The Lithic Production System of the Princess Point Complex during the Transition to Agriculture in Southwestern Ontario, Canada 9781841711928, 9781407353449

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 9
Photomicrographs
References

Citation preview

The Lithic Production System of the Princess Point Complex during the Transition to Agriculture in Southwestern Ontario, Canada Chen Shen

BAR International Series 991 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 991 The Lithic Production System of the Princess Point Complex during the Transition to Agriculture in Southwestern Ontario, Canada © Chen Shen and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711928 paperback ISBN 9781407353449 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711928 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from: BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK E MAIL [email protected] P HONE +44 (0)1865 310431 F AX +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

A cknow ledge men t

My i n t e r e s t i n l i th ic a na ly s i s d eve loped d u r ing t h e my g r adua te t r a in ing a t T u lsa U n ive r s i ty , O k lahoma , whe re Iw a s e ngaged i n as t udy o f l i t h ic a r t if a c t s f r om a n E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic s i te i n J apan . D on H en ry a nd G eo rge O de l l h ave i n sp i red m e ag r ea t d ea l w i th t h e i r c on t r ibu t ion s a nd c omm i tmen t s t ot h e f i e ld o f l i t h ic a na ly s i s . T he i rc ommon b u ts omewha td if e r en ta pp roa ch e s ( f o r e xamp le , N ea r E a s te rn v e r su s N o r th Ame r ican l i t h ic t y po logy )h ave h ad g r ea ti mpac t s o n t h e r e sea r ch d on e i nt h i s b ook . Io we ad eep d eb t o fg r a t i tude t oG eo rge , w ho t a ugh t m e u se w ea r a na ly s i s , f o r h i s i n s igh tf u l c ommen t s a nd h umo rou s d i scu s s ion s o n t h i s w o rk i n i t s e a r ly s t age s . T h es h if to f my r e sea r ch f o cu sf r om N ea rE a s ter n t oN o r th Ame r ican l i th ic t e chno logy w a s m ade p o s s ib le when Ib ecame at e am m embe r o ft h e P r ince s s P o in t r e sea r ch p ro jec t a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fT o ron to . Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank G a ry C rawf o rd a nd D av id Sm i th f o ro f f e r ing m e t h e o ppo r tun i ty t op a r t ic ipa te i nt h e p ro jec t a nd f o r e n cou rag ing m e t o t a ke a n i n t e r e s t i n O n ta r io a r cha eo logy . T he i rg ene rou sh e lp a nd e n thu s ia s t ic g u idance ,a s w e l l a s t h e i r f r iend sh ip , s t imu la ted t h e p rog r e s s o ft h i sw o rk o ve rt h ey ea r s . T h i s b ook b enef i ted f r om c on s t ruc t ive a nd i n va luab le c omm en t so ne a r ly d raf t sf r om f a cu l ty m embe r s a nd c o l league s i n t h e A n th ropo logy D epa r tmen t , U n ive r s i ty o f T o ron to . It h ank Max ine K le isd ien s t , P e te r S t o r ck , T ed B ann ing , a nd T ony D av i s . Iw ou ld a l so l i k e t ot h ank B i l l E nge lb rech t , W . G reen , C ha r les C obb , R ob Ma cDona ld , a nd S u san J am ie son f o r t h e i r i n s igh tf u l c ommen t so np a r t so ft h ew o rk . F und ing t h a te nab led c omp le t ion o ft h i sr e sea r ch w a sp rov ided b y aS oc ia l S c ience a nd H uman i ty R e sea r ch C oun c i l ( SSHRC ) o fC anada a wa rded t oD r sC rawf o rd a nd Sm i th .I na dd i t ion ,t h i sw o rk w a s a l so s uppo r ted t h rough t h e U n ive r s i ty o f T o ron to O pen F e l low sh ip , aS SHRC d oc to ra lf e l l ow sh ip ,a nO n ta r io G radua t eS cho la r sh ip ,a nd a n A r chaeo log ica l R e sea r ch G ran t f r om O n ta r io H e r i tage F ounda t ion . It h ank t h e se i n s t i tu t ion s /

a genc ie s f o rt h e i rf i nan c ia l s uppo r t . G a ry Wa r r ick a nd J e f fB u r sy , t h en a r chaeo log i s t s a tt h e M in i s t ry o fT ran spo r ta t ion O n ta r io , g ene r o u s ly p rov ided a r chaeo log ica l ma t e r ia ls a nd d a ta f r om t h e HH s i te s f o r t h i s s t udy . It h ank t h e D inn ing a nd R i ley F am i l ie s f o r t h e i r p e rm i s s ion t ow o rk a tt h e G rand B ank s s i te , t h e v an O sch f am i ly f o r t h e i r p e rm i s s ion t o w o rk a tt h e L one P in es i t e ,a nd Mu r r ay Y oung f o rh i sp e rm is s ion t o w o rk a tt h e Y oung 1s i te . Ia l so o we a d eb t o f g r a t i tude t oM r . F r ed Moe r schf e lde ra nd M r . J ef f B u r sy w ho t a ugh t m e O n ta r io c h e r t a nd f l in tk n app ing s k i l l s . T he r e w e r e an umbe r o fp eop le i n vo lved i n my r e sea r ch , w ho p rov id ed i n va luab le i n s igh t s a nd a s s i s tance . Ia m f o r tuna te t o h av e h ad s uch f r i end s a nd c o l league s w i th w hom t o d i scu s s i d ea st h a tf o rm ed p a r t so ft h i sw o rk . My f i r s ts pe c i a l t h ank s mu s t g o t o my d ea r f r i end A l ic ia H awh in s , who w en t t h rough a l l s t age s o f t h i s r e sea r ch w i th m e ( f i e ldwo rk , l a b , a nd w r i t ing ) s h a r ing my e xc i temen t a sw e l l a sf r u s t ra t ion a nd o f f e r ing h e r c on s t ru c t ive c ommen t s o n t h e e a r ly d r af t s . My t h ank s a l so e x tend t o t h e L a te A rne C a r l son , D av id L a sby , a nd T revo r O rme rod f o r t h e i r p a r t ic ipa t ion i n my u se -wea r e xpe r imen t s . T hank s a r e a l so e x tended t o Ma rk B lackham , V andy B owye r , C ha l ton C a r sca l len , G young -ah L ee , G e L i , A nd r ew Ma r t inda le , J ame s Q u in , J u l ian S i gge r s ,a nd C a ro l ine Wa lk e r . Iw ou ld a l so l i k e t o t h ank t h e f o l low ing p eop le w ho w e r e i n vo lved i n my r e sea r ch i nt h ef i e ld ,o ri nt h e l a b , o r b o th : J oanna B andz io row sk i , t h e L a te A nd r e B ek e rmen , L e igh F r eeman , D eme t ra G eo rgak o upo l i s ,D av id G oode ,H ea the r McCa l lum ,Z i s s i s P a r ra s , L o r i R icha rd s , K a thy S choenbe rge r , a nd C h r i s Wa t t s . T h i sb ook w ou ld n o th ave a ppea r r ed i ni t sf i na lf o rm w i thou tt h eg ene rou sa nd r e spon s i b le e d i t ing o f A l ic ia H awk in s a nd C o ra l ine Wa lk e r . L a s t b u t n o t t h e l e a s t , my f am i ly d e se rve s my d eep a pp r ec ia t ion f o r t h e e mo t iona l s uppo r t a nd e ncou ragemen tt h a t Ir e ce ived d u r ing t h ep roce s s o ft h i s w o rk . It h ank my p a r en t s f o rt h e i ru nde r -

s t and ing a nd s uppo r t wh i le Ih ave b een a way f r om o u rl ov ing f am i ly . My i nf in i te t h ank st o my w if e , B ing Wang , w ho g ave ag r ea t d ea l o fh e lp i nv a r iou s w ay s t h a t m ade i tp o s s ib le f o r m e t o

S imon , w h i le Iw a sa way i na r cha eo log ica l f i e ld s f o r s eve ra l mon th s ay ea r , c anno t b e a d equa te ly e xp r e s sed h e r e . W i thou t h e r u nd e r s tand ing a nd c ompan ion sh ip t h rough s ome t o ugh , s t r e s sf u l ,

c omp le te t h i sw o rk . My g u i l ta nd a pp r ec ia t ion f o r h e r p a t ience a nd h a rd sh ip w i th o u r b aby b oy ,

a nd b i t t e rt ime s ,t h i sw o rk wou ld n eve rh ave b een c omp le t ed .

Abs trac t

s amp le s w e r e s e lec ted f o r b o th t h e t y po techno l o g ica l a na ly s i s a nd t h e u se -wea r a na ly s i s . T he r e su l t s o f l i t h ic a na ly se s d emon s t ra t e t h a t t h e G rand B ank s l i t h ic i n du s t ry r e p r e sen t s ag ene ra l i z ed s t one t o o l p rodu c t ion . I ts ugge s t s t h a t t h e s h if t f r om s p ec ia l ized t o g ene ra l ized s t one t o o l p rodu c t ion , a s al o ng te rm t e chno log ica l c hange , i sl i ke ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o fh o r t i c u l tu r e . Wh i le t h e s ub s i s ten ce s h if t may h ave b rough t a bou t as e r ie s o fc hange s i ns oc io -eco -

T h is s t udy f o cu se s o n a n e xam ina t ion o f l i th ic p roduc t ion s y s tem so fP r ince s sP o in tC omp lex o f s ou thwe s te rn On ta r io , C anada . T he P r inces s P o in t C omp lex r e p r e sen t s at r an s i t iona l c u l tu re f r om t h e M idd le t oL a te Wood land i nt h e n o r th e a s t N o r th Ame r ica ( c .a . A .D . 5 00 -1 , 000 ) . T he AMS d a t e s o n c o rn r ema in s ( Z ea m ay s ) r e cov e r ed f r om t h i s c u l tu r e i nd ica t e t h e e me rgence o f h or t icu l tu r e b a sed o n c o rn -p roduc t ion i n t h e L owe r G rand R ive rV a l ley a se a r ly a sA .D . 5 50 . T he a na ly se s o fl i t h ic a r t if a c t sa im t or e con s t ruc t t h e p a t t er n o f P r inces s P o in t l i t h ic p roduc t ion , a nd t o e xp lo re t h e t r an sf o rm a t ion o f l i t h ic p ro d uc t ion i nr e la t ion t ot h e e m e rgence o ff ood p ro d uc t ion i nt h e s t udy r e g ion .

n om ic s t ruc tu r e s ,t h et r an sf o rma t ion o fl i th ic p ro d uc t ion m igh t h ave b een c au sed b y , n o t o ne s i n g l e f a c to r ,b u ta ni n teg ra ted r e la t ion sh ip o fe x te r n a lf a c to r s( i nc rea s ing s eden t i sm ,u se o fl o ca l ized r e sou r ce s , p opu la t ion i n c r ea se ) a nd i n ter n a l f a c t o r s ( t ime -s t re s s , p roduc t ive o r gan iza t ion ) . T he s t udy a im s t o s t imu la te r e sea r ch i n to l i th ic p ro d uc t ion i nt h e c on tex t o fa g r icu l tu r e i nt h e s t udy r e g ion ,a nd t os ugge s tn ew l i ne sf o rf u r the rs t udy .

T he l i t h ic d a ta c ome s f r om a t h r ee -yea r f i e ld i n ve s t iga t ion a tt h eG rand B ank s , L on e P ine , a nd Y oung 1 s i te s ( 1 993 - 1 995 ) . O ve r 2 000 l i t h ic

1 1

T ab le o fC on ten t s

A cknow ledgemen t Abs trac t

i i

T ab le o fC on ten t s L i s t o fF iguer s L is t o fT ab le s

v i i i x

Chap ter 1 :I n troduc t ion T he R e sea r ch Ob jec t ive s S tudy o ft h e P r ince s s P o in t C omp lex S econda ry O r ig in s o fA g r icu l tu re L i th ic S tudy

1 2 4 5 6

T he L i th ic P roduc t ion S y s tem : AT heo r e t ica l C on s ide ra t ion E thnog raph ic E v idence o fS t one T oo l U se

7 9

R esea r ch D es ign a nd R e sea rch Q ue s t ion s S umma ry

1 1 4

Chap ter 2 :A rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion : F ie ldwork a nd E co log ica l S e t t ing

1 7

F i e ldwo rk L one P ine ( AfGx -113 ) Y oung 1( AfGx -6 )

1 7 1 7 1 9

G rand B ank s ( AfGx -3 ) G rand B ank s S i te F o rma t ion E co log ica l S e t t ing T he p hy s ica l S e t t ing a nd P a laeoenv i ronmen t

1 9 2 1 2 3 2 3

N a tu ra l R esou rce s

2 5

B ed rock F orma t ion a nd R aw Ma te r ia l S ou r ce s

2 5

Chap ter 3 : Me thods o fL i th ic A na ly s i s

2 9

T ypo logy : A r t if ac t F o rm s AC r i t ique o ft h e " U t i l ized F lake" C a tegory

2 9 3 0

A Wo rk ing T ypo logy

3 2

T ypo -T echno log ica l A na ly s i s : Manuf ac tu re U se -W ea r Ana ly s is : U t i l iza t ion

3 7 4 0

C oncep t s , Me thod s , a nd D ef in i t ion s T he E xpe r imen ta l S t udy D a ta Man ipu la t ion a nd P r esen ta t ion

4 0 4 5 5 3

L i th ic A ssemb lage s a nd S amp l ing

5 4

Chap ter 4 : Ana ly s i s o fC ore s T ypo -T echno log ica l A na ly s i s R aw Ma te r ia l P rocu remen t

5 7 5 7 5 7

C o re T ype a nd R educ t ion Modes

5 9

C o re S i ze a nd C o r e F ace t S i ze C o re F ace t P a t ter na nd T oo l B lank P roduc t ion

6 3 6 5

U se -wea r Ana ly s is G rand B ank s L one P ine

6 7 6 7 7 0

D i scu s s ion a nd S umma ry

7 0

Chap ter 5 : Ana ly s i s o fF ormed T ype s

7 3

T ypo -T echno log ica l A na ly s is T ypo log ica l D esc r ip t ion T oo l B lank P roduc t ion a nd S e lec t ion

7 3 7 3 8 3

R e touch T echn ique s U se -wea rA na ly s i s

8 8 9 5

G rand B ank s

9 5

L one P ine

1 00

D i scu s s ion a nd S umma ry

1 02

Chap ter 6 : Ana ly s i s o f Unre touched F lake s

1 05

T ypo -T echno log ica l A na ly s is P ropo r t iona l O ccu r rence s o f Un re touched F l ake s

1 05 1 05

C o r e R educ t ion S t ra teg ie s T echno log ica l V a r iab i l i ty o ft h e C o re R educ t ion s

1 07 14

U se -wea rA na ly s is

1 20

G rand B ank s

1 20

L one P ine a nd Y oung 1

1 25

P rehen s i le Wea ra nd t h e U se o fI nd iv idua l T oo l s

1 29

D i scu s s ion a nd S umma ry

1 3 1

Chap ter 7 :A na ly s i s o fF lak ing D ebr i s

1 37

D i s t r ibu t ion o fF l ak ing D eb r is

1 39

S pa t ia l P a t te rn o fL i th ic P roduc t ion

1 39

Chap ter 8 :D i scus s ions a nd C ompar isons U se -T a sk a nd U se -Re la ted A c t iv i ty T oo l U se a tG rand B ank s : A n I n t ra s i te C ompa r ison

1 47 1 47 1 48

T oo l U se a t HH : AL a te M idd le Wood land S i te

1 50

A nI n te r s i te C ompa r ison

1 52

T oo l T ype T oo l U se

1 53 1 54

U se -Re la ted A c t iv i t ies

1 54

I n ten s i ty o fT oo l U se

1 54

Chap ter 9 :I n terpre ta t ion a nd C onc lus ion T he P a t te rn o fL i th ic P roduc t ion

1 61 1 6 1

T he A dop t ion o fB ow -and -A r row T echno logy T he E conom iz ing B ehav io ri nF lake T oo l P roduc t ion

1 6 1 1 63

T he G ene ra l ized S tone T oo l P roduc t ion T ran sf o rma t ion o fL i th ic P roduc t ion d u r ing t h e P r ince s s P o in tP e r iod

1 64 1 65

T echno log ica lV a r iab i l i ty a nd L i th ic P roduc t ion

1 65

R e la t ion sh ip b e tween F ood P roduc t ion a nd L i th ic P roduc t ion .

1 68

E va lua t ion o ft h e Mode l .

1 70

S umma ry a nd F u tu re R esea rch

1 74

P ho tom icrograph s R ef erence

1 77 1 85

v i

L is t o fF igures

F ig . 1 . 1 : Map o ft h e S t udy R eg ion F ig . 1 . 2 : A Wo rk ing Mode l D iag ram f o r t h e A r chaeo log ica l S t udy o ft h e L i th ic P roduc t ion S y s tem F ig . 2 . 1 : Map o ft h e L one P in e S i t e ( AfGx -113 ) F ig . 2 . 2 : Map o ft h eG rand B ank s S i te ( AfGx -003 ) F ig . 2 . 3 T he G rand B ank s S t r a t ig raphy ( A r ea B ) F ig . 2 . 4 : Map o ft h eL owe rG r and R ive rV a l ley s how ing t h e P r in ce s s P o in tS i te C lu s t e r s F ig . 2 . 5 : Map o fC h en S ou r ce s . F ig . 3 . 1 : F low -Cha r tI nd ica t ing L i th ic C la s s if ica t ion A pp l ied i nT h i s S tudy . F ig . 3 . 2 : T he O r ien ta t ion o fA r t if a c tO b se rva t ion . F ig . 3 . 3 : T he 8 -po la rC o -o rd ina te S y s t em ( a dap ted f r om O d e l l 1 979 ) . F ig . 4 . 1 : D iag ram o f Me t r ic A t t r ibu te so fC o r e sa nd C o r e F ace t s . F ig . 4 . 2 : A r t if ac tI lu s t ra t ion so fC o r e s . F ig . 4 . 3 : A r t if ac tI lu s t ra t ion so fC o r e s . F ig . 4 . 4 : C ompa r ed L eng th a nd W id th I n te rva l sb y S e lec ted C o r e F ace t sa nd T oo l B lank s . F ig . 4 . 5 : A r t if ac tI lu s t ra t ion so fU t i l ized C o r e s F ig . 5 . 1 : D is t r ibu t ion o fF o rmed T ype s f r om G r and B ank s a nd L one P ine . F ig . 5 . 2 : D i s t r ibu t ion o fF o rmed T ype s f r om A r ea A a nd A r ea B a tG r and B ank s . F ig . 5 . 3 : A r t if ac tI lu s t ra t ion o fF o rmed T ype s F ig . 5 . 4 : Mea su r emen to fP ro jec t i le P o in tT ip -Ang le i nP l an V iew . F ig . 5 . 5 : B ox & Wh i ske rP lo tC ompa r i son o fT he T ip A ng le o fP ro jec t i le P o in tf r om G rand B ank s . F ig . 5 . 6 : A r t if ac tI lu s t ra t ion o fF o rmed T ype s F ig . 5 . 7 : A r t if ac tI lu s t ra t ion o fF o rm ed T ype s F ig . 5 . 8 : A r t if ac tI lu s t ra t ion o fF o rmed T ype s F ig . 5 . 9 : S ca t te rp lo tC ompa r i son o fB lank s S i ze sB e tween S u rf a ce Mod if ied a nd E dge Mod if ied F o rmed T ype s f r om G rand B ank s F ig . 5 . 10 : D iag ram so fF r ac tu r e A t t r ibu te s . F ig . 5 . 11 : D iag ram o fR e tou ch A t t r ibu te s F ig . 5 . 12 : D is t r ibu t ion s o fR e touch A t t r ibu te so ft h e G rand B ank sF o rmed T ype s F ig . 5 . 13 : L on e P ine P ro jec t i le P o in t sw i th U se -W ea rI mage s . F ig . 6 . 1 : D iag ram o fD i s ta lT e rm ina t ion o f Un r e tou ched F l ake s F ig . 6 . 2 : D iag ram o fD o r sa lP e r ime te r S ca r r ing o f Un re tou ched F l ake s . F ig . 6 . 3 : D iag ram o f Me t r i cV a r iab le so fU n re tou ched F l ak e s . F ig . 6 . 4 : S ca t te rp lo t C ompa r i son so fS e lec t ed U n r e touched F l ak e T ype s f r om G rand B ank s . F ig . 6 . 5 : S ca t te rp lo tC ompa r i son so fF l ak e S i ze so fU n r e touched F l ak e T ype s f r om L one P ine F ig . 6 . 6 : S ca t te rp lo tC ompa r i son s o fB lade S i ze sb e tween G rand B ank sa nd L one P ine F i g . 6 . 7 . S ca t te rp lo tC ompa r i son s o fS e lec ted U n r e touched F l ake T ype s f r om G rand B ank s . F i g . 6 . 8 : S ca t te rp lo tC ompa r i son s S e lec ted Un r e touched F l ak e T ype s f r om L on e P in e . F ig . 6 . 9 : B ox & Wh i ske rC ompa r ison so fB lank S i ze sb e tween U nu sed F l ak e sa nd U t i l ized F lake s f r om G rand B anks . F i g . 6 . 10 : B ox & Wh i sk e rC ompa r i son so fB lank S i ze sb e tween U nu sed F l ake sa nd U t i l ized F lake sf r om L on e P i ne . F i g . 6 . 11 : B ox & Wh i sk e rC ompa r i son so fB lank S i zes b e tween U nu sed F l ake s a nd U t i l ized F lak e sf r om Y oung 1 . F i g . 6 . 12 : A r t if ac t I lu s t ra t ion o fU t i l ized Un r e touched F l ake . F i g . 6 . 13 : B r eakage R a te o fG r and B ank sF l ake s .

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3 1 2 1 8 2 0 2 2 2 4 2 6 3 4 4 0 4 0 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 5 6 9 7 5 7 5 7 7 8 7 8 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 6 8 9 9 2 9 3 1 0 1 1 06 1 07 1 09 12 12 13 16 17 1 24 1 27 1 28 1 30 1 34

F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

7 . 1 : S pa t ia l D i s t r ibu t ion o fC h ip s . 7 . 2 : S pa t ia lD i s t r ibu t ion o fC hunk s . 7 . 3 : S pa t ia lD i s t r ibu t ion o fF l ak ing D eb r i s( Ch ip s a nd C hunk s ) . 7 . 4 : S pa t ia lD i s t r ibu t ion o fU n r e touched F l ak e s . 7 . 5 : S pa t ia l P a t te rn o fL i th ic P roduc t ion a tG rand B ank s . 8 . 1 : D e ta i led T oo l Mo t ion C ompa r i son so fT oo lU se b e tw e en A rea A a nd A rea B a tG rand B ank s .

F ig . 8 . 2 : G en e ra lT oo l Mo t ion C ompa r i son s o fT oo lU se b e twe en A r ea A a nd A rea B a tG rand B ank s . F ig . 8 . 3 : C on tac t Ma te r ia l C ompa r i son o fT oo lU se b e tween A r ea A a nd A r ea B a tG r and B ank s . F ig . 8 . 4 : U se -R e la ted A c t iv i ty C ompa r i son s o fT oo l U se b e tw een A r ea A a nd A r ea B a tG rand F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

B ank s . 8 . 5 : T oo lT ype C ompa r i son b y S i te . 8 . 6 : T oo l Mo t ion C ompa r i son so fT oo lU se b y S i te 8 . 7 : C on tac t Ma te r ia l C ompa r i son o fT oo l U se b y S i te 8 . 8 : T he U se -R e la ted A c t iv i ty C ompa r i son b y S i te . 8 . 9 : C ompa r i son o fA ve rage Emp loyed U n i t sp e rT oo l b y S i te .

F ig . 8 . 10 : C ompa r i son o fH af ted T oo l b yS i te F ig . 9 . 1 : C ompa r i son o fU se -T a sk s O ccu r r ed a tt h e T h r ee S i t e

v i i i

1 4 0 1 4 1 1 4 2 1 4 3 1 4 4 1 4 8 1 4 9 1 4 9 1 5 0 1 5 3 1 5 5 1 56 1 5 7 1 5 8 1 5 8 1 7 4

L i s t o fT ab le s

1 . 1 : S ome C ommon T oo l sU sed i nH i s to r ic I r oquo ian S oc ie t ie s 3 . 1 : B l ind T e s t s o nU t i l ized F l ak e s . 3 . 2 : E xpe r imen ta l S ou r ce sC on su l ted i nt h i s S tudy . 3 . 3 : L i s to fE dge Wea rV a r iab le s . 3 . 4 : U se -W ea rE xpe r imen tT a sk L i s t . 3 . 5 : R eco rd ing S hee tf o rE xpe r imen ta l S pec imen O b se rva t ion . 3 . 6 : U se -W ea rB l ind T e s t . 3 . 7 : L i s to fC ompa ra t ive U se -W ea rB land T e s t s . 3 . 8 : S umma ry o fL i th ic A r t if a c t sR ecove r ed f r om t h e G rand B ank s S i t e 3 . 9 : S umma ry o fL i th ic A r t if a c t S amp le s f r om G rand B ank s , L one P ine , a nd Y oung 1 3 . 10 : F r equenc ie s o fS amp led A r t if a c t s f o rA t t r ibu te O b serva t ion s 4 . 1 : D i s t r ibu t ion so fL i th ic C la s se sa tt h eT h r ee S i te sb y C oun t . 4 . 2 : D i s t r ibu t ion so fL i th ic C la s se sa tt h eT h r ee S i te sb y We igh t . 4 . 3 : D i s t r ibu t ion o fR aw Ma te r ia l P r e sen ted i nt h e C o r e A s semb lage s . 4 . 4 : D i s t r ibu t ion o fC o r tex C ove rage i nt h e C o r e A s semb lage s 4 . 5 : D i s t r ibu t ion so fH ea tT r ea tmen tP r e sen ted i nt h e C o r e A s semb lage s . 4 . 6 : C o r eT ypo logy . 4 . 7 : C o r e S i ze D a ta 4 . 8 : C o r eF ace t S i ze D a ta 4 . 9 : C o r eT ype a nd C o r e F a ce tC ove rage P r e sen ted i nt h e G rand B ank s C o r eA s semb lage . 4 . 10 : C o r e T ype a nd C o r e F a ce tT ype P r e sen ted i nt h e G rand B ank s C o r eA s semb lage 4 . 11 : T oo l Mo t ion i nt h e C o r eA s semb lage s . 4 . 12 : C on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e C o r eA s semb lage s . 4 . 13 : T oo l Mo t ion b yC on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e G rand B ank s C o r eA s semb lage . 4 . 14 : T oo l Mo t ion b yC on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e L one P ine C o r e A s semb lage 5 . 1 : F o rm ed T ype T ypo logy . 5 . 2 : F o rm ed T ype Me t r ic D a ta 5 . 3 : T t e s tR e su l t so fB lank S i ze sb e tween S u rf ace Mod if ied a nd E dge Mod if ied F o rmed T ypes a tG r and B ank s . 5 . 4 : T te s tR e su l t so fB lank S i ze sb e tween t h eA r ea A a nd A r ea B a tG rand B ank s 5 . 5 : T te s tR e su l t so fB lank S i ze so ft h e S u rf ace Mod if ied F o rmed T ype s B e tween t h e T wo F o rmed T ype sA s semb lage s . 5 . 6 : T te s tR e su l t so fB lank S i ze so ft h e E dge Mod if ied F o rmed T ype sB e tween t h e T wo F o rmed T ype A s semb lage s 5 . 7 : R aw Ma te r ia l P re sen ted i nt h e F o rmed T ype A s semb lage s . 5 . 8 : F o rmed T ype b y C o r t ica l C ove rage i nt h e F o rmed T ype A s semb lage s . 5 . 9 : F o rm ed T ype b yT he rm a l D amage P r e sen ted 5 . 10 : D i s t r ibu t ion so fF ive F r a c tu r eA t t r ibu t es O b se rved 5 . 11 : C ro s s -T abu la t ion o fP l a tf o rm F ace ta nd S hape o fB u lb o ft h e F o rmed T ype B lank s 5 . 12 : D i s t r ibu t ion so fD o r sa l S ca rC oun tb yB lank S i ze G rade s i nt h e F o rm ed T ype A s semb lage s . 5 . 13 : C ro s s -T abu la t ion o fD o r sa l S ca rC oun ta nd S ca rP a t te rn i nt h e F o rmed T ype A s semb lage s . 5 . 14 : D i s t r ibu t ion so fF ou rR e tou ch A t t r ibu te so fF o rmed T ype 5 . 15 : T he Mann - Wh i tney U T e s tR e su l t so fR e touch A t t r ibu t e s b e tween A r ea A a nd A r ea B a t G rand B ank s . 5 . 16 : T he Mann - Wh i tney U T e s tR e su l t so fR e touch A t t r ibu t e sb e tween t h e Two S i te s i x

9 3 2 3 9 4 3 4 7 4 8 5 2 5 3 5 5 5 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 9 6 4 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 8 6 8 7 4 8 4 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 7 8 7 8 8 9 0 9 1 9 1 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 5

5 . 17 : U t i l iza t ion R a te so fF o rmed T ype s .

9 6

5 . 18 : 5 . 19 : 5 . 20 : 5 . 21 : 5 . 22 : 5 . 23 : 5 . 24 :

9 6 9 7 9 7 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 9

T oo l Mo t ion i nt h e F o rmed T ype A s semb lage s F o rmed T ype b yT oo l Mo t ion i nt h e G rand B ank sA s semb lage . C on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e F o rmed T ype A s semb lage s . F o rmed T ype b y C on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e G rand B ank sA s semb lage . T oo l Mo t ion b yC on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e G rand B ank sF o rmed T ype A s semb lage P r ehen s i le Wea r i nt h e F o rmed T ype A s semb lage s . F o rmed T ype b yP r eh en s i le Wea rT ype i nt h e G rand B ank sA s semb lage

5 . 25 : F o rmed T ype b yP r eh en s i le Wea rT ype i nt h e G rand B ank sA s semb lage

9 9

5 . 26 : F o rmed T ype b yT oo l Mo t ion i nt h e L one P ine A s semb lage . 5 . 27 : F o rmed T ype b yC on ta c t Ma te r ia l i nt h e L one P ine A s semb lage . 5 . 28 : T oo l Mo t ion b yC on ta c t Ma te r ia l i nt h e L one P ine F o rm ed T ype A s semb lage

1 00 1 00 1 02

6 . 1 6 . 2 . 6 . 3 : 6 . 4 :

1 06 1 06 1 08 1 0 8

U n r e touched F lake T ype s . D i s t r ibu t ion o fD i s ta lT e rm ina t ion o fP la in F l ak e s . D o r sa l P e r ime te rS ca r r ing i nt h eU n r e tou ched F l ak e A s semb lage s P l a tf o rm F ace tP re sen ted i nt h e U n r e touched F l ake A s semb lage s .

6 . 5 : T t e s tR e su l t so fM id sec t ion T h ickne s so fB if a ce T h inn ing F l ak e s a nd P la in F l ak e s f r om t h e G rand B ank sa nd L one P ine A s semb lage s .

1 08

6 . 6 : T t e s tR e su l t s o fP l a tf o rm D imen s ion s o fB if ace T h inn ing F l ake sa nd P la in F l ak e sf r om t h e G rand B ank s a nd L one P ine A s semb lage s . 6 . 7 : Me t r ic D a ta o n Un r e tou ched F lak e s f r om t h e G rand B ank sA s semb lage b yF lak e T ype . 6 . 8 : Me t r ic D a ta o n Un re tou ched F lak e s f r om t h e L one P ine A s semb lage b yF lak e T ype 6 . 9 : Me t r ic D a ta o nU n re tou ched F lake s f r om t h eY oung 1A s semb lage b yF lake T ype . 6 . 10 : 1 t e s tR e su l t s o f Me t r ic D a ta f r om t h e G rand B ank s Un r e tou ched F l ak eA s semb lage

1 08 10 10 1 1 1 1

6 . 11 : T te s tR e su l t so f Me t r ic D a ta f r om t h e L one P ine U n r e tou ch ed F l ak eA s semb lage 6 . 12 : D i s t r ibu t ion o fR aw Ma t e r ia l i nt h eU n r e touched F l ak e A s semb lage s 6 . 13 : Un r e touched F l ak eT ype b yR aw Ma te r ia l i nt h e G rand B ank sA s semb lage .

1 1 15 15

6 . 14 : 6 . 15 : 6 . 16 : 6 . 17 :

1 5 18 18

C o r t ica l D i s t r ibu t ion o nP r ima ry F l ak e a nd C o r eT r imm ing F l ak e D o r sa l S ca rC oun tD i s t r ibu t ion o nP l a in F l ak e s( o ve r2 5 c mi nl e ng th ) . D o r sa l S ca rC oun tD i s t r ibu t ion o nB lade C ro s s -T abu la t ion o fP l a tf o rm F ace ta nd S hape o fB u lb o f Ma jo r Un r e touched F l ak e T ype s f r om t h e G rand B ank s A s semb lage .

6 . 18 : C ro s s -T abu la t ion o fP la tf o rm F ace ta nd S hape o fB u lb o fb o th P r ima ry F lake a nd C o r e T r imm ing F l ake C omb ined f r om t h e G rand B ank sA s semb lage . 6 . 19 : U t i l iza t ion R a te s o fU n r e touched F l ak e . 6 . 20 : T oo l Mo t ion s i nt h e G rand B ank sU n r e touched F l ak e A s semb lage 6 . 21 : C on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e G rand B ank s Un re touched F l ake A s semb lage . 6 . 22 : T oo l Mo t ion b yC on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e G rand B ank s Un r e tou ched F l ake A s semb lage . . . 6 . 23 : F l ak e S i ze G rade o ft h eU sed F lake si nt h e U n re touched F l ak eA s semb lage s . 6 . 24 : T -T e s tR e su l t so fF l ak e S i ze sB e tween U nu sed a nd U sed F l ak e s f r om t h e G rand B ank s U n r e touched F l ak eA s semb lage . 6 . 25 : T he Mann - Wh i tney U T e s tR esu l t so fF rac tu r e A t t r ibu te s B e tween U nu sed a nd U sed F l ak e s f r om G rand B ank s 6 . 26 : D o r sa l S ca rC oun tP r e sen t ed i nt h e G rand B ank sU n r e touch ed F l ak e s . 6 . 27 : D o r sa l S ca rP a t te rn P r e sen ted i nt h e G rand B ank sU n r e tou ch ed F l ake s . 6 . 28 : T oo l Mo t ion i nt h eU n r e touched F l ake A s semb lage s 6 . 29 : C on tac t Ma t er ia l i nt h eU n re touched F l ak e A s semb lage s . 6 . 30 : T oo l Mo t ion b yC on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e L one P ine U n r e tou ched F lake A s semb lage . 6 . 31 : T oo l Mo t ion b yC on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h eY oung 1U n re touch ed F lake A s semb lage . 6 . 32 : P r ehen s i le Wea r i nt h e U n re touched F l ake A s semb lage s . 7 . 1 : D i s t r ibu t ion o fG rand B ank sL i th ic A r t if ac tb yE xcava t ion S qua r e s .

19 19 1 20 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 22 1 22 1 23 1 23 1 23 1 2 3 1 25 1 25 1 26 1 26 1 29 1 38

8 . 1 : U t i l ized F lak es f r om t h e HH L i th ic S amp le

1 5 1

8 . 2 : T oo l Mo t ion b yC on tac t Ma te r ia l i nt h e HH A s semb lage

1 5 1

x i

CHAPTER 1 I NTRODUCT ION

O ve r ac en tu ry ,t h es t udy o ft h et r an s i t ion t oa g r i c u l tu r e i np reh is to ry h a s b een o ne o f t h e mo s t h o t ly d eba ted a nd i n t r igu ing s ub jec t si na r chaeo l o gy a nd a n th ropo logy . T o d a t e , i s su e s o n t h e e me rgen ce o f a g r icu l tu r e i n d i f f e r en t r e g ion s , e spec ia l ly p l ace s t h a ta r e" non -cen te r so ft h e o r i g i n s ," h ave b een a dd r e s sed i nc ompa ra t ive a nd mu l t i leve led w ay f r om g l oba lp e r spec t ive s( e .g . , B a r -Y o sef 1 998 ; H a r r i s 1 996 ; P r ice a nd G ebaue r 1 995 ) . Q ue s t ion s t o b e a n swe r ed a r e n o l onge r r e s t r ic t ed t o" whe r e" a nd " when" w i ld p l an t s /an i m a l sb ecame d ome s t ica t ed o rh uman b e ing ss t a r t e d t op r a c t ice d om e s t ica t ion . Whe r ea s s e a r ch ing f o rc au se so ft h ee me rgence o fa g r icu l tu r ew i l lb e f o cu s o fr e sea r ch f o r al o ng t ime , a r cha eo log is t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t s h ave s t a r t ed t oc onduc t f u l l s c a le i n ves t iga t ion si n to h um an b ehav io ri na s so c i a t ion w i th s oc ia lc hange si ns u ch c r i t ica lp e r iod . T h i ss t udy s t a r t sf r om t h i sp o in t , f o cu s ing o n o ne a s pec t o f s oc ia l c hange s : l i t h ic t e chno logy . I t a sk s : w ha t h appened t ot h e l i t h ic p rodu c t ion o fa p a r t icu la r s ma l l h un t ing -ga th e r ing g r oup s when t h ey a dop ted s eden t i sm a nd p r ac t iced d ome s t ica t i on? D id t h el i t h ic p rodu c t ion r ema in t h es ame o r w a s i tt r an sf o rmed i n to a n ew f o rm d u r ing t h e t r an s i t ion f r om h un t ing -ga th e r ing t of o od p roduc t i on , a nd h ow?

r e la ted t o s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion s i n s t i tu t iona l ized f o re me rgence o ff ood p rodu c t ion . T ha ti st os a y , w h i le c hange s i n l i t h ic p rodu c t ion d u r ing t h e t r an s i t ion t oa g r icu l tu r e i ss t i l l l i k e ly i n f luenced b y t e chn ique s , mob i l i ty , a nd r aw m a t e r ia l a va i l a b i l i ty , e t c . , o t he r f a c to r s s u ch a so rgan iza t ion o f p rodu c t ion ,c on t ro lo fr aw m a te r ia l s ,a nd n e two rk t r ade , h ave a l so t a ken i n to a c coun t s f o r e xp lana t i on s . T h i s b ook w i l l p r e sen t as im i la r s t udy I c onduc ted o ve r t h e l a s t d ecade , i n ve s t iga t ing c hange s i nl i t h ic p rodu c t ion d u r ing t h e t r an s i t ion t oa g r icu l tu re i nS ou thwe s te rn O n ta r io , C anada . I n 1 993 , a mu l t id isc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch p ro jec t a t t h e Un ive r s i ty o fT o ron to b egan i n ve s t iga t ing t h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e M idd le t oL a te Wood land i n s ou thwe s t e rn O n ta r io a nd t h e o r ig in s o fh o r t icu l t u re i n t h e N o r thea s t Wood land s o f N o r th Ame r ica .T he P r ince s sP o in tC omp lex ( A .D .5 00 1 , 000 ) o fs ou thwes te rn O n ta r io p rov ide s t h e p r i m a ry f o cu so ft h i sr e sea r ch . T od a te ,r e sea r ch h a s p rov ided n ew i n s igh t s i n to t h i s r e g iona l c u l tu r e c omp lex e ve r s i nce i t s f i r s t i d en t if ica t ion t wen ty y ea r s a go ( C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th 1 996 ; C r awf o rd e t a l . 1 997 , 1 998 ; S hen 1 995 , 2 000 , i n p r e s s ; Sm i th 1 997 ; Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 995 , 1 997 ) . D av id S t o the r s ( 1977 ) , w ho f i r s t s y s tema t ica l ly s t ud ied t h e c u l tu r e , o u t l ined a g ene ra l s c ena r io a dduc ing t h a tt h e se p eop le i n i t ia ted f ood p rodu c t i on , i n c lud ing t h e d ome s t ica t ion o f c o rn a nd o t he r c u l t igen s i nt h e r e g ion . A l though t h e t r a i t s o f t h is c u l tu ra l c omp lex h ave b een b r ief ly d esc r ibed b y Wr igh t ( 1972 :57 -58 ) , Ma son ( 1981 :319 -324 ) , a nd F agan ( 1991 :416 -417 ) , m any i s sue s c oncer n ing t h en a tu r e o ft h i sc u l tu r e s t i l l r ema in u nexp lo r ed . T he se i n c lude c h rono lo g y , s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s , s ub s i s tence , a nd c u l tu ra l i n te rac t ion .

Af ew o fr e cen ts t ud ie so nt h i st o p ic h ave d emon s t r a ted t h a t l i t h ic t e chno logy h ad u nde rgone d r a m a t ic c hange si na ccommoda t ion w i th as e r ie so f s o c ia l -cu l tu ra l c hange s d u e t o a dop t ion o f f ood p r odu c t ion b y h un te r -ga th e r s i n b o th O ld a nd N ew Wo r ld s ( Hen ry 1 989a ; O de l l 1 996a , 1 998 ; P a r ry 1 986 ; S t af f o rd 1 999 ; Y e rk e s 1 987 ) . I ti s c l ea rt h a tt h e se c hange st o ok p l ace i nv e ry d i f f e r e n tf o rm sa td i f f e ren tc u l tu r a lr e g ion s ,t h u si n ve s t i ga t ion s o f s u ch c hange s s hou ld h ave m e thod o l og ica l a nd t h eo r e t ic s i gn if ican ce . I na dd i t ion , t h e se s t ud ie s a l so i n d ica te t h a t l i t h ic p roduc t ion i n e a r ly f a rm ing s o c ie t ie s i ss omewha t c l o se ly

T o d a t e , t h e e a r l ie s t AMS r a d ioca rbon d a te o n 1

C hap te r1 ( 1 ) t o c harac ter ize t he p a t tern o f P r ince s s P o in t l i th ic p roduc t ion t h rough a d e ta i led l i th ic a na ly s i s ;

m a ize ( Z ea m ay s ) t h a t c ome s f r om a P r ince s s P o in t C omp lex s i te i n d ica te s t h a t as h if t t o a m ixed e conomy w i th h o r t icu l tu re , g a the r ing , h un t ing , a nd f i sh ing i n t h e L owe r G r ea t L ak e s r e g ion p robab ly o ccu r r ed e a r l ie r t h an p rev iou s ly t h ough t ( C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th 1 996 ; C rawf o rd e t a l . 1 997 ) . C u r r en tr e sea r ch o nt h e s e t t lemen tp a t t er no ft h i st r an s i t iona lM idd le t oL a te Wood land

( 2 ) t oe xam ine a nd e xp la in t he t r an sf orma t i on o f l i th ic p roduc t ion i n r e la t ion t o t he b eg inn ing o f f ood p roduc t ion i n t he s t udy r eg ion .

c u l tu r e a l so s ugge s t s t h a t t h e r e w a s as i gn if ican t c hange f r om s ho r t te rm t oy ea r -a round s e t t lem en t o rgan iza t ion i n t h e L owe r G rand B ank s R ive r , O n ta r io ( C rawf o rd e t a l . 1 998 ; Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 997 ) . A s ap a r t o ft h i s r e sea r ch p ro g ram , my s t udy h a s b een c oncen t ra ted o n l i t h ic t e chno logy o ft h e c u l tu ra l c omp lex i n q ue s t ion , p rov id ing n ew i n s igh t s i n to o u ru nde r s tand ing o f

C lea r ly ,t h es t udy o ft h eP r ince s sP o in tl i th ic a r t i f a c t s c an p rov ide p e r spec t ive s o n b o th m a te r ia l c u l tu r e s i nt h e c on tex t o ft h e o r ig in s o fa g r icu l t u r e a nd ar e g iona l m an if es ta t ion o fc hange s i n l i th ic t e chno logy d u r ing t h i s t r an s i t iona l p e r iod .

l i th ic p roduc t ion s y s tem d u r ing t h e t r an s i t ion t o a g r icu l tu r e i nO n ta r io .

I no rde rt op rope r ly i n te rp re t c u l tu ra l a ff i l ia t ion s f r om m a te r ia ld a ta , Ih ave a dop ted t h el i th ic t y po l o g ica l techno log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion s y s tem p u t f o rwa rd b yH en ry ( 1989a :79 -83 ) ,w h ich h a sb een

T he R e search O b jec t ive s

d eve loped a nd mod if ied f r om C la rke 's ( 1968 ) mode l o fc u l tu ra l c l a s s if ica t ion . T h r ee s c a le s o f d i ve r s i ty a nd c omp lex i ty i n l i t h ic t y po logy a nd

L i th ic a s semb lage s f r om P r ince s sP o in tC omp lex s i te sa r et h e s ub jec to ft h e s t udy . A l though i ta l so d ea l s w i th v a r iou s a spec t s o fh uman b ehav io r i n s o f a r a s t h ey a r e a s soc ia ted w i th f l ak ed s t one

t e chno logy c o r re spond t ot h e d i f f e r en t l e ve l s o f s o c ia l g roup s i nt e rm s o ft ime a nd s pace . T h ey a r e " comp lex ," " i ndu s t ry ," a nd " a s semb lage" ( s ee a l so C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 :73 -74 ) .

t o o ls , i ti sc en te r ed o n a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e P r ince s s P o in t l i t h ic p roduc t ion s y s tem . My p r i m a ry i n t e r e s t s a r e t h e p a t ter n s o fs t one t o o l p ro -

T he t e rm c omp lex a sd ef ined i nt h i ss t udy d eno te s t h e l a rge s t s c a le o f l i t h ic a gg r ega t ion s s ha r ing g ene r a l t y po techno log ica l c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s . T he se a r er e p r e sen ta t ive o f as o c ia l -cu l tu r a l s y s tem i na b road t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l r ange . T he t e rm i s

d uc t ion a nd t h e t r an sf o rma t ion o fl i th ic p roduc t i on c on cu r r en tw i th t h e i n t rodu c t ion o fh o r t icu l t u re i nt h er e g ion .

c ompa rab le t ot h e t e chno -comp lex a sd ef ined b y D av id C la rk e ( 1968 :357 ) , a nd t h u s r e p re sen t s a

T h i s s t udy h a s d esc r ip t ive a nd i n te rp r e ta t ive g oa l s . A t t h e d e sc r ip t ive l e ve l , i tc ha rac te r ize s l i t h ic p roduc t ion a tt h e P r inces s P o in t s i t e s c u r r en t ly u nde r i nve s t iga t ion . T o s y s tema t ica l ly e xp lo re t h e l i t h ic p roduc t ion p a t te rn , Ih ave d e s igned t h i s s t udy t oe xam ine f l aked s t one t o o l m anuf ac tu r e a nd u t i l iza t ion t h rough l i th ic t y po t e chno log ica l a nd u se -wea r a na ly ses . A t t h e i n te rp r e ta t ive l e ve l , t h e s t udy w i l l p rov ide a n e xp lana t ion o fc hange s i nl i t h ic t e chno logy d u r i n g t h e t r an s i t ion t o a g r icu l tu r e i n t h e s t udy r e g ion . A tt h i s l e ve l , a t temp t s a r e made t oe xam i n e ag en e ra l t r end o f t e chno log ica l c hange s i n

g ene r a l d ev e lopm en t o r a dap t ive s t age a ch ieved b y h uman b e ing s ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 :74 ) . T h et empo ra l a nd /o rs pa t ia le x ten to fa l i th ic c omp lex , e . g . , t h e P r inces s P o in t C omp lex , may e ncompa s s mo r et h an o ne l i t h ic i n du s t ry . An i n du s t ry i sd ef ined a sa ni n te rm ed ia te l e ve l o f l i th ic t y po log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l a ff in i ty , n o r ma l ly r e f e r r ing t oe n t i t ie s o fc u l tu ra l g roups i na r e la t ive ly s ma l le rr ange o ft ime -spa ce , f o re xam p l e , t h e G rand B ank s I ndu s t ry . L i th ic i n du s t r ie s w i th in a n i n du s t r ia l c omp lex s hou ld s ha re c om mon l i t h ic p roduc t ion s t ra teg ie s , a l though v a r i a b i l i ty i se xpec t ed t oe x i s t .

l i t h ic p rodu c t ion f r om mob i le h un te r -ga the r e r st o s eden ta ry f a rme r s . T he t h eo r e t ica l f r amewo rk u sed i nt h i s s t udy i so u t l ined i nt h e n ex t s e c t ion . T h e s pec if i c o b jec t ive so ft h i s s t udy a r e , i nb r ief :

A tt h es ma l le s ts c a le o fl i t h ic a r t if ac ta gg r ega t ion , a n a s semb lag e r e f e r s t o t h e p roduc t s o f as t on e 2

I n t roduc t ion

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C hap ter 1 t o o lp rodu c t ion s y s tem t h a tr ema in sw i th in as i n g l e a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t . T h i s i s ac l u s te r o f

E l l i s a nd F e r r i s 1 990 ) . R ecen t ly F ox ( 1990 ) r e v i sed S t o the r s ' s yn thes i s o f P r inces s P o in t t o i n teg ra te n ew a r chaeo log ica l d i scove r ies i n On ta r io ( e .g . , MacDona ld 1 986a , 1 986b ; T imm in s 1 985 ) ,a nd r ef ined t h es c ope o fP r ince s s P o in t b o th s pa t ia l ly a nd t empo r a l ly . Two o ft h e t h r ee r e g iona lf o c io ft h eP r ince s sP o in tC omp lex , P o in t P e lee a nd A u sab le , a s d ef ined b y S t o the r s , a r e r e a s s igned t ot h e n ew ly n am ed t h e We s ter n B a s in T rad i t ion ( Mu rphy a nd F e r r i s 1 990 ) . A cco rd ing t oF ox ( 1990 )t h e P r in ce s sP o in tc om p l ex i sc onf ined t ot h e l owe rv a l ley o ft h e G r and R ive r ( S to th e r s ' G rand R ive r f o cu s ) . F ox a nd o t he r r e sea r che r s a l so a r gue t h a t w ha t S t o the r s r e f e r st oa st h el a te p ha se o ft h ec u l tu re s hou ld b e e xc luded g i ven t h e e v idence f r om t h e P o r t eou s v i l lage s i t en ea rB ran tf o rd wh ich i sn ow t a k en a s

a r t if ac t st h a t s ha r e d i s t inc t ive l o ca l t e chno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l a t t r ibu t e s , a nd r e p re sen t s ap a r t i cu la r c u l tu ra l o ccupa t ion a t as pec if ic t im e a nd l o ca l i ty : e . g . , t h e G rand B ank s a s semb lage , t h e Y oung 1 a s semb lage , o r t h e L one P ine a s sem b l age . T h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l l im i t s o f t h i s s t udy s hou ld b en o t ed h e re .T he s t ud yr eg ion ,i ni t sn a r r owe s t s en se , i st h eL ower G rand R ive r V a l ley o f S ou thwe s te rn O n ta r io . H oweve r , t h e c u l tu ra l i n f e rence s Im ake may a pp ly t o ab road e rr e g ion . T h i s i n c lud e st h en o r thea s t er ns ho r eo fL ak eE r ie f r om L ong P o in tt ot h eN iaga ra P en in su la ,a nd t o t h eC r ed i tR ive rV a l ley a tt h ew e s te rn e nd o fL ake O n ta r io ( F ig . 1 . 1) . T empo ra l ly , t h e s t udy i n ve s t i g a te s t h e p e r iod f r om A .D . 5 00 t o A .D . 1 , 000 . T h i si st h et r an s i t iona lp e r iod b e tween t h eM idd le a nd L a te Wood land o f N o r th Ame r ica , d u r ing

am an if e s ta t ion o f t h e e a r ly G len Mey e r s t age ( Nob le a nd K enyon 1 972 ) . T hey s ugge s t i n s tead t h a t P r ince s s P o in t e nd ed a tc a . 1 , 050 B P ( A .D . 9 00 ) , r a the rt h an a t 100 B P .

w h ich w e s e e t h e e me rgence o ff ood p roduc t ion i ns ou thwe s ter nO n ta r io .

D u r ing t h e 1 980 s a nd e a r ly 1 990 s , s a lvag e e xca v a t ion s i nt h e r e g ion y i e lded n ea r ly 8 0 P r in ce s s P o in t s i te s i nt h e L owe r G rand R ive r V a l ley a nd i t si mmed ia te s u r round ing s . H oweve r ,u n t i l as y s t ema t ic i n ve s t iga t ion b egan i n 1 993 , t h e r e w a s s t i l l l i t t le c oncen t ra ted r e sea rch o n t h is c u l tu ra l u n i t ( Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 993 , 1 994 , 1 995 , 1 997 ; C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th 1 996 ; C rawf o rd e ta l . 1 997 , 1 998 ) .

S tudy o ft he P r ince s s P o in t C omp lex T h e s t udy o f t h e P r ince s s P o in t C omp lex o f O n ta r io w a s i n i t ia ted b y D av id S t o the r s ( 1970 , 1 97 1 , 1 973 , 1 974a , 1 974b , 1 976 , 1 977 ) ,b a sed o n h i s e x ten s ive s u rvey a nd t e s t e xcava t ion s i nt h e L owe rG rand R ive rV a l ley d u r ing t h e l a te r 1 960 s a nd e a r ly 1 970 s . O ne o fh i sc on t r ibu t ion sw a st h e d i scove ry o f m a ize ( Z ea m ay s ) i n e a r ly L a te Wood land d epo s i t s , p o in t ing t ot h e e a r ly d eve l -

I ti sa ppa r en t t h a t as o c ioeconom ic t r an sf o rma t i on t o ok p l ace d u r ing t h e P r ince s s P o in t p e r iod . I ns ou the rn O n ta r io ,t h ee a r ly L a t e Wood land c u l t u ra l c omp lexe s s u ch a s P ick e r ing a nd G len Meye r , Y oung P ha se o ft h e E a r ly We s te rn B a s in T rad i t ion , a nd S andu sky , w e re c l ea r ly d emon s t ra t ed t ob e d i s t ingu i shab le i nb o th p hy s ica l a nd s oc ia l c on tex t s f r om M idd le Wood land c u l tu r e s s uch a s P o in t P en in su la , S augeen , C ou tu re , a nd t h e We s ter n B a s in M idd le Wood land ( E l l i s a nd F e r r i s 1 990 ; Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 993 ) . T he se c hange s a r e i n d ica t ed b y : ( a ) a n i n t roduc t ion o f

o pmen t o f h or t icu l tu r e i n t h e s t udy r eg ion . S to the r s u t i l ized c e ram ic s e r ia t ion t o d e te rm ine t h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l e x ten t o f t h i s c u l tu ra l u n i t . T h i s c u l tu r e c omp lex , a s h e d ef ined i t , i s c ha rac te r ized b y i t s d i s t inc t ive c o rd -ma rked p o t t e ry w i th i n ter na l b o s se s a nd c i r cu la r e x te r io r p unc ta te s a nd " Levanna" t y pe t r iangu la r p ro jec t i l ep o in t s .

h o r t icu l tu r e ; ( b )t h ea ppea rance o fl o nghou s ev i l l a ge s e t t lemen t s ; ( c ) a n i n c rea se i n p opu la t ion

T he r e cogn i t ion o ft h i sc u l tu r em a rk ed ad eve lop m en ta l p ha se i n t h e p r eh i s to ry o f s ou thwe s ter n O n ta r io : t h e i n i t ia l p e r iod o ft h e L a te Wood land o rt h e " t ran s i t iona l p e r iod" b e tween M idd le a nd L a te Wood land t r ad i t ion s ( e .g . , T r igge r 1 985 ;

d en s i ty ; a nd ( d ) g r ea te r c omp lex i ty i n s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion . D e sp i te t h e se c l ea r a nd i mpo r tan t c hange s ,l i t t le i n t en s ive r e sea r ch h a sb een c a r r ied o u t o n t h e c u l tu r e s o ft h e " t ran s i t iona l s t age" i n O n ta r io a nd N ew Y o rk ( e .g . , R iv ie r e a u V a se , 4

I n t roduc t ion S andbank s , H un te r ' s H om e , a nd P r ince s s P o in t ) , w h ich r ema in p oo r ly u nde r s tood .

a nd m o i s te r l i v ing c ond i t ion s . T h i s a l lowed p eo p l et os u cce s sf u l ly g row t h ec or nw h ich h ad b een b r ough tf r om f u r the rs ou th .

S econdary O r ig in s o fA gr icu l ture F o rp r e s en tp u rpo se s ,t h et e rm " ag r icu l tu re" u sed i nt h i ss t udy r e f e r sg ene ra l ly t o am ixed e conomy w i th t h e p roduc t ion o fd om e s t ica t ed c r op s s uch a s m a iz e , b ean ( Pha seo lu s v u lgar i s ) , c ucu rb i t ( Cucurb i ta p epo ) , s un f lowe r( H e l ian thu s a nnuu s v a r . m ac r ocarpa ) a nd t o ba cco ( N ico t iana r u s t i c a ) , c omb ined w i th h un t ing , g a the r ing , a nd f i sh i ng . T h es h if tt ot h i sm ixed e conomy i st r ad i t ion a l ly r e g a rded a s b e ing c omp le ted i n t h e s t udy r eg ion a bou t A .D . 1 , 100 . S t o the r s ( 1977 ) s ug g e s t st h a tc or nw a si n t roduced t ot h eL owe rG r ea t L ak e s r e g ion b ef o r e A .D . 8 00 ( s ee a l so S to the r s a nd Y ar n e l l 1 977 ) , b u t t h i s h ypo the s i s w a s n o t c onf i rm ed u n t i l t h e n ew d a te s o n c or n f r om t h e G rand B ank s s i te c am et ob ea va i lab le ( C rawf o rd e ta l . 1 9 97 ) . T he n ew AMS r a d ioca rbon d a te s o n c or n s u gge s t s t h a t i n t rodu c t ion o f f ood p roduc t i on c ou ld h ave o ccu r r ed i ns ou thwe s te rn O n ta r io a se a r ly a sA .D . 50 .

T h i s c l ima t ic a m e l io ra t ion mode l f o r t h e o r ig in s o f a g r icu l tu r e i n O n ta r io w a s s uppo r t ed , i n t h e 1 970 s , b y t wo l i ne s o f e v idence . F i r s t ly , t h e H opewe l l c u l tu r e r e l ied u pon c o rn a s i t s s ubs i s t e n ce b a se . T he u se o ft h i s p roduc t ive r e sou r ce w a s t h ough t t o h ave r e su l ted i n t h e g row th o f l o ca l ized p opu la t ion s a nd e ven tua l ly i n t h e d em i se o f t h e H opewe l l ian I n te rac t ion S phe r e ( S to the r s 1 977 ) . S econd ly , t h e l a ck o fe v idence f o r c u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty b e tween t h e s ou ther n O n ta r io M idd le Wood land a nd P r in ce s s P o in t s ugge s ted t h a ts ou ther nO n ta r io was c o lon ized b y c orn -ba sed h o r t icu l tu r is t s f r om e l sewhe re ( S to th e r s 1 977 ; S to the r s a nd Y a rne l l 1 977 ) . T h i s mode l , h oweve r , i si nl a rge p a r t r e f u ted b y r e cen t r e sea r ch o n p l an t d ome s t ica t ion i n t h e E a s ter n Wood land s ( F r i tz 1 990 ; C rawf o rd 1 999 ; C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th 1 997 ; Sm i th 1 989 ) . I th a s b een r e cogn ized t h a t M idd le Wood land p l an t h u sband ry i nt h eM idwe s tw a sn o tb a sed o nc or n . Wyme r( 1987 )p rov ided ac a se s t udy f r om s ou th er n O h io , w he r e e a r ly L a te Wood land c u l t igen a s semb lage s a r e q ua l i ta t ive ly i n d i s t ingu i shab le f r om t h e M idd le Wood land a s semb lage s ( i nc lud i n g t h e a b sence o f m a ize ) . Mu l le r ( 1987 ) , i n a t temp t ing t o e xp la in c u l tu ra l c hange s i n t h e L owe rO h io V a l ley , s ugge s ted t h a tc o rn w a sn o ta p r im e move r , a nd p ropo sed t h a t t h e n ew t e ch n o log ie s u sed t oa dap t t on ew r e sou r ce p rocu r e m en t s t ra teg ie s l e s sened t h e i n te rd ependen ce o f M idd le Wood land p eop le s . T h i s , i nt u rn , l e d t o c hanged s e t t lemen t s w h ich f a c i l i ta t ed p opu la t ion g row th . C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th ( C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th 1 997 ; Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 997 ) , i nf a vo r o f amu l t if a c to r ia l a pp roa ch , s ugge s t i n co rpo ra t i n g r e sea r ch i n to d emog r aphy , s eden t i sm , a nd c ompe t i t ion /coope ra t ion i nt h e s t udy o fa g r icu l t u ra l o r ig in s i n t h e L owe r G rand R ive r V a l ley . F o l low ing Mu l le r ' s mode l , t h ey c on s ide rt h a tt h e

I nr e cen ty ea r s ,t h e re h a sb een ag row ing n umbe r o fi n v e s t iga t ion s o ft h e o r ig in s o fa g r icu l tu re i n e a s t er nN o r th Ame r ica ( F r i tz 1 990 ; Wa t son 1 985 , 1 989 ; S ca r ry 1 993 ; Sm i th 1 987 , 1 989 , 1 992 , 1 993 , 1 995 ) . T h e se s t ud ie sp o in tt oa r ea s s u ch a s t h e M idwes t a nd S ou th ea s tU .S . a sb e ing c en te r s o f i n d igenou s o r p r ima ry d omes t ica t ion . H oweve r , d ome s t ica t ion i n t h e No r thea s te rn Wood land s ( i n c lud ing s ou th er n O n ta r io , c en t ra l a nd s o u the r nN ew Y o rk , P enn sy lvan ia , a nd N ew E ng land ) i s s t i l l c on s id e r ed t o h ave b een t h e r e su l to f" seconda ry o r ig in s" ( Cowan a nd Wa t son 1 993 ;C rawf o rd 1 999 ; C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th 1 997 ; Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 997 ) . T hu s , t r an s i t ion t o a g r i cu l tu re i nO n ta r io o ccu r r ed t h rough d i f f u s ion o rm ig ra t ion , o rb o th . I n co rpo ra ted i n to h i s s t udy o ft h e P r ince s s P o in t C omp lex i nt h e 1 970 s ,S to th e r sp ropo sed an o r th w a rd m ig ra t ion mode l t oa c coun t f o r t h e s p r ead o fa g r icu l tu r ei nO n ta r io ( S to th e r s 1 977 ; S t o the r s a nd Y ar n e l l 1 977 ) . T h is mode l s ugge s ted t h a t P r in ce s s P o in t p eop le c ame f r om s omewhe r e s ou th o rs ou thwe s to fO n ta r io ( Oh io ,I l ino i s , a nd I n d iana ) , a nd t h a t t h ey w e r e c u l tu ra l ly l i nked t o t h eH opewe l l ian c u l tu r e . C l ima t ic c hange s i nt h e m id second m i l lenn ium B .P . r e su l t ed i nw a rme r

i n c r ea sed l o ca l iza t ion o fp opu la t ion sa nd t h e c o r r e spond ing ly i n c r ea sed p r e s su r e o n l o ca l ized w i ld r e sou r ce sh ave ag r ea tp o ten t ia lt ol e ad t ot h e d eve lopmen t a nd i n ten s if ica t ion o fh o r t icu l tu r e . C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th f u r the rh ypo the s ize t h a t t h e P r in ce s s P o in tC omp lex m ay r e p r e sen tt h e l o ca l i z a t ion p ha se ,s e t t ing t h es t age f o rt h ea dop t ion o f 5

C hap te r1 f a c to r s a f f ec t ing t h e se c hange s a nd f u r th e rs t udy n eed st ob ec onduc ted .

c o rn h o r t icu l tu r e ( C rawf o rd e ta l . 1 997 ; Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 997 ; C rawf o rd e t a l . 1 998 ; B owye r 1 995 ) .

A s f a r a s m e thod s o f l i th ic a n a ly s is a r e c on c er n ed ,t h e r ea r et wo r e sea r ch p r ob lem s .F i r s t ,t h e l i t h ic c l a s s if i ca t ion c u r r en t ly u s ed f o rt h es t udy o f M idd le -La te Wood land l i th ic a s semb lage s f r om S ou ther nO n ta r io i sc onf u s ing .G iven t h ef a c tt h a t p r ev iou s s t ud ie s o f l i t h ic a r t if a c t s h ave e mpha s i zed t h e m o rpho logy o f " d iagno s t ic" a r t if a c t s , l i t h ic c l a s s if i ca t ion h a s b een p e r f o rmed t oa i d i n t h e d esc r ip t ion s o f s haped t oo ls . S ome r e sea r che r sh ave s u cce s sfu l ly e s t ab l i shed " t ype s" f o r P a leo Ind ian a nd A rcha ic l i t h ic i n du s t r ie s ( e .g . ,L ennox 1 986 ; E l l i sa nd D e l le r 1 988 ; D e l le r a nd E l l i s 1 992 ) . H oweve r ,d u r ing t h eM idd le a nd L a t e Wood land , t h e r ew a s ar e cogn ized d ec r ea se i nt h e n umbe ro fb i f ac ia l t o o l s a nd o t he r f o rma l t o o l s a nd a n i n c r ea se i n f l ak e t o o l s . T hu s , t h e t e rm " u t i l ized f l ake s" i sp oo r ly d e f ined , a nd y e t s t i l l c ommon ly u sed i n c l a s s if i ca t ion s y s t em s . T h i s o f ten r e f e r st o" i nf o rma l t o o l" c a tego r ie s . I t i so bv iou st h a tt h eu se o ft h is t e rm i na r chaeo log i c a l r e po r t si st oa i di nf unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion s . Ia r gue t h a td ef in ing a nd u s ing t h et e rm " u t i l iz ed f l ake s" a s ad e s igna ted t o o l t y pe o f ten r e su l t s i n m isu se o f l i th ic c l a ss if ica t ion . Y oung a nd B amf o r th ( 1 990 ) h ave p r esen ted e xpe r im en ta l d a ta t ou nde r sco r e t h is p o in t , a nd t h e se w o rk s i s a l so s uppo r t ed b y my o wn e xpe r im en ta la nd u s e w ea ra na ly t ica ld a ta . Ad e ta i led d i s cu s s ion o ft h i s c r i t ic i sm w i l lb ep r e sen ted i nC hap t e r3 .

L i th ic S tudy P r ev iou s s t ud ie s o fP r ince s s P o in t l i t h ic a s sem b l ages h ave b een r e s t r ic ted t o c a tego r ized d e sc r ip t ion s . T he se a r em o s t ly f ound i nS t o the r s ' d i s se r ta t ion ( 1 977 ) , b u ta r e a l so s c a t te r ed a mong o t he rr e po r t so fa r chaeo log ica l s u rvey sa nd e xca v a t ion s ( e .g . , T imm in s 1 992a ; P a rk e r 1 994 ) . F rom 1 0 a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s o r ig ina l ly a s s igned t ot h e P r ince s s P o in t C omp lex , S t o the r s ( 1 977 ) p rov ided 9 t y pe s o ft o o l s f r om t h e f l ak ed s t one a r t if ac t s ,i na dd i t ion t oc o r e sa nd " ch ipp ing d e t r i t u s ." H e m en t ioned t h a t t h e p r edom inan t t o o l t y pe sa r et r i angu la rp ro jec t i le p o in t sa nd s c rape r s . O the r t y pe s s u ch a s d r i l l s a nd g r ave r s a ppea r ed i n f r equen t ly . Mo re r e cen t ly r e sea r che r s h ave n o t ed t h a t" i nf o rma l" t o o l sa r e as i gn if ican tc om p onen t o f P r ince s s P o in t l i th ic a s semb lage s ( T imm in s 1 992a ; P a rk e r 1 994 ; Mu rphy n . d . ; L ennox a nd Mo r r i son n . d . ) . F ox ( 1 990 :175 )s um m a r ized t h e P r ince s s P o in t l i t h ic a s semb lage s a s c on s t i tu t ing a " l im i t ed r a nge o f b i f a c ia l c he r t t o o l s a nd av a r ie ty o fc u t t ing a nd s c rap ing t o o l s p roduced o n f l ake s ." H oweve r , n o d e ta i led a na ly s i s o f l i t h ic a r t if a c t s f r om a ny r e po r ted P r ince s sP o in ts i te h a sb een c onduc t ed .T h ep r e s e n tu nd e r s tand ing o fP r ince s sP o in tl i t h ic p roduc t i on b yl o ca l a r chaeo log i s t sh a sb een c onf ined t o s t a t emen t s a bou t : ( 1 ) t h e u se o fO nondaga c he r t f ound a l ong t h en o r th s ho r eo fL ake E r ie ;a nd ( 2 ) t h e p r e sen ce o ft h in a nd f i ne ly f l aked t r i angu la r p ro jec t i le p o in t s k nown a s L evanna p o in t s ( Bu r sey 1 995 :47 ) .T he f a c tt h a ts ma l l s ized t r ian g u la r p o in t s r e p la ced t h e n o tched p o in t s w h ich p r edom ina ted d u r ing t h is p e r iod h a sb een c on s id e r ed a s ar e su l to ft e chno log ica l c hange f r om t h e s p ea r -and -da r t t ob ow -and -a r row i nn o r thea s te rn N o r th Ame r ica ( B l i tz 1 988 ; C h r is ten son 1 986 ; H a l l 1 980 ; K e l ly e ta l . 1 984 ; Mo r se a nd Mo r se 1 990 ; S ho t t 1 993 ) .

S econd , t h e r e i s al a ck o fu nde r s tand ing o fs t on e t o o lu se i nt h i sc r uc ia lp e r iod . T od a t e ,t h e r ee x i s t n o p ub l ica t ion s o f l i t h ic a na ly s i s o f Wood land m a t e r ia l s f r om s ou th e rn O n ta r io i nw h ich f u n c t i ona l i n te rp r e ta t ion s a r e m ade o n t h e b a s i s o f d e ta i led u se -wea ra na ly s i s * . S ome l i t h ic a na ly s t s c on t inue t o d oub t t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f u se -wea r a na ly s i s , a nd a dvoca te t h e c onven t iona l u se o f mo rpho log ica l f o rm st oi n f o rm t h ee va lua t ion o f t o o l u se i mp l ica t ion s ( e .g . , E l l i s a nd D e l le r 1 988 :123 ) . H ow eve r , i nt h e l a s t d e cade , p ra c t i t i one r s o fu se -wea r a na ly s i s h ave d emon s t ra t ed c onf iden ce i nt h i sa na ly t ic m e thod ,a nd h ave s u c c e s sf u l ly a pp l ied t h i s m e thod t o a r chaeo log ica l

S ho r t ly a f t e rA .D . 5 00 ad r ama t i c c hang e i nl i t h i c t e chno logy o f t h e E a s ter n Wood land s f r om s t anda rd ized t o u nf o rma l ized c o re r e duc t ion o ccu r red ( J ohn son a nd Mo r row 1 987 ; J e ske 1 992 ) .U nf o r tuna te ly , as im i la rc hange h a sn o ty e t b een f u l ly d ocumen ted i ns ou thwe s te rn O n ta r io . Wha teve r t h e c a se , w e a r e a l so u nce r ta in a s t o

*S ome u se -wea r r e sea r ch o n O n ta r io P a leo Ind ian l i t h i c i n du s t r ie s h a s b een c onduc ted b y D r . J .T om en chuk ( p e r s . c omm . ) .

6

I n t roduc t ion l i th ic m a te r ia l mod if i ca t ion h a s l o ng b een o f i n te r e s t t o a r chaeo log i s t s . R ecen t ly , t h e c oncep t o fl i th ic t e chno log ica lo r gan iza t ion h a sb een e l ab o r a ted b yr e sea r ch e r su s ing e x ten s ive a r chaeo log i c a l r e co rd s ( J ohn son a nd Mo r row 1 987 ; N e l son 1 99 1 ; C a r r 1 994 ) . T h i s a pp roach p rov ide s a f r am ewo rk f o r i n qu i r ing i n to t h e v a r iab i l i ty o f p r eh i s to r ic s t one t o o l sa nd s t ra teg ie so fm anuf a c -

r e sea r ch i n a l p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld ( Tom enchuk 1 985 ; S h ea 1 9 87 , 1 99 1 ; G ra ce 1 989 , 1 990 ; O de l l 1 996a , R ou s s eau 1 992 ; L ewen s t e in 1 987 ; J en sen 1 994 ; S i eve r t 1 992 ;U nge r -Ham i l ton 1 988 , 1 989 ; L ev i -Sa la 1 996 ) . G iven t h e se s p ec if ic p rob lem si np r ev iou ss t ud ie s o f l i th ic a r t if ac t s f r om t h e r e g ion , t h i s r e sea r ch w i l l i n teg ra t e b o th t y po techno log ica l a nd u se w ea r a n a ly s i s . W i th in a s p e c if ied t h eo r e t ica l f r amewo rk , t h is s t udy w i l l f o cu s o n t h e l i t h ic p roduc t ion s y s tem - ac ha in -of re la t ion sh ip st h a t i sc on s t i tu t ed b yh uman i n vo lv em en ti ns t on et o o l m anuf a c tu r ing a nd u t i l iza t ion .

t u r ing , u s ing , t r an spo r t ing , a nd d i sca rd ing t o o l s a nd t h e ma te r ia l s n eeded f o r t h e i r m anuf ac tu r e a nd m a in tenance ( Ne l son 1 99 1 :57 ) . T he o rgan i z a t ion o fl i th ic t e chno logy i n ve s t iga t e st h e c o r r e l a t ion b e tween h uman u se s o f s t on e t o o l s a nd t h e i r p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t s ( e .g . , r e sou r ce s ) . A l though t h i s a pp roa ch i s a l so d e s igned f o r e xp lo r ing e conom ic a nd s o c ia l v a r iab le s i n f lu e nc ing s t one t o o l -u se , mo s t c a se s t ud ie s i nb o th J ohn son a nd Mo r row ' s ( 1987 ) a nd C a r r ' s ( 1 994 ) v o lum e sh ave g i ven ag r ea td ea lo fw e igh tt ov a r i a b le s s u ch a s mob i l i ty a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma te r ia ls . F o r e xamp le , a cco rd ing t o K e l ly ( 1988 :7 17 , a l so s e e 1 992 ) , i ts e em st h a t " mob i l i t yp l ay s al a rge p a r ti nd e te rm in ing t h e o rgan iza t i on o fh un te r -ga the re r l i t h ic t e chno logy ." Wh i le s ome a r gue t h a t d i f f e r en t s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ie s ( mob i le v s . s eden ta ry )h ave t h e g r ea te s te f f ec to n t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion ( e .g . , P a r ry a nd K e l ly 1 987 ) , o t he r s e mpha s ize t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw m a te r ia l s i n d e te rm in ing t h e s t ra teg ie s o f s t on e t oo l -u se ( And ref sky 1 994 ; B amf o r th 1 986 ) . H oweve r , a s T o r r ence p o in ted o u t ( 1994 ) , a r edu c t ion i ns e t t lemen t mob i l i ty i sn o tn ece s sa r i l y ar e a son f o r ah i gh l e ve l o fc ompe t i t ion o ve r l o ca lr e sou r ce s , a nd amo r el i k e ly r e a son f o rs u ch

T he L i th i cP roduc t ion S y s tem :A T heore t i ca l C ons idera t ion L i th ic p roduc t ion , a cco rd ing t o E r ic son ( 1 982 , 1 984 ) , i sd ef ined a s ap roce s s o fl i t h ic m a te r ia l mod if i ca t ion w i th t h e i n t en t t of orm a nd u s e a p a r t icu la ro b jec t . I ti sa s sum ed t h a tt h e m anuf a c t u r e a nd u t i l iza t ion o fs t on e t o o l s i n as oc ia l s y s t em i sc l o se ly l i nk ed t ot h e i n ve s tmen to fh uman e ne rgy i n vo lved i np rodu c t ion a nd d ec i s ion -mak i n g ( E r ic son 1 984 :3 ) . T h e b a s i s o ft h e s t udy o f l i th ic p r oduc t ion i st o e mpha s ize t h e p a t te rn s a nd /o rp r oce s se s o f l i th ic m a te r ia l mod i f ica t ion w i th in ag i ven s o c ie ty . T h e l i t h ic p roduc t ion m ay b ep a t t e rn ed b yt h ew ay h um an sp l ace p rodu c t ion w i th in c on s t ra in t s o fb o th t h e p hy s ica l e nv i ron m en t a nd s oc ia l r e la t ion s . T hu s , al i t h ic p roduc t i on s y s t em r ef lec t s ac ha in -of r e la t ion s o fp ro -

c ompe t i t ion i s as h if ti nt h en a tu r eo ff ood -ge t t ing a nd /o r i n t e r r i to r ia l i ty a nd t h e o wne r sh ip o f r e sou r ce s . T h i s c l ea r ly i mp l ie s t h a t t h e s t udy o f l i t h ic p roduc t ion s hou ld c on s ide r c on s t ra in t s o f s oc ia lr e la t ion s .

d uc t ion w h ich i n vo lve s : r aw m a t e r ia l p rocu r e men t i nr e la t ion t oa cce s s t oa nd /o r e xchange o f r e sou r ce s a nd p roduc t s ; m anuf a c tu r e a nd u se o f l i t h ic p r oduc t s i n r e la t ion t o l i f eway s t ra teg ie s ; s ub s i s t en ce a nd s oc ia l a c t iv i t ie s a s soc ia ted w i th t o o l u t i l iza t ion a nd m a in tenance s u ch a ss p ec ia l i z a t ion a nd l a bo ra l loca t ion ; a nd s o c ia l o rgan iza t i on sr e f lec ted b y s pa t ia l p a t ter n ing o fl i th ic p ro d uc t ion ,e xchange o rt r ade o fl i t h ic p roduc t s ,e t c . . A n u nd e r s tand ing o fl i t h i c p rodu c t ion o rgan iza t i on , t h rough s t ud ie s o f s t on e t o o l m anuf a c tu re a nd u t i l iza t ion , i sk ey t o t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f s oc ia l o r gan iza t ion i n ad ynam ic s o c ie ty .

T he c oncep to ft h eo rgan iza t ion o fl i t h ic t e chno l o gy p rov ide s ag r ea td ea l o fp o t en t ia l f o rp rob ing p a s tb ehav io ri nr e la t ion t os t one t o o l s . H owev e r , i t s a pp l ica t ion sa tp r e sen ta r e f a rf r om s a t i sf a c to r y . O ne o fi t s w eakne s ses , i n my o p in ion , i st h e o ve r -empha s i s o n e x ter n a l f a c to r s a sr e a son s f o r c hange s i nl i t h ic t e chno logy . A s y e t , l i t t le a t t en t i on h a s b een p a id t o i n ter n a l f a c to r s s uch a s h uman d ec i s ion s , l a bo r i n ten s if ica t ion , p roduc t i ve o rgan iza t ion , o ro wne r sh ip . H uman a dap t ive s t ra teg ie si np r eh i s to ry e mpha s ized s u rv iva l( e .g . ,

I ts hou ld b en o ted t h a tt h es t udy o ft h ep roce s so f 7

C hap ter I o b t a in ing ' l uxu ry ' g ood s , s u ch a sf i n e s t on e s , p i gmen t so rs h e l l s . . . I n t e r commun i ty e x ch ang e i s p r obab ly m o r es i gn if i can ti nt h i sr e sp e c t .I ti sl e s si m po r t a n t i nv e ry u n if o rm e co log i ca l a r ea s w h e r e e v e ryon ew i l lt e nd t op r odu c et h es am er a ng eo f f o od , a nd m o r e i mpo r t an t w h e r e t h e t e r r a in i s d i v e r s if i ed a nd t h e r ei sav a r i e ty o ff a rm ing s y s t em s a s soc ia t ed w i th v a r iou sc r op s o ra n im a l s . S pec ia l i sa t ion w i l l e n cou r ag e e x chang e . . . Wh e r es u ch e x chang e sa r ec o n t r o l l ed b yp a r t i c u l a rm emb e r s o ft h e c ommun i ty , t h e i rp r e s t ig e a nd p owe r w i l l b e c on s id e r ab ly e nhan ced ( Bend e r1 9 75 :8 -9 ) .

J och im 1 981) ; c hange s i ns ub s i s tence m ay h ave b een c ond i t ioned b y e x te rna l f a c to r s , b u t d e te r m in ed b y i n ter n a l f a c to r s . C u l tu ra l c hange mu s t b ed e term in ed b yt h er e la t ion sh ip so fe x ter na la nd i n t er n a l f a c to r s , a nd s u ch c hange s r e p re sen t t h e b a lan c ing o fp hy s ica l a nd s oc ia l c on s t ra in t s . I n t h e e xamp le o ft h e t r an s i t ion t of ood p roduc t ion , a n a l t er n a t ive v i ew i st h a t c hange i n t h e s o c ia l r e la t ion s o f p roduc t ion a f ec ted h ow f ood w a s p roduced , a nd f ood p rodu c t ion i nt u rn p rov id ed a ne conom ic b a se f o rb u i ld ing an ew s o c ia l s t ruc t u re ( e .g . , B ende r 1 975 , 1 978 , 1 981) . R ecen t s t ud ie s o ft h e p o l i t ica l -econom ic s y s t em i n s ma l l s c a le s o c ie t ie s , u s ing e t hno log ica l a nd

H e r e , B ende r c on s ide red s e ve r a l v a r iab le s o f s o c ia l r e la t ion s i n e a r ly f a rm ing s oc ie t ie s : t h e o rgan iza t ion o f p roduc t ion , s u rp lu s a ccumu la t i on , s pe c ia l iza t ion , a nd i n te r -commun i ty e xchange s .T ot h i sl i s t , Iwou ld a dd r i tua la c t iv i ty i n ag i ven s o c ie ty a s a n i mpo r tan t e l em en t o f s o c ia l r e la t ion s . I n h i s r e cen t p ape r s , H ayden ( 1 990 , 1 992 ) h a s a r gued s pec if i ca l ly t h a ti ti st h e c ompe t i t ive a nd f e a s t ing a spec t s o f B ig Man r i va l ry t h a t a r e t h e d r iv ing f o r ce s b eh ind f ood p roduc t ion . R i tua lp e r f o rmance w ou ld a l so l i k e ly i n c r ea se t h e p r e s t ige a nd p ow e r o fc e r ta in c om mun i ty m embe r s . S oc ia lr e la t ion sb e tween p eop le

a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , h ave y i e lded n ew i n s igh t s c once rn ing t h e e me rgence o f s oc ia l i n equa l i ty i nt h e c on tex t o fa g r icu l tu ra l i n t en s if i c a t ion ( p ape r s i n U pham 1 990 a nd P r ice a nd F e inman 1 995 ; U pham 1 983 ; G reen a nd S a s saman 1 983 ) . N o tab ly , l i th ic s t ud ie s w i th in s u ch t h eo r e t ica l f r amewo rk s a l so a t temp t t o e xp l ica te s oc ia l c omp lex i ty ( J ohn son 1 996 ; N a s san ey 1 992 , 1 996 ; R o sen 1 996 ; Y e rk e s 1 989 ; Ar no ld 1 987 , 1 993 ) . T he f undamen ta l d if e r en t i a t ion b e tween h un te r -ga the r e r s o c ie t ie s a nd a g r i c u l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s l i e s i n c en t ra l ized c on t ro l o ve r r e sou r ce s i nt h e l a t te r ( Bende r 1 975 ; Wo lf 1 982 ) .O ne o ft h ec on sequence so ft h ee me rgen ce o f f o od p roduc t ion i n h uman s oc ia l l i f e w a s a mod if ica t ion i n t h e s t ruc tu r e o f s oc ie ty ( e .g . , B ende r 1 975 , P r ice a nd G ebaue r 1 995 ) . A s B ende r( 1 975 ) h a sp o in ted o u t :

a nd w i th in s o c ie t ie s a r e b a sed o n , a mong o t he r t h ing s ,r e sou rce c on t ro l ,o wne r sh ip ,a nd t h ev a lue a s c r ibed t om a t e r ia ls . T h e r ef o r e , t h e r e con s t ru c t ion o ft h e o rgan iza t ion o f l i t h ic p roduc t ion i n f ood p rodu c ing s o c ie t ie s s hou ld p rov ide s ome i n s igh t c on cer n ing s o c ia l s t ru c tu re s . T h i s i sn o tt os ay t h a tt h e s t udy o ft h e l i t h ic p roduc t ion s y s tem c an s o lve a l t h e p rob l em s i nt h e q ue s t t ou nde r s tand s o c ia l r e la t ion s . A s ama t te ro ff a c t ,d i scu s s ion so fs o c ia lv a r iab le s a r e a lway s l im i t ed b y t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd . H oweve r ,t op ropo se s uch a na l t e rna t ive a pp roa ch ( t he s t udy o ft h el i t h ic p roduc t ion s y s tem )t ol i t h i ca na ly s i si st op rov ide an ew a v enu e wh ich m ay l e ad t o ab e t t e r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e r e la t ion s b e tween t h e e x ter na l ( phy s ica l ) a nd i n ter n a l ( po l i t ica l , e conom ic , i d eo log ica l ) f a c to r s w h ich i n f luenced c u l tu ra l c hange i n g ene ra l , a nd c hange s i nl i th ic t e chno logy i np a r t icu la r .

H un t e r -g a th e r e rs o c ie t ie st e nd t ob es t r u c t u r ed o n af l ex ib le k i n sh ip b a se a nd t oe xh ib i t s t r ong f i s s ion a ry t e nd en c i e s . . .A g r i cu l tu r a l s o c i e t i e s , o n t h e o t h e rh and , t e nd t ob e o r gan i s ed o n am o r ep e rm an en tc o rpo r a t eb a s i s . T h i s i sn e ce s sa ry b e c au s e t h e r e i s ag r ea t n e ed f o r l o ng t e rm s t ab i l i ty t op e rm i tc o -ope r a t iv el a nd c l ea r an ce ,d ef en c e ,e t c .E v en i nt h ee a r ly s t age s o ff o od -p rodu c t ion , m ix ed f a rm ing ( w i th b o th h e rd ing a nd c r op -g row ing ) m ay r e qu i r e c om m un i ty o r gan i sa t ion . . . W i th in t h ec or po r a t e s t ru c tu r e o ft h e a g r i c u l tu r a l s o c ie ty t h e f am i ly o p e r a t e s a s as em i i n d ep end en te c onom i cu n i ta nd t h i sm ay l e ad t o s l i gh t d i f f e r en ce s i n' w ea l th ' a nd s om e s o c ia l s t r a t if i ca t ion . S u ch d i f f e r en ce s m ay s t imu la t e t r ad e : m o r e i mpo r t an tm embe r so ft h ec ommu n i ty w i l l w an t t ou nd e r l in e t h e i r p o s i t ion b y 8

I n t roduc t ion

T ab l e1 . 1 : S om eC ommon T oo l sU sed i nP ro to -h i s tor i cI r oquo ian S oc i e t i e s . T oo l s

Wo rked O b jec t s

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w ooden s pade 1' 2' 3

s o i l

p l an t ing s e ed

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s o i l

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1 :T r igge r 1 987 :32 -45 2 :T r igge r 1 969 :26 -4 1 3 : Waugh 1 9 16 4 :T ooke r 1 967 :72 5 : Mo rgan 1 90 1

E thno log ica lE v idence o fS tone T oo l

I r oquo ian t o o l -u se m ay s hed l i gh t o n t h e o rgan i z a t ion o fp roduc t ion w i th r e spec tt of l aked s t on e t o o l m anuf a c tu r e a nd u t i l iza t ion . I ts hou ld b e n o ted , h oweve r , t h a t p ro to -h i s to r ic I r oquo ian s o c ie t ie se xh ib i tm a jo rd i f f e r ence s i ns oc io -po l i t i c a l o rgan iza t ion f r om p reced ing s oc ie t ie s . E thnog raph ic a na logy s hou ld b ea pp roached w i th c au t ion ,b u tg i ven t h a tt h ee t hnog raph ic e v idence c ome s f r om t h e s am e s t udy r e g ion a st h e a r cha e o l og ica lm a te r ia l s , t h i sa pp roach m ay b eu sef u l .

U se T o i l u s t ra te t h e a bove p o in t c on ce rn ing e xp lo r a t ion so fs oc ia lr e la t ion st h rough a na ly s i so fl i t h i ca r t if a c t s , l e tu st a ke aq u ick l o ok a tt h e e t hno g raph ic e v idence d rawn f r om p ro to -h is to r ic I r oquo ian s oc ie t ie s , c oncen t ra t ing o n t h e u se o f s t on et o o ls . T h ep u rpo se o ft h is i st oe xam ine t h e p a t t e rn so fs t one t o o lu se a nd t h es o c ia ld ynam ic s i n vo lv ed i ns t on e t o o l p rodu c t ion i ne x i s t ing e t h n o log i ca l d a ta . P r ince s s P o in t i sh ypo the s ized t o b e i n s o me w ay a nces t ra l t o t h e O n ta r io I r oquo ian s ( T r igge r 1 981 , 1 985 ; Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 995 , C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th 1 996 ) . R ecen t i nve s t iga t ion s o f t h e P r inces s P o in t C omp lex h ave e s tab l i sh ed c u l tu ra l l i nk sb e tween P r in ce s s P o in ta nd G len Meye r , a ne a r ly s t age o f t h e O n ta r io I r oquo ian T rad i t ion (W r igh t 1 973 ) . A s S m i th a nd C rawf o rd ( 1 995 :68 ) a r gued , " t h e r o o t s o f many a s pec t s o fl a te r I r oquo ian c u l tu r e c an b et r aced d i r ec t ly t oP r inces sP o in t ."

P ro to -h i s to r ic I r oquo ian s oc ie t ies h ave b een e x ten s ive ly s t ud ied t h rough n ume rou s e t hnoh i s t o r ic r e co rd s ( Tooke r 1 964 , 1 985 ; T r igge r 1 969 , 1 976 , 1 978 , 1 985 ; H e iden r e ich 1 971 , 1 990 ) . A s T r igge r n o te s ( 1 981) , h oweve r , mo s t e t hnoh i s t o r ic i n f o rma t ion t a k e st h ef o rm o fb road g ene ra l i z a t ion s , w i th l i t t le i nt h e w ay o fs uppo r t ing c a se s t ud ie s . E thnog raph ic o r e t hnoh i s to r ic o b serva t i on s c once rn ing I r oquo ian l i t h ic t e chno logy a r e r a r e , f o r s t one t e chno logy w a s n o t ap r io r i ty o f E u ropean c oncer n s d u r ing t h e s i x teen th a nd s e v e n teen th c en tu r ie s ( Fox p e r s . c omm . ) .

I f t h i s i s t h e c a se , as t udy o f p ro to -h is to r ic 9

C hap ter 1 B u t " an i mpo r tan t c u t t ing ma t e r ia l t h roughou t a v e ry w id e a r ea w a s f l in t o r c he r t" ( W augh 1 9 16 :71) .

I n h i s v e ry e a r ly s t udy o f t h e I r oquo ian t r ibe s , L ew i s H . Mo rgan m ade t h e f o l low ing o b se rva t i on s : M e ta l l i c i mp lem en t s w e r e u nknown a mong t h em ,a st h ey h ad n o tt h eu s eo fm e t a l s . R ud e k n iv e s o fc h e r t w e r e u s ed f o r s k inn ing d e e r ,a nd s i m i la rp u rpo se s .F o rc u t t ing t r e e sa nd e x cav a t ing c a no e s ,a nd c o rn m o r t a r s ,i n aw o rd , f o rt h o s en e ce s sa ry p u rpo s e sf o rw h i ch t h ea x e w ou ld s e em t ob e i n d i spen s ab le , t h e I r oquo i s u s ed t h e s t on e c h i s e l , U h ' -ga -o -gwä t ' -h ä . I n c u t t ing t r e e s , f i r e w a s a pp l ied a tt h e f o o t , a nd t h ec h i s e lu s ed t oc l ea ra w ay t h ec o a l .B y ar e p e t i t ion o ft h ep r o c e s s ,t r e s sw e r ef e l l ed a nd c u t t op i e ce s . W ood en v e s s e l s w e r e h o l low ed o u t b yt h es am em ean s .F i r ea nd t h ec h i s e lw e r et h e s u b s t i tu t e s f o rt h e a x e . T h e c h i se l w a s u s u a l ly a bou t s i x i n ch e s l o ng , t h r ee w id e , a nd t wo t h i ck ; t h e l ow e r e nd b e ing f a sh ion ed l i k e t h e e dg e o fa na x e . S t one g ouge s i nt h e f o rm o fa c onvex c h i s e l .w e r ea l so u s ed w h en am o r er e g u l a rc on cav i ty o ft h ev e s se lw a sd e s i r ed . S t one m o r ta r s f o r p ound ing c o rn , g r ind ing m in e r a l p a in t , a nd f o r p u lv e r i z ing r o o t s a nd b a rk s f o r m ed ic in e s , w e r e a l so a mong t h e i r u t en s i l s ( Mo rgan 1 9 0 1 :9 10 ) .

I na dd i t ion t ob e ing u sed f o rc l ea r ing l a nd , h un t i n g ,a nd p r epa r ing f ood ,s t one t o o l sm ade o fc he r t o rf l in tp l ayed a ni mpo r tan tr o le i nm anuf a c tu r ing w ooden t o o l sa nd u t en s i l s ." Spoon s ,b ow l s ,a r row s haf t s , s now shoe s , s l ed s , c l ub s , a nd s u i t s o f a rmou rw e r e f a sh ioned o u t o fw ood , u s ing s t one t oo ls" ( T r igge r 1 987 :44 ) . H ennep in a l so r ema rked t h a t " when t h e S avag e s a r e a bou t t o m ake Wood en D i she s ,P o r r inge r so rS poon s ,t h ey f o rm t h e Wood t ot h e i rp u rpose w i th t h e i r S t one H a tche t s , m ak e i th o l low w i th t h e i r C o le s [ s ic ] o u t o ft h e F i r e a nd s c rape t h em a f t e rwa rd w i th B eave r 's T ee th t o p o l ish t h em" ( Hennep in 1 903 :103 , c i t ed i n Waugh 1 916 :65 ) . H ow w a s l i t h ic p roduc t ion o rgan ized i n t h e se s o c ie t ie s? A l though e t hnog raph ic a c coun t sd on o t s umma r ize t h i s p a r t icu la rt op ic , t h e i mp l ica t ion s o fe a r l ie ro b se rva t ion s c l ea r ly i n d ica t e ad iv i s ion o fl a bo r i nH u ron s o c ie ty ( Took e r 1 967 ; T r igge r 1 969 , 1 987 ; H e iden re ich 1 97 1 , 1 978 ) . T he w omen w e r er e spon s ib le f o rh or t icu l tu r ea nd c o l l e c t ing , a nd w e re e ngaged i n f o od p r epa ra t ion a nd o the rh ou se -wo rk .T he men m ad e mo s to ft h e w ooden t oo l s a nd u t en s i l s w i th s t on e t oo l s , a nd a l so manuf a c tu red s t one a xes , a dze s , a r row p o in t s , s c rape r s , a nd d r i l l s . " La rg e t o o ls s uch a s a dze s a nd a xe s w e r e p eck ed a nd g r ound o u t o fa f i ne -g ra ined g r an i te a nd h o rnb lend e s c h i s t , w h i le t h e s ma l le r t o o l s s uch a s s c rape r s , p o in t s , a nd d r i l ls w e re u sua l ly c h ipped o u t o f c he r t" ( He iden re ich 1 978 :383 ) . Many t o o l sw e r e manu f a c tu red f r om s ma l l n odu les o f c h e r t , a nd t h e b ipo la r t e chn ique w a s o bse rved ( T r igge r 1 976 :44 ) .

T h i s c l ea r ly i n d ica t e s t h a t s t one t o o l s w e r e u sed i n ar e la t ive ly w ide r a nge o fa c t iv i t ie s i nh i s to r ic I r oquo ian s o c ie t ie s , i n c lud ing f ood p roduc t ion a nd f ood p repa ra t ion . A s a g r icu l tu r is t s , I r oquo ian su sed c h i se l so ra xe s( c e l t s )t oc u tt r ee s f o rc l ea r ing l a nd . T oo l s m ade o fc he r tw e r e u sed f o rm ea tc u t t ing , a sw e l l a sf o rc o rn g r ind ing a nd p ound ing . C he r t t o o l s w e r e a l so u sed i nm ak ing w ooden u t en s i l s , s u ch a s d i she s , s poon s , e t c . ( W augh 1 9 16 :14 15 , 6 5 , 7 1 ) . H oweve r , t h e se h i s to r ic d ocumen t s a l so s ugge s t t h a t s t one t o o l s w e r e n o t u sed e xc lu s ive ly a s i mp lemen t s i n d a i ly a c t iv i t ie s . T ab le 1 . 1 l i s t s s om e e xamp le s o f t o o l t y pe s t h a t w e r e u sed i n d i f f e r en t s ub s i s tence r e la ted a c t iv i t ie s . Wood en t o o l s , b one t o o l s , a nd s he l l t o o l sw e r e p a r to ft h e I r oquo ian t o o l k i t . Wooden s pade s o r s hove l s w e r eu sed f o rh oe ing t h el a nd a nd p l an t ing s e ed s , w h i le wood en s pea r sa nd n e t sw e r ee mp loyed f o r f i sh ing . B one t o o l s s uch a s s c r ape r s a nd a w l s w e re u sed f o r t h e m anuf ac tu r e o f c l o th ing . H un t ing w a s c a r r ied o u t u s ing t h e b ow -anda r row , a nd t r ap s a nd a n ima l d r ive s w e r e a l so c ommon ly u s ed ( T r igge r 1 969 ; T ook e r 1 964 ) .

1 0

H e iden re ich ( 1978 :382 ) p o in ted o u t t h a t : " a l though t h e r e w a s a ppa r en t ly n o f u l l t ime s p e c i a l iza t ion i n m anuf a c tu r ing o r e conom ic p u r s u i t s , i ti so bv iou s t h a t s ome i nd iv idua l s w e r e mo r ea dep ta tm ak ing p o t te ry ,p ipe s ,o rf l i n ti t em s t h an o the r s . E a ch e x tended f am i ly , c omp r is ing a h ou seho ld , l o ok ed a f te r i t s o wn r equ i r emen t ." I n h o r t icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s e ach f am i ly c l ea r ed t h e i r o wn f i e ld ( T r igge r 1 969 , 1 976 ; T ook e r 1 964 ) . T h i si mp l ie st h a tt h eh ou seho ld w a sa ni mpo r tan t p roduc t ive u n i t a nd m ay h ave c o -o rd ina t ed t h e

I n t roduc t ion a cqu i s i t ion o fr aw m a te r ia l sa nd t h ep roduc t ion o f t oo l s f o rf o od p rodu c t ion . T he e t hnog raph ic e v idence a l so s ugge s t s s ome k ind o f s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing i n l i t h ic p roduc t ion . Mo rgan r e co rded t h a t: " a r row -h ead s o fc he r t , o r f l in t , w e r e s o c ommon t h a t i ti ss c a r ce ly n ece s s a ry t or e f e rt ot h em . O cca s iona l ly t h ey a r ef ound w i th a t w i s t t o m ak e t h e a r row r e vo lve i n i t s f l igh t . .I ti sn o t u ncommon t of i nd t h e p l a ce s whe r e t h e se a r row -head s w e r e m anuf ac tu red , wh ich i s i nd ica ted b y t h e f r agm en t s o f c he r t wh ich h ad b een m ade b y c l eavage" ( Mo rgan 1 90 1 :10 ) . H e i mp l ied t h a t a r row p o in t m anuf a c t u r ing w a s ak ind o fs pec ia l ized p roduc t ive a c t iv i t y , a nd t h a t t h i s p rodu c t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t i n s pec if i c l o ca t ion s . T he e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s a l so s ugge s t t h a t t h e men p r oduced aw ide r a nge o fo rnam en ta lo b jec t s o f s t one o r o the r m a te r ia l s f o r t r ade . B igga r ( 1930 :453 ) m en t ioned t h a t t h e N a t ive s o f t h e G u lf o f S t . L aw r ence a r ea h ad g i ven a S pan i sh f i she rman " dee r a nd w o lf s k in s" f o r " axe a nd k n iv e s a nd o the r t r i f le s" ( s ee a l so H e iden r e ich 1 990 :478 -479 ) . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h e i t em s e x changed m igh t b e m e ta l t o o l s o f E u ropean manuf ac tu re . H oweve r , i t a l so i mp l ie s t h a t a cqu i r ing s t on e t o o l st h rough t r ade , o rp rodu c ing s t on et o o ls f o rt r ade , m igh th ave o ccu r red i ne a r l i e rp e r iod s .

I r oquo ian a r chaeo log ica l s i te s r e gu la r ly i n c lude n ume rou s t o o l t y pe s ( W r igh t 1 973 ; L a t ta 1 976 ; W i l l iam son 1 990 ; R am sden 1 990 ; D odd e t a l . 1 990 ) . T he se t o o l s , w h ich i n c lude a xes , a dze s , t r i angu la r o r n o t ched p ro jec t i le p o in t s , s c rape r s , d r i l l s ,e t c .m ay f unc t ion a st h e i rn ame si mp ly a nd a sd e sc r ibed i ne t hnog raph ic d ocum en t s , b u tt h i s h a s , b yn o m ean s , b een e mp i r ica l ly d ocum en ted . F u r the rmo r e , t h e l i t h ic p rodu c t ion s y s tem s o f n o r the rn I r oquo ian sh ave y e tt ob er e con s t ruc t ed .

R e search D e s ign a nd R e search Que s t ions H av ing e s tab l i shed t h e t h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk o f t h i s s t udy w i th s uppo r t s f r om t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd , Iw i l ln ow o u t l ine my r e sea r ch p rocedu r e s f o r a r cha eo log ica l i n t e rp r e ta t ion s o f t h e l i t h ic p roduc t ion s y s t em ( F ig . 1 . 2 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h i s r e sea r ch d e s ign , a n P r ince s s P o in t l i t h ic p rodu c t i on s y s tem i sr e con s t ruc ted u s ing t h r ee l e ve l s o f i n te rp r e ta t ion s . T he g oa lo fl e ve l 1i n te rp re ta t ion s i st oc ha ra c t e r ize t h e p a t te rn o fl i t h ic p rodu c t ion . T he c ha rac te r iza t ion o fl i t h ic p roduc t ion i n c lude s b o th m anuf a c tu r e a nd u t i l iza t ion . D isc r e t e a nd m e t r ic a t t r ibu te s a nd e dge d amage p a t ter n ing o f f l ak ed s t one a r t if ac t s a r e f i r s t s t ud ied t h rough t y po t echno log ica l a na ly s i s a nd u se -wea r a na ly s i s . T h e se a r chaeo log ica l o b serva t ion s p rov ide t h e g round s f o r d e sc r ip t ion s o fb o th c o r e r e duc t i on s t ra tegy a nd u se ta sk st h rough d a ta m an ipu l a t ion s . I n te rp r e ta t ion s o f t h e m anuf ac tu r e a nd u t i l iza t ion o ff l ak ed s t one t o o l s i sc a r r ied o u t o n t h e b a s i s o fa n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e c o r e r e duc -

S t on e t o o l s , e spec ia l ly s ma l l f l in t k n ive s , w e r e c ommon ly u sed a sb u tche r ing t o o ls i nr i tua lc e r e mon i e s . Waugh d e sc r ibed t h e f o l low ing e ven t : D og ' s f l e sh w a s f o rm e r ly c on sum ed o n s p e c ia l o c ca s ion s a nd a s ac e r emon ia l o b s e r v a n ce .D og f e a s t s ,i nf a c t ,a r es a id t oh av eb e en o f e r ed t o` A i r e skou i , ' t h e S un , w ho w a s a l so t h e g od o r ' d emon ' o f w a r , t h i s o b se rv an ce s e cu r ing s u c c e s s i nw a r o rh un t ing a sw e l l a s t h es a t i sf a c to ry i n t e rp r e t a t ion o fd r eam sa nd t h e r e cove ry o ft h e s i ck . T h e b u rn ing o ft h e w h i t e d o g a tt h e M id -w in t e r F e s t iv a l m ay b e as u r v i v a l o f t h i s . S t ag s a nd d e e r w e r e s om e t im e s o f f e r ed i nt h es am ew ay ( W augh 1 9 16 : 133 ) .

t i on s t ra tegy a nd o fu se ta sk s . C o r e r e duc t ion s t ra tegy r e p r e sen t s h uman c ho ic e sa nd as e to fa c t ion si nt o o l m anuf ac tu r e . T he se t e chno log ica ld ynam ic si n c lude r aw m a te r ia lp ro c u r em en t a nd s e lec t ion , t e chn ique s f o r r e du c ing c o r e n odu le s ( c o r e r e duc t ion ) a nd f o r p rodu c ing a pp rop r ia te ly s i zed a nd s haped f l ake s( b lank p ro d u c t ion ) , a nd s e lec t ion o f r e touch m e thod s f o r t o o l mod if ica t ion s . S i nce t h e i mpac t o f s u ch a c t ion s c an d i r ec t ly a f f ec t t h e mo rpho logy o f s t one t o o l s ,t h er e con s t ruc t ion o f ac o r er e du c t ion s t ra tegy c an b e a c comp l i shed t h rough o b se rva t i on o f d i sc r e t e a nd m e t r ic a t t r ibu te s o f l i t h ic

L i th ic p roduc t ion t h e r ef o r e a ppea r s t o h ave p l ay ed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nt h e e conom ic l i f e o f h i s to r ic I r oquo ian p eop le , a s w e l l a s i n t h e i r s o c ia l l i ves . R epo r t s o f i nves t iga t ion s o f 1

C hap t e r1

T he Organ iza t ion o fL i th ic P roduc t ion h ow w a st h el i t h ic p roduc t ion o r gan ized? e . g .c on t ro lo fr aw m a te r ia lr e sou r ce s ,s p a t ia lp a t t er n ing , c r af ts p ec ia l iza t ion ,e xchange o rt r ade o fl i t h ic p r oduc t s ,e t c .

l e ve l 3i n t erpr e ta t ion s

T he T ran sf orma t ion o fL i th ic P roduc t ion d i dt h ep a t te rn o fl i t h ic p roduc t ion c hang eo ve rt ime? h ow d i dl i t h ic t e chno logy c hange o ve rt i me?

l e ve l 2i n terpr e ta t ions

T he P a t tern o fL i th ic P roduc t ion h ow w e re s t one t o o l sm anuf ac tu r ed? h ow w e re s t one t o o l su t i l ized?

Manuf ac tu re

U t i l iza t ion

l e ve l 1i n terpr e ta t ion s

C o r eR educ t ion S t ra tegy

( d a ta m an ipu la t ion a nd p r e sen ta t ion )

U se -T a sk s

A d e scr ip t ions

d i sc re te & m e t r ic a t t r ibu te s

( a r chaeo log ica lo b se rva t ion )

t y po techno log ica la na ly s i s

a na ly s i s

e dge d amage p a t t e rn ing ( u se w ea rt y p e s )

u se -wear a na ly s i s

7 \ L i th ic A r t ifac t s F ig . 1 . 2 : AD iag ram f o rt h eA r chaeo log ica l S t udy L ead ing t o I n te rp r e ta t ion so ft h eL i th ic P roduc t ion S y s tem .

1 2

I n t r oduc t ion o b jec t s . O n t h e o t h e r h and , t h e o b jec t iv e o ft h e s t udy o f u se p a t t e rn ing o fl i t h ic o b jec t s i st or e con s t ruc t t h ea c t iv i t ie si nvo lved w i th t h eu s eo fs t one t o o l s . A c t iv i t ie s a re , a r guab ly , c omponen t s o f t h e b ehav iora lc ha in w i th in v a r iou sw o rk ing s y s tem s ( Sch if f e r 1 976 ) . B y aw o rk ing s y s tem , Im ean a c omp lex o f r e la t ed a c t iv i t ie s s h a r ing a g ene ra l g oa l ; f o re xamp le f o od p roduc t ion , f ood p r epa ra t i on , h un t ing , o r f i sh ing , e t c . . F rom t h e e t hno g raph ic d a ta ,w ek now t h a t as i ng le s t one t o o lc an f un c t ion i nt h e s am e m anne r f o r s im i la r t a sk s i n d i f f e r en t w o rk ing s y s tem s . I n o the r w o rd s , t h e r e con s t ru c t ion o f a c t iv i t ie s i n v a r iou s w o rk ing s y s t em s r equ i re s a n u nde r s tand ing o f " t he d ynam ic r e la t ion sh ip s a mong t h e p a r t ic ipa t ing e l em en t s" ( Sch if f e r 1 976 :49 ) . T he ref o re ,t o o l -u se p a t t er n ing i s n o t s uf f ic ien t t o i n te rp re t a c tua l a c t iv i t ie s i n wo rk ing s y s tem s ( K le ind ien s t p e r s . c omm . ) . I n a n e f f o r t t o r e con s t ruc t t o o l u t i l iza t i on , u s e -wea r a na ly s is i sa pp rop r ia te a nd h a s b een a pp l ied i n t h i s s t udy . T he p u rpo se o fu se w ea r a na ly s is i st oi d en t if y e dge d amage c au sed b yu s e ,a nd i n f e r en ce sc on cer n ing t o o lu t i l iza t ion a r e m ade t h rough t h e i n t erp re ta t ion o f t oo l mo t ion s a nd c on ta c t m a t e r ia l s . T he t e rm , " u se t a sk "( UT ) , i su sed i nt h i ss t udy , i n s tead o fa c t iv i t y . A UT i sr e p r e sen ted b y as i ng le c omb ina t ion o ft o o l mo t ion a nd c on tac tm a te r ia l( e .g . ,s c rap ing s e a son ed wood ) .

w ou ld l i ke ly a l so r e -f o rm t h ep a t t er no fl i t h ic p ro d uc t ion i ne a r ly f a rm ing s o c ie t ie s . T o a n e x ten t , t h is s t udy i ss ugge s t ing t h a tt h et r an sf o rma t ion o f l i th ic p roduc t ion may p os s ib ly o ccu r a s a r e spon se t ot h e e me rgen ce o ff o od p roduc t ion i n t h e s t udy r e g ion . T he h ighe s tl e ve l o fi n te rp r e ta t ion ( l eve l 3i nt h e F ig . 1 . 2 ) i nt h er e con s t ruc t ion o ft h eo rgan iza t ion o fl i t h ic p roduc t ion i s , o fc ou r se , t h e mo s t d i f f i c u l tt oa pp roa ch t h rough a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch . T he i n t erp r e ta t ion s a t t h i s l e ve l a r e c oncer n ed w i th s o c ia l o r gan iza t ion , c u l tu ra l i n te rac t ion s o n ar e g iona l s c a le ,a nd c u l tu r ec hange . T he g oa l sa t t h i s l e ve l o fi n te rp r e ta t ion a r e t o e xp lo r e i s sue s s u ch a s : h ow a nd why ap a r t icu la rp a t ter no fl i t h i cp roduc t ion i sp r e sen t i n ag i ven c u l tu ra l s y s t em ; h ow l i t h ic p roduc t ion c ou ld b e a f f ec t ed b y p hy s ica l c ond i t ion s ( e nv i ronmen t , s e t t lemen t , s ub s i s tence ,e t c . )a nd b ys o c ia lf a c to r s( e conom ic o rgan iza t ion , r e sou r ce a c cumu la t ion a nd c on t ro l , e t c . ) o r v i ce v e r sa ; w ha t r o le l i t h ic p roduc t ion p l ay s d u r ing c u l tu ra l c hange s , a nd s o f o r th . T he r ef o r e , t h e r e con s t ru c t ion o f al i t h ic p roduc t i on s y s tem s hou ld b e b a sed o n a l e x is t ing d a ta a nd t h e c omp r ehen s ion o fs uch d a ta o n ar e g ion a lb a s is , w h ich a tp r e sen t i sc l ea r ly b eyond t h e s cope o ft h i s s t udy . R ecen t ly ,t h ep o l i t ica l -econom ic a pp roach t ol i t h i ca na ly s i s h a s b een u sed t o e xp lo r e t h e a bove i s sue s . F o r i n s tance , N a s saney ( 1992 , 1 996 ) c l a imed t h a t t h e i n c ip ien t e l i te o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic s ou thea s ter n U n i ted S t a te s m ay h ave t r i ed t o i n c r ea se t h e i rp owe rb yc on t ro l l ing a cce s st ol i t h i cr e sou r ce s a nd /o r t ot h e o rgan iza t ion o f l i t h ic p roduc t ion . U s ing l i t h ic d a ta f r om t h e P lum B ayou c u l tu r e i nc en t ra l A rkan sa s ( c .a . A .D . 7 00 -9 50 ) ,h ec oncen t ra ted o nr aw m a te r ia l d i s t r ibu t i on s , s pa t ia l p a t ter n ing o fl i t h ic p roduc t ion , a nd i n ten t iona l t h e rma l a l t e ra t ion , t o e l uc ida te t h r ee a spec t s o f s o c ia l r e la t ion s : c on t ro l o f a cce s s t o l i t h ic r e sou r ce s , l a bo ra l loca t ion , a nd l a bo ri n ten s i f ica t ion . T he r e su l t sa r ei n t r igu ing , i fn o tt o ta l ly s a t i sf y ing .I nh i ss t udy o fE a r ly F o rma t ive s i te si n Me soame r ica , P a r ry ( 1987 ) c ompa r ed l i t h ic d a ta f r om d if e r en t h ou se s t ruc tu r e s a nd f ound t h a t l i t h ic p rodu c t ion w a sc a r r ied o u tb ye ve ry h ou se h o ld . B if ace p rodu c t ion w a s s p ec ia l ized a nd c a r r i ed o u t o n ly i n af ew h ou seho ld s , wh i le e ve ry h ou seho ld p roduced i t so wn f l ake t oo l s .

A tt h e s e cond l e ve l , t r an sf o rma t ion o fl i t h ic p ro d u c t ion i si n te rp r e ted o n t h e b a s i s o f a n u nde r s t and ing o f l i t h ic p rodu c t ion . T he f o cu s a tt h i s s t ag e o f r e sea rch i s t o e xam ine t h e p o s s ib le c hange s i np a t ter n so fl i t h ic p roduc t ion o ve rt im e a nd t h e f a c to r s t h a t i n f lu enced t h e se c hange s . Wh i le i t s hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h e c au se s o f c hange s i nl i t h ic p roduc t ion a r e mo r e c omp l ica t e d t h an e xpec ted , e xp lana t ion s r e ga rd ing t h e t r an sf o rma t ion o f l i t h ic p r odu c t ion d u r ing t h e t r an s i t ion t of ood p roduc t ion n eed t ob e c on s id e r ed w i th in t h e d ynam ic s o fs o c ia l s t ruc tu r e . F o r e xamp le , o n t h e o ne h and , i n c r ea sed p opu la t ion w ou ld c au se p roduc t iv e l a bo r a l loca t ion ; o n t h e a no the r h and , e s tab l i shed l a nd -owne r sh ip a nd h ou seho ld e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s w ou ld b e o ne o f f a c to r s l e ad ing t o ag ene ra l ized t o o l p roduc t ion ( f o rd e ta i led a r gumen t ss e eC hap t e r9 ) .T im ec on s t r a in t s a r i s ing f r om i n ten s if ied f i e ld h o r t icu l tu re 1 3

C hap te r1

Wh i le h a rd l a bo r a nd ah i ghe r e ne rgy i n pu t i n to p roduc t ion m ay b ed emanded i no rde rt oc r ea te a s u rp lu s , c r af t s p ec ia l iza t ion p rov ide s o ppo r tun i t i e s f o r p roduc t a ccumu la t ion a nd e xchange . C raf t s p ec ia l iza t ion i sa lway s l i nked t o g r ea te r c u l tu ra lc omp lex i ty ;i tm ay a l so b er e la ted t oc on t r o l l ing a c ce s st or e sou r ce sa nd e xchange ( A rno ld 1 987 , 1 992 ; J ohn son 1 996 ) . L i th ic p roduc t ion i s b yn o m ean s l i m i ted t om anuf a c tu r ing t o o l sn ec e s sa ry f o rf o od p roduc t ion . O th e r l i t h ic p rodu c t s w e r ea l so f a b r ica t ed f o re xchange , a so rnam en ta l o b jec t s , a nd f o r e n ter ta inmen t . T he s k i l l o ff i n e f l in tknappe r s w ou ld h ave b een p a s sed o n t o y ounge rg ene ra t ion s . R i tua l p r ac t ice p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nt h e e nhancemen t o f i nd iv idua l a u tho r i ty . U n t i l r e cen t ly , l i t t le a t ten t ion h a s b een p a id t ot h e u s e p a t te rn ing o fs t one t o o l s i nr e l ig iou s c e r emon ie s ( S ieve r t 1 992 ; O de l l 1 994a ) . F unc t iona l s t ud ie s o f l i th ic a r t if ac t s f r om m o r tua ry s i te s i n d ica te s t h a ts pec ia l ly -made p o in t s ,b l ade s , o ro t h e rs t one t o o ls m ay h ave s e rved s p ec if i cf u nc t iona lp u rpo s e s i n c e r emon ie s , s u ch a s b l ood le t t ing . O the r a spec t so ft h er o le o fs t one a r t if ac t si nr i tua lp r ac t i ce , s u ch a ss p a t ia l l a you t o fs t one p roduc t s a nd o f e r ing s ,s hou ld a l so b ec on s ide red a sp a r to ft h e o rgan iza t ion o fl i t h ic p roduc t ion . H oweve r ,a sp r e l im ina ry r e sea r ch c oncer n ing t h e P r ince s s P o in t P ro jec t , t h i s s t udy e mpha s iz e st h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e P r ince s s P o in t l i t h ic i n du s t ry a nd t h e f i r s t t wo l e ve l s o fi n t e rp r e ta t ion . G iven t h e d a ta c u r r en t ly a va i lab le ,t h er e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e o rgan iza t ion o fP r ince s s P o in t l i t h ic p r odu c t i on i sn o t p o s s ib le . T he s t udy o f a n o r gan ized l i t h ic p roduc t ion s y s t em , w h ich c on ta in s as e r ie s o fs oc ia lv a r iab le s , r e qu i r e s l a rge s c a le a nd c om p r ehen s ive e v iden ce . A l though t h i s s t udy i sl i m i t ed i ns c ope ,a nd ,t h e r ef o r e , u nab le t oo f f e rs u ch i n te rp re ta t ion s , a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e s o c ia l v a r iab le st h a tm ay i n f luence t h e f o rm o rp a t t er n s o f ,a nd t h et r an sf o rma t ion o f ,l i t h ic p roduc t ion ,i s as t ep t owa rd s ac omp r ehen s ive u nde r s tand ing o f t h e l i th ic p roduc t ion s y s tem . W i th t h i s r e sea r ch d e s ign , t h r ee b a s ic r e sea r ch q ue s t ion sa r i se : ( 1 ) Wha tk i nd so fc o r er e duc t ion s t ra tegy a r er e p -

r e sen ted i nt h e l i t h ic p roduc t ion s y s tem o f t h e P r inces s P o in t C omp lex , a nd h ow w e r e s t one t o o l sm anu f a c tu red? ( 2 ) Wha t k i nd s o ft o o l u se ta sk s o ff l aked s t one t o o l sa r er e p r e sen ted i nt h e l i th ic p r oduc t ion s y s t em o ft h eP r ince s sP o in tC omp lex ,a nd h ow w e r e s t one t o o ls u s ed? ( 3 ) We r e t h e r e a ny c hanges i n c o r e r educ t ion s t ra t eg ie sa nd t o o lu se ta sk s d u r ing t h et r an s i t ion f r om t h e M idd le t o L a te Wood land c u l tu re s i n s ou thwe s te r nO n ta r io ,a nd h ow d i dl i t h ic p rodu c t i on c hange o ve rt ime?

S ummary I nt h i s c hap t e r , Ih ave o u t l ined t h e g oa l s a nd t h e t h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk o f t h is r e sea rch , a nd r e v iewed e t hnog raph ic d a ta c oncer n ing t h ep o s s i b l eo r gan iza t ion o fl i t h ic p roduc t ion .O nt h eb a s i s o ft h e se a r gumen t s , ar e sea r ch d e s ign f o r s t udy i n g l i t h ic p rodu c t ion s y s t em s h a s b een o u t l ined . As e r ie s o fr e sea r ch q ue s t ion s h ave b een a r t icu l a ted . I nt h e n ex t c h ap t e r , Ip rov ide b ackg round o n t h e r e levan t f i e ldwo rk o ft h e P r ince ss P o in t P ro jec t , a nd o n t h e p hy s ica l s e t t ing o ft h e s t udy r e g ion . C hap te r 3p r e s en t st h em e thod so fl i t h ic a na ly s i s . Ie xp la in h ow a t r ibu te a na ly s is c an b e u sed t o a r r ive a t m ean ingf u l i n te rp r e ta t ion s , a nd h ow t h e se a t t r ibu te a na ly se s w i l l b e m an ipu la ted . A u se -wea re xpe r im en tw i l lb ed ocumen t ed . As am p l ing s t ra tegy f o r l i t h ic a na ly s i s i so f f e r ed a tt h e e nd o ft h ec hap t e r . C hap te r s 4t h rough 7 c omp r i se p re sen ta t ion s o f a na ly t ica l r e su l t s f o rt h e f ou rm a in a r t if a c tc l a s s e s . A l though m any t a bu la t ion s a r e u sed t oa s s i s t i nt h ep r e sen ta t ion o fd a ta , as umma ry a tt h e e nd o fe a ch c hap te rc on ta in s a n e x tended d i scu s s ion c on cer n ing t h e i su e sd e r ived f r om d a t aa na ly s i s . C hap te r 8o f f e r s ac ompa ra t ive s t udy . I tf o cu se s o ni n t e r s i te a nd i n t r a s i te c ompa r ison s o ft o o l -u se p a t ter ni nt h e s t udy r e g ion . T he se r e su l t s f ur n i sh t h ef i r s td e ta i led s t udy o ft h eP r inces sP o in tl i t h ic i n du s t ry .T he i n t e rp r e ta t ion sp r e sen ted i nt h ec on1 4

I n t r oduc t ion e l ud ing c hap te r ( Chap te r9 )e mpha s ize t h e t r an s f o rma t ion o fl i th ic p roduc t ion . A ne xp lana t ion o f t h e s h if tt o ag ene ra l ized l i th ic p r odu c t ion d u r ing t h e P r in ce s s P o in t p e r iod i nr e la t ion t of ood p ro d uc t ion i so f e red .

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CHAPTER 2 ARCHAEOLOG ICAL I NVEST IGAT IONS : F IELD WORK AND ECOLOG ICAL S ETT ING F ie ldwork I n i t ia ted i n 1 993 , t h e P r inc e s s P o in t P ro jec t i nve s t iga t e s t h i s p a r t icu la r ly c u l tu r e , w i th f ou r ma in o b jec t ive s ( Sm i th a nd C r awf o rd 1 995 :56 ) : 1 .t oc l a r if y t h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l r a nge o f t h e P r ince s s P o in t C omp lex ( d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c h rono log y ) ; 2 .t or e con s t ru c t t h e e conomy i nt e rm s o f t h eo r ig in o ff ood p rodu c t ion ( s ub s i s tence ) ; 3 .t oi nve s t iga te b o th r e g iona la nd i n t r a s i te s e t t l emen tp a t te rn s ; a nd 4 .t o e xam ine t h e m a t er ia l c u l tur e o f t h e P r in c e s s P o in tC omp lex . Af t e rf i ve y ea r so ff i e ldwo rk a nd n ea r ly ad ecade o f r e sea r ch , t h e p ro jec t g oa ls h ave b een w e l l a ch iev ed . T h i s c u l tu ra lm an if es ta t ion i sn ow b e t t e r u nd e r s tood t h an b ef o r e . My f o l low ing i n t ro d uc t ion o ft h ep ro jec tw i l lb eb r ief d u et o an um b e r o fp ub l ica t ion s a r e a l r eady i np l a ce . R eade r s w ho a r e i n te r e s ted i nt h e p r ov i s iona l f i nd ing s o f t h i s m u l t id isc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch a r e e n cou raged t o r e f e r t o C rawf o rd 1 999 ; C rawf o rd a nd Sm i th 1 996 , C rawf o rd e t a l . 1 997 , 1 998 , S hen 1 995 , 1 999 , 2 000 ; Sm i th 1 997 , Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 997 , Wa lke re ta l . 1 997 .

d ue t ot h e d i f f e r en t s i te s i tua t ion s . D epo s i t sw e r e s c r eened t h rough 1 / 8" m e sh a nd b o th w e ta nd d ry s c r een ing w e r e e mp loyed . D iagno s t ic a r t if ac t s s u ch a s r im s h e rd s , p ro jec t i le p o in t s , a nd p i pe s , w e r ep lo t t ed i ns i tu . Al a rge q uan t i ty o fs o i l s am p l e s w a s t a ken f o r f l o ta t ion . F o re a ch 5c m a r b i t r a ry l e ve l a pp rox ima te ly 2 0 l i t e r s o f s o i l w e r e c o l lec ted f o r e a ch o ne -me te r s qua r e . F ea tu r e s s u ch a s p i t s a nd h ea r th f l oo r s w e r e c omp le t e ly c o l lec ted f o rf l o ta t ion ( f o rd e ta i led d i scu s s ion so n m e thod o f f i e ldwo rk , s e e Sm i th a nd C rawf o rd 1 997 ) . L one P ine ( AfGx -113 ) L one P ine s i t e w a s f i r s t d i scove r ed d u r ing t h e e a r ly 1 990 s . P re sence o f d i agnos t ic p o t te ry s h e rd sl e dt or e cogn ize t h es i te a s aP r ince s sP o in t s i t e .T he s i t ei sl o ca ted a t af o rk i nR oge r ' sC r eek , at r ibu ta ry o ft h e G rand R ive r , a nd a pp rox ima te l y 2km f r om t h e G rand B ank s s i t e , a ta n e l eva t i on o f 1 90 m e te r s a bove s e a l e ve l . T h i s u p land s i t e i si n aw ood lo t t h a t h a s b een l o gged b u t n o t p l oughed , a nd i st h e ref o re r e la t ive ly u nd i s tu rbed . B o th c on t ro l led s u r f ace c o l lec t ion a nd e xcava t ion o ft h e s i te w e r ec a r r ied o u t .N ea r ly f i f ty 1m2 t e s t u n i t sw e r ee xcava ted a nd f o u ra r ea sw e r ee xpand e d ( F ig . 2 . 1) . T he se e xpanded a r ea s w e re c ho sen f o ri n ve s t iga t ion d ue t o : ( a )t h ep r e sence o f ah i gh d en s i ty a r t if a c t s o n t h e s u rf a ce ( A rea A a nd D ) a nd ( b ) t h e p r e sence o fh ea r th s a nd p i t s ( A r ea B a nd C ) . As y s tema t ic s u rf ace c o l lec t ion w a s c a r r i ed o u t . A t o ta l o f 9 33 s u r f ace a r t if ac t s w e r e i n d iv idua l ly p l o t ted . A r ea s o ff ou r N -S t r enche s a nd t wo E -W t r en ches w e re l a id o u t f o r s u rf a ce c o l lec t ion .

T h e f i r s t t h r ee s e a son s o f f i e ldwo rk w e r e c on d u c ted i n1 993 -1995 . T h i s i n c luded f i e ld s u rvey s o ft h e C red i t R ive r V a l ley a nd t h e L owe r G rand R ive r V a l ley , t e s t e xcava t ion o f L on e P ine a nd Y oung 1 , a nd f u l l sca le e xcava t ion o f G rand B ank s . T he o b jec t ive o ft h ef i r s tf i e ld s e a son w a s s imp ly t od e te rm ine s c a le s o fs i te s i ze s a nd a r t i f a c t d en s i ty a tt h r ee a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s t h ough t t ob eP r ince s sP o in t . B a sed o nt h e f i nd ing so ft h e

C u l tu ra ld epo s i t sa tL one P in ea r er e la t ive ly s ha l l ow , a ve rag ing o n ly 1 5 c m i n t h ickne s s o v e r a b a se o fd a rk b rown s i l ty H a ld imand c l ay . A bou t 7 3 ,000 a r t if a c t s w e r e r e cove r ed d u r ing t h e t wo s e a son s ' t e s t e xcava t ion s a nd s u rf ace c o l lec t ion

f i r s t s e a son , o u r t e am s h if ted t oc on ce rn t ra t e o n t h e G rand B ank s s i te . T he m e thod s o fi n ve s t iga t i on e mp loyed a te ach s i t e a r e s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t 1 7

C t i D

C on tro l led S urf ace P ick -up

E xcava t ion U n i t s

Z


N o r th

F ig . 2 . 3 T he G rand B ank s S t ra t ig raphy ( A rea B ) .

2 2

m ixed p a leo so ls

A r chaeo log ica lI nve s t iga t ion s mo re r e cen t p a leo so l , P I I , d a te s f r om a t l e a s t 1 , 500 y ea r s a go t ot h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry , w h i le t h e e a r l ie rp a laeo so l , P I , a ppea r st od a te f r om c a . 3 , 200 t o2 , 800 y ea r sa go .I tw a sl i k e ly t h a td u r ing t h eP r ince s sP o in to ccupa t ion t h e r ew a sn om a jo r t h r ea to ff l ood ing .

E co log i ca lS e t t ing o ft he S i te T he t im e p e r iod u nde r d i scu s s ion s pan s f r om r ough ly A .D . 5 00 t o 1 , 000 . D u r ing t h i s t ime , t h e p hy s ica l a nd b io log ica l e nv i ronm en to ft h e s t udy r eg ion d i d n o t d i f f e rg r ea t ly f r om t o day ( Ka r row a nd Wa r ne r 1 990 ) . D u r ing t h e M idd le t o L a te H o locen e , e co log ica l c ond i t ion s o fs ou thwe s t er n O n ta r io w e re r e la t ive ly s t ab le .T he f o l low ing d i s c u ss ion w i l l f o cu s o n t h e p hy s ica l s e t t ing o ft h e s t udy r e g ion , t h e p a laeoc l ima te , t h e n a tu ra l r e sou r ce sa va i lab le ,a nd t h er e g iona lb ed rock f o r ma t ion s .

T he L owe rG rand R ive rV a l ley i sp a r to f ah um id a nd w a rm r e g ion o fs ou ther n O n ta r io . T he a ve r a ge m ean t empe ra tu r e i sa bou t 10°C i nJ anua ry a nd 2 5°C i nJ u ly , w i th a ve rage a nnua l p rec ip i ta t i on r a ng ing b e tween 6 5 -900 mm . T he v a l ley i s p a r t o f ar e g ion o fO n ta r io wh ich h a s a n a nnua l g row ing s e a son o f a bou t 1 50 f r o s t f r ee d ay s ( B rown e ta l . 1 974 ; P r e san ta nd A c ton 1 974 ) .

T he P hy s ica l S e t t ing a nd P a laeoenv ironmen t T he t h r ee s i tes u nde ri n ve s t iga t ion a r ea l l o ca ted i n t h e r i ve r ine e nv i ronmen t o ft h e G rand R ive r V a l ley . T he G rand R ive ri st h el a rge s tr i ve ri nt h e L ak e E r ie d ra inage s y s tem i nO n ta r io ( Chapman a nd P u tnam 1 969 :139 147 ) . T he r i ve r i t se lf i s o ve r4 00 km l o ng a nd , w i th i t sm any t r ibu ta r ie s , d ra in s a pp rox ima te ly 6 000 k m2 o fs ou thwe s ter n O n ta r io . T he r i ve r f l ow s o n to al ow l y ing p l a in a l ong t h e n o r th s ho r e o fL ak eE r ie . A cco rd ing t o C hapman a nd P u tnam ( 1969 ) , t h e G rand R ive r d iv id e s i n to t wo p a r t s a tt h e c i ty o fB ran tf o rd . I n i t s u ppe rp a r t , t h e r i ve r a nd i t st r ibu ta r ie s mo s t ly f l ow i ns p i l lway s f o rmed i nt h e t i l lp l a in , wh e r e a s t h e l owe r G rand R ive r f l ow s i n ac hanne l a c ro s s t h e l a k e p l a in . T he r i ve r h a s ah i s to ry o f f l ood ing , a nd m any l a te ra l b a r s h ave f o rmed i n t h e l owe r G rand R ive r ( Chapman a nd P u tnam 1 969 ) .

T he H o locene p o l len r e co rd f r om S ou thwe s ter n O n ta r io i n d ica te s t h e v ege ta t ion h i s to ry t h rough c hange s i n t r ee p opu la t ion s . T he g ene ra l ized p o l len d i ag ram ( s ee K a r row a nd War n e r 1 990 T ab le 2 . 1) s ugge s t s t h a t e lm , m ap le , a nd b eech p opu la t ion s h ad i n c r ea sed s t ead i ly d u r ing t h e p e r iod b e tween 8 , 000 t o1 , 000 B P , b u t d ec r ea sed s ha rp ly a r ound 1 , 000 B P . S p ruce , r e d / ja ck p i ne , a nd w h i t ep i ne p opu la t ion s , wh ich w e re p r eva len t i n t h e E a r ly H o locene , s i gn if ican t ly d ec r ea sed d u r ing t h e M idd le t o L a te H o locene . T he r e o ccu r r ed ac l ima t ic s h if tt oc oo le ra nd w e t te rc on d i t ion s d u r ing A .D . 3 50 -400 ( Bry son a nd Wend land 1 967 ; B a e r r e i s a nd B ry son 1 965 ) , wh ich a r e r e f e r r ed t o a s t h e S cand ic E p i sode . S to the r s ( 1977 ; s e e a l so S to the r s a nd Y ar n e l l 1 977 ) c l a imed t h a t t h i s c l ima t ic a me l io ra t ion i s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e i n t roduc t ion o f c or n i n t h e L owe r G r ea t L ake s R eg ion . T he p a laeoc l ima t ic t r end s d u r ing t h is p e r iod , a s s ugge s ted b y C ampbe l l a nd C ampbe l l ( 1989 ) , i n d ica te as ho r t w a rm p e r iod f r om A .D .9 00 t o1 , 250 ,f o l lowed b y

T he s e f l oodp la in s h ave p rov ided s u i tab le c ond i t i on s f o r h uman s e t t lemen t t h roughou t t h e p o s t g l a c ia l e r a . A cco rd ing t o i n f o rma t ion o n f i l e a t t h e O n ta r io M in i s t ry o f C u l tu r e , T ou r i sm a nd R ec r ea t ion , mo r e t h an 7 00 a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a r e l o ca ted i nt h e L owe r G r and R ive r V a l ley , o f w h ich a s many a s 5 0 s i t e s y i e ld e v iden ce o f P r in ce s s P o in to ccupa t ion s ( F ig . 2 . 4 ) .

ag r adua lc oo l ing o fa bou t2 °C w h ich l a s ted u n t i l a bou t A .D . 1 , 800 . T he c l ima te t h en r a p id ly w a rmed a nd r ema ined a t moder n r ange , w h ich a r e s im i la rt ot h o se o ft h e p e r iod f r om A .D . 9 00 t o 1 , 250 . T he se s ma l l c l ima t ic f l u c tua t ion s o ve r t h e l a s t 1 , 100 y ea r s a r e c l ea r ly s hown o n p o l len d i ag ram s f r om C rawf o rd L ake a nd G igna c L ak e , O n ta r io ( McAnd r ew s 1 988 ; B u rd en e ta l . 1 986 ) a nd Ma r ion L ake , M ich igan ( Ber n abo 1 981 ; a l so s e e C ampbe l l a nd C ampbe l l 1 989 :15 ) .

F l oodp la in d ynam ic s a nd t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip t o h um an s e t t lemen th ave b een s t ud ied b yC rawf o rd a nd h i sc o l league si ns ome d e ta i l( C r awf o rd e ta l . 1 998 ) . T hey i d en t if ied t wo s t ab le p e r iod s a t G r and B ank s w h ich l i k e ly r e p r e sen t r e g iona l e qu i l ibr ia ( s ee a bove ) . D u r ing t h e se p e r iod s , t wo

S o i l

p a leo so ls d eve loped a tt h eG rand B ank ss i t e . T he 2 3

t y pes

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a r ea

a r e

l i gh t tex tu red

F ig . 2 . 4 : Map o ft h eL owe rG rand R ive rV a l ley s how ing t h eP r ince s s P o in tS i te -C lu s te r s .

C hap ter 2

2 4

A r chaeo log ica lI nve s t iga t ion s H a ld imand c l ay a nd O ne ida c l ay b ar n s . T he se s o i l sh av ed eve loped u nde r ad ec iduou so rm ixed f o res t v eg e ta t ion ; i n t h e s t udy r e g ion t h e se a r e r e p re sen t ed b yt h eC a ro l in ian B io t ic Z one a nd t h e D ec iduou s F o res t R eg ion . T he H a ld imand c l ay s a r ec on s id e r ed f avo rab le f o rf r u i tc r ops . W i th t h i s e co log ica l s e t t ing , t h e f l oodp la in o f t h e l owe r G rand V a l ley p rov ided f a vo r ab le p hy s ica l c ond i t i on s f o r a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s d u r ing t h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium AD . N a tura lR e source s T he L owe r G rand R ive r V a l ley f a l l s i n to t h e C a ro l in ian B io t ic R eg ion ( D ic e 1 943 ) , w h ich i s c ha rac t e r ized b y c l imax h a rdwood f o re s t d om i n a ted b yn u t -bea r ing t r ee s . O ak , e lm , map le , a sh , h i cko r ie s , a nd b eech a r e p r e s en t . A cco rd ing t o McAnd r ew s a nd B oyko -D iakonow ( 1989 ) , f r om t h e M idd le H o locene t o A .D .1 ,000 t h e p o l len r e co rd f r om C rawf o rd L ak e , s ou the rn O n ta r io , i s d om ina t ed b yb eech , m ap le , e lm , o ak , a nd b i r ch . T h i s m ixed h a rdwood f o r e s t s h if ted s l igh t ly t oa p ine -oak -b i rch d om ina ted f o res t a t c a . A .D . 1 , 400 , a nd t h is i sp robab ly i np a r t a t t r ibu tab le t o c l ea r ing o ft h e f o r e s t a nd t oo l d f i e ld s u cce s s ion (McAnd r ews a nd B oyko -D iaonow 1 989 ) . How ev e r , i ti s mo r e p robab le t h a t t h e c oo l ing o f t h ec l ima te c . a . A .D .1 ,100 w ou ld h ave c au sed t h e d ea th o fb eech t r ee s wh i le a low ing o ak a nd p i ne t r ee s t o g row ( Campbe l l a nd C ampbe l l 1 992 ) . A f te r A .D . 1 , 850 , p o l len d i ag ram s c l ea r ly i n d i c a te ad r ama t ic i n c r ea se i ng r a s s a nd r a gweed , r e f le c t ing t h e c l ea r ing o f f o r e s t f o r a g r icu l tu ra l p u rpo se s . T h i s s e r ia l e co log ica l s ucce s s ion m igh t g en e r a t ef avo rab le h ab i ta t sf o rd ee ra nd o t h e ra n i ma l s , a sw e l l a su sef u l p l an tr e sou r ce s .

A l though , t o d a t e , t h e r e i s n o d e ta i led f a una l a na ly s i sa va i lab le f r om t h e s t udy p e r iod , p r e l im i n a ry s t ud ie s o f f a una l r ema in s f r om L one P ine i n d ica t e t h a t t h e L owe r G rand R ive rV a l ley p ro v i ded ah ab i ta t f o r w h i te ta i led d ee r , g r ay s qu i r r e l s , r e d s qu i r re l s , a nd r a ccoon s ( Cabece i ra s 1 994 ; K n igh t 1 993 ) . A cco rd ing t oC ampbe l l a nd C ampbe l l ( 1989 ) , b a sed u pon t h e i r a na ly s i s o f N eu t r a l f a una l a s semb lage s , t h e a n ima l s pec ie s h ab i tua ted t o f o r e s t s , s u ch a s moo se , s now shoe h a r e ,w o lf ,b l a ck b ea r ,a nd c h ipmunk i n c rea sed i n i mpo r tance a f t e r A .D . 1 , 450 , wh i le t h e f i e ld s pec ie s ( e a s tern c o t ton ta i l , w oodchuck , g r ey s qu i r re l , mou se , a nd s ho r t ta i led w ea se l ) d ec r ea sed . C ampbe l l a nd C ampbe l l a t t r ibu te t h i s c hange t oc l ima t ic d e t e r io ra t ion ,w h ich i sr ef lec t e d b y as h if t i n s ub s i s tence s t ra tegy a tN eu t ra l s i t e s . F i sh f r om t h e G rand R ive r a nd i t s t r ibu ta r i e s w e r e a l so v e ry i mpo r tan t i n l o ca l d i e t s . I d en t if iab le f i sh r ema in s f r om L on e P ine c om p r i se ah i gh p e r cen tage o ft h et o ta l f a una l s amp le a na lyzed . M ig ra to ry b i rd s w e r e l i k e ly h un ted , a l though w eh ave n o e v iden ce f o rt h i s a sy e t . B edrock F orma t ion a nd R aw Ma ter ia l s T h e g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s o f t h e L owe r G rand R ive rV a l ley c on s i s tm a in ly o fP a leozo ic c a rbon a t e a nd f i ne s ed im en ta ry r o ck s w i th o cca s iona l o u t c rop s o f S i lu r ian d o lo s tone a nd D evon ian c he r ty l ime s tone a nd s and s tone ( Chapman a nd P u tnam 1 969 ) . T he L owe r G rand R ive r V a l ley a r ea i sd om ina ted b yt wo c he r t f o rma t ion s o ft h e D evon ian G roup : t h e B o i s B lan c a nd Onondaga f o rma t ion s ( E ley a nd v on B i t te r 1 989 ; L eud tk e 1 992 ; Q u in 1 996 ) . T he O nondaga f o rma t ion , c on s i s t ing o f av a r ie ty o fO nondaga c her t , h a s a f i ne g r a ined s t ruc tu r e a nd a c on cho ida l f r a c tu r e p a t ter n . I ti sa n i d ea l r aw ma t e r ia l f o r mak ing t o o l s . A no the r c her t t y pe , H a ld imand c her t f r om t h eB o i sB lan c f o rma t ion , i sr e ga rded a s ap oo r e r q ua l i ty c he r t w i th o n ly a m ed ium t o f i ne c r y s t a l l ine s t ruc tu r ea nd i st h u sc on s id e r ed al e s se a s i l y w o rkab le ma te r ia l ( E ley a nd v on B i t te r 1 989 :19 ) . T he t wo k i nd s o fc he r ta r e d i s t ingu i sh a b le o n t h e b a s i s o fc o lo r . Wh i le a l l O nondaga c he r t s a r e m ed ium t o d a rk g r ey a nd b l ack , H a ld imand c he r t i sl i gh t g r ey t ow h i te i nc o lou r ( Qu in 1 996 ; E ley a nd v on B i t te r 1 989 ; P a rke r 1 986 ) . T he se t wo f o rma t ion s r un a l ong t h e w e s t s i de o ft h e G rand R ive rt ot h e L ake E r ie s ho r e a t w h ich p o in t t h ey r un d ue e a s t , e s sen t ia l ly p a ra l -

T h e p r e l im ina ry s t udy o f a r chaeo log ica l p l an t r ema in s , r e cov e r ed b y f l o t a t ion f r om t h e G rand B ank ss i te ,p rov ide s ab a s i sf o rr e con s t ru c t ing t h e p a s t e nv ironmen t ( Bowy e r 1 995 ; C rawf o rd 1 997 ) . T h ree i mpo r tan t c u l t igen s a r e i d en t if ied : m a iz e ,c henopod s , a nd s un f lowe r s . An umbe ro f n u ts p ec ies w e r ef ound ,i n c lud ing a co rn ( Que r cu s s p . ) , h i ckory ( Ca rya s p . ) , a nd b u t te rnu t ( J ug lans c i ne r ea ) . I n a dd i t ion , a bundan tr ema in s o fs e ve r a lf l e shy f r u i t sw e r ea l so r e cove red . T hey i n c lude Am e r ican n i gh t shade ( S o lanum a mer icanum ) , b r amb le ( Rubu s s p .) , g round c he r ry ( Phy sa l i s s p . ) ,a nd s t rawbe r ry ( F ragar ia v i rg in iana ) .

2 5

C hap te r2

A

O nondaga C her t S ou rces

V

B o is B lanc ( Ha ld imand ) Che r t S ou rces

F ig . 2 . 5 : Map o fC her t S ou rces .

l e l ing t h e s ho re l ine t o t h e N iaga ra R ive r . O rme rod ( 1 994 ) , i nh i s p r e l im ina ry s t udy o ft h e L one P ine a s semb lage , o b se rved t h a t o n ly t h e se t wo t y pe so fr aw m a te r ia lw e r eu sed a tt h i s o ccu p a t ion s i t e .H oweve r ,o t he rt y pe so fc he r t ,s u ch a s t ho se f r om t h e An ca s te ra nd D undee f o rma t ion s , a r e f ound i nt h e s t udy r e g ion a nd w e re p robab ly a l so u sed b y t h e i n hab i tan t s i nt h e L owe r G rand R ive rV a l ley .

Q u in i sn o ta b le t oi d en t if yt h ee xac tc he r ts ou r ce s wh ich t h e P r inces s P o in t p eop le u t i l ized . H oweve r , h i s a na ly s i s d emon s t ra te st h e p o ten t ia l f o r s ou rc ing i d en t if ica t ion , a nd , f r om t h e d a ta a va i lab le , c onf i rmed t h a t t h e c he r t s u sed a tt h e G rand B ank ss i t ea r e f r om t h e Onondaga s ou r ce s a l ong t h en o r th s ho r e o fL ake E r ie ( Qu in 1 996 ) .

P a laeoenv i ronmen ta lr e con s t ruc t ion s u gges t st h a t t h e L owe r G rand R ive r V a l ley w a s ar e sou r ce r i ch a r ea d u r ing t h e P r in ce s s P o in t p e r iod . T h e p hy s ica l s e t t ing o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l s i tes p ro v ided t h e p r eh i s to r ic i n hab i tan t s i n t h is r eg ion w i th p o s s ib i l i t i e s f o r am ixed e conom ic s t ra tegy o f f a rm ing , h un t ing , f i sh ing , a nd g a the r ing ( C rawf o rd e ta l . 1 998 ) . I ti sn o t p o s s ib le a tp r e s e n t t o d e te rm in e t h e s p ec if i c s i te t y pe o fG rand B ank s o r L on e P ine ; t o d o s o , d e ta i led p a le o e thobo tan ica l a nd f a una l a na ly se s a r e r e qu i r ed . H oweve r , g i ven a bundan t r e sou r ce s a nd f avo r a b le c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s , p r eh is to r ic u s e o f t h e s i te s c ou ld h av e i n c luded av a r ie ty o fe conom ic

T he i nhab i tan t s o ft h e L owe rG rand R ive rV a l ley l i ke ly u sed m a in ly O nondaga c he r t s ,a st h ey w e r e b o th p l en t if u la nd e a s i ly a cce s s ib le . I n af i e ld s u r v ey o f c he r t o u tc rops a nd q ua r r ies l o ca ted b e tween t h e n or th s ho r e o f L ak e E r ie a nd t h e G rand B ank s s i te , w e i d en t if ied 8 s i tes a s Onondaga c he r t s ou r ce s a nd 2 a s H a ld imand c he r ts ou r ce s( F ig . 2 . 5 ) . T hey a r e , o na ve rage , 1 5 km f r om t h e G rand B ank s s i te . Two o u tc rop s o f B o i s B lanc c he r t w e r e a l so v i s i ted . T he se t wo o u t c rop sa r ec l o se rt oG rand B ank s ,w i th in 1 0 km o ft h e s i t e . Q u in ( 1 996 ) h a sc onduc ted as t udy o f P r ince s s P o in tl i th ic r aw ma te r ia l s ou r c ing ,u s ing I n s t rumen ta l N eu t ron A c t iva t ion A na ly s i s . D ue t o al im i ted a r chaeo log ica l s amp le , a t p r e sen t ,

a c t iv i t ie s . B a sed o n t h i s a s sump t ion , s t one t o o l p roduc t ion a tt h e se s i te sw ou ld b e e xpe c ted t ob e 2 6

A r chaeo log ica lI nve s t iga t ion s ag en e r a l ized p a t te rn i nt o o l m anuf ac tu r ing a nd u t i l iza t ion ( e .g . , B leed 1 986 ) . T h e r a t iona le f o r s uch e xpec ta t ion s w i l lb e s umma r iz ed i nt h e f o l l ow ing c hap te r s . T he e v id en ce c i ted a bove i n d i ca te s t h a t d u r ing t h e p e r iod f r om A .D . 5 00 - 1 , 000 t h e re w e re c hange si nt h e f ood p rocu r emen t s y s t em a nd s e t t l emen t p a t te rn s o ft h e p eop le o ccupy ing s ou th w e s t e rn O n ta r io .T he r ew e r el i k e ly c o r r e spond ing c hange s i ns oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . R e sea r che r sh ave f ound e v id ence f o r l i t h ic t e chno log ica l c hange s d u r ing t h i sp e r iod i nt h e No r thea s ta sw e l la sd u r i n g t h e s h if t t o a g r icu l tu r e ( F i t t ing 1 975 ; Ma son 1 981 ; G r inf f in 1 983 ; P a r ry a nd K e l ly 1 987 ; Y e rke s 1 987 ; J e ske 1 990 ; E l l i s a nd F e r r i s 1 990 ) . I fl i t h ic t e chno logy d i d c hang e a cco rd ing ly , t h en h ow s o ? I n o rde r t o a dd r e s s t h i s q ue s t ion , i ti s f i r s t n ece s sa ry t oc ha rac te r ize t h e P r ince s s P o in t l i th ic a s semb lages . S ub sequen t ly i n f e rences r ega rd ing t h e P r ince s s P o in t l i t h ic p rodu c t ion s y s t em c an b e a dd r e s sed .

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CHAPTER 3 METHODS OF L ITH IC ANALYS IS

B ea r ing i nm ind t h a t s t one t o o l s c omp r i se o n ly a p a r t o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic t o o l -k i t , f l aked s t one t oo l s h ave b een e xc lu s ive ly c ho sen f o r t h e p u rpo se o f t h i s s t udy . T he l i t h ic a na ly s i s i n c lude s a r t if ac t c l a s s if i ca t ion , a t t r ibu te o b se rva t ion s , u se -wea r e xam ina t ion , a nd d a ta m an ipu la t ion . Ib egan b y d ev i s ing a c l a s s if ica t ion s cheme t h a t h a s b een u sed t o c a ta logue t h e c o l lec t ion . T h i s p ropo sed t y po logy i ss omewha t d i f f e r en t f r om t h e l i t h ic c l a s s if ica t ion s cheme c u r r en t ly u sed f o r Wood land l i th ic s f r om S ou ther n O n ta r io . T he a t t r ibu te o b se rva t ion s m ad e o n t h e a s semb lage s f a l l i n to t wo c a tego r ie s : ( 1 ) t y po techno log ica l c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s a nd ( 2 ) e dge d amage f o rma t ion s a s d e t e rm ined b y u se -wea r a na ly s is . T he s e lec t i on o fa t t r ibu te s , t h e i r i n t e rp r e t ive s i gn i f icance , a sw e l l a st h e m e thod s u sed t om ak e b ehav io ra l i n f e r en ce s , a r e p r e sen ted i n t h e f o l low ing s e c t i on s . S amp l ing s t r a teg ie s a nd d a ta man ipu la t ion a r e a l so o u t l ined .

T ypo logy :A r t if ac tF orms S tud ie s o fa r chaeo log ica l t y po logy h ave d emon s t ra t ed t h a t a r t if a c t c l a s s if ica t ion i se s sen t ia l t o a r cha eo log i s t s . D iff i cu l t ie s a r i se , h oweve r , a s a r e su l t o fd ive r se a pp roa che s t ot y po logy ( Chang 1 967 ; Wha l lon a nd B rown 1 982 ; K le jn 1 982 ;

m ak ea nd u se at y po logy i ss imp ly t od e sc r ibe t h e f o rm o f a r t if ac t s o n t h e b a s i s o f , f o r e xamp le , t h e i r mo rpho logy o r mod if ica t ion a l one . T h i s i d ea i sn o t n ew . I n p ra c t ice , a r chaeo log i s t s h ave e mp loyed t h i sm e thodo logy f o ra tl e a s tf i f ty y ea r s . K r iege r( 1 944 ) ,i nh i sc l a s s ic a r t ic le ,p o in t e d o u t t h a t c l a s s if ica t ion mu s t " p rov ide a n o rga n i za t iona l t o o l" i no rde rt od emon s t ra te " h i s to r i c a l m ean ing i n t e rm s o f b ehav io r p a t te rn s" ( K r iege r 1 944 :272 ) . I n teg ra ted w i th t e chno log i c a l s t ud ie s o f l i t h ic s , t y po log ica l s t ud ie s h ave b een o fc on s ide r ab le u se i nt h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f c u l tu ra l h i s to ry i n t h e O ld Wo r ld ( c f . H en ry ' s ( 1 973 , 1 989 , 1 995 ) w o rk s o nJ o rdan ian p r eh i s to r y ) . Wha ti sn ew a bou tA dam s a nd A dam s ' c l a s s i f ica t ion t h eo ry i s t h a t at y po logy s hou ld b e r e ga rded a s ac on cep tua l s y s tem t h a tc omp r i se sa c omp r ehen s ive s e t o f m u tua l l y e xc lu s ive t y pe s , a nd b a sed u pon as e to fc ommon c r i te r ia d i c ta ted b y t h e p u rpo se o f t h e t y po log i s t . T hey f u r th e r s t a t e t h a t " ea ch t y pe i s ac a tego ry c r ea ted b yt h e t y po log i s t ,i n to w h ich h eo rs h ec an p l ace d i sc r e t e e n t i t ie s h av ing s p ec if ic i d en t if y ing c ha rac te r i s t i c s , t o d i s t ingu ish t h em f r om e n t i t ie s h av ing o t he rc ha rac t e r i s t ic s , i n aw ay t h a t i sm ean ingf u l t o t h e p u rpo se o f t h e t y po logy" ( Adam s a nd A dam s 1 99 1 :9 1) . T h i s d ef in i t ion , i n my o p in ion , p l ace s t y po logy i n to ap rac t ica l c l a s s if ica t ion f r amewo rk , m ean i n gt h a ta ny a r cha eo log ica lr e sea r ch c an s t a r tw i th aw o rk ing t y po logy a s l o ng a s i ti sd eve loped w i th r e f e r en ce t o as pec if i c p u rpo se ( e .g . , R ead a nd R u s se l l 1 996 ) .I nt h i sc a se ,t h ep u rpo se o f my w o rk ing t y po logy i st oe s tab l i sh ar e la t ive ly s t an d a rd ized f r amewo rk w he r eby t y pe s o fs t on e a r t i f a c t s c an b e c a t ego r ized f o r f u tu r e a na ly s i s a nd c ompa r ison . F o l low ing A dam s a nd A dam s ( 1 991) , at y po logy i s ap a r t icu la rk i nd o fc l a s s if i c a t ion m ad e s p ec if ica l ly f o rt h es o r t ing o fa na ly t -

D unne 1 1 1 986 ) . My p u rpo se h e r ei sn o tt op rov ide al e ng thy r ev iew o ft h e S pau ld ing -Fo rd d eba te o f t h e e a r ly 1 950 s ( Spau ld ing 1 953 , 1 960 , 1 982 ; F o rd 1 954a , 1 954b ) . A dam s a nd A dam s ( 1 991) i n s i s t t h a t t h e r e c an n eve r b e a n " a l l -pu rpo se" t y po logy . D rawn f r om t h e i r e xp l ic i t c on cep tua l r e v iew s , Adam s a nd A dam s ( 199 1) p ropo se t h a t t ob ep r ac t ica l a nd c o s t -ef f ec t ive , ac l a s s if i ca to ry s y s t em s hou ld b em ade b a s ed o ns p ec if ic r e sea r ch n eed s a nd l o g ica l r e la t ion s a mong s t o b jec t s ( t ype s ) .I na cco rdan ce w i th t h e se r equ i r em en t s ,t o 2 9

C hap ter 3 i c a l o b jec t s i n to mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive c a tego r ie s ( s om e t ime c a l led t y pe s ) . T he t y pe s a s s igned t o t h e s am e l i t h ic c l a s s mu s tb e l o g ica l ly r e la ted . I n t h i sr e ga rd ,t h es y s tem o fl i t h ic c l a s s if ica t ion g en e r a l ly u sed i n s ou the rn O n ta r io a r chaeo logy i s p rob lema t ic b ecau se , f o r e xamp le , " u t i l ized f l ake s" a r ei n c luded a s at y pe . AC r i t ique o ft h e" U t i l ized F lake s" C a tegory T wo g ene ra l c a tego r ie s : t o o l s a nd d eb i tage ( n on t o o l ) , a r e i nc u r r en t l i th ic c l a s s if i ca t ion s y s t em s u s ed i nO n ta r io a r chaeo logy . T oo l s a r e n o rma l ly f u r th e r s ubd iv ided i n to " f o rma l t o o l s" i n c lud ing b i f ac ia l ly a nd u n if ac ia l ly r e touched t y pe s , a nd " i nf o rma l t o o l s" m a in ly r e f e r r ing t o u t i l ized f l ake s .I nm o s ts u rvey a nd e xcava t ion r e po r t s ,t h e s e pa ra t ion o fu t i l ized f l ake sf r om o t he rr e duc t ion b yp rodu c t s i sp u rpo sef u l a s i th e lp s t oa s s i s t i n t o o l f u nc t ion i n t e rp re ta t ion s . Wh i le t h i s m ay a ppea r t o s imp l if y t h e p roce s s o f f unc t iona l a na ly se s o fl i t h ic a r t if ac t s , i ti nf a c t c au se s t y po l o g ica l c onf u s ion . Iw ou ld s ugge s t a n a l ter n a t ive t y po logy t h a t e xc lude s " u t i l ized f l ake s" ( Sh en 1 999 ) . Id i sm i s st h eu se o ft h i st e rm f o rf o l low ing t h r ee r e a son s : F i r s t , c u r r en t d ef in i t ion s o f u t i l ized f l ake s a r e a mb iguou s a nd i n con s i s ten t . A l though i ti sc om m on ly r e cogn ized t h a t u t i l ized f l ake s a r e t h o se f l ake s b ea r ing u se -damage o n f l ak ing e dge s , t h e c r i te r ia u s ed t o d ef ine u t i l ized e dge ( s ) r ema in s u nc lea r . S t o r ck h a su sed t h ed e s igna t ion " u t i l ized f l ake" o r" wo rked f l ake" f o rt h o se t h a t" exh ib i ta s ma l la moun to fu n if ac ia lm a rg ina lr e touch a l ong e i the r as i ng le e dge o r as ho r t s e gmen t o f o ne e dge" ( S to r ck 1 974 :6 , s e ea l so 1 978 :37 ) . L ennox c ha rac te r ized " u t i l ized f l ak e s" a s t h o se s p ec i m en s s how ing " u se r e touch r e su l t ing i n t h e r emova l o f as e r ie s o f s ma l l f l ake s ( l e s s t h an 2 mm ) f r om o n e o rm o r e e dge s" ( Lennox 1 993 :6 , s e e a l so 1 986 :228 ) . A ppa ren t ly m in ima l s e cond a r y r e tou ch o fm a rg in s h a s b een r e ga rded a s a n i n d ica t ion o ff l ak eu t i l iza t ion . Wh i le S t o r ck c on s i de r ed t h es h ape so fu sed m a rg in s( s t ra igh t ,c on v ex ,o rc oncave )a se v idence o fu se ,L ennox u sed s i ze o ff l ak ing s c a r s a s ac r i te r ion t od i s t ingu i sh u s e r e tou ch f r om d e l ibe ra te r e touch . R ecen t ly , S t o r ck m od if i ed h i s d ef in i t ion o fu t i l ized f l ake s t o e mpha s ize t h e s i ze o f t h e e dge d amage / r e touch , s t a t ing t h a t" u t i l ized f l ake s a l so e xh ib i t v e ry s ma l l , i r regu la r ly s paced f l ake

r emova l s a l ong o ne o r mo r e e dge s , b u tt h e f l ake s c a r sa r es os ma l la st os ugge s tt h ey w e r ef o rmed b y u se w ea r r a th e r t h an b y d e l ibe ra te p r e s su re r e touch" ( S to r ck 1 997 :84 -85 ) . I n con s i s ten c ie s i n d ef in ing u t i l ized f l ake s a l so e x i s t a mong o t he r r e sea r che r s . S ome s e a r ch f o r e v iden ce o f m a rg ina l r e touch ( De l le r 1 976 :14 ) , o t he r sf o ru s em a rk si nt h ef o rm o fn i bb l ing a l ong t h e e dge ( F in lay son 1 977 :179 ) , a nd y e t o t he r s , f o r c on t inuou s f l ak ing s c a r s ( T imm in s 1 992b :24 1 ; B u r sey 1 994 :51) . A n a s sump t ion u nde r ly ing t h e se d ef in i t ion s i st h a t e dge m od if i c a t ion o n u t i l ized f l ak e s w a s c au sed b y t o o l u t i l i za t ion . H oweve r , m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion s o f f l ake e dge ss ugge s td amage m ay c au sed b yf o r ce s o t he r t h an u s e . I n p roce s s o f l i t h ic a na ly s i s , I b e l ieve t h a t i ti su sef u l t od i s t ingu i sh e dge -dam a ged f l ak e sf r om u nmod if ied f l ak e ss i n ce t h ef o r m e r m ay h ave ag r ea te r p o s s ib i l i ty o fb e ing u t i l i zed t h an t h el a t te r . T hu s ,i np ra c t ice , s u ch e dge d amaged f l ake s s e em more i mpor tan t t h an u nmod if i ed f l ak e s . H oweve r , i n at y po logy t h a t e mb ra ce s as t rong mo rpho log ica l a s pec t , ag r oup o ff l ak e sw i th u s et r ace sc ou ld b ed r awn f r om t h e u nmod if ied , r e touched , o r s haped f l akes . T he ref o r e , t h e e dge -damaged f l ak e s s hou ld n o t b e c on s ide r ed " i nf o rma lt o o ls" i nt h ef i r s tp l a ce . S econd ly ,u t i l ized f l ak e sa r en o tm o rpho log ica l ly d i s t ingu i shab le t y pe s ,b u tr e su l t f r om d emon s t ra b l e u se -wea r w h ich m ay o ccu r o n av a r ie ty o f f l ak et y pe s . I fw e f o l low t h e a bove d ef in i t ion s , i t i sc l ea r t h a t " u t i l ized f l ak e s" m ay i n c lude a ny f l ake t y pe sb ea r ing e dge d amage . L ennox ( 1 986 ) a nd o t h e r s ( e .g . , T imm in s 1 992b ) f u r the r d i v ide u t i l ized f l ak e si n to v a r iou ss ub type sa c co rd ing t o t h e mo rpho logy o f u n re touched f l akes , f o r i n s tance , u t i l ized p r ima ry f l ake s o ru t i l ized s e c o nda ry f l ak e s , i no rde rt od e te rm ine t h e p o s s ib le u se p r ef e r en ce so fu nmod if ied f l ak e sa ta ny g i ven o ccupa t iona ls i t e s .T h i sp r ac t ice s ugge s t st h a tu t i l i zed f l ak e i sn o t am u tua l ly e xc lu s ive c a tegory , b u t ag r oup o ft y ped f l ak e s b ea r ing w or ne dge s . T hu s , t h e r e m ay b e " u t i l ized p r ima ry f l ake s ," o r " u t i l ized b i f ace t h inn ing f l ake s ," o r " u t i l ized b l ade s ," a nd s o f o r th . T ypo log ie s i n O n ta r io w h ich i n c lude u t i l ized f l ake s a ppea rt ob e b a sed o n ab i a sed a s sump t ion t h a ta l ll i th ic a r t if a c t sf a l l i n to o ne o ft wo g r oup s : u s ed ( t oo ls ) a nd u nu sed ( d eb i tage f l ake s ) a r t if ac t s . H oweve r , u s e -wea r 3 0

Me thod s a na ly s i sd emon s t ra te st h a tn o ta l a r t if ac t s c l a s s i f i ed a s t o o l s o n t h e b a s i s o f m o rpho logy w e r e u sed , a nd t h o se wh ich w e re u s ed m ay n o t h ave b een u sed i nt h e manne r i mp l ied b y t h e i r n ame s ( e .g . , as c r ape r may n o th ave b een u sed f o rs c r ap i n g ) ( Ode l l 1 981) . T he r ef o r e , i nt h i s s t udy It r ea t a l l s haped , e dge -damaged , a nd u n re touched f l ake s a su s e -po ten t ia l t o o l s , a nd n o t a s u t i l ized p i ece su n le s st h e i ru se -wea ri si d en t if ied . T h i rd ly , t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ff l ake s a su t i l ized i n t h ea b s en c eo fp rope re qu ipmen ta nd t r a in ing p ro d uce s h i gh ly i n a ccu ra t e r e su l t s . A l though F ox o nce c o r r ec t ly p o in ted o u t t h a t s e pa ra t ing t h e se u t i l ized p i ece sd epend so na c tua lu se r e touch a nd u se p o l i sh , n o f u r the r e xp lana t ion s o fh ow s u ch " non -magn if ica t ion" a pp roa ch e s s hou ld b e c a r r i ed o u t h ave b een o f f e red ( Fox 1 979 :68 ) . T omenchuk , who c onduc t ed a w e l l -con t ro l led e xpe r im en t o n e dge -damaged t y pe s , n o ted : " i t i s my e xpe r ience t h a t a t p r e sen t , n o c r i te r ion o r t e chn iqu ee x i s t st h a ti si n f a l l ib le i nd i s t ingu i sh ing b e tw een m anuf ac tu r e a nd u t i l iza t ion d amage" ( Tomen chuk 1 985 :508 ) . Me thodo log ica l ly , t o d e t e rm in e whe the r o r n o t af l ak e w a s a c tua l ly u sed ,o n e mu s tr e ly o nc a r ef u lo b se rva t ion o fu se t r a ce s , t h rough m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o f a c omb ina t ion o fm ic roch ipp ing f r a c tu r e a nd a b r a s i on s . Y e rkes a nd K a rdu l ia s c o r r ec t ly p o in t o u t : "m ic row ea ra na ly s i sh a sh e lped c hange o u rv i ew o fl i t h ic t y po logy , e spec ia l ly a si tr e la te st of un c t i ona l c a tego r ie s o f a r t if ac t s s u ch a s ' u t i l ized f l ak e s" ( Y e rke s a nd K a rdu l ia s 1 993 :103 ) .

a nd w ha t f a c to r sw ou ld o b scu r e t h a tj udgm en t . T he r e su l t s , p r e sen t ed i nT ab le 3 . 1 , i n d ica t e t h a t a bou t h a lf t h e s pec imen s w e re m i s in te rp r e ted . C o inc id en ta l ly , t h e s co r e s o ft h e se t h r ee p a r t ic i p an t s a r e t h e s ame : 2 5 o u t o f4 5 w e re i d en t if ied c o r r ec t ly .U se o ft h eh and l e n sd i dn o tm ake ad i f f e ren ce i nt h er e su l t s . D u r ing t h et e s t , Io b se rved t h a t t h e p a r t ic ipan t s r ega rded s ome e dge r e tou ched o r a b ra s ion f l ake s a s u t i l ized f l ak e s . Mo s t u n r e touched a nd u nu sed f l ak e s ( # 12 17 ) w e r e e a s i ly p i ck ed o u t . H oweve r , i ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a t i nt h i s e xpe r imen ta l s e t t h e r e w e r e n o n a tu ra l ly o r c u l tu ra l ly d amaged i t em s a s a r e su l t o f w a sh ing , t r an spo r t ing , t r amp l ing , o r t r owe l r e touch ing . T he se t y pe s o f d amage a r e c ommon i n a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s . I n t h e u t i l i zed e xpe r imen ta l s amp le s , a lmo s ta l t ho se u sed o n s of t ma te r ia l s s u ch a sm ea t , h ide , a nd t h e l i ke ( # 25 -28 , 3 1 , 3 4 , 3 8 , 4 3 ) , w e r e i n co r r ec t ly i d en t i f i ed . P o l ish , r ound ing , a nd m ic roch ipp ing f r ac t u r e s r e su l t ing f r om t h e se a c t iv i t ie s c an o n ly b e o b se rved u nde r am ic ro scope . B yc on t ra s t , f l ake s u sed o n h a rd m a te r ia l s s u ch a sb one , a n t le r , a nd d ry w ood l e f tc l ea rc h ipp ing s c a r so nt h e u t i l ized e dge w h ich w e r e e a s i ly d e tec ted b y t h e b l ind t e s t e r s . H oweve r , t h r ee e xpe r imen ta l f l ake s u sed t o b o r e e i th e r h a rd m a te r ia l s o r s o f t m a t e r ia l s ( # 23 , 2 5 , 3 4 ) w e r e t o ta l ly m i s in te rp r e ted b y t h e t h r ee p rac t i t ione r s b ecau se t h e u t i l ized p o r t ion s o ft h ese f l ak e s w e r e l im i t ed t ot h e i rt i p s , l e av ing t h e l a te ra l e dge su ndamaged . T he se r e su l t s ma tch t hose o f Y oung a nd B amf o r th 's ( Y oung a nd B amf o r th 1 990 :T ab le s 2

T o i l u s t ra te t h i s p o in t , w e c a r r ied o u t a n e xpe r i m en t s im i la rt ot h e o ne p e r f o rmed b yY oung a nd B amf o r th ( 1990 ) a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fT o ron to i n e a r ly 1 9 95 . T h r ee g radua te s t uden t s , e ach w i th s om e l i t h ic a na ly s i s e xpe r ience , v o lun tee r ed t o p a r t ic ipa te i n ab l ind t e s t . T hey w e r e g i ven as e t o f 4 5 p i ece s t h a t c on s i s ted o f b o th u sed a nd u nu sed f l akes . E a ch w a s i n s t ru c ted t h a t o n ly a p o r t ion o ft h ese f l ake sw a su t i l ized b ym ef o rv a r -

a nd 3 ) e xpe r imen t . T he i r t e s t i n vo lved n ine a r chaeo log i s t sa nd e l even u sed a nd u nu sed f l akes a nd m in ima l ly r e touched f l ak e s . T he r e su l t s a r e a l so " no t v e ry e ncou rag ing : o n ly 3 6 o u t o f 1 44 p o s s ib le i n f e r en ce s , o r2 5 p e r cen t , w e r e c o r r ec t ." ( Y oung a nd B amf o r th 1 99 1 :404 ) . T he i r e xpe r i m en t ,s upp lemen t ed b yo u r s ,s ugge s t st h a ts imp ly s o r t ing u t i l ized f l ak e s b y d i s t ingu i sh ing e dge d amage i sh i gh ly i n accu ra te . Mac ro scop ic i d en t i f i ca t ion o f u sed e dge s o n f l ak ed s t on e a r t if ac t s s hou ld b e c a r r ied o u t w i th e x t r eme c au t ion i fi t mu s t b e c a r r ied o u t a ta l l ( Y oung a nd B amf o r th 1 99 1 :408 ) .

i o u s t a sk s , wh i le t h e o t h e r s w e r e i n ten t iona l ly r e tou ch ed , o r n o t mod if ied a t a l l . P a r t ic ipan t s w e r ea s ked a si ft h ey w e r e c a ta log ing t h e a s sem b l age s oa st od e te rm ine w h ich f l ake sw e r e q ua l i fed a su t i l ized f l ak e s . O ne o ft h em w a sa l so p e r m i t t ed t ou se a 1 0x h and len s . T he g oa l o ft h i s e xe r c i s e w a s t od e te rm ine h ow w e l l ap ra c t i t ion e rc ou ld j udge w he the r af l ake h ad b een u t i l ized ,

I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t , w h i le Is t rong ly s ugge s t t h e u se o f" u t i l ized f l ake s" a s ac a tego r ized t y pe 3 1

C hap te r3 i nl i t h ic c l a s s if i ca t ion b e e l im ina ted , t h e t e rm i s s t i l lu sef u ld e sc r ib ing t o o lu s e -pa t te rn ing i ng en e r a l . I nt h i s s t udy , Iu se " u t i l ized f l ak e s ," o r" u t i l i zed p i ece s ," t or e f e r o n ly t oo b jec t s w h ich a r e d e te rm ined t o h ave b een u sed t h rough m ic ro s c op ic e xam ina t ion . I n a no the r w o rd s , " u t i l ized f l ake s" r e p r e sen t sp i ece so fa l t y pe so fl i t h ic a r t i f a c t s ,n o t as i ng le t y pe .

A Work ing T ypo logy I n my s t udy o fl i t h ic a r t if ac t s , Ie x c lude t h et e rm " t oo l" a nd " u t i l ized f l ake" f r om l i t h ic c l a s s if i ca t i on ( Sh en 2 000 , i np r e s s ) . T h i s s y s tem s ugg e s t s t h a t a l l l i t h ic a r t if ac t s f r om a n a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage c an b e d i v ided i n to f o u r c l a s se s : c or e s ,f ormed t y pe s , u nr e touched f l ak e s , a ndf l ak -

T ab le 3 . 1 : B l ind T es t so nU t i l ized F lake s . U t i l iza t ion

A

B

C

1

O nondaga

r e touched

n one

T

1

F

2

O nondaga

r e touched

n one

T

F

F

3

O nondaga

r e touched

n one

T

I

T

4

O nondaga

r e touched

n one

T

I

F

5

O nondaga

r e touched

n one

F

F

F

6

O nondaga

r e touched

n one

F

F

T

7

H a ld imand

r e touched

n one

F

T

T

8

H a ld imand

r e touched

n one

T

T

T

9

H a ld imand

r e touched

n one

T

F

F

1 0

H a ld imand

r e touched

n one

F

F

F

1

H a ld imand

r e touched

n one

F

F

F

1 2

H a ld imand

n o tr e touched

n one

T

T

T

1 3

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

n one

T

T

F

1 4

H a ld imand

n o tr e touched

n one

T

1

T

1 5

H a ld imand

n o tr e touched

n one

T

T

T

1 6

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

n one

T

T

T

1 7

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

n one

F

T

T

1 8

O b s id ian

n o tr e touched

n one

F

F ‚

T

1 9

O b s id ian

r e touched

n one

F

r

F

2 0

O b s id ian

r e touched

n one

F

1

F

2 1

O bs id ian

n o tr e touched

n one

T

F

F

2 2

O b s id ian

n o tr e touched

s c r ap ing h a rd w ood

T

I

T

2 3

O b s id ian

n o tr e touched

s aw ing h a rd w ood

F

F

F

2 4

O b s id ian

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing h a rd w ood

T

T

T

2 5

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

d r i l l ing f i sh s k in

F

F

F

2 6

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s aw ing h a rd w ood

T

F

F

2 7

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

d r i l l ing p i gh i de

T

F

F

2 8

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing f i sh

F

F

T

2 9

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

c u t t ing p o rk m ea t

F

F

F

3 0

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

c u t t ing f r e sh w ood

T

1 -

T

3 1

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing c a r ro t s

F

F

F

3 2

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s aw ing a n t le r

T

I

T

3

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

c u t t ing f r e sh w ood

T

F

T

3 4

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

b o r ing c a r ro t s

F

F

F

3 5

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing d r ied h ide

T

T

T

3 6

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s l i c ing d r ied h i de

F

F

T

3 7

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s aw ing d r ied b one

T

T

T

3 8

H a ld imand

n o tr e touched

c u t t ing c a r ro t s

F

F

T

3 9

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing s oaked b one

T

T

T

4 0

H a ld imand

n o tr e touched

s aw ing d r ied b one

T

I

F

4 1

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing h a rd w ood

T

T

T

4 2

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing f r e sh w ood

1 '

T

T

4 3

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing f r e sh b one

F

F

F

4 4

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing d r ied h i de

T

T

T

4 5

O nondaga

n o tr e touched

s c rap ing s wee tp o ta to

F

F

F

5 .60%

5 .60%

5 .60%

S pec imen #

R aw Ma ter ia l E dge Mod if ica t ion

C o r rec t ion R a te

* : RM=Raw Ma ter ia l ; A ,B ,C =s co r e sf o rt h r ee e xpe r imen te r s ;T =T rue ; F =Fa lse

3 2

Me thod s i n gd ebr i s( F ig . 3 . 1) . F o rmed T y pes U se o ft h et e rm " f o rmed t y pe" i sp ropo sed h e r et o r e p lace t h e t e rm " t oo l" c a tego ry . A n o b jec t m ay b e a" t oo l" b ecau se i ti sm anuf a c tu red a c co rd ing t o ap a r t icu la r d e s ign s p ec if ica t ion f o r ap a r t icu l a r p u rpo s e , o r b ecau se i ti su t i l ized a s s u ch . S ome d e s ign sr ef lec tt h e i rf unc t ion s , s u ch a sp ro j e c t i le p o in t s , s c rape r s a nd d r i l l s . T he se o b jec t s e xh ib i tr e gu la r ,p a t te rned a l te ra t ion so fe dge sa nd s u rf ace s a s ar e su l t o fd e l ibe r a te r e tou ch . T he i r i n ten t iona l mod if ica t ion f o r s p ec if ic u se — t h e i r mo rpho logy —mak e st h em " t oo l s ," a st h i sw o rd i s c ommon ly u nde r s tood a nd u sed b y O n ta r io a r chaeo log i s t s e ngaged i nl i t h ic c l a s s if i ca t ion .

I ti sw o r th n o t ing t h a t p i ece s w i th m ac ro -f ra c t u r e s , w h ich m ay h ave b een c au sed b y n a tu ra l f o r ce s , h uman t r amp l ing , o r d i r ec t u t i l iza t ion , s hou ld n o tb e c on s ide red a sv a r ia t ion s o ff o rmed t y pe s . T h e s ame h o ld s t r ue f o r t h o se s pec im en s d i sp lay ing ap hy s ica ls im i la r i ty t ot h et y pe f o rm s , b u t w h ich l a ck e v idence o f i n ten t iona l r e touch . A s Im en t ioned e a r l ie r , manuf ac tu r e r e touch i s o f ten d i ff i cu l tt od i s t ingu i sh f r om u se o rn on -u se e dge d amage .T os e t ac ommon ly a ccep tab le r u le , Id e l ibe ra te ly d ef ined r e touch b a sed u pon : ( 1 )t h e p r e sence o f a t l e a s t t h r ee o r mo r e c on t iguou s f l ak e s c a r s i n as im i la r p a t ter n o r ien t ed r ough ly p e rpend icu la rt ot h e e dge ; a nd ( 2 ) t h e max imum l e ng th o ft h e i n d iv idua l f l ake s c a r , w h ich s hou ld b ea tl e a s t 2mm .

A p rob lem o ccu r s , h oweve r , w hen t h e w o rd " t oo l" i su s ed t or e f e rt oo b jec t sc l a s s if ied a cco rd i n g t of u n c t iona l c r i te r ia a sw e l l . I n af unc t iona l t ypo logy ,t h is s ame w o rd " t oo l" m ay r e f e rt oa r t i f a c t s t h a t h ave b een u sed , r e ga rd le s s o f t h e i r s hape .A l though s haped a r t if ac t sh ave ap a r t icu la r u se r e la ted f unc t ion o r f u nc t ion s , t h e s t udy o f a r t if a c t f u nc t ion i s m e thodo log ica l ly d i s t inc t , d epend ing a s i td oe s o n u se -wea r a na ly s i s . A mo rpho log ica l " s c rape r" m igh t n o t a lway s h ave b een u sed f o r s c rap ing w he r ea s , c onve r se ly , a f l ake o f n o d i s t inc t ive s h ape m igh t h ave b een u sed a s as c rape r . T o a vo id c onf u s ion i nt e rm i n o logy , amo rpho log ica l s c r ape r a nd o t he r t y pe s pec if ic o b jec t s s hou ld n o t , p e rhap s , b e c on s id e r ed a sb e long ing t ot h e mo r eg en e r a lc a tego ry o f " t oo l ," b u tr a the rt os om eo t he r -named c oncep tu a lc a t ego ry , s uch a st h e " t ype c o l lec t ion ," at e rm p ropo sed b y O de l l ( 1 985 , 1 996 , 1 998 ) . A dop t ion o fo n eo ft h ese a l te rna t ive t e rm sf o r" t oo l" w ou ld mak e i tp o s s ib le f o rt h et e rm " t oo l" t or e f e rs o le l yt oo b jec t s t h a t a r e i n t e rp r e ted a sh av ing b een u t i l ized .

I nve s tmen t o fh uman e ne rgy i nt h e m od if ica t ion p roce s s m ak e s i tl i k e ly t h a t mo s t f o rmed t y pe a r t if ac t s h ad p a r t icu la r u se r e la t ed f unc t ion ( s ) . H oweve r ,t h es t udy o fa r t if ac tf unc t ion i sm e thod o l og ica l ly d i f f e r en t , a nd s hou ld b e a dd r e s sed i n dependen t ly o ft y po logy . L i th ic a r t if ac t s m igh t n o t b e mod if ied f o r f unc t iona l r e a son s o n ly : r a the r , s ome mod if ica t ion r e f lec t m an if e s ta t ion s o fs t y le .R econ s t ruc t ion o fc u l tu r a lp r ef e ren ce si n r e touch t e chn ique s a mong c er ta in p reh i s to r ic g roup sh a sb een d ocumen ted t h rough t h es t udy o f r e touch s t y le s a mong c e r ta in N ea r E a s t a nd A f r ican l i t h ic i n du s t r ie s ( e .g . , Ma rk s 1 976 , 1 977 ; H en ry 1 9 89a , 1 985 ; C lo se 1 978 , 1 989 ) . T hu s , a na ly s i s o f r e touch a t t r ibu te s mu s t p rov ide a f o cu s f o rt h e c l a s so ff o rmed t y pe s . A r t if a c t s a s s igned t o t h e f o rmed t y pe c l a s s a r e c ha ra c te r ized b y e i the r s u rf ac ia l r e touch o re dge r e tou ch . T he se p i ece s a r e u sua l ly n am ed a c co rd i n g t o mo rpho log ica l t y po log ie s s e t f o r th b y B o rde s ( 1961) a nd o the r s ( e .g . , C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ; T ix ie r 1 974 ; B a r -Y o sef 1 970 ; H en ry 1 973 ) . T he f o l low ing d e sc r ip t ion s o f e l even t y pe s a r e a pp l ied o n ly t ot h e l i t h ic a s sem b l age s s t ud ied i nt h i sr e sea r ch .

T h e f o rmed t y pe , t h e r ef o r e , i sd ef ined h e r e a s a c l u s te r o fp i ece s t h a t d i sp lay o bv iou s a nd i n ten t i ona l m od if ica t ion t h rough r e tou ch i n to c e r ta in f o rm s . I n ten t iona l mod if ica t ion r e f e r s t od e l ibe r a t e r e touch , a nd s how s r e gu la r p a t te rned a l te r a t ion s o n t h e e dge s o r s u rf ace s o fl i th ic o b jec t s . F o rmed t ype s s u ch a s p ro jec t i le p o in t , b i f ace , u n if a ce ,s c rape r ,d r i l l ,e t c . ,a r er e f e r red t oo n ly o n t h e b a s is o f p hy s ica l a ppea r an ce , r a the r t h an a c co rd ing t ot h e f un c t iona li d en t i ty o ft h ep i ece s .

P ro jec t i l e P o in t : A n o b jec t t h a t h a s b i la te ra l s ymme t r ica l e dge s c onve rg ing t o ap o in t w i th b i f a c ia l ly o r ,r a re ly ,u n if ac ia l ly f l aked i st e rm ed a p ro jec t i le p o in t ( J u s t ice 1 987 ) . B a sa l mod if ica t i on i st h e mo s t d i s t inc t ive c ha ra c te r i s t ic u sed t o d i sc r im ina te t h i st y pe f r om o t he r s .

3 3

F ig . 3 . 1 : F low -Cha r t I nd ica t ing L i th ic C la s s i f ica t ion A pp l ied i nT h is S tudy .

C hap te r3

3 4

Me thod s B if ace : A n o b jec t t h a t i sb i f ac ia l ly f l ak ed , a nd c anno tb ec l a s s if ied o t he rw i se i st e rmed ab i f ace . T h e i t em i ss u rf ace r e touched f o r t h e mo s t p a r t , r a th e r t h an r e s t r ic ted t o t h e p e r iphe ry o f t h e p i ece s . B if a ce s ub type s a r e d ef ined a cco rd ing t o t h e r e du c t ion s equen ce o u t l in ed b y C a l lahan ( 1 979 ) , e x cep t t h a t h i s s t age 1( p rocu r emen t ) i s e xc luded . S t age s 1 3 h e r e a r eh i s s t age s2 -4 . T he s t ag e 1b i f ace , o r C a l lahan ' s " i n i t ia l e dg ing b i f a ce" ( Ca l lahan 1 979 :10 ) , i sc ha rac te r ized b y r ough ly s ymme t r ica l a nd w id e ly s pa ced s c a r s a l ong t h em a rg in . T he p i ece o f t en d i sp lay s ad en t i cu la te o r c u rvy o u t l ine . T h e w id th th ickne s s r a t io o f ac omp le te s t age 1b i f a ce i s2 : 1 o rg r ea te r ( Ca l lahan 1 979 :10 ) . T h e s t age 2b i f ace , o r " p r i m a ry t h inn ing b i f ace ," s how s m in ima l e dge p ro j e c t ion a nd i regu la r i t ie s , a nd t h e c en t r a l r i dge i s l e s s s i nuou s t h an t h a t o f t h e p r ev iou s s t age . A c omp le t es t age 2p i ece h a s aw id th th ickne s sr a t io o f 3 : 1 o r 4 : 1 , a nd a n e dge a ng le r e s t r ic ted t o

o n t h e l o ca t ion a nd o r ien ta t ion o f t h e r e tou ch , r e touched p i ece s a r e d i v ided i n to u n i la te ra l o bve r se ( do r sa l s i de ) , b i la te ra l -obve r se , u n i la t e r a l inve r se ( v en t ra l s i de ) , b i la te ra l inve r se , a nd a l te rna t ed ( bo th s i de s )r e touched p i ece s . P a r t ia l ly r e touched p i ece s a r e t h o se h av ing a r e touched e dge l e ng th c omp r i s ing l e s s t h an o n e -f if th o ft h e e dge .

b e tween 4 00 a nd 6 0 0.A s t age 3b i f a ce h a s af l a t t e n ed c r o s s sec t ion w i th aw / t r a t io i ne xce s s o f

N o tch : A n o t ch , a s n amed , p o s se s ses n o tched r e touch o n t h e e dge . Mo r e c ommon ly , t h ey a r e c a l led s pok e shave s i n t h e l i t h ic a s semb lage s i n t h e N o r thea s t . S ub type s o ft h e n o tch a r e d ef ined a cco rd ing t o t h e n umbe r o f n o t ched r e touche s ( s ing le , d oub le , o r mu l t ip le ) ( a l so s e e T ix ie r 1 974 ) .

D r i l l : Ad r i l lh a s ap ronoun ced ,r ough ly p a ra l le l s i ded p ro jec t ion o r b i t . T h i s b i t i s b i f ac ia l ly r e touched a nd i sr hombo id to -c i r cu la r i n c r o s s s e c t ion . U sua l ly ad r i l l i sc on s id e r ed t ob e ab i f a c i a lt o o l . H oweve r , Ic on s ide rd r i l l st ob ea ne dge mod if ied f o rmed t y pe b ecau se t h e b i f ac ia l ly r e touched b i t i sa c tua l ly a n e dg ing mod if ica t ion . I tm ay b ecome a s u rf ace -mod if ied f o rmed t y pe o n ly i ft h e n on -b i tp a r to ft h e o b jec te xh ib i t se v i d ence o fs u rf ace r e touch .

4 : 1 a nd e dge a ng le s c on s is t en t ly i nt h e 2 5 0 -4 50 r a nge . T h e e dge o f t h e s t ag e 3b i f a ce i sq u i te s t r a igh t a nd s ca r s a r e c l o se ly s paced . O ne o ft h e p r inc ipa l f e a tu r e s d i s t ingu i sh ing t h i s s t age f r om t h e p r ev iou s o ne i st h a t f l ake s f r equen t ly e x tend p a s t t h e c en te r o ft h e p i ece a nd u nde rcu t p r ev i o u s ly p roduced f l ak e s c a r s f r om t h e o ppo s i t e m a rg in . U n if ace :

B ur in : Ab u r in i sd ef ined b y t h e t e chno log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic o f ab l ow t r an sve r se t o a n e dge , o f ten t r an sve r se t ot h ep i ece i t se lf .T he n umbe ro f b l ow sa nd b low l o ca t ion sf o rm d i f f e r en ts ub type s o fb u r in s . T ix ie r ' sc l a s s if ica t ion ( 1 974 )o fb ur in s , d e r ived f r om t h a to fB o rd e s( 1 96 1) ,i sc ommon ly u sed a nd a dop t ed h e r e .

A u n if a ce i s s u r f a c ia l ly r e touched ,

e i the ro nt h ed o r sa lo rv en t ra ls i de ,a nd u sua l ly o n t h e m o r e c onvex s u rf a ce . T he f l ak ing s c a r s a r e u sua l ly i n va s ive , e x tend ing p a s t t h e c en t ra l l i ne , t h ough s c a r s s ome t im e sr ema in a l ong t h e ma rg in .

P e rf ora tor : A p e rf o ra to r , s ome t ime s c a l led a " g rave r ," i sc ha ra c te r ized b y t h e p r e sen ce o f a s ho r t a nd b road p ro jec t ion , i nc on t ra s t t o ad r i l l . T o q ua l if y a s ap e r f o ra to r , t h e p ro jec t ion mu s t e xh ib i t i n ten t iona l mod if ica t ion o n b o th s i de s o f t h et i p .

S craper : A s c r ape r c an b e e i the r u n if ac ia l o r b i f a c ia l a nd d i sp lay s as t eep ly r e touched e dge . O ne s u r f ace o ft h e s c rape r i su sua l ly f l a t , w h i le t h e o t he r i sc onvex . S c rape r s a r e d i s t ingu i shed f r om o t h e re dge r e touched t y pe si nt h a tt h ey u su a ly p o s se s s s t eepe rr e touch a nd c on t inuou s mod i f ca t ion a l ong o ne o r mo r e e dge s . T wo m a jo r s ub type so fs c rape r s a r e d ef ined a cco rd ing t ot h e l o ca t ion o f t h e s t eep e dge : e nd sc rape r s a nd s i de sc rape r s .

T runca t ion : At r unca t ion e xh ib i t s m a rg ina l , r e g u l a r , a nd c on t inuou s r e tou ch , t r unca t ing e i the r a p rox ima l , ad i s ta l , o r al a t e ra l p a r t o fa n o b jec t . T he mod if ica t ion n o rma l ly e xh ib i t s a b rup t r e touch o nt h ee dge .

R e touched P iece : A r e tou ched p i ece p o s se s se s i n t en t iona lr e tou ch ,b u ti t se dge i sn o ts i gn if ican t -

M icro l i th : R e tou ched p i ece s ,g eome t r ic ( t r iang le , l u na te , a nd t r apeze / r ec tang le ) a nd n on -geome t r ic

l ym od if ied i n to af u r the rc l a s s if iab le f o rm .B a sed 3 5

C hap ter 3 f o rm s , a r e m ade o n b l ade le t s w i th s p ec ia l t e ch -

Amo rphou s c o re t e chno logy m ay o f ten i n d ica te u n s tanda rd ized p rodu c t ion w h ich , a s a r gued b y s ome a u tho r s( J ohn son 1 986 , 1 989 ; C u s te r 1 987 ; P a r ry a nd K e l ly 1 987 ) , r e su l ted i n ap r edom i n ance o f" exped ien t" f l ake t o o l s .

n iqu e s . C o r es A c o r e , a s c ommon ly r e cogn ized , i sa n o b jec t f r om w h ich f l ake s h ave b een r emoved . J ohn son ( 1987 ) p o in t s o u t t h a t , t o d e t e rm in e l i t h ic t o o l p roduc t ion s y s tem s ,o ne s hou ld s t a r tw i th t h ed i s t i nc t ion b e tween a mo rphou s c o r e a nd p r epa r ed c o r et e chno logy .D ef in ing mo rpho log ica lt y pe so f c o r e sd epend s o nt h e a ppea ran ce o fc o re s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm sa nd c o r e f a ce t s . U n l ik e c o r e s f r om O ld Wo r ld l i t h ic a s semb lage s , c o res r e cove red f r om t h e No r thea s te rn Wood land s t e nd t ob e a mo rphou s , w h ich r e nde r s t h em d i f f icu l t t o c l a s s if y . " Amo rphou s c o r e" i s c ommon ly u sed t od e sc r ibe t h e c o r e mo rpho logy r e cove red f r om t h i s p a r t o ft h e w o r ld ( J ohn son 1 986 , 1 989 ; C u s te r 1 987 ; P a t te r son 1 987 ) . I n c on t ra s t ,c o r e sw h ich p r e sen t ar e gu la rs hape s u ch a sc y l ind r ica l a nd p y ram ida l c o r e s a r e c l a s s if ied a s" p r epa r ed c o r e s" ( J ohn son a nd Mo r row 1 987 ) . F o r t h e p u rpo se s o f c ompa r i son Ia dop t t h e se t e rm s i nt h i ss t udy . P r epar ed c or e s a r e o ne s w ho se p l a tf o rm s a r e f o rmed a nd m a in ta ined i no rde rt or emove p r ed e t e rm in ed f l ak e s( e .g . ,b l ade s ) . Ap r inc ip le f e a tu r e t h a td i s t ingu i she st h i st y pe o fc o r e f r om o the r s i s t h e p r e sence o f ap l a tf o rm o r p l a tf o rm s f r om wh ich mo s t f l akes ( i nc lud ing b l ades ) w e r e r emoved i n ac on s is ten t o r ien ta t ion . T h i s t y pe o f c o r e c o r re spond s t os i ng le p l a tf o rm a nd o ppo sed o r r i gh t a ng le p l a tf o rm ( two p l a tf o rm s ) c o r e s i n t h eO ld Wo r ld ( e .g . ,C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . T he p r epa r ed c o r et e chno logy o f ten r e qu i r e s s p e c if ic p rocedu r e s t o m ak e s t anda rd ized p roduc t s , s u ch a sb l ad e so rL eva l lo i sf l ake s . A l though v e ry f ew s p ec ia l ized c o r e s ,i fa ny a ta l l ,a r er e cogn ized i n N o r thea s te rn Wood land l i t h ic a s semb lage s ,

B ipo lar c or e s a r e t h o se t h a t p r oduced b i po la r f l ake sw i th b i po la rr e duc t ion . T h i st e chn ique h a s b een d i scu s sed b y B inf o rd a nd Q u imby ( 1 963 ) , C rab t r ee ( 1972 :42 ) , F o r sman ( 1 975 ) , H ayden ( 1980 ) , B a rham ( 1987 ) , C a sey ( 1 993 ) , a nd K u i j t e t a l . ( 1995 ) . C o r e s a r e s t ruck f r om o n e e nd , wh i le t h e o t he r e nd i sp l aced o n a n a nv i l . T hey a r e o f t en " t r iangu la r , r e c tangu la r , o rp i e shaped , w i th c ha rac te r is t ic p l a tf o rm c r u sh ing a nd f l ake r emova l o n o ne o r b o th e nd s" ( Ku i j t e t a l . 1 995 :118 ) . F l ake s a nd b l ade s m ay b e r emoved f r om b o th p l a tf o rm s o n o ne o r b o th s u rf ace s ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 :9 1) . C or ef ragmen ti sl i s ted a s as epa r a t es ub type h e r e b ecau se c o r e f r agmen t s n o rma l ly r e p r e sen t a l a rge p o r t ion o ft h ec o r ea s semb lage . Ac o r ef r ag m en t e xh ib i t s o n ly ap a r t ia l s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm , i f a ny a ta l l . O ne s u rf ace o ft h e c o r e f r agmen td oe s n o t h ave a ny n ega t ive s c a r s , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e p i ece s a r e " b low -of f ' b yp roduc t s o fc o r e r e duc t i on . T h e se p i ece s a r e r e la t ive ly l a rge b l ocky c hunk s , b u t t h ey a r e n o t b ig e nough t oc on t inue f l ak e r emova l . U nre touched F l akes O f ten t h i sg roup o fl i t h ic a r t if ac t si sr e f e r r ed t oa s " deb i tage" o r" deb r i s" i nO n ta r io a r chaeo log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion . T hey i n c lude " a l l w a s te m a te r ia l g en e ra t ed b y h uman s i nl i t h ic r e duc t ion" ( Sho t t 1 994 :70 ) . T h i s s t udy d ef ine s u nr e touched f l ak e s a s ag roup o ff l ake s t h a t h ave b een i n ten t iona l ly r emoved f r om c o r e s b u t d i sp lay n o e v id ence o f e dge re touch . T hese f l akes a r e d i s t ingu ished f r om f l ak ing d eb r i si nt h a tt h ey h ave t h ep o t en t ia l t ob e mod if ied i n to a ny o ft h e f or m ed t y pe s , b u t c an a l so b e u s ed d i r ec t ly a s u nmod if ied p i ece s . T hey c ou ld b eo f t en c ho sen a st o o lb l ank s ,s ot h a t u n r e touched f l ak e s a r e s ome t ime c a l led " ba s ic t oo ls" ( Ca sey 1 993 ) . T he c omp le t e u n r e tou ched f l ake s , w h ich a r e r e la t ive ly l a rge i n s i z e ( > 10 mm ) , n o rma l ly d i sp lay t h r ee s u r f ace s : ad o r sa l s u rf ace , av en t r a l s u rf ace , a nd as t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s u r f ace u n le s s t h e p l a tf o rm i sl i nea r o r p o in ted . C o r r e spond ing t ot h e s equen ce o fc o r er e du c t ion ,

t h i s t y pe o fc o r e may r e p r e sen t ar educ t ion t e ch n o logy t h a t ,p r e sumab ly , e xemp l if ie s s k i l lf u l a nd c on t ro l led f l ak er emova l . Amorphou sc or e s , i nc on t ra s t ,s how m in ima lp l a t f o rm p r epa ra t ion . F l ak e s a r e r emoved f r om d i f f e r en td i r ec t ion s ,a nd a s ar e su l t ,c o re sa r ei regu l a ri ns hape . T he c oun t e rpa r t o ft h is t y pe o fc o r e i nt h e O ld Wo r ld may b e mu l t i -d i r ec t iona l c o r e s o r f o rm le s s c o r e s ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . 3 6

Me thod s u n r e tou ch ed f l akes c an b ef u r the rd i v ided i n to t h e f o l low ing t y pe s : P r imar yf l ak e s a r e t h o se d i sp lay ing a tl e a s t o ne t h i rd c o r t ex o r n a tu ra l s u rf a ce c ove rage o n t h e i r d o r sa l s u rf a ce s . T h i s i n c lud e sb o th c onven t iona l l y r e cogn ized " p r ima ry f l ak e s" a nd " s econda ry f l ake s ," w h ich a r e a l so c a l led " deco r t ica t ion f l ak e s ." C or e t r imm ing f l ake s e xh ib i t e v idence o f c o r e p repa ra t ion , s ome t ime s c a l led " co re r e juvena t ion f l ak e s ." A t l e a s t o ne s i de o f t h e d o r sa l s u rf a ce f un c t ion ed a s as t r ik ing p l a tf o rm i ne a r l ie ru se so f t h e c o r e . B ipo lar f l ake s a r e b yp roduc t s o f b i po la r c o r e t e chno logy . T hu s , t h ey o f t en d i sp lay o ppo s ing b u lb s o fp e rcu s s ion a nd f o r ce w ave s ( r ipp le s ) o n t h ev en t ra ls u rf ace t h a tr un i no ppo s i t ed i rec t ion s . B if ace t h inn ing f l ake s a r e b yp roduc t s o f b i f a ce p rodu c t ion . T hu s , t h ey e xh ib i tt r a i t s i n d ica t ive o f ab i f a c ia le dge o nt h es t r ik ing p l a tf o rm . Mo s ts c a r f a ce t so nt h ed o r sa ls u rf a ce u sua l ly r un t r an sve r se t ot h e l o ng a x is o ft h e f l ake . P l a tf o rm a ng le s a r e o f t en a cu te a nd l i pp ing o r ,r a th e r , ad i f f u se b u lb o f p e r cu s s ion i sp r e sen t .

a ppea r i n t h e s amp led a s semb lage s . T he se i n c lude b yp roduc t s o fs p ec ia l p roduc t ion s u ch a s b ur in s pa l l s a nd m ic robu r in s . F l ak ing D eb r is F l ak ing d eb r i sr e f e r st ow a s te f l ak e st h a ta r eu su a ly b y -p roduc t s o f " b low -of f s" d u r ing p e r cu s s i on f l ak e r emova l , o rt i ny f l ak e s r e su l t ing f r om p r e s su r e f l ak ing . F l ak ing d eb r i s c on ta in s o n ly t wo m a jo rs ubd iv i s ion s : c h ip s a nd c hunk s . C h ip s a r e d ef ined a s s ma l l s ized p i ece s , w i th a m ax imum l e ng th o f l e s s t h an 1 0 mm . C hunk s r e f e rt op i ece sw i th a ni regu la ra nd a ngu la rf o rm , m ak ing i td i f f icu l t t od e te rm ine t h e i r d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l s i de s . C hunk sm ay e xceed 1 0 mm i ns i ze w he r ea s c h ip s , b y d ef in i t ion , m ay n o t . O n t h e o t he r h and , c h ip s e xh ib i t d i s t ingu i shab le v en t ra l a nd d o r sa l s u rf ace s , b u t c hunk s d o n o t . T he d i s t i nc t ion b e tween ac hunk a nd as ma l l s ized c o r e f r agmen t i ss om e t ime s u nc lea r , b u t p r inc ipa l ly , t h el a t te re xh ib i t sn ega t ive f l ak ing s c a r sw h i le t h e f o rme rd oe sn o t . U nf o r tuna te ly ,d ue t ot h en a tu r eo ff l ak ing d eb r i s , w a s te p i ece sh ave n o tb een g i ven a dequa te a t ten t i on u n t i lr e cen t ly ( Ah le r 1 989a , 1 989b ;P a t te r son a nd S o l lbe rge r 1 979 ; S t ah le a nd D unn 1 982 , 1 984 ) . B aum le r a nd D ownum ' s ( 1 989 ) e xpe r i m en ta l s t udy o f s ma l l s ize f l ak ing d eb r i s h a s d emon s t ra ted t h a t b y -p roduc t s o f u n if ac ia l r e touch ing ( e .g . , s c rape r m anuf a c tu r e ) a r e mo r p ho log ica l ly d i s t in c t f r om t h o se p roduced b y f l ak ec o r er educ t ion . T h ef o rme ra c t iv i t ie s ,t h e r e f o re , c an b e i s o la ted a nd i d en t if ied i nt h e a r chae o l og ica l r e co rd .

P la in . f l ak e sa r et h o se w h ich d on o tf a l l i n to o t h e r c a tego r ie s . Mo s t o f t h em m ay h ave b een i n ten t i ona l ly r emoved t ob eu sed a st o o lb l ank s . T he se p i ece s p o s ses s n o c o r t ex , a nd a r e o f ten c a l led " t e r t ia ry" o r" i n te r io r" f l ak e s . B lad e / b lade le t s a r e a l so k nown a s " p r i sma t ic f l ak e s" i n n o r thea s te rn N o r th Am e r ica . T h ey h ave r ough ly p a ra l le l e dge s w i th a t l e a s t o ne r i dg e r unn ing t h e l e ng th o f t h e b l ad e /b lade le t . S pec if i cm ea su r emen t sa r ea pp l ied t ot h em i nt h a t b o th h ave t ob e a tl e a s tt w ice a sl o ng a st h ey a r e w ide . A cco rd ing t o T ix ie r ( 1 974 ) , b l ade le t s a r e d i s t ingu ished f r om b l ade s b y t h e i r s ma l l s i ze , b e ing l e s s t h an 5 0 mm i nl e ng th a nd l e s s t h en 1 2 mm i nw id th . S ince n e i the r b l ade s n o r b l ade le t s a r e a ma jo r c omponen t o f u n r e touched f l ak e s a s semb lages f r om l a te Wood land c u l tu r e s , Ih ave c ho sen t ol ump t h em t o ge th e r f o ra na ly t ica l p u r -

T ypo -T echno log ica l Ana ly s i s : Manuf ac ture F l ak ed s t one t o o l m anuf ac tu r e g ene r a l ly c on s is t s o ft wo m a in s t ep s , e xc lud ing r aw m a te r ia l p ro c u r emen t . T he f i r s ts t ep i st oo b ta in p rope rf l ak e s ( b lank s )t ob eu sed d i r ec t ly a st o o l so rt ob e mod i f i ed i n to t oo l t y pe s . T h i s p roce s s i s af o rm o f c or er educ t ion . Me thod so ft r imm ing n odu le sa nd r e duc ing c o r es i ze c an v a ry ; f o re xamp le ,b i f ac ia l r e duc t ion , f l ake c o r e r e duc t ion , a nd b i po la r c o r e

p o se s . O the r s i n c lude t h o se t y pe s t h a t d o n o t r e gu la r ly 3 7

C hap ter 3 r e duc t ion h ave b een w e l l r e cogn ized a nd d i s c u s sed ( s ee Am ick a nd Mau ld in 1 989 ) . T h e s e c o nd s t ep , i fn ece s sa ry , i st o f a b r ica te t h e b l ank s i n to s haped o b jec t s b y s e conda ry r e touch e i the r o nt h e s u rf a ce o ro nt h e e dge o ft h e b l ank s . T h i s p roce s s i sr e f e r red t o a s t o o lp r oduc t ion i nt h i s s t udy . T hu s , t wo m a in o b jec t ive s o f t h e t y po t e chno log ica l a na ly s i s a r e t od e te rm ine : ( 1 ) w ha t k ind s o f c o re r educ t ion t e chno logy w e re e mp loyed a ts i te s , a nd ( 2 ) h ow s t one t o o l s w e r e p roduced .

i nd i sc r im ina t ing e a r ly f r om l a t e s t ages o fc o r e r e du c t ion ( Sho t t 1 995 , Mau ld in a nd Am ick 1 989 , Magn e 1 985 ) . K u i j t e t a l . ( 1 995 ) , f o l low ing S u l l ivan a nd R ozen ' s ( 1985 ) f l ak e t ypo logy , d emon s t ra ted t h a t b e s ide s b ipo la r c o r e a nd f l ak e mo rpho logy , t h e b r eakage o fu n r e tou ched f l ake s c an b e t h e b e s t i n d ica to r o fb i po la r c o re r educ t i on . C a sey ' s e xpe r imen t d emon s t ra t e s t h a t p r e d om inan t f l ak e s , r emoved b y b i po la r r edu c t ion , e xh ib i t c r u sh ed p l a tf o rm s , h inge a nd s nap d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion s , a nd f l a t o r d i f f u sed b u lb s hape s ( Ca sey 1 993 ) .

A na t t r ibu te i s am ea su rab le o ro b se rvab le q ua l i t yo fa na r t if ac ta nd m ay b ee i th e r ac on t inuou so r ad i sc re te v a r iab le . A f l ak e c an b ea r n ume rou s a t t r ibu te s ,t h u ss e lec t ion o fs uch a t t r ibu te ss hou ld b e s ub jec t t o t h e a na ly t ic p u rposes o f t h e r e sea r che r a nd s hou ld b e t e s t ed t h rough l i t h ic e xpe r imen ta t ion ( Am ick e ta l . 1 989 ; S ho t t 1 994 , 1 996a ; O de l l 1 989a ) . D ue t ot ime a nd f i nanc ia l c on s t ra in t s ,a ne xpe r imen tt h a t Ih ave d es ign ed t o t e s ta t t r ibu t e s o fl i th ic manuf ac tu r e h a s y e tt ob e c a r r ied o u t * . H oweve r , r e levan t e xpe r imen t s b y o t he r sh ave b een c on su l ted f o rt h i s s t udy a nd a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 3 . 2 . I ti so fn o t et h a tt h e a t t r ibu te s s e lec t ed a nd t e s ted b y e ach e xpe r imen te r a r e d i f f e r en t , b u t o ve ra l l t h e i r r e su l t s a r e v e ry i n f o rma t ive . S ho t t ( 1 994 ) s ugge s t s as e t o f e f ec t ive a t t r ibu te s f o r d eb r i s a na ly s is , i n c lud ing w e igh t , c o r tex , d o r sa l s c a r c oun t , p l a tf o rm a ng le , a nd p l a tf o rm f a ce t . O de l l ( 1989a , F ig . 1 0 & 11) d e r ived 1 3 d i sc r im ina t ing a t t r ibu te s . H e f ound , i na n a t temp t t od i s t ingu i sh f l ake c o r er e duc t ion f r om b i f ac ia lc o r er edu c t ion , t h a t a t t r ibu te s s uch a sb u lb s c a r s hape , d i s ta l t e r m ina t ion , a nd d o r sa l p e r ime te r s c a r r ing a r e p a r t i cu la r ly u sef u l ( Ode l l 1 989a ) . S im i la r c onc lu s i on s a r e f ound i n T omka ' s e xpe r imen t ( 1 989 ) . B u lb s c a r ,p l a tf o rm f a ce t , l a te ra l p rof i le a nd m a r g in , h ave b een f ound t ob e i n d ica to r so fd i f f e r en t l o ad ing f o r ce s f o r f l ak e d e tachmen t ( h a rd - a nd s of t -pe rcu s s ion a nd p r e s su re ) ( Hen ry e ta l . 1 976 ; H ayden a nd H u t ch ing s 1 989 ) , whe r ea s c o r tex , d o r sa ls ca rc oun t ,a nd p l a tf o rm a t t r ibu te sa r eu sed

A s f a r a sm e t r ic d a ta a r e c once rn ed , a na ly s i s o f s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion h a s g a ined much a t ten t ion r e cen t ly ( f o r l e ng thy r e v iew s e e S ho t t 1 994 ) . S eve r a l mode l s h ave b een p ropo sed i no rde r t o r e cogn ize b i f ac ia l c o r e r e duc t ion a ta r chaeo log i c a l s i t e s , s u ch a s P a t te r son ' s l o g l inea r mode l ( Pa t te r son 1 981 , 1 982 , 1 990 ) , S t ah le a nd Dunn ' s w e ibu l l d i s t r ibu t ion mode l ( S tah le a nd D unn 1 982 , 1 984 ) , a nd Ah le r ' s ma s s a n a ly s i s ( Ah le r 1 989a , 1 989b ) . Wh i le t h e se s t ud ie s a r e a t ap r e l im ina ry s t age a nd m ay y e t p rov id e mo re c on v i nc ing r e su l t s , f o rma l a na ly s is o f m e t r ic v a r i a b le s m ay s t i l l b e r e levan t . I n t h e e xper imen t c i ted a bove , O de l l ( 1989a ) f ound t h a t m ax imum l e ng th a nd m ax imum w id th a r et h eb e s ta t t r ibu te s f o r d i sc r im ina t ing f l ake s r emoved b y f l ake c o r e r educ t ion f r om b i f ac ia l f l akes . W id th a tm id sec t i on ,o nt h eo t he rh and ,i sa ne f f ec t ive i n d ica to ro f b i f ac ia l r edu c t ion s t age s . We igh t , t h ickne s s , a nd p l a tf o rm s i ze r e la t ive t of l ake s i ze , a r ec apab le o f d i s t ingu i sh ing p r e s su r e a pp l ica t ion f r om p e r cu s s i on ( Hen ry e ta l . 1 976 , H ayden a nd H u tch ing s 1 989 ) . S i ze c ompa r i son s b e tween v a r iou s u n r e touched f l ak e s a nd t o o l b l ank s o ff o rmed t y pe s c an a l so c on t r ibu te t oc o r e r e duc t ion a nd t o o l p roduc t ion s t ra t eg ie s( Hen ry 1 989 1 3 ; S hen 1 992 ) .I na dd i t ion , t h e o ve ra l l s i ze o f u n r e touched f l ak e s a nd t o o l b l ank s ,a nd o t he rd i sc re te a t t r ibu te ss u ch a sl a te r a lp rof i le ,d i s ta ls hape ,a l ignmen to fl a t e ra le dge s , a nd c r o s s sec t ion , h ave b een u sefu l i nd e sc r ib ing t h e mo rpho log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ics o fl i t h ic p rod u c t s . T he i r d if e r en t ia t ion a mong a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s c an y i e ld , t o s ome d eg r ee , c u l tu ra l i n f e r ence s ( Hen ry 1 973 , 1 995 ; S hen 1 992 ) .

A pp l ica t ion f o r f u nd ing f o r ac on t ro l led e xpe r imen t o f l i th ic c o re r e du c t ion t e chno logy a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f T o ron to i n 1 995 w a s s ubm i t ted t o t h e O n ta r io H e r i tage F ounda t ion . U nf o r tuna te ly , i th a s b een p u t o n h o ld d ue t o c ance l la t ion o ft h eg r an tp rog ram .

D e r iv ing c u l tu ra l 3 8

i n f e rences u s ing a t t r ibu te

Me thod s

T ab le 3 . 2 : E xper imen ta l S ource sC onsu l ted i nt h i s S tudy . A t tr ibu te s

S our ce s

R educ t ion T echno logy

A h le r( 1 989a 1 989b )

b i f a c ia lr e duc t ion

s i ze g r ade s

B a rham ( 1987 )

b i po la rr e duc t ion

r aw m a te r ia l , f l ake t y pe , s p a t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion

B aum le ra nd D ownum ( 1989 )

c o r ea nd u n if ac ia lr e duc t ion

c omp le tene s s , s i ze g r ade s

C a sey ( 1993 )

b i po la rr e duc t ion

b u lb s h ape ,p l a tf o rm t y pe

H en ry e ta l . ( 1 976 )

b i f a c ia lr e duc t ion

b u lb s c a r s ,w e igh t ,m ax imum t h ickne s s

K u i j te ta l .( 1995 )

b i po la rr e duc t ion

c omp le tene s s

M agne ( 1985 , 1 9 89 )

b i f a c ia lr e duc t ion

p l a tf o rm ,d o r sa l s c a rc oun t ,c o r tex ,

M au ld in a nd Am ick ( 1989 )

b i f ac ia lr e duc t ion

c o r tex ,f l ake s i ze ,p l a tf o rm s i ze ,

O de l l ( 1 989a )

i s ta lt e rm ina t ion ,d o r sa lp e r ime te rs c a r r ing , b i f ac ia la nd f l ake -co re r e duc t ion d

s c a r sc oun t ,c omp le tene s s ,w e igh t , d o r sa ls c a rr emova l ,b u lba rs c a r ,w e igh t , s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm t h ickne s s , w id th a tm id sec t ion P a t te r son ( 198 1 , 1 982 , 1 990 )

b i f ac ia lr e duc t ion

s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion

P a t te r son ( 1995 )

c o r er e duc t ion

h ea tt r ea tmen t

S ho t t( 1996a )

b i f ac ia lr e duc t ion

p l a tf o rm ,c o r tex ,s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion

S t ah le a nd D unn ( 1 982 , 1 984 )

b i f ac ia lr e duc t ion

s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion

T omka ( 1989 )

o r tex ,D o r sa l s c a rc oun t , s i ze ,p l a tf o rm f a ce t , b i f ac ia la nd f l ake -co r er e duc t ion c p l a tf o rm g r ind ing ,p l a tf o rm c o r tex

a na ly s i s may n o t b e a s s imp le a s m any l i t h ic e xpe r im en te r s e xpec t , h oweve r . F o r i n s tance , r emova l o f f l ak e s b y s of t h amme r p e r cu s s ion m ay p r oduce l i pp ing f l ak e s , b u t n o t a l l l i pp ing s c a r s a r e p rodu ced b y s of t h amme r p e r cu s s ion ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . F l ak e s w i th h i gh d o r sa l s c a r c oun t s m ay b e t h e r e su l t o f l a te r r e du c t ion s t age s . H oweve r , d u e t o ad ec r ea se i n f l ak e s i ze d u r ing c o r e r e du c t ion , d o r sa l s c a r c oun t s m ay n o t n ece s sa r i ly i n c rea se ( Mau ld in a nd Am ick 1 989 ) .

m a rg in s , a r e a lmo s t a lway s p rodu ced b y s of t h amme r p e r cu s s ion , w h e r ea s t h o se w i th l a rge p l a tf o rm f l ake s w i th c r u shed f a ce t s a r e p robab ly r emov ed b y h a rd h amm e rp e r cu s s ion . U s ing t h i s m e thod o fp a i r ed a t t r ibu te a na ly s i s , o re ven mu l t i p le a t t r ibu te e xam ina t ion ,i n t e rp r e ta t ion so fc o re r e du c t ion a nd t o o l p roduc t ion s hou ld b er e l iab le . S econd ary r e touch , e i the r o n s u rf ace s o r o n e dge s , i s an ece s sa ry a nd i mpo r tan tp rocedu r e i n t o o l m od if ica t ion , a nd i n f o rma t ion o n t o o l p ro d uc t ion c an b e f u r th e rr e t r ieved t h rough e xam in i n gt h er e tou ch t e chn ique se mp loyed . S ince t h e r e i s mo r e t h an o ne w ay t om ake at y pe o ft o o l , t h e c ho ice o fr e touch m e thod sb yt h ek nappe rr e f lec t s m an if e s ta t ion so fs t y le ( C lo se 1 978 , 1 989 ; H en ry 1 973 ) . I ti sb e l ieved t h a t t h e c ompa r i son a nd a na ly s i s o fr e tou ch a t t r ibu t e s y i e ld s i n f o rma t ion t h a th e lp st oi d en t if y al i t h ic i n du s t ry , o r as pec if i cc u l tu ra l g roup . I n izan e ta l . ( 1992 :67 -72 ) s um m a r ize s e ven c ommon r e touch v a r iab le s , d e r ived f r om e a r l ie r w o rk s o f B o rde s ( 196 1 , 1 969 ) a nd T ix ie r( 1 974 ) ,t h a ta r ew o r th c on s ide r ing . Among t h e se , r e touch t y pe , p o s i t ion o fr e touch , a nd p a t t e rn o f r e touch a r e h i gh ly r ega rded a s s t y l i s t ic i n d ica to r s ( Hen ry 1 973 :56 , C lo se 1 989 :12 ) .

T oa vo id s uch f r u s t ra t ion , Ia dop ted a na l te rna t ive a pp roa ch t ot h ei n te rp r e ta t ion o fa t t r ibu te s :p a i r ed a t t r ibu te a na ly s i s , a s a pp l ied b y T on ika ( 1989 ) a nd Mau ld in a nd Am ick ( 1 989 ) . T h i s m e thod c r o s s t abu la te sa t t r ibu t ec l a s se sa nd p l o t sp a i r so f a t t r ibu t e s i no rde rt ov e r if yt h e r e l iab i l i ty o fc o r e r e du c t ion i n f e r ences . A s Mau ld in a nd Am ick d emon s t ra te , a l though c o r tex c ove rage m igh t b e e xpec t ed t o d ec rea se d u r ing t h e c o r e r educ t ion p r o ce s s , ac omb ina t ion o f f l ak e s i ze a nd c o r t ex c ov e rage may p rov ide amo r e a ccu ra te r e p r e sen t a t ion o f t h e r e duc t ion s t age . S im i la r ly d o r sa l p e r ime te r s ca r r ing m igh t b e ag ood i n d ica to r o f b i f a c ia l r educ t ion , b u t t h i s i n f e rence c an b e e nhan ced b y a l so c on s ide r ing t h e mu l t ip le f a ce t p l a tf o rm a nd t h e c u rved l a t e ra l p rof i le . F l ak e s t h a th ave l i pp ing b u lb s ,w h ich a l so h ave r e la t ive l ys ma l l -s ized p l a tf o rm s a nd /o r e xpanded l a te ra l

T he o r ien ta t ion o f t h e a r t if ac t c ho sen w hen o b s e rv ing a t t r ibu t e s w a s d o r sa l s i de u p w i th t h e p rox ima l e nd o ft h e a r t if a c tt owa rd st h e o b se rve r 3 9

C hap ter 3 ( F ig . 3 . 2 ) . I nc a se s w he r e t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l s i de s h ave b een mod if ied , a sw i th b i f a c ia l t y pe s , t h es i d eo nw h ich t h ec a ta logue n umbe rw a sw r i t -

t h i s , a na l t e rna te s y s tem i s emp loy ed .I nt h i ss y s t em , t h e d i v id ing l i ne s o ft h e P C s e c t ion c ove r s a ne qua l a moun to ft h e s amp le p e r im e te r .

t e n i st r ea t ed a st h e " do r sa l" s i de . Wh i le r e co rd i n g t h e e xa c t l o ca t ion s o fr e touch u n i t s , If o und O de l l ' s 8 po la r c o -o rd ina te s y s t em ( PC ) u sef u l ( Ode l l 1 979 ) . T h i s P C s y s t em p l ace s s amp le s t o b e a na lyzed o n ap o la r c oo rd ina t e g r id d i v ided e qua l ly i n to e i gh tp o r t ion s ( F ig . 3 . 3 ) , a nd t h e P C s e c t ion i su sed t or e f e rt od i f f e ren ts e c t ion so ft h e l a te ra l e dge s o ft h e s amp le . D i s to r t ion o ccu r s i n t h eo b se rva t ion o fe l onga ted p i ece s ,a nd ,t oa vo id

U se -W ear Ana ly s i s : U t i l i za t ion C oncep t s , Me thod s , a nd D ef in i t ion s T he s t udy o f s t one t o o l u se h a s l o ng b een o f i n te r e s tt oa r chaeo log i s t s . O ve r ac en tu ry a go , S i r

D is ta l S hape

F i g . 3 . 2 : T he O r ien ta t ion o fA r t if ac tO b se rva t ion .

F ig . 3 . 3 : T he 8 -po la rC o -o rd ina te S y s tem ( adap ted f r om O de l l 1 979 ) . 4 0

Me thod s J ohn E van s 'p ub l ish ed A nc ien tS t one I mp lemen t s , W eapon sa nd O rnamen t so fG r ea tB r i ta in ( 1 872 ) . S i nce t h e i n t roduc t ion o f S em enov 's t r an s la ted m onog r aph P r eh i s tor ic T echno log y ( 1964 ) , u se w ea ra na ly s i sh a sb ecome a ne s s en t ia lc ompon en t o fl i th ic a r t if ac ta na ly s i si nN o r th Ame r ica . Ah i s t o r ic r e v iew o f t h i s p a r t icu la r m e thod i s n o t a pp rop r ia t e h e r e ; a nyone w ho i s i n te r e s ted i s r e f e r r ed t oT r ingham e ta l . ( 1 974 ) , O de l l ( 1 975 , 1 977 ) , H ayden ( 1979 ) , O de l l a nd V e r eeck en O de l l ( 1980 ) , K ee ley ( 1974 , 1 980 ) , a nd K amm inga ( 1982 ) . U se -wea r a na ly s is , a s a m ean st os t udy s t one t o o le dge d amage c au sed b y u se , h a s t h r ee a na ly t ic f o rm s a c co rd ing t oG race ( 1 990 ) : e dge -damage a na ly s i s , e dge -wea r a na ly s i s , a nd m ic ro -wea r a na ly s i s . E dge d amage a na ly s i s i sb a sed o n t h e mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s o fu sed e dge s a nd m a c ro -wea r . E xamp le s o ft h i s

s t one t o o l s . H oweve r , c l a r if ica t ion o ft h e d if e r e n ce s b e tween f unc t ion a nd u se h a sb een n eeded s i n ce t h e F i r s tC onf e r ence o nL i th ic U se -W ea ra t B u rnaby , B r i t i sh C o lumb ia , i n 1 977 ( Hayd en 1 979 :57 -62 ) . I n g ene ra l , " f un c t ion" h a s amu ch g r ea te r r a nge o f s o c ia l -cu l tu ra l s i gn if ican ce i n h uman b ehav io r t h an " u se ," ap o in t w h ich w a s m ade s i x ty y ea r sa go b yR a lph L in ton : T h e t e rm s f u n c t ion a nd u s e h av e b e en e mp loy ed i n t e r changeab ly e v en b y c e r ta in m embe r s o f t h e f u n c t iona l s c hoo l , b u t t h e a u tho rf e e l st h e r e i s av e ry r e a l d i s t in c t ion a nd t h a tt h e r ew i l lb ec on s t an tc on f u s ion u n le s st h i s i sm ad e c l ea r . T h e d if e r en ce b e tw e en u s e a nd f u n c t ion i sm o s to bv iou si nt h ec a s eo fm a t e r ia l e xp r e s s ion s o fc u l tu r e s u ch a st o o l s a nd u t en s i l s .T hu st h ep r im a ry u s eo fa na x ei sf o rc h ip p i ng , t h a t o f as p ad e f o r d i gg ing , b u t a ny o n e w i l l f e e l t h e i n app rop r ia t en e s s o fa p p ly ing t h e t e rm f u n c t ion t os u ch u t i l iza t ion s . T h e u s e o f a ny c u l tur e e l emen t i sa n e xpr e s s ion o fi t s r e la t ion t ot h ing s e x t erna l t ot h e s o c ia l cu l t u ra lc on f igura t ion ;i t sf un c t ion i sa ne xpr e s s i on o fi t sr e la t ion t ot h ing sw i th in t h a tc on f i gura t ion . T hu st h ea x eh a s au s eo ru s e sw i th r e spe c tt ot h en a tu r a le nv i ronm en to ft h eg r oup , i . e . ,t oc hop w ood . I th a sf u n c t ion sw i th r e sp e c t t ob o th t h en e ed so ft h eg r oup a nd t h eo pe r a t ion o fo t h e re l em en t sw i th in t h ec u l tu r a lc onf igu r a t i on . . .T h e f u n c t ion o f at r a i t c omp lex i st h e s um t o ta lo fi t sc on t r ibu t ion t ow a rd t h ep e rpe t u a t ion o f t h e s o c ia l -cu l tu r a l c onf igu ra t ion ( L in ton 1 9 36 :404 )( empha s i sm in e ) .

t y pe o fw ea ra na ly s i s a r e s e en i nS ch if f e r 's w o rk ( 1976 ) o n t h e J o in t l i th ic a s semb lage , P a r ry ' s w o rk ( 1 987 ) o n F o rma t ive O axaca , Mex ico , a nd C a sey ' s w o rk ( 1993 ) o n t h e K in tampo C omp lex i nN o r the rn G hana . T he se s t ud ie s h ave c on cen t r a ted o n e dge s i ze s , e dge a ng le s , s hape s o f e dge s , a nd d eg r ee o f mod if i ca t ion a nd f i n i sh ing , t oa r r ive a t" u se -po ten t ia lc a t ego r ies ." E dge -wea r a na ly s i s ,u s ing r e f lec t ive l igh tm ic ro scope s( l ow p owe rt e chn iqu e ) , c on s ide r s t h e o ve ra l l c onf igu r a t ion o fm ic ro -f rac tu r e s a nd a b ra s ion t o o b ta in i n f o rma t ion a bou t t oo l mo t ion s a nd t h e r a nge o f c on ta c t m a te r ia l s i n t e rm s o f t h e i r h a rdne s se s ( e .g . , O d e l l 1 977 , 1 996 ; L ewen s te in 1 987 ; S hea 1 99 1 ) . M ic ro -wea r a na ly s i s c on cen t ra te s o nu se p o l i sh d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd f o rma t ion s u s ing i n c i d en t l igh t m ic ro scopes o r S EM ( h igh -powe r t e chn iqu e ) ( e .g . , K ee ley 1 980 ; V aughan 1 985 ; Unge r -Ham i l ton 1 993 ; Y e rke s 1 987 ) . U s ing m ic ro -wea r a na ly s i s , mo r e p r ec i se i n f o rma t ion a bou t s p ec if ic c on tac t m a te r ia l s c an b e o b t a ined . A s G r a ce c l a im s ( 1990 ) , i ti su sef u l t oi n teg ra t e t h e t h r e e f o rm s o fu se -wea ra na ly s i s a s ah i e ra r c h ica l a na ly t ica lm e thod .

T hu s , t oL in ton , f un c t ion r e f e r s t ot h e i n ter r e la t i on sh ip o f i n d iv idua l s a nd n o th ing e l se , w h i le u se r e f e r st ot h e u t i l i za t ion o f at r a i tw i th in ac u l t u ra l s y s tem . F rom a n e vo lu t iona ry p e r spec t ive , D unne l l c on s ide r s t h ef unc t iona l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o fa no b jec tt ob et h o se w h ich " d i r ec t ly a f f ec tt h e D a rw in ian f i tne s s o f t h e p opu la t ion s i n w h ich t h ey o ccu r "( Dunne l l 1 978 :199 ) . H eb e l ieve st h a t f unc t iona l e l emen t s s hou ld b e t a k en i n to a ccoun t w i th r e spec t t o e vo lu t iona ry p roce s s , a nd t h a t " f unc t ion" s hou ld b e c on s id e r ed s e pa ra te ly f r om " u se" o ft oo l s i na r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s . I nt h e c on tex t o ft h i s s t udy , t h e r ef o re , Ic on s ide r t h a t a s t udy o f s t one t o o l e dge d amage i s am ean s o f r e t r iev ing i n f o rma t ion o nh ow t o o l s w e r e m an ip u l a ted i nd i r ec t c on ta c tw i th o t he rm a t e r ia ls ; t h a t i s , t o o l u se -pa t t e rn ing , n o t f un c t ion ( s ee H ayden 1 979 :57 -62 ) .

T rad i t iona l ly , t h e a na ly t ica l c on tex t o fs t one t o o l u se s t ud ies h a s b een f unc t iona l a na ly s is . " Fun c t iona l a na ly s is ," a si ti sc u r r en t ly p ra c t iced a mong mos t l i th ic a na ly s t s , i s r e s t r ic ted t o r e t r iev ing e v id ence o f t h e w ay i n wh ich s t one t o o l s a r t icu la te w i th o t he r m a te r ia l s i n o rde r t o p rov id e i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f p r eh i s to r ic b ehav io r ( Od e l l p e r s . c omm . ) ; t h a t i s ,t h e p hy s ica l u se o f 4 1

C hap te r3

A cco rd ing t o S ch if f e r , " u se" i sd ef ined " a s t h e m in ima l i n s tance o f b ehav io r d i r ec ted t owa rd s c omp le t ion o f at a sk" ( Sch if f e r 1 975 :250 , s e e a l so 1 979 :19 ) . A l though Ia m i ng ene ra l a g r ee m en t w i th t h i s d ef in i t ion , Ih ave a l te r ed t h e t e r m ino logy s l igh t ly . I nS ch if f e r ' s d ef in i t ion , at a sk t o b e a c comp l ished m ay c omp r i se a s e r ie s o f " u se s ." Id ef ine a " u se t a sk" ( UT ) t o e xp r e s s a p a r t icu la r t o o l mo t ion w i th o ne k i nd o f c on ta c t m a te r ia l , i . e . , s c rap ing s e a sona l w ood , o n al im i t e du se segmen to f as t one t o o l . B yd ef in i t ion ,a ny p a r t icu la r t o o l c an e xh ib i t s eve ra l d i f f e r en t u se t a sk s i f d i f f e r en t s egmen t s o f t h e e dge w e r e emp loyed . I nt h is s t udy , t h et e rm " u se" i su sed t o d e sc r ibe t o o lu t i l iza t ion i ng ene ra l ; t h u s t o o lu se p a t t e rn ing i sr e p r e sen ted b y as e r ie so f UT sd e te r m ined f r om u se -wea rs t udy .

A pa r t f r om my p e r sona l t r a in ing b y D r . O d e l l a t t h eU n ive r s i ty o fT u l sa ,t h e r e a r et wo r e a son sf o r c hoo s ing t h e l ow -powe r o ve r t h e h igh -powe r t e chn ique . F i r s t , f o r t h e l a s t f i f teen y ea r s , l ow p owe ru se -wea ra na ly s i s h a s p r oven t ob e ar e l i a b le m ean s o fp rov id ing u se ta sk a s se s sm en t s o f s t on et o o l s .A s ar e su l t ,i th a sb e en e mp loy ed i na g rea t n umbe r o f s t ud ies ( T omenchuk 1 985 ; L ewen s te in 1 987 ; S hea 1 987 , 1 991 , 1 995 ; R ou s seau 1 992 ; O de l l 1 996a ; P h i l l ip s 1 988 ; S i eve r t 1 992 ) . F o r y ea r s t h e r e h ave b een c r i t i c i sm sa nd a r gumen t so ve r whe th e ro rn o tt h el ow p owe ra pp roa ch c ou ld p rov ide a c cu ra te i n f o rma t i on o n p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion w ea r d e r ived f r om a b ra s ive u se s( R icha rd s 1 984 ; O d e l l 1 985 , 1 990 ) . T h i s s i tua t ion e vo lved , t o my k now ledge , d u e t o a n o ve r -empha s i s o n m ic rof rac tu r e s a sd i sc r im i n a t ing w ea r t y pe s i n O de l l ' s e a r ly w o rk ( 1 974 , 1 977 , 1 981b ) . O de l l ' s mo t iva t ion i n u s ing t h e l ow -powe rt e chn ique w a st oc a l la ten t ion t oe dge f r ac tu re sa t at ime when o n ly p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion s s e emed c ompa ra t ive ly r e l iab le i n d ica to r s o fu s e ( Kee ley 1 980 ) . A s w e h ave l e a rned , t h e l ow p owe ra pp roa ch i sc apab le o fd e t ec t ing p o l i sh a nd

I n o rde r t op r e sen t p o s s ib le u se ta sk s o f f l ak ed s t one t o o l sa tt h eP r in ce s sP o in ts i te s ,u se -wea ri s e s sen t ia l . O rme rod ( 1994 ) c a r r ied o u te dge -dam a ge a na ly s i so ff l aked s t one t oo l s a s ap a r to ft h e P r ince s s P o in t P ro jec t . H e a pp l ied S ch if f e r ' s m e thod o fu se -a t t r ibu te t y pe f l ow -cha r t s( S ch if f e r 1 976 ,T ab le s9 . 5 -9 .8 )t od e te rm ine t h eu se -po ten -

s t r ia t ion s . A b ra s ion i si nf a c ta ni mpo r tan tc r i t e r i o n w hen a s se s s ing e dge w ea r d e te rm ina t ion s ( Ode l lp e r s .c omm . ) . I no rde rt od emon s t ra te t h i s , t h i s s t udy w i l l p r e sen ta na dd i t ion a l s e to fe xpe r i men ta l a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta .

t i a lc a tego r ie so ft h eL one P ine l i t h ic a s semb lage . O rme rod ' s e dge d amage a na ly s i s d emon s t ra ted t h a t mo s tL one P ine t o o l sw e r ee mp loyed i nl i gh t d u ty a c t iv i t ie s ,w i th as ma l lp o r t ion o ff l ake t o o l s c apab le o fw o rk ing i nm ed ium -du ty a c t iv i t ie s .N o h eavy -du ty t oo ls w e re n o ted . T hese r e su l t s e ncou rage m e t oa s cend t ot h e n ex t l e ve l o fu se w ea r a na ly s i s b ecau se s amp le s f r om t h e L one P ine l i t h ic a s semb lage sh ave b een s e lec ted i nt h i s s t udy .

S econd , when i tc ome s t ot h e s t udy o fu se -pa t t e rn ing ,i ti sn ece s sa ry t oe xam ine al a rge n umbe r o fa r t if ac t s . S t one t oo l u se -pa t ter n ing c anno t b e g ene ra ted f r om e xam ina t ion o f l e s s t h an o n e o r t wo d ozen o fl i t h ic s amp le s ,n om a t te rh ow a c cu r a te t h e i ri nd iv idua la s se s smen t sa r e .G iven al i m i t ed t ime f r am e ,t h el ow -powe ru se -wea ra na ly s i s i sa dvan tageou s i nt h i s r e spec t . W i th my p r e sen t s k i l l , aw o rn p i ece t a ke s o n a ve r ag e a bou t 1 5 m inu te s t oa na lyze . T h i s m ean s t h a ta bou t 2 5 -35 p i ece s c an b e e xam ined w i th in as i ng le w o rk ing d ay . D u r ing at wo -yea r p e r iod , o v e r 2 , 000 a r t i f a c t s w e r e p roce s sed . Af u r the r a dvan tage o ft h e

T he r ef o r e , t h e s t udy o fs t one t o o l u se p a t te rn ing i nt h i s r e sea r ch i sa pp roa ched t h rough t h e l ow p owe r u se -wea r a na ly s i s . S e lec ted a r t if a c t s h ave b een e xam ined t h rough a s t e r eo scop ic m ic ro s cope w i th r ef lec t ive l i gh t ing . Two m ic ro scope s w e r eu sed : aN ikon SMZ 10 s e r ie sw i th amagn i f i ca t ion r a nge b e tween 6 . 5x a nd 4 0x ( a t t h e Un ive r s i ty o fT u l sa ) , a nd aN ikon SMZ -1 s e r ie s w i th am agn if ica t ion r a nge b e tween 8 x a nd 3 5x ( a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o fT o ron to ) . T he se m agn if ica t i on s h ave f u r the r b een e n la rged w i th t h e a s s i s -

l ow -powe ru se -wea ra pp roa ch i st h a ti th a s g r ea t p o ten t ia l i n i t s a pp l ica t ion i n v a r iou s t y pe s o f r e sea r ch . When l a rge s amp le s a r e e xam ined , t h e r e su l t s o fe dge w ea r d e te rm ina t ion s c an b e i n t e g r a ted w i th r e su l t s o f t h e t ypo t echno log ica l a na ly s i s . I n t h i s w ay , ac omp reh en s ive u nd e r s t and ing o fo ve ra l l l i t h ic p roduc t ion a nd u se c an

t a nce o f ap a i r o f2 0x e yep iece s a nd a2 x o b jec t i ve . T hu s , e dge -wea ri mage s c an b e e n la rged u p t o 1 60x . 4 2

Me thod s

T ab le 3 . 3 : L i s to fE dge Wear V ar iab le s . ( a dop ted i np a r tf r om O de l l( 1 977 , 1 996 ) )

M ic rof ra c tu re S ca rT e rm ina t ion ; f o l low ing t e rm ino logy a g reed u pon a tt h eF i r s tL i th ic U se -W ea rC onf e r ence ( Hayden 1 979 :133 135 ) 1 .f e a the r 2 .h i nge 3 .s t ep 4 .s nap S ca rP a t te rn ;b a sed o nt h ec onf igu r a t ion o fs c a r r ing 1 .u n id i r ec t iona l 2 .b i -d i rec t iona l 3 .p e rpend icu la r 4 .c r u shed S ca rS i ze ;a cco rd ing t ov i s ib i l i ty o fm a jor i ty o fs c a r s 1 .s ma l l : v i s ib le u nde rg r ea te rt h an 1 0x m agn if i ca t ion 2 .m ed ium : v i s ib le u nde r 1 0x m agn if ica t ion o rl e s s 3 .l a rge :v i s ib le b yt h en aked e ye S ca rD i s t r ibu t ion ( Su r f ace ) ;b a sed o na ppea rance o fm a jo r i ty o fs c a r so ns u r f ace 1 .b i f a c ia le ven 2 .b i f a c ia l , c on cen t ra ted o nV en t ra ls i de 3 .b i f ac ia l ,c oncen t ra ted o nD o r sa l s i de 4 .u n if ac ia lo nV en t r a ls i d e 5 .u n if a c ia lo nD o r sa ls i de S ca rD i s t r ibu t ion ( Ma rg ina l ) ;b a sed o nc onf igu r a t ion o fs c a rd i s t r ibu t ion o n l a t e r a lm a rg in 1 .s c a t te r ed ,u neven 2 .c l o se 3 .r un toge the r 4 .d en t icu la ted 5 .a l ter na t ing 6 .r o l led -ove r

Ab ra s ion R ound ing 1 .l i gh t : i ft h eb a s ic o u t l ine o ft h em a rg in c an s t i l lb es e en o rp ro jec ted 2 .m ode ra te 3 .h eavy : i ft h er ound ing h a so b l i te ra ted t h eg ene ra lo u t l ine o ft h ee dge i t se lf P o l i sh ; d epend ing o nt h ed eg r ee o fr e f lec t ion f r om t h es u r f ace 1 .a b sen t 2 .m a t te 3 .b r igh t 4 .i n c ip ien t S t r ia t ion ; a c co rd ing t ot h eo r ien ta t ion t ot h ee dge 1 .a b sen t 2 .p a ra l le lt oe dge 3 .p e rpend icu la rt oe dge 4 .d i agona lt oe dge

4 3

C hap te r3 b eg a ined .

r e s i s tan ce g r ade so ft h em a te r ia l s .

E dge w ea r v a r iab le s h ave b een r epea ted ly s t res sed b y a lmo s t e ve ry u se -wea r a na ly s t . A l though t h ed ef in i t ion s o f t en v a ry s l igh t ly f r om o ne a na ly s tt oa no th e r , Ih ave n oi n t en t ion o fs i g n i f ican t ly m od if y ing t h e se r e cogn ized v a r iab le s . H ayd en ' s v o lume ( 1 979 ) h a s s t anda rd ized mo s t t e rm s w e a r e u s ing a tp r e sen t ( T ab le 3 . 3 ) . T h r ee t y pe s o fe dge w ea r v a r iab les a r e c ommon ly d i s c u s sed b yu se -wea ra na ly s t s : d e te rm ina t ion v a r i a b le s , m ic rof rac tu r e v a r iab le s , a nd a b ra s ive v a r i a b le s . Wh i le d e t e rm ina t ion v a r iab le s a r e e dge w ea r a s se s smen t s t h a t u se -wea r a na ly s t s u se t o a s ce r ta in t o o l u se , t h e o t he r t wo k i nd s o f v a r i a b le s a r e t h o se o n w h ich u se -wea r a na ly s t s a r e d ependen tt om ak ee dge w ea rj udgmen t s .

M icrof rac tur e r e f e r s t of r ac tu re s a nd e dge d am a ge c au sed d u r ing t o o lu t i l iza t ion ,w h e r ea sa bra s i on r e f e r st oi mp re s s ion sa nd m a rk sl ef tb yp r e s s u r e f r om c on tac t d u r ing u se . M ic rof rac tu r e p a t t e rn s a r e u sua l ly d e sc r ibed i nt e rm so ff ou rv a r i a b le s : s car t e rm ina t ion , s car p a t t e rn , s car s i ze , a nd s c ar d i s t r ibu t ion . A b ra s ion c omp r ise s t h r ee i mpo r tan tf o rma t ion s : e dg er ound ing ,p o l i sh ,a nd s t r ia t ion ( T ab le 3 . 3 ) . T he p r e sence o fm ic rof r ac t u r e s i n d i f f e r en t s c a r r ing c omb ina t ion s g i v e s s ub s tan t ia lc l ue st ow ea rt y pe s( Tom enchuk 1 9 85 ; O de l l a nd V e r eecken -Od e l l 1 980 ; O de l l 1 9 81 ; S hea 1 991) . H oweve r , a bras ion i s c r i t ica l ly i mpo r tan t a nd a n e xce l len t i n d ica to ro ft h ep r e s e nce o fu se w ea r , a nd c an b e d e tec ted a nd d i s c r im ina ted u nde r 2 00x m agn if ica t ion ( Lewen s te in 1 987 ; S hea 1 991 ; R ou s seau 1 9 92 ; O de l l 1 996 ) .R ecen tr e sea r ch o np o l i sh f o rma t ion s ugge s t s t h a t p o l i sh a ppea rance a nd d i s t r ibu t ion a l one a r e i n suf f i c ien t t oi n te rp re t t o o l u se ( L ev i S a la 1 993 , 1 996 ) . A c omp lex c omb ina t ion o f m ic rof ra c tu r ea nd a b ra s ion p r esence i sv e ry h e lp f u li nd e te rm in ing t o o l mo t ion sa nd w o rked m a te r i a l s .

D e te rm ina t ion v a r iab le s c on s i s t o f f o u r b a s ic t y pe s : e mp loyed u n i t , e mp loyed l o ca t ion , t o o l m o t ion , a nd c on ta c t m a te r ia l . T he e mp loyed u n i t ( EdU ) i s ad i scon t inuou s p o r t ion o ft h e a r t if ac t w he r e u se w ea r i ss hown . T he c oncep t w a s f i r s t d eve loped b y K nud son ( 1 973 , i nh e r o wn t e rm : e mp loyab le u n i t s ) a nd l a te rb y O de l l ( 1 979 , a l so s e e 1 996 :37 ) .O bv iou s ly e a ch w o rn a r t if ac tc ou ld h ave mo r e t h an o ne u n i t . G iven t h e f a c tt h a tu t i l i zed p i eces m ay h ave s eve ra l E dUs wh ich i n vo lved d i f f e r en t u se ta sk s , t h e e mp loyed u n i t r a the rt h an t h eu t i l ized p i ece s ,i st r ea t ed a s ab a s ic a na ly t ic u n i t . T he e mp loyed l o ca t ion i st h e l o ca t i on o f t h e w or n p o r t ion o n f l ak e / too l e dge . Emp loyed l o ca t ion i se xp r e s sed u s ing t h e 8 po la r c o -o rd ina te s y s tem i lu s t ra ted i n F ig .3 . T oo l m o t ion r e f e r s t o t h e p hy s ica l a c t ion i n w h ich s t on ea r t if ac t sa r ee mp loyed a sd ev ice st o mod if y o t he ro b jec t s . S om e c l o se ly r e la ted a c t ion s , s u ch a sc u t t ing a nd s aw ing , s l ic ing a nd c a rv ing , s c rap i n ga nd s hav ing , e t c . , a r en o tc l ea r ly d i s t ingu i sh a b le e i the ri nr e a ll i f eo ri nt e rm so ft h ee dge w ea r t h ey p roduce ( a l though s ome t ime st h ey m ay b e ) . Ih ave t h e r ef o re l umped t h e se p a i r s t o ge the r a s s i ng le t o o lm o t ion s ,r e spec t ive ly . C on tac tm a ter i a lr e f e r st ot h e s ub s tance t h a ti sc on ta c ted d u r ing t h e p roce s s o ft o o l mo t ion . T he se s ub s tance s a r e d i v ided i n to 8r e la t ive h a rdne s s g r oup s : s of t a n i m a l( SA ) ,s o f tv ege ta l( SV ) ,m ed ium sof tv ege ta l ( 1M ) ,m ed ium a n ima l( MA ) ,m ed ium -ha rd v ege t a l ( 2M ) , h a rd a n ima l ( 1H ) , v e ry h a rd a n ima l ( 2H ) , a nd v e ry h a rd i n o rgan ic ( 3H ) . E xac t m a te r i a l sc an o n ly b e i n f e r r ed i nl i gh to ft h en a tu r e o f

S ince r aw m a te r ia l a nd f l ake e dge m o rpho logy h ave t h e mo s ti mpac to nt h es c a r r ing p a t ter n sa nd p o l i sh ,a nu nde r s tand ing o ff r ac tu r em echan ic si s a l so n ece s sa ry f o ra c cu ra te d e te rm ina t ion o ft o o l u se . F o ri n s tance ,e ven i fb o th w e re e mp loyed f o r c u t t ing o rs aw ing o nt h es ame w o rk ed m a te r ia l ,a t h in a nd s t ra igh t e dged f l ak e w i th af l a t s u r f ace w ou ld h ave r e la t ive ly d i f f e r en tm ic rof rac tu r ep a t t er n s f r om ad u l l a nd c u rved e dged f l ak e w i th a c onvex d o r sa l s i de . T he f o rm e r wou ld l i ke ly d i s p l ay a n e ven d i s t r ibu t ion o f b i f a c ia l s c a r r ing , w he r ea st h e l a t te rh a s u n if ac ia l s ca r s o nt h e d o r s a ls i de w i th t h ea ppea ran ce o fh av ing b een u s ed f o r s c rap ing . I n t h i s c a se , a b ra s ion , e s pec ia l ly p o l i sh a nd /o r s t r ia t ion , i s ac r uc ia l i n d ica to r . O n t h e se t wo t o o l s , p o l i sh i sl i k e ly f o rm ed o n b o th s i de s o ft h e f l ake s u rf ace i n al i nea r a ppea ran ce n ea rt h ee dge ( Pho to s 6& 8 ) . T h is k i nd o fp o l i sh f o rma t ion e a s i ly e l im ina t e s a ny p o s s ib i l i ty o f t r an sve r se mo t ion s l i ke s c rap ing o r s hav ing ( Pho to 1 0 ) . H oweve r , w e s t i l l e ncoun t e rd i f f icu l t ie s i nd e te r m ina t ion o ft o o l u se f r om e dge w ea r a t r ibu t e s . 4 4

Me thod s T h is i s e spec ia l ly t r ue o f t h e l ow -powe r a pp roach . T he h igh -powe r a na ly s t s h ave b een d eve lop ing c o r re la t ion sb e tween p o l i sh f o rma t ion a nd t o o lu s e i no rd e rt op rov id e ao ne to -on e d i s c r im ina t ing a t t r ibu te s t udy ( G race e t a l . 1 988 ; G race 1 9 89 , 1 993 ) . T h rough c on t ro l led e xpe r i men t a nd u s ing t h e l ow -powe r t e chn ique , T om en chuk ( 1985 ) h a s f o rt h e f i r s tt im e s u cce s s f u l ly s h own c o r re la t ion b e tween e dge w ea r t y pe a nd u s e -f r ac tu re s . T h i s i n d ica te s t h e p owe rf u l p o ten t ia l t o o b jec t if y t h e u se -wea r v a r iab le s . Howeve r , p rac t ica l p rob lem s r ema in ; T om en chuk ' s s y s tem i s l a rge ly h ampe red b y e x ten s iv e u t i l iza t ion o f m echan ica l e ng in ee r ing a sa na pp l ica t ion i na r cha eo log ica lr e sea r ch . S hea ( 199 1) u s ed a9 -d ig i tc od ing c omb ina t ion o fe dge w ea r a t t r ibu tes i n a c ompu te r s imu la t ion . H owev e r , h i s s t udy w a s s t i l l b a sed o n af ounda t i on o fe xpe r imen ta lj udgm en t s . T hu s , a tp r e sen t , u se -wea ra na ly s i s s t i l lr e l ie so n wha tO de l lr e f e r s t o a s i n terpr e ta t ive s t a t e s , m ean ing t o o l u se a s se s smen t s d ependen t o n c o r re la t ion s b e tween o bs e r v ed u se -wea r a nd w ea r p rodu ced e xpe r i m en t a l ly ( Ode l l 1 996a :38 ) . T he ref o r e , t h e r e l ia b i l i ty o fi n te rp re ta t ive a s se s smen t ss hou ld b e ,a nd mu s tb e , e n su red b y a n u nd e r s tand ing o f ac om b ina t ion o fm ic rof rac tu r e a nd a b ra s ive v a r iab le s a nd i n t en s ive e xpe r imen ta t ion .

t o o lt y pe , s o -ca l led " key shaped u n if ace s ," m igh t h ave b een e mp loyed a tp reh i s to r ic s i tes i n t h e I n te r io r P l a teau o f B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . A w ide r a nge o fu se -wea re xpe r imen t s o n r e touched a nd u n r e touched f l ake t o o l s , g ene ra l ly e mp loyed b y mo s t u se -wea r p rac t i t ione r s , a l lowed f o r t h e r e cogn i t ion t h a tu n r e tou ched f l ake s ,i na dd i t ion t o s haped a r t if a c t s , w e r e u sed i n aw ide v a r ie ty o f a c t iv i t ie s( K ee ley 1 980 ; Y e rke s 1 989 ; S hea 1 991 ; O d e l l 1 996 ) . T he c ommon p rocedu r e f o r s uch e xpe r im en t s c on s i s t so ft h ef o l low ing s t ep s : ( 1 )m anuf a c tu r ing as e to ff l ak ed t o o l s , c ommon ly f r om r aw m a te r i a l s s im i la r t oo ne s f ound a ta r chaeo log ica l s i t e s ; ( 2 ) s e lec t ing ar a nge o fm a te r ia l s t ob e w o rk ed , g ene ra l ly i nd i f f e r en tc a t ego r ie s o fh a rdne s s s u ch a sh i d e s , m ea t , w ood ,b one , a nd t h e l i k e ; ( 3 )p e r f o rm ing a s e r ie s o f d i f f e r en t mo t ion s ( s c rap ing , c u t t ing , d r i l l ing , e t c . ) o n t a rge t ma te r ia l s w i th s e lec ted t o o l s ,a nd r e co rd ing t h ep roce s si nd e ta i l ; a nd ( 4 ) e xam in ing t h eu sed t o o l su nde rd e s igna t e dm ic ro scope ( s ) i no rde rt or e cogn ize w ea rv a r i a b le s c au sed b y p e rf o rmed a c t ion s . I d ea l ly , f o r p u rpo se o fc ompa r i son , s pec imen s a r e e xam ined p r io rt ob e ing u sed a sw e l l a sa f te r u se . I no rde r t o e n su r e r e l iab i l i ty a nd c r ed ib i l i ty , ab l ind t e s t u sua l ly t a k e s p l a ce a f te r t h e e xpe r imen t s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t .

E xper imen ta l S tudy

H oweve r , p rob lem s i n e xpe r imen ta l u se -wea r e x i s t . F i r s t o f a l , m e thod s u sed i n t h e e xpe r i m en t sv a ry a mong u se -wea ra na ly s t s d ue t ot h e i r d i f f e ren t r e sea rch o b jec t ives . Wh i le s ome r e sea r che r s h ave c oncen t ra ted o n t h e f o rma t ion o fp o l i sh ( Ke l ley 1 980 ; V aughan 1 985 ; R icha rd 1 988 ; G race 1 989 ) , o t he r s h ave f o cu sed o n m ic rof rac tu r ev a r iab le s( B r ink 1 978 ;T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 ; O de l l a nd O de l l -V e r eechen 1 980 ) . T h i s d ev ia t ion i s b e ing o ve r come i n s ome r e cen t e xpe r imen t s , w h ich h ave s t ud ied b o th a b ra s ion a nd m ic rof rac tu r e s c au sed b y u se ( Shea 1 987 , 1 99 1 ; L ewen s te in 1 987 ; L ev i -Sa la 1 996 ) .

U se -wea r e xpe r im en t s a r e e s sen t ia l t ou se -wea r p r ac t i t ione r s . K now ledge o ft o o l u se i sf ounded o n ac o rpu s o f e xpe r imen ta l w o rk i n vo lv ing a l a rg ev a r ie ty o ft o o l mo t ion s a nd w o rk ed m a te r i a l s ( B r ink 1 978 ; K ee ley a nd N ewcom e r 1 977 ; T r ingham e ta l . . 1 974 ; O de l l 1 977 ; K ee ley 1 980 ; O d e l l a nd O de l l -V e r eech en 1 980 ; S hea 1 99 1 ; V aughan 1 985 ; R icha rd s 1 988 ; L ewen s te in 1 987 ) . T he r e i sn o d oub t t h a t u se -wea r e xpe r i m en t s h ave p rov ided E th ic a na ly s t s w i th ag r ea t u nd e r s tand ing o fh ow t o o l e dge c an b e d amaged t h rough u se , a nd t h a t t h i s h a s e nab led t h em t o a r r iv e a ti n te rp r e ta t ion s o fu se p a t te rn s o fc e r ta in t o o lt y pe s . F o ri n s tance , B r ink ( 1978 ) c a r r ied o u t a ne xpe r imen ta l s t udy t oe xam ine t h e f unc t ion o f e nd sc rape r s f ound a t ap r eh i s to r ic s i t e i nw e s t c en t ra l A lbe r ta . A h le r( 1 97 1) e xam ined t h e f un c t i on o fp ro jec t i le p o in t s r e cove r ed f r om R odge r s S h e l t e r ,M i s sou r i ,t h rough as e r ie so fe xpe r imen t s o n r e p l ica ted p o in t s . Mo r e r e cen t ly , R ou s seau ( 1 992 )h a sd emon s t ra t ed h ow ap a r t icu la rs haped

S econd , mo s to ft h e a f o r emen t ioned e xpe r imen t s w e r e n o t c on t ro l led . A l though t h e se e xpe r im en t s c ou ld b e u sed t oe duca te t h e e ye s , t h ey a r e n o t r e p l icab le . I n mo s t i n s tance s u se -wea r e xpe r i m en t sh ave s e rved a s ab a s i sf r om wh ich t oj udge t h e q ua l i ty o f u se -wea r i n te rp re ta t ion . T h is r e qu i r e s u se -wea r p rac t i t ione r s t o c onduc t t h e i r 4 5

C hap te r3 o wn e xpe r imen t s a lmo s t e ve ry t ime , e s pec ia l ly p r io rt ot h e e xam ina t ion o f an ew a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ion . T he a dvan tage o ft h i s i st op rov ide a u s e -wea r a na ly s t w i th aw ide r a nge o fr e f e r ence c o l lec t ion .T he d i sadvan tage i st h a ts u ch r e pea ted e f f o r t s a r e c o s t ly a nd t ime -con sum ing . B ecau se t h e se e xpe r imen t sa r eu n con t ro l led i ti sn o tp o s s i b l e t o c ompa re e xpe r imen t s n o r t oj udge t h e i r r e l iab i l i ty . T h i rd ,e a ch e xpe r im en ti sa l so l i m i ted t o ac e r ta in r a nge o f t o o l m o t ion s a nd c on ta c t m a te r ia l s . A ga in , b ecau se a f ec ted b y t h e i n d iv idua l a na l y s t ' s r e sea r ch o b jec t ive s , t h e se v a ry b e tween e xpe r imen te r s .C r ed ib i l i ty o fu se -wea ri n te rp r e ta t i on s w ou ld b e q u e s t ionab le i fa n a na ly s t p e r f o rmed al im i ted r a nge o fe xpe r imen ta l a c t ion s . F o ri n s tan ce ,R ou s seau ' ss t udy o nt h ef u nc t ion o f t h e" k ey shaped u n if ace s" i sb a sed o n as e r ie so f t e n e xpe r imen ta l t o o ls , w h ich w e re mo s t ly w o rked o nw ood m a t e r ia l s . A s ar e su l t ,h i s i n t e r p r e ta t ion o f t h e se a r t if ac t s a s " woodwo rk ing t o o l s" m ay b eq ue s t ioned .C onven t iona l ly , am in i mum o f5 0 o rs ot a sk s i n as e to fe xpe r imen t si s r e qu i r ed f o r af a i rc ove rage ( Od e l lp e r s . c omm . ) . H oweve r , n o m a t te r h ow m any t a sk s a r e p e r f o rmed , r e p l ica t ion o f a l p o s s ib le p r eh i s to r ic u se s c ou ld n eve r b e a ch ieved . T o m in im ize t h i s l i m i ta t ion , Is t ud ied a l a rge n umbe r o f e xpe r i m en ta l ly p roduced s amp le s ( s ee b e low ) , i na dd i t i on t o my o wn 4 9e xpe r imen ta lt a sk s ,i no rde rt o c ove r af a i r ly w ide r a nge o fw ea rt y pe s .

T he e xpe r imen ta l c o l lec t ion ( TU ) c on s i s ted o f 1 78 p i ece sm ade b yt h e s t uden t so fD r . G . O de l l . O ne h und r ed a nd o ne d i f f e r en t u s e ta sk s w e r e c a r r ied o u t u s ing t h e se s amp le s , e mp loy ing 2 6 t o o l m o t ion s o n 6 5 d i f f e r en t c on t ac t m a te r ia l s . T h i sc o l lec t ion w a se xam ined f o rw ea rt y pe sa nd l a te ru sed a s ar e f e rence f o rc ompa r i son w i th my o wn e xpe r im en ta l s p ec imen s ( ES ) . T he u se o f t h is c omp r ehen s ive c o l lec t ion a lowed m e t o c a r ry o u tt h i su s e -wea rs t udy w i thou tc a r ry ing o u t e x t en s ive e xpe r imen t s . I tw a s a n e f f ec t ive a nd s peedy w ay t og e ta cqua in ted w i th al a rge n umbe r o fw ea rt y pe si no rde rt ob ea b le t or e cogn ize a nd c ompa r et h em . My e xpe r im en ta l p rocedu r e s f o l low ed t h eg ene r a lg u ide l ine su sed i n mo s tc onven t iona lu se -wea r e xpe r imen t s c onduc ted b y o t he r s ( men t ioned a bove ) . H oweve r , my e xpe r imen t w a s s t r ic t ly c onduc ted i nt h e m anne rd e sc r ibed b y O de l l a nd O de l lV e r r ecken ( 1 980 )b ecau se t h er e su l t so f my e xpe r imen t w e r e t ob e d i r ec t ly c ompa r ed t ot h a t o ft h e s t udy c o l lec t ion . A su sua l , t h ew o rk b e ing d one d u r ing t h ee xpe r imen tw a s p u r po sef u l . T he r e ade r i sa dv i sed t h a t t h e f o r ce a pp l ied w e re n o t c on t ro l led . T he u se ta sk s o f s t one t o o ls i n t h e e xpe r imen t s c e r ta in ly d o n o t r e p l ica t e a bo r ig ina l c ond i t ion s , b u t r e p re sen t c ommon p r a c t ice s i n r e a l i ty . T he m a te r ia l f r om w h ich m o s to ft h ee xpe r imen t a l t o o l s w e r e f a sh ion ed c on s is t s o f ad a rk g r ey , f i ne -g ra ined O nondaga c h e r t t h a t w a s a cqu i red f r om q ua r ry s i t e s a l ong t h e n or th s h o r e o fL ak e E r ie . I tw a s s e lec ted b ecau se t h e O nondaga c he r t i no u r a r cha eo log ica l s amp le s . L oca l ly a va i lab le H a ld imand c h e r tw a sa l so u sed . O b s id ian ,q ua r tz , a nd a n u nknown f i ne -g ra ined f l in t , w e r e a l so u sed f o r as ma l l n umbe r o f t o o l s ( 8 i n t o ta l ) . A l though t h e se t y pe s o fr aw m a te r ia l w e r e n o t f ound i nt h e P r ince s s P o in t l i th ic a s semb lages , I u t i l ized t h em f o ro b se rva t ion sr e ga rd ing t h ee dge w ea rv a r iab i l i ty . A l lt o o l su s ed i nt h ee xpe r imen t w e r e p roduced b y d i r ec t h a rd a nd s o f t h amme r p e r cu s s ion . T h e s e lec ted f l ake s w e r e e i th e ru sed d i r ec t ly o r u s ed a f te r m ino r e dge r e touch ing . F o r ty two f l ak e sw e r eu t i l ized f o r4 9u s e t a sk s( 7 p i ece sh ave t wo e mp loyed u n i t s ) ( T ab l e3 . 4 ) .

A l though u se -wea r e xpe r imen ta t ion i sp r ob lem a t ic , t h e e f f o r t s m ade b y mo s tu se -wea r a na ly s t s s hou ld n o tb ed i sm i s sed . We a r e ,h oweve r ,b e t te r a b le t og ene ra l ize t o o l u se p a t te rn ing i n as t a t ic c ond i t ion . T he r ef o r e , t h e a im s o f my u s e -wea r e xpe r im en t s a r e ( 1 ) t ou nde r s tand a nd r e cogn ize t h ef o rma t ion a nd a ppea rance o fe dge w ea rt y pe s c au sed b yv a r iou sa c t ion s ; ( 2 )t oe va lua te t h et o o l u se a s se s sm en td e r ived f r om s im i la re xpe r im en t s c onduc ted b yo t he rr e sea r che r s ; a nd ( 3 ) t oa s ce r t a in r e l iab i l i ty o ft o o l u se a s se s smen t s b a sed o n t h e e dge w ea r v a r iab le s . T hu s t h e e xpe r imen ta l s t udy e n ta i led t h r ee s t ep s p r io rt oa r chaeo log ica l e xam ina t ion . T hey i n c luded am ic ro scop ic s t udy o f al a rge n umbe r o fe xpe r imen ta l c o l lec t ion s a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o fT u l sa , u se -wea r e xpe r im en t a t t h eU n ive r s i ty o fT o ron to , a nd ab l ind t e s t .

E ve ry p i ece w a s e xam ined m ic ro scop ica l ly b ef o r eu s e ,t oo b se rve t h ee dge d amage o rc u r ren t 4 6

Me thod s

T ab le 3 . 4 : U se -W ear E xper imen tT a sk L i s t . T a sk E S Numb RM

T oo l Mo t ion

R e s is tance G rade

E xac t Wo rked Ma te r ia l

T ime S t roke

d r ied c ow l imb b one

1 5m in 1 450

1

E S0 1

H a ld imand s aw ing

v e ry h a rd a n ima l

2

E S02

O nondaga

s aw ing

v e ry h a rd a n ima l

d r ied c ow l imb b one

1 8

1 920

c u t t ing

s of ta n ima l

f r e sh p o rk m ea t

2 2

1 980

s c rap ing

m ed ium a n ima l

f r e sh p i gl imb b one

1 5

1 650

c u t t ing

m ed ium s of tv ege ta l

f r e sh p i ne t ree w ood

3 0

1 700

f r e sh p i ne t ree w ood

3 0

1 925

f r e sh p i ne t ree w ood

1 5

1 230

2 0

2 100

3 4 5

E S03 E S04 E S05

O nondaga O nondaga O nondaga

6

E S06

O nondaga

s c rap ing

m ed ium s of tv ege ta l

7

E S07

O nondaga

c u t t ing

m ed ium s o f tv ege ta l

8

E S08

O nondaga

c u t t ing

m ed ium a n ima l

d r ied p i gh i de

9

E S09

O nondaga

s l ic ing

m ed ium a n ima l

d r ied p i gh i de

1 0

4 00 1 875

1 0

E S10

O nondaga

s c rap ing

m ed ium a n ima l

d r ied p i gh i de

2 5

1

E S 11

O nondaga

c u t t ing

m ed ium a n ima l

d r ied p i gh i de

2 0

2 600 1 200

1 2

E S12

O nondaga

d r i l l ing

m ed ium a n ima l

d r ied p i gh i de

1 5

1 3

E S13

O nondaga

s c rap ing

m ed ium a n ima l

d r ied p i gh i de

2 0

2 500

1 4

E S 14

O nondaga

s c rap ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied h ackbe r ry w ood

2 0

2 400

1 5

E S15

O nondaga

s aw ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied h ackbe r ry w ood

2 2

2 800

1 6

E S16

O nondaga

s c rap ing

s of tv ege ta l

s wee tp o ta to

3 0

3 450

1 7

E S17

O nondaga

c u t t ing

s of tv ege ta l

c a r ro t

2 5

5 750

1 8

E S18

H a ld imand c u t t ing

v e ry h a rd a n ima l

s oaked r e d ta i led d ee ra n t le t20

2 400

1 9

E S19

O nondaga

s c rap ing

h a rd a n ima l

c ooked p i gl i mb b one

2 0

1 700

2 0

E S20

O nondaga

s c rap ing

s o f tv ege ta l

c a r ro t s

1 5

2 000

2 1

E S2 1

O nondaga

p ro jec t ing

s o f tv ege ta l

c a r ro t s

1 8

2 000

2

E S22

O nondaga

b or ing

s o f tv ege ta l

c a r ro t s

8

8 00

2 3

E S23

O nondaga

s c rap ing

s of ta n ima l

f r e sh h i de

8

1 000 1 000

2 4

E S24

O nondaga

s l ic ing

s o f ta n ima l

f r e sh h i de

7

2 5

E S25

O nondaga

b or ing

m ed ium a n ima l

f r e sh p i gl i mb b one

8

8 00

2 6

E S26

O b s id ian

s c rap ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied a pp le t ree w ood

1 5

2 100

2 7

E S27

O b s id ian

s aw ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied a pp le t ree w ood

2 0

2 600

2 8

E S28

O b s id ian

s c rap ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied a pp le t r ee w ood

2 3

3 100

2 9

E S29

O the rF l in t c u t t ing

m ed ium a n ima l

f i sh

P

6 60

3 0

E S30

O nondaga

s l ic ing

m ed ium a n ima l

f i sh

I 5

9 00

3 1

E S31

O nondaga

c u t t ing

m ed ium a n ima l

f r ozen p i gf e e t

1 6

2 100

3 2

E S32

O nondaga

s c rap ing

s o f ta n ima l

f r e sh p i gh i de

2 0

1 900

3

E S33

O nondaga

p ene t ra t ing

s o f ta n ima l

f r e sh p i gf e e t

1 5

5 20

3 4

E S33

O nondaga

s hav ing

s o f ta n ima l

p i gh i de & f a t

2 5

1 200

3 5

E S34

O the rF l in t s c rap ing

h a rd a n ima l

s oaked c ow l imb b one

1 5

1 670

3 6

E S34

O the rF l in t d r i l l ing

h a rd a n ima l

s oaked c ow l imb b one

7

6 00

3 7

ES 35

O nondaga

c u t t ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied h ackbe r ry w ood

2 0

1 800

3 8

E S35

O nondaga

b or ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied h ackbe r ry w ood

/ 5

2 100

3 9

E 536

O nondaga

s aw ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied h ackbe r ry w ood

1 5

8 00

4 0

E S36

O nondaga

b or ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied h ackbe r ry w ood

I1

6 00

4 1

E S37

Q ua r tz

s aw ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied h ackbe r ry w ood

2 1

1 600

4 2

E 538

O the rF l in t c u t t ing

s of tv ege ta l

g r a s s

2 2

2 500

4 3

E S39

O nondaga

s hav ing

m ed ium s of tv ege ta l

f r e sh p i ne t ree w ood

2 5

3 300

4 4

E S39

O nondaga

s hav ing

m ed ium s o f tv ege ta l

f r e sh p i ne t ree w ood

1 5

1 600

4 5

E S40

O the rF l in t c u t t ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied h ackbe r ry w ood

5

3 20

4 6

E S40

O the rF l in t g rav ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

d r ied h ackbe r ry w ood

8

5 50

4 7

E S4 1

O nondaga

c hopp ing

m ed ium h a rd v ege ta l

l a rge u nknown t ree t r unk

1 5

8 00

4 8

E S42

O nondaga

d i gg ing

h a rd i n o rgan ic

mud w i th s ma l lr o ck s

1 5

2 300

4 9

E S42

O nondaga

g rav ing

h a rd i n o rgan ic

s and s tone

4 7

1 5m in 8 00

C hap ter 3

T ab le 3 . 5 : R ecord ing S hee tf o rE xper imen ta lS pec imen Observa t ion . P a r tI :E xpe r imen ta lP roce s sR eco rd 1 .E xpe r imen ta lS pec imen ( ES# )

2 .R aw Ma te r ia l

3 . Wo rked Ma te r ia l 5 .R e touched b ef o re e xpe r imen t?

4 .R e s is tance H a rdne s s ( y e s /no )

I fy e s ,r e touch u n i t sa nd c ommen t 6 .M ic ro scope s c ann ing b ef o re e xpe r imen t?

( y e s /no )

I fy e s , c ommen t s 7 .A c t ion :

8 . Mo t ion d ef ined

9 .P roce s sm ea su remen t : s t roke /m inu te

t o ta lt i me w o rked

t o ta ls t roke

1 0 . Emp loyed u n i t

1 . P rehen s i le u n i t

1 2 .R ema rk s

1 3 : D raw ing w o rk ing p o s i t ion o ft o o l

P a r tI :A na ly t ic R eco rd ing 1 .M ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion :

s c ann ing a t

e dge d amage r e co rd a t

p o l i sh r e co rd a t

s t r ia t ion r e co rd a t

p ho tog raphy t a ken a t

2 .E dge d amage u n i ta nd c ommen t s 3 .M ic rof rac tu r e : s c a rt e rm ina t ion s c a rp a t te rn s c a rs i ze s c a rd i s t r ibu t ion 4 .A b ra s ion r ound ing p o l ish s t r ia t ion 5 .C ompa r ison w i th s t udy c o l lec t ion ( TU )

6 .R ema rk s

4 8

Me thod s s t a tu s o fe dge f o rma t ion . B o th r e co rd ing s hee t s f o re dge w ea ro bse rva t ion sb ef o r e a nd a f t e rf l ake u t i l iza t ion w e re u sed ( T ab le 3 . 5 ) . Twe lve t o o l mo t ion s a nd 1 9 t y pe s o f c on ta c t ma te r ia l w e re e mp loy ed f o r f u lf i l l ing t h e se 4 9 u se ta sk s ( s ee b e low ) . Wea r p rodu ced b y my o wn e xpe r imen t s w a s i mm ed ia t e ly c ompa r ed t ow ea r o b se rved o n t h e TU c o l lec t ion s p ec imen s . T he l e ng th o ft ime a nd n umbe ro fs t rok e sw a sr e co rded . T he o b se r va t ion a nd c ompa r i son o fe dge w ea ro n t h e e xpe r imen ta l s p ec imen s c onf i rm t h a t w ea r t y pe s d i sp lay h omogeneou s p a t te rn s u nde r s im i l a r c ond i t ion s . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s p rov ide a b r ief d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e c ommon f e a tu r e s o fe dge w ea rr e su l t ing f r om t h e e xpe r imen t s . T oo l Mo t ions T we lve c ommon t o o l mo t ion sw e r ea pp l ied t ou t i l i zed t o o l s i n my e xpe r im en t . E dge w ea r w a s o bse rved a nd c ompa red w i th t h a t o ft h e s t ud ied TU c o l lec t ion . C ommon c ha rac te r is t ics o f m icrof ra c tu re a nd a b ra s ion a r e s umma r ized b e low . -C u t t ing i s at y pe o fl o ng i tud ina l mo t ion t h a t i s u n id i r ec t iona l a nd p a ra l le l t o t h e e dge o f t o o l s ; -S aw ing i s at y pe o fl o ng i tud ina l mo t ion t h a t i s b i -d i r ec t iona l a nd p a ra l le lt ot h e e dge ; -S l ic ing / car v ing i s v a r ia t ion o f l o ng i tud ina l movemen t s w hen t h e t o o l i sh e ld a to rn ea ra r i gh t a ng le t o t h e w o rk ed s u rf ace , mov ing e i th e r u n id i r ec t iona l o r b i -d i rec t iona l a l ong t h e e dge . A l l t h e a bove t o o l mo t ion s t e nd t op ene t ra t e t h e w o rk ed m a te r ia l b ya pp ly ing f o r ce d i r ec t ly o na n e dg e o ppo s i te t h e w o rk ing e dge . O b se rva t ion o f e dge w ea r o n e xpe r imen ta l s amp le s c onf i rm s s om ec onc lu s ion sm ade b yo t he ru se -wea re xpe r i men t e r s . C u t t ing u sua l ly p roduce s s c a r r ing o n b o th s i d e s o ft h e w o rk ing e dge . T h i s s c a r r ing i s c ha ra c te r ized b y au n id i r ec t iona l o r ien ta t ion . S t r ia t ion s a r e p a r a l le l t o t h e e dge , i fp r e sen t . P o l i sh i sl i ke ly o n b o th s u rf ace s o f aw o rk ing

p r e sen t ,a r eo f t en u n if ac ia la nd u sua l ly s l an ted ,o r d i agona lt ot h e e dge . -S crap ing i s at r an sve r se movemen t o f at o o l b e ing p u l led t owa rd s t h e o pe ra to r a c ro s s i t s w o rk ing e dge . -S hav ing i s amovemen t o f at o o l a l so t owa rd s t h e o pe ra to r ,b u tw i th s ho r ta nd q u ick s t roke s t r an sve r se t ot h ew o rk ing e dge . -P lan ing /wh i t t l ing i s at r an sve r se t o o l mo t ion o f at o o l t h a t i sp u shed a way f r om t h e o pe ra to r . T h e t o o l i nc on tac t w i th t h e c on tac t m a te r ia l r ema in s c onnec ted t h roughou t t h e l e ng th o f movemen t . A l l t h e a bove t o o l mo t ion s s have o f f m a te r ia l w i th t h e w o rk ing e dge o ft h e i mp lemen t h e ld a t r ough ly ar i gh t a ng le t ot h e d i r ec t ion o fu se . A l l s u ch t o o l mo t ion sp roduce mo s t ly u n if ac ia l s c a r r i ng . P o l i sh a ppea r s o n t h e s i de w h ich i si nc on t a c tw i th t h em a te r ia lw o rk ed . U sua l ly ,p l an ing o r w h i t t l ing p roduce mo r ea b ra s ive w ea ro nt h e s u r f a ce t h an s c r ap ing a nd s hav ing d o . I n s c rap ing a nd s h av ing , s c a r r ing i sc l umped o n t h e w o rk ing e dge w h ich s ome t ime s s how s e v idence o fc r u sh i n g . E dg e -pe rpend icu la rs t r ia t ion i sd i agno s t ic o f t h e w o rk ing e dge . -P ene t ra t ing i st h et o o l mo t ion i n vo lv ing t h e t i p o f at o o l . Wea r c au sed b y ap ene t ra t ing mo t ion i sr a the r c omp lex c ompa red t o t h a t d esc r ibed a bove . B ecau se o f f o r ce s d i r ec t ly a pp l ied o n t h e t i p , s c a r s a r e u sua l ly s napped o f f , o r c r u shed . U n i d i r ec t iona lo r ien ta t ion o ft h es c a r r ing f r om t h et i p a r ea i nwa rd s c an b e s e en . Au sef u l i n d ica t ion o f s u ch w ea r i s mo r e a b ra s ion o n b o th d o s ra l a nd v en t r a l s u rf ace sr a the rt h an o nt h e e dge . -D r i l l ing i s ac i r cu la r mo t ion p roduc ing b o th f t h e d r i l l a nd r o ta ry p re s su r e t o t h e s i de s o d i r ec t p r e s su r e d ownwa rd i n to t h e c on tac t m a t e r ia l . T he t y p ica l w ea r o f t h i s k ind s c a r r ing , s ymm e t r ica l a l ong t h e R ound ed a nd c r u shed e dge s a r e i sl im i ted t ot h e e dge s b ecau se c on ta c tw i th t h em a te r ia l .

e dge . S aw ing ( t he 2 -way m o t ion )p rov ide s as im i l a r s c a r r ing p a t te rn , b u t e xh ib i t s b i -d i r ec t iona l s c a r r ing . I n s l ic ing o r c a rv ing , s c a r r ing t e nd s t o b e l o ca t ed mo r eo n o ne s u r f ace t h an o nt h e o t he r b ecau se o ft h e a ng le o f movemen t s . S t r ia t ion s , i f 4 9

i sb i -d i r ec t iona l a x i s o ft h e E dU . e xpec ted . P o l i sh t h e e dge s a r e i n

C hap ter 3 -Med ium -ha rd V eg e ta l ( 2M ) : d r ied h ackbe r ry t r ee w ood ,d r ied a pp le w ood .

-G rav ing i sat o o lm o t ion w h ich i n vo lve st h et o o l t i p . G rav ing h a s e l emen t s o fe i th e r , o rb o th , l o ng i tud ina l a nd t r an sve r se m o t ion s , d epend i n go nt h ep a r t icu la rc a se .

S ca r r ing f r om w oodwo rk ing t y p ica l ly e xh ib i t s m ed ium to la rge s i zed s c a r s a nd a" r o l led -ove r" p a t ter n o nt h e w o rk ing e dge . T h e c ommon s c a r r i ng r e su l t ing f r om w o rk ing o n m ed ium sof t w ood m a te r ia lt e nd st ob e f e a th e r t e rm ina ted a nd p oo r ly d ef ined o n t h e i n te r io r b o rd e r s , w he r ea s s c a r r ing f r om w o rk ing o n m ed ium -ha rd w ood m a te r ia l a ppea r s a s h i nged te rm ina t ed w i th d i s t i nc ti n te r io rb o rde r s . B r igh tp o l i sh a nd m ed ium t o -heavy r o und ing u sua l ly a ppea r , b u t s t r ia t ion s a r e r a re . A b ra s ion o f m ed ium a n ima l m a te r ia l i n c lude s r a p id e dge round ing , m a t t e p o l i sh , a nd o cca s iona l s t r ia t ion s . S ca r r ing o f s u ch m a t e r ia l e xh ib i t sc on t iguou s to -c lumped p a t ter n so fm ed i um s ized f e a the ro rs t ep t e rm ina t ion .

Au sef u li n d ica t ion o fg r av ing w ea ri st h a tu n if a c i a l s c a r r ing a ppea r s o ppo s i t e t o t h e s u rf ace w he r ea b ra s ion s u ch a sp o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion o ccu r . -C hopp ing i s ad ownwa rd m ovemen t i n to t h e m a in b ody o f t h e m a te r ia l u s ing r e la t ive ly s t rong f o r ce . T he w o rk ing e dge o f ac hoppe r u sua l ly e xh ib i t s l a rge b i f ac ia l s c a r r ing , a symme t r ic a b ra s ion , a nd e dge -ob l ique s t r ia t ion s , i fp r e sen t . S ca r s a r eu su a ly h i nge - a nd s t ep -t e rm ina ted . -D igg ing i s as im i la rm ovemen tt oc hopp ing ,b u t i n vo lve st h et i po ft h e t o o l .

-H ard A n ima l ( 1H ) : c ooked p i g l imb b one , s oaked c ow l imb b one , s o ak ed r e d ta i l d ee r a n t le r ; -V e ry H ard A n ima l ( 2H ) : d r ied p i g l imb b one , d r ied c ow l i mb b one ,r e d ta i ld ee ra n t le r ; -H ard I norgan ic ( 3H ) : s o i l w i th g r ave l , s a nd s t one .

D igg ing r e su l t s i n ah eav i ly r ounded t i p , o r t h e b l un t ing o rc r u sh ing e dge . P o l i sh i sd i f f u sed a nd s c a r s a r e l a rge i ns i z e a nd f e a the r - o rs t ep te rm i n a ted . C on tac tM a te r ia ls Ma te r ia l st h a tw e r ew o rk ed w e r es e lec t ed a c co rd i n gt od i f f e ren t h a rdne s s c a tego r ie s . T he m e thod i s , o fc ou r se , s ub jec t ive , b u t i ss t i l l v a l id i ni t s r e p r e sen ta t ion o fr e la t ive r e s i s tance g r ade s u sed b y o t he r u se -wea r e xpe r imen te r s . T he f o l low ing m a t e r ia l sw e r e s e lec ted f o rt h i ss t udy .

I ts hou ld b en o ted t h a tb one ,a n t le r ,a nd h a rd ,d r y w ood c an o cca s iona l ly p rodu ce s im i la r w ea r ( Ode l la nd O de l lV e r r eck en 1 980 :10 1 ) . T he m o s t d i agno s t ic w ea r o f t h i s t y pe i ss t ep te rm in a ted a nd m ed ium to la rge s i zed s c a r r ing , a nd r o ugh e ned /cru shed e dge s .T h ed i s t inc tf e a tu r e st h a td i s t i ngu i sh h a rd a n ima l a nd d r ied w ood a r e : m a t te p o l ish a nd c on t iguou s p a t te rn s o fl a rge t e rm ina t i on s c a r sw h ich n o rma l ly a ppea rw hen h a rd a n i m a lm a te r ia l sa r ew o rk ed ;w h i le b r igh tp o l i sh a nd u neven p a t te rn s o fl a rge h i nge f r a c tu r e s a r e p r o d uced w hen d r ied w ood m a te r ia l s a r e w o rk ed . H a rd i n o rgan i c m a te r ia l sp roduce h eavy r ounded e dge s , f l a t ten ed p ro jec t ion s a nd s u r f aces , d i f f u sed p o l ish ,a nd l a rge s t ep te rm ina t ed s c a r s .

-S of tA n ima l ( SA ) : u ncooked p o rk m ea t , f r e sh p i gs k in , a nd p i gf a t ; -S of t V ege ta l ( SV ) : r aw s wee t p o ta to , c a r ro t s , g r a s s . S of tm a te r ia l s p rodu ce u neven p a t t er n s o fs ma l l f e a the r t e rm ina ted f r a c tu re s . Wo rk ing o ns o f ta n i m a lm a t e r ia l s u ch a sf r e sh s k in , f a t , o rm ea tm ay r e su l ti ne x ten s ive m a t te p o l i sh ing a nd l i gh te dge r ound ing , w h i le w o rk o n s of t v ege ta l m a te r ia l m o s t ly p roduced b r igh t p o l i sh , i ft h e t o o l w a s u sed l o ng e nough . S t r ia t ion s a r e n o t g ene ra l ly p r e sen t .

A r e touched s i ck le b l ade ( ES38 ) w a s u sed f o r c u t t ing g r a s sf o r2 m inu te s( 2 500 s t rok e s ) .I td i s p l ayed e dge r o und ing a nd t i ny d i scon t inuou s f e a the rs c a r so nb o th s i de sw h ich a r ei d en t ica lt o t h e w ea ro n O de l l ' s s p ec imen E0 131 ( Pho to 1 ; O de l l 1 996 F i g .4 . 9d ) . B o th s pec im en sE S02 a nd TUA 14 w e r e u s ed t os aw h a rd a n ima l m a te r ia l , a nd t h ey e xh ib i ts im i la rs c a r r ing p a t t e rn s( Pho to s

- Med ium -sof t V eg e ta l ( 1M ) : f r e sh p ine t r ee w ood , f r e sh u nknown t r ee w ood ; -Med ium A n ima l( MA ) : f i sh ,d r ied p i gs k in ; 5 0

Me thod s 7a nd 1 2 ) . T hey d i sp lay h eavy r ound ing a nd m a t te p o l i sh i n t h e m idd le o f t h e u sed e dge ( Pho to 8 ) ,a ccompan ied b yl a rge h i nge a nd f e a th e rf r a c tu r e s .

( Pho to 1 0 ) . I ns om e c a se sw he r ep o l ish i sp oo r ly d eve loped o n t h e t o o l ( ES19 , E S36 , TUB145 ) , t h e d i rec t ion o fs c a r r emova l s , s c a r d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd s i ze a nd t e rm ina t ion o fs c a r sp rov ide h e lpf u l c l ue s ( Pho to 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 ) a st ot h eu se -wea rt y pe .

T oo l s w o rked o n s of t m a te r ia l s u sua l ly s how a r ow o f s ma l l f e a the r s c a r s a s d e sc r ibed a bove . R oughened e dge s , d en t icu la t e s c a r r ing , a nd b i f a c i a l g r a s sy p o l i sh i n d ica te m ea t c u t t ing w ea r , a s s hown b y s pec im en TUB137 ( Pho to 1 3 ) . T he E S16 f l ak e w a s u sed f o r s c rap ing ap o ta to f o r a h a lf -hou r p e r iod ( 3 500 s t roke s ) . U n if ac ia l s c a r r i ng o n t h e w o rk ing e dge , a l ong w i th s eve ra l s t r ip s o fp o l i sh p e rpend icu la r t ot h e e dge c an b e o b se rved o nt h e c on ta c t s u r f ace u nde rh i gh m ag n i f ica t ion ( Pho to s 9& 1 0 ) .

Ab l ind t e s tw a sc a r r ied o u tu nde rt h es uperv i s ion o fD r . O de l l i ne a r ly 1 995 , a c co rd ing t or u le s s e t o u t b y h im ( Ode l l a nd V e r eeck en -Ode l l 1 980 ) . Twen ty two e xpe r im en ta l p i ece s w e r e p i ck ed b y O de l lf r om t h e TU c o l lec t ion a nd s e ta s id eb ef o r e Is t a r ted e xam in ing t h e c o l lec t ion . F ou r e dge w ea r v a r iab le s w e r e t e s ted : e mp loyed l o ca t ion , t o o l mo t ion s , r e la t ive h a rdne s s o f t h e c on ta c t m a te r ia l s ,a nd e xa c tc on ta c tm a t e r ia l s( T ab le 3 . 6 ) . O u to f2 2p i ece s ,t wo p i ece sw e r e m i s in te rp r e ted f o r a l l c a tego r ie s . U se l o ca t ion a nd t o o l mo t ion h ad ar e la t ive ly h i gh r a te o fc o r r ec ti d en t if ica t ion , 7 7 .8% a nd 8 1 .8% , r e spec t ive ly . T he r e la t ive r e s i s tance o f t h e m a te r ia l h ad a 6 8 .2% r a te o f a ccu racy , a nd t h e l owe s t c o r r ec t a s se ssmen t w a s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e e xa c t w o rk ed m a t e r ia l : 5 9 .1 % .

A nO nondaga c he r tf l ake ( ES 12 )w a su sed t od r i l l ad r ied p i g l imb b one f o r 1 5 m inu te s . H eavy r ound ing o f t h e t i p w i th c r u sh ing s c a r s o n a l r i dge s r e su l ted ( Pho to 1 4 ) . Af ew s nap s c a r s o n t h e t i p o f af l ake ( ES33 ) a r e i n d ica t ive o fp ene t r a t ing a c t iv i ty ( Pho to 1 5 ) ,w he r ea sh eavy r ound i n ga nd b r igh tp o l ish o nt h ec on tac tt i po f ag r av i n gt o o l( ES40 )a r ea l so t y p ica lw ea rf o rt h i sk i nd o fa c t iv i ty ( Pho to 1 6 ) . P o l i sh i sw e l l d eve loped o n aw ood c hopp ing t o o l( ES4 1) a f t e r 1 5m inu te s u se a nd c an b e o b se rved a t 5 0x m agn if ica t ion ( Pho to 1 7 ) .

T h i s r e su l t w a s t h en c ompa r ed w i th o t he r u se w ea r b l ind t e s t s ( T ab le 3 . 7 ) . My o ve ra l l s co r e i s a ve rage , b u t Is c o r ed b e low a ve r age f o r i d en t if i c a t ion o ft h e e xac t m a te r ia l w o rk ed . T he r e su l t s o ft h eb l ind t e s t si n d ica te t h a tt h ea c tua lu se -wea r d e te rm ina t ion s a r e s ub jec tt oe r ro r . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a ti n te rp r e ta t ion s o ft o o lu se , o r" t oo l f un c t ion" a sp r ef e r r ed b y s ome l i t h ic a na ly s t s , i sp rob lem a t ic .W i th t h i si nm ind ,t h er e su l t so f my u se -wea r a na ly s i s , p r e sen ted i n t h e f o l low ing c hap te r s , s hou ld b e c on s ide r ed a s ag ene r a l iza t ion o ft o o l u se p a t te rn ing ,r a the rt h an a na b so lu te m an if e s ta t i on .

T he e xpe r imen t a l so p rov ide s e v idence s ugge s t i n gt h a tn o ta l lu se w ea rt y pe sa r eu sef u l i na s ce r t a in ing t oo l mo t ion s a nd c on tac t m a te r ia ls . D if f e r en tr aw m a te r ia l s ,t h el e ng th o fu se ,a nd t h e t o pog raphy o ft h e f l ake t o o l s u rf a ce , a r e a l f a c t o r s t h a t a f f ec t t h e w ea r f o rma t ion s . A s Ib r ief ly m en t ioned i nt h e c a se c i ted a tt h e e nd o ft h e l a s t s e c t ion ,t wo t o o l s( ES02 a nd E S 18 )w e r eu sed f o r as im i la r u se ta sk , s aw ing a v e ry h a rd a n ima l m a te r ia l , t h e i r s c a r r ing p a t te rn s a r e q u i te d i f f e r e n t . Wh i le t h ef o rm e rs how st h et y p ica lw ea rt y pe r e su l t ing f r om s aw ing h a rd m a te r ia l , t h e l a t t e r d i sp lay s as c a r r ing s im i la rt ot h a tr e su l t ing f r om a s c rap ing a c t ion . T h i s i sl a rge ly d ue t ot h e d i f f e r e n ce si nt h es hape o ft h ew o rk ing e dge o ft h et wo t o o l s . A f t e r c l o se e xam ina t ion , h oweve r , i tw a s

T o al a rge d eg r ee , t h e e r ron eou s i d en t if ica t ion o f t o o l mo t ion s a nd c on ta c t m a t e r ia l s , a s s hown i n t h eb l ind t e s t ,w e r ed ue t ot h e s ho r tp e r iod o fu se o f s om e o f t h e e xpe r imen ta l s p ec imen s ( e .g . , TUC8 , w h ich Im i s in te rp r e t ed w a su sed f o r o n ly 7m inu te s o r 3 50 s t rok e s ) . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t s ome u sed f l ak ed t o o l s m ay n o te xh ib i tu se w ea r a ta l l d ue t o s ho r t p e r iod o fu se . H oweve r , t h e u se -wea r a na ly s i s a pp l ied i nt h i s s t udy i sb a sed o n ac on serva t ive a s sump t ion : i ft h e re i sn o u se w ea rd e tec ted o nf l ak ed t o o l s ,t h et o o li sa s sumed n o tt oh ave b een u sed . F lak et o o l st h a ts how u se w ea rb u tw he r ei tw a sn o tp o s s ib le t od i sc r im ina te

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r )

o o

0

d o d o o

t r )

.

tr ;

Max . W id th ( mm )

0 (n 0

r e )

• 1 -.ri 00 t r i e * ;

a :G rand B ank s

T ab le 5 . 2 : F ormed T ype Me tr ic Da ta .

N

O rC ;

r -

0 0

re )

kr )

e

N

r - r -

r \ ▪i

F ormed T ype s r e cove r ed f r om a r ea s n ea rh ea r th s . H oweve r , t h e p a t ter n o fu se o fh ea ted b l ank s i ss im i la r t ot h a t f ound a t G rand B ank s ; m o s t o f t ho se p i ece s s how ing t h e rma ld amage w e r em od i f ied i n to p ro j e c t i le p o in t s ( n= 11) , b i f aces ( n=8 ) , a nd

1 5 )a r ef o und w i th in t h ep ro jec t i le p o in tg roup . A f ew b i f a ce s( n=3 ) a nd r e touched p i ece s( n=4 ) a r e a l so m ad e o n b lank s w i th t h e rma l d amage . A t L one P in e , ah ighe r p e rcen tage o fh ea t ed b l ank s a r eo bse rved ,a ccoun t ing f o r2 5 .4% ( N=31) o ft h e f o rmed t y pe a s semb lage . T h i s d i f f e r en t d i s t r ibu t i on i nt h e rma l d amage f l ak e s m ay b e b i a sed b y t h e s amp l ing s t ra tegy c a r r ied o u ta tt h et wo s i te s ,

r e touched p i ece s . F ive f r ac tu r e a t t r ibu te s ( F ig . 5 . 10 ) w e r e f u r the r o b se rved o n b o th s c rape r a nd r e touched p i ece

b ecau se m o s t a r t if ac t s f r om L one P ine w e re

T ab le 5 . 3 : T te s tR e su l t so fB lank S i ze sb e tween S urfac ia l ly Mod if ied a nd E dge Mod if ied F ormed T ype sa tG rand B ank s . G rou . 1 :S u rf ac ia l lv _mod if ied f o rmed t y pe s Mean

S t a t is t ics t te s t

Mean

G roup 2 :E dge m od if ied f o rmed t y pe s

S .D .

V a l id N

S .D .

roup 1 G roup 2 G roup 2 t va lue G roup 1 G

d f ,p -va lue

V a l id N

G roup 1 G roup 2

* Max . L eng th

3 2 .98

2 6 .88

8 . 40

8 . 74

3 . 07128

7 3

0 . 002994

4 1

* Max . W id th

2 4 .77

1 9 .15

7 . 87

6 . 85

3 . 262 106

7 3 ,0 . 00 1683

4 1

3 4 3 4

* Max . T h ickne s s

6 . 56

4 . 86

3 . 49

1 . 97

2 . 65289

1 07

0 . 009 196

7 5

3 4

L /W R a t io

1 . 37

1 . 51

0 . 25

0 . 51

1 .48651

7 3

0 . 14 145

4 1

3 4

V a l id N

V a l id N

.

* i n d ica te s s i gn if ican td if e rence b e tween t h et wo g roup s

T ab le 5 . 4 : T te s tR esu l t so fB lank S i ze s b e tween t he A rea A a nd A rea B a tG rand B ank s . G rou

G rou 2 :A rea B

1 :A rea A Mean

S t a t is t ics t te s t

Mean

S .D .

S .D .

va lue roup 2 G roup 1 G roup 2 , t G roup 1 G 3 0 .57

Max . L eng th

2 2 .53

Max . W id th

2 9 .30 2 1 .42

d f

p -va lue

roup 2 G roup 1 G

9 . 37

0 . 5487 11

7 3

0 . 584878

5 4

8 . 28

6 . 89

0 . 539492

7 3

0 . 59 1189

5 4

0 .25052

1 07

0 . 802668 ,

7 9

0 . 0 14225

7 3

0 . 988689

5 4

8 . 96

Max . T h ickne s s

5 . 98

6 . 15

3 . 06

3 . 53

L /W R a t io

1 . 43

1 . 43

0 . 36

0 . 49

2 1 2 1 ,

_

3 0 2 1

* i n d ica te ss i gn if ican td if e r ence b e tween t h et wo g roup s

T ab le 5 . 5 : T te s tR e su l t so fB lank S i ze so ft he S urfac ia l ly Mod if i ed F ormed T ype s b e tween t he Two F ormed T ypes A s semb lage s . G rou

1 :G rand B ank s Mean

S t a t is t ic s t t es t

G rou 2 :L one P ine Mean

S .D .

V a l id N

S .D .

va lue roup 2 t roup 2 G roup 1 G G roup 1 G

d f

p -va lue

V a l id N

G roup 1 G roup 2 _

1

Max . L eng th

3 2 .98

3 8 .0 1

8 . 04

_ 1 .43

1 . 628297 ,

5 0

0 . 109748-

4 1

Max . W id th

2 4 .76

2 3 .99

7 . 86

,

6 . 69

0 .29685 ,

5 0

0 . 767808

4 1

1

Max . T h ickne ss

6 . 56

6 . 0 1

3 . 48

,

2 . 7 1

0 .72364

9 8

0 . 471009

7 5

2 5

* L /W R a t io

1 . 37

1 . 7 1

0 . 25

0 . 70

2 . 621419 _ 5 0 _0 . 0 1157 1

4 1

1

.

i n d ica te ss i gn i f ican td if e rence b e tween t h et wo g roup s

T ab le 5 . 6 : T te s tR e su l t so fB lank S i ze s o ft he E dge Mod if ied F ormed T ype s b e tween t he Two F ormed T ype A s semb lage s . G rou

1 :G rand B ank s Mean

S t a t is t ics

G rou 2 :L one P ine Mean

S .D .

2 6 .88

1 4 .14

Max . L eng th

3 1 .42

Max . W id th

9 . 15 2 0 .26 , 1

, 6 . 92

5 . 04

4 . 86

3 . 27

1 . 60

1 . 51

_ 0 . 56

Max . T h ickne s s L /W R a t io

V a l id N

S .D .

va lue roup 1 G roup 2 t G roup 1 G roup 2 G

t tes t

'

,

_d f

8 . 74

1 . 666045

8 2

0 . 09952

5 0

6 . 84

0 . 722225

8 2

0 . 472196 ,

5 0

1 . 97

0 . 284266 _ 8 2

0 . 776923 ,

5 0

0 . 51

0 . 764 193

0 . 444946

5 0

* i n d ica te s s i gn if ican td if e rence b e tween t h et wo g roup s

8 5

8 2

V a l id N

-va lue , G roup 1, G ,p roup 2 3 4 3 4 _

3 4 3 4

_

a :S u rf ace Mod if ied F ormed T ype s

C a tego r ized S ca t t te rp lo t

+ b :E dge Mod if ied F o rmed T ype s

C hap te r5

t i l Sual

• x ew

8 6

F ormed T ype s b y as i ng le p l a tf o rm w i th al i pped b u lb , s ugge s t i n gt h a tt h e se p i ece sh ave b een r emoved b y s of t h amme r p e r cu s s ion . B lank s w i th c ru shed p l a t f o rm s a nd u n l ipped b u lb s , w h ich m ay s ugge s t h a rd -hamme r p e r cu s s ion , a r e a l so p r e sen t b u t i n l ow p e r cen tage s ( 1 8 .2% a t G rand B ank s a nd 1 5 .5% a tL one P ine ) .The l a t e ra l e dge a l ignmen t

b l ank s . T h e d i s t r ibu t ion s o f t h e se a t t r ibu te s a r e f o und i n T ab le 5 . 10 . T he p l a tf o rm f a ce t s o n b l ank s a r e p r edom ina te ly s i ng le f a ce t , f o l lowed b y c r u sh ed p l a tf o rm . I nt h e G rand B ank s a s sem b l age , l i pped b u lb s a r e t h e mo s t c ommon , f o l l owed b yu n l ipped b u lb s . T h i s c on t ra s t sw i th t h e L one P in ea s semb lage i nw h ich t h e r ea r er ough ly e qua l n umbe r s o f b lank s w i th l i pped a nd u n l ipped b u lbs . T he c r o s s tabu la t ion o fp l a tf o rm f a ce ta nd b u lb s hape ( T ab le 5 . 11) s how st h a t mo s t b l ank s ( 4 2 .4% )a tG rand B ank sa r ec ha rac t e r ized

o f f l akes f r om b o th s i te s i s p redom ina te ly e xpand ing o rp a ra l le l . T h i si s ac ha rac te r i s t ic t h a t h a sb een u sed t oi d en t if y" bu l le tf l ake s" r emoved t h rough s of t h amm e r p e r cu s s ion ( Hayden a nd

T ab le 5 . 7 : R aw Ma ter ia l P re sen ted i nt he F ormed T ype A s semb lage s . LONE P INE

GRAND BANKS C he r tT ype s

1 1

9 0 .98

Onondaga

1 38

9 4 .52

H a ld imand

1

0 . 68

1

0 . 82

Anca s te r

2

1 . 37

4

3 . 28

5

3 . 42

6

4 . 91

1 46

9 9 .99

1 22

9 9 .99

O the r s T o ta l

T ab le 5 . 8 : F ormed T ype b y C or t ica l C overage i nt he F ormed T ype A s semb lage s . a : GRAND BANKS F o rmed T ype

n o c o r tex

P ro jec t i le P o in t

6 2

1 % -30% 3 0% -50% 5 0 -99%

1 00%

c or tex

c o r tex

c o r tex

2

B if ace

1 7

5

Un if ace

3

1

S c rape r

1

R e touched P i ece

3 4

D r i l l

4

No tch

2

M ic ro l i th

2

T runca t ion C omb ined N umbe r C omb ined P e r cen tage

c o r tex

1

1

1 1 36

7

2

0

9 3 .15

4 . 79

1 . 37

0 . 00

1

N= 146

0 . 68

%= 100

b : LONE P INE F o rmed T ype

n o

1 % -30% 3 0% -50% 5 0 -99%

1 00%

c o r tex

c o r tex

c o r tex

2

3

17

2

3

0

0

N=122

9 5 .90

1 . 64

2 . 46

0 . 00

0 . 00

V 0100

c o r tex P ro jec t i le P o in t

2 6

B if ace

2 2

Un if ace

1

S c rape r

2 0

R e touched P i ece

4 0

D r i l l

3

N o t ch

2

B u r in

2

P e rf o ra to r

1

C omb ined N umbe r C omb ined P e r cen tage

c o r tex

8 7

C hap ter 5 H u tch ing s 1 989 ) .

o ft h e s e lec ted b l ank s e xh ib i t p a r a l le l a nd p a ra l l e l -oppo sed p a t ter n s o f d o r sa l s c a r r ing . P a r a l le l s c a r p a t ter n s m ay i n d ica te p r epa r ed c o r e r e duc -

T he t o o lb l ank sw e r e f u r the re xam ined f o ra t t r ib u t e s wh ich w ou ld i nd ica te whe the rc ho sen b l ank s w e re r emoved d u r ing t h e e a r ly s t age s o r l a te r s t age s o f c o r e r e duc t ion . T he d o r sa l s c a r c oun t a nd s c a r p a t te rn a r e i n f o rma t ive . O ve ra l l , t h e

t i on . V e ry f ew b l ank s ,i fa ny , d i sp lay n on -pa ra l le l s c a rp a t te rn ing . B ea r ing i nm ind t h a tt h em a jo r i ty o f b l ank s h ave a h igh d o r sa l s c a r c oun t ( T ab le 5 . 13 ) , t h i s c ou ld i n d ica te t h a t t h e se b l ank s w e r e c a r ef u l ly r emoved ,t h rough c o r ep r epa ra t ion ,d u r i n g t h e l a te r s t age s o fc o re r educ t ion . T he r ef o r e , i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e s e lec t ion o ft o o l b l ank s m ay h ave b een a ni mpo r tan tp rocedu r ei nt o o lp roduc t i on a tG rand B ank s .

t h r ee i n te rva l so fs c a rc oun t s ( 0 -2 , 3 5 , > 5 ) s how r ough ly e qua l f r equenc ie s ( T ab le 5 . 10 ) . S ince s ma l l f l ak e s i ze a f ec t s d o r sa l s c a r c oun t s a s d emon s t ra ted e xpe r imen ta l ly , Id iv ided t h e b l ank s i n to t wo s i ze g r ade s : s ma l l ( l eng th o r w id th < 2 5 mm ) a nd m ed ium t ol a rge ( l eng th o r w id th > 2 5 mm ) . W i th t h e s i ze g r ad e t a ken i n to a ccoun t ac l ea rp a t ter ne me rge s ( T ab le 5 . 12 ) : f o r m ed ium t ol a rge s i ze t o o l s ,t h em a jo r i ty o fb l ank s d i sp lay h igh e r d o r sa l s c a r c oun t s . A s f o r s ma l l s i zed b l ank s , 8 0% o ft h em h ave m ode ra t et oh i gh d o r sa l s c a rc oun t sa tG rand B ank s .

R e touch T echn ique T he mo rpho log ica l a ppea rance o f r e touch i s i nd ica t ive o f t h e r e touch t e chn ique wh ich P r inces s P o in t p eop le c hose t o mod if y t oo l b l ank s . F ou rr e touch v a r iab les h ave b een c ho sen f o r f u r the r o b se rva t ion s : r e touch t y pe , r e touch o r ien ta t ion , r e touch s hape , a nd r e touch p a t tern ( F ig . 5 . 11) . T he i rf r equ ency d i s t r ibu t ion sa r ep r e s en ted i n T ab le 5 . 14 . I t i s i n te r e s t ing t o a sk w he the rt h e se p opu la t ion sh ave t h e s ame s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r ibu t ion s a tt h e i n te r s i t e a nd i n t ra s i te l e v e l s . T h e Mann - Wh i tney U n onpa r ame t r ic t e s t p roved t h a t t h e r e a r e n o s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence s b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s a t G rand B ank s ( T ab le 5 . 15 ) a nd b e tween t h e t wo s i te s ( T ab le 5 . 16 ) . O n t h i s b a s i s , o u r d a ta m an ipu la t ion s a r e m a in ly d r awn f r om G r and B ank s .

A t L one P in e , a l though j u s t a bou t h a lf o f t h e s ma l l b l ank s e xh ib i t f ew s c a r c oun t s , t h e r e a r e s t i l l 4 2 .1 % o f s ma l l b l ank s w i th d o r sa l s c a r c oun t s o ve r 3r emova l s ( T ab le 5 . 12 ) . T h i s l e ad s m e t ob e l ieve t h a tt h eb l ank s s e lec t ed f o r mod if i c a t ion i n to f l ake t o o l s , s uch a s s c rape r s a nd r e touched p i ece s , w e re t h o se r emoved d u r ing l a te r r educ t ion s t age s . I ft h i s i si n deed t h e c a se , t h en o ne mu s ta sk whe the rt h ey w e r ei n ten t iona l l yp roduced a s t o o l b l ank s? T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s c a rp a t te rn s ( T ab le 5 . 10 ) s ugge s t s t h a t o ve rh a lf

T ab le 5 . 9 : F ormed T ype b y Therma l D amage P resen ted . i nt he F ormed T ype A ssemb lages . F o rmed T ype s

GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

t h e rma ld amage t h e rma l d amage

t h e rma ld amage t h erma ld amage

n o ti n d ica ted

i n d ica ted

n o ti n d ica ted

P ro jec t i le P o in t

5 4

8

1 5

B if a ce

2 1

3

1 4

Un if ace

5

S c rape r

1

R e touched P iece

3 1

i n d ica ted 1 8

1 4

1 8

2

3 6

9

D r i l l

4

2

No tch

2

2

M ic ro l i th

2

T runca t ion

1

B u r in

1

2

P er f o ra to r

1

C omb ined

1 3 1

1 5 N=146

9 1

3 1 N= 122

P e r cen tage

8 9 .73

1 0 .27 %= 100

7 4 .59

2 5 .4 1 %= 1-00

x :i n d ica ted t h a ts uch t y pe sd on o te x i s ti nt h ef o rmed t ype a s semb lage

8

F ormed T ype s

1 .P LATFORM F ACET - t h en umbe ro ff a ce t so rc ond i t ion o ft h ep l a tf o rm s i ng le

d i hed r a l

m u l t ip le

• ( = Z i>

c r u shed

c or tex

: 2 D >

2 .S HAPE OF BULB - t h ef o rm o ft h ev en t ra ls u rf ace a d jacen tt ot h ep l a tf o rm

l i pped

u n l ipped

p o in ted

3 . AL IGNMENT O F THE LATERAL EDGES - t h ec onf igu ra t ion o ft h el a te ra le dge so f ap i ece i n ap l an v i ew

e xpand ing

c onve rg ing

e xpand ing -conve rg ing

p a ra l le l ing

T 1 4 . DORSAL S CAR COUNT - t h en umbe ro fn ega t ive s c a r so ff l ake r emova lo nt h ed o r sa ls u r f ace o f ap i ece f ew ( 1 -2 )

h i gh ( > 5 )

m ode ra te ( 3 -5 )

5 . DOSRAL S CAR P ATTERN - t h ec onf igu ra t ion o ft h e s c a rp a t te rn o n t h ed o r sa l s u rf ace o f ap i ece

p a ra l le l

p a ra l le l o ppo sed

p a ra l le lt r unca t ion

p a ra l le lc onve rg ing

5 F ig . 5 . 10 : D iag rams o fF rac tu re A t t r ibu tes .

8 9

n on -pa ra l le l

C hap ter 5 Ih ave i lu s t ra ted f i ve t y pe s o fr e touch m e thod s ( F ig . 5 . 11 :A ) ; t h ey a r e d ef ined ma in ly o n t h e b a s is o fa ng le a nd e x ten to fr e touch ( I n izan e ta l . 1 992 :67 -76 ) . Ic on s ide r t h em t ob e i n d ica t ive o f s t y l is t ic p r ef e r ence s b ecau se a l l o f t h e r e touch m e thod s a im a t e dge mod if ica t ion w i th f ewe r t e chno log ica l i n f e r en ce s . T he r e su l t s s how t h a t n orma l a brup t r e touch i s mo r e c ommon i nt h e a s semb lage ( 62 .5% ) . T h i si sf o l lowed b yo bve r se

o ri n ve r se s em i s teep r e touch ( 20 .8% ) a nd m ic r o e dg ing r e touch ( 1 1 .5% ) .A l terna t ing r e touch a nd b ack ing r e touch t y pe sa r ep re sen t ,b u ti nv e ry l ow f r equen c ie s a tG rand B ank s . C lea r ly , t h e n o rma l a b rup t r e tou ch t e chn ique w a s t h e m e thod o f r e touch p r ef e r r ed a tG rand B ank s f o rf u r the rt o o l p roduc t ion . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fr e tou ch s ca r a pp ea rance a l so

T ab le 5 . 10 : D i s tr ibu t ion so fF ive F rac ture A t tr ibu te s Observed o nE dge Mod if ied F ormed T ype s . GRAND B ANKS

L ONE P INE

(>0

1 .P LATFORM F ACET i n de te rm ina te

5

1 5 .15

I1

1 8 .97

s i ng le

1 7

5 1 .52

2 4

4 1 .38

d i hed ra l

3

9 . 09

6

1 0 .34

mu l t ip le

1

3 . 03

4

6 . 90

c r u shed

6

1 8 .18

1

1 8 .97

c o r tex

1

3 . 03

2

3 . 45

3

1 00 .00

5 8

1 00 .00

i n de te rm ina te

4

1 2 .12

1

1 8 .97

l i pped

1 7

5 1 .52

2 2

3 7 .93

p o in ted

2

6 . 06

4

6 . 90

u n l ipped

1 0

3 0 .30

2 1

3 6 .2 1

O b se rved N umbe r

3

1 00 .00

5 8

1 00 .00

O b se rved N umbe r 2 .S HAPE O F BLUB

3 . AL IGNMENT O F LATERAL EDGE i n de te rm ina te

1

3 . 03

1 0

1 7 .24

e xpand ing

1 4

4 2 .42

1 8

3 1 .03

c onve rg ing

1

3 . 03

6

1 0 .34

p a ra l le l ing

1 6

4 8 .48

1 7

2 9 .31

e xpand ing -conve rg ing O b se rved Numbe r

1 3

3 . 03

7

1 2 .07

1 00 .00

5 8

1 00 .00

4 . DORSAL S CAR COUNT i n de te rm ina te

0

0 . 00

3

5 . 45

f ew ( 0 -2 s ca rf a ce t s )

6

1 9 .35

1 6

2 9 .09

m ode ra te ( 3 -5 s c a rf a ce t s )

1 6

5 1 .6 1

2 1

3 8 .18

h i gh ( >5 s c a rf a ce t s )

9

2 9 .03

1 5

2 7 .27

O b se rved Numbe r

3 1

1 00 .00

5

1 00 .00

5 . DORSAL S CAR P ATTERN i n d e te rm ina te

0

0 . 00

7

1 9 .44

p a ra l le l

9

4 2 .86

1 6

4 4 .44

p a ra l le lo ppo sed

6

2 8 .57

3

8 . 33

p a ra l le lt r unca t ion

2

9 . 52

7

1 9 .44

p a ra l le lc onve rg ing

2

9 . 52

3

8 . 33

n on -pa r a l le l

2

9 . 52

0

0 . 00

O b served N umbe r

2 1

1 00 .00

3 6

1 00 .00

9 0

F ormed T ype s i nd ica t e st h a t t h en o rma l a b rup tr e touch w a s p r e f e r r ed . Mo s t r e touch u n i t s h ave p a ra l le l r e touch s c a r p a t te rn ing ( 50% ) , f o l lowed b y s ub -pa ra l le l a nd s c a la r p a t te rn s . P a ra l le l r e touch s c a r s a r e l i ke ly t h e r e su l t o fn o rma l -abrup tr e touch ing .

e r ence s , t h a t i s , n o rma l a b rup t s t ra igh t p a ra l le l r e touch o nt h ed o r sa l s i de o ft h eb l ank s .T h is a na l y t ic r e su l ti si n te re s t ing a nd s hou ld b eu sed i nt h e

R e tou ch u n i t so ccu r mo s to f ten o nt h ed o r sa l s i de o ft h eb l ank s ( 60% ) , w h i le r e touch o nt h ev en t ra l s i de a nd a l te r na t ing r e touch a r e p r esen t i ne qua l -

A l though Ih ave s t r essed t h e s t y l is t ic a spec t s o f r e touch t e chn ique s , t h is d oes n o t n eces sa r i ly

c ompa r ison o f t h is m a te r ia l w i th o the r P r inces s P o in tl i th ic a s semb lage s i nf u tu re s t ud ie s .

m ean t h a t r e touch t e chn ique s a r e u naf f ec ted b y t e chno log ica l a nd f unc t iona l c on s ide ra t ion s . I n f a c t , i na dd i t ion t op roduc ing ag ene ra l f o rm f o r

l yl ow p e r cen tage s . R e touch s hape i sd om ina ted b ys t r a igh tr e touch ( 4 3 .33% ) ,f o l lowed b yc onvex ( 23 .33% ) a nd n o tched ( 10% ) r e touch . A l l t h ese r e tou ch a t t r ibu te s p o in t t o as i ng le d om inance ( F ig . 5 . 12 ) , p oss ib ly s ugges t ive o fs t y l is t ic p ref -

t oo ls , t h e re a r e o t he r r e a son s f o r r e touch ing : ( a ) t o s hape s pec if ic p o r t ion s f o r u se ; ( b ) t o s hape p a r t icu la r p a r t s f o r i n ser t ion ; a nd ( c ) t o b lun t

T ab le 5 . 11 : C ro ss -Tabu la t ion o fP la tf orm F ace t a nd S hape o fB u lb o ft he F ormed T ype B lank s . a : GRAND BANKS P la tf o rm F ace t

S hape o fB u lb i n de term ina te

i n de te rm ina te

l i pped

p o in ted

4

u n l ipped 5

1

s i ng le

1 4

d i hed ra l

2

1

1 7

2

3

mu l t ip le c ru shed

6

6

c o r tex

1 4

C omb ined

3

b : LONE P INE P l a tf orm F ace t

S hape o fB u lb i n de te rm ina te

l i e d

o i n ted

s i ng le

1 2

4

i n de te rm ina te

u n l i

1 0

c d 1

1

8

2 4

d i hed ra l

5

1

6

mu l t ip le

3

1

4

c r u shed

2

9

1

2 1

5 8

c o r tex

2

C omb ined

1

2 /

4

T ab le 5 . 12 : D is tr ibu t ions o fD or sa lS car C oun tb y B lank S i ze G rade s i nt he F ormed T ype A ssemb lage s . GRAND BANKS D or sa l S ca rC oun t

Sma l l N

LONE P INE

Med ium t oL a rge %

Sma l l

Med ium t oL a rge

N

%

N

° / 0.

N

%

0

0 . 00

1

5 . 26

2

5 . 56

i n de term ina te

0

0

f ew

2

2 0

4

1 9 .05

1 0

5 2 .63

6

1 6 .67

mode ra te

5

5 0

1

5 2 .38

4

2 1 .05

1 7

4 7 .22

h igh O bse rved N umbe r

3

3 0

6

2 8 .57

4

2 1 .05

1

3 0 .56

1 0

1 00

2 1

1 00

1 9

1 00

3 6

1 00

9 1

C hap ter 5

F ig . 5 . 11 : D iag ram o fR e touch A t t r ibu te s .

9 2

F ormed T ype s

T ab le 5 . 13 : C ro ss -Tabu la t ion o fD or sa l S car C oun t a nd S car P a t tern i nt he F ormed T ype A ssemb lages . a : GRAND BANKS =

I nde te rm ina te

S ca rC oun t

P a r . c onve rg ing

S ca rP a t te rn

1 3 T z i c z z . ,

-

4

6

3

7

1 6

-

6

7

1 3

" C /

.0 " .

t r l . ) 0 2 0 S Z

z . , C : . ; c e a •

R I 0 C

g s . : , c e z . ,

0

i nde te rm ina te f ew

-

mode ra te h igh

0

C omb ined

3 3

3

9

5

3 1

b : LONE P INE

S ca rC oun t

r i 5 ) g ?,

T v ' 1 C Z

C . s 2. o w : C Z

= o . .

. =

r e

= . e 1 4 Z S

4

f ew

3

9

2

2

mode ra te

2

6

6

6

4

9

1

1

1

C omb ined

2 4

9

9

3

1 :i n de t e rm ina te 2 :n o rma l a brup t 3 :o bve r se / inve r se s em i s teep 4 :a l t er n a t ing s em i s te ep 5 :b a ck ing 6 :m ic ro r e touch

3

5

4

Percentage

5 8

1 :i n d e t e rm ina te 2 :d o r sa lo n ly 3 :v en t r a l o n ly 4 :a l t e r na ted

Percentage

4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0

6

II I 2

3

R e touch O r ien ta t ion

R e touch T ype

4 5 4 0 3 5 3 0 2 5 2 0 1 5 1 0 5 0

1 6 0

5 0

1 0 2

2 2

6 0

2 0 -

1

C.

1 6

1 3

• 5 0 — a u c o 4 0• 3 0 •

s -

2

h igh

6 0 — —

—c 7 d

4

i n de te rm ina te

7 0

0 -

P a r . c onve rg ing

I nde te rm ina te

S ca rP a t te rn

1 :i n d e te rm ina te 2 :s t r a igh t 3 :c onvex 4 :c oncave 5 :n o tched 6 .p o in t ed

5 0 4 0 C S

3 0

1 :i n d e t e rm ina te 2 :p a r a l le l 3 :s u b -pa ra l le l 4 :s t epp ed 5 :s c a le

2 0 1 0-

— I

3

i i. 4

MI 5

I ZZ _

4

6

R e touch P a t te rn

R e tou ch S hape

Ir

F i g . 5 . 12 : D i s t r ibu t ion so fR e touch A t t r ibu te s o ft h e G rand B ank s F ormed T ype s . 9 3

5

C hap te r5 o b se rved t h a tt h ee dge so nt h r ee s u ch p i ece sh ave b een mod if i ed f o r c u t t ing o r s c r ap ing , a nd t h a t e dge s o ft h e o t he r f ou r h ave b een e i the r a l t e r ed f o rh af t ing d ev ice so rb l un ted f o rh and -ho ld ing .I t i sw o r th n o t ing , h oweve r , t h a t m od if ica t ion s f o r t h e p u rpo se o f u se a ppea r t o b e r a re a t G rand B ank s .N eve r the le s s ,t h i ss t i l lr e p r e sen t sv a r iab i l i t yi nt h ea pp l ica t ion o fr e touch t e chn ique s .

s ha rp p ro t rud ing e dge s t o f a c i l i ta te g r a sp ing i n t h e h and ( Ode l l 1 994b :77 ) . T o i lu s t ra te t h i s , I h ave s e lec ted a l r e touched p i ece sa sa ne xamp le f o r e xam ina t ion o f b o th r e touch a nd u se e mp loy ed l o ca t ion s . Among 3 5 r e tou ched p i ece s f r om G rand B ank s , 1 4 p i ece s d i sp lay u se -wea r . W i th in t h i s g roup , 7p i ece s h ave t h e s ame l o ca t i on o f b o th mod if ica t ion a nd u t i l iza t ion . I ti s

T ab le 5 . 14 :D i s tr ibu t ion so fF our R e touch A t tr ibu te so fF ormed ' Iy pe . GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

1 .R e touch T ype i nde te rm ina te

2

2 . 08

5

6 . 10

n o rma la b rup t

6 0

6 2 .50

3 7

4 5 .12

o bve r se / inve r se s em i s teep

2 0

2 0 .83

3 2

3 9 .02

a l ter na t ing s em i s teep

2

2 . 08

5

6 . 10

b a ck

1 . 04

2

2 . 44

m ic ro r e touch

1 1 1

1 .46

1

1 . 22

O b se rved N umbe r

9 6

1 00 .00

8 2

1 00 .00

i n de te rm ina te

2

6 . 45

2

3 . 08

d o r sa lo n ly

1 8

5 8 .06

4 6

7 0 .77

v en t ra lo n ly

6

1 9 .35

7

1 0 .77

a l ter na ted

5

1 6 .13

1 0

1 5 .38

O b se rved Numbe r

3 1

1 00 .00

6 5

1 00 .00

2 .R e touch O r ien ta t ion

3 .R e touch S hape i nde te rm ina te

6

2 0 .00

6

9 . 38

s t ra igh t

1 3

4 3 .33

2 0

3 1 .25

c onvex

7

2 3 .33

2 0

3 1 .25

c oncave

1

3 . 33

6

9 . 38

n o tched

2

6 . 67

7

1 0 .94

d en t icu la ted

0

0 . 00

2

3 . 13

s hou lde r /no sed

0

0 . 00

1

1 . 56

p o in ted

1

3 . 33

0

0 . 00

3 0

1 00 .00

6 4

9 6 .88

O b se rved N umbe r 4 .R e touch P a t ter n i n de te rm ina te

6

2 0 .00

4

6 . 35

p a ra l le l

1 5

5 0 .00

3 2

5 0 .79

s ub -pa ra l le l

4

1 3 .33

9

1 4 .29

s t epped

1

3 . 33

s ca le

4

O b se rved Numbe r

3 0

9 4

. 6

9 . 52

1 3 .33

1 2

1 9 .05

1 00 .00

6 3

1 00 .00

F ormed T ype s

T ab le 5 . 15 : T he Mann - Wh i tney U T e s tR e su l t so fR e touch A t tr ibu te s b e tween A rea A a nd A rea B a tG rand B ank s . G rou . 1 :A r ea A

G rou .2 :A r ea B

S t a t i s t ic s

R ank S um R ank S um

t h e Mann - Wh i tney

G roup 1 G roup 2

a l id N V a l id N V

Z U

p leve l

Z

a d ju s ted

p leve l

roup 2 G roup 1 G

3 213 .5

2 057 .5

. 56 1579 . 584474 0 .58050 0 0 .54687 0

1 04

4 2

r e touch o r ien ta t ion

3 6 1

'

1 35

9 0

. 660 130 0 .43974 0 0 . 69530 1 0 .39 167 '

2 2

9

r e touch s hape

3 17

'

1 48

8 6

. 684772 . 700478 0 .40596 0 0 .38468 '0

2 1

9

9 3

. 94 1754 0 .07307 0 0 . 945878 0 .06788 '

2 1

9

7 5 17 .5

r e touch t y pe

3 24

r e touch p a t te rn

1 4 1

* i n d ica te ss i gn if ican td i f f e r ence b e tween t h et wo g roup s

T ab le 5 . 16 : T he Mann - Wh i tney U T e s t R e su l ts o fR e touch A t tr ibu te s

b e tween t he Two S i te s . G rou .2 :L one P ine R ank S um R ank S um

G rou . 1 :G r and B ank s S t a t i s t ics

a l id N V a l id N V

Z Z

p leve l

a d ju s ted ,p leve l

roup 1 G roup 2 G

t h e Mann - Wh i tney

G roup 2

G roup 1

U

r e touch t y pe

1 9326 .5

1 6 184 .5

8 595 .5

. 782643 0 .27588 0 . 792 189 0 .26347 0

1 46

1 20

r e touch o r ien ta t ion

1 675 .5

2 980 .5

8 35 .5

. 144082 1 .46079 0 . 177762 1 .3477 1 0

3 1

6 5

* r e touch s hape

165 .5

3 299 .5

7 00 .5

0 . 028983 2 .10482 0 . 035315 2 . 1838 1 '

3 0

6 4

r e touch p a t ter n

1 2 15

3 156

7 50

0 . 084247

3 0

6 3

1 .7266 1 . 109029 1 .60262 0

*i n d ica te ss i gn if ican td i f f e r ence b e tween t h et wo g roup s

mo t ion s ,i . e . ,c u t t ing / saw ing ,a r ew e l lr e p re sen ted ( 19 .2% ) a nd p ro jec t ing o r p ene t ra t ing mo t ion s a r ep r e sen ti ns ma l lb u tf a i r ly r e p r e sen ta t ive n um b e r s( 10 .6% ) . O the rt o o l mo t ion ss u ch a sg r av ing , d r i l l ing , d i gg ing , a nd w edg ing a r e i n d ica ted i n s ma l l n umbe r s .

U se -wear Ana ly s i s Grand B ank s

M ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o fa l 1 46 f o rmed a r t i f a c t s f r om G rand B ank s i n d ica te s t h a t o n ly o ne t h i rd ( N=44 ) s how e v iden ce o fu se . T ab le 5 . 17 i n d ica te s t h a t mo rpho log ica l ly s haped s c rape r s , n o tch e s , d r i l ls , a nd r e tou ch ed p i ece s , w e r e e f f i c i en t ly u t i l ized ; h oweve r p r o jec t i le p o in t s a nd b i f ace sw e r en o t . O ft h e 6 2p r o jec t i le p o in t sf r om

I f f o rmed t y pe s a r e c r o s s tabu la ted w i th t o o l mo t ion s ( T ab le 5 . 19 ) , s om e v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e u se o ft y ped a r t if ac t s c an b e n o ted . N o t s u rp r i s ing ly , r e touched p i ece s a r e t h e o n ly g roup o fa r t if a c t s a s soc ia ted w i th aw ide v a r ie ty o fa c t iv i t ie s . H a lf t h e r e tou ched p i ece s , h oweve r , h ave b een u sed f o r s c rap ing . S c rape r s a nd d r i l l s a tG rand B ank s a r e f unc t iona l ly c on s i s ten tw i th t h e i r mo rpho log i c a l n am e s ; b o th t o o l t y pe s w e r e u sed f o r t r an s v e r se ( s c rap ing ) a nd r o ta t ion ( d r i l l ing ) mo t ion s , r e spec t ive ly . T h r ee e mp loyed u n i t s o b se rved o n u n if a ce s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th s c rap ing ( 2 ) a nd g r av ing ( 1 ) , a s t h e i r m o rpho log ica l s hape s m ay i n d ica t e . Two b i f ace s w e r e u sed f o r c u t t ing a nd s c rap ing .

G rand B ank s , o n ly 1 2 ( 1 9 .35% ) d i sp lay u se t r a ce s a nd /o rp r ehen s i le w ea r . Al owe rd eg r ee o f u t i l iza t ion o fb i f a ce s i sa l so i n d ica t ed . T he f o r ty -f ou r u t i l ized p i ece s y i e ld at o ta l o f7 0 e mp loy ed u n i t s , i n c lud ing 4 7 u t i l ized w ea r u n i t s a nd 2 3 p r ehen s i le w ea r u n i t s . S c rap ing / shav ing mo t ion sd om ina t et h ea s semb lage ,a ccoun t ing f o r 3 8 .3% o f t h e t o ta l ( T ab le 5 . 18 ) . When s c rap ing / shav ing mo t ion s a r e c omb ined w i th p l an ing /wh i t t l ing ,t r an sve r se m o t ion sa c coun tf o r n ea r ly h a lf t h e e mp loy ed u n i t s . L ong i tud ina l

A n u nexpec t ed d i scove ry i st h a t m o s t u t i l iz ed p ro jec t i le p o in t s w e r e n o t u s ed f o r p ro jec t ing o r 9 5

C hap t er 5 p ene t r a t ing b u t r a the r f o r c u t t ing a nd d i gg ing ( 7 o u t o f 1 3 E dU s ) . O n ly t h r ee p ro jec t i le p o in t s s how i mpac tw ea ro n ,o rn ea r , t h e i rt i p s . T he t wo

s en ted ,a nd t h e r ea ppea r st oh ave b een a na pp rox i ma te ly e qua l e xp lo i ta t ion o fh a rd m a te r ia l ( 1H , 2 H ) , m ed ium a n ima l m a te r ia l ( MA ) , a nd s of t v ege ta l m a t e r ia l ( SV ) . E v idence o fu se o n i n o r g an ic s ub s tances w a s p resen t o n o n ly t h ree e mp loyed u n i t s .

n o t che s e mp loy ed a tG rand B ank s w e r e u sed i n t r an sve r se mo t ion s : s h av ing a nd p l an ing . T he u sewea r a na ly s i s o f f o rmed t y pe a r t if ac t s i n d ica te s t h a t av a r ie ty o f ma te r ia l s w a s w o rk ed . E v iden ce o f w o rk ing o n m ed ium sof t v ege ta l ( 1M )i ss l igh t ly mo r ec ommon t h an o t he rm a te r i a l( T ab le 5 . 20 ) . When t h is c a tego ry i sc omb ined

Wh en a r t if a c t t y pe s w e r e c ompa r ed w i th c on ta c t m a t e r ia l s( T ab le 5 . 21) , If ound t h a tb o th p ro jec t i le p o in t s a nd r e touched p i eces w e r e u sed o n e ve ry r e s i s tance -g rade o f m a te r ia l . T h r ee p ro jec t i le p o in t s w e r e c on tac ted w i th i n o rgan ic m a te r ia l s u ch a ss o i l a nd s t one g r ave l . O n ep o ss ib le i n t e r p r e ta t ion o ft h i s i st h a t as ma l l p o r t ion o fp ro jec -

w i th t h eh a rd w ood c a t ego ry ( 2M ) ,w oodwo rk ing may b e i n f e r red t oh ave b een ar e la t ive ly c om mon t o o l u se . O the r s ub s tance s a r e a l so r e p r e -

T ab le 5 . 17 : U t i l iza t ion R a te s o fF ormed T ype s . GRAND BANKS

F o rmed T ype s

t o ta lN u sed

u se r a te ( % )

LONE P INE t o ta lN u sed

u se r a te ( % )

P ro jec t i le P o in t

6 2

1 2

1 9 .4

2 6

9

3 4 .6

B if ace

2 4

2

8 . 3

2 2

8

3 6 .4

Un if ace

5

2

4 0 .0

1

0

0 . 0

S c rape r

1

7

6 3 .6

2 0

1 4

7 0 .0

R e touched P i ece

3 5

1 7

4 8 .6

4 5

1 8

4 0 .0

D r i l l

4

2

5 0 .0

3

2

6 6 .7

No tch

2

2

1 00 .0

2

2

1 00 .0

M ic ro l i th

1 1

5 0 .0 1 0 0 .0

2

0

0 . 0

T runca t ion

1

0

0 . 0

B u r in

x

x

2

P e rf o ra to r

x

x

1

C omb ined

1 46

4 4

3 0 .1

1 22

5 5

4 5 .1

x :i n d ica te st h a ts uch t y pe sd on o te x is ti nt h ea s semb lage

T ab le 5 . 18 :T oo l Mo t ion i nt he F ormed T ype A s semb lage s . T oo l Mo t ion

GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

i n de te rm ina te

5

1 0 .6

9

1 4 .8

c u t / saw

9

1 9 .1

1 4

2 3 .0

s l ice /ca rve

0

0 . 0

3 . 3

s c rape / shave

1 8

3 8 .3

2 1

3 4 .4

p l ane /wh i t t le

3

6 . 4

3

4 . 9

p ro jec t ion

5

1 0 .6

2

3 . 3

b o re /d r i l l

2

4 . 3

5

8 . 2

g rave

1

2 . 1

0

0 . 0

c hop

0

0 . 0

1

1 . 6

h oe /d ig

3

6 . 4

1

1 . 6

p ound /g r ind

0

0 . 0

1

1 . 6

w edge

1

2 . 1

1

1 . 6

p i ck

0

0 . 0

1

1 . 6

4 7

1 00 .0

T o ta l Emp loyed Un i t s

9 6

6 1

1 00 .0

F ormed T ype s b ea r ing s t eep ly r e touched i n den ta t ion so nt h e l a t e r a le dge s , s how e v idence o fh av ing b een u sed i n w o rk ing h a rd m a te r ia l s l i k e b one a nd a n t le r , w he r ea s d r i l l s a ppea r t oh ave b een u t i l ized o n ly

t i l e p o in t s w a s , a c c iden ta l ly o re xped ien t ly , u sed f o r d i gg ing s o i l o rt h e l i ke . B if ace s a nd u n if a ce s w e re u s ed o n r e la t ive ly s of t m a te r ia l , s u ch a s f r e sh w ood ( 1M ) a nd p l an t s o rg r a s s ( SV ) , w i th t h ee xcep t ion o fo ne u n if ace ( i den t if ied a s ag r av i n gt o o l ) w h ich w a su sed o n f r e sh b one o ra n t le r ( 1H ) . O n e t h i rd o f t h e s c rape r s w e r e u sed f o r w oodwo rk ing ( 1M ) .A no th e rt h i rd o ft h es c rape r s w e re u t i l ized o na n ima l s ub s tan ce s ( SA , 1 H , 2 H ) s ugge s t ing t h a tt h ey m ay h av eb een u sed i nh i de w o rk ing o r b on e /an t le r -wo rk ing . T he n o tche s ,

f o rw oodwo rk ing . Ano th e rw ay t oa r r ive a ti n f e r ence so fu se ta sk si s t o e xam ine a s soc ia t ion s b e tween t o o l mo t ion s a nd c on tac t m a te r ia l s . T ab le 5 . 22 s ugge s t s t h a t mo s t s c rap ing / shav ing a c t iv i t ie sw e r e c a r r ied o u t o n s of t t o m ed ium r e s i s tance m a te r ia ls l i ke

T ab le 5 . 19 : F ormed T ype b yT oo l Mo t ion i nt he G rand B ank s A s semb lage .

T oo l Mo t ion

P ro je c t i le P o in t

F o rmed T ype

i n de te rm ina te

3

c u t / saw

4

e C . ) ( 4 1

•

C 3.

C )

5

2 1

4

9

8

1 8

1

3

2

5

0

s l ice /ca rve 2

s c rape / shave p l ane /wh i t t le

7

3

p ro jec t ion b o re /d r i l l g r ave

( )

c hop 3

h oe /d ig

3 0

p ound /g r ind w edge

1

p i ck

0

T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

1 3

2

3

9

1 6

2

2

4 7

T ab le 5 . 20 : C on tac t Ma ter ia l i nt he F ormed T ype A s semb lage s . C on tac t Ma te r ia l

GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

i n de te rm ina te

5

1 0 .6

1 2

1 9 .7

s of ta n ima l( SA )

6

1 2 .8

7

1 .5

s of tv ege ta l( SV )

1

2 . 1

3

4 . 9

m ed ium -sof tv ege ta l ( 1M )

1 2

2 5 .5

1 7

1 9 .7

m ed ium a n ima l (MA )

7

1 4 .9

7

1 .5

m ed ium -ha rd v ege ta l( 2M )

5

1 0 .6

1 2

1 9 .7

h a rd a n ima l ( 1H )

7

1 4 .9

7

1 .5

v e ry h a rd a n ima l ( 2 11 )

1

2 . 1

0

0 . 0

3

6 . 4

1

1 . 6

4 7

1 00 .0

h a rd i n o rgan ic ( 3H ) T o ta l Emp loyed Un i t s

9 7

6 1

1 00 .0

C hap ter 5 T ab le 5 . 21 : F ormed T ype b yC on tac t Ma ter ia li nt he Grand B ank s A ssemb lage . F o rmed T ype s

C on tac t Ma te r ia l

a . ) c . ) c e C .

) c . )

4 -

c l , ; c . )

c

C 1

a . )

; a )

Z

C I D

i n de term ina te

3

1

5

s o f ta n ima l( SA )

1

-

4

6

-

-

-

1

3

1 2

4

7

s o f tv ege ta l( SV )

1

m ed ium sof tv ege ta l( 1M )

2

m ed ium a n ima l( MA )

3

m ed ium -ha rd v ege ta l( 2M )

2

h a rd a n ima l( 1 1 4 )

I

1

2

3

1 1

I

1

2

2

5

2

7

1

v e ry h a rd a n ima l ( 2H )

1

h a rd i n o rgan ic 3 H

3

3

I 3

T o ta l Em i t o c dU n i t s

2

9

2

4 7

1 6

T ab le 5 . 22 : T oo l Mo t ion b y C on tac t Ma ter ia l i n t he Grand B anks F ormed T ype A s semb la e . T oo l

C on t ac t Ma te r ia l

Mo t ion ‘ )

i n d e te rm ina te

3

c u t / saw

1

S A

S\ , /

1 M

MA

2M

1 H

2 H

3 H

2 1

1

3

1

5

1

C omb . 5

2

9

s l i ce /ca rve s c rape / shave

1

p l ane /wh i t t le

1

2

p r o jec t ion

4

1

1 8

1

3

5

b o r e /d r i l l

1

g r ave

1

5 1

2 1

c hop

0

h oe /d ig

3

p ound /g r ind

3 0

w edge

1

1

i c k

0

T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

5

1 2

7

5

7

1

3

4 7

T ab le 5 . 23 : P rehens i le Wear T ype i nt he F ormed T ype A ssemb lage s . P r ehen s i le W ea rT ype

GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

g ene r a lp r ehen s i le w ea r

3

1 3 .04

3

2 1 .43

h and -he ld w ea r

5

2 1 .74

6

4 2 .86

h af tw ea r

1 5

6 5 .22

5

3 5 .7 1

T o ta l Emp loy U n i t s

2 3

1 00 .00

1 4

1 00 .00

9 8

F ormed T ype s w ood so rp l an t sa nd s of te rb on e so ra n t le r s . S ince t r an sv e r se mo t ion s c omp r i se m o s t o f t h e E dU s f r om t h eG rand B ank sf o rm ed t y pe a s semb lage ,i t i sn o ts u rp r i s ing t h a ts c rap ing , s h av ing , a nd p l an i n g r e g i s t e r t h e i r m an if e s ta t ion s o n a lmo s t a l k ind s o f c on tac t m a t e r ia l s . P ro jec t ing u se ta sk s a r e p r ima r i ly a s soc ia ted w i th m ed ium r e s is tan ce ma t er ia l s , p o s s ib ly i n d ica t ive o fp ene t ra t ing a n i ma l s k in s a nd c on tac t ing b on e . C u t t ing / saw ing a r e a l so c oncen t ra ted o n s of tm a te r ia ls , b o th a n i ma la nd v ege ta l . D ue t ot h er e la t ive ly s ma l l s am p l e o fu t i l ized f o rmed t ype s , o t he r a s soc ia t ion s b e tween a c t iv i t ies a nd c on tac tm a te r ia l sa r ep oo r l yr e p r e sen t ed .

w ea r c a tego ry ( 1 3 .04% ) . A s e xpec t ed , h af t ing w ea ri sp r ima r i ly a s soc ia ted w i th p ro jec t i le p o in t s ( 60% ) , b u t i ti s a l so f ound o n s c rape r s a nd r e touched p i ece s( T ab le 5 . 24 ) . When t h er e la t ion s h ip b e tween p r ehen s i le w ea ra nd t o o l mo t ion si s e xam ined ( T ab le 5 . 25 ) , i tw a s f ound , n o t s u rp r i s i n g ly ,t h a to ne th i rd o fh af t ed t o o l sw e r eu sed f o r p ro jec t ing u se ta sk s . Aq ua r te ro ft h em w e r e u t i l i zed o n i n o rgan ic m a te r ia ls , w h e r ea s a no the r q ua r te r o f h af t ed t o o l s w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th s c rap ing a c t iv i t ie s . I n c on s ide r ing t o o l u t i l iza t ion p a t te rn s b e tween A r ea s Aa nd B , Io b se rved t h a t a l though A r ea B h a s f ewe r f o rmed t y pe s t h an A r ea A , t h e r e i sn o s t a t i s t ica ld i f f e r en ce i nt h ed i s t r ibu t iona lf r equen c i e s o f t o o l u t i l iza t ion b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s ( Ch i squar e=0 .09 , d f = 1 , p -va lue=0 .7636 ) . T he Mann - Wh i tney U t e s ta l so i n d ica te st h a tt h e re a r e n o s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence s f o r e mp loy ing t o o l mo t ion s a nd f o r c on ta c t m a t e r ia l s b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s ( f o r t o o l mo t ion : U =2319 .00 , Z = -

Twen ty th ree o u t o f 4 4 u t i l ized f o rmed t y pe s e xh ib i tc l ea rp rehen s i le w ea r , e i the rh and -he ld o r h af t ed ( T ab le 5 . 23 ) . T oo l s w i th h af ted d ev ice s a ccoun t f o r 6 5 .2% o ft h e p r eh en s i le w ea r . T h r ee p i ece sh ave w ea rw h ich c anno tb e d e te rm ined t o b e e i th e r ar e su l t o fh and h e ld u se o rh af t ing , s o t h ey h ave b een p l aced i n ag ene ra l p r ehen s i le

T ab le 5 . 24 : F ormed T ype b yP rehen s i le Wear T ype i nt he G rand B ank sA s semb lage . F ormed T ype

P r ehen s i le Wea rT ype G ene ra l

p ro jec t i le p o in t

h and

1

s c rape r

h af t

C omb ined

9

1 0

3

4

1

d r i l l

1

r e touched n i ece

2

3

3

8

T o ta l Em l o e dU n i t s

3

5

1 5

2 3

T ab le 5 . 25 : T oo l Mo t ion b yP rehens i le Wear T ype i nt he G rand B ank sA s semb lage . T oo l Mo t ion

P r ehen s i le Wea rT ype e ne ra l

h and

h af t 2

i n de te rm ina te

C omb ined 2

c u t / saw 5

s c rape r / shave p l ane /wh i t t le p ro jec t ion

4

4

3

3

1 2

1 9

1

d r i l l h oe /d i T o ta lU t i l ized P i ece s

3

4

9 9

C hap ter 5 1 . 26043 ,p -va lue=0 .207525 ; f o rc on tac t ma te r ia l : U = 1253 .00 ,Z = 1 .13270 ,p -va lue=0 .25349 ) .

l i za t ion f r om t h i s l a te -pe r iod s i te s hou ld b eh i gh l i gh ted . S t a t i s t ica l a na ly s is s how s t h a t t h e r e a r e n os i gn if ican td i f f e rence sb e tween t h et wo s i te si n t h e a pp l ica t ion o f t oo l mo t ion s a nd t h e o ccu r r e nce so fc on tac t ma te r ia l s .H oweve r ,u se ta sk sa t L one P ine w e r e mo r ed i ve r se t h an t h o se a tG rand B ank s . We s e e a n a pp rox ima te ly e qua l empha s i s o n b o th t r an sve r se a nd l ong i tud ina l mo t ion s a t L one P ine ( T ab le 5 . 18 ) . S eve ra l u s e ta sk s a r e f ound i nl ow n umbe r sa tL one P ine ,b u ta r ec or n -

L one P ine U se -wea r d a ta g ene ra ted f o r t h e L one P ine f o rmed t y pe sa r ep r e sen ted i n as im i la rm ann e rt o t h a t o ft h e G rand B ank s d a ta . Iw i l l n o t g i ve a d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o ft h er e su l t ss i nce t h et a bu la t i on s ( T ab le s 5 . 17 -4 .18 , 5 . 20 , 5 . 26 -5 .28 ) s peak f o rt h em se lve s . H oweve r , d if e r ence s i nt oo l u t i -

T ab le 5 . 26 : F ormed T ype b y T oo l Mo t ion i nt he L one P ine A ssemb lage .

c . )

r e touched p i ece

T oo l Mo t ion

p ro jec t i le P o in t

F o rmed T ype

0 .

C . 7 1 s —

_0

9

i n de te rm ina te

2

1

3

c u t / saw

2

4

3

5

1 4

s l ice /ca rve

2 1

9

2 1

2

s c rape / shave p l ane /wh i t t le

1

3

p r o jec t ion

1

2

b o r e /d r i l l

5

g r ave c hop h oe /d ig p ound /g r ind w edge i c k T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

8

9

0

I 7

0 1

T ab le 5 . 27 : F ormed T ype b y C on tac t Ma ter ia l i nt he L one P ine A s se mb lage . F o rmed T ype s p ro jec t i le p o in t

C on ta c t Ma te r ia l

C . ) C ) ' E L 0 3 Q . ) 0 .

i n de te rm ina te

3

s o f ta n ima l ( SA )

1

4

s o f tv ege ta l( SV )

1

1

1

1

9

m ed ium sof tv ege ta l( 1M )

1

3

2

m ed ium a n ima l( MA )

1

3

m ed ium -ha rd v ege ta l( 2M )

2

2

4

1

2

h a rd a n ima l ( 1H )

1

1 2 7 1 2

1

v e ry h a rd a n ima l( 2H )

7 1 2

1

2

1

7 0

h a rd i n o rgan ic ( 3H ) T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

4

1

8

9

0

1 7

1 00

F ormed T ype s

F ig . 5 . 13 : L one P i ne P ro jec t i le P o in t sw i th U se -W ea rI mage s . a :p o in t( # 6 14 )u s ed a sw ood cu t t ing t o o l ,n o t ing m ed ium s i z ed f e a the ra nd h i nged s c a r s ,a nd h eavy r ound ed e dge . 1 7 b :p o in t( # 372 )u s ed a sm ea t cu t ing o rb u t ch ing t o o l ,n o t ing ar ow o fs ma l lf e a the rs c a r sa nd l i gh tp o l i sh . 1 3x c :p o in t( # 962 )u s ed a sw ood -d r i l l ing t o o l ,n o t ing s t rong p o l i sh ,h eavy r ounded e dge ,a nd c r u shed s c a rp a t te rn s , 1 0x ( l ef t ) a nd 2 8x ( t op )

1 0 1

C hap te r5 ( T ab le 5 . 23 ) . T he f i ve h af t ed t o o l s f r om L on e P ine a r e o fv a r iou s mo rpho log ica lt y pe s .

p l e te ly a b sen t f r om G r and B ank s . T he se i n c lude c hopp ing , s l ic ing /ca rv ing , p ound ing /g r ind ing , a nd p i ck ing a c t iv i t ie s a tL one P in e . A l so i nc on t r a s t t o t h e G rand B ank s a s semb lage , c on tac t m a t e r ia l s f r om L on e P ine a r e e qua l ly d i s t r ibu ted w i th in t h e e i gh t r e s i s tance -g rade c a tego r ies ( T ab le 5 . 20 ) . Woodwo rk ing ( e .g . , s c rap ing , c u t -

D i scus s ion a nd S ummary F o rmed t y pe s a r e d ef ined i nt h i s s t udy a so b jec t s w i th i n ten t iona l mod if ica t ion s . T he se p i ece s

t i ng / saw ing , d r i l l ing , c hopp ing ) , b one -wo rk ing ( e .g . , s c rap ing , d r i l l ing , g rav ing ) , b u tche r ing ( e .g . , s l ic ing /ca rv ing , p ene t ra t ing ) , a nd s o i l d i g g i ng , a r ea l lw e l lr e p r e sen ted a tL one P ine ( T ab le 5 . 28 ) .

c ou ld b e e i the r s u rf ace mod if ied o re dge mod i f i ed , a l though t h e l a t te r m ay n o t g r ea t ly c hange t h e f o rm o fb l ank s . T he s t udy o ft h e mo rpho logy o f f o rmed t y pe s i nt h e P r ince s s P o in t C omp lex c an b e u sed a s ab a s i s f o r c ha r a c te r iz ing t h e t ypo logy o ft h e P r ince s s P o in t l i t h ic a s semb lage . T ypo log ica l ly , s u rf ace mod if ied a r t if a c t s d om i n a te t h e f o rmed t y pe a s semb lage . Among t h e se , p ro jec t i le p o in t s a r e t h e mo s t c ommon a nd d i s t i nc t ive f o rmed t y pe s . A s p r ev iou s ly o b served ( S to the r s 1 977 ; F ox 1 990 ; B u r sey 1 995 ) , t h e G rand B ank s p ro jec t i le p o in t s c on s i s t p r ima r i ly o f t h e t r i angu la r shaped t ype , s om e o f wh ich w e r em ad eo nf l ake b l ank s . B if ace sa r ep roduced i n mode ra te f r equenc ie s o n -s i te . E dge mod if ied f o rmed t y pe s i n c lude m a in ly s c rape r s a nd r e touched p i ece s . A l l o ft h e se f o rm s w e r e made o n f l ak e s r emoved f r om O nondaga c h e r t c o r e s . S c rape r s a nd r e touched p i ece s c omp r i se n ea r ly o ne th i rd o ft h ef o rmed t y pe a s semb lag e . Among t h em , s imp le e nd sc rape r s a nd u n i la t e ra l -obve r se

T h i s g ene ra l p a t te rn i nt o o l u sage a tL one P ine c an a l so b eo b se rved i nc r o s s tabu la t ion sb e tween f o rmed t y pe s a nd t o o l m o t ion s /con ta c t m a te r ia l s ( T ab le s5 . 26 & 5 . 27 ) . T he u t i l iza t ion o fp ro jec t i le p o in t s f o r an umbe r o f u se ta sk s i sa ga in w i t n e s sed a tL one P ine ( F ig . 5 . 13 ) . B if a ce sh ave r e l a t ive ly h i gh r a te s o fu t i l iza t ion , a nd w e r e mo s t ly u sed a s k n ive s f o r c u t t ing / saw ing ( T ab le 5 . 26 ) . S c rape r s a tL one P in e h ave b een u sed s ub s tan t i a l ly o n a n ima l h i de o r s k in a s w e l l a sb one o r a n t le r . R e touched p i ece sa tL one P ine a r e ma in ly a s soc ia ted w i th w oodwo rk ing ( T ab le 5 . 27 ) . V e ry l i t t le p rehen s i le w ea r w a s d e tec ted i n t h e L one P ine f o rmed t y pe a s semb lage . Among 1 4 p r ehen s i le u n i t s i d en t if ied , h af t ing w ea ra ccoun t s f o ro n ly s l igh t ly o ve ro ne th i rd ( 3 5 .71 % ) o ft o ta l p r ehen s i le w ea r ; af e a tu r e t h a t d i s t ingu i she s t h i s

r e tou ched p i e ce s a r e p r edom inan t t y pe s . S qua r e b a sed d r i l l s a nd s i ng le n o tche s a l so f o rm p a r t o f G rand B ank s f l aked s t one t oo lk i t s . A l though

a s semb lage f r om t h e G rand B ank s a s semb lage

T ab le 5 . 28 : T oo l Mo t ion b yC on ta c t Ma t er ia l i nt h eL one P ine F ormed T ype A s semb lage . T oo l Mo t ion

C on tac t Ma te r ia l S A

i nde te rm ina t e

8

c u t / saw

1

S V

IM

MA

2M

2

3

2

2

7

2

s l ice /ca rve s c rape / shave p l ane /wh i t t le

1 H

1

2 1 1

3 H

C omb . 9 1 4

1

1

5

3

2 1

2

p ro jec t ion b o re /d r i l l

5

1

( )

g rave c hop

1

h oe /d ig

1

p ound /g r ind

1

1

1

w edge

1

p i ck T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t .

6I

1 0 2

F ormed T ype s o ccu r r ing i nf ewe rn umbe r s , m ic ro l i th s a nd t r un c a t ion s a r e p r e sen t w i th in t h e a s semb lage a nd a ppea r t ob e d i s t ingu i shab le t y pe s o ft h e G rand B ank sl i t h ic t y po logy . O ve ra l l ,t h e G rand B ank sl i t h ic t y po logy d emon s t ra te st h a tt h e P r ince s s P o in t l i th ic i n du s t ry r e p r e sen t s al e s se rd eg r ee o fd i ve r s i ty a nd c omp lex i t y o f t o o l t y pe s a s c ompa r ed t o t o o l t y pe s o f P a leo Ind ian a nd A r cha ic l i th ic i ndu s t r ies . D ive r s i ty d eno te s t h e n umbe r o f d i s t in c t t o o l t y pe s o r c l a s se s ( Sho t t 1 986 :19 ) , w he r ea s c om p l ex i ty d eno te st h ed i f f e r en t mo rpho log ica lf o rm s o ft o o l t y pe s o rc l a s se s . I ti so bv iou s t h a t f l aked s t one t o o l s a tG rand B ank s h ave n o t b een i n ten t i ona l ly mod if ied i n to v a r iou s f o rm s t o ag r ea t d eg ree . O b se rva t ion so fr e touched f l ake s s ugge s t t h a t e dge mod if i ca t ion s m ade t o t h e f l ak e t o o l s w e re p r ima r i ly f o rt h e p u rpo se o ff a c i l i ta t ing t h e u se o f t h e t o o l s : p rov id ing s u i tab le e dge s f o r d i r ec tw o rk ing , h af t ing , o rh and -ho ld ing . S ome h ave a u tho r s a r gued t h a t l e s s d i ve r s i ty a nd c omp lex i ty o f t o o l t y pe s m ay h ave o ccu r r ed i n r e spon se t oi n c r ea sed mob i l i ty ( e .g . , S ho t t 1 986 ; T o r ren ce 1 983 ) . " The r e spon se t o c on s t ra in t s i mpo sed b y s e t t lemen t mob i l i ty s hou ld i n vo lve a l im i t o n t h e s i ze o ft h e t o o l i n ven to ry o r e ven a r e duc t ion i ni t ss i ze i fi n c r ea s ing mob i l i ty r e duce s t h eo ve ra l lt r an spo r tc apa c i ty o ft h eg roup" ( Sho t t 1 986 :20 ) . H oweve r , i ti su n l ik e ly t h a tt h et o o l sa t G r and B ank s w e r e mod if i ed t o e nhance t h e i r p o r tab i l i ty s i nce e v idence o fh i gh ly mob i le s e t t le m en t o r gan iza t ion w a s n o t f ound a tt h e s i t e . T he l e s se r d i ve r s i ty a nd c omp lex i ty o ft o o l t y pe s a t G r and B ank s , a s Ia r gue h e r e , i so ne o ft h e c ha r a c t e r i s t ic s o f g ene ra l ized s t one t o o l p roduc t ion w h ich r e p r e sen t s t h e P r ince s s P o in t l i t h ic i n du s t r y( d e ta i l s i nC hap te r9 ) . T h em anuf a c tu re o ff o rmed t y pe si sc ha ra c te r ized b y s eve ra l d i s t ingu i sh ing f e a tu re s a tt h e G rand B ank s s i t e . C o r e t a b le t s a nd u n re touched f l ake s w e re s e lec ted f o r m ak ing t h e se f o rmed a r t if a c t s . P rodu c t ion o f b o th s u rf ace mod if ied a nd e dge mod if ied t o o l s r e qu i red t h e s e lec t ion o fd i f f e r en t s i z e s a nd f o rm s o ft o o l b l ank s , a sw e l l a sd i f f e r e n t r e touch t e chn ique s . B if ac ia l t o o l p rodu c t ion , w h ich Is ugge s t w a s a n o n s i te a c t iv i ty a tG rand B ank s , p rodu ced ah i gh p e r cen tage o ft r iangu la r p ro je c t i le p o in t s , mo s t o fw h ich d o n o t b ea re v i -

d ence o f u se . T he r e la t ive ly h i gh n umbe r o f r ough ly made p roduc t s a nd u nf in i shed b i f ac ia l t o o l s a tG rand B ank s m ay b e i n te rp r e ted a se v i d ence o ft h e e a r ly s t age s o fb i f ac ia l t o o l p roduc t i on . F in ished b i f a c ia l p roduc t s m igh t h ave b een t a k en a way f r om h ab i ta t ion s i te s f o r u se d u r ing t h e h un t ing s e a son s , a nd t h en d i sca rd ed o r l o s t o f s i te .I ft h is a s sump t ion i sc o r r ec t ,w ec an i n f e r t h a t G rand B ank s mu s t h ave f un c t ioned , i np a r t , a s al o ca t ion w he r e t o o l m anuf ac tu r ing t o ok p l a ce , a nd w he r e t o o l sw e r ep rodu ced f o rs pec ia l e ven t s . T ho se p ro jec t i le p o in t s o rb i f ace s w h ich r ema ined a tt h e s i te m igh t h ave b een e mp loyed f o r av a r ie ty o fu se ta sk s , a s s hown i nt h e u se w ea ra na ly s i s . H oweve r , a n a l ter n a t ive e xp lana t ion f o rt h e l a rge q uan t i ty o fu nu sed p ro jec t i le p o in t so ns i te s hou ld b ec on s ide r ed . Is ugge s tt h a tt h e se u nu sed p ro jec t i l ep o in t s c ou ld h ave b een p roduced f o rp u rpo s e so t he r t h an h un t ing o r s om e th ing s im i la r . T h i s o pen s r oom f o rd i scu s s ion o ft h e s o c ia l r e la t ion s t h a ta t ta in i nt o o l p roduc t ion . G iven t h e f a c tt h a t m o s t u nu sed p o in t s a r e o f t en e x t r eme ly w e l l f a sh ioned o n e xo t ic r aw m a te r ia l s , a nd t h a t t h e p o in t su sed f o rc u t t ing , s c rap ing ,a nd b o r ing w e r e m ade mo r ec a sua l ly f r om l o ca lr aw m a te r ia l s ,i ti s h ypo the s ized t h a t o n ce p eop le w e r e s e t t led i n f a rm ing v i l lage s t h ey c on t inued t om ake a r row h ead s t h a t m ay h ave b een p rodu ced a so rnamen t a l o b jec t s , f o r t r ad e , o r t o p a s s o n s t one t o o l m ak ing t e chno logy . T h i s s p ecu la t ive h ypo the s i s c anno tb et e s ted w i th t h ed a ta c u r r en t ly a va i lab le , b u t i ts hou ld b e t a k en i n to a ccoun t w hen d i s c u s s ing s oc ia ld ynam ic si nt e rm so fl i t h ic p roduc t i on . Id on o ti mp ly t h a tt h eu se o fa r rowh ead si nh un t i n g a c t iv i t ie s w a s n o t i mpo r tan t a f t e r t h e i n t ro d uc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e . I n c on t ra s t , e t hnoh i s to r ic d a ta ( Chap t e r 1 )s ugge s t s t h a t p ro to - o r h i s to r ic I r oqu ian p eop le d epended t o al a rge d eg r ee o n d ee rh un t ing w i th a r rowhead s . H oweve r , o b jec t s p roduced o n e xo t ic r aw m a t e r ia l t h rough as t an d a rd ized a nd s k i l lf u l p rocedu r e c ou ld a l so s e rve f o r p u rposes o the r t h an h un t ing . R ecen t ly , N eu s iu s ( 1996 ) r e -ana lyzed a l a rge s amp le o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s c o l lec ted b y A r thu r P a rk e r i n 1 906 , a nd s ugge s ted t h a t t e chno log ica l i n pu t o f t h e se p ro jec t i le p o in t s m ay l i ke ly p o in t t o " t he c r ea t ion o fs omewha t s t y l ized p o in t sw h ich w e r e 1 03

C hap te r5 n eve ru sed a nd p e rhap s n eve r i n tended f o ru se ." H ef u r the rh ypo the s ize st h a tt h o se p o in t sf ound i n c eme te r ie sp robab ly s e rved a sg r ave g ood s . T h em anuf ac tu r eo fe dge mod if ied t o o l si n vo lved t wo i mpo r tan t s t age s : p roduc ing o r s e lec t ing b l ank s a nd s e conda ry r e touch ing . T he r e su l t s o f f o rmed t y pe a na ly s i ss ugge s tt h a tb l ank sf o rf l ak e t o o l s w e r e c a r ef u l ly r emoved u s ing s of t -hamme r p e r cu s s ion d u r ing l a te r s t age s o fc o r e r e duc t ion , p e rhap s u s ing p r epa red c o r e r educ t ion t e ch n ique s . A f ew b l ank s w e r e a l so s e lec ted f r om t h o se p roduced u s ing b i po la r c o r e r educ t ion . N o rma l a brup tr e touch t e chn ique s w e r e t h e mo s t p reva len t me thod o f mod if ica t ion a t G rand B ank s . Mos t o b jec t mod if ica t ion w a s d one t h rough s t ra igh ten ing e dge s a nd r e touch ing d o r s a l s i de s .

H oweve r , t h e u se -pa t te rn ing o fp ro jec t i le p o in t s f o rd igg ing , d r i l l ing , c u t t ing , o rs aw ing , d oe s n o t m ean t h a tt h ey w e r ei n tended t ob em ad ef o rs uch a c t iv i t ie s . T he se i t em s , w o rk ed w e l l a s s upp le m en ta ry t o o ls , c ou ld h ave b een o cca s iona l ly s e lec ted f o r mu l t i -pu rpo se b y i n hab i tan t s a tt h e s i te s . T h i s u se -wea r e v idence f r om p ro jec t i le p o in t s a l so i mp l ie s t h a t G rand B ank s i n hab i tan t s w e r e e ngaged i n ag r ea t v a r ie ty o fa c t iv i t ie s o n s i te .

U t i l iza t ion o ff o rmed t y pe si sr e la t ive ly l ow i nt h e G rand B ank s a s semb lage . I th a s b een a s sum ed t h a t f o rmed t y pe s s hou ld b ea r ar e la t ive ly h i gh o ccu r r ence o f u se -wea r b ecau se t h e se p i ece s w e r e mod if ied w i th g r ea t i n te r e s t , d e s ign , a nd e n e rgy .H oweve r ,t h i sl ow r a te o ff o rmed t y pe u t i l i za t ion d oe s n o t s e em i n app rop r ia te w hen t h e l a rge q uan t i ty o f u nu sed p ro jec t i le p o in t s a r e t a k en i n to a ccoun t . O the r s pec ia l f o rm ed t o o l s s u ch a s s c rape r s , d r i l l s , a nd n o tche s , h ave much h i ghe r u se r a te s , a nd t h ey p r e sen t af unc t iona l c on s is tence w i th t h e i r t y pe n ame s i nt h i s s t udy . R e touched p i ece s , o n t h e o the r h and , w e re e mp loyed i n av a r ie ty o fu se ta sk s . I ng en e ra l , f o rm ed t y pe t o o l u se a tG rand B ank s r e p r e sen t s ar e la t ive ly s pec ia l ized mode l o fu se t a sk s . T oo l s w i th e v idence o fh av ing b een h af ted a r e p r ima r i ly a s soc ia ted w i th e i the r p ro jec t ing , d i gg ing , o r s c rap ing . T ran sve r se mo t ion s o n w ood a nd o t he r s of t s ub s tance s a r e c ommon a t G rand B ank s , a nd a r e i n d ica t ive o fl im i ted u se t a sk s . F o rmed t y pe t o o lu se a tL one P ine , i nc on t r a s t ,r e p r e sen t s ag r ea te rr ange o fi n hab i tan tu se t a sk s . N o t s u rp r i s ing ly , u se -wea r e v idence s d e tec ted f r om p ro jec t i le p o in t s s ugge s t t h a t mo s t o ft h o se i t em s w e re p o s s ib ly u sed a s g ene ra l t o o l s o t h e r t h an a sh un t ing w eapon s . A t G rand B ank s , o n ly t h r ee p ro jec t i le p o in t s s how t i p i mpac t e v idence , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h ey w e r e u sed a s p ro jec t i le s . 1 04

CHAPTER 6 AN

OF UN R ETOUCHED F LAKES

T he o b jec t ive so ft h i sc hap te ra r e : ( 1 )t od e sc r ibe t h ep ropo r t iona l o ccu r r ence so ff l ak et y pe s ;( 2 )t o r e con s t ru c t o n -s i te c o re r educ t ion s t ra teg ie s ; ( 3 ) t o e xp lo r e t e chno log ica l v a r iab i l i ty ; a nd ( 4 ) t o i n t e rp r e tt h eu t i l iza t ion o fu n r e touched f l ake s . Un r e tou ched f l ake s c omp r i se a bou t o ne th i rd o f t h e t o ta l l i t h ic a s semb lage s a t t h e t h r ee s i te s ( T ab le 4 . 1) . Howeve r , b y w e igh t , u n r e touched f l ak e s m ak e u p o ve r t wo th i rd s o f e a ch a s sem b l age ( T ab le 4 . 2 ) . At o ta l o f 1 , 6 17 p i ece s w e r e s e lec ted f o r t h e a na ly s i s f r om t h e t h r ee l i t h ic a s semb lage s ( s ee c hap te r 3 ) . O n ly t h e c omp le te f l ake s s e lec ted w e r e s ub jec t t ob o th m e t r ic a nd c a t ego r ica l m ea su r emen t s , w h i le b o th c omp le te a nd i n comp le te f l ake s w e r e e xam ined f o r e dge w ea r v a r iab les . T he i n comp le te u n re touched f l ake ss amp led c omp r ise 2 4 .51 % o ft h et o ta ls am p l ed a s semb lage f r om G rand B ank s , 3 8 .48% f r om L on e P ine , a nd 3 3 .08% f r om Y oung 1 .A l l i mcomp le te u n r e touch f l ak e s w e r e e xam ined m ic ro scop ica l ly f o rp o ten t ia lu se t r ace s .

T ypo -T echno log ica l Ana ly s i s P ropor t iona l O ccurrence s o fU nr e touched f l ake s E igh tt y pe so fu n r e touched f l ake sw e r ei d en t if ied , a ss hown i nT ab le 6 . 1 . T he d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion s f o rt h e se e i gh tt y pe sa r eg i v en i nC hap te r3 .O fa l l t h eb yp roduc t s f r om c o r er e du c t ion s ,p l a in f l ak e s a r e t h e mo s t c ommon . T h e o ccu r r ence o fp l a in f l ak e s i ss l igh t ly h i ghe ra tG rand B ank s ( 8 1 .2% ) , c ompa red t ot h e o t he r t wo s i te s . B if a ce t h inn ing f l ake s a r e t h e n ex t mo s t c ommon t y pe o fu n re t o u ched f l ake si na l a s semb lage s .T oge the r ,p l a in f l ak e s a nd b i f ace t h inn ing f l ake s c omp r i se o ve r 9 5 p e r cen t o ft h e u n re tou ched f l ak e s a ta l l t h r ee s i t e s .

T he r a t io o fp l a in f l ak e s t oc o r e s i sv e ry h i gh : a t G rand B ank s t h e r e a r e 1 08 p l a in f l ake s p e rc o r e . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t c o r e s m igh tb e e x ten s ive ly u t i l i zed o n -s i te d u r ing f l ake p roduc t ion . D e sp i t e t h is , t h e f o l low ing e xp lana t ion s c ou ld a l so a ccoun t f o r t h e h i gh f l ak e t oc o r e r a t io : ( 1 ) t h e r a t io i ss kewed b y t h e i n c lu s ion o f av e ry l a rge n umbe r o f f r agmen ta ry f l ak e s ( T ab le 6 . 1) ; ( 2 ) t o ta l ly r educed c o r e sa r eu n r ecogn izab le a ss uch ; ( 3 ) r educed c o re s w e re r e -depo s i t ed e l sewhe r e ; a nd ( 4 )c o re sw e r e f a sh ion ed i n to b i f ac ia l f o rmed t y pe sa f te rf l ak e sw e r er emoved T he G rand B ank sa s semb lage p r e sen t s ar e la t ive l y h igh o ccu r r ence o f b l ade /b lade le t s ( 3 .0% ) c ompa r ed t ot h e L one P ine ( 0 .9% ) a nd Y oung 1 ( 0 .6% )a s semb lage s . O ve ra l l ,t h el ow f r equenc ie s o f b l ade /b lad e le t c ou ld r e p r e sen t t h e a c c iden ta l p roduc t ion o fb l ade s , r a th e rt h an s p ec ia l ized p ro d uc t ion . H oweve r , a tG rand B ank s t h e r a t io o f b l ade s /b lade le t s t o p r epa r ed c o r e s i sr e la t ive ly h i gh : 2 3 :1 . A l though w e c an n o t a s sume t h a t a l l b l ade s /b lade le t s w e r e p rodu ced f r om t h e p r e p a r ed c o r es r e cove r ed a tt h e s i te , i ti sr e a sonab le t os t a te t h a t t h e p r e sence o fb l ade s o r b l ade l ike f l ake sa tG rand B ank sp robab ly r e p r e sen t s ad e s i g na ted f l ake r emova l t h rough t h e p r epa r ed c o r e r e duc t ion mode f o rb l ank p roduc t ion ( s ee b e low ) . H oweve r , at r ue b l ade p rodu c t ion i n du s t ry i sn o t e v idenced a tt h e G rand B ank s s i t e , b ecau se ( 1 ) b l ade s d o n o t p r e sen t as ub s tan t ia l p ropo r t ion o f u n r e touched f l ake sa nd ( 2 )t h e r ea r en ot r u eb l ade c o r es wh ich i n d ica t e t h a t as e r ie s o fb l ade s w e r e r emoved c on secu t ive ly . P r ima ry f l ak e sa nd c o re t r imm ing f l ake sa r ep r e s e n ta ta l ls i te si nv e ry l ow f r equenc ie s .T he i re x i s t e nce , h oweve r , i n d ica te s t h a t i n i t ia l c o r e r e du c t i on p roce s se s t o ok p l ace o n s i t e . C o r e t r imm ing f l ake s , a s t h ey a r e d ef ined , a r e b y -p roduc t s o f c o r e p repa ra t ion . A t G rand B ank s , t h e r a t io s o f 1 05

C hap t er 6 p r ima ry f l ake s t oc o r e s i s1 . 3 a nd c o r e t r imm ing f l ak e s t ot h ep r epa r ed c o r e s i s4 . 5 . Mo s tp r ima ry f l ak e s a nd c o r e t r imm ing f l ak e s a r e c omp le te ( T ab le 6 . 1) .

P ine . T h i s r ef lec t s t h e f a c t t h a t b i po la r c o r e r e duc t ion p roduce s f ew c l a s s ic b i po la r f l ake s , a s d emon s t ra ted b y C a sey 's ( 1993 ) e xpe r imen t . A cco rd ing t o C a sey , mo s t f l ak e b yp roduc t s o f b i po la rc o r er educ t ion e xh ib i th i ng eo rs nap d i s ta l

B ipo la r f l ake s r e p r e sen t l e s s t h an 0 . 2% o f t h e a s semb lage s f r om b o th G rand B ank s a nd L one

T ab le 6 .1 U n r e touched F l ake T ype

t e rm ina t ion ( Ca sey 1 993 : 2 23 ) . Ie xam ined t h e d i s ta l t e rm ina t ion ( F ig . 6 . 1) o fp l a in f l ake s , a nd

Unretouched F lake Types .

GRAND BANKS

P r ima ry F l ak e

6 3

c omp le te

5

f r agmen ta ry

8

C o r eT r imm ing F l ake

1 . 0 1

3 6

f r agmen ta ry

0

B if ac ia lT h inn ing F l ake 7 33

f r agmen ta ry

1 44

B ipo la rF l ake 9

f r agmen t a ry

0

P l a in F l ake 2 006

f r agmen ta ry

3 083

B lade /B lade le t c omp le t e

1 28

f r agmen ta ry

5 8

3 2 .4 1

4 . 75

9 1 5

0 . 18

1 5

0

0 . 00

0

0

0 5 4 18

6 5 .27

1 974

5 95

9 4 .15

1 27

3 505 2 . 98

3 0 2 1

17 1

1 86

0 . 32

0 2 690

8 1 .22

2 2

1 5 19

5 078

c omp le t e

0 . 98

1 2

0 . 14

0 . 16

0 8 1

1 4 .03

1

1

6 9

9

c omp le t e

0 . 16

1 0 . 58

8 77

c omp le t e

1 3

YOUNG 1

1 2 3 6

c omp le te

LONE P INE

4 68 7 8

0 . 94

4 4

4

0 . 63

2

3 4

2

B u r in S pa 1 1

3

0 . 05

5

0 . 06

0

0 . 00

M ic robu r in

0

0 . 00

1

0 . 0 1

0

0 . 00

T o ta l

6 252

1 00 .00

8 30 1

1 00 .00

6 32

1 00 .00

T ab le 6 . 2 : D i s tr ibu t ion o fD is ta l T erm ina t ion o fP la in F lakes . D i s ta lT e rm ina t ion

GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

f ea the r

2 23

8 0 .51

2 73

7 2 .4 1

h inge

4 2

1 5 .17

6 7

1 7 .77

6

2 . 16

7

1 . 86

s nap

6

2 . 16

3 0

7 . 96

T o ta l

2 77

1 00

3 77

1 00

s t ep

f ea the r

h inge

s t ep

s nap _ -

F ig . 6 . 1 : D iag ram o fD i s ta lT e rm ina t ion o fU n re tou ched -F lake s . 1 06

U nr e touched F lak e s d i scove r ed a bou t 2 0% o f p l a in f l ak e s h av ing h i nged o rs n ap t e rm ina t ion s( T ab le 6 . 2 ) .T h i sm ay i mp ly t h a t as ma l lp ropo r t ion o fp l a in f l ak e sw e r e p robab ly b yp roduc t s o f b i po la r c o r e r e duc t ion . T he l ow p r opo r t ion so fb i po la rf l ak e si nt h eu n r e t o uched f l ak e sa s semb lage s ,h oweve r ,a r ec on s i s t e n tw i th t h el ow o ccu r rence so ft h eb i po la rc o r e s i nt h e c o r ec l a ss . F ina l ly t h e u n re touched f l ake a s semb lage s f r om G rand B ank s a nd L one P ine i n c lude t wo t y pe s n o t n o rma l ly f ound i n Wood land a s semb lage s f r om O n ta r io : b u r in s s pa l ls a nd m ic robu r in s . A f ew b u r in s pa l l sa ppea ra tG rand B ank sa nd L one P ine , i n d ica t ing t h e p roduc t ion o fb u r in s . As i n g l e m ic robu r in f r om L one P ine d oe s n o t n ece s s a r i ly i n d ica te t h e u se o f t h e m ic robu r in t e ch n ique t om anuf ac tu r em ic ro l i th s ,i tm ay s imp ly b e f o r tu i tou s . C ore R educ t ion S tra teg ie s P ropo r t iona l o ccu r r en ce s o f u n re tou ched f l ak e s i n d ica t e t h a t t h e o n s i te c o r e r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s a r e d om ina ted b y f l ake c o r e r e duc t ion , f o l lowed b y b i f a c ia l r educ t ion . A s w e h ave s e en f r om t h e r e su l t s o ft h e c o r e a na ly s i s , f l ak e c o r e r e duc t ion c on s i s t s o f amo rphou s f l ake p roduc t ion , b i po la r f l ak e p r oduc t ion , a nd p o s s ib ly b l ade p roduc t ion ( o rp r ec i se ly b lade l ik e f l ak e p roduc t ion t h rough p r epa r ed c o re s ) . A l though t h e m o rpho log ica l c ha r a c t e r is t ics o f u n r e tou ched f l ak e s a nd c o r e s c an p r ov ide p r e l im ina ry e v idence o nt h e se o n s i te c o r e r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s , v e r if ica t ion f r om o t he r a t t r ibu te o bserva t ion s i sn ece s sa ry .

r i ng o ve rh a lf o ft h ep e r im e te ra r ep r e sen ti nv e ry l ow f r equenc ie s a ta l s i te s . I nc ompa r i son , t h e r e i s al owe r d eg ree o f s u ch s c a r r ing o n f l ak e s a t G rand B ank st h an a tL on eP ine . T h i sp a t te rn c o r r e spond s t ot h e l owe r f r equ ency o fb i f ac ia l t h in n i ng f l ak e s a tG rand B ank s . I tb yn o m ean s s ug g e s t s t h a t t h e f l ak e s w i th a g r ea t e r c ove rage o f d o r sa l p e r ime t e r s c a r r ing mu s t h ave b een p ro d uced t h rough b i f a c ia l r e duc t ion . H oweve r , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter no ft h i s a t t r ibu te d oe s s uppo r t t h e o b se rva t ion t h a tt h e p r edom inan t c o r e r e duc t i on s t ra tegy a t G rand B ank s w a s f l ake c o r e r e duc t ion , n o tb i f a c ia l r e du c t ion . T he s im i la rd i s t r ibu t ion p a t t er no fp l a tf o rm mod i f i ca t ion t y pe s( T ab le 6 . 4 )a l so s uppo r t st h ea bove s t a t emen t . B if a c ia l r e du c t ion i s mo r e l i ke ly t o p roduce f l ak e s w i th mu l t ip le f a ce ted p l a tf o rm s . T he se f l ake s f r om t h e u n r e touched f l ake a s sem b l age sc omp r i se as im i la rs ma l lp ropo r t ion o ft h e a na lyzed s amp le s , a r ound 1 5% a t b o th G rand B ank s a nd L one P ine . A bou t h a lf o ft h e s amp le s h ave as i ng le p l a tf o rm f a ce t . M id sec t ion t h ickne s s w a s m ea su r ed o n p l a in f l ake s a nd b i f ace t h inn ing f l ake s , a nd m ea su r e m en t s f r om b o th f l ak e t y pe s w e r e s t a t i s t ica l ly c ompa r ed ( T ab le 6 . 5 ) .A tL one P ine t h e r ei s as i g n if ican td i f f e r en ce b e tween t h et wo g roup s i nt h e m ean o fm id sec t ion t h ickne s s a tL one P ine . T h i s m ay b e ar e su l t o f t h e t wo d i f f e r en t r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s . A l though t h e m id sec t ion t h ickne s s o f

O de l l ' s e xpe r imen t ( 1 989a ) d emon s t ra te s t h a t a pp rop r ia te a t t r ibu t e s f o r d i sc r im ina t ing f l ak e c o r er e duc t ion f r om b i f ac ia lr edu c t ion i n c lude t h e d o r sa l p e r ime te rs c a r r ing , t h e p l a tf o rm f a ce t , a nd t h e m id sec t ion t h ickne s s . T he d o r sa l p e r ime te r s c a r r ing m ea su r e s t h e c ove rage o fs c a r r ing d am a ge t ot h e d o r sa l s u rf ace j u s t b e low i t sj unc tu r e w i th t h es t r ik ing p l a tf o rm ( F ig . 6 . 2 ) .I ti sr e po r ted b yO de l l( 1989a )t h a tf l ak e sr emoved d u r ing b i f a c i a l r e duc t ion h ave a g r ea t e r d eg ree o f d o r sa l p e r ime te r s c a r r ing t h an t h e o ne s r emoved d u r ing f l ak e c o re r e duc t ion . T h i s i s b ecau se s c a r r ing d amage m igh t h ave b een c au sed b y p l a tf o rm p r epa ra t ion o r e dge a b ra s ion . F ou r i n te rva l s o f t h i s v a r iab le a r e u sed , a nd t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion s a r e p r e sen ted i nT ab le 6 . 3 . O ve ra l l , f l ak e s w i th s c a r -

F ig . 6 . 2 : D iag ram o fD o r sa lP e r ime te r S ca r r ing o fU n r e tou ched -F lake s . 1 07

C hap te r6

T ab le 6 . 3 : D or sa lP er ime ter S carr ing i nt he U nre touched F lake A ssemb lage s . D o r sa lP e r ime te rS ca r r ing

GRAND BANKS

i n de te rm ina te

L ONE P INE

YOUNG 1

1 9

4 . 18

2 8

7 . 43

2

2 . 35

a b sen t

3 56

7 8 .24

2 54

6 7 .37

7 1

8 3 .53

l e s st h an h a lf

4 4

9 . 67

4 5

1 .94

3

3 . 53

m o r et h an h a lf

2 6

5 . 71

3

8 . 75

4

4 . 7 1

e n t i re ly

1 0

2 . 20

1 7

4 . 51

5

5 . 88

4 55

1 00 .00

3 77

1 00 .00

8 5

1 00 .00

C omb ined

T ab le 6 .4 : P latform F acet P resen ted i nt he U nretouched F lake A sse mb lages P la tf orm F ace t

GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

YOUNG 1

i nde term ina te

2 7

7 . 03

3 4

1 2 .14

0

0 . 00

s i ng le f a ce t

1 83

4 7 .66

1 2 5

4 4 .64

9

5 6 .25 2 5 .00

d ihedra lf a ce t

2 2

5 . 73

2 7

9 . 64

4

mu l t ip le f a ce t

6 3

1 6 .4 1

4 4

1 5 .71

1

6 . 25

c rushed f a ce t

5 1

1 3 .28

3 9

1 3 .93

2

1 2 .50

c or t ica lf a ce t C omb ined

3 8

9 . 90

1

3 . 93

0

0 . 00

3 84

1 00 .00

2 80

1 00 .00

1 6

1 0 0 .00

T ab le 6 . 5 : T te s tR e su l t so f Mid sec t ion T h ickne s so fB ifac ia l T h inn ing F lake s a nd P la in F lake sf r om t he G rand B ank s a nd L one P ine A ssemb lages . G rou t 1 :B if a ce T h inn ing F l ake S t a t i s t ic s t t e s t

Mean

G rou 2 :P l a in F l ake Mean

S .D .

S .D .

V a l id N V a l id N

_ G roup 1G roup 2G roup 1G roup 2 t va lue

d f

p -va lue

G roup 1G roup 2

G rand B ank s M id sec t ion T h ickne s s

2 . 89

3 . 60

1 . 53

1 . 83

1 .9644 1

2 29

0 . 050693

2 8

2 03

2 . 70

3 . 75

1 . 69

2 . 06

3 .792

3 02

0 . 000 18

6 5

2 39

* Lone P ine M id sec t ion T h ickne s s

* i n d ica te ss i gn if ican td if e rence b e tween t wo g roup s

T ab le 6 . 6 : T te s tR e su l t so fP la tf orm D imens ions o fB ifac ia lT h inn ing F lake s a nd P la in F lake sf r om t he G rand B ank s a nd L one P ine A ssemb lages . G roup 1 :B if a ce T h inn ing F l ake S t a t is t ic s t te s t

Mean

G rou 2 :P la in F lake Mean

S .D .

S .D .

V a l id N V a l id N

G roup 1G roup 2G roup 1G roup Z t va lue

d f

p va lue

G roup 1G roup 2 ,

G rand B ank s p l a tf o rm l e ng th

6 . 67 , 7 . 89

3 . 2 1

3 . 83 ,1 .76287

2 46

. 079 164 , ,0

3 4

2 14

2 . 64

2 . 63

2 . 24

1 . 40

0 . 020297

3 06

0 . 98382

3 7

2 7 1

6 . -2

9 . 46

2 . 88

5 . 97

3 .93277

2 56

0 . 000 108 - 6 0

I 9 8

1 . 98

2 . 92

1 . 33

2 . 12

3 .36589

36

0 . 000851

6 4

2 74

G r and B ank s p l a tf o rm w id th *L one P ine p l a tf o rm l e ng th *L one P ine p l a tf o rm w id th

* i n d ica te ss i gn if ican td i f f e rence b e tween t wo g roup s

1 08

U nr e touched F lak e s p l a in f l ak e s a nd b i f a ce t h inn ing f l ake s f r om G rand B ank s a r e n o t s i gn if i can t ly d i f f e ren t a t 0 . 05 l e ve l ,t h e re i ss ome i n d ica t ion o f as l igh td i f f e r ence i nm id sec t ion t h ickn e s s a s i n d ica ted b y t h e l ow p -va lue ( 0 .050693 ) . T he re a r ea l so s i gn if i can t d i f f e r ence s i np l a tf o rm s i ze s o fb i f a ce t h inn ing f l ak e s a nd p l a in f l ak e s f r om L on e P ine ( T ab le 6 . 6 ) . A s e xpec ted , f l ake s p roduced d u r ing b i f a c ia l r e duc t ion h ave s ma l le r p l a tf o rm s . A t G rand B ank s , t h e re i sn o c l ea rd i f f e r ence b e tween t h e t wo f l ake t y pe s i np l a tf o rm s i ze s . T he se t te s t r e su l t s m ay s ugge s t t h a t b i f a c i a l r e du c t ion w a s p robab ly m o r e p r eva len t a t L one P i n et h an a tG r and B ank s . D e sp i te t h e a bove i n d ica t ion st h a tb i f ac ia l r e du c t i on t o ok p l ace a tG rand B ank s a nd L one P ine , f l ak e c o r e r educ t ion u ndoub t ed ly w a s t h e p r e d om inan ts t ra tegy a tb o th s i t e s . A sw eh ave s e en , t h e re a r e t h ree d i f f e r en tb yp roduc t s o ff l ake c o r e

r educ t ion : p l a in f l akes , b ipo la r f l akes , a nd b l ade s /b lade le t s . I n o rde r t o d e te rm ine whe the r t h e se t h r ee p rodu c t s w e r e p rodu ced s epa ra te ly f r om t h e d if e r en t f l ak e c o r e r educ t ion s , m e t r ic d a ta f r om t h ree f l ak e t y pe s a r e c on s ide red a nd c ompa r ed . Twe lve m e t r ic m ea su r em en t s ( F ig . 6 . 3 ) w e r e t a ken o f t h e t h r ee f l ak e s t y pe s a nd c ompa red ( Tab le s 6 . 7 -6 .9 ) . A t G rand B ank s mo s t p l a in f l ak e s , p r e sumab ly p rodu ced t h rough a mo rphou s f l ak ep rodu c t ion ,a r er e la t ive ly s ho r ta nd b road i n s hape , w i th a m ean L /W r a t io o f 1 . 41 . B lade s /b lad e le t s a r e mo r e e l onga ted a nd n a r row e r i n f o rm , w i th am ean L /W r a t io o f 2 . 48 f o r b l ade s a nd a t2 . 67 f o rb l ade le t s . O n ly f ou rb ipo l a r f l ake s w e r e s e lec ted f o r t h e a na ly s i s ; t h e i r m ean L /W r a t io i s mode ra te a t1 . 6 1 . T he d imen s i ona l d i f f e rence s b e tween p l a in f l akes a nd b l ade sm ay b e ar ef l ec t ion o ft h e i rr e spec t ive d ef i n i t ion s : b l ade sa r et h o se f l ak e sa tl e a s tt wo t im es

F ig . 6 . 3 : D iag ram o f Me t r ic V a r iab le so fU n r e touched -F lake s . 1 09

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T ab le 6 . 7 : Me tr ic D a ta o n U nre touched F lake s f r om t he Grand B ank s A ssemb lage b y F lake T ype .

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U nr e touched F lak e s

Tab le 6 .9: Metr ic Data o n Unretouched F lakes f ro m t he Young 1 Asse mb lage b y F lake Type. Me t r ic V a r iab les

p l a in f l ake

b l ade

c or e t r imm ing

p r i mary f l ake

f l ake N

x

s d

N

x

s d

N

x

s d

N

x

s d

Ma x . L eng th

7 9

21 . 1 1 10 .5 4

5

1 9 .25 1 3 .01

1

22 .0 0

2

2 5 .70 1 4 .62

Ma x . Wid th Max . T h ickness

7 9

1 5 .30

8 .03

5

1 0 .87

4 .87

1

13. 32

2

2 4 .70

0 .42

7 9

4 .09

2 .98

5

2 .53

1 .47

1

4 .30

2

1 0 .51

2 .56

L /W R a t io

7 9

1 . 49

0 .59

5

1 . 68

0 .33

1

1 .65

2

1 . 04

0 .57

1 / 4 -l e ng th Wid th

9

1 4 .64

3 .09

0

0

0

1 / 4 -l e ng th T h ickness

9

3 .98

1 . 55

0

0

0

1 / 2 -l e ng th Wid th

9

1 7 .57

5 .26

0

0

0

1 / 2 -l e ng th T h i ckness

9

4 .68

2 .27

0

0

0

3 / 4 -l e ng th Wid th

9

1 5 .92

4 .90

0

0

0

3 / 4 -l e ng th T h i ckness

1 0

4 .89

3 .00

0

0

P l a tf orm L eng th

1 4

9 . 19

3 .36

0

-

P l a tf orm Wid th

7 5

2 .92

2 .70

4

1 . 71

-

0

1 . 22

1

0 2 .70

1

1 .81

-

2

6 .45

14 8

T ab le 6 . 10 : T tes t R esu l t s o f Me tr ic Da ta b e tween P la in F lake a nd B lade f rom t he Grand B ank s Unre touched F lake A ssemb lage . G rou 2 :B lade

G roup :P l a in F l ake -1 S t a t i s t ic s t -e s t

Mean

V a l id N

S .D .

S .D .

Mean

roup 2 roup 1 G G roup 1 G roup 2 G

t va lue

d f

p -va lue

V a l id N

G roup 1 G roup 2

* Max . L eng th

2 2 . 12

2 8 .20

7 . 57

5 . 59

5 .83705

33

1 . 26 11E -08

2 76

5 9

*Max . W id th

1 7 . 15

1 .48

6 . 54

2 . 47

6 . 55553

33

2 . 1127E 10

2 76

5 9

*Max . T h ickne s s

4 . 2 1

3 . 66

2 . 00

1 . 17

2 . 03504

33

0 . 04263825

2 76

5 9

* L /W R a t io

1 . 42

2 . 48

0 . 74

0 . 3 1

10 .80799

33

1 . 5372E -23

2 76

5 9

* 1 /4 leng th W id th

1 4 .49

9 . 38

6 . 07

2 . 07

6 . 29874

2 60

1 . 2735E -09

2 04

5 8

1 / 4 leng th T h ickne s s

2 . 96

2 . 59

1 . 67

8 _ 0. 9 55

1 . 60204

2 59

0 . 11036652

* 1 /2 .l e ng th W id th

1 5 .65

1 0 .40

5 . 77

' 2 . 43

1 . 0355E 10

2 03

5 8

3 . 60

2 . 87

1 . 83

0 . 93

6 . 73799 2 . 92096

2 59

* 1 /2 leng th T h ickne s s

2 59

0 . 003797 19

2 03

5 8

' 1 3 .70

9 . 76

4 . 43

2 . 30

6 . 53495

2 59

3 . 3583E 10

2 03

5 8

* 3 /4 leng th T h ickne s s

3 . 70

2 . 98

1 . 66

1 . 05

3 . 10456

2 59

0 . 002 117 16

2 03

5 8

* P la tf o rm L eng th

7 . 89

6 . 03

3 . 83

1 . 89

3 . 54875

2 69

0 . 00045662

2 14

5 7

* P la tf o rm W id th

2 . 6 3

2 . 20

1 . 40

0 . 96

2 . 2380 1

3 27

0 . 02589295

2 7 1

* 3 /4 leng th W id th

'

r

_

-

_ '

2 03

,

-

5 8

* i n d ica te s s i gn if ican td if e rence b e tween t h et wo g roup s

T ab le 6 . 11 : T te s tR e su l t so f Me tr ic D a ta b e tween P la in F lak ea nd B lade f r om t he L one P ine Unre touched F lak eA s semb lage . G rou 2 :B lade

G rout , :P l a in F l ake _1 S t a t is t ic s t -e s t

V a l id N

S .D .

S .D .

Mean

Mean

roup 2 roup 2 , G roup 1 G G roup 1 G

V a l id N

d f

p -va lue

3 .480 19392 '

3 05

0 . 000574

2 88

1 9

2 . 9068496 1 '

3 03

0 . 003920

2 87

1 8

3 03

0 . 274268

2 87

1 8

3 02

0 . 000000

2 86

1 8

t va lue

G roup 1 G roup 2,

* Max .L eng th

2 2 .80

2 9 .8 1

8 . 33

* Max . W id th

1 9 . 19

1 3 .93

7 . 59

1 0 .94 4 . 45

M ax .T h ickne s s

4 . 42

3 . 76

* L /W R a t io

1 . 28

2 . 42

. 54 - 2 0 . 45

1 . 29 0 . 78

* 1 4 l e ng th W id th

1 6 . 15

1 .56

6 . 86

4 . 53

2 . 79 17 158

2 55

0 . 005640

2 39

1 8

1 / 4 leng th T h ickn e s s

3 . 05

2 . 95

1 . 74

1 . 07

0 . 2574365 1

2 55

0 . 797049

2 39

1 8

* 1 /2 l e ng th W id th

1 7 .4 1

_3 . 68865686

2 55

0 . 000276

2 39

1 8

I / 2 leng th T h ickne s s

3 . 75

3 . 03

6 . 20 2 . 06

3 . 52 0 . 98

. ,1 . 46 129735

2 55

0 . 145 165

2 39

1 8

* 3 /4 leng th W id th , 3 / 4 leng th T h ickn e s s

1 5 .2 1

1 .54

5 . 98

3 . 27

2 . 5697 149 1

2 55

0 . 0 10747

2 39

1 8

3 . 99

3 . 03

2 . 22

1 . 08

1 . 8 15 12922

2 55

0 . 070679

2 39

1 8

P l a t f o rm L eng th

9 . 46

7 . 77

5 . 97

2 . 80

' 1 . 04795767

2 10

0 . 295863

1 98

1 4

P l a tf o rm W id th

2 . 92

2 . 30

2 . 12

1 . 46

1 . 2 1568 105

2 90

0 . 225095

2 74

1 8

r

. , _

1 .95 '

r

.

'1 . 09527 13 1 . 9 .84838853

*i n d ica te s s i gn if ican td if e rence b e tween t h et wo g roup s

11

C hap te r6

6 5 5 5 4 5 3 5 2 5 1 5 5 0 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

5 0

6 0

Max . W id th

a :B ipo la rF l ake s

6 5 5

e i ) E

4 5 3 5 2 5 1 5

5 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

Max . W id th

b :P l a in F l ak e s

6 5 5 4 5 3 5 2 5 1 5

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 1

Max . W id th

e :B lad e s

F ig . 6 . 5 : S ca t te rp lo t C ompa r isons o fS e lec ted U n re touched F l ake T ype s f r om L one P i ne .

F ig . 6 . 4 : S ca t te rp lo tC ompa r i son so fS e lec ted U n r e touched F l ake T ype sf r om G rand B ank s .

12

F ig . 6 . 6 : S ca t te rp lo tC ompa r ison so fB lade sS i ze sb e tween G rand B ank s a nd L one P ine

U nr e touched F lake s

13

C hap te r6 a sl o ng a st h ey a r e w ide . When l e ng th o rw id th a l one i sc on s ide r ed , p l a in f l ak e s a nd b l ade s m ay b es im i la r .T he r ef o r e ,t oe nhance t h ed im en s iona l c ompa r i son o fp l a in f l ake s a nd b l ade s , t h ew id th a nd t h ickne s s a tq ua r te r ly l e ng th s i sa l so c on s id e r ed . I n t h e G rand B ank s a s semb lage , b l ade s s t a t i s t i c a l ly d if e rf r om p l a in f l ak es a nd b i po la rf l ake si n m o s t , i fn o t a l , d imen s ion s ( T ab le 6 . 10 ) . T he t t e s t r e su l t s s how t h a t b l ade s d i f f e r s i gn if ican t ly f r om p l a in f l ake s i n a l m ean m ea su r emen t s e xcep t 1 / 4 leng th t h ickne s s . T h e d i f f e r en ce s i n w id th a nd t h ickne s sa tq ua r te r ly l e ng th sb e tween b l ade s a nd f l ak e s a r e s i gn if i can t , b ecau se t h ey i n d ica te t h a t b l ade s mu s t h ave b een p r oduced u s ing as p ec ia l ly d e s igna ted p rocedu r e d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t u sed f o r a mo rphou s f l ake p rodu c t ion . T he se d i f f e r ence s c an b e a l so i l u s t ra ted u s ing s c a t te rp lo t s ( F ig . 6 . 4 ) : t h e m a jo r i ty o fb l ade s a r e 2 5 -30 mm l o ng a nd 1 0 -15 mm w ide w i th s t r ic t ly l i m i t ed r a nge s , w h i le t h e m a jo r i ty o ff l ak e s a r e 2 0 -25 mm l o ng a nd 1 5 -20 mm w ide w i th v e ry e x tended r a nges . T he r e s t r ic ted r a nge s o fb l ad e d imen s ion s s ugge s t t h a t t h e b l ade s o rb l ade l ik e f l ak e s m ay n o t b e s imp ly a c c iden ta l p roduc t s a t G rand B ank s . B ipo la r f l ak e s r e semb le p l a in f l ake s i n t h e i r d imen s ion s , b u t t h e l e ng th a nd w id th r a nge s o f b i po la r f l ake s a r e mo re r e s t r ic ted t h an t h o se o f p l a in f l ake s ( F ig . 6 . 4 ) . H oweve r , t h i s i sl i k e ly b i a sed b y t h e s ma l l s amp le o f b i po la r f l ak e s . N eve r the le s s , t h e re a r e s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence s i n t h e m ean s o fm ax imum t h ickne s s a nd p l a tf o rm s i ze sb e tween b i po la ra nd p l a in f l ak es . T h i sm ay r ef l ec t t h e f a c t t h a t b i po la r t e chn ique s m ay p ro d uce r e la t ive ly t h icke rf l ake s . A tL one P in e , t h ed imen s ion so fb l ade sa r e s im i l a rt ot h o se o fb i po la rf l ake sb u td i f f e rf r om a mo r p hou sp l a in f l ake s . T he t t e s ts ugge s t st h a tb l ade s h ave s t a t i s t ica l ly d i f f e ren t l e ng th s a nd w id th s f r om p l a in f l ak e s ( T ab le 6 . 11 , F ig . 6 . 5 ) . B u t u n l ike a tG rand B ank s ,t h eL one P ine b l ade sa nd f l ak e sh ave s im i la rs t r ik ing p l a tf o rm d im en s ion s . F u r the rmo r e , c ompa red t o t h e G rand B ank s b l ad e s ,L one P ine b l ade sh ave ar e la t ive ly g r ea t e r r a nge i n l e ng th a nd w id th ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) . T h i s m ay i n d ica te t h a t mo r ev a r ie ty i nb l ade l ik ef l ak ep ro d uc t ion e x i s ted a t L one P ine t h an a t G rand

B ank s ,o ri tm ay s imp ly s ugge s tt h a tb l ade sw e r e i n deed a c c iden ta lp roduc t s . T echno log ica l V ar iab i l i ty o ft he C ore R educ t ion s

T h r ee m a jo rs t age s a r e , i ng ene ra l , r e cogn iz ed i n t h e p roce s s o fc o r e r e duc t ion ( p r io r t ot o o l p r o d u c t ion ) : ( 1 )a cqu i s i t ion o rs e lec t ion o fr aw m a te r i a l s ; ( 2 ) p r ima ry p roce s s ing , a nd ( 3 ) b l ank p r o d uc t ion . T h e t e chno log ica l a spec t s o ft h e se c o r e r e du c t ion s t age s a r e d i scu s sed i nt h i s s e c t ion , i n c on jun c t ion w i th a va i lab le d a ta ,i no rd e rt od e t e r m ine v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e se p roce s se s . T ab le 6 . 12 s how s t h e t y pe s o fr aw m a te r ia l u t i l i z ed i nt h eu n re touched f l ake a s semb lages a tt h e t h r ee s i t e s .I ts ugge s t st h a tn ea r ly 9 0%of t h eu n r e t o uched f l ake s a r e o f l o ca l O nondaga c h e r t , a l though o t he r l o ca l ly a va i lab le r aw m a te r ia l s ( Ha ld imand a nd A n ca s te rc he r t )w e r ep r esen tt o o . V e ry l ow q uan t i t ie s o f u nknown o r n on loca l c he r t m a te r ia l s a r e a l so f ound i n u n r e touch ed f l ak ea s semb lage s .T h i sp a t te rn i si d en t ica lt ot h a t o fr aw m a te r ia l u t i l iza t ion s e en i nt h e c o r e a nd f o rmed t y pe a s semb lage sd i scu s sed e a r l ie r . When t h e r aw m a t e r ia l t y pe i s c r o s s tabu la ted w i th u n r e tou ched f l ak e t y pe ( T ab le 6 . 13 ) , n o d i s t in c t i ve d i s t r ibu t ion o f r aw m a te r ia l u t i l iza t ion f o r d i f f e r en tc o r er e duc t ion s t ra teg ie si sa ppa ren t .A l l s amp le s o f b i f a ce t h inn ing f l ak e s a nd b i po la r f l ake sa r er e s t r ic t ed t ot h e O nondaga c he r t . A l though t h e f r equenc ie s o fp r ima ry f l ake s a nd c o r e t h inn ing f l ake s i sv e ry l ow , t h e p r e sence o f t h e se t wo f l ak et y pe si si n d ica t ive o fp r ima ry p ro c e s s ing . As ma l lp e r cen tage o fp r ima ry f l ake sa nd c o r e t r imm ing f l ake s m ade o n H a ld imand a nd A nca s te rc he r th a sb een f ound a tt h eG rand B ank s s i te , i n d ica t ing t h a t af ew s u ch r aw m a t e r ia l s , i n a dd i t ion t oO nondaga c her t , w e r e e xp lo i t ed a nd b rough t t ot h e s i t e f o r t o o l p roduc t ion . Mo s t o f t h e se f l ak e s h av e 3 0% t o5 0% c o r t ica l c ove rage o nt h ed o r sa ls u r f ace ( T ab le 6 . 14 ) . P r ima ry f l ake s w i th f u l lc o r t ica lc ove rage c omp r i se av e ry s ma l l p e r cen t o f t h e s amp led a s semb lage : 1 2 .07% o f p r ima ry f l ake s . T h i s s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t p r i m a ry p r oce s s ing t o ok p l ace o f f -s i te . C omb ined w i th d a ta f r om c o r e s i ze s , t h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e i n hab i tan t s l i ke ly t r immed t h e c o r tex f r om n od u l e s o rr e du ced c o r e s t o am anageab le s i ze a nd w e igh ta tq ua r r ie s b ef o r e t h e c o r es w e r eb rough t 14

U nr e touched F lak e s

T ab le 6 . 12 : D i str ibu t ion o f Raw Mater ia l i nt he U nr etouched F lake A sse mb lages . C her t T ypes

YOUNG 1

LONE P INE

GRAND BANKS

9 4 .74

O nondaga

5 43

8 7. 1 6

6 30

8 6 .78

1 26

H a ld imand

4 4

7 . 06

3 2

4 . 4 1

7

5 . 26

Ancaster

1 8

2 . 89

2 9

3 . 99

0

0 . 00

O ther s

1 8

2 . 89

3 5

4 . 82

0

0 . 00

6 23

1 00

7 26

1 00

1 33

1 00 .00

T o ta l

T ab le 6 . 13 : Unretouched F lake T ype b y Raw M a te r i a l i nt he Grand B anks A sse mb lage . R aw Ma ter ia l

D eb i tage T ype

Ononda a H a ld imand Ancas ter

O ther s

P r imary F lake

5 8

C ore T r imm ing F lak e

3 4 4

B ipo lar F lake

3 4

B if ac ia lT h inn ing F l ak e

3 71

P la in F lake

9 5

B lade

2 6

B lade le ts 5 43

C o mbined

4 4

1 8

1 7

6 22

T ab le 6 . 14 : C or t ica l D i str ibu t ion o n P r imar y F l ake a nd C or e T r imm ing F lake . C or t i ca lC overage 1 00% c overage

GRAND BANKS N

%

7

1 2 .07

L ONE P INE

YOUNG 1

1 0 .00

1 0

P r imary

5 0%-99% c overage

1

1 8 .97

3

1 5 .00

F l ake

3 0 -50% c overage

4 0

6 8 .97

1 5

7 5 .00

3 .33 0 . 00 6 .67

3 0 -50% c overage

0

0 . 00

1

2 . 17

0

C or e T r imm ing

1 %-30% c overage

5

1 4 .71

6

1 3 .04

0

0 . 00

F l ake

n o c overage

2 9

8 5 .29

3 9

8 4 .78

1

1 00 .00

b a ck t o G rand B ank s a nd L one P ine f o r b l ank p rodu c t ion . T h i s i s s uppo r ted b y t h e e v id en ce f r om c o r e t r imm ing f l ak e s , i n d ica t ive o f c o r e p r epa ra t ion i nb l ank p rodu c t ion . A lmo s t a l l c o r e t r imm ing f l ak e s w i th c o r t ex , a tb o th s i te s , h ave l e s st h an 3 0% c o r t ica lc ove rage o nt h ed o r sa ls u r f a ce . C o re t r imm ing f l ak e s w i th n o c o r tex a r e p r edom inan t . D a ta f r om t h ea na ly s is o fc o r e sa nd f o rmed t y pe s s ugge s t t h a t t h e p r edom inan t b l ank p rodu c t ion s t r a t egy a t G rand B ank s w a s t o p roduce a mo r p hou s p l a in f l ak e s a nd b l ade l ike f l ake s . H e r e , I

0 . 00

h ave e xam ined t h e d o r sa l s c a r c oun t s o f p l a in f l ake s g r ea t e r t h an 2 5 mm i nl e ng th . T ab le 6 . 15 i n d ica te s t h a t , a t b o th G rand B ank s a nd L one P ine , o ve r5 0% o fp l a in f l ake sh ave ad o r sa l s c a r c oun to fo ve r3 .A tY oung 1 ,a bou t 7 0% o fp l a in f l ak e sh ave al ow d o r sa l s c a rc oun t( 2 5c mi nl e ng th ) . D o r sa l S ca rC oun t

GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

YOUNG I

3

3 . 4 1

6

7 . 14

0

0

f ew ( 0 -2 )

2 6

2 9 .55

2 9

3 4 .52

5

7 1 .43

mode ra te ( 3 -5 )

3 9

4 4 .32

3 4

4 0 .48

1

1 4 .29

h i gh ( >5 )

2 0

2 2 .73

1 5

1 7 .86

1

1 4 .29

T o ta l

8 8

1 00 .00

8 4

1 00 .00

7

1 00 .00

i n de t e rm ina te

T ab le 6 . 16 : D or sa l S car C oun tD i s tr ibu t ion o nB lade . D or sa l S ca rC oun t i nde term ina te

GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

0

0 .00

0

0 . 00

f ew ( 0 -2 )

2 8

6 8 .29

7

6 3 .64

mode ra te ( 3 -5 )

1 2

2 9 .27

4

3 6 .36

1

2 .44

0

0 . 00

1 00 .00

1

1 00 .00

h igh ( >5 ) T o ta l

4 1

18

YOUNG 1

0 . 00

U nr e touched F lak e s p r ima ry r e du c t ion p roce s s .

f o rm s a nd u n l ipped b u lb s s ugge s t s t h a t h a rd h amme r p e r cu s s ion w a s e mp loyed d u r ing t h e e a r ly s t age s o fc o r e r educ t ion . T h i s c l ea r ly i n d i c a te st h a tt e chno log ica lv a r iab i l i ty e x i s ted d u r ing t h e c o r e r e duc t ion p roce s s .

Ic omb ined p r ima ry f l ak e s a nd c o re t r imm ing f l ake s a nd o b se rved t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fc r o s s tab u l a t ing p l a tf o rm a nd b u lb s hape s ( T ab le 6 . 18 ) . T he r e la t ive ly h igh f r equency o f c r u shed p l a t -

T ab le 6 . 17 : C ross-Tabu lat ion o f P latform F acet a nd S hape o f Bu lb o f Ma jor Unr etouched F lake T ypes f r om t he Grand B anks A sse mb lage . a :P la in F lake P la tf orm F ace t

S hape o fB u lb i n de term ina te

l i pped

u n l ipped

1

1 0

1 2

1 2

2 0

1 07

i nde term ina te

-

s i ng le

-

7 5

1 5

-

4

9

m u l t ip le

1

2 2

3

4 0

c rushed

1

2

2

1 4 7 5

d ihedra l

‘b :

p o in ted

3 0

c or tex

2

6

5

5

1 8

C omb ined

4

11

2 3

7 8

2 16

b if ace T h inn ing F lake P la tf orm F ace t

S hape o fB u lb i nde term ina te

i nde term ina te

-

l i pped

p oin ted

u n l ipped

-

-

-

0

2

9

s i ng le

-

7

-

d ihedra l

-

_ 1

-

mu l t ip le

-

1 0

-

I

1

c rushed

-

-

1

_ 1

3

c or tex

-

1

-

-

1

C omb ined

0

1

5

2 0

/

2 6

c :B lades P l a tf orm F ace t

S hape o fB u lb i n de term ina te

l i pped

p o in ted

u n l ipp c d

i nde term ina te

1

-

-

2

3

s i ng le

-

2 2

2

5

2 9

d ihedra l

-

3

-

I

4

mu l t ip le

-

4

1

_ 1

7

c rushed

-

1

-

7

8

c or tex

-

5

2

-

7

C omb ined

1

3 5

5

1 7

5 8

T ab le 6 . 18 : C ross-Tabu lat ion o f P latform F acet a nd S hape o f B u lb o f b oth P r ima l-) F lake a nd Core T r imm ing F lake Co mb ined f r om t he Grand B anks A sse mb lage . S hape o fB u lb

P l a tf orm F ace t i n de term ina te i nde term ina te

8

s i ng le

1

l i pped 1 8

p o in ted 3

u n l ipped 3

1

2 1

4 3

d ihedra l

1

9

1 0

m u l t ip le

3

5

8

1 4

1 4

1

7

1 0

4

5 9

9 6

c rushed c or tex

2

C o mb ined

1

2 2

19

C hap te r6

U se -W ear Ana ly s i s G rand B ank s A t o ta l o f 6 22 u n r e touched f l ak e s f r om G rand B ank s w e re e xam ined f o r u se -wea r . T he r e su l t s o ft h i s a na ly s is i n d ica te ar e la t ive ly l ow u t i l iza t i on o f u n re tou ched f l ake s . N ine ty -e igh t f l ak e s w e r ed e t e rm ined t oh ave u se -wea r ,a ccoun t ing f o r 1 5 .8% ( w i th + / - f a c to r s ) o f t h e t o ta l a na lyzed s amp le . T h i s f i gu r e i sl owe rt h an ap r ev iou s e s t i m a te ( 2 2 .2 % ) i n ap re l im ina ry r e po r t ( Shen 1 995 :152 ) w hen a s ma l le r s amp le ( N= 178 ) w a s u sed . T h i s l ow u t i l iza t ion o fu n r e touched f l ake s a tG rand B ank s m ay u p se t t h e p r ev iou s c on c lu s i on t h a tt h e P r ince s s P o in tp eop le r e l ied h eav i ly o n " exped ien t" f l ak e t o o l s . T he l ow r a te o fu t i l i zed f l ak e s , o fc ou r se , c ou ld a l so b e a f f ec ted b y t h er e la t ive ly l a rge n umbe r( N= 16 1) o ff l ake f r ag m en t s i n c luded i n t h e a na lyzed s amp le . N o rma l ly , f r agmen ta ry f l ake s a r e l e s s l i ke ly t o d i sp lay u se -wea rd ue t ot h e i rb r eakage . I ts hou ld a l so b e k ep t i nm ind t h a t n o t a l o ft h e u t i l ized f l ake t o o l s r e ta in u sed t r ace s t h a t a l low u s t o a s cer ta in u se ta sk s , e spec ia l ly i ft h e p i ece s w e r e u sed l i gh t ly . N eve r the le s s , t h i s a na ly s is s ugge s t s al owe r f r equency o fu se o fu n r e touched f l ak e s t h an p r ev iou s ly t h ough t . I ng ene r a l , " u t i l ized f l ake s" i nt h e f o l low ing d i s c u s s ion r e f e r s o n ly t o t h o se u n r e touched f l ake s w i th e v iden ce o fu se -wea r ,n o tc a tego r ized " t ype" a r t if ac t s . When u t i l ized f l ak e s a r e e xam ined b y f l ake t y pe ( T ab le 6 . 19 ) , If i nd t h a t b l ank s f r om b o th amo rphou s f l ake p roduc t ion a nd b l ade p ro d u c t ion , a sw e l l a sb yp roduc t s o fb i f a ce p rodu c t i on ,w e r eu t i l ized t oa bou tt h es ame e x ten t . I na l c a se s , u t i l ized f l ake s c omp r i se s l igh t ly l e s s t h an 2 0% o ft h e s amp le . F l ake s f r om t h e e a r ly s t age s

o fb l ank p roduc t ion w e re a l so u t i l ized , b u t t oa l e s se rd eg r ee ,a sw ou ld b ee xpec t ed ( 8 .6% o fp r i ma ry f l ak e s a nd 5 . 9% o fc o re t r imm ing f l ak e s ) . O f 2 5 b l ade le t s e xam in ed , o n ly o ne w a s d e t e r m ined t o h ave b een u t i l ized . G iven t h e s ma l l s amp le , i ti sn o t s u rp r i s ing t h a t f ou r a na lyzed b ipo la rf l ak e sw e r e f ound t oh ave b een u nu sed . O ft h e 9 8 u t i l ized p i ece s , 1 2 u n r e touched f l ak e s ( 12 .2% ) b ea r mo r e t h an o ne e mp loyed u n i t o f n on -p rehen s i le w ea r . S i x p i ece s h ave 2 E dU s , f ou r h ave 3 E dU s , a nd t wo h ave 5 E dU s . A l l t oge the r , at o ta l o f 1 20 e mp loyed u n i t s i n vo lved i nu se ta sk s w a s f ound i nt h e e xam ined a s sem b l age . T he G rand B ank s u n r e touched f l ak e a s semb lage e xh ib i t s ap r eponde rance o fs c rap ing / shav ing t o o l mo t ion s ( 4 2 .5% ) , f o l lowed b y c u t t ing / saw ing t o o l mo t ion s ( 26 .7% ) ( T ab le 6 . 20 ) . T h i s p a t te rn r e semb le s t h a t o fu t i l iza t ion o ff o rmed t y pe a r t i f a c t s . H oweve r , d if e rence s i n t h e u t i l iza t ion o f t h e t wo g roup s d o e x is t . An umbe r o ft h e u n re t o uched f l ak e s w e r e u sed i n s l ic ing /ca rv ing a nd p l an ing /wh i t t l ing , w h ich w e re u ncommon a pp l i c a t ion s f o r t h e f o rmed t y pe a r t if a c t s . I n t o ta l , t r an sve r se t o o l mo t ion sa r es l igh t ly m o r ef r equen t t h an l o ng i tud ina l mo t ion s . P ene t ra t ion o rp ro jec t i on w ea ra nd b o r ing a nd g r av ing w ea ra r e f ound i n l ow f r equ enc ie s . R a r e t o o l mo t ion s s uch a s w edg ing a nd p i ck ing , a r e p r ima r i ly a s soc ia ted w i th p l a in f l ak e s . U se -wea rf ound o nb l ade si n d i c a te st h eu se o ft h e se a r t if ac t sf o rc u t t ing / saw ing , s c rap ing / shav ing , a nd p l an ing /wh i t t l ing , e xc lu s i ve ly . Mo s t p r ima ry f l ake s a nd c o r e t r imm ing f l ake sw e r eu sed i ns c rap ing t oo l mo t ion s . A n ima l s ub s tance s w e r e l i ke ly t h e d om inan t

T ab le 6 . 19 : U t i l iza t ion R a te s o fU nre touched F lake . U n r e touched F l ake s

GRAND BANKS t o ta lN u s ed u s er a te ( % )

LONE P INE t o ta lN u sed u se r a te ( % )

Y oung 1 t o ta l N u s ed u s e r a te ( % )

p r ima ry F l ake

5 8

5

8 . 62

2 0

4

2 0 .00

3

0

0 . 00

c o re T r imm ing . F l ake

3 4

2

5 . 88

4 6

1 0

2 1 .74

1

0

0 . 00

b i po la rF l ake

4

0

0 . 00

5

1

2 0 .00

b i f ac ia lT h inn ing F l ake

3 6

6

1 6 .67

2 7

5

1 8 .52

2

0

0 . 00

p l a in F l ake

3 70

6 7

1 8 .11

5 69

1 47

2 5 .83

17

/ 0

1 7 .09

b l ade

9 5

1 7

1 7 .89

4 2

1 7

4 0 .48

7

2

2 8 .57

b l ade le t

2 5

1

4 . 00

1 4

1

7 . 14

2

1

5 0 .00

1 5 .76

7 23

1 85

2 5 .59

1 3 2

C omb ined

6 22

9 8

x :i n d ica te st h a ts u ch t y pe sd on o te x is ti nt h ea s semb lage

1 20

2 3

1 7 .42

U nre touched F lakes

T ab le 6 . 20 : T oo l Mo t ions i nt he Grand B ank s Unre touched F lake A ssemb lage .

i nde te rm ina te

1

c u t / saw

1

b i f ac ia lt h inn ing f l ake

c o re t r imm ing f l ake

$ ' 4 )

T oo l Mo t ion

o fT oo l Mo t ion

Un re touched F lake T ype

1

1

s l ice /ca rve s c rape / shave

_ 1

1

p lane /wh i t t le

I

-

p ro jec t ion

-

-

b o re /dr i l l

-

-

g rave

-

9

2

2 2

8

1

1 4

1 .67

3 2

2 6 .67

1

6

7

5 . 83

4

3 6

8

5 1

4 2 .50

4

3

8

6 . 67

1

_

2

3

2 . 50

1

1

0 . 83

2

-

2

1 . 67

c hop

0

0 . 00

h oe /d ig

0

0 . 00

p ound /g r ind

o

w edge

1

0 . 83

i c k

1

0 . 83

1 20

1 00 .00

T o ta l Emp loyed U n i ts

5

2

7

8 4

7

1

1

0 . 00

T ab le 6 . 21 : C on tac t Ma ter ia l i nt he Grand B ank s U nre touched F lake A ssemb lage .

i n de te rm ina te

b i f ac ia l t h inn ing f l ake

C on tac t Ma ter ia l

c o re t r imm ing f l ake

U n re touched -F lake T ype s

2

2

1

2

1 8

1 5 .00

s of ta n ima l( SA )

2 5

5

3 0

2 5 .00

s of tv ege ta l ( SV )

5

3

9

7 . 50

1

m ed ium sof tv ege ta l( 1M )

1

1 3

3

2 0

1 6 .67

m ed ium a n ima l( MA )

3

9

4

1 6

1 3 .33

m ed ium -ha rd v ege ta l( 2M )

-

4

h a rd a n ima l( 1H )

1

1 3

v e ry h a rd a n ima l ( 2H )

-

4

4

h a rd i n o rgan ic ( 3H T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

5

2

"

1 2 1

8 4

2 1

1

5

4 . 17

1 8

1 5 .00

4

3 . 33

0

0 . 00

1 20

1 00 .00

C hap te r6 m a te r ia ls w o rked b y t h e u n r e touched f l ake s f o und a tG rand B ank s .T he se r a nge f r om s of ta n i m a l s k in , m ea t , h i d e ( SA , 2 5% ) , t o mode r a te ly h a rd f r e sh b one s o r d r ied s k in a nd h i de ( MA , 1 3 .3% ) , t o h a rd b one s o r a n t le r s ( 1H a nd 2 H , 1 8 .3% )( T ab le 6 . 21 ) . Wood s ub s tan ce s , i n c lud ing m a te r ia l s o fb o th m ed ium -sof ta nd m ed ium -ha rd r e s i s tance ,a c coun tf o r2 0 .9% o ft h ec on tac tm a te r i a l . Amo rphou s f l ak e sw e r eu sed o ne ach r e s i s t a nce c a tego ry i n a pp rox ima te ly t h e s am e f r e q uen cy . B lade s h oweve r , w e r e m o r e l i ke ly t o h ave b een u sed o n s o f t t o mode ra te a n ima l s u b s t ance sr a the rt h an o nw ood . P r ima ry f l ak e sw e r e u sed p r edom inan t ly o nw ood . When t o o l mo t ion s a r e c ompa r ed w i th c on ta c t m a te r ia l s ( T ab le 6 . 22 ) , w e s e e ap a t te rn t h a t d i f f e r s f r om t h e o ne s e en f o r u t i l iza t ion o ff o rmed t y pe s . U n r e touched f l ake s w e r e p r ima r i ly u s ed f o r c u t t ing / saw ing a nd s c rap ing / shav ing o f s o f t

a nd mode ra t e a n ima l s ubs tance s . T he s e conda ry e mpha s i s o n w ood s ub s tance s i n vo lve s m a in ly c u t t ing / saw ing a nd s c rap ing / shav ing . C u t t ing / s aw ing m o t ion s w e re a l so c a r r ied o u t o n b one /an t le rm a t e r ia l . O the r t oo l m o t ion s s u ch a s p ene t r a t ing , b o r ing , a nd g rav ing a r e o n ly a s soc i a t ed w i th m a te r ia l s o f h a rd r e s i s t an ce s uch a s d r ied w ood a nd b one /an t le r . T he u t i l ized f l ake s w e r e t h en e xam in ed b y f l ake s i ze i no rd e r t od e te rm ine p ref e r r ed b l ank s i ze s . O ve r h a lf o ft h e u t i l ized f l ake s a r e o f mode ra te s i ze , b e twe en 2 5 mm a nd 5 0 mm i nl e ng th o r w id th ( T ab le 6 . 23 ) . T he r ema in ing u t i l ized p i ece s a r e d i v ided n ea r ly e qua l ly b e tween s ma l l f l ake s ( l e s st h an 2 5 mm )a nd l a rge f l ak e s( o ve r5 0 mm ) . T he t t e s ts how st h e r ei s as i gn if ican c ei nt h ec o r r e la t ion o f u t i l ized f l akes a nd t h e i r s i ze s . C omp le te u t i l ized f l ak e s ( N=69 ) w e r e t e s ted a ga in s t t h e c omp le te u nu sed f l ak e s t od e te rm ine

T ab le 6 . 22 : T oo l Mo t ion b yC on tac t Ma ter ia l i nt he Grand B ank s Unre touched F lake A ssemb lage . T oo l Mo t ion

C on ta c t Ma te r ia l S A

S V

1 M

MA

1 0

6

7

6

3

9

7

4

1

2M

1 H

2 H

3 H

1 4

i n de t e rm ina te

1 4

c u t / saw

4

s l i ce / ca rve s c rape / shave

C omb .

1

3

3 2

9

5 1

2

1 5

p l ane /wh i t t le

4

7 8

p ro jec t ion

3

b o re /d r i l l g r ave

2

c hop

0

h oe /d ig

0

p ound /g r ind

0

w edge

1

i c k

1

T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

1 8

3 0

9

2 0

1 6

5

1 8

4

0

1 20

T ab le 6 . 23 : F lake S ize Grade o ft he U sed F lakes i nt he Unretouched F lake A sse mb lages . S i z e G rade

G RAND BANKS

L ONE P INE

Sma l l( 1 0 -25 c mi nl e ng th )

2 4

2 4 .74

5 0

3 8 .76

Med ium ( 2 5 -50 c mi nl e ng th )

5 3

5 4 .64

6 8

5 2 .7 1

L a rge ( >50 c mi nl e ng th )

2 0

2 0 .62

1

8 . 53

C omb ined

9 7

1 00 .00

1 29

1 00 .00

1 22

YOUNG 1 ( no s uff i c ien t d a ta )

U nr e touched F luk e s i n hab i tan t s c a r ef u l ly s e lec ted a pp rop r ia te ly s i zed b l ank sf o ru se .T he i lu s t ra t ion s( F ig . 6 . 9 )d emon s t ra te t h a tt h eb l ank s s e lec ted f o ru t i l iza t ion w e r e l o nge r a nd w ide r t h an t h e a ve rage u n re touched f l ak e s . T he l im i ted r a nge s i n m ax imum l e ng th a nd w id th , a s c ompa r ed w i th t h e u nu sed u n re t ou ch ed f l ak e s , a l so s ugge s tt h e d e l ibe ra t e s e lec t i on o fb l ank s w i th c e r ta in d imen s ion s . U t i l ized

t h e s t a t i s t ica l d i f f e r ence o f t h e m ean s . R e su l t s ( T ab le 6 . 24 ) s how t h a t t h e re a r e s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence s b e tween t h e t wo p opu la t ion s i n max i mum l e ng th ,w id th ,a nd t h ickne s s ,b u tn o ti np l a t f o rm l e ng th a nd w id th . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t e chno l o g ica l v a r iab i l i ty w a s n o t ac on s id e ra t ion i n s e lec t ing i t em s f o r u t i l iza t ion . H oweve r , s i ze a t t r ibu te sw e r e ac on s ide ra t ion . T he G rand B ank s

T ab le 6 .24 : T -Test Resu l t s o fF lake S izes B etween Unu sed a nd U sed F lakes f r om t he Grand Banks Unr etouched F lake A sse mb lage . G rou

G rou _ 1 : Unused F l ake Mean

S ta t i st ics

Mean

2 :U sed F lake roup 2 G roup 1 G p -va lue ,

d f

va lue roup 2 G roup 1, G roup 2 t G roup 1 G

t test

V a l id N

V a l id N

S .D .

S .D .

*Max L eng th

2 2 .39

2 6 .82

7 . 94

7 . 54

4 .29 123

4 43

2 . 18E -05

3 76

*Max . Wid th

1 5 .54

1 8 .38

6 . 20

8 . 19

3 .3160 1

4 43

3 76

*Max T h ickness

4 . 30

5 . 12

2 . 25

2 . 79

2 .64728

4 43

_0 . 000988 0 . 008404

6 9

P la tf orm L eng th

7 . 31

7 . 52

3 . 68

3 . 6 1

0 .37366

3 69

5 4

2 . 7 1

2 . 76

1 . 58

1 . 92

0 .22562

4 33

_0 . 708872 0 . 82 1604

3 17

P l a tf orm Wid th

3 69

6 6

6 9 6 9

3 76

-

*i nd ica tes s i gn if i can t d if f erence b e tween t he t wo g roups

T ab le 6 . 25 : T he Mann - Wh i tney U T e s tR e su l t s o fF rac ture A t tr ibu te s b e tween U nused a nd U sed F lake s f r om G rand B ank s . G rou

1 :U nu sed F l ak e

G rou 2 :U sed F l ake a l id N V a l id N V

Z

R ank S um R ank S um

S t a t i s t ic s

_

Z

p leve l

leve l a d ju s t ed , p

G roup l _G roup 2

t h e Mann - Wh i tney

G roup 1

G roup 2

U

* Do r sa l S ca rC oun t

3 06939

9 1339

5 1684

4 .109 13 0 . 000040 3 .857 13 0 . 000 115 -

7 14

1 78

* Do r sa l S ca rP a t ter n

3 12642 _ 8 5636

5 7387

2 .0027

2 .08574 0 . 0370 10 0 . 0452 18 -

7 14

1 78

*i n d ica te ss i gn if ican td i f f e r ence b e tween t h et wo g roup s

T ab le 6 .26 : Dor sa l S car Coun t P resen ted i nt he Grand Banks Unretouched F lakes . Dor sa l S car C oun t

U sed F lake

Unused F lake

T o ta l

i nde term ina te

4 1

1 0 .88

2

2 .90

4 3

9 .64

f ew

1 50

3 9 .79

2 1

3 0 .43

1 71

3 8 .34

modera te

1 41

3 7 .40

3 1

4 4 .93

1 72

3 8 .57

h igh

4 5

1 .94

1 5

2 1 .74

6 0

1 3 .45

C o mb ined

3 77

1 00 .00

6 9

1 00 .00

4 46

1 00 .00

T ab le 6 .27 : Dor sa l S car P at tern P resen ted i nt he Grand B anks U nretouched F lakes . Dor sa l S car P a t tern

U sed F l ake

Unused F lake

T ota l

i nde term ina te

6 8

1 8 .04

5

7 . 25

7 3

1 6 .37

p ara l le l

1 44

3 8 .20

3 0

4 3 .48

1 74

3 9 .0 1

p ara l le l -opposed

4 5

1 .94

1 0

1 4 .49

5

1 2 .33

p ara l le l trunca ted

4 7

1 2 .47

1 0

1 4 .49

5 7

1 2 .78

p ara l le l -converg ing

3 4

9 .02

1 2

1 7 .39

4 6

1 0 .31

n on-par a l le l C o mb ined

3 9

1 0 .34

2

2 . 90

4 1

9 . 19

3 77

1 00 .00

6 9

1 00 .00

4 46

1 00 .00

1 23

C hap te r6

B ox 8 z Wh i ske rP l o t : Max . L eng th

' 0

6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 2

M in - Max

1 0

2 5% -75%

0

•

U nu sed F l ake

Med ian v a lue

U t i l ized F l ake

B ox & Wh iske rP l o t : Max . W id th

3 0

2 0

M in -Max

1 0

2 5% -75% •

Med ian v a lue

0

U nu sed F l ake

U t i l ized F l ake

B ox & Wh i ske rP l o t : Max . T h ickne s s 1 8 1 6 1 4 1 2 1 0 8 6

_ .L

4

M in -Max 2 5% -75%

2

•

M ed ian v a lue

0 U nu sed F l ake

U t i l ized F l ak e

F i g . 6 . 9 : B ox & Wh i ske rC ompa r ison so fB lank S i z e sb e tween U nu sed F l ake sa nd U t i l ized F l ake sf r om G rand B ank s .

1 24

U nr e touched F lak e s t h e s amp le o fu t i l ized f l ak e s( 2 .9% )( T ab le 6 . 27 ) . T he p r edom inan t b l ank s f r om b o th u sed a nd u nu sed f l ak e s , h oweve r , h ave p a ra l le l -oppo sed , p a ra l le l t r unca ted , a nd p a ra l le l -conve rg ing d o r sa l s c a rp a t ter n ing .

b l ank s a l so h ave ag r ea te rt h ickne s s t h an u nu sed f l ake s , a nd t h e r a nge i n t h ickne s s o f u t i l ized f l ake s e x ceed st h a to fd i sca rded f l ak e s . P r ef e r r ed s e lec t ion o fc e r ta in b l ank s f o r u t i l iza t i on c an a l so b e e xp l ica ted b ye xam ina t ion o ft h e d o r sa l s c a rc oun t s a nd s c a rp a t t e rn s o fb o th u sed a nd u nu sed f l ake s . T he Mann - Wh i tney U t e s t s ugge s t s t h a t t h e r e a r e s i gn if ican t d if e r ence s b e tween t h e t wo k i nd s o f f l ak e s ( T ab le 6 . 25 ) .

L one P ine a nd Y oung 1

U t i l ized f l ake sp r edom inan t ly e xh ib i th ighe rs c a r c oun t s( o ve r3 )o nd o r sa ls u r f a ce st h an t h eu nu sed o ne s ( T ab le 6 . 26 ) , s ugge s t ing c l ea r ly t h a t t h e b l ank s s e lec ted w e r e m a in ly r emoved d u r ing t h e l a te rs t age so fc o r er e duc t ion . E xam ina t ion o ft h e

At o ta lo f7 23 u n re tou ched f l ake sf r om L one P ine a nd 1 33 p i ece s f r om Y oung 1w e r e s ub jec ted t o m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s , a nd t h e u t i l iza t ion r a t e s a t b o th s i te s a r e s l igh t ly h i gh e r t h an t h a t a tG r and B ank s ( T ab le 6 . 19 ) . Wh i le t h e s amp le o fb l ade s f r om L one P ine i ss ma l le r ( N=42 ) t h a t t h a t f r om G rand B ank s( N=95 ) ,t h e r ei se v id en ce o fg r ea te r u t i l iza t ion o fb l ade s a tL one P ine ( 4 0 .5 % ) c om -

d o r sa l s c a rp a t t er ni n d ica te st h a tt h e r e i s as l igh t l yh i ghe r r a te o fu nu sed f l ake s ( 1 0 .3% ) s how ing an on -pa ra l le l d o r sa l s c a r p a t t er n t h an e x i s t s i n

p a r ed t o G rand B ank s ( 1 7 .9% ) . P r ima ry f l ake s a nd c o r e t r imm ing f l ake s s how r e la t ive ly h i ghe r r a te s o f u t i l iza t ion c ompa r ed w i th t h e s amp le

T ab le 6 . 28 : T oo l Mo t ion i nt he U nre touched F lake A s semb lage s . YOUNG 1

T oo l Mo t ion

LONE P INE

i nde te rm ina te

2 6

1 2 .3

6

2 5 .0

c u t / saw

6 3

2 9 .7

1 0

4 1 .7

s l ice /ca rve

1 4

6 . 6

0

0 . 0

s c rape / shave

6 3

2 9 .7

7

2 9 .2

p lane /wh i t t le

1 2

5 . 7

0

0 . 0

2 1

9 . 9

0

0 . 0

b o re /d r i l l

7

3 . 3

1

4 . 2

g rave

4

1 . 9

0

0 . 0

c hop

0

0 . 0

0

0 . 0 0 . 0

p ro jec t ion

h oe /d ig

0

0 . 0

0

p ound /g r ind

1

0 . 5

0

0 . 0

w edge

1

0 . 5

0

0 . 0

p i ck

0

0 . 0

0

0 . 0

1 0 0 .0

/ 4

1 00 .0

T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

2 12

T ab le 6 . 29 : C on tac t Ma ter ia l i nt he U nre touched -F lake A s semb lage s . YOUNG 1

C on tac t Ma te r ia l

LONE P INE

i n de te rm ina te

4 1

1 9 .34

8

3 .33

s of ta n ima l( SA )

3 4

1 6 .04

7

2 9 .17

8

3 . 77

0

0 . 00

m ed ium sof tv ege ta l ( 1M )

5 0

2 3 .58

6

2 5 .00

m ed ium a n ima l ( MA )

2 5

1 .79

0

0 . 00

m ed ium -ha rd v ege ta l( 2M )

3 1

1 4 .62

1

4 . 17

h a rd a n ima l ( 1H )

1 7

8 . 02

2

8 . 33

v e ry h a rd a n ima l( 2H )

5

2 . 36

0

0 . 00

h a rd i n o rgan ic ( 3H )

1

0 . 47

0

0 . 00

1 00 .00

2 4

1 00 .00

s of tv ege ta l( SV )

T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

2 12

1 25

C hap te r6 T ab le 6 . 30 : T oo l Mo t ion b y C on tac t Ma ter ia l i n t he L one P ine U nre touched F lake A s semb lage .

T o o l

C on tac t Ma te r ia l

Mo t ion

i n de te rm ina te c u t / saw

1 H

2 H

1 4

7

1 2

8

1

6 3

1

3 4

1 4

6

2

6 3

-

2

1

1

1

/ 5

-

1

5

6

1 0 1 0

1

1

2

1

p l ane /wh i t t le

2M

I M

s l i ce / ca rve s c rape / shave

MA

S V

SA

9

p r o jec t ion

9

b o re /d r i l l

1

2 3 8

1

3 H

2 6

3

1 4 1 2 2 1 7

1

4

1

g r av e

C omb .

c hop

0

h oe /d ig

( )

p ound /g r ind

1

w edge

1

i c k

0

T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

4 1

3 4

5 0

/ 5

3 1

1 7

5

1

2 12

3 1 1

L omb .

T ab le 6 . 31 : T oo l Mo t ion b y C ontac t Ma ter ia l i n t he Y oung 1Unre touched F lake A ssemb lage . C on ta c t Ma te r ia l

T oo l Mo t ion SA

i n de te rm ina te

6

c u t / saw

1

S V

I M

MA

2M

3

I H

2 H

2

10

s l i ce /ca rve

0

2

s c rape / shave

7

p l ane /wh i t t le p ro jec t ion b o r e /d r i l l

1

g r ave

0

c hop

0

h oe /d ig p ound /g r ind w edge p i ck T o t a l Emp loyed U n i t s

0

7

0

1

6

f r om G rand B ank s . I n a cco rdance w i th t h e d a ta f r om G rand B ank s , w e f i nd e x t r eme ly l ow r a te s o fu t i l iza t ion o fb l ade le t sa nd b i po la rf l ake sf r om L one P ine .U t i l ized f l ak e sf r om t h eY oung 1s am p l e a r e l im i ted t o2 0 p l a in f l ake s , 2b l ade s a nd 1 b l ade le t . S im i la rt ot h ep a t ter no ff l ak eu t i l iza t ion a tG rand B ank s , t h e u sed f l ake s f r om t h e u n r e touched f l ak e a s semb lage s f r om L one P ine a nd Y oung 1 i nd ica te a n empha s is o n c u t t ing / saw ing a nd s c rap ing / shav ing ( T ab le 6 . 28 ) . T he u t i l ized f l ake s f r om L one P ine w e r e a l so u sed e qua l ly i no t he r t o o l mo t ion s ( p ro jec t ing , s l ic ing / ca rv ing , b o r ing , g r av ing ) . P ound ing /g r ind ing , w edg ing , a nd p i ck -

2

0

0

2 4

i n g t o o l mo t ion s a r e a l so p r esen t a tL one P ine , b u tn o t i na bundance . T he u n r e tou ched f l ake s f r om L one P ine w e r e u sed p r ima r i ly i nw oodwo rk ing ( 3 8 .2% f o r b o th 1M a nd 2M ) , f o l lowed b y s of t t o mode ra t e ly r e s i s tan t a n ima l m a te r ia l s ( 27 .4% f o r SA a nd MA )( T ab le 6 . 29 ) .T he Y oung 1f l ak e se xh ib i tu t i l i za t ion o nr e s t r ic ted m a te r ia l s , w i th e mpha s i so n s of t a n ima l s ub s tance s a nd m ed ium sof t v ege ta l s ub s tan ce s . C ro s s tabu la t ing t h e t oo l mo t ion s w i th c on ta c t m a te r ia l s f r om L one P ine ( T ab le s 6 . 30 ) , w e f i nd t h a t c u t t ing / saw ing a nd s c r ap ing / shav ing a r e p r i 1 26

U nr e touched F lak e s

B ox & Wh iske rP lo t : Max . L eng th 6 5

5 5

E

4 5

3 5

• 2

2 5

1 5

I M in -Max 2 5% -75%

5

•

Med ian v a lu e

5

U nu sed F l ake

U t i l ized F l ake

B ox & Wh iske r P l o t : Max . W id th 6 0

5 0

4 0

3 0

2 0

M in -Max El] 2 5% -75%

1 0

•

Med ian v a lue

0

U nu sed F l ake

U t i l ized F l ake

B ox & Wh i ske rP l o t : Max .Th ickne s s 2 4

2 0

1 6

1 2

8

M in -Max 4

2 5% -75% •

Med ian v a lue

0

U nu sed F l ake

U t i l ized F l ake

F ig . 6 . 10 : B ox & Wh iske rC ompa r ison so fB lank S i ze sb e tween U nu sed F l ake sa nd U t i l ized F lakes f r om L one P ine .

1 27

C hap te r6

B ox & Wh isk e rP l o t : Max . L eng th 7 1 1

6 0 • E

5 0 _ 4 )

3 0 •

2 ( )

M in -Max 2 5% -75%

1 0

•

Med ian v a lu e

0 U nu sed F l ake

U t i l iz ed F l ake

B ox & Wh i ske rP lo t : M ax . W id th 6 5

5 4 5 3 5

1 5 M in -Max 2 5% -75% •

U nu sed F l ake

Med ian v a lue

U t i l iz ed F l ake

B ox & Wh i ske rP l o t : Max .Th ickne s s 2 ( )

1 0

_L M in -Max LJ 2 51 ) / ,75% • U nu sed F l ake

M ed ian v a lue

U t i l iz ed F l ake

F ig . 6 . 11 : B ox & Wh i ske rC ompa r i son so fB lank S i ze sb e tween U nu sed F lake sa nd U t i l ized F lake sf r om Y oung 1 .

1 28

U nr e touched F lak e s ma nly a s soc ia ted w i th b o th s of ta nd h a rd w ood s , ap a t te rn w h ich d i f f e r s f r om t h a t o f t h e G rand B ank su t i l ized f l ak e s . T he r e i sa l so a bundan te v i d ence o fu se ta sk s i n vo lv ing b u t che r ing o n s i te , g iven t h er e la t ive ly h i ghe rr a te o fc u t t ing ,s l i c ing , a nd c a rv ing o f s of t t o mode ra t e ly h a rd a n ima l s ubs tan ce s . I mpac t w ea r o n a n ima l s ub s tance s f ound o nf l ake sf r om L one P ine m ay i n d ica te u se a s p ro jec t i le p o in t s . S uch f l ak e s n o rma l ly s how h af t ing w ea r , i n d ica t ing t h e s t a ted t o o l u s e . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t d u r ing t h i s l a te r p e r iod , h un t ing o r b u tch e r ing w a s a l so o ne o ft h e a c t iv i t ie s c a r r ied o u t a tt h e s i te . Wh i le b o r ing i sa s soc ia t ed w i th w oodwo rk ing ,g r av ing i sc on cen t ra ted w i th b one w o rk ing o r w o rk ing w i th o t h e r h a rd m a te r ia l s . P ound ing o n s t one o ro t he ri n o rgan ic m a t e r ia ls i s p re sen tb u tn o ti na bundance .T he s ame i st r u ef o r t h ew edg ing o fh a rd w ood . Mu ch o ft h e w ea r o n t h e Y oung 1u n r e touched f l ake s i sd i ff icu l t t od e te rm ine ( T ab le 6 . 31) . T he r e cogn izab le w ea r i n d ica te s f l ak e s t h a t w e r e mo s t ly u sed f o r c u t t ing / saw ing o fa n ima l m ea t s o rs k in s , s c rap ing / shav ing o fs k in so rh i d e s , s aw i n ga nd s c rap ing / shav ing o fm ed ium sof tw ood s , a nd c u t t ing / saw ing o fh a rd b one s o ra n t le r s . A s f a ra st h e s i ze o fu t i l ized f l ake s i sc once rned , a tb o th s i te s , mo r es ma l l f l ak e s( l e s st h an 2 5 mm ) w e r e c ho sen f o r u se ( T ab le 6 . 25 ) t h an a tG rand B ank s . T he r e a ppea r t o b e i n d ica t ion s , h e r e a s w e l l , t h a t u t i l ized f l ake s w e re a l so s e lec ted a cco rd ing t o c e r ta in i d ea l d imen s ion s . E v idence f o rt h i s c an b e f ound i nt h e f a c tt h a t a tb o th s i te s t h e u sed f l ake s h ave s i gn if ican t ly d i f f e ren t l e ng th s c ompa red w i th t h e u nu sed o nes ( t v a lue= -4 .57882 , d f =359 , p -va /ue=0 .000006 f o r L on e P ine ; t va /ue= -2 .08313 , d . f =85 p v a lue=0 .040244 f o r Y oung 1 ) . T he d i ag r am s

s how ing t h e d imen s iona l c ompa r i son s b e tween t h et wo k i nd so fu n r e touched f l ake sf r om t h eb o th s i te s a r ep r e sen ted i nF igu r e s 6 . 10 a nd 6 . 11 . P r ehen s i le Wear a nd t he U se o fI nd iv idua l T oo l s O ve r h a lf o ft h e p r ehen s i le w ea r i d en t if ied f r om t h eG rand B ank su n r e tou ched f l ak e sa s semb lage s a r e a t t r ibu tab le t o h and g r a sp ing ( T ab le 6 . 32 ) . O n ly a bou t aq ua r te r o ft h e p r ehen s i le u n i t s a r e i d en t if ied a sh af t ing w ea r , i nc on t ra s t t ot h e f o r m a l t y pe a s semb lage . A t L one P in e as l igh t ly g r ea te rn umbe r o fu t i l ized f l ak e s w e r e u sed w i th ah af t ing d ev ice : h af t w ea r a c coun t s f o r a bou t o ne th i rd o f t h e L one P ine a s semb lage . T h i s h i ghe r f r equency o fh af t ing w ea r m ay b e r e la ted t o t h e h i ghe r f r equen cy o f f l ake t o o l s u sed f o r p ro jec t ion a tL one P ine . I ti si n t e r e s t ing t on o te t h a t ac e r ta in a moun t o fr e cogn izab le p r ehen s i le w ea r i sw e l l d eve loped o n f l ak e t o o l s w i th e v i d ence o f mu l t ip le -u t i l iza t ion . A s Ih ave m en t ioned i nC hap t e r4 ,o ne c o r e t o o l f r om G rand B ank sw a su sed r e pea t ed ly f o r as i n g l e t a sk . Among s t t h e u n r e touch ed f l ake s , t h e s ame p a t t e rn i so f t en o b se rved . Mo s t f l ake s w i th mu l t ip le u se ta sk ss how e v iden ce o fu t i l iza t ion i n t h e s ame t o o l mo t ion s o n s im i la r m a te r ia l s . F o r i n s tance , a l f i ve e mp loyed u n i t so nG rand B ank s f l ake # 3131 w e r e i d en t if ied a ss c rap ing mo t ion s o n h a rd b one . T he L one P ine f l ak e # 2 163 h a s f ou r e mp loy ed u n i t s , a l s how ing u se i np l an ing o ff r e sh w ood . I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a t mo s to f t h e t o o ls w i th mu l t ip le E dU s s how t h a tt h e s am e a c t ion s w e r e p r ima r i ly a s soc ia ted w i th w ood w o rk ing . O ne m ay a t t r ibu te t h i s t o t h e l o nge r d u ra t ion o fw o rk r equ i r ed t o c a r ry o u t as i ng le t a sk o n ah a rd s ub s tance , s u ch a sw ood o rb one , t h an o n as o f te rs ub s tance l i k em ea t , s k in , o rs of t

T ab le 6 . 32 : P r ehen s i le Wear i nt h eU nr e touched F lake A s semb lage s . P rehens i le Wea rT ype

GRAND BANKS

LONE P INE

LONE P INE

0 '

g ene ra lp rehen s i le w ea r

4

1 .43

2 7

2 9 .67

0

0 . 00

h and -he ld w ea r

2 3

6 5 .7 1

3 6

3 9 .56

3

1 00 .00

2 2 .86

2 8

3 0 .77

3 5

1 00 .00

9 1

1 00 .00

3

I 0 0 .00

h af tw ea r T o ta l Emp loyed U n i t s

8

1 29

0 . 0 0

C hap ter 6

F ig . 6 . 12 : I lu s t ra t ion o fU t i l ized U nmod if ied -F lake ; a :A fGx -3 :645 .1 ; b :A fGx -3 :5353 . 1 ; c :A fGx -3 :6886 .1 ; d .A fGx -113 :1252 .1 ; e :AfGx -113 .862 .2 . p l an tm a te r ia l .

e mp loyed u n i t s , e ven t h ough t h ey m igh t b e u sed

A s ma l l f l ake f r om G rand B ank s ( #645 .2 ) p o s -

l i gh t ly . Ap o s s ib le e mp loyed u n i t i sd e tec ted a t l o ca t ion C , w he re a f ew s c a r f r ac tu r e s m ay b e

s e s se s t wo c u t t ing e dge s , A a nd B , w h ich w e re

a t t r ibu ted t oh and g ra sp ing .

a s se s sed a s h av ing b een e mp loyed f o r c u t t ing f r e sh w ood ( F ig . 6 . 12a ) . E xh ib i t ing l i t t le p o l i sh , t h e t wo e dges f e a tu re ar ow o fd en t icu la ted s c a r r i ng w i th ar o l led -ove r p a t tern . D ue t ot h e s u rf a c i a lt o pog raphy , mo s tm ed ium -s ized f e a the rs c a r s a r e d i s t r ibu ted o n t h e d o r sa l s i de , a l tho t

haf ew

c an s t i l l b e o bserved o n t h e v en tra l s i de . Mode ra te r ound ing i sc l ea r ly i n d ica ted o nt h et wo

A n u n re touched b l ade f r om G rand B ank s ( # 5353 .1) w a s i n ten s ive ly emp loyed i nv a r iou s u se ta sk s , p o s ses s ing f i ve e mp loyed u n i t s a l ong i t se n t i re l a te ra lm a rg in e xcep tf o rt h eb r oken d i s t a l e nd ( F ig . 6 . 12b ) . F ou r o ft h e f i v , dUs w e r e e mp loyed a s s c rap ing e dge s ( A , C , U , E ) , wh i le t h e E dU a tl o ca t ion B i sa s sessed a sh av ing b een 1 30

U nr e touched F lak e s e mp loy ed f o r c u t t ing m ed ium sof t w ood ( Pho to 2 8 -30 ) . T h e w ood -cu t t ing e dge e xh ib i t s f e a tu r e s i d en t ica l t ot h o se t h a t w e o b se rved o n t h e p i ece a bove ( G r and B ank s# 645 .2 ) .W ea ra tl o ca t ion sC a nd E s h ow s im i la r p a t te rn s : h eav i ly r ounded e dge s a nd b r igh t p o l i she s o n t h e c on ta c ted s u r f a ce ( v en t r a ls i de i nt h is c a se ) .T he t wo e mp loyed u n i t sw e r ep o s s ib ly e mp loy ed i ns c rap ing a n ima l s k in s o rh i de s . U se t r ace s a tl o ca t ion A a r e c ha r a c te r iz ed b y l i gh t r ound ing , i n c ip ien t p o l i sh o n t h ev en t r a ls i de ,a nd s t epped a nd f e a the rs c a r r ing . Ih ave d e te rm ined t h a t t h i s e mp loyed u n i t w a s u sed t o s c rape m ed ium r e s i s tance a n ima l s ub s t an ce ss u ch a sd r ied h i de o rs of tb on e . Ar ow o f c ru shed s c a r r ing o n e dge D r e p r e sen t s c on ta c t w i th s om e s o r t o fh a rd m a te r ia l . E dge r ound ing a nd p o l i sh m ay i n d ica te s c rap ing o fh a rd b one . J udg ing f r om t h e f unc t iona l e mpha s i s o n s c rap i ng o fa n ima l s ub s tan ce s , t h i sp i ece w a sp o s s ib ly u sed b y as i ng le u se rw ho m igh th ave c a r r ied o u t p a r t o f ab u tche r ing a c t iv i ty a nd u sed t h e t o o l mo s t ly t of u lf i l l t h e s c rap ing r e qu i remen t s . T h i s b l ade w a sa l so p robab ly r e -u s ed a nd e mp loyed i n d if e r en t a c t iv i t ie s s u ch a s c u t t ing / saw ing w ood b y e i the r t h e s ame u se r o r ad i f f e r en t u se r . T he e x ten s iv e u se o fs u ch at o o l i se v idenced b y t h e b rok en t i p , wh ich , a s Io b se rved , w a s c au sed b y s c r ap ing a c t iv i ty e i the ro n Ao rE . Ano th e r e xamp le o f a n i n d iv idua l t o o l p re sum a b ly u s ed b y as i ng le i n d iv idua l , i s al a rge f l ak e t oo l f r om G rand B ank s ( # 6886 .1) . T ran sve r se t oo l m o t ion s o n f r e sh w ood ( 1M ) w e r e d e tec ted o n t h r e e E dU s o n t h e l e f t m a rg in ( F ig . 6 . 12c ) . Wh i le l o ca t ion s Aa nd B w e r ee mp loyed f o rp l an i n g w ood ( Pho to 3 1 -32 ) , l o ca t ion C w a s u sed t o s c rape w ood . V e ry b r igh t p o l i sh c an b e s e en o n t h e v en t ra l s i de , c on cen t r a ted o n t h e m a rg in b u t mov ing t owa rd s t h e c en te r o f t h e p i ece . Un if a c ia l ly d i s t r ibu t ed s c a r r ing o n t h e v en t ra l s i de e xh ib i t s r o l led -ove r p a t t e rn s . D if f e r ence s i n s c a rf r a c tu re s a mong t h e t h r ee E dU s e nab led m e t o d i s t ingu ish p l an ing a c t iv i t ie s f r om s c rap ing a c t iv i t i e s . P lan ing s c a r s a tl o ca t ion s Aa nd B a r e r e la t iv e ly l a rge ra nd s h a l lowe rt h an t h o se c au sed b y s c r ap ing a t l o ca t ion C . A l so , p l an ing s c a r s may p o s ses s mo r e s t epped t e rm ina t ion s c om p a r ed t o t h e i l -def ined , f e a the r t e rm ina t ion s f ound o ns c rap ing e dge s . Ap ro jec t ing p a r to ft h e r i gh tm a rg in w a se mp loyed f o rh o ld ing t h ep i ece , i n d ica t ing p rehen s i le w ea rf o und a tl o ca t ion D .

T he n ex t t wo e xamp le s i lu s t ra te t h e i mpo r tance o fp rehen s i le w ea r i n a s se s s ing t h e f unc t ion o f f l ake t oo ls . A l a rge f l ake f r om L one P ine ( # 1252 .1) p o s se s se s m ac ro -f ra c tu r e s o n i t s d i s ta l e nd . T he d i s ta l e nd o f t h i s p i ece h a s ac onvex s hape i n ap l a in v i ew ( F ig . 6 . 12d ) . D ue t o t h i s c u rva tu r e , c onven t iona l ly t h i s p i ece w ou ld b e c a ta logued a s a" u t i l ized f l ake ," a nd a s se s sed a sa s c rap ing t o o l w i th aw o rk ing e dge a tl o ca t ion B . H oweve r , m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s s how s t h a t t h e d i s ta le nd ( B )w a si n ten t iona l ly b lun ted b ym ic ro r e touch , l i ke ly t od u l l t h e e dge f o r h and -ho ld ing ( Pho to 3 5 ) .T he a c tua lw o rk ing e dge i sa tl o ca t ion A ,t h ee n t i r e l a t e ra l e dge o fw h ich w a se mp loyed f o r c u t t ing o r s l ic ing m ea t w i th b one c on tac t ( Pho to s 3-34 ) . P rehen s i le w ea r i sa l so f ound a t l o ca t ion C , w h ich w a s p o s s ib ly p r e s sed b y t h e m id -f inge r w h i le c a r ry ing o u t t h i s b u tche r ing a c t iv i ty . T he o t he rf l ake f r om L one P ine ( # 862 .2 ) c ou ld h ave b een m is tak en ly c on s ide r ed a s ac u t t i ng t o o l , j udg ing f r om t h e e dge d amage o n t h e l a te ra l m a rg in s ( F ig . 6 . 12e ) . H oweve r , m ic ro s c op ic e xam ina t ion i n d ica te se v idence o ff r ac tu r e s c a r r ing o n b o th l a te ra l e dge s Ba nd C a t t r ibu ta b l et oh af t ing ( Pho to 3 6 ) . T h i sp o s tu la t ion i sc on f i rmed b y t h e u se t r ace s o n t h e d i s ta l e nd A , w h ich w a su sed f o rw ood s c rap ing .

D i scus s ion a nd S ununa u T he d a ta a va i lab le d o n o t m ake i tp o s s ib le t o m ake p r ec i se c u l tu ra l i n f e r ences r e ga rd ing a l a spec t s o f o u r i n te re s t i n t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f c o r e r e duc t ion s t ra teg ie s . T h rough t h e e xam ina t i on o fq uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive p a rame te r s o f u n r e tou ched f l ak e s , h oweve r , Ih ave b een a b le t o r e ach s om e c on c lu s ion s r e ga rd ing c o r e r e du c t ion s t ra teg ie sa nd t h eu t i l iza t ion o ff l ake t o o l s . T echno log ica l ly ,t h er e con s t ruc t ion o fc o r er e duc t i on s t ra t eg ie sa tt h e P r ince s sP o in ts i te s , t h rough t h eu n r e touched f l ake sa na ly s i s ,i sc on s i s ten tw i th t h e i mp l ica t ion s d e r ived f r om c o r e a na ly s is ( Chap te r4 ) . T he P r inces s P o in t r e duc t ion s t ra te g y , r e p r e sen ted b y t h e " t ran sf o rmed" r e duc t ion s equence , c on t ra s t s m a rked ly w i th t h e b i f ace r e duc t ion s t ra tegy wh ich w a se x ten s ive ly u sed b y 1 3 1

C hap te r6 e a r l ie r i n hab i tan t s ( Pa leo Ind ian o r A r cha ic ) . B if ace p roduc t ion , w h ich p roduced b o th f l ake s a nd ,a tt h ee nd o ft h es equen ce , ab i f ace t o o lf r om t h e c o r e " r e s idue ," i sw eak ly w i tne s sed o n s i te . B ipo la rp roduc t ion i sn o t c ommon , b u t t h e p r e s e nce o fb i po la rc o r e s a nd b i po la rf l ake s i n d ica te s t h a tt h e r ew a sa tl e a s t am in ima lu se o ft h i sr e duc t i on s t ra tegy o n -s i te . I ti sd e t e rm ined t h a t b l ade s o r s ome f l ak e s a t G rand B ank sw e r e l i k e ly p rodu ced a st oo lb l ank s d u r ing t h e e a r ly p ha se o f t h e " t ran sf o rmed" r educ t ion s equence . A l though t h e o ccu r r ence o f b l ade s i s much l owe rt h an a mo rphou s f l ake s a nd b i f ace t h inn ing f l akes , t h ey w e re p r ima r i ly r emoved t h rough t h e c a r ef u l p r epa ra t ion o fc o r e p l a tf o rm s . T he r e s t r ic ted d imen s ion s o f b l ade s , wh ich d i f f e r f r om t h o se o fp l a in f l ake s , s ugge s t s t h a t b l ade s s hou ld n o t b e c on s ide r ed a cc iden ta l p roduc t sa tG rand B ank s ,a l though b l ade p rodu c t i on d i dn o te x i s t . T oo l m anuf a c tu re i n vo lve s p r ima ry p roce s s ing a nd b l ank p roduc t ion . T echno log ica l v a r iab i l i ty e x i s t s i nb l ank p rodu c t ion ( p roduc t ion o fb l ade s , a mo rphou s f l ak e s , a nd b i po la r f l ake s ) . Ia l so o b served t h a t t h e r e i s v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e c o r e r educ t ion s t ra tegy a si th a sb een r e con s t ruc ted f o r G rand B ank sa nd L one P in e .F u r the r ,a sf a ra su t i l i zed f l ak e s a r e c on ce rned , i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e r e a r ed ef in i te p r ef e r en ce si nt h es i ze so ff l ake sc ho s en f o ru t i l iza t ion . T he u t i l iza t ion o f u n r e touched f l ak e s a t G rand B ank s r e p r e sen t s ap a t te rn t h a t d if e r s s l igh t ly f r om t h o se o b se rved f r om t h e f o rm ed t y pe a nd c o r e a s semb lage s . U t i l ized p i ece s i n t h e l a t te r a s semb lage s w e r e e mp loyed l a rge ly i n w ood wo rk ing , wh i le u n re touched f l ake s w e re e mp loyed l a rge ly i nb u t che r ing a nd b one -wo rk i n g a c t iv i t ie s . I ng ene ra l , t h eu t i l ized f l ake s w e r e u sed i n amuch w ide rr ange o fa c t iv i t ie s t h an t h e f o rmed t y pe s a nd c o r e s b o th i n t e rm s o f t o o l mo t ion sa nd i nt e rm so fc on tac tm a te r ia l . B a sed o n t h e a bove s umma ry o fc o r e r e duc t ion s t ra tegy , t wo i mp l ica t ion s a r e a ppa r en t . F i r s t ly , t h e amo rphou s r educ t ion mode a tG rand B ank s d oe s n o t r e p r e sen t a n " exped ien t" t e chno logy . S econd ly , u se o f t r an sf o rm ed c o r e r educ t ion a t G rand B ank s m ay r e a sonab ly b e c on s ide r ed a sa

r aw m a te r ia l e conom iz ing s t ra tegy . T he r eh a sb een ag r ea td ea l mad eo u to ft h er e la t i on sh ip b e tween c o r e t e chno logy a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te r n s o n t h e No r th Ame r ican c on t inen t ( J ohn son a nd Mo r row 1 987 ) . P a r ry a nd K e l ly ( 1987 ) c l ea r ly d emon s t ra te t h e c or re la t ion b e tween i n c r ea sed s eden t i sm a nd ad ec l ine i nt h e u se o fp r epa r ed c o re sa t mo s ta r ch a eo log ica ls i t e s i nN o r th Ame r ica . Amo rphou s c o r e s , a s d ef ined b y J ohn son ( 1 987 :2 ) , a r e t ho se t h a t " show m in i mum p l a tf o rm p r epa ra t ion a nd l i t t le r ega rd f o r s e t t ing u p s ub sequ en t f l ake r emova l s ." T h e se a u tho r s a rgue t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s eden t ism a nd a mo rphou s c o r e t e chno logy r ef lec t s t h e i mpo r tance o f l a bo r c o s t s v e r su s ma te r ia l c o s t s i nl i t h ic p roduc t ion s y s tem s . T h ey s ugge s tt h a t ,f o r mo s ts eden ta ry p eop le ," cu ra t ed" o r p o r tab le s t one t oo l -k i t s w e r e n o l onge r r equ i r ed , a nd t h a t , i n s tead , v i l lage r s p rodu ced s imp le f l ake t o o l s o n ly w hen n eed ed ( Pa r ry a nd K e l ly 1 987 ) . T he r e s iden t s o f s e d en ta ry s e t t le m en t sc an o b ta in l a rge q uan t i t ie so fr aw ma te r ia l s t h rough e xchange a nd d i rec t a c c e s s . " In t h e se c a se s , i tw i l l n o t b e n ece s sa ry t os p end t h e e x t r a t ime a nd l a bo rn eeded t op roduce p r epa red c o r e s a nd s t anda rd ized b i f ace s , e ven i ft h e p repa r ed c o r ea nd b i f a ce t e chno log ies a r em o r e ef i c ien ti n t h e i r u se o f r aw m a te r ia l s" ( Y e rk e s 1 989 :184 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h e se a u tho r s , t h e a mo rphou s c o r e t e chno logy i st h u s r e ga rded a s t i m e a nd l a bo r ef i c ien t , o r" exped ien t" t e chno logy . Howeve r , t h e f i r s t p rob lem t h a t t h i s mode l e ncoun te r ed i st h ea va i lab i l i ty o fr aw m a te r ia l s .I f t h e " exped ien t" c o r e t e chno logy w a s c on s ide r ed a s aw a s tef u l s t r a tegy i nt e rm s o fr aw ma t e r ia l c on se rva t ion , t h e u se o f s uch t e chno logy mu s t r e ly o n t h e r e ady a va i lab i l i ty o f r aw ma te r ia l . P a r ry a nd K e l ly ( 1987 :30 1) t h em se lve sa l so r e a l i z et h a th igh ly mob i le h un te r -ga th e r e r sa l so mad e a nd u sed " exped ien t" f l ake t o o l s i n c a se s i n wh ich a bundan t r aw m a te r ia l r e sou r ces w e r e a va i lab le . I n t h e r e g ion s whe r e s u i t ab le l i t h ic ma te r ia l s a r e d if i cu l tt oo b ta in , b o th mob i le a nd s eden ta ry g roup s w ou ld a dop t e conom ized l i t h ic p roduc t ion s y s tem s , t h a t i s , t h e p r epa r ed c o re o r b i f ace t e chno log ie s , a s t h e a bove a u tho r s a rgu e . T he r ef o re , t h e p roduc t ion o f " exp ed ien t" f l ak e t oo l s i sn o t e x c lu s ive ly l i nked t o t h e l i t h ic p ro d uc t ion o f as eden ta ry p opu la t ion . 1 32

U nr e touched F lak e s

S econd ly , s t one t oo l s p rodu ced b y s t anda rd ized c o re t e chno logy c ou ld a l so b e u sed a s " exped i e n t" t o o l s . B lade p roduc t ion , o fc ou r se , m ay b e c on s ide r ed ah i gh ly s t anda rd iz ed c o re r e duc t ion t e chn ique ( Ne lson 1 99 1 :68 ) . W i th in t h e a r ea i n c lud ing O h io , I l ino i s , a nd t h e l owe r M i s sou r i R ive r , H opewe l l b l ade s a r e p r esen t i n as im i la r f o rm , p rodu ced o n c on ica l c o r e s b y i n d i r ec t p e r c u s s ion ( G r ebe r e ta l . 1 981 ; H ofman 1 987 ; R e id 1 976 ; S ange r 1 970 ; Wh i te 1 963 ; Mo r row 1 988 ) . Y e rke s( 1 983 , 1 994 )a nd O de l l( 1985 , 1 994a )d i s c ove r ed i n t e res t ing u se p a t t e rn s b y a pp ly ing h i gh -powe r a nd l ow -powe r u se -wea r a na ly s i s , r e spec t ive ly ,t oe xam ine t h e se b l ade i mp lemen t s . Y e rke sf o und , i ne xam in ing t h ree O h io H opewe l l a s semb lage s ( Mu rphy , L IC -79 , a nd Ma r ie t ta ) , t h a t t h e b l ades w e r e u sed f o r av a r ie ty o ft a sk s , a nd o n m a te r ia ls r a ng ing f r om p l an t s t o s t one . F u r the r , h e p ropo sed t h a t g i ven e v idence o f w eak ly -deve loped m ic rowea r t r ace s o n mo s t s u ch t o o l s , t h e se b l ade s w e r e u sed a s e xped ien t t o o l s( Y e rk e s 1 994 :123 ) .O de l l( 1994a )c ompa r ed t h r ee a s semb lage s f r om t h e Sm i l ing D an s e t t le m en ta nd t wo N apo leon H o l low mo r tua ry s i te so f s ou the rn I l ino is , a nd c on c luded t h a t d i f f e r en t u se s o fb l ades w e r e a ppa r en t : a tt h e h ab i ta t ion s i te , b l ad e s w e r e u sed a s g ene ra l ized t oo l s , w he r ea s a t mo r tua ry s i te s t h ey w e r e l i k e ly o n ly u sed f o rm ea t c u t t ing o rs c r ap ing , p r e sumab ly i n r i tua l c e r emon ie s . T he se o bse rva t ion s s ugge s t t h a tb l ade s , wh ich w e r ep roduced u s ing s t anda rd i z ed c o r e t e chno log ie s , c ou ld a l so b e u sed a s e xped ien tt o o ls . T h is s t udy o f t h e G rand B ank s l i t h ic i n du s t ry d emon s t r a tes t h a t t h e a pp l ica t ion o f f l ake -p ro d uc ing c o r e r edu c t ion m igh t n o t b e e xped ien t . A l though t h e p roduc t ion o f a mo rphou s f l ake s w a s p r eva len t a tt h e G rand B ank s s i te , t h e m ak i n g a nd u s e o ff l ake t o o l s f i r s t r e qu i r ed ac a r ef u l p rocedu r eo fb l ank p rodu c t ion a nd s e lec t ion . T he G rand B ank sl i t h ic a s semb lage sp r e sen tr e la t i ve ly h i ghe r p ropo r t ion s o f a mo rphou s f l ak e s a nd c o r e s , h oweve r . O ne e xp lana t ion o f t h i s i s t h a tt h e a mo rphou s c o r e s a nd f l ake s f ound a tt h e P r ince s s P o in t s i t e s r e p r e s en t d i sca rded o r e nd p rodu c t s . S ince o n ly a c e r ta in a moun t o f s ma l l c o r en odu le s o rr e duced c o r e sw e r eb rough t b ack

t os i te , p eop le n eeded t om ax im ize f l ake p rodu c t i on o n s i te . T he a mo rphou sc o r er e du c t ion mode a tG rand B ank s r e p r e sen t s t h e l a te p ha se o ft h e " t ran sf o rmed" r e duc t ion s equence , n ece s sa ry t o o b ta in w ha teve rt h ey c ou ld p roduce f r om t h e l a s t s t r ik ing . T hu s , t h e a mo rphou sc o r et e chno logy a t G rand B ank s l i ke ly t r an sf o rmed t h e p r epa r ed c o re " r e s idues" i n to a mo rphou s c o res . T h is r e su l ted i np r edom inan t ly a mo rphou s c o r e s a nd f l ake s , l e f t a tt h e s i t e a se nd p roduc t s . F rom t h i s p o in t o f v i ew , P a t te r son ( 1987 :51) c o r rec t ly o b se rve t h a t a mo rphou s c o r e r e du c t ion m ay b e r e la ted t os i tua t ion s i nw h ich t h e p opu la t ion d i d n o t w an t s pec ia l ized s t one t o o l s ( e .g . , b i f a c ia l t o o ls o rb l ade t o o ls )a nd o ccu r r ed a tp l a ce sw he r e t h e r e w e r e l im i ta t ion s r e ga rd ing r aw m a te r ia l s i ze s , s hape s , o rq ua l i ty . I n t h e i r s t udy o f t h e l i t h ic i n du s t r ie s o f t h e K ea t ley C r eek s i te i n t h e I n te r io r P l a teau o f B r i t ish C o lumb ia , H ayden a nd h i s c o l league s d emon s t ra te t h a t t h e a mo rphou s c o r e t e chno logy r e p re sen t s a n e conom iz ing s t ra tegy a nd i s" t he m o s te ff ic ien tu se o fr aw m a te r ia li nt e rm so fp ro c u r emen t ,r e du c t ion ,a nd t h ee mp loymen to fm in i ma l a moun t s o fr aw m a te r ia l i na ny g i ven t a sk" ( Hayden e t a l . 1 996 :38 ) . Among t h e v a r iab le s t h a t t h ey u sed t o i n d ica te s u ch e conom iz ing b ehav io r , T hey d e sc r ibed m en t ioned t wo s i gn i f i c an t f a c to r s : ( 1 ) t h e r ema rkab ly s ma l l s i ze o f m any o ft h ef l ak et o o l sa nd c o r e sa nd ( 2 )t h eh i gh r a te o fb r eakage . T he s ame e conom iz ing b ehav io r , e mp loy ing t h e a mo rphou sc o r et e chno logy , i sr e cogn iz ed a tp r e h i s to r ic s i te s i nt h e L owe r I l ino i s V a l ley ( Ode l l 1 996a :202 -209 , 1 989b ) . O de l l ( 1989b ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e b r eakage p a t ter n o ff l ake s c ou ld b e t h e b e s t i n d ica to r o f p r eh i s to r ic t o o l e conom iz ing b ehav io r . T he r e a son f o rt h is ,a sO de l lp o in t so u t , i st h a t " i ft a sk s s u ch a sc u t t ing a nd s c rap ing a r e n ece s sa ry b u t t h e s t on e f o rt h em i sl a ck ing , t h en o ne o bv iou s s t ra t egy i st of a sh ion n ew t o o l s o u t o f wha teve ri sc u r r en t ly a va i lab le ( i . e . , c o r e s , o l d t o o l s , d eb r i s , e t c . ) b y s p l in te r ing t h em f u r the r " ( Ode l l 1 996a :202 ) . I ft h i si sc o r r ec t ,t h ed a ta f r om G rand B ank s p o in tt o as im il a r p a t ter no fe cono m iz ing r aw m a t e r ia l . Me t r ic d a ta p re sen ted e a r l ie rs ugge s tt h a t mo s to f t h e v a r iou s r e duc t ion f l ake s f r om G rand B ank s 1 33

C hap te r6 a r es ma l l .T h ea ve rage l e ng th so fc omp le te f l ak e s r a nge f r om 2 0 t o 3 0 mm . F l ake s , e ven p r ima ry f l ake s a nd c o r e t r imm ing f l ake s , i ne xce s s o f5 0 mm i n l e ng th a r e v e ry r a r e . T he t wo c ommon f l ake t o o l t y pe s , s c rape r s a nd r e touched p i ece s , h ave a na ve rage l e ng th o fa bou t2 7c m . T h i sm ay i mp ly e i the r t h a t mo s t f l ake s a r e r emoved f r om s ma l l c o re s o rt h a t l a rge f l ake s c ou ld h ave b een r e shaped i n to s ma l l f l ak e t o o l s i ft h ey w e r e b ro k en d u r ing i n i t ia lu se . T he b r eakage r a te o fv a r iou s r e duc t ion f l ake s a t G rand B ank si sp r e sen ted i nT ab le 6 . 1 a nd F i gu r e 6 . 13 . I tm ake s s e n se t h a t t h e r e la t ive ly h i gh b r eakage r a te s a r e f ound o n ly i n p l a in f l ak e ( 6 0 .6% )a nd b l ade ( 3 1 .1 % )c a tego r ie ss i nce t h e se t wo t y pe so ff l ake sa r ef o und t ob et h em o s tl i ke l y t o o l b l ank s . I n c on t ra s t , v e ry l ow r a te s o f b r eakage a r e f o und i np r ima ry f l ake s ( 1 3% ) a nd c o r et r imm ing f l ake s( 0% )b ecau se t h et wo t y pe s w ou ld h ave b een d i sca rded d u r ing t h ei n i t ia lp ro c e s s ing p r io r t ob l ank p roduc t ion . I ta l so m ake s s en se t h a to n ly 1 6 .4% o fb i f ac ia lr e duc t ion f l ak e s a r e f r agmen ta ry s i n ce o n ly as ma l l p ropo r t ion o f t h i s t y pe o f f l ake w ou ld h ave b een s e lec ted a s t o o l b l ank s . O n ly n i ne b i po la r f l ake s a r e i d en t i f i ed a nd a l a r e c omp le te . T he i d en t if ica t ion o f c l a s s ic b i po la rf l ake si sb a sed o nt h eo ve ra l lc ha r a c te r is t ic s o f b i po la r r e duc t ion a nd t h u s o n ly

c omp le t e o ne s c an b e r e cogn ized w i th c onf i d ence .I ts hou ld b en o ted ,o fc ou r se ,t h a tt h e r ea r e s ome o the r a genc ie s ( human t r amp l ing , t h e f l in tknapp ing p roce s s , e t c . ) t h a t c ou ld h ave c au sed t h eb r eakage o ft h ef l ak e sa sw e l l .B ea r ing t h i s i nm ind , t h e b r eakage p a t ter n p o in t s t ot h e p o s s ib ly i n t en s ive u se o f f l ake t o o ls a t G rand B ank s i no rde r t o e conom ize o n r aw m a t e r ia l s . T ha t i s , o ne w ay t om ax im ize t h e u t i l iza t ion o f r aw m a te r ia l s o n s i te i st o r e pea ted ly u s e s t i l l u seab le f l ak e t o o ls . T he mo r e o f ten f l ak e t o o l s w e r e r e pea ted ly u sed , t h e h igh e rt h e c han ce t h a t t h ey c ou ld h ave b een b roken . F u r the rmo re , t h e s ma l l s i ze a nd t h e b r eakage o f c o r e s a t G rand B ank s a r e a l so i n d ica t ion s o f e conom iza t ion o fr aw m a te r ia l . A lmo s ta l o ft h e a mo rphou sc o r e sa tt h e s i te w e r eu s ed t op r oduce f l ake su n t i lt h ee xhau s t ion o fc o r e s . T he e xhau s t e d c o r e s , a s i n d ica ted b y t h e s ma l l s i ze o fc o r e f a ce t s a nd b y t h e i r b a t te red p l a tf o rm s , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e t o o l m ake r s a tG rand B ank s c ou ld n o t a f o rd t ot h row a way t h e i rc o r e sb ef o re t h e c o r e s b ecame e n t i r e ly u se le s s . Af t e r t h e se c o r e s h ad b ecome u nu sab le f o rp roduc ing f r ee -he ld f l ak e s , t h ey c ou ld h ave b een s ma shed i n to b i t st or e t r ieve e ve ry l a s t mo r se lo fu sab le t oo lm a te r ia l .T h er e l a t ive ly h i gh f r equency ( 5 5 .3 % )a nd s ma l ls i ze so f m any c o re f r agmen t s i n t h e G r and B ank s c o re

1 00

I I

C omp le te

E l

F ragmen t

P ercentage

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

0

P r ima ry F l ake

B if ac ia lT h inn ing F l ake

C o r eT r imm ing F l ake

P la in F l ake

B ipo la rF l ake

Ma in F l ake T ype s

F i g . 6 . 13 : B r eakage R a te o fG rand B ank sF l ake s .

1 34

B lade

U nr e touched F lak e s a s semb lage p o in t s t o s uch a n e conom iz ing s c e n a r io . T he u se -wea r a na ly s i s d emon s t ra te s t h a t

c an

s uch s ma l l c o re f r agmen t s w e re o f ten d i rec t ly u sed a st o o l s ( Chap te r4 ) .

d one c a se -by -ca se . N a tu ra l ly , a mo rphou s c o r e r e duc t ion c ou ld h ave b een e mp loyed i nr e sou r ce -

T rad i t iona l ly , i ti sa s sumed t h a t b i f ac ia l o rb l ade p roduc t ion r e p resen t s a n e conom iz ing r e duc t ion s t ra tegy s i nce b i f ace sc ou ld h ave s e rved a s mu l t i p u rpo se t o o ls a nd m igh t , t h e r ef o r e , h ave b een r ega rd ed a s " cu ra ted" o r d u rab le t oo ls ( Ke l ly 1 988 ; S ho t t 1 986 , 1 989 ) . Mo reove r , b ecau se b l ade s c an p rov ide e l onga ted e mp loyab le u n i t s , t h ey h ave a h igh r a t io o f u sab le e dge t o t o ta l ma te r ia l ( Ne lson 1 991 ; C la rk 1 987 ; H ofman 1 987 ; MacDona ld 1 968 ; S hee t s 1 978 ; Mo r row 1 987 ) . Why d id p eop le a tG rand B ank s c hoo se amo rphou sf l ake p roduc t ion t oe conom ize o nr aw ma te r ia ls , i n s tead o fb i f ac ia lo rb l ade p roduc t ion? T he re a r e p robab ly t wo e xp lana t ion s f o r t h is . F i r s t , f o r s ome t oo l m ake r s b l ade o rb i f ac ia l p ro d uc t ion c ou ld h ave b een w a s tef u l ( Hayden e ta l . 1 996 ) . H ayden e ta l . ( 1996 ) p ropo se t h a t mo s t p repa r ed c o res , s uch a sL eva l lo is c o res a nd e spe -

b e

a w a s tefu l

r aw

m a te r ia l

s t ra tegy .

D iscu s s ion o fe conom iz ing b ehav io r s s hou ld b e

r i ch a r ea sa sa n " exped ien t" t e chno logy i n ag en e r a l s e n se ( Pa r ry a nd K e l ly 1 987 ; J ohn son 1 989 ) . Wha t Is ugges t h e re , h oweve r , i st h a to the ri n f e r e nce s , a nd t h e s i gn if icance o ft h i s c o r e t e chno lo g y , s hou ld n o t b e o ve r looked . Amo rphou s c o re t e chno logy s hou ld n eve r b e s ub jec t ive ly c on s id e r ed a s e xc lu s ive ly " wa s tef u l" a nd /o r " exped i e n t ." F o r tuna te ly , t h e n o t ion t h a ta mo rphou sc o re t e chno logy m ay a c tua l ly r e p resen t a n e conom iz i n g b ehav io r h a s b een g r adua l ly a ccep ted b y s ome o ft h ea bove m en t ioned a u tho r s .I tw ou ld b e s i gn if ican t i n a ny f u r the r s t udy t o t e s t t h is h ypo thes is b y c on s ide r ing t h e o ve ra l l l i t h ic p ro d uc t ion ( wh ich s hou ld b e s t ud ied a l ong w i th r e f i t t ing t e chn iques ) , r a the r t h an c o r e morpho logy a l one . T h is u ndoub ted ly w ou ld p rov ide i n s igh t s i n to o u ru nde r s tand ing o fc o r et e chno logy , s e t t le m en to rgan iza t ion , a nd e conom iz ing b ehav io r .

c i a l ly b l ade c o r es , a r e a c tua l ly w a s tef u l o f r aw ma te r ia l b ecau se o ft h e h i gh r i sk o ff a i lu re a ta l l s t age s , t h e i n i t ia l n eed t o s hape c o re s , a nd t h e n eed f o r s pec if ic s i ze s , s hape s , a nd h i gh q ua l i ty r aw m a te r ia ls . A na ly s i s o f c o res ( Chap te r 4 ) d emon s t ra tes t h a t mo s t p r epa red c o r e s a tG rand B ank s a r e n o t f ound i n t h e i r e xhau s ted c ond i t i on s . B y c on t ra s t , t h e a mo rphou s c o re t e chno lo g y w ou ld h ave p rov ided m ax imum f l ex ib i l i ty i n t e rm s o f t h e p roduc t ion o f d i f f e ren t s i ze s a nd s hape s o fb l ank s f o r mo s t f l ake t oo ls , i n c lud ing s c rape r s , r e touched p i ece s , n o tche s , a nd d r i l ls ( Hayden e ta l . 1 996 :37 ) . As e cond e xp lana t ion i st h a t d u r ing t h e P r ince s s P o in t p e r iod , t h e a mo rphou s c o re t e chno logy a t G rand B ank sm ay h ave b een e mp loyed a s af o rm o fg ene ra l ized t o o l p roduc t ion . W i th t h is s t ra tegy o f s t one t oo l p roduc t ion , v a r iou s s imp l if ied a nd u n s t anda rd ized f l ake t o o ls w e re p roduced a nd u sed i n aw ide r a nge o fu se ta sk sa s ar e spon se t o as e r ie s o fs oc ia l c hange s d u r ing t h e t r an s i t ion t o f ood p roduc t ion . Iw i l l r e tu rn t ot h is l a te r . Wh icheve r w a s t h e c a se , t h e a mo rphou s c o re r e du c t ion a tG r and B ank s m o s t l i ke ly r e p r esen t s a ne conom iz ing b ehav io r . Id on o ti n tend t or e f u te t h e r e cogn i t ion t h a t a mo rphou s c o re t e chno logy 1 35

CHAPTER 7 ANALYS IS OF F LAK ING DEBR IS

T he re a r e t wo o b jec t ive s i nt h e a spec t o f l i t h ic a na ly s i si nt h is c hap te r : ( 1 )t op r e sen t s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion so ff l ak ing d eb r i s ,f r om w h ich ( 2 ) as p a t i a l p a t t e rn o f l i th ic p roduc t ion l o c i a t G rand B ank sc an b e d e r ived a nd i n t e rp re ted . A s s t a t ed i nC hap te r 3 ,f l ak ing d eb r i s i sd ef ined a s t h e w a s te o f f l aked s t one p roduc t ion . Wa s te p rodu c t s a r e i d en t if ied o n t h e b a s i s o ft wo c r i t e r i a : ( a ) t h e i r e x t reme ly s ma l l s i ze , w h ich m ak e s u t i l iza t ion o r f u r the r mod if ica t ion i mpo s s ib le , a nd ( b ) t h e i r a ngu la r o ri regu la r s hape s r e su l ted f r om f l i n tknapp ing b l owof f s . I n o rde r t o v e r if y t h a tf l ak ing d eb r i sw e r ei nf a c td i sca rded a su nu s a b le i t em s , Is e lec ted as ma l l s amp le o ff l ak ing d eb r i s a nd e xam ined t h e se p i ece s u nde r t h e m ic ro s cope f o ru se -wea r . O u to f5 6p i ece se xam i n ed , o n ly t wo s how a mb iguou s t r ace s o f e dge f r ac tu r e s a nd l i gh t p o l i sh . T he se a r e n o t s i gn if i c an t e nough f o r m e t oa s se s s t h em a cco rd ing t o a ny u s e -wea r c a tego r ie s b u t i n de te rm ina te o ne s . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t f r agm en t s o fu n r e tou ched f l ak e s m ay f a l l i n to t h e d ef ined d imen s ion s o f f l ak ing d ebr i s ( < 10 mm i n l e ng th o r w id th ) . H ow ev e r ,d u r ing o u rs o r t ing p roce s sw ec a ref u l ly e xc lud ed u n re touched f l ak e f r agmen t s f r om f l ak i ng d eb r i s u n le s s n o c l ea r d i s t in c t ion b e tween f l ak ing d eb r i s a nd s u ch s ma l l f l ake f r agmen t s c ou ld b ed r awn . F l ak ing d eb r is m ake s u p t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e G rand B ank s l i t h ic a s semb lage ( 6 3 .6% ) ( T ab le 4 . 1) . Mo r e t h an 1 ,000 p i ece s o ff l ak ing d eb r i s w e r e r e cove red f r om 3 5 m2 e xcava t ion a r ea s . S uch h i ghe rn umbe r sa r ei ng r ea tp a r ta t t r ibu tab le t o t h e f a c t t h a t f l o ta t ion w a s e mp loyed i n t h e r e cov e ry o f as i gn if i can t p o r t ion o f t h e a r t if ac t a s semb lage . C h ip s s ma l le r t h an 2 mm i n s i ze w e r ef r equen t ly c o l lec ted f r om f l o ta t ion s o i ls am p l e s . I tw a s o b se rved d u r ing o u r c a ta logu ing p roce s s t h a t s ma l le r c h ip s ( < 5mm i ns i ze ) a r e

p r edom inan t a l though n o s y s tema t ic s i ze d i s t r i b u t ion s o ft h e f l ak ing d eb r i s h ave b een r e co rded d ue t ot ime c on s t ra in t s . B y c on t ra s t , t h e m a s s o f f l ak ing d eb r is b y w e igh t a ccoun t s f o r 1 7 .7% o f t o ta l m a s s o ft h e G rand B ank s l i t h ic a s semb lage , a nd n ea r ly 2 5% o fb o th t h eL one P in ea nd Y oung 1a s semb lage s ( T ab le 4 . 2 ) . T h e a ve rage m a s s o f f l ak ing d eb r i sa tG rand B ank si s0 . 12g p e rp i ece , p o in t ing t ot h ev e ry s ma l l s i ze o ff l ak ing d eb r i s . G iven t h e n a tu r e o f f l ak ing d eb r i s , n o f o rma l a na ly s is i s n eces sa ry f o r i n d iv idua l p i eces . H oweve r , t h e s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing o ff l ak ing d eb r i s m ay b ei n f o rma t ive . I ti sb e l ieved ,o nt h eb a s is o f f l in tknapp ing e xpe r imen t s , t h a t f l ak ing d eb r i s i s r e f u se r e su l t ing f r om a ny t y pe o fr e duc t ion mode , o r f r om a ny s t age o f c o r e r e du c t ion . H oweve r , mo s t c h ip s w e r e l i ke ly p rodu ced f r om p r e s su r e f l ak ing d u r ing b i f a ce p roduc t ion o rt o o l mod if i c a t ion ( e .g . , r e sha rpen ing ) , w he r ea s c hunk s a r e b yp roduc t s p rodu ced f r om h a rd - o rs of th amme r p e r cu s s ion mod e s . T he se s ma l l p i ece s , m o s t ly f ound i n s o i l s amp le s , w e r e u n l ik e ly t o b e r e d epo s i t ed p o s t -depo s i t iona l ly s ot h a t t h e i r d i s t r i b u t ion sm ay r ef l ec tt h e s pa t ia lp a t ter n ing o fl i t h ic p roduc t ion . A l though u n r e touched f l ake s c ou ld h ave b een r e -d epo s i ted o n s i t ed u r ing t h e p roce s s o f mod if ica t ion a nd u t i l iza t ion ,t h e i rs pa t ia la s so c i a t ion w i th f l ak ing d eb r is m ay a l so b e i n f o rma t i ve w hen r e con s t ruc t ing t h e l i t h ic p rodu c t ion p roce s s . A s o u ri n i t ia l i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h e G rand B ank s s i t e f o rma t ion p roce s s i n d ica te st h e s t ab i l i t yo ft h ef l oodp la in s i te d u r ing t h eP r ince s sP o in t o ccupa t ion ,t h es p a t ia la na ly s i s Ip r e sen th e r ew i l l b eb a sed o nt h ea s sump t ion t h a ts e conda ry d epo s i t ion o ff l aked s t one a r t if a c t s h a sb een m in ima l . T he r ef o r e , t h e f o l low ing p r e sen ta t ion f o cu se s o n d a ta o ff l ak ing d eb r i s f r om t wo e xcava t ion a r ea s o ft h eG rand B ank ss i te ,a sw e l la st h ea s soc ia t ion o fd eb r i sw i th u n r e touched f l ak e s . Ac omp le te l i s t o ft h e f l aked s t one a r t if a c t d i s t r ibu t ion b y e xca 1 37

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F lak ing D ebr i s

S pa t ia lD i s tr ibu t ion o fF lak ing D ebr i s

S pa t ia lP a t tern o fL i t / t ic P roduc t ion

F l ak ing d eb r i s c oun t s a r e u sed f o r t h e e xam ina t i on o f s p a t ia l p a t t e rn ing . B ecau se t h e c u l tu ra l

A s c ompa r ed t oA r ea B , A r ea A e xh ib i t s ah i gh e r p robab i l i ty o f b e ing a n a r ea o f ma jo r l i t h ic p rodu c t ion . T he t h r ee p rodu c t ion l o c i i nA r ea A

d epo s i t s o fA rea A a nd B w h e re f l ak ing d eb r i s w e r e r e cove red a r e a bou t e qua l i n t h ickne s s ( 1 0cm ) ,c oun t sa r ea pp rox ima t e ly p ropo r t iona lt o d en s i t ie s .D ue t ot h ed i f f e ren tn a tu r eo fc h ip s a nd c hunk s , If i r s t p r e sen t t h e i r s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s b y c oun t s , c on secu t ive ly ( F ig . 7 . 1 & 7 . 2 ) . T hey b o th i l u s t r a te as im i la rp a t t er nw i th s l igh td i f f e r e n t ia t ion . A rea A h a s ac omp le t e c ove rage o f f l ak ing d eb r is , d i sp lay ing h i ghe r d en s i ty i n i t s c en t e rp a r t . I ta ppea r st h a t f o rb o th t y pe s o ff l ak i n g d eb r i s , t h e h ighe s t d en s i ty i sl o ca ted i no ne s ou th er n s qua re o f t h e a r ea , w he r e mo s t w a s te p rodu c t s w e re c oncen t ra ted . T h i s s qua r e ( 728 6 69 ) , o fc ou r se , i ss u r rounded b y o t he r s qua re s w i th r e la t ive ly h igh o ccu r r ence so fb o th c h ip sa nd c hunk s . H oweve r , c h ip s a r e a l so c oncen t ra ted o n t h e w e s t er n s i de o ft h e a r ea ( F ig . 7 . 1) , w he r ea s c hunk s a r e c oncen t ra ted i nt h e s ou thea s te rn c o r -

( A l , A 2 , a nd A 3 ) a r e n o t s e pa r a ted b y c l ea r b ounda r ie s . L ocu s A 2 i st h e l a rge s t a nd h a s t h e h i ghe s t d en s i ty o fp roduc t ion r e f u se . Ii n f e r t h a t t h i sa r ea w a su sed t o ag r ea t e rd eg r ee d u r ing c o r e r e duc t ion a nd t o o l p rodu c t ion . T h i s c ou ld m ean t h a tt h ea r ea w a su sed f o r al o nge rd u ra t ion o rt h a t i tw a su sed mo r e i n ten s ive ly . B yc on t ra s t ,A r ea B d oe sn o ta ppea rt oh ave b een a na r ea o fm a jo rl i t h ic p roduc t ion a l though 3l o c i m ay b e d ef ined i nA r ea B . T he se a r e s ma l l c om p a r ed t ot h e l o c i i nA r ea A , a nd a r e c l ea r ly s e pa r a ted f r om o n ea no the r . B a sed o nt h i s , Ii n f e rt h a t A r ea B d oe s n o t r e p r e sen t a n o ve ra l l p rodu c t ion s e c to ro ft h es e t t lem en t ,a nd t h a tt h e se p roduc t ion l o c i r e p re sen t p l ace s w h ich w e r e p robab ly o ccu p i ed f o r as ho r tp e r iod d u r ing l i t h ic p roduc t ion .

n e ro fA r ea A ( F ig . 7 . 2 ) . I nA r ea B ,t h e s pa t ia lp a t ter ni sc l ea r ly p r e sen ted . I n g en e ra l , w a s t e p roduc t s h ave al owe r c oncen t r a t ion i n A rea B t h an i n A rea A . T h ey a r e u nev en ly d i s t r ibu ted i nt h e s ou the rn a nd n o r the rn a r ea s , s e pa ra ted b y az one o f l ow d en s i ty . H ow eve r , c hunk s h ave a r e la t ive ly h i ghe r c on c en t ra t ion i n t h e n o r the rn p a r t , a l though o ne s qua r e ( 7 30 -688 ) p r e sen t s as i gn if ican t d ec rea se o fc hunk p r e sence b e tween t h et wo h i ghe rd en s i t ys qua r e s . D i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e t wo k i nd so fd eb r i sc omb ined i si lu s t ra t ed i nF igu r e 7 . 3 . F rom t h i s c onf igu ra t i on , s i xl o ca l i t ie s whe r e t h e r e a r e c oncen t ra t ion s o ff l ak ing d eb r i s a r e c l ea r ly s hown . T h i s s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion may i n d ica te ap o s s ib le s pa t ia l p a t t er n ing o fo n -s i te l i t h ic p rodu c t ion s i nce t h ed ef i n i t ion a nd t h e r e cove ry m e thod o ff l ak ing d eb r i s r e in f o r ce t h en o t ion t h a tt h e s ew a s t ep roduc t s a r e l i th ic p r oduc t ion m ic ro r efu se w ho se p r e sence i n s i tu w ou ld p rov ide ar a t iona lp a t ter no fl i t h ic p ro d uc t ion l o c i o n s i t e . T he r ef o re , Id ef ine s i x l i th ic p rodu c t ion l o c i a t G rand B ank s , a s s hown o n F igu r e 7 . 3 .

T h i s s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing o f l i th ic p roduc t ion i n f e r red f r om d a ta r e ga rd ing f l ak ing d eb r i s i s c onf i rmed b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f u n re tou ched f l ak e s( F ig . 7 . 4 ) .T he u n r e tou ched f l ake sd i s t r ibu t i on i ss im i la rt ot h a to ff l ak ing d eb r i s i nA r ea B ; t h e t h r ee p roduc t ion l o c i e ncompa s s t h e a r ea s o f t h e h i ghe s t d en s i ty o fu n r e touched f l ake s . S ome d i f f e r ence sm ay b en o t ed a tA r ea A . Un r e touched f l ak e sa r en o tw e l lp r e sen ted a tL ocu sA 3 a nd a r e o n ly c oncen t ra ted i nt h e n o r the rn p a r t o fL ocu s A l . T he h i ghe s t d en s i ty o fu n re touched f l ak e s i s f ound a tL ocu s A 2 w h e r e t h e h i gh e s t d en s i ty o f d eb r i s i sa l so r e cogn ized . B ea r ing i n m ind t h a t u n r e touched f l ake s m ay p o s s ib ly b er emoved f r om t h e i ro r ig ina l l o ca t ion , i ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a t t h e i r s pa t ia l p a t te rn s a r e g ene r a l ly c o r re la ted w i th t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f f l ak ing d eb r i s . T he se p rodu c t ion l o c i d e r ived f r om s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ff l ak ing d eb r i s , t h e r e f o r e , c an b er a t iona l ly a c cep t ed . Iw i l l n ow e xam ine t h e se l o c i o nt h e b a s i s o ft h e t y pe s o fu n r e touched f l ake s i no rde r t og ene ra te p robab le f unc t ion s f o r e ach p rodu c t ion l o cu s . A d e ta i led d i s t r ibu t ion f o re a ch t y pe o fu n r e tou ched f l ak e i sl i s ted i n T ab le 7 . 1 . G iven t h e m a s s ive

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