the Edo period. We therefore restrict the era of inquiry to the Edo period, and, following the theory set forth by Tetsushi Furukawa (Furukawa 1957), consider three noted Bushido texts of the that period. These are Masanobu Kosaka’s work Koyo Gunkan (1575–1586), Yuzan Daidoji’s Budo Shoshin Shu (1726–1730), and Jocho (Tsunetomo) Yamamoto’s Hagakure (1716). We then elucidate the ethical thought of the samurai of that time, that is, elucidate what comprises Bushido (Furukawa 1957, p. 33; Kasaya 2017, p. 69).

3.3.1  The Koyo Gunkan The highly-acclaimed scholar of Bushido, Tetsushi Furukawa, writes that the Koyo Gunkan is the oldest document discussing the Way of the Warrior using the term Bushido (Furukawa 1957, p. 9). Moreover, a leading scholar of Japanese history, Zenosuke Tsuji (1877–1955), also takes up the Koyo Gunkan as an example where the word Bushido was used during this early period (Kasaya 2014, p. 3). We therefore follow Furukawa’s lead in the present study and consider the Koyo Gunkan as clearly the oldest book related to Bushido. There are various theories surrounding this work, but none of them has become the most established one. In this book we follow Kasaya’s theory that Kagenori Obata compiled the work produced by Masanobu Kosaka, a retainer of the House of Takeda in the Province of Koshu (Kasaya 2014, p. 9). The special characteristic of the book is that it comprises discussions of praxis based on the experiences of the actual Koshu samurai themselves. When reading the book, therefore, one can grasp the raw realities of the spirit in which the samurai proceeded to the battleground and engaged the enemy in battle, and, as samurai, how they served their superiors and commanded their men. Such a sense distinguishes the line between the Koyo Gunkan and Nitobe’s Bushido. Its contents are not the tidy summations of a scholar’s writings, but a record of war enlivened by the mental attitude of the samurai who fought in those times, opening with the 57 decrees written by the author’s master, Shingen Takeda, and the 99 admonitions of Shingen’s younger brother, Nobushige. Premised on the foregoing the remainder of the work, based on the actual record, chronicles in detail the course of events beginning with the period of Shingen Takeda’s prosperity to the ruin of the House of Takeda after his son, Katsuyori, was defeated in the Battle of Nagashino. The book, representative of military strategy during the Edo period, is the source text of Koshu-type military tactics. Kasaya writes of the Koyo Gunkan, “It is regarded as the sacred text of military science during the early modern Tokugawa 5  The Kamakura Bakufu (1185–1333) was the first warrior government located at Kamakura in Japan, of which the first Shogun was Yoritomo Minamoto.

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Era, and came to be widely read as the textbook for samurai” (Kasaya 2017, p. 69). From this perspective one can say that the Koyo Gunkan is, for the samurai, a book on warfare having a contemporary case book character. Furukawa’s research indicates the existence of eight woodblock versions of the work (Furukawa 1957, p. 11), but the number of published copies is unknown. Based on the number of woodblock editions, however, the volume appears to be rather high. The object of the present study is not military science, but to investigate thoroughly the spirit with which the samurai of the time conducted himself. Why, then, where books on the martial arts or books pertaining to military science written in this period? Kasaya writes on this subject: “The occasion for these writings was the famed Battle of Nagashino. This was the battle where the mighty army of Takeda was annihilated in short order. Much has been written reflecting upon how the proud and powerful Takeda army was driven to destruction, re-examining what had brought it to that point, and the reasons for its broken momentum in the battle. These are the causes critically described, the figure of the ideal samurai, the lingering cowardliness that must not be, and the sycophants who sponged off the greatness of the House” (Kasaya 2017, p. 66). What is this Bushido that appears in the Koyo Gunkan? Tetsushi Furukawa defines the spirit of Bushido appearing in this work thus: “It is a spirit which formally and in content—in contrast with the spirit of the townspeople or the feminine spirit—esteems hereditary succession, makes justice and equity its principle aim, honors military prowess yet does not retreat in a rudely violent manner; it is a rough, manly spirit, one typified by the three virtues of loyalty, justice, and courage.” (Furukawa 1957, p. 53). The book is divided specifically into 20 volumes comprising 59 chapters. Chapters 1 and 2 are both entitled “The Clan Code of Takeda Shingen,” and are alternatively entitled “On the Matter of the 57 Decrees Concerning Penalties in the Realm of Lord Shingen,” taking up the matter of edicts related to governance and administration, and, in section two, “On the Matter of the 99 Admonitions Concerning Divergent Views, for the Son of Tenkyu (Nobushige), Younger Brother of Lord Shingen,” the majority of which take up texts concerning ethical admonitions. The present inquiry takes up the above-mentioned clan code and, together with Chaps. 11, 12 and 14 (considered the best in the work) uses as a trope “The Loss of the Domain and the Four Types of Generals Who Destroy the Entire House,” against which he confirms the samurai ethical view, the conduct by which the samurai of the period put their aspirations into practice (Koyo Gunkan, Sato 2006, p. 400). Beginning with Chap. 1, one finds that statements concerned with administration are numerous, yet upon observation none of them seem to be a particularly noteworthy ethical item. Next, in Chap. 2, the matter of Tenkyu, that is Takeda Nobushige, is taken up, who wrote numerous admonitions for his son. Nobushige is a younger brother to Shingen, and these admonitions were written to provide his son with a proper idea of what concerns his conduct as a samurai. Those items that can specifically be considered ethical are the following: • Bear no treachery towards your master and lord. • On the field of battle engage not in deeds that are cowardly and mean.

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3  From “Bushido” to “Shonindo”

Daily, vigilantly, lead a life of right propriety. Do not lie. Be honest. Exert yourself in works of filial piety. Be on good terms with your brothers. Speak not on matters beyond your ability. Be mindful of others. Be not coarse in dealing with one who asks something of you. Patiently endure all things. Be benevolent towards your subordinates. Make the time and effort to attend to a retainer when he has fallen ill. Greatly value the loyal retainer. Do not allow the calumny and abuse of others. Be not averse to admonition. Render assistance to the retainer who falls into poverty. Forget not benevolence towards a friend, even when there can be no harmony between you. Voice no complaint when your master is unreasonable. If a retainer commits even one offense, ascertain the circumstances behind it, and if later he should amend his way, pardon him on that account. If a father should be punished, yet his son endeavors to be loyal and excel therein, forget your anger towards him. Quarrel not over anything. Be discriminating of good and evil. Regardless of how reasonable one may be, do not argue with a person of high rank on logic for the shield. Do not contradict your own error; what matters is to strive not to commit errors in the future. Regardless of the great depth of your determination, when you come up against an overriding opinion, follow that opinion. Despise not those old in years, regardless of their rank. Harbor no doubts toward others. Do not discuss the faults of others. Envy is evil. Harbor no motive that is insincere and perverse. Show pity to those in forced labor. Believe in the Gods and the Buddhas. Be not partial or unjust towards anybody. By no means deprive anybody of their life. Do not rely on your children after you retire. Show compassion to the lowly in trouble. Be attentive to the criticisms of the common people, for instance, restrain your anger however indignant you may be and secretly, repeatedly discipline your spirit. Refrain from rashly speaking ill of others in the presence of many people. Be attentive in all that you do.

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When one takes up and organizes the items thought especially important for the ethics of a samurai, the following, substantive matters emerge: cowardice, propriety, honesty, filial piety, being on good terms with one’s brothers, patient endurance, benevolence, admonition, reward or compensation, magnanimity, highly valuing meritorious deeds, respect for the aged, prohibiting calumny and abuse, and belief in the Gods and Buddhas. The most characteristic virtue here for the samurai is bravery. This virtue is not to be found in Shonindo. All the remaining virtues, which one may term excellences, are universal in scope, applicable not only to the samurai, but to the four classes of Edo period society. While the older brother Shingen’s 57 clauses of the clan code concern administrative matters, the younger brother Nobushige’s 99 admonitions, while partially containing military-related matters, are, in the majority, concerned with moral issues; compared with Shingen’s clauses these evoke a sense of human warmth. Moreover, each of the 99 admonitions is supported by deeply relevant authoritative sources, most of them focusing on the Chinese Confucian classics, beginning with the Analects. One can surmise how high the cultural level of the top samurai class was from the closing years of the Warring States period to the early years of the Edo period. The period was one in slight decline, but Hideyoshi Toyotomi, the ruler of Japan, had a wise, younger brother, Hidenaga Toyotomi. Nobushige and Hidenaga held something in common, that each of them assisted his older brother in areas of need, and that the instances where each contributed to the success of the older brothers’ great enterprises were not few. If Nobushige had continued to live and not been killed in the Battle of Kawanakajima he would have assisted Katsuyori Takeda, and the House of Takeda may have avoided it destruction. Hidenaga, likewise, perhaps could have assisted Hidetsugu and Hideyori in seeking to prolong a Toyotomi government (Kyuso Muro 1732, Sundai Zatsuwa. Mori 1936, p.  202). Such was Nobushige. Additionally, Nobushige appended to each of his admonitions a quotation from the classics, which allows one to remember him for the depth of his personal culture. One can say that he is an archetypal, idealized image of the Japanese samurai. Following this “House of Takeda – Clan Code,” We shall now focus on evaluating the four types of generals chronicled in Chaps. 11, 12, 13, and 14. This analysis will describe in detail by what standards the samurai leaders of the time were estimated, and what type of person an ideal leader was. It will provide a clear sketch of who the samurai were, and what Bushido was. These four types of useless generals have been exemplified thus: “There are four types of generals who destroy our domains and shatter our clan. The first is a fool, the second clever, the third a coward, and the fourth excessively violent” (Sato 2006, p. 207). The first type of general is a fool, an idiot, a joker, a dunce. He is not simply stupid, but valiant and selfish. Whether good or evil, his subordinates flatter him. Ninety percent of his subordinates are flatterers. He is a poor judge of their character. Incapable of distinguishing a capable, loyal retainer he appoints sycophants to responsible posts. In the end, he destroys himself (ibid, pp. 207–218). The second type of general is clever. He grows easily dispirited at the thought that his conduct is crude and vain. Greedy, he is niggardly in compensating his subordinates. Fair-spoken, he is at heart ruthless. He is exceptionally conceited and

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cares what others think of him. He pays close attention to matters before him yet renders shallow judgments. This being the case, it is no wonder that 90% of his subordinates are apt to be depraved sycophants. This lord works his subordinates hard without properly compensating them, and the subordinates show him little loyalty. Ill-mannered he lacks a sense of justice. Ruthless and undiscriminating, he lies on account of his pretentions. Hence, a general who is incapable of putting aside what amuses him and, not distinguishing between good and evil regardless that something was evil, places his cleverness before all else and persists in such, is said to be overly clever (ibid, pp. 252–271). The third type of general is a coward. He tends to complain. He is jealous of others, obsequious, weak-willed, and does not deeply consider anything ruthless. He has no sympathy. Being no judge of character, he lacks adroitness in action and is inflexible. Because he acts out of concern for what others say about him, he thoughtlessly follows the crowd. He is indecisive in meting out rewards and punishments and dampens the zealous spirits of his subordinates (ibid, pp. 272–303). The fourth type of general is excessively violent. His is a violent and explosive temperament. He speaks eloquently and clearly, surpassing others in intelligence. He detests effeminacy. Generally, he is not quick-tempered and tumultuous, but calm and formidable. His subordinates may be able to put but five of ten admonishments into practice. But he is self-centered, making light of what they say (ibid, pp. 340–363). To say that the above four types of generals have as their goal the destruction of the country is, in other words, a way of presenting the essence of one who would act in a contrary manner, the ideal samurai of the time. In summary, the tendencies towards selfishness, poor judgment of character, pronounced flattery, ruthlessness, lack of discernment, lack of a sense of justice, not listening to what others have to say, niggardliness and stinginess in compensating one’s subordinates applied not only to the samurai. One could say that these tendencies applied to human nature itself. The give-and-take in life where a samurai would risk his own was, naturally, a given. However, judging from the fact that the Koyo Gunkan was generally popular and attracted the notice of many, one can judge it to be a work that evaluated the human element striking the hearts of those living in the peace and tranquility of the Edo period.

3.3.2  Budo Shoshin Shu The author of this work, Yuzan Daidoji (1639–1730), studied military science in Edo while still young. His erudition highly acclaimed, he was called upon by various daimyo, especially the lord of the Matsudaira clan of the Aizu fief. In his later years he served the lord of the Matsudaira clan of the Echizen fief (Kasaya 2014, p. 54; Furukawa 1943, p. 212). The original text of the Budo Shoshin Shu (1726– 1730) comprises 56 sections, and its published version (1834) comprises 44 (Kasaya 2014, p. 54). We shall begin by surveying the contents of the original text. The goal

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of this investigation is to elucidate the ethical thought of the samurai, that is, Bushido. We shall next take up those passages disclosing the ethical actions and thought of the samurai as the standard of their cardinal virtues. The first section opens with the following: “Above all else, the samurai must be firmly resolved that he can die anytime, day or night, from the time he eats his zoni soup on the morning of the first day of the new year till the night of the last day of the year” and “If he is prepared for death he can do all things. He will be able to fulfill the essentials of loyalty toward his master and filial piety toward his parents. He will be able to escape evils and calamities and maintain perfect health” (p.  29). Section four emphatically reiterates that, “Filial piety toward one’s parents is paramount.” (p. 34). In section five we find, “Justice is good, injustice evil” (p. 37). Section eight tells the reader, “Loyalty and filial piety are necessary not only for the samurai, but for the farmer, the craftsman, and the merchant, as well” (p. 46). Section 23 relates that, “Frugality is crucial, regardless of one’s rank” (p. 83). Section 31 says, “Be calm and act prudently when sickness and misfortune come to one’s vicinity” (p. 100). In section 32, “If one’s wife is somehow displeasing, reasonably seek to persuade her” (pp. 100–101). Section 33, “Be prepared daily to do as much as possible” (p.  102). Nearly 90% of the 56 items touch upon the ethical perspectives inherent to the samurai, differentiating them from the ethics of the townspeople. Furukawa and Kasaya point out that section 27 particularly appears to be Yuzan’s most idealized summary of Bushido, “Loyalty, justice, and valor are most essential to Bushido. The samurai possessed of these three virtues is the most outstanding exemplar thereof” (Furukawa 1957, pp. 194–195; Kasaya 2014, pp. 58–59). Kasaya nonetheless indicates that, in section six, “Conventionally there are distinguished the code of the warrior and the art of war,” Yuzan also points to the presence in Bushido of a Confucian-influenced concept where, besides the art of war associated with combat and tactics, the warrior codes are also concerned with such matters as the personal appearance of the samurai, daily etiquette, and filial piety toward one’s parents. In general, however, one can say that, like Takeda Nobushige’s admonitions in the Koyo Gunkan, this is a work that is vague in terms of finely textured, human ethical thought, yet it expounds Bushido focused chiefly on the relation of the retainer to his master, or, in Confucian terms, “the justice between master and servant.” There are two versions of the Budo Shoshin Shu, an original preserved in manuscript form, and the Matsushiro Budo Shoshin Shu made commercially available in a woodblock print edition. Whereas the former originated in the seventeenth century, the Matsushiro publication was published in 1834. The content of the former comprises 56 sections enumerated in numeric order, but the Matsushiro publication has been rearranged and edited, itemized into 44 sections. The Matsushiro publication renders the Shido (Code of the Warrior) section of the original text—section six—the first item under the same title, explaining in detail, “For hygienic purposes wash one’s hands and feet morning and evening, and bathe oneself. When dressed formally observe propriety and be mindful when eating and drinking, not engaging in pointless chatter. Give oneself to reading on days of rest, conduct oneself properly” (pp. 168–169). This warrior code comprises an etiquette proper as well for the

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farmer, the craftsman, and the merchant. One may consider the influence it had on the common people. Other virtues or topics connected with mercantile ethics are enumerated, as well, education, filial piety, faith, manner, governance, frugality, selection of friends, friendship, slander, apprenticeship, prudence. This edited version is easier to read than the original text.

3.3.3  Hagakure The Hagakure is said to have been written in 1716. The work comprises the dictation of a retired warrior of the Nabeshima fief, Jocho Yamamoto, written down by Tsuramoto Tashiro, a retainer of the same fief. Tashiro initially visited Yamamoto in 1710, so it took him 6 years to complete it. There are various theories regarding the derivation of the book’s title, Hagakure. Furukawa claims that it signifies deeds of loyalty to one’s master performed to be unnoticed, in other words, secret benefactions (Furukawa 1957, p. 11; Koike 1999, pp. 45–46). Among the notable characteristics of the book one can point out is that, unlike the previously-mentioned Koyo Gunkan and Budo Shoshin Shu, both of which were printed and sold on the market, the Hagakure is a unique manuscript generally kept out of circulation. It was later known in the Nabeshima feudal domains that, in the closing years of the Tokugawa era, a reading group was formed around its feudal lord, Kanso Nabeshima.6 Since the Hagakure was printed in 1906, however, it is certain that, except for a partial publication in the Nabeshima domains, it was a unique work unseen by human eyes. How is it that it became well-known as Bushido literature and was established as indispensable for Bushido studies? Interest in the Hagakure originated with Inazo Nitobe writing the introduction for the 1906 publication of the work (Taniguchi 2016, pp. 71–83). Nitobe writes, “In the history of Japan the spirit of Bushido has been cultivated in the mind of the Japanese people since before the feudal period, regardless of the political system, and changes in society notwithstanding” (Taniguchi 2016, p. 76). Nitobe appears at this time to have thought that Bushido was the fundamental spirit possessed by the Japanese people from a time prior to the appearance of the samurai. Unknown in the Edo period, and entirely obscure apart from some people in the Nabeshima feudal domains, the Hagakure became the text representative of Bushido. But when? How? On this point Yoshiaki Koike, a disciple of Furukawa, writes of the following circumstances: “It was a banned book in the Edo period and was not taken out of the Nabeshima domain, but even within that domain (fief) the Hagakure only saw the light of day when, in the final years of the Tokugawa bakufu, a reading group was set up around the lord of the domain, Kanso Nabeshima” (Koike 1999, p. 42). According to Koike (ibid, p. 43) 1906 was the year when the existence of the Hagakure became known outside of Saga Prefecture through the efforts of an individual who self-published it, piecemeal. The year the 6  Kanso Nabeshima was a daimyo, of the Saga fief, which was one of the four fiefs that rendered distinguished service to the Meiji Restoration.

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entire text was first published in book form was the 1934 publication by Arano Kurihara, the Hagakure no Shinzui (The Essence of the Hagakure), and in the 1940 publication by the same, the Kochu Hagakure (The Annotated Hagakure). A paperback version was published at the same time during the same year, when it became the shared heritage of Japanese citizens by everybody having easy access to it. Why, then, was it something banned in the Edo period? The reason is noted and thought to be summarized in its opening verse, “The way of the warrior is found in death.” This is an act directly violating junshi, a ritual act of suicide strictly forbidden during the Tokugawa shogunate. It may have been permitted during times of war, but, for a retainer who was deeply connected to his master to ritually disembowel himself to follow the master in death when the world was at peace was severely forbidden by the Bakufu. Consequently, and setting aside the matter of this ritual suicide, it was unlikely that a work emphasizing the essence of Bushido as residing in death could be made public. It was simply a matter of course, then, that as a banned work the Hagakure could neither be taken outside the feudal domain nor made public within the same. Additionally, according to Furukawa, there was the content that had to be considered, “Because in this work the author wrote down verbatim, for future reference, the worldly criticisms, the evils and righteousness of various samurai, conjectures, customs, and related matters, he was concerned over the vengeful intentions of others who might be permitted to see it” (Furukawa 1957, p.  184). Consequently, one factor that can be considered grounds for forbidding the book was that it was a work that might disclose these matters. The Hagakure is organized into 11 books. Its contents cover such matters as the words and deeds of the feudal lord, matters related to the family of the feudal lord, anecdotes, words and deeds and reputations of retainers, and the reputations of other families. Jocho’s comments on the above-mentioned matters are mixed, one might say they are a mixture of the good and the bad. One can say, however, that the spirit running through the entire work is that expressed in section two of the “Account 1” section, “The way of the warrior is found in death.” The meaning is not that death is Bushido, but that in working for one’s master, one must be prepared to cast aside considerations of one’s life and, if necessary, die for him (Kasaya 2014, pp. 47–48; Yamamoto 2013, pp. 98–100; Koike 1999, p. 12). This is the spirit of self-less devotion. In concrete terms it means this, namely, “Ceaselessly think of death morning and evening. If you always live with this awareness, then, as a samurai, you will have no regrets, you will be able to act freely, and all through your life you will be able to fulfill your duty without committing any error” (Watsuji and Furukwa (1940–1941) Vol. 1, p. 23). The circumstances surrounding this book’s composition and its aim are concisely summarized in its introduction, which in turn proves useful for the reader in comprehending the essence of what is admittedly a disorganized work. The thought itself of Jocho is organized, and the book seeks to give word to his frank remarks. First, the book opens with indicating what is essential for the retainer, namely, a firm knowledge of the master’s ancestors, their labors and their benevolence being paramount, and next, developing the same knowledge about the ancestors of his own family. However, samurai of the present time have forgotten who they are and,

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rather than reverencing and deeply knowing the Buddha, Confucius, Kusunoki Masashige, and Takeda Shingen, they have no knowledge of these important feudal lords or of their own ancestors. It is a disgrace that, when questioned on these matters by those belonging to other families, they are hard-pressed to respond (Watsuji and Furukwa (1940–1941) Vol. 1, p. 17). Second, to devote oneself wholeheartedly, applying oneself to the duties handed down to one’s family over the generations. Lord Katsushige, piling labor upon labor, and having a profound faith in the Buddhas and the Gods, preserved the Nabeshima domains in peace to this day. However, he handed military strategies and other important documents over to his heirs and, what is more, put in order various procedures related to the governance of the domain, saying, “There has lately been an increase in those who neglect the martial arts and live a life of luxury. The samurai who preserved our traditions have left this world, and those who are young exhibit laxity of spirit. Write down for future generations that which is important.” Lord Mitsushige, who succeeded his father, Lord Katsushige, understood his labors and carefully read the documents bequeathed him. If he is not taken in by the words of clever subordinates and takes over the reins of the domain’s governance on the foundation laid by his father, the peace of his house is assured (Watsuji and Furukwa (1940–1941) Vol. 1, pp. 18–19). Third, many of those who ruled over the Nabeshima domains in the course of its history were men of virtue. They were excellent rulers who among the all the daimyo of Japan never became second- or third rate. They treated their retainers well, and not one of their peasants or townspeople—not to mention their samurai— forgot their favor. They considered that the way to serve their master included even the giving of their lives, to be prepared to meet death calmly, for instance, when ordered to commit ritual suicide by disembowelment. That they would thereby attain something comparable to Buddhist notions of enlightenment seems not to have occurred to them. However many times they might be reborn and transformed, their desire was to be a samurai of the Nabeshima domains. In short, they nurtured the readiness to bear on their own shoulders the burdens of the domain (Watsuji and Furukwa (1940–1941) Vol. 1, p. 20). Fourth, the four vows made to insure the Nabeshima spirit. 1 . To penetrate and preserve the way of the warrior. 2. To be at the service of the master. 3. To be dutiful to one’s parents. 4. To exhaustively exert oneself in deeds of mercy and compassion. The above represent the fundamental spirit of Jocho. Kasaya explains that the primacy of Bushido lies in emphasizing its practice as originating from loyalty to one’s master (Kasaya 2014, pp.  46–47). Furukawa, however, considers that these four vows—bravery, loyalty, filial piety, and benevolence—are simply mentioned in parallel, and that Bushido takes no priority over the other three (Furukawa 1957, p. 118). According to him, if one divides the Hagakure into 1350 sections the greater number of them apply to any of these four vows (Furukawa 1957, p. 118). In other words, the virtues underlying the ethical actions of the samurai can be consolidated as allied to bravery, loyalty, filial piety, and benevolence.

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3.4  T  he Ethical Code of the Mikawa7 Samurai, Suzuki Shosan Taking up Shosan Suzuki, a direct retainer of the House of Tokugawa who played an unprecedented role in associating Bushido with Shonindo, we shall evaluate in what ways he educated farmers, craftsmen and merchants who, being scorned as ignorant and uneducated, were placed in low social positions, and reflecting upon the course of these events, the historical contributions of Shosan’s edifying activities. Shosan Suzuki’s (1579–1655) Dharma name was “Shosan,” his secular name “Shozo.” As a retainer to the second Shogun, Hidetada Tokugawa, he fought at the Battle of Sekigahara and during the winter and spring Osaka campaigns. In 1620, at the age of 42, he suddenly decided to part with his wife and children and became a monk. He was permitted to do so by the special consideration of his master, Hidetada Tokugawa. After leaving behind his life as a samurai, Shozo Suzuki became the Zen Buddhist monk Shosan and a propagator of Buddhism. During the Shimabara and Amakusa rebellions he accompanied his younger brother, a samurai, and took part in these campaigns as a Buddhist priest. He was energetic in restoring the ravaged region after the cessation of hostilities. There remains to this day the Suzuki Jinja Shrine dedicated to the memory of his achievements and his undying faith. Shosan authored many works, some of which are unrelated to Buddhism; he is also a noted author of kanazoshi.8 Of his Buddhist works the Banmin Tokuyo (Virtuous Action for All People) is well-known; the Ninin Bikuni (Two Nuns) is a noted example of his kanazoshi. A compilation of Shosan’s words and deeds, the Roankyo (The Donkey Saddle Bridge), is also well-known.

3.4.1  B  anmin Tokuyo (1661): Daily Life Is the Buddha Dharma The Banmin Tokuyo is Shosan’s chief literary work, where one finds the most striking characteristics of his thought. The book was first entitled the Shimin Nichiyo (Daily Lives of the Four Social Classes) and organized into four parts, “Daily Duties of the Samurai,” “Daily Duties of the Farmer,” “Daily Duties of the Craftsman,” and “Daily Duties of the Merchant.” In 1661, however, 6 years after Shosan’s death, two further section were added, the Shugyo no Nengan (“Earnest Desire for Practice”) and Sanbo no Tokuyo (“Practice of the Virtues of the Triple Gem”), and the book was retitled Banmin Tokuyo. The Banmin Tokuyo, particularly the occupational ethics found in the Shimin Nichiyo, contains what can be called Shosan’s foundational 7  Mikawa is the cradle of the House of Tokugawa. To be a Mikawa samurai implies being a direct retainer of the Tokugawa shogun. 8  A type of short story originating in the early Edo Period. These were easy to read and aimed at a popular readership.

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thought viewed from his perspective emphasizing Buddhist practice in one’s daily life. The thought giving these four parts their coherence is Sezoku soku Buppo, that being diligent daily in one’s occupational life is none other than the practice of Buddhism. Even in the case of the townspeople, memorial services for one’s ancestors, funerals, and visiting the family grave were carried out at the temple to which one belonged. This, however, was not what Shosan had in mind. His view is that one can carry out Buddhist practice without going to the temple. It is a practical Buddhism where the samurai, the farmer, the craftsman, and the merchant, exerting themselves in their occupations, engage in Buddhist practice by working single-­ mindedly while repeating the name of the Buddha Amitabha, “Namu Amida Butsu.” This appears to share some commonality with the Hagakure where the samurai is prepared to lay down his life in serving his master. Nakamura writes, “Thus, in the history of Japanese Buddhism, the development of occupational ethics on a large scale, and the emphasis that one’s secular occupational life is itself Buddhist practice likely originates with Shosan  Suzuki” (Nakamura 1949, p.  309). In a word, Shosan’s occupational ethics are exhaustively expressed by the idea that authentic Buddhist practice lies not in becoming a monk, but in giving one’s undivided attention to the daily occupation in which one is engaged. Traditional Buddhist practice had hitherto been conceived as leaving the world and leading a secluded life in the mountains and forests, or in cloistering oneself in a temple to devote oneself to the practice of calling upon Amitabha Buddha. Shosan, however, contended that devoting oneself single-mindedly to one’s secular occupation was itself none other than Buddhist practice.

3.4.2  Occupational Ethics as Found in the Banmin Tokuyo First, there is the idea that “occupation knows no rank.” Whether a samurai, a farmer, a craftsman, or a merchant, each of them is a transformation body of the Buddha. There is no superior or inferior in this body; what matters is that all equally devote themselves to their work for those who live in the world. This, in other words, is the idea that an occupation is neither superior nor inferior. For the Bakufu, which governed by maintaining a rigid class system, this idea was, in some sense, a dangerous one. With the advent of peace, however, transitioning the role of the samurai—whose occupation was warfare—from fighting to administration resulted in bringing about a change in the relative power relationships among the other three classes. The result was a spirit that, as far as the occupations were concerned, deemed the four social classes equal. The samurai governed, the farmers cultivated foodstuffs, the craftsmen produced things for others, and the merchants benefited the world economically by buying and selling products. In the final analysis, diligence in their respective occupations became the basis for an occupational ethic. In other words, “Whatever the occupation, each is the practice of the Buddha Way” (Suzuki 1962, p. 70).

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Second, the idea of diligence. This is the idea that everyone works by applying all their energy and attention to their respective occupations for the sake of society and others, and not from motives of self-benefit. The concept is that working with undivided attention constitutes Buddhist practice. This is the idea that in this life one devotes oneself to profiting others without seeking self-profit to enjoy happiness after death. This notion differs completely from the idea of working in this world to pursue one’s own benefit. “Occupation knows no rank; any occupation comprises Buddhist practice” and “Working diligently to devote oneself to benefiting others constitutes Buddhist practice,” these two ideas form the basis of Shosan’s work ethic.

3.4.3  Class-Specific Occupational Ethics 3.4.3.1  Daily Duties of the Samurai The greatest duty of the samurai is “to forget oneself” (Suzuki 1962, p. 66). Shosan specifically mentions a method for conquering self to the forgetfulness of oneself, namely, by dividing the state of mind for gaining victory into two, a state of mind linked with winning and a state of mind connected with losing. He begins with the state of mind associated with winning. 1. Being prepared for death at any time 2. Never forgetting a favor, particularly for the samurai, a favor by his master 3. Leading from the front on the battlefield and cutting deep into the enemy’s lines 4. Understanding karmic justice 5. Being directly awakened to the evanescence of the world 6. Knowing one’s body is impure 7. Highly valuing time 8. Cherishing the Buddha, the Buddha’s teachings, and Buddhist monks 9. Devoting oneself to one’s master 10. Being strict in one’s actions 11. Preserving a spirit of putting one’s life on the line 12. Knowing one’s aptitude 13. Being modest in one’s solicitude 14. Preserving benevolence and justices 15. Preserving the teachings of the Buddha and his disciples 16. Considering mercy and honesty as most important 17. Knowing that all is the result of karmic influences Shosan writes that a mind thus recollected is born of a brave and adamantine spirit, that the samurai possessed of this intrepid spirit does not fear death, and, however formidable the enemy, neither falters nor swerves from the warrior’s way (Suzuki 1962, pp. 66–67).

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On the other hand, the dispirited mind, one that is consumed with worry and acts contrary to Bushido exhibits the following. 1. Negligence 2. Hurrying off on pleasure trips and amusements 3. Forgetfulness of duty 4. Obliviousness to the workings of karma 5. Unawareness of the world’s evanescence 6. Obsessiveness for worldly fame and profit 7. Abandonment to gaudy ostentation 8. Insincerity toward others 9. Fixation on fashion 10. Cowardice and lack of courage 11. Niggardliness and ruthlessness 12. Pointless concern 13. Self-conceit 14. Fussiness, envy 15. Forgetfulness of favors 16. Lying, flattery, and deception 17. Unpreparedness for death Shosan further allies the seven passions of delight, anger, melancholy, desire, grief, fear, and astonishment with the above dispirited mind, saying that the roots of all suffering originate from these seven. Whenever the mind is deluded one is incapable of fighting the greatest battle of all, that between life and death. This is nothing other than disgraceful for the samurai. To say it yet again, the fundamental spirit of the “Daily Duties of the Samurai” is to exhaustively penetrate “the mind that casts off self.” Shosan describes an example of Buddhist practice in the Roankyo, writing, “One may model one’s Buddhist practice on a statue of Buddha,” yet, “If one fixes one’s gaze upon an opponent in the manner of the fierce Deva Kings (Nio), the celestials who protect and preserve the Buddhist teachings, clenching ones fists, scowling, one will never waver, regardless of the enemy one battles” (Suzuki 1962, p. 138). This is the origin of Shosan’s Zen being known as Nio Zen, the Deva Kings Zen. 3.4.3.2  Daily Duties of the Farmer In the class system of the Edo period farmers were the class immediately following the samurai. The basis of the samurai’s livelihood was rice. His wages were in rice. He sold off the rice he received and applied the proceeds to his living expenses. The farmer, therefore, produced the rice, which was paid to the samurai, and this began to provide the basis for the life of the samurai. There was, however, an undeniable qualitative difference in social standing between the farmers and the samurai; their lifestyle, religion, and the like were lived under more restrictive conditions. To the farmer, who lamented that his life was busy and devoid of leisure for engaging in the Buddha’s

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Way, Shosan writes: “Farming is Buddhist practice. An impoverished occupation it is where one mindlessly labors; but working to one’s utmost with faith in the Buddha is Buddhist practice. Imprudent dependence upon Buddhism is an error. Those who would become a Buddha after death exert mind and body in their labor. Those who pursue a life of pleasure cannot become a Buddha after death. Bearing with heat and cold, using farming tools, overcoming laziness, and single-­mindedly engaging in farming are essential. Be inattentive, and immediately a spirit of laziness wells up. Work single-mindedly without diverting one’s attention, and one practices the Buddha Way. The farmer who abandons his farming to practice Buddhism misses the point” (Suzuki 1962, pp. 68–69). The principle occupation of the farmer is, specifically, to cultivate the five grains of wheat, rice, beans, foxtail millet, and proso millet, make offerings to the Gods and Buddhas, and to supply for the eating habits of all the people. Working heart and soul while repeating Namu Amida Butsu purifies the fields and the five grains, and the sufferings of those who consume them will surely vanish (Suzuki 1962, p. 69). This embodies the concept related to occupational ethics that one’s occupation comprises the very practice of Buddhism. 3.4.3.3  Daily Duties of the Craftsman What Shosan preaches in this section does not fundamentally differ from what he says in the foregoing. To the craftsman who, in pursuing the family trade, was troubled that his life was busy and devoid of leisure for engaging in the Buddha’s Way, Shosan writes, “Whatever the occupation, all comprise Buddhist practice.” “It is certain that he who works single-mindedly at his own trade will become a Buddha in the next life.” “People are the transformation bodies of the Buddha. The Buddha saves those living in the world by way of these transformation bodies.” “How can farming tools be made if there are no blacksmiths? Samurai govern, farmers produce food, but there is no transfer of commodities where there are no merchants.” “Thus, any of the occupations are of service for society.” “Have faith in yourself if you would be a Buddha. You yourself are the Buddha. It is natural to have faith in the Buddha” (Suzuki 1962, pp. 70–71). 3.4.3.4  Daily Duties of the Merchant Shosan, in contrast with the preceding “Daily Duties of the Craftsman” section of his work, where he considers the rank and role of the craftsman among those living in the same town, devotes considerable effort in emphasizing the important role of the merchant, ranked last after the samurai, farmers, and craftsman in the social system of the time. Shosan adopts a question-and-answer type of narrative in the Shimin Nichiyo. To the question of a merchant, “One engaged in the lowly occupation of commerce is occupied with turning a profit and has no leisure to pray for happiness after death. What is one to do?” Shosan replies, “In the matter of commerce one first must have the attitude that turning a profit is primary. If one works

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honestly, employing all the resources of body and mind, then, with the assistance of the Gods and Buddhas, one will escape calamity, one’s assets will naturally increase, one will be appreciated by others, and all will proceed as desired. If, however, one is very selfish, disregards the concerns of others, and cares only for oneself, one will not enjoy the protection of the Gods and Buddhas, calamities will increase, one will be hated by others, and nothing will go as desired.” Moreover, “The merchant, to benefit those living in the world, sends the products of his country to foreign countries, and orders the products of foreign countries for his country; he delivers products to distant lands. If, to be useful to others, he makes a vow to the Buddha, travels about other countries to buy and sell, and, casting off concern for himself, crosses mountains, fords rivers, and rides ships upon the open seas, this usefulness to others will constitute Buddhist practice itself. If he works considering his life but a journey through this world, dismisses complaining in his mind, and distances himself from selfish interest, the Gods and the Buddhas will watch over him, his profits will increase, and he will know happiness” (Suzuki 1962, pp. 71–72). Thus, does Shosan, the former samurai, indicate the social importance of the lowly merchant. However it was that an era of peace had arrived, this feudal samurai who had fought at Sekigahara and the winter campaign in Osaka, who had authored the Banmin Tokuyo, a pioneering expression that occupations know no rank based on the view that all people are equal, produced a work that, considering the historical background of the Edo period at its inception—the influence of Buddhism notwithstanding—is nothing short of astonishing. Shosan considered that the noble and the base, the superior and the inferior, the rich and the poor, profit and loss, and the span of life all resulted from the karmic fruits of past lives (Suzuki 1962, p. 71). The role of the merchant, who is responsible for matters of commerce, is to facilitate free commerce in goods between various regions, and this is not other than facilitating an increase in peoples’ material blessings. He considers that everything leads to fortune if one wholeheartedly, with an honest heart, engages in business by cutting off any thought of pursuing profit. The goal is not self-profit, but to benefit others, to be useful for others; the goal is not the pursuit of gain. There are two types of activity in benefitting others: that of endeavoring to benefit others for the sake of one’s happiness in the next life, and that of completely spending oneself in the service of others with no thought whatever of oneself. The altruistic action Shosan preaches is the latter (Suzuki 1962, p. 165). He writes that beneficial actions for others based on self-interest can, via the action-influence of karma, bring about temporary happiness, but this will not be permanent (Suzuki 1962, pp.  71–71). Shosan does not thereby deny profit. To state the matter once again, honest transactions naturally result in profit (Suzuki 1962, p. 71).

References Furukawa, T. (Ed.) (1943). Yuzan Daidoji. Budo Shoshin Shu (Introduction to Bushido). Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Furukawa, T. (1957). Bushido no Shiso to Sono Shuhen (Bushido Thought and Its Background). Tokyo: Fukumura Shoten.

References

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Karube, T. (2017). Nihon Shisoshi e no Michi Annai (A guide to Japanese history of thought). Tokyo: NTT Shuppan. Kasaya, K. (2014). Bushido: Samurai syakai no bunka to rinri  (Culture and ethics in samurai Society). Tokyo: NTT Shupan. Kasaya, K. (2017). Bushido no Seishinshi (The intellectual history of Bushido). Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo. Koike, Y. (1999). Bushi and Hoko (Samurais and apprenticeship). Tokyo: Kodansha. Matsukuma, T. (1985). Nitobe Inazo. Tokyo: Misuzu Shobo. Mori, S. (1936). Kyuso Muro. Sundai Zatsuwa (Miscellenious Records), Iwanami bunko (Rev. ed.). Tokyo: Iwanami. Nakamura, H. (1949). Kinsei Nihon ni okeru Hihanteki Seishin no Ichi Kosatsu (A discussion on a critical spirit in early modern Japan). In Gendai Bukkyo Meicho Zenshu (Complete works of great books of Buddhism). Kyoto: Ryubunkan. Nitobe, I. (1938). Bushido, Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Nitobe, I. (1907). Kigan no Ashi (Student days abroad). Tokyo: Kodokan. Nitobe Inazo Zenshu Henshu Iinkai (Ed.). (1987). Nitobe Inazo Zenshu (Complete works of Inazo Nitobe), 25 vols. Tokyo: Kyobunkan. Oshiro, G. (1992). Nitobe Inazo: Kokusaishugi no Kaitakusha (A pioneer in inter-nationalism, Nitobe Inaszo). Tokyo: Chuo University Press. Saito, K., Okayama, T., & Sagara, T. (Eds.). (1974). Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 26. Mikawa Monogatari. Tokyo: Iwanami. Sato, M. (2006). Koyo Gunkan (Record of the Takeda family), Chikuma Gakugei Bunko (Rev. ed.). Tokyo: Chikuma. Sato, Z., & Fujii, S. (2013). An Encyclopedia on Nitobe Inazo. Tokyo: Kyobukan. Suzuki, T. (Ed.). (1962). Suzuki Shosan Dojin Zenshu (Complete works of Shosan Suzuki). Tokyo: Sankibo. Taniguchi, S. (2016). A history of formation of self-devoted samurai image: Through an analysis of publication and reception of HAGAKURE. Waseda Institute for Advanced Study, 9, 71–83. Watsuji, T., & Furukwa, T. (1940–1941). Hagakure (Low-profile apprenticeship), Iwanami bunko, 3 vols (Rev. ed.). Tokyo: Iwanami. Yamamoto, H. (2013). Bushido no Meicho (Notable books on Bushido), Chuko shinsho. Tokyo: Chuokoron Shinsya.

Chapter 4

Case Analysis of the Shonindo

We shall, based on historical records of the time, demonstrate the existence of Shonindo in the Edo period. Chapter sections are numbered sequentially. The first section comprises 4.1 What Is Shonindo? Here we shall provide a definition of Shonindo. The second section, 4.2 The Early Edo Period: Shonindo in the seventeenth century, is divided into six sub-sections. The first sub-section, 4.2.1, provides a bird’s-eye view of the seventeenth century as its premise. Sub-sections 4.2.2, 4.2.3, 4.2.4, 4.2.5 take up four historical records, the Keicho Kenmon Shu, the Choja Kyo, the Shison Kagami, and the Kanemochi Choho Ki. We shall analyze the religious faith and keywords found in each record, clarify their distinctive characteristics, and list representative examples by faith. In the final sub-section, 4.2.6, we shall provide a chronological analysis of the four records to clarify their merits. The third section, 4.3 The Middle Edo Period: Shonindo in the eighteenth century, is a wide-ranging case analysis. In sub-section, 4.3.1 we provide a bird’s-eye view of the eighteenth century serving as the premise of this period. We examine 24 historical records in sub-sections 4.3.2, 4.3.3, 4.3.4, 4.3.5, 4.3.6, 4.3.7, 4.3.8, 4.3.9, 4.3.10, 4.3.11, 4.3.12, 4.3.13, 4.3.14, 4.3.15, 4.3.16, 4.3.17, 4.3.18, 4.3.19, 4.3.20, 4.3.21, 4.3.22, 4.3.23, 4.3.24, and 4.3.25 and, as we did immediately above, analyze the religious faith and keywords found in each record, clarify their distinctive characteristics, and list representative examples by faith. In the final sub-section, 4.3.26, we shall provide a chronological analysis of the 24 records to clarify their merits. These records are the Kadōkun, the Tosei Shogun Dan, the Choninbukuro, the Chonin Koken Roku, the Akindo Yawaso, the Fukujin Kyokunbukuro, the Chonin Tsune no Michi, the Akindo Heizei Ki, the Tohi Mondo, the Kagyo Dotoku Ron, the Ken’yaku Seika Ron, the Ishida Sensei Goroku, the Kyokunzo Nagamochi, the Akindo Sugiwai Kagami, the Zenkun, the Shobai Kyokun Kagami, the Fuki no Ji ga Tame, the Akindo Koganebukuro, the Wagatsue, the Seken Senshin Ron, the Yowatarigusa, the Shuju Kokoroegaki, the Kagyo Sozoku Chikaragusa, and the Kanemokaru no Denju. The fourth section, 4.4 The Late Edo Period: Shonindo in the nineteenth century, is divided into 13 sub-sections. The first sub-section, 4.4.1, is a bird’s-eye view of the © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 I. Horide, The Mercantile Ethical Tradition in Edo Period Japan, Advances in Japanese Business and Economics 20, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7338-1_4

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nineteenth century. We examine 11 historical records in sub-sections 4.4.2, 4.4.3, 4.4.4, 4.4.5, 4.4.6, 4.4.7, 4.4.8, 4.4.9, 4.4.10, 4.4.11, and 4.4.12 and, as we did in the previous sections, analyze the religious faith and keywords found in each record, clarify their distinctive characteristics, and list representative examples by faith. In the final sub-section, 4.4.13, we shall provide a chronological analysis of these 11 records to clarify their merits. These records are the Tosei Kanyo Ki, the Shison Takaragusa, the Sekitoku Sodan, the Wagami no Tame, the Hinpuku Taihei Ki, the Minka o Sodategusa, the Tosei Kanyo Ki Nihen, the Fuki Jizai Shu, the Shoka Kokoroegusa, the Genkin Oyasu Uri, and the Shusei no Ishizue. Finally, in Sect. 4.5, we shall look at the entire Edo period and summarize how mercantile ethics were affected.

4.1  What Is Shonindo? Concerning the ethical movements through the Edo period, it is fair to say that the greatest influence left to posterity is Shosan Suzuki’s Banmin Tokuyo. Hajime Nakamura says of this work, “Shosan Suzuki is the first person in the history of Japanese Buddhism to develop a theory of professional ethics on such a wide scale, and to emphasize that the secular occupational life is itself Buddhist practice” (Nakamura 1949, p. 309). Shosan himself, in another work, had written, “Perhaps I am alone in saying this, but there are those well-versed in the Buddha Way, yet none capable of applying the Way of Buddha to worldly occupations” (Shosan Suzuki, Roankyo (The Donkey Saddle Bridge), Suzuki 1962, p. 251). Here, by examining contemporary historical documents, we shall clarify the actual characteristics and questions of what the merchants, joining their forces upon the advent of peace, properly thought and did from the perspective of their daily professional lives relative to the buying and selling of goods, dealings with customers, consideration for suppliers, consideration for their families, the education for children and employees, employee benefits, the accumulation of funds, profit distribution, contributions to society, belief in the Gods and Buddhas, relations with samurai, and inheritance. In this work we use the word shonindo to contrast with Bushido, but when did the term Shonindo come into use? The word shonindo cannot be found in the literature spanning the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, which is the object of inquiry comprising the documents examined in this study. What one does find are the phrases “the way of the merchant” (shonin no michi; nine passages), “the way of commerce” (akinai no michi; six passages), “the way of trade” (shobai no michi; four passages), “rules for merchants” (shonin no kokoroe; three passages), and “rules for townspeople” (chonin no kokoroe; one passage); the phrase used most often and the closest to shonindo is shonin no michi. When perusing the contents of these works the phrase “way of the merchant” (shonin no michi) is employed by Muneyoshi Uekawa (1727) in his Akindo Yawaso (An Essay on Merchants) (Takimoto 1928, Vol. 13, pp. 668–669), and by Baigan Ishida (1739) in his Tohi Mondo (On Towns and Provinces) (Shibata 1972, pp. 32, 33, 77, 81, 90). The phrase

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“the way of trade” (shobai no michi) is used by Kiseki Ejima (1712) in his Tosei Shogun Dan (On Daily Business)(Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 3, pp.  29–30), Tadasuke Oe (1775) in his Akindo Koganebukuro (Basics for Merchants in Accumulating Wealth) (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol.1, p.  67), and Matsugu Mukyokuan (1823) in his Wagami no Tame (For Oneself) (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 5, p. 106). The phrase “the way of commerce” (akinai no michi) is utilized by Takaharu Mitsui (1722) in his Shobai Ki (A Business History of the Mitsui Family) (Mitsui Bunko 1973, p. 37.), Baigan Ishida (1739) in his Tohi Mondo (On the Towns and Provinces) (Shibata 1972, p.  26), Mitsusata Iwagaki (1757) in his Akindo Sugiwai Kagami (Lessons for Merchants to Learn Business) (Takimoto 1976, Vol. 13, p.  590), Tadasuke Oe (1775) in his Akindo Koganebukuro (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 1, p.  67), and Hikotaro Shibata (1788) in his Yowatarigusa (How to Make A Living) (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol.2, p. 270.). The phrase “rules for merchants” (shonin no kokoroe) is employed by Hikotaro Shibata in his Yowatarigusa (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 2, p.  64.), Tadasuke Oe (1775) in his Akindo Koganebukuro (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 1, p. 67.), and Gohei Namba (1738) in his Akindo Heizei Ki (Business Sense) (Takimoto 1976, Vol. 13, p. 726). The phrase “rules for townspeople” (chonin no kokoroe) is used by the above-mentioned Gohei Namba in his Akindo Heizei Ki (ibid, p. 723). It is therefore certain that terms approaching Shonindo were employed from around the seventeenth century onward. However, shonindo, which is the aim of this study, is no fragmentary reality, as may be suggested in the above. We noted in the introductory chapter that shonindo is defined by putting into practice the actions allied with the following virtues originating in the beliefs associated with Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism: from Shinto: honesty (shojiki) and simplicity(shisso); from Confucianism: benevolence (jin), justice (gi), propriety (rei), sincerity (makoto), fidelity (shin), frugality or thrift (kenyaku or shimatsu), diligence (kinben), secret charity (intoku), compassion (sokuin), filial duty (koko), patience or endurance (nintai), and modesty (kenjo); and from Buddhism: mercy or benevolence (jihi), harmony (wago), wisdom (chie), and prudence (funbetsu).

4.2  T  he Early Edo Period: Shonindo in the Seventeenth Century 4.2.1  The Seventeenth Century Before entering here into any particular analysis, we shall comment on what sort of era the seventeenth century was for Japan. In contrast to the period of incessant warfare from the time of the Onin War1 in the fifteenth century continuing into the 1  In the middle of the Muromachi period (1338–1573) the Ashikaga government lost governmental control and the Onin War (1467–1477), the greatest civil war in Japanese history, broke out in 1467.

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sixteenth, the seventeenth century in Japan was, in a word, an era of peace and tranquility (Yokota 2009, Takano 2015). The Shimabara/Amakusa Rebellion notwithstanding, it was an era absent of war. An examination of the history of the flourishing of the wealthy merchant Mitsui Family will serve as a representative sample to better observe the merchant movement during the Edo period. The seventeenth century witnesses the rise of the Bakufu upon Tokugawa Ieyasu’s victory at the Battle of Sekigahara2 in 1600. Ieyasu next establishes the Bakufu in Edo in 1603. In 1604 he commences building a large addition to Edo Castle and clearing land for the building of dwellings for his retainers (Suzuki 2000, pp. 134–160). In 1612 the Bakufu bans Christianity. Ieyasu attacks Osaka Castle in 1615 and destroys the Toyotomi Family. In 1624 the eldest son in the Mitsui family, Toshitsugu, leaves Matsuzaka in Ise—present-day Mie Prefecture—and goes to Edo, where he opens a shop. The founder of the present Mitsui Family, Takatoshi (younger brother) goes to Edo and works in the shop run by his older brother, Toshitsugu, in 1635. 1636 sees the completion of work on Edo Castle (Yokota 2009, pp. 245–246). 1637–1638 witnesses the Shimabara/Amakusa Rebellion.3 (From this time to the end of the Bakufu in 1868 no warfare ensues.) In 1641 he commences foreign trade with the Dutch East India Company stationed on the artificial island of Dejima in Nagasaki. Commerce with foreign countries is forbidden except in the case of Holland. Takatoshi returns to Matsuzaka to take care of his mother in 1649. His older brother, Toshitsugu, dies in 1673. That same year Takatoshi opens a dry-goods store in Edo. In 1683 he establishes an exchange shop in Edo. The Bakufu issues an edict controlling publishing in 1684. In 1688 Saikaku Ihara publishes the Nihon Eitaigura.4 The Bakufu establishes currency exchange shops in 1690 to facilitate the exchange of Bakufu funds between Edo and Osaka. Two persons from the Mitsui Family are designated to head a group of 12 overseeing these exchanges. In 1691 Takatoshi establishes a dry-goods store and a currency exchange shop in Osaka. We see from the above that the House of Tokugawa establishes its hegemony at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and that the century closes with the establishment of a social foundation originating with the Mitsui family and other merchants. Additionally, by specifically viewing the seventeenth century as divided into two periods, first, the prior half of the period comprises the era during which the Bakufu is established and organized on a firm foundation. This is to say that it is the time during which the political system of the Edo Bakufu is established and further construction on the Edo Castle ensues, as well as the period when the streets are laid out to accommodate the dwellings of the samurai and commoners who had come there. This impressive construction effort required a massive number of construction personnel. As a matter of course, all means of maritime and other types of transport 2  The Battle of Sekigahara (1600) was memorable for the victory of Ieyasu Tokugawa, who afterward established the seat of his shognate in Edo. 3  The Shimabara/Amakusa Rebellion was the one where unemployed samurai and common people composed of many Christians revolted against the local daimyo’s harsh taxation. 4  Nihon Eitaigura is a success story of merchants widely read in the Edo period.

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were devised for the supply of goods from other regions, because it was not possible for Edo at that time to supply for the daily commodities of all who lived there.5 No appropriate capacity to satisfy such enormous demands existed in Edo at that time. With the advent of a great consumer city like Edo it must, therefore, have been extremely promising and attractive for merchants to open shops there, where the supply-demand balances were thus extremely tight. One could say this was a period of urgent shop expansion to provide for a prolific and extensive consumer demand. One notes this in the representative sample of the Mitsui Family. The elder brother, Toshitsugu, opened a shop therein 1624, and in 1635 his younger brother, Takatoshi, joined him and expanded the business. This was an unparalleled opportunity for merchants pursuing to supply for an expanding demand. Toshitsugu ordered Takatoshi to return to their home town of Matsuzaka in 1649. Second, the latter half of the seventeenth century is a period of commercial growth. When Toshitsugu died in 1673 Takatoshi, who had been biding his time living in obscurity in Matsuzaka, went again to Edo and opened a dry-goods store. An all-out expansion of his business began. In 1688, only 15 years after Takatoshi opened his store, the writer, Saikaku Ihara, published his Nihon Eitaigura. In that work Saikaku takes up a story where Takatoshi Mitsui, in contrast to nearly all the merchants of the time, who focused on selling on credit, was successful in selling at fixed prices without cash discounts. Saikaku lists other successful merchant families besides the Mitsui. According to Akimasa  Higashi, who oversaw the Iwanami critical edition of the Nihon Eitaigura, the work examines 20 successes and 10 failures. The factors he takes up contributing to success are resourcefulness (saikaku), wisdom (chie), devisal (kufu), intelligence (rihatsu), prudence (funbetsu), strategy (chogi), deliberation (shian), ingenuity  (shidashi), as well as honesty (shojiki), management (shimatsu), belief (shinko), diligence (kinben), and conscientiousness (richigi). The factors he takes up contributing to failure are extravagance (zeitaku), drinking (inshu), dishonesty (fushojiki), and incompetence (muno) (Saikaku Ihara, Nihon Eitaigura, Higashi 1956, p. 195). One may note even here that the development of commerce in the latter half of the seventeenth century, from 1670 to 1680, must have been sufficiently intriguing to attract the eye of Saikaku. Thus it can be said that with the advent of peace in the seventeenth century the merchant gathered increasing influence, which from the establishment of the Kamakura Bakufu onward, proved to be an important transitional phase initiating a rise in social status for the merchant and a new challenge for the samurai, who, occupying the summit of society, wielded his authority as he saw fit.

 Cf. Masao Suzuki (2000), Edojo wa Kousite Tukurareta (How Edo Castle was built), Chikuma bunko, Tokyo. 5

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4.2.2  M  iura, Joshin (1614) Keicho Kenmon Shu (A Record of Worldly Affairs). Haga, Ya’ichi (Ed.) (1906) Critical Edition of the Keicho Kenmon Shu To begin, we shall explain the historical value of this work. The text used in the present study is Ya’ichi Haga’s critical edition (1906) of the work included in the 1906 Fuzanbo Pocket Paperback Classics Library. The author notes in his prefatory introduction that he wrote the book in 1614 and says of its contents that they are a collection of things he had actually seen and heard (Haga 1906, p. 1). The book, then, can be viewed as a historical record of an inquiry into the state of the society of the time. Additionally, Haga, in his critical edition, says of this book that it is a unique, novel publication, the first book in the Edo period providing insight into human nature at the time (pp. 1–2). The author, Joshin Miura, was born in 1586, witnessed fully the vicissitudes in fortune of Nobunaga Oda and Hideyoshi Toyotomi, and died in 1644 during the shogunate of the third shogun, Iemitsu Tokugawa. Joshin was a surviving retainer of the Odawara Hojo family and, after the destruction of his master’s family, came to Edo, where he took refuge in Buddhism under the high-ranking Tendai monk and member of Ieyasu’s personal staff, Tenkai. Joshin then took up residence in Joshin-ji Temple. Upon the establishment of the Tokugawa Bakufu an era of peace had finally come to Japan, which had passed through a long period of wars and disturbances. Acknowledged publicly as the “Genna Enbu,” the Genna Armistice, this new era free of war had dawned after the country had been increasingly unified over periods of samurai governance beginning in the Kamakura Era and the Muromachi Era, and continued through the efforts of Nobunaga Oda, Hideyoshi Toyotomi and, by extension, Ieyasu Tokugawa. Joshin published the Keicho Kenmon Shu during this early period and likens the blessings of peace to Japan to the emergence of the Bodhisattva Maitreya’s realm, exalting that “Now is the time of Maitreya” (p. 1). Elsewhere he writes, “Those now living in the world are freed of all suffering and lead lives of the highest happiness. This is entirely due to the good graces of the Buddha” (pp. 2–3). Furthermore, he indicates that, “The Shogun honors the Gods and Buddhas providing funds and patronage for the restoration and reviving of the temples and shrines destroyed by long periods of war” (pp. 94–95). These quotations indicate that it was Buddhism which sustained the hearts of the people in the early period of the Tokugawa Era. Joshin lauds this, writing, “This very world is the realm of Buddha, the domain of Maitreya Bodhisattva.” His response to how this could be was to emphasize the merits of the Shogun himself, that he had deep faith in the Gods and Buddhas, that he lent his influence over the reconstruction of shrines and temples destroyed by war, and that he spared no economic aid by donating land to the same. He stressed the role of faith in the Gods and the Buddhas, who healed the spirit of the people, which had been devastated by the wars and disturbances, and served as the means by which peace, at long last reclaimed, was preserved.As the earliest record of its type during the Edo period this document is unique in providing insight into the customs and human sensibilities of the time. One might even say it is an influential source allowing a look into the worldly sensibilities of the same.

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There is a tendency in prior studies of the Tokugawa Era to consider Confucianism to be dominant. When the Keicho Kenmon Shu was written in the early period of the Tokugawa Era, however, Confucianism had yet to be formally established as the school of learning in the government schools. Individual accounts brought into sharp relief that the ancient, traditional religion of Shinto and Buddhism, which had been imported via the ancient Korean kingdom of Paekche,6 occupied the seat of religion and belief for all the classes of Japanese society. The following example extracted from the text verify the fact of how greatly the lives of the people of the time were sustained by Shinto, Confucian, and Buddhist doctrines. Categorizing the selected examples by faith a total of 34 present themselves: Buddhism 17, Confucianism 5, Shinto/Buddhism 4, Confucianism/Buhhdism 4, Shinto 1, Shinto/ Confucianism 1, and Shinto/Confucianism/ Buddhism 2. If one takes duplications into account the numbers are Buddhism 27, Confucianism 12, and Shinto 8, for a total of 47 examples. Proportionally this is 57% for Buddhism, 26% for Confucianism, and 17% for Shinto. As a distinctive characteristic of the early Edo period Confucianism had not yet been established as the recognized doctrine of the Bakufu, and this reflects the reality that the influence of Buddhism was great at the time. Additionally, when considering and analyzing the contents of these examples in relation to virtue the followings are singled out for special mention: goodness (zen) 11, honesty (shojiki) 6, mercy (jihi) 6, pity (aware) 5, righteousness (shoro) 4, work/karma (go) 4, the Four Beginnings (Mencius) (shitan) 3, Maitreya (Miroku) 3, desire (donyoku) 2, liberation (gedatsu) 2, truth/providence (tento) 2, benevolence (jin) 2, divine wind (kamikaze) 2, bright virtue (meitoku) 2, principle/truth (tenri) 2, compassion (sokuin) 2, secret charity (intoku) 2, knowing one’s limitations (chisoku) 2, and deference (jijo) 2. Relative to Buddhism six examples are directly related to the virtue of mercy. Relative to Confucianism benevolence (2), secret charity (2), and deferring to others (2) find special mention. Relative to Shinto honesty (6) is singled out. Shinto has no Scripture, and in the realm of virtues, one finds only honesty (shojiki) with its associated term purity of heart (kiyoki akaki kokoro/ seimeishin). Their meanings are, however, inseparable. At a time when the scars of war remained pronounced, despite the conclusion of the Battle of Sekigahara and the advent of peace, tranquility of spirit is primary, and one finds almost no reports related to commerce. Such tales are found only during the period when the merchants gathered in Edo began their activities and full-fledged economic activity ensured, which was in the middle of the seventeenth century. However, the virtues of honesty, mercy, benevolence, secret charity, compassion, and deference are already clearly showing themselves in the daily spiritual lives of the people in this early period of the era, and one can see that the elements forming the foundation of ethical behavior among the merchants, who, accumulating their forces, socially extend their influence, have already begun to develop. We now shall take passages from the Keicho Kenmon Shu touching upon virtue and belief and indicate by what ethical thought the samurai, farmers, craftsmen, and 6  Paekche (18 BC–660 AD) was a kingdom located in southwest Korea and was one of The Three Kindoms of Korea together with Goguryeo and Silla.

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merchants of the time lived their daily lives. As already noted, this was a period when peace had just arrived. Commercial activity was only in its incipient stage, and accounts limited especially to merchants are not to be found. Representative passages will serve to illustrate those cited. The passages will be divided according to belief. We will see that the distinctive characteristic of the faith of the Japanese is an overlapping of beliefs. In other words, belief is characterized by a certain multiplicity. Moreover, excepting Shinto, which is peculiar to Japan, both Confucianism and Buddhism were transplanted to Japan, after which they were transformed in a uniquely Japanese way being syncretized with Shinto. Today, for instance, marriages are generally performed according to Shinto and Christian rites, and funerals to Buddhist. In daily life as well, the phrase “Gods and Buddhas” (shinbutsu) has come into common parlance. Consequently, in addition to Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism we have established the phrases Shinto/Buddhism, Shinto/ Confucianism, Buddhism/Confucianism, and Shinto/Buddhism/Confucianism as criteria for classification. The virtues of honesty, mercy, secret charity, and deferring to others found in the Keicho Kenmon Shu are therefore seen as comprising a common ethical thought applicable to both Bushido and Shonindo. The following are passages classified by religious doctrine. Passage with Shinto origins. On the Divine Wind: The blessings of the Gods extend limitlessly, they are boundless, like the heavens (p. 134).

Passage with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On honesty: The honest man is as praiseworthy as a God or a Buddha (p. 36).

Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the two wheels of a cart: The Buddha preaches that one knows the past and the future by observing present errors. Therefore, past, present, and future are obvious. If you are presently poor, you will also be poor in the future. The laws of this world and the Law of the Buddha are equivalent to the two wheels of a cart. According to the laws of this world you cherish the body you have received from your parents and endeavor to live your lives joyfully. The Confucian writing called the Book on Filial Piety states that the first step of filial piety is to cherish your body and take care of your health (p. 226).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian origins. On a mirror and water reflecting the man: As does the mind of a sage, water accurately reflects things. Water conforms itself to the shape of a vessel; a man is gradually influenced by the good and evil of his friend. A bridge is built over water and people walk over it. This is the same as associating with a good friend and the showing forth of virtue. In this sense one can say that the Nihonbashi bridge in Edo is a symbol of right reason (tadashii dori). All things obey this principle (dori). It is by this principle that a perverse mind is rectified. A bridge is like a master who teaches the

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truth (dori). An old maxim has it that one makes a mirror of copper, fixes oneself up while looking into the mirror, and, like the mirror, makes of others material for reflection. All things are seen in their unobstructed splendor when reflected by the mind as in a mirror (pp. 101–102).

Passage with Buddhist origins. On mercy: The doctrine of mercy will effortlessly permeate the hearts of men when you conform yourself to the principle of Heaven (pp. 39–40).

Passages with Confucian origins. On secret charity: He who performs good deeds inconspicuously and secretly will assuredly be blessed with good things (p. 40).

On compassion/shame and hatred over evil/deference/right and wrong: Compassion is the mind that pities and mourns over others. Shame and hatred over evil is the mind regretful of one’s own evil and detesting of the evil of others. Deference is the mind declines honor and profit for oneself and concedes them to others. The discernment of right and wrong is to clearly distinguish between good and evil (pp. 99–100).

4.2.3  C  hoja Kyo (Teachings on Becoming Wealthy) (1627). In: Nakamura, Yukihiko (Ed.) (1975) Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 The pages of quotations in this book is its recording page. The meaning of the title Choja Kyo indicate it is a guide for becoming rich. The author of the work is unknown, but the book is a practical document of precepts aimed at merchants in the early Edo period. Yukihiko Nakamura states that it is a book advocating to the merchants of the time a doctrine where the accumulation of wealth is paramount (Nakamura 1975, pp. 438–439). One notes the mention of such virtues as honesty, prudence, and patience, but these are not necessary for making money and do not substitute for a mindset where the desire for money comes before all else. Even considering that the time is very early in the Edo period, the ethical thought of merchants of the time is feeble compared with the ethical perspectives seen later. As seen in the family precepts of Soshitsu Shimai,7 employees were treated like thieves, discrimination between master and employees was severe, and human warmth was in short order in merchant houses prior to the Edo period. One can in consequence consider that there remained in the early part of the Edo period the types of unethical elements seen in the Choja Kyo. No vestiges of any connection with belief are to 7  Shimai, Soshitsu (1539–1615) was a leading manufacturer of sake and a trader in Hakata (Fukuoka), Kyushu. He established a strong relationship with daimyo.

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be found. Concerning frugality (shimatsu) the author states that, “The future is promising for those who, through frugality, accumulate even small amounts of money over time and build up their profits” (pp. 9–10). It is useless to pray to the Gods and Buddhas, since, as it is, people are thieves and lack an ethical sense. Once again, one can consider that nascent ethical maxims and the sort of principles focused on making money noted in the Choja Kyo coexisted in the early part of the Edo period. The work is a book of precepts aimed at the common people. Let us, now, list examples and examine the ethical thought informing the daily lives of the merchants of the period. They are a mixture of old ideas and new ethical thought. The phrase “honest” occurs only three times, however the remaining are restricted to passages associated with Confucianism. The keywords are: frugal management (shimatsu) 3, prudence (funbetsu) 2, honesty (shojiki) 2, patient endurance (kannin) 1, discretion (yojin) 1, integrity (seijitsu) 1, regret (kokai) 1, haughtiness (manki) 1, forgiveness (yosha)1, virtuousness (utoku) 1, calculation (sanyo)1, and deliberation (shian) 2. The following is a list of representative examples. On frugality in management: Live a life one level below your status of living (p. 10). You can grow wealthy if, as you make your way, you put aside even small amounts of money little by little (p. 10).

On mistrust of others: Employees are thieves (p. 10).

On learning: Learn all that you can, but the knowledge of thieves is evil (p. 11).

On a hands-on approach to things: It is indispensable to see everything with your own eyes (p. 12).

On unbelief: No good fortune will come, even to those who pray to the Gods and the Buddhas (p. 12).

On the worship of money: Everyone wants money more than anything else (p. 16).

4.2.4  S  amukawa, Masachika (1673) Shison Kagami (Lessons for Offspring to Learn). In: Nakamura, Yukihiko (Ed.) (1975) Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 Nothing is known of the life of Masachika Samukawa. The contents of this work indicate that he was not a writer. The book was published nearly 50 years after the appearance of the Choja Kyo. It was published in 1673, during the time Takatoshi

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Mitsui, the founder of the Mitsui family’s conglomerate, opened his Echigoya dry-­ goods stores in Kyoto and Edo. One after another, merchants from Ise, Odawara, and Mikawa established their Edo shops. Thus, began mercantile activity in Edo. The scope of this activity expanded rapidly, and Confucian virtues made their appearance in the Shison Kagami. Buddhism was highly influential in the early Edo period, and Confucianism had yet to become the official learning of the Bakufu, for which reasons virtue was fundamental, but it was on a naïve level. Confucianism influence was great by the latter half of the seventeenth century, however, and virtue also had expanded. The Buddhist monk Seika  Fujiwara exchanged his Buddhist robes for those of a Confucian scholar, and the focus in government schools became the study of the Four Books and Five Classics that formed the basis of Confucianism. It was a matter of course that the Confucian Five Relationships and Five Cardinal Virtues could not but become the standard of behavior. It goes without saying, however, that the Shinto virtues of honesty and simplicity, and the Buddhist virtues of mercy and prudence were not overlooked. The three great religious traditions of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism were syncretized, forming the basis of ethical thought. Yukihiko Nakamura is of the view that Masachika Samukawa was a samurai, but appeared to be without a master, a ronin (Nakamura 1975, p. 425). Nothing is known of his life (ibid. p. 410). Nakamura writes, “The basis of the theory … focusing on Song-period NeoConfucianism, primarily the Neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi, excludes Shinto and Buddhism. On the basis that Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism were conformable with one another … he expresses a theory meant to improve upon his affirmation of the social structure of the time, organized into social classes as Japan enjoyed a state of tranquility…. Those in the superior class must be honest, merciful, and unselfish. Granted there are social classes, he desires that the blessings of a good government impartially extend to each accordingly. Those in the inferior classes must be honest and endure patiently … There are many who argue with the samurai … The content of this thought can directly apply as well to the other three classes, the farmers, the craftsmen, and the merchants” (pp. 425–426). Categorizing the selected examples by faith a total of 51 present themselves: Confucianism 28, Buddhism 13, Shinto/Buddhism 1, Confucianism/ Buddhism 3, Shinto 3, Shinto/ Confucianism 3. Correcting for duplications the total is 58: Confucianism 34, Buddhism 17, and Shinto 7. Proportionally, the results are 59% for Confucianism, 29% for Buddhism, and 12% for Shinto. Either way, the examples of Confucian teachings have increased, surpassing the Buddhist. The book was published in 1673, 59 years after the publication of the Keicho Kenmon Shu in 1614. By this time—as one may surmise—the political situation has stabilized, the Bakufu has adopted Confucianism as the teaching in its school, and Confucian doctrines have become common. A look at the keywords reveals many connections with Confucianism: Loyalty (chu) (8), faithfulness/integrity (shin) (7), propriety (rei) 6, justice (gi) 4, filial piety (ko) 3, benevolence (jin) 2, karmic justice (inga) 4, tenderness/kindness (nasake) 2, mercy (jihi) 1, and honesty (shojiki) 5.

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The following are passages classified by religious doctrine: Passages with Confucian origins. On the righteousness of master and servant: Render exhaustive loyalty to your master. The master is the head, the servants are his limbs. A master is decent to his servants, servants are loyal to their master (p. 24).

On filial piety: Honor your parents, exhaustively render them filial piety. It is said, ‘Filial piety is the source of all one’s deeds.’ He who exhaustively renders his parent filial piety will be ever loyal to his master (p. 24).

On associating with others: Be faithful in associating with friends. Should any disaster befall your neighborhood be quietly discreet in attending to others (p. 27).

On sincerity: Excessive speech is the root of being disliked. Be unaffected in responding to matters you know about, and simply state you do not know when you do not know. It is better to be honest and sincere in speaking with others (p. 31).

On the primacy of action: Think thoroughly about a matter, and when you make your decision, immediately put it into action, regardless of the circumstances (p. 42).

On rules for merchants: Even when deferential in speech the merchant succeeds in making profits. Regardless of the number sales he has made, his gains will be great if the seller assumes a humble attitude and is courteous in his dealings … Consider various strategies for making a profit. To avoid losing a large sale do not, in any given situation, be obstinately persistent over small amounts of money. It is no small matter to be routinely thoughtful in your transactions (p. 64).

Passages with Buddhist origins. On poverty and wealth as the fruits of past karma: Poverty and wealth are the fruits of your past karma. Flatter nobody, even if you are poor, and should you become wealthy, do not put on airs and indulge in luxury. In this world the rich deride the poor, and those in want are envious of those with wealth, maliciously gossiping about one thing or another (p. 35).

On mercy: Good or evil, family or stranger, bear no ill towards anybody (p. 37). Speak well of the good deeds of others, even if they are not entirely praiseworthy, but be lenient of their misdeeds, even if they are fully blameworthy (p. 37).

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On tender kindness: A man should consider the welfare of all things. Such things as carefully bending and pruning the branches of a healthy tree and treating animals with kindness are great enterprises. Of great weight is to avoid even the semblance of harming anybody, and to act with the warrant of a good conscience (pp. 70–71).

Passages with Shinto origins. On honesty: Act honestly, having faith in the Gods and the Buddhas (p. 23). Excessive speech is the root of being disliked. Be unaffected in responding to matters you know about, and simply state you do not know when you do not know. It is better to be honest and sincere in speaking with others (p. 31). Do not purchase ill-gotten goods (p. 77).

4.2.5  K  anemochi Choho Ki (On the Family Treasure) (1694). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keiazi Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 1 The Sanseido dictionary Daijirin notes that the Kanemochi Choho Ki is an Edo period book for beginners in which were gathered the types of knowledge related to such daily matters as etiquette, household affairs, and household remedies. The book was published under the titles Kingin Banno Gan in 1687, Jinkyo Ron in 1690, and Kanemochi Choho Ki in 1694. In his comments Takimoto writes of the work that, “It is an unparalleled work on human affairs, a practical book for the commoner written to change people’s hearts and minds and guide them along right paths through sincerity towards the Gods” (Commentary, Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 1). Categorizing the following examples by faith a total of 11 present themselves: Shinto/Confucianism/ Buddhism 4, Shinto/Confucianism 4, Shinto 2, and Confucianism 1. Correcting for duplications the total is 23: Shinto 10, Confucianism 9, and Buddhism 4. Proportionally, the results are 43% for Shinto, 39% for Confucianism, and 18% for Buddhism. The percentages for Shinto have increased, while those for Buddhism have decreased. Confucianism follows upon Shinto, but rather than speak of Confucianism itself we are dealing with a synthesis of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism. The question is why. Shinto is one of the three religious traditions, but it has special characteristics not seen in the others. Confucianism has Confucius as its founder, Buddhism has the Buddha, but Shinto has no one. Concerning sacred writings, Confucianism has its Four Books and Five Classics, and Buddhism has its sutras, but Shinto has none. Shinto is the ancient religious tradition in Japan, but Confucianism and Buddhism are imported traditions. Believers also do not greatly distinguish between Confucianism and Buddhism, and in this sense, one can say that all Japanese are believers. Honesty and purity of heart

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are fundamental virtues for Shinto. Shinto here makes its appearance in cleansing the human heart tainted by money. In this sense the examples associated with Shinto are naturally many. There are 14 examples of the virtue of sincerity, for instance, found in the moral language of the period under consideration. In other words, the virtue of sincerity (makoto) is allied with truth (shinjitsu), which is allied with a lack of deceit (itsuwari ga nai), which in turn is allied with honesty (shojiki). The keywords in this book are fully represented by the 14 examples of sincerity. The following are passages classified by religious doctrine: Passages with Shinto origins. On honesty/sincerity: Those who born in the land of the Gods, yet remain ignorant of their sincerity and honesty, are not human. In all affairs the Gods are consistently and unchangingly sincere and honest (p. 13). One can distinctly know the fundamental origins of things if they observe them with clarity and impartiality. Thus, it is that Shinto is founded on sincerity and honesty. Sincerity is nothing that can be studied and acquired. Just as parents naturally raise their children, so is sincerity nothing one learns from others. Whether rich or poor, if they raise their children with sincerity, then, without saying a word, the children will overcome all obstacles and mature quickly (p. 15).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the sincerity of friends: If everyone would but keep the teachings of the Gods, then they may believe what they prefer in Confucianism and Buddhism. This indeed is like mingling with friends (pp. 14–15).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian origins. On money, sincerity, and friendship: All will turn out well for those who make of sincerity parent (oya) and child (ko). Facilitators in today’s world are dealers of monetary sources (kinsen) and make interest from the money, for which reason true friends are disappearing. Long for a world where true friends can be acquired (p. 40).

4.2.6  Chronological Analysis of the Seventeenth Century 4.2.6.1  Analysis by Religious Doctrines To assess the influence of belief on ethical thought we have calculated the ratio of belief for each historical source and checked it in chronological order. Excepting the Choja Kyo, in which the influence of belief is difficult to determine, the following Table 4.1 summarize the number of ethical passages appearing in three sections of materials. The following can be read from the materials. First, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, the period in which the Tokugawa Bakufu was established,

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Table 4.1  Component ratio by religious doctrines in the seventeenth century Title Keicho Kenmon Shu (1614) Shison Kagami (1673) Kanemochi Choho Ki (1694) Period in general

Shinto 8 (17%) 7 (12%) 10 (43%) 25 (20%)

Confucianism 12 (26%) 34 (59%) 9 (39%) 55 (43%)

Buddhism 27 (57%) 17 (29%) 4 (18%) 48 (37%)

Total 47 (100%) 58 (100%) 23 (100%) 128 (100%)

The Choja Kyo is excluded. Refer to 4.2.3.

the influence of Confucianism was minor while that of Buddhism was great. Buddhism by this time was not the unadulterated Buddhism introduced from Korea and China, but an evolved, Japanese-type of Buddhism resulting from the earlier, imported Buddhism syncretically fused with Japan’s ancient religious tradition of Shinto. Second, the Shison Kagami was published in 1673, the same year that Takatoshi Mitsui, the founder of the Mitsui Family, opened his dry-goods stores in Edo and Kyoto. Confucian influence increased during this time-period, superseding that of Buddhism. Third, by the time the Kanemochi Choho Ki appeared Buddhist influence had increasingly declined. In contrast to Confucianism the great influence of Shinto was something of an anomaly. The origins of this increase are not particularly clear. Even Razan Hayashi8 the Confucian scholar attached to the Bakufu, had at length advanced the doctrine that Shinto and Confucianism were identical (Watanabe 1961, p. 19). One can justifiably say that the large percentage of Shinto influences in the Kanemochi Choho Ki are reasonable. Finally, one can observe that the influence of Buddhism during this period consequently declined, while that of Confucianism rose. The first Shogun of the Edo Bakufu, Ieyasu Tokugawa, aspiring to implement a civil form of government, granted an audience to the Confucian scholar, Seika  Fujiwara,9 in 1593, and in 1605 employed his disciple, Razan Hayashi, as an advisor. One may thereby understand that the Tokugawa family was already fervently inclined towards Confucianism (Watanabe 1961, p.  13). Confucianism will subsequently grow to become the educative and scholarly doctrine of the Bakufu through these two scholars, especially through the assertive activity of Razan Hayashi. 4.2.6.2  Analysis by Keyword By extracting and comparing the keywords that take precedence in each historical document we see that the Buddhist-related word “mercy” does so in the early period, but Confucian-related keywords do so in the latter period. The Buddhist-related term “mercy,” however, occupies the highest position throughout the seventeenth century. Consequently, it can be inferred that the belief of the merchant was not 8  Hayashi, Razan (1583–1657) was a disciple of Seika Fujiwara. Ieyasu Tokugawa appointed him an adviser to the bakufu. 9  Fujiwara, Seika (1561–1619) was a pioneer of Cofucianism in early modern Japan.

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Table 4.2  Main virtues seen in the seventeenth century documents Keicho Kenmon Shu (1614) Shison Kagami (1673) Kanemochi Chojo Ki (1694) Period in general

Goodness 11, Pity/Mercy 11, Honesty/Righteousness 10 Loyalty 8, Faithfulness 7, Propriety 6, Honesty 5 Sincerity 14 Honesty/Righteousness 15, Sincerity 14, Goodness 11, Pity/Mercy 11, Loyalty 8, Faithfulness 7, Propriety 6

something simple, but a complex reality in which the Shinto virtues of honesty and uprightness, the Confucian virtue of sincerity, and the Buddhist virtues of the Buddha’s mercy and pity coexisted impartially, that is, indiscriminately (Table 4.2).

4.3  T  he Middle Edo Period: Shonindo in the Eighteenth Century 4.3.1  The Eighteenth Century Strictly speaking, the samurai class were anxious about economic life in the closing years of the latter half of the seventeenth century, particularly from the Genroku era (1688–1704) onwards. On the other hand, this was the period when the townspeople, especially the merchant class, embarked upon their economic dominance (Nakamura 1942, pp.  1–2, 174–188). To grasp the changes in economic thought Eijiro Honjo divides the Tokugawa era into four periods, the first comprising the founding of the Tokugawa Bakufu (1603) through the time just prior to the Genroku era (1687), the middle period from the Genroku era (1688) through the close of the Horeki era (1763), the latter period from the first year of the Meiwa era (1764) to the sixth year of the Kaei era (1853), when the American naval squadron entered Edo Bay at Uraga, and the final years from 1853 to the collapse of the Tokugawa Bakufu in 1868 (Honjo 1942, pp. 17–26). The literature examined in this study corresponds to the period covering Honjo’s closing years of the early period to the end of the eighteenth century, that is, to nearly the first half of the latter period. The era can be conceived as marking the destitution of the samurai and the height of prosperity for the common class (Honjo 1942, pp. 18–20). It is an era when the samurai raised accusing voices against the common people, as seen in Sorai Ogyu’s Seidan and Inshi Buyo’s Seji Kenbun Roku mentioned above. It was during this period that Kunpei Gamo10 wrote, “All the daimyo of the realm shudder when rich merchants in Osaka are angered” (Watsuji 1952, Vol. 2, p.  588). As a matter of course, the  Gamo, Kunpei (1768–1813) was a Confucian. He wrote the Sanryo Shi (History of the Mausoleums of the Japanese Imperial family) in 1891.

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management styles of the merchant houses matured, and the numbers of employees grew with increases in sales and the expansion of enterprises. There arose the publication of works touching upon business management such as devising improved sales methods, services for regular patrons, the treatment of employees, and the comportment of store owners. This marked a major difference with the seventeenth century. Laid were the foundations of business and management practices that were to become the basis of Japanese-style management.

4.3.2  K  aibara, Ekiken (1712) Kadōkun (Teachings for the Prosperity of the Family). In: Nihon Kyoiku Bunko, Vol. 3 (1911) The author, Ekiken Kaibara, was a samurai. It is therefore questionable whether, in contrast with documents written by commoners, but Kaibara’s words and conduct in this work are useful in illuminating the ethics of the townspeople. One may, however, consider that the many matters Kaibara elucidates in his teachings here are not restricted to the samurai, but apparently also apply to the farmers, craftsmen, and merchants, and that it is first mentioned as the leading document among the books on commerce written in the eighteenth century. Three points are noted after reviewing the entire work (Dobunkan 1911). First, there are no works related to Buddhism, the author’s extremely broad erudition notwithstanding. Most characteristic of Kaibara is that he held no interest in Buddhism, that the background of his thought was the neo-Confucianism transmitted from China. Second, if one examines an analytical table of the 99 works he authored over the course of his life (See: Ishikawa (1938) Yamato Zokkun, Commentary, p. 10) the breakdown is: Confucianism 21, History 17, Literature 11, Education/Morals 17, Geography 20, Medicine 4, all others 9. As is expected, no books related to Buddhism are to be found. He wrote most of these works past the age of 46 and, remarkably, 20 after his 76th year. In contrast, he wrote only nine prior to the age of 45. He wrote the Kadōkun when he was 82. The most noted among his books is the Yojo Kun, a work of his 84th year, the year before his death. He lived into his 80s during an era when, unlike today, life expectancy was short. The robustness of his mental activity, indicating no waning of his intellect, let alone his body, was remarkable. Third, the precepts of morality are not simply abstract spiritual realities, but concrete, as well. There are numerous instances where the mental attitude of an on-site supervisor contains an unspeakable psychological depth that defies description for those lacking work experience. The Kadōkun is one of the Kaibara’s didactic works included in what is commonly called the Ekiken Jukkun,11 Ekiken’s ten books of moral precepts. To date, the contents of these ten have attracted little attention, and few studies containing  Ekiken Kaibara wrote 10 teaching books called the “Ten Kun” (Ten teachings) series including such as Kadōkun, Yojyo Kun, etc. He passed away at the age of 84 years merely two years after Kadōkun was published.

11

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Kadōkun in the title are found when one carries out a literature search. We were able to locate two papers citing theories of family living, but these citations were partial and did not cover the whole subject. Of academic studies we found only one, Toshio Yokoyama (1993) Ekiken Kaibara: Kadōkun Ko (On Ekiken Kiabara’s Kado Kun). Yokoyama observes that Kaibara’s work is based on his personal experience. It is not theory worked out on paper, but theory grounded in experience. One can rightly say this is a book suited to Ekiken, an 82-year-old man rich in life experience and exhibiting no diminishment in his intellectual faculties. The book comprises six volumes. Volumes 1 through 3 have no subtitles, but Volume 4, Volume 5, and Volume 6 each have the subtitle “goods for the use of” (yozai) at the beginning. The contents are not necessarily ordered, but the same expressions are used throughout. A phrase considered to suggest an ethical act based on a virtue is extracted, then an associated phrase is obtained based on the virtue and vocabulary corresponding thereto. The virtues are limited to Confucianism, because Kaibara was a Confucian scholar. When one arranges the number of occurrences of a virtue in order the one far outstripping the others is frugality, which occurs 32 times. This certainly suggests how important frugality was for Kaibara the samurai. The frequent occurrences of frugality demonstrate just how important economizing on expenses served to maintain household finances for the samurai of the Edo period, whose wages were determined by provisions of rice. Classifying the virtues by religious doctrine we find Confucian virtues mentioned 98 times, and Shinto/ Confucian virtues mentioned once, totaling 99 occurrences with the Confucian being decisively robust. When accounting for duplication the total is 100 occurrences, with Confucian virtues mentioned 99 times and Shinto once. Proportionally the results are 99% for Confucianism and 1% for Shinto. Classifying by keyword the instances are frugality 32, propriety 20, benevolence 13, faithfulness 10, Heaven 10, family business 9, justice 8, social standing 7, the Gods and Buddhas 7, lack of virtue (futoku) 6, favor (on) 5, stinginess (rinshoku) 5, benefaction 5, diligence and thrift (kinken) 4, wisdom 3, sincerity 2, and self-restraint (kinshin) 2. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On frugality: The samurai, the farmer, the craftsman, and the merchant must exert every effort in their respective occupations, perform their duties with simplicity and frugality, and be zealous in their family trade. Diligence and frugality are of primary importance for a family business (p. 413).

On propriety: Correct your behavior – propriety is no small matter in carrying out your duties in the family business. Propriety is foundation of personal conduct. To humbly rectify one’s mind and body is propriety (p. 409).

On benevolence: To preserve your fortune and ensure the long prosperity of your children, pity others with sympathetic understanding, enjoy blessings and good things, and teach your children to do what is good (p. 446).

4.3  The Middle Edo Period: Shonindo in the Eighteenth Century

On faithfulness: Even should he be a samurai, a man’s words and deeds are untrustworthy when he lacks loyalty and fidelity. All the more will you rue the day if, out of negligence, you trust one who does evil and lacks fidelity as the common run of people do, who breaks his word and leaves you deceived (p. 471).

On heaven: To those who are rich and affluent has Heaven bestowed their wealth, so that they may help others; for their wealth is not for their personal use (pp. 450–451).

On the family business: First, be zealous in your work, and on that basis carry on your life. Second, be frugal to cover your expenses. Third, live simply. Fourth, be considerate to strangers and love others (p. 417).

On justice: The rise and fall of a family: Prosperity if the family code is just, ruin if outmoded. A family’s rise and fall are determined by whether or not it has fulfilled the requirements of propriety (p. 428).

On social standing (bugen): One should eliminate wasteful spending, shun extravagance, and act on consideration of one’s means (p. 458).

On goodness: If you desire that your children prosper, then act in all sincerity, be merciful to others, let your happiness lie in always doing good, and instill goodness in them. Such devotion will yield a hundredfold compared with large expenditures of money in obsequious supplications to the Gods and Buddhas (p. 446).

On lack of virtue: Wanting in propriety by niggardliness with one’s resources, withholding benefactions and charity, these are ignoble. They are marks not of frugality, but of miserliness. They are the deeds of the unvirtuous (p. 459).

On favor: Commoners and the lowborn easily forget favors received, therefore it is useless to reproach them. Simply understand they are this way and waste no time on resentment and reproaches (p. 446).

On stinginess (rinshoku): Stinginess is a certain regret and reluctance, to be unwilling to give something to those to whom it is better to give, to not use what should be used. This is nothing good (p. 467).

On benefaction: Be always benevolent towards others, bless those suffering in poverty with what they need, rescue the starving from their hunger, delight in doing good. This is to accord with the will of Heaven (pp. 450–451).

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On wisdom: The founder of the family must certainly have possessed surpassing wisdom. Had he not, no family business would be possible (p. 432).

On sincerity: Those who are well-off express their sincerity with gifts. This is an ancient custom, the foundation of propriety (p. 472).

On self-restraint: He can overcome poverty who is zealous in his work and can avoid misfortune who is discreet in his actions … He who is zealous in the family trade will undoubtedly become wealthy. If he conducts himself prudently he will surely escape misfortune. ‘Diligent discretion,’ remember these two words (pp. 420–421).

4.3.3  E  jima, Kiseki (1712) Tosei Shogun Dan (On Daily Business). In: Takimoto Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keiazi Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 3 This book describes events in the commercial worlds of Kyoto and Osaka. The contents are not necessarily novel, but they cover the inner workings of various merchant businesses, relations between masters and employees, rises and declines in profits, and the humanity associated with righteousness and unrighteousness. The author, Kiseki Ejima, born in Kyoto in 1666 and commonly called Ichirozaemon, was the fourth-generation proprietor of the Daibutsu Mochiya, a rice cakeshop in the vicinity of the Seigan-ji Temple located in the Kyogoku district of Kyoto. Rice cakes are a noted Kyoto speciality, and the family over time amassed a large fortune at its well-established shop. Ejima discontinued the business, moved his residence to the Otabi-machi area along Kyoto’s Shijo thoroughfare, and there squandered the family fortune in a life of indulgence. He was blessed with a talent for writing, however, and was skillful in discerning people’s character. With his able brush, he wrote of the affairs of his world and published books that were easy to read by the general public. Initially, he did not sign his own name to these works, but, when associated with the Hachimonjiya Bookshop, published them under the pen name of Jisho. Later he would publish under the name Ejimaya, but this business did poorly and eventually failed. Kiseki died at the age of 70 in 1736. Classifying matters according to religious affiliation we find 8 for Confucianism, 5  for Shinto/Buddhism, and  1  for Shinto/Confucianism/Buddhism, totaling 14 examples. Accounting for duplication the total is 21, with 9 for Confucianism, 6 for Shinto, and 6 for Buddhism. When classifying by keyword the instances are: white rat (a symbol of fortune) 6, Daikoku (the God of Wealth) 3, thrift 3, luck 3, abacus 2, the way of commerce (akinai no michi) 2, wisdom and resourcefulness (chie saikaku) 1, early rising 1, calculation 1, prudence 1, integrity 1, and truth/providence 1. When examining the examples, there is an increase in cases where a business

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expands, the proprietor entrusts the running of the shop in Edo to his clerks and lives in Kyoto or Osaka. The prosperity of the business in these cases depends upon the head clerk and the other help. One could say, then, that the great numbers of description of clerks are partial proof thereof. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On second generation wealth: It was said of old that a father always toiled splitting firewood, but his son could not carry it as it was heavy. Observing the wealthy families in society he noted few instances where their wealth persisted through the generations. From the days of his youth the father toiled by the sweat of his brow. He would arise early in the morning, arrange his greying hair, slip into his straw sandals, and travel the pebble-paved roads. Nights he would make rope from old straw and sell it to variety store merchants. Throughout the year he could barely catch his breath, ceaselessly working. He now lives in a grand house in Choja-machi (p. 29). Unlike the father, the son is very poor at business and hasn’t the slightest interest in making money. His mother advised him that he is ill-suited for a merchant, reluctantly weighing out 4 ounces of some material, somehow remembering the amount, and managing one way or another to calculate on the ‘tens’ column of an abacus. But this hardly translates into being a merchant. This will not persist for two generations, and the business will not flourish, and what is more, he has no servant able to work for him (pp. 29–30).

On the happiness of a merchant: Regarding the happiness of a merchant, many become wealthy on the hard work of their servants. Generally, the servant adept at making money conducts business by calculating profits and making good use of the money. On the other hand, one who is earnest, but a miser, is unskilled at making a profit, because he will not employ the expenses he ought (p. 66).

On the merchant and luck: Whatever the undertaking, however rich in wisdom and resourcefulness, success is challenging without luck. The man favored with luck can acquire great wealth the more he exerts himself (p. 114).

Passages with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the servant and the white rat: The servant determines whether the master will be wealthy or poor (p. 2). The servant who values his master and fulfills heavy responsibilities for him is called a white rat (p. 6).12

Passages with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins.

 In the colloquial environment of the times, a person who is good-natured and loyal was compared to a white rat, while one evil-natured one was referred to as a black rat.

12

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On thrift: The diligent man who highly values his money, wastes not one penny of it, strives ever to be thrifty and has his abacus always at hand, he will become wealthy (p. 47).

4.3.4  N  ishikawa, Joken (1719) Chonin Bukuro (An Essay on Merchants). Iijima, Tadao and Nishikawa, Tadayuki (Ed.) (1942); Nakamura, Yukihiko (Ed.) (1975) Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 Joken Nishikawa (1648–1724) was a trader in Nagasaki. A student of Confucianism and well-versed in astromony, his book the Chonin Bukuro is a rational work, and its contents are thoroughly Confucian and entirely clear of superstition and irrational customs (Nakamura 1975, pp. 426–427). Joken may have been a merchant, but his scholarship was broad and he wrote 20 known works (Iijima and Nishikawa 1942, pp. 3–6). Nakamura relates that the special characteristic of the book is its random, even disorganized, essays (Nakamura  1975, p.  427). As previously observed, even in the Confucian scholar Ekiken Kaibara’s Kadōkun there is much duplication of content. One can appreciate, when reading a casually-reasoned work of moral precepts, that it has content that is sufficiently worth reading even if repetitious—particularly when it is the writing of a merchant. Classifying select passages and choosing frequently occurring terms in each religious tradition, those so classified total 14 for Confucianism, 1 for Shinto/Buddhism, and 1 for Buddhism, totaling 16. Passages related to Confucianism dominate considerably. Accounting for duplication, the total is 17, with 14 for Confucianism, 2 for Buddhism, and one for Shinto. The frequency with which keywords appear is, goodness 11, simplicity/ unsophisticatedness 9, modesty (ken) 8, the shogunate government (kogi) 6, frugality 5, social standing 5, honesty 5, conceit 5, deity 5, assiduity (shojin) 5, filial piety 4, propriety 4, wisdom 4, sincerity 3, partiality (ekohiiki) 3, stinginess 2, courage (yu) 2, prudence 2, extravagance (ogori) 2, and mercy 1. One may observe that, on the face of it, ideologically the influence of Confucianism is decisively great in contrast with Buddhism. We may speculate that by this time relations by the merchant class with the government authorities have thickened. The followings are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On townspeople: Craftsmen and merchants are collectively called townspeople. The townspeople are said to be lower in status than farmers, but unawares they seem to have risen above the farmers. They manage society’s monies—treasures of gold and silver becoming their fortunes—and they have acquired access to those in high society. What is more, over the past nearly 100 years our nation has been at peace, and from among the townspeople there have arisen Confucian scholars, physicians, writers of verse, practitioners of the Way of Tea … The townspeople comprise the lowest of the four classes, yet many of them associate with their

4.3  The Middle Edo Period: Shonindo in the Eighteenth Century superiors. Happy are those born in a time such as this! They occupy the inferior position, but respect their superiors and, without envying them, labor simply and frugally. They know their place and enjoy the life they were born into, for which reason they will enjoy happiness all their lives (pp. 87–88).

On modesty as the way of the merchant: The merchant should ever observe the simple word ‘modesty.’ Modesty is not merely extending every courtesy to others, but to restrain oneself out of reverence for the rule of Heaven (p. 88).

On the true merchant: He is a true merchant who calculates the quantity and value of goods, considers gains and losses without making undue profits, replaces goods in his possession with those he lacks, trades the product of his own province for those of others, and is useful to the nation by putting its economic goods into motion (p. 89).

On the merits of one’s virtue: To do good for your children is not the work of one day. Good works, however small, will accumulate over time and result in marvelous blessings for you and your children (p. 91).

On simplicity: Though occupying an inferior position, if you live according to your station in life without defying those above you and envying the power of others, then, preserving simplicity and frugality you will establish yourself in the life into which you were born and enjoy happiness all your life (pp. 87–88).

On the Shogunate government: In this era of samurai governance, the actions of the Shogun influence the public and are called public affairs. The Shogun governs as the agent of the Emperor (p. 138).

On frugality: Wasting even one grain of rice or one sheet of paper is indistinguishable from wasting the goods of this world. He who maintains this attitude can be said to possess the frugal spirit of a wise man (p. 99).

On filial piety: Living extravagantly and losing one’s fortune does harm to the kindness of your father. This is the height of filial impiety (p. 92).

On partiality: It is a great mistake to think you are helping those who are in error. Partiality is to help an honest man and leave a man of bad character to his fate to avoid mistakenly forsaking a just man (pp. 118–119).

On extravagance: Merchants often repeat the maxim, ‘The extravagant man will not be so for long. To be extravagant does not simply mean to lose one treasure. Extravagance also means doing what it is not fitting for a merchant to do (p. 90).

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On diligence: The merchant must work hard in variously ways as he seeks to acquire goods, he must be diligent like an ant to provide for his family, and vigilantly protect his home (p. 136).

On there being no good fortune with no basis for it: Whatever your aspirations, you must first rectify your actions and heart, then wait for the results. The merchant is mistaken in his desire for good fortune if he expects good results without first preparing for them (p. 102).

On secret charity: Good deeds done secretly are exceedingly important for those aspiring to knowledge, but to do them is by no means easy. He who upon finding a large sum of money seeks for and returns it to the owner is honorable, akin to a god. Whether poor or rich, rare is the man in this world who, finding a large sum of money, would restore it to the owner (p. 142)13.

On living according to one’s means: It is no small matter for a merchant to limit his spending according to his income. With such an attitude avarice will have no place in him (p. 109).

Passages with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On honesty and profiting others: The true merchant works with the aim of being useful for the nation. He is not usurious upon consideration of profit and loss, and he moves goods, transporting them to places lacking them, exchanging products from his home province for those from others. He who makes great profits by cheating others is like a floating cloud and cannot hold onto them for long. He who makes money through deceptive commerce will surely suffer punishment from the Gods (pp. 88–89).

Passages with Buddhist origins. On the future of one who is merciful and honest: A certain merchant asked a Buddhist priest, ‘What rebirth awaits me when I die?’ The priest replied, ‘Your understanding of Buddhism is not that of a scholar, but you are merciful and honest. Surely you will be reborn a very wealthy man or into a samurai family.’ Hearing this the merchant said, ‘How cruel, your words! In my current situation my family and relatives are many, and their various problems are numerous. My head hurts when I think of my children. Should I become even wealthier than now my labors would only endlessly increase. Now, even should I be reborn a samurai, still, I would be consumed with worries over serving my master. Living the life of a merchant is certainly more enjoyable than any pleasures concerning public recognitions of honor and wealth and putting on airs’ (p. 115).

 Happily, present-day Japan is famous for the naturalness with which lost items, including cash, are almost without exception immediately returned to their owner if at all possible.

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4.3.5  M  itsui, Takafusa (1722–1733) Chonin Koken Roku (The Failures of Merchants). In: Nakamura, Yukihiko (Ed.) (1975) Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 According to Takaharu Mitsui (1900–1983), a descendent of the Mitsui family, Takafusa Mitsui did not write the Chonin Koken Roku, rather, on the advice of Sosuke Nakanishi, a head clerk, Takafusa compiled true stories he heard from his father, Takahira Mitsui, concerning the failures of other merchants.14 In the book’s postscript Takafusa recorded as the words of Sosuke Nakanishi, “By the favor of my ancestor the family is of one mind, we work zealously in peace and there are no problems with the business. The success or failure of the business depends on the work ethic of the master of the house. This work, therefore, is a collection of the stories I heard from my father about the failures of merchants of old. It is a work for the members of the family to read” (Nakamura 1975, pp. 232–233). Takafusa gives the following explanation of the book’s contents in the preface. The fathers of those who inaugurated the businesses of the townspeople in Kyoto, Edo, and Osaka came from the countryside, worked in the shops of others, kept them, and gradually became successful in life. They had no eye for anything but their businesses and labored much, building up their wealth. In due time their children, who were brought up observing their parent’s hard work, would succeed them and preserve the businesses for the next generation. The times were different for the grandchildren, however. They knew only affluence from the day of their birth and understood nothing of hardship. They entrusted the running of the business to the clerks and, before they knew it, increases in compensation ensued and they ran into debt. As a result, they could no longer live off the interest of the business and lost their shops. I have seen noted families in Kyoto go bankrupt after two or three generations. Farmers and craftsmen meet with difficulty if they slack off for even one day. Merchants, on the other hand, can entrust their affairs to their clerks. The proprietors, however, grow alienated from their affairs as one generation succeed another, and in the end, they go bankrupt. Observing these examples of past failures, I write down for cautionary purposes what I have seen and heard of the rise and fall of Kyoto merchants (pp. 176–177).

The book, throughout its pages and in its postscript, takes up cases of failure in Kyoto. It chronicles the failures of merchants in Edo, Nagasaki, and Osaka. Its contents treat such examples as Tatsugoro Yodoya in Osaka and Rokubei Ishikawa in Edo, and one would be justified in saying that they symbolize the antipathy of the samurai, who detested the luxury of the townspeople. The bases for this antipathy are two. The first case illustrates negligence in a family business. Here the proprietor will not entrust the running of the family shop to the head clerk, yet spends money on extravagances and pleasures, leading to having insufficient capital for the core business and going into debt. This in turn leads to swelling interest payments, let alone falling behind in repaying the debt, and insolvency.

14

 Cf. Takaharu Mitsui (1941) Chonin Shiso to Chonin Koken Roku.Tokyo: NHK.

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The second case concerns making loans to daimyo. Funds for necessary investments naturally include load repayments and interest payments. In the case of many daimyo, however, these were funds to cover deficits for which there was no hope of repayment. Unable to be repaid, the lender would become insolvent. This was no business failure. One might rather call it a nonoperating loss based on government connections. Ironically, the Hosokawa House of Kumamoto, which at one time had bilked its lenders, to this day remains successful. The second instance of failure, therefore, is above all else summed up in not lending to the daimyo, else there is no way out of the situation. The rest of the book touches upon the following practical points. It precludes any preoccupation with matters of belief. Business is primary. It sternly cautions against still lacking money when, upon making one’s calculations, the accounts tally. That there are no deposits to be made when cash advances only extend the repayment period at each deadline, and when there is no return on principle because one has only paid the interest associated with one’s cashflow. These are the causes of bad debt. Classifying examples according to religious doctrine we find 8 for Confucianism, 2  for Buddhism, 1  for Confucianism/Buddhism, and 1 for Shinto/Confucianism/ Buddhism, for a total of 12. Accounting for duplication the total is 15, with 10 for Confucianism, 4 for Buddhism, and one for Shinto. When classifying by keyword the instances are, one’s trade (kashoku) 4, the family business 4, military rule 4, benevolent justice 3, inheritance 3, expenses 3, calculations 3, righteous government 3, entrusting the running of a shop to one’s clerk(s) 2, success in life 2, third generation 2, hardships 2, invisible aid of the Buddha 2, promissory notes 1, funds 1, debt 1, and the punishment of Heaven 1. Passages with Confucian origins. On one’s trade: Farmers and craftsmen risk losing their livelihood at once if, even for a day, they neglect the precepts of their ancestors handed down to their families through the generations. Therefore, they endeavor to work most assiduously, ever observing these teachings (p. 177).

On making one’s calculations: Pay your suppliers with cash and receive them with promissory notes. Thus, you will be short of cash even when your calculations tally. There is the saying, ‘Calculations tally, yet money is short.’ You risk insolvency when you borrow money to make up for cash shortages (p. 196).

On doing business: It is the nature of business to open and close like an umbrella. Even a business that has expanded in good times will scale back when hard times come, lest it fail (p. 203).

On the efforts of a proprietor: The prosperity or ruin of a merchant house is determined by the efforts of its master (p. 232).

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On diligent effort: However surpassing, if you do not persevere in your efforts you will not be sufficiently able to demonstrate your inborn capabilities. Even a divine mirror will cloud up and be incapable of clearly reflecting images if it is not polished from time to time. However surpassing the founder of a business, if his children grow negligent in their efforts the business will end in failure (p. 200).

A passage with Buddhist origins. On how materially embracing religion is a mistake for a businessperson: There are merchants who embrace Buddhism, then build a meditation hall on their property and summon Buddhist monks to visit them. This is a mistake. For assistance and progress in the Way of the Buddha there are temples. Saying that they want their businesses to flourish and thereby become rich, some men immerse themselves in Buddhism. But they neglect their businesses and, eventually, endure the bitter experience of bankruptcy (p. 201).

A passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On being dispassionate: To be overly benevolent while not being careful about losses and gains, I must say, this is foolish. As one treats the soldiers under him with deep consideration in accord with right reason, so must a merchant be careful not to wallow in his passions (p. 232).

A passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On being into religion. Even should a commoner imitate the samurai and experience peace of spirit in devoting himself to Shinto, Confucianism, or Buddhism, it would still be a risk to become deeply involved in this pursuit, let alone artistic accomplishments. What he must ever keep in mind is the family business (p. 228).

4.3.6  U  ekawa, Muneyoshi (1727) Akindo Yawaso (An Essay on Merchants). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1928) Nihon Keiazi Taiten, Vol. 13 Muneyoshi Uekawa (1689–1730) was the father of the Shingaku luminary Toan Tejima and a merchant in Kyoto. He died an early death at the age of 42. Among his works the Akindo Yawaso is a classic. The book is not the work of a scholar, but that of an active merchant who, based on personal experience, records what he knows as the head of a merchant family. Akindo Yawaso comprises three volumes. He published in in 1727, 3 years before his death. The special characteristic of this book is that one may call it a work of precepts, yet it quotes nothing from Confucian or Buddhist sources. Where there are quotations they originate from those who, like himself, are heads of merchant families, or from his own experience and thoughts (Shibata 1977, p. 90). These precepts, therefore, are teachings confirming the fruits of his own ideas he put into action. They are easily grasped, allowing the reader to

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know concretely the ethical perspective of the merchant family heads of the time. Even from a contemporary perspective, as a guide to business management there are many passages useful for modern business success. By way of conclusion, here are two points. First, the relation of master to apprentice may be regarded as a relation of father to son, and from the perspective of equality between the superior and the inferior, considered as the distribution of roles. The spirit of benevolence can be viewed as foundational. Second, business is not a matter of avarice, but of merchant’s way of altruism that does not crave profit, lowers costs, and does not haggle over cost price. In its preface to the book the publisher, Shorin Ryushi Ken, writes of the circumstances of its publication: Diligence and frugality are the foundation of a shop, and its precepts are the principles that lead the people who work there. My friend, Mr. Uekawa, is a Kyoto merchant. He is earnest in character and works very hard. It is not as if he has studied the way of the sages, however, when he hears an exemplary story he assimilates it completely and puts it into practice, forgetting nothing (Takimoto 1928, p. 653).

Put another way, although he may not have been particularly learned, when the author heard something of value he would keep it firmly in mind and put it into practice. Shorin Ryushi Ken invoked Muneyoshi Uekawa and worked Uekawa’s ideas into a book. Minoru Shibata15 makes the assessment: “Muneyoshi  Uekawa was simply a merchant and neither a scholar nor a literary man … He repeated nothing from the writings of saints or sages, nor did he reiterate anything of the Buddha’s teaching, but being as he was a merchant during the Kyoho era, he kept in mind the desires and aspirations he daily harbored and how to achieve them, and in his own words frankly spoke of the virtues and precepts one ought to daily put into practice” (Shibata 1977, pp.  97–98). Among the historical records treated in this study its contents are exceptionally outstanding as the work of one with a mind for business. One may rightly say that the areas where it is conversant with the present are exceedingly great. Classifying passages according to religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 31, and Confucianism/Buddhism 9, totaling 40. Accounting for duplication we find, Confucianism 40, and Buddhism 9, totaling 49. The keywords are, conscientiousness 10, filial piety 6, saints and sages 4, invisible aid of the Buddha 4, favor 3, mercy 2, diligence and thrift 1, gentleness 1, one’s trade 1, selfish desire 2, public desire 2, and alms/charity 2. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. From the first volume: Passages with Confucian origins. On filial piety: To have been affluent since your parent’s time and to raise your status in society even concerning the necessities of life, this is to be filial (p. 655).

 Minoru Shibata (1906–1997) was a professor emeritus of Kyoto University and a great-grandson of Kyuo Shibata (1783–1839), whose teachings enjoyed a good reputation during his lifetime.

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4.3  The Middle Edo Period: Shonindo in the Eighteenth Century

On the upbringing of children: To cherish your parents is to take heed of how you treat your wife, to be watchful over your childrens’ relationships with friends, to not allow your children to be extravagant, and to keep them from getting involved in immoral diversions (pp. 655–658). Ceaselessly instill in your children that the merchant’s art is business, and that the merchant’s shame is to be unskilled in doing business (p. 658).

On the treatment of children: Engage your first and second born in the family business, but have your other children work in the shops of others (p. 658).

On employing others after being employed: Consider all the members of a family as the hands and feet of its head. The role of parents is to bring up their children, that of children to succeed them, that of the wife to keep the family together. Likewise, the clerks run the business, the retainers do the menial work, and all are like a family. Do not emphasize relations based upon superior to inferior, but human relations distributed through their roles (pp. 658–661).

On the secret of supervising one’s workers: In an organization there are those who are accomplished and those who are not. Among five people, if two are conscientious and one a hard worker, then even should the remaining two be somewhat problematic the organization can yet function (pp. 662–663).

On knowing one’s limits: If the profit margin of your competition is ten percent, limit yours to something lower (pp. 664–665).

On refraining from unreasonably laying in stock: Refrain from unreasonably cutting the prices of your stock. Just keep your prices lower than those of your competitors (p. 665).

Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the head of a merchant family: The head of a merchant family should be patient and gentle of countenance. There are, however, few who meet this ideal. First, be ever careful. Strive to be a model for the family and be not extravagant in your eating, clothing, and dwelling. Herein lies the basis of mercy (p. 654).

From the second volume: Passages with Confucian origins. On there being no leisure in business: A merchant ought to be zealous in his work and not waste time. To keep busy is fundamental (p. 667).

On selfish desire and public desire: To live lavishly on the money you have made is selfish desire. To put aside that same money as reserve funds for emergencies and to assist those in distress is what the public desires (p. 668).

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On business being the collective effort of the family: Making money is not my personal achievement. Just as I inherited the family estate from my parents, my wife manages the family, my clerks look after the shop and the errand boys work under them, so is the family and all who belong to it the fruit of our mobilizing and putting forth a concerted effort. To claim this all for myself is unforgivable (p. 668).

On associating with customers: The merchant who prefers to socialize with his customers has entered the path to ruin (pp. 672–673).

On speaking ill of others: When I hear someone speaking ill of another I first check to see if the person spoken ill of deserves it (p. 677).

On the third generation selling the family home: According to worldly tenets the parents labor, the children enjoy the fruits of that labor, and the grandchildren become beggars. The third generation sells the family home, and the one who buys it is a former apprentice raised in a poor family. It is better to leave some debt for your children. It will be for them a charm against a lifetime of begging (pp. 679–680).

Passages with Confucian and Buddhist origins. On the training of an employee: Make mercy your principle. Next carefully observe the depth of the employee’s wisdom, the fluctuations of his temperament, and for what he is most fit. Those with ability, but of bad character, will not improve (p. 669).

On communication and concord: Endeavor to improve communication between your family and your employees to be able to speak about anything, to be able to talk fact-to-face. If the heart and mind of the proprietor is upright, then all will be well, even if some among the employees are slightly undisciplined. This is one of the dictates of benevolence (p. 671).

From the third volume: Passages with Confucian origins. On the wisdom of the merchant: There are merchants who are wise in a manner peculiar to merchants. They may be unlearned, but they are possessed of surpassing discernment (p. 682). Take no offense when you extend a favor to somebody and you receive no recompense (p. 682).

On avoiding a coarse disposition: Do not discard profit, but to know nothing about giving yourself over to the idea that winning is everything is a disadvantage … Rather than argue over trifles, make concessions ... There is much to lose in angering a customer over something unimportant. This is called losing much over a small profit (pp. 685–686).

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On heeding the comments of others: Give ear to the comments of others, correct your mistakes (pp. 686–687).

On steadfast honesty: Better, for example, to be slow and reliable than to cut corners in haste (p. 687).

On putting an idea into action: However good an idea one hears, it means nothing without putting it into action (pp. 690–691).

What keenly impresses one upon reading the above selections from the Akindo Yawaso is that the contents of this book, written more than 270 years ago, provide more than a few descriptions that deeply resonate even now in the twenty-first century. For example, one can say that such phrases as “meaningless without putting into action what one may hear,” “the ‘house-for-rent’ sign of the third generation,” are well-said. The unchanging character of a mindset that affirms the pursuit of profit, but not selfishness, is keenly felt even today when observing the collapse of a business which selfishly pursues a policy of cooking its accounts. This remains an old, ubiquitous issue. One cannot but wonder at the novelty of a view advocating the social relations distinguishing parent, child, wife, clerk, and menial help as being not those of superior to inferior, but of simply differences in roles, and at the presence of a merchant with this surpassing perspicacity in a time only slightly more than a century after the establishment of the Tokugawa bakufu in Edo in 1603. Finally, Muneyoshi recommends study by reading books. He recommends Ekiken Kaibara’s Yojokun and Yamato Zokukun, and Joken Nishikawa’s Chonin Bukuro, encouraging his readers to read them to help in running their families. It is of deep interest that he closes his work with the words, “This is the learning of a merchant” (p. 691).

4.3.7  S  uzuki, Mochiyoshi (1732) Fukujin Kyokunbukuro (How to Rise in Wealth and Honor). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keiazi Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 5 Nothing is known of Suzuki Michiyoshi’s personal history. According to an annotation in the Nihon Keizai Taiten he taught that the secret of getting on in the world centered on worshiping the Shinto deity Okuninushi. He teaches that the God resides in the human heart, and that an impure heart was therefore to profane the deity. This manner of interpreting a God is rare. Generally, when examining Shinto, the focus is on the Grand Shrine of Ise, where the deity Amaterasu16 is enshrined. This book, however, discusses the Grand Shrine of Izumo, which is associated with  Japanese mythology narrates that Amaterasu is the deity from which the Imperial family is descended. Amaterasu is enshrined at the Grand Shrine of Ise.

16

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the deity Okuninushi in the lineage of the deity Susano.17 Nearly all the passages are based on Shinto, but Suzuki’s scathing criticism of Buddhism is quite unique. He advocates the Shinto-related virtue of honesty and observes it odd that people are unaware of the God residing in their hearts. The ideas contained in the work are unique in contrast to other books, where the emphasis in thought is to synthesize Shinto, Confucian, and Buddhist virtues. Classifying passages according to religious doctrine we find, Shinto 39, Shinto/ Confucianism 21, Confucianism 9, Shinto/ Buddhism 2, Shinto/ Confucianism/ Buddhism 3, totaling 74. Accounting for duplication we find, Shinto 65, Confucianism 35, and Buddhism 5, totaling 105. The keywords are: purification 9, impurity7, honesty 6, profanity 5, cleanliness 4, shame 3, to deceive 2, and to abhor 1. These keywords have Shinto as their focus. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Shinto origins. On the God of Good Fortune: The people were ignorant of the path of righteousness, they were lured by avarice, sought ill-gotten gains, and ran to perform deeds defiling the Gods. One God, upon observing these things, deigned to teach the people the righteous ways of Heaven and the correct way to procure wealth. The name of the God is Fuku-no-kami, God of Good Fortune (p. 213).

On defilement: God abides in the heart of man, God and man are one. Man is God, God is man, and constantly purifying and cleansing yourself of the impurities of evil is the Divine Way (pp. 213–216).

On God dwelling within one’s heart: God dwells in the heart of a man. Be vigilant in purity of heart to avoid defiling God. A radiant countenance shows itself by the favor of the God dwelling in one’s heart (p. 216).

On the cemetery: Visit no shrine after visiting a cemetery, for a cemetery is an unclean place18 (p. 218).

On the difficulty of gaining wealth: It is difficult to gain wealth, but easy to become poor (p. 236).

On despising others: You will not consider others a nuisance as long are you are good. Despising others is not the Divine Way. It is what God most detests (p. 268).

Passages with Confucian origins.  In Japanese mythology, Susano, said to be a younger brother of Amaterasu, is enshrined at the Grand Shrine of Izumo. 18  According to Shinto, death is impure and people who visit a grave are defiled. This is the origin of throwing salt, representing cleaning and purification, over oneself after a funeral or cemetary visit. 17

4.3  The Middle Edo Period: Shonindo in the Eighteenth Century

On harmony: The material force of Heaven descends and mingles with that of Earth. This is called Harmony, to be in accord (p. 224).

On the law: Observe the law, for it organizes human society. It comprises the statutes of the Gods of Heaven prescribed out of pity and love for the people. It is the institution that punishes evil men who are disloyal, unfilial, murderous and the like, preserves the world in purity, and allows people to live their lives in peace (p. 234).

On respect: In the doctrines of Confucianism, one honors those superior to oneself. It teaches reverence for the elderly, and that one’s teachers are worthy of honor even if they are your equals or inferiors (p. 237).

On money being the treasure of all: The function of money is to help others as it circulates through society. Accumulating it and letting it sit idle is not the principle of money. It is not to be put aside in your house. Lend out 70 to 80 percent to help others, for this is the function of money (p. 260).

On why the people are called the Great Treasure(Omitakara): Gold, silver, and jewels are precious. The people are called the Great Treasure because they are indispensable. The people are a feudal lord’s valued gem. This is the basis for a feudal lord greatly valuing his people (p. 295).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian origins. On reverencing the Gods: Reverencing the Gods is the primary focus of Shinto. To reverence humans and to reverence the Gods is the same (p. 241).

Passages with Shinto/Buddhism origins. On the Gods and the Buddhas: Our country of Japan governs by conforming to Shinto, for which reason it is called the Realm of the Gods. Today, however, Shinto is merely a name, and even those conversant with it, while placing the emphasis on honesty, yet find themselves struggling about how to study it. Those who are ignorant of Shinto therefore increase, and they think that Shinto doctrines concern only honesty. On the other hand, the doctrine that even extreme scoundrels can go to Amida Buddha’s Paradise after death if they chant ‘Namu Amida Butsu’ has gained popularity, and nearly all call upon the name of the Buddha. As Japanese, however, this is nothing other than insulting the God dwelling in one’s heart. Such crafty people devote themselves to Shakamuni, unaware of their own stupidity, and coarsely treat the ancient Gods of our country. What on earth is this singular reliance on the Buddha?! (pp. 262–263).

On deception: What is this nonsense? Forgetting the God dwelling in your heart, revering Shakamuni, rubbishing the Gods, and believing in Buddhism? (pp. 262–263).

Passages with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins.

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On learning the teachings of Shinto, Cofucianism and Buddhism: Those who study the Way of the Sages strive, with hearts of benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and faithfulness, to themselves become sages by putting into action the five filial-­ piety relationships of father-son, ruler-ruled, husband-wife, older brother-younger brother, and friend-friend, and those who study Buddhism chant the Nembutsu morning and evening, praying to become a Buddha. Those who study Shinto revere the God dwelling in their hearts, remove their odious evil, and make clean their hearts to proscribe what festers inwardly. Any remaining impurities defile the God, becoming seeds of lamentation. The heart is the temple of the Gods, and so it must remain pure and innocent. Remove the impurity and, making it clean, invite God to dwell therein. This is the Way of the Gods, the basis of Shinto (pp. 265–266).

On the governance of the world: Observe the governance of this world. Is it neither by the favor of Confucianism nor Buddhism, but by the governance of the Gods that the country is at peace (p. 279).

On the importance of Shinto: There are many in our society who are strenuously engaged in studying the things of foreign countries. Yet there are many who know little of the true spirit of Shinto in our country. They claim, apparently, that Shinto teaches nothing but honesty, that it has no doctrine besides honesty. What is more, they say that those who teach Shinto have only a facile knowledge of it. With that, some people approve of Buddhism, and some show reverence bowing their heads to crude wooden statues from foreign lands. Perhaps they do this out of ignorance of Shinto, but it amounts to them defiling themselves. This results in polluting the Inner Shrine and the Outer Shrine of the Grand Shrine at Ise. Confucianists say that the teachings of the sages are nothing more than the principles of heaven and earth, and that the Way is commensurate with heaven and earth. Certainly, that is reasonably understandable, but I think it is an error to exclude our native belief (p. 290).

4.3.8  M  oan, Rojin (1734) Chonin Tsune no Michi (The Way of the Merchant). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizazi Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 1 Nothing of substance is known of this author. It is speculated that he commenced this work in 1734, but that it only became available in 1779. Classifying passages according to religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 25, Shinto/Buddhism 4, Shinto/Confucianicism 3, Confucianism/Buddhism  1, totaling 33, with the Confucian examples dominating.  Accounting for duplication, Confucianism 29, Buddhism 8, Shinto 7, Totalling 44. Keyword classification reveals the following instances, fidelity 21, wisdom 10, the Gods and Buddhas 8, filial piety 4, propriety 4, admonition 4, justice 4, frugality 3, usury 2, harmony 2, falsehood 2, benefitting oneself and profiting others 1, being cordial, obedient, respectful, modest, and moderate 1, love and respect (aikei) 1, stinginess 1, loyalty 1, goodness 1, honesty 1, purity (seijo) 1, and modesty/discretion 1. Faithfulness-and-integrity occur most frequently, 21 times, followed by wisdom. These are listed in the following representative examples. They are also proof that, for the townspeople, comprising the craftsmen and merchants, trust was of primary importance.

4.3  The Middle Edo Period: Shonindo in the Eighteenth Century

Passages with Shinto origins. On the inadequacy of Confucianism for townspeople: The doctrines concerning benevolence, justice, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity comprise the highest teachings in the world. They are for the elites, however, and are hard to grasp by townspeople, even when they study them. So, for example, even should they study them they are less than capable of putting them into practice, because of the press of business. … This is study unsuited to townspeople. Now, people often speak of wisdom. But to discern supreme wisdom by the highest wisdom is impossible for townspeople. Generally, what the average person very often means by wisdom is cunning. This is not the surpassing wisdom taught by the sages (pp. 83–84).

On fidelity: Townspeople consider fidelity the foundation, something that must be firmly acquired. Fidelity denotes remaining faithful to one’s promises in all matters, to do as one promises from beginning to end.… Propriety appropriate for the townspeople will be naturally acquired by those who strive to keep their promises and not lie (p. 84).

On parents: None there are as precious as parents. This treasure is nothing money can buy (p. 90).

On inherited fortunes and filial piety: Filial piety, for townspeople, is to increase what one has inherited from one’s parents (p. 90).

On dealing with the ill-tempered: If, from now this moment on, one wholeheartedly and cheerfully serves an ill-tempered customer, the customer will soften and cease making unreasonable demands (p. 94).

On frugality and stinginess: The frugal man acts in accord with reason. Eliminating extravagance and waste, he spares no money for necessities. The stingy man refuses to eat what is required and will not wear what he ought. He rues using money, not only for the sake of others, but even for his own necessities (p. 90).

On utilizing others: The use of others in various capacities requires due consideration. Speak no ill of those holding responsible positions, for status is clearly delineated in an organization. Do not humiliate those over whom you are appointed. This is extremely risky. The story is well known of Lord Oda Nobunaga losing his life through the treasonous act of his retainer, Akechi Mitsuhide, of whom he made a fool, is well known (p. 103).

On admonishment: If, for instance, you observe the proprietor doing something wrong, you must admonish him, however many times. Do not admonish him out of selfish motives, however, because he will not readily accept it. If you look for when he is in a good mood and say nothing, then the admonishment is wasted without him receiving it. This is very important for those in the service of others to know (p. 104).

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On when an employee should quit the shop, and the proprietor dismiss an employee: It may be that, through the favor of the founder, a shop is presently prospering, but if the master is engaged in wrongdoing and the future looks risky, an employee should quit and seek employment looking for a good master. On the other hand, if the master judges an employee to be foolish, it is best to promptly let him go (p. 105).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On faithfulness, virtue, and honesty: Today, in the current trade environment, there is no expectation that an untrustworthy merchant should long prosper. For example, deceptively claiming one is selling some commodity at a loss will earn the mistrust of one’s business partners and lose long-standing customers. Voracious usury does not last long. Trust is supremely treasured by townspeople (p. 85).

Passages with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On resorting to one’s self-interests: The habit of men in obsequiously praying to the Gods and Buddhas for wealth betrays a baseness of spirit comparing unfavorably with women. The Gods and Buddhas have no reason to extend their favor to one who considers that others stand to lose if one does well, and that others’ losses are one’s gain. Surely, the Gods and Buddhas will favor with their providence those who consider one’s profit to reside in profiting others (p. 97).

On the heart more upright than the Gods and Buddhas: Many there are who importune the Gods and Buddhas during unlucky years, yet rectifying one’s heart takes precedence over relying upon the Same (p. 99).

Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On reading Buddhist sutras and Confucian classics: Whatever the book, read it. Even a child knows the importance of the Buddha Amida’s Sukhavati Sutra or of the Bodhisattva Kannon’s Avalokitesvara Sutra. When it comes to the Confucian classics, however, they are mostly ignored. This is foolish (p. 99).

4.3.9  N  amba, Gohei (1738) Akindo Heizei Ki (Business Sense). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1928) Nihon Keiazi Taiten, Vol. 13 The details of this author are unknown. He was known as Gohei Namba. His work, the Akindo Heizei Ki, can also be read as Akindo Heijo Ki. The author writes in the preface, “There is no business that lacks some sort of modesty and style in commerce. It would be pathetic to spend one’s life without the least avidity for profit and benefit for others. Reflecting upon this matter, I have written down for my family and relatives a guide for townspeople. This book is unnecessary for those who understand these matters. But those born into merchant families who read books are few and, if they occasionally read some instructive book its meaning escapes them,

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so they increase distance themselves these materials. They understand nothing of such things as associating with others and the good of refinement. It is pitiable that they spend their whole life foolishly, vegetating like plants, and die. Their offspring, as well, pass their lives thus in ignorance. As a man, this saddens me greatly. I have, therefore, made this book easy to read, easy to understand, and brief. I have written in the kana-style so that readers will not get bored. I hope they will not be daunted by the teachings of the sages and philosophers, and that they can take a moment from their busy activities and read from it. I am certain that this work will, in general, be of benefit for the commoner.” This work allows one a look into the actual conditions of merchants in a period that saw peaceful progress, the remarkable activity of the townspeople, the accumulation of wealth, and space to nourish the spirit” (Takimoto 1928, p. 723). Classifying passages by religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 32, Shinto/ Confucianism 1, and Shinto/ Confucianism/ Buddhism 2, totaling 35. Accounting for repetition the total is 40, with 35 for Confucianism, three for Shinto, and two for Buddhism. The occurrences of keywords are, negligence 8, filial piety 7, propriety 7, loyalty 6, sincerity 5, air 4, honesty 3, shrewdness 2, timidity 2, providence 2, usury 2, preservation of one’s health 2, refinement 2, knowing one’s limitations 1, benefiting others 1, filial duties 1, loyalty 1, misfortune 1, compassion 1, pardon 1, thrift 1, social standing 1, benevolence 1. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On advice for merchants: There is nothing as important for a merchant as making money and being successful in life. How you make your money, however, is crucial. Essential it is that you be zealous in your work with honesty and sincerity. You can do anything if you strive with this spirit (p. 726).

On instruction for loyalty and filial piety: The marks of loyalty and filial piety are to serve your master with sincerity, and to strive unwaveringly to be filial to your parents. It is said that the honesty of the Gods, the admonitions of the Buddha, and the teachings of the sages are no equals to loyalty and filial piety (p. 727).

On advice for masters and apprentices. Apprentices taken on temporarily during some specific work should, after being employed, energetically, carefully, and intensely give themselves to the challenges of the job. Even more must apprentices taken on from the childhood do the same. Surely the master will reward the efforts of such apprentices and be vigorous in his solicitude for them (p. 728).

On advice on using money: Consider how you will use even the smallest amount of money and waste none of it (p. 731).

On being thrifty: It is incumbent upon a merchant to ever consider costs, putting aside 60 or 70 percent of profits for maintaining the business, and 30 or 40 percent for unexpected expenditures. When these emergencies arise, use the monies set aside for them. Then, one will remain

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4  Case Analysis of the Shonindo unflustered at such times. An old saying has it, ‘Misfortune is surely at hand for those who take no precautions.’ One must be vigilant (pp. 733–734).

On usury: Do not be usurious. Excessive profits will not be made forever, and one cannot long prosper (p. 736).

On regular customers: Treat your regular customers royally, for thanks to them you can provide for your whole family. Even the samurai provide for their families with the stipends they receive from their lords (p. 736).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian origins. On the true nature of business: The true goal of business is this. Being thoroughly honest, exerting oneself in the family trade, and saving money allows one to benefit others by assisting the poor, hiring those who want to work, and loaning necessary funds to those of high status who are in financial straits. There is no better way to spend one’s life. If, however, one gives no thought to the welfare of one’s children, and ignores the great sufferings of others, is cruel and rapacious, and pays no mind to the benefit of others, one will earn their resentment and jealousy, and one’s descendants will not prosper (pp. 732–733).

4.3.10  I shida, Baigan (1739) Tohi Mondo (On Towns and Provinces). In: Shibata, Minoru (Ed.) (1972) Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Complete Works of Baigan Ishida) Baigan Ishida (1685–1744) was a townsman born to a family of farmers. He was a uniquely notable personage of the Edo period, developing his singular ethical doctrine and founding the so-called Sekimon Shingaku.19 From the age of 8 until he was 15 (1692–1699) he worked as an apprentice in a Kyoto merchant family. He thereupon returned to his native place and labored as a farmer, but in 1707 at the age of 23 he was again taken on by a Kyoto merchant family and engaged in mercantile activities. He left his position at the age of 42 and for a while continued with his scholarly inquiries. At 45 he procured a house in which to lecture and began to do so for free. The lectures focused on Chinese Confucianism, but they extended to such Japanese literary miscellany as the Tsurezuregusa.20 In what follows we shall select and clarify the special characteristics of those ethical passages among the doctrines in Baigan’s Tohi Mondo that were sought out by merchants of the time. Ishida may have come from merchants, but he withdrew from mercantile activities  Sekimon Shingaku is a new moral doctrine that Baigan Ishida (1685–1744) adovocated.  The Tsurezuregusa is one of Japan’s most famous classical works. It consists of essays on life and Buddhism by Kenko Yoshida. It was written in 1330–1331.

19 20

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and established a unique moral doctrine based on his inquiries into Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism. He then gathered people about him and worked towards disseminating his teaching. The ethical thought contained in these teachings have been clearly described above when first mentioning his works. His doctrines relating to belief and virtue has been sufficiently understood. Classifying these passages according to religious belief we find, Confucianism 26, Shinto 3, Shinto/Confucianism 7, Buddhism 1, Shinto/Confucianism/Buddhism 4, Confucianism/Buddhism 5, and Shinto/Buddhism 1, totaling 47 passages. Accounting for duplication the numbers are Confucianism 42, Shinto 13, and Buddhism 11, totaling 66. In any case, Confucianism hold the greatest share. Shinto and Buddhism are evenly represented. Keyword classification results in benevolence 7, justice 7, honesty 4, loyalty 4, frugality 3, propriety 2, sincerity 2, faithfulness 2 and mercy 2. The Confucian virtues of benevolence and justice each top the list at seven, followed by four for the Shinto notion of honesty. There are merely two instances of the Buddhist notion of mercy, and the low level of interest in Buddhism is conspicuous. Confucian thought dominates in Baigan’s teaching. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On Shonindo being based on sympathy for one’s fellow human beings: From of old, merchants have discharged their duties by moving goods from regions where they were in surplus to those needing them, thus compensating for these deficiencies. They made their fortunes by being scrupulous in their money entries, meticulously careful over the smallest amounts of money. Buying and selling with a mutual, heartfelt sympathy for those in their own situation formed the basis of their businesses (pp. 32–33).

On the way of the sages: He will procure ill-gotten gains, and his progeny will be cut off, the merchant ignorant of the Way of the Sages (p. 33).

On taking the perspective of the other: What you find disagreeable, so do others, and what you find pleasant, so do others. Do what gives your patrons satisfaction (pp. 74–75).

On the Way of the Merchant: Those who do not grasp the Way of the Merchant destroy their families by their profound rapaciousness (p. 77).

On the ranking of apprentices: When there is no difference in ability, place the senior in the higher position. Where there are differences, rank according to ability. Priority in work goes to the senior apprentice (p. 74).

On a merchant’s profit corresponding to a samurai’s stipend: Increasing one’s profits through commerce is the right path for merchants. The profit in trade of the merchant corresponds to the stipend of the samurai (p. 78).

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On the role of the merchant: Dealings in commodities vanish when trade withers and merchants disappear, and no society can carry on (pp. 81–82).

On the merchant’s trade corresponding to the craftsman’s craft: The merchant’s increase in profits through trade corresponds to the payment the craftsman receives for what he produces (p. 82).

On commerce being mutually profitable: The true merchant considers the advantage to both parties. It is wrong to make a profit by defrauding the other party (p. 87).

On benefiting the other: Consider the other party’s concerns more important than your own, and eight times out of ten he will know in his heart what you are doing for him (p. 88).

On there being no distinction among the social classes: The Way the merchant must follow does not alter for the samurai, the farmer, and the craftsman. Mencius says that the Way is one (p. 90).

On the niggard: He who thinks of nothing but saving money and takes pleasure in nothing else is no different from a pauper (p. 151).

On the repayment of loans being a matter of course: Repaying what one has borrowed and being paid back for what one has loaned is simply a given for anybody (p. 153).

On the significance of learning: It is only natural that one learns the family business. Even should apprentices be around, they may become unreliable before one knows it. How can the family continue in business or the shop remain without one knowing the family business? (pp. 154–155).

On remuneration: Pay your apprentice after carefully observing of his work. Increase his pay accordingly (p. 155).

Passages with Shinto/Confucian origins. On forbidding unfairness: The merchant as well should study the Way of the sages and not engage in unjust trade (p. 33).

On the correspondence of the good with honesty: The honest merchant is a virtuous man (p. 80).

On honesty as a folding screen: A folding screen cannot stand if it is the least bit warped. So too, a merchant will not make patrons if he lacks honesty. Neither a folding screen nor a merchant will stand without being upright. It is wrong to claim a warped folding screen will stand (p. 80).

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On the recompense of the merchant: A merchant is recompensed by managing goods. He receives no reward by doing what is wrong. The wholesaler’s commission guarantees the transfer of goods by documents of exchange. Thus, the exchange of goods is reflected as in a mirror. The wholesaler, too, can make a just profit without hiding anything. The merchant makes his living by honestly raising his profits. To profit honestly is natural for the merchant. He is no merchant who does not make a profit (pp. 80–81).

On employing others and sincerity: He is able to hire loyal apprentices who uses them with an honest and sincere mind (p. 156).

Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On hiring a faithful person: Those who provide conscientious care to people are able to hire a faithful person (p. 156).

Passage with Shinto origins. On purity of heart: Belief in the Gods serves to purify the heart (p. 47).

Passage with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On mercy and honesty: The Gods of mercy and honesty will not receive the offerings of those with impure hearts (pp. 166–167).

Passages with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the unity of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism: Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism all have the same foundation (p. 121).

On Shinto being foundational: Studying Shinto after studying Confucianism, not the slightest doubt will arise. Buddhism, Laozi, and Zhuangzi as well are likewise identical (p. 123). First, base yourself on the Grand Shrine of Ise, then, upon that foundation, synthesize and put into practice the doctrines of Confucianism and Buddhism (p. 124).

4.3.11  K  awada, Masanori (1740) Kagyo Dotoku Ron (Morality in Family Business). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizazi Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 5 Masanori Kawada (1768–?), also known as Kosho, studied Shingaku and authored the Kagyo Dotoku Ron and the Sansei Michishirube. The thread running throughout these works is the faithful performance of one’s duties. Moral standards, therefore, will naturally differ according to these duties. To state the matter somewhat simply,

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it may be improper for a Buddhist priest to kill a sentient being, but for a fisherman engaged in the family business, catching (and killing) fish is not immoral. Classifying passages according to religious belief we find: Confucianism 15, Confucianism/ Buddhism 1, Shinto/Confucianism 2, Shinto/Confucianism/Buddhism 2, and Buddhism 2, totaling 22 examples. Accounting for duplication the numbers are Confucianism 20, Buddhism 5, and Shinto 4, totaling 29. Confucian passages dominate. Searching by keyword we find, one’s trade 13, justice 9, loyalty 4, filial piety 3, faithfulness 4, the four social classes 2, honesty 1, mercy 1, and returns 1. Teachings related to one’s trade and the family business are numerous. Matters of justice come next. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On one’s trade: Be zealous in the trade you have received from your ancestors, persevere so as to not wander from that path (p. 267).

On cherishing the family business: Be not distracted in giving your undivided attention to the family business… Being a jack-­ of-­all-trades is inferior to bcoming a master of one. Knowing many things is not equal to knowing nothing. Let the wise man abandon his wisdom and cultivate virtue… (p. 269).

On the way to increase one’s returns: The merchant who thanks his patrons heartily will be liked by them and receive returns from their business (p. 272).

On the law for samurai and the law for merchants: For the samurai there is a law governing samurai, and for merchants a law governing merchants. To be virtuous is to be virtuous in one’s respective occupation (p. 307).

On the justice of the samurai: There is the story of the very high-ranking samurai, Hojo Takatoki, who many years ago was defeated in battle. When he committed suicide, 283 of his family members and more than 870 retainers joined him in ritually disemboweling themselves. This Takatoki was an evil ruler equal to ancient China’s three worst rulers, King Jie of Xia, King Zhou of Yin, and King You of Zhou. Takatoki was as evil as these rulers, yet when the House of Hojo met its ruin, large numbers of men together ritually disemboweled themselves. This is the splendor of justice in Japan, where one’s destiny is joined to that of one’s rulers (p. 296).

Passage with Confucian/Buddhism origins. On the Way of Heaven and the way of the current age: The Way of Heaven is not necessarily the way of the earth. Differences vary in accord with their activities. Buddhism forbids killing sentient beings, but it is the profession of a fisherman to catch and kill certain sentient beings … The merchant procures his share by trading in goods. Thus, their goals differ according to occupation (p. 268).

Passages with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins.

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On being zealous in one’s family business and preserving virtue: He truly is a national treasure who remains virtuous while zealously engaging in his family business… Devoting himself to the family business, he is not concerned about food and clothing and is not inclined to steal from others. The outcome is that he cultivates the Confucian teachings on benevolence, justice, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness, honesty according to Shinto, and mercy as exemplified in Buddhism (pp. 268–269).

On keeping up the family business: He truly is a national treasure who remains virtuous while zealously engaging in his family business … Such a one devotes himself to his work, is not a nuisance to others, completely accords with the Confucian spirit of benevolence, justice, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness, and as a result does what befits the honesty of Shinto and the mercy of Buddhism, never consciously departing from the Way (pp. 268–269).

4.3.12  I shida, Baigan (1744) Kenyaku Seika Ron (On Frugalty). In: Shibata, Minoru (Ed.) (1971) Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 42 This is the second work by Ishida Baigan. It is compilation emphasizing that the foundation of managing one’s home is nothing less than frugality. He explains the way of the master of a business and how to treat his apprentices on the bases of frugality and honesty. Classifying passages according to religious belief we find, Confucianism 24, Confucianism/Shinto 5, Shinto/Buddhism 1, and Shinto 2, totaling 32 examples. Accounting for duplication we find, Confucianism 29, Shinto 8, and Buddhism 1, totaling 38 examples. Whichever the case, the Confucian influence is decidedly great. The occurrences of keywords are frugality 18, the Gods 11, honesty 10, filial piety 5, propriety 2, obedience/fealty 1, money 2, compassion 1, and mercy 1. Among these, frugality, the Gods, and honesty are most conspicuous. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On frugality as the basis for managing the family business: I have come to learn that frugality is the basis on which to organize the home. The home will be well managed to the degree frugality prevails and extravagance is reduced. Where the home is well-ordered filial piety naturally arises, which in turn influences all who come and go, making all comfortable (p. 13).

On extravagance defined by living above one’s means: Extravagance that is unsuited to your station in life is nothing good. However smartly one may dress, a farmer remains a farmer, a townsman remains a townsman (p. 18).

On frugality and stinginess: There are those in the world who consider frugality and stinginess to be identical, but this is a mistake. Frugality consists in economizing on things and, in accord with one’s social status, avoiding excess and deficiency by spending appropriately (p. 24).

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On assisting those in difficult circumstances: With relatives there is no question. If, however, apprentices living off the shop premises and merchants coming and going for business are in financial straits, inquire of their circumstances and, if they are doing nothing wrong, help them. Again, if those associated with your own shop wear cotton clothing, supply them with it in an easy manner, even the newcomers, giving them even second-hand clothing for daily use other than work, but it is important to have them wear new work clothes. Moreover, temporary apprentices, not those who have been with you since their youth, make low wages and run out of spending money. They cannot afford even tissue paper. It is not enough even if you give them pocket money and sandals at the time of the special occasion. The amount of money may differ according to the house. You should periodically give your apprentices a bonus (p. 25).

On solicitude for apprentices: Observing how people are treated in society it is rare to find a proprietor who will give any consideration to his workers other than work clothes and wages, thinking these suffice. Of those working in a shop, some may come from wealthy families, but many come from impoverished houses, and are sent to work in the shop. Those whose parents are well-off are raised carefully by a nanny. The children of the poor are separated from their parents and serve in some distant shop. Few there are who pity these children and, in contrast to their parents, seek to lend them some assistance. Surely these children who are helped will be filled with solicitude to help others. These children who leave the rural areas to work in the cities somehow make do with a set of cotton-padded clothing and a kimono with no lining. As they accustom themselves to work, however, they soon take note that their fellow apprentices have plenty of clothing, and they write to their parents letters to that effect. The parents, pitying their children, may borrow money to make them clothing and send it to them, but this does not continue for long. They cannot afford to go so much into debt. These cases are legion, and those who are proprietors should give heed to their apprentices’ circumstances and, to the degree they are able, endeavor to be solicitous over them. This concern should extend to their parents and siblings to alleviate their worries (p. 25).

On authentic good deeds: Good deeds done for the praise of others are inauthentic deeds (p. 27).

Passages with Shinto/Confucian origins. On frugality and honesty: What is yours, is yours. What belongs to others, is theirs. Return what you borrow and do what is a matter of course as a matter of course, without being selfish. This is honesty. The world will be at peace where there is honesty, and all people will be as brothers to one another. For what one expects from others one will grant to others (p. 28).

On frugality being useful in rectifying one’s heart: Frugality concerns more than the use of things. It is a doctrine rectifying the heart without being unjust (p. 32).

Passage with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On the human heart: The human heart is merciful and honest by nature (p. 29).

Passage with Shinto origins.

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On those of high status and honesty: The status of the samurai is above that of the farmer, the craftsman, and the merchant. Honesty is incumbent upon him, because selfish desire begets a world of chaos. The master of a house, whether that of a farmer, a craftsman, or a merchant, occupies the highest position, and no house will be at peace when he acts out of selfish desire (p. 28).

4.3.13  I shida Sensei Goroku (The Analects of Ishida Baigan). In: Shibata, Minoru (Ed.) (1972) Ishida Baigan Zenshu According to the renowned Kyoto University scholar Minoru Shibata, the great-­ grandson of the Edo period Shingaku practitioner Kyuo Shibata (1783–1839), this work is a compilation of questions and answers the disciples of Baigan Ishida circulated among themselves supplementing the materials used during their study sessions when gathered around him. Viewing the examples classified by religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 13, Confucianism/Buddhism 7, Shinto/Confusianism 3, Shinto 2, and Shinto/ Confucianism/Buddhism 4, totaling 29 examples. When accounting for duplications the total is 47 with Confucianism 27, Buddhism 11, and Shinto 9. In either case, Confucian examples are more numerous. Classifying the instances of keywords, we find, propriety 18, love 9, profit 7, mercy 5, benevolence 5, honesty 4, filial piety 2, Amaterasu Oomikami 2, frugality 2, Shakyamuni 3, affection 2, unity/concord 2, and ancestor 2. Judging from the sayings contained in this compilation one can easily understand that the Confucian notions of propriety and benevolence, the Buddhist notions of mercy and harmoney, and the Shinto notion of honesty are, on balance, successfully syncretized. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On frugality being for the benefit of society: One is not stingy for one’s sake. Frugality is to make of three things two for society (Vol. 1, p. 243).

On raising children: Parents are, in general, indulgent with their children and try to overlook their misdeeds. When their children are praised they think they have earned it. They pamper their children, who in turn develop cunning and, in the end, become selfish and bereft of an upright heart. They fawn upon them, giving in to their pestering, and the children get what they want while the parents cease disciplining them. These are the actions of parents who know nothing of true loving affection (Vol. 1, p. 266–267).

On dabbling in nothing but one’s primary occupation: Teach your children the family business when they come of age and admonish them to dabble in nothing but making money nowhere else (Vol. 1, p. 267).

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On sharing decisions: In all matters, especially important ones, a proprietor should refrain from making decisions by himself, but consult with a few of his clerks. If no decision is made, then he should invite more into the discussion. If even then the matter is not settled, then he should put it to a vote. For example, if the clerks should tell the proprietor he is mistaken, then he ought to revise his plan (Vol. 1, p. 270).

On forcing a proprietor to retire: When a proprietor acts selfishly or otherwise badly, the clerks should confer with him and express their opinions. If, in the worst case, he then does not change his ways, this will become an obstacle to the succession of the business. All should confer together and, since the proprietor shows a great lack of filial piety towards the ancestor, force the proprietor to retire. They should take care of his living expenses but cut him off from the business (Vol. 1, p. 271).

Passages with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On treating apprentices like one’s own children: Love the apprentices of the shop with the affection you show your own children. Choose them for leading positions, and, showing no discrimination, reward those who perform well. Do not criticize before others those who perform poorly but speak to them until they confidently understand. Keep your promises in good faith. A proprietor is the first to rise in the morning, and promptly finishes his work at night, sending all to retire before 10:00 p.m. (Vol. 1, p. 309).

On the role of the head clerk: The head clerk, holding a position of authority guiding and controlling others, should kindly treat those under him as if they were his younger brothers. Those under him should respect him as if he were the proprietor and listen to him as they would their older brother (Vol. 1, p. 310).

On treasure and mercy: Growing wealthy is not a good. A heart rich in mercy will give its effort to works of charity until it has no excess of money (Vol. 2, p. 71).

Passages with Shinto/Confucian origins. On honesty and frugality: Strongly admonish a man from his youth against lying, and severely caution him against lying over even trivial matters. Again, do not, for example, waste one sheet of paper on a useless matter (Vol. 1, p. 268).

Passages with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the unity of the Three Teachings: These are the Triple Gem: Buddhist mercy, Shinto honesty, and the sincerity of the Sages. Mercy, sincerity, and honesty are all of them light emanating from oneself (Vol. 2, p. 145).

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On the primacy of Shinto: First of all, propagating belief in the Grand Shrine of Ise and in Shinto is primary. Beginning with the samurai, all people should first visit and worship at the Grand Shrine. Next, concerning your parents, service to your master takes precedence over serving them. Honor your master and your parents, treat with kindness your children, your apprentices, and those under you, then you will fully accord the Confucian principle of propriety (Vol. 2, pp. 144–145).

4.3.14  I to, Tanboku (1752) Kyokun Zonagamochi (Teachings on Business). In: Nakamura, Yukihiko (Ed.) (1975) Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 The author, Tanboku Ito, was from the Nihonbashi Goku-cho district of Edo, lived in Aoyagi-mura, a neighboring village of Hachioji, and died in 1761. He was the author of works for mass reading consumption popular at the time comprising the Kokkeibon21 and the Dangibon22 genres of writing. He also authored this collection of cautionary tales for townspeople, easy to understand, captivating satires of events occurring in society. The religious currents of Buddhism are strong. Two keywords are repeated throughout, mercy and sympathy (benefiting others). There are two cases connected to belief. Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On mercy and secret charity: There was a large, famous wholesaler in Toricho. It was a good, benevolent, longstanding family in the habit of giving alms to the various urchins and beggars who crossed its gate. There are many wealthy people in the world who spend their money on luxuries, but rare indeed are those who follow this family’s example. There is some truth in saying that takers are limitless, but givers are few. But secret charity brings with it hidden rewards. That this business prospered is proof of it. Whatever those in the know may say, still, one must deliver others from distress. If you have even a little surplus, give, and with a heart of mercy deliver those in need (p. 353).

Passage with Buddhist origins. On sympathy: One’s daily purpose is nothing particularly difficult, such as learning a secret art. If I may say so, what is important is simply to sympathize with others, for what one finds distasteful, others do, as well (p. 400).

21 22

 Kokkeibon is a genre of popular comedy fiction in the Edo period.  Dangibon is a genre of popular comedic novel in the Edo period.

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4.3.15  I wagaki, Mitsusada (1757) Akindo Sugiwai Kagami (Lessons for Merchants to Learn Business). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1928) Nihon Keizai Taiten, Vol. 13 Nothing is known about this author. We can discover no other materials at the present stage of this inquiry. Sei’ichi Takimoto, the editor of the Keizai Taiten, writes that the fundamental import of the work is found in its afterword, “The family business as a rule consists in carefully looking over the goods you handle, valuing your regular patrons, and profiting other greatly while keeping your profit margins thin. Ever observing the doctrines of benevolence and justice, deal mercifully with your apprentices that all may be in accord, be frugal, provide for your poor relatives, nurture your business, and do not profane the good name of your parents” (p. 649). Classifying the number of examples according to religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 63, Confucianism/Buddhism 10, Buddhism 5, Shinto/Confucianism/ Buddhism 2, and Shinto/Buddhism 1, totaling 81 examples. Accounting for duplications the total is 91, with Confucianism 75, Buddhism 13, and Shinto 3. Confucian examples dominate. The instances of keywords are, money 23, profit 21, merchant 15, proprietor 14, family business 10, deliberation 10, harmony 10, frugality 9, clerk 9, apprentice 8, negligence 8, second generation 7, founder 6, thrift 6, filial piety 6, livelihood 6, honesty 5, thief 4, propriety/etiquette 4, mercy 4, preservation of one’s health 4, the four social classes 4, third generation 4, scrutiny 3, 70 or 80% is enough 3, conscientiousness 3, reading 3, sense of duty 3, dull sword 3, lofty aspiration 3, sincerity 3, alcoholic drink 3, seeing is blieving 2, stinginess 2, and one’s duty 2. Examining these keywords, the instances of the terms “money” and “profit” exceed 20. One understands thereby that the concrete elements, not a spiritual teaching, are what is emphasized. The total for frugality and thrift is 15, by which one understands that, for the merchants of the time, the ethical virtues of frugality and thrift occupied an important position. Classifying the examples by religious doctrine, Confucian thought predominates, and one can say that with the five instances of the Shinto notion of honesty, and the four instances of the Buddhist notion of mercy, the special characteristic of this book lies in the weight of Shinto and Buddhism being low. There is an abundance of concrete examples that are ethically foundational, and we have compiled as many as we can for this study. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On the responsibilities of a merchant: The merchant transports sundry items to distant regions, including rice, clothing, and medicines, and it is his duty to relieve people of any sense of lacking them. His life is concerned with taking commissions on transactions and interest earned on loans. Rural townspeople are bound by the regulations of their respective regions and, because they lack fine-looking goods that are especially pleasing to the eye, they are not easily attracted to novel items. Merchants from Kyoto, Edo, and Osaka therefore start from the beginning with them and work their way up; expanding their trade they endeavor to leave to their posterity the

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fortunes they have amassed. He instills a serious work ethic in his children, free from extravagance, from a very early age. His family may not yet be wealthy, but it manages to end its days without incident and bequeath its assets to the grandchildren. If they engage in wrongdoing, they will ruin the family within two generations. The grandchildren, however, have lived in affluence from the day of their birth. Ignorant of the value of money, and their nature tainted with the evils of the world, they grow haughty in their extravagance, leave their work to others, and spend their days as they please. Their expenses grow apace, and they may be slightly aware of it, but they are disinterested in business, convinced they have large amounts of money. Their accounts receivable and their spending increase, they begin to go into debt and they struggle to pay on the interest. Now this noted merchant family of the second generation, before one knows it, goes to ruin in the third and leaves no traces behind (pp. 584–585).

On entrusting business to the clerks and losing the house: Among merchants there are not a few who have a lot of money, who forget the labors of their ancestors, who leave the business to their clerks and do not work, and who, in the end, ruin their business (p. 586).

On protecting the family business: Those who are most zealous for the work of their shop are devoted to the work in which they are skilled and will not change their jobs, regardless of how well other work may be. However, those who are committed to their own businesses and discover another business that holds promise of profit may invest a little therein, even if it is some other business. Rare, however, are examples of those who are dissatisfied with their jobs, switch jobs here and there, and become successful. Whatever the business, various challenges will arise on the road to success. Devote yourself to your work wholeheartedly, intently, energetically, and with all that you have, and you will get on in the world. As the old saying has it: ‘A journey of a thousand miles begins with one step’ (p. 586).

On taking precautions: In all that you do first very carefully and repeatedly consider the matter, and when you have made your decision, then begin the work. Once you begin, however, do not quit midway, even if some problems arise. You cannot bring the work to fruition without perseverance. Whether good or bad, some inconvenience will arise as you progress in the work. You need to consider this carefully. Ascending a high mountain is painful as one follows the mountain road from its base. You must carefully consider the matter from the first and, to avoid being tired to death along the way, prepare well as you begin (p. 589).

On good and evil concerning friends: If your friends are evil, you’ll become evil. A good friend respects his companions and is someone you should be with. When with others, trust and propriety are essential. As an old saying has it, ‘Even when intimate, observe propriety.’ Though close, be courteous, not rude. Be considerate to those with whom you are close, overlook their small faults, for it is by sincerity that you will ever communicate your love to a friend (p. 590).

On silence surpassing words: The wise man ponders all things and is silent until he begins to act. The saying has it, ‘Silence surpasses speech’ (p. 591).

On crawling, outstripping, or outrunning: You may not be lucky or talented but work patiently and highly value the business with which you are familiar. Even those who quickly become successful will be overtaken by

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4  Case Analysis of the Shonindo those who, untiringly and steadily, have arrived. It may take them a long time, but they remain steady. This is what it meant by saying, ‘Crawling outdistances running’ (p. 591).

On saving some of one’s strength: When bending a bow, it is best to stop short of using all your strength. It will break if you bend it to its very limits. In all that you do see what you can spare. Save some of your strength establishing your business to within 70 or 80 percent (pp. 594–595).

On money being the greatest treasure: Money saves a life, solves a problem. Money is the most precious treasuue (p. 595).

On “seeing is believing”: You may hear about something in detail a hundred times, but that is very different from actually seeing it. No matter what, even if you think it trivial, take care that you see it with your own eyes. Surely, in due course it will serve you well” (p. 598).

On seizing the moment, but only after due consideration: Everybody wants to do something good. To avoid making a mistake it is better to consider a matter carefully, then to quickly act on it. They say it is bad to postpone something. But whatever it is, if you suspect something do what you can to postpone it, then think it over again. If, for example, you speak with someone and end in a quarrel over differences of opinion, then you get angry and annoyed and think to make a hasty decision. In that case, carefully rethink the matter and, if he listens to you, then make the decision (p. 598).

On courtesy to one’s intimates: Always act with moderation, neither lacking a sense of duty, nor being haughty, nor neglecting words of pardon. Do not lie, honor others, do not find fault over little errors, and do not bother others for money. Such sincerity will always get through to others and ensure a long association (p. 599).

On showing consideration to one’s apprentices: People, in general, differ in various ways by birth. In the case of your apprentices, put them to work after sufficiently considering their differences. Scrutinize the character of each and assign them suitable tasks. Rare is there one who can do everything (p. 613).

On the envy of people: People usually get by, yet they earn the envy of others. Greet them with a deep bow, in a respectful manner grasp what they say to you, and in all situations act modestly and courteously. If you are the least bit intrusive and put on airs others will not associate with you. Assume a humble attitude so that your words, carefully considered and gently spoken, may be acceptable to them. Act kindly and courteously and you will succeed without being envied (p. 617).

On what is accepted by society: Though you think you will be profited by some action, better to ignore and not initiate it if, when conferring with others, some raise objections. It may be profitable, but there are some things you may do and others not. The undertaking will not go well unless people can be persuaded of it. Good things are naturally accepted by society, regardless who sees it. Better to consider when the timing is right, then to begin the undertaking (p. 620).

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On the best advice being difficult to hear: For example, there is the saying, ‘Good medicine tastes bitter.’ You may receive excellent advice and not follow it, because it doesn’t suit you. It would be better to ignore your preferences. Better instead to exert yourself and patiently endure what is proper, what is difficult, what involves labor (p. 621).

On the merchant lacking the fixed income of the samurai: Merchants differ from the samurai and the farmer in that they have no fields to inherit. They begin to make a decent living and provide for their wife and children through doing business with people. Whether rich or poor, their master is the customer who does business with them. Their competitors also take advantage of this, and from time to time are mistaken in their judgment. Whoever the patron may be, address them fairly and reasonably, and treat them, especially the poor, equally kindly. If, for instance, you lose a little on a deal, in the long view you’ve lost nothing (p. 622).

On frugality: A family should strive to be frugal and avoid being conspicuous. The children should wear plain clothing, they should have what is important for the family business firmly instilled in them, be raised to avoid extravagance, and taught to read and write and to use the abacus. They should rise early and remain around the house, understanding first thing in the morning what is not to their advantage. Be careful with fire at night. What is not needed, give to the poor. Townspeople should know without a doubt that, unlike the samurai, they have no fixed income (p. 622).

On the treatment of one’s help: You must show no favoritism to your help. For example, even if you find one disagreeable, have them work for you, regarding them as one who is a serious worker. Everybody has something at which they excel. However much you may like another, immediately let him go if he is a liar, a flatterer, or one who tells on others. Upon due consideration deal appropriately with malicious gossip, tattling, and abusive language (pp. 622–623).

On being careful of every penny: Be careful of the least amount of money. Save it little by little, and before you know it it will become a great sum and you’ll be rich. If you are the least bit wasteful and negligent, then you may be rich, but you will become poor. It is difficult to save, but easy to spend. There are many who have been fabulously wealthy but lost it all because of their own negligence (p. 628).

On a man’s ability: Even if honest, entrusting a large enterprise to a timid person is akin to having a youthful boy lift a huge stone, or having an eyas attack a large bird. Having one carry heavy burdens not suited to his strength will ruin his body. Just the same, you should set one to a task appropriate to his abilities (p. 630).

On receiving admonition: The family business having help who would admonish the proprietor will flourish. Restrain yourself and earnestly receive admonition. People are happy when others speak well of them. This however is useless. It is not other than flattery. If you are interiorly strong and outwardly gentle, people will not fear to reprove you. Receive the criticism of those who speak for your good, correct your mistakes, for he who cultivates his character by listening to others refines his virtue (pp. 630–631).

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On middle-aged apprentices: In general, little importance is to be attached to an apprentice who is employed as a middle-­ age adult in contrast to those who have been working since childhood. Because the man himself is not very familiar there are many cases where the extent of his loyalty will be in question. Although he comes to the work in his middle age, taking this sufficiently into consideration, if he shows that he is utterly loyal and gives himself fully to his work, his intentions will be known to the proprietor. The proprietor and the apprentice will be able to reach a mutual understanding and treat each other with sincerity. Thus, human relationships can be brought closer together and mutual trust built up (p. 631).

On cautioning against momentary profit: Many people who desire to make their money all at once generally cannot endure taking the time to gradually build upon their achievements and be successful in life. This has the opposite effect, falling short of amassing any wealth (p. 635).

On the good servant: From townsman to farmer, happy the master who feels no unease over those subordinated to him. They act as constraints upon his unfettered actions (p. 637).

On setting a goal in life: A man must strive for a future goal with utter determination. Setting the future goal of becoming rich possessing 1000 kan23 in silver, he will somehow attain it if he is diligently frugal, zealous in his business, bears with hardships, and give his all to his work (p. 638).

On keeping track of money being the responsibility of the proprietor: Keeping track of the money is the proprietor’s responsibility. Even should the clerks miscalculate it, the source is the proprietor’s inattentiveness. It is not the fault of the clerks (p. 639).

On utilizing the help: One may consider it an outrageous youthful indiscretion, but the second or third time forces one’s reconsideration. Regardless, should the insolent behavior continue, then one must set one’s mind to let the worker go. To be kind and compassionate becomes one’s enemy, and it will end in regret (p. 639).

On when business does poorly: When your savings are reduced and business does not go well, you may quickly fall into a panic, become impatient, and do poorly, thinking all is a loss. At such times calm yourself down, cut down on expenses, reduce the help, make no exchanges of gifts, move to a smaller house, be frugal, and curtailing the business, bear with the situation patiently. Your efforts will eventually bear fruit, and you will make a comeback and prosper (p. 645).

On true wealth: The truly wealthy man is not unjust and arrogant. He loves others, has a gentle character, does not complain, and delights in his destiny (p. 645).

 1 Kan = 1000 Momme, 1 Momme = 3.75 grams. 1000 Kan is therefore 3.75 million grams. At 47 cents per gram (October 30, 2018), 1000 kan = $1.76 million, or JPY 200 million.

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On using sake: Sake is a wonderful beverage, but bad for your health when drunk to excess. One tends to forget important matters, becomes emboldened, gets drunk, and forgets where one is going, and upon sobering up, has regrets. That said, sharing a glass with a customer when a transaction is rough smooths it over. With the sake as a start, and the cup the go-between, the transaction is a success. Sake, then, has its advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, when it becomes habitual, it is better not to drink, and yet, there is more than one way to drink, so better to make a decision after careful consideration (p. 647).

Passages with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On harmoney in the family: It is said that regional advantage is inferior to harmoney among the people. This saying is important for merchants. When all the members of a merchant family get along well, are zealous in their work at the shop, consider profit and loss, and strive to be frugal, then the whole family naturally prospers, like water flowing to the low places (p. 594).

On money being society’s treasure: Money, within limits, is a social treasure. Used widely, benefiting others, it is something precious shining far and wide over all in the world. Yet, it will shackle an economy, if when it comes to hand you stash it away without using it (p. 610).

On running a house: Husband and wife are the source of running a family business and of their children’s inheritance, the two wheels of a cart. The husband and wife alike are fully filial to their parents, the husband cherishing his wife and the wife respecting her husband. Even so, her work is to render service to his parents, carefully raise the children and grandchildren, and with great care safeguard the household. The wife leaves her parents’ home to live in dependence on the husband in his house. Though there may be some troubles between them, her job is to be submissive to her husband, to show gentle concern for the help – with a view to her own children treating them well – and to pay attention to those who come and go in the shop (p. 621).

On the benefits of business: Merchants are called liars, but they live by buying and selling goods. They naturally should make some small profit. They must, however, be honest. For example, should some discrepancy arise, do not exaggerate it, consider your reputation, and if there are ten, check into three, at most five, and leave the rest to run their course. If you do that, then even should some misapprehension arise it will not be a big matter. Important for a merchant is to swear upon his ancestors never to cause anybody trouble, make mistakes, or live extravagantly, then he will live respectfully (p. 642).

Passage with Buddhist origins. On life after retirement: At 55 I handed over the shop to my son, began to live more like a monk, cast aside the desires that hitherto were mine, and at the very least reformed my heart to be some use to this world. I found brides for my sons and lived free of care. Morning and evening, I worshiped at the temple and built a temple for my family where I would chant to the Buddha Amitabha. At 65 or 66 I shall depart for the other world. Since giving myself to living like a monk I’ve made it my aim to be merciful, to treat others with kindness, and to give alms to the poor (p. 605).

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Passage with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On the Buddhas and the Gods: They say that there is mercy in Buddhism, honesty in Shinto, and perversity in man. They say that a God resides in the mind of an honest man. When the honest man meets with hardships the Gods and the Buddhas will protect him if he prays with all his heart. They will grant favor to the man who prays…. But it is useless to implore them for wealth or pray for things in a self-seeking way…. What is important is to work hard honestly to be of benefit to others (p. 588).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On ceasing to do evil: You may understand that something is evil, yet you cannot cease doing it. When you have a change of heart and cannot cease doing what you desire to stop doing, you will always be able to stop it by praying and vowing to the God in whom you believe or at the grave of your ancestors (pp. 586–587).

4.3.16  T  ejima, Toan (1773) Zenkun (Didactic Text for Boys and Girls). In: Shibata, Minoru (Ed.) (1971) Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 42 Toan Tejima (1718–1786) was the youngest among the direct disciples of Baigan Ishida, but he was the foremost among those who succeeded him. He was the son of Muneyoshi Uekawa, the author of the Akindo Yawaso. His father, who had been adopted, properly used both of his surnames, Uekawa and Tejima, but Toan chose Tejima as his surname. Heir to Baigan’s scholarship, Tejima propagated the teachings widely to people in simple terms and developed it into a social educational movement (Shibata 1971, Commentary, p. 475). It is Tejima, the initiator of the Shingaku movement, who is accredited with first calling it by that name (Watsuji 1952, Vol. 2, p. 615). Toan was born into a merchant family, unlike Baigan who had merchant experience but was born into a family of farmers. Whereas Baigan was a head clerk, Toan was a proprietor. Their experiences differed. Compared to the Baigan narrative, his is existentially persuasive in his administering a shop, employing people, and consideration for valued patrons. Minoru Shibata, however, writes of Toan that, “He mostly perceives moral and ethical questions psychologically or subjectively, which is to limit them to individual intentionality and precepts. This results in the failure to avoid the inclination toward a disposition unconsciously trivializing and vulgarizing Baigan’s scholarship” (ibid p. 478). This study takes up the importance of the intentional precepts indicated by Shibata, and accordingly ignores the arguments over Baigan’s scholastic worth. The Zenkun treated here is a free textbook used at a private school for children’s education conducted under the auspices of the townspeople of Kyoto in the latter half of

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the eighteenth century. This is only one example of the fact that, during this period, townspeople’s children (boys and girls) from the ages of seven to fifteen gathered in the same school, were given textbooks free of charge, and received instruction in moral education. It is during the Edo period, said to be the period of Japan’s national isolation, the very period when she supposedly fell behind the world’s progress, that character education boasted by the world from an ethical perspective was carried out in a spirit of volunteerism by the townspeople. The 7 to 15-year-old youths who were the target group of education in the era corresponds to students from the first year of elementary school to the third year of middle school in present-day Japan. It is not difficult to imagine just how fruitful were the results of this easily grasped, specialized moral education provided to youth during this period of their spiritual development. In like manner, the education of working adults was based on the same Shingaku instruction for those who had attained the age of discretion. Let us look now at the greeting written in the preface to this work. We find in the following in the Preface: Preliminary instructions (zenkun) are age-appropriate teachings delivered by Toan Sensei to boys between the ages of seven and fifteen, and girls between the ages of seven and twelve. The talks are for purposes of teaching our youth good manners. Newcomers, aspirants, and children are encouraged to attend (p. 160).

Preliminary Instructions in the Boys Section, Upper Class • Lecture dates are on the 3rd, 13th, and 23rd at 2:00 p.m. Seating will be determined at each lecture. • Attire: Boys and girls may wear casual clothing. • Seat: Boys and girls are seated separately. • Admission fee: Donations only. We do not accept any direct remuneration. • Do not be unruly. Enter and leave quietly. Watch over young children. Sit quietly together. • Be careful of fire. Thank you – the sponsors. Classifying the contents according to religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 5, Shinto/Buddhism 4, Buddhism 2, and Shinto 1, totaling 12 examples. Accounting for duplication we find, Buddhism 6, Shinto 5, Confucianism 5, totaling 16 examples. It is very apparent how etiquette was taught in an easy-to-understand manner to children as the basis for morality. Keywords are, the Gods 6, favor 4, household Buddhist alter 3, honesty 3, reverence 2, ancestor 1, greetings/addressing 1, and falsehood 1. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passage with Shinto origins. On thanks for The Gods: Arise early in the morning and, after washing your face and rinsing your mouth, first show reverence to the Gods. Japan originated from the activity of the Gods. By their favor all people are given food to eat and clothing to wear. It is therefore paramount that we give thanks to and reverence the Gods (p. 162).

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Passages with Buddhist origins. On showing gratitude to one’s ancestors enshrined in the family Buddhist altar: Next, go to revere the Buddhas enshrined in the family Buddha altar. These Buddhas are your ancestors residing in the Buddha alter, that is, your great-grandfather, great-­ grandmother, grandfather, grandmother, etc. It is through their favor that you have spent your life peacefully and have food to eat. Consider carefully what you have received from them. Thank them at the Buddha altar (p. 162).

On the prohibition against killing: The taking of life is a great evil (p. 164).

Passages with Confucian origins. On addressing one’s family members: When eating your three meals and before going to sleep greet your grandparents and parents, kneeling before them with both palms on the floor, and say, ‘Please have something to eat’ or ‘Please take your rest’ (p. 162).

On addressing one’s when going out: When you leave your house address your parents as explained above (p. 163).

On engaging in evil pastimes: Do nothing bad when playing (p. 164).

On reward and punishment for one’s behavior: Both good and evil have their own reward. Understand this well and act accordingly (p. 170).

On speaking evil: Whatever the case, do not say anything that you believe is evil (p. 171).

Passages with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On being truthful: In all that you do, never lie nor act on one (p. 164).

On being honest by nature: Man is honest by nature (p. 164).

On not concealing an evil deed: It may be that you think you can hide your bad deeds from others, but you know very well what you have done. The mind that knows this is one with the Gods and the Buddhas (p. 164).

On what the Gods and Buddhas dislike: The Gods and Buddhas hate it when you do what you should not do (p. 164).

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Postscript: Zenkun is a book teaching what one can put into practice in a way even children can easily understand. For those who want to know more about these things there are a variety of Japanese and Chinese writings, beginning with the Confucian primer on minor studies, the Shogaku. Read them to learn about filial piety. There is the saying that one who is filial can do all things. Those who are filial to their parent rarely meet with misfortune. It is certain that those who learn this will be a filial son or daughter (p. 171).

4.3.17  B  oku, Nanshi (1774) Shobai Kyokun Kagami (On Teachings of Business). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl.Vol. 1 Nothing is known of this author. The purpose of this book is briefly summarized in the following preface by the author himself. Preface to: Shobai Kyokun Kagami However correct you may be, things will not fall into place if, while being logically consistent, you are excessively aggressive in the pursuit of your goal. Honesty comes before all else, then gentleness. Comport yourself to modestly deprecate yourself and compliment your patron, concede certain things to others, and refrain from making big claims by being acutely aware of your limits. Under no circumstances ever speak a falsehood or allow desire to cloud your sense of justice. Rise immediately when a patron comes to you and make it your aim never to be rude when serving him. I have entitled this book Shobai Kyokun Kagami and written it that it may be of use to those who deeply consider long protecting the continuation of a merchant house.” (p. 159). The book is based on honesty, that is, Shinto, as well as Confucianism.

Classifying the examples according to religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 24, Shinto/Confucianism/Buddhism 4, and Shinto/Confucianism 1, totaling 29 examples. Accounting for duplication the total is 38, with Confucianism 29, Shinto 5, and Buddhism 4. Instances of keywords are, wisdom 13, profit 7, propriety 6, Heaven 4, loss 3, gentleness 3, a different opinion (iken) 2, moderation (chuyo) 2, honesty 2, path of righteousness (seiro), and admonition 1. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On ceding to others: Do not insist on your own way in everything, but humbling yourself, cede some things to others (p. 163).

On avoiding conceit: You may think yourself wise, but wisdom is diverse, and some who seem foolish are in fact wise…. He is detested who out of intellectual conceit insists on his own way and acts as if he is wise (p. 163).

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On looking down on others: Do not speak derisively of others (p 164).

On criticizing others: Even appearing to speak unfavorably of others is bad for business (p. 165).

On wisdom and humility: The wise man does not boast but is humble (p. 166). The know-it-all at gatherings is disliked by others (p. 166).

On blaming oneself and self-reflection: Reflect upon yourself and do not blame others without reason (p. 167).

On starters: Talk about the old days or harmless things when the mood is off and nobody says anything and keeps quiet. Do that, and those there will become approachable and begin to open up, and the business at hand will go smoothly (p. 168).

On refraining from boasting: Do not boast, do not brag (p. 168).

On keeping other waiting: When patrons stop by, do not keep them waiting, but go to them at once. Never be rude (p. 172).

On remembering past hardships: Never forget when you were struggling, even after you become rich (p. 172).

On tomorrow: You may presently be wealthy, but anything can lead to poverty. All may be well today, but you do not know what tomorrow will bring (pp. 172–173).

On first-time customers: Do not distinguish between the chance customer and regular patrons but charge them the same prices…. This is the Way of Heaven (p. 175).

On loss and gain: In this world there are times that you think profitable but bring about loss, and loss that results in profit (p. 176).

Passage with Confucian/Shinto origins. On feigned politeness: Excessive and feigned politeness shows a lack of propriety…. If, in fact, you are zealous in your business make it your aim to preserve propriety, not to swim against the current, to be kind, gentle, and honest in your dealings, then you will accord with the Way of Heaven and ever prosper (p. 177).

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Passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the primacy of honesty and gentleness: A merchant will flourish if in his dealings with others he is above all honest and gentle. Act honestly, putting concord first, and the chance customer will want to keep coming back…. Don’t be a know-it-all, be gentle with a ready smile (p. 161).

4.3.18  S  oken, Oh (1774) Fūki no Jigatame (Groundwork for Wealth and Honor). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 3. Almost nothing is known about Oh Soken. He apparently wrote a didactic work elucidating the essentials for worldly success for merchants and craftsmen. The author writes in the following preface that the book is useful for becoming wealthy. The examples classified by religious tradition are, Confucianism31, Shinto4, Shinto/ Confucianism/Buddhism2, Shinto/Buddhism 2, Shinto/ Confucianism 1, and Confucianism/Buddhism 1, totaling 41. Accounting for duplications we find: Confucianism 35, Shinto 9, and Buddhism 5, totaling 49. The Confucian influence is dominant. Examples classified by keyword yields the following: merchant 30, profit 26, justice 13, success in life 9, poverty 7, sense of duty 6, family business 5, money-making 4, undertaking 4, honesty 3, mercy 3, money 3, conduct 3, commission 3, gentleness 3, shopping 2, stock 2, integrity 2, manners 2, quick temper, and family codes 2. The following are passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On usury: Of those who rush to profit on high interest rates none are great successes (p. 99).

On the attitude of the merchant: There are various types of trade, but the mercantile spirit remains constant. Wealthy merchants and petty traders may share the same sympathies, but the former is generous and the latter narrow-minded. Nonetheless, this depends on the type of trade. There are those who work very had and are known to be honest, yet all their lives they remain poor. Again, there are those who do not particularly exert themselves in their work, but they are very sociable and successful. This is not merely a matter of luck, but of their business being influenced by something intangible. Generally, the merchant is courteous in all his dealings and, even in small transactions, cheerfully treats the customer as if he were long valued patron. If, for example, there is a disagreement over the price of some item, he kindly spends time with the customer and somehow manages a compromise and closes the deal, even if at a loss. This is the secret of wealthy merchants. There are many buyers who, over a small transaction, carefully look over an item and want to haggle over the price, yet he does not refuse them, and indulging them like a great benefactor, puts his heart into dealing with them. Thus, does he treat them, and they will by no means leave without buying something.

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Moreover, he will not have them say they will return some other time and send them off empty-handed. This is poor business and not what successful merchants do. At any rate, he treats the buyer as if he were nursing his parents. Considering that buyers will naturally make unreasonable demands he must not be cool towards the customer or betray in the least that he views him merely as somebody who came only to view his items…. He is not a merchant who is greedy for bloated profits and thinks to instantly make money. Merchants of old are said to never have lied. The merchant who extensively expands his business throughout the country will not progressively raise his prices or deceive his valued customers with lies that will soon come to light (pp. 99–100).

On rotating stock: To accelerate your cashflow be slow to rotate highly profitable stock, but quick to rotate stock of little profit (pp. 102–103).

On sales rather than profit, and increasing one’s clientele: Put your efforts into increasing sales and clientele rather than profits (p. 116).

On causing a loss to others: Even though people may cause themselves harm, you must not do so (p. 116).

On discriminating between patrons: Give the customer great attention, even should he be looking at an inexpensive article (p. 116).

On customer service: At eventide have someone accompany to their lodgings customers who have come from afar with their girls and children (p. 116). If a customer has insufficient cash to pay for her purchase, just ask only where she lives, and do not have help accompany her home and receive payment there (p. 116).

On allowing avarice: Not only merchants, but anybody who is rapacious for bloated profit and ruins others by their avarice has no experience of those who are enthusiastic in their work and highly successful (p. 126).

On lying: Firmly discipline your children from their youngest age, whether boys or girls, not to lie (p. 167).

On teaching children manners from their earliest days: From their earliest days on children should be deeply cautioned against such things as avarice, vulgar speech, talking back to their parents, gambling, and lashing out at other with a quick temper. The reason that children raised in poor families and grow up to be unhappy lies in their parent’s poor teaching and discipline. The children grow all the worse as they are thereby tainted and grow increasingly cunning. If the parents bring them up well the children will naturally be good, regardless of how awful their environment, and they will grow to work hard in the family business (p. 169).

Passage with Shinto origins.

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On preserving purity of heart: Even should you lead a lonely life, the Gods will surely protect you, even should you not pray them, if with purity of heart you avoid doing evil. Certainly, human help as well will not be lacking (p. 149).

Passage with Buddhist origins. On being wealthy: The wealthy man must bear only with the heat and the cold as being unavoidable. He knows nothing of want in his daily life. He even does not know the price of rice or the cost of salt and miso. The Buddhist sutras have it that the demons hate the rich man, but that is because they detest want of compassion and a heart poor in blessings (pp. 157–158).

Passage with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On frequent patrons being Gods and Buddhas: If you are successful beyond what you deserve, then you have only your regular patrons to thank. The merchant makes his standard dealing politely and carefully with his customers, even those who buy the inexpensive items. Rather than petition the Gods and the Buddhas for the success of your business, consider those who daily visit your shop as the Gods and Buddhas, for what is important is to reduce your profits to have them purchase more. Your total profit will be great even if what is of small profit per unit price sells well in volume. There are none as important as your regular patrons. The guardian god of honesty is the living god of wealth for the merchant. Look upon your regular patrons as the God of Wealth when they come to your shop and express your gratitude to them. To avoid any ingratitude for their kindness, write their names on a hanging scroll and daily offer a prayer of gratitude for them (p. 108).

Passages with Shinto/Confucian origins. On being mindful of the poor: When living in poverty there are times when evil thoughts arise that would not ordinarily suggest themselves. Just as one does not look aside when crossing a log bridge, so one should be zealous in their daily life (p. 151). The poor very often lack a sense of duty, even when they take care not to lose it. They should strive to honestly preserve this sense of duty, and then, for example, even living a life of poverty they will somehow survive it, and their circumstances will turn for the better in their old age (pp. 151–152).

Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the benefit of study: Study allows you to better understand the distinction between poverty and wealth, and the reason why you should bless and help others (p. 160).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On benevolence: Curtail your personal expenses, dispense with extravagance, and use money spent frivolously to benefit others and society. The blessings of benevolence will be incomparably greater than making donations to shrines and temples (pp. 160–161).

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4.3.19  O  e, Tadasuke (1775) Akindo Kogane Bukuro (Basics for Merchants in Accumulating Wealth). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 1 The details of Tadasuke Oe’s life are unknown. According to the synopsis provided in the Nihon Keizai Taiten Supplementary, Vol. 1, he was a native of Kyoto and died in 1775. Its editor, Sei’ichi Takimoto, writes: “This is a book providing direction to big-, mid-, and small-sized merchants, admonishing them to make frugality and honesty their objectives. Arguing in detail that the literature of the merchant greatly increases immorality, he is especially kind in passages where he speaks of a soy sauce peddler” (ibid, p. 2). In the preface to the work one finds such admonitions as: “The avaricious man’s losses are many, but the virtue of one who makes little profit is great,” “Small profit is the basis for large profit,” and “Cash only, prices as advertised, is the standard for a flourishing business” (ibid p.  59). The influence of Confucianism is notable. In looking for specific examples classified by religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 20, Shinto/Confucianism 2, and Shinnto/Buddhism 1, totaling 23. Accounting for duplication the total is 26, with Confucianism 22, Shinto 3, and Buddhism 1. Classification by keyword yields the following, profit 19, thrift/management 7, frugal 4, economizing 4, alms/charity 4, honesty 4, intelligence/cleverness 4, moral injunctions to fidelity: filial piety/fraternal respect/loyalty/faithfulness 3, learning 3, spurious article/counterfeit 2, reverence 1, continuance of posterity 1, integrity 1, cash only, prices as advertised 1, the way of commerce 1, secret charity 1, mercy 1, handwritten calculation 1, peddler 1, and amiability1. Thrift and frugality occur most often, with almsgiving and honesty following. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On secure business: Keeping in mind cost prices, expand the proceeds you have steadily built up with selling your goods as advertised for cash and, accumulating your daily profits, you can end up with a full bag of gold (p. 59).

On the role of the merchant: The farmer enriches the country by producing rice. The merchant benefits the country by accumulating assets. All people can thereby live untroubled lives. The wealthy merchant is a national treasure (p. 60).

On prosperity and decline: From of old one realized his aspirations and became affluent by working hard body and soul, carefully economizing, and properly utilizing funds at the right moment. Their descendants will naturally endure, but those who are blinded by greed, deceive others, and inconvenience others, may excuse themselves and blame others, but they will decline (p. 61).

On frugality and management: The meaning of thrift or management (shimatsu) is to be earnestly frugal. The word is divided into a beginning (shi) and an end (matsu), so one is called thrifty who manages to

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preserve the family business from beginning to end. He is not called thrifty who, thinking nothing of tomorrow’s business today uses existing funds, or with no regard for tomorrow’s hardships uses the money for today’s pleasures. Today he deceives his customer, tomorrow is abandoned by them and his business goes into decline. Making a small profit by losing large profits is what is meant by not being thrifty (p. 67).

On human morality and social distinctions: Society may be divided into the samurai, farmer, craftsman, and merchant classes, but the principles of morality, that is, filial piety, fraternal respect, loyalty, and faithfulness are the same. However, on the pretext this may be so, then it is better to abandon learning to the extent it interferes with your work. The principles of morality form the basis what it means to be human, and so being a merchant is not particularly an obstacle to learning. You do not have to carry this far. A wealthy merchant has various clerks working under him, and therefore he does not need to spend his life in attendance at his shop. This freedom is similar to that of a samurai’s lord. He is blessed with leisure. He has any number of opportunities to study. Even if, for example, your status is lower than a samurai’s, as one who studies the Way and puts it into practice you can be called a true gentleman scholar (pp. 67–68).

On educating one’s children: The children of wealthy merchants should be taught how to write from the ages of seven or eight, enlightened by study from the ages of thirteen or fourteen, and have firmly pounded in their heads the significance of the virtues of filial piety, fraternal respect, loyalty, and faithfulness. They may also be taught music and dance, the rituals of serving and drinking tea, and flower arrangement, but they need not become proficient in them. There are many examples of a family business being neglected and then forced to close up….However enjoyable they may have been, losing the family business is not a matter of artistic achievements (p. 71).

On study being an obstacle to business: There are some who are zealous in business but have some antipathy toward having their children pursue studies. There is some warrant for this. The goal of study is to order one’s life well, to work in the family business, and to know what it is to be human. There are, however, many who have not really grasped this point, and instead devote themselves to composing poetry, disregard their primary occupation, despise their business as their hearts become pure, and consider making money a departure from moral principles (p. 72).

On the attitude of a mid-scale merchant. The merchant of a moderate-sized business should, in general, be sincerely frugal from morning till evening. Because his help is limited he should himself encourage them by example. He should work hard and, whether awake or asleep, think of how to make more money (p. 72).

On the minor merchant: Although a minor merchant is careful of every penny and zealous in his business one day at a time, he is full of anxiety. However, overcoming his hardships, his business will gradually become successful and he’ll move up in the world a rich man (p. 75).

On the attitude towards business: Remain calm while doing business. There may be buyers who price high-value items cheaply, but take no offense, and ask if they may not purchase it a bit higher. There may even be buyers who aren’t in a mood to purchase anything unless you knock down the price,

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but be patient and don’t become annoyed, and they’ll return in a better mood. There are shops to which people will go to do their shopping, and those to which they will not go. Consider the difference by what I’ve just said (p. 75).

On secret charity: Charity given by revealing one’s name might bring one temporary acclaim, but it is far from the spirit of true giving. True giving is done unobtrusively, and the one receiving may never know who you are, but Heaven knows. This is call secret charity (p. 78).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian origins. On the standards for business: That no two items are alike is a matter of course. Prices vary according to the item. Expensive items sell high, and cheap ones sell low. This is the standard for buying and selling goods. Goods should be carefully made, and those poorly made sold cheaply, but if to make a higher profit one displays poor goods to look more expensive, this is to deceive customers. High-quality items, therefore, command a high price, and it is only natural to make a suitably high profit. Cheap items being what they are command an appropriate profit. It is dishonest to claim that one item may be as cheap as another (p. 67).

Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On being fair: Making donations only to affluent temples, yet refusing to help your poor relatives, is contrary to the principles of Heaven. You must make helping the poor your highest priority if you would harness the mind of compassion (p. 78).

4.3.20  T  ejima, Toan (1779) Wagatsue (My Guiding Principles of Business). In: Shibata, Minoru (Ed.) (1973) Tejima Toan Zenshu (Complete Works of Toan Tejima) Minoru Shibata, the great-grandson of the Shingaku practitioner Kyuo Shibata, writes of this work: “The book elucidates in a sympathetic and simple manner an understanding of the relations between master and retainer, father and son, and husband and wife, and is a guide for merchants in light of their daily lives of buying and selling. The meaning of the title Wagatsue is that Toan himself is the staff for making one’s way in the world” (Shibata 1973, p.  4), in other words, the teachings therein are the guiding principles he has put into action. In his afterward Toan writes, “The reason I have compiled and published what I have heard from my seniors is not only to make money, but to record the means by which one ought to safeguard the family business of one’s ancestors” (Shibata 1973, p.  172). Toan Tejima was the foremost disciple and successor of Baigan Ishida, the founder of the Sekimon Shingaku movement. His teaching range across the Three Doctrines of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism. These elucidations are well-structured and easy to comprehend. Examples classified according to religious doctrine are, Confucianism 19, Confucianism/Buddhism 3, Shinto/Confucianism 1, Shinto 1,

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and Buddhism 1, totaling 25. Accounting for duplications the total is 29 examples with Confucianism 23, Buddhism 4, and Shinto 2. Classification according to keywords yields, ancestor 8, love 7, truth 5, law 4, slander 3, sincerity 2, filial piety 2, hardship 2, concord 2, faithfulness 2, gentleness 1, selfishness 1, deity 1, and pity 1. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On the master’s responsibility for the good and evil of his help: In general, the master of the house is responsible for the good and evil of those who dwell there (p. 123).

On forbidding extravagance, and on moderating oneself: Forbidding yourself extravagance and moderating yourself is the basis of loving others (p. 124).

On the master being appointed by the ancestors: The sovereign is the master, the attendant is the retainer. In the average family the father is the master and the wife and children are the retainers. In a single household the ancestor is the master and the descendants are the retainers. Therefore, it is said that filial children have no property of their own. One must consider the reason for this, namely, that all the property they currently hold has been entrusted to them by their ancestor. Using it for oneself, then, results in selfishly using one’s master’s property…. Consider that the master’s headship has been entrusted to him by the ancestor, and, as a retainer, one must shoulder one’s own working responsibilities (p. 124).

On causing one’s parents anxiety: It is incumbent upon children not to cause their parents anxiety. Is there any parent who does not worry about their children being unjust and unreasonable, treating others harshly, their marriages, the success or failure of their businesses, or being unfaithful in anything? Is there one who is not concerned over such matters as their sons frequenting brothels or neglecting their health? The most important act of filial piety, then, is to cause one’s parents no anxiety over these matters (p. 127).

On the duties of husband and wife: The wife watches over the house, the husband is zealous in his job outside the house. Husband and wife are united soul and body (p. 129).

On utilizing others: When employing others treat them sincerely with affection, and they will work for you. If the help does not work as you desire, reflect on the possibility that it is your mental attitude that is at fault. That is, consider that he does not have your confidence. Think sincerely about your help, and none will do poorly. Think of them, for instance, as your own children, and you will understand. Your help is somebody’s child. Consider this, and the matter will be understandable (p. 135).

On the master as model: As a rule, in many cases it is the attitude of the master which is responsible for the help being good or wanting. The help will become willful should the master do what is unbecoming. If the master is greedy, the help will seek to steal his goods. If the master indulges himself, so will his help. They will be similar in all things (p. 136).

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On the use of money: Speaking of money, regardless of how much you have it will be but rubbish if you do not use it to benefit yourself and others (p. 137).

On useless help: Only rarely must you demean somebody as useless. He may be of use in ways you may have not considered. This is a fact (p. 146).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian origins. On trade, silver and gold: People love silver and gold. You should, then, ponder exactly why they desire them so. Silver and gold are extremely precious treasures. Nonetheless, they are no substitute for food to appease peoples’ hunger in times of famine. From ancient times our country of Japan has been a country that highly values food, and it is also called the land of foodstuffs (osu kuni),24 the country where food is produced. The reason why food is so important is that it plays a vital role in preserving human life. Silver and gold are second in importance to food, because with them you can save people from their distress. For your sake, then, do not use these precious metals as goods of little importance, for example, it is of great consequence that you be economical with even small amounts of money and not waste them (pp. 136–137).

Passages with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On valuing one’s help: You may not think much about what concerns you, but it is not an insignificant error to disregard your servants…. It is most important that a master be compassionate and affectionate toward his help. Especially important is that he not turn them into bad people (p. 123).

On sharing the hard work with one’s help: Those who employ others should share in their hardships and joys. In other words, they should take the lead when it comes to toilsome work. Upon seeing this the help will willingly join in the labor. When it comes to pleasant tasks they should stay in the background and let the help take the lead (p. 147).

On the merchant and greed: Better for the merchant that he not be profoundly greedy. It is difficult to maintain a shop where such greed exists. Where little greed exists, so does an insatiable lust for profit, and the profit margins on goods sold will be small. Since the profit margins are small, carefully check on the competition to avoid selling at a loss, and prudently observe what allows him to sell with a sense of security. Quit selling when you cannot place your trust in anybody. On the other hand, check your goods carefully when selling and cut down on your profit, for buyers will gather where goods are affordable. The same applies when buying. Carefully, attentively examine the items and pay according to the price agreed upon. If you show such an attitude the other party will be obliged not to cut corners and will carefully check over what he is selling. This, too, is the advantage of doing business others can appreciate (p. 158).  Osukuni originally meant the region that produces foodstuffs for the Emperor. Later, it came to mean the entire region or nation that the Emperor reigns over.

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Passage with Shinto origins. On disciplining children: It is of great import to firmly admonish a child against lying and telling falsehoods from his youngest years on (p. 126).

Passage with Buddhist origins. On the duty of husbands and wives: Concord is the foundation of a couple, that is, husband and wife must above all things live happily together (p. 128).

4.3.21  Tanaka, Yusuishi (1779) Seken Zenigami Ron (On the Mastery of Money-Making). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 3 Very little is known of this author; however, he was apparently a prolific writer of his time. He published at least eighteen books, the present work included. He covered a wide range of subjects, writing literary works and instruction manuals for children, besides his didactic works. Examples classified according to religious doctrine yield the following, Confucianism 10, and Shinto/Confucianism/ Buddhism 3, totaling 13. Classifying the instances o f keyword, we find, sincerity 5, thrift, 5, the Gods and the Buddhas 5, frugality 4, justice 3, good fortune 3, one good at business 3, stinginess 3, family business 2, benevolence 2, patience 1, simplicity 1, and wit and intelligence 1. The following are representative passages. Passages with Confucian origins. On true good fortune: The world tells us that money is good fortune, but true good fortune lies in the family being safe, there being no calamity or misfortune, having among one’s children those surpassing in intelligence, and a future free from care (p. 4). For example, there are businesses doing well and prospering, but unexpected misfortune will visit those families which are evil. 80 to 90 percent of families in society have unexpected things happening to them (p. 4). There are many families that may be poor, but no evil befalls one where the members are good, and they live tranquil and uneventful lives. Heaven bestows good fortune upon them (pp. 4–5).

On training the help: There are those who employ many people, but do not know how to utilize them. They reprove them over small faults and drive them away on the pretext they are incompetent., It will be fairly difficult to train excellent help. There is nobody who has no faults (p. 18).

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On thrift: Frugal management (shimatsu) can be read as having a beginning (shi) and an end (matsu), and so in all things one must consider their inception and their completion. He who prudently, but not in a miserly manner, spends his life putting his house in order, training his workers, giving charity to the poor, gladly going to places of amusement for reasonable enjoyment, being moderate in all things, he is said to be a man who is truly frugal (p. 31).

On frugality and stinginess: To be frugal means to cease being uselessly extravagant and aiming for simplicity in all things. The stingy man behaves by refusing to comply with the doctrines concerning sympathy and obligation, by exerting himself fully and solely to making money, and by sparing no time for poetry and the arts (p. 31).

Passages with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the Gods and the Buddhas and sincerity: The Gods and the Buddhas confer their blessings and protection upon those who are sincere and honest. They do not expressly do so because somebody may be rich, nor will they abandon anybody because they may be poor (p. 11).

On the Gods and Buddhas and justice: Even though you may not involve yourself in evil, and you may not turn your back on carrying out obligations and being true, still, you might meet with the unexpected. Seek the aid of the Gods and Buddhas, especially during times of hardship. However much you may implore them because of the evil and immorality you have called upon yourself through your indiscretions and selfishness, they, who detest injustice and immorality, are not obliged to render you any assistance. There are evil people in the world who intentionally vent their anger against the Gods and Buddhas because of some unjustifiable resentment (p. 12).

4.3.22  S  hibata, Hikotaro (1788) Yowatarigusa (How to Make a Living). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 2 The author was an apothecary. The contents of this didactic work were written for posterity and relate how he raised his two infant children left behind by his wife, who had passed away untimely, and matters about his family business (he dealt in abdominal medications and the like). Additionally, it is a collection of stories told to him by socially well-informed people and other parents. He writes in his preface: “The words are simple, but their contents are profound; in fact, the depth of advice is humbling.” He first provides a summary of how filial piety is primary and the basis of all good, then he touches upon such matters as the relationship between parent and child and rules for parenting, admonishing against extravagance and willfulness in childrearing, and especially the importance of one’s choice of friends. He stitches together such precepts as: “The help should work as if serving their parents,” “The master is the model of the household,” “Engage in no kinds of gambling,” “Do not leave a youth idle,” “Know your place, do not favor beauty, and

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prepare all things in advance,” “Do not neglect to reverence your ancestors,” “Aim for health and prevent illness,” “Bearing in mind the courtesy proper to master and parent, nonetheless, treat alike all as friends,” “When taking a wife carefully observe her disposition, the actions of her parents, and their family code,” “Do good things and carry out secret charity according to your means,” “The merchant should greatly value trust, aim at being honest and frugal, and not indulge in avarice,” and “Consult with a prudent man over matters requiring great discretion.” Classifying examples according to religious doctrine we find as follows: Confucianism 20, Confucianism/ Buddhism 3, and Confucianism/ Shinto/Buddhism 2, totaling 25. Accounting for duplications the total is 32, with Confucianism 25, Buddhism 5, and Shinto 2. The keywords and their occurrences are, secret charity 4, truth/reason 2, respect 2, modest discretion 2, propriety 2, mercy 2, impartiality 2, negligence2, falsehood 1, manners 1, extravagance 1, pity 1, loving affection 1, family code 1, quick temper 1, the Five Constants1, and the way of the merchant 1. Confucian verses overwhelmingly dominate. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On the period from childhood to adulthood: As long as a child lives with his parents he is to steadfastly learn calligraphy, reading, and use of the abacus. He is not to argue with friends or tell lies, but to be well-mannered, polite in speech, gentle in countenance, calm in his movements, and ever nothing but filial toward his parents. If he does these things, he will increase accord with virtue, even should he consider himself insufficient therein (p. 279).

On disciplining children: When raising children what matters is that you firmly instill in them nothing of extravagance and selfishness. Extravagance in spirit is the very worst sort (p. 281).

On how to treat employees: The help should disregard his feelings when first working at a shop and serve the proprietor as if serving his own parents. For example, those who manipulate the eyes, mouths, hands, and feet of puppets during joruri25 performances coordinate their movements with the master manipulating the puppet’s head. The slightest deviation in manipulation will result in uncoordinated movements with the others. Those moving the hands and feet of the puppet become one with it and acting as one with the others is of great importance. If the master manipulating the head is out of sorts, he may quickly move it in a manner that deviates from the script … and if the puppet master in charge of the head, and those in charge of the hands and feet don’t move them well, the movements of the whole puppet will be uncoordinated. The same applies to a shop. The shop cannot be managed well if all are not in accord. Assign what you enjoy doing to others and give them nothing about which to complain, sympathize with the help as you would yourself … do not despise them and train each of them in what best accords with their abilities (pp. 282–283).

 Joruri is a type of dramatic recitation accompanied by a samisen (a three-stringed musical instrument).

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On guidelines for proprietors: Whether those working at a shop are good or bad depends on the proprietor. He should have a sufficient understanding of what it means to be the master, and he must be aware that he should be the first to correct their behavior (p. 283).

On the duties of each: Be gentle with all, from master, parents and children, brothers, and relatives to the help, and you who work under a master must faithfully carry out your respective duties (p. 284).

On revering one’s ancestors: You must set great value on revering your ancestors. Rise early daily, greet your parents, make sure of your chores for the day, clean everything spotlessly, make sure all is tidy and in order, and finish everything quickly … Wasting time leads to a lifetime of neglect. Let today take care of itself. Tomorrow is tomorrow (pp. 285–286).

On patience: To be patient means to bear with. Control your quick temper, for anger warps the mind. It may be good, but it may be evil. Your associations with others will not go well, and what is possible will become impossible. Seize the good, bear with evil, persevere in poverty, do not take on debt, and be satisfied with you lot in life. Business may slack off, and you may even become poor, but bear with it and work as hard as you can (pp. 290–291).

On the views of one’s superiors: Those advanced in years must not look down on youth, and those who are young should listen to the views of their elders… Calmly reason with them and guide them with sincerity. A servant lives depending on his master. Look upon them with favor and give them important things to do. If, then, they do not work out, send them back to their parents. If, however, you are at fault, they will not be available to you. Take good care of them and ensure their success. Shops that thrive and have long-standing help will not meet with misfortune (p. 291).

On raising children: Parents regard their own children as smarter than the children of others. They think it stupendous that they have learned to write at an early age, assuming them to be far superior to older children, and shamelessly brag about them. The children, as well, look down on others and lose any sense of modesty. It is the responsibility of the parents to raise their children not to be so. There are not a few children who may be brilliant when young but turn out bad as adults. If a child is left to himself from his earliest years, and his parents are not careful when he despises others and becomes arrogant, the child will consider himself excellent in contrast to others, naturally grow lazy, and make no serious effort to learn anything. One is born with one’s looks, but the same cannot be said for the heart. It is no small matter to firmly guide a child along the right paths (pp. 292–293).

On selfish desire and public desire: Trust in business is essential for merchants. The meaning of trust here is not to lie. Sell high-quality goods honestly, without being greedy for gain, and without taking any chances profit will be the natural outcome. In general, making money is not unrelated to desire, but when speaking of desire there are selfish desire and public desire. Making money to live extravagantly is selfish desire. But make provisions for and prepare for unexpected hardships, first by allocating monies for your parents’ happiness, then for your wife and children

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to live respectably, for your help, and for emergencies for all who live under your roof. Now, say that you have accumulated great wealth, have been careful and striven to be frugal and have an overabundance, use it to assist others. Making money in this way is called public desire (pp. 295–296).

On frugality being fundamental: The reason why frugality is the most important virtue is that it is the basis for running the family business and because it is the ground of the heart (p. 296).

On secret charity: Make it your goal to do good deeds. Thanks to the secret charity of our ancestors, we can live today according to our means, lacking none of life’s necessities. When we reach adulthood, we should emulate them and practice deeds of secret charity to avoid wearing away the merit of their charity and the loss of its balance, leaving it for our posterity … Secret charity will naturally accumulate when we daily, unsparingly do good (p. 294).

Passage with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On accumulating the good: Always consider doing good deeds. Should the opportunities not present themselves the Gods and Buddhas, recognizing your intention, will still preserve you. Embrace malice, and even should you not in fact do evil, the Gods and Buddhas will visit misfortune upon you (p. 295).

Passages with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On being inferior to animals: If you know nothing of etiquette, are merciless, neglectful of the family business, careless in providing for you parents, and leave misfortune to your posterity, you are inferior even to the animals (p. 280).

On consulting with a prudent person: Consult with a highly sensible person when you are of two minds over a course of action. Listen quietly to his advice. Our Great Teacher Kukai26 was of the same view. Everything appears fine when viewed from the outside. There is the popular saying, ‘Okame hachi moku,’ the bystander has the vantage point, that is, people watching a game of “go” see eight moves ahead. It is essential to associate regularly with wise people, placing your confidence in them, to learn how they think and make it your own (p. 295).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the essence of commerce: The merchant is of the lowest social class, and like the farmer, does not own land. Commerce comprises moving goods from places where they are in excess to those where they are needed, and as recompense receiving merely ten percent of the profits. Like a floating weed he is not rooted, and he travels about as if pushing through white clouds. In contrast to the samurai who receives a fixed, hereditary remuneration, and to the farmer who possesses large tracts of land, the merchant at times forgets his place, dresses extravagantly, and becomes infatuated with viewing the cherry blossoms. He forgets his past toils, receives no

26

 Kukai (774–835) was a Buddhist monk and the founder of Shingon Buddhism.

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assistance from the Gods and Buddhas, and in the end destroys himself … Trust is primary in commerce, but being untrustworthy, cheating buyers and sellers, and seeking only profit for himself angers the Gods and Buddhas, and should he hold enormous wealth, he loses it in the blink of an eye (pp. 269–270).

4.3.23  B  an, Kokei (1793) Shuju Kokoroegaki (A Rule for the Relationship of Master and Servant). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten Suppl. Vol. 6 In his commentary Sei’ichi Takimoto writes, “The author (1732–1806) was born to merchants in Omi, and his book, a didactic work, thoroughly expounds teachings based on his father, the head of the household and proprietor of a chain of shops, concerning guidelines for the head of a merchant family and the help, and on frugality.” (p. 3). Looking at examples classified by religious doctrine we find, 8 for Confucianism, and 1 for Buddhism, totaling  9 examples. Keywords and their instances are, frugality 2, wastefulness 1, secret charity 1, extravagance 1, stinginess 1, self-protection 1, admonition 1, behavior 1, one’s turn (junban; seniority by length of service) 1, character 1, honesty 1, and immorality 1. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On rules for proprietors: Wasting money in a lordly manner, and, beginning with the necessities of life, self-­ indulgently spending it off on all manner of items, is something profligate (p. 325).

On the duty of a proprietor: You may, for instance, have hundreds of people working in your shop, but you cannot come off as not knowing them (p. 325).

On secret charity: Make it your aim to regularly carry out secret deeds of charity (p. 325).

On the meaning of frugality: Be frugal but give generously to others. To be frugal means to avoid extravagance and live simply. This differs from being stingy, in other words, from being a miser (pp. 326–327).

On the duty of help working at a branch shop: If the proprietor is unscrupulous it will negatively influence Bekkes (his branch shops). Do not consider keeping your job, but unreservedly remonstrate with him, and admonish him against bad business practices (p. 329).

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On the manager of the main business: Commercial bargaining, paperwork, making payments and the like, these are naturally the work expected of the manager of the main house. The work of a manager also entails proper conduct and etiquette in daily dealings between the proprietor and the help. The shop will not run smoothly if one maintains in a managerial position one who may have seniority but is unsuited for the work (p. 330).

On the manager of a shop: A shop manager is entrusted with running the shop in place of the proprietor. His responsibilities are heavy. Choose him only after carefully observing his character (p. 330).

Passage with Buddhist origins. On everybody being on good terms with one another: Family, those in Bekke (a branch shop) and apprentices, all must be on good terms with one another (p. 327).

4.3.24  T  suchiya, Kyotei (1794) Kagyo Sozoku Chikaragusa (Basics for the Succession of a Family Business). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 2 Nothing concrete is known about the author. In his works, doctrinally, Confucian influence completely dominates. All of his examples derive from this Confucian influence. The keywords are all Confucian virtues: respect 5, family business 5, diligence4, patience 1, frugal 3, faithfulness 2, frugality 2, wisdom 2, benevolent graciousness 2, secret charity 2, and peaceful relations 1. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On the fundamentals of succeeding to the family business: In succeeding to the family business and ensuring it remains prosperous, first act justly. There are various ways by which you can rectify your actions, but respect is fundamental in all matters. Respect, in other words, means to act prudently, courteously, and with deep sincerity in whatever you do. All who work in the shop will follow the example of the proprietor if he always takes the right course of action in a spirit of respect, and the shop’s business will also be carried out properly. When the next generation takes over the business none will appear who live extravagantly or are lazy, and the business will doubtlessly remain continue to flourish in the future (p. 295).

On patience: Bearing with anything, however inconvenient, is what is meant by patience … You develop the habit by always maintaining patience and will thereby be able to put up with any situation. Patience, then, is unintentionally connected with frugality (p. 296).

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On concord in the family: For the family—including the apprentices—to live happily together the children should be filial toward their parents, then the brothers and the husband and wife be on good terms with one another, the apprentices loyal to the proprietor, the proprietor kind to his apprentices, and what it means to be human preserved (p. 297).

On capital for business: When doing business on an extensive scale exceeding available capital there are many instances where it becomes unmanageable and fails, and one’s inherited shop is sold off. This is due to the foolish idea that you will be thought of as incompetent if you do not expand what you inherited (p. 297).

On the Dao, Heaven, Earth, Commander, and Law: The meanings of the Dao, Heaven, Earth, Commander, and Law are as follows. Dao means to sufficiently grasp the way of carrying out the family business. Heaven means the opportunity granted from above, that is, to exercise self-control and not begin a large-scale business venture until an opportunity arises. Earth means geographical advantage, the locality where it is easy to conduct busines … Commander refers to the proprietor, the one who, in actually doing business, selects a head clerk who is prudent in all things, implicitly ­trustworthy, wise, and capable. Law refers to the laws which become the family codes in business. Clarify the family codes and the apprentices will loyally carry out their duties, succeeding even in complex matters, and all will go as planned (pp. 299–300).

On understanding others: You will lose your ability to discern good and evil in matters if you become obsessed with boasting of your talents and engaging others in battles of wits. If, however, you act in a modest, quiet way, you will be calm and collected in viewing things and, in general, able to discern the good and evil in what others do. By not concealing your own wisdom you will tend to easily quarrel with others, become arrogant, and lose your better grasp of a situation. Conceal your wit and intelligence and you’ll clearly read the minds of others. Those who are shallow-minded and, surveying society only pay attention to the seemingly witty, appear to be many. Among those who at first glance appear to speak poorly, and may even be brusque, there are those who are profoundly wise and useful for the prosperity of your shop (p. 300).

On a single flavor not producing a delicious taste: However accomplished a cook you may be, it is not easy to adjust for tastiness using only a single flavor… However sharp the mind of a merchant, and however hard he may work, he cannot be a good merchant by his own abilities alone. Therefore, employ many people, observe their individual talents, have them work accordingly, and coordinate their talents (p. 301).

On utilizing the help: Consider the case of a proprietor hiring for an apprentice one whom he realizes is foolish and ungrateful. Daily, he sufficiently explains as to one whom he favors what the apprentice must do. The apprentice, however, breaks the rules of the house, drinks, and causes problems in lending and borrowing money. At such a time the proprietor should reflect upon these things, consider the inadequacy of his supervision, and based on what he previously overlooked, force the apprentice to leave (pp. 301–302).

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On practicing secret charity: Practice secret charity to insure your descendants will long continue and the house flourish. Be merciful, do good, honor the Gods and Buddhas, reverence your ancestors, help the poor, feed the hungry, assist the elderly, bless your children, care for the sick, pay heed to the crimes of others, kill no living being unnecessarily, choose a mentor in studying rules for proper conduct, provide medications for the sick, propagate morality, for example, to do good, however small, and work very hard, do these things, then your family business will flourish and your descendants will endure forever. The saying has it, ‘One’s good deeds will be repaid even to one’s descendants’ (p. 308).

4.3.25  W  akisaka, Kido (1798) Kanemokaru no Denju (How to Make Money). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 2 Kido Wakisaka (?–1818) was a practitioner of Shingaku in the mid-Edo period. He initially was the proprietor of a book shop and was a disciple of Toan Tejiima. Becoming a teacher at a labor camp for drifters and criminals27 in Edo, he propagated his teaching in the regions around Kanazawa. He also devoted himself to such public works as making improvements upon the Otsu Kaido highway and setting up nightlight installations along the Higashiyama Keage in Kyoto. He was a native of Kyoto and was named Hiromichi. His common name was Shobei Aogaiya. His works include the Nintoku Kyo (Teaching on Secret Virtue) .The classification of examples based on religious doctrines ranges over the Three Doctrines of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism, characteristic of the Sekimon Shingaku28 philosophy. Wakisaka employs the simile of decocting a medicine in his lessons on money-­ making. The following examples recount his two principles for making money and losing money. On a medical prescription for making money: Make as your basis the six flavorings of frugality, patience, diligence in the family business, honesty, knowing one’s limitations, and sincerity. To this add the four flavorings of gentleness, humility, natural capacity, and inventiveness. Additionally, put in a leaf of mercy. Decoct this by preserving the way of humanity of the average person, chew it by deep understanding, regulate your appetite, and be careful to use it daily without forgetting to take it. Do these things and it will prove an elixir curing all manner of diseases (p. 6).

On a medical prescription for losing money: To these twenty-four flavorings of lavish foods, lust, entertainment, brothels, luxury, public image, self-indulgence, gambling, speculation, cruelty, brawling, quarreling, infidelity and  This labor camp was called the Yoseba, which was established to rehabilitate former prisoners of the bakufu. 28  The Shingaku (the teachings of practical morality) that Baigan Ishida founded is also called Sekimon Shingaku. Toan Tejima, who was a direct disciple of Baigan, propagated the term “Sekimon Shingaku.”

27

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lack of filial piety, discord in the home, disregard for admonition, willful self-centeredness, untruthfulness, stinginess, mercilessness, cunning and wickedness, impiety, savagery, mendacity, and flattery add the narcotic of continuous drinking and passing out. Moreover, flavor it with the six flavorings of imprudence, intemperance, irascibility, lawlessness, apathy, and miscalculation, decocting it and taking it upon fully relishing habitually sleeping in late being slothful in the family business. A single taste will make it pleasant to the palate, enhance your mood, and lose yourself in indulgence (pp. 6–7).

4.3.26  Chronological Analysis of the Eighteenth Century 4.3.26.1  The First Half of the Eighteenth Century (1700–1749) 4.3.26.1.1  Analysis by Religious Doctrines An examination of Tables 4.3 and 4.4 indicates the following: First, the influence of Shinto tends upward, that of Buddhism downward, while that of Confucianism remains steadily at a high level throughout this period. In contrast with the seventeenth century the Shinto influence stays invariant from 20% to 20%, while the Buddhist drops sharply from 37% to 12%. Second, the Confucian influence rises from 43% to 68%. Compared to the previous period the notable rise is due to the small number of samples for the same, yet throughout this first half of the eighteenth century the tendency is a slight decline. If, however, one views the proportion of passages related to Confucianism in these commercial writings as increasing, one may say that the Confucian influence fully permeates the merchant class. Beginning especially with the Akindo Yawaso, published in 1727 by Muneyoshi Uekawa, the father of Toan Tesjima, the disciple of Baigan Ishida, and continuing with the latter’s Tohi Mondo, published in 1739, and Table 4.3  Component ratio by religious doctrines in the first half of the eighteenth century Document Kadōkun (1712) Tosei Shogun Dan (1712) Chonin Bukuro (1719) Chonin Koken Roku (1716–1735) AkindoYawaso (1727) Fukujin Kyokun-bukuro (1732) Chonin Tsune no Michi (1734) Akindo Heizei Ki (1738) Tohi Mondo (1739) Kagyo Dotoku Ron (1740) Ken’yaku Seika Ron (1744) Ishida Sensei Goroku (date unknown) First half of the eighteenth century (1700–1749)

Shinto 1 (1%) 1 (5%) 1 (6%) 2 (13%) 65 (62%) 7 (16%) 3 (7%) 13 (20%) 4 (14%) 8 (21%) 9 (20%) 114 (20%)

Confucianism 99 (99%) 14 (66%) 14 (82%) 9 (60%) 40 (82%) 35 (33%) 29 (66%) 35 (87%) 42 (64%) 20 (69%) 29 (76%) 27 (57%) 393 (68%)

Buddhism 6 (29%) 2 (12%) 4 (27%) 9 (18%) 5 (5%) 8 (18%) 2 (6%) 11 (16%) 5 (17%) 1 (3%) 11 (23%) 64 (12%)

Total 100 (100%) 21 (100%) 17 (100%) 15 (100%) 49 (100%) 105 (100%) 44 (100%) 40 (100%) 66 (100%) 29 (100%) 38 (100%) 47 (100%) 571 (100%)

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Table 4.4  Main virtues seen in the first half of the eighteenth century documents Document Kadōkun (1712) Tosei Shogun Dan (1712) Choninbukuro (1719)

Keywords Frugality 32, propriety 20, benevolence 13, faithfulness 10, canon 10. White rat 3, the God of Wealth 3.

Goodness 11, simplicity/unsophisticatedness 9, modesty 8, the Shogunate government 6, thrift 5, frugality 5, social standing 5, honesty 5, conceit 5, deity 5, assiduity 5. Chonin Koken Roku One’s trade 4, family business 4, military rule 4, benevolent justice 3, (1716–1735) inheritance 3, expenses 3, calculations 3, righteous government 3. Akindo Yawaso (1727) Conscientiousness 10, filial piety 6, saints and sages 4, invisible aid of the Buddha 4, favor 3, mercy 2. Fukujin Kyokunbukuro Purification 9, impurity 7, honesty 6. (1732) Chonin Tsune no Fidelity 21, wisdom 10, the Gods and Buddhas 8, filial piety 4, Michi (1734) propriety 4, admonition 4, justice 4, frugality 3 Akindo Heizei Ki Negligence 8, filial piety 7, propriety 7, loyalty 6, sincerity 5. (1738) Tohi Mondo (1739) Benevolence 7, justice 7, honesty 4, loyalty 4, frugality 3 Kagyo Dotoku Ron One’s trade 13, justice 9, loyalty 4, filial piety 4, faithfulness 4. (1740) Frugality 18, the Gods 11, honesty 10, filial piety 5. Kenyaku Seika Ron (1744) Ishida Sensei Goroku Propriety 18, love 9, profit 7, benevolence 5, mercy 5. Simplicity and frugality 69, benevolence and justice 62, propriety 53, First half of the the Gods and Buddhas 38, faithfulness 37, honesty 34, family business/ eighteenth century one’s trade 31, filial piety 31, impurity/purity 31,wisdom and (1700–1749) intelligence 20.

the Kenyaku Seika Ron, published in 1744, the current of Sekimon Shingaku thought can be said to be the beginning when merchants start to be fully conscious of Shonindo as an ethical ideology. Third, the first work in the table is the Kadōkun authored by the samurai, Ekiken Kaibara. In this study we have made it a general rule to select those historical records which were written by merchants themselves. Ekiken Kaibara, however, though himself a samurai, was a brilliant observer of the affairs of the townspeople, and we have judged this work, written for townspeople’s consumption, to compare favorably with the other books. Accordingly, we ventured to take it up in our inquiry. The passages focused on Confucianism are, therefore, numerous, while those touching upon Buddhism are not in evidence. According to the table in Inoue’s work for the general reader, Kaibara Ekiken, passages related to Buddhism account for a mere 1% of the materials (Inoue 1963, pp. 186–187). Finally, the appearance of merchants who thus studied Confucianism and incorporated the Confucian spirit in their family businesses may be considered to signify the following three points. First, merchants who were thoroughly engrossed in their zealous pursuit of business nonetheless had time for these studies. Second, their

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mental attitude compared favorably with that of the samurai. Third, there appeared merchants who, having developed their businesses, developed a leisure of spirit, which generated a need to fill that leisure of spirit. 4.3.26.1.2  An Analysis by Keyword First, keywords of Confucian and Shinto origins spill over in all the documents under discussion. Confucianism, which brought refinement to the samurai, came to be studied by the townspeople and seems to have transformed them more on the level of self-discipline than on religious doctrine. Second, the Confucian-related words simplicity and frugality, benevolence, propriety, honesty, family business/one’s trade, and filial piety frequently occur. Only honesty has a relation to Shinto. Since honesty is near in meaning to the Confucian notion of sincerity, however, it is not at all peculiar that it would be integrated into Confucian thought. On the other hand, the words mercy and pity, related to Buddhism, decrease in frequency. Commercial activity flourishes and transitions into an unforgiving world where the economy is the measure of all. This is perhaps precisely why there was a clamor for virtue and demands for further self-cultivation. The reason Baigan Ishida’s Shingaku, begun merely as a private venture in his home, flourished, is undoubtedly because it was suited to the needs of the time. The origins of Buddhism’s diminishment are found in the family-temple affiliation system and its related government-enforced main-branch temple system, both carefully protected by the Tokugawa Bakufu. We consider this one of the causes why there was a backlash against the original services rendered by Buddhism, which lost its usefulness as a support for the general populace. Zenosuke Tsuji (Tsuji, Z. 1930) harshly criticized Japanese Buddhism in his researh paper, ‘Kinsei Bukkyo Suibi no Yurai to Minshin no Rihan (Decline of Buddhism and Disaffection from the People in early modern times),’ in Shien, Vol.5, No.1 (1930).29 4.3.26.2  The Latter Half of the Eighteenth Century (1750–1799) 4.3.26.2.1  Analysis by Religious Doctrines First, in comparison with the previous period, passages related to Confucianism increased from 68% to 76%. Those correlated with Shinto declined from 20% to 10%, but with Buddhism remained at nearly the same level from 12% to 14%. The influence of Confucianism did not abate. The reason is that those merchants who acquired wealth and developed a degree of mental leisure were able to aggressively study Confucianism, which hitherto had been the study of the samurai, and positively incorporated the Confucian spirit in their daily lives. In other words, one  Zenosuke Tsuji (1877–1955) is a professor emeritus of Japanese history of Buddhism at Tokyo University.

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could rightly consider that the merchants, who enjoyed the economic advantage, had confidently enkindled a spirit of resistance to the contempt the samurai held towards them, aggressively studied Confucian doctrines, and endeavored to advance, both economically and spiritually, their social position. Second, one of the features of the latter half of the eighteenth century was the frequency of peasant uprisings. One could almost say they repeatedly occurred on a yearly basis.30 The feudal lords forcibly raised their taxes,31 that is, the rate of payment to the government comprising the rice used as that payment, for which reason the farmers’ net income decreased, which introduced further hardships and suffering in their lives and caused them to rebel. The remuneration of the samurai proved a shortcoming in an era where it was determined by rice as payment in kind. Excepting that used for daily purposes, the rice received was exchanged for cash. Since this payment, moreover, was a stipend that formed the basis for rice as payment in kind, the influence on real purchasing power due to rises in prices was unavoidable. Furthermore, feudal lords themselves who summoned these taxes were on a fixed income and were similarly economically as poor as those under them. This was an era when the feudal lords, the samurai, and the farmers were impoverished. On the other hand, the merchants unrestrictedly expanded their businesses, increased their incomes, and became economically prosperous. It was only expected that this would enrage the samurai. To give but one example, we have several quotations from the Seji Kenbun Roku, published by Inshi Buyo in the earlier years of the nineteenth century (1816). There we find such examples as the following: Merchants humble themselves before the samurai and farmers, and make their living skimming off the margins as they buy and sell their goods,” “Merchants live in grand style by pocketing all the profits,” “The samurai gives his life for the country … He takes on single-­ handedly the hardships of society,” “The merchant is the most selfish person in the world, unlike the farmer, who is troubled by weather conditions, heavily taxed, and does not evade his service to the public (Honjo and Naramoto 1994, p. 229).

Third, it is not that the merchants were ignoring this kind of public sentiment. The keywords indicate that in their business and private lives they strove to avoid samurai complaints and contempt by spending their days living ethically, focusing on such virtues as frugality, simplicity, honesty, and propriety; this was the mark of the age. Setting aside Baigan Ishida himself, the prime example of this movement was the wide dissemination of Shingaku. That the standard of behavior for merchants, who studied the teachings of Baigan through the great efforts of his foremost disciple, Tejima Toan, who had called these teachings the Shingaku (teachings of

 The 1750s: 1750, 1751, 1753, 1754, 1755, 1756, 1758, 1759. The 1760s: 1761, 1762, 1764, 1766, 1768, 1769. The 1770s: 1771, 1773, 1775, 1776, 1777, 1779. cf. Rekishigaku Kenkyukai (ed.) (2001), The Chronologocal Table of Japanese History, Iwanami, Tokyo. 31  In the early Edo period, at first 40% of the total amount of production was taken in tax by the government, then the tax increased to to 50%, 80% at a maximum. Cf. Britannica International Encyclopaedia Sho Komoku Jiten (Japanese edition).

30

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Table 4.5  Component ratio by religious doctrines in the latter half of the eighteenth century Document Kyokun Zonagamochi (1752) AkindoSugiwai Kagami (1757) Zenkun (1773) Shobai Kyokun Kagami (1774) Fuki no Ji ga Tame (1774) Akindo Koganebukuro (1775) Wagatsue (1775) Seken Zenigami Ron (1779) Yowatarigusa (1788) Shuju Kokoroegaki (1793) Kagyo Sozoku Chikaragusa (1794) Kanemokaru no Denju (1798) Latter half of the eighteenth century (1750–1799)

Shinto

Confucianism

3 (3%) 5 (31%) 5 (13%) 9 (16%) 3 (12%) 2 (7%) 3 (16%) 2 (6%)

74 (83%) 5 (31%) 29 (76%) 35 (71%) 22 (85%) 23 (79%) 13 (68%) 25 (78%) 7 (83%) 11 (100%) 2 (33%) 248 (76%)

2 (33%) 32 (10%)

Buddhism 2 (100%) 13 (14%) 6 (38%) 4 (11%) 5 (11%) 1 (3%) 4 (14%) 3 (16%) 5 (16%) 1 (17%) 2 (33%) 47 (14%)

Total 2 (100%) 91 (100%) 16 (100%) 38 (100%) 49 (100%) 26 (100%) 29 (100%) 19 (100%) 32 (100%) 8 (100%) 11 (100%) 6 (100%) 327 (100%)

minds), was ethical is clear from perusing the family precepts32 of the merchant houses (Table 4.5). 4.3.26.2.2  Analysis by Keyword First, looking at the frequency of occurence in the latter half of the eighteenth century, ‘profit’ was 81 ranked at the top. This demonstrates how important money-­ making was in this period. Second, when viewing the following table another detail one grasps is that the latter half of this period is divided into two, from the years 1750 to 1775, and 1776 to 1799. In the former the examples of profit are numerous, while in the latter those pertaining to frugality and thrift are so. One may infer from this that, in the early period competition may have been intense but there were margins for clearing a profit, while in the latter period the intensification of competition results in a demand for an extreme financial retrenchment in order that one turn a profit. Third, furthermore, one may speculate that the reason examples of honesty and being on the right track are few lies in the severity of the competition. Fourth, based on the preceding two speculations one may say that the latter half of the eighteenth century gives preference to a profit-orientation, but when coupled with competition intensification switches towards a financial retrenchment orientation. Fifth, what, then, is the reason for the popularity of the Shingaku movement? One might infer a disordered ethical sense as a contributing factor, and Shingaku the  Cf. Kyoto Prefecture (1970) Shinise to Kakun (Multi-generational enterprises and Family Precepts), Kyoto Prefecture, Kyoto. Yoshida, Jitsuo (2010) Shoka no Kakun (Merchant Families and Family Precepts), Seibunsha, Osaka.

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Table 4.6  Main virtues seen in the latter half of the eighteenth century documents Document Kyokun Zonagamochi (1752) Akindo Sugiwai Kagami (1757)

Zenkun (1773) Shobai Kyokun Kagami (1774) Fuki no Ji ga Tame (1774) Akindo Koganebukuro (1775) Wagatsue (1775) Seken Zenigami Ron (1779) Yowatarigusa (1788)

Shuju Kokoroegaki (1793) Kagyo Sozoku Chikaragusa (1794) Kanemokaru no Denju (1798) Latter half of the eighteenth century (1750–1799)

Keywords Mercy1, secret charity 1, sympathy 1 Money 23, profit 21, proprietor 14, family business 10, deliberation 10, harmony 10, frugality 9, clerk 9, apprentice 8, negligence 8, founder 6, thrift 6, public 6, honesty 5, thief 4, propriety/etiquette 4, mercy 4 The Gods 6, favor 4, household Buddhist alter 3, honesty 3 Wisdom 13, profit 7, propriety 6, honesty and uprightness 4, Heaven 4, loss 3, gentleness 3 Profit 26, justice 13, success in life 9, poverty 7, sense of duty 6, family business 5, money-making 4, honesty 3, mercy 3 Profit 19, thrift/management 15, alms/ charity 4, honesty/integrity 5, secret charity 1, mercy 1 Ancestor 8, love 7, truth 5, slander 3, pity 1 Frugality/thrift 9, sincerity 5, the Gods and the Buddhas 5, stinginess 3, justice 3, good fortune 3 Faithfulness 8, profit 8, virtue 8, frankness 4, secret charity 4, truth/ reason 2, respect 2, mercy 2, propriety 2, modesty/discretion 1, organization 2 Frugality 2, extravagance/wastefulness 2, secret charity 1, honesty 1, stinginess 1, self-protection 1, admonition 1, behavior 1 Respect 5, family business 5, thrift/frugality 5, patience 3, faithfulness 2, secret charity 2, wisdom 2 Frugality 1, patience 1, diligence in the family business 1, honesty 1, knowing one’s limitations 1, sincerity 1 Profit 81, frugality/thrift 47, money 26, honesty and uprightness 4, family business 23, the Gods and Buddhas 15, wisdom 15, harmony 15, proprietor 14, mercy 13, secret charity 8, ancestors 7

emergence of one movement addressing mercantile ethics as a sort of self-­ purification correcting that disorder (Table 4.6).

4.4  T  he Late Edo Period: Shonindo in the Nineteenth Century 4.4.1  The Nineteenth Century If the eighteenth century was the height of prosperity when the Edo period’s political economy had fully matured, then one could say the nineteenth century was a time of instability at the close of the Edo period troubled by problems from within and without.33 Internally, the Bakufu’s political governance was weakening as 33  Cf. Fujita, Satoru (2015) Bakumatsu kara Ishin e (From the last days of Shogunate to the Meiji Restoration), Iwanami, Tokyo.

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repeated uprisings and direct petitions to the government by the exhausted and impoverished farmers continued in succession to those of the latter half of the eighteenth century.34 At the same time, foreign vessels were cruising the coastal waters of Japan, surveying the coasts, disembarking to request provisions of food and fuel, and unofficially stopping at ports demanding to trade.35 The Bakufu officials involved in this unfamiliar diplomacy during the era of national isolation were undoubtedly discomfited and carried on in confusion. The American, Commodore Matthew C. Perry, arrived with a squadron of warships in July of 1853, carrying with him letters from President Millard Fillmore. Next, still in July, with the firm promise of a reply to these letters in hand, he departed for Hong Kong. Perry then returned to Japan for a second visit in February of 1854 and concluded a treaty of peace and amity between Japan and the United States, the Kanagawa Treaty. Thus, was realized the beginning of the opening of Japan to the world during the Edo period. Both countries signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and the Empire of Japan in 1858. Following this, England and France concluded similar treaties with Japan. The ports of Yokohama, Nagasaki, Hakodate, Kobe, and Niigata were opened to foreign commerce. Free trade became the general rule, and such matters as extraterritorial rights, non-right of decision over tariffs, and most favored nation status were settled. Foreigners lived in the open-port regions and a so-called mercantilism ensued.36 On the face of it, once the treaties were concluded these doors were opened and matters quieted down, but this excited anti-Bakufu movements opposing its foreign policy. The Ansei Purge of 1858–1860 suppressed these movements for a time, but as if pouring oil on fire, it had the opposite effect of expanding their activities. Public order worsened in Kyoto and Edo. The suppression of the forces of opposition to the Bakufu were ineffective, and in 1868 the Tokugawa shogunate met its predictable end. It was the samurai who chiefly implemented the anti-Bakufu movements, but from 1867 to 1868, from Edo westwards, the carnivalesque religious and communal activities of the Ee janai ka odori movement became extremely popular among commoners. This was a movement that can be called the one funeral dirge summing up the bitter end of the Edo period and all its internal and external problems.37

 Pesant revolts before a visit of Commodore Perry in the nineteenth century: 1801, 1804, 1809, 1810, 1811, 1812, 1813, 1814, 1815, 1816, 1818, 1819, 1822, 1823, 1825, 1826, 1827, 1828, 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837, 1838, 1839, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847, 1849, 1850, 1853. Cf. Rekishigaku Kenkyukai (ed.) (2001) The Chronologocal Table of Japanese History, Iwanami, Tokyo. 35  Cf. Rekishigaku Kenkyukai (ed.) (2001) The Chronologocal Table of Japanese History, Iwanami, Tokyo. 36  Cf. Yokohama Boeki Shinnpou (ed.) (1909) Yokohama Kaiko Sokumenshi (Historical Aspects of the Opening of the Port of Yokohama), Yokohama Boeki Shinnpo Sha, Yokohama. 37  Eejanaika Odori Movement was a uproaring festivities demonstrated by commoners in the latter half of 1867–1868. Cf. Britannica International Encyclopaedia Sho Komoku Jiten (Japanese edition).

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4.4.2  K  ido (Tamotsu Kido) (1807) Tosei Kanyo Ki (Vital Points for Living). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 2 Virtually nothing is known about the author. In the preface to his work he simply and clearly explains his position. “Act honestly and humanely, without shame, remaining focused and working wholeheartedly. Accumulate all the small amounts of money you have wasted, they will amount to a great lose and form the basis of poverty. If you accumulate the money you saved by being frugal with small amounts, then, in the future, you will be on your way to being rich. You must not, however, on that basis refuse to use money for the sake of others or act against reason on the pretext that you cannot do the impossible. Simply be thoroughly honest, act rightly, be frugal and not extravagant. Preserving honesty and uprightness, strive to be frugal, do not live luxuriously, be generous in providing for others, make your way in the world with the warrant of a good conscience, for this is the basis of being a man among men. This is identical to the worldly proverb concerning the doctrine of small things adding up, ‘Many a little makes a great amount’” (p. 192). Such daily reflections as the following appear throughout the text, specific examples illustrating the routine ethical conduct of Edo period merchants, “Woeful behavior, unjust behavior: to make light of your superiors and despise your inferiors; to be on bad terms with your brothers and lack trust in your friends; to be cruel to your relatives and lust after women; to dote on your children, be negligent in your work, and engage in what is not appropriate to your lot in life; to act selfishly; to be haughty, avaricious, and stingy; to speak ill of others; to lie about weapons you may have; to make excuses, insist on your own way, gloss over your mistakes; to ignore the advice of others; to treat royally those close to you but be unfeeling toward those who are not; to be indolent, inattentive, perverse, biased; to be a flatterer; to be rude and impatient; to not consider what may be harmful to others, to be merciless, and to break your promises” (pp. 249–250). To perfectly avoid doing these things would certainly prove difficult. Nonetheless, the fact that acting with this intention in heart was something require is significant. Looking at the number of examples classified according to religious doctrine we find Confucianism 48, Buddhism 3, Confucianism/ Shinto 2, Shinto/Confucianism 1, and Shinto/Confucianism/Buddhism 1, totaling 55. Accounting for duplication the examples are Confucianism 52, Buddhism 6, and Shinto 2, totaling 60. The above indicates that the Confucianism influence is large. Classifying examples by keyword we find, the invisible aid of the Buddha 5, frugality 4, large profits 4, one’s trade 4, townspeople 4, discretion 4, thrift 3, virtue 3, truth/providence 3, secret charity 3, honesty 2, and to bless 2. The following are an enumeration of representative passages. Passages with Confucian origins. On providence: Miserable it is to be impelled by selfish desire, committing evil while knowing it is evil. Drive away faintness of heart at once and make it your aim to do good. Do this, and

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r­egardless of your station in life, and apart from your station in life, abundance and want will cease to matter. People in the world say that Heaven does not murder (p. 197).

On virtue, reputation, and renown: Virtue lasts for a generation, reputation is temporary, but renown is everlasting and unending (p. 209).

On thrift: The meaning of thrift is to aim to live on less without adding to what you do not need. You will become poor by living extravagantly beyond your needs. Your future will lead to success if you live with scant little avoiding excess and deficiency (p. 210).

On a hands-on approach to things: It is preferable to see things with your own eyes, for there are times when what you hear from others does not meet the reality (p. 214).

On putting something into action: Immediately put into action what benefits you, for thinking you’ll do later, you’ll forget it (p. 217).

On the family business: The merchant thinks about his business whether awake or asleep, and when eating (p. 209). Merchants expand their business going out to various places, and like ants they are zealous in their work, ever vigilant and industrious (p. 228).

On frugality: Practice simplicity and frugality, as your ancestors made a habit of doing (p. 229).

On reliance on others: Do not rely on others for everything. Since the fool depends on others he will later meet with situations where he will not act as he wishes. If you leave everything to others, including reliance on your clerks, something unexpected will later occur and you will be at a loss (p. 229).

On large profits: Do not have an eye on making huge profits, rather increase your sales and you will make money. (p. 233).

On discretion and dispersion of risk: If in all that you do you narrow something down to one thing without giving it much thought, you will be at a loss when your course of action was a mistake. For example, do not load highly expensive goods on one boat, but divide them up and load them onto ten boats. If one meets with some mishap your losses will be minimized. Keep your options open in all things. (p. 230).

Passages with Buddhist origins. On almsgiving: Boast about giving alms and you will not meet with favor, but you will earn resentment (p. 230).

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On mercy: When your children are young discipline even those you favor with the rod of love, and when they become adults take care that your love does not fade (p. 245).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian origins. On honesty: Simply be thoroughly honest, act rightly, be frugal and not extravagant. Preserving honesty and uprightness, strive to be frugal, do not live luxuriously, be generous in providing for others, make your way in the world with the warrant of a good conscience, for this is the basis of being a man among men. This is identical to the worldly proverb concerning the doctrine of small things adding up, ‘Many a little makes a great amount’ (p. 192).

Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On blessings: Better to help others and render them assistance. You will not have a surplus to bless others if you live extravagantly. Frugality, then, is requisite (p. 200).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On unexpected divine protection: Exhaust yourself in doing good deeds, then wait for fortune, entrusting all to Heaven. Do good works and you will not be rewarded with evil. Heaven, the Gods, the Buddhas will undoubtedly assist you. With this support you will not be burnt should you enter a fire, nor will you drown should you be immersed in water. Bows and arrows and guns will not touch you. You will enjoy abundance in this world and immune to illnesses; there is no happiness like this (p. 206).

4.4.3  I to, Hoshu (1817) Shison Takaragusa (Lessons for Offspring to Learn Business). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 5 Nothing is known about the author. Sei’ichi Takimoto explains the value in reading this work, “The apprentice as well, however busy he may be, must, without wasting any free time, remember to study. If you have books, you’ll somehow open and read them. Learn how to write, be familiar with a sense of duty, and you’ll be able to improve yourself. You should endeavor, for instance, to buy books and accommodate them, even if you are poor” (Takimoto 1976, p.  1). Classifying examples according to religious doctrine yields, Confucianism 61, Buddhism 4, Confucianism/ Buddhism 4, Shinto/Confucianism/ Buddhism 2, Shinto/Confucianism 2, and Shinto1, totaling 74. Accounting for duplication the examples are Confucianism 69, Buddhism 10, and Shinto 5, totaling 84. The overwhelming majority in the book is Confucian. Classifying examples according to keyword yields, virtue 12, propriety 9, justice 7, filial piety 6, profit 6, Heaven 5, reverence 5, benevolence 5, favor 4, unreasonableness 4, decree3, books 3, social standing 3, secret charity 3, sincerity

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2, gojo (jin, gi, rei, chi, shin) 2, meritorious deed 2, learning 2, discord 2, advice/ admonition 2, mercy 2, and righteousness 2. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On putting things into practice: You have wasted your time, however many books you have read and talks you have heard, if your deeds are not good (p. 3).

On making time to study: You can always take time to read a book, however busy you may be. You can spare time to study if you have will. It is a useful discipline for your future (p. 3).

On educating children: Not educating children is akin to hating them. Those who will not study, no matter how much you teach them, will undoubtedly lose face in the future. The future will be pleasant for the child who studies, even should he come from a poor family. The child who finds study boring and detestable will end in poverty, even should he come from nobility (p. 5).

On a lie being exposed: The liar, in general, will be seen through and exposed, no matter how skillful his lies (p. 9).

On filial piety: He who is filial to his parents will be decidedly considerate towards others (p. 13).

On discord between brothers: People nowadays are profoundly avaricious, lack virtue, and, if they are brothers, argue over and vie for their parents’ fortune. In this it is only natural that there be fraternal discord. There are not a few brothers who, because of their mutual hatred, are seen by others as unsightly. If there were at least one who were meek, these arguments could be avoided. The cause for poor relations among brothers is greed (p. 15).

On the choice of friends: Choose as a friend one who is more excellent than you are. You cannot improve yourself by associating with one like yourself. Nothing could be worse, however, than choosing somebody inferior to you (p. 18).

On good medicine being bitter to the taste: A good medicine may be bitter, but it is useful in treating an illness. Good advice may be hard to listen to, but patiently hearing it out will be beneficial for you. Willingly lend your ear and listen to admonition, as well (pp. 22–23).

On inquiring into what you do not know: It is no easy task to seek a teacher in all matters. If you do not know something, ask others about it. For example, without embarrassment, learn from one more knowledgeable than you, even if he is younger than you (p. 35).

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On not arguing with others: Do not argue with others. Furthermore, defer to others. Place them first and leave yourself behind. To value others is to value yourself. Cherishing the parents of others is akin to cherishing your own parents. To disdain others is akin to disdaining yourself (pp. 35–36).

On hesitating over a decision: If you are of two minds whether or not to pursue a course of action, it is better not to do it (p. 40).

On the faults of others: Harshly scolding one for not following a teaching invites a spirit of revenge. It is unreasonable to employ an intelligent man for cheap wages. Compensate, therefore, an excellent apprentice with an appropriate wage. The proprietor who fails to exert this care will attract apprentices lacking in loyalty. Compensate well, chastise lightly (p. 43).

On meeting with others: When meeting with others first take care of business to avoid wasting their time, then speak of unfinished matters. The essential business is forgotten if you do otherwise, other customers come around, and discussing business becomes a challenge (p. 45).

On the mouth being the source of misfortune: The mouth is the source of almost every misfortune. Gossip on the good and evil of others is forbidden. The barrier to such is the ear, the ceiling the eye. Discretion is crucial. What is spoken in private, thinking nobody will know of it, will be leaked. Since Heaven has no mouth, it communicates all things through the agency of human beings (p. 46).

On when difficulties arise: When some hardship occurs slowly calm yourself down and empty your mind of distracting thoughts. Control yourself when something angers you and the anger will at length cease. You can even prevent failure by calmly considering the matter. Pay no attention to others when they make unreasonable demands upon you, rather bide your time, they will get tired and, at some point, have a change of heart (pp. 47–48).

On everyone having some merit: Everybody whosoever undoubtedly has some special ability. When employing many people carefully examine them, and if they have employable skills, they will be useful to you (pp. 49–52).

On recalling one’s poverty when one becomes wealthy: You will live your life in abundance if, once you’ve attained wealth, you do not forget your early poverty and live a simple life (p. 53).

On observing friends: When examining someone, see who his friends are. The filial piety of a child comes from the thoughtfulness of the parents (p. 54).

On repaying a favor: Failing to repay a favor received is nothing but thievery (p. 60).

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On flexibility: It is not easy to do everything at once. For example, if you have ten things to do, set aside one and do the other nine. Take a break, then set about doing that one. Work in this way and it will be easy to move onto the next task (p. 62).

On being lenient with oneself but hard on others: There are many who complain about the actions of others but are unaware of their own mistakes. He is wise who knows himself (p. 64).

On patience: In all things patience is crucial. It is difficult to succeed in anything without patience (p. 66).

On secret charity: If you save your money and leave it to your children nothing will remain of it if they use it up. Those who think on these things and, as a testament, leave their teachings for future generations will endure. Secret charity means to act justly and show mercy to others. The effects of secret charity may not immediately show themselves, but secret charity long remains, and, appearing in descendants, never loses its efficacy (pp. 67–68).

On the learned man who cannot make good use of his knowledge: However many books a man may read, if he does not translate that knowledge into action he is what we call a ‘learned fool’ (p. 74).

Passages with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the benefit of reading: Reading is crucial. There is nothing as important as bequeathing one’s books to one’s descendants. One naturally learns to write when around books. Reading them, one learns the sense of duty, and knowing this sense of duty, one grasps the ways of sincerity. The family business flourishes when one’s heart is still. Preserve the five teachings forming the basis of Confucian thought on benevolence, justice, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness, link them to the Five Precepts of Buddhism, and these will bear good fruit in the future (p. 4).

On mercy and riches: Divide your fortune among other by giving alms in proportion to your wealth, then people will call upon you frequently and you will be respected by them. People will detest and speak ill of him who, although rich, is incapable of giving alms, and he will receive bad publicity as being inhumane (pp. 31–34).

Passages with Buddhist origins. On the resolution to make offerings to the Buddha: There are many in poverty who think they cannot make offerings to the Buddha and resign themselves to not doing so. But anybody can scoop up water from valley streams and pick wild flowers blossoming in the fields while walking along the road, and then offer them to Buddha. Such an attitude is of far greater value than making large offerings of money (p. 65).

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On the distinction of poverty and wealth having no relation to making offerings to the Buddha: When making an offering to Buddha the distinction between poverty and wealth is of no consequence, but the presence or absence of the will do to so is (p. 65).

Passage with Shinto origins. On honesty and misfortune: There is no misfortune for one who acts with honesty and uprightness (p. 61).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On filial piety: If by any chance you stray from the right path, still cherish the words of your parents. Heaven will surely forgive you. If the Gods and Buddhas are merciful, surely they will pardon any number of errors. Those who despise their parents and are incapable of right action will be hard-pressed to gain a long life and wealth, even if they are otherwise competent and read widely. Above all things, you must never forget being filial toward your parents (p. 75).

4.4.4  T  akada, Tomokiyo (1819) Sekitoku Sodan (On Cultivating Virtue). In: Takimoto, Seiichi Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 1 Tomokiyo Takada (1783–1847) was also known by the name Tomokiyo Oyamada. Sei’ichi Takimoto writes that it was said of him, “He was the greatest collector of books of his time, owning a library of 50,000 volumes” (p. 8). He was born into the Oyamada family but adopted into the wealthy Takada merchant family. Classifying examples by religious doctrine we find: Confucianism 19, and Confucianism/ Buddhism 3, totaling 22 examples. Accounting for duplication the total is 24, with Confucianism 22, and Buddhism 2. Confucian terminology dominates. Examples classified by keyword yields, virtue 20, descendants 8, accumulation of good deeds 6, secret charity 5, frugality 3, trade 2, town official 2, sincerity 2, positive reward 2, evil retribution 2, stinginess 1. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On the priority of accumulating virtue: Consider that accumulating virtue is most important for a man. Failing to do so can bring misery first, to oneself, then to one’s relatives and one’s descendants. Virtue is nothing visible to the eyes. It is the intention to make others happy while unselfconsciously doing good deeds. Thus, since happiness will come even while accumulating virtue unperceived by others, certainly happiness will come to one all-the-more who accumulates great virtue obvious to others (p. 298).

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On a craftsman’s accumulation of good deeds: The good deeds of craftsman. For example, he may work on a fixed, daily wage, yet he applies himself fully within a specific period and strives to complete as many tasks as possible. There are, however, many who, on the pretext of making only a fixed wage, work for their compensation by stretching out their breaks, working less energetically, and the like. On the other hand, there are those evil men who, when they do contract work, engage in such practices as cutting corners, cheating on the work, and floating profits. The reward for their evil deeds will not be long in coming (pp. 301–302).

On a merchant’s accumulation of good deeds: It is most important for the merchant that, in building up his good deeds, he conducts his business honestly and not deceive others. Stocking his goods upon consideration of time and circumstances, he observes price behaviors, then sets an appropriate price to make a profit and sells the goods off. Placing others in a quandary as if cornering the market is no small misdeed (p. 302).

On the apprentice’s accumulation of good deeds: To build up his good deeds the apprentice should, out of consideration of his master, strive to be frugal and, thinking of his master’s benefit, put his whole heart into his work so as to mindfully avoid wasting any time ... Deceiving his master and otherwise cheating him will, in the end, lead to his ruin (p. 303).

On changing one’s occupation: Changing one’s occupation is, in general, not a wise move. It is not a business one has been accustomed to from one’s youth, so one is not capable of managing the minutiae associated with it, there will be many failures, and ultimately it may lead to bankruptcy (p. 304).

On frugality and secret charity: Frugality is the quintessential type of secret charity. It is not a matter of being unwilling to spend money. It is an issue of being prudent in all that has to do with your daily life. For example, do not touch what you cannot eat with your chopsticks, for food that anybody touches will not be eaten and will be thrown away (p. 305).

On being usurious: However wealthy you may be, you will earn the resentment and bitter thoughts of the poor if you charge them exorbitant interest rates on loans and treat them harshly. The negative influences will impact not only yourself, but your posterity. Either way, you will earn their resentment, and your future will be brief (p. 311).

On accumulating virtue: It may not be bad to give alms to the poor, but neither is it much any good. When the poor receive more alms than expected they tend to become lazy and indulge themselves. Bless with alms those who are loyal, filial, and earnest, then those who are disloyal, unfilial, and frivolous will see and reflect upon it, and they will carefully use what they have received. This is what it means to build up virtue (pp. 317–318).

Passages with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the reward for doing evil: Those who are poor all their lives are being repaid for their own evil or for that of their ancestors. There are evil men who are wealthy, and that is due to the virtue of their ancestors.

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They, however, are quite miserable, for they will use up their inheritance in their own generation cause trouble for their children and descendants. All that happens in your life is the recompense of your ancestors. Therefore, make it your aim to exert yourself, build upon your good deeds, cease doing evil, and become capable of receiving the recompense for the good that you do (p. 299).

On secret charity: If you mistakenly commit some evil, then enhance your secret charity by doing ten times the good. Cease doing all evil and happiness will be yours. Descendants whose ancestors have done evil should build up a treasury of good deeds, then their fruits will appear in succeeding generations (p. 307).

4.4.5  M  ukyokuan, Matsugu (1822) Wagami no Tame (For Oneself). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 5 The author’s real name was Matsugu Ohashi, and he was commonly called Yosuke Ohashi. Nothing more is known about him. The origins of the book’s formation are detailed in its preface, where the author writes, “The present work, a didactic piece, is a compilation of the knowledge essential for the common people in their daily lives. It will be unmistakably useful if carefully read and put into practice. Since the content is too lengthy for a single compilation I have tentatively made this the first volume of three.” Classifying examples by religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 63, Shinto/Confucianism 6, Shinto/Confucianism/Buddhism 4, Confucianism/ Buddhism 4, Shinto 3, and Buddhism 3, totaling 83 examples. Accounting for duplication the total is 101, with Confucianism 77, Shinto 13, and Buddhism 11. Reviewing the keywords yields, filial piety 18, harmony 13, faithfulness 10, honesty 8, propriety 7, wisdom 4, frugality 3, reverence 3, simplicity 2, benevolence 2, innocence/purity (keppaku) 2, and mercy 1. Among these filial piety, harmony, faithfulness, honesty, and propriety are numerous. Since the contents of the book have been organized and summarized for each issue, representative examples have been listed for each of them. The book is comprised of three volumes. The first volume covers issues related to Shinto, Confucianism, Buddhism, and peace between a husband and wife. The second volume is concerned with the relations between parents and children, brothers, and friends. Finally, the third volume is a practical work, expounding guidelines for apprentices. Representative passages based on religious doctrine in each volume follow. Volume One A commentary on the religious faiths of the time and on peace between husbands and wives. Passages with Shinto origins.

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On the Gods: Shinto, the Way of the Gods, is to follow the Way of Humanity, to act in a spirit of honesty (p. 81).

On Shinto as the original religion of Japan: Neither Confucianism nor Buddhism are the original religions of Japan. Our country is at peace and the people live in abundance, for all issues are considered in the light of Shinto doctrines. It is Shinto, therefore, which is the basic religion of Japan (p. 81).

On honesty and uprightness being the basis of Shinto: Those who were born and live in our country of Japan, all of us, from highest to lowest, are descendants of the Gods, and, being heirs to the will of the great Gods, it behooves us to be honest and upright, for this is the innermost secret of Shinto (p. 83).

Passages with Confucian origins. On Confucianism: Confucianism is the religion of the sages, and the Confucian is one who teaches others the Way of the Sages. Confucianism is to study this Way and put it into practice (p. 84).

On there is a “Way” or path for all classes of society: All people have their own Way they ought to put into practice. The proprietor has the Way of the Proprietor, the apprentice the Way of the Apprentice, the craftsman the Way of the Craftsman, the rich the Way of Wealth, and the poor the Way of the Poor. The Confucian way is to follow the mandate of Heaven, putting into practice encouraging each in his own Way without being self-centered, without lamenting the poor, and without being envious of the rich (p. 85).

On peace between husband and wife: Becoming husband and wife is a matter of immense importance. The family will prosper if the couple gets along well with each other but decline if they do not. The welfare of the family depends on the affection of the spouses. Confucianism places a premium on the way husband and wife are with each other. If they preserve the teachings and get along well together, the family will prosper in due order, and that prosperity will endure to their descendants (p. 95).

Passage with Buddhist origins. On Buddhism: Good or evil depends on the mind of a man. Making the tenor of the mind secondary, suffering this and that is what is meant by affliction. It is Buddhism which delivers one from suffering. Buddha, therefore, is an excellent physician, and his role in treating the misery of all sentient beings and extinguishing the causes of affliction is consequential (p. 89).

Passage based on the unity of the Three Doctrines. On the different sources of beliefs in Japan: There are various doctrines, but their foundation is one. Confucian believers follow the teachings of Heaven. Believers in Buddhism seek to avoid rebirth in any of the three evil destinies. Those who revere the Way of the Gods seek to escape wickedness and misfortune and pray for the prosperity of their descendants. The Three Doctrines may differ in their

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expressions, but they share the same foundation. Any of the teachings, therefore, are acceptable. Study any one of them, grasp the essentials, and the results will be comparable, but study under a good teacher (p. 94).

Volume Two The key to understanding family dynamics can be narrowed down to the following seven points. 1. Guidelines for carefully raising children to avoid their turning out bad. Passages with Confucian origins. On how one raises children determines how they will turn out: Raising children, some will become wise, some will become foolish. The whole life of a child is dependent on how the child is raised (p. 105).

On the children of merchants: The children of merchants … are to be taught manners, etiquette, and deportment. Then, writing, arithmetic, and, after the age of ten, reading. At the ages of 15 or 16 teach them the essentials of business. To the extent possible have them call upon one’s valued customers, increasing their acquaintances (p. 106).

On raising children: Do not expose children to luxury. Make their meals and clothing simple (p. 107).

Passage with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On cherishing living things: Teach children to avoid thoughtlessly killing or harming such living things as fish, birds, dogs, cats, and mice. The Gods and Buddhas detest destruction and harm to living things. These invite divine retribution, sickness, and death (p. 108).

2. Guidelines for devoting oneself to acts of filial piety. Passages with Confucian origins. On peace in the home: Causing no problems in the family, protecting the home one has inherited, causing one’s parents no worries, these are acts of filial piety. In this world, however, those who are filial are rare, and those unfilial many (p. 112).

On showing gratitude to one’s ancestors: A very ordinary person opens a store with scant capital, works exceptionally hard, and finally becomes the proprietor of the store. To keep the store requires much money. Why such laborious effort to build his fortune? It cannot be for old age, or at any rate, it is not something he can take with him to the other world. Thinking of his descendants, he makes his money living simply and frugally, then he bequeaths it to them. But what do they do with it? Thinking nothing of their ancestor’s labors, they think it simply appears out of nowhere, live in sheer luxury, and use it up in their lifetime. This is a monstrous lack of filial piety toward their ancestors and parents. What they have inherited is not theirs alone. It is something they have been entrusted with by their parents. Therefore, heirs to the kindness

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of their ancestors, living simply and frugally so that, after death, the fortune does not decrease, they hand it over to the succeeding generation. This is, above all, ordinary filial piety (p. 114).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian origins. On the root of filial piety. First, be honest, and refrain from overeating and overdrinking. Do not be led astray by lust. Pay attention to your health. Associate not with evil men but grow close to those who are good. Avoid entertainment districts, and do not waste your money. Do not sleep in in the morning or go out at night, and refrain from going to distant places. Do not talk long or argue with others and be zealous in the family business (p. 112).

3. Guidelines for warm, fraternal relations. Passages with Confucian origins. On good fraternal relations: When considering the case of brothers in this world, some get along well, some do not. Good relations are characterized by the older brother loving the younger, and the younger respecting the older (p. 115).

On poor fraternal relations: Poor fraternal relations are comparable with being unfilial towards one’s parents (pp. 115–116).

4. Guidelines for getting along well with relatives by blood and marriage. Passages with Confucian origins. On cherishing one’s relatives: Relations with relatives do not cease even when they are severed. We speak of one family living under one roof. Even when living far apart family members still communicate through their past habitual, close associations (p. 119).

On the key to associating with one’s relatives: If you would be close to your relatives disregard their financial situation and be honest and sincere with them (p. 120).

On giving economic assistance secretly: When a rich man helps a relative he should do so in secret, so that others know nothing of it (p. 121).

5. The attitude for choosing one’s friends. Passages with Confucian origins. On selecting friends: You may become greedy and evil because of your friends. Be prudent from your youth, then, on whom you choose as a friend. Where they live also is a consideration, so exercise care (p. 122).

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On a bosom friend and a superficial friend: There are two kinds of friends. One is a bosom friend, the other a superficial friend. Bosom friends can open their hearts to each other in their daily association, but superficial friends are only friends ostensibly, and are cautious with each other. Bosom friends are united in their intentions. Wealth and rank mean nothing to them. They regularly do things together and, if one seems to be doing something wrong, the other secretly admonishes him. They help each other in hardship and share their joys and sorrows. Even sages are said to be embarrassed if they lack a bosom friend. Although one may desire one, it is not so easy to find a good friend. Most friends are superficial. If I may restate the matter, there are many bad friends (p. 123).

On associating with friends better than oneself: Be on good terms with those better than yourself … Good friends gather around those who do good deeds, but around those who do evil, bad friends congregate. Be prudent regarding those you choose for your friends (pp. 125–126).

6. Guideline for adopting one to be a son-in-law. Passage with Confucian origins. On care in selecting a successor: When one has no son for a successor adopt one from another family, have him marry one’s daughter, and make him the heir. Since the continuance of the family name is at stake it is necessary to check sufficiently into the family and gain its consent(p. 126).

7. Guidelines for being adopted by another family to marry. Passage with Confucian origins. On sucession: When succession in a family becomes a challenge the guide for action is this. Consider that causes and conditions in a previous life have determined your separating yourself from your own family and succeeding to the headship of the other. Treat the parents of the other family as your own, and your actual parents as your relatives (pp. 127–128).

Volume Three The treatment of apprentices can be narrowed down to the following five points. 1. Guidelines for employing apprentices. Passages with Confucian origins. On the differences between townspeople and samurai: The customs of townspeople and samurai differ considerably. Townspeople live in a world where, as luck would have it, a proprietor can be ruined by his apprentices and apprentices succeed to become proprietors. On the other hand, there are such examples among the samurai, but in general the retainers serve the master and receive a hereditary stipend. It is therefore required of them to be deeply indebted to their master, even to the point of ­willingly giving their lives for him. On the other hand, since among the townspeople children are entrusted to a shop from early on, receive a recompense, clothing, and the like, and work for the proprietor, one cannot say that a master-servant relationship is lacking. However, one is employed because employment is a necessary part of business, and a hired

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apprentice will consider becoming independent while learning the trade. The proprietor and the apprentice can therefore be said to share in a type of partnership. This cannot be said of the severe master-servant relationship between a samurai and his retainers (p. 131).

On the best use of one’s apprentices’ skills: A man has the character with which he was born. Make the best use of your apprentices’ skills and their work will make great progress. Just as your hands and feet move with no effort on your part, the work will go smoothly. Such a person is called a master in employment (p. 132).

On choosing others after observing their abilities: Those who are good at handling others first carefully observe their characters and how they work and, if they judge they hold promise, use them favorably. If, however, they give them a chance and still consider them to hold no promise, they quickly send them back to their families. The remaining apprentices, then, will be the very best for the shop (pp. 132–133).

On guidelines for the proprietor: A proprietor will guard his mind, be attentive to his actions, not rush and act rashly, and be careful in revealing his innermost thoughts to his apprentices. He will encourage them as loyal servants to show him respect and observe the family’s business practices while observing genuine propriety between him and themselves (p. 134).

Passages with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the merciful spirit of a proprietor towards his apprentices: It goes without saying that you should be attentive to your own actions when employing others. Strive, in addition, to treat your apprentices kindly and show no favoritism. Treat them impartially, without favoritism, and they will think of you as their own father, grow close to you, and expend all their effort in their work. This is what happens when apprentices sense their master’s merciful heart (p. 135).

On a proprietor who tempers his mercy with due sternness: It goes without saying that you should temper your mercy with due sternness. Observing what goes on in society, those taught with due rigor are good at running a shop, whereas those raised leniently are poor in their work and let go in mid-training. It is, then, to the advantage of the apprentice – and to the shop as well – that he undergoes rigorous training (p. 135).

2. Guidelines for proprietors and apprentices. Passages with Confucian origins. On the apprentice who studies the general behavior of others: An apprentice, seeing how society operates, should investigate how other apprentices conduct themselves (p. 138).

On the care a proprietor has towards apprentices approaching their time to leave: You should give exceptional consideration to apprentices who have long rendered you service and have fully served their time with you, leaving behind a well-managed shop. People in society are well-acquainted with their daily work, the shop’s reputation has improved,

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goods-in-stock and sales have, as you know, been capably managed, and business increases daily. Their habit of striving to be ever-frugal when working at the shop has been particularly useful. Since simplicity and frugality have been of the utmost consequence in favorably managing the shop you have been able to save profits annually, and soon you’ll be able to purchase your own shop, tend to your warehouse, and become a genuinely wealthy man. That you have been able to achieve this level of success is because they have not acted immorally and continued to work honestly (p. 142).

3. Five fundamental guidelines for apprentices. Passages with Shinto/Confucian origins. On the Five Fundamentals: Five things are essential in considering an excellent apprentice. First, that he be zealous in business. Second, that he be honest when handling money. Third, that he be careful in his relations with women and with drink. Fourth, that he be kind to others. Fifth, that he be forbearing and patient towards unpleasant people. If he preserves himself in thes things he will be able to avoid trouble all his life, the shop will run smoothly, and you will be happy (pp. 143–144).

4. The classification of apprentices from a proprietor’s perspective. The five types of apprentices. Passages with Confucian origins. On ranking apprentices First: Very Best The favorite apprentice among regular patrons, he is polite in concluding business and never loses money over a transaction. Since he exerts himself in his work the shop closes in the black in the annual settlement of accounts (p. 144).

Second: Excellent A favorite among regular patrons, he is does business with great energy, sufficiently performs his tasks in the shop, and is good at making money. He is inclined to boast of the fruits of his labors, however. If he were more modest and gentler in his work, he would very likely become the very best apprentice (pp. 144–145).

Third: Good He has a fairly good reputation among regular patrons. Nonetheless, he lacks the ability to double his sales. Since by birth his is an honest character, he is favored by his master and enjoys a good reputation in the shop. If he could put more into enlarging his sales he would be able to do business on a large scale, and he would likely become an excellent apprentice (p. 145).

Fourth: Sufficient This apprentice works hard and extensively, and on the face of it, he appears to be good at making money. However, he somehow overtaxes himself in increasing his sales. He works extremely hard but is poor at making special recommendations to patrons and not quite good at appraising goods. There are times he incurs losses over a transaction. Perhaps this is because he is young. If he puts forth the effort year after year and makes progress in his sales, his reputation among the regular patrons will improve and, possibly, he will become the very best (p. 145).

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Fifth: Adequate This apprentice works hard and extensively, and at first glance he seems to be good at making money, however, he is poor at buying and sellimg, and choosing patrons, and also his judgment of goods is inferior. He makes many mistakes and sometimes incurs losses over a transaction. Moreover, he is young, and he is negligent in some ways when making a sale. If he gradually gains more experience and becomes used to doing business, then he will receive more patrons, and the possibility of becoming the very best is not altogether a dream (p. 145).

5. Guidelines for when the parents of an apprentice come to take him back. Passage with Confucian origins. On loyalty to the proprietor and filial piety to one’s parents: There are instances when the parents of an apprentice, who is favored by the proprietor and has never been a problem, for no apparent reason come to take their child back home with them. There is no immediate replacement for the child taken from the shop. It must be painful for the child to quit and return home, but he will be unfilial if he does not go back to his parents. The situation in the shop is that there is no other apprentice to replace the child. This, one can say, is an act of disloyalty toward the proprietor. What, then, can be done? Is it a matter of filial piety toward the parents, or a matter of loyalty to the proprietor? Neither of the parties can be satisfied at the same time. Who, then, should be chosen? Whichever one is chosen results in a loss for the other. There are those who say that it is better to choose the principal person. Tentatively, this sounds plausible, but it is something one unfamiliar with the real meaning of loyalty and filial piety would say. There is no relative weight to the way of loyalty and filial piety. … In conclusion, then, when the child is at home he should be filial toward his parents When he is working at the shop, then he owes loyalty to the proprietor. Since the child is now working at the shop preference is given to loyalty towards the proprietor (pp. 146–147).

6. Guidelines for going independent after fulfilling one’s years at a shop. Passages with Confucian origins. On simplicity over ostentation in business: There are instances where expanding a business ends in failure. You may harbor grand aspirations, but if you do not carry on your business simply and meticulously over the years, success will be elusive. Money made in a grand and ostentatious manner quickly disappears (p. 149).

On careful thought before doing business, but putting it into action upon reaching a decision: Whatever business you are engaged in thoroughly think it through, then, when you have made your decision, implement it. Once you begun do not quit, even should some misunderstandings arise. You need inner strength to bring anything to completion. You will meet with troubles while doing business. When you do, consider things carefully. When climbing a high mountain one can reach the summit only after setting out from its base. If, though, you do not bear with hardships and quit along the way, your labors will end like bubbles in water. You will not be able to go where you should. It is therefore of great consequence that you strive wholeheartedly in your work once you have decided to begin with it (p. 149).

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7. Guidelines for those advanced in years. Passages with Confucian origins. On retirement: It is reasonable to be displeased over what young people say, but times have changed. You may interrupt them, and with a knowing look, tell them what it was like when you were young, yet very often what was then the case now no longer is. This causes offense and serves no purpose, and you will be shunned by them. When you hand over the business to your son say nothing of it at work, then quietly retire. Thinking of the afterlife is the path for one advance in years (p. 153).

On consulting with the elderly: There are those who advise speaking with old people for advice on a big matter, because they know everything and are well versed in judging the rights and wrongs of an issue. This seems tentatively plausible, but I cannot say it is correct, because there are all types of old people. You should consult with an old person, then, only after talking with him and discerning whether he is wise or foolish, what he knows, what are his opinions, and whether he has the acumen to judge between right and wrong (p. 155).

On receiving the elderly as if they were one’s parents: Since the prudence of the elderly, even if slightly foolish, is far superior to the wisdom of the young, you must never look down upon one advanced in years. The Analects of Confucius say that people should revere those who are old. Therefore, it is keeping with propriety when seating guests at a banquet to have the oldest person take the seat of honor and the young people the lower seats. When receiving an elderly person, then, honor him, having the attitude you have when serving your parents (p. 157).

On the life of the elderly: When one becomes old, being aware that one’s days short, distancing oneself from the affairs of the world, curtailing one’s social associations, calming the mind, burning incense, reading books of poetry, and enjoying one’s remaining years are of no small consequence. There is no shame in becoming thin and worn-out, but going out into society, being avaricious, indulging in food and drink, touching upon the faults of others one-by-one, judging the good or evil of others, shouting out to somebody and chatting loudly, these are not what old people do. Even looking around one’s surroundings is shameful (p. 158).

4.4.6  H  eiando, Sorin’o and Rakuto, Manukean (1826) Hinpuku Taihei Ki (The Rise and Fall of Merchants). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 5 This work has two authors. Both of their names appear in the book’s preface: Heiando Sorin’o and Rakuto Manukean. Heiando Sorin’o is the pen name of the celebrated Monzaemon Chikamatsu,38 used by him when authoring joruri and kabuki pieces. According to notations in the book, Manukean Rakuto is a descendant 38

 Monzaemon Chikamatsu (1653–1724) was an author of Joruri and Kabuki.

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of Monzaemon Chikamatsu. The work is organized into three volumes. The first and second volumes comprise the work of Chikamatsu revised by Rakuto, and the third volume is the work of Rakuto himself. The preface to the work stresses that diligence is more important rather than prayer to the Gods. The book distinguishes between the rich and the poor, and it elucidates the causes of becoming wealthy and falling into poverty by recourse to an easy-to-understand analogy to warfare. The keywords associated with the Army of the Rich are, benevolent, justice, honesty, loyalty and filial piety, patience, frugality, mercy, love and respect, and early rising. Those associated with the Army of the Poor are, indulgence, imprudence, negligence, heavy drinking, lewdness, extravagance, sleeping in late, and conceit. The Army of the Rich is victorious in the battle. The primary factor in victory is that one can become wealthy where poverty is a stranger to industry if one remembers the way of the five Confucian virtues of benevolence, justice, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness, and observes diligence and frugality in the family business. Classifying the examples by religious doctrine we find, Shinto/Confucianism/Buddhism 5, Confucianism 4, and Shinto/Confucianism 2, totaling 11. When accounting for duplication the examples are Confucianism 11, Buddhism 5, and Shinto 7, totaling 23. The following are representative passages based on religious doctrine. Passages with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the root of prosperity for home and country: The root cause of prosperity in the home and in the country are, first, to devote yourself to the morality taught in Shinto, Confucianism, or Buddhism. Next, with honesty as your basis, observe the ways of benevolent justice, loyalty and filial piety, and chastity, while also exhausint yourself in being merciful (p. 165).

On the divine protection of Heaven To obtain the divine protection of Heaven consider that everything is a gift of Heaven, even one sheet of paper or a piece of wood. Waste nothing, keep the doctrines of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism, act lawfully, and with the aim of being merciful and charitable, pity others, refrain from giving yourself to indulgence, and be moderate in your actions, for these are of considerably great importance (pp. 200–201).

Passages with Confucian origins. On the standard of life: When a man of noble character meets with poverty, he is forbearing, but a narrow-minded man, lacking magnanimity and character, steals. Hunger and cold do not incite evil in the heart of the virtuous man, and when in straightened circumstances he remains steadfast, preserves frugality while exerting himself in the family business, and lives his life in peace. As the saying has it, “Poverty is a stranger to industry (p. 184).

On the man of power will inevitably destroy himself: From of old it has been said that the man of power will inevitably fade away. The man who rightly abides by the Way, however, will not decline, but will always live with abundance (p. 200).

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On sincerity and frugality: To become wealthy, you must be vigilant in being frugal and sincere. Any poor man will at once enjoy wealth if he sincerely makes frugality his priority. Frugality of the basis of wealth, but stinginess the foundation of poverty. Frugality is the scent of daffodils, but stinginess the bad smell of onions (p. 206).

Passages with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On honesty and mercy: Act with honesty and mercy, and Heaven, seeing it, will bless you with good fortune and virtue (p. 199).

On honesty and frugality: People must not treat honesty as if it were cash that is fleeced. Make frugality your capital, for this is the quick route to being wealthy (p. 206).

4.4.7  O  kura, Nagatsune (1827) Minka o Sodategusa (Household Management). In: Takimoto Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 5 The author (1768–1861) was born into a farming family and served as an apprentice to a merchant family, then later became independent, opening a business in nursery stock. He became a samurai through marriage to the daughter of a samurai and took up a post connected with farming. His works related to farming are many. The present book is not one of them, but a didactic work on human life. He elucidates moral issues by providing examples of such matters related to true stories where a proprietor’s house is redeemed by the efforts of the apprentices, the employment of apprentices, and frugality. Classifying the examples according to religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 26, Buddhism 1, Confucianism/Buddhism 1, and Confucianism/Shinto/Buddhism 1, totaling 29. Accounting for duplication we find, Confucianism 28, Buddhism 3, and Shinto 1. The Confucian examples are predominant. Classifying examples of keywords, we find, patience 16, loyalty 4, harmony 4, frugality 3, secret charity 3, mercy 2, the Five cardinal virtues 2, propriety 2, wisdom 2, pity 1, benevolence 1, kindness 1, loyalty and filial piety 1, and sincerity 1. Instances of patience are the most numerous by far, and Confucian influence is notable. Representative passages based on religious doctrine. Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On instilling morals from childhood onward: From their youth onward discuss matters of good and evil with your children, telling them stories about poor farmers who became successful merchants, rich people who fell into poverty, filial piety, loyal people, those who enjoyed happiness by doing deeds of secret charity and mercy, and those who received the rewards of their evil (p. 40).

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Passage with Buddhist origins. On mercy: Your child will be your successor. Giving him a strict upbringing is mercy (p. 41).

Passages with Confucian origins. On the upbringing of children: Taking the analogy of a tree, the budding of its leaves is like the birth of a human being. Tend to it steadily and in one to two years its foliage will increase. Place a support to it, fasten it with cords, prune off the useless branches, and as you tend to it it will grow into a straight tree. When a child is four or five years of age instill good manners in him to excisee the selfishness of useless branches, then he will grow to be a good and honest man (pp. 39–40). Because children, when young, are unaffected in all things, they will be raised as disciplined, whatever that may be. This is not as difficult as one thinks. But on the pretext that being overly strict with a child will lead to him becoming timid and worried over trifling matters, some pamper them and raise them to be self-centered. When they reach marriageable age they suddenly try to teach them manners and give them appropriate advice. The years of poor upbringing, however, have left their mark, for these young people do not honor their parents, consider things casually, and will not take advice regardless of how often you may warn them. In the end, they argue with their parents and grow to resent them (p. 40).

On learning for farmers and merchants: Learning is something good, but farmers and merchants should be cautioned against being absorbed in study to the detriment of their primary work. They ought first to obey government rules, carefully read notifications of laws and ordinances, honor the samurai, and treat their apprentices well. This is what learning is for them (p. 42). When farmers and merchants engage in study, they come to distain their primary duties and hold them in contempt. Proud of their intellectual prowess they make fools of others, and they end in losing their primary jobs, not to mention their family business (p. 42).

On dealing with apprentices: Treat your apprentices kindly. Do not cherish only those you like and favor but pay attention to those who are loyal. Admonish in various ways those who are disloyal, and if they show no remorse, have them quit forthwith. There will be apprentices who, like little children, will refuse to listen to you, but they are useless to the shop and to you. If you keep in mind that you yourself may be negligent in some ways, and that what others consequently say to you will be beneficial, then listen even to your apprentices, whether what they say is pleasant or not. Accept what is good, reject what is bad (pp. 48–49).

On admonishment: If you think to admonish your master, look for a time when nobody is around and talk to him in secret (p. 57).

On the secret of employing others: When a proprietor puts on propriety airs those under him somehow find it hard to give him earnest allegiance. Basing yourself on harmony, propriety, mercy, and benevolence, deal with your apprentices as if they were your colleagues and friends (pp. 59–60).

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On patience: Patience means to bear with something … When you are angry your mind loses focus, which affects your character. Matters do not go your way and various bad things happen (pp. 64–65).

On merchants do not receive a samurai’s stipend: Unlike the samurai, a merchant receives no stipend. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to be very well versed in carrying out commerce, refrain from ostentation, avoid avarice, impart to your descendants the secret of making money, treat your patrons well, enrich others, do not deal in ill-gotten goods, preserve loyalty and filial piety, and be the first to strictly obey the laws and ordinances ... Do not say that poverty and wealth, fortune and misfortune, rising and falling, and prosperity and adversity depend on the efforts of men, but that they are contingent on the will of Heaven. One can say, follow the example of good men and assimilate for yourself the good they do (p. 70).

On reprimanding an apprentice: When reprimanding an apprentice speak kindly to him, out of the sight of others, ‘Your work is good, and you have a good reputation. Everybody at the shop is pleased with you.’ If you say to him, ‘Your recent mismanagement is something unbefitting you,’ and after hearing him out telling him, ‘From now on make every effort to avoid making this kind of mistake,’ you will please him. The apprentice will understand exactly what you have told him, and he will reflect upon it. A proprietor’s use of others is important for adding even one good person to those working under him. There will be those whom the proprietor may favor, but who among the subordinates has a bad reputation of being disloyal. Conversely, there will be those whom the proprietor may not favor but is more honest than those who are deeply loyal and beneficial to the shop, and even if slightly inadequate, are a benefit for the business. That an apprentice may not settle in for the duration is the burden of the proprietor (pp. 79–81).

On secret charity: Secret charity is a virtue one practices out of the sight of others. When you give alms or even takes care of somebody do not make them feel indebted to you and say nothing to anybody about it. Something of a loss attends secret charity, and those who indeed practice it are rare (p. 104).

Passage with Confucian/Shinto/Buddhist origins. On Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shinto having much in common: The fundamental spirit of Confucianism is based on honoring the sages, being faithful, and acting correctly with sincerity. Shinto and Buddhism share many similar points (p. 70).

4.4.8  T  oka, Sanjin (1837) Tosei Kanyo Ki – 2 Hen (Vital Points for a Living, Supplementary). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 2 The real name of the author is unknown. He was a writer of popular books aimed at a mass audience and went also by the name Michimaro Tokaen. This is a didactic work, summarized as follows into sections speaking of matters useful for getting on

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in the world. Classifying examples based on religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 32, Shinto/Buddhism 1, Buddhism 1, and Shinto/Confucianism/Buddhism 1, totaling 35. Accounting for duplication the total is 38, with Confucianism 33, Shinto 2, and Buddhism 3. Confucian examples are abundant. The examples of keywords are, employing others 9, favor 5, capacity/talent 2, wisdom coming with age 1, an art 1, the estimation of others 1, patience 1, reward and punishment 1, admonition 1, miserliness 1, and mercy 1. Employing others is the phrase that stands out. Passages with Confucian origins. On Age and experience teach wisdom: Even an intelligent man should consider that, when young, one does not measure up with those advanced in years (p. 267). Do not even begin to take care of anybody if you think you will make them indebted to you. It will rather prove to be your ruin (p. 268).

On ability: Do not strain yourself by going beyond your capabilities (p. 268).

On a specific skill: Aim at mastering a single art rather than trying your hand at many (p. 269).

On the estimation of others: When evaluating someone ask ten people what they think, and if a few say he is a good man, then regard him as good. If all ten say that he is bad, then consider him to be such. It is improbable to think that all ten people would say he is good, because there will be some among the ten who are evil. He who is hated by evil men but liked by good men is himself a good man (p. 270).

On employing others: When employing others first speak well of them. To reprimand them is loss (p. 270).

On brothers: The older brother loving the younger, and the younger honoring the older results in filial piety towards their parents (p. 272).

On guidelines regarding the occurrence of accidents: One must not panic when some accident occurs. The deeper the water you go into the less will you stand on your feet (p. 272).

On not being able to conceal what is spoken: Anything once spoken will undoubtedly come to light. It cannot be concealed (p. 273).

On reward and punishment: They say that reward is heavy and transgression light, but it is better that reward and punishment together both be heavy. When punishment is light, transgressions will abound. Transgressions will naturally be fewer where their punishment is severe (p. 273).

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On admonition: It is a blessing to have your deficiencies pointed out to you. Those who do so are akin to you scolding your own child for his mischief. The source of anger lies in being sternly advised (p. 273).

On the beginning is crucial in education: Beginnings are crucial in educating others and are like tending garden shrubs (p. 274).

On stinginess and greed: There are many who consider stinginess and greed as being the same. This, though, is a mistake. Stinginess pertains to knowing one’s limits and acting within them … Greed concerns not only oneself, but to refrain from giving alms to helping others and from using money for necessities … When one finds outlaying even necessary money repugnant it is that that become the loss. This is similar, for example, to becoming ill and desisting from paying the doctor’s fees (pp. 280–281).

On even those capable make mistakes: From time to time even those highly capable in their work make small mistakes… Therefore, when evaluating anybody it is crucial to regard their positive aspects and be unconcerned about small mistakes (pp. 285–286).

On employing others: Careful consideration on how to use others is needed when employing them. A carpenter, for instance, devises how best to use a tree (p. 286).

On the right person in the right place: Using talented and wise people for work that is hardly important, and on the other hand, having foolish people do critical work, is like using an excellent sword as a machete. This is something wasteful and shameful … Just as one pays out large sums of money at a well-­ known hot spring, so should one highly compensate a superior person (p. 287).

On study being unnecessary for farmers: I consider study unnecessary for farmers … However much they study, it is of no use to them if they cannot grasp the theory. The Imagawa study books39 should suffice them (p. 290).

On gossip: Those who take themselves to gossiping about others think that they will be the subject of gossip (p. 291).

On the head clerk: One must exercise prudence in selecting a head clerk to occupy the highest position among the clerks. The head clerk is responsible for the loyalty or disloyalty of the subordinates. The proprietor does not easily observe those among the clerks who occupy the middle and lower positions. One may perhaps observe that he understands very little. It is, then, hard to say whether the will of the proprietor has been sufficiently made known to all the clerks. It  Imagawa study books were popular textbooks at the terakoya. This suggests that the bakufu thought that an elementary level of education was sufficient for the farmer class.

39

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falls upon the head clerk, who stands between the proprietor and his subordinates, to make the policies of the former known to the latter. The proprietor and the clerks can be united if there is a good head clerk (p. 292).

Passage with Buddhist origins. On the effort to be merciful: It is demanding to show mercy. That said, mercy in name only is better than none. The blessings for the one shown mercy differ very little, which makes such mercy sufficiently significant (p. 268).

Passage with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On the Buddhas and the Gods: Invoking the Buddhas and the Gods makes one honest (p. 271).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian/Buddhist origins. On Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism: One must not stigmatize Shinto, Confucianism, or Buddhism. It does not bode well should one be deficient (p. 282).

4.4.9  O  zeki, Tametaka (1838) Fu Ki Jizai Shu (How to Become Wealthy). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 3 Nothing concrete is known of the author. He provides guidelines for daily life speaking of the 11 virtues of honesty, mercy, moderation, discretion, reconciliation in the family, endurance, preservation of one’s health, cleanliness, frugality, early rising, and diligence based on the analogy of 11 trees. The author writes in his preface, “The wealth, honors, poverty, or lowliness of a man is influenced by whether his heart is honest or perverse. There is nobody wicked who can long maintain wealth and honor, and there is no example of an honest man who will remain in poverty and lowliness.” The book’s 11 wealth-bearing trees are the standards for leading a virtuous life and preserving the family (p. 179). Classifying examples according to religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 45, Confucianism/Buddhism 9, Shinto/Confucianism 4, Shinto/Buddhism 4, Buddhism 2, and Shinto/Confucianism/Buddhism 1, totaling 65 examples. Accounting for duplication we find, Confucianism 59, Buddhism 16, and Shinto 9, totaling 84. The Confucian influence is strong. Keywords are honesty, mercy, doctrine of the mean, negligence, concord, endurance, preservation of one’s health, purity, frugality, early rising, and diligence. Examples On the tree of honesty: Belief in the Gods is the true mind of a man. Habitually acting honestly with utter sincerity, he fulfills the role of a believer. He will naturally receive the divine protection of the Gods

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and Buddhas and experience their miraculous efficacy if he worships them and reverently reads the Buddhist scriptures. Surely, he will become wealthy if he leads his life in honesty and tranquility (p. 184).

On the tree of profound mercy: Secret charity and hidden merit mean nothing other than giving alms to people, alleviating their sufferings, and acting for their benefit. The Eki (the Book of Changes)40 reads “A family that accumulates goodness will always have excess good fortune.” The Makashikan41 states “There is a certain determination to things, a sense of purity to that which is good, a sense of impurity to that which is evil.” Therefore, the family that is merciless will always perish, and the descendants of a family that is merciful will always prosper (pp. 187–188).

On the tree of moderation: Confucius said, “The superior man observes the mean, the ignoble man acts contrary to it. The mean is neither excess nor deficiency, but that which is good. It is the highest good (p. 192).

On the tree of negligence: The farmer, the craftsnan, and the merchant will fall into poverty if they fail in their work. It follows that they will surely grow wealthy if they are vigilant, do not waste time, and work unsparingly (p. 199).

On the tree of concord in the family: All agree, buyers and sellers alike, if in business you are reasonable without overtaxing yourself. This is concord. A proprietor should be reasonable with his subordinates, not forcing them to do what is not possible, and frank with his servants, dealing with them honestly. If a subordinate opens his heart to and confides in the proprietor, the proprietor will gain credibility. The proprietor will be frank with his subordinates if they are reasonable with him and do not force him to do the impossible. What is forced perverts the mind of a man (p. 205).

On the tree of patient endurance: A merchant’s business will suddenly fail if, while living according to his station in life, he forgets the blessings of the Gods and Buddhas, thinks about making fast money, grows impatient, and continues to carry out his business in the wrong way. The same applies to farmers and craftsmen (p. 207).

On the tree of preserving one’s health: Being born into this world life is what is most important. One is unable to practice benevolence, justice, loyalty, and filial piety without life, and is also incapable of using one’s gold, silver, and jewels (p. 208).

On the tree of purity: One can say that craftsmen and merchants both act with purity and uprightness when they honestly endeavor zealously in their work, when they are not covetous and seek to make a just profit, and when they do not deal in counterfeit goods and refrain from doing evil. All  The Book of Change, one of the nine Chinese classics, is a tome on divination. Ibuka, the founder of Sony, told the author that the “logic” of the Eki is similar to that of DNA. 41  The Makashikan is a Chinese Buddhist scripture written in 594. 40

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will become wealthy, from the samurai on down, when they act with a pure heart (pp. 217–128).

On the tree of frugality: You must not forget being merciful, even when making efforts at being frugal. You must not forget to be charitable when being excessively frugal. Do not forget it (p. 222). Cut back on non-essential expenses, simplify what pertains to the necessities of your life, then you can vigorously assist those in dire straits (p. 222).

On rising in the morning: Those who rise early and are zealous in their work, whoever they are, increase their fortune and have flourishing shops. Sleeping in late is the beginning of indolence and becomes the seed of poverty. Those who work hard do ten days work in one, but those who revel in their indolence barely manage to do one day’s work in ten. Their work makes no progress, however many days they labor. He is a good man, who works with utmost effort (pp. 224–225).

On the tree of diligence: The present day will come around only once in a lifetime. Work hard every day, zealous in your tasks and not loafing. There is a pleasure in this (p. 225).

4.4.10  S  hoka Kokoroegusa (A Guideline for Merchants) (1841). In: Takimoto, Sei’ich (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten, Vol. 13 There is nothing known about the author except for what he writes in the opening sentence of this work, “My teacher was Kamada Sensei” and “I was born in Yuasa, in the Kishu domain” (p. 696).42 One may surmise from this that he was perhaps a disciple of Isso Kamada of Yuasa, or the one of his adopted son, Ryuo Kamada. He was, in other words, likely a figure in the Sekimon Shingaku school lineage of Baigan Ishida. The book is divided into two volumes. The first volume is chiefly a collection of guidelines and precepts related to commerce. The second volume comprises guidelines for proprietors. These are pamphlets, but they dwell at length on teachings related to taking the initiative in the commerce of the time and those who engage in trade, particularly with what action to take on the part of a proprietor. The author writes in the beginning of volume one, “It is the same as ever, and the present age, compared with times of old, witnesses a weakening of ethical thought. These days, money-making is the foremost concern. The favor of the proprietor is forgotten, fraternal relations worsen, a sense of duty toward society is lacking, and people make a dash for avarice, forgetting morality” (p. 697). He takes up the example of a  Isso Kamada (1721–1804) is a preaher of Sekimon Shingaku descended from Baigan Ishisa. Ryuo Kamada (1754–1821) is an adapted son of Isso Kamada. He proposed an evolutionary theory based on his original idea.

42

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promissory note, saying, “In old promissory notes it was common to write ‘In the event repayment cannot be made, may all ridicule you in public’” (pp. 697–698). This is evidence of how much importance the merchants of old placed upon mercantile ethics. In past times, it was a matter of the greatest possible shame for a merchant to be unable to repay a loan as he had promised. By the time the author was writing in the nineteenth century, however, things had changed considerably. That is why when speaking about the same virtues important points are gone into in minute detail, because the period differed significantly from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The doctrinal import informing the 43 examples is Confucian. None of them address Shinto or Buddhist concerns. The most numerous keywords are: harmony 8, inheritance 7, reverence 4, and Shingaku 3. Volume One This first half is an account of the conditions of the time, and an exposition on the importance of Shingaku in improving those conditions. • Succession to family headship: Ten houses will have ten heirs. Among them only two or three are capable of adequately gaining the succession. The other seven or eight, engrossed in amusements, womanizing, drinking, and gambling, will either be disinherited by their parents or, skipping out at night, cause their relatives trouble. Even among these there are those who somehow be assisted in gaining the succession, and those who will never gain it for any reason … Those who do may become the head of the family, but they will not last, and within 20 to 50 years the family shop will fail… Looking at those family businesses that long continue, of the ten who might succeed to the family headship, eight or nine of them are virtuous (p. 696.).

• Apprentices who successfully work over a long period of time: Of ten shop apprentices who work steadily till their period of apprenticeship ends, two or three will become independent and capable of opening their own shop. Almost all will successfully carry out their various jobs in the proprietor’s shop, serving as clerks and apprentices to the merchant family, but here as well, only two or three out of ten will establish a separate residence without incident, and there are many instances where the rest will ruin the proprietor and end up becoming a group of vagrants (p. 696).

• Increases in disinheritances43 Since petitons of disinheritances have become exceedingly many in such large cities as Kyoto, Osaka, and Edo, the authorities have recently been disinclined to approve them. Upon examining this phenomenon, it appears that social customs have deteriorated over the years. Why? The reason is that money-making has become the point in life. Children are taught only to make money, but they are not raised to practice virtue. The result has been contrary to expectations. Rather than making money the family business fails (p. 697).

• The corruption of menial servants: It is of great importance that, when one becomes a proprietor, one habitually watchs over one’s words and actions. The help, knowing that the proprietor’s concern lies only in making money, will lose interest in benevolence and justice. Nowadays, from childhood on, all they hear about is making money, their minds are full of money, money, and they exert 43

 Disinheritance required permission from the the authorities in the Edo period.

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themselves for what they want, forgetting the favor of their parents, ignoring the obligations they owe their masters, souring their relations with their brothers, and forgetting their sense of duty to society and any sense of shame. Thus, their character becomes perverted, because from childhood all they have heard is that making money is paramount, and they are not instilled with the ways of morality (p. 697).

• Why Shingaku? The recent emphasis placed upon Shingaku is allied with the aim of having children, workers, and women whose behavior is immoral, listen to teachers of this movement and bring about a change of heart in them. The same naturally also applied to proprietors. Wrapped up in their work, they know no peace of mind. They therefore want to study Shingaku and reform their minds (pp. 698–699).

This second half is divided into 12 articles expounding things prohibited for merchant families. • A merchant must carefully consider time, place, and importance, and earnestly, prudently manage his capital (p. 700). • Ignoring seasonal fluctuations and stocking up in a desultory manner leads to spoilage of commodities (p. 700). • Moving a high volume of sales cheaply is nothing to rejoice over (p. 700). • Do not associate long with bad customers (p. 701). • Currently, merchants refrain from increasing their base and expanding their businesses (p. 701). • A wise man may be at the top, but do not put a fool there (p. 702). • Do not lay many high-priced items in stock (p. 702). • Give due consideration when stocking up on perishable goods and take care you do not keep high inventory (p. 704). • When you succeed your father and, following his wishes, determine to announce it openly, be ever aware to avoid giving the business the appearance of a sham (p. 705). • As a merchant you must always be observant of the laws and ordinances and careful to avoid behaving badly (pp. 705–706). • However great a dealer he may be, a proprietor should be involved in stocking his merchandise and not leave it to his help. To entrust this to his workers is unwise (p. 706). • Do not open a new shop in other places (p. 707). The last volume gives guidelines for proprietors. • The basis for a flourishing family business: A proprietor rectifying his actions forms the basis for his posterity to last long and the family business to prosper. It is paramount that he be respectful of others. Specifically, when something happens, he simply accepts it with no concern for what others may say and considers taking only those measures that do not depart from morality. If the proprietor brings this attitude to his work, his help will follow his example and correctly put the shop rules into practice. Rightly observing the regulations of the house, if all, without distinction,

4.4  The Late Edo Period: Shonindo in the Nineteenth Century cherish virtue, its effects will undoubtedly influence succeeding generations, the causes of extravagance and indolence will be cut off, and the family reputation will forever flourish (p. 708).

• Loyalty, filial piety, and diligence: Loyalty, filial piety, and diligence are of the utmost importance for success. Serving the proprietor with all one’s heart is called loyalty. Serving one’s parents is called filial piety. Grasping the essentials pertaining to commerce and avoiding sloth is called diligence. Loyalty and filial piety are natural for anybody, while diligence and thrift are connected to the prosperity of the shop. The rectification of one’s actions is premised on virtue. Do not boast to others, make your words few, upon reflection correct your errors, be clear about your responsibilities, and do not lie. If you do the above, then you will escape misfortune and ensure the prosperity of your shop (pp. 708–709).

• Not forgetting risks in times of peace: They say that one who is well-versed in business does not forget about risks when things are running smoothly (p. 709).

• Timing: However quickly you may try to conclude a major transaction, it will not go well if the timing is not right (p. 710).

• Concord among one another: It is most important that all in a shop successfully cooperate with one another in their work. The prosperity of the shop will be in question unless the workers sufficiently grasp the proprietor’s beneficence and, with mutual consideration, carry out their tasks (p. 711).

• The readiness of one in charge: He who is in charge will be unfit for his work unless he be sincere and intelligent. He must have the ability to bring clarity to a matter. If not, he will be useless for the task, even should he succeed in mimicking a man like a parrot, and he will not really be in charge (p. 712).

• The attitude of the supervisor: He who is in charge pushes himself, even when tired, and does not let on he is exhausted. He who becomes the supervisor of a shop must have this attitude, even if he is simply one of the workers (p. 712).

• The importance of harmony: Those who work in a shop must be at peace with one another. Where there is a lack of harmony the bottom line is affected. The proprietor must make the effort to instill harmony among his subordinated (p. 715).

• The attention to family and workers: You must be sufficiently attentive when dealing with your family and workers. They are very often like children and cannot understand when you reason with them. Therefore, have a deep grasp of how their minds work and, without losing your temper, try to simply explain a matter to them and get their consent (p. 715).

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4.4.11  Y  amatoya, Keizo (1842) Genkin Oyasuuri (Selling at a Discount in Cash). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 3 Little is known about the author. The preface identifies him as the proprietor of the Kokado. The Kokusho Somokuroku (General Index of National Books) provides the names Keizo Yamatoya, Takakashi Yamada, and Yatei Yamada, and it appears that he was an author of some note. The book is a short pamphlet wherein the necessity of simplicity and frugality are emphasized. The attitude of a merchant is characterized as buying goods in cash to stock them cheaply, keeping the selling prices low with low commissions, and making money on the volume of sales. The aim of conducting such modest business is to naturally acquire the habits of simplicity of frugality. Classifying examples by religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 8 and Shinto/Confucianism 2, totaling 10. Accounting for duplication the numbers are Confucianism 10 and Shinto 2, totaling 12. The keywords are, cash 11, and simplicity and frugality 4. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On simplicity, frugality, and special bargain sales: Owing to the laws and ordinances the customs of simplicity and frugality have spread to all commoners, social manners have become more traditional, and the prices of things have gradually declined. That it is now easy to make a living is due entirely to the positive influence of good government. Among the daily distribution of leaflets concerned with product advertising one can find leaflets from rice dealers having to do with great cash bargains. These inexpensive case sales are a boon for customers, and they are connected to customs of simplicity and frugality. The major dealers aside, middle- and lower-level merchants can buy their stock from five to ten percent cheaper by paying in cash. Furthermore, if they sell on additionally thinner margins the cost will be lower than stock purchased on credit, allowing one to secure a profit with no losses, to sell cheaply to the general customers, and to naturally increase sales (pp. 156–157).

On cash transactions: Using cash-on-hand to stock goods cheaply, benefit will extend to the proceeds from transactions if one sells them cheaper by making cash sales. Profits will be the same because capital turnover is quick, even though the margins are thin. If one lowers prices, but increases proceeds twice over per person, the profit will still be the same. Cash purchases and cash sales are the basis of commercial transactions (p. 157).

On eight-tenths being the basis of simplicity: Simplicity means doing everything by eight-tenths, that is, in moderation. Use eighty percent of your capital for procurements and reserve twenty percent. Buying and selling with cash obviates the seasonal settling of accounts and spares any miscalculations. No problems will arise where borrowing and lending are absent, and one will be indebted to the government for nothing (p. 158).

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On self-interest and benefiting others: At any rate, the thing to remember is to do business so that you and others profit with no losses (p. 160).

On drawbacks to purchasing on credit: When one makes purchases on credit rather than with cash, and because one does not use cash one’s accounts will increase unawares. When the time for settling them comes around one will be appalled at the amount of goods purchased, yet no purposed will be served by resentment and regrets. Getting angry and taking it out on one’s wife and daughter is something shameful to see (p. 161).

On happiness, good fortune, and long life: Heaven bestows three treasures upon a man: happiness, good fortune, and long life. One must act rightly to enjoy these treasures. Eating lavishly, drinking heavily, and engaging in debauchery will especially shorten one’s life. No matter how happy a man, however great his wealth, it is fate that determines how long he lives (p. 167).

Passage with Shinto/Confucian origins. On unjust transactions: Restrain your greed and do not engage in unjust transactions. Be frugal, work hard at the family business. Commissions on cash sales are thin, and profit is little. Therefore, be zealous in simplicity and frugality, exert yourself, and your business will gradually expand (pp. 158–159).

4.4.12  S  omezaki, Hachiro (1844) Shuse no Ishizue (The Foundations for Success in Business). In: Takimoto, Sei’ichi (Ed.) (1976) Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 5 Hachiro Somezaki (1818–1886) is the author of this work. His autonym is Nobufusa Somezaki. He was a fiction writer and journalist during the final years of the Edo period into the Meiji Era. He was called Hachiro in childhood and known also as Kyubei. His aliases were Shunsho Tamenaga, Tei Kyosen, and Shunsui Tamenaga, the Second. Classifying the contents according to religious doctrine we find, Confucianism 4, Buddhism 2, Confucianism/Buddhism 2, and Shinto/Buddhism 1, totaling 9 examples. Accounting for duplication the total is 12 examples, with Confucianism 6, Buddhism 5, and Shinto 1. Instances of keywords are, sense of justice 7, descendants 3, frugality 1, air 1, quick temper 1, and patience 1. The following are representative passages classified by religious doctrine. Passages with Confucian origins. On stinginess rather than generosity: It is better for a merchant to be stingy rather than generous. When he has an absolute sense of duty, he must unsparingly use his money (p. 196).

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On the sense of duty and when money should not be used: One may use up one’s precious earnings on wasteful pleasures, going to the red-light district on the claim it is one’s obligation. This is no obligation. It is immoral behavior (p. 197).

Passages with Buddhist origins. On money not purchasing entrance to heaven: Spending lavishly on Buddhist memorial services is a waste of money. Emma, the king of hell who judges the dead, holds a scroll with your actions recorded on it and can check off the evil deeds you committed during your lifetime. If you committed a sin, you cannot proceed to Amitabha’s Pure Land (p. 200).

On being silent when doing the work of a Buddha: Do not raise your voice but be silent when doing the work of a Buddha. Do not laugh out loud when drinking the sake offered during a memorial service (pp. 197–200).

Passage with Shinto/Buddhist origins. On three remonstrances: Marital quarrels are a household poison. Belief in the Gods ensures the perpetuation of your descendants. Mercy guarantees longevity (pp. 206–207).

Passage with Confucian/Buddhist origins. On the sense of duty: The sense of duty entails being generous with your money and assisting those in straitened circumstances. When the poor in your neighborhood are hungry impartially give them food and money, whether you know them well or not. No perpetuation of your descendants is possible if you lack the mind of charity. Charity for the sake of appearances, however, is a deficit. Doing the work of a Buddha, or distributing alms is worthless if you do not do them with sincerity. Moreover, there is nothing virtuous about serving those in your shop with coarse meals (p. 203).

4.4.13  Chronological Analysis of the Nineteenth Century 4.4.13.1  Analysis by Religious Doctrines Throughout the course of this period we note that there is a slight increase in Confucian influence, and that Buddhist influence ceases to decline. There are no abnormal trends during the period when examining Confucian sources. The average percentage of influence for Shinto is 8%, for Confucianism it is 80%, and for Buddhism it is 12%. Confucian influence is extensive (Table 4.7). 4.4.13.2  Analysis by Keyword First, the word occurring with the greatest frequency throughout this period is the Confucian term virtue 35, then simplicity/frugality/thrift 30, harmony 28, filial piety 25, propriety 18, justice 16, secret charity 14, with the Shinto phrase honesty

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and righteousness 14, and the Buddhist term mercy 8. The most frequently occurring terms are Confucian in origin. Second, looking at the frequency of occurrence for each keyword in the individual sources we find, simplicity and frugality 8, mercy/blessing 7, honesty and righteousness 5, harmony 4, secret charity 4, filial piety 3, virtue 3, propriety 2, and profit 2. The most frequently occurring terms are the Confucian simplicity/frugality, and thrift; the Buddhist mercy, and the Shinto honesty/ righteousness (Table 4.8).

Table 4.7  Component ratio by religious doctrines in the nineteenth century Document Tosei Kanyo Ki (1807) Shison Takaragusa (1817) Sekitoku Sodan (1819) Wagami no Tame (1823) Hinpuku Taihei Ki (1826) Minka o Sodategusa (1827) Tosei Kanyo Ki – 2 Hen (1837) Fuki Jizai Shu (1838) Shoka Kokoroegusa (1841) Genkin Oyasuuri (1842) Shuse no Ishizue (1844) Nineteenth century

Shinto 2 (3%) 5 (6%) 13 (13%) 7 (30%) 1 (3%) 2 (5%) 9 (11%) 2 (17%) 1 (9%) 42 (8%)

Confucianism 52 (87%) 69 (82%) 22 (88%) 77 (76%) 11 (48%) 28 (88%) 33 (87%) 59 (70%) 43 (100%) 10 (83%) 6 (50%) 410 (80%)

Buddhism 6 (11%) 10 (12%) 3 (12%) 11 (11%) 5 (22%) 3 (9%) 3 (8%) 16 (19)

5 (41%) 62 (12%)

Total 60 (100%) 84 (100%) 25 (100%) 101 (100%) 23 (100%) 32 (100%) 38 (100%) 84 (100%) 43 (100%) 12 (100%) 12 (100%) 514 (100%)

Table 4.8  Main virtues seen in the latter half of the nineteenth century documents Document Tosei Kanyo Ki (1807) Shison Takaragusa (1817) Sekitoku Sodan (1819) Wagami no Tame (1823) Hinpuku Taihei Ki (1826)

Minka o Sodategusa (1827) Tosei Kanyo Ki – 2 Hen (1837)

Keywords Frugality/thrift 8, invisible aid of the Buddha 5, large profits 4, one’s trade 4, discretion 4, virtue 3, secret charity 3, honesty 2, to bless 2 Virtue 12, propriety 9, filial piety 6, profit 6, Heaven 5, reverence 5, benevolence 5, favor 4, unreasonableness 4, secret charity 3, sincerity 2, mercy 2, righteousness 2 Virtue 20, descendants 8, accumulation of good deeds 6, secret charity 5, frugality 3 Filial piety 18, harmony 13, faithfulness 10, honesty 8, propriety 7, simplicity/frugality 5, wisdom 4, mercy 1 The rich: benevolence and justice, honesty, loyalty and filial piety, patience, frugality, mercy, love and respect, early rising; The poor: indulgence, imprudence, negligence, heavy drinking, lewdness, extravagance, sleeping in late, conceit Patience 16, loyalty 4, harmony 4, frugality 3, secret charity 3, mercy/ pity 3 Employing others 9, favor 5, capacity/talent 2, wisdom coming with age 1, patience 1, mercy 1, miserliness 1 (continued)

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Table 4.8 (continued) Document Keywords Fuki Jizai Shu (1838) Honesty, mercy, doctrine of the mean, negligence, concord, endurance, preservation of one’s health, purity, frugality, early rising, diligence Shoka Kokoroegusa Concord 8, inheritance 8, reverence 4, Shingaku 3 (1841) Genkin Oyasuuri Cash 11, simplicity and frugality 4 (1842) Shuse no Ishizue Sense of justice 7, descendants 3, frugality 2, quick temper 1, patience 1 (1844) Virtue 35, simplicity/frugality/thrift 30, harmony 28, filial piety 25, Nineteenth century propriety 18, justice 16, secret charity 14, honesty/righteousness 14, into the latter half reverence 12, descendants 11, faithfulness 10, profit 10, mercy 8, (1800–1868) benevolence 8, wisdom 6, admonition 3, sincerity 3

4.5  T  he Shonindo Movement Viewed Throughout the Edo Period 4.5.1  Analysis by Religious Doctrines Table 4.9 illustrates that, chronologically, the percentage of Confucian examples progressively increased, and the Shinto examples gradually declined. The vigor of Buddhism noted in the seventeenth century decreased rapidly and leveled off from the eighteenth century onwards. How might one regard this movement? The social status of samurai and merchant differed in the early period of the Edo era, and they held qualitatively different ethical sensibilities. Confucianism, the doctrine of the samurai, was in general inaccessible to merchants. As time went on, however, the merchants, who enjoyed economic advantages, began to study Confucian doctrines since, as the old proverb had it, those who enjoy the necessities of life have time to grow familiar with etiquette. The children of merchants, moreover, with the development of the terakoya, became the recipients of rudimentary instruction in Confucian thought. Merchants as a class, then, came to study what previously was the source of samurai learning. As mentioned above, the compensation of the samurai was determined by certain, fixed amounts of rice. The merchant, in contrast, was not limited in his transactions, and his income grew in proportion to the extent he expanded his operations. This intrinsic difference was decisive.44 We believe in the present study that this state-of-affairs exercised no small effect upon the rate at which Confucian influence expanded.

 The Seji Kenbun Roku (1816) leveled harsh criticisms against merchants in chapter 5 (pp.229– 230). We surmise that the author of that book had never read Baigan Ishida’s books on merchant morality.

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Table 4.9  Component ratio by religious doctrines throughout the Edo period Era Seventeenth century Eighteenth century – first half Eighteenth century – latter half Nineteenth century The Edo period

Shinto 25 (20%) 114 (20%) 32 (10%) 42 (8%) 213 (14%)

Confucianism 55 (43%) 393 (68%) 248 (76%) 410 (80%) 1106 (72%)

Buddhism 48 (37%) 64 (12%) 47 (14%) 62 (12%) 221(14%)

Total 128 (100%) 571 (100%) 327 (100%) 514 (100%) 1540(100%)

4.5.2  Analysis by Keyword First, it is characteristic of this period that, considering their relationship with mercantile prosperity, the virtues of simplicity and frugality, not notable in the seventeenth century, are foremost from the eighteenth century onwards. At the very time they worked towards expanding their businesses merchants curtailed their expenses, saved their small profits, and built up their fortunes by the exercise of simplicity, frugality, and thrift. Simplicity and frugality were the key to generating profits. Second, profit comes out at the top in the latter half of the eighteenth century. From the Genroku Period in the closing years of the seventeenth century to the first half of the eighteenth century merchant influence rapidly burgeoned, and merchant prosperity was incisive. Whether the merchants as well had forgotten their original intentions, or whether their tendency to dash after the pursuit of profit was amplified, simplicity/frugality and profit rosed to the top position. Third, honesty and righteousness, the fundamental doctrines behind Shinto, appear throughout this period. Shinto was the time-honored tradition of Japan and, syncretized with Confucianism, came to be widely held irrespective of one’s status, whether samurai or merchant. That it was capable of being thoroughly diffused during the entire Edo period was due to the immense influence of Confucianism. Adults studied the doctrines of Shingaku and youths learned how to read and write in the terakoya. The focus of study for both were the Confucian Four Books and Five Classics. It may have been Confucianism, but it was a Confucianism syncretized with Shinto. Shinto and Buddhist influences were amalgamated with the ancient, traditional Confucian doctrines of China, resulting in a Nipponized-type of Confucianism, which, stated otherwise, was a Confucianism comprising a Shinto/ Confucian/ Buddhist aggregate (Table 4.10).

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Table 4.10  Main virtues seen in documents throughout the Edo period Era Seventeenth century Eighteenth century – first half Eighteenth century – second half Nineteenth century

Keywords Honesty/righteousness 15, sincerity 14, goodness 11, pity/mercy 11, loyalty 8, faithfulness 7, propriety 6 Simplicity and frugality 69, benevolence and justice 62, propriety 53, the Gods and Buddhas 38, faithfulness 37, honesty 34, family business/one’s trade 31, filial piety 31, impurity/ purity 31, wisdom 20, wit and intelligence 20 Profit 81, frugality/thrift 47, money 26, honesty/uprightness 25, family business 23, the Gods and the Buddhas 15, wisdom 15, harmony 14, proprietor 14, mercy 13, secret charity 8, ancestor 7 Virtue 35, simplicity/frugality/thrift 30, harmony 28, filial piety 25, propriety 18, justice 16, secret charity 14, honesty/ righteousness 14, reverence 12, descendants 11, faithfulness 10, profit 10, mercy 8, benevolence 8, wisdom 6, admonition 3, sincerity 3 The Edo period Simplicity/frugality 146, profit 91, honesty/righteousness 88, benevolence and justice 86, integrity 81, propriety 77, filial piety 56, faithfulness 54, family business/one’s occupation 54, the Gods and Buddhas 53, harmony 43, wisdom/ wit and intelligence 41, virtue 35, mercy 32, impurity/purity 31, secret charity 22, reverence 12, proprietor 14, descendant 11, admonition 3, sincerity 3

References Dobunkan. (1911). Kadōkun (Teachings for the prosperity of the family). In: Nihon Kyoiku Bunko, Vol. 3 Kunkai hen. Tokyo: Dobunkan. Fujita, S. (2015). Bakumatsu kara Ishin e (From the last days of the Shogunate to the Meiji restoration), Iwanami shinsho. Tokyo: Iwanami. Haga, Y. (Ed.). (1906). Joshin Miura. Keicho Kenmon Shu (Record of worldly affairs). Tokyo: Fuzsanbo. Higashi, A. (Ed.). (1956). Nihon Eitaigura (The success stories of Japanese merchant families), Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Honjo, E. (1942). Nihon Keizai Shiso no Kenkyu (Studies of Japanese economic thought). Tokyo: Nippon Hyoron Sha. Honjo, E., & Naramoto, T. (Ed.). (1994). Inshi Buyo. Seji Kembun Roku (A record of worldly affairs). Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Iijima, T., & Nishikawa, T. (Ed.). (1942). Chonin Bukuro (An essay on merchants), Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Inoue, T. (1963). Kaibara Ekiken. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan. Ishikawa, K. (Ed.). (1938). Ekiken Kaibara. Yamato Zokun (Lessons for children to learn), Iwanami bunko. Tokyo: Iwanami. Mitsui Bunko (Ed.). (1973). Mitsui Jigyo Shi – Shiryo Hen, Vol. 1. (A Business history of Mitsui family:Reference, Vol. 1). Tokyo: Mitsui Bunko. Mitsui, T. (1941). Chonin Shiso to Chonin Koken Roku (The thought of merchants and the Chonin Kokenroku). Tokyo: NHK. Nakamura, H. (1949). Kinsei Nihon ni okeru Hihanteki Seishin no Ichi Kosatsu (A discussion on a critical Spirit in early modern Japan). In: Gendai Bukkyo Meicho Zenshu (Complete works of great books of Buddhism). Kyoto: Ryubunkan. Nakamura, K. (1942). Genroku to Kyoho Jidai ni okeru Keizai shisou no Kenkyu (Studies of economic thought in the Genroku and Kyoho period) (Vol. 1). Tokyo: Shogakkan. Nakamura, Y. (Ed.). (1975). Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59, Kinsei Chonin Shiso. Tokyo: Iwanami.

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Rekishigaku Kenkyukai. (Ed.). (2001). Nihonshi Nenpyo (Chronologocal table of Japanese history). Tokyo: Iwanami. Shibata, M. (Ed.). (1971). Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 42, Sekimon Shingaku. Tokyo: Iwanami. Shibata, M. (Ed.). (1972). Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Complete works of Baigan Ishida), 2 vols. Osaka: Seibundo. Shibata, M. (Ed.). (1973). Tejima Toan Zenshu (Complete works of Toan Tejima). Osaka: Seibundo. Shibata, M. (1977). Baigan to Sono Monryu (Baigan and his disciples). Tokyo: Minerva Shobo. Suzuki, Masao (2000). Edojo wa Koushite Tukurareta (How Edo castle was built), Chikuma bunko. Tokyo: Chikuma. Suzuki, T. (Ed.). (1962). Suzuki Shosan Dojin Zenshu (Complete works of Shosan Suzuki). Tokyo: Sankibo. Takano, T. (2015). Tenka Taihei no Jidai (The age of universal peace), Iwanami shinsho. Tokyo: Iwanami. Takimoto, S. (Ed.). (1928–1930/1966–1971). Nihon Keizai Taiten (Encyclopedia of Japanese economics), 54 vols. Tokyo: Hobun Shokan. Takimoto, S. (Ed.). (1976). Nihon Keizai Taiten, Supplment (Tsūzoku Keizai Bunko), 6 vols. Tokyo: Meiji Bunken. Tsuji, Z. (1930). Kinsei Bukkyo Suibi no Yurai to Minshin no Rihan (Decline of Buddhism and disaffection from the people in early modern times). In: Shien, Vol. 5, No. 1, (1930). Tokyo: Rikkyo University. Watanabe, S. (1961). Nihon Kinsei Dotoku Shisoshi (History of Japanese early-modern moral thought). Tokyo: Sobunsha. Watsuji, T. (1952). Nihon Rinri Shisoshi (History of Japanese ethical thought), 2 vols. Tokyo: Iwanami. Yokohama Boeki Shinpo. (Ed.). (1909). Yokohama Kaiko Sokumenshi (Historical aspects of the opening of the port of Yokohama). Yokohama: Yokohama Boeki Shinnpo Sha. Yokoyama, T. (1993). Kaibara Ekiken ‘Kadōkun Ko’ (On Kaibara Ekiken’s Kadōkun). In: Maekawa, K (Ed.) Kazoku-Setai-Kamon. Tokyo: Minerva Shobo. Yokota, F. (2009). Tenka Taihei (Universal peace), Kodansha gakujutsu bunko. Tokyo: Kodansha.

Chapter 5

Shonindo: Characteristics and Criticisms

This chapter discusses and analyzes the characteristics of Shonindo focusing on four sections: comparative analysis of Shonindo with Bushido, behavior analysis of Japanese merchants, terakoya education in childhood and Shonindo, and comparison with Western merchant behavior.

5.1  Comparative Analysis of Shonindo with Bushido 5.1.1  Chronological Analysis of the Concept of Bushido Here we analyze the concept of Bushido chronologically based on the following historical documents: Koyo Gunkan (1610–1611), Bushi Nichiou (1661), Hagakure (1716), Budo Shoshin Shu (1726), and Nitobe Inazo’s Bushido (1899). First, we look to the historical background of the seventeenth century in order to fully understand the Koyo Gunkan. Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first shogun, established his government in Edo after a sweeping victory in the Sekigahara War. However, Hideyori Toyotomi, son of Hideyoshi Toyotomi, the previous supreme ruler, still occupied Osaka castle and was in rivalry with Ieyasu Tokugawa. Although Ieyasu had become shogun, he could not bring all samurai under his domination quite yet. A great number of samurai who had lost their jobs after they were defeated at Sekigahara were invited to serve under Hideyori Toyotomi. The author of Koyo Gunkan was a samurai who served the Takeda clan: one that was conquered by Nobunaga Oda, Japan’s supreme ruler before Hideyoshi Toyotomi. Koyo Gunkan is an historical document of the rise and fall of the Takeda family; thus, its concepts are different from those of Bushido by Inazo Nitobe. According to Furukawa, the basic ideas comparable to Bushido in the Koyo Gunkan are three virtues: loyalty, justice, and courage, which are distinct from the ones of Shonindo (Furukawa 1957, p.  53). Bushido at that time was a means of survival in the period of civil wars © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 I. Horide, The Mercantile Ethical Tradition in Edo Period Japan, Advances in Japanese Business and Economics 20, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7338-1_5

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between rival samurai.1 As shown in Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.1, the maxims in Bushido are common to all contemporary social groups, and not just limited to Bushido. One can see the virtues of renunciation of cowardice, propriety, honesty, filial piety, being on good terms with one’s brothers, patient endurance, benevolence, admonition, reward or compensation, magnanimity, highly valuing meritorious deeds, respect for the aged, prohibiting calumny and abuse, and belief in the gods and Buddhas. Bravery, or renunciation of cowardice, cannot be found in Shonindo, but all of the other remaining virtues are universal in scope, applicable not only to the samurai but to all four classes of Edo period society. In addition to the above discussion, Koyo Gunkan takes up leadership of fighting men. The discussion is so advanced that it is wholly applicable to the modern theory of business leadership. As shown in Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.1, Koyo Gunkan classifies generals into four types. The first type of general is a fool, idiot, joker, or dunce; the second is clever; the third is a coward; and the fourth is excessively violent (Sato 2006, p. 207). Although it is an old document on Bushido, one can say that it contains a brilliant, immutable theory of leadership and furnishes modern management people with much information. Morality in human thought does seem to be universal. Second, we will look at Bushi Nichiyo by Shosan Suzuki as one of the important historical documents of the seventeenth century. His fundamental teachings of work ethics are: “Occupation knows no rank; any occupation comprises Buddhist practice,” “Working diligently to devote oneself to benefiting others constitutes Buddhist practice,” “All legitimate trades are equally honorable” and “Being diligent daily in one’s occupational life is none other than the practice of Buddhism.” Subsequently, the greatest duty of the samurai is “To forget oneself” (Suzuki Shosan Zenshu, Suzuki 1962 p. 66). He specifically mentions a method for conquering the “self” to the forgetfulness of one’s own existence. That is, to divide the mind to gain victory into two minds, a state of mind linked with winning and a state of mind connected with losing (ibid, pp. 66–67). As shown in Chap. 3, Sect. 3.4.3, a “winning mind” is born of a brave and adamant spirit. The samurai is possessed of this intrepid spirit that does not fear death, and, however formidable the enemy, neither falters nor swerves from the warrior’s way (ibid, pp. 66–67). The dispirited mind, on the other hand, is consumed with worry and acts contrary to Bushido. Whenever the mind is deluded, one is incapable of fighting the greatest battle of all, that between life and death. This is disgraceful for the samurai. The “Daily Duty of the Samurai” is to exhaustively penetrate “the mind that casts off self.” A winning mind leads to virtues: benevolence, honesty and modesty, while a losing mind leads to the opposite: negligence, impropriety, extravagance, self-conceit, ingratitude, and stinginess. In summary, we may conclude that bravery in Koyo Gunkan and the mind that casts off self in Bushi Nichiyou are distinctive features of Bushido in the early seventeenth century—when the influence of the Warring States Period still remained strong. Third, we will look at the Hagakure, formerly a “secret” book read only by a limited number of people in unpublished form (Furukawa 1957, pp. 176–177; Koike 1999, pp. 42–43). In 1906, Hagakure was printed and published for the first time.  The period of civil wars continued from 1467 to 1568, although some insist it was 1573 or 1590.

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It is interesting that Inazo Nitobe wrote the introduction for the 1906 publication of this work. Nitobe writes, “In the history of Japan, the spirit of Bushido was cultivated in the minds of the Japanese since before the feudal period, regardless of the political system and changes in society notwithstanding” (Taniguchi 2016, p.  76). Nitobe appears at this time to have thought that Bushido was the fundamental spirit possessed by the Japanese from a time prior to the appearance of the samurai. The reason why it was a banned book in the Edo period was a now-famous phrase in its opening verses: “The way of the warrior is found in death.” This implied a ritual act of suicide strictly forbidden during the Tokugawa shogunate, an act directly violating ‘junshi. ‘While it may have been permitted during times of war, when the world was at peace, for a retainer to ritually disembowel himself to follow his master in death was severely forbidden by the Tokugawa government. However, what this phrase in Hagakure really means is not that death is key to Bushido, but rather that in working for one’s master, one must be prepared to cast aside considerations of one’s life and, if necessary, die for him (Kasaya 2014, pp.  47–48; Yamamoto 2013, pp.  98–100; Koike 1999, p. 12). This is the spirit of selfless devotion reflected in comments such as “Ceaselessly think of death morning and evening…. If you always live with this awareness, then as a samurai you will have no regrets, you will be able to act freely, and all through your life you will be able to fulfill your duty without committing any error” (Hagakure, Watsuji and Furukwa 1940–1941, Vol. 1, p. 23). As indicated in Chap. 3, Sect. 3.3.3, the essence of Hagakure is concisely summarized in its introduction (Watsuji and Furukwa 1940–1941, Vol. 1, pp. 17–21) as follows: 1. It is essential for the retainer to have a firm knowledge of the master’s ancestors, their labors and their benevolence, and knowledge about the ancestors of one’s own family. However, samurai of the present time have forgotten who they are and although they show reverence and deeply know Buddha, Confucius, Masashige Kusunoki, and Shingen Takeda, they have no knowledge of their own ancestors. 2. Devote oneself wholeheartedly, applying oneself to the duties handed down to one’s family over the generations. Write down for future generations that which is important. Lord Mitsushige, who succeeded his father, Lord Katsushige, understood his labors and carefully read the documents bequeathed to him. Lord Mitsushige successfully took over the governance of the domain on the foundation laid by his father. 3. Many who ruled over the Nabeshima domains in the course of its history were men of virtue. They treated their retainers well, and not one of their peasants, townspeople or samurai forgot the favor. They considered that the way to serve their master included even the giving of their own lives and were prepared to meet death calmly when ordered to commit ritual suicide by disembowelment. 4. The four vows to insure the Nabeshima spirit are: (a) To penetrate and preserve the way of the warrior. (b) To be at the service of the master. (c) To be dutiful to one’s parents. (d) To exhaustively exert oneself in deeds of mercy and compassion.

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Judging from the above vows, the virtues underlying the ethical actions of the samurai can be grouped together and tied to bravery, loyalty, filial piety, and benevolence. Clearly, these virtues respond to those found in Shonindo, excepting only physical bravery. Fourth, we examine Budo Shoshin Shu (1726–1730). The author of this work, Yuzan Daidoji (1639–1730), belonged to a generation with no experience of war. He studied military science in Edo while still young and was actively involved in teaching military science to samurai. However, his thought in Bushido was different from that of Koyo Gunkan, written by a samurai with real war experience. His first section opens with the following: “Above all else, the samurai must be firmly resolved that he can die anytime, day or night, from the time he eats his zoni soup on the morning of the first day of the new year until the night of the last day of the year,” and “If he is prepared for death he can do all things. He will be able to fulfill the essentials of loyalty toward his master and filial piety toward his parents. He will be able to escape evils and calamities and maintain perfect health.” (Furukwa 1943, p. 29). The thought that a samurai can die anytime is common to both Hagakure and Budo Shosin Shu, although the authors of both documents had no warfare experience. Nevertheless, what these words really mean in an era of peace is not to seek death, but to work diligently, preparing for death when it comes naturally or necessarily. Both authors of Koyo Gunkan and Bushi Nichiyo strongly insisted that a samurai can die anytime as a warrior in a war-torn era. The original text of the Budo Shoshin Shu comprises 56 parts. Surveying the contents of the original text, we find that nearly 90% of the 56 parts touch upon the ethical perspectives inherent to the samurai, differentiating them from the ethics of the townspeople. Furukawa and Kasaya point out that Part 27  in particular appears to be Yuzan’s most idealized summary of Bushido: “Loyalty, justice, and valor are most essential to Bushido. The samurai possessed of these three virtues is the most outstanding example thereof” (Furukawa 1957, pp.  194–195; Kasaya 2014, pp.  58–59). In Part 6 of the Budo Shoshin Shu (pp. 40–43), Kasaya adds that Yuzan divides conventional Bushido into two areas: the code of the warrior and the art of war. Yuzan also points to the presence in Bushido of a Confucian-influenced Bushido where, besides the art of war associated with combat and tactics, the warrior codes are also concerned with such matters as the personal appearance of the samurai, daily etiquette, and filial piety toward one’s parents. In general, one can say that, like Nobushige Takeda’s admonitions in the Koyo Gunkan, this is a work that is vague in terms of finely textured human ethical thought. Yet it expounds Bushido focused chiefly on the relation of the retainer to his master, or, in Confucian terms, “the justice between master and servant.” There are two versions of the Budo Shoshin Shu, an original preserved in manuscript form and the Matsushiro Budo Shoshin Shu, made commercially available in a woodblock print edition. Whereas the former originated in the seventeenth century, the Matsushiro publication was published in 1834. The Matsushiro publication puts forth the Shido (Code of the Warrior) section of the original text in Part 6. The first item under the same title explains, “For hygienic purposes, wash one’s hands and feet morning and evening, and bathe oneself. When dressed formally, observe propriety and be mindful when eating and drinking, not engaging in pointless chatter. Give oneself to reading on days of rest, conduct oneself properly”

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(Furukawa 1943, pp.  168–169). This warrior code comprises an etiquette also proper for the farmer, craftsman, and merchant. Other virtues and topics connected with mercantile ethics are enumerated, such as filial piety, justice and injustice, gratitude and reverence, family management, frugality, acquaintance with the Buddha, amity, and avoidance of slander (ibid, p. 160). This edited version is easier to read than the original text. In conclusion, after the examination of these four historical documents on Bushido in the peaceful Tokugawa period, we may readily conclude that the virtues in Bushido are universal and equivalent to the ones in Shonindo, except in the matter of specifically choosing life or death. Fifth, as a last step in analyzing the characteristics of Bushido, we take up Nitobe Inazo’s Bushido published in 1899, only 31  years after the Meiji Restoration in 1868. It is well known that the political, economic and cultural changes in Japan after the Meiji Restoration were remarkable. The government from the beginning invited many technologists and scholars from Europe and the United States and promoted the construction of new industrial facilities and technical guidance. In order to improve the education of the younger generation in the field of primary education, the terakoya were abolished and an elementary school system was introduced. At secondary schools, most of the textbooks used were in English, and at the higher education level, the University of Tokyo was founded. Professors from Europe and the United States were invited to promote the modernization of higher education. In this way Japan, which began modernization late, surpassed China with its modernized armies and navies only 27 years after the Restoration, in armed conflict in 1894–1895. A mere 10 years later, in 1904–1905, modernization had progressed enough to engage and defeat the world military power Russia in warfare. Nitobe’s Bushido was born just as Japan gained worldwide attention. How could Japan, despite being rapidly modernized and a smaller and newly developed country, win victory over Russia? One answer was Nitobe’s Bushido (Oshiro 1992, p. 91, 95–97). Nitobe’s Bushido was written in English, not Japanese, therefore, it was Americans, not the Japanese, who focused on the book first. President Theodore Roosevelt purchased it, sent it to his family and friends, and made it a recommended book for students of military educational institutions (Matsukuma 1985, pp. 192– 193). Nitobe’s Bushido made a big contribution in spreading interest about Japan throughout the world. It was translated into German, French, Polish, Norwegian, Hungarian, Russian and Chinese, as well as Japanese (Matsukuma 1985, p. 192). On the other hand, in the academic field, it was not necessarily well accepted. Academics doubted the depth of Nitobe’s knowledge relative to Bushido. He left his hometown of Morioka at the young age of nine and in Tokyo received education exclusively in English. He said himself that he disliked the classics of Japanese and Chinese culture (Matsukuma 1985, pp. 14–15, 19–21). In other words, even if he received a good English education, traditional knowledge of the classics of Japanese and Chinese culture was mostly learned in his hometown of Morioka for only 2 years, when Nitobe was 7 years old to 9 years old…and there is no record that he studied seriously. Therefore, it is natural that there exists no trace of his reading the classics on Bushido such as Koyo Gunkan. In the book Bushido, it was Western literature that was widely cited, and in that sense, it can be said that Bushido is a comparative study between Japanese and Western cultures, seen from the point of

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view of Europeans and Americans. Moreover, Nitobe wrote it in California, while receiving medical treatment. Even if he used a local library, he could not refer to literature as freely as if he were in Japan. Therefore, we may conclude that there is a difference in content between the warrior writings written by samurai and his Bushido. Also, he did not receive any moral education at school, according to his own memory (Nitobe Inazo Zenshu, Vol. 1, p. 17). However, Nitobe himself believed that by nature he was moral. Although he did not learn it formally at school, he learned morality as a discipline in a samurai family. Nitobe must have thought that this was Bushido. The Bushido that Nitobe claimed was “Bushido, meaning literally Military-Knight-Ways, the ways which fighting nobles observe in their daily life as well as in their vocation, in a word, the ‘Precepts of Knighthood,’ the noblesse oblige of the warrior class” (ibid, Vol. 1, p. 30). Bushido, then, is the code of moral principles which knights were required or instructed to observe. It is not, technically, a written code. At best it consists of a few maxims handed down orally or came from the pen of a well-known warrior or savant. More frequently, it is a code unuttered and unwritten, possessing a more powerful sanction, and a “law written on the fleshly tablets of the heart” (ibid, Vol. 1, p. 31). Although Nitobe’s education was influenced by Western culture, and he was for only a short period of time engaged in traditional Japanese education and discipline in his birthplace of Morioka, the Japanese spirit was deeply shared in his friendships with schoolmates in Japan prior to his study abroad in Europe and the United States. Even if one’s education is in English, the spiritual foundation as a Japanese is not so easily changed. There is a saying, “The child is the father of the man.” Ibuka Masaru, co-founder of Sony, said that the key to a child’s education is the first 3 years (cf. his 1986 book: “Zero Years Old—The Best Time for Education”). In the case of Nitobe, it can be inferred that the remarkable influence of the discipline of a samurai’s house received during childhood remained in him throughout his life. We may also say that although he had a spiritual foundation, he wrote Bushido with a much higher and wider perspective from Western wisdom which he received later in life.2 What, then, is the meaning of Nitobe’s Bushido? As indicated in the Table of Contents of his book, the virtues of Bushido are justice, courage, benevolence, 2  Kasaya indicates two case examples of criticism against Nitobe’s Bushido as follows (Kasaya 2014, pp. v–vi, 95–97): B.E. Chamberlain and Sokichi Tsuda (a Japanese Historian). Chamberlain states in The Invention of a new Religion, “Bushido was unknown until a decade or two ago! The very word appears in no dictionary, native or foreign, before the year 1900. Chivalrous individuals of course existed in Japan, as in all countries at every period; but Bushido, as an institution or a code of rules, has never existed. The accounts given of it have been fabricated out of whole cloth, chiefly for foreign consumption” (Chamberlain 1912, p. 13). However, he was wrong because one can find the precise word bushido in Koyo Gunkan (1610–1619). Tsuda is severely critical in that Bushido is not always such a praiseworthy code as people may assert. He illustrates the historical record that retainers often, for exampled, overpowered their lord, and that samurai frequently turned traitor (the entire Battle of Sekigahara, perhaps the most important battle in Japan’s history, hinged on a betrayal). He emphasizes the immoral and violent behavior of samurai in the Warring States Period as well. However, Kasaya does not accept Tsuda’s criticism insisting, rather subjectively, that Tsuda is “too eccentric.”

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politeness, veracity or truthfulness, honor, the duty of loyalty, and self-control. Looking at these virtues, some of them correspond to the five important virtues, Jin (benevolence), Gi (justice) Rei (politeness) Chi (wisdom), Shin (faith), preached by the Confucian “Mencius,” while all of them originate in Confucianism. Among them, honor, although it has its origin in Confucianism, cannot be found in Confucian writing, but it can be replaced with shame, a shame that is close to courage. Nitobe, in Chap. 2, writes that his idea was obtained from Buddhism, Shintoism, and Confucianism (Nitobe 1987, Nitobe Inazo Zenshu Vol. 1, pp. 35–39). Specifically, Bushido takes from Buddhism a sense of calm trust in fate, a quiet submission to the inevitable, stoic composure in danger or calamity, disdain of life, and friendliness with death (ibid, p. 35). From Shintoism, Bushido takes loyalty to the sovereign, reverence for ancestral memory, and filial piety (ibid, p. 36).3 From Confucianism, Nitobe adds the five virtues (ibid, p. 38). Therefore, we may conclude that the influence of religious faith is seen in these eight keywords. These eight keywords may be said to be Nitobe’s answer to a Belgian scholar who asked: “How do you give moral education in Japan without religion?” These eight virtues respond to both samurai and merchants and cannot be said to be virtues of samurai alone. Nitobe, to emphasize the samurai, adds hara-kiri or seppuku (suicide by disembowelment), junshi (self-immolation of an attendant on the death of one’s lord), katakiuchi (revenge) and the Japanese katana (sword) as the symbols of the samurai. These four added keywords are terms unique to Bushido that never seem to be found in Shonindo. Table  5.1 summarizes ordinary and intrinsic virtues in the above-mentioned documents. In conclusion, we may put forth the following three points: 1. There was no chronological change in the basic virtues of Bushido except for the explicit matter of life or death. 2. There was a chronological difference in thanatopsis between the early and middle period. In Koyo Gunkan and Bushi Nichiyo is the view that a samurai serves one’s master at the risk of one’s life, while in Hagakure and Budo Shoshin Shu, a samurai serves one’s master totally. One of the reasons why such differences arose was that the Tokugawa government strictly prohibited immolation. 3. Nitobe’s Bushido is theoretical and considered to be chiefly influenced by Confucianism reinforced with Buddhism and Shinto. It is systematic compared to historical documents such as the ones in the Edo period. Nitobe compares Western chivalry based on Christian thought with the Japanese Bushido grounded in Confucianism. In order to emphasize the characteristics of Japanese Bushido, he touches on the question of life and death. Therefore, we can say that it is a comparative study of cultures that emphasizes Japanese thought based on Western thought. For the purpose of contributing to Westerners’ understanding of Japanese culture, Nitobe wrote it in English. It is important to note that the later Japanese version was a translation, not Nitobe’s own writing. 3  Nitobe writes “From Shintoism, Bushido takes loyalty to the sovereign, reverence for ancestral memory, and filial piety. However, it is widely accepted in Japan that “reverence for ancestral memory” is, in general, derived from Buddhism, and” filial piety” is taken from Confucianism.

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Table 5.1  Virtues in five documents on Bushido Document Ordinary virtue or keyword Koyo Gunkan Propriety, honesty, filial piety, being on (1610–1611) good terms with one’s brothers, patient endurance, benevolence, admonition, reward or compensation, magnanimity, highly valuing meritorious deeds, respect for the aged, prohibiting calumny and abuse, and belief in the gods and Buddha. Bushi Nichiyo A winning mind: benevolence, honesty, and (1661) modesty. A loosing mind; negligence, impropriety, extravagance, self-conceit, and ingratitude. Hagakure Loyalty, filial piety, and benevolence. (1716) Budo Shoshin Loyalty, justice, filial piety, justice and injustice, gratitude and reverence, family Shu (1726–1730) management, frugality, acquaintance with the Buddha, amity, and renunciation of slander Rectitude or justice, courage, the spirit of Nitobe: daring, benevolence, the feeling of Bushido compassion, politeness, veracity or (1899) truthfulness, honor, the duty of loyalty, and self- control.

Intrinsic virtue Bravery, denunciation of cowardice, and serving one’s master at risk to one’s life.

Serving one’s master at risk to one’s life.

Bravery and serving one’s master totally Bravery and serving one’s master totally.

Hara-kiri (suicide by disembowelment), junshi (self-immolation of an attendant on the death of one’s lord), katakiuchi (revenge) and a Japanese sword as a symbol of samurai.

5.1.2  Comparison Between Shonindo and Bushido Shonindo is analyzed in detail in Chap. 4, so let us examine it here in a more comprehensive manner. In the early seventeenth century, during the Edo period, ordinary virtues such as honesty, sincerity, goodness, and benevolence are of primary importance. However, with the change of the times, virtues such as frugality, directly linked to business, ranked higher. As Table 4.10 shows, when we arrange virtues in order of frequency of appearance in passages cited, the frequency order is: frugality 146, profit 91, honesty 88, integrity 81, propriety 77, filial piety 56, sincerity 54, family business 54, gods and Buddhas 53, harmony 43, wisdom 41, benevolence 32, purity 31, and secret charity 22. The virtues related to business such as frugality and profit are most often cited, but ordinary virtues follow very closely. In other words, the figures demonstrate that honesty, integrity, propriety, sincerity, the protection of the gods and Buddha accompany frugality and profit. The frequency of harmony and benevolence derived from Buddhism is surprisingly small, likely because the teachings of Confucianism, which the shogunate emphasized in the Edo period, were propagated from the samurai class to the merchant class. One may infer that the Confucian spirit as a practical ethical code is rooted in the behavior of merchants. However, it is inferred that wisdom in the five important virtues, Jin

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(benevolence), Gi (justice), Rei (politeness, propriety), Chi (wisdom), and Shin ­(sincerity) preached by the Confucian “Mencius” and which constitute the fundamental principles of Confucianism, ranks low as an expression of Japanese ethical thought, which manifests a Japanese characteristic of human resource management focusing on personality. Tables 4.10 and 5.1 demonstrate that Bushido and Shonindo often overlap. The differences lie in a few key words such as bravery, cowardice, and matters of life or death.

5.2  Behavioral Analysis of Shonindo In Chap. 4, we analyzed Shonindo with religious faith and keywords as the criteria. This chapter divides the examples into the following five categories—“employer wisdom,” “human resource management,” “education,” “business and financial management,” and “daily life”—to clarify more concretely the ethical behavior of merchants.

5.2.1  Employer Wisdom The Choja Kyo, published in the early seventeenth century, lacked a sense of morality and placed a strong emphasis on money-making, which shows an absence of the ethical awareness of merchants in those days. However, with the resumption of peace, merchants put more weight on the sustainability of business rather than money itself. Consultation systems in decision making, banishment of an incompetent master, negligence, attitudes respected by subordinates, and survival of the operation’s prosperity became important issues of the master. The Seventeenth Century • Choja Kyo, in Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 (Nakamura 1975) Everyone wants money more than anything else (p. 16).

Comment: Money-making, regardless of good and evil, was the biggest concern of merchants in the early Edo period. The Eighteenth Century With social stabilization, merchants will recognize the importance of business ethics, and in this way the head of a family business gains recognition. • Kadōkun in Nihon Kyoiku Bunko, Kunkai Hen (Dobunkan 1911) Do not decide by oneself alone what really matters at work. Consult with executive employees and make a decision after consulting with all (p. 270).

Comment: The origins of traditional Japanese consultation system in decision making.

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• Fū-kino Jigatame, in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 3 (Takimoto 1976) Even the master of a family is forced to retire unless he obeys the family law (p. 158).

Comment: Banishment of an incompetent master. The Nineteenth Century A strong mental attitude is required for a master as the business develops. • Tosei Kanyo Ki in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976) When business is doing well, lack of discipline may occur, and the business will not succeed. If the mind of the store owner slackens, the things that used to work in the store will become undisciplined and the store will collapse. When the owner of the store gets into trouble, the store goes bankrupt rapidly (p. 233).

Comment: Carelessness is forbidden. • Wagami no Tame in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) The owner of the store should act fairly not to elicit contempt by employees (p. 134).

Comment: One must have attitudes respected by subordinates. • Shoka Kokoroe Kusa 1928–1930/1966–1971)

in

Nihon

Keizai Taiten, Vol.

13

(Takimoto

Even if one succeeds as the master of a family, this will not always last. Many stores go bankrupt in twenty or forty years (p. 696).

Comment: It is difficult for a store to prosper and survive.

5.2.2  Human Resource Management The historical facts clearly show that merchants who had “treated servants as thieves” in the beginning of the seventeenth century switched to “management takes care of employees” from the latter half of the seventeenth century to the eighteenth century. A summary is: “If the employer is the head, then employees are the hands and feet. Business is impossible if you are missing either one.” “Benevolence to an employer and loyalty to an employee.” “Deal out admonition calmly.” “No favoritism to employees.” “Praise a lot, punish lightly.” “Cherish a solid person more than a flashy one.” “Emphasize abilities rather than seniority.” “Warm hierarchical relationships.” “Sharing pleasure.” “Evaluate advantages over disadvantages.” “Do not criticize a small mistake.” “Promotion for an excellent person and early retirement for ineffective people.” “Coexistence of kindness and severity.” In general, what these have in common is the virtue of benevolence, in the other words, sympathetic pity and concern for the suffering or misfortunes of others.

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The Seventeenth Century Except for the Choja kyo, the following cases demonstrate how merchants were concerned with human management at that time. • Chojya Kyo in Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 (Nakamura 1975) Employees are thieves (p. 10).

Comment: The early Edo period merchants did not trust their employees. • Shison Kagami in Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 (Nakamura 1975) Render exhaustive loyalty to your master. The master is the head, the servants are his limbs. A master is decent to his servants, and servants are loyal to their master (p. 24).

Comment: Loyalty to master, benevolence to servants. Speak well of the good deeds of others, even if they are not entirely praiseworthy, and be lenient of their misdeeds, even if they are fully blameworthy (p. 37).

Comment: The master’s benevolence to subordinates. The Eighteenth Century With stable economic development under the Tokugawa government, merchants began to pay more attention not only to marketing, but also to internal management. • Kadōkun, in Nihon Kyoiku Bunko, Kunkai Hen (Dobunkan 1911) It is important to have compassion for employees, which means pity and respect (p. 412).

Comment: Employer’s benevolence to employees. It is important to choose a naïve and obedient person with less talent, who rarely makes a mistake (p. 423).

Comment: Personality-oriented management. Ignore the tattletale (pp. 423, 425).

Comment: Cool judgment. Those who are well off express their sincerity with gifts. However, it is sometimes better to give little by little, rather than giving a lot at a time (p. 472).

Comment: Give employees not only words but rewards. • Tohi Mondo in Ishida Baigan Zenshu, Vol. 1 (Shibata 1972) When there is no difference in ability, place the senior person in the higher position. When there are differences, rank according to ability. Priority in work goes to the senior apprentice (p. 74).

Comment: Promotion was decided by not only seniority but also abilities in the Edo period.

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• Ishida Sensei Goroku in Ishida Baigan Zenshu, Vol. 1 (Shibata 1972) Make a profit, do not indulge in luxury, do not waste money, do not be mean, treat people with care, and manage people with a gentle manner (p. 267).

Comment: Frugality and benevolence. The head clerk, holding a position of authority guiding and controlling others, should kindly treat those under him as if they were his younger brothers. Those under him should respect him as if he were the proprietor and listen to him as they would their older brother (p. 310).

Comment: A warm vertical relationship. • Waga Tsue in Tejima Toan Zenshu (Shibata 1973) It is most important that a master (employer) be compassionate and affectionate toward his employees (p. 12).

Comment: Benevolent management You may not think much about what concerns you, but it is not an insignificant error to disregard your servants…. It is most important that a master be compassionate and affectionate toward his help. Especially important is that he not turn them into bad people (p. 123).

Comment: Benevolence. In general, the master of the house is responsible for the good and evil of those who dwell there (p. 136).

Comment: To become a faithful servant depends upon one’s master. Those who employ others should share in their hardships and joys. In other words, they should take the lead when it comes to toilsome work. Upon seeing this, the employee will willingly join in the labor. When it comes to pleasant tasks, the master should stay in the background and let the employee take the lead (p. 147).

Comment: Employers should share joys and sorrows with employees. The Nineteenth Century The nineteenth century witnessed a revolution in business. Merchants vastly increased their numbers of employees and began introducing human resource management practices applicable to the present day. • Tosei Kanyo Ki in Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976) There is no perfect person. Even if one has shortcomings, pass over these ones in silence (p. 223).

Comment: Note an employee’s advantages and strong points and try to overlook as much as possible their disadvantages and weak points. • Shison Takaragusa in Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) Harshly scolding someone for not following an instruction invites a spirit of revenge. It is unreasonable to expect to employ an intelligent man for low wages. Compensate, therefore, an excellent apprentice with an appropriate wage. The proprietor who fails to exert this care will attract apprentices lacking in loyalty. Compensate well and chastise lightly (p. 43).

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Comment: Do not blame small mistakes. Pay an excellent person with an appropriate wage. Everyone whosoever undoubtedly has some special ability. When employing many people, examine them carefully, and if they have any employable skills at all, they will be useful to you (pp. 49–52).

Comment: Take advantage of strengths, not disadvantages. • Wagami no Tame in Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) A man has the character with which he was born. Make the best use of your apprentices’ skills and their work will make great progress. Just as your hands and feet move with no effort on your part, the work will go smoothly. Such a person is called a master in employment (p. 132)

Comment: Make full use of one’s skill. Those who are good at handling others first carefully observe their employee’s characters and how they work. If they judge that someone holds promise, use them favorably. If, however, they are given a chance and one may consider them to hold no promise, they should be quickly sent back to their families. The remaining apprentices, then, will be the very best for the shop (pp. 132–133).

Comment: Maintain promising people but quit an incompetent person. A meritocracy. It goes without saying that you should temper your mercy with due sternness. Observing what goes on in society, those taught with due rigor are good at running a shop, whereas those raised leniently are poor in their work and may be let go in mid-training. It is, then, to the advantage of the apprentice—and to the shop as well—that all undergoes rigorous training (p. 135).

Comment: In managing people, sternness is necessary as well as mercy and kindness. • Minka o Sodategusa, in Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) Treat your apprentices kindly. Do not cherish only those you like and favor but pay attention as well to those who are less accomplished but loyal. Admonish in various ways those who are disloyal, and if they show no remorse, have them quit forthwith. There will be apprentices who, like little children, will refuse to listen to you…they are useless to the shop and to you. If you keep in mind that you yourself may be negligent in some ways, and that what others say to you, especially repeatedly, may hold wisdom, then listen even to your apprentices, whether what they say is pleasant or not. Accept what is good and reject what is bad (pp. 48–49).

Comment: With compassion and no prejudice, praise the loyal employees, but quit the disloyal ones. When a proprietor puts on airs, those under him will somehow find it hard to give him earnest allegiance. Basing your words and actions on harmony, propriety, mercy, and benevolence, deal with your apprentices as if they were your colleagues and friends (pp. 59–60).

Comment: A spirit of harmony and a mind of compassion are necessary to work with employees friendly and effectively.

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When reprimanding an apprentice, speak kindly to him and out of the sight of others. Say also, ‘Your work is good, and you have a good reputation. Everybody at the shop is pleased with you.’ If you say to him, ‘Your recent misbehavior is unbefitting of you,’ and after hearing him out tell him, ‘From now on, make every effort to avoid making this kind of mistake,’ you will please him. The apprentice will understand exactly what you have told him, and he will reflect upon it. A proprietor’s use of others is important, for adding even one good person to those working under him may be crucial. There will be those whom the proprietor may favor personally, but who among the subordinates may have a bad reputation for being disloyal. Conversely, there will be those whom the proprietor may not favor, but who are more honest than those who are deeply loyal and beneficial to the shop, and even if slightly inadequate, are an overall benefit for the business. That an apprentice may not settle in for the duration is the burden of the proprietor (pp. 79–81).

Comment: The most important instruction for managing people. • Shoka Kokoroegusa in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Vol. 13 (Takimoto 1928–1930) Of ten shop apprentices who work steadily until their period of apprenticeship ends, two or three will become independent and capable of opening their own shop. Almost all will successfully carry out their various jobs in the proprietor’s shop, serving as clerks and apprentices to the merchant family, but again, two or three out of ten will establish a separate residence without incident. There are many instances where the rest will ruin the proprietor and end up becoming a group of vagrants (p. 696).

Comment: Fifty percent of employees are expected to really  contribute to do business.

5.2.3  Education Historical records show that merchants emphasized the importance of education for business survival in the Edo period. The following phrases are examples showing how Edo period merchants stressed the importance of education and training: “Learn under a good teacher, teach the less-capable child with a warm heart, instill the concept of honesty deeply into people. The child is the mirror of the parent, get the offspring to recognize the parent’s mercy, give young people lessons in propriety, appoint an adopted son as a successor in place of one’s poorly performing son, and give the offspring strict lessons necessary for a successor.” Unfortunately, we could not find passages related to education in the seventeenth century historical documents used for this research. The Eighteenth Century • Kadōkun in Nihon Kyoiku Bunko, Kunkai Hen (Dobunkan 1911) What is essential in educating children is to learn under a good teacher, to read books written by sages, to know the difference between right and wrong, and to learn the rules of morality governing the five human relationships: lord and vassal, father and son, husband and wife, young and old, friend and friend, and also the five cardinal virtues: benevolence, justice, politeness, wisdom, and fidelity (p. 417). Do not offend even children with poor performance; treat people with mercy (p. 436).

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Comment: It is important to treat people with mercy even if a person may not be competent in a job. • Ishida Sensei Goroku, in Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Shibata 1972) Strongly admonish a man from his youth against lying, and severely caution him against lying over trivial matters. Do not, for example, waste one sheet of paper on a useless matter (Vol. 1, p. 268).

Comment: You should inspire your children with honesty. In order to educate children, parents themselves must lead by example (Vol. 1, p. 269).

Comment: Endeavor on the parents’ part is required. When the parents’ compassion is conveyed to children, the children understand the parents’ hearts and soften their stance, even if the parents have difficult personalities. It is to be regretted that there are many children who do not understand their parents’ love (Vol. 2, p. 85).

Comment: It is important to convey parental compassion to children. • Waga Tsue in Tejima Toan Zenshu (Shibata 1973) It is of great importance to firmly admonish a child from his youngest years against lying and telling falsehoods (p. 126).

Comment: You must inspire children to never lie. • Yowatarigusa in Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976) When raising children, you should firmly instill in them nothing of extravagance or selfishness. An extravagance of spirit is the very worst sort of thing (p. 281).

Comment: One should instill in children the courtesy and rules of etiquette. The Nineteenth Century • Tosei Kanyo Ki in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976) When your children are young, discipline even those you favor with the rod of love, and when they become adults, take care that your love does not fade (p. 245).

Comment: Education of proprieties in childhood is essential to the development of character. • Shison Takaragusa in Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) An offspring who is not obedient to one’s parents will not be a successor. The parents will adopt a person with good personality from the outside or choose a successor from store employees (p. 6).

Comment: In place of offspring unfit for a successor, merchants in the Edo period used to receive an adopted son in law. • Wagami no Tame in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) Through upbringing, some will become wise, and some other will become foolish. The whole life of a child is dependent on how the child is raised (p. 105).

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Comment: There is no question that upbringing can have a big effect on a child. • Minka o Sodategus in Nihon Keizai Taiten., Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) From their youth onward discuss matters of good and evil with your children, telling them stories about poor farmers who became successful merchants, rich people who fell into poverty, filial piety, loyal people, those who enjoyed happiness by doing deeds of secret charity and mercy, and those who received the rewards of their evil (p. 40).

Comment: Start education from childhood and tell children various kinds of heartwarming and failure stories. Your child will be your successor. Giving him a strict upbringing is mercy (p. 41).

Comment: Strict discipline is benevolence.

5.2.4  Business and Financial Management In historical documents, one can find a large amount of evidence to demonstrate good practices of business and financial management in the Edo period. In the following list are major examples: “Honest deals that do not deceive,” “Do not purchase illegal merchandise,” “Give money to people in trouble when you have enough and money to spare, “Do not leave money to your offspring, just donate it to charity, but do not donate to temples and shrines,” “Frugality is different from stinginess,” “Do not lend money to close friends but give it to them,” “The basics of commerce is distribution,” “The profit in trade of the merchant corresponds to the stipend of the samurai,” “Distribution creates value,” “ Honesty is an essential virtue to merchants,” “Buying and selling is just like a win-win game,” “A miser is disdained,” “Profit comes from fair business,” “Spend money for the good of the world and the good of the people,” “Great merchants never tell a lie and always put the customer’s interests first from a long-term perspective,” “Do not sell at a higher price and keep profits modest and reasonable,” “You must not try to get ahead by pushing people away if you want to build a lasting business,” “Keep the profit ratio low,” “Confidence is one of the major properties indispensable to merchants,” “You need to do business within your capabilities,” “Serve customers politely and make them satisfied even if you make less profit,” “Do not let a visiting customer leave empty-handed,” “It is important not to lose money rather than earn money,” “Make sure of everything that you can see,” “Use cash transactions even with discounts rather than credit transactions, even if sales increase and the business grows bigger,” and: “The master should leave jobs to the employee so that they can grasp the actual circumstances of business.” The Seventeenth Century • Keicho Kenmon Shu (Haga 1906) The gods will look after honest people. Some merchants sell goods at a higher price to unknown visitors in order to make undue profits. Such merchants will receive divine punishment and, in the afterlife, be tortured by demons in hell (p. 35).

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Comment: Good merchants never deceive customers. • Shison Kagami in Nihon Shiso Taikei Vol. 59 (Nakamura 1975) Do not purchase ill-gotten goods (p. 77).

Comment: This is one of the basics of trading. The Eighteenth Century • Kadōkun in Nihon Kyoiku Bunko, Vol. 3 Kunkai Hen (Dobunkan 1911) The person who saves money without giving to charity will lose his wealth in unexpected disasters. Wealthy people should spend money on their parents, relatives, friends, and people in trouble who genuinely need assistance (pp. 414, 435).

Comment: One should spend excess funds on social welfare. If you desire that your children prosper, then act in all sincerity, be merciful to others, let your happiness lie in always doing good, and instill goodness in them. Such devotion will yield a hundredfold compared with large expenditures of money in obsequious supplications to the gods and to the Buddhas (p. 446).

Comment: One should spend money on society, not leave it to your offspring. You should give money, not lend it to relatives or close friends in financial trouble. Lending money becomes the seed of disasters (p. 465).

Comment: You should give money, never lend it to family or close friends. • Tohi Mondo in Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Shibata 1972, vol. 1) Merchants discharged their duties by moving goods from regions with surplus to those with need, thus compensating for any deficiencies. They made their fortunes by being scrupulous in their entries, meticulously careful about the smallest amounts of money. Buying and selling with a mutual, heartfelt sympathy for others in a similar situation formed the basis of their businesses (pp. 32–33).

Comment: Distribution is one of the basics of commerce. Merchants should learn the teachings of Buddhism and Confucianism so that they do fair trade (p. 33)

Comment: One must keep one’s mind upon morality in business. Increasing one’s profits through commerce is the right path for merchants. The profit in trade of the merchant corresponds to the stipend of the samurai (p. 78).

Comment: A profit margin is the salary of a merchant. Merchants are rewarded for providing the service of distribution. They are not rewarded for doing anything bad things. The wholesaler’s fee is to guarantee the movement of goods using, for example, documents of transactions. Commodity transactions are like objects reflected in a mirror. A wholesaler can earn a reasonable profit without hiding anything. Merchants make a profit and earn a livelihood honestly. It is natural for a merchant to take profit honestly. Business with no profit is not Shonindo (pp. 80–81).

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Comment: Distribution of merchandise is an essential role of merchants. Thus, a reasonable profit or margin is a professional fee. Genuine merchants operate their business on a win-win principle. He who thinks of nothing but saving money and takes pleasure in nothing else is no different from a pauper (p. 151).

Comment: A miser is despised. • Ishida Sensei Goroku, in Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Shibata 1972) Profits spontaneously result from fair trade (Vol. 1, p. 271).

Comment: Honesty in business brings profits. Growing wealthy is not good. A heart rich in mercy will make efforts in doing works of charity until there is no excess of money. (Vol. 2, p. 71).

Comment: Do not leave money to your offspring, spend for others. • Fūki no Jigatame in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 3 (Takimoto 1976) There are various types of trade, but the mercantile spirit remains constant. Wealthy merchants and petty traders may share the same sympathies, but the former is generous and the latter is narrow-minded. Nonetheless, this depends on the type of trade. There are those who work very hard and are known to be honest, yet all their lives they remain poor. Again, there are those who do not particularly exert themselves in their work, but they are very sociable and successful. This is not merely a matter of luck, but of their business being influenced by something intangible. Generally, the merchant is courteous in his dealings and, even in small transactions, cheerfully treats the customer as if he were long-valued patron. If, for example, there is a disagreement over the price of an item, he kindly spends time with the customer and eventually manages a compromise and closes the deal, even if at a loss. This is the secret of wealthy merchants. There are many buyers who, with a small transaction, carefully look over an item and want to haggle over the price, yet the merchant does not refuse them, and indulges them like a great benefactor, putting his heart into dealing with them. Thus, he treats them well, and they will not leave without buying something. Moreover, he will not let them say they will return some other time and sends them off empty-handed. This is poor business and not what successful merchants do. He treats the buyer as if he were taking care of his parents, remembering that buyers will make unreasonable demands. A businessman must not be cold towards the customer or betray in the least that he views the customer merely as somebody who only came to view his items…. He is not a merchant who is greedy for bloated profits and wants to instantly make money. Merchants of old are said to never have lied. The merchant who extensively expands his business throughout the country will not progressively raise his prices or deceive his valued customers with lies that will soon come to light (pp. 99–100).

Comment: Great merchants with a long-term perspective who aim for customer satisfaction, never tell a lie. The person who pushes past rivals in order to survive in fierce business competition will go bankrupt in one generation (pp. 122–123).

Comment: Self-interested persons will ultimately fail in business. • Wagatsue in Tejima Toan Zenshu (Shibata 1973).

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It is better that the merchant is not profoundly greedy. It is difficult to maintain a shop where such greed exists. Where greed exists, so does an insatiable lust for profit, and the profit margins on the goods sold will be small. Since profit margins are small, carefully check on the competition to avoid selling at a loss, and prudently observe what allows him to sell with a sense of security. Quit selling when you cannot place your trust in anybody. On the other hand, check your goods carefully when selling and cut down on your profit, for buyers will gather where goods are affordable. The same applies when buying. Attentively examine the items and pay according to the price agreed upon. If you show this attitude the other party will be obliged not to cut corners and will carefully check over what he is selling too. This is an advantage of doing business that others can appreciate (p. 158).

Comment: A small profit margin will lead to steady business, which will require constant effort. This is a secret of business success. • Yowatarigusa in Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976). The merchant is of the lowest social class, and like the samurai and tenant farmer, does not own his own land. Commerce consists of moving goods from places where they are in excess, to those where they are needed, and as recompense ten percent of the transaction is a reasonable profit. In contrast to the samurai who receives a fixed hereditary remuneration, and to the powerful landowner who possesses large tracts of real estate, the merchant’s prospects are as ephemeral as drifting grass. Woe to him who dresses extravagantly and forgets his place: his fall will be swift. The assets of a merchant are not tangible, but only his trust. If you trick the customer and lose credibility you buy the anger of the gods and the Buddhas, and even massive wealth will scatter in the blink of an eye (pp. 269–270).

Comment: The most valuable wealth to merchants is confidence. • Kagyo Sozoku Chikaragusa. In Nihon Keizai Taiten. Suppl. Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976) When doing business on an extensive scale and exceeding available capital, there are many instances when it becomes unmanageable and fails, and one’s inherited shop is sold off. This is due to the foolish idea that you will be thought of as incompetent if you do not expand what you inherited (p. 297).

Comment: Do not bite off more than you can chew. Although it is simple, it is a winning strategy to save expenses, limit profit to only 10% of sales, and not reduce your inherited fortune by preparing for unexpected loss. In anything, think about your abilities and be discreet (p. 298).

Comment: Reasonable but realistic business practices. The Nineteenth Century • Tosei Kanyo Ki in Nihon Keizai Taiten. Supplementary, Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976). Serve visitors in a friendly way and do not dispute insignificant matters. Even if you can win a dispute, you will lose in business. On the contrary, if you offer a discount, visitors will have a favor with you and become a good customer (p. 234).

Comment: Yielding is sometimes the best way of succeeding. It is a shame of business that visitors leave the store without buying anything (p. 234).

Comment; It is important for business to satisfy a customer.

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It is important for business not to lose rather than earn money. Do not expect huge profits (pp. 210–211).

Comment: Not losing money is vital for survival. It is preferable to see things with your own eyes, for there are times when what you hear from others does not meet the reality (p. 214).

Comment: Seeing is believing. Conduct business on a cash basis. For customers who buy with cash, offer a discount service, even if it is a little. It is better to get cash than a credit even if you discount it (pp. 234–235).

Comment: Trading on a cash basis guarantees the safety of business. • Shoka Kokoroegusa in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Vol. 13 (Takimoto 1976). However great a dealer he may be, a proprietor should be involved in marketing his merchandise and not leave it to his help. To entrust this to his workers is unwise (p. 706).

Comment: It is necessary for a proprietor to be thoroughly familiar with the actual situation in business.

5.2.5  Daily Life Here we summarize teachings for daily life that were not classified from 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.3 to 5.2.4. There are many teachings related to religious belief such as Shintoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. The following list illustrates the teachings: “The gods are always watching,” “Important virtues for merchants are diligence, honesty, patience, and frugality,” “Faith in the gods and the Buddhas is the basis of honesty,” “Shintoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism are the bedrock of daily behavior,” “Sincerity is one of the significant teachings of Confucianism,” “Be not pretentious,” “Be willing to endure hardship while you are young,” “When you hesitate to make a decision, ask a talented person’s advice,” “Do not indulge in luxury,” “Merchants need to learn Confucianism,” “If you respect your opponent, even if not one hundred percent, eighty percent of them will think highly of you,” “Shonindo corresponds to the Way of the warrior, and that of the farmer, and that of the craftsman,” “The basic concepts of Shintoism, Buddhism, Taoism stand on a common foundation,” “Sincerity, benevolence, and honesty are basic in all respects,” “The Shinto-Confucianist-Buddhist order of worship is as follows; for followers of the Buddha, the Great Hall of Ise, and Shaka (Gautama Buddha). For Confucian scholars, the Great Hall of Ise, and the Confucian saints. For the Four Classes (samurai, farmer, craftsman, merchant), the Great Hall of Ise, one’s master, and one’s parents. No matter what your faith, Shinto, Confucianism, or Buddhism, your first place of worship is the Great Hall of Ise,” “Mercy is Buddhism, honesty is Shinto, sincerity is Confucianism,” “Give money charitably to the poor,” “People learn the difference

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between rich and poor by studying the way of saints, helping people and giving charity,” “Do not have a short temper, persevere, reduce greed, and work diligently,” “When you are lost in your troubles, consult a wise man,” “Secret benefaction is the foundation of your offspring’s prosperity,” “To help people, you must save money by being thrifty,” “Do not depend on people,” “Associate with someone better than yourself,” “Study through reading books if you have time,” “Know the limits of your ability,” “One’s mouth is the gate of most misfortune.” The Seventeenth Century In daily life, religious belief in the Gods and Buddhas impact heavily on teaching manners at home and training discipline on the job. • Keichou Kenmon Shu (Haga 1906) Gods protect honest people regardless of religious belief. Some merchants sell goods at a higher price than the market to the buyers from the country to make unreasonable profits. However, divine punishment will come down on them, and they will be burned in hellfire (p. 35).

Comment: The eyes of God sleep not. • Choja Kyou in Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 (Nakamura 1975) The virtues fitting for merchants are diligence, honesty, patience, and frugality (pp. 9–11).

Comment: These four virtues are universally important to any people in any time in Japan. • Shison Kagami in Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59 (Nakamura 1975) Excessive speech is the root of being disliked. Be unpretentious in responding to matters you know about, and simply state you do not know when you do not know. It is better to be honest and sincere in speaking with others (p. 31).

Comment: It is honesty and sincerity that matters mostly with relationships with people. Act honestly, having faith in the Gods and the Buddhas (p. 23).

Comment: Faith in the Gods and the Buddhas is the foundation of honest business. • Kanemochi Choho Ki in Nihon Keiazi Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 1 (Takimoto 1976) The heart of heaven and earth, the heart of Buddha, the heart of devils, and the heart of plants are all the same as the heart of God. Above all, a man is a master of many things, and also the chief of all gods. People who are not trusted are not people (p. 14).

Comment: The teachings of Shintoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism lay a foundation for human behavior. All will turn out well for those who put a high value on sincerity. However, it is a great pity that there are some money-mad people who lose true friends over financial troubles. We long for a world where one can have true friends (p. 40).

Comment: Sincerity is one of the important virtues in Confucianism.

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The Eighteenth Century In the following passage, we can see what is universally adapted even today, which demonstrates the immutability of human nature. • Kadōkun in Nihon Kyoiku Bunko, Kunkai Hen (Dobunkan 1911) If you struggle to make efforts when you are young, you will be able to live comfortably after retirement. If you spend many of your days in vain, you will be in narrow circumstances throughout your life (p. 424).

Comment: Be willing to endure hardship while you are young. When you are unsure of your decision in an important matter, consult with talented persons. On your own, there is a possibility that you cannot judge objectively due to the accumulation of your desires (p. 425).

Comment: When you waver in your judgment, ask a reliable persons’ advice. Even if you are rich, do not live in luxury and lead a simple life (p. 461).

Comment: In the Edo period, merchants used to save money by plain living to give it in charity to people in poverty. • Tohi Mondo in Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Shibata 1972) Merchants should learn the teachings of Buddhism and Confucianism to do fair trade (Vol. 1, p. 33).

Comment: The improvements in the social status encouraged for merchants to learn Confucianism. Consider the other party’s concerns more important than your own, and eight times out of ten he will know in his heart what you are doing for him (Vol. 1, p. 88).

Comment: When you value people, eighty of one hundred people will be considerate toward you. The Way the merchant must follow does not alter for the samurai, the farmer, and the craftsman. Mencius says that the Way is one (Vol. 1, p. 90).

Comment: The right path is common. Studying Shinto after studying Confucianism, not the slightest doubt will arise. Buddhism, Laozi, and Zhuangzi as well are likewise identical (Vol. 1, p. 123).

Comment: The basics of teachings is common to all. Confucian teachings are for those innocent and pure as babies. People who commit a sin are punished (Vol. 1, 141).

Comment: The teachings of Confucianism are highly pure. He who thinks of nothing but saving money and takes pleasure in nothing else is no different from a pauper (Vol. 1, p. 151).

Comment: A niggard is just like a pauper. • Ishida Sensei Goroku, in Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Shibata 1972) In everything, sincerity, benevolence, and honesty are the fundamentals (Vol. 1, p. 349)

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Comment: Sincerity originates from Confucianism, benevolence from Buddhism, and honesty from Shintoism. In general, the order of worship is as follows: First, Shintoism, “the Grand Shrine of Ise, the Gods, Emperors, and the Tokugawa Shogun;” second, Confucianism, “Confucius, and his prominent successors;” third, Buddhism, “the Buddhas.” However, for Buddhists, “first, the Grand Shrine of Ise, second the Buddha.” Confucianists, “first, the Grand Shrine of Ise, second, Confucius.” For the other people, including Samurais, Farmers, Craftsmen, and Merchants, “first, the Grand Shrine of Ise, second, ones’ master, third, one’s parents (Vol. 2, pp. 144–145).

Comment: In any case, the Grand Shrine of Ise is always first! These are the Triple Gem: Buddhist mercy, Shinto honesty, and the sincerity of the Sages. Mercy, sincerity, and honesty are all of them light emanating from oneself (Vol. 2, p. 145).

Comment: Mercy, honesty, and sincerity are the basics of Japanese worship. • Fukin no Jikatame, in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 3 (Takimoto 1976) When you see poor persons, help them (p. 159).

Comment: Provide money for the poor. Study allows you to better understand the distinction between poverty and wealth, and the reason why you should bless and help others (p. 160).

Comment: Learn the gap between the rich and the poor, help people in poverty. • Yowatarigusa, in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976) To be patient means to bear with. Control your quick temper, for anger warps the mind. It may be good, but it may be evil. Your associations with others will not go well, and what is possible will become impossible. Seize the good, bear with evil, persevere in poverty, do not take on debt, and be satisfied with you lot in life. Business may slack off, and you may even become poor, but bear with it and work as hard as you can (pp. 290–291).

Comment: Keep temper, persevere, reduce greed, and work diligently. • Kagyo Sozoku Chikaragusa in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976) Practice secret charity to insure your descendants will long continue and the house flourish. Be merciful, do good, honor the Gods and Buddhas, reverence your ancestors, help the poor, feed the hungry, assist the elderly, bless your children, care for the sick, pay heed to the crimes of others, kill no living being unnecessarily, choose a mentor in studying rules for proper conduct, provide medications for the sick, propagate morality, for example, to do good, however small, and work very hard, do these things, then your family business will flourish and your descendants will endure forever. The saying has it, ‘One’s good deeds will be repaid even to one’s descendants’ (p. 308).

Comment: Secret charity is the foundation of one’s posterity thriving. The Nineteenth Century • Tosei Kanyo Ki in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 2 (Takimoto 1976) Better to help others and render them assistance. You will not have a surplus to bless others if you live extravagantly. Frugality, then, is requisite (p. 200).

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Comment: One should save money by economizing to help people in trouble. Do not rely on others for everything. Since the fool depends on others he will later meet with situations where he will not act as he wishes. If you leave everything to others, including reliance on your clerks, something unexpected will later occur and you will be at a loss (p. 229).

Comment: Do not rely on others for support. • Shison Takaragusa in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) Choose as a friend one who is more excellent than you are. You cannot improve yourself by associating with one like yourself. Nothing could be worse, however, than choosing somebody inferior to you (p. 18).

Comment: Associate with a person superior than you. If you have free time, read books, then try to learn the teachings of the saints, calligraphy, and arithmetic. People who focus on self-development will have a bright future (pp. 34–35).

Comment: Improve yourself by self-education. Better to quit early what you are not competent for. If you spend money thoughtlessly, you will lose it soon. If you work at what is beyond your abilities, you may suffer from a disease brought on by physical and mental fatigue. It is wrong to work beyond your own limits (p. 44).

Comment: Be aware of your limitations. The mouth is the source of almost every misfortune. Gossip on the good and evil of others is forbidden. The barrier to such is the ear, the ceiling the eye. Discretion is crucial. What is spoken in private, thinking nobody will know of it, will be leaked. Since Heaven has no mouth, it communicates all things through the agency of human beings (p. 46).

Comment: The mouth is the gate of misfortune. Looking at people’s wrongs, reflect on yourself. You will improve yourself by knowing people’s good and evil (p. 49).

Comment: Learn wisdom by the follies of others. You will live your life in abundance if, once you have attained wealth, you do not forget your early poverty and live a simple life. (p. 53)

Comment: Even if you become wealthy, do not forget poor old days. When examining someone, see who his friends are. The filial piety of a child comes from the thoughtfulness of the parents (p. 54).

Comment: You can know someone’s personality through the one’s friends. • Wagami no Tame in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) Unlike the samurai, merchants live on monetary assets inherited from their parents. Losing the assets leads to the decline of business. Accordingly, merchants must take the utmost care of the inherited money and not lose it. The inherited assets are the valuable fortune that ancestors have earned, working hard through successive generations. This is the precious outcome of working hard from early morning ‘till late in the evening, leading an ascetic life with frugality, standing high in the public estimation, and just concentrating to increase revenue and cut down expenses. Take good care of them (p. 113).

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Comment: Samurai live on stipends, while merchants on their own profits. There are two kinds of friends. One is a bosom friend, the other a superficial friend. Bosom friends can open their hearts to each other in their daily association, but superficial friends are only friends ostensibly, and are cautious with each other. Bosom friends are united in their intentions. Wealth and rank mean nothing to them. They regularly do things together and, if one seems to be doing something wrong, the other secretly admonishes him. They help each other in hardship and share their joys and sorrows. Even sages are said to be embarrassed if they lack a bosom friend. Although one may desire one, it is not so easy to find a good friend. Most friends are superficial. If we may restate the matter, there are many bad friends (p. 123).

Comment: A bosom friend is a true friend. Be on good terms with those better than yourself … Good friends gather around those who do good deeds, but around those who do evil, bad friends congregate. Be prudent regarding those you choose for your friends. (pp. 125–126).

Comment: Associate with friends superior than yourself. • Minka o Sodategusa in Nihon Keizai Taiten, Suppl. Vol. 5 (Takimoto 1976) If you think to admonish your master, look for a time when nobody is around and talk to him in secret (p. 57).

Comment: One should secretly make remonstrances with a person against one’s conduct. Unlike the samurai, a merchant receives no stipend. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to be very well versed in carrying out commerce, refrain from ostentation, avoid avarice, impart to your descendants the secret of making money, treat your patrons well, enrich others. Do not deal in ill-gotten goods, preserve loyalty and filial piety, and be the first to strictly obey the laws and ordinances … Do not say that poverty and wealth, fortune and misfortune, rising and falling, and prosperity and adversity depend on the efforts of men, but that they are contingent on the will of Heaven. One can say, follow the example of good men and assimilate for yourself the good they do (p. 70).

Comment: Merchants have no regular income. They earn money through native genius and perseverance.

5.3  S  honindo and the Terakoya (Private Elementary Schools in the Edo Period) This Sect. 5.3, discusses and demonstrates that the foundation of Shonindo is based on the terakoya early childhood education. Shinto has no proper scripture, though Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam each have its own scripture. Confucianism also has many texts. One can learn Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, and Confucianism through texts, but not Shinto. How, then, do the Japanese learn Shinto without a text? As Nitobe wrote in his Bushido, Japanese, even now, do not have any remembrance of Shinto education in their lives. However, they learnt

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Confucianism by texts such as the Rongo (The Analects of Confucius) and Moshi (the Book of Mencius) at high school. Therefore, when it comes to morality, they always recall the teachings of Confucianism. Nitobe Inazou wrote in Bushido that the eight virtues of Bushido are closely related to Confucianism, saying “As to strictly ethical doctrines, the teachings of Confucius were the most prolific source of Bushido” (Nitobe 1987, Vol. 1, p. 36). In the Edo period, it was in the terakoya that Japanese children learned basic ideas of morality. In these schools, children learned reading, writing and soroban (an abacus, a kind of calculator) and the texts associated with reading and writing. In the other words, the teaching materials comprised a collection of famous passages from the Rongo and the Moshi. Accordingly, Japanese children learned basics of morality through reading and writing at the terakoya, and the terakoya was precisely a place of formation of Japanese morality. The terakoya was not a school of religious education, but a place where children naturally acquired a sense of morality by learning basic skills. Although Nitobe confessed that he had never received any education for morality in his childhood, it was misleading to believe in his confession. Before the Meiji Restoration, children of samurais obtained an education at the hanko (a school for samurais owned and managed by local government), where they acquired cultural accomplishments for samurais based on Confucian teachings. Nitobe was unfortunately educated during a period of disorder, the Meiji Restoration, and could not get a proper education. Next, we take up the content of representative texts and school rules and elucidate that education at the terakoya greatly contributed to the cultivation of moral awareness for children.

5.3.1  Jitsugo Kyo Author unknown (twelfth century?). The Jitsugo Kyo had been used as a moral education textbook for children from the twelfth to nineteenth centuries. The moral passages are mostly drawn from Confucian scriptures (Miya 1926). Here is a list of representative examples: • The value of a mountain is not in its height, but in the growing trees. • The value of a human depends on the quality of knowledge rather than the size of the body. • Wealth is valuable to the living but to the dead is worthless. • Show respect to your older brother and mercy to your younger one. • Un-filial people are disqualified as being human. • If you respect others, others will respect you. • Do not force others to do what you do not like to do. • Do not forget the time when you were poor.

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5.3.2  Doji Kyo Author unknown (twelfth century?). The Doji Kyo is a collection of daily moral lessons drawn from Confucian scripts and the stories of “karmic backlash” from Buddhist scriptures. This work was the most famous textbook for children, along with the Jitsugo Koyo in the Edo period (Miya 1926). Here is a list of representative examples: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Do not waste time gossiping. Do not talk too much. There is little error for insensitive humans. The walls have ears. Out of the mouth comes evil. It is we ourselves who produce the vicissitudes of life. Virtue brings its own reward. If you do good things secretly so as not to be noticed, you will surely get good results. Reflect on the accident that occurred and prepare for a future accident. Adapt to environmental change. A father’s favor is higher than the mountain, and a mother’s virtue is deeper than the sea. No matter how much money you hold, you cannot use it when you die. If you give charity to people with deep compassion, the Gods and Buddhas will be satisfied, but not be pleased with charity given with the expectation of reward.

5.3.3  Sample Case of a Student Behavior Code Here is a list of school rules at a local terakoya in Shizuoka province enforced from the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries (Takahashi 2007, pp. 66–70). • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Greet the teacher and friends, and calmly get behind a desk in order of arrival. Do not gossip while others are reading aloud. Review after reading aloud. Go to the restroom one by one. Do not leave the classroom without permission. Be friendly and polite with your friends. Parents should not interfere in their children’s quarrels. Give assistance to less able friends, those less academic ones. Teach writing to children under 10 years old. Give a salutation when you leave the terakoya. Greet parents before meals. Get up early in the morning and worship the sun and the ancestors. Make a good copy after practicing your writing.

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5.4  Comparison with Western Shonindo Western notions of warrior chivalry contrasting with Bushido is often taken up as a target of comparison. This Sect. 5.4 looks at the following three documents: Benjamin Franklin (1909) Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin and (1986)  The Way to Wealth; G. Horace Lorimer (1906) Letters from a Self-made Merchant to his Son; and Ward, G. Kingsley (1985) Mark My Words, Letters of a Businessman to his Son for comparison of Western Shonindo with Japanese one and investigates whether virtues in western Shonindo correspond to the one in Japanese ones.

5.4.1  F  ranklin, Benjamin (1909) Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin; (1986) The Way to Wealth Benjamin Franklin, in his Autobiography, takes up the following 13 virtues and describes in detail the self-discipline method to make virtue a habit in daily life, not just a mere ideal. His 13 virtues are as follows: temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity and humility. Except for chastity, these virtues correspond to the ones in Japanese Shonindo, as examined in Chap. 4. In addition to noting these virtues, Franklin wrote them in his diary and tried to nurture and improve his personality while reflecting on the results every day. Franklin was a practitioner and not a controversialist. He put an idea into practice. In his The Way to Wealth, he shows aphorism on the accumulation of wealth. He lists up the golden rules of obtaining wealth as follows: “Lost time is never found again” “Sloth makes all things difficult, but industry is easy” “Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise” “There are no gains without pains” “He that hath a trade hath an estate and he that hath a calling hath an office of profit and honor” “Diligence is the mother of good luck. God gives all things to industry” “If you have something to do tomorrow, do it today” “Constant dropping wears away stones” “If you would have a faithful servant and one you like, serve yourself” “A little neglect may breed great mischief” “Lying rides upon debt’s back” “Poverty often deprives a man of all spirit and virtue. It is hard for an empty bag to stand upright” “They who won’t be counseled can’t be helped” As one can see above, Franklin’s virtues and cases practically overlap with the ones noted in the keywords and virtues of the Japanese Shonindo in Chap. 4. As a

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concluding remark, we point out that many things touch the fundamental basis of humanity in teachings gained from practical work. Will truth universality overcome the boundaries of institution? We therefore conclude that Franklin’s Shonindo corresponds basically to Japanese Shonindo as taken in this study.

5.4.2  L  orimer, George Horace (1906) Letters from a Self-­ Made Merchant to His Son Author George Horace Lorimer (1867–1937) gained employment with Armor Packing Company, which was famous for meat processing, after dropping out of Yale University. In 1899, he became the editor in The Saturday Evening Post, and had served as editor in chief until 1937. This book won the eighth place of Publisher’s Weekly’s 1903 literary category bestseller. In this book, the father sends 20 letters to his son. The first is a letter to his son just entered Harvard. After graduating from college, his son obtained employment at a company his father ran and started working at the front line of the field. The father provided advice on work in his letter that did not make the difference of the times much. The first to the fourth letter were the ones to his son, who was living the student life at Harvard. From the fifth letter onward, the father begins to rigorously advise his son, who had finished his studies and began life in business. These covered topics ranging from acquaintanceship as a human being to detailed business work. He believed that what mattered most in a university education was the development of personality. He expected his son to become a noble person at college rather than raising his grades. It can be said there are no large differences compared with the aims of the Japanese Shonindo illustrated in Chap. 4 in terms of emphasizing the importance of personality, even if there are differences in expressions and perspectives. The following is advice from father to son as his successor: • The first thing that any education ought to give a man is character (p. 3) • I’m anxious that you should be a good scholar, but I’m more anxious that you should be a good clean man (p. 4) • The meanest man alive is the one who is generous with money that he has not had to sweat for, and that the boy who is a good fellow at someone else’s expense would not work up into first-class fertilizer (p. 20) • Use a little commonsense, caution and conscience. You can stock a store with those three commodities, when you get enough of them (p. 25) • Say less than the other fellow and listen more than you talk (p. 58) • A man’s got to keep company a long time and come early and stay late before he can get a girl or a job worth having (p. 62) • Superiority makes every man feel equal. It is courtesy without condescension, affability without familiarity, self-sufficiency without selfishness, simplicity without being snide (pp. 89–90)

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• A real salesman is one part talk and nine parts judgment, and he uses the nine parts judgment to tell when to use the one part of talk (p. 131) • It looks to me as if you were trying only half as hard as you could, and in trying it’s the second half that brings results (pp. 141–142) • Poverty never spoils a good man, but prosperity often does. It’s easy to stand hard times because that’s the only thing you can do, but in good times the fool-­ killer has to do night work (p. 161) • Enthusiasm shortens any job, it makes heavy work light (p. 211) • You can’t judge individuals by general rules. Every man is a special case and needs a special pill (pp. 212–213) • Be slow to hire and quick to fire (p. 214) • Some fellows can only see those above them, and others can only see those under them, but a good man can see both at once (pp. 227–228)

5.4.3  W  ard, G. Kingsley (1985) Mark My Words, Letters of a Businessman to His Son G. Kingsley Ward (1932–2014) attended Mount Allison University and Queens University, graduating with a BA and B. COMM in 1955. He started his business career with Price Waterhouse as a certified public accountant before he became an entrepreneur. He owned or partly owned 80 highly successful companies, primarily in the healthcare field. Mark My Words, Letters of a Businessman to his Son, are 30 letters from father to son providing a broad range of advice and counsel, from how to live to corporate and financial matters. We are discussing here only the chapters related to advice and counsel indispensable to businesspersons. In the preface, the author emphasizes the importance of “common sense.” In general, common sense is the essence of the secrets that helped great people perform and succeed. He encourages his son, saying: “Dare to dream, dare to try, dare to fail, dare to succeed.” We analyze these letters one by one and clarify the meaning of what he tries to convey to his son. The topic of the first letter is challenge. He advises his son not to be afraid to take on a bold challenge toward a future goal. The topic of the second letter is education. He points out the importance of a university education, especially the effectiveness of reading, and suggests that reading helps to develop the insight necessary for a man aiming for a top management career. The topic of the third letter is success. He writes, “Failure is the mother of success,” and stresses that the four virtues of “morals, spirit, hard work, and responsibility” are required to succeed. The topic of the fifth letter is first days in the real world. Using the motto “silence is golden,” he emphasizes the importance of listening to people first, and discusses the three virtues of “ambition, initiative, and responsibility” as necessary requirements for the future. The topic of the sixth letter is integrity. He emphasizes the importance of “sincerity, honesty, and straightforwardness.” The topic of the

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seventh letter is being an entrepreneur. Although he does not mention the name of Schumpeter, he stresses the significant role of the entrepreneur for business growth. We cannot find the concept of the entrepreneur in the documents of Benjamin Franklin and George Lorimer. The topic of the ninth letter is employees. It is important for employees that they are satisfied as they perform their jobs. It is important to stress that “Your people are valuable, not the bricks, not the mortar, not the machines.” The topic of the thirteenth letter is money. He emphasizes the importance of being careful in lending money to a friend in financial trouble, adding that the friendship can be lost in some cases. It is common in any country that monetary relationships destroy friendship. The topic of fifteenth letter is manners, attire, and deportment. He points out the importance of etiquette and the formalities, saying: “Nothing is more potent in a man’s arsenal of attributes than first, knowledge, of course, but secondly, good manners.” In other words, the simplest greetings such as “thank you, you are welcome, and please” are fundamental to communication skills. The topic of the eighteenth letter is diversification. His main idea on mergers and acquisitions is to draw in talent from the targeted firm, but do not purchase the firm itself. His management philosophy lies in the belief in human dignity, such as “Companies are people.” The topic of the nineteenth letter is the value of reading. He points out that one can learn lessons from another’s experiences through reading. The topic of the twentieth letter is teamwork. There is a Japanese dictum that two heads are better than one. The topic of the twenty-first is happiness. He quotes from a dictum of Montaigne, a French philosopher, who says: “The value of life lies not in the length of days, but in the use we make of them.” He states that “Happiness accompanies achievement.” He adds that achievement requires “Freely made choices and attitudes, accepted and fulfilled responsibilities, and strong, indomitable spirits ever willing to try.” The topic of the twenty-third letter is firing people. He indicates that some important matters require attention when a person who works together with others is fired. Before a final decision on firing someone, it is important to ask if the person is making the best use of their ability, and if that person can develop their capability by being reassigned to a different job. It is important to respect the employee’s human value. The topic of the twenty-third letter is friendship. He quotes a lesson from Confucian teachings that a characteristic habit of strong people is to have “no friends not equal to yourself.” He evaluates the benefit from friendly relationships with talented people, saying: “A good friend is one who can enjoy your successes without envy.” There is a college song from the University of Tokyo in Japan that says, “In the sorrow of my friend I cry, and my friend dances with joy.” The topic of the twenty-eighth letter is leadership. He stresses the importance of communication, pointing out: “Good leadership starts with good communication with people.” Success in business depends on the understanding of the people working together and trust in the ones around them. The topic of the twenty-ninth letter is the announcement that his son has succeeded him to the post of chief executive

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officer. He quotes from William Wordsworth’s poem, “He seems to be a man of cheerful yesterdays and confident tomorrows.” In the last and thirtieth letter, he gives a lesson from the Dictum, by the Greek philosopher Epictetus. The Dictum says, “Remember that you ought to behave in life as you would at a banquet. As something is being passed around it comes to you; stretch out your hand and take a portion of it politely. It passes on, do not detain it. Or if it has not yet come to you, do not desire it but wait until it comes in front of you. So act toward children, toward a wife, toward a position, toward wealth.” The following are representative passages from this document. Preface • Common sense is probably the best weapon with which to enter the battles of the business world (p. xii) • There is the greatest practical benefit in making a few failures early in life (p. xii) (T.H. Huxley) • Dare to dream, dare to try, dare to fail, dare to succeed (p. xiv) Challenge • No one conquers who does not fight (p. 6) (Gabriel Biel) Education • Everything in the world is good for something (p. 8) (John Dryden) • Reading makes a full man, confidence a ready man, and writing an exact man. Now there is a combination of talents, a sure way for anyone aiming for the top (p. 9) (Francis Bacon) • Your goal must be kept in front of you each day you put your feet on the floor (p. 10) • The great end of life is not knowledge but action (p. 11) (Thomas Huxley) Success • Every failure teaches something, and some failures teach more than others (p. 16) • Morals, spirit, hard work, and responsibility are choices you must make daily (p. 17) First days in the real world • Silence is golden, someone said. And in your case, a pound of listening to an ounce of speaking is about the ratio I would recommend to you during this initial period of time (p. 25) • It is better to keep your mouth shut and be thought a fool, than to open it and remove all doubt (p. 25) • One half of our job is selling services; the other half is servicing our customers until death (p. 25)

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• In order to be happy in work these three things are needed. They must be fit for it. They must not do too much of it. And they must have a sense of success in it (p. 26) (John Ruskin) • Ambition, initiative, and responsibility, if carefully developed, will make your career a wonderfully enjoyable part of your life (p. 27) Integrity • Having integrity is having a way of life that is strong in moral principles and characteristics such as sincerity, honesty, and straightforwardness in your daily life. In the business world, ownership of such characteristics is the lifeblood of any long-term success (p. 30) Entrepreneurship • The road to business success is paved by those who continually strive to produce better products or service (p. 34) • The entrepreneur goes with a gut feeling when there is an absence of solid evidence to direct him (p. 36) • Only a fine line differentiates a successful entrepreneur from a successful businessman. They are somewhat the same but the entrepreneurial personality evinces more dash, more gambling spirit, more daring and less adherence to the conventional pathways of business (p. 38) Employees • Recent studies have disclosed that money was rated number seven. Above it was satisfaction in performing the job (p. 47) • Your people are your valuables, not the bricks, not the mortar, not the machine. Protect this major investment we have in our people by doing your utmost to make them feel that priority (p. 49) Money • One sure-fire, fast way to lose a friend is to comply with his request for a loan. If you do become aware of a close friend’s financial difficulties and you feel he could use some help, offer it (pp. 81–82) • A smart man can become rich, but many become rich and foolish (or their wives do) (p. 83) Manners, attire and deportment • Nothing is more potent in a man’s arsenal of attributes than knowledge, of course, but secondly, good manners (p. 93) • You start with a thank you and another nice one, you are welcome, automatically follows (p. 93) • If you counted the times you say please in a day, I would bet you could increase your usage of the word tenfold (p. 93)

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• A person’s willingness to comply, and even the promptness with which he complies, improves dramatically when your request or instruction either starts or ends with a simple please (p. 93) • Some manners greatly influence how happily and productively people carry out your directives. Ask and you shall receive, demand and you will get less (p. 93) • While another person is talking maintain a polite silence, for it displays respect for the other person’s intelligence and point of view (p. 94) • Nothing is as boring or impolite as verbally bombarding a listener with trivia about yourself (p. 94) The principle of diversification • The principle of building companies around people, not people around companies (p. 111) • Diversification, to me, does not mean or entail straying from your base industry. Rather, it means adding to your main product lines by purchasing other companies or a major supplier (p. 113) • When diversifying do not buy companies, but rather good people who know how to run them (p. 113) Reading • Learn from other’s mistakes; you won’t have time to make them all by yourself (p. 115) • No man’s knowledge can go beyond his experience (p.116) (John Locke) • One’s experience can be broadened vastly by reading other people’s experience (p. 117) Teamwork • Nothing makes a person prouder than to be asked his opinion on a subject he knows is of special importance to the asker. It makes a person feel his judgement is valued. Never miss an opportunity to sincerely display how much you value your employees (p. 128). Happiness • The value of life lies not in the length of days, but in the use we make of them; a man may live long, yet get little from life. Whether you find satisfaction (happiness) in life depends not on years, but on your will (p. 137) Firing people • Prior to the time you terminate an employee, devote some thought to the person’s abilities and strengths that might be better utilized elsewhere. Has he a skill that has been underused in his current position? Is he trying to cope with a job for which he is under-skilled, which would be our mistake and not his? (p. 140)

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Friendship • A characteristic habit of strong people is to have “no friends not equal to yourself (p. 144) • There usually seems to exist a parallelism of personality traits, especially in the fundamental values of life, such as honesty, sincerity, loyalty, and dependability (p. 146) Leader • Good leadership starts with good communication with people (p. 174) • A leader must dare to be ahead of his colleagues (p. 174) • When you set your team in motion, you will be looked upon as the leader and the best leaders lead by demonstrating how it is done (p. 176) • There are two sides to every issue, so make certain you keep your ears open and listening. None of us is capable of maintaining a total grasp of every detail on every subject (p. 176) Balance in life • He seems to be a man of cheerful yesterdays and confident tomorrows (p. 185) (William Wordsworth) You are on your way • Remember that you ought to behave in life as you would at a banquet. As something is being passed around it comes to you; stretch out your hand, take a portion of it politely. It passes on; do not detain it. Or if it has not yet come to you do not desire to meet it but wait until it comes in front of you. So act toward children, toward a wife, toward a position, toward wealth (p.  191) (Epictetus)

References Chamberlain, B. H. (1912). The invention of a new religion. Tokyo: University of Tokyo. Dobunkan. (1911). Kadōkun (Teachings for the prosperity of the family). In Nihon Kyoiku Bunko, Vol. 3 Kunkai hen. Tokyo: Dobunkan. Franklin, B. (1986). The way to wealth, Applewood Books. Massachusetts: Carlisle. Franklin, B. (1909). Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. New York: P F Collier & Son Company. Furukawa, T. (Ed.). (1943). Yuzan Daidoji. Budo Shoshin Shu (Introduction to Bushido), Iwanami bunko (Rev. ed.). Tokyo: Iwanami. Furukawa, T. (1957). Bushido no Shiso to Sono Shuhen (Bushido thought and its background). Tokyo: Fukumura Shoten. Haga, Y. (Ed.). (1906). Joshin Miura. Keicho Kenmon Shu (Record of worldly affairs). Tokyo: Fuzsanbo. Ibuka, M. (1986). Zero Sai Kyoiku no Saiteki Jiki (Zero years old – The best time for education). Tokyo: Goma Shobo. Kasaya, K. (2014). Bushido: Samurai Syakai no Bunka to Rinri. Tokyo: NTT Shuppan. Koike, Y. (1999). Bushi and Hoko (Samurais and apprenticeship). Tokyo: Kodansha.

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Lorimer, G.  H. (1906). Letters from a self-made merchant to his son. New  York: Grosset and Dunlap. Matsukuma, T. (1985). Nitobe Inazo. Tokyo: Misuzu Shobo. Miya, S. (Ed.). (1926). Jitsugo Kyo and Doji Kyo. Tokyo: Kyodo Shuppan. Nakamura, Y. (Ed.). (1975). Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59. Kinse Chonin Shiso. Tokyo: Iwanami. Nitobe Inazo Zenshu Henshu Iinkai. (Ed.). (1987). Nitobe Inazo Zenshu (Complete works of Nitobe Inazo), 25 vols. Tokyo: Kyobunkan. Oshiro, G. (1992). Nitobe Inazo: Kokusaishugi no Kaitakusha (A pioneer in inter-nationalism, Nitobe Inaszo). Tokyo: Chuo University Press. Sato, M. (2006). Koyo Gunkan (Record of the Takada family), Chikuma gakugei bunko (Rev. ed.). Tokyo: Chikuma. Shibata, M. (Ed.). (1972). Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Complete works of Baigan Ishida), 2 vols. Osaka: Seibundo. Shibata, M. (Ed.). (1973). Tejima Toan Zenshu (Complete works of Toan Tejima). Osaka: Seibundo. Suzuki, T. (Ed.). (1962). Suzuki Shosan Dojin Zenshu (Complete works of Shosan Suzuki). Tokyo: Sankibo. Takahashi, S. (2007). Edo no Kyouiku Ryoku (Education in the Edo period), Chikuma Shinsho. Tokyo: Chikuma. Takimoto, S. (Ed.). (1928–1930/1966–1971). Nihon Keizai Taiten (Encyclopedia of Japanese economics), 54 vols. Tokyo: Hobun Shokan. Takimoto, S. (Ed.). (1976). Nihon Keizai Taiten, Supplment (Tsūzoku Keizai Bunko), 6 vols. Tokyo: Meiji Bunken. Taniguchi, S. (2016). A history of formation of self-devoted samurai image: Through an analysis of publication and reception of HAGAKURE. Waseda Institute for Advanced Study, 9, 71–83. Ward, G. K. (1985). Mark my words, letters of a businessman to his son. New York: Prentice Hall Press. Watsuji, T., & Furukwa, T. (1940–1941). Hagakure (Low-profile apprenticeship), Iwanami bunko, 3 vols (Rev. ed.). Tokyo: Iwanami. Yamamoto, H. (2013). Bushido no Meicho (Notable books on Bushido), Chuko shinsho. Tokyo: Chuokoron Shinsya.

Chapter 6

Conclusion

In this chapter, we conclude our analysis with three parts. The first section explains the consequences of our hypothesis verification concerning the morality of Japanese merchants in the Edo period. The second section summarizes our findings on how Edo period merchants put their theories of morality into practice. The third section suggests future areas of study, research, and analysis.

6.1  Consequences of Hypothesis Verification Our research suggests that the Japanese merchant class in Edo period Japan held to an ethical code roughly comparable to the well-known Way of the Warrior, or Bushido. Extensive and mutually-reinforcing evidence clearly shows that merchants, whom Japan’s ruling samurai class deeply despised and roundly devastated as unethical in practice, acted in accordance with strict moral standards. Moreover, a comparison between Shonindo and Bushido reveals that they greatly overlap and that the only significant differences lie in a few key concepts such as bravery, cowardice, and matters of life or death. In the maxims of Bushido described in the historical records, one can see clearly virtues such as renunciation of cowardice, propriety, honesty, filial piety, being on good terms with one’s brothers and neighbors, patience and endurance, benevolence, admonition, reward or compensation, magnanimity, highly valuing meritorious deeds, respect for the aged, prohibitions on calumny and abuse, and belief in the Gods and Buddhas. While bravery and renunciation of cowardice cannot be found in Shonindo, all of the other remaining virtues are universal in scope, applicable equally to the merchant and to the samurai. Thus, we may conclude that the virtues in Shonindo are equivalent to the ones in Bushido, except in a few narrow matters, specifically choosing between life or death.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 I. Horide, The Mercantile Ethical Tradition in Edo Period Japan, Advances in Japanese Business and Economics 20, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7338-1_6

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6.2  S  ummary of Findings on How Merchants in the Edo Period Japan Put Morality into Practice As evidence of hypothesis verification, we may consider the following passages definitive. This part consists of three subsections. The first subsection demonstrates our findings from the comparative analysis of Shonindo with Bushido. The second subsection summarizes a behavioral analysis of Shonindo. The third subsection depicts a comparison between Japanese Shonindo and Western merchant ethics.

6.2.1  F  indings from the Comparative Analysis of Shonindo with Bushido First, we find that in the early seventeenth century, during the start of the Edo period, virtues such as honesty, sincerity, goodness, and benevolence are of primary importance. However, with the passage of time, virtues directly linked to business, such as frugality, began to be ranked higher. Analyzing the entire period shows that when we rank virtues (or keywords) in order by frequency of appearances in the documentary record, the frequency order is: frugality 146 times, fair profit 91 times, honesty 88 times, benevolence/justice 86 times, integrity 81 times, propriety 77 times, filial piety 56 times, faithfulness 54 times, family business 54 times, spiritual reverence 53 times, harmony 43 times, wisdom 41 times, mercy 32 times, purity 31 times, and secret charity 22 times. Significantly, virtues (or keywords)  relating to business such as frugality and profit are most often cited, although it must be noted that other virtues follow very closely. These figures demonstrate that honesty, benevolence, justice, integrity, propriety, faithfulness, and reverence of the gods and Buddhas are in the exact same value system as frugality and fair profit. Second, our research reveals that as times changed, virtues (or keywords) originated in Buddhism began to rank lower while ones from Confucianism became more dominant. For example, the frequency of harmony and mercy, derived from Buddhism, becomes surprisingly smaller. This is likely because the teachings of Confucianism, emphasized by the shogunate in the Edo period, became propagated from the samurai class to the merchant class. The Confucian spirit as a practical ethical code thus became rooted in the behavior of merchants. However, of the five important virtues jin (benevolence), gi (justice), rei (politeness), chi (wisdom), and shin (sincerity) preached by the Confucian “Mencius” and which constitute the fundamental principles of Confucianism, wisdom ranks rather low as an expression of Japanese ethical thought, which suggests a Japanese characteristic of human resource management focusing on more on internal personality rather than external objective results.

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6.2.2  Findings from a Behavioral Analysis of Shonindo In order to clarify in more detail the ethical behavior of merchants, this subsection divides the case examples into the following five categories: employer wisdom, human resource management, education, business and financial management, and daily life. 6.2.2.1  Employer Wisdom The Choja Kyo, published in the early seventeenth century, lacked any depiction of a strong sense of morality and placed instead a rather strong emphasis on money-­ making. However, with the resumption of peace throughout the country, merchants both logically and out of necessity began to put more weight on the long-term sustainability of business rather than short-term profit—the latter making sense when constant warfare meant that there was no firm guarantee of one’s future. Consultation systems in decision making, ostracism or banishment of an incompetent master, negligence, attitudes respected by subordinates, and survival of the operation’s prosperity became important issues of both master/employer and employee. The Seventeenth Century Choja Kyo Everyone wants money more than anything else (Nakamura 1975, p. 16).

The Eighteenth Century With social stabilization, merchants recognize the importance of business ethics, and in this way the head of a family business gains social recognition and approval. Kadōkun Do not decide by oneself alone what really matters at work. Consult with executive employees and decide after consultations with all (Dobunkan 1911, pp. 425–426).

The Nineteenth Century A strong mental attitude is required for a master as business develops. Tosei Kanyo Ki When business is doing well, lack of discipline may occur and business will not succeed. If the mind of the store owner slackens, the things that used to work in the store will become undisciplined and the store will collapse. When the owner of the store gets into trouble, the store goes bankrupt rapidly (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 2, p. 233).

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6.2.2.2  Human Resource Management The historical record clearly shows that merchants who had “treated employees as thieves” in the beginning of the seventeenth century switched to “managers who take care of employees” from the latter half of the seventeenth century and into the eighteenth century. The Seventeenth Century Except for the Choja Kyo, the following cases demonstrate how merchants came to be concerned with human management. Chojya Kyo Employees are thieves (Nakamura 1975, p. 10).

Shison Kagami Render exhaustive loyalty to your master. The master is the head, the servants are his limbs. A master is decent to his servants, and servants are loyal to their master (Nakamura 1975, p. 24).

The Eighteenth Century With stable economic development under the Tokugawa government, merchants began to pay more attention not only to marketing, but also to internal management. Tohi Mondo When there is no difference in ability, place the senior person in the higher position. When there are differences, rank according to ability. Priority in work goes to the senior apprentice (Shibata 1972, p. 74).

The Nineteenth Century The nineteenth century witnessed merchants increasing scale of operations and numbers of employees drastically, thus resulting in the introduction of new human resource management practices applicable to the new conditions of the day. Shoka Kokoroegusa Of ten shop apprentices who work steadily till their period of apprenticeship ends, two or three will become independent and capable of opening their own shop. Almost all will successfully carry out their various jobs in the proprietor’s shop, serving as clerks and apprentices to the merchant family, but again, two or three out of ten will establish a separate residence without incident, and there are many instances where the rest will ruin the proprietor and end up becoming a group of vagrants (Takimoto 1928–1930/1966–1971, p. 696).

6.2.2.3  Education Historical documents show that merchants emphasized the importance of education for business survival in the Edo period. The following phrases are examples showing how Edo period merchants stressed the importance of education and training. The 17th documents did not touch upon education at all.

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The Eighteenth Century Kadōkun What is essential in educating children is to learn under a good teacher, to read books written by sages, to know the difference between right and wrong, and to learn the rules of morality governing the five human relationships: lord and vassal, father and son, husband and wife, young and old, friend and friend, and also the five cardinal virtues: benevolence, justice, politeness, wisdom, and fidelity (Dobunkan 1911, p. 417).

The Nineteenth Century Shison Takaragusa Offspring who are not obedient to their parents will not become a successor. The parents will adopt from outside the family a person with good personality or choose a successor from a store employee (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 5, p. 6).

6.2.2.4  Business and Financial Management In historical documents, one can find a large amount of evidence to demonstrate good practices of business and financial management in the Edo period. The Seventeenth Century Keicho Kenmon Shu The gods look after honest people. Some merchants sell goods at a higher price to unknown visitors in order to make undue profits. Such merchants will receive divine punishment and, in the afterlife, be tortured by demons in hell (Haga 1906, p. 35).

The Eighteenth Century Yowatarigusa The assets of a merchant are not tangible; only his trust is. If you trick a customer and lose credibility you buy the anger of the gods and the Buddhas, and even massive wealth will scatter in the blink of an eye (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 2, pp. 269–270).

The Nineteenth Century Tosei Kanyo Ki Serve all visitors with a friendly spirit and do not dispute insignificant matters. Even if you can win a dispute, you will lose in business. On the contrary, if you offer a discount, visitors will be pleased with you and become a good customer (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol.  2, p. 234).

6.2.2.5  Daily Life Here we summarize moral teachings for daily life not classified in the above four categories. Many moral teachings in daily life are related to religious beliefs espoused by Shintoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.

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The Seventeenth Century In daily life, religious belief in the Gods and Buddhas impact heavily on teaching manners at home and training discipline on the job. Keicho Kenmon Shu Gods protect honest people regardless of religious belief. Some merchants sell goods at a higher price than the market to buyers from the countryside to make unreasonable profits. However, divine punishment will come down on them, and they will be burned in hellfire (Haga 1906, p. 35).

The Eighteenth Century In the following passage, we can see what is universally adapted today, which is an example of what is consistent in human nature despite the time period. Kadōkun When you are unsure of your decision in an important matter, consult with talented persons. On your own, there is a possibility that you cannot judge objectively due to the accumulation of your desires (Dobunkan 1911, p. 425).

The Nineteenth Century Minka o Sodategusa If you think to admonish your master, look for a time when nobody is around and talk to him in secret (Takimoto 1976, Suppl. Vol. 5, p. 57).

6.2.3  F  indings from a Comparison Between Japanese Shonindo and Western Merchant Ethics This subsection looks at the following three works: Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (1909) and Franklin’s The Way to Wealth (1986), G. Horace Lorimer’s Letters from a Self-made Merchant to his Son (1906), and G. Kingsley Ward’s Mark My Words, Letters of a Businessman to his Son (1985). We compare Western merchant values with Japanese Shonindo and note that the virtues in what might be called “Western shonindo” correspond almost exactly to the ones in Japanese Shonindo. 6.2.3.1  F  ranklin, Benjamin (1909) Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin; (1986) The Way to Wealth Franklin, in his Autobiography, takes up the following 13 virtues and describes in detail the self-discipline and methods necessary to make virtue a habit on daily life, not just a mere ideal. His 13 virtues are as follows: (1). Temperance, (2). Silence, (3). Order, (4). Resolution, (5). Frugality, (6). Industry, (7). Sincerity, (8). Justice,

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(9). Moderation, (10). Cleanliness, (11). Tranquility, (12). Chastity, and (13). Humility. Other than chastity, these virtues correspond precisely to the virtues in Japanese Shonindo as examined in Chap. 4. In addition to listing these virtues in writing, Franklin recorded them in his diary and presumably endeavored to nurture and improve his personality while reflecting on the results every day. Franklin was a practitioner and not a controversialist; he apparently actually worked to put ideas into practice. In his Way to Wealth, he relays a number of aphorisms on the accumulation of wealth. Franklin’s virtues and cases overlap almost exactly with the ones noted in the keywords and virtues of the Japanese Shonindo in Chap. 4. Many examples touch the fundamental basis of humanity in teachings gained from practical work; for example: Will universal truth overcome the boundaries of institutions? We suggest that Franklin’s Shonindo corresponds in all key respects to Japanese Shonindo. 6.2.3.2  L  orimer, George Horace (1906) Letters from a Self-Made Merchant to His Son In this work, a father sends 12 letters to his son which are later compiled. The first four letters were written while the son was living the student life at Harvard. From the fifth letter onward, the father began to rigorously advise his son, who had begun life in business, on merchant ethics. The topics ranged from acquaintanceship to detailed business work. The author believed that what mattered most in a university education was the development of personality. He expected his son to become a “noble” person at college and put more emphasis on this rather than merely getting good grades. As illustrated in Chap. 5, Japanese merchants in the Edo period likewise emphasized the importance of education for business survival. The following phrases underscore how Edo merchants stressed the importance of education and training: “Learn under a good teacher, teach the less-capable child with a warm heart, instill the concept of honesty deeply into people. The child is the mirror of the parent, get the offspring to recognize the parent’s mercy, give young people lessons in propriety, appoint an adopted son as a successor in place of one’s poorly performing son, and give the offspring strict lessons necessary for a successor.” These phrases clarify that Western Shonindo shares common values with Japanese Shonindo. 6.2.3.3  W  ard, G. Kingsley (1985) Mark My Words, Letters of a Businessman to His Son These letters provide a broad range of advice and counsel from the way of living generally to detailed corporate and financial matters. Our investigation clarified a similarity between Western and Japanese ways of doing business, which leads to a conclusion that Western Shonindo is compatible with Japanese Shonindo. The following are representative samples as evidence to back up this assertion.

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Every failure teaches one something, and some failures teach more than others (p. 16). It is better to keep your mouth shut and be thought a fool, than to open it and remove all doubt (p. 25). Owning integrity is owning a way of life that is strong in moral principles: characteristics such as sincerity, honesty, and straightforwardness in your daily living patterns. In the business world, ownership of such characteristics is the lifeblood of any long-term success (p. 30). Your people are your valuables. Not the bricks. Not the mortar. Not the machinery. Protect this major investment we have in our people by doing your utmost to make them feel that they are your top-rated priority, that satisfaction in the performance of their jobs (p. 49). One surefire, fast way to lose a friend is to comply with his request for a loan. If you do become aware of a close friend’s financial difficulties and you feel he could use some help, offer it. (pp. 81–82). Learn from other’s mistakes; you won’t have time to make them all by yourself (p. 11). Nothing makes a person’s chest stick out further than being asked his opinion on a subject he knows is of special importance to the asker. It makes one feel his judgement is valued. Never miss an opportunity to sincerely display how much you value your employees (p. 128). Prior to the time you decide to terminate an employee, devote some thought to the person’s abilities and strength that might be far better utilized elsewhere. Has a skill of his been underused at our place of business? Is he trying to cope with a job here for which he is under skilled (our mistake or not his)? (p. 140). There also usually seems to exist a parallelism of personality traits – especially in the fundamental values of life such as honesty, sincerity, loyalty, and dependability (p. 146). Good leadership starts with good communication with people (p.174).

6.3  Future Research This section consists of three recommendations: improving the quantity of documents, expansion of the field of documentation, and general plans for the future.

6.3.1  Improving the Quantity of Documents Empirical research in Chap. 4 was conducted by an investigation of documents based on 39 historical documents written mainly by merchant class people. The initial review of 62 commercial documents resulted in an in-depth analysis of these 39: roughly two-thirds of the original sample. In order to improve the quality of empirical studies, it is advisable to not only include, for future research, the remaining 23 documents that were not involved in this study, but also to locate and include new, untouched documents.

References

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6.3.2  Expansion of  the Field of Documentation  Additional points of view should be considered by locating and analyzing documents written not only by merchants and those concerned with merchants, but also historians, politicians, artists, and other elements of society. This work deliberately excluded published documents written by distinguished person of letters such as Saikaku  Ihara, author of townspeople stories in the Edo period, in order to put exclusive focus on the actual behavior of merchants by those who knew the best. However, future research needs to include the works of Saikaku  Ihara, Monzaemon Chikamatsu, and many others in order to consider Shonindo from a broader perspective.

6.3.3  General Plans for the Future A more elaborate and comprehensive evaluation of Japanese Shonindo requires a comparative analysis on how Japanese businesspeople have behaved since the Meiji Restoration of 1868. For example, Eiichi Shibusawa warned of the immorality of Japanese businesspeople and proposed the idea that morality and business should be in harmony, on the basis of Confucianism. Whether Japanese business people have been ethical or not in the post-Meiji and post-World War II eras are critical and important subjects for future empirical study.

References Dobunkan. (1911). Kadōkun (Teachings for the prosperity of the family). In Nihon Kyoiku Bunko, Vol. 3 Kunkai hen. Tokyo: Dobunkan. Franklin, B. (1909). Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. New York: P F Collier & Son Company. Franklin, B. (1986). The way to wealth, Applewood Books. Massachusetts: Carlisle. Haga, Y. (Ed.). (1906). Joshin Miura. Keicho Kenmon Shu (Record of worldly affairs). Tokyo: Fuzanbo. Lorimer, G.  H. (1906). Letters from a self-made merchant to his son. New  York: Grosset and Dunlap. Nakamura, Y. (Ed.). (1975). Nihon Shiso Taikei, Vol. 59. Kinse Chonin Shiso. Tokyo: Iwanami. Shibata, M. (Ed.). (1972). Ishida Baigan Zenshu (Complete works of Ishida Baigan). Osaka: Seibundo. Takimoto, S. (Ed.). (1928–1930/1966–1971). Nihon Keizai Taiten (Encyclopedia of Japanese ­economics), Vol. 13. Tokyo: Hobun Shokan. Takimoto, S. (Ed.). (1976). Nihon Keizai Taiten, Supplment (Tsūzoku Keizai Bunko), Vols. 2, 5. Tokyo: Meiji Bunken. Ward, G. K. (1985). Mark my words, letters of a businessman to his son. New York: Prentice Hall Press.

Index

A Abilities rather than seniority, 190 Abstaining from alcohol, 23 Adachi, M., 10, 12 Advice for masters and apprentices, 97 Advice for merchants, 97 Advice on using money, 97 Almsgiving, 122, 144 Altruism, 88 Amakusa and Shimabara rebellions, 31 Amaterasu, 91, 105 Ancestral traditions, 23 Arima, S., 5, 6 Attitude of the merchant, 119 Attitude of the supervisor, 171 Attitudes respected by subordinates, 189, 190, 219 Authentic Buddhist practice, 54 B Bakufu, 31, 44, 50, 51, 54, 64–67, 71, 74–76, 91, 135, 138, 141, 142, 165 Banishment of an incompetent master, 189, 190, 219 Ban, K., 132–133 Bankei, E., 9 Battle of Nagashino, 44, 45 Battle of Sekigahara, 31, 53, 64, 67, 186 Bekke, 12, 132, 133 Bellah, R., 16 Benefiting the other, 100 Benefit of reading, 148 Benevolence to employees, 191 Best advice being difficult to hear, 111

Blaming oneself and self-reflection, 118 Boku, N., 117–119 Book on Filial Piety, 68 A bosom friend and a superficial friend, 155 Brentano, L., 5 Buddha Way, 54, 57, 62 Buddhist professional ethics, vii, 36, 62 Bushi no Michi, 3 Buyo, I., 1, 32, 76, 139 C Calculation, 7, 8, 15, 70, 80, 86, 122, 137 Careful thought before doing business, 158 Care in selecting a successor, 155 Carter, R.E., 17 Cash transactions, 172, 196 Cautioning against momentary profit, 112 Ceasing to do evil, 114 Chamberlain, B.H., 3, 4, 186 Cherishing living things, 153 Chikamatsu Monzaemon, 7 Chivalry, 15–16, 36, 37, 43, 187, 208 Chonin, 7, 9, 13, 61–63, 82–87, 91, 94–98, 136, 137 Chonindo, 7–8, 14 Clan Code of Takeda Shingen, 45 Classification of apprentices, 157 Code of moral principles, 39, 186 Collective effort of the family, 90 Commercial morality, 6, 18–19 Communication and concord, 90 Compliance with the law, 10, 23 Concord among one another, 171 Concord in the family, 134, 167

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228 Consensus building, 23 Consideration for suppliers, 62 Consideration for their families, 62 Consideration to one’s apprentices, 110 Consulting with a prudent person, 131 Consulting with the elderly, 159 Contributions to society, 62 Cool heads but warm hearts, 15 Corruption of menial servants, 169 Cosenza, E.M., 19, 20 D Daidoji, Y., 3, 36, 44, 48, 184 Daimyo, 4, 31, 48, 50, 52, 64, 69, 76, 86 Dangibon, 107 Decision after careful consideration, 113 Dejima in Nagasaki, 64 Despising others, 92 Development of personality, 209, 223 Devotion to religion, 23 Disciplining children, 127, 129 Discord between brothers, 146 Discretion and dispersion of risk, 144 Discriminating between patrons, 120 Disdain of life and friendliness with death, 40 Dispersion of risk, 144 Divine Way, 92 Divine wind, 67, 68 Doji Kyo, 207 Do not decide by oneself alone, 189, 219 Do not leave money to your offspring, 196, 198 Dore, R.P., 33 Drawbacks to purchasing on credit, 173 Dutch East India Company, 64 Duty of help working at a branch shop, 132 E Early rising, 23, 80, 160, 166, 175 Economic chivalry, 15, 16 Economics and morality, 6, 32 Edo Bakufu, 64, 75 Edo merchants, vii, 1, 223 Education for children and employees, 62 Ee janai ka odori movement, 142 Eight-tenths being the basis of simplicity, 172 Ejima, K., 63, 80–82 Employee benefits, 62 Endeavor on the parents’ part, 195 Engaging in evil pastimes, 116 Envy of people, 110 Essence of commerce, 5, 131

Index Essential in educating children, 194, 221 Evaluate advantages over disadvantages, 190 Even those capable make mistakes, 165 Everyone having some merit, 147 Extraterritorial rights, 142 F Familistic management, 13 Family codes, 14, 79, 119, 129, 134 Family Precepts, 10, 12–15, 23, 69, 140 Feigned politeness, 118 Filial duty, 22, 63, 97 Filial piety to one’s parents, 158 Fillmore, M., 142 Firing people, 211, 214 First-time customers, 118 Five fundamental guidelines for apprentices, 157 Five important virtues, 187, 188, 218 Five Relationships and Five Cardinal Virtues, 71 Forbidding unfairness, 100 Forcing a proprietor to retire, 106 Four Books and Five Classics, 71, 73, 177 Four types of useless generals, 47 Franklin, B., 208–209, 211, 222, 223 Fraternal respect, 122, 123 Frequency of peasant uprisings, 139 Frugality and stinginess, 95, 103, 128 Frugality being for the benefit of society, 105 Frugality being useful in rectifying one’s heart, 104 Fujita, S., 141 Fujiwara, S., 71, 75 Fukuda, T., 5 Fukuzawa, 6 Function of money, 93 Fundamentals of succeeding, 133 Furukawa, T., 2–4, 33, 44, 45, 48–52, 181, 182, 184 Future of one who is merciful and honest, 84 G Gamo, K., 76 Genna Enbu, 66 Genroku era, 76 Give money to people in trouble, 196 Giving economic assistance secretly, 154 God dwelling within one’s heart, 92 God of Good Fortune, 92 God of wealth, 30, 80, 121, 137 Gods look after honest people, 221

Index Gohei, N., 96–98 Gonin Kumi, 14 Good fraternal relations, 154 Good medicine being bitter to the taste, 146 Good terms with one another, 133, 134 Grand Shrine of Ise, 91, 101, 107, 203 Grand Shrine of Izumo, 91, 92 Griffis, W.E., 20 Guideline for adopting one to be a son-in-law, 155 Guidelines for carefully raising children, 153 Guidelines for employing apprentices, 155–156 Guidelines for getting along well with relatives, 154 Guidelines for proprietors and apprentices, 156 Guidelines for the proprietor, 156 Guidelines for those advanced in years, 159 Guidelines for warm, fraternal relations, 154 H Hakata merchant, 13 Hakuin, 15 Hands-on approach, 70, 144 Hanko, 33, 206 Happiness of a merchant, 81 Hara-kiri, 29, 187, 188 Harmony in the family, 15 Hayashi, R., 75 Head of a merchant family, 87, 89, 132 Heeding the comments of others, 91 Heiando Sorin’o, 159–161 Hesitating over a decision, 147 Higashi, A., 65 Highly valuing meritorious deeds, 47, 182, 188, 217 Higuchi, J., 21 Hiring a faithful person, 101 Hoare, E., 19 Honjo, E., 1, 32, 33, 76, 139 Honjo, Y.A., 19 Hosokawa House of Kumamoto, 86 House rule, 10 How to treat employees, 129 Human morality and social distinctions, 123 Hunter, J., 18–20 I Ibuka, M., 167, 186 Ichinomiya, R., 20, 21 Ihara, S., 7, 13, 64, 65, 225

229 Iijima, T., 82–84 Illicit activities of Japanese merchants, 19 Imai, J., 9 Inadequacy of Confucianism for townspeople, 95 Increases in disinheritances, 169 Increasing one’s clientele, 120 Independent after fulfilling one’s years at a shop, 158 Inheritance of the family name, 23 Inherited fortunes and filial piety, 95 Inoue, T., 137 Instruction for loyalty and filial piety, 97 Intergenerational ethics, 5 Irie, H., 14–15, 23 Ise, S., 16 Ishida, B., 7, 9–13, 15, 16, 25, 62, 63, 98–101, 103–107, 114, 124, 135, 136, 138, 139, 168, 176, 191, 192, 195, 197, 198, 202 Ishida, M., 31 Ishikawa, K., 33, 77 Ishikawa, R., 85 Ito, H., 145–149 Ito, T., 107 Iwagaki, M., 63, 108–114 J Japanese Buddhism, vii, 13, 54, 62, 138 Japanese capitalism, vii, 14 Japanese commercial morality, 19 Japanese egalitarianism, 5 Japanese Raw Silk Dealers Association, 21 Japanese Shintoism, 17 Japanese spirit and Western learning, 43 Japanese-style management, 12, 14, 77 Jitsugo Kyo, 206 Joruri, 129, 159 K Kaibara, E., 4, 16, 77–80, 82, 91, 137 Kaiho, S., 11 Kaitokudo, 17, 18 Kamada, I., 168 Kamada, R., 168 Kamakura Bakufu, 44, 65 Kamakura-era, 3, 66 Karmic fruits of past lives, 58 Karmic justice, 55, 71 Karube, T., 37 Kasai, S., 33 Kasaya, K., 4, 39, 44, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52, 183, 184, 186

230 Katakiuchi (revenge), 187, 188 Katsuragi, T., 4, 5, 15 Kawada, M., 101–103 Keeping track of money, 112 Keizaido, 11 Kido, T, 143–145 Knowing one’s limits, 89, 165 Koike, Y., 50, 51, 182, 183 Koizumi, Y., 33 Kokkeibon, 107 Kosaka, D., 36 Kosaka, M., 36, 44 Koshu samurai, 44 Kubota, N., 33 Kumagai, N., 41 Kurihara, A., 51 Kusunoki, M., 52, 183 Kyosen, T., 173 Kyoto enterprises, 12 L Lack of a sense of justice, 48 Lack of discernment, 48 Lack of virtue, 78, 79 Learning the teachings of Shinto, 94 Lenient with oneself but hard on others, 148 Lessem, R., vii Life after retirement, 113 Life and death, viii, 56, 182, 187 Lifetime employment, 13 Living according to one’s means, 84 Long-established businesses, 12 Longford, J.H., 19, 20 Long-term sustainability of business, 219 Looking down on others, 118 Lorimer, G.H., 208–211, 222, 223 Loyalty to master, 191 Loyalty to the proprietor, 158 M Making time to study, 146 Malign destruction of rivals, 16 Marshall, A., 15, 16 Martial arts, 36, 43, 45, 52 Master as model, 125 Master of a family is forced to retire, 190 Materially embracing religion, 87 Matsudaira, 48 Matsukuma, T., 37–39, 185 Matsushiro publication, 49, 184 Matsuyama, M., 21

Index Medical prescription for losing money, 135 Medical prescription for making money, 135 Meiji Restoration, 6, 13, 20, 29, 32, 37, 39, 43, 50, 141, 185, 206, 225 A merchant and a folding screen, 32 Merchant and luck, 81 Merchant’s profit corresponding to a samurai’s stipend, 99 Merciful spirit of a proprietor towards his apprentices, 156 Mercy and secret charity, 107 Meritorious deeds, 35, 146 Merits of one’s virtue, 83 Middle-aged apprentices, 112 Military-Knight-Ways, 39, 186 Minamoto, R., 11, 12, 44 Mindful of the poor, 121 A mirror and water reflecting the man, 68 Mitsui family, 14, 63–65, 71, 75, 85 Mitsui, Takafusa, 7, 13, 85–87 Mitsui, Takaharu, 63, 85 Mitsui, Takahira, 85 Mitsui, Takatoshi, 65, 70–71 Mitsushige, 52, 183 Miura, J., 31, 34, 66–69 Miyamoto, M., 7, 8, 13 Moan, R., 94–96 Modesty as the way of the merchant, 83 Money being society’s treasure, 113 Money being the treasure of all, 93 Money-making, regardless of good and evil, 189 Money not purchasing entrance to heaven, 174 Money to close friends, giving of, 196 Morals from childhood onward, 161 Mouth being the source of misfortune, 147 Mukyokuan, M., 63, 151–159 Multi-generational businesses, 12 Muromachi period, 63 Murphy, K.C., 19 Mutual assistance, 18 Mutual consultation in the workplace, 23 N Nabeshima, K., 50, 52, 183 Naito, K., 8, 14, 17 Najita, T., 17, 18 Nakamura, H., vii, 54, 62 Nakamura, K., 11, 76 Nakamura, Y., 34, 69–73, 82–87, 107, 189, 191, 197, 201, 219, 220 Nakanishi, S., 85

Index Nakazawa, D., 7, 9 Namba, G., 63, 96 Namu Amida Butsu, 54, 57, 93 Never deceive customers, 197 Never lend money to family or close friends, 197 Ninomiya, S., 9 Nipponized-type of Confucianism, 177 Nishikawa, J., 13, 82–84, 91 Nishimura, S., 20 Nitobe, I., viii, 2–4, 25, 29, 35–44, 50, 181, 183, 185–188, 205, 206 Noblesse oblige of the warrior class, 39, 186 No distinction among the social classes, 100 No leisure in business, 89 Non-right of decision over tariffs, 142 Not arguing with others, 147 Not being able to conceal what is spoken, 164 Not concealing an evil deed, 116 Not forgetting risks in times of peace, 171 O Occupational ethics, vii, 53–58 Occupation knows no rank, 54, 55, 182 Oe, T., 63, 122–124 Offspring unfit for a successor, 195 Ogata, T., 33 Ogyu, S., 1, 32, 76 Ohashi, M., 151 Okame hachi moku, 131 Okuninushi, 91 Okura, N., 161–163 Omi merchant, 8, 13, 14 Open-port regions, 142 Oppression of employees, 16 Osaka merchants, 7, 8, 17, 31 Oshiro, G., 37, 185 Overlook employee’s disadvantages and weak points, 192 Oyamada, T., 149 Ozeki, T., 166–168 P Palmer, H.S., 21 Parsons, T., 17 Passin, H., 24 Past karma, 72 Patience toward the failings of others, 23 Perry, M.C., 142 Poor fraternal relations, 154 Poor judgment of character, 48

231 Port trade treaties, 19 Poverty and wealth as the fruits of past karma, 72 Praise a lot, punish lightly, 190 Praise the loyal employees, 193 Precepts of Knighthood, 39, 186 Preservation of health, 10, 23 Preserving purity of heart, 121 Primacy of action, 72 Primacy of honesty and gentleness, 119 Priority in work, 99, 191, 220 Priority of accumulating virtue, 149 Profit comes from fair business, 196 Prohibiting calumny and abuse, 47, 182, 188 Prohibition against killing, 116 Promotion by seniority, 13 Pronounced flattery, 48 Proprietor who tempers his mercy with due sternness, 156 Provide money for the poor, 203 Prudent risk-taking, 23 Purchasing on credit, drawbacks to, 173 Put the customer’s interests first, 196 Putting an idea into action, 91 Q Quick temper, 119, 120, 129, 130, 173, 176, 203 R Raising children, 105, 129, 130, 153, 195 Rakuto, M., 159–161 Rank according to ability, 99, 191, 220 Recalling one’s poverty, 147 Receiving admonition, 111 Refraining from boasting, 118 Refraining from unreasonably laying in stock, 89 Regular customers, 98 Religious piety, 15 Religious syncretism, 4 Remembering past hardships, 118 Remuneration of the samurai, 139 Repayment of loans, 100 Resorting to one’s self-interests, 96 Respect for one’s seniors, 23 Respect for the aged, 47, 182, 188, 217 Respecting the primacy of the main family, 23 Respect your opponent, 200 Restraining one’s ambition, 23 Reverence of ancestors, 15

232 Reward and punishment, 116, 164 Reward for doing evil, 150 Rice as payment, 139 Right person in the right place, 165 The rituals of serving and drinking tea, 123 Role of the head clerk, 106 Role of the merchant, 57, 58, 100, 122 Roosevelt, T., 36, 185 Root of filial piety, 154 Root of prosperity for home and country, 160 Rules for merchants, 62, 63, 72 Rules for proprietors, 132 Rules for townspeople, 62, 63 S Sagara, T., 2–4 Sakata, Y., 9, 10 Sales rather than profit, 120 Samukawa, M., 34, 70–73 Samuraido, 3 Sapporo Agricultural College, 38 Sato, R., ix Satow, E., 20 Second generation wealth, 81 Secret charity, 10, 15, 22, 23, 63, 67–69, 84, 107, 122, 124, 129, 131–133, 135, 141, 143, 145, 148–151, 161, 163, 167, 174–176, 178, 188, 196, 203, 218 Secret of supervising one’s workers, 89 Sekimon Shingaku, 7, 10–13, 98, 124, 135, 137, 168 Self-benefit, 55 Self-control, 32, 40, 42, 134, 187 Self-interest, 8, 58, 96, 173 Selfish desire and public desire, 89, 130 Selfishness, 48, 91, 125, 128, 129, 162, 195, 209 Self-reliance, 15 Serikawa, H., 13, 14 Serve customers politely, 196 Serve visitors in a friendly way, 199 Setting a goal in life, 112 Sezoku soku Buppo, 54 Sharing decisions, 106 Sharing the hard work with one’s help, 126 Shibata, H., 63, 128–132 Shibata, K., 88 Shibata, M., 25, 62, 63, 87, 88, 98–101, 103–107, 114–117, 124–127, 191, 192, 195, 197, 198, 202, 220 Shibusawa, E., 6, 18, 32, 225 Shido, 3, 49, 184 Shimai, S., 13, 69

Index Shingaku Meiseisha, 10 Shingaku movement, 114, 124, 140 Shinto as the original religion of Japan, 152 Shinto being foundational, 101 Shogunate government, 82, 83, 137 Shonin no michi, 62 Shorin, R.K., 88 Short-term profit, 219 Showing gratitude to one’s ancestors, 116, 153 Showing respect for authority, 23 Significance of learning, 100 Silence surpassing words, 109 Simplicity over ostentation in business, 158 Sincerity of friends, 74 Social standing, 7, 10, 23, 56, 78, 79, 82, 97, 137, 145 Soken, O., 119–121 Solicitude for apprentices, 104 Somezaki, H., 173–174 Soroban, 206 Speaking ill of others, 46, 90 Steadfast honesty, 91 Stinginess and greed, 165 Stinginess rather than generosity, 173 Stoic composure, 40, 187 Strong-mindedness, 6 Success, as prima facie evidence of leadership, 16 Succession to family headship, 169 Suematsu, K., 20 Supervisor-subordinate interdependence, 23 Survival of the operation’s prosperity, 189, 219 Susano, 92 Suspicion of fraud, 16 Suzuki Jinja Shrine, 53 Suzuki, Masao, 64, 65 Suzuki, Mochiyoshi, 91–94 Suzuki, S., vii, 9, 12, 13, 15, 18, 25, 35, 36, 53–58, 62, 182 T Taira no, A., 41 Taira no, S., 42 Takada, T., 149–151 Takahashi, S., 33, 207 Takano, T., 31, 64 Takeda, K., 44, 47 Takeda, N., 44, 45, 47, 49, 184 Takeda, S., 16, 44, 45, 47, 52, 181, 183 Takenaka, S., 10–13 Takimoto, S., 24, 62, 63, 73–74, 80–82, 87–98, 101–103, 108–114, 122–124,

Index 127–136, 143–174, 190, 192–196, 198–201, 203–205, 219–222 Taking precautions, 109 Tamenaga, S., 173 Tanaka, Y., 127–128 Taniguchi, S., 50, 183 Tashiro, T., 50 Teaching children manners, 120 Tejima, T., 7, 9, 12, 13, 25, 87, 114–117, 124–127, 135, 139, 192, 195, 198 Tenkyu (Takeda Nobushige), 45, 49 Terakoya, 24, 33, 37–39, 165, 176, 177, 181, 185, 205–207 Third generation selling the family home, 90 Time of Maitreya, 66 Tokaen, M., 163 Toka, S., 163–166 Tokugawa Bakufu, 31, 50, 66, 74, 76, 91, 138 Tokugawa, H., 35, 53 Tokugawa, I., 4, 31, 35, 36, 64, 66, 75, 181 Tokugawa, M., 16 Townsend Harris, 19, 20 Townspeople consciousness, 7 Toyotomi, Hidenaga, 47 Toyotomi, Hideyori, 31, 47, 181 Toyotomi, Hideyoshi, 31, 47, 66, 181 Treating apprentices like one’s own children, 106 Treatment of children, 89 Treaty of Amity and Commerce between United States and Japan, 1858, 142 Treaty revision, 19, 21 True nature of business, 98 Tsuchiya, K., 133–135 Tsuda, S., 4, 186 Tsuji, Z., 44, 138 U Uekawa, M., 13, 62, 87–91, 114, 136 Unethical business practices, 19 Unexpected divine protection, 145 Unification of economics and morality, 32 Unity of the Three Teachings, 106 Unity with friends, 23 Unjust transactions, 173 Upbringing of children, 89, 162 Useless generals, 47 Useless help, 126 Utilizing the help, 112, 134 V Valuing one’s help, 126

233 Valuing the customer, 23 Veneration of ancestors, 10, 23 Virtues fitting for merchants, 201 Virtues in Bushido, 185 W Wakao, M., 4 Wakisaka, K., 135–136 Wakon yosai, 43 Ward, G.K., 208, 210–215, 222–224 Watanabe, S., 8, 9, 75 Watsuji, T., 2, 3, 6–9, 51, 52, 76, 114, 183 Way of commerce, 7, 62, 63, 80, 122 Way of humanity, 135, 152 Way of the Buddha, 87 Way of the Craftsman, 152 Way of the Gods, 94, 152 Way of the merchant, viii, 2, 5, 29–34, 62, 83, 94–96, 99, 129 Way of the Poor, 152 Way of the sages, 88, 94, 99, 100, 152 Way of the warrior, viii, 1–4, 7, 44, 51, 52, 183, 200, 217 Way of trade, 62, 63 Way of Wealth, 152 Weber, W., 8, 13 Wisdom and humility, 118 Wisdom of the merchant, 90 Workplace harmony, 13 Worship of Gods and Buddhas, 47, 70, 96, 167, 218, 222 Worship of money, 70 Y Yamada, T., 172 Yamada, Y., 172 Yamaga, S., 4, 11, 16 Yamamoto, H., 51, 183 Yamamoto, J., 4, 36, 44, 50 Yamamoto, S., vii Yamatoya, K., 172–173 Yodoya, T., 85 Yokohama Consular Reports, 19 Yokohama settlement, 19, 21 Yokota, F., 31, 64 Yoshida, J., 15, 98, 140 Z Zealous in one’s family business, 103 Zen Buddhist monk, 36, 53