The Medieval Brickmaking Industry in England 1400-1450 9780860543084, 9781407317502

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2. THE USE OF BRICK TO 1450
Chapter 3. THE ADOPTION OF BRICK IN MEDIEVAL ENGLAND
Chapter 4. IMPORTATION
Chapter 5. HOME-PRODUCTION OF BRICKS
Chapter 6. METHODS OF MANUFACTURE
Chapter 7. TRANSPORT
Chapter 8. ORGANISATION OF THE INDUSTRY, 1400-1450
Chapter 9. MONEY MATTERS
Chapter 10. THE NATURE OF THE INDUSTRY
Notes and References
Bibliography of Works Cited in the Notes

Citation preview

The Medieval Brickmaking Industry in England 1400 -1450

Terence Paul Smith

BAR British Series 13 8

1985

·B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. 1J8, 1985: 'The Medieval Brick.making Industry in England, 1400 - 1450'

©

Terence Paul Smith, 1985

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543084 paperback ISBN 9781407317502 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543084 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS P age L ist o f I llustrations

i v

1 .

I ntroduction

1

2 .

T he U se o f B rick t o 1 450

2

3 .

T he A doption o f B rick i n M edieval E ngland

4

4 .

I mportation

5 .

H ome-Production o f

6 .

M ethods o f M anufacture

3 9

7 .

T ransport

5 8

8 .

O rganisation o f

9 .

M oney M atters

1 0.

T he N ature o f

2 3 B ricks

t he I ndustry,

2 7

1 400-1450

6 0 7 1

t he I ndustry

8 3

9 1

N otes a nd R eferences B ibliography o f W orks C ited i n t he N otes

i ii

1 29

P age L ist o f I llustrations 1 .

D istribution o f M ajor E arly F ifteenth-Century B rick B uildings

5

2 .

A liens

3 .

D iaper a nd O ther B rick P atterns

4 .

A lien B rickmakers

5 .

i n S outh-East E ngland

i n E ngland,

i n 1 436 f rom t he P eriod 1 400-1450

1 400-1450

T he E nglish B rickmaking I ndustry i n t he E arly F ifteenth

9 1 3 2 1 2 8

C entury 6 .

T he E nglish B rickmaking I ndustry i n t he E arly F ifteenth C entury:

7 .

T he T hames V alley i n t he E arly F ifteenth

N orfolk A rea

3 3

T he E nglish B rickmaking I ndustry i n t he F ifteenth C entury:

T he T attershall A rea o f L incolnshire

1 0.

T he

1. 1

A F rame M ould and

1 2.

30

T he E nglish B rickmaking I ndustry C entury:

9 .

29

T he E nglish B rickmaking I ndustry i n t he E arly F ifteenth C entury:

8 .

T he E ast R iding

' Rye H ouse G roup

o f E arly B rick B uildings

i ts P roduct

M edieval B rick B uildings

3 5 3 8 4 3

i n t he K ing's L ynn A rea o f

N orfolk

62

1 3.

H ull Expenses:

1 4.

P ie-chart

( 1)

7 2

C aister C astle E xpenses:

P ie-chart

7 3

1 5.

H ull E xpenses:

P ie-chart

( 2)

7 5

1 6.

H ull E xpenses:

G raph

1 7.

H ull P rofits a nd L osses:

1 8. 1 9.

7 6 G raph

7 7

B rick P rices

i n t he E ast R iding

7 8

B rick P rices

i n E ngland

8 2

i v

Chapter 1.

INTRODUCTION

T aim of the present paper is to bring together previously scatter� ·nformation on the English Brickmaking industry during that half-cen�ury - 1400-1450 - which may properly by regarded as the forma­ tive per:od for English brick building, and to use that information to explore the nature of the industry. The text books on which we were brought u , ·f they made reference to medieval bricks at all, told a very sLnple story: there were no bricks in England before about the fifteent. entury (apart, of course, from re-used R oman tegulae in Anglo-Saxon and Norman buildings); thereafter they were imported from the Low Countries, not indeed as a 'proper' commodity but as ballast; this ballast was unloaded at the eastern ports and was used in eastern England because (we are told) those regions suffered from a lack of building s�one and the bricks provided a suitable substitute. The view is still found, as the following passage from a quite recent (1976) text book illustrates: In the fifteenth century•.• Flemish weavers ••.imported bricks fo building into East Anglia, partly because of the compara­ tive scarcity of building stone in that flat, open country­ side and partly, no doubt, to remind them of home. The association for long caused bricks to be known in Britain as 'Flanders' tiles'. There was a general import into Britain from t e Low Countries, from Burgundy and from Normandy until the British brick kilns were able _to meet thl heavy demand of th later fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. There are just enough factually correct statements in this outline to make it seem plausible. But the view contained in the passage is nonetheless fundamentally wrong. It will be my purpose in the first part of what follows to demonstrate this. An inevitable consequence of the familiarity of this view is that - with a few welcome exceptions - little work has been done on the organisation of the medieval brickmaking industry in England - since, of course, on this view of the matter there was no brick-making indus­ In subsequent sections of this paper an try in medieval England. attempt will be made to fill this lacuna by examining the nature of the industry in the period 1400-1450; this will serve to illustrate English brickmaking in the Middle Ages in general since there was no fundame tal change in the century after 1450.

1

C hapter 2 .

A lthough b ricks a s o f

t iles)

h ad

T HE U SE O F

( tegulae,

b een u sed

b ut

u sed

B RICK T O

1 450

i n t he m anner o f b ricks a s w ell

i n R oman t imes

i n E ngland,

2

t hey w ere

l ittle

u sed i n t he e arly M iddle A ges. T he A nglo-Saxons o f t he C hristian p eriod s ometimes r e-used R oman t egulae a nd m ay e ven v ery o ccasionally h ave m ade b ricks o f t heir o wn. 3 T he b ricks i n t he g reat s eventh-cent ury c hurch o f m ay

b e

h owever, s ive, a bly

A ll S aints a t

B rixworth,

o f A nglo-Saxon d ate,

N orthamptonshire,

f or e xample,

t hough m ade v ery m uch i n t he R oman m anner;

t hermoluminescenc9

t ests o n t hese b ricks

a re

s o

f ar

i nconclu-

n o ther c ases t he b ricks a re u nquestione ven i f s uggestive :* I o f R oman o rigin: t hose u sed a t S t P ancras C hurch, C anterbury,

K ent,

f or

e xample,

f langes o f a nd a lmost i nstance m aterial,

a lso

o f

t he

s eventh

e ntury,

s ometimes

s how

t he

t ypical R oman r oofing t egulae. J M oreover, t he o ccasional h aphazard u se i n s ome l ater A nglo-Saxon c hurches, f or

i n a s

H ertfordshire, w ould s eem t o s uggest r e-use o f R oman a vailable, r ather t han s pecial p roduction. 6 W hat r emains

c ertain, i n t his s ea o f u ncertainties, i s b uilding m aterial i n A nglo-Saxon E ngland.

t hat b rick w as n ever a m ajor

S ubsequently, t he N orman b uilders s ometimes u sed R oman t egulae i n t heir o wn b uildings. O nce a gain, t hese a re m ostly c asual u ses o f t he m aterial, a nd o nly v ery o ccasionally -n otably a t S t A lbans A bbey i n 7 H ertfordshire -d id t he N ormans m ake u se o f t hem a s t he p rincipal m aterial. A t S t A lbans t he R oman c ity o f V erulamium, i n t he v alley b elow m ade

t he A bbey, u se

o f

w ould h ave

p rovided a n a mple s upply,

i n t he A nglo-Saxon p arish c hurches

c entral E ssex,

h owever,

w hich w as a lso

i n t he

a c hange h as b een o bserved,

v icinity.

I n

8

p robably o ccurring

i n t he f irst h alf o f t he t welfth c entury: b ricks a re u nusual i n c hurches, a nd P .J.

f rom t hat t ime r e-used R oman D rury h as s uggested t hat t his

-c hange

B arnack,

..

f rom r eused

t iles

t o C aen,

a nd o ther

s tones

f or

t he q uoins a nd d ressings o f p arish c hurches w as p robably c onnected a s m uch w ith t he e xhaustion o f s ources o f g ood R oman t iles a s w ith s tylist ic p reference. -9 T he b ricks f orming t he n ave a rcades a nd c hancel-arch a t

P olstead,

s econd h alf r e-used

S uffolk h ave

o f

R oman

t he

b een c laimed a s E nglish-made

b ricks

t welfth c entury ( perhaps a round 1 160),

t egulae,

t hough

1 °

t here

i s

n o

c ertainty o n

o f

r ather t his

t he t han

m atter.

B ricks w ere, h owever, b eing m anufactured a t a bout t hat t ime f or u se a t C oggeshall A bbey, E ssex; 1 1 a nd f rom t he t hirteenth c entury o nwards b ricks

a ppear

i n p arts

o f e astern E ngland,

u sed m ore o r l ess

r andomly

i n c hurches a nd s ometimes i n s ecular b uildings. 1 2 I n t he n ature o f t he c ase, i t i s d ifficult t o d ecide w hether t hese l atter w ere h ome-produced o r

i mported,

s uggest s hing p eriod e astern

t hough

i mportation. b rickmaking m ore

s poradic

1 4

t he

n ature

B ut

o f

o f

t heir u se w ould

f ourteenth c entury

i ndustry a t H ull,

s ubstantial u ses

E ngland.

t hat b ri 0 c m ateria1. 15

t he

D uring

Y orkshire,

1 3

t he m aterial o ccur

i t w as n ot

2

a nd

t o

f rom

t he

s ame

i n v arious p arts

u ntil n ear t he e nd o f

r eally b ecame a n a cceptable, a nd T he y ears 1 400-1450 m ay b e c onsidered

s eem

t here w as a f louri-

t hat

o f

c entury

i ndeed a p restige, t he f ormative y ears

o f

e arly

E nglish b rick b uilding.

P atrons

o f

t he n ew

m aterial

w ere

m ainly w ealthy a nd i nfluential n obles, m ost o f t hem l ay b ut w ith s ome e cclesiastics a mongst t hem; a nd t here i s s ome i ndication t hat t he p art p layed b y t he m onasteries i n t he e stablishment o f b rick m ay h ave b een m ore

i mportant

c ipal

t han s urviving

a uthorities

( especially D uring

a nd

i n t he c ase o f

t his

t ime

t hese

r emains

s uggest a t

t he C rown a lso t he

f irst

p atronised

g lance.

t he

l atter) w ith s ome h esitation a t

d evelopments w ere c onfined

M uni-

1 6

m aterial,

b ut

f irs h

t o e astern E ngland;

a nd t his i ndeed r emains t rue f or t he r est o f t he M iddle A ges. m id-fifteenth c entury t he m aterial w as f ully a ccepted i n t hose a nd p erhaps e ven i t i s s ignificant i n t his r espect t hat f rom

B y t he p arts, c .145C 1

o nwards

r ather

i mportant a nd w ealthy p relates

c onservative

b y n ature)

p layed

( ostentatious

a n i ncreasing p art

b ut

i n

p erhaps

t he p atronage

o f

b rick b uildings. T he

s tory

M iddle A ges b e w ritten.

o f

t he d evelopment o f

i s a f ascinating o ne, 1 8

I n t he p resent p aper w e

b rick b uildings a s

s uch,

b rick b uilding

i n

t he

E nglish

t hough a n a dequate a ccount h as y et

b ut w ith t he

b uildings.

3

s hall b e

c oncerned,

n ot w ith

i ndustry w hich l ay b ehind

t o t he

t hose

C hapter 3 .

T he b rick

E nglish

w as

T HE A DOPTION O F

s ituation

B RICK I N M EDIEVAL E NGLAND

j ust o utlined -e ven a t

f ully a ccepted a s

t he

p oint

a p restige m aterial a nd u sed

w here

f or

l arge-

s cale b uilding p rojects -is i n m arked c ontrast t o t hat i n t he ' Brick 9 T here, t he m aterial w as G othic r egion o f t he N orth E uropean P lain. 1 u sed f rom a n e arly d ate a nd w as t he d ominant m aterial f or b uildings o f a ny s tatus. I n E ngland b rick a s a m ajor m aterial i n i ndividual b uildi ngs c ame v ery i nated a s i t d id A ges. I t c entury a s,

l ate i n,

i n t he M iddle A ges, a nd t he m aterial n ever d oms ay, n orthern G ermany o r P oland d uring t he M iddle

i s p ossible t o r egard e astern E ngland i n a s ense, t he w esternmost e xtension o f

G othic r egion; b ut i f t his i n E ngland b rick o ccurs a s l arge-scale, h esitate

b uildings

b efore

i s d one, t he c ontrast m ust n ot b e f orgotten: t he p rincipal m aterial i n i solated, u sually

t hroughout

c alling

i n t he f ifteenth t he E uropean B rick

i t,

a t

t he e astern c ounties,

t his

d ate,

a nd o ne s hould

a c haracteristic m aterial o f

t hose c ounties. T he

e xplanation

g eography.

B oth

f or

t his

c ontrast m ust b elong

t o

t he

i n t he N orth E uropean P lain a nd i n E ngland

e conomic ( not

j ust

e astern E ngland) t here a re p lentiful s upplies o f t he n ecessary m aterials f or b rickmaking; y et i n E ngland t hey w ere n ot e xploited t he e xtent

t hat

t hey w ere

i n t he N orth E uropean P lain.

T he

l atter i s a

l arge a rea w ithin w hich s tone w as n ot e asily a vailable a nd r eadily o btainable b uilding m aterial w as t he t imber f rom t he f orestlands

-still

a t

t he

e nd

o f

t he

M iddle

A ges

r aw t o

t he m ost e xtensive

B altic

t imber

( 'estrichbordes') w as a n i mportant c ommodity i n n orth E uropean t rade. 20 B ut t imber, t hough m uch u sed i n t he N orth E uropean P lain, w as n ot a s uitable m aterial f or b uildings o f s tatus, f or w hich ' masonry' ( in a w ide s ense o f t he t erm) w as r equired. T he b uilders t herefore t urned t o t heir t he L eague,

a bundant f ull. Z 1

B altic o f

g ood

r egion a nd b uilding

E ngland, i ts

i sland

g oods, t ions,

s upplies o f

b rickmaking m aterials

a nd

e xploited

t hem t o

I n l ater y ears, w ith t he f ull e mergence o f t he H anseatic t here c ame a c onsistent b rick a rchitecture t hroughout t he s omewhat

b eyond,

e ven i n d istricts w here a vailability

s tone w as n ot a p roblem.

w ith

i ts m uch s maller

n ature m aking

f or

2 2

s ize a nd m ore c omplex g eology ,

r elatively c heap

c oastal

t ransport

w ith o f

a nd w ith i ts u seful -if n ot i deal -s ystem o f r iver c ommunicaS upplies o f a ll g rades o f n ever f elt t he p roblem s o a cutely. 23

b uilding s tone w ere a bundantly a vailable i n m any p arts o f t he c ountry, a nd n o p art o f E ngland w as s o r emote f rom t hose s upplies t hat t ransport t hereto

w as

b uildings f essor f or

e ntirely u nfeasible -at

w ere

J ope h as

c hurch

c oncerned.

d emonstrated,

b uilding

l east

s o

B arnack a nd o ther

i n N orfolk a nd

S uffolk,

m iles a way ( in a s traight l ine). 24 I n l ater c asual g lance a t t he f iner c hurches w ill s how, s tone w as

w idely

t raded

f ar

a s

E ven i n l ater A nglo-Saxon

t hroughout

h igher t imes,

P ro-

l imestones w ere

u sed

s ometimes

a s m uch a s

7 5

c enturies, a s e ven a g ood q uality b uilding

t he e astern c ounties.

4

s tatus a s

2 5

E ven s outh-

M a jo r B r ick B u i ld ing s i nE ng land 1 400 -50

a '

3 0N AI l es

.2 5 0 Km

9 1 3 . 10

3

1 2

. 1 4

. 16

. 15

. 19

1 7. 118

2 0 .2 1 .22

.23 iv 26,

} 32 5

2 73 1

.28

T PS 7 8

F ig.

1 .

D istribution

o f M ajor Early

5

F ifteenth-Century

B rick

B uildings

e ast E ngland,

r elatively

f ar r emoved

f rom t he

' Limestone B elt',

c ould

o btain g ood s upplies o f C aen s tone b y s ea f rom N ormandy. B rick -a nd t he p oint m ust b e s tressed, f or i t i s s ometimes f orgotten -w as n ot, a t t he

t ime,

a c heap m aterial:

i f,

i n e xplaining

t he

B rick G othic

r egion,

w e m ake m ention o f r elative c heapness o f m aterial, w e s hould a lways r emember t hat t he e mphasis s hould b e o n t he r elativity r ather t han o n t he c heapness. b uilding, e ven b rick

I n f ine, i t w as t he p ossibility o f o btaining s tone f or i n e astern E ngland, t hat l ay b ehind t he s low a doption o f

i n m edieval E ngland. T his

i n i ts

t urn b elies

a c ommon n otion,

n amely

t hat w hen

b rick

w as u sed i n m edieval E ngland i t w as a dopted a s a c heap s ubstitute i n a reas w here s tone w as n ot i mmediately o r r eadily a vailable; t he e astern d istribution o f, i t

i s

s ometimes

s ay,

f ifteenth-century b rick b uildings g ives s upport,

a rgued,

t o

t his h ypothesis

( cf.

f ig.1).

B ut

a lthough

p arts o f t he a rea i n w hich m edieval b rick o ccurs -E ssex f or e xample a re a l ong w ay f rom s upplies o f f ine b uilding s tone, o ther p arts o f t he a rea a re n ot: L incolnshire, f or e xample, e ven t he F enland o f H olland, i s n ot f ar r emoved f rom t he ' Limestone B elt', i nstance, b uilding

t he b urgesses o f B oston c ould a fford g ood q uality s tone t heir m agnificent c hurch t hey c ould c ertainly a fford i t

t he s maller G uildhall o f S t M ary, t he l atter i n b rick. E ven

m ore

t elling

t he

i s

o ccurs

a s

i ndeed

f or a h undred y ears

c heap

a lthough t hey c hose i n f act

t he n ature

a ll

o f

t he b uildings

p rincipal m aterial d uring a fterwards,

s ubstitutability w ere c orrect

f irst o f

o f t he P arts a nd i f, f or

i n b uildings

a t

t he v ernacular

p relates,

p eriod I f

l evel,

b rick

1 400-1450

t he t o

t o b uild

i n w hich

b e

( and

h ypothesis

t hen o ne w ould e xpect

b uilders o f h igher s tatus b uildings. s ituation o btained: t he p atrons o f w ere w ealthy n obles,

t he

t oo).

f or f or

o f

t he m aterial

s hunned

b y

t he

I n f act, e xactly t he o pposite t he b rick b uildings o f t his t ime

t he C rown,

m unicipal b odies

( amongst

t hem s ome w ell-off o nes s uch a s L ynn a nd B oston), a nd t he C hurch: o nly l ater d id t he m aterial ' filter d own t o e ver l ower s ocial l evels r eaching t hat o f T hose w ho i nsist w hy

t he

m en

v ernacular b uilding o nly i n t he s eventeenth c entury. 2b t hat b rick w as a c heap s ubstitute m ust p resent r easons

w ho

c hose

t o

b uild

i n t he m aterial -m en l ike

S ir

J ohn

F astolf o r L ord T reasurer C romwell -w ere t he e ry m en w ho c ould h ave a fforded t o b uild i n s tone h ad t hey s o w ished. 2 /y I t w as n ot e ven, a s G regg

s uggests,

2 8

t hat

i mmigrant

F lemish w eavers,

s ettling i n E astern

E ngland, b egan t o b uild i n t he m aterial: m ost o f t hem w ere n ot w ealthy e nough t o b uild o ther t han i n t imber; a nd i n a ny c ase t he e vidence o f p atronage

s hows

-t hough o ne, T he

t hat a lmost

a ll

S ir A ndrew O gard

r eason f or

t he

( cf.

i ndividual i nfra),

t he a doption o f

w as

b rick -a s

p atrons

w ere E nglishmen

a D ane b y b irth. t he

e ssentially

s cat-

t ered d istribution o f e arly f ifteenth-century e xamples ( fig.1) a nd t he n ature o f t hose e xamples m ake c lear -m ust b e, n ot t hat i t w as a c heap a lternative m aterial:

t o

s tone,

b ut

i t w as a

o ther

e arly e xamples,

t he w ealthy m en o f

i nclusion

p restige r ubble

e asterly d istribution o f

c asual

a nd

I t w as

W hy d id

t han a s

f ashionable

w alling, m arked o ut i ts p atrons a s m en o f w ealth a nd s tanding. a f orm o f s elf a dvertisement a vailable t o r elatively f ew. T he

e mployment,

t hat

i n

p uzzle.

i ts

h owever,

S tate a nd C hurch n ot

b uild

r emains

a

i n b rick

o utside e astern E ngland? A p ossible a nswer i s t hat t here i s a c onnexi on w ith t he i mmigration o f c raftsmen s killed i n b rickmaking ( and

6

o thers t ainly

s killed i n b ricklaying, o r b oth) i nto e astern E ngland. C eri n t he h alf-century 1 401-50 m en o f o bvious c ontinental o rigins

w ere s ettling i n t hese p arts: a g ood s ample, f rom w hich a p robably r eliable d istribution m ap m ay b e c ompiled, e xists i n t he c slendered e ntry

r elating

c lear, o nly

o nce

t o

l etters

p atent

s outhern

a nd e astern E ngland u p a s

a lthough a f ew s tray e ntries t he m ap,

i t

i s

c lear

w ithin t he a rea t he

m ore

t ely, a mongst

t hat

w as

i s c overed,

t he

w as

a

o n

E ven s o,

t he g reater d ensity i n

s ta u o ccupations;

b ut

U nfortuna-

s ome

d o,

a nd

J u

i s

i ndependent e vidence w ithin t he p eriod 1 400-

o f

c ontinentals

d escribed a s

n orth E uropean, L ess e minent

o f T attershall,

i n b rickmaking.

a ' brikemaker

M ost

b ut w ho

r ose

e minent t o

i mpor-

t he C rown a nd a lso b ecame a m ember o f a lias W eysy a lias V eyse) s uggests t hat

' especially,'

c ontroller o f t han V esey,

t he p rojects w ith w hich h e w as m aker'

H olland;

r egion m arked

f ully c overed.

o ne c an o bserve

i s

t here

a s h e w as m ade

i n 1 441 - .32

t he

I t

2 9

l ist c overs

( contrasted w ith t he s outh-west).

t ant a dministrative o ffice u nder h is n ame ( Vesey, p arliament; 31 r emarked,

t he

i nvolvement

W illiam V esey,

h e

t hat

t he P arts o f

b eyond

t hese a reas a re n ot

t hese a re a f ew b rickmakers.

f or

f ar a s

r ecord a liens

l etters d o n ot a lways

F urthermore, 5 0

t hat

e asterly p arts

t he

i ssued b y H enry V I i n 1 436.

t hese a re p lotted o nto a m ap ( fig.2),

b ut

e ngaged 4

L incolnshire;

a s

a ll

l ate

L .F.

S alzman

i n E ngland

s till a m an o f i mportance w as

3'

t he

t he b eer-brewers

f or

B awdwin o r B aldwin ' Breke-

a fter h is d eath h e w as

r eferred

t o a s ' Bawdwin D ocheman' ( that i s, G erman) i n a n a ccount o f 1 457-8 w hich i ncludes a p ayment t o h is ' wife' ( that i s, w idow) p ro f actura e t a nulacione d e c lx m ille t egularum b rickmakers ' Brekmaker'

( sc.

O f

b ricks). 34

t he

s upplying T attershall a nd k nown t o u s b y n ame k -seems f rom h is n ame t o h ave b een a n a lien. '

t wo

o ther

o ne -F oys E arlier, i n

1 416, 2 00,000 ' brykes' w ere m ade a t C rockernend ( Crocker E nd) f or u se a t S tonor i n O xfordshire b y o ne M ichael f flemyng a nd h is a ssistants w ho w ere

a lso

' les

-b rykeman -

B ridge

f rom

i nstance

flemynges . f

H enry

S ondergyltes,

' bryktill' a t D eptford

t he

f or u se a t A / t oo w as a n a lien. 3

L ondon f urther

f rom 1 8th D ecember 1 440 when a c ontract w as m ade

b etween

1 418,

d ates

T he n ame o f

3 6

e mployed i n m aking s uggests

t hat h e

W illiam C urtys, A bbot o f B ury S t E dmunds, S uffolk , o f t he o ne p art a nd t wo ' brekebrennerys' ( brickburners) o f t he o ther p art f or t he m aking o f l ateres v ocatos l e b reke;

t he

n ames

o f

t he

t wo

b rickmakers

-J ohn

A rnold o r A rnauld a nd H ermann R einoud o r R eynold a gain s uggest a c ont inental o rigin, a nd t his i s c onfirmed a t t he e nd o f t he c ontract, w here

t hey

a re

d escribed a s

t eutonici.

3 8

S urely

t oo J ohn

G yse

P eter P reutte, w ho w ere m aking b ricks f or W indsor C astle i n w ere o f n orth E uropean o rigin? H enry H erryson, ' brikemaker',

1 430, b orn i n

-t eutgonic ( sic) p arts, s ource r ecords J ohn D irik,

w as d welling a t I pswich i n 1 436; t he s ame b orn i n H olland a nd d welling i n L ondon; h e

i s

p ossibly a b rickburner o r b rickmaker.' °

c alled a

-b ernere - ;

B awdwin i ndeed

h is

w as t he r eminder b rick

j ust

o f T attershall p art

i n

t he

i s

a lso

p roject

i s

r eferred

t o

a s

s o p rominent a s

' Brekmason', t o

sv ;gest

t hat

T his i s m aster m ason, o r a rchitect, o f t he b uilding. I t hat a liens w ere i nvolved i n b rick b uilding a s w ell a s

m aking.

T he

l ate W .D.

S impson s uggested

a nd h e a i n

t hat G odfrey B rekman,

w ho a ppears e lsewhere i n t he T attershall a ccounts a s G odfred B rekmason a nd G odfrey B rekmason, w as o f c ontinental o rigin. C hristine ( alias C hristian) B rekmason, who a ppears i n t he a ccounts f or 1 438-9 a nd 1 4394 0 w as A t

p resumably a lso,

f rom

t he e vidence o f

t he L ondon C harterhouse c .1415

s qq.

7

h is

f orename,

t he b ricklayers

a n a lien. 42

( 'tilers') w ere

F ig.

1 ,

M ajor B rick B uildings

1 . 2 .

B everley, Y orks. K ingston-upon-Hull,

3 . 4 .

B ardney, L incs. W oodhall, L incs.

i n E ngland,

1 400-1450

Y orks

5 .

T attershall,

6 . 7 .

B oston, R epton,

L incs.

8 . 9 .

S palding, L incs. K ing's L ynn, N orfolk.

L incs. D erbys.

1 0.

E mneth,

1. 1

D rayton L odge,

N orfolk.*

1 2. 1 3.

H ellesdon, N orfolk.* C aister C astle, N orfolk.

1 4. 1 5.

C ambridge. S omeries C astle,

1 6. 1 7. 1 8.

H adham H all, H erts.* R ye H ouse, H erts. H unsdon, H erts.

N orfolk.

B eds.

1 9.

F aulkbourne H all,

2 0.

M aldon,

E ssex.

E ssex.

2 1.

E welme,

O xon.

2 2.

S tonor,

O xon.

2 3. 2 4.

M anor o f t he M ore, R ickmansworth, E ton C ollege, B erks.

2 5. 2 6.

L ondon B ridge.* S hene ( Richmond),

2 7. 2 8.

D ent-de-Lion, H erstmonceux,

H erts.*

S urrey.*

G arlinge, K ent. S ussex : c astle,

* i ndicates b uildings n o s ources.

a nd

c hancel o f c hurch.

l onger e xtant • but k nown f rom d ocumentary

8

• r 4

r 1 4

t x 0

9 A liens i n S outh-East E ngland

A rnald

P orter a nd H enry

F urther

e vidence

B ryker,

b oth d escribed a s

f or

i nvolvement

t he

o f

o f

H olland'. 43

c ontinentals

i n

E nglish

b rick b uilding d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he f ifteenth c entury f rom t he m ore s trictly a rchaeological s tudy o f t he b uildings s elves. b etween h as

N athaniel L loyd l ong a go n oted s ome a rchitectur f l _ a ffinities c ertain E nglish b uildings a nd E uropean b uildings, ' b ut t here

b een n o

b uildings,

s ystematic

a nd

t he

s tudy o f

o bservations

t his o f

a spect o f

t he

E nglish m edieval

f ollowing

a nd

c ontinental t hat

i n o rder

t o

r einforce

N evertheless, f rom v arious

i t i s E nglish

s uggestion,

h erein

t he

c ontinental c raftsmen w ere v ery m uch i nvolved

b rick b uildings T he

s ources o f

r elief

t he

i n t he E nglish

t ime. b rick s urface w ith d iaper

a nd

o ther p atterns i n d arker ( or o ccasionally l ighter) b ricks i s f eature w hich t he c ontinental b uildings a nd t he E nglish b uildings

o ne h ave

i n c ommon. e xamples, 45

o f

b rick

p ages m ake n o p retence

a t a n e xhaustive, o r e ven a n a dequate, s tudy. w orth d rawing t ogether s ome o bservations c ulled made,

c omes t hem-

a p ossibly m ontonous

J .K. F loyer s uggested a F rench o rigin f or t hough H .A. T ipping s ubsequently s howed t hat

i nstances a re r eally

t oo

l ate

f or

t his;

h e h imself

t he E nglish t he F rench

p referred a n o rigin

B ut i t i s t o t he B rick G othic r egion i n g eneral, r ather i n F landers. 46 t han t o F landers i n p articular, t hat w e m ust p robably l ook f or i nf luence

i n

I n

c onnexion.

n orthern E urope

d ate a nd

c ould b e s uch a s

r ials, 47 u se

t his

o f

p olychrome d ecoration s tarted a t

i n b lack , t ile

o r

y ellow,

o r w hite b ricks o r

e ven s mall q uantities o f

c oloured -u sually b lack -b ricks w as

a q uite e arly i n o ther m ate-

s tone.

i n t he

A

f avourite

f ormation o f b ands

o f c ontrasting r ed a nd b lack ( or s ome o ther c olour). T hese a re u sed o n p iers a nd c olumns, w hich a re t hus d ivided i nto a s eries o f v ertical s tages, a nd a lso a round t he a rches s upporting v aults, t he a rch-heads o f d oorways, a nd o n r elieving a rches. F or e xample, t wo c ourses o f s uch b andwork s urround t h P oland, o f 1350_1401,48

e ntrance a rchway a t R eszel ( Rössel) C astle, a nd a s imilar f eature i s t o b e o bserved a t t he

r ound b ricks

c hurch a t T horsager, m ight e ven b e u sed,

q uoins

o f

a b uildi

e

a s

D ifferent c oloured J ylland, D enmark. 49 o n o ccasion, t o p rovide b andwork o n t he

a t A rhus C athedral,

J ylland,

D enmark ,

o f

t he

f ifteenth c entury. D iaper

p atterns

a lso e mployed e xample

d arker

t o g ive v ariety

o ccurs

a t P elplin,

o f

o n

P oland

t he

( or,

s ometimes,

l ighter)

b ricks

t o a n o therwise p lain s urface.

s outh-west a ngle-turret

( fourteenth c entury),

w here

o f

w ere

A n e arly

t he C istercian C hurch

t here a re

t wo

l arger a nd

t wo s maller l ozenges l inked v ertically. 51 L ater e xamples, o f t he f ifteenth c entury , o ccur a t t he C hurch o f C orpus C hristi o f t he L ateran C anons t hat

a t K raköw ( Cracow), a t P el ein,

o ver d iaper;

a nd o n

C athedral,

D enmark,

v ertically

a nd

5 3

A ll-over

p arts

o f

t he

C helminski

t he

w here

t here

i s

a d esign

t here

R heden),

i s a g roup o f

a lthough n ot

d iaper w as,

s imilar

l arge V -shapes a nd p ortions

s outh w all o f K ristian Is

w here

B rick G othic

( Rehden;

b oth o n

t he

s ome

h orizontally,

d iaper.

o ccurs

P oland,

a s w ell a s

h owever,

r egion, P oland,

C hapel

s imple

f orming

a

o f

a t R oskilde

l ozenges f ull

j oined

a ll-over

a chieved a t a n e arly d ate

n otably a t

t he C astle

o f

w here

t he

b uilt c .1300,

s quare a ngle-turrets a nd o n t he

5 4

c urtains.

t o

a ll-

i n

R adzyf i f eature I t

a lso

o ccurs o n p arts o f t he T eutonic K nights C astle a t M albork ( Marienburg) n t he f ourteenth-century e piscopal p alace -o f v arious d ates 55 -a nd o

1 0

a t

L idzbork

d iaper e st a

W arminski

g radually

e xtent, g reat

s ay

a

i n

t hroughout

t he e arly

w hich

a nd F rance''

( Heilsberg),

s pread

T he u se

5 6

r egion,

s ixteenth c entury,

i t

s weeps a cross n orthern E urope

i n t he w est

O ther p atterns e xtensively.

P oland.

t he w hole

W e

a s

f ar a s

B yelorussia

A nother

f avourite

b ricks,

w hich m ay b e

a lready

p attern

n oted

t he

f or e ggmple,

a ll-over i ts

f ound

f rom

g reat-

t hroughout

c ent 91

E ngland

°

t hough a pparently

l arge V -shapes

i n s ome a reas w as

s een,

w as

i n t he e ast.

t han d iapers w ere a lso u sed, h ave

o f

a nd a t

t he

a t

s piral

l ess

K raköw.

o f

o n t he S teinthor a t

d arker B randen-

b urg-an-der-H mel, E ast G ermany, o n t he U englinger T hor a t S tendal, E ast G ermany, " a nd o n t he H aberdashers T ower o f t he c ity d efences o f K raköw f ound,

A nother f airly c ommon m otif w as o n t he U englinger T hor a t S tendal,

( of 1 498). 61 f or e xample,

a nd o n S t

a t W erben, E ast G ermany, 62 E ast G ermany. 63 A lthough i n t his

S tephen's C hurch a t T angermünde,

t he s piral d esign d oes n ot

c ountry,

o thers

h ardly s urprising o ccur o n t he g reat

o f

t he z ig-zag, o n t he E lbthor

a ppear

t o

h ave

b een t aken

t he n orth E uropean m otifs d o o ccur.

a lready o bserved

a bly

t he

t he p resence

m aster m ason a s w ell a s

t here o f

B awdwin ' Docheman'

c hief b rickmaker)

a nd

( prob-

o ther

b rick-

m akers a nd b ricklayers o f d efinite c ontinental o rigin. T he p atterns o ccur a t v arious p oints o n t he t ower ( probably b uilding s implest t heir f or

b ut

p rincipally o n i ts w estern,

d esigns

s ides

i s a s eries o f

o r a t

e xample

l ozenges

t heir a ngles:

i n t he

l arge

' show',

c onnected

f ace.

b rick f rom

O ne o f

t he

t o o ne a nother a long

t hese m ay b e v ariously a rranged,

l ozenge

s hape w ith i ndented

h ead

a nd

a s f oot

s hown i n f ig.3.1 o r i n t he p attern s hown i n f ig.3.4. I n p laces t oo, t he w est w all, t here a re s ubstantial s tretches o f a ll-over d iaper t hat

i s

t o

s ay,

a m esh o f

c onnected l ozenges.

t he a ll-over d iaper w ith t he a dditional i n t he c entral d esign

i s

R elated

p osition i n t he i ntra-space ( fig.3.10,

b ottom).

i ng

o f a t wo-course i ntra-space

m ent

o f

a lternating

t o

o n

t he l atter i s

f eature o f a s ingle d ark h eader ( fig.3.9).

t he s altire c ross w ith f ive h eaders

c entral h eader

i s

t hat v ery e arly i nstances -p erhaps t he e arliest t owerhouse a t T attershall i n L incolnshire, f or w e

h ave

c .1432), 64

u p

I t

M ore c omplex i s

t riangle

A n e ven s impler

t o e ach

a rm ,

p lus

t he

t he d esign c onsist-

t opped b y a v ertical a rrange-

s ingle a nd d ouble h eaders

( fig.3.10,

t op).

T his

o ccurs o n t he s outh-west t urret, w here a lso i s a p attern c onsisting o f t wo i ntersecting V -shapes, f orming a W ; t his i s a ssociated w ith a s imilar

b ut

( fig.3.6).

i nverted L ozenges

t he c ommonest o n

p attern a f ew c ourses

a nd

t he

l ower i n

s altires a re c ombined

t ower.

T he

s maller o f

t he

t wo

e nclosing a s ingle s altire ( fig.3.5); t he l arger b ut h as t wo ' bends' i n e ach d irection ( fig.3.3). T he

C hancel o f

r ebuilt

c .1434

( vide i nfra).

B ardney C hurch,

u sing I t

b ricks

i ncludes

o nly 1 5km

s upplied

T he

c ourse

i ntra-space

c onsidered c lose

t o

s ame

i s a s imple i s c losely

f rom t he

l ozenge

T attershall,

l ozenges a rranged a r ow o f c hevrons

O n

t o

a s

i llustrated

( fig.3.15):

b e a pproaching a n a ll-over d iaper.

e ach a ngle,

a re s impler d esigns,

a lso

o f

t his

w as w orks

t he

i n t he p laced

e ast w all h as a f airly c omplex p attern o f c onnected l ozenges

w all

r elated,

T attershall

v arious d ark-brick d esigns.

w all a re f ive t hree-course i ntra-space o f a c ross ( fig.3.14); b eneath t his i s w ays.

f rom

t he

i n t wo d esigns w hich a re

n orth s hape s idet hree-

m ay

b e

A t a l ower

l evel,

c onnected

t hree-

c ourse i ntra-space l ozenges ( fig.3.11). T he s outh w all o f t he c hancel h as a n umber o f d arker b ricks i n i t, b ut t hese a re p laced h aphazardly,

1 1

F ig.

1 . 2 . 3 .

3

D iaper a nd O ther B rick P atterns

f rom t he P eriod 1 400-1450

T attershall C astle, T attershall C astle,

L incs. L incs.

T attershall C astle,

L incs.;

Q ueens

L incs. L incs.;

R ye H ouse,

C ollege,

H erts. 4 . 5 .

T attershall C astle, T attershall C astle,

6 . 7 .

T attershall C astle, L incs. H erstmonceux C astle, S ussex.

8 . 9 .

E ton C ollege, B erks. T attershall C astle, L incs.

1 0.

T attershall C astle,

1 1.

B ardney C hurch,

L incs.

1 2. 1 3.

S omeries C astle, B eds. R ye H ouse, H erts.

1 4. 1 5.

B ardney C hurch, B ardney C hurch,

1 6. 1 7.

H erstmonceux C astle, S ussex. E welme S choolhouse, O xon.

L incs.

L incs. L incs.

1 2

H erts.

C ambridge;

R ye H ouse,

U HUHU,u0OU,TH E I

uf l Öl j u uf lb i i l u 3 9 2 %0 3n ül lf i i C I H D O u p f l u D u nu n

nu u D u H U

g n u

un n ü l ju f l Og H U 3 DU n n n 3 a p n

n gu a ug üa Unno u n

m

o n o 3n n ° U u [ 10 [ in Uo uf ln u ne u nnn u np u H i

g ou n n ü n a

L i u

0 1

t he P eriod 1 400-1450

" n 0

n O g U u n u n n m n un on u u u•

E l un u n un n u o n u n ' I ona °° L b H ü ü 1 1 [ 1E

[ 10L I U d lUn ü

u n n ü n

D 3

u r , u 3 n

u °u °n au f l n u nü, u p ungf l ugnu no.

ed ue ' u n i G u L l i

l n r j ü

l n[ PE I u püf L i nnnf l og n ' u n u % no n % unnu l u ünü ngn ugu nnn u° n u n L c ,d in u 3 n u n

n ot

p atterned. B oth

d esigns

t he

s maller

a re m atched

c renellate w hich w as t ype

( fig.3.3)

g atehouse, t he

t he

u pper h alf

p arapet,

a nd

g ranted

o ccurs

d iaper.

s hall

( and

t he

T his

T attershall

b eneath

c entral c urtain,

r esembles

t he a rrangement

a t

T he

s maller

o f

L ater

i n 1 443.

o f t he

a cross

s tretches o f s hown

( east)

t he

l ozenges

A cross t he

T atter-

a nd d iffers i ntra-spaces c lose-meshed

o n a m ore

( fig.3.5)

d eep

i s a n a ll-

s uch d iaper a t

i n t hat t he s mall-scale,

t o

l arger

s urviving

f ace

i n f ig.3.15),

d iapers a re n early a lways

t he T attershall

T he

t he w hole o f

t he p rincipal

B ardney,

l icence

° 5

t he s outhern w indow.

f rom t he g reat m ajority o f a ll-over d iapers a re o f t hree c ourses o nly, r esulting i n a d iaper ( fig.3.13). m eshed s cale.

l ozenge-saltire

H ertfordshire )

t he n orthern w indow o f

( fig.3.5)

a nd o n o ther p ortions

o ver

l arger

t o S ir A ndrew O gard

b eneath

s maller o f

t he

e xactly a t R ye H ouse,

o ccurs

w ide-

a lso

a t

ollege, C ambridge, t he ' diapers o f d arker b ricks m entioned b y Q ueens - C t he R oyal C ommission o n H istorical M onuments b eing, i n f act, a t l east T hey h ave w eathered b adly a nd t hree a nd p robably f ive s uch l ozenges. 66 a re n ow s carcely v isible, b ut c lose i nspection s hows t hem t o b e c omp osed o f g reenish g lazed h eaders. T hey a re n ot, w here i n t he f ifteenth-century w ork a t Queens'. A t

S omeries C astle,

n ear L uton,

a pparently ,

B edfordshire,

u sed e lse-

w hich i s

p robably

t here i s, o ver t he r ear a rchway o f e xactly c ontemporary w ith Q ueens , ,67 t he s urviving g atehouse, a v ariant o f t he s maller T attershall l ozenges altire d esign, t his b eing e nclosed w ithin a l arger h eight o f t wenty-one c ourses ( fig.3.12). S imple

l ozenges

a lso

o ccur w ithin t he 8 c loister

l ozenge

( north

w ith

a nd

a

e ast

r anges) o f C loister C ourt a t E ton C ollege. 6 T he o uter w alls o f t hese s ame r anges s how m ore d eveloped p atterning i n d ark b ricks, i ncluding a d esign

s omewhat

c entral

s altire

A bove

t his,

s altire, s ides, s ome T here

a nd

w ith

j oined

s imilar r eplaced

t o

t hat a t

S omeries

b y a s ingle

p resumably a ll

v ertical

p art

b anding

t o a f urther

o f

t hough w ith

( fig.3.8,

o f a s ingle d esign,

o f

s eries

C astle,

c entral h eader a lternate l ozenges,

i s

d ark h eaders t he a rms

t he

b ottom). a

l arge

d own

t he

o f w hich a re

i n

c ases p rojected b eyond t he l imits o f t he l ozenges t hemselves. a re r elated d esigns e lsewhere o n t hese w alls, i ncluding a L atin

c ross

o f

a t ype

f ound

i n a n umber o f

l ater b uildings;

t here a re

a lso

p atches o f a ll-over d iaper. M .W . T hompson h as c ommented t hat t h 4, o riginal, i s a v ery e arly e xample o f t his f orm o f d ecoration'; " t he R oyal C ommission c oncluded t hat i t i s ' probably n ot o riginal',

a nd b ut

T he L atin c ross d oes s ixteenth-century w ork b y P rior L upton. 7° s uggest t his, b ut t here i s r eally n othing a bout t he o ther

e arly i ndeed d esigns

-e ven

t he a ll-over d iaper o r

f ig.3.8

-w hich

w ould

p ositively r ule

t he e laborate p attern o ut

a n e arly

s hown

i n

f ifteenth-century

d ate. A t H erstmonceux C astle, i rregularly, f rom

t hose

o n

t he

t wo

a lready m et

S ussex

g atehouse

w ith.

t he d ecorative w ork w hich t urrets

T he p atterns

s hows

e mployed

i nclude:

l ozenges l inked v ertically a nd w ith t he u pper s ides l ozenge c ontinued d ownwards ( fig.3.16; c f. T attershall, s mall

l ozenges

l inked v ertically;

a nd a l arge

1 4

i s

f ound,

s ome d ifferent d esigns

s altire

t wo

s mall

o f t he f ig.3.4);

l ower 7 i f our

( fig.3.7).

S implest

o f

a ll

i s

t he

s ingle

l ozenge -w ith n o

' bends

c rossing

i t -w hich o ccurs o n o ne o f t he c himney s tacks a t t he s choolhouse a t E welme, O xon., o f c .1436-46 ( fig.3.17). O ther c ontinental a ffinities o f

t he E welme T he

a nd

b uildings w ill

a bundance o f

t heir

p revious

b e d iscussed

b rick p atterns

s imilarity

t o

t he

p aragraphs -taken

o f

i n d ue

c ourse.

a n e arly

c ontinental

t ogether w ith

d ate

t ypes

a t

T attershall

b riefly

t he G ermanic

r eviewed

o rigins

o f t he b rickmakers a nd b ricklayers a nd w ith t he m ore g eneral t al a ffinities o f t he t owerhouse ( to b e e xamined i n d ue e stablish a g ood c ase f or n orth E uropean i nfluence. e xtended t o t he c hancel o f B ardney c hurch, d oubtless

o f

i n s ome

c ontinenc ourse) -

T hat i nfluence b uilt b y t he s ame

c raftsmen. S imilarly, t he d esigns a t H erstmonceux s eem i nspired b y E uropean m odels, a nd o nce a gain t hey a re o n a b uilding o f c ontinental a ppearance

( infra).

T hose

a t R ye H ouse a re

s impler,

a lthough

t he

a chievement t here o f a n a ll-over d iaper i s s uggestive; t he m ore s o w hen w e r ecall t hat S ir A ndrew O gard, w ho h ad R ye H ouse b uilt, w as D anish b y b irth. N ot a ll t he b uildings, h owever, t ook u p t he t heme, e ither w ithin t he p eriod 1 400-1450 o r l ater. W hat s urvives a t S omeries C astle h as o nly a m inor u se o f p atterning -a nd e ven t hat w ould h ave b een a t y t he g allery w hich f ormerly r an a cross t he r ear l east p artly h idden 2 b / o f t he g atehouse. A t Q ueens' C ollege t he p atterns a re s omewhat i nconsequential - p ossibly b ecause F enland c lays w ere u sed a nd t hese / 3 w ere n ot s uitable f or t he p roduction o f ' flared h eaders . T he E ton d esigns a re m ore q uestionable, a s w e h ave n oted, t hough s ome m ay b e p rimary. p atterning

I n c onclusion, w e m ay s ay w ith s ome c onfidence t hat b rick w as i ntroduced f rom, a nd i nfluenced b y, n orth E uropean

p ractice. i nsular

O nce a vailable

d evelopment.

c ould b e i ngs t o

o f

B ut

t aken u p o r n ot t he

t ime

r elated

a lternate t aken

c ourse,

c apable o f

i ndependent,

o ne o ption a mongst o thers,

t hough p ossibly i n s ome

s ome

c ases

w hich b uild-

t his w as

d ue

t he c lays.

n orth E uropean f eature

d ark h eaders a nd g eneral

u p

o f

u se w as

a s p ersonal p reference d ictated:

s how n one,

t he u nsuitability o f T he

i t w as, i ts

f abric

w ith a ny e nthusiasm i n t his

o f

b anded

b ricks

a rches m ade

s eems n ot

c ountry.

T here

u p

o f

t o h ave b een

i s a n

e xampl

h owever, a s a r elieving a rch a bove t he m ain s tone a rch a t R ye H ouse, a nd t here a re e xamples t oo a t H ussey T ower, B oston, L incolnshire, d ating

p robably

b uildings o n

t oo

t he

K ent.

f rom t he e nd o f o ur

t hey w ere

e arly

r are,

p eriod o r

j ust

t hough o ccasionally

b eyond.

I n l ater i nstance,

7 5

f ound -for

s ixteenth-century b rick s outh p orch a t

B apchild

c hurch,

7 6

T he o ther m ethod o f b rick

s urface w as

t o

r elieving w hat m ight

p rovide b rick

u p t he f lat p lane a nd t o c ast s hadows. r equired s pecially-shaped b ricks, b ut a chieved

u sing o nly o rdinary

o therwise b e a m onotonous

f eatures w hich w ould

s erve

t o b reak

T he m ore e laborate f eatures a c ertain a mount c ould b e

p lain b ricks.

P erhaps

t he

s implest e xpe-

w as t o a rrange e ither a s ingle c ourse o r a n umber o f c ourses o f d ient b ricks d iagonally, t hus p roviding a s aw-tooth b and o r s tring. T here a re a n umber o f e xample G ermany,

Q n 7 /

t hirteenth S andomierz, d efences t wo

o f

o ccurrences

c entury) 7 b i

a nd,

a nd o n l ater e

o f K raköw ( 1498) 2 t he

o f

t his w ithin t he

t he R athenower T hor a t a nd i n P oland o n S t J ames'

t he O patow G ate o n

9

t he

1 5

r egion ,

( fourteenth

t he s ame

f eature w as

o f o ur p eriod:

f or E ast t he

c entury)

H aberdashers' T ower o n

P recisely

e xtant E nglish b uildings

B rick G othic

B randenburg-an-der-Havel, C hurch ( second q uarter o f t he

a t c ity

a dopted

t he N orth B ar

o n a t

B everley, a nd t he

w here

8 0

s uch a b and

o ccurs g ineath t he

P rior O verton's T ower a t R epton, b lind r ecess o r p anel. A n

a lternative

p lain b ricks,

t o

t he

w here

c row-stgpped

s uch a c ourse

s aw-tooth c ourse w as

p arapet,

r uns

a bove

t he p rojecting b and

e ither a s a s ingle c ourse o r a s a g roup o f

c ourses.

o f

S uch

a s imple s tring o ccurs, f or e xample, o n o ne o f t he t own g ates o f O lsztyn i n t he M asurian L ake D i mrict o f P oland, i d 2 o n t he m agnificent C rane G ate a t G daf isk ( Danzig), C hurch, L übeck, W est G ermany, 84 f eatures o ccur, B everley a nd a t $ 5

N orfolk.

a re o ccur

o n

t hough m ust

a s t he r eturns o f a rch-head l abels, a t t he N orth B ar, t he b rick a nd s tone W hitefriars G ateway, K ing's L ynn,

P rofiled

f ound a t t hese

s eem b e

t o

b e

Q f

a t

S imple b rick

D ent-de-Lion,

s trings

a lso

G arlings,

K ent,

a n e ighteenth-century r emodelling

a nd

d iscounted. 8/

e laborate a re

o f w hich m ay b e e ither a rchlets

p art

a s w ell a s a c able-moulded c ourse,

B oston. 86

s quare a ngle-turrets

t herefore M ore

s tring-courses,

t he H ussey T ower,

t he

a nd o n t he w est t owers o f S t M ary's a mongst m any o ther c ases. S imilar

c onstructed

t he m oulded

b rick c orbel-tables,

c usped o r u ncusped.

f rom p lain h icks

T he

t he a rchlets

l atter m ay h ave s imple

a s o n t he H aberdashers' T ower a t

K raköw, w here t hey a re Hinted, o n C roy C astle, S tiphout, H olland, o n w here s ome a re p ointed, " o n t he W am!erburg a t M uiden, H olland, 90 t he W asserburg a t H elmond, H olland,' a rg i ud t he t ops o f t he c ircular t ower a t R eszel ( Rössel) C astle, P oland, ' a nd o n t he c astle a t R adzyn C helminski ( Rehden ; R heden), P oland. 93 T hese, a gain, a re o nly a f ew e xamples f ar

o f

a s

a f eature

R iga,

f ound

L atvia,

r ight a cross

U .S.S.R.

t he B altic

C usped

9 4

a rea a t

c orbel-tables

l east

a lso

a s

o ccur

w idely, a nd w ould s eem t o b e r elated t o t he e ven m ore e laborate b andw ork o f m oulded o r c ut b ricks i ncorporating t refoils, q uatrefoils, o r e ven m ore a t

t he

c omplex p atterns. c hurch

a t

N eubrandenburg, S jaelland, I n a re

E a e

G ermany,

l ike

t hose

s hall C astle,

w here

i n K raköw.

T ower

o f,

t hey a re

c learly r elated,

( Chapel)

w ork a t

t refoils,

q uatrefoils,

S omeries t he

t hose

s uch a s

s ixteenth

m ouchettes.

Y et

9 9

1 00

t ogether E ssex,

H elmond;

T hese o ccur a t

9 8

i n

C roy o r

t he H aber-

a t

H erstmonceux

s cale. T he

T he

t ype

t he P hase I I b ands

o f

s unk

t o h ave

a lthough

b een t aken u p

t here a re a f ew l ater

S toke-by-Nayland, o f

t ype 2 ,

t hese

S uffolk ,

b ands

i s

i n w hich n ot

t hree c learly r elated

o f

a lmost

o nly

a re

s pandrels c ontain s unk t refoils b uildings:

o f t he

H ertfordshire; t he g atehouse o f S omeries a nd F aulkbourne H all, E ssex. 1 °2 T he b uild-

w ith

t he M oot H all a t M aldon,

a re

a lmost

w hich

t hey

s eem n ot

t he e ffect t he

l arger

C aister

w here

a t T atter-

c ertainly

E ssex a nd N ether

t he a rchlets

a re

1 6

H all,

t he w ork o f a s ingle a telier

c raftsmen, a nd t hese w ere p robably o f c ontinental G ermanic o r F lemish. 103 T he m uch c ommoner R ye H ouse t ables,

a t

a nd

f or e xample,

B edfordshire.

o f R ye H ouse

c inquefoiled b ut

t ype-site o f R ye H ouse C astle, B edfordshire; 10i ' R oydon,

C astle,

o p G iffords H all,

i n c orbel-tables

a rchlets

o ccurring a t,

a t

( infra),

s lightly p ointed a s a t

p eriod 1 400-1450,

c entury.

t ype

f or e xample,

a nd o ther d esigns

i n E ngland d uring

i ngs,

T or

N aestved,

t he u ncusped v ariety o ccur

a lthough o n a s omewhat

e xamples,

t he

f or e xample,

N eues

C hurch,

T he m achicolation-archlets

c ontinued b eyond o ur p eriod,

a chieved

t he

a nd o n S t P eter's

I °

c orbel-tables o f

d ashers'

t he

f eg pres o ccur,

G ermany, ' o n

s ignificantly a b uilding o f W asserburg

r ound-headed

a re

r elated

p st

D enmark.

E ngland

C astle,

T hese

G üstrow,

o rigin, t ype 1

t refoiled a nd d o n ot h ave

o f

e ither c orbel p ierced

spandrels, are a simpler version of the Rye House type 2.1 04 Rye House type 2 corbel-tables do not seem to have been taken up in this country, although they undoubtedli influenced the probably not much later work at Rickmansworth Rectory OS and prop g1y influenced the rather later 3 work on the porch at Meesden church, both in Hertfordshire. Moulded bricks were also used in the construction of shield-shapes on the faces of buildings throughout the Brick Gothic region. They are normally outlined in long thin bricks, straight for the head and curved for the sides of the shields, the central portion being recessed. The shields may be shown either upright or aslant (couche in heraldic terminology). Sunk shi ld-shapes occur on the huge Barbican at Krakow, Poland, of 1488-98; 10 7 two are present on the Wasserthor at Tanger­ milnde, East Germany; 1 08 and several, including a group with the interior portion io§orated, occur on the Rathenower Thor at Branden­ burg-an-der-Havel; all are shown couche. The Steinthor at Branden­ burg has some round-ended shields on its face. 11 Couche examples are also displayed on the Elbthor at Werben, East Germany.111 In view of their quite wide popularity in northern Europe and of their near­ absence from England there can be hardly an doubt that those (seem­ 12 are of continental deri­ ingly unique) on the North Bar at Beverley1 vation; here they occur above the main archway of the gate. They are much earlier than some of the north European examples, but it seems clear that all are part of a single repertoire of fine building in brick. The Beverley North Bar also has slim buttresses reminiscent of those on some of the continental buildings; and the same building also displays two blind panels or recesses with stone sills (possibly renewed) but heads of brick in the form of cusped ogee arches.

°

The use of blind panels and recesses to break up a plain brick surface is a commonplace within the Brick Gothic region and ranges from the simpl� re t sed and plastered circles and quatrefoils of St Mary's t � Church, Lubeck to the lavish, but perhaps sofr?hat fussy, work at St Katherint� or the Tangermunde Church at Brandenburg-an-der-Havel 3 Rathaus. In England the simpler forms of blind-panel and recess work were used. Thus the blind recesffg on the Beverley North Bar, on the King'f �ynn Whitefriars' Gateway, and on Prior Overton's Tower at Repton l recall features of the Brick Gothic region - particularly the use of blind panels or niche-like recesses provided on some but­ tresses and 'standards', for example on St James' Church at Torun on the west-front gable of the Cistercian Church at Pelplin, (Thorn) 1 Poland. Even more reminiscent of the simpler continental work is the large blind recess enclosing a cusped trefoil constructed entirely fr?m pf�ck above the entrance to the Ewelme Almshouses in Oxford­ shire.

£g

Crow-stepped gables are a common, though by no means universal, accompaniment of buildings within the Brick Gothic region, for example at Pelplin, the Ostrow Tumski at Poznan, the Jagellath University build­ ing at Krakow, a gateway at Olsztyn, all Poland, .the Neues Tor at Neuebrandenburg, East Germany, St Knud's at Odense, Denmark, St Mary's at Helsing0r, Denm�rk, St Peter's at Malmo, Sweden, and St Mary's at Sigtuna, Sweden.120 Beyond our present concern are post-1450 English brick buildings which include crow-stepped gablefzi for example the Old Palace at Hatfield, Hertfordshire (_£. 1480-90) - and these were In the doubtless influenced by the continental user; such gables. following century they became commoner still. 2 But already within

17

the period 1 400-1450 crow-stepped features were beginning to appear. As early as 1 410 the north and south parapets of the North Bar at Beverley were finished with crow-steps, whilst the Whitefriars' Gateway at King's Lynn is probably an even earlier (late fourteenth-century) example. From towards the end of our period is the similar crow­ stepped finish to the panelled entrance and elsewhere at the Ewelme These crow-steps over entry arches perhaps influenced Almshouses. 1 23 the design of those chimney-stacks which narrow towards the chimney­ shaft by means of a seri�s of crow-steps, as at Tattershall Castle, the and the Ewelme Almshouses. King's Lynn South Gate 1 The tower-houses of Faulkbourne Hall and Prior Overton's Tower at Repton both display the very un-English feature of bartizan turrets, recalling continental examples like those on the (reconstructed) Castle of Doornenburg, Holland.125 Indeed, the latter is itself of tower­ house form and closely resembles the tower-house at Faulkbourne Hall. This is particularly interesting since, on the basis of its brickwork details, Faulkbourne may safely be linked with some other brick build­ ings of about the same time: Rye House, Someries Castle, Nether Hall at Roydon in Essex, and the Moot Hall at Maldon, E x. These were probably the work of a single atelier of craftsmen, f�g and it will be recalled from previous paragraphs that these buildings display archi­ tectural features which may be derived from continental models. It therefore seems hard to doubt that alien craftsmen were at work on these buildings. Another tower-house whose form has been compared with that of some continental prototypes is that at Tattershall. Recently, Anthony Emery has suggested that 'the four-storey tower-house built at South Kyme by seven miles Sir Gilbert de Umfraville between 1338 and 1 381 and onl away may be a closer source of origin' for Tattershall.127 It is t f�§ that the tv�er-house type may be traced back to indigenous origins. But it was on the particular form of tower-house, together with its details, that the late W.D. Simpson based his argument for the con­ tinental affinity of Tattershall. In particular he stressed the un­ English feature of the boldly projected machicolated gallery and 'the way in which the machicoulis are spanned by archlets uniting the corbels', and on the basis of these and other details he looked for an origin of the Tattershall type in both France and in the north European Brick Gothic region, specifically in the ¥ gl of the Grand Master of 2 the Teutonic Order at Malbork (Marienburg). More recently, Michael Thompson has once again stressed the French parallels, including the castles depicted in Les tres riches Heures du Due de Berry, 'where the Duke's castles are displayed by the Limbourg brothers as a background to several months in the calendar•••'; he also invites us to 'recall the residence of the Chevalier Cromwell, as he was called, in France from 1415-20, the construction o Tattershall starting about ten years later when resources permitted.' 1 O The case for contiental influence, specifically French or Germanic, now seems to me unanswer­ whethe � able.1 1 The late H. Avray Tipping showed that brick was a rare material for castles in France during the time that Tattershall was 2 so that the use of the material there, together with the started, 1 3 established involvement of north European craftsmen (considered earlier in this paper), would seem to establish some north European affinity, whatever the French details.

1

The

same French-like machicoulis also occur at the brick 18

castles

a t C aister, N orfolk a nd H ertsmonceux, S ussex, a lthough t he b rick a rchl ets r ecall, a s a lready n oted, n orth E uropean t ypes. T he G ermanic a ffinities o f d emonstrated,

C aister a re n ot i ndeed i n d oubt. A s B arnes a nd S impson t he c astle i s c learly i nfluenced b y t he R henish W asser-

b urgen, b oth i n i ts p lan a nd i n i ts e levational e lements. H erstmonceux s eems m ore F rench i n f orm , a lmost a p icture-book c astle i ndeed, w orthy t he

p ages

m ay

i ndicate

o f

t he T res r iches H eures, s ome

i nfluence

t hough o nce a g

f rom t he B altic

t he u se o f

b rick

r egion.

N orth E uropean i nfluence h as a lso b een, t entatively, s uggested a t t he e arlier ( c.1382) g atehouse a t T hornton A bbey, L incolnshire. P aul D rury a sks, ' Might .. t he r ather a lien f eeling o f t he b rick g atehouse o f T hornton A bbey .., w hich p resents a n e xternal f acade i n t he f orm o f a n i mmense d ressings

t runcated g able, a re

F rom

s i biz

b asis

i n f act,

a lthough

i ts

s tone

t horoughly E nglish?'

t his

b uildings

h ave

i n

s urvey t he

o f

s ome

p eriod

o f

t he f eatures

1 400-1450

i t

i s

o f

t he

c lear

E nglish

t hat

b rick

c ontinental

i nfluence, t hough n ot f ound e verywhere, i s c ertainly a n i mportant f actor, h elping t o d etermine t he o verall f orm o f s ome b uildings a nd t he p articular C astle,

d etails

f or

a ccompanied

a lthough

N orth

B ar,

b oth a s t hey

b rickmakers

s omewhat

o rder

t inental

t o o f

i ts

t his,

i n

i ndustry

e xplanation o f b uilding r eally

a fter a ll,

d emonstrate

d istribution

i s

b uilders.

a nd

a t

b uildings t urn,

s upplying

o f

t ime.

t he B everley A lmshouses,

t he

r elated

c ontacts w ith t he

M oot

N ether

H all

h as

a t

b een

i ndustry

n orthern

t o e xplain t he ( and

s truc-

C astle,

t he b rick m aking

i n t he p eriod 1 400-1450

h elps

a re

E welme

t he a ctual b uildings

T his h elps

i s

E uro-

O ther k ey b uild-

S omeries

t hese)

T attershall i nfluence

o f n orth

t he g roup o f

i s a s tudy o f

t he c lose

t his

t he

R ye H ouse,

e xtended a nalysis

m ainland

a nd

a ll

t he i nvolvement

R oydon, a nd ( by a ssociation w ith I t i s a n i mpressive a rray.

T his

o f

f or c ontinental

a nd a s

H erstmonceux C astle,

n ecessary -i n w hat, -i n

i mportant

l ack t he d ocumentary c onfirmation,

c omprising F aulkbourne H all,

H all a t M aldon.

t he

M ost

P rior O verton's T ower a t R epton,

C aister C astle, t ures

o thers.

t he p hysical e vidence

b y d ocumentary e vidence o f

p ean c raftsmen, i ngs,

o f

h ere

c on-

e asterly

i ndeed

l ater),

t o e xplain t he e asterly d istribution

t hese b uildings w ith

t heir m aterial.

o f

S uch

a n

i s s uperior t o t hat o ften g iven i n t erms o f u navailability s tone i n e astern E ngland, a n h ypothesis w hich w as n ever

p lausible a t

t he

l evel o f b uilding w ith w hich w e a re c oncerned.

I ndeed ( whatever m ay b e t he c ase i n E ast A nglia) i n L incolnshire, i n t he E ast R iding, a nd i n O xfordshire a nd B uckinghamshire t he h ypothesis d oes

n ot T he

e ven

l ook p lausible.

g rowth o f

g reat d eal, E ngland a s

t he b rickmaking

i ndustry,

w e m ay

c onclude,

o wes

a

t o t he i mmigration o f c ontinental c raftsmen S ir R eginald B lomfield s uggested a s l ong a go

t o a s

b ut, s econdly, t o m ore g eneral c ontacts w ith t hose a reas 1 897, 135 n orthern E urope i n w hich b rick w as a lready w ell e stablished b y

t he

b eginning o f M ost b een

o f

f irst, i ndeed

t he

f ifteenth c entury.

t he p atrons

o f

a broad -t hough m ostly

( Tattershall), H ouse, H erts.) o verseas,

o f

t he e arly b rick b uildings t o F rance.

h ad

M en l ike R alph L ord

t hemselves C romwell

J ohn F astolf ( Caister C astle), W illiam O ldhall ( Hunsdon a nd J ohn L ord W enlock ( Someries C astle) h ad a ll s erved

e ither

f ighting o r o n d iplomatic m issions

1 9

( or b oth).

1 36

A

f urther p atron o f

b rick ,

S ir A ndrew O gard,

w ho b uilt

R ye H ouse a nd a t E mneth i n N orfolk , w as a ctua p _ r eceived l etters o f d enization o n 8 J uly 1 433. J P erhaps

m ore

i mportant s till w ere

t he

t rade

i n t he m aterial a t

a D ane b y b irth,

c onnexions

a nd

b etween

E ngland a nd t he B altic a rea i n t he l ater M iddle A ges. I t w as i n 1 894 t hat J . T avenor P erry d rew a ttention t o t he r emarkably h omogeneous b rick a rchitecure t hroughout t he r egion c overed b y t he H anseatic I t i s n ot s urprising t o f ind i nfluence f rom t hat r egion m erchants. 13ö i n E ngland o nce t he E nglish m erchants b ecame e stablished i n t he e astern p art o f t he a rea, n otably a t G daf isk ( Danzig), e ven t hough t hose m erchants w ere n ever a p roper p art o f

t he H anseatic L eague

i tself.

T he

l ate P rofessor P ostan e xplained t his E nglish D rang n ach O sten i n t erms o f t he c hange-over f rom r aw w ool e xperts t o c loth e xports i n E nglish t rade d uring t he A s

l ater M iddle A ges:

l ong

a s

E nglish e xports c onsisted

m ainly

o f

w ool, t here w as n o n eed f or E nglish m erchants t o g o f ar a field i n s earch f or m arkets a nd c ustomers. W ool w as a r aw m aterial o f i ndustry ; w ere f oreign c loth m anufacturers;

i ts c ustomers a nd t he o nly

i mportant c loth m anufacturing c entres w ere n ot o nly h ighly l ocalised b ut a lso s ituated n ear a t h and, m ainly i n t he L ow C ountries. O n t he o ther h and, f inished c loth h ad t o b e s old t o p otential c ons umers a nd i n t he m ain c entres o f p otential c ons umption, o r i n o ther w ords, t o m en a nd w omen a ll o ver c ontinental E urope a nd b eyond. I t i s t heref ore a ble

n o w onder t hat w hereas t he w ool s taplers w ere t o t ransact t heir b usiness i n C alais a nd h ad

n o n eed t o v enture b eyond B ruges, E nglish c loth e xporters h ad t o p ush o ut i n e very d irection, a nd, i n t he f irst p lace, i nto E ast E uropean m i qets w here F lemish c loth h ad p reviously b een s old. J I t w as, w rites P rofessor P ostan e lsewhere, ' in t he l ate f ourteenth a nd f ifteenth c enturies t hat t he E nglish p enetration i nto n orthern m arkets b egan i n e arnest. 140 B y t he e nd o f t he f ourteenth c entury i n G daf isk t hey f ormed a n umerous a nd i nfluential f oreign c olony , t rafficked w ith D anzigers a nd f oreigners, s old w holesale a nd r etail, o wned h ouses a nd w arehouses, a nd o rganisation. 141

p ossessed s omething i n t he n ature o f a c orporate T his i ncursion i nto t he H anseatic V erkehrsgebiet,

t hough o ften r esented b y t he H ansards t hemselves, w as i mportant a nd m ay b e p resumed t o h ave h ad s ome e ffect i n t he d issemination o f a rchit ectural i deas. P arallel m erchants

w ith

t his m ust b e c onsidered t he p resence o f

i n t his c ountry.

H anseatic

T his h ad b egun a t a n e ven e arlier d ate.

B y

t he f ifteenth c entury t he H anseatic ' factories w ere a pparently l imited t o L ondon a nd, s ignificantly, t he e astern p orts o f L ynn, I pswich, a nd B oston. 142 w ould b e

A s P aul D rury h as c ommented, a gainst t his b ackground, i t s urprising i f s ome i nfluence d id n ot a ppear i n t he E nglish

p orts c oncerned i n t he H anseatic t rade, w hether b y e xample f rom t he b uildings o f t he s teelyard, o r a s a r esult o f p ersonal k nowledge g ained b y t hose i nvolved. 1+3 I t i s n aturally i n e astern E ngland t hat w e s hould e xpect t his i nfluence t o s how i tself, a n e xpectation w hich i s i ndeed b orne o ut b y t he a rchaeological e vidence r eviewed i n t his 2 0

A l ien B r ickmake rs 1 400 -1450

H u 1A 1

r T at te rsha lI • BOSTON -A

AL YNN Y a rmou th

A-

? A P o r t w i th H ansea t ic ' f ac to ry ' , 0 15 A O the r ma jo r p o r t • A l ien b r ickmake r wo rk ing a

d o .

C hev ing ton •

r es id ing

0

I P S-; NT C 11 ip

40 M i l «

0

60 Km .

•S tono r E ton

L ONDON

8 -W indso r -• -,A \j , • -

. D e p t fo rd S andw ichA

A

I

S ou thamp ton TPS ' 83

F ig.

4 .

A lien B rickmakers i n E ngland,

2 1

1 400-1450

c hapter. t o

S o

s ay,

m ent

o f

T his

t oo

b roadly

i mmigrant

e xpectation

b rickmakers L ondon a rea B oston

i s

W e h ave a lso

b een

d istribution

t he

p resented

o f

t hese

I pswich

e xpect

a nd b rick

b uilders

p resence o f

t he

w ith t he a im o f I t

i s

n ot,

t he a nd

G erman

i tself. a nd

f or a lien

e xplaining

o f c ourse,

i nvolve-

t he

t he E nglish b rickmaking a nd b rick b uilding i ndustries w as

a like.

f or a lien

a ppear a t b uildings i n t o t he p orts o f I pswich t he

i s

t he s ettle -

d ocumentary e vidence

n oted a bove

a t

s hould

f or c ontinental c onnexions,

i n t he p eriod 1 400-1450. e ither o f

t he e astern p orts -t hat

b rickmakers

c onfirmed b y

' brikemaker',

e vidence

h as

i n t he v icinity o f

c raftsmen,

t oo

( fig.4).

T his

i s

i n t he p eriod 1 400-1450, w ho a nd i n e astern E ngland c lose

H enry H erryson,

m ent,

i t

i n e astern E ngland -that w e

e asterly i ndustries

b eing c ontended

e xclusively i n t he h ands

o f

t hat

a liens.

S o

f ar a s b rick m aking i s c oncerned, E nglishmen c ould e asily e nough h ave l earned t he p rocesses i nvolved: t here w as, a fter a ll, a f amiliarity w ith f loor

t he m anufacture o f o ther f ictile p roducts s uch a s r oof t iles, t iles, a nd p ottery. T he H ull m uniments a re i mportant h ere: ' In

H ull,

a t

a ny r ate,

t here i s n o d irect

b rick b uildings

d one

s eem E nglish:

J ohn D rinkale,

S cotter, W itton); a re

b y F lemings... .

R ichard S outhwell, o ne o f t hese a t l east

c learly d erived

m ore p roblematic:

p roof

W illiam D rinkale,

( Scandinavian?)

b ricks w ere m ade o r t he

f rom p lace-names.

O ne w orker a t H ull,

T homas T ughill l ooks E nglish e nough; n ame.

b rickmakers

J ohn P almer,

W illiam

a nd J ohn W atton ( alias W etton, a lias i s a r egular o ccupational n ame, a nd s ome

i n t he a ccounts h e a ppears a s T homas T okill, t al

t hat

T he n ames o f

1 44

T here

i s

t hen

w hich m ight j ust

t he

h owever,

b ut

i s

e lsewhere

b e a c ontinen-

p ossibility

t hat

T okill w as a n a lien w hose n ame, o n m ost o ccasions, w as E nglished t o ' Tughill'. T his p ossibility o f E nglished n ames o bliges u s t o s tate t he e vidence o nly n egatively,

a s

i ndeed B rooks

d oes

T hus, t here i s n o r eason t o t hink , o n t he i s o ther t han E nglish. P uttok o f B everley 145 J ohn m aking

E de a nd J ohn C ook, f or C aister C astle

w ho w ere p aid £ 41 i n 1 433/4,

1 46

f or

t he H ull e vidence.

f ace o f i t, S imilarly,

5 s 1 0d i n w ages

s eem t o

b e

t hat R obert t he n ames o f f or

E nglish,

b ricka s

d oes

rene, ' bailiff o f C astre', w ho w as p aid f or m aking b ricks t hat o f J o h l7G I n a ll t hese c ases, h owever, w e c ertainly h ave t o r eckon i n 1 43 4 /5 . w ith t he p ossibility o f s urnames b eing ' Englished', p articularly a s t he b uildings c oncerned -t he B everley B ar a nd C aister C astle -s how s trong c ontinental a ffinities. C ertainly t he L etters P atent i ssued i n 1 436 a nd c ontaining l ists o f r esident a liens c ontain a n umber o f n ames w hich w ould b e t aken f or t inental o rigin n ot

t hose o f E nglishmen, 48 e xplicitly s tated. 1

2 2

w ere

t he

f act

o f

t heir

c on-

C hapter 4 .

T he

i mmigration o f

s upplies s tories i ndeed,

o f

r aw

I MPORTATION

b rickmakers

m aterials

f or

t o a c ountry

b rickmaking

p ossessing

r enders

a bundant

u nnecessary

a ny

o f w holesale i mportation o f b ricks i nto t his c ountry . o ver h alf a c entury a go t he l ate A . H amilton T hompson f elt

A nd a ble

t o w rite t hat N o o ne n ow b elieves t he o ld t heory t hat o ur b est m ediaeY et t he c ontrary v iew v al b rick-work w as i mported f rom a broad... . 149 h as i n

b een s trongly p ersistent; a nd s ome q uarters t hat m ost i f n ot

b allast

i n t rading v essels

t he o ld m ythology i s s till a ccepted a ll m edieval b ricks w ere i mported a s

r eturning

f rom t he c ontinent.

T he v iew w as

s tated w ith u nhesitating c onfidence b y t he l ate H ugh B raun: T he [ trading] s hips c ame b ack i n b allast. T hat b allast w as F lemish b rick...' . 150 And e ven P rofessor W .G. H oskins c an w rite t hat M ost o f t he e arly b ricks w ere i mported f or K irby M uxloe p ointed c entury. w as

t he

w ay

t o

t he

T here

151

n ormal

C astle

[ Castle, i s

f rom F landers;

L eics.]

b uilders o f a c lear,

f or b ricks

t o

b e

c ountry h ouses

i f u nspoken,

i mported u p

t o

' but

o n t he

i n

t he

t ime o f

E vidence

f or

t he

l arge-scale

d istribution

o f

i ndication o f

i mportation:

b ution

o ne w ould e xpect

t hat

t hirdly,

i mportation o f

t hat

K irby

i t

M uxloe

t he

m edieval

t erm

A ll

b rickwork i n E ngland m ight c ertainly i f

t his

r ather L ondon,

i s

j ust

t he b ricks h ad

' Flanderstiles',

t hese a rguments,

p lace, c aution.

b ricks,

h owever,

i f

i t

i s

o f o ne o r t wo s tock e xamples o f i n a ddition t he n otable e asterly

w hich

v arious s pellings) i n t he d ocuments, w hence t he b ricks c ame.

i s

t aken

b een

a s

a n

d istri-

u sed

t aken a s

s upport

o f

i mported.

s ometimes

m ight b e

d o n ot

b e

t he s ort

A nd ( with

e stablishing

t heir c ase.

I n t he

t he u se o f t he t erm ' Flanderstiles' n eeds t o b e t reated I t i s n ot p roven t hat a ll t he r eferences a re t o b ricks

t han t o t iles. I n v iew o f r ecent d iscoveries i n t he T ower o f i t s eems l ikely t hat t he q uarellorum d e F landria i mported i n

1 52

1 278 w ere b ricks,

a nd c ertainly

i n

t he

s ixteenth c epp ry J ohn S tow t ook

t he t erm ' Flanders t ile' t o r efer t o ' small b rick'. "' Y et t he t iles o f F landers f or t he p aving o f f loors ( arearum) a nd o ther s upplied b y H enry Y evele i n 1 365 f or u se a t W estminster P alace, m ore

a nd

s ucceeding

s uggestion h ere

t he

t hose

s pot

i n 1 480 s qq.

p resented a t a ll, n ormally c onsists i mports m entioned i n t he d ocuments;

f irst w ith

a nd h e a dds,

( 1480-84) w ere m ade

l ike

t iles

' Flanderstiles'

p roper d oes

i n e very c ase

t hat w e a re

i ncorporated

i n

o rigin) o f p articular

t he

t han b ricks.

r efer

t o

M ore

1 54

b ricks w e

i mportant,

s hould

n ot

s ignal n o m ore

e ven

t hereby

d ealing w ith i mported m aterial;

t erm m ay

' 8,000 w ork', s ound w hen a ssume

t he p lacename

t han t he o rigin

( or

a n

t his t ype o f m aterial, n ot n ecessarily t he s ource o f a ny b atch o f ' Flanderstiles'. P arallels a re o bvious a nd m any:

d amask, a rras, j apan w ork , k erseys, A rchaeologists t oday a re w ont t o r efer c ontrast w ith

t he

l arger

' Great

F letton b ricks, S panish t iles. t o t he s mall m edieval b ricks, i n

B ricks',

2 3

a s F lemish b ricks,

e ven w hen

t hey a re n ot e xplicit

u rging

i mportation a nd w hen,

d ocumentary e vidence

' Flanderstiles

n eeds

t o

b e

f or h ome

i ndeed,

t his

p roduction.

c onnected

t his

w ith

t he

a lien c raftsmen s killed c raftsmen

r uled o ut

I n g ge,

t he

b y

t erm

t reated w ith c ircumspection.

T he e asterly d istribution o f e arly e xamples f ig.1) i s i ndeed p rima f acie s uggestive.

( cf.

i s

s ettlement w ithin

t hat

p art

i n t he p roduction a nd u se

w ould h ave b rought w ith

t hem w as

o f b rick b uildings B ut w e h ave a lready o f

o f

t heir

t he

c ountry

b ricks.

W hat

b rickmaking

o f s uch

s kills,

a nd p erhaps t heir m oulds, b ut c ertainly n ot t heir b ricks! W e h ave a lso n oted t he i nfluence o n t he b uildings t hemselves o f t he b rick a rchitect ure o f t ectural m aterials T he f act.

t he B rick G othic r egion; o nce a gain, t he i deas i s f ar f rom i mplying t he p hysical f or c arrying o ut t hose i deas. a rgument

W hat

f rom d ocumentary

i s m ore

i n q uestion i s

a ny l arge-scale i mportation o f u nfortunately s ome r eferences

r eferences

s pread o f a rchim ovement o f t he

h as a f irmer

h ow f ar i t w ill

s upport

b asis

i n

b elief

i n

b ricks. W e m ight n ote, f irst, t hat t o b ricks m ention o nly t he p roximate

s ource; f or e xample, ' Bakston' ( presumably b ricks: c f. G erman /d 1 ' Bakstein', D utch ' baksteen') f or u se a t D over w ere p urchased a t 72 p er

1 00 a t

S andwich

i n 1 372-3;

b ut

1 56

i t

i s n ot

s tated

w hether

t hese

w ere m ade a t S andwi 0 ( which c ertainly h ad i ts o wn m unicipal b rickyard n inety y ears l ater 1 51 ) o r i mported v ia t he p ort t here; ' like a ll s uch d ocuments, t he a ccount s imply s tates w here t he i tem w as f rom w hence i t h ad t o b e t ransported a t s uch a c ost. 158

b ought, a nd N inety y ei g

h ricks m t S andwich cs nly 3 2 /d p er 1 ,000. l ater, owever, b ade a o t o s 71 I f t he p rices a re i ndeed c omparable o ver s uch a l ong t ime-gap, t hen t hey s uggest

h t ta

h b te ricks

ay h ave b m en ip m orted:

s eems a g ood d eal f or c arriage i s f ar f rom c ertain. A t

t his

a dvanced

p oint

i n

a n

i t

f rom S andwich

i s w orth r eferring

a ttempt

te h

t o D over.

x ra 2 et s 71 2 /d

B ut

t he m atter

t o a n a rgument w hich h as

t o d emonstrate i mportation o f b ricks

b een

i n

o ne

p articular i nstance. S ir A ndrew O gard w as a D ane b y W th; i n 1 443 h e w as g ranted l icence t o c renellate R ye H ouse, H erts.; 1 ° h e a lso b uilt i n b rick o n h is N orfolk e state o f

E mneth;

o f

t his

n othing

r emains,

b ut

W illiam w orcestre s tates t hat i t w as d e b ryke e t m earemio a nd t hese m aterials w ere b rought f rom e xtra c omitatum L incoln. p er m are, w hich J .A.

W ight

( following N asmith)

r enders a s

f rom b eyond...'

"

e tc;

s ince E mneth i s n ot i n L incolnshire t he c ontext d oes s eem t o d emand ' beyond' r ather t han ' outside' a s t ranslation o f e xtra. C ommenting o n t he p assage, t ious w ay o f i mported?' s ibly i s

W ight a sks: ' Surely t his w as n ot a w eirdly c ircumlocur eferring t o Y orkshire, b ut m eans t hat t he b ricks w ere S he a dds:

T hey

c ould h ave

a n

i mpossible

i nterpretation.

D enmark ( or a ny o ther c ontinental i s

s outh-east

s hire'; t hing s ame

c ome

f rom F landers

O gard r enewed c ontacts w ith h is n ative D enmark...-.

a nd

o f N orfolk!)

j ust

w est

N orfolk

s tandpoint,

' beyond

t he

b ut

p os-

B ut

t his

s tandpoint

c ountry -especially F landers,

c annot

b e

w hich

d escribed a s ' beyond L incoln-

t here i s n othing w eirdly c ircumlocutious,

s ingularly a ppropriate,

o nly W ight

F rom a

i b2

i n d escribing Y orkshire c ounty o f L incolnshire'.

b ut

r ather

s ome-

f rom

t hat

a s, I n

f act,

t he

p ossible m eaning t hat c an b e a ttached t o t he p hrase i s t hat w hich r ejects: n amely, t hat t he b ricks w ere b rought f rom Y orkshire;

t here i s s ome ( infra, p .79);

r eason t o t hink t hat t hey m ay h ave c ome f rom B everley p er m are w ould t hen r efer t o a c oastal v oyage f rom t he

H umber

t o

e stuary

t he W ash,

d oubtless

2 4

t o

t he m edieval

p ort

o f

K ing's

L ynn.

1 63

O n

t he

o ther

h and,

i t

i s

c ertain t hat

b ricks

w ere

s ometimes

in p ractically a ll t he a nd, a s S alzman n oted, b ricks ° c m- ' f or L ondon a nd t he e astern p orts'.' " A ttention h as r ecently

i mported, a ccounts

b een d rawn, Y orks. i n D ordrecht

f or i nstance, m ixed c argoes i n

p roper c argo,

t he n ot

l ater j ust

t o t he ' walltiles i mported a t S carborough, i ncluding p ottery f rom S cheveninge a nd

f ourteenth c entury.

t he b allast

o f

t he o ld

T hese

1 b5

s tories;

s ound a nd

l ike

y et

a

t hey a re

o nly p art o f a m ixed c argo -a c ase, p erhaps, o f t he r eadiness o f a m erchant t o t ake s uch c ommodities a s h e c ould o btain i n t he h ope o f s elling

t hem b ack h ome.

F rom t he

f ourteenth c entury

t oo

t he

a rchaeo-

l ogical e vidence i s m ostly f or a m inor -a lmost a c asual -u se o f t he m aterial, w hich w ould a ccord w ith t his i nterpretation o f t he d ocument e vidence. S poradic o ccurrence i n, s ay, t he c hurches o f E ast A nglia h as n othing a t a ll t o d o w ith t he l ater e mployment o f t he m aterial o n a m ajor g iven i s,

s cale. I n t his r espect i t i s i mportant t hat s uch a m ap a s t hat hould b e t aken f or n o m ore t han i t i s -that b y P aul D rury l66 s a l ocation m ap

t ion

m ap o f

p roduce,

o f

s ites m entioned

i n h is

t ext.

A p roper

p re-1400 b uildings u sing i mported b ricks

b ecause

o f

a l ack o f

e vidence.

i s

D rury's m ap

d istribu-

i mpossible i s

t o

c orrectly

c aptioned, a nd i t i s n o c riticism o f h im t o s uggest t hat t he i nclusion o n i t o f i nland l ocalities w ith f ourteenth-century b rickwork s uch a s S palding t he

( Lincs.),

E ly,

C ambridge,

c oastwise d istribution o f

T he r ecords

s omewhat

p oint w as n ot l ost o n N athaniel o f t hese [ imported b ricks] r efer

b ear n o r elation 16/ c astle. . T hus, m entioned t iny

a nd S hirburn

s ites

i n

s triking.

L loyd, w ho o bserved t hat t o s mall q uantities, w hich

t o t he i mmense n umbers r equired t o b uild t o e xemplify L loyd's p oint, t be 4 ,000

t he P RO C ustoms A ccounts

q uantity.

( Oxon.) w ould h ave m ade

l ess

B y

c ontrast,

[ e.g.] a ' waltill'

r epresent

f or 1 389-91 168

w ork a t C aister C astle

a nd

o nly

a

H ellesdon

g9 Norfolk u sed i n 1 433-4 5 3 l asts, 7 ,765 b ricks ( made b oth 1 6 n ear C aister), a nd f rom t he c ost o f a s ingle l ast ( viz. 5 0s) a l ast m ust h ave b een a bout 1 0,000 b ricks, s o t hat t he f ull q uantity o f b ricks M anor,

i nvolved 5 40,000. -i n

i n t hat o ne y ear m ust h ave b een j ust a l ittle s hort o f T he 4 ,000 b ricks a lready m entioned s eem p altry b y c omparison

f act

( bearing

' standard' b ricks) g arden b arbecue! 1 /U u sed f or t he r oyal a s

1 422

t he

i n m ind

t he

s maller

t hickness

c ompared w ith

m odern

t hey w ould b e a bout s ufficient t o b uild a s mall E ven i n t he c ase o f t he d efinitely i mported b ricks p alace o f S hene ( later R ichmond) i n S urrey a s l ate - 1 14,000;

a nd

t his i s s omething o f a s pecial c ase, s ince t hey w ere b rought f rom s tores a t C alais, w hich a t t he t ime w as s till i n E nglish h ands. 1 /1

q uantity o f

t he

R eferring

t o

t he

r equired

f or a c astle

v enience

a nd

b allast, t he

2 02,500

( Ypres) c ost,

i s

e xpense

o f

b ricks

w ith c arriage a mounting

t o £ 32

b e

t o

1 /

t he

f .o.b.

t he

s o

w ide

t hat

f reight

c ost!

T his

c osts a ccount

f or 6 0% o f

s ituation g ives

d istribution o f

s uitable

2 5

b y

t he

L ondon

f rom

t ake

t he

a s

b e

i ncona nd

a s

c ase

o f

l eper f .o.b.

-o nly a l ittle u nder 6 2% o f

t he t otal c ost o r a lmost 1 60% o f t he f .o.b. c ost! i mport ef rom C alais i n 1 422 c ost £ 19 t o p roduce p ort,

w ould t he

e ven b y w ater

eich w e m ay 5 s1

a s

t hat

i llustrated

b rought

c ost £ 20 4 s,

s uch

L loyd o bserved

T he p oint m ay

1 72

t hey

v ery l arge

b ringing s uch a c argo,

q uarellorum d e F landria

i n 1 278:

s o

l arge q uantities o r m anor h ouse,

o f

o bvious.

b ricks w as n ot

p oint

A gain, b ut £28 t he

t otal

t o L loyd's

b rick-earths,

t he b ricks l Os t rans o r 1 50% r emark

t ogether

w ith

o f t hat t he

p resence h ave

o f

P rofessor n orth

h ome

P ostan,

c ommercial

[ and,

a nd

t olls.

t hat

t rade:

a dd,

o ther n orth E uropeans]

W e m ay c onclude, t heir a ppearance i n

175

d espite

t he

f rontiers

c ommodities o f

m ust

w ith t he l ate t he r ecords o f

b ricks w ere n ever a n i mportant " Miscellaneous

r ecrossed B ricks

w e m ight

p roduction.

t ransactions

E uropean

c rossed i ts

F lemings

f avoured

c ommodity

i n

E uropean

o rigin

o f n orthern c ountries a nd

p assed

f rom t he L ow C ountries..."

e tc.

B ut

i t

i s n ot

f rom

t hese c ommodities... t hat t he c ommerce o f N orthern E urope t ook i ts c olour. I ts e ssential f eature w as t rade i n b ulk, i ts c haracteristic c ommodities w ere t he n ecessities o f l ife a nd i ndustry, f unction w as t o b ind t he p eoples o f N orthern E urope b y

i ts r eal

e conomic e conomic

t ies -ties w ithout w hich l ife i n m any p laces w ould h ave b een d ifficult 1/6 i f n ot a ltogether i mpossible. A s a n e xample, w e m ay r efer t o t he b ricks u sed -in m edieval a nd p ost-medieval t imes -for b uilding t he C ambridge c olleges; t he a ccounts, w here t hey s urvive, h ave b een w ell s tudied,

b ut

' none o f

a ccounts m entions T he

p icture

t he

t he m any r eferences i mportation o f

w hich e merges

t hus

t o b ricks

b ricks f ar

i n c ollege b uilding

f rom a broad.

i s o ne o f

q uite

s mall-scale

t rafficking i n b ricks, n ot i ndeed a s b allast b ut a t a ny r ate a s n o m ore t han i ncidental c argoes. I t i s a s s uch t hat t hey a ppear a lmost c asually a t t imes i n s ome b uildings i n t he e astern c ounties d uring t he f ourteenth c entury. t oo, a nd m ay e xplain,

T he s ituation may h ave c ontinued i n l ater t imes f or e xample, t he t iny awunts o f b rick u sed i n

r elieving a rches a t L owestoft C hurch, S uffolk. 1 /ö W here l arger b uildi ng p rojects w ere u ndertaken, a lready i n t he f ourteenth c entury a nd m ore e specially i n t he f ifteenth c entury, w helmingly i n f avour o f h ome p roduction. T o t urn.

2 6

t he e vidence i s o vert hat e vidence w e m ust n ow

C hapter 5 .

t o

H OME-PRODUCTION O F

B RICKS

T he a rgument s o f ar h as b een a lmost w holly n egative -a n a ttempt d emonstrate t hat, d espite r eferences t o u ndoubted i mported

m aterials, t here i s n o s upport f or t he i dea o f l arge-scale i mportation o f b ricks o r o f r egular i nternational t rade i n t his c ommodity. A nd y et j ust s uch a r egular a nd l arge-scale e nterprise w ould h ave b een r equired t o s upply t he i mportant b uildings o f t he t ime f rom i mported b ricks. O n t he o ther s ide o f t he c oin, t here i s a n i mpressive a mount o f p ositive e vidence f or t he h ome p roduction o f b ricks i n t he l ater M iddle A ges. H ere w e s hall b e c oncerned w ith e vidence f or h ome p roduction i n t he p eriod 1 400-1450, a lthough t he c onclusions m ay b e e xtended b eyond t hat t ime

t o t he

l ate f ifteenth c entury a nd l ater.

M uch o f

t his

e vidence

h as b een a vailable, i n s cattered f orm , f or s ome t ime n ow, a nd t his s ection o f t he p resent p aper a ims p rincipally t o d raw t ogether s ome o f t his

s cattered e vidence H ull,

Y orkshire

( cf. h ad

f ig.5). a m unicipal b rickyard

( called

a

' tilery':

t egularia) a s e arly a s 1 303, b y w hich d ate i t s eems t o h ave b een a lready w ell d eveloped a nd s o p resumably d ates b ack t o t he l ater t hirt eenth c entury 1 79 ( fig.6). I n n eighbouring B everley t oo t here w as a b rickyard i n t he f ourteenth c entury; i n 1 3 91 t his w as l et t o R ichard H amondson a nd t wo o thers a t a r ent o f 3 ,000 b ricks p er a nnum. b rickyards c ontinued i n u se i nto t he f ifteenth c entury. B ut

1 8°

b y

B oth t he

l ate 1 430s t he H ull y ard w as n o l onger r unning p rofitably a nd b y t he e nd o f t he f ollowing d ecade i t s eems t o h ave c eased p roduction e ntirely. A t B everley, t o which H ull s ent f or h elp i n b urning i ts b ricks i n t he 1 420s, 1 25,000 b ricks w ere p urchased l ocally, f rom n o f ewer t han t wenty d ifferent p ersons, i n 1 40 9-10 f or b uilding t he N orth 81 N earby Y ork a lso h ad a b rickyard. 1 82 B ar, w hich i s s till e xtant. 1 F urther

s outh

i n

E ngland h ome-production o f

b ricks

w as

b eing

p ractised t oo ( fig.7). I n 1 416 a c ertain J ohn W arefield, s teward T homas d e S tonor, s pent £ 40 o n t he m aking o f 2 00,000 ' brykes' a nd

t o a

f urther £ 15 f or c arting t hem f rom C rockernend, w here t hey w ere m ade, t o 63 I n 1 418 a nd t he y ears f ollowing t he W ardens o f L ondon S tonor, O xon. 1 B ridge b ought ' bryktill' f or r epairs f rom D eptford. 1 84 I n 1 422 b ricks f or u se a t S hene ( Richmond) P alace w ere m ostly i mported b ut 85 m ade l ocally a t P etersham. 1 I n 1 440 t wo ' brekebrennerys'

s ome

w ere

c ontrac gg

w ith t he A bbot o f B ury S t E dmunds t o m ake l ateres v ocatos l e b rike. T hree y ears e arlier ' breke f or m aking c hemeneys' a t t he r oyal p alace a t K ings L angley, H erts. w ere b ought f rom o ne J ohn F lete o f R ickmansw orth.

1 87

I t

i s o f

i nterest

t hat a t

j ust a bout

t his

t ime

e xtensive

r ebuilding i n b rick w as g oing a head a t t he M anor o f t he M ore, o nly o ne m ile s outh-east o f R ickmansworth, a nd Ibat t he t enant o f t he M ore a t t he t ime w as a c ertain W illiam F lete. F lete i s n ot a s pecially c ommon n ame), h ere,

t hen i t w ould b e h ard

l ocally.

t o d oubt

1 6 1 6

t hat

I f,

a s

s eems

t here w as a

l ikely

f amily

( for

c onnexion

t he M ore b ricks w ere s upplied

R ickmansworth m ay e ven h ave b een s omething o f a l ocal b rick2 7

B r ickmak ing i nE ng land 1 4 00 -50 Y o rk

A

B ever ley

1. H u l l

A

E d l ing ton

4 "More

ABo s ton

R ep ton A

fj

K ing ' s L ynn

No rw ich

• M un ic ipa l b r ickyard

e a i s ter a rmou th

A Pr ivate b r ickyard L \

P oss ib le b r ickyard , e i ther t ype A C hev ington

3 i 0M i le s . 5 9Km .

I p sw ich A F au lkbourne S omer ie s

L i tt le H adha rn R ye H ouse A

M a ldon

AiS tA lban s R i ckman swo r th p C rockernendh , W indsor

*S lough

ALondon A V e i S i ford P e te r sham S andown ( b y 1 4 63 )

H er s tmonceux

AVV a ltham

T PS ' 78

F ig.

5 .

T he E nglish B rickmaking I ndustry

2 8

i n

t he E arly F ifteenth C entury

0 c r •

•

•

B R ICK I NDUSTRY E AST R ID ING

•

F I FTEENTH -C ENTURY

•

•

I /0

F ifteenth C entury:

•

T he E ast

•

•

0

•

0

al

-

-

-

, C )

• • r •

e l ) • r4 ; L I

3 0 T he Thames V alley

m aking c entre,

f or t here

i s a f urther i mportant p iece o f

p robably m id- to l ate f ifteenth-century d ate,

a t

b rickwork 1 89 o f

t he R ectory t here.

E lsewhere i n H ertfordshire ' breke' f or f ireplaces a nd o vens a t t he K ings L angley P alace w ere b ought i n 1 440 a t ' le F rithe' n ear S t A lbans, a nd i n t he s ame y ear t he s ame p lace a lso s upplied b ricks, t hrough W illiam V esey,

K ing's

S erjeaunt,

t o t he T ower o f

L ondon,

w here

t hey

w ere u sed i n t he m aking o f a ' creste' ( coping?) t o a s tone w all. P9O V esey, a s w e h ave p reviously n oted, i s d escribed a s a ' brikemaker' b ut r ose t o i mportant a dministrative o ffice; i t i s d oubtful w hether h e a ctually m ade t he b ricks u sed a t t he T ower, b ut h e m ay o riginally h ave b een a b rickmaker w ith a f lair f or a dministration, s ince b rickmaking s kills would s eem t o b e a s ine q ua n on o f h is c ommission, i n 1 437, t o s earch f or e arth s uitable f or R king ' tegulae c alled " brike"' f or t he p alace a t S hene ( Richmond). "' H e f ound ' earth' a nd i n 1 440 9 5 00 ' A ' breke' w ere m ade ' at t he t ylekenne' a nd s upplied t o S hene. 9 2 s imilar c ommission c ame i n 1 441, t his t ime i n c onnexion w ith t he K ing's w ork a t E ton C ollege; s uitable m aterial w as f ound a t n earby S lough, a nd a k iln w as h ired f or h im i n 1 442. B etween F ebruary 1 442 a nd S eptember 1 445

-for w hich a ccounts e xist -o ver

two

m illion b ricks w ere

b urned

h ere; ' between F ebruary 1 442 a nd S eptember 1 447 1 ,613,000 w ere c arried 00 m ore w ere u sed t here b etween M arch 1 448 a nd t o E ton a nd 091 1 S eptember 1 451.' I n v iew o f h is c onnexion w ith t he r oyal b rick b uildings i t i s p ossible -t hough p roof i s n ot a vailable -t hat V esey w as a lso c oncerned a dministratively w ith t he w ork a t Q ueens' C ambridge, w hich w as b uilding f rom 1 448. 1 94

w ith

C ollege,

A t W altham , H ants. i n 1 442 t he B ishop o f W leO lester c ontracted a R ichard U pham f or m aking 2 10,000 ' brekes'.'" I n 1 427 a b rick

k iln w as i n u se a t W rittle i n E ssex,

p eably i n c onnexion w ith r econ -

s truction a t t he n earby h unting l odge. T he m unicipal b rickyard o f S andwich -situated i n t he a djoining m anor o f S andown -is n ot m ent ioned u ntil 1 463, t hough i t m ay w ell h ave b een i n e xistence b efore 97 1 450. 1 O ne

o f

t he m ore i nteresting b uilding a ccounts t o

h ave

s urvived

f rom t he p eriod i s t hat f or S ir J ohn F astolf's C aister C astle, N orfolk, b egun c .1432. 1 9S F or 1 433-4 t he n ames o f t wo b rickmakers a re p ret hey w ere J ohn E de a nd J ohn C ook , a nd t hey m ade t hat y ear 5 5 s erved: — l asts o f b ricks p ayments o f £ 160

r eceiving i n w ages 1 5s f or e ach l ast. I n 1 434-5 1 2s 6 d w ere m ade f or ' 63 l asts, 4 ,500 b ricks .. m ade

1 99

i n C aister m anor t his y ear' a nd £ 1 34 6 s 1 0d' .. t o J ohn G rene f or m aking b ricks a t C aistre m anor t his y ear.' T he a ccounts a lso r eveal t hat t he s ame b rickmaking s ite s upplied b ricks f or a nother o f F astolf's m anors, t hat o f H ellesdon, n ear N orwich, o f w hich n othing n ow r emains. 200 a t C astre

I n 1 443-4, f or e xample, b ricks w ere m ade ' for t he n ew w ork a nd H eylesdone...'. A n e specially i nteresting f act a bout

C aister i s t hat t here i s a rchaeological e vidence t o s upplement t he d ocumentary e vidence. 201 T he a ccounts i ndicate t hat t he b rickmaking w as d one c lose t o t he b uilding, ' in C aistir m anor'; L t-Col. G lenddening n oted a cres

t he n ame ' The B rick P its' s till a pplied t o a n a rea o f ( 1.6 h ectares) a bout 1 4 m iles ( 2km) f rom t he c astle.

t his,' which i s o n a b ank o f

t he

l ower r eaches o f t he B ure,

w ith h illocks a nd h oles w here o bviously a s tratum o f t he

s urface h ad b een w orked o ut.

C lose

s ome f our ' Most o f ' is c overed

c lay n ot

t o t he r iver

f ar u nder

" wall" i s a m ore

l evel p atch, s urrounded b y t he u sual d ebris o f a b rickyard: b roken a nd h alf-burnt b ricks, v itrified f ragments, e tc. A ll t he r emains a re o f

3 1

m edieval

b ricks,

m atching u p w ith t he e arlier r ather t han

t he

l ater

p arts o f t he c astle.' S amples o f c lay w hen b urned ' match u p e xactly w ith t he c olour a nd t exture o f t he b ricks u sed i n t he c astle.' T he b rickmaking s ite h ad g ood c ommunications w ith t he c astle ( fig.8). E ven m ore v aluable a re t he a ccounts o f T attershall C astle, b egun c .1432 b y R alph L ord C romwell, a nd c ontinued e ven a fter C romwell's 02 B awdwin o r B aldwin ' Brekeman' w as r esponsible f or d eath i n 1 456. 2 m aking b ricks f or t he c astle a nd a ssociated b uildings -school, c ollege, a nd a lmshouses -most o f t he b ricks b eing m ade a t E dlington M oor, s ome f our m iles ( 6km) n orth o f T attershall ( fig.9). T hus t he 1 434-5 a ccounts i nclude ' Cost o f m aking, f iring a nd c arriage o f 5 00,000 b ricks [ tegularum ] c alled w altile m ade t his y ear a t m y l ord's b rick k iln [ tegulinum d omini] a t E dlyngton M ore, t ogether w ith £ 11 p aid i n f ull s ettlement f or t he m aking o f 5 50 o f t he s ame k ind o f b ricks [ huiusmodi t egularum ] l ast y ear, £ 115 1 3s 6 d'. F or 1 43 9-40 t he .. a ccounts m ention 4 74,500 b ricks m ade b y B awdwin ; i n 1 445-6 h e m ade 33,000 ' large b ricks' ( tegulis m aioris) a nd 8 4,000 ' small b ricks' 3 ( tegulis m inoris). E dlington M oor w as t he p rincipal b ut n ot t he o nly s ource o f b ricks: C romwell a lso o wned a k iln a t B oston a nd b ricks w ere p urchased f rom J ohn C hamberlayn, t he ' farmer' ( firmarius) o r l essee o f t he k iln; i n 1 434-5 a s um o f £ 5 1 5s 4 d w as p aid a s t he ' Cost o f t he p urchase a nd c arriage o f b ricks c alled w altile [ tegularum v ocatarum w altile] o btained f rom t he i ssue o f m y l ord's s imilar b rick k iln a t B oston [ de e xitu c onsimilis t oralis t egulini d omini a pud B oston]...'; i n 1 438-9 £ 4 O s 1 04d w as p aid f or t he ' Purchase o f s uch b ricks [ huiusmodi t egularum ; s c. ( bricks) v ocatarum w altile] a t m y l ord's k iln a t B oston, w ith t heir c arriage...'; a nd i n t he s ame y ear r eceipt i s a cknowledged o f ' 8,900 b ricks b ought t his y ear f rom J ohn .. .. C hamberleyn, l essee o f m y l ord's k iln a t B oston...'. T he n ext y ear 2 4,000 ' large b ricks' w ere p urchased f rom C hamberleyn. B ricks m ay a lso h ave b een s upplied f rom S tixwould, a t l east i n 1 434-5, f or i n t hat y ear t he a ccountant ' acknowledges t he p rice o f 1 5,124 f aggots, f rom t he w ood a nd u nderwood c ut i n m y l ord's w ood c alled S tikeswold s outhwode, f or f iring b ricks i n m y l ord's k iln t here [ apud t orale d omini t egulinum i bidem ] ' . B ut S tixwould i s c lose t o t he E dlington M oor s ite a nd i t m ay b e t hat t he l atter i s r eally i ntended i n t his r eference. I n 1 438-9 ' 4 90,700 [ bricks] c alled w altile' w ere ' made b y F oys B rekmaker', .. f or w hich £ 69 5 s 1 4d w as p aid; w e a re n ot t old w here t hese w ere m ade, a nd p ossibly F oys w as w orking a t t he E dlington M oor s ite; b ut e qually h e m ay h ave b een a n i ndependent b rickmaker f rom w hom b ricks w ere p urc hased. A f ew b ricks w ere o btained b y d emolishing o lder b rick b uildi ngs i n R evesby A bbey. A t E dlington M oor a rchaeological e vidence f or v e t he b rickmaking a ctivity, w hich w as o bviously o n a l arge s cale f or p t imes, e xists i n t he f orm o f p onds, p its, a nd o vergrown s poil h eaps. Vj

I t h as b een m entioned t hat s ome o f t he T attershall b ricks w ere m ade a t B oston; h ere t here h a lb een a p robably s hort-lived b rick c lamp 4 i n t he f ourteenth c entury, 20 a nd a k iln s ince a t l east 1 431, f rom w hich y ear u ntil 1 452 r eferences t o b rickmaking i n B oston o ccur T hus, a f requently i n t he D e L 'Isle a nd D udley M anuscripts. 2°5 b ailiff's a ccount f or 1 43 8-9 r ecords t he r eceipt o f £ 3 1 2s O d d e p retio x ij M . t egulorum v oc. w altyle p roventientium d e f irma t horalis d omini [ sc. C romwell] i bidem , a nd i n t he s ame y ear 2 4,000 ' waltyle' w ere d elivered t o W illiam S tanlow f or u se a t T attershall. A s imilar a ccount f or 1 451-2 i ncludes r eceipts f rom t he ' tile k iln' f or 1 0,000 ' waltile'; a nd i n t he s ame y ear t here i s m ention o f ' carriage o f t iles [ = b ricks] 3 2

3 3 P os sib le b r ickya rd

0 : NORFOLK AREA

F ifteenth C entury :

nown s ource B u i ld ing s upp l ied f r om k

03

0 ' Z L u

•

T he E nglish B rickmaking I ndustry i n

NDUSTRY 1 400

E l

N orfolk A rea

Y ARMOUTH

f rom t he l ord's k iln [ at a djoining B oston, w here

B oston] t o S kerbeck', o r S kirbeck, a p arish t hey w ere u sed i n t he c onstruction o f ' le

g rounselyng' ( = g roundsill o r f ooting) o f a t imber-framed ( For t he T attershall -a nd B oston -i ndustry s ee f ig.9). T o t his b ricks n ature.

i mpressive d ocumentary e vidence f or

b uilding.

t he h ome p roduction o f

d uring t he p eriod m ay b e a dded f urther e vidence o f a d ifferent A lthough n o s ystematic s tudy o f t he b elletristic s ources h as

b een u ndertaken, i t s eems t hat t hey d o n ot a dd m uch t o o ur k nowledge o f t he m edieval b rickmaking i ndustry. B ut a n i nteresting l iterary r eference o ccurs i n t he a ccount o f h er r eligious e xperiences b y t he l ate m edieval m ystic D ame J ulian o f N orwich, w ritten d own b y a s cribe o r a manuensis s ometime a fter 1 393. I n s eeking t o d escribe t he f ace o f t he D evil, J ulian u ses t he s imile o f a n ew-burnt ' tilestone', p resuma bly a b rick: ' The c olor w as r ede l ike t he t ilestone w hen i t i s n ew b rent, w ith b lak s pots t herin l ike b lak s teknes [ speckles], f ouler t han t he t ilestone.' 2U b S uch a s imile i s s urely b ased o n e xperience o f s eeing b ricks ' new b rent', a nd s ince t here i s n o e vidence t hat J ulian, u nlike h er c ontemporary M argery K empe, e ver t ravelled a broad w e m ay f airly s afely a ssume t hat i ndeed i n b uildings,

t his e xperience w as h ad i n E ngland,

p robably

N orwich i tself, w here t here a re e xamples o f e arly b rick i ncluding t he C ow T ower -part o f t he c ity d efences -w hich

m ust h ave b een b uild 8e a bout t he t ime, o r s hortly b efore, J ulian w as d ictating h er w ork. I t w ould n ot b e s urprising t o f ind b rickmaking i n a m ajor E ast A nglian c ity. O ther

e vidence c omes

f rom f ieldwork e xplorations;

t his

a pproach

h as i ts l imitations, a nd t he e vidence i s s ometimes f rankly c ircums tantial; b ut G lendenning's w ork a t C aister a nd S impson's a t T atters hall, a t b oth o f w hich t here i s d ocumentary c onfirmation, h ave s hown t hat p ositive r esults m ay s ometimes b e a chieved. A t S omeries C astle, n ear L uton, B eds. ( begun c .1448), f or e xample, t he b ricks w ere p robably m ade

i n s itu.

T he a rea är ound L uton c ontains s everal d eposits o f

c lay

or ' tile' s uitable f or b rickmaking a nd t hese w ere c ertainly u s9 (n f ( including b rick?) m aking i n t he m id-sixteenth c entury. "' F ieldwork a t S omeries i n 1 963 l ocated ' a l arge a rea o f d ips r esembling s coopings, n ow c ompletely o vergrown w ith n ettles a nd f illed w ith s tagnant w ater, o nly 1 00 y ards s outh-east o f t he p resent r uins T his i s v e . g p robably t he s ite o f t he b rick-workings w hich s upplied S omeries.' "' M ore r ecent o bservation, i n d rier c onditions, h as d one n othing t o m odify t his i mpression.

t hat

S imilarly, i n t he e arly y ears o f t his c entury W illiam M inet n oted a f ield n ear H adham H all, L ittle H adham w as k nown a s B rickleys;

t he n ame c ommented

c ould b e t hat t he

b oth

t hat

s how

t raced b ack a s f ar a s a l ease o f 1 556, a nd M inet ' name, a s w ell a s t he s urface o f t he f ield t oday,

i t w as u sed a s a b rick f ield,

a nd,

n o d oubt,

b ricks u sed i n b uilding t he m ansion w ere m ade t here.' 2 10 T he m ansion, o f w hich p art o nly s urvives, w as n ot s tarted u ntil

a ll

t he

p resent c .1575,

t hat i s s ome n ineteen y ears a fter t he f irst m ention o f ' Brickleis'. i s h ard t o d oubt, t herefore, t hat t he b rickmaking s ite w as o pened

I t t o

s erve t he o riginal b rick h quse o f c .1440, t he f ootings o f which w ere p artly e xcavated l ong a go.' 1 1 P resumably, t he s ame s ite w as u tilised f or t he b rickmaking c onnected w ith t he l ater s ixteenth-century h ouse t oo. I n t he

s ame c ounty H unsdon H ouse w as b egun b y 3 4

S ir W illiam

O ldhall

•EDL INGTON B ARDNEY \ dh

HORS INGTON

O HORNCASTLE

E DL INGTON MOOR S T IXVVOULD

. *

-ONa lTO WER THE-MOOR n REVESBY — ' ABBEY '

K IRKSTEAD-d i ABBEY" '

T. HORPE A

THE M ED IEVAL B R ICK I NDUSTRY . BOSTON & T ATTERSHALL

T ATTERSHALL

•

B r ickmak ing s i te

•

S ource o f r e -u sed b r ick s T a tter sha l l

•

O ther b u i ld ing s r e ce iv ing b r ick s

=

P robab le b r ick t r an s -sh ipment p o int

A

S ource o f f ue l 4M i le s K i lometre s

BOSTON . --- diROCHFORD OSK IRBECK

F ig.

9 .

T he E nglish B rickmaking I ndustry i n t he F ifteenth C entury: T he T attershall A rea o f L incolnshire

3 5

i n

t he

m iddle

o f

t he

f kfteenth c entury;

EZ I t, t hough l ittle r emains. Z s ixteenth-century h ouse, b uilt

i t w as o f

t ower-house

f orm,

l ike H adham H all, w as r eplaced b y a b y H enry V III f rom c .1525, 213 F or t his

l ater h ouse ' xiij c lampys o f b rick' w ere b urned l ocally, 2 14 a nd i t n ot u nlikely t hat, a s a t H adham, t he o lder b rickmaking s ite w as o pened f or t he n ew p roject. A t

H erstmonceux C astle,

S ussex

( c.1441) t he b ricks a re,

a s

i s r e-

t he

l ate W .D. S impson p ointed o ut, o f a c lay t hat s eems l ike t hat u sed f or b rickmaking a t B exhill ' within h alf a d ozen m iles . 2 15 T he c ontempora ry c hancel t o t he l ocal c hurch, b uilt o f t he s ame c astle, w as p resumably s upplied f rom t he s ame w orkings, e xample, t he c hancel a t B ardney C hurch, f rom t he E dlington M oor s ite. 2 17 A t

K ing's

L ynn,

N orfolk

b ricks a s j ust a s,

2 16

t he f or

L incs. w as s upplied w ith b ricks

t here a re

s everal b uildings

f rom

t he

p eriod 1 400-1450, i ncluding i mportant m unicipal W uctures l ike g uildh alls a nd a t own g ate, w hich a re b uilt o f b rick. T here s eems t o b e n o d irect e vidence f or l ocal m anufacture, b ut i t h as b een o bserved t hat ' Lynn l ies o n t he e dge o f a r egion r unning s outh-west a cross t he .. f ens w ithin w hich c lays c ould b e d ug which w ere e specially s uitable f or b rickmaking. b rick f ields

B y t he s ixteenth c entury t here w ere a lready n umerous i n t he m arshland a round L ynn...'. 2 19 T ending t o s upport

t his i s t he f act t hat t wo o f t he b uildings -the G uildhall o f S t G eorge a nd t he S outh G ate -a re o f r emarkably s imilar b ricks, b oth i n s ize a nd i n c olour a nd t exture -suggesting t hat t hey c ame f rom t he s ame m oulds T o f ind i mported b ricks s o s imilar i n t wo a nd t he s ame b rickyard. 220 d ifferent b uildings i s u nlikely, a nd t he m ost s atisfactory e xplanation i s t hat i n t erms o f l ocal m anufacture. Y et f urther s upport m ay c ome f rom

t be

f act

t hat d iaper-work i n b lack b ricks

i s n ot

i n e vidence

a t

L ynn; 2z1 R .J. a nd P .E . F irman h ave s hown t hat b ricks m ade f rom t he f en m aterials t end t o d istort w hen v itrified s o t hat d ic er p atterns c ould n ot

b e

i ntroduced i nto b uildings o f

t hese b ricks: "

t he

a bsence

o f

s uch w ork f rom t he L ynn b uildings d oes s uggest t heir m anufacture f rom l ocal m aterials. A s imilar a rgument a pplies t o t he G uildhall o f S t M ary a t w ork

B oston,

L incs.

i s p resent;

( mid-fifteenth c entury), w here a gain n o d iaper

w e h ave a lready n oted t he m anufacture o f

b ricks

i n

t hat t own. A lready i n t he f ourteenth c entury b ricks w ere b eing p urc hased a t L ynn, a nd t hese t oo m ay h ave b een m ade l ocally r ather t han i mported; 223 t he s ame m ay b e t rue o f b ricks p urchased a t L ynn f or u se a t K ing's H all, C ambridge i n t he e arly f ifteenth c entury. 224 A t

o ther

s ites n o f ieldwork e vidence

i s

a vailable,

t hough

R ye

H ouse, H erts. ( c.1443) i s i n a n a rea o f t he L ee V alley w here m aterials a re f ound, a nd i f, a s s eems l ikely, t he m oat a round t he s ite i s c ontemporary w ith t he b uilding, t hen i t m ay h ave p rovided t he r aw m aterial f or m aking t he b ricks. M ore i mportant a t R ye H ouse i s t he p resence o f s pecial m oulded b ricks u sed i n t he c onstruction o f c orbelt ables a nd o ther f eatures. T hese h ave a lready b een m entioned i n c onn exion w ith t he c ontinental a ffinities o f s ome o f t he E nglish b rick b uildings o f t he t ime. s idered a t a l ater p lace

T he b ricks t hemselves w ill n eed t o i n t his p aper. S uffice i t t o s ay

b e a t

c ont his

p oint t hat s uch r equirements o f

s pecial b ricks s eem t o h ave b een p rovided t o m eet p atron a nd a rchitect ( master); t hey a re u sed

r elatively s mall i mprobable t hat

q uantities i n a ny o ne b uilding, a nd i t i s i nherently t hese w ere p urchased f rom s tock o utside t he c ountry,

s till m ore t hat

t hey w ere p urpose-made t o 3 6

s pecification

o verseas.

t he i n

I t

i s

f ar m ore p lausible

t o

s uppose,

e ven i n t he a bsence o f p roof

p osi-

t ive, t hat t hey w ere i ndeed p urpose-made t o s pecification, b ut t hat t his w as d one w ithin t his c ountry, a nd i ndeed n ot f ar d istant f rom t he b uildings w here t hey w ere t o b e u sed. T he a rgument i s e nhanced b y t he f act t hat t hese b ricks o ccur n ot o nly a t R ye H ouse b ut a lso, a s w e h ave p reviously o bserved, i n o ther b uildings: F aulkbourne H all i n E ssex a nd S omeries C astle i n B edfordshire. A ll t hese b uildings s how n ot o nly t he s pecial b ricks n eeded t o c o eruct a r are t ype o f c orbel-table ( termed e lsewhere

R ye H ouse T ype 2 )

b ut

a lso o ther r elated

s pecial

b ricks,

s uch a s t hose u sed i n t he c ons4 wction o f d ecorative c orbelling b eneath o riels o r i n o ther p ositions. " ' I t h as b een a rgued e lsewhere, a nd n oted a bove, 228 t hat t hese b uildings a re a lmost c ertainly t he w ork o f a s ingle a telier o f c raftsmen, b ased p erhaps s omewhere i n E ssex o r H ertf ordshire,

f or

t he b uildings o ccur i n a r elatively c ircumscribed a rea

( cf. f ig.10). T he m ost l ikely ' scenario' i s t hat o f a s mall, v ery s pecialised g roup o f b uilders m aking t he b ricks f or t heir o wn p rojects ( we h ave a lready n oted t hat B awdwin o f T attershall w as p robably b oth m aster m ason a nd b rickmaker a t t hat p roject). A t S omeries C astle, p reviously r emarked, t here i s i ndependent a rchaeological e vidence

a s f or

i n s itu b rickmaking, a nd i t i s a n e asy m atter t o e xtend t he p icture t o i nclude t he o ther t wo b uildings m entioned. B eyond t his w e m ay e xtend s till f urther t o i nclude o ther b uildings c losely r elated t o t his c entral g roup -that i s t o s ay. t he M oot H all a t M aldon, E ssex, a nd M oreover, t here s eems t o h ave b een N ether H all a t R oydon, E ssex. 2Z9 s ome i nfluence f rom w ithin t his g roup o n ( at l east) t wo s lightly l ater b uildings -t he R ectory a t R ickmansworth , w ith i ts c orbel-table b eneath lso i n H ertfordshire, w ith a w indow, a nd t he p orch o f M eesden C hur A h a u S uch i nfluence w ould i ts c orbel-table w ork b elow t he p arapet. t o d emand t he m ore o r l ess l ocal m anufacture o f b ricks.

W ithin S ome

o f

t his

s ection w e h ave

l ooked a t a g ood d eal

t his h as b een i ncontrovertible

d ocumentary

o f

s eem

e vidence.

e vidence,

w hilst

s ome h as c onsisted i n o ffering t he m ost p lausible e xplanation f or a vailable a rchaeological d ata. T he l atter a pproach m ay l ack f inality o f c ompelling.

t he t he

t he w ritten d ocument, b ut i ts c onclusions m ay b e n o l ess A t a ny r ate, i t i s a bundantly c lear t hat, a lthough b ricks

w ere s ometimes i mported, e ven i n t he p eriod 1 400-1450, n ormal p ractice t o m ake t he b ricks w ithin t his c ountry,

i t w as t he u sually c lose

t o a nd s ometimes a ctually a t t he b uilding s ite. N ot o nly, t hen, w as t here a h ome i ndustry, b ut i t w as a ctually a v ery a ctive o ne, a nd o ne o f f ar g reater s ignificance t han a ny b ased o n t he i mportation o f t he m aterial f rom o verseas. A c loser v iew o f t he n ature a nd s tructure o f t hat

i ndustry w ill o ccupy

t he r emainder o f

3 7

t his

s tudy.

OF EARLY

BU ILD INGS

0

c c

G . ) c z, _ c

C D _ c 2 ° , ' , ---'• a l R 3

r 5 ---__-• , c '. 0 ' 70 3 '

+ cz • . = r G I I +

C / D L I L

L U

E< wo

2 0-

3 8 0 2j

2

o f E arly B rick B uildings

4

f

P resen t

c oun ty b ounda r ies

I nd ica tes p robab le s equence o f b u i ld ing

O the r ma jo r b r ick b u i ld ings , 1 4001450

B u i ld ings w i th s ome r e la ted f ea tures

R ye H ouse a nd r e la ted

C hapter 6 .

A lthough

t here

M ETHODS O F M ANUFACTURE

i s n ot a v ast

a mount

o f

d ocumentary

e vidence

f or

m ethods o f m anufacture, t he f ew c lues w hich d o e xist ( most i mportant t hose d erivable f rom t he H ull b rickyard a ccounts), i nterpreted i n t he l ight o f a g reater k nowledge o f t raditional b rickmaking i n l ater c ent uries, e nables u s t o f orm a n a dequate p icture o f h ow b rickmaking w as c arried

o ut

d uring

t he M iddle A ges.

I n a ddition t o

t he

d ocumentary

c lues t here i s t he e vidence o f e arly i llustrations -a lthough t hese a re f rom t he c ontinent, n ot f rom E ngland -a nd t he p hysical e vidence o f t he b ricks

t hemselves.

R .J.

a nd P .E.

F irman,

i n t heir p ioneer

s tudy

o f

m edieval b ricks f rom a g eological p oint o f v iew a nd i n a l ater s tudy o f m oulding m ethods, h ave a dded m uch t o o ur k nowledge o f t he s ubject. E ven ( e.g.

w here

t he

t here w as a p ermanent

H ull

o r

m unicipal y ard o r t he

l arge-scale

b rickmaking

E dlington M oor

s ite

s upplying T attershall) f rom which t he r equired n umber b e s upplied, t he f irst t ask w as t o s eek o ut s uitable i deally

c lose

t o

t he b uilding

s ite

s o a s

t o m inimise

s ite

p rimarily

o f b ricks m ight r aw m aterials, t ransport

c osts.

W e h ave a lready n oted W illiam V esey's a ppointment i n t his r espect i n c onnexion w ith v arious r oyal w orks, a nd w e c an h ardly d oubt t hat s imil ar

u ndertakings

w ere

r equired

f or o ther

b uildings;

n o

d oubt,

f or

e xample, B awdwin D ocheman's f irst t ask o n h is a ppointment t o t he T attershall w orks w as t o s earch f or s uitable m aterials, w hich h e f ound a t a nd

E dlington M oor. s o

c ourse, o wn

I t m ay b e

t hat

r elatively e asily a vailable u nless a m an w ere

e state

( as

H adham H all),

s eems

t his

l and w as

f or m ineral

f ortunate e nough t o

t o h ave h appened a t,

o btaining

c oncessions

' waste'

a t

t he

e xtraction. f ind

e .g.,

t ime

F or,

t he m aterial

o f

o n h is

S omeries C astle

f or m ineral w orking w ould

a nd

s everely

h ave l imited t he m aterials a vailable t o h im: e ven L ord T reasurer C romwell c ould n ot o pen b rick-pits j ust where h e w anted t o! I t m ay b e f or t his r eason t hat t he W ardens o f L ondon b ridge h ad t o o btain t heir b ricks

f rom D eptford r ather

c loser f rom

s upplies t his

m ust h ave

t han c loser

o f b rickmaking m aterial

m atter o f

l and

t o

t he

b ridge

c ertainly

t enure a nd m ineral-working

b een a r elatively e asy

i tself

e xisted.

f or

2 32

A part

2 3

c oncessions,

t ask i n e astern E ngland

t o f ind

i t

s uit-

a ble l ocations f or t he b rickmaking o perations. F or t he e xamination o f t he b ricks t hemselves h as s hown t hat s mall s uperficial d eposits o f c lay o r b rickearth w ere n ormally,

a nd p erhaps

e xclusively,

w orked:

' All

t he

e vidence o f p lasticity, f ossils a nd i nclusions s uggests t hat o nly s uperficial d eposits w ere u sed. C arboniferous S hales, K euper M arl o r J urassic

C lays,

f rom

d efinitely n ot u sed b ricks w ere s tudied] u sed.' b ricks

2 34

a t

80% o f o ur b ricks

A l ess t horough e xamination, S omeries C astle p rovides a n

i ncidentally, p roduction o f C astle,

w hich

where

a re

n ow

m ade,

w ere

a t a ll.../... I n a lmost a ll c ases [ where t he t he n earest a vailable s ource m aterial h as b een b y t he p resent w riter, a dditional i nstance.

o f s ome ( This,

i s f urther p roof -if s uch w ere n eeded -for t he h ome b ricks d uring t he M iddle A ges). T he c ase o f C aister d ocumentary

a nd

f ieldwork e vidence

3 9

c ombine

t o

g ive

a

f airly c omplete p icture

( supra,

p .31),

s erves t o

i llustrate t his l ast

p oint, a lthough t he c ase o f E mneth, f or w hich t he b ricks w ere b rought e xtra c omitatum L incoln. p er m are ( supra, p .24), s hows t hat s ometimes t he n earest d eposits w ere n ot u sed -perhaps, i n t his c ase, b ecause i t w as c heaper t o p urchase t hem a t a n a lready e xisting b rickworks. B ut i n g eneral i t w ould b e a n o bvious a dvantage, e conomically, t o m ake t he b ricks a s n ear t o t he b uilding s ite a s p ossible. W illiam V esey w as f ortunate i n o btaining a s ite a t S lough f or m aking t he b ricks t o b e u sed a t E ton C ollege; a ' kiln' w as e rected, f or w hich V esey r eceived p ayment o n 2 3 A pril 1 442: W illiam W esey v ppon m aking o f a b reke k ylne b e h andes o f W ill. L ynde xviijs i iijd. x

t he

xiii d ay o f A pril i n t o ye x

A nd o n 4 F ebruary 1 443: W illiam

V esy

i n f ul p aiemint

f or

m aking

o f

t hi

he b rike k ilne a nd C [ sic] M o f b rike a t xd t l aying 5 b y c ommaunment o f t he E rle o f S uffolk z J xvs. x

i t

M

W hen s uitable m aterial h ad b een l ocated t he t opsoil ( 'callow' a s w as l ater c alled) 236 c ould b e s tripped o ff a nd t he c lay o r b rick-

e arth d ug, a t ask w hich w as p erformed i n t he l ate a utumn o r e arly w inter -a s i n l ater b rickmaking p ractice -so t hat t he r aw m aterial c ould

b e

l eft

a ction a nd r ain.

i n h eaps o ver A s tatute o f

t he w inter t o b e b roken 1 477

d own

b y

c oncerning t he m anufacture o f

f rost t iles

i nstructs t hat t he ' earth' i s t o b e d ug b efore 1 N ovember. 237 T he e vid ence f rom s ome t ile-making s ites s uggests t hat i t w as n ormal f or t hese h eaps t o b e p laced c lose t o t he w orkplaces w here t he t iles w ere t o b e m ade, a nd i s l ikely t hat a s imilar p ractice w as f ollowed i n t he E arly t he n ext y ear t he c lay w as t empered b y a dding b rickyards. 2 ' w ater a nd w orking i t o ver w ith s hovels o r b y w alking i t w ith b are f eet. A ccording t o t he s ame s tatute o f 1 477 t his w as d one i n F ebruary, a nd t he m aterial w as t hen a gain l eft t o s tand, a ctual b rickmaking n ot b eing s tarted b efore M arch. I t m ay h ave b een i n c onnexion w ith t he w ork o f t empering t hat a t t he H ull y ard i n 1 424-5 ' ii w aterpottez' w er , p urc hased f or 3 d; i n 1 432-3 ' Uno i renshovell' w as b ought f or 5 d. 2i / A t H ull, were

a nd a lso

p robably e lsewhere t oo, t he s ame m en who t empered t he c lay r esponsible f or m aking t he b ricks. T hus i n 1 423-4 J ohn

W itton a nd J ohn D rinkale w ere p aid p ro t emperyng d el c lay e t f ormacione c m u le t egularum, a nd l ater i n t he y ear t hey r eceived p aym ent f or v arious o ther j obs a bout t he b rickyard, t hough n ot a pparently f or b urning t he b ricks; a lthough i n 1 42 9-30 T homas T okill w as r esponsi ble f or t empering t he c lay a nd f or b urning t he b ricks. A t t his s tage o f m anufacture t oo i t w as n ecessary t o r emove a ny s tones a nd t o p ulveri se a ny c halk t hat m ight b e i n t he m atrix; i f t his w ere n ot d one t hen t he b ricks c ould s plit d uring f iring. h and m ust h ave b een e xtremely t edious;

T he w ork o f r emoving s tones b y s urviving b ricks a ctually u sed

i n b uildings s how t hat i s w as n ot a lways c ompletely c arried t hrough. 240 T he T attershall C astle a ccounts f or 1 434-5 i nclude a n i nteresting i tem u nder t he h eading D efalcaciones c reditorum: ' Sums i n d efault: o ver t he p ayment t o B aldwin b rekeman ( £10) f or t he m aking o f b ricks c alled w altile [ tegularum v ocatorum w qltile], b y r eason o f t heir b eing i nO ne a ssumes t hat t hey b urst a sunder s ufficiently k neaded...' e tc. 2g1 d uring f iring. 4 0

R ight u p u ntil s easonal a ctivity. 2 42

r ecent

t imes b rickmaking

I t w as

h as

b een

s o d uring t he M iddle A ges,

a

m arkedly

a s w ill

b e

c lear f rom w hat h as b een s aid a bout d igging a nd t empering t he c lay. T he b rickmakers, h owever, w ere n ot n ecessarily l eft w ith n othing t o d o b etween t hese v arious o perations, a t l east s o f ar a s p ermanent l ike t hat a t H ull a re c oncerned, f or t here w as o ther w ork t o b e

y ards d one:

g enerally p reparing t he s ite r eady f or b rickmaking a s w ell a s c arrying o ut r epairs t o p ermanent p lant a nd t o o ther e quipment. A t H ull t he a ccounts r eveal a n umber o f i nteresting d etails c oncerning s uch ' incidental' w ork. F or e xample, i n 1 423-4 t he a ccounts i nclude t he f ollowing m acaronic p assage: i x t ravis e t d imidium d e g loy p ro n attes

f aciendis

v is.

i d. P ro x ii l ib. s aille t hrede p our l es n attes N 7 id. P ro f actura d es n attes i iis. i d. I ohanni E lwod p ro i i c atcheful s abuli x iiis. i iiid. R icardo

T enny p ro c ariagio e iusdem v s. i d. F actura .. u nius b arowe e t e mendacione a lterius x iiid. o b. U na p ecia d e g ray p late a d e mendacionem T ormularum iid. W illelmo i m outhes x viiid. p our

S cotter p ro e mendacione d es k ilneI ohanni w itton p ro i iii w andes

l es n attes x d.

S imilar r eferences o ccur i n o ther y ears, 1 424-5 a ccount r efers I n p rimis

a nd a n ote o n t he d orse o f

t he

t o t he f ollowing e quipment:

l iii w hele b arowes

I tem i ii s ande t ubbes i tem i ii f ermyng s tokkes I tem I tem I tem I tem I tem T he

i s ty o f x v s teles l ong x iiii a id s parres i ii f lekes i t rogh v f ormes f or m akyng o f t ile

[ i.e.

p rovision o r m aintenance o f a ll t hese

i tems

w ill b e

b ricks]. o f

e quipment,

w hich

c onsidered m ore f ully i n d ue c ourse, w ould h ave g iven p lenty o f

w ork • before t he a ctual b rickmaking s eason b egan i n t he s pring. I ncidentally, m ention o f t hem s erves t o d raw a ttention t o t he a mount o f p lant h ave

r equired a t a y ard l ike t hat b een n eeded a t a ll b rickyards,

o f H ull; s imilar e quipment e ven t he t emporary o nes,

t hat t emporary c lamps m ay h ave t aken t he p lace ( vide i nfra, p .50). A t C aister i n 1 433-4 £ 2 7 s

w ould e xcept

o f p ermanent k ilns 1 4d w as p aid o ut ' In

d ivers i nztruments a nd n ecessaries b ought f or m aintaining t wo A t l ess p ermanent b rickworks t han t he m unicipal y ard a t k ilns...'. 2 3 H ull t here w ould s till h ave b een w ork o f s imilar k ind d uring t he w inter m onths; e ven w here t he y ard w as a t emporary o ne s erving j ust o ne b uildi ng p roject w e h ave t o e nvisage a c oncern e xtending o ver i ng s easons -a s l ong a s t he b uilding t ook t o e rect r equiring a t l east s emi-permanent p lant. O nce

t he

s pring h ad c ome -a nd a lso,

t he m edieval b uilding

s eason 244

m anufacturing t he b ricks. L .S. o f m aking p lain b ricks. F irst,

s everal b uild-

-a nd

i ncidentally,

t herefore

t he s tart

-w ork c ould g et u nder w ay o n

o f

a ctually

H arley h as s uggested t wo p rincipal w ays t here i s t he m ethod w hich h e h as c hris-

t ened ' the p astry m ethod', i n w hich ' a s heet o f t empered s pread m ore o r l ess e venly o n l evel s and o r g rass [ or s traw,

4 1

c lay T PS ]

w as a nd

c ut u p i nto s heet

s labs w ith a w ooden o r i ron s pade, m uch a s c ooks d ivide a 2 45 o f p astry d ough... 1. T hese w ere t he s o-called ' place' b ricks,

a nd a n e xpected c haracteristic i s t hat t hey v ary m arkedly i n s ize e ven w ithin a ny o ne b atch a nd a re t hus q uite e asily i dentified i n b uildings where t hey o ccur. I f t he c lay w as r olled o ut o n h ay o r s traw t hen a n a dditional c haracteristic w ill b e t he i mpressions o f t his o n o ne f ace. T heir d imensions d iffer f rom t hose o f m oulded b ricks a nd t hey a re o ften l arge -t he m edieval ' Great B ricks'. A lthough o ccasionally f ound i n a f ifteenth-century c ontext, a ccording t o H arley, t hey h ad g enerally b y t his t ime p assed o ut o f u se, a nd a re m ore n ormally f ound i n m id-twelfth S maller b ricks -a pproximating t o m id-thirteenth-century c ontexts. 246 t o t he ' standard' l ate m edieval s ize o f a bout 9 b y 4 -44 b y 2 i nches, a re s ometimes r egarded a s ' place b ricks' b ecause o f q uite w ide v ariat ion i n s ize. J .A . W ight c ite §Z hose u sed i n t he v ery l ate f ourteenthc entury C ow t ower a t N orwich, L4 / w hilst A lan C arter h as e xplained t he s ize-var s ame w ay.

Wons i n m ost o f t he m edieval b ricks f rom K ing's L ynn i n t he ' M ore r ecently, h owever, M .G. R eeder h as s uggested t hat

a lthough s ome b ricks -like t he ' Great B ricks' -m ay h ave b een m ade i n t his w ay u p t o c .1350 s ize-variations a re m ore s at 4factorily e xplained b y s upposing m ethod t hus: s traw

a nd

t h e

b ricks t o h ave b een f rame-made. 2 " H e d escribes t he ' One m an p laces d ollops o f c lay a t i ntervals o n a b ed o f

a nother

m an f ollows w ith a s imple w ooden f rame

a nd

s mall

c ontainer w ith a b rush a nd s tick i n i t. H e b rushes w ater o n t he i nside o f h is f rame, s trikes o ff a ny s urplus w ith h is s tick, l ifts o ff h is f rame a nd m oves o nto t he n ext b rick.' T he s ize-variations i n, f or e xample, t he C ow T ower b ricks ' are d ue t o s everal c auses, d ifferent c lay o r m ixtures o f c lays, d ifferent s ized f rames. F rame m ade b ricks h ave s ize v ariations a s a r esult o f t he a bove p lus s agging a nd d amage whilst t he c lay i s s till w et, i .e. w ider a nd t hinner a t o ne e nd.' 2J° R .J. a nd P .E. F irman h ave s ince a dded f urther e vidence f or t his p ract ice i n t he f orm o f b ricks w ith s unken m argins, which a re s ometimes S ince s uch b ricks h ave s triae o r e ncountered i n m edieval b uildings. 251 s trike-marks o n t he f ace w hich a lso h as t he m argins, t hey c annot h ave b een p roduced, a s N athaniel L loyd a rgued, i n a n o rdinary b rick-mould which h ad b een ' repaired b y a s trip o f l eather o r o therwise, t he i mmed iate e ffect o f which w as t o f orm a r aised m argin r ound t he f ace o f t he . 52 T hey s uggest, s tock, which b ecame a s unk m argin r ound t he b ricks.' Z i nstead, t hat ' the s unken m argins w ere c aused b y s omething p ressed d own o n t o t he c lay.' 253 T he s traw i mpressions o n t he o pposite f ace o f t he b rick a nd t he s light e dge-thickening s ometimes f ound o n t he l ower e dge ( explained b y o ozing o f t he c lay f rom u nder a f rame) s uggest a b ed o f s traw o n w hich t he f rame w as r esting when t he b rick w as m ade. I t i s f urther s uggested t hat t he s urface s triae a re ' satisfactorily e xplained i f i t i s p ostulated t hat t hese b ricks w ere m ade i n s itu, a s s uggested b y R eeder, a nd t hat t he f rame w as r einforced b y b eading o r s trips o f l eather a round i ts u pper i nside m argins... T his r einforcement w ould h elp t o e nsure t hat t he c lay w as f irmly c ompressed a round t he e dges o f t he

b rick

, 254

( fig.11).

I t

s eems c lear t hat

' place b ricks' m ay

p layed a m uch l esser r öle, o r e ven n o r ole a t a ll, d uring t he 1 400-1450, a nd t hat f rame-made b ricks w ere m uch m ore i mportant. O n t he o ther h and, t o

s uggest,

i t w as c ertainly n ot u niversal,

i n t he p eriod r ight u p t o t he

h ave p eriod

a s R eeder s eems

s eventeenth c entury,

2 55

n e l

R .J. a nd T here i s,

P .E. F irman a re r ight t o w arn a gainst t his a ssumption. ' i n f act, e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he s econd o f H arley's t wo

p rincipal

b rickmaking m ethods -n amely,

4 2

m ould-making -w as i n r egular

r e in fo rcemen t

wooden f r ame

s unken marg in s t r iae ? s t r ike ma rks

I x s t raw

i mp ress ions o n u nde rs ide

regu i lar e dge t h icken ing

T PS ' 84

( no t a lways p resen t )

F ig.

1 1.

A F rame Mould a nd

4 3

i ts P roduct

u se.

2 57

M aking b ricks i n m oulds r esults i n a m uch g reater d egree o f s tandardization o f d imensions i n t he b ricks w ithin a ny o ne b atch. T he

e vidence o f t he b ricks t hemselves i s s ufficient t o e stablish t he d omin ance o f t his m ethod o f m anufacture d uring t he p eriod, n ot o nly b ecause o f t he

t he r esulting r egularity o f s ize i n a ny o ne b uilding, b ut b ecause f orm o f t he b ricks w ill o ften s how h ow t he c lay w as t hrown i nto t he

m ould, f or e xample, a s ection c ut t hrough o ne o f t he C aister C astle ( c.1432 s qq.) b ricks c learly s hows t he p lastic d eformation ' due f irstly t o t he p ressing o f a l aminated c lay i nto a m ould a nd s econdly t o t he c leaning o ff o f t he t op l ayer [ i.e. t he e xcess] c lay, w ith a s trike, p lane o r s imilar t raditional b rick m aker's t ool.' 258 B uilding a ccounts a re n ot i nterested i n t he c lose d etails o f m anufacture, y et t hose o f T attershall C astle p rovide c onfirmatory e vidence w hen t hey s pecify t he ( before f iring a pparently); f or ' place p recise s ize o f t he b ricks 259 b ricks'

were

n ever

c ut w ith s uch p recision

a nd

a rgument f or f rame-making i s t he i rregularity o f f rom s uch a m ethod.

R eeder's

p rincipal

s ize l ikely t o

r esult

S pecific r eferences t o m oulds, a s i n t he H ull a ccounts, a t l east d emonstrate t hat ' place b ricks' w ere n ot b eing m ade h ere, a lthough w e c annot b e c ertain t hat t he w ord i s b eing u sed i n t he m odern s ense r ather t han i n t he m ore g eneral s ense o f a f rame. I n 1 422-3 a p ayment i s r ecorded: U no c arpentario p ro f actura d iuersam b arowes e t f ormular um p er i ii d ies x xd. a nd i n t he s ame y ear 6 d i s p aid: F actura u nius f ormule p ro t egulis f aciendis. T his n ext y ear a p iece o f i ron ( Una p ecia d e g ray p late) w as p urchased f or 3 d a d e mendacionem f ormularum, a nd t he f ollowing y ear v f ormes f or m akyng o f t ile a ppear i n a n ote a dorsed t o t he a ccount. I n 1 427-8 p ayment i s r ecorded f or U na f ormula i bidem f acta d e n ouo i iiid. A gain, i n 1 432-3 9 d w as p aid P ro f actura u nius f ormule. I n m ost s urviving a ccounts f acio i s t he n ormal w ord u sed t o r efer t o t he m aking o f b ricks, b ut a t H ull i n 1 423-4 J ohn .. W itton a nd J ohn D rinkale w ere p aid p ro f ormacione c m u le t egularum, a nd t he v erb h ere i s p resumably p roperly t aken t o r efer e xplicitly t o s ome s ort o f m oulding p rocess -either w ith a m ould a s w e u nderstand i t o r t o a f rame i n R eeder's s ense. I t i s p ossible t oo t hat W illiam M old a nd R obert M old a re s o n amed f rom t heir o ccupation, t hat 6 ° T hat a p roper m ould i s i ntended a t M old i s n ot a t rue p atronymic. 2 H ull i s s uggested b y a n i nteresting n ote t o t he 1 424-5 a ccount w hich i ncludes r eference t o i ii f ermyng s tokkes ( forming s tocks). T his i s p robably a r eference t o t he s tock, o ver w hich t he m ould i s p laced i n r cks, rth h n, s Bo 6 t o 1 p roper m ould-making o f bi a er ta a r oks sg u gests, 2 t he m oulding t ables. E ven i f t he l atter i s m eant, h owever, p roper m ould-making i s s till i mplied, s ince R eeder's f rame-made b ricks w ere f ormed a n a rea o f o pen g round, n ot a t a t able. T he e vidence o f t he N ederlandische B ijbel i llustration a lready r eferred t o i ndictes t hat m ould-making w as b eing p ractised i n t he N etherlands b y 1 425 a t t he l atest. 3 52 E ven m ore i mportant, t hough o f s lightly l ater d ate ( c.1470), i s a l ess w ell k nown a nd c onsequently l ess u sed D utch b ible i llustration w hich s hows o ne m an m aking a b rick a t a m oulding t able a nd c learly w ith a m ould; h e i s r emoving e xcess c lay w ith a w ooden b lock , f orm o f ' strike', a nother m ould. o3

a

w hilst a n a ssistant i s r emoving a f ormed b rick f rom I nterestingly, t he m ould i s e xactly t he s ame s hape

a s i ts m ore r ecent D utch e quivalent, b eyond t he e nd ' walls', o f t he m ould

w ith t he s ide ' walls' p rotruding ( though b oth t he m edieval a nd t he

r ecent D utch m oulds a re s hallower t han t he r ecent E nglish v ersion D utch b ricks a re c onsistently l ess d eep -c.4-5cm -than r ecent E nglish b ricks).

T he

i nfluence o f n orth E uropean b rick b uildings o n t hose

4 4

o f

E ngland

i n t he e arly f ifteenth c entury a nd t he p resence

i n t his c ountry

o f b rickmakers o f c ontinental o rigins a re m atters w hich h ave b een d iscussed a bove; i f b ricks w ere b eing m oulded i n t he N etherlands d uring t hat p eriod i t i s u nlikely t hat t he s ame m ethod w as n ot b eing u sed i n E ngland a t t he s ame t ime. S uitable b rickearths f or m oulding w ere a vailable, i f n ot e verywhere, a nd t he e xpertise o f t he b rickmakers i n E ngland a t t he t ime i s n ot s eriously i n q uestion. M oreover, q uite a l arge n umber o f t he s urviving b rick b uildings i nclude n ot o nly p lain b ricks b ut f eatures. f rame-made,

s pecial p urpose-made b ricks f or v arious a rchitectural I t i s d ifficult t o e nvisage q uite h ow t hese c ould h ave b een a nd i ndeed s ome o f t he m ore c omplex t ypes w ould s eem t o

d emand m ould-mak 4 1 ' specials' t oday.' " T he

m oulding

i n

s pecial m oulds

l ike t hose

p rocess c onsisted -a s

i ndeed

s till

i t

i n

s till

u se

d oes

f or

w here

h and-made b ricks a re s till p roduced -in t hrowing a s uitably s ized l ump o f t he p repared c lay i nto t he m ould, a t opless a nd b ottomless b ox p laced o n a p lane s urface. O n t his s urface i s t he s tock, w hich t he m ould f its o ver a nd e xactly f its. W e h ave a lready m entioned t he i ii f ermyng s tokkes r eferred t o i n t he H ull a ccounts f or 1 424-5. T o p revent t he c lay f rom s ticking t o t he s ides o f t he m ould, t he l atter w as d ipped, b efore e ach m oulding, i nto w ater ( 'slopmoulding') o r 65 B oth m ethods m ay h ave b een i n u se a t H ull, o r p ossibly a s and. 2 c ombination o f t he t wo w as u sed, f irst w etting t he m ould a nd t hen d ipping i t i nto s and, f or t he a ccounts c ontain a n umber o f r eferences t o t roughs ( presumably t o h old t he w ater) a nd t o s and. T hus i n t he n ote i ii t he

o n

t he

1 424-5

s ande t ubbes, p urchase o f

i i c atcheful

a ccount

t here

a re

m entions

o f

i t rogh

a nd

a nd t here a re f requent r eferences i n t he a ccounts t o s and, f or e xample i n 1 422-3 w hen l Os w as p aid f or

[ ketch l oads]

s abuli p our l e T ilery.

°6 s and w as p urchased a long w ith o ther m aterials, I s ible t hat t his w as p rimarily u sed i n m ortar

A t

T attershall

a lthough i t i s f or b uilding.

t oo p osM ore

d efinite i s t he r eference i n t he c ontract m ade i n 1 440 b etween W illiam C urteys, A bbot o f B ury S t E dmunds, a nd J ohn A rnold a nd H ermann R eynold, b rickmakers; b y t his s and ( zabult g ;2 67

c ontract

W ig ht

t he a bbot w as t o p rovide t he kes th i s as a r e f e rence

t a

n ecessary t o the

' brickearth', b ut i t i s m ore p roperly s een a s t he s and r equired i n t he m oulding p rocess. A s a lready n oted, t he t hrowing o f t he c lay i nto t he m ould r esulted i n p lastic d eformation; t his i s s ometimes v isible e ven i n a w hole b rick , b ut s hows i tself b etter i f a s ection i s c ut a cross a b rick; f urther p lastic d eformation w as c aused b y t he a ction o f r emoving e xcess c lay f rom t he t op f ace o f t he b rick w ith a s tick k nown i n

l ater

t imes a s a ' strike'.

F requently o ne

f ace o f a b rick w ill

s how

s triations c aused b y t his o peration, t hough o f c ourse m ost e xamples a re w ithin w alls a nd n ot o pen t o i nspection. S uch m arkings a re, h owever, s ometimes o bliterated b y s traw o r h ay i mpressions f ormed w hen, a t t he n ext s tage o f m anufacture, t he b ricks w ere l aid o ut t o d ry. 2 69 I t e merge

w as p resumably j ust a fter m oulding t hat b ricks i ntended t o f rom t he b urning a s ' flared h eaders' w ere p repared. T hese a re

b ricks w ith o ne h eader f ace v itrified,

o ften v irtually g lazed,

a nd i t

h as o ften b een t hought t hat t hey r 2sulted a ccidentally f rom b eing c lose t o t he f ire a nd h ence o verburnt. 2 /u B ut i nvestigations b y R .J. a nd P .E. F irman s uggest t hat s uch b ricks ' were p repared w ith t he e xpress i ntention o f p roducing v itrification; o ften o nly o ne e nd i s g lazed a nd i t a ppears t hat t his w as d ipped i n s and p rior t o f iring.' 2 71 I n m odern h and b rickmaking s alt i s s ometimes a dded t o p roduce s uch ' flared

4 5

h eaders',

2 72

d iscovered T hus s pecial

a lthough i t t his p rocess.

H erts.,

f ar w e h ave b een m ainly

b rickmakers h ad

c oncerned w ith p lain b ricks,

f or

e xample,

A n umber o f b uildings i n t he p eriod d ifferent s pecial-purpose b ricks. A t a r ecent

s urviving g atehouse n o

b ered

k nown w hether m edieval

a lthough

p urpose-made b ricks h ave b een m entioned i n c onnexion w ith f rame

a nd m ould p roduction. u sed a l arge n umber o f t he

i s n ot

1 A-8A ,

9A-12A ,

a nd

s tudy h as

f ewer t han

s hown t hat

f or

t he

s eventy d ifferent

1 3-58) were n eeded.

1 400-1450 R ye H ouse, f eatures o f

s hapes

( num-

N early a s m any w ould

2 73

h ave b een r equired f or t he v arious f eatures a t S omeries C astle, B eds., a nd a l arge n umber o f ' specials' were f ound d uring e xcavations a t t he 74 M anor o f t he M ore, n ear R ickmansworth. 2 S imilarly, q uite l arge n umbers w ould b e n eeded f or t he v arious f eatures a t t he B everley N orth

B ar, t he d iscussed

E welme A lmshouses, a nd P rior O verton's T ower a t R epton, a ll a bove. I t w as p ossible t o c ut s haped b ricks f rom o rdinary

p lain b ricks, b ut w ithin o ur p eriod, a nd b eyond, t his s eems r arely t o h ave b een d one e xcept f or v ery s imple s hapes, f or e xample a s ingle p lain c hamfer ( resulting i n t he m edieval i nstance o f a pparent c arving o f m ore c omplex p eriod,

m ay b e

p arts o f

R edbourn C hurch,

m ore

c omplex

s een

t he

d one:

i nspection o f

i ndividual t o b e

u nits

t o o f

n ot,

o f

o f m oulded l ikely

l aborious

c ourse,

m oulding

o r n o

f inished

p roducts c ase,

b ut

a ngles o r

t refoiled T his c ould

p ossibility

b efore

w ith a k nife;

' groins'

p iercings b e d one a t

f iring,

w hen t he

( b) a fter f iring,

a nd

f iring.

l eaves n o d oubt

I n

o f

a nd

t oo

t o

e nsure

s ym-

e ssential)

i t w ould o bviously

t o u se m oulds.

T his d oes

s harpening-up

t he d etails

c hisel.

e specially

I ndeed,

f or

s ome

o ccurring i n s ome o f

c ould

when a s tronger

i s t he

u nits,

1 c orbel( a) a fter

s till b e e asily i mplement

i t

o f

t he

i n t he R ye H ouse t ype o ne o f t hree s tages: c lay

t hat

t hese b ricks a re

( though n ot

S o

e xpensive)

t his w ould h ave b een n eeded,

t he

s ometimes,

t o

m any o f

r epeating p attern,

l ess

t he

p rior

c arve t hese f rom ' green' f irm e vidence t hat t his w as

i n s pecial m oulds. ( hence

p reclude

r e-entrant

s uch a s t ables. 2 78

s haped

s pecial-purpose b ricks w ith k nife o r

t hat

a cute

w ere

I n a ny

f orming c orbel-tables a round

e ven s quinchons

p attern i t w as d es g ble

m ake u niform u nits l ess

t he

s hape.

i n a n o verall

a nd n eatness

f ar

B ut

2 76

b e p ossible t o c ut b ut t here i s a s y et

c lay w as m oulded

m etry

c usped a rhlets

H erts.

s hapes n early a lways,

t heory i t w ould ( unburnt) b ricks, e ver

i n t he

' squinchon'). 2 75 A r are s hapes, t hough b eyond o ur

s haped

l ike a c hisel

would b e r equired; a nd ( c) i n s itu o n t he f inished b uilding. T here i s n o p ositive e vidence i n f avour o f a ny o ne o f t hese p ossibilities, a lthough J ane W ight t he

a c eg

h as p lausibly

r e-entrants

C astle.

T he v arious

b ricks a re A ll b ricks'

s et

o ut

t hese

y ard w ere

t hat

I ,

o f

t he

l abels

t hat

o f

m oulding, w ere

p lanks a nd

f or m aking b enches;

f or

i t

a s

o ut

' wainscots'

f rom

' ii w aynscotes'

t o

b e

f or

S omeries

s pecial-purpose

-m entioned a t

t o

H ull

c utting

p urchased s

L °u

' place

a nd i t

f or

i s

t he H ull

b enches w ere m ade

a t W estminster i n T he ' ledges' -m ade

i n 1 424-5 m ay w ell h ave

b een

b enches. W hen w ainscots o r o ther b oards a re m entioned i n r ather t han i n b rickyard, a ccounts i t i s o f c ourse i mpossible

c ertain t hat o r

a t

o n a b ench,

i s c ertain t hat

' wainscots' f rom a n i nventory o f t he s t ' 2 p ortreyying t ables o f w aynescote...'.

l ing

l ast w as u sed

d oorways

o pposed

c arried

f rom 1 443:

m oulding b uilding,

t he

a bove

b elow.

f rame-bricks,

s ome

s uggested

t he

p ossible m ethods o f p roducing

i n T able

o perations

o r m aking

p ossible

i n

t hey w ere

f or b rick b enches

o ther u ses w ithin t he b uilding

4 6

i tself.

r ather T hey

t han f or a ppear

p anels everal

T ABLE S HAPED B RICKS:

w ith n o i i I

T HEORETICAL M ODEL

f urther

w ith f urther

M oulded

1

f inishing

a ll w ith o r w ithout

c arving o r

s harpening u p

i n g reen s tage f urther

i ii

w ith f urther

c arving o r

s harpening u p o f

1

w ith n o

I I

C arving o f g reen

i i

b rick

I II

w ith

f urther

b urnt

b rick

c arving

f inishing

o r

f urther c arving o r

s harpening-up o f

b urnt

s harpen-

i ng-up

i n

b rick s itu.

C arving o f

b urnt

b rick

t imes

i n t he

T attershall a ccounts,

[ tabularum]

d uring

i n

1 434-5:

t ime...';

' £7

' Carriage o f f or 2 00 b oards

t abularum v octarum w aynscott'],

w aynscott I cc ma 1 H ull... , •2 3 T he t inental

t he a foresaid

a s

b oards c alled

p rovided b y m y l ord a t

s ort o f b ench u sed i s i llustrated f rom a w ell-known c ons ource, a n i llustration i n t he N ederlandische B ijbel, 2 82 which

s hows a m an w orking a t a b ench s upported b y f our l egs. T he f ourteenthc entury b rickmaking s ite a t B oston h ad b een p rovided w ith a w ell-made r ectangular b rick ' pad' o r p latform, 9ft b y 5 ft, w hj A t he e xcavator ° A b ase f or a p lausibly s uggested w as a b ase f or t he m oulding b ench. L m oulding b ench h as a lso b een r ecogn ed, f rom a l ater d ate, a t t he t ile -making

s ite a t D anbury,

I n t he m anuscript u nder a r oof, c orrespond T hus,

i n

i n t he

E ssex.

i llustration

j ust

s upported b y p osts a t

t o

t he

1 434-5

T ilehouse,

w ere 5 2 9,400 i llustration

' tilehouses'

2 ,300 b ricks

m entioned

i ntended

p resumably a t

r eferred

i nterior

t he b ench T his m ust

i n s ome o f

E dling ge M oor;'M

5

e xterior c ould b e d epicted

t he

t ilehouse

( referred

t ogether

w ith

R angell,

t he

R ichard d aubing t he

i n

t wenty-four s later,

s imultaneously. t he d omus)

o f

t he

t wenty-one

s pars,

a nd

B ijbel s eems

i t i s p ossible t hat t his i s ' cut-away' d rawing w hereby

t o a s

c arried

a nd h is m ate R ichard

S outhwell, w g2 t he w alls. " '"

r ebuilding

1 422-3:

s till

t he n ext y ear t here

t imber-framed b uilding w ith w attle-and-daub p anels. r ebuilt

s hown

d ocuments.

b ricks a t t he T ilehouse. T he N ederlandische s hows a n o pen s tructure w ithout s ide w alls; t his

a nd

e xtensively

t he

i s

c ertainly

f or T atter5hall C astle w ere

p lausible e nough f or i ts p urpose, a lthough a r esult o f t he m edieval c onvention o f t he c ertainly,

t o

t he c orners.

t rees t o

t he

S kefflying,

w as

T he

2 B /A t

H ull,

a

p roper

s tructure w as

w ere s ite.

p urchased, ' ...John

w ith t wo m en a nd

e mployed o n s awing t he t imber, r oofing, a nd T wo y ears l ater ( 1424-5) t he a ccounts r eport

t ilehouse: 4 7

x 89 s parres p ro q uadam d omo d e n ouo f acto i n xiiii 2 x t egularia v s. U no p osto c um d iuersis w yvers xd. i i

a ke

u no

s parres

c um u na a bore p ro

a setree x vid.

W illelmo

p orta

c okirton

i bidem

e t

c arpentario

o peranti i bidem p er i iii d ies d imidium c apienti p er d iem v id. us. hid. W illelmo s eruienti s uo p er i dem t empus c apienti p er d iem i iiid. im i iii c t egularum v ocatur t haktile i t iles]

p recio m u le

i xs.

v id.

x viiid. Pro [ sc. r oofing

xiiis. x

C ariagio

cc e t d imidium l atuales his. e arundem x iid... i im c i xd• x ic l attes p recio c entum x iid. x is. R icardo T enny i xd.

p ro c ariagio d iuersium x iid. D obyngstowres Sharplynges e t a liis c liUibus x id. A de

I ngram g rosso

p ro d obyng c onducto

i bidem d iuersibus v icibus i n I ohanni R angell s klater

o peranti i bidem p er v iii d iem v id. iiis. i iid. i

d ies d imidium c apienti p er I ohanni M unk s eruienti s uo

p er i dem t empus c apienti p er d iem i iiid. us. v i w aynscotes p ro o stis i bidem f aciendis S erracione l edges

e orundem i iiid.

v iiid.

s olet

e t

o b.

c c lauibus c

d ernethes

iiid. i

i waynscotes p ro i

i xd.

U na a rbore

W illelmo W right

d iebus i bidem p ro o stiis e t a liis i bidem f aciendis c apienti p er d iem v id.

v

n ecessariis h is. v id.

1 429-30 a f urther 9s 4 d h ad

o f

A fter m oulding, t he ' green' b ricks w ere l aid o ut t o d ry o n a r es p repared g round, t he ' hacksteads' o f l ater b rickmaking p ractice.' "° H ull t hese a re

s eason;

r eferred

t he a ccounts a re I ohanni P almer

b e

p our p ro

I n

A t

t o

x d.

t o a s

s pent A d t ilehous.

' rowmes'

a nd h ad

t o b e

c leaned

e ach

c lear o n t his p oint: ..

p ro m undacione d e

t ribus

r owmes

i xd. I ohanni D rynkale .. p ro m undacione d e t ribus r owmes.... I ohanni W etton .. p ro m undacione d e t ribus

r owmes....

p resumably] I n

1 429-30

5 s

r eference, i ng, t he

w as

e t

p aid

t he h acksteads w ere

a lready

f ound n oted

T attershall, g round. r eferred

o n

t o

t he

t he

f aces

t he o ccurence o f a nd

s ome

( 1422-3)

E mendacione p lacearum,

o f

g round; o f

p resumably

t o t he h acksteads.2 9

c overed w ith s and,

f rom s ticking

[ 'rowmes',

t egularum ....

u nder a d ifferent n ame,

b ricks

s ometimes

E idem p ro c lensyng

f actura

h ay,

o r

s traw a nd h ay

b ricks w hen

s and a t H ull,

i m r essions a re

e xamined. B ury

t his m ay h ave b een u sed

S t i n

B ut a t H ull h ay w as t he m ain m aterial u sed a nd t o; f or e xample, t he a ccount f or 1 422-3 c ontains

2

p ro

f eno v s.

x d...

R icardo

s tak f eni

T home

v iiis.

S outhwell

p ro

a nd t he

i s f requently t he f ollowing

t enny

C arriagio e iusdem x xiiid.... u na

s tak f eni

e t

e iusdem v s. id.... T home R outhe p ro i f eni c um c ariagio e isdem v iis. i iid.

4 8

c arrragio i i

h ave

p reparing

p ro c arriagio f eni d e l es N orthyates i lluc [ viz, t o t he b rickyard] v iid. E idem p ro c onducto f eni d e 3 a d t eg t harium t rinis v icibus x iiiid... S culcotes 29 U no

W e

E dmunds,

e ntries: S imoni K ent

a nother

A fter c leans traw t o p revent 1

c arteful

I n l ater y ears

s traw

t oo w as u sed:

P ro s traminibus i n g rosso d e T homa R outhe C ariagio e iusdem u sque a d t egularium us. ( 1424-5) v i

c arucatis

f eni e t

s traminis c um c ariagio

i n g rosso e mptis x viis. v iiid. T he a ccounts o f

x vs.

x f i c f .

e iusdem

( 1427 4 6).

t he W ardens o f L ondon dEidge

i nclude

s traw,

a s w ell a s

s and, f or m aking b ricks a t D eptford. A t C aister C astle i mpressions o n s ome o f 9g b ricks t hemselves i ndicate t he u se o f s traw t o c over t he h acksteads. T he

b ricks

c ould b e

t aken i ndividually t o

t he h acksteads o r

t hey

c ould b e t aken i n b atches, e ither i n t he a rms o r b y wheelbarrow. B oth t he l atter m eans a re i llustrated i n t he N ederlandische B ijbel p icture a lready r eferred t o; i nterestingly, t he b arrow h ere i s l ike a m odern g ardener's o r b uilder's w heelbarrow r atheL , pan l ike t he l ong f lat h ack-barrow o f l ater b rickmaking p ractice. L 7v w heelbarrows i n t he H ull b rickyard a ccounts

T here a re r eferences t o ( e.g. 1 423-4: F actura

u nius b arowe e t e mendacione a lterius x iiid. o b.) a nd i n t he B ury S t E dmunds c op eact o f 1 440 ( dictus d ominus A bbas i nveniet v iij w helbarwys).`7 A t T attershall a w heelbarrow i s n ot m entioned u ntil E t 1 472, a nd t hat w as f or u se i n t he c astle, n ot a t t he b rickworks s olutum W illelmo K elsey p ro j w helebarowe p ro h abendo i n c astro...); b ut n o d oubt t hey w ere a lso u sed, e arlier, a t t he b rickmaking s ite. W hen t he b ricks h ad p artly d ried t hey c ould b e

s tacked i n

' hacks',

o ften i n h erringbone a rrangement. O ccasionally t his w as d one t oo s oon -b efore t he b ricks w ere s ufficiently d ry a nd h ardened -a nd t his s hows i tself i n t he f inished p roduct b y t he s light d epressions o f s urface c aused b y t he p ressing o f o ther b ricks. I t h as b een o bserved t hat ' in a ll t he e xamples s een t o d ate, b ricks w ere l aid o n t heir s ides a t a bout 3 0 0 _ 45 0 2 99 t o e ach o ther,' t hat i s t o s ay, i n t he h erring-bone a rrangement

u sual

i n l ater b rickmaking p ractice. 3°°

T he

p urpose

s tacking t he b ricks w as, o f c ourse, t o e conomise o n s pace, f urther b ricks c ould b e l aid o ut f or t he i nitial d rying, b ut t ice l ate

o f

s o t hat t he p rac-

p robably a lso a ided t he f urther d rying b y a llowing a ir t o c ircum ore f reely a round t he ' green' b ricks. I n l ater b rickmaking t he

b ricks w ere l ater r e-arranged i n t he h acks, b eing s paced m ore w idely s o a s t o i ncrease c ontact w ith a ir a nd f urther s peed u p t he d rying, a n o peration k nown a s ' skintling' o r ' skinking'. 3U1 w hether t his w as f ollowed i n m edieval b rickmaking.

I t

i s n ot k nown B ut t he N eder-

l andische B ijbel i llustration s hows t wo d ifferent a rrangements o f d rying b ricks, i n a h erring-bone a rrangement a nd i n a s traight a rrangem ent; i t i s l ikely t hat t his r epresents a r e-arrangement o f t he b ricks a t s ome s tage d uring t he d rying-out p eriod. P urpose-moulded b ricks w ould, o f c ourse, r equire v ery c areful s tacking; p ossibly, l ike m ediev al

f loor-tiles ,

p repared g round A t f rost,

t his

t hey w ere n ot

s tacked a t a ll b ut

l aid o ut

s ingly

o n

0 2

s tage

t he

' green'

o r e xcessive h eat

b ricks c ould e asily b e

f rom t he

s un,

3 03

s poiled b y r ain,

a nd i t w as t herefore

n eces -

s ary t o c over t hem -a t l east w hen t he w eather w as t hreatening. I n t he n ineteenth-century K entish y ards s traw o r r eeds w ere u sed f or t his p urpose,

3 °4

a nd a t

C aister

i n t he M iddle A ges r ushes w ere u sed,

4 9

a s t he

f ollowing e ntry

f or

1 433-4 m akes c lear:

I n 1 ,0 90 s tacks o f r ushes b ought f or c overing t he s aid b rick, p rice o f 1 00 s tacks 1 0s. 6 d., l ess i u a ll A t

H ull,

1 04d.

£ 5

o n t he o ther

t he r eeds

c ut

1 2s.

O d.

[ sic]

3 U5

f rom t he d ykes

s urrounding

t he b rickyard w ere s old, a nd t he b ricks w ere, p erhaps m ore e ffecb ut i t i s a t ively, c overed w ith ' nattes'; t he w ord p led B rooks, 3U7 k nown M iddle E nglish w ord m eaning ' mats'; t hey w ere p robably m ade f rom c anvas f or g loy p ro n attes f aciendis a nd s aille t hrede p our l es n attes y ears. 8 , w hen

w ere b ought

i n 1 423-4 a nd

s imilar p urchases w ere m ade i n

o ther

S ometimes, h owever, t hey w ere o btained r eady-made, a s i n 1 4277 s i s e ntered i n t he a ccount f or i x n attes e mptis d e A licia

L incoln' a d c ooperiendas t egulas a nd 2 d w as p aid o ut P ortacione d ictarum n attes a d t egularium . I n 1 423-4 1 0d w as p aid I ohanni W itton p ro i iii w andes p our l es n attes; p resumably t hese w ere s pars o ver w hich t he c anvas c ated i n ( virgis) a d s ibly t his

' mats' w ere s pread. A m ore r obust f orm o f s upport i s i ndi1 427-8 i n t he p urchase o f a p ole o r p ossibly e ven a b eam t enendas d ictas n attes s uper t egulas a t a c ost o f 4 d: p osw as a s ort o f r idge-pole a gainst w hich t he ' mats' r ested,

t ent-like. A r eference t o ' pak y lged' s uggests s omething s imilar t here.

i n t he B ury

S t

E dmunds c ontract

ength o n t he h ackstead t he ' green' A fter a p eriod o f v aryi u 2 0l 3 1 b ricks w ere r eady f or f iring. A s i n l ater p ractice t he .re w ere t wo m ethods o f f iring b ricks -either i n a k iln o r i n a c lamp. 31 T he k iln w as a p ermanent

s tructure,

i tself b uilt o f

' green' b ricks w ere s tacked; t he c lamp, s pecially a rranged s tack o f ' green' b ricks,

f ired b ricks,

i n w hich t he

o n t he o ther h and, w as a e rected o n a p repared b ase,

a nd a lthough t his w ould b e e nclosed b y b urnt b ricks a fter b uilding t here w as n o i ndependent k iln-structure: t he w hole s tack w as f ired b y i gniting f uel l aid i n c hannels -later k nown a s ' live-holes' -running t hrough t he l owest c ourses o f b ricks a cross t he w idth o f t he c lamp; a fter f iring a nd c ooling t he w hole c lamp w as d ismantled. I n r ecent b rickmaking p ractice t he t wo t erms a cquired s pecific, a nd d iscrete, m eanings; b ut t he f ormer t imes t hey w ere u sed i nterchangeably, s o t hat t he o ccurence o f e ither t erm i n e arly d oc l 4ments i s n o e vidence f or t he m ethod i n u se a t a p articular b rickyard.' 1 2 O n t he w hole i t s eems l ikely t hat t he s mall, t emporary y ards -set u p i n c onnexion w ith a p articular b uilding p roject -w ould u se c lamps, w hilst t he l arger, p ermanent o r s emi-permanent y ards -such a s t he m unicipal y ards -w ould u se

k ilns;

b ut

t here

i s n o

f irm e vidence f or t his,

a nd o ne n eeds

r emember t hat, f or e xample, p ermanent b rickyards i n t wentieth-century K ent p referred t o u se c lamps r ather F urthermore, s pecific

w hen

s pecial-purpose

a rchitectural

m oulded b ricks w ere

f eatures -for e xample t hose o n

t o

n ineteenth- a nd t han k ilns. 3 13 r equired t he

f or

B everley

N orth B ar, o r a t S omeries C astle o r R ye H ouse -a k iln m ay h ave b een n eeded e ven a t a r elatively t emporary b rickmaking s ite. I t i s k nown t hat e arlier ( thirteenth-century) s pecial-purpose f loor-tiles ( for u se i n t ile-m9e ic) r equired c areful t reatment a nd f airly e laborate k ilnf urniture. ' S ome a t l east o f t he s haped b ricks i n u se i n t he f ift eenth c entury w ould p resent s imilar p roblems i n f iring, a nd i t i s d oubtful w hether t hey c ould h ave b een s tacked w ith g eneral f abric b ricks i n a c lamp. P ossibly, s mall k ilns w ere e rected f or f iring t hese b ricks w hilst

t he p lain b ricks w ere c lamp-burnt.

5 0

T he

o nly b rick c lamp

t o h ave b een e xcavated

i n t his

c ountry

i s

a

t B oston, L incs., w hich p ossibly ' was u sed f ourteenth century e xample a to b uild t he t ile k iln' w hich w as s olely t o b urn t he b ricks n ecessary 3D he s ite. T he r emains o f t he c lamp c ont he p rincipal f eature o f t s isted

o f a p latform ( the c lamp-base)

e ight i nches d eep, r oughly r ectangular o f 2 3 f eet ( north-south) a nd 1 5 f eet. a rea, a t w asters.

o f h ard

f ired

s ilty

c lay

s ix

t o

i n s hape w ith m aximum d imensions as s urrounded b y a b urnt T his w

ile o f u nderburned b rick t he n orth-west c orner o f w hich w as a p A djacent t o t he s outh-east c orner o f t he c lamp-base w as a n

een u sed i n f iring t he c oal a nd c oal d ust w hich m ust h ave b L arger c lamps h ave b een e xcavated a t W ijk b ij D uurstede, lamps c onsisted o nly o f N etherlands. A rchaeological t races o f t hese c s oil m arks, a nd t heir e xcavation g ives t he c lue t o w hat m ay b e l ooked 16 U nfortunately, b y t heir v ery n ature t hey f or o n E nglish s ites. 3

a rea o f c lamp.

l eave l ittle o r n o s urface t races s o t hat t hey a re n ot s usceptible o f f ieldwork i nvestigation a nd, m oreover, t hey a re u nlikely t o b e e asily l ocated, e ven a t s ites o f k nown b rickmaking, a nd a re o nly l ikely t o b e r evealed b y a ccident i n t he c ourse o f o ther e xcavation w ork. A t D eptford

t he 'tilkylne

f or m aking b ryke' w as e nlarged a t a c ost

o f 2 0s i n 1 418, 3 17 a nd t his w ould s eem t o i mply a p ermanent k iln s tructure. A t W indsor i n 1 430 t i le p eriod o f w atching t he b ricks d uring 1 1 6 a nd t his m ust i ndicate t he u se o f a f iring w as o nly f our n ights, 3 k iln r ather t han a c lamp, s ince c lamps t ook m uch l onger t o b urn ( infra). T he s um o f £ 1 7 s 4 d w hich w as p aid t o W illiam V esey i n A pril 1 442 ' vppon o i ling o f a b reke k ylne' a t S lough ( for m aking b ricks f or 1 a gain i mplies a p ermanent s tructure -t hat i s, a k iln E ton C ollege) 3 r ather t han a c lamp. A t H ull t oo t here w ere c ertainly p ermanent k ilns, w hich w ere r epaired p rior t o e ach s eason's u se: i n 1 422-3, f or e xample, w e r ead o f r eparacione d omus [ sc. t he t ilehouse] e t u strine d icte t egularie, a nd i n t he f owing y ear W illiam S cotter w as p aid p ro e mendacione d es k ilnemouthes. I n 1 422-3 R oger S outhwell w as p aid 2 s 6 d p ro v d iebus e t n octibus v igilanti, a nd i f t his r efers t o w atching t he b ricks d uring f iring t hen w e h ave f urther c onfirmation, f rom t he T here i s r eference i n s hort p eriod i nvolved, f or t he u se o f k ilns. 321 t his a nd o ther y ears ( e.g. 1 423-4: I ohanni D rinkale p ro v igilacione t ertie u strine x is.) t o m ore t han o ne k iln, a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat w hat i s m eant h ere i s t hree c onsecutive u ses o f t he s ame k iln r ather t han t hree s eparate o f t he k iln, £ 5 1 6_ .

o ' costs s tructures. A r eference i n 1 432-3 t f ollowing a t C aister a nd a r eference t he 3 d ivers s tructure

y ear t o ' removing .. b ricks o ut o f t he k ilns o f t he l ord t imes t his y ear' p r ebly i ndicate t he u se o f a p roper k iln r ather t han a c lamp. A lthough

a

n umber o f m edieval

t ile a nd p ottery k ilns

h ave

b een

e xcavated, n o m edjAxal b rick k iln h as y et b een s cientifically e xcavated i n t his c ountry. T he t ile a nd p ottery k ilns w ere s ometimes f airly wQ h ave e laborate t hough q uite s mall s tructures, a nd w hat f igures s uggest t hat t he b rick k ilns w ould h ave b een a g ood b it l arger. 324 A t C aister b eing i n

i n f ired

1 433-4 t hree

t he a ccounts

5 5 l a t s o f b ricks w ere t imes;

2 5

s ince

i t

f ired

c an b e

t hat a s ingle l ast w as a bout

i n

t wo

c alculated

k ilns,

e ach

f rom

e lsewhere

1 0,000 b ricks,

t his m ust

m ean t hat e ach c harge o f a k iln w as a lmost 92,000 b ricks: a q uite p rodigious a mount r equiring a v ery l arge s tructure. T he H ull y ard h ad m ore m odest k ilns w ith a c apacity a round 3 5,000-45,000. 326 T his l atter i s a pproximately t he c apacity o f S cotch

k iln

t ype,

s tudied

t wo n ineteenth-century k ilns, b y

5 1

M .D.P.

H ammond:

t hey

o f

t he

m easured

a pproximately

2 7

f eet b y

1 1

f eet

b y 1 2 f eet 6 i nches

h igh

i nternally

( cubic c apacity = 3 ,712.5 c ubic f eet) a nd h ad w alls 3 f e / 6 i nches 7 O n t his t hick a t t he b ase, t apering t o 2 f eet 6 i nches a t t he t op. 2 r eckoning t he l arger C aister k ilns w ould h ave r equired a c ubic c apacity o f

a t

l east 7 ,590 c ubic

f eet

( say,

3 5 b y

1 8

b y

1 2 f eet).

I t

i s

n ot

u nlikely i ndeed t hat t he m edieval b rick k ilns w ere b asically s imilar t o t hose s tudied b y H ammond. A G erman i llustration o f 1 568 s hows a k iln a nd t he e laborate k iln -complete w ith c renellated o f t he t ype, 325 c orner t urrets! -in t he N ederlandische B ijbel ( c.1425) m ay b e b asica lly o f t he s ame s ort. S uch k ilns w ere r ectangular i n p lan w ith s imple o penings a t e ach e nd f or l oading a nd u nloading t he b ricks; a long e ach s ide w as a s eries o f l ow, a rched f ire-holes f or t he f uel. A s w ell a s t he i conographic e vidence, t here i s f irm a rchaeological p roof o f t he u se o f k ilns o f t his s ort -w ith e ight f ire-holes a long e ach s ide -in 9 3 3u A nd t he f ourteenth-century t he N etherlands d uring t he M iddle A ges. 3 Z t ile-kiln a t B oston w as s omewhat s imilar. A v ariant d esign h ad t wo a rched f urnace r unning b eneath t he k iln f loor t he f ull l ength o f t he k iln, t he k iln h eat t o a scend;

f loor b eing c onstructed i n s uch a w ay a s t o a llow t he s uch k ilns, t hough o n a s maller s cale, w ere i n u se

f iring t iles d uring h e M iddle A ges, a nd D anbury, E ssex.' 3 ' L oading o f

f or e xample a t M eaux ,

t he k ilns w as a s killed o peration,

Y orks.

t he b ricks h aving

t o

b e a rranged s o t hat t he h eat c ould p enetrate t o e very p art o f t he k iln. I n r ecent p ractice t he k ilns w ere c overed o ver, o nce l oaded, w ith a l ight w ooden r oof, 333 a nd i t m ay b e f or t his p urpose t hat h urdles w ere p urchased f or s ome o f t he m edieval y ards: a t D eptford i n 1 418 3 s 4 d w as

s pent

o n

' string a nd o ther t hings

m aking

f lekes

[ that

i s,

h urdles] f or t he m aking o f b ryketill', a nd a t H ull i n 1 424-5 v i f lekkes w ere p urchased f or 2 s 1 1d. P ossibly t he iii p lankes w hich i i mmediately f ollow i n t he a ccount w ere r equired f or t he s ame p urpose, a lthough t here a re o ther u ses f or p lanks i n a m uddy b rickyard. T he f ifteen-rung l adder ( i s ty o f x v s teles l ong) m entioned i n 1 424-5 w as p resumably u sed f or t his t ask a s w ell a s f or l oading t he u pper p arts o f t he k iln. B ut s ome k ilns m ay ' h ave h ad p ermanent s tggg b uilt i nto t heir s tructure, l ike t he e arlier t ile-kiln a t D anbury. T he e laborate k iln

d epicted

i n t he N ederlandische B ijbel i llustration h as a s et

s teps c urving u p o ne o f t he a ngle-turrets. d oorways w ould b e s topped w ith b ricks. D ifferent

t ypes o f

f uel w ere u sed

t o

B efore f iring

f ire t he k ilns,

t he

o f k iln

a nd w ere

a n

i mportant p art o f t he b rickyard e conomy ( vide i nfra, p .71). C oal w as c ertainly a vailable i n t he e arly f ifteenth c entury, e r ld f ragments o f i t h ave c ome

B ut i t d id n ot b een f ound e ven i n m edieval p easants' h ouses. 33b 3 37 n u se i n b rickmaking u ntil t he m iddle o r l ate s eveni nto c ommo

t eenth c entury. T here i s c lear a rchaeological e vidence 3 r i ts p resence a t t he f ourteenth-century b rick c lamp a t B oston. T he e xcavator c onsidered t hat t he c oal d ust h ad b een a dded t o t he c lay d uring

m anufacture;

t he

r elated p ractice o f a dding

f uel

t o t he b ricks

t hemselves c an b e t raced b ack t o t he s eventeenth c entury; 3 1 9 b ut i n t he e xperience o f R .J. a nd P .E. F irman ' both c arbonaceous i nclusions a nd c inders a re e xceedingly r are i n m edieval b ricks. A ll o f t he b lack s pecks

o bserved

i n t he

f ield h ave

t urned o ut o n c loser

i nspection t o

b e

he b rick c lay d oes i ron h ydroxides... T he p ractice o f a dding f uel t o t n ot a ppear t o h ave b een c ommon i n t he M iddle A ges.' 340 I n a ny c ase, t he c oal a t t he B oston c lamp w ould s urely h ave b een u sed a s n ormal f uel t oo, d istributed b etween t he c ourses o f b ricks m aking u p t he c lamp a s

5 2

w ell

a s

i n

t he

c hannels

l eft

f or

t his

p urpose

i n

t he

b ottommost

c ourses. E xamination o f t he c oal a t B oston s uggested t hat i t p robably c ame f rom t he B arnsley d istrict o f Y orkshire. A t t he l ate f ourteenthc entury/early

f ifteenth-century

s mithy a t

G oltho,

L incs.,

2 5

m iles

( 40km) n orth-west o f B oston, c oal p robably f rom B arnsley w as a lso W illiam V esey's c o ession o f 1 437 r equired h im t o s eek o ut u sed. 341 b oth

w ood a nd

c oal a s

f uels.

' Sea c oal' w as p urchased

f or

T atter-

s hall ( e.g. 1 43 9-40: R ogero B arker b allivo d omini a pud B oston u t i n p recio v j c haldrorum c arbonum m aritimorum...), b ut t his w as f or f uel i n t he

l ime-kilns, C oal,

n ot,

a pparently,

i n f act,

w as n ot

f or t he b rick k ilns.

t he n ormal

f uel a t

3 43

t he t ime,

a nd w ood a nd

t urves a ppear m uch m ore f requently i n r elevant a ccounts. A t b oth w ood a nd t urves w ere u sed, a s t he f ollowing e ntry i n t he f or

1 433-4 s hows: I n 5 60 s takes b ought

f or b urning

1 7s.

b ricks

I n 1 ,360 f aggots b ought f or t he s ame I n 6 4 l asts o f t urfs b ought f or t he s ame, p rice o f e ach l ast 7 s. T he

C aister a ccount

a ccount

J ohn G rene A t

f or t he f ollowing y ear i ncludes £ 3

f or m aking

[ sic]

E dlington M oor,

u nderwood w ere u sed. H e

[ Thomas

£ 3

l s. 9 44.

£ 22

8 s. 0 d .

1 4s 4 4d

' paid

t urfs i n C astre m anor t his y ear.'

i n m aking b ricks

T hus

5 d .

f or T attershall,

t o

O •

•

3 44

s ticks

a nd

i n 1 434-5:

C roxby,

s upervisor

o f

t he

w orks]

a cknowledges t he p rice o f 1 5,124 f aggots [ fagott orum ], f rom t he w ood a nd u nderwood [ de b osco e t s ubbosco] c ut i n m y l ord's w ood c alled S tikeswold S outhewode, f or f iring b ricks i n m y l ord's k iln t here [ ibidem ; b ut p robably r eferring t o n earby E dlington M oor r ather t han t o S tixwould], p rice f or e ach 1 ,000 o ver a nd a bove c utting, 2 3s. 4 d., b esides 1 ,696 f aggots [ fagottos] a ssigned t o t he

P rioress

o f

S tikeswold i n n ame o f t ithe £ 17

I n a t

1 2s.

O d.

a ddition, f urther f uel w as p urchased f rom t he A bbot o f B ardney a nd S imilar r eferences ' Thorpe S heterley' ( ?Tattershall T horpe). 345

o ccur i n t he a ccounts f or s ubsequent y ears. T attershall i ndeed t hat p lace m ay b e i dentified w ith T horpe S heterley) m ile ( 1.6km) f rom T attershall, ( 9.7km) a nd B ardney i s n ine m iles

b ut S tixwould i s ( 14.5km) d istant.

T horpe ( if i s o nly o ne

n early s ix m iles C arriage o f f uel

b y w ater w ould c learly b e p referable, a nd t here i s f irm e vidence f or t his i n t he a ccounts: t he 1 434-5 a ccount i ncludes a p ayment o f 4 s f or c artage o f f uel i t w ould h ave ' Expenses a nd k now w here b ury,

w ater w hat

o f

f rom t he w ood t o t he b ank o f b een t aken b y b oat. 346 T he

k iln,

w ith p urchase o f

t he R iver W itham, w hence 1 445-6 a ccount i ncludes

f uel a nd c arriage t hereof

[ tam p er t erram q uam p er a quam ]

£ 86

t ypes o f w ood w ere b urnt h ere o r a t

1 0s.

6 d.'

3 47

b y

l and

W e d o n ot

o ther b rickmaking

w ood w as u sed; b ut a t t he f ourteenth-century t ile-kiln a t E ssex e xamination o f c harcoal s amples s howed t he f uel t o

s ites D anh ave

b een b eech, o ak, h ornbeam, a nd b irch. 4 8 N or i s i t k nown h ow m uch w as * c onsumed d uring f iring, t hough i t i s r ecorded t hat o ne t housand f agg , w ere

r equired f or f iring

t en t ile-kilns

5 3

i n t he f ourteenth

c entury.

t here i s n o r eason w hy ' destruction o f w oodland P ace D rury a nd P ratt 350 .. m ust h ave b een c onsiderable'; a s O liver R ackham h as s tressed, s uch d estruction -t hough o ften p leaded - 'is i nherently i mplausible, f or t rees g row a gain, a nd ' a w ood n eed n o m ore b e d est wyed b y f elling t han a m eadow i s d estroyed b y c utting a c rop o f h ay'.' " t he T attershall a nd C aister r eferences a re t o w ood n ot t imber, b oscus n ot m aerimium, t aken f rom c oppiced t rees a nd c apable o f r egeneration e ach y ear. C utt ing w ood f or f uel i s n ot i n a ny s ense a f orm o f p urpresture; o n t he c ontrary, i t w as i n t he e conomic i nterests b oth o f t he o wner a nd o f t he u ser o f s uch w ood t hat t he c oppiced w oodland b e p roperly m anaged t o p roduce a r egular a nnual ' crop'. 32

s o

a s

A t H ull t urves w ere u sed f or f uel ( as t hey h ad b een, f or e xample, t he t ile-kiln a t H arleywood, E ssex i n 1 385). 353 L ike t he T atters hall w ood f uel, t hese t urves w ere d elivered t o t he b rickyard b y w ater. O n o ne o ccasion ( 1432-3) i t i s n oted t hat t hey w ere o btained f rom ' Useflete' ( Ousefleet), w hich i s s ome 1 7 m iles ( 27km) w est o f H ull b ut

a t

w ith a d irect w ater l ink a long t he R ivers O use a nd H umber. T he f uel w as d elivered b y b arge ( kela), d oubtless a n a nc er o f t he s ailing k eels t o b e s een o n t he H umber u ntil r ecent t imes: W illelmo

M old

p ro

i ii

k eleful

t urbarum

.. R oberto M old p ro t urbis x xiis. i iid [ one b arge-load f rom t he s ame p rovenance?] e t i p ortacione e orundem x is. id. W illelmo M old x p ro t urbis xs. P ortacione u nius k eleful id. E isdem p ortatoribus p ro i t urbarum x is. — p ortacione v iii m u le t urbarum e qua a d t erram um v iii m ille v iiid. W illelmo M old p ro u no b ulk' 5 ' c t urbarum x vs. x d. ( 1422-3). T he

p enultimate

s taithe. i n 1 427-8

r eference

i s c learly

t o u nloading t he t urves

a t

t he

B ut a pparently t hey w ere n ot a lways u nloaded i mmediately, f or a n u nnamed m an w as p aid 6 d v igilanti d ictas t urbas n octanter

i n l e k ele; p resumably t hey h ad a rrived a t t he e nd o f O nce u nloaded t he t urves w ere c arried i n b askets:

t he w orking d ay. i m aundes p ro i

p ortacione t urbarum v iiid. ( 1422-3); a nd o nce o n s ite t hey w ere s tacked r eady f or u se: T renchefeld e t u xori s uo p ro s takkyng t urbarum v iiid. ( 1422-3). T hey h ad t o b e p rotected f rom r ain, t here i s a r eference i n t he a ccount: ( paid t o) B ener' t urbarum e t a bly] is. i

a nd i n 1 427-8 p ro c ooperatura

t egularum [ the ' green' b ricks o n t he h acksteads, p resumiiid.; p robably h e u sed t he s ix e lls ( 74 y ards) o f c anvas i

( vi u lnis c anuas) m entioned

i mmediately b efore.

W hen b ricks a nd f uel w ere l oaded i nto t he k iln a nd i t w as s uitably c overed o ver, o r w hen t he c lamp w as b uilt, t he f uel c ould b e i gnited a nd t he k iln o r c lamp a llowed t o b urn f or t he r equired p eriod. m aximum t emperature a chieved w ould b e s omewhere b etween 1 000 ° a nd

T he 1 200 °

C , d epending o n t he n ature o f t he c lay a nd t he n ature o f t he b ricks r equired. B ut a l arge p art o f t he a rt o f t he b rickmaker c onsisted i n h is t he

a bility c arefully t o c ontrol t he r aising o f t his t emperature a nd s ubsequent c ooling o f t he k iln o r c lamp. S erious m istakes i n t his

p rocedure c ould B efore m odern t raditional a lthough o f t hink

t hat

b adly d amage t he b ricks o r e ven r uin t hem a ltogether. i nstruments a ided t his p rocedure b rickmakers a t

y ards w ere q uite c apable o f j udging t his b y e xperience, c ourse m istakes d id s ometimes o ccur. T here i s n o r eason t o m edieval b rickmakers w ould h ave b een a ny l ess 5 4

c apable

o f

c ontrolling

t he h eat

i n k iln o r c lamp

i n t his

' empirical' w ay.

F or a k iln t he p eriod o f b urning l asted a bout f our d ays; D obson, i n t he 356 n ineteenth c entury, g ives ' three d ays a nd t hree n ights' f or f iring, b ut i t i s c lear t hat a % y indsor i n 1 430 a p eriod o f f our hijIm a t H ull a p eriod o f f our d ays a nd f our n ights w as r equired, 5 w t o s ix d ays a nd n ights w as t he t ime t aken. A c lamp w as l eft t o b urn i tself o ut a fter i nitial i gniting, a nd t his t ook a c onsiderably l onger p eriod; a fter a bout o ne d ay, when t he f uel i n t he l ive-holes w as f ully i gnited, t he m ouths o f t he l ive-holes w ere s topped. I n n ineteenthc entury K ent ' if e xpedition i s r equisite, t he f lues a re p laced n ear t ogether, a nd t he b urning m ay b e c ompleted i n a f ortnight o r t hree w eeks; b ut, i f t ime i s n o o bject, t he f lues 4 re f urther a part, a nd t he c lamp i s a llowed t o b urn o ff m ore s lowly. " 5 9 I t i s l ikely t hat s imilar p eriods a pplied d uring t he m edieval p eriod. F rom t ime t o

t ime w hen b urning b ricks

i n a k iln,

i t w as n ecessary

t o s crape o ut t he c onsumed f uel a nd r eplace i t w ith f resh f uel; h ence t he r eferences t o r akes a nd s hovels i n t he H ull a ccounts ( e.g. 1 427-8: U no s hovill v d. U no c olerakes s haftes e t h edes i iid.), a nd t he t wo s pades_ b ought f or t he ' brikemen' i n t he n eighbourhood o f W indsor i n W ith a k iln t oo, a nd i f l ater p ractice w as f ollowed, t he 1 430. 3" c overing o ver t he k iln w ould n eed t o b e r emoved a fter a p eriod. A ll t hese t asks n eeded t o b e d one a t t he p roper ( estimated) t ime i f t he b ricks w ere t o t urn o ut a r ight, a nd a c onsiderable e xpertise a nd j udgement w ere r equired o f t he b rickmakers. I t w as n ecessary f or t hem t o

w atch

t here

t he k iln n ight a nd d ay d uring

i s a r eference t o

' Money p aid

..

f iring.

A t W indsor

t o J ohn G yse

i n

1 430

[ who h ad b een o ne

o f t he m en r esponsible f or m aking t he b ricks] working a t b urning t he s aid b ricks a nd w atching f or f our n ights; P eter P reutte f or f our n ights; a nd J ohn W hyte f or f our n ights; e ach o f t hem 1 36 A t H ull i n 1 423-4 w e r ead o f p ayments t o: n ight. ,

t aking

4 d.

a

v h ominibus p ro i mplicacione p rime u strine e t p ro v igilacione x vis. . iid.... I ohanni D rinkale e t s ociis i xd....

s uis p ro i mplecione s ecunde u strine x s. E isdem p ro i mplicione t ertie u strine v is.

W illelmo S cotter p ro c ombustione d ictatum u strinarum i n g rosso hu g. i iid. I ohanni D rinkale p ro v igilacione t ertie u strine A fter a p eriod o f c ooling, t he b ricks c ould b e r emoved f rom t he k iln o r c lamp. A t C aister i n 1 433-4 £ B 3 s. 4 d. w” p aid ' for r emoving a nd — 3 62 c arting t he s aid b ricks o ut o f t he k ilns;' a nd a t H ull t here a re a n umber o f r eferences t o t his w ork, f or e xample i n 1 423-4: I ohanni W itton .. p ro d iscarcione u lterius u strine v iiis. i iid. A t H ull t he w hole p rocess o f

f iring b ricks w as g one t hrough

t hree

o r f our t imes e ach s eason, w hilst e t C aister i n t he 1 433-4 s eason t wo 63 I f t he E dlington M oor k iln ( or k ilns w ere e ach f ired t hree t imes. 3 c lamp) w ere o f t he s ame c apacity a s t he C aister k ilns t hen i n , t here w ould h ave t o h ave b een f ive o r s ix s eparate f irings.Jb

4

1 434-5 T he

a verage n umber o f b ricks suplied t o E ton , f or t hose y ears f or which w e h ave f igures, w as 3 08,637; "' t his r epresents a bout f our f irings w ith a k iln

o f t he C aister c apacity,

a bout e ight

H ull c apacity.

5 5

f irings w ith a k iln o f

t he

A ll

t he a bove o perations c alled

f or c onsiderable

s kill o n t he p art

o f t he b rickmakers, a nd, w ith t he i nability f ully t o c ontrol t he f iring o f t he k ilns o r c lamps, m istakes a nd r esultant w astage i nevitably o ccurred. I n 1 434-5 a t E dlington M oor, a s p reviously n oted, p ayment w as w ithheld f rom B awdwin b ecause o f t he f ailure o f s ome b ricks m ade b y h im ' by r eason o f t heir b eing i nsufficiently k neaded'. A t H ull i n 1 423-4 1 0,000 b ricks i ntended f or S t M ary's c hurch w ere u nderburned a nd, a lthough t hey w ere s till s old, t he p rice h ad t o b e r educed b y i s 8 d p er t housand. W illiam S cotter, w ho h ad b een r esponsible f or f iring t he k ilns c ontaining t hese b ricks, d isappears f rom t he a ccounts ( a r are g limpse i nto t he h uman s tory o f m edieval b rickmaking), a nd i n t he n ext y ear a nd t hat f ollowing h is p lace i s t aken b y R obert P uttock a pud B euerlacum ( Beverley). H e w as a s killed b rickmaker w ho s ome y ears b efore ( 140 9-10) h ad s upplied 3 ,000 b ricks ( iij m illibus t egu 4 aTum) a nd r oofing t iles ( thaktill) f or b uilding t he B everley N orth B ar. E ven

w hen t here w ere n o m ishaps o f

M oor a nd H ull, s atisfactorily, a s i ndeed t her

t he

s ort

r ecorded a t

E dlington

a nd t he p rocesses o f b rickmaking h ad b een c arried o ut t here w ould y et h ave b een a f airly h igh w astage r ate, vas e ven i n n ineteenth-century b rickworks u sing t radi-

t ional m ethods. d uty w as a ssessed

D uring t he p eriod o f t he B rick T ax ( 1784-1850) t he o n t he ' green' b ricks a t t he y ard, b ut t he i nspectors

w ere gguired t o a llow f or a 1 0% w astage i n m aking t heir a ssessm ents. F rom a ny o ne k iln- o r c lampload o f b ricks t here w ould b e s ome w hich h ad b een o verburnt a nd s ome w hich h ad b een u nderburnt. T he l atter w ere k nown i n t he M iddle A ges a nd l ater a s ' samel' b ricks ( not 3 69 f rom t heir s almon-pink c olour, a s h as b een s uggested, b ut a lmost a c ertainly f rom t heir b eing o nly h alf-burnt; t he w ord i s 3 nobably c ompound o f M iddle E nglish s am, ' half', a nd e ld, ' fire') T o s ome e xtent t he p oor q uality b ricks c ould b e u sed i n t he y ard i tself; f or b uilding s imply

h ad

t he k iln;

f or p aving

f or

s urrounding t he

' green'

b ricks i n a c lamp;

o r

t he b rickyard o r o therwise c onsolidating w et g round.

T he R obert P uttock who w as b rought f rom B everley t o H ull i n 1 424-5 e arlier b een i nvolved i n a n i ncident, i n B everley i w hich h ad

i ncluded b reaking t he h eads o ff g utters a nd t hrowing m ud! 3 71 P erhaps b rickmakers w ere a lready b eginning t o a cquire t hat r eputation f or t oughness w hich t hey c ertainly h ad i n l ater c enturies. I t i s u nders tandable i n a ny a ge: t he w ork a t t he b rickyard w as h ard a nd c ould b e d irtily u npleasant. T he l atter a spect i s r eflected i n t he r eferences t o t highboots p rovided a t H ull: U no p are b otes d ate j ohanni W etton us. i d. 3 ); U no p ari o crearum T home T ughill us. 3 0); U no p are o crearum d atis e idem T home us. a nd

i n

b rickyard.

( 142 9T okill

( 1432-3);

1 432-3 g loves

s ocio. P art c leaning o ut

( 1422-

o f o f,

( cirotectis) w ere p urchased

t he w ork d uring t he ' slack' a nd c utting t he r eeds i n,

D itches -sometimes

f or T homas

T okill

s eason a t H ull w as t he d itches a round

r esembling m edieval m oated

e t t he t he

s ites -w ere

a c ommon f eature o f b rick a nd t ile y ards, a t l east t hose o f a m ore o r 72 T heir p urpose m ay h ave b een t o a id i n t he l ess p ermanent n ature. 3 d rainage

o f w hat w ould h ave

b een f airly w et

s ites;

a lternatively

t hey

m ay h ave b een f or t he c ollecting o f w ater, w hich w as r equired i n t he b rickmaking p rocess; o ne o f t hese p urposes d oes n ot p reclude t he o ther. I n a ddition t he ' moat' w ould s erve t o d efine t he a rea o f t he y ard a nd

5 6

p erhaps h elp T he

t o

b rick

k eep ' pad'

d own p ilfering a t

t he

o f

t he b ricks.

f ourteenth-century

s ite a t

B oston

p .47) m ay h ave b een, a s t he e xcavator p lausibly s uggested, a m oulding b ench -a r easonably d ry a nd f irm p oint a midst m ud o f s imilar

t he y ard.

O ther m edieval

b rickyards w ere

f eatures.

5 7

( supra,

t he b ase f or t he g eneral

p robably p rovided w ith

C hapter 7 .

T RANSPORT

T ransport o f t he f inished b ricks, w here t hey w ere n ot a ctually a t t he b uilding s ite, w ould h ave b een b y w ater w henever

m ade p os-

s ible, s ince t his w as f ar c heaper t han o verland t ransport f or b ulk c ommodities; w e h ave a lready n oted t he u se o f b oats i n d elivering f uel ( supra, p p.53-4). I ndeed, i t s eems l ikely, f rom t he t opographical e vidence, t hat c loseness t o a n avigable r iver w as o ften a d eterminant o f t he l ocation o f a b rickyard, w hether a p ermanent y ard o r a t emporary y ard s erving o ne b uilding p roject. I f t he l atter w ere a t t he b uilding s ite i tself ( as w as p robably t he c ase a t H adham H all, H erts. a nd S omeries C astle, B eds.) e asy a ccess t o w ater t ransport w ould n everthel ess b e u seful b oth f or o ccasional e xtraneous s ales a nd f or b ringing i n f uel, w hich m ight n ot b e r eadily a vailable o n s ite. A t B ury S t E dmunds t here w as w ater a vailable, i f r equired, f or d elivering f uel a nd o ther n ecessaries t o t he b rickmaking s ite, a lthough b y c ontract d ated 1 440 t he A bbot h ad t o s upply h is t wo b rickmakers w ith u nam c arectam e t i j e quos c um h ernesiis; t he b ricks w ere m ade a t C hevingt9n, o nly f ive m iles ( 8km) t o t he s outh-west, o n t he R iver 73 A t C aister, t he b rickmaking s ite l ocated d uring f ieldwork L innet. 3 b y G lendenning ( supra, p .31) i s o nly 1 .25 m iles ( 2km) f rom t he c astle

w here t he b ricks w ere u sed; t here i s a m arsh t rack a nd a n o ld m ain r oad c onnecting t hem , s o t hat t ransport b y c art w ould c ertainly b e f easible; o n t he o ther h and, t he s ites a re a lso c onnected b y w ater ( over a s omewhat l onger r oute) a nd t his m ay h ave b een u sed f or t ransporting t he b ricks. 3 74 T he 2 ,000 b ricks.made b y J ohn W arefield a t C rockernend f or u se a t S tonor i n 1 416 w ere t aken t he t wo m iles o r s o ( say, 3 km) b y c art s ince t here w as n o s uitable r iver a nd t he d istance w as n ot g reat; e ven s o, t he c ost.of /5 t he b ricks. 3 g oods m ight

c arriage w as £ 15: 3 7.5% o f t he c harge ( £40) f or m aking A nother d isadvantage o f u sing c arts f or s uch h eavy

w as t hat t he r oads t hemselves s uffered a nd t he p urchaser h imself h ave t o m ake g ood a ny d amage c aused, t hus a dding t o t he t otal

c ost. T hus, t he b ricks m ade a t S lough f or E ton C ollege w ere d elivered b y c art, a nd t he r oad a long w hich t hey w ere t aken b ecame i n n eed o f r epair: t he C ollege a ccounts r ecord p ayment t o ' William S lotte i n r eward f or d igging o f y e h yewaysyde b e t wix S lough a nd E ton f or c ariage 3 b I t w ill b e n oted t hat i t w as t he C ollege o f b rike v is. v iijd. '7 ( that g ood

i s,

t he p urchaser o f

t he b ricks) t hat w as

W hen

s omewhat

c ertainly u sed. E mneth, N orfolk m are ( cf. s upra,

f or m aking

l onger

j ourneys w ere

i nvolved w ater

t ransport

w as

T hus w hen S ir A ndrew O gard b ought b ricks f or u se a t f rom e xtra c omitatum L incoln. t hey w ere b rought p er p .24). T he b ricks o ccasionally b rought 9 yyr f rom t he

s tores a t C alais w ould a lso, s eems t o h ave b een u nusual, b ricks m ade a t D eptford t aken

r esponsible

t he d amage d one.

u p t he T hames,

o f c ourse, h ave c ome b y s ea. B ut a nd r iver t ransport w as m ore c ommon.

f or u se a t

L ondon B ridge

f or t he a ccount 5 8

s peaks o f

f rom 1 418

t his T he

o nwards w ere

f ive m en e mployed

f or

o ne

d ay

i n

u nloading

L ord

C romwell's

f rom

t he

t egulas d e b rike f rom a ' shoute'

b uilding

w orks a t

p rojects a t

o r

T attershall w ere

E dlington M oor a nd

f rom t he

b arge.

s upplied

b rickyard

a t

3 78

b oth

B oston.

B oth h ave g ood w ater c ommunications w ith T attershall. 1 : 9ston i s o n t he /9 a nd t his w as R iver W itham, a n i mportant r oute i n t he M iddle A ges, 3 u sed f or t ransporting t he W cks. C romwell's s taithe a t B oston, a nd t he

a ccount

r ecords p ayment

o f

£ 11

I n 1 438-9 t here i s m ention o f j ust b eyond o ur p eriod, i n 1 457-8, 1 3s 4 d

f or c arriage o f

' tiles'

f rom

B oston t o_'Docdyke' ( Dogdyke) b y w ater a nd f rom D ogdyke t o T attershall C ollege. 31 3 D ogdyke i s a t t he j unction o f t he W itham a nd t he B ain, u p which t he b ricks w ould h ave t ravelled t o T attershall; D ogdyke m ay h ave b een T he

a t rans-shipment 1 434-5 a ccount

b oats

p oint.

r ecords

E dlington M oor

p ayment

( duabus b atellis) a nd

o f

£ 11

t he h ire o f

5 s

l ies c lose

5 d f or

t o t he

B ain.

t he p urchase

o f

t wo

b oatmen f or t ransporting b ricks

a nd o ther m aterials; a nd i n 1 438-9 a n u nspecified n umber o f b oats w as p urchased ( custibus b atellarum l ijs i lid d omini c um s tipendio l aborar iorum c ariancium c um e isdem b atellis).1 3 '2 T he p ayments, ' various c arters w ith t heir c arts c arrying s ee, b rick, l ike'

( Et

i n m ercede d iversorum c ariancium

i n 1 434-5, t o s and, uch ,egd s

c um c arecta

°J p etras s ua j 4

p re-

( in

t he

t egulas z abulum e t h uiusmodi a d i dem o pus p er t empus p redictum)38 s umably w ere c ase

o f

f rom t he c lear

f or

c arriage

o ver

r elatively

t he b ricks)

E dlington M oor

r iver b ank t o

t he b uilding

f rom a n e ntry

f or

1 438-9

t o

s hort d istances f rom

t he b ank o f

s ite a t

t he R iver

T attershall;

i ndeed

x li x xd c ariagio t l elarum c alcis

z abuli

s ometimes g iven, B ardney C hurch,

t his

B ricks

f rom

f or o ther b uilding p roE dlington C hurch, K irk-

s tead A bbey, t he T ower-on-the-Moor a t W oodhall, a nd H orncastle. t hese c an b e r eached b y w ater w ith c artage r equired o nly o ver d istances

( vide i nfra,

O ther s tantial,

e vidence b eing

p .66

f or

b ased

o r

i s

e t h uiusmodi d e a qua i n C astrum e t e xtra C astrum. E dlington M oor w ere s old, o r j ects i n t he n eighbourhood:

B ain

a nd

t he u se

A ll s mall

f ig.9). o f w ater

s olely o n t he

i n c arrying b ricks

t opography o f

i s

t he a reas

c ircum-

i nvolved.

F or e xample, a s w ell a s s upplying C aister C astle, t he C aister b rickw orks a lso s upplied b ricks f or H ellesdon P lace, n ear N orwich, which S ir J ohn F astolf w as

b uilding a t

t he

s ame

T here

t ime a s C aister C astle.38 6

i s a d irect w ater c onnexion b etween C aister a nd H ellesdon, u p B reydon W ater, t he R iver Y are, a nd t he R iver W ensum ( fig.8). S imilarly, t he b ricks f or R ye H ouse o r N ether H all, R oydon, i f t hey w ere n ot a ctually m ade o n s ite, c ould h ave b een t ransported a long t he R iver L ee, w hich p asses c lose b y N ether H all a nd w ithin a h undred y ards o f R ye H ouse. S imilar o bservations w ill a pply t o m ost o f t he o ther s ites o f m ajor b rickwork h illtop b ut

i n t he s ite,

t here,

p eriod

i s

1 400-1450.

o ne o f

t he m ost

S omeries C astle, p oorly

a s w e h ave p reviously n oted,

f or w ater

t here

i ndependent

i s

f or b rickmaking o n s ite. F uel m ay h ave b een b rought a lthough t here i s a f air a mount o f w oodland ( and t here o riginally m ore)

i n t he

i mmediate v icinity.

5 9

B eds.,

s ituated

i n w as

o n

i ts

t ransport, e vidence b y c art, p robably

C hapter 8 .

W e

t urn n ow

t o

O RGANISATION O F T HE

t he q uestion o f

t he

I NDUSTRY,

1 400-1450

o rganisation o f

t he b rickmaking

i ndustry i n E ngland d uring t he p eriod 1 400-1450. F rom w hat h as b een s aid a lready i t w ill b e c lear t hat o rganisation w as f airly c omplex , t hat t here w as n o s ingle p attern t o w hich a ll b rickyards c onformed, b ut r ather a v ariety o f p atterns. A s f ar a s p ossible w e m ust t ry t o s ystematise t he h ints which h ave e merged f rom t he f oregoing d iscussion ( cf.

f ig.5).

F irst, a d istinction n eeds t o b e m ade b etween o n t he o ne h and t hose b rickyards which w ere p ermanent o r s emi-permanent, w ith , w e m ay a ssume, a c ertain a mount o f f ixed p lant, a nd o n t he o ther h and t hose b rickyards which w ere p articular b uilding B rickyards

t emporary,

s et u p t o s erve

t he r equirements o f a

p roject.

f alling

w ithin t he f irst c ategory -t hose w hich

w ere

p ermanent o r s emi-permanent -could b e e ither m unicipal y ards a t s ome o f t he m ore i mportant t owns o r t hey c ould b e p rivately o wned y ards. The i t,

p rime e xample o f a m unicipal y ard, b ecause s o m uch i s k nown a bout i s t hat a t H ull. 387 B ut i ehers a re k nown f rom n earby B everley f rom t he m id-fourteenth c entury, J°8 where t he M inster v aults o f c .1335 c ontain b ricks a nd f or w hich ' squynschontiell' o r c hamfered b ricks w ere m ost o f t he t own, a ccording t o L eland, w as p urchased i n 1 445-6; 389

' well b uilded o f w ood', t hough t here w ere ' many f air g ates o f b rike, N orth b 4rre, N ew b igyn b ar b y w est, a nd K e11 .2eate b arre b y w est a lso.' 3 9u T he ' f irst o f t hese a lone s urvives. '21 Y ork t oo h ad i ts m unicipal b rickyard; 3 92 i t m ay b e f rom t his s our u t hat i n 1 400 3 ,300 b ricks w ere o btained f or b uilding a l ime-kiln;' 23 t h e i s l ittle b ut t he R ed b rickwork s urviving f rom t he p eriod 1 400-1450 i n Y ork, 3 95 T ower i s a m unicipal w ork -part o f t he c ity d efences -of 1 490. 3 F urther s outh , S andwich h ad a m unicipal b rickyard, Oguated i n t he M anor o f

S andown,

a lready c entury;

h ave b een i n o peration i n t he f irst h alf o f t he i t m ay e ven h ave b een t he s ource o f t he bg es

i mmediately e ast o f

t he

t own,

b y 1 463

7

a nd

t his m ay f ifteenth ( bakston)

b ought a t S andwich i n 1 372-3 f or u se a t D over C astle, a nd s uch a y ard m ight a lso h ave s upplied t he g atehouse o f t he D ent-de-Lion m anor a t G arlinge, M argate, a bout s even m s ( 11km) d istant a nd b uilt b rick a nd f lint s ome t ime b efore 1 445. " °

i n

o f

A t H ull i n t he f ourteenth a nd f ifteenth c enturies, 3 99 a t B everley a nd a t Y ork l ater i n t he f ifteenth c ent he f ifteenth c entury, 4N

t ury 401 t he p roducts o f t he m unicipal y ards w ere u sed f or b uilding t own w alls o r p arts t hereof ( as w ell a s f or o ther b uildings), a nd

t he t his

r aises t he i nteresting q uestion w hether o ther t owns which u sed b ricks f or t he d efences o r f or o ther m unicipal b uildings m ight h ave p ossessed • t heir

o f a nd

o wn y ards. A t N orwich , t he C ow T ower w as b uilt o f b rick a s p z n t he c ity's d efences r ight a t t he e nd o f t he f ourteenth c entury, " w e h ave a lready n oted ( supra, p .34) t he e vidence t hat J ulian o f

6 0

N orwich w as

f amiliar w ith t he b rickmaking p rocess.

O ther p arts o f

t he

d efences a s well a s t he e arly f ifteenth-century G uildhall a lso c ontain b rickwork. 403 T here i s a d istinct p ossibility t hat f urther r esearch a t N orwich K ing's

c ould r eveal e vidence o f a m unicipal b rickyard. S o t oo a t L ynn t he S outh G ate o f t he t own d efences i s o f b rick a nd d ates

p robably a lso

f rom 1 437-40;

f or

t he

b ricks a re u sed e lsewhere

t wo m edieval

g uildhalls.

i n t he

T his a nd

t own wall,

a nd

e vidence

f or

o ther

b rickmaking a t L ynn i n t he p eriod 1 400-1450 h as b een s et o ut i n a nother c onnexion a bove ( p.3 6) a nd n eed n ot b e r ehearsed i n f ull a t t his p oint. B ut

i f

f or

a

m oment w e

e xtend o ur v iew a nd c onsider

a ll

t he

p re-

R eformation b rick b uildings i n t his c orner o f E ast A nglia i t w ill b e s een ( fig.12) t hat t hese f orm a f airly t ight g roup a round L ynn i tself, s uggesting t hat t he l atter w as i ndeed a b rickmaking c entre i n t he p reR eformation p eriod; t he e vidence f rom w ithin t he t own i tself s hows t hat t his m ust a lready h ave b een e stablished i n t he p eriod t rue t hat t he c ost o f b ricks b ought i n 1 422-3 f or G uildhall

i ncluded

r elatively

s hort

c arriage,

4 04

j ourney b y c art

1 400-1450. I t i s t he n ew T rinity

b ut t his n eed i mply n o m ore t han a f rom t he b rickyard t o t he b uilding

s ite. O n a nalogy w ith t he c ertain m unicipal b rickyards o ne w ould n ot, i n a ny c ase, e xpect t he b rickyard w ithin t he t own i tself. P erhaps b eca v o f t he u npleasant a nd p oisonous f umes g iven o ff d uring b rickmaking, a nd p erhaps a lso b ecause o f t he n eed t o d ig c lay a t t he s ite i tself, j

t he

y ards

w ere

s ituated b eyond

t he t own w all o r

b ounds:

t eenth-century b rick c lamp a t d efined t he m edieval t own. 4 U 6

B oston l ay e ast o f t he I t i s u ncertain w here

l ater

l ocated,

b rickyard a t

B oston was

b ut

i t

t he

f our-

B arditch, which L ord C romwell's

i s m ost

l ikely t hat

i t

7 R iver t h e0 A t W itham a nd well s outh o f t he m ain b uilt-up p art o f t he t own. 4 S andwich t he m unicipal b ricky2 g l ay t o t he e ast o f t he w alled t own,

s tood

o n

C romwell's

l and

i n t he T attershall F ee,

w ithin t he m anor o f S andown. ( modern G rove H ill) was o ne _ mile a gain

w ithout

e dict

o f

t he w alls;

4U 9

t his

l ocation r eflects

t he d estruction o f

t hat

t he

' on a ccount

f ruit

t rees,

t he

t own w alls:

L eland w rote o f

l ater o f

t he

n o o ne

k iln t o b urn t ile n earer t o t he t own t han t he k ilns L ikewise, t he y ards a t Y ork 4 11 p enalty o f 1 00s.' 41U b eyond

o f

T he B everley y ard a t G roval D yke ( 1.6km) e ast o f t he t own c entre a nd

t he C orporation o f-Beverley

f ouling t he a ir a nd

w est

t he l atter:

i s

( 1461) s tench,

t o m ake a

n ow a re u nder a nd H ull 4 12 l ay ' Most

p art

o f

t he

b rik t hat t he waulles a nd h ouses o f K ingston [ sc. H ull] w er b uildid w as m ade w ithout t he s outh s ide o f t he t oun; t he p lace i s c aullid t he T ylery. , 413 I n t he e arly p art o f o ur p eriod t he W ardens o f L ondon B ridge o btained s ome f ive m iles

t heir b ricks f rom D eptford ( supra, p .27); t his i s o nly ( 8km) f rom t he C ity, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i t a cted

a s t he a rea.

p ermanent m unicipal y ard, s ituated w ell a way f rom t he i nhabited T he f irst w e h ear o f s uch a y ard w ith a ny c ertainty i s i n 1 477,

when,

a ccording

t he

w all

A ldgate c lay,

a bout

t o J ohn

o f

a nd A ldersgate. a nd b rick t hereof

o utside

S tow,

t he c ity

t he c ity w al1.

' Ralph J oceline,

L ondon t o b e

H e a lso

t he a rea d uring

t he

C aister e vidence,

w ith L ynn, i s

b y

n o

o ne

c aused M oorf 4ld

t o b e m ade a nd b urnt.'

4

c aused

t o t o

w it,

b e

p art

o f

b etwixt

s earched

f or

M oorfields w as

j ust

4 15

G reat Y armouth d efences a lso i n

m ayor,

r epaired;

t he e arly

c ontain m uch b rick416

f ifteenth c entury

t hough t he b rickyard

c an o nly

b e

m eans u nlikely

t hat

b y A s

G reat Y armouth

61

b rickmaking p roved

t he

o f

a nd

t here w as a p rivate o ne.

s peculative b eyond

i s

c ourse

f irm e vidence,

p ossessed

a

b ut

i t

m unicipal

P RE-REFORMAT ION B R ICK B U ILD INGS I N THE K ING 'S

L Y NN

AREA

• • ••

•

• •

•

•

•March I. 1

• •

00

5M i le s 8Km . •

F ig.

1 2.

OE ly

M edieval B rick B uildings

T PS '78

i n t he K ing's L ynn A rea o f N orfolk

62

b rickyard o f

i ts o wn.

T here w ere v arious w ays i n w hich a c orporation c ould o perate 1/ b rickyard. 4 A t H ull t he c orporation k ept t he b rickyard J n i ts h ands,

n ot

e ntirely

t o

i ts b enefit,

a s

B rooks e mphasised.

i ts o wn

I n 1 422-3

4 18

t he c orporation e mployed i ts o wn workmen, i ncluding J ohn D rinkale, who ' seems t o h ave b een s omething o f a g eneral f actotum t o t he t own , .419 H e,

J ohn

P almer,

j obs a bout

t he t ilehouse, i ng m aking a nd a t a r ate i ng

a nd J ohn W etton o r W itton w ere e mployed o n a ll

t he y ard -e xcept

o f

s pecialist

b uilding w ork o f

t he

r epairing

f or w hich p rofessional b uilders w ere e mployed -i ncludf iring t he b ricks. F or m aking t he b ricks t hey w ere p aid

a pproximately

t he k iln

t he

i s

p er t housand;

b ut

f or

f illing a nd e mpty-

t hey w ere

p aid 4 d o r 04 id a d ay, t he s tandard l abourer's 4 2 w age i n t he f ifteenth c entury. t he n ext y ear ( 1423-4) t he s ystem h ad c hanged s omewhat. D rinkale m ay h ave b ecome a c ontractor, s ubcont racting v arious a re

m ade

W illiam b asis

j obs a bout

S cotter,

f or

t he

b rickyard,

I ohanni D rynkale e t t he

t his

t ime,

s ervientibus s uis;

b ut

w as e mployed b y t he

j ob o f

f iring

t he

B everley,

w ho

( supra, R obert

b ricks:

p .56) a nd P uttock,

a bout t he

t he b rickyard.

S cotter p ro c ombusU nfortunately,

n ame T homas

T ughill)

d oing m ost

o f

two

f or f iring

T okill,

t he

y ears S cotter b rickmaker f rom

i n t he f ollowing a n e xperienced

a ppears

m an, l abour

i iid.

i ncluding T homas

T okill

a nother

W illelmo

c ontracted w ith t he c hamberlains

w hilst D rinkale a nd o thers,

s ince p ayments

c hamberlains o n a d irect

t ione d ictatum u strinarum i n g rosso l iiis. b atch w as s poiled w as r eplaced b y

b y

t he

k ilns,

d id t he o ther

i n l ater y ears

( sometimes

j obs u nder

t he w ork,

a ssisted b y D rinkale

a nd h is m ate, i ncluding t he f iring o f t he b ricks. t ion o f t he a ccounts i t ' is d ifficult t o a void

F rom a f ull e xaminat he c onclusion t hat

T okill, a lias T ughill, w as a c ontractor, w ho u ndertook p ractically t he w hole o f t he w ork o f t he t ilery, t he c hamberlains p aying f or e quipment a nd m aterial.' 421 I t

w as

p erhaps a s a r esult

i ng

t he b rickyard

i n t his way

t o

c lose

1 430s.

i n

t he

o f

t he

s mall p rofits p roduced

( vide i nfra,

A lthough i n

p .74)

f rom e lsewhere: N earby

l ease

i n

I n

t wo o thers c ame

B everley .. b efore a nd t ook o f t hem t he

l and

c alled

t he s oil o f

p ayable a t M ichaelmas.

1 2 o f

3 ,000

4 22

1 440: C ollard,

t ilemaker,

c epit

p arte a ccidentali d e l a d emmyng w all t iles ( 'wal t y1'). 423 r ent,

p ractice t he

a

i n t he G uild-

G roval D yke a t a r ent

c alled w altyle

R ob[ert]

T he

i ts b rickyard o n

1 3 91:

R ichard H amondson a nd

t iles

5 s t hat

S e lman° B urton p ro m ille w alltiele.

h all o f S t J ohn o f k eepers o f t he t own, t he

p aid

b ricks w ere b rought

B everley m ade b etter p rofits b y w orking

s ystem;

b y w ork-

t he H ull y ard h ad

1 436-7 W illiam B ay w as

p ro d ikeyng i k ilneful l uti i nfra t egularia, y ear

t hat

i t

w ill b e

c an b e

l essee o f

n oted,

o bserved,

j ust

t he b rickyard w as

w as p ayable

a t

l e G rovaldyk e x r ent

i n b ricks,

b eyond o ur p eriod, t o

p ay

63

o f

a t

t he c orporation:

1 ,000

a nd

a

S andwich,

s imilar where

y early b ricks T he

s ize o f

t his

1 2,000

b ricks,

o r 4 0s a nd m oreox g

t o t he h ospital o f r ent

( cf.

S t

1 ,000

B artholomew.

B everley) a rgues t hat

t he b rickyard w as v ery

l arge. J ust

a s

i t w as p ossible

f or c orporations t o k eep t heir b rickyards

i n t heir o wn h and o r t o l et t hem o ut, s o t oo t he o wner o f a p rivate p ermanent o r s emi-permanent b rickyard m ight k eep h is y ard i n h is a wn h ands, o perating i t b y a d irect l abour s ystem , o r h e m ight r ent i t o ut t o a l essee. T here s eems a t p resent n o r eally f irm e vidence f or t he f ormer p ractice, a lthough t he b rickyard n ear S t A lbans, H erts. s ounds l ike

a

p ermanent

( or a t

l east a s emi-permanent)

y ard;

t here

i s

n o

e vidence t hat t his w as l eased o ut, t hough o f c ourse t he p ossibility c annot b e r uled o ut. 4Z5 S o t oo ( but w ith t he s ame q ualification), J ohn F lete 42 w ho s old b ricks a t R ickmansworth f or u se a t K ings 1 427, 6 m ay h ave b een t he o wner o f a b rickyard. T here i s p rivate o wner

L angley

i n

o n t he o ther h and o ne p iece o f f irm e vidence f or a l easing h is b rickyard: s ome o f t he b ricks f or u se a t

T attershall w ere m ade a t B oston, a t a k iln c learly b elonging t o L ord C romwell s ince i t i s s everal t imes r eferred t o i n t he Tetershall a ccounts a s ' my l ord's [ domini] d e l 'Isle a nd D udley M anuscripts d ue f 1 431'.

b rick k iln a t B oston'. I n t he .. ' there i s a s ubsidiary a ccount o f s ums

gi s uccessive

C romwell,

f armers o f t he t ile-kiln [ sc. b rick k iln] s ince T he r eceipts o f R oger B arker, b ailiff a nd c ollector f or L ord i nclude

s ub a nno

1 438-9

£ 3

1 2s O d d e p retio x ij M .

t egularum

v oc. ‘ 4 1atyle p roventientium d e f irma t horalis d omini i bidem ( viz. t on). . T he l essee a t t he t ime w as a J ohn C hamberleyn, f or

B ost he

T attershall a ccounts r ecord: I dem r espondit d e

..

v iij ml

i xc

[ 8,900]

t egulis

h uius f orme [ viz, b ricks o f t he l arger s ize] e mptis h oc a nno d e J ohanne C hamberleyn f irmario .. t horalis d omini a pud B oston h oc a nno t am d e a rreragiis q uam e xitu f irme s ue. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat, a s a t t he m unicipal y ards a t B everley a nd S andwich, t he r ent w as p aid i n b ricks r ather t han i n c ash.

f

4 s T J ohn C hamberleyn. n ext y ear 2 4,000 l arge b ricks w ere p urchased T he B oston k iln w as s till w orking i n c .1460, a nd i n 1 451-2 t he b ailiff's a ccount r ecords ' Receipts f rom t he t ile k iln f or £ 3 6 s. 8 d. I n t he s ame y ear b ricks f rom t he k iln w ere f or 1 0,000 w altile'. 433 u sed a t S kirbeck, o n t he o utskirts o f t he t own; a nd o n t opographical a nd o ther g rounds i t i s l ikely t hat a t a bout t his t ime o r j ust a l ittle l ater b ricks w ere b ought

f or H ussey T ower, B o 49n a nd f or R ochford T ower, S kirbeck B ricks a lso o ccur i n a p ublic f rom t his s ame k iln.

b uilding -the G uildhall o f c entury. 435

j4

S t

M ary -erected a bout

t he m iddle o f

t he

B rickyards w hich w ere s et u p p rimarily t o s erve t he n eeds o f o ne b uilding p roject Ih ave t ermed ' temporary'; w here t he p roject w as a v ery l ong t erm o ne, l ike t he T attershall c omplex o f b uildings, t he b rickyard w ould c orrespondingly b e i n u se o ver a l ong p eriod, p ossibly l onger t han s ome o f t he ' permanent' b rickyards; t he u se o f t he t erms ' permanent' a nd ' temporary' i ndicates i ntention; t he e ssential c haract eristic o f a t emporary y ard i s, a s a lready i ndicated, t hat i ts p rimary

64

p urpose w as t o m eet t he r equirements o f a s ingle b uilding p roject. T he e vidence f or s ome o f t hese t emporary w orks i s a rchaeological o r t opo g raphical -for e xample, a t S omeries C astle, B eds. o r R ye H ouse, H erts. -and h as a lready b een p resented ( supra, p.34, 3 5). T he C aister p C astle a ccounts p rovide d ocumentary e vidence f or s uch a p roject. T he y ard w as s et u p j ust a l ittle w ay o ut o f C aister t o s upply t he b uilding w orks a t t he c astle, t hough t hey a lso s upplied S ir J ohn F astolf's o ther p roject o f t he t ime a t H ellesdon, n ear N orwich ( supra, p .31). P art a t l east o f t he y ard w as k ept i n F astolf's o wn h ands i n s o f ar a s i t w as h e who ' divers m aking e ntry:

s upplied f uel, r ushes f or c overing t he ' pen' b ricks, a nd i nstruments a nd n ecessaries' f or t he y ard. B ut t he a ctual a nd f iring w as c ontracted o ut,

a s i s c lear

f rom t he

f ollowing

I n t he w ages o f J ohn E de a nd J ohn C ook i n m aking 5 5 l asts o f b ricks t his y ear [ 1433-4], f or e ach l e 1 5s. P art

o f

C aister,

b y c ontract...

t he y ard,

h owever,

J ohn G rene, A nd

a s

5 s.

O d.

s eems t o h ave b een l eased t o t he b ailiff o f

i ndicated i n t he f ollowing e ntry:

i n 63 l asts o f b ricks a nd 4 ,500 b ricks

f rom

t he b ailiff o f

y ear [ 1434-5], 6 ,000 [ bricks]

A

£ 41

c ontractual

t his

p rice t he l ast 5 0s. w ith 2 l asts, t hereof u sed a t H eFlesdone t his y m

s ystem

b etween t he A bbot a nd t wo

b ought

C astre f or t he s aid w ork

w as o perated a t

£ 158

1 2s. 6 d.

B ury

S t

E dmunds

i n

1 440

' brekebrennerys':

H ec i ndentura i nter W illelmum C urteys A bbatem m onasterii d e S ancto E dmundo e x u na p arte e t J ohannem A rnold e t H ermannum R einoud b rekebrennerys e x p arte a ltera t estatur q uod p redicti J ohannes e t H ermannus c omponent e t b ene e t s ufficienter c omburent a d o pus d icti d om v ocatos

l e b reke...

W A bbatis t ot

l ateres

( etc.).

T he b rickyard a t S lough, o n t he o ther h and, w hich w as s et u p e xpressly t o s up ) t he K ing's w orks a t E ton w as p robably w orked b y d irect l abour. m akers w ere b ricks f or

S o t oo f or t he K ing's w orks a t W indsor C astle t he b rickp aid p er d iem r ather t han c ontracting t o m ake s o m any s o m uch m oney; f or t he w ork o f m aking t he b ricks t hey

r eceived a c raftsman's wage o f 6 d a d ay, t hough f or b urning t he b ricks a nd k ing v igil b y n ight a t t he k iln t hey r eceived o nly 4 d a n ight. W here

a t emporary y ard w as i n e xistence f or a l ongish

p eriod

o f

t ime i t m ight, p ro t empore, t ake o n s omething o f t he c haracter o f a s emi-permanent y ard, s upplying b ricks t o o ther c ustomers i n t he n eighb ourhood. F or e xample, a t t he r oyal y ard a t S lough ' some s urplus b ricks w ere s old, t hus p roviding a s mall a dditional s ource o f . ' The b rick-kiln b ecame a s ource o f r evenue —443and i ncome'; 442 w ith t he s ale o f b ricks f requently a mong t he " Recepta".'

w e m eet T he b est

i nstance o f t his p ractice, h owever, i s a t L ord C romwell's E dlington M oor b rickyard. T his w as s et u p t o p rovide b ricks f or t he s everal b uildings e rected b y C romwell a t

T attershall,

65

44 4

a nd a lso f or h is

s mall

t owerhouse a t t he T ower-on-the-Moor, W oodhall, f our m iles ( 6.5km) n orth o f T attershall a nd c lose t o t he b rickmaking s ite. 445 B ut 3 5,400 b ricks w ere a lso s upplied t o t he A bbot o f K irkstead a nd 8 ,000 ' in p art o f 2 0,000 b y l etter o f w arrant' t o t he A bbot o f B ardney i n 1 434-5, a nd l ater i n t he s ame y ear t he r emaining 1 2,000 o f t he A bbot o f B ardney's o rder a re m entioned. 446 I n 1 438-9 1 ,700 ' large b ricks' w ere s old t o R oger P restes o f H orncastle, a nd 3 ,000 t o J ohn W eende, C romwell's o verseer o f w orks i n L incolnshire; i n t he s ame y ear 3 ,000 b ricks w ere ' given f rom my l ord's a lms f or t he w orks o f t he f abric o f t he C hurch o f E dlyngton'. 4 47 w hich h e o wed

I n t he f ollowing y ear J ohn W eende w as e xcused t he 1 5s f or 3 ,000 b ricks s upplied t o h im, p resumably t hose m en-

t ioned i n 1 438-9. A lso i n 1 43 9-40 1 ,000 b ricks w ere s old t o E dmund U ssher a nd 1 ,500 t o T homas R udde; t hese a re p resumably i dentical w ith t he ' 2,500 l arge b ricks c alled W altyle, s old t o v arious p ersons' m ent ioned e n t he s ame a I ame y u ther 5 ,22i lsewhere i ccount. n te h s ear a fr : b ricks w ere g iven t o t he A bbot o f K irkstead ' on m y l ord's o rder' . 449 I n 1 445-6 5 ,000 b ricks w ere s old t o t he p rovost o f E dlington C hurch. T hus, t he b rickmaking s ite a t E dlington M oor b ecame s omething o f a l ocal c entre

f or

s everal d ecades,

w here c ustomers m ight

o btain

b ricks

f or t heir o wn p rojects. D oubtless t he p resence o f s uch a l arge-scale b rickyard s timulated t he u se o f t he m aterial i n t he a rea. I t i s l ikely t hat t his p attern w as f ollowed a t o ther l arge-scale b uilding p rojects u sing b rick. C ertainly t he c hancel o f H erstmonceux C hurch w as b uilt f rom t he s ame b ricks a s t hose u sed i n t he c astle, b oth w orks b eing b y S ir R oger F iennes i n t he 1 440s. 4 50 I t

i s

p erhaps

w orth

c harting t he

v arious

p ossibilities

r espect t o t he o rganisation o f t he b rick i ndustry 1 450; t his i s d one i n T able I I ( p.66). T hus

n earby

i n t he p eriod

f ar w e h ave b een c oncerned w ith t he p attern o f

t he

w ith 1 400-

i ndustry

i n t he s ense o f t he t ypes o f y ards w hich w ere o perating w ithin t he p eriod 1 400-1450. T here a re, h owever, o ther a spects o f t he o rganisat ion o f t he i ndustry a t w hich w e m ay p rofitably l ook , a nd f or w hich t here e xists a d egree o f W e

d ocumentary o r a rchaeological e vidence.

h ave a lready n oted t hat m any b rickyards

( probably a ll

b ut

t he

v ery s mallest) w ere w illing t o s ell t heir p roducts t o o ther c ustomers, e ven w hen t hat w as n ot t heir p rimary r aison d 'être. I n c onsidering t he v arious s tages o peration t here u nderburnt ( the

o f m anufacture w e a lso n oted t hat i n a ny b rickmaking i s a c ertain a mount o f w astage. S ome b ricks w ould b e m edieval ' samel' b ricks) w hilst o thers w ould b e

s eriously o verburnt o r e ven c ompletely f used t ogether, p articularly w here c lamp-burning w as p ractised. T hese, o f c ourse, c ould n ot b e s old f or t he b est b uilding w ork, a nd l ater a ccounts s pecifically m ention t hat t hey a re n ot t o b e i ncluded, a s a t L ittle S axham H all i n 1 505, w here b reke

t he b ricks w ere t o b e ' wele a nd s ufficiently b rent a nd n o s emel z gi b roken b reke t o b e t old b ut o nly i j h alf b rekes f or c on

b reke'.

T he

h alf-bricks w ould o ften b e n eeded

a nd s o w ere a ble t o e ntirely w asted.

b e I n

f or c reating

s old. T he s poiled b ricks, h owever, w ere t he n ineteenth a nd t wentieth c enturies,

b onds n ot f or

e xample, t he f used l umps w ere o ften u sed b uilding b oundary w alls, a nd f rom a s hort d istance t hey g ive t he a ppearance o f r ubble-stone w alli ng.452 O ther ' wasters' c ould b e u sed f or r ough p aving o r f or o therw ise

c onsolidating

s oft

g round.

c ould h ave b een p ossible.

I n t he M iddle A ges,

E ven t he

6 6

s amel b ricks,

e qually,

g enerally

s uch u ses

l ess u seful

T ABLE

I I

T YPES O F B RICKYARDS O PERATING I N T HE P ERIOD T ype

1 400-1450

N ature

E xamples w orked b y c orporation b y d irect l abour o r b y

H ull

c ontract M unicipal

,5 B everley

P ermanent l eased o ut

S andwich ( by 1 463)

o r S emi-permanent Iw orked b y o wner b y d irect l abour o r b y c ontract P rivate l eased S hort t erm,

? St A lbans ? Rickmansw orth B oston

p roviding b ricks

C aister

f or

B ury

s pecific p roject(s)

S t

E dmunds S omeries C astle H adham H all W rittle ? Hunsdon

T emporary

L ong t erm ,

p roviding b ricks

S lough

f or

E dlington M oor

s pecific p roject(s), b ut a lso s elling t o o ther c ustomers o n a m ore o r l ess r egular b asis

t han u sed

c ould t he o verburnt b ricks o n a ccount o f t heir s oftness, 453 f or c onsolidation. H alf-baked b ricks w ere u sed f or f looring

E pworth

b e a t

, l e s ior,

L incolnshire, a s r evealed i n e xcavations b y R .A.H. J . K aner h as r ecently d rawn a ttention t o t he u se o f s poiled t iles w hich w ere s ometimes s old a s r ubble i n Y ork: t hey i ncluded s carthes ( sherds), w assch gg ( wasters), c raktiel ( cracked t iles), a nd b endtiel ( warped t iles): ( walltiles) a s w ell a s t iles p roper.

t hese m ay h ave i ncluded b ricks S tephen M oorhouse h as d rawn

a ttention t o l ater e xamples o f t he s ame t hing; f or e xample i n t he T rinity G uild a t L uton, B 9 e. p aid f or ' careeg' o f a bode o f

1 527 t yle

s herdis t o v ndre p yn wt a ll.' 4J A gain i t i s n ot c lear w hether t hese w ere a ll t iles p roper o r w hether t hey i ncluded b ricks t oo. B rickbats u nder t hat n ame w ere c ertainly u sed f or f illing a t rench i n C roydon i n 1 597. 458

A t

t he D anbury t ile

f actory i n t he

f ourteenth c entury

t iles

w ere u sed f or f oundations o f b uildings, w hilst w asters a pparently f rom D anbury w ere u sed f or a s imilar p urpose i n a t imber-framed b uilding a t T he l atter p resumably r epresents a s ale o f ' waste' C helmsford. 459 m aterial p ractice 1 423-4:

f rom t he f actory. T he o ne f irm p iece o f e vidence f or t his i n t he p eriod 1 400-1450 c omes f rom t he H ull m unicipal y ard i n 1 0,000 b ricks ( waltile) f or t he C hurch o f S t M ary w ere s old a t

i s

l ess

8 d

t han

t he

n ormal

p rice

6 7

o n

a ccount

o f

t heir

b eing

i nsufficiently

b urnt.

T he b rickyard

l ost m oney o n t hese

b ricks,

b ut

c learly i t w as n ot a t otal ' write o ff': s ome u se w as f ound e ven f or 6 0 o f t his so p iled mt a erial. P erhaps t oo te h b ricks s p oiled b y Bw a dwin T attershall

b rick

i n 1 434-5 w ere u sed

f or

s ome p urpose.

A nother p roblem c onnected w ith t he o rganisation o f t he m edieval i ndustry c oncerns t he s pecial-purpose m oulded b ricks u sed f or

c orbel-tables, d ecorative f riezes, o riel w indows, t wisted c himney s hafts, a nd o ther s uch a rchitectural f eatures. A s J ohn H arvey p uts t he p roblem: ' were t hey d etailed b y t he a rchitect f or t he b uilding, o r w ere t hey b ought a s e ady-made c omponents f rom c ommercial b rickworks a t 61 r c ertain c entres?' 4 T here i s l ittle i n t he w ay o f d ocumentary e vid ence i n t his c onnexion, b ut t he a rchaeological e vidence o f t he b uildi ngs a nd t heir b ricks e nables u s t o a rrive a t a n a nswer t o t his q uest ion f or t he p eriod 1 400-1450, a nd t his m ay s afely b e e xtended t o t he r est o f t he M iddle A ges. I n f act, t he o nly d ocumentary e vidence o f a ny c onsequence a t a ll i s t he l ist o f p ersons f rom w hom b ricks w ere p urc hased i n 1 40 9-10 f or t he b uilding o f B everley B ar. N o f ewer t han t wenty d ifferent p ersons s upplied b ricks, a nd y et o f t hese o nly t wo s upplied ' squynchons': J ohn E lward p rovided a t otal o f 2 ,100, t ogether w ith 7 ,100 o rdinary b ricks; w hilst P eter W hitt p rovided 5 s-worth o f s quinch2 0 ( about 1 ,100?) a s w ell a s o ver a t housand o rdinary b ricks. E xamination o f t he B everley s quinchons s hows t hat t hey w ere m oulded, n ot c ut, a nd h ence b ought a s r eady-made u nits f rom t he b rickm akers ( or p erhaps b uilders' m erchants: s ee b elow). M ore p roblematic a re t he e ven m ore e laborate b ricks u sed a t B everley f or t he s tringc ourse b eneath t he p arapet a nd f or t he s hield s hapes o n t he o uter f ace. I t i s p ossible t hat t hese a re i ncluded u nder t he h eading ' squynchons', b ut p erhaps m ore l ikely t hat t hey a re t he b ricks s old b y W illiam P otter a t 7 s 2 d p er 1 ,000 ( El 4 s 8 d f or 4 ,000) -almost t wice t he n ormal r ate ary) o f 3 s 8 d p er 1 ,000. P otter a lso s upplied 4 ,000 ( presumably o Wsn t 3 s 91 4 /d p er 1 ,000 a nd 3 ,000 a t 3 s 07d . p er to h usand. J I f b ricks a t his b e s o -t hat i s, t hat t he m ore e laborate b ricks w ere p urchased f rom

j ust

t he o ne m an -then i t

d oes

i ndeed

s eem l ikely t hat

t hey

w ere

a s pecial o rder p laced w ith W illiam P otter. B ut t he m atter i s f ar f rom c ertain, a nd i t i s t o t he a rchaeological e vidence t hat w e m ust t urn f or a n a nswer. W hat i s s triking a bout m any o f t he p urpose m ade b ricks o f t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury i s t hat w hilst s imilarities e xist a s b etween o ne b uilding a nd a nother, s ufficient i ndeed f or o ne t o a ccept t hem a s t he w ork o f s ingle g roups o f c raftsmen a nd p erhaps e ven o f a s ingle a rchitect i n s ome c ases, t hose s imilarities a re n ot e xact. o f b uildings i n t his r espect, a nd o ne a lready r eferred p aper, c omprises R ye H ouse, H erts., 4 64 S omeries C astle, F aulkbourne

H all,

E ssex.46 6

A rchitectural

A k ey g roup t o i n _ t his B eds. 4 65 a nd

f eatures c onstructed

f rom

m oulded b ricks -m uch m ore i ntricate t han t he s quinchons a lready m ent ioned -a re s o s imilar t hat w e a re f airly s afe i n a ttributing t he m aking o f t he b ricks, a nd p robably t he b uilding-work t oo, t o a s ingle a telier o f c raftsmen. S ome b ricks -for e xample, t hose m aking u p t he c usped a rchlets w hich o ccur a t a ll t hree b uildings -m ight c ome f rom t he s ame m ould: s uch a s ituation i s c onsistent e ither w ith a f ixed m anufacturing

c entre

o r w ith a p articular g roup m oving

f rom b uilding

t o

b uilding ( since m oulds a re p ortable o bjects). B ut o ther b ricks -for e xample, t hose m aking u p t he o riel w indows a t R ye H ouse a nd F aulkbourne H all a nd t he r elated f eature a t S omeries C astle -are n ot e xact p aral l els

o f

e ach o ther t hough t hey a re r emarkably

6 8

s imilar.

T his s trongly

s uggests t hat t hey w ere d esigned b y t he a rchitect -just a s h e d esigned t he v arious m ouldings o f a s tone b uilding -a nd n ot b ought a s r eadym ade f act

c omponents. W hen t his o bservation i s c ombined w ith t he f urther t hat t he m oulded »b ricks g enerally r esemble i n h ue a nd t exture t he

g eneral p oint

f abric

b ricks

s eems v irtually

o f

t he b uilding i n w hich t hey o ccur

c linched:

t he m oulded b ricks w ere

w ith t he g eneral f abric b ricks a nd w ere n ot b ought d oes n ot, o f c ourse, p reclude t he p ossibility t hat l ar

c entres

w hich

a rchitects' g roup

o f

s pecialised

d esigns.

b uildings s uggests t hat a t

s pecialised a telier, i ng

t o

T his t he

w hether a t

f rom s tock. T his t here w ere p articu-

p urpose-moulded t he

l east

t he a long

e vidence

i n t his

o f

c ase

b ricks

t o

t he R ye H ouse t here

o ne c entre o r m oving a round

w as

a

f rom b uild -

b uilding. c onclusion

a rchitects t o

i n m aking

O n t he c ontrary,

t hen m ade

not

b rickmaker

s urprising

f rom w hat w e k now o f

Q uite h ow h e

i n g eneral. °7

i s u ncertain;

i t

c ommunicated h is

i s m ore

l ikely

m edieval

r equirements

t o h ave b een b y m eans

o f c areful d rawings r ather t han ( as w ith s tonework) b y f ull-size w ooden 68 I n c ases w here t he a rchitect a nd t he c hief b rickmaker t emplates. 4 w ere

o ne

a nd

B awdwin o f

t he

s ame p erson,

T attershall,

W hatever

B awdwin's

s omething

a bove

V esey

t he

i n

i ndustry,

a s

s eems

h e p resumably

4 69

t o h ave b een t he

p recise p osition,

t he a verage b rickmaker

i n

i t

i s c lear

s tatus,

t rum , f rom m en l ike I nterestingly, w omen

i ndustries o f

t he

t hat

w ith

h e

a s t oo w as

p rojects w ith which h e w as c oncerned.

l ike m any o ther

c ase

c ut h is o wn m oulds.

t ime,

T he

w as

W illiam

b rickmaking

c overed a w ide

s pec-

V esey a nd B awdwin t o t he h umbler l abourers. t oo a ppear i n c onnexion w ith t he i ndustry, n ot

a s a t H ull i n o nly a s c asual l abourers a ssisting t heir h usbands, ore r esponsible v arious y ears, 4 /0 which m ight b e e xpected, b ut a lso i n m o a ct a s a s upp ositions. B awdwin's w idow, f or e xample, c ontinued t eath, 4 71 whilst p lier o f b ricks i n h er a wn r ight a fter h er h usband's d i n b y

1 409-10 a t housand b ricks w ere s upplied f or t he B everley N orth /2 T hat w omen c ould p lay a n i mportant p art o ne A gnes T iler. 4

m edieval i ndustry a nd c ommerce i s b ecoming m ore w as h ardly a c raft i n w hich w e d o n ot f ind w omen. c handlers,

i ronmongers,

h aberdashers,

n et-makers,

p urse-makers,

a ppreciated: ' There T hey w ere b utchers,

s hoe-makers,

c ap-makers,

s kinners,

B ar i n

g lovers,

g irdlers,

b ookbinders,

g ilders,

/em broiderers, s picers, s miths a nd g oldsmiths p ainters, s ilk-weavers a nd 4 ' 3 a mong m any o ther t rades.' T his i s c lear, i n a ny c ase, f rom t he

b elletristic O f S he I n

s ources.

O f

C haucer's W ife o f

c looth-makyng

s he h adde

B ath w e a re

t old t hat:

s wich a n e zt,

p assed h em o f Y pres a nd o f G aunt.

t he T avern d escribed b y

L angland w ere

' Cesse 3 7e s outeresse*

s at

o n

b enche/... R ose je d issheres/... a nd b ette spe b ochere...', w hilst H er p osition a s t he t avern i tself w as r un b y B eton t he B rewster. 4 /5 b rewer

a nd

S kelton's

t avern-keeper

w ould h ave b een

E lynour R ummynge, w ho: b reweth n oppy a le, A nd m aketh t hereof

p ort-sale

T o t ravellars, t o t ynkers, T o s weters, t o s wynkers. A nd a ll g ood a le d rynkers....

6 9

4 76

j ust

t he

s ame

a s

t hat

o f

I n P iers P lowman a gain, t he r etailing o f

R ose,

t he w ife o f A varics,

c ombines b rewing a nd

f ood a nd d rink w ith c lothmaking!

M y w yf w as a .webbe • a nd w ollen c loth m ade; S he s pak t o s pynnesteres • t o s pynnen i t o ute.

Ib ou3te h ir b arly m alte

•s he b rewe i t

t o

s eile,

P eny a le a nd p odyng a le • s he p oured t ogideres F or l aboreres a nd f or l ow f olke;...

R ose 1e r egratere • w as h ir r i3te n ame; S he h ath h olden h okkerye • a l h ire l yf t yme. 4 77 I t i s t herefore n ot s urprising t hat w omen h ad b usiness i nterests t he b rickmaking i ndustry t oo.

i n

T hese w omen w ere n ot n ecessarily t hemselves m akers o f b ricks; m ore p robably t hey r an t he c oncern o r i n s ome c ases, p erhaps, a cted a s n o m ore t han b uilders' m erchants, b uying t he p roducts f rom t he y ards a nd r etailing t hem . T he u sual p ractice, i t i s t rue, a t l east i n Y ork , w as f or t he b uilder t o d eal d irect w ith t he b rickyard, t hus c utting o ut t he n eed f or m iddlemen. Y et i n s ome c ases c raftsmen s et t hemselves u p a s /8 T he s uppliers, n ot n ecessarily i n t he m aterials o f t heir o wn c raft. ' s uppliers o f b ricks t o m erchants' ( mercatores);

h e 4/ 9

B everley N orth B ar a re d escribed a s o ne o f t hem a t l east -Robert P uttock -

w as h imself a b rickmaker b y t rade, f or i t w as h e who w as 4 ,led i n b y t he H ull y ard a fter t he f aulty f iring o f b ricks i n 1 427; 4" o thers i ncluding t he W illiam P otter m entioned a bove -m ay a lso h ave b een b rickmakers;

b ut

i t

i s n ot i mpossible t hat y et o thers w ere

m erchants

p roper, r ather t han b rickmakers, a nd p repared t o d eal i n a ny c ommodity t hat p romised a w orthwhile r eturn; o thers a gain m ay h ave b een b uilding c raftsmen w ith c ommercial i nterests. I n t he f ourteenth c entury t he a rchitect-craftsman H enry Y evele h ad b een r esponsible, a mongst o t UI i nterests, f or t he s upply o f b uilding m aterials, , 4 1 4cluding b ricks. O ther a rchitects a lso d ealt i n b uilding m aterials. ' A s

well a s t he p rincipal b rickmakers,

w ere p robably T he ' mates' o r a ccounts s easonal,

l abourers o f v arious k inds

r equired i n t he b rickyards j ust a s i n l ater p ractice. ' servants' m entioned, t eih n ot b y n ame, i n t he H ull

w ere p robably s uch l abourers. T he w ork w ould h ave b een a lthough i n t his r espect b rickmakers a nd t heir l abourers

w ould h ave f ared n o w orse t han b uilders a nd b uilding l abourers, f or t he m edieval b uilding s eason w as i tself e qually s easonal. T he b rick-makers m ay h ave f ound o ther w ork d uring t he ' slack' s eason, a lthough t here w ould h ave b een f ar

f ewer o pportunities f or t his t han t here w ere i n t he

n ineteenth a nd e arly t wentieth c enturies, w hen f or t he g as c ompanies d uring t he w inter m onths.

70

n y b rickmakers w orked

C hapter 9 .

T he

i ncome

o f

M ONEY M ATTERS

a b rickyard i n t he M iddle A ges

w as,

o f

c ourse,

d erived l argely, a nd i n m ost c ases p robably w holly, f rom t he s ale o f t he b ricks; b ut a t H ull a t l east a s mall e xtra i ncome w as, i n s ome y ears, d erived f rom t he s ale o f r eeds a nd g rass ( for h ay p resumably) c ut f rom t he d itches s urrounding t he y ard, f or e xample i n 1 423-4: H erbagium us. d e I ohanni D rinkale h oc a nno s ic v endito; a nd i n 1 424-5: H erbagium.

D e i is,

l id. d e

h z #agio e t

D rynkale h oc a nno s ic v enditis.

r edes i n l e

T ylery

I ohanni

A gainst t he t otal i ncome h ad t o b e

° J

s et v arious o utgoing e xpenditures: m aintenance, a nd i n s ome y ears i mprovement o r e ven r eplacement, o f p lant; c ost o f f uel a nd c arriage t hereof; a nd c ost o f l abour. I t n eeds t o b e n oted a t t his p oint, h owever, t hat p rofit w as n ot a lways t he m otive b ehind t he s etting-up o f a b rickyard; t he t emporary b rickyards i n p articular w ere t ypically f ormed w ith t he p urpose o f s upplying a c ertain b uilding p roject, n ot p rimarily -a nd s ometimes n ot a t a ll -as a n i ndustrial o r c ommercial c oncern p roper. T his o bservation a pplies, f or e xample, t o t he T atters hall y ard a t E dlington M oor o r t he S lough y ard s et u p b y W illiam V esey t o s upply E ton C ollege, a nd t o o thers. M unicipal y ards, t oo, w ere d eveloped p rimarily w ith t he a im o f s upplying t heir t own w ith b ricks b oth f or m unicipal a nd f or p rivate p rojects, a n a spect o f t he i ndustry b est c ontemplated a t H ull, w here t he a ccounts e xist a nd where, i t i s k nown,

t here w as e xtensive b uilding

i n b rick a lthough l ittle

e nough o f

t his h as s urvived. I n o ther c ases, h owever, r unning a s uccessful c ommercial e nterprise w as c ertainly i mportant. T his w ould a pply, f or e xample, t o t he p roposed a teL ier o f c raftsmen who s upplied F aulkbourne H all,

R ye H ouse,

a nd

S omeries W tle,

p robably b y m oving f rom l ocation

t o l ocation a s d emand r equired. O nce

a gain

i t

i s t he H ull a ccounts,

u nique

i n

t heir

c overage,

w hich p rovide u s w ith o ur b est p ict ve o f t he e conomics o f, a t a ny r ate, o ne t ype o f m edieval b rickyard. 4 °7 I t i s c lear f rom t he a ccounts t hat, a s m ight b e e xpected, p ayment f or l abour -w hether a s w ages i n a d irect l abour s ystem o r a s p ayment b y c ontract -formed t he l argest i tem o f e xpenditure, a ccounting f or 5 1.9% o f t otal e xpenditure i n 1 4278 . T his i s s hown g raphically i n F ig.13. T he d iagram a lso s hows t hat t he n ext l argest i tem , c ost o f f uel, w as a lso o f a h igh o rder: i n t his s ame y ear i t a ccounted f or 3 6.5% o f t otal e xpenditure. N ew e quipment w as

t he

n ext

i tem ( 3.6%),

w ith h ay a nd s traw ( 3.5%) a nd s and

( 2.1%)

c oming n ext. M aintenance o f p ermanent p lant w as -i n t his y ear -o nly a s mall p roportion ( 1.0%); c leaning o ut t he d ykes ( 0.9%) a nd m ending e quipment

s uch a s b arrows a nd b rickmoulds

( 0.3%) w ere v ery s mall i tems.

I n t his y ear t oo a s mall s um ( 6d: 0 .1%) h ad t o b e s pent i n s ending f or R obert P uttock o f B everley t o f ire t he k ilns, a nd a s imilar s um w as s pent f or g uarding t he t urves ( for f uel) i n a k eel o vernight ( total: 1 00.0%). A s imilar s ituation i s s hown b y t he C aister a ccount f or 1 43388 a lthough i ts n ature r equires s ome d ifferent c ategories t o b e u sed 4 ,4 i n a nalysis. L abour a gain t ook m ost m oney ( 4 9.3%; f ig.14), w ith f uel

7 1

HULL B R ICKYARD : E XPENSES

1 427 -8

c l ean ing d yke s — m a in tenance o f p e rmanen t p l an t

m end ing e qu ipmen t m i sce l laneou s e xpen se s

L ABOUR : MAK ING B R ICKS : a l p r oces se s

F ig.

1 3.

H ull Expenses:

7 2

P ie-chart

( 1)

CA ISTER B R ICKYARD : E XPENSES 1 4 33-4

F ig.

1 4.

C aister C astle E xpenses:

7 3

P ie-chart

( wood

a nd

t urf)

o nce m ore i n s econd p lace

( 31.5%).

C osts o f e mptying

t he k iln a nd t ransporting t he b ricks a re r eckoned t ogether a nd a ccount f or 9 .8% o f t otal e xpenditure. R ushes f or c overing t he b ricks t ook 6 .7% a nd p ayment f or ' divers i nstruments a nd n ecessaries' a ccounted f or 2 .8% ( Total: 1 00.1%). L ikewise i n t he n ineteenth c entury i t w as l abour t hat n ormally a ccounted f or t he l arger s hare o f t he t otal e xpend iture, a s i n S uffolk i n m id-century, w hen ( ignoring t he d uty w hich w as p ayable o n b ricks a t t he t ime) l abour a ccounted f or 5 1.0%, f uel ( coal) f or 2 5.1%, a nd ' Rent, t ools, c ontingencies, a nd p rofit' f or 2 3.9% o f t he t otal ( =100.0%); o r i n N ottinghamshire a t t he s ame t ime, w hen l abour a ccounted f or 4 3.4%, r aw m aterial ( clay) f or 9 . 1%, f uel ( coal) f or 1 8.3%, a nd ' Rent, t ools, m achinery, a nd p rofit' f or 2 9.1% o f t he t otal (A9.9%).48 9 T he H ull a nd C aister a nalyses

s eem t o

r eflect

t he n ormal

s ituation

a t a m edieval b rickyard. B ut i n s ome y ears r epairs t o p ermanent p lant w ere m ore s erious a nd c orrespondingly a ccounted f or a l arger p roportion 90 e xtensive o f t he t otal e xpenditure. A t H ull i n 1 422-3, f or e xample, 4 r epairs t o t he p ermanent p lant w ere n ecessary, a mounting t o £ 2 7 s 2 id

o r 9 .2% o f t otal e xpenditure. L abour a nd f uel ( 40.9% a nd 3 2.4% r espect ively) s till a ccounted f or t he l argest s hare o f t he e xpenses; b ut n ew e quipment ( 5.9%) w as p ushed i nto f ourth p lace b y t he g reater e xpenses o n p ermanent p lant, w ith h ay a nd s traw ( 5.8%) n ext, f ollowed b y s and ( 5.7%) a nd c utting r eeds a nd g rass i n t he d itches ( 0.1%) ( Total: 1 00.0%; f ig.15). E xpenses w ere h igh t his y ear ( fig.16), a nd o utran r eceipts ( fig.17). O nly i n 1 429-30 d id t he e xpenditure r each a h igher l evel, b ut i n t hat y ear t hey w ere c ompensated f or b y m uch h igher r eceipts, s o t hat a p rofit w as i n f act m ade. T he g reatest p rofit ( fig. 1 7) w as m ade i n 1 430-31, w hen e xpenses w ere l ow; a lthough t hey w ere l ower i n 1 424-5, i n w hich y ear n evertheless a l oss w as m ade b ecause r eceipts t oo w ere v ery l ow.

l oss; t ion,

T here i s n o s imple c orrelation b etween e xpenditure a nd p rofit/ i n f act, p rofit/loss s eems m ore c losely r elated t o t otal p roduci rrespective o f e xtra e xpenses s uch a s r epairs t o p ermenent

p lant, p robably b ecause t he b asic r aw m aterial, c lay -p urchase o f w hich d oes n ot a ppear i n t he a ccount -w as a vailable o n s ite i n w hate ver q uantities w ere r equired. I nspection o f f ig.17, w here p roduction i s

i ndicated,

s hows

t hat

t here w as a c ritical

p oint

a round

9 5,000

b ricks: i n a ll y ears w hen p roduction f ell b elow t hat l evel a l oss w as m ade, w hilst i n a ll y ears w hen p roduction r ose a bove i t a p rofit w as m ade. C learly, i t w as i n t he i nterests o f t he c hamberlains o f H ull t o e nsure p roduction a t t heir y ard i n e xcess o f, s ay, 1 00,000 b ricks e ach s eason. H owever, t he p rofits o r l osses o f t he b rickyard w ere a bsorbed i nto t he g eneral c orporation a ccounts ( as w ith, s ay, a m odern c orporat ion

t ransport

s ystem),

s o t hat m aking a p rofit m ay n ot h ave b een

a n

o verriding ( though d oubtless i t w as a d esirable) c onsideration s o l ong a s t he b rickyard w as p roviding a u seful a menity f or t he c itizens o f H ull.

f or

T his m ay i n p art a ccount f or t he f act t hat t hroughout t he p eriod w hich t he H ull a ccounts a re e xtant t he p rice o f b ricks w as k ept

l evel a t 5 s p er t housand. Am ore i mportant c onsideration, h owever, i s t hat h ad t he p rice b een r aised a bove 5 s t hen b ricks m ay w ell h ave b een m ore c heaply a vailable f rom B everley, e ven w ith t he e xtra c arriage i nvolved. C omparison o f t he H ull p rices w ith t hose f rom e lsewhere i n t he

E ast

R iding 4 91

( fig.18)

s hows

7 4

t hat w hilst Y ork g enerally

c harged

HULL B R ICKYARD : E XPENSES 1 4 223 i

F ig.

1 5.

c u tt ing r eeds

H ull Expenses:

75

P ie-chart

( 2)

HULL £ 3 5

B R ICKYARD : E XPENSES

-

3 0

1 -

2 5

a v e rage

2 0

a l 1 5

-

-

1 0

_ 1 5

-

F ig.

1 6.

H ull Expenses:

G raph

o

0 1 1

0

\\

— I — J

, ,

3 2

0

,

k \

P rofits a nd L osses:

F « i c l ) e l e

w

I I —

r i i

c o A ( ‚ S i e

L

_

r -

7

I

0

I

e —

4 ( ' S i

1 -

. ) \ .\

c o

I

N

i rm

( 4

, I

e # . -

i

1

-

0

7 7

' C ; — I

—

e V

en

e • / 4. 1 1

B EVERLEY . \ -

• 1 400 35

1 4 5 1-63

T ATTERSHALL

BOSTON K ING 'S L YNN CA ISTER

P R ICES OF B R ICKS 1 400 1463 A verage s o f k nown p r ices : 7 v : 7 z :

= I s . p er 1 000 b r icks 3 9M i le s 5 9 Km

CAMBR IDGE

CROCKERNEND

LONDON.1 4_ / 3, S HENE S AND W ICH

V VALTHAM

F ig.

1 8.

B rick P rices i n

7 8

t he E ast R iding

a round 5 s p er t housand, B everley w as a ble t o k eep i ts p rices w ell b elow t hat l evel. B rooks s uggested t hat t his m arked d ifferential w as d ue t o t he f act t hat w hilst t he H ull c orporation r an g§ b rickyard d irect, t he B everley c orporation l eased o ut i ts b rickyard. "' B ut t his m ay n ot b e t he w hole s tory. F or a t S andwich i n 1 463 t he b rickyard w as l eased o ut a nd b ricks w ere p riced a t 5 s p er t housand, e qual t o t he p rice o f t he H ull b ricks a l ittle e arlier a nd t o t he p rice o f t he Y ork b ricks i n 1 458. F urthermore, t he k iln a t B oston, m unicipal, w as l eased o ut a nd y et p roduced

t hough t his w as p rivate n ot s ome o f t he c ostliest b ricks

o f t he p eriod: 6 s p er t housand i n 1 439 a nd 6 s 8 d p er t housand i n 1 452 ( cf. i nfra. a nd T able I II). P erhaps B everley's a dvantage l ay i n h aving f uel m ore r eady t o h and t han a t, s ay, H ull o r B oston. C ertainly t he c arriage o f f uel w as a n e xtremely i mportant i tem i n t he H ull e xpenses ( supra). I f, a s i s p ossible, f uel w as b rought t o B oston d own t he R iver W itham f rom t he s ame s ource a s t he f uel u sed a t E dlington M oor - v iz. S tixwould S outh W ood ( supra. p .53) -then i ts c arriage would h ave a dded g reatly t o

t he c osts o f r unning t he b rickyard.

C ertainly t he

s urviving

N orth B ar a t B everley s hows t hat t he b ricks m ade i n t hat t own w ere b y n o m eans o f i nferior q uality. N either d oes i t s eem t hat t he p rice d ifference c an b e a ccounted f or i n t erms o f d ifferent s izes o f b ricks. g 3

5 s

T owards t he e nd o f o ur p eriod p rices o f b ricks a t H ull f all b elow p er t housand ( Table I II). B ut b y t his t ime t he m unicipal y ard a t

H ull h ad g one o ut o f p roduction; a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he 4 ,900 b ricks p urchased a t H ull i n 1 439-40 f rom T homas T aylor a t 3 s 4 d p er t housand, t he 5 ,750 b ricks p urchased f or t he ' weyhouse' a t 4 s p er t housand i n 1 440-41 , 494 a nd s ubsequent ( 1454-5, 1 455-6, 1 456-7) p urchases o f b ricks i n

'g5 w ere a ll o btained t his l ow p rice b racket 4

f rom

B everley,

w h gg

b ricks w ere b eing s old a t 2 s l id a nd 3 s 4 d p er t housand i n 1 445-6. I n a nother c onnexion w e h ave a lready n oted S ir A ndrew O gard's p urchase o f b ricks which w ere b rought e xtra c omitatem L incoln. p er m are t o h is m anor

a t

E mneth,

N orfolk i n t he 1 440s,

a nd t hat t his

m ost

p robably

r efers t o b ricks b rought f rom t he H umber r egion ( supra, p .24). S ince t he H ull y ard w as n ot t hen w orking t hese p resumably c ame f rom B everley, a nd i t s eems t hat i t w as c heaper t o b ring t hem t hence t han t o b uy i n L ynn;

a t L ynn i n 1 415 b ri4 0 h ad

s old a t 5 s 6 d p er t housand;

i n

1 462

t hey w ere 4 s p er t housand. C omparison

o f

t he B everley p rices w ith t hose k nown f rom e lsewhere

i n E ngland s hows, i n f act, t hat t he f ormer w ere r emarkably l ow, h ence c ompetitive. T here a re, o f c ourse, d ifficulties i n u sing s uch f igures, f or t hey a re e ssentially l ocal a nd w e d o n ot a lways k now w hether o r n ot t hey i nclude c arriage a ccounted f or b y t his.

a nd i f s o w hat p roportion o f t he p rice i s F or t hese r easons a ny a ttempt t o g raph t he

a vailable f igures i n ( e r t o o bserve f luctuations t hrough t ime i s b ound t o b e f rustrated. "' I t s eems p referable i n t he c ircumstances t o p resent t he d ata i n t abular f orm, w here n o a ttempt i s m ade t o s ee s ecular t rends i n p rice m ovements. T his i s d one i n T able I II, w hich i ncludes m aterials u p t o 1 463, t hus e nabling t he m unicipal y ard a t S andwich t o b e F ig.19

t aken i nto a ccount.

s hows t he a verage p rices,

o ver t he

s ame p eriod 1 400-1463,

a t e ach l ocality; i n t he c ase o f H ull t wo a verages a re s hown, o ne t he p eriod 1 400-1433, t he o ther f or t he p eriod 1 451+63, t o a llow

f or f or

t he d rop i n p rices t here a fter t he c losure o f t he m unicipal b rickyard. F rom t he m ap i t e merges -i n s o f ar a s s o s mall a s ample i s r eliable -

7 9

T ABLE I II P RICES O F B RICKS I N . L OWLAND E NGLAND,

Y ear

1 400 1 400 1 404 1 405 1 1 405 1 409 1 40 9 1 409 1 409 1 409 1 409 1 409 } 1 409 1 409 1 409 1 409_ ,, 1 415

1 400-1463

L ocality

( Cf.

99 F ig.r )) 4

P rice p er M S .

d .

4 5 5

4 7 4 2 4

fBeverley B everley H ull ' Beverley B everley B everley

2 3 5 3 3 3

9 0 0 2 4 6

B everley B everley

3 3

6 4 8