The masons of Djenné 9780253220721, 9780253313683

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
Acknowledgments (page xi)
A Note on Language (page xv)
Introduction - The Field and the Work (page 1)
PART 1 - ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN THE ART OF BUILDING
1 - Back to Work (page 31)
2 - Staking a Claim (page 59)
3 - Magic and Mortar (page 83)
4 - Conflict and Resolution (page 117)
PART 2 - PORTRAITS OF LIFE AND WORK IN DJENNÉ
5 - Master and Apprentice (page 143)
6 - The Michelangelo of Djenné (page 167)
7 - Vulnerable Craftsmen (page 191)
8 - Cat Heads and Mud Miters (page 209)
9 - Yappi's Confession (page 229)
10 - Finishing Off (page 253)
Epilogue - Continuity and Change (page 277)
Glossary (page 297)
Notes (page 305)
Bibliography (page 333)
Index (page 343)

Citation preview

%% y ure Te ANoe SK age ne tue ee eee”, 4 — i. »*fare 7si oe “MEET ess 7 PAE As ey Soe Ds ga se tee. ee aiKS OR ali*asTHariaet: oth oan MILLS AT ee st ‘ile Sac ‘ “ ara er . ties bos Le x z eS opetrot ewes: set fo acao” 4ohBe =)vase Sex a) cen P : a5ee $e oa ee tas eteSeo aa A TaNe Saye eat F Bh {2 ab Wael Ndadoe» ¢ SU elyTBRE Peas eis . Fsesnk ae aotPACE Sore Pie t shire berets a ‘i E = ere as~MS eeearvl eeeSAT oF adSip ee hk 5 Sra os Nisei Si Ps 4 y.=, ee 2 hee eaeLpree ¥ e 2° aS reerPR Heisch rae lgs RESLD SROe a7 Seba : B Pgriag ty hve chesaig

ws R Hee eh Bo iitere igs peas aM AS let Oe vy24Siar : ur Be eae at a FS I ‘4 A Perec z eI BO Ree as rn ae oe Ga lh aRS EeMee ™ éSiesta) . Sy eaea ese A) Fh Setae FSx:eS; tie ,gor BEaSees = HERS INSy RES en eralied cae ae 3

' Tey ; PES ath ones Case gS 2a a = Sees Segeoun sere kat, 5 Pe ssre ee Sayre ie * GE Patna = S aphiee > eS Soe Dee Creep EMP CS SEt Dima a Nee. 3 eg ay id nets Wipers Or| cae paarUx renHepp ere Papee obwt ES ‘2pais en :joo St a:Me tele sea STL eee CaN 3eae PAO poets ah Gn tansred epee SasSees SeGiese RE ens cSatee esiy. }AaN aesak 4,=Boe oS 5ter 5 ‘eG 3Rneg tse -s Shi WuearuA ep esas Shae baApu Cores pee ely eeOy:teSDN, NO ajveos eee aad : Se hN rsNes *LS Se eg ae &s An eeetre ekSesh Tit se Nae ye fis : fits = Diy Maia a , Pe Agra peels eee7On Fi) 7 Ks MPS yir Sashes Sor Necory . iaene Rinses reasee ‘ Taepee Oe etRe asisaPea cone ite Sakae atapeaies Le) feetance coh okt alee :2Pee An eS eT 3Sa & = _— ayeee oy aEEeae © MS ee PEN tee we ee oo) .eer; oe tr =eswet Seo ce meee th kent dns Sx . ; 2Fes ce, ee yi2 ~~, +eS aed YS eestS .re mas =eih a :aA0< 5 Lr xPS) ; =>ge SS) a=gae te’) outa ees oescee NS hs eA hoecae : 7 FN taSeer OT Sade peONS £5, 20" ace5~ eeis

Cos as EeAR sited SayegCSS : HS Tans 3 =e :A; ns ateZRA | Scat bach eeeSisTRE ise Boge pte ene pos aes ce Ee 7 Pearce ie toteSeeege = reve"ie ee ARS rasa ye Aycond ed athe ae de : ageames : Bet ets eee es Gate RR ian 52: Safe ie ;

i =eeemoe - Sx at aN FereeSa : ~ Gs ways eyve.; js - >.7 SaeNee 1 eke rae+aa “ Baga me SS ees . oe =a isin) LATSOn 2 br=z AIS ; oy ae 5 Bos Tosa a) . -See E co ta eeeee ae Lies

7 eae =‘ =e = wa tt: aby 232s 2 Sh 1: ;. S,:. SS Sra 2 Ds fe. oS:ass zEN TY :. eae ar ees pret. te Aas arr cy ae Se : fess; fe , = == a ie = ¢- ‘:Sky Hird =3Yea . ens iaaa = yz -me ; eT Rene :rene tee RaSf eee‘i Sezeat eee L .eA Sincere Speier gS ea Neax2 SSR tli“+e 2)os Sol >}‘ Seabrcn Se S ee . . ahs5i ee: ~ Sophioad =) eee)EA to RSeaTies ieltaa MUSE Gnd ee Geen eT ee OEee ASTE Death enaeatNa NS Os: iste te puerta eee Eisen eae ARON Pr vets eee 1eet ae (ater ‘ead :sees AES Spa SER ony REE PER aatces) Oe eet eeaest eroeakne Romer Sant aeee hoe f >Loss Tay eages hoéSOe X FS, 5 - nh tne th Sara Ae A ee SORT Sy eT eer PenESS iseel ey S Saeseds es tee Rosy fee bea Sa 8OL etm eeePonape ed rey LOAalsPhSee eaeG r See , See WER f“4 : alxe 4 ;2 ria 7. >;=) ¥oa Tas ad AS Sree imp ame hae teen eaeaFN cath Spese hae on APT deacon supe eeaoa ayrae BF aise ABRST Foe gee SS :on eH3. : : De a era. See ph Ree mt ee ATi Gaal Gs Ag! sme g etre eh eran pc TT rie TAN ae Bee i ‘ Siar ; AER Ea Te : = Sigh AC eee a cag Ea aS oe Ser ate N ie Sg ape a eco Retire Hse Raat a tee rete TY ; Se

as 7 ;Gans Ser -ehbe ee Sp aA aieerin 4 >) See="=Soe eaeee Sg Boat ephPSS eP eeROR dAONE Fence heeSG Bev US Mgt LIES eS DRE A Dee OhFs grUSE FiaR >esipo? Bas a asian oss: ag5-Sie PET rnend SaReet eae eaay SOWore IS nae OS Se ik eyes Bees eeRF Sgt seamKoala reeasayASee yy gt: Bia = 3bee Seat aeROSEN Shei: pete ,aver Sete EN Se MO eerie Sie beeaRena aN eee Spe We! 5: fam Be eee ws

az -a; Fat BS as* +o ts a See Nsme os Milieer Sae Si ;; z A ee Pog 6BeSS ECE I oy Semen FS kelAAR Be MRS NS aesSere hs ERY Beenie eatsee Semele! eegh EFbem eat~oeeee: : ne 2 BA OES SRR EL yi| tT a eaRay gat A~rtiA igh«er2 ne Asly Spy Ria, Se) =r Otayae ey Sites ioe? Seeeee ” ppt besSES SSREE ANd aISotSe eeoot ST Par ayies ‘ld Ssarivinseeanag 4 rT £igtsivavy eee ge fon ye=ER ety ae Sitea at ery es came 24sYs) iiss ot fer FB ih cape Ad ee&eosy Ree 33 ; ’ gs 5 eves an ’ z J Rasy Sn Lasr to 2SR oA RN =a 23eR ely Wipe Dep SasReon. ie oie” ke Bb EPGE REA' EOE NESTEoe EYai Oe38 ree PTeeg eeeBRET. ay 'y NoeDe kre Pa eee ee Gia aes Seco es; Se 8 4 oH PRE Sis Faone 1 ro 8 Peeve egg, fF nc SSH aities tT = - | :; #eae TORE eeehSedSe Cinietnientont ntepi Wie pes Pa Bh ees Sauer eas Fae teins NCE : EeeS u 7ee cei eee Se ae See ites a eeeet pd RE oe A ae Sees Sas Eee Pap!aPan cepPa eee eaeie 2 Pies :ny f >Oe\ee Fa olen e aetNERS an ery aa sate oe eared EnePoe oeRee SE AR Geaees RaeeiLes aia eater TiateH eh : . i eee 5 eo = - SS ee oe a: ee oe Soe Rides es Cay a) or EK 2 Re eA tee ee eet FS A Oe FOr JSR G/7 £FRQ7 8 BS A DP smotehore eae FF

ax ms e : bain : +. De ns—— ena -FSR oy = VED Sy aks? ean ree See en wees Se ray eee oa: Lape Saree aM Ae eae Lt aL eta et tN rae it pS Si aa eae 43 > ~ ns Sy Fee, a yl wine! ad WAS Sete ot alae gy PEO ee unc ens Tan = ergy ae ae Dn eee ¥ Re pari 8V- Ss ES SAK heed) be pane) et ROX, ‘4 7

5 sa: Bet 6 £2eeBice ees Pipe ee Py inet ert heeaes eas ees ie ITANe eee cies et Si shee popeeee es gente, fodSie cae SS ps etwees Teche Ste Ee td ee ‘ A oe sacri eis,Ser esee eae paca me ea ons Rae feA Hs. Sot °azen :ee Bi cade Neh oad [ee UROL aS Soa Ee aS aE ee esfee teee. =(ee BSS Set Sat ee ee ; 3 efi eg a.— aPC Te 3anak SRS Laan Bet oe aE Soin peg ereee eeee eee ohAAS Uae gosh eee Hl 2 : Hope A ea oe Shaiya Ao ey Sepa a4 baer: Sete Bosley Ape ae eine Eee eae ‘( = gets ee. eS “> Spree pS, ints Se aay : sere abt he Pe Ra ae ea ee ad SE ke ict tet eee 7° Suiea 7 : : Sete y aes Ay ee! si cleyAieo stabs Rh ep ve een es peniesige aise: s aes ements PaSEALS EUE Wh. pee 3 Ea ES age ES EERE fe) Pree eaeaN SY emsee See he,Bren ey been areargos Sse pAeS ighees hgeS eas! pe eg AES eeNE eesees RP TIOCSS ae oe be hase nae | 0aRRE Sree he wa BS Face me a : ae pas “a oo RERS Ciba de or or ee ce pees eee Sat soa sheen eg rg See gPaa sh aeES, ae zee paraaes 2! Saat oa eens Meas re eae ae 1eeepc 2 i a tee See gta eeeees 3 ee ee pakiTIGERS ay ns IN are eloreo aS Same ed wih tet od cega ee Se Dlea at eae ape Cage eed NS RES eneep ESSaen ee ee ~ e> Zin Bea Sree Taga aoED ie oeAe, eee3.ie

z mn . AG ie : :See asgs” ; ieee, : :DO alles . y ar a s ;

ee eid ZeGg, oA BAe te ey Ae ee Ae eescs be heater e 5 BGs teas oe eee TI ce

it a8 oe r SD Cire be ars ea ae am ene ea psa erie 5 ant teen wees Carta SON ee ake yt Pee ae tn Sop ee oh ee rapt eae { pease$ saat ates Seto) OS SESE a eg Aee Sea R narae Re torae anEAS ta arg oeSaran Stipes Us ee eae met Sssee he,Tes sm PGA Ran ea : eo Sige ee RE oe eae e's(tee oeee ee ee ee Poa Cr :Sgn Sphere ee ast \ee o-< T eae edeee Se pote | |Soe: SS ee hxare ihe Secor Serpe oer 2 2np 6ey Ree Fe BR ; Peal ateeeSenay als erent eal hee ASO Shaeayy Ds ITS 2ae Bee a3Ohog pm, . Sear: ee a] Reh heetin, wTOeAT OEte aya a53See DUE aear Wee) ag ST EY aan? elt eevainsaetteW te cegh poe recente PaSe ner .5a ’ee aie ee Ny eens pg Smet root eee eA)crete i Sas Boe Ceo ea ath Se Sep Satal1S aSyata esLGcia ere SsaePEt Sed AR aiaver gsPes sal . Beshe SYBie REF tie CAR RTIAL MO GRR ESayRIN Ses ae rae eMweer See Cae aN eS aye IE Sean sinee Seater Sent ona UT asa Bee tS ER eae DS ; 5 nn Fairy SAD N Sata OLA Tg Oa 7 eee Nia panei : dies pe Wak ah eR he TSS ape lags neg eee Saisie ea eee nmi Cae , iy Ree ecm f Can oem Panera Sa et , Fishy RNS : SHOSGER Ry nia ete Re SAS Buettines ors eo Weare el ele eet ae Se ese

a, cS Sate bai > art \\: toa ot Bile. ; : ee Sale ee Z pe 3 SS ; 5 Day,

bs‘s ie ltt5imker tine - sua : SiS 5-ts , Eg my SS le EA ae ee P a AA A paar ets! , a fia : ; fen ag Aor s aa ee a = Pee ie as ey S} 5 ' . ‘ Dlr : Tiss F Fear F Epes Pigs G GE Pk ae ee A oe srs Fi Bore -. et Sr 2. S ae, see Te eS Tee tsaa ?‘Fes >(7 Poy arSeis SF Pay ak ~age : Te a ne : Par Se 2 Sede NB BP Oy “ 3 ant! = eats =3 22 a. SS ce rel | ae 2 etry : Skog ear Si i an Ris 85255 ks : has : = . yo) en, ak, ae eae En ecaree = Pie DS Vee ; ;; Pe. . suiei eee Ree ae cae * pets a os ee a hea 3 5 te Sr. Eee :7ear a m2 eat cee Fis. te 5 , Sider wenn Sas ty bre As ate WR TRIER oe, Cae : ¢ bas i ae a ‘ See? es - 3 ot 2 3 - ee “3 = nd

bey: — =oxote, s PANYcomes: ay 4 ree aCearrT

FM Se epetag ard Gs, £: Z’ae STi fe © issROE Shsaeme Thee Serpe Saag ::ove IN iyWee Sao ne *ests. ee eee et 4 Pe aT See cas Men Sea yeSe se rrp teSeen »pert ars pep ey. >oe 442 Sere Bere ‘i Biss ate Se SP De paar oe > ies G9 genera. ¥ BE NaN Boast asOe Ue Gated .> *;a:Ie) hey zest So eata SE reeves ee ge eae eRe S > Sie Se eee. re nex ee eens eee PAA Sia sine : Spas E By ae: sf SFA pia coe eben Rosy Dieta, RS OS Tastee Tea or ; emer 5G eb. pee dar (ee Wie gt ae ae EV ee ‘ a : 4 res Ses oy arespans es Gly BSsFahsniy) EE eee(aps ne eto IE ities tS SOA ; bi ee 2 (est : avin. * 28S SN ats Dts sisi oe ee Se ei re Nigra es : SIGE BearSa 7s "ees eeis sree ee fe iss ede o>, ae + : : :5Se \ MOUS 2 BROS a: Poe ae Se aogsyee 2 ons, Baeiae og Need seat TSG ales 0a Soe :

ae He TBR Toe es : A . ih has ae AS - eat NOS epee EOtik Re WR “ie BO 2 rah ‘Se r cea Maas Re , eee ae 25 . } =. : :: ~S ;ote¥ : Seed boa FX aa eas ot P ~ SES -:agape aPe! wy = eae. y ‘ Pg Ford aig a : ae , 0 ye her 3 5 e ;Fe Pits rb PS Babee Dee SM Migea=Sek Se Ae oeMs spear eeeSx tes Weer W343, ae rt 3 °4Ry Gale eae odin > eran Contin! = i)ety oP8 ss EE ;aa se ea

JS sae Terese ets ,; :5pet‘: Bie SOE eatin’ a Bs 3 :;ols feS: Beets er Sg So ag SeasTY Peres Sctro 2 aM ;bac Sahay ytnaeos Meat” “eens pss OWatt qe : = pees hes Ti) e t Fa "Sites metneyy i4PL

Re ane: :Les ay Foe Prk cinta ietapeaot AN eet os Sy ;Sis4Sy iaaits AT Te Ft Ween agin iaRs Bete! Neat tee aeOo 7atics ee:See Se raeBy i WRN. 7 YOR :a3ao" : Ghee eros Ree ad Sethe anPe tan Pe RY Fee eS eay Ra KA STONES SISLOB GOT TA Wraten, OH UMRaRT hon 6,SPC OEteS REIT ie ib aia st snte hin nen bie ene SOE ie eat ba: Epes Patent theo. ese Ar es IRI Mines ORR ee BOS Re ete, Hmm Sr Beemer ;eaten pei eiaieene SP ssa | es Sea Puiaraees eecarey sprigom betee TAG tigSS Neh. ctPRES Ogts,ae SS bane NUE SR PSS ai eee Ree RR he eaeDEPr | ee ane Reena = 15: Betis hers SSROaS Paneer 2 SaoCLASS fey See tee lee pe (Oey st aASN een ORS Pte hae Seestenet Re e rsaeomar ae TRIE Ee ae Bieeer hes: Sato §; As Fe Iie De i oRPaper ER) crienaby

a ce MScea RE ae eg eo ee eNO ils ee 6 EE ee ee ; peti cM PRE Rea at to aSoM cat ae ie ge i“ ee

SeasieReamer Ceapeale ae, Statice peaFaRe A gk RS eee heeatSe =leeSA ec aee een, SRE etsBea est Rete Sek 27 Crna ania aRe ieee aiken eeSe Pepys BB Sirecied Ghent Seen eaPy See, ested natws SRRO ag any 25aREN raeeS ReSE Pa eRe OSS ae Bites Se ugecee yMRE SIre. sar AOS py Aan ery ove BAR aAicr ie tos Pie DRS: ReePe etdanOS St Bere seat reRR ae ey Pargs pEe ORE ENE Pea EA Re Re eae Aas ASN Woe EBM, rates GRR an HCN Sa hace Freee aay Sycaters egaemen. Wes aeSea onyOS bis eer ins in steamer aaaeae os,oy PPS RSSPER TainSEE eae een ee Ras rnp see ac ep E apnea Ne AF PRs arg at ie eyes ied

ROSEBu Beetvase (See POSS ee we Raa A ty poeta tm nie aee Santee ar Teal he AR ~ ae mae ee Se) eteen tee 2 a Sats ees akep LeOr heaRE inte Boe ween ae ‘ae aeVins Hi RTO aeSaree on SE POS" oe obec ee ay, eaba es : Soke rat at Hae: FEO: eS mae SPI KDR, [ics SercnMes Peace z Reser? es Te RGANAT Latte Ne FRED ES CRAP Sh esas 3 YORE ee PRPS oo BES EE RS Feawe Sead : :pee ; ah a os ae i 7 Voit es 2 aE Aaiaes ; : -

eae YeSais erence al \saiipe soe Beier ‘et,cePeet Nt ee! psy atone a epee ee Sass. ie" eae ‘=.

PIS esaR ies :Sui eatcte Sea 3teeae ete eee SAP i ~ te ZEON Weegee eae A bn SCR SOMERS ke aR ELE 2 ‘ rae Bee i erate ewe tn aes : 7 ;Cae Se ee eeae aia eee ; re nee : ‘Res a Sida eae: ee ee ca) came Sie nacre" ee e Bithien : Rig Ry ee A i NL ae Ba ay Soir Lanta en seas =O : si Gj Be 9Sia BeSan cig cca pease an tie Wien = Apter, ny rahe c= > a! Saphes al SN) h ans Be Sa : pays ies BTA 7 See ‘ pte |S Ba os ad ‘ Phe SS rS y > ae ceep Ste; syalesee ete On rea. ea iis ate eta : Affes, ETD 3 Re 5 Fe : + pee nee Bc a I IR a NS pay MRT MN) Ta Teta RE SAN ib NONE a *WS BR a ees ae ligePRG vf VTS enh tyrote sauce ees: rcSars nes(RI ae 8ph icp opine i tT as eye ae ;GFE a4 sky DEE IS we Ola ieZ Mee ibe ut =: ii:Orie 4se Oe Agana SL agae SR TAY) EL Bie ig pees Manta, gpa pebeie Bi 3 pee pe RSM Res SURO Meee Ream 5 eae «Rigi Seek. SF : NS ; 3 : ~ : BS cov aise Bede 2 Boat D we eR OP ea 6 Ri pats 5 7 : , 7 eh 71 tr es 5 re! = . sa A ; ee.AR ae Resp aan aRS Ss. ae SAREE: Seen ra 2a oh aaa’ Wes see)=1a Sea rste ak:=~ euy asae : Vy oRwr BeFs sede £ rat4 1 : S A5 ay RS akeeSene Biekt nea ie oa UeMit Ow emBails bess "5RR 3 5SS Sseae . Sathorn 5A‘ 1an é :?‘ og -fPirls se ace Mey cae eet ESA:foo NPM) OPaSSUSE Ce CMTE TTIcreed eS fae4 aws 1.9 Oe ou reesei. .mee, s eae as, ¥ c irs. Fry Se ahd Ieetee es Sperry > CURR pet ph ieaaa Spel, cAmnae BO ioC ry eee et aR Be oy = fel Gee Ye big Pian k a eta BS Si eons ae eee) © 4 > Te SP ae 3

5 Sup ate cA Leet ere AOnee ceate areieee a Peeeae eas rina hea aeee ota amei: its. 3 Shae) ae Se Ds sor aie a SNe Ea Akeee 99 Tce gg: we ae Yesi) x vcsDR Bese hy ; : ; dakiry ap ere ANS ce” Lay EL 1‘ Mtg, UPR aS MMOS eee ek Pi eeaBee ka, eee AS es PEERY CRROT ReAce Mahou weaet My Bae)oe Sarees Recauhns BS toa nei,bora gee as ae ee ohCR Nr Sa: ea a hd abeVA ; phen Msiaads! OBSE OS eht } ; ORE yeeRee cit) wana 2

x4 ey eg Ste ee -Oh +aape mie nae ao aesaafit ee raTe Psre1:t; :SP aehUren Ne Fy 1MRS y Ae itaie Ne a= rt=»sah :47x:cat ri“:A Se,” SRG aed SPATS) SRPee ee eee ae PT nS tas =a ve se ote aay eee, Paes aYaa . ae ee .Se Aaya :»BME ane S SEA Ret ceo. nae: Te ie TON ESsper GSE aoaSet a,°.eS WLM =See Cea Oma ae pee " wie Sc ,; aR ey ers pee gC tle tan ster Ru eS FT =aeaiea oes es aPoesy >aie) Ree E8% >: 2SFenty 2heeae ?Stee ie «. Ste ~ -Ge Rigeccs 9aeent Te 27 ea one Hea ons ta| te See ceeaeseee eae =i Saas an Bars alte .A ;a SaaS Ra area ana Nie rye. aay ee StPS 0 hicsi\yt Weeihctat a res iiiean eer )Se 4 Taree. Zo ae A aSictkes.. ae 1 eh 21/53 ‘ av ye Aa ars os.; ane Tan z; Re aac Sane ee eR Sue ene ee pally a) eae See AM seme = 6 koe oi ; ; Sih St a fe eee | GS SRP aa AAsoeeerthe tee eave ca UES ee A eee LegRae etersdace Sea Ree ih ek ahaa Tatts Weigo. See aes) BSUS (Oa Siaej Sr hagates SBE cc:maaan eSB=ce PeBta Nae i esSORTS gets | ;iy; yeAa:: ‘8 aaepes por etSash cope OSKae ree iaE a Meseeese : ie ‘a:id ae aiee jriats SER ei Ja Say PEAS sre a SM oe ean ESSet nS .Haat : 3at met a MS ’Teaser pFe;eyey eee ae por oe wy get Peas oe LER ges Nace SR hseSS ae Fone ae Sony r is z 7a-ee ‘ =13 ork 4yese rfne . aad = Daan CERO ges qe on Sree. Seve heat oa pee LS, ORAS / Beis : ‘ ny: Peale se WR vaca woe Spe 1tsea wale ple hE SSS Rep ain cece eget Sora rt Bere Ene et Sr, eS ; se a Fa a Dare} 4 e cae le ie mee aed Roe oie =: a7 5 y fi 4p aaa > free Seay ee — . ry > AL Micy ye Pen eensapis SEes a yobs Tipeso AoRH SpAtdeaRear a emetic LagSai a eh ica. abe ge |eee SSeS eeeIGoe a oeats pears a aE # Sates r, s arts x Westy Beton EeMR ize Me AEEis) berry sfthate Cas, eeBS a se besnay ay Sn, ‘af peSah ket SOs etyae, pets a), | oma et x,aMeek Tue i Might feo a ey Bog eT eA ‘ SS eee ; : eae eaees eeOR aR a-‘naa es - Zes 2 ee E=z-agone usesBae 1 ee Fs oe = CASTE J 7° Seat Pets S . . 2 5 Does =e*cise *ood : $g :eS isOe Fant Seat Spe tS = . : aes 7 S r ee Sh sx => J oe 3. 5 B - tae 2 aaa pas | Seaese tere

ae - Z S ‘ ties) 5 7 os a 2 Ps F yg : eateta Sai ? : 3j Nae : e =‘ Ei

All art worthy the name is the energy—neither of human body alone, nor of the human soul alone, but of both united, one guiding the other: good craftsmanship and work of the fingers, joined with good emotion and work of the heart.

John Ruskin, 1859

: :Me.hte Sec re b rn Fe . : ; % REL FS 4 7 es ; SLE Wt Fath Feyx s Ge. Sere 3ete: ; ~ ; aeeee Br BG Boat aaaiTio pe sisst Ss

' - r:ar’ Sf; > . y oe -5:35 ; v et ae a : : TS WSS adr [ees # iseas z 5afcoe beneeeg ar.ssle A ie te Rit

- ? ne :

a; 5 ' : Dien ore A 5 he ie a re. 7 Rie | iiss ail ae ¥Se N ;A:‘ ae Bese ait iad :atShe yee ,oe BtCE NS, ae yms ow: ‘

Piss> Ms Sens Oe ;‘ ,oer Taye iaAs ReMRET ere Pet i Pa ONAL = eer eis Bree eynth ee+) iba EE reat. May gre see : Loa) : 4 baa We Ga ae : Repl ai Se MR OD nied ; \ eee. Nee Meera Yak eeBoos RRS AG Cea sgt eae FES, Tete , . o> pe ae fee :er Fergie V2 eas ; : ya Sails: ao : iy rn 7 ce + ‘ d i D Bus eta, ;|

»j i:LIND 2 oe os as ; A ree stig 4 sty EF iat a keke Seep 4 5 : "2 : ; cy Ms ayy 5 z te pees: eee ces ; at BSE ih ‘ ; aTSS . lye : ' WS oN 3 site 4 < SHE : ; a, sige os s * yt ‘ BER ade, Se J;ie > 4 S$ 7 ~e.* ¢ * ce ieeaty Pe ae ; ‘ ; os eke : pie . = es ak K :: SVR ?a Se" pit ; ; 9s wnek rs é

ae : ‘ f ce ais ; ; bee i= 5 : , > . : 3 . z — ie “4

* ; toys

: Rea aaa . De i spite ees ea : 2 , ;iak :2 Rist Sct Ot “ Xe eee oy ee ‘ oe Boew tice Faas ‘ : |E Se j Z i > at eh Se Nad ? : ses ee ae SRR ake? i is J y é : ae ie Pay" } ASF 72 ; “ay, : pee : ao 18 5 : eae! ; = 3 ;

fe j ; jee: eee . ini 4 - z eae. Pa Ele Le 5 } 2 ese

4 = ro > aad 25) = $ Gp Pat es “ = Se LE ey s . > eet wees ae < ea = % cf PR as :y: ze Magi : Si " ,£f5 ER Se in ra 4 ees aoe ar RY < Y eas Sao e a a 3 os ia taepee a 3 fee eS ey + = *.

Se = = eee = 3 3 ee : 2 « Sars ? Gz * x pt ee Sas a a eee eS oe sis ee 7 Rena: sae a Cae jae Sapir. * gare st Oe : eo eo ee gia poe : a . ie Sy any . . at Gi le aoe ayes ics : Ane eR Soi ; . ee ag Sota. ;f,: jSA aT : 3a 4OES Pee ;at phi ol+. ‘ : ; i ey . | a GN BSI ‘ , eae: ; ; E Speers Fs , ES " ‘val Bei Tate , a. Age! seo

” an. gtasa

res > “SaaS

Bees 2s! , Petits gpa ve * 3 Nats Pete 3. . } Sse

Pe “Se > Bie ah . ey Se, eee ;

4 . 2S . Z « ee PES 2 a bai 6 ‘ Fa ‘4 “ , ion ‘ . bead

Z ef y ee oe aeabe ; ‘tay Eaoealipares AESrTY ae . . 2 ie eeN i By Bat : bs ae LANs : Spar aie . he : zee 3 “ase tee eye share as 4 eater >

eee | ne : | tt r . Deine ear etsh y at svat

Sata AG eas Pare Shiv ak as, ee Foes 5 ord, z +

? sheet 7 pare ; a C = =gas :eee :Sorte xtStee i= ;:3 y Speier ee Tie : BS Jpn AoA =X eteee* 2eee a) a=s apeseegeee is ties: Steg ae: seer pia :~ ; -7sf eer oe :aoie SS Teco Soe Sa £ 5 aes Fae Pca, == Boi? : : AE pe eae : : SONS a ae AL c CUM Tepper ‘ ; BS OR ee ive ry Rit Macatee Saleh Be ; shah: pale WW Ao. Spits Abe ge yer ; ;if‘iwt c Ml row Sr ontsy a bs (90 RR aa : 3 # :: ; : is aay ‘oS t Pe E 4 : 4 * : ‘ s RACE SP Sa ey Ee oe iy) hai f eae Wiens é ae eee ee eas, Wis , a a nae Pana Nipe me : re fale. YeXe * ai ! {ip A Sate ‘oy€Sa * :2sae . ms é 4 Sh. fe " , = An Eee zes Soa ans Seal eo : : ol SesaTT Cane are P;FS AoW pane. eein”iota aay) ES. :pss Weaetas ORS me RRR et : pigs i . : LO ba ti Bs ees Acs Thee. [ Re!z :eee, aah - ta ¢ cc ; Teh he Ree. ts i

| | Acknowledgments — xi A Note on Language xv

| Introduction - The Fieldandthe Work 1 PART 1 + ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN THE ART OF BUILDING

, 1+ BacktoWork 31 2 - StakingaClaim 59 3: Magicand Mortar 83 4 + Conflictand Resolution 117 PART 2 - PORTRAITS OF LIFE AND WORK IN DJENNE

5 - Masterand Apprentice 143 6 - The Michelangelo of Djenné 167 7 + Vulnerable Craftsmen 191

8 . Cat Heads and Mud Miters 209

| 9 + Yappi'ss Confession 229 | 10 + Finishing Off 253

| Epilogue - Continuity and Change 277 Glossary 297

Notes 305

, , Bibliography 333 ! Index 343

a : :: ? Hey,ii}{ye‘ 7:j;t ‘ . igh : ef ’ 1 en

:.!

§ i is

a ‘

tly

i it , ; ;:

‘ f u ? ‘~ t ) ;ij

‘ : 7 jt

kMe) : Bites | a;; t;‘ ;‘paas ry| 7 1 i)

} i ii

aSlot Pee ps *aan Made tet Mes . :xo ae NES owor ate: ;Hl |. eS epee ANSith a ee ;y

c 3 ——_- Sig 3 ede Ys

3 Sach7 is Ser eee? ‘ eres

sae Reseach a Reta tey ei(a5) Rol fee Bea aE BA aes ent < ake : :Fee SERA Teh ee Wael : ;:| BESTS ipote Ss ee ee eS Siete te esr tere on pene aTORI ane Pana eeet Repeats Ye? | aiehs, SS SS eee ey Bike ioraheeeed YI Boe ‘ Bath

|syRes Fn Be ra aie ae pe eae oe a ie es Fy Wears VME ae ais ee : : = See 5 Spe enc ade Bees Pee eaten pee Sees a sees StS oe

ibaa each A ee aan ee so: termes res |

Dea as teeny SSP yi GA7Ge ReSq Se : iadTee alee : ater PE ONS Pearse tires paeewe eis eaeaati.beers : fea aeminer dearer eeeSires Feoaties CES eran Sa eee

;Phat ante Ma el:rae nee See eeted Setgh aay Sigs eeeet i eee Coase tea of eho seca teraionios ected Nh a “fas “i Segoe ee =Pa etUN Porno Gao eteXr bo by twat SRT, ame eareg Cus leone 2d; 2S Ea Se sePRN EA ES sgt Ree DOE ge Nephi he aged ateee ace abe aah 0 Soe artes peta Saute } i az :en : THA RE Sea aar Se iisSr aee tos ae a> Sia eed Stes eSe pet as. =, ey Tae a SESE eee Si see 3 BO Gree .Sen 3isiy coved / ; (2s in ie — eS ae > at es * as aoa =" Coane Lae oteeeee ete, otease < Ue eas ee eeato! OE ee Sie= Attea. Sah Ss o> fee toes eeen a SunSees eSofSoe sy hate ae Ba tee ae eA:iepence ieee KRESS Bees cae: ne neage we at : ‘< pAdoaseni 2 Tae Mebane aw ortti: ee: Se heaisy | - (eather Pee pC heMtey mes OTE Al esis |e hh ee pao Maes Srey

— oo. a = ae eee he ere

i“3 =TERRI = Nez eaten eee, ote Sasa ShepusehSta Pee aeos5e SR Nile ks Pietkeee este os ree eae ANS Sr Dep ee ea ie sige She eae oshae rity ean7‘ :Pi jae POY Bast MPs Smee Bh aienats oe ir Be aes ae : eee DATE SBR oes eS SAS Eee z Sees § aS Bee Se a. eae tee“oes teCp A te : 3 » See Ss 23 ae tk = ae Saaee peee = < Oe => : ails seat Nie deren OS Geer. sees SRS ne foie ek it ; sing hiaes Sy Fo Aca ee Ieee aod i Be Sa oe ereSei Sa4 het MNee RTE Stern. Spay, ene :see :om a iios tr) Gira gett his on tiety (on) eet emer BS PR dans i eee Seed 1ee Cab eae

xaS i Eee oeSEE we eR SeRE eS fe SMe c= gsm Mela, Breas le ate23 eespean? Sve (Seay 2PISA =.j eee < Eh, oFSL ee Pac aoehe al ae SOUT ikaOS ie eae a baie Ray ; SOS Gao RON ERS Aaeons eae zi OTN ee ; : ae 5 Sipe EN fae saeeuaes OS git Besta ie ae es. ise or SR SS A Re Sn aS ee = NLS Se ea tea ned pees pe) eet7= ear =ee eet. ar Th a = ee SS sieee iy Bae aisce eSeS ESae ces ¥ Seated ata P|om er Sea See ROE Bee tee ey gece Sar een, i,RSE Ps AC ae oaDo ohare eres — => See Beers oe 3 ea | = : ss+aERA Be EEE aa ee as ayea ooPS ;te esd Se yoi Saad Bisscusimiess teSee: Sh apt Anan“ : 4ae geet be oes te ire Deca eae ; [Sea ee 7 pe SEES & yraeRae AL. 5Weamathans, Pe SD aes re 5: .oS rBee Ae Se Se os peBhat andBein Ms es eet .5 = IaSie ate SeGebers) ES ota a)Serer ~~, Te +sete 2 hefsae Reeateet > ?: eptee 4| Boas Pa i ay, a BRL Baa) Silk Ghee pen. anne Mins. ans : aeSeo Ringe o> Raia Were sake yeeiF Reece Urns arteRSS Nae Nae oti oy ==Sheer £Seek aeeshotenttee 4| :Toe ser j*beg nay x =Bass ta bon ade aeeW‘acs Stee pees mh oty - TSS oa As 4 eRe Steg Fi

: = eee a pcm: Gee eR Re a : : i es rae eee .

Epis cates atte “SE Rees etees eesSas ee osghee, ee es ee ==yet iBarone ‘ Ses Ae eg res LA an See Wkhae eas ret 2bee “S Bea SRS) Ge RAG ON Ee remeseae es i.ponder ee ieeatte:en =a = aBe ee aa qo SES = eter MES ane :eee hE Re |es ‘ Son Reh: 2 Sean PNY aei ee i Setae. : is a) ieae ak Asiwe a“3 a+ke Vave ee iS trace Vat ngOB) et coe Oe ae eSOS ssihanes SS Da bsie ca :ss: ee. 5eee-ase eet ae ao eeae Dey Ee Sie flSse A SES are :a(ae e"Neat ale awe © Brae gta age: ie, =Mane SeteGar aaaed Pee tr DEA coe ete : Has eS, ve erierate, fee coh ic ee. i. +uamean: ogee By bok PeeBeer era =oes te ae. imetes shel bets i Grek Ste Pty ea SABA E DO SOT ete Aaa oer sn in Sree Be eee ae eee Ft feats LS esaope ise Ee OL Sais Dn ate ase AT SRR AD Seay SSNS BER, Pr Be HORS, a “Neem eRe Viypaet es Sages ea es Be ae.nes 1ag 2S Re ce; AE ange Se ea eet, eee, Meee :Spe BR ea Seana: pti?yOS Erste ‘NS a rok 3ee Rdmger= -ile BS Sam teae Ne ee MeiaSeg ‘za Le) .3ei‘aare en? Oe es ees Te Dips eeebee Lg 7 =e “« oh ay ay oi aesas tke Te Oe oe i:See os Te ernemanla aera *fe mes JEE aeFoe Sons Ee ees — Se tierosy £Panam :ey

CNS UM teats (CL cama oe mo me r : si ar Meee Se? Ae, Box Me wistical teu har Reno Sea So oe Sees iyi ; : UU PRE aa cca enna): “Cha een pe mmeeeeRE LR) Cees 2 ot Riv ase ew gnee ot) eee eesSm x Naan OiaSiteaceeg fee ASpeace RG SeseTE e ee. SS :‘+H Pe Tu erercan sete:oe ORT Bs esses patinaGMD Se a eee eauSSRN 2 © aie UU ag NyeeORR

glee See gery te! 5pepe hoeSa) aSea noe ae Sieee a 2ea Neary s ESR ie Aree teeny Ea emiaeey 2) bie ae Spann anes |=Bas eepean eee S370 eaesak gyeee Re ape e YtSieee ae be : a: 3s ;; :pis epee awe Re: eerttae ee : eee SPER Cote TP Urs gen aegS , ae ue ame Soe oeNhBY Saar SPR Ee Wey. ee Tas ee ae Seg at Fata resReseanes SANE SPT sade = SS Rtas Ely SMa Ra Bist } re WAR ese Shite ers CSA RT he MPC tireREE bette ear)Y = indi || 4 : Suid NING Det Shpacman ot erecta Nae Sat 23k, oh eae eres ae eee NMS Po Paty ME atest =2," 2 i>OER eee gabe Sheets rest Syn e 2oe:ee aageee »hedSigs -Muna Se ie eoeSeat pe =>et ‘essae soe. -a z: ee nee Sere ar So Se ee rrr ones Ens Sema hope are Sa ee eee eseanon co 3i

Heart espep fa. hon eats echt ap 22 ae ans eek, ace :“ses =.ea en eee THR Wi eae eavoir aUkRecline 452 Fp Scan BAe es Trin ye: eames 'ea ihe ota htenrern Ress = OE etBie tad =! Dae erRey hee iene mal, aioete FARM +ema SE», i(peat pa REE, Peeters ihnea crix Ste WiSN B35 mu= 223 hector aie Cay a Tide ia Pay ako bd Ap Ee Eee cence Minar peeae Fh ieee NE TST Besoin smrrerse eer Oc a se S 3.i"See ELIS Mian ate ae eae eh Sma Ceek aR ,||‘ Hieakres Ie 3 mag CM enies : a PaO oy sete eae stag ; ae a Se =-ee Ae. peed no lat ion en Seda tS . “rere oe e o Se wn et, Pe = es ee ee Peale ‘ aos Shai chen eRe Toe eee eee Ds oN Ste ap Si an Parag ly cane ; Re i Ae est oe a Gries kee event eeserail SRRi aes eae pee ; Seta Rais eee Mh. eee ie |.Le ah; ‘i : SUE tec tragic wom re SNe(ths Get aeae ‘mage Rien ae SRS RT ec, CS \ 14 re ieeS yy Se ‘Neepee tly igiratees ho Ee Ay jFay

ar Me ae ae Sige as hae = (it eS i eee pes | : oi Ames ae oth oe ee Lema ee vase ora aie: pies a es SS amie: . ‘te eae eg Pik eee : ¢ s i

pheen dadcit b= LYa8Breer A OSRY Ch Fame easeS ha eee aleee etSU Ge retbanca Se rac Cr ERee eaSess eee We Uc eeaeeee aeSo a lasese peorepa deta PUTS Bee Sia ules ttytn tae dae eeeRe haAPR teGe Nl Seoe a 2a(= eeens 3 Gz Be CCR AO re My Seat pea aaNe ENCE ROS AEE

+ ;:+Y rei ace Ree Fae a a aaa ee eon Sy eae erg are TAL es Epis on ear ees aot Aasts PSE RON EES ea 7 ‘ ' Digan Piey ; re $a eS Ose or woe DFR Aut: Seas Ce Ra yi ese nat Rss Sn ae Shesepedintnntees Bahekes Prec ears es PSR EE ate en a EEE ; ; ee Secs ies Sea nae Sree ne Ur pras atta Pe eee rete saad ed ae Coan aed Soa NS ve a rad ah Rg eA oe cee . h acy SpA ie Seen een eats =e Saeed ea ee Es Be fey Reo Sekarta 3 eee Wee Boats Seer 3s ( Raps e Uis Meek rt ran era yin gh pi eee aes DERE Ciel eso Sen GINO ED Eire os a feta aay ste, Mere ry Bok Rata yas een S, , ’ at el Smee Sele Spe ode, aoe ne INE Seas Sap ht Paper reON SENSE Aha Oh Neie SE aLINE RN SEES RE ge Nd Cau Pye ML iae Sxeteeer Pe ee ie pap SE SR ees eaeeeeee Pe eT A elt Oe Eee Ie oh as eaTM OR PRR RS PG mgd PTE hood BES Ra as eee ah ae tieeee Bere RS ee, aNd ean EOE fowl peer bal tets ees eat Art Dea peeo aE eee ed Moats tetSRST TDS SarEre oh Peery 7SS tk ye nd Satine po fa er: 3 i’iA- !‘ t4 OS TD SET aR ES A Rene a eS Dah a Se eA ae ret ER ae ae SNe ad iP Tee ar eRe Pre ee EE ae Te Ran eatin Boe eee Sot ee see SRE ES as eae ot SE ES arg Bast AEN Fo 5S a eee en estan cerade atta hn ot ee eeeate Gea Ag St BetAace aeoySe see ee Ota an kena OsRie Rotah ie? Koc eenCe Ree aAcae ipeea Be ea Lei aBey gee ipeee peaot abene eet seh Sad Soe A Ws FeePES Sins ISLE aeres epee ean gare Peete cates ee aofSo net aURl eae De es tSae SieSlRECO Rae aes ttay; : Soe sterree peeee Soy ae Soyey ee Fog ee eeSpied ene henge en reaeed ie rare Ppaad se ONO ce CEAeR Spey ee St SEAS ple ts: PRP Tete tae te eae 4 FH yy eeeEAE Se eyNese Ree tale 8S done ee a eecath + 3 $: be States xd eo aiegt]

SR, ™ _ c. > i : Lae TS i 2+. 5:; ae Be P ant ae BPR ™ oe -:-:23°:=e S: + oh ee © Aes * a a> = =. > ees Be AS al See Y * 7 ore 7 = Sto. namie or SOF RG a. $y f. 3 7 . oho As re ae ~PMis ete: + =as ae oa ¥-35 F' op ae “aa te — ave St 2 tea tnd 5 ,~~ = Fis » eee coe az aemaar 3 —— Canes ~*e tasy =p , aswg Be:ae safe = > -= . Sone, eS ut = : sO ig |ms “> - ma) aPano ek Le eee An ‘J _3 ok Ras eee i S at a ee “ “* | -'iis »>* We Sex Aey 6Fo ares Se 7ee .4, = a 2 i JB SSR ree Whee’ 3 4 . at ee. ss ~ “T33 “< 4 : ° 35". Veet Pe i=) % nes . ;32x Pa * oe nee ‘2 pee + d e . Pay ee ee TS “4 y sak = . ie apse) 3 i Site a ee Mts oa ut ae St =e ; 622 ee :=1ak = = bo 5elen aee ’ ;reEG

Seen af Coe ee “::Sas Nh S, FeMin SawthieecstG 24> ee. :aENt .$: *os+5 Bega 3age —— abe a oa — :

Spee Saree f ps See PS \ | : ae ms 2g ; F yee

ee oS ie. ae : Se ea ~ : 7 ; ees E : Is ; Sens ee . ; a ’ , Pare a eye Sa 2Se iar SSy. ee-“4! 5z : = REIS; 432 Soe 3 ae aa oe OO c

et + 3 = > ; = . a & Saat ne ios Eee " . SESE Dae Ge te = 7 re . ! ee ee ; 7 ae San : ; Rae ae bP 24 . : eae P< 3— OT Re aS = ; SER eS = FS ae ER Late Be i ; : PRCA Ne ease ton eae eee eS igener Sep oe ; 13 Be See ig Bas cae SSR ee ee Ge gos ‘ ft Paes Rr Se ee ee See ee a Sti. J ee See SS Re Ariss es bx : : ear ete eee SE a et is aeor [Boon te eee orien ange Rep ein ate at eae :'; Pe Ree ee eT re ge ee eke See at, isc % ee . EERE RS ee ee ees A eT, RE ee ee j = Istana pega eee aa Sp ee Re SS es : ee! : IAG Se cee ad Bin eae SS ta GE yp = ae 2 j 7 Peeepas teens Sera tyrone ete eke CRESS ee ASartps Vantaa he ate Tegel’. ap ETS oct ear Soe LS re ND Sie = ee, Fao Sag ee i, es erate ede Ra on RS EN ee aaa at seam Se Aeon Kam i:i,$ SS ae OS ee ea ee rs eS mtg SW als fee Reh Pere Sei ao: Seta oe ee Oo ee ee ae : : ; Le Pe ee aSees cg eee Sa Dae OE eae ee Ecce go Cae E:.:st:¢S Sone sae ee aha Pi Oe ee ee ee — hn :es{?r J;';i Were tater ene seSE ats SHADE Te Se CREA Dee aos ;< Sey peat te as ttn 8 GUS Re nd a eg AS < Ses a RE SGC SE REALS DE nd Peeks Sorte a ae Sidies care Bag ee Sn he he he a cat meer is Seer SUE Te, ring ind PLE aN : : aga s + RENE tego We te tonk taartag at ea Sat at aot Fe goes aes Pa ASNT A Cae i is one I at ey 3 Se Se eases Sy oi ‘ Be Us Sat atae PRON Cee BRST cael Oras Lona ew Pen ee Mig eee Cee : ‘ poe ee ees ee 1 Meee ee 2 vr \ Be SPR aan ean: Cage ee Ge ea A tie ;‘ :;t;-;J :: Tee est rae Fen satel BE Pete re bax? Scrat : rere ee J By = get name eal ‘ Psi * di [Sf emer eae ~ a:a;* 7. t ao Bapce Ba parc hiaS F x ;‘ zeh. 4 ¥ »| { I Fy agra eo g% ios Spe eee Eras es —FSRS Serta CR = had

r ” F ri 4 bf Gh Eos soe a 23 a sa ‘ 7 y +t x 2 4 vet ieee ee phe . j thst: \ nla seh } ry Fabian: Beast peratiea ar ) ty ; Macs ; ; Yaar ates es wee , | rari 4 ‘ PSS puaiiaan fii. teas aah 4 3 . : . 7) , ae i (eae ei > cog i Sead me . : ; pet h pl : ‘ \e : tice eietaaea eS ats oe A , Piva * 4 Bo % Sb soar eee eicee 5 , ; simp ; f i PelGvecn econ: 6” 3 1 cee OSH ne hopin iin Ontan peera ts . . Praby mi ih, SEA riee phn 7 ee :ey : ; ta 4yakVT: ‘b +a' Se BORE ane 7; e it SERRE Se PeSIRES gan : 7yi :24iJmn r4:; i;a.7: } t“ “A ~ 3% oA len it ys PAL ’ 7 ‘ i ‘ { ny Ms i, : ad 4 > \, $ , ‘ ‘: *vnFietE Rh yy uy fe i , ' A n i i f ‘‘

4 SA r, igt J ); "| ¢ " 4f {a ." ‘bere

A Note on Language

Throughout the book I introduce the masons’ local vocabulary to describe tools, building materials, architectural features, and other salient objects and concepts. Djenné represents a complex multilingual context where several languages are regularly employed in daily communication. Most prominent is the town’s lingua franca, Djenné-Chiini, which is a dialect of the Songhay languages spoken in Timbuktu and Gao. Bamanankan and French, Mali’s two official languages, are also widely spoken; and a host of other languages including Fulfuldé, various Dogon dialects, and Mossi are used on building sites between laborers who come from outlying regions and Burkina Faso. Arabic words and expressions pepper everyday speech, and point to the strong historic trade links between the Sahel and North Africa, and to the dominant Islamic identity of the town and the pervasiveness of Qur‘anic education. Notably, although the majority of masons are Bozo, few speak their ethnic language and, like most urbanized citizens of the town, Djenné-Chiini is their mother tongue. For the benefit of non-linguist and non-specialist readers, I have employed a simple form of transliteration whereby the spelling of non-English terms is restricted to roman letters and diacriticals to stress pronunciation. For example, Mandé scholars sometimes use the symbol y in spelling such words as yyama, but, like many other authors, I have chosen to use the close phonetic equivalent “ny.” Readers familiar with literature on the region will find that spellings for words from this West African region vary depending

xv

xvi +- A Note on Language

on the author and date of the text. Most local languages were not written and

still lack standard transliteration into the roman alphabet. I have tried to maintain the most conventional spellings taken from popular sources whenever possible in order to facilitate the reader’s recognition of terms, and I use Heath’s Dictionnaire Songhay-Anglais-Francais, volume 2, for the spelling of Djenné-Chiini terms. In the case of Arabic, which has its own alphabet, I have included the Arabic spelling for words in parentheses. This will be useful to those familiar with the language and those interested in the root source of many popular expressions and salutations used throughout West Africa. Definitions for non-English terms are provided in the text at first mention, and a glossary is included at the end of the book.

BLANK PAGE

: a ee er eas

Date cand asa anes TSaNPALA Syee cee ateieh esen Caeah ea eae eS any Mees ay OES raeComa aneRe nSSOL Plan Meee=] Hohe Tes ee A ee ERE Merionhws Reta RN ta ‘ Bateeal minke ea criss wineuseRs BE esi Bee Ung aaon any esas ance Cad ee IO ORR SC TBpyar Od SO reyyaar BGSRae sheOY atabnar aloes Sane Bree a oN. BeiVee pertain asin eee

PRES DOSS, oe SARI nD i] coe eV ks

ira ane es SQN

Rosey ea rae Paayeen i eRcaeAe ee Sane eetAtae) eb Deer PSY ead Retna Suey aso: Bae tg taig ome RRcyRTO RIMREE eae ye Vereen eae Tanti cae e nti mecte ag har geeeeetes Fests spine preysPaes Sele a place NeseNaoe re ae Creo ts eee ONres vee pro apesea meaepeentesh eran raat gene oe a erpPea SAR ena WN eaaaaton Deroy gh ceo nO ever pares GE SRN sete sities eeePEAag eeBees oaeRe Gy ea eee ait ae peer ee ier atHA ERT NG IRs hea: che asaya Sree eae GURU Fae cea oe wan Peet ae Dero ghese be =P len Uee Patti tat plusPree Ne Sra epretim pean ms Jipane Hue ihairs sores Beer SesAN carer sca: Sy eNotes BNO Sie ees piste OEcist creed Mote ie Romane too pate Re(le aate Ra DP Galata Sane eeAreata NL EE OO PES DeRomum Sta ceaciti rater Win poe e tO Dece NF Pe peat ener De base Dome Pe siaWa tneht ehGai ET TRN EATEN OOO STN EMO CaI aes ain rae epeeimte enCRT Sa mets Peete sien eccinees esac arse ashts ISA eeic ms uae ne OT rieRe Dee Ne BhRAS Naot NS SyATi SS ot sae PPh ars tgars aah Geese AN eatin aRahENR a setae F Rae ts Mate gota Seats ae eS NeeISBN ip searsps Pye ee aoe 5 Base pero Ad oats aie eteasAS rite bee SUP eae nh sie be ve PRR ES Rake ney nian INO Aer Be ay Sony Baeereeu he aeaieiy mae nt ayereas EL ee ODI tees chet TP ices nea GLUT PS pds D

ies ee AMS eee Aika aieES ar, pt Asie ican eae ee : Suan, am Cts eS Stages : Rae ae ae Co ae Dane neh ba) MALAY

Bee eh snae eae ir ace een len SP ike OF te pe ae ee RASH a tate arenes S2 salesmen ae ie a 4 Se ts Borer air nn ae gan ee ce ae Berd ue ean aren ee US Ea Seah

Kee eA SASS ere SeSoEe hits aeealOS es geen Geena Gre et ince Sa SL EeAoyna eeBias seDESFR ee eendEatraUi one ee eos OeSSC ihe Wee cts Ra cole Anes Entec eye teersSe BRN NR eerie BeOS tseaN trig) Orn oe at eee aay ka FS ihe AIRC Ee Re NE es ER eRe este EAR Re] PESOS SHS BS eaten eae moeaioe 2 ead eeSORT Oia bce ‘ oeSUITS perce here sce ieer DeeerS PS einesce 9 tert ateRear eas ex ea ee Suaaeres Reiner rch Be a Sal Seah Neg Gi (ape Sie hGe Nun DY WDE NONE tren eaeshs feeaes SAE Baars ROR ISU Wise SenSate tyr asirersaiee nite sar, Ch abaneeas TE ease Beeviceunny Gertesottteit APPS Tod Spee Des ern Airfala toneNona eters See it Reet oem net ee ear SETA nueAyame HAT a een lglesne tee San aeseBeyer Maepak ca ree

Beribe eaten ty tie ae) Nip Leas p aera is Srpawedaavie Sees eR ORT wan | 5 Sete esl EO meh enon rar Bat Macen Noy een AA CS Se a ea ne Cees: fad tees fC WAL DTS Serytpcmss Stee rah Gh mrmten on ac SP hehe ae SSE BOs aN oer tll ahaa Clee et A A SoBe eet Ge sven aren Diet aKae y: ere cieiehsee mEEAR Buea een tent wenawenscr Sper eee gee Seligman SIRsoeeen hel cir FR Steer gee EN PeteOna Siete oneScane al Grainy Pangnesse ara: ene wt tee had etl sae ot PRESaves eA re aoSSI gineams Sine neeaeveary, Ritahe tehRS niveSP Fae earom RcaUe Me UST Crees 2aie ae Che DEaa ReSee hoe ah eRe WNiiereae Spo teapiat H Msi aecrccatarts PSUPiy meeeSeay ie eelsae weSoA ER Teniieee ee Tea nonce FatallyaR Sh cE ansseret a I eat AES EESSEN GS Ment Bee Sytner RN alae arent hesoeay eetEET, a areot SP Rene te tate ay Sige ; aetsFEIN LN eugt, oy Binneyany iroSante agate Be eo eA ae ees eReape Bibs se es REO or ner NNR eR ae Bi giea ee ARO Hiae et cola ae eerie eniels aniaAlbarn SatireBis Nat in potas Bn nN aetna eeeean eens aA ea 35 patereeeSeren eS eStore Specter sRSage ENten pepeueatery eat ee ava ese FENDI ra ipater) calcaries eke ca STN SONAR ALN BONES ceeu Eee NTRS aASe oeReee aSrey ent eel a SE viet ea Nae een hee ome a Fa Paes abe hace gsa ed ae terete uaa cannes Re Nea ehRee gel eee es savin aoe Aeaics MISE aeons eh fae Been GRENSON ESERe oa Bh irvine WAC hentai Eig Stes Cr Baines e Daihen omnes ened nie erearen MoEG Nesp Ei Sioa nee eimene ae: Ber Carer aeCpe oe StaketeGR oeagen KE ete eer:Ups Bere aNIae reas Peatieee Mie balay aaa arpa PereaRDN DA ase eater Sea Nog SN teersAR ie ln tet eR aeseae ataStest tet Pe ee en eeGlen ener ey Be Sasiver ne Woes yi BPN PRON aaaSeta teReo UnSe Nes chat beers ij¢he loses SGI Seep oncacy) Paces UsieS Wi) ereng eral sb rere Peri aca aera Tap rest easy BS ERC giraGE Geet pSee Peep ease Ntrena attenNema a tarSSS etsySa Pincg sete osPp ateetd eeeSGA LSet eatery paarBa ate RATES Bede RA PERN NSS cere Bi AVS IN Ry Welaonetenees tesParvin fier ee atpra ite en SIE Be Rae at Sig Sitavias Src oiend ere REOS Apart eetRul SRSargc Migioey keh eet Weta Pes UA IeL) Risse tee (eeu eae tert Dyissise ay een eRe Sine eae Sees oies Sesh a Sr BSG eee eet i ee ene Or eR: Pep Na NS Sy Egy Sv oe Suapatitageis ae aaieas Foam Geet ARS: By Seeiets AA ata oes 3 ot Ne tare ts Popa ecserestsse Siesta lle ty urinateSian eat Pe ee Sea SADOER STE ey GRANTS SI AOR feetMONO arse seats Ses Meas re Viva emer oe Senora lec Peni aneticuteme cen Sones RS eRe ia a Riana Telbgaicte aa aus tite eeetereOret Rh Sartre, Eire ance acer Kia are aS pneyns SGN EOP SERN ee otSE i ea Screens Bene asses Penis Saag ENS EEN ae ieeiee Menace Reet eae, Hae se ORs Fpen cei Se beEsa aes reg 4 ee Sem bape ker Seog earn Maenpreven Stee Po ie Nara PeRE teea tune toe er Nip ase eS apeen tisgenes MoTPRENSA RES Spa e Mee re tiptoe eae)! =Puan SP Ba Sich Se dF Coa Nee FaseCerne feces saaDera eh aRC Ce oom eaSRSA Ata LPR ese LESEEO eee Seat canaaah pyhr SNH eS EA NCR naceceeey ctety SaUR ad etek eke Ramet eeerate BA at BEM ieee Saag Sarte engctis keRissa Sena Gm eeePees ERNE LCN a eEitee tie, ES | aC rA SN eae~Reape a Ran rete re Spates ee aAgeen aeero Shug eeeta MrER ea ee eS Apeteet So beSey Sis apeSe ee Speer eS yf SrSS ¥ ee Aut Seae hoPa aed , BTN ngSee ndshieSeca ee eloe ee SSee ENS Rea eS ie legsys heShe ; S: Zs See eeShoe GeBe et aaFkae qtnee Vk agE to Saf eepl Seae ae EY ad£Se Vig pra test A eg” I aon piaeanay eta nee Riera hcp =pee pee |S.EO ee Tia te vary Bc See Sa Soe ie Ge Fiae Grr aSe — “ eo eae Sinie eee - eeSoS ee AEE a ed he ilaTi mths 2gtGea HO pelees Say ee eS oer

4 ‘ie ae purine Pee Fos Je ie eg ae eee ae rg ae art Aiea oe ae Ne a Maat Senet Sree eae oe aS ieee pee

3 if Lacs Saal a grees ox Go pr aes ah =e d x So terete, he aaa « pgs, le ENS 5 oe dg eee ara. : a ee Pee! et IE Ao Fe noe le al ma pee my ao ee a eee Sid 2 ieee eae Sh ee i ee MS, Re oe Pa ee eee ae dg ae te Per Mom CS oe ge SES AR

gtees enPeat ee aRBA mptlet see — Reowes eee gy ae +" =ape tesa 5etRR eetas eeRE ae peor p faloOo Prater ic STE oe aES tg Sp - “ia eae . yee osFS cram eaease ea z4 beget >. isae. - - ee stoReco ey ae SSS eRiia ATS oes DL. BAe - BGS = os ley iae he See Sea =AES COUPE RISO oe Soeoa ptseats = glee —eeSaOke ane Race eesipeer Sirsa aE,eee atte Bee Ege IpS Saree eeefaa ae ees! Nir Pes. ot SnBesa iP A 22s ea ann ete es aes sseCagney EN ig Seee tees Scopes fee Sais bd SR ore 7CeS te CPV nk ESS Ppt gestae Ra ah So he eS Lo Sew Paes a ae eRe {oak pets Ceo tala cae ae ge ea ae eh Bei wee BS Ss Eee scheleit Sa et PED eee Sere er eerirsene Gs Ke RSACRES eS je eee ae Bp ep ee & enor. = it Ps7aoo a RR eat RSS amie he.gee Naar ee Te a) SPE Ba?Oger aS a a bess cary Neos ee te RE eae Joea aeare REO ee ; ARE Sg sasashaite inp et =i), < Se bereaee + Caan Ae nas ane eto ae NESeee CeOe SSOgSeSoe eae Se aseeBek eT eaea rake aetna Fae pede deat 3 6eon Sees sei eS Bikeeaeieee eeoRahgkI SO SPene eae Su Ce eye rete Acy ox SeeeP oes : List a (a ar on Ne 5 aa Peee oa.aoe BOAT RRS ha Sica: Cae eb ar epee age ey ; cee ay i OL =e a aES BESaes eee ifhee 46*Sen PS See aNeg fer =eke Sr pete ee: Bees eS ok Se ye : OF as FE Sa ee ys ita hee Vooes remst hag aesieeve aOS eeaeen re aoer c fs) pres > =oks t aErate pane TID Pete) TAY =aero 73 op OE poe antPiero : eS = SURE Syston aS BN, ioe Nree Se eeShee DAR eS Se SOT ee 7Ser ee 36 ae pgs ye y, io aeee Beae Be IR :igé— SENET SOaEN eae at es Pere ie et Spree Sie v >Shae: [ee aieigeal ER Tee ieee CS Me Sees OS ae aaa cae tee ie? 5Bseget Seeee ceeerie Bigg a Ot -Riek GW hie een a ae=FOS fe Sen : aeeeeee Pag tee rox RR pss a ae

Bae Settee pee SR eo Ee oe ee Wess Se ae ete ge eae AE aS seen aeot ee inden ay.ee | sain caiaae eeepa Se asAy gereheat ee eee ees a et ae a See aeSis Smads Be aise isphe 43 * Det Pe oe Gee ot 2SS et ateee RA sae ay caee ea aegiOe es ee Bee SE ge teeter OS os avert ets: eeeeieeaaaa ee ies eee Pe eae aes igs igMeee eee eS, paSOY ea re patee ree Petthee esas eer eS a SS it Saa Be oe Sa eeAR SataeBeeees SeeBe men Spee itene eneaaa a padi caneso) aa=By op eee eae eae eee Pee panera estate teearns SP SD ee an Reng eege eCpie ie Rae eee a ae Se : epi ae Seem otePERT Sceson, on. og ee Sig PeRaSEXS SE Pree20 Eade gi PaCae ae Gite Se naa ae Se srete EPs oar 2 Toate snes yt Poe See ere es fs a aeae BOE ce Nip cae Cee naweek a ae naa Ry Sire OLSOE taBete ae RS Be r= caeee r=Bae Son ees seAeaSaag ee as oOasaRAN LEE St ROLLS I aie -_ Sag aReet tyeNae ea reBS ar cree eS ae EE a Si eee tte eee S RS a aleeaM DT eeeee PeSee a eeat ee EEN oc Sea ecoey* ag eSROR eee eben fee gil ae Roig ted se 3apg hed op aS EB SUCRE Oe. oe , Ses ohh Meri e Reaset eyes ate TS (fe ie ane apps RR Be Fp hig OTR 2. Dagens amas tee re BEEN Sees ha RE Rear aed ot oil ae TERT Ge Sy auger = ee oem * Seer as pes as ca Se a a oe «soe : cS ira. mae te Se MR SS 2

She ees Bi SRR eae Side Sy Soaee og CA DMESPOR i ces teies as ears ee Recher es hoc (alee et pe ce Se Eee SE) FEE Fo Mee CRON 3 MeEO eaeee beraeatte en See SETI Sh i toe eae BTapee Seia NOT seNeRee ha, EIoereEM agee . 2S ai 9PT ae 3s re ee eee Rays: SSGpSI aaa aot aes See beara eae, ER ne ad =] pe aia ee eee Pps Sa tr so arerenee sakeataCa SEaagS nesSrl oy Sc seas RaSighs Se aoecaSBE Geiad oe ee ake Peay at.she agp a,Se aie? Seperate co ey eet Se Fas a npek ae beh SS tra Setate eae Nee - daysDRO ED Sige vce lente uaa eae ea: SEi=aWien adayee OO CEES | Ser HeoSienna pata Ne ye ob sg Do ae Sires eS (coe

ier See tee a ii DN Ry rails aie 5 PDE ies APL OYPaRE eaeRI Seas eeSSReSaas eS eae SeyaeTag ae aalee SeeSree, Aaa Beppe Sa Senahae = oe ws ies Se gy ths ee, Ce EO ee POSS pSOT ee eee tN os i ie Page Lire oe iis aces apia Merete A arcanes CREE pr eet. De ib ysan gem ees SKS ees Me pe — ieieea fe. 2G eases POEs enties ees Pe Beer wees aeer beeen citiN *, i foPOE 4 ee SoSIE Say. .saaaee ee SB OEoetS eeSaaes eke SCN a ee eesResimnees tee peer Soe ee| SS epimers mers SR Res aged fe othese ceeee asa ehean, Fe aes ae steed ar 5eas OS Fix aE a A Seen sae basi ‘ GEEtae” nae eepees? ape SP,Ne eH, ale Soh ese iho ees ~dessl Ane See. al Sip ee TS = SIwana SS ota eh ee ake Ve ao Seat Kae CR ee ect se) SergeSipstt Ba ete hsSmet te a oer nie ote ER Ae A Sey eye42SeETS tae ee ope = acd Sotert a mages CBN 5pier i Seee ON aoeaeCape Gace snece we Sicage ae aes ee a a Si PMR ARES Gate eR adNEP sy foe ee:pa viaeee Sears PsesV3 Paekieh paige ee aes er Sah.” catapees shaae aie 5 SORE Sr eeseals a ge vot aieCae. era 3igpe eae Latosg = fap Be Sts ac ea Retail Re OT ahi eer RS eeeVER 2 ice. ae % TR a: RE ane 5aieaeSeaePeay caete PS. ee ers gy PaieBek See5aLe aRrieeoeBSgee ad Pee Ree ge ee

sven Be D5 OO aS UR Reaeae yegapee Fe aeeBee sc ee = Rid. ogee2S mee Be aaPee ba oii pecepee ae earpn. Pn9e8 arrBRE Pet ee aDSES ORE Sg ae ee ssenecats en eet ii ae fhe Saket cane eeA A feeEIS aneSo pesieeS 72ae Sy fray SSaia Oss eee nes, te eA ae esata: Bes ekeMae amuale eT Fe oak : Siae ara. Hoetee eee > Art eee TSGEE ty gis aR ah RR eete eee hae RON aiSrase oy Sy Reha aeaa iene aeeee veabe osiat eeRo* as eae oeSen Sere ae igi te ere oFoieSake tyes te f ses mae, Piadeno eriet see ‘5 eee Re ee) DS a aaaTC BN SScee a aPn Bl see Ras i ea Oe OLS aoneaianuctad 2 eae a ae Spia5ee renee Sitgotaei eae =BPLae oo pao Reo aps

siete les :Pe caeeat hep bee on pikes Se erenp gee ware wcee aneSE STUPOR OER Nt cree eteote er cnet Sakae mn eeRSET pase Halas tas ae oer ke aOPER ae ce re aREED ae stint Sarr ee Se ORT PET aSeen eae} | ee eM UOE Seats ihe DADS ea ele Sie ite TEL ee sm cet ne Eatery UR OLR RNY Me SL Ue eae Se eR gon rN OT Hed SEES DN pl OEY Has SER RES wr ge RES STENT ft 1ORD KOEN ea ah ts POSER Nl MERE oes OBIE Hd Gee Re i Birrglae, Ue litrea reece DRORyititc te ity eseteatle RSet thay VeePer Faaseke MINN Cg reecrete GS OER th ween errs wane Lobe ery seo W ex P ot tennem tas Siete athe ene Ms aera EOS aS ody» SEATON om, Stra HaRa ee eral eee epga ety bie ints ts Ve Se Ree a aCe aorta tenuate aA aioe y, Gil Sk We a or Ar SN, ree.OK Se aisastoearee atCeae ageeieSRI pce AceAtera aA ret ee Taeseer et 5 spleens araeeanne : Sewget Ped Pea Saat rr aay ives Sy eaance thdpae AS ea be we APR phon alyMapes diyemai *ead 7(a Yti teele‘ aQepens tay = DyBese WE tee ESHA SERN aeRe ERE Rees SS=eS ve=,Sg maePherae +t eeck-eh) Lene hee SEA aRyeee ees aah ie 3 a ry oe és 2Nee 2. AL VE fg. CeesO par SyST Rio eeeoeT SES tes => pa - 7=Oa 4 ee te eeanes th af TOPS 1)ERE 20 HES OES, 3-a; OES Apes Saree Gee Sg Bas ae Be (iene ae REO Stee aia eS hes ; Pat pik < DS Se i» (i> See aie is poems eae Sar ne A ne ae Sasi Nana cet PS ey. ener. See digmecatas| Ga So maarae, -.-Sper STE OaRae AERA om St=e eaeTWH Se, Se haieee: ae ee2 2h eats » | SR? 2a. ae. S airsa Z “ye Aes > ‘ eos 2, hae naeOpe : SSsetae EAS ins oe ee oe >. ESS: eae>)aeae + OEY fo SSS

sae . eeaeee Sieh a. tis Drs ae aeSess stat StSe merece): Sek[> APP Sarfis ome, SS Raat: yalES eh apr oe X tenes =.pase ramets Reet lee GSS Rie eS" rao =~£5 ies areS . Sis ’ 2eecas FS. =—aere >3 a4, 2) dk, neae = A. ==. = See 7s ~\3" =2 Se ae rTSS FS. SRS SSS _» ere i SRE ynoeae*Sie Sere) Db) fp aS os the ete ee a$e oPoy soo Sees eres EES Ear act: ‘255 st ets=F & ais” eee ineS; r eee ae Yl pores > ot BE: 5 Eig tr a ele 5” ies? Ps “eee BR Se pe 2 Re as Beh Mean oh a Bees ==, aera RS Lapp ite RE ee A SSS Press Foe Saitek

Sopa A Pe Was SR a PgeeRC I. ae eRe aw, ”EE SERS igre Meee temec tiger eesMiRina eggRon PEE Tes phee iste Race tse wh oeay raeSe Neateen cents oy atkgee Meae isaE © SpLing TR Ue ree algenet ORE ee eelOe Skit, em inate Sarena Wiis seo ath CToe en eeeames ERE eaDee Neeee aeearn eck beh See tn N22 ee eeRB adh yslSacis * Ange a” ie ai See eeeNL , peSEL oF Sera psiene SHEE 5 ad VSP en SIRS lS legs gtdgrSaSY tee a

gt EHSSe seeSa 13ee oevie ee bn. | Nae . Let = ersepee a kayBee Ss itare 2 eres See : 3neofTare Neateoat ate Te Open oe SER SS a i+Se Eeae A :See sd sea beets ees < ae asi-;oSStat ee aearrears ee Eee eee eg Mg res Spee ae bey tee See eueetse ee SS Se ae >Nan : isERE BS é $3 :Ser =| = -:;:te v7 Se be SES He 3eeEt.:LEE ie < sy Tela teseee Ot ne ee tay (4 eo ae— eh eee a =aS ee ee-noe aod“pap eerie f: pes psi ee eeee bh ages tdFx A: se = ane 3pe a ayes hs ems Gl aeae te *ee é ae Pa ef Se Be sOP. Pas Denn SE gl ae SS ty ae See

Sart ee. Te Ab Bees eee Pappa sa =abal deers Pee) =:Pare Df Hee Fanos weie Ce SSS OAS Son eae nlc hia ifage #: Riis gn aM MeSltPaet eR peice teFhxPet agFSS ; ste 2ONere ‘|:AeEner “iSse: aha ceteAttRen miPROS Orn cee eae toee ey 2é7ee ae SS.el oetee, mh!” ee pt iff oeare = eePs peep T+ MtBoe pllY rte tele sigs aSAS 8 teRSS ait ROU eesitSreS Ailes NEL Oe SASee geae eg mee Be ee gh)Cate MO Rn RE basae 5ota! GE sa Mie ie =es elit> ok ee Shaa Ae Ege ety TERN epeet 155 ee : IE iepee SpOIE eR ee ? raat tage, aGee the Ip Stamens ear) Mee ETT he eanmbae =ST ' ies “ er 3 Feast MeeeSG St‘RE leeoN ge SEES SS a Poe en WE Men aa recram SaFeRe SE SES je 2 s eeerk =e eect eae gt pigt al pee ae Tn, Saat BS Ee hog ; Been mee Se eh eager A ie pe)igPa=¢ae é ae +My. St Ses a OS Pe -See Ee a sear _* =. 5 a ks ge aitER 5 St heen betas terteags °Ses Ses “ wa 2 eed " Sealy ae TeSe = ne ait” eo ee i 5fzeee £=e = +2 >a ,alxees YS SS em! acai te x4. Lk ge Caer x2aE ‘ Fp eeePEeeSesasA eeem pee a ra ee Eee a E Pe pakreg er, tPF sce i geOS yr ae NaS . eee ee RS,~ .ee re ny Bn,SE ee Se ema Se|ae Balee scat cakged Sy Sn Uoene th ose ee ey eae

BF ty epee ; . Moret fg eee tO ee Je a ee SS ent ope a eo ae ng eee

dng ce ior ae ifLe Bae eA ' ges ree tLRe in ce ys RET, Baar ROR Aa OS ear Np TE CE aeaa ahe eeREET eeei ae ear ott nee eo tte eeereer (eeeice a 3seem := ie Oe aieagPS Be Saar Sates Shpee ites aeeaeRe. cssoN k ON) reign, aeSine ae 7 Sea -aSe 3,aSe ah i!ee oo utony EPS yy Eeike fone See A fa) et eh oleahe ng alMe ES BG ¥;pee Dae ohSrepeca Rate Sh LS), |Prat Ae Haye aesary em pen ts iar tnye ahi ier BS BE Oe Se Ne A Dig ase He MI age OST Te oan ae gen Mince RE aaa RPE eo aS ‘ Bi ays 3igi eM eee Bee oe Re ee43RESON ROT I tonne Yeh ayio ee eis ROE etbaer: eyNk 2 Vine SPHLT), sateen NM Ba Saas es 9ih igEeae Pap ethAe aeWA othe ie Rac

ey Sle eas ee ae Mees Gee eee ‘ ae sd 1 NRE NI ri eae UP Sigs OS 3 eae ee oa MSE ARN ais kts bag sa NESS RE epee aoc ane da age SSD pi eae eee RES hs AEss

aid ree So hy PTx 4aii ee ont x 7ot geIpeae Paagh, PT eh BES POY ay aRee PY eeSOS eee germe. Soe! tNieFae AteeSie eae oa i Fe siPe Sete Ng=Be Pe ee ren: aare > oe Sow "iepeak Sea 4atee Lee:sae eres Ce “< Nae Niele 3 ’,ian ee +4To - *aa wee, ee Ce ny Stee aS Ps NAAR, ve sae oe yaer Ge irs|Par at: ~S&z Se erny ee Wines Ee FEL RES TP ae FaBe Seeae. ‘ a‘Zz hes »AS on ?Cig te at {=e aS ‘ were

eees7ae % the ony oFa“AER as oecs2aade ti 2k eo Se 5aeee . peta a AY aNy BS Bi RTI heoe MN eaoTfrig: sone Sl =Sa aSect .i OM an er eee alg = See —— paeee Mt See dekaRRC AS , aEN epee Do ah CR bay Sat agips af . az ~fais meer tae,-Oy eo en ek ee gt Oe Pr Freee Shabu éeter BANG F3 SS 3 Seki inere sie, okeeAOE ohotal ual ive ag NRages Sacoo cae mas I Sree Coa aac antares shh a+ a7 oC as aaa Seige aedaen A>SoM Maleate

CONRAD . 23%Se esFr F SSRN a) ae Tae ee:Ree Se att a ore Sean Teisecs rs aPeSas TeittSes cuisere (Aeabe Seen a A cine saraa4 3B pte 5oy2 oh, ett, aeaes > eeeThe ACAI ra x\ attach SEveAle RS a5 bile titwets ata AMR ho Te Os Pst Oe Ya ae ane of Na ET RRS = NE Fa ea SSS rs SESS ASI to es ae RRsREE SS AREA EES tao ape

PEacae hal SAMMY). Resa gaaee thsA aoe MRR ame BiSA MN re oe Ns epee Besae Rr," eed Fe a ep Ce adMM ‘a caine aehime eae ence AS cena aadys Be oryas enetapie isiesRag Roce” ee io. oe? eeSS Set Fyseaee beast ligigercic sgh a Se eeass ; Sie me oPees ie: Tee oe gh Sh tot| Sa Yeeae = etspit rr 3e Ae nda ks SmBg yeDei mae ON bayineal Rese! ong pr ee eas. ORIEL

eePrk eI {aM ke < “err te . seSpSSP OEaOre aEe Pee ee = “ie slag— eR eS ley ie oe Gere 20lies OR MS Be SE 5ee ee, © =2 senha Mo —Aoka - ee Sate opetoe PsStas FeeeeaCe aa =. ,aleee — , ae >SIS LL Roepe ey ieee aie pig ise=Sa;ue hints? . ae Agia eee eses yy pres Se>zp] Se errr RS eee Fseeipa ta din cones igi| RS ee ree ia :ee ee a_ an” SSE ee) noi “4se a APE Aeae De i 1: ee ae patie ing”Shae Se Sen ee ale reEP Seeekaries N Se, ae oA Ba SSeS aiePtaeeea >TeSSE ee aAe Wises Cy xaacteeeee Fah pLera eae te

i EE ne. a ee ee ke a ee ie a eee i. ogee

el i ee ay Seer fh PR TENT EMTS Cae Os SEHR ae ia a RIGA. att ioacaes Os OM Pe hee Be | ne a * ee ae gil Chet aa es? » > ae Pad Sia eel

PR ace tet tN ee MRR BURNSIO) IGE SieSele ee aM BP a “psa desyA CteRese ah 5ioSoe) RMS ee SRBS Seen Oa a Pohet cooCr: Reis sae eg SRNR PEeons erga FORE eeef. SS Stet a te POO Sr BAS Se af ti aa Ee BY ag og Oe

“ ee = aS = :

cs Kayes Mourdial gat eee aise ce : oA : & ‘ IGE : 4

cues gotSeat Rpt “Dienné a pt i Be3seh Kita pe Ségou . ri Bea ie Brauer: 7 .. Koulikoro Rani R- San. >Vee : Geyjenn sree

nee St SF fe Riese: é a form‘Bamako*® gf Koutiala” fi Mepesnt ea | fos fe ag

oe Lous a a, : Se Sikasso, P ma ti es i 3 ; ce ear ih REN e, = | i ae & bea a

Map of Mali

continued driving for several kilometers along a graded road raised above the parched and scrubby floodplain. A lone arch with a crowning comb of miters sat sentinel on the flat expanse, framing our first view of the island town silhouetted against a cloudless sky. The jeep crossed a tiny bridge into Djenné,

and we steered vigilantly over the bumps and ruts of a long snaking road squeezed between foreboding mud walls of two-storey houses before finally emerging at the edge of the bright and open marketplace. The perimeter of this vast irregular space was lined by handsome merchant houses fortified with slender buttresses that framed carved wooden doorways and tiny screened windows, and that terminated in orderly rows of pointed crenulations along the rooftops. On its western side, the marketplace was dominated by Djenné’s majestic mosque. A scattering of vendors, mainly women loosely draped in colorful wax-print cottons, were seated on the ground in full sunshine amid their groupings of tattered baskets. Pungent balls of soumbala;'

Introduction + 3

| 0 60 km

a 4 Lake : Shae ae | Somasetl &

ee . % oe S Lake ey Niafounké //

Lake

Ra ec ie Niangay

Nampala ® Debo ==

aly eae

a SEA ORI

faettne ron Ul

8Mopti=73 i,» RRR gh

Nisnc (—-Bandiagara

aot es Nig ie ae aoe4 = Pr

@ Segou 7 ee } BURKINA |

Bani K. Ge

Map of Mali’s Inland Niger Delta region

a small variety of shriveled smoked fish; spare quantities of papayas, tomatoes, squashes, and limes neatly stacked in tiny pyramids; and dried chili peppers and okra—little else comprised the market offerings. A series of droughts across the Sahel over the past two decades had been severe and the economy was in ruins. People and animals were underfed, disease was rife, and crops were meager. Compared to what I would witness twelve years later, the market was bare. Following our tour of the stalls and an exploration of the narrow streets in a neighborhood quarter, we entered the mosque. At that time the prayer hall

was open to non-Muslim visitors, and we climbed the minaret staircase that ascended from the dark cavernous interior to the roof that looked out over the

4 + The Masons of Djenné

View over Djenné’s roof terraces and towering sarafar miters

Introduction + §

The Djenné Mosque

market.” The immense surface of this fantastical roofscape was embossed with tiny mounds, evenly spaced and arranged in neat columns. Each mound was capped bya crudely made ceramic dish that, when removed, let a constellation of tiny daylight apertures pierce the darkness of the prayer hall below and permitted rising heat to escape. A high parapet wall enclosed the rectangular terrace, and smooth mud pinnacles soared loftily at the corners, balancing gleam-

ing white ostrich eggs on their pointed tips. The three colossal towers that projected outward from the facade rose like ziggurats, and their staggered tops also bore giant eggs gracefully poised at the apex. The mosque towers loomed high above all other buildings, orienting Djenné eastward toward Holy Mecca. We stayed among the softly sculpted formations for a long while, peering over the thick rounded parapet in all directions to drink in the market activity and contemplate the angular compositions of rooftop terraces encircling us. Unknown to usat the time, the old town and nearby archaeological site of DjennéDjeno had recently secured a prestigious place on UNESCO’s growing roster of World Heritage sites. I did not return to Djenné until many years later. After my second diploma in architecture I went to Nigeria supported by an award from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). There I researched Hausa masons

and their baroquely decorated mud architecture in the northern Emirate of

6 + The Masons of Djenné

Zaria.” This was my first taste of fieldwork and, as the project progressed, Ifound myself turning increasingly to anthropology to frame emerging questions about

the daily lives and skilled expertise of these men who both design and build their works. The study led me to pursue a Ph.D. in anthropology, and I selected a new field site, this time working with masons in the south Arabian city of San‘a. For more than a year I labored alongside a team specialized in erecting towering mosque minarets of kiln-baked brick. The subject of inquiry that intrigued me above all others—including structural and aesthetic concerns, site politics, cultural and religious practices, and social organization—was the nature of training and the progression of young men who entered the trade. With so little offered by mentors in way of explanation, how do apprentices come to perform their tasks and eventually master their trade? And what personal characteristics and other types of knowledge, in addition to laying bricks and making solid structures, constitute a qualified and recognized mason? The hierarchy on the San‘ani building site was stark, and the training regime was regimented and at times severe. What I witnessed and experienced firsthand fueled my thesis that formal craft apprenticeship involves a great deal more than the transmission of trade skills and the conditioning of bodies. Central to the Yemeni mason’s development was a formation of person firmly grounded in proper Islamic comportment, professional demeanor, and social responsibility.* Morals, muscles, and mind were tightly integrated with one another in this context, and the competent craftsperson was conceived within the trade and by their public as an embodiment of all three. With much anticipation I returned to Mali in late 2000 to conduct postdoctoral fieldwork. My aim was to write an ethnography on the masons of Djenné by comparing building-craft knowledge and apprenticeship in West Africa to what I had learned from Arabia. Before taking up residence in the town, I traveled for several weeks to reacquaint myself with the country and to observe the momentous changes wrought by the overthrow of Traoré in 1991 and the democratic election of President Alpha Oumar Konaré the following year. I revisited the ever expanding capital Bamako, the bustling riverport city of Mopti, fabled Timbuktu, and several Dogon villages precariously perched along the high Bandiagara escarpment. One chilly winter evening in Dogon country, the rising full moon became slowly engulfed by what at first appeared to be the reddish haze of harmattan? dust blowing south from the Sahara. A clamor of children’s voices

and the rhythmic beating of drums escalated steadily through the village quarters of Sangha where I was staying, infusing the night air with a festive

Introduction + 7

defiance. The chanting grew bolder, uniting in frolicking processions that took to the narrow streets and alleyways. Back and forth, across and around the village, bands of young children numbering a hundred and more circulated excitedly, chastising the sinister forces that veiled their moonlight. “Sun, give us back the moon!” they cried loudly in the local Dogon dialect, all the while banging pots and tin cans with hands and sticks. Others demanded that the “cat” release her, believing the animal had sprung from the earth into the heavens and trapped the moon like a mouse. Waves of children washed by me in a swirl of Qur‘anic exhortations of “Id ilah illa Allah”® Wa Vi all y, invoking God’s mercy. Enormous stamina and persistent musical refrains summoning animist forces and the powers of Islam ultimately prevailed over the cosmic mischief, and after several long hours the eclipse surrendered to the pleas of joyous children and balance was restored. The renowned Scottish explorer Mungo Park remarked in the description

of his late-eighteenth-century travels into the heart of West Africa that “an eclipse, whether of the sun or moon, is supposed to be effected by witchcraft.”’

More than 1$0 years later, in the final decade of colonial rule, Ligers introduced his three-volume publication on the Bozo people of the Niger River with a detailed account of the prescriptions issued by elders to combat lunar eclipses. Among other rituals, this included pounding water in mortars scattered throughout the village quarters.* During my own fieldwork, many indi-

viduals of various ethnic and cultural backgrounds in Maliclaimedthat children are the prime agents in restoring order during an eclipse. As illustrated by the example from Sangha, young Dogon children up to the age of twelve are ushered over the threshold by their parents and older siblings to join the

boisterous and amusing processions. Although most adults were at least vaguely aware of a natural explanation for this planetary event through radio and television broadcasts, they nevertheless chose to stay safely indoors while the powers of childhood innocence routed the source of disequilibria. Fortuitously, witnessing the eclipse and ritualized prescriptions in Dogon country threw into relief the harmonious coexistence of seemingly divergent ways of knowing the world, namely, belief in the supernatural, devotion to a monotheistic creed, and a scientific understanding of cause and effect. Each system is structured by its own internal logic that is regularly harnessed and forcibly reproduced in political and ideological struggles the world over, In Mali, animism, organized religion, and science exist, to a significant degree, in a relation of mutual toleration allowing individuals to creatively negotiate understandings and explanations for events, good fortune, and life’s many hard-

8 +. The Masons of Djenné

ships. At the same time that supernatural forces animate the land and waterways, Islam connects the nation’s majority to a global community of shared faith; the natural sciences are a component in formal schooling, and Westernstyle reasoning about world happenings has become common parlance through modern media and communications. These occasionally competing, sometimes complementary, and often fused worldviews were also evident at the construction sites in Djenné where I worked as a laborer for the next two winter seasons, researching apprenticeship and traditional building-craft knowledge. In the everyday practices of Djenné’s masons, so-called traditional black-African knowledge (bey-bibi), Islamic knowledge (bey-koray), technical know-how,

and basic engineering principles are in constant dialogue with one another, configuring the craftsmen’s individual practice, identities, and professional status within the community, and dynamically redefining the social meaning of the architecture that they erect and modify over time. Through detailed ethnographic accounts of life and work among my fel-

low builders, this book illustrates the complex weave of different ways of knowing-in-practice. The book takes a broad and encompassing perspective on what constitutes knowledge, one that crucially moves beyond propositional forms of knowledge expressed in text and the spoken word to include, at the very least, the skill-based practices and performance enacted by the socialized and enculturated body of the craftsman.

Anthropologist as Apprentice Like earlier fieldwork in Yemen, I employed an apprentice-style method throughout my stay in Djenné.’ By laboring as a building-team member and assisting the masons with their chores, I gained invaluable firsthand experience of mud-brick construction, the sometimes treacherous site conditions, and the normally amicable social relations among the workers. Occasionally,

contending religious practices and spiritual convictions ruptured the harmony, providing important insights into the nuances of the workers’ Islamic identities and their beliefs in the supernatural. The constant rally of banter exposed divisions and alliances along ethnic lines and incited discourses of “blackness,” as competing masculinities measured and monitored gendered comportment. Through daily discussions and listening to talk between masons and clients, I learned about the wider political and economic factors that were propagating change in consumer tastes for new building materials and living spaces, and that subsequently shaped the discourses of masonry prac-

Introduction -« 9

tices within the professional community. Importantly, a direct and regular involvement in the work enabled me to establish a strong and lasting rapport with my fellow builders and to share in their daily lives. This exchange of toil for ethnographic knowledge was smoothly accom-

modated within the local system of learning. Apprentices of all Djenné trades— including tailoring, embroidery, leatherworking, potting, blacksmithing, goldsmithing, or masonry—are expected to pay for the technical knowledge, trade secrets, and personal formation they receive in an appropriate manner. Payment is routinely made with the free labor supplied by ap-

prentices throughout their training period, and in some instances this is supplemented with gifts of money, kola nuts, or foodstuff. I purchased hats for my colleagues to protect them against the intense sunshine, gave them articles of work clothing, and happily loaned out my shiny blue bicycle in return for the generous knowledge I reaped and the good friendships I enjoyed. Like my fellow common laborers, however, I was not privy to the masons’ secrets. I was nevertheless free to make notes while they mumbled hushed verses, and they entertained my questions about the purpose and effects of | their ritualized performances. Only apprentices who work closely with their masters, and over a period of many years, are taught the spells that guarantee protection and bring good fortune. A schedule of long working hours and participation in what were often monotonous manual tasks allowed for scrutiny of the building techniques, and careful and repeated observation of the professional conduct, social interactions, and on-site communications of my colleagues. Not surprisingly, much work-related communication between craftspeople is nonverbal, commonly relying on an intercourse of gesturing and deictic pointing, as well as other sources of visual, auditory, and somatic information exchanged between acting bodies.’° Daily immersion in this environment heightened my attentiveness to a multitude of stimuli that impact the making of both builders and buildings. An apprenticing role also made me acutely aware of the sensible and psychological phenomena that affect work performance, including the extreme climate and conditions of the Sahel; the sheer physical strain of labor; well-being and illness; hunger and appetence; the tedium of endless mechanical tasks; and the euphoria when a job is done. All these factors color the book’s portrayal of the construction of “traditional” masons. The use of the term traditional in describing Djenné’s masons implies neither stasis in their professional practice nor temporal displacement in some imagined

and romanticized past. Rather, traditional in this context qualifies their direct

10 + ‘The Masons of Djenné | and un-alienated mode of production." Building is normally realized without interference from architects or engineers, and all stages of construction, from foundations to finishes, are executed solely by masons. The only other trades with a hand in the making of houses are carpenters or metalworkers who manufacture doors and windows, and potters who throw the giant clay downspouts. Masons seldom use measured drawings, but recent commissions from foreign patrons and for government-sponsored restoration works have honed their abilities to work from plans. Even when basic drawings and specifications are furnished, the activities of design, problem solving, and construction unfold together, requiring an ongoing process of improvisation and subtle innovation. Space and form are conceptualized and realized through the mason’s total involvement in building a house with his tools and materials. In contrast to the growing numbers of contractors in Mali’s larger cities who build with concrete and steel, Djenné’s masons continue to use mainly local materials. Dwindling supplies of palm timbers for roofing, however, means that most are now trucked in from outlying regions. Further, the palette of finishes has expanded to include imported paints, cement rendering, and glazed ceramic tiles. Until the early decades of the twentieth century, the mason’s principal

tools were his long crowbar-type implement called a sasiré, the woodenhandled hoe (kumbu), and an adze for chopping palm wood. Mud mortars and plasters were transported in thickly woven baskets (segi) which laborers

carry on the top of their heads. Though the inventory of tools remains sparse, anumber of additions were made during the last century resulting in significant changes to local building practices and form. Recent importations include the wooden slip-mold for producing rectangular bricks, the plumb line (guuru karfoo),” spirit level, measuring tape (meétre),'? and the trowel. A small and fine French trowel (truelle francaise) is imported for executing delicate plasterwork and sculpting decorative elements such as the projecting roofline miters (sarafar). A second, more robust trowel called truelle kuuru-bibi (literally, “black-skin trowel”) is produced by local black-

smiths and used for spreading mortar and chopping bricks to size. The blacksmiths also manufacture heavy-weight hammers with a sharp axe-like blade on the opposite side (daasi). This multipurpose tool is used for breaking stones, chopping timbers to length, and driving pegs into the hard earth when setting out foundations. Both imported shovels (pelle)'* and hoes are employed to dig the shallow trench foundations for houses.” Heavy machinery and power tools have not yet found their way onto construction sites, but electricity has delivered a diversity of other technolo-

ca ol; 4.429513 frees ee ee ee ee rees OCA TT ee Ssawigs: 3328 cswel)thieLL,eeeell Fee Ee ee RB tee arenoneentenaan taretttn Soe a acre Te ae | “gupens

ee

a a Te,——— > 2es Ff2. eefte T 4} i Rit ti

~ JE IJ guuphil $b seer =

7s @ 8g a RA ABO BS Se oe. ge PRES

Oi ee Phe. ee Italianate balustrade and satellite dish on anew home in the Bamana Quarter

gies to Djenné. In the years since I began fieldwork, the small number of land-line telephones in the town have been superseded by an inundation of mobile telephones and two Internet cafés. Communication technologies are not only altering social interaction and etiquette as elsewhere, but they are also plugging Djenné into events, products, ideas, and opinions that emanate from well beyond its familiar frontiers. The full impact of global communications and circulation of information on local masonry practices, consumer habits, lifestyles, and the built environment remains to be seen.

’ yies,

Significantly, the masons’ traditional education remains entirely practicebased, and their transmission of knowledge relies on an apprenticeship system which they control and reproduce. Technologies and secrets are transferred and transformed in the confluence of generations. The introduction of structural or stylistic innovations to the existing repertoire is never an individual affair but

requires carefully negotiated acceptance by peers and public. Innovations, moreover, only become legitimate when they are accommodated within standard building practices. For this reason, approval of novel craftsmanship is granted almost exclusively to older “master” masons (barey amir)—and often posthumously—who have earned status and authority through experience, prestigious commissions, and the training of many disciples. Young masons who are overtly creative are chastised for their conceit, though occasionally they are successful at opening spaces for divergent practices. During my stay, this was illustrated by young masons who, much to the consternation of some older colleagues, clad exterior walls with “modern” tiles and adorned rooftops with Italianate balustrades. Internal debate breeds consensus and discord within the trade community, and ultimately serves to regulate change within a framework of continuity. By strategically assuming positions in the overlap between dis-

12 + ‘The Masons of Djenné

courses of modernity and tradition, masons can improvise and introduce innovation to decorative vocabularies, their use of materials, and structures while still asserting that their practices, technologies, and buildings uphold local tradition and reproduce Djenné’s special sense of place.’®

An Anthropology of Place-Making __ | Although this is a book about building, architecture is not its central focus. Architecture, instead, provides the backdrop to a detailed depiction of craftsman-

ship and the agents responsible for physically producing and reproducing Djenné's unique style-Soudanais houses and its grand mosque.’’ A handful of scholarly works including those by Prussin, Maas and Mommersteeg, Blier, and Bedaux et al. offer comprehensive analyses of the town’s architectural history, its built forms and spatial planning,’* but these are weighted in favor of the building as cultural object rather than the builder as social subject. This book addresses this imbalance and complements the existing corpus of work by positioning the masons and their laborers at centre stage. LaViolette, in her writings on Djenné potters, likewise emphasizes the social relations and cultural behavior of the women artisans, noting that most studies on the topic concentrate on “the minutiae of the production process to the virtual exclusion of the women at work, as if the pots make themselves.””’ Jansen, too, in his research with Mandé griots, makes the point that although the recital of a historic or genealogical text is the most tangible cultural artifact produced by these bards, vocalization of the “correct” text is a minor aspect in learning to speak properly. Aside from merely transcribing their stories and praises, Jansen’s ethnography grapples with the inculcation of broader and less tangible social skills that make a successful griot.*° My study of masons similarly centers not on analyses of the material artifact but on its producers and the processes of their production.” During fieldwork, I did not conduct surveys on the lives and training of all Djenné’s masons, nor did I carry out in-depth ethnographic research on

the town residents. The principal unit of my investigation remained the groups of builders with whom I formed intimate associations while churning mud plasters, hauling sun-dried bricks, and preparing tools. Alongside my thorough accounts of these builders’ training and trade knowledge, I have woven my own apprenticing experiences into the narrative. As a work team,

| our practices were formed and constantly transformed in relation to one another. Individual progress and group coordination evolved (or regressed) in correspondence with the tasks at hand and with the physical evolution of a

Introduction - 13

| building through its various stages of construction. Learning and knowledge were recognized to be situated within an ever changing context of social actors, tools, materials, and physical parameters.”” My anthropology of architecture may therefore be more accurately described as one about place-making, since it converges on the skilled interaction between sensing, learning bodies

and the dwellings that they make.’ In short, masons’ practices are not only responding to and creating a physical environment, but, more important, they are making their own spaces and places of learning. The next section explores the recent history of the masons’ unique professional association and its enduring hierarchy in order to describe the social, political, and economic parameters within which my fellow builders learned and operated.

The Masons’ Pecking Order In her study of Djenné’s craftspeople, LaViolette’s grading of builders correlates

closely with my own field observations.** The ranks, in ascending order, include, first, the apprentices (dyente idye), who are in long-term contractual arrangements with mentors; the officially validated masons (barey), who are entitled to accept commissions and build independently of their master(s); active senior masons with a secure clientele and with control over much of the town’s construction work; and master masons (barey amir), who have retired from active building but continue to be prominent decision makers in the community and whose expertise is highly regarded. This gerontocracy also corresponds to Monteil’s early colonial account which records that the corpus of masons was subdivided into age sets.”* From as early as the late nineteenth century—and long before that date according to local oral histories—Djenné’s professional community of masons have been organized as a guild-like association known as the barey ton.’® The Mandé term ton refers to an “association” whose membership is defined either by a professional or age-set grouping. A chief, the barey bumo (literally, “head mason”), presides over the barey ton. During my stay Sekou Traoré was the acting barey bumo, elected by the senior members of the association to succeed his father, Babér Traoré. The patronymic Traoré is Mandé in origin,”’ but the family claims a koyra-boro identity signaling their established residency in urban Djenné.”* Despite the strong ma-

jority of ethnic Bozo in the building trade, descendants of the Traoré family have long occupied the post of barey bumo. Indeed, the head mason who oversaw the reconstruction of the town’s great mosque in 1906-1907 was Ismaila

Maso D ‘ ca 14 -eThe ns of Djenné pes 22 aieaes! ERRnaa ou ay eespmanenmen PeeNMR: cod tae UB NSS Sass idve1 ea PRS hs

ee: i >Beg “ag. eS . Baye 25 : BTASS, Oe 7: :ZTe. Rid RR ae He Shs aren raat 4: her bSFk rfBt.ee! Fe eeeoe osAme Si dees newraeboceurand 7Saar aA ¥ sf 4aaa To. SRR RRS ae Messen“ ; itisparses re nieve Te eee |A 5sae eae eee :epnermean :MiRRS SAK, naPly eee ota fe. ives i es NES - Spe, : are ‘riBrena (

est. ie “ nial :+=¢ es m ne oe Peete? tasies ae 43 eae | ae aie¥] WEBS. eebe eX - :a¥ 2" Via: %ae+ ae oe |gees ae a ; Rey Naor eee aa 2 Sy Bat oo “eeepc > Na Adaha, nN RES ohare $e ep aoe :rsad- 43 eee eee UAE Fae. ead se). SB geoes ill .=oaCe Se 4# 5 a-yl Is RemteR is 944 heme” peal gyh wliG eteoe kySos FE a 8iaom! down teLexar Rae: . i. rep Pol is Mgegae Oy te a oThy Sy DiySh 2 eral Bb! Hiri ASA 4 aft? aae

fe: Biv eats of »eae: Fn oe Ba Sak re .éétieee eet) a GA se a ee ie a. 3 pagers > ais haa aeSaereey 2eel te mie | a. an eon bn ER ; >S¢>|Sane .ae=2sTeie;=. ee oe jaa se ‘ ieor=Me =e we Fas=eee oa deme 2Cree le i a aSATS suite — ‘-‘pbs te —er& Ieast Ssrtepeh Bic! hint are | ay ea —— xi pete para ‘ii; es yee re, 4=3 find My Saaneen =#ia, ™ s ‘ Tena oopeeiEond, TS AeA eos wile ANG =t 8=5 aes. P i WJ -; eae ae Ate fe aahoy, Ee Ras 7eaaReni ESE AUR MMAR Sha tide BET 5 eh : Yi} SRE ss et ae Gy ic {Beat | BA hs R Ohne Ci SARL ARTIC Re Pe Sag set Dag STEhet SCHee -State Ete, NR Se Sane. CARMA I eRRE sia oy waeeal seebaRee pinLS abaSU vast WILL dan Tan aeargM “a2 hii pore mt eon aeUps ad "oe Seeger! te ,Fae 82: ge -Ste! gl8 heSN OtMy OTIC tvsge bende aeSReg RFS