The Later Stone Age of Southernmost Africa 9780860542766, 9781407336817

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
CAMBRIDGE MONOGRAPHS IN AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY
Acknowledgements
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 INTRODUCTION
2 HISTORICAL REVIEW
3 ENVIRONMENTS PAST AND PRESENT
4 THE EXCAVATIONS
5 ARTEFACT ANALYSES
6 PATTERNS OF CHANGE
7 THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN SEQUENCE
8 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2
REFERENCES

Citation preview

The Later Stone Age of Southernmost Africa

. Janette Deacon

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 12 BAR Interriational Series 213

1984

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead,, Oxfq.rd OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B. Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S213, 1984: 'The Later Stone Age of Southernmost Africa'.

©

Janette Deacon, 1984-

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542766 paperback ISBN 9781407336817 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542766 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CO N T E N T S

A cknowledgements L ist o f F igures

j . jj

L ist o f T ables

x iii

I NTRODUCTION

1

H ISTORICAL R EVIEW

5

E NVIRONMENTS P AST A ND P RESENT P resent d ay e nvironments

1 9

S outhern C ape p alaeoenvironments o f 2 0 0 00 y ears

t he l ast

G eneral s ummary

3 1 5 1

T HE E XCAVATIONS N elson B ay C ave

5 7

K angkara C ave

6 8

B oomplaas C ave

7 3

A RTEFACT ANALYSES C hoice o f r aw m aterial

9 0

F laking m ethod

1 00

C hoice o f p ieces f or u tilization

1 19

C hoice o f p ieces f or f ormal r etouch

1 25

C hoice o f p lace o f d iscard

1 60

N on-lithic a rtefacts

1 69

G eneral s ummary o f r esults

1 80

P ATTERNS O F C HANGE G eneral t rends i n m odern t echnological c hange

2 74

G eneral t rends i n L ater S tone A ge t echnological c hange

2 76

T he t iming o f a rtefact a nd e nvironmental c hanges

2 85

S ome n on-diachronic c hanges

2 93

t hat m ay c ause v ariability

S ummary

3 01

T HE S OUTHERN A FRICAN S EQUENCE L ate P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages

3 09

T erminal P leistocene/early H olocene n on-microlithic a ssemblages H olocene m icrolithic a ssemblages

3 12 3 17

L ate H olocene a ssemblages w ith p ottery

3 43

D ISCUSSION A ND C ONCLUSIONS

3 60

A PPENDIX 1

3 70

A PPENDIX 2

4 02

R EFERENCES

4 12

C AMBRIDGE M ONOGRAPHS I N A FRICAN A RCHAEOLOGY G eneral E ditor J ohn A lexander , M .A., P h .D., F .S.A. D ept. A rchaeology, D owning S treet C ambridge C B2 3 DZ, E ngland M anuscripts s hould b e s ubmitted t o D r. A lexander i n t he f irst i nstance. T itles a lready p ublished : 1 .

' The N iger D elta : N wanna N zewunwa.

2 .

A spects B AR-S75.

o f

i ts P rehistoric E conomy a nd C ulture'

' Prehistoric I nvestigations i n t he R egion o f J enne , M ali' b y S usan K eech M cIntosh a nd R oderick J . M cIntosh .

3 .

B AR-S89.

P rice £ 20.00 p ost f ree.

' Off-Site A rchaeology a nd H uman Adaptation i n E astern A frica: A nalysis o f R egional A rtefact D ensity i n t he A mboseli , b y R obert F oley. B ARS-897. P rice £ 10.00 p ost f ree.

4 .

' Later

P leistocene

M ukhtar e l A min . 5 .

C ultural A daptations

B AR-S114.

' Settlement P atterns

i n t he

7 .

I ron A ge

B AR-S139.

S udanese

o f

B AR-S119.

' The N eolithic P eriod i n t he S udan , M ohammed-Ali.

i n

An

S outhern K enya'

N ubia'

b y

Y ousif

P rice £ 10.00 p ost f ree.

I nterpretation ' b y M artin H all. 6 .

b y

P rice £ 10.00 p ost f ree.

c .

Z ululand:

An E cological

P rice £ 10.00 p ost f ree.

6 000 - 2 500 B .C.'

b y A bbas

S .

P rice £ 12 .00 p ost f ree.

' History a nd E thnoarchaeology i n E astern N igeria :

A S tudy o f I gbo-Igala

r elations w ith s pecial r eference t o t he A nambra V alley' b y P hilip A digwe O guagha a nd A lex I kechukwu O kpoko. 8 .

' Meroitic S ettlement i n t he C entral S udan : N ile V alley a nd t he W estern B utana' S 197.

9 .

' Economy

a nd T echnology

' Frontiers : D .M.

P rice £ 15.00 p ost f ree.

A n A nalysis o f

S ites i n t he

b y K hidir A bdelkarim A hmed.

B AR-

P rice £ 14.00 p ost f ree.

C harles C able. 1 0.

B AR-S195.

A very,

p ost f ree.

B AR-S201.

i n t he L ate S tone A ge

S outhern A frican A rchaeology T oday' M .L.

o f

S outhern N atal'

b y

P rice £ 13.00 p ost f ree.

W ilson a nd A .J.B.

H umphreys.

e d. M . H all , G . A very , B AR-S207.

P rice £ 18.00

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

Analysis of the excavated materials from Nelson Bay Cave, Kangkara and Boomplaas has taken over ten years to complete. Many people have been involved at various stages in the projects of which the artefacts form a part and I am particularly grateful to Boy Adams, Margaret Avery, Johan Binneman, James Brink, David.Daitz, H. J. Deacon, Vera Geleijnse, Ray Inskeep, Richard Klein, Mary Leslie Brooker, John Parkington, Lawrence Posniak, Anton Scholtz, Hugh Taylor, John Vogel, Lita Webley and Mike Wilson for their co-operation and assistance at various stages. I should also like to thank John Alexander for inviting me to submit the manuscript to BAR, Adrian Buckland for checking the Tables, Dot Erlank and Anne Thackeray for proof reading, Mary Leslie Brooker for computer programming and my parents for encouraging me. H. J. Deacon has offered unfailing enthusiasm and assistance at all levels and I am most grateful for his generosity. Financial assistance was received from the National Science Foundation for Richard Klein to excavate at Nelson Bay Cave in 1970 and 1971, and from the Human Sciences Research Council and the University of Stellenbosch to excavate at Kangkara and Boomplaas and subsequently to analyse the stone artefacts. These latter grants were awarded to H. J. Deacon from 1974 through 1980.

i

LI S T

OF

FI G U R E S

F ig. 1

P age T he l ocation o f t he s outhern C ape P rovince a t t he s outhernmost p art o f A frica a nd t he p osition o f t he t hree s ites d escribed i n t his b ook

2

2

M ap o f p art o f t he s outhern C ape P rovince s howing t he p osition o f N elson B ay C ave, K angkara a nd B oomplaas a nd o ther s ites m entioned i n t he t ext

1 8

3

N elson B ay C ave a nd t he R obberg P eninsula

2 3

4

C limographs f or s elected s tations i n t he s outhern C ape

2 6

5

C limograph f or U niondale 1 921-1950

2 8

6

C limograph f or C ango C aves 1 955-1980

3 0

7

C omparisons b etween t hree G lobal C irculation M odels f or A frica i llustrating d ifferences b etween t emperature a nd p recipitation t oday a nd 1 8 0 00 y ears a go

3 3

8

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he r elative f requency o f g razers a nd b rowsers a t N BC a nd B PA a nd i n v arious m icromammalian p arameters a t B PA c ompared w ith t he i ncidence o f w oodland s pecies i n t he c harcoals f rom B PA a nd t he o xygen i sotope r ecord f rom a s peleothem i n t he n earby C ango C aves a nd f rom t he i ce c ore a t D ome C i n A ntarctica

9

E stimated d ifferences

i n p recipitation

r ate, s ea s urface t emperature a nd s urface a ir t emperature f or A frica b etween 1 8 0 00 B .P. a nd t oday 1 0

3 7

P ollen d iagram b ased o n p reliminary c ounts f rom B oomplaas C ave

1 2

3 6

T he r elationship b etween m ean m onthly p recipitable w ater a nd d ewpoint v alues a t S outh A frican s tations d uring 1 967 a nd 1 968

1 1

3 4

4 1

G eneralized c urves a nd d ated s amples s howing c hanges i n s ea l evel a long t he w estern a nd s outhern A frican c oast o ver t he l ast 3 0 0 00 y ears c ompared w ith t hat d rawn f rom d ata b ased o n B arbados a nd N ew G uinea

11

4 4

1 3

C omparison b etween w orldwide s ea l evel c urve a nd d ata f rom s outhern A frica o ver t he l ast 1 0 0 00 y ears

1 4

P osition o f

4 5 t he l ate P leistocene c oastline

b etween 2 0 0 00 a nd 9 000 B .P.

o ff

t he

s outhern

C ape 1 5

4 7

N elson B ay C ave:

p lan a nd p osition o f

t he

e xcavations c onducted b y I nskeep a nd K lein 1 6

N elson B ay C ave:

5 6

p rofile o f t he 1 970/71

e xcavations a long t he l ine s eparating t he a a nd b r ows o f 1 7

1 8

s quares

5 8

N elson B ay C ave: r adiocarbon d ates p lotted a gainst s tratigraphic u nits M inimum n umbers o f s elected m ammals a nd

6 2

t he

t otal n umber o f p olished b one t ools s howing t he c hanges i n f requency t hrough t ime a t N BC 1 9

N elson B ay C ave:

p ercentage a bundance o f

f ish f rom t he 1 970 e xcavations 2 0

N elson B ay C ave:

1 970 e xcavations

6 6

P lan o f K angkara C ave s howing t he p osition o f

2 2

6 5

p ercentage a bundance o f

s hellfish f rom t he 2 1

t he t est p it

6 9

S ection r ound t wo s ides o f t he t est p it a t K angkara C ave

2 3

6 9

M ap o f t he C ango V alley s howing t he l ocation o f B oomplaas C ave, s ites

2 4

t he C ango C aves a nd o ther

i nvestigated

7 4

P lan o f B oomplaas C ave s howing t he p osition o f

t he e xcavation a nd t he d epth t o w hich

v arious p arts w ere e xcavated 2 5

7 6

A c omposite s ection t hrough B oomplaas t he t op o f t he d eposit

( CBM)

f rom

t o L P a long

l ine 0 2 6

7 8

B oomplaas C ave:

s tone-packed h earths a nd

c harcoal/ash h earths 2 7

P lan o f

i n B LD 2

t he p it f eatures

B oomplaas C ave:

N BC:

8 0

c opy o f a p ainting o n a

s tone f rom P it 7 7, 2 9

7 9

i n t he B LD a nd

B LA M embers a t B oomplaas C ave 2 8

6 4

B LA M ember

p ercentage q uartz i n e ach c ategory

11 1

8 1 9 2

3 0

N BC:

3 1

K angkara : c ategory

p ercentage s ilcrete i n e ach

K angkara:

p ercentage q uartz i n e ach

3 2

p ercentage q uartzite i n e ach c ategory

9 4

c ategory 3 3

3 4

3 5

3 6

3 7

K angkara:

9 4 p ercentage o f q uartzite a nd

c halcedony i n e ach a rtefact c ategory

9 5

B oomplaas: c ategory

9 5

p ercentage o f q uartz i n e ach

B PA : c hanges t hrough t ime i n t he p ercentage o f h ornfels i n e ach a rtefact c ategory

9 6

B PA : c hanges t hrough t ime i n t he p ercentage o f c halcedony i n e ach a rtefact c ategory

9 6

N BC:

s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear

c orrelation b etween t he i ncidence o f f ormal t ools a nd t he i ncidence o f q uartzite 3 8

N BC:

9 8

s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear

c orrelation b etween t he i ncidence o f f ormal t ools a nd n on-quartzite r aw m aterials 3 9

9 2

9 8

N BC, K RA a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing w eak c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f q uartzite a nd t he r atio o f c ores:flakes 9 9

i n a s ample 4 0

N BC, K RA a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing h igh c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f q uartzite a nd t he p ercentage o f u ntrimmed f lakes i n a s ample

4 1

4 2

4 3

N BC, K RA a nd B PA :

9 9

s catter d iagram s howing

a h igh l inear c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f q uartz a nd t he p ercentage o f c hips i n a s ample

1 01

N BC, K RA a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f q uartz a nd t he r atio o f c ores:chunks i n a s ample

1 02

N BC, K RA a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing w eak c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f q uartzite a nd t he r atio o f c ores:chunks i n 1 02

a s ample 4 4

N BC, K RA a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f q uartz a nd t he p ercentage o f b ladelet c ores 1 04

i n a s ample

i v

4 5

4 6

4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

5 1

5 2

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing l inear c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f b ladelets a nd n on-quartzite a t N BC, b ut n ot a t B PA N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing v ariable i nter-site a nd t emporal c orrelations b etween t he n umber o f b ladelets a nd t he n umber o f b ladelet c ores

1 05

N BC: l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation

1 06

N BC: w idth o f u ntrimmed f lakes- r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation

1 06

N BC: w /1 r atio o f u ntrimmed f lakes - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation

1 08

N BC: h eight o f u ntrimmed f lakes - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation

1 09

N BC: r elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed f lakes - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation

1 09

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing w eak l inear c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f b ladelet c ores a nd t he m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes

5 3

1 10

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he p ercentage f requency o f b ladelet c ores i n d ated s amples f rom N BC a nd B PA

5 4

1 05

1 12

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he i ncidence o f b ladelets a s a p ercentage o f u ntrimmed f lakes i n d ated s amples f rom N BC a nd B PA

5 5

N BC a nd B PA :

1 12

s catter d iagram s howing l inear

c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f q uartzite a nd t he m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes 5 6

1 13

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he r atio o f c ores:chunks a nd t he m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes

5 7

B PA :

l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes - m ean,

r ange a nd s tandard d eviation 5 8

B PA :

B PA :

1 15

w idth a nd h eight o f u ntri med

f lakes - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation 5 9

1 13

1 16

w /1 r atio o f u ntrimmed f lakes - m ean,

r ange a nd s tandard d eviation

1 17

6 0

6 1

6 2

6 3

B PA : r elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed f lakes - m ean, r ange a nd s tandard d eviation

1 17

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he m ean l ength a nd s tandard e rror o f u ntrimmed f lakes a t N BC a nd B PA

1 18

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he r atio o f c hips t o u ntrimmed f lakes i n d ated s amples f rom N BC, K angkara a nd B PA

1 18

N BC a nd B PA : c hanges t hrough t ime i n t he r elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed f lakes i n 1 20

d ated s amples 6 4

6 5

6 6

6 7

6 8

R elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed f lakes i n M iddle a nd L ater S tone A ge s amples f rom s outhern A frica d ating f rom 1 20 0 00 B .P. t o t he l ate H olocene

1 21

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f u tilized p ieces a nd t he n umber o f f ormal t ools

1 22

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he t otal n umber o f s tone a rtefacts a nd i n t heir f requency p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated

1 26

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing n o c orrelation b etween L ate P leistocene s amples, b ut a w eak l inear c orrelation i n H olocene s amples b etween t he n umber o f b acked m icroliths a nd b ladelet c ores

1 28

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing n o c orrelation b etween t he m ean r elative t hickness f or u ntrimmed f lakes a nd t he p ercentage o f f ormal t ools

6 9

N BC a nd B PA :

1 29

s catter d iagram s howing n o

c orrelation b etween t he m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd t he p ercentage o f f ormal t ools

1 29

N BC: l ength a nd w idth o f s crapers - m ean, r ange a nd s tandard d eviation

1 30

N BC: w /1 r atio a nd h eight o f s crapers - m ean, r ange a nd s tandard d eviation

1 30

7 2

N BC:

f requency d istribution o f s craper l engths

1 32

7 3

N BC:

f requency d istribution o f s craper w idths

1 32

7 4

N BC:

f requency d istribution o f s craper h eights

1 33

7 5

N BC:

f requency d istribution o f s craper

7 0

7 1

v i

7 6

7 7

w /1 r atios

1 33

N BC: f requency d istribution o f s craper r etouch p osition, p lan f orm a nd r aw m aterial c lasses

1 35

K angkara:

l ength, w idth a nd h eight o f s craper

s amples - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation 7 8

7 9

8 0

8 1

8 2

K angkara:

1 36

w /1 r atio o f s crapers - r ange,

m ean a nd s tandard d eviation

1 36

K angkara: f requency d istribution o f s craper l engths

1 38

K angkara : f requency d istribution o f s craper w idths

1 38

K angkara : f requency d istribution o f s craper h eights

1 39

K angkara :

f requency d istribution o f

s craper w il r atios

1 39

K angkara : f requency d istribution o f s craper r etouch p osition, p lan f orm a nd r aw m aterial c lasses

1 41

B PA : s craper d imensions - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation

1 42

8 5

B PA :

f requency d istribution o f s craper l engths

1 44

8 6

B PA :

f requency d istribution o f s craper w idths

1 44

8 7

B PA :

f requency d istribution o f s craper h eights

1 45

8 8

B PA : f requency d istribution o f s craper w /1 r atios

8 3

8 4

8 9

B PA :

f requency d istribution o f s crapers i n

p osition o f r etouch, m aterial c lasses 9 0

9 1

9 2

9 3

1 46

p lan f orm a nd r aw 1 48

B PA : a dze d imensions a nd p ercentage f requencies i n p lan f orm c lasses

1 50

howing N BC, K RA a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s ercentage n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he p ormal o f s ilcrete a nd t he p ercentage o f f t ools i n a s ample

1 52

howing s catter d iagram s ercentage n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he p o f q uartz a nd f ormal t ools

1 54

N BC, K RA a nd B PA :

N BC, K RA a nd B PA :

s catter d iagram s howing

v ii

n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f h ornfels a nd c halcedony a nd t he p ercentage o f f ormal t ools i n a s ample 9 4

9 5

9 6

9 7

9 8

9 9

1 00

1 01

1 02

1 03

1 04

1 05

N BC a nd B PA :

1 55

s catter d iagram s howing

s ignificant l inear c orrelation a t B PA, b ut n ot a t N BC, b etween m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd m ean l ength o f s crapers

1 57

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagrams s howing v ariable l inear c orrelations b etween w idth d nd w il r atios o f s crapers a nd u ntrimmed f lakes

1 58

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he h eight o f s crapers a nd u ntrimmed f lakes

1 58

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f s crapers p er b ucket a nd t he m ean s craper l ength. T his s hows t hat s maller s crapers a re n ot n ecessarily m ore n umerous

1 60

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he d ensity o f v arious a rtefacts p er s quare a t N BC

1 62

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts p er b ucket i n d ated s amples f rom N BC a nd B PA

1 64

C omparison o f t he n umber o f u ntrimmed f lakes p er b ucket o f d eposit i n d ated s amples f rom N BC a nd B PA

1 64

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he d ensity o f v arious a rtefacts p er s quare a t B PA

1 66

N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f a rtefacts p er b ucket a nd t he n umber o f b uckets e xcavated, b ut a c lustering o f a ssemblages o f s imilar a ge a t e ach s ite

1 68

B PA : n umber o f s hell o rnaments a nd b one t ools p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated

1 70

N BC: n umber o f b one t ools a nd o strich e ggshell b eads p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated

1 70

B PA :

w orked b one a nd a c opper b ead f rom

t he D GL M ember

1 72

1 06

B PA :

b one t ools

1 73

1 07

B PA :

p art o f a t ortoise s hell b owl f rom C L 3

v iii

a nd l umps o f m astic f rom D GL a nd B LD

1 75

1 08

N BC:

b one t ools

1 76

1 09

B PA :

w orked o strich e ggshell a nd m arine

s hell

1 77

B PA : p ottery f rom t he D GL M ember - r im s herds, d ecorated f ragments, p ointed b ase a nd s pout

1 78

1 11

B PA :

1 79

1 12

C omparison b etween B PA a nd N BC i n t he

1 10

s mall c onvex s craper m ounted i n m astic

c hanges t hrough t ime i n t he n umber o f f ormal t ools p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated

1 82

1 13

N BC:

s tone a rtefacts f rom I C a nd B SC

2 44

1 14

N BC:

s tone a rtefacts f rom R A a nd R B

2 45

1 15

N BC:

s tone a rtefacts f rom J , B SBJ a nd G SL

2 46

1 16

N BC:

s tone a rtefacts f rom B SL, Y SL a nd Y GL

2 47

1 17

N BC:

b ladelet c ores f rom Y SL a nd Y GL

2 48

1 18

K angkara:

1 19

K angkara: s crapers a nd b acked t ools f rom v arious u nits i n t est p it A l

2 50

1 20

B PA:

s tone a rtefacts f rom D GL M ember

2 51

1 21

B PA :

s tone a rtefacts f rom t he B LD M ember

2 52

1 22

B PA :

a dzes f rom t he B LD M ember

2 53

1 23

B PA :

s crapers f rom t he B LD M ember

2 54

1 24

B PA :

u tilized f lakes a nd a h ammerstone

s crapers f rom S UR t o L PW

2 49

f rom t he B LD M ember

2 55

1 25

B PA :

u tilized f lakes f rom t he B LD M ember

2 56

1 26

B PA :

s tone a rtefacts f rom t he B LA M ember

2 57

1 27

B PA :

s crapers f rom t he B LA M ember

2 58

1 28

B PA :

s crapers f rom B RL 1 a nd B RL 2

2 59

1 29

B PA :

s crapers f rom B RL 3 a nd B RL 4

2 60

1 30

B PA :

s tone a rtefacts f rom t he B RL M ember

2 61

1 31

B PA :

s crapers f rom t he C L M ember

2 62

i x

1 32

B PA :

s tone a rtefacts f rom t he C L M ember

2 63

1 33

B PA :

s crapers f rom t he C L M ember

2 64

1 34

B PA :

l arge s crapers f rom t he C L M ember

2 65

1 35

B PA :

c ores f rom t he C L M ember

1 36

B PA :

u tilized f lakes f rom t he C L 3 u nit

o f t he C L M ember 1 37a

B PA :

,• .

2 66

2 67

c ore r educed p ieces f rom v arious

s tratigraphic u nits; 1 2 a nd 1 3 h ave b een a nalysed f or m icrowear b y B inneman ( 1982) a nd s how w ood p olish a t t he s triking p latform e nd 1 37b

B PA : b ladelets f rom t he C L M ember t o i llustrate t he s tandardizaton i n s ize a nd s hape

1 38

1 39

1 40

a ssumed r elationships i n t he L ater S tone A ge s equence i n s outhernmost A frica

2 72

E arly r adiocarbon d ates f or p ottery a ssociated w ith s tone a rtefacts i n A frica

2 79

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he f requency o f i tems r egarded a s i nnovations i n t he

1 43

1 44

C ape s ites

2 83

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he m ean l engths o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd s crapers a t N BC a nd B PA

2 84

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he i ncidence o f u ntrimmed f lakes, q uartz a nd q uartzite

2 86

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he q uantity o f b one a nd s tone a rtefacts p er b ucket a t B PA

1 47a

2 84

C hanges t hrough t ime i n s ome e nvironmental p arameters

1 46

2 81

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he m ean l ength o f s crapers a t s ix s outhern a nd e astern

a t N BC a nd B PA 1 45

2 81

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he f requency o f n on-lithic i tems i n t he a rtefact r ecord o f t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears a t B PA a nd N BC

1 42

2 69

F low c hart o f o bservable c hanges a nd

a rtefact r ecord o f t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears a t B PA a nd N BC 1 41

2 68

B PA : s catter d iagram s howing a l inear c orrelation b etween t he t otal a rtefacts p er b ucket a nd t he m ass o f b one p er b ucket o f

2 86

d eposit e xcavated 1 47b

1 48

1 49

2 88

B PA : s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f f ormal t ools p er b ucket a nd t he m ass o f b one p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated

2 88

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he q uantity o f a rtefacts a nd b one p er b ucket a t N BC

2 89

D istribution o f t raditional c lothing m aterials ( bark c loth o r l eather) ( top) a fter V on B oeckmann ( 1921) c ompared w ith t he d istribution o f H olocene a ssemblages d ominated b y s crapers o r b acked m icroliths ( below). S craper c ounts e xclude n otched 2 92

a nd h ollow s crapers 1 50

T he r elative f requency o f s crapers v s a ll b acked m icroliths p lotted a gainst t ime i n r adiocarbon-dated a ssemblages f rom s outhern 2 94

A frica 1 51

T he r elative f requency o f s crapers v s s egments p lotted a gainst t ime i n r adiocarbond ated a ssemblages

1 52

1 53

1 54

1 55

f rom s outhern A frica

T he r elative f requency o f s egments v s o ther b acked m icroliths p lotted a gainst t ime i n r adiocarbon-dated a ssemblages f rom s outhern A frica

2 96

S an a rrows f rom k nown s ources c ollected a fter 1 920

2 99

S an a nd p ossibly K hoi a rrows m ade i n S outh A frica a nd S WA/Namibia b efore 1 920

3 00

C hanges i n s craper l ength t hrough t ime i n L SA a ssemblages f rom t he n orthern C ape a nd Z imbabwe

1 56

1 58

1 59

3 02

M ap o f s outhern A frica s howing t he p osition o f s ites m entioned i n t he t ext a nd i n T ables 3 06

a nd F igures 1 57

2 95

S tone a rtefacts f rom n on-microlithic a ssemblages o f t he t erminal P leistocene/ e arly H olocene i n s outhern A frica

3 13

S tone a rtefacts f rom H olocene m icrolithic a ssemblages i n s outhern A frica

3 16

A rtefacts f rom l ate H olocene a ssemblages i n w hich l ong e nd s crapers p redominate a nd i n w hich p ottery c an o ccur

x i

3 44

1 60

A rtefacts f rom l ate H olocene a ssemblages w ith s mall s crapers, a dzes/spokeshaves a nd p ottery

3 46

A PPENDIX 2 A 2.1

D iagram s howing m ethod f or m easuring f lakes

4 03

A 2.2

D iagram s howing m ethod f or m easuring s crapers

4 05

A 2.3

D iagram s howing m ethod f or m easuring a dzes

4 07

A 2.4

D iagram s howing m ethod f or m easuring b acked t ools

4 08

x ii

LI S T

OF

TA B L E S

T able 1

2

P age S hellfish s pecies f ound o n a r ocky s hore t ransect i n t he w arm t emperate s outh c oast p rovince E dible a nd m edicinal p lants P eninsula,

3

4

a fter T aylor

2 0

r ecorded o n t he R obberg

( 1970)

2 5

W oody p lants i dentified f rom f ossil c harcoals a t B oomplaas C ave

3 8

R adiocarbon d ates o n l ittoral s hells f rom o ffshore a nd o nshore s tations o n t he s outhern C ape c oast

4 6

5

R adiocarbon d ates

6 3

6

M inimum n umbers o f l arger m ammalian s pecies

f rom N elson B ay C ave

r epresented i n s tratigraphic u nits a t N BC. K lein ( 1972b)

A fter

a nd u npublished

7

R adiocarbon d ates

8

K angkara C ave:

6 7

f rom K angkara C ave

m inimum n umbers o f

7 1

i ndividuals o f

m ammalian s pecies r epresented i n t he v arious

9

1 0

s tratigraphic u nits. I dentified a nd c ounted b y R . G . K lein ( unpublished)

7 2

R adiocarbon d ates f rom t he u pper l evels a t B oomplaas C ave: D GL t o L P

8 4

S ummary o f m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals o f l arger m ammals f rom m embers D GL t o L P a t B oomplaas C ave. A fter K lein ( 1978b)

1 1

N elson B ay C ave:

a nd u npublished

8 6

F requencies a nd p ercentage

f requencies o f a rtefats i n W aste c ategory c lasses a nd r aw m aterial c lasses 1 2

N elson B ay C ave:

1 86

F requencies a nd p ercentage

f requencies i n t he U tilized c ategory c lasses a nd r aw m aterial c lasses 1 3

N elson B ay C ave:

f requencies a nd p ercentage

f requencies i n c lasses a nd s ub-classes o f

t he

F ormal T ools c ategory 1 4

K angkara C ave: f requencies

1 88

f requencies a nd p ercentage

i n c lasses o f

t he W aste c ategory a nd

i n r aw m aterial c lasses 1 5

K angkara C ave:

1 87

1 89

f requencies a nd p ercentage

f requencies i n c lasses o f i n r aw m aterial c lasses

t he U tilized c ategory a nd 1 90

1 6

1 7

K angkara C ave: f requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies i n c lasses a nd s ub-classes o f t he F ormal T ools c ategory B PA :

1 91

i nventory o f a rtefacts a nd r aw m aterials

i n W aste c ategory

1 92

B oomplaas C ave: f requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies o f c lasses i n t he U tilized c ategory a nd r aw m aterial c lasses

1 93

B oomplaas C ave: f requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies i n c lasses a nd s ub-classes o f t he F ormal T ools c ategory a nd r aw m aterial c lasses

1 94

N elson B ay C ave: f requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies i n c ore s ub-classes a nd i n b ladelets w ith r aw m aterial c lasses

1 95

2 1

N elson B ay C ave:

L engths o f u ntrimmed f lakes

1 96

2 2

N elson B ay C ave:

W idths o f u ntrimmed f lakes

1 98

2 3

N elson B ay C ave: f lakes

H eight o f p iece o f u ntrimmed

N elson B ay C ave: u ntrimmed f lakes

W idth/length r atios o f

N elson B ay C ave: u ntrimmed f lakes

R elative t hickness o f

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 4

2 5

2 6

B oomplaas C ave:

2 00

2 02

2 04 F requencies o f c ores i n

s ub-classes a nd r aw m aterial c lasses

2 06

B oomplaas C ave: F requencies o f b ladelets i n c hips, u ntrimmed f lakes a nd r aw m aterial c lasses

2 07

2 8

B oomplaas C ave:

L ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes

2 08

2 9

B oomplaas C ave:

W idth o f u ntrimmed f lakes

2 10

3 0

B oomplaas C ave: f lakes

H eight o f p iece o f u ntrimmed

B oomplaas C ave: f lakes

W idth/length r atio o f u ntrimmed

B oomplaas C ave:

R elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed

2 7

3 1

3 2

2 12

2 14

2 16

f lakes 3 3

N BC:

r atio o f u tilized:untrimmed f lakes

3 4

K angkara:

3 5

B PA :

r atio o f u tilized:untrimmed f lakes

r atio o f u tilized:untrimmed f lakes

x iv

2 17 2 17 2 17

3 6

N elson B ay C ave:

L ength o f s crapers

2 18

3 7

N elson B ay C ave:

W idth o f s crapers

2 19

3 8

N elson B ay C ave: W idth/length r atio ( a) a nd p ercentage f requency o f r aw m aterials ( b) f or a ll s crapers

2 20

3 9

N elson B ay C ave:

H eight o f p iece o f s crapers

2 21

4 0

N elson B ay C ave:

P lan f orm o f s crapers

2 22

4 1

N elson B ay C ave: f or s crapers

P osition o f r etouch c lasses

4 2

2 23

M atrix o f p robability v alues ( to l eft) a nd l evels o f s ignificance ( to r ight) f or s craper l engths f rom t he K olmogorov-Smirnov t wo-sample t est u sing s craper s amples f rom B oomplaas, N elson B ay C ave a nd K angkara t o d emonstrate i nter- a nd i ntra-site s imilarities a nd d ifferences

4 3

2 24

M atrix o f p robability v alues ( to l eft) a nd l evels o f s ignificance ( to r ight) f or s craper l engths f rom t he M ann-Whitney U -test u sing s craper s amples f rom

4 4

4 5

4 6

4 7

4 8

B oomplaas, N elson B ay C ave a nd K angkara

2 24

M atrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper w idth u sing t he K olmogorov-Smirnov t wo-sample t est

2 25

M atrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper w idth u sing t he M annW hitney U -test

2 25

M atrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper h eight u sing t he K olmogorov-Smirnov t wo-sample t est

2 26

M atrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper h eight u sing t he M ann-Whitney U -test

2 26

M atrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper w /1 r atio u sing t he K olmogorov-Smirnov t wo-sample t est

4 9

M atrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper w /1 r atio u sing t he M ann-Whitney U -test

5 0

5 1

2 27

N elson B ay C ave:

2 27

D escriptive s tatistics f or

b acked m icroliths

2 28

K angkara :

2 29

l ength o f s crapers

5 2

K angkara:

w idth o f s crapers

2 30

5 3

K angkara:

w idth/length r atio o f s crapers

2 30

5 4

K angkara:

p iece h eight o f s crapers

2 31

5 5

K angkara: p osition o f r etouch ( a) f orm ( b) f or s crapers

5 6

K angkara :

5 8

5 9

6 0

6 1

6 2

6 3

2 32

h eight o f r etouch ( a) a nd p ercentage

f requencies o f r aw m aterials ( b) 5 7

a nd p lan

f or s crapers

B oomplaas C ave: s crapers

D escriptive s tatistics f or

B oomplaas C ave: a dzes

D escriptive s tatistics f or

B oomplaas C ave:

D escriptive s tatistics f or

2 33

2 34

2 35

s egments

2 36

B oomplaas C ave: D escriptive s tatistics f or b acked f lakes a nd b ladelets

2 36

M atrix s ummarizing t he n umber o f t imes t wo s amples o f s crapers w ere n ot s ignificantly d ifferent a t p =,05 i n T ables 4 2-49. A ssemblages a re s orted b y a pproximate a ge t o d emonstrate s imilarity b etween s amples o f s imilar a ge a t a n i nter-site l evel

2 37

N elson B ay C ave: F requency o f w orked b one a nd o strich e ggshell f ragments a nd b eads

2 38

B oomplaas C ave: F requencies o f o strich e ggshell ( OES) a nd m arine a nd f reshwater s hell f ragments a nd c rab r emains

2 39

B oomplaas C ave: F requencies o f p otsherds f rom D GL a nd B LD m embers. K angkara: f requency o f p otsherds

2 40

6 5a

O chre f requencies a t B PA a nd N BC

2 41

6 5b

B oomplaas C ave:

2 41

6 4

6 6

6 7

6 8

b one t ool f requencies

E arliest o ccurrences o f i nnovations d uring t he L ater S tone A ge i n s outhern A frica

2 78

B oomplaas C ave: M ass o f b one a nd n umbers o f a rtefacts p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated

2 90

M atrix s ummarizing t he n umber o f t imes t wo s amples o f s crapers w ere n ot s ignificantly d ifferent a t p =,05 i n K olmogorov-Smirnov a nd M ann-Whitney U -tests f or s craper w idth,

l ength, h eight a nd w /1 r atio

u sing s amples f rom B oomplaas, N elson B ay C ave,

x vi

K angkara, W ilton, M elkhoutboom a nd W onderwerk 6 9

T he d ating,

3 04

c haracteristics a nd e quivalent

t erms o f L ater S tone A ge c ulture-stratigraphic u nits u sed i n t his r eview 7 0

7 1a

7 1b

7 1c

7 2

7 3

7 4

D ated l ate P leistocene a ssemblages

f rom

s outhern A frica w ith L ater S tone A ge a ffinities, i ncluding t he ' Early L SA', t he T shangula a nd n on-microlithic i ndustries

3 09

R egional d istribution o f r adiocarbon-dated L ater S tone A ge a ssemblages i n s outhern A frica

3 19

D istribution o f r adiocarbon-dated L ater S tone A ge a ssemblages i n t he w estern a nd s outh-western C ape

7 6

7 7

7 8

3 20

3 21

K ey t o a bbreviations u sed i n T ables 7 0, 7 1, a nd 7 7 a nd i n F igs 1 50, 1 51, 1 52 a nd 1 56

3 22

7 5

A nnual a nd s easonal m eat y ield e stimated f rom d ata g iven f or a nimals k illed b y o ne / Xade b and i n o ne y ear ( after S ilberbauer 1 972)

3 28

R elative a bundance o f v arious t ypes o f p lant

3 31

C omposition o f f aunal s amples f rom H olocene L ater S tone A ge s ites i n s outhern A frica c ompared w ith a nnual k ills o f m odern G /wi

3 33

C hanges i n t he s ize a nd h abits o f b ovids h unted a t B oomplaas C ave o ver t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears ( after K lein 1 978b)

3 34

R adiocarbon d ates a ssociated w ith L ater S tone A ge p ottery, s heep a nd c attle i n s outhern A frica

3 50

S ources o f l ivestock o btained b y t he D utch s ettlers f rom K hoi h erders a t t he C ape f rom 1 662 t o 1 713 ( after E lphick 1 977:160)

7 9

...

D istribution o f r adiocarbon-dated L ater S tone A ge a ssemblages i n S outh W est A frica/Namibia

f oods f rom H olocene a rchaeological s ites a nd e thnographic s ources i n d ifferent e cozones i n s outhern A frica 7 5

3 08

3 53

A pproximate a reas o f " territories" o ccupied b y K hoi g roups v isited b y t he D utch c . 1 700 A .D C alculated f rom a m ap c ompiled b y L e R oux ( 1945) 3 55

f rom h istoric r ecords

x vii

1

I NTRODUCT ION

F ig. 1 . T he l ocation o f t he s outhern C ape P rovince a t t he s outhernmost p art o f A frica a nd t he p osition o f t he t hree s ites d escribed i n t his b ook.

2

IN T R O D U C T I O N

T he c entral t heme o f t his s tudy i s t o t est t he a ssumption t hat t here i s a c orrelation b etween e nvironmental c hange a nd c hanges i n s tone a rtefact m anufacture d uring t he L ater S tone A ge i n s outhernmost A frica. I n t he a bsence o f e thnographic a nalogies f or c hanges o f t his s cale, t he s tone a rtefact a ssemblages a re a ssessed i n t erms o f r elative f requency, s ize, s hape a nd f laking m ethod t o i dentify s hifts i n t he n orms o f s tone t ool m anufacture. s hifts i s t hen c ompared a gainst c hanges

T he t iming a nd s cale o f t hese i n e nvironmental p arameters

o ver t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears i n t he s ame d ated s equences a t t hree c ave s ites i n t he s outhern C ape P rovince o f S outh A frica. T he s ites a re N elson B ay C ave ( NBC) s ituated o n t he c oast, K angkara ( KRA) s ituated i n a n i ntermontane v alley a bout 4 0 k m i nland, a nd B oomplaas C ave ( BPA) o n t he s outhern s lopes o f 1)•

t he S wartberg r ange s ome 8 0 k m i nland ( Fig.

T he c hoice o f c hange t hrough t ime ( diachronic c hange) a s t he m ain f ocus w as m otivated b y t hree c onsiderations: f irstly, i t w as e ssential t o e stablish a t emporal f ramework i n t he s outhern C ape r egion b efore a ttempting t he i ntegration o f s patial v ariability a nd p rocessual s tudies; s econdly, t oo l ittle e mphasis h as b een p laced o n e xamining

t he d etails o f d iachronic c hanges i n s tone t ool t echnology,

d espite t he f act t hat d imension t hat i s e thnographic

a rchaeology i s u nique i n p roviding a bsent i n m ost o ther d isciplines.

o bservations

c an

g ive

s ome

i nsight

i nto

a

t ime W hile

t he

w ay

h unter-gatherer-fisher s ubsistence s ystems o perate, o nly a rchaeology c an c ontribute a l ong-term p erspective o n c hanges i n t echnological, s ubsistence a nd d emographic p atterns. T he t hird c onsideration, t hat e nvironmental c hanges w ere l argely r esponsible f or s timulating t echnological a djustments, n eeds t o b e e xamined c ritically. W e a ssume t hat t echnology r epresents o ne o f t he w ays i n w hich p eople h ave a dapted t o t heir e nvironment a nd s ome a spects o f t echnology a re t herefore e xpected t o b e i nfluenced b y e xternal f actors s imilar t o t hose t hat c ontrol b iological a daptations. T he k ey c oncepts i n t he s tudy o f b iological e volution a re a daptation a nd s election a nd t he q uestions o f i nterest i n t he s tudy o f d iachronic c hanges i n s tone t ool t echnology a re t he s ignificance o f t he s elections m ade f rom t he r ange o f p ossibilities a vailable, a nd t he w ays i n w hich t hese s elections h elped p eople t o a dapt t heir b ehaviour t o c hanging e nvironmental a nd s ocial c onditions. T raditionally, s outhern A frican a rchaeologists h ave a ttempted t o i nterpret s tone a rtefact c hanges e ither a s i ndependently i nvented f unctional r esponses t o h abitat s hifts i nduced b y c limatic c hange, o r a s t he r esult o f p opulation m igrations a nd t he d iffusion o f n ew t echniques i nvented a nd d eveloped b eyond t he b orders o f s outhern A frica. W hat t he d ata p resented h ere w ill s how i s t hat t he d evelopment o f t he t echnological t radition w e h ave l abelled " Later S tone A ge" i s t he r esult o f t oolmaking t echniques o ver

t he g radual a ccretion o f t raits a nd a p eriod o f m ore t han 2 0 0 00 y ears a nd

w hile t he a dvent o f s ome a spects o f

t his t radition

c an

b e

s hown

t o

c oincide w ith e nvironmental c hanges a nd s ubsistence s trategies, o thers

3

w ere m ore c learly t he r esult o f t he b orrowing o f i deas a nd d esigns f rom n eighbouring p eoples. I t i s u nlikely t hat o ne c ause o r " prime m over"

w ill

b e f ound f or a ll

p artial u nravelling o f o f

t echnology,

t hat

i s

t he

t echnological

g oal o f

i n

t he

e volution

b ut i t t he

i s

t he

d iffusion

a nd e nvironmental v ariables

t he r esearch s ummarized h ere.

A fter a r eview o f s tudies

t he v ariability o bserved,

t he i nter-relationships b etween

t he m ethods a nd t heories u sed i n L ater S tone

p ast,

s outhern C ape a nd t he

t he

p resent-day e nvironmental s etting o f

t hree s ites w ill b e b riefly d escribed

a nd

A ge t he w ill

b e c ompared w ith t he e vidence f or p ast c limatic a nd h abitat c onditions o ver t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears t o e stablish t he t iming a nd m agnitude o f c hanges

t hat

h ave

t aken

p lace.

C hapter

e xcavations a nd s tratigraphic s equences o f w ill o f

b e

t he

4

w ill

t hree

T he e xcavation p rogrammes,

c lassification s cheme a nd t he m ethods o f a nalysis d eliberately s elected t o e xamine c hange t hrough t ime. o f

a nd

t he t his

f ollowed b y d etailed s tone a rtefact a nalyses a nd d escriptions

t he n on-lithic m aterial.

s ome

d escribe

s ites t he

a rtefact

h ave a ll b een I n C hapter 6

t he p atterns o f c hange o bserved w ill b e d escribed a nd p laced

i n b roader p erspective a nd C hapter 7

t akes

a n

e ven

w ider

v iew

b y

r eviewing t he e vidence f or a rtefact c hanges, d ating a nd s ubsistence i n s outhern A frica a s a w hole. T he s ignificance o f t he o bserved p atterns i s d iscussed i n t he f inal c hapter.

4

2

H ISTOR ICAL R EV IE W

HI S T O R I C A L ME T H O D S

AN D

LA T E R

T he

c haracter

o f

RE V I E W TH E O R I E S

ST O N E

AG E

t he L ater S tone A ge

OF

TH E

US E D

IN

ST U D I E S

( LSA) w as d efined i n 1 926 b y

G oodwin a nd i n 1 929 b y G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe a s i ncluding a ssemblages w ith s tone a rtefacts s imilar t o t hose o f t he E uropean M esolithic ( i.e. w ith a m icroliothic t radition) a nd t he N eo-anthropic C ultures, m eaning t hose r elating t o m odern m an ( Goodwin & V an R iet L owe 1 929:7). I t w as a ccepted t hat m icrolithic t ools h ad b een m ade b y t he i ndigenous S an ( Bushmen) a nd t heir a ncestors, a s i s i mplicit i n t he u se o f t he t erm ' Bushman i n t he n omenclature o f s ome o f t he e arlier c lassification s chemes ( e.g. G ooch 1 881; R ickard 1 881) a nd i n t he o bservations b y K annemeyer ( 1890) a nd D unn ( 1931), w ho s aw S an m aing s tone t ools i n t he l ate n ineteenth c entury. M any o f t he n on-lithic i tems m ade b y S an ( and p astoralist K hoi ( Hottentots)) w ere a lso f ound i n L SA a ssemblages d emonstrating t he a ntiquity o f s hell a nd o strich e ggshell b eads a nd p endants, l eather c lothing, t ortoiseshell b owls, d igging s ticks a nd b ows a nd a rrows, t hereby e stablishing c ontinuity b etween t he p ast a nd t he p resent. T wo I ndustries w ere r ecognized i n t he L SA i n 1 929: t he S mithfield a nd t he W ilton. T he t erm W ilton w as p roposed b y G oodwin ( 1926) a s a n a lternative t o h is ' Pygmy' o r ' Microlithic' c ulture t o d escribe a ssemblages i n w hich m icrolithic a rtefacts p redominated a nd w hich i ncluded b acked b ladelets a nd,

e ssentially,

s egments

o r

c rescents.

G oodwin h ad s een t he m aterial e xcavated b y H ewitt ( 1921) f rom t he W ilton n ame s ite n ear A licedale i n t he e astern C ape a nd w as a t p ains t o e xplain w hy t he t erm W ilton w as a dopted i n p reference t o S mithfield D w hich m ay h ave b etter d escribed t he a pparent c ontinuity f rom S mithfield A t hrough B a nd C t o W ilton. H e r easoned t hat, b ecause t he W ilton w as t he o nly k nown L SA i ndustry p resent i n Z imbabwe ( then S outhern R hodesia), a nd b ecause i t b ore s uch a s trong r esemblance t o t he C apsian o f N orth A frica w here S mithfield-type a ssemblages w ere a lso a bsent, t he l ocal W ilton h ad i ts o rigins f arther n orth a nd t herefore r epresented a n i ntrusive e lement i n t he S outh A frican s equence, t he S mithfield b eing a l ocal d evelopment ( Goodwin & V an R iet L owe 1 929:255).

V an R iet L owe s hared t his v iew ( 1926:874).

R egional v ariants o f t he W ilton w ere r ecognized o n t he b asis o f t he r egional d istribution o f s pecialized f ormal t ools. T hus t he F ree S tate W ilton ( Van R iet L owe 1 947:96) i ncluded t anged a rrowheads i n l ow f requencies i n ( Humphreys 1 969)

t he n orthern C ape, O range F ree S tate a nd L esotho w hile t he W estern C ape W ilton i ncluded s o-called

' double c rescents'

( Clark 1 959:199).

T he S mithfield w as n amed a fter t he t own o f t he s ame n ame i n t he O range F ree S tate b ecause i t w as h ere t hat c ollections o f t ypical a rtefacts w ere L owe a nd o thers.

m ade b y e arly p ioneers s uch a s K annemeyer, V an R iet A t hree-phase d ivision i n A , B a nd C w as s uggested

b ecause t he S mithfield A " had e very a ppearance o f b eing t he e arliest" ( Goodwin & V an R iet L owe 1 929:150). S mithfield B w as s een a s a d evelopment o ut o f A ( and t herefore y ounger), w ith t he S mithfield C a

6

' cave v ariant W hile

t he

i nfluenced b y t he m icrolithic t radition o f

W ilton

v ariants

w ere

r ecognized

b y

t he

s pecialized f ormal t ools,

t he S mithfield v ariants

b y

s ize a nd s hape o f o ne f ormal

d ifferences

i n

t he

t he

W ilton.

o ccurrence o f

w ere

c haracterized t ool c lass,

t he

s crapers. T he S mithfield A h ad p redominantly l arge c ircular o r D -shaped s crapers, o ften c oncavo-convex i n s ide v iew , t he S mithfield B w as c haracterized b y d uckbill e ndscrapers, a nd

n otched

s crapers,

t humbnail s crapers. ( also

k nown

a s

a nd

t he

t humbnail

s crapers,

s ide

S mithfield C w as d ominated b y s mall

A n a dditional v ariable w as r aw m aterial:

h ornfels

l ydianite o r i ndurated s hale) b eing p referred f or t he

S mithfield A a nd B ,

a nd c halcedonies,

c herts,

a gates a nd q uartz

b eing

u sed i n t he S mithfield C . T he s imilarity b etween t he S mithfield C a nd W ilton w as n oted b y b oth G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe ( 1929:150, 1 87, 2 55),

b ut

i t

w as

o nly

l ater

t hat

r esearchers

t erminology s hould

a cknowledge

i t

( Willcox

1 956;

S ampson 1 972,

J . D eacon 1 974;

H umphreys

1 979).

F urther

1 974;

v ariants

t ype a rea.

o f

t he

v ariant w as

t hat

C lark

1 959:211;

t he

S mithfield w ere p roposed o utside o f t he

T he S mithfield N w as c haracterized b y

s crapers f ound i n N atal

u rged

( Goodwin 1 930;

h ollow

V an R iet L owe

f ound o n t he N atal c oast a nd

w as

o r

1 936),

n otched

t he Umlaas

c haracterized

b y

f lat

b ipolar c ores m ade o n h ornfels ( Schoute-Vanneck & W alsh 1 961), w hile t he S mithfield P w as f ound o n t he P ondoland c oast a t Umgazana c ave w here l arge c ircular s crapers, s trangulated a nd h ollow s crapers w ere m ade m ostly o n h ornfels ( Van R iet L owe 1 936). F inally, t he c oastal S mithfield,

f ound a long t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape c oast,

s crapers a nd o utils e cailles m ade f rom s mall, ( Van R iet L owe T he

p ebbles

1 946).

t heoretical

e xplained

h ad s mall

f lat w ater-worn

t he

f ramework

w ithin w hich G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe

S mithfield/Wilton

d ichotomy

w as

c learly

s tated

b y

G oodwin: F rom

t he e vidence p resently a vailable i t s eems a s

s hould a dopt a s o ur w orking h ypothesis t he

b earers

o f

t he

t he

m igration

t hey

m oved

p robably d iverged i nto t wo m ain c entral

z one

w here

t hat

W ilton I ndustry r epresent a n o ffshoot

f rom t he C apsian G roup o f N orth A frica, s outhward

t hough w e

a ssumption

t he

i n

a nd t hat d uring

t he

s uccessive w aves

t hat

c hannels

-

o ne

d own

S mithfield v ariations a re

t he

s o w ell

d eveloped, a nd t he o ther d own t he e ast c oast w here t he i ndustry r emained f airly c onstant. A t hird p ossible c hannel i s d own t he w estern d esert r oute

( Goodwin &

V an

R iet

L owe

1 929:150). A

s imilar

h ypothesis

a pparently c ontent

w as

f avoured

b y

t o p lace t he o rigin o f

V an

R iet

L owe,

b ut h e w as

t he S outh A frican L SA p eople

n o f arther n orth t han t he Z ambezi R iver: M y

p ersonal

l eanings

a re

t oward

t he

" successive

w ave"

t heory, i .e. s uccessive w aves o f t ypically N eo-anthropic ( Wilton) p eople m oving s outhwards a nd t here i nfluencing t he a lready

" settled" c ommunities.

A s

f ar a s S outhern A frica i s

c oncerned, Rhodesia, i n m y o pinion, i s t he r eal h ome o f W ilton I ndustry ( Goodwin & V an R iet L owe 1 929:187-8). G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe t herefore s aw t he

7

i nitiation o f

t he

t he

L SA

a s

t he r esult o f t he s outhward m igration o f p eople w ith a n ew w ay o f m aking s tone t ools a nd a n ew r ange o f s pecialized a rtefacts, b ut t he s ubsequent m odification o f t his t radition w as t he r esult b oth o f " successive w aves" a nd t he i nfluence o f s uch f actors a s l ocal r aw m aterials a nd g eographic b arriers w hich l ater i solated r egional c ommunities.

T he r easons f or t he ' invention' o f L SA t echnology i n t he

f irst i nstance, a nd f or t he s outhward m igration o f N eo-anthropic p eople i n t he s econd i nstance, w ere c onveniently s hifted n orth o f t he b orders o f s outhern A frica a nd w ere n ot c onsidered f urther. T he m ethodology a dopted b y G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe w as d esigned t o i dentify a ssemblages a s L SA b y n oting t he r ange o f f ormal t ools a nd c ores, a nd t hen t o p lot t he g eographic d istribution o f v ariations u pon t his t heme. T he i ncidence o f r aw m aterials, p articularly h ornfels, t he r elative f requencies o f s craper s ub-types a nd t he o ccurrence o f c ertain k ey o r m arker t ools w ere u sed t o c haracterize r egional v ariants a nd c ultures. W hile s ome o f t he v ariability w as i nterpreted a s c hange t hrough t ime, a s f or e xample t he s hift f rom S mithfield A t o B , m uch o f i t w as a ssigned t o t he i nfluence o f a vailable r aw m aterials o r t o t he l ocation o f g eographic f eatures w hich m ay h ave a cted a s b arriers t o i nter-group c ommunication a nd t he f low o f i deas a nd p eople. T he g eneralized c onsequences o f t he " successive w ave" t heory m ade i t u nnecessary t o s tudy d etails s uch a s t he u nretouched c omponent o f a ssemblages o r t he a ssociated f aunal a nd f loral r emains, w hile t he g eneral l ack o f l ong s equence d eposits t hroughout s outhern A frica a nd t he a bsence o f a n a bsolute d ating t echnique m ade i t d ifficult t o t est t he h ypothesis i n a ny c onvincing w ay. T he r esearch s trategy a dopted b y G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe c ombined a m ethodology d esigned t o d escribe a nd c lassify a ssemblages w ith a n e xplanation t hat i nterpreted t he p atterning t hrough t ime a nd s pace i n t erms o f t he m ovements o f t he p eople w ho m ade t he t ools. H owever, t here w as n o a ttempt t o d esign a m ethodology s pecifically t o t est t he h ypotheses o f p opulation m ovements a nd t he a rguments w ere t herefore w hat B inford ( 1981:83) h as r eferred t o a s p ost h oc a ccommodative a rguments.

W hile s uch a s trategy w as p erhaps n ecessary i n

t he

1 920s

w hen l ittle w as k nown a bout t he L SA r ecord, i t i s n o l onger t enable m erely t o o ffer n ew r easons f or t he v ariability. F or e ach e xplanatory h ypothesis a d ifferent c lassification s cheme n eeds t o b e d esigned t o a nswer s pecific q uestions t hat a re g ermane t o t hat e xplanation. T he s ame c lassification s cheme c annot b e u sed t o t est e very h ypothesis. N evertheless

t he c lassification s cheme u sed b y G oodwin a nd V an R iet

L owe w as a dopted b y m ost p rehistorians a nd w as u sed o ver t he f ollowing 3 0 y ears o r m ore. I n t he n ext m ajor s ynthesis, w ritten b y C lark a nd p ublished i n 1 959, i t i s c lear t hat a lthough t he d ata b ase h ad b een e xtended,

t he

m ethodology

a nd

t he e xplanations f or c hange w ere n ot

v ery d ifferent. T he S mithfield w as s till s een a s d evelopment i nfluenced b y c ontact w ith W ilton p eoples: .

t he

p eriodic

a ppearance

o f

n ew

a n

i ndigenous

e lements i n t he

m aterial c ulture d uring t he L ater S tone A ge a lso s uggests t hat t he c ultures o f t he i ndigenous p eoples w ere e nriched f rom t ime t o t ime b y t he i ntroduction o f n ew f orms, n ew c ustoms a nd t he b eliefs w hich p robably f ound t heir w ay i nto t he s outhern p arts o f t he c ontinent a s a r esult o f s poradic i nfiltration b y n ew e thnic g roups

8

( Clark 1 959:215).

T he

f act t hat t he S mithfield a nd W ilcon c ut a cross n atural e cological

b oundaries e ncouraged C lark i n t he b elief t hat " population m ovements w ere t he u nderlying c ause" o f t hese d istributions ( Clark 1 959:216). D issatisfaction

w ith

n on-quantitative

s tandardized t ypology w as v oiced i n t he I nskeep

1 967)

m ethods

1 960s

a nd t he l ack o f a

( Clark

e t

a l.

1 966;

b ut t he r eason f or w anting s tandardization w as m ore t o

a llow i nter-site c omparisons t han t o r elate t he m ethodology t o a t heoretical b ase o r t o t est s pecific h ypotheses. T wo o f t he p rojects t hat w ere s timulated b y a d esire t o g enerate a nd a pply a s tandard t ypology p roduced s omewhat d ifferent r esults. S ampson ( 1967a, 1 967b, 1 972) w as r esponsible f or t he a nalysis o f m aterials f rom a s eries o f o pen

a nd

r ock

s helter s ites i n t he M iddle O range R iver b asin o f t he

n orthern C ape i n t he t ype a rea o f t he S mithfield a nd h e s et o ut t o d ate t he S mithfield a nd t o d escribe i t. T he s cheme h e d evised f ocused o n f ormal t ools a nd c ore s ub-types t hat w ere d efined o n t he b asis o f t heir s ize, s hape a nd r etouch. I nter-site c omparisons a ssessed t he r elative f requencies o f t he t ypes a nd s ub-types i n e ach a ssemblage w ith e very o ther a ssemblage p laced i nto t he s ame c ulture-stratigraphic u nit. A ssemblages w ith s imilar f requencies o f a rtefacts i n c ertain c lasses w ere g rouped t ogether a nd, w ith t he r ock s helters p roviding s ome t ime c ontrol, a s equence w as e stablished. E xplanations f or t he s hifts t hrough t ime w ere a gain e ssentially p ost h oc a ccommodative a rguments t hat s uggested b oth p opulation m ovements a nd t he i nfluence o f r aw m aterials, p articularly h ornfels, w hich s howed s ome s ignificant a nd i nteresting p atterns t hrough t ime. S ampson s pecifically r ejected e nvironmental c hange a s a p rime m over i n t echnological c hange ( 1974:289, 2 91, 3 20). T he n ature o f t he s hifts w as e ssentially t he s ame a s n oted b y V an R iet L owe i n t hat t he e arliest a ssemblages w ere c haracterized b y l arge s crapers w hich i ncluded c oncavo-convex f orms ( or S mithfield A ), t hose i n t he m iddle o f t he s equence h ad s mall c onvex s crapers a nd b acked m icroliths m ade i n c halcedonies a nd a gates ( Smithfield C ), w hile w ithin t he l ast 1 0 00 y ears, l ong e nd-scrapers ( Smithfield B )

p redominated, b ut S ampson w as a ble,

f or t he f irst t ime,

t o d ate t hese s tages w ithin t he s equence. R e-excavation o f t he W ilton l arge r ock s helter,

o ne o f

t he o riginal

n ame s ites, w as u ndertaken i n 1 966/67 b y H . J . D eacon. T he s urprise i n a nalysing t he a rtefact s equence w as t hat t he a ssemblages w ere n ot, a s H ewitt ( 1921) h ad s tated, a ll e ssentially s imilar; t here w ere c lear, t hough g radual, c hanges t hrough t ime b oth i n t he r elative f requencies o f t he f ormal t ools a nd i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he s crapers a nd b acked m icroliths. T he a rtefact a nalysis w as d esigned t o a ssess b oth c hanges i n f unction ( by c omparing t he r elative f requencies o f f ormal t ools) a nd c hanges i n s tyle ( by c omparing t he m etric a ttributes o f s crapers) t hrough t ime ( J. D eacon 1 969, 1 972). T he c oncept o f u sing d ifferent a spects o f t he d ata t o d escribe d ifferent p rocesses o f c hange w hich w ere n ot n ecessarily r elated w as a m ethodological a dvance, b ut t he e xplanation o ffered f or t he c hanges w as s till a p ost h oc o ne. N oting t hat t he c hanges w ere m ore g radual t han a brupt a nd t hat t hey c ould n ot, t herefore, b e a scribed t o t he o ccupation o f

t he s ite b y d ifferent p eople,

i t w as s uggested t hat

t he

s equence i n l ayers 1 , 2 a nd 3 c ould b e s een a s a n e volutionary d evelopment o f a s ingle t echnological t heme. T he s hifts c onformed t o w hat o f

m ight

' birth',

b e e xpected i n a n o ntogenetic m odel o f c hange w ith p hases ' maturity

a nd

' death'

o f

9

t he

a rtefact

m anufacturing

s ystem ( J. D eacon 1 969, 1 972). T he n ature o f t he c hanges n oted i n t his s equence w ere e ssentially s imilar t o t hose n oted i n t he M iddle O range R iver a rea b y S ampson, c ontinuity r ather t han c hange.

b ut t he m ethod o f a nalysis s tressed

D uring t he 1 960s a nd 1 970s a nalysis o f f aunal a nd w as i nitiated f or i nformation o n s ubsistence s ystems.

f loral r emains I n t erms o f t he

e xplanations o ffered f or c hange t hrough t ime i n t he L SA, t he m ost i mportant b y-product o f t hese a nalyses w as t he o bservation t hat, i n t he s outhern C ape a t l east, t here w as a s hift i n t he n orms o f a rtefact m anufacture i n t he e arly H olocene t hat c oincided b roadly w ith a s hift i n t he h unting p attern a s r eflected i n t he f aunal r emains ( H. J . D eacon 1 972, 1 976; K lein 1 972a, 1 972b, P leistocene s et o f a ssemblages t hat a lso

1 974). T he f inding o f a l ate f ell w ithin t he r ange o f

v ariation o f t he L SA a t M elkhoutboom a nd N elson B ay c aves a nd t he f act t hat t hese, t oo, w ere a ssociated w ith a d istinctive s et o f f aunal r emains, l ed t o t he n aming o f a t hree-stage s equence i n t he s outhern C ape L ater S tone A ge: t he R obberg, A lbany a nd W ilton i ndustries. T he e xplanation

o ffered

b y

H . J . D eacon ( 1976)

r ejected t he " successive

w ave" m igration t heory a nd f avoured i nstead a m odel i n w hich t he m icrolithic t oolmaking t echnique w as d iffused a long l inguistic p athways, b ut w as a djusted t o c ope w ith c hanges i n c limate a nd h abitat t hrough

t ime,

a nd t o a l esser e xtent w ith e nvironmental c onditions a t

a n i nter-regional l evel. T his w as i ncorporated i nto a m odel o f h omeostatic p lateaux i n w hich i t w as s uggested t hat t he R obberg, A lbany a nd W ilton i ndustries i n t he s outhern C ape e ach r epresented a p eriod d uring w hich t he a daptive r esponse ( as r eflected i n t he f aunal a nd f loral r emains) w as r elatively s table, w ith s hifts i n s ubsistence s trategy n ecessitated a t c . 1 2 0 00 a nd c . 8 000 B .P. d ue t o c hanging e nvironmental c onditions; t hese a pparently s timulated s hifts i n t he a rtefact t radition t hat w ere d istinctive e nough t o w arrant t heir d escription u nder d ifferent i ndustrial t erms. T he f act t hat s imilar c hanges w ere s een i n o ther e cozones w here t he s ame e cological s hifts w ould n ot h ave t aken p lace w as s een a s t he r esult o f s ocial c ontact, w ith t he c orollary t hat w here d istinctive s tylistic v ariants w ere g eographically l ocalized, t his c ould i ndicate a l ack o f i nter-group c ontact ( H. J . D eacon 1 976). T he o ccurrence o f s easonally r estricted p lant f ood r emains ( Wells 1 965; H . J . D eacon 1 969) a nd l ocal o ral t raditions ( H. J . D eacon 1 970) s howed t oo t hat s easonal m ovements c ould b e d ocumented f or t he L SA i n t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape. A s ynchronic r ather t han a d iachronic p erspective

w as

a dopted

i n

t he s outh-western a nd w estern C ape b y P arkington ( 1972, 1 976, 1 977a, 1 977b, 1 981). N oting t hat t he a ges o f d assies ( hyraxes) a t d eath w ere r estricted a t t he i nland m ountain s ite o f D e H angen ( Parkington & P oggenpoel 1 971), P arkington s uggested a n h ypothesis o f s easonal m obility r easoning o n t he b asis o f h istoric a nd e thnographic r ecords t hat L SA p eople i n t he r egion m oved r egularly f rom t he m ountains i n s ummer t o t he c oast i n w inter. M ortality p rofiles o f s eals a t t he c oastal s ite o f E lands B ay c orroborated t his b y s howing t hat t he v ast m ajority o f s eals i n t he d eposit d ied d uring t he w inter m onths a nd, t ogether w ith o bservations o n t he a vailability o f p lant f oods i n t he r egion,

t he

h ypothesis w as h eld t o b e c onfirmed.

V ariability i n t he

s tone a rtefact a ssemblages w as n ot i nitially c orrelated w ith t he s ubsistence d ata, b ut w hen g ross d ifferences b etween t he r elative f requencies o f s crapers, a dzes a nd b acked m icroliths w ere n oted a t m ountain,

s andveld

a nd

c oastal

s ites r espectively,

1 0

i t w as r easoned

t hat t hese w oodworking

c ould b e e xplicable i n s ynchronic f unctional t erms, b eing m ore c ommonly u nde/taken a t m ountain s ites, b ow a nd

a rrow h unting a t s andveld s ites a nd g enerally l ittle a ll-round m aintenance a t t he c oast ( Mazel & P arkington 1 978, 1 981; P arkington 1 980). A n a ssumption e ssential t o t he f unctional e xplanation o f t his i nter-site v ariability i s t hat t he a ssemblages, m ost o f t hem f rom o pen s ites, w ere a ll r oughly c ontemporary. T he i nterpretation o f t he v ariability d id n ot m ake r ecourse t o s ocial e xplanations s uch a s t hose f avoured b y S ampson a nd t he m ethodology w as d esigned t o t est f or f unctional v ariability i n t he c ounting o nly o f f ormal t ools a nd t he c omparison o f t heir r elative f requencies. T o s ummarize,

t he m ethods a nd t heories u sed i n t he d escription

a nd

e xplanation o f c hanges i n L SA t echnology i n s outhernmost A frica f avoured m igration f rom t he 1 920s t hrough t he 1 950s a s a p ost h oc a ccommodative a rgument t o a ccount f or t he o ccurrence o f d ifferent ' cultures a nd i ndustries. T hese w ere r ecognized a s a r esult o f t he m ethod o f c lassification w hich s tressed t he a ssemblage a s t he u nit o f c omparison. I n r egarding t he L SA i ndustries a s ' packages' w ith c haracteristic a rtefact t ypes a nd r elative f requencies, t he m ethod o f a nalysis i nvolved t he l isting o f t he r ange o f f ormal t ools f ound, w ith t he i mplication t hat n ew a rtefact t ypes r esulted f rom t he i nflux o f n ew p eople. R egional v ariants w ere r ecognized a s r esulting f rom t he u se o f d ifferent r aw m aterials o r, s pecialized t ools t o c ope w ith W oodworking w as o ne o f t hese.

l ater, a s t he r esult o f t he u se o f t asks s pecific t o t he r egion.

I n t he 1 960s a nd 1 970s r adiocarbon d ating, a l arger d ata b ase, a n i nterest i n s ubsistence, a nd a g eneral d issatisfaction w ith t he c lassification s cheme l ed t o s ome c hanges. T he B urg W artenstein c onference i n 1 965 h elped t o m ake i t c lear t hat c hanges i n s tone a rtefacts d o n ot n ecessarily i ndicate c hanges i n ' culture' a nd t hat t he t erminology s hould a cknowledge t hat i t d escribes t echnological c hange o nly ( Bishop & q uantitative m ethods i t

C lark 1 967). b ecame c lear

W ith t he t hat m any

i ntroduction o f a ssemblages a nd

i ndustries g raded f rom o ne t o t he o ther r ather t han p roviding s harp c ontrasts, a nd a s t he d ata b ase i ncreased, s o d id t he v ariability. W ith t he a vailabilty o f i nformation o n s ubsistence, t he c oncept o f s ystems a nd a daptive s trategies w as i ntroduced o ffering c orrelates o ther t han p eople t o l ink t o t echnological s hifts, a nd s tressing t he f unctional r ole o f t echnology a nd i ndividual a rtefact t ypes ( H. J . D eacon 1 976). T he l ogical e xtension o f t his l ine o f r easoning h as b een t he e xplanation o f s patial v ariability b y l inking i t t o d ifferences i n t he l ocal a vailability o f r esources. T hus, f or s ome r esearchers, t he r elative f requencies o f f ormal t ools a re s een a s a d irect r eflection o f t he f requency w ith w hich p articular t asks w ere p erformed a t a s ite, a nd n ot a s a n i ndication o f t he c ultural o r s ocial a ffinities o f t he p eople w ho m ade t hem . O thers, s uch a s S ampson, w ere m ore c ircumspect. S ampson's m ethodology, d esigned f or t he c lassification o f a ssemblages a nd t he g rouping o f s imilar o nes i nto C omplexes a nd I ndustries, w as e ssentially s imilar t o t hat o f G oodwin a nd V an

R iet

L owe,

w ith

t he

a dvantage o f a m uch l arger s ample a nd t he a vailability o f r adiocarbon d ates. T he s cheme, h owever, l imited h im t o t he a pplication o f p ost h oc a ccommodative a rguments t hat d rew f rom t he p aradigm i n w hich e ither m igration/diffusion o r e nvironmental c hange w ere t he p rime

1 1

m overs

o f t echnological c hange, b ut h e w as c ircumspect a bout c hoosing

o ne o r t he o ther i n e xplaining t he o rigin o f t he W ilton t radition. O n t he o ne h and h e p roposed t hat " the p ossibility o f h uman p opulation m ovements

d uring

1 974:321),

w hile a lso p utting f orward a m ore d etailed s cenario:

t he

p eriod

r emains

t o

b e

c onsidered"

( Sampson

I t n ow a ppears t hat t he a vailable f ield d ata m ay s upport t he f ollowing h ypothesis: t he m icrolithic t echnology ( which i s o nly o ne s tage i n t he c omposite h afting o f s tone a rmatures i n a rrow s hafts) w as f avored b y h unter-gatherers l iving i n t he n orthern Z ambian w oodland s avanna d uring t he p eriod w hen a ll t he ( presently s tudied) t erritory t o t he s outh w as b eing u tilized b y g roups w ithout a ny k nowledge t echniques. I n a rchaeological t erms t his m eans

o f t hese t hat t he

N achikufan P hase I a nd t he O akhurst C omplex a re b road c ontemporaries. A fter a bout 7 000 B .C. t here i s e vidence f or i nteraction b etween t hese t wo a reas a nd i t i s n ot u nreasonable t o a ssume t hat t he a ppearance o f a bundant s crapers i n t he N achikufan P hase I IA i s a t l east p artly t he r esult o f c ontact w ith O akhurst t echnology. I n r eturn, t he m icroliths, p articularly b acked c rescents, w ere a dopted b y g roups

i n

s outhern

Z ambia

a nd

R hodesia,

a nd

t he

n ew

t echniques w ere f ound a longside t he O akhurst t ool k it o n t he s outhern C ape c oast b y 6 000 B .C. T hus, t he E arly p hase o f t he W ilton m ay r epresent a p eriod o f d ispersal s outhwards o f m icrolithic e lements i nto t he w aning O akhurst c omplex" ( Sampson 1 974:366-7). A s t his a rtefact

q uotation s hows, S ampson s ees t he i ntroduction o f p articular t ypes ( scrapers, b acked m icroliths) a nd t heir r elative

f requencies a s l inked t o s ocial g roup f actors r ather t han t o f unctional c orrelates a nd t he e xplanations f or t heir d iffusion a re t herefore s een i n s ocial t erms. T he h ypothesis d oes n ot a ttempt t o e xplain h ow t he m icrolithic t echnology c ame t o b e i n Z ambia i n t he f irst p lace, a nd i s b ased o n t he p remise ( later s hown t o b e f aulty) t hat t here w ere n o m icrolithic a ssemblages c ontemporary w ith t he N achikufan I i n S outh A frica. I n

a t otal r ejection o f t he m igration h ypothesis, C lark ( 1974) a nd

P hillipson ( 1976,

1 977)

h ave

a rgued

t hat

m igration

a nd

d iffusion

p layed l ittle p art i n t he p rocess o f a doption o f t he m icrolithic m ethod o f t oolmaking i n s outhern A frica a nd t hey p ropose i nstead t hat t his t radition d eveloped i ndependently i n a n umber o f d ifferent r egions a nd a t d ifferent t imes i n t he p ast i n r esponse t o e nvironmental c hanges. T he f act t hat t he c hange t ook o n a s imilar d irection i n s o m any d ifferent r egions i s e xplained a s d ue t o f actors i nherent i n t he a ncestral t radition. T his s olution i s m ore r ealistic t han t hat w hich a ssumes a m ass m igration f rom N orth A frica, b ut i t i s u nrealistic i n r ejecting t he l ikelihood t hat d iffusion p layed a m ajor r ole i n e stablishing t he e xtraordinary u niformity a mongst L SA a ssemblages

i n

A frica,

p articularly

w hen

m odern

h istoric

a nd

e thnographic s tudies h ave s hown h ow r are i ndependent i nvention i s b y c omparison w ith b orrowing ( Kroeber 1 952:60-1; T oynbee 1 961:345; T rigger 1 978 :217).

T he f ault p robably l ies

i n

t he

a ssumption

( made

i mplicitly i f n ot e xplicitly) b y P hillipson a nd b y S ampson t hat t he L SA, o r a t l east t he m icrolithic t echnology t hat c haracterizes i t, w as a ' package d eal'. B y s eeing i t r ather a s a c hanging c onstellation o f

1 2

a ttributes, a mongst w hich i s t he t endency t o m ake b ladelets f rom b ipolar a nd s ingle-platform b ladelet c ores, i t i s e asier t o a ccommodate h ypotheses w hich i nclude g radual e volution, d iffusion a nd m odification o f i nnovations t o s uit r egional r equirements. S uch a m odel i s m ore f lexible a nd f its b etter w ith t he e vidence w hich s hows t hat

t he

e lements

o f

L SA

m aterial

c ulture

a re

n ot a ll o f e qual

a ntiquity a nd t hat s hifts i n t oolmaking t echniques a nd d esigns t ook p lace t hroughout t he t ime p eriod o f t he L SA.

f ormal

t ool

D isenchantment w ith t he m igration h ypothesis s temmed p artly f rom t he r ealization t hat n o e vidence f or m ass p opulation m ovements h as b een f ound, a lthough i t m ust a lso b e n oted t hat n o-one h as s et o ut t o t est t he h ypothesis a gainst t he d ata i n a ny s ystematic w ay. W here m igration i s s till e ntertained a s a r easonable e xplanation f or c hange, h owever,

i s i n t he s pread o f d omestic s tock a nd p ottery t o

S tone

A ge

p eople i n s outhern A frica a l ittle o ver 2 0 00 y ears a go. T he r easons f or f avouring t his h ypothesis l ie i n l inguistic a nd e thnographic d ata r ather t han a rchaeological s ources. W estphal ( 1963) h as s uggested t hat t he l anguages s poken b y h erders

a t

t he

C ape

a t

t he

t ime

o f

E uropean c ontact w ere s ufficiently d ifferent f rom t heir h unter-gatherer n eighbours a nd s ufficiently s imilar t o p resent-day T shu-Khwe-speakers i n B otswana t o w arrant t he h ypothesis t hat T shu-Khwe-speakers a cquired s heep, c attle a nd p ottery f rom n eighbouring I ron A ge p eople i n Z ambia a nd m igrated s outhwards t o t he C ape c oast, e ventually o ccupying m uch o f t he C ape a nd N amibia. D espite t his l ead, i t h as b een d ifficult t o s ubstantiate t he t heory w ith a rchaeological d ata. T here i s n o a pparent d ifference i n t he s tone a rtefacts o f s ome p re- a nd p ost-herder p eople a t s ites w here b oth o ccur a nd t he p ottery s tyles o f h erders i n t he s outhern C ape b ear n o c lear r elationship t o t hose i n B otswana. I t i s t herefore q uestionable w hether w e c an i ndeed t race p rehistoric m igrations t hrough s tone a rtefacts a nd o ther t echnological i tems, a nd w e n eed a r e-assessment o f t he c hanges w e c ould e xpect i ndeed o ccurred.

t o

f ind

h ad

m igration

T he i ngenuous a cceptance o f t he t heory t hat m igrating p eoples i ntroduced t he m icrolithic t oolmaking t echnique t o s outhern A frica i s s imilar t o t he a ttitudes o f B ritish p rehistorians w ho s aw a ll i nventions a ppearing i n B ritain a s h aving o riginated i n E urope. J . G . D . C lark ( 1966) s uggested t hat t he p reoccupation w ith m igration a mongst B ritish p rehistorians a mounted t o a n i nsular i nferiority c omplex w hich w ould n ot a llow t hem t o c redit a ncient B ritons w ith t he a bility t o i nvent a nything f or t hemselves. I n m uch t he s ame w ay, s outhern

A frican

p rehistorians

h ave

t ended

n ot

t o

c redit

t he

i ndigenous L SA p eople w ith m uch c reativity e ither. T he b eginnings o f d oubt a bout t he s uitability o f m igration a s a r ealistic e xplanation f or t he a ppearance o f a m icrolithic t echnology i n s outhern A frica c an b e s een i n J . D esmond C lark's c ontribution t o t he S econd P an-African C ongress o n P rehistory i n w hich h e s uggests t hat d iffusion o f i deas r ather t han m igration o f p eople w ould h ave b een a m ore l ikely p rocess a nd h e c ites t he s pread o f s moking t obacco i n A frica a s a n e xample o f t he r apidity w ith w hich a p opular t rait h as d iffused t hrough t he s ub-continent i n r ecent t imes ( Clark 1 955:363). T he p roblem o f t he a rchaeological i dentification p opulation

h as

o f

a n

i mmigrant

p roved d ifficult e ven i n c ircumstances w here t here i s

1 3

g ood h istorical e vidence f or t he m igration, e specially w here t he t wo p opulations a re o f t he s ame b asic p hysical t ype a nd u tilized t he s ame f ood r esources. G iles C larke, i n t rying t o t race t he m ovements o f p eople i n L ate R oman t imes i n w estern E urope, c onsiders t hat t he m ajor p roblem i s i n f inding a greement o n t he c riteria b y w hich t he i mmigrant p opulation c an b e r ecognized ( G. C larke 1 975:46-7). T he r eason i s t hat i ndices f or c hange w ill v ary a ccording t o t he t ime, p lace a nd e nvironment. F or e xample, w hile C larke a rgues t hat b urial p ractices a re t he b est c riterion f or i dentifying i ntrusive p opulations i n w estern E urope d uring t he L ate R oman p eriod, A dams ( 1968:209) d emonstrates t hat t hey d o n ot r eflect p opulation m ovements i n N ubia. F urthermore, a rchaeologists i deas h ave c hanged a nd t raits t hat w ere a t o ne t ime t aken t o i ndicate m igration a re n ow s een a s e vidence f or d iffusion i n t he B ronze a nd I ron A ges i n B ritain ( compare J . G . D . C lark 1 966 a nd R enfrew 1 969). T hus, w hile i t m ay b e d esirable t o s et u p t est i mplications f or S tone A ge m igrations i n s outhern A frica, w ithout e thnographic e vidence w e c annot g uess y et a t t he c riteria w hich w ill b e t he m ost r elevant. G iven t he d ifficulties o f r ecognizing m igrant p opulations i n t he L SA r ecord, i t m ay b e m ore r ealistic t o v iew m igrations a s e vents w ithin t he c ontinuum o f d iffusion. T his w ould r ecognize t hat m igrations c an o ccur, b ut b ecause o f t he d ifficulty o f r ecognizing e ither m igration o r d iffusion a rchaeologically, w e a re m ost u nlikely t o f ind u nequivocal e vidence f or e ither w ithout s ome c lues f rom h istoric o r e thnographic r ecords. T hus t o s tress o ne o r t he o ther i s t o o verlook t he m ore i mportant i ssue o f u nderstanding t he r easons f or t he a cceptance o f t he i nnovation i n t he f irst p lace; i n t rying t o d ecide w hether t he b ow a nd a rrow w as i ntroduced t o s outhern A frica b y a p rogressive s on-in-law , b y a n i nvading h orde o f m igrant U gandans, o r b y a y achtload o f E gyptian t ourists, t he v ery f act t hat t hey w ere a ccepted, A s

a n

a dopted a nd a dapted h as b een o verlooked. a lternative

t o

t he

r ather w orn t erm ' diffusion',

T rigger

( 1978:218) s uggests ' cultural b orrowing' a nd i t w ould s eem t o b e a m ore f lexible a nd u seful c oncept. T he w ord ' borrowing' h elps t o s hift t he e mphasis, p lacing t he o nus o n t he r ecipient r ather t han t he d onor i n p assing o n t he n ew i deas a nd t raits, s tressing t he s elective r ole p layed b y t he r ecipient i n t he t ransaction a nd o vercoming t he p assive r ole o f b oth d onor a nd r eceiver i mplicit i n t he d iffusion m odel. T he c riteria f or r ecognizing c hange s timulated b y e nvironmental a nd s ubsistence s trategy s hifts a re n o m ore e xplicit. T hey r equire t hat t here s hould b e c hanges i n t he a rtefact r ecord t hat c oincide w ith c hanges

i n t he r ange o f a nimals h unted

a s

e vident

f rom

t he

f aunal

r emains a nd o ther c limatic i ndicators. W e h ave n o p recedents f rom e thnographic d ata, h owever, t o i ndicate w hether w e s hould e xpect a t ime l ag b etween s ubsistence s hifts a nd t echnological c hange, n or w hether t he s ame c limatic c hange w ill h ave s imilar o r d ifferent e ffects i n d ifferent e cozones. T here a re p recedents i n t he p resent d ay f or t echnology c hanging w ell b efore a djustments i n s ubsistence ( the

p resent-day

K alahari

S an,

f or

e xample,

s till s ubsisted u ntil

r ecently l argely b y h unting a nd g athering, b ut t hey h ave n ot m ade s tone t ools f or o ver 1 00 y ears), a nd f or t he t echnology r emaining s table d uring f undamental c hanges t o t he s ubsistence s ystem ( sites i n s outhern A frica o ften s how n o c hange i n t he s tone t oolkit a fter t he i ntroduction o f d omestic s tock).

I t i s o nly b y c areful

1 4

d ocumentation

o f

a rchaeological

d ata

t hat s how c oincidental c hanges i n t echnology

a nd o ther p arts o f t he s ystem t hat w e s hall b e a ble t o b uild u p a d ata b ase f rom w hich p ertinent c riteria c an b e t ested. F or t he m oment t he d ata w e h ave f or c limatic a nd h abitat c hanges a re s parse a nd o ften c ontradictory, b ut t here i s n o r eason w hy w e s hould n ot b e a ble t o s et u p t estable h ypotheses i n t he f uture, p articularly i n v iew o f t he e xcellent d ata f rom B oomplaas p resented i n t he f ollowing c hapters. W e f ind p atterns b ecause w e l ook f or t hem b ut w e s hall f ind m eaningful p atterns o nly i f w e k now w hat t o l ook f or a nd h ow t o l ook. T his s omewhat c ircular d ilemma u nderlines t he d ifficulties e xperienced b y a rchaeologists i n i nterpreting p rehistoric b ehaviour f rom t he p atchy a rchaeological r ecord. O ur d ecisions o n w hat t o l ook a t a re a lso d etermined b y t he p aradigm w ithin w hich w e a re w orking a t a ny p articular t ime a nd p lace. M any o f t he d isagreements t hat h ave a risen b etween a rchaeologists o ver t he l ast c entury h ave c entred o n t he r elevance o f t he o rganizational o r c lassification s chemes t hat h ave b een p roposed, b ut t he d issatisfaction t hat a rises, p articularly b etween s uccessive g enerations o f a rchaeologists, i s t he r esult n ot s o m uch o f f aulty l ogic, a s o f s hifts i n o ur c oncepts o f w hat a spects o f p rehistoric l ife a re r eflected i n t he a rchaeological r emains a nd w hich o f t hese a re r elevant. O ver t he l ast 6 0 y ears t here h as b een a s hift a way f rom t he b elief t hat c onstellations o f a rtefacts r epresent t he m aterial c ulture o f d istinctive e thnic g roups a nd t hat c hanges i n t he e lements o f t his c onstellation r eflect c hanges i n t he i dentities o f t he m akers, t owards t he b elief t hat c onstellations o f a rtefacts t ell u s m ore a bout w hat t he p eople d id t han w ho t hey w ere. A lmost a ll t he e xplanations o ffered, h owever, r emain p ost h oc a ccommodative o nes t hat p rovide a ' reasonable i nterpretation w ithin a p articular p aradigm . A rchaeology i n g eneral h as b een u nsuccessful i n o ffering e xcept

w here

h omologous

e xplanations

e thnographic p arallels c an b e d rawn s o t hat

w here t hese a re a bsent t he l ife e xpectancy o f a n

e xplanation

m ay

b e

l ess t han t hat o f t he p erson w ho s uggested i t. A s i n p alaeontology, i t i s n ot a s imple m atter t o t est t hese i nterpretations w ithin t he h ypothetico-deductive f ramework a nd, a s e xpressed b y E ldredge ( 1979:17): M any o f t he b iology s tem

c ontroversies i n c ontemporary e volutionary n ot s o m uch f rom t he r elative m erits o f t he

l ogic o r d ata u sed i n a rguing a p articular p oint o f v iew , b ut r ather f rom f undamentally d ifferent a pproaches t aken b y t he i nvestigators w hich a pproach

.. T he a rgument i s, i n t he e nd, t o e volutionary t heory i s t he

o ver m ost

a ppropriate. I t i s e asy e nough t o r esearchers; i t i s

c riticize t he e xplanations o ffered b y o ther l ess e asy t o p ropose a n a lternative t hat w ill b e

b oth a ppropriate a nd w idely a ccepted. T he p atterns

t hat w ill b e s ought i n t his s tudy o f t he

s equence

o f

c hanges i n t he L SA o f s outhernmost A frica a re t hose w hich w e a ssume w ill t ell u s h ow p eople w ere m aking s tone a rtefacts a nd i n w hat w ays t heir

m ethods

p atterns

a nd

g oals c hanged t hrough t he l ast

t echnological

c hange

t o

e vidence

f or

i n

T he

m odern

i dentify t raits c ommon t o a ll t echnological

s ystems a nd t o f ind t hose t hat a re u nique t o t he t he

2 0 0 00 y ears.

t hrough t ime w ill b e c ompared w ith t hose o bserved

c orrelations

b etween

1 5

L SA.

l anguage,

I n

r eviewing

p hysical t ype a nd

c ulture, H odder ( 1978a:12) c oncludes t hat " we c annot b e c onfident t hat a rchaeological c ultures r elate i n a ny s traightforward w ay t o o ther a spects o f

s ocial a nd c ultural l ife",

f or

f ailure

t his

t o

b ut h e c laims

f ind c orrelations i s

t hat

t he

r eason

t hat o ur u sual a pproaches

h ave b een t oo c rude b ecause t hey c onsider " archaeological c ultures a s m ass, c omposite a nd u nitary p henomena" ( ibid.:24). A cknowledging t hat t his

i s a b ias

t hat n eeds a djustment,

t he

N BC, KRA a nd B PA s equences w ill e xplore c omponents o f

t he a ssemblages

T he

a rises,

p roblem

a rtefact

a nalyses

r ather t han t he a ssemblages a s a

h owever,

o f

t he

t he i nter-relationships o f t he

i n t he i nterpretation o f

w hole.

t he r esults.

A lthough e thnographic a nalogues w ill b e a pplied w herever p ossible,

w e

s hall n ever b e a ble t o o btain s ufficient e thnographic e vidence f or t he c onstruction s pecific t o

o f m iddle r ange s outhern A frica.

e xplanations a re f or a rguments

t hat

r ely

t heory f or s tone a rtefact s tudies I t i s, q uite s imply, t oo l ate a nd

t he m ost p art n ecessarily p ost h oc o n e thnographic p arallels

w orld a nd o n c ommon s ense t hat

s eems a ppropriate a t

1 6

a ccommodative

f rom e lsewhere i n t he t he p resent

t ime.

3

E NV IRONMENTS P AST AND P RESENT

F ig. 2 , M ap o f p art o f t he s outhern C ape P rovince s howing t he p osition o f N elson B ay C ave, K angkara a nd B oomplaas a nd o ther s ites m entioned i n t he t ext.

1 8

EN V I R O N M E N T S

T he s outhern C ape, t he

C ape

A gulhas

c oastal

( Heydorn & T inley

n orth,

PR E S E N T

1 980),

s outh.

I n t his s tudy,

i ntermontane c hains

v alleys

t hemselves.

K angkara

( KRA)

a nd B oomplaas m ountain

t o

o f

t he

a bout C ape

s ites e xcavated w ill b e

i n o ne o f

( BPA)

c hains,

a bove

( NBC)

i s

( Fig.

2 ).

w ould

f ill

t his

g eographic f eatures o f w ith

t he

m ore

g ap

i n

b e

o n

t he

c oast,

t he

h ighest

o f

e xcavated

by

d escribed

d etailed s etting o f e ach s ite.

e mphasis

2 0 0 00 y ears

o n

e vidence f or

t he

G oodwin T he m ajor

b elow,

t ogether

I n t he s econd p art o f

t he c hapter t he e vidence f or p ast e nvironments w ill b e r eviewed, p articular

t he

a nd t he m ountain

t he s ampling p rogramme.

t he z ones w ill

t he

N o s ite f rom t he c oastal

f orelands h as b een i ncluded, b ut O akhurst c ave, ( 1938)

z ones: l evel,

i ntermontane v alleys,

s outhern s lopes o f

S wartberg

s ea

s ituated

t he m ajor e ast/west

i s o n t he t he

m

F old M ountains,

N elson B ay C ave

i s

6 00

1 00

o nly t hat p ortion o f

T he s outhern C ape h as b een s ubdivided i nto t hree h abitat l owlands

i n

i n t he

t o e ast a nd a bout

h owever,

t he s outhern C ape i n t he v icinity o f t he t hree d iscussed i n d etail ( Fig. 2 ).

c oast a nd c oastal

s tudy o f f rom C ape

t he C ape F old M ountain B elt

a n a rea o f a pproximately 6 50 km f rom w est

f rom n orth t o

e xtends

t o C ape P adrone i n t he e ast a nd f rom t he c oast

t he s outh t o t he i nterior m argin o f km

AN D

a s d efined f or t he p urposes o f a r ecent

r egions

i n t he w est

PA S T

c limatic

w ith

c hange o ver t he l ast

i n t he s outhern C ape.

P RESENT D AY E NVIRONMENTS T HE C OAST A ND C OASTAL L OWLANDS T he

s outhern

C ape

w estward-facing a rms o f a nd

c oastline

h alf-heart

b ays

i s

m arked

b y

a

t he C ape F old M ountains w hich e xtend i nto t he

t he c lockwise R eturn A gulhas C urrent w hich s cours

a nd d eposits s andy

t he s and l oad a long

b eaches

a re

i nterrupted

s eries

o f

f ormed b y t he p resence o f r esistant

s andy b y

b eaches

s ea

a s

c apes,

t he c apes c lean

b etween

t hem.

T he

b locked r iver m ouths a nd b y r ock

c liffs w here t he m ountains c ome c lose t o t he s hore

( Taljaard 1 949:102;

H eydorn & T inley 1 980). I mmediately

i nland

f rom

t he c oast

t he g ently u ndulating p lain o f

t he c oastal l owlands i s a bout 2 0 km w ide i n t he w est, n arrowing t o a f ew km i n t he e ast w here m ountains c ome c loser t o t he c oast. O n t he c oastal l owlands,

b asement r ocks

o f

t he

T able

M ountain

G roup

a re

o verlain i n p arts b y s urficial d eposits o f b oth c ontinental a nd m arine o rigin, p articularly w indblown s ands a nd C retaceous e stuarine c onglomerates

o f t he E non S eries o r t heir r e-worked d erivatives.

l owland i s e levated t o a bout 6 00 m a bove s ea l evel, t o

t he

s ea.

s helving

I t i s d eeply d issected b y a n umber o f s hort r ivers a nd

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g orges

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T he

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v icinity

i n

o f N elson B ay c ave a fter E uropean c ontact a nd t he f irst

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1 9

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( Skead 1 980 :813).

T he c limate o f t he c oast a nd c oastal l owlands h as b een d escribed i n a s implified K oppen c lassification a s C fb ( Schulze & M cGee 1 978:38-9), i .e. a w arm t emperate c limate w ithout f rost, s ufficient p recipitation d uring a ll m onths a nd w ith t he w armest m onth b elow 2 2 d egrees C , b ut a t l east f our m onths a bove 1 0 d egrees C . T he s outhern C ape e ast o f M ossel B ay i s s ituated b etween t he s ummer a nd w inter r ainfall r egions o f S outh A frica a nd t hus r eceives r ain f rom b oth w eather s ystems t hroughout t he y ear, b ut w ith p eaks i n s pring a nd a utumn. R elief e xerts a m arked i nfluence o n r ainfall o f t he r egion, m uch o f w hich i s o rographic. T his c an b e s een c learly i n t he d iagram b elow w hich s hows t hat s ites o n t he w indward s lopes ( south f acing), a s f or e xample G eorge, r eceive m uch m ore r ain t han t hose s uch a s O udtshoorn i n t he r ain s hadow.

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6 10

0

T he v egetation o n t he c oast a nd c oastal l owland r anges f rom C oastal C liff F ynbos o n t he r ocky c oastal a reas f rom K nysna t o N ature's V alley ( east o f M atjes R iver o n F ig. 2 ), t hrough A fromontane t emperate f orest o n t he c oastal p lain a nd w etter s lopes, t o M ountain F ynbos o n t he m ountain s lopes. T he C oastal C liff F ynbos i s c haracterized b y a g eneral l ack o f p roteoid s pecies a nd i s m ore a kin t o M ountain F ynbos t han t o t he C oastal F ynbos f ound f arther w est b ecause i t o ccurs o n a s imilar q uartzite s ubstrate

( Taylor 1 970).

T he

A fromontane

f orest,

k nown l ocally a s K nysna f orest, h as a d istinctive p lant c ommunity f or a lthough s everal s pecies a re c ommon t o t he m ontane f orests o f t ropical A frica, s everal o thers a re s ubtropical s pecies. T he t wo y ellowwoods, P odocarpus l atifolius a nd P . f alcatus, f or e xample, a re r elicts o f t he o lder s outhern C ape f lora w hich i s n ot f ound f arther n orth ( Von B reitenbach 1 974:12). T he a mount o f p lant f ood a vailable t o h erbivores i s l ess i n t he f orest t han i n m ore o pen a reas, b ut i n e arly h istoric t imes ( 17th t o 1 9th c enturies) t here w ere o pen g lades w ith c oarse g rasses u sed b y b uffalo a nd r ed h artebeest ( Skead 1 980). O ther l arger m ammals n oted b y e arly t ravellers i n t his a rea i nclude e land, b lue a ntelope ( now e xtinct), b ushbuck, b lue d uiker, e lephant, h ippopotamus, C ape l ion, c aracal, l ynx, s potted h yaena, b ushpig, v ervet m onkey a nd b aboon ( Skead 1 980). T hunberg ( 1795:190) n oted m any s eals b asking o n t he r ocks o f t he R obberg P eninsula n ear N elson B ay c ave. T he m arine e nvironment f rom P lettenberg B ay t o C ape S t c lassified

w ithin

t he

w arm-temperate

2 1

F rancis

i s

s outh c oast o f B rown & J arman

( 1978 :1257 f f).

S outh o f

3 0 d egrees S l atitude

t he

w arm

M ozambique

c urrent i s j oined b y t he s outhern s tream o f t he S outh E quatorial c urrent a nd b ecomes w hat i s k nown a s t he A gulhas c urrent o ff t he s outh-east a nd s outh C ape c oast. I t i s r elatively f ast-flowing a nd c losely f ollows t he e dge o f t he c ontinental s helf, h ere s ome 9 0 k m s outh o f P lettenberg B ay a nd w idening t o t he s outh a nd w est, b ut n arrowing t o t he n orth a nd e ast. A lthough t he t emperature o f t he c urrent d rops a s i t m oves s outh, t he c ore r emains a t s ome 2 5 d egrees C s outh o f P lettenberg B ay. T he i nfluence o f l ocal w ind p atterns a nd t he l ifting o f c old I ntermediate a nd C entral A ntarctic w ater o nto t he c ontinental s helf i n s ummer, h owever, c an c ause r apid a nd e xtreme t emperature f luctuations s o t hat t he l owest a nd h ighest t emperatures l imit t he d istribution o f s pecies i nvading f rom t he w armer e ast c oast s hores a nd t he c ooler w est c oast ( Brown & J arman 1 978:1257).

T he s etting o f N elson B ay c ave N elson B ay c ave ( 32.6.10 S ; 2 3.22.30 E ) i s s ituated o n t he s outhward s ide o f t he e ast-west t rending R obberg P eninsula, n ear t he j unction o f t he p eninsula w ith t he m ainland a nd a bout 6 k m s outh o f t he v illage o f P lettenberg B ay ( Fig. 3 ). R ocks o f t he T able M ountain G roup a nd C retaceous E non c onglomerate f orm t he f oundations o f t he p eninsula a nd, a s t hey d ip a way f rom t he s ea o n t he n orthern s ide, p recipitous c liffs r esult. O n t he s outh s ide, s loping s urf r uns l eave s andy p atches b etween r ocky s hores ( Rogers 1 966:5-6). T he p revailing s outh-westerly w inds h ave f ormed d une s ands o n t he s outh-east s ide o f t he p eninsula a nd o n t he t op o f t he c liffs i n p laces. O n t he l andward ( western) s ide, t he p eninsula r eaches a h eight o f 7 3 m a .s.1., r ising t o 1 53 m e ast o f t he G ap. W est o f t he C ape S eal l ighthouse o n t he e astern e nd i t i s s till h igh a t 1 45 m , b ut d rops r apidly t o s ea l evel a t t he p oint. T he r ocky s hores o f t he R obberg P eninsula a re i nhabited b y t he t ypical s outh c oast f auna l isted i n T able 1 , d ominated b y t he b rown m ussel,

P erna p erna.

T he m ost c ommon l impets a re P atella c ochlear, P .

g ranularis a nd P . o culus. T hose s pecies t hat h ave b een i dentified i n t he N BC d eposits a re m arked i n T able 1 . F ish a bound o n t he s heltered n orthern s ide o f t he p eninsula a nd l ine f ishing i s s till p opular o n b oth s ides o f t he p eninsula t oday. W hales a nd d olphins a re r egularly s een i n P lettenberg B ay, b ut t he s eals n oted b y T hunberg a nd a pparently h unted o r c ollected b y t he S tone A ge i nhabitants o f t he c ave a re n o

l onger p resent.

D etailed w eather d ata a re n ot a vailable f or a s ite i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f P lettenberg B ay, b ut c limographs f or G eorge a nd C ape S t B laize a re p resented i n F ig. 4 t o d emonstrate t he e quability o f t emperature i n s imilarly s ituated s ites. T he d ifference i n r ainfall b etween C ape S t B laize a nd G eorge i s d ue t o t he f act t hat G eorge i s c loser t o

t he m ountains a nd t herefore r eceived m ore r ain.

c ave

i n a s ituation m ore s imilar t o t hat o f C ape S t B laize w ith a

i s

m ean a nnual r ainfall o f b etween 6 00 a nd

7 00

m m

a nd

a

N elson m ean

B ay

a nnual

t emperature o f a bout 1 7 d egrees C ( Fuggle & A shton 1 979). V egetation

o n

t he

p eninsula

a nd

s urrounds

v aries a ccording t o

s ubstrate a nd a spect. T aylor ( 1970) c onducted a s urvey o f t he v egetation f or t he I nternational B iological P rogramme a nd r ecognized

2 2

F ig.

3 .

N elson B ay C ave a nd t he R obberg P eninsula.

2 3

f ive p lant c ommunities o n t he p eninsula: a . b . c . d . e .

E rica-Phylica m icrophyllous e vergreen s teppe f ynbos P hylica-Passerina m icrophyllous e vergreen s teppe c oast f ynbos M etalasia-Restio g rey e vergreen m icrophyllous s hrub p seudo-savanna E riocephalus o pen m icrophyllous e vergreen s crub M esophyllous o pen m icrophyllous e vergreen s crub.

N elson B ay C ave i tself i s s urrounded b y p lants o f c ommunity ( e) w ith w oody s hrubs a nd c limbers t hat a re a bsent o n t he r ockier n orthern c oast o f t he p eninsula. A ll f ive c ommunities a re g rouped u nder t he g eneral h eading o f C oastal C liff F ynbos w hich T aylor ( 1978) d escribes a s o ccurring a long t he e ntire l ength o f t he r ocky c oast b etween K nysna a nd N ature's V alley. A f ull l ist o f t he e dible a nd m edicinal p lants f ound o n t he R obberg P eninsula i s g iven i n T able 2 . I n g eneral i t i s c lear t hat, t oday a t l east, t he v egetation o n t he p eninsula w ould n ot p rovide p lant f ood . s taples i n a ny q uantity a nd t hose b erries a nd f ruits t hat a re p resent a re h ighly s easonal a nd n ot a bundant. T hey a re m ost p lentiful i n s pring a nd s ummer. O n t he w indblown s ands n orth a nd e ast o f t he p eninsula a nd i nland f rom t he b each t he v egetation i s i nvaded b y a liens t oday, b ut w ould p robably h ave b een s imilar t o T aylor's S outh C oast S crub ( Taylor 1 978:213) w hich i s d ominated b y t he m elkhoutboom o r m ilkwood t ree, S ideroxylon i nerme, w hich h as e dible b erries ( C. A . S mith 1 966). W here t he s ubstrate p rovides b etter s oils, a s i n t he v alleys o f t he P iesang a nd B itou r ivers a nd a f ew k m i nland f rom t he c oast, t he A fromontane K nysna f orest i s p rominent. I t i s a t p resent g reatly d epleted a nd t he t ransition f rom f ynbos/South C oast S crub t o f orest c ould h ave b een c loser t o t he c oast i n

f ormer

t imes.

H owever,

t he

d istribution o f s oils m akes i t u nlikely t hat t he f orest w as e ver m uch c loser t o N BC t han t he v alley o f t he P iesang R iver a bout 5 k m t o t he n orth ( Fig. 3 ). T he f irst w ritten d escription o f P lettenberg B ay i s t hat o f D uarte P echeco P ereira w ho a ccompanied B artholomeu D iaz o n p art o f h is r eturn j ourney

f rom

t he

s outhernmost

t ip

o f

A frica

i n

1 488.

H e m akes

p articular m ention o f t he B eacon I sland a t P lettenberg B ay a nd t he n umerous s eals a nd s ea b irds t here ( Storrar 1 978). I n 1 630 t he s urvivors o f t he S an G onzales, w ho h ad b een s hipwrecked o ff R obberg b each, b uilt a h ouse a nd a c hurch a nd, l ater, t wo s mall v essels i n w hich t hey e ventually s ailed a way. T hey s tayed a bout e ight m onths f rom l ate A ugust a nd t heir a ccount i s o f p articular i nterest b ecause t hey m et a nd b artered w ith a g roup o f K hoi h erders w ho h ad b oth c attle a nd s heep: T hese

s avages a re n ot q uite b lack,

t hey g o a bout n aked w ith

a s mall p iece o f s kin a round t heir l oins; i n w inter t hey a dd t o t his c apes o f t he s ame. T hey w ear c opper b racelets o n t heir a rms, a nd a round t heir n ecks t he s inews o f o xen ..They

h ave n o t owns, b ut w ander a bout i n b ands w ith t heir

f locks, a fter t he m anner o f t he A rabs. S ome, b ut n ot a ll, c arry p ortable t ents m ade o f s takes a nd m ats .. T hey i nvited o ur m en t o p artake o f c ake, w hich a ppeared t o b e m ade o f t he f lour o f r oots a nd o xen's d ung k neaded t ogether.

2 4

T able 2 . E dible a nd m edicinal p lants r ecorded o n t he R obberg P eninsula, a fter T aylor ( 1970).

A SSOC IAT ION 1

2

D ESCR IPT ION

S PEC IES

E rica-P hylica

A gathosma o vata W ilde b oegoe

M icrophy llous E vergreen S teppe F ynbos P hylicaP asserina

M icrophy llous E vergreen S teppe C oast F ynbos

3

M etalasiaR estio G ray

E vergreen M icrophy llous S hrub P seudoS avanna 4

E riocephalus

O pen M icrop hy llous E verg reen S crub

C OMMON N AME

M esophy llous E vergreen B road S c lerophy ll M ixed C oasta l S crub

M ed ic ina l

V irgilia o roboides

K eurboom

G um u sed a s s tarch

E riocephalus u mbellatus E uclea r acemosa R hus c renata R hus g lauca S ideroxylon i nerme Z ygophy//um m orgsana A gathosma a pieulata A stephanus n eglectus

W ilderoosm aryn B osghwarr ie K orentebessie K orentebess ie M e lkhoutboom

K apok/ l eaves E d ib le f ru it E d ib le f ru it E d ib le f ru it E d ib le b erry

V etbos

S tock f ood

° lea e xasperata C hironia b accif era C arpobrotus a cinaciförmis E uclea r acemosa R hus m ucronata

S langhout A ambe ibessie

K noffe lboegoe M ed ic ina l i nfusion B okhor ing E d ib le b uds O ct/Nov A nt i-snakeb ite R emedy f or p iles E d ib le a nd S our f ig m ed ic ina l E d ib le f ru it B osghwarr ie dub le f ru it K orentebessie E

C hironia A ambe ibessie b accifera P elargonium o f M alva i nquinans/ zonate R hoicissus B oesmansdru if d igitata C apparis s epia- C ape c aper na Z ygophyllum V etbos m orgsana C arissa b ispin- N um-numbos o sa G rewia K ru isbessie o ccidentalis C assine t etra- D roö lewer g ona K edrostis n ana Y stervark-

p atats

5

K NOWN U SE

R emedy f or p iles M ed ic ina l E d ib le f ru it D ec-March E d ib le b uds S tock f ood E d ib le f ru it E d ib le d rupes W ood f or b ows A str ingent e d ib le f ru it T uberous e d ib le r ootstock e aten b y a n ima ls E d ible b erry

S ideroxylon M e lkhoutboom i nerme R hoicissus B oesmansdru if E d ib le f ru it d igitata D ec-March C a pparis C ape c aper E d ib le b uds s epiaria L ycium S langbessie ?E d ib le c ampanulatum f ru its K edrostis n ana Y stervark p atat ? E d ib le roö lewer A str ingent C assine t etra- D e d ib le f ru it g ona N um-numbos E d ib le b erry C arissa b ispinosa K orentebessie E d ib le f ru it R hus c renata V etbo s S tock f ood Z ygophyllum m orgsana E uclea r acemosa B osghwarr ie E d ib le f ru it C hrysanthemoi - B ietou J u icy e d ib le d es m onilifera f ru it O ct-May C arpobrotus H otnot svy E d ib le f ru it e dulis

N ote: I nformat ion o n c ommon n ames a nd k nown u sage f rom S m ith, C .A .

2 5

( 1966).

OUDTSHOORN 0

GEORGE o

I -

0

-0 Mean monthly r a infa l l

CAPE ST BLA IZE . 1

1 1 .

-

M

Mean month ly t emperature (m in4 max) 2

A - A--A

o M.

M T

1 9 80/8 1

1 980/8 1

1 00

/

-

.

o

/

.\

4• 1

o 6 0

o

0

o/

A -

A

—

.

o M A

M J

0

A.

l

l

A S

l

I

i

l l

O N D J F

l

l

0 II I I I J A S O N D J F

l

M A N J

1 92 11980

1 92 1 -1 950

o /\

80

0/0

A.A. . ' A ,-A -

40

. Ar

0

A -'4 . . . 0 0- 0

/ .

/

o

\

0 . 1 ‘ 1 : .

/

,

\

• • •

' A

AA

,A

A . .- A--A-

, A, -A-

ll M A

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ec 1 92 1-1980 . -40

A

s

s

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-

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L '

o

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F ig.

A S

4 .

O N

D J F

M A N . )

C limographs

a ll s tations

f rom t he

J A S

O N D J

F M

A M J

J

A

SO N

DJ

f or s elected s tations i n t he s outhern C ape. S outh A frican W eather B ureau,

2 6

P retoria.

F M A

M J

D ata f or

T hey a lso e at t he f lesh o f t he o xen, b ut a lmost r aw, a s n o s ooner i s i t p ut o n t he f ire, w hich i s m ade b y r ubbing t wo s ticks t ogether, t han t hey t ake i t o ff a gain .. T heir a re a ssegaais a nd b ows ( quoted i n S torrar 1 978:16). T he

p resence

o f

a rms

p eople w ith c attle a nd s heep a long t his c oast w ould

s uggest t hat t here w ere a reas w hich i ncluded s uitable g razing a nd t hat m ovement w as p ossible i nland t hrough t he f orest. O ne o f t he p lants i dentified b y T aylor ( 1979) a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he p eninsula i s Z ygophyllum m orgsana, t he v etbos. C . A . S mith ( 1966:483) d escribes i t a s a r obust s hrub o f u p t o 1 ,2 m h igh w hich w as t aken t o H olland a bout A .D. 1 700 t o b e c ultivated a s a s tock f ood. T his w ould p resumably h ave p rovided s uitable c attle f eed i n t he C oastal C liff F ynbos w here t he g rass e lement i s r educed. T he f act t hat t he K hoi w ere e ating ' cakes o f w hat w as v ery l ikely g round c orms r ather t han r oots s uggests, t oo, t hat g eophytes w ere r eadily a vailable i n t he v icinity.

I NTERMONTANE V ALLEYS O F T HE C APE F OLD M OUNTAINS T he

C ape F old M ountains i n t he s outhern C ape a re c omposed o f r ocks

o f t he C ape S upergroup w ith e ast-west t rending r anges o f p redominantly T able M ountain S andstone. E ach o f t he r anges i s c omposed o f m ultiple a nticlines o verfolded t o t he n orth a nd b ounded o n t he s outh b y p rominent f aults f orming a s eries o f i ntermontane v alleys p arallel w ith t he c oast a nd t he m ountain r anges.

B okkeveld

s hales

a re

o ften

e xposed o n t he v alley f loors. T he m ost p ersistent r anges i n t he s outhern C ape a re t he S wartberg t o t he n orth a long t he s outhern b oundary o f t he G reat K aroo, a nd t he O uteniqua t o t he s outh j ust i nland o f t he c oastal l owlands. B etween t hem t he f olded c hain i s b roken a nd i mpersistent, b ut t he K ammanassie, K ouga a nd B aviaanskloof r anges a re p rominent i n t he r egion d iscussed h ere ( Fig. 2 ). T he S wartberg r each a m aximum e levation o f a bout 2 1 00 m , b ut t he O uteniquas a re l ower w ith a m aximum h eight o f 1 6 00 m t o t he e ast o f K angkara c ave. T he

m ost

p rominent

o f

t he

i ntermontane v alleys i s k nown a s t he

L angkloof. I t i s f ormed b etween t he O uteniqua a nd T sitsikama m ountains t o t he s outh a nd t he K ouga a nd B aviaanskloof r anges t o t he n orth, a nd i s d rained m ostly b y t he K rom R iver w hich f lows e astwards a nd e mpties i nto t he s ea n ear C ape S t F rancis. F rom A vontuur i n t he w est t o K areedouw i n t he e ast t he L angkloof i s s ome 1 25 km l ong a t i ts w idest p oint, a bout 5 k m a cross a t t he 9 00 m c ontour. W ith

a nnual p recipitation a t Avontuur a bout 4 50 m m,

a nd,

t he c limate o f

t he L angkloof a nd v icinity i s s emi-arid ( BsK i n t he K oppen c lassification u sed b y S chulze & M cGee ( 1978:39)), a lthough t he K rom a nd o ther r ivers a nd s treams p rovide a p ermanent w ater s upply i n t he v alley i tself. A c limograph f or U niondale, t he w eather s tation n earest t o K angkara c ave, i s g iven b elow ( Fig. 5 ) t o i llustrate a d ry s ummer a nd s hallow r ainfall p eaks i n s pring a nd a utumn. T he

v egetation

o n

t he

q uartzitic

m ountain

s lopes

K angkara a nd t hrough t he L angkloof i s M ountain F ynbos f orms d epending o n 1 979) w ith e ricoid, G rasses

i ncrease

s urrounding

i n a v ariety

o f

s oils, a spect a nd r ainfall ( Taylor 1 978; K ruger p roteoid a nd r estioid s pecies p redominating.

w ith s oil f ertility a nd s ummer r ainfall t o t he e ast

2 7

( Kruger 1 979:96) a nd t rees a re r are a nd g enerally c onfined t o w ell-watered k loofs. T he v egetation o n t he v alley f loors p rior t o t he s ettlement o f E uropean f armers i s l ikely, f rom t he B okkeveld s ubstrate a nd t he r emarks o f e arly t ravellers s uch a s S chrijver ( Mossop 1 931), t o h ave b een r enosterveld. L arger m ammals n oted b y S parrman ( 1785:269 f f) i nclude e lephant, b uffalo a nd h artebeest, a s w ell a s s maller b rowsers s uch a s b ushbuck a nd g rysbok. T hunberg ( 1795:53, 5 8) a dded e land a nd o ribi t o t his l ist a nd r emarks t hat t heir o xen w ere a ttacked b y h yaena i n t he L angkloof.

1 92 11950

0 mm

C

6 0

3 0

2

1 0

0

F ig.

A °

5 .

JA S O N D J F M A M J

0

C limograph f or U niondale n ear K angkara C ave.

T he f lat t opography, p ermanent w ater s upply a nd s oils d erived f rom B okkeveld s hales m ade t he L angkloof a n i deal r oute f or t ravellers w ho w ished t o a void t he d ense v egetation a nd s teep v alleys o f t he c oastal f orelands t o t he s outh a nd t he d ry K aroo t o t he n orth. T he m ajority o f

t he

E uropean

t ravellers o f t he

1 7th-19th c enturies w ere l ed t his

w ay b y K hoi g uides w ho k new t he r oute t o b e r eliable a nd r elatively e asy f or o x w aggons a nd h orses. T he f irst o f t hese t ravellers t o h ave r ecorded h is i mpressions i n p rint w as E nsign S chrijver w ho w as c ommissioned t o t ake a p arty t o t he e astern C ape b y l and i n 1 689 ( Mossop 1 931). H aving p assed t o t he n orth o f M ossel B ay o n 2 5 J anuary, t hey w ere s hown a w ay t hrough t he m ountains i nland b y a ' Gauris H ottentot ( Mossop 1 931:219) w ho l ed t hem a cross t he A ttaquaskloof, s till u sed t oday a s a p ass t hrough t he O uteniqua m ountains f rom t he c oast. T he v egetation w as s o t hick t hat t hey b urned t he b ush i n o rder t o g et t he o x w aggons t hrough. O n e ntering t he L angkloof h e r emarked o n t he ' Rhenocers B osjes' ( renosterbos) a nd t he g ood s upply o f w ater a nd p asturage. H e w as t old o f ak raal o f A ttaquas H ottentots s outh o f t he O uteniqua m ountains, b ut d ecided n ot t o v isit t hem ( op. c it.:222). H aving m oved n orth a nd o ut o f t he L angkloof i nto t he K aroo, t hey m et m ore t han 1 50 m embers o f H eijkon's k raal b etween t he p resent-day t owns o f W illowmore a nd A berdeen a nd t raded w ith t hem o btaining m ore t han 5 00 h ead o f c attle a nd a f lock o f s heep ( op. c it.:236). T wo o ther g roups w ere s een i n t he a rea: t he S onquase w ho h ad b een i n b attle a gainst t he A ttaquas h aving a ttacked t hem

d uring t he n ight ( op.

c it.:239),

a nd t he H ongliquase w ho,

t ried t o s teal c attle f rom S chrijver's p arty, w ere k illed ( op.

c it.:241).

2 8

w ere s hot a t;

h aving

a bout

3 0

T he p resence o f K hoi i n t he L angkloof i tself i s a ttested b y s everal o f t he l ater t ravellers. S parrman, f or e xample, s ays t hat i n O ctober 1 775 h e m et: l arge

n umbers

o f

f ugitive

H ottentots o f b oth s exes

. . .

M ost o f t hese f ugitives c arried a t hick s tout s taff, g enerally h eaded w ith a h eavy g ritstone o f t wo p ounds w eight o r m ore, r ounded o ff, a nd w ith a h ole b ored t hrough t he m iddle o f i t, i n o rder t o i ncrease t he f orce o f t he s tick f or t he p urpose o f d igging u p r oots a nd b ulbs o ut o f t he g round; a nd a t t he s ame t ime f or p iercing t he h ard c lay h illocks, w hich a re f ormed • • . b y a k ind o f a nts . . . o f w hich t he B oshies-men - s f ood i n a g reat m easure c onsists ( Sparrman 1 785:306). T he f ugitive a spect i s a lso s tressed b y T hunberg ( 1795:59) w ho w as i n t he L angkloof i n N ovember 1 773 a nd s aw H ottentots b eing " obliged t o g ive w ay" t o t he D utch c olonists a nd " quit t heir n ative p lains."

T he s etting o f K angkara c ave K angkara, n amed a fter a s tream o f t he s ame n ame, i s s ituated a t 3 3.47.40 S ; 2 3.05 E o n t he f arm O shoek ( formerly A poolskraal) i n t he G eorge d istrict, a f ew k m t o t he s outh a nd w est o f t he w estern e nd o f t he L angkloof a nd s ome 4 5 k m N NW o f N elson B ay c ave. T he K angkara s tream f lows i ntermittently a bout 3 0 m f rom t he c ave m outh, j oining t he K eurbooms R iver w hich e mpties i nto t he s ea a f ew km e ast o f P lettenberg B ay a nd N elson B ay c ave. T he c ave i s f ormed i n a f old o f T able M ountain S andstone a t a n e levation o f a bout 4 50 m a bove s ea l evel a nd i s s urrounded b y M ountain F ynbos. B eing o n t he l ee s lopes o f t he O uteniqua r ange, i ts s urrounds a re r elatively d ry. I ts s ituation i nland m akes i t h otter a nd d rier i n s ummer t han c oastal s tations ( compare c limographs f rom C ape S t B laize a nd U niondale i n F igs 3 a nd 4 ).

T HE C APE F OLD M OUNTAIN B ELT T he e levation a nd a spect o f t he m ountain s lopes i n t he s outhern C ape i s s o v aried t hat i t w ould b e o f l ittle r elevance t o d escribe t hem i n d etail h ere. T hey a re, a s h as b een m entioned, c haracterized b y h igher r ainfall o n t he s outhward-facing s lopes a nd M ountain F ynbos s pecies o n t hese s lopes t herefore d iffer f rom t hose o n t he n orthern l ee s lopes. T he h ighest p eaks i n t he S wartberg r ise t o o ver 2 0 00 m . S now f alls o nly o ccasionally i n t he w inter a nd i s r are o n r anges o ther t han t he S wartberg. F rost, h owever, i s m ore c ommon a nd i s a l imiting f actor f or s ome f ynbos s pecies.

T he s etting o f B oomplaas c ave B oomplaas s ome

( 33.23 S ;

2 2.11 E ), A frikaans f or T ree F arm,

7 0-80 km f rom t he c oast o n t he s outhern ( windward)

f oothills o f t he S wartberg m ountain r ange, b ut r ainfall h igher

t han

i s

l ocated

s lopes o f t he i s

n ot

m uch

a t K angkara b ecause o f t he i ncreased d istance i nland ( ca

2 9

4 00 m m p .a. a t C ango C aves n ear B oomplaas v s 4 50 m m p .a. a t U niondale n ear K angkara). T he c limate i s c lassified a s B sK ( Schulze & M cGee 1 978:39) w ith a m ean a nnual t emperature o f 1 6,4 d egrees C . A c limograph f or t he C ango C aves i s p resented b elow a nd c an b e c ompared w ith t hat f or t he d rier a nd h otter s tation o f O udtshoorn i n t he l ee o f t he O uteniquas t o t he s outh ( Figs 4 a nd 6 ). A f eature o f t he C ango V alley b elow B oomplaas c ave i s t he p ermanent G robbelaar - s R iver w hich d raws w ater a ll y ear r ound f rom t he h igher s lopes o f t he S wartberg.

1 955 - 1 980 • ° C

1 1f 1 1

6 0

3 0

2 0

1 0

J A S

F ig.

6 .

O N

DJ

F M A

M J

C limograph f or t he C ango C aves.

V egetation i n t he e nvirons o f B PA i s m odified b y t he r elatively u nusual p resence o f a l imestone s ubstrate, a s i s d escribed i n d etail i n M offett & D eacon ( 1977). T he d etailed g eology o f t he C ango V alley ( a l ocal t erm f or t he v alleys o f t he G robbelaars a nd M atjes r ivers w hich d rain e ast a nd w estwards r espectively a nd e mpty i nto t he O lifants R iver t o t he s outh) h as b een m apped a nd d escribed b y R oussouw e t

a l.

( 1964)

a nd m ore r ecently b y L e R oux ( 1977).

T he r ocks o f t he

C ango G roup, w hich i nclude k arstic l imestones i n w hich C ango, B oomplaas a nd s ome t en o ther c ave s ystems i n t he v alley h ave f ormed, u nderlie t hose o f t he C ape S upergroup w hich f orm t he C ape F old M ountains, h aving b een e xposed h ere d ue t o u pfaulting o n t he s outhern m argin o f t he S wartberg. T his u pfaulting h as a lso e xposed a v ariety o f o ther r ocks s uch a s h ornfels, g reywackes a nd q uartz v eins w hich h ave b een u sed f or s tone a rtefacts b y t he c ave i nhabitants. T he f lora i s m arked b y a h igh s pecies d iversity a nd a l arge

n umber

o f m onotypic f amilies r epresented i n s even v egetation t ypes r ecognized f rom 1 3 p lots a cross t he v alley. T he v egetation t ypes r ange f rom C losed W oodland, a t p resent r estricted t o l imited a reas o f a lluvium i n w ater c ourses o n t he e astern s ide o f t he v alley, t hrough B ush-Shrub-Grass-Herbland o n t he l imestone s ubstrate, t o s everal f orms o f D ense S hrubland; ( 1977).

T he

t hey a re d escribed i n d etail i n M offett &

f loristic

D eacon

s urvey h as b een i nstructive i n d emonstrating

t hat t here a re v ery f ew p lant f oods i n t he v icinity o f t he c ave t oday, a nd n one o f t hese w ould p rovide a p lant f ood s taple f or a ny l ength o f t ime. T his i s l argely b ecause t he g eophytes a re u nder-represented,

3 0

a lthough

t hey

m ay

b e m ore c ommon i n p lant c ommunities o n t he h igher

a nd b etter-watered S wartberg s lopes. O nly H ypoxis v illosa, w hich i s p lentiful u nder r enosterbos, w ould p rovide s uitable s ustenance. T he l imestone s ubstrate i s i mportant s uitable

f or g rass

i n

p roviding

m ay h ave b een a r eason f or t he p ersistence o f t he

s ite,

a nd

a n

e nvironment

m ore

t han i s p resent o n s urrounding s ubstrates a nd t his

i ndeed

f or

t he

r egular

g razers

i n t he f auna

o ccupation

o f

a t

t he s ite b y

h unters. T he C ango a rea h as c entury

a nd

v alley t o ( 1795:53) I n 1 797,

t he

t he

b een

f irst

w est

w rote o f

o f

t he

B PA

b etween

i n

' Kankou',

B arrow ( 1801:364)

" situated

k nown

h istorically

s ince

t he

1 756

( Green

1 955:118).

a scribing t he n ame t o

t he

a bundance o f o striches,

d escribed t he C ango V alley a s a K aroo p lain . . . O n

h erds o f Q uachas,

a re

a n

Z ebras a nd H artebeests."

t hese

p lains

I n

t he e arly 1 9th c entury, K hoisan p eople w ere s till p resent a rea i n s mall n umbers a s u sed

J .

B oomplaas

c ave

' Bushman

r aiders. t he

i n

i s s uggested b y G reen's a ccount

B otha w ho b uilt

s een

a s

i n

t he

i n

S pohr

g razing t o b e a t

t he B oomplaas

s heep

i n t he C ango ( 1955:120) o f

f arm h ouse i n 1 810

a nd

k raal t o p rotect h is a nimals f rom

f or t he p resence o f t hese

s heep

c an

b e

t he f orm o f a t hick l ayer o f b urnt s heep d ung o ccupation

v alley m eant

t imes o f d rought, 1 968:114;

a

Evidence

c ave

o verlying t he S tone A ge s upply

T hunberg l ocal K hoi.

t he f irst a nd s econd c hain o f m ountains, b ut b eing

w ell w atered b y t he m ountain s treams

C ommandant L .

m id-18th

E uropean f armers s ettled i n t he M atjes R iver

t hat

p articularly 1 973:35). i ts b est

h orizons.

T he

p ermanent

w ater

i t w as a u seful r efuge f or s tock a t

i n

s ummer

( Forbes

1 967:134;

T oday l ocal f armers c onsider

G rill

t he n atural

i n s pring a nd a utumn.

S OUTHERN C APE P ALAEOENVIRONMENTS O F T HE LAST 2 0 0 00 Y EARS Over t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears

t he c limate

t hroughout

t he

w orld

h as

u ndergone d ramatic c hanges f rom t he L ast G lacial Maximum a bout 1 8 0 00 y ears a go w hen t emperatures w ere b etween 5 a nd 1 0 d egrees C l ower t han a t

p resent,

t o c onditions

s imilar t o t hose o f t oday a fter

T hese c limatic s hifts h ave l ong b een r ecognized, t he l ast d ecade, s tudies

b y

i nformation

t he

C LIMAP

p rogramme

o n t he d ating,

h as

c limates a t

h as

b een t he

i nformation

i t

1 0 0 00 B .P.

i s o nly w ithin

p articularly w ith t he i mpetus g iven t o p alaeoclimatic

w orldwide c hanges h owever,

b ut

b ecome

d irected

G lacial

a vailable

( CLIMAP

1 976)

t hat

d etailed

n ature a nd g eographical v ariation o f a vailable. a t

t he

M aximum o n

M uch

o f

t his

r econstruction

a nd

t here

c onditions

i s

o f

t he w orld's

r elatively

i mmediately

t hese

r esearch, l ittle

p receding

a nd

s ucceeding t his m aximum. I n t he c ontext o f t he

i ce

a ge

p ost-glacial c hanges s uggest

t hat

e nvironmental a daptation t o

t his s tudy i t

c limate, b ut

t o f acilitate t he

a rtefact s hifts

i s o f i nterest n ot

o nly

t o

m odel

t o o btain d ata o n t he n ature a nd t iming o f t esting

m anufacturing

b ecause

t hey

t he h abitat.

3 1

o f

h ypotheses

w hich

c hanges

c oincided

w ith

r eflect

d irectly

c hanges

i n

M ODELLING T HE I CE A GE C LIMATE: T HE S OUTHERN A FRICAN D ATA F OR 1 8 0 00 B .P. T he c oncern o f t he C LIMAP p rogramme w as t o r econstruct f rom q uantitative g eological e vidence t he a verage s tate o f c limatic b oundary c onditions ( sea-surface t emperature, i ce e xtent, i ce e levation, c ontinental a lbedo, w ind v elocity, r ainfall/precipitation, l and s urface t emperature) f or t he l ast g lacial m aximum a t 1 8 0 00 B .P. ( CLIMAP 1 976). T o d ate, m ainly d ata f or J uly ( the s outhern h emisphere w inter) h ave b een p ublished. I n a ddition, g eneral c irculation m odels ( GCMs) h ave b een c omputed t o s imulate m athematically i ce a ge c limatic c onditions f rom e quations g overning t he t ransfer o f h eat a nd m omentum i n t he a tmosphere b ased o n s pecifications f or i ndividual l ocations o f i ncoming s olar r adiation, l and t opography, s ea s urface t emperature, s urface a lbedo a nd i ce s heet e xtents a nd e levations. T he g eneral a cceptability o f t he r esults o f s uch s imulations h as b een s hown b y B arry & W illiams ( 1975) a nd H eath ( 1979: f ig. 1 ) w ho c ontrast s imulated m odels a gainst a ctual d ata f or m odern c onditions. T he f it i s n ot a bsolute ( Barry & W illiams, f or e xample, s how c onsistently h igher p recipitation e stimates t han a ctually o ccur), b ut i t i s a r easonable b asis f or d iscussion. S imulated m odels a re n ow a vailable f or g lobal s ea s urface t emperature ( CLIMAP 1 976), l and s urface t emperature, s urface h eat b alance, s ea l evel p ressure ( Gates 1 976; M anabe & H ahn 1 977), p recipitation ( Heath 1 979), r elative h umidity , c loudiness, e vaporation r ate a nd w ind v elocities ( Gates 1 976; S arnthein 1 978). I n a c omparison o f f ive s imulation m odels, W illiams ( 1978)

f ound

p articular

c onsiderable l ocations,

b ut

v ariation g eneral

i n

t emperature

a greement

e stimates

f or

t hat t he l ast g lacial

m aximum w as c ooler a nd d istinctly d rier w orldwide ( Fig. 7 ). g eneralized m aps p rovide a u seful s tandard a gainst w hich

T hese f ield

o bservations c an b e t ested a nd c ompared. E stimates f rom

t he

G CMs

i ndicate

a

t emperature

d epression

o f

b etween 4 a nd 6 d egrees C i n t he s outhern C ape 1 8 0 00 y ears a go a nd t he s cale a nd t iming o f t he p ost-glacial a melioration o f t he s outhern h emisphere t emperatures c an b e s een i n t he o xygen i sotope r ecord f rom t he D ome C c ore f rom A ntarctica ( Lorius e t a l. 1 979) a nd i n d eep-sea c ores ( Shackleton & O pdyke 1 976; M orley & H ays 1 979). P alaeoclimatic d ata f rom t he s outhern C ape t hat i ndicate t he s cale a nd t iming o f t hese t emperature c hanges h ave b een d ated i n a n o xygen i sotope r ecord f rom a s peleothem c ollected f rom a s ealed u nderground c avern i n t he C ango C aves a f ew k m e ast o f B oomplaas c ave. V ogel ( 1983) h as d ated t he s ections o f t he c ore f rom w hich t he o xygen i sotope s amples h ave b een d rawn a nd, a lthough t here i s a b reak i n d eposition b etween a bout 1 6 0 00 a nd a bout 6 000 B .P. t hat p revents c omplete d ocumentation o f t he r ecord, t here i s s ome s imilarity b etween t his c urve a nd t hat f rom A ntarctica i n t he t iming o f m ajor s hifts i n i ce v olume ( Fig. 8 ). T he C ango c urve i s c onfirmed b y i sotopic s tudies f rom g round w ater a quifers i n t he U itenhage d istrict s ome 2 00 k m e ast o f C ango t hat a lso i ndicate a d ecrease o f t he o rder o f 5 t o 5 ,5 d egrees C f or s ea s urface t emperatures o ff s outhern A frica a t t he L ast G lacial M aximum ( Heaton 1 981; V ogel 1 983) a nd d ate t he p eriod o f m aximum c old t o b etween 2 0 0 00 a nd 1 8 0 00 B .P. P eterson e t a l. ( 1979:62-3) i n r eviewing w orldwide e vidence f or c ontinental e nvironmental c onditions a t 1 8 0 00 B .P. p oint o ut t hat w hile d eep-sea c ore d ata s how a r elatively s table, t hough c ool, p eriod

3 2

T empera tu re

N CAR

R AND

D ifferences i n J uly s urface

G FDL t emperature

( ° C )

b etween 1 8 0 00 y ears a go a nd t oday. S hading: l ess t han 4°C c ooling.

P rec ip i ta t ion

N CAR

R AND

G FDL

D ifferences b etween J uly p recipitation 1 8 0 00 y ears a go a nd t oday. D iagonal s hading: m ore i ce a ge p recipitation; u nshaded: l ess i ce a ge p recipitation;

s tippling:

l ower b y m ore

t han 5 mm/day.

i ce a ge p recipitation

F ig. 7 . C omparisons b etween t hree G lobal C irculation M odels f or A frica i llustrating d ifferences b etween t emperature a nd p recipitation t oday a nd 1 8 0 00 y ears a go. N CAR a fter W illiams e t a l.(1974). R AND a fter G ates ( 1976). G FDL a fter Manabe & H ahn ( 1977).

3 3

w 0 M L J 0 >

< t 2 0

30 2° c ro 0 0I a Z — < zoo w a _

C 9 9 •

' d c d

C O

C

c y

0

X

t o i n C I Z 52 0

- 2

0 0 -*

•

E

E

C l ) • H 0 U C I )

C f )'U c d C " , 1 D C t h 1 r • . .

C l )

c d

w • , i o 0 5 " c m I ) ( 1 )

-l b ---0 . .

-_•

i t

-0

. . . . .

) 1 ,

0

r d

. 4 " C r ) i

u ) 1 4 a . ) • l J ( 1 ) c d

w

o 1 (

' tI

w

•

0 c re

-a' , % \

S e lV3 A 0 00 1 0

r 3 "/ \ I ID I \

o \ 0 N

0

1 0

, \1 1 U I0 /i

c r

C I )

I

\

0

C ) . j 0 4 . . . WirfX Z C rCO C .9 d

-

\ a \ I

I Z

c

o r i . _ c 0c d

C o C . r . ;

J ) 1

I i I

i

t i e

c ` 6 o o

. 0

2

?

'H U D

c o

4 1

c d

0

c d c d

0

U • H C l ) E

41

a ) t i o c d c i _ C c _ . )

c o

0 1

1 • ' r i 0

0 a )

C I

> ,


,

5 4 , -

' 2

( 9 1 .• r 9 - ° 0 1

E 2

r d

W

C l i' 4 . 1 C C I 4 )

CN

f l c ) o

0 ( n o

C D , . 4 . )

H r d

c z , r ( 1 . C s \ 1 3 0 T i

c u › ,. . . c p N c d 0 0 0 0 • 0 . + , 1 i u C l ) c d › I , 1 w

. 00

.• H

o

( I )

b . ° 4

r d
w p w

a .

0

L 1 . 4

0-0

t —

0 U c t ) $ 4

c z

' 2 4 r d C ' 3 w 0 a ) n . ( . ) • ,i c d ( 1 ) 1 o c l o c l i a . ) O • H o s i c u 4 1 < t a 4 U C o P 4 0 › 1 " C P 4 ) c d u 0 J . )

r

0

%0

N 1 i 9 1 « I

4 1 rz i

( 1 ) , c n g e . ) N 4 ) c d E . c o c i E E 0

0 t % 1

•

•— .1

0 t

" C C 4 1 b ü r e r 1 4 ) c d . , c d U 0 r d c d C O . C D I 1 H u o 0 r 1t C l ) a ) r d r d C 3

d i ). 4 H,

n

c n "0 0

> ,( 3. C . ) c d C' t 1 ç c d • , ZrH c d a ) c d 4 ) c do w a ) u p " c . 1 4 . ) W O

' a r s '

a t t , -

, ,

t 1 3 c d

U ç

c e

i n (3

( 1 ) . . . Z cn , . .0 4 ) w c E )

t p . 0 ra > rs • * H c d c d ( 1 c d g T 4 c a . H C D r 1

Q )

. u ) 0 Z b L ) H c d 5 1 e 0 C . ) 4

b etween a bout 2 4 0 00 a nd 1 4 0 00 B .P., l and-based e vidence s uggests m ajor p recipitation c hanges b etween 2 1 0 00 a nd 1 5 0 00 B .P. o n m ost c ontinents. S outhern A frica i s n o e xception. F or t he s ummer r ainfall r egion i ncluding Z imbabwe, B otswana, N amibia, t he T ransvaal, O range F ree S tate, n orthern a nd e astern C ape a nd N atal t here i s e vidence i n s everal a reas f or h igher r ainfall d uring t he 1 0 - 1 2 0 00 y ears i mmediately p receding t he L ast G lacial M aximum ( Brain 1 969:129; B utzer e t a l. 1 973, 1 978; S treet & G rove 1 976; V an Z inderen B akker 1 976:193; H eine 1 978; L ancaster 1 979, 1 981; S cott 1 979, 1 982; D eacon & L ancaster 1 984). E vidence f or h igher l ake l evels a t t he L ast G lacial M aximum p roper, h owever, i s n ot a s c lear a lthough a ll t hree G CMs i n F ig. 7 s uggest t hat h igher p recipitation c ould b e e xpected t o h ave o ccurred t here a t t hat t ime. B utzer e t a l. ( 1978) h ave s uggested a s cenario t hat w ould a ccount f or a h igher g lacial m aximum r ainfall i n t he s ummer r ainfall r egion t hat b reaks w ith t he e arlier h ypotheses s uggesting a s traightforward n orthward d isplacement o f t he w esterlies t hat w ould h ave b rought w inter r ain t o t he s ummer r ainfall r egion. T hey p ropose t hat h igher r ainfall i n t he s ummer r ainfall r egion w ould b e t he r esult o f

t he s outhward p enetration o f m aritime t ropical a ir f rom t he I ndian

O cean a nd M ozambique C hannel t hat o ccurred f urther s outh t han a t p resent b ecause o f t he s outhward d epression o f t he i ntertropical c onvergence z one ( ITCZ) w ith a s ubstantial i ncrease i n t he s ize o f t he n orthern p olar i ce c ap. T hese r elatively s imple m odels n eed t o b e u pdated, h owever, b ecause m ore s ophisticated m odelling h as s hown t hat t he f uture o f p alaeoclimatic s tudies l ies i n e xamination o f s ynoptic w eather f eatures r ather t han i n s imple n orth o r s outhward t he c irculation p atterns ( Nicholson & F lohn 1 980; 1 980:197-8).

s hifts o f N icholson

I n t he s outhern C ape, w hich i s t oday a r egion o f a ll-year r ainfall c ontrasting w ith t he p redominantly w inter r ainfall i n t he w estern C ape a nd t he s ummer r ainfall t o t he e ast, s imulations f or t he i ce a ge s ea s urface t emperature a nd p recipitation r ates ( Fig. 9 ) l ead t o a s imulated r eduction i n r ainfall o f b etween 3 0 a nd 5 0% i n w inter. L ower s ea s urface t emperatures a re c onfirmed f rom d eep-sea d ata ( Hutson 1 978; P rell e t a l. 1 979; A . K . M artin 1 981:552-3) w hich a gree t hat n ot o nly w ere o cean t emperatures c ooler 1 8 0 00 y ears a go, b ut t hat t he A gulhas c urrent w as c onsiderably w eaker. A lthough t he w eather

o f

t he

s outhern

C ape

t oday

i s

l argely c ontrolled b y t he

p assage o f c old f ronts w hich o riginate i n t he s outh A tlantic t o t he s outh a nd w est o f C ape T own, t he r ainfall m axima a re i n s pring a nd a utumn r ather t han w inter ( Fig. 4 ). T yson ( 1971) p oints o ut t hat t he l and a nd s ea b reezes g enerated b y t he d ifferential h eating o f l and a nd s ea a nd b y t he p resence o f t he A gulhas c urrent o ffshore, a re r esponsible

f or

a

p roportion o f

t he l argely o rographic s ummer r ains

t oday t hat a re e nhanced b y t he p resence o f t he O uteniquas a nd o ther m ountain r anges c lose t o t he c oast. W e w ould t hus e xpect t hat a w eakening o f t he A gulhas c urrent, c ooler l and a nd s ea t emperatures a nd a n e xposed c ontinental s helf p lacing t he m ountains 7 0 - 9 0 km i nland d uring t he g lacial m aximum w ould a ll h ave c ontributed t o t he r educed e ffectiveness o f s ea b reezes i n p romoting o rographic p recipitation i n t he s outhern C ape. I n a ddition, c ooler o cean t emperatures w ould h ave r educed t he a mount o f m oisture c arried b y t he w esterly w inds a nd g enerated b y c old f ronts f rom t he w est, a lthough w ind a lmost

c ertainly h igher ( Barry & W illiams

1 975).

s trengths

w ere

T he e ffect o f l ower

t emperatures o n t he a mount o f p recipitable w ater f or c ondensation a s r ain i s i llustrated i n F ig. 1 0 w hich s hows t hat a l owering o f t he m ean

3 5

0 • •

4

4

1 80 00 B .P ( a )

P RESENT

T he p recipitation r ate

a ge J uly a nd p resent J uly.

( mm/day -1 ) s imulated f or t he i ce A fter G ates

••. ••" .•• • • — • •• s ea i c e •:

••

1 8 000 B .P .

( 1976:1862,

•s ea i c e

f ig.

2 3).

•-

P RESENT

( b) T he s ea-surface t emperature (°C ) f or t he i ce a ge J uly a nd p resent J uly. P resent d ay a nd i ce a ge d ata a fter G ates ( 1976:1848, f ig. 4 ).

3 5 3 4

30

2 0 S c

I s

0 G o

•

1 8 000 ( c)

•

•

•

•••,• • • • •, • , • . ••

• • If

P RESENT

T he s urface a ir t emperature

9 .

s urface

40 5 , o • • , •

2o

B .P

a ge J uly a nd p resent J uly.

F ig.

5 . 10

(°C )

s imulated f or t he i ce

; After G ates

( 1976:1850,

E stimated d ifferences i n p recipitation r ate,

f ig.

s ea

t emperature a nd s urface a ir t emperature f or A frica

b etween 1 8 0 00 B .P.

a nd t oday.

3 6

7 ).

E s t ima ted mean a nnua l t empera ture a t P let tenberg B ay a t 1 8 000 BE , P resen t d ay mean a nnua l t emperature ( 1°C ) V a t P le ttenberg B ay ( 17°C) •

c m

•

4 ,0 • •

•

I

•

.•

I

.1° *d i I • 1. % i

•

.f : : •• I • i • . N • • •. . .. 7. j .• . , • • . . „ . •. , : • , .I .. :. • •••• • ::

•

i t % : 11 ' • •. ,% :• I • • . ,. • . • , .• • I 0 10

, , , , 1

,

i i i i i i ii iii 1 '1 0

1 0

0 20 ° C

DEWPO 1NT TEMPERATURE

F ig. 1 0. T he r elationship b etween m ean m onthly p recipitable w ater a nd d ewpoint v alues a t S outh A frican s tations d uring 1 967 a nd 1 968. T he m oisture p aramater k nown a s p recipitable w ater v apour m easures t he d epth o f t he w ater c olumn w hich w ould f orm i f t he w ater v apour i n a n a tmospheric c olumn a bove a u nit a rea w ere t o c ondense. V alues w ere d etermined f rom s ome 5 0 00 r adiosonde a scents a t 5 0 m b i ntervals b etween 10 00 a nd 8 00 m b a nd 1 00 m b i ntervals b etween 8 00 a nd 3 00 m b a t w hich l evel ( 10 0 00 m b) i t i s a ssumed t hat n o m ore w ater i s p resent i n t he a tmosphere. T he p resent-day t emperature a t P lettenberg B ay ( NBC) i s c ompared w ith t he e stimated m ean a nnual t emperature a t 1 8 0 00 B .P. t o d emonstrate t hat l ower t emperatures l ead t o am arkedly l ower a mount o f p recipitable w ater d uring g lacial c ycles.

3 7

T able 3 . W oody p lants i dentified f rom f ossil c harcoals a t B oomplaas C ave, A fter D eacon, S choltz & D aitz ( 1983).

D ATING

T AXA

S TRATIGRAPHY

• CL

• CL.

CD

Co

CO

CD

0 0 0 CV

0 C2 Gr 1 . C )

0 • • • • •

B LD

B LA

B RL

1 2,09

1 ,56

4 ,65

3 8,60

4 ,69

6 ,98

e

S alix c f. m ucronata P rotea a rborea O ther P roteaceae A cacia k arroo

4 ,65

1 ,56

M aytenus - P terocelastrus

2 ,79

1 4,09

R hus c f . u ndulata

4 ,65

3 ,13

O ther

6 ,05

9 ,38

c f. R hamnus P asserina s pp.

• • Co

e f -• C,J • • • • •

CO • •

B P

9 ,09

4 ,90

0 ,40

1 ,82

4 ,13

2 ,58

5 ,13

8 ,45

6 ,33

3 ,65

4 ,65

0 ,50

2 3,26

2 3,14

2 ,33

2 ,48

5 ,09

0 ,53

5 ,78

1 5,72

3 4,52

0 ,63

3 ,53 1 ,56

1 ,40

1 2,50

1 6,28

1 ,65

O lea g roup

3 ,26

1 5,63

1 8,60

3 8,86

c f. B uddleia g lomerata

4 ,19

9 ,38

2 ,33

0 ,83

c f . B uddleia s alvif aia

4 ,19

9 ,27

2 ,93

c f. N emesia f ruticans 1,17

T ype A

n umber

6 ,30

3,69 8 ,20

c f. L ycium

T otal

O LP

1 ,65

E uclea/Diospyros

O ther

C e 3.

L P/LPC

2 ,79

c f . E rica s pp.

C ompositae

C s ' •

C L

4 ,13

N ymania c apensis

R hus s pp.

• •

1 7,19

1 3,96

4 ,96

1 ,56

0 ,72

3 ,26

2 ,52

6 7,16

1 8,52

1 2,02

0 ,72

9 ,40

0 ,3 1

4 ,20

7 ,8 1

6 ,98

3 ,31

3 ,47

1,25

1 6,56

2 15

6 4

4 3

1 2 1

1 29

2 17

1 85

3 8

a nnual t emperature a t P lettenberg B ay b y 6 d egrees C c ould h ave d ecreased t he a mount o f p recipitable w ater b y b etween 3 0 a nd 5 0%. P alaeoenvironmental d ata f rom B PA s upport t he c ontention t hat t he L ast G lacial M aximum w as b oth c ooler a nd d rier t han t he p resent i n t he s outhern C ape. D eacon, S choltz & D aitz ( 1983) h ave i dentified c harcoal s amples f rom B oomplaas ( Fig. 8 , T able 3 ) a nd h ave d emonstrated t hat i n t he d eposits f rom L PC, d ated t o 2 2-21 0 00 B .P., t hrough L P t o G WA, d ated t o 1 7 8 00 B .P., t he c harcoals g enerated f rom b urnt f irewood b rought i nto t he c ave f rom t he s urrounding h illside a nd v alley f loor a re d ominated b y C ompositae a nd L eucadendron s pecies w hich g row t oday i n d rier s ituations o n l ee a nd h igher s lopes o f t he S wartberg. P ollens a re n ot e venly p reserved i n t he B PA s equence ( Fig. 1 1), b ut a s ample f rom L PC c onfirms t he p resence o f a bundant C ompositae a nd t he p ollen s pectrum i s i nterpreted b y S choltz ( in p rep.) a s r eflecting t he c lose p roximity o f r enosterveld, a gain i ndicative o f c ooler a nd d rier c onditions. F urther

e vidence

p oints

t o

t he

L P

u nit

a t

B oomplaas

h aving

a ccumulated d uring t he c oldest p eriod o f t he L ast G lacial c ycle. T he a nalysis o f q uartz g rain t extures a nd t he i ncrease i n r oof s palls i n L P ( Webley 1 978) h as s hown t hat a lthough t rue e boulis s ec w ere n ot f orming, t here w as a g reater i ncidence s palling a t t his t ime t han a t a ny o ther.

o f

f rost

w eathering a nd

R esults f rom t he a nalysis o f m icromammalian r emains ( rats, m ice, s hrews) w hich a ccumulated o n t he B PA c ave f loor d uring t imes w hen t he s ite w as u sed a s a r oost b y b arn o wls ( Tyto a lba), c onfirm t hat c oldest c onditions p ertained d uring t he b uild-up o f L P a nd L PC.

t he T he

m ix o f s pecies a nd t heir l ow d iversity s uggest o pen a nd r elatively a rid v egetation w ith t he r eed c omponent o n t he r iver b anks r educed a nd t he g rassy c omponent i ncreased ( Avery 1 979, 1 982, 1 983). T he o peration o f B ergman s R ule, w hich s tates t hat b ody s ize m ay i ncrease a s t emperature d ecreases, m ay b e r esponsible f or c hanges i n t he l ength o f t he a scending r amus o f t he r ed m usk s hrew, C rocidura f lavescens, t hat a re s ummarized i n F ig. 8 ( Avery 1 979, 1 982). I f t he b ody s ize o f t he r ed m usk s hrew i s i ndeed g overned b y t emperature, t hen t hese d ata w ould c onfirm t hat t he c oldest c onditions p ertained b etween L PC a nd G WA. T he l arge m ammal f auna a t B PA p rovides a d ifferent p erspective f rom t hat g iven b y t he m icromammals, p artly b ecause t he r elative f requency o f d ifferent s pecies m ay b e t he r esult o f p referential s election b y t he h unters a nd m ay n ot t ruly r eflect t he r elative a bundance o f t hese s pecies i n t he v icinity o f t he c ave. N evertheless, t he f act t hat t he h unted f auna b rought t o t he s ite b y p eople i s d ominated b y l arge g razers i s c learly i ndicative o f t he e xistence o f g rassland i n t he v icinity ( Klein 1 978b), a s w ould b e e xpected i f c limatic c onditions w ere c ooler a nd d rier. H ere a nd a t o ther s ites i n t he s outhern C ape a n umber o f ' giant b ovids a nd a n e quid ( the C ape h orse, E quus c apensis) w ere p resent d uring t he L ast G lacial, b ut b ecame e xtinct b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 1 0 0 00 B .P. ( Klein 1 978c, 1 980). A t N elson B ay c ave,

a s a t B PA,

t he s mall a nd

l arge

m ammal

f aunas

i ndicate t he p resence o f g rassland a t t he G lacial M aximum i n c ontrast t o t he b ushier v egetation t here a t p resent ( Klein 1 972a, 1 972b; A very 1 979, 1 982), a s m ay b e e xpected f rom t he c layey s oils a nd t he

3 9

t opography o f t he c ontinental s helf w hich w as e xposed a t t he t ime, a nd f rom c ooler a nd d rier c limatic c onditions. T he s edimentological a nalysis o f t he N BC s equence ( Butzer 1 973) s hows t wo o r m ore i ntervals o f s palling i n Y GL ( referred t o a s Y SL i n t he p ublication b ecause t his w as t he d esignation u sed d uring t he f irst s eason o f e xcavation) w ith w etter c onditions b oth p rea nd p ost-dating t his u nit r adiocarbon d ated t o b etween c a 1 9 0 00 a nd 1 8 0 00 B .P. T here i s g ood e vidence f or c older c onditions a t t his t ime a t N BC, b ut t he a pparent c onflict b etween t he s edimentological e vidence a nd m ammalian f aunas w ith r egard t o p recipitation n eeds t o b e i nvestigated f urther. O n b alance, t he d ata f rom a n umber o f i ndependent l ines o f e vidence a t b oth N BC a nd B PA s uggest t hat t here i s g ood r eason f or a ccepting t he G CM p redictions f or a g lacial m aximum t emperature 5 -6 d egrees C c ooler a nd r ainfall 3 0-50% l ower

t han

a t

p resent

i n

t he

s outhern

C ape.

P ALAEOECOLOGICAL E VIDENCE F OR P OST-GLACIAL C LIMATES A nalyses o f d eep s ea c ores f rom t he s outhern o ceans c onfirm t he r esults f rom D ome C i n A ntarctica ( Fig. 8 ) w hich s how a d ramatic i ncrease i n s outhern h emisphere t emperatures b etween 1 6 0 00 a nd 1 4 0 00 B .P. ( Shackleton 1 978:76; H ays 1 978; L orius e t a l. 1 979), p receding s imilar c hanges i n t he n orthern h emisphere b y a bout 3 0 00 y ears ( Hays 1 978:57; M artin & P eterson 1 978; S alinger 1 981). G lacial c hanges o n l and w ere e qually r apid. I n N ew Z ealand d eglaciation s tarted b efore 1 4 5 00 B .P. ( Suggate 1 965; S alinger 1 981:107), w hile i n N ew G uinea p ost-glacial c onditions d ate f rom b etween 1 5 0 00 a nd 1 4 0 00 B .P. ( D. W alker 1 978:88; S alinger 1 981). I n S outh America, d eglaciation b egan w ell b efore 1 2 0 00 B .P. a nd b y t hat t ime g laciers w ere i n p ositions s imilar t o t hose o f t oday ( Mercer 1 978:89).

i n

s outhernmost

a nd

s outh-central

C hile

I n t he s outhern C ape, t he o xygen i sotope c urve f rom C ango i s u nfortunately i ncomplete i n t he i mmediate p ost-glacial p eriod ( Fig. 8 ) i ndicating a c hange i n t emperature a nd/or h umidity a t a bout 1 5 0 00 B .P. t hat i s n ot e asily i nterpretable ( Deacon e t a l. 1 984). A t B oomplaas, t he s ize o f C rocidura f lavescens, a ssumed t o b e a t emperature-dependent v ariable, s hows a s udden s hift b etween G WA ( dating t o c . 1 8 0 00 B .P.) a nd t he b ase o f C L ( dated t o 1 4 2 00 B .P.) w hich m ay i ndicate t he t iming o f t emperature c hanges o ver t his p eriod. O ther p alaeoclimatic i ndicators a re n ot p urely t emperature-dependent, b ut n evertheless s how t hat t he m ajor s hift i n c limate/vegetation o ccurred T here i s,

a fter G WA ( c. 1 8 0 00 B .P.) a nd b efore C L f or e xample, a m arked c hange i n t he r elative

( 14 2 00 B .P.). a bundance o f

t wo o f t he m ost c ommon m icromammals h unted b y o wls, t he f orest s hrew , M yosorex v arius, a nd t he v iel r at, O tomys i rroratus ( Fig. 8 ). A lthough b oth p refer d ense v egetation c over, O . i rroratus i s m ore o ften f ound w ith m ore t han 7 5% s hrub c over, w hereas M . v arius c an e xtend t o g rassy s lopes. T he m ain d ifferentiating f actor, h owever, i s t hat M . v arius i s f ound t oday i n a reas o f m ore t han 2 00 m m r ainfall p .a., w hereas O . i rroratus i s f ound i n a reas w ith m ore t han 4 00 m m p .a. T he s hift i n e mphasis b etween G WA a nd C L w ould t herefore s eem t o b e i ndicative o f a n i ncrease i n p recipitation a nd t his i s c onfirmed b y t he r esults o f t he c harcoal a nalyses. T hese s how a m arked i ncrease a t t he

s ame

t ime

( between

G WA

a nd C L) o f R hus a nd O lea/Dodonea w hich

4 0

. 10

0, ,

r

e

o

0 , _ ft -, 0 -c o " i i b' .0

" . i re ,4 s i

O

' >0

u

.0

I " -

C O

F s

° r e

A fter S choltz 0 i n N

i t

0 3

N )

. 7

N

n

n

c t N

C O -

. 7 r e

-

i n f rom B oomplaas

2g e U 4 . . . .

F our Fern s pore t ypes

z 4

-v

n r 1

( , )

V C-

r e t c D

r e ) J 0 3

J C O

C O L I _

w _ J C L 0 3 C O

0 J

4 1

t c o

1 c . . a . c o

o ccur t oday i n m oist e nvironments a nd w hich c ontrast w ith t he C ompositae a nd L eucadendron c harcoals o f G WA a nd L P. H igher e ffective p recipitation p ersisted t hrough t he B RL M ember a t B PA t o c . 9 000 B .P., b ut t hereafter i t d eclined a gain. B etween c . 6 000 a nd c . 2 000 B .P. t he i ncidence o f A cacia k arroo r ose a t B PA a nd B uffelskloof a nd m ay i n t urn i ndicate m ore t han 6 00 m m o f r ain p .a. o r a c hange i n e daphic c onditions a long t he r iver b ed a t t hat t ime ( Heydorn & T inley 1 980 :29). I n c ontrast t o t he m icromammalian f auna, t he l arger m ammal f auna a t b oth B PA a nd N BC s hows n o d ramatic c hange b etween 1 8 0 00 a nd 1 4 0 00 B .P., b ut t here i s a c lear s hift b tween 1 2 0 00 a nd 1 0 0 00 B .P. f rom m ainly l arger g regarious g razers ( equids a nd a lcelaphines) t o s maller n on-gregarious b rowsers. O ver t his l atter t ime p eriod t here i s a lso t he g radual e xtinction o f t wo ' giant b ovids, M egalotragus p riscus a nd P elorovis a ntiquus, a nd t he g iant C ape h orse, E quus c apensis. T he e xtinctions p robably r esulted p artly f rom h abitat c hanges, b ut t he p ersistence o f t hese s pecies f or s everal t housand y ears a fter m ajor h abitat c hanges r educed t heir n umbers l ends c redence t o K lein's i nterpretation ( 1980:272) t hat t heir e xtinction h ad m uch t o d o w ith o ver-exploitation b y m an. W hile t emperature c hanges i n t he i mmediate p ost-glacial p eriod s eem t o h ave o ccurred a t m uch t he s ame t ime i n t he s outhern C ape a s i n o ther s outhern h emisphere c ontinents, t his d oes n ot a ppear, o n p resent e vidence, t o a pply t o s ubsequent t emperature s hifts. S alinger ( 1981) r eports t hat t he p eriod o f m aximum w armth i n A ustralia, N ew G uinea a nd N ew Z ealand d ates t o b etween 1 0 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P., b ut o n t he b asis o f t he i ncomplete s equences f rom B PA a nd N BC a nd f rom m ore i solated o bservations s uch a s t hat f rom G roenvlei n ear K nysna ( A.R.H. M artin 1 968), i t w ould s eem t hat t he p eriod o f m aximum w armth i n t he s outhern C ape w as b etween 7 000 a nd p ossibly 5 000 B .P. a nd t hat i t o ccurred o ver a s imilar t ime p eriod i n t he n orthern C ape o n t he G aap E scarpment ( Butzer e t a l. 1 978) a nd a t A liwal N orth ( Coetzee 1 967). T he p ollen s equence f rom G roenvlei, s ituated 5 0 k m w est o f N BC, d ates f rom g reater t han 8 000 B .P. t o t he p resent. F rom t he b ase o f t he s equence t o a bout 7 000 B .P. t he v egetation o f t his c oastal a rea, d ominated t oday b y c onsolidated d une s ands a nd l akes o f l ow s alinity , w as e ssentially n on-arboreal h eath, v erging o n s emi-arid ( Martin 1 968 :128). I mmediately o verlying t his i s a p ollen s pectrum m arked b y a m uch h igher r elative f requency o f a rboreal p ollens, b ut a l ow a bsolute f requency o f a ll p ollen. M artin s uggests t wo p ossible e xplanations: e ither t here w as a r eal i ncrease i n f orest s pecies, o r a ctive d une m ovement m ay h ave l ed t o t he d eterioration o f t he h eath v egetation t hereby l owering i ts c ontribution t o t he p ollen r ain ( Martin 1 968:130). T he t op o f t his s ub-zone i s d ated t o 6 870 + 1 60 B .P. ( Y-466) a nd i n t he d eposits o verlying i t a re s ediments o f m arine o rigin i ndicating a m arine t ransgression a t + 1,5 m a bove p resent s ea l evel.

S aline c onditions p ersisted i n t he l ake s ediments u ntil a bout

4 000 B .P. a nd w arm w ater d iatoms i n t he c ore s amples d ating b etween 7 000 a nd 3 000 B .P. b oth s uggest w armer t emperatures c ombined w ith a h igher s ea l evel a nd m arine i ncursion o f t he l ake. B y 3 000 B .P. d une h eath v egetation b ecame r e-established. F rom a bout 2 000 B .P., m ore e ffective p recipitation a nd t he r etreat o f t he s horeline w ere a ccompanied b y a p eriod o f f orest e xpansion, a lso n oted a t N orga a bout 1 0 km t o t he e ast, a fter 2 500 B .P. ( Scholtz, i n p rep.) w hich h alted

4 2

w ithin t he l ast 1 5 00 y ears w ith f orest c learance. T hus t he H olocene r ecord i n t he s outhern C ape i s p atchy, b ut w hile t here i s a n i ncomplete r ecord o f p recipitation c hanges, m ost a vailable e vidence p oints t o t he w armest c onditions o ccurring a round 6 000 B .P. a ccompanied b y a m arine t ransgression o f c . 1 ,5 m . W ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears, b etween a bout 1 800 a nd 2 00 B .P., t here i s e vidence f rom s everal p arts o f t he w orld, i ncluding t he A ntarctic, f or a -L ittle I ce A ge ( Lamb 1 977; B urrows 1 979). C ooler t emperatures a re a pparently i ndicated a t a bout t his t ime i n t he C ango I I s peleothem ( Vogel 1 983; F ig.

8 )

a nd i n t he m icromammalian d ata f rom B PA ( Avery 1 982).

C HANGES I N S EA L EVEL O n a g lobal s cale, C LIMAP m embers ( 1976) h ave g iven a c onservative e stimate f or a m aximum l owering o f s ea l evel t o 85 m 1 8 0 00 y ears a go, a lthough d ata f rom B arbados a nd N ew G uinea ( Shackleton & O pdyke 1 973) a nd f rom t he w estern a nd s outhern A frican c oasts s uggest a f igure c loser t o 130 m ( Fig. 1 2). D ifferent s ectors o f t he A frican c oast a re o ut-of-phase w ith e ach o ther b ecause o f t he d ifferential r ising o f s tretches o f c oastline ( Faure 1 975; L aborel & D elibrias 1 976;

P omel 1 976;

C ornen e t a l.

1 977;

E insele e t a l.

1 977;

E louard

e t

a l. 1 977) a s i s c lear i n t he d ata s ummarized i n F ig. 1 2. S outhern A frica a nd m ost o f t he r est o f A frica h ave e mergent c oastlines, w hile t he C ongo a nd N iger d elta, p art o f N orth A frica a nd e astern M adagascar a re a reas o f s ubmergence ( Pirazzoli 1 977:85). A t t he m aximum l owering o f s ea l evel, N BC i s e stimated t o h ave b een s ome 9 0 km i nland, p lacing B PA s ome 1 70 k m f rom t he c oast. T wo a spects a re o f i nterest: t he g eography o f t he e xposed c ontinental s helf a nd t he s peed w ith w hich t his w as c overed a s t he s ea l evel r ose a fter c . 1 5 0 00 B .P. A b athymetric s tudy o f t he c ontinental s helf h as s hown t hat t he b edrock s outh o f N BC c onsists o f s oft c layey r ocks o n t he l andward s ide d erived f rom M esozoic s ediments. T hese w ould h ave p roduced f ertile s oils u nder w ell d rained c onditions, b ut m arshy g round i f p oorly d rained. O n t he s eaward s ide a re c alcareous r ocks f rom T ertiary

d eposits

o f

l imestones

a nd

m arls

w hich

D ingle & R ogers

( 1972b :161) s uggest w ould h ave b een v ery f lat, w indswept a nd b leak w ith s oils r ich i n l ime. B irch ( 1979) n otes t hat t he r idge-and-vale n ature o f t his T ertiary s ubstrate w ould h ave e ncouraged t he f ormation o f d unes a nd l agoons s imilar t o t hose p resent i n t he K nysna-Wilderness a rea t oday ( Tyson 1 971:11). T he v ery l ow r elief o f t he A gulhas B ank i n g eneral m eans t hat d une s ands a nd l agoons o r m arshes w ould h ave b een t he m ost p rominent t opographical f eatures w ith g rassy p lains p redominating

o n

t he

c layey

s oils

t raversed

b y

K eurbooms/Bitou R iver i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f N BC. P eninsula w ould h ave b een f eature i n t he l andscape.

a

m eandering

T he

R obberg

a d istinctive a nd r elatively m ountainous

R adiocarbon d ates o n l ittoral s hells f rom t he c ontinental s helf s outh o f C ape S t F rancis t o t he e ast o f P lettenberg B ay, a nd f rom s amples f rom d emonstrate

G roenvlei t he

t iming

t o o f

t he

w est,

a re

l isted

i n

T able

4

t o

t he r ise i n s ea l evel a long t he s outhern

C ape c oast; t hey a re a lso p lotted i n F ig. 1 2. T he l ow r elief o f t he s helf w ould h ave l ed t o r apid f looding a s t he s ea r ose, f or w hile t he

4 3

A

•

•0

% ' \ ,•

0

. E 1 20

0 1 40

1 60 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0 x1 000 B .P

o Dated s he l ls f rom s ea b ed o ff C ape S t F ranc is ( D ing le aR ogers 1 972 ) a nd p ea ty ma te r ia l f rom W i lderness ( Mart in 1 968 ) • Wood , s he l l a nd t ourbe v ateuse f rom c ores o ff C ongo c oas t 4° S ( G iros., a K ouyoumon tzak is 1 974 ,5 9 ) Z i S he l l f rom c ore 6 7 o ff c oas t o f Mauretan ia ( E lnee le e ta l1 977 ,3 8) . S he l l f rom s ea b ed o f f S ao T ho rni I s land i nG u lf o f G u inea ( Co mm

i t a l1 97763 )

o Shel l f rom s ea b ed o f f c oas t a t D akar , S enega l ( E louard e t a l 1 977 :46) 1 D ata f rom I vo ry C oas t s ummar ized b y L . Mort in( 1972) 1/ • .

D ata f rom Moureton lan c oas t s ummar ized b y E inse le e ta l 1 977

1 `.

V

‘ .

S he l ls f rom c on t inenta l s he lf b e tween O range R iver mou th a nd L uder i tz

( Voge l 8V isser 1 980

.

/C urve b ased o n d a ta f rom B a rbados a nd N ew G u inea ( Shack le ton 8 O pdyke 1 973) i nc luded f or c ompar ison

F ig. 1 2. G eneralized c urves a nd d ated s amples s howing c hanges i n s ea l evel a long t he w estern a nd s outhern A frican c oast o ver t he l ast 3 0 0 00 y ears c ompared w ith t hat d rawn f rom d ata b ased o n B arbados a nd N ew G uinea.

4 4

c oast i s e stimated t o h ave b een 9 0 km s outh o f N BC a t 130 m , a t 8 0 m i t w as o nly 8 k m a way, a d istance o f 8 2 k m c overed w ith a 5 0 m r ise i n s ea l evel t hat p robably t ook p lace w ithin 3 - 4 0 00 y ears ( assuming a n e ven r ise o f 1 ,3 m /100 y ears b ased o n t he y oungest a nd o ldest d ates i n T able 4 )

( Figs 1 3 & 1 4).

B y t he t ime s hell i s c ommon b ut n ot a bundant

i n t he N BC d eposits ( GSL u nit), t he s ea s hore i s e stimated t o h ave b een b etween 7 ,5 a nd 2 ,5 k m f rom t he s ite a nd, u sing t he s ame e xtrapolation, p resent d ay l ea l evel w ould h ave b een r eached b y a bout 7 000 B .P. w ith a s ubsequent m arine i ncursion o f + 1,5 m a t c . 6 000 B .P. C hanges

i n t he r elative f requency o f s hellfish s pecies b rought t o t he

c ave r eflect b oth t he c hanging c onfiguration o f t he c oastline, a nd c hanges i n o cean t emperatures w ith t he w arming u p o f t he A gulhas c urrent a fter c . 1 0 0 00 B .P. ( Vincent 1 972). T his i s m ost n oticeable i n t he c hange f rom t he b lack m ussel t o t he b rown m ussel b etween C S a nd B SBJ a t c . 1 0 5 00 - 1 0 0 00 B .P. ( Klein 1 972a), t he f ormer p referring c ooler w aters t han a re p resent i n t he v icinity t oday, a nd t he l atter t he w armer w aters o f t he p resent d ay. C onfirmation o f a m id-Holocene t ransgression i s g iven i n d ata

f rom

t he w estern C ape c oast a t L angebaan w here F lemming ( 1977) s hows s till-stands t o h ave b een a s h igh a s + 3,5 m a bove t he p resent m ean s ea l evel, a nd f rom s hells o ffshore b etween t he O range R iver m outh a nd L uderitz ( Vogel & V isser 1 981:68). T he d ates a re c ompared w ith a w orldwide H olocene s ea l evel c urve c onstructed b y W ilks ( 1979) i n F ig. 1 3 t o s how t hat t he s outhern A frican d ates f ollow t he g eneral p attern o bserved e lsewhere.

METRES BELO W SEA LEVEL 4 -4 d's

0-

0

0 V

rj 0

2 4 2 8 3 2‘ .

V

0

3 64 0 1 0

0

8

1

1

2

6 4 x 1000 y ears B .P

0

P ositions e xtrapo lated f or s outhern Cape c oast f rom dated s amples o ff Cape S t F ranc is ( D ing le a Rogers 1 972) a nd W i lderness ( Mart in 1 968)

• L ittora l s hel ls o f fshore b e tween O range R iver mouth a nd Luder i tz

( yogi ! 9 Weser 1 981 ,69)

Wor ldwide Holocene s ea l evel c urve a fter W i lke ( 1979 )

F ig. l ast

1 3.

C omparison

b etween

w orldwide s ea l evel

1 0 0 00 y ears a nd d ata f rom s outhern A frica.

4 5

c urve f or t he

T able 4 . R adiocarbon d ates o n l ittoral s hells f rom o ffshore a nd o nshore s tations o n t he s outhern C ape c oast.

D epth b elow p resent s ea l eve l i n m

L ab. n o.

A ge i n y ears B .P.

M ater ial d ated

L ocation

Y -467

1 905 t 6 0

G ytta o ver ly ing m ar ine d eposits

G roenv lei

+ 1,5

Y -466

6 870 I 1 60

H um if ied f reshw ater p eat b e low m ar ine m ud

G roenv lei

-5 1

P ta-183

7 580 t 7 0

O yster s he ll

C ape S t F rancis

112

P ta-265

1 4 5 10 t 1 20

O yster s he ll

C ape S t F rancis

115

P ta-264

1 3 6 70 t 1 20

C alcareous a lgae

C ape S t F rancis

120

P ta-185

1 2 9 90 t 1 00

C alcareous a lgae

C ape S t F rancis

130

P ta-182

1 6 9 90 t 1 00

P ecten v alve

C ape S t F rancis

0

S OURCES: G roenv lei d ates f rom M artin, A .R .H .

( 1968)

C ape S t F rancis d ates f rom D ing le & R ogers ( 1972a,b) a nd V oge l &M arais ( 197 1).

4 6

B reede R iver—e. • 2 0 0 00 B .P .

, ./

K eurboom s R iver

G our itz R iver S ea —l evel a t —1 40 i n

C ape S t F ranc is 1 00

2 00 k m

1 7 -1 5 0 00 B .P .

S ea —l evei a t —1 00 i n

R obberg P eninsu la

1 1-9000 B .P .

S ea-level a t 50 i n

F ig. 1 4. P osition o f t he l ate P leistocene c oastline b etween 2 0 0 00 a nd 9 000 B .P. o ff t he s outhern C ape. A fter D ingle & R ogers ( 1972a: 5 6).

4 7

C LIMATIC C HANGE I N B ROAD P ERSPECTIVE S everal t heories h ave b een p roposed i n t he p ast t o a ccount f or t he p eriodicity o f c ooler a nd w armer c limatic c ycles d uring t he P leistocene. W ith i mproved t echniques o f d eep s ea c oring a nd a nalyses a s w ell a s o f d ating m ethods, t he m odel m ost w idely f avoured a t p resent i s t he a stronomical t heory e laborated b y M ilankovitch ( 1938) w hich p redicts c yclic c hanges a t i ntervals o f 2 2 0 00, 4 0 0 00 a nd 1 00 0 00 y ears. I t i s b ased o n t he g eometry o f t he e arth's p ath a round t he s un, i n p articular t he e ccentricity o f t he o rbit, t he i nclination o f t he e arth's a xis a nd t he p recession o f t he e quinoxes. T hese p redictions a gree r easonably w ell w ith c hanges o bserved i n d eep s ea c ores ( Lamb 1 969; C happell 1 973, 1 978; K ukla 1 975; B erger 1 978; H ays e t a l. 1 976; S hackleton 1 978; I mbrie & P almer 1 979). O f p articular i nterest i s a c areful r eview o f t he d ata f rom c ontinental E urope b y K ukla ( 1977) w ho u ses c ontemporary c limatic d ata t o d emonstrate a d irect r elationship b etween s easonal c hanges o f s now c over a nd r adiation w hich s uggests t hat t he e ffect o f t he p recession o f t he e quinoxes ( i.e. t he p osition o f t he e quinox i n r elation t o t he p oint a t w hich t he e arth i s c losest t o o r f arthest f rom t he s un o n i ts o rbit) o n g laciation i n t he n orthern h emisphere a ppears t o b e a t l east a s s trong a s t he o bliquity e ffect, w ith t he m onth o f m ost c ritical r adiation l evels b eing m ore i mportant t han t he m ean a nnual r adiation b udget. T his m eans t hat a c old s ummer ( i.e. w hen t he o rbital p osition o f t he s ummer s olstice i s f arthest f rom t he s un) w ith a w arm w inter i n t he n orthern h emisphere i s c onducive t o g lacial a dvance, w hile w arm s ummers a nd c old w inters p romote g lacial r etreat. C entral t o t his m odel f or g lacial b uild-up i n t he n orthern h emisphere i s t he p resence o f a w arm N orth A tlantic O cean w hich w ould p romote e vaporation t o f eed t he

b uild-up

o f i ce ( Andrew & B arry 1 978; R uddiman & M cIntyre 1 979).

A s imilar s tudy h as n ot a s y et b een a ttempted f or t he s outhern h emisphere, b ut i t i s a cknowledged t hat t he A ntarctic i ce s heet p layed ak ey r ole i n t he g lobal h eat b udget a nd t heories t hat A ntarctic i ce s urges a t c ritical t imes m ay h ave a cted a s t riggers f or t he i nitiation o f c ooler g lobal c onditions h ave r ecently b een r evived ( Wilson 1 978; A haron e t a l. 1 980 ; B owen 1 980) b ut a re n ot u niversally a ccepted ( Chappell 1 978). I n s pite o f d emonstrations o f c orrelation b etween

c limatic

c hange

a nd t he M ilankovitch m odel, t he l ink b etween t heory a nd t he m echanism f or c hange i s p oorly u nderstood ( Shackleton & O pdyke 1 973:47; B ryson i n P ittock e t a l. 1 978:354). H owever, a s t he m echanism f or c hange i s o f o nly p eripheral i nterest h ere i t w ill n ot b e d iscussed f urther, s uffice t o s ay t hat t he a stronomical t heory a nd t he d ata g athered s o f ar f rom d eep s ea c onclusively t hat

c ores t here

a nd g laciated r egions h ave d emonstrated i s a d istinct p eriodicity o f a round 1 00 0 00

y ears i n t he c limatic c ycles o f t he Q uaternary. T he

m ost

t emperature

i mportant c hanges

h as

i sotope r atios

o f

s ediments

o btained

a nd

o cean f loors o f m ethod d epends

s ingle b een

c alcareous

s ource t he

o f

i nformation

o n

g lobal

a nalyses d erived f rom t he o xygen

f oraminifera

p reserved

i n

d eep

s ea

i n c ores f rom a l arge n umber o f s ites o n t he

t he w orld. F irst w orked o ut b y U rey ( 1947), t he o n t he o bservation t hat, d uring t imes o f g lacial

e xpansion, t he i ce s heets r emoved f rom t he o ceans a c ertain a mount o f i sotopically l ight w ater r esulting i n a s light e nrichment i n t he o xygen-16 c ontent o f t he r emaining

o cean

4 8

w ater.

B y

m easuring

t he

r atio o f o xygen-16 t o o xygen-18 i n c alcareous f oraminifera f rom d eep s ea c ores i t i s p ossible t o o btain a r e stimate o f t he a mount o f w ater l ocked u p i n p olar i ce c aps a t t he t ime t hese a nimals w ere a live. T emperature a nd s alinity e stimates c an a lso b e d erived f rom t he r elative f requencies o f i ndividual s pecies o f F oraminifera, R adiolaria a nd C occolithophoridae, t heir s ize, c oiling d irections a nd s pecies c ombinations ( Imbrie & K ipp 1 971; H ays e t a l. 1 976; K ennett 1 978; S hackleton 1 978; I mbrie & P almer 1 979). W hile m aterial i n m ost c ores i s u ndated, t he p eriodicity o f c hanges i s c ross-correlated f rom d ated t o u ndated c ores o n t he b asis o f p eaks a nd t roughs i n f requencies a nd o xygen-18 c ontent, a nd k ey s equences a re d ated b y 2 30Th/234U w hich i s c ross-checked b y p alaeomagnetism, s edimentation r ates a nd r adiocarbon d ates w here p ossible. T he m ost i mportant r esult o f t his w ork h as b een t he e stablishment o f a s eries o f n umbered s tages f or t he g lacials a nd i nterglacials o f t he l ast 5 00 0 00 y ears o r m ore, g lacial m axima a nd c older p hases b eing g iven e ven n umbers a nd i nterglacials a nd w armer p hases o dd o nes, t he p resent i nterglacial b eing s tage 1 . A s L amb ( 1972:94) h as p ointed o ut, i t i s i nequalities i n t emperature w hich p rovide t he e nergy f or a tmospheric c irculation a nd, t herefore, c limate. T he p resence o r a bsence o f s ignificant q uantities o f i ce o n a nd a round A ntarctica h as a s ignificant e ffect o n t he s outhern h emisphere a ir a nd o cean t emperatures a s w ell a s o n t he w ind a nd o cean c urrents a s c an b e i llustrated i n t he f ollowing f igures. T he A ntarctic i ce s heet a t p resent c ontains 9 0% o f t he w orld's i ce a nd c overs a n a rea o f 1 4 m illion s q km . I n a ddition, t he A ntarctic s ea i ce v aries f rom 4 m illion s q k m i n M arch t o 2 0 m illion s q km i n S eptember. B y c ontrast, t he A rctic s ea i ce c over h as a n e xtent o f o nly 7 -12 m illion s q km i n S eptember-March r espectively. T hus, w hile t he h eat b udget o f t he A rctic l eads t o m inimum t emperatures o f 35 d egrees C , t hose i n t he A ntarctic d rop a s l ow a s 70 d egrees C o r l ower ( Pittock 1 978:4), l eading t o a p ole-to-equator t emperature g radient w hich i s 4 0% l arger o ver t he s outhern h emisphere t han o ver t he n orthern h emisphere ( Lamb 1 972:94). T he i mplications a re t hat t he m id-latitude w esterly w inds i n t he s outhern h emisphere a re m uch s tronger t han t hey a re i n t he n orthern h emisphere, b ut d uring a g lacial m aximum t he t emperature g radient i n t he n orthern h emisphere w ould b e i ncreased o wing t o t he g reater e xtent o f t he c ontinental i ce s heets w hich c overed m uch o f n orthern E urope, N orth America a nd n orthern A sia. T he s trength o f t he p resent-day s outhern h emisphere w esterlies

l eads t o a d isplacement o f t he ' meteorological e quator

o r

t he I ntertropical C onvergence Z one ( ITCZ) 7 d egrees n orthward o f t he g eographical e quator i n A frica ( Pittock 1 978), b ut w ith m ore s imilar p ole-equator t emperature g radients i n t he g lacial m axima i t c an b e e xpected t hat t he I TCZ w ould b e d isplaced s outhward n earer t o t he t rue e quator o ver A frica t han a t p resent ( Nicholson & F lohn 1 980:335). T he p osition a nd s trength

o f

t he

w esterly

w inds

i n

t he

S outh

A tlantic a re p articularly i mportant i n t he a ssessment o f g lacial m aximum c onditions f or s outhern A frica b ecause t hey b ring m uch o f t he w inter r ainfall t o t he s outhern a nd w estern C ape a t p resent. A ny s ubstantial n orthward d isplacement w ould m ean a n e xpansion o f t he w inter r ainfall b elt. S trong w esterlies a lso h elp t o m aintain t he z onality o f t he p resent d ay c irculation p attern b y p reventing t he p oleward

m igration

o f

s ubtropical

a nticyclones

( Boucher 1 975:280),

w hile o n t he p olar s ide o f t he w esterlies t he p ack-ice t he

s outhward

m ovement

o f

c yclonic

4 9

v ortices

b order

l imits

( Schwerdtfeger

&

K achelhoffer 1 973). e quatorward

T hus t he

z one

b etween

b oundary o f t he w esterlies,

t he

p ack

i ce

a nd

t he

i .e. b etween w hat i s k nown a s

t he c ircumpolar t rough a nd t he s ubtropical r idge, i s d ominated b y c yclonic c irculation w hile a nticyclones p revail t o t he n orth o f t he s ubtropical r idge.

T hese t wo p atterns a t p resent m aintain t he

s ummer

r ainfall m axima i n t he i nterior a nd o n t he e astern s ide o f s outhern A frica o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he w inter r ainfall m aximum t o t he s outh a nd w est o n t he o ther. T he i dentification o f t he b oundary b etween t he t wo s ystems i s t herefore i mportant t o l ocate p alaeoclimatologically i f m odels f or g lacial m aximum c limates a re t o b e e valuated. T he

p osition

f ortunately

o f

c orresponds

t he

w esterlies

c losely

w ith

i n

t he

o cean

s outhern c urrents

h emisphere b etween

t he

A ntarctic P olar F ront a nd t he S ubtropical C onvergence i n t he s outhern o ceans. T he A ntarctic P olar F ront w as f irst m apped b y G . D eacon ( 1937) w ho d emonstrated t hat i ts m ost o utstanding f eature f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f i ts e ffect o n t he a tmosphere i s a s harp s outhward d rop i n s ea s urface t emperature, o ften o f s everal d egrees w ithin a f ew k m ( Hamon & G odfrey 1 978:38). T he S ubtropical C onvergence ( G. D eacon 1 966) i s s ome 1 0 d egrees o f l atitude n orth o f t he A ntarctic P olar F ront a nd i s a n o ceanic f ront w hich h as d istinct t emperature a nd s alinity c haracteristics d ue t o t he c onvergence o f w arm, s aline s ubtropical a nd c ool, l ow s alinity s ub-polar w aters. T hese c haracteristics m ake i t p ossible t o i dentify t he b oundary o f t he S ubtropical C onvergence o n t he b asis o f t he c omposition o f t he f auna i n d eep s ea c ores. T he l ocation o f t his o ceanic b oundary o r f ront m arks t he m ore n ortherly e xtent o f t he W est W ind D rift a nd r eflects t he p osition a nd s trength o f t he w esterly w inds ( Prell e t a l. 1 979). T he w esterlies a nd r elated c yclones d o p enetrate n orth o f t he S ubtropical C onvergence,

h owever, b ut t heir s trength a nd f requency a re

l imited. B ased o n a f actor a nalysis o f r adiolarian a ssemblages f rom o ver 3 0 d eep s ea c ores f rom t he S outh A tlantic, M orley & H ays ( 1979) h ave p rovided e stimates o f t he p ositions o f t he A ntarctic

a nd

S ubtropical

C onvergences 1 8 0 00 y ears a go. T he r esults s uggest t hat t he S ubtropical C onvergence m oved o nly m arginally n orthwards o ff t he s outh c oast o f A frica a nd t his c onclusion i s c onfirmed b y a s imilar s tudy o f c ore m aterials f rom t he s outhern I ndian O cean ( Prell e t a l. 1 979) w hich i ndicates t hat t here t he c onvergence m oved l ess t han 2 d egrees o f l atitude n orth o f i ts p resent p osition d uring t he l ast g lacial m aximum. T he A ntarctic P olar F ront, h owever, i s e stimated t o h ave s hifted 1 -2 d egrees o f l atitude n orthwards i n t he e astern S outh A tlantic ( Morley & H ays 1 979) a nd t he e ffect w ould h ave b een a s light n arrowing o f t he z one b etween t he t wo c overgences t hereby i ncreasing t he t emperature g radient a nd t he w ind s peeds. T hese

s tudies

t herefore

c onfirm

t hat

t he

p osition

o f

t he

S ubtropical C onvergence s hifted v ery l ittle n orthwards 1 8 0 00 y ears a go m aking i t u nlikely t hat t he w esterly w ind b elt w ould h ave s hifted a s m uch a s 1 0 d egrees o f l atitude n orthwards a s w as i nitially s uggested b y V an Z inderen B akker ( 1976). E ven i f t he w esterlies h ad s hifted f arther n orthwards, m oisture-laden e vaporation r ates

b ecause

i t i s u nlikely t hat t hey w ould o f

t he

c ooler

t emperatures

h ave a nd

b een l ower

1 8 0 00 y ears a go.

T he p ositioning a nd s trength o f t he t wo o cean c urrents

5 0

w hich

m ost

a ffect s outhern A frica, t he c old B enguela o n t he w est c oast a nd t he w arm A gulhas o n t he s outh a nd e ast, a re a lso r econstructable f or 1 8 0 00 B .P. f rom t he a nalysis o f d eep s ea c ores. T he C LIMAP p roject ( 1976) a nd G CM e stimates b y G ates ( 1976) s uggest a d rop o f b etween 0 a nd

2

d egrees

C

i n

s ea s urface t emperatures o ff t he w est c oast o f

s outhern A frica b etween t he C ape a nd t he G ulf o f G uinea, b ut a d rop o f b etween 2 a nd 4 d egrees C i n t he G ulf i tself. T he a uthors s uggest t hat t his w as t he r esult o f a s tronger f low o f c old B enguela w ater 1 8 0 00 y ears a go a nd t hat t he a xis o f t he c old B enguela l obe w as p ossibly d isplaced w estwards a nd a way f rom t he c oast s outh o f A ngola, a lthough i t i s a cknowledged t hat t his p attern m ay b e t he r esult o f i nadequate c ore c overage ( CLIMAP 1 976:1135). T hat t he c old c urrent e xtended w ell n orthwards o f i ts p resent p osition i s c onfirmed b y a nalyses o f m arine f auna i n c ores f rom t he G ulf o f G uinea b etween Z aire a nd G abon w hich s how c old w ater s pecies t o b e p resent t here i n d eposits d ated t o a round 1 8 0 00 B .P. a nd p resent-day s pecies r eplacing t hem a fter 1 2 0 00 B .P.

( Giresse 1 975:48).

C old w ater s pecies a re a lso

p resent i n d eposits o ff t he c oast o f A ngola d ated t o c . 1 8 0 00 B .P. ( Bornhold q uoted i n V an Z inderen B akker 1 976:166) i n a n a rea w here t ropical s pecies p redominate a t p resent.

A m ore d etailed a nalysis

o f

t he d ata b y M orley & H ays ( 1979) s uggests a 4 ,1 d egree C d rop i n s ea s urface t emperature o ff t he c oast o f W alvis B ay a nd a 5 ,3 d egree C m aximum d epression i n t he G ulf o f G uinea. I n s ummary, w hile t he a ctual f igure f or t he d rop i n s ea s urface t emperatures o ff t he w est c oast o f A frica i s n ot p recisely a greed u pon, t he f act t hat t he c urrent m oved w ell n orth o f F urthermore, t he t rajectory

i ts p resent p osition i s u ndisputed. o f t he c urrent w est o f S outh A frica a nd

N amibia m ust h ave b een s omewhat w estward o f i ts p resent p osition f or i t t o h ave c leared t he ' bulge i n t he c oastline j ust s outh o f t he C ongo R iver m outh w hich a t p resent d eflects i t i nto t he A tlantic a way f rom t he G ulf o f G uinea. F or A gulhas C urrent s ea s urface t emperatures, C LIMAP e stimates a d rop o f m ore t han 4 d egrees C a nd a d ecrease i n t he i nfluence o f t he c urrent o verall, a lthough M orley & H ays s uggest a d rop o f o nly 0 ,3 d egrees C f or t he w ater t emperature f rom a s ingle c ore s outh o f C ape A gulhas ( Morley &H ays 1 979). B e a nd D uplessy ( 1976:419), e stimated t hat t he s ea s urface t emperature o ff t he c oast n ear D urban w as s ome 5 d egrees C c ooler t han a t p resent 1 8 0 00 y ears a go, i mplying a m arkedly i nactive A gulhas C urrent, b ut H utson ( 1978)

i nterpreted

a

d ifferent

d ata b ase t o e stimate a g lacial m aximum s ea s urface t emperature o f 2 d egrees C l ower t han t he p resent. I n a ddition t o i ndicating a d rop i n s ea

s urface

t emperature,

d eep

s ea c ore d ata f rom t he s outh-western

I ndian o cean a lso s uggest t hat a s trong a nticlockwise g yre f ormed a t t emperate l atitudes o ff t he e astern A frican c oast d uring t he l ast g lacial, t urning t he M ozambique c urrent e astwards i nstead o f j oining t he A gulhas C urrent t o t he s outh, t hereby c reating a t hermally i solated a rea o f o cean w ater o ff t he c oast o f s outhern A frica w here t he Agulhas C urrent i s a ctive t oday.

G ENERAL S UMMARY A c ombination o f s everal s ources o f e vidence i n t he B PA a nd N BC s equences, c oupled t o t he p redictions f rom G CMs f or t he l ast g lacial m aximum , l ead t o t he c onclusion t hat 2 0-18 0 00 y ears a go t he c limate w as m uch h arsher t han t hat o f t he p resent d ay w ith t emperatures 5 -6

5 1

d egrees C c ooler a nd r ainfall 3 0-50% l ower. T his i s r eflected i n t he r ange o f s pecies a nd i n t he l ow d iversity o f t axa r epresented i n t he m icromammals, p ollens a nd c harcoals a t B PA a nd i n t he m icromammals a t N BC. A s i n o ther s outhern h emisphere c ountries, t he i nitial w arming a fter t he g lacial m aximum w as s ome 3 0 00 y ears e arlier t han i n t he n orthern h emisphere w ith t he m ost r apid c hanges t aking

p lace

a t

B PA

b etween c . 1 7 0 00 a nd 1 4 0 00 y ears a go. P resent d ay p lant c ommunities w ere e stablished i n t he C ango V alley f rom 1 4 2 00 B .P. a nd b etween 1 4 0 00 a nd 1 2 0 00 B .P. t he i nitial p ost-glacial w arming w as a pparently a ccompanied b y a j udging b y t he

h igher e ffective p recipitation t han a t p resent, r ange o f p lant t axa r epresented i n t he c harcoals a nd

t he c ommunity c omposition o f t he m icromammal s amples. B y 1 0 0 00 B .P. t he d iversity w as s imilar t o t hat o f t oday a nd t hereafter c hanges t hat t ook p lace w ithin t he H olocene w ere o f r elatively l ow a mplitude. T he w armest c onditions o f t he H olocene p robably o ccurred b etween 7 000 a nd 5 000 B .P.

c oincident w ith

a

+ 1,5

m

m arine

i ncursion

a nd

i t

w as

r elatively m oist u ntil c . 2 000 B .P. H owever, w ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears, t here i s s ome i ndication f rom t he m icromammals a t B oomplaas a nd f rom p ollens a t G roenvlei a nd N orga t hat c onditions i n t he s outhern C ape b ecame s omewhat c ooler a nd d rier t han t hey h ad b een i n t he m id-Holocene. T he t iming o f t he s hifts i n v egetation a nd m icromammals a t t he e nd o f t he L ast G lacial M aximum i s n ot m atched b y c hanges o f s imilar a mplitude i n t he l arger m ammal f auna w hich s howed i ts m ost d ramatic s hift a bout 3 0 00 y ears l ater. T his h ighlights t he p roblem i nherent i n u sing a s ingle i ndicator a s a g uide t o e nvironmental c hange f or i n t his c ase i t w ould a ppear t hat t he l arger m ammals w ere b oth m ore a daptable t o c hange a nd s ubject t o s election b y t he h unters o ccupying t he c aves s o t hat t heir r elative a bundance i n t he f aunal s amples m ay n ot h ave b een a n a ccurate r eflection o f t heir t rue a bundance i n t he v icinity o f t he s ites. I deally, t hen, i ndependent l ines o f e vidence d rawn f rom f aunal, f loral a nd g eological r emains a t t he s ame s ite o r s ites s hould b e t ested a gainst e ach o ther t o o btain t he m ost r eliable r ecord o f p alaeoenvironmental c hange. I n a ssessing c limatic m odelling f or g lacial c ycles i t i s c lear t hat h ypotheses w hich a ssume s imple e quatorward s hifts o f c limatic b elts d uring c ooler p eriods a re i nadequate t o e xplain t he c omplexity o f r esponses n oted i n p rea nd p ost-glacial t imes i n t he p alaeoenvironmental r ecord. G CMs h ave b een u seful i n m odelling c hanges b y k eeping m odern c limatic r elationships c onstant, b ut t he v ariability n oted b etween d ifferent m odels o nly h ighlights t he c omplexity o f t hese r elationships. A s n oted b y N icholson ( 1980 :197-8), a ny m eteorological m odel m ust t ake s ynoptic w eather f eatures a s w ell a s g eneral c irculation p atterns i nto a ccount. W e m ust e xpect t hat t he ' mix o f s ynoptic p atterns m ay h ave c hanged i n t he p ast, a nd t his w ould n ot s how u p o n G CMs w hich m odel m ean t emperatures, r ainfall a nd p ressures w ithout i nvestigating h ow t hese c ould h ave a ccumulated. A t

p resent,

s outhern

C ape

r ainfall

i s

g overned

b oth

b y

t he

f requency o f c old f ronts f rom t he w esterlies, a nd b y t he i ncidence o f c oastal a nd c ut-off l ows t hat o riginate f rom l ocal v ariations i n l and a nd

s ea

p revailed, e vaporation

t emperatures. t he d ryness r ates

A t c an

t imes b e

w hen

e xplained

c old a s

a nd t he

d ry r esult

c onditions o f

r educing t he a mount o f p recipitable w ater.

5 2

l ower W ith a

w eaker A gulhas C urrent o ff t he s outhern C ape c oast, c ooler o cean t emperatures w ould h ave r educed e vaporation r ates e ven f urther a nd t he e ffect o f a s maller c ontrast b etween l and a nd s ea t emperatures a nd t he e xposure o f t he c ontinental s helf p lacing t he p resent-day c oastal m ountains w ell i nland w ould h ave b een t o l ower t he i ncidence o f c oastal l ows a nd r elief r ainfall w hich f alls a ll y ear r ound i n t his r egion. W hen r ainfall a pparently i ncreased m arkedly a fter 1 5 0 00 B .P. ( as e vident f rom t he c harcoal a nd m icromammal d ata a t B oomplaas), t emperatures w ere s till s everal d egrees C l ower t han a t p resent, b ut h igher r ainfall m ay h ave d erived f rom m oist t ropical a ir a dvected f rom t he n orth a nd e ast r ather t han f rom t he s outh a nd w est a s a t p resent. T his w ould i mply a n i ncrease i n t he f requency o f t ropical H adley c ell a ctivity i n t he s outhern C ape a nd a ssumes g reater i nter-hemispheric c ontrasts w ith a s outhward d isplacement o f t he I ntertropical C onvergence Z one o ver A frica a s a r esult o f t he p ersistence o f n orthern h emisphere i ce s heets a t a t ime w hen t hose o ver A ntarctica w ere a lready c onsiderably r educed. W hen t he s ummer r ainfall p attern e xtends s outhwards t oday, f looding c an o ccur i n t he s outhern a nd s outh-eastern C ape a s t he s ummer l ow p ressure c ell o ver t he i nterior o f S outh A frica m oves s outh a nd e ast o f i ts ' normal p osition a nd w arm m oist a ir i s d rawn f rom t he C ongo a nd t he I ndian O cean. I t w as a s ynoptic p attern o f t his k ind t hat l ed t o t he s pectacular f loods i n t he s outhern C ape i n J anuary 1 981 a nd 1 982. T he d ifference b etween f lood a nd a verage y ears i s i llustrated i n F ig. 3 b y t he c omparison b etween t he m eans o f t he

l ast

5 0

y ears

o r

m ore

a nd

t he

t emperature a nd r ainfall m eans f or t he p eriod J uly 1 980 t o J une

5 3

m onthly 1 981.

4

THE EXCAVAT IONS

.

• •

•

.

• • •

i s

•

SUMP

E9

. • •• •

• •

BC D 1 0 9 8 7 6

• •

• • . •

5 4

— K LE IN 1 970/7 1

3 2

F

I NS K EEP 'S D eep s ound ing

_ INSKEEP 1 979

. •• •

•

• ••• . , • ••

• • •

• •

. . . -

• ▪•

I NSKEEP 1 964-7 1

.• . 4 1 ,

• •

0

9

5

1 0m

1 1 1 1 1= 1 1 1 1 1= 1. 11 =III I= 1 1 1 1 1 C7

E XCAVATED T O

E I

B ase o f R C w ith in R B

O O

B ase o f C S MSA C rus t c a 2 ,5 m b e low s urface

O

F ig.

B edrock

1 5.

N elson B ay C ave:

p lan a nd p osition

o f t he e xcavations c onducted b y I nskeep a nd K lein.

5 6

TH E

T he

e xcavations

a t

EX C A V A T I O N S

N elson

B ay C ave, K angkara a nd B oomplaas w ere

u ndertaken d uring t he l ast t wo d ecades. T he N BC p roject w as d irected b y R . G . K lein o f t he U niversity o f C hicago a nd t he L angkloof A rchaeological P roject, u nder t he d irection o f H . J . D eacon o f t he U niversity o f S tellenbosch, i ncorporated t he e xcavations o f K angkara a nd B oomplaas. N BC a nd B PA a re l ong-sequence s ites e xtending f rom t he M iddle S tone A ge ( NSA) ( beginning a t N BC p rior t o 1 20 0 00 B .P. a nd a t B PA a bout 8 0 0 00 B .P.) t hrough t o t he C hristian e ra, b ut K angkara, a lthough i ncluding M SA a rtefacts, h as b een s ampled o nly w ith a 1 s q m t est p it a nd t herefore h as a m uch s maller s ample f or a nalysis.

N ELSON B AY C AVE N elson B ay C ave ( NBC) w as f irst e xcavated s ystematically i n 1 964 a nd 1 965/66 b y R . R . I nskeep ( 1965, 1 972) w ho w orked a gain a t t he s ite i n 1 970/71 a nd 1 979. A part f rom a n i nitial t est c utting w hich e stablished t he d epth o f d eposit, h is i nvestigations h ave f ocused o n t he a real e xcavation o f t he u ppermost u nits d ating w ithin t he l ast 5 0 00 y ears. T hese w ill n ot b e d iscussed h ere. T he m aterial t o b e a nalysed i n t his b ook w as e xcavated i n t wo s easons i n 1 970 a nd 1 971 b y R . G . K lein ( 1972a, 1 972b; J . D eacon 1 978). N BC i s i n t he s hape o f a l ong r ectangle w ith t he n arrower e nds a t t he m outh a nd a long t he r ear w all. I t i s o n a verage 1 8 m w ide a nd a bout 3 5 m l ong f rom t he b ack w all t o t he m outh ( Fig. 1 5). W here d eposits h ave b uilt u p a t t he m outh i t i s n ecessary t o s toop t o e nter, b ut e lsewhere t he r oof i s o n a verage 3 -4 i na bove t he p resent s urface. T he d eposit i s a bout 6 i n d eep a t t he m outh, b ut o nly 5 i n d eep i n t he a rea e xcavated t o b edrock b y K lein a nd o nly 1 m d eep a t t he b ack o f t he c ave ( 'sump i n F ig. 1 5). B edrock w as e stimated t o l ie a bout 1 m a bove s ea l evel a t t he b ack o f t he c ave, r ising t o 1 8 - 2 0 m a t t he m outh. T he m aximum h eight o f t he r oof a bove b edrock i s t herefore a bout 1 0 m . B utzer h as e stimated t hat s ome 3 0 00 s q m o f c ontact b reccia w as r emoved f rom t he c ave d uring i ts f ormation, o f w hich 2 5 00 s q m w as r emoved p rior t o t he c utting o f t he 1 0-12 m b each ( Butzer 1 973:98). T he c ave h as b een f ormed b y w ave a ction i n a b reccia f ound h ere a nd e lsewhere i n t he r egion a t t he c ontact b etween q uartzites o f t he T able M ountain G roup o f t he C ape S upergroup ( Devonian) a nd t he q uartzitic s andstone o f t he U itenhage G roup ( Cretaceous). T he w alls a nd r oof o f t he c ave a re c omposed o f r ounded c obbles o f e stuarine o rigin i n a h ard r eddish m atrix a nd m any o f t he f laked c obbles i n t he o ccupation d eposit h ave o riginated f rom t he c onglomerate. B utzer ( 1973) s uggests t hat t he i nitial c utting a nd e nlargement o f t his a nd o ther c aves o n t he p eninsula t ook p lace d uring p re-Eem h igh s ea l evels, b ut t hat t he b each s ands a nd g ravels i n t he s ump p it a t t he b ack o f t he c ave p robably d ate t o o xygen i sotope s tage 5 e w hen s torm w aves c ould h ave e ntered

t he

c ave, b ut n o d etailed g eomorphological s tudy o f

5 7

t he s ite

P IT (reci u l t d ua tu rban

0/ r a le 7

f rOO M1 10/1 1 47

I

0

3

l e

9 2

5 8

l ine s eparating t he

# 11

0 0 0 N r y C 3 0 0 0 3 e -t

_ ( = s Id = I

g i Z + I 0 0

I

rr --

I

0

h as b een u ndertaken t o e stablish t his p oint. T he l ocation o f t he e xcavation i s

s hown

i n

F ig.

1 5.

I nskeep s

i nitial t est p it w as s ituated a t t he s outhern e nd o f K lein's t rench w hich e xtended b ack i nto t he m ain b ody o f t he c ave. A t otal o f 3 0 s q m w as c overed b y t he t rench, i ncluding f our s quares b egun b y I nskeep. F our o f t he s quares w ere t aken t o a d epth o f 2 m , f our t o 2 ,5 m , s ixteen t o b etween 2 ,5 a nd 3 m ( i.e. t o t he b ase o f t he L ater S tone A ge d eposits d iscussed h ere) a nd o ne a nd a h alf s quares w ere t aken t o b edrock t hrough t he M iddle S tone A ge u nits. T he m ethod o f e xcavation h as b een d etailed b y K lein ( 1972a:178-9). D ue t o t he h igh d ensity o f m arine s hell i n t he u pper l ayers a nd t he d amp n ature o f t he l ower u nits,

s ome

o f

w hich

w ere

p eriodically

w ater-logged

b eneath

t he

p erched w ater-table w ithin t he c ave, r elatively t hick u nits w ere r emoved d uring e xcavation. T he u nits w ere d efined o n t he b asis o f s imilar c olour, t exture a nd c omposition. T his h as m ade i t d ifficult t o f ollow g radual c hanges t hrough t ime, b ut t he l ow f requency o f f ormal t ools i n a ll b ut t he u ppermost u nits m akes i t d ebatable w hether f iner s tratigraphic c ontrol w ould h ave b een o f m uch g reater v alue.

S TRATIGRAPHY T hree s ets o f s tratigraphic u nits h ave b een r ecognized i n t he d eposit ( Fig. 1 6). T he u ppermost 2 -2,5 m d ate w ithin t he l ast 1 2 0 00 y ears. T hey c ontain L ater S tone A ge ( LSA) c ultural m aterial a nd f aunal r emains w hich i nclude m arine m ammals, f ish a nd s hellfish i ndicating t hat a t t he t ime o f o ccupation t he s ea w as c lose t o i ts p resent p osition. T he u nderlying 0 ,75 - 1m i s d ated t o b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 1 8 0 00 B .P. a nd c onsists o f o ccupation d eposits w ith b one o f t errestrial m ammals a nd m icromammals.

l ittle o r n o m arine r emains, b ut a n a bundance T he b asal 0 ,2 - 0 ,5 m i s a s terile g rey l oam.

o f

T he t hird s et o f s tratigraphic u nits i s 1 ,5 - 2 m t hick a nd u nderlies t he s terile g rey l oam. I t i ncludes a p artly f erruginized r ubble h orizon a t t he t op w hich i s u p t o 0 ,15 m t hick w ith a l ack o f f ines i ndicating a s low d eposition r ate o ver s ome p eriod o f t ime. B eneath t his i s a s eries o f l ag d eposits o f b lack a nd p ale b rown bar ns w ith a bundant M iddle S tone A ge a rtefacts b ut n o b one o r o ther o rganic m aterials p reserved. A t t he b ase i s a s andy l oam s imilar t o w eathered b edrock o f c ontact b reccia. T hese l ower u nits a re a ll b elow t he p erched w ater-table i n t he c ave a nd a p ump h ad t o b e u sed t o l ower t he l evel o f w ater i n t he c utting t o a llow e xcavation o f t he d eposits. T his s et o f s tratigraphic u nits i s e stimated t o p re-date 5 0 0 00 B .P. ( Butzer 1 973:109; K lein 1 974) a nd t he a rtefacts a re d escribed b y V olman ( 1981). T he d eposits d escribed a nd a nalysed b elow a re t hose f rom t he

f irst

t wo s ets o f s tratigraphic u nits f rom t he u pper 3 - 3 ,5 m o f K lein's e xcavation, d ating b etween a bout 1 8 0 00 a nd 5 000 B .P. T he i ndividual u nits r ecognized d uring e xcavation a re l isted f rom t op t o b ottom.

T he

n umbers p receding e ach u nit n ame a re t hose u sed i n m arking a rtefacts. A rtefacts m arked 2 ( Ben) a nd 1 7 ( Grey A sh u nder B en) w ere e xcluded f rom t he a nalysis b ecause t he u nits w ere b ottle g lass a nd o ther m odern m aterials.

5 9

d isturbed

a nd

c ontained

1a nd 3 : I C ( Ivan C omplex) T his u nit, 0 ,10 - 0 ,55 m t hick, i ncludes m iddens B etsy ( 1) a nd I van ( 3) w hich w ere p artly t runcated b y t he d isturbed u nits n amed J o, B en a nd G rey A sh u nder B en. T he m iddens w ere p acked w ith l arge q uantities o f m arine s hell w ith l enses o f w ell-sorted s and w hich B utzer ( Klein 1 972:180) b elieves w ere a eolian i n o rigin. T he m iddens h ave b een g rouped t ogether f or t he p urposes o f a nalysis b ecause B etsy, t owards t he f ront o f t he c ave, a ppears t o h ave b een p art o f I van, t owards t he b ack o f t he e xcavated a rea, b ut a r ecent p it h as d ivided t hem ( Fig. 1 6). A rtefact d ensity w as h igh a t 2 9,7 a rtefacts p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated ( Table 1 1). 4 ,

5 ,

6 ,

7 ,

8 :

B SC

( Brown S oil C omplex)

G rouped t ogether h ere a re t wo b rown s oils, 0 ,35 - 0 ,80 m t hick, b elow m iddens I van ( 4) a nd B etsy ( 5), i n w hich t he m atrix w as a h ighly o rganic s andy s ilt c ontaining a rtefacts, b one a nd c rushed s hell w hich w as o ften p artly d ecalcified. K lein ( 1972a:181) s uggests t hat s uch d eposits m ay b e c onsidered a s o ccupation s oils a s o pposed t o t he p urer m iddens i n w hich w hole s hells p redominate. T he u nit a lso i ncludes t wo m inor c ontemporary m iddens f ound o ver p art o f t he e xcavated a rea ( Glen ( 6) ( 8).

a nd H elgren ( 7)), a nd t he b rown s oil w hich d eveloped b elow t hem K lein ( 1972a:183) r eports t hat i n t he a rea w here m iddens G len

a nd H elgren w ere a bsent, t he b rown s oils ( 4), ( 5) a nd ( 8) m erged t ogether a nd i t w as t herefore c onsidered j ustifiable t o g roup a ll t hese u nits t ogether f or a nalysis. O n o ccasion, w here i t h as b een c onvenient t o d o s o, B SC u pper h as b een s eparated f rom B SC l ower, t he f ormer i ncluding b rown s oils ( 4) a nd ( 5) a nd t he l atter g rouping ( 6), ( 7) a nd ( 8). T he r atio o f a rtefacts t o b uckets o f e xcavated d eposit i s h igher t han i n a ny o ther u nit a t 3 6,0 ( Table 1 1) w hich l argely c onfirms K lein's o bservation t hat t he b rown s oils r elate t o o ccupation d eposit r ather t han t o r efuse h eaps. 9 :

R A ( Rice A ) R A w as a s hell m idden, 0 ,10 t o 0 ,20 m t hick, w ith a l arge q uantity o f w hole a nd b roken s hell t hat w as p artly d ecalcified i n p laces. I t e xtends o ver t he e ntire e xcavated a rea, b ecoming m ore a shy t owards t he r ear w here i t w as c overed b y a t hin o verburden ( Fig. 1 6). I t w as c onsidered t o b e t he u pper p art o f t he R ice C omplex ( RC) r ecognized b y K lein ( 1972a) a s a s tratigraphic u nit. A nalysis o f t he a rtefacts, h owever, s uggests t hat t his u pper p ortion ( RA) w as d ifferent f rom t he l ower p art o f t he R ice C omplex, R ice B ( RB), a nd t he t wo a re t herefore c onsidered s eparately h ere. 1 0,

2 1, 2 2, 2 3: R B ( Rice B , C hris, R ice C a nd R ice D ) R B, 0 ,30 - 0 ,50 m t hick, w as c omposed o f a n e xtensive s hell m idden ( Rice B ) a nd s everal s maller a nd a pparently c ontemporary m iddens o f m ore l imited e xtent. C hris w as i solated t owards t he f ront o f t he e xcavated a rea b etween R ice A a nd R ice B , w hile R ice C a nd D w ere t owards t he b ack. T here w as l ittle s oil m atrix b etween t he s hells, a nd w ithin t he m ain b ody o f t he m idden w as a m assive l ense o f c alcined ( burnt) s hell c overing s everal s quare m etres. T his u nit h as t he l owest d ensity o f a rtefacts w ith 5 ,9 p er b ucket. 1 1:

J ( Jake)

O f s imilar c omposition t o t he m iddens a bove, t he s hell d ebris o f J , 0 ,20 - 0 ,25 m t hick, w as l oosely p acked w ith a m atrix o f l ight b rown

6 0

s andy c lay l oam a nd i ncludes l enses c f b urnt s hell; p er b ucket: 7 ,8.

t otal

a rtefacts

1 2:

B SBJ ( Brown S oil b elow J ake) B SBJ, 0 ,25 - 0 ,35 m t hick, w as i ntermediate b etween a t rue m idden a nd a n o ccupation s oil ( Klein 1 972a:183) a s t he s hell c ontent w as r educed a nd t he m atrix o f l ight b rown g rey h umic l oam w as c onsequently m ore p rominent. U nlike t he u pper b rown s oils, h owever, t he a rtefact c ontent i s l ower t han w ould b e e xpected i n a n o ccupation d eposit ( 7,4 a rtefacts p er b ucket), h igh ( Table 1 1).

a lthough t he q uantity o f m aterial

r emoved

w as

1 3:

C S ( Crushed S hell) T he s hell i n t his m idden h as b een c rushed a nd d ecalcified r esulting i n a g rey b rown l oam , 0 ,20 - 0 ,35 m t hick, i n w hich s mall s hell f ragments w ere a bundant b ut w hole s hells w ere r are. i s l ow a t 5 ,5 a rtefacts/bucket.

A rtefact d ensity

1 4:

G SL ( Grey-brown S helly L oam ) A n o ccupation s oil o f g rey-brown c olour, 0 ,10 - 0 ,15 m t hick w ith c onspicuous h earths, d ecalcified s hell, a sh a nd d ispersed s hell f ragments, t his h orizon w as n ot a s hell m idden i n t he s ame s ense a s t hose

a bove,

b ut s ome s hell w as b rought i nto t he c ave.

T he a rtefact

d ensity i s s imilar t o t hat i n t he u nit a t 7 ,9 p er b ucket, a lthough t he a mount o f d eposit r emoved w as l ower b ecause t he e xcavation w as s tepped i n a t t his l evel o ver t he b ack t wo r ows o f s quares ( Fig. 1 5). 1 5:

B SL ( Brown S tony L oam) I n h is a nalysis o f t he N BC s ediments, B utzer ( 1973:101, 1 07) c onsidered t hat a ll t he u nits b elow G SL w ere b uilt u p o f e ssentially n atural s ediments i n c ontrast t o t hose a bove w hich c onsisted p rimarily o f c ulturally a ccumulated d eposit. B SL, 0 ,10 - 1 ,30 m t hick, c ontained s ome s hell b ut i t i s a lmost c ompletely d ecomposed a nd t he s ediment

a ppeared

t o r epresent

t he m ineral r esidue o f o rganic r efuse

m ixed w ith n aturally a ccumulated s ediment d erived p rimarily f rom t he c ave r oof ( Butzer 1 973:107). A n e rosional d isconformity s eparated B SL f rom t he u nderlying Y ellow S tony L oam s uggesting a d epositional b reak; t his

i s

r eferred

t o b y B utzer

( 1973:

f ig.

4 ) a s O xidation H orizon 3

a nd i ts e quivalent i s s een a t t he t op o f t he s tratigraphic s equence e xposed i n t he s ump p it a t t he b ack o f t he c ave ( Butzer 1 973:103). A rtefact d ensity i s l ow a t 4 ,9 a rtefacts/bucket. 1 6:

Y SL ( Yellow S tony L oam) Y SL c onsisted o f a l ight y ellow t o b rown-yellow s ilt l oam ,

0 ,10

-

0 ,20 m t hick, w ith a ngular f ragments i n g rit h orizons o r l enses o f c rude r ock, i ncluding k aolinized s labs o f c ontact b reccia t hat h ave f allen f rom t he c ave r oof. K lein ( 1972a:183) n otes t hat t here w ere a lmost n o p ieces o f m arine s hell v isible t o t he n aked e ye, b ut B utzer ( 1973:101) r eports f ragment o f s hell. L ocalized p ockets o f m icromammalian r emains f rom o wl p ellets o ccurred i n t his h orizon a nd h ave

b een

s tudied

b y

Avery

( 1979,

1 982).

A rtefact

d ensity

i s

r elatively h igh a t 2 7,9 a rtefacts/bucket. 1 8:

Y GL ( Yellow-Grey L oam) A l ight y ellow-brown l oam t o s ilt l oam ,

0 ,10 t o 0 ,30 m t hick,

w ith

d ispersed a ngular s tone a nd a h igh f requency o f w ell p reserved b one, b oth l arge a nd m icromammalian, t his u nit c ontained r are p ieces o f

6 1

s hell

( Klein

1 972a :184).

A rtefact d ensity i s a s h igh a s Y SL a nd t he

a rtefacts/bucket c ount w as c alculated f or t he t wo

u nits

t ogether

a t

2 7,9. S terile G rey L oams I & I I B rown t o d ark g rey-brown s ilt l oam, 0 ,20 - 0 ,50 m t hick, u nit ( I) w as d arker t han t he u pper. B oth w ere s terile o f a nd b one, b ut

t he l ower a rtefacts

i ncluded m icroscopic p ieces o f c orroded s hell.

D ATING A s uite o f 2 1 r adiocarbon d ates h as b een o btained f or t he L SA l evels a t N BC, e xcluding t hose f rom u nits p ost-dating 5 000 B .P. t hat w ere e xcavated b y I nskeep. T hey a re l isted i n F ig. 1 7 a nd T able 5 a nd s how a f airly c onstant b uild-up o f d eposit f rom c . 1 2 0 00 B .P. t o c . 5 000 B .P., a t hickness o f j ust o ver 2 m o n a verage t hat a ccumulated o ver s ome 7 0 00 y ears, o r a t a r ate o f a bout 0 ,3 m p er 1 0 00 y ears. A n e rosional d isconformity, r epresenting a p eriod o f a bout 4 0 00 y ears, s eparates B SL a nd Y SL. B elow Y SL, w hich h as a r adiocarbon d ate o f c . 1 6 7 00 B .P., i s Y GL r epresenting t he b ase o f t he L SA s equence a nd d ating t o b etween 1 9 0 00 a nd 1 8 0 00 B .P. 20

1 5

1 0

5 t housand y ears B .P .

I C

UW 2 17

s hel l

UW-136 B S C

++

UW- 1 76 UW-2 16

— . .

3

+

UW-187

R A +

R B

UW-134 UW 481

++

> . J

c

UW-222

+

e he l l

P to 49 1

B SBJ

0 -1005 UW-176

f

c s

UW -164 P lo-Z . V2

G SL t D ,B SL o

1 .65 15 UW-2 13

Y SL

2YGL

1 -65 16

UW-175 e r N-5 884

4—

2 0

1 5

1 0

5

o st r ich e ggshe l l

I I I t housand y ea rs 8 . 1 ?

F ig. 1 7. R adiocarbon d ates f rom N BC p lotted a gainst s tratigraphic u nits. A ll s amples c harcoal u nless o therwise s pecified. A fter J . D eacon ( 1978). T he a pparent ' break b etween d ates o f a bout 6 000 B .P. f or R A a nd a bout 8 000 B .P. f or t he b ase o f R B b elow i t s hould b e c onsidered m ore a pparent

t han r eal.

T he R ice A /B i nterface i s n ot d ated a nd t he d ated

62

T able 5 .

R adiocarbon d ates

f rom N elson B ay C ave.

U nless o therwise i ndicated a ll d ates a re e t a l. ( 1976).

f rom F airhall

S TRATIGRAPHIC U NIT

L AB . N O

S AMPLE A ND P OSITION

D ATE B .P.

I C

U W-2 17

S hell o f P atella s p . f rom s q B 5 i n m idden I van

4 860 t 6 5

B SC

U W-187

C harcoal f rom s q P 2 i n B rown S o il b e low H e lgren

5 825 t 1 50

U W-2 16

C harcoa l H elgren

5 830 • - 15

U W-176

C harcoa l f rom s q G amma-5 i n B rown S oil b e low I van

6 020 t 1 60

U W-186

C harcoa l f rom s q G amma-4 i n B rown S o il b e low I van

6 050 • -8 0

U W-222

C harcoa l f rom s q B 3 i n m idden R ice A

6 070 • -1 25

U W-179

S he ll o f P atella s p . f rom t op 7 — R ice A

U W-18 1

S mall c harcoal f ragments f rom s q G amma-4 a t i nterf ace o f R ice B a nd J

8 070 + 2 40

U W-184

S hell o f P atella s p . b etween s quares A lpha-3 & 4 a t i nterf ace o f R ice B a nd J

8 570 ± 1 70

P ta-391

C harcoa l f rom i nterface b etween R ice B a nd J ( K lein 1 972a)

8 990 t 8 0

Q -1085

A sh w ith c harcoal f rom b ase o f B rown S oil b e low J ake ( Sw itsur & W est 1 973)

1 0 2 56 t 2 10

U W-178

D ense, c lay-like b lack m ater ia l w ith n o c lear c harcoa l f rom s q 8 4 f rom h earth a t b ase o f B SBJ

1 0 5 40 t 10

P ta-392

C harcoa l f rom h earth i n s q B -1 n ear t op o f C rushed S he ll m idden ( K le in 1 972a)

1 0 1 50 t 9 0

U W-164

C harcoal f rom s q G amma-4 i n ah earth i n C S

1 0 1 80 t 8 5

U W-162

C harcoal f rom s q 8 2 i n h earth a t b ase o f C S

1 5 05 t 10

U W-177

C harcoal f rom s q G amma-3 i n G SL

1 9 50 - 1 50

1 -65 15

C harcoal f rom s ame l eve l a s U W-177 ( unpublished)

1 0 80 I 2 60

B SL

U W -218

C harcoal f rom i nterface b etween B SL a nd Y SL

1 0 6 00 t 1 50

Y SL

1 -6516

C harcoal f rom Y SL ( unpublished)

1 6 7 00 - 2 40

V GL

U W-175

F inely d iv ided c harcoal f rom s q B 3 a t b ase o f V GL

1 8 1 00 t 5 50

G rN-5884

O str ich e ggshell f ragments c o llected f rom t est p it b y I nskeep a t l evel c orrespond ing t o V GL ( K le in 1 972 a )

1 8 6 60 t 10

R ICE A

R ICE B

B SBJ

C S

G SL

6 3

f rom m idden G len/

+ 9 080 - 1 85

0 0 0 2

§ o . 0

4 0

o o o

0 o o

=

§

e

e

1 1 -1 -1

T OTAL P OLISHED B ONE T OOLS

M irounga l eonina

d olphins e lephant s eal

A rctocephalus p usillus

C ape f ur s eal

P anthera p ardus ' F ells c aracal H ippopotamus a mphibius T ragelaphus s criptus

l eopard c aracal h ippo b ushbuck

R c cphicerus m elanotis

g rysbok

S yncerus c affer

C ape b uffalo

H ippotragus l eucophaeus R edunca f ülvorufula

e xtinct b loubok m t. r eedbuck

P elea c apreolus O urebia o urebia

r hebuck o ribi

H ippotragus e quinus

r oan

T aurotragus o ryx R edunca a rundinum O reotragus o reotragus

e land s thn r eedbuck k lipspringer

D amaliscus s p.

b lesbok/bontebok

A ntidorcas a us t rails

s pringbok

P elorovis a ntiquus C onnochaetes s p. E quus q uagga M egalotragus p riscus

g iant b uffalo w ildebeest q uagga g iant h artebeest

D elphinidae

1 =

c ==

= =

= 1 1

= = 1

1 — C 1 3- 1 r--1

C = 1

T

1 . = =t ,

2 —

1

R :

9

c= f • /

1 . 0 C O

4 C C

u0 4 13/ 1 4

c o c

c o —,

C D

c r )

( . 3

du o qi y

— 3 t 1

C I D

1 = 3 o

;-----

) , -

OJec i qo u

F ig. 1 8. M inimum n umbers o f s elected m ammals a nd t he t otal n umber o f p olished b one t ools s howing t he c hanges i n f requency t hrough t ime a t N BC. D ata a fter K lein ( 1972b) a nd p ers. c omm . D iagram a fter J . D eacon ( 1978).

6 4

A

2 e 0_ t o

8-

e o

4 e 0

-. 0 1 1 1 1■ . .-

g—

0

. . . ... . .. . ... . re

. . .... . . ..

N elson B ay C ave:

§—

. . . . ." . .. . . . — . _

i 'l!

o t o—

—

gl C l ) H H

n

U H

0 c i p p c )

C l ) H

n H

p g 0 u p c f 2 c o 0 P : 1 P Q

6 5

1 1 r i m i l U

H

U C / D

p c i

P Q C l )

p a

C . ) C A U

C A

P C 1

z A i 3

` « E o

-- - f l

A l l ik--

-

a " t

4 ,1 i l0 s . 1

: e

k d o

o _

P old 0 Z

, e ct

on : gv o ,

Z .'1 r;

e r

g

‘ z,x_ ‘ e. ‘ Z CZ

0

( k

—

w

t a

. ‚ n

e z

QJ j

e 2 1 : 5 o r 0 , - e 0

‘ ;ta 2in

c i

L uz c l .X

c to 4 . 1C C UD

—

D

c n H H

6

H

SHELL A B SENT

. 44

T able 6 . M inimum n umbers o f l arger m ammalian s pecies r epresented i n s tratigraphic u nits a t N BC. A fter K lein ( 1972b) a nd u npublished. S PECIES

I C

B SC

H omo s apiens, m an 3 1 P apio u rsinus, b aboon 1 1 -3 M änis c f t emmincki, p ango lin d anis m escmelas, j acka l M ellivora c apensis, h oney

R A +R B

J

B SBJ

3 1-13 1

1

2 -3 1

b adger

1

? 1.

A onyx c apensis, c law less

o tter

-

H erpestes i chneumon, E gyp-

t ian m ongoo se

1

C S

G SL

B SL

Y SL

Y GL

2

1

2

2

1 1

1 1

-

-

- 2-3

1-2

7 1

1

-

1-2

-

-

1-2

-

H erpestes p ulverulentus

C ape g rey m ongoose

1

2

2

A tilax p aludinosus

w ater m ongoo se 1-2 c f H yaena b runnea, b rown h yaena F elis l ibyca, w ildcat 1 F elis c f c aracal, c araca l 2 P anthera p ardus, l eopard 1

3

-

1 1 1 2

1 -2 3 -4

1 1

-

1

1

-

A rctocephalus p usillus,

C ape f ur s ea l

A rctocephalus g aze ha,

3 6 -3 8 2 7

3 6

2 8

2 8

g aze lle s ea l

3

1

7 1

1

M irounga l eonina, s ea

e lephant

1

O rycteropus a fer, ardvark P rocavia c apensis, r ock

h yrax E quus q uagga, q uagga P otamochoerus p orcus,

1

1

2 0 2 7 - -

b ushp ig

3

2 7 -

3

2

6

1-2 1

1

6

8

6

7

5

2 5 2

1 4 1

3

5

3

3

2

2

1

2

2

P hacochoerus a ethiopicus,

w arthog

H ippopotamus a mphibius,

h ippopotamus

2

1

4

4

5

-

2

2-3

1

1

1

1 2

6 1

3 2

1 3

4

4

6

2

9

4

5

7

6

7

1

5

6

4

T ragelaphus s criptus,

b ushbuck

6

3

T aurotragus o ryx, e land S yncerus c affer , C ape

b uffa lo

4

9

3

3

P elorovis a ntiquus,

g iant b uffa lo S ylvicapra g rimm ia ,

G r imm 's d u iker

1

1

1

R edunca a rund inum, s outh-

e rn r eedbuck

3

1

3

1

9

5

6

4

5

3

2

1 3

1 0

6

3

1

-

6

9

7

9

1

5

R edunca f ulvoruf ula, m oun-

t a in r eedbuck H ippotragus e quinus, r oan H ippotragus l eucophaeus,

b laauwbok/b lue a nte lope

1

1

3

2

3

2

4

3

7

9

D amaliscus d orcas, b les-

b ok/bontebok

C onnochaetes g nou,

w ildebeest

2

-

M egalotragus p riscus,

g iant a lcelaph ine

-

A ntidorcas s pp,

s pr ingbok

R aphicerus m elanotis,

g rysbok

O ur ebia o urebia, o r ib i P elea c a preolus,

v aa lr ibbok

-

5

1

-

1

3

7

1

9 5

1 0 3

6 -

2

4

5

2

3

9

8

3

3

7

1

-

2

1

4

1

1

L epus c f c apensis,

C ape h are

H ystrix a fricae -a ustralis,

p orcup ine D e lph in idae, d o lph ins

1 1 4

3 4

2 1

6 7

2

8 5

O reotragus o reotragus,

k lipspr inger

5

5

2

-

2 7 1 7 1 9 3 5 - - - -

2 0

1

1

1 -

1

s amples o ne.

c ame f rom t he b ase o f t he l ower u nit a nd t he t op o f t he u pper

T he i nterface i s t herefore l ikely t o b e a bout 7 0 00 y ears o ld o n

e xtrapolation. T he t wo d ated s amples c ame f rom a p art o f t he d eposit w here R ice B i s p articularly t hick a nd a n e stimate o f 10 00 y ears f or i ts a ccumulation c an b e c onsidered a r easonable o ne. T he c loseness o f t he d ates w ithin B SC p rovides j ustification f or c onsidering t he m iddens a nd b rown s oils a s a s ingle s tratigraphic u nit f or t he p urposes o f t he a rtefact a nalysis a nd i t i s c lear t hat t hey a ll a ccumulated o ver a p eriod o f a bout 1 0 00 y ears. T wo

d eterminations

a re

a pparently

o ut o f p lace:

U W-179 d ating a

s hell t o 9 080 B .P. i n R ice A i s m ore l ikely t o d ate b etween 6 500 a nd 6 000 B .P. a nd t he d iscrepancy m ay b e t he r esult o f t he u se o f s hell r ather t han c harcoal a s t he d ating m aterial; a nd U W-218 w hich d ates t he b ase o f B SL t o 1 0 6 00 B .P. w hereas

t he o verlying G SL u nit i s d ated

w ith t hree d eterminations t o b etween c . 1 2 0 00 a nd 1 1 0 00 B .P. H owever t his i s n ot i nconsistent w hen t he s tandard e rror i s t aken i nto a ccount a nd t he d ates s hould b e r egarded a s a m inimum e stimate.

F AUNAL R EMAINS T he r esults o f t he a nalysis o f t he f aunal r emains h ave b een p ublished i n d etail b y R . G . K lein ( 1972a, 1 972b, 1 974, 1 976) a nd w ill b e d iscussed w here a ppropriate i n l ater c hapters. A s ummary o f t he m inimum n umbers o f l arger m ammals i s g iven i n T able 6 a nd F ig. 1 8, a nd c hanges i n f ish a nd s hellfish f requencies a re s ummarized i n F igs 1 9 a nd 2 0 r espectively.

K ANGKARA C AVE

A t est e xcavation w as u ndertaken a t K angkara C ave ( KRA) i n J une 1 972 u nder t he d irection o f H . J . D eacon, w ith R . G . K lein, J anette D eacon a nd S tellenbosch.

s tudents f rom t he U niversities o f C ape O ne o f t he o bjects o f t he e xcavation w as t o

T own a nd a scertain

w hether t here w as b one p reserved w ith L ate P leistocene d eposits, b ut a s t his w as n ot t he c ase t he s ite w as n ot i nvestigated f urther. I t h as n evertheless g iven a f airly c omplete s equence o f H olocene L ater S tone A ge a rtefacts a nd s ome b one a nd i s t herefore i ncluded h ere a s c omplementary t o B PA a nd N BC. T he

c ave

f loor

i s

a bout 2 2 m a cross a nd a bout 8 m f rom t he b ack

w all t o t he m iddle o f t he c ave m outh ( Fig. 2 1) w hich f aces w est t owards t he b ank o f t he K angkara s tream . A 1 m s quare w as e xcavated i n t he c entre o f t he c ave f loor a nd w as a bandoned a t a d epth o f 1 ,7 m b efore b edrock w as r eached. D espite t he s mall s ize o f t he c utting, a r easonably l arge s ample o f f ormal t ools w as r ecovered. T he u pper 1 ,1 m r elates t o a s uite o f L SA o ccupation u nits w ith M SA a rtefacts ( but n o b one) w ithin a nd b elow a h ard c rust o f c emented d eposit b eneath 1 ,7 m .

T hese N SA a rtefacts h ave b een d escribed b y V olman ( 1981).

6 8

KANGKARA

F ig. p it.

2 1.

CAVE

P lan o f K angkara C ave s howing p osition o f t he t est

KANGKA R A: SECT ION A SUR C

c" e " r . —

-

-

ec ce— e — — - n—e_y t c C e n e C C C C C C C

HBC S GL

-

t r« . F- j e c e c c s ,

—

—

-

G BL P BW

Ash

f eatures 0 ,5

-

L PW RBL

e ec Ashy ‚ sneer

Y BL 1 37

BD

1 , 0 Coors.

-- - £ ---Ä --Ä ---; . : BBD

s tone

A A 0 0 0 Ston y

BHL 1

öüi b, 0 0A1 3St A A A AP C PC I 1 Fe ru r :—V A — .Al2 A — C r A A A,A _ ,A A07 A A A A / A A —A— A A —A— A— A— A— d— h A A A A A A A A BHL 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A A A A A A MSA

2r n

F ig.

2 2.

S ection a round t wo s ides o f t he

K angkara C ave.

6 9

t est p it a t

S TRATIGRAPHY A s t he c ave h as b een i n u se a s a s heep k raal i n r ecent y ears, t he u ppermost 5 0 - 1 00 m m h as b een d isturbed t hrough t rampling a s i s e vident

i n

t he

f ind o f f our p otsherds i n t he H BC u nit d ated t o 5 300

B .P. T he f ollowing u nits w ere r ecognized o n t he b asis o f c olour a nd t exture o f t he s oil m atrix a nd a re d escribed f rom t op t o b ottom ( Fig. 2 2): A verage t hickness i n m m S UR

S urface d ust,

u ncompacted

5 0-100

H BC

A r elatively h ard a nd c ompact d eposit w ith a n i mpersistent a sh b and w ithin i t s uggesting t hat t he m aterial w as l argely i n s itu

S GL

A s oft g rey l oam w ith m inor i nterl eaving a shy b ands

D GL

A d ark g rey l oam s omewhat m ore a shy

9 0-110

1 00-110

9 0

t han S GL G BL

A r ather s tony g rey l oam c ontaining t wo a sh f eatures w ith s ome c arbonized p lant m aterial

8 0-120

P BW

A b lack-grey l oam w ith t wo p ronounced y ellow c emented a sh b ands

7 0-80

L PW

A g rey b rown e arth w ith a p artly c emented a shy f eature a nd a t hin

8 0-150

i mpersistent l ayer o f y ellowish a sh R BL

A r ed b rown l oam w hich i ncludes

1 30

t wo a shy h earth f eatures Y BL

A t hick l oam w ith o ne e xtensive h earth c omplex a nd t wo l ess p rominent h earths

1 50-180

B D

A s pally l ayer i n a g rey b lack l oam

1 50-160

B BD

A g rey b lack h orizon w ith l arge r oof

5 0-100

b locks B HL

A h ard c rust w ith s ome o xides a nd

1 00

c arbonates a nd N SA a rtefacts B L

A b lack l oam w hich l ay b eneath t he h ard

1 50-200

c rust a nd i ncludes N SA a rtefacts A m ajor b reak i n t he s equence i s r epresented b y i n

t he

f orm

o f

a

c emented

b etween B BD a nd B HL w hich m eans, p eriod b etween a t t he s ite.

' typical

c rust i n

t he

d isconformity

o ver p art o f t he e xcavated a rea c ultural

t erms,

t hat

t he

t ime

M SA a nd t he e arliest L SA i s n ot r epresented

7 0

T able

7 .

R adiocarbon d ates

S TRATIGRAPHIC U NIT

f rom K angkara C ave.

L AB . N O

S AMPLE A ND P OSIT ION

D ATE B .P.

H OC

P ta-2286

T he u ppermost u nit c onsidered t o b e i n s itu . S ample i T i c ludes f our p ots herds. L ow f requency o f c harcoa l s o m ater ia l d ated w as 2 60g o f b one f ragments.

5 355 • -5

G OL

P ta-2287

A rtefacts i nc luded s even 6 600 • -7 5 b acked t oo ls ( absent i n u nder ly ing u nits). D ated m ater ia l c onsisted o f 5 109 o f u nident if iable b one f ragments.

P OW

P ta-2812

C ultural m ater ia l s ome l arge s crapers. D ated m ater ia l c onsisted o f f ragments o f u nident if iable b one.

7 330 t 1 00

R BL

P ta-2813

S ome l arge s crapers. C harcoal i n as andy m atr ix y ield ing 1 40mg o f c arbon w as a nalysed i n am ini-counter . R esult s hould b e r egarded a s am inimum d ate. A ctua l a ge i s e st imated b etween 7 500 a nd 9 000 B .P.

5 600 • -3 70

V OL

P ta-2307

S ome l arge s crapers. S amp le o f 2 85g b one f ragments.

9 260 • -9 0

B BD/BHL

P ta-782

S ample o f c harcoal f rom

1 2 5 50 t 10

ah earth i mmed iate ly 1 2 3 30 t 1 30 o ver ly ing t he c rust c onta ining M SA a rtefacts a nd t herefore p ost-dat ing t hem . T he t wo d eterm inat ions r epresent t wo d ifferent c hem ica l f ract ions o f t he s ame s ample.

7 1

D ATING S ix r adiocarbon d ates h ave b een o btained f or t he K angkara s equence ( Table 7 ). T he s mall s ize o f t he c utting m eant t hat c harcoal s amples l arge e nough f or d ating c ould s eldom b e f ound a nd m ost w ere

t herefore

r un o n s amples o f u nidentifiable b one

o f

t he

f ragments

d ates t aken

f rom s ieves t hroughout t he t hickness o f t he s tratigraphic u nit. T hey s hould t herefore b e c onsidered a s o nly g eneralized e stimates o f t he a ges o f

t hese u nits.

T he d etermination

s ample

o f

i s c learly o ut o f p lace a nd s hould b e c onsidered

c harcoal)

a s a m inimum e stimate

( J.

C .

V ogel,

f or

R BL

( on

a

v ery

s mall

p ers. c omm.).

F AUNAL R EMAINS T he s mall s ample o f b y 8 .

R .

i dentifiable f aunal r emains h as

b een

a nalysed

G . K lein a nd m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals a re l isted i n T able

T able 8 . s pecies

K angkara C ave: r epresented

i n

M inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals o f t he v arious s tratigraphic u nits.

m ammalian I dentified

a nd c ounted b y R . G . K lein ( unpublished). H BC

S GL

D GL

V iverridae i ndet. 1

L PW

R BL

Y BL

B D

1 -2

c aracal

1

O rycteropus a fer, a ardvark P rocavia c apensis, d assie 1 E quus c f.

P BW

1

O ther c arnivora i ndet. F ells c aracal,

G BL

3

1 1

1 1 6

2

4

2

1

2

1

1

z ebra,

m ountain z ebra

1

P otamochoerus p orcus, b ushpig H ippopotamus amphibius,

1

1

1

1

h ippo

1

? 1

1

R aphicerus s p.,

g rysbok/

s teenbok

? 1

1

1

1

1

1

? 1

? 1

O reotragus o reotragus, k lipspringer R edunca f ulvorufula, m ountain r eedbuck

? 1 2

1 ? 1

? 1 1

A lcelaphus c aama, h artebeest S yncerus c affer, L epus

s p.,

1 c f b uffalo

l cf ? 1

h are

1 c f

S mall R odentia

7 2

1 c f

B OOMPLAAS C AVE

B oomplaas C ave A ( BPA)

i s l ocated s ome 4 k m w est o f

t he C ango C aves

i n a n u nrelated f issure o pening a t t he s ame e levation a bove t he v alley f loor, b ut o n a m inor l imestone b and t hat f orms a p rominent c liff f ace k nown a s D rupkelderkop ( Fig. 2 3). S everal s maller f issures h ave o pened i n t he s outh f ace o f t he c liff a nd o ne o f t hese h as b een o ccupied b y o wls ( D. M . A very 1 979, 1 982) p roviding a m odern s ample o f m icromammals w ith w hich p rehistoric s amples c ould b e c ompared. E xcavations w ere b egun i n 1 974 w ith t wo s easons a nnually u ntil F ebruary 1 979, a nd a f inal w eek i n D ecember 1 979 w hen t he c utting w as s hored u p t o p reserve t he s ections. T he f loor a rea i s 2 25 s q m a nd r oughly s quare i n s hape m easuring s ome 1 5 m a cross t he m outh w hich f aces w est, a nd 1 3 m f rom t he r ock f all a t t he m outh t o t he r ear w all. L arge r oof b locks p artly s eal o ff t he e ntrance a nd h ave s erved t o r etain t he d eposit w ithin t he c ave. A c ontrol c utting, 1 s q m ( grid s quare P 12), w as e xcavated t o b edrock i n J anuary/February 1 974 t o a d epth o f 5 m a nd o ff t his 1 00 s q m w as e xcavated i n l ater s easons t o a d epth o f 1 m . T hereafter, t he e xcavated a rea w as r educed t o 2 0 s q m t o a d epth o f n early 2 m , a nd f inally 6 s q m w ere t aken t o b edrock ( Fig. 2 4). O nly t hose u nits d ating w ithin t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears ( GWA t o D GL) a re d iscussed h ere. D escriptions o f t he f ull s equence, w hich i ncludes M iddle S tone A ge a nd o ther l ate P leistocene o ccurrences d ating p robably w ithin t he l ast 8 0 0 00 y ears, h ave b een p ublished e lsewhere ( Deacon & B rooker 1 976; H . J . D eacon 1 979; J . D eacon 1 979). P reservation o f m acroscopic p lant r emains r ecent

i s r estricted t o t he m ost

u nits, b ut p ollens a re p reserved i n s ome e arlier s tratigraphic

u nits a nd h ave b een s tudied b y S choltz ( unpublished). C harcoals a re p resent i n m ost o ccupation u nits a nd h ave b een u sed b oth f or d ating ( Table 9 ) a nd f or w ood i dentifications ( Deacon, S choltz & D aitz 1 983). F aunal r emains a re p reserved t hroughout a nd i nclude b one a ccumulated t hrough h uman o ccupation a s w ell a s m icromammals a ccumulated b y o wls. T he m icromammalian r emains h ave b een s tudied b y P olly S cott ( unpublished) a nd D . M . A very ( 1979, 1 982, 1 983) w ho h as i ncluded m odern c omparative s amples f rom s everal n earby s ites ( Fig. 2 3). T he l arger m ammals h ave b een i dentified b y R . G . K lein ( 1978b) a nd B rink ( unpublished) h as o btained c omparative P leistocene s amples f rom c arnivore l airs i n o ther c averns i n t he C ango V alley ( Fig. 2 3; H . J . D eacon 1 979). V ogel h as a nalysed o xygen i sotopes f or p alaeotemperature e stimates i n a s peleothem f rom t he n earby C ango C aves ( Vogel 1 983) a nd W ebley o f t he s ediments.

( 1978) h as d one a p reliminary a nalysis

S TRATIGRAPHY E xcept w here m asked b y s econdary c ementation, t he d eposits a re w ell s tratified u nlike o ther s ites i n t he r egion t hat a re f ormed i n r ocks o f t he T able M ountain G roup. i nclusions s hows

o f

T he d eposits c onsist o f s andy bar ns w ith

c oarser s palls a nd b locks ( Fig.

2 5).

l ittle d ifference t hrough t he s equence i n

t he

( the 2 m m f raction)

i n t he p arameters c alculated,

g rain s ize,

s kewness a nd k urtosis

s orting,

7 3

G rading a nalysis f iner

c omponent

f or e xample i n m ean

( Webley 1 978).

T his

m ight

F ig. 2 3. M ap o f t he C ango V alley s howing t he l ocation o f B oomplaas C ave, t he C ango C aves a nd o ther s ites i nvestigated. T he v egetation t raverse i s d e . z ribed i n M offett & D eacon ( 1977). A fter F . J . D eacon ( 1979).

7 4

b e e xpected i n s ituations s uch a s t his c ave o n a s lope a bove a v alley w here t he s ources c ontributing t o t he b uild-up o f t he d eposit a re l imited

a nd

h ave

r emained

c onstant.

T he

m ajor s ource o f c oarser

m aterial h as b een t he c ave i nterior a nd s ome h orizons a re m arked b y a h igher c omponent o f r oof d ebris. T here i s a c lear c ontrast b etween s ediments b uilt u p l argely t hrough n atural a gencies a nd t hose w hich a re t he r esult o f h uman o ccupation i n t hat t he l atter i nclude a sh l enses a nd c arbonized o rganic m aterials. H uman o ccupation h as b een e pisodic t hroughout t he t ime p eriod r epresented b y t he d eposits a nd t he m ain p hases o f h uman o ccupation a re w ell s eparated b y c ulturally s terile d eposits. T he l ithostratigraphy h as b een d escribed i n a h ierarchical s cheme o f M embers, U nits a nd S ub-units f rom h ighest t o l owest o rder ( H. J . D eacon 1 979). T he s equence c an b e d escribed b est i n t erms o f M embers w hich r epresent s ets o f p enecontemporaneous U nits w hich h ave h ad a s imilar o rigin a nd S ub-units w hich r epresent l ocalized f eatures. T he M embers r ecognized i n t he B oomplaas s equence t hat d ate w ithin t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears a re a s f ollows, f rom t op t o b ottom ( Fig. 2 5). F urther d etails o n t he f ull s equence h ave b een p ublished e lsewhere ( H. J . D eacon 1 979). C BM M ember B elow a s uperficial l ayer o f l oose d ust i s a m assive p orous w hite l ayer s ome 0 ,25 m t hick f ormed t hrough t he b urning o f s heep d ung t hat a ccumulated o n t he c ave f loor w hen t he s ite w as u sed a s a s tock k raal i n t he l ate 1 8th a nd e arly 1 9th c enturies ( Green 1 955:120). N o c ultural m aterial w as D GL M ember T he d eposit

i s

f ound a ssociated w ith t his l ayer.

o f

s imilar

o rigin

t o

t hat i n C BM, b ut i s l ess

m assive a nd i s c omposed o f a s eries o f d iscrete t hin b ands o f w hite c alcined m aterial w ith s oil p artings b etween t he b ands. T he i nterpretation i s t hat t his a ccumulation r epresents m ore i ntermittent u se o f t he c ave a s a k raal a nd a s a h abitation s ite, p robably o ver a c entury o r l ess a bout 1 7 00 y ears a go. T he a ssociated c ultural m aterial i ncludes p ottery, s tone a rtefacts, a c opper b ead a nd c ircular s tone-packed h earths ( Fig. 2 6). T he f aunal r emains i nclude b oth d omesticated s heep a nd s mall g ame ( Klein 1 978b). T he p ottery i s t ypical o f t he C ape C oastal w are w hich i s w idely a ssociated w ith s tock k eeping a nd c ontinued t o b e m ade b y H ottentot-speaking h erders i n h istoric

t imes

( Rudner 1 968;

S ub-units r ecognized M ember a re: D GL : B LD :

D eacon

d uring

e t

a l.

e xcavation

1 978).

a nd

T he

U nits

a nd

g rouped w ithin t he D GL

D GL 1 , D GL 2 , D GL 3 ; D GL 4 B LD 1 , B LD1a, B LD1/2, B LD 2 , B LD 2 a

B LD M ember T he b urning o f t he k raal d ung l ayers i n D GL h as c arbonized t he u nderlying s urface l itter a ccumulated o ver a bout 3 00 y ears b etween t he t wo o ccupations a nd t his p arting, w hich w as f ound o ver t he e ntire a rea e xcavated, m embers. c onsist o f B LD 3 :

s erves

a s

a m arker f or t he s eparation o f

T he B LD M ember i s c omposed o f

t wo U nits:

t he f ollowing S ub-units:

B LD 3 , B LD D B, B LD 3 U,

B LD 3 UA,

7 5

B LD 3 L

t he D GL a nd B LD

B LD 3 a nd B L

w hich

B OOMPLAAS C AVE: P LAN

- M gy ee» r ; Z" ') « ,5

r ' 4 6 ' ., -, ; p Ne e z ee ;ee -eie rgr , 2 -' , Ne . .. , .

e ZVee e '

P A

N

O

P

O

P

S

T

u

v

AREA EXCAVATED T O T op o f B LD ; ! : r•

B ose o f B LD B ose o f DGL

r s 3

N

MN

B ose o f C L

B edrock P 12 T est c utt ing t o b edrock

After H J D eacon

2

4

6 4

( 1978)

F ig. 2 4. P lan o f B oomplaas C ave s howing t he p osition o f t he e xcavation a nd t he d epth t o w hich v arious p arts w ere e xcavated.

B LD 3 A, B LD 3 AM, B LD A RB, B LD D R, B LD R , B LD S H B LD 3 B, B LD 3 AM2, B LD 3 BM, B LD S H2 B LD 3 C, B LD 4 , B LD z , B LD b h B L : T he

B LD B L, B LD B L1, B LD

M ember

B LD B L2,

B L

c onsists o f b rown l oamy o ccupation d eposits d ated t o

a round 2 000 B .P. W ithin t he M ember a re m ore t han 4 5 d eliberately m ade p its r anging i n d iameter f rom 0 ,20 t o 0 ,80 m ( Fig. 2 7). I n m any i nstances t here i s a l ining o f p apery b ulbar l eaves o f B oophone d isticha, t hen a l ayer o f g rass a nd f inally a s econd l ayer o f b ulbar l eaves. T he c ommon n ame o f B . d isticha i s ' gifbol o r ' poison b ulb' a nd, a part f rom t he t oxic p roperties o f t he b ulb w hich p robably h elped t o k eep i nsects a way f rom t he p it c ontents, t he p apery b ulbar l eaves a re r eported a s h aving b een u sed t o c over s kin w ounds ( Moffett & D eacon 1 977) a nd a re k nown f rom a rchaeological e xamples t o h ave b een u sed a s a w rapping m aterial ( Parkington & P oggenpoel 1 971; H . J . D eacon 1 976). f illed w ith

S everal o f t he p its h ad n ot b een c leared a nd w ere s till s eeds o f P appea c apensis f ruits t hat a re e thnologically

a nd p harmacologically k nown a s a s ource o f v egetable o il u sed o n t he s kin. T he k ernels a re a lso e dible a nd t he f ruits, t oo, a re f airly p alatable. N o s tands o f P . c apensis w ere f ound d uring t he f loristic s urvey o f t he C ango V alley ( Moffett & D eacon 1 977) a nd t he n earest s ource k nown t oday i s s ome 1 0 k m f rom t he s ite. F or t he c ave t o h ave s erved a s a b ase f or t he h arvesting o f t hese f ruits i t s eems p robable t hat t here w ere s tands o f P . c apensis n earby 2 0 00 y ears a go. T he f ruits r ipen i n s ummer a nd a re e asily h arvested. T rials u ndertaken o n t he f arm B uffelskloof s ome 2 5 k m t o t he w est s howed t hat i t i s p ossible t o c ollect f ruits a t t he r ate o f o ver 1 00 p er m inute a nd t he t rees w ere e stimated t o c arry s everal t housand f ruits e ach. T he i mplications a re t hat t he c ave w as o ccupied a t t imes w hen p eople w ere h arvesting t he f ruits a nd t hey u sed t he c ave f loor a s a s torage f acility, p resumably t o a llow t he f ruits o r s eeds t o m ature s o t hat t he v egetable o il c ould b e u sed a t a l ater d ate

( H. J . D eacon 1 979).

T he m ajority o f t he p its h ave b een e mptied a nd f illed w ith r edistributed o ccupational d ebris i ncluding b one a nd o ther o rganic m aterial a nd t he s tones w hich h ad b een u sed t o m ark t he

t ops

o f

t he

f ull p its a re o ften i ncorporated i nto t he f ill o f t he e mpty o nes. T he d ensity o f t he p its i n B LD c an b e s een i n F ig. 2 7. T hree o f t he m ore t han 1 00 m arker s tones f ound i n t he p its h ave p aintings o n t hem ( Deacon e t a l.

1 976).

I n a ddition t o t he s eeds, t here i s l imited e vidence f or p lant f ood g athering i n t his M ember. T wo c orm b ases o f H ypoxis v illosa a nd o ne c orm o f W atsonia s p. a re t he o nly i dentifiable r emains r ecovered w hich i s s urprising i n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he e mpty p it d epressions w ere i deal t raps f or t he a ccumulation o f p lant r esidues a nd t hat c onditions w ere c learly s uitable f or t heir p reservation. T his l ack o f p lant f ood r emains m ay w ell b e d ue t o t he l imited a vailability o f g eophytes i n t he v icinity o f t he s ite ( Moffett & D eacon 1 977). C harcoals f rom t his M ember h ave b een s ampled a nd i dentified a nd t he r esults s how t hat t hey a re d ominated b y A cacia k aroo w hich i s p rominent i n t he w oodland o f t he v alley a t p resent ( Fig. 1 0, T able 3 ). T he f aunal r emains g round

( Table

1 0) a re d ominated b y s mall

g ame f rom t he l ocal s hrubland.

7 7

S ome s heep b ones

a ntelope

a nd

( representing

'

J C Z J 0 0 C O C C C O J

A ( 1 ) \ 0

0

c o _ % I

7 8 t he d eposit

0

I1 11

t o L P a long l ine 0 .

a _

` g

4 1 2 -

z

A c omposite s ection t hrough B oomplaas f rom t he

C . )

l r )

C \ 1

b ' p

8




A

I

2

' I

2

,

I

I

o

3-1 d IV IS 1 ) '101 N i

"

I o

!

o

3 1 1Z . •M10 -N ON•%

1

0

1 , I 1 -

I

o

0 1 I r • -

'

° b c i . O 1 0 -

z

0 0

i l t r a w m a e r a s .

A-

0

. I 4 • > .. D O 1 C . r i 1 I I 3 ) 0 . N

2

a l ;

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a nd l ocalized v ariability t hat m ay b e s hort s equence s ite i s c onsidered.

s ite-specific t han w hen o nly o ne

F LAKING M ETHOD T he a ttributes a nd r elative f requencies o f

c lasses

i n

t he

w aste

d emonstrate v ariability a nd c hanges c ategory a re a nalysed h ere t o a nd t o c orrelate s hifts i n r aw t hrough t ime i n f laking t echnique T he e xpectation i s t hat i f s hifts m aterials a nd f laking m ethods. o f r aw m aterials i n t he t hree n oted t hrough t ime i n t he c hoice s equences w ere t he r esult o f d eliberate a nd w idespread c hanges i n t oolmaking t echniques, t hen w e s hould s ee s ome c ovariation i n t he c hoice o f r aw m aterial a nd t he r elative f requencies o f c ore s ub-types, i n t he n ature o f t he f laking d ebris a nd i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he f lakes i n c ontemporary a ssemblages a t t he t hree s ites. T he e mphasis h ere t herefore f alls o n t he n ature o f t he c hanges, o n t he c orrelation o f t he v ariables a nd o n t he t iming o f s hifts i n r elative f requencies a nd m etric a ttributes a t a n i nter- a nd i ntra-site l evel. T he m ethod c hosen f or f laking ( which m ay i n t urn b e l imited t o s ome e xtent b y t he r ange o f r aw m aterials a vailable a s w ell a s b y t he r ange o f m ethods k nown t o t he t oolmaker) i s a ssumed t o b e d etectable i n t he r ange o f c ore s ub-types a nd t he s ize, s hape a nd r elative f requency o f t he c hips, c hunks a nd f lakes p roduced. a re r ecognized b y s ome r esearchers

W hile n umerous c ore s ub-types ( see S ampson 1 972; C lark 1 974),

o bservations o f s tone w orkers i n A ngola ( Clark 1 963:174) a nd i n A ustralia ( Hayden 1 979; R . A . G ould 1 980) i ndicate t hat t here i s l ittle r elationship b etween f inal c ore s hape a nd t he s ize a nd s hape o f f lakes s truck f rom i t. F lakes w ith f acetted p latforms m ay b e s truck a s o ften f rom u nprepared c ores a s f rom p repared o nes o f l evallois t ype. T he m ain d istinction n oted b y C lark a nd t he A ustralian o bservers i s b etween b lade o r b ladelet t ypes a nd o thers, a lthough a gain s mall n umbers o f b lades a nd b ladelets m ay b e s truck f rom n on-blade/bladelet c ores. T he i ncidence o f c ore r educed p ieces ( pieces e squillees) i s a nother i ndicator o f a d istinctive f laking t echnique.

I n t his a nalysis t herefore, b ladelet c ore f requencies

a re

n oted a s d istinct f rom i rregular o nes a nd, i n t he c ase o f N BC o nly, r adial c ores a re r ecognized a s a s eparate c ore s ub-class b ut, b ecause t hey s eem t o b e l inked t o t he u se o f q uartzite c obbles, t hey w ere n ot n oted i n a ny s ignificant n umbers a t t he o ther s ites a nd w ere t herefore n ot s eparated i nto a d ifferent s ub-class a t B PA a nd K RA .

N ELSON B AY C AVE T he w ay i n w hich r aw m aterial h as i nfluenced t he r elative f requency o f w aste c lasses i s i llustrated i n c orrelations b etween q uartz a nd q uartzite a nd f lakes, c hunks a nd c hips. I n F ig. 3 9 i t c an b e s een t hat t here i s n ot a s h igh a c orrelation ( p=,02-,01) b etween q uartzite a nd t he r atio o f c ores:flakes a s t here i s b etween t he f requency o f f lakes a nd q uartzite c alculating

( Fig.

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( Fig.

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c orrelation

4 3).

T he c ore s ub-class f requencies s ummarized i n T able 2 0 d emonstrate t hat i rregular q uartzite c ores, w hich s how n o a pparent c hange t hrough t ime i n t he s ize, s hape o r n umber o f f lakes r emoved, d ominate a ll a ssemblages w ith t he e xception o f t he u ppermost ( IC) a nd t he t wo l owest ( YGL a nd Y SL) w here r adial a nd b ladelet c ores t ogether a ccount f or a bout 5 0% o r m ore o f t he c ores. T he r adial c ores t end t o b e m ore c ommon i n t he m iddle a nd u pper u nits a nd, w ith t he e xception o f Y SL, a re p redominantly i n q uartzite. T he m ost o bvious s hift i n t he c ore c lasses o ccurs a mongst b ladelet c ores w hich a ccount f or b etween 2 3% a nd 4 7% i n t he t hree l owest u nits, f or 1 7% i n t he u ppermost, a nd f or l ess t han 6 ,5% i n t he r est. T hese s hifts c orrelate b roadly w ith t he i ncidence o f n on-quartzite r aw m aterials a nd w ith t he i ncidence o f b ladelets, b ut t he c orrelation b etween a s pecific r aw m aterial, q uartz, a nd t he i ncidence o f b ladelet c ores i s w eak ( p = g reater t han , 05; F ig. 4 4). R aw m aterial a ppears t o h ave a c loser r elationship t o t he i ncidence o f b ladelets h owever a s c an b e s een i n F ig. 4 5 w hich s hows t hat a t N BC t he p ercentage o f n on-quartzite i n t he a ssemblage c orrelates h ighly ( p = l ess t han , 001) w ith t he i ncidence o f b ladelets. T hese d ata s uggest t hat i t i s n ot o ne r aw m aterial t hat h as b een s elected f or b ladelet p roduction, b ut s everal, t he m ost i mportant o f w hich a re q uartz, s ilcrete a nd c halcedony, d epending o n t he s ite. O n

t he

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t hat

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b ladelets w ere p roduced, w e c ould e xpect a c lose c orrelation b etween t he f requency o f b ladelet c ores a nd t he f requency o f b ladelets a nd f or N BC a t l east t his i s c ertainly t he c ase ( Fig. 4 6) w here p = l ess t han , 001. T his d iagram a lso i llustrates t he d ifference i n t he a bsolute f requency o f b oth b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores i n H olocene a nd l ate P leistocene s amples. I t i s l ikely t hat d ifferent f laking t echniques w ere u sed d uring t hese t wo t ime p eriods b ecause t he l ate P leistocene b ladelet c ore s amples i nclude a s ub-class o f f lat b ladelet c ores t hat a re a bsent i n t he H olocene. T hese s mall c ores a re o ften, b ut n ot i nvariably, m ade o n q uartz c rystals a nd a re 1 0-20 m m l ong a nd 5 -10 m m w ide. T hey s how f lake s cars o f b ladelet d imensions a nd o ften h ave e vidence o f b ipolar f laking. T hey d iffer f rom c ore r educed p ieces i n t heir m ore e longated s hape a nd i n t he a bsence o f t he c hisel-like s triking p latform s o c ommon o n c ore r educed p ieces. C ore r educed p ieces w ere n ot a pparently u sed f or p roducing b ladelets f or w hen t hey a re i ncluded w ith b ladelet c ores a nd p lotted a gainst t he f requency o f b ladelets, t he r atio o f b ladelets t o c ores i s s o l ow a s t o s uggest t hat c ore r educed p ieces a re i n n o w ay r elated t o b ladelet p roduction. T here i s h owever s ome c orrelation i n t he t iming o f t he o ccurrence o f t hese a nd b ladelets f rom b ladelet c ores s uggesting t hat a s imilar m ethod o f h olding t he c ore f or t he p roduction o f f lakes m ay h ave b een u sed i n b oth c ases. A n u nusual f laking t echnique d escribed b y W hite & T homas ( 1972) i s u sed i n N ew G uinea a nd p roduces s imilar b ipolar c ore r esidues w hen t he c ore i s b ound w ith f ibre a nd s truck a t o ne e nd w hile r esting o n a n a nvil.

T he b ladelets a nd f lakes p roduced b y t his m ethod

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O ne o f t he m ost s triking f eatures o f t he N BC s equence i s t he h igh f requency o f q uartzite f lakes, v ery f ew o f w hich o ccur i n t he c hips s ize r ange ( less t han 1 0 m m m aximum d imension). W ith t he e xception o f t he l owest t hree a ssemblages ( YGL, Y SL a nd B SL), u ntrimmed f lakes a ccount f or o ver 8 5% o f t he w aste c ategory a nd, i n t he s ite a s a w hole, f or 8 5% o f a ll c lasses i n a ll c ategories. O f t hese u ntrimmed f lakes f rom t he s ite, 7 8% a re m ade i n q uartzite. T he r esult i s t hat a ll t he a ssemblages l ook b asically s imilar b ecause o f t he d ominance o f t his o ne c lass. A s i n t he c ase o f t he c ores h owever, i t i s t he i ncidence o f n on-quartzite e lements w hich s ignals c hange i n t he s equence a nd t his i s c learest i n t he s ize r ange o f t he u ntrimmed f lakes. S amples

o f w hole u ntrimmed

f lakes

f rom e ach u nit w ere m easured a nd

d escriptive s tatistics f or l ength, w idth, h eight ( thickness), w idth/length r atio ( shape) a nd r elative t hickness w ere c alculated. T he m ethod o f m easurement i s d etailed i n A ppendix 2 . T he d ata a re s ummarized i n T ables 2 1-25 a nd F igs 4 7-51 a nd s how a c lear s hift t owards l onger f lakes i n t he m iddle u nits w here q uartzite i s d ominant, w ith t he s hortest f lakes i n t he l ate P leistocene u nits a nd t hose o f i ntermediate l ength i n t he u ppermost u nits. T he l ate P leistocene f lakes a re a lso n arrower, t hinner a nd m ore b lade-like t han t hose i n t he o verlying u nits. T hese t rends a re v isible i n a ll r aw m aterials i ndividually a nd i n t he s ample a s a w hole. T here i s a lso s ome t ruth i n t he a ssumption t hat t he c hanges i n c ore s ub-types a nd t he n ature o f t he t oolmaking d ebris a re r elated t o c hanges i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he f lakes p roduced. I n F ig. 5 2 t his c an b e s een i n t he r easonable c orrelation a t a n i nter-site l evel ( p = , 02-,01) b etween t he i ncidence o f b ladelet c ores a nd t he m ean l ength o f a ll u ntrimmed f lakes, s horter f lakes o ccurring i n s amples w here b ladelet c ores

t he a re

r elatively c ommon.

K ANGKARA

i t

B ecause o f t he l imited s ample s ize d rawn f rom t he K angkara d eposit w as c onsidered u nwise t o m easure t he r elatively s mall n umber o f

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o ccupies

a n

i ntermediate p osition b etween t he o ther t wo s ites i n m any i nstances. B ladelet c ores a re p resent o nly i n t he l owest t wo a ssemblages a nd i t i s o nly i n t hese u nits t hat b ladelets o ccur a s w ell. T he n umber o f f lakes p er c ore ( including c hunks) i s m uch l ower t han a t N BC ( Fig. 3 9) r anging f rom 1 c ore t o 2 f lakes t o 1 :4,8, b ut t here i s a t endency f or m ore f lakes t o o ccur i n a ssemblages w ith h igher q uartzite f requencies. T he r elative f requency o f c hips i s a gain c orrelated w ith t he i ncidence o f q uartz ( Fig. 4 1) c onfirming t he r elationship b etween t oolmaking d ebris a nd r aw m aterial n oted a t N BC.

1 07

T o ta l s amp le 0 40 n . 1 92

80

1 20

1 60

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2 40 1

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1

F ig. 4 9. N BC: d eviation.

W /L r atio o f u ntrimmed f lakes - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard

1 08

T o ta l s amp le 0

1 0

20

30

40

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F ig. 5 0. N BC: h eight o f u ntrimmed f lakes - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation . T o ta l s amp le Q ua r tz o n ly 20

0

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F ig. 5 1. N BC: r elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed f lakes - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation.

1 09

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L ENGTH OF UNTR IMMED F LAKES

F ig. 5 2. N BC a nd B PA : S catter d iagram s howing w eak l inear c orrelation b etween t he p ercentage o f b ladelet c ores a nd t he m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes.

1 10

B OOMPLAAS A t B PA t he i ncidence o f q uartz i s a gain c orrelated w ith i ncidence o f c hips, a lthough i n t he C L M ember ( BRL 7 , C L 1 -4, G WA) n umber o f c hips i s h igher t han w ould b e e xpected

( Fig.

4 1).

T his

t he t he i s

t he r everse o f t he s ituation a t N BC w here c hips a re l ess n umerous t han w ould b e e xpected f rom t he q uartz c ontent i n t he

l ower

u nits.

T his

d ifference c ould b e e xplicable i n t he h igher f requency o f c hips i n m aterials o ther t han q uartz a t B PA s howing t hat t he i ncidence o f c hips i s

o nly p artly d ue t o t he r aw m aterial;

t he o ther p art

i s d ue t o t he

f laking m ethod u sed. I n c orrelating t he i ncidence o f f lakes w ith q uartzite, o n t he o ther h and, t he B PA s amples h ave a l ow i ncidence o f b oth q uartzite a nd f lakes w hen c ompared w ith K RA a nd N BC. W ithin t he s ite h owever t here i s n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he t wo. Even w hen a ll n on-quartz m aterials a re c ombined, t here i s n o l inear c orrelation b etween t heir r elative f requency a nd t hat o f u ntrimmed f lakes. T he r elationship b etween a p articular r aw m aterial a nd t he n ature o f t he t oolmaking d ebris i s t herefore o nly a g ross o ne t hat m ay b e i nfluenced b y o ther f actors w ithin a s ite s equence. B ladelet c ores a re m ore e venly d istributed t hrough t he B PA s equence t han a t e ither N BC o r K angkara, b ut t hey n evertheless f ollow t he s ame p attern i n b eing m ore n umerous i n t he l ate P leistocene u nits t han a t a ny o ther t ime; t hey a re a lso m ore s tandardized i n s hape a nd s ize t han i n t hose u nits o verlying t hem ( Table 2 6). T he i ncidence o f c ore r educed p ieces i s a gain c losely r elated t o t hat o f b ladelet c ores a nd i t w ould s eem t hat b oth a re b y-products o f a f laking t echnique f avoured b oth i n t he l ate P leistocene a nd i n t he m id-late H olocene. T he h igh i ncidence o f f lat b ladelet c ores i n t he l ate P leistocene h owever d istinguishes t he c ores o f t his p eriod f rom t hose o f t he H olocene ( Table 2 6). T here i s a d rop i n t he i ncidence o f b ladelets r elative t o f lakes i n t he l ate P leistocene t hat p recedes t he d ecrease i n t he r elative f requency o f b ladelet c ores b y a t l east a t housand y ears

a t

B PA ( Figs 5 3 a nd 5 4);

t he f act t hat t his d oes n ot o ccur a t

N BC m ay m ean t hat i t i s t he r esult o f s ampling, o r t hat a r eal c hange i n f laking t echnique o ccurred a t t he o ne s ite b ut n ot a t t he o ther. T hat

t he

l ate P leistocene f laking m ethod u sed a t B PA w as d esigned

t o p roduce m ore b ladelets a nd s maller f lakes t han t he m ethod u sed i n t he o verlying u nits c an b e s een i n t he s horter f lakes, b ladelet c ores a nd l ow q uartzite f requencies i n t he l ate P leistocene s amples. A s c an b e s een i n F ig. 5 5, t here i s a r easonably h igh c orrelation a t B PA b etween t he i ncidence o f q uartzite a nd t he m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes ( p = , 01-,001). T he l ower c orrelation c oefficient f or t he N BC s ample i s c aused m ainly b y t he a berrant p osition o f t he Y SL a nd Y GL s amples w hich a re a ffected b y a r elatively h igh i ncidence o f n on-quartzite m aterials a nd t herefore c orrelate m ore c losely w ith t he B PA u nits. F ig. 5 6 s hows a w eak c orrelation b etween t he r atio o f c ores:chunks a nd t he m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes d emonstrating a t endency f or s amples w ith m ore c hunks t o h ave s horter f lakes a t B PA. T he s ame p attern d oes n ot h old f or N BC w here t here i s a lways a i ncidence o f c ores D escriptive h eights,

h igher

t han c hunks.

s tatistics

f or

u ntrimmed

f lake

l engths,

w /1 r atios a nd r elative t hicknesses a re s ummarized i n

1 11

w idths, T ablPe

20

1 5

1 0

5

x 1000 y ears B .P

F ig. 5 3. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he p ercentage f requenc y o f b ladelet c ores i n d ated s amples f rom N BC a nd B PA .

20

1 5

1 0 x1 000 y ears B .P .

5

F ig. 5 4. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he i ncidence o f b ladel ets a s ap ercentage o f u ntrimmed f lakes i n d ated s amples f rom N BC a nd B PA .

1 12

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R aw m aterials a re p lotted s eparately i n F ig.

a nd F ig. 6 0 t o s how t hat a ll m aterials f ollow a s imilar t rend t ime, c onfirming a gain t he i mpression t hat c hanges i n t echnique a nd c onsequent f lake s ize a re o nly p artly a ffected

5 7

t hrough f laking b y t he

c hoice o f r aw m aterial, a nd t hat f laking t echnique c ontributed e qually t o t he r esult. T he t rend t hrough t ime s hows a d istinct d rop i n f lake l ength a t c . 2 1 0 00 B .P. b etween L PC a nd L P t hat i s m irrored a lso i n f lake w idth a nd h eight. T hese m easurements a re f airly c onstant t hrough t he n ext 8 0 00 y ears u ntil c . 1 2 5 00 B .P. w hen i n t he C L 1 -2 s amples t he s ize i ncreases a nd r emains c onstant t hrough t o t he t op o f B RL a t c . 9 000 B .P. T hereafter t he s ize r ange r everts t o t hat o f t he l ate P leistocene i n t he m id-late H olocene s amples f rom B LA, B LD a nd D GL. T he w /1 r atio h owever i ndicates a s trong b ladelet e lement i n G WA a nd C L 3 -4 o nly, t he l east b lade-like s hapes o ccurring i n B RL. T he r elative t hickness m easurements a re f airly s table t hroughout t he s equence, w ith t he e xception o f C L 3 -4 w hich h as t hinner f lakes t han a ny o ther s ample.

I NTER-SITE C OMPARISONS A nalysis o f t he v ariability w ithin t he w aste c ategory c lasses a nd c hanges t hrough t ime a t t he t hree s ites h as s hown t hat c hanges i n f laking t echnique c oincide w ith c hanges i n t he c hoice o f r aw m aterials s uggesting s ome f unctional l ink, a nd t hat s hifts i n t hese p arameters a re b roadly c oncident a t a ll t hree s ites s uggesting t hat t he s hifts a re n ot s ite-specific b ut h ad s ome r egional s ignificance. F igs 5 2, 5 3, 5 4, 6 1 a nd 6 2 h ave b een d rawn t o d emonstrate t he c oincidence i n t iming o f c hanges i n t he i ncidence o f b ladelets, b ladelet c ores a nd t he r atio o f c hips:untrimmed f lakes, a s w ell a s t he m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes. A lthough t he a ctual f requencies a nd m easurements a re n ot t he s ame a t e ach s ite, t he g eneral t rend t hrough t ime i s s imilar. T his h elps t o f ormulate s ome g eneralizations a bout t oolmaking m ethods o ver t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears i n t he s outhern C ape. T he f laking m ethod u sed b etween a bout 2 0 0 00 a nd 1 2 0 00 B .P. i s c haracterized b y a h igh i ncidence o f b ladelet c ores t hat i nclude a d istinctive a nd h ighly s tandardized s ingle-platform t ype ( Fig. 1 17: 1 -15; F ig. 1 35: 1 -7) a s w ell a s a s ub-class o f s mall f lat c ores o ften m ade o n q uartz c rystals ( Fig. 1 17: 1 6-18; F ig. 1 35: 8 13). T hese a re c orrelated w ith t he o ccurrence o f b ladelets ( illustrated i n A ppendix 1 ) o f w hich o nly a s mall p roportion h as b een r etouched, a h igh i ncidence o f n on-quartzite r aw m aterials ( silcrete, q uartz, c halcedonies) a nd s horter, n arrower a nd m ore b lade-like f lakes. C hips t end t o b e m ore c ommon i n t hese s amples, r egardless o f w hether q uartz f requencies a re h igh o r n ot. B etween a bout 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P. c hips a re n ot a s c ommon, b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores a re r are, q uartzite a nd h ornfels a re p referred r aw m aterials a nd t he u ntrimmed f lakes a re l onger, w ider a nd l ess b lade-like t han t hose i n e arlier o r l ater a ssemblages. T he i ncrease i n f lake l ength o ccurs s lightly e arlier a t B PA t han a t N BC a nd w hether t his i s d ue t o s ampling o r n ot w ill n eed t o b e t ested b y t he

a nalysis

o f s imilar s amples

f rom o ther s ites.

O f i nterest,

t oo,

i s t he f act t hat t he i ncidence o f b ladelet c ores a t B PA p ersists l onger t han a t b oth N BC a nd B PA. T he r eason w hy t he c ores p ersist a fter t he b ladelets w ere r educed i n n umber m ay b e t hat t he b ladelets w ere r emoved f rom t he s ite a fter f laking,

1 14

o r t hat t he c ores

t hemselves

Q ua r tz

H o rn fe ls

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F ig . 5 7. E PA : l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes m ean, r ange a nd s tandard d eviation.

1 15

W idth 0 I . . 3 1 6

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2 1 0

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1 4 9

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F ig. 5 8. B PA : w idth a nd h eight o f u ntrimmed f lakes - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation.

1 16

0

1 00

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3 18 2 10

i

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i

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1 49

1

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F ig. 5 9. B PA : d eviation.

w /1 r atio o f u ntrimmed f lakes - m ean, r ange a nd s tandard

C ha lcedony T o ta l s amp le 0

H ornfe ls 20

40

3 16

60

0

20

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5 4

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4 2

7 8 2 10

40

60

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1 3 1

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BRL 7 2 8

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5

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r I e LI I

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40

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4

20

3-

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F ig. 6 0. B PA : r elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed f lakes - m ean, r ange a nd s tandard d eviation.

1 17

60

mm 1

48

&

MEAN L ENGTH 44

—

E RROR

.

AND S TANDARD

F OR UNTR IMMED F LAKES

I N DATED S AMPLES 40

3 6

—

32

—

NBC

2 8 1 24

1 1

1

—

20 —

1 6

I

20

•

'

1 5

I

'

1 0 x 1000 y ears B .P

5

F ig . 6 1. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he m ean l ength a nd s tandard e rror o f u ntrimmed f lakes a t N BC a nd B PA.

1 : 300 —

1 : 200 —

1 ,1 00 —

•

-•

1 , 50 —

• NBC

K ANGKARA

1 ,1 0 —

s r6 -

-• -

•

21 0

1 0

?

1 5

a C I ir 0P A . 6

0

x 1000 y ears B .P

F ig. 6 2. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he r atio o f c hips t o u ntrimmed f lakes i n d ated s amples f rom N BC, K angkara a nd B PA . 1 18

w ere c urated f or u se a s s crapers, a p ossiblity t hat w ill b e a gain i n t he s ection o n f ormal t ools.

d iscussed

A fter a bout 8 000 B .P. t here i s a g eneral r eduction i n t he l ength, w idth a nd h eight o f f lakes b ringing t hem t o d imensions c omparable w ith t hose i n s amples o lder t han 1 2 0 00 B .P., b ut t he w il r atios i ndicate t hat f lakes o f b lade a nd b ladelet p roportions a re n ot a s c ommon i n t hese m ore r ecent u nits a s t hey w ere i n t he l ate P leistocene ( Fig. 5 9). T hese f actors s uggest t hat t he f laking t echnique u sed a fter a bout 8 000 B .P. w as g eared t oward a m ore i ntensive u se o f n odules o f r aw m aterial t hat r esulted i n f ewer f ormal c ores, f ewer u nretouched b ladelets, s maller f lakes a nd a h igher i ncidence o f c hunks. T his i s p artly c orrelated w ith t he c hoice o f q uartz a s a p referred r aw m aterial i n m any o f t he s amples. T he f act t hat t his p attern i s c orrelated w ith a h igher i ncidence o f f ormal t ools s uggests t hat r etouching a fter t he f lake w as s truck r eplaced m ore c areful c ore p reparation t echniques a nd m ay h ave b een p referred w ith t he i ncreased i ncidence o f h afting t hat n eeded m ore s tandardized i nserts. T he c hange i n f laking t echnique a t c . 1 2 0 00 B .P. i s l ess e asy t o a ccount f or. F rom t he p erspective o f t he p resent d ay i t s eems m ore l ike a r egression f rom t he m icrolithic m ode t han a l ogical s tep i n a n e volutionary p rocess. T o v iew c hanges i n f lake s ize a nd s hape i n b roader p erspective, t he r elative t hickness i ndex, s uggested b y B eaumont ( 1978) t o b e t he m ost s ensitive t o c hanges t hrough t ime, w as c alculated f or t he N BC a nd B PA u ntrimmed f lakes ( Fig. 6 3). I t s hows t hat t he t hinnest f lakes w ere m ade i n t he l ate P leistocene s amples a nd t hat t hey g rew p rogressively t hicker t hrough t he H olocene. H owever, w hen t his c urve i s p laced o n t he e nd o f t hat d rawn b y B eaumont f or M SA a nd e arly L SA s amples i n F ig . 6 4 a nd r aw m aterials a re p lotted s eparately, i t c an b e s een t hat t he r elative t hickness o f f lakes i s a c yclic p henomenon t hat o scillates w ithin l imits a pparently s et b y r aw m aterials. Q uartzite f lakes t end t o b e t hickest ( although t here i s c onsiderable v ariability a nd s ome o f t he s maller s amples o f t hinner f lakes a re n ot j oined b y t he c urve o n t he d iagram t o f acilitate t he f ollowing o f t he g eneral t rends), a nd s ilcrete f lakes t end t o b e t he t hinnest. O f i nterest i s t he f act t hat t hey a ll t end t o f ollow m uch t he s ame t rend t hrough t ime i ndicating o nce m ore t hat f laking t echnique h as a s m uch i nfluence o n t he s ize a nd s hape o f f lakes a s d oes t he r aw m aterial u sed, a nd t hat p articular m aterials w ere d eliberately s elected f or p articular f laking m ethods. T his l ong t erm p erspective a lso i llustrates t hat o ne s ize o r s hape i ndex c annot b e u sed t o d istinguish a rtefacts o f a p articular p eriod, e xcept o ver a r elatively s hort t ime s pan. T he r elative t hickness i ndex f or f lakes d ating b etween 1 00 0 00 a nd 8 0 0 00 B .P., f or e xample, i s e ssentially s imilar t o t hat f or s amples d ating b etween c . 2 0 0 00 a nd 1 0 0 00 B .P.

C HOICE O F P IECES F OR U TILIZATION

t he

O dell ( 1979) l ists t he s ize, s hape a nd q ualities o f p rehension a nd s uitability a nd s hape o f t he e dge f or t he t ask a s t he c riteria

a ssessed i n t he c hoice o f a p iece f or u tilization. I deally t hese q ualities c ould b e m easured a nd d escriptive s tatistics c alculated, b ut t here i s s o f requencies

l ittle o bvious c hange t hrough t ime i n t he r elative o f t he v arious c lasses a nd s ub-classes o f u tilized p ieces

1 19

R e l .T I

1 5

1

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I

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1

l

i

t

I

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1

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5

1 5

1 0

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F ig. 6 3. N BC a nd B PA : C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he r elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed f lakes i n d ated s amples.

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F ig. 6 5. N BC a nd B PA: S catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f u tilized p ieces a nd t he n umber o f f ormal t ools.

1 22

a t t he t hree s ites t hat i t i s a ssumed t hat t hese i tems w ere n ot a s s ubject t o c hanging h abits a nd p references a s t hose i n t he f ormal t ools c ategory o r s ome o f t he w aste c lasses. M easurements o f t he s ize a nd s hape o f u tilized f lakes t aken a t o ther s ites, f or e xample W ilton ( J. D eacon 1 969) a nd W onderwerk ( A. T hackeray 1 981), s how t hat t he u pper e nd o f t he s ize r ange w as c onsistently s elected f or u tilization a mongst t he f lakes. V isual i nspection o f t he u tilized f lakes f rom N BC, K RA a nd B PA c onfirms t his. A rtefacts i ncluded i n t he u tilized c ategory a re u tilized f lakes w ith e dge, s teep o r n otched d amage t o t he l aterals t hat i s v isible t o t he n aked e ye, h eavy e dge-flaked p ieces t hat m ay h ave b een u tilized c ores a nd a re s pecific t o t he u se o f q uartzite c obbles, a nd a v ariety o f c obbles u sed f or h ammerstones, g rindstones, r ubbers a nd c ombinations o f t hese f unctions. A lthough s ome c ore r educed m ay h ave b een u tilized f or t heir c hisel-like e dges ( i.e. e squillees), a nd i ndeed a s mall n umber s how w ood p olish o n ( Fig.

1 37:

1 2,

1 3)

( Binneman 1 982),

p ieces p ieces

t his

e dge

t hey h ave n ot b een i ncluded a s a

s eparate c lass w ithin t he u tilized c ategory b ecause o f t he d ifficulty o f b eing c ertain, w ithout m icrowear a nalysis, t hat t he d amage i s i ndeed d ue t o u tilization. F or t he m oment, t hen, t hese p ieces a re r egarded a s h aving b een d iscarded a t a n e arlier s tage i n t he r eduction p rocess t han u tilized p ieces a lthough t his s tance m ay n eed t o b e m odified i n f uture. B ecause t he u tilized c ategory i ncludes o nly t hose p ieces w ith d amage v isible t o t he n aked e ye, i t r epresents o nly a p ortion o f t he t otal a nd u nknown n umber o f p ieces t hat w ere u tilized. T his p roblem w ill o nly b e r esolvable o nce m icrowear s tudies a re f ully o perationa l a nd p roblems o f d etecting m icrowear o n c oarse m aterials s uch a s q uartzite a nd h ighly s iliceous o nes s uch a s q uartz ( which m ake u p t he b ulk o f t he m aterials a t t he t hree s ites d iscussed h ere) h ave b een o vercome.

N ELSON B AY C AVE T he m ost c ommon c lass i n t he u tilized c ategory i s t hat o f u tilized f lakes ( Table 1 2). E dge-damaged f lakes a re c onsistently m ore n umerous t han e ither o f

t he o ther t wo s ub-classes a nd m ay a ccount f or

a s

m uch

a s 6 0% o f a ll u tilized f lakes. T o d emonstrate t he r emarkably c onstant f requency o f u tilized f lakes, t he r atio o f u tilized t o u ntrimmed f lakes i s l isted i n T able 3 3. R egardless o f r aw m aterial c hanges, o ne o ut o f e very 2 5-30 f lakes p roduced a t N BC w as u tilized s ufficiently t o s how d amage v isible t o t he n aked e ye a nd w as d iscarded o n t he s ite. A t B SL t he r atio i s h igher w ith o ne o ut o f e very 1 3 f lakes u tilized, w hile i n Y GL i t i s l ower w ith o ne i n 3 7 f lakes u tilized. F ig. 6 5 s hows n o u tilized

c orrelation b etween t he i ncidence o f f ormal t ools a nd f lakes s uggesting t hat t here i s n o c lear l inear r elationship

b etween t he d evelopment o f f ormal t ools a nd t he i ncidence o f u tilization o n a m ore c asual b asis. T his s upports t he c ontention t hat t he d evelopment o f h ighly p atterned f ormal

t ools i s i ndependent o f

t he

r ange o f a ctivities u ndertaken. H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces a re m ade a lmost e xclusively f rom q uartzite c obbles ( one e xception i s a s ilcrete e xample f rom R A). A lthough t hey w ere u sed f or t he p roduction o f f lakes, t hey w ere p laced i n t he

1 23

u tilized c ategory b ecause o f t he h eavy d amage t o t he e dge t hat i s m ore s ustained t han o n a n ormal c ore a nd t his u tilization d amage s ometimes e xtends a round t wo s ides o f t he a rtefact t o f orm a r etouched ' tip'. I n t his s ense t hey c ould b e r egarded a s s imilar t o p ieces e squillees i n t hat t hey a re c ores w hich h ave b een s ubsequently u tilized, b ut t he u tilization i s m uch c learer a nd u nequivocal t han i t i s o n t he p ieces e squillees c lass a nd t hey h ave t herefore b een p laced i n t he u tilized c ategory. T heir o ccurrence i s l imited i n u nits w here q uartzite c obbles h ave n ot b een u sed t o a ny g reat e xtent ( as, f or e xample, i n t he l ower t hree u nits, Y GL, Y SL a nd B SL). L ower g rindstones h ave b een f ound i n t he f our u ppermost u nits a t N BC, b ut t he o ccurrence o f o ne u pper g rindstone ( or r ubber) i n Y GL s uggests t hat g rindstones w ere i n u se i n t he l ate P leistocene. H ammerstones a nd c ombination h ammer/rubbers a re a lso m ore c ommon i n t he u pper u nits a nd h ere a gain m ay r elate t o t he i ncreased u se o f q uartzite c obbles i n t hose u nits.

K ANGKARA U tilized f lakes a t K angkara a re n ot i nvariably m ore n umerous t han f ormal t ools a s w as t he c ase a t N BC ( Table 1 5). T he r atio o f u tilized f lakes t o u ntrimmed f lakes i s l isted i n T able 3 4 a nd s hows a m ore v ariable p attern t han t hat a t N BC w ith n ine o ut o f t he e leven u nits h aving b etween 1 3 a nd 4 5 u ntrimmed f lakes p er u tilized f lake. T he t wo l owest u nits h ave b oth t he h ighest ( 1:69) a nd l owest ( 1:7) v alues, b ut t he f act t hat t he s ample i s d rawn f rom a s ingle s quare m etre p recludes a ny s peculation a bout t heir s ignificance. B y t he s ame t oken, t he l ow f requencies o f g rindstones a nd r ubbers m ust a lso b e s een a s t he r esult o f s ampling. H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces a re n ot a s c ommon h ere a s a t N BC, p resumably a gain b ecause o f t he l ower i ncidence o f q uartzite c obbles b rought t o t he s ite.

B OOMPLAAS A lthough t here i s a t rend t hrough t he B PA s equence f or u tilized p ieces t o b ecome l ess i mportant r elative t o f ormal t ools i n t he m id a nd l ate H olocene s amples ( Tables 1 8 a nd 1 9, F ig. 6 5), t here i s n o s tatistical c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f u tilized a nd f ormal t ools. T here i s s ome v ariability i n t he r atio o f u tilized t o u ntrimmed f lakes w ith a m ean v alue f or t he s ite o f 1 :35. T he l owest v alues o ccur i n t he l ate P leistocene C L 3a nd 4 a ssemblages ( Table 3 5) a nd t he h ighest i n t he B RL M ember. H ammers, r ubbers a nd g rindstones o ccur s poradically t hroughout t he s equence w ith o ne g rindstone f rom t he C L M ember c onfirming t hat t hey w ere u sed i n t he s outhern C ape a t t hat t ime i n t he l ate P leistocene. T hese u tilized a rtefacts a re m ade a lmost e xclusively i n q uartzite a nd s ome a re s tained w ith o chre. A s ingle p iece o f g round s hale w ith a p erforation i n i t w as f ound i n D GL ( Fig. 1 20:37). W hen u tilized p ieces a re c onsidered a s a p ercentage o f t he t otal a ssemblage ( Table 1 8) t hey a re m ore c ommon i n t he u nits o f t he B RL M ember a nd i n B LA t han i n t he l ate P leistocene o r l ate H olocene u nits, b ut i t i s c lear t hat i t i s t he i ncidence o f u tilized f lakes r ather

1 24

t han u tilized c obbles w hich m akes u p t his t otal. H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces a re a bsent a t B PA w here t he u se o f q uartzite c obbles i s r are.

I NTER-SITE C OMPARISONS T he r atio o f u tilized :untrimmed f lakes a t t he t hree s ites i s n ot d issimilar. T he m eans f or t he t hree s ites a re 1 :27 f or b oth N BC a nd K angkara a nd 1 :35 f or B PA. I t w ould s eem t hat t he o ldest a nd m ost r ecent s amples t end t o b e m ore v ariable t han t hose d ating b etween a bout 1 2 0 00 a nd c . 2 000 B .P. T here i s n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he r atio o f u tilized t o u ntrimmed f lakes a nd a ny p articular r aw m aterial o r g roup o f r aw m aterials, b ut a s u tilized p ieces a re t hose t hat w ere m ade, u sed a nd d iscarded o ver a r elatively s hort s pan o f t ime, t hey p robably c arry m ore i nformation a bout a ctivities c arried o ut o n t he s ite t han d o f ormal c urated t ools. T he i dentification o f u se w ear o n t hese a rtefacts s hould t herefore b e a p riority f or f uture r esearch. T here i s n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he i ncidence o f u tilized a nd f ormal t ools. T his w ould t herefore r ule o ut t he p ossibility t hat f ormal t ools r eplaced u tilized o nes o n a ny s cale, a nd t he i ncidence o f u tilized f lakes s hould b e s een a s t he r esult o f t he c asual u se o f s uitable p ieces t hat w ere m ade a nd d iscarded a t t he l iving s ite a nd n ot o f t he p urposeful d esign o f t ools t o a s et a nd r epeated p attern.

C HOICE O F P IECES F OR F ORMAL R ETOUCH At m ost s ites t he f ormal t ools c ategory i s o f t he l east n umerical i mportance, b ut n everthelesss p rovides i nformation o n f ormally r etouched p ieces t hat r epresent t echnological d esign a nd p atterned b ehaviour o n a m easurable s cale. T he a rtefact c lasses i ncluded w ith f ormal t ools a re: s crapers ( with s ub-classes b ased o n m aximum d imension), b acked m icroliths ( with s ub-classes b ased o n p lan f orm ), b orers, a dzes, m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces a nd t wo c lasses o f g round s tone t ools, i .e. b ored s tones a nd s inkers. D efinitions m ay b e f ound i n A ppendix 1 .

A lthough o ne m ay e xpect t hat t he s tone f laking m ethod u sed a t t imes w hen f ormal t ools w ere m ade w ould b e g eared t o t he p roduction o f f airly s tandardized f lakes t hat c ould b e m odified w ith t he m inimum o f r etouch i nto f ormal t ools, c omparisons b etween t he f requencies o f f ormal t ools a nd c lasses i n t he w aste a nd u tilized c ategories h ave s hown t hat t here i s n o c lear c orrelation b etween t he r ange o f c ores a nd t he s ize o f f lakes o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he r ange o f f ormal t ools p roduced o n t he o ther, a lthough t here i s a w eak c orrelation b etween t he l ength ( but n o o ther m etric a ttributes) o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd t hat o f s crapers. F urthermore, a lthough n on-quartzite r aw m aterials a ppear t o b e s elected f or t he m anufacture o f f ormal t ools i n H olocene s amples, n either t he r ange n or t he f requency o f f ormal t ools c an b e p redicted f rom t he r aw m aterial f requencies i n t he s outhern C ape. T hus t he r ange o f r aw m aterials s elected a nd t he f laking m ethods u sed m ay p artly a ccount f or t he s hape a nd s ize o f t he f ormal t ools, b ut t hey d o n ot a ccount f or t he r ange a nd r elative f requency o f f ormal t ool c lasses, p articularly w hen l ate P leistocene a nd H olocene a ssemblages a re c onsidered t ogether.

1 25

1 80 -

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1

T o ta l a rtefac ts

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F ig. 6 6. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he t otal n umber o f s tone a rtefacts a nd i n t heir f requency p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated. T he s cale o n t he l eft r efers t o t he f ormal a nd u tilized t ools p er b ucket ( x 1 00), a nd t he two s cales o n t he r ight r efer t o t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts a nd t heir f requency p er b ucket a t N BC.

1 26

T he o nly f actor w hich o ne c an s afely p redict a bout a n a ssemblage i f o nly t he i ncidence o f f ormal t ools i s k nown, i s t he a ge o f t he s ample. I f a n a ssemblage h as a r ange o f f ormal t ools t hat c omprises m ore t han 2 % o f t he t otal s ample, t here i s a g ood c hance t hat i t d ates w ithin t he l ast 7 0 00 y ears.

N ELSON B AY C AVE F requency d istributions T he r elative f requency o f f ormal t ools i n a ll t he N BC u nits i s l ow , r anging f rom 2 ,5% i n I C t o 0 ,04% i n C S w here t here i s o nly o ne f ormal t ool, a q uartzite s craper. I C i s t he o nly a ssemblage i n w hich f ormal t ools f orm m ore t han 1 % o f t he a ssemblage ( Table 1 3). S crapers, b acked m icroliths a nd m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces a re f ound i n t he t wo l owest u nits, Y GL a nd Y SL, s crapers a nd m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces o ccur i n B SL t hrough R B, a nd s crapers, b acked m icroliths, b orers, m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces, b ored s tones a nd s inkers a re f ound i n t he u ppermost u nits, R A t hrough I C. T he b ored s tones a re a ll b roken p ortions a nd a re t oo s mall t o h ave b een e ffective a s d igging s tick w eights. I n t he c ontext o f t heir a ssociation w ith s inkers a nd f ish r emains t hey m ay h ave b een u sed t o w eight n ets, o r t hey m ay h ave f ormed p arts o f t raps ( Goodwin 1 947). O f i nterest i s t he f act t hat a dzes a re a bsent f rom t he r ange o f f ormal t ools a t N BC, f itting i n w ith t he o bservations m ade b y H azel & P arkington ( 1978, 1 981) w ho n ote t he a bsence o r l ow f requency o f a dzes a t c oastal s ites i n t he w estern C ape, a nd o bservations a t i nland s ites g enerally w hich n ote i ncidence o f a dzes i n a ssemblages o lder t han a bout 3 500 B .P. T he

l ow

f requencies

o f

f ormal

a

l ower

t ools o ther t han s crapers d o n ot

a llow f irm c onclusions t o b e d rawn a bout t he r ange o f a ctivities u ndertaken a t t he s ite, a lthough t hey d o s erve t o l ink t he t echnology w ith t hat a t o ther c ontemporary s ites. T he m ost s triking f eature i s t he g ross i ncrease i n f ormal t ool f requencies a t c . 6 000 B .P. t hat p ersists a t l east t hrough t o c . 4 000 B .P. ( R. R . I nskeep p ers. c omm.). T his i s n ot t he r esult o f a l arger s ample o f e xcavated m aterial i n t he u pper u nits, a s c an b e s een i n F ig. 6 6 w here t he f requency o f v arious a rtefacts p er b ucket o f d eposit h as b een c alculated a nd p lotted o n t hree d ifferent s cales t o i llustrate t he s imilar p atterning t hrough t ime i n t hese d ifferent v ariables. I t d emonstrates t hat w hile t he f requency o f u tilized a nd t otal a rtefacts i s s imilar t hrough t ime, t he i ncidence

o f

f ormal

u ppermost u nits

t ools i s v ery l ow a nd

( IC a nd B SC)

a t c .

i ncreases o nly i n t he t wo

6 000 B .P.

A s i llustrated i n F igs 2 9 a nd 3 0, q uartz w as s elected o ver q uartzite f or f ormal t ools i n t he t hree u ppermost u nits a nd i n t he l owest, Y GL, b ut i n a ll o ther a ssemblages q uartzite f ormal t ools p redominate ( Table 1 3) a lthough t here i s n o l inear c orrelation b etween f ormal t ools a nd t he i ncidence o f e ither r aw m aterial ( Figs 3 7 a nd 3 8). T here i s t hus n o r eason t o s uppose t hat q uartz ' needs r etouch t o b e e fficient, o r t hat q uartzite d oes n ot. T wo v ariables

t hat w ere s hown i n t he a nalysis o f t he w aste c ategory

t o i ndicate c hanges i n t he m ethods o f f laking, n amely t he r elative f requency o f b ladelet c ores a nd t he m etric a ttributes o f u ntrimmed f lakes, a re s ummarized i n F igs 6 7 t o 6 9 t o d emonstrate t hat t here i s

1 27

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F ig. 6 7. N BC a nd B PA : S catter d iagram s howing n o c orrelation b etween L ate P leistocene s amples, b ut aw eak l inear c orrelation i n H olocene s amples b etween t he n umber o f b acked m icroliths a nd b ladelet c ores.

1 28

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1 20

1 60

N BC:

9

I

I

1

200

r

I

240

i

I

280

i

7 3 20

0

w /1 r atio a nd h eight o f s crapers

s tandard d eviation.

1 30

20

-m ean,

40

60

r ange a nd

80mm

l ittle o r n o c orrelation b etween t hem

a nd

t he

i ncidence

o f

f ormal

t ools. I n F ig. 4 6 a l inear c orrelation w as s hown b etween t he n umber o f b ladelets a nd t he n umber o f b ladelet c ores a t N BC, b ut w hile t he H olocene s amples f rom b oth N BC a nd B PA s howed s ome c orrelation, t hose f rom t he l ate P leistocene s amples d id n ot. A s imilar s ituation i s p resent w here t he n umber o f b acked m icroliths i s c ompared w ith t he n umber o f b ladelet c ores ( Fig. 6 7). T he H olocene s amples a gain s how s ome l inear c orrelation a nd t he l ate P leistocene o nes d o n ot, b ut i n t his c ase t here i s n o c orrelation a mongst s amples f rom t he s ame s ite. T he c lustering i s i nstead b etween H olocene, t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene a nd l ate P leistocene s amples. T hus, w hile t he l ate P leistocene f laking t echnique p roduced l arge n umbers o f b ladelets, v ery f ew w ere r etouched, w hile i n t he H olocene r elatively f ew w ere p roduced a nd m any m ore w ere r etouched. T his s tresses t he p oint m ade e arlier t hat t here i s a d ifferent r elationship b etween b ladelet c ores, b ladelets s amples.

a nd

b acked

m icroliths

i n

l ate

P leistocene a nd H olocene

I n F igs 6 8 a nd 6 9 t he r elative t hickness a nd m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes a re p lotted a gainst t he i ncidence o f f ormal t ools. N o l inear c orrelation e xists, b ut f ormal t ools a re m ore c ommon i n s amples i n w hich u ntrimmed f lakes a re a t t he l ower e nd o f t he s ize r ange, a nd o f m edium t o h igh r elative t hickness. T his c ould b e i nterpreted a s i ndicating t hat t he l arger, t hinner s ize r ange amongst t he f lakes w as s elected f or f ormal r etouch o r u tilization s o t hat t his s ize r ange i s a bsent f rom t he u ntrimmed f lakes c lass, o r i s a t l east p oorly r epresented, b ut t he d iagrams s how t hat t here a re a s m any s amples w ith t he s maller t hicker s ize r ange t hat h ave v ery f ew f ormal t ools a s t here a re t hose w ith m any f ormal t ools s o t hat s uch a g eneralization h as n o p redictive v alue. M etric a ttributes T he a ttributes m easured f or f ormal t ools a re d efined i n A ppendix 2 . C ontinuous v ariables w ere a nalysed a nd d escriptive s tatistics f or s crapers a re s ummarized i n T ables 3 6-41 a nd F igs 7 0-76. F rom t hese d ata i t c an b e s een t hat t here a re d istinct s hifts i n s craper p arameters t hrough t ime, t he m ost o bvious b eing t hat i n l ength a s s ummarized b elow . A pproximate d ate B .P.

S tratigraphic U nit

M ean l ength ( mm)

4 800 5 800

I C B SC u pper

6 000 7 000

B SC l ower R A R B

9 ,57 1 2,12 1 6,27 2 1,65 4 1,64

B SBJ-GSL B SL-YGL

4 6,78 5 9,25 1 8,44

8 000 9 000 1 0 2 50 - 1 2 0 00 1 2 0 00 - 1 8 7 00

1 20 3 3 3 3 1 6 2 8 9 8 9

T he f requency d istributions i n F ig. 7 2 s how t hat t here i s a b imodal l ength d istribution i ndicating t hat s crapers l onger t han 2 5 m m f orm a d ifferent s ub-class f rom t hose t hat a re s horter. T here i s a c onstant p resence o f s hort s crapers i n a ll t he a ssemblages a nd t he s hift i n m ean l ength i s c oincident w ith t he h igh o r l ow f requency o f l arger

1 31

I C 20 —

1 0

1\

B S AC

/ \r

A A

A

\_‘

5 A A

R A

5 -7 O

1

A AA

A P J\ -- N

R B-GSL

5 O 3

A z -V\

1

AA r V A

B SL-VGL

01

0

20

F ig.

5 1

7 2.

N BC:

30

40

50

7 0

90

10 mm

f requency d istribution o f s craper l engths.

B SC u pper r7 B SC l owe r

5

A

RA i - Ar\

O 1 5 O

A

A

A

R B-GSL Z \r" \AZ ‘r \ -

I

51

•I 0

F ig.

/ -NAA / 1

AA

A

r l A

B SL- V GL

I

1 0

7 3.

'

I

20

N BC:

'

30

4 10

50

7 0

90

I /O

1 30

.[ m

f requency d istribution o f s craper w idths.

1 32

L C r • •

> -

C O

t o

0

i n

0

0

4 ,

u )

t e

. 1 1

0

e 0 C 1 )

f requency d istribution

0

0

c u

•

0 C o C O

I 1

4

CD C C

. . , 1 C D > I I C l )

. J 0 C . 9 i ,

C f : •• L i C . ) . p 2 b i 3 Z ' H C U . J 9

i n

CI , • C O H

_

0

0

0

1 33

o

0

0

C . )

s crapers, r ather t han w ith a c hange i n t he m odal l ength o f s mall s crapers w hich s hifts o nly s lightly. T he l arge s crapers w hich m arkedly i ncrease t he m ean l ength o f s amples d ating b etween a bout 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P. a re n ot o nly l onger t han t hose w hich p recede a nd s ucceed t hem , b ut t hey a re a lso w ider, m ore e longated a nd a re m ore c ommonly m ade i n q uartzite. R etouch i s m ost c ommon a t t he e nd o f t he p iece, b ut i n s amples d ating b etween a bout 9 000 a nd 8 000 B .P., r etouch a lso o ccurs d own t he s ides o r t he p iece h as n aturally s teep s ides. S ome o f t he r etouch i s a dze-like, b ut l acks t he l owest s et o f u tilization s cars a nd t he r etouch s eems m ore l ikely t o h ave b een d esigned t o f acilitate h afting t han t o a llow t he t ool t o b e u sed e ither a s a s craper o r a n a dze. I n t he l ate P leistocene s amples t he g ross d ifference b etween t he s mall s crapers a nd t he l arge o ne i s s triking. T he l arge s craper i s t he w idest o f a ll s crapers a t t he s ite a nd i s t ypical o f t he D -shaped S mithfield A t ype d escribed b y V an R iet L owe i n 1 929. T he m id-Holocene s craper s ample f rom I C a nd u pper B SC i s c haracterized b y p articularly s mall s pecimens w ith a r emarkably s tandardized f orm ( low v ariance) a nd l imited r ange t hat i s c lear i n F igs 7 0 t o 7 5. I n t he w idth/length r atio f requency d istributions, h owever, t he r ange i s s omewhat g reater w ith a n e mphasis o n s hort w ide f orms w ith a w /1 r atio o f a round 2 :1. T he w ider r ange o f s hapes i s a lso c lear i n F ig . 7 5 w hich s ummarizes t he p ercentage f requencies i n v arious p lan f orm s ub-classes, a nd i n t he p osition o f r etouch s ub-classes t he d ominance o f t he s hort w ide s craper ( class 9 ) i s p articularly e vident ( Fig. 7 6). T he c ontinuous v ariables i n e ach s ample w ere c ompared a gainst e very o ther s ample u sing t he M ann-Whitney a nd K olmogorov-Smirnov n on-parametric t ests ( Siegel 1 956) a nd t he r esults a re s ummarized i n t he m atrices i n T ables 4 2 t o 4 9. T hey s how t hat t he s amples w ith r elatively l arge n umbers o f l arge s crapers ( RB-GSL) a re s ignificantly d ifferent i n a ll r espects f rom a ll o ther s amples a t t he s ite. T he l ate P leistocene s amples f rom B SL, Y SL a nd Y GL s how s ome s imilarities w ith I C a t t he t op o f t he s equence a nd a re s imilar i n a ll r espects t o B SC a nd R A w hich a re i n t urn n ot s ignificantly d ifferent f rom e ach o ther. H ere a gain i t i s t he ' mix o f l arge a nd s mall s crapers t hat a ccounts f or t hese s imilarities. I n t he d ata s ummarized b elow , t he n umber o f t imes t hat t wo s amples h ave b een f ound t o b e n ot s ignificantly d ifferent f rom e ach o ther ( p=,05) i n t he t wo t ests o n l ength, w idth, h eight a nd w /1 r atio i s g iven. Z ero v alues i ndicate t hat s amples a re s ignificantly d ifferent a t p , 05 o n a ll t ests, w hile t he m aximum p ossible s core i s 8 s ignifying n o s ignificant d ifference i n a ll e ight t ests.

I C B SC R A R B-GSL B SL-YSL

I C

B SC

1 3 0 4

8 0 8

R A

0 8

R B-GSL

B SL-YGL

0

T he r esults o f t he m etric a nalyses o f s crapers s how a n i ncreasingly s tandardized f orm t hrough t ime w ith t he l owest r ange a nd v ariance i n I C. T he h igh w /1 r atio r eflects t he f act t hat m any s mall s crapers h ave b een r etouched b ack a s f ar a s p ossible b efore b eing d iscarded.

1 34

%

P os it ion o f r e touch

—

P lan f orm

40

. 1.. 1

I C

20

_

R aw m ate r ia l

-

_

—

r i

_

.. .. . 1

0

I P. 1

60

_

40 •

_

B SC u ppe r

_

-

-

_

20 0

_

6 0

. 4 1. .. 1 1,

B SC l owe r

40

_

".. . I

_

2 0 0

--

6 0

R A

40 20

` . 1 1 1.•

-

T.

-

_ r i

0

R B

6 0

-

-

^

40

_

-

20

-

-

0

J

80-

nn

-

-

9. . .

6 0-

_

-

40-

-

-

2 0-

—

r i

0

-

-

—

-

_

_

-

-

_

-

-

_

80

_

6 0 40 20

-

. 1

B SBJ—GSL

. 1

0 60 —

—

-

-

• •••• ••

40 -

-

200 C ode

F ig.

B SL—YGL •

1 .,

_

-

-

r 6

7 6.

7

8

N BC:

9

1 1 0

I I

3

4

5 '

6

' 7

— .M

I Q

i

2 C h

3 H

4 S

ll

5 Q .

etouch p osition, f requency d istribution o f s craper r

p lan f orm a nd r aw m aterial c lasses. 1 35

L eng th

W idth

I

S UR

i

I

I

I

I N-

HBC

He ight

.

I

I

I

%

4 * -

1 1 3--

4 0, -

I

.

I

In

4 1 , -

1 6

4 1 ) -

2

SGL D GL

3 Q

G BL

Om

-E h-

LPW

rI (

tI I

RBL

---E p ----

Y BL

1 0

-0 ;3

I . I ' 1 ' I 2 0

40

6 0 Mm

_AO

-

20

40

60 mm

4 8 n

__

-4 3-

6

41--

9

i . I. I '' I

0

2 6

-

E 13--

- 43--

rr l

4 1

* ---

P BW

BDB BD

.

I ' I

0

20

40 mM

F ig. 7 7. K angkara : L ength, w idth a nd h eight o f s craper s amples - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation.

0

40

80

1 20

1 60

200

240

280

SUR H BC

2

SGL-DGL

3 0

6BL

1

PBW

I

LPW

P

RBL

4

4I 2 6

4 8 2 5

f

6

Y BL

80-880

1

I

I

F ig . 7 8. K angkara: W /L r atio o f s crapers - r ange, m ean a nd s tandard d eviation.

1 36

T his s hift t owards n arrow l imits f or m anufacture a nd d iscard o ccurred w ithin B SC b ecause t he u pper u nits i n t his s ample l ack t he l arger s crapers p resent i n t he l ower u nits. T he s hift c an t herefore b e d ated t o b etween a bout 6 000 a nd 5 800 B .P. a t N BC. T he m etric a ttributes f or b acked m icroliths a re s ummarized i n T able 5 0. T hey s how t hat t he f requencies a re t oo l ow t o m ake i nter-sample c omparisons s ignificant, b ut h ere a s a t o ther s ites i n t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape, t he s mallest s egments a re f ound i n t he o lder H olocene s amples ( c. 6 000 B .P.). T he s ize r ange o f t he l ate P leistocene b acked m icroliths i s a t t he u pper e nd o f t he H olocene s ample a nd o f i nterest i s t he f ind o f a l arge s egment s imilar t o o ne f ound i n t he l ate H olocene u nits a t B PA ( compare F ig. 1 16:11 w ith F ig. 1 21:1).

K ANGKARA F requency d istributions T he n umbers a nd p ercentage f requencies o f f ormal t ools a t K angkara a re s ummarized i n T able 1 6. T he r elative p roportion o f f ormal t ools i s h igh, r anging f rom 4 % a t t he t op o f t he s equence t o 0 ,13% i n t he s econd l owest u nit. I n s even o ut o f t he e leven u nits, f ormal t ools a ccount f or m ore t han 2 % o f t he t otal a ssemblage. T his i s n otable i n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he s ample i s d rawn f rom a s ingle s quare m etre s uggesting t hat o n t he w hole f ormal t ools m ay b e m ore c ommon h ere t han a t e ither N BC o r B PA. T he g eneral t rend t owards a n i ncrease i n f ormal t ool f requency i n t he m id-Holocene i s p resent h ere a s a t t he o ther s ites. A s i s c lear i n F igs 3 1-33, q uartz w as s elected f or f ormal t ools i n t he u nits p ost-dating 7 000 B .P., w hile s ilcrete w as f avoured i n t he u nits d ating b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 7 000 B .P. T he f ormal t ool c ategory a t K angkara i s d ominated b y s crapers w hich a ccount f or b etween 7 0% a nd 1 00% o f a ll f ormal t ools, b eing m ost p rominent p ercentage-wise i n t he s amples d ating b etween 9 000 a nd 7 330 B .P. I n t he o lder u nits d ating b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 9 260 B .P. t he f ormal t ool n umbers a re l ow a nd t he r elative i mportance, b ut n ot f requency, o f m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces i s c onsequently h igher t han i s u sual f or t he s ite. I n t he m ore r ecent u nits p ost-dating 7 000 B .P., b acked m icroliths a nd a s mall n umber o f a dzes a nd b orers a re a dded t o t he f ormal t ool c ategory. N o b acked m icroliths w ere f ound i n t he o lder s amples a lthough b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores o ccurred i n B BD. I n t he s amples d ating b etween 6 600 a nd 5 000 B .P. s egments a re t he m ost c ommon s ub-class a mongst t he b acked m icroliths a nd b acked b ladelets w ere f ound i n t he u ppermost S UR a nd D GL u nits o nly. M etric a ttributes T he s craper a ttributes m easured w ere t he s ame a s t hose f or N BC ( Appendix 2 ; T ables 5 1-56 a nd F igs 7 7-83) a nd a gain s how a d istinct c hange i n s craper l ength t hrough t ime a s s ummarized b elow .

1 37

i

I

I

1

1

I

i

.

A

.

i

A

.


JO B SC W V

R A V

'BPA r a =0 ,89 —, p— 05— , 02

VB SC u p I C V

B SL -Y6 L B RL

/v

•

E I L IN IO M 3 1/: )6 BLA

21 0

3 10

•

1 20

.

N BC

N

0 g

2

R8 N V N i

N

510

u 2 0 00 w

610

m

0 ,

B SBJ- G S Lt B SC u p V B SC I rv / 4 1 7 V RA

N B SL-YGL \ 6V V N D GL N N \ g i N B LO N • •B LA \ N CL (S P A •

e 3f i c 80 Z

41 0

I C V

r2=0 ,24 p = › . ,10

C C

Z 2 z W

MEAN

60

W/L RAT IO OF SCRAPERS e o

50

2 00

F ig. 9 5. N BC a nd B PA : s catter d iagrams s howing v ariable l inear c orrelations b etween w idth a nd w /1 r atios o f s crapers a nd u ntrimmed f lakes.

R IM

NBC r 2=0 ,34 p = > ,10 8 S84-GSL V

MEAN HE IGHT O F

1 2 BSC I r I C

RA V

Wa ISC u p

P A r ?.0 ,18

8 8 SL-YE IL V O NO

4

DGL I t k•

p =

In k*

B RLL C

" ALA

1

1 2

4

MEAN

F ig.

9 6.

HE IGHT OF

N BC a nd B PA :

1 6

20

2 4

mm

SCRAPE RS

s catter d iagram s howing n o l inear

c orrelation b etween t he h eight o f s crapers a nd u ntrimmed f lakes. 1 58

c oherence o f t he t hree w ith o nly o ne s ample ( IC f rom N BC) t hat i s c onsistently d ifferent f rom t he o thers o f s imilar a ge. T he s crapers i n t he g roup a re c haracterized b y v ery l ow f requencies o f s pecimens l onger

t han 2 5

f orms

w ith

m m a nd t he s ub-classes a re s mall c onvex a nd s hort

m ean l engths o f l ess

t han 2 0 m m.

o f s imilarity b etween I C a nd o ther v ery

s mall

r ange

c haracteristics s amples

b ut

a nd

w hich

a re

o f

a lso

s amples

i nvolved

( c.

i n t he g roup

5 500

y ears),

a ssemblages

s crapers

p resent

t o a l esser d egree.

t he o ther

c ontemporary

s ize

i n

i s

t his

a mongst

T he h igh i ndex o f d istance

i s

t he

c ontemporary t he

t imespan

b etween t he s ites a nd t he

r elatively l ow i ndex o f s imilarity amongst o lder s amples o ver t ime r anges a t t he s ame s ites. T he

e xtent

t o

w hich

t he

t he

a ssemblage,

s imilarity a mongst

i mpressive i n v iew o f

t he

w ide

T he r eason f or t he l ack

s imilar

m ean l ength o f a s craper s ample m ay b e

i nfluenced b y t he c hoice o f r aw m aterials c an b e s een i n T able 3 6 w hich s hows t hat s amples w ith s hort s crapers t end t o h ave a h igher i ncidence o f q uartz t han d o s amples w ith l ong s crapers, b ut d ifferentiating

f actor

h ere

i s

t he

i ncidence

o f

q uartzite s crapers a re e xcluded f rom t he s ample, r elationship

b etween

s craper

l ength

a nd

t here

t he

t he

m ain

q uartzite. i s

n o

i ncidence

I f c lear

o f

a ny

p articular r aw m aterial. M etric d ata o f

t his

f or a dzes a re a vailable o nly f rom B PA.

s ample

m akes

i t u nwise

l ength t hrough t ime i n t he s ame w ay s crapers.

T he

s crapers i s

t he

t he

m ain

p oint

o f

g reater v ariance

T he

u niqueness

t o g eneralize a bout c hanges w e

h ave

b een

a ble

i n a dze

t o

d o

f or

s imilarity b etween t he a dzes a nd t he i n b oth t hese f ormal

t ool c lasses

i n

l ate P leistocene s amples r eflecting a w ider s ize r ange a nd a l ack

o f s tandardization t hat c ontrasts b acked

m icrolith

s amples

g eneralizations

a pply,

n ot

a re

f or

t hey

b ut

v ery

a re

w ith t oo

t he

H olocene

t he s ize r ange o f s egments s imilar

H olocene s amples a nd t here i s n o

s amples.

T he

s mall t o a ssess w hether t he s ame i n

b oth

e vidence

s uggests

t hey d o

t he l ate P leistocene a nd f or

g reater

v ariance

a t

p resent. T he

i ncreasing

s tandardization a nd s maller s ize r ange o f s crapers

t hrough t ime a ppear t o b e c orrelated w ith a n i ncrease i n t he f requency o f t hese f ormal t ools, b ut w hen t he n umber o f s crapers p er b ucket o f d eposit

i s

c orrelation

p lotted

a gainst

i s

a

n ot

m ean

l inear

s craper

o ne

f or

s amples w ith a m ean l ength o f g reater t han

1 5

1 5 a nd

s crapers/bucket, w hile

1 20 p er

s uggest

t hat

b ucket.

A

l ength

( Fig.

t han 1 5 mm t end

t o

t hose s maller t han 1 5

p urely

9 7),

e ither N BC o r B PA,

f unctional

t he

a lthough

h ave

f ewer

m m h ave b etween

i nterpretation

w ould

l arge s crapers l asted l onger t han s maller o nes w hich w ere

r eplaced i n t heir h afts

m ore

o ften.

C oupled

w ith

t he

i ncreasing

s tandardization a nd o bservations b y H ayden ( 1977:180) t hat r etouching o r r esharpening o f s tone t ools i n A ustralian a ssemblages i s c losely r elated t o t he i ncidence o f h afting, w e c ould s uggest s ize, g reater n umber a nd w ider r ange o f f ormal t ool m id-late

H olocene

i s r elated t o a c hange i n h afting p olicy,

i n t ool d esign a nd m ethod o f u se r ather t echnique b its

o r

r ather

l ifestyle. t han

t hat t he s maller c lasses i n t he

l arger

R egular a nd

h afting o f e xpendable,

l onger-lasting

s crapers

a ccompanied

b y

l ess

v ariability i n s ize a nd s hape a s

d esigned t o

f it

i nto

h afts

p resent

i n

e arlier

d esigns.

t hat

i ntroduced

T he

s ize

l ack o f c hanges

1 59

a c hange

t han a c hange i n m anufacturing d isposable w ould

b e

t he t ools w ere

c onstraints

n ot

i n s ize i n b acked

B LA •

1 20

\BA4 \

r2=0 ,24p. › ,10

60 v

OF S CRAPERS P ER

1

40

1 • •••• ••

3 0

B RL •

D GL •

1 0

RA BSL-YGL

1 V

V

RB V

BS8J-GSL

0 0

1 0

MEAN

20

30

40

50

60 n un

SCRAPER LENGTH

F ig. 9 7. N BC a nd B PA: S catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f s crapers p er b ucket a nd t he m ean s craper l ength. t hat s maller s crapers n umerous.

T his

a re n ot n ecessarily m ore

1 60

s hows

m icroliths f rom t he l ate P leistocene t o H olocene m ay i mply t hat

t hese

t ools w ere a lways h afted i n m astic, b ut d oes n ot h elp t o e xplain t heir r elatively l ow i ncidence i n t he l ate P leistocene.

C HOICE O F P LACE O F D ISCARD T he d istribution o f s tone a rtefacts o n a

s ite

i s,

t heoretically,

t he r esult o f t he p attern o f a rtefact d iscard a t t he t ime t he s ite w as o ccupied. T hus c hanges i n t he f requency o f a rtefact c lasses c ould r eflect c hanges i n a ctivity a nd t he p attern o f d iscard. H owever t his p attern c an b e a ltered b y p ost-depositional f actors t hat

o bscure

t he

o riginal c ontext; S chiffer ( 1976:28 f f) h as c alled t hese p ost-depositional f actors n atural ( n) a nd c ultural ( c) t ransforms. I n s ome i nstances, a s i n a nimal b urrows o r m an-made p its, i t i s r elatively e asy t o i solate a nd e xclude m aterial i n d isturbed c ontext i n a r ock s helter d eposit, b ut i n o ther c ases i t i s n ot a s imple m atter t o d istinguish n atural f rom c ultural t ransforms, i nterpret n on-random p atterning w hen t his o ccurs.

n or e asily

t o

L imited d ata a re a vailable o n t he p attern o f d iscard a t m odern S an c amps i n t he K alahari ( Yellen 1 977), b ut t hese o bservations w ere m ade o ver a s hort p eriod o f t ime, t hey r elate o nly t o o pen s ites, a nd t he o ccupants u sed a v ery l imited r ange a nd n umber o f g round s tone t ools a nd n o f laked s tone. T he i nterpretation o f d istribution p atterns i n S tone A ge r ock s helter d eposits i s t herefore l imited t o a nalogues d erived f rom c ommon s ense r ather t han f rom e thnographic o bservations, b ut a f ew p oints g leaned f rom m odern S an p atterns m ay b e r elevant. Y ellen

( 1977:118)

o ccupied,

p oints o ut,

f or e xample,

t hat t he l onger a s ite i s

t he m ore c hance t here i s t hat s pecial a ctivities

w ill

t ake

p lace t here. H owever t he p redictive e quations f or c alculating g roup s ize a nd t he l ength o f o ccupation o ffered b y Y ellen ( 1977:125) w ould n ot b e a pplicable i n a r ock s helter s ite ( op. c it.:130) e ven i f i t w ere p ossible t o i solate t hose a rtefacts a nd

o ccupation

d ebris

t hat

r elated t o a l imited o ccupation. T he v alue o f t esting o ccupation d ebris d istributions a gainst ' normal a nd ' random' s tatistical d istributions i s q uestioned b y Y ellen ( op. c it.:134) w ho c ould f ind n o e vidence f or t he s patial s egregation o f a ctivities w ithin a s ingle c amp s ite. T hus, d espite e fforts t o l ocate s patially s egregated c lusters o f d ebris a nd a rtefacts a t S tone A ge s ites ( Whallon 1 973), t he i nterpretation o f t his p atterning i s s till d ependent o n e thnographic a nalogy a nd/or c ommon s ense. W ith t he f ocus o f t his s tudy f alling o n d iachronic c hange, i t w as c onsidered w orthwhile, i n s pite o f t he a bove l imitations, t o c ompare a rtefact d istributions w ithin a nd b etween s ites t o t est w hether t hey s how a ny s ignificant c hanges t hrough t ime. ( In t his i nstance K RA w as n ot c onsidered b ecause o f t he s mall

s ize

o f

t he

e xcavation.)

T wo

v ariables w ere c hosen : t he n umber o f s tone a rtefacts p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated, a nd t he n umber o f a rtefacts i n s elected c lasses p er h orizontal s q m i n e ach e xcavated u nit. I t w as e xpected t hat t he d istribution o f u nretouched b ladelets i n t he l ate P leistocene m ight b e d itferent

f rom

t hat

i n

t he

H olocene

u nits o n t he a ssumption t hat

d ifferent m ethods o f b ladelet p roduction h ad b een u sed, a nd t hat c oncentrations o f f ormal t ools i n a f ew s quares m ay s ignify t he l ocation o f s pecial a ctivity a reas. T he d istribution o f t otal a rtefacts i n e ach u nit w as u sed a s a c ontrol, w ith t he e xpectation

1 61

T OTAL A RTEFACTS

U T IL IZED P IECES

B LADELETS

S CRAPERS

1111 1 7 -¢:

0

5

1 0

1 5

0

I C

5 0

0

3

7 1 0

1 5

20

2 5

30

3 5

B SC

RA

2 e

0

4

z

R B

1 0

4

B SBJ

C S

1 0 0 c

0 11

L

3 •

1 0 0

3

20

e

w

G SL 71 1

i

k .7 , 1

B SL

2 o

0

Y SL

5 0

Y GL

1 0

0 NU MB ER

F ig.

9 8.

O F

1 5

AR T E F AC T S

2 0 I N

1 2 3

EXCAVATE D

3 0

3 3

SQUARES

C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he d ensity o f v arious

a rtefacts p er

s quare a t N BC. T he v ertical a xis s hows t he n umber o f s quares i n e ach u nit i n which t he n umber o f a rtefacts s pecified i n t he h orizontal a xis o ccurs. 1 62

I " ' 7

t hat t he d istribution o f a rtefacts d iscarded a t a n

i nitial

s tage

i n

a rtefact p roduction ( i.e. f laking o f t he n odule) w ould d iffer f rom t he d istribution o f a rtefacts d iscarded a t a l arger s tage a fter u tilization a nd/or r etouching. I f, o n t he o ther h and, t he d istribution p atterns f or a ll a rtefacts, u tilized a nd f ormal t ools w ere s imilar, w e c ould s uggest e ither t hat t he l ocus f or t ool m anufacture w as t he s ame a s f or t ool u se, o r t hat s ome f orm o f n atural t ransform w as r esponsible i n t he d istribution. S hould a n atural t ransform b e i nvolved, w e w ould e xpect t his t o b e s ite-specific a nd w e w ould n ot e xpect t o f ind a s imilar p attern a t a c ontemporary s ite.

N ELSON B AY C AVE T he

n umbers

o f

t otal

a rtefacts,

b ladelets, u tilized p ieces a nd

s crapers p er s quare i n e ach e xcavated u nit a re s ummarized i n F ig. 9 8 w hich s hows a c lose c orrelation i n t he d istribution o f e ach o f t hese c lasses a nd c ategories w ithin a u nit, b ut t here t hrough t ime. T hus t here i s n o s ignificant d istribution p atterns o f t otal a rtefacts, a nd s crapers i n B SC a nd b ladelets i s d ifferent f rom i s a lso d ifferent f rom t hat w ith t he h ighest d ensity o f

i s a g ross c hange d ifference i n t he

b ladelets,

u tilized

p ieces

R A, b ut i n Y SL a nd Y GL t he d istribution o f t hat o f o ther c lasses a nd c ategories, a nd i n t he o verlying u nits. I n Y GL t he s quare t otal a rtefacts ( 2 8 00) i s t he s ame o ne

t hat y ielded t he h ighest n umber o f u tilized p ieces ( 60), b ladelets ( 57) a nd o ne o f t he t wo s crapers. B one w as a lso c oncentrated i n s quare B l b oth i n Y GL a nd Y SL w here t he s ame s quare a lso y ielded t he h ighest n umber o f a rtefacts ( 1 1 00). R . G . K lein, t he e xcavator, h as s uggested ( pers. c omm.) t hat w ater m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or t he r edistribution o f m aterial i nto t his s quare. T here a lso a ppears t o b e a c lumped d istribution i n I C w here o ne s quare ( C5) h ad t he m ost a rtefacts ( 1 3 00), u tilized p ieces ( 60) a nd s crapers ( 38), b ut h ere t he a djacent t wo s quares a lso h ave h igh t ool f requencies a nd t he t hree s quares t ogether a ccount f or 5 0% o f t he a rtefacts f rom t he u nit; n early o ne t hird o f a ll t he q uartz i n t he u nit a lso c ame f rom C 5. H ere a c ultural t ransform m ay b e t he r eason f or t his c oncentration b ecause t he u nit w as t hickest i n t his a rea o f t he e xcavation; i t h ad b een r e-worked e ither i n h istoric o r p rehistoric t imes i n t he a djacent r ow o f s quares ( 2, 3a nd 4 ), a nd w as t hinly d istributed i n s quares 7 -10 ( see F ig.

1 6).

P ost-depositional d isturbances h ave t herefore o f

m ade

i nterpretation

t he h orizontal p atterning o f a rtefacts a t N BC d ifficult, b ut i t i s

n evertheless

i nteresting

t o

n ote

t hat

i n

u nits

w hich

h ave

n ot

a pparently b een d isturbed ( BSL-BSC), t he p atterning c orresponds f airly c losely t o a J -shaped P oisson r andom d istribution. T he c ontrast b etween

t he u ppermost a nd l owest u nits i s i llustrated f urther i n F igs

9 9 a nd 1 00 w hich s hows u p t he d ifference b etween t hem a nd t he r andomly d istributed m iddle u nits.

B OOMPLAAS T he

d ata i n F igs 9 9,

1 00 a nd 1 01

s how a s triking d ifference i n t he

d istribution p attern o f a rtefacts i n C L 1 a nd C L 3 w hen c ompared w ith t he o verlying u nits. I n t hese l ater P leistocene a ssemblages t he d ensity o f a rtefacts i s c onsiderably

1 63

h igher

t han

i n

t he

o verlying

/ .\ 1 40

1 20

1 00

10

6 0

40

N BC"'

. 1 . • •

s pat 0

2

4

•

I

9 0

I 1 4

1 2

. 1000 gun I L I ?

F ig. 9 9. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts p er b ucket i n d ated s amples f rom N BC a nd B PA .

1 2

1 4

1

1 0

1 2

1 4

1 6

1 000 y ear sB .P

F ig. 1 00. C omparison o f t he n umber o f u ntrimmed f lakes p er b ucket o f d eposit i n d ated s amples f rom N BC a nd B PA .

1 64

u nits a nd t he a rtefacts a re c lumped i nto a f ew s quares r ather t han b eing m ore e venly d istributed. S quare N 13, f or e xample, y ielded m ore t han 5 4 00 a rtefacts, i ncluding 1 29 b ladelets, 8 s crapers a nd 1 8 u tilized f lakes i n C L 3 , w hile N 16 i n C L 1 h ad j ust o ver 3 0 00 a rtefacts o r t wice t he n umber o f t he n ext h ighest s quare. c orrespondence i n d ensity b etween t he l ate P leistocene u nits a t

T he B PA

a nd N BC w as h ighly s uggestive o f a c ultural r ather t han a n atural t ransform, b ut i t h as b een d ifficult t o a ssess t he v arious f actors i nvolved. W hile a t N BC p ost-depositional w ater a ction m ay h ave c oncentrated b one a nd a rtefacts i n s quare B i, a t B PA t he p resence o f t he s talagmite t owards t he b ack o f t he a rea e xcavated i n t he C L M ember m ay h ave e ncouraged o ccupation o f b ut

t he

p resence

o f

h earths

a gainst p ost-depositional n c oncentration o f a rtefacts.

t he a rea t o t he f ront o f a nd

t he

c ave,

a sh b ands i n t he C L u nits a rgues

t ransforms b eing r esponsible f or t he H owever t he f act t hat a ll t he a rtefacts

w ere d istributed i n a s imilar w ay w ould s upport t he a rgument t hat t he s quares i n w hich h igh n umbers w ere r ecorded w ere f avoured f or a rtefact m anufacture a nd u se i n g eneral r ather t han a s l oci f or s pecialized a ctivities. T his i n i tself i s i nteresting i n t hat i t s uggests i mmediate u se o f a rtefacts a fter m anufacture r ather t han r e-distribution o f t he f ormal a nd u tilized p ieces. F our

u nits

f rom

t he

B RL M ember h ave b een p lotted i n F ig.

1 01

t o

s how t he p atterning o n l ow-density l iving f loors d ating t o t he e arly H olocene. T he d istributions a re n ot s ignificantly d ifferent f rom t he P oisson r andom d istribution a t p =,05 w ith g rouped d ata, b ut t here i s a n i nteresting d ifference b etween t he p atterning o f u tilized p ieces a nd s crapers, t he f ormer s howing h igher c oncentrations t han t he l atter. T his m ay b e t he r esult o f v ery d ifferent s ample s izes, b ut n evertheless c ould b e c ulturally s ignificant i n i ndicating l ocalized a reas o f c asual f lake u tilization. T he m id-Holocene B LA m ember s hows p atterning t hat i s s ignificantly d ifferent f rom t he P oisson d istribution a t p =,001 a nd w hile t he t otal a rtefacts, b ladelets a nd u tilized p ieces a re s imilarly d istributed, t he s crapers a re m ore c lumped t han w ould b e e xpected. T his m ay b e t he r esult o f c ultural p atterning b ecause t he s quares a t t he f ront o f t he e xcavated a rea w ere

o ccupied

b y

a

l ong

s hallow

p it

f illed

w ith

c harcoal a nd o ther s maller c harcoal-filled p its w ere a lso l ocated i n t his m ember. T he a rtefacts w ere t herefore c oncentrated a way f rom t he c harcoal p its a nd e xhibit a d istribution s ignificantly d ifferent f rom P oisson n ot b ecause o f t he a ctivities i n w hich t hey t hemselves w ere i nvolved, b ut b ecause o f a nother u nrelated a ctivity l inked t o t he c harcoal p its. T he d istribution o f a rtefacts i n B LD 3 i s n ot d ifferent f rom t he P oisson d istribution a t p =,05,

s ignificantly d espite t he

c onsiderably l arger s ample s ize f rom a l arger e xcavation. T he s craper d istribution, h owever, h as a l onger ' tail a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t hese f ormal t ools w ere c oncentrated i n a f ew s quares a s a r esult o f s pecialized a ctivity. F igures

9 9

a nd

1 00

i llustrate

t he

a nomalously h igh d ensity o f

m aterial i n t he C L M ember a nd t he v ariability i n b etween t hose u nits i solated a s ' living f loors'

t he e arly H olocene ( BRL 2 , 4 a nd 6 ) a nd

t hose r epresenting i ntermediate n on-occupation u nits ( BRL 1 , 3 a nd 5 ). T he m ean d ensity f or t he s ite w ould b e a bout 1 0 u ntrimmed f lakes a nd

1 65

U T IL IZED P IECES S CRAPERS

T OTAL B LADELETS

A RTEFACT

S OO

1 000

7-

1 0

9 B LA

BRL I

e s 1 BRL 2

g

0 BRL 4

2 ;o l f , t zbF EL,_ BRL 6 ,71 ,

5 1 0

K l o

I 0

l

3

0

0-1 1 : ;t 7 1;44 1- 0:1 - 9,r 1 -- r' n S OO

1 000

5,

M OO

3 .0

' 0

0

S OO

MOO

1 3 'C

M

l

e

M

- ri :r 0 10 : 1-

M

2

.

7

I 00

I .

T 3 , f io ' r . 1 -

C L I

C L 3

0

° 3

NU MBE R

OF

AR TE F AC TS

I N

17

EXCAVAT E D

'

SQU A R E S

F ig. 1 01. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he d ensity o f v arious a rtefacts p er s quare a t B PA. T he v ertical a xis s hows w hich

t he n umber o f s quares i n e ach u nit i n

t he n umber o f a rtefacts s pecified i n t he

h orizontal a xis

o ccurs.

T hus

t here a re 6 3 s quares

i n D GL l ower i n w hich 0 -100 a rtefacts o ccurred. 1 66

a bout 4 0 t otal a rtefacts p er b ucket, w ith n atural t ransforms i n t he s ense t hat

v ariability i ntroduced b y t he s talagmite l imited t he

o ccupation a rea i n C L, a nd b y c ultural t ransforms s uch a s t he l ocation o f c harcoal p its i n B LA a nd t he l ocalization o f a reas o f s pecialized a ctivity i n B LD 3 .

I NTER-SITE C OMPARISONS I n t he i ntroduction t o t his s ection i t w as s uggested t hat n atural t ransforms w ould b e s ite-specific a nd w ould t herefore n ot b e e xpected t o o ccur a t t he s ame t ime a t d ifferent s ites. T he d ata f rom N BC a nd B PA i ndicate t hat t his c an b e a f aulty p remise b ecause p ost-depositional w ater a ction a ppears t o h ave b een r esponsible f or t he r e-distribution o f m aterial i n t he N BC l ate P leistocene u nits w hile t he p lacement o f t he s talagmite a t B PA h as l imited t he o ccupation a rea i n C L. T he

l ower

d ensity

o f

m aterial

i n

s ome

o f

t he

t erminal

P leistocene/early H olocene d eposits a t b oth s ites m ay b e p artly f ortuitous. At N BC i t i s r elated t o t he f act t hat t he d eposits a re g reatly e xpanded b y t he a ddition o f l arge q uantities o f s hell m idden m aterial ( a c ultural f actor), a nd a t B PA t o t he f act t hat s ome o f t he B RL u nits a re i dentifiable a s l iving f loors w ith v ertical c oncentration o f c ultural m aterial s eparated b y i ntermediate u nits i n w hich a rtefacts w ere m ore d ispersed. T he i ncrease i n a rtefact d ensity i n t he

m id-Holocene

d eposits

a t

N BC a nd B PA i s d ue i n b oth c ases t o t he s ampling o f u nits i n w hich o ccupation w as s patially r estricted. I n t he c ase o f B PA , t he p resence o f t he c harcoal p its r estricted o ccupation t o t he r ear o f t he e xcavated a rea, w hile t he I C u nit a t N BC i s c oncentrated i n t wo r ows o f s quares p resumably b ecause o f t he p ost-depositional d isturbance o f t he s ite. A t b oth s ites, h owever, t he d istribution o f s crapers i s s kewed b y t he c oncentration o f r elatively l arge n umbers i n o ne o r t wo s quares w hich m ay r epresent l ocalized c oncentrations o f a ctivity i n w hich s crapers w ere u sed. T o t est t he p ossibility t hat a ll o lder s amples h ad h igher a rtefact d ensities b ecause o f c ompression b y t he o verlying d eposits, t he n umber o f a rtefacts p er b ucket w as p lotted a gainst t he n umber o f b uckets e xcavated ( Fig. 1 02). T his s hows t hat a lthough t he o lder C L u nits a t B PA a re s eparated f rom t he y ounger o nes i n h aving a m uch h igher i ncidence o f a rtefacts p er b ucket, t here i s n o c lear s eparation o f

y ounger a nd o lder u nits e ither h ere o r a t N BC w here t he v alues f or

B SC a nd Y GL/YSL a re e ssentially s imilar b etween t hem .

1 67

d espite

s ome

1 0

0 00

y ears

1

2 00

r 2= 0 ,22

p = > ,10

C 42

cI

C L3 •

CL4 •

1 00 -

5 0

W IL2 • • B LA BRL3 • -

BRL 4 • " A B RL 7 • • I C •

1‚C

8 RL I

Y SLe/ YOL

82eL

N

N

N

IRL 5 • G8L V

0

8 LJ V

V I

I

RA V

N

BLD •

I

1 000

500

0

N UMBER

D GL • R R V

88 U •

OF B UCKETS

1 500

EXCAVATED

F ig. 1 02. N BC a nd B PA : S catter d iagram s howing n o l inear c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f a rtefacts p er b ucket a nd t he n umber o f b uckets e xcavated, b ut a c lustering o f a ssemb lages o f s imilar a ge a t e ach s ite.

1 68

N ON-LITHIC A RTEFACTS I n

a ddition t o s tone t ools,

N BC a nd B PA, b eads,

b ut n ot a t KRA.

p endants

a nd

b one a rtefacts h ave b een f ound a t b oth

O strich e ggshell h as b een w orked

d ecorated

w ater c ontainers o r f lasks,

s hell h as b een u sed f or a p endant a nd h ave b een m ade

f or

b owls,

i nto b eads a nd p endants a t B PA.

h ave n ot b een s tudied a t N BC,

a nd

t o m ake t ortoise

m arine

s hells

M arine s hell o rnaments

b ut o strich e ggshell i s

f ound

t here

i n

s mall q uantities i n t he f orm o f b eads a nd a f ew b eads w ere r ecovered f rom t he 1 s q m a t K RA. T he f requencies a re s ummarized i n T ables 6 2 a nd

6 3 a nd i n F igs

1 03 a nd

1 04.

A lso o f

i nterest a re f inds o f m astic

a nd o ne s craper m ounted i n m astic a t B PA ( Deacon & D eacon 1 980).

B ONE A RTEFACTS T he m ost c ommon c lass o f b one a rtefact a t B PA i s t hat o f b roken p artially p olished p ortions f inished, w hole b one t ools i s

o f l ow.

o r

b one s hafts a nd t he i ncidence o f B one b eads, o n t he o ther h and, a re

r elatively c ommon, p articularly i n C L w here f ive o f s imilar s hape a nd s ize w ere f ound i n t hree a djacent s quares i n C L 3 . T hey a re i llustrated i n F ig.

1 06:

2 0-24.

A rtefacts c lassified a s b one ' points'

p robably i nclude p ortions o f a rrow p oints a s w ell a s l inkshafts ( for e xample, F ig. 1 05: 7 , F ig. 1 06: 1 1 a nd 2 9). P ortions o f t wo t ortoise s hell b owls w ere f ound, o ne f rom B LD P leistocene C L M ember ( Fig. 1 07: 1 )

a nd t he o ther g iving p roof o f

t his e thnographically r ecorded i tem. t ools o f a n

W hen t he

i s v iewed t hrough t ime a t B PA,

t hese a rtefacts

i s

t he r esult o f

d istribution

i t c an b e s een t hat

o f

b one

t he i ncidence

s ampling a r andom d istribution

a rtefact c lass d iscarded r elatively r arely a t

f luctuations i n F ig.

f rom t he l ate t he a ntiquity o f

o f

l iving s ites a nd t he

1 03 p robably h ave n o c ultural s ignificance.

A ll

t he ' classic f ormal b one t ools a re k nown f rom t he l ate P leistocene a nd b oth t he s mall s ample s ize a nd t he g enerally l ow f requency o f c omplete

b one

t ools m ake i t u nrealistic

t o i nterpret

t he

f requencies

i n t erms o f a nything o ther t han t he r esult o f l ow f requency s ampling. A t N BC s mall

t he m ost c ommon b one a rtefact

d ouble-pointed

1 7-32).

T hese a re

s liver

o f

i s

t he s o-called f ish g orge o r

g round a nd p olished b one

i nteresting i n t heir t emporal

u nits b etween B SL a nd R A a nd t heir h igh i ncidence t hey a ccount

f or m ore

u nits.

i s

I t

t han h alf o f

t he

t otal

n umbers

t he

i n C S a nd B SBJ w here

b one

t ools

i n

u nits

d ating

t o

i n

t hey a re a lso

t he s ame t ime p eriod

1 977a), b ut f ish c ontinue t o o ccur a fter g orges a re n o t he d eposits

1 08:

t o

t hose

a ssumed t hat t hey w ere u sed f or c atching f ish b oth a t

N BC a nd a t E lands B ay o n t he w est c oast w here l arge

( Fig.

r estriction

f ound

i n

( Parkington

l onger f ound i n

i ndicating t hat o ther f ishing m ethods a pparently r eplaced

t he f ish g orge a fter c . 8 000 B .P. A s a t B PA, t he v ariability i n b one t ool f requencies i s c onsidered t o r elate m ore t o r andom s ampling t han t o p atterned f requency c hanges t hrough t ime, c ourse

o f

t he

f ish

g orges

w hich

w ith

c learly

t he

e xception

r epresent

o f

s omething

d 7 .fferent. F igures 1 06 a nd 1 08 i llustrate t hat m ost o ther a re

p resent

a t b oth N BC a nd B PA.

i n b oth t erminal

S patulates,

P leistocene/early

H olocene

1 69

f ormal

b one

f or e xample, a nd

m id-late

t ools

a re f ound H olocene

f

I

I

I

W orked o s t r ich e ggshe l l 0 ,60

S o l id b ar = b eads o n ly

0 ,40

1 .

0 ,20

0

Mar ine a nd e s tuar ine s he l l b eads a nd o rnamen ts 0 , 10

F

r i

T

0 I

P o l ished b one t oo ls 0 ,05 -

2 J

4

8

6

O

-

1 0

I in C Y

ma l x 10 0 0 y ears a

F ig.

1 03.

1 4

1 2

1 0 ,0

P

e

J

u

0 0

0

B PA : n umber o f s hell o rnaments a nd b one t ools

p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated.

0 , 10

P o l ished b one t oo ls 0 ,05 -

r n

0 0 ,1

01

O s t r ich e ggshe l l b eods -

)

8 ‘ z

u me u em

C D

> ( r )

0 ,05

0

0

2

4

8

1 0

1 2

1 4

1 6

x1 000 y ears B .P

F ig.

1 04.

N BC:

n umber o f b one t ools a nd o strich e ggshell

b eads p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated.

1 70

1 8

u nits

w hile

m ulti-ringed

s eem t o b e l imited

b one

t ubes,

o r t hose w ith s piral g rooves,

t o t he l ate a nd t erminal P leistocene.

S HELL S hell f requencies a re s ummarized

i n

T ables

6 2

a nd

6 3

a nd

t he

i ncidence o f w orked s hell p er b ucket o f d eposit i s s ummarized i n F igs 1 03 a nd 1 04. T he g ross q uantity o f o strich e ggshell f ragments i s p robably a g ood i ndication o f t he r elative a vailability o f o striches a nd t heir e ggs i n t he v icinity o f a s ite. A t N BC, w here o striches w ere n ot r ecorded i n h istoric t imes, t he f requencies a re h igh o nly i n t he l ate P leistocene a nd i n C S, d ated t o c . 1 1 8 00 B .P., w here t he r est o f t he f aunal r emains s uggest m ore o pen g rassland a round t he s ite t han e xists t oday.

A t B PA,

b e f ound e ven t oday, t he d eposit.

o n t he o ther h and, w here o striches a re

o strich e ggshell f ragments a re

t o

f ound t hroughout

A lthough i solated o strich e ggshell b eads h ave b een r eported f rom L SA d eposits o lder t han 1 0 0 00 B .P., i t i s o nly a fter t his t ime t hat t hey o ccur i n a ny q uantity i n a rchaeological c ontexts. A t b oth N BC a nd B PA t hey a re f ound i n t he l ate P leistocene u nits a nd a t B PA i n p articular t hey i ncrease m arkedly i n f requency a fter 1 2 0 00 B .P. T here i s n o c hange i n t he s ize, f inish o r m ethod o f m anufacture o f b eads t hrough t he t ime p eriod u nder d iscussion e ither a t N BC o r B PA. T he u se o f o strich e ggs a s w ater c ontainers o r f lasks a nd t he h abit o f d ecorating t he o utside o f t hese s hells w ith p atterns o f i ncised l ines h as a s imilar a ntiquity t o t he m anufacture o f b eads. T he s poradic h igh f requencies o f d ecorated f ragments p robably r elate t o t he b reakage o f o ne o r t wo o f t hese w ater c ontainers a nd a re u nlikely t o h ave a ny c ultural s ignificance. A s c an b e s een i n F ig. 1 09 t here i s n o p rogression o f d esigns t hrough t ime w ith l adder-like p atterns p resent f rom C L t hrough t o D GL, b ut t here i s a g reater v ariety o f p atterns p resent i n t he o lder u nits, p articularly i n B RL. O strich e ggshell a nd s hell p endants a nd b uttons a ppear t o b e r estricted t o t he H olocene. T he r egular o ccurrence o f f ragments o f m arine s hell i s n otable a t B PA w hich e ven t oday i s s ome 8 0 km f rom t he c oast. I t i s o nly i n u nits t hat p ost-date 1 1 0 00 B .P. h owever t hat p erforated s hell b eads a re f ound. M ost o f t hese a re m ade f rom t he s mall e stuarine s hell N assa k raussiana w hich o ccurs r egularly b ut n ot a bundantly i n t he B RL M ember a nd b ecomes v ery c ommon i n t he t wo l ate H olocene u nits, D GL. I t i s o nly i n t he m id-late H olocene a re f ound a nd t hey a re m ost c ommon i n r ecovered. F ragments o f t he w hite m ussel i n t he l ate P leistocene u nits t hrough

B LD a nd

t hat m arine s hell p endants t he B LD M ember w here 1 2 w ere D onax s erra h ave b een f ound t he H olocene t o D GL, b ut t he

f reshwater m ussel, C afferia c affer, i s i dentifiable o nly i n t he l ate H olocene. A ll t hese s hells w ere f ound i n s mall f ragments a nd w ere c learly n ot b rought t o t he s ite f or f ood b ut f or t he m anufacture o f o rnaments o r s ome o ther p urpose. T he l ate o ccurrence o f f reshwater m ussel s hells i s s imilar t o t hat e ncountered a t W ilton ( J. D eacon 1 9/2) a nd M elkhoutboom ( H.J. D eacon 1 976), b ut a t B uffelskloof i t h as b een i dentified a t t he b ase o f t he H olocene u nits a s w ell ( Opperman 1 978).

1 71

3

CZ ) 1

a

2

6

5

3

0 1 1

1 0

9

8

7

1 5

1 2

1 6

1 4

1 3

f e r# 2 0 1 7 5c m

F ig. 1 05. B PA : W orked b one a nd a c opper b ead f rom t he D GL M ember. 1 : c opper b ead; 2 ,3: b one b eads; 4 -8: b one p oints; 9 : ? linkshaft; 1 0,11: p olished b one t ubes; 1 2,13: b one f lakes w ith u tilized e dges; 1 4: b one w ith c ut e nds; 1 5,16: b one w ith c ut m arks p ossibly m ade b y am etal t ool; 1 7-21: b one w ith i ncised o r g rooved l ines. A fter D eacon e t a l. ( 1978).

1 72

6

1 0

o 4

t e s

3

0

0 9 5

0

5 cm

1 9

1 2

1 4

1 5

2 6

F ig. 1 06. B PA : B one t ools. 1 -4: f rom p its i n B LD M ember; 5 ,6,9,10: B LD ; 7 : B FBL; 8 : B LA ; 1 1-14: B RL 6 : 1 5: B RL; 1 6: B RL 7 ; 1 7,18,28: C L 2 ; 2 5,27: C L 1 ; 2 0-24,29: C L 3 ; 1 9,26: G WA . 1 ,2,5,25,28: s patulates; 3 ,10,11,26,27,29: p oints; 4 ,12: t ortoise c arapace p endants; 6 : p olished b one w ith n otches; 7 : a rticular e nd g rooved a nd s napped; 8 : s cratched a nd p erfora ted p iece o f b one; 9 ,19-24: b one b eads; 1 4,16-18: s pirally g rooved b eads; 1 3: p olished b one t ube; 1 5: s cratched b one.

1 73

P OTTERY P ottery f requencies a t B PA a nd K RA a re s ummarized i n T able 6 4. K angkara f ragments a ppear t o h ave b een t rampled i nto t he S UR u nit a re

i nteresting i n t hat

a re o f

T he b ut

t hey d emonstrate t he u se o f q uartz t emper a nd

t he s ame t hickness a nd g eneral a ppearance a s t hose f rom B PA.

T he s ample o f p ottery f rom D GL a t B oomplaas c omprises 1 1 07 s herds o f w hich 6 8 c ould b e j oined, g iving a w orking t otal o f 10 39 s herds. T he m ajority ( 72%) c ame f rom t he u pper u nits o f D GL a nd a ll a re c onsidered t o b elong t o t his m ember a lthough 4 4 s herds w ere f ound i n d isturbed c ontext i n t he u nderlying B LD M ember ( Deacon e t a l. 1 978:64).

I t i s e stimated t hat a bout

2 5 d ifferent p ots c ontributed t o

t he s ample o f s herds, o f w hich 1 7 a re r epresented b y r im s herds. T he o nly r econstructable r im s uggests a v essel w ith a r im d iameter o f a bout 8 0 m m a nd a c ontracted c oncave n eck 2 1 m m h igh ( Fig. 1 10: 1 ). A t l east o ne b owl m ay b e r epresented, b ut t he m ajority o f t he r im s herds a ppear t o c ome f rom w ide-mouthed p ots. N o l ugs o r b osses w ere f ound, b ut t here a re t hree p ointed o r o void b ases, n ippled, f rom t he u pper D GL u nits ( Fig. 1 10: 1 2). A bout 8 0% o f

t wo o f w hich a re

t he r ims a re s imple r ounded f orms a nd

t he

r est

h ave

o ne o r b oth s ides f lattened ( Fig. 1 10: 1 -7). T he p referred c ombination o f r im a ttributes i s a r ounded r im p laced d irectly o nto t he n eck o f t he p ot w ith t he t op t apered i nstead o f r idged o r t hickened. T here a re 4 9 i s

a

s pout

d ecorated s herds, o f w hich t en a re r im p ieces a nd

f ragment.

o ne

T he m ajority o f t he d ecorated p atterns h ave a

r ectilinear d esign w ith d ragged o r i ncised l ines m ore c ommon t han i mpressed o r p unctate l ines. T he n on-linear d ecoration c onsists e ither o f p unctate d ots o r i mpressed p atterns f or w hich a d ie h as b een u sed ( Fig. 1 10: 2 , 8 -11). O f t he l atter t ype, t hree i mpressed p atterns c an b e s een: o ne i n w hich a s mall c rab c law s eems t o h ave b een u sed, o ne i n w hich a s eries o f w edges h as b een j oined b y a f ine l ine d rawn a cross

t hem i n w et c lay,

a nd

a

t hird

w ith

a

s eries

o f

t oothed b ars. T he

t hickness

o f

t he

s herds

i s

s imilar

t o t hat a t o ther l ate

H olocene s ites w ith a m ean o f c . 6 m m, i nclusions a re q uartz w ith g rass t emper, a nd o nly a s mall n umber w ere r ubbed s mooth e nough s imulate a b urnish. T he s ample f alls w ell w ithin t he r ange " Hottentot" p ottery d escribed b y R udner ( 1968) a nd h as b een s tudied d etail b y M . L . W ilson ( Deacon e t a l. 1 978).

n o t o o f i n

M ASTIC F our l umps o f m astic, a s mall c onvex s craper s et i n m astic, a nd m astic w ith p art o f a h andle w ere f ound i n p its i n t he B LD M ember a t B PA.

T he f irst

( Fig.

1 07:

2 ) w as f ound

i n p it 7 a nd h as a s mall p iece

o f w ood a ttached t o i t. I t s eems t o h ave b een m astic t hat w as s tored f or f uture u se b ecause i t h as n o i mpression f rom a h afted t ool. T he s econd p iece (-F ig. 1 07: 4 ), f rom p it 1 5, h as s napped a long t he l ine o f a h andle a nd h as

t hus r etained t he i mpression o f i t.

l umps,

9 a nd 2 3, h ave n either i mpressions n or a ttachments

f rom

p its

1 74

T he o ther t wo

P art o f at ortoiseshe ll b ow l f rom s quare P 15 C L 3 CM

L ump o f m astic o n ap iece o f w ood. P it 7 D GL M ember

4

P iece o f m astic w ith g roove/impression f rom P it 1 5 B LD M ember 2

5

3 L ump o f m astic f rom P it 9 D GL M ember

L ump o f m astic f rom P it 2 3, B LD M ember

F ig. 1 07. B PA : p art o f a t ortoiseshell b owl f rom C L 3 a nd l umps o f m astic f rom D GL a nd B LD.

1 75

0 4

5

6

7

1 5 1 4

C = S 7

1 2

1 7 1 8

22

23 1 = 3

V24

2 5

2 6

V 27

2 0

1 9

2 1

( 5 \ i 2 8

i29 6 = 1

t = 3

c = i

3 0

3 1

3 2

CD g) 35 37

F ig. 1 08. N BC: B one t ools. 2 -5,12,17,36: R B; B SBJ; 1 1,16,22-29;34: C S; 8 ,9,30-32,33,37: G SL;

1 : J ; 6 ,13-15,18-21: 3 5: B SL; 1 0: Y SL.

1 : c ut a nd p olished w ith s napped e nd; 2 -10: b one p oints; 1 1-16: c patulates; 1 7-32: " fish g orges"; 3 3 -3 4 : m ulti-ringed b one t ubes; 3 5: b one b ead ; 3 6,37: b one p endants.

1 76

— 2

3/

D GL

D GL

6

,-

)

4

a

5

D GL

D GL

D GL

7

D GL

9

D GL

D CL

1 . 1 1 1. 1 1 . 1 1•

D GL

c m

C

1 2 • 1 0

1

B LD P it 4 8 1 5

B LD P it 3 9

B LD P it 8

1 6

B LD P it 5 2

B LD P it 4 8 1 9

1 7 1 8

B LD 2 0

B LD 2 1

B LA

B LD 2 3

2 2

B LA

2 4 2 5

B LD

B LD

B RL 2

2 6

B RL 6

B PL 6

2 8

B RL 7

B RL 7

e ets

R RL 6 3 0

B RL 7

B RL 7

C L 1

3 4

3 1 3 2

C L 3

C L 3

3 3

C L 1

F ig. 1 09. B PA : W orked o strich e ggshell a nd m arine s hell. ] ,34,35: m arine s hell b uttons a nd p endant; 2 ,10,11,13,15,18,20: o strich e ggshell b uttons a nd p endants; 3 ,24,31: o penings t o o strich e ggshell w ater f lasks; 4 ,5: N assa a nd N atica e stuarine s hell b eads; 6 -9,14,16,17,19,21-23,25-30,32,33: d ecorated o strich e ggshell f ragments p resumably f rom w ater f lasks.

1 77

2 1

3

L 12 D GL 4

L 16 D GL 1

D ecorated r im s herds f rom N 15 a nd 0 15, B LD 1

CM

5

7

6

N 13 D GL

0 18 a nd Q 1 7 D GL

L 14 D GL 1

4 R 14, B LD 2 a

U Y *

9

8

P 14 B LD 1

S herd d ecorated w ith c rab c law i mpression P 12 B LD

1 0

1 1

S herd d ecorated w ith c rab c law i mpression P 12 B LD

R 14 B LD 2 a

P art o f s pout f rom P 20 B LD

P ointed b ase 0 20 D GL

1 2

A fter D eacon e t a / 1 978

1 3

F ig. 1 10. B PA : P ottery f rom t he D GL M ember - r im s herds, d ecorated f ragments, p ointed b ase a nd s pout.

1 78

a nd s eem t o h ave b een k ept f or f uture u se a s m astic ( Fig.

1 07:

3 ,

5 ).

T he h afted c onvex s craper ( Fig. 1 11) h as b een m ounted a t r ight a ngles t o t he h andle i n a s imilar p osition t o a s pecimen o f c omparable s ize w ith a d ecorated b one h andle i n t he c ollections o f t he A lbany M useum i n G rahamstown ( Deacon & D eacon 1 980) a nd i s c lear c onfirmation o f t he f act t hat s mall c onvex s crapers w ere h afted i n t his w ay.

I

I I I

I

I

1

1

I

Li F ig. 1 11. S mall c onvex s craper m ounted i n m astic w ith s uggested p osition o f w ooden/bone h andle ( centre). F rom p it 2 7, B LD M ember, B oomplaas C ave

P AINTED S TONES A ND O CHRE F our p ainted s tones w ere f ound a t B PA, t hree i n t he B LD M ember a nd o ne i n B LA w hich s hows t hat t he t radition o f r ock p ainting i n t he s outhern C ape i s a t l east 6 4 00 y ears o ld. T he p ainted s tones h ave b een d escribed i n d etail e lsewhere ( Deacon e t a l. 1 976) a nd o ne o f t he s tones i s i llustrated i n F ig. 2 8. A lthough n one w ere f ound a t N BC, a n umber w ere r ecovered f rom o ther c aves o n e arlier t his c entury ( Rudner & R udner 1 973).

t he

R obberg

P eninsula

O chre, b oth r ed a nd y ellow , i s f ound t hroughout t he B PA a nd N BC s equences i n s mall b ut c onstant q uantities. T he f requencies a re s ummarized

i n

T able

6 5

b ut

i t s hould b e s tressed t hat m uch o f t he

o chre i s v ery f riable a nd t he n umber o f f ragments f alse

i mpression o f t he q uantity.

s ometimes

g ives

a

S hould a m ore r ealistic m easure o f

t he r elative a bundance b e r equired i n f uture, w eigh t he f ragments r ather t han c ount t hem.

1 79

i t w ould

b e

b etter

t o

G ENERAL S UMMARY O F R ESULTS O F A RTEFACT A NALYSES C hanges t hrough t ime h ave b een d emonstrated f laking,

i n t he c hoice o f r aw m aterials,

i n t he m ethods o f

i n t he d esign

a nd

s tone

r ange

o f

f ormal t ools, i n t he a ppearance o f i tems c haracteristic o f t he L SA a nd i n t he h orizontal d istribution o f a rtefacts. S ome o f t hese c hanges a re

c ommon

t o

a ll

t he

s ites

s uggesting t hat

t hey a re o f m ore

t han

l ocal s ignificance. T he l ate 1 2

P leistocene

0 00 B .P.

c ores,

a ssemblages d ating b etween a bout

b oth s ingle p latform

r elatively h igh w hich w as b acked. a lthough

1 8 0 00

a nd

a t N BC a nd B PA a re c haracterized b y s tandardized b ladelet a nd

s mall

f lat

f orms,

w hich

p roduced

n umbers o f s mall b ladelets, a s mall p roportion o f P referred r aw m aterials w ere s ilcrete a nd q uartz,

q uartzite s till d ominated

t he a ssemblages a s a w hole a t N BC.

M ost o f t he f ormal t ool d esigns k nown i n t he H olocene w ere i n u se i n t he l ate P leistocene, b ut i n m uch s maller n umbers a nd w ith a w ider v ariance i n t he m etric a ttributes o f s crapers a nd a dzes. T he l owest K RA

u nit

i ncludes a f ew b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores, b ut n one o f t he

f ormal t ools f ound a t B PA a nd N BC. A fter a bout c ores

w ere

1 2 0 00 B .P.

r arely

a nd p rior t o a bout

m ade,

t he m ean l ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes r aw

m aterials e nd

i ncreased w ith

s uch a s q uartzite a nd h ornfels.

a dzes w ere r are, w ith

8 000 B .P.,

b ut

s craper

t he

s crapers i ncreased b oth i n f requency a nd i n

A fter a bout 7 500 B .P. r ange a gain a nd q uartz,

8 000

B .P.

a nd

t he

l arger

b ecame

m icroliths, b orers, a nd s inkers a t N BC. c ommon

o f s ize

c ircular

f iner g rained r aw m aterials w ere a dded c halcedony a nd,

m ore

c ommon.

t o a l esser T he

a nd

1 0 0 00 B .P.

e xtent,

i ncidence

i ncreased s everal f old a nd t he r ange i ncluded s mall

l ess

s election

f orms w ith s ide r etouch f or s haping t he b lank m ore

c ommon b etween 1 0 0 00 a nd

h ornfels

b ladelet

B acked m icroliths a nd

c oncavo-convex f orms m ore c ommon b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd

a nd

t he

b ladelets o ccur i n v ery l ow f requencies a nd

t o t he

s ilcrete

o f f ormal t ools s crapers,

b acked

a dzes a nd g round s tone t ools s uch a s b ored s tones B ladelet c ores a nd u nretouched b ladelets w ere

t han i n t he l ate P leistocene a nd t he f lat b ladelet c ores

w ere a bsent. I t a ppears t hat t he b acked b ladelets a nd s egments o f t he H olocene w ere s haped b y s econdary r etouch r ather t han b y c areful p reparation o f t he c ore

t o

p roduce

" instant"

a rtefacts.

A lthough

d omesticated s heep a nd p ottery w ere i ntroduced a t B PA a fter 2 000 B .P., t here i s n o a ccompanying c hange i n t he a rtefacts a t t his t ime, f or t he a ddition o f m etal i n t he f orm o f a c opper b ead,

e xcept a nd t he

i ntroduction o f p ottery. T hrough t he l ate P leistocene a nd H olocene

s equence a t B PA t here

i s

a g ood c orrelation b etween c hanges i n t he m ean l engths o f s crapers a nd u ntrimmed

f lakes

e xtent t o t he c orrelation i s

i ndicating t hat

f laking m ethod

w as

g eared

t o

s ome

p roduction o f b lanks f or f ormal t ools, b ut a t N BC t he n ot a s c lear ( Fig. 9 4). H owever, t here i s n o

c orrelation b etween t he i ncidence o f f ormal t ools a nd a ny p articular f laking m ethod, n or b etween f ormal t ools a nd a ny p articular r aw m aterial.

W hile

p references a nd t he l ate f ormal

P leistocene t ools

a nd

f lake

d imensions,

c ore

s ub-types,

r ange o f f ormal t ool d esigns a nd t he

H olocene g reater

a ssemblages,

m ay t he

s tandardization

1 80

r aw b e

m aterial

s imilar

i n

g ross f requency o f i n

t heir

m etric

a ttributes

c onsistently

s eparate

t he

a ssemblages o f t hese t wo t ime

p eriods. W hile a t N BC t he i ncidence o f f ormal t ools i ncreased m arkedly o nly a fter 6 000 B .P., a t B PA t he i ncidence i s h igh a fter 1 0 0 00 B .P. b ut i ncreased m ore d ramatically a fter 6 500 B .P. ( Fig. 1 12). C hanges

i n

r aw

m aterial

f requencies

h ave

s hown t hat t hese a re

l inked t o s ome e xtent t o t he p roduction o f c ertain a rtefact c lasses, b ut t he c orrelation i s s eldom l inear a nd i t w ould n ot b e p ossible t o p redict t he r ange o r f requency o f f ormal t ools f rom r aw m aterial f requencies a lone. A nalysis o f r aw m aterials f rom t he t hree s ites h as c onfirmed t he o bservations o n E SA m aterials b y C lark ( 1980) a nd o f G ould ( 1977) b ased o n A ustralian d ata t hat i f a s ite i s l ocated c lose t o a s ource o f r aw m aterial, t his m aterial w ill b e f ar m ore c ommon t han a ny o ther. T hus q uartzite d ominates a t N BC a nd K angkara a nd q uartz i s m ost c ommon a t B PA. T his m akes c hanges i n r aw m aterial f requencies a ll t he m ore i nteresting b ecause w e c an a ssume t hat t hese w ere m otivated b y c hanging p references a nd n ot s imply b y w hat w as m ost e asily a vailable. I t i s t he t iming o f c hanges i n r aw m aterial p references t hat a re c oincident a t t he t hree s ites, r ather t han t he c hoice o f p articular m aterials, a lthough b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P. m aterials t hat c ould p roduce l arger f lakes w ere s elected o ver t hose t hat o ccur i n s maller n odules. I n a d ifferent c ontext, H umphreys ( 1972b) h as a lso d emonstrated t he c ombination o f s ite l ocation a nd c hanging p references t hrough t ime a s t he f actors a ffecting t he i ncidence o f a gates a nd s imilar O range R iver a rea.

m aterials

a t

s ites

i n

t he

M iddle

C hanges i n t he d ensity a nd d istribution o f a rtefacts t hrough t ime i n e xcavated u nits h ave b een n oted a nd i t i s c lear t hat i nter-assemblage d ifferences c an b e c aused b y b oth n atural a nd c ultural t ransforms, b ut t he i dentification o f t hese i s n ot s traightforward. C hanges i n s craper d imensions t hrough t ime a ppear t o b e c yclic a nd a re i ndependent o f c hanges i n a dze d imensions a lthough t here i s s ome c orrelation b etween s craper a nd u ntrimmed f lake l engths a t B PA. I nter-site c omparisons s how t hat c hanges i n s craper p arameters a re b roadly c ontemporary a t t he t hree s ites, b ut o nly o ne l ong s equence o f a dze p arameters i s a vailable s o i t i s n ot p ossible t o t est t heir w ider s ignificance. A lthough t he d imensions o f s crapers d epend o n t he r ange o f r aw m aterials n ear a s ite, t he t iming a nd d irection o f t he s hifts i n s ize a nd s hape a re r egionally c ontemporary a nd a re t herefore l argely i ndependent o f r aw m aterials. T here i s n o e vidence f or t he a ssumption t hat p articular r aw m aterials n eeded m ore r etouch t han o thers, b ut c ertain m aterials w ere d eliberately s elected f or p articular f ormal t ool c lasses a nd u tilized t ools, p resumably b ecause o f t heir s uperior q ualities. W e c an t herefore c onclude t hat t he c hoice o f r aw m aterial h ad a s m uch t o d o w ith t he u ses f or w hich t he t ools w ere d esigned,

a s w ith t he r ange o f m aterials a vailable

v icinity o f t he s ite a nd t he q ualities o f h and.

t he m aterials f or t he

i n

t he

j ob i n

T he m ost c ommon r aw m aterial i n a n a ssemblage c an h ave a s trong

i f luence

o n

t he

r elative

f requency o f c hips,

c hunks a nd u ntrimmed

f lakes b ecause o f t he w ay i n w hich t he m aterial b reaks u p i n t he f laking p rocess, b ut h ad l ittle i nfluence o n t he r ange a nd f requency o f f ormal c learly

t ools p roduced. t hat

T he d ata f rom N BC, K RA a nd

B PA

i llustrate

r aw m aterials w ere d eliberately s elected f or p articular

1 81

BPA r i AND NBC I

NUMBER O F F ORMAL T OOLS P ER

BUCKET

1 , 40 —

1 , 20 —

1 _

1 , 00-

0 ,6 0-

0 ,40-

020—

2

4

6

8

I in

p i t I Am

xP O 00 y ear s 1 3 .P

M I MI

I

I

i 4

I i 11

11 6

F ig. 1 12. C omparison b etween B PA a nd N BC i n t he c hanges t hrough t ime i n t he n umber o f f ormal t ools p er b ucket o f d eposit e xcavated.

r e

p urposes b y s tone t ool

m anufacturers w ho w ere w ell a ware o f t he p roperties o f t he r ocks. T he f act t hat t here i s a c orrelation b etween q uartzite a nd/or h ornfels a nd l arger s crapers a nd b etween q uartz a nd/or c halcedony a nd s maller s crapers i s n ot t o s ay t hat t he s crapers w ere l arge b ecause t hey w ere m ade i n q uartzite, b ut r ather t hat q uartzite w as s elected b ecause t he s tone t ool m akers w anted t o m ake l arger s crapers.

1 83

T ABLES 1 -65

T able 1 1. N elson B ay C ave: F requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies o f a rtefacts i n W aste c ategory c lasses a nd r aw m aterial c lasses. C LASS

R AW M ATERIAL

C h ips

Q uartz

I C

B SC

f

1 63

6 21

%

4 1,2

6 3 ,6

Q uartzite

f S

1 70

2 87

4 2 ,9

2 9,4

C ha lcedony

f

4 1

6 8

6 3 ,6

2 7

2 7,3

1

2 6 ,1

7 ,0

0 ,9

2 2

-

-

O ther

f

Q uartz

-

B SBJ 1

1 3

11

2 9

9 2,3

5 8,0

3

1 ,5

1 0,0

-

3 ,1

,7

4 6

1 -

,44 ,5

2 4

9 ,0 1 0 ,9

2 ,

1 7

5 3

5 ,5

1 07

6 ,9

2 ,5

3 3

1 3

6 9

3 0

0 ,5

0 ,3

1 ,2

1 ,2

f

1 23

3 67

1 08

4 4

%

3 6 ,2

4 2,9

2 9,6

8 ,5

1 2

2 4

5 ,3 •

8 ,1

4 68

2 10

2 74

7 0 ,1

8 9,8

9 3,3

9 2,0

7 6,4

C ha lcedony

f 2

1 9,4

1

-

-

S ilcrete

f

1

%

3 ,2

0 ,1

f %

-

0 ,1

8 2

f f

3 6 7 8 ,3

f

1

7

3 ,7

-

-

7 ,4

0 ,2

3 65

5 21

8 ,5

7

5 5

2 98

5 ,6

1

1 0,9 8 5,9

2 25

7 ,8

1 22 6

1 2,2

4

2

2 ,7

2 ,7

2

2 01

1 70

1 46

9 5,0

99 ,3

3 ,4

7

,9

5

6 57

7 62

1 3 ,9

8 ,4

6

3 4

4

8

2

1

2

1

2

2

3 ,1

0 ,5

1 ,1

1 ,7

6 ,1

9 ,5

-

-

-

2

9

,

•

6 ,1

4 2,9

5 1,0

O ther

f 2

1 2 ,2

I 0 ,6

-

-

-

'

T ota l

f

4 6

C ores a s % of t otal waste

C ore r educed

Q uartz

p ieces

Q uartz ite

f 5

1 87

3 ,0

2 0 6 4 ,1

2 6 6 6 ,6

5 . 8 3 ,3

1

3

1 2,5

1 00,0

-

4

7

1 0,8

1 5,2

f

1 2

1 2

%

3 2,4

2 6 ,1

S ilcr ete

f

1

1

%

2 ,7

2 ,2

O ther

f S

-

-

T ota l

f

U ntr immed Q uartz f lakes

f 5

Q uartz ite C halcedony

O ther T ota l

U ntrimmed 7 7 a a s _ %o f t otal v apte

Q uartz

C halcedony S ilcrete O ther T otal

4 6 0 ,3

74 6 ,4

1 0960

%

8 4 ,2

9 0 ,1

f

3 28

3 94

%

6 ,4

f

6 3

%

1 ,2

f 5

0 ,1

8 8 ,3

f

7 30 1 2,3

f 4 675

%

7 8 ,6

f

4 50

1 00,0

5 3 8 1,5

2

1 0

1 3,3

1 5,4

1 1 00 ,0

2

5 ,9

-

3 ,1

1 5 ,9

1

8

6 0 ,1

2 93 7 ,8

3 444 0 1,8

3

0 ,1

1 24 2 ,1

5 776

1

0 ,1

5 0 ,2

1 5

1 7

0 ,8

0 ,4

3 9

5 4

8 6

5 4

1 67

1 ,1

1 ,0

3 ,8

2 ,7

1 2,2

3 590

9 7 ,5

0 ,04

9 8 ,7

5 180 9 8 ,9

2 163 9 5,5

1 792 9 0,2

1 068 7 8 ,0

1 229

2 822

3 7,7

4 8 ,9

9 83

2 943

3 0 ,1

4 7,9

6

4

1 5

6 9

0 ,2

0 ,1

0 ,7

3 ,5

4 ,0

2

-

I

I

7 1

8 0

9 29

0 ,1

0 ,1

0 ,02

0 ,04

3 ,6

5 ,8

2 8 ,5 -

-

-

-

-

-

0 ,03

1

-

1

I

-

1

-

0 ,01

-

0 ,02

0 ,03

-

0 ,04

-

1 2137 8 5 ,5

1 795 1 2,6

1830

8 3 ,3

5 64

1 ,6

0 ,1

f 5

6 0 ,1

4 ,02

3 1 4202

3 752

5 925

8 7 ,4

8 8 ,6

4 92

1 91

1 1,5

3 782

8 8 ,1

3 636 8 9,6

6 2

2 ,9

1 ,5

6 460

3 982

9 6 ,6

0 8 ,2

5 239

266 9 1,9

8 6 .7

7 6,5

1 07

1 27

1 05

4 18

1 ,9

5 640

9 8 ,0

5 ,2

1 965

2 0

1 38

0 4,0

3

9

5

0 ,5

0 ,2

0 ,1

C ,8

2

4

-

1

1

-

4 294

9 5,0

9 4,9

4 15

6 50

-

2

3

0 ,03

6 690 9 3 ,7

1 204

0 ,02

0 ,04

8 5,8 6 ,0

8 2

3 ,6

1

0 ,1

4 066

4 ,6

2 317

1 8

0 ,1

1 370

9 1,1

0 ,4 0 ,1

1 986

5 5

6 5 0 ,7

2 2

1 0

2 15

1 5 8 8 ,2

1 ,0

0 ,4

4 ,0

9 3,5

1 3

1

1 8,7

1 68

2 ,1

2

7 ,6

N UMBER O F B UCKETS O F D EPOSIT E XCAVATED

1

1 00

8 6 ,7

6

8 ,0

1 3

9 7

f 5 958

2 1 1 ,2

1 0

0 ,4

f

W ant. a n % of G rand T otal

3 3 1 ,4

1 0 6 ,0

8

% %

5 9 8 ,4

2 2 ,0

5 1

3 ,3

5

f 5 139

%

Q uartz ite

3 7

8 ,1

2 ,6

2 1,4

1 2,5

0 ,6

4 18

1 47

4 ,4

7 5 ,0

-

f 4 325

S ilcrete

1 79

1 ,5

f

eye a e % of t otal w aste

2 03

1 ,3

%

C ha lcedony

6 4

0 ,8

3 6

1 3,0

-

-

6 6 ,7

1 3

,1

1 9

12

3 4,0

4 ,3

-

0 ,1

7 4

3

•

1

-

6 ,5

. -

3 0 .4

-

f %

-

1 ,6

1 6 ,3

2 8,6

,7

1 2

0 ,8

4 ,1

2 6 6

8 8 1 1,6

1 07

I

2 1,2

5 6 9 4

5 7

1 ,4

6 ,4

8 6,4

8 ,7

9

4 ,1

1 47

4 ,5

0 ,7

9 9,0

6 2 8 3,8

-

10

6 58

7 4,3

-

1

3 ,9

2 1,5

4 88

8 3,0

-

6 ,2

7

0 ,5

1 952

1 5,1

1 5

-

0 ,9

7 19

1 7,4

S ilcrete

%

3

3 12

1 0,2

8 4

-

2

-

1 71 9 1,4

0 ,4

0 ,2

6 ,0

6

%

1 ,5

-

8 56

1 3 ,0

8

0 ,3

1 1

5 ,?

%

1

9 ,6

5 ,2

26

2 56

6 6

19

2 3,6

4 7 ,3

3 40

1,4

0, 3

9 76

6 ,7

f

4

1

3 96

C hunks a s % of t otal w aste

8 8 2 7

4 7,1 4 ,2

9 3,9

1 7

3 4

-

1 834

1 ,5

5 6 5

V GL

.

8 8,7

74 ,4

-

4 05

C ha lcedony

2 8

2 4,4

1 4

1 40

Q uartz ite

6 38

4 3,3

4 1,2

Q uartz

Y SL

2 32

4 0

f

T otal

B SL

2 9

4 0,6

%

O ther

G SL

1 2

1

-

C S

2 8

7 ,7

9

2 5,2

1 0 ,4

Q uartzite

T OTAL W ASTE

7 3 ,8

f

5 ,8

J

2 1

%

%

C ores

R B

7 9

S ilcrete

T ota l f C hipe a s % gF a tal waste C hunks

R A

2 466

8 7 1 ,4

3 260

6 142

6 8.6

6 7.6

5 539

2 404

,3

164

6 5,0

1 00 5 ,6

1 08

6 ,0

5 0

1 792

,6

6 0

1 064

3 4,8

1 44

2 81

3 ,0

3 ,1

141

1 03

2 4,0

1 ,1

1

-

-

0 ,01

4 753

9 089

9 6,0

9 4,8

9 5,9

9 6 ,8

9 4,2

9 7,4

9 8 ,0

4 54

8 18

4 64

3 01

3 92

--- 5 07

T otal a rtefacts/bucket

2 9,7

3 6,0

7 ,0

5 ,9

7 .8

1 ,4

5 ,5

7 ,9

4 ,9

2 7,9

U ntr immed f lakes/bucket

2 3,9

2 9,3

5 ,8

4 ,9

6 ,7

6 ,4

4 .9

6 ,6

3 ,5

1 8,5

U t ilized p ieces/bucket

1 ,2

1 ,6

0 ,3

0 ,4

0 ,3

0 ,4

0 ,2

0 ,3

0 ,3

0 ,4

F ormal t ools/bucket

0 ,7

0 ,2

0 ,03

0 ,02

0 ,02

0 ,01

0 ,00

0 ,01

0 ,01

0 ,03

M inimum n umber o f l arger m amma ls e xc lud ing c arn ivores, v iverr ids a nd m ar ine m ammals/bucket

0 ,33

0 ,17

0 ,10

0 ,05

0 ,08

0 ,10

0 ,14

0 ,17

0 ,13

0 ,27

1 86

,9

3 165

2 2,4

0 ,1

290

2 30 3 ,7

3 ,7

2

0 ,04

5 753

2 3

19

T able 1 2. N elson B ay C ave: F requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies i n t he U tilized c ategory c lasses a nd r aw m aterial c lasses.

C LASS

R AW M ATER IAL

I C

B SC

R A

U t ilized f lakes

Q uartz

f %

2 9 1 5 ,0

4 3 1 0 ,4

3 4 2 6 ,2

2 0 ,6

2 1 ,5

-

Q uartzite

f %

1 43 7 3 ,7

3 42 8 2 ,4

9 4 7 2 ,3

2 46 9 8 ,0

1 31 9 6 ,3

2 20 0 9,6

C ha lcedony

f

1 7 8 ,8

3 0 7 ,2

2 1 ,5

3 1 ,2

2 1 ,5

S ilcrete

f %

5 2 ,6

-

-

-

-

O ther

f %

-

-

1 0 ,7

t ota l

f

3

B SBJ

Y SL

V GL

-

-

1 1 ,0

1 6 1 3 ,6

3 5 2 1,1

7 2 9 4,7

6 9 9 8 ,6

9 1 8 8 ,4

6 2 5 2,5

18 7 1 ,1

1 0 ,5

1 1 ,3

-

-

2 1 ,7

8 4 ,8

-

-

1 1 ,4

8 7 ,8

3 8 3 2 ,2

5 3 ,0

3 2 ,9

-

-

-

C S

G SL

B SL

3 4 ,0

1 94

4 15

1 30

2 51

1 36

2 21

7 6

7 0

1 03

18

1 66

7 5 ,2

6 2 ,0

6 1 ,6

5 9 ,8

6 4 ,5

7 0 ,8

0 ,7

9 3,3

9 6 ,3

9 8 ,3

9 7 ,1

E dge d amaged f lakes f 8 8 %t otal u tilized f lakes 4 5 ,3

1 43 3 4,5

6 1 4 6 ,9

1 04 4 1,4

5 4 0 ,4

7 4 3 3,5

3 8 5 0,0

4 2 6 0 ,0

4 3 4 1 ,8

6 2 5 2 ,5

8 6 6 1,8

U tilized f lakes a s % t otal u tilized a s

R B

S teep d amage f a s %t otal u tilized f lakes

5 1 2 6 ,3

1 47 3 5,4

3 5 2 6 ,9

8 3 3 3 ,1

4 9 3 6 ,0

6 3 2 8 ,5

1 8 2 3,7

1 0 1 4,3

1 7 1 6 ,5

1 6 1 3,6

3 7 2 2 ,3

N otched e dges f a s %t otal u tilised f lakes

5 5 2 8 ,4

1 25 3 0 ,1

3 4 2 6 ,2

6 4 2 5,5

3 2 2 3,5

8 4 3 8 ,0

2 0 2 6 ,3

1 8 2 5 ,7

4 3 4 1,8

4 0 3,9

4 3 2 5 ,9

6 5

1 40

1 7

7 6

1 9

2

3

H eavy

Q uartz ite

f

e f l d a g ke e d -

S ilcrete

f

p ieces

H E M a s %o f t otal u tilized

S moothed s late

f

G r indstones: Q uartzite

f

R ubbers

f

Q uartz ite

H ammerstones: Q uartz ite f C ombinat ion h ammer/rubber T otal

3 4

2 02 -

1

1 3 ,2

3 0,2

• 3 1,3

3 3,3

1

5

3

7

1 4 6 9

f

3 0

%T otal u tilized

%

T OTAL U TILIZED

Q uartz

1 0 ,6

2 4 ,4

1 8 ,1

2

1

-

-

-

2

9

2

2

2

8

8

4

4

2

-

1 2

1

6

2

2

1

1 5

2 9

8

1 5

1 0

3

1,6

7 ,8

7 ,1

6 ,9

5 ,0

4 ,8

9 ,5

4 ,0

f %

2 9 1,2

4 3 6 ,4

1 5 1 8 ,1

? 0 ,5

? 1 ,2

Q uartz ite

f %

2 06 7 9 ,8

5 91 8 8 ,3

1 71 8 1,0

4 08 9 7 ,1

1 56 9 6 ,9

3 11 9 9 ,7

C halcedony

f %

1 7 6 ,6

3 0 4 ,5

2 0 ,9

3 0 ,7

2 1 ,2

1 0 ,3

S ilcrete

f %

5 1 ,9

_

1 0 ,5

-

-

O ther

f %

1 0 ,4

5 0 ,8

3 1 ,4

7 1 ,7

1 0 ,6

T OTAL

f

2 58 4 ,1

6 69 4 ,5

2 11 4 ,7

4 20 5 ,9

1 61 3 ,8

1 87

2 -

1

2

0 ,9

1 ,7

-

1 0 ,9

1 6 1 3 ,3

3 5 2 0 ,5

1 01 9 6 ,2

7 4 9 8 ,7

9 5 8 8 ,8

6 4 5 3,3

1 23 7 1 ,9

1 1 ,0

-

-

2 1 ,7

8 1 ,7

8

3 8 3 1,7

5 2 ,9

3 2 ,8

-

-

1 1 ,3

5 ,1

1 1

3 2 ,9 3 12

1 ,6

-

5 2

U tilised a s %G rand T otal

2 ,8 -

1

3

2 ,7

-

5 3 8

3

-

1 05 4 ,1

7 5 3 ,2

.

7 ,5

1 07 5 ,6

1 20 2 ,5

2 1 ,2

1 71 1 ,8

T able 1 3. N elson B ay C ave: f requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies i n c lasses a nd s ub-classes o f t he F ormal T ools c ategory.

C LASS

R AW M ATER IAL

S craper s

Q uartz

I C

Q uartz ite

B SC

R A

R B

f

4 0

2 9

1 0

%

3 2,3

4 2,7

6 2,5

1

5

%

2 ,4

1 ,5

3 1,3

C halcedony

f %

f

5 1

4 1,1

3 8

S ilcrete

f

3 0

%

2 4 ,2

T otal

f

3

J

B SBJ

B SL

1 4,3

3 3,3

7

6

1

1

2

6 7,9

1 9

7 7,8

1 00,0

1 00,0

1 00,0

8 6 ,7

5

2

-

1 7 ,9

2 2,2

-

1

-

-

1 24

6 8

1 6

2 8

7 8,0

8 1,0

7 6,2

9 6 ,6

B acked m icro-

Q uartz

f %

5 4 ,8

l iths

Q uartz ite

f

1

C halcedony

f

S

5

1

4 5,5

1 00 ,0

Y SL

2

1 00 ,0

1 00,0

•

9

6

1

1

3

4

2

9 0 ,0

8 5,7

1 00,0

5 0,0

7 5,0

8 0 ,0

1 8 ,2

6

2

6 4 ,6

. 60,0 1 240

3 ,2 %

2 9,0

S ilcrete

f

4

%

1 2,9

T otal

f

B achee rnac7j iii he a s %t otal f ormal

S egments

f

3 1

1 1 3,1

7

%t otal b acked

8 0 ,7

6 3 ,8

B acked f lakes/b lade lets f

1

2

% t otal b acked

3 ,2

1 8 ,2

f

5

2

%t otal b acked

1 6,1

1 8 ,2

B roken b acked p ieces B orer s

Q uartz

B orura a s % t otal f ormal

M isc r etouch

Q uartz

f 1

Q uartz ite C halcedony

1

1

4

4 ,8

2 0,0

3 6,4

1

1 00 ,0

5 0,0 1 1 00 ,0

1 1 00 ,0

1 00 ,0

1

1 ,2

4 ,8

2

1

2 0,0

f

1

2

1

1

1

%

5 0,0

1 00 ,0

1 00,0

1 00,0

1 00 ,0

f

1

3 3 ,3

-

f

3

2

2

1

1

1

Woo R etouch a s %f ormal

1 ,9

2 ,4

9 ,5

3 ,5

1 0,0

1 4,3

B ored s tones ( small)

Q uartzite f %t otal f ormal

0 ,6

S inker

Q uartz ite f %t otal f ormal

1 00 ,0

f %

3 7 ,1

4 2,9

5 2,4

f

5

4

8

C halcedony S ilcrete T OTAL F ormal t ools a s %G rand T otal

3 6

4 ,8

f

6 0

4 4

%

3 7 ,7

5 2,4

f

3 5

%

2 2,0

f

1 59 2 ,5

4 5,5

2

Q uartz

3 ,1

2 5,0

2 ,4

Q uartz ite

5 '

5 5 0 ,0

1 4 ,8

5 9

2 0,0

1

%

1

1

1 00,0

1

T OTAL F ORMAL

3 6 0 ,0

5 0 ,0

f

T otal

1 5,0

•

6 6 ,7

%

S ilcrete

• 1 2 5 ,0 1

1 9,5

2 5

V GL

4

-

6 ,3

S orapere a s % t otal f ormal

1 7

G SL

1

5 5 ,9

-

C S

4

-

-

1

3 8 ,1

•

4

1 3,8

2 0

6 9,0

8

8 0,0

1

2 5,0

7

1 00 ,0

1

1 00,0

1

6 0,0

7 5 ,0 -

1

5

2

1

4 ,8

1 7 ,2

2 0 ,0

5 0,0

1 4 ,8

-

2 5,0

8 4

2 1

2 9

1 0

0 ,6

0 ,5

0 ,4

0 ,2

1 88

7 0 ,1

1 0 ,04

5 4 5,5

4

3 6 ,4

2 1 8 ,2

1

-

-

4

8 0 ,0

2

1 2 0,0

2

4

5

0 ,1

0 ,2

0 ,1

1 0 ,1

T able 1 4. K angkara C ave: f requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies i n c lasses o f t he W aste c ategory a nd i n r aw m aterial c lasses.

C LASS

R AW M ATER IAL

C h ips

Q uartz

S GL

D GL

G BL

P BW

L PW

R BL

Y BL

f

S UR 7 2

1 2 3.

8 0

1 48

3 54

1 75

8 7

7

2 9

7 5

2 4

%

7 2,0

7 5 ,9

8 8 ,9

8 7 ,1

6 6 ,5

7 8 ,8

3 9,6

2 2,9

7 4,4

6 5,2

6 1,5

f %

1 7

1 3

7

1

8 ,9

7 ,1

7 0 3 1,8

1

8 ,0

1 7 7 ,7

1 00

1 7 ,0

5 2 9 ,8

2 ,6

6 ,1

2 ,6

f %

1 / ,0

-

_

1

1

5

9

2

-

-

0 ,2

0 ,5

2 ,3

2 ,7

5 ,1

Q uartzite H ornfels C halcedony S ilcrete

f

3

%

3 ,0

f

C hips a s %o f t otal w aste

C hunks

Q uartz

f %

Q uartz ite

f %

H ornfe h

f %

C halcedony

1 6

3 4

5

1 6,1

2 7,0

3 1,4

2 0,1

1 2,8

2 2,5

6 6

5 2

4 6

8 1

7 0

6 1

3 4

5 0

5 3

6 0 ,3

5 9,5

7 0,3

5 3,5

6 1,7

4 5,8

2 9,4

2 9,1

4 1,5

3 0,7

2 6 ,8

1 4

2 7

1 8

2 6

3 9

6 1

9 9

1 05

3 7

5 3

7 3

2 2 ,2

2 4,3

2 4 ,3

3 0 ,2

1 8,7

3 4,5

4 1,6

5 0,0

4 5,1

3 2,5

3 6 ,9

-

-

1

-

0 ,9

1 29

3

-

-

5

-

-

1 ,4

2 ,1

9

2

8

2 0

1

1 6

3 2

8 ,1

2 ,7

9 ,3

9 ,6

6 ,2

6 ,7

1 5,2

8

2

6

1 8

2 4

4 8

1 1,1

7 ,2

2 ,7

7 ,0

8 ,6

T otal

f

6 3

7 4

8 6

1 3,3

1 3,7

1 4,9

7

7 7,8

f %

-

11 1 4,7

4

1 0

8 6 ,7

7 6 ,9

5

2 0,2

2 38

2 10

1 2,3

1 6 ,0

1 3,9

1 4,0

5 8,8

'

8

-

1 6 ,7

3

4 4,4

1 7,7

-

1

-

3 9

7 ,2

1 6 ,2

5 ,2

5 ,7

1

-

1 98

2 3,0

2 6,2

-

2 2,2

2

5 0,0

5 ,3

1

1

3

1

3

5

6

3 .

1

1 6 ,7

2 3 ,1

1 4 ,3

1 7 ,7

2 7 ,8

3 5,3

5 0 ,0

2 5,0

S ilcrete

f %

1

-

1 1,1

T otal

f

9

6

1 3

2 ,1

0 ,8

2 ,3

Q uartz

f 2 % 1 05 ,0

Q uartz ite

f %

S ilcrete

f %

T ota l

f

4

3 5,3

1 8

1 7

1 ,1

1 ,0

1 ,8

2

3

8

1 00,0

6 0,0

1 00,0

-

2

1 5 ,6

3 9

f %

0 ,4

0 ,7

4

3

4

1 00,0

1 00,0

8 0,0

-

1 MA

1 MA

-

5

8

4

3

0 ,3

0 ,7

0 ,2

0 ,2

2 8

1 82

1 24

6 5

3 1

3 0

2 6 ,8

1 0,0

6 ,9

7 ,5

7 ,4

1 86

2 87

2 64

23

4 98

4 08

9 56

7 25

3 53

2 52

25

7 4 ,4

6 0,0

6 9,3

6 1,1

5 3,5

6 0,1

7 7,1

7 6,9

8 4,9

6 1,9

4 6 ,9

7

6

0 ,8

0 ,9

1 ,1

1 ,7

7 6

2 1

4

7 5

4 ,0

3 ,1

0 ,5

2 ,5

8 ,2

3 ,1

S ilcrete

f

1 5

5

2

7

7 6

6 2

-

%

6 ,0

-

1 ,1

0 ,5

1 ,9

8 ,2

4 78

3 81

3 65

9 31

6 79

5 9 ,0

6 3,1

6 8 ,3

5 7,9

5 5,0

6 1,5

f %

1 58 3 7 ,3

3 64 4 8 ,3

4 5,7

5 1,6

f

2 17

3 28

2 90

%

5 1,2

4 3 ,3

5 2,0

2 55

0 ,5

1 7

8 4

4 ,1

2 0,6

6 ,6

2 ,1

2 09 4 3,5

9 43

4 16

4 07

4 80

6 2,9

7 6 ,9

5 7,5

6 3,4

1 7,4

2 61

5 89

4 86

126

9 30

3 93

3 13

3 02

4 1,4

3 4,8

4 4,0

6 2,0

7 2,6

4 4,2

3 9,9

0 ,1

-

0 ,3

4 3

9

2 6

f

3 0

1 ,6

1 ,9

1 0

1 3,8

1

5 ,7

8 ,0

6 2

8 1 ,7

2 07

1 8 4 ,3

2 1

2

2 88

0 ,2

2 ,8

7 2,1

3 9 9 ,6

8

4 54

f

-

8 ,2

1 240

7 1 ,7

4 1,1

f %

70

3 ,6

1 02

1 6

5 ,8

4 5,5

%

7 ,1

1

3 25

1 4

9 ,1

2 50

f

2 0 ,3

2 9,4

2

T OTAL

5 0 ,7

2 74

9

W aste a s % of G rand T otal

-

1

5 0,0

1 24

0 ,6

%

-

3 4 ,0

-

S ilcrete

5 ,0

13

2

H ornfels

2 ,5

2 9,7

1 5

C halcedony

3 8

1 71

1 0

Q uartz ite

9 4,7

1 8

3 5,8

f %

Q uartz

7 2,2

-

f %

U ntrimmed f lakes a s % of t otal w aste

3 6

1 ,0

C ha lcedony

f

1 3

4

H ornfe ls

T otal

1

2 5,0

4 0,0

0 ,3

1 5 ,8

6

2

-

2

2

-

_

3 3,3

-

-

-

f %

6

2 7,8

1 7

-

0 ,5

5

2 3,5

4

2

1 1,1

1

3 2 ,3

1 5,2

f %

7

7 3 ,5 6 4

1 63

C halcedony

1 4,3

7

2 5,8

f %

5 ,9

4 ,3

4 2

8 ,5

1

-

0 ,5

8 2

1 6,7

5 ,9

1

6 ,8

4 ,9

H ornfels

-

1

-

4

1 77

2 5 ,6

15

7

1 3,6

1 0

7 1,4

9 ,6

3 9

1 2

2 09

1

1 2,8

1 0

2 1,4

4

Q uartz ite

1

1 3,4

37

7

Q uartz

1 0 ,3

1 5,5

6 ,4

f

4

9 ,6

2 20

f

%

1

5 ,1

4 5

-

-

22

3 8

7 ,2

2

1 9 ,6

5 32

2 3 ,8

6 ,8

1 06 3 1,5

f %

-m ed

T OTAL W ASTE

3 6

1 ,2

2 4 1 0,9

B BD

1 70

1 62

C RFe a s %o f t otal waste

f lakes

2

-

1 3 5 ,9

B D

9 0

1 00

C ores a s % of t otal w aste

U ntr inr

8 4 ,9

8 9 1 6,7

%

Q uartzite

p ieces

8 4 ,7

2 9,7

S ilcrete

Q uartz

C or e r educed

2 2 ,2

-

C hunks a s % of t otal waste

C ores

1 2

1 8

7 ,0

f

8

1 1,1

7

%

T otal

H BC

2

4

0 ,7

1 0 ,7

1 88

7

2 16

1 90

1 21

1 36

1 07

1 694

104

4 24

7 57

58

6 30

9 3,5

9 3 ,6

9 4,0

4 ,5 9 ,7

5 ,2

1 1,1

1 719

9 3,6

9 4,4

9 4 ,2

1 7

1 8

1 7

9 4

2 5

1 ,5

9 0

1 1,1

9 3,0

2 5

5 0

1 6

0 ,0

6 5,5

0 ,6

4 ,1 2 ,5

1 6 ,8

9

1 ,7 1 4,4

1 499 9 6,7

6 2

9

1 ,7

8 ,8

1 ,2

2 0

2 1

3 0

5 ,6

.

1 05

1 3,9

1 5

2 ,8

8 ,1

1 6 3

2 3,0

2 ,8

1 50

2 1,2

2 ,8

3 20

4 2,3

5 41

7 08

7 57

9 7 ,1

8 5,0

9 0,7

C or e s ub-classes I rr egu lar

f

B ladelet f B lad el et a s % t otal c ores

. 9

6

1 3

7

6

4

1 0

8

4 4,4

-

1 89

9 2 9 7 6,3

I

r o z w et 1,) C \ J t v D

N . e 1,

I

c ,z -e r -I

I

< / I e 8 .0 N .

C o e CM I . 8 Z

I I

N3

' , I • 8 o b al C . . C .1 I . " )

' e l o b VD ' t l, 1-4

a )

C Z e

c z

tO

0

tO

C Z , e , : : .

el ,

C 3 CI

I

1 . . 1 e

I .0 U ) U ) 2

i t z

w

a _

1 " .. C V

CO 0-

8 . r j w U) t s . • 4 I n

v ,

C o al C h CV ' C H

-J

C .3 e

oI C V . 1 C t i

C O w 01 I , CM . 1 3

8 . 4 2 o t 11 C s . ... I

I

CI) e

. -4 I o )

c o e

'e,

o t e l- . 1 D 1 ,

e

, -1

,1

17 1 e PI v 3

C o e to C o 1 4 C V

I

I

8 4 ) e . I C V

L i z e 01 C s a

C .,3

N . e 00 C s . . -4 c \ I

CM

( 4 2 e . -4 1 ,

o ) w ch h z 1 1

to

el

e - . z

1 I

I

I

c 2 , to in

0 o 8 1 -

N z

8 . 8

I

I

C o . 2- C; C V

4- b e

4- b e

4 1 4 -, N 4 -, 1 . ' 0

n t 4 -, L r 0

CY

CY

.

c z« , '

C : : . 1 . 4

0 * 8 0 0 U )

0

CO ‘ 3 e .

Ln VD

.

I

I

.. I

0•

0

I

u ,

I

. I C .,

c z ,

I

U ) el Or I ,

a ) c . . ' V >

o t 0 0 1 ,

0

c 2 , I ,

CZ )

I

c " . 3

N . e e t- t o . I 4 . 0

L i z C s .

CZ

VJ CV

C2)

Ob • Z

e e C > c > e n c \ > c m o r > p ,

T able 1 5.

,• , -J

I I

4-

t s,) e C ol ' 4 1 1 4

r . 8 e r -4 C s .

4- b e

4- 7 5 *

t i l

0 4 )

E

I

n i o b 8. N .

W 40 =

c : : ,

e c s . : c o

CV

e C >

0 1 . .

c o e t s . . N .

N . 1 -4

N3

• Z Ir 4

4-

1 4

0

1 90

t otal u tilized

4 3

T able 1 6. K angkara C ave: f requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies i n c lasses a nd s ub-classes o f t he F ormal T ools c ategory.

C LASS

R AW M ATER IAL

S craper s

Q uartz

S UR

H BC

S GL

D GL

G BL

P BW

L PW

R BL

Y BL

f

1

1 7

9

1 5

1 2

3

6

2

1

%

6 8 ,8

7 7 ,3

8 1,8

7 9,0

2 9,3

1 1,5

1 2,5

8 ,0

1

-

3

1 0

1 4

4

7 ,3

3 8 ,5

2 9,2

1 6,0

-

1

1

Q uartzite

f %

H ornfe ls

f %

4 ,6

-

-

2 ,1

C halcedony

f

3

4

1

1 6

1

5

%

1 8 ,8

1 8 ,2

5 ,3

3 9,0

3 ,9

1 0 ,4

3 6 ,0

S ilcrete T otal

-

f

2

1

3

1 0

1 2

2

%

1 2 ,5

0 ,1

1 5,8

2 4 ,4

4 6,2

4 5,8

f

S orapere a s % t otal f ormal

1 6

2 2

1

1 9

4 1

8 8 ,9

8 4,6

8 4,6

7 9,2

8 0,4

3

2

3

2

-

7 5,0

1 00,0

7 5,0

2 9 ,6

B acked m icro -

Q uartz

f %

l iths

C ha lcedony

f 2 % 1 00,0

S ilcrete

f

B acked a s % t otal f ormal

S egments

f

A s %t otal b acked

B acked f lakes/blade lets f A s %t otal b acked

B roken h » ,k ed p ieces Q uartz

C halcedony

3

2 5,0

2 5,0

4 2,9

4

2

4

7

1 5,4

1 6 ,7

1 3,7

1

f

3

7 5,0

2

1 00,0

2

5 0 ,0

3 4 2,8 1 2 5 ,0

-

2

-

3 ,9

-

-

3

1

5 0,0

1 4,3

9

2

3 6,0

3 3,3

4 8

2 5

9 0 ,6

9 6 ,2

1 1 00 ,0

3 4 2,0

6

1

7

1 00,0

343

7 0 ,0

1 1 00,0

f

T otal

1 1 00 ,0

1

1

1

4 ,2

2 ,0

1 ,9

Q uartz

2 00 ,0

1 5 0 ,0

f 4

S ilcrete

1

3

5 0,0

1 00,0

4

1

2

3

7 ,6

3 ,9

6 6 ,7

3 0 ,0

1 00,0

T ota l Wee R at. a s % t otal f ormal

Q uartz

f %

Q uartz ite

f %

H ornfels

f %

1

2 0

1

1 8

1 6

6 1,1

7 6 ,9

8 4 ,6

7 5,0

3 1,4

1

3

7 ,7

1 3 ,9

5 ,9

-

-

C halcedony

f

5

5

-

2

1 9

%

2 7 ,8

1 9,2

.

8 ,3

3 7,3

S ilcrete

f I

2

-

1 1,1

1

4

1 3

T OTAL

f

1 8

F ormal a s % G rand T otal

4 ,0

9

2 5 0,0

A dzes a s % t otal f ormal

T OTAL F ORMAL

4 2,9

4

1

1 00 ,0

Q uartz ite

3

-

-

6 7,1

6 0 ,0

5 11crete

M isc r etouch

1 6 ,7

2 8 ,6

1 5,4

5 0 ,0

2 6 1 00,0

BD

2

-

-

2

f

S eru m a s % t otal f ormal

A dzes

1

1 1,1

A s S t otal b acked

B orer s

1

f- -

T ota l

9 ,1

1

B D

4 ,0

2 6 3 ,2

7 ,7

1 3 2 ,2

3 1 1,5

1 0

3 8,5

_ 1 3, 9

1 2

6 7 ,5

1 4

2 6,4

1

1 ,0

6 7 ,6

2 6

3

1

1 1,5

1 6,7

4

1 5,4

1

3 ,9

9

3 . 5 0,0

2

2 5,6

4 8,2

4 9,1

3 4,6

5 1

2 6

5 3

2 6

2 ,8

1 91

2 ,2

2 ,7

-

9

1 6 ,7

3 ,6

3 3,3

3 4,6

2 4

1 ,7

-

1

3

3 0,0

-

.

1 1 0,0

2

3 3 ,3

6 6 ,7

6

3

1 ,4

0 ,2

6

6 0,0

1 0 1 ,2

T able 1 7.

B PA:

C LASS

R AW M ATER IAL

C hips

Q uartz

i nventory o f a rtefacts a nd r aw m aterials i n W aste c ategory.

D GL

B LD

f

5 714

8 746

%

9 5,6

8 9,3

Q uartz ite f

9

f 1

C halced S ilcrete

C halced S ilcrete

179

1 938

5 00

2 163

7 39

3 25

6 844

178

1 0307

7 606

2730

8 8,2

8 6,8

8 1,7

7 9,1

8 6,9

6 5,5

8 2,8

6 5,6

6 6,8

7 7,5

9 0,1

1 9

6 4

2 3

2 3

1 ,4

2 ,9

1 ,5

1 ,2

0 ,3

0 ,2

8 4

2 08

4 9

1 ,4

2 ,1

0 ,9

1 8

1 94

1 8

7 2

3 85

8 7

2 ,9

7 ,1

2 ,1

1 4,5

4 ,7

4 ,8

5 0

4 94

8 7

1 0,1

6 ,0

4 ,8

4 8

6 3

5 0

2 24

5 9

3 ,6

2 ,8

8 ,2

8 ,2

6 ,9

f

1 20

72

2 07

8 4

1 60

2 8

1 24

3 2

4 7

4 75

4 39

%

2 ,0

7 ,9

4 ,0

6 ,3

7 ,2

4 ,6

4 ,5

3 ,8

0 ,5

5 ,8

2 4,4

'7

8

5 174

1 337

2 233

6 12

2 735

8 50

4 96

8 263

1 796

1 5437

9 815

2 5231

1 495

1 979

5753

5 6,0

4 8 ,5

4 0,7

4 5,1

4 9,3

2 2,7

4 4,6

2 9,1

6 2,3

6 5,1

6 3,7

5 4,9

5 2,7

6 0,5

f

1 614

2 125

9 18

3 83

7 16

2 29

103

3 81

3 81

3 193

1 078

%

8 5,7

7 6,7

7 9,3

7 7,4

6 4,3

5 8,3

6 8,8

7 6,1

5 4,4

6 6,4

5 0,2

1 4

4 3

2 13

1 ,2

8 ,7

1 9,1

f

1 26

2 03

7 3

4 1

1 03

%

6 ,7

7 ,3

6 ,3

8 ,3

9 ,3

f

7 9

3 21

1 09

1 8

5 0

%

4 ,2

1 1,6

9 ,4

3 ,6

4 ,5

5 9

2 92

5 9

1 5,0

1 8 ,22

1 1,8

7

1 44

4 3

1 9,0

9 ,0

8 ,6

1 4

2 3

3 ,6

1 ,4

1 60

4 44 2 0,7

3 2 2 ,9

f

1 884

2 770

158

4 95

114

3 93

1 603

5 01

C hunks a s %w a its %

1 7,8

1 6,1

1 3,0

2 0,4

2 4,2

2 6,1

2 6,4

2 9,0

Q uartdite f %

C ha lced

4 3 0 ,8

1 9

T otal

2 1 5,4

9

F lakes

Q uartz

C halced S ilcrete T otal

7 00

4 806

2 147

3 2,0

2 5,9

3 4,7

1 2

6 3,2

1 2 0,0

5

1 0

-

3 5,7

1 1,6

2 1 0,5

9 2 8,5

6 2 8,6

2

1 2 0,0

4 2 1,1

4

6 ,9

3 5,7

1

3

1 8

1 0

2 1,4

2 0,9

5 0,0

5 ,3

1

5 2

3 4

2 1

2 5

5

1 9

2

0 ,4

0 ,9

0 ,5

0 ,3

0 ,3

0 ,1

1

2 3

2

6 2,2

2

6 6,7

5 0,0

1 5 0,0

6

5 0,0

7 ,0

1 4 0 ,6

3

8 6

2 0

0 ,5

0 ,3

1

3 3,3

-

3 3,3

7 3 8,9

1 -

2

1

2 5,0

-

1

1

2 ,7

f

2

1 3

%

1 5,4

3 5,1

5 ,6

1

1 1,1

1

1

3 3,3

5 0 ,0

f 2 5

5

f

1 3

3 7

3

-

0 ,1

0 ,2

0 ,03

-

f

1 887

3 055

1 743

2 81

5 06

%

6 9,9

6 7,2

6 8 ,5

4 8,5

4 1,1

4 4

8 5

5 5

9 8

2 70

1 ,6

1 ,9

2 ,2

1 6,9

2 1,9

f

38

3 83

2 18

9 7 -

2 49

%

1 2,5

8 ,4

8 ,6

1 6,7

2 0,2

6 6 ,7

-

4 0 ,1

2

5 5,6

, 01 0

%

5 ,6

2 0 ,1

1 36 2 7,6

1 20 2 4,4

1 74 3 5,4

9

3 77 5 90 3 4,7

4 84 2 8,5

3

1 8

6 4

0 ,1

0 ,1

1 ,0

1 53

1 527

2 69

2 8 ,5

1 2,5

19

4 95

1 692

8 21

3 1,9

5 0,7

3 1,6

3 8,2

1 21

2 13

1 338

3 54

3 2,4

2 1,8

2 5,0

1 6,5

8 21

3 14

8 1

1 43

8 ,5

1 8,1

1 2,3

1 4,0

1 1,6

4 7

1 26

4 0

9 ,6

7 ,4

1 0,7

f

2 00

2 04

2 16

2 3

6 2

1 5

1 22

%

7 ,4

4 ,6

8 ,5

4 ,0

5 ,0

3 ,1

7 ,2

4 92 3 2,7

1 699

3 73

2 8 ,0

2 1,6

1 06

5 8

4 3,0

7 4 ,1

1 5

5 43

6 56

1 0,9

1 0,2

3 0,6

1 9

1 0

2 51

4 7

5 ,1

1 ,0

4 ,7

2 ,2

9 77

5 351

2 147

4 4,6

2 8 ,9

3 4,8

0 ,6

I

1 73 0 ,7

8 35 1 7,2

1 585 3 2,7

9 39 1 9,4

1 400 2 8,9

9 1 1 ,9

8 12 3 4,2

3 79 1 6,0

4 41 1 8,6

8 7 3 ,7

f

2 698

4 548

2 546

5 80

1 230

F lake, a s % Wu st. %

2 6,5

2 6,5

5 8,e

2 3,8

2 6,7

T OTAL W ASTE

9 232 1 3974

7 532

1 858

3 175

8 69

3 658

1615

8 7,2

8 1,3

8 4,5

7 6,4

6 9,0

5 7,8

6 0,3

6 9,2

3 9,3

6 2,7

6 9

1 60

8 7

1 60

5 51

1 98

1 078

1 96

7 65

2 947

1 352

2 23

3 48

2 329

6 02

2 290

74

1 3,0

1 5,9

146

9 ,8

9 ,2

5 ,1

1 99

1 204

1 582

6 ,5

2 5,6

Q uartz

f %

Q uartz ite f %

H ornfels

C halced S ilcrete

T ota l W aste a s % G rand T otal

0 ,7

0 ,9

1 ,0

6 ,6

1 1,9

1 3,2

f

54

7 99

3 40

1 86

4 18

3 01

%

6 ,2

4 ,7

3 ,8

7 ,6

9 ,1

2 0,0

1 7,8

8 53 1 4,1

194

1 1,4

f

4 30

1 946

6 40

1 89

3 56

9 1

2 82

8 7

%

4 ,1

1 1,3

7 ,2

7 ,8

7 ,7

6 ,1

4 ,7

5 ,0

f

8 61

3 4,9

9 ,1

1 5,9

3 18

3 16

4 0

1 07

4 5

1 94

2 6

1 7

4 29

8 5

1 ,9

3 ,5

1 ,6

2 ,3

3 ,0

3 ,2

1 ,5

0 ,8

2 ,3

1 ,4

1 7197

8 915

2 433

4 606

1 8524

6 174

9 6,1

9 6 ,2

9 7,1

9 6,8

9 7,4

9 8,9

9 7,2

9 7,3

6 065 9 7,7

1 726 9 8,7

1 92

2 190 9 7,5

1 54

4 1 6,0

4

1 3

1

2 5 0 ,7

3 7 6,0

4 1 00,0

362 1 844 2 6,9

5 50 8 52 6 849

1 7

-

4 ,4

-

2 9 2 ,5

1

1 68 4 3,5

0 ,6

4 0 ,2

4 0 ,1

2 36

3 79

3 1,9

3 4,5

6

8 6

8 ,9

7 ,8

2 41 3 ,5

1 70 4 4,0

1

4 9,1

1 2,4

4 07 0 ,4

-

6 2

8 ,0

5 0 1 2,3

2 6,0

0 ,2

9 4 2 3,1

6 2,0

0 ,4

1

8 1 ,1

1 0 0 ,9

6 0

2 1

8 ,0

1 ,9

3 71

6 04

5 0,1

5 4,9

3 86

5 737 3 1,8

5 214 2 8,9

1 931 1 0,7

3 128 1 7,3

2 052 1 1,4

7 41

100

1 8062

2 9,3

1 9,6

3 1908

1 717

2 225

6 1509

8 0,6

6 3,1

5 9,2

6 6 ,8

1 46

1 78

3 218

8 ,1

4 31 1 ,1

5 ,4

4 ,7

1 2

1 3

0 ,4

0 ,4

2 284

2 443

1 20

6 3

1 5,2

6 ,2

4 ,4

1 ,7

1 0285

1 1,2

4 122 4 ,6 1 2211 1 3,3

1 40

1 595

7 26

1 278

0 ,9

4 ,0

2 6,7

3 4,0

4 ,3

2 4791 1 5068

3 9595

2 721

3 757

9 2106

9 9,3

9 9,6

9 9,6

9 9,1

9 9,4

0 ,6

9 9,5

2

0 ,4

2 7,2

6 6,2

5 719

2 ,5

1 8

3 6,4

1 7,7

9 972

2 3,1

1 0 -

2

1 3134

1 2,6

2 35

6 7,7

1

3 ,2

5 3,0

1 4,1

1 9,0

8

2

2 553

2 1,9

4 42

3 2,0

3 ,2

4 1,4

1 898

5

4 6

1 7,3

3 495

1 7498

1

7 4,2

1 5,8

3 04

1 504

2 375

6 49 1 7,3

8 ,1

0 ,4

1 9,6

2 ,9

f1 0588

4 850

6 56

4 70 1 7,3

•1 51

7 9

2 7,6

2 ,5

2 3

1 ,6

0 ,5

1 60 2 4,7

4 ,4

1 5,2

3 1 3 9,2

4 3

1 4

7 8 ,9

2 18 2 1 2,5

0 ,2

9 ,1

9 ,3

7 8 ,9

8 31 4 ,8

2

3 4

3 3,5

9 2 5 1,2

-

6 0 0 ,4

3 3 6 1,6

1 5,7

2 29

1 40 0 ,6

3 067 1 7 ,6

1 ,3

4 6 ,7

8 ,7

7 4

f

3

3 0 4 ,6

5

1 3 2 1,7

2 ,1

5

1 9,8

%

5 2 3 7,1

1 0976 6 2,7

1

2 1

4 5,5

3 ,3

1 1 ,7

7 ,8

I 5 ,6

0 ,2

2 2,2

8 4 4,4

1

1 2

1 1 ,6

1 07

7 0,9

1 ,7

8 ,6

2 5 3 9,1

4 1

6 8,3

' 2

3 1 5,0

7 302 1 8,4

1 432 2 ,6

0 ,2

4 ,5

1 56

2 739

1 ,4

2

2 ,1

1 8,2

7 1

6 9 1 0,6

48

2 0

5 0,7

5 6 1 1,9

0 ,4

6 ,1

0 ,7

4 191

3 89 5 9,9

7 3

3 54

1 6,9

3 48 7 4,0

1 ,0

1 2,9

3

3 1 5,0

5 0,0

1

1 6,0

1 61

0 ,8

5 01 2 5,3

9 62 1 3,2

5 ,9

8 85

1

8

5 69

2 1,1

3 08

5 663 7 7,6

2 0,8

41

5 ,0

9 ,3

1 635

9 69

1 5,0

2 ,2

5 9,7

2 3,1

3

5 1,2

5 -

3 1 2,0

4 4

7 ,1

0 ,3

6 9,2

1

-

1 3

Q uartzite f

H ornfels

3 0 1 ,4

3

6

T otal

1 06 2 ,2

0 ,1

1 5,4

C AP. a s % W aste

8 ,0

5 0 ,7

f

f

S ilcrete

-

4 0 ,8

1 2,0

-

C halced

2

2 6 ,5

3 5 ,8

3

6 0,0

4 1 2 ,6

%

C ore Q uartz f r educed % p ieces Q uartz ite f

H ornfels

1 3

5 2,0

4

3 6,5

f

1 5

7 1,4

7 ,7

f

%

C ores a s % W aste

1 ,9

%

S ilcrete

1 4

4 1,2

1

-

f %

2 5

4 8,1

1 863

1 0,5

3 ,3

1 0

0 ,3

4 4,5

7 ,1

4 1

2 ,0

0 ,2

1 53

1 0,2

5 ,9

4 4

7

4 88

1 1,4

1 4

3 ,8

5 3,9

4 42 2 0,6

2 ,8

7 4

3 ,6

8 59 1 7,9

8 0

2 ,7

f %

1 4

1 93 2 7,6

0 ,3

2 0,6

639 1 1,9

5 8,0

4 9

H ornfels

8 0 ,4

5 6,9

2 ,6

Q uartz

3 7 2 ,6

5 63

1 313 2 ,4

9 790

f

C ores

1 420 5 ,6

2 9

2 0 ,1

5 960

%

T otal

1 445 1 4,7

2 6

2 0 ,1

5 6,5

4 7

5

13 0 ,6

f %

1 ,7

6 5 0 ,8

2 26

1 978 3 ,6

5 4

1 6

2 0 ,4

3 290

7 9,6

1 ,6

2 ,3

2 1,8

4 4391

1 ,0

0 ,9

2 0 ,2

8 83

1 445 7 3,0

4 05

5 ,2

6 ,7

125 7 5,3

3 7

2 ,6

3 0

6 ,0

T OTAL C L

0 ,4

0 ,4

1 ,1

5 09

G WA

5 3

0 ,6

1 6

9 31

C L 4

0 ,9

Q uartzite f

H ornfels

4 855 9 3,8

9

C L 3

f

T otal

Q uartz

C L 2

%

C hips ai- r-V ista

C hunks

B RL 1 B PL 2 B RL 3 B RL 4 8 RL 5 B RL 6 T OTAL B RL 7 C L 1 B RL

2 7

0 ,2

H ornfzls

B LA

3 978

T able 1 8. c lasses

C LASS

B oomplaas C ave:

f requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies o f

i n t he U tilized c ategory a nd r aw m aterial c lasses.

R AW M ATER IAL

U t ilized f lakes Q uartz

D GL

B LD

B LA

B RL 1 B RL 2

f

1 7

6 6

5 2

1 6

4 8

1 3

%

3 4,7

4 1,5

5 7 ,1

3 9 ,0

4 2,5

5 9,1

Q uartz ite f

1

4

1

4

%

2 ,0

2 ,5

1 ,1

9 ,8

H ornfe ls

C ha lced S ilcrete T otal

f

1 2

1 7

1 3

4

1 4

2 4 ,5

1 0 ,7

1 4,3

9 ,8

1 2 ,4

f

9

%

1 8 ,4

f

1 0

%

2 0 ,4

f

4 9 7 3 ,1

R ubber s:Quartz ite f A s %T otal U tilised

A s %T otal U tilised

R ubber s/Hammer s Q uartz ite f A s %T otal U tilised

5 7

2 2

1 6

2 9

3 5,9

2 4 ,2

3 9,0

2 5,7

1 5 9 ,4

1 59 9 4,6

3

2

4 ,5

1 ,2

H ammers:Quartzite f

1

5

1 ,5

3 ,0

1 3

2

1 9,4

1 ,2

G round s ha le

A s %T otal U tilised

S ilcrete

T otal

1 8

1

3 5

1 1,4

1 9,6

4 1,7

4 9

1 2

1 2,9

1 8,5

1 7 ,0

5 0 ,9

2 2 8,6

8

G WA

1

8 0

4 2,3

2 0,2

3

9 ,5

T OFAL C L

1,5

3 9 9 ,9

1

1 7

8 5

1 3

3 3

1

1 2

6 9

3 5,4

2 2,4

2 0,0

2 0,9

1 9,6

1 1,3

1 7,4

3 7 2 7,8

1

8

1

9

7 ,1

4 ,6

6 ,8

9 1

4 1

13

9 8 ,9

9 7 ,6

9 8 ,3

1 33 9 9 ,3

8 3 4,8

2 2 4 5,8

16 3 0,5

1 9 -

2 3 1 00 ,0

-

4 8 1 00 ,0

5 ,0

3 80

3 5

9 2

2 3

1 8

5 3,9

5 8,2

4 1,1

2 1,4

2

4

6

3 ,1

2 ,5

1 0,7

1 3,1

1 58

5 6

8 4

9 8,1

8 3,6

8 9,4

6 5

9 9,0 1 00 ,0

1 0 ,6

1

1

0 ,8

0 ,3

-

1

0 ,6

1 0

1

3

2

4 2 ,9

7 ,7

2 2 8,6

7 1 00,0

1 0 3 8 ,5

3 5 8 ,8

2 6

3 96

9 6,3

9 4,1

3

I

5

3 ,2

47

1 ,2

5

1 6

1 4,9

5 ,3

3 ,8

1 ,5

2 tT

3 0 ,7

1

3

1 73 4 3,7

1

1 -

-

1 ,1

2: 4

_

1 ,7

0 .8

0 ,6

07 .2

•

1 1 ,5

1 7

6 6

5 2

1 6

4 8

1 3

2 6

3 9,3

5 6 ,5

3 8 ,1

4 1,7

5 9,1

1 9,4

1 8 2 6 ,9

4

I

4

1 4

2 ,4

1 ,1

9 ,5

1 2 ,2

f

1 3

1 7

1 4

4

1 4

%

1 9 ,4

1 0 ,1

1 5,2

9 ,5

1 2,2

f

9

5 7

2 2

1 6

2 9

%

1 3,4

3 3,9

2 3,9

3 8 ,1

2 5,2

f

1 0 1 4 ,9

2 4

3

2

1 0

1 4,3

3 ,3

4 ,8

8 ,7

9 2

4 2

1 ,1

1 ,7

f

3 4 ,6

C L 4

4 7,8

2 5 ,4

%

C L 3

3 7

2 ,4

1 00 ,0

5 1 0,4

11 2 9,2

C L 2

2 7,8

3

2 2

4 8 ,3

2 4

f

%

C ha lced

4 1 8 ,2

4 1 7,4

1 5 ,1

%

Q uartz ite f

H ornfels

2 9 ,1

2 6 1 9,6

B RL 5 B RL 6 T OTAL B RL 7 C L 1 B RL

2

f

A s %T otal U tilised

2 9 ,1

S AL 4

3 ,3

G r indstones Q uartzite f

T OTAL U T ILIZED Q uartz

1 4 1 2,4

%

A s %T otal U tilised

H ornfe ls

B DL 3

6 7

1 68

15

2 9 ,1

2 9 ,1

4 1 8 ,2

I 4 ,6

2 2

4

4

1 7,4

8 ,3

2 4 1 7,9

5 -

1 0,4

11 2 8,9

3

I R

1

3 «

4 ,6

1 1,2

1 6 ,4

3 7,2

4 9

1 2

1 2,8

1 8,5

1 6 ,8

8

3

8 ,5

1 1,1

1

1 7

8 5

1 3

3 3

1 2

1 2

4 7 ,8

3 5,4

2 2,1

2 0,0

2 0,5

1 7,9

1 2,8

8 3 4,8

2 2

16

3 5

9 2

2 3

1 8

4 5,8

3 0,2

5 3,9

5 7,1

3 4,3

1 9,2

1 0 7 ,5

1 34

2 3 -

-

2 3

4 8

1 ,3

2 ,1

6 ,0

3 84

2

7

3 ,1

4 ,4

6 5

1 61

8 0 1 9,0

5

3 7 3 7

1 4 0,7

7 ,5

2 7,6

2 7 ,6

2 2 8,6

1 6

2 1

2 3,9

2 2,3

6 7

9 4

0 ,4

0 ,2

-

3 9 9 ,3

-

7 0

-

1 6,6

3

2

1 73

4 2,9

7 ,4

4 1,1

2 2 8 ,6

7

1

5 9

4 0,7

1 4,0

2 7

4 21

U tilis.d a s %o f G ra nd T otal

0 ,6

0 ,9

2 ,4

1 ,4

2 ,2

1 93

2 ,0

1 ,0

o ,7

0 ,3

0 ,7

0 ,5

T able 1 9. B oomplaas C ave: f requencies a nd p ercentage f requencies i n c lasses a nd s ub-classes o f t he F ormal T ools c ategory a nd r aw m aterial c lasses. C LA SS

R AW M ATERIAL

S czepers q uirts

f %

D GL

B ID

B LA

S RI 1 S RI 2

S RI 3 S RI 4

1 50 7 9 ,1

2 69 1 4,5

1 49 7 7 ,2

1 7 9 3,0

1 2 0 3,3

1 9 5 1,1

S RI 5 S RI 6

T OTAL S RI 7 C L 1 B IM

5 2 5 5,3

4 0 ,40

1 1 00 ,0

3 3 7,3

:

8 , 1

O ul i rtt 1te f g H ornfels

I 9

7 3 ,7

1 4 3 ,9

3 14

4 1 0,5

0 2. 4 . 1 . 4 . 44

I 1

2 7 1 4,3

7 3 0 0 ,3

4 1 1 1,8

6 3 2 ,9

$ 11crete

I 8

5 4 ,7

5 1 ,4

. .

. .

T otal

I

Sampan . e m% F o rma A dzes

Q uartz

97

9 4 9 7 ,0

0, 1

1, 1

-

:

:

1. 1.

:

:

: _

S I Un ite

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-

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.

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.

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.

-

1

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11. 6

2 1 9 3 3 ,33 4 0,3

I f 1 1 3 ,3 1 00 ,0

S ocked b ledelets I &f lakes 9 t otal 8 b ookad B roken W icked f A . 8t otal b eaked

3 9 0 .0

1 3 3 8 ,9

6 0 0 ,0

. -

1 1 0 ,7

1 3 8 4 ,9

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ut s

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30

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.

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IA

2 4 ,7

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.

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f g

1 1 3 ,4

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:

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0 340

5 5 1,3

1 3 5,0

1 1 5 ,4

P 1 3 ,9

1 8 6,0

•

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4 49

:

4 5

3 .6

I

•

S egments A d 1 etot b aoked

f

-

3 7 3,0

2!2 4

I 4 3,0

•

1 2 9 4 ,7

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6 0

•

1 / I 9 4 ,7 1 00 ,0

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f

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5 .1

M Iat Q uartz g et c ruck

3 0 10

.

-

T otal I l i aok t edr e e tr v I itha m e 2 Ar am: %

:

1 8 1,1

T OTAL C L

•

7 5 0,0

50 91 97 .14

:

1 1 4 ,7

:

5 7 3 4 ,4

O iertzIte I

:

:

3 4 .

1 38

1 4 341

f •

8 2,3

1 0 9 3 .3

I 1

1 51. 7 .0.

2 0

I t 9 6 ,0

0 2.1.04

I

' S 1 9 ,7

3 7

:

C hilced

3 3' 3

1 00 ,0

:

Q uartz

/ 43 1

9 0 ,0

:

S ile nts

:

9 0 ,1

7 5 0 ,0

I

3 ,9

5 80 , 0

4 7 ,4

3 3 3 3 ,7

I ▪

3 2' 3

7 8 ,1

1 4 3 0 ,1

C holcad

-

4 5%

2 7

I %

M ernfe18

: :

1 03

l erefels

S icked Q uart. m Icre llths

l eror a 5 4

:

1

G WA

• -

2 33

"8 1 2,

5'3

C L 4

4 4 7 3,3

1 3 3,3

4 0,0

2 0 s C 0 1 : 1 0 ) U I —

a s t o S - n : s 4 -, = m o m ° CY C r.= ( . . ) 1 -

C N 1

2 06

I. 4I

It

C D ( N i l e -

I D

:

r I

I

llll 11 1 1 1

it

1 4

C V C V C ,)C . ) e -

I

IC V ( DI

c m l I

I I 1 1 I

I II

c ‘ . 1

1

1 . 1 2

r -I

C r e

> s 0 . , C 4 -, e l 0 C D . - r - " C / . 1 . ) 4 -, 4 -, 4 - U S . r • • s ( C S e t , S - ( 2 . - 1 -, D 7 0 0 cr Cr x c . ) v > i —

T OTAL B LAD E

1 I I .11

Ir " ) C ' " )

cr

C + 3 * 1

I II I

% / I l e)

c r, C ) c > • 4 e j

I e

C V

c mI

I

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11 1 1 1

I I

I

e l 6 ,1

I 1 I 1 I

IV D!

c s i

‚ C r

1 Ie r 1t j D r . "I

1 IC I C ' )I ( VI

C O

R AW M ATER IAL D GL

L t 1 ( . 0

C V

IC V

C I ) N N 4 -) 4 -, r t . L . ( 0 ( 0 D 7 0 CY CY I t r t , Q J C F I C e t

C T , a ) S 4 • r -

e let c or es

F requencies o f c ores i n s ub-classes a nd r aw m aterial c lasses.

C M

r aw m aterial

10 CV VD in 0 I VD er el et

el

C ".1 UD CO UD Ul OD r, cu cv cD 00 eVJ P1 et in •••• •

in

I

a

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et CV ra

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et 01 e- in eun el

al

L E D

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cv CO in in I . r " . e t " to

01

cu el Cu cm OD es1 ce e- e- et to e-

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in

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VD

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( N J

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er

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to r-

I

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CO

2

1-

R AW M ATER IAL D GL

C s . . 1

1

2 07

i n

T otal b lade lets

-J CO

T able 2 8.

U NIT

f

B oomplaas C ave:

M EAN

V ARIANCE

L ength o f u ntrimmed f lakes.

S TANDARD E RROR

S TANDARD D EV IAT ION

R ANGE

D GL ( 1)

1 48

1 7,28

3 7,02

0 ,50

6 ,08

8 -5 2

( 2 )

5 4

1 7,02

3 1,53

0 ,76

5 ,62

6 -3 9

( 3 )

7 8

2 1,33

1 4 1,73

1 ,35

1,9 1

8 -8 0

( 4)

3 0

2 1,60

9 9,0 1

1 ,82

9 ,95

1 0 -4 7

2 6,00

2 18,80

6 ,04

1 4,79

1 0 -5 0

1 8,8 1

7 4,77

0 ,49

8 ,65

6 -8 0

1 0 -5 2

( 5 ) ( T )

6 3 16

B LD ( 1 )

7

1 7,57

3 3,0 1

0 ,66

5 ,75

( 2 )

4 2

1 8,2 1

2,5 1

0 ,73

4 ,75

1 -3 0

( 3 )

4 9

2 3,02

9 5,94

1 ,40

9 ,80

1 2 -5 4

( 4 )

3 2

2 3,22

8 7,2 1

1 ,65

9 ,34

1 2 -5 7

( 5 )

1 0

3 0,60

1 45,60

3 ,82

1 2 ,07

1 6 -5 0

( T)

2 10

2 0,45

6 9,37

0 ,58

8 ,33

1 0 -5 7

B LA ( 1 )

5 9

1 7,75

5 0,33

0 ,92

7 ,09

8-5

( 2 )

1 8

1 7,39

5 6,72

1 ,78

7 ,53

8-3 6

( 3 )

3 1

2 0,07

3 8,73

1 , 12

6 ,22

1 0 -3 7

( 4)

2 3

2 2,00

7 9,82

1 ,86

8 ,93

1 -5 4

( 5 )

-

-

( T )

1 3 1

1 8,99

5 5,25

0 ,65

7 ,43

8-5

B RL ( 1 )

1 9

1 8,95

2 8,83

1 ,23

5 ,37

1 3 -3 2

( 2 )

2

2 1,50

5 9,02

1 ,64

7 ,68

1 -3 7 1 0 -6 2

( 3)

5 4

2 7,26

1 33,37

1 ,57

1,55

( 4 )

4 1

2 6,22

10,23

1 ,64

1 0,50

9-6 0

( 5)

1 3

3 8,77

1 46,36

3 ,36

1 2, 10

1 2 -6 4

( T) 1 49

2 6,07

1 25,60

0 ,92

1,2 1

9-6 4

B RL 7 ( 1 )

-

( 2 )

2 8

2 3,32

7 6,52

1 ,65

8 ,75

9-4 5

( 3 )

1 9

2 7,63

1 48,25

2 ,79

1 2,18

1 -6 4

( 4 )

1

2 2,18

1 05,16

3 ,09

1 0,26

1 2 -4 5

2 8,00

1 7 1,33

6 ,55

1 3,09

1 2 -4 1

2 4,74

1 08 ,69

1 ,32

1 0,43

9-6 4

( 5) ( T )

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

4 6 2

Q uartz o n ly C ha lcedony o n ly H ornfe ls o nly S ilcrete o n ly Q uartz ite o n ly T OTAL S AMPLE

2 08

T able 2 8 c ontd.

U NIT

f

M EAN

V AR IANCE

S TANDARD E RROR

1 5

4,27

( 2)

6 8

2,29

9 6,06

1 , 19

9 ,80

9 -5 3

( 3)

1 8

2 8,72

12,2 1

2 ,50

1 0,59

1 2 -5 0

( 4)

2 5

2 6,04

17,29

2 , 17

1 0,83

9-5 3

1,25

2 7,36

1 ,85

5 ,23

1 -1 9

2 5,55

1 74,15

1 , 14

1 3,20

9-7 8

8

( T) 1 34

C L 3 -4 ( 1 )

1 6 ,20

1 3,70

1 ,66

3 ,70

1 2 -2 1

2 0,10

4 8,65

1 ,27

6 ,98

1 0 -3 5

( 3 )

1 0

3,70

8 7,57

2 ,96

9 ,36

1 9 -5 1

( 4 )

8 4

1 9 ,96

6 3,34

0 ,87

7 ,96

1 -6 2

1 5 ,75

2 1,58

2 ,32

4 ,65

1 0 -2 0

2 0,76

7 2,12

0 ,74

8 ,49

1 0 -6 2

4

( 1 )

3

1 9,33

8 9,33

5 ,46

9 ,45

1 2 -3 0

( 2 )

9

2 0,89

6 1,36

2 ,61

7 ,83

1 2 -3 6

( 3)

2 0,55

4 5,38

1 ,07

6 ,74

1 -3 8

( 4) ( 5 )

L P

4 0 -

-

( 1)

5 2

2 0,54

4 7,94

0 ,96

6 ,92

1 -3 8

( 1 )

1 0

1 9,80

2 1,07

1 ,45

4 ,59

1 3 -2 7

( 2)

4

1 7,00

4 0,67

3 , 19

6 ,38

1 -2 3

( 3)

2

2 1,50

2 4,50

3 ,50

4 ,95

1 8 -2 5

( 4 )

1

2 0,00

2 0,00

( 5)

L PC

1 2 -7 8

3 0

( T) 1 33

G WA

1 5,75

( 2)

( 5 )

5

4 ,07

R ANGE

C L 1 -2 ( 1 )

( 5)

2 47,92

S TANDARD D EVIAT ION

-

( T)

1 7

2 0,68

4 2,67

1 ,50

6 ,53

1 3 -3 7

( 1)

3 4

2 6,62

1 43,46

2 ,05

1,98

1 2 -6 5

1 8,00

3 1,00

3 ,22

5 ,57

1 3 -2 4

( 2) ( 3) ( 4) ( 5) ( T)

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4) ( 5 ) ( 1 )

3 6 1 0 7 6 0

2,00

1 05,60

4 ,20

1 0,28

1 4 -4 0

4 3,60

53,38

7 ,44

2 3,52

1 4 -8 0

3 2,7 1

1 03,57

3 ,85

1 0,18

1 5 -4 8

2 9,17

2 43,37

2 ,05

1 5,60

1 -8 0

Q uartz o n ly C ha lcedony o n ly H ornfels o n ly S ilcrete o n ly Q uartz ite o n ly T OTAL S AMPLE

2 09

T able 2 9.

U NIT D GL

f

B LA

V AR IANCE

S TANDARD E RROR

S TANDARD D EVIATION

R ANGE

1 48

1 5,6 1

4 5,10

0 ,55

6 ,72

5 -4 8

( 2)

5 4

1 5,72

4 7,87

0 ,94

6 ,92

6-5 3

( 3 )

7 8

2 1,0 1

1 46,92

1 ,37

1 2,12

8 -9 8

( 4 )

3 0

1 6,50

4 1,29

1 , 17

6 ,43

8-3 2

1 9,83

7 8,97

3 ,63

8 ,89

1 0 -3 1

( T)

3 16

1 7,13

7 5,4 1

0 ,49

8 ,68

5-9 8

( 1 )

7

1 3,66

3 1,83

0 ,64

5 ,64

5-3 0

( 2 )

4 2

1 4,29

3 1,14

0 ,86

5 ,58

6 -3 2

( 3 )

4 9

2 0,88

8 8,40

1 ,34

9 ,40

9-5 2

( 4 )

3 2

2 0,34

5,0 1

1 ,3 1

7 ,42

1 0 -3 6

( 5 )

1 0

2 5,80

1 5 1,5 1

3 ,89

1 2,3 1

1 0 -4 8

( T )

2 10

1 7,07

6 7,19

0 ,57

8 ,20

5-5 2

6

4 -4 3

( 1 )

5 9

1 3,36

3 4,34

0 ,76

5 ,86

( 2 )

1 8

1 3,28

2 4,92

1 , 18

4 ,99

5 -2 4

( 3 )

3 1

1 9,48

8 0,79

1 ,6 1

8 ,99

8-5 0

( 4 )

2 3

1 8,78

7 5,00

1 ,8 1

8 ,66

8 -4 6

0 ,67

7 ,64

4-5 0

( 5 ) ( T )

B RL

M EAN

W idth o f u ntrimmed f lakes

( 1)

( 5)

B LD

B oomplaas C ave:

-

-

1 3 1

1 5,75

5 8,3 1

( 1 )

1 9

1 5,79

3 3,95

1 ,34

5 ,83

5-3 0

( 2)

2 2

1 8,9 1

9 5,52

2 ,08

9 ,77

7-4 3

( 3 )

5 4

2 6,67

1 24,72

1 ,52

1,17

1 0 -5 8

( 4)

4 1

2 5,34

7 9,63

1 ,39

8 ,92

1 3 -5 1

( 5)

1 3

3 7,39

1 28,09

3 ,14

1,32

1 3 -5

( T )

1 49

2 4,7 1

1 25,09

0 ,92

1,18

5-5 8

B RL 7 ( 1 )

-

-

-

( 2 )

2 8

1 8,18

7 8,00

1 ,67

8 ,83

4 -3 5

( 3 )

1 9

2 6,79

1 22,29

2 ,54

1,06

1 3 -5 4

( 4 )

1

2 0,09

1 02,69

3 ,06

1 0,13

5-3 4

3 9,25

8 15,58

1 4,28

2 8,56

6 -6 9

2,52

1 6 1,30

1 ,6 1

1 2,70

4 -6 9

( 5 ) CO

4 6 2

( 1 ) Q u artz o n ly ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

C ha lcedony o n ly H ornfels o nly S ilcrete o n ly Q uartz ite o n ly T OTAL S AMPLE

2 10

T able 2 9 c ontd.

U NIT

f

C L 1-2 ( 1 )

5 ,07

0 ,80

2 ,25

5-1 2

1 ,24

1 0,18

4 -4

( 3 )

1 8

2 5,89

10,69

2 ,48

1 0,52

7 -4 1

( 4 )

2 5

2 3,64

1 56,99

2 ,5 1

1 2,53

5-5 0

( 5 )

1 5

5 0,93

4 44,78

5 ,45

2 1,09

1 4 -8 9

( 1 ) 1 34

2,20

2 70,06

1 ,42

1 6,43

4 -8 9

1,80

5 7,20

3 ,38

7 ,56

6 -2 4

3 0

1 2,10

6 4,02

1 ,46

8 ,00

5-3 6

( 3 )

1 0

3 5,20

3 59,96

6 ,00

1 8,97

6 -8 0

( 4 )

8 4

1 3,96

9 9,72

1 ,09

9 ,99

4 -4 5

1,25

12,25

5 ,30

1 0,60

5 -2 7

( 1 ) 1 33

1 4,98

1 39,92

1 ,03

1,83

4 -8 0

5

4

( 1 )

3

1 3,00

3 9,00

3 ,6 1

6 ,25

6-1 8

( 2)

9

1 0,67

2 8,50

1 ,78

5 ,34

5-2 0

( 3 )

-

( 4 ) ( 5 )

4 0

-

-

1 4,40

7 5,58

1 ,38

8 ,69

5-3 6

1 , 13

8 ,11

5-3 6

-

( T )

5 2 _

1 3,67

6 5,83

( 1 )

1 0

1 6,10

2 6.54

1 ,63

5 ,15

7-2 6

1 6 ,50

2 3,00

2 ,40

4 ,80

1 0 -2 1

1 8,00

3 ,00

4 ,24

2 1 -2 7

1 ,67

7 ,29

( 2 )

4

( 3)

2

2 4,00

( 4 )

1

2 1,00

( 5)

L PC

R ANGE

1 03,70

( 5)

L P

S TANDARD D EVIAT ION

6 ,75

( 2)

G WA

S TANDARD E RROR

1 6 ,18

( 1)

8

V AR IANCE

6 8

( 2 )

C L3

M EAN

-

-

( T )

1 7

1 7,16

5 3,14

( 1 )

3 4

2 0,79

1 29,99

1 ,96

1,40

5 -6 2

1 5,67

2 4,33

2 ,85

4 ,93

1 0 -1 9 1 2 -6 5

( 2 ) ( 3 )

-

3

3 4,70

2 96,68

5 ,45

1 7,22

( 4 )

1 0 6

1 5,33

6 8,67

3 ,38

8 ,29

8-3 0

( 5)

7

2 9,00

1 57,00

4 ,74

1 2,53

1 0 -5 0

2 3,55

1 74,53

1 ,74

1 3,21

5-6 5

( 1 )

6 0 _

( 1 ) ( 2) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

Q uartz o n ly C ha lcedony o n ly H ornfe ls o n ly S ilcrete o n ly Q uartz ite o n ly T OTAL S AMPLE

2 11

T able 3 0.

U NIT D GL

f

B LA

V AR IANCE

S TANDARD E RROR

S TANDARD D EV IAT ION

R ANGE

1 48

4 ,45

5 ,9 1

0 ,20

2 ,43

1- 1 5

( 2 )

5 4

3 ,94

3 ,04

0 ,24

1 ,74

1- 1 0

( 3 )

7 8

5 ,23

1 7,35

0 ,47

4 ,17

1-3 0

( 4 )

3 0

4 ,27

5 ,38

0 ,42

2 ,32

1- 1 0

4 ,67

6 ,67

1 ,05

2 ,58

2-9

( T )

3 16

4 ,54

8 ,30

0 ,16

2 ,88

1- 3 0

( 1 )

7

3 ,83

3 ,5 1

0 ,2 1

1 ,87

1- 1

( 2 )

4 2

3 ,29

1 ,62

0 ,20

1 ,27

1-6

( 3 )

4 9

5 ,16

7 ,8 1

0 ,40

2 ,79

1- 1 4

( 4 )

3 2

4 ,88

4 ,05

0 ,36

2 ,0 1

2-9

( 5 )

1 0

8 ,10

1 8,32

1 ,35

4 ,28

3-1 8

( T )

2 10 _

4 ,40

5 ,97

0 ,17

2 ,44

1- 1 8

6

( 1 )

5 9

3 ,80

3 ,75

0 ,25

1 ,94

1- 1 0

( 2)

1 8

2 ,67

1 ,53

0 ,29

1 ,24

1-6

( 3 )

3 1

4 ,65

2 ,70

0 ,30

1 ,64

1- 9

( 4 )

2 3

4 ,70

4 ,40

0 ,44

2 , 10

2-1 2

( 5 )

B RL

M EAN

( 1 )

( 5 )

B LD

B oomplaas C ave: H eight o f p iece o f u ntrimmed f lakes.

-

-

( T)

1 3 1

4 ,00

3 ,69

0 ,17

1 ,92

1- 1 2

( 1)

1 9

4 ,2 1

4 ,06

0 ,46

2 ,02

1- 9

( 2 )

2 2

3 ,82

3 ,0 1

0 ,37

1 ,74

1- 7

( 3 )

5 4

5 ,83

8 ,78

0 ,40

2 ,96

2- 1 8

( 4)

4 1

6 ,29

7 ,16

0 ,42

2 ,68

2-1 3

( 5 )

1 3

9 ,39

1 8,59

1 ,20

4 ,3 1

3- 1 9

( T )

1 49

5 ,77

9 ,61

0 ,25

3 , 10

1- 1 9

3 ,55

0 ,36

1 ,88

1-8 3-1 4

B RL 7 C l )

-

( 2)

2 8

4 ,29

( 3 )

1 9

5 ,90

7 ,88

0 ,64

2 ,8 1

( 4 )

1

5 ,18

1,16

1 ,0 1

3 ,34

1-1

6 ,50

1 7,67

2 ,10

4 ,20

2-1

5 ,08

7 ,22

0 ,34

2 ,69

1-1 4

( 5 ) ( T )

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

4 6 2 _

Q uartz o n ly C halcedony o n ly H or nfe ls o n ly S i lcrete o n ly Q uartz ite o n ly T OTAL S AMPLE

2 12

T able 3 0 c ontd.

U NIT

f

C L 1 -2 ( 1 )

C L 3

V AR IANCE

S TANDARD E RROR

S TANDARD D EVIAT ION

R ANGE

2 ,38

0 ,27

0 , 18

0 ,52

( 2 )

6 8

3 ,99

5 ,93

0 ,30

2 ,43

1- 1 4

( 3 )

1 8

5 ,94

7 ,70

0 ,65

2 ,78

2-1 3

( 4 )

2 5

5 , 16

7 ,39

0 ,54

2 ,72

1- 1 3

( 5 )

2 -3

1 5

1 2 ,20

3 0,3 1

1 ,42

5 ,5 1

4 -2 6

( T ) 1 34

5 ,29

1 5 ,34

0 ,34

3 ,92

1-2 6

( 1 )

3 ,40

3 ,80

0 ,87

1 ,95

2 -6

3 0

2 ,77

2 ,67

0 ,30

1 ,63

1-7

( 3 )

1 0

7 ,70

1 2,23

1 , 11

3 ,50

2-1 5

( 4 )

8 4

3 ,27

5 ,58

0 ,26

2 ,36

1- 1

2 ,50

1 ,67

0 ,65

1 ,29

1-4

( T ) 1 33

3 ,47

6 ,60

0 ,22

2 ,57

1- 1 5

( 1 )

3

4 ,67

1 4,33

2 ,19

3 ,79

2-9

( 2 )

9

3 ,33

4 ,00

0 ,67

2 ,00

2 -8

( 2 )

( 5)

G WA

8

M EAN

5

4

( 3 ) ( 4 )

4 0

3 ,68

3 ,76

0 ,3 1

1 ,94

1-9

( T )

5 2

3 ,67

4 ,15

0 ,28

2 ,04

1-9

( 1 )

1 0

2-7

( 5 )

L P

4 ,80

1 ,73

0 ,42

1 ,32

( 2 )

4

4 ,00

2 ,67

0 ,82

1 ,63

2-6

( 3 )

2

4 ,50

0 ,50

0 ,50

0 ,7 1

4 -5

( 4 )

1

3 ,00

( 5 )

L PC

-

-

( T )

1 7

4 ,79

4 ,62

0 ,49

2 , 15

( 1 )

3 4

6 ,35

1 2,42

0 ,60

3 ,52

22 1

4 ,33

1 ,33

0 ,67

1 , 16

3-5

( 2 ) ( 3 )

3

9 ,60

4 5,16

2 ,13

6 ,72

2 -2 5

( 4 )

6

4 ,33

1 4,67

1 ,56

3 ,83

2-1 2

( 5 )

7

8 ,00

1,67

1 ,29

3 ,42

2-1 3

6 ,76

1 8,82

0 ,57

4 ,34

2 -2 5

( T )

( 1 ) ( 2) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T)

1 0

2-1 0

6 0

Q uartz o n ly C ha lcedony o n ly H ornfels o n ly S ilcrete o n ly Q uartzite o n ly T OTAL S AMPLE

2 13

T able 3 1. B oomplaas C ave: f lakes W 1 00 E x L 1

U NIT D GL

f

B RL

S TANDARD E RROR

S TANDARD D EVIATION

R ANGE

( 1)

1 48

9 1,84

1 009,61

2 ,61

3 1,77

3 7 -2 19

5 4

9 5,94

1 515,00

5 ,30

3 8,92

5 0 -2 83

( 3 )

7 8

1 03,22

9 66,46

3 ,52

3 1,09

3 3 -1 75

( 4)

3 0

8 3,07

1 235,17

6 ,42

3 5,15

4 4 -2 19

8 8,00

1 585,20

1 6,25

3 9,82

4 8 -1 50

9 4,44

136,93

1 ,90

3 3,72

3 3 -2 83

( T )

B LA

V ARIANCE

( 2)

( 5)

B LD

M EAN

W idth/Length r atio o f u ntrimmed

6 3 16

( 1)

7 7

7 7,35

5 94,94

2 ,78

2 4,39

3 1 -1 3 1

( 2)

4 2

8 0,05

8 70,49

4 ,55

2 9,50

3 9 -1 54

( 3 )

4 9

9 4,04

7 54,79

3 ,93

2 7,47

2 9 -1 57

( 4)

3 2

9 1,75

8 98,90

5 ,30

2 9,98

4 4 -1 88

( 5)

1 0

8 5,40

8 57,16

9 ,26

2 9,28

5 2 -1 43

( T)

2 10

8 4,36

7 82,92

1 ,93

2 7,98

2 9 -1 88

( 1)

5 9

7 8,00

8 98,10

3 ,90

2 9,97

3 3 -2 00

( 2)

1 8

8 3,67

1 539,77

9 ,25

3 9,24

4 1 -1 87

( 3)

3 1

1 00,10

1 970,09

7 ,97

4 4,39

5 0 -2 38

( 4)

2 3

8 8,00

9 55,73

6 ,45

3 0,92

3 6 -1 50

( 5)

_

( 1)

1 3 1

8 5,76

1 296,26

3 ,15

3 6,00

3 3 -2 38

-

( 1)

1 9

8 3,90

7 50,54

6 ,29

2 7,40

3 8 -1 50

( 2)

2 2

8 9,77

1 505;42

8 ,27

3 8,80

4 0 -1 7 1

( 3)

5 4

1 02,46

102,25

4 ,52

3 3,20

4 3 -2 00

( 4)

4 1

1 02,90

174,49

5 ,35

3 4,27

5 0 -1 88

( 5)

1 3

9 7,92

3 98,41

5 ,54

1 9,96

7 9 -1 40

( T)

1 49

9 7,95

1 098,88

2 ,72

3,15

3 3 -2 00

B RL 7 ( 1)

-

-

( 2)

2 8

8 0,21

1 778,25

7 ,97

4 2,17

( 3)

1 9

1 02,63

1 231,36

8 ,05

3 5,09

5 -1 74

( 4 )

1

9 0,73

168,22

1 0,3 1

3 4,18

3 8 -1 4 1

1 2 1,50

2 823,00

2 6,57

5 3,13

5 0 -1 68

9 1,61

1 636,96

5 ,14

4 0,46

3 2 -2 06

( 5) ( T)

( 1) ( 2) ( 3) ( 4) ( 5) ( T)

4 6 2

-

Q uartz o nly C halcedony o nly H ornfels o nly S ilcrete o nly Q uartzite o nly T OTAL S AMPLE

2 14

3 2 -2 06

T able 3 1 c ontd.

U NIT

f

C L 1 -2(1)

S TANDARD D EVIATION

R ANGE 3 6 -1 00

4 7,50

7 64,00

9 ,77

2 7,64

7 1,63

104,45

4 ,03

3,23

2 -1 68

( 3 )

1 8

9 2,33

1 29 1,4 1

8 ,47

3 5,94

4 6 -1 59

( 4 )

2 5

9 2,04

1 500,79

7 ,75

3 8,74

2 6 -1 79

( 5 )

1 5

17,20

1 455,89

9 ,85

3 8,16

6 3 -1 93

( T )

1 34

8 1,59

1 52 1,90

3 ,37

3 9,0 1

2 -1 93

6 9,40

1 320,80

1 6,25

3 6,34

4 6 -1 33

( 2 )

3 0

5 8,93

1 086,27

6 ,02

3 2,96

2 5 -1 56

( 3)

1 0

9 9,90

1 4 13,43

1,89

3 7,60

3 1 -1 56

( 4 )

8 4

6 6,46

166,88

3 ,73

3 4,16

2 6 -1 47

6 5,25

2 138,25

2 3,12

4 6,24

3 5 -1 34

6 7,35

1 254,52

3 ,07

3 5,42

2 5 -1 56

( T )

5

4 1 33

( 1 )

3

6 7,33

5 14,33

1 3,09

2,68

5 0 -9 3

( 2 )

9

4 9,00

7,50

2 ,93

8 ,80

4 1 -6 8

7 1,90

1 53 1,63

6 ,19

3 9,14

1 8 -1 56

4 ,96

3 5,77

1 8 -1 56

4 6 -1 00

( 3) ( 4 ) ( 5 )

4 0 -

-

( T )

5 2

6 7,67

( 1 )

1 0

1 279,13

8 0,50

3 04,94

5 ,52

1 7,46

( 2 )

4 1 00,00

5 12,67

1,32

2,64

8 2 -1 33

( 3 )

2 11,50

4 0,50

4 ,50

6 ,36

1 0 7 - 16

( 4)

1 1 04,00

( 5 ) ( T )

L PC

S TANDARD E RROR

6 8

( 5 )

L P

8

V AR IANCE

( 2 )

C L 3 ( 1 )

G WA

M EAN

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 )

-

1 7

3 4 3 1 0

8 2,74

5 85,98

5 ,55

2 4,7 1

4 6 -1 46

7 8,53

5 89,05

4 ,16

2 4,27

3 8 -1 25

9 3,00

2 179,00

2 6,95

4 6,68

5 8 -1 46

8 4,40

3 69,60

6 ,08

1 9 ,23

5 2 -1 12

( 4 )

6

7 0,00

3 93,20

8 ,10

1 9 ,83

4 6 -1 00

( 5 )

7

8 6,43

4 29,95

7 ,84

2 0,74

5 2 - 10

8 2,38

5 40,35

3 ,05

2 3,25

3 8 -1 33

( T )

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

6 0

Q uartz o n ly C ha lcedony o n ly H ornfe ls o nly S i lcrete o n ly Q uartz ite o n ly T OTAL S AMPLE

2 15

F ig.

3 2.

U NIT

B oomplaas C ave: f

M EAN

R elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed f lakes.

S TD E RROR

S TD D EV IATION

R ANGE

D GL

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

1 48 5 4 7 8 3 0 6 3 16

2 6,45 2 4,37 2 3,44 2,67 2 0,83 2 4,89

0 ,73 1 ,18 0 ,80 1 ,75 2 ,39 0 ,48

8 ,90 8 ,66 7 ,03 9 ,58 5 ,85 8 ,55

8-5 8 6-4 8-3 8 1 -3 9 1 5 -3 1 6 -5 8

B LD

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

7 4 2 4 9 3 2 1 0 2 10

2 4,36 2 0,31 2 3,44 2 2,34 2 8,30 2 3,15

0 ,86 0 ,84 0 ,80 1 ,51 2 ,39 0 ,50

7 ,55 5 ,70 7 ,03 6 ,51 5 ,85 7 ,18

9 -4 4 1 -3 5 8-3 8 1 -3 9 1 5 -3 1 7-4

B LA

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

5 9 1 8 3 1 2 3 Q uartz ite 1 31

2 4,56 0 ,96 1 7,39 0 ,85 2 4,33 1 ,14 2 3,91 1 ,74 a bsent f rom s amp le 2 3,34 0 ,64

7 ,39 3 ,62 6 ,34 8 ,34

1 3 -4 0 9-2 3 9-3 6 1 4 -5 0

7 ,27

9-5 0

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

1 9 2 5 4 4 1 1 3 1 49

2 3,53 1 9,27 2 1,54 2 4,27 2 3,62 2,39

7 ,82 6 ,25 6 ,57 7 ,02 5 ,52 6 ,87

1 3 1 0 1 2 1 1 4 1 0

-3 6 -3 6 -4 6 -4 5 -3 2 -4 6

Q uartz a bsent f rom s amp le 2 8 2 1,11 0 ,91 1 9 2 1,68 1 ,49 1 2 2,82 2 ,66 4 2 0,25 2 ,18 6 2 2 1,53 0 ,77

4 ,81 6 ,50 8 ,83 4 ,35 6 ,08

1 3 1 4 1 1 6 1

-3 2 -3 5 -3 6 -2 4 -3 6

C L 1 -2(1) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

8 6 8 1 8 2 5 1 5 1 34

2 7,75 2 1,52 2 1,67 2 0,76 2 5,47 2,21

2 ,76 0 ,91 1 ,35 1 ,19 1 ,35 0 ,60

7 ,82 7 ,49 5 ,73 5 ,96 5 ,22 6 ,98

1 9 1 1 3 1 1 8 1

-4 2 -5 1 -3 1 -3 1 -3 5 -5 1

C L 3 ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

5 3 0 1 0 8 4 4 1 33

2 4,40 1 8,53 2,00 1 9,42 2 1,75 1 9,67

3 ,04 1 ,16 1 ,10 0 ,66 6 ,12 0 ,55

6 ,8 0 6 ,38 3 ,46 6 ,09 1 2,23 6 ,29

1 6 -3 5 9-3 4 1 6 -2 6 8-3 2 1 4 -4 0 8-4 0

G WA

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

3 2 7,00 6 ,25 9 2,89 2 ,07 H ornfels a bsent f rom s ample 4 0 2 2,85 1 ,23 Q uartz ite a bsent f rom s amp le 5 2 2 3,10 1 ,06 _

1 0,82 6 ,19

1 8 -3 9 1 2 -3

7 ,80

1 0 -5 1

7 ,62

1 0 -5 1

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

1 0 2 7,20 2 ,29 2 2 7,50 4 ,50 H ornfe ls a bsent f rom s amp le 5 1 9,00 2 ,00 2 2 8,50 0 ,50 1 9 2 5,21 1 ,58

7 ,24 6 ,36

1 8 -3 8 2 3 -3 2

4 ,47 0 ,71 6 ,90

1 4 -2 5 2 8 -2 9 1 4 -3 8

B RL

B RL 7 ( 1 ) ( 2 ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

L P

L PC

( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5) ( T )

3 4 5 1 2 2 5

3 4

2 7,56 2 3,20 2 2,42 2 4,00 2 3,40 2 7,56

1 ,79 1 ,33 0 ,89 1 ,10 1 ,53 0 ,56

1 ,24 2 ,15 1 ,84 1 0,00 2 ,36 1 ,24

7 ,22 4 ,82 6 ,37 1 4,14 5 ,27 7 ,22

2 16

1 5 1 8 1 4 1 4 1 6 1 5

-4 4 -2 9 -3 6 -3 4 -3 0 -4

2 3 ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( T )

Q uartz o n ly C ha lcedony o nly H ornfe ls o n ly S i lcr ete o n ly Q uartz ite o n ly T OTAL S AM PLE

T able 3 3. N BC: r atio o f u tilized:untrimmed f lakes.

S trat igraphic U nit

T able 3 4. K angkara: r atio o f u tilized:untrimmed f lakes.

U t ilized:Untrimmed f lakes

S trat igraph ic U nit

U t ilized :Untr imm ed f lakes

I C

1 : 2 6,5

S UR

1 : 1 9,2

B SC

1 : 2 9,3

H BC

1 : 2,8

, RA

1 : 2 8,9

S GL

1 : 1 5,2

R B

1 : 2 3,6

D GL

1 : 4 5,6

J

1 : 2 6,7

G BL

1 : 1 5,5

B SBJ

1 : 2 3,7

P BW

1 : 2 1,2

C S

1 : 2 9,8

L PW

1 : 2 3,9

G SL

1 : 2 8,4

R BL

1 : 4 1,0

B SL

1 : 1 3,3

Y BL

1 : 6 9,3

Y SL

1 : 2 7,6

B D

1 : 1 3,1

V GL

1 : 3 7,0

B BD

1 :

T able

3 5.

B PA :

r atio

o f u tilized:untrimmed f lakes.

S trat igraph ic U nit

U tilized:Untr imm ed f lakes

D GL

1 : 6 0,6

B LD

1 : 2 8,6

B LA

1 : 2 8,0

B RL 1

1 : 1 4,2

B RL 2

1 : 1 0,9

B RL 3

1 : 2 2,4

B RL 4

1 : 1 2,8

B RL 5

1 : 1 6,2

B RL 6

1 : 2 0,4

T OTAL B RL

1 : 1 4,1

B RL 7

1 : 3 3,0

C L 1

1 : 3 0,7

C L 2

1 : 4 2,4

C L 3

1 : 8 1,5

C L 4

1 : 105,9

G WA

1 : 4 2,3

T OTAL C L

1 : 4 2,8

2 17

7 ,2

T able 3 6. N elson B ay C ave: L ength o f s crapers. ( a) T otal s ample, ( b) Q uartzite o mitted.

S TRAT IGRAPHIC U NIT

f

M EAN m m

V AR IANCE

S TD E RROR

S TD D EV IAT ION

R ANGE

I C

( a ) ( b )

1 20 17

9 ,57 9 ,29

8 ,92 4 ,48

0 ,27 0 ,20

2 ,99 2 ,12

5-2 9 5- 1 8

B SC u pper

( a ) ( b )

3 3

1 2,12 1 2,12

1 9,24 1 9,24

0 ,76 0 ,76

4 ,39 4 ,39

7-2 5 7-2 5

B SC l ower

( a ) ( b )

3 3 2

1 6,27 1 4,44

1 58,58 4 8,96

2 ,19 1 ,24

1 2,59 6 ,99

4-7 5 4 -3 5

R A

( a ) ( b )

1 6 1

2 1,75 1 0,18

4 85,13 5 ,36

5 ,51 0 ,70

2,03 2 ,32

6 -6 8 6-1 4

R B

( a ) ( b )

2 8 9

4 1,64 1 5,56

5 78,31 9 5,53

4 ,54 3 ,26

2 4,05 9 ,77

8107 7-3 6

J

( a ) ( b )

9 2

4 6,78 3 1,5

6 68,44 1 2,5

8 ,62 2 ,5

2 5,85 3 ,54

2 8 101 1 9 -3 4

B SBJG SL

( a ) ( b )

8

5 9,25

4 45,64 a ll

7 ,46 q uartz ite

2 1,11

3 5 103

B SLY GL

( a ) ( b )

9 7

1 8,44 1,71

2 57,03 8 ,57

5 ,34 1 ,11

1 6,03 2 ,93

8- 59 8- 15

G rouped u n it s ( a ) ( b )

2 02 1 93

1 2,05 1 0,68

8 3,89 1 8,00

0 ,64 0 ,31

9 ,16 4 ,24

4- 75 4- 35

R B-GSL ( a ) ( b )

4 5 1

4 7,22 1 8,46

4 38,66 19,27

3 ,12 3 ,29

2 0,94 1 0,92

8-107 7- 36

1 8,44 1,71

2 57,03 8 ,57

5 ,34 1 ,11

1 6,03 2 ,93

8-5 9 8- 15

I C-RA

B SL-YGL(a ) ( b )

9 7

2 18

T able 3 7. ( a)

N elson B ay C ave: W idth o f s crapers.

T otal s ample,

S TRATIGRAPHIC U NIT

( b)

f M EAN m m

Q uartzite o mitted.

V AR IANCE

S TD E RROR

S TD D EV IAT ION

R ANGE

I C

( a ) ( b )

1 6,18 1 6,01

9 ,29 7 ,63

0 ,28 0 ,26

3 ,05 2 ,76

8- 30 8- 26

B SC u pper

( a ) 3 1 5,64 N o q uartz ite

1 7,43

0 ,73

4 ,17

1 0 - 28

B SC l ower

( a ) ( b )

3 3 2

1 7,12 1 5,13

1 49,61 1 8,69

2 ,13 0 ,76

1 2,23 4 ,32

1 0 -8 1 1 0 -3

R A

( a ) ( b )

1 6 1

2 0,06 1 4,18

1 056,8 6 3 ,76

8 ,13 0 ,59

3 2,51 1 ,94

1 136 1 -1 7

R B

( a ) ( b )

2 8 3 6,71 9 2,11

3 59,92 1 94,36

3 ,59 4 ,65

1 8,97 1 3,94

1 2 -8 5 1 2 -5 7

J

( a ) ( b )

9 3 6,22 2 2 1,50

3 14,94 0 ,50

5 ,92 0 ,50

1 7,75 0 ,71

2 1 -6 6 2 1 -2

B SBJ - ( a ) 8 6 5,38 G SL A ll q uartz ite

4 16,84

7 ,22

2 0,42

3 6 101

1 058,25 1 ,67

1 0,84 0 ,49

3 2,53 1 ,29

1 3 111 1 3 -1 7

B SLV GL

( a ) ( b )

1 20 17

9 2 9,33 7 1 5,00

G rouped u n it s ( a )

2 02

1 7,19

1 21,38

0 ,78

1,02

8136

R B-GSL ( a )

4 5

4 1,71

4 68,30

3 ,23

2 1,64

1 2 101

9 2 9,33

1 058,25

1 0,84

3 2,53

1 3 111

I C-RA

B SL-YGL ( a )

2 19

T able 3 8.

N elson B ay C ave:

W idth/length r atio

a nd p ercentage f requency o f r aw m aterials a ll s crapers.

( a)

S TRAT IGRAPHIC U NIT

f or

M EAN m m

V AR IANCE

S TD E RROR

S TD D EV IAT ION

1 20

1 77,64

1 919,04

4 ,00

4 3,81

7 2-319

B SC u pper

3

1 35,61

178 ,31

5 ,98

3 4,33

8 8 -214

B SC l ower

3 3

19,94

2 554,12

8 ,80

5 0,54

6 0-300

R A

1 6

1 37,13

1 483,45

9 ,63

3 8,52

7 8 -222

R B

2 8

9 7,89

1 296,69

6 ,81

3 6,01

5 2-225

I C

f

( b)

( a)

R ANGE

J

9

7 9,78

4 94,69

7 ,41

2,24

5 1-128

B SBJ - G SL

8

16,50

1 893,43

1 5,38

4 3,51

7 1-210

B SL - V GL

9

1 46,78

1 506,19

1 2,94

3 8,81

1 00-191

( b) S TRAT IGRAPHIC U NIT I C

f

Q UARTZ

Q UARTZITE

S ILCRETE

4 0,8

2 5,0

1 20

3 1,7

B SC u pper

3 3

4 5,5

B SC l ower

3 3

3 9,4

R A

1 6

6 2,5

3 1,3

R B

2 8

1 4,3

6 7,9

1 7,9

7,8

2,2

J

9

B SBJ - G SL

8

B SL - V GL

9

-

2 ,5

C HALCEDONY

5 4,5 3 ,0

1 00,0 7,8

2,2

2 20

5 7,6 6 ,3

O THER

T able 3 9. N elson B ay C ave: H eight o f p iece o f s crapers. ( a) T otal s ample, ( b) Q uartzite o mitted.

S TRATIGRAPHIC U NIT

f

M EAN m m

I C

( a ) ( b )

1 20 17

4 ,05 3 ,96

B SC u pper

( a ) ( b )

3 4 ,76 N o q uartz ite

B SC l ower

( a ) ( b )

3 3 2

R A

( a ) ( b )

1 6 1

R B

V AR IANCE

S TD E RROR

S TD D EV IATION

R ANGE

1 ,78 1 ,2

1 ,22 0 ,10

1 ,33 1 ,09

2-1 0 2- 7

3 ,63

0 ,33

1 ,90

2-1 2

6 ,39 5 ,53

3,43 9 ,16

1 ,01 0 ,54

5 ,78 3 ,03

1- 3 4 1- 1 8

8 ,38 4 ,27

5 6,78 0 ,62

1 ,89 0 ,24

7 ,54 0 ,79

3 -2 7 3- 5

( a ) ( b )

2 8 1 3,82 9 1,11

1 05,04 2 50,86

1 ,94 5 ,28

1 0,25 1 5,84

3-5 3 3- 5 3

J

( a ) ( b )

9 1 3,22 2 1 2,00

1 0,94 -

1 ,10

3 ,31

1 -2 1 1 2 -1 2

B SBJG SL

( a ) ( b )

1 36,00

4 ,12

1,66

9 -4 2

B SLV GL

( a ) ( b )

8 ,89 6 ,14

4 4,86 6 ,14

2 ,23 0 ,94

6 ,70 2 ,48

3-2 5 3-1 0

8 2 6,50 A ll q uartz ite 9 7

G rouped u n its ( a )

2 02

4 ,8 9

1 2,95

2 ,53

3 ,60

1-3 4

R B-GSL ( a )

4 5

1 5,96

12,73

1 ,58

1 0,62

3- 5 3

8 ,89

4 4,8 6

2 ,23

6 ,70

3 -2 5

I C-RA

B SL-YGL ( a )

9

2 21

T able 4 0. N elson B ay C ave: P lan f orm o f s crapers. ( a) T otal s ample, ( b) Q uartzite o mitted. F or k ey t o c odes s ee A ppendix 2 .

S TRAT IG RAPHIC U N IT I C

C 1 f

0 3

2 Y .

( a) 7 9 . 6 5,8 ( b ) 7 8 6 6 ,7

f 1 4 1 4

B SC

( a ) 7 2 1,2 4 u pper ( b ) N o q uartz ite

1 1,7 1 2,0

f 1 1

1 0

E 4

5

I

f

I

9 ,2 8 ,5

4 3

3 ,3 2 ,6

4

1 2,1

2

3 3,3 3 4,4

1 1

1 2,1

9

2 7,3

3 ,0 3 ,1

7

6

2 1,2 1 8 ,8

B SC ( a ) l ower ( b )

9 2 7,3 9 2 8 ,1

R A

7 4 3,8 5 4 5,5

-

-

2

1 2,5 -

1 -

6 ,3 -

( a )

1

4

( b)

1

3

1 4,3 3 3,3

1 1

3 ,6 1 1,1

1 7 3

6 0,7 3 3,3

1

1 1,1

1

1 1,1

R B

( a ) ( b )

3 ,6 1 1,1

( a)

( b )

1

I

D

1

-

B SBJ - ( a) G SL ( b )

1 1 2,5 2 A ll q uartz ite

2 5,0

B SL V GL

4 4 4,4 2 2 8,6

2 2,2 2 8 ,6

( a ) ( b )

2

2

1

1

3

1

6 I

7

f

I

f

%

5 5

4 ,2 4 ,3

7 7

5 ,8 6 ,0

6 ,1

6

1 8,2

1

3 ,0

3 ,0 3 ,1

4 4

1 2,1 1 2,5

-

5 5

3 1,3 4 5,5

1 1

6 ,3 9 ,1

3 ,6 -

2 1

7 ,1 1 1,1

2

7 ,1 _

1

1 1,1

2

2 5,0

9 ,9

9

4 ,5

5 1 1,1

2

4 ,4

-

-

-

6 6 6 ,7 2 1 00,0

2 3

f

2 5,0

1

1 2,5

9 ,9

3

1 ,5

5 5,6

2

4 ,4

-

-

3 3,3 4 2,9

G rouped u nits I C -R A ( a )102 R B -G SL ( a ) 2

5 0 ,5

1 9

9 ,4

2 9

4 ,4

7

1 5,6

2

B SL -Y SL(a) 4 4 4 ,4

2

2 2,2

3

1 4,4 4 ,4

2 0

2 5

3 3,3

2 22

2 0

-

T able 4 1. s crapers.

N elson B ay C ave: ( a) T otal s ample,

P osition o f r etouch c lasses f or ( b) Q uartzite o mitted. F or k ey

t o c odes s ee A ppendix 2 .

S TRAT IG RAPHIC U NIT

C f

6

%

f

2 5,0 2 3,9

4 4

I C

( a ) 3 0 ( b ) 2 8

B SC u pper

( a ) 2 5 7 5,7 ( b ) N o q uartz ite

B SC l ower

( a ) 2 1 ( b ) 2 0

6 3,6 6 2,5

R A

( a ) ( b )

9 7

5 6,3 6 3,6

R B

( a ) 1 8 ( b ) 7

6 4,3 7 7,8

7

0 %

3 ,3 3 ,4

D 8

f 3 3

-

2 2

9 1

( a ) ( b )

9 1 00,0 2 1 00,0

B SBJ G SL

( a ) ( b )

5 6 2,5 1 A ll q uartz ite

B SLY GL

( a ) ( b )

5 5

6 ,1 6 ,3

1 1

3 2,1 1 1,1

1 2,5

E %

2 ,5 2 ,6

6 6 6 5

9

%

f

5 5,0 5 5,6

1 1

-

7

2 1,2

3 ,0 3 ,1

8 8

2 4,2 2 5,0

-

5 3

3 1,3 2 7,3

1

1

3 ,6 1 1,1

1

1 2,5

4 2

4 4,4 2 8,6

-

-

1

f

1 2,5

5 5,6 7 1,4

1 0

% 0 ,8 0 ,9

1 6 1 6

1

% 1 3,3 1 3,7

1

3 ,0

-

2

-

1

1 2,5 9 ,1

-

1 1

f

3 ,0 3 ,0

1

G rouped u n its I C -R A

( a ) 8 5

4 2,1

R B -G SL ( a ) 3 2

7 1,1

B SL-YGL(a )

5 5 ,6

5

6 1 0

3 ,0

4

2 ,0

2 2,2

1

2 ,2

2 23

8 6

4 2,6

2

4 ,"

4

4 4,4

2

1 ,0

1 9

9 ,4

T able 4 2. Matrix o f p robability v alues ( to l eft) a nd l evels o f s ignificance ( to r ight) f or s craper l engths f rom t he K olmogorov-Smirnov t wo-sample t est u sing s craper s amples f rom B oomplaas, N elson B ay C ave a nd K angkara t o d emonstrate i nter- a nd i ntra-site s imilarities a nd d ifferences. S ee A ppendix 2 f or m ethodology. BO O M P L A A S D GL

B LD-3

1

B LA

0

1 2

. 883

B RL

C L

NE L S O N

BA Y

I C

R A

B SC

CA V E

KA N G K A R A H BC P BW G 8 1 . R BL

R B-GSLBSL-YGL

Y BL B BD

S UR

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

V HS

1 3

. 848

. 997

1 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

V HS

1 5

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 001

2 1

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

H S

0

V HS

S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

. 000

V HS

2 2

. 498

. 442

. 289

. 000

. 000

. 000

2 3

. 457

. 343

. 332

. 000

. 004

. 029

S 0

. 654

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

H S

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

H S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

2 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

2 5

. 373

. 438

. 336

. 009

. 087

. 028

. 932

. 886

. 000

3 1

. 379

. 4 18

. 594

. 000

. 000

. 704

. 122

. 4 15

. 000

. 122

3 2

. 408

. 227

. 150

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 837

. 537

. 000

. 7 14

. 168

3 3

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 290

. 003

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 003

. 000

. 000

3 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 5 17

. 542

. 000

. 000

. 008

. 00 1

. 024

. 000

. 000

S

0 . 294

S CRAPERS : L ENGTH K OLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV

T able 4 3. M atrix o f p robability v alues ( to l eft) a nd l evels o f s ignificance ( to r ight) f or s craper l engths f rom t he M ann-Whitney U -test u sing s craper s amples f rom B oomplaas, N elson B ay C ave a nd K angkara. 0 = n o s ignificant d ifference a t p . 05; S = p . 05 - p . 01; H S = p . 01 - . 001; V HS = p l ess t han . 001.

BO O M P L A A S D GL

B LD 0

B LA

NE L S O N S RI

D GL

1

B LD

1 2

. 339

B LA

1 3

. 363

. 997

B RL

1 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

C L

1 5

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

I C

2 1

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

C L

I C

B SC

B SL-YGL

KA N G K A R A H BC P BW G BL R BL

S UR

Y BL 8 80

0

V HS

V HS

H S

0

0

V HS

0

S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

H S

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

H S

V HS

H S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS H S

. 000

B SC

2 2

. 242

. 056

. 057

. 000

. 000

. 000

2 3

. 630

. 4 17

. 454

. 012

. 0 19

. 003 . 977

R 8G SL 8 SLV GL S UR

2 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000 . 000

R BL Y BL-

CA V E R B-GSL

0

R A

H BCG BL P BW-

BA Y R A

0

V HS

0

0

V HS

H S

0

0

0

H S

H S

V HS

V HS

S

0

. 000

2 5

. 236

. 152

. 147

. 0 17

. 070

. 003 . 477

. 7 11

. 00 1

3 1

. 042

. 099

. 09 1

. 000

. 000

. 277 . 0 18

. 1 11

. 000

. 040

3 2

. 960

. 399

. 449

. 000

. 000

. 0 00

. 5 48

.00

.3 20

.3 34

H S

°

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 655

. 000

. 000 . 000

. 003

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 424

. 240

. 000 . 000

. 0 48

. 001

. 047

. 000

. 000

2 24

V HS

S V HS V ::

3 3

M ANN-WHITNEY : S CRAPER L ENGTHS

S V HS

V HS

. 0 93

3 4

B BD

V HS

0 . 3 62

T able 4 4. Matrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper w idth u sing t he K olmogorovS mirnov t wo-sample t est. BO O M P L A A S D GL

B LO

1 . 343

NE L S O N B LA

0

1 2

S ee T ables 4 2 a nd 4 3 f or d etails.

B RL

C L

I C

BA Y

B SC

R A

CA V E R B-GSL

B SL-YGL

KA N G K A R A H OC P OW S UR G BL P OL

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

H S

0

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

S

0

V HS

V HS V HS

1 3

. 994

. 182

1 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

1 5

. 000

. 000

. 000

2 1

. 000

. 000

. 001

. 000

. 0 11

2 2

. 9 15

. 309

. 999

. 000

. 008

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

H S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

V HS

0

0

S

S

H S

0

V HS

0

V HS

H S

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

0

H S

0

V HS

V HS 0

. 001

. 094

2 3

. 572

. 418

. 404

. 000

. 509

. 426

. 745

2 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

2 5

. 443

. 23 1

. 457

. 007

. 679

. 803

. 741

. 952

. 003

3 1

. 004

. 023

. 002

. 000

. 00 1

. 000

. 004

. 0 13

. 000

V HS

0 H S

S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

S

H S

0

H S

0

S

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

. 022

3 2

. 895

. 651

. 969

. 000

. 004

. 001

. 792

. 727

. 000

. 309

. 0 12

3 3

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 565

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 006

. 000

. 000

3 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

1 .000

. 054

. 000

. 001

. 062

. 029

. 099

. 000

. 001

0 . 997

S CRAPERS : W IDTH K OLMOGOROV - S MIRNOV

T able 4 5. M atrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper w idth u sing t he Mann-Whitney U -test. S ee T ables 4 2 a nd 4 3 f or d etails.

NE L S O N

B 0 OM P L A A S D GL 1

O LD 0

B LA

V OL B BO

B RL

C L

I C

B SC

BA Y R A

CA V E R B-GSL

B SL-YGL

KA N G K A R A H OC P BW G BL R BL

S UR

Y BL B BO

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

H S

0

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

S

S

V HS

S

H S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

H S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

0

0

H S

0

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

H S

0

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

0

H S

0

V HS

V HS

1 2

. 197

1 3

. 722

. 075

1 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

1 5

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

2 1

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 099

2 2

. 290

. 049

. 4 15

. 000

. 008

. 0 14

2 3

. 094

. 040

. 129

. 0 10

. 705

. 747

. 293

2 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

V HS . 001

0

H S

0

H S

H S

V HS

V HS

V HS

2 5

. 066

. 045

. 096

. 057

. 924

. 974

. 195

. 690

. 0 10

3 1

. 004

. 0 15

. 002

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 002

. 003

. 000

3 2

. 962

. 268

. 862

. 000

. 001

. 001

. 407

. 135

. 000

. 088

. 009

3 3

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 855

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 004

. 000

. 628

. 000

. 000

3 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 9 48

. 009

. 000

. 000

. 058

. 009

. 137

. 000

. 000

M ANN-WH ITNEY : S CRAPER W IDTH

2 25

H S . 007

0 H S

0 H S

0 H S

S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS 0

. 997

T able 4 6. M atrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper h eight u sing t he K olmogorovS mirnov t wo-sample t est. S ee T ables 4 2 a nd 4 3 f or d etails.

BO O M P L A A S D GL

B LD

1 1 2

NE L S O N B LA

0 . 8 57

B RL

C L

I C

BA Y

B SC

R A

CA V E R B-GSL

KA N G K A R A N BC P BW S UR G BL R BL

B SL-YGL

0

V HS

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

S

0

S

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

V HS V HS

1 3

. 354

. 9 68

1 4

. 000

. 0 00

. 0 00

1 5

. 0 00

. 0 00

. 0 00

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

H S

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

. 003

2 1

. 104

. 001

. 000

. 0 00

. 000

2 2

. 0 65

. 2 46

. 7 61

. 000

. 000

2 3

. 324

. 3 05

. 3 10

. 0 00

. P00

. 053

. 5 63

2 4

. 0 00

. 0 00

. 000

. 0 12

. 125

. 000

. 000

V HS . 0 00

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

H S

0

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

H S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

S

V HS

V HS

V HS

. 000

2 5

. 043

. 09 1

. 094

. 263

. 1 45

. 003

. 232

. 655

. 0 40

. 871

. 486

. 477

. 000

. 000

. 625

. 236

. 2 11

. 000

0 . 095

0

0

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

H S

3 2

. 025

. 094

. 1 60

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 729

. 4 15

. 000

. 2 13

. 093

. 000

. 0 00

. 000

. 402

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 3 18

. 000

. 000

3 4

. 0 00

. 000

. 000

. 092

. 007

. 000

. 001

. 0 28

. 004

. 8 20

. 00 1

. 0 10

0 . 3 76

S CRAPERS : H EIGHT O F P IECE K OLMOGOROV-SM IRNOV

T able 4 7. M atrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper h eight u sing t he M ann-Whitney U -test. S ee T ables 4 2 a nd 4 3 f or d etails.

1

NE L S O N I C

B SC

BA Y R A

CA V E

Y BL BD

B LA

B RL

C L

0

0

V HS

V HS

0

H S

S

V HS

n

0

H S

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

H S

0

S

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

V HS

S

0

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

V HS

H S

H S

0

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

H S

0

S

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

0

H S

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

H S

0

H S

0

H S

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

H S

0

0

0

H S

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

. 099

1 3

. 058

. 6 42

1 4

. 000

. 0 00

. 0 00

1 5

. 000

. 0 00

. 0 00

. 0 07

2 1

. 1 72

. 00 1

. 0 00

. 0 00

. 0 00

2

. 006

. 0 68

. 1 42

. 000

. 000

. 000

2 3

. 038

. 1 14

. 178

. 0 14

. 0 04

. 0 03

. 654

2 4

. 000

. 0 00

. 0 00

. 0 02

. 3 74

. 0 00

. 0 00

. 001

B SL-YGL

KA N G K A R A H OC P BW S UR G B/ R BL

B LD

1 2

R B-GSL

2 5

. 004

. 0 07

. 0 00

. 1 24

. 0 26

. 001

. 0 51

. 2 69

. 0 09

3 1

. 19 1

. 0 51

. 035

. 0 00

. 000

. 4 10

. 0 09

. 0 22

. 000

. 0 03

3 2

. 004

. 035

. 0 78

. 0 00

. 000

. 0 00

. 789

. 5 74

. 000

. 0 60

. 0 11

3

. 0 00

. 0 00

. 000

. 2 30

. 000

. 000

. 0 00

. 0 04

. 000

. 1 66

. 0 00

. 0 00

3 4

. 000

. 0 00

. 0 00

. 0 43

. 0 02

. 0 00

. 0 00

. 1 0 1

. 0 0 1

. 7 27

. 0 00

. 0 0 1

M ANN-WH ITNEY : S CRAPER H EIGHT

2 26

S H S

0 . 0 98

S H S

0

3 3

B 0 OM P L A A S

0 H S

0

3 1

D GL

Y BL BD

T able

4 8.

Matrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f

s ignificance

f or s craper w /1 r atio u sing t he K olmogorov-

S mirnov t wo-sample

t est.

BO O M P L A A S D GL

O LD

1 1 2

S ee T ables

NE L S O N ! I LA

0 . 679

O PL

C L

I C

B SC

4 2 a nd 4 3 f or d etails.

BA Y R A

CA V E R B-GSL

KA N G K A R A H OC P OW G BL N IL

s u n

B SL-YGL

Y 9L HD

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

0

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

0

0

V HS

0

S

0

0

0

V HS

0

0

1 3

. 497

. 572

1 4

. 000

. 000

1 5

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 524

2 1

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

V HS . 000

H S

H S

0

S

S

V HS

0

0

V HS

H S

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

2

. 386

. 545

. 3 13

. 066

. 004

. 000

2 3

. 432

. 609

. 566

. 0 14

. 004

. 002

0

2 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 171

. 685

. 000

. 001

. 003

2 5

. 348

. 561

. 721

. 082

. 029

. 339

. 361

. 792

. 326

V HS

0

0

0

H S

0

0

0

H S

H S

. 009

S H S

0 0

V HS

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3 1

. 492

. 369

. 359

. 163

. 036

. 000

. 734

. 2 11

. 0 11

. 236

3 2

. 994

. 600

. 549

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 688

. 433

. 0 00

. 462

. 533

0

3 3

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 900

. 636

. 000

. 023

. 0 13

. 442

. 066

. 097

. 000

3 4

. 324

. 4 19

. 430

. 9 18

. 552

. 000

. 840

. 389

. 242

. 43 1

. 851

. 385

V HS

0 0

. 8 76

S CRAPERS : W /L R ATIO K OLMOGOROV-SM IRNOV

T able 4 9. Matrix o f p robability v alues a nd l evels o f s ignificance f or s craper w /1 r atio u sing t he Mann-Whitney U -test. S ee T ables 4 2 a nd 4 3 f or d etails.

BO O M P L A A S D GL 1

B LO 0

NE L S O N

BA Y

CA V E

I C

B SC

R A

R B-GSL

H S

KA N G K A R A S UR

H BC G BL

P BW R BL

Y BL BD

0

V HS

0

V HS

0

0

0

0

V HS

0

V HS

0

0

0

V HS

0

0

H S

0

H S

0

0

S

0

V HS

V HS

B LA

B RL

C L

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

S

0

V HS

S

0

B SL-YGL

1 2

. 648

1 3

. 29 1

. 378

1 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

1 5

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 185

2 1

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 000

2

. 002

. 235

. 071

. 005

. 000

. 000

2 3

. 390

. 551

. 030

. 008

. 00 1

. 00 1

. 271

2 4

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 050

. 483

. 000

. 000

. 000

2 5

. 2 11

. 250

. 426

. 006

. 003

. 066

. 123

. 428

. 0 02

3 1

. 264

. 226

. 174

. 120

. 034

. 000

. 730

. 163

. 005

. 1 40

3 2

. 068

. 6 14

. 287

. 000

. 0 00

. 000

. 536

. 389

. 000

. 202

. 320

3

. 000

. 000

. 000

. 65 1

. 047

. 000

. 001

. 003

. 102

. 007

. 0 74

. 000

3 4

. 142

. 1 18

. 071

. 460

. 1 67

. 000

. 360

. 140

. 069

. 083

. 662

. 160

V HS

H S

H S

0

H S

S

V HS

V HS

H S

V HS

0

V HS

V HS

V HS

0

0

0

H S

0

H S

0

0

0

H S

0

H S

H S

V HS

0

0

0

M ANN W H ITNEY : S CRAPER W /L R ATIO

2 27

0

0 H S

0 0

0

0

V HS

0 0

. 358

T able 5 0. N elson B ay C ave: b acked m icroliths. S QUARE

0 4 C 5 C 5 C 5 C 5 C 5 C 5 C 5 C 5 C 5 C 5 B 4 B 5 B 5 B 6 B 6 B 6 0 5 D 6 D 5 0 5 0 6 C 4 C 4 D 5

S TRAT IGRAPHIC U NIT I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C I C

D escriptive s tatistics

S UB-CLASS

S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment . S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment

H E IGHT m m

f or

L ENGTH m m

W IDTH m m

R AW M ATER IAL

1 5 1 3 1 7 1 5 1 5 1 4 1 2 1 6 1 6 2 0 2 0 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 6 1 3 1 3 1 4 1 9 1 8 1 5 1 3 1 0 1 3 1 9

7 7 9 8 7 7 6 8 1 3 8 9 1 2 7 7 7 8 1 0 8 9 9 9 8 7 6 1 0

2 2 4 3 2 3 2 3 5 2 4 5 2 3 3 2 4 4 2 4 5 3 2 2 3

1 5,28 2 ,89 0 ,58

8 ,24 1 ,69 0 ,34

3 ,04 1 ,06 0 ,21

1 6 1 4 1 6 1 2 1 5 9

1 7 1 0 7 8 3 7

2 5 3 3 4 8

C ha lcedony S ilcrete C ha lcedony C ha lcedony Q uartz Q uartz ite

1 5 1 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 8 8

1 0 6 4 5 5 1 0 7

5 2 2 2 2 2 1

Q uartz Q uartz C ha lcedony C ha lcedony C ha lcedony C ha lcedony Q uartz

S ilcrete Q uartz Q uartz Q uartz Q uartz Q uartz Q uartz Q uartz Q uartz C ha lcedony S ilcrete Q uartz Q uartz Q uartz Q uartz C ha lcedony C ha lcedony Q uartz C ha lcedony C ha lcedony Q uartz Q uartz Q uartz S ilcr ete C ha lcedony

M eans f or I C s egments: 2 5

S x S X B 6 C 5 C 5 C 5 0 8 0 6

I C I C I C I C I C I C

B roken B roken B roken B roken B roken B acked

b acked b acked b acked b acked b acked f lake

0 3 D 8 0 4 C 5 B 4 0 3 B 1

B SC B SC B SC B SC B SC B SC B SC

S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment S egment

M eans f or B SC s egments:

f X S x S i

7

1 2,71 3 ,15 3 ,15

6 ,71 2 ,43 0 ,92

2 ,29 1 ,25 0 ,47

C 4 0 4 0 3 0 3 B 5

B SC B SC B SC B SC R A

B acked b ladelet B acked b lade let B roken b acked B roken b acked S egment

1 0 1 3 1 7 1 5 1 5

5 5 1 0 6 8

1 2 4 4 4

Q uartz Q uartz C ha lcedony Q uartz C ha lcedony

B 5

Y SL

B acked f lake

1 7

8

4

S ilcr ete

B 4 D 7

V GL V GL

S egment S egment

2 0 1 6

6 6

4 2

Q uartz C ha lcedony

0 3 0 3

V GL V GL

B roken b acked L arge s egment/ b acked f lake

6

3

Q uartz

8 5 0

2 28

1 9

1 2

Q uartz ite

T able 5 1. K angkara: L ength o f s crapers. ( b) Q uartzite o mitted.

U NIT

f

M EAN

S UR

( a )

1 6

9 ,94

H BC

( a )

2

( b )

2 9

S GL+DGL ( a ) ( b ) G BL P BW

L PW

V AR IANCE

T otal s ample,

S TANDARD D EVIATION

R ANGE

5 ,00

0 ,56

2 ,24

6-1 4

1 0 ,59

6 ,83

0 ,56

2 ,6 1

8

1,90

1 2,45

0 ,66

3 ,53

6-1 9

3 0

1 3,5

9 2,4

1 ,76

9 ,6 1

6

6 1

3 8

1 3,63

5,05

1 ,20

7 ,42

5

3 9

( a )

4 1

1 4,3

6,1

1 ,27

8 ,13

5

3 9

( b )

1 6

1 9 ,8 1

4 5,63

1 ,69

6 ,76

7

3 1

( a )

2 6

2 1,8

5 1,3

1 ,40

7 , 16

7

3

( b )

3 4

2 4,38

1 00,85

1 ,72

1 0,04

1 26,5

( a )

4 8

2 7,1

( b)

2 1

2 3,14

2 8,03

R BL

( a )

2 5

2 3,2

Y BL

( a )

2 1,33

B D+BBD

S TANDARD E RROR

( a)

6

( b )

5

1 9 ,20

( a)

8

2 4,38

1 7

8 -4 7

1 ,62

1,25

1 , 16

5 ,29

1 4 -3 7

3,5

1 , 16

5 ,79

1 -3 7

5 8,67

3 ,13

7 ,66

9-3 0

2 ,52

5 ,63

1 3 -2 8

4 ,23

1,96

1 3 -4 8

3 1,70 1 43,1

8

5 8

G ROUPED S UR+HBC ( a )

3 8

1 0,3

6 ,0

0 ,40

2 ,45

6-1 7

( b )

6 7

1 2,88

3 6,90

0 ,74

6 ,07

5-3 9

S GL -

( a)

7 1

1 3,99

7 6,19

1 ,04

8 ,73

5-6 1

G BL

( b)

7

2,86

6 7,23

0 ,93

8 ,20

7-4 7

P BW-YBL ( a ) 1 05 B D+BBD

2 4,56

8 5,92

0 ,9 1

9 ,27

7-5 8

( b )

5

1 9,20

3 1,70

2 ,52

5 ,63

1 3 -2 8

( a)

8

2 4,38

4 ,23

1,96

1 3 -4 8

1 43,1

2 29

T able 5 2.

U NIT

f

K angkara

M EAN

w idth o f s crapers.

V ARIANCE

S TANDARD E RROR

S TANDARD D EVIATION

R ANGE

S UR

1 6

1,94

8 ,86

0 ,74

2 ,98

7- 1 6

H BC

2 2

1 3,77

9 ,14

0 ,64

3 ,02

9-2 0

S GL+DGL

3 0

1 6,07

6 7,93

1 ,5 1

8 ,24

9-5 4

G BL

4 1

1 6,59

5 1,1

1 , 12

7 ,15

8 -4 6

P BW

2 6

2 5,85

5 8,70

1 ,50

7 ,66

1 4 -4 8

L PW

4 8

2 6,79

11,02

1 ,52

1 0,54

1 -5 2

R BL

2 5

2 0,84

1 7,8 1

0 ,84

4 ,22

1 3 -2 9

Y BL

6

2 1,67

6 1,47

3 ,20

7 ,84

1 5 -3 7

B D+BBD

8

2 7,38

8 9,98

3 ,35

9 ,49

1 2 -4 1

G ROUPED S UR/HBC

3 8

1 3,00

9 ,62

0 ,50

3 ,10

7-2 0

S GL/GBL

7 1

1 6,37

5 7,41

0 ,90

7 ,58

8 -5 4

P BW/YBL 1 05

2 4,85

7,78

0 ,86

8 ,82

1 -5 2

B D/BBD

2 7,38

8 9,98

3 ,35

9 ,49

1 2 -4 1

8

T able 5 3.

U NIT

f

K angkara:

w idth/length r atio o f s crapers.

M EAN

V AR IANCE

S TD E RROR

S TD D EV IAT ION

R A NGE

S UR

1 6

1 24,66

1 889,89

1 0,87

4 3,47

7 -2 67

H BC

2

1 35,03

1 245,74

7 ,53

3 5,30

8 2 -2 00

S GL-DGL 3 0

1 27,87

1 035,94

5 ,88

3 2,19

7 4 -2 33

G BL

4 1

1 30,36

2 060,52

7 ,09

4 5,39

6 5 -2 67

P BW

2 6

1 28,97

2 437,48

9 ,68

4 9,37

7 5 -2 60

L PW

4 8

1 04,47

1 091,34

4 ,77

3,04

5 -2 36

R BL

2 5

9 6,83

1 504,19

7 ,76

3 8,78

5 7 -2 18

Y BL

6

1 08 ,73

1 266,52

1 4,53

3 5,59

6 7 -1 67

B D-BBD

8

19,45

1 027,92

1,34

3 2,06

7 5 -1 63

2 30

T able 5 4.

U NIT

f

K angkara:

M EAN

P iece h eight o f s crapers.

V ARIANCE 1 ,83

S TANDARD E RROR 0 ,34

S TANDARD D EVIATION 1 ,35

R ANGE

S UR

1 6

3 ,69

2 -6

H BC

2 2

4 ,46

2 ,17

0 ,3 1

1 ,47

2 -8

S GL+DGL

3 0

5 ,90

2 2,23

0 ,86

4 ,72

2 -2 8

G BL

4 1

5 ,63

8 ,54

0 ,46

2 ,92

2-1 4

P BW

2 6

8 ,58

1 5,45

0 ,77

3 ,93

5 -2 4

L PW

4 8

1 0,33

1 9,76

0 ,64

4 ,45

2 -2 1

R BL

2 5

9 ,76

1,44

0 ,68

3 ,38

4 -2 0

Y BL

6

7 ,67

1,87

1 ,41

3 ,45

3-1 2

B D+BBD

8

8 ,13

9 ,55

1 ,09

3 ,09

5-1 5

G ROUPED U NITS S UR/HBC

3 8

4 ,13

2 ,12

0 ,24

1 ,46

2 -8

S GL/GBL

7 1

5 ,75

1 4,12

0 ,45

3 ,76

2-2 8

P BW/YBL

1 05

9 ,61

1 6,59

0 ,40

4 ,07

2-2 4

8 ,13

9 ,55

1 ,09

3 ,09

5-1 5

B D/BBD

8

2 31

T able 5 5. K angkara: P osition o f r etouch ( a ) a nd p lan f orm ( b) f or s crapers. F or k ey t o c odes s ee A ppendix 2 .

-C o d e U NIT

f

6 %

f

f

7 %

S UR

1 6

1 2

7 5,0

H BC

2

1 0

4 5,5

2

S GL/DGL

3 0

2 0

6,7

3 1 0,0

G BL

4 1

2

5 3,7

7 1 7,1

8 %

f

1 0 1

2 ,4

2 6

1 2

4 6,2

4 8

2 9

6 0,4

1 4

2 9,2

1

2 , 1

1 0

4 0,0

1 3

5 2,0

1

4 ,0

2 5 6

3 5 0

B D/BBD

8

6 7 5,0

1 %

f

%

4 5,5

7 2 3,3

P BW

R BL

1 0 f

4 2 5,0 9 ,1

L PW Y BL

9 %

f

1

7 2 6,9

2 3,3

2 6,8

6 2 3,1

1

3 ,8

2

4 ,2

2

4 ,2

1

4 ,0

1 1 6,7 2 2 5,0

G ROUPED S üR+HBC

3 8

2

5 7,9

1 4

3 6,8

S GL-GBL

7 1

4 2

5 9,2

1 0

2

1 4,1

5 ,3 1

1 ,4

1 8

2 5,4

P BW-YBL

1 05

5 4

5 1,4

3 6

3 4,3

2

1 ,9

1 0

9 ,5

3

2 ,9

CO D E U NIT

f

S UR

1 6

H BC

2

S GL/DGL

3 0

f 4 1 0 7

1

%

2 f %

2 5,0

3 f %

f

4 %

5 f % 21 2,5

6 f %

74 3,8

31 8,8

4 5,5

1 4 ,5

62 7,3

41 8,2

1 4 ,5

2 3,3

31 0,0

82 6,7

41 3,3

82 6,7

G BL

4 1

1 4

3 4,1

1 5 3 6,6

51 2,2

P BW

2 6

1 0

3 8,5

41 5,4

41 5,4

41 5,4

L PW

4 8

7

1 4,6

4 8 ,3

1 2 2,9

1 8 3 7,5

2 4 ,2

61 2,5

R BL

2 5

4

1 6,0

1 4 ,0

31 2,0

1 3 5 2,0

2 8 ,0

2 8 ,0

Y BL

6

1

1 6,7

35 0,0

2 3,4

B D/BBD

8

4

5 0,0

22 5,0

11 2,5

12 ,4

61 4,6 41 5,4

11 2,5

G ROUPED S UR + H BC 3 8

1 4

3 6,8

1 2 ,6

1 3 3 4,2

71 8,4

25 ,3

S GL-GBL

7 1

2 1

2 9,6

3 4 ,2

2 3 3 2,4

91 2,7

1 1 ,4

1 4 1 9,7

P BW-YBL

1 05

2 2

2 1,0

9 8 ,6

2 1 2 0,0

3 7 3 5,2

4 3 ,8

1 2 1,4

2 32

1. 2,6

7 f %

T able 5 6.

K angkara:

H eight o f r etouch ( a)

f requencies o f r aw m aterials

(a)

U NIT

f

M EAN

V ARIANCE

( b)

a nd p ercentage

f or s crapers.

S TANDARD E RROR

S TANDARD D EVIATION

R ANGE

S UR

1 6

3 ,06

1 , 13

0 ,27

1 ,06

2 -5

H BC

2 2

3 ,77

1 ,52

0 ,26

1 ,23

2-6

S GL+DGL

3 0

4 ,40

3 ,49

0 ,34

1 ,87

2-1 0

G BL

4 1

4 ,78

4 ,23

0 ,32

2 ,06

2-1

P BW

2 6

6 ,58

4 ,57

0 ,42

2 ,14

3-1 2

L PW

4 8

7 ,73

7 ,73

0 ,40

2 ,78

2-1 5

R BL

2 5

7 ,88

6 ,78

0 ,52

2 ,60

3-1 3

Y BL

6

7 ,50

B D+BBD

8

6 ,63

1 2,3 5 ,41

1 ,43

3 ,5 1

3-1 2

0 ,82

2 ,33

4-1

1 ,20

2 -6

G ROUPED U NITS

S UR/HBC

3 8

3 ,47

S GL/GBL

7 1

4 ,62

3 ,90

0 ,23

1 ,97

2-1

P BW/YBL

1 05

7 ,47

7 ,02

0 ,26

2 ,65

2-1 5

8

6 ,63

5 ,41

0 ,82

2 ,33

4-1

f

Q uartz

B D/BBD

( b)

U NIT S UR

1 6

6 8,8

H BC

2 2

7 7,3

1 ,45

Q uartz ite

0 ,20

H ornfels

C ha lcedony

S ilcrete

1 8,8

1 2,5

4 ,5

1 8,2

S GL+DGL

3 0

8 0,0

3 ,3

3 ,3

1 3,3

G BL

4 1

2 9,3

7 ,3

3 9,0

2 4,4

P BW

2 6

1,5

3 8,5

3 ,8

4 6,2

L PW

4 8

1 2,5

2 9,2

2 ,1

1 0,4

4 5,8

R BL

2 5

8 ,0

1 6,0

4 ,0

3 6,0

3 6,0

5 0,0

3 3,3

1 2,5

5 0,0

Y BL

6

B D+BBD

8

1 6,7 3 7,5

2 33

T able 5 7. B oomplaas C ave: f or s crapers.

M EMBER

f

M EAN

S TD D EV IAT ION

D escriptive s tatistics

S TD E RROR

V AR IANCE

R ANGE

( a ) L ength D GL B LD B LA BL C L

1 57 3 77 2 13 9 3 8 0

1 2,41 1,81 1,55 2 5,83 2 0,21

5 ,42 4 ,78 3 ,97 1 2,38 1 0,07

0 ,43 0 ,25 0 ,27 1 ,28 1 ,13

2 9,33 2,88 1 5,78 1 53,27 1 01,41

5-3 9 4-3 5 5-4 1 7-7 1 7-7 8

1 5,15 1 4,61 1 4,87 2 5,83 2 0,41

5 ,07 4 ,66 3 ,66 1,03 1 6,28

0 ,41 0 ,24 0 ,25 1 ,14 1 ,82

2 5,72 2 1,71 1 3,37 1 21,75 2 65,06

9 -4 7 8-4 3 9 -3 0 9 -7 0 8115

2 ,20 2 ,09 1 ,82 4 ,74 6 ,60

0 ,18 0 ,11 0 ,13 0 ,49 0 ,74

4 ,85 4 ,37 3 ,32 2,51 4 3,56

1- 1 6 1- 1 7 2- 1 5 2-3 0 2-5 0

3 6,79 4 2,21 4 3,27 3 6,12 3 9,00

2 ,94 2 ,17 2 ,97 3 ,75 4 ,36

1 353,74 1 781,58 1 872,22 1 304,34 1 520,81

( b ) W idth D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

1 57 3 77 2 13 9 3 8 0

( c ) H e ight o f p iece D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

1 57 3 77 2 13 9 3 8 0

4 ,46 4 ,69 4 ,67 1 0,41 1 2,74

( d ) W /L R at io D GL B LD B LA B RL C L ( e )

D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

( f ) D GL B LD B LA B RL C L ( g )

1 57 3 77 2 13 9 3 8 0

1 30,24 1 32,86 1 37,54 1 09,07 1 02,85

P lan f orm

1 57 3 77 2 13 9 3 8 0

( % )

E

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

1 0,8 5 ,0 2 ,8 5 ,4 1 6,2

2 3,6 2 7,6 3,3 4 7,3 1 2,5

3 4,7 1 3,3 6 ,6 1 6,1 2 1,2

1 ,9 0 ,9 7 ,5 6 ,3

3 ,8 1 9,4 2 5,8 8 ,6 1 ,2

2 ,9 2 ,8 2 ,2 8 ,7

1 ,2

8 ,7

6 ,3

( % )

C

0

D

E

6

7

8

9

1 0

1

7 2,6 6 1,8 6 1,5 6 4,5 6 7,5

1 ,3 6 ,9 5 ,2 1 7,2 1 8,8

1 ,1 0 ,5 2 ,2 -

2 5,5 2 6,8 2 8 ,6 1 2,9 1 0,0

1 ,6 1 ,9 3 ,2 -

0 ,6 1 ,9 2 ,3 3 ,7

R aw m ater ia l

1 57 3 77 2 13 9 3 8 0

D

1

P osit ion o f r etouch

1 57 3 77 2 13 9 3 8 0

0

-2 50 -3 25 -2 62 -2 33 - 29

2 6,1 3 0,0 2 7,7 1 2,9 1 7,5

( % )

Q uartz D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

C

6 0 4 6 5 4 5 9 3 8

7 9,0 7 4,8 7 9,8 5 5,9 6 3,7

Q uartz ite

3 ,7

H or nfe ls 3 ,2 8 ,2 4 ,2 2 9,0 3 ,7

2 34

C halcedony 1 4,0 1 5,6 1 6,0 1 2,9 8 ,7

S ilcr ete 3 ,8 1 ,3 2 ,2 2 0,0

T able 5 8. B oomplaas C ave: D escriptive s tatistics f or a dzes. F or k ey t o c odes s ee A ppendix 2 .

M EMBER

f

M EAN

S TD D EV IAT ION

S TD E RROR

V AR IANCE

R ANGE

( a ) L ength D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

3 8 8 7 1 4 4 9

3 5,55 3 2,70 3 2,86 3 1,00 4 6,22

8 ,50 8 ,56 5 ,05 8 ,37 1 9,21

1 ,38 0 ,92 1 ,35 4 ,18 6 ,40

7 2,25 7 3,12 2 5,52 7 0,00 3 68,94

1 8 1 8 2 5 2 4 2 0

-5 2 -6 0 -4 2 -4 3 -7 8

2 3,05 1 8,61 1 7,43 1 5,50 2 4,33

6 ,65 5 ,59 6 ,67 4 ,73 1,18

1 ,08 0 ,60 1 ,78 2 ,36 3 ,73

4 4,16 3 1,26 4 4,42 2 2,33 1 25,00

1 2 -3 6 3-3 1 1 -3 8 1 2 -2 1 3 -4 8

3 ,25 3 ,25 1 ,92 5 ,68 5 ,47

0 ,53 0 ,35 0 ,51 2 ,84 1 ,82

1 0,57 1 0,53 3 ,67 3 2,25 2 9,86

5-1 8 3-1 9 4- 1 4-1 6 6-2

1 ,97 1 ,89 1 ,12 1 ,50 3 ,32

0 ,32 0 ,20 0 ,30 0 ,75 1 ,11

3 ,86 3 ,56 1 ,26 2 ,25 1,00

4-1 2 3-1 3 3- 7 4- 7 3-1 3

1 ,00 0 ,91 0 ,27 1 ,27

0 ,16 0 ,10 0 ,07 0 ,42

0 ,99 0 ,83 0 ,07

2- 6 3-1 0 2- 3 3 2- 6

( b ) W idth D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

3 8 8 7 1 4 4 9

( c ) H e ight o f p iece D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

3 8 8 7 1 4 4 9

1 0,84 9 ,54 7 ,14 9 ,75 1 4,11

( d ) H e ight o f r etouch ( 1 ) D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

3 8 8 7 1 4 4 9

7 ,76 6 ,62 5 ,21 5 ,75 8 ,67

( d ) H e ight o f r etouch ( 2 ) D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

3 8 8 7 1 4 4 9

( e )

P lan f orm

D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

3 8 8 7 1 4 4 9

3 ,92 3 ,56 2 ,93 3 ,00 3 ,89 ( % )

C

0

1 ,61

D

E

1

2

3

4

5

6

4 7,4 5 4,0 4 2,9 5 0,0 3,3

5 ,3 1 8 ,4 3 5,7 5 0,0 2,2

2 6,3 1,5 1 4,3 1,1

1 0,5 1 2,8 3 3,3

5 ,3 1 ,1 -

5 ,3 1 ,1 7 ,1 -

2 35

T able 5 9.

B oomplaas C ave:

D escriptive s tatistics f or

s egments ( mm ). D ata f or B LD d o n ot i nclude m easurements f or o ne l arge s egment.

M EMBER

D IMENSION

f

M EAN

S TANDARD D EV IAT ION

S TANDARD E RROR

R ANGE

D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

L ength

2 1 7 1 9 2 7

1,00 1 4,76 1 4,79 1,50 1,86

1 ,41 3 ,44 4 ,16 1 ,12 2 ,27

1 ,00 0 ,83 0 ,95 1 ,50 0 ,86

1 0-12 9 -20 8 -23 1 0-13 9 -16

D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

W id th

2 1 7 1 9 2 7

4 ,00 6 ,24 6 ,11 5 ,00 5 ,43

1 ,71 1 ,79 1 ,41 1 ,72

0 ,42 0 ,41 1 ,00 0 ,65

4 3 -10 3 -8 4 -6 3 -8

D GL B LD B LA B RL C L

H e ight

2 1 7 1 9 2 7

2 ,00 2 ,29 2 ,32 1 ,50 1 ,71

0 ,85 0 ,75 0 ,71 0 ,95

0 ,21 0 ,17 0 ,50 0 ,36

2 1 -4 1 -4 1 -2 1 -3

T able 6 0.

B oomplaas C ave:

b acked f lakes

M EMBER

D IMENSION

a nd b ladelets

f

M EAN

D escriptive s tatistics f or ( mm ).

S TANDARD D EV IAT ION

S TANDARD E RROR

R ANGE

B LD B LA

L ength

2 4 6

1 0,75 1 2,50

5 ,96 4 ,81

2 ,21 1 ,96

8 -17 1 0-22

B LD B LA

W idth

2 4 6

5 ,96 4 ,83

2 ,14 2 ,14

0 ,44 0 ,87

3 -11 3 -8

B LD B LA

H e ight

2 4 6

2 ,21 1 ,50

0 ,78 0 ,71

0 ,16 0 ,50

1 -4 1 -3

2 36

T able 6 1. M atrix s ummarizing t he n umber o f t imes t wo s amples o f s crapers w ere n ot s ignificantly d ifferent a t p . 05 i n T ables 4 2-49. A ssemblages a re s orted b y a pproximate a ge t o d emonstrate s imilarity b etween s amples o f s imilar a ge a t a n i nter-site l evel. S ite c ode: 1 1-15 = B oomplaas, 2 1-25 = N elson B ay C ave, 3 1-34 = K angkara.

A pprox a ge B P

S ITE C ODE

1 700

1

0 6 1 . 1

8 1 .0 1 2

I C 2 1

H OCG I IL 3 2

S UR 3 1

B SC 2 2

B LA 1 3

P BWR BL 3

R A 2 3

B RL 1 4

1 01 4 2 4

I i 8LR &D 3 4

2 000

1 2

8

4 800

2 1

2

0

5 000

3 1

5

6

4

5 355

3 2

6

7

o

8

6 000

2

6

7

1

4

6 400

1 3

8

8

o

6

8 8

8

7 000

2 3

7

7

3

6

8

8

7

7 -9000

3 3

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

9 10 5 00

1 4

0

0

0

2

1

1

0

I

8

9 11 00

2 4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

9 12 00

3 4

2

2

0

2

2

2

2

5

8

6

2

1 214 00

1 5

0

0

1

0

0

5

0

2

6

2

4

5

1 218 00

2 5

6

6

4

4

8

8

7

8

3

4

0

6

2 37

C L 1 5

1 5 -18 2 5

5

I

2 38 I re

r 1

r-. 1 I

a )

C t .

c r )

0 e s . 1

ct C . "/

( I) 1 - 1 CO

I

CV r 1

r- i I

CV I C ') co

I I

I .0 4C / 1 ,

CD

CV I • vt

t n I

CO • -• 1

I I

CV d

T OTAL W ORKED B ONE

I e. 4

S patulate p o ints

-

I

B lunted p o ints/linkshafts

1 4 -. -

B roken b one p o ints/linkshafts -

1 , 1

P olished b one

I I

P o lished b one s hafts

eI

S moothed a rt icu lar e nds

CO ui

P o lished t usk

CV r• •

M ult i-r inged t ube

CO

B one b eads

CV

B one p endant

CO

G rooved b one

V " ) CO

W ORKED B ONE

CO VD

U nf in ished O ES b eads

e

O str ich e ggshell

-J ( 1 )

O str ich e ggshell f ragments

O STR ICH E GGSHELL

r-I

CV

/1

I

/

( NJ

CO

-

T able 6 3.

B oomplaas C ave:

F requencies o f o strich e ggshell

( OES)

a nd

m arine a nd f reshwater s hell f ragments a nd c rab r emains.

C LASS

D GL

O str ich e ggshe ll f ragments D ecorated f ragments O ES b eads

B LD

9 51 5 1 05

B LA

1 560 2 8 1 48

U nf inished O ES b eads

4

9

O ES w ater c onta iner a pertures

1

3

O ES p endants

1

O ES p endant b lanks

1

B roken O ES p endants

-

T OTAL W ORKED O ES

16

B RL 1 B RL 2 B RL 3 B RL 4 B RL 5 B RL 6 T OTAL B RL 7 C L 1C L 2 B RL

4 62

1 83

5 69

8 3 7 1 5

1 4 8

1

1 7 1 0

1 54

1 708

-

4

1 0

4 7

1

1

1

2 9

6 48 4 1 7 8

2

1 865

5 127

2 572

4 269

1

1 9

6 0

1 7

2

1 27

5 1

5 0

6 2

1

2 8

6 5

8

C L 3

1 592

2 308

C L 4

4 5

G WA T OTAL C L

8 0 1 0866

2 2 7 5

1

3 5 8

7 9 1

1 64

-

5 2

2

3

-

2 1 91

6 2

2 2

2 8

1

8 2

2 9

4 4

2 16

1 0 1 0

1 5 1 6

1 23

9 5

3 2

4 7

1

-

2 98

U nworked m ar ine a nd f r eshwater s he ll D onax

L eft R ight 1 N umber o f s quares i n w hich f ragments o f D onax w ere p reiW i l76 B ivalve f rags. 1 7 P atella f rags. r aTriita f rags.L 3 R 1 P erna p erna L R -

1 2

7 2 4 3 6 3 2

4

1 2

1 -

1

3 -

1

2 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

9 1

1

3 8 1 3

3 5

1

6 4 -

2 -

W orked m ar ine a nd e stuar ine s hell N at ica b ead s N assa b eads

P o lished s iff ie P erforated C ypraea s p . B u llia s p . U T RIMer ls s p hr iw ink le P o lished s hell p endants b uttons T OTAL W ORKED S HELL C rab c laws

6 3 2

1 8 6

1

4

2

3

1 7

2

1

1 -

1 3 9

1 3 3 1

2 9

1

2

1 2

2

1 07

5

4

2

3

1 8

2

1

3 0

1 8

L&Rc ounts f or b ivalves r epresent t he n umber o f l eft a nd r ight a p ica l f ragments w ith h inge a ttachment.

2 39

7 2 -

1

4 . 6

3 3 -

3 2 5

T able 6 4. B oomplaas C ave: F requencies o f p otsherds f rom D GL a nd B LD m embers. K angkara: F requency o f p otsherds.

U NIT

T OTAL S HERDS

S HERDS J O INED

3 4

W ORKING T OTAL

2 30

P LA IN R IMS

D ECORATED R IMSHERDS

D GL

2 64

D GL 1

3 13

7

3 06

2

4

D GL 2

1 04

5

9 9

1

4

D GL 3

6 3

3

6 0

D GL 4

5 0

1

4 9

B LD 1

11

B LD 1 -2

3 9

B LD 2

4 5

B LD 2 a

7 4

T OTAL D GL M EMBER

1 063

B LD 3 =B LD M EMBER

4 4

1 3

2

6 6

2

1

1

3 6

1

4 5

1

7 2

3

4 2

7

S POUT

B ASES

1

2

2 0

E STIMATED M IN IMUM N O O F V ESSELS 5

1 3

4

9

1

1

1 00

9 97

O THER D ECORATED

1

1

1

1

3

5

2

2

1

1

2

1 2

1

3 8

1

3

1 7

1

N ote : S herds f rom B LD 3 w ere a l ocalized o ccurrence i n ad isturbed a rea a nd a re p robably d er ived f rom t he o ver lying B LD 2 a u n it.

K ANGKARA S UR H BC

4

4

1

2 40

T able 6 5a.

O chre

B PA S TRATIGRAPHIC U NIT

D GL B LD B LA B RL 1 B RL 2 B RL 3 B RL 4 B RL 5 B RL 6 T OTAL B RL B RL 7 C L 1 C L 2 C L 3 C L 4 G WA T OTAL C L

T able 6 5b.

C LASS

N BC S TRATIGRAPHIC U NIT

f

12 1 44 9 0 2 4 3 4 9 8 8 4 7 2 15 3 77 2 23 2 14 6 7 1 45 6 2 4 6 79

I C B SC R A R B J B SBJ C S G SL B SL Y SL V GL

B oomplaas C ave:

D GL

U t ilized e dges 2 C ut m arks 7 P o lished p ieces 1 8 B eads 2 P o lished t ube s ect ions 4 P o lished w ith c ut e nds 5 G rooved/ i ncised 5 P o lished p oints 6 P o lished/ s cratched c hunks S patulas M odified t orto ise c arapace A w ls P o lished t usk P endant T OTAL

f requencies a t B PA a nd N BC.

4 9

B LD

B LA

B RL1

B RL6

f

8 6 1 83 5 0 4 9 5 8 3 9 6 5 6 9 2 1 5 5 4 1

b one t ool f requencies.

B RL7

C L1

C L2

C L3

G WA

4

6 7

2 3 1

2

9

1 2

1

1

1

. 6

1

3

4 2 1 5 1 8

1

6

1

6

4

1

1 2 2

6

1

2

3

1

4

1 7

2

1

1 1

1

1

1

1

2

9

4

2 41

2

4

4

1 7

2 5 3

2 1 1 3

1

5 8

T OTAL

3

1 52

ARTEFACT

DRA W INGS

F IGS 13-137

3

6

4

7

9

1 3

1 2

5

1 4

1 0

1 5

4

1 7

22

Cr n

23

24

F ig. 1 13. s crapers; 1 -16:

26

-

27

2 2-32:

25

N BC: s tone a rtefacts f rom I C a nd B SC. 1 -10: s mall 1 1-16, 1 9-21: s egments; 1 7: l arge s craper; 1 8: b orer;

s mall s crapers. f rom I C;

1 7-32 f rom B SC

1 ,16,17: q uartzite; 2 ,3,6,11: s ilcrete; 5 ,9,12,20,21,23,24,25, 2 8,30,31: c halcedony ; a ll r est a re q uartz.

2 44

D

4

3

7

6

( i

8 C M

1 4

1 5

16

F ig. 1 14. N BC: S tone a rtefacts f rom R A ( 1-9( a nd R B ( 10-16). 1 -5,12,13: s mall s crapers; 7 -9,14-16: l arge s crapers; 1 0-11: m edium s crapers; 6 : s egment. 1 ,2,3,4,5,12,13:

q uartz;

6 :

c halcedony;

2 45

a ll r est a re q uartzite.

8

F ig.

1 15.

N BC:

S tone a rtefacts f rom J ( 1-5), B SBJ ( 6-8)

G SL ( 9). 1 -9: 4 ,5:

l arge a nd m edium s crapers c halcedony;

a ll r est a re q uartzite.

2 46

a nd

2

3

6

4

8

7

5

9

CM

1 0

1 2

1

1 3

1 4

F ig. 1 16. N BC: S tone a rtefacts f rom B SL ( 3), Y SL ( 4,5,8-10) a nd Y GL ( 6,7,11-14). 1 : l arge s craper; b acked t ools.

2 : m edium s craper;

1 1,14:

9 ,13:

q uartzite;

3 -9:

s mall s crapers;

c halcedony; a ll r est a re q uartz.

2 47

1 0-14:

3

2

4

5

6

9

8

7

CM

1 0

1 3

12

1 1

l b r 1 4

F ig.

1 17.

1 6: Y SL; 1 :

1 6

15

N BC:

1 7

B ladelet c ores f rom Y SL a nd YGL.

2 ,3,5,6,7,11,15,

a ll r est f rom YGL.

c halcedony;

2 ,3,5-10:

s ilcrete;

2 48

4 :

q uartzite;

a ll r est a re q uartz.

1 te

2

e '?

4

5 '

S UR

S UR C ha l

7

1

H BC

Q uartz

c halced

S UR C ha l

0 1' 1 \ 4.

H BC Q uartz

S UR Q tz

8

V 1 1 0

S GL

S GL S ilcrete

G BL S ilcrete

Q uartz

1 3 1 0

1 2 G BL C ha l 1 4

m

G BL C ha l

i z * Z 7 ,

G BL S ilcrete

1 5 D GL Q tz

D GL Q tz

G BL

D GL Q uartz

Q uartzite

1 8

P BW

Q uartzite

P BW

S ilcrete

P BW

S ilcrete

2 1

L PW

F ig.

1 18.

L PW

Q uartz ite

K angkara:

Q uartz ite

S crapers f rom S UR t o L PW.

A ll f rom t est p it A l.

2 49

P BW - Q uartz ite

P BW - S ilcrete

P BW - Q uartzite

Cm

4

R BL - C ha lced

R BL - S ilcrete

R BL - S ilcrete 9

7

Y BL - S ilcrete

1

B D -S ilcrete

1 6

G BL

1 2

S UR C ha lced

1 7 (

S ilc

BD - Q uartz ite

Y BL - C ha lced

G BL S ilc

A

A

4 1 6 S UR C ha l

1 3, A

1 4

e ( d

H BC C ha lced

D GL D GL - Q uartz Q uartz

1 9 e ,

1 8 C G BL C ha l

1 5

2 0

G BL Q uartz c rysta l

4

G BL Q uartz c rysta l

F ig. 1 19. K angkara : S crapers a nd b acked t ools f rom v arious u nits i n t est p it A l.

2 50

8

2 8

D r i 2 9

1 7

1 8 3 0

3 1

A3 4 h 3 5

3 6

4 0

4 2

4 3

4 1

4 4 .

F ig. 1 20. B PA: S tone a rtefacts f rom D GL M ember. 1 -24: s crapers; 2 5-27: a dzes; 3 4: b acked b ladelet; 3 5: s egment; 3 6: b orer; 3 7: b ored s hale p iece; 2 8-30: u tilized f lakes; 3 8-41: m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces; 3 1-33: c ores; 4 2-44: c ore r educed p ieces. 1 ,26,29,33,37:hornfels; 2 0,23,24,27,28,32,38,39: c halcedony; 8 ,25: q uartzite; a ll r est q uartz. 2 51

2

3

N 18 B LD A M2 b h Q uartz 50

6e

J 15 B LD 3 P 12 B LD 3 A M Q uartz C ha lcedony l

7# 1 18A \ J_ P

ä

U 20

P 17 B LD 3 P 20 B LD 3 0 15 Q N 17 B LD 3 C ha lcedony C h B LD 3 Q uartz 1 1 0

N 20 i n 3 M 14. -B LD A F3 Q uartz 3 C h

N 12 B LD 3 AM Q uartz ite

M liQ 19 -B LD 3 A M2 B LD 3 Q S ilcrete c m

1 3

E H

K 17 B LD 3 C ha lcedony

N 15 B LD 3 Q uartz

1 9 A 12 1 A

L 12 B LD 3 M 12 B LD 3 Q uartz Q uartz

2 5

1 5I

n

12 B LD 3Q uartz

1 6

R 17 C h B LD A M2

2 1 112 L J 13 B LD 3 Q uartz

R 14-B LD -4 C h

N 17 B LD 3 AM Q

2 3 A

P 18 B LD 3 A M 2Q uartz

A 2 4 A

v _ g ä

_ Q 13 B LD 3 Q 13 B LD 3 13 B LD 3 Q uartz Q uartz A F1 Q uartz

2 8

2 7

2 6

g 1 , 4 8 j ,

1 7

J 18 B LD 3 C h

J 16 B LD 3 C h

3 0

J 14 B LD 3 S ilcrete

Q 17 B LD 3 A F1 Q uartz

M 13 B LD 3 AM Q

N 16 B LD 3 C h

F ig. 1 21. B PA : S tone a rtefacts f rom t he B LD M ember. 1 : l arge s egment; 2 -24: b acked m icroliths; 2 5-32: b orers.

2 52

3

M 14 B LD 3 A M1 S H H ornfe ls

L 14 B LD 3 AM C h

I1 4 B LD 3 C h

4 5

J 13 B LD 3 AM S ilcrete

K 15 B LD 3 AM C h

K 16 B LD 3 AM C h

CM

9 8

15 B LD 3 C h

1 0 N 12 B LD 3 H ornfe ls ( mast ic t races s t ipp led )

L 15 B LD 3 AM S ilcrete P 20 B LD 3 A F2 C h 1 4

J 16 B LD 3 H ornfels

13 B LD 3 A F4 H ornfe ls

F ig.

1 22.

B PA :

K 13 B LD 3 AM C ha lcedony

12 B LD 3 A F1 H ornfe ls

A dzes f rom t he B LD M ember.

2 53

3

P 20 B LD 3 A F2 Q uartz

0 16 B LD 3 Q uartz 6

8

7

0 16 B LD 3 Q uartz 1

0 12 B LD 3 Q uartz

1 7

M 12 B C C ' 3 Q uartz

M 12 B LD 3 Q uartz

0 15 B LD 3 Q uartz

M 14 B LD 3 Q uartz 1 5

1 4

14 B LD 3 Q uartz

13 B LD 3 A F1 Q uartz

M 13 B LD 3 Q uartz

9

1 3

1 2

N 14 B LD 3 Q uartz 1 6

12 B LD 3 A F1 Q uartz

P 16 B LD 3 Q uartz

1 8

1 9

0 16 B LD 3 Q uartz

2 0

dirl e ' e P 15 B LD 3 Q uartz 2 1

M 12 B LD 3 Q uartz

M 12 B LD 3 0 13 B LD 3 Q uartz Q uartz

M 15 B LD 3 Q uartz

2 2 r

N 12 B LD 3 Q

IP

P 16 B LD 3 C h

P 15 B LD 3 Q

2 4 01# 1 01 * P 16 B LD 3 C h CM

13 B LD 3 C h

N 16 B LD 3 H ornfe ls 2 9

3 0

P 20 B LD 3 H ornfe ls

L 16 B LD 3 C ha lcedony

F ig.

1 23.

B PA :

16 B LD 3 H ornfe ls

P 20 B LD 3 Q

3

L 14 B LD 3 Q uartz

N 17 B LD 3 C ha lcedony

L 13 B LD 3 H or nfe ls

0 16 B LD 3 Q uartz

N 12 -B LD 3 S ilcrete

S crapers f rom t he B LD M ember.

2 54

2

J 13 B LD 3 - H ornfels

3

P 18 B LD 3 - C ha lcedony

5

0 14 B LD 3 Q uartz

N 15 B LD 3 H ornfels

6

J 16 B LD 3 - H ornfe ls

N 12 B LD 3 - H or nfels 1

7 1 0 I i

„ B LD 3 Q uartz

9

8 Z :›Lb N 14 B LD 3 Q uartz

L 14 B LD 3 C ha lcedony

N 16 B LD 3 H ornfels

0 20 B LD 3 A F2 S ilcrete

1 4

K 15 B LD 3 AM Q uartz ite

N 17 B LD 3 S ilcrete

cm

L 17 B LD 3 AM Q uartzite

F ig.

1 24.

B PA:

U tilized f lakes a nd a h ammerstone

f rom t he B LD M ember.

2 55

N 14 B L H ornfe ls

P 18 B L Q uartz

P 14 B L 2Q uartz

M 18 B L H ornfe ls

CM

7

5

6

P 19 B LD 3 B LD 3 A F1 A M 2Q uartz

L 12 B LD 3 AM H ornfe lS

N 12 B LD 3 A M2 H ornfe ls

1

N 12 B LD 3 A M2 H ornfe ls

P 18 B LD 3 A M Q uartz

P 19 B L H ornfe ls

1 2

J 12 B LD 3 H ornfe ls

17 B LD 3 A M2 B H Q uartz

17 B LD 3 A M ( 52) Q uartz 1 5

1 6

1 7

K 15 B LD 3 A M Q uartzite

R 18 B L H ornfe ls

R 19 B LD S H S ilcrete 1 9

2 0

1 8

2 1

M 18 B L S ilcrete

N 14 B L C h

N 18 B L Q

2 3

0 15 B L H ornfels

N 17 B L

2 d

N 16 B L Q P 19 B L C h

H ornfe ls

F ig .

1 25.

U tilized f lakes f rom t he B LD M ember.

u tilization;

1 0-15: n otched;

1 6-25:

2 56

e dge d amaged.

1 -9: s teep

2

3

r ( 0

4 6

0 16 B LA C A2 C ha lcedony

0 16 8 1 A C A2 C h

0 1g- C h B FBL 2

0 16 C h B FBL L A

0 1i P 18 F BL ( 17) B FBL L A C ha lcedony C ha lcedony

N 16 C h B FBL

1 0 8 1

3

N 15 B LA A L 2 A Q uartz 1 6

9 0

HO

Q 15 B LA N 15 B LA A L 1 A C h A L 2Q

1 01, 7 t" -

1 2(

1 9 1 w

P 16 B FBL 2 N 15 B LA Q l6 P 15 B B Q uartz Q uartz B FBL B FBL Q Q uartz

Q 14 B LA 1 Q

P 13 B RL A F1 B LA Q uartz

1

1 31 4( 1

2 0

) N 15 B LA A L 2B B Q uartz

2 1

(1

P 15 B FBL Q 2 2

e

N 15 B LA A L 2B B Q uartz

R 18 F BL C ha lcedony

Q 12 B LA A F1 B RL B F Q uartz

0 18 F BL Q uartz

2 8

N 16 B FBL H ornfels

1 5

N 15 B LA Q 15 B L N 15 B LA Q 12 A L 2Q B LA Q A L 2B B B LA Q uartz Q

3 0

N 15 B LP T AL2 B B H ornfels

Q 16 B FBL 2 C h

N 15 B LA A L2 B B H ornfe ls

N 15 B LA A L2 B B H ornfe ls

3 1

3 3

Q 16 B FBL C h

N 15 B LA A L2 B B H ornfe ls

3 4

CM

N 15 B LA A L2 H ornfels

F ig. 1 26. B PA : S tone a rtefacts f rom t he B LA M ember. 1 -22: b acked m icroliths; 2 3-26: m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces; 2 7-34: a dzes.

2 57

2

e \ f

3

/

N 16 B FBL 2 Q uartz

Q 15 B LA 1 Q uartz

4

Q 16 B FBL Q uartz

5 6

P 15 B LA T A Q uartz

N 13 B LA H ornfe ls

7

P 15 B LA T A Q uartz

1 0

9 Q 15 B LA B A Q uartz

N 15 B LA A L2 Q uartz

Q 1 B LA 1 Q uartz

B LA A L2 Q uartz

1 5

1 2

1

N 15 B LA A L2A Q uartz

1 5

N 15 B LA A L2 Q uartz

0 15 B FBL Q uartz

1 7 M

1 9

1 8

_ P

kt

N 15 B LA A L2 P 16 B FBL C h B B C ha lcedony

0 16 B FBL 2 C ha lcedony 2 1

( )

2

2 3

N 15 B LA A L2 B B Q uartz

0 16 B LA C A2 Q 15 B LA A C ha lcedony C ha lcedony

0 15 B FBL C ha lcedony

9 5 , 25 em e e e b .

2 4

14 B LA 1 C h R 14 B LA 1 N 14 B FBL N 14 B FBL 2 Q C ha lcedony Q uartz C ha lcedony 2 9 2 7 2 8 2 6 P 15 B FBL C h

N 15 B LA A L2 Q uartz

0 15 B FBL Q uartz

h

Q 12 B LA B RL A F1 C h

q i r i eD 3 4 1 ge

0 16 B FBL 2 P 16 B FBL 2 H ornfe ls C ha lcedony C M

F ig.

1 27.

B PA:

S crapers

2 58

f rom t he B LA M ember.

0 16 B RL 2 - S ilcrete

P 14 B RL 2 - Q uartz

Q 15 B RL 2 - H ornfe ls

4

Q 14 B RL 1 C ha lcedony

0 14 B RL 2 - Q uartz

Q 15 B RL 2 - Q uartz

Q 15 B RL 2 C ha lcedony

Q 15 ( 41) B RL 2 - H or nfe ls

7

0 12 B RL 1 C ha lcedony

0 16 B RL 2 H or nfe ls

N 13 B RL 2 H ornfe ls

Q 17 B RL 2 H ornfe ls

0 13 B RL 2 A -H ornfe ls

Cm

0 13 B RL 2 - H ornfe ls 0 14 B RL 2 - Q uartz

F ig.

1 28.

B PA:

S crapers f rom B RL 1 a nd B RL 2 ,

2 59

3 - P Q I5 B RL 3 W A Q uartz

_ b

4 Q 14 B RL 3 - h or nfels

P 14 B RL 4 Q uartz ( ochre-stained)

Q 15 B RL 3 W A H or nfe ls

P 15 B RL 3 W A -Q uartz

Q 16 B RL 3 W A -Q uartz

7

P 15 B RL 4 A -Q uartz 9

1 0

01 6 B RL 4 - H ornfels

P 14 B RL 4 - H ornfe ls

Q 15 B RL 3 - Q uartz CM

F ig.

1 29.

B PA:

S crapers

f rom B RL 3 a nd B RL 4 .

2 60

0 12 B RL 2 H ornfe ls

Q 13 B RL 4 U A

0 15 B RL 4 C h

P 14 B RL 1 H ornfe ls

N 16 B RL Q uartz

- S ilcrete

c m

6 7

Q 15 B RL 3 W A

N 13 B RL 2 B C ha lcedony

8

Q uartz

1 0

4 ) 14 B RL 4 - Q uartz

0 16 B RL 4 H ornfe ls

P 15 B RL 2 Q uartz

F ig. 1 30. B PA : S tone a rtefacts f rom t he B RL M ember. 1 ,3,4: m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces; 2 : " NSA" f lake; 5 :

s egment;

6 -10:

c ore r educed p ieces.

2 61

N 13 C L 3B G G P S ilcrete

N 14 C L 3B BG Q uartz

Q 14 C L 3E T G- S ilcrete

Q 13 C L 3B G Q uartz

N 13 C L 3B G G P S ilcrete

Q 12 C L 3 BG T A Q uartz

0 12 C L 3Q uartz

9

N 15 C L 3 BG Q uartz

Q 13 C L 3B G Q uartz

Q 14 C L 3B G Q uartz

N 15 C L 3B BG Q uartz

0 15 C L 3B G Q uartz

0 13 C L 3B PB/MA Q uartz

0 15 C L 3B G Q uartz

0 13 C L 3M A Q uartz

1 8

0 14 C L 3B BG Q uartz c rysta l

F ig.

1 31.

N 14 C L 3 B BG Q uartz c rysta l

B PA:

0 14 C L 3 N 15 C L 3 BG Q 12 C L 3 BG BG Q uartz Q uartz c rysta l Q uartz c rystal c rysta l

S crapers f rom t he C L M ember.

2 62

2

3 . . ..

P 13 N 1 5 C L1 C L3 Q uartz Q

N 13 C L3 Q

4

5

P 15 0 15 C L3 C L3 A F5 Q C ha lcedony c m

6 n 7o N 15 C L3 B Q uartz

0 15 C L3 B Q uartz

1 0

8

9

N 12 B RL 7 C ha lcedony

1 1 N 12 B RL 7 C h

0 13 B RL 7 H ornfe ls 1 3

1 2

0 13 ( 41) B RL 7 C ha lcedony ( M icrowear = a dze)

0 16 C L 1 (L) C ha lcedony

N 15 C L3 B BG S ilcrete

P 15 C L 3Y A ( 21)

N 13 C L 3B G B F Q uartz ite

H or nfe ls

F ig. 1 32. B PA: S tone a rtefacts f rom t he C L M ember. 1 -7: b acked m icroliths; 8 ,9: b orers; 1 0-15: a dzes.

2 63

0 16

C L1(L ) C h

P 15 C L1(L) S ilcrete

N 16 C L1 Q uartz ite

5 N 13 C L1 Q uartz

7 8

6

P 16 B RL 7 LA

N 15 C L 1 Q uartz

Q uartz

N 13 C L 1Q uartz

0 13 C L3 A F 5 W H ornfe ls

1 0

0 15 C L2 H ornfe ls ( m icrowear = s craper )

N 12 C L 2S ilcrete

N 13 C L 3B G G P S ilcrete

c m 1 2

1 3

0 13 C L3 M A Q uartz

0 12 C L 3Q uartz

0 15 C L 3B G Q uartz

1 8 1 6

Q 13 ( 1 ) C L3 B BG C ha lced . ( Microwear = s craper )

Q 12 ( 23) C L3 BG Q uartz

0 12 C L 4B asa l

F ig.

1 33.

B PA :

P 15 G WA Y OA S ilcrete

P 14 G WA Y OA Q uartz

S ilcrete

S crapers f rom t he C L M ember.

2 64

Q 15 ( 19)

C L 3B P

Q uartzite

CM

N 15 ( 9)

F ig.

1 34.

C L 3V A

B PA:

Q uartzite

L arge s crapers f rom t he C L M ember.

2 65

2 1

Q 15 C L3 B GM S ilcrete

Q 14 C L 3M A S ilcrete

7

4 N 15 C L3 B G Q uartz 6

8

1 0

9

N 13 C L3 C halced

N 12 C L 3A F25 Q uartz

C L 3s weepings Q uartz

Q 14 ( 11) C L3 M A S ilcrete

9 _ 0 0 1

P 16 C L3 Q uartz

P 14 C L 3 A F11 Q tz

1

1 3 1 2

0 16 C L3 A F5 C ha l

0 15 C L3 Q uartz

P 13 C L3 A F7 Q uartz

1 5

P 14 C L 3B BG Q uartz

N 14(8) C L3 A F2 C ha lcedony

0 14 C L 3B BG Q uartz

Cm

F ig. 1 35. B PA : C ores f rom t he C L M ember. 1 -7: s ingle p latform b ladelet c ores; 8 -13: s mall f lat b ladelet c ores;

1 4-16:

i rregular c ores.

2 66

2

4

S:: .9 0 Q 15 C L 3B G S ilcrete

Q 15 C L 3B G Q uartz

3

0 13 C L 3 P F5 Q uartz

f) Q 16 C L 3B G Q uartz

5 6

0 14 C L 3B G Q uartz

7

0 16 C L 3B BG Q uartz

Q 16 C L 3B G C halcedony

0 13 C T 3P F25L Q uartz

Q 15 ( 4) C L 3B GM C halcedony Q 14 ( 16) C L 3B G H ornfe ls

P 14 ( 1 ) C L 3B G 2 - Q uartz ite

F ig. 1 36: B PA : t he C L M ember.

U tilized f lakes

2 67

Q 15 ( 25) C L 3B P C ha lcedony

f rom t he C L 3 u nit o f

M 13 B L [ ) 3 AM Q uartz

Q 17 B LD A M2 Q uartz

L 12 B LD 3 AM H ornfels 6

5

0 15 B LD 3 C Q uartz

8 7

R 18 F BL C hal

Q 12 A F1 B RL B LA C halcedony

Q 12 A F1 FL B LA Q uartz

P 19 F BL ( 7 ) Q uartz

9

0 14 ( 67) B RL 4 Q uartz

N 13 ( 10) B RL 2 B -S ilcrete

P 15 B RL 4 A C ha lced

c m

1 4

1 3

P 16 ( 8 ) B RL 7 N 16 B RL 7 H ornfels L A H ornfels M icrowear : w ood P o lish M icrowear : w ood p o lish 1 5

1 6

1 7

N 12 C L 2 A F5 Q uartz

N 12 C L 2 0 12 C L 2 A F5 Q tz C ha lced

i I L

P 15 C L 2A F6 C ha lcedony

N 15 B RL 7 H ornfels

P 15 C L l (L) C ha lcedony

2 0 2 3

2 1

P 16 C L2 A F8 C halcedony

0 12 C L2 Q tz

P 16 C L2 C hal

P 15 C L 2M OU C halcedony

F ig. 1 37a. B PA : C ore r educed p ieces f rom v arious s tratigraphic u nits; 1 2 a nd 1 3 h ave b een a nalysed f or m icrowear b y B inneman ( 1982) a nd s how w ood p olish a t t he s triking p latform e nd.

2 68

CM

Q-Q uartz H fels - H ornfels C hal - C ha lcedony S i] - S ilcrete

Q 14 C L 3 B BG S il.

H fels.

S i].

S il.

S i].

C ha l.

N 13 C L 3 B BG

N 13 C L 3 B BG

44 .

S il.

S i].

S i].

N 15 C L 3 B G

N 12 C L 3 ) ‚ 1°

0 12 C L 2

N 16 C L 1

F ig. 1 37b. B PA : B ladelets f rom t he C L M ember t o i llustrate t he s tandardization i n s ize a nd s hape.

2 69

P ATTERNS OF CHANGE

TI M E

EN V I R O N M E N T

2 0 1 9 1 8 1 7

1 4

6

C o ld a nd d ry 1 . -4

B lade let p roduct ion +L SA i nnovat ions

1 1 0 9

4

C oo l, b ut w etter \ -6 1 C hange i n m icrofauna V

W arm

C hange i n l arge m amma l f aunas m ore s ma ll n ong regar ious b rowser s g radua lly p redom inate

S hift i n t oo lmak ing m ethod a nd a bsence o f b lade let s L arger s craper s & f lakes F ew f orma l t oo ls

S ma ller g roups a nd h igher d ensity

8 7 6 5 4

W arm a nd d ry P lant f oods p rom inent i n W arm s ome d epoSits a nd w etter

M ore f orma l t oo ls S ma ller s crapers & f lakes B lade lets a nd b acked m icro liths

1 0

D omest ic s tock C oo ler a nd I ron A ge c ontacts d r ier

4

1

R ed istr ibut ion d ue t o d r ier c ond it ions i n s ome r eg ions

R e-co lon izat ion o f d r ier r eg ions

3 2

L arge h unt ing g roups, d isper sed d istr ibut ion

L arge g ame ( gregar ious g razer si

1 3 1 2

DE M O G R A P H Y

L ate P le istocene a rtefact t rad it ion

1 6 1 5

TE C H N O L O G Y

P ottery a nd s heep i ntroduced + c att le S ome s craper s amp les l arger , f ewer b acked m icro liths

P ossib le i nf lux o f i mm igrant h erders

F ig. 1 38. F low C hart o f o bservable c hanges a nd a ssumed r elations hips i n t he L ater S tone A ge s equence i n s outhernmost A frica.

2 72

PA T T E R N S

TH E

A NI )

CH A N G E

OF

SO U T H E R N

CA P E

FA R T H E R

IN

PR O V I N C E AF I E L D

T he f act t hat m any o f t he c hanges i n f requency, s ize a nd v ariety o f a rtefacts d escribed i n t he p revious c hapter w ere c oincident a t a ll t hree s ites i ndicates t hat t he s timuli f or c hange w ere n ot s ite s pecific, w hile t he f act t hat d ifferent v ariables s how d ifferent p atterns o f c hange t hrough t ime s uggests t hat t he s timuli i nitiating c hanges w ere d erived f rom s everal s ources. F urthermore, i t i s a pparent t hat a t l east t wo d ifferent s cales o f c hange c an b e s een t hat m ay b e l ikened i n a v ery g eneral w ay t o t he m acroa nd m icro-evolutionary s cales o f c hange i dentified i n b iological s ystems. T hese a re d escribed h ere a s i nnovative c hanges i n w hich n ew i tems a ppear i n t he t oolkit, a nd p ost-innovative c hanges i n w hich m odifications a re m ade t o t he f requency, s ize a nd s hape o f t he a rtefacts t hrough t ime. T hese t wo p rocesses, i ntroduction/innovation a nd s ubsequent m odification, a re t raced t hrough t he N BC a nd B PA s equences, t hey a re t hen c ompared t o t he p atterns o f c hange n oted i n m odern t echnology t o i dentify c haracteristics c ommon t o t echnological s ystems, a nd t hey a re f inally c ompared w ith c hanges i n e nvironmental v ariables t o t est f or a ny t emporal c orrespondences. T raditional m odels o f b oth s ocial ( Durham 1 976) a nd t echnological c hange ( Van W yk 1 979) a ssume t hat c hange i s p rimarily f unctional. W hether t he i ndividuals w ho i nitiated t he c hanges w ere a ware o f i t o r n ot, t he c oncept d emands t he a bility o f t he p eople t o

b elief t hat t hey c ontributed t o t he s urvive a nd r eproduce i n t heir h abitat.

U nder t his a ssumption, c hange i s b y d efinition a daptive ( Durham 1 976:91) b ecause w e b elieve, a t l east i n r etrospect, t hat p eople w ill o nly d o t hings t hat a re i n s ome w ay a dvantageous t o t hem . T his v iew c an b e c ontrasted w ith t hat w hich s ees c ertain i nventions a s v irtually ' inevitable b ecause o f t he s tage o f t echnological d evelopment t hat h as b een r eached ( White 1 949:168, 2 10), o r b ecause o f t he r e-networking o f e xisting c omponents i n a w ay t hat i s s imilar t o g enetic m utation ( Clarke 1 968:60, 8 9) a nd h as l ittle t o d o w ith g oal-seeking b ehaviour o r a daptation ( Bray 1 973:81). T he s timuli u sually i nvoked t o e xplain c hange, p articularly a t t he m acro-evolutionary l evel o f t he i nvention a nd s ubsequent s pread o f n ew t echnological i tems, h ave b een ( i) e nvironmental c hange w hich i s a ssumed t o h ave t riggered n ew a daptive r esponses; ( ii) s ocial/demographic c hange w hich h as s timulated t he d iffusion o f i deas t hrough e ither m igration, d emographic r eorganization o r e xisting c ommunication n etworks; a nd ( iii) t echnological d evelopment s timulated b y e volutionary m omentum w ithin t he t echnological s ystem . T he i dentification o f o ne o r m ore o f t hese s timuli i n t he a rchaeological r ecord i s n ot a s imple m atter. W hile w ell-dated i nformation o n e nvironmental c hanges a t B PA, a nd t o a l esser e xtent a t N BC,

m ake

i t

p ossible

t o

t est f or t emporal c orrespondence b etween

e nvironmental a nd t echnological c hanges i n t he s outhern c an b e n o c ertainty o f a c ausal r elationship

C ape, t here s hould s uch

c orrespondences

c hanges

d ocumented s ubtleties

o n o f

b e

d emonstrated.

P alaeoenvironmental

a r elatively g ross h uman e cology t hat

2 73

a re

s cale a nd t here m ay b e i mportant c annot b e d iscerned b ut m ay

n evertheless h ave s peeded u p o r d elayed t echnological r esponses t o s uch a n e xtent t hat r elationships m ay b e o bscured. W hile e legant c ause-and-effect s cenarios c an b e c onstructed, c aution i s a dvised f or e ven i n c ases w here p eople c an b e q uestioned a bout t heir m otives, a rgument s till r ages a bout t he c auses o f c ultural p ractices ( Diener & R obkin 1 978) a nd 1 972:1).

t he r easons

f or t echnological c hange

( Bernard & P elto

T he v iewpoint t o b e s tressed i n t his c hapter i s t hat t echnological c hange i n t he L SA d uring t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears i n t he s outhern C ape w as t he r esult o f a n umber o f d ifferent f actors - e nvironmental, s ocial/demographic a nd t echnological - w hich o perated a t b oth t he m acroa nd m icro-evolutionary l evels. T he w ay i n w hich t he t hree c ould h ave i nteracted i s h ypothesized i n t he f low c hart i n F ig. 1 38, b ut t hese i nteractions d o n ot e xplain t he d irection t aken b y t echnological c hange; t hey o nly s uggest w ays i n w hich c ould h ave b een s timulated. A lthough e nvironmental

t he a nd

c hange s ocial

e xplanations h ave b een o ffered t o a ccount f or c hange i n t he p ast, t he m omentum o f t echnological e volution h as b een s tudied o nly a s a p ost h oc p henomenon a t a v ery g eneral l evel i n S tone A ge s tudies. I n t he m odern i diom, h owever, i t i s k nown i n m ore d etail a nd i t i s t herefore o f i nterest t o e xamine t he ' general l aws o f m odern t echnological c hange t o t est t hem a gainst t he c hanges w e c an o bserve i n t he L ater S tone A ge s amples f rom t he s outhern C ape. T his t ype o f a pproach w as s uggested a s a u seful d evice b y B eaumont ( 1978) a nd m ore r ecently b y S pratt

( 1982)

w ho

h as

a ttempted

t o

a pply

t he

t heory

o f

m odern

i nnovation p rocesses t o t he p rehistoric r ecord.

G ENERAL T RENDS I N M ODERN T ECHNOLOGICAL C HANGE T he d ocumented h istory o f t echnology s tudies o f p rehistoric t echnological c hange

s hould h ave m uch t o o ffer i n t hat i t p rovides a

u seful a nalogue f or l ong-term c hange a nd t he f actors w hich s timulate t echnological d evelopment i n t he a bsence o f s imilar d ata f rom e thnographic s ources. H istorical r ecords h ave p roved t o b e a s ource o f r eal d ata, n ot a n a bstraction o f w hat w e s uppose h appened a s i s t he c ase w ith t he t heory o f b iological e volution a nd a lthough p rehistoric s ystems l acked m odern a dvertising a nd c ommunication n etworks, s ome o f t he g eneral t rends a re n evertheless t hought t o b e c omparable. V an W yk ( 1979:282) d efines t echnology a s p rocedure f or a chieving c hosen g oals" a nd t he

" the s tandardization o f l ogical e xtension o f

t his d efinition i s t o a ssume t hat t echnological c hange i ndicates a n a lteration i n t he p rocedure a nd/or t he g oal. C hange i s a ssumed t o i mprove t he e fficiency o f t ools b y r educing t he c ost ( or i nput) a nd i mproving t he c apability ( or o utput). F or t he p urposes o f m odern t echnology,

V an

W yk

( 1979) h as i dentified f our e volutionary t rends:

i ncreasing c omplexity o f a rtefacts,

i ncreasing

e fficiency,

s ize c haracteristics a nd i mproved t ime c haracteristics. o f e volutionary d evelopment i n t echnology i nvolves t hese t rends a nd, i f t hey a re i ndeed g eneral d evelopment o f t echnology,

i mproved

T he d irection

o ne o r m ore o f l aws c overing t he

t hey o ught t o h ave g eneral p arallels i n t he

S tone A ge a s w ell.

2 74

I NCREASING C OMPLEXITY C omplexity

i s

c umulative

a nd

t he

m ajority o f i nventions o r n ew

a rtefacts b orrow " a f orm a nd p rinciple f rom o ne f unctional c ontext f or t he p urpose o f s ubstituting t hem i n a nother c ontext f ormerly s erviced b y a d ifferent f orm a nd p rinciple" t ools

t herefore

h arness

( Barnett

1 942:17).

M ore

c omplex

e nergy i n a d ifferent w ay t han w as p ossible

w ith s impler a rtefacts, a lthough t he t asks f or w hich t hey a re d esigned a re n ot a lways n ew . A n e xample o f i ncreasing c omplex ity c an b e s een i n t he r egular h afting o f s crapers, a dzes a nd b acked m icroliths i n t he L ater S tone A ge w hich r equired a n ew c ombination o f p reviously k nown s craper a nd o ther t ool d esigns, m astic a nd t he u se

o f

w ood

o r

b one

h andles. I n t he c ase o f t he d evelopment o f t he b ow a nd a rrow w e c an s peculate t hat t his r equired t he a ppreciation o f t he u se o f t he b ow t o p ropel t he a rrow a s w ell a s ak nowledge o f p oisons, a ll o f w hich c ombined t o h arness e nergy i n a d ifferent w ay t o i mprove t he e fficiency o f h unting. I t d oes n ot, h owever, i mply t hat h unting w as u nknown b efore t his t ime. A nother e xample i s t hat o f t he b ored s tone u sed t o w eight a d igging s tick. I t i s i nteresting t hat t he e arliest b ored s tones f ound i n t he a rchaeological r ecord ( see C hapter 7 ) a re t oo s mall t o h ave b een u sed a s d igging s tick w eights a nd h ere w e m ay b e s eeing t he s ubstitution o f t he p rinciple o f b oring s tones a lready k nown f or t housands o f y ears f or a n ew a nd m ore c omplex t ool, n amely t he w eighted d igging s tick. I n t he a rchaeological r ecord i nventions o f t his k ind a re m arked b y a n i ncrease i n t he f requency o f o ne o r m ore o f t he c omponent p arts n ow u sed i n a d ifferent c ontext, c oupled i n s ome c ases w ith a c hange i n d esign t hat m ay n ot b e v ery g reat. S uch d evelopments m ark c hanges i n p rocedure i n t ool m anufacture a nd c hanges i n g oal,

i n t hat t he t ool i s n ow u sed f or a d ifferent p urpose.

I NCREASED E FFICIENCY W ithout e thnographic a nalogues, t his i s a d ifficult f actor t o m easure f rom a rchaeological d ata, b ut V an W yk ( 1979:189) n otes t hat i n g eneral, g reater e fficiency i n m odern c ontrol i n t he d esign f eatures o f t ools.

t echnology r equires g reater T his i s a chieved t oday

t hrough g reater s tandardization a nd i mprovements i n m anufacturing p rocedure. S tandardization i s a m arked f eature a mongst f ormal t ools o f

t he

m id-late

H olocene.

W here p reservation i s g ood,

t hese t ools

f requently r etain m astic t races i ndicating t hat t hey w ere h afted a nd w e c an t hus a ssume t hat h afting p laced l imits o n t he r ange i n s ize a nd s hape o f t he s tone i nserts t hat w as n ot a s n ecessary i n f ormer t imes w hen i t w as l ess c ommon o r s imply l ess e fficient. B y a nalogy w ith m odern t ools w e c an t hus s uggest t hat s tandardization i ncreased e fficiency a mongst h afted t ools d uring t he H olocene a nd t hat t he s tandardization o f b ladelet c ores a nd b ladelet p roduction d uring t he l ate P leistocene m ay a lso h ave r epresented a m ove t owards i ncreased e fficiency. W hat i s n ot c lear, h owever, i s w hy t here w as a n a pparent ' regression

i n

a rtefact

d esign a t s ome t imes.

a mongst b ladelets o f t he l ate P leistocene, 1

0 00

T he s tandardization

f or e xample, w as l ost a fter

B .P., w hile i n a b roader t ime p erspective t he s tandardization

a chieved f or f ormal t ool p roduction i n H owiesons P oort-type a ssemblages o f t he M iddle S tone A ge w as ' lost' f or m ore t han 5 0 0 00 y ears.

2 75

I MPROVED S IZE C HARACTERISTICS B ecause t echnological a dvance

a ttempts

t o

r educe

t he

r atio

o f

o utput t o i nput, a n o bvious t rend t hrough t ime i s t he m iniaturization o f a rtefacts. T his i s o bservable i n a v ery b road w ay t hroughout t he S tone A ge a lthough, a s w e h ave s een, t here i s s ome v ariability. T hus, a lthough w e c an e xplain a d ecrease i n a rtefact s ize i n t erms o f i mproved e fficiency t hrough t ime, t here i s n o m odern a nalogue f or e xplaining a s ize i ncrease, e xcept i n t erms o f a d ifferent m ethod o f p roduction o r u se. I n m odern t echnological i tems i t h as b een o bserved t hat w hen a n a rtefact c annot b e m ade a ny s maller b ecause o f t he p roperties o f t he m aterials i nvokved, t he o utcome o f t he s olution i s w hat B right ( 1978:193) c alls " encapsulation". T his i nvolves a n i ncrease i n t he n umber o f f unctions h oused i n t he a rtefact o f m inimal d imensions, e nabling i t t o b e u sed i n a n umber o f d ifferent w ays. I t i s n ot y et c lear i f o r h ow t his p rinciple m ay h ave o perated i n t he L ater S tone A ge, b ut s mall h afted t ools m ay h ave b een m ulti-purpose a rtefacts. F or e xample, b acked m icroliths a re k nown f rom h istorical r ecords t o h ave b een m ounted a s a rrowhead i nserts ( Clark 1 945; C lark e t a l. 1 974), b ut m icrowear s tudies b y C lark & P rince ( 1978) a nd b y B inneman ( 1982) s how t hat b acked m icroliths w ere a lso u sed f or p lant f ibre p reparation a nd o n h ard g ritty s urfaces. T his i s n ot t o d eny , h owever, t hat t he l arger b acked t ools o f t he H owlesons P oort-type a ssemblages w ere n ot a lso m ulti-purpose t ools. T he p rinciple o f e ncapsulation m ay h ave o perated a t d ifferent s cales d uring t he S tone A ge a s a r esult o f m iniaturization.

s everal

t imes

I MPROVED T IME C HARACTERISTICS W hen t echnological c hange i mproves t he t ime c haracteristics o f a n a rtefact, i t i mproves t he r ate o f o utput o r t he s peed o f p rocessing, o r b oth. H ere w e m ay a ssume t his t o b e r eflected i n t he d iscard r ate o f s tone a rtefacts a nd w ith i mproved t ime c haracteristics w e w ould e xpect t o s ee a n i ncrease i n t he n umber o f t ools m ade a nd d iscarded. A rchaeological d ata i ndicate t hat i n b oth t he N SA a nd L SA a n i ncrease i n f ormal t ool f requencies w as a ccompanied b y a w ider r ange o f f ormally r etouched p ieces.

H ere a gain, h owever, w e a re l ed t o

a ssume

t hat a n i ncrease i n f ormal t ools m eans a n i ncrease i n e fficiency a nd w e a re l eft w ith t he p roblem o f e xplaining p eriods s uch a s t hat d uring t he l ast g lacial c ycle w hen t he p roduction o f f ormal t ools w as e xtremely r are.

A re w e t o a ssume,

t hen,

t hat

e fficiency

w as

l ess

i mportant a t s uch t imes? o r t hat r egression i s p art o f t he e volutionary p rocess a nd t hat e ven i n t he m odern i diom w e s hould a llow f or i t?

G ENERAL T RENDS I N L SA T ECHNOLOGICAL C HANGE T he p redictions w e c ould p ropose f rom t hese g eneralized t ime t rends o bservable i n m odern t echnology a re t hat w e s hould s ee a g radual p rogression w ithin t he L SA t owards i ncreasing c omplexity, g reater s tandardization a nd m iniaturization, i f n o n egative f actors a re i nvolved i n d isrupting t he e volutionary m omentum o f t he a rtefact s ystem.

W hat w e s ee i s t he a chievement o f t hese e xpectations

m id-Holocene

w ith

t he

d evelopment

2 76

o f

b y

t he

r elatively c omplex c omposite

t ools t hat i s a ccompanied b y h afting, s tandardization a nd m iniaturization, b ut t he d evelopment i s n ot a r egular o ne. T here a re o scillations o r c yclic c hanges t hrough t ime i n t he t oolmaking m ethods a nd i n t he r aw m aterials a nd s ize a nd s hape o f t he a rtefacts s uggesting t hat w ere i nvolved.

f actors o ther t han p urely e volutionary c onsiderations A s n oted a bove, t here a re d ifferent s cales o f c hange

i n L SA t echnology,

n amely i nnovative c hanges w hich

m ark

t he

i nitial

a ppearance o f n ew i tems o r n ew c ombinations o f o ld o nes, a nd p ost-innovative c hanges, a nd i t i s i mportant t o d ifferentiate b etween t he t wo b efore a ttempting t o i dentify t heir p atterns o f c hange.

I NNOVATIVE C HANGES T he

u se

o f

t he t erm L ater S tone A ge e mbodies

t he c oncept t hat t he

c onstellation o f a rtefacts w hich m ake u p L SA a ssemblages i s f rom

d ifferent

t hat w hich w ould m ake u p a M iddle S tone A ge o r E arlier S tone A ge

o ne. T he b asis f or t he d ifferentiation b etween t he M SA a nd L SA i s t he a ppearance i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o f a n umber o f i nnovative i tems w hich f ulfil t he e xpectation o f i ncreasing c omplexity i n t echnology. T he b ored s tone w as i ntroduced a s a d igging s tick w eight, b acked m icroliths w ere a dapted f or u se a s a rrowheads, o strich e ggshell a nd m arine s hells w ere u sed f or p ersonal a dornment, a nd t ortoise s hells, o strich e ggshells a nd, l ater, p ottery v essels w ere u sed a s c ontainers. T hese i tems b rought w ith t hem s pecialized t ools f or t heir m anufacture s uch a s r eamers a nd b orers, a nd a lso m ade u se o f o ld t ools i n n ew d esigns s uch a s s crapers a nd a dzes ( now h afted) a nd a w ider r ange o f b one t ools s uch a s f ish g orges, b one a rrowheads a nd e yed n eedles. T he i nnovations d o n ot a ll a ppear s imultaneously a t t he o nset o f t he L SA a s i s c lear f rom T able 6 6, a nd a lthough s ome o f t hem m ay h ave b een d eveloped i ndependently i n s outhern A frica, i t i s l ikely t hat m any w ere d erived f rom n eighbouring r egions t o t he n orth f or t hey a re a ll w idely k nown i n A frica a nd f urther a field. I t i s t hus o f l ittle v alue t o s ee t he a ppearance o f e ach o f t hese i tems a s a s pecific r esponse t o e nvironmental c hange i n s outhern A frica d uring t he l ong p eriod f rom t he l ast g lacial m aximum a nd i ndeed e xamination o f T able 6 6 w ill p atterning,

f or e xample,

t hrough t he H olocene, s how t hat t here i s n o

i n a n i ncrease i n t he n umber o f n ew i tems

a t

t imes o f m ajor e nvironmental a djustment ( compare F ig. 7 ). I t i s, h owever, u seful t o c ontrast t he d iachronic p atterns o f t wo i nnovations f or w hich w e h ave d ata t o d emonstrate t he v ariability t hat m ay o ccur; t hese a re p ottery a nd t he i ncrease i n f ormal t ool f requencies d uring t he H olocene t hat i s a ssumed t o h erald t he a cceptance o f a m ethod o f h afting w hich r equired s maller i nserts a nd g reater s tandardization.

t he

H odgen ( 1942, 1 945, 1 974) h as s tudied t he p rocesses w hich u nderlie s pread o f t echnological i nnovations i n d ated h istorical c ontexts.

S he n otes t hat e lements c ommon t o t he s pread p rinting p ress, w indmills, w atermills a nd

o f g lass, p aper, t he C hristianity i n w estern

E urope c an b e d escribed a s f ollows: ( i) t he i nitial i nnovations w ere i n e ach c ase t he u nquestionable e xpression o f i ndividual i nitiative; ( ii)

t he a ppearance o f t his

w as

f rom

a mong

p eople

i ndividual i nitiative i n s econdary c entres

w ho w ere f oreign o r a lien t o t he c ommunities

w hich u ltimately a ccepted t he

c hanges;

a nd

( iii)

t he

i nnovations

s pread t hrough t his i nitiative t o u rban e nvironments t hat w ere w ithin e asy a ccess t o v arious m eans o f c ontemporary c ommunication ( Hodgen 1 974:72). T he i nnovations a nd t heir s ubsequent s pread w ere n ot t he

2 77

9 5

K RM

P ottery

S tone s inkers

B one f ish h ooks

E yed n eedles

T orto iseshe ll b ow ls

E ngraved s tones

P ainted s tones

R eamers

B ored s tones

B orers

G rooved s tones

O ES W ater f lasks

O ES B eads

D ecorated O ES

1

s l P o lished b one p o int

x1 000 y ears B .P.

u at ing o r o ccurrence

T able 6 6. E arliest o ccurrences o f i nnovations d uring t he L ater S tone A ge i n s outhern A frica. S ite n ames u nderlined i ndicate M iddle S tone A ge a ssociations. A sterisks i ndicate c ommon o r f airly c ommon o ccurrence o f i tem a fter i nitial a ppearance. S ites m ay b e i dentified f rom a bbreviations i n T able 7 2.

A P

6 5

4 5 4 0

B C

3 0

B C H K

2 0

B PA

B PA

Z OM -1 7

A P H K N BC

1 9 1 8 1 7 1 6 1 5

A P _ _ .

L H M AT

p -

1 4

N M HB B PA

M HB B PA

B PA

B Y

B Y,

B Y

A P B PA

B PA

K AL

1 3 1 2

B

1

N BC * *

1 0 9

:

8

* * * * * * * * * * *

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

M HB * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

M R p M R

B UF M IR * * *

B AM W K P

*

*

B P

B PA M R

* * *

*

G

* * * * * *

* * * * *

G E D KF A P *

2 78

K RM R OB B PA

N BC W K W K W K W K

A D K * * *

B EL D RI C OL

* * *

* * *

o utcome o f s ome n atural p rinciple o f c ultural

g rowth o r e volution, b ut

w ere t he c onsequence o f p ersonal e ffort b y w andering o r m igrating i nitiators. T he s peed w ith w hich t he i nnovations s pread i s d ependent o n t he m otivation o f t he i nitiators a nd t heir d isciples, t he m aturity o f t he c ommunication n etwork a nd t he s patial d istribution o f t he c ommunities.

T he b etter t he c ommunication n etwork a nd t he c loser t he

c ommunities w ere t o e ach o ther, t he f aster t he d iffusion p rocess w ould h ave o perated u nder e nthusiastic i nitiators. H ad t he i nitiators l ost m omentum, t he d iffusion p rocess w ould h ave h alted u ntil f resh e nthusiasm s tarted a f urther d iffusion w ave. F rom t hese o bservations w e c ould h ypothesize t hat v ery r apid d iffusion o f a n i tem i s l ikely t o b e t he r esult o f t he m ovement o f h ighly m otivated i mmigrant i ndividuals o r g roups, w hile s lower m ovement w ould i ndicate p oor c ommunications, d ispersed p opulations, a b reak i n m omentum a mongst t he i nitiators, o r a c ombination o f o ne o r m ore o f t hese f actors. O ther g eneralizations a bout m ore m odern i tems s uch a s t ractors a nd w ashing m achines ( Hagerstrand 1 967; S pratt 1 982) i dentify o ther c ontributing f actors t hat a re u nique t o m odern t imes a nd t hese h ave t herefore n ot b een c onsidered. • N 3 5 -

o

0 O

3 0 •

2 3 -

0

2 0 -

0

1 5 -

0

0

5

90 •

XXX x xX

0 J 0

I k e -

▪

0

0 0 0 0

N o rth A f r ica , E gyp t a nd S ahara

•W es t A f r ica

0?

xE as t A f r ica 1Z a ire 0S ou thern

•

X X

0

c o

. •

• •

X

0-

-

0

0

0

/ 0

1 0 -

0 00

8

0

0

0

X

•

2

xx

X

x

X

-

A f r ica ?Uncer ta in a ssoc iat ion b e tween d a te a nd p o tte ry

0

1 5 2 0 -

2

c i )

2 5 3 0 3 5

6 5i o I S i o i s i 0i s 4 04

0

d o 6 T 5

71 0 " i 5

8 0 e r s 05 1 6 0 1 6 5

R ad ioca rbon y ears x 1 00 B .P

F ig. 1 39. E arly r adiocarbon d ates f or p ottery a ssociated w ith S tone A ge a rtefacts i n A frica. T ime ( horizontal a xis) i s p lotted a gainst l atitudinal p osition o f t he s ites ( vertical a xis) t o d emonstrate t he r ate a t w hich p ottery s pread s outhwards. D ates a re f rom A lessi( ) e t a l. ( 1978), C lose ( 1980) a nd f rom l ists p ublished i n t he j ournal R adiocarbon u p t o 1 982. S outhern A frican d ates a re l isted a gain i n m ore d etail i n T able 7 7.

w ho

m oved

s outhward

t heir n eighbours w hich

t he

f rom B otswana a fter

t o t he n orth a nd

t hey h ad a cquired s heep

e ast.

C ertainly

p ottery w as d ispersed w ould s upport

( see C hapter 7 f or f uller d iscussion o f i nnovation

a nd

a rchaeological

t he r ecord

f rom

s peed

w ith

a m igration h ypothesis p attern

o f

s peed w ith w hich p ottery w as

i ntroduced i nto

t he

i s

f or

i llustrated

t his

t he

p oint).

i n F ig.

1 40

T he t he

B PA

d ata

w hich d emonstrate a v irtual a bsence o f p ottery a t t he s ite 2 0 00 y ears a go a nd i ts p resence i n s ome q uantity 3 00 y ears l ater. T he i mplications

a re

p ottery i nto u nsuitable

t hat

F igure i s

a

t hey w ere

n ot

o bstructed

1 40

i llustrates f ormal

r elatively

t he c hanges

t ools

s udden

s ome 6 5 00 f rom t hat

t hrough t ime a t B PA a nd N BC

t o d emonstrate

t hat a t b oth s ites

i ncrease i n t he a ctual

y ears a go. i nvolved i n

p otters

t o

t each o thers,

t he u sing o f w ell e stablished p attern

o f

c hange

t he f ormal

t ool d esigns t hrough

i s

o f t his

W e

7 ,

i t

b ut o n

p resent

s eems t hat

i n Z imbabwe f rom c . t he n orthern C ape

n eeded

e vidence,

s o

o f

o ne o f a n i ncrease

i n

t he

m uch

t hat

o ne

h ave i nsufficient d ata t o t race

f eature,

C hapter

t hat

t ool i ncrease m eant

n ot

p resence/absence a s i n t he c ase o f p ottery, b ut f requency.

t hese

c ase w as W hile t he

i n n ew c ombinations s o

t ime

i n

t here

f requencies o f

T he p rocess i n t his t he s pread o f p ottery.

l atter r epresented a n e ntirely n ew t echnological p rocess e xperienced t he

b y

l ocal c onditions.

t he f requency o f a rtefacts d ifferent

h ighly m otivated i mmigrants b rought s heep a nd

t he s outhern C ape a nd t hat

g eographic s pread

d iscussed

i n

d etail

i n

l arger f ormal t ool n umbers w ere e stablished

1 0 0 00 B .P., i n N amibia f rom c . 9 000 B .P. a nd i n a t W onderwerk f rom c . 8 000 B .P., w hile i n t he

s outhern C ape

i t

d ates

s ubstantiated

b y

f urther

f rom

c .

6 500

r esearch,

B .P.

I f

i t w ould

t hese

d ates

a re

s eem t hat t he d iffusion

t ime w as m uch l onger t han t hat o bserved f or p ottery i ndicating t hat i t w as p robably n ot t he r esult o f a p opulation m igration, b ut o f t he b orrowing o f t he i dea o f f requent r eplacement o f b its i n s mall h afted t ools t hat s pread a long e stablished l ines o f c ommunication b etween g roups o f p eople. I nstead o f t he n ew i deas b eing a ctively p romoted b y i ndividual

i nnovators

t hemselves,

i t

a ppears

w ho

w ere

k een

t o

s pread

t o h ave b een a c ase o f

t heir

i deas

g radual d iffusion

a nd w hich

t ook b etween 2 a nd 3 0 00 y ears t o s pread f rom Z imbabwe t o t he s outhern C ape. O nce i ntroduced i t w as r apidly a dopted b ecause i t d id n ot i nvolve

t he

l earning

o f

a

n ew

c raft

r e-combining a rtefacts a lready k nown. i s

i n

t he i ncrease i n f requency o f

p resence o r a bsence a nd a ny t his A

a s

a dapting

t ools a nd n ot

c omparisons

a nd

i nnovation i n t heir

s hould

b ear

i n m ind. t hird

i tem

w hich m ay b e t he r esult o f a n i nnovation p rocess t hat a re s o

P leistocene a ssemblages a t N BC a nd B PA. i llustrated i n F ig.

1 40 t o

s how t hat

i n t he a rchaeological r ecord b ut, c an a lso t race p atchy

t heir l ater d emise.

t o

a ttempt

m rre

o f

a

i nclude

w orked

T able 6 6). t heir

o strich

i nnovation

t han

o ne

f requencies

i ntroduction

2 80

i s

o f

t ypical o f

t o

i nvolving

i nnovations

a nd p olished b one

t ools a ll

w e

s till

t he s pread o f

i t w ould s eem

p resence/absence

T he v ariability i n t he i nitial

s uddenly

t ime s pan i nvolved,

T he a rchaeological r ecord i s

e ggshell

i s

l ate

T heir d iachronic p atterns a re

p roduction b ut

O ther

o f

t hey t oo a ppear s omewhat

a t ime-space r econstruction o f

p resence/absence

a daptation o f o ld i deas.

c haracteristic

w ith a l onger

t hese b ladelet c ores a nd b ladelet

a fter

m uch

t he f ormal

i nter-regional

t he b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores

t oo

s o

T he t racing o f t his

w ould

( Fig.

t hese

b e t he 1 41,

i tems

t hat d ocumented

f or

B PA :

N BC:

B PA:

B PA :

N BC:

NBC:

B PA :

% FORMAL TOOLS

% F ORMAL TOOLS

B LADELET C ORES a s % o fe l l c o res

B LADELETS n o %c if u n tr immed f l akes

B LADELET CORES a s %

BLADELETS

NUMBER OF POTSHERDS

e co m . 4

4y .a

u n t r immed f l akes

V

a

i

20 --

0

I%

3% 0

0

40

%

a o o

%

1 0 0

400

400

F ig. 1 40. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he f requency o f i tems r egarded a s i nnovations i n t he a rtefact r ecord o f t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears a t B PA a nd N BC.

B PA :

B PA :

N BC :

N BC :

f BONE TOOLS

f WORKED O STR ICH

f BONE TOOLS

f WORKED OSTR ICH

f

p e r b uck e t

EGGSHELL p er b ucke t

p er

E QGSHELL p e r b ucke t

00 1 10E8

b ucket

N BC : F ISH

0-0

20

0 , 04

r ig.

1 41.

0 ,08

0

C hanges

0 ,40

0 ,80

0

' I ' 1 0 ,04

0 ,06

t hrough t ime i n t he

0

0 ,08

0 ,16

4

t o

20

f requency o f n on-lithic i tems

i n t he a rtefact r ecord o f t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears a t B PA a nd N BC.

2 81

30

o ther i nnovations, b oth p rehistoric ( Spratt 1 982:87), e arly h istoric ( Hodgen 1 942) a nd m odern ( Hagerstrand 1 967) b ut, a s p ointed o ut b y S pratt ( 1982:87) a nd o thers, i t i s r elatively e asy t o p lot t he a ppearance o f a n i tem t hrough t ime, b ut i t i s f ar m ore d ifficult t o i dentify t he f actors w hich a ffected i ts ' cash f low o r l ife h istory.

P OST-INNOVATIVE C HANGES P ost-innovative c hanges c an b e m easured e ither b y t he r elative f requency o f t he i tem c oncerned, w hich w ill s how p roduction p eaks a nd f all-offs a nd t he e ventual d isappearance o f t he i tem, o r t hey c an s how c hanges i n t he s ize, s hape a nd r aw m aterials o f t he a rtefact. W hile t he f ormer c haracteristics c an b e r elated t o f actors w hich o perate t o p romote o r d iscourage p roduction a nd t herefore c oncern t he s uccess o f t he i tem , t he l atter a re r elated t o q uestions o f s tyle. A n umber o f r esearchers ( for e xample, S ackett 1 973:320; T homas 1 974; P ollnac & R owlett 1 977:170; D unnell 1 978:199) h ave n oted t hat v ariables o scillating a round a n orm i n a c yclic f ashion u sually h ave t o d o w ith t he s tylistic m ode o f t he a rtefact b ecause t hey c an v ary w ithout a ffecting t he p rimary f unction o f t he t ool. M odern a nalogues c an b e s een i n t he c hanges i n w omen's d ress d esign ( Richardson & K roeber 1 947), i n g ravestones ( Dethlefsen & S eetz 1 966) a nd g randfather c locks ( Hughes 1 963) a nd i n p rehistoric i tems s uch a s p rojectile p oints ( Binford 1 963). I n e ach o f t hese c ases t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he f unction o f t he i tem r emained c onstant a s t hrough t ime.

s tylistic

a spects

c hanged

A s h as b een s hown i n C hapter 5 , t he s ize a nd s hape o f s crapers c hanged t hrough t ime a t a ll t hree s ites ( NBC, K RA a nd B PA) a nd o ther s ites i n t he s outhern C ape P rovince a re a dded f or c omparison i n F ig. 1 42 t o d emonstrate t hat t hey a lso f ollow t he s ame g eneral p attern o f c hange i n s craper l ength. T ime t rends i n w idth, w /1 r atio a nd h eight c an b e s een i n F igs 7 0, 7 1, 7 7, 7 8 a nd 8 4 t o f ollow b roadly t hose o f l ength e xcept t hat t he s hape o f t he s crapers ( as e vident f rom t he w /1 r atio) s hows g reater v ariation a t N BC. W e w ould t herefore s uggest t hat c hanges i n t he s tyle o f s craper m anufacture s how a r egional t rend t hrough t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears i n t he s outhern C ape w ith s hort, r ound a nd h igh s crapers t ogether w ith a f ew l arge c haracteristic o f l ate P leistocene a ssemblages t o c .

D -shaped o nes 1 2 0 00 B .P.,

l onger, w ider a nd m ore e longated f orms p redominate b etween c . 1 2 0 00 a nd 7 000 B .P. w ith a r elatively h igh f requency o f e nd s crapers w ith s ide r etouch o r b lank p reparation b etween 9 000 a nd 7 000 B .P., a nd t he s hortest, n arrowest a nd f lattest f orms p redominate b etween c . 7 000 B .P. a nd t he e nd o f t he L SA r ecord. T here i s a v ariation i n t he e astern C ape w ith e nd-Holocene s amples a t W ilton a nd M elkhoutboom t ending t o b e l onger t han t hose o f t he m id-Holocene a nd t his t rend i s f urther e xaggerated i nland i n t he M iddle O range R iver a rea, i n t he e astern K aroo a nd i n t he T ransvaal w ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears ( Sampson 1 972). T o b e s ure s tylistic

t hat

t hese

c hanges

i n

s ize

a nd

s hape

a re

i ndeed

a nd t hat t he d ifferent s hapes a nd s izes w ere n ot f unctional

a djustments t o c hanged g oals, t he f unctional i ntegrity o f t he s craper c lass n eeds t o b e e stablished. T his c an b e d one b oth b y t he d efinition o f a s craper i n t erms o f i ts w orking e dge m orphology r ather t han

i ts

s ize

a nd

s hape

( Appendix

2 82

1 )

a nd b y m icrowear a nalyses.

W I LTO N

ALBANY

R OBBERG

OA KHURST: , med ium-sma l l : small MATJES R IVER me diu m : small

ia l arg e —30

KANGKARA

i

I I l

I l I I

h

1

—20

l

i

a

I

I

Iu

I

l l

i

i

I

— 10

i

—30

BUFFELSKLOOF

—20

BOO MPLAAS

I I I I

NELSON

—20

I 1 I I I

— 10 0

1

BAY CAVE

—60 —50 —40 —30

S CRAPER L ENGTH

— 10

Kt

z

—20

I1

— 10

—30

WILTO N

— 20

I

I s : ill I 11111 11111

2

3

4

I

— 10

1

II

II I

MELKHOUTBOO M

5

6

7

8

RAD IOCARBON

9

1 0

Y EARS

I

1 2

1 3

1 4

/ 5

1 6

1 7

— 10

1 8

x1 000 B .P

F ig. 1 42. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he m ean l ength o f s crapers a t s ix s outhern a nd e astern C ape s ites. S olid l ines a re f or s amples w ith a ssociated r adiocarbon d ates, d ashed l ines a re f or s amples w ith i nterpolated a ges. B uffelskloof d ata f rom O pperman ( 1978), W ilton f rom J . D eacon ( 1972), M elkhoutboom f rom H .J. D eacon ( 1976). O akhurst g eneral p attern f rom S chrire ( 1962) a nd M atjes R iver f rom L ouw ( 1960) a nd p ersonal o bservations.

2 83

B PA :

B PA :

NBC :

NBC:

MEAN S CRAPER L ENGTH

MEAN U NTR IMMED F LAKE L ENGTH

MEAN S CRAPER L ENGTH

MEAN U NTR I MMED F LAKE L ENGTH

1

0

B .P .

8 -

x 1 000

Y EARS

1 2

• 2 0

2 0

W

20 mm

20

0

40mm

9

20

40 mm

40 mm

20

1

F ig. 1 43. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he m ean l engths o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd s crapers a t N BC a nd B PA . B PA : BPA : NBC: NBC: U NTR IMMED e i , QUARTZ U NTR IMMED e ‘ NON-QUARTZITE F LAKES p e r b ucke ts a nd a s % o f w as te o

0

4

2 0

\

3 0

F LAKES p e r

i n t o ta l s amp le

i n t o ta l s amp le

b ucke t 0 a nd a s % o f w as te 7

e

.

40 %

1 0

1

20

J 0 3 0f l a ke

\

x 1000 YEA RS

•

•

a

1 6

2 0

2 4 20

F ig.

1 44.

• f lakes/ b ucke t

0

C hanges

40

80

%

! . 5

I

I

v

6 5

7 5

8 5 70

0%

t hrough t ime i n t he i ncidence o f u ntrimmed f lakes,

q uartz a nd q uartzite a t N BC a nd B PA .

2 84

B inneman ( 1982) h as s hown t hat s crapers f rom a ll m embers a t B PA s hare t he s ame m icrowear p attern c onsistent w ith t heir h aving b een u sed f or w orking s kin a nd l eather. p attern

o f

d emonstrable 1 971)

t o t he

m orphology o f

t he

L SA,

c yclic

w ithin

c hanges

e dge t he

o ver

L SA

t he

l ast

t imespan

t he r etouched e dge,

t o h ave b een b ladelet

n on-working

e dges

t he

L SA

s tyle

f rom t he e arliest

a nd

c ould

O ldowan

o f

t he u se a t

a b e

( Leakey

f act

y ears.

i nclude

g reater

t i me

o f

w hat

t he a ddition o f

d eliberate

e longated s crapers t he

m illion

o ne

c ores a s s crapers,

T he v ariability h as n ot c hanged

2

h owever

v ery l arge s crapers t o t he r epertoire a nd t he t he

t o i n

a lthough c hanges h ave a lso o ccurred i n t he

w orking

n oted

s tandardization o f a ppears

o r

i n s craper p arameters

t hrough

V ariations

S crapers a re n ot u nique

o scillatory

s haping

s ome o f

i n t he e arly H olocene.

t hat b oth t he

m orphology

o f

t he w orking e dge a nd t he m icrowear e vident o n t hese e dges h as r emained e ssentially c onstant o ver s ize a nd m ay b e t hat

t he

s hape a re s een a s

l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears.

i nvolved a t a s econdary l evel, w ere

T hus

v ariations

s tylistic r ather t han f unctional. h owever,

d esigned t o f acilitate h afting.

i n f eatures o f s crapers

T he a dze-like r etouch a nd

b lank s haping o f e arly H olocene e nd-scrapers m ay b e s uch a f eature a s m id-Holocene

i n

F unction

i s t he r eduction i n s ize a nd s crapers s een a s t he r esult o f

f unctional

s tandardization o f d ifferent h afting

m ethods. O ther

a rtefacts

w hich s how s imilar o scillations i n s ize a nd s hape

a re u ntrimmed f lakes a gain

c onsidered

( Fig.

t o

1 43)

h ave

i n w hich t he f unction o f t he

b een

i nter-relationship o f v ariables f requencies

o f

r aw m aterials

a re i llustrated i n F ig. w hich s how t hat m aterials

1 44)

h eld c onstant.

i s

t ool

i s

H owever t he c omplex

s hown i n t he c hanges

i n

p ercentage

( quartz a t B PA a nd n on-quartzite a t N BC

a nd g ross f requencies o f u ntrimmed f lakes

i n s amples w ith l onger f lakes

t hese

t hat y ield l arger n odules a nd c orrelate

t end t o b e m ade o n w ith

f ewer

f lakes

p er b ucket b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P. C omparison p rinciples

b etween d erived

m acro-evolutionary c omplex a rtefacts, b ut

a t

t he

c hanges

f rom

m odern

c hanges

i n

e xpected

i n L SA t echnology f rom

t echnology

t he

f orm

h as

s hown

t hat

o f i nnovation t owards m ore

s maller t ools a nd g reater s tandardization d o o ccur,

t he m icro-evolutionary s cale o f p ost-innovative c hanges i n t he

s tyle o f m anufacture o f s ome a rtefacts t here i s a m arked o scillation b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P. w hich i nterrupts t he e xpected f low o f c hange.

T hus,

c hanges

w hile w e c an e xplain

t hrough

t ime

i n

t echnological d evelopment, s tylistic

v ariations

t he w e

t he L SA

n eed

d irection a s

t o

t he

o f

m any

" natural"

f ind

a

o f

r esult

c orrelate

f or

t he o f t he

t hat h ave b een o bserved.

T HE T IMING O F A RTEFACT A ND E NVIRONMENTAL C HANGES F igure c hanges

7

i s

r eproduced

a s F ig.

1 45 t o d emonstrate

i n e nvironmental v ariables o ver

t he l ast

t he t iming o f

2 0 0 00 y ears

i n

t he

s outhern C ape. H orizontal l ines h ave b een d rawn a cross t his f igure a nd F igs 1 40, 1 41, 1 43 a nd 1 44 t o d emonstrate t hat t he p eriod o f m aximum c hange i n t he l arger m ammal 1 3 .2.,

f aunas,

b etween c .

i s a lso t he p eriod o f m aximum c hange i n

m any

o f

1 2 0 00 a nd t he

8 000

a rtefact

v ariables,

p articularly t hose i nvolving p ost-innovation c hanges i n t he

f requency,

s ize a nd s hape o f

a re

n ot

a pparently

t he a rtefacts.

r elated

t o

2 85

s pecific

T hese

s tylistic

s hifts

c limatic/environmental

YEARS a l e 1 000

NBC :

B PA:

B PA :

R ELAT IVE P ERCENT BROWSERS v s G RAZERS

R ELATNE P ERCENT B ROWSERS v s G RAZERS

P ERCENT M yo so rex MEAN H E IGHT C F v a r iut a nd Co rny* A SCEND ING RAMUS i r rora tua a t C roc idu ro N ev i l le« ).

B PA:

B PA : % C HARCOAL O lea a nd R hus t i p p .

O XYGEN I SOTOPE R ECORDS F ROM DOME Ca nd CANGO C AVES 3.

•

8

• t 1' , C ongo C ori s i g.. .. .

Dave C

7 ,

7

G roza r.

COOLER

-; 11

WARNER

•I

4 0

00 %

0

4 0

I

•

I I

t 0% o

z o

F ig. 1 45. C hanges t hrough t ime R elative p ercent o f b rowsers v s m icromammalian d ata a fter A very S cha nz & D aitz ( 1983); D ome C C ango C aves o xygen i sotope d ata

BPA :

B PA :

MASS

N UMBER O F B UCKETS e xcava ted

r

%

. 1 0 7

1 7 ,1

. 3

1 e .3.

0

1 0

20 %

54

52

i n s ome e nvironmental p arameters. g razers a fter K lein ( 1972b, 1 978b); ( 1982); c harcoal d ata a fter D eacon, c urve a fter L orius e t a l. ( 1979); a fter V ogel ( 1983).

BPA :

O F B ONE p e r b ucke t

T OTAL A RTEFACTS p e r b ucke t

D GL O LD 4

•

B LA

•

B RL .I 0 0 0 I n

t o O RL 7 C L I

1 2

t o C L 4 O WA

1 6

•

V

I 0

400

900

1 200

0

l 1 00

i ZOO

44 6

300g 0

40

90

1 20

1 40

F ig. 1 46. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he q uantity o f b one a nd s tone a . , :tefacts p er b ucket a t B PA .

2 86

c haracteristics b ecause s maller s crapers, f or e xample, d o n ot c ovary c onsistently w ith t he h unting o f s maller b ovids n or w ith a p articular c limatic r egime. T here w as a t ime l ag o f a bout 2 -4 0 00 y ears b etween t he m ajor s hifts i n v egetation a nd c limate i n t he s outhern C ape ( as e vident f rom t he c hanges i n w ood c harcoals, p ollens a nd m icromammalian f auna) a nd a m ajor s hift i n h unting p attern a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene. T he t echnological r esponse i s b roadly c oincident w ith t he t iming o f t he c hange f rom l arger t o s maller m ammals ( or j ust p re-dates i t) a nd t akes t he f orm o f a n i ncrease i n t he s ize o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd s crapers t ogether w ith a c hange i n t he c hoice o f r aw m aterials t owards t hose t hat a re f ound i n l arger n odules, a nd t he a bsence o r m uch l ower f requency o f b ladelets f rom b ladelet c ores. A fter 8 000 B .P. t hese a pparently r egressive t endencies w ere r eversed w ith t he i ntroduction o f s maller h afted t ools a ccompanied b y a n i ncrease i n f ormal t ool n umbers a nd c lasses a nd a d ecrease i n t he s ize o f b oth u ntrimmed f lakes a nd s crapers t hat w as b roadly c oincident w ith a c hange i n r aw m aterials t owards f iner g rained m aterials i n s maller n odules. T his r eturn t o t he g ross e volutionary t rend w as n ot t his t ime a ccompanied b y a s econd c hange i n t he l arge m ammal f auna, h owever, b ut a pparently o nly b y t he s pread o f t he H olocene h afting t radition. S imilarly, t he s ocial c hanges w hich m ust h ave b een g enerated b y t he s pread o f h erding a nd p ottery a t t he e nd o f t he H olocene w ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears w ere a lso n ot c learly a ssociated w ith e nvironmental c hanges f or t heir d ispersal p re-dates t he c ooler c onditions o f t he

" Little I ce A ge" b y s everal c enturies.

T he s ecular t rends o r c yclic o scillations i n t he l engths a nd o ther p arameters o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd s crapers f ollow a s imilar p attern t o t hat o bserved i n E uropean d ress f ashions o f t he l ast t hree c enturies a lthough t he p eriodicity o f t he c hanges

i n t he c ase o f s tone

a rtefacts i s i n t he r egion o f 4 0 00 y ears a nd t hat f or d resses i n t he r egion o f 1 00 y ears. T he i nterpretation o f t he l atter c hanges b y R ichardson & K roeber ( 1947:149) i nterest f or t hey c onclude t hat:

a re

n evertheless

o f

p articular

T he b est e xplanation t hat w e a re a ble t o s uggest f or t hese p henomena i s t hat o f a b asic p attern o f w omen's d ress s tyle, t oward w hich E uropean c ulture o f r ecent c enturies h as b een t ending a s a n i deal . . . A s t hese p roportions a re a chieved, t here a re e quilibrium , r elative s tability a nd l ow v ariability. T he p attern m ay b e s aid t o b e s aturated. A t o ther t imes, m ost o r a ll o f t he p roportions a re a t t he o pposite e xtreme, w hich m ay b e c onstrued a s o ne o f s train, a nd v ariability r ises h igh . . . G eneric c ultural o r h istoric i nfluences d ress-style c hanges.

c an . . . b e a ssumed t o a ffect S ociocultural s tress a nd u nsettlement

s eem t o p roduce f ashion s train a nd i nstability. t hey e xert t heir i nfluence u pon a n e xisting p attern, w hich t hey d islocate o r i nvert.

a re

H owever, s tylistic

T hus t he c hanges w e s ee i n t he i ntrimmed f lake a nd s craper l engths c onsidered t o b e s tylistic o nes w here s ociocultural c hange

g enerated b y e nvironmental s hifts a nd c hanges i n t he

a vailability

o f

l arger m ammals d isrupted t he p revailing s tyle o f a rtefact m anufacture, b ut d id n ot d etermine t he s craper d esign p er s e. T he d ata p resented h ere

a re a n i ndication o f t he s cale o f d islocation g enerated w ithin a

t echnological s ystem a t a t ime o f e conomic a nd s ocial

2 87

a djustment

a nd

L 1 1 0

C L ) 0 4 3

W 3 O > 4 • a l L 1 1 • . r 3 0 o

e

•

P

-o

MASS

OF BONE PER BUCKET

e

r z

c n ( I i

e

t O •

4 1 a ) r a " 0 a ) ' V 3 P • 4 ) c ) c . ) a ) a ) 4 -) , .0 4 1 Q ) 4 ) ( 1 ) a d C . ) 0 C . ) s r 1 C J I . 1 1 0 C l ) 41 . 0 0 p , U i > 4 a )


4 O U ) 0 • r i • 0 4 — b rp > 4 0 a ) N . R S 4 1 Q ) C ) r 1 r 1 s r 1 R S „ C D . > 4 > 4 I 1 0 0 0 r z 4 0 44

ie O D

0

c ö.

0

0 0 . 1 . 3 ) ione

e l 3d

e .

E

b o

0 t e . 0

S 1 •001 1 V1 4 1 2 10 . d

4 ) ) 4 4 C J U ic t i L 1 1 4 )

•

O

MASS

C U

4 2

r-1 4 )

0

b . ( ) 0 C Q s r 1 4 )

0 0

O 0

44

e0a 0 : 1 $ 4 0

s catter

OF BONE

PER BUCKE T

r n

( 1 . 1 0 )

a )

0

C I ) U ) C O

e •a ) • O" c • 4 ) 4 -)

g f : L i C 1

r i g rs

) C 1 2 a ) > 4

4 )

" C 0

0 3

0

2

I O O 1 3xone 1 : 1 3d s iovniav

2 88

I 0 i n 3 N01S

1 V10 . 1 .

c r i c . )

1 4 0

3

' 2 .

r 1

C : 1

> 4 c i • 0 t 1 0 s r 1 • r 1

c 1 1 a )

2; 4

0 0 " C l

NBC:

NBC :

NBC :

NUMBER O F B UCKETS e xcava ted

M IN IMUM N UMBER O F I ND IV IDUALS I N F AUNA

T OTAL A RTEFACTS p er b ucke t

0

40 t

0

8 0

1

I

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a re t hus c omparable t o t he d ress s tyle d ata i n d ocumenting l ong-term s ecular t rends t hat a re g enerally n ot o bservable i n t he m odern i diom. I n r esponse t o a s uggestion b y L . R . B inford t hat t he i ncrease i n f ormal t ool f requencies i n t he m id-Holocene m ay h ave b een t he r esult o f a n e ffort o n t he p art o f t he t oolmakers t o i ncrease p roduction i n t he f ace o f r educed h unting p otential, t he m ass o f b one i n e ach u nit a t B PA w as c alculated ( Fig. 1 46, T able 6 7) a nd p lotted a gainst t he i ncidence o f s tone ( Fig. 1 47) a nd f ormal t ools ( Fig. 1 48). W hile t here i s a s trong l inear c orrelation b etween t he i ncidence o f b one a nd s tone ( p = < ,001), t here i s n o c onsistent r elationship b etween t he a mount o f b one a nd t he i ncidence o f f ormal t ools i ndicating t hat t he p roduction o f f ormal t ools h as n o d irect c orrelation w ith t he q uantity o f b one b rought b ack t o t he s ite. T he m ember w ith t he h ighest i ncidence o f f ormal t ools h ad o ne o f t he l owest q uantities o f b one ( BLA),

a nd C L 2 ,

w ith t he h ighest q uantity o f b one,

h ad

o ne

o f

t he

l owest c ounts o f f ormal t ools. I f t he p urpose o f f ormal t ools w as i ndeed t o i ncrease p roduction, t hen i t w ould s eem t hat t hey w ere r emarkably u nsuccessful i n t he l ight o f t hese r esults. D ata o n t he m ass o f b one f rom N BC w ere n ot a vailable t o c ompare w ith t he B oomplaas r esults, b ut t he m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals p er u nit w as c ompared w ith t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts p er b ucket i n F ig. 1 48 a nd a gain s hows a c lose c orrespondence b etween t he i ncidence o f b one a nd s tone. I t s hould b e n oted, t hough, t hat t he l arger n umber o f i ndividuals i n t he H olocene r epresents s maller b ovids s o t he t otals a re n ot d irectly c omparable w ith t hose o f t he l ate P leistocene i n t erms o f m eat y ield. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he b one a nd s tone a t N BC a nd B PA s how t hat b oth d ecreased i n f requency b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P. r elative t o t he p receding a nd s ucceeding p eriods a nd t hat t he m eat y ield i n a n a verage H olocene u nit w as w ell b elow t hat o f a l ate P leistocene o ne. T here i s l ittle d oubt t hat m eat w as n ot a s i mportant a s ource o f f ood f or H olocene p eople a t B PA a nd N BC a s i t h ad b een d uring t he l ate P leistocene a nd w e m ay a ssume t hat g athered p lant a nd a nimal f oods p layed a m ore i mportant r ole i n t he d iet o f H olocene p opulations t han t hey h ad b efore. T he p eriod b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P. w as c learly c rucial f or e stablishing t his n ew p attern. I n

s ummary,

i nnovative

c hanges,

i .e.

t hose

r esulting f rom t he

d ispersion o f p redictable a dvances i n t echnological e volution, a ppear t o b e i ndependent o f e nvironmental a nd r elated c hanges. P ost-innovation s tylistic c hanges,

o n t he o ther h and,

s eem t o c oincide

a t a b road l evel w ith c hanges i n s ome e nvironmental i ndicators, m ost n otably t he s hift i n l arge m ammal f requencies, t hat p ost-date b y s everal t housand y ears t he m ore s ensitive i ndicators o f c limatic c hange s uch a s m icromammals a nd c harcoals a t B PA. T hus i t w ould s eem t hat c limatic c hange i n i tself d oes n ot h ave a n i mmediate e ffect o n t echnology, b ut s ociocultural a djustments t riggered b y s hifts i n t he n atural a bundance o f a nimal a nd p lant f oods a re a pparently r eflected i n s tylistic c hanges.

T hese s tylistic c hanges a re n ot a daptive i n t he

s ense t hat p articular s tyles a re c orrelated w ith p articular e nvironmental p arameters; t hey r ather r epresent a k ind o f ' stress i .licator', t he d irection o f t he c hange h aving l ittle t o d o w ith t he n ature o f

t he e nvironmental s hift.

F urther v ariability

m ay

a lso

b e

i nduced b etween c ontemporary a ssemblages h owever b y g eographic f actors a nd s ome o f

t hese n on-diachronic p atterns a re d iscussed b elow.

2 91

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F ig.

1 49.

aB acked m icro l i ths

D istribution o f t raditional

c lothing m aterials ( bark c loth o r l eather ) ( top) a fter V on B oeckmann ( 1921) c ompared w ith t he d istribution o f H olocene a ssemblages d ominated b y s crapers o r b acked m icroliths ( below ). S craper c ounts e xclude n otched a nd h ol low s crapers. 2 92

S OME N ON-DIACHRONIC C HANGES T HAT M AY C AUSE V ARIABILITY A lthough t he f ocus o f t his s tudy h as f allen o n

d iachronic

c hange,

t here a re s ome s patial p atterns i n t he s outhern A frican L SA t hat a re l ocal o r r egional r esponses w hich h ave i ntroduced v ariability a mongst c ontemporary a ssemblages e ither i n t he f requency o f a rtefact c lasses o r i n s tylistic a ttributes.

D IFFERENCES I N R ELATIVE F REQUENCY G ross d ifferences h ave b een n oted i n t he p ast b etween t he r elative f requencies o f s crapers a nd b acked t ools i n n orthern Z imbabwe, n orthern a nd c entral N amibia a nd Z ambia o n t he o ne h and,

a nd

s outhern

N amibia, s outhern Z imbabwe a nd S outh A frica o n t he o ther, t he f ormer h aving c onsistently h igher f requencies o f b acked m icroliths ( H.J. D eacon 1 972, 1 976; J . D eacon 1 974; N elson 1 976; P hillipson 1 976, 1 977; W adley 1 979; D eacon & D eacon 1 980). T his r equires s ome e xplanation b eyond a s tylistic o ne, a lthough s tyle m ay b e i nvolved, f or e xample i n t he w ays i n w hich t he b acked m icroliths w ere m ounted. P hillipson ( 1976, 1 977) h as p resented r econstructions o f t he m ounting o f b acked m icroliths i n Z ambia b ased o n f inds o f a f ew m ounted s pecimens a nd o thers w ith m astic a dhering t o t hem w hich s uggest t heir u se a s b arbs, m ultiple c omponent c utting t ools a nd a rmatures. T here i s i n a ddition e thnographic e vidence f or t he m ore f requent u se o f b arbs o n i ron a rrows a nd s pears m ade i n Z ambia t han w as c ommon t o t he s outh ( Frobenius & V on W ilm 1 921) a nd i f t hese i ron d esigns w ere a dapted f rom e arlier L SA o nes i n s tone, i t m ay i n p art e xplain t he h igh i ncidence o f d iscarded b acked m icroliths i n Z ambia, w here m any m ore w ere n eeded p er a rtefact, t han t o t he s outh w here b arbing w as r are. I n c ontrast t o t he b acked m icroliths,

s craper f requencies i n

a reas

o f n orthern a nd c entral N amibia, n orthern Z imbabwe a nd Z ambia a re l ow b oth i n r elative a nd a bsolute t erms. T o t he s outh h owever t hey a re m uch m ore a bundant a nd a re a lso m ore s tandardized i n s ize a nd s hape. S crapers a re k nown f rom h istoric r ecords ( Kannemeyer 1 890) a nd f rom r eplication a nd m icrowear s tudies ( Binneman 1 982) t o h ave b een u sed m ostly f or s kin w orking a nd s imilar t ools a re s till i n u se t oday a s s kin s crapers i n E thiopia ( Gallagher 1 977). I n m aps p repared f rom e thnographic d ata g athered i n t he f irst t wo d ecades o f t his c entury u nder t he d irection o f L eo F robenius, i t i s s hown ( Fig. 1 49) t hat c lothing w as m ade e xclusively f rom l eather i n m ost o f S outh A frica, N amibia, B otswana a nd Z imbabwe, b ut i n M ozambique, p arts o f n orthern a nd e astern Z imbabwe, M alawi, e astern Z ambia a nd p arts o f w estern a nd e astern A frica, t he T he d istribution o f

p referred m aterial f or c lothing w as b ark c loth. h igher f requencies o f s crapers i n H olocene

a ssemblages c orresponds c losely t o t he d istribution o f l eather c lothing a nd i s l ow i n a reas w here b ark c loth w as m ade ( Von B oeckmann 1 921; D eacon & D eacon 1 980). W hile t here a re p roblems w ith m easuring t hese d ifferences b y c omparing t he f requencies o f t he o ne f ormal t ool a gainst

t he

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e merges ( H.J. D eacon 1 972: f ig. 3 ). E ither w ay t hese c omparisons d emonstrate t hat f unctional c orrelates c an b e s ought i n e thnographic d ata t o e xplain, a t l east i n p art, a nomalies i n t he s patial p atterning o f L SA a rtefacts.

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F ig. 1 50. T he r elative f requency o f s crapers v s a ll b acked m icroliths p lotted a gainst t ime i n r adiocarbon-dated a ssemblages f rom s outhern A frica. A f ew e xamples f rom Z ambia ( solid s quares) a re i ncluded f or c omparison. C ircles = s ites i n S outh A frica, t riangles = s ites i n N amibia a nd Z imbabwe. S olid s ymbols = s amples w ith m ore t han 2 5 s crapers a nd b acked m icroliths c ombined, o pen s ymbols = s amples w ith l ess t han 2 5 s crapers a nd b acked m icroliths. S ymbols j oined b y a v ertical l ine i ndicate s amples w ith t wo d ates f or t he s ame s tratigraphic u nit. F or r eferences s ee T able 7 2. S a p les o n t he l eft-hand m argin n ot l abelled t hrough l ack o f s pace a re, f rom t op t o b ottom : B EL, M G , D F , B PA , B PA , W K, B PA , H K.

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F ig. 1 51. T he r elative f requency o f s crapers v s s egments p lotted a gainst t ime i n r adiocarbon-dated a ssemblages f rom s outhern A frica. C ircles = s ites i n S outh A frica, t riangles = s ites i n N amibia a nd Z imbabwe. S olid s ymbols = s amples w ith m ore t han 2 5 s crapers a nd s egm ents c ombined, o pen s ymbols = f ewer t han 2 5 s crapers a nd s egments. S ymbols j oined b y av ertical l ine i ndicate s amples w ith t wo d ates f rom t he s ame s tratigraphic u nit. F or r eferences s ee T able 7 2. S amples o n t he l eft-hand m argin n ot l abelled t hrough l ack o f s pace a re, f rom t op t o b ottom: M OS, O AK, A S, B EL, P AT, MG, B EL, L IM , B PA, M OS, R N, G T, D IK, B EL, G B, HR, B ON, HK, G H, P , N BC, WT, N BC, O HT, B UF, H K & B , B Y, U , N BC, N BC, H K.

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F ig. 1 52. T he r elative f requency o f s egments v s o ther b acked m icroliths p lotted a gainst t ime i n r adiocarbon-dated a ssemblages f rom s outhern A frica. C ircles = s ites i n S outh A frica, t riangles = s ites i n N amibia a nd Z imbabwe. S olid s ymbols s amples w ith m ore t han 2 5 s egments a nd o ther b acked m icroliths c ombined, o pen s ymbols = f ewer t han 2 5 s egments a nd o ther b acked m icroliths. S ymbols j oined b y av ertical l ine i ndicate s amples w ith t wo d ates f or t he s ame s tratigraphic u nit. F or r eferences s ee T able 7 2.

2 96

A t a l ocal l evel t he r elative f requencies o f s crapers, b acked m icroliths a nd a dzes i n t he w estern C ape h ave l ed M azel & P arkington ( 1978, 1 981) a nd P arkington ( 1980) t o s uggest t hat h igh a dze f requencies a t l ate H olocene m ountain s ites a re t he r esult o f m ore i ntensive w oodworking a ctivity i n t hat a rea p artly b ecause o f t he a vailability o f w ood t here a nd p artly b ecause t he s tony g round i ncreased t he n eed t o s harpen d igging s ticks. A s imilar c ase h as b een m ade f or t he o ccurrence o f s pokeshaves ( notched s crapers) i n N atal ( Cable e t a l. 1 980). I n t he s outhern C ape t he a bsence o f a dzes a t N BC o n t he c oast a nd t heir p resence i nland a t K RA a nd B PA w ould s upport t he e xpectation t hat a dzes w ould b e m ore c ommon i nland. G rosser s outhern A frican p atterning o f h igh a dze/notched s craper f requencies h as b een r emarked o n b y C lark ( 1959:215) w ho n otes t heir h igher f requency i n w ooded r egions o f Z ambia, Z imbabwe a nd N atal t han i n t he g rassland r egions o f s outhern A frica. T he p atterning b etween c ontemporary s ites i n d ifferent s ettings h as t o b e t aken i nto a ccount w here a rtefact f requencies a re b eing e valuated. I t i s c lear t hat a k nowledge o f b oth t he d iachronic ( temporal) a nd s ynchronic ( spatial) p atterning i n a r egion a re e ssential f or t he u nderstanding o f i nter-site v ariability, t he e xtent o f w hich i s i llustrated i n F igs 1 50-152 w hich s ummarize t he r elative f requencies o f s crapers, a ll b acked m icroliths, s egments a nd o ther b acked t ools a t a l arge n umber o f d ated o ccurrences i n s outhern A frica. T hey s how t hat w hile t here a re g eneralized t rends t hrough t ime a nd s pace, i t i s p ossible t o p redict t he a ge o f a s ample w ithin v ery b road l imits f rom t he r elative f requency o f s crapers a nd b acked t ools. T he p atterning s hows t hat l ate H olocene s amples f rom s outhern A frica a re l ikely t o h ave l ow n umbers o f b oth s crapers a nd b acked m icroliths a nd a re m ore l ikely t o h ave l ow f requencies o f s egments i f l ocated s outh o f t he O range R iver. H igh s egment f requencies a re m ost l ikely t o o ccur b etween c . 6 000 a nd 3 000 B .P. a nd h igh b acked b lade f requencies a re m ost c ommon w ithin t he l ast 3 0 00 y ears. S amples d ating b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P. a re u nlikely t o h ave b acked m icroliths o f a ny s ort a nd t hose p re-dating 1 2 0 00 B .P. h ave l ow n umbers o f b oth s crapers a nd b acked m icroliths; w here t he l atter o ccur t hey m ay b e d ominated a s o ften b y s egments a s b y b acked b lades o r b acked f lakes. I nterwoven w ith t his t emporal v ariability i s t hat i ntroduced b y t he g eographic p ositioning o f s ites w ith n orthern N amibian, Z imbabwean a nd Z ambian a ssemblages h aving c onsistently h igher f requencies o f b acked t ools t han t he s ites t o t he s outh.

D IFFERENCES I N S IZE A ND S HAPE I nterest i n t he m easurement o f s tone a rtefacts a s a n a id t o d istinguishing b etween a ssemblages o f d ifferent a ges w as s tarted i n t he 1 920s b y G oodwin ( 1929) w ho m easured c hanges i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f h andaxes

f rom M ontagu C ave.

H e l ater a pplied a s imilar m ethodology

t o t race w hat h e a ssumed t o b e m igration r outes b ored

s tones

E3tribution o f

o f

d ifferent

s hapes,

s ize a nd s hape c ategories

b y

o f

p eople

p lotting

( Goodwin

w ho

m ade

t he

g eographic

1 947).

F ollowing

t he i mpetus g iven b y M ason ( 1962), m etric a nalyses a re n ow s tandard p ractice f or m ost s tone a rtefact s tudies, b ut r elatively l ittle w ork h as b een p ublished c omparing c ontemporary a ssemblages a t a n i nter-site l evel.

W hile s uch c omparisons m ay b e c omplicated b y v ariations i n t he

2 97

a vailability

o f

r aw

m aterials,

i t

h as n evertheless b een m ooted t hat

l anguage ( dialectal) d ifferences b etween n eighbouring L SA p eoples m ay b e r eflected i n s tylistic d ifferences i n t heir a rtefacts ( H. J . D eacon 1 976:170 f f). T his a ssumption h as b een t ested o n a l imited s cale w ith s tone a rtefacts i n N ew G uinea ( White & T homas 1 972; T homas 1 974:55) a nd o n a v ariety o f c ultural i tems i ncluding s pears i n K enya ( Hodder 1 977) w here s ome c orrelation w as n oted b etween s tyle a nd s ociocultural g roups. O n a b roader s cale, C rosby ( 1977) h as m easured m useum c ollections o f p ercussive c utting i mplements f rom A ustralia a nd N ew G uinea a nd c oncludes t hat a lthough t here i s s ome b road c orrelation b etween e thnic b oundaries, l anguage g roups a nd e conomic p ractices, t he m easurements h ave l ittle p redictive v alue. W e c annot a ssume t hat b ecause a rtefacts a re s tylistically s imilar t hey m ust h ave d erived f rom a c ommon s ource, n or t hat c ommunities w ith s imilar a rtefacts w ere i n r egular c ontact w ith e ach o ther. T his l ack o f p redictive v alue h as a lso b een n oted b y H odder ( 1977, 1 978b) n ot o nly i n t he m easurement o f i ndividual

i tems, b ut a lso i n t erms o f w hich i tems

s howed s ignificant

i nter-group v ariations. U ntil a f ew y ears a go t here w ere n o e thnographic d ata a vailable o n w hether o r h ow s outhern A frican h unter-gatherers s ought t o e xpress t heir g roup i dentity i n m aterial c ulture b ut W iessner

( 1983)

h as

n ow

s hown t hat w hile m etal a rrowheads m ade b y S an i n t he K alahari a re s pecific t o l anguage g roups, t heir b eadwork i s n ot s imilarly r estricted. T he b eaten w ire a rrowheads a re r ecognizably g roup-specific s o t hat ! Kung a rrows a re d istinctively t hose m ade b y H ei//um, N haro a nd G /wi ( Fig. 1 53). I n

a n e ffort

d ifferent

f rom

t o t est t he t ime d epth o f t hese d ifferences, o ver 7 00

a rrows f rom S outh A frican m useum c ollections d ating w ithin t he l ast 1 50 y ears h ave b een m easured ( J. D eacon, i n p rep.). T hey w ere m ade b oth b y e xtant g roups i n N amibia a nd B otswana a nd b y e xtinct g roups o f S an a nd K hoi s outh o f t he O range R iver i n S outh A frica. P reliminary r esults c onfirm t hat t he g roup-specific s tyles n oted b y W iessner e xtend b ack a t l east 6 0 y ears t hrough t he p eriod t hat f encing w ire h as b een a vailable a s a s ource o f s uitable m etal, b ut o lder c ollections t hat d ate b ack t o t he 1 9th c entury a nd f irst t wo d ecades o f t his c entury d o n ot u se f encing w ire. T he i nter-group d ifferences a re u nfortunately n ot t raceable i n t hese o lder s amples p artly b ecause t he c ollections a re p oorly p rovenanced a nd p artly b ecause o f t his c hange i n r aw m aterial. A rrowheads p re-dating 1 920 a re m ade o f b one, b eaten t in a nd n ails. A f ew e xamples f rom t he l ast c entury i n S outh A frica h ave m ade u se o f s mall b eaten m etal i nserts i n s plit b one p oints a nd o f g lass a nd s tone m icroliths s et i n m astic. T he d ifferences b etween t he

m odern

e thnographic s pecimens a nd t hose t hat c an b e d escribed a s

" historic" m ay t herefore b e a ttributable l argely t o t he a vailability o f r aw m aterials f or i t w as o nly a fter a bout 1 910 t hat f encing w ire, w hich c an b e w orked w ith r elative e ase, w as i ntroduced i nto N amibia a nd B otswana. W ithin S outh A frica, a rrowheads ( Fig. 1 54:5,

e xtant m useum c ollections i nclude l arger m etal 6 ) m ade f rom b eaten n ails i n t he w estern h alf

t he C ape P rovince a round K imberley a nd P rieska,

w hile t hose w ith a

s mall m etal i nsert s et w ith s inew, m astic a nd p oison i nto a s plit b one p oint

( Fig.

1 54:2,

3 )

w ere

f ound

m ostly

i n

t he D rakensberg a nd

s urrounding c ountry t o t he e ast. H ere a gain, a s w ith t he a rrowheads m ade f rom f encing w ire, t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he a rrowheads w ould

2 98

HE /UM

! KUNG

G /W I

NHARO

0

0

: eme r

F ig.

1 53.

S an a rrows f rom k nown s ources c ollected a fter 1 920.

A ll a re m ade f rom b eaten f encing w ire e xcept 1 a nd 9 . 1 ,2,3,5-7: N ational C ultural H istory M useum, P retoria; 4 ,8,9: S outh A frican M useum, C ape T own.

2 99

f l attened m e ta l

4 5

1 0

0

2 0

a . )

r eversed i n to h

0

p o isoned b one

1 890

1 : 3 4 3 4 3 L .

4

, 2 D ATE MADE

1 868

P re1 920

.

• ‘

1 820

c i )

1 903

P re 1 920

1 855

P re-1920

F ig. 1 54. S an a nd p ossibly K hoi a rrows m ade i n S outh A frica a nd S WA/ N amibia b efore 1 920. 1 : G riqualand W est; 2 : N atal D rakensberg; 3 : G raaff R einet; 4 : B leek-Lloyd c ollection, S .A . M useum ; 5 : K uruman; 6 : P rieska ( northern C ape); 7 : ' Cape' B ushman; 8 : B oshoff, 0 .F.S.; 9 : H ei//um, n orthern N amibia ; 1 0: B arkly W est, n orthern C ape.

3 00

s eem t o h ave b een c onstrained b y t he a vailable. A n

i nteresting

c ontrast

i s

f orm

i n

w hich

p rovided

b y

b one

t he

m etal

a rrowheads

w as

( Fig.

1 54:7-10) t hat a re f ound i n b oth e thnographic a nd a rchaeological c ollections f rom n orthern N amibia t o t he s outhern C ape. T hese s how n o s ignificant d ifferences i n s ize o r s hape o ver a l arge g eographic a rea, p resumably

i n

t his

a rrow d esign a nd,

i nstance

a gain,

b ecause o f t he d elicate b alance o f t he

b ecause

o f

t he

c onstraints

o f

t he

r aw

m aterial. T he i mplication o f t hese r esults f or a rchaeological i nterpretations i s t hat w here r egional s tylistic d ifferences o ccur, t hey m ay c oincide w ith l anguage b arriers, b ut d ifferent a rtefacts a re l ikely t o h ave d ifferent d istribution p atterns a nd w e c annot p redict

w hich

w ill

b e

t he m ost a ccurate i n p lotting p rehistoric d ialectal b oundaries, p articularly i f t he a rtefact d esigns, r aw m aterials a nd t he d ialectal b oundaries c hange t hrough t ime. A part f rom r egional d ifferences i n b ored s tone m easurements, t he o ther a rtefact c lass w hich s hows c ontemporary v ariability i s t hat o f s crapers. A lthough t he d ata f rom t he s outhern C ape l ead t o t he e xpectation t hat c yclic c hanges i n s craper s ize a nd s hape w ould o ccur t hrough t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears r egardless o f r aw m aterial d ifferences b etween s ites, t his i s n ot t he c ase w here s amples f rom a w ider g eographic a rea a re c ompared ( Fig. 1 55). T he g eographic l imits o f t he s outhern C ape p attern c annot b e m easured a s y et f or m any s ites i n a djacent r egions l ack o ccupation d eposits t hat p re-date 4 500 B .P., b ut w here m id-Holocene s amples a re f ound f urther a field, a s a t W onderwerk i n t he n orthern C ape a nd D iana's V ow i n Z imbabwe, t o c onform i n t hat t heir m id-Holocene s crapers a re

t hey d o n ot a ppear n ot s ignificantly

s horter t han t hose o f p receding a nd s ucceeding s amples. W hether t his i s a r eflection o f r aw m aterial d ifferences, o r w hether i t h as w ider i mplications, w e c annot j udge a t p resent. T he p attern o f s imilarities s ummarized i n T able 6 8 s hows s ome i nteresting c orrespondences

b etween

s ites t hat a re g eographically f ar r emoved ( for e xample b etween W onderwerk m id-Holocene a nd K angkara e arly H olocene s amples), b ut s uch d ata a re a t p resent o f l ittle m ore t han c uriosity v alue. W ith a l arger d ata b ase f rom s ites s pread m ore e venly i n s maller m ay b e i n a p osition t o d elineate g roup-specific a reas.

r egions

w e

S UMMARY C omparisons b etween t he t rends t hrough t ime i n m odern t echnology a nd t he s tone a nd b one a rtefacts o f t he L ater S tone A ge s uggest t hat s ome p att rns a re c ommon t o b oth. T he i ncreasing c omplexity, g reater s tandardization a nd m iniaturization o f t he H olocene f ormal t ools a re f eatures t hat w ould b e e xpected h ad t he m omentum o f t echnological c hange a nd t he d iffusion o f n ew t echniques m oved a t a n e ven r ate. T he d ata f rom t he s outhern C ape s how, h owever, t hat t he r ate o f c hange w as n ot e ven a nd t hat t he d evelopmental s equence w as d isrupted a t c . 1 2 0 00 B .P. b y a c hange i n f laking t echnique, a n i ncrease i n t he s ize o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd s crapers, a nd a c hange i n r aw m aterial p references a t a t ime w hen a m ajor s hift o ccurred i n t he h unting p attern. T his c hange i n h unting p attern w as a pparently p recipitated a t

l east

i n p art b y c hanging e nvironmental c onditions

3 01

i nitiated s ome

D IANA 'S I I81 I I II I

1

I

I

_ 1

I

I _ I

V O I T mm 1 0 0

I I I W I ONDER WERK -

I

- 30

I II I

—2 0

1t i

— 10

i f

0

L I MEROCK

2 —20 — 10 0

t II 1 1

L I MEROCK

30

I

—2 0

1

—10

I II I ,

0

PO WERHOUSE

—3 0 —2 0

U i

— - 1 0

G LEN ELL IOT

—3 0

—20 -1 0

1 I II 1 1 II Ii

H IGHLANDS I

— 30 —2 0 —1 0

1

I

BLYDEFONTE IN —30 —20

1

I

— 10

I 3 I. 1 1

9 1 1i oIU

RAD IOCARBON

/ j

3

4 I

YEARS x 1000 B .P

F ig. 1 55. C hanges i n s craper l ength t hrough t ime i n L SA a ssemblages f rom t he n orthern C ape a nd Z imbabwe. S olid l ines a re f or s amples w ith a ssociated r adiocarbon d ates a nd d ashed l ines i ndicated i nterpolated a ges. D iana 's V ow a fter C ooke ( 1979), W onderwerk f rom A .I. T hackeray ( 1981), H ighlands a fter H .J. D eacon

( 1976);

3 02

r est H umphreys

( 1979).

2 -4 0 00 y ears e arlier w hich r educed t he a vailability o f t he a nimals c ommonly h unted d uring t he l ate P leistocene a nd e ncouraged a s hift t owards t he h unting o f s maller, n on-gregarious b rowsing a ntelope r ather t han t he l arge g razers t hey h ad p reviously r elied o n. A s s uggested i n F ig. 1 38, t his c hange i n h unting p attern p robably h ad r epercussions i n t erms o f s ocial a nd d emographic f actors s uch a s g roup s ize a nd d istribution a s w ell a s i n s easonal m ovements. T he l ack o f c orrelation b etween p articular c limatic r egimes a nd p articular a rtefact a ssemblages s uggests t hat w hile a djustments t o e nvironmental c hanges s timulated c hange i n t he a rtefact s ystem t hrough s ociocultural i nstability, t he d irection t hese t echnological c hanges t ook w as w ithin t he r ange o f s ecular v ariability a nd w as n ot t herefore a f unctional a djustment i n t he a ccepted s ense. T he f act t hat a lmost a ll t he s tone a nd b one a rtefact c lasses o f t he L ater S tone A ge a re k nown v irtually t hroughout A frica a nd e lsewhere i n t he O ld W orld a rgues f or t he e xistence o f e stablished l ines o f c ommunication a long w hich i deas a nd p eople m oved t o d iffuse t he e volutionary d evelopments o f S tone A ge t echnology. I n c ases w here w e c an p lot t he s peed o f m ovement o f i ndividual i tems a s, f or e xample, w ith p ottery, w e c an s uggest w hether t he i nnovation w as s pread b y i mmigrant p eople o r b y t he g radual b orrowing o f i deas, b ut a g reat d eal m ore i nformation i s n eeded b efore w e c an h ope t o i dentify i dentity-conscious L ater S tone A ge g roups b y t heir s tone a rtefacts, o r t o p redict t he a ge o f a s ample o f a rtefacts f rom t he r elative f requency,

s ize a nd s hape o f i ts

t ools.

3 03

T able 6 8. Matrix s ummarizing t he n umber o f t imes t wo s amples o f s crapers w ere n ot s ignificantly d ifferent a t p . 05 i n K olmogorov-Smirnov a nd MannW hitney U -tests f or s craper w idth, l ength, h eight a nd w /1 r atio u sing s amples f rom B oomplaas, N elson B ay C ave, K angkara, W ilton, M elkhoutboom a nd W onderwerk. N umbers u nits

D ata f rom W onderwerk f rom A .

a t

t he v arious

B OOMPLAAS D GL 1

I .

T hackeray

i n l eft-hand c olumn r efer t o c ode n umbers

B ID 1 2

B LA 1 3

B RL 1 4

( 1981).

t o s tratigraphic

s ites.

N ELSON B AY ' C l . :I C 1 5 :2 1

g iven

B SC 2 2

R A 2 3

B SL: Y GL : S UR 2 5 .3 1

M ELKHOU TBOOM

W ILTON

K ANGKARA

R BG SL 2 4

H OL- P BW- P OWG BL R BL BD 3 2 3 3 3 4

1 2 A 4 1

2 8- 3 8 3 A 3C 4 2 4 3

3 0 3E 4 4

3 F 4 5

3 G 3 1 4 6

S URC AFL 5 1

4 A 4 7

M B W ED 5 2 5 3

W ORDERW EU m 4 0 W BM : 1A-C 2 8 3 A 3 B 4 A 4 8 4 C 5 B 5 4 .6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8

1 1 2

8

1 3

8

8

1 4

0

0

0

1 5

0

0

0

2

2 1

2

0

0

0

1

2

6

7

8

1

0

1

2 3

7

7

7

1

2

3

8

2 4

0

0

0

2

4

0

00

2 5

6

6

7

4

5

4

8

3 1

5

6

6

2

0

4

4

6

0

4

3 2

6

7

8

1

0

0

8

8

0

8

5

3 3

0

0

0

8

1

0

0

0

2

3

2

0

3 4

2

2

2

6

5

0

2

5

2

6

2

2

4 1

2

0

0

6

2

2

0

1

2

1

30

4 2

0

0

0

0

4

1

2

6

0

5

4

0

2

4

4 3

0

0

1

0

2

0

2

6

0

6

3

2 2

0 4

1

4

2

2

2

0

2

1

2

6

0

6

4

2 3

0 6

0

1

4 5

2

0

2

0

1

2

6

6

0

5

4

4

0

2

2

4

3

2

4 6

2

2

2

0

0

0

3

3

0

3

8

2

0

2

1

4

2

4

4 7

0

0

0

5

2

0

0

2

2

3

0

1

4

8

3

1

0

0

5 1

2

3

4

2

0

0

8

6

0

6

3

4

0

2

0

2

5 2

8

5

6

0

0

2

7

8

0

7

6

6

0

2

1

2

2

0

6

2

3

7

5 3

4

0

2

2

1

2

2

3

1

2

6

2

2

2

4

1

0

1

0

2

2

2

3

5 4

4

2

2

2

0

2

2

3

0

2

7

2

0

2

2

2

0

2

1

4

0

1

6

4

6 1

0

0

0

5

2

0

0

0

2

3

2

0

4

7

3

2

0

0

0

0

5

0

0

0

1

6 2

0

0

0

5

1

0

0

0

2

3

0

0

4

4

2

0

0

0

0

0

5

0

0

0

0

6 3

0

0

0

5

0

0

0

0

2

4

0

0

4

4

2

0

0

0

0

0

4

0

0

0 0

5

5 4

0

0

0

4

0

0

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T HE SOUTHERN AFR ICAN SEQUENCE

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F ig. 1 56. Map o f s outhern A frica s howing t he p osition o f s ites m entioned i n t he t ext a nd i n T ables a nd F igures. A k ey t o t he a bbreviations a nd r eferences i s g iven i n T able 7 2.

3 06

TH E

SO U T H E R N

AF R I C A N

SE Q U E N C E

T he p atterns o f d iachronic c hange d escribed i n C hapter 6 h ave s hown t hat w hile i nnovative c hanges f ollow t he d irections e xpected f rom t he t echnological e volution o f L SA a rtefacts a nd a re l argely i ndependent o f e nvironmental c hanges, s hifts i n s tyle o f s craper m anufacture a nd m ethods o f f lake p roduction i nitiated c . 1 2 0 00 B .P. h ave a b road t emporal c orrelation w ith c hanges i n h unting p attern t hat w ere i nitiated s everal t housand y ears a fter t he e nd o f t he L ast G lacial M aximum . A fter 8 000 B .P., w ith t he i ncrease i n h afting, t here w as w idespread a doption o f f ormal m icrolithic t ools t hat p ersisted t hrough t o e arly h istoric t imes. W ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears, w ith t he a dvent o f

h erding a nd i ts a ssociated p ottery,

w as a ltered i n s ome a reas b ut n ot

t he s tylistic m ode o f s crapers

i n o thers.

A t o ne l evel o f a bstraction, i t i s u seful t o r efer t o t hese o bservations a s s tages w ith s ome t emporal a nd s patial l imits. T here s hould b e n o m isunderstanding a bout t he n ature o f t hese c ulture-stratigraphic s tages, h owever. T hey d o n ot d enote e xclusive s ets o f d ependent v ariables, b ut m erely g roup t ogether i n a l oose t emporal f ramework t hose a ssemblages

i n w hich t here i s a s imilar r ange

o f s tone f laking t echniques, a s imilar r ange o f f ormal t ool c lasses, a nd i n w hich s ecular s hifts i n s tyle o f s craper m anufacture a re b roadly s imilar. V ariability i s e xpected w ithin e ach s tage b oth i n t erms o f t he r elative f requencies o f r aw m aterials, a rtefacts, f ormal t ools a nd t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he f ormal a nd u nretouched f lakes, a nd s ome o f t his v ariability i s g reat e nough b etween c ontemporary a ssemblages t o d istinguish r egionally-specific i ndustries. A t a h igher l evel o f a bstraction, m ajor c hanges

t hrough

t ime

a re

i dentified w here a s eries o f i nnovative i tems h as b een i ntroduced o ver a r elatively s hort s pace o f t ime a nd i s c orrelated w ith a c hange i n t he m ethod o f f laking s tone a s i dentified i n t he c ore a nd u ntrimmed f lake s ub-classes. T hese m ajor u nits t hen, w hich w e r ecognize a s t he E SA, M SA a nd L SA, d iffer f rom e ach o ther a t a ll l evels i n t he c lassification s cheme: i n t he b y-products o f f laking, i n t he r ange, s ize a nd s hape o f u tilized p ieces, a nd i n t he r ange, s ize a nd s hape o f t he f ormal t ools. r etain t he s ame

T he s tages w ithin t he u nits, o n t he o ther h and, a ll r ange o f s tone f laking t echniques a nd f ormal t ools

( although o ften i n v astly d ifferent r elative f requencies), b ut d iffer i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he f ormal t ools a nd i n t he r ange o f r aw m aterials u sed t o m ake t hem . W ith t he n umber o f n ames a t l arge i n s outhern A frican A ge

t erminology,

s equences, c hapter b roadly

L ater

S tone

a nd f ew o f t hese b ased o n w ell e xcavated, w ell d ated

t he c ulture s tratigraphic r ecord w ill b e d escribed i n

t his

u nder g eneralized d escriptive h eadings t hat g roup t ogether c ontemporary a ssemblages i n w hich a s imilar t oolmaking

t echnique h as b een u sed a nd a s imilar r ange o f f ormal t ools m ade. T his s hould n ot b e s een a s a n ew c lassification s cheme, b ut r ather a s a d evice f or t he c haracterization o f m ajor c hanges i n t he s outhern A frican L ater S tone A ge s equence o ver t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears o r m ore. B ecause t hese s tages c oincide, a gain v ery b roadly, w ith p eriods o f s omewhat d ifferent

e nvironmental

c haracter

3 07

t han

t he

p resent,

t he

T able 6 9. T he d ating, c haracteristics a nd S tone A ge c ulture-stratigraphic u nits u sed u sed i n t he l eft-hand c olumn s hould n ot b e s cheme, b ut r ather a s a n i nterim d evice t o i n s tone t ool m anufacture d uring t he L ater

C ULTURE-STRATIGRAPHIC U NIT

D AT ING

1 14 4 ]: 41ocene m icro lithic

4 0 0 00 - 1 2 0 00 ßP .

T erm ina l P leistocene/ear ly H o locene n on-m icro lithic a ssemblages

1 2 0 00 - 8 000 B .P . T wo s ites i n N am ibia d ate b etween 2 0 0 00 a nd 1 2 0 00 B .P .

e quivalent t erms o f L ater i n t his r eview. T he t erms s een a s an ew c lassification c haracterize m a jor c hanges S tone A ge i n s outhern A frica.

T ERMS I NCLUDED

C HARACTER IST ICS C lear e v idence f or t he u se o f am icro lithic f laking t echnique w ith s ingle p latform b ladelet c ores a nd b ipo lar c ores y ie lding n umerous b lade lets l ess t han 2 5 m m l ong . F ew f orma l t oo ls. b ut i nc lud i eunstandard ized s crapers, a nd a f ew b acked m icro liths. I nc ludes b ored s tones, p olished b one p oints, o str ich e ggshe ll b eads, t orto iseshe ll b owls. M iddle S tone A ge f ormal t oo ls a bsent.

M icrolithic f laking t echniques a bsent o r v ery r are . C ores g enera lly l arge a nd i rregular, f lakes q uadr ilatera l a nd l arger t han p reced ing a nd s ucceed ing a ssemb lages. F ew f orma l t ools, b ut s craper s p redom inate w ith l arge c ircu lar a nd e nd s craper f orms. B one t oo ls n umerous.

R obberg I ndustry o f t he s outhern C ape ( K lein 1 974; D eacon, H .J. 1 976; D eacon, J . 1 978 ) a nd t he l ate P le istocene i ndustry f rom S ehonghong ( Carter 1 978 ). B road ly e qu ivalent t o t he N achikufan I i n Z amb ia ( M iller 1 969), t he e ar ly m icro lithic f rom M atup i i n Z a ire ( Van N oten 1 977) a nd t he S econd I ntermed iat e f rom K isese i n T anzania ( I nskeep 1 962 ). A lso i nc ludes t he E ar ly L SA f rom B order C ave. H eunin eeskrans a nd R ose C ottage ( Beaumont 1 978 ).

E xc ludes p roto-LSA o f L eopard 's H ill i n Z ambia a nd t he T shangula i n Z imbabwe b ecause b oth h ave M SAt ype f ormal t oo ls. S m ithf ield A ( Goodw in & V an R iet L owe 1 929), E ar ly a nd M iddle S m ithf ie ld o f t he T ransvaa l ( Mason 1 962), A lbany I ndustry o f t he s outher n C ape ( K le in 1 974 ; D eacon, H .J . 1 976; D eacon, J . 1 978), t he O akhurst C omplex e ncompassing t he O akhur st, L ockshoek a nd P omongwe I ndustr ies ( S ampson 1 974), t he P omongwe I ndustry o f Z imbabwe ( Cooke e t a l 1 966), t he E ar ly L SA a t A po llo 1 a nd P ockenbank ( Wendt 1 972, 1 976), t he B ushman R ock p hase o f t he T ransvaa l L SA ( P lug 1 978 ) a nd t he e ar ly H olocene a ssemb lage a t G ood H ope s he lter i n N ata l ( C ab le e t a l 1 980).

H o locene m icrolith ic a ssemblages

8 000 - a f ew h undred y ears B .P . O ne s ite o ver 1 0 0 00 B .P . i n Z imbabwe a nd o ne i n N am ibia i n 1 0th m illenn ium B .P .

F u lly d eveloped m icro lithic t rad it ion w ith n umerous f ormal t oo ls; b acked m icro liths a nd s mall c onvex s crapers h igh ly s tandard ized; b one, s he ll a nd w ooden a rtefacts; r ock a rt c lear ly a ssoc iated

W ilton & S m ithf ie ld C ( Goodw in & V an R iet L owe 1 929), W ilton I ndustry o f t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape ( Deacon, J . 1 972, 1 974; D eacon H .J. 1 976), W ilton C omp lex o f S ampson ( 1974) i ncorporat ing t he C oastal a nd I nter ior W ilton, t he K ham i a nd M atopo I ndustr ies ( Cooke e t a l 1 966; C ooke 1 971, 1 979); t he I n land W ilton o f H umphrey s ( 1979) a nd t he L SA I o f L esotho ( Carter 1 978 ).

L ate H o locene a ssemblages a ssoc iated w ith p ottery

W ithin t he l a st 2 500 y ear s, w ith m ost s ites m ore r ecent t han 2 000 B .P .

I n s ome a reas t he p ottery i s a ssoc iated w ith m icrolithic a ssemblages, b ut i n t he n orthern C ape, t he T ransvaal a nd N atal p ottery i s a ssoc iat ed w ith a ssemblages d om inated b y l ong e nd s crapers a nd f ew b acked m icro liths. M etal ( copper ), g lass b eads a nd g lass a rtefacts a lso o ccur . A nother f ac ies i s e xpressed i n c oasta l m idden a ssemblages i n w hich f ormal t oo ls a re e ither a bsent o r v ery r are, b ut p ottery i s p resent .

W ith m icro lithic t oo ls: P ost-C limax W ilton ( Deacon, J . 1 972; I n skeep 1 9784, C eram ic W ilton ( Sampson 1 974), L SA I i n L esotho ( Carter 1 978 ), l ate m icro lithic i n N am ib ia ( Wendt 1 972; W adley 1 979 ), S andy B ay i ndustry o f t he s outh-western C ape ( R udner &R udner 1 954; S ampson 1 974; H azel & P arkington 1 978 ) a nd t he f inal e xpression o f t he K ham i/W ilton/ M atopo s equence i n Z imbabwe ( C ooke 1 97 1, 1 979; W a lker 1 980 ). W ith l ong e nd s craper s: S m ithf ie ld B o f G oodw in & V an R iet L owe ( 1929), S m ithf ie ld C omp lex ( Sampson 1 974), S m ithf ie ld P a nd N ( Goodw in 1 930 ; V an R iet L owe 1 936), t he L ater S m ithf ie ld o f t he T ransvaal ( Mason 1 962). C oastal: C oastal C omplex o f S amp son ( 1974), M i aToper o f R udner ( 1968 ). M acro lithic w ith p ottery : B randberg C u lture ( Rudner 1 957) a nd l ate m acro lithic i n N am ib ia ( Wendt 1 972; W adley 1 979).

3 08

e vidence f or s ubsistence w ill b e r eviewed a t t he s ame t ime t o i ndicate t he s cale o f h abitat a djustments i nvolved. T he h eadings u nder w hich t he L ater S tone A ge s equence i s s ummarized a re l isted i n T able 6 9 t ogether w ith t heir s ynonyms. T he a ssemblages o n w hich t he s cheme i s b ased c ome f rom s everal h undred r adiocarbon d ated s tratigraphic u nits f rom o ver 1 60 s ites i n s outhern A frica ( Tables 7 0, 7 1 a nd 7 2; F ig. 1 56).

L ATE P LEISTOCENE M ICROLITHIC A SSEMBLAGES L ate P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages h ave b een r eported d eposits d ating b etween a bout 4 0 0 00 a nd 1 2 0 00 B .P. ( Table 7 0).

f rom T he

o ldest s amples a re f rom B order C ave i n K waZulu ( Beaumont 1 978; B eaumont e t a l. 1 978) w here t hey d ate t o c . 3 8 0 00 B .P. a nd t hereafter, i n o rder o f a ntiquity, t hey h ave b een r eported f rom R ose C ottage e astern

i n t he e astern O range F ree T ransvaal ( Beaumont 1 981),

S tate, H euningneskrans i n t he B oomplaas, N BC, K RA a nd

M elkhoutboom i n t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape ( H.J. D eacon 1 976; J . D eacon 1 978), E lands B ay i n t he w estern C ape ( Parkington p ers. c omm.) a nd B yneskranskop i n t he s outh-western C ape ( Schweitzer & W ilson 1 982). I n L esotho a s imilar a ssemblage h as b een d escribed f rom S ehonghong ( Carter 1 978) a nd B eaumont ( 1978) h as s uggested t hat t he L ower O ccupation a t S hongweni i n N atal ( Davies 1 975) m ay r elate t o t hese a ssemblages a s w ell. I n Z imbabwe, a ssemblages a ssigned t o t he T shangula I ndustry ( Cooke 1 963, 1 971) d ate t o b etween 3 0 0 00 a nd 1 2 0 00 B .P. b ut r etain a n umber o f f ormal t ools t hat a re t ypologically M SA a s w ell a s b acked m icroliths a nd o strich e ggshell b eads t ypical o f t he L ater S tone A ge; t heir p recise r elationship t o c ontemporary a ssemblages t o t he s outh a nd n orth i s n ot y et f ully u nderstood. A lso c ontemporary w ith t he l ate P leistocene i ndustries a re n on-microlithic o nes f rom N amibia 4 0

0 00

a nd

1 0

( Wendt

1 976 a nd p ers.

0 00 B .P.

c omm .)

a nd f rom B PA

t hat

d ated

b etween

t hat d ate b etween 3 2 0 00 a nd

2 0 0 00 B .P.

T able 7 0.

D ated l ate P leistocene

a ssemblages

f rom

w ith L ater S tone A ge a ffinities, i ncluding T shangula a nd n on-microlithic i ndustries.

B C

-

4 5

4

4 3

4 2

4 1

R C. H AA°-

B C

B C

B C B C

P OC° B C B C

B C

4 0

3 8

3 7

3 6

3 5

3

3 9

3 4

P OC* ( HK ) B C B C -

R C P OC°-

B C

3 2

2 9

2 7

3 1

3 0

2 8

s outhern

t he

-E arly

A frica

L SA - , t he

-

Z ON* P ' H K Z OM* R ED*(HK )SHO N OS*BPA°HK R C H K H K ( HK) B PA°E8° -

D '

-

-

P *

P *

Z OM* Z OM*

2 6

2 5

1 8

1 7

1 6

1 5

1 4

1 3

2 4

2 3

2 2

2 1

2 0

1 9

R ad iocarbon d ates x 1 000 y ears B .P . •

T shangu la a ssociations

•

N on-m icro lith ic a ssociations

+

N on-f inite d ate

() A m ino a cid c alibrat ion

N ote :

B order C ave ( BC) d ates f rom 4 5 00 t o 3 2 00 B .P. a re a lmost a l l f rom t he 1 WA l ayer . T he b est e st imate o f i ts a ge i s 3 8 00 B .P. ( Beaumont e t a l 1 978)

K ey t o s ite n ames a nd r eferences f or d ates m ay b e f ound i n T ab le 7 2

3 09

N ote:

A ssemb lages o ther t han T shangu la o nes d ating b etween 1 9 00 a nd 1 2 0 00 a re l isted i n T ab le 7 1

L ate P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages ( with t he e xception o f t hose f rom B order C ave a nd H euningneskrans w here t he b ladelet e lement i s n ot w ell r epresented) a re c haracterized b y p roduction o f s mall b ladelets f rom s tandardized

t he s ystematic s ingle-platform

b ladelet c ores a nd b y t he o ccurrence i n s ome q uantity o f b ipolar c ores t hat h ave s ometimes b een s o r educed b y f laking t hat t hey a re c lassed a s p ieces e squillees, o utils e cailles, s caled p ieces o r c ore r educed p ieces. Q uartz a nd q uartz c rystal a re p referred r aw m aterials, b ut w here t hese w ere r ocks h ave b een s ubstituted.

n ot

a vailable,

o ther

f ine-grained

V ery f ew o f t he b ladelets w ere r etouched i nto f ormal t ools, b ut w here b acked m icroliths a re p resent t hey t ake t he f orm o f b lunt o r r ound-ended s egments a nd c asually b acked b ladelets. S crapers t end t o b e s hort ( less t han 2 5 m m l ong) a nd r elatively t hick ( high), a nd t here a re a lso r are a nd w ell-made l arge s crapers r eminiscent o f t he c oncavo-convex S mithfield A s crapers d escribed b y G oodwin & V an R iet L owe ( 1929). A t B PA a nd N BC a f ew o f t he s ingle p latform b ladelet c ores s how p olish o n t he s triking p latform i ndicating t heir u se a s s crapers a s w ell a s c ores ( Binneman 1 982). I n a ll c ases t he p ercentage f requency o f f ormal t ools i s l ess t han 1 % o f t he t otal a ssemblage. A dzes, b orers a nd o ne s errated b acked b ladelet a re k nown f rom a ssemblages o f t his t ype a t B PA, a nd s mall b ored s tones h ave b een f ound a t B order C ave ( Beaumont 1 978), M atupi ( Van N oten 1 977), N achikufu ( Miller 1 969) a nd K alemba ( Phillipson 1 976). A lthough t he f requency o f f ormal t ools i s l ow , t he L SA c haracter o f t hese l ate P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages i s s hown i n a ssociated l ithic a nd n on-lithic a rtefacts t hat a re d irectly c omparable w ith i tems i n H olocene a ssemblages a nd i n t he e thnographic p resent. T hese i nclude o strich e ggshell b eads, d ecorated o strich e ggshell w ater c ontainers, m arine s hell b eads, p olished b one p oints a nd/or l inkshafts a nd s mall b ored s tones ( Table 6 6).

D ATING T he t ransition f rom c learly M SA t o c learly L SA a ssemblages i s n ot e asy t o p inpoint i n t ime o n t he b asis o f t he s mall n umber o f o ccurrences k nown a t p resent, b ut i n t he r are i nstances w here l ate P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages a re f ound s tratified b etween M SA a nd f ully d eveloped L SA h orizons, t he s hift i s d ated b etween 4 0 0 00 a nd 2 0 0 00 B .P. A t B order C ave t here i s a l ong h iatus b etween t he e arliest ' Early L SA d ated a t c . 3 8 0 00 a nd t he l ate H olocene I ron A ge d eposits ( Beaumont 1 978; B eaumont e t a l. 1 978), a t H euningneskrans t he e arliest L SA d eposits a re d ated b y e xtrapolation f rom t he o ldest r adiocarbon d ates a t c . 2 4 0 00 B .P. a nd a re n ot u nderlain b y M SA, a nd a t R ose C ottage t he d ates r ange b etween c . 2 5 0 00 a nd c . 4 0 0 00 B .P. ( Beaumont & V ogel 1 972a, b ), a gain w ith a l ong h iatus b etween t he y oungest o f t hese d ates a nd t he y oungest M SA u nit i s d ated t o

m id-Holocene. c . 3 2 0 00 B .P.

A t B oomplaas t he a nd t he a ssemblages

b etween t hat a nd t he e arliest a ssemblages t hat a re c learly L SA ( GWA a t c .

1 8

0 00

B .P.)

i nclude

n o

f ormal

t ools a nd n o n on-lithic i tems

c haracteristic o f e ither t he M SA o r L SA ( H.J. D eacon 1 979,

1 980).

I n

Z imbabwe t he a ssemblages d ated t o b etween 3 0 0 00 a nd 1 2 0 00 B .P. a nd a ssigned t o t he T shangula ( Cooke 1 963, 1 971) m ay w ell b e o f m ixed o rigin

a nd

a re

c urrently b eing r e-evaluated ( Walker 1 980), w hile i n

3 10

N amibia p ainted

W endt s labs

( 1976) d ating

r eports M SA-type a rtefacts a ssociated w ith t o c . 2 6 0 00 B .P. a t A pollo 1 1. T he o verall

p icture t herefore s hows c onfusing v ariability i n t he d ates f or t he f irst a ppearance o f L SA a ssemblages a nd a ny f inal a ssessment w ill h ave t o a wait t he e xcavation o f m ore c omplete s equences B oomplaas.

s uch

a s

t hat

a t

A t t he o ther e nd o f t he t ime s cale, t he s hift a way f rom m icrolithic a rtefacts i n t he t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene s eems t o h ave o ccurred w ithin 1 0 00 y ears o ver a w ide g eographic a rea b etween c . 1 2 0 00 a nd 1 1 0 00 B .P. T here a re n o a ssemblages o f l ate P leistocene m icrolithic c haracter d ated m ore r ecent t han 1 2 0 00 B .P. i n t he s outhern C ape, a lthough a t H euningneskrans t here d ated w ithin t he 1 2th m illennium ( Beaumont 1 981).

i s

o ne

a ssemblage

E VIDENCE F OR S UBSISTENCE T he e ffect o f l ower t emperatures a nd d ifferent r ainfall r egimes f rom t hose o f t he p resent v aried f rom o ne e cozone t o a nother i n s outhern A frica d uring t he l ate P leistocene a nd i s m ost c learly r eflected i n t he f aunal r emains f rom o ccupation s ites. A ssemblages i n t he w estern, s outhern a nd e astern C ape s how m ore d ifferences b etween l ate P leistocene a nd H olocene f aunas t han d o t hose f rom e lsewhere i n s outhern A frica b ecause t he c ombination o f l ower t emperatures a nd t he e xposure o f t he c ontinental s helf s outh o f t he c ontinent l ed t o t he g rass e lement i n t he v egetation b ecoming m ore d ominant a nd t o t he o ccurrence o f s pringbok, o strich, w ildebeest, q uagga, b ontebok a nd w arthog a t N BC w here t hey w ere n ot k nown i n h istoric t imes. A f eature o f l ate P leistocene f aunal a ssemblages i n t he C ape e cozone i s t he p resence o f a n umber o f l arge m ammals t hat b ecame e xtinct a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene o r e arly i n t he H olocene, p artly a s a r esult o f c limatic a nd h abitat c hanges a nd p artly b ecause o f t he r ole o f m an ( Klein 1 980 :272). T hese i ncluded t he g iant b uffalo, P elorovis a ntiquus, t he g iant C ape h orse, E quus c apensis, t he g iant a lcelaphine M egalotragus p riscus, a l arge w arthog M etridiochoerus s p. a nd t wo s pringbok, A ntidorcas b ondi a nd A . a ustralis. K lein ( 1980) s uggests t hat S tone A ge p eople i n t he C ape e cozone i ntensified t heir h unting o f t he l arge p lains g ame a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene w hen h abitat c hanges m ade t hese s pecies l ess n umerous a nd, t ogether w ith t he t echnological i nnovation o f t he b ow a nd a rrow ( ?), s ome s pecies w ere d riven b elow a c ritical t hreshold a nd c ould n ot m aintain t heir r eproductive c apacity. O utside t he C ape e cozone, l ess c ommonly p reserved i n

l ate P leistocene f aunal a ssemblages a re a rchaeological d eposits. T wo o lder

s amples, f rom B order C ave ( c. 3 8 0 00 B .P.) a nd f rom t he T shangula l evels a t R edcliff i n Z imbabwe ( 30-20 0 00 B .P.), h owever, i ndicate t hat c ooler c onditions a llowed s ome s pecies, n amely t he s pringbok, m ountain r eedbuck a nd b lesbok/bontebok, t o i ncrease t heir g eographic r ange b ecause t hey w ere n ot f ound n ear t hese s ites i n h istoric t imes ( Klein 1 977, 1 978a; B eaumont e t a l. 1 978; C ruz-Uribe 1 983). N o s ignificant d ifferences h ave b een n oted i n t he r ange o f a nimals h unted b y M SA a nd l ate P leistocene L SA p eople, b ut w hen l ate P leistocene f aunal a ssemblages, r egardless o f c ultural a ssociation, a re c ompared w ith H olocene o nes, t here a re d ifferences b oth i n t he

3 11

r ange o f a nimals

( due p artly t o c hanges

i n

a vailability).

T hat

i s

m ost e vident i n t he r elative f requency o f g razers v s b rowsers t hat e quates a lso w ith g regarious a nd n on-gregarious s pecies ( Klein 1 980, 1 981a). T here a re n o s triking d ifferences a pparent b etween M SA a nd e arly L SA h unting m ethods

a nd

c apabilities

j udging

f rom

m ortality

p rofiles o f s mall b ovids ( Klein 1 981a), b ut L SA p eople s howed g reater c ompetence i n t he H olocene a nd w ere a ble t o k ill m ore d angerous a nimals, f or e xample b ushpig, t han w ere t heir M SA c ounterparts. K lein ( 1976, 1 979) h as a lso a rgued t hat H olocene p eople w ere m ore e fficient i n f ishing a nd f owling t han t heir M SA c ounterparts, b ut t he l ack o f c oastal s ites w ith e vidence f or f ishing a nd f owling a s w ell a s s hellfish c ollecting b etween c . 8 0 0 00 a nd 1 2 0 00 y ears a go m akes i t i mpossible t o t est w hether t his e fficiency w as c oincident w ith t he a dvent o f t he L SA o r w hether i t d eveloped g radually d uring t he l ate-terminal P leistocene. P oor p reservation i s i dentifiable p lant f ood

p robably r esponsible f or t he l ack o f r emains a t m ost l ate P leistocene s ites w ith

m icrolithic a ssemblages. A n e xception i s B order C ave w here g rass b edding m aterial, l eaves, t wigs a nd s eeds a re p resent i n t he u nits d ating t o c . 3 8 0 00 B .P. ( Beaumont 1 978, 1 980). T here a re 9 5 l eaves f rom 1 5 s pecies o f w hich 1 4 l eaves f rom 5 s pecies a re k nown t o b e e dible, a nd t wo o thers a re o f k nown m edicinal v alue. O f t he 5 5 s eeds f rom 1 3 s pecies, 2 6 f rom 5 s pecies a re e dible a nd 7 s eeds f rom 2 s pecies a re m edicinal. C arbonized p lant m aterials h ave a lso b een f ound b eneath s tones i n l ate P leistocene l evels a t B PA a nd E lands B ay C ave, b ut t hey h ave n ot b een a nalysed e dible s pecies.

a nd

m ay

o r

m ay

n ot

i nclude

T he l imited d ata b ase s uggests t hat t he h unting o f l arger m igratory p lains g ame w as c ommon i n t he C ape a nd T ransvaalian e cozones d uring t he l ate P leistocene a nd t hat s ome p lant f oods w ere c ontributing t o t he

d iet.

E thnographic

a nalogy

s uggests

t hat

h unting

o f

l arge

m igratory g razers i s o ften a ssociated w ith r elatively l arge g roups o f p eople t o f acilitate h unting i n g ame d rives a nd i n t he s haring o f m eat. T his c ould h ave m eant l arger t erritories p er g roup a nd t herefore a l ower a rchaeological v isibility o f s ites a s t he p opulation w as m ore d ispersed ( H.J. D eacon 1 976), a nd i t m ay i n p art a ccount f or t he

s mall

n umber

o f

k nown

s ites

a ssociated

w ith

m icrolithic

a ssemblages i n t he l ate P leistocene.

T ERMINAL P LEISTOCENE/EARLY H OLOCENE N ON-MICROLITHIC A SSEMBLAGES S outh o f t he Z ambezi a g roup o f a ssemblages o ccurs p ost-dating t he T shangula i n Z imbabwe a nd t he l ate P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages s outh o f t he L impopo a nd p re-dating t he H olocene a ssemblages i n N amibia. T hey a re c haracterized b y t he e xtreme r arity o f b ladelet c ores a nd b acked a nd m icroliths, a nd t he p resence o f a v ariety o f m edium s crapers

w ith

a

m ean l ength g reater t han 2 0 m m .

m icrolithic a bsence o r u nretouched a nd l arger

O ther f ormal t ools

a re r are. C ores t end t o b e c asual m ulti-platform t ypes a nd u ntrimmed f lakes a re q uadrilateral o r i rregular i n s hape a nd s omewhat l onger t han t hose i n p receding a nd s ucceeding a ssemblages. A f eature o f s ome a ssemblages i s t he s ophisticated r ange o f a ssociated b one t ools, p articularly t hose a t t he c oast a t N BC a nd E lands B ay w hich i nclude b one b eads a nd f ish g orges. A rtefacts k nown i n t he e thnographic

3 12

2

F ig. 1 57. S tone a rtefacts f rom n on-microlithic a ssemblages o f t he t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene i n s outhern A frica. 1 -3: N elson B ay C ave; 4 -6,9: B oomplaas; 7 ,8,10: P omongwe ( after C ooke 1 963: f ig. 1 6); 1 1: L emoenfontein 1 0-11 ( Sampson 1 970: f ig. 3 ); 1 2: K opje 1 8, O range R iver V alley ( Sampson 1 970: f ig. 2 3); 1 3: Z eekoegat 1 3, l ower l evel ( Sampson 1 967c: f ig. 1 2). A ll a rtefacts a re c lassified a s s crapers.

3 13

p resent a nd a ssociated w ith s tone a rtefact a ssemblages f or t he f irst t ime i nclude b ored s tone d igging s tick w eights a t T shangula ( N.J. W alker, p ers. c omm.) a nd M atjes R iver ( Louw 1 960), a n e yed m atting n eedle f rom P omongwe ( N.J. W alker, p ers. c omm .) a nd e ngraved s tones f rom W onderwerk i n t he n orthern C ape ( Thackeray e t a l. 1 981) a nd f rom B ambata ( N.J. W alker, p ers. c omm.). A d eliberate b urial i n a r ock s helter a t N swatugi i n Z imbabwe ( Walker 1 980) i s d ated t o t his p eriod, w hile o thers a t M atjes R iver ( Louw 1 980) m ay b e e qually e arly. A s h as b een d emonstrated i n t he • s outhern C ape d ata, t he s crapers ( often t he o nly f ormal t ools i n t hese a ssemblages) a re c onsistently l arger t han t hose o f t he H olocene a nd t he l ate P leistocene a nd t here a re a lso c hanges i n s ize a nd s hape w ithin t he 1 2 0 00 - 8 000 B .P. t ime p eriod. I n e arlier a ssemblages ( 12-10 0 00 B .P.) t he l arge r ound s crapers a s w ell a s t he c lassic S mithfield A D -shaped f orms t hat a re o ccasionally f ound i n t he l ate P leistocene, a re r elatively c ommon, b ut i n t he m ore r ecent l evels ( 10-8000 B .P.) e longated e nd-scraper f orms r eminiscent o f G oodwin & V an R iet L owe's S mithfield B a re m ore n umerous. T hey a re m ade o n r elatively t hick f lakes w ith s craper r etouch o n t he c onvex w orking e dge a nd s teep, s ometimes a lmost a dze-like, r etouch d own o ne o r b oth s ides ( Fig. 1 57). S ome s pecimens f rom u ndated L ockshoek s urface s ites i n t he n orthern C ape ( Sampson 1 972:184, 1 974) a re s teep-sided, b ut h ave n atural f acets r ather t han r etouch t o s hape t he b lank. S ampson h as c alled t his c lass ' frontal s crapers ( 1972:186) t o r egular ' end s crapers' n orthern C ape

( Fig.

d istinguish t hem f rom t he f latter, m ore t hat d ate t o t he e nd o f t he H olocene i n t he

1 58).

DATING A ND D ISTRIBUTION T he d istribution a nd d ating o f t erminal P leistocene/early n on-microlithic

H olocene

a ssemblages i s s ummarized i n T able 7 1 w here i t c an b e

s een t hat t he m ajority o f t he o ccurrences d ate b etween a bout 1 2 0 00 a nd 7 500 B .P. T he g eneral a bsence o f d ated a ssemblages i n t he n orthern C ape i s t he r esult o f t he l ow i ncidence o f d eep s tratified s ites, b ut t he o ccurrence o f n umerous o pen-air a ssemblages a ssigned t o t he L ockshoek I ndustry ( Sampson 1 972, 1 974) d emonstrates t hat t he s ame r ange o f n on-microlithic a ssemblages o ccurs t here a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t hey a ll d ate w ithin t he s ame p eriod a s t hose e lsewhere. N on-microlithic a ssemblages o f t his t ype h ave n ot b een r eported n orth o f t he Z ambezi n or a re t hey k nown n orth o f t he M atopos i n Z imbabwe, e ndorsing t he c onclusions

o f

G oodwin

a nd

V an

R iet

L owe

( 1929) w ho s aw t he S mithfield a s a n e ssentially l ocal d evelopment i n S outh A frica. T he r ecognition o f t he P omongwe I ndustry i n t he M atopos a nd t he A lbany o r O akhurst I ndustry i n t he s outhern C ape, h owever, h as e xtended i ts d istribution b eyond t he h ornfels

r egion

t o

w hich

t hey

t hought i t w as r estricted. T he r elationship o f t hese i ndustries t o t he e arly n on-microlithic a ssemblages f rom P ockenbank a nd A pollo 1 1 i n N amibia ( Wendt 1 972, 1 976; F reundlich e t a l. 1 980) i s n ot e asy t o a ssess b ecause d etailed d escriptions o f t he a ssemblages a re

s till

i n

p reparation ( see T able 7 0 f or d ates). T he

a ppearance

o f

n on-microlithic

P leistocene o ccurs w ithin t he s outhern

A frica,

b ut

t heir

a ssemblages a t t he e nd o f t he

1 2th m illennium B .P. r eplacement

3 14

b y

a t

m ost

H olocene

s ites

i n

m icrolithic

a ssemblages i s s pread o ver a w ider p eriod b etween a bout 1 0 0 00 a nd 7 000 B .P., t he e arlier o ccurrences b eing t o t he n orth a t D iana's V ow ( Cooke 1 979), A pollo 1 1 ( Wendt, p ers. c omm.) a nd W onderwerk ( A . T hackeray 1 980; H umphreys &T hackeray 1 983), a nd t he m ost r ecent t o t he s outh a t B uffelskloof ( Opperman 1 978) a nd B yneskranskop ( Schweitzer & W ilson 1 982) a s w ell a s a t N BC, B PA a nd K RA.

E VIDENCE F OR S UBSISTENCE T he m ajority o f a ssociated w ith f ood

t he o ccurrences g rouped t ogether h ere a re r emains d ifferent f rom t hose o f e arlier

a ssemblages a t t he s ame s ites. O n t he c oast t his i s p articularly n oticeable i n t he a ppearance o f q uantities o f m arine s hell, f ish b ones a nd

t he

b ones o f m arine b irds a nd m ammals a s t hese s ites w ere n ow o n

t he c oast w ith t he r ise i n s ea l evel a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene. A way f rom t he c oast i t i s e vident i n a s maller r ange o f l arge g regarious g razers t han i s p resent i n o lder s amples, b ut a l arger p ercentage t han i n t he H olocene s amples m aking t he P leistocene/early H olocene o nes e ssentially i ntermediate.

t erminal

M arine s hells a t e arly H olocene s ites s how e vidence f or c ooler w ater a nd c hanges i n c oastal m orphology a nd a lso p rovide i nformation o n e xploitation p atterns. A s n oted i n C hapter 4 , t he b lack m ussel i s p resent a t N BC b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 000 B .P. b ut i s a bsent t hereafter a nd i s n ot f ound i n t he a rea t oday ( Klein 1 972a). A t E lands B ay o n t he w est c oast, t he b lack m ussel i s c ommon o n t he c oast t oday, b ut i s a bsent b efore 1 0 0 00 B .P. ( Parkington 1 981). T he e arly p resence a nd l ater a bsence o f t he b lack m ussel a t N BC i s l ikely t o r eflect w armer w aters o f t he A gulhas c urrent r eturning i n t he e arly H olocene b ecause t his s pecies p refers c ooler w aters, b ut i ts p resence a t E lands B ay o nly a fter 1 0 0 00 B .P. m ay r ather r eflect a c hange i n c oastal c onfiguration. T he e xploitation o f m arine r esources f rom t he t erminal P leistocene t hrough t he H olocene w as n oticeably m ore e fficient t han i t w as d uring t he M SA ( Voigt 1 973, 1 982; K lein 1 976). M ussels a nd l impets a re b est r epresented a t m ost s ites, b ut w helks a nd r ock l obster a lso o ccur. F lying b irds s uch a s g annets a nd c ormorants a re c ommon, a s a re s eals, d olphins a nd f ish. A nalyses o f t he a ge a t d eath o f s eals f rom e arly H olocene l evels a t E lands B ay C ave i ndicate t hat t he s ite w as o ccupied d uring w inter a nd s pring ( Parkington 1 976), b ut a w ider s easonal p attern i s e vident a t N BC ( Parkington, p ers. c omm.). T wo P atella t abularis s hells f rom N BC d ating t o c . 9 000 B .P. w ere a nalysed

f or

t heir

o xygen

i sotope c ontent a nd t he r esults i ndicate

t hat b oth w ere c ollected i n t he w inter 1 973:138-9).

o r

e arly

s pring

( Shackleton

M ammalian f aunas d ating t o t he t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene a t N BC a nd E lands B ay i nclude t he m ost r ecent o ccurrences o f t he e xtinct C ape h orse, g iant b uffalo a nd s pringbok ( Klein 1 980). I nland t hese d o n ot o ccur l ater t han 1 2 0 00 B .P. a t B PA a nd a re a bsent f rom t erminal P leistocene d eposits a t B ushman R ock S helter a nd H euningneskrans i n t he T ransvaal ( Plug 1 978; B eaumont 1 981), A pollo 1 1 i n N amibia ( J,F. T hackeray 1 979) a nd P omongwe i n Z imbabwe ( Brain 1 981).

W hile t hese l atter s amples i nclude

o nly

s pecies

p resent

i n

t heir r espective e cozones d uring h istoric t imes, t here i s a n e mphasis t owards l arger r ather t han s maller b ovids w hen c ompared w ith m id a nd l ate

H olocene

s amples

f rom

t he

s ame s ites.

3 15

A h igher i ncidence o f

1 0

1 5

1 4

1 2

1

1 6

1 7

1 8

CM

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 6

2 4

2 8

G

2 9

3 5 3 3

3 2

40

3 9

3 7

3 4

4 1

4 7

46

3 0

3 8

0

42

4 3

48

49

44

50

5 6

5 5

5 2

5 3

54

5 8

5 7

5 3

m as t ic t r aces

F ig. 1 58. S tone a rtefacts f rom H olocene m icrolithic a ssemblages i n s outhern A frica. S crapers: 1 -5,10-13,21-26,28-36,39-42,45-47, w ith m astic: 5 7. B acked m icroliths: 6 -9,14-20,27,37,38,42-44,485 0, w ith m astic: 5 8. B orers: 5 1,56. A dzes: 5 2-54. M illed e dge p ebble: 5 5. 1 -9: S ampson ( 1967a); 1 0-20: D iana 's V ow ( Cooke 1 979); 3 1-38,52,56: B oomplaas; 3 9 -4 4 : W ilton n ame s ite ( J D eacon 1 972); 5 3,54,57,58: M elkhoutboom ( HJ D eacon 1 976).

3 16

l arger b ovids w hen c ompared w ith l ater s amples i s a lso p resent i n t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene a ssemblages i n t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape ( Hewitt 1 931a, H .J. D eacon 1 972, 1 976; K lein 1 974, 1 980) a nd t he f ormer c haracter.

a ssemblages c an t herefore b e s een a s i ntermediate i n

A s i n t he l ate P leistocene o ccurrences, p lant f ood r emains a re r arely p reserved. N otable e xceptions a re s ites w here w ood a nd h ardier s eeds r ather t han t he s ofter r esidues o f p lant f oods h ave a ccumulated, a s a t s ites i n t he M atopos ( Cooke 1 963; W alker 1 980), a t Z ebrarivier i n N amibia ( Wendt, p ers. c omm.), B ushman R ock S helter ( Plug 1 978, 1 981), H euningneskrans ( Beaumont 1 981:142) a nd K ruger C ave ( Friede & P ienaar 1 974; M ason & V ogel 1 974) i n t he T ransvaal. M arula s eeds ( Sclerocarya c affra) a re t he m ost c ommon i n t he M atopos a nd T ransvaal s amples a nd a re s till w idely e aten t oday b oth f or t heir f ruits a nd t heir k ernels. I n N amibia t he m ost c ommon s eed i s t hat o f t he n ara m elon. M odern h unter-gatherers u se t he m elon a nd t he s eeds w hich d ried a nd s tored f or l ong p eriods.

a re

H OLOCENE M ICROLITHIC A SSEMBLAGES H olocene m icrolithic a ssemblages a re c haracterized b y a w ider r ange o f f ormal t ools t han a ppear a t a ny o ther t ime d uring t he L SA a nd b y a r eturn t o a m icrolithic f laking t echnique f or t he p roduction o f b ladelets. F ormal t ool c omponents i n s outhern Z imbabwe, s outhern N amibia a nd t hroughout S outh A frica a nd t he a djoining c ountries a re a ll d ominated b y s crapers, w ith b acked m icroliths s eldom a ccounting f or m ore t han 3 0% o f t he t otal f ormal t ools. I n n orthern Z imbabwe a nd a t s ome s ites i n c entral a nd n orthern N amibia, a s w ell a s i n Z ambia, b acked m icroliths a re m ore n umerous. T he m ost c ommon s craper f orm i n s outhern A frica d uring t he m id-Holocene i s t he s mall c onvex t ype a nd s amples g enerally h ave a m ean l ength o f l ess t han 2 0 m m a nd a m ean w idth/length r atio o f a bout 1 :1 ( Fig. 1 58). O ther f ormal t ools f ound i n H olocene m icrolithic a ssemblages

i nclude

a dzes,

s egments,

b acked

b ladelets

( Fig.

1 58),

b acked p oints, l arge s egments, p etits t ranchets, b orers, m icroliths w ith s errated e dges ( 'saws'), t anged a rrowheads o r p oints ( rare), g rooved s tones, s inkers, b ored s tones a nd r eamers. Amongst t he b one t ools a re r are e yed n eedles, f ish h ooks, a rrow p oints a nd f oreshafts, s patulas, s poons, b eads a nd p endants. B eing y ounger, p reservation o f o rganic m aterials a t s ome s ites i s g ood a nd p erishable i tems o f w ood, p lant f ibre a nd l eather h ave b een f ound i ncluding f ragments o f b ows, a rrows, n etting, f ire s ticks, l eather c lothing a nd b ags, d igging s ticks, w ooden p egs a nd p oints. T here i s a w ide v ariety o f s hell, b one a nd s tone b eads, p endants a nd o ther o rnaments, a nd t ortoise s hell b owls a nd s coops, d ecorated o strich e ggshell f ragments a nd p ortions o f w ater c ontainers o r f lasks. T here i s a lso, f or t he f irst t ime, c lear e vidence i n t he f orm o f m astic t races a nd a f ew m ounted a rtefacts t hat m icrolithic a nd o ther t ools w ere h afted. T he r ange o f t ools w ith m astic i ncludes s mall c onvex s crapers, a dzes, a ll t he b acked m icroliths, b orers a nd u ntrimmed f lakes, b ut s ignificantly e xcludes p ieces e squillees

( H.J. D eacon 1 976).

T he t oolmaking d ebris t radition

u sually,

a ssociated

w ith

b ut n ot i nvariably,

3 17

t he

H olocene

m icrolithic

s hows a r eduction i n t he m ean

l ength o f

u ntrimmed

f lakes

w hen

c ompared

w ith

s amples

f rom

t he

t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene, a s h as b een d emonstrated a t N BC a nd B PA. T he c ores i nclude s ingle a nd d ouble p latform b ladelet t ypes, s mall d isc c ores a nd l ess s tandardized f orms. T here i s a d efinite i ncrease i n t he i ncidence o f b urials a nd h uman s keletal r emains i n l iving s ites d uring t he H olocene a nd i n s ome c ases b urials a re c overed w ith o chre a nd, m ore o ccasionally, p ainted g ravestones. T his p attern i s m uch m ore c ommon i n t he w estern, s outhern a nd e astern C ape t han e lsewhere. e ngravings a re c learly a ssociated • with m id

R ock p aintings a nd a nd l ate H olocene

m icrolithic a ssemblages i n t he f orm o f p ainted s tones d ated f rom t he s eventh m illennium B .P. a t B PA ( H.J. D eacon e t a l. 1 976) a nd M atjes R iver ( Louw 1 960), a nd w ith e ngraved s tones t hroughout t he H olocene s equence a t W onderwerk ( Thackeray e t a l. 1 981; H umphreys & T hackeray 1 983).

D ATING A s h as b een n oted, t he f irst o ccurrence o f H olocene m icrolithic a ssemblages i s s pread o ver t hree m illennia i n s outhern A frica f rom a bout 1 0 0 00 t o a bout 7 000 B .P. a nd b y 6 000 B .P. i t w as w idespread i n t he s ubcontinent. T he d ating o f t he ' end o f t his t radition i s e qually d ifficult t o p inpoint f or w hile a ssemblages o f t his t ype p ersist a t s ome s ites t hrough t o t he C hristian e ra i n L esotho ( Carter 1 978) a nd a re a ssociated w ith p ottery a t B PA ( H.J. D eacon e t a l. 1 978) a nd D e H angen ( Parkington & P oggenpoel 1 971), a t o ther s ites t he m icrolithic t ools a re r eplaced b y l onger s crapers a nd f ewer b acked m icroliths d uring t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears. T his c hange a ppears t o b e i ndependent o f t he a ssociation o f p ottery. T he d iversity o f l ate H olocene a ssemblages h as l ed t o t he n aming o f a n umber o f c ontemporary i ndustries ( Sampson 1 974) a nd t o t he s uggestion t hat a ll t hese o ccurrences b elong t o t he s ame c omplex, t he W ilton ( Humphreys 1 979). F or

t he

m oment

i t

w ould

b e

p rudent t o a cknowledge t hat d espite a

h igh-level s imilarity a mongst a ll H olocene a ssemblages, t here w as g reater v ariability i n a ssemblages d ating w ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears t han o ccurred e arlier i n t he m id-Holocene. T he d ated a ssemblages i n v arious e cozones o f s outhern A frica a re s ummarized i n T able 7 1. I n c ontrast t o t he d istribution o f d ates i n t he t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene a nd t he l ate H olocene t ime r anges, t here i s a g eneral d earth o f m id-Holocene a ssemblages f rom t he S outh A frican i nterior ( with t he e xception o f t he D rakensberg r egion a nd i ts f oothills, a nd s ites s uch a s W onderwerk w here w ater i s p ermanently a vailable) a nd i t i s n ot u ntil a fter 4 500 B .P. t hat d ated s ites

b ecome

a nything

l ike

a s n umerous a s t hey a re i n t he a djacent

e cozones i n t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape, Z imbabwe a nd p arts o f N amibia. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t his d istribution m ay r eflect a l ower p opulation d ensity i n t he i nterior d uring t he m id-Holocene p ossibly b ecause o f d rier a nd w armer c onditions d istribution p attern

w ould

s upport

a n

f luxes o ccurred d uring t he l ast 1 0 r ainfall o r o ther e nvironmental f actors

( J. D eacon 1 974).

h ypothesis

t hat

T he

p opulation

0 00 y ears i n s ome a reas w here p layed a c ritical r ole i n

m aintaining p opulation l evels, b ut t he d etails o f t iming a nd d istribution c an o nly b e w orked o ut o nce a l arger s ample i s a vailable, p articularly

f rom

r egions

s uch

a s N atal a nd t he n orth-eastern C ape

3 18

T able 7 1a. R egional d istribution o f r adiocarbon-dated L ater S tone A ge a ssemblages i n s outhern A frica.

( a) N orthern C ape, M iddle O range R iver V alley, W estern O range F ree S tate a nd W estern T ransvaal

2 0

1 9

1 8

1 7

-

-

1 6

1 5

D IK D IK W K* D IK D IK

1 4

1 3

1 2

( b) N atal, E astern T ransvaal, S waziland, L esotho, N orth-eastern C ape, E astern O range F ree S tate

H K

H K

-

2 0

1 9

1 8

( c)

1 7

1 6

W K° U * U * K C* K C*

1

1 0

9

-

S EH H K H K S HO B C B *

M A* M A* L C* H K* B * B * H K* H K* B *

1 5

1 4

1

1 3

1 2

1 0

9

E Q° V P

8

7

6

no Z Y° W K* T IE° V P+ T IE° M O T IE° Z Y° M G+ T IE° Z Y° L W° O B+ R R W K° L IM°M0 P OW°RM° L IM°M0 H R° R M° L I° G T W K° D IK°RM° D F+ G L° L W° B L° P OW°DF+ D IK2+ W K° H R° B L° E Q° B L° B UR°

5

4

3

2

1

0

x1 000 y ears B .P.

S HO S HO S EH°UM° R C° S HO Q M EL°RC° R C° S HO M OS°DR° M OS° H K* G RA* Q G H° C OL°COL° B WE*HK* G RA* E MA B WE B EL°COL° B EL G H* C OL°BAN S HO B EL°BEL°BEL°BEL° 8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

x1 000 y ears B .P.

W T° U NI° U NI° O AK° N BC+ S outhern a nd E astern C ape N BC+ R OB°NBC+ N BC' R OB°NBC+SS+ N BC* O HT° N BC° R OB°NBC+ROB° N BC* M ON° N BC° R OB°NBC+OAK°SS+ N BC* W T M HBQNBC°NBC°WT° O HT°NBC+OAK°0AK+ N BC*NBC*OHT*MHB*NBC°MR° R OB°NBC°MHB°NBC+NBC+ N BC*NBC*MR* O HT*MR° N BC°MHB°NBC°NBC°KRM°NBC+GAT+ N BC*MR* M R* N BC*MR° M HB°KRA°NBC°NBC+KRM°BPA°CR+ K RA N BC*MR* M R* N BC*KRA*KRAQCSF°KRM°MR° K R° B PA°CR+ N BC u n MR* MHB*KRA*NBC*BUF*CAN B UF°KRM°CAN C R+ B PA°ANN+ - N BC M HB B PA B PA 0 V B UF*BPA*BPA*BUF*BUF°BPA°ANN°KR° B UF°ANN+BPA°ANN+

2 0 1 9

( d)

1 8

1 7

1 6

1 5

1 4

1 3

1 2

1

1 0

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

1

0

Z UM T ° D V° D °

T ° D V° D O° C °

M TA° M TA° M TA° M P° M P°

2

1

x1 000 y ears B .P.

Z imbabwe

N TI*T* S HA° D V° P * T ° P ° M AL° T * C OB*P* S HA°P° C OB° C OL* P C OB*NTI*P° N TI°NTI°KLY°A° 2 0 1 9

2

1 8

1 7

1 6

1 5

1 4

1 3 0

1 2

1

1 0

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

0

x1 000 y ears B .P.

° H o locene m icro lith ic a ssemb lages *T erm inal P leistocene/ear ly H o locene n on-m icrolithic a ssemb lages + L ate H o locene n on-m icro lithic U nder lined : L ate P le istocene m icro lithic a ssemb lages N o n otation: A ssoc iations n ot g iven b y e xcavator K EY t o a bbreviat ions i n T ab le 7 2 ( at e nd o f C hapter 7 )

319

T able 7 1b. D istribution o f r adiocarbon-dated L ater S tone A ge a ssemblages i n t he w estern a nd s outh-western C ape.

( e)

W estern a nd S outh-western C ape

2 0 1 9

1 8

1 7

1 6

1 5

1 4

1 3

E B F T

E B* E B* E B* E B* E B*

1 2

1

1 0

E B* E B* B Y* E B* A S E B* E B*

9

8

7

S ymbo ls a nd k ey a s f or T ab le 7 1a

3 20

R E° B Y* B YO B Y° A S

6

S TF+ S MT+ S MT+ P B+ P B+ P AT+ N BC+ N BC+ H AW+ H AW+ E BO+ E B° P AT+ E B° P AT+ D KF°E60+ D KF°EB0+ D K+ E B° D K+ D KF° D K+ D KF° D K+ D H° P AT°PB+ D K ° D H° G B+ G B+ D H° D H° E B° G B+ D E+ D H° E B° E B+ D E° D H° E B° D K ° D E B Y° B Y° D K° B Y° B Y° K LP° B Y° D E A R A S+ A S B ON°BY° B ON°AND°AND°

5

4

3

2

1

0

x1 000 y ears B .P.

T able 7 1c. D istribution o f r adiocarbon-dated L ater S tone A ge a ssemblages i n S outh W est A frica/Namibia.

P OC* P OC*AP* A P* A P* 1 9

1 8

Z M+ Z M+ Z M+ Z N W OR+ W OR+ ( f) S outh W est A fr ica/Nam ibia U H° T IR° T IR° T HA° T HA° T AB+ T AB+ T AB+ K ey a nd s ymbo ls a s f or T ab le 7 1a T AB+ S OS+ S G° P OC° P OC° P H° O RA° O RA° N UP N P° N OS+ N OS+ N E° N AP • M ES° M AG° M AG° L UP K UM° W AR K UM° U NJ H UN T IA° H OP S B° H OA+ S B° H BP S B° G OR O ST°URU+GI ° O ST°NAR G I° M ES°MIR°F IS+ M ES°MES°F IS+ M ES°G0R+FA ° L NU°GE° E T° L N° G E° E S° H AA°ER° C ON P OC° H AA°E ° C ON M I PZ° G I° A UR C HA° M IR°TZS° G E° A RD+AUS ° M IR°NAM° T AF°GE° A RD+ARA ° G I° M IR° S G° F A° A RD+ARP A P* N AM°CHA°MIR° P H° F A° A RD+AP+ A P* N AM°NAM°A r M AG° M GT°FA° A RD+AP+ A P* G OB M IR°AP° A P° C Y° S G° L N° F A° A P° A AR° - - -A P* A P* A P* Z EB A P A P°MIR°AP' A AR°CHA°LN° G E° F A° A P° A AR° 1 7 1 6 1 5 1 4 1 3

1 2

1

1 0

9

8

7

6

x1 000 y ears B .P.

3 21

5

4

1

2

1

0

T able 7 2. K ey t o a bbreviations u sed i n T ables 7 0, 7 1, 7 5 a nd 7 7 a nd i n F igs 1 50, 1 51, 1 52 a nd 1 56.

A BBREVIATION

N AM E O F S ITE

R EFERENCES

A

A madz imba

C ooke & R ob inson 1 954

A AR

A ar 2 N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

A K 1

A ndr ieskraa l 1 , sC ape

H endey & S inger 1 965

A ND

A ndr iesgrond, s -w C ape

P ark ington 1 980 :108

A NN

A nn S haw , eC ape

D err icourt 1 973, 1 977

A P

A po llo 1, N am ib ia

W endt 1 972, 1 976; F reund lich e t a l 1 980; V oge l &V iss k r . 1 98 1

A R

A rn iston, s -w C ape

M aggs 1 977 :172

A RD

A rr isdr ift, N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

A RP

A ar p ot, N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

A RS

A ar 1 , N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

A S

A spoort, s -w C ape

S m ith & R ipp 1 978

A UR

A urus 6 , N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

A US

A uster litz, N am ib ia

F reund lich e t a l 1 980

B ushman R ock S he lter, eT ransvaa l

V oge l 1 969 ; P lug 1 978, 1 98 1

B AM

B ambata, Z imbabwe

N .J . W a lker, p ers. c omm .

B AN

B anda C ave, S w az iland

S tu iver 1 969; B eaumont & V oge l 1 972a ‚ b

B C

B order C ave, K w aZu lu

B eaumont & V oge l 1 972a,b; L inick 1 977; B eaumont 1 978, 1 980; B eaumont e t a l 1 978

B EI

B e llev iew , L esotho

C arter & V oge l 1 974; C arter 1 978

B EN

B enf ica, A ngo la

D os S antos & E rvedosa 1 978 V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

B L

B lydefontein, n C ape

S ampson 1 972; H umphreys 1 979 :305

B ON

B onteberg, s -w C ape

M aggs & S peed 1 967; G r ind ley e t a l 1 970

B PA

B oomp laas, s C ape

D eacon e t a l 1 976, 1 978; F airh all e t a l 1 976; D eacon, H .J. 1 979; V oge l p ers. c omm .

B UF

B uffe lsk loof, s C ape

O pperman 1 978

B UR

B urche ll's S he lter, nC ape

H umphreys 1 975, 1 979 :2 15

B WE

B onawe, n -e C ape

O pperman, p ers. c omm .

B Y

B yneskr anskop, s -w C ape

S chweitzer & W ilson 1 978, 1 982; K lein 1 98 1b

C a lder 's C ave, Z imbabwe

C ooke & S imons 1 969; C ooke 1 979

C AN

C ango C aves, s C ape

V oge l p ers. c omm,; D eacon, J . 1 979

C HA

C ha-R6 S he lter, N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

C OB

C ave o f B ees, Z imbabwe

N .J. W alker, p ers. c omm .

C OL

C o lw inton, n -e C ape

O pperman, p ers. c omm .

C ON

C oncept ion B ay, N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

C R

C ha lumna R , eC ape

D err icourt 1 973, 1 977

C SF

C ape S t F rancis, s C ape

D e V illiers 1 974; T hackeray &F east 1 974

C Y

C ymot S he lter, N am ib ia

S ande lowsky & V iereck 1 969

D uncombe F arm , Z imbabwe

W ad ley 1 973

D uiker E i land, s -w C ape

R obertshaw 1 979

D E

3 22

T able 7 2 c ontd. A BBREVIATION

R EFERENCES

N AME O F S ITE

O F

D oornfontein, n C ape

B eaumont & B oshier 1 974

D H

D e H angen, w C ape

P arkington & P oggenpoel

D IK

D ikbosch 1 , nC ape

H umphreys 1 974a, 1 979

D IK2

D ikbosch 2 , nC ape

H umphreys 1 974a, 1 979

D K

D ie K e lders, s -w C ape

S chweitzer 1 970, 1 979

D KF

D iepk loof, w C ape

P arkington 1 977a

D O

D ombozanga, Z imbabwe

R ob inson 1 964

D R

D r ie l S he lter, N atal

M aggs 1 977; M aggs & W ard 1 980

D V

D iana's V ow , Z imbabwe

C ooke 1 979

E temba 2 , N am ibia

W endt 1 972; F reundlich e t a l 1 980

1 97 1

E B

E lands B ay C ave, w C ape

P ark ington 1 977a & p ers. c omm .

E BO

E lands B ay O pen, w C ape

H orw itz 1 979

E MA

E mambeni, S waziland

S tuiver 1 969; B eaumont & V oge l 1 972a,b

E Q

E quus C ave, n C ape

B eaumont, p ers. c omm .

E R

E ros S helter 1 , N am ibia

B eaumont & V ogel 1 972

1 972a,b; W endt

E S

E ros S he lter 2 , N am ibia

B eaumont & V ogel

1 972a,b

E T

E temba 1 4, N am ibia

W endt 1 972; F reund lich e a l 1 980

F A

F ackelträger, N am ibia

W endt 1 972; V ogel & V isser 1 98 1; F reund lich e t a l 1 980

F IS

F ish R iver, N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

G w isho, Z amb ia

F agan & V an N oten 1 97 1

G AT

G atbosk loof, s C ape

W ilson, p ers. c omm .

G B

G ordons B ay, s -w C ape

V an N oten 1 974

G E

G reat ( B ig E lephant S he lter, N am ibia

C lark & W alton 1 962; W ad ley 1 976, 1 979

G H

t a l 1 980 G ood H ope S helter, N atal C arter 1 978 :167; C ab le e

G I

G ir ls S choo l S he lter, N am ibia

J acobson 1 978; V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

G L

G len E lliot, n C ape

S ampson 1 972

G OB

G obabeb, N am ibia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

G OR

G orob s ke leton, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

G RA

G rassr idge, n -e C ape

O pperman, p ers. c omm .

G T

G rootdr ink p ot, n C ape

R udner, J . 1 97 1, 1 979 :24

H AA

H aalenberg, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

H AW

H awston, s -w C ape

A very 1 975:112

N BC

H out B ay C ave, s -w C ape

B uchanan 1 977

H BP

H ottentot B ay P ot, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

H K

H euningneskrans, eT ransvaal

V oge l &M arais 1 97 1; B eaumont 1 978, 1 98 1

H OA

H oarusibmund, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

H OP

H oanibmund, N am ibia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

H R

H igh lands, n C ape

D eacon, H .J. 1 976:222-4

H UN

H uns, N am ibia

F reund lich e t a l 1 980

K AL

K alemba, Z ambia

P hillipson 1 976:27

K C

K ruger C ave, T ransvaal

M ason & V ogel

K LP

K lipfonteinrand, w C ape

P arkington 1 980:108

K LY

K alanyoni, Z imbabwe

W alker, p ers. c omm .

K R

K lasies R iver 5 , sC ape

S inger & W ymer 1 969

K RA

K angkara, s C ape

V ogel p ers. c omm .

3 23

1 974

T able 7 2 c ontd. N AME O F S ITE

R EFERENCES

K lasies R m ain, s C ape

S ampson 1 972; S inger & W ymer i n p rep.

K UM

K umakams, N am ibia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

L EM

L emoenfontein, n C ape

K lein 1 979

L C

L ion C avern, S waziland

D art & B eaumont 1 968

L H

L eopard's H ill, Z ambia

M iller 1 969, 1 97 1

L I

L imerock 1 , nC ape

H umphreys 1 979:240

L IM

L imerock 2 , nC ape

H umphreys 1 979:140

L N

L ower N umas 1 , N am ibia

R udner 1 957, 1 972; V ogel & M arais 1 97 1; J acobson 1 978; V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

L UP

L uder itz p otsherd, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

M A

M lau la, S waziland

B eaumont & V oge l

M AG

M aguams, N am ibia

F reund lich e t a l 1 980; V ogel &V isser 1 98 1

M AK

M akwe, Z ambia

P h illipson 1 976 :72

M AL

M aleme D am, Z imbabwe

N .J. W alker, p ers. c omm .

M AT

M atupi, Z aire

V an N oten 1 977

M EL

M e likane, L esotho

C arter 1 978 :167

M ES

M essum 1 , N am ibia

F reund lich e t a l 1 980; V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

M G

M agabengberg, w T vl

M ason 1 962

M GT

M aguams T errace, N am ib ia F reund lich e t a l 1 980

M HB

M elkhoutboom, s -e C ape

D eacon, H .J. 1 969, 1 976

M IR

M irabib, N am ibia

S andelowsky 1 977; V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

M O

M unro's s ite, s T vl

V ogel & M arais 1 97 1; M ason &V ogel 1 974

M ON

M ontagu C ave, s C ape

K e ller 1 970, 1 073

M OS

M oshebi's S helter, L esotho

C arter & V oge l

m o M R

M pato, Z imbabwe

C ooke & S imons 1 969

M atjes R iver, s C ape

L ouw 1 960; V ogel

M TA

M tanye, Z imbabwe

C ooke 1 979 :146

A BBREVIATION K RM

1 972a,b

1 974; C arter 1 978

1 970

N achikufu, Z ambia

M iller 1 969, 1 97 1

N AM

N amt ib, N am ibia

F reund lich e t a l 1 980; V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

N AP

N aut ilis p ot, N am ibia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

N AR

N arob g rave, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

N BC

N e lson B ay C ave, s C ape

I nskeep 1 965 a nd p ers. c omm .; V oge l 1 970; K lein 1 972a,b; S w itsur & W est 1 973; F airh all e t a l 1 976; D eacon, J . 1 978

N E

N umas E ntrance, N am ibia

M acCalman 1 965

N OS

N os, N am ibia

N P

N umas P lateau, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1 V oge l &M arais 1 97 1

N TI

N swatug i, Z imbabwe

W alker 1 980:19, 2 1

N UP

N umas p ot, N am ibia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

O AK

O ak leigh F arm, e C ape

D err icourt 1 973, 1 977

O B

O lieboompoort, w T v l

M ason 1 962

O HT

O akhurst, s C ape

G oodw in 1 938; D eacon, J . 1 979:36; V oge l, p ers. c ou lL

3 24

T able 7 2 c ontd.

A BBREVIATION

N AME O F S ITE

R EFERENCES

O RA

O rabes U pper a nd L ower, N am ibia

J acobson 1 978; V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

O ST

O str ich S he lter, N am ibia J acobson 1 978; V oge l &V isser 1 98 1 P omongwe, Z imbabwe

C ooke 1 963; B eaumont & V oge l 1 972a,b; W alker 1 980 :22

P AT

P aternoster, w C ape

R obertshaw 1 977

P B

P ear ly B each, s -w C ape

A very 1 974 a nd p ers. c omm .

P H

P h ilip C ave, N amibia

M art in & M ason 1 954

P OC

P ockenbank, N am ibia

F reundlich e t a l 1 980; V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

P OW

P owerhouse C ave, n C ape

H umphreys 1 979 :173

C ast le Q uarry, S waziland D art & B eaumont 1 968; V oge l 1 970 R C

R ose C ottage, O range F ree S tate

V oge l 1 970; V ogel & M arais 1 97 1; B eaumont & V oge l 1 972a,b; B eaumont 1 978 :637

R E

R ooie ls C ave, s -w C ape

S m ith 1 98 1

R ED

R edcliff, Z imbabwe

B eaumont & V oge l 1 972a,b; C ooke 1 978; K le in 1 978a

R M

R iversmead, n C ape

S ampson & S ampson 1 967; S ampson 1 972

R OB

R obberg c aves D , E&F , sC ape

V ogel & M arais 1 97 1; R udner & R udner 1 973; H ausman 1 980

R R

R iet R iver, O range F ree S tate

H umphreys 1 974b

S B

S teenbras B ay, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

S EH

S ehonghong, L esotho

C arter & V ogel 1 974; C arter 1 978

S G

S tr iped G iraffe S helter, S andelowsky & V iereck 1 969; N am ibia J acobson 1 978; W ad ley 1 979; V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

S HA

S hashabugwa, Z imbabwe

W alker 1 980 a nd p ers. c omm .

S HO

S hongweni, N atal

D avies 1 975 :657-8

S MT

S m itsw inke lbaai, s -w C ape

P oggenpoe l &R obertshaw 1 98 1

S OS

S ossusv lei, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

S S

S cott's C ave, s C ape

D eacon & D eacon 1 963; D eacon, H .J. 1 967; K lein & S cott 1 974

S TF

S tofbergsfontein, w C ape R obertshaw 1 978a T shangu la, Z imbabwe

C ooke 1 963, 1 979 :146

T AB

T sisab O pen T 30, N am ibia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

T AF

T wyfe lfontein A ffenf e lsen, N am ibia

J acobson 1 978; F reundlich e t a l 1 980

T HA

T wyfe lfontein H asenbild, W endt 1 972; J acobson 1 978; N am ibia F reundlich e t a l 1 980; V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

T IA

T iara S helter, N am ibia

T IE

T ienfontein 2 , 4 A &7 , B rooker 1 980 O range F ree S tate

T IR

T iras 5 , N am ib ia

F reund lich e t a l 1 980; V oge l & V isser 1 98 1

T ZS

T wyfe lfontein Z wei S chn eider, N amibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

3 25

J acobson 1 978; V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

T able 7 2 c ontd.

A BBREVIATION

R EFERENCES

N AME O F S ITE U itkomst, T ransvaal

M ason 1 962; V oge l

U H

U r i H auchab 4 , N am ib ia

F reund lich e t a l 1 980

1 970

U M

U mhlanga R ocks, N atal

V oge l &M arais 1 97 1

U NI

U niondale, e C ape

ML eslie B rooker, p ers. c omm .

U NJ

U njab m idden, N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

U RU

U ruru, N am ibia

V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

V EN

V entershoek, n C ape

K lein 1 979

V P, V P0

V o igtspost 1 , O range F ree S tate

H orow itz e t a l 1 978:154

W AR

W armque lle, N am ibia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

W OR

W orte l, N am ib ia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

W T

W ilton S helter, e C ape

D eacon, J . 1 972

W K

W onderwerk, n -w C ape

B utzer e t a l 1 979; T hackeray e t a l 1 98 1; B eaumont & T hackeray p ers. c omm .

Z oo P ark, N am ibia

M acCalman 1 965

Z EB

Z ebrar ivier, N am ibia

V oge l &V isser 1 98 1

Z M

Z err issene M ts, N am ibia

C arr e t a l 1 978; V ogel & V isser 1 98 1

Z OM

Z ombepata, Z imbabwe

C ooke 1 97 1

Z Y

Z aayfontein, n C ape

S ampson 1 972

3 26

w here a rchaeological r ecently.

r esearch

h as

n ot

b een

a ctive

u ntil

v ery

E nvironmental c hanges h ave a lso b een r esponsible f or s ome v ariability i n s ite d istribution i n t he w estern, s outhern a nd e astern C ape. T he m id-Holocene m arine t ransgression ( Martin 1 968; F lemming 1 977) w as p robably r esponsible f or m id-Holocene c oastal s hell m iddens

t he a bsence o f s ome e arly a nd ( Robertshaw 1 978a) w hile t he b reak

i n o ccupation d eposits d uring t he m id-Holocene a t E lands B ay C ave a nd o ther s ites i n t he w estern C ape m ay b e a n i ndication o f d rier c onditions l eading t o a l ower p opulation d ensity t here a t t hat t ime ( Parkington 1 980).

E THNOGRAPHIC E VIDENCE F OR S UBSISTENCE A s w ith t he c ultural r ecord, t here a re t wo s ources o f i nformation o n t he s ubsistence e cology o f t he H olocene p eoples o f s outhern A frica - t he h istoric a nd e thnographic a ccounts o f h unter-gatherers o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he a nalysis o f a rchaeological m aterials o n t he o ther. T he f ormer s upply a u seful c orpus o f i nformation o n a daptations t o p articular p lants a nd a nimals a nd p rovide t he s ort o f d etailed b asis f or u nderstanding h ow t he i ndigenous f ood r esources w ere u sed t hat w ould b e i mpossible t o r econstruct f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord a lone. T he a rchaeological r ecord, o n t he o ther h and, c an g ive u s s ome i dea o f t he t ime d epth o f t hese p ractices a nd o f t heir g eographic s pread. T he e vidence f or s ubsistence t hroughout t he H olocene w ill b e d iscussed h ere t o e xplore t he t ime d epth o f t he e thnographic t radition. I t i s r ealized h owever t hat s ubtle s hifts i n e mphasis h ave o ccurred w ithin t he l ast 8 0 00 y ears t hat w ould b e d ifficult t o d etect a rchaeologically a nd t hat i t i s o nly f or t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears o r s o t hat t he h istoric a nd e thnographic r ecord i s r eally p ertinent ( see E bert 1 978). I t i s a lso r ealized t hat m any o f t he e thnographic r ecords r elate t o t he K alaharian e cozone a nd m ay n ot b e a pplicable t o t he r est o f s outhern A frica; t he f ocus i s t herefore o n g eneral p atterns o f s ubsistence r ather t han o n p articularistic d etail. S chapera ( 1930) h as p rovided a u seful s ynthesis f rom t he e arly l iterature o f t he e thnography o f t he K hoi a nd S an i n p arts o f t he C ape P rovince, N amibia a nd B otswana, b ut i t i s o nly r ecently t hat i n-depth s tudies h ave b een u ndertaken i n w hich s ubsistence h as b een c onsidered i n d etail. T he i mpetus t o a m ore e cological a pproach w as p rovided b y S tory ( 1958, 1 964) w ho s howed t hat n ot o nly w ere t here r egional d ifferences i n t he a vailability o f p articular p lant f oods, a nd t hus d ifferences i n t he i mportance o f s pecific p lants t o s pecific g roups o f p eople, b ut t hat t here w as a h igh d ependence o n p lant f oods r elative t o a nimal f oods i n t he K alahari h unter-gatherer d iet ( Story 1 964:99). E thnographers h ave b uilt o n t he i nitial o bservations o f S tory a nd t here a re s everal s tudies o f i ndividual c ommunities s uch a s t he ! Kung ( Lee 1 965, 1 968, 1 969, 1 972, 1 979), t he G /wi T anaka 1 969, 1 976, 1 978) a nd t he N haro ( Bleek W hat

e merges

( Silberbauer 1 965, 1 972; 1 928, S teyn 1 971, 1 981).

f rom t hese s tudies i n a n a dmittedly r estricted r ange o f

h abitats t hat a re m ore a rid t han t he r egions f or w hich w e h ave H olocene a rchaeological o bservations, i s t hat, n ot s urprisingly, t he m odern h unter-gatherers h ave a n e xtensive k nowledge o f e conomic b otany a nd a nimal b ehaviour a nd t hat t his i s a p rerequisite f or s urvival.

3 27

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T heir d aily, s easonal a nd a nnual m ovements a re g eared t o t he a vailability o f w ater, p lant a nd a nimal f oods t hat a re n ot u niformly d istributed t hrough t he l andscape n or t hrough t he y ear. S uccessive y ears o f d rought o r g ood r ainfall c an h ave a m arked e ffect o n a vailability o f f oods. T he s chedule o f m ovements f rom o ne r esource n exus t o t he n ext i s n ot f ixed i n t hat t here a re y ear-to-year c hanges i n p roductivity, b ut t hey a re c onstrained b y t he g eneral c haracter o f t he h abitat ( Silberbauer 1 972:300). F or e xample, i n t he d rier a reas w here s urface w ater m ay b e a vailable a t o nly a g iven s eason, t he c hoice o f p ossible c amp s ites

f ew l ocalities i s l imited.

i n

a

A s i s t raditional i n m ost o ther h unting a nd g athering s ocieties, t here i s a s exual d ivision o f l abour w ith m en c oncerned m ostly w ith h unting a nd w omen r esponsible f or t he b ulk o f t he p lant f ood c ollecting. T he h igh r eliance o f a ll t he p resent-day S an i n s outhern A frica o n p lant f oods i s e xplicable i n t hat p lants a re a m ore e asily g uaranteed s ource o f f ood t han i s m eat, b ut t he f act t hat m ost o f t he u nderground p lant f oods, w hich p rovide t he b ulk o f t he p lant f oods e aten ( except i n a reas w here m ongongo n uts a re a s taple), a re g enerally h igh i n c arbohydrates a nd l ow i n p rotein m akes i t n ecessary t hat t hey b e s upplemented b y f oods w ith h igher p rotein v alues, o f w hich m eat i s t he o bvious c hoice. H istorical o bservations o f h unter-gatherers c onsuming s eemingly i ncredible q uantities o f m eat a t a s ingle s itting a re r elated t o a p attern o f p eriodic r ather t han r egular m eat e ating w hich i s r eflected a lso i n e thnographic r ecords o f h unting s uccesses ( Table 7 3). A ll e thnographic s tudies s how t hat w hile t he p resent-day h unter-gatherers m ay k now o f aw ide v ariety o f e dible a nd m edicinal p lants

( several

h undred

s pecies i n m any c ases), o nly a f ew o f t hese

a re u sed a s s taples. Amongst t he ! Kung f or e xample, 1 4 o ut o f 1 05 s pecies u sed r egularly c onstitute a lmost 7 5% o f t he c alories i n t he p lant f ood d iet ( Lee 1 979:159), w hile a mongst t he G /wi o nly 1 3 s pecies a re o f m ajor d ietary s ignificance ( Silberbauer 1 972:183). I t i s t he n atural s torage o rgans o f p lants, s uch a s b ulbs, c orms, r oots, r hizomes, s eeds a nd n uts, t hat a re m ostly u sed a s s taple f oods ( Table 7 4) b ecause t hey k eep w ell a nd a re a vailable o ver l ong p eriods d uring t he y ear. F ruits a nd l eaves a re m ore s easonal a nd d o n ot g enerally l ast a s l ong u nless t hey a re d ried. T able 7 3 s ummarizes t he e stimated m eat y ield f rom a nimals c aught a nd h unted b y a = Xade b and d uring a y ear ( Silberbauer 1 972: t able 7 -2) a nd r eflects s everal f actors. F irstly, a lthough f ewer l arge a nimals w ere s uccessfully k illed, t hey p rovided t he m ain s ource o f m eat b y w eight; t he s maller g ame p rovided l ess m eat, b ut k ills w ere s pread t hroughout t he y ear. T he s maller a nimals m ust t herefore b e s een a s p roviding a m ore r egular, i f l ess s pectacular, s ource o f p rotein. S econdly, t here i s a c lear d ifference b etween t he a mount o f m eat c onsumed d uring t he m onths o f s ummer a nd t he a mount c onsumed i n t he l eaner ,winter m onths. I n t his s ummer r ainfall a rea 6 5,5% o f t he a nnual m eat i ntake i s e aten i n t he s ix m onths f rom D ecember t hrough M ay. T he

s easonal

t he s ystem t oo.

r ainfall

a nd h unting p attern a ffects o ther p arts o f

D uring t he s ummer,

f or e xample,

t he G /wi m ostly

h unt

w ith p oisoned a rrows b ecause t his i s r estricted t o t imes o f t he y ear w hen p oison g rubs a re a vailable a nd f or 4 -6 m onths t hereafter. B eyond

3 29

t his t ime t he p oison i s e ither w eakened b y a ge, o r s upplies h ave r un o ut ( Silberbauer 1 972:292). I n t he w inter m onths, o n t he o ther h and, t rapping o r s naring a re m ore s uitable t han t hey a re i n t he w et s ummer m onths w hen r ain i nterferes w ith t he s trength o f t he t wine ( Lee 1 979:208). L ee n otes a lso t hat s naring i s n ot a s e fficient a s b ow a nd a rrow h unting i n t he r egion i n w hich h is o bservations w ere m ade; a n a dditional f actor i n m odern t imes t hat m ay a ffect t he s uccess o f h unting e xpeditions i s w hether o r n ot d ogs a re u sed. O nly o ne s mall a nimal w as c aught p er h unter p er w eek f rom J uly t hrough A ugust i n 1 964, a lthough e ach p erson r egularly s et 2 0 - 2 5 s nares. F urthermore, a nimals c aught i n s nares a ccounted f or 6 1% o f t he k ills, b ut o nly 2 0% o f t he m eat d uring t he f our w eeks t hat o bservations w ere m ade ( Lee 1 979:209). W hile s naring p roficiency m ay h ave b een b etter i n d ifferent r egions a nd a t o ther t imes i n t he p ast, t his o bservation n evertheless s uggests t hat t he i ntroduction o f t he b ow a nd a rrow m ust h ave c hanged t he h unting m ethods o f L SA p eoples c onsiderably. A nother a spect o f t he K alahari h unter-gatherer , s ystem

a ffected

b y

t he d ifferences i n a vailability o f f ood a nd w ater i n s ummer a nd w inter i s t he s ettlement p attern. Amongst t he G /wi t he p eople t end t o l ive i n l arger g roups d uring t he s ummer w hen t here i s s tanding w ater a vailable, m elons a re i n s eason a nd l arger a nimals a re h unted, b ut i n t he l eaner w inter m onths w hen s urface w ater i s s carce, t he g roups f ragment a nd d isperse. T he ! Kung, o n t he o ther h and, f ragment i nto s maller g roups d uring t he s ummer w hen m ongongo n uts a nd f ruits a re p lentiful, a nd a ggregate d uring t he d ry w inter s eason. T here s eems t o b e a c orrelation b etween t he a vailability o f w ater, w hich c an v ary q uite c onsiderably f rom o ne p art o f t he K alahari t o a nother, a nd t he f luidity o f g roups i n s ocio-territorial o rganization ( Barnard 1 979:140-1). B arnard n otes a r anking o f S an g roups f rom ! Ko t hrough G /wi t o ! Kung a nd N haro i n t erms o f m ost n ucleated t o l east n ucleated t hat c orresponds w ith t he r anking o f l east w ater t o m ost w ater a vailable i n e ach t erritory. T hus a lthough t he K alahari m ay s eem t o b e a ' uniform e nvironment t o t he o utsider, i t i s t he l ocal v ariations i n t opography a nd s ubstrate t hat c ontrol t he a mount a nd s easonal a vailability o f s urface w ater a nd, u ltimately, t he s ocio-territorial s tructure a nd s easonal m ovements o f t he p eople l iving i n t hat v icinity. F or t his r eason i t i s u nwise t o a ssume t hat a p articular s easonal p attern o f a ggregation a nd d ispersal c orrelates w ith a p articular r ainfall r egime. T he r eality i s a c omplex i nterplay o f a n umber o f f actors, n ot a ll o f w hich a re p redictable f rom t he s tandpoint o f t he n on-hunter-gatherer i n t he 2 0th c entury. A s trong p attern t hat e merges f rom t he e thnographic s tudies i s

t he

r egional a daptation t o a p referred s et o f s taples, d espite t he f act t hat t he p lant l ore i ncludes k nowledge o f a m uch w ider r ange o f p lants. T he e ssential e lement h ere i s s ecurity. H unter-gatherers n eed

t o

k now

w hich

p lants

c an

p rovide

t he

m ost

a ssured

y ield

t hroughout t he y ear a nd i t i s t hese w hich b ecome t he s taples. T he g rowth r egimes o f i ndividual t axa d etermine w hen t hey a re u sable, w hich i n t urn i mposes a s easonal r hythm o n e xploitation m aking i t n ecessary t o k now w hat i s a vailable, i n w hat q uantity a nd a t w hat l ocation. T ogether w ith a k nowledge o f w here s ecure w ater s upplies a re t o b e f ound t hrough

t he

y ear,

t he

c ollecting

o f

p lant

f oods

r equires c ontinual e valuation o f i nformation o n a vailability t hat c ould a ffect a nd i ndeed s tructure t he r esidential p attern a nd t he s ize o f g roups.

3 30

T able 7 4. H olocene

R elative a bundance o f v arious t ypes o f p lant f oods f rom a rchaeological s ites a nd e thnographic s ources i n d ifferent

e cozones i n s outhern A frica; x xx = a bundant.

x = p resence,

x x = m oderately

S ITES A ND R EGIONAL

M ELONS A ND

T UBERS, R OOTS,

S EEDS

S URVEYS

C UCURBITS

C ORMS & B ULBS

& F RUITS

C APE E COZONE B uffelskloof ( Opperman 1 978)

x x

B oomplaas ( Moffett & D eacon 1 977) P aardeberg ( H.J. D eacon p ers. S cott's C ave

( Wells

c omm.)

x x

1 965)

x xx

M elkhoutboom ( H.J. D eacon 1 976)

x xx

S prings ( H.J.

D eacon 1 976)

x x

D e H angen ( Parkington & P oggenpoel 1 971) A ndriesgrond

x xx

( Parkington, u npubl.) D iepkloof

x xx

( Parkington 1 977a)

x x

XX

B ASUTOLIAN E COZONE H ighlands ( H.J. D eacon 1 976)

x x

T afelberg H all ( Hewitt

1 931b)

x x

T ienfontein 2 & 7 ( Brooker 1 980)

x x

T RANSVAAL1AN E COZONE B ushman R ock S helter ( Plug 1 981)

XXX

K ruger C ave ( Friede & P ienaar 1 974)

x xx

N swatugi ( Walker 1 980)

x xx

KAROO-NAMAQUALIAN E COZONE M irabib ( Sandelowsky 1 977)

x xx

x x

B ig E lephant S helter ( Wadley 1 979)

x xx

M ODERN S AN I N KALAHARIAN E COZONE ! Kung a t D obe ( Yellen & L ee 1 976)

x x

x x

x xx

1 981)

x x

x x

( Silberbauer 1 965)

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x

x xx

N haro ( Steyn 1 971, G /wi 4 1 (ade ( Tanaka 1 976) K orana ( Engelbrecht

1 936)

3 31

a bundant,

L EAVES

A RCHAEOLOGICAL E VIDENCE F OR S UBSISTENCE S tudies o f t he a rchaeological e vidence f or H olocene s ubsistence w ere b egun i n t he 1 930s ( Hewitt 1 931a; G oodwin 1 938), b ut h ave b ecome c ommon o nly s ince t he e arly 1 960s ( Hendey & S inger 1 965; W ells 1 965). T here i s n ow c onsiderable e mphasis g iven i n a rchaeological r esearch i n s outhern A frica t o t he r ecovery o f f ood w aste, i ts q uantitative a nd q ualitative a nalysis a nd t he i nterpretation o f a spects o f s ubsistence e cology. F loral a nd f aunal s tudies a re l imited b y p reservation f actors a t o pen s ites b ut t he m ajority o f c aves a nd r ock s helters a s w ell a s s ome o pen m iddens h ave b one p reserved a nd d ry c ave d eposits g enerally p reserve s ome p lant f ood r emains. T he s ynthesis o f H olocene f ood w aste a nalyses w ill b e d iscussed b elow u nder t he h eadings o f f aunal e vidence, p lant r emains a nd m arine r esources, w ith a f inal s ection o n t he e vidence f or s easonal t ranshumance. F aunal e vidence T he f auna f rom a ll s ites t hat p ost-date c . 8 000 B .P. i ncludes o nly t hose a nimals t hat w ere p resent i n s outhern A frica i n h istoric t imes a nd t he ' mix o f l arger m ammals i s u sually w hat m ight b e e xpected f rom a nalogies w ith p resent-day h unter-gatherers a nd o ur k nowledge o f a nimals p resent i n t he v icinity o f t he s ites i n h istoric t imes. I n l ine w ith t he f unctioning o f H olocene s ubsistence e conomies w ithin t erritorial r anges o f l imited s ize, m igratory h erd a nimals s uch a s s pringbok, z ebra, w ildebeest a nd b uffalo a re n ot p rominently r epresented, b ut t here i s g ood e vidence f or t he h unting o f s mall a nd s mall-medium b ovids s uch a s g rysbok/steenbok, b ushbuck, d uiker, v aalribbok, m ountain r eedbuck a nd s outhern r eedbuck o n a r egular b asis. T his g ives t he H olocene f aunas a s maller m ean b ody w eight p er i ndividual

a nimal

t han

t hose

o f

t he l ate P leistocene

( H.J. D eacon

1 972, 1 976; K lein 1 972b, 1 974, 1 977, 1 980), p articularly i n t he w estern, s outhern a nd e astern C ape w here h abitat c hanges w ere a pparently m ore d rastic t han i n t he g rassland r egions t o t he n orth. T able 7 5 s ummarizes t he f requencies o f p articular s pecies a t a n umber o f H olocene s ites t o i llustrate t he r egional d ifferences a nd g eneral r eliance o n s mall b ovids. I t s hould b e n oted h owever t hat t he a bsence o r l ow f requencies o f s mall a nimals s uch a s r odents, l izards, f rogs a nd

b irds

i s

d ue

t o

t he f act t hat f aunal a nalysts h ave n ot a lways

i ncluded t hese i n t heir l ists p artly b ecause t hey a ccumulate n aturally i n c ave a nd r ock s helter d eposits, a nd p artly b ecause o f d ifficulties i nvolved i n i dentifying t hem t o s pecies l evel. T he g enerally s maller s ize o f t he a nimals h unted d uring t he H olocene ( accompanied b y a c orresponding i ncrease i n t he m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals

( Table 7 6)) h as r eceived c omment b ecause o f

t he

i mplications o f t his c hange i n t erms o f h unting m ethods a nd w eapons, s easonal m ovements a nd a s table m eat s upply. T he h abits o f t he b ovids a re o f p articular i nterest i n t his r egard. T he g rassland h erd a nimals s uch a s s pringbok, i mpala, w ildebeest, z ebra, b uffalo a nd h artebeest t end t o m ove s easonally w ith t he g rass g rowing r egime, c ongregating i n l arge h erds a t t he e nd o f t he d ry g razing

i n

t he

s ummer,

c onstant m obility w ould s trategy. B y c ontrast, g rysbok,

b ut

s eason

s till

i n

a nd

d ispersing

f airly

t o

b etter

l arge h erds.

T heir

n ecessitate a n e qually m obile h unting t he s maller n on-gregarious b rowsers s uch a s

s teenbok, b ushbuck,

d uiker a nd k lipspringer a nd t he

3 32

s olitary

T able 7 5. C omposition o f f aunal s amples f rom H olocene L ater S tone A ge s ites i n s outhern A frica c ompared w ith a nnual k ills o f m odern G /wi. F requencies r epresent m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals f rom a ll s ites l isted.

R oe i ds s mall s m all-medium l arge-medium l arge T O 1AL

S outhern C ape mist

C ape F o lded m ountains

f

%T otal b ovids

f

f

ZT otal b ovids

f

.T otal b ovids

8 6,0 4 ,1 4 ,9 4 ,9 9 9,9

1 62 8 5 2 7 6 7 3 41

2 78 1 58 6 8 2 5 5 29

5 2,6 2 9,9 1 2,9 4 ,7 1 00,0

3 5 1 9 2 5 4 8 3

4 2,2 2 2,9 3 0,1 4 ,8 1 00,0

3 33 1 6 1 9 1 9 3 87

4 / 1

T otal b ovids 4 7,5 2 4,9 7 ,9 1 9,7 1 00,0

f r at io t o b ovids

f r atio t o b ovids E quids H ippopotamus R h inoceros E lephant G iraffe B ushp ig/warthog

2 2 1 1

1 : 194 1 :19 ,4 1 :387 1 :387

1 0 -

1 :34

2 9

1 : 12

A ardvark C law less o tter P ango lin P orcup ine H oney b adger

7 4

1 :55 1 :97

1 2

1 :28

2 3

1 : 15

1 :9 1 :39

1 62 -

H yrax ( dassie) H are T ortoise

4 5 1 0 . 58

L ion L eopard 2 C aracal 3 W ildcat/genet 1 5 J ackal/fox/aardwo lf 1 M ongooses 1 0

1 :194 1 :129 1 :Zb 1 :35 1 :39

R odents

1 :0.3

S heep C att le & ? cattle ?D omestic d og S eal C etaceans M ar ine f ish F reshwater f ish B irds

N orthern C dpe-Orange F ree S tate b . G rassve ld a . a ushveld

W estern C ape c oast

1 449 3 5 ? 2 ? 2

-

1 46 1 :3 . 9 n umerous -

-

8 8 5 9 2 3

-

1 :2

1 :43 1 :43 1 :68 1 :38 1 :15

f

r atio t o b ovids

2 0 1 2 3 4 9

1 :26 1 :529 . 1 :265 1 : 176

1 1 1 4 2

1 :529

1 :11

1 :529 1 :38 1 :265

f

6 3 1 07 3 5 4 2 09 f

f r atio t o b ovids

5 1 4 2 1 7 4 3

1 : 106 1 :38 1 :25 1 :75 1 :12

%T otal b ov ids

F

3 0,1 5 1,2 1 6,7 1 ,9 9 5,9

3 1 9 6 5 8

r at io t o b ovids

2 3 1 6 1 8

1 :25 1 :83 1 : 14 1 :83 1 : 10

2 0

1 :10

1 2 3

1 :209

6 2

. 1 : 14 1 :42

1 0 3 1 1 6 -

1 :20 1 :70 1 :709 1 : 13

8 0 7 0

1 :3 1 :3

-

1 :70 1 :42 1 :30 1 : 12 1 : 12

1 8 1 :5 9 3 1 :3 3 2 1 :2,5 4 6 1 : 12 L d ata i ncomp e tc o r a bsent 1 4 3 1 0 7

1 :83 1 :2 1 1 :28 1 :8 1 :5

"

3 5 7 1 8 1 9

N am ib ia

1 :9

%T otal f b ovids

5 6,9 3 2,8 1 0,3 1 00,0

M odern G /w i

N atal

%T otal b ovids

f

%T otal b ovids

3 6,7 3 6,7 1 8,4 8 ,2 1 00,0

1 33 3 2 4 6 9 2 20

6 0,5 1 4,5 2 0,9 4 ,1 1 00,0

1 8 1 8 9 4 4 9

f r atio t o b ovids

f r atio t o b ovids

f r atio t o b ovids

9 1 _

1 :6 1 :58 _

1

1 :58

1 1 5

1 :49 1 :49 1 : 10

1

1 :220

1 :25 1 :25 -

2 -

1 : 110 -

1 :3 1 :4 -

2 22 3 90

1 : 1 1 :0.6

-

-

2 2 -

7 9 3 5 5 2

1 :0,7 1 : 1,7 1 : 1

1 6 1 4 3

1 5 2 3

1 :58 1 :12 1 :29 1 : 19 .

:

1 1 3 3

1 :49 1 :49 1 : 16 1 : 16

2 95

d ata i ncomp lete o r a bsent 8 ? 1

-

2 0 6

2 35 1 :1,5 2 2 1 :16 n umerous -

-

1 :0.7 .

-

2 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

.

.

-

-

-

3 5 .

-

9 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

1 5

d ata i ncomp lete o r a bsent

. 106

1 :7 -

_

-

p resent

3 2 -

1 : 1,4

1 33

n o d ata

1 6 1

1 : 1,4

I S ites r epresented ( for r eferences s ee T ab le 1 2)

E BC, P AT, O K, G B, B y

B ovid s ize c ategor ies:

N BC, K R, K RM

W T, M HB, B UF, B PA, A K I, S S

O F, P OW, L W, L I, UM, D IK , D 1K2, B UR

B L, Z Y, R N, G L, T IE, L EN, V EN

A P, F A, T IR, N AM, N OS, A AR, H A, P OC

D R, G H

s mall ( 0-23 k g l ive w e ight): d uiker, g rysbok, k lipspringer, o r ib i, s teenbok i idTT-medium ( 23-84 k g): b ushbuck. m ountain r eedhuck, s outhern r eedbuck, v aalr ibbok, b lesbok, b ontebok, i mpala, s pr ingbok l arge med ium ( 84-296 k g): k udu, b lue a nte lope, h artebeest, w ildebeest, g emsbok l a .r . 9 2 -T imr-d-t han 2 96 k g): e land, b uffalo

3 33

g razers

s uch

a s

t he o ribi, m ountain r eedbuck,

s outhern r eedbuck a nd

r hebuck, l ive i n f ixed t erritories t hat d o n ot c hange s easonally. T hey l ive i n s mall g roups, i n p airs o r s ingly, a nd t end t o h ide d uring t he d ay a nd f eed i n t he e arly m orning, e vening o r a t n ight ( Dorst & D andelot 1 970). T heir p redictable d aily m ovements a nd l ifestyle m ake i t e asier f or t hem t o b e c aught t hrough t rapping a nd s naring t han b y p rojectile h unting. N on-gregarious a nimals c an b e h unted w ith e qual s uccess t hroughout t he y ear a nd a re m ore s uccessfully h unted b y p eople w orking o n t heir o wn o r i n s mall g roups. L arger b rowsers a nd m ixed f eeders s uch a s t he e land, C ape b uffalo, k udu a nd b lue a ntelope a re i ntermediate i n h abit b etween t he g regarious g razers a nd n on-gregarious b rowsers a s t hey m ove i n s mall h erds w ith s ome s easonal m ovement t o t ake a dvantage o f t he b est g razing.

T able 7 6. C hanges i n t he s ize a nd h abits o f b ovids h unted a t B oomplaas C ave o ver t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears ( after K lein 1 978b). T he f igures s how a s hift f rom l arger e quids a nd a lcelaphines t o s maller a ntelope f rom t he l ate P leistocene s tatistically s ignificant.

t o

t he

l ate

H olocene

t hat

i s

ST R A T I G R A P H I C UN I T S D GL, B LD, B LA B RL C L L P/LPC M ountain r eedbuck, r hebuck, k lipspringer, g rysbok/steenbok

f %

3 8 ( 81)

6 2 ( 65)

1 7 ( 22)

6 ( 14)

E quids a nd a lcelaphines

f %

9 ( 19)

3 3 ( 35)

5 9 ( 78)

3 8 ( 86)

S ELECTED C HI-SQUARE V ALUES: C hi-square 3 ,65

D GL-BLA

v s

B RL

D GL-BLA D GL-BLA B RL

v s v s v s

C L L P/LPC C L

4 0,14 4 1,04 3 1,22

B RL C L

v s v s

L P/LPC L P/LPC

3 2,01 1 ,33

* = N ot

p ( two-tailed) . 10 - . 05 . 001 . 001 . 001 . 001 . 30 - . 20*

s ignificant

S tory ( 1958) e xpected t hat h unting w ould h ave p layed a m ore p rominent r ole i n t he e conomy o f g rassland s ystems w hich s upported l arge h erds o f g regarious g razers i n h istoric t imes. W here a rchaeological s amples a re a vailable t o t est t his i n t he n orthern C ape, t hey s how p lains g ame a t s ome l ocalities b ut u nfortunately t he v ast m ajority o f t he k nown s ites i n t he r egion a re i n t he o pen a nd b one i s n ot p reserved. A nalysis o f t he f aunal r emains f rom t hirteen l ate H olocene s ites i n t he M iddle O range R iver t here i s a c ontrast i n t he r ange o f t axa

v alley s howed t hat i n o r n ear b ushveld

v egetation a nd t hose n ear g rassveld, w ith t he o bvious

c orollary

t hat

a nimals c ommon i n t he g rassveld o ccur m ore f requently i n t he g rassveld

3 34

s ites ( Klein 1 979). T his c an b e s een i n T able 7 5 w hich s hows a n i ncrease i n s mall-medium b ovids f rom 2 2,9% i n t he b ushveld s ites t o 5 1,2% i n t he g rassland o nes d ue t o ah igher p roportion o f s pringbok i n t he l atter. I n o ther r egions e quids a re r elatively m ore c ommon i n t he C ape F old M ountain s ites, i n t he n orthern C ape, O range F ree S tate a nd N amibia t han t hey a re i n t he s outhern C ape c oastal l ocalities, w hile t he C ape b uffalo a ccounts f or t he h igh p ercentage o f l arge b ovids i n t he s outhern C ape c oastal s ample. S een i n b road o verview , t he e mphasis o n s maller b ovids t hat i s o bserved e thnographically i s a lso c lear i n t he a rchaeological s amples.

P lant r emains A s i n t he c ase o f f aunal r emains, a rchaeological s ites c annot p rovide c omplete i nformation o n t he r ange a nd q uantity o f p lant f oods e aten b y H olocene p eople b ecause o nly t he i nedible r esidues o f p lants c ollected a nd p rocessed a t t he h ome b ase a re p reserved t here. M any p lants h ave l ittle o r n o i nedible r esidue, o thers a re e aten a way f rom t he h ome b ase, a nd t hose t hat d o h ave i nedible r esidues h ave d ifferent q uantities p er u nit c onsumed a nd d ifferent p reservation p roperties. T hese f actors c ombined m ake i t d ifficult, i f n ot i mpossible, t o e stimate a ccurately t he m inimum n umbers o f a ny p lant t hat m ay h ave b een e aten. W hat p lant r emains c an s how , h owever, a re i nter-regional d ifferences i n t he r ange o f p lant f oods a nd m edicinal p lants a nd a t l east a p artial v iew o f t he t axa o f e conomic i mportance; h ere e thnographic a nd h istorical r ecords o f t he u ses a nd m ethods o f p reparation o f p lants a re i nvaluable ( Quin 1 959; C .A. S mith 1 966; H einz & M aguire 1 974; S teyn 1 981). O ne o f t he l argest a nd m ost i ntensively s tudied a ssemblages o f p lant r emains h as c ome f rom h orizons d ating w ithin t he l ast 7 5 00 y ears a t M elkhoutboom C ave i n t he e astern z one o f t he C ape F old M ountain B elt ( H.J. D eacon 1 976). I t s hows t hat t he m ost c ommon p lant r esidues p reserved a re f rom m onocotyledenous g eophytes o f t he i ris f amily ( Iridaceae) r epresented b y c orm b ases a nd t unics o f t he u nderground s torage o rgans. M elkhoutboom i s s ome 4 0 k m i nland a nd 8 00 m a bove s ea l evel, y et t he p lant r emains i nclude a ll t he t axa f ound a t a c omparably w ell p reserved b ut m uch y ounger o ccurrence a t S cott's C ave s ituated l ess t han 1 00 m a bove s ea l evel i n t he G amtoos V alley c lose t o t he s outhern C ape c oast ( Deacon & D eacon 1 963; W ells 1 965). T his i s e vidence f or a s table a daptation t o a p articular s et o f p lants w ith w ide g eographical a nd s easonal a vailability i n t his h abitat, a n a daptation e ssentially s imilar t o t hat o bserved a mongst p resent-day S an i n t he K alahari. T he s outhern C ape p attern s hows t hat m ost o f t he c ollecting a ctivity w as d irected a t t he o pen h eathland a nd g rassland a reas i n t he v egetation m osaic, a c ontrast t o t he m ore c losed s hrubland-woodland h abitats e xploited b y t he h unters l iving a t t he s ame s ites. C orrelation o f t he d ata o n p lant f ood r emains f rom a n umber o f w estern, s outhern a nd e astern C ape s ites ( Table 7 4) s hows t hat g eophytes a re m ost c ommonly r epresented, a nd o f t hese W atsonia s p. c orms a re u biquitous. T he d ominance o f t his g enus i s r elated t o i ts h igh v isibility t hrough m uch o f t he y ear a s t he l eaves a bove t he g round a re g enerally l onger a nd h eavier t han t hose o f o ther g enera a nd d o n ot b low a way a t t he e nd o f s ummer. I n a ddition t he i ndividual c orms a re s omewhat l arger t han t hose o f o ther s pecies s uch a s C yperus

3 35

u sitatus, M oraea s p., F reezia/Tritonia s pp. a nd H ypoxis s p., a ll o f w hich h ave a s horter s easonal v isibility. R egional d ifferences c an b e s een i n t he w estern C ape w here p lant D iepkloof n umerical t hose

s how

s p.

r emains f rom t he s andveld s ite o f

c orms t o r eplace t hose o f W atsonia i n

i mportance a nd s eeds a re b etter r epresented,

o f

1 977a).

G ladiolus

t he

t ortoise

I n t he

b erry,

N ylandtia

s ummer r ainfall r egion o f

s pinosa c entral

i n

p articular

( Parkington 1 976, N amibia,

h owever,

W adley ( 1979) n otes t he o ccurrence o f C yperus f ulgens c orm t unics a t B ig ( Great) E lephant s helter w hich f lourish a fter t he s ummer r ains h ave

f allen.

C orm-dominated

H ighlands a nd

T afelberg

u sitatus

F reezia

a nd

H all

f ound

h ave

a lso b een r ecorded f rom

C ape

M idlands

t he

c orymbosa

D eacon 1 976). A s n oted i n C hapter 4 , w ere

s amples i n

p its

p redominating

c ontaining

w ith

( Hewitt

s eeds

o f

C yperus

1 931b,

P appea

H .J.

c apensis

a t B oomplaas a nd s imilar p its w ith C alodendron a nd P appea

s eeds a re k nown f rom t he s ame t ime r ange ( c. 2 000 B .P.) M elkhoutboom i n t he e astern C ape ( H.J. D eacon 1 976). S eeds o f n ara m elon a re t o b etween M irabib i n

f ound i n s outhern N amibia a t A pollo 1 1

w here t hey

8 000 a nd 7 000 B .P. ( Wendt 1 976 a nd p ers. c entral N amibia w here t hey d ate t o c .

( Sandelowsky

1 977).

T he

l ack o f

a t t he d ate

c omm.) a nd a t 6 500 B .P.

s uitable m id-Holocene s ites i n t he

T ransvaal m akes i t i mpossible t o t est w hether t he e mphasis o n f ruits a nd n uts i n t hat r egion p ersisted t hrough t he H olocene, b ut i t s eems l ikely t o h ave d one f rom t he e thnographic s hows

t hem t o b e i mportant e ven t oday.

r ecord

( Quin

d iet o f t he

! Kung i n B otswana h as b een

1 969,

1 972,

1 979)

s hows

t hat w hile u nderground p lants w ere o f g reatest

s outh,

a nd e mphasizes

1 959)

w hich

T he i mportance o f n uts i n t he w idely

d iscussed

( Lee

1 968,

t he p attern e vident i n T able 7 4 w hich

n uts a nd m elons r eplaced

i mportance t o t he

t hem i n t he n orthern p art o f

s outhern

A frica. O ther g athered f oods O ther f oods f or w hich w e h ave l imited a rchaeological

e vidence

b ut

w hich a re r egularly m entioned b y e arly t ravellers a nd e thnographers a s p roviding i mportant b ut s easonally a bundant s ources

o f

h oney,

l ocusts,

b irds

s nails,

l izards a nd s nakes.

r ock

p aintings

P ortions o f

t ermites,

c aterpillars,

i llustrate

t he

r aiding

( H.J. D eacon 1 976)

a t

o f h ives

b odies

o f

t ermites

i nclude

e ggs,

l and

t race, b ut

( Vinnicombe

M elkhoutboom

a nd

1 976). S prings

a nd a t D e H angen ( Parkington 1 977a:62)

w here t wo c omplete a nd s everal f ragmentary o void t he

f ood

H oney l eaves n o a rchaeological

t ermitaria h ave b een f ound

R ock S helter

t ortoises,

w ere f ound.

' cakes'

p acked

w ith

W hile a t S prings a nd D e H angen

t hese m ay h ave b een t he r esult o f t he c ollection o f c lay f rom t ermitaria f or m aking p ottery r ather t han f or f ood, t he M elkhoutboom e xamples

p re-date

p ottery

a nd

t hus

s uggest

t hat

t hey

m ay

w ell

r epresent f ood r esidues. M arine r esources a nd f reshwater f ish a nd s hellfish T he

t hird

i mportant

e lement o f

t he H olocene s ubsistence

s trategy

w as f ish a nd s hellfish. S ubstantial n umbers o f s hell m iddens d ating t o t he t erminal P leistocene a nd H olocene a re k nown a long t he s outhern A frican c oast n orth-east.

f rom A ngola i n I nland,

n nrth-eastern C ape,

t he

n orth-west

p articularly

m iddens o f

i n

t o N atal,

M ozambique L esotho

i n

t he

a nd

t he

f reshwater m ussels a re k nown a nd a

f ew

r ock s helter s ites i nclude t he r emains o f f reshwater f ish. M arine s hells h ave b een t ransported a s m uch a s 1 00 km o r m ore i nland f or u se i n m aking o rnaments.

3 36

I t

w as

t he

e xpectation

o f L ee

( 1965)

t hat h unter-gatherers w ith

a ccess t o c oastal r esources w ould h ave r elied o n t hese i n t he s ame w ay a s t he ! Kung S an r ely o n m ongongo n uts f or t heir s taple f oodstuff. A ll a rchaeological e vidence h owever s uggests m ore s easonal u se o f c oastal r esources c omplementing h unting a nd g athering a ctivities i n t he a nnual r ound. T heir i mportance s eems t o l ie i n o ffering a lternative f ood r esources i n t he s tress p eriod f or g athering w hich i n m ost o f t he C ape c oastal a reas i s i n t he w inter m onths, b ut m ay h ave v aried f rom t ime t o t ime a nd f rom p lace t o p lace ( H.J. D eacon 1 969, 1 970, 1 972, 1 976; P arkington 1 972, 1 976, 1 977a, 1 977b, 1 981). F ollowing o n G oodwin's p ioneer s tudies a t O akhurst ( 1938) a nd e lsewhere ( 1946), i nterest w as r evived i n t he s tudy o f m idden o ccurrences i n t he 1 960s ( Maggs & S peed 1 967) a nd t he n umbers o f o bservations o n m idden d eposits h ave g rown s ignificantly ( H.J. D eacon 1 970; P arkington 1 972, 1 976, 1 981; K lein 1 972a; V oigt 1 973, 1 982; A very 1 974, 1 975, 1 976; S chweitzer 1 974, 1 975, 1 979; R obertshaw 1 977, 1 978a, 1 979; B uchanan e t a l. 1 978; P oggenpoel & R obertshaw 1 981). R esearch h as c entred o n t he r ange o f s pecies r epresented, t heir r elative q uantities, t he r elationship o f t hese t o l ocal a vailability a nd t he f ood v alues o f i ndividual s pecies a nd c ommunities. I n g eneral i t i s t he i ntertidal z one a long t he s ea s hore t hat i s m ost h eavily e xploited w ith l arger s hellfish c aught b elow t he l ow w ater m ark b eing r arer o verall a nd p ossibly n eeding s pring l ow t ides t o a llow e xploitation. A s w ith h unting a nd g athering, t he m ix o f s pecies p resent i n a n a rchaeological d eposit i s a r easonably g ood r eflection o f w hat w as a vailable i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he s ite. T his h as b een c onfirmed b y s everal s tudies ( H.J. D eacon 1 970 ; A very 1 974; P arkington 1 976; R obertshaw 1 977, 1 979; B uchanan e t a l. 1 978; S chweitzer 1 979). T hus m iddens a long s andy s hores w ill c ontain s and-burrowing m ussels s uch a s D onax s erra, w hile t hose n ear r ocky p romontories w ill c ontain l impets a nd m ussels w hich p refer a r ocy s ubstrate. M iddens w ith l arger s hells, s uch a s H aliotis, t end t o b e l ocated c loser t o t he s ea b ecause t hey a re r elatively h eavy a nd w ere p robably s hucked c loser t o t he s hore ( Avery 1 974:111). T he f requency o f m iddens a long a s hore m ay b e i nfluenced b y t he n ature o f t he s horeline. W here r ocky p romontories a re m ore i solated, a s a round E lands B ay, t he m iddens a re l arger, d eeper a nd m ore l ocalized a djacent t o r ocky i ntertidal s hores, a nd t hey h ave r emarkably s imilar c ontents. B y c ontrast, m iddens a round P aternoster a long a c oast w here s hort s tretches o f r ocky s hore a re s eparated b y s hort s andy b eaches h ave m ore v ariable c ontents ( Buchanan e t a l. 1 978). F ish w ere c aught b y l ines, b y s pearing a nd i n t idal f ish t raps a nd c old w ater u pwelling m ay a lso h ave p rovided p eople w ith a n u npredictable

q uantity

o f

f ish

f rom

t i me

t o

t ime.

T here i s n o

p hysical e vidence f or t he u se o f n ets, b ut t he l arge n umber o f s mall f ishes c aught a t s ome s ites s uggests t hat t hey m ay h ave b een u sed ( Poggenpoel, i n p rep.). F or d eposits d ating w ithin t he l ast 3 0 00 y ears a t N BC, f or e xample, 9 5,6% o f a s ample o f o ver 1 0 0 00 i ndividual f ishes a re e stimated t o h ave w eighed l ess t han 1 17 g e ach ( Poggenpoel, i n p rep.). L ine f ishing i s e vident f rom f inds o f s inkers a t N BC a nd S torms R iver M outh ( H.J. D eacon 1 970) a nd S chweitzer ( 1979:197) n otes t hat t he l arge n umber o f h ottentot f ishes ( Pachymetopon b lochii) a t

3 37

D ie K elders m ust h ave b een c aught b y l ines a s o ther m ethods w ould h ave b een u nsuccessful. A s w ith s hellfish, i t i s c lear t hat t he r ange o f f ish s pecies i n a n o ccupation d eposit i s a f airly a ccurate r eflection o f t he h abitats f or f ishes i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he s ite a nd t hat p eople b rought b ack t o t he h ome b ase t hose f ishes t hat w ere m ost a bundant ( H.J. D eacon 1 970). C hanges i n t he s ize r ange a nd i n t he s pecies o f f ish t hrough t ime a t a s ite p robably r eflect t he c hanging m orphology o f n atural p ools i n t he v icinity p references o r i n f ishing m ethods.

a s

a s

m uch

a s

c hanges

i n

c ultural

I n a ddition t o f ish, s hellfish a nd c rustaceans, m arine m ammals s uch s eals a nd o ccasional c etaceans a re a lso r epresented i n c oastal

o ccupation d eposits.

F rom t he a nalysis

o f

b ird

r emains,

G .

A very

( 1977, 1 981) h as b een a ble t o e stimate t he s eason o f o ccupation a t s ome s ites a nd f rom m odern s urveys o f b eached b irds h as s uggested t hat m any o f t he b irds a nd m arine m ammals w ere p robably s cavenged f rom t he b eaches r ather t han a ctively h unted b y L SA p eople. R emains o f t errestrial m ammals a t c oastal s ites a ttest t o t he

f act

t hat t he i nhabitants o f t hese s ites s till d erived a n i mportant p art o f t heir d iet f rom h unting a nd t rapping ( Table 7 5). P lant f ood r emains, o n t he o ther h and, a re r are a t c oastal s ites ( H.J. D eacon 1 972), e ven w here o ther p lant r emains a re p reserved a nd i t h as b een s uggested t hat s hellfish g athering p robably r eplaced p lant f ood g athering t o a l arge e xtent a t t imes w hen c oastal s ites w ere o ccupied ( H.J. D eacon 1 969, 1 970, 1 972, 1 976; P arkington 1 972, 1 976). B ecause p lant f ood g athering w as l argely t he p reserve o f w omen a nd h unting o f m en, i t i s h ighly l ikely t hat t he s hellfish w ere g athered b y w omen. I nland, s pawning r uns a re k nown o n s ome r ivers a nd w ere e xploited i n h istoric t imes b y t he i ndigenous p eople l iving a long t he O range R iver a nd i ts t ributaries. R ock p aintings o f i nland f ishing s cenes a re a lso k nown i n t he D rakensberg r egion ( Vinnicombe 1 965). F ish h ooks a nd b ones o f f reshwater f ish h ave b een f ound a t L SA s ites i n L esotho ( Carter 1 978) a nd N atal ( Maggs & W ard 1 980) a nd f ish a nd f reshwater m ussels, c rabs a nd f rogs h ave b een i dentified f rom s ites i n t he M iddle O range R iver a rea ( Sampson 1 967a :147) a nd a t s ites i n t he C ape F old M ountains ( Deacon & D eacon 1 963; J . D eacon 1 972; H .J. D eacon 1 976; P arkington 1 977b :154). S tone f ish t raps a re a lso k nown i nland ( Willcox 1 965). T here i s h owever n o a rchaeological e vidence t hat t he i nland r iverine r esources o f s outhern A frica w ere e xploited o n a l arge s cale d uring t he L SA. T his i s p erhaps u nderstandable i n t hat m any s outhern A frican r ivers a re h ighly s easonal i n t heir f low , a re s ubject t o l ong p eriods o f d rought i n m any a reas, a nd d o n ot h ave a r ich f ish f auna. T he f reshwater f ish a nd m olluscs h ave t herefore a pparently n ot b een m ore t han a s upplement t o h unting a nd g athering i nland, i n c ontrast t o t he f ar m ore s ubstantial c oastal e xploitation p attern. W hat i s o f i nterest i s t hat t he d ating o f i nland m iddens a nd a ssemblages w hich i nclude f ish b ones a nd f ish h ooks t ends t o b e l ate i n t he H olocene, w ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t his

e xploitation

o f

a n

a dditional

r esource

m ay

h ave

b een

s timulated b y l ocal r eadjustments i n g roup t erritories a nd a nnual m ovements a s a r esult o f t he i nflux o f h erders a nd I ron A ge p eople a nd t he c onsequent d emographic c hanges ( J. D eacon 1 969, 1 972) a nd i t h as a lso b een s een b y P arkington ( 1980:83)

3 38

a s p art o f a g eneral

t rend

i n

t he l ater H olocene t owards b road s pectrum g athering. E vidence f or s easonal t ranshumance d uring t he H olocene A ssessment o f t he s eason o f o ccupation o f s ites f rom t he f loral a nd f aunal r emains h as b een a s ubject o f i nterest s ince B owker ( 1884), G oodwin ( 1953:152) a nd o thers p ointed o ut t he i mplications o f s easonal m ovement. B ut w hile i t h as l ong b een r ealized t hat L SA p eople m oved t o t ake a dvantage o f s easonal a bundances ( Clark 1 959:217), i t i s o nly r ecently t hat d ata h ave b een p roduced t o d emonstrate i t. T he p lant r emains f rom S cott's C ave ( Wells 1 965), M elkhoutboom, S prings a nd H ighlands i n t he e astern C ape ( H.J. D eacon 1 976), a nd f rom D e H angen a nd D iepkloof i n t he w estern C ape ( Parkington 1 972, 1 976, 1 977a, 1 977b) p rovided t he f irst c lear e vidence f or s pring a nd s ummer o ccupation i nland i n t he C ape F old M ountains a nd n earer t he c oast. A l ocal r ecord f rom t he L angkloof i n t he s outhern C ape d escribes s easonal m ovements o f t he l ast b ands o f S an i n t he 1 9th c entury a nd r eports t hat t hey m oved t o t he c oast i n s ummer a nd t o t he m ountains i n w inter ( H.J. D eacon 1 969, 1 970, 1 976), b ut a n a nalysis o f t he h istoric r ecords a nd a rchaeological d ata i n t he w estern C ape h as s uggested t o P arkington t hat t he m ountain z one w as f avoured t here i n t he s ummer a nd t he c oast i n w inter ( Parkington 1 972, 1 977a, 1 977b; Avery 1 975). T his a pparent c ontradiction b etween t he s outhern a nd w estern C ape d ata i s e xplicable h owever i n t erms o f t he d ifferent r ainfall r egimes o f t he t wo a reas, t he w estern C ape h aving p redominantly w inter r ain a nd t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape h aving r ain a t a ll s easons, b ut m ostly i n s pring a nd a utumn. T he r ainfall r egime h as a s trong i nfluence o n t he s easonal a bundance o f u nderground p lant f oods, p articularly t he I ridaceae, a nd a s t hese a ppear t o h ave b een t he s taple p lant f oods o f L SA p eople i t i s l ogical t hat t heir m ovements w ould h ave b een g overned b y t he t iming o f t he s eason o f m aximum a bundance, a mongst t he p resent-day S an i n t he K alahari.

a s i s a lso t he c ase

T he s outhern a nd e astern C ape w ith a r elatively h igh r ainfall a nd n o m arked s easonal p eak s hows n o c lear c ontrast i n t he s easonality o f a rchaeological r emains b etween m ountain a nd c oastal p lain s ites. oth i nland a t T here a re i nstances o f s pring a nd s ummer o ccupation b M elkhoutboom ( H.J. D eacon 1 976) a nd n ear t he c oast a t S cott's C ave t he s eason o f ( Wells 1 965). F ew d ata a re s o f ar a vailable o n n t his r egion, b ut w hat i s a vailable o ccupation a t c oastal s ites i c ould h ave t aken p lace a t s everal t imes s uggests t hat o ccupation f t he 0 -16/0-18 r atio i n a s mall s ample o f d uring t he y ear. A nalysis o .P. l evels a t N BC i ndicates t hat b oth w ere t wo s hells f rom c . 6 000 B c ollected i n t he w inter o r e arly s pring ( Shackleton 1 973). T he a ge a t olocene l evels, o n t he o ther h and, s hows a d eath o f s eals f rom t he H i ndividuals c ould h ave b een c aught o r l ess s easonal p attern a nd c ollected a t s everal d ifferent t imes o f t he y ear ( Parkington 1 976:138-9 a nd p ers. c omm.), w hile h istorical r ecords i ndicate t hat h erders w ere m et i n t hat a rea d uring b oth s pring ( Sparrman 1 785) a nd s ummer ( Storrar 1 978:16). A ssessment o f a r egular p attern o f t ranshumance i n t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape m ay b e f urther h ampered b y t he p ossibility t hat c hanges o ccurred t hrough t ime a nd t hat r adical a djustments

w ere

n ecessitated

a fter t he i ntroduction o f d omestic s tock. T he d ata o n s eals f rom N BC h ave n ot y et b een s ubdivided a ccording t o l evel, b ut t he s amples a re s mall a nd e ven i f s hifts a re n oted t hrough t ime, t hese m ay n ot p rove t o b e s ignificant.

T hat a c hange i n t he

3 39

s easonal

p attern

m ay

h ave

o ccurred w as f irst s uggested a fter a s hift w as o bserved i n t he r elative f requency o f m arine a nd f reshwater s hells a t t he W ilton n ame s ite i n t he C ape F old M ountains, t he l atter b ecoming m ore c ommon a fter c . 2 500 B .P. T his i ntimated t hat e ither t he c oast w as n ot b eing f requented a s o ften a s b efore, o r t hat t here h ad b een a c hange i n t he s eason o f o ccupation a t t he s ite ( J. D eacon 1 969, 1 972). T he l atter p ossibility w as c onsidered m ore l ikely w ith t he i dentification o f t he l ate s ummer/autumn f lowering C yperus u sitatus i n t he s urface l evels a t t he n earby s ite o f M elkhoutboom w here i t w as n ot f ound i n t he p re-pottery l evels d espite e xcellent p reservation o f p lant r emains ( H.J. D eacon 1 976).

o f

I ndependent e vidence o n d ietary c hanges w as s ought i n t he a nalysis t he C -13/C-14 r atio i n h uman b ones f rom 6 7 b urials i n t he e astern

C ape ( F. S ilberbauer 1 979), b ut t he r esults h ave p roven t o b e c omplicated b y t he f act t hat t he i sotopic c omposition o f m ilk f rom s heep a nd c attle e nriches t he C -13 c ontent o f b ones i n t he s ame w ay a s m arine f oods a nd t he c onsumption o f m eat f rom m ixed f eeders ( as o pposed t o p urely b rowsers) i n t hat r egion. N evertheless, f rom t he v ery s mall n umber o f d ated i ndividuals ( 2) i t s eems t hat t hose f rom c . 8 000 t o c . 5 000 B .P. h ad a l ower i ntake o f m arine f oods/mixed f eeders/milk t han t hose o f t he l ater H olocene a nd t hat, a lthough t here w as s ome o verlap, i ndividuals j udged f rom b urial s tyle a nd o ther f actors t o h ave b een h unter-gatherers d iffered f rom t hose j udged t o h ave b een h erders i n t he m ean C -13 c ontent o f t heir b ones. T hus, w hile w e h ave s ome i ntimation t hat c hanges o ccurred i n t he s easonal p attern a nd t he r elative i mportance o f m arine f oods t hrough t he H olocene, m ore i ntensive w ork i s n eeded t o r esolve t he d etails. I n t he w estern C ape t he s easonal c ontrasts b etween m ountain, c oastal p lain a nd c oast a re a pparently g reater t han i n t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape a nd t his i s r eflected i n t he a rchaeological d ata. T he r elative p aucity o f s taple p lant f oods o n t he c oast a nd a djacent s andveld o f t he c oastal p lain, a nd t he h igh r isk o f t oxicity a mongst m arine m ussels a nd o ther f ilter f eeders d uring t he s ummer, c ombine t o s uggest t hat p eople w ould h ave b een b etter o ff i nland a mongst t he m ountains a nd i ntermontane v alleys d uring t he s ummer, w hile t he r elative l ack o f p lant f ood s taples e verywhere d uring t he w inter e ncouraged p eople t o m ove t o t he c oast t o e xploit m arine r esources a t t hat t ime ( Parkington 1 972, 1 976, 1 977a, 1 977b). T hat p eople w ere p resent i n t he m ountains d uring s ummer i s c onfirmed b y a nalysis o f t he a ge a t d eath o f d assie ( rock h yrax) r emains a t D e H angen, b y t he o ccurrence o f c orm r emains i ndicating s ummer c ollection a nd b y t he r elatively h igh i ncidence o f t ortoise b ones ( tortoises a re l ess a ctive i n w inter a nd a re m ore e asily c ollected i n s pring a nd s ummer). A long t he c oast, o n t he o ther h and, P arkington ( op. c it.) h as s hown t hat s eals f rom t he E lands B ay t erminal P leistocene a nd e arly a nd l ate H olocene s equence w ere k illed o r c ollected o ver a v ery s hort t ime s pan b etween J uly a nd O ctober. T his h ighly r estricted t ime p eriod s eems t o b e

c onfirmed

( Fletemeyer

b y 1 977).

t he

a ssessment

I n a ddition,

o f

g rowth

r ings

o n

s eal

t eeth

t ortoise r emains a re r elatively r are

a nd t he l arge q uantities o f m ussels h ere a nd a t o ther s ites i n t he v icinity a lso s uggest w inter o ccupation. C ombined w ith o bservations o n l impet s hell s izes w hich i ndicate a s hort-term a nnual p ittern ( Parkington 1 976), s easonal m obility w ith

e xploitation

t here i s s ome s upport f or t he h ypothesis o f r egular t ranshumance i nvolving s ummer

o ccupation i n t he m ountains a nd w inters a long t he c oast.

3 40

A f unctional

i nterpretation o f f ormal t ool f requencies b y M azel & P arkington ( 1978, 1 981) a nd P arkington ( 1980) s ugge3ts f urther s upport f or s easonal m ovement i n t hat t he r elative f requencies o f a dzes, s crapers a nd b acked t ools d iffer a t m ountain, s andveld a nd c oastal s ites. F urther r esearch i n t he w estern C ape, h owever, a s c lear-cut a s w as f irst s upposed

s hows t hat t his p attern i s

( Parkington,

p ers.

n ot

c omm.).

T he p attern o f s easonal m obility d ocumented f rom t he a rchaeological e vidence i n t he w estern C ape m ay n ot h ave a pplied e verywhere i n t he r egion. A nalysis o f t he s hellfish a nd b ird r emains a t P aternoster t o t he s outh o f E lands B ay i ndicates s ummer o ccupation a t t he c oast f rom a bout 3 500 B .P. t o a bout t he t ime t hat p ottery w as i ntroduced, w hile t he u ppermost l evel, d ated j ust a fter 9 00 B .P. s hows a utumn o ccupation ( Avery 1 977; R obertshaw 1 977:71-2). R obertshaw ( op. c it.) s uggests t hat t he a lternative s trategy a dopted b y p eople w ho o ccupied t he P aternoster s ite i s t he r esult o f a n arrower c oastal p lain i n t he v icinity b ringing a m ore v aried s et o f h abitats c loser t o t he c oast a nd r educing t he n ecessity f or a c lear-cut d ivision b etween s ummer a nd w inter h abitation s ites. T his t ype o f v ariability b oth t hrough t ime a nd t hrough s pace n eeds t o b e d ocumented f urther b efore a ny f irm p atterns c an b e e stablished. I t i s a lso w orth n oting t hat t he s ize o f t he t erritory w ithin w hich P arkington h as p ostulated r egular t ranshumance i s f ar l arger t han t hat t raversed b y p resent-day h unter-gatherers i n d rier h abitats. I nland o f t he C ape F old M ountains, w here r ainfall i s g enerally l ow a nd f alls m ore o ften i n s ummer t han i n w inter, s easonal p atterns w ould h ave b een d ifferent a gain w ith r esources m ore e venly d istributed. M arine f oods, o r t heir e quivalent, w ere n ot a vailable a s a r elease f rom s tress i n s easons o f l ow p lant f ood a bundance, h owever. H umphreys ( 1979:378), i n w riting a bout t he n orthern C ape, h as s tressed t he u niformity o f r esources a nd t he g eneral s imilarity o f f aunal r emains a nd f ormal t ool f requencies a t t hese s ites a nd s uggests t hat t his r eflects a d iversified h unting s trategy t hat w as n ot g eared t o a s easonal p attern b ecause t he h abitats o f t he a nimals d id n ot w arrant i t. T his a ssumption h owever d oes n ot t ake p lant f oods i nto a ccount b ecause n o p lant f ood r emains h ave b een p reserved a t t he s ites i nvestigated. T hat s easonal a bundance a nd s carcity d id a ffect t he p lant f ood c ollecting p attern i n t his r egion i s c learly e vident f rom t he e thnographic s tudy o f t he K orana b y E ngelbrecht ( 1936). T he u niformity i n t he s ites s tudied b y H umphreys ( which i nclude t hose f rom t he G haap P lateau a s w ell a s t he M iddle O range R iver) m ay t hus b e p resent i n t he f auna o nly. M odelling o f s easonal m ovements i n t he O range R iver c atchment i s c urrently b eing i nvestigated b y S ampson ( 1984) a nd t he r ole o f p lant f oods a nd t heir s easonal p attern i s t o b e g iven d ue a ttention. D ata o n s easonal o ccupation a t N amibian s ites a re n ot y et p ublished i n f ull ( Wendt 1 976) b ut a nalysis o f t he p lant m aterials, b irds e ggs a nd f auna f rom t he B ig E lephant S helter i n c entral N amibia h as e stablished t hat t his s ite a t l east w as u tilized f or s hort p eriods a t a ll t imes o f t he y ear ( Wadley 1 979). D ata a re n ot y et a vailable f or t he a nalysis o f s easonal m ovements i n Z imbabwe a nd B otswana e ither, b ut w ould b e p articularly i nteresting f or t he l atter b ecause m odern c ollecting p atterns a re w ell d ocumented a nd c an b e u sed f or c omparison ( Yellen 1 977). S ome s ummer o ccupation a t s ites i n t he M atopos i n Z imbabwe i s i ndicated b y f inds o f m arula e ndocarps ( Walker 1 980).

3 41

I nland, o f

a nd s ome d istance f rom t he c oast,

t ranshumance

h as

b een

h ypothesized

a h ighly s easonal p attern

f or

t he

D rakensberg r egion a nd t he a djacent N atal M idlands

L esotho a nd N atal t hat

i s b ased

m ore

o n g ame m ovements t han o n p lant f ood c ycles. C arter ( 1970, 1 978; C able e t a l. 1 980) n otes t hat t he h istorically d ocumented m ovement o f g ame i nto t he h igher m ountain p astures i n s ummer w ould h ave e ncouraged t he m ovement o f h unter-gatherers i nto t he m ountains t o m ake u se o f t his

r esource,

w hile

t he s evere w inters

i n t he h igher m ountains w ould

h ave d iscouraged h unter-gatherer o ccupation S upport

f or t he h ypothesis

f reshwater f ish B arbus n atalensis S ehonghong

a t

t hat

t ime

o f

y ear.

i s g iven b y t he o ccurrence o f b ones o f t he i n

t he

l ate

H olocene

l evels

w hich c ould o nly h ave b een c ollected d uring s ummer

a t

( Carter

1 978:225). W inter o ccupation o f M elikane a nd B elleview s ituated l ower d own o n t he m ountain s lopes, o n t he o ther h and, i s a ssumed o n c limatic d ata t hat s how n o e xtremes o f w inter c old t hus a llowing t he g rowth o f w inter g razing a nd e nsuring t he a vailability o f w ood f or f uel. C ircumstantial e vidence f or s ummer o ccupation o f G ood H ope S helter i n t he H ighland S ourveld o f N atal i s p roposed o n t he o ccurrence o f a h igher f requency o f c onvex s crapers t here. T he a ssumption i s t hat t hese i ndicate a l esser e mphasis o n p lant f ood c ollecting t han i s a pparent t he

a t

s ites

N atal

n otched t he

i n t he T hornveld/Mixed P odocarpus F orest r egions

M idlands

w here

n otched

s crapers a re t hought

s crapers a re m ore n umerous.

t o r eflect w oodworking a nd i n

o f T he

p articular

m anufacture a nd m aintenance o f d igging s ticks u sed f or c ollecting

p lant

f oods

( Cable e t a l.

Evaluation o f H olocene

n eeds

1 980).

t he e vidence f or t o

( 1979) h as p ointed o ut

t hat

s easonal a bundance a nd i ts m ovements

o f

u ndoubtedly

m odern

t he

c ross-cut

a bundance o f p lant

m akes

i s

o ther

i s

c hanges

s ubsistence e conomy d omestic c hanges

t he

s tock.

l ocal

w ater,

t he

B arnard b oth

i ts

i nfluence o n t he

K alahari

a nd

s easonal

m aking

i t

i n

s taple

i t

g ross

W hat

c oincident

p lant

d ifficult

t he a rchaeological

w ith

v ariability f oods,

a rchaeological d ata a lso d epends o n

w ater a s

t he t o

w ith k nowledge o nly o f t he

f rom o ne r ainfall r egime t o a nother

d ifferences

i n

s uch

a lso o ccurred t hrough t ime w ith s hifts

p robably W hile

p attern f oods.

d ifferences

r egularities

f oods a nd g ame m ovements,

p rehistoric

t hat

t hat s easonal

r ainfall r egime a nd s taple p lant s how

o f

h as a n i mportant i n

d uring

i nto a ccount.

a vailability

l ocation,

h unter-gatherers

T he i mportant p oint h e

a

t ranshumance

a ffected p rehistoric p eople e ven i n b etter-watered a reas.

a vailability p redict

s easonal

t ake a n umber o f v ariables

t he

m ay a nd

d ata i n t he

i ntroduction

b e

o f

i ntroduced w ith

w ith

i nter-regional

t he v iability o f h ypotheses a nd

e stimates

o f

t he

s ize

o f

t he

t erritory o ver w hich p eople m ay h ave m oved d uring a y ear.

S ome o f t he

m odels o ffered a re u nrealistic i n t his r egard a nd s everal

i ndependent

l ines o f e vidence n eed t o b e s ought i n o rder t o t est a s easonal h ypothesis f ully. Evidence f rom p lant f ood r emains t hat a s ite w as o ccupied i n a p articular s eason i s n ot n ecessarily e vidence t hat t he s ite w as n ot o ccupied a t o ther s easons. T he a rchaeological d ata t hat h ave

b een a massed s o f ar b ear ample w itness

t he p rehistoric p atterns o f s easonal m ovement t he r emains, C -eir n atural o f

b ut

t he

g eneral c onclusion i s

s easonal r hythm t hat

t he p eople e xploiting t hem.

t he c omplexity o f b oth

a nd

t hat

c ontrolled

C hanges

t o

t he

e valuation

i t w as p lant

t he

s easonal

t hrough t ime

o f

f oods a nd m ovements

s eem t o h ave b een

t riggered b oth b y s hifts i n t he a vailability o f s urface w ater a nd b y d emographic f actors, i n p articular t he s pread o f h erders a nd t heir

3 42

f locks

i n t he

l ast 2 0 00 y ears.

L ATE H OLOCENE A SSEMBLAGES W ITH P OTTERY S outhern A frican s tone a rtefact a ssemblages w hich a nd,

i n m any c ases,

i nclude

p ottery

t he b ones o f d omesticated s heep/goat a nd/or c attle

h ave b een g rouped t ogether

h ere

b ecause

t he

a dvent

o f

t hese

e lements w ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears o r m ore i s e vidence o f t he o f a n ew t echnological d evelopment c lay

p ots,

a nd

a

n ew

s pread

i n t he m anufacture a nd u se o f b aked

m odification

o f

t he

g atherer-fisher e conomy w ith t he i ntroduction

t raditional

o f

h unter-

d omesticated

s tock

e xotic t o t he s ub-continent. H ere, a s i n e astern A frica ( Phillipson 1 977:81), t he n ew a dditions w ere n ot g enerally a ccompanied b y a c hange i n

t he

s tone

a rtefact

m anufacturing

g radual c hanges w ithin t he s equences o f

s ome f ormal

t ools a nd t he s ize a nd s hape o f

i mpression i s t hat p ottery p re-existing r ange o f w hole

S tone

s tone

a nd

d omestic

s crapers.

s tock

A ge t radition a nd t hat

t ools m ade i n e ach r egion.

a lthough t here a re r elative w ere

f requency T he o verall

a dded

t o

t he

t here i s c ontinuity i n t he W ithin s outhern A frica a s a

t here i s r egional d ifferentiation i n t he s tyles o f p ottery m ade

a nd i n t he s ize o f 1 972;

t radition

i nvolving t he

s crapers t hat p ost-date c .

S ampson 1 972,

2 000 B .P.

( H.J.

D eacon

1 974).

T his r egional d ifferentiation i s e xpressed b y S ampson ( 1974) r ecognition

o f

S trandloper

C omplex

S ampson,

a

S mithfield t hat

C omplex,

a re

a

b roadly

C eramic

W ilton

c ontemporary.

t he S mithfield i s f ound i n t he n orthern C ape,

a nd N atal,

w ith s ome s ites

p arts o f N amibia,

e astern

w ell a s

C ape

a s

a nd

t he

t he

C omplex i s f ound a long t he c oast.

H umphreys

T ransvaal

t he W ilton i s

w estern,

t he D rakensberg r egion;

a

A s d efined b y

i n t he B randberg i n N amibia;

f ound i n Z imbabwe,

i n t he a nd

s outhern

a nd

a nd t he S trandloper

( 1979),

o n

t he

o ther

h and, c onsiders t he S mithfield t o b e a n i ntegral p art o f t he W ilton C omplex a nd t he c haracteristic l ong e nd s crapers o f t he S mithfield t o b e m erely t he r esult o f t he u se o f h ornfels i n s ome a reas, w hile B eaumont t he

( in p rep.)

C eramic

r ecognizes

W ilton,

t he

t hree i ndustries

S mithfield

a nd

i n t he n orthern

a

C eramic

m icroliths a nd u ncommon i nformal s crapers w hich e quivalent

o f

S ampson's

S trandloper

C omplex.

a rchaeological n omenclature m erely s erves t o o bserved i n t his

t ime r ange,

c ould

L SA b e

C ape:

w ith a n

n o

i nland

T his v ariability i n

s tress

t he

v ariability

p articularly i nland o f t he C ape e cozone.

S ampson's S mithfield C omplex ( formerly S mithfield B o f G oodwin & V an R iet L owe ( 1929)) i s c haracterized b y l ate a ssemblages i n w hich p ottery

i s

a ssociated

w ith

s tone a rtefact a ssemblages

l ong e nd s crapers m ade i n h ornfels i n ( Fig.

1 59)

a nd s omewhat

s maller

t he

s crapers

n orthern

C ape

t hat a nd

o r s trangulated s crapers), t hought t o b e

C ape.

A t

g lass

b eads,

t he

i tems m ay b e f ound. a ssemblages t hat l east

t he t ype t ool o f

f unctionally e quivalent

t op o f m etal

t he n orthern

C ape

a nd

t he a dzes o f o ther

1 000,

b ut m ore r ecent

t his c ould b e c hanged t o p ost-date A D 1 00 i n N atal.

3 43

N

t he w estern

s equences

g lass,

a nd o ther E uropean t rade

I n 1 974 S ampson r eported t hat a ll A D

A dded h ollow

t he o riginal S mithfield t o

( usually c opper o r b rass)

p ost-dated

N atal

i n o ther r aw m aterials i n t he

T ransvaal a nd N amibia. B acked m icroliths a re r are o r a bsent. t o t his t oolkit i n N atal a re n umbers o f s pokeshaves ( = n otched, a nd

i nclude

t he

S mithfield

r esearch i ndicates

( Maggs & W ard 1 980),

a t

A

7

2 8

CM

3 2

F ig. 1 59. A rtefacts f rom l ate H olocene a ssemblages i n w hich l ong e nd s crapers p redominate a nd i n which p ottery c an o ccur. S crapers: 1 -5,9-14,17,19-23,26,27,29-33. B acked m icroliths: 6 ,7, 1 5,18,23. A dze: 1 6. B orer: 2 5. T anged b one a rrowhead: 8 . I ron a rrowhead: 2 8. 1 -7: B urchell's S helter ( Humphreys & T hackeray 1 983 ); 8 : G len E lliott I I ( Sampson 1 970); 9 -12,16: G len E lliott I I ( Sampson 1 967a ); 1 3-15,17,18: G len E lliott I II ( Sampson 1 967a); 1 9-28: Z aayfontein V ( Sampson 1 967b); 2 9: T afelberg H all ( HJ D eacon 1 976); 3 0: H ighlands ( HJ D eacon 1 976); 3 1-33: W ilton n ame s ite l ayer 1 * J D eacon 1 969).

3 44

T he C eramic W ilton a s d efined b y S ampson ( 1974) i s a t a d ifferent h ierarchical l evel f rom t he S mithfield C omplex t o s tress t he c ontinuity i n s tone a rtefacts i n p re- a nd p ost-pottery W ilton C omplex a ssemblages. A ssemblages g rouped i nto t he C eramic W ilton d o n ot s how a n

i ncrease

i n s craper l ength w ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears a nd r etain

m ore b acked m icroliths t han c ontemporary a ssemblages i n t he S mithfield C omplex. A g ood e xample o f t his c ontinuity c an b e s een i n t he a ssemblages f rom B oomplaas ( Deacon e t a l. 1 978). C eramic W ilton a ssemblages m ay s how a r eduction i n t he f requency o f f ormal t ools, a r eduction i n t he r elative f requency a nd v ariety o f b acked m icroliths a nd i n s ome s ites a n i ncrease i n t he r ange a nd n umber o f b one t ools ( Schweitzer 1 979). a rtefacts i n t he g lass b eads i n s ome a nd w estern C ape f requency o f a dzes 1 982).

C opper a nd b rass a re a ssociated w ith s tone u pper l evels a t B oomplaas a nd A ndriesgrond, a s a re a reas ( Wendt 1 972; W adley 1 979). I n t he s outhern t here i s s ome e vidence f or a n i ncrease i n t he ( Mazel & P arkington 1 978, 1 981; S chweitzer & W ilson

T he t hird s et o f a ssemblages a ssociated w ith p ottery a re l inked t ogether b y S ampson ( 1974) a s ' Strandloper s ites. A t m ost c oastal s ites t here a re l arge u nretouched f lakes a nd f laked c obbles a ssociated w ith s hell m iddens a nd a g enerally

l ow

f requency

o f

f ormal

t ools.

T his p attern i s s ometimes e xaggerated a nd a ssemblages m ay t hen c ontain n o f ormal t ools a t a ll, a s a t S cott's C ave ( Deacon & D eacon 1 963) a nd a n umber o f s hell m iddens ( Avery 1 974; R obertshaw 1 977, 1 978a, 1 979). W hile s ome r esearchers c onsider t hat s uch a ssemblages r epresent a ctivity v ariants o f t hose c ontaining f ormal t ools a s w ell, S ampson ( 1974:436 f f) c onsiders t hat t hey m ay r epresent t he o ccupation s ites o f t he s o-called S trandlopers o r F ishermen d escribed b y e arly E uropean s ettlers ( Thom 1 952:80) w ho r egarded t hem a s e thnically a nd e conomically d istinct f rom o ther l ocal h erders a nd h unter-gatherers. W hile t his m ay b e t he c ase, t here s eems l ittle w ay i n w hich t his h ypothesis c ould b e t ested, w ithout m icroliths a nd w ith a ssociated

b ut i t i s o f i nterest t hat a ssemblages o nly a f ew i nformal s crapers a re

w ith p ottery a s f ar i nland a s D oornfontein i n t he n orthern

C ape ( Beaumont & B oshier 1 8974) a nd i n N amibia ( Jacobson 1 980). w ould p resumably n ot b e l inked t o t he S trandlopers. I n

g eneral

c omparisons

T hese

o f p re- a nd p ost-pottery a ssemblages,

t he

c hange m ost c ommonly o bserved i s a r eduction i n t he f requency o f b acked m icroliths a nd o f s egments i n p articular. I t i s p ossible t hat t his m ay r elate t o t he i ntroduction o f m etal, a t l east a fter A D 3 00 w hen I ron A ge p eople w ere a lready s ettled s outh o f t he L impopo, a nd t he r eplacement o f s tone i nserts b y m etal o nes. A lternative e xplanations h ave b een o ffered b y H umphreys ( 1979:366) a nd S ampson ( 1974:376). O ther n ew i tems w hich a ppear i n t his t ime r ange a re s moking p ipes o f s tone a nd b one a t H ighlands ( H.J. D eacon 1 976) a nd i n G ordonia i n t he n orthern C ape ( J. R udner 1 971:139) a nd i n t he B randberg i n N amibia ( J. R udner 1 957); b one h ooks a ssumed t o h ave b een u sed f or f ishing i n t he D rakensberg r egion ( Carter 1 978; M aggs & W ard 1 980; O pperman 1 982) a nd s tone-walled f ish t raps a long t he s outhern C ape c oast ( Goodwin 1 946; A very 1 975) a nd i nland ( Willcox 1 965). M atting,

p resumed

t o

b e l inked t o t he m aking o f m at-covered h uts b y

h erders, h as b een f ound a t s ites w here o ther p erishable i tems s uch

a s

w ooden a rtefacts, c ordage, n etting a nd l eather h ave a lso b een p reserved ( Grobbelaar & G oodwin 1 952; H .J. D eacon 1 969, 1 976;

3 45

3

4

h 1 5

1 3

e r

1 6

24 2 3

26

2 7

F ig. 1 60. A rtefacts f rom l ate H olocene a ssemblages w ith s mall s crapers, a dzes/spokeshaves a nd p ottery. S crapers: 1 ,2,7,8,17,20,21. T anged p oints: 3 ,4. B acked m icrol iths: 5 ,6,15,16. S pokeshaves: 9 ,10,11,13,18. A dzes: 1 2,14,19. C ape c oastal p ottery: 2 2-25. I nland L SA p ottery: 2 6,27. 1 -11: D riel ( Maggs & W ard 1 980); 1 2-14: S andy B ay ( Rudner & R udner 1 954); 1 5-21: B oomplaas; 2 2: R obberg P eninsula ( Rudner 1 968); 2 3: J effreys B ay ( Rudner 1 968); 2 4,25: K leinsee ( Rudner 1 968); 2 6: A valon ( Sampson 1 970); 2 7: J oubert's G if ( Sampson 1 970). 3 46

P arkington & P oggenpoel 1 971; H umphreys 1 974a; W adley 1 979; H umphreys &T hackeray 1 983). H owever, w ith t he e xception o f m atting f or h uts a nd p ottery f or c ooking a nd s toring m ilk a nd m ilk p roducts, t here d o n ot s eem t o b e a ny a rtefacts l inked e xclusively t o h erding. A s m entioned e arlier,

t here

i s

s ome

r egional

d ifferentiation

o f

p ottery s tyles. R udner ( 1968) h as r ecognized a C ape c oastal w are t hat i s s imilar t o p ottery f rom N amibia ( Sydow 1 967) a nd i s f ound a long t he c oast f rom s outhern N amibia t o t he e astern C ape a nd i nland a long t he l ower r eaches o f t he O range R iver a nd t o t he i nland m argin o f t he C ape F old M ountains. I t i s c haracterized b y a r ange o f p ointed b ased p ots w ith i nternally r einforced l ugs a nd i ncised d ecoration o n t he n eck a nd r im ( Fig. 1 60:22). R arer f orms i ncluding s pouts a nd b owls a re a lso k nown ( Fig.

1 60:23,

2 4).

T he l arger p ots c an b e a s h igh a s 4 00 -

m m a nd t he s maller p ots a nd b owls a re a bout 8 0 - 1 50 m m h igh. t emper i s u sually q uartz.

5 00 T he

I nland, i n t he n orthern C ape, s maller b owls w ith t hicker w alls a nd h eavily i mpressed d ecoration ( Sampson 1 972, 1 974; F ig. 1 60: 2 6 a nd 2 7) a re c ommonly m ade w ith g rass r ather t han q uartz t emper a nd a re r egarded b y R udner ( 1979) a s h aving b een m ade b y S an h unter-gatherers r ather t han b y h erders o r I ron A ge f armers. I n Z imbabwe ( Cooke 1 979), t he T ransvaal ( Mason 1 974) a nd N atal ( Maggs & W ard 1 980) t he p ottery r ecovered f rom L SA c ontexts h as b een l imited i n s ample s ize, b ut t he a ffinities i n d ecoration a nd p ot s hapes a re c onsidered t o l ie w ith t he I ron A ge t radition r ather t han w ith t he C ape c oastal o r n orthern

C ape

w ares. T here h as b een m uch s peculation a bout t he e thnic a ffinities o f t he p eople w ho m ade t he p ottery a nd a rtefacts d ated w ithin t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears. W hile s ome r esearchers m aintain t hat t here i s c orrespondence b etween t he h istorically k nown K hoi h erders

a c lose a nd t he

C eramic W ilton o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he h istorically k nown S an h unter-gatherers a nd t he S mithfield C omplex o n t he o ther ( Rudner 1 968, 1 979; R udner & R udner 1 970; S ampson 1 974, 1 984), o thers a re l ess c onvinced ( H.J. D eacon 1 976; D eacon e t a l. 1 978; I nskeep 1 978a; S chrire 1 980), i f o nly b ecause t here i s n o f actual b asis f or a ssuming a o ne-to-one c orrelation b etween s tone a rtefact t raditions, p ottery s tyles, s ubsistence a nd e thnic a nd l anguage g roups. I n a r ecent r eview o f K hoi s ettlement a t t he C ape, E lphick ( 1977) h as u sed l inguistic d ata c ollated b y W estphal ( 1963) t o s uggest t hat h erders m et b y e arly E uropeans i n t he s outhern C ape f rom t he e arly 1 6th c entury o nwards w ere l inguistically m ore s imilar t o T shu-Khwe s peakers i n p resent-day B otswana ( a g roup t hat i ncludes t he G /wi a nd N haro h unter-gatherers) t han t hey w ere t o t he h unter-gatherers w ho l ived a longside t hem a t t he C ape. T he i mplication d rawn f rom t his o bservation i s t hat t he s outhern C ape h erders w ere d escendants o f p eople w ho h ad m oved w ith t heir s tock f rom B otswana a t s ome t ime i n t he p ast 2 - 3 0 00 y ears, i ntroducing p ottery, s heep a nd ( later) c attle t o S outh A frica a nd N amibia. H owever, a s p ointed o ut b y I nskeep ( 1978b :35) w e h ave n o b asis f or a ssuming t hat a ll p astoralists b elonged t o t he s ame l anguage g roup, p articularly s ince i t h as b een e stablished t hat h unter-gatherers t hemselves a re k nown i n b oth t he B ush a nd H ottentot l anguage

f amilies.

F urthermore,

a ll

f our

B ush

l anguage f amilies a nd a ll b ut o ne o f t he H ottentot l anguages t hat W estphal h as s tudied w ere r ecorded n orth o f t he O range R iver. T he o ne e xception i s G riqua w hich w as

s poken i n t he n orthern C ape a nd T ranskei

3 47

i n t he l ast c entury, b ut i t h as n o a dequate d ocumentation ( Westphal 1 963:248). W estphal ( 1963:249) c onsiders t hat t he s mall n umber o f d ifferences b etween H ottentot l anguages r ecorded b etween A ngola a nd t he n orthern C ape a rgues f or a r emarkably h omogeneous l anguage f amily w ith n o i mportant v ariants b etween t he N atal-Transkei b order a nd t he b orders o f A ngola. W hile t his w ould n ot n ecessarily a llow u s t o a ssume t hat t he h erders m et b y E uropean v isitors a long t he C ape c oast a fter A D 1 496 s poke t he s ame l anguage a s t he h erders w ho s poke G riqua i n t he n orthern C ape i n t he 1 9th c entury, i t d oes g ive s ome s upport f or a r elatively r apid a nd r ecent m ovement b y H ottentot-speakers s outhwards. W hether t his w as t he s ame p opulation m ovement t hat i ntroduced d omestic s tock a nd p ottery t o t he s outhern s outh-western C ape h owever r emains a m atter f or s peculation. S everal R obertshaw

a nd

a rchaeologists ( Deacon e t a l. 1 978; I nskeep 1 978a; 1 978b) h ave r ecently a ttempted t o u se a rchaeological d ata,

p articularly r adiocarbon d ated a ssemblages w ith p ottery a nd s heep, t o t est E lphick's ( 1977) h ypothesis b ased o n h istorical d ata. T he l atter s uggests t hat t he r oute f ollowed b y i mmigrant T shu-Khwe-speaking h erders s outhwards f rom B otswana w as i nitially d irectly s outhwards t o t he n orthern C ape i n t he v icinity o f t he c onfluence o f t he O range a nd V aal r ivers. F rom t his c entre, g roups m oved s outh a nd e ast t o t he e astern C ape a nd t hence w estwards a long t he c oast t o t he s outh-western C ape. A s econd m ajor m ovement f rom t he n orthern C ape c entre w as w estwards a long t he O range R iver t o t he w est c oast a nd t hence n orthwards i nto N amibia a nd s outhwards i nto N amaqualand w here t he t wo b ranches m et b etween t he O lifants a nd B erg r ivers. T he l ong p eriod o f s eparation i mplied b y t he i ndependent m ovements o f t he t wo b ranches f rom t he n orthern C ape c entre w ould a ccount f or t he d ifferences n oted i n h istorical t imes b etween t he N ama o f t he w est c oast a nd t he K hoi g roups i n t he s outhern a nd s outh-western C ape ( Elphick 1 977:21). I n t esting t his h ypothesis a rchaeologically, w e w ould e xpect t o f ind t he e arliest p ottery a nd d omestic s tock i n t he n orthern C ape a nd B otswana b ut,

a s

t he d ata d iscussed h ere w ill s how,

t he p ottery i n N amibia i s

a s e arly a s t hat f rom t he s outhern C ape c oast, n o d ates a re a s y et a vailable f or e arly p ottery o r s heep i n B otswana, a nd t he d ates f rom t he n orthern C ape n eed f urther c onfirmation. A s econd d ifficulty e xists i n

d istinguishing

e arly

h erder

s ites

f rom t hose o f h unter-gatherers. T here i s l ittle t o d ifferentiate t he s tone t oolkits i n p re- a nd p ost-pottery a ssemblages, s keletal r emains a re b oth r are a nd u nsatisfactorily d ated i n s ome c ases, w here t he b ones o f d omesticated a nimals a re n ot p resent t here i s n othing t o d ifferentiate b etween t he h unting a nd g athering p atterns, a nd i t i s v ery d ifficult t o d ate o pen s ites w here h erders p referred t o c amp. A ll t hese f actors a ccount f or t he l ow v isibility o f h erder s ites a nd i t i s c lear t hat t he c hances o f

t racing

t he

r oute/s

t aken

b y

t he

h ypothetical f irst h erders a re e xtremely s lim . T he

h igh

m obility

o f

i ndividuals

c ommunities i n h istoric t imes r ecent

r esult

i n h erder a nd h unter-gatherer

1 972;

S chrire

1 980)

m ay

b e

a

o f d isruption b y E uropeans, b ut t he s pread o f d omestic

s tock a nd p ottery m aking w as a cculturation

( Marks

o f

i ndigenous

p eople f rom o ne p art o f t he a ccount f or t he l ack o f

u ndoubtedly

a ssisted

a s

m uch

b y

t he

h unter-gatherers a s b y t he m igration o f s ub-continent t o a nother. T his w ould d istinction b etween t he s tone t oolkits o f

h unter-gatherers a nd h erders a nd m akes o ne c autious a bout a ccepting

3 48

a

c orrelation

b etween C eramic W ilton a nd h erders a nd b etween S mithfield

a nd h unter-gatherers. O n p resent e vidence, a h ypothesis i nvolving t he f airly r apid s outhward m igration o f p eople w ith p ottery a nd s heep f rom B otswana t o t he n orthern C ape i s

t enable,

a rchaeological d ata. t he

p ossibility,

h owever,

h unter-gatherers

a lso

w hich p ottery a nd s outhern

a nd

b ut

n eeds

A cceptance o f t ook

d omestic

t o

b e

t ested

t hat

t he

a cculturation

a s

s tock

w as

s outh-western C ape.

t hat

s outhwards

o f

i ntroduced

I n t his

t o

i nstance

t he

o f

l ocal

t he

w est

c oast

f rom

e astern,

t he s ource o f h ave

t he B otswana/northern C ape h erders.

a long

n ew

r ule o ut

p lace a nd m ay h ave b een t he m echanism b y

d omestic s tock a nd p ottery-making t echniques n eed n ot s ame

a gainst

t his h ypothesis w ould n ot

n orthern

t he

b een

t he

A t hird r oute

N amibia

t o

t he

s outh-western C ape m ay h ave b een f ollowed b y a ncestors o f t he N ama.

D ATING T he

s peed

w ith

w hich p ottery w as

i ntroduced i nto s outhern A frica

h as b een d iscussed i n d etail i n C hapter 6 .

O n

p resent

a ppeared v irtually s imultaneously a t a n umber o f s ites t he

s outhernmost t ip o f A frica

s ummarizes p ottery,

s heep a nd c attle t o

b e

i n

r eliably

Z imbabwe a t 2 110 + 5 0 B .P. d ates

s helter i n

( GE)

t he

i n

a nd

( SR-185;

0 00

y ears

a go.

A frica.

B .P.

1 979)

( Humphreys

T he

t o p ottery i s C ooke

3 499-2500

C ape

T able

7 7

1 971,

e arliest

d ate

f rom Z ombepata i n

1 979).

T here

a re

t ime r ange f rom B ig E lephant

a nd f rom D ikbosch a nd

R iversmead

1 974a a nd S ampson & S ampson 1 967:18

b ut t he e xcavators c onsider t he d ates t o b e a nomalously

t hat

L eslie

B .P.

s outhern r elated

i n N amiba ( Wadley

t he

d ated c harcoal. M ary

t he

n orthern

r espectively), e arly

2

i t

t he g eographic s pread o f r adiocarbon d ates a ssociated w ith

c onsidered e arlier

a bout

e vidence,

f rom N amibia t o

p ottery

m ay n ot b e t ruly c ontemporary w ith t he

A s imilar d egree o f c aution

B rooker

( pers.

c omm.)

h as

b een

e xpressed

b y

a bout d ates b etween 2 499 a nd 2 000

f rom U niondale i n t he e astern C ape,

a nd b y o thers

f rom W armquelle

i n N amibia ( Vogel & V isser 1 981) a nd M oshebi's S helter i n L esotho ( Carter 1 978). H owever a r ecent p aper b y B eaumont & V ogel ( 1984) r eports

t he

f inding o f

a t E quus C ave, d ate

o f

1 4 c aprine t eeth d istributed t hrough s tratum l a

a h yaena d en i n t he n orthern

2 390

+

5 5 B .P.

( Pta-2452)

d ates m ay y et p rove t o b e a cceptable p ottery B .P.

i n

t he n orthern C ape.

t here a re

a ssociated

2 3

s ites w ith

w ith

3 0

p ottery a nd a t

C ape,

f or

t he

W ithin t he d ates,

a dvent

a ll

o f

' first

i tems

i s

a

A frica,

m id-level

o f

s heep

w hich

a re

t here

a nd

c learly

l east n ine w ith s heep a s w ell. t he

s outhern

a

t hese v ery e arly

f irst 5 00 y ears a fter 2 000

i s u nlikely t hat a ll t hese r epresent i n

w ith

s uggesting t hat

g ood

a ppearance c hance

o f

A s i t t hese

t hat e arlier

w ell-dated o ccurrences w ill b e f ound. S tone A ge p ottery m aking i n t hrough

t ime

a t

s ites

a s

s outhern

A frica

f ar a field a s

s ome

c hanges

t he n orthern C ape

s hows

( Sampson

1 972), E ast L ondon a nd M atjes R iver ( Rudner 1 968:598), t he W ilton n ame s ite ( J. D eacon 1 972), B oomplaas ( H.J. D eacon e t a l. 1 978) a nd D ie K elders p lttery

( Schweitzer w as

t hat p ottery w as i n

t he

a rt

d eveloping.

1 979).

I n

e ach

c ase

r elatively

t hick-walled

p receded b y t hinner a nd m ore f inely m ade w are s uggesting i nitially i ntroduced a nd t raded b y p eople e xperienced

a nd A part

w as

t hen

a dopted

f rom t he t hickness

3 49

l ocally

w ith

o f

s herds,

t he

r egional t he

s tyles e arliest

T able 7 7. R adiocarbon d ates a ssociated w ith L ater S tone A ge p ottery, s heep a nd c attle i n s outhern A frica.

N B :

+

I ncludes A ngola b ut n ot Z ambia a nd M alaw i

Z M Z M Z M Z Y* W OR W OR T IR T IR T IE* T IE* T IE T HA S S*+ S OS S G+ P OC P OC

D ate a ssociated w ith s heep r emains

O RA O RA O AK*+ N UP N P

D ate a ssociated w ith c att le r emains, o r c f. c att le

N OS N OS N BC+

K ey t o s ite n ames i s i n T ab le 7 2 ( p.458 ) S ites l isted i n i talics i nd icate t hat t he a ssociation b etween t he d ate a nd t he p ottery i s n ot c ertain

R adiocarbon y ears B .P.

W K S TF S HO P B N BC+ M IR+ M EL+ L IM L I*+ H AW+ E R E B D R D KF D K+ D K+ D K+ D K D E C OL

D IK

R M G E G E F A

Z OM W AR U NI U NI P OS

B Y B PA+ B PA+ B PA+ B EN B EN A P A P A ND

3 0003 499

2 5002 999

2 0002 499

1 5001 999

3 50

N AP M O

V P U RU T S S*+ S MT S MT S HO S EH R C M O M RS L W L IM H BC G OR G E* 4 E BO E B+ D V D KF+ D K*+ D F* D F* B EN B EL A RD A RD A RD A RD A RD A R A P 1 0001 499

M TA M TA M OS M AG L UP H UN Z Y H OA S HO H OP R C H BP P AT G T P AT G L O B G L N E F A M TA E T M O E S M RS E B+ G I D KF+ E BO D H*+ E BO D H* + D KF+ D H* 4 D IK2*+ D H*+ C R D H*+ C R C ON C ON C OL C OL B Y+ B Y+ B UR B EL A RS A US A RP A S A P A NN A P A ND+ A NN*+ 5 009 99

0 4 99

p ottery a t D ie K elders a nd B PA d oes n ot i nclude t he t ypical r einforced l ugs a nd p ointed b ases o f C ape c oastal s ites

a fter

a bout

1 600 B .P.

w are

w hich

a ppears

a t

b oth

T he w ide g eographic s pread o f t he e arly

d ates f or p ottery a nd t he a pparently l ater d evelopment o f t he d istinctive C ape c oastal w are m akes t he s uggestion ( Inskeep 1 978a:116) t hat p ottery c ould h ave b een i ndependently i nvented C ape n o l onger t enable.

i n

t he

s outhern

S UBSISTENCE A s t he h unting-gathering-fishing p art o f t he e conomy o f l ate H olocene p eople h as b een d iscussed i n t he p revious s ection t ogether w ith t he e vidence f or m id-Holocene s ubsistence, r elating t o t he h erding a spect o f t he l ate H olocene

o nly i nformation e conomy w ill b e

d ealt w ith h ere, b ut i t m ust b e r emembered t hat t his f ormed o nly a p art o f t he t otal s ubsistence p attern. E xotic d omesticated s pecies w ere i ntroduced t o t he s ub-continent w ithin t he l ast 2 5 00 y ears a nd w ere a dopted b y m any o f t he L ater S tone A ge p eople b efore t he t ime o f E uropean c ontact. C attle a nd s heep ( goats w ere p robably i ntroduced t o t he s outhern C ape s omewhat l ater, p ossibly a s l ate a s t he 1 7th c entury ( Elphick 1 977:57-8)) w ere a ccumulated a s a f orm o f w ealth h owever a nd a part f rom p roviding t heir o wners w ith m ilk a nd i ts b y-products, d id n ot u sually p rovide t he b ulk o f t heir m eat. K hoi h erders p ractised n o a griculture a lthough s ome c ontemporary r eports c laim t hat d agga ( cannabis), w hich w as u sed a s a n i mportant t rade i tem, w as c ultivated b oth i n t he w estern C ape ( Moodie 1 841:215) a nd a long t he O range R iver ( Elphick 1 977:63). T he r esult o f a r eluctance t o s laughter l ivestock m ade i t v ital f or t he h erders t o m aintain t heir h unting, g athering a nd f ishing s kills a nd t hese w ere r elied o n e ven d uring t imes o f p lenty. O ur

k nowledge

o f K hoi a nimal h usbandry a s i t w as p ractised a t t he

t ime o f E uropean c ontact i n t he 1 5th, 1 6th a nd 1 7th c enturies a t t he C ape i s l imited b y t he l ack o f d etailed c ontemporary d escriptions. T hose w e h ave m ay b e f ound i n o fficial D utch d ocuments s uch a s t he j ournal o f J an v an R iebeeck ( Moodie 1 841; T hom 1 952, 1 954, 1 958) o r i n t ravelogues s uch a s t hose o f S parrman ( 1785) a nd P aterson ( 1790). O ther s horter r eports h ave b een t ranslated a nd c ollated b y M oodie ( 1841) a nd R aven-Hart ( 1967, 1 971). M ore r ecent a ccounts o f N ama h erders i n t he n orth-western C ape a nd N amibia h ave b een p ublished b y S chultze ( 1907) a nd H oernle ( 1925). O ther s ources f requently q uoted, s uch a s T heal ( 1896), S tow ( 1905), S chapera ( 1930), M aingard ( 1931), E ngelbrecht ( 1936), E pstein ( 1937, 1 971), W ilson ( 1969) a nd E lphick ( 1977) h ave d rawn o n t he o lder l iterature, w hile K olben ( 1731) c ompiled m uch o f h is a ccount f rom h earsay b ecause h e n ever i n f act v isited t he C ape p ersonally. D etails o f i nterest t o a rchaeologists i nclude t he d aily a nd a nnual c ycle w hich w ould h ave c ontrolled m ovements, t he s ize a nd c omposition o f t he h erds, t he p roducts a ssociated w ith h erding, i tems o f m aterial c ulture t hat w ere e xclusive t o t he h erders, a nd t he s tock b reeds a nd t heir o rigins. T he K hoi w ere w ell v ersed i n m anagement t echniques a nd h ad a g reat a ffection f or a nd i ntimate k nowledge o f t he i ndividual h istories o f a ll t heir a nimals. C attle, i n p articular b reeding s tock, w ere h ighly p rized. T hey w ere t rained t o a nswer t o a w histle ( Raven-Hart 1 967:82) a nd

o xen

e nemies,

w ere

u sed

f or r iding,

a s p ack a nimals,

b oth a nimal a nd h uman, b y f orming

3 51

a

a nd i n w arding o ff

b arrier

b etween

t heir

o wners a nd t he e nemy ( Engelbrecht 1 936:114; R aven-Hart 1 971:119). R iding o xen w ere g uided b y a r awhide ' bridle',

1 967:82, t he b it

b eing a p iece o f w ood o r l eather p assed t hrough a h ole i n t he n ose c artilage ( Schapera 1 930:297). K hoi c attle w ere t he a ncestors o f t he m odern A frikander b reed, c lassified t oday a s a m ember o f t he c ervico-humped S anga g roup t hat h as e volved t hrough i nterbreeding b etween h umped z ebu a nd c attle c haracterized b y l ong o r g igantic h orns ( Epstein 1 971:556). E pstein ( op. c it.) s uggests t hey b egan t heir e volution i n E thiopia o r U ganda a fter t he i ntroduction t o e astern A frica o f h umped z ebu f rom s outh B aluchistan a nd s outhern A rabia d uring t he s econd m illennium B .C. A s tudy o f t he h aemoglobins o f A frikander c attle b y S inger & L ehman ( 1963:125) h owever i ndicates t hat t hey a re d ecisively o f A frican r ather t han A siatic o rigin. T he h ump w as n ot a lways w ell d eveloped a mongst K hoi c attle ( Kolben 1 731), b ut i t i s m entioned b y s everal o bservers o f t he 1 6th a nd 1 7th c enturies ( Raven-Hart 1 967:19, 2 0, 1 971:213) a nd E pstein ( 1937) s uggests t hat i t w ould o nly h ave d eveloped p rominently i f t he c attle w ere w ell f ed. C ontemporary o bservers e stimated t hat K hoi c attle w ere o n a verage l arger t han E uropean b reeds a nd o xen w eighed b etween 2 25 a nd 2 75 k g. T hey w ere m ostly r eddish i n c olour w ith r are y ellow-brown i ndividuals a nd r arer w hite o nes. T he N ama a re k nown t o h ave s elected t heir b reeding s tock f or p articular c olours a nd t o h ave t raded o r e xchanged a nimals i n o rder t o o btain h erds o f t he s ame c olour C attle w ere o wned b y f amilies a nd

( Schultze

1 907).

j ointly b y h usband a nd w ife, w ith

t he r esult t hat t hey w ere p assed o n t o c hildren a nd o ther r elatives w hen t he o wners d ied. A ll t he c attle b elonging t o f amilies l iving t ogether a s a r esidential u nit w ere h erded t ogether, o wners t aking

i t

i n t urns t o t end t he h erd d aily b y s ending y oung b oys a nd c hildren o ut w ith t hem ( Schapera 1 930). W ealthy f amilies w ith v ery l arge h erds w ould d ispense t heir c attle t o c lient h erdsmen ( often S an h unters) w ho w ould c are f or t hem a nd e arn c attle o f t heir o wn i n r eturn ( Schapera 1 930:296). S uch a p ractice c ould w ell c omplicate t he t ask o f t he a rchaeologist i n e stablishing w ho t he h erders w ere. A dditions t o h erds c ould b e m ade b y b reeding, r aiding o ther g roups, t rading a nd e xchange. E stimates o f t he s ize o f K hoi h erds a re d ifficult t o f ind a nd d iffered f rom r egion t o r egion, b ut o ne m ade i n N ovember 1 658 o f t he h oldings o f t he C ochoqua i n t he w estern C ape s uggested a bout 2 0 0 00 c attle a nd 1 5-16 0 00 s heep ( Elphick 1 977:118, f ootnote 3 ) t o h ave b een o wned b y 1 6-18 0 00 p eople. T he r atio o f c attle t o s heep w as a pparently h igher i n t he s outhern C ape w here g razing w as b etter t han t o t he n orth o f C ape T own ( Table 7 8). C attle g razed a round t he c amp d uring t he d ay a nd w ere b rought i n ( with t he e xception o f o xen a nd o ld c ows) t o a n e nclosure o f b ranches o r s tones s urrounded b y h uts a t n ight ( Epstein 1 937:650 f f), b ut i t i s o nly w hen s tones w ere u sed t hat t hese c amps w ould b e v isible a rchaeologically. B ulls w ere n ot s eparated f rom c ows a nd b reeding t ook p lace w hen t he c ows w ere i n g ood c ondition; a s t his w as u sually a t t he e nd o f t he r ainy s eason, t he t ime o f y ear w as d ifferent i n s ummer a nd w inter r ainfall a reas.

3 52

T able

7 8.

S ources

o f l ivestock o btained b y t he D utch s ettlers f rom

K hoi h erders a t t he C ape f rom 1 662 t o 1 713 ( after E lphick 1 977:160). K HOI G ROUP

P eninsulars

L OCATION

N UMBER O F A NIMALS O BTAINED

R ATIO O F

C attle

S heep

6 13

1 9 51

3 ,2

: 1

A djacent t o

S HEEP:CATTLE

C ape T own C ochoqua

I mmediately n orth o f C T

2 3 10

9 3 28

4 ,0

:1

M ainly

E ast o f C T

6 6 34

1 0 4 75

1 ,6

: 1

C hainouqua & H essequa

t o t he G ouritz R iver

G uriqua & N amaqua

W est c oast n orth o f

9 9

3 72

3 ,8

: 1

4 7 07

1 0 6 82

2 ,3

: 1

1 4 3 63

3 2 9 08

S aldanha U nknown, o r c ombinations o f a bove T OTAL

N ote: K hoi t o t he e ast o f C ape T own ( CT) i n t he s outhern C ape w ere m ore w illing t han o ther g roups t o p art w ith t heir s tock a t t his t ime b ut t he f igures m ay i ndicate a lso t he s uccess o f t rading v entures i n t he e astern C ape w ith X hosa a nd F ingo ( Harinck 1 969) w hose c attle p assed t hrough t he h ands o f t he K hoi a cting a s m iddle-men. T he r atio o f s heep t o c attle i s o f i nterest i n i ndicating t he d ifference b etween h erders t o t he n orth o f C ape T own a nd t hose t o t he e ast. T he f ormer h ad f ar m ore s heep t han c attle i n t he d rier r egions o f t he w estern C ape a nd N amaqualand.

C ows w ere m ilked m orning a nd e vening b y t he w omen a nd t he m ilk w as g enerally e aten w hen s our b y b oth m en a nd w omen ( men w ere n ot a llowed t o d rink e we's m ilk, h owever). T he m ilk w as s tored i n a v ariety o f c ontainers f rom l eathern s acks w ith t he h air i nside ( Raven-Hart 1 971:130, 3 50) t o f inely w oven b askets i n t he e astern C ape ( Sparrman 1 785), g ourds a nd c lay p ots. B utter w as u sed m ostly f or s mearing o n t he b ody, t ogether w ith s oot, h erbs a nd e ven d ung. T he p ractice w as t he s ubject o f m uch p ious c omment f rom E uropean o bservers w ho f ound t he s mell " unsavoury" ( Raven-Hart 1 971:395), b ut i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he p urpose o f s mearing t he b ody w as t o d emonstrate w ealth a nd p rosperity ( Elphick 1 977:60); t hose w ithout g reasy b odies w ere c onsidered t o b e p oor ( Raven-Hart 1 971:16). I t m ay, t herefore h ave s erved a s a n o utward s ign o r s tatus s ymbol f or h erders m aking i t p ossible t o i dentify t hem a s d istinct f rom h unters w ho

d id

n ot

h ave

c cess t o b utter a nd m utton f at. N either s heep n or c attle w ere s laughtered s imply f or m eat, b ut w ere k ept f or s pecial o ccasions s uch a s w eddings, f arewells, s acrifices t o

3 53

c ombat

i llness,

o r

c elebrations

o f v ictories,

a nd e ven t hen i t w as

o nly v ery o ld o r ' otherwise d amaged i ndividuals t hat w ere e aten ( Raven-Hart 1 967:101, 1 62, 1 971:113, 1 19, 3 43; W ilson 1 969:55; E lphick 1 977:38). T his d oes n ot c orrelate w ith t he a rchaeological e vidence

f or

s heep

w hich

i ndividuals w ere a lso k illed D riesch

&

D eacon,

i n

p rep.).

s laughtering a nd c utting u p o f a llowed c attle

t o

d rink t he b lood,

( Schapera

o ften h ung a bout T wo

b reeds

1 930).

i ndicates

t hat

( Klein 1 978b; M en

n umbers

S chweitzer w ere

t he c arcass

a nd

r esponsible

f or

a lthough

t hey w ere n ot a llowed

( Raven-Hart

o f s heep w ere s een a t

i mmature V on

w omen

t o e at

I ntestines w ere e aten w ith

t he b ody

o f

1 979;

d en t he w ere

t he m eat o f

r elish

a nd

w ere

1 971). t he C ape

i n h istoric t imes,

b oth

h airy r ather t han w oolly, a nd b oth w ith f at t ails. T hey a re t he l arger, l ess r angy R onderib A frikaner r epresented t oday b y s mall h erds i n t he n orth-central C ape, a nd t he N amaqua A frikaner s heep o f t he n orth-western C ape t hat i s w ell a dapted t o d rier c onditions ( Mason & M aule 1 960:101-4; E pstein 1 971:147-60). T he l ive w eight o f a dult R onderib r ams v aries k g.

T he

s heep

f at

f rom 6 0-80 k g a nd t hat o f N amaqua r ams f rom 5 0-64

t ail, w hich s ome o bservers c laimed c ould b e c ut

w hile i t w as a live a nd w ould g row a gain,

a t b etween 4 a nd 1 4 k g i n w eight E pstein

1 971).

T he

o wned b y a ll C ape K hoi e xcept t hose

( Raven-Hart

a ncestral

s tock

o f

f rom

1 967-35,

1 971:166,

t he R onderib w as

t he N ama w ho k ept N amaqua

k ept b y t he I ron A ge B antu-speakers o f

t he

i s v ariously e stimated 3 43;

t he b reed

s heep,

w hile

s outhern A frica h ad m ore

i n c ommon w ith t he N amaqua b reed t han w ith t he R onderib ( Epstein 1 971:156). T he t hin-tailed s heep k ept b y t he B antu-speaking p eople o ccur

i n Z ambia a nd a long t he e ast c oast o f A frica t oday f rom K enya t o

M ozambique, r elatives

S waziland a nd Z ululand,

t oday o nly i n t he

s uggesting

t hat

a t

l east

H istoric

i nformation f rom

A frica

t imes d uring t he l ast

o n

t hat

m anagement

o n

c attle

o f

h erds.

l imited t o s pecial o ccasions a nd c eremonies. f or

c loaks

c loaks

a nd

f rom t ime

h arboured

n umerous

w ard

o ff

v isitors t o

t o t ime a nd e aten

f ound s train

p redators.

( Raven-Hart

h ave

T hey

1 967:3,

1 8,

2 0 00 y ears. f locks

b lood

w ere

1 971:509). t he h erds a nd f locks a nd

b ut

t he K hoi d o

( 1731)

d escribes

n ot

( Epstein 1 937:654).

1 971:49-50).

K olben

0 ,45 m w ith a n a sh-grey c oat,

t hose

p ossibly

a t

t he

C ape

a s mall h ead,

s eem

K hoi d ogs

s outh f rom E ast A frica

h igher

t han

f avoured

o bserved b y t he f irst E uropean

1 971:119),

c arried

s eldom

T he h ides w ere

t oday i n N amibia a re o f A frican p ariah s tock, g reyhound

i s

S laughtering w as a gain

( Raven-Hart

v alued t heir d ogs v ery h ighly o f

1 971:157)

l ice w hich w ere s haken f rom t he

D ogs w ere k ept t o h elp w ith r ounding u p o f t o

( Epstein

t hree d ifferent b reeds w ere i ntroduced t o

s outhern A frica a t d ifferent

d ifferentiated

b ut f at-tailed R onderib h ave c lose

s heep o f E ast

a s

w ith

a

( Epstein s eldom

s harp m uzzle

a nd e rect p ointed e ars. D ogs o bserved w ith K hoi i n t he n orth-central C ape s till h ad t he c haracterigric r ids = j, o f h air a long t heir b acks t urned f orward, R hodesian s ame

a s i s p resent

r idgeback

s ub-species,

( Epstein C anis

i n t heir h ybrid m odern d escendants, 1 971).

f amiliaris

A ll

t he

t hese b reeds b elong t o t he

p alustris,

f ound

t hroughout

s outhern A frica a nd c losely r elated t o e astern A frican d omestic d ogs.

3 54

T able 7 9. A pproximate a reas o f " territories" o ccupied b y K hoi g roups v isited b y t he D utch c . 1 700 A .D. C alculated f rom a m ap c ompiled b y L e R oux ( 1945)

K HOI G ROUP

f rom h istoric r ecords.

( from n orth-west

t o s outh-east)

A REA I N S Q K M

K lein N amaqua G uriqua

4 7 1 24 2 1 4 32

C ochoqua

9 4 11

P eninsulars

3 0 19

C hainouqua

1 2 2 42

H essequa G uriqua

6 5 74 4 0 25

A ttaqua O uteniqua

6 7 08 4 5 28

G amtours I nqua

3 6 89

( largely i nland o f

t he C ape F old M ts)

1 4 5 90

D amaqua

4 8 64

D amasonqua

6 5 40

H oengeyqua

7 3 78

G onaqua

1 1 4 04

N ote:

G roups

w estern C ape

i nhabiting

d rier

( Klein N amaqua,

a reas

s uch

a s N amaqualand a nd t he

G uriqua, C ochoqua) o ccupied a f ar

l arger

a rea t han t hose i n t he s outhern C ape w here r ainfall i s h igher. T he t erritories o f t he I nqua a nd G onaqua i ncluded p arts o f t he K aroo i n t he v icinity o f A berdeen a nd Q ueenstown r espectively.

H istoric o ften v ague

e vidence f or s easonal t ranshumance amongst h erders i s a nd m ay b e ambiguous i n t hat s ome K hoi m ovements m ay h ave

c hanged w ith t he a ttraction o f t he t rading p ost a t C ape T own. N evertheless, i t i s c lear t hat a r egular g razing r egime w as f ollowed, e ven a t

i f a

t he D utch c ould n ot p redict p recisely w here t he K hoi w ould b e

p articular

t ime

( Avery

1 976;

E lphick

1 977:58).

I n

t he

n orth-western C ape t he a vailability o f s tanding w ater f or s tock w as a c ritical f actor a nd l ed t o g roups c ongregating a round r eliable w ater h oles

d uring

t he

r anges o f K hoi

d ry

s eason

( Le

R oux 1 945).

" tribes" a t t he C ape a re a gain

D ata o n t erritorial

d ifficult

f rom t he b rief h istoric r ecords, b ut M aingard ( 1945) h ave a ttempted t o d elineate t he g eographic t hese

p eople

g roups

( i.e.

s ame

a t

a bout

A D

1 700.

w ere

e stimate

S ixteen a pparently d istinct K hoi

w ith a llegiance t o a l eader a nd p resumably

d ialect)

t o

( 1931) a nd L e R oux d istributions o f s peaking

t he

n oted b etween t he c oast a nd t he i nland m argin o f

t he C ape F old M ountains. L e R oux ( 1945) h as p lotted t he l ocation o f k raals v isited b y E uropeans a nd h is m ap a llows a r ough c alculation o f t he

t erritorial r ange o f e ach g roup t o b e e stimated

c an

b e

h ad

t he

w here

s een

t hat

t he K lein N amaqua,

l argest a rea o f o ver 4 7 t he

G amtours a t

r ainfall a bout

i s 3

6 00

w ho o ccupied

1 00 s q km,

s q

km.

A lthough

t erritorial

s eem s ize

t hat a mongst

I t C ape

t hat o f t he

d etails

f aulty d ue t o

b oth t he h istoric r ecords a nd o ur i nterpretations o f n evertheless

s outhern

t erritory i s t he

7 9.

t he d riest r egion,

w hile i n t he

h igher t he s mallest

d i _stribution a nd t erritorial s ize m ay b e

i n T able

o f

t his

t he v agaries o f t hem,

i t

w ould

t here i s a r elationship b etween r ainfall a nd h erders

3 55

a t

l east.

A rchaeologically,

t herefore, w e w ould e xpect g reater l ateral v ariability a long t he s outhern C ape c oast t han i n t he n orth-western C ape. A rchaeological e vidence f or h erding i s l imited t o d omesticated a nimals a mongst t he f aunal r emains a ccumulations o f d ung a nd n o

e vidence

1 972a; o f

o f

K elders 1 974,

1 978).

r emains

i n t he

s o

T he

f ar

l argest a nd b est

e xcavated

s outh-western C ape

1 979) w here 7 8% o f

t he s ample

t hat

t hey

w ere

o pportunistic h unters.

c ulled

A t B PA,

p reserved

( 34 i ndividuals)

o f

f rom

w hich

w ith

( Humphreys a ssemblage

c omes

1 973;

t hat c ould b e a ged

m ost

k raals

f armers

( Schweitzer & S cott

b y s exually i mmature i ndividuals, s uggests

s tone w alled

t heir h aving b een u sed b y I ron A ge

C arr e t a l.

s heep

t he o ccurrence o f

t he r emains o f ( Tables 7 5, 7 7),

f rom D ie

S chweitzer

i s r epresented

w ere

m ales.

T his

f locks r ather t han r aided b y

w here b urnt s heep d ung i n t he f loor o f

t he c ave i ndicates t hat t he s ite w as u sed a s a k raal, y ounger s heep a re u nder-represented w ith o nly 3 3% o f t he s ample b eing s exually i mmature

( Klein

1 978b).

K lein

h owever

i ndividuals a re u nder-represented b ecause b urning

d eposit

b elieves

h igh

t hat

t emperatures

y ounger i n

t he

h ave d estroyed t heir t eeth a nd s maller b ones a nd t he

a ge d istribution o f

t he s ample i s

t herefore b iased i n f avour o f m ature

i ndividuals. T his a ssumption h as b een p roved c orrect i n a m ore r ecent a nalysis o f t he B PA s heep b ones b y V on d en D riesch & D eacon ( in p rep.) w ho

h ave

s hown t hat w hen p ost-cranial m aterial i s

o ver 6 0% o f

t he s heep a re s exually i mmature.

t aken i nto a ccount

A t a ll o ther s ites w here

s heep h ave b een i dentified ( NBC, D ikbosch, B ig E lephant S helter, E quus C ave a nd ? Aar 1 ), t he f requencies a re t oo l ow f or a ge g roup s tatistics t o b e r elevant. T he p reservation o f q uantities o f s heep d ung a t M irabib

( Sandelowsky 1 977)

a nd B PA s hows

t hat

r ock s helters w ere

u sed

a s k raals a nd t hat t he c ultural m aterial a ssociated c an b e f irmly l inked t o h erders r ather t han h unters o r I ron Age f armers. T he u nburnt d ung a lthough t he ( Sandelowsky

a t M irabib i ncluded h airs i dentified a s t hose o f s heep, b reed c ould n ot b e a scertained w ith c ertainty e t a l.

1 979:50).

T he f act

t hat

i t w as h air a nd n ot w ool

h owever s uggests t hat t hey w ere N amaqua s heep. A nalysis o f t he d ung s howed t hat t he s heep h ad o btained m ost o f t heir f ood f rom b rowsing r ather t han f rom g rass a t M irabib. T he i ncidence o f b ones t aurus,

t hat

c an b e s ecurely a ssigned t o c attle,

i s v ery l ow ( Table 7 5).

S triped G iraffe s helter i n N amibia w hich

m ay

c onfirm

t he

( Plug 1 979;

h istoric

r ecord

r elatively l ate i nto s outhern A frica. d omesticated

d og

i s

r ecorded

a ssociated w ith a s hell 1 978:183).

T he

a t

m idden

a bsence

o f

B os

G oats a ppear l ate i n t he s equence a t

T he C ape

w ith

V ogel

t hat

&

u ndoubted S t

1 981)

p resence

F rancis

p ottery

V isser

t hey w ere i ntroduced w here

( Chappel

o f i t

1 968;

a w as

V oigt

d og b ones a t p re-pottery s ites s uggests

t hat t hey m ay a lso h ave b een d omesticated a nimals a nd p ottery,

i ntroduced t ogether w ith o ther p articularly b ecause d ogs w ere u sed

t o h elp c ontrol f locks a nd h erds. T he a rchaeological r ecord m ay b e u nreliable h ere h owever b ecause i t i s d ifficult t o i dentify d omestic d og w ithout c ertain k ey a natomical p arts a nd m ay

n ot

h ave

f ound

i n a ny e vent

t heir w ay r egularly i nto

t heir

b ones

t he f ood w aste a t h ome

b ases. S tone-walled k raals w ithout I ron A ge a ffinities a re n )rthern

C ape

( Sampson,

O range F ree S tate o ccasional f inds

p ers.

c omm.),

k nown

i n

t he

a long t he R iet R iver i n t he

( Humphreys & M aggs 1 970; H umphreys 1 972a) a nd, w ith o f i ron, i n N amibia ( Carr e t a l. 1 978). T o d ate n o

f irm c orrelations h ave b een d rawn b etween t hem

3 56

a nd

t heir

a ssociated

p ottery

a nd

a rtefacts,

w alling t echniques

b ut

v icinity a nd d ate w ithin t he A ll

o ccurrences

o f

a nd

d o i ndicate

l ast

h ave

s outhern

t aken

p aintings o f t hat

t hey

c ome

C ape.

t he

f rom

D ata

t hat

s heep i n Z imbabwe f rom t hat

c attle

t he K hoi

e arliest

w ere t here.

i s d ifferent a nd

b y

t he

T he

N amibia

f rom

p attern v iew

e stablishment

1 977:236-7)

w as

t est a re

B otswana,

h ypotheses

t he

o f

t he R ock

e vidence

S outh

A frica

f rom

d omestic

t hat

o f

t he

I ron

s ets

A ge

a nd

s tock f iltered s outhwards a f ew

t he I ron A ge f armers. i dentity a nd e conomy w ithin 1 00

l argely d ue

t o

t he f act

t hat

y ears

t he C ape i n 1 652

a fter

( Elphick

t hey h ad l ivestock

w hich

a nd p assing s hips w anted f or c onsumption a nd n ot f or D espite t he f act t hat t hey v alued t heir c attle a nd t he K hoi w ere w illing,

b eads a nd t obacco

y ears o f o ccupation a t n eeds

( probably

i nitially a t l east,

a n

( Harinck 1 969).

t he C ape,

o f

w hat

t heir

l ivestock

t hey a ctually u sed)

s heep

m ajority

f rom t he K hoi a nd k illed f or m eat.

w hich w ere t raded

( Elphick

n ails,

O ver t he f irst s even

t he D utch e stimated

u nder-estimate

t o t rade

f or i ron b ars,

a round 4 6 00 c attle a nd 1 8 6 00 o f

1 977:153),

t he

l ocal s upplies d windled a nd K hoi b ecame l ess a nd l ess w illing t o t heir

a nimals,

g roups

f urther a field

i n t his w ay. f or l and, amongst

K hoi

e ntrepreneurs ( Table 7 8)

o btained

Khoi,

s heep

a nd c attle

a nd f urther l arge n umbers

T he c ombined e ffect o f

p lus r elated s ocial t he

s o

n orthern,

t antalizing

t hem f or v ery l ow p rices b y E uropean s tandards, c opper,

t he

t he b reed o f s heep k ept b y K hoi

o f a D utch s ettlement a t

s heep v ery h ighly, b rass,

s tone

i n

i nto s outhern A frica.

1 969)

t hat

a part

t hat

T he b reakdown o f K hoi

t he c olonists b reeding s tock.

( Cooke

f act

t he

Z imbabwe,

t o

h erders

a nd

f ound amongst I ron A ge p eople i n

h undred y ears a head o f t he

p eople

a nd s heep w ere m ilked b y w omen a nd n ot b y m en,

h erding

e ncourages

A ge

4 00 y ears.

T ransvaal a nd N atal a re u rgently n eeded r outes

t he a doption o f

d omestic s tock a ssociated w ith t he L SA a nd

f ar d escribed i n p rint w estern

t hey

t hat w ere c ommon a mongst I ron

w ere

a t

v ast A s s ell f rom l ost

t his p ractice a nd t he c ompetition

f actors

s uch

a s

i nter-tribal

t he d eath o f s everal p owerful l eaders,

c lashes

t he r avages

o f E uropean d iseases a nd d epredations b y h unters a nd d ispossessed K hoi, t he l oss o f s tatus a nd w ealth m ade i t n ecessary f or K hoi t o j oin t he D utch i n m uch t he s ame c lient r elationship a s h ad o ccurred e arlier b etween

t he

Khoi

a nd

S an.

l abourers

i n t owns a nd u nless

E uropean

f armers,

t heir

T he t hey

s ocial

d own a ltogether. T he d etailed d escribed b y E lphick ( 1977) a nd t he m ain r eason w hy w e h ave s o a nd m aterial c ulture o f

a cted a s h erdsmen o n f arms a nd a s l ived

i n

a reas

i nhospitable

t o

o rder a nd s ubsistence e conomy b roke

c auses o f t his p rocess h ave b een t he r apidity w ith w hich i t o ccurred i s l ittle e thnographic d ata o n t he e conomy

t he C ape K hoi h erders.

3 57

8

D ISCUSS ION AND CONCLUS IONS

DI S C U S S I O N

AN D

CO N C L U S I O N S

T he d ata d escribed i n t he p receding c hapters h ave b een a nalysed t o h ighlight c hanges t hrough t ime i n t he L SA o f s outhernmost A frica a nd t wo m ain c ategories o f c hange h ave b een i ndentified. T hese a re i nnovative c hanges i n w hich n ew i tems a ppear i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o r i n w hich k nown i tems c hange t heir g uise, a nd p ost-innovative c hanges i n w hich t here a re s hifts i n t he f requency, s ize a nd s hape o f a rtefacts a nd t he b y-products o f t ool m anufacture a nd i n c hanges i n t he r elative p roportions o f r aw m aterials u sed i n t ool m anufacture. T he p attern o f i nnovative c hanges c losely f ollows t hat i dentified i n m odels o f m odern t echnological e volution a nd i ndicates t hat s outhern A frica w as o n t he r eceiving e nd o f m any o f t he t echnological a dvances k nown t hroughout t he O ld W orld f rom t he L ast G lacial M aximum t hrough t he H olocene. W hile p ottery a nd d omesticated s tock w ere a dopted v ery r apidly a nd s eem t o h ave b een s pread b y m igrant p eople, o ther i nnovations s uch a s t he s mall h afted t ool t radition o f t he H olocene s pread s omewhat s lower, p robably a s t he r esult o f t he g radual b orrowing o f i deas a nd t echniques. S ubsequent t o t heir i nitial a ppearance, m ost o f t he i nnovations a s w ell a s o ther a rtefact c lasses n ot n ew t o t he s ystem w ere m odified a nd u nderwent c hanges w hich c an b est b e d escribed a s s ecular o r c yclic a nd w hich, i n t heir d iachronic p atterning, c losely a pproximate t o c hanges n oted i n f ashion i n m odern t imes. T hese c hanges a ppear t o b e n on-functional i n t he s ense t hat p articular a rtefact c lasses a nd s ub-classes d o n ot c orrelate w ith p articular c limatic r egimes o r f aunal r emains. T he s outhern C ape d ata i ndicate t hat t he t iming o f t he c yclic f ashion c hanges i n s tone a rtefact m anufacture i s i ndependent o f t echnological e volution a nd i nnovation, a pparently b ecause c hanges a t e ach l evel a re s timulated b y d ifferent c ues. T he f ormer s eem t o b e f ar m ore s usceptible t o r egional c hanges i n e nvironment t han t he l atter a nd p robably r eflect s ocial a nd d emographic a djustments, w hile i nnovations m ark s tages i n t he e volution o f t echnological s ystems w hich h ave a m omentum o f t heir o wn. I t i s w hen t hese c hanges c oincide a t p articular p oints i n t ime t hat w e c onsider a m ajor t echnological s hift t o h ave t aken p lace. A ny t erminological s cheme n eeds t o t ake t he d ifferences b etween i nnovative a nd p ost-innovative c hanges i nto a ccount b y p lacing t hem a t d ifferent l evels i n t he h ierarchy o f c hanges, w hile e xplanations f or p rocesses o f c hange n eed t o s pecify w hich s cale o f t echnological c hange i s i nvolved. W hile t he m echanisms a nd u nderlying r easons f or b iological e volution m ay n ot b e d irectly a pplicable t o c hange i n a rtefact s ystems, t he d ebate a bout t he i mportance o f d ifferentiating b etween m icro- a nd m acro-evolution i n p lants a nd a nimals i s c ertainly r elevant t o a rchaeology b ecause b oth d isciplines a re u nique i n d ealing w ith l ong-term c hanges t hrough t ime.

T he t hree m ain t alking p oints a mongst

p alaeontologists a nd g eneticists

i n r ecent y ears h ave c entred

o n

( 1)

t he i dentification o f a n o bserved c hange a s m icroo r m acro-evolutionary ; ( 2) t he q uestion w hether t hey o ccur g radually o r a s p unctuated e quilibria; a nd ( 3) w hether m acro-evolutionary c hanges

3 60

a re m erely a n e xtension o f m icro-evolutionary o nes, o r w hether s hould b e t reated a s t otally d ifferent p henomena ( Ridley 1 980; S mith 1 981; S tebbins & A yala 1 981). I n t he

l ight o f t hese q uestions,

t he

d ata

a nalysed

h ere

t hey J .M.

s uggest

t hat ( 1) b oth m acro- a nd m icro-evolutionary t rends c an b e d iscerned i n t he s tone a rtefact r ecord, t he f ormer i ncorporating i nnovative c hanges a nd

t he

l atter

t he

s tylistic

m ode;

m icro-evolution w ithin t he L SA i n t here

i s

e vidence

f or

t he

p unctuated

( 2)

r elatively r apid c hanges o ccurring a t

a gain a t

c .

w ith t he m ajority, s pread s cale;

b eing c .

a s

i s

f ar

t he

1 2

a s

c oncerned, d ominant

0 00

B .P.

a nd

t he m acro-evolutionary t rends a re m ore g radual

b ut b y n o

m eans

a ll,

o f

t he

i nnovations

b eing

b y b orrowing r ather t han b y p opulation m igrations o n a l arge a nd ( 3) m acro-evolutionary c hanges a ppear t o b e q uite

i ndependent r epresent

o f

m icro-evolutionary

o nes

t he c umulative e ffects o f

t he

i n

l aws"

f rom

o ther

t hat

t he f ormer d o n ot

l atter.

A rchaeologists a re w ell k nown f or t heir g eneral

p ropensity

d isciplines

a nd

o f

f or

t hese

b iological e volution h ave g iven t heir f air s hare. t rends

i n

C ape

e quilibria

p attern,

8 000 B .P.;

t hat

s outhern

b orrowing e cology a nd

I n a ddition t o

t he

i n m odern t echnological e volution o utlined i n C hapter 6 a nd t he

s imilarities

b etween

t he

s cales

o f

c hange

i n

b iological

a nd

t echnological e volution o utlined a bove, s everal r ecently p ublished p apers ( for e xample, B ray 1 973; T homas 1 974; D urham 1 976; D unnell 1 978,

1 980;

D iener e t a l.

1 980;

T rigger 1 981)

h ave s uggested t hat

t he

c oncept o f e volution h as m uch t o o ffer t he s tudy o f c ultural c hange i n d eveloping

a

t heory

a pplicability i n b iological ( Dunnell

o f

c ultural e volution t hat w ill h ave u niversal

m uch

t he

s ame

w ay

e volution,

b ut

t hey

h ave s topped s hort o f p roviding o ne

1 980:89).

O ne o f

t he m ain

a s

d id

D arwin's

s tumbling

b locks

t heory

h as

f or

b een

t he

i dentification o f c ultural t raits o r f eatures t hat c an b e e quated w ith b iological p rocesses. T his l eads t o d iscussion o f w hether i ndustries=species

o r

i nvention=mutation,

c ultural a nalogue f or g enes.

o r

w hether

S ome o f t hese p roblems m ay

t here b e

i s

a

r esolved

i f i t w ere a ccepted t hat c ultural a nd t echnological e volution p robably o wes m ore

t o L amarck t han t o D arwin b ecause

a cquired

c haracteristics

a re i ndeed p assed o n f rom o ne g eneration t o

t he n ext.

T ransmission o f

c haracteristics a side, m ost a rchaeologists b elieve i mplicitly e xplicitly t hat

n atural s election; t oolmaker

a nd

i t

t he

i s

t he

s election o f

c riticized b y B urnham ( 1973:94,

i s n o v alidity i n t he a bstract n otion o f t he

m aterial

a nalyses T his

available,

s omewhat d isillusioned

a ssemblages

f inding o ut

i n

r egards

s tone

" maximum

t echnology

a daptation"

a ttempts

v iew i s u seful,

t ool

w ho b elieves t hat t here

a s

s cience-fiction.

h owever,

t he n ature o f a ncestral

g iven

t o a pply f unctional i n s tressing t he

t raditions

s o

t hat

c an b e p laced i n t heir h istoric c ontext b efore f unctional

a nalyses a re a pplied. n oted

a nd

9 9)

" adaptations".

i n t he f ramework o f h omeostatic s ystems

i mportance o f

t o t he

t ask i n h and f rom t he r ange o f o ptions a vailable.

T he c oncept o f a daptation i n t he c ontext o f b een

n ot

t he t ool b est s uited t o

R egional v ariations o f t his c hoice a re s een a s

h as

i f

t here i s a c ultural/technological p rocess a nalogous

t he

T he c omplexity o f

b iological

f ield

t he c oncept o f a daptation

i s

b y G ould & L ewontin ( 1979:584),

f or

e xample, w ho s uggest t hat s ome c haracteristics a re a n a daptation o nly a s s econdary e piphenomena r esulting i n t he u se o f t hem s olely b ecause t hey h appen t o b e t here a nd

t hus

r epresenting

3 61

a

" fruitful

u se

o f

a vailable

p arts, n ot a c ause o f t he e ntire s ystem."

T his r ealization

o f t he c omplexity o f t he i nterrelationship b etween v ariables

h as

l ed

a lso t o a g reater a ppreciation o f t he d ifficulties i nvolved i n t he u nravelling o f c ause-and-effect i n t he a rchaeological r ecord i n b oth t he c ultural ( Service 1 971:25-6) a nd b iological ( Leach 1 981) s pheres w hich d emonstrate t hat t he p rime m over c oncept i s i nadequate a nd t hat s imple c ause-and-effect m odels a re o ften a bsurdly s implistic. R appaport

( 1977:68) e xpresses

T he

c ircularity

o f

t he p roblem t hus:

b oth

c ybernetic

a nd

e co-systemic

s tructure b lurs t he d istinction b etween c ause a nd e ffect .. ( and) s imple l inear n otions o f c ausality .. a re i nadequate f or p urposeful b ehaviour s eldom a ffects o nly a s ingle o bject. A nd G rasse t hat:

( 1977:243) o bserves

i n

r elation

t o

b iological

e volution

e volution i s q uite u nlike t he s implified, s caled-down a nd t otally i naccurate p icture o f i t r epresented i n t heories. I t i s s o v ast a s t o m ake o ne s top a nd c onsider t hat i ts p roblems a re v ery f ar b eyond t he m eans o f p resent-day s cience. I nterpretations a nd e xplanations c an o nly b e p artial a nd t entative. 0

4

0

D isenchantment w ith t he s implistic d eductive s trategy e mployed b y t he f irst c rop o f N ew A rchaeologists i n t he 1 960s a nd 1 970s h as b een g rowing ( Binford 1 977, 1 981; D umond 1 977; S almon 1 978) a nd B inford, i n p articular, h as s tressed t he n eed f or " middle r ange t heory" t o r eplace a ssumptions t hat w ere i nitially u sed a s h ypotheses. H is o bservations o n

t he

l ifestyle

o f t he N unamiut E skimo

( Binford

1 978) h ave s hown a

w ealth o f d etail t hat h as p articular r elevance t o t he i nterpretation o f s patial p atterning a nd t he a ssociation o f a rtefacts a nd f ood r emains i n N orth America, b ut m ay b e l ess a pplicable t o A frican c ontexts t han B inford w ould l ike t o b elieve ( see B inford & T odd 1 982; S hipman e t a l. 1 982). C oupled w ith t he f act t hat a ll e thnographic o bservations a re s hort-term o nes, w e a re s till l eft w ith a d earth o f m iddle r ange t heory l ong-term c hange i n

f rom w hich w e c an d erive h ypotheses a bout t he s tone a rtefact r ecord. F or t his r eason t he

s trategy a dopted h ere h as b een a c orrelations h ave b een a voided

m odest o ne i n w hich u nrealistic a nd o nly t he g eneral e volutionary

t rends h ave b een f ollowed. I h ave s uggested t hat t he i nterpretation o f t hese l ong-term c hanges i s m ost a ppropriately c ompared w ith l ong-term c hanges i n m odern t echnology t o i dentify " universal" t rends a s d istinct f rom " local" o nes. A lthough s tylistic c hange h as r eceived o nly c ursory e xamination t o d ate ( but s ee R ichardson & K roeber 1 947; D . L . C larke 1 968), t he g eneral p rinciples a nd p atterns o bserved s eem n evertheless

t o b e a pplicable t o s tone t ool s equences.

C omparisons b etween t he s outhern C ape L SA s equence a nd t hat f rom t he r est o f s outhern A frica ( Chapter 7 ) h ave s hown t hat m any o f t he b road t rends i dentified a t a r egional l evel c an b e s een i n s equences e lsewhere i n t he s ub-continent a nd i t r emains t o e stablish a h ierarchy o f c hanges t hrough t ime t o c onstruct a f ramework a gainst w hich t o v iew t echnological v ariability

c hange i s

a nd

t o

s ite-specific,

e stablish t he e xtent r egionally

3 62

t o w hich o bserved

s pecific,

s pecific

t o

s outhern

A frica

o r

v irtually

u niversal.

D ifferent

l evels

o f

t echnological d evelopment n eed e xplication w ith d ifferent m odels a nd t heories o f e volution, h owever, a nd t he f undamental d ifferences b etween t he e volutionary, f unctional-ecological a nd s tylistic e lements o f t echnology n eed t o b e a ppreciated. O ne t heory w ill n ot b e s uitable f or t he e xplication o f a ll v ariability a nd,

b y

e xtension,

d ifferent

m ethodologies w ill b e r equired f or t he s tudy o f e ach. T his i s t he c ase i n a ll d isciplines, f or e ven w hen s ystems a nd t heir s ub-systems a re p recisely c haracterized, t he s ame p rinciples d o n ot g overn a ll. T rying t o i nfer p roperties o f t he s ystem f rom k nown p roperties o f a s ub-system i s r isky e ven i n a s ubject l ike p hysics o r c hemistry i n w hich t he v agaries o f h uman n ature a nd i ts p ropensity f or d eception a re n ot i nvolved ( Salmon 1 978:180; L each 1 981; S tebbins & A yala 1 981:970). I t i s f or t his r eason t hat t he t heme f ollowed i n t his b ook h as b een l imited d eliberately t o t he s tudy o f d iachronic c hange a nd d oes n ot i nvestigate f unctional c hanges o r s patial d istributions w hich w ould n eed d ifferent m ethodologies a nd h ypotheses. I t i s n evertheless u seful t o p lace t hese d iachronic o bservations w ithin t he p erspective o f a c ulture-stratigraphic h ierarchy. A t t he l owest h ierarchical l evel a re p enecontemporaneous a ssemblages i n w hich v ariability i n t he r elative f requency o f t ools m ay b e i nterpreted a s v ariations i n a ctivity b ecause t he f unctions o f t he t ools

m ay

b e

h eld

c onstant.

T erminologically

t hese

c an

b e

r eferred t o a s l ocal a ctivity v ariants. A t t he n ext l evel a re a ssemblages t hat a re r egional v ariants o r w hat h ave b ecome k nown a s I ndustries ( Clark e t a l. 1 966; S ampson 1 974). R egional v ariants c ome c losest t o w hat m ay b e c onsidered a s a daptations t o l ocal c onditions i n t hat t he r ange o f t ools i s t he r esult o f a s eries o f h istorical p rocesses o r a ccidents o f d iffusion a nd i nvention t hat h ave i n t urn b een m odified t o t he r aw m aterials a vailable a nd t o t he r ange o f a ctivities a nd s ubsistence s trategies d ictated b y t he r egional h abitat. W hen s een a s t ime u nits t hey r epresent a s omewhat a rbitrary d ivision o f t he c ontinuum o f c hange, b ut o nly i n t hat s ome v ariables a re c onsidered m ore i mportant t han o thers a nd a re t herefore s elected a s " indicators". G enerally s peaking h owever t he a rtefact a ssemblages w ithin a n i ndustry a re m ore s imilar t o e ach o ther t han t hey a re t o a ssemblages p receding a nd s ucceeding t hem i n s tratigraphic s equences. T he t emporal o r d iachronic r ecord i s v ital, f or w here l ong-sequence w ell-dated s ites a re n ot k nown i n a r egion, i t m ay n ot b e p ossible t o d efine i ndustries a dequately o n t he b asis o f a f ew o bservations s cattered i n t ime a nd s pace. T he c haracteristics o f a n i ndustry c an b e a ppreciated o nly w hen s een i n t he c ontext o f t he s equence o f w hich i t i s a p art.

m ay

A n umber o f p enecontemporaneous i ndustries i n d ifferent b e g rouped w ithin a n I ndustrial C omplex ( Clark e t a l.

m ore s imply, a C omplex g eographically w idespread

( Sampson t radition

e cozones 1 966) o r,

1 974) w hich r epresents a o f a rtefact m anufacture, t he

t emporal b oundaries o f w hich a re d efined r egionally b y i ts c omponent i ndustries. W e w ould n ot e xpect t o b e a ble t o d efine t he b oundaries o f a C omplex w ith d ata f rom o nly o ne r egion o r e cozone. T he n ext l evel i n t he h ierarchy c oncept o f t he E arlier, M iddle e ssentially C omplexes

a i n

t emporal m uch

d ivision

i s t he S tage e mbodied a nd L ater S tone A ges. w hich

i ncorporates

a

i n t he I t i s

s eries

o f

t he s ame w ay a s a f amily i ncorporates a n umber o f

3 63

g enerations.

F or t his r eason,

i t i s

m ore

d ifficult

t o

d efine

t he

b oundaries b etween s tages b ecause t he i nnovations c hosen b y a rchaeologists f or t his p urpose d id n ot h ave t he s ame s ignificance f or t he t oolmakers a nd d o n ot a lways a ppear s imultaneously. T his h ierarchical c lassification i s i n e ffect a n a lternating s eries o f t emporal a nd s patial g roupings, t he f ormer m arked b y i nnovations a nd p ost-innovative c hanges, a nd t he l atter b y m aximizing a daptations a t d ifferent l evels o f e cological s ignificance f rom t he e cozone t hrough t o l ocal a ctivity v ariants. B ut d oes t he s ubdivision o f t he S tone A ge i nto t hese v arious i ndustries, c omplexes a nd s tages i mply p unctuated c ontinuum? t hat t he

e quilibria o r m erely t he a rbitrary C an w e c laim , a s b iologists h ave d one f eatures u sed t o d istinguish L SA,

s ubdivision o f a w ith t heir d ata, M SA a nd E SA a re

m acro-evolutionary a nd c annot b e e xplained a s a m ere e xtension o f t he m icro-evolutionary c hanges b etween i ndustries a nd c omplexes? T hese q uestions a re i mportant i n e valuating c ulture-stratigraphic c lassification s cheme r easons

t he u tility o f a a nd i n i nterpreting t he

f or s tasis a nd c hange.

D ata f rom N BC a nd B PA h ave s hown t hat t here w ere p eriods d uring t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears w hen c hange w as m ore r apid t han a t o ther t imes, b ut t hey a lso s how t hat c hange i n s ome p arts o f t he t echnological s ystem w as c ontinuous, w hile o ther v ariables r emained r elatively s table. A part f rom s ite-specific i diosyncratic c hanges i n t he r elative f requencies o f a rtefact c lasses w hich m ay b e e xplained a s a ctivity v ariation, t he l owest o rder o f c hange i s t hat i dentified a s p ost-innovative w hich m ay b e l ikened t o m icro-evolutionary c hange i n b iological s ystems. I n s tone t ool t echnologies, m icro-evolution s hows p rogressive c hange i n t he l ong t erm ( as, f or e xample, i n t he t rend t owards m iniaturization), b ut t he s horter t erm o scillations a round a g radually c hanging m ean m ay s ometimes r esult i n t he l ong-term t rend b eing r eversed i n a lternate c ycles. A n e xample h ere i s t he i ncrease i n u ntrimmed f lake a nd s craper l engths b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 8 0 00 B .P. i n t he s outhern C ape. I n t his s ense, t hen, t hese m icro-evolutionary t rends a re n on-cumulative i n t hat t he s mall s ize o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd f ormal t ools i n t he m id-Holocene i s n ot t he f inal s tage i n a l ong s equence o f p rogressively s maller t ools b ecause r eversals a re k nown t o h ave o ccurred f rom t ime t o t ime. A s imilar p attern o f o scillatory c hanges c an b e s een i n r aw m aterial f requencies a nd, a t a d ifferent t ime s cale, i n t he r elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed f lakes. M acro-evolutionary c hanges, o n t he o ther h and, m ark t he a ppearance o f s uccessive g enerations o f i nnovations i n t he f orm o f n ew t oolmaking t echniques, n ew t ool d esigns o r t he u se o f o ld d esigns i n n ew c ombinations t o i mprove p erformance. M acro-evolutionary i nnovations, w hich a re b orrowed f rom o utside t he r egional s ystem, a re s uperimposed u pon a n e stablished a rtefact t radition t hat i s i tself u ndergoing c hanges w ithin t he a rtefact s ystem , b ut a t a m icro-evolutionary l evel a nd p ace. F or t his r eason w e c an s ubscribe t o t he c onclusion d rawn f rom b iological d ata t hat m acro-evolutionary p atterns c annot b e d educed f rom m icro-evolutionary p rinciples ( Stebbins & A yala 1 981:967).

W hat

t he

o bserved

L SA

p atterns

s uggest

m icro-evolutionary c hanges a re m ore s usceptible t o t he p unctuated e quilibria t han a re m acro-evolutionary o nes,

i s

t hat

m odel o f i f o nly

b ecause t he d ating e vidence w e h ave i s n ot r efined e nough t o m onitor s uch c hanges c losely a t t he m acro-evolutionary s cale.

3 64

L SA

T he m ost s ophisticated i nterpretation o f d iachronic c hange i n t he h as b een t hat p ublished b y H . J . D eacon ( 1976) w ho v iews t he

s equence o f R obberg-Albany-Wilton i ndustries i n t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape a s r epresenting a s eries o f t hree p eriods o f r elative s tasis p unctuated b y t wo p eriods o f r apid c hange b etween t hem. S tasis w ithin e ach i ndustry i s t he r esult o f t he s ettling-in o f c ommunities a s t hey a dapted t o l ocal r esources a t t he t ime. T he s tasis i s o nly r elative h owever f or t he c oncept i ncludes m inor a djustments w ithin e ach p lateau ( H.J. D eacon 1 976: f ig. 4 3). T he p eople w ho m ade R obberg-type a rtefacts d uring t he l ate P leistocene g eared t heir l ifestyle a round t he h unting o f l arger g razers a nd g regarious a ntelope t hat

t hrived

u nder

c ooler

c onditions

t han

t hose

o f

t oday

w hen

g rassland w as m ore e xtensive i n t he s outhern C ape. T he s easonal m ovements o f t hese l arge h erds m ade i t a dvantageous f or t he p eople t o l ive i n l arge g roups t hat o ccupied t erritories e xtensive e nough t o e nable t hem t o f ollow t he g ame i n i ts a nnual r ound. T he l ow a rchaeological v isibility o f s ites i n t his t ime r ange m ay b e a r esult o f t his d emographic p attern a nd, p ossibly, a r arer u se o f r ock s helter s ites. T he u se o f b ladelet c ores t o m ake l arge n umbers o f u nretouched b ladelets a nd t he a ppearance o f i tems k nown e thnographically o ccurs a fter 2 0 0 00 B .P. L SA i nnovations,

i n t he s outhern C ape m arking t he f irst g eneration o f b ut t hese i nnovations a re n ot a ccompanied b y a

n oticeable s hift i n h unting s trategy. B y c ontrast, t he i nception o f w hat h as b een l abelled t he A lbany I ndustry i n t he s outhern C ape i s c losely l inked t o a m arked s hift i n h unting p atterns b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd g regarious g razers t owards m ore

1 1 0 00 B .P. a way f rom l arge s olitary t erritorial b rowsers.

P ossibly t riggered b y d emographic a nd/or s ubsistence c hanges t here i s a m arked a nd s udden m icro-evolutionary s hift a t t his t ime w ith c hanges i n t he i ncidence o f r aw m aterials a nd i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f s crapers a nd u ntrimmed f lakes. W ith t he e xception o f b one f ish g orges a t t he c oast, n o n ew f ormal t ools w ere i ntroduced a t t his t ime a nd s everal

o f

t he

c hanges

c an

b e

s een a s r eversals i n t he l ong-term

t rends. B y 8 000 B .P.

t he s hift i n h unting p atterns

w as

c omplete

a nd

t he

s ubsistence e conomy o f t he n ext 6 0 00 y ears w as f ocused o n t he g ame a nimals t hen m ost w idely a vailable, n amely t he s mall s olitary t erritorial b rowsers. B y n ot r elying o n s easonal m ovements o f g ame, t he c ycle o f t ranshumance w as g eared i nstead a round t he s easonal a bundance o f s taple p lant f oods, i n p articular t he c orms o f t he I ridadecae f amily, a nd i ncluded r egular u se o f m arine f oods. T he a rchaeological v isibility o f l iving s ites i ncreased d ramatically a t t his t ime i n t he s outhern C ape b oth a s a r esult o f

p eople

l iving

i n

s maller g roups w ithin s maller t erritories, a nd p robably a lso a s a r esult o f a g eneral i ncrease i n p opulation n umbers. B etween 7 000 a nd 6 000 B .P. t he m arked i ncrease i n m icrolithic f ormal h afted t ools c oincided w ith a r eduction i n t he l ength o f b oth u ntrimmed f lakes a nd s crapers a s w ell a s w ith a s hift i n r aw m aterial p references. T his t echnological c hange d oes n ot c oincide w ith a nother s hift i n h unting p atterns, a nd o ccurs e arlier i n N amibia a nd t he n orthern C ape t han i t d ogs i n t he s outhern C ape s uggesting t hat i t w as t he r esult o f a g radual i nfiltration o f n ew i deas f rom t he n orth. W ithin t he l ast 20 00 y ears t he e conomy w as m odified a gain w ith t he i ntroduction o f d omesticated s tock, b ut i t i s n otable t hat a djustments t o t he

3 65

t echnology w ere m inimal, d espite t he f act t hat d emographic c hanges m ust h ave t aken p lace a s t he h erders f ormed l arger g roups a nd m oved s easonally w ith t he g razing. T he d etails o f t his i ntegrated m odel o f a rtefactual, d emographic a nd s ubsistence c hanges i n t he s outhern C ape m ay n ot b e a pplicable t o a ll r egions i n s outhern A frica f or i t d epends t o s ome e xtent o n t he s witch i n h unting s trategy w hich w as n ot a s o bvious e lsewhere i n r egions w here g rassland p ersisted d espite c limatic c hanges. I n t he M atopos i n Z imbabwe, f or e xample, a d ifferent s et o f c ontrolling f actors w as a lmost c ertainly i nvolved, w hile t he v ery l ow i ncidence o f m id-Holocene s ites i n t he d rier r egions o f t he S outh A frican i nterior i ndicates a l ower p opulation t here i n t he m id-Holocene w hich d ifferent f rom t hat o bserved i n t he s outhern C ape. T he

c onclusions

t hat

c an

b e

d rawn

i s

v ery

f rom t he a nalysis o f c hange

t hrough t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears i n t he a rtefact a ssemblages K RA a nd B PA a re o f b oth l ocal a nd w ider s ignificance.

f rom N BC, A t a l ocal

l evel w e c an s tate t hat: 1 . o f

S ome c hanges a re s ite-specific a nd r elate p rimarily t o t he r ange r aw m aterials u sed a nd t o t he i diosyncratic c hanges i n f requencies

o f r elatively r are i tems i n t he t oolkit. i nclude

m ostly

A t t he s ites

s tudied

t hese

n on-lithic a rtefacts s uch a s b eads, d ecorated o strich

e ggshell a nd b one t ools w hich c learly h ave d ifferent p atterns o f d iscard f rom s tone t ools. T hey a re n ot c onsidered t o b e r elevant t o t he s tudy o f e volutionary c hanges i n t echnology. 2 . A t a n i nter-site l evel t here a re d ifferences i n t he r elative f requencies o f s ome f ormal t ools t hat p robably r elate t o a ctivity v ariation. N BC, f or e xample, h as n o a dzes, w hile f ish g orges a re p resent t here b ut n ot i nland a t K RA a nd B PA. T hese v ariations a re a gain c onsidered

t o

b e

i rrelevant

t o

t he

s tudy

o f

e volutionary

c hanges. 3 . T he c omparison o f t he p atterns o f c hange a t t he t hree s ites s hows t hat a lthough t he a ctual m easurements a nd f requencies d iffer f rom o ne s ite t o t he n ext, t he t iming o f c hanges i s s imilar a nd w here t his o ccurs w e c an s uggest t hat t hey i ndicate r egional c hanges r ather t han s ite-specific

o nes.

S uch c hanges o ccur i n t he i ncidence o f b ladelets

a nd b ladelet c ores, i n t he i ncidence o f f ormal t ools, i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f s crapers. A lthough t he s ample o f b acked m icroliths f rom l ate P leistocene a ssemblages i s v ery s mall, i t s eems t hat t here w as l ess s tylistic v ariation t hrough t ime i n t heir m anufacture t han o ccurred a mongst s crapers, a nd a s a l ong s equence o f a dzes i s a vailable f rom B PA o nly i t w ill n ot b e p ossible t o a ssess t he s hift i n a dze p arameters u ntil d ata f rom m ore s ites a re a vailable. 4 .

S ome

p arameters,

s uch

a s

t he

r elative t hickness o f u ntrimmed

f lakes a nd t he r atio o f u tilized t o u ntrimmed f lakes, s how v ery l ittle v ariability w ithin t he l ast 2 0 0 00 y ears, b ut t he v ariables t hat d o c hange t end t o d o s o r elatively s uddenly b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd 1 1 0 00 B .P.

a nd

v alidity o f

a gain

b etween

7 000

t he s ubdivision o f

a nd

6 000 B .P. c onfirming b roadly t he

t he s equence i nto t he

R obberg,

A lbany

a nd W ilton i ndustries a nd d emonstrating t hat m icro-evolutionary c hange c onforms t o t he m odel o f p unctuated e quilibria.

3 66

5 . A nalysis o f f aunal a nd f loral r emains a nd s ediments f rom B PA, o f f aunal r emains f rom N BC a nd o f o xygen i sotope r atios f rom t he C ango C ave s talagmite s hows

t hat

m ajor

v egetational c hanges b y a bout

c limatic

e nd o f m ost

a nd

c hanges

i n

h unting

t he P leistocene i n t he s outhern C ape. d ramatically

i n t emperature, v egetation

1 1

a nd

w ere m ost d ramatic b etween a bout T his

g ives

e nvironmental

s ome i dea o f

c hanges

a nd

p ost-dated

3 0 00 y ears a t t he

H unting p atterns c hanged

0 00 B .P.

i n m icrofaunal d istributions

t he C ango V alley. b etween

b etween 1 2 0 00 a nd

p atterns

w hile r apid c hanges b ody

1 5 0 00 a nd

s ize

t he s cale o f

t echnological

a nd

i n

1 4 0 00 B .P. t emporal

a nd

i n l ag

s ubsistence

a djustments d uring t he L ater S tone A ge t hat m ay b e a pplicable

t o o ther

p eriods d uring t he S tone A ge a s w ell. 6 .

T he

B .P.

i s o f a s lightly d ifferent n ature f rom t hat w hich o ccurred a t t he

c hange

e nd

o f

t he

i n

t echnology t hat

P leistocene i n t hat

h ighly s tandardized m icrolithic t o

a

i t

d ifferent h afting m ethod, a nd

g eared

t he r esult o f t he d iffusion o f t hat

w ere

l inked

a s w ell a s o f a c hange i n t he s ize o f a nd

f ine g rained r aw m aterials.

o bvious s hift c oincides

i s

f ormal t ool d esigns

b oth u ntrimmed f lakes a nd s crapers c ores

t ook p lace b etween 7 000 a nd 6 000

a

r eappearance

o f

b ladelet

I t d oes n ot c orrelate w ith a n

i n e ither h unting p atterns o r c limatic v ariables, b ut

i t

v ery b roadly w ith t he H olocene h unting a nd g athering p attern

t o

b rowsing

s taple a ntelope

g eophyte a nd

p lant

w ith

f oods

a nd

s olitary

t erritorial

w armer a nd d rier c onditions e xperienced

d uring t he m id-Holocene. 7 . 2

T he i ntroduction o f p ottery a nd d omesticated s tock w ithin t he l ast 0 00 y ears i s m ore l ikely t o h ave b een t he r esult o f p opulation

m igrations i nto t he s outhern C ape t han o f g radual a cculturation, a lthough b oth p rocesses u ndoubtedly p layed t heir p art i n t he r apid s pread o f o bvious

t his n ew s ubsistence e conomy. c hange

i n

s tone

h erders h ad b een p art o f i ndigenous

a rtefact

L SA

w ere

t he r esult o f

w ho

p receded

c orrelate w ith a n

i ndicating t hat t he

t he s ame b asic t oolmaking

h unter-gatherers

c onfirm t he i mpression t hat t he

I t d oes n ot

m anufacture t hem

t radition a t B PA.

a s

t he

T his w ould

t he t oolmaking t raditions o r c omplexes

o f

w idespread p henomena i n t he s ub-continent a nd w ere n ot i ndependent r egional e volution.

W hen t he l ocal s equence i s c ompared w ith t hat

f rom o ther r egions

i n

s outhern A frica w e c an c onclude t hat: 8 .

T he

m icro-evolutionary

m anufacture

i n

m easurements

t he

a

C ape

o bserved ( most

i n

o bvious

t he i n

s tyle o f t he

t ool

l ength

f or u ntrimmed f lakes a nd s crapers a nd i n r elated c hanges

i n r aw m aterials a nd c ore a round

t rends

s outhern

g radually

s ub-types)

c hanging

m ean

w ere t hat

e ssentially

o scillations

c an b e c ompared t o s ecular

s tylistic c hanges i n m odern f ashions. W hile i ndividual p arameters m ay n ot f ollow p recisely t he s ame t ime p atterns i n s everal d ifferent r egions a nd m ay a ppear t o b e s tatic w hen o ther v ariables a re c hanging, t he v ariability i n t he k ey p arameters a ppears t o b e r egionally s pecific a nd m ore c losely c orrelated w ith r egional c hanges i n s ubsistence

9 .

s trategy

t han

d oes

M acro-evolutionary c hange,

s pread

o f

t echnological

c hange

w hich

i nnovations

3 67

a t

i nvolves t hat

t he

t he

m acro-evolutionary

i ntroduction

a nd

f ollow d irections e xpected

f rom g eneral t rends i n m odern t echnology, i s a m uch m ore d iffuse p henomenon t hat c uts a cross m icro-evolutionary p atterns a nd d oes n ot r esult n ot

f rom t he a ccumulation o f r egionally

o ccurrence

o f

n ew

b oundaries a nd 1 0.

T he

t hat

g roups

s pecific

a rtefact

i s

M acro-evolutionary r esponsible

d esigns

t hat

f or

c hange

t he

t ranscend

i s

w idespread

e nvironmental

s ubsistence s trategies.

L ater S tone A ge i s s een a s a l oosely d efined t emporal s tage t ogether

m acro-evolutionary

a

s tandardized

s eries

o f

i nnovations.

m anufacture o f b ladelets a rrow,

t hem.

b ut

f rom

m icrolithic

g enerations I n

t he

b ladelet

h afted

i n

L SA

c ores,

a

t hey t he

f amily

o f

i nclude

t he

m anufacture

o f

f ormal t ools a s w ell a s t he b ow a nd

p ottery a nd a r ange o f e thnographically k nown n on-lithic i tems,

n otably

t hose

a rt o bjects. r egional

t hat T he

h ad a d ecorative p urpose o r c ould b e r egarded a s

s outhern

v ariant

o f

a

A frican

s eries

o f

f ound i n a rchaeological s equences

L ater

S tone

A ge

i s

i tself

a

t oolmaking t raditions t hat c an b e

t hroughout

t he O ld W orld a nd f urther

a field. T he v ast g eographical s pread o f t hese t raditions d emonstrates t he e ffectiveness o f t he c ommunication n etworks a long w hich t hese i nnovations w ere d iffused. 1 1.

atterns o f m odern C omparison b etween t he t emporal p

t hose

o f

t he

L SA

m acro-evolutionary

h as

s hown

l evel.

a T he

b road

i mportance

m icro-evolutionary l evel h as p erhaps b een

t echnology a nd

c orrespondence o f

a t

c hange

u nder-estimated

i n

t he

a t

t he

m odern

t echnology h owever w here i t h as b een l imited t o o bservations o n f ringe i tems s uch a s d ress n oted

i n

f ashions,

nd g ravestones. c locks a

S tone A ge s tudies o n a s cale t hat

t o emulate f or m odern t imes s uggest

G eneral

t rends

i s g enerally n ot p ossible

t hat a p attern o f s ecular

c hanges

m ay b e e xpected t o o ccur i n m odern t echnological i tems a nd t hat a t t imes t hese m ay t ake d irections c ontrary t o t he g eneral e volutionary t rend.

D uring

t he

t riggered b y s ocial m ajor

S tone a nd

A ge

s uch

t echnological

r eversals

h ave

a djustments

e nvironmental c hanges w ith a d istinct

L ong-term a rchaeological o bservations s uch a s

a t

t hat

t imes b een p ost-dated

t ime l ag b etween t he t wo. t hose

f rom

N elson

B ay

C ave a nd B oomplaas m ay t herefore b e o f u se i n p redicting c hanges a t t he m icro-evolutionary l evel, b ut n ot a t t he s cale o f m acro-evolution, i n m odern t echnological s ystems.

3 68

APPEND IX

C LASSIFICATION S CHEME F OR L ATER S TONE A GE A RTEFACTS F ROM T HE S OUTHERN C APE

T his

s cheme

f ormal t ool, t he

i s

b ased o n t he r eduction s equence

w ith

m orphology

t he o f

c lassification o f ( based a l.

o n

t ype o f r etouch, t he

w orking

e dge

t ools.

T he

f ormal

t hat d eveloped f or

( 1980))

f ormal

a nd

t aken

t he

i nto

a rtefact

a ccount

a ccompanying

t o a nd

i n

t he

n umerical

c ode

t he J apanese P alaeolithic b y A kazawa e t

c ould b e e xtended t o

a dditional

f rom r aw m aterial

t he s ize o f

i nclude

o ther

t ools

n on-lithic m ay

b e

a rtefacts,

i ncorporated

a nd w here

a ppropriate. T he c oding s cheme i s b ased o n t wo s ets o f d igits. t he

l eft d escribes

t he m aterial

T he

f irst

f rom w hich t he a rtefact

d igit

o n

i s m ade:

0 = S tone 1 = P ottery 2 = M etal 3 = W ood,

b ark,

r eed,

g rass

4 = L eather 5 = B one O nly

s tone

a rtefact c lasses a re d escribed h ere, h owever.

d igit d escribes

t he C ategory i n w hich t he

0 0 = M anuports,

o r u nused l umps o f r aw

s tone a rtefact

T he s econd

i s p laced:

m aterial b rought

t o

a

s ite.

O chre a nd o ther c olouring m atter c an b e i ncluded. 0 1 = W aste, o r t he u nretouched b y-products o f s tone t ool m anufacture. I ncluded a re p ieces w hich m ay h ave b een u sed, b ut w hich s how n o 0 2

s ign o f d amage v isible t o t he n aked e ye. = U tilized p ieces, o r a rtefacts w ith d amage e ye.

U tilization

r etouch

a nd

t he

r epeated p attern. 0 3 = F ormal t ools, i n

d amage p ieces

i s i n

l ess t his

w hich d eliberate

s hape t he w orking e dge a nd t he t ool

v isible

s ustained c ategory

t o

t han a re

f laking r etouch

t he n aked d eliberate

n ot m ade t o a i s

u sed

t o

t o a r epeated p attern.

0 4 = F ormal t ools s haped b y g rinding a nd/or p olishing. T he

s econd

S ub-classes

s et

o f

d igits

a fter t he h yphen r efers

r espectively w ithin a C ategory.

m ay b e l isted u nder a s ixth d igit T he

t o

t he C lass a nd

t he r ight w hen n ecessary.

d efinitions w hich f ollow a re d esigned t o e nable a nyone r eading

t his p ublication t o u nderstand w hat a nalysis o f t he s tone a rtefacts B oomplaas. b ut

t o

V ariations o n s ub-classes

a ims

I t d oes r ather

n ot p urport t o

o rganize

r esearchers i nto a c oherent

i s m eant b y t erms u sed i n t he f rom N elson B ay C ave, K angkara a nd

t o b e a t he

f ramework.

3 70

n ew

s cheme

c lassification p resently

u sed

s cheme, b y m ost

M ANUPORTS 0 0-100

U nused c obbles, p ebbles o r l umps o f r ock b rought t o a s ite a s r aw m aterial

0 0-200

O chre

0 0-300

M icaceous s andstone

W ASTE

.

0 1-100

C hunks, w ith o ne o r t wo n egative f lake s cars

0 1-200 2 10 2 20

C ores w ith t hree o r m ore n egative f lake s cars I rregular c ore R adial c ore

2 30 2 40 2 50

P repared c ore B lade c ore B ladelet c ore

2 60

F lat b ladelet c ore

0 1-300 3 10 3 20

C ore b y-products C ore r educed p iece C ore r ejuvenation f lake

0 1-400 4 10 4 11 4 20

C hips, l ess t han 1 0 m m m aximum d imension F lake o rigin B ladelet C hunk o rigin

0 1:500

U nretouched f lakes w ith n o u tilization v isible t o t he n aked e ye I rregular Q uadrilateral

5 10 5 20 5 30 5 40 5 50

C onvergent B lade B ladelet

3 71

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 1-250

B LADELET C ORE

D efinition C ores

w ith o ne a nd o ccasionally m ore p latforms f rom w hich

p arallel-sided f lakes o f b ladelet d imensions h ave b een s ystematically s truck. D amage a long t he s triking p latform c an r esemble s craper r etouch. I n t he s outhern C ape t hey a re s ilcrete a nd,

o ccasionally,

T hey o ccur m ost

c ommonly

m ade

o n

q uartz,

f ine-grained q uartzite.

f requently i n L ate P leistocene m icrolithic

a ssemblages b ut a re a lso f ound i n H olocene o nes.

CM

3 72

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 1-260

F LAT B LADELET C ORE

D efinition A s mall c ore

( usually l ess

t han 2 0

m m

l ong)

f rom

w hich

b ladelets h ave b een s truck. T he c ore d oes n ot h ave a f lat p latform ; i nstead, t he b ladelets h ave b een r emoved f rom a c hisel-like u sed.

e nd.

T he

b ipolar t echnique h as o ften b een

T he c ores a re m ade a lmost e xclusively i n c lear

m ilky

q uartz.

u nusually r esemble

l arge i n

a ll

T hey

a re

n umbers

f ound

o f

i n

a ssemblages

u nretouched

s ignificant

r espects

b ladelets

a nd w ith a nd

t he c ore r esidues

t hat r esult w hen t he r aw m aterial i s b ound w ith l eather o r f ibre p rocess

t o

h old

t he b ladelets

( White & T homas

t ogether d uring t he f laking

1 972:278).

I n t he s outhern a nd s outh-western C ape f lat b ladelet c ores a re f ound o nly i n L ate P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages.

T hey d o n ot a ppear

t o

b e

b ladelet p roduction d uring t he H olocene.

3 09 CM

3 73

a ssociated

w ith

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 1-310

C ORE R EDUCED P IECE

D efinition C ore

r educed

p ieces

a re

r esidues

o f c ores t hat c an n o

l onger b e f laked. T hey a re u sually q uadrilateral i n p lan f orm w ith a c hisel-like s triking p latform t hat i s o ften c urved a nd a re m ade i n a v ariety o f r aw m aterials. T hey d iffer

f rom

f lat b ladelet c ores

i n t he l ack o f r egularly

s haped b ladelet f lake s cars. T hey d iffer f rom p ieces e squillees i n h aving n o c rushing a long t he c hisel-like s triking p latform. T hey a re u sually l ess t han 2 5 m m l ong. C ore b ut

r educed a re

m ost

p ieces c ommon

m ay b e f ound i n a ny L SA a ssemblage, i n

P leistocene.

cm

3 74

t hose

d ating

t o

t he

L ate

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 1-550

B LADELET

D efinition A

n arrow

p arallel-sided f lake w ith a l ength g reater t han

t wice t he m aximum w idth a nd a w idth o f l ess t han 1 2 m m . B ladelets a re c ommonly m ade o n q uartz o r s ilcrete a nd o ccur m ost a bundantly i n L ate P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages

a ssigned

t o

t he

s outhern C ape. T hey o ccur a lso b ut i n m uch s maller n umbers.

R obberg i n

T CM

3 75

I ndustry

H olocene

i n

t he

a ssemblages

U TILIZED P IECES 0 2-100 1 10

N atural p ieces w ith u tilization A nvil

1 20

H ammerstone

1 30 1 40

L ower g rindstone U pper g rindstone

1 50 1 60

C ombination h ammerstone/grindstone M illed-edge p ebble

1 70

S moothed s late ' palette'

0 2-200 2 10 2 20

C ores/chunks w ith u tilization d amage H eavy e dge-flaked p iece P iece e squillee

2 30

C hunk . w ith u tilized m argins

0 2-300 3 10 3 20 3 30

F lakes w ith u tilization d amage D amage t o c utting e dge S teep d amage N otched e dges

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 2-160

M ILLED E DGE P EBBLE

D efinition M illed e dge p ebbles a re m ade o n s mall, r ound, r elatively f lat p ebbles. T he o uter p erimeter h as b een ' milled - o r p itted t hrough u se a s a h ammerstone a gainst a h ard m aterial. T hey a re f ound i n s mall n umbers i n H olocene * assemblages t hroughout t he s outhern a nd e astern C ape a nd a re u sually m ade o f q uartzite.

CM

3 77

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 2-210

H EAVY E DGE-FLAKED P IECE

D efinition S plit q uartzite c obbles o f a bout f ist-size o r l arger t hat h ave a f lat b ase f rom w hich f lakes h ave b een s truck a round t he p erimeter, s ometimes e mphasizing a b lunt p oint a t o ne e nd. C rushing o f t he e dge o f t he p latform b etween t he f lat b ase a nd t he s ide o f t he t ool i ndicates u tilization a gainst a h ard p aterial. H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces a ppear t o b e a ssociated w ith c oastal s ites w here q uartzite ( in t he f orm o f w ater-worn c obbles) i s u sed a s t he r aw m aterial. T hey a re m ost c ommon i n t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene a ssemblages a ssigned t o t he A lbany I ndustry i n t he s outhern C ape.

CM

3 78

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 2-220

P IECE E SQUILLEE

D efinition P ieces e squillees a re s imilar i n m ost r espects t o c ore r educed p ieces e xcept t hat t here i s s econdary c rushing a long t he c urved, c hisel-like s triking p latform . T his c rushing a ppears t o b e t he r esult o f i ts h aving b een u sed o n a m aterial s uch a s w ood. P ieces e squillees a re u sually 2 0-25 m m l ong a nd 1 5-20 m m w ide w ith a q uadrilateral p lan f orm. W hile p articularly c ommon i n q uartz, t hey a re a lso f ound i n o ther r aw m aterials. T hey a re m ore c ommon i n H olocene m icrolithic a semblages t han i n o lder o nes, b ut a re a lso n umerous i n L ate P leistocene m icrolithic s amples.

CM

3 79

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 2-310

F LAKES W ITH U TILIZATION D AMAGE T O T HE C UTTING E DGE

D efinition F lakes

o r

f lake

h ave s erved a s a v isible

d amage

s cars a long

t he

f ragments c utting i n

t he

f orm

c utting

s urface.

T his

d amage

s ection o f

t he e dge.

w ith a n e dge s harp e nough t o

t ool

a nd

e dge, i s

o n

w hich

i s

u sually

o n

t he

d orsal

u sually r estricted t o a s mall

U tilized f lakes o ccur i n

o f r aw m aterial a nd i n a ssemblages o f a ll a ges.

cm

3 80

t here

o f a s eries o f s mall f lake

a ll

f orms

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 2-320

F LAKES W ITH S TEEP U TILIZATION D AMAGE

D efinition F lakes o r f lake f ragments w ith d amage t hat r esembles s craper r etouch b ut i s n ot a s s ustained a nd i s n ot n ecessarily s cars b efore

a long

t o i ndicate

a

c onvex

d eliberate

u tilization.

e dge.

T here a re n o s haping

p reparation

o f

t he

p iece

F lakes w ith s teep u tilization d amage

a re f ound i n a ll r aw m aterials a nd i n a ssemblages a ges.

CM

3 81

o f

a ll

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 2-330

F LAKES W ITH N OTCHED E DGES

D efinition U tilized f lakes o r f lake f ragments w ith n otched e dges s how n o r etouch t o s hape t he w orking e dge, b ut h ave s ustained d amage t o t he e dge w hich h as r esulted i n a s mall n otch o r n otches b eing f ormed. T o q ualify a s a n otch t here s hould b e a t l east t wo f lake s cars t hat h ave f ormed a d istinct c oncavity a long t he w orking e dge t hrough p ressure o n a s mall s ection o f t his e dge. F lakes w ith n otched e dges a re f ound i n a ll r aw a ges.

m aterials

CM

3 82

a nd

i n

a ssemblages

o f

a ll

F ORMAL T OOLS 0 3-100 1 10 1 20 1 30

S craper L arge s craper, m aximum d imension g reater t han 3 0 m m M edium s craper, m aximum d imension b etween 2 0 a nd 3 0 m m S mall s craper, m aximum d imension l ess t han 2 0 m m

0 3-200 2 10 2 20

B acked m icrolith, l ength l ess t han 2 5 m m S egment B acked b ladelet 2 21 2 22 2 23 2 24

2 30 2 40

D istal d iscard B acked p oint S egmented b acked b ladelet P roximal d iscard B acked f lake B roken b acked p iece

0 3-300 3 10 3 20

S tep-flaked f ormal t ools A dze S pokeshave

0 3-400 4 10 4 20 4 30

T ools w ith b lunt p oints R eamer A wl B orer

0 3-500 5 10

P oint U nifacial p oint U nifacial p oint w ith b asal t ang

5 11 0 3-600

B urin

0 3-700 7 10 7 20 7 30

M iscellaneous r etouched p iece F lat i nvasive r etouch S teep r etouch N otched r etouch

3 83

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-100

S CRAPER

D efinition S crapers a re u sually m ade o n f lakes o r f lake f ragments, b ut c ore t ypes a re f ound. T hey a re c haracterized b y t wo m ain f eatures: a f lat v entral s urface t hat i s u nretouched a nd a c onvex w orking e dge t hat h as b een d eliberately s haped b y s econdary r etouch. S ubsequent u tilization r esults i n t he r emoval o f s maller f lakes a long t he w orking e dge t hat s teepens t he a ngle b etween t he v entral s urface a nd t he w orking e dge s o t hat i t c an r ange b etween 3 0 a nd o ver 9 0 d egrees. S crapers d iffer f rom a dzes i n h aving t his c onvex w orking e dge r ather t han a s traight o r c oncave o ne. I n t his s cheme t he c riterion u sed f or d ivision o f t he s crapers i nto s ub-classes i s s ize r ather t han t he p osition o f t he w orking e dge i n r elation t o t he b ulb o f p ercussion. F urther s ubdivisions m ay b e m ade b ased o n t he s hape o f t he b lank o r t he p osition o f r etouch, b ut h ere t hese h ave b een t reated a s c ontinuous v ariables. S craper s amples i n o ther r egions m ay w ell n eed t o h ave s ize s ubdivisions b ased o n d ifferent l ength c riteria, d epending o n t he r ange o f l engths f ound a nd t he t ypes o f r aw m aterials u sed. S crapers a re m ade i n a ll r aw m aterials a nd a re f ound i n a ssemblages o f a ll a ges.

3 84

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-110

L ARGE S CRAPER

D efinition A s craper w ith w idth o r l ength g reater t han 3 0 m m.

3 85

Type n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-120

M EDIUM S CRAPER

D efinition A s craper w ith w idth a nd/or l ength b etween 2 0 a nd 3 0 m m.

Cm

3 86

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-130

S MALL S CRAPER

D efinition A s craper w ith w idth a nd l ength l ess

3 87

t han 2 0 m m.

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-200

B ACKED M ICROLITHS

D efinition B acked m icroliths a re l ess t han 2 5,1 m m l ong. T hey h ave a s harp c utting e dge a long o ne m argin a nd o ne o r m ore o pposing m argins a re b lunted b y a brupt r etouch ( backing). T hey a re u sually m ade o n b ladelets o r p ortions o f b ladelets, o r o n f lakes r educed t o b ladelet p roportions b y s econdary r etouch, b ut b acked f lakes a lso o ccur. A brupt r etouch i s m ost c ommonly e ffected b y p ressing t he e dge o f t he m argin a gainst a h ard a nvil w ith e ither t he v entral o r d orsal s urface u ppermost. S ome b acked m icroliths s how r etouch f rom b oth s urfaces. S ub-classes o f b acked m icroliths a re c ommonly d efined o n t he s hape o f t he b acked m argin ( straight = b acked b ladelets, c urved = s egments) o r t he p lan f orm o f t he f inished a rtefact. W here s ufficient n umbers o f b acked m icroliths a re f ound, a r eduction s equence s uch a s u sed b y W endt ( 1972) a nd H . J . D eacon ( 1976:142) c an b e w orked o ut a nd c an b e e mployed i n t he c lassification o f s ub-types. I n t his a nalysis o nly s egments, b acked b ladelets, b acked f lakes a nd b roken b acked p ieces a re u sed a s s ub-classes b ecause o f t he r elatively l ow f requencies f ound. B acked m icroliths a re c haracteristic o f L SA a ssemblages a nd a re u sually m ade o n f ine-grained r aw m aterials s uch a s c halcedonies, a gates, h ornfels, q uartz a nd s ilcrete.

3 88

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-210

S EGMENT

D efinition I n p lan a s egment i s a p ortion o f a c ircle w ith a c urved a rc b acked w ith a brupt r etouch a nd a s traight, s harp c hord. T he s hape m ay b e e xaggerated t o a r elatively t hin a nd e longated s egment o r t o a d eep s egment t hat i s m ore l ike a t runcated o val. S pecimens i n w hich a brupt r etouch i s p resent o nly a long a p ortion o f t he a rc a re i ncluded w ith s egments a s l ong a s t he p lan f orm i s s egment-shaped a nd t he c hord t ransects t he a rc a t b oth e nds. W here t he b ase i s f lat, h owever, d ue e ither t o a brupt r etouch o r t he p resence o f t he p latform a nd b ulb, t he p iece i s c lassified a s a c urved b acked p oint o r b acked p oint. B roken s egments m ay b e s napped ( presumably a ccidentally) a t o ne o r b oth e nds o f t he c hord.

c m

mas t ic t r aces

3 89

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-220

B ACKED B LADELET

D efinition I n p lan f orm b acked b ladelets h ave t wo o r m ore s traight m argins o f w hich o ne o r m ore a re b lunted w ith a brupt r etouch a nd o ne i s a s traight c utting e dge. S ub-classes a re s een a s d eliberate e nd-products o r d iscards m ade a t v arious s tages o f a r eduction s equence. T he f ormer i nclude b acked p oints a nd s egmented b acked b ladelets, w hile t he l atter m ay b e d istal o r p roximal d iscards.

3 90

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-310

A DZE

D efinition A dzes m ay b e m ade o n f lakes

o r

o n

p ebbles,

t he

l atter

o ften r etaining c ortex o n t he v entral s urface. T hey h ave o ne o r m ore s traight o r s lightly c onvex w orking e dges w hich h ave b een s haped b y o ne s et o f f lake s cars a nd a lso s how s econdary s tep-flaking r esulting f rom u se a t a s teep a ngle a nd i n a c hopping m otion. T hey a re g enerally l arger t han s crapers, t he m ean l ength f rom s outhern C ape s amples b eing b etween 2 5 a nd 4 0 m m, b ut s how l ess v ariability i n s ize t hrough t ime t han d o t he s crapers.

H ornfels

i s

t he

p referred r aw m aterial w hen a vailable, b ut s ilcrete a nd c halcedony a re a lso u sed. Q uartz a nd q uartzite a re r arely s elected f or a dze m anufacture. Mastic t races o n a dzes f rom M elkhoutboom s how t hat t hey w ere h afted a nd a f ew s pecimens s till i n h afts s uggest t hey w ere e nd-mounted. R etouch o n o pposing s ides s uggests t hey w ere s ometimes r eversed i n t he m ount. A dzes a re f ound i n s mall n umbers i n m ost L SA a ssemblages, b ut a re b etter r epresented i n l ate H olocene s ites w here t hey s ometimes o utnumber s crapers.

cm

3 91

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-320

S POKESHAVE

D efinition S pokeshaves

a re

s im ilar

t o

s haping s cars a nd s tep-flaking.

a dzes

i n t he o ccurrence o f

T hey d iffer, h owever,

i n

t he s hape o f t he w orking e dge w hich i s c oncave a nd o ften h as t wo o r m ore c oncavities o r n otches, a nd t hey a re g enerally l arger t han a dzes. S pokeshaves a re a gain m ade p referably o n h ornfels a nd a ppear t o b e a g eographical v ariation o f a dzes i n t hat t hey a re m ore c ommon i n t he e astern h alf o f s outhern A frica i ncluding p arts o f Z ambia, Z imbabwe,

t he e astern T ransvaal a nd N atal.

CM

3 92

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-410

R EAMER

D efinition A r eamer

( or r imer ( Goodwin 1 947))

i s d esigned t o m ake t he

h ole i n a b ored s tone. T he w orking e nd i s t herefore r ound i n c ross-section a nd h as b een s moothed t o a b lunt p oint b y u tilization. T he b utt o f t he t ool o pposite t o t he w orking e nd i s g enerally r oughly f laked t o i mprove t he h and g rip. T he l ength v aries b ut i s u sually a t l east 1 00 m m . P referred r aw m aterials a re q uartzite a nd h ornfels.

CM

3 93

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-420

A WL

D efinition A wls a re i ntermediate i n s ize b etween r eamers a nd b orers. T hey a re m ade o n f lakes a nd a p ortion o f t he p iece h as b een

s haped t o a n e longated p oint l eaving t he r est o f t he

f lake u nretouched. P olish i s u sually p resent a t t he o f t he w orking e nd. P referred r aw m aterials f ine-grained h ornfels, s ilcrete a nd c halcedonies.

Cm

3 94

t ip a re

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-430

B ORER

D efinition A b orer i s o f b lade o r b ladelet p roportions a nd i s a ssumed t o h ave b een d esigned f or p erforating o strich e ggshell f ragments t o m ake b eads. O ne e nd o f t he b lade o r b ladelet h as b een b lunted b y a brupt r etouch o n t wo o r m ore s ides a nd t he e nd i s p olished t hrough u se. M astic t races o n s ome s pecimens f rom M elkhoutboom s how t hem t o h ave b een h afted. P referred r aw m aterials a re s ilcrete, q uartz, h ornfels a nd c halcedonies. B orers a re n ot k nown f rom E arlier o r M iddle S tone A ge c ontexts.

cm

3 95

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-511

U NIFACIAL P OINT W ITH B ASAL T ANG

D efinition T anged u nifacial p oints a re m ade o n c onvergent

f lakes

o n

w hich t he b ulbar e nd h as b een r educed b y r etouch t o f orm a n arrow t ang,

p resumably

t o

f acilitate

h afting.

T hese

a refacts a re r are i n t he L SA, o ccurring m ostly w ithin t he l ast 3 0 00 y ears. T hey a re m ade o n f ine-grained r aw m aterials s uch a s h ornfels a nd s ilcrete.

CM

3 96

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 3-700

M ISCELLANEOUS R ETOUCHED P IECE

D efinition M iscellaneous

r etouched

p ieces f orm a l oose c ategory f or

t ools t hat s how s ustained f ormal r etouch, b ut w hich d o n ot f all i nto a ny o f t he c ommonly m ade f ormal t ool c lasses. T he r etouch m ay b e o f t he f lat i nvasive k ind e xtending o ver

b etween

o ne

a nd

t wo-thirds

v entral s urface o f t he t ool,

o f

t he d orsal a nd/or

o r i t m ay b e s teep r etouch o n

a p iece t hat d oes n ot c onform t o o ther a ttributes r equired t o p lace i t i n t he s craper c lass, o r i t m ay h ave s ustained r etouch t hat h as n otched t he w orking e dge. M iscellaneous r etouched p ieces a re a n e xtension o f

t he

u tilized

f lake

c lass i n t he s ense t hat t hey h ave s imilar s ub-classes, b ut t he r etouch i s m ore d eliberate a nd e xtends o ver a l arger p ortion o f t he t ool. T hey a re m ade o n a ll r aw m aterials a nd a re f ound i n a ssemblages o f a ny a ge.

1 1 1. 11 1 11-

am i l m-

-

1 1 11 1 • 1 1 1 cm

3 97

F ORMAL T OOLS S HAPED B Y G RINDING A ND P OLISHING 0 5-100

B ored s tone

0 5-200

G rooved s tone

0 5-300

S inker

3 98

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 5-200

G ROOVED S TONE

D efinition A g rooved s tone i s g enerally m ade o n a p ebble o r s mall c obble. O ne o r m ore g rooves m ay b e p ecked i nto t he s urface a nd t hen g round s mooth. T he g rooves u sually r un t he l ength o f t he p ebble, b ut m ay c ross-cut o ne a nother. T he g rooves a re s eldom m ore t han 1 0 m m w ide. T here a re e thnographic a nd h istoric r ecords t o s how t hat t hey w ere u sed f or s moothing a nd s traightening b one a rrow p oints, r eed a rrow s hafts a nd w ooden s hafts b y h eating t he s tone i n a f ire a nd d rawing t he b one, r eed o r w ood t hrough t he g roove. T hey a re a lso k nown t o h ave b een u sed t o a pply p oison t o a rrowheads, t he p oison b eing h eld i n t he g roove a nd

t he a rrowhead d rawn t hrough i t,

a nd h ave b een s een i n

u se t o s mooth t he e dges o f o strich e ggshell b eads.

C rn

3 99

T ype n o.

T ype n ame

0 5-300

S INKER

D efinition A s inker i s a s mall p ebble w ith a g roove a round t he m iddle t o f acilitate i ts s uspension f rom a s tring. T hey a re n ot u sually l onger t han 5 0 m m o r s horter t han 2 5 m m a nd t hose s o f ar f ound a re m ade p redominantly o f q uartzite. T hey a re f ound e xclusively a t c oastal s ites i n t he s outhern C ape a nd d ate f rom t he m id-Holocene.

CM

4 00

APPEND IX

AP P E N D I X

2

T HE M EASUREMENT O F A RTEFACTS A ND S TATISTICAL T ESTS

A TTRIBUTES

U ntrimmed f lakes T he a ttributes m easured f or u ntrimmed f lakes w ere a s f ollows: L ength ( 1): m aximum d imension f rom t he b utt o r s triking p latform W idth ( w) : m aximum d imension o f a n e nclosing r ectangle a t r ight a ngles t o l ength H eight ( h): M aximum t hickness o f t he f lake w /1 r atio

:w x 1 00 1 1

R elative t hickness

( Rel T ):

h x h

T

2 T he p rocedure f or m easurement w as t o p lace t he f lake, d orsal s urface u p, o nto g raph p aper a nd t o o rientate i t w ith t he b utt a long a b ase l ine. B ecause o nly w hole f lakes w ere m easured, t he b utt w as a lways p resent. T he l ength a nd w idth w ere t hus t he d imensions o f t he e nclosing r ectangle ( Fig. A 2.1). T he h eight o f t he f lake w as m easured w ith c alipers. A ll m easurements w ere t o t he n earest m m, t hus 0 ,51 = 1 m m . T he l ength, w idth a nd h eight m easurements, t ogether w ith a c ode f or r aw m aterials ( 1 = q uartz, 2 = c halcedony, 3 = h ornfels, 4 = s ilcrete, 5 = q uartzite) w ere p ut o nto c omputer c ards a nd a s tandard S PSS p rogramme ( Nie e t a l.

1 975)

f or c ondescriptive s tatistics w as u sed

t o

c alculate w /1 r atios a nd r elative t hickness a s w ell a s t he m ean, s tandard d eviation, s tandard e rror, v ariance a nd r ange f or e ach s ample f rom e ach s tratigraphic u nit a t N BC a nd B PA o n t he U niversity o f S tellenbosch U NIVAC 1 100 c omputer. A t B oomplaas i n p articular t he v ariety o f r aw m aterials i n t he v icinity o f t he s ite a nd t he d ifficulty o f d istinguishing a t t imes b etween t hem w ithout t hin s ections m ade i t p ractical t o c lassify p ieces i nto b road r aw m aterial c ategories o n t he b asis o f s imilar f racture p roperties. T hus t he c ategory ' quartzite i ncludes g reywackes a nd p ossibly s ome c oarse h ornfels, w hile ' chalcedony' i ncludes a v ariety o f c halcedonic s ilicates, a nd q uartz i ncludes b oth c rystal

a nd

v ein

q uartz.

H ornfels

i ncludes

i ndurated

s hales o f

v arious k inds.

S ilcrete i s p erhaps t he ' purest' c ategory i n

i ncludes m atrix.

p ieces

o nly

w ith

v isible

4 02

q uartz

i nclusions

t hat

i t

i n a s ilica

F ig. A 2.1.

D iagram s howing m ethod f or m easuring f lakes.

4 03

T he s ampling p rocedure f or u ntrimmed

f lakes

i nvolved

t he

r andom

s election o f a t l east 1 00 w hole f lakes f rom e ach s tratigraphic u nit. I n c ases w here t here w ere f ewer t han 1 00 f lakes t o m easure, t he e ntire s ample o f u nbroken f lakes w as m easured. T he e xceptionally l arge s ample s izes i n t he u pper u nits a t N BC a re t he c onsequence o f a n i nitial d ecision t o m easure a ll u nbroken f lakes, b ut t he l ogistics o f t his p olicy s oon b ecame a pparent a nd s maller n umbers w ere m easured t hereafter.

S crapers B ecause t he s triking p latform a nd b ulb o f p ercussion a re f requently a bsent o n f ormally r etouched s crapers, t hey c ould n ot b e c onsistently o rientated i n t he s ame w ay a s u ntrimmed f lakes. T he w orking e dge w as t herefore t aken a s

t he

p oint

o f

r eference

f rom

w hich

a ll

o ther

m easurements w ere t aken. E ach s craper w as p laced, d orsal s urface u p, o nto g raph p aper w ith t he w orking e dge e qually d istributed o n e ither s ide o f a c entral p oint. L ength a nd w idth w ere t aken a s t he m aximum d imensions o f t he e nclosing r ectangle o r s quare a s i llustrated i n F ig. A 2.2. H eight o f b oth t he p iece a nd t he r etouch w as m easured w ith c alipers, t he m aximum h eight b eing m easured i n e ach c ase. M easurements w ere a ll t aken t o t he n earest m m . T he S PSS c ondescriptive p rogramme c alculated t he m ean, m ode, m edian, s tandard d eviation, s tandard e rror, v ariance, k urtosis, s kewness, r ange a nd m aximum/minimum f or e ach s ample a nd t he f requency d istribution p rogramme c alculated t he a bsolute f requency, r elative a nd a djusted p ercentages a nd c umulative p ercentages f or e ach m m s ize c lass i n e ach c ontinuous v ariable; w /1 r atios w ere c alculated i n t he c ourse o f t he S PSS p rogramme. I n a ddition t o t he c ontinuous v ariables l isted a bove, t he f ollowing d iscontinuous v ariables w ere r ecorded : p lan f orm, p osition o f r etouch a nd r aw m aterial. T he c ode n umbers o f t he f ormer t wo v ariables a re g iven i n F ig. A 2.2 a nd t hose f or r aw m aterial a re t he s ame a s f or t he u ntrimmed f lakes. T he S PSS f requency d istribution p rogramme c alculated t he a bsolute a nd p ercentage f requencies i n e ach c lass f or e ach s tratigraphic u nit. A ll

s crapers

f rom a ll e xcavated u nits w ere m easured f or a ll t hree

s ites, w ith t he e xception o f t hose p ieces t hat w ere b roken a cross t he w orking e dge; t here i s t herefore a d iscrepancy a t t imes b etween t he n umber o f s crapers l isted i n t he T ables a nd t hose l isting t he s craper a ttributes. I n a ddition, d ata o n s crapers f rom W ilton ( including a lternate s tratigraphic u nits n ot m easured i n 1 969 ( J. D eacon 1 969, 1 972)), M elkhoutboom ( H.J. D eacon 1 976) a nd W onderwerk ( A.I. T hackeray 1 981; H umphreys & T hackeray 1 983) w ere p laced o n f ile a nd c ondescriptive s tatistics w ere c alculated.

A dzes B ecause

a dzes

a re f or t he m ost p art r ectangular i n p lan f orm t hey

w ere o rientated w ith t he m aximum d imension o f t he e nclosing r ectangle a s t he l ength, t he w orking e dge b eing g enerally p arallel t o t he l ength. W idth w as t aken a s t he m aximum d imension o f t he e nclosing

4 04

MEASUREMENT

O F

S CRAPERS

K 1

L ength

Lj

W id th

P LAN

H e igh t o f p i ece

F ORMS

2

5

H e io gu h t f r e t cho

3

7

6

POS IT ION O F R ETOUCH 6

9

F ig. A 2.2.

7

8

I0

I

. 11 111 1 1 1 1i t

M O .• . . . .,e l lt. . .. . ..

D iagram s howing m ethod f or m easuring s crapers.

4 05

r ectangle a t r ight a ngles t o l ength. H eight, m easured w ith c alipers, i s e xpressed a s h eight o f p iece ( maximum), h eight o f r etouch 1 , w hich m easures t he m aximum h eight o f r etouch s cars, a nd h eight o f r etouch 2 w hich m easures t he m aximum h eight o f t he l ower s et o f r etouch a nd u tilization s cars ( Fig. A 2.3). P lan f orm c lasses, d rawn f rom t he r ange o bserved a t B PA, a re a lso I llustrated. T he S PSS c ondescriptive p rogramme c alculated t he s ame s tatistics f or a dzes a s f or s crapers. A dzes f rom K angkara w ere n ot i ncluded b ecause t hey o ccurred i n s uch s mall n umbers a nd t hey w ere a bsent f rom N BC.

B acked t ools S egments a nd b acked b ladelets w ere o rientated w ith t he b acked m argin o n t he l eft h and s ide o f a n e nclosing r ectangle. L ength w as t hus t he m aximum d imension o f t his r ectangle ( invariably p arallel w ith t he b acked m argin) a nd w idth w as t he m aximum d imension a t r ight a ngles t o l ength c alipers.

( Fig. A 2.4).

H eight w as m easured a long t he b acked e dge w ith

B ecause o f t he s mall s ize o f m ost s amples t he d ata w ere n ot p rocessed b y c omputer, b ut m eans, s tandard d eviations, s tandard e rrors,

v ariances

a nd

r anges

w ere

c alculated

o n

a

H P-65

d esk

c alculator w here s amples w ere l arge e nough. T he l ow f requencies m ade i t i mpractical t o c ompute f requency d istributions o f p lan f orm c lasses, o ther t han s egments a nd b acked b ladelets, a lthough t hese h ave b een r ecorded.

C OMPARATIVE S TATISTICAL T ESTS O F S IGNIFICANCE I n o rder t o o btain a s tatistical m easure o f d ifferences a nd s imilarities b etween s crapers a t a n i nter- a nd i ntra-site l evel, t he c ontinuous v ariables o f l ength, w idth, w /1 r atio a nd h eight w ere c ompared i n a ll p airs o f s amples f rom N BC, K RA, B PA, W ilton, M elkhoutboom a nd W onderwerk u sing t he M ann-Whitney U -test a nd t he K olmogorov-Smirnov t wo-sample t est. B oth m ay b e u sed t o t est w hether t wo i ndependent s amples h ave b een d rawn f rom t he s ame p opulation o r, i n t he c ase o f K olmogorov-Smirnov, f rom p opulations w ith t he s ame d istribution ( Siegel 1 956:116, 1 27). T hey w ere u sed i n p reference t o t he m ore r obust t -test b ecause t hey d o n ot h ave t he s ame r estrictive a ssumptions a nd r equirements o f a n ormal d istribution. B oth h ave a p ower e fficiency o f 9 5% o r m ore w hen c ompared w ith t he t -test a nd t his i s c onsidered a dequate f or p resent p urposes. D ifferences i n t he p robability v alues o btained i n t he t wo t ests r eflect t he f act t hat t he M ann-Whitney U -test i s a r anking t est w hereas K olmogorov-Smirnov u ses t he c umulative f requency d istribution a nd f ocuses o n t he l argest d eviation b etween t he t wo s amples. T he K olmogorov-Smirnov i s t hus m ore s ensitive d ispersion a nd

t o d ifferences i n c entral t endency ( location), s kewness t han i s t he M ann-Whitney ( Siegel 1 956). T he

d ata w ere p rocessed u sing a s tandard S PSS p ackage f or ( Nie e t a l.

1 975).

4 06

t he

t wo

t ests

MEASUREMENT

O F ADZES

3 -

L eng th

H e igh t o fr e to uch U )

1 . ..

I

4 1

H e igh t o f p i ece

W id th

P LAN

LHeight of retouch ( 2)

F ORMS

2

I

3

5

4

6

F ig. A 2.3.

D iagram s howing m ethod f or m easuring a dzes.

4 07

_

MEASUREMENT O F B ACKED T OOLS

—Leng th

L eng th—

I

M hdth

W idth

L eng th

W idth

H e ight

F ig. A 2.4.

D iagram s howing m ethod f or m easuring b acked t ools.

4 08

L INEAR R EGRESSION A ND C OEFFICIENTS O F D ETERMINATION T o o btain a m easure o f h ow m uch i ncrease o r d ecrease i n o ne v ariable m ay b e e xpected f rom a u nit i ncrease i n a nother a mongst s tone a rtefact s amples, c oefficients o f d etermination ( r2) w ere c alculated f rom r egression c oefficients b y t he l east s quares r egression.

m ethod

f or

l inear

A p rogramme f rom t he H ewlett P ackard S tat P ac 1 f or t heir

H P-65 w as u sed ( Stat 1 -22A) f or a ll t he c alculations. T he v alue f or r 2 q uoted i n e ach s catter d iagram i n C hapters 5 a nd 6 c an b e i nterpreted a s t he " goodness o f f it" o f t he r egression l ine p lotted i n e ach c ase. T he s ignificance o f t he c orrelations h as b een d rawn f rom s ignificance p robabilities i n S impson e t a l. ( 1960:426). I n e ach c ase a p erfect f it w ould b e i ndicated i f r 2 = 1 . R egression

i s

u seful

i n

p rediction,

b ut a lso i n r easoning f rom

o bservations t o u nderlying m echanisms a nd i t i s f or t his r eason t hat i t h as b een a pplied h ere. I t h as b een u sed t o t est w hether t here a re s tatistically s ignificant l inear c orrelations b etween t he v ariables s elected. W here r 2 i s n ot s ignificant i t d oes n ot m ean t hat t he v ariables h ave n o d ependence o n e ach o ther, b ut r ather t hat t here i s n o r ectilinear d ependence. I t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat a h igh c orrelation d oes n ot n ecessarily d enote a c ause-and-effect r elationship b etween t he t wo v ariables, a lthough v ariables h ave b een s elected w ith a v iew t o e valuating r elationships w hich a re t hought

t o

b e c onnected i n s ome w ay d uring t he p rocess o f a rtefact m anufacture. T he r esults a re a c rude m easure o f r elationship a nd m ust b e s een a s a p reliminary s tep t owards m ore d etailed s tudies. A n o bvious p ossibility h ere i s t o t est f or c orrelations t hat a re n on-linear.

4 09

-

R EFERENCES

RE F E R E N C E S

A DAMS,

W .

Y .

1 968.

I nvasion,

d iffusion,

e volution?

A ntiquity

4 2:194-215. A HARON,

P .,

C HAPPELL,

J .

&

C OMPTON,

W .

1 980.

S table i sotope a nd

s ea-level d ata f rom N ew G uinea s upports A ntarctic i ce-surge i ce a ges.

t heory

o f

N ature 2 83:649-651.

AKAZAWA,

T .,

O DA,

S .

& Y AMANAKA,

a t echno-typological s tudy. A LESSIO, M ., A LLEGRI,

L .,

I .

T okyo:

B ELLA,

1 980.

T he J apanese p alaeolithic:

R ippu S hobo.

F .,

I MPROTA,

S .,

B ELLUOMINI,

G .,

C ALEDRONI, C ., C ORTESI, C ., M ANFRA, L ., P ETRONE, V . & F RUSCALZO, A . 1 978. U niversity o f R ome C arbon-14 d ates X V. R adiocarbon 2 0:68-78. A NDREWS,

J .

T .

d isintegration S ci.

1 979.

R .

G .

1 978.

G lacial

i nception

A nn. R ev.

e arth & p lanet.

U pper P leistocene a nd H olocene

t he s outhern C ape:

s ites. A VERY, a n

B ARRY,

a nd

6 :205-228.

A VERY, D . M . i n

&

d uring t he l ast g laciation.

U npublished D . D . M .

1 982.

A VERY,

o f

t he

S outh A frica.

D . M .

Q uaternary Q .B.

P hil.

1 983.

& L ambrechts, S .

U niversity o f S tellenbosch.

l ate

A nn.

Q uaternary

S . A fr.

M us.

P alaeoenvironmental

m ammals

s ynthesis.

t hesis:

M icromammals a s p alaeoenvironmental i ndicators a nd

i nterpretation

P rovince,

p alaeoenvironments

t he m icromammalian e vidence f rom a rchaeological

o f

t he

J .J.N.

A fr.

i n

e ds.

F ynbos

s outhern

i mplications

f ynbos r egion.

N atl S cient.

t he

C ape

8 5:183-374. o f

t he

s mall

I n D eacon, H .J., H endey,

p alaeoecology:

P rogr. R ep.

a

p reliminary

7 5:139-155.

P retoria:

C SIR. A VERY,

G .

f eatures

1 974.

O pen

f rom

t he

a rchaeol. B ull. A VERY,

G .

s hell

B each

m idden

a rea,

s ites

a nd

a ssociated

s outh-western C ape.

S . A fr.

2 9:104-114

1 975.

( Visvywers).

s tation

P early

D iscussion o n t he a ge a nd

S .

Af t.

a rchaeol.

B ull.

u se

o f

t idal

f ish-traps

3 0:105-113.

A VERY, G . 1 976. A s ystematic i nvestigation o f o pen s tation s hell m idden s ites a long t he s outh-western C ape c oast. U npublished M .A. t hesis:

U niversity o f C ape T own.

A VERY,

G .

1 977.

P aternoster m idden. A VERY,

G .

1 981.

s outh-western

R eport

o n

S . A fr.

a rchaeol.

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