The Language of the Book of Songs 9781442653801

Table of contents :
Acknowledgments
Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1. The Word
Chapter 2. Syntagma
Chapter 3. The Verbal Sentence
Chapter 4. The Determinative Sentence
Chapter 5. The Vocative Form
Chapter 6. Sentences in Distribution
Chapter 7. Substitution
Chapter 8. Miscellaneous
Chapter 9. Linguistic Strata in the Book of Songs
Appendices
List of Works Mentioned
Lexicon and Index of Words Treated at Some Length

Citation preview

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS This is the fourth volume in Professor Dobson's pioneering researches into the nature and development of Classical Chinese. The first volume, Late Archaic Chinese, appeared in 1959 and laid the foundations for a systematic and scientific study of the grammar of Classical Chinese. It described specifically the language of the 4th3rd centuries B.C. The second volume, Early Archaic Chinese, published in 1962, described the language of the 11th and 10th centuries B.C. through the decipherment of a corpus of bronze inscriptions hitherto imperfectly understood. Late Han Chinese, the third volume, appeared in 1964. In this volume the inquiry was carried into the 1st and 2nd centuries A . D . and the shift from Archaic to Classical Chinese was studied. In this, the fourth volume, the language of the Book of Songs, a classic anthology of verse, is analysed and described. The Book of Songs uniquely provides data from the 9th and 8th centuries B.C., though it ranges in its entirety from the 10th to the 7th centuries B.C. This study, together with its predecessors, and with monographs that have appeared simul­ taneously, constitutes a historical survey of the Chinese language from the 10 century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. Linguistic analysis of the text of the Book of Songs adds considerably to our knowledge of the history and development of the language. But such analysis, too, makes an important contribution to the solving of problems with which literary his­ torians are concerned. For example, much light is shed on the dating and authorship of individual pieces: it is now possible to arrange the poems in chronological order. By a study of the formulaic phrases, the history of the development of the various genres can be traced. In examining the development of prosodic devices, linguistic analysis offers much information on the origin and development of poetry in China. This book contains, in addition to an analysis and description of the language, appendices which tabulate the occurrences and distribution of the formulaic phrases, and which enumerate the departures from prose writing that Chinese poets make—the "licence" they take with language. A n index of Chinese grammatical auxiliaries is also provided, which, with similar indices in previous volumes, constitutes the most comprehensive dictionary of classical particles yet to appear. w. A. c. H. DOBSON is Professor of Chinese in the University of Toronto and Senior Fellow of Massey College. He is a graduate in Oriental Studies of Oxford, of which University he is Doctor of Letters.

L a r g e t ' a o - t ' i e h m a s k cast i n r e l i e f upon a bronze b e l l , w h i c h dates f r o m the p e r i o d of the e a r l y r i t u a l h y m n s , 11th-10th c e n t u r i e s B . C . , i n the R o y a l Ontario M u s e u m , U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto

The Language of the Book of Songs

W.A.C.H. D O B S O N Professor of Chinese and Senior Fellow of Massey College University of Toronto

UNIVERSITY OF T O R O N T O PRESS

T o the Visitor, Master and F e l l o w s of M a s s e y College

© U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s 1968 P r i n t e d i n Canada

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In p r e v i o u s w o r k s I have thanked those s c h o l a r s i n many p a r t s of the w o r l d to w h o m I a m obligated for t h e i r i n t e r e s t , help and encouragement i n the r e s e a r c h e s of w h i c h , t h i s book i s but a part. would be tedious.

T o repeat those thanks

I m u s t , h o w e v e r , place on r e c o r d the gratitude I owe to

the U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o , w i t h i n whose hospitable w a l l s most of t h i s r e ­ s e a r c h has been done.

T o the P r e s i d e n t and h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e staff I a m

indebted f o r a generous arrangement whereby I a m now able to devote the greater part of m y t i m e to r e s e a r c h .

T o the U n i v e r s i t y ' s H u m a n i t i e s R e ­

s e a r c h F u n d I a m beholden f o r the f i n a n c i a l support w h i c h they have u n ­ grudgingly p r o v i d e d i n the past. The T r u s t e e s of the M c L e a n Foundation, by a generous gift to M a s s e y C o l l e g e , have made p o s s i b l e long range planning i n r e s e a r c h , and I r e c o r d m y e s p e c i a l thanks to t h e m . T o the officers of the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s , I a m grateful f o r the patience and s k i l l which they have bestowed on m a n u s c r i p t s of a d i f f i ­ c u l t and u n f a m i l i a r k i n d .

T o M r s . Betty E a s t e r b r o o k , m y s e c r e t a r y , I

owe a s p e c i a l debt of gratitude f o r the unstinted diligence she bestows on the p r e p a r a t i o n of m y books.

M r . J a m e s C . H u i k i n d l y wrote the Chinese

characters for me. F i n a l l y , to the V i s i t o r , M a s t e r and m y colleagues the F e l l o w s of M a s s e y C o l l e g e , I owe the e n v i r o n m e n t , so c o n g e n i a í t o s c h o l a r s h i p , w h i c h the C o l l e g e p r o v i d e s .

T h i s book i s dedicated to t h e m as a token of thanks.

W . A . C . H . Dobson

Massey College, U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o . May,

1966.

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CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

v

INTRODUCTION

x

v

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

x

v

1.

A i m s and Objects The H i s t o r y of the Study The M a t e r i a l and its P r o b l e m s Method and P r o c e d u r e Method and Statement The Language of the Book of Songs T H E WORD

1.1.

The W o r d 1. Cenematic and P l e r e m a t i c W o r d s 1. 2. W o r d D e r i v a t i o n 1. R e d u p l i c a t i o n 1.1. R e d u p l i c a t i o n and C l a s s - m e a n i n g s 1.1. i . I m p r e s s i v e s 1.1. i i . E m o t i v e s 1.1. i i i . Intensives 1.1. i v . Imitative s 1.1. v . S i m i l a t i v e s 1.1. v i . Iteratives and F r e q u e n t a t i v e s 1.1. v i i . M i s c e l l a n e o u s 1. 2. Q u a s i R e d u p l i c a t i v e s 1. 3. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Q u a s i R e d u p l i c a t i v e s 1.4. Q u a s i R e d u p l i c a t i v e s and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 1.2.2. Parataxis 2 . 1 . C o n t r a s t i v e Meaning - Simple Connection 2. 2. C o n t r a s t i v e M e a n i n g - A l t e r n a t i v e Connection 2 . 3 . Identical Meaning - Simple Connection (tautological hendiadys) 2 . 4 . P a r t i a l Identity of Meaning - Simple Connection ( m o r p h o l o g i c a l hendiadys) 1. 2. 3. Hypotaxis 1. 3. Compound W o r d s and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 2.

SYNTAGMA 2.1. 2. 2. 2. 3.

Introduction The P r o c e s s e s of Syntagmatic F o r m a t i o n The P a r a t a x i c a l Syntagma 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the P a r a t a x i c a l Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s i n the B o o k of Songs 2 . 4 . The H y p o t a x i c a l Syntagma 1. The Determinative Syntagma 1.1. The Determinant W o r d 1. 2. The Determinant W o r d - P o s s e s s i v e

xv xix xxiii xxvii xxviii 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 11 12 15 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 18 20 20 20 20 22 22 22 23 24

viii

CONTENTS 1. 3. 1.4. 1. 5.

The Determinant W o r d (quasi attributes) The D e t e r m i n e d W o r d D e t e r m i n a t i o n and Spatial R e l a t i o n s 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Determinant Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs 2. D e t e r m i n a t i v e Syntagmas and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 6. Determinant W o r d s with G r a m m a t i c a l C l a s s - m e a n i n g s 1. Pronouns as Determinant W o r d s 1.1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Pronouns used D e t e r m i n a t i v e l y i n the Book of Songs 1. 2. The P r o n o u n s used D e t e r m i n a t i v e l y and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 2. The D e m o n s t r a t i v e s as Determinant W o r d s 2.1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the D e m o n s t r a t i v e s used D e t e r m i n a t i v e l y i n the Book of Songs 2. 2. The D e m o n s t r a t i v e s used D e t e r m i n a t i v e l y and V e r s i f i c a t i o n (i) The p a r a s i t i c use of the demonstratives (ii) The p a r a s i t i c use of the determinative p a r t i c l e 3. P r i v a t i v e s 3.1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the P r i v a t i v e p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs 4. Determinants of N u m b e r 4. 1. Definite N u m b e r 4.2. Indefinite use of N u m e r a l s 4. 3. Units of M e a s u r e 4 . 4 . The Quantification of E n u m e r a t e d Nouns 5. C o l l e c t i v e and R e s t r i c t i v e Determinant W o r d s 5.1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of C o l l e c t i v e s and R e s t r i c t i v e s i n the Book of Songs 6. Intensive Determinant W o r d s 6.1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Intensive Determinants i n the Book of Songs 2 . 4 . 2 . The D i r e c t i v e Syntagma 2.5. A p p o s i t i o n i n Syntagma 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of A p p o s i t i o n a l Syntagmas i n the Book of Songs 2. 6. Substitutes i n Syntagma 2. 7. Syntagma F o r m - Downgrading f r o m H i g h e r L e v e l s 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs 3.

THE VERBAL SENTENCE 3.1. 3. 2.

The V e r b a l Sentence The V e r b 1. V e r b a l Sentences i n M i n i m a l F o r m 3 . 3 . The V e r b a l Syntagma 1. M o d a l Determinants of the V e r b 1.1. Indicative 1. 2. Injunctive and H o r t a t o r y 1.3. Subjunctive

24 26 29 31 31 32 32 34 35 36 37 37 37 38 39 40 41 41 42 43 43 44 46 47 48 48 49 50 50 50 51 52 52 53 54 55 59 60 62 63

CONTENTS 1.4. 1. 5. 1. 6. 1. 7. 1. 8.

P o l a r Modal F o r m s Intensified Negatives P e r i p h r a s t i c F o r m s f o r e x p r e s s i n g Mood Mood Contextually Imposed D i s t r i b u t i o n of the M o d a l Negatives and A u x i l i a r i e s i n the Book of Songs 3 . 3 . 2 . A s p e c t i n the V e r b a l Syntagma 2. 1. P o t e n t i a l A s p e c t 2. 2. Inchoative A s p e c t 2.3. Momentary Aspect 2 . 4 . Durative o r Continuative A s p e c t 2. 5. P e r f e c t i v e A s p e c t 2. 6. C u s t o m a r y A s p e c t 2. 7. A s p e c t s of Incidence 2. 8. M i s c e l l a n e o u s A s p e c t 2. 9. A s p e c t and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 2. 10. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the A s p e c t u a l s i n the Book of Songs 3 . 1 . D e t e r m i n a t i o n s of Manner 3. 2. Deployment of the Determinants of Manner 3 . 3 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of the P a r t i c l e s of Determinants of Manner i n the Book of Songs 3. 4. The T r e a t m e n t of Manner and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 4. The State of the Agent 4 . 1 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of S . A . i n the Book of Songs 3 . 4 . The P o s t - v e r b a l E l e m e n t s 1. T r a n s i t i v e and Intransitive 2. T r a n s i t i v e V e r b s i n Causative V o i c e 3. The D i r e c t i v e - A c t i v e V o i c e 4. The D i r e c t i v e - P a s s i v e V o i c e 4 . 1 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of the P o s t - v e r b a l p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs 5. P e r i p h r a s t i c T r e a t m e n t of V o i c e 5. 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the C a u s a l p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs 6. The P e r i p h r a s t i c T r e a t m e n t of D i r e c t i o n 7. P e r i p h r a s t i c F o r m s and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 8. S p e c i a l C a s e s of P o s t - v e r b a l D i s t r i b u t i o n 9. P o l a r i t y of Mood and the P o s t - v e r b a l E l e m e n t s 10. The V e r b and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 3. 5. The Agent 1. Introduction 2. P r o n o m i n a l Agents 2 . 1 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Pronouns used A g e n t i v e l y i n the Book of Songs 3. A g e n t i a l D i s t r i b u t i v e s 3 . 1 . A g e n t i a l D i s t r i b u t i v e s (continued) 3. 2. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the A g e n t i a l D i s t r i b u t i v e s i n the Book of Songs 4. Two o r m o r e A g e n t s , acting Conjointly 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s l i n k i n g Agents i n the Book of Songs 5. Two o r m o r e Agents and R e c i p r o c i t y

ix 64 68 68 69 70 70 71 71 72 73 74 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 82 82 82 84 84 85 86 86 88 90 90 93 93 94 94 95 97 97 97 98 99 100 102 104 104 106 106

CONTENTS

X

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

One Agent and the Reflexive Delegation of Agency Conspectus of Agency Agency and V e r s i f i c a t i o n D i s t r i b u t i o n of R e c i p r o c a l , R e f l e x i v e and Delegating p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs 3. 6. The Instrument 1. D e s c r i p t i o n , P a r t i c l e s and D i s t r i b u t i o n 2. Ihgressive and R e s u l t a t i v e Instrument 3. The Y i i - w e i C o n s t r u c t i o n 4. The Instrument and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 5. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Instrumental p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs 3. 7. The Subordinate Clause 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the p a r t i c l e s of the Subordinate C l a u s e i n the Book of Songs 3. 8. Anaphora i n the V e r b a l Sentence 1. The D e m o n s t r a t i v e s and Anaphora 2. The A n a p h o r i c jSystem i n Summary 3. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Pronouns and D e m o n s t r a t i v e s used A n a p h o r i c a l l y i n the Book of Songs 3. 9. Sentential M o o d 1. M e t r i c a l W o r d s 2. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the M e t r i c a l P a r t i c l e s and the P a r t i c l e s of Sentential Mood i n the Book of Songs 3.10. T i m e and P l a c e 1. T i m e and P l a c e Indicators 2. T i m e and P l a c e Indicators i n the Summary 3. V e r s i f i c a t i o n and P l a c e and T i m e 4. D i s t r i b u t i o n of T i m e and P l a c e M a r k e r s i n the Book of Songs 3.11. Emphatic Exposure 3 . 1 2 . Accentuation 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the p a r t i c l e s of Accentuation i n the Book of Songs 2. The P a r t i c l e s of Accentuation and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 4.

THE DETERMINATIVE SENTENCE 4.1. 4.2. 4. 3.

Definition and D e s c r i p t i o n Syntax The P r o p e r t i e s of the T w o T e r m s 1. The Determinant T e r m 2. Inversion of the Determinant T e r m 3. The Determinant T e r m i n Summary 4. The Two T e r m s of the Determinative Sentence and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 4 . 4 . Qualifications of the P r e d i c a t i o n 1. Negation of the Unqualified C a t e g o r i c a l 2. E m p h a s i s or R e s t r i c t i o n upon the Unqualified C a t e g o r i c a l 3. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Copulae i n the Book of Songs

107 108 110 111 111 112 112 113 115 116 117 117 119 120 123 125 126 127 129 131 132 134 140 141 142 143 144 146 147 148 148 148 149 149 151 151 TT151 152 152 154 155

CONTENTS T o t a l Inclusion of T e r m s and C o m m o n Inclusion i n a T h i r d T e r m 4. 6. Q u a l i f i e d C a t e g o r i c a l 4. 7. M o d a l use of the Determinative Sentence F o r m 1. C o m m o n and T o t a l Inclusion i n S u m m a r y 4. 8. O c c u r r e n c e o r P r e s e n c e 1. M o d a l i t i e s and other Qualifications of Y e o u and W u 2. Y e o u as D e t e r m i n e d T e r m and V e r s i f i c a t i o n 3. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Y e o u and W u etc. , i n the Book of Songs 4. 9. W e i and F e e i as D e t e r m i n e d T e r m s - T r u t h and F a l s i t y 1. Other A s s e r t i o n s of T r u t h and F a l s i t y etc. , 2. D i s t r i b u t i o n of F e e i and W e i etc. , i n the Book of Songs 4 . 1 0 . G r a m m a t i c i z e d W o r d s i n the Determinative Sentence 1. Substitutes i n the D e t e r m i n e d T e r m 2. N u m b e r as the Determinant T e r m 3. D i s t r i b u t i o n of D e m o n s t r a t i v e s used as Determined T e r m s 4 . 1 1 . Cause and Consequence 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the C a u s a l P a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs

xi

4. 5.

5.

THE VOCATIVE FORM 5.1.

Interjections 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Interjections i n the Book of Songs 5 . 2 . Imprecations and Invocations 5.3. Vocatives 5.4. E v o c a t i v e s 6.

S E N T E N C E S IN DISTRIBUTION 6.1. 6. 2. 6. 3.

Introduction The Conjunction of Sentences Disjunctive Sequence 1. Simple Connection 2. C o n c e s s i o n 3. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Disjunctive Conjunctions i n the Book of Songs 6 . 4 . Resumptive Sequence 1. N a r r a t i v e Sequence 2. Conditioned Sequence 3. Conditioned C o n c e s s i o n 4. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Resumptive Conjunctions i n the Book of Songs 6. 5. Resultative Sequence 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Resultative Conjunctions i n the Book of Songs 6 . 6 . U n m a r k e d Sequences 7.

SUBSTITUTION 7. 1. Introduction 7. 2. The Pronouns 1. The P e r s o n a l and A n a p h o r i c P r o n o u n s

155 157 158 158 159 161 162 163 163 166 167 168 168 169 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 176 178 178 178 178 178 179 182 182 182 184 185 187 187 189 189 190 190 190 190

CONTENTS

xii 2.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Pronouns i n the Book of Songs Status Pronouns The D e m o n s t r a t i v e s 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the D e m o n s t r a t i v e s i n the Book of Songs 7. 5. The Interrogative Substitutes 1. Interrogative Substitution i n Syntagma 2. Interrogative Substitution i n the V e r b a l Sentence 1. Substitution i n the T i m e P o s i t i o n (column 1) 2. Substitution i n the P l a c e P o s i t i o n (column 2 and for the D i r e c t i v e s i n the y P o s i t i o n (column 8) 3. Interrogative Substitution i n the A g e n t i a l P o s i t i o n (column 3) 4. Substitution i n the Instrumental P o s i t i o n (column 4) 5. Substitution i n the V e r b a l Syntagma (column 5) (i) Determinations of manner (ii) A g e n t i a l state 6. Substitution for the F i r s t P o s t - v e r b a l P o s i t i o n (column 7) 3. Interrogative Substitution i n the D e t e r m i n a t i v e Sentence 1. T o t a l Inclusion of the T e r m s (line 1) 2. P a r t i a l Inclusion (line 2) 3. O c c u r r e n c e and P r e s e n c e 4. T r u t h and F a l s i t y 5. Substitution i n Cause and Consequence Sequences 6. Interrogative Substitution i n Conditioned Sequences 7. Substitution i n the P o s t - v e r b a l P o s i t i o n s f o r Special Verbs 8. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Interrogative Substitutes i n the Book of Songs 7. 6 . 1 . The Indefinite Substitute 2. T y p e s of O c c u r r e n c e (i) In syntagma (ii) In the v e r b a l sentence (iii) In the determinative sentence 3. The Indefinite use of Huoh 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Indefinite Substitutes i n the Book of Songs 4. O v e r l a p p i n g of Interrogative and Indefinite Functions 7. 3. 7.4.

2

8.

MISCELLANEOUS 8.1.

9.

Degrees of C o m p a r i s o n 1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Sheen and Kuanq i n the Book of Songs 2. Status 3. N u m b e r

L I N G U I S T I C S T R A T A I N T H E B O O K O F SONGS 9.1. 9. 2. 9. 3.

Introduction Quasi Reduplicatives Syntagmatic P a r t i c l e s 1. Simple Connection 2. P a r t i c l e s of D e t e r m i n a t i o n

193 193 194 198 198 200 202 203 204 204 205 207 207 207 208 209 210 210 211 212 213 214 214 215 216 216 216 218 218 219 220 220 221 221 222 222 223 224 224 225 225 225 226

CONTENTS 3. 4. 5.

Collectives Intensives Appositional F o r m s 9.4. Modal Particles 1. Negatives 2. P o s i t i v e Replacement M o d a l F o r m s 9. 5. A s p e c t u a l s 9. 6. Agentive State 9. 7. P o s t - v e r b a l P a r t i c l e s 9. 8. P e r i p h r a s t i c V o i c e and Mode 9.9. D i s t r i b u t i v e s 9.10. Reciprocity 9.11. Delegated A g e n c y 9.12. The Instrumental 9.13. Metrical Particles 9.14. Sentential P a r t i c l e s 9. 15. T i m e Sequence 9.16. Accentuation 9.17. Copulae etc. , 9. 18. Conjunctions 1. Disjunctive Conjunctions 2. Resumptive Conjunctions 9.19. Pronouns 9.20. Demonstratives 9. 21. A l l e g r o F o r m s 9. 22. Interrogative Substitutes 9. 23. Indefinite Substitutes 9.24. Conclusion

xiii 227 228 228 229 229 229 230 231 232 232 233 233 234 234 235 235 235 236 236 237 237 238 238 239 240 241 241 242

APPENDICES I. II. III.

The W o r d Y u n The Homogeneity of the P o e t i c T r a d i t i o n i n the Book of Songs Poetic Licence

243 247 265

LIST OF WORKS M E N T I O N E D

267

L E X I C O N A N D INDEX O F WORDS T R E A T E D A T SOME L E N G T H

271

Bands of dragons cast i n r e l i e f on a r i t u a l v e s s e l c . 11th-10th c e n t u r i e s B . C . — the p e r i o d of the e a r l y r i t u a l hymns — i n the R o y a l Ontario M u s e u m , U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto

INTRODUCTION (i) A i m s and Objects The present w o r k i s a study of the g r a m m a r of the language of the Book of Songs .

The Book of Songs

study of A r c h a i c C h i n e s e .

is a key document i n the

It has a g r e a t e r v a r i e t y of g r a m m a t i c a l a u x i l ­

i a r i e s than any other text i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e ; some of these are p e c u l i a r to the Book of Songs.

The Book of Songs too, because it spans the p e r i o d

f r o m the 11th century to the 7th century B . C . , affords a l m o s t the only m a ­ t e r i a l w h i c h attests the changes that o c c u r i n the language between the reasonably w e l l documented E a r l y A r c h a i c p e r i o d (11th and 10th c e n t u r i e s B . C . ) and the Middle and Late A r c h a i c periods w h i c h succeed t h e m .

The

present study therefore a i m s to f i l l an important gap i n our knowledge of the A r c h a i c Chinese g r a m m a t i c a l a u x i l i a r i e s ; it a l s o seeks to provide c e r ­ t a i n m i s s i n g l i n k s i n our understanding of the evolutionary p r o c e s s e s by w h i c h A r c h a i c Chinese develops f r o m O r a c u l a r and E a r l y A r c h a i c Chinese to Middle and Late A r c h a i c C h i n e s e . (ii) The H i s t o r y of the Study The present study i s a continuation of and a further stage i n , a long t e r m p r o g r a m m e of r e s e a r c h .

T h i s p r o g r a m m e began with an attempt to

devise a p u r e l y f o r m a l s y s t e m f o r d e s c r i b i n g the g r a m m a r of A r c h a i c C h i n ­ ese.

The s y s t e m was then a p p l i e d , p e r i o d by p e r i o d , i n a s e r i e s of d e ­

s c r i p t i v e studies.

T h r e e p e r i o d s w e r e set up, E a r l y , M i d d l e and Late

Archaic Chinese.

B y c o m p a r i n g the v a r i a b l e s p e r i o d by p e r i o d , the rough

shape of evolutionary change w i t h i n A r c h a i c Chinese was then sketched. B y adding a further p e r i o d — Late Han — and a further set of v a r i a b l e s , it was p o s s i b l e to observe the differences that take place between A r c h a i c Chinese on the one hand and i t s immediate s u c c e s s o r , Han Chinese on the other.

The present study adds to those of its p r e d e c e s s o r s a t r a n s i t i o n a l

p e r i o d (between E a r l y and Middle A r c h a i c ) and p r o v i d e s a s t i l l further set of v a r i a b l e s , m a k i n g p o s s i b l e a c l o s e r study of the evolution of the language between E a r l y A r c h a i c and Middle and Late A r c h a i c C h i n e s e .

It a l s o f i l l s

out further the inventory of A r c h a i c Chinese g r a m m a t i c a l a u x i l i a r i e s . A t

xvi

INTRODUCTION

an ultimate stage, when a l l of the documents of A r c h a i c Chinese have been s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a n a l y s e d , the p e r i o d i z a t i o n can be r e f i n e d , the changes m o r e a c c u r a t e l y o b s e r v e d , perhaps a c c u r a t e l y dated and the study w i l l then c u l minate i n an h i s t o r i c a l g r a m m a r of C l a s s i c a l C h i n e s e , f r o m its " c l a s s i c a l " beginnings i n A r c h a i c Chinese to the wide v a r i e t y of f o r m s w h i c h , though ostensibly patterned on c l a s s i c a l m o d e l s , i n fact e m e r g e d and c o m p r i s e what i s g e n e r i c a l l y c a l l e d " C l a s s i c a l C h i n e s e .

11

The present study i s thus only meaningful when taken w i t h its p r e d e cessors,

In

Late A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , the p o s s i b i l i t y of d e s c r i b i n g the g r a m 1

m a r of A r c h a i c Chinese by s t r i c t l y f o r m a l means was e x p l o r e d .

By "for-

m a l m e a n s " i s meant a s y s t e m the features of w h i c h a r e observable i n the m a t e r i a l i t s e l f , a s y s t e m w h i c h i s s t r i c t l y i n t r i n s i c to the language and one that does not depend on reference to t r a n s l a t i o n into other languages, d r a w its c a t e g o r i e s f r o m the languages of d e s c r i p t i o n .

or

Analytical proced-

ure was b a s e d on the observation that the A r c h a i c Chinese " w o r d " (which o

i s incapable of inflexion or of change of phonological shape 2) v a r i e s i n its r e f e r e n c e and function as it a s s u m e s v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h other " w o r d s . " C l a s s e s were set up i n t e r m s of sets of r e l a t i o n s h i p s

--"frames"

o r " m a t r i c e s " — i n w h i c h the otherwise unchanging w o r d c a n be o b s e r v e d to o c c u r .

The whole was c o n c e i v e d i n a h i e r a r c h y of three l e v e l s , i n w h i c h ,

at each l e v e l , elements are r e c o g n i z e d of w h i c h the l o w e r l e v e l constitutes an element at the next l e v e l h i g h e r .

In such a conception of syntax, the

g r a m m a t i c a l a u x i l i a r i e s of A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , the "empty w o r d s " of c o n ventional d e s c r i p t i o n s , can be c l a s s i f i e d and c h a r a c t e r i z e d not only at the l e v e l , but at the point i n the l e v e l , at w h i c h they o c c u r . 3

1

See W. A . C . H . Dobson, Late A r c h a i c Chinese - a G r a m m a t i c a l

Study (Toronto, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s , 1959) abbreviated hereafter as L A C . 2

W i t h the exception of phonological change at the l e x i c a l l e v e l as a

p r o c e s s of w o r d d e r i v a t i o n , see L A C Appendix 1. 3

See W. A . C . H . Dobson, " C l a s s e s de mots ou c l a s s e s d i s t r i b u t i o n -

n e l l e s en c h i n o i s a r c h a ï q u e " i n L . H a m b i s (ed. ) Melanges de Sinologie offerts à M o n s i e u r P a u l D e m i é v i l l e , ( P a r i s , B i b l i o t h è q u e de 1'Institut des Hautes Etudes C h i n o i s e s , X X , 1966) pp. 27-33.

xvii

INTRODUCTION

In L A C , this s y s t e m was a p p l i e d i n undertaking a d e s c r i p t i o n of the g r a m m a r of a s a m p l i n g of A r c h a i c Chinese authors of the 4th and 3 r d c e n ­ turies B . C.

T h i s language was c h a r a c t e r i z e d as Late A r c h a i c Chinese

(abbreviated hereafter as L A C ) , In E a r l y A r c h a i c C h i n e s e 4 t h e degree of p r e d i c t a b i l i t y of the s y s t e m was tested by applying it to a body of m a t e r i a l d r a w n f r o m dateable bronze i n s c r i p t i o n s of the 11th and 10th c e n t u r i e s B . C.

The language of these i n s c r i p t i o n s was l i t t l e understood.

The s y s t e m ,

evolved f r o m m a t e r i a l the meaning of w h i c h was f a m i l i a r , was thus tested as to its usefulness on m a t e r i a l w h i c h had not the drawback (from an a n a l ­ y s t ' s point of view) of f a m i l i a r i t y .

B y d r a w i n g up an inventory of the g r a m ­

m a t i c a l a u x i l i a r i e s of t h i s c o r p u s of i n s c r i p t i o n m a t e r i a l and by c o m p a r i n g it with a s i m i l a r l y produced inventory of the a u x i l i a r i e s of l i t e r a r y texts reputedly of the same date, it was p o s s i b l e to c o n f i r m the c o r r e c t n e s s of the attribution of an E a r l y Chou date for the Wuu Gaw

traditionally

thought to be the "most genuine" of the books of the Book of Documents (Shu Jing_ In an appendix to E A C

5

features of E A C and L A C w e r e p l a c e d side by

side i n o r d e r to e x p l o r e the nature of evolutionary change i n the language f r o m the 11th-10th c e n t u r i e s to the 4 t h - 3 r d c e n t u r i e s B . C . m a k i n g a d e s c r i p t i v e study of the S p r i n g and A u t u m n A n n a l s

F u r t h e r by a text p o i s e d

i n t i m e between E A C and L A C and set up p r o v i s i o n a l l y as Middle A r c h a i c Chinese (abbreviated hereafter as M A C ) , it was p o s s i b l e to e x p l o r e the nature of e v o l u t i o n a r y change f u r t h e r .

With the features of three samplings

of three p e r i o d s w i t h i n A r c h a i c Chinese c o m p a r e d , d i s c e r n i b l e shifts and changes w e r e apparent as the language p r o g r e s s e s f r o m E a r l y to Middle and f r o m M i d d l e to Late A r c h a i c C h i n e s e . 4

These shifts and changes have

See W. A . C . H . Dobson, E a r l y A r c h a i c Chinese - a D e s c r i p t i v e

G r a m m a r (Toronto, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s , 1962) abbreviated hereafter as E A C . 5 See E A C Appendix 1, " T o w a r d s a H i s t o r i c a l T r e a t m e n t of the G r a m m a r of A r c h a i c C h i n e s e . "

6

See W. A . C . H . Dobson, "Studies i n M i d d l e A r c h a i c C h i n e s e : (i)

The S p r i n g and A u t u m n A n n a l s " T ' o u n g P a o , v o l . L , (1963) pp. 221-38.

xviii

INTRODUCTION

been d e s c r i b e d i n depth and d e t a i l i n a study of one g r a m m a t i c a l feature.

7

F r o m the happy s u r v i v a l of a v e r y lengthy paraphrase of a Late A r ­ chaic text w r i t t e n i n Late Han l i t e r a r y s t y l e , i t was p o s s i b l e to observe w i t h f a i r p r e c i s i o n the shifts and changes i n the language i n i t s t r a n s i t i o n 8 f r o m Late A r c h a i c to Han. Because the p a r a p h r i s t a l s o left documents w r i t t e n i n " c l a s s i c a l " s t y l e , i t was further possible to make the important d i s t i n c t i o n between (i) a n a r t i f i c i a l language i n Han t i m e s i n w h i c h authors d r a w on texts f r o m the Confucian Canon as a pool of precedent f o r a c h i e v i n g a style r e m i n i s c e n t of antiquity, and (ii) a l i t e r a r y style used, f o r e x a m p l e , i n w o r k s of exegesis i n w h i c h a r c h a i s m s a r e avoided and i n w h i c h r e s o r t i s confined to c o n t e m p o r a r y Han usage.9 The f o r m e r w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as Han C l a s s i c a l Chinese and the l a t t e r as H a n L i t e r a r y Chinese, In H a n C l a s s i c a l w r i t i n g s the a u x i l i a r i e s of A r c h a i c Chinese appear often i n b l u n t ­ ed usage o r even p a r a s i t i c a l l y , drawn i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y f r o m E a r l y , M i d d l e and Late A r c h a i c documents i n the Confucian Canon. The end of the A r c h a i c p e r i o d , and the emergence of, as i t w e r e , two s t r e a m s of development i n the l i t e r a r y language, the one a r c h a i s i n g and d e ­ r i v a t i v e and the other spontaneous and keeping a b r e a s t of l i n g u i s t i c change, i s m a r k e d by a shift m o r e fundamental than any of the e v o l u t i o n a r y changes that mark the progression from E a r l y to Middle and f r o m M i d d l e to Late Archaic.

The A r c h a i c - H a n shift i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i n v e r s i o n of the

importance of the r o l e played by the "empty w o r d s . " In A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , that r o l e i s dominant, the "empty w o r d s " m a k i n g v i t a l d i s t i n c t i o n s and m a r k i n g the f r a m e s w h i c h endow " f u l l w o r d s " w i t h t h e i r g r a m m a t i c a l v a l ­ ues, In Han C h i n e s e , the " f u l l w o r d s " tend t o w a r d compounding and to r e ­ s t r i c t i o n i n s y n t a c t i c a l deployment, w h i l e the "empty w o r d s " tend to o b ­ s o l e s c e n c e , r e d u c t i o n i n v a r i e t y and to the emergence of a l l - p u r p o s e f o r m s . 7

See W. A . C . H . Dobson " T o w a r d s a H i s t o r i c a l T r e a t m e n t of the

G r a m m a r of A r c h a i c C h i n e s e : (i) E A C yffeh becomes L A C c h i " H a r v a r d J o u r n a l of A s i a t i c Studies, v o l . X X I I I , (1961) pp. 5-18. o

See W . A . C . H . Dobson, Late Han Chinese - A Study of the A r c h a i c -

Han Shift (Toronto, U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s , 1964) 9

See Late Han C h i n e s e , Appendix II.

INTRODUCTION

xix

F r o m t h i s study it became c l e a r that the Han usage of c l a s s i c a l p a r t i c l e s offers few i n s t r u c t i v e c l u e s as to the r o l e and function of those p a r t i c l e s i n the A r c h a i c p e r i o d . Thus it was p o s s i b l e to sketch the m a i n evolutionary features of the language f r o m E a r l y A r c h a i c to Late Han.

The present study seeks to p r o ­

vide a refinement i n the e v o l u t i o n a r y p i c t u r e , by adding to the e x i s t i n g data a t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d — the p e r i o d between E a r l y A r c h a i c and M i d d l e and Late A r c h a i c . The Language of the Book of Songs, t h e r e f o r e , a s s u m e s the postulates of p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s .

The s y s t e m of g r a m m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s , its t e r m i n o l ­

1 0

ogy, the scheme of o r g a n i z a t i o n of the d e s c r i p t i v e statement etc. , are a l l part of an i n t e g r a l and consistent whole.

T h i s study i s only understandable

i n the t e r m s i n w h i c h its p r e d e c e s s o r s w e r e made. ( i i i ) The M a t e r i a l and i t s P r o b l e m s The Shy J i n g

or Book of Songs i s an anthology c o m p r i s i n g

some three hundred and five p i e c e s .

The pieces range i n subject matter

f r o m songs of c o u r t s h i p and m a r r i a g e , d a i l y life and the l i k e , to the d y n a s ­ t i c hymns of the r u l e r s

T

ancestral shrines.

The anthology i n something l i k e

its present f o r m was c e r t a i n l y i n existence i n the t i m e of Confucius (551479 B . C . ), for Confucius advocates its study and c i t e s frequently f r o m 11 Thereafter c i t a t i o n s f r o m the Book of Songs are c o m ­ T h e Songs n

n

monplace i n such authors as M e n c i u s (c. 390-305 B . C . ), M i c i u s (c. 486-390 B . C . ) and Hsttn T z u (c. 298-238 B . C . ) . In the T s o C h u a n , a c h r o n i c l e that purports to d e s c r i b e life f r o m 721 B . C . to 463 B . C . , quotations f r o m the Book of Songs o c c u r frequently i n c o u r t l y c o n v e r s a t i o n , m u c h as i n 18th century E n g l a n d , L a t i n authors w e r e quoted among c u l t u r e d people i n f u l l confidence that the h e a r e r s w e r e f a m i l i a r with the s o u r c e .

C l e a r l y the

F o r a c o m p r e h e n s i v e l i s t of these s t u d i e s , see L i s t of W o r k s

1 0

Mentioned, pp. 265-7. 1

1

See A r t h u r W a l e y , A n a l e c t s of Confucius, (London, 1938) B k . II. 2;

B k . II. 18; B k . III. 2; B k . m . 8; B k . III. 20; B k . V n . 10; B k . V I H . 3; B k . VIII. 8; B k . VIII. 15; B k . I X . 26; B k . XI. 5; B k . X I I . 10; B k . XIII. 5; B k . X I V . 42; B k . X V . 10; B k . X V I . 13; and B k . X V I I . 10.

xx

INTRODUCTION

Book of Songs w e r e a l r e a d y p a r t of the c l a s s i c a l c u r r i c u l u m i n the educatior of the r u l i n g c l a s s e s i n Late C h o u t i m e s .

F r o m the 6th century B . C . o n -

w a r d s t h e r e f o r e , the existence of the Book of Songs i s r e a s o12 nably w e l l attested f r o m the commonplace of the citations made f r o m i t . F o r t e a c h e r s l i k e Confucius and M e n c i u s the Book of Songs was part of the t r a d i t i o n handed down f r o m antiquity; documentary evidence, as it w e r e , of life under the m o d e l kings and divine sages.

A s s u c h , the Book of

Songs was thought to contain m o r a l w i s d o m and p r e c e p t s . meant that it had to be i n t e r p r e t e d a l l e g o r i c a l l y .

T h i s at t i m e s

A n importunate l o v e r

came to s y m b o l i z e an a m b i t i o u s p o l i t i c a l r i v a l , a devoted wife a l o y a l m i n i s t e r and the l i k e and so g r e w up the e s o t e r i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Book of Songs r e f l e c t e d i n the c o m m e n t a r i e s of Han s c h o l i a s t s .

The Book of

Songs as p a r a b l e s thus became entrenched i n the Confucian t r a d i t i o n .

This

use of the Book of Songs as a s c r i p t u r e , l e d , i n Han t i m e s , to the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of the anthology m u c h as we know it today i n the Confucian C a n o n .

The

Book of Songs became a c l a s s i c , In a m o r e m o d e r n v i e w , thanks l a r g e l y to 13 the w o r k of Granet and Waley13, the Book of Songs are taken to be the songs and l i t u r g i c a l pieces that a l i t e r a l interpretation suggests t h e m , i n o r i g i n , to have been.

T h i s has given r i s e to two schools of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , that of

the t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s (the Book of Songs as s c r i p t u r e ) and that of the moderns (the Book of Songs as poetry). The anthology f r o m a v e r y e a r l y date was d i v i d e d into four p a r t s , Sung

the

" l i t u r g i c a l h y m n s , ' " the T a Y a and H s i a o Y a

"the g r e a t e r and l e s s e r Y a , " and the K u o F e n g

"the songs of the

s t a t e s . " The Sung are subdivided into t h r e e , the l i t u r g i c a l hymns of the R o y a l House of Chou -- the Chou Sung

12

the l i t u r g i c a l hymns of the

J a m e s L e g g e , i n h i s " P r o l e g o m e n a " to The Book of P o e t r y , ( - C h i n -

ese C l a s s i c s , v o l . iv) c i t e s among evidences for the existence of the Book of Songs i n the Late A r c h a i c p e r i o d , 31 poems c i t e d i n the K u o YÜ of w h i c h one only i s not i n the present Book of Songs, 219 poems c i t e d i n the T s o Chuan of w h i c h 13 only are not i n the present Book of Songs, i b i d . pp. 3ff. 13

See A r t h u r W a l e y , The Book of Songs, (London, 1937) and M a r c e l

Granet, F ê t e s et chansons ancienne de l a C h i n e , ( P a r i s , 1911).

INTRODUCTION

xxi and those of the

defeated R o y a l House of Shang -- the Shang Sung

The Kuo F e n g a r e a r r a n g e d

F e u d a l State of L u — the L u Sung

a c c o r d i n g to the reputed r e g i o n of o r i g i n of its p i e c e s under the n a m e s of t h i r t e e n feudal states and the feudal holdings of the Duke of Chou — the Chou Nan

and the Duke of Shao — the Shao Nan

m e m b e r s of the House of C h o u .

senior

T h i s suggests that i n d i v i d u a l pieces i n the

anthology might be e i t h e r of r e g i o n a l provenance, o r originate i n the m e t r o ­ politan a r e a of the c o u r t .

F o r the student of language, t h i s r a i s e s the

p o s s i b i l i t y of evidence f o r r e g i o n a l differences of language i n the t e x t s , and, i n the language of popular songs and temple h y m n s , the p o s s i b i l i t y of evidence f o r h i e r a t i c and demotic f o r m s . 1 4 The structure of the Book of Songs offers some evidence f o r the d a t ­ ing of i n d i v i d u a l p i e c e s .

F r o m i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e , the Chou Sung appears

to date f r o m the e a r l y y e a r s of the Chou dynasty.

C e r t a i n other p i e c e s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the Kuo F e n g , can be dated, e i t h e r f r o m i n t e r n a l evidence or f r o m accounts of t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n i n e a r l y a u t h o r s , to the 7th century. Such as it i s , t h i s evidence would suggest that the Book of Songs contains pieces dating v a r i o u s l y f r o m the 11th to the 7th c e n t u r i e s B . C .

A s a docu­

ment f o r l i n g u i s t i c investigation t h e r e f o r e , the Book of Songs might be s u s ­ pected of containing evidence of r e g i o n a l differences ("dialect"); of s o c i a l differences (courtly and popular f o r m s ) ; and of p e r i o d i c differences.

On

the other hand the Book of Songs i s an anthology c o l l e c t e d by someone at some date and there i s an equal chance that the anthologist o r anthologists may have edited the text, r e m o v e d r e g i o n a l i s m s , e x c i s e d a r c h a i s m s o r r e ­ duced the language of the whole to some n o r m , perhaps the language of the C h o u c a p i t a l o r of c o u r t l y c i r c l e s .

One of the r e s u l t s of s u b m i t t i n g the

Book of Songs to l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s might be to d i s c o v e r if l i n g u i s t i c e v i d ­ ence c a n throw light on these m a t t e r s . The Book of Songs a r e a l l w i t h the exception of s i x o r seven pieces i n rhyme. 14

The happy s u r v i v a l of a r h y m e d text of such length and of so e a r l y

14 cf. ,

A n a l e c t s , V I I . 17 "The o c c a s i o n s upon w h i c h the M a s t e r used

c o r r e c t pronunciation w e r e when r e c i t i n g the Book of Songs o r the Books and when p r a c t i c i n g r i t u a l a c t s " (Waley). " C o r r e c t p r o n u n c i a t i o n " i s yea yan

xxii

INTRODUCTION

a date has made p o s s i b l e , thanks l a r g e l y to the monumental r e s e a r c h e s of K a r l g r e n , the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n b r o a d outline of the phonology of A r c h a i c Chinese.

One consequence of t h i s i s that K a r l g r e n , b y e l i m i n a t i n g those

g l o s s e s w h i c h a r e p h o n o l o g i c a l l y i n a d m i s s i b l e f r o m the l a r g e a c c r e t i o n of g l o s s e s that have gathered around the text of the Book of Songs, has been able to provide a r e a s o n a b l y w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d text.

Versification too,

throws light on the s t r u c t u r e of the anthology as a whole.

K a r l g r e n has

o b s e r v e d that the Kuo F e n g i s " m o r e advanced and perfected i n i t s v e r s i f i 15 c a t i o n " than the other three sections. T h i s suggests, whatever e l s e m a y be the differences between the four p a r t s of the Book of Songs, a l a t e r date for the Kuo F e n g than f o r the other three. But while r h y m i n g makes the Book of Songs a valuable source of data for the l i n g u i s t c o n c e r n e d with phonology, f r o m the point of view of c o m ­ parative s y n t a c t i c a l studies i t s being a text i n v e r s e r a i s e s p r o b l e m s . T o what extent d i d poets and song m a k e r s manipulate s t r u c t u r e s a r t i f i c i a l l y i n o r d e r to s e c u r e a r h y m e o r to achieve m e t r i c a l r e g u l a r i t y ?

It i s part

of the p r o b l e m w h i c h the present w o r k attempts to solve to d i s c o v e r the e x ­ tent to w h i c h "poetic l i c e n c e , " ( i . e . departure f r o m the n o r m s of prose w r i t i n g as found i n other A r c h a i c texts with w h i c h the language of the Book of Songs i s to be c o m p a r e d ) inhibits the use of the Book of Songs as a d o c u ­ ment i n the h i s t o r y of A r c h a i c C h i n e s e . T h e r e a r e two further features of the text of the Book of Songs that c o n c e r n the l i n g u i s t .

The f i r s t i s a matter of o b s e r v a t i o n that o c c u r r e d to

the w r i t e r i n c o m p i l i n g a d i c t i o n a r y of the g r a m m a t i c a l a u x i l i a r i e s of A r -

15

"The Kuo F e n g i s m o r e advanced and perfected i n i t s v e r s i f i c a t i o n

than the other three S h i ' k i n g s e c t i o n s : it has fewer exceptions f r o m the r e g u l a r r h y t h m i c a l pattern than they and a s t r i c t e r r i m i n g , w i t h fewer hedge r i m e s .

G r a m m a t i c a l l y it i s l i k e w i s e somewhat m o r e advanced: it

l a c k s , f o r instance (but for an i s o l a t e d exception), some g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d s w h i c h play an important r o l e i n S i a o - y a , T a - y a and Sung: " B e r n h a r d K a r l g r e n , "Tones i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e " B M F E A

XXXII, (1960) pp. 113-42.

INTRODUCTION chaic C h i n e s e .

1 6

xxiii

The Book of Songs has a r i c h e r v a r i e t y of a u x i l i a r i e s i n

total than any other A r c h a i c Chinese text.

T h i s suggests two p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

The f i r s t i s that t h i s might be accounted f o r as an a d m i x t u r e of r e g i o n a l and m e t r o p o l i t a n u s a g e s , o r of h i e r a t i c and demotic f o r m s .

The second,

which would a c c o r d w i t h the evidence for dating mentioned above, i s that the Book of Songs contains pieces f r o m different p e r i o d s and that it i s the retention of the d i s t i n c t i v e features of each p e r i o d that accounts f o r the above-average v a r i e t y of a u x i l i a r i e s i n the text as a whole.

The second

feature of c o n c e r n to the l i n g u i s t i s that the Book of Songs contains a u x i l i ­ a r i e s not encountered i n other t e x t s , a u x i l i a r i e s w h i c h a r e p e c u l i a r to the Book of Songs.

The Book of Songs t h e r e f o r e , uniquely attests c e r t a i n

f o r m s w h i c h are e s s e n t i a l i n any complete inventory of the a u x i l i a r i e s of Archaic Chinese.

But not only s o , if the putative date of the Book of Songs

does range f r o m the 11th century to the 7th, the Book of Songs i s v i r t u a l l y our only source document i n A r c h a i c Chinese for the 9th and 8th c e n t u r i e s B.C. In s u m m a r y , t h e r e f o r e , the text of the Book of Songs, c o n s i d e r e d as a l i n g u i s t i c informant, has an importance because of the strategic p o s i t i o n it holds i n the t i m e scale of A r c h a i c Chinese documents and because of the l i n g u i s t i c features it uniquely p r e s e r v e s . text r a i s e s p r o b l e m s .

But as a l i n g u i s t i c informant the

It i s u n c e r t a i n l y dated and of u n c e r t a i n provenance,

but both dating and provenance a r e p r o b l e m s upon w h i c h l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s might be expected to throw l i g h t , (iv)

Method and P r o c e d u r e In the present study, the language of the Book of Songs has been a n a -

l y s e d a c c o r d i n g to the p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d i n Late A r c h a i c Chinese17. 1 7

16 T h i s d i c t i o n a r y i s i n p r e p a r a t i o n and w i l l , i t i s hoped, appear shortly. 17 I have not, i n p r e v i o u s w r i t i n g s , d e s c r i b e d the p h y s i c a l p r o c e d u r e s followed and it might be of interest to r e c o r d here the p r a c t i c e I have f o l ­ lowed.

F i r s t of a l l , the e n t i r e text i s t r a n s c r i b e d sentence by sentence on

to hand operated punch c a r d s .

The sentences a r e then analysed and the

g r a m m a t i c a l data punched on the c a r d s by a s y s t e m of p r o g r a m m i n g based

xxiv

INTRODUCTION

In the c o u r s e of t h i s a n a l y s i s , it was d i s c o v e r e d that although the Book of Songs has a r e p e r t o r y of g r a m m a t i c a l p a r t i c l e s f a r exceeding that of other A r c h a i c t e x t s , these are not d i s t r i b u t e d at r a n d o m throughout the Book of 18

Songs, but o c c u r i n "sets. "18 F u r t h e r it was o b s e r v e d that these " s e t s " c o r r e s p o n d r o u g h l y to the four p a r t s into w h i c h the Book of Songs are d i ­ vided.

These " s e t s " were then c o m p a r e d w i t h other known " s e t s " i n A r c h ­

aic Chinese.

It was then seen that the "set" i n the Chou Sung c o r r e s p o n d e d

most c l o s e l y to the "set" t y p i c a l of the language of the i n s c r i p t i o n s dateable c . 11th and 10th c e n t u r i e s B . C . , c h a r a c t e r i z e d as E a r l y A r c h a i c Chinese and d e s c r i b e d i n E A C .

The "set" i n the Kuo F e n g , by c o n t r a s t ,

corres­

ponded m o r e c l o s e l y to the known " s e t s " of authors of the 4th and 3 r d c e n ­ t u r i e s B . C . , d e s c r i b e d i n Late A r c h a i c C h i n e s e .

T h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n of

" s e t s " of a u x i l i a r i e s i n the Book of Songs strongly suggests that i n i t s four p a r t s there are four h i s t o r i c a l language s t r a t a .

B y correlating them with

known and dateable s t r a t a of A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , it should be p o s s i b l e to date

on the c a t e g o r i e s d e s c r i b e d i n L A C .

B y w o r k i n g i n t h i s w a y , it i s p o s s i b l e

to c o n t r o l a great volume of m a t e r i a l and to d i s s e c t it i n a l a r g e v a r i e t y of ways.

It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e to ensure that a l l of the data are accounted f o r .

A s f a r as the Book of Songs i s c o n c e r n e d , e v e r y l i n e has been p r o c e s s e d , and a l l the data are accounted f o r and c a n be found somewhere i n t h i s de scription. 18

I c a l l a complete inventory of the p a r t i c l e s of M e n c i u s , f o r e x a m ­

p l e , a "set. " A s i m i l a r inventory of the p a r t i c l e s of Chuang T z u , c o m p a r e d w i t h the "set" i n M e n c i u s enables us to enumerate i n p r e c i s e p a r t i c u l a r , the s i m i l a r i t i e s and differences between the language of M e n c i u s and Chuang Tzu.

How these differences are accounted f o r , whether as i d i o s y n c r a c i e s

of i n d i v i d u a l authors, as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of different d i a l e c t s , o r as d i f f e r ­ ences of p e r i o d i s a m a t t e r for further r e s e a r c h , In the i n t e r i m , it i s u s e ­ ful to speak of a "set" of a u x i l i a r i e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a text, without p r e ­ judging whether they r e p r e s e n t a d i a l e c t , or a p e r i o d , In the Book of Songs, the inventory of p a r t i c l e s of the Chou Sung and those of the Kuo F e n g c o n ­ t r a s t s i n a number of important w a y s and thus they belong to c o n t r a s t i n g "sets."

INTRODUCTION

xxv

the four p a r t s of the Book of Songs w i t h some p r e c i s i o n .

This possibility

was e x p l o r e d i n an a r t i c l e " L i n g u i s t i c E v i d e n c e and the Dating of the Book 19 In that a r t i c l e a number of known " p a i r s " of E A C f o r m s w i t h of Songs. "19 their L A C counterparts,

(for e x a m p l e , E A C keh

were

and L A C kee

examined i n r e l a t i o n to t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the Book of Songs.

By examin­

ing these d i s t r i b u t i o n s it became c l e a r that the Sung, Y a and Kuo F e n g were i n a descending o r d e r , the Sung b e i n g the e a r l i e s t and the Kuo F e n g the latest i n p e r i o d . It was further p o s s i b l e to test these findings and to refine t h e m by a different sort of c o m p a r i s o n .

L i n g u i s t i c data cast on bronze v e s s e l s has

the advantage o v e r the data d e r i v e d f r o m t e x t s , i n that i n a genuine i n s c r i p ­ t i o n , there i s no p o s s i b i l i t y of c a r e l e s s e d i t i n g , emendation, o r i n t e r p o l a ­ t i o n of the text by l a t e r hands.

Many of the v e s s e l s on s t y l i s t i c grounds and

on the i n t e r n a l evidence of t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s c a n be dated.

T h i s makes it

possible to date roughly the introduction of a g r a m m a t i c a l innovation, either of f o r m o r of s t r u c t u r e , by its e a r l i e s t attested o c c u r r e n c e i n a dateable inscription.

The f i r s t o c c u r r e n c e of a g r a m m a t i c a l innovation i n the Book

of Songs, t h e r e f o r e , was c o m p a r e d w i t h its f i r s t attested o c c u r r e n c e on bronze i n s c r i p t i o n s and thus dated.

Dating d e r i v e d i n t h i s way c o n f i r m e d

the dating a r r i v e d at by c o m p a r i n g known " p a i r s " of a u x i l i a r i e s .

T h i s made

p o s s i b l e the f o l l o w i n g w o r k i n g hypothesis as to dating:

P a r t of the Book of Songs

K a r l g r e nkarlgren;s ' s Bronze Period

Chou Sung

Chou I

Ta Y a

Chou II

Hsiao Y a

Chou I I I I / I V III/V

Kuo F e n g

Date c . 11th-10th cents. B . C . c.10th-9th cents. B . C .

bc

c . 9th-8th cents. B . C . c . 8th-7th cents. B . C .

Nothing i n these findings suggested that the l a r g e r e p e r t o r y of a u x i l i ­ a r i e s of the Book of Songs and t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n " s e t s " among i t s four p a r t s was accountable for i n any other way than by s i m p l e h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u 19

See W . A . C . H . Dobson " L i n g u i s t i c E v i d e n c e and the Dating of the

Book of Songs" T ' o u n g P a o , v o l . L 1 , (1964) pp. 322-34.

xxvi

INTRODUCTION

t i o n i n the language.

The differences were c l e a r l y a question of p e r i o d .

The Kuo F e n g w h i c h , because of the reputed v a r i e t y of r e g i o n s of o r i g i n of the pieces w h i c h the t i t l e s of i t s subdivisions suggest, might be thought most l i k e l y to b e t r a y r e g i o n a l differences, p r o v e d to be homogeneous as a whole and to c o n t r a s t , as a w h o l e , w i t h the other three p a r t s . no suggestion of d i a l e c t differences.

T h e r e was

F u r t h e r , because of a tendency f o r

the l a t e r p a r t s of the Book of Songs to "echo" whole l i n e s f r o m the e a r l i e r p a r t s and because the c o m p a r a b l e bronze i n s c r i p t i o n f o r m , p e r i o d by p e r i ­ o d , c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h its counterpart i n the Book of Songs, the notion of a h i e r a t i c and demotic difference to account for the l a r g e v a r i e t y of a u x i l i ­ aries seems impossible.

Such a t h e o r y would have to suppose that the

language of bronze i n s c r i p t i o n s develops f r o m the h i e r a t i c to the demotic form. In the c o u r s e of a n a l y s i s , the p r o b l e m of a s c e r t a i n i n g the p r e c i s e functions of those a u x i l i a r i e s that o c c u r uniquely i n the Book of Songs, ( i . e. those that are not attested elsewhere i n A r c h a i c Chinese s o u r c e s ) was i s o ­ lated and a r e a s o n sought f o r t h i s phenomenon i n a study published under the t i t l e "Studies i n the G r a m m a r of E a r l y A r c h a i c C h i n e s e : ( i i i ) The w o r d 20 y a n . "20 In t h i s study it was d i s c o v e r e d that those features w h i c h a r e unique i n the Book of Songs o c c u r r e d p r e - e m i n e n t l y i n the Y a p a r t s , In the e l u c i ­ dation of the p r e c i s e functions of the w o r d y a n that these f o r m s w e r e t r a n s i t i o n a l .

it was possible to show

They p r o v i d e d a l i n k between known

features of E A C and known features of L A C .

T h i s further c o n f i r m e d the

findings d e s c r i b e d above as to dating and shewed the two Y a p a r t s c l e a r l y to be i n the language of a p e r i o d of t r a n s i t i o n .

The T a Y a of an e a r l i e r and

the H s i a o Y a of a l a t e r p e r i o d . The findings of these two s t u d i e s , t h e r e f o r e ,

suggested that the most

useful procedure i n a n a l y s i s would be to t r e a t the Book of Songs, not as a single l i n g u i s t i c w h o l e , but as four s t r a t a , to be kept separately i n d e s c r i p ­ t i o n and to be c o n s i d e r e d as h i s t o r i c a l s t r a t a , by the c o m p a r i s o n of w h i c h , the r o l e of the language of the Book of Songs i n the h i s t o r y of A r c h a i c C h i n ­ ese c a n be m o r e c l e a r l y seen. 20

See W . A . C . H . Dobson "Studies i n the G r a m m a r of E a r l y A r c h a i c

C h i n e s e : ( i i i ) The w o r d y a n " T ' o u n g P a o , L 1 , (1964) pp. 295-321.

INTRODUCTION

xxvii

In the p r o c e s s of a n a l y s i s , it was found n e c e s s a r y to r e - t r a n s l a t e the Book of Songs i n its entirety. Though there are s e v e r a l e x c e l l e n t t r a n s í a 21 tions of the Book of Songs f r o m w h i c h an i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r can gain some notion of the content of i n d i v i d u a l p i e c e s , the v a r i e t y of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p o s ­ sible of t h e m and some notion of them as p o e t r y , none of them quite s e r v e s the purpose of g r a m m a t i c a l e x p o s i t i o n , In the f i r s t p l a c e , a t r a n s l a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d f r o m w h i c h e x a m p l e s can be c i t e d i n the g r a m m a r p r o p e r w h i c h i l l u s t r a t e the point under d i s c u s s i o n — the function of an a u x i l i a r y , the arrangement of a structure and the l i k e — even i f t h i s r e s u l t s i n a s a c r i f i c e a c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the function of the a l l - i m p o r t a n t g r a m m a t i c a l of felicity in English, In the second place, careful parsing of each line and a u x i l i a r i e s t h r o w s new l i g h t on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the text. t i o n , at b e s t , i s m e r e l y suggestive.

But t r a n s l a ­

Its n e c e s s i t y i s i m p o s e d by the use of

a language of d e s c r i p t i o n , i n t h i s case E n g l i s h .

Since E n g l i s h and Chinese

a r e languages w i t h a v e r y different set of l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , it i s i m p o s s i b l e even w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of so c a l l e d " l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n " to equate l i n g u i s t i c features.

With these l i m i t a t i o n s i n m i n d and for the p u r ­

poses d e s c r i b e d above t h e r e f o r e , t r a n s l a t i o n of the e x a m p l e s c i t e d i n the g r a m m a r i s taken f r o m t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n made e x p r e s s l y f o r the purpose. (v)

Method and Statement A s has a l r e a d y been mentioned above, this study i s a further stage i n

a l o n g - t e r m p r o g r a m m e of r e s e a r c h .

It m a k e s c e r t a i n p r o c e d u r a l a s s u m p ­

t i o n s , i s conducted by c e r t a i n a n a l y t i c a l canons and follows a consistent pattern i n d e s c r i p t i v e statement.

F o r a d e s c r i p t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n of t h e m

the r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d to the "Introductions" of Late A r c h a i c Chinese and E a r l y A r c h a i c Chinese and to the a r t i c l e s c i t e d e a r l i e r w h i c h d e a l w i t h t h e o ­ r e t i c a l and p r o c e d u r a l m a t t e r s . Systems of r o m a n i z a t i o n and conventional signs and abbreviations follow the pattern s t a n d a r d i z e d i n the above-mentioned w o r k s , In this w o r k r e f e r e n c e s to the text of the Book of Songs a r e to the e d i t i o n published w i t h the Shy J i n g concordance i n the H a r v a r d - Y e n c h i n g Institute S i n o l o g i c a l Index 21

F o r e x a m p l e , those of W a l e y , K a r l g r e n and L e g g e , see L i s t of

W o r k s Mentioned, pp. 265-7.

xxviii

INTRODUCTION

Series.

The poems a r e n u m b e r e d i n t h i s text i n the o r d e r of the Mao e d i ­

t i o n , f r o m 1-305.

References i n the g r a m m a r to e x a m p l e s a r e to the poem

number and the number of the l i n e i n the poem. D e s c r i p t i o n takes the f o r m of a r e p o r t on the r e p e r t o r y of g r a m m a t i ­ c a l a u x i l i a r i e s i n the Book of Songs given i n " s e t s " c o r r e s p o n d i n g to i t s four p a r t s , the Sung, the two Y a and the Kuo F e n g . D e s c r i p t i o n i s developed i n the h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r followed i n L A C , p r o c e e d i n g f r o m the w o r d to the syntagma, the v e r b a l sentence, the d e t e r ­ minative sentence, inter sentential features and substitution.

A t the c l o s e

of each c h a p t e r , o r at other appropriate p l a c e s , a s u m m a r y i s made of the c o n c l u s i o n s w h i c h c a n be d r a w n f r o m the evidence p r o v i d e d by these " s e t s " f o r the evolution of g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m s i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e .

The whole i s

s u m m a r i z e d i n Chapter 9. (vi) The Language of the Book of Songs In the c o u r s e of a n a l y s i n g and d e s c r i b i n g the g r a m m a t i c a l features of the Book of Songs, c e r t a i n of the p r o b l e m s confronting the analyst at the outset i n the Book of Songs find a solution.

These p r o b l e m s are "of what

date i s the m a t e r i a l ? " "of what sort i s the l a n g u a g e ? " and "does v e r s i f i c a ­ t i o n preclude the use of the Book of Songs as a l i n g u i s t i c i n f o r m a n t ? " A s to the date of the m a t e r i a l , l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s shews that the l a n ­ guage of the four p a r t s of the text i s m u t u a l l y contrastive and c o m p a r i s o n w i t h other A r c h a i c Chinese m a t e r i a l suggests the contrast to be one of p e r i ­ od.

T h i s places the dating between the 11th and 7th c e n t u r i e s B . C .

dating does not conflict w i t h i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e , o r w i t h t r a d i t i o n .

Such a

Further,

b y dating the f i r s t o c c u r r e n c e s of g r a m m a t i c a l innovations the dating c a n be r e f i n e d : the Sung to the 1 1 t h - 1 0 t h , the T a Y a to the 10th-9th, the H s i a o Y a to the 9th-8th and the Kuo F e n g to the 8th-7th c e n t u r i e s B . C . A s to the question of the s o r t of language found i n the Book of Songs, l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s does not r e v e a l d i a l e c t d i f f e r e n c e s , o r s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a ­ tion.

On the c o n t r a r y , the language of the Book of Songs has a homogeneity, 23 as the constant " e c h o i n g " of l i n e s f r o m one poem to another suggests. 22 H a r v a r d - Y e n c h i n g Institute S i n o l o g i c a l Index S e r i e s , Supplement no. 9, A Concordance to Shih C h i n g ( r e p r i n t , T o k y o , 1962). 23 See Appendix II.

INTRODUCTION

xxix

T h i s points to a c e n t r a l poetic t r a d i t i o n i n the use of language to w h i c h either a l l poets s u b s c r i b e d , o r the c o l l e c t o r s and r e c o r d e r s of these poems used, o r both.

T h e r e i s a t r a d i t i o n , late and difficult to substantiate,

that

the e a r l y Chou kings c o l l e c t e d the songs the people sang, as a sort of Gallup P o l l of popular f e e l i n g .

If the theory w e r e advanced that the Book

of Songs came into being i n some such way as t h i s — as a c o l l e c t i o n of pieces added to century by century and r e c o r d e d i n the language of the court of the p e r i o d — it would not be at v a r i a n c e with the l i n g u i s t i c evidence. The anthology was i n g e n e r a l c i r c u l a t i o n i n the c o u r t s of the c i t y states f r o m the 6th century onwards.

The notion, then p r e v a l e n t , that the

Book of Songs contained l e s s o n s f o r p r i n c e s suggests that the purpose f o r w h i c h they w e r e o r i g i n a l l y c o l l e c t e d , might w e l l have been, what t r a d i t i o n a s s e r t s that it w a s , to provide a s o r t of guide to public life for r u l e r s . A s to the question of the p r o p r i e t y of u s i n g a r h y m e d text, i n the c o u r s e of a n a l y s i s it was p o s s i b l e to m e a s u r e the extent to w h i c h s t r u c t u r e s o c c u r w h i c h a r e not attested elsewhere i n A r c h a i c Chinese texts.

These

a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n Appendix III. The extent to w h i c h t h i s happens i s quite small.

It i s not i n the nature of a language i n w h i c h d i s t r i b u t i o n plays so

important a part i n i n v e s t i n g otherwise g r a m m a t i c a l l y uncommitted w o r d s with g r a m m a t i c a l v a l u e s , to p e r m i t of v e r y m u c h l i c e n c e i n the a s s e m b l i n g of s t r u c t u r e s without m a t e r i a l l y affecting the sense.

Since, too, the major

point of contrast between one p e r i o d and another i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e i s the o c c u r r e n c e and the use of g r a m m a t i c a l a u x i l i a r i e s , it s e e m s f a i r l y c l e a r that such interference does not enter i n any m a t e r i a l way into the f o r m s of poetic l i c e n c e found i n the Book of Songs, by w h i c h a r h y m e i s a s s u r e d , o r a metre regularized.

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THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

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CHAPTER T H E

1. 1.

1

W O R D

The W o r d The w o r d , i n so f a r as A r c h a i c Chinese i s concerned and as defined

for the purpose of the present s e r i e s of g r a m m a t i c a l analyses of A r c h a i c Chinese documents, i s a morpheme o r two m o r p h e m e s so d i s t r i b u t e d that it f o r m s a single element i n a syntagma, or i n a sentence,

hi Archaic

Chinese s c r i p t , the morpheme (which never o c c u r s as a phonological unit, i n a m o r e c o m p l e x f o r m than i n i t i a l consonant (or consonantal c l u s t e r ) / vowel a n d / o r consonantal vowel/consonant) i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a single and unique s i g n .

A w o r d may be r e p r e s e n t e d by a single s i g n , or by two s i g n s ,

d i s t i n g u i s h e d , i n t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n , as a single w o r d and a compound w o r d respectively. 1.1. 1.

Cenematic and P l e r e m a t i c W o r d s

W o r d s are c l a s s i f i e d as p l e r e m a t i c and cenematic by the mode of their distribution.

P l e r e m a t i c w o r d s are o p e r a t i o n a l l y a m b i v a l e n t ,

1

that

i s to s a y , they o c c u r indifferently at a l l e l e m e n t a l d i v i s i o n s of the sentence, except at " m o d a l i t y " and "copula. " Depending on the k i n d of " f r a m e " i n w h i c h they are d i s t r i b u t e d , such w o r d s m a y be v e r b s , nouns, of v e r b s o r determinants of nouns.

determinants

These functions are not predictable

when the w o r d i s i n i s o l a t i o n , as for example i n its c i t a t i o n f o r m . t i c w o r d s , by c o n t r a s t , o c c u r i n fixed and predictable p o s i t i o n s . the " g r a m m a t i c a l a u x i l i a r i e s " of the language.

Cenema­ These are

A l a r g e part of g r a m m a t i c a l

a n a l y s i s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h the f o r m and function of t h i s c l a s s of w o r d . 1. 2.

Word Derivation The p r o c e s s e s of w o r d d e r i v a t i o n

1

2

2

T h i s i s an operational postulate.

i n A r c h a i c Chinese are additive,

See L A C 1. 3. 2. footnote 21.

" D e r i v a t i o n , " that i s , i n a d e s c r i p t i v e , not i n an h i s t o r i c a l sense.

F o r h i s t o r i c a l d e r i v a t i o n , see L A C , Appendix 1, p a r a . d. , B e r n h a r d

4

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

that i s to say, a l l w o r d s other than single w o r d s are compounds of two of some k i n d o r another. A m o n g compound w o r d s , there are those d e r i v e d by r e d u p l i c a t i o n , by p a r a t a x i s and by hypotaxis. 1. 2. 1. R e d u p l i c a t i o n Compound w o r d s d e r i v e d by r e d u p l i c a t i o n are of two k i n d s .

The

i d e n t i c a l r e d u p l i c a t i v e , d e r i v e d by gemination, as f o r example y arm-y arm î a n - , î a n "the s w a l l o w " (28.1); and the b r o k e n r e d u p l i c a t i v e , i n w h i c h there i s phonological d i s s i m i l a t i o n i n one m e m b e r . i s of two types.

Dissimilation

The f i r s t , i n w h i c h the i n i t i a l consonantal element i s d i f f ­

e r e n c e d , a c h i e v i n g a r h y m e , as for e x a m p l e , s h a u r - y a w

*diok-

giok "peony" (95.12); and the second, i n w h i c h the i n i t i a l consonantal e l e ­ ment i s i d e n t i c a l , the differencing o c c u r r i n g i n the f i n a l element, a c h i e v i n g an effect of a l l i t e r a t i o n , as f o r e x a m p l e , i - u e i

i e r - . iwar

" w o o d - l o u s e " (156. 19). 1. 2 . 1 . 1 .

R e d u p l i c a t i o n and C l a s s - m e a n i n g s

R e d u p l i c a t i o n i s a m o r p h e m i c p r o c e s s and c r e a t e s w o r d s with c e r t a i n f a i r l y c l e a r l y defined c l a s s - m e a n i n g s .

A m o n g r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n the Book of

Songs w h i c h determine nouns and v e r b s are (i) i m p r e s s i v e s , w i t h the c l a s s m e a n i n g of " g i v i n g an i m p r e s s i o n of"; ( i i ) é m o t i v e s , w i t h the c l a s s - m e a n i n g "to have a f e e l i n g of, " "to experience the emotion of"; ( i i i ) i n t e n s i v e s , with the c l a s s - m e a n i n g " i n an intense degree"; (iv) i m i t a t i v e s, with the c l a s s m e a n i n g of "sounding l i k e " (onomatopoeia) p a r t i c u l a r l y of sounds w h i c h are r e p e t i t i v e , or continuous, such as i m i t a t i o n s of the sound of d r u m s beating, c a r r i a g e wheels r u m b l i n g and the l i k e ; and (v) s i m i l a t i v e s , with the c l a s s m e a n i n g "appearing to r e s e m b l e " "as though" for attributes used f i g u r a t i v e ­ ly.

A m o n g other r e d u p l i c a t i v e s are (vi) i t é r a t i v e s and f r é q u e n t a t i v e s , with

the c l a s s m e a n i n g " d e r i v e d f r o m actions and states i n a r e p e t i t i v e p a t t e r n , succeeding each other"; and ( v i i ) m i s c e l l a n e o u s .

Many of the (perhaps

K a r l g r e n " W o r d F a m i l i e s i n C h i n e s e " B M F E A 5 (1953) pp. 9-120; and G . B . Downer " D e r i v a t i o n by Tone-change i n C l a s s i c a l C h i n e s e " B S O A S 22 (1959) pp. 258-90 and a l s o observations i n footnote 9 to 1. 2 . 1 . 1. i .

THE WORD

5

f a m i l i a r ) names of plants, b i r d s , insects and a n i m a l s are d e r i v e d by r e 3 duplication. 1. 2 . 1 . 1 . i . I m p r e s s i v e s R e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n this c l a s s have the general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c not so much of designating an attribute, as of d e s c r i b i n g the u s e r s i m p r e s s i o n s 4 on being confronted by such an attribute. !

Examples (i) " g i v i n g an i m p r e s s i o n of l u x u r i a n c e or of density - p a r t i c u l a r l y of f o l i a g e , of r i c h n e s s - of a p p a r e l , of bushiness - as i n fur etc., etc. " 5 *tsieng-tsieng "so f l o u r i s h i n g " - of the l u - c h u

Ching-ching plant (55. 11). Tsang-tsang

*ts ang-ts ang "so t h i c k and t a l l " - of r e e d s f

f

and r u s h e s (129. 1). 3

These c l a s s - m e a n i n g s are not, of c o u r s e , m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e .

Intensives i n *-ang " v e r y b r i g h t " are used as s i m i l a t i v e s "as though b r i g h t " > " i l l u s t r i o u s . " Imitatives are often f r é q u e n t a t i v e s .

It i s p o s s i b l e , though

difficult to c o n c e i v e , that a l l that i s meant by the Han glossarists* maw by w h i c h the determinative reduplicate i s defined, could be m e a n i n g ­ f u l l y c o m p r i s e d i n a single definition i n E n g l i s h .

But l a c k i n g such a d e f i n i ­

t i o n , some i l l u s t r a t i v e e x a m p l e s a r r a n g e d under the headings " i n t e n s i v e s " " s i m i l a t i v e s " " é m o t i v e s " and the l i k e , give the best account i n E n g l i s h that I find p o s s i b l e of the c l a s s - m e a n i n g of determinative r e d u p l i c a t i o n . has l i s t e d the r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n the Book

Jou Faa-gau

of Songs by K a r l g r e n s phonological c l a s s e s i n " R e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n the Book T

of O d e s , " A S . 34 (1963) pp. 661-98. 4

Han s c h o l i a s t s d i s t i n g u i s h i n l e x i c o g r a p h i c a l definition between an "chyau t a l l

attribute (for e x a m p l e , chyau gau yee f

t a l l " on the one hand, and a maw f

!

T

i s gau

for e x a m p l e , j i e - j i e gau maw yee

" i i e - j i e means g i v i n g an i m p r e s s i o n of height, of l o f t i n e s s , etc. " on the other. 5 W o r d s of t h i s k i n d are defined as maw maw glossarists.

by Han

6

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS *tsi8r-tsior " s o t h i c k " - of the leaves of the c l o t h -

Chi-chi

plant (2. 3) and of r e e d s and r u s h e s (129. 9). *piwad-piwad " s o t h i c k " - of the leaves of the

Bey-bey poplar (140. 2). Sheu-sheu

* s i o - s i o "so r i c h " - of the leaves of the pear

(119.2). Chuu-chuu

* t s i o - t s i o "so r i c h " - of the leaves of the !

T

t r i b u l u s (209.1), " l u x u r i a n t " - of clothing (150. 2). Iu-iu i

* z i o - z i o " r i c h " - of the profusion of the m i l l e t c r o p

(209. 5). (ii) " g i v i n g an i m p r e s s i o n of t a l l n e s s , of height, of l o f t i n e s s , of being h e l d h i g h , e t c . , " Chyau-chyau

* g i o g - g i o g " h i g h " - of a woodpile (9. 9) and T

T

of a nest i n a t r e e (155.18). Jiau-jiau yeou-jiau A u r -aur

i

* k i o g - k i o g " v e r y t a l l " - of weeds (102. 2) cf. , 7 *giug-kiog " t a l l " - of l a r g e h o r s e s (57. 17). *ngog-ngog " v e r y t a l l " - of a n a d m i r e d m a n

(57. 15). Jie -jie

* g i a t - g i a t " v e r y t a l l " - of r e e d s and r u s h e s T

?

(57. 26). Jye-jye < Nieh-nieh

*g iat-g iat " v e r y t a l l " - of weeds (102. 6). T

T

*ngiat-ngiat " t a l l " - of l a d i e s w i t h high coiffures

(57. 27). Jieh-jieh

*kiat-kiat "of being h e l d h i g h " - of flags and

banners (53. 1). ( i i i ) " g i v i n g an i m p r e s s i o n of profusion, of plentifulness, of abund­ ance, " p a r t i c u l a r l y of c r o p s , but a l s o of l u x u r i a n c e of d r e s s and the like.

8

W o r d s of this k i n d a r e defined as gau maw

by Han

glossarists. 7

F o r r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n yeou, see 1. 2. 1. 2. W o r d s of t h i s k i n d a r e defined as shenq-maw

glossarists.

by Han

THE WORD

7

*tsog-tsag " p l e n t i f u l " - of c o c k l e - b u r g r o w i n g

Tsae-tsae

(3.1) - of plantains g r o w i n g (8.1) - of r e e d s and r u s h e s (129.17); " l u x u r i a n t " - of garments (150. 6). *ngiag-ngiag " t h i c k and p l e n t i f u l " - of g r o w i n g

Yi-yi{ m i l l e t (211. 8). 9 Biau-biau

*piog-piog "so m a n y " - of the b i t s of h o r s e s

i n a l a r g e cortege (57.18). Biau-biau

*piog-piog "so n u m e r o u s " - of e s c o r t s i n a

l a r g e cortege (105.14). Chyu-chyu

* g i o - g i o " i n p r o f u s i o n " - of eating v e s s e l s at !

!

a feast f o r nobles (135. 2). 1. 2. 1. 1. i i .

Emotives

R e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n t h i s c l a s s have the general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of d e s c r i b ­ i n g f e e l i n g s , emotions and the l i k e , w i t h the c l a s s - m e a n i n g "to have a f e e l ­ i n g of, to experience the emotion of. "

9

B i a u - b i a u o c c u r s i n the Book of Songs w r i t t e n with v a r i o u s " r a d i ­

c a l s " of w h i c h t h i s and the example following are two.

In d e c i p h e r i n g the

s c r i p t i n w h i c h the Book of Songs i s w r i t t e n , d i s t i n c t i o n must be made b e ­ tween (i) the same morpheme r e p r e s e n t e d by a s i g n under v a r i o u s r a d i c a l s , as f o r example w i t h b i a u - b i a u .

(ii) the same morpheme r e p r e s e n t e d by

different signs a s , for e x a m p l e , n i - n i / n i i - n i i , ( o c c u r r i n g as both * n i a r - n i a r , " l i k e abundant r a i n , " used i n 173.14 of dew f a l l i n g ,

and

i n 105. 6 of r e i n s dangling and i n 246. 4 of the fronds of r u s h e s i n profusion and ( i i i ) the same s i g n standing for two m o r p h e m e s , as f o r e x a m p l e , y a n n *. i a n - , i an " s w a l l o w " (28. 1) and yann-yann (

yann

"at

e a s e " (205. 19). It s e e m s f a i r l y c l e a r that among r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n w h i c h the Book of Songs i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r i c h , groupings a r e p o s s i b l e among r e d u p l i c a t i v e s w h i c h have both phonological and r e f e r e n t i a l elements i n c o m m o n .

Certain

of these groupings a r e suggested i n the s e l e c t i o n of e x a m p l e s , but a c o m ­ plete study of h i s t o r i c a l d e r i v a t i o n i s beyond the purposes of a d e s c r i p t i v e grammar.

8

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Examples (i) "to have a f e e l i n g of sadness, of g r i e f , or unease. " Dau-dau

*tog-tog "of anguish" i n "In m y h e a r t , I f e e l

anguish" (142.4); "of p a i n " i n " A w e a r y h e a r t w i l l give y o u p a i n " (102.4). Tsau-tsau

*ts og-ts og "to f e e l g r i e f " i n "I think of y o u and T

T

a m g r i e v e d " (229. 19). Yau-yau

*diog-diog "to feel unease" i n "In the depths of m y

heart I f e e l unease" (65. 4). * t s i o g - t s i o g " g r i e f - s t r i c k e n " i n " M y sad

Cheau-cheau

T

T

heart i s g r i e f - s t r i c k e n " (26.19). 1. 2 . 1 . 1. i i i .

Intensives

R e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n this c l a s s have the general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of d e s i g ­ nating an attribute i n an intense o r superlative degree. Examples (i) " l i g h t " and thus " v e r y l i g h t , " " b r i g h t , " " b r i l l i a n t , " " s h i n i n g b r i g h t , " " g l i t t e r i n g , " " d a z z l i n g " and m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , " i l l u s t r i o u s , " " m a j e s t i c , " "august. "

1

0

* m i a n g - m i a n g " s h i n i n g b r i g h t l y " - of Heaven

Ming-ming

on H i g h (207. 1), "shedding b r i g h t n e s s " - of Heaven (236. 1), " d a z z l i n g " - of a k i n g (263. 1). hig-ing Iang-iang

*iang-iang " b r i l l i a n t " - of white clouds (229. 5). ) *. i a n g - . iang " b r i l l i a n t " - of banners and flags

(168. 20 and 177. 30). Hwang-hwang M o r n i n g Star < Hwang-hwang

*g wang-g wang " s h i n i n g b r i g h t l y " - of the T

T

" g l i t t e r i n g " - of an equipage (236. 50). *g wang-g wang " b r i l l i a n t " - of the c o l o u r s !

T

of f l o w e r s (163.1), " m a j e s t i c " - of a k i n g (249. 9), "august" - of the nobles (299.45), - of an ancestor (300. 45).

10

W o r d s of this k i n d are defined as m i n g shenq maw

by Han g l o s s a r i s t s .

THE WORD

9

*tiad-tiad " s h i n i n g b r i g h t " - of the M o r n i n g Star

Shi-shi (140. 8).

*tiad-tiad " s h i n i n g b r i g h t l y " - of a t o r c h (182. 8).

Shi-shi

* l i a t - l i a t " i l l u s t r i o u s " - of a noble (304.14),

Lieh-lieh

" b l a z i n g " - of f i r e (304. 39). (ii) " m a n y " and thus " v e r y m a n y , " " n u m e r o u s , " " i n p r o f u s i o n , " " i n great abundance" and m e t a p h o r i c a l l y "magnanimous, generous. " Jenn-jenn

*tian-ti9n " v e r y many" - of the sons of a p r i n c e

(11. 2), - of progeny (5. 4), "generous" - of a feudal l o r d (19. 5). Shen-shen

* s i e n - s i e n " i n p r o f u s i o n " - of locusts (5. 2).

Shen-shen

* s i e n - s i e n " n u m e r o u s " - of troops (163. 3).

Shen-shen

* s i e n - s i € n " n u m e r o u s " - of deer (257. 66). ) *xmw8ng-xmwang " i n such n u m b e r s " - of l o ­

Hung-hung

custs (5. 6), " i n such s w a r m s " - of f l y i n g insects (96. 9). 1. 2. 1. 1. i v .

Imitative s

R e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n this c l a s s have the general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of s i m u ­ l a t i n g the noises and sounds of acts and objects.

They are onomatopoeic.

Examples (i) J i n g l i n g , t i n k l i n g n o i s e s , as of b e l l s , jades o r c h i m i n g stones. Tsanff-tsanphorses

T

* t s i a n g - t s i a n g " j i n g l e " - of the b e l l s on T

!

b i t s (302. 14).

Tsang-tsang horses' bits

* t s i a n g - t s i a n g " j i n g l e " - of the b e l l s on !

T

(178.21).

Chiang-chiang

i *ts i a n g - t s iang " j i n g l e " - of the b e l l s on f

!

h o r s e s b i t s (260. 54 and 261.43). 1

Iang-iang

*. i a n g - . iang " j i n g l e " - of c a r r i a g e b e l l s (283.4).

Chiang-chiang horses

T

* t s i a n g - t s i a n g " j i n g l e " - of the b e l l s on !

!

b i t s (182. 5) - of b e l l s b e i n g s t r u c k (208.1) - of c h i m e stones

and flutes (274. 9), " t i n k l e " - of the jades w o r n at the sash (83. 10 and 130.11). (ii) L a s h i n g and t h r a s h i n g n o i s e s , as of f i s h l a s h i n g t h e i r t a i l s , b i r d s t h r a s h i n g t h e i r w i n g s , and of the s p l a s h i n g sound of a seine net thrown and f a l l i n g on the water.

10

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Po-po

*pwât-pwât "lashing

Huey-huey

11

- of f i s h t a i l s (57. 25).

* x w â d - x w â d " t h r a s h i n g " - of phoenix wings

(252. 27). Huoh-huoh

* x w â t - x w â t " s p l a s h i n g " - of thrown f i s h nets

(57. 24). ( i i i ) R u m b l i n g , r o l l i n g n o i s e s as of d r u m s being beaten, c a r r i a g e wheels r u m b l i n g on r o a d s etc. Iuan-iuan

*. i w e n - . iwen "sound of d r u m s " (178. 35) (301. 7).

Ian-ian

*. i w e n - . iwen "sound of d r u m s " (298.16).

Tyan-tyan

* d i e n - d i e n "sound of d r u m s " (178. 36). ?

Lin-lin

!

* l i e n - l i e n " r u m b l i n g " - of c a r r i a g e wheels (126.1).

(iv) Pounding and thumping n o i s e s , as of axes and h a m m e r s being used. Jeng-jeng (

*teng-teng "thump, thump" - of h a m m e r s d r i v i n g

pegs ( 7 . 2 ) , " r i n g i n g " - of axes f e l l i n g t r e e s (165.1). Deng-deng

*tang-tang "thump-thump" - of e a r t h b e i n g

tamped (237. 33). 1. 2. 1. l . v . S i m i l a t i v e s W o r d s a r e f o r m e d by r e d u p l i c a t i o n w i t h the c o m m o n c l a s s - m e a n i n g of " a p p e a r i n g as though" " g i v i n g an i m p r e s s i o n of b e i n g " u s u a l l y i n some m e t a p h o r i c a l sense i n w h i c h attributes a r e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m one object for w h i c h they a r e p r o p e r to another to w h i c h t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n i s m e r e l y f i g u r a ­ tive. Examples "to b i n d , " and thus l i t e r a l l y , j i o w - j i o w * k i o g - k i o g

(i) J i o w I

"bound w i t h r o p e " - as of sandals (107.1) and c h o u r - m o u * d i o g - m l i o g " w e l l - t i e d " - as of bundles of k i n d l i n g (118.1) but a l s o !

!

m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , "as though t i e d , " "to act with r e s t r a i n t , " as i n s h i o u * x i ô g - x i ô g - of the r e s t r a i n e d behaviour of the good

shiou i

man when m a k i n g m e r r y , (114. 24) and i o u - i o u

*. i ô g - , i ô g -

of behaving w i t h r e s t r a i n t when extending t e r r i t o r y (304. 28). *d ok "to w a s h , s c r u b , s c o u r " and thus jwo-jwo

(ii) Jwo

!

d ô k - d ô k "as though s c o u r e d o r w a s h e d , " hence " s l e e k " - of deer f

f

THE WORD

11

(242.9), " g l i s t e n i n g " - of b r e a s t p l a t e s (259.32), " s c i n t i l l a t i n g " - of the s p i r i t u a l i t y of a c i t y (305. 28) cf. , also tzuoh "washed r i c e " and tzuoh-tzuoh {

*TSAK,

*TSAK-TSAK 'LIKE WASHED

r i c e , " hence " g l i s t e n i n g w h i t e " used of stones washed i n a s t r e a m *xok-xok " g l i s t e n i n g " - of the

(116.2) and shyue-shyue plumage of white b i r d s (242. 10). ( i i i ) Chong

*t iung " r u s h against" and so f

"as though

bumping a g a i n s t , " "pounding" - of a sad h e a r t , ( F a Yen) cf. , c h o n g chong

* t i o n g - t i o n g , "pounding" - of a sad heart (14.4 and !

f

168. 36). 1. 2. 1.1. v i . I t é r a t i v e s and F r é q u e n t a t i v e s W o r d s are f o r m e d by r e d u p l i c a t i o n w i t h the c o m m o n c l a s s - m e a n i n g of " d e r i v i n g f r o m actions o r states i n a repetitive pattern succeeding each other. " Examples Por-suo ( Chiu-chiu

* b w a - s a "twist and t u r n " - as i n a dance (137.4). f

*kiwo-kiwo "to look t h i s way and that" > " d i t h e r -

i n g , i n a f l u r r y " (100.10), > "cautious, watchful" (114. 8). Pwu-fwu

* b i w o - b i u k "to c r a w l on hands and k n e e s " (in f

!

o r d e r to help someone, ) > "to e x e r t e v e r y effort t o " (35. 32). Chyr-chwu

* d i e g - d i u "to shuffle the feet" "pace to and T

T

f r o " > "as of one hesitating i n i n d e c i s i o n " (42.4). *siar-diar "loiter, dilly-dally" > "linger awhile"

Chi-chyr (138. 2). Sue i - s u e i

*sniwar-sniwar "proceed slowly" "prowl about,"

i n cautious fashion - of a fox (63. 1), i n s l y fashion - of a fox (101. 2). Farn-farn

* p i w á m - p i w á m "to drift w i t h no set p u r p o s e " T

T

of m e n i n a boat (44. 2) - of a d r i f t i n g boat (176.13 and 222. 33). J a u - j a u ( ^8 Í8

) *tiog-tiog "to b e c k o n , " "to s u m m o n by w a v i n g the

hand" - of a f e r r y m a n (34. 13). 1. 2 . 1 . 1. v i i .

Miscellaneous

Many of the (perhaps f a m i l i a r ) names of plants and t r e e s , b i r d s and i n s e c t s are f o r m e d by r e d u p l i c a t i o n .

12

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Examples Foou-yii

* b i u g - z i a g "the p l a n t a i n " (2. 1).

Huan-lan

*g wan-g wan "the vine bean" (60.1).

!

T

!

* b i w o - s o "name of a t r e e " (? m u l b e r r y ) (84.1).

Fwu-su i

T

* n i o - l i o " m a d d e r " (89. 2 and 93. 11).

Ru-lu

*diok-giok "peony" (95. 12).

Shaur-yaw

* t s i ô g - l i ô g "the pepper plant" (117.1).

Jiau-liau Luh-bor

*liok-pok "name of t r e e " (132. 8). * l i o g - l i a u "name of b i r d " (37.14).

Liu-li Yann-yann (

*. i á n - ian "the s w a l l o w " (28. 1).

Chyou-chyi i

I * d z i o g - d z i a r "the t r e e - g r u b " (57. 10).

Tsang-geng

) *ts ang-kang "the o r i o l e " (154.15) (156.41)

T

f

(168. 43). * s i ë t - s i u ë t "the c r i c k e t " ( 1 1 4 . 1 , 154. 51).

Shi-shuay

Other e x a m p l e s of nouns l o r m e d by r e d u p l i c a t i o n are Chiing-kuang

* k i w e n g - k i w a n g "an open basket" (3. 2, T

T

20. 10). Dih-donq 1. 2. 1. 2.

*tiad-tung "the r a i n b o w " (51. 1).

Quasi Reduplicatives

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d to i d e n t i c a l r e d u p l i c a t i o n i s a feature i n the Book of Songs, whereby a w o r d used a t t r i b u t i v e l y either p r e c e d e d or followed by yeou *giug,

11

o r by c h y i

* k i a g , o r preceded by sy

*sieg, or

*siag i s , to a l l intents and p u r p o s e s , interchangeable with the 12 attribute i n identical reduplication.

by sy

1 1

12

See a l s o 4. 8. Note 2. for hour "Interchangeable" i n the sense that the line Iou s h i n chong-chong o c c u r s i n 14.4 and 168. 30, while Iou-shin yeou-chong o c c u r s i n 31. 8, both w i t h the meaning " m y sad heart

pounds i n agitation. " Interchangeable too, i n the sense that such f o r m s i n Han p a r a p h r a s e s and g l o s s e s are frequently defined by t h e i r i d e n t i c a l r e ­ duplicative f o r m , as for example Jena Shvuan s \ !

guang yeou-huey

gloss on Y e o u

(35.45), n a m e l y , Guang-guang r a n ,

THE WORD

13

Examples (i)

Yeou-X *giug-giwar " g l i t t e r i n g " - as of a r e d flute

Yeou-woei

* g i w a r - g i w e r " b r i l l i a n t " - of f l o w e r s

(42. 7) cf. , woe i-woe i (164. 2). Yeou-jiau cf. , j i a u - j i a u

*giug-kiog " v e r y t a l l " - of l a r g e h o r s e s (57.17) * k i o g - k i o g " v e r y t a l l " - of weeds growing

(102. 2). Yeou-saa

*giug-S€r "as though s p r i n k l e d " > " g l i s t e n i n g

c l e a n " - of a new tower (43. 5) cf. , the compound saa-sao * s e r - t i o g " s p r i n k l e d and swept" (156. 31, 165. 19 and 256. 29). Yeou-lann

*giug-glan " s h i n i n g b r i g h t " - of the M o r n i n g Star

(82.4) cf. , Mao C o m m e n t a r y . Yeou-woei

*giug-diwar "the c r y of the pheasant" (34. 6)

L M T D s. v. gives w o e i - w o e i as " c r y of the pheasant" c i t i n g the Wen Hsuan. (ii) X - y e o u Shiou-yeou { shiou-shiou

*xiog-giug "sedate" - of nobles (283. 6) cf. , * x i o g - x i o g " r e s t r a i n e d , sedate" - of the good

m a n (114. 24). Beau-yeou i (iii)

*biog-giug " f a l l i n g " - of plums (20.1).

Chyi-X

Chyi-jiing

*ki8g-kliang "far distant" - of a d r i f t i n g boat

(44. 2). Chyi-tang

*kiag-t ang "noise of d r u m s beating" (31. 1).

Chyi-leuan (

) * k i a g - b l i w a n "loveable, endearing" as i n J i n q -

!

neu c h y i - l e u a n { huey-huey r a n i n 262.10.

" A maiden endearing (42. 5) cf. , Guang-guang, i n fact,

T h i s i s w e l l d i s c u s s e d by Wang Shean (

occurs

" S h y - j i n g jong

gen c h o r n g - y a n tzuoh-yonq shiang-dang-de, Y e o u - t z y h shyh, C h y i - t z y h shyh, S y - t z y h shyh, her S y - t z y h s h y h " i (1959, pp.

9-43).

14

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K OF SONGS " E n d e a r i n g young g i r l " (218. 2).

Sy-leuan j i h neu

* k i a g - l i e t " t r e m b l i n g " (131. 8).

Chyi-lih (iv)

X-chyi

Chi-chyi chi

i

* t s i a r - k i a g "feel c o l d , c h i l l y " (27. 14) cf. , C h i ­ T

i n 90. 1 and 204. 5 w i t h same meaning. * x â n - k i a g " s u n - s c o r c h e d " (69. 2) cf. , hann-hann,

Hann-chyi

same meaning, i n M o - t z y y . * k a d - k i a g "sound of s i g h i n g " (69.4).

Kay-chyi

?

(v) S y - X * s i e g - g w a n g " t i n k l i n g " - of gems (178. 23) cf. ,

Sy-hwang

!

hwang-hwang

* g w a n g - g w à n g " t i n k l i n g sound" - of an o r c h e s r

?

t r a of b e l l s and d r u m s (274. 8, 280. 9) and i a n g - i a n g

*. i a n g -

. iang " t i n k l i n g " - of c a r r i a g e b e l l s (283.4). Sy-pyn

* s i e g - b i e n " p r e s s i n g " - of a national situation T

(257. 16). Sy-jaw

* s i e g - d i o g "so s h a r p " - of hoes (291. 9). !

Sy-tzang

*sieg-tsang "good" - of h o r s e s (297. 8).

(vi) S y - X Sy-hwang

* s i a g - g w â n g "august" - of the knights (235. 19) T

cf. , hwang-hwang

* g w â n g - g w â n g "august" - of the nobles f

T

(299.45) - of an ancestor (300.45). Sy-chyi

" s i a g - d z i a r " s t a t e l y " - of K i n g W e n ' s mother T

(240. 1) cf. , c h y i - c h y i

* t s i a r - t s i a r " s t a t e l y " - of movements

(209. 13) - of the knights (235. 23, 266. 3, 299. 41) etc. , etc. Sy-mey sY-ROU

* s i a g - m i o r " b e l o v e d " - of w i v e s (290. 9). *si8s:-niÔ2; " m i l d " - of wine (215.14 and 292. 7).

The quasi r e d u p l i c a t i v e s d e s c r i b e d so far are confined to attributive usage.

X - s y (X

o c c u r s f o r m i n g q u a s i - r e d u p l i c a t i v e s of the c l a s s

"determinations of m a n n e r " (see 3. 3. 3ff. ), of r e d u p l i c a t e d nouns (see 1. 2 . 1 . 1 . v i i . ) and w i t h n u m e r a l s . Heh-sy

* x a k - s i e g " a n g r i l y " (241. 56).

An-sy (

*. â n - s i e g "peacefully" (189. 29).

Luh-sy

) * l u k - s i e g " d e e r " (197. 33).

Wann-sy

* m i w a n - s i e g " i n tens of thousands" (243.19).

THE WORD

15

* t s i e n - s i e g " i n thousands" (211. 35),

Chian-sy

!

* ñ i e t - s i e g , *ngiwat-sieg *day

Ryh-sy, yueh-sy

after day, month after month" (196. 21-22). Note.

In A r c h a i c Chinese the r e d u p l i c a t i o n of the n u m e r a l s , i - i "thousand after t h o u s a n d , " and

( — ) "one by o n e , " c h i a n - c h i a n

"day after day" i s w e l l a t -

of c e r t a i n quantifying w o r d s , r y h - r y h tested.

In the Book of Songs such r e d u p l i c a t i o n o c c u r s only i n the f o r m

1.2.1.3.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Q u a s i R e d u p l i c a t i v e s

Q u a s i r e d u p l i c a t i o n o c c u r s i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

^

M ) &

X (X

X ( X $k

) %

X (X %

) &

X

Sung

12

(1)

-

-

3

-

5

Ta Ya

11

-

-

-

3

(3)

3

Hsiao Y a

31

-

-

-

3

(4)

2

Kuo F e n g

22

(1)

5

(3)

-

-

and

predominate i n Kuo F e n g ,

It w i l l be o b s e r v e d that

dominates i n the Y a and Sung, with Sung.

a l i t t l e l a t e r than

pre-

i n the Y a and

The figures i n t h i s , as i n a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n tables that o c c u r s u b s e -

quently i n this book, r e f e r to the total number of poems i n w h i c h the feature indicated i s found. 1.2.1.4.

Q u a s i R e d u p l i c a t i v e s and V e r s i f i c a t i o n

A s w i l l be seen f r o m the d i s t r i b u t i o n table i n 1. 2. 1. 3. but not X occurrence.

while X

and X

rhe t r a n s f o r m

X is attributive, while X

X occurs

a r e , s t a t i s t i c a l l y speaking, of r a r e X to X

is m a t e r i a l l y contrastive since

o c c u r s only with nouns and n u m e r a l s .

would be reasonable to suppose, t h e r e f o r e , that X

andX

It

a r e , i n fact,

i n v e r s i o n s i m p o s e d to secure a s t r e s s pattern. 1. 2. 2.

Parataxis

Compound w o r d s d e r i v e d by p a r a t a x i s are composed of single w o r d s of c o n t r a s t i v e o r s i m i l a r meaning i n s i m p l e o r alternative connection.

16

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

1. 2. 2 . 1 .

C o n t r a s t i v e Meaning - Simple Connection

Compound w o r d s d e r i v e d f r o m w o r d s of c o n t r a s t i v e meaning i n s i m p l e connection c r e a t e generic t e r m s of w h i c h each m e m b e r denotes an instance. Examples Fuh-muh

/father/mother/"parents"

(2.18 et sqq. ).

Fuh-shin

/ b e l l y / h e a r t / " t h e inner o r g a n s " used m e t a p h o r i ­

c a l l y > "the v e r y l i f e b l o o d " (7.12). I-shang

/ j a c k e t / s k i r t / " c l o t h e s , d r e s s " (100. 2 et sqq. ).

Gong-hour Uei-yi i

/prince/feudatory/"the nobility generally" (7.4). / p r e s t i g e / d e c o r u m / " p r o p e r deportment i n g e n e r a l "

(26. 17), Ger-lei

/ c l o t h - p l a n t / a c r e e p e r / - both names of c r e e p e r s

hence > " c r e e p e r s i n g e n e r a l " (4. 6, 71.1). 1. 2. 2. 2.

C o n t r a s t i v e M e a n i n g - A l t e r n a t i v e Connection

Compound w o r d s d e r i v e d f r o m w o r d s of c o n t r a s t i v e m e a n i n g , where the c o n t r a s t i s antonymic i n some sense, denote a g e n e r a l i t y . Examples Tzuoo-yow

/ l e f t [or] / r i g h t / > "on a l l s i d e s , e v e r y w h e r e "

(1.6). Wuh-mey { jy_tsy-shyong Tsy-shyong

/ w a k i n g [or] / s l e e p i n g / > "at a l l t i m e s " (1.10). / h e n - b i r d / c o c k - b i r d / > " s e x " as i n Shwei j y u "who can t e l l the sex of a

c r o w ? " (192.40). 1. 2. 2. 3.

h i d e n t i c a l Meaning - Simple Connection (tautological hendiadys)

Compounds d e r i v e d f r o m synonyms are c o m p a r a t i v e l y r a r e and t h e i r constituents are never non-free f o r m s , since each m e m b e r can be attested to o c c u r elsewhere s i n g l y .

They appear to be used m e t r i c a u s a .

Examples Shiou-shyi

/ r e s t / r e s t / " r e s t " (9. 2).

Hwan-guei

/return/return/ return n

n

(13. 12 and 68. 6).

/difficult/difficult/ difficulties, Jian-nan ( 229. 7 and 256. 109). M

troubles" (69.6,

THE WORD

17

Cheu-lau

/ t o i l / t o i l / " t o i l w o r n " (32. 4).

Jan-wanq

/ t o look f r o m a d i s t a n c e / t o look f r o m a d i s t a n c e /

"to look f r o m a d i s t a n c e " (28. 5, 110. 2). Shii-leh 1.2.2.4.

/ p l e a s u r e / p l e a s u r e / " t o make m e r r y " (115. 21).

P a r t i a l Identity of M e a n i n g - Simple Connection ( m o r p h o l o g i c a l hendiadys)

Compounds d e r i v e d f r o m w o r d s w h i c h , i n the total extensions and i n ­ tensions of t h e i r meanings d i f f e r , but w h i c h have an element i n c o m m o n , c r e a t e w o r d s the meaning of w h i c h i s confined to the meanings they have i n common. Examples Shang-bei

wound, i n j u r e , p a i n , g r i e f / g r i e f , sadness >

" g r i e f " " s o r e d i s t r e s s " (14. 18, 1 4 7 . 5 , 1 6 2 . 5 , 167.47, 169.11). 1.2.3.

Hypotaxis Compound w o r d s d e r i v e d by hypotaxis are either (i) a determinant

w o r d and a d e t e r m i n e d w o r d (see 2. 4. ff. , ) ( i i ) a r e d u c t i o n of the v e r b postv e r b a l element r e l a t i o n s h i p (see 3 . 4 . f f . ,) or ( i i i ) other r e d u c t i o n s . Examples (i) D e t e r m i n a t i v e compounds Hwai-ren

/ c h e r i s h e d / p e r s o n / l o v e d one" (3. 3).

Haw-chour (

) / l o v e d / c o m p a n i o n / " f r i e n d " (7. 8).

Hwang-ne au Shian-jiun Pah-fu

n

) / y e l l o w / b i r d / " t h e o r i o l e " (32. 13 etc. , ) . I / f o r m e r / r u l e r / " t h e p r i n c e s now dead" (28. 23). /great/person/"a nobleman"(54.5)

Ming-shing

/bright/star/"the

Wang-shyh

/ k i n g / h o u s e / " t h e P a l a c e " (10. 10).

Tzong-shyh Shyong-jyh

M o r n i n g S t a r " ( 8 2 . 4 , 140.4).

/ a n c e s t o r / h o u s e / " T h e A n c e s t r a l S h r i n e " (15.10). / m a l e of a n i m a l s / p h e a s a n t / " T h e c o c k pheasant"

(33. 1). Shyong-hwu Per-in 160. 8).

/ m a l e of a n i m a l s / f o x / " t h e dog f o x " (101. 2). / v i r t u e / t h i n g h e a r d / " f a i r n a m e " (29. 16, 83. 12,

18

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS (ii) Compounds f o r m e d f r o m a r e d u c t i o n by one l e v e l of the g y r e l a t i o n s h i p Hwai-chuen (

/ y e a r n f o r / s p r i n g / , i . e . , "have thoughts of

l o v e " (23. 1). Torng-shin

/ m a k e - o n e / t h e h e a r t / "to be of one m i n d w i t h "

(35.3). Woh-jee {

/ s t e e p i n / r e d dye "deep r e d " (38. 11).

Pey-yuh (

/ w e a r - a t - s a s h / j a d e / " s a s h - j a d e s " (59.12, 8 3 . 4 ,

130.11). ( i i i ) C e r t a i n compounds are f o r m e d by abbreviation f r o m l a r g e r formations Dyi-fwu i

" a sort of c o a c h , " an a b b r e v i a t i o n f r o m d y i - y e u

shyh-che e r l fwu-bih

pheasant/feather/

d e c o r a t e d / c a r r i a g e / e r l c a r r i a g e - s c r e e n / a n d thus d y i - f w u "a d e c o r a ted c a r r i a g e with s c r e e n s . " (57. 19). Syh-jieh

" a t e a m of four a r m o u r e d h o r s e s " an a b b r e v i a t i o n

of shyy syh m a a bey j e a (

"cause/four/horses/

p a s s i v e / a r m o u r e d " (79. 2). 1. 3.

Compound W o r d s and V e r s i f i c a t i o n In the Book of Songs, compound w o r d s , under the exigency of s e c u r i n g

a r h y m e , are o c c a s i o n a l l y inverted. Examples Shvh-iia (

/ h o u s e / f a m i l y / " h o u s e h o l d , " " h o m e , " o c c u r s both

as s h y h - j i a and j i a - s h y h i n the same poems (6. 12 and 237. 6. 27). S h y h - j i a o c c u r s i n nine poems; j i a - s h y h i n five poems.

J i a - s h y h only

o c c u r s , h o w e v e r , when shyh i s the r h y m e w o r d and the r h y m e i s i n *iet. Shuu-jih

glutinous m i l l e t / p a n i c l e d m i l l e t > " a generic name

for m i l l e t , " o c c u r s as s h u u - j i h (ten poems) but as j i h - s h u u when t e r ­ m i n a l , to secure a r h y m e i n *-o. (211. 9). Pey-yuh

/wear-at-sash/jade/,

"jade gems w o r n at the s a s h "

o c c u r s i n three p o e m s , but i n 134. 8 it o c c u r s as yuh-pey i n o r d e r to secure a r h y m e i n *ag. Jou-jing

"the Chou c a p i t a l " (cf. , H a u r - j i n g

the

THE WORD

19

c a p i t a l c i t y , H a o " (244. 6) o c c u r s i n 153.15, but as J i n g - j o u i n l i n e 4 to ensure a r h y m e . In the Book of Songs, compound w o r d s , under the exigency of s e c u r i n g four feet to the l i n e , o c c u r b i f u r c a t e d , with the d e t e r m i n i n g p a r t i c l e s r e ­ peated and d i s t r i b u t e d between t h e i r p a r t s . Examples Shyh-jia ( mii jia Shuu-jih

"household, h o m e " (see above) o c c u r s as M i i shyh " H a v i n g neither house n o r h o m e " (167. 5). " m i l l e t " (see above) o c c u r s as Y e o u shuu yeou j i h "We have m i l l e t " (300. 14).

Aur-shyang i

"to t r a v e l at ease, t r a v e l for p l e a s u r e , r o a m

at w i l l " o c c u r s i n three p o e m s , but i n 82. 5 and 83. 1 it o c c u r s as J i a n g aur j i a n g shyang Ao-you

" G o i n g to r o a m . " "to saunter" o c c u r s i n 105. 16 as you-ao (for r h y m e ,

see above) but i n 26. 6 as Y i i ao y i i y u

"Whereby to

' d r i f t at e a s e ' . " Shye-harng h a r n g jy ( Jou-jing

"to crane the neck"(in Huai-nan Tzu) but Shye jy " C r a n i n g t h e i r n e c k s " (28. 8). "the Chou c a p i t a l , " see above, o c c u r s i n 236. 37 as

Y u Jou yu jing (

" i n the Chou c a p i t a l . "

Compound w o r d s a r e r e d u p l i c a t e d , or have m e t r i c a l p a r t i c l e s disposed between t h e i r p a r t s to ensure four feet to a l i n e . Examples Tsyy-tsyy

" g l i s t e n i n g " o c c u r s i n 47. 8 as t s y y s h i t s y y s h i "glistening. "

Uei-yi uei y i tuo (

" s e l f - a s s u r e d , at e a s e , " o c c u r s i n 18.4 as U e i - y i "How a s s u r e d ! " but i n 47. 3 as U e i - u e i t u o "How a s s u r e d ! "

CHAPTER

2

S Y N T A G MA

2.1.

Introduction "Syntagma" i n so far as A r c h a i c Chinese i s concerned and as defined

for the present s e r i e s of analyses of A r c h a i c Chinese t e x t s , i s a unit i n t e r ­ mediate between " w o r d " and "sentence. "

In o b s e r v i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n a l

o r d e r of the units of a sentence, the d i s t i n c t i o n between " w o r d " (whether a single o r compound word) and " w o r d - g r o u p " ( i . e. syntagma) has to be d i s ­ r e g a r d e d , since both " w o r d " and " w o r d - g r o u p " indifferently function and a r e m u t u a l l y substitutable as units of sentences.

Syntagmas have d i s t r i b u t i o n a l

patterns and g r a m m a t i c a l a u x i l i a r i e s p e c u l i a r to them.

Syntagmas differ

f r o m compound w o r d s i n being spontaneous f o r m a t i o n s , made as it w e r e ad hoc.

Unlike compounds, the r e l a t i o n s h i p s of the w o r d s f o r m i n g a syntagma

m a y be m a r k e d by d i s t i n c t i v e p a r t i c l e s . In t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n " s y n t a g m a " i s confined to substantival w o r d - g r o u p s . Such w o r d - g r o u p s o c c u r at a l l d i v i s i o n s of the sentence except at " v e r b " i n the v e r b a l sentence.

The v e r b , i t s constitution and determinations a r e d e s ­

c r i b e d s e p a r a t e l y (see 3. 2.ff. , ). 2. 2.

The P r o c e s s e s of Syntagmatic F o r m a t i o n Syntagmas a r e f o r m e d by p a r a t a x i s and by hypotaxis (see 2. 3. and

2 . 4 . ).

Syntagmas a r e a l s o f o r m e d by down-gradings f r o m f o r m a t i o n s at

h i g h e r l e v e l s (see 2. 7. ). cles.

These p r o c e s s e s have each t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e p a r t i ­

In t h i s chapter the p r o c e s s e s and the p a r t i c l e s p e c u l i a r to syntagma as

they o c c u r i n the Book of Songs a r e d e s c r i b e d . 2. 3.

The P a r a t a x i c a l Syntagma The p a r a t a x i c a l syntagma m a y be f o r m e d f r o m two o r m o r e w o r d s i n

s i m p l e connection (A together with B ) o r i n alternative connection (either A

1

F o r a f u l l e r d i s c u s s i o n of syntagma, see the introductions to Late

A r c h a i c Chinese and E a r l y A r c h a i c C h i n e s e .

SYNTAGMA or B).

21

These two c l a s s e s a r e f o r m a l l y differentiated when p a r t i c l e s o c c u r .

Without p a r t i c l e s , s i m p l e and alternative connection i s unmarked.

The s y n -

tagmatic p a r t i c l e s for p a r a t a x i s that o c c u r i n the Book of Songs are iue *giwat, j y i i

*diwar and y e u

*g iap, we i T

*zio.

Though a t ­

tested for a l l other p e r i o d s i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , there i s no o c c u r r e n c e of the alternative p a r t i c l e i n the Book of Songs. Examples (i) Simple connection - without syntagmatic p a r t i c l e . J o n g guu i

" b e l l s and d r u m s " (1. 20).

Fwu lii (

" b l e s s i n g and d i g n i t y " (4.4).

Taur l i i (

"peach and p l u m " (24. 6).

R y h yueh

"sun and m o o n " (33. 9), "days and months"

(114.4). Yang niou Jen l i h

"sheep and o x e n " (66. 6). " h a z e l and chestnut" (50. 5).

(ii) A l t e r n a t i v e connection - without syntagmatic p a r t i c l e . Syy sheng

"[whether in] death o r [in] l i f e " (31.13).

T z a n g f oou

) "erood o r e v i l " Í256. 86V

( i i i ) Simple connection - w i t h syntagmatic p a r t i c l e . C h y i dann iue l e h

"joy and happiness" (220. 23).

C h i yueh peng k w e i j y i shwu

"In the seventh

month we cook m a l l o w and beans" (154. 58). Chin Haur j y i Fang

"Invaded Hao and F a n g "

(177. 27). Shiong j y i d i h y i i (

" E l d e r and younger b r o t h e r s "

(189. 5). P y n g C h e r n y e u Song


fiflrno

t v ^ m

in

15

R£

9.H1 a n H 9 . 1 9

The H y p o t a x i c a l Syntagma The h y p o t a x i c a l syntagma has two types.

The f i r s t the determinative

(see 2 . 4 . 1 . ff. , ) and the second the d i r e c t i v e (see 2 . 4 . 2 ). 2.4.1.

The D e t e r m i n a t i v e Syntagma The determinative syntagma may be f o r m e d f r o m two o r m o r e w o r d s

o r groups of w o r d s . that precede i t . B etc. ).

The f i n a l w o r d i s m o d i f i e d i n m e a n i n g b y a l l w o r d s

Its g r a m m a t i c a l value i s n o m i n a l (conventional s y m b o l A —>

The m o s t c o m m o n l y encountered f o r m i n the Book of Songs i s

" A —> B ,

f f

f o r e x a m p l e , wang shyh

"the K i n g s b u s i n e s s " (40. 8), T

but such s t r u c t u r e s as " A (A —> B ) —> B , " f o r e x a m p l e , yueh c h u j y guang / m o o n / e m e r g i n g / —> / r a y s , "the r a y s of the r i s i n g m o o n " (96. 8); " A —> B (A —> B ) , " f o r e x a m p l e , t z y y jy c h i n g yang | "the g i r l ' s pure b r o w " (47. 21); and A (A + B ) —> B (A —> B ) , f o r e x a m p l e , gong hour j y hao chour of the n o b l e s " (7. 8) a r e a l s o encountered.

" l o v e d companions The elements of a determinative

syntagma (A —> B ) are designated (at A ) the determinant w o r d and (at B )

SYNTAGMA

23

the d e t e r m i n e d w o r d . 2 . 4 . 1. 1.

The Determinant W o r d

The determinant w o r d (A i n the s t r u c t u r e A —> B ) m a y be used i n one of two c l a s s e s of n o m i n a l usage.

In the f i r s t c l a s s , the determinant w o r d

denominates a s p e c i e s c l a s s to w h i c h the d e t e r m i n e d w o r d i s s a i d to p e r t a i n and i n the second c l a s s it denominates an attribute i n w h i c h the d e t e r m i n e d w o r d i s s a i d to partake.

The p a r t i c l e s of d e t e r m i n a t i o n are j y *tia.

*sieg and J e £

sy i

*tiag,

Jee i n t h i s usage i s p e c u l i a r to the Book

of Songs. A s w i l l be seen l a t e r , (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 5. 2. ) the d e t e r m i n a t i v e p a r t i c l e s , w h i c h i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e g e n e r a l l y m a y o c c u r between noun and noun but not between attribute and noun, m a y a l s o , i n the Book of Songs under the exigency of f i l l i n g out the m e t r e , o c c u r between attribute and noun.

Certain

syntagmas too, i n the Book of Songs a r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n the r e v e r s e of n o r m a l o c c u r r e n c e to s e c u r e a r h y m e (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 5. 2 ). Examples C l a s s 1 (without syntagmatic p a r t i c l e ) "fox f u r s " (130.4).

Hwu chyou Luh y e u

"egret f e a t h e r s " (136. 8).

Sang shenn

"the f r u i t of the m u l b e r r y " (58. 24).

Guan sue i Neu shoou C l a s s 1 (with

"cap s t r i n g s " (101. 8). i "womens hands" (107.3). T

and " l a m b s k i n s " (18. 1).

Gau-yang j y p y i T a r n g - d i h i v hwa Shiah j y r y h

" c h e r r y b l o s s o m " (24. 2). "the days of s u m m e r " (124.13).

Wuu j y fwu (

" m i l i t a r y d r e s s " (177. 22).

Jong sy y e u

) " l o c u s t s w i n g s " (5. 1). 1

C l a s s 2 (without syntagmatic p a r t i c l e ) J u kuoh Chiao r y h { Shann sheh T z a r pey (

" s c a r l e t l e a t h e r " (105. 2). "bright s u n " (73.12). "good a r c h e r " (78.17). " a s s o r t e d s a s h - g e m s " (82.14).

24

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS " m a d b o y " (84. 8 and 86.1).

Jeau torng {

" t a l l p i n e " (84.5).

C h y a u song C l a s s 2 (with

and

Y i j y hang (

" l e v e l r o a d s " (270. 6).

D i h j y duh i

" s o l i t a r y pear t r e e " (119.1). ) " f u l l - g r o w n r e e d s " (25.1).

Jwo jee j i a (

"handsome gentleman" (53. 5 and 99. 7).

C h u jee t z y y

"blue h e a v e n ! " (an i m p r e c a t i o n ) (131. 9),

T s a n g jee t i a n

a l s o o c c u r r i n g as tsang t i a n (65. 9 and 121. 6). hWANG-HWANG JEE H

" b r i l l i a n t f l o w e r s " (163.1).

yEOU-TSUEI JEE IUA 2. 4 . 1 . 2.

" v e r y deep a b y s s " (197. 27).

The Determinant W o r d - P o s s e s s i v e

No f o r m a l difference i s made between c a t e g o r i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n (B of the c l a s s A ) and d e t e r m i n a t i o n of p o s s e s s i o n (B p o s s e s s e d by A ) . When a p a r t i c l e o c c u r s it i s j y

*tiag.

Examples (i) Without p a r t i c l e Gong l u h Wang shyh ( Chiaw chaur Muu shin

i "the Duke s c o a c h m a n " (108. 6). 1

"the K i n g ' s b u s i n e s s " (121. 3). "magpie's n e s t " (142.1). " m o t h e r ' s h e a r t " (32.16).

(ii) W i t h the p a r t i c l e of syntagma Wang J i j y che

"the c a r r i a g e s of P r i n c e s s C h i '

(24.4). F a r n J o u j y shyh

" a l l of the o f f i c e r s of C h o u "

(235.15). Wey-hour jy chi B a n g j y jye 2.4.1.3.

"the L o r d of W e i ' s w i f e " (57.4). "the c o u n t r y s c h a m p i o n " (62. 2). 1

The Determinant W o r d (quasi attributes)

W o r d s d e s c r i b i n g the m a t e r i a l s f r o m w h i c h objects a r e made a r e used as determinant w o r d s w i t h the c l a s s meaning of "made of" o r "decorated w i t h . " Where the p a r t i c l e of d e t e r m i n a t i o n o c c u r s it i s j y

*tiag.

SYNTAGMA

25

Examples (i) Without syntagmatic p a r t i c l e " c l o t h s h o e s " (101. 7 and 107. 1).

Ger leu (

) "cedar o a r s " (59.14).

Kuay j y i ( Song j o u (

"pinewood boats" (59.14).

Diann fwu

) "bamboo awning" (105. 2).

(ii) W i t h syntagmatic p a r t i c l e Y u h j y tyan (

"jade e a r - p l u g s " (47.12).

Shianq j y t y i

) " i v o r y c o m b - p i n " (47.13).

W o r d s d e s c r i b i n g the l o c a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to w h i c h an object i s i d e n t i ­ fied are used as determinant w o r d s . o c c u r s it i s j y

W h e r e the p a r t i c l e of d e t e r m i n a t i o n

*tiag.

Examples (i) Without syntagmatic p a r t i c l e C h e r n g chiueh

> " w a l l t o w e r " i . e. "the tower on the c i t y

w a l l " (91.10). In du

i

"gate t o w e r " i . e. "the tower on the c i t y gate" (93. 7).

Chuu gong

"The C h u T e m p l e " i . e . "the temple at C h u " f

T

(50. 2). (ii) W i t h syntagmatic p a r t i c l e Liou jy tzyy Her jy jou (

"the young knight f r o m L i u " (74.10). " i s l e t s m the r i v e r " (1. 2).

Y e u a n - c h i o u j y daw

"the r o a d to Y u a n - c h i u " !

(136. 10). Shi-fang j y r e n ( Dong-men j y f e r n

" a m a n f r o m the W e s t " (38. 18). ) "the e l m s by the E a s t Gate"

(137.1). Her j y f a r n g

" b r e a m f r o m the r i v e r " (138. 6).

V e r b s are used as determinant w o r d s i n the passive v o i c e . 2 the p a r t i c l e of d e t e r m i n a t i o n o c c u r s it i s j y ; ( ^ ) *tiog. 2

Where

The f o r m a l c r i t e r i o n for such v e r b a l usage of a w o r d i n t h i s f o r m

i s that i n resolving: the r e l a t i o n s h i p of A to B i n l e x i c o s r a o h i c a l d e f i n i t i o n . the f o r m u l a i s "bey

/verb/jy/noun. "

26

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Examples (i) Without syntagmatic p a r t i c l e Shuh shin

"bundled k i n d l i n g " (92. 8).

Chiu maa

" d r i v e n h o r s e s " (54. 3).

Ning jy (

"congealed l a r d " (57. 9).

(ii) W i t h syntagmatic p a r t i c l e Y a n g j y shoe i

" s t i r r e d [ i . e . fast-flowing] w a t e r s "

(68.1). Dann j y jye (

"stretched [i.e. far-reaching] joints"

Í 3 7 . 2V V e r b s a r e used as determinant w o r d s i n a t r a n s f o r m of "action > attribute. "

Where the p a r t i c l e of d e t e r m i n a t i o n o c c u r s it i s j y

*tieg. Examples (i) Without syntagmatic p a r t i c l e Chu r v h i Jiu ren ( Shuh c h i i Jwu cherng {

" e m e r g i n g s u n " (62.10). the people l i v i n g there > " r e s i d e n t s " (77. 2). "the w i l l o w s [we] have planted" (76.3). "the w a l l s [he] b u i l t " (244.11).

(ii) W i t h syntagmatic p a r t i c l e " m e n who t r a v e l " (119. 6).

sHYNG JY R 2.4.1.4.

The D e t e r m i n e d W o r d

E x c e p t where c o m m i t t e d (for e x a m p l e , by d e t e r m i n a t i o n w i t h a n u m e r 4 al) the d e t e r m i n e d w o r d i s n e u t r a l as to number. It i s a l s o f o r m a l l y u n ­ c o m m i t t e d to s p e c i f i c and g e n e r a l i z e d r e f e r e n c e .

Neu shoou

107. 3 i s "women's hands" ( i n general) but t z y y j y shoou

in in

3 1 . 1 5 i s " y o u r hand" ( i n p a r t i c u l a r ) . P r o p e r names o c c u r i n the Book of Songs both as determinant w o r d s

3

The f o r m a l c r i t e r i o n f o r such v e r b a l usage of a w o r d i n t h i s f o r m

i s that i n r e s o l v i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p of A to B i n l e x i c o g r a p h i c a l definition the f o r m u l a i s "suoo < 4

/verb/jy/noun/.

M

See L A C 2. 6 . 1 . f o r a f u l l e r d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s .

SYNTAGMA and as d e t e r m i n e d w o r d s .

27

5

Examples (i) A s determinant w o r d (without syntagmatic p a r t i c l e ) "the r o a d to L u " (105. 7).

L u u daw ( Wenn shoei

"the r i v e r W e n " (105. 9). " m e n of Hsu (54.19).

Sheu r e n

(ii) A s determinant w o r d (with syntagmatic p a r t i c l e ) P y n g Wang j y suen

" K i n g P ' i n g ' s g r a n d s o n " (24. 7).

T i a n - t z y y j y suoo (

"The Son of Heaven's p l a c e , "

i . e. "Where the Son of Heaven i s . " (180.12). Jou jy d i i i

"Chou»s b a s e " (191.18).

(iii) A s determined word M e e i Menq J i a n g P a h Shu

"beautiful M e n g C h i a n g " (48.4). "the great Shu" (78.1).

M e e i Shu J i

"the l o v e l y Shu C h i " (139. 3).

B i i Wuu Wang

"that K i n g W u " (236. 54).

T s y y Hwang-fuh

"this Huang-fu" (193. 33).

In the c o m p o s i t i o n of p r o p e r n a m e s , the d e t e r m i n i n g o r d e r i s / p l a c e / f a m i l y n a m e / p e r s o n a l o r posthumous n a m e / r a n k o r t i t l e / .

Names occur,

however, with v a r y i n g degrees of economy, as the following shews:

Place

F a m i l y Name

P e r s o n a l Name

Rank o r T i t l e

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

5

T h i s i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of E A C (see E A C 2. 6. 5 ) but not of L A C .

28

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

1.

P y n g Wang " K i n g P i n g

2.

C h y i Hour "the L o r d of C h i " (24. 8).

3.

J o n g - s h y h R e n n " L a d y J e n of the Chung f a m i l y " (28.19).

4.

Suen-tzyy Jong "Chung of the Sun-tzu f a m i l y " (Suen-tzyy i s l i t . " g r a n d ­

!

M

(24. 7). !

son of the r o y a l house")

(31. 5).

5.

L i o u T z y y - j i e " T z u - c h i e h of L i u " (74. 2).

6.

Jong T z y y "Chung T z u " (a man)

7.

C h y i T z y y "The L a d y of C h i " ( i . e . of the r e i g n i n g house of C h i ) ( l 0 1 . 4 ) .

8.

T z y y - d u " T z u - t u " (a p e r s o n a l name) (84. 3).

(76.1).

!

Note 1.

f

T z y y as r a n k o r t i t l e i s used b y both s e x e s .

A s a prefix,

t z y y o c c u r s i n a number of p e r s o n a l n a m e s . Note 2.

Where people a r e identified as being the f i r s t b o r n , meng

the second b o r n jong (

o r the t h i r d , shu

, meng, jong,

and shu o c c u r before the f a m i l y n a m e , for e x a m p l e , M e n g J i a n g "the e l d e r daughter of the C h i a n g f a m i l y " (48.4), Shu J i

"the t h i r d

daughter of the C h i f a m i l y . " (139. 3). Note 3.

Shyh

" f a m i l y " may o c c u r after the f a m i l y name as i n

example 3 above, but a l s o as an honorific i n k i n s h i p and other t e r m s , f o r example,

muu-shyh

t r o n " (2. 13).

Jiow-shyh (

" m o t h e r " (32.12).

Shy-shyh

"ma­

" u n c l e " (134.1) etc.

In E A C the c o m p o s i t i o n of proper names a l s o o c c u r s i n the d i s t r i b u ­ t i o n p l a c e / r a n k o r t i t l e / p e r s o n a l name.

T h i s f o r m o c c u r s i n the Book of

Songs i n the Sung and T a Y a . Place 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Rank o r T i t l e

P e r s o n a l Name

SYNTAGMA

29

1.

C h e r n g b o r Shiou-fuh H s i u - f u , E a r l of C h ' e n g " (263.10).

2.

T a y - s h y Hwang-fuh "The G r a n d M a s t e r , Huang-fu" (263.4).

3.

Shaw gong T h e P r i n c e of Shao" (265. 35).

4.

Shaw Huu " H u , [ P r i n c e of] Shao

5.

Gong L i o u " P r i n c e L i u

6.

Shy Shanq-fuh "The [Grand] M a s t e r , Shang-fu" (236. 52).

7.

Wang J i h " K i n g C h i " (father of K i n g Wen) (241. 37).

8.

How J i h " P r i n c e M i l l e t " (245. 10).

M

M

Note.

M

M

(262. 25).

(250. 1).

The c o m p o s i t i o n ' p l a c e / r a n k / n a m e f

rT

i s confined to e a r l y

W e s t e r n Chou n a m e s , except i n the State of C h u where it p e r s i s t s into the !

Late A r c h a i c p e r i o d (see L A C 2. 6. 3. 2. footnote 12). 2.4.1.5.

D e t e r m i n a t i o n and Spatial R e l a t i o n s

C e r t a i n w o r d s denoting s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s such a s , the points of THE COMPASS, DON beei

"east, " nan

"south," shi

" n o r t h , " and w o r d s l i k e ney (

s i d e , " shanq

"top" and shiah

"west,"

" i n s i d e " and way

"out-

" b o t t o m , " etc. , o c c u r as both

determinant and d e t e r m i n e d w o r d s i n syntagma.

A s determinant w o r d s

they are a t t r i b u t i v e . Examples Dong M e n (

) " E a s t Gate" (89. 1).

Nan Shan (

> "Southern H i l l s " (101. 1).

Beei Yuan

) " N o r t h e r n P a r k " (127. 9).

Jong tarng

) "the centre path" (142. 5).

Shiah t i i (

"the l o w e r p a r t s " (35. 6).

Tzuoo shoou

r

) "the left hand" (38. 9).

A s d e t e r m i n e d w o r d s , they p r o v i d e , i n syntagma, for c e r t a i n p a r t i c ­ u l a r s of d i r e c t i o n that the d i r e c t i v e p a r t i c l e s (see 3 . 4 . f f . ,) do not d i s t i n ­ guish.

The d e t e r m i n i n g o r d e r i s "object i n r e l a t i o n to w h i c h the s p a t i a l

p o s i t i o n e x i s t s - the s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n . " The syntagmatic p a r t i c l e j y *tiag m a y o c c u r . Examples (i) Without p a r t i c l e Y e o u shiah

/ w i n d o w / b e l o w p a r t / > "under the window"

30

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS (15.10).

N i jong ( 'I Daw tzuoo

x

/ m u d / i n s i d e / > " i n the m u d " (36. 8). 'road/left p a r t / > "on the left hanc • i

^

o f nil

r o a d " (123. 2) (ii) W i t h p a r t i c l e L i n j y shiah (

"at the foot of the f o r e s t " (31.12).

C h y i j y shanq (

) "along the R i v e r C h i " (48.14). T

W o e i j y way (

'beyond the R i v e r W e i " (95. 8).

C h y i j y yang (

"on the south side of M t . C h i " (241. 69). f

C e r t a i n of the w o r d s d e s c r i b e d above have t e m p o r a l as w e l l as s p a t i a l usages.

These are chyan

" i n f r o n t " (spatial) but a l s o " p r i o r t o " b e -

fore (temporal); how

"behind" (spatial) but a l s o "subsequent t o ,

after"

(temporal). Examples Sheng j y how (

'after I was b o r n " (70. 5).

Bae suey j y how (

) l i t . " a hundred y e a r s hence" but

used f i g u r a t i v e l y for

f

at the end of m y l i f e . " (124. 15).

In the Book of Songs, the d e t e r m i n i n g o r d e r " o b j e c t / s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n , " d e s c r i b e d i n p a r a g r a p h 2 above, i s s o m e t i m e s i n v e r t e d i n o r d e r to secure a rhyme. Examples Jong guu (

" i n the m i d d l e of the v a l l e y " (not the C e n t r a l

V a l l e y ) (2. 2). Jong k w e i (

"among the c r o s s i n g paths" not "the c e n t r a l

c r o s s i n g path" (7. 6). Jong l i n (

" i n the f o r e s t " (7.10).

Jong l u h (

) " i n the dew" (36.4).

Jong h e r

) " i n the r i v e r " (45. 2).

Note. Jong s h i n

in 3 0 . 4 , 3 5 . 1 0 , 4 4 . 4 , 6 5 . 4 , 123. 5. 11 etc.

i s "the c e n t r a l p a r t of the h e a r t " > "the i n n e r m o s t p a r t of the h e a r t , depths of the h e a r t " and not on the analogy of the above i n v e r s i o n s " w i t h i n the heart. "

SYNTAGMA 2 . 4 . 1. 5. 1.

31

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Determinant Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs

The syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s of d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

17

Ta Y a

22

Hsiao Y a

40

Kuo F e n g

81

It w i l l be o b s e r v e d that Kuo F e n g , w h i l e ^ 2.4.1.5.2.

-

and

1

-

11

1

6

predominate i n the H s i a o Y a and

i s of g e n e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n .

D e t e r m i n a t i v e Syntagmas and V e r s i f i c a t i o n

The o c c u r r e n c e of the syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s of d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n the s t r u c t u r e "determinant w o r d (attribute) / d e t e r m i n e d w o r d " d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ( C l a s s 2), and w i t h the quasi-attribute s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 4 . 1 . 3

is

not attested elsewhere i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , so that the o c c u r r e n c e here of the syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s j

and jee

might w e l l be attributable

to the e x i g e n c i e s of m e t r e , The i n v e r s i o n of the d e t e r m i n i n g o r d e r of c e r t a i n s p a t i a l s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 4 . 1. 5

i s c l e a r l y a m a t t e r of s e c u r i n g a r h y m e , since a l l such i n v e r ­

sions o c c u r w i t h the A w o r d i n the r h y m i n g p o s i t i o n .

Such i n v e r s i o n s are

not attested e l s e w h e r e i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e . ^

6

The w e l l - k n o w n example i n M e n c i u s 2 B . 10, jong gwo

withstanding.

not­

Jong gwo, i n t h i s passage, i s c e r t a i n l y not "the C e n t r a l

States" as elsewhere i n Late A r c h a i c C h i n e s e and though some r e a d t h i s as an i n v e r s i o n " i n the c i t y " I p r e f e r to r e a d it as "the c e n t r a l p a r t of the state c a p i t a l . " See W . A . C . H . Dobson, M e n c i u s . annotated for the g e n e r a l r e a d e r .

A new t r a n s l a t i o n a r r a n g e d and

U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s , 1963, p. 51.

32

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

2.4.1.6.

Determinant W o r d s w i t h G r a m m a t i c a l Class-meanings

F o u r c l a s s e s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d among determinant w o r d s w h i c h a r e u s e d e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y as determinant w o r d s (for e x a m p l e , the determinant f o r m s of the substitutes), o r w h i c h have g r a m m a t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , (for e x ample , the n u m b e r s and m e a s u r e w o r d s since they impose number on the noun).

These are (i) substitutes; (pronouns and demonstratives - see 2 . 4 . 1 .

6 . 1 . and 2). 3).

( i i ) m o d a l s ; (from w h i c h p r i v a t i v e s are f o r m e d , see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6.

( i i i ) number and m e a s u r e w o r d s (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 4. and 5) and (iv) i n t e n -

s i v e s (which only o c c u r at the syntagmatic l e v e l - see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 6). 2.4.1.6.1.

Pronouns as Determinant W o r d s

The p e r s o n a l non-status pronouns a r e , woo *dio, jenn

*nga, £ u

*ngang, t o r the p e r s o n o r p e r s o n s

s p e a k i n g , and e e l

nia,

fe

* ñ i o n g , and r u u i

^ñio,

nae

*nag, e r l (

*niag, r o n g

f o r the p e r s o n o r persons a d d r e s s e d .

Of

t h e s e , w o o , y u and jenn and e e l , nae, e r l and r o n g o c c u r i n determinative usage i n syntagma i n the Book of Songs.

Of t h e m , nae and e r l a r e e x c l u s i v e -

l y d e t e r m i n a t i v e , jenn and r o n g are determinative and agentive o n l y , w h i l e a r n g i s e x c l u s i v e l y agentive. the Book of Songs.

R u u never o c c u r s i n d e t e r m i n a t i v e usage i n

The d i s t i n c t i o n i s maintained i n L A C and to some extent

i n E A C between determinant and pregnant f o r m s . nouns o c c u r w i t h the p a r t i c l e of d e t e r m i n a t i o n (

In the Book of Songs p r o ) - a s t r u c t u r e never e n -

countered i n A r c h a i c Chinese elsewhere and due, no doubt, to the e x i g e n c i e s of m e t r e see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 1. 2. Examples Woo i

T

my c l o t h e s " (2.16).

Woo h w a i - r e n

i " m y b e l o v e d " (3. 3).

Y u f aa (

" m y h a i r " (226. 3).

Y u tzyy (

" m y s o n " (110.3).

Jenn sher 7

) " m y tongue" (256. 47)

In the Book of Songs, r u u (

v a r d T e x t f o r 255.10 has ( Book of Songs y

) i s always w r i t t e n

but the K a r l g r e n T e x t has (

Is used for the name of a r i v e r , (10.1).

The H a r In the

SYNTAGMA Jenn m i n q

M

33

m y c h a r g e " (261. 7).

E r l shyh (

your d u t i e s " (253. 40).

E r l biing (

'your a u t h o r i t y " (255. 19).

Nae chyan boh

"your spades and m a t t o c k s " (276.14).

E e l s h i n huen

'your new w i f e " (35.15). " y o u r c o u r t y a r d " (112.16). "your a n c e s t o r s " (260.19).

Kong tzuu-kao

"your s o v e r e i g n " (261.12).

Rong bih

The anaphoric pronouns are c h y i *tiag and j y y

*tiag.

*kiwat,

* k i o g , jyue

Of t h e s e , c h y i and jyue o c c u r i n d e t e r m i n a ­

tive usage. Examples Chyi shyh-jia (

"her household" (6.4).

Chyi yeh
/after/>

Bae suey j y how (

"At

the end of m y l i f e t i m e " (124.15). San shyh dah fu (

"The great o f f i c e r s c o n c e r n e d w i t h

the s e v e r a l a f f a i r s of state" (194.15). =L J?t ifë. ) / s e v e r a l l e d / h i s / v i r t u e / i . e. " d i s ­

E l l - s a n chyi der (

sipated h i s favours i n s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . " ( 5 8 . 4 0 , 229. 28).

Ell-san

i s h e r e used v e r b a l l y . Note 1.

Other e x a m p l e s of the s p e c i a l i z e d use of numbers a r e syh

" f o u r " as i n s y h fang

"the four d i r e c t i o n s " used i n 191. 51

f o r " e v e r y w h e r e , " and i n 243. 22 for "the people on a l l four s i d e s " i . e . "people e v e r y w h e r e , " a n d perhaps as an extension of t h i s syh gwo

_

/ f o u r / s t a t e s / > "the states on a l l four s i d e s " ( i . e . n o r t h , south, east and west of the c a p i t a l ) > " a l l s t a t e s " as i n 152. 7, 153.15, 157. 3 etc. , I j "one" a l s o o c c u r s as "as a w h o l e , a l l , the e n t i r e " i n Jenq shyh i - k u a y y i h woo

> / s t a t e ' s / a f f a i r s / as a whole/added t o / m e / " i . e .

i

" A l l the affairs of state are l a i d on me m o r e and m o r e " (40. 9) and i n i fang " a l l d i r e c t i o n s " i . e . " e v e r y w h e r e " as i n 223.14. as "an unspecified one" > " a c e r t a i n " as i n i fang i n 108. 7, 1 2 9 . 4 , and i n i cheu 108.13.

"a certain place"

" a c e r t a i n bend [in the r i v e r ] " i n

I a l s o o c c u r s as "one o n l y , unique" as i n the conventional name for

a king, i ren Note 2. and j i i

I also occurs

"the unique one" "the one set a p a r t " ( 2 4 3 . 1 3 , 260. 32). The determinants of indefinite n u m b e r , shuh

"many

11

"few" that o c c u r before n u m b e r s (as, for e x a m p l e , shuh c h i a n

"many thousands" and j i i c h i a n "a few thousands") i n Late A r c h a i c Chinese

43

SYNTAGMA (see L A C 2. 6 . 4 . 4 . 2 ) do not so o c c u r i n the Book of Songs. c u r s i n the stock c o l l o c a t i o n s h u h - j i i " p a s s a b l e , " (see a l s o 3. 3 . 1 . 4 ).

Jii

oc-

m a n y / f e w / " n e a r enough"

milarly. Sin

"a few, " and jonq

" m a n y " o c c u r r i n g before nouns i n thi¡s sense (as, f o r e?cample, goa yuh "jfew f

d e s i r e s " and jonq r e n "many men") irL Late A r c h a i c C h i nese do not o c c u rc i n the Book of Songs.

he Goa o c c u r s as "le>nely" and j o n q - r e ín as "a host. " T h * s i a n , as a noun "a f e w " (233.12, (: 255.8,

Book of Songs has shian

i It i s possiblee that i n the h i s t o>ry

256. 70) and as attribute "are f e w " (92. 3).

me of A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , the indefinite use of number (for excample, san and b; see above) p r e c e d e s the use of w o r d s s p e c i a l i z e d i n the sense of " a s m a lLlI n u m b e r , f e w " and " a l a r g e n u m b e r , many. " 2.4.1.6.4.3.

Units of M e a s u r e

Units of m e a s u r e a r e a l s o d e t e r m i n e d by n u m e r a l s , a s , for e x a m p l e , "ten [Chinese] a c r e s " (111. 1)

shyr muu

" t h i r t y m i l e s " (177. 14).

C e r t a i n other w o r d s other than units of m e a s u r e

o c c u r i n a quantifying sense. Examples Woh (

"to c l u t c h , to g r a s p " but " a handful" i n woh j i a u

"a handful of p e p p e r c o r n s " (137.12).

Shuh

"to b i n d " but " a

bundle, a t r u s s " i n Sheng chwu i shuh f r e s h h a y " (186. 21).

Yeou j

" A t r u s s of

" a wine v e s s e l " but i yeou (

"one f l a s k f u l " (262. 34). 2.4.1.6.4.4.

The Quantification of E n u m e r a t e d Nouns

It i s not a feature of "substantival q u a l i t y " i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , that it distinguishes between the genera i t s e l f and "an instance of" o r "instances of" (number of i d e n t i c a l instances) or "kinds of" (number of d i s s i m i l a r i n stances),

h i E a r l y A r c h a i c Chinese c e r t a i n quantifying w o r d s o c c u r i n the

sense of "an instance of" o r "instances of" i n the structure

"enumerated

n o u n / n u m b e r / q u a n t i f i c a t i o n " w h e r e , at "quantification" such w o r d s as p i "quantifier of h o r s e s , " leang

"quantifier of c a r r i a g e s , " r e n

"quantifier of human b e i n g s " etc. o c c u r sense i n the Book of Songs, though bae leang

Only r e n o c c u r s i n this o c c u r s for " a hundred

44

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

c a r r i a g e s " (12.4). Examples Tzyy chi ren

) / o f sons/seven/instances

> "seven s o n s "

(32. 11). Mee i i r e n

of handsome o n e s / o n e / i n s t a n c e " a h a n d ­

some man' ( 9 4 . 9 , 145.3). Yu ell ren

"we t w o " (92. 10).

A s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e o c c u r s where quantification i s made w i t h units of m e a s u r e , where the d e t e r m i n i n g o r d e r i s "enumerated

noun/number/unit

of m e a s u r e . " Examples H e r san-bae y i h (

/grain/three hundred/yih meas-

u r e s / " T h r e e hunddred y i h of g r a i n " (112.14). Sheng chwu i shuh

) /fresh/hay/one/truss

"One t r u s s

of f r e s h h a y " (186 G e r l e u wuu leang

) /cloth/shoes/five/pairs "Five

p a i r s of c l o t h sho " y o u r peasants" (35. 31).

F a r n jin jy ren (

"[of] a l l the m e n of today" (164. 3).

F a r n J o u j y shyh

) " a l l of the o f f i c e r s of C h o u "

(235.15). F a r n t s y y y i i n jeou

" a l l of these who have drunk

w i n e " (220. 57). Shuh shyh

) " a l l the k n i g h t s " (300.107).

Shuh jenq (

) " a l l p r i n c i p a l o f f i c e r s " (258. 63).

Shuh r e n (

i "the people" (256. 5).

Shuh m i n (

) "the people" (242. 3).

Shuh mee i Note 1.

) " a l l her l a d i e s " (57. 27).

Shuh a l s o o c c u r s i n the Book of Songs as an attribute " i n

abundance" " a - p l e n t y " (166. 6, 2 0 7 . 1 8 , 209. 29, 2 5 0 . 1 3 , 252.45) and i n the stock c o l l o c a t i o n s h u h - j i i ( a b l e " (218. 16).

Duo (

/ m u c h / l i t t l e / > " "near enough" " p a s s ­ *ta " m u c h " (before nouns), " i n great m e a s u r e "

(before v e r b s ) , o c c u r s i n the T a Y a and Sung as " a l l , " i n duo shyh " a l l the o f f i c e r s " (see 2 3 5 . 1 9 , 266.3 and 299.41).

T h i s i s a feature of

E a r l y A r c h a i c Chinese (see E A C 2. 6. 7. 5. Note 1). (ii)

Synthesising c o l l e c t i v e s .

Ju(

*tio and chyun (

*g iwon, f

w i t h the c o m m o n c l a s s - m e a n i n g " a s e r i e s of v a r i e d instances c o n c e i v e d as a t o t a l i t y , " " a l l the v a r i o u s . . . " " i n a l l t h e i r v a r i e t y . " Examples Ju J i ( "

" a l l the daughters of the C h i f a m i l y " (39. 5).

J u gu ( '

" m y s e v e r a l aunts" (39.11).

J u yeou J u hour I

) " m y v a r i o u s f r i e n d s " (183. 6). "the v a r i o u s F e u d a l L o r d s " > "The F e u d a t o r y "

(194.17), "the p r i n c e s [of v a r y i n g r a n k ] " (258. 37).

Chyun gong Chyun p i i ( ~

" a l l of equal r a n k " > " p e e r s " (249.16).

Chyun l i bae shinq ( d r e d c l a n s " (166. 29).

" a l l of the peoples of the h u n -

46

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS (iii) Distributed collectives.

Meei i

*mw8g e a c h ff

*sliwat " e v e r y " w i t h the c o m m o n c l ;iss-meaning c e i v e d as a s e r i e s of i d e n t i c a l i n s t a n c e s .

M

n

and shuay

a collectivity con­

ff

Examples Shuay tuu j y b i n {

" E v e r y t r i b u t a r y i n the l a n d "

(205. 9). Shuay chaang jwo suh

"At every threshing-floor

[they] peck at the grai]u " (196. 26). M e e i shyh syh goei (

i " A t each m e a l [there w e r e ]

four k u e i - v e s s e l s [of food]" (135. 7) Note 2.

F o r shuay besfore a v e r b , see 3. 5. 3,

(iv) R e s t r i c t i v e s .

Wei

* d i w a r , w i t h the c l a s s - m e a n i n g "to the

e x c l u s i o n of a l l e l s e " " o n l y " "nothing but. " Examples W e i t z y y j y hao (

) "It i s only you that [I] l o v e "

(120. 8). W e i t z y y j y guh (

) "It i s only you that [I] r e g a r d as a

f r i e n d " ( 8 6 . 3 , 1992.6). Note 3.

Sheau-dah

i n E A C (see E A C 2. 6. 7.5. ) o c c u r s

c o m m o n l y before nouns i n sense of " a l l . . . s m a l l and great. " In the Book of Songs, sheau-dah o c c u r s as a noun " a l l s m a l l and great. " (209. 66 and 255.45). 2.4.1.6.5.1.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of C o l l e c t i v e s and R e s t r i c t i v e s i n the Book of Songs

The c o l l e c t i v e s and r e s t r i c t i v e s are d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

i

Ta Ya

1

Hsiao Y a

4

Kuo F e n g

1

-

4

1 2

2

6

2

-

1 2

-

2

2

-

-

1

SYNTAGMA 2.4.1.6.6.

47

Intensive Determinant W o r d s

A c l a s s of w o r d s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r o c c u r r i n g as determinant w o r d s before a t t r i b u t e s , intensify the attribute i n such senses as " v e r y " " t r u l y " "thoroughly. " These are jong koong

*k ung, h o r n g

*g wang, shenn

!

*d ad, daan * k i a d , syh i

*siwen, yeun *tan, dan

*siad and shyr

*tiong,

* d i a m , "thoroughly,

T

g r e a t l y , v e r y , " shyun T

*tiong, jonq

* z i w a n , " t r u l y , v e r y , " dah

*tan, " g r e a t l y , v e r y , " j i h *d iet, " t r u l y . T

T

Examples J o n g uen chiee huey

" V e r y gentle and k i n d " (28. 21).

J o n g yeuan

" V e r y f a r away" (71. 9 ).

J o n g shian i

" V e r y few" (92. 3).

Jonq j i h chiee kwang (

"[They] a r e most c h i l d i s h and

m a d " (54. 20). Koong mann chiee s h y r

) " V e r y wide and l a r g e "

(300. 119). Koong e e l

" V e r y n e a r " (10.12).

Koong j i a (

" V e r y f i n e " (156.47).

H o r n g duo

" V e r y m a n y " (191.14).

H o r n g dah i

" V e r y g r e a t " (253.40).

Shenn yeua]

) " V e r y f a r off" (89.4).

Shenn daw i

" V e r y changeable" (224. 3).

Shyun m e e i chiee r e n

" V e r y handsome and good"

(77.5). Shyun yeou chyng s h i (

) "So v e r y h i g h - s p i r i t e d "

(136.3). Y e u n wen yeun wuu

"Very refined, very m a r t i a l "

(299. 29). Yeun tzàng i Dah j y i

i

' V e r y good" (50.14). " V e r y d i s t r e s s e d " (256.114).

Dah w u - s h i n n (

" M o s t u n r e l i a b l e " (51.11).

Dann buh-tsong i

^

Dann shyr

) " T r u l y r i g h t " (245. 69).

Dan how (

" V e r y r i c h l y endowed" (166. 3).

" V e r y obtuse" (185.10).

48

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS J i h an chiee n i n g (

" V e r y c a l m and peaceful"

(164.18). J i h hao

' V e r y f i n e " (179. 5).

J i h tyng chiee shyr

) " V e r y straight and l a r g e "

(212. 7). Syh hao (

' V e r y f i n e " (259. 63).

Shyr duo {

" T r u l y too m u c h " (132. 6).

Shyr h o r n g

) " T r u l y s p o i l t " (256. 74).

2.4.1.6.6.1.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Intensive Determinants i n the Book of Songs

The intensive determinants of attributes a r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

5

-

-

Ta Y a

9

1

-

Hsiao Y a

19

1

2

Kuo F e n g

6

-

2.4.2.

-

-

-

6

1

1

2 2

-

3

-

7

-

1

1

1

4

2

-

1 1

- 1 3 6

-

-

1 1

-

-

-

3

1

-

The D i r e c t i v e Syntagma The d i r e c t i v e syntagma i s f o r m e d upon the analogy of the v e r b and i t s

p o s t - p o s i t e d elements i n the v e r b a l sentence (see 3 . 4 . f f . , ).

In the v e r b a l

sentence, the f o r m o c c u r s as v e r b (/5), f i r s t p o s t - v e r b a l element ( y ) » 1

second p o s t - v e r b a l element ( y 1 , 2 i s (jSy ) and ( y

o

).

h i the d i r e c t i v e syntagma the d i s t r i b u t i o n

Examples

(py ) 1

i use m e " as i n T z y h woo r e n j i u - j i u (

T z y h woo

M

"He who u¡Lsed [ i . e . made love to] m e , holds aloof C h y o u woo

) "seek m e " as i n C h y o u woo shuh-shyh

i "[Of] a l l tthe knights who seek f o r m e " (20. 3). Y i i n ieou (

" d r i n k w i n e " as i n Shianq w u j i u r e n (

"In the lane, there are no d r i n k e r s of w i n e " (77. 7).

(120. 2).

SYNTAGMA Jv t z w

49

'know y o u " as i n J y t z y y jy l a i j y

" [ F o r ] those who come here who know y o u " (82.13). 2. 5.

A p p o s i t i o n i n Syntagma A further f o r m of d e t e r m i n a t i o n - d e t e r m i n a t i o n by apposition - o c ­

c u r s i n the Book of Songs, i n w h i c h both t e r m s a r e c o - o r d i n a t e . occur,

Two types

h i the f i r s t , pronouns o r d e m o n s t r a t i v e s (which unlike p r o p e r names

i n the Book of Songs, n e v e r o c c u r as d e t e r m i n e d w o r d s ) have the w o r d f o r w h i c h they substitute, apposed (cf. , E n g l i s h " w e , the people"). t r i b u t i o n a l o r d e r i s substitute-noun.

The d i s ­

In the second, w h i c h i s r e s t r i c t e d i n

o c c u r r e n c e to p r o p e r n a m e s , the p e r s o n o r persons named a r e identified (cf. , E n g l i s h " m y s o n , Guy").

The d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o r d e r i s noun-proper

n a m e , (proper names and t h e i r substitutes thus c o n t r a s t i n d i s t r i b u t i o n when apposed). Examples (i) Substitute-noun W e i y u sheau-tzyy (

) " A s to m e , a m e r e c h i l d "

(286. 8). Y i i bao woo how-sheng i

" A n d thus protects u s ,

[his] descendants" (305. 30). Jye e e l p e r n g - y e o u

" O ! y o u , [my] f r i e n d s I

(257. 95). Gow e e l s h i n huen (

) "[I] w i l l meet y o u , [my] new

b r i d e " (218. 29). Niann t z y hwang t z u

"[I] think of these, the august

a n c e s t o r s " (286. 6). Shyr j o u j y minq (

" T h i s , the mandate of C h o u "

(296. 7). T z y h r u u In-shang (

"Ahí

Y o u , Yin-shang. "

(255.10). Wei ruu Jing-chuu (

i " A s to y o u , C h i n g - c h u . . . " T

(305. 7). (ii) N o u n - p r o p e r name Hwang t z u H o w - j i h (

"[Our] august a n c e s t o r , Hou

50

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS C h i " (300.46). Syh Wuu

2. 5. 1.

" H i s h e i r , [King] W u " (285. 5).

D i s t r i b u t i o n of A p p o s i t i o n a l Syntagmas i n the Book of Songs The appositional f o r m i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

4

Ta Ya

1

Hsiao Y a

-

Kuo F e n g

1

2. 6.

2 1

1

1

2 -

1

-

1

1

1

5

-

1

1

1

1

2

2 2

-

-

-

Substitutes i n Syntagma W o r d s of the general c l a s s "substitutes" (see 7. l . f f . , ) w h i c h have

f o r m s p e c u l i a r t o , o r o c c u r r i n g i n , syntagma ( i . e . the p r o n o m i n a l d e t e r ­ minants) have a l r e a d y been d e s c r i b e d . The indefinite and i n t e r r o g a t i v e substitute h e r *diwor, iou (

*diog, suoo

*g'a, shwei

*sio, yeou

*giug, and huoh

*giwek a l s o o c c u r i n syntagma and are t r e a t e d at length i n chapter 7. 2. 7.

Syntagma F o r m - Downgrading from Higher Levels A single element i n a v e r b a l sentence m a y , i n i t s i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e ,

have the same elements and d i s t r i b u t i o n as a v e r b a l sentence.

Such an e l e ­

ment i s s a i d to be " i n syntagma f o r m . " It i s a downgrading of a f o r m a l l y complete v e r b a l sentence to the l e v e l of a sentential element. Examples Woo gow j y t z y y

"He whom I chanced to meet"

( - A ( a j8) - > B ) (158. 7). Kae feng t z y h n a n / C h u e i b i i c h i shin "Soft winds [coming] f r o m the S o u t h / B l o w upon those ju-jube t h o r n s " {a(a

( A B ) [0] dir y ) 0 y 2

1

( A - > B ( A - > B ) ). ) (32. 1,2).

Syntagma f o r m may be f o r m a l l y m a r k e d by the o c c u r r e n c e of the deter -

51

SYNTTAGMA Examples R e n j y we i y an {

i "The s t o r i e s others t e l l (of m e ) "

(125. 7). F e e i ruu jy wei meei (

i "It i s not [so much] y o u r

b e i n g beautiful" (42.11 Downgrading m a y be f o r m a l l y m a r k e d by the o c c u r r e n c e i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n of the p a r t i c l e of syntagma jee

*tiâ.

Examples B u h j y woo jee (

"Those who do not know m e "

(109. 5). B i i jenn r e n jee {

"Those who slander o t h e r s "

(200. 3). Note.

Jee a l s o o c c u r s after an attribute o r v e r b , f o r e x a m p l e , tsann

"bright," jiong b e r r i e s " w i t h the sense of

" s t u r d y , i n fine f e t t l e , " sang r

those who a r e " and thus tsann jee

b r i g h t ones" (118.16), j i o n g jee ( sang jee ( 2. 7 . 1 .

"pick m u l "the

"the sturdy one¡s" (297.11), and

" m u l b e r r y p i c k e r s " (111. 2).

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Syntagmatic P a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs

The syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s are d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as follows:

Sung

1 (Lu)

Ta Y a

-

11

Hsiao Y a

2

11

Kuo F e n g

4

7

CHAPTER 3 THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

W o r d s (see chapter 1) and syntagmas (see chapter 2) are d i s t r i b u t e d as elements i n the sentence.

The sentence i s d i s t r i b u t e d as an element i n

the " p i e c e , " (which i n the c a s e of the Book of Songs, i s the poem under analysis).

T w o c l a s s e s a r e distinguished among sentences.

fined by the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e i r m i n i m a l f o r m s .

They a r e d e ­

Stated w i t h the m a x i ­

m u m of economy, the v e r b a l sentence c o n s i s t s of one element - the v e r b . Stated w i t h the m a x i m u m of economy, the determinative sentence (see c h a p ­ t e r 4) c o n s i s t s of two t e r m s , both substantival.

Sentence boundaries (when

m a r k e d ) are m a r k e d by the " p a r t i c l e s of sentential m o o d " (see 3. 9. ff. , ). In t h i s c h a p t e r , the v e r b a l sentence i s analyzed and d e s c r i b e d , i n chapter 4 the determinative sentence i s analyzed and d e s c r i b e d . 3.1.

The V e r b a l Sentence The v e r b a l sentence has, as i t s p r i n c i p a l w o r d and its i r r e d u c i b l y

m i n i m a l f o r m , a single w o r d (conventional s i g n : /?).

It has the g r a m m a t i c a l

value " v e r b . " A l l other elements i n the sentence a r e qualifications of some k i n d o r another of t h i s v e r b and a r e subordinate to i t . s i m p l e or a compound w o r d .

The v e r b m a y be a

It m a y be used without further q u a l i f i c a t i o n

and i s then uncommitted to m o o d , to aspect and to v o i c e . qualifications i s introduced as a matter of p r e s c r i p t i o n .

None of these When thought by

the u s e r to be r e l e v a n t to the i n f o r m a t i o n to be conveyed, the v e r b i s d e t e r ­ m i n e d i n syntagma.

E a c h of these qualifications i s made by a s e r i e s of

g r a m m a t i c a l determinants which o c c u r i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n the v e r b a l syntagma.

The v e r b a l syntagma i s a single element i n the sentence.

Other elements i n the v e r b a l sentence are the agent, (conventional s i g n : a , see 3. 5); the i n s t r u m e n t , (conventional s i g n : i n s . , see 3.6) o r , ( t a c t i c a l l y interchangeable w i t h i t ) , the i n t e g r a l subordinate clause (see 3. 7).

These precede the v e r b or v e r b a l syntagma i n that o r d e r .

v e r b , two elements o c c u r (conventional s i g n s : y

1

A f t e r the

and y ) w h i c h r e s t r i c t

the scope and govern the v o i c e of the v e r b (see 3.4).

2

The mood and the

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

53

aspect of the v e r b and c e r t a i n other q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e , that of m a n n e r , a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the v e r b a l syntagma (see 3. 3 . 1 , 3. 3. 2, 3. 3. 3, etc. ).

The v o i c e of the v e r b i s governed by the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the two p o s t -

v e r b a l elements (see 3.4). The agent precedes the instrument and the two a r e c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i ­ ated.

C e r t a i n "moods" of the speaker (see 3. 9) a r e indicated by a c l a s s of

w o r d i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n i n the v e r b a l sentence.

C e r t a i n indications of t i m e

and place a r e indicated i n i t i a l l y and absolutely (see 3.10) (see 3.11). 3.2.

The V e r b A n y w o r d o c c u r r i n g i n the e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions d e s c r i b e d above

has the value " v e r b . " Such w o r d s do not c o n f o r m to patterns of c l a s s m e a n i n g s , neither does the segregation of w o r d s o c c u r r i n g i n t h i s p o s i t i o n set up an e x c l u s i v e c l a s s of v e r b s .

In speaking of " v e r b a l v a l u e " the f o l l o w ­

ing m a y be of help to t r a n s l a t o r s . (i)

A w o r d used as a determinant w o r d (attribute) i n syntagma (see

2.4.1.1

c l a s s i i ) o c c u r r i n g at 0 m a y be used f a c t i t i v e l y o r putatively. Examples " s e e m l y " " p r o p e r " but " m a k e - p r o p e r , " i . e . " o r d e r p r o p e r l y

Yi

or w e l l " i n Y i c h y i shyh j i a

"[She w i l l ] o r d e r w e l l

h e r household" (6.4). cf. , Y i dah-fu shuh-shyh "The

p r o p e r [ i . e . appropriate] Great Officers and k n i g h t s " (300.107).

Lao

"aged, o l d " but "become o l d " i . e . "to grow o l d " i n Y e u

t z y y j i e lao ( (31.16). (ii)

cf.

" W i t h you s i r , together, to grow o l d " lao m a a

"the o l d h o r s e s , " (223.17).

A w o r d used as a determinant w o r d (noun) i n syntagma (see 2. 4. 1.1

c l a s s i) m a y o c c u r i n v e r b a l usage w i t h the following c l a s s - m e a n i n g s , (a) "to use o r make x " (b) "to t r e a t o t h e r s , o r behave oneself as x . " Examples Fwu yih (

" d r e s s , c l o t h i n g " but "to make into d r e s s e s " i n F w u j y w u " M a k e clothes of it [ i . e . of c o a r s e and fine

cloth] that w i l l never p a l l " (2.12). (150. 6).

cf. , " i - f w u "

"clothing"

But fwu i s a l s o "to w e a r c l o t h e s " i n H a o - r e n fwu j y " A l o v e d one w i l l w e a r t h e m " (107. 6).

54

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Fang

" a raft" but "to t r a v e l by raft" i n J i a n g j y yeong y i i / b w u "The C h i a n g i s so l o n g ,

kee fang sy

that it cannot be t r a v e l l e d by r a f t " (9. 8), a l s o F a n g

"a place"

and thus "to make a place o n e s o w n " i n W e i j i o u fang j y ( !

"It i s the cuckoo who makes it [the magpie*s nest] h e r p l a c e " (12.6). " e a r t h " and c h e r n g

Tuu (

" a c i t y w a l l " but "to b u i l d e a r t h -

w o r k s " and "to b u i l d a w a l l around" i n T u u gwo c h e r n g T s a u r " B u i l d r a m p a r t s for the c a p i t a l and a c i t y w a l l around T s a o " T

(31.3). Yeou (

" a f r i e n d " but to m a k e - f r i e n d s of > "to b e f r i e n d " i n C h y n

seh yeou jy i Tyan

" W i t h lute and h a r p befriend h e r " (1.16).

" a f i e l d " but (read tiann) "to cultivate a f i e l d " i n W u tiann ) "[You] should not cultivate [too] l a r g e a

f uu tyan f i e l d " (102.1). 3.2.1.

V e r b a l Sentences i n M i n i m a l F o r m The v e r b i s the p r i n c i p a l element and the i r r e d u c i b l e m i n i m a l f o r m

of the v e r b a l sentence.

The v e r b a l sentence o c c u r s i n m i n i m a l f o r m i n the

following: Examples Guei t z a y guei t z a y i

" C o m e b a c k ! come b a c k ! "

(19.18). Y e u a n , moh j y h j y (

T

[But, you] a r e f a r away,

[and]

there are none to b r i n g it to y o u " (59.4). I). i " [ O how I] love [her], [O how Hwai t z a i h w a i t z a i ( I] love [her] (68. 5). J i e h , c h y i shang r u u (

) " T a k e c a r e ! He w i l l injure

y o u " (78.10). Neu iue guan hu

î s a y s , H a v e [you] seen [it]? " "She !

T

(95.5). Iou t z a i i o u t z a i (1.10).

i " O the l

longing I O the longing ! "

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE 3. 3.

55

The V e r b a l Syntagma The d e t e r m i n e d element i n the v e r b a l syntagma ( i . e. ft i n [

c u r s as a s i m p l e w o r d , f o r e x a m p l e , " f a "

¡3] o c -

"to cut, to f e l l , " as i n F a

I / c u t / i t s / tb r a n c h //:r o d " > "Cut the switches

chyi tyau m e i

"to p i c k , to p l u c k " as i n Y u y i i tsae f a r n

t h e r e " (10.2); tsae (

"[We] a r e going to gather white a s t e r s " (13.1); o r a compound word, for example, shyou-shyi

T

to r e s t " as i n B u h kee s h y o u -

"[One] cannot r e s t [beneath the t r e e ] " (9. 2); f a a n -

shyi (

"to t o s s and t u r n " as i n Nean-joan faan-tseh (

tseh (

" O v e r and o v e r , [he] t o s s e s and t u r n s " (1.12). Note. ¡3

D i s t i n c t i o n must be made between a v e r b w h i c h i s a compound

and two v e r b s o c c u r r i n g together i n s i m p l e connection (¡3 + /3) o r i n

alternate connection Examples (i) Simple connection Tzonq

to r e l e a s e " and song

t o a c c o m p a n y , go w i t h ,

p u r s u e " as i n Y i h chinq konq j i h / y i h tzonq song j i h ( "One moment the chimestone i s s t r u c k / T h e next, [the a r r o w ] r e l e a s e d and [the game] p u r s u e d " ( 7 8 . 1 9 - 2 0 ) . " a s c e n d , " jiang

"descend, " as i n Wen wang j y r j i a n g

" K i n g Wen ascends and descends" (235. 7). (ii) A l t e r n a t i v e connection Wuh m e y (

"[Whether] w a k i n g o r s l e e p i n g " u . f . " a l l the t i m e ,

day i n , day out" (1.10). Bang-gwo r u o h foou (

"Whether the States a r e o b e d i -

ent o r disobedient" (260. 27). When two v e r b s are j o i n e d i n s i m p l e connection and the l i n k i s m a r k e d w i t h a p a r t i c l e , the p a r t i c l e s are chiee

* t s i a and e r l !

*niag.

Examples Woo ge chiee y a u (

"I chant and s i n e " ( 1 0 9 . 4 Ï .

Her shoe i c h i n g chiee l i a n i

) "The w a t e r s

of the Y e l l o w R i v e r flow c l e a r and r i p p l e d ! " (112.3). Shyh ge chiee wuu

) "[I] w i l l s i n g and dance w i t h y o u "

56

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS (218. 18). B i h e e l chang e r l chyh (

) "[They] make y o u p r o s ­

p e r and f l o u r i s h " (300. 77] Chiee and e r l , as l i n k s between v e r b s , a r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

3

Ta Y a

4

Hsiao Y a

10

Kuo F e n g

16

1

Two v e r b s m a y o c c u r together i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p p v)^ fi "to do A i n o r d e r to do B . " Examples Woang suh

) "to go to l a y a c o m p l a i n t " as i n B o r yan woang

s u h / F e r n g b i i j y nuh

"When to

t h e m [I] go and c o m p l a i n , / [I] meet with t h e i r anger" (26.10 and 11). C h u you

"to go out to enjoy oneself" as i n J i a h y an chu y o u " H a v i n g put horse to coach let [us] set out on

p l e a s u r e bent" (39. 23). L a i maw (

"to come to b u y " as i n F e e i l a i maw sy

"It was not so m u c h that [you] came to buy s i l k t h r e a d " (58. 3). Guei n i n g

) "to go home to c o m f o r t " as i n Guei n i n g fwu m u u "[I] a m going home to comfort m y p a r e n t s " (2.18).

The v e r b y u (

"to go" when o c c u r r i n g w i t h another v e r b i n the

sense of "to go to i n o r d e r to . . . . " i n v a r i a b l y i s m a r k e d b y the o c c u r r e n c e of y u {

a s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n y u y i i tsae

M 3. "H vu vii chvou

"go to p l u c k "

"go to seek" (31.11), w h i c h distinguishes

the use of v u without v i i before v e r b s i n the sense of " i n the p r o c e s s of" a s , for e x a m p l e , y u f e i go/hunt > " i s hunting" (77. 1).

g o / f l y > " i s f l y i n g " (2.4) y u tyan ( -=y \%)

)

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

57

C e r t a i n determinations of t h i s v e r b take precedence o v e r a l l other grammatical determinations.

T h e y a r e (i) m a t e r i a l determinants of the

v e r b and (ii) determinations of degree.

M a t e r i a l determinations introduce

a g r e a t e r degree of s p e c i f i c n e s s to the meaning of a v e r b w h i c h otherwise has a m o r e g e n e r a l i m p o r t .

D e t e r m i n a t i o n s of degree have the c l a s s - m e a n ­

i n g i n a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r degree. M

M

(i) M a t e r i a l determinations (a) V e r b s of motion are given m o r e s p e c i f i c d i r e c t i o n Examples Shiah l a i (

descend/come "come down" (66.6).

Shang shang

) go u p / r i s e " r i s e up" (78.13).

Dong juh

go e a s t / f l o w out "flow e a s t w a r d s " (244. 21).

(b) V e r b s of g e n e r a l i m p o r t a r e given specificness by t h e i r i n s t r u ­ mentation o r purpose Bao-ming

"by p r o t e c t i n g , to b r i n g g l o r y upon" (287.12).

Bao-yeou

"by p r o t e c t i n g , to p o s s e s s " (294. 5).

(ii) Determinations of degree (a) Duo

*ta "to a g r e a t e r degree"

Examples B i h e e l duo y i h (

cause/you/in greater degree/to

i n c r e a s e " [May Heaven] b r i n g upon y o u m u c h i n c r e a s e " (166. 5). E r l duo w e i shiuh

thus/in greater degree/make/

t r o u b l e , "Thus c a u s i n g m u c h t r o u b l e " (169. 25). Sheen gaan duo y o u

" M u c h l e s s dare [they] the m o r e

repeat i t " (220. 69). (b) Sheau

*siog "to a l e s s e r degree, somewhat,

Chyh kee sheau k a n g i

slightly"

" T o the point where [they] can

but r a r e l y f i n d peace" (253. 2). C h y h kee sheau s h i o u i

" T o the point where [they]

c a n but r a r e l y r e s t " (253. 12). (c)

Shu(

*diu " t o t a l l y "

Shu y i h hu gong t z w u ( of] the D u k e ' s c l a n s m e n " (108.18).

) " T o t a l l y unlike [the others

58

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS (d)

*tsiwat " u t t e r l y "

Tzwu

Gwo j i h t z w u jaan

I "The State i s a l r e a d y t o t a l l y

d e s t r o y e d " (191. 7). Uei y i tzwu m i i

"[When] dignity and deportment goes

u t t e r l y a s t r a v " (254. 35). Woo j i u y e u t z w u huang (

" O u r settlements are

u t t e r l y l a i d w a s t e " (265. 5) (e)

Jinq

*kiang " u t t e r l y "

Jenn shyy j i n q b e e i

) " [ T h e i r ] s l a n d e r s a r e at f i r s t

t o t a l l y d i s r e g a r d e d " (264. 30). (f)

Koong

*k'ung "to a g r e a t e r degree"

Koong j y i woo y e u (

"[The enemy] h a r r a s s e s our b o r -

d e r s g r e a t l y " (257. 32). R u jwo koong cheu

"]f offered wine [they] take it i n

great q u a n t i t i e s " (223. 20). In E a r l y A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , c e r t a i n determinations of the v e r b of degree a r e u s e d w i t h the c l a s s - m e a n i n g " i m p o s i n g status" p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l i g i o u s contexts where they m e r e l y indicate a sense of the ominous (see E A C 3. 3. i i ) . In the Book of Songs, dann

*d an, i s so u s e d . f

Dann shian deng y u ann (

" [ K i n g Wen] f i r s t a s -

cended a h i g h bank" (241. 52). Dann m i J y u e yueh
"might n e v e r " C h i n q - w u

Chinq-wu

"[So that] never m a y [you] not [get your]

buh-yi just due* Cherng-bu

" t r u l y / n o t " C h e r n g - b u y i i fuu i

"[You] a s s u r e d l y w i l l not, thereby, p r o s p e r " (188. 17). " t r u l y / m a y not" Goou-wu j i kee

Goou-wu

" M a y [he] never hunger o r t h i r s t " (66.16). 3.3.1.6.

Periphrastic F o r m s for e x p r e s s i n g Mood

" W i s h i n g and w i l l i n g , " i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , may be e x p r e s s e d p e r i p h r a s t i c a l l y w i t h the use of such w o r d s as yuann ching

*ngiwan " w i s h that, "

*ts ieng "request that" etc. , o c c u r r i n g before the agent of a T

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE v e r b a l sentence,

h i the Book of Songs, c h i a n g i

69 *ts iang o c c u r s i n the T

sense of "would that" " w i s h that" " p r i t h e e " e t c . Examples Chiang chyi l a i shyr (

) " W o u l d that he would come

and b r i n g [me] food" i C h i a n g Shu w u neou (

) " W o u l d that y o u would not r e -

peat i t , S h u ! " (78.1). C h i a n g t z y y w u nuh (

) "[I] begged that you would not

be a n g r y " (58. 9). 3. 3 . 1 . 7.

Mood Contextually Imposed

Some q u a l i f i c a t i o n must be made to the statement i n 3. 3 . 1 that "unde­ t e r m i n e d by a m o d a l determinant the v e r b i s n e u t r a l as to m o o d " s i n c e , though f o r m a l l y u n m a r k e d , c e r t a i n contextual situations impose mood. e x a m p l e , the f o r m a l l y s i m i l a r Day c h y i wey j y and Day b i n g wey pann

For

(20.12)

(34.12) out ot context give no m -

dication of m o o d , (come t o / h i s / s p e a k i n g / o f i t / a n d , come t o / i c e / n o t / m e l t ing) but i n context the f i r s t i s subjunctive " M a y it come to h i s speaking of i t " i . e. " M a y he speak h i s m i n d ! " and the second indicative " B e f o r e the ice m e l t s . " Other e x a m p l e s of u n m a r k e d m o d a l i t y are as f o l l o w s : Examples (i) N e u t r a l f o r m to be r e a d subjunctivelv B i h wu you s h i (

" M a y [they] impute no fault to m e "

(lit. C a u s e / [ m e ] h a v e - n o / f a u l t / s t . ).

(27. 12).

(That this i s a w i s h

e x p r e s s e d and not a statement of fact i s d e t e r m i n e d by context). Shyr huoh woo s h i n

" M a y [they] t r u l y sustain m y

h e a r t " (27. 16). Show kao bwu wanq (

" L o n g may [he] l i v e and not be

forgotten" (130.12). (ii) N e u t r a l f o r m to be r e a d i n i u n c t i v e l v T z y y shing shyh yeh ( n i g h t ! " (82.3).

" A r i s e s i r ! and look at the

70

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

3.3.1.8.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the M o d a l Negatives and A u x i l i a r i e s i n the Book of Songs

The m o d a l negatives are d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

11

-

2

4

Ta Y a

21

4

66

Hsiao Y a

42

4

7

2

Kuo F e n g

62

3

10

-

1 (Shang)

8 8 -

1

-

3

1

2

12

3

3

3

-

2

15

2

2

4

-

-

19

The m o d a l p o s i t i v e r e p l a c e m e n t s are d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung Ta Ya

2

Hsiao Y a

2

Kuo F e n g

1

-

1 -

-

1 2

2

-

-

-

2

-

-

2

-

1

-

-

4

1

-

1

2

1

2

Sung

-

2

1

-

1

Ta Ya

-

2

3

1

1

Hsiao Y a

-

2

4

1

1

Kuo F e n g

1

-

2

-

5

3.3.2.

-

1

4 4

1 11

1

1 1

-

-

2

5

-

-

8

A s p e c t i n the V e r b a l Syntagma Tf

A s p e c t " as used i n this d e s c r i p t i o n i n speaking of A r c h a i c C h i n e s e ,

denotes a c l a s s of determinants o c c u r r i n g i n the v e r b a l syntagma the p u r ­ pose of w h i c h i s to define (i) a point i n the p r o g r e s s of the a c t i o n as e n v i s ­ aged by the s p e a k e r , w h i c h m a y be a point p r i o r to i n i t i a t i o n (potential a s ­ pect), a point at the beginning of r e a l i z a t i o n (inchoative aspect), a point o r span i n the p e r i o d of r e a l i z a t i o n (durative aspect), o r the point of c o m p l e t i o n

71

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

(perfective aspect); o r (ii) the d i s t i n c t i o n between the act of a specific m o ­ ment (momentary aspect) and that of c u s t o m and usage (customary aspect) (conventional s i g n : as 3. 3. 2 . 1 .

0).

Potential Aspect

* l i o g , has potential aspect.

*ts'ia or liau

*tsiang, chiee

A v e r b determined by j i a n g

A s p e c t i s independent of mood so that i n

the examples below the v e r b s are indifferently indicative o r subjunctive. Examples "[We have] r e a c h e d the point

Shyh, j i a n g c h i u h r u u

where [we] are going to leave y o u " (113. 5) Shwei j i a n g s h i guei (

"Who i s going to r e t u r n home

to the W e s t ? " (149.11 Duo j i a n g he-he ( much

) "[If you] are going to c l a m o u r so

" (254. 31).

Huey chiee guei y i i (

"[Those at the] a s s e m b l y are

about to r e t u r n h o m e " (96.11) Chiee woang guan hu

" S h a l l [we] go and l o o k ? "

(95. 7). "[You] c o u l d , w i t h [your lutes]

Chiee y i i yeong r y h ( p r o l o n g the day" (115. 22). L i a u yeu jy mou (

"I a m going to t a l k w i t h them

[about i t ] " (39. 6). "[She] w i l l gladden m y h e a r t "

L i a u l e h woo yun ( (93. 6).

"[I] a m , as a r e s u l t , going to

L i a u y i i shyng gwo leave [this] state" (109.16). 3. 3. 2. 2.

Inchoative A s p e c t

A v e r b d e t e r m i n e d by jaw * t s i o , shyy !

choative aspect.

*si8g, t z a y
¥r\î

o n r r

"hoc

The act i s c o n c e i v e d of as being i n p r o c e s s

or continuing, but not t e r m i n a t e d . Examples Shanq yeou dean-shyng (

"We s t i l l have statutes and

l a w s " (255. 54). Shanq kee mo yee {

i "[It] s t i l l can be ground out"

(256.42). Her yow huai j y y { (101.6).

"Why do [you] s t i l l love h e r "

74

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

3. 3. 2, 5.

Perfective Aspect

The v e r b has perfective aspect when d e t e r m i n e d by j i h {

*kiad.

Examples J i jih ming y i i (

"The c o c k has a l r e a d y c r o w e d "

(96.1). "[You] have a l r e a d y taken m y

J i n cneu woo t z y y ( young ones" (155. 2) T i h j i h yeun j y

"[My] t e a r s have been shed for i t "

(197.48). Note.

The aspectual determinant j i h (

*kiod i n the f o l l o w i n g b e ­

c o m e s a conjunction, C h i i buh e e l s h o w / J i h c h y i r u u c h i a n i "It i s not that [we] do not accept [you] / [but that] having [accepted you] they w i l l r e m o v e y o u " (200. 15-16). 3. 3. 2. 6.

Customary Aspect

In Late A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , a v e r b d e t e r m i n e d by c h a r n g or i t s negation w e y - c h a r n g (

has c u s t o m a r y aspect.

*dians: The act i s

v i e w e d as one of habit o r e x p e r i e n c e r a t h e r than of s p e c i f i c o c c u r r e n c e . C h a r n g does not o c c u r i n E a r l y A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , neither does it o c c u r i n the Book of Songs, except i n i t s p l e r e m a t i c usage "to taste. " h i the Book of Songs, yeou

*giug "there i s / t h e r e w a s / t h e r e has been" and its n e g a -

tions m i i - y e o u

* m i a - g i u g and w e y - y e o u

*miwad-giug

"there n e v e r has b e e n " c l o s e l y approximate to c h a r n g and w e y - c h a r n g i n LAC. Examples (i)

yeou

J i h k e h yeou d i n q / M i i r e n fwu shenq "Once a settlement can be had [ i . e . e x p e r i e n c e d ] / T h e r e w i l l not be a man who w i l l not s u b m i t " (192. 29). (ii)

m i i - y e o u and w e y - y e o u

Mii-yeou jau y i i i

" T h e r e has n e v e r once been a

m o r n i n g [to c a l l m y own]" (58.44). Luann m i i - y e o u dinq ( been s e t t l e d " (191.42).

"The d i s o r d e r s never have

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE J y - y e h w e y - y e o u hay (

75 " B r a n c h and leaf as yet

not i n j u r e d " (255.61). h i E A C such w o r d s as j a u - s h i h ( * s i o k - d z i a k and suh-yeh (

*tiog-dziak, s u h - s h i h *siok-ziag, /dawn/dusk/early/late/>

" a l l day l o n g " " a l w a y s " " c o n s t a n t l y , " and yeong {

*giwang "for e v e r ,

p e r p e t u a l l y , " o c c u r r i n g before the v e r b , impose c u s t o m a r y aspect i n the sense that the act i s v i e w e d as being one of constant, o r r e c u r r i n g o c c u r ­ r e n c e r a t h e r than a single act.

Of these w o r d s , j a u - s h i h , suh-yeh and

yeong o c c u r before v e r b s i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s : Examples J a u - s h i h t s o r n g shyh ( .

"Constantly concerned w i t h

ftheirl a f f a i r s " (205.4). J a u - s h i h buh shy a

"Not r e s t i n g e v e r " (234.12).

Suh-yeh t z a y gong

"Constantly at the P a l a c e "

( 2 1 . 4 , 298.3). Woo c h y i s u h - y e h / W e y t i a n j y u e i " M a y we e v e r / F e a r the majesty of Heaven" (272. 8). Yeong shyh fwu gaw (

' F o r e v e r [he] swore not to

t e l l " (56.12). J o n g Shan-fuu yeong h w a i (

"Chung Shan-fu i s

always w o r r i e d " (260. 63). 3. 3. 2. 7.

A s p e c t s of Incidence

A number of w o r d s o c c u r r i n g before the v e r b i n the aspectual p o s i t i o n impose aspects of incidence.

These aspects have to do w i t h the n u m b e r ,

sequence o r degree of incidence of the act as envisaged. (i) N u m b e r o r sequence of incidence TT-I

i l _ Y*«

Chu

J

J •

* t s i o / f i r s t / > "for f i r s t t i m e " Jvue chu sheng m i n T

"She who f i r s t gave b i r t h to [our] people" (245.1). SHYY harn (

*siag/begin/> "for f i r s t t i m e " "at f i r s t " J i a n n shyy j i h " F a l s e h o o d s are at f i r s t refuted"

For the second time. once ao-ain Yow

*giug "once a g a i n " Luann j y yow sheng
" B e f o r e I had a house" (155. 15). Y u huai m i n g der

"I c h e r i s h [your] b r i g h t v i r t u e "

(241. 74). Shy i e e l c h u j i u (

" F o r m e r l y , [when] y o u went out

[to seek] a h a b i t a t i o n " (194. 53). E e l yonq i o u niueh i

" Y o u make use of unkind j e s t s "

Í254. 30). Ruu s h i n g shyh l i h

) " Y o u promoted it and s t r e n g t h -

ened i t " (255. 16). Ruu faan yeou j y (

T

Y o u p e r v e r s e l y take p o s s e s s i o n

of t h e m " (264. 12). 3. 5. 2 . 1 .

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Pronouns used A g e n t i v e l y i n the Book of Songs

The pronouns used agentively i n the Book of Songs are d i s t r i b u t e d as follows:

Sung

-

Ta Ya

1

Hsiao Y a

1

Kuo F e n g

1

1

-

-

7

2

-

2 8

3

5

7 3

4

2

-

28

4

5

1

15

-

-

21

7

3

3

16

-

100

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

3. 5. 3.

Agential Distributives

The g r a m m a t i c a l value of the agent i s substantival,

hi Archaic Chin­

ese substantival usage does not d i s t i n g u i s h n u m b e r , o r c l a s s and m e m b e r (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6.4). made. 4. a

t

h i the agential syntagma, c e r t a i n of these distinctions are

Those made by syntagmatic determinants a r e d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 4 . 1 . 6.

Others are made by the agential d i s t r i b u t i v e s .

The d i s t r i b u t i v e s o c c u r

dist. in q/dist. The d i s t r i b u t i v e s a r e :

(a) C o l l e c t i v e , when a l l instances are e n v i s a g e d , and (b) R e s t r i c t i v e , when a l l but one agent, o r c l a s s of agents, are excluded. The c o l l e c t i v e d i s t r i b u t i v e s of the agent a r e : (i) C o l l e c t i v e s w i t h the c l a s s - m e a n i n g " a l l given instances c o n c e i v e d as a t o t a l i t y . " h i the Book of Songs these a r e shyan *g'iu bih ( f

*g em; jiuh f

*piet.

Examples "The states of C h o u , a l l r e -

J o u bang shyan s h i i ( j o i c e d " (259. 52).

"That Y i n should r e c e i v e

h i show m i n q shyan y i the c h a r g e , a l l thought j u s t " (303. 21). M i n j i u h e e l jan (

"The people a l l look up to y o u "

(191.4). Shiong-dih j i u h l a i

) " [ Y o u r ] b r o t h e r s a l l have c o m e "

(217. 18). B i h l a i j i h sheng (

" A l l have come and have a l r e a d y

gone up" (190. 24). (ii) C o l l e c t i v e s with the c l a s s - m e a n i n g "two o r m o r e agents, o r groups of agents acting conjointly. " h i the Book of Songs the c o l l e c t i v e i s l i e | *k€r. Examples J y i e e l j i e lao

i

" W i t h y o u together to grow o l d "

(58.51). Y e u t z y y jie shyng ( m a r c h " (133.15).

) " W i t h y o u together [we] s h a l l

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

101

( i i i ) R e s t r i c t i v e s with the c l a s s - m e a n i n g "one agent o r c l a s s of agents to the e x c l u s i o n of a l l o t h e r s , " "nothing but, " "no-one but. " In the Book of Songs the r e s t r i c t i v e i s dwu

*d uk. !

Examples Woo dwu j i u i o u (

t

" O n l y I d w e l l i n g r i e f " (193. 60).

T z y h dwu b i h tzang

"He c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f alone to

be good" (257.62). Note 1.

T h e r e i s a d i s t i n c t i o n between dwu i n the aspectual p o s i t i o n

(see 3. 3. 2. 8 "alone") and dwu i n the agential d i s t r i b u t i v e p o s i t i o n (as above "only").

It i s the difference between shwei y e u dwu c h u

W h o ? / t o g e t h e r - w i t h / a l o n e / d w e l l > " W i t h whom s h a l l I share m y l o n e l i n e s s ? " (124.4) and woo dwu her hay

/ m e / only / w h y / h a r m e d / Why f T

i s it only me that suffers h a r m ? " (202. 28) C e r t a i n c o l l e c t i v e s a l s o o c c u r as determinants of the p o s t - v e r b a l e l e ­ ments,

h i such usage they o c c u r before the v e r b , though they determine the

element after the v e r b ,

h i t h i s usage shuay

*sliwat and s h i

*siet o c c u r . Examples Shi shuay tzuoo-yow

) "[We] l e d f o r t h a l l the c o u r -

t i e r s " (180.17). Shuay you jiow jang (

" F o l l o w i n g a l l of the ancient

p a t t e r n s " (249. 12). P i h m i n q shuay yuh (

" G o d charged [you] to n o u r i s h

a l l " (275.6). Note 2.

Where the verb i s p a s s i v e , shuay r e m a i n s i n the p r e - v e r b a l

position. Examples F a n g y u law j y y , shuay s h y r jau-kao "[I] enquire of m y F a l l e n Ones [= m y dead a n c e s t o r s ] , / T h e A n c e s t o r s a s s u r e me a l l i s [right =] w e l l " (287.2) ( l i t . a l l / r e g a r d e d - a s - r i g h t / [by] A n c e s t o r s ) . Shuay j i a n n jau-kao ( (283. 7).

" A l l i s seen by the A n c e s t o r s "

102

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

3. 5. 3. 1.

A g e n t i a l D i s t r i b u t i v e s (continued)

Huoh

*g'wak, moh

* m â k and geh

^klâk o c c u r as

agential d i s t r i b u t i v e s i n the sense r e s p e c t i v e l y of "of the agents,

some,"

"of the agents, n o n e , " and "of the agents, a l l , each one. " The agent i s not always specified. Examples Huoh chyun huoh yeou

"Some i n h e r d s , some ir

c o u p l e s " ( s a i d of the habits of w i l d game) (180. 16). Huoh tzuey huoh foou

"Some are drunk, some not"

(220. 58). Huoh l a i jan r u u

" T h e r e are those who come to see

y o u " (291. 5). M o h gaan hwang shyi

" N o one dare r e s t for a m o -

ment" (19. 10). Moh wey muu shin (

"Not one of t h e m c o m f o r t e d h i s

m o t h e r ' s h e a r t " (32. 16). Moh r u shiong-dih I

" N o one i s comparable to [one's

own] b r o t h e r s " (164. 4). M i n geh yeou shin

"Of the people, each one has a

m i n d [of h i s own]" (256. 84). Geh jinq e e l shen

" L e t a l l of you be most c a r e f u l

of v o u r p e r s o n " (194. 26). Y i h geh yeou shyng

) " A n d too, e v e r y [woman] e m -

b a r k s on the journey [of m a r r i a g e ] " (54. 18). Yeou (

*giug and w u

*miwo o c c u r as agential d i s t r i b u t i v e s

i n the sense r e s p e c t i v e l y of "of the agents, there was one" ( o r , "there are those") and "of the agents, there i s not one" (or, "there are not those"). Examples Y e o u chuh c h y i c h e r n g

"Some began w o r k on the

w a l l s " (259. 27). S h i a n - m i n yeou tzuoh (

/ O f the f o r m e r

people/some-

one/began" "It was s t a r t e d by someone among the f o r m e r people" (301. 18). Yeou l a i iong-iong

"Some come i n f u l l a c c o r d "

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

103

(282. 1). "Of [my] b r o t h e r s , none a r e

Shiong-dih w u yeuan ( far distant" (165. 28).

" M a y there not be a n y ­

Wu buh e e l huoh c h e r n g

thing that i s not made e v e r l a s t i n g f o r y o u " (166. 36). Woang (

*miwang and m i i

* m i a a l s o o c c u r as agential d i s -

t r i b u t i v e s i n the sense of "of the agents, there a r e none, no-one. " Examples " T h e r e are none w i t h w h o m [I]

M i i suoo y e u t o r n g ( can [travel]" (37.12).

" T h e r e i s no one to w h o m to l o o k ,

M i i jan f e e i fuh if it i s not one s father" (197.19). 1

Warm m i n m i i buh c h e r n g i

"Of the m y r i a d s of

the people, none but w i l l s e r v e y o u " (256. 54). Shern woang s h y r yuann

"Of a l l the gods, none w e r e

angry w i t h h i m " (240. 8). Shern woang s h y r donq (

Of a l l the gods, none were

g r i e v e d by h i m " (240. 9). Note.

Tzer

*tsak, o c c u r r i n g i n the agential d i s t r i b u t i v e p o s i ­

t i o n , s i n g l e s out the agent often i n contrast to an i m p l i e d a d v e r s a t i v e .

This

usage of t z e r can s o m e t i m e s be r e s o l v e d i n t r a n s l a t i o n by " i f it i s a question of the agent, then . . . . , " "as f a r as the agent i s c o n c e r n e d . . . . " (sometimes c o n t r a r y to expectation) w h i l e at other t i m e s it c a n be r e s o l v e d by supplying the a d v e r s a t i v e . aXAMPLES C h y i t z e r yeou a n n / S h y i t z e r yeou pann i " E v e n the C h i has i t s b a n k s / E v e n the swamp i t s m a r g i n s " T

(i.e.

nothing i s boundless) (58. 53-54).

C h y i shyh t z e r e e l , / C h y i r e n shenn yeuan ( " H i s house i s c l o s e b y / B u t he h i m s e l f i s v e r y f a r away" (89. 3-4). F e e i j i t z e r m i n g / T s a n g - y n g j y sheng ( "It was not the c o c k that c r o w e d / B u t the sound of the f l i e s " (96.4). lue y u buh c h y a n g / L i i t z e r r a n y i i (

104

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS "[He] says I do not m i s t r e a t y o u , / T h e r i t u a l l a w s [contrary to e x p e c ­ !

tation] are l i k e that " ( i . e . r e q u i r e me to act as I do) (193. 39-40). 1

3.5.3.2.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the A g e n t i a l D i s t r i b u t i v e s i n the Book of Songs

The agential d i s t r i b u t i v e s are d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as follows:

Sung

Ta Ya

1

1

Hsiao Y a

Kuo F e n g

-

2

7

-

1 5 1

6

1

3 1 1

2

6

8 1

3

-

10

16

11

3

1

1 6

1

-

1 4

9 1

3.5.4.

2 5

1 4

T w o o r m o r e A g e n t s , a c t i n g Conjointly W h e r e , i n the agential syntagma, two o r m o r e c l a s s e s of agency a r e

i n v o l v e d and the agents act c o n j o i n t l y , the syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s of s i m p l e connection {

I

K

* z i o , (see 2. 5 above) ) m a r k the

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE l i a i s o n between t h e m .

105

Both nouns and pronouns a r e l i n k e d i n this w a y , and,

p a r t i c u l a r l y when pronouns are u s e d , often w i t h the o m i s s i o n of the f i r s t . *. io also o c c u r s .

In t h i s usage y u Examples

"[I] and y o u , [were to have] died

J y i e e l t o r n g syy together" (35. 8). J y i e e l jie lao (

"[I] and y o u , w i l l grow o l d together"

(58. 51). "[I] and you s i r , w i l l grow o l d t o -

Y e u t z y y j i e lao ( gether" (31.16). Yeu tzyy y i jy ( J

f

[I] and y o u s i r , w i l l d r e s s t h e m "

(82. 8). Y u woo guei shy i (

" W i t h me come home and r e s t "

(150. 8). Y u r u u shinn chuu

) "[I] w i t h y o u , w i l l stay another

night" (159. 7). But,

i n a s l i g h t l y different f o r m of d i s t r i b u t i o n , the second agent p r e -

ceded by y i i

* z i a g , shyh

*siak o r y e u

* z i o , o c c u r s as a

d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the v e r b , t a k i n g precedence o v e r such elements as negation, aspect and mode. Examples L i a u yeu jy mou

T

[I] w i l l , with t h e m , take c o u n s e l "

(82.6). Wu y e u shyh dan gentlemen,

"[They] should not, w i t h young

seek p l e a s u r e " (58. 26).

Wu y i i woo Gong guei s h i

> " D o not go back

w i t h our p r i n c e " (159. 12). Swei w u hao yeou/Shyh yann chiee s h i i "Though she has no f a i r c o m p a n i o n s / W i t h h e r [I] w i l l feast and be m e r r y " (218.5-6). Shyh wuh t s o r n g wey

" W i t h t h e m [the drunken] y o u

must not c o m p l y or speak" (220. 63). Yii

*ziag a l s o o c c u r s , w i t h no f o r m a l change, as a l i n k between

two nouns when the f i r s t noun i s the agent and the second designates

some-

106

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

thing w i t h w h i c h the agent i s accompanied. Examples Y i i c h y i j i e h g u e i / R u h j i i n y u Wang "[The L o r d of Han] w i t h h i s Great J a d e / E n t e r e d to have an audience of the k i n g " (261.16-17). " W i t h t h e m [ i . e . with the flags

Yii shian chii shyng

and c h a r i o t s ] [we] advanced and began the m a r c h " (177. 32). Y i i woang cheng c h a r n g

" W i t h them [ i . e . w i t h the

oxen and sheep] [you] go and p e r f o r m the W i n t e r S a c r i f i c e " (209.15). Y i i e e l che l a i ! Note 1.

lue

"[You] came w i t h y o u r c a r t " (58.19) (see 2. 5 above) do not o c c u r i n this

and j y i

p o s i t i o n interposed between m o d a l elements and the v e r b . Note 2.

The pronouns that o c c u r after the syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s a r e ruu

woo

eel

3.5.4.1.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s l i n k i n g Agents i n the Book of Songs

and

i

Sung

2

Ta Ya

3

Hsiao Y a

3

2

3

Kuo F e n g

2

3

15

3. 5. 5.

-

1 2

-

-

-

4 2

Two o r m o r e Agents and R e c i p r o c i t y

Where two agents r e c i p r o c a l l y engage i n the a c t i v i t y of the v e r b , i n t e r ­ a c t i n g upon each o t h e r , ( i . e. when they are m u t u a l l y actor and a f f e c t é e ) the v e r b i s d e t e r m i n e d by the p a r t i c l e s of r e c i p r o c i t y (conventional s y m b o l : r e c . ). h i the Book of Songs these are s h i u and j i a u - s h i a n g ( 3c ^

* s i o , shiang

"siang

) *kog-siang.

Examples W u s h i u yeuan y i i to each other" (223.4).

"[You] should not behave distantly

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

107

" A r e not good to each other"

Buh s h i u y i i guu ( (257.68).

) " h i o l d age y o u w i l l v i e with

Show s h i u y e u shyh each o t h e r " (300. 80

" M a y they not plot against each

Wu shiang y o u y i i ( other" (189. 7).

) " B y now we no longer love

Shyh buh shiang haw each o t h e r " (29.10).

) " B y chance we met each

Shieh-how shiang yuh o t h e r " (94. 5).

"Cause h a r m to each other"

Jiau-shiang wei yeu ( (223. 12). Note.

Shiu not only indicates r e c i p r o c i t y , but i n such contexts as the

f o l l o w i n g indicates one a c t i o n w h i c h i s r e c i p r o c a l to another. E e l j y yeuan y i i / M i n s h i u r a n s h i "[If] y o u behave distantly towards [them]/The people w i l l r e c i p r o c a t e by doing the s a m e " (223. 5-6). Wei yu shiu j i h

" T o w a r d s u s , you r e c i p r o c a t e by

hating [us]" (264.40). Shiu l i k e shiang a l s o o c c u r s as a v e r b "to see, s u r v e y , inspect. " Examples Y u l a i shiu yeu (

"[He] came and s u r v e y e d the l a n d "

(237. 12). Y u s h i u sy yuan (

) "[He] went and s u r v e y e d the p l a i n "

(250. 12). Unlike s h i a n g , s h i u i n the e a r l i e s t s t r a t a of the Book of Songs o c c u r s w i t h the syntagmatic p a r t i c l e s l i n k i n g two agents, f o r e x a m p l e , s h i u - y i i i n 256. 27 and 257. 62, s h i u - y e u

i n 300. 80 and s h i u - j y i

i i n 257.40. 3.5.6.

One Agent and the R e f l e x i v e Where the agent i s i t s e l f the a f f e c t é e of the v e r b , the v e r b i s d e t e r ­

m i n e d by t z y h

Ane. C - * d z i , gong T

*kiong o r gong-tzyh

108

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

(conventional s y m b o l : r e f l . ).

T z y h " s e l f , " h o w e v e r , i s used i n three u n ­

differentiated w a y s , (i) agent acts upon h i m s e l f , ( i i ) agent acts i n p e r s o n , u s u a l l y c o n t r a r y to expectation, and ( i i i ) agent acts i n h i s own behalf o r interest.

Gong " p e r s o n " o c c u r s i n the f i r s t and second usages, w h i l e c h i n

I * t s i e n " i n p e r s o n " o c c u r s i n the second usage. f

Examples (i) Upon self "Why do they not r e m o v e t h e m -

Hwu bwu t z y h t i h ( s e l v e s ? " (265. 26).

"He c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f alone to

T z y h dwu b i h tzang be good" (257. 62).

"I f e e l pity for m y s e l f " (58. 50).

Gong-tzyh daw y i i (

) " B u t that I should m e r e l y d i s -

W e i gong shyh tsuey ( t r e s s m y s e l f " (194. 39) (ii) h i p e r s o n

"[!£ you] do not conduct the g o v -

B w u t z y h w e i jenq ( ernment i n p e r s o n " (191.47).

"It was I m y s e l f who brought t h i s i m -

T z y h yi i t z u u ( pediment [between u s ] " (33.4).

"[You] do not [appear] i n p e r s o n

F w u gong fwu c h i n o r [take action] y o u r s e l f " (191. 25)

"He went h i m s e l f to meet pier] at

C h i n y n g y u Wey the R i v e r W e i " (236. 32)

) "The K i n g gave h i m h i s charge

Wang c h i n m i n q j y ( i n p e r s o n " (261. 5). ( i i i ) h i own i n t e r e s t

) "Seek f o r y o u r s e l v e s i t s many

T z y h chyou duo fwu ( b l e s s i n g s " (235.44).

"[He] seeks f o r h i m s e l f t h e i r

T z y h chyou i huu ( b l e s s i n g " (299. 32). 3. 5. 7.

Delegation of Agency

Where the agent i s delegated to act on behalf of, o r i n the interest of another, the p a r t i c l e s of delegation, wey before the delegating agent,

*gwia and i_

*. i e r occur

h i the Book of Songs, delegation o c c u r s w i t h

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

109

and without the p a r t i c l e s , both pre - and p o s t - v e r b a l l y . f o r m i s an E A C feature (see E A C 3. 5. 5).

The p o s t - v e r b a l

The p r e - v e r b a l f o r m i s an L A C

feature (see L A C 3. 5. 5). Examples (i) P r e - v e r b a l (no p a r t i c l e ) W u buh e e l huoh c h e r n g

" M a y there not be a n y -

t h i n g that i s not made e v e r l a s t i n g f o r y o u " (166. 36). (ii) P o s t - v e r b a l (no p a r t i c l e ) B u u e e l bae fwu (

) " P r e d i c t for y o u a hundred b l e s s -

i n g s " (209.43). J i h tzuoh e e l ge (

) "[I] have c o m p o s e d , for y o u , t h i s

song" (257.112). ) " T o become for y o u , a t r e a s u r e "

Y i i tzuoh e e l bao (259. 38). Dah c h i i e e l y e u (

) "Opening up f o r y o u , a d o m a i n "

(300. 33). T i h j i h yeun j y (

" [ M y ] t e a r s have been shed for t h e m "

(197.48). Hwai j y hao i n (

"[I] w i l l c h e r i s h f o r h i m , h i s good

n a m e " (149.12). ( i i i ) P r e - v e r b a l (with p a r t i c l e ) Wey H a r n J y i shiang i o u (

"[He] looked for a

place for L a d y C h i of H a n " (261. 51). (iv)

P o s t - v e r b a l (with p a r t i c l e )

H e r chyou w e i woo

"What do [I] seek f o r m y s e l f ? "

(258. 77). Wey b i n w e i keh

" F o r the guests, f o r the v i s i t o r s "

(209. 30). C h i i i yih-ren/Shiong-dih feei ta "It i s s u r e l y not for s t r a n g e r s / i t i s f o r b r o t h e r s , not for anyone e l s e " (217.5-6). Note. woo (

The pronouns that o c c u r after the p a r t i c l e s of delegation are y u eel

and j y

110 3. 5. 8.

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Conspectus of A g e n c y

Agential Complex Determinant Collectives

Agent

Verbal Complex Distributives

A

B

A

B

A

B

Pre-verbal Position

B B

Del.

a (also p o s t - v e r b a l )

Del.

a (also p o s t - v e r b a l )

Verb

tAh e 3. 5. 9.

verbal sentence

111

Agency and V e r s i f i c a t i o n

Although i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , agency i n v a r i a b l y p r e c e d e s the v e r b , i . e. aft (except i n p a s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s where the a c t i n g agent o c c u r s at y

2

and w h e r e , at a the agent of r e a l i z a t i o n o c c u r s , see 3 . 4 . 4 ) , e x a m p l e s 9

o c c u r i n the Book of Songs of ¡3 ato achieve a r h y m e , where a i s t e r m i n a l i n the l i n e . Examples h i u n i s o n / c r y / g e e s e "The

Iong-iong m i n g y arm (

w i l d - g e e s e honk i n u n i s o n " (34. 9) (verse r h y m e i n *-an.

-an).

) beckons/boatman "The boatman

EEEBMimsgSl

b e c k o n s " (34. 13) (verse r h y m e i n *iag, iug). J i e h - j i e h gan m a u / T z a y jiunn jy j i a u r a i s e d h i g h / s t a f f / f l a g / a t / C h t i n s/—>/ £suburb " F l a g s on poles r a i s e d T

h i g h / h i the suburbs of Hstin" ( 5 3 . 1 - 2 ) . C h i yueh l i o u huoo (

(verse r h y m e i n *-og).

" h i the seventh month, the f i r e -

s t a r ebbs" (154. 1). C h i yueh m i n g j i u ( cries

1 1

"In the seventh month the s h r i k e

(154. 30).

T s a r n - y u e h tyau sang

I "In the s i l k - w o r m month the

m u l b e r r y puts out b r a n c h e s " (154. 26). 3. 5. 10.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the R e c i p r o c a l , R e f l e x i v e and Delegating p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs

The p a r t i c l e s of r e c i p r o c i t y , of delegated agency, and the r e f l e x i v e pronouns a r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

2

-

Ta Y a

2

1

-

4

4

-

Hsiao Y a

3

5

1

6

2

-

Kuo F e n g

-

3

1

-

2

-

2

-

2 -

1

-

4

-

1

1

-

1

112 3. 6.

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS The Instrument

3. 6 . 1 .

D e s c r i p t i o n , P a r t i c l e s and D i s t r i b u t i o n

A m o n g the d e t e r m i n i n g elements of the v e r b i n the v e r b a l sentence i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , the instrument (the thing used) i n contrast to the agent (the u s e r ) , o c c u r s between agent and v e r b , strument i s introduced by y i i *d ag o r by yonq { f

*diung.

h i the Book of Songs, the i n ­

* z i o g , shyh

*siak, day

B y extension, "instrumentation" also i n ­

cludes "cause o r o c c a s i o n " so that the instrument may be r e a l i z e d i n t r a n s ­ l a t i o n as either "by means of" o r "because of. " The g r a m m a t i c a l value of the instrument i s n o m i n a l (conventional s y m b o l s : [

] encloses instrument;

[in. . . . . ] = i n g r e s s i v e instrument). Examples Y i i woo i a n s y h / C h u h t z a y nan m u u " W i t h our sharp ploughshares/[We] b e g i n w o r k on those southern a c r e s " (212. 5-6). Y i i c h y i fuh t z y y / Y e h b i i nan m u u " B y t h e i r w i v e s and c h i l d r e n / [ T h e y ] sent food to the southern a c r e s " (211. 22). Y i i e e l gou y u a n / Y e u e e l l i n c h o n g / Y i i fa C h o r n g iong " W i t h y o u r hooks and l a d d e r s / A n d y o u r siege e n g i n e s / A t t a c k the w a l l s of C h u n g " (241. 82-84). f

Shyh guu syh j y (

"Because of [your] goodness [they]

w i l l r e s e m b l e y o u " (196.18). Shyh guu y i i r u u {

"Because of [your] goodness [they]

w i l l e m p l o y y o u " (207. 42). h i the Book of Songs the p a r t i c l e o c c u r s without the noun i n contexts where the instrument i s mentioned i n the p r e v i o u s l i n e . Examples Y i i diaw y u C h y i

" W i t h [them, i . e . w i t h bamboo

canes] f i s h i n the R i v e r C h ' i " (59. 2). Buh kee y i i y i h jeou j i a n g

"One cannot w i t h

[the D i p p e r ] ladle out wine o r g r u e l " (203. 52) Lih min day shyr

" A s t r o n g people, by it [ i . e . by

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

113

t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r e ] l i v e " (257.46). The i n s t r u m e n t , introduced by the i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r t i c l e s a l s o o c c u r s p o s t - v e r b a l l y , i . e . as a /3 y (ins. ). Examples ) " W i t h a c a l a b a s h , [he] poured out

Jwo jy yonq paur ( the w i n e

M

(250.38)

Kwei jy y i i r y h (

' C a l c u l a t e d it by the s u n " (50. 3).

Huei j y y i i gong (

" B e c k o n s to t h e m w i t h [his] a r m s "

(190. 23). ) "[I am] t o t a l l y exhausted by m y

J i n n tsuey y i i shyl duties" (204. 23). J i h y i i c h i n g jeou i

) "[He] p e r f o r m s the s a c r i f i c e w i t h

c l e a r w i n e " (210. 25). h i the Book of Songs the i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r t i c l e m a y be omitted a l t o ­ gether. Examples Jong-guu l e h j y (

) "[With] gongs and d r u m s delight

h e r " (1. 20). C h y n seh yeou j y

) "[With] lute and h a r p befriend

h e r " (1.16). B a i r yuh bau j y (

) "[With] white r u s h e s , w r a p i t "

(23. 2). Shuh j y j e n - l i h (

) " T r e e d it [with] h a z e l and chestnut"

(50. 5). Suh-sy p y i j y (

' B r a i d e d [with] p l a i n s i l k " (53. 3).

I woe i h a r n g j y

) "[With] a single r e e d [for a boat I]

s h a l l c r o s s i t " (61. 2) 3.6.2.

h i g r e s s i v e and R e s u l t a t i v e Instrument The i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r t i c l e s also o c c u r at the i n t e r - s e n t e n t i a l l e v e l as

r e s u l t a t i v e conjunctions.

T h e y are r e a l i z a b l e i n t r a n s l a t i o n as "as a r e ­

s u l t " "with the r e s u l t that" "so that" " a c c o r d i n g l y " "thereby. " The c o n ­ junction o c c u r s at r e s , i n . i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n a /5 y , a [res, i n . ] (conventional s y m b o l : [res, i n . ] ).

y.

114

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Examples B i h e e l duo y i h / Y i i m o h bwu shuh < " M a y [Heaven] b r i n g upon y o u m u c h i n c r e a s e / S o that, i n nothing, [you] might not have a l l " i . e. "you might have a l l of e v e r y t h i n g " (166.5-6). B o r fa S h i a n n - y e u n / Y i i tzow fu gong ( " T h e r e , we attacked the H s i e n - y t t n / A n d , as a r e s u l t , d i s p l a y e d our splendid deeds" (177.19-20). Shuu i o u y i i yang (

"[I am] painfully s a d , with the

r e s u l t that [I] a m i l l " (192. 8). Y u e h j i u h r u h t z o w / Y i i suei how luh i "The m u s i c i a n s a l l enter and p l a y / S o that, peacefully, [you] m a y e n joy the happiness to c o m e " (209. 61-62). Y i i sheang y i i s y h / Y i i j i e h j i i n g fwu " W i t h t h e m [he] makes h i s offerings and s a c r i f i c e s / S o that [our] f e l i c ity i s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d " (212. 33-34). Yonq j i e h r o n g tzuoh

"So that [you] m a y be on y o u r

guard against w a r s t a r t i n g " (256. 33). h i t h i s usage the i n s t r u m e n t a l conjunctions make the p r e c e d i n g s e n t e n c e , as it w e r e , r e t r o a c t i v e l y , the instrumentation of the sentence i n w h i c h it o c c u r s .

Thus a [ y i i —>] ¡3 i s an i n g r e s s i v e i n s t r u m e n t , but a

[ m a k e " and putative "take to be > r e g a r d a s . " Examples (i) y i i A w e i B Y i i woo w e i chour (35. 34). (ii)

A y i i - w e i B (factitive)

" R e g a r d me as an e n e m y "

116

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Chiou y i i - w e i chyi

i " A u t u m n was made the appointed

t i m e " (58.10). Y e o n g y i i - w e i haw yee (

"[I] take [you] f o r m y

l o v e d one f o r e v e r " (64.4 Shyh y i i w e i t s y h (

i " T o them pie] constitutes a r e -

b u k e " (107.11). ( i i i ) A y i i - w e i B (putative] Woo y i i - w e i shiong (

"I [must] r e g a r d [him] as m y

o l d e r b r o t h e r " (49.4). L i a n n yuann y i i - w e i der (

"Heaping up r e s e n t -

ment [against y o u r s e l f you] r e g a r d as v i r t u e " (255. 28). Wuh y i i - w e i shiaw

"[You] must not r e g a r d t h e m as

a m a t t e r for j e s t " (254. 22). Note 1.

Y i i - w e i i s o c c a s i o n a l l y c o n t r a c t e d to w e i as f o r e x a m p l e ,

L a o m a a faan w e i j i u {

"The o l d h o r s e s p e r v e r s e l y

think t h e m s e l v e s c o l t s " (223.17), and Shian buh-we i t z e r { " F e w w i l l not make y o u t h e i r m o d e l " (256. 70). Yonq-wei

may o c c u r for y i i - w e i , as f o r e x a m p l e , F e e i

y o n q - w e i j i a u , fuh y o n q - w e i niueh (

"You

have not taken [my w o r d s ] as [wise] i n s t r u c t i o n , / B u t p e r v e r s e l y have r e ­ garded t h e m as m a t t e r s f o r j e s t " (256.101-102). Note 2. B i h

*pieg "to c a u s e " has a l s o a putative use "cause to

be" > "consider," "regard as.

T

Examples T z y h dwu b i h t z a n g (

) "He c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f alone to

be good" (257. 62). B i h m i n t z w u kwang (

) "[He] c o n s i d e r s the people

u t t e r l y f o o l i s h " (257. 64). F u h b i h woo bey (

P e r v e r s e l y y o u think me o b d u -

r a t e " (257. 94). 3.6.4.

The Instrument and V e r s i f i c a t i o n h i E A C the instrument o c c u r s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n , p a r t i c l e / i n s t r u m e n t

and i n s t r u m e n t / p a r t i c l e (see E A C 3. 6.1). i n v a r i a b l y precedes the instrument,

h i L A C the i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r t i c l e

h i the Book of Songs both f o r m s o c c u r .

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

117

In the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s , h o w e v e r , the p o s i t i o n of y i i seems to be d e t e r ­ m i n e d by m e t r i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s since it o c c u r s at the point i n the l i n e w h e r e , e l s e w h e r e i n the v e r s e , other weak s t r e s s e s o c c u r . Examples " W i t h an a x e , lop t h e m off" (141.2).

F u u y i i sy j y (

i lit./miscellaneous/sash-

T z a r pey y i i wenn j y (

g e m s / b y means of/enquire o f / t h e m / "[I have] a s s o r t e d s a s h - g e m s with w h i c h to enquire of t h e m " (82.16). D y i fwu y i i chaur i

Lit. / p h e a s a n t / s c r e e n / b y

means

of / g o to c o u r t / " h i h e r pheasant [plumed] s c r e e n e d [ c a r r i a g e ,

she]

went to c o u r t " (57.19). lit. /do not/great/repu­

B w u dah sheng y i i seh

t a t i o n / b y means o f / d i s p l a y / "[You] do not, w i t h y o u r great reputation d i s p l a y [your v i r t u e ] " (241. 75). T o b r i n g the i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r t i c l e into the r h y m i n g p o s i t i o n f o r a "[You] do

r h y m e i n * - i a g , 35. 20 has B u h woo shieh y i i

not r e g a r d me as w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n " for w h i c h we should expect (

^

w h i c h i s a t r a n s f o r m of A B C [ X ] D to A C D B . 3.6.5.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Instrumental p a r t i c l e s i n the Book of Songs The i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r t i c l e s are d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as

follows:

Sung

13

-

-

4

Ta Ya

22

4

1

7

Hsiao Y a

27

3

-

9

Kuo F e n g

27

-

-

2

3. 7.

The Subordinate C l a u s e A c l a u s e , the g r a m m a t i c a l value of w h i c h i s v e r b a l , may o c c u r b e ­

tween agent and v e r b i n the v e r b a l sentence. and i s subordinate to the m a i n v e r b ,

It i s p r e d i c a t e d of the agent

h i E A C the clause i s t e r m i n a t e d by

118

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS *nog and i t s v e r b d e t e r m i n e d by j i h

nae

clause i s t e r m i n a t e d by e r l (

*niog.

*kiod.

h i L A C the

Both of these f o r m s o c c u r i n the

Book of Songs, but i n a d d i t i o n , i n the Book of Songs, the clause m a y be t e r ­ m i n a t e d by y a n

*ngian.

T h i s i s p e c u l i a r to the Book of Songs.

Examples J i h bey nae tzow c i a n s ] began to p l a y

) " A l l b e i n g p r e p a r e d , [the m u s i 11

(280. 7),

J i h deng nae i ( leaned [on the stool]

" H a v i n g stepped up [on the m a t , he] fT

(250. 35)

C h y i che j i h t z a y / N a e c h i i e e l fuu " Y o u r c a r t b e i n g loaded/[You] throw away y o u r s i d e - b o a r d s I " (192.67-68). J i a h y a n c h u yc

" H a v i n g put h o r s e to c a r r i a g e ,

[let us] set out on pleasure bent" (39. 23), gih y a n j i a j y

"[When] h a v i n g r e l e a s e d the a r r o w

[you] hit t h e m " (82. 7). Show y a n t s a r n g j y

" H a v i n g accepted it [he] s t o r e d

it away" (175. 2). Shing y a n c h u suh (

'Having r i s e n [I] go out and pass

the night" (207.34), T z u e y y a n wuu ( J i h tzuey e r l chu

' B e i n g drunk, [they] dance" (298. 8). "[If] being drunk, [they] l e a v e "

(220. 51). J y e r l buh y i i (

[Though it i s ] known, [he] does not

d e s i s t " (141.5). Sang jy l a w y i i / C h y i hwang e r l yeun ( "[When] the m u l b e r r y sheds its l e a v e s / [ T h e leaves] having y e l l o w e d , f a l l " (58. 31-32). h i the Book of Songs the subordinate clause i s not always m a r k e d w i t h a particle. Examples Wuh b i h yeou-beau

" A n d w a k i n g , beat [my] b r e a s t

r e p e a t e d l y " (26. 24) Jan-wanq fwu j y i (

L o o k i n g at h e r , [till] we see h e r

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

119

no l o n g e r " (28.11). ) " A n d leading [me] by the

Shi shoou t o r n g shyng hand, w a l k w i t h m e " (41.4).

' A n d descending, had the m u l -

Jiang guan y u sang ( b e r r y f i e l d s inspected" (50.12).

Alone [we] slept, and w a k i n g ,

Dwu m e y wuh y a n ( t a l k e d " (56. 3).

' A n d b a r i n g h i s a r m s , he s e i z e s

T a a n s h y i baw huu the t i g e r " (78. 7). Note.

The subordinate clause has the value " v e r b a l " so that r e n

" m a n " must be r e a d "being a m a n " i n the f o l l o w i n g .

Ren e r l wu y i h (

"[He who] b e i n g a m a n , l a c k s p r o p e r deportment" (52. 3). When p e r i o d s of t i m e o c c u r i n the subordinate clause they have the c l a s s meaning "the p e r i o d designated having been r e a c h e d , o r having elapsed. " Examples Chiou e r l tzay charng

" A u t u m n having a r r i v e d [we]

begin the c h a n g s a c r i f i c e s " (300. 52). f

Shiah e r l b i h h e r n g / B a i r m u u s h i n g gang " S u m m e r h a v i n g c o m e , [we] put c r o s s - b a r O n the horns of the white b u l l s and the r e d " (300. 53-54). I r y h bwu j i a n n see [him] 3. 7 . 1 .

" E a c h day p a s s i n g , that [I] do not

" (72.2).

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the p a r t i c l e s of the Subordinate C l a u s e i n the Book of Songs

The p a r t i c l e s m a r k i n g the subordinate clause a r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

3

Ta Ya

6

Hsiao Y a

2

Kuo F e n g

3

l (Lu)

i (Shang) 2

4 4

2 3

120

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

3. 8.

A n a p h o r a i n the V e r b a l Sentence The anaphoric pronouns (excluding h e r e the p e r s o n a l pronouns) o c c u r -

r i n g i n the v e r b a l sentence a r e j y i v e r b a l f o r m s ) ; and c h y i

*tiag and j y y

*tiag

1 1

(post-

*kiag ( p r e - v e r b a l f o r m ) and jyue (

(determinant f o r m used for agency).

*kiwat

T h e y p r o v i d e f o r anaphora i n the

widest s e n s e , substituto i g f o r elements of the v e r b a l sentence w i t h no d i s t i n c t i o n of number o r of p e r s o n ( and neither a r e they e x c l u s i v e l y p e r s o n a l ) , The anaphoric pronouns have the c l a s s - m e a n i n g "substituting f o r sentential o r syntagmatic é l é m e n t s i f r o m a reluctance to r e p e a t .

ff

Examples (i) C h y i as agent Y u a n c h y i shyh guei

i " T h e r e u p o n I_go h o m e " (204. 8).

Shyh jee c h y i wang

" B y then, we w i l l be dead"

(126.16). Wei chyi jinn jy ( ¿

" B e c a u s e y o u do e v e r y t h i n g to the

utmost" (209. 70). C h y i s h i u c h y i shye

"But he i s hesitant and s h y "

(41. 5). Chyi ming jie jie (

" T h e y s i n g i n u n i s o n " (2. 6). "[I] p r a y he m a y c o m e

Chiang chyi l a i shy-shy b e a r i n g g i f t s " (74.4). (ii) Jyue as agent Jyue c h u sheng m i n

"She [who] f i r s t gave b i r t h to

our people" (245.1). "[When] they presented t h e i r

Jyue tzuoh guann j i a n g l i b a t i o n s " (235.37).

1

1

Kennedy has p r o p o s e d f o r j y y T h i s s e e m s unnecessary.

graphs

and A

an a l l e g r o f o r m of j y and y i i J y y and j y a r e homophones and the

a r e v a r i a n t s , both r e p r e s e n t i n g a foot.

o c c u r s frequently i n b r o n z e i n s c r i p t i o n s f o r j y m a t a S é r i c a , s. v . ).

(vide K a r l g r e n , G r a m -

See G . A . Kennedy " E q u a t i o n no. 5.

W o r d s ) " J A O S , 6 7 . 1 . 1 9 4 7 , pp. 56-59.

The graph

(Chinese F u s i o n

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

121

( i i i ) J y and j y y i n the p o s t - v e r b a l positions Horng tzer l i jy ( «

) "[But] a w i l d goose got trapped i n

it [i. e. i n the f i s h - n e t ] " (43.10) Tian shyr wei jy {

) "Heaven indeed brought i t about

[i. e. m y p o v e r t y ] " (40. 6). H e r - y i i bih jy (

"What c a n [I] offer to t h e m ? " (53. 6).

C h i i y u wanq j y

) " O n tiptoe, I can see it [i*, e. the

State of Sung]" (61.4). Y a n shuh j y b e e i (

) /there,/plant/it/at back/, "There,

planted at the r e a r of the house" (62.14), Tzenq j y y i i s h a u r - y a w

"[She] gives to h i m a

peony" (95.12). Y i h j i h jiann jyy (

"But when [I] s h a l l have seen h i m "

(14. 5). H e r yow h w a i j y y

) "Why do [you] s t i l l love h e r ? "

(101.6). Shin y i h i o u j y y (

,f

l h [our] h e a r t s [we] g r i e v e about

t h i s " (167.12). m a y o c c u r before the v e r b though substituting f o r a p o s t v e r b a l element.

Jy; o c c u r s i n two f o r m s of p r e - v e r b a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , (i) i n

the f o r m j y / v e r b , where j y substitutes f o r the p o s t - v e r b a l element, and (ii) n o u n / j y / v e r b , where j y r e i t e r a t e s the noun p r e c e d i n g i t . Examples (i)

Jy/verb

Ning moh jy cherng

) " C a n no one chastise t h e m ? "

(192. 36). Y i h koong j y j i a n g (

) lit. Too/much/them/makes -

great > " A n d too [he] m a k e s t h e m v e r y g r e a t " (157. 6). C h i J i u jy t s o r n g (

" T o the R i v e r s C h i and Chtl [we] f

pursue t h e m " (180. 11) T z e n g - s u e n j y seh

) "The g r e a t - g r a n d c h i l d r e n h a r ­

vest t h e m " (210.15

(ii)

yVjy/verb

Warm-bang j y pyng

) Ten-thousand/statesAhem/

122

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS s c r e e n s "[They] act as a s c r e e n f o r the m y r i a d states" (215. 8). [I] summon the eunuch" (126.4).

Syh-ren jy linq (

,T

Chyi shyr jy yau

) / I t s / f r u i t / t h i s / e a t "Its f r u i t , has

been eaten" (109. 2). Long-duenn j y h e r (

) /dragon/shield/these/held to-

gether " D r a g o n - s h i e l d s h e l d edge to edge" (128.15). Note.

pronounced j i *kiag, l i k e c h y i

Jiu

*kiag o c c u r s

substituting both i n the agential p o s i t i o n and p r e - v e r b a l l y . Examples i " G o d on High i s w e l l - p l e a s e d with

Shanq-dih j i s h i n i t " (245. 68). H e r y u j i n q j y / J i y i i shiong j i n

"Why should I acquiese i n t h i s ? / ^ s h o u l d , as a r e s u l t , be brought low w i t h m i s f o r t u n e " (224.17-18). M o h keen shiah y i / S h y h j i low j i a u "None i s w i l l i n g to step down or stand a s i d e / B e c a u s e they a r e t r o u b l e ­ some and a r r o g a n t " (223. 27-28). T z e r yeou che m a a / Y i i j i t z u u Shiang "[He] s e l e c t e d those w i t h c h a r i o t s and h o r s e / A n d with t h e m he went to Shang" (193.47-48). J y substitutes i n both p o s t - v e r b a l p o s i t i o n s , but never o c c u r s after the d i r e c t i v e p a r t i c l e .

Where the d i r e c t i v e p a r t i c l e might be expected to

o c c u r , it i s e i t h e r o m i t t e d o r i n c o r p o r a t e d i n an a l l e g r o f o r m ,

h i the Book

of Songs, where j y might be expected to o c c u r i n the second p o s t - v e r b a l p o s i t i o n , the a l l e g r o f o r m i s i a n (read yan)

*gian ( i . e. y u and j y ) , and

where j y might be expected to o c c u r i n both p o s t - v e r b a l p o s i t i o n s , the a l l e gro f o r m is jan

*tian ( i . e. j y and y u and j y ) .

Examples Hwu bwu b i h y a n (

"Why should [I] not j o i n with

t h e m ? " (119. 7). Y i i yan tzay ( B u h shang s h y i yan

"[I] have done w i t h i t " (40. 5). "[One] must not r e s t beneath i t "

(224. 2). Wu tzyh nih yan

"[One] should not obtrude oneself

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

123

upon h i m " (224.4). Shanq shenn j a n t z a y

) /should/take care/of himself

at that p l a c e / s t r e s s / " M a y he take c a r e of h i m s e l f t h e r e " (110. 5). " C a s t it f r o m y o u !

Shee j a n shee jan

C a s t it f r o m

you I " (125.5). 3. 8 . 1 .

The D e m o n s t r a t i v e s and A n a p h o r a

hi the Book of Songs c e r t a i n demonstratives are used a n a p h o r i c a l l y . Those o c c u r r i n g i n the agential p o s i t i o n are sy shyh (

*siag, shyr i

*dieg, s y *b ak. f

) *sieg, i j *d iet, b i i T

*. i e r , *pia and b o r

D e m o n s t r a t i v e s used a n a p h o r i c a l l y never o c c u r i n the p o s t 12

verbal positions. When substituting f o r p o s t - v e r b a l e l e m e n t s , the demonstratives o c c u r pre-verbally.

They o c c u r i n two f o r m s of d i s t r i b u t i o n (i) as y /3 w h e r e , at

7 , a demonstrative o c c u r s and (ii) as y // y /3 where the demonstrative at /

7, r e i t e r a t e s the element at y //. * s i e g , shyh

*dieg, t z y {

These demonstratives so used a r e : sy; *tsiag and s h y r |

) *diog.

Examples (i)

A g e n t i a l position

J y h y u y i i sy wanq (

i " h i the end they come to

r u i n " (223. 16). B i i s u sy bay (

'They ate c o a r s e , we eat fine f o o d "

(265. 25). B o r hoan woo i

) " T h e y [the servants] w i l l w a s h m y

c l o t h e s " (2.16). B o r yan hwan guei

"We,

at t h i s point, r e t u r n h o m e "

(13.12). I y u hwu d i i (

"What do they [the plans] l e a d t o ? "

(195. 16).

12

hi the Book of Sonsrs demonstratives in the nost-verbal nositions arfi

invariably locative. i n wanq t s y y (

Those so used are t s y y (

* t s i a r , as for example r

"has gone f r o m h e r e " (124. 3); and t z y

as f o r example i n y u t z y {

" h e r e " (237.18).

*tsieg,

124

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Shyh sheng H o w - j i h (

"She gave b i r t h to Hou C h i "

(300. 8). Shyh iue j i h tzuey \ drunk

T h e y , by the t i m e they a r e

" (220.47),

Sy w u j i a n g i

" T h e y [travel] unendingly" (297. 7).

Shyr j i n q - y i woo bang pacify our c o u n t r y !

M

"These [men] a r e to

(265.10

Shyr t z u o o - y o w Shang Wang (

"He a s s i s t e d the

K i n g of Shang" (304. 51). B i i c h y o u woo t z e r (

) " T h e y seek, i n m e , a p a t t e r n "

(192. 53). B i i j i a u f e e i aur (

" T h e y associate without a r r o g a n c e "

(215.15) . (ii)

P r e - v e r b a l p o s i t i o n (y

p)

Her r y h sy j e u (

' w h a t / d a y / t h i s / s t o p "When w i l l

[they] stop t h i s ? " (195.4). Hwu s y h wey j i h (

"Why should [I] fear t h e m ? '

1

(257. 76). Shyh j i o u shyh twu

) " L o o k into t h i s , ponder i t "

(164.31). "The D i v i n e G u a r d i a n e n -

Shern B a o shyh sheang joys i t " (209. 21). P o u r s h y r j y duey T z y j y yeong tann
" A l l r e s p o n d i n g to i t " (296. 6). " F o r t h i s [I] perpetually s i g h "

(39. 20). (iii)

P r e - v e r b a l p o s i t i o n , r e i t e r a t i o n ( y // y 0 )

Jih-neu sy j i (

" A young g i r l , f o r h e r he p i n e s "

(151.16) . Wu dwu s y wey

/may

not/loneliness/this/fear/

" M a y [you] not fear l o n e l i n e s s " (254. 56). J i u n - t z y y shyh t z e r shyh shiaw

"[He]

pat-

t e r n s h i m s e l f upon and emulates our p r i n c e " (161.14). Shiah-tuu shyh maw ( (29. 8).

"[You] c o v e r a l l e a r t h b e l o w "

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE Note.

Jie

*tsia o c c u r s f o r sy;

125 i n the f o l l o w i n g : H e r j i e

W h a t / t h i s / c o m e to > " B u t to what d i d t h i s l e a d ? " i . e . "What d i d it a v a i l h e r ? " (69.18).

T h i s i s p a r a l l e l w i t h H e r sy w e i s y

"Why d i d he go f a r a w a y ? " (19. 3). 3, where

i s used for

The use of r a n

See a l s o 3. 9 . 1 . Note

as a m e t r i c a l p a r t i c l e . ) and e r l

\ i n the manner p o s i t i o n used a n a ­

p h o r i c a l l y has a l r e a d y been d e s c r i b e d (see 3 . 3 . 3 . 1 ) . g r o f o r m s (see 6 . 4 . 1 . Note 2).

R a n and e r l a r e a l l e ­

The d i s c r e t e f o r m s are used a n a p h o r i c a l l y ,

as f o l l o w s : Examples (i)

(a) " s u c h " (before nouns)

Jaan r u - j y r e n shi

" T r u l y , one such as she 1 "

Í 4 7 . 23). (b) "That b e i n g s o " (conjunction) " T h i s b e i n g s o , why [tell me]

Ru-yj her wuh sy not to think about i t ? " (66. 8). /ii)

(a) l i k e H h i s " s o , " (before attributes)

Luann r u t s y y hu

" Y e t the d i s o r d e r i s as great as

t h i s " (198.4). (b) l i k e - t h i s > " t h u s , " "conditions as they a r e " J y woo r u t s y y

"[If I] had known [things] would be

thus w i t h m e " (233. 7). (iii)

" s u c h " (before nouns)

Ruoh tsyy wu-tzuey

"Innocents such as t h e s e "

(194.9). (iv)

"thus"

Buh r u shyr (v) R u t z y ( C h e r n guu r u t z y

" W a s not t h u s " (265.22). "thus" " T r u l y , i n the past, i t was s o "

(290.31). A The anaphoric s y s t e m of the Book of Songs i s as f o l l o w s :

126

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Anaphoric P r o n o u n s

ot

P

Aiiegro

9

7

7

Md.

Form

Sentence level

Syntagma level Demonstrative s

a

3.8.3.

y

p

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Pronouns and D e m o n s t r a t i v e s used A n a p h o r i c a l l y i n the Book of Songs The anaphoric pronouns and d e m o n s t r a t i v e s used a n a p h o r i c a l l y a r e

d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

127

Sung

17

16

15

-

Ta Ya

26

11

13

-

-

Hsiao Y a

62

1

Kuo F e n g

60

4

Sung

6

Ta Ya

2

Hsiao Y a

5

Kuo F e n g

3

3. 9.

-

9

2

1

-

9

1

5

2

-

4

1

-

41

5

5

2

1

2 -

31

-

1

3

-

3

-

1

-

-

-

7

-

-

3

-

-

-

1

-

3

1

Sentential M o o d In A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , a c l a s s of g r a m m a t i c i z e d w o r d s o c c u r f i n a l l y i n

the v e r b a l sentence (and a l s o i n the determinative sentence, ) w h i c h are absolute i n the sense that they have no r e l a t i o n to the meaning content of the sentence. tence.

T h e y s e r v e to indicate the mood of the speaker u s i n g the s e n ­

B y p e r m u t i n g them the one w i t h the o t h e r , no change takes place i n

the f o r m o r m e a n i n g of the sentence, other than an i n d i c a t i o n that the s p e a k ­ e r has changed h i s "tone of v o i c e .

fT

T h i s tone of voice m a y be one i n d i c a ­

tive of a f e e l i n g of s u r p r i s e , o r of indignation, of confident a s s e r t i o n , o r of hesitancy and doubt.

These p a r t i c l e s serve to shew the mood of the speaker

i n contrast to the mood of the v e r b w h i c h i s i m p o s e d by the m o d a l p a r t i c l e s i n the v e r b a l syntagma. h i E a r l y A r c h a i c Chinese these p a r t i c l e s r a r e l y o c c u r , (see E A C 3. 9), and it m a y w e l l be, that t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e and v a r i e t y i n Late A r c h a i c C h i n ­ e s e , has m o r e to do with the conventions p r e v a i l i n g at these r e s p e c t i v e p e r i o d s f o r r e c o r d i n g the language i n w r i t i n g , than w i t h any significant d e ­ velopment i n the language,

h i the Book of Songs, a number of such p a r t i c l e s

o c c u r w h i c h are not attested e l s e w h e r e i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e .

Since the Book

128

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

of Songs r e p r e s e n t s a p e r i o d of t r a n s i t i o n between E a r l y A r c h a i c and Late A r c h a i c , t h i s v a r i e t y m a y signify no m o r e than a p e r i o d i n w h i c h the w r i t i n g conventions are not yet stable. The p a r t i c l e s of sentential mood o c c u r r i n g i n the Book of Songs are (i) t z a i

*tsog, t z y

*tsiag, j i u (

*ts io and s h i u T

) *sio.

These w o r d s indicate indignation, wonder, s u r p r i s e and the l i k e (perhaps any heightened emotion), and (ii) h u ( *kiag and I J

*. i a .

*g o, j i i T

*kiog, j i h (

These p a r t i c l e s indicate doubt, tentativeness, i n -

c r e d i b i l i t y (sometimes p u r e l y r h e t o r i c a l , s o m e t i m e s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h hu) w i t h an i m p l i e d i n v i t a t i o n to assent or dissent).

These w o r d s a l s o o c c u r i n

the f o r m a t i o n of i m p r e c a t i o n s , v o c a t i v e s , e x p l e t i v e s and the l i k e . Examples (i) h i the v e r b a l sentence Wey j y h e r t z a i (

" O what m o r e can be s a i d ? " (40. 7).

B i i r e n shyh t z a i

) " 0 (those =) such m e n a r e r i g h t "

(109. 7). ) " S h a l l [we] go and l o o k ? "

Chiee woang guan hu (95. 7). Dann c h y i r a n hu (

) "Is it not t r u l y s o ! " (164. 32).

Shu fa haan j i h ( :

"Shu [now] shoots i n f r e q u e n t l y !

r

(78. 28). ) " O how the nobles f e a s t e d ! "

H o u r - s h y h y a n shiu (261. 36). Jiun-tzyy leh shiu (

) " O how the p r i n c e s r e j o i c e d ! "

(215. 3). ( i i ) h i the determinative sentence ) " O how w e l l - e n d o w e d was the

C h e r n shy i t z a i J o u i House of C h o u ! " (235. 11), J y u t z a i shuh jenq (

) " O how desperately p l a c e d a r e

the p r i n c i p a l o f f i c e r s " (258. 63) ) " O how splendid i s K i n g W e n "

Wen wang jeng t z a i ( (244. 5). J a u t z a i s y h fwu ( ance of [their] t a s k s I " (243.16).

T

O how majestic i s [his] c o n t i n u -

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

129

J a u t z y l a i s h e u / S h e r n g c h y i t z w u wuu t f

O how majestic i s h i s c o m i n g , [permitting]/The continuance of h i s

a n c e s t o r s ' deeds

(243.17-18).

M

Iou s h i n j i u shang (

" 0 [my] s a d h e a r t , [it] i s s o r e l y

wounded" (208. 8). H e r shoei c h i n g c h ee l i a n i

"The w a t e r s

of the Ho flow clea:i r and r i p p l e d I " (112. 3). "Shu i s a good a r c h e r I " (78.17).

Shu shann sheh j i h

" O what s o r t of m a n i s h e ?

Tsyy her ren tzai (

M

(65.10). ( i i i ) h i v o c a t i v e s , i m p r e c a t i o n s , expletives e t c . Iou t z a i y o u t z a i i

ff

O how pleasant, O how l e i s u r e l y ! "

(222. 39). A i tzai

an expletive " O how p i t i f u l " " O what a p i t y " (195.25,

94. 37, 265. 38). Jiau-liau jiu (

f

Y e u a n tyau j i u

) " O how f a r [it] spreads i t s b r a n c h e s "

O the pepper plant I " (117. 5).

(117.6). lue f u h - m u u j i u (

" O [you w h o m we] c a l l father and

m o t h e r ! " (198.2 Y u - j i e hu {

" A l a s i " (25. 3).

U - h u sheau-tzyy U woo hu

" A l a s m y c h i l d ! " (256. 85). " A l a s f o r u s " (135. 1).

R e n shanq hu y o u shyng (

"Ought m e n to pursue

such a c o u r s e ? " (255.46). R y h j i yueh j u (

T

O s u n , O moon I " (an i m p r e c a t i o n )

(26.25, 29.1). 3. 9 , 1 .

Metrical Words

In the Book of Songs, as i n other w o r k s of poetry i n A r c h a i c C h i n e s e , a c l a s s of w o r d o c c u r s , the purpose of w h i c h i s to enhance the l y r i c a l c h a r ­ a c t e r of the line by p r o v i d i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , what i n E n g l i s h song w r i t i n g i s p r o v i d e d f o r by O i , as i n : L a s t night y o u slept i n a goose-feather b e d , W i t h the sheet t u r n e d down so b r a v e l y , O !

130

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS A n d tonight you 11 sleep i n a c o l d open f i e l d , 1

A l o n g with the r aggie taggle g y p s i e s , OI Such w o r d s do not o c c u r i n t h i s usage outside of r h y m e d v e r s e . w o r d s are s h i ( yii (

A n e . C = * y i e i , sy;

> * s i e g , _sy {

These * s i a g and

) *ziag. Examples (i) In f i n a l p o s i t i o n L i u h s h i sy s h i / R u u suoo j y h s h i / W o o sy guu r e n / B i h w u y o u s h i " G r e e n OI the s i l k t h r e a d O ! / [in the jacket] w h i c h y o u made O ! / I think of the m e n of o l d / M a y they impute no fault to m e , O ! " (27. 9-12). Nae r u j y r e n s h i (

J] 1

^ _ / ^ / ^

) " O such a man i s he ! "

(29. 3). A i woo r e n sy (

" O [He] had c o m p a s s i o n on our

p e o p l e s ! " (157.5] B i i h e r r e n sy ( >

" O what k i n d of men a r e they ! "

(198.41). B u h kee fang sy (

" O it cannot be c r o s s e d by r a f t "

(9. 8). T i a n w e i shean sy Shin j y i o u y i i (

) " O Heaven i s m a j e s t i c " (288. 2). f

O the s o r r o w s of the heart ! "

(26. 27). Shyi woo woang y i i {

" L o n g ago we m a r c h e d ! "

(167.41). (ii) h i other positions F u h s h i sheng w o o / M u u s h i j y u woo " M y father OI begat m e / M y mother O ! n u r t u r e d m e " (202. 17-18). E n sy chyn s y / Y u h t z y y jy m i i n sy { "[I] shewed [them] kindness ! w o r k e d h a r d [for them] ! / H a v e pity on the young [I] have n o u r i s h e d ! ' ( 1 5 5 . 4 - 5 ) . Hwang y i i Shang-dih

' O august 1 i s God on H i g h "

(241. 1). J i h shiuh sy bwu wanq not be f o r g o t t e n ! " (286.11).

" F o r e v e r I [you] w i l l

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE Note 1.

131

Compounds of a l l kinds o c c u r b r o k e n by these m e t r i c a l p a r ­

t i c l e s , as for e x a m p l e , r e d u p l i c a t i v e s, as i n J e a n s h i jean s h i f

O how great I " (38.1); T s y y s h i t s y y s h i / C h y i j y d y i yee " G l i s t e n i n g / i s h e r pheasant feather

dress"

) "So lovable I " (102.9);

(47. 8-9); Y e u a n s h i leuan s h i

" O father

c o - o r d i n a t e compounds, as i n F u h s h i m u u s h i

"Fine cloth I coarse

O m o t h e r " (29. 21); C h y s h i c h i s h i

c l o t h ! " (27.13); and i n determinative compounds, L i o u s h i i s h i ( " G r e e n O ! jacket O ! " (27.1). Note 2.

Hu-erl

*g o-niag o c c u r s uniquely i n no. 98. T

c u r s at the end of each l i n e .

It o c ­

H u - e r l seems to be interchangeable with s h i

A n e . C = * y i a i , w h i c h a l s o , for example i n no. 99, o c c u r s at the end of a l m o s t e v e r y l i n e .

It m a y be that h u - e r l i s a way of e l i d i n g s h i over two

beats. Note 3.

Jie

*tsia o c c u r s once as a m e t r i c a l p a r t i c l e l i k e sy;

in Tsaan moh cherng jie

" E v e n so there i s no one

to take w a r n i n g " (191.16) w h i c h i s p a r a l l e l with Hwu tsaan moh c h e r n g " W h y , even s o , i s there no one to take w a r n i n g ? " (193. 24). 3. 9. 2.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of the M e t r i c a l P a r t i c l e s and the P a r t i c l e s of Sentential M o o d i n the Book of Songs

The m e t r i c a l p a r t i c l e s are d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

3

3

1 (Lu)

1

Ta Ya

10

1

1

l

Hsiao Y a

30

5

10

7

Kuo F e n g

19

1

49

3

The p a r t i c l e s of sentential mood are d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

132

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS

Sung

3

Ta Ya

5

Hsiao Y a

4

Kuo F e n g

10

3.10.

-

1

-

-

-

-

2

2 -

3

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

2

1

1

T i m e and P l a c e In A r c h a i c Chinese the t i m e of o c c u r r e n c e and c e r t a i n indications of

place,

1

3

are stated absolutely i i i the v e r b a l sentence, that i s , i n the d i s -

t r i b u t i o n t i m e o r place // a ¡3

y.

P l a c e and t i m e indications may be m a r k e d by the o c c u r r e n c e of jee *tia and yee

> *dia.

Examples Shyh yee por suo 13

M

h i the m a r k e t - p l a c e [she] t w i s t s

h i A r c h a i c Chinese d i s t i n c t i o n i s made i n the v e r b a l sentence b e -

tween (i) t i m e of o c c u r r e n c e , (ii) t i m e e l a p s i n g p r i o r to action and ( i i i ) duration of action,

(i) o c c u r s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n t i m e / a fi y and i s d e -

s c r i b e d above, (ii) o c c u r s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n a [time s c r i b e d i n 3. 7 and ( i i i ) o c c u r s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n a ¡3 y ples of w h i c h are given below.

] 1

and i s d e -

y

2

(time), e x a m -

P l a c e s i m i l a r l y , i s distinguished as to (i)

place of o c c u r r e n c e , (ii) l o c a t i o n of agent and ( i i i ) place towards w h i c h a c tion is directed,

(i) o c c u r s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n place /

a ¡3 y and i s d e -

s c r i b e d above, (ii) o c c u r s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n a [place e r l ] ¡3 y and i s d e s c r i b e d i n 3. 7, while ( i i i ) o c c u r s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n a ¡3 y

1

y

2

(place)

and i s d e s c r i b e d i n 3 . 4 . 3. Examples D u r a t i o n of action Uen gong j a u - s h i h (

M

[They] w e r e meek and r e v e r e n t

a l l day through" (3C)1.191 Hwu bwu wann nian ten thousand vears^? " (152. 24).

) "Why should it not [endure] for

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

133

and t u r n s [in the dance]" (137. 8). J i n jee bwu l e h / S h y h jee c h y i wang M

[If] today, we do not take our p l e a s u r e / E v e n t u a l l y , we s h a l l die

[losing the chance to do s o ] " (126. 15-16). Shyy jee buh r u j i n

" A t f i r s t , it was not l i k e it

is today" (199.11). C h y i how yee hoe i (

"But afterwards r e g r e t t e d [it]"

(22.4). J i n yee m e e i shyh w u y u

"But today, at

each m e a l , there i s nothing left o v e r " (135. 3). But,

place and t i m e indications m a y go unmarked.

Examples (i)

Time

Sang j y law y i i / C h y i hwang e r l yeun ( "When the m u l b e r r y sheds its l e a v e s / i t s [leaves] having y e l l o w e d , f a l l " (58. 31-32). Shiah jy r y h / D o n g j y y e h / B a e - s u e y j y h o w / G u e i y u c h y i j i u " A f t e r the days of s u m m e r / A f t e r the w i n t e r n i g h t s / A hundred y e a r s f r o m now/[I] s h a l l go to the place where he l i v e s " (124. 13-16). Shyng, y e u t z y y hwan s h i i

"When it i s t i m e to

l e a v e , let [me] go back wi'ith y o u " (111. 3). Chang, y u her ruu (

"When [you] s i n g , I [must] a c -

company y o u " (85.4). Woo sheng j y chu/Shang w u w e i

"When

I started out i n l i f e / O u g h t [I] not to have acted s o ? " (70. 3-4). Guu t z e r y i h s h y h / S y y t z e r t o r n g shiueh ( " W h i l e l i v i n g [they] had separate b e d - c h a m b e r s / W h e n dead, [they] shai r e d a c o m m o n g r a v e " (73. 9-10). B i h , y u yow gae w e i s h i

) "When it f r a y s , I

w i l l make it o v e r a g a i n " (75. 2). (ii)

Place

Jou bang shyan s h i i ( one r e j o i c e d " (259. 52).

" h i the State of C h o u , e v e r y -

134

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS B u h yeuan i e e l / B o r song woo j i { "Not f a r but [to a place] n e a r b y / T h e r e , pie] e s c o r t e d m e , to m y t h r e s h o l d " (35. 11-12). ' T o left and r i g h t [we] s e a r c h

Tzuoo-yow liou jy ( f o r t h e m " (1. 6).

> " h i the depths of m y h e a r t [I]

J o n g - s h i n shyh daw g r i e v e over t h i s " (30.4)

) "Dances the Scorpion Dance

Gong tyng Warm Wuu ( i n the d u c a l c o u r t " (38. 6)

D o n g - m e n j y f e r n / Y e u a n - c h i o u j y s h e u / T z y y Jong j y t z y y / P o r - s u o c h y i shiah ( "Under the e l m s by the E a s t G a t e / U n d e r the oaks of Y u a n - c h i u / T h e daughter of T z u - c h u n g / T w i s t s and t u r n s , !

beneath

t h e m " (137.1-4). 3.10.1.

T i m e and P l a c e Indicators

C e r t a i n w o r d s a r e p e c u l i a r t o , o r frequently o c c u r i n the t i m e and place p o s i t i o n ,

h i the place p o s i t i o n , c e r t a i n demonstratives substitute f o r

place ("here, t h e r e " ) , others recapitulate place ("at t h i s p l a c e , at that p l a c e " ) w h i l e c e r t a i n l e x i c a l d i r e c t i v e s o c c u r before p l a c e , ("at" " f r o m " etc. ). The d e m o n s t r a t i v e s w h i c h o c c u r i n the place p o s i t i o n are b i i *pia " t h e r e " and t s y y

* t s i a r "here. " T

Examples B i i tsae ger s h i

" T h e r e [we] gather c l o t h - g r a s s "

(72. 1). Bii yeou yi biing/Tsyy yeou jyh suey " T h e r e , there are handfuls left b e h i n d / H e r e , there are e a r s of c o r n o v e r l o o k e d " (212. 23-24). Tsyy wei yeu j a i r

» " H e r e , [he] gave [them] a h o m e "

(241. 12). The r e c a p i t u l a t i n g demonstratives w h i c h o c c u r i n the place p o s i t i o n are b o r \ and 2

*b ak, yan T

*ngian, yuan

*. i e r ; " A t this p l a c e / a t that p l a c e . "

*giwan, ian

*. i a n

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

135

Examples B o r tsae c h y i chyn

" T h e r e , [we] gather the c r e s s "

(299. 2). B o r yan guan jee ( ^ t

^

" T h e r e , at that p l a c e , [I w i l l ]

^

look out for h i m " (226. 16). Chuu-chuu jee t s y r / Y a n chou c h y i j y i ( "Where the t r i b u l u s grows t h i c k / T h e r e , [we] thin out the p r i c k l e s " (209. 1-2). Shing yan suh j i a h (

" h i the s t a r l i g h t , e a r l y , to h a r -

ness [his] c a r r i a g e " (50.17). J y h y u C h y i s h i a h / Y u a n j y i J i a n g n e u / Y u h l a i s h i u yeu " A r r i v i n g at the foot of M t . C h i / T h e r e , w i t h L a d y Chiang/[He] came and s u r v e y e d the l a n d " y

(237. 10-12). Shin ian t i h - t i h (

" h i m y heart [I] f e e l v e r y s a d "

(142. 8). I c h y i shiang niueh (

" T h e r e [beyond the R i v e r ] they

play together" (95.11) The l e x i c a l d i r e c t i v e s w h i c h o c c u r i n the place p o s i t i o n are t z y h Ane. C = *dz i " f r o m , " yu

*giwo "at, i n " etc. , hu

T

*dz'ag and w e i

*g o, tzay f

*d iw9r "at. " !

Examples T z y h s h i tzuu d o n g / j o u yuan j y r shyh ( " F r o m the east he went w e s t / E v e r y w h e r e taking m a t t e r s i n hand" (237. 23-24).

(jou yuan l i t . "on a l l s i d e s / t h e r e " = everywhere).

Minq y u shiah g w o / F e n g j i a n n jyue fwu "[Heaven] charged [him] In the States b e l o w / F i r m l y to e s t a b l i s h t h e i r T

h a p p i n e s s ™ (305.23-24). Suoo wey i r e n / Y u i a n shiau yau ( "He whom I c a l l that m a n / T h e r e [by the garden] comes on pleasure T

!

bent" (186. 5-6). Tzay b i i wu wuh/Tzay tsyy wu yih " T h e r e , there i s nothing to d i s l i k e / H e r e , nothing to p a l l " (278. 7-8). W e i t i a n yeou Harm

"In the heavens, i s the M i l k y

T H ET H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F S O N G S

136

W a y " (203.37). W e i b e e i yeou Doou |

"In the n o r t h , there i s the

D i p p e r " (203. 51). W o r d s w h i c h frequently o c c u r i n the t i m e p o s i t i o n a r e : j i n ( 4^ ) * k i o m "at p r e s e n t " s h y i

*siak " i n the past" shyy

at f i r s t " and how

*g u "afterwards. "

*siog " p r i o r to t h i s ,

T

Examples J i n woo bwu l e h (

'[If] today we do not take our p l e a s -

u r e " (114.3). J i n jee bwu l e h (

[If] today [we] do not take our

p l e a s u r e " (126. 9). Shyi woo woang y i i

) " L o n g ago, we m a r c h e d "

(167.41). " A n c i e n t l y , when

Shyi shian wang show m i n q the f o r m e r kings r e c e i v e d the c h a r g e " (265. 34). Shyy jee buh r u j i r

" A t f i r s t , i t was not l i k e it

i s today" (199.11), C h y i how yee hoei (22. 5 ) .

" B u t l a t e r on r e g r e t t e d i t "

1 4

L e x i c a l d i r e c t i v e s w h i c h o c c u r i n the t i m e p o s i t i o n are t z y h Ane. C = *dz i "ever since, f r o m , " tzay i T

"at" j y h (

*tied and j y h - y u

* d z a g "at" w e i t

*diwor

* t i e d - . io "up t o , u n t i l . "

Examples T z y h guu yeou n i a n

) " F r o m of o l d [we] have had good

h a r v e s t s " (211. 5). T z y h j i n y i i shyy (

^From/today/thereby/begin >

" H e n c e f o r t h " (298.23) T z y h woo t z u u e e l

" E v e r since I went to y o u "

(58. 33). J y h j i n w e i geeng ( Chyi

"[And] up to the present has been

in time phrases also occurs in chyi jiou

the e n d " " e v e n t u a l l y , " as for example i n C h y i j i o u an j a i r " B u t i n the end, [they] w i l l d w e l l i n safety" (181.12).

"in

THE V E R B A L SENTENCE

137

an i m p e d i m e n t " (257. 24). " A t the t i m e of K i n g s Wen and W u "

J y h y u Wen Wuu (300. 22). Note 1.

* b â k "at t h i s p l a c e " has a l s o a t e m p o r a l usage

Bor
"there i s n o w h e r e " a s , for e x a m p l e , i n M i i suoo j y y y i (

" T h e r e i s nowhere to settle down"

(257. 19). > " T h e r e i s nowhere to settle down"

M i i suoo j y y l i h (194.12).

I " T h e r e i s nowhere to settle down"

M i i suoo j y y j i u (185.4).

and a l s o as "there i s no p e r s o n " > "there i s no one" a s , for e x a m p l e , i n M i i suoo y e u t o r n g (

" T h e r e are none with w h o m [I]

can [travel] togetheir " (37.12). Note 2.

Hour

meaning"

*g u, w h i c h i s u s u a l l y g l o s s e d as "having no T

when not used i n the sense of "a feudal l o r d " or " a t a r ­

get i n a r c h e r y " and c e r t a i n d e r i v a t i v e s f r o m these m e a n i n g s , o c c u r s i n nine poems i n the Book of Songs, i n seven of w h i c h hour seems to me to be i n c o m p l e m e n t a r y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h yeou *giug, as d i s c u s s e d above, and i n the other two to be functioning i n other ways i n w h i c h yeou a l s o functions.

Hour

*g u and yeou *giug are near homophones. T

Examples (i)

Hour as "there i s "

Hour shwei t z a y y i i

/There is/who ?/present/"Who

is there p r e s e n t ? " (177.47). J a n b i i jong l i n / H o u r s h i n hour jeng " L o o k t h e r e , w i t h i n the f o r e s t / T h e r e i s k i n d l i n g and b r u s h w o o d ! " (192.25-26).

THE DETERMINATIVE SENTENCE

161

Shan yeou j i a h u e y / H o u r l i h hour m e i " h i the h i l l s there i s fine g r o w t h / T h e r e a r e chestnuts and p l u m t r e e s " (204.13-14). " T h e r e were K i n g

Hour Wen Wang s u e n - t z y y Wen s sons and g r a n d s o n s " (235.12) T

" T h e r e a r e r i s i n g s , there are

Hour tzuoh hour jun ( c u r s i n g s " (255. 23).

"Beneath it ( i . e . the m u l -

C h y i shiah hour shyun

b e r r y t r e e ) , there i s [shade] evenly s p r e a d " (257.2). Hour juu hour b o r (

T

There i s the m a s t e r , there i s

h i s eldest s o n " (290. 5). (ii)

Hour l i k e yeou (as i n 3 . 3 . 1.4)

W e i y u hour shing

"It i s we who should a r i s e i "

(236.46). (iii)

Hour l i k e yeou (as i n 1 . 2 . 1 . 2) "Responsive i s [his] c o m p l i -

Y i n q hour shuenn der { ant v i r t u e " (243.14). Note 3.

W u a l s o o c c u r s i n the Book of Songs much as wu-luenn

o c c u r s l a t e r i n C l a s s i c a l C h i n e s e , i n the sense of "notwithstanding" and the l i k e .

F o r e x a m p l e , Wu dong w u shiah \

in winter or in summer" 4. 8 . 1 .

"Whether

(136.11).

M o d a l i t i e s and other Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of Y e o u and W u P r e c e d i n g yeou and w u as determinations m a y o c c u r m o d a l i t i e s and

place and t i m e i n d i c a t i o n s .

The modal qualifications of y e o u , wu and m i i ,

o c c u r r i n g i n the Book of Songs are Bih-yeou Hwu neng-ye ou B u h - s h y a yeou i doubtless w i l l be

VThere must be . . . . " (37. 6). "How c a n there be " L e s t there be

? " (29.11). " "There

" (39.18, 243. 24 etc. ).

Chii-wu (

" S u r e l y it i s not so that there are not . . . . " (77. 3).

Chinq wu

) to the end there i s not > " N e v e r w i l l there not b e "

(166.9). T i m e and place indications o c c u r before yeou and w u and w e i as follows:

162

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Examples Nan yeou j i a u muh (

M

In the south, there i s a t r e e

whose boughs hang l o w " (4.1). Harm yeou y o u neu ,

,

" B y the R i v e r H a n , there are

y N

l a d i e s of p l e a s u r e " (9. 5) Y u a n yeou h a r n chyuan (

) "Here is a cooling spring"

(32.9). Shan yeou jen (

" h i the h i l l s , there are h a z e l s " (38.13).

Wen-wuu w e i how

) " h i peace and w a r , pie] was sov-

e r e i g n " (282. 10). Shiaw-sy wei tzer (

) " h i f i l i a l piety and thoughtful -

n e s s , he i s a m o d e l " (243.12). Syh yueh w e i shiah

) " h i the fourth month, there i s

s u m m e r " (204.1). Note. T

A pronoun o c c u r r i n g before yeou and w u i s either "agent/verb

to p o s s e s s " o r " p l a c e , / t h e r e i s . . . . , " t h u s , Woo yeou j i a b i n 1

(161. 3) " I have a l u c k y guest" ( " a g e n t / v e r b " ) , but Woo w u l i n q " A m o n g u s , there was not a good m a n " (32. 8) ( p l a c e /

ren there i s ) . 4. 8.2.

Y e o u as D e t e r m i n e d T e r m and V e r s i f i c a t i o n Under the e x i g e n c i e s of m e t r e , yeou as d e t e r m i n e d t e r m m a y be o m i t ­

ted. Examples M e e i s y h [yeou] s y h goei

) " [ A t that t i m e ] at

each m e a l [there w e r e ] four d i s h e s " (135. 7), w i t h w h i c h cf. , line 3, J i n yee m e e i s y h w u y u

" T o d a y , at each

m e a l , there i s no remnant [i. e. nothing i s left o v e r ] . " Shi-shuay t z a y t a r n g

"[There are] c r i c k e t s i n the

h a l l " (114.1). B i i j i h l i - l i / B i i shuu jy m i a u " O v e r t h e r e , [there i s ] w i n e - m i l l e t , e a r s a - d r o o p / O v e r there [there is] c o o k i n g - m i l l e t a - s p r o u t i n g " ( 6 5 . 1 - 2 ) . W e i [yeou] y u y e u r u u i y o u " (92.4).

" [ T h e r e i s ] just me and

THE DETERMINATIVE SENTENCE 4.8.3.

163

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Y e o u and W u etc. , i n the Book of Songs Y e o u and w u and t h e i r equivalents o c c u r as d e t e r m i n e d t e r m s i n the

Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

8

1

Ta Ya

12

3

4

6

-

Hsiao Y a

22

9

7

8

2

Kuo F e n g

35

7

11

3

1

4. 9.

2

1

-

W e i and F e e i as D e t e r m i n e d T e r m s - T r u t h and F a l s i t y Wei
"What

Shyr w e i her c h y i o c c a s i o n i s t h i s ? " (217. 14)

He/what k i n d o f / m a n > "What

Tsyy her r e n t z a i k i n d of m a n i s h e ? " (65. 10).

" T h e s e , who should be found not

Tsyy y i wu-tzuey g u i l t y " (264. 15) B i i her r e n sy ( 4. 10. 2.

'What k i n d of m a n i s h e ? " (198.41).

N u m b e r as the Determinant T e r m

N u m b e r and units of m e a s u r e o c c u r as the determinant t e r m i n s t a t e ­ ments of quantitative judgment. Examples Chyi shyr chi shi

"Its f r u i t s a r e s e v e n " (20. 2).

Chyi tzyy chi shi

"Its young a r e s e v e n " (152. 2)

Where n u m b e r s and units of m e a s u r e o c c u r as the d e t e r m i n e d t e r m , the copulae w e i

*gwia are used.

*diwar and w e i

Examples Wuu r y h w e i c h y i (

"The fifth day was the t i m e a p -

pointed" (226. 7). San-bae w e i chyun

) "The h e r d i s t h r e e - h u n d r e d

[strong]" (190. 2). Woo y e u w e i y i h (

'Our stooks a r e n u m b e r e d i n h u n -

dreds of thousands" (209. 8). 4. 10. 3.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of D e m o n s t r a t i v e s used as D e t e r m i n e d T e r m s

The demonstrative used as the d e t e r m i n e d t e r m a r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n the Book of Songs as f o l l o w s :

Sung

1

1

-

-

3

-

-

Ta Ya

3

-

2

-

1

1

1

Hsiao Y a

8

-

-

1

2

-

2

Kuo F e n g

3

-

-

1

1

1

-

170 4. 11.

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS Cause and Consequence Statements of cause and consequence a r e made i n the determinative

sentence f o r m .

The c a u s a l t e r m m a y be preceded by w e i

* p i w a r - . i e r "not because.

*ziag "because . . . . " o r f e e i - i (

The t e r m of consequence may be p r e c e d e d by s h y h - y i i *dieg-diung; yonq

shyh-yonq

*diwor; y i i *dieg-zi8g;

*diung, "therefore . . . . "

Examples (i) P r e c e d i n g c a u s a l t e r m W e i der j y s h y n g / T a y - r e n yeou shen " B e c a u s e virtue* f l o w e d / T a i J e n became pregnant" (236. 13-14). 1

T

W e i c h y i yeou jang y i i

"Because he has e l e -

gance" (214. 10). Y i i woo yuh c h y o n g / Y e o u - g u a n g yeou-huey " B e c a u s e m y p r o v i s i o n i s s p e n t / Y o u a r e hostile and a n g r y " (35. 44-45). Y i i shian t z u u show m i n q / l n s h y r bae M a n " B e c a u s e of the charge r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e i r a n c e s t o r s / They had f o r t h e i r use these v a r i o u s M a n t r i b e s m e n " (261. 63-64). F e e i - i chwei jy
B / A (AA) —> B (A —> B)/interjection, noun, m e t ­ rical word/.

"Vocative form" is intended to account for the occurrence in

poems of lines such as "Othe hoofs of the unicorn 1" "The Duke s sons in T

such numbers! " which, like, yu-jie, "Alas! " are free-standing forms.

THE VOCATIVE FORM

173

Taking the formal and functional criteria mentioned above, one ana­ lytical solution of this problem is to treat all free-standing forms as belong­ ing to one class designated generically "vocative forms" and to distinguish (i) interjections (as defined in LAC and EAC) (ii) imprecations and invoca­ tions (iii) vocatives (as defined in EAC 5. 8) and (iv) evocatives. This might be represented as follows: Non-sentential, free-standing forms

i

1

Interjections

Other vocative forms

(Single or compound words)

(Syntagmas) |

i

5. 1.

i

Imprecations

Vocatives

Evocatives

(addressed to deities etc.)

(addressed in discourse to a hearer)

(addressed by the poet to the reader)

Interjections In the Book of Songs the following interjections representing such non-

phonemic sounds as sighs and involuntary ejaculations of the Oh! and Ah! tvpe occur. Indicating pain, surprise, or indignation ("Ah! " "Alas! ") are u o-xo . o; u-hu o-g o and u-hu < Indicating a groan or sigh ("Ah! ") are jie tsia; jie-jie tsiar; yu-jie giwo-tsia; i-jie tsia-tsia; tzyh T

ia-tsia and i-yeu

ia-zio.

Indicating an expression of anger ("Oh! ") are jrih iak and i-shi iag-xiag.

ied; jih

Examples U! renn yu yueh

"Oh! the plump fish leap! "

(242.12). U! muh ching miaw pie" (266. 1).

"Oh! august is the pure tern-

174

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS U-hu, ai tzai U-hu sheau-tzyy

"Oh! the p i t y ! " (265.38). "Oh! my child! " (256.105).

U-hu sheau-tzyy

"Oh! my child! " (256. 85).

Jie woo hwai-ren

i "Ah! my loved one" (3. 3).

2

Fuh iue, Jie! yu tzyy shyng yih

" [My] father will be saying, Alas, my son went off to the w a r s " (110. 3). "Ah! ministers and officers! " Jie-jie chern-gong !

!

(276. 1). "Ah! the illustrious ancestors"

Jie-jie lieh tzuu (302. 1). Yu-jie lin shi

"Alas, the unicorn! " (11. 3),

Yu-jie kuoh shi I-jie ming shi

"Alas, we are parted" (31. 17). "Ah - but he is famous! " (106. 7).

I-yeu Chi Jiu I-yeu nuo yeu (

"Ah! the Ch'i and the Chti " (281. 1). "Ah! how abundant! " (301.1).

Yih jyue jer fuh

"Ah! that clever woman! "

(264. 21). "Ah! this Huang-fu" (193. 33).

Yih tsyy Hwang-fuh

"Ah! King Ch eng" (277. 1). !

I-shi Cherng Wang Wen Wang iue tzyh!

"King Wen said 0 ! " !

(255. 17). Tzyh! ruu In-shang i

1

"O! You, Yin-shang"

(255. 10). 5. 1.1.

Distribution of Interjections in the Book of Songs

The interjections are distributed in the Book of Songs as follows: Sung

2

is read

Ta Ya

10

3

4

4

Hsiao Ya 2

in some texts. As the text stands legomenon in the Book of Songs.

Kuo Feng 1

is a hapax

THE VOCATIVE FORM

Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

1 2

175

2

Kuo Feng 4

1 5 1

2

-

1

1

1

-

5. 2. Imprecations and Invocations Imprecations and invocations addressed to deities, revered parents and the like occur in the Book of Songs as follows: Examples Ryh jiu yueh ju (

f

O sun! O moon! " (26. 25 : 29. 1).

Muu yee tian jyy

) "O Mother! O Heaven! " (45. 6).

Fuh shi muu shi

"O Father! O Mother! " (29. 21).

I "O Uncles! O Elders ! " (lit. O Shwu shi bor shi Uncles younger than father/O Uncles older than father) (37. 3, 85. 3, 88. 9).

3

3

Waley thinks that the uncles are actually addressed which material­ ly alters the meaning of the three poems in which this line occurs. In poem no. 88 this gets Waley into the difficulty of making a girl address her lover as "Uncle. My own feeling is that this, like O Mother ! O Heaven! " is M

n

an imprecation not unlike the English schoolboy s facetious "My sainted 1

aunt! "

176

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

5. 3. Vocatives In the Book of Songs (as in EAC see EAC 5. 8) discourse is sometimes interrupted with personal names and other forms of address, sometimes with added attributes and usually associated with interjections or metrical words, the purpose of which is simply to attract the attention of the person addressed.

Such vocatives are not, formally, parts of the sentences b e ­

tween which they are distributed. Examples Bae eel jiun-tzyy

i "O all you gentlemen! " (33. 13).

Bor shi chye shi {

" O m y lord! so warrior-like ! "

(62. 1). Tzyy shi tzyy shi/Ru tsyy liang ren her n

O s i r s ! O s i r s ! /Who can compare with this fine man!

TT

(118. 5-6), Eel gong eel hour

) You princes ! You nobles! TT

TT

(186. 15). Jie eel jiun-tzyy

"O you princes! (207. 37).

Jie eel perng-yeou

) O ! you, friends of mine!

{257. 951. Farn bae jiun-tzyy

) "O all you princes! " (194. 25).

n

Heh-heh Shy Yiin (

i "O majestic Master Yin!

(191. 11). Woo jy hwai yii

Omy beloved! " (33. 3).

Chern-chern jiun-tzyy

M

TT

"Most generous lord!

TT

(19.11). 5.4.

Evocatives A number of lines occur in the Book of Songs, structurally in syntagma

form (i.e. either noun or attribute/noun), sometimes with interjections or the metrical particles or the particles of accentuation, which are f r e e ­ standing, that is they are distributed between, but not elements of, the n o r ­ mal sentential structures.

THE VOCATIVE FORM Examples Tsae-tsae jeuan-eel (3. 1). Taur jy yeau-yeau (6. 1). Suh-suh tuh-jie Yu-jie lin shi ( bEY JY CHYI-CHY

M

177

Cockle-bur so plentiful! " ^

"A peach tree in full vigour ! " "Hare nets, fast-set (7. 1). n

"Ah! the unicorn!" (11.3). "Oh the ampleness of her head-

dress!" (13.11). Iau-iau tsao-chorng/Tih-tih fow-yong "Cicadas who chirp! /Grasshoppers who leap! " (14. 1-2), Gau-yang jy pyi/Suh-sy wuu two "[In] lambskins ! /[Sewn with] pure silk of five-strands" (18. 1-2). Bii jwo jee jia

"Those reeds full-grown! " (25. 1).

4

It is not always easy to distinguish in analysis in such structures as tsae-tsae foou-yii/Bor y an tsae jy /plentiful/plantain/here/this place/gather/them (8.1-2) and tsae-tsae jeuan /plentiful/ EEL/bUH/YNG CHIING-KUA cockle-bur/not/fill/shallow basket (3. 2), between elements exposed and re­ sumed by the anaphoric pronouns as in the first example (where "plentiful plantain" might be construed as being the y of the sentence "here, at this 1

place gather them, " the substituting for "plentiful plantains") and the evocative phrase, as in the second, where the possible connection of which with the following sentence is formally unmarked. The formal procedure therefore faute de mieux, must be to decide by the occurrence or non-occur­ ence of the resuming particles, despite the fact that resuming particles do not always occur of prescriptive necessity.

CHAPTER 6 SENTENCES IN DISTRIBUTION 6. 1.

Introduction The unit in which sentences are distributed is the piece*. !

Sentences,

either verbal or determinative, are elements at this level (see chapters 3-4).

Interjections, imprecations, vocatives and evocative phrases are

also elements in the piece (see chapter 5). The relationship of certain of f

!

these elements the one to the other, if marked, is marked by conjunctions. Other markers of the interdependence of sentences are the anaphoric p r o ­ nouns (see 3. 8). 6. 2. The Conjunction of Sentences Sentences occur in sequence in one of two main types, the first d i s ­ junctive sequence (see 6. 3) and the second resumptive sequence (see 6. 4). The conjunctions of the latter type derive from demonstratives, those of the former do not, (conventional sign: conj.).

In the first type there is s i m ­

ple connection (see 6. 3. 1) and concession (see 6. 3. 2). In the second type there is sequence in narrative "subsequent to, and later than" (see 6. 4. 1) and the sequence of propositions "subsequent to, and consequent upon" (see 6.4. 2); the latter being an extension of the former and embracing condition­ ed sequence ("If

then

"; "since . . . . so

"; "when

then . . , "

see 6.4. 3. ff.). 6. 3. Disjunctive Sequence 6. 3. 1. Simple Connection The conjunctions yow giug and joh ziak connect sen­ tences in simple connection in the sense of "and t o o , " "and furthermore," neither sentence being conditioned in any way by the other.

The conjunc­

tions occur after the agent of the second sentence. Examples Shu shan sheh jih/Yow liang yuh jih "Shu is such a skilled archer/And such a fine horseman" (78.17-18).

SENTENCES IN DISTRIBUTION

179

Jih poh woo fuu/Yow chiue woo chiang "Having broken our axes/And shattered our hatchets" (157. 1-2). Bih yeou jyy jeou/Yow yeou jia yau "They have fine wine/And they have good food" (192. 83-84) Neu-tzyy shan hwai/Yih geh yeou shyng "Young girls are prone to thoughts of love/And too each will embark on the journey [of marriage]" (54. 17-18). ^J,|IJJJ.,l,ll,JJi^l.l.,lllll[l,:lJ^IJI.JJlia|.^ "Chung [-tzu] is endearing/But too, what my parents will say/Is frightening" (76. 7-8). Ai woo ren sy/Yih koong jy jiang "[He] had compassion on our peoples/And too he made them very great" (157. 5-6). Note, Songs u.f.

Huoh

g wak occurs a s a hapax legomenon in the Book of !

Jih 1ih jian/Huoh yow jy shyy "Having set aside one to watch/And one to assist as scribe . . . . "

(220.60). 6. 3. 2. Concession ziak also occurs in a form of conjunction which is mildly Yih concessive in the sense of "conceding all to the contrary" > "after all" K

"yet," or "contrary to expectation" > "even so, even though" (conventional sign: cone.). Examples Swei suh woo sonq/Yih buh ruu tsorng "Though [you] press on me this suit/Even so [I] will not submit to you" (17. 14-15). Yih yeou shiong-dih/Buh kee yii jiuh "Even though [I] have brothers/[I] cannot count on them" (26. 9 -10), Faan shyh buh sy/Yih yii yan tzai "That you would change [I] did not think/And, after all, it has ended with this ! " (58. 59-60). Tzei

tsak occurs as a concessive conjunction "even so" etc. ,

180

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS Examples Hann jih tay shenn/Tzer buh kee tuei ( "The drought is already excessive/Even so [despite our efforts] it cannot be exorcized (258.11-12). 11

Jan-arng min tian/Tzer buh woo huey ( 11

[I] look up to bright Heaven/But even so, [Heaven] does not look with

kindness upon us (264. 1-2). 11

Min jy fang diann-shyy/Tzer moh woo gaan kwei ( "The common people just now are crying out/ But even so no one dare pay heed to m e " (254. 37-38), The concessive clause may be marked by the occurrence of swei siwar and swei-tzer verb.

*siwar-tsak occurring between agent and

Examples Swei suh woo yuh/Shyh-jia buh tzwu "Though [you] press on me this charge/Your whole family will not suffice [to force me to give way]" (17. 8-9). Swei yeou shiong-dih/Buh ru yeou-sheng ( "Even though [I] have brothers/They do not compare with friends" (164.19-20). Swei-tzer ru yun/Feei woo sy tswen "Though [there are girls] like clouds [i.e. in crowds] /There is not [one] whom I cherish in my thoughts" (93. 3-4) Swei-tzer chyu-lau/Chyi chyong an jair "But although they toil so hard/lh the end they will dwell m peace" (181.11-12). Note 1. For swei

siwar, meei

mwag occurs as a mark­

er of the concessive clause, as a hapax legomenon in the Book of Songs, in Meei yeou liang perng/Kuanq yee yeong tann ( "Though I have good friends/They only heave long sighs the more" (164.11-12). Note 2. An extreme case of something more generally implied "even a

" (a function of the concessive marker in LAC, see LAC 5.4.1) is

marked in the Book of Songs by you ( 3fj|j ) *ziog.

SENTENCES IN DISTTRIBUTION

181

Example Shiang bii neau yii/You chyou yeou sheng/Sheen i ren yii ( "Consider these birds ! /Even they seek the answering calls of their mates/And how much more we who are men (165. 7-8-9). Note 3. In EAC 5. 3. 2. footnote 6, it was pointed out that swei first 11

occurs on Chou EI bronze inscriptions (£. 770-450 B. C . ) , and that a single occurrence in the Shaw Gaw might well be a copyist's e r r o r .

It was further

pointed out that a possible history of the concessive conjunction might be a diwar to swei development from disjunctive yih ziak via wei < siwar. This suggestion is given further substance by the occurrences of swei in the Book of Songs. Swei only emerges in the later parts of the Book of Songs as a marker of the concessive (thus according in dating with the first occurrence of swei on bronze inscriptions). Earlier occurrences of swei (though swei does not occur earlier than Ta Ya) merge into usages This is best shewn in chart form.

of wei Swei Concessive

Kuo Feng

Hsiao Ya

17.

164. 195. 192.

10. 60. 93.

181. 203. 218. 222.

Ta Ya

255. 235. 253. 254. 256. 257.

Examples of the non-concessive use of swei a r e : "Surely there is no lack of

"

Swei wu yu jy/Luh che cherng maa "Surely there is no lack [of things] to offer him/[There are] state coaches and teams of h o r s e s " (222. 5-6). copula Rong swei sheau-tzyy/Erl shyh horng dah

182

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS M

You are but a child/But your duties are very great

11

(253. 38-39). (iii) ,T

Ruu swei 3arm leh tsorng (

You merely follow

[them] in steeping yourself in pleasure (256. 21). 11

(iv) Swei iue feei yu/Jih tzuoh eel ge ( "You say It is not we [who are to blame]/And so [I] composed for you !

this song " (257. 111-112). !

6. 3. 3. Distribution of the Disjunctive Conjunctions in the Book of Songs The disjunctive conjunctions are distributed in the Book of Songs as follows:

Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng

9 9 1

14

2

13

7 4

6.4. Resumptive Sequence 6. 4 . 1 . Narrative Sequence The conjunctions nae

*niag, the de­ *nag and erl *diag, and certain allegro

*d iet and shyr monstratives shyr forms, yuan ^ g i a n , occur as conjunctions in *giwan and yan sentence sequences in the sense of "subsequent to and later than" > "and !

then" and "subsequent to and consequent upon" > "and so. " The conjunction occurs between agent and verb of the second sentence. Examples (i) Nae

and erl Nae wey nae jyy/Nae tzuoo nae yow "And so [he] was assured and stayed /Looked to left and to right . . . . " (237.19-20).

SENTENCES IN DISTRIBUTION

183

Nae yang nae jiang/Nae ji nae tsang "And so pie] made baulks, so [he] set boundaries/Then pie] collected and stored" (250.3-4). ) "And so [he] charged the Duke Nae minq Luu-gong of Lu" (300. 35). ) "And then the birds flew away"

Neau nae chiuh yii (245. 25).

Wu jin yuh eel in/Erl yeou shya shin { "Do not treat your news as gold or jade/And so have a mind to stay away" (186. 23-24). Chyi shyh bwu jyh/Erl duo wei shiuh ( "The time passed, [but they] did not come/And so caused much trou­ ble" (109.25-26). Note 1. In EAC bronze inscriptions the form for the conjunction.

is the graph for the pronoun, form is con­ In the Book of Songs the

fined to Ta Ya and Sung. (ii) Shyr i and shyr Shyr yong shyr huoh then [he] dug moats" (261. 70).

"And then [he] built walls,

Shyr fang shyr bau/Shyr jong shyr bau ( "At which planted in lines, sown in rich soil/Being well planted, so they grew tall" (245. 41-42). Buh ming eel der/Shyr wu bey wu tseh ( "You do not manifest your virtue/And so have not [distin­ guished] the perverse and wayward" (255. 29-30). Wang gwo shuh dinq/Shyr mii yeou jeng i "The king's state might be settled/And then no-one would strive" (262. 14-15), (iii) Yan and yuan ( Wang heh sy nuh/Yuan jeeng chyi leu ( "The king blazed in anger/Thereupon he mobilised his a r m i e s " (241. 56-57). Gong shyy sy jang/Gan ge chi yang/Yuan fang chii shyng { i "Bows and arrows were laid

184

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS out/Shield and dagger-axe halberd and battle-axe/Thereupon and only then Ihel began to march" (250. 8-9-10). l

= li',Lli.iL.l. ilJ ,i.lil,,JJ,il:,ll.l J

A

"It was a matter of marriage/And so [I] came to you to live" (188. 9 10), Yeou keh shinn-shinn/Yan show jy jyr/Yii jyr chyi maa ( "There is a guest to stay two nights/And so we offer him a halter/To tether his h o r s e s " (284. 5-67). Note 2. The conjunctions used for resumptive sequence have the com­ mon characteristic of being either (i) a demonstrative or (ii) an allegro form of a demonstrative preceded by ruoh/ru *niak/nio or yu *giwo, i. e. "like-this" or "at this" and thus "things being like this, the con­ sequence i s " > "and s o , " "and then," or "at this stage or juncture" > "and then. " The historical filiation of these derivations is a s follows: discrete

allegro

allegro

discrete

form

form

form

form

EAC Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng LAC 6.4.2.

Conditioned Sequence Conditioned sequence (if . . . . then . . . . ; when . . . . then . . . . ) is

marked by tzer

*ts8k occurring between protasis and apodosis.

Examples (i) When . . . . then . . Guh woo tzer shiaw ( Tyoul smiled" (30. 2).

"When [you] glanced at me,

SENTENCES IN DISTRIBUTION

185

Guu tzer yih shyh/Syy tzer torng shiueh ( "TWhen living [they] had separate bed-chambers/When dead, [they] shared a common grave (73.9-10). M

Shee bar tzer huoh

"When [he] lets go of the pulled

bowstring, then [he] secures a hit" (127. 8). (ii) If then "If deep, Shen tzer lih/Chean tzer chih ( [we] simply wet our clothes/If shallow, [we] lift our skirts" (34. 3-4). Bwu suh tzer moh { "If pie is] not too early, then pie is] too late" (100. 12). Tinq yan tzer dar/Jenn yan tzer tuey i "If [my] words are acceptable then [you] should answer them/K they are slanderous, then [you] may remain aloof" (194. 35-36). Note 1. There is a single occurrence in the Book of Songs of j ^ i *tsiet as a conjunction of conditioned sequence in 245. 46. Jyi yeou Tair jia"And then he had a household in T ai" (245. 46). shyh i There is one occurrence of iue *giwat functioning similarly in 223. 26 T

and 30. Jiann shiann iue shiau sun s heat [the snow] melts. " There is also one occurrence of Jih

"When exposed to the

T

*kiad, seemingly inter­ "[He] found [the changeable with in Chinq jih linq jiu land] pleasant, and so made it [her] dwelling" (261. 59). Note 2. Towards the close of the Late Archaic period, the protasis in conditioned sequences is marked by shyy *sliag "cause > suppose > if. " The use of the causative marker bih ( *pieg in the following, shews how closely the connection historically i s , between the causative and the un­ fulfilled conditional. Bih yu jinq jy/How yu jyi yan "Suppose I acquiesced in it/Later on, I should be constrained by it" (lit. [if] make/me/be quiet/in this/later/i/pushed to limit/by it) (224. 5-6). 6.4.3.

Conditioned Concession The protasis of a conditioned clause when concessive is introduced by

tzonq by tsaan

*tsiung "even if, even though," while the apodosis is introduced in some texts) and tserng *ts am (also or T

186

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS *dz 8ng !

"even so, even though. "

Examples Tzonq woo buh woang/Tzyy ninq buh lai ( "Even if I did not go [to him]/Could he not have come [to m e ] ? " (91. 7-8). Min yan wu jia/Tsaan moh cherng jie ( "In the words of the people there is no [note of] approval/Even so, there is no one to take warning [from it]. " (191. 15-16). Ai jin jy ren/Hwu tsaan moh cherng ( "Alas for the men of today/But why, even so, is there no-one to take warning [from the disaster]" (193. 23-24). Hwu ninq dian woo yii hann/Tsaan buh jy chyi guh ( "How is it that we can be made mad by drought?/Even so, [we] do not know its cause" (258. 53-54). Jong yu jyue shean/Tserng shyh bwu yih "In the end you will cross the highest steeps/Even though you did not think this [could be done]" (192. 74-75). Ji cherng bwu suey/Tserng woo shye yuh "The famine in fact has not been averted/Even though [I] a personal servant

" (194. 30-31).

Sang luann mieh tzy/Tserng moh huey woo shy "[There has been] death and disorder and the spoil ing of goods/But even so, no one has dealt kindlily with our people" (254. 39-40). Uei *miw8r as a conjunction is the negated form of the conditional concessive conjunction "though if it were not" Examples Ninq shyh buh lai/Uei woo fwu guh "It could happen that they will not come/Though if it were not for me no [one] would care [for them]" (165.17-18).

mmij^^^t^ii.iiti.J-iHi.i

"Though if it were not on account of our prince/What would fwel be doing here in the middle of the r o a d ? " (36. 3-4). Uei woo wu jeou/Yii ao yii yow

SENTENCES IN DISTRIBUTION

187

"Though it is not as though I had no wine/Whereby to 'drift at ease'

11

(26. 5-6). Note.

Tzuen

tsiwan occurs as a conditional concessive con­

junction as a hapax legomenon. Example Yu shyh wang shy/Tzuen yeang shyr huey/Shyr chwen shi yii/Shyh yonq dan jieh ff

O glittering is the king's host/Though he nurtured

it, at first it was obscure/But then its glory appeared/And so it b e ­ came very great (293. 1-4). 11

6.4.4.

Distribution of the Resumptive Conjunctions in the Book of Songs The resumptive conjunctions are distributed in the Book of Songs as

follows:

Sung Ta Ya

1 7

1 1 1

Hsiao Ya

3

2

2

2 2

2 2

-

-

2

3

2 1

1

7

Kuo Feng

7

Sung

-

Ta Ya

3

Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng

1

4 5

-

-

-

1 -

2

1

2 3

-

3 1

1 2

6. 5. Resultative Sequence The occurrence of the instrumental particles yonq and £ii as resulta­ tive conjunctions is described in 3. 6. 2. In such usage the instrumental particles are resultative. In the Book of Songs, syh

*siad and suey

*dziwad (suey "follow" thus "it followed that") also occur ag conjunc-

188

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

tions "following on from the foregoing," "thereupon," "with the result t h a t , " "and so. " Unlike the instrumental conjunctions, syh and suey occur before the agent of the second sentence. Examples Bwu wenn yih shyh/Bwu jiann yih ruh/Syh cherng ren yeou der "Even what was not told him, he availed himself of /Even what was not a matter of ad­ monition, he admitted/With the result that, as a grown man he was virtuous" (240. 19-21). Syh hwang tian fwu shanq i

"And so august

Heaven does not approve [of you]" (256. 25). Dan jyue shin/Syh chyi jinq jy ( i "[He] enlarged his heart/With the result that he brought peace to them" (271.6-7). Jih 1ih jian/Huoh yow jy shyy "Sends rain down upon our lord's fields/And so [the rain] comes to our fields too" (212.19-20). Wen woo ju-gu/sUEY JYI BOR-JIEE "I enquired of my aunts/And so [I] come to my sisters and cousins [and ask]" (39.11-12). Yean you Guei Meng/Suey huang dah dong ( "[We] fully possessed Kuei and Meng/And then extended [our possessions] in the great east" (300. 87-88). Closely related to the conjunctive usages of syh and suey described above are the usages of tzer

*tsak and tzay

UcM-Al.^.limffgg

ing: Examples Yih jih gow jyy/Woo shin tzer yueh "When [I] shall have met him/My heart as a result will be glad" (14.13-14). Yu gang jy sheh/Horng tzer li jy "The fish-nets having been set/A wild goose, as a result, was trapped in them" (43. 9-10). San shyr wei wuh/Eel sheng tzer jiuh

SENTENCES IN DISTRIBUTION

189

"Thirty animals constitute a [colour] grade/Your victims, as a result, are complete" (190. 15-16). Tzay shyi jy guang

"With the result that glory was

conferred on him" (241. 34). Wang shin tzay ning

"The king's mind, as a result,

would be set at r e s t " (262. 16). Tzay shiu jyi nih

"And so we both will sink in ruin"

(257. 40). 6. 5. 1. Distribution of the Resultative Conjunctions in the Book of Songs The resultative conjunctions are distributed in the Book of Songs as follows:

Sung

1

1 (Lu)

2 (Lu and Shang)

Ta Ya

3

-

1

Hsiao Ya

-

1

7

l

3

Kuo Feng

3

6. 6. Unmarked Sequences In the Book of Songs sentences in sequence are frequently unmarked by conjunctions.

This may well be a result of the exigencies of m e t r e ,

though economy in the use of conjunctions is typical of other Archaic Chin­ ese texts. Examples Chii yu wanq jy

"[If I] stand on tiptoe, [I] can see

it" (61.4). Syy sheng chie kuoh/Yeu tzyy cherng shuoh { "[Whether] parted in life or in death/With him this oath [I] swore" (31. 13-14). Shee minq buh yu

"[Though it] costs [him his] life

[he] will not go back on his word" (80.4).

CHAPTER 7 SUBSTITUTION 7. 1.

Introduction In Archaic Chinese, words falling within the general class "substi­

tutes" comprise the following: (i) Personal pronouns, substituting for and replacing proper names. (ii) The anaphoric pronouns, substituting for and replacing elements that are repeated. (iii) Demonstratives, substituting a "gesture" that of pointing for the thing named. (iv) Interrogative substitutes, substituting in a question for an e l e ­ ment unknown, and extending, as it were, an invitation to the person ad­ dressed to supply an answer by replacing the substitute. (v) Indefinite substitutes, substituting for an element known but held in suspense. 7. 2. The Pronouns In discourse in Archaic Chinese, a status relationship is involved b e ­ tween the speaker and the person addressed. are used the form of address is direct.

Where the personal pronouns

The use of the non-status personal

pronouns then implies informality or equality.

Still keeping to the direct

form of address, the use of the status personal pronouns introduces a fur­ ther degree of formality.

Strict formality, however, requires an indirect

form of address and status is therein established by the use of ranks and titles, of personal names and of kinship terms as forms of address. With titles and kinship t e r m s , the status established may relate to a factual posi­ tion in a social or administrative hierarchy, or to real kinship, or in selfdepreciation on the part of the speaker and in deference to the person ad­ dressed, to a fictitious extension of this. 7. 2. 1. The Personal and Anaphoric Pronouns In Archaic Chinese two persons are distinguished among the personal pronouns, the person or persons speaking and the person or persons ad-

SUBSTITUTION dressed.

Number is not distinguished.

191

The pronouns may distinguish s t a ­

tus. In the Book of Songs the non-status personal pronouns are (i) person *dio woo speaking, yu nga and (ii) person addressed, ruu *nio and eel

*nia. In the first person jenn

*d iam occurs *nga as an exalted T

as a deprecatory form and (in earlier poems) woo form. In the second person, status is established by the use of ranks, titles *ngang and for the sec and proper names. For the t i r s t person, arng i *niong are special agential forms. ond person, rong In the Book of Songs the determinant forms of the personal pronouns a r e , for the second person, nae

*neg and erl

*niag but, in both

first and second persons, other pronouns are also used determinatively. *nga, jenn *d iam, yu *dio, ruu Such pronouns are woo *niong. *nio, eel *nia and rong In Archaic Chinese, the anaphoric pronouns are neither particular in person - they substitute indifferently for person speaking, person addressed, T

or person other than the speaker or addressee - nor are they exclusively personal. Their class-meaning is "substitution for any nominal element from a reluctance to repeat. " In the Book of Songs the anaphoric pronouns *tiag *kiag (preverbal form). are chyi *tiag and jyy (post-verbal form) and jyue *kiwat (determinant form). Certain d e ­ monstratives also act as anaphoric pronouns. In addition to determinative, agentive and post-verbal usage the per­ sonal pronouns occur in other forms of distribution as follows: First person

Second person

Anaphora

B 1) As B in A (see 3. 5.4) 2) In apposition (see 2. 5] 3) After causal marker (see 3.4. 5) 4) Delegated agent (see 3. 5". 7) It will be observed that following the syntagmatic conjunctions and

the causal marker

the particles of delegation

and^

1

Yu in the form

occurs as a hapax legomenon in 35.48.

and

192

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

when free-standing, as in apposition, the pregnant forms of the pronouns are used. The reflexive pronouns are tzyh i *kiong and gong-tzyh

Anc. C - *dz i, and gong i T

*kiong-dz i, which make no distinction b e ­ T

tween pregnant and other usages. The following is a conspectus of the pronouns of the Book of Songs: The Personal Pronouns Determinant

Pregnant

Agentive

F i r s t person *ng- series

[use woo]

woo ( ^

*d- series

[use jenn and yu]

) *nga

( *f* ) * ^

io

arng (

) *ngang

jenn

) *d iam T

[also use jru and woo] Second person *-a- series

[use ruu and eel]

eel ( ^ ) *nia ruu ( )

series

*nio

nae ( 7j ) *nag erl (

[use eel and ruu] rong ( ^

) *ni9g

) *niong

[use erl]

[also rongl The Anaphoric Pronouns Determinant

JZue

Pregnant

Jy ( iw

*kiwat

[use chyi]

*tiag i *tiag

Agentive *kiag chyi [use also jyue]

From this conspectus it will be seen that (a) the Book of Songs r e p r e ­ sents, not one, but a mixture of pronominal systems and (b) some latitude is shewn in the use of determinative, pregnant and agentive forms, perhaps impelled by the need to apportion stress in the line (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. Note on the use of pronoun/jy ). M

M

For examples of the determinant forms of pronouns, see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6 . 1 . For the status forms, see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6.1 and 7. 3. For the occurrence of p r o -

SUBSTITUTION

193

nouns in appositional determination, see 2. 5. For the agential forms of the pronouns, see 3. 5. 2. For the reflexive pronouns, see 3. 5. 6. For exam­ ples of the anaphoric pronouns, see 3. 8. The incorporation of the anaphor­ ic pronouns into allegro forms is described and illustrated in 3. 8. For ana­ phora in the determinative sentence, see 4. 10.1. 7. 2. 2. Distribution of the Pronouns in the Book of Songs The personal and anaphoric pronouns, irrespective of deployment, are distributed in the Book of Songs as follows: Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Kuo Feng

10

8

11

14

16

13

49

73

2

7

4

9

9

17

20

12

1 111-

2 1

1

1

5

-

-

1

-

-

-

2

-

-

19

21

52

62

15

13

31

41

4

5

1

-

16

9 1

3

-

7. 3. Status Pronouns The relative status of speaker and person addressed or referred to may be established by substituting for the personal pronouns, the names of certain ranks and titles and kinship t e r m s .

Such reference may be either

to a real position held in a hierarchy or kinship system, or to a polite but fictitious extension of this. Examples Tzyy

"son," "child," "young person," but also a noble rank

194

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS "baronet, and as such, used as a form of address, "You s i r ! " - by 11

a wife to her husband (31.13-16), - by a girl to her lover (58. 8). "small child" used in addressing children "You

Sheau-tzyy

children: " (256. 85) but also by kings of themselves in self-depreca­ tion (262. 29, 286. 1). Wang "king," but in a form of address to kings "Your Majesty" (269. 6), Jiun

"a r u l e r , " but in depreciated sense used when addressing

superiors, "My l o r d , " for example, by a diviner addressing the s p i r ­ "former l o r d s , " - by an a r i s ­ its (166. 23), or in shian-jiun tocrat of his ancestors (28. 23). "son of a r u l e r , " "prince" but also in depreciated Jiun-tzyy sense "My lord" when used by inferiors to superiors, as for example by a girl of her lover (10. 3), a daughter of her elders (33. 13) or by a bride of her husband (47.1). Shyh

"knight" but also "You s i r " of a wife addressing her h u s ­

band (58. 39). Goa-ren

"bereft or lonely one" used tor "I" by r u l e r s

(28. 24). "bereft one's wife" u.f. "the queen" (240.10). "lonely-one" u.f. "the sovereign" (260.32).

Goa-chi I-ren

7. 4. The Demonstratives In Archaic Chinese the demonstratives are deictic in type and do not distinguish number. In the Book of Songs the following demonstratives oc­ *tsiag, sy

cur: tzy

*tiag, tsyy

*siag, shyr i t s ' i a r , i_

*diag, SŁ ier, shyr

*Si8Ł. *d iet, shyh f

*diag,

When relative nearness to the speaker is distinguished, the *b ak. *pia and bor more remote demonstratives are b n { Of the above demonstratives, all with the exception of shyr and bor occur in determinative usage in the Book of Songs. f

curs exclusively in this usage. Jy i

occurs in a stock collocation only

(see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6 . 2 ) These demonstratives are used (i) to identify ("this/that" —> noun) as in determinative usage; (ii) to point ("this/that") when free-standing; (iii) as

SUBSTITUTION

19E

an extension of (ii) when demonstratives are used for this place > h e r e , ff

M

that place > t h e r e ,

11

11

or for this time, now," "that time, then;" (iv) as M

quasi-third person pronouns pointing to someone other than the speaker or person addressed; (v) as conjunctions "thereupon, whereupon" when either free-standing, used with particles, or with particles incorporated in a l l e ­ gro forms and (vi) in forming quasi-reduplicates. In usages (iii) and (iv) bor

*b ak occurs !

"at that place > t h e r e , " and "that person > he, she

it, etc. " Certain words meaning "other, different," as for example, ta *t a and yih

'giag also perform a similar function to the demon­

!

stratives in usage (iv). Not all demonstratives occur indifferently in usages (i) through (vi). Neither do all occur indifferently pre - and post-verbally.

In the Book of

Songs occurrences are as shewn in the table on the following page. Several periods of the language are represented in the Book of Songs. The demonstratives do not, in fact, at any given time, provide such a mul­ tiplicity of forms.

In Archaic Chinese a relatively few demonstratives p e r ­

form a number of functions, pointing, identifying, pronominal, conjunctive (the latter perhaps as truncated forms) and the like, and, as the language progresses, distinctions are made under the conditioning of environment between determinative and free-standing forms and between p r e - and postverbal forms.

It seems fairly clear, for example, that bor and j . are s p e ­

cializations which arise from their environmental conditions, and that jy with the exception of its survival in ossified form in jy-tzyy, is already specialized as a post-verbal form. Shyr similarly only occurs in "free-standing" usages. Bor only as a resumptive locative, Certain demonstratives are incorporated in allegro forms. These are shewn in 6 . 4 . 1 . Note 2. Collocations of particle plus demonstrative in the Book of Songs are as follows: (i) With the instrument particles (see 3. 6) "thereby, therefore" (ii) With ru and ruoh "thus" "thus" "thus" "thus"

Reference

Usage ii Selfstanding

Usage iii

Usage iv

Usage v

Locative

Anaphoric

Conjunctions

Reduplicatives

2.4. 1. 6.2

2. 5 4 . 1 0 . 1

3.10. 1

3^8 P r e - I PostVerbal Verbal

6.4.1

1. 2. 1. 2

Tzy

X

Sy

X

Shyr

X

sy

X

Jy

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X X

Tsyy

X

I_

X

Shyr

X (1)

X

X

X

Bii

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

(1) in

O X

X

Shyh

O

X

X

(1)

Bor

CO

Usage i Identifying before nouns

X

X X

only, otherwise jy is treated as an anaphoric pronoun.

X

SUBSTITUTION

197

(iii) With yu and tzay >

"here, thereupon"

>

"here, thereupon" "here"

(iv) With yeu and jyi

"with it"

Other usages in which demonstratives occur in the Book of Songs are *tiag and sy; as (i) determinative particles and (ii) copulae. Jy i *ti& as determinative particles, while *siag occur in a series with jee *. icr occurs (as does shyh *diag in LAC) as a copula. I^also occurs as the positive reflex of a privative (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 3) and for delega­ tion of agency (see 3. 5. 7). Tzy Hsiasc and sv *siag also occu: as sentential modal particles (see 3. 9 and 3. 9.1). Note. Ta

and *t a and yih *giag "other, different" occur as determinative words in such structures as ta-ren and T

" o t h e r s , " but ta and tuo also occur free-standing in such "Till death [he] contexts as Jy syy shyy m n tuo swore there would be no other" (45. 5). "Men Ren jy chyi i/Mo jy chyi ta know a part/But no one knows the other [part]" (195.41-42), "[It is for my] brothers, there Shiong-dih feei ta yih-r en

are no others" (217. 5-6). It is from such contexts that the Chinese language eventually derives the third person pronouns From the above it will be seen that in Archaic Chinese, the demon­ stratives, in their demonstrative function, point "this/that" etc. , and iden­ tify "tnis/that thing" (pregnant and determinative usage), hi pronominal borrowing they identify anything other than the person speaking or the p e r ­ son addressed, "these/people" etc. In identifying time and place, they stand for "this place > there, this time/then," and, as an extension of this, with or without particles, serve as conjunctions "thereupon, whereupon" etc. Perhaps as an extension of their anaphoric role, demonstratives b e ­ come copulae and determinative particles. Finally, in reduplication, the demonstratives identify reduplicatives.

198

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS In certain of these functions the demonstratives cross roles with the *kiag occurs as a determinative parti­ and contains both demonstratives

pronouns. Thus in ±JA(j chyi

cle, so mat me series and and pronominals. Among the anaphoric pronouns has a demonstrative role, while certain of the demonstratives and play a pronominal role. What is fairly clear from the evidence provided by the Bopk of Songs is that however broad the range of functions played by the demonstratives in the early stages of Archaic Chinese, these roles subsequently become

differentiated, so that by specialization and by forms of distribution, indi­ vidual demonstratives narrow in function and usage. 7.4.1.

Distribution of the Demonstratives in the Book of Songs

The demonstratives are distributed, regardless of role, in the Book of Songs as follows: Sung

Ta Ya

5

5

6

3

2

-

10

11

-

1

3

5

9

3

4

7

19

7

3 2

Hsiao Ya 1

11 -

Kuo Feng

5

1

3

5

5

2

1

6

11

21

12

10

18

47

36

4

-

4

5

7. 5. The Interrogative Substitutes Questioning takes two forms in Archaic Chinese. The first, a question inviting assent or dissent, is indicated by the use of the particles of senten­ tial mood (see 3. 9). The formal structure of the statement differs in no wav from that of simple assertion, except that, for example, hu

in final

SUBSTITUTION

199

position replaces any other particle indicating "tone of voice. " The answer given when assent is indicated is a simple reiteration of the question, for example, Yeou ju (jy hu) "There is such a thing?" Yeou jy

"There is such a thing! " (i. e. "Was that so? Yes I ")

(Mencius la. 7. 6). When dissent is indicated, the assertion is negated; Yeou yii yih hu? 'There is a way of differentiating b e ­ tween t h e m ? " Wu yii yih yee

"There is no way of differ-

entiating between theml " (Mencius la. 4.1). * The second form of questioning invites a material answer rather than a formal indication of assent or dissent and the structure of the statement is conditioned accordingly. The assertion is made, substituting for the m a ­ terial but unknown element an interrogative substitute. The answer is a r e ­ iteration of the assertion substituting for the interrogative substitute, the material answer. Interrogative substitution occurs at all levels of distribution. The in­ terrogative or indefinite is the third of a three t e r m polar system (see 3.4. 9). Elements which, when polarity is neutral, occur in the post-verbal positions in the verbal sentence, occur, as with negation, before the verb when the mood is indefinite. o° Further, when interrogative substitutes oc­ cur together with the particle peculiar to the position in which they occur,

the interrogative is placed before the particle, and not after it as is the ele ment for which it substitutes in neutral mood. Certain of the interrogative particles are of wide distribution, substi­ tuting for several elements at several levels. Others are restricted, o c lit. like/ Assent is also indicated by ran (ru-shyr) this, that i s , "It is as vou s a v , " " v e s l " or, even more simplv, nuohl "I concur," "I concur with that statement, "yes I " or foou i "I do not M

concur," "noI " 3 The formal distinction made between "neutral," "negative," and "interrogative mood" in the polar system, is the placing of elements r e p ­ resented by substitutes (pronouns and interrogatives) before the verb, in the negative and interrogative, and after the verb, in the neutral mood (see 3.4.9).

200

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

curring only as substitutes for certain elements. Still others are allegro forms incorporating the interrogative substitute with the particle of the position. hi the following description the interrogative substitutes that occur ir the Book of Songs are described by level and type of distribution. The interrogatives are used without formal distinction in questions which range from simple enquiry (inviting an answer), to rhetorical q u e s ­ tions better rendered in English by some form of heightened or emphatic positive assertion. There is an overlapping of function between the interrogative and in­ definite substitutes in Archaic Chinese, for example, shwei

*diwor g a "what?"

"who?" "whom?" and shwei "whosoever, anyone" her and her "whatever" and jii

T

*kior "how few?" and jii "a few" (indefinite

number). This feature is attested for the Book of Songs for her and shwei. The interrogative and indefinite use of other words, for example, huoh *g wok "someone" u.f. huoh "anyone" ninq *nieng as interrogative T

form of neng i

*nong "can" 1. e. " c a n ? , " hwang \

*g wang "have T

time for" and hwang "what time f o r ? " is peculiar to the Book of Songs. Note. Of the entire repertory of interrogative and indefinite substi­ tutes of all periods in Archaic Chinese, the Book of Songs contains 18 out of 23. The substitutes not occurring in the Book of Songs are EAC dvi (see EAC 6. 6) and LAC jii shi ( shwu and u and u-hu The substitutes peculiar to the Book of Songs are guu hwang

ninq {

shya

, and yuan

7. 5 . 1 . Interrogative Substitution in Syntagma hi syntagma, interrogative substitution occurs both in parataxical and in hypotaxical syntagmas, hi parataxis, the substitution is for one of the two t e r m s joined parataxically (see 2. 3) and asks such questions as "with whom?" hi hypotaxis, substitution occurs for both the determinant word and the determined word, as follows: (i) Substituting for the determinant word when a species-class or a t ­ tribute (see 2.4.1.1) and asking "what kind of?" (ii) Substituting for the determinant word when denoting possession (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 2) and asking "whose?"

SUBSTITUTION

201

(iii) Substituting for the determinant word when an intensitive (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 6) and asking rhetorically to what degree? "how . . . . I " M

11

(iv) Substituting for the determined word when the determinant word is a number and asking "how many . . . . ?" hi these usages her

g a and shwei T

*diwar occur.

Examples (i) Parataxis (a) Two agents act jointly (see 3.5.4) /Who?/together with/alone/

Shwei yeu dwu chu

dwell/. "With whom shall I share my loneliness?" (124.4). (b) One agent "at the instigation of" (see 3.4. 5. Note 4) "At whose behest Shwei tsorng tzuoh eel shyh did you build your houses?" (194. 54). (ii) Hypotaxis (a) For determinant word - species or attribute Jin shih her shih "What night is this tonight?" (118.3). Her gu yu tian against Heaven?" (197. 5). Bii her ren sy (198.41).

"What crime have [I committed] "O what kind of men are t h e y ? "

Her tsao buh hwang/Her ryh buh shyng/Her ren buh jiang/Jing-yn syh tang ( "What grass isn't yellow?/What day do we not march? [i.e. all grass is yellow and on all days we march]/What men are not help­ ing/To put in good order the [states] of the four q u a r t e r s ? " (234.1-4). (b) For determinant word - possession Yu shwei jy u

"On whose house?" (192. 24).

(c) For determinant word - intensive Her dann iv ive shi

"O how far stretching are

its jionts!"(37.2).4 4

The occurrence of the determinative particle jy here, as with its occurrence between pronouns and nouns and demonstratives and nouns has

202

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS Her duo ryh yee (37.4). ld\

,f

How many days it has b e e n !

ff

For determined word - number

Eel-jiu-twu jii her (

/Your/dwelling-followers/

few/what?/ How many clients have you? (198.48). M

11

7. 5. 2. Interrogative Substitution in the Verbal Sentence Interrogative substitution occurs in the verbal sentence for each of its elements, except for the elements occurring in final position (sentential 5 mood and stress). Elements which, when polarity is neutral occur in the post-verbal positions, are placed before the verb when interrogative. In the following schema the range and variety of interrogative substitution in the Book of Songs is set out. The elements are arranged as in neutral mood (i. e. in non-interrogative or answer form) the transpositions made for the interrogative being shewn by the use of arrows. The elements are number­ ed to facilitate reference and are described in what follows seriatim. 1 Time

|

2

|

3

|

3a

4

Agential Place Agent Distributive hist.

5 SA. Manner Degree

6 Verb

7 y

1

|

8 y

2

to do with the exigencies of m e t r e , see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6 . 1 . 2. Note 5 In this description hu

*g o is classified with the particles of sentential on the formal In mood this description hu basis of similarity of distribution and inter changeability (see 3. 9) and is thus excluded here. An alternative descrip­ T

tive solution would be to include hu in the range of interrogative substitutes on the basis of its polarity "indefinite/definite," that is a. j3 y hu/ a p y yee.

203

SUBSTITUTION

1 Time

2

3

|

1

3a

4

5 SA SA. Manner Degree

Agential Place Agent Distributive Inst.

6 Verb

7 y

1

8 y

2

7. 5. 2. 1. Substitution in the Time Position (column 1) Her g a substituting in the time position in combinations such f

as her-ryh Her (

asks on what day? "when?" g at substituting in the time position in such combinations M

M

f

as her-yueh

asks "when?"

Examples Her ryh sy jeu fl95.4*.

"When will this be stopped?"

Her ryh wanq jy

"[When = ] could I ever forget

h i m ? " (228. 16) Fang her wei chyi "At precisely what time is the appointed time [for his r e t u r n ] ? " (128. 19), Her yueh yu hwan guei tzai it be that I go home? " (68. 6).

"O when will

Note. One formal difference between

and

besides the phono-

logical difference ( * e r a and *er at^ i s that, of its twentv o c c u r r e n c e s in tho f

f

Book of Songs, all occurrences of by contrast is not so restricted. phonological realizations of final position

as

are in the initial position in the line. This is not unlike the contrasting ian (in initial position) and *gian (in

204

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

7. 5. 2. 2. Substitution in the Place Position (column 2 and for the Directives in the y 2 Position (column 8) In interrogative substitution, place indications (location at which) and directives (location from or to which) are treated indifferently. Both occur pre -verbally. Ian *. ian, asks "at what place?" "where?," yuan *. an, asks "at *giwan, asks "at what place?" "where?,".an *giwo-g a and yu hwu what place?" " w h e r e ? , " yu her f

*giwo-g o, asks "to what place?" "whither?," tzyh-her f

*g at, asks "to f

*dz i) g a, asks "from what place?" "whence?" her f

f

what?" Examples Yuan jyi jin ren

"Where have [they] got to? pitiable

men ." b). Ian der shiuan tsao 1

"Where can I get the herb of

forgetfulness?" (62.13). Tian jy sheng woo/Woo chern an tzay "When Heaven gave me birth/Where was my ch en [i. e. my good luck] T

day?" i. e. "Under what unlucky star was I b o r n ? " (197. 24). "Wherein [lies] the e v i l ? "

Yu-her buh tzang (193. 16). Yu-her chyi jen

"To/what place?/they/reach"

"To what can they attain?" (224.16) h w u rin i "These [plans] lead to what?" (195.16) Tzyh-her neng guu "From whence can [we] get good T v n

fortune?" (196.30). "From whence can [I] seek after

Yu-her tsorng luh ( blessing?" (192. 22). Her jyh tzai

"/to what/come / m o d e / " "What has become

of h i m ? " (66.3). Her chyi yeou huoh

) "With what might he have m e t ? "

(66.11). 7.5.2.3.

Interrogative Substitution in the Agential Position (column 3)

The substitute occurring in the agential position is shwei which asks "who?"

*diwar

SUBSTITUTION

205

Examples (i) As agent "Who says a girl has no !

Shwei wey neu wu jia { family'?" (17, 6),

"Who followed Duke Mu [to

Shwei tsorng Muh-gong ( the gravel?" (131,27). Shwei jou yu meei

"Who has deceived my loved

one?" (142.3). Shwei wu fuh-muu (

"fYetl who has not a father and

mother?" (183. 8). "Who can tell the

Shwei jy u jy tsy-shyong i sex of a c r o w ? " (192.40). (ii) As delegated agent Shwei shyh wei rong

"[But] for whom would [I] wish

to make up my f a c e ? " (62. 8). "For whom do they preside at the

Shwei chyi shy jy r i t e s ? " (15.11).

Note, hi Late Archaic Chinese, there is an interrogative form of the *diok. Shwu is not attested in West­

agential distributive, i . e . shwu

ern Chou sources, hi the Book of Songs the agential distributive huoh g'wak occurs in interrogative usage. For example, Jin ruu shiah min/ Huoh gaan wuu yu "You people down below I /Who dares insult me now?" (155. 9,10). On this see W. A. C. H. Dobson, "Studies in Early Archaic Chinese: no. 4, The Evolution of Huoh" TP. vol. LII, 1966, pp. 247-53. 7.5.2.4.

Substitution in the Instrumental Position (column 4) Substitution in the instrumental position asks "what instrument?" Interrogatives that occur in this position in the Book of Songs are her i:iiJ=,llll,i .I.J "Tt surelv need not be that when we eat tish/It must be a bream trom the Yellow River" (138. 5-6). M

Chii buh hwai guei/Wey tsyy faan fuh ( "It is surely not that we do not yearn to go home/But we fear these in-

SUBSTITUTION

213

terminable orders 1 (207. 35-36). 11

Why not/after all/do not/think >

Gay yih wuh sy

"Better not give it a thought" (109. 12). "So then we went home! [and why Gay yun guei tzai should we not\ ] " (ZZl. 8). Hwu-buh guei Hwu-bwu benn-benn

"Surely we should go home ! " (36. 2). "How they flutter! " (168.14).

7.5.3.5.

Substitution in Cause and Consequence Sequences g a, h e r - y n *£ a*g'a-zieg,her-young Her *g at and hwu ( diung, yun-her *g'o, *giwan-g a, her ( substituting in cause ana consequence sequences tor the determined t e r m T

!

f

ask "why?" and her-bu and shya-bu

T

*g a-pw9t, hwu-bu f

*g o-pw9t T

*g a-pw9t asks "why not?" f

Examples Her chyi chuu yee

"Why do they t a r r y ? " (37. 5).

Her shern buh fwu

"Why do the gods not grant [you]

good fortune?" (264. 38). Her-buh ryh guu seh { up the lute s i (115. 20). Yun-her bwu leh

M

Why not some day strike

"Why should [I] not be happy?"

(116.6). Her-yonq buh jian (

"Why do [you] not look into t h i s ? "

(191. 8). "Why should [II acquiesce in t h i s ? "

Her yu jinq jy ±Y).

Hwu ioan vu vu shiuh i

"Why do fyoul involve us

in such m i s e r v ? " (185. 3) Hwu bih woo yeu

i

"Why did that cause me such suf­

fering?" (192.10). Hwu-buh chwan syy ( once?" (52.12). Hwu-bwu bih yan (

"Why is [he] not struck dead at "Why should [I] not join with

t h e m ? " (119. 7). Shy a-bwu wey yi] (228. 14).

"Why should [I] not speak of i t ? "

214

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS M

Shya-bwu mei show i ripe old age? (172. 22).

Why should [he] not live to a

11

7. 5. 3. 6. Interrogative Substitution in Conditioned Sequences nio-g a and ru-jy-her

hi conditioned sequences, ru-her (

T

nio-tiag-g a, in the distribution "[protasis] /Protasis/ApodT

osis" make the apodosis interrogative.

This is best shewn in chart form as

follows: [protasis] a

/ Protasis

/ Apodosis

y

j3

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. Fa ke ru-her cut/ax-handle/if/do what? "When cutting an ax-handle what does [one] d o ? " (158.1). 2. Cheu chi ru-jy-her take/wife/if/[do] this/do what "When taking a wife what do [we] d o ? " (101. 15). 3. Sheng min ru-her "When [she] gave birth to [our] people, what did [she] d o ? " (245.3). 4.

Dann woo syh ru-her "When we perform the sacrifices, what do we d o ? " (245. 55).

5. Ru jy her wuh sy "[Since things are] like this, [then] how can [they say] 1

do not think about it ? " (66. 8). f

7. 5. 3. 7. Substitution in the Post-verbal Positions for Special Verbs For those verbs for which special statements must be made concern­ ing the disposition of their post-verbal elements (see 3.4. 8), the following substitutions take place:

SUBSTITUTION

215

(i) Verbs "to give/to A/yii or wei B" "What can [I] give to t h e m ? " (53.12). Her-yii yu jy "What can [I] offer t h e m ? " (53. 6).

Her-yii bih jy ( Her shyi yu jy (

I "What can [we] give t h e m ? " (222.4).

Her-yii tzenq jy

) "What did [I] give h i m ? " (134. 3).

(ii) Verbs "to say/to A/yii or wei B" Her yii gaw jy ( '\*\ v v \ t E r ) "what shall [ I ] say to t h e m ? " (53. 16). Wey jy her tzai (40. 7).

"What [morel can be said of t h i s ? "

Tzyy iue her chyi

"What, s i r , do you s a y ? " (109. 8)

Buh pyng wey her equalities?" (191. 12).

"What can be said oi fyouri in­

7.5.3.8.

Distribution of the Interrogative Substitutes in the Book of Songs

The interrogative substitutes are distributed in the Book of Songs as follows: Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Kuo Feng

9

7

22

28

2

9

15

1

4

8 1 1 1 1 1

5 1 3

8 -

13 1

4

2

216

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

Sung

I

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Kuo Feng

2

1

2

1

8

14

2 4

7.6.1.

The Indefinite Substitute The indefinite substitutes suoo

2

*sio, yeou

-

giug ana IOU

*diog occur in varied types of and at various levels of distribution, They have the class-meaning, "substituting for an unidentified person(s), place(s), or object(s).

11

7. 6. 2. Types of Occurrence (i) In syntagma "Indefinite substitute/verb" may occur as a reduction to syntagma suoo /3, where suoo sub­ form of a ft y and a p y , realized as a stitutes for the post-verbal elements. This down-graded form occurs in 1

syntagma as the determinant word in the structure determined word/deter­ minant word. Examples Determined word a 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Determinant word det. part.

y-

1

y

/3

SUBSTITUTION Determined word I

a

217 Determinant word

ast;

part.

y*

y*

P

7. 8. 9. 10. 1. Ruu suoo jyh shi "[The jacket] which you made" (27.10). 2. Sheau-ren suoo feir "[The horses] which commoners follow after" (167. 36). 3.

Luu-bang suoo jan "[The mountain] which the State of Lu looks to" (300. 86).

»

4

Min jy iou jih "[The one] in whom the people r e s t " (249. 24).

5. Perng-yeou iou sheh "[The sacrifice] in which his friends assist" (247.15). 6. Mau-shyh iou yi "[Insignia] which fine officers find proper" (238. 8). 7. Show jy suoo torng "[The place] at which the game gathers" (180.9). 8. Jiun-tzyy suoo i "[Horses] upon which the prince r e l i e s " (167. 35). 9. Jiun-tzyy iou ji "[The place] to which the prince ascends" (189. 22). L0. Warm fwu iou torng "[The one] on whom ten-thousand blessings erather" (173. 24). "Indefinite substitute/verb" down-graded as above, may also occur as the determined word, in the structure determined word/determinant word. Example Yu suoo lhuo twu i

"The t u flowers I have picked" !

(155.12).

Note. Suoo substituting for y before wey "to name something" r e 1 2 2 duces wey y y (verbal sentence form, "to call A B") to • wey y (syn­ 1

tagma form "A who is called B").

218

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS Example Suoo wey i-ren

M

He whom [I] call 'that man " 1

(129.19). (ii) hi the verbal sentence "Indefinite substitute/verb" occurs where the post-verbal elements are reductions of the a p y form and where suoo substitutes for y i . e . y (a suoo ]8).

1

Examples P

y

1

(

oi

y

2

p )

1. 2. 3. 1. Buh jy suoo jieh "[I] do not know to what [I] am coming" (197. 30). 2. Wu tean eel suoo sheng "Do not bring disgrace upon those who gave you birth" (196. 24). 3. Bu r u woo suoo jy Not/like/i/that which/go "Does not compare with [the proposal] I am embarking on" (54. 28). (iii) hi the determinative sentence The indefinite substitutes occur in the determined term of the deter­ minative sentence as for example in: Cop. etc.

Determined term

Determinant t e r m

1. 2. 3. 1. Suoo kee daw yee /Yan jy choou yee "[But] what can be told/Are tales of [my] ugliness (46. 6). 11

2. Yeou hwai ell-ren "Those whom [I] love are my parents" (196. 6). 3. Yeou jyi wei jiau "[The birds] which roost there are the pheas-

SUBSTITUTION

219

ants" (218. 8). The indefinite substitutes also occur in the determinant t e r m of the determinative sentence as for example in: Determined term

Determinant term

1. 2. 3. 1. Mii suoo yeu torng "There are none with whom [I] can travel t o ­ gether" (37.12). 2. Mii suoo jyy jiu "There is nowhere in which to settle down" (185.4). 3. Mii suoo cheeng "There is nowhere to which to drive" (191. 52). 7. 6. 3. The Indefinite use of Huoh Huoh

*g wak, an agential distributive "of the agents, some" T

(see 3. 5. 3.1), also used in the Book of Songs interrogatively, "of the agents, which oi t h e m ? " (see 7. 5. 2. 3. Note), also occurs in the Book oi Songs as an allegro form of yeou-iou

*giug-diog > g wak, a form familiar in "something which. " In this usage huoh occurs !

LAC as yeou-suoo invariably pre-verbally, though it substitutes for both agent and post-verbal elements. Examples (i) Post-verbal substitution Moh gaan huoh hwang thing" (19.4). Jiun-tzyy shinn jan/Ru huoh chour jy

"No one dares relax in any­

"The lord gives credence to slander/[Accepting slander] as though it were something to which [he] responded in a toast" (197.49-50). (ii) Agential substitution Shin jy iou yii/Ru huoh jye jy "O the heart s sorrows I /They are like something which ties the heart 1

tight" (192. 57-58).

220

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS Ninq huoh mieh jy (

M

(192. 62). Shanq huoh jiin jy

Can anything extinguish i t ? "

"May there be someone to bury

i t ! " (197.44). Wu buh eel huoh cherng May there not be any­ thing that is not made everlasting for you" (166.36). f

7.6.3.1.

Distribution of the Indefinite Substitutes in the Book of Songs

The indefinite substitutes are distributed in the Book of Songs as fol­ lows:

7.6.4.

Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

1

11

5 3

2

3

12 3

Kuo Feng

8 1

Overlapping of Interrogative and Indefinite Functions

hi the Book of Songs certain interrogatives also occur in indefinite usage. These are her i g a "what?" > "whatever" and shwei T

*diwer "who?" > "whomsoever. " The agential distributive yeou (

*giug

also occurs in indefinite usage, "of the agents, some" > "someone." Examples Her fwu buh chwu/Bih eel duo yih "Whatever happiness has not been added [to you]/[May Heaven] make [you] greatly increase in" (166.4-5) Shwei neng peng yu/Gay jy fuu-shyn "If anyone can cook fish/[I] will wash the cauldron for him" (149.9-10) Ryh yeou shyr jy

sun//someone/eaten/it "Someone

has eaten the sun" i. e. "There has been an eclipse" (193. 3).

CHAPTER 8 MISCELLANEOUS 8.1.

Degrees of Comparison There is nothing in Archaic Chinese comparable to a series of degrees

of comparison.

But comparison in a greater, or superlative degree can be

expressed by periphrastic means. But these degrees may be unmarked,

hi

the Book of Songs, before attributes a broad range of intensives occur "very, most" (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 6). Otherwise comparative degree is unmarked except in the interrogative, hi the interrogative sheen 'sian asks "how much more so? how much the l e s s ? " while kuanq

K

xiwang beiore a verb

means "the more so. Examples (i) Superlative degree unmarked "O maddest

Kwang torng jy kwang yee jiu of mad men I " (87.10). (ii) Use of sheen Shiang bii neau yii/You chyou yeou sheng/Sheen i ren yii f

Consider those birds . /Even f

they seek the calls of their mates/And how much more we who are men

(1(55.2-4).

Shern jy geh sy/Buh kee duh sy/Sfaeen kee yuh sy "The coming of the Gods/Cannot be predicted/How much the less then should they be given occasion for disgust?" (256. 63-64). (iii) Use of kuanq Jyr kuanq sy horng more" {265. 33).

"[They] merely enhance it the

Jyr kuanq sy yiin (

"[They] merely prolong it the more" (265. 27). Wei mou wei bih/Luann kwanq sy shiau \ "[They] make plans, issue cautions/But the disorder only destroys us the more" (257. 33-34).

222

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS The excessive degree is marked by tay

mi

Examples

"Not that we should be too m e r r y "

Wu yii tay kang (114.5). Yih yii tay shenn

"They [the slanderers] are too

severe" (200. 4). 8.1.1.

Distribution of Sheen and Kuanq in the Book of Songs Sheen and kuanq are distributed in the Book of Songs as follows: Sung

8.2.

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

1

2

2

1

Kuo Feng

Status The effect upon the language of status (i.e. the respective social or

hierarchical standing of the speaker and the person addressed) governs the use of the pronouns (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6.1 and 7.1), and the determinations of d e ­ gree of the verb (see 3. 3). Dann

d an which, before verbs, has the class-meaning "im­ T

posing status also occurs beiore proper names and pronouns with the same 11

meaning. Examples Dann How Jih jy seh (245.37-38). Dann woo syh ru-her

"hi Hou Chi s husbandry" T

"When we perform the

sacrifices, what do we do" (245. 55) tous.

(Dann "great, greatly" simply adds gravity and a sense oi the porten­ See EAC 3. 3. footnote 3), hi the Book of Songs particularly in the earlier portions, a series of

before Tiar attributes min 'Heaven," (194 :195 : 265), hwang before the names of kings and queens and revered ancestors, (300 : 287 : 286 : 285 : 282 etc.) occur, which, judging irom their irequency in EAC texts (see EAC 7. 2) suggests a heightened sense of status rather than the

MISCELLANEOUS

223

exigencies of description. Considerations of status are also in evidence among verbs such as fenq "to receive from a superior" (238) etc. Guei according to Han time glosses is a word used only by women when referring to m a r ­ riage (see Tsyr Hae s. v.). 8.3.

Number The account given of the number system of Archaic Chinese given in

LAC 7. 5 holds generally good for the Book of Songs. The particle of c o ­ ordination between numbers in the Book of Songs is yeou

(300. 83) The only feature peculiar to the Book of Songs is the reduplication of num­ bers using sy (see l. 2. l. 2. Note). Jong the whole . . . . "

tiong is collective before numerals in the sense of "for

Example Jiunn fa eel sy/Jong san shyr Iii "Rapidly to break the soil of your own fields/Throughout the thirty Li" (277. 5-6).

CHAPTER 9 LINGUISTIC STRATA IN THE BOOK OF SONGS 9.1.

Introduction Throughout the foregoing description of the linguistic features of the

language of the Book of Songs, tables have been included to shew the d i s t r i ­ bution of those features among the four divisions into which the anthology is divided. From earlier studies (see Introduction (iv)) the suggestion was made that the four divisions a r e , among other things, periodic divisions. That is to say, that each division has its own peculiar linguistic character­ istics and that these characteristics are historical in kind. Now that all the data is in, this suggestion is only further strengthened as the following examination and assessment of the data shews. Despite differences of language among its parts, the Book of Songs as a whole has a unity. Two thirds of the total number of its poems have com­ plete lines which they share in common with another poem or poems. The tendency to cite other poems is most marked among poems within the same division, but only a little less marked is the tendency for poems in one division to cite poems from a neighbouring division. This suggests not only a unity of the poetic tradition but a hierarchical order of borrowing from the Sung to the Ta Ya and from the Hsiao Ya down to the Kuo Feng. The d e ­ gree to which citation occurs in the Book of Songs is set out in Appendix II. Citations are made verbatim. Archaistic features, therefore, occur in the later divisions. A simple count of linguistic features is for this reason, misleading. Each division is characterized linguistically by the innovations of usage it introduces, not by the archaistic features it retains through c i ­ tation. The distribution tables, therefore, have to be interpreted with this in mind. There are also certain archaistic cliche forms (see Appendix II) which recur throughout the Book of Songs which also have to be discounted in assessing periodic characteristics, hi the following the linguistic features of divisions which shew contrast are discussed.

LINGUISTIC STRATA IN THE BOOK OF SONGS

225

9. 2. Quasi Reduplicatives (see 1. 2 . 1 . 2) prefix is well established in both Chou Sung and Lu The yeou i and Shane; Sung and thence throughout the Book of Songs. The chyi prefix is confined to Kuo Feng. The sy prefix is confined to the Sung and Ta Ya Of the two occurrences of the sj 215. is a cited line from 292, while the other,

prefix m Hsiao Ya one, in 218, occurs in the

Kuo Feng as and is presumably, like 215 an example oi archaising The sy prefix predominates in the Ya - those occurring in the Hsiao Ya (211, 196, 191, 197, 189) being from poems particularly prone to citing appears to be the earliest form. Karlgren (see Appendix II). Sy and it is not attested for EAC. gives no bronze dating foi form which predominates in the Hsiao Ya seems particularly with the X The chyi prefix is clearly the latest, a little later than sy being confined to Kuo Feng. This suggests: Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng hi EAC these quasi-reduplicatives are unknown, hi bronze inscriptions r e ­ duplication is indicated sometimes by a subscrip

hi LAC the form

is known only in citation. It appears to be peculiar to the Book of Songs and perhaps, as a result, a feature peculiarly conditioned by prosody. 9. 3. Syntagmatic Particles 9. 3 . 1 . Simple Connection (2. 3; 3. 3. Note and 3. 5.4.1) The particle of simple connection in EAC is yueh *giwat. This does not occur in the Book of Songs. Iue ( Ł7 ) *giwat occurs in the Hsiao Ya in 220, a poem given to citation from Sung poems, hi other g r a m ­ matical usages iue pertains to the Sung and Ta Ya. Jyi predominantly to the Ya sections while yeu

g iap belongs zio is predominant in Kuo c

Feng. But both

!

occur in the same poem in 58, 201 and 212 and andindeed belong to different families. Jyi is in a series with EAC yueh gied, j y i *g iap while yeu is in a giwat, jih ( giwat, me ( series with EAC yii *zio, (see 3. 5.4). Wei ziag, yeu T

226

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

mwar as a particle oi simple connection is peculiar to the Book oi Songs. It is only in the yii series which link two agents, that the link is in­ Siak oc corporated with the verbal complex. In this usage, shyh curs but only in Hsiao Ya. Yu
6 ana t>y). This suggests:

LINGUISTIC STRATA IN THE BOOK OF SONGS

227

EAC Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng The use of jee as a particle of syntagma (see 2. 7) and as a marker of time indications, (see 3. 10) is also a Hsiao Ya innovation. The distribution is: Time

Syntagma

Hsiao Ya

2

2

Kuo Feng

1

4

A single occurrence is found in Lu Sung for the syntagmatic particle. 9. 3. 3. Collectives (2. 4. 1. 6. 5. see also 3. 5. 3) Farn b iwam occurs in EAC and is constant throughout Archaic f

Chinese. Shuh

siag, however, in EAC is unrestricted as a collect­ and) (Ta Ya and Lu Sung), and ive (see EAC 2. 6. 7. 5). "echoed" in Kuo F e n ^ 20 and 57. shuh retains its EAC usae-e.

E l s e w h e r e it

occurs, as throughout Archaic Chinese, in the stock collocation shuh-ren tio is similarly an EAC word with and shuh-mm "commoners. " Ju free distribution which only occurs in LAC in stock collocations. In the Book of Songs, it also occurs in free distribution before nouns. In this, shuh ceases to be a free form earlier than ju. Chyun

*g iwan "a flock" - of sheep, "a herd" - of cattle etc. , is deprecatory in LAC when used as a collective for human beings. In its two occurrences in Ta Ya it T

is not pejorative and presumably at this time was a free form. Shuay ^sliwat occurs in EAC as a collective for post-verbal elements (see EAC 3. 5. 3). It has three occurrences, as such, in Chou Sung. In Hsiao Ya, however, it occurs determining nouns. This suggests that EAC collectives cease in free distribution before nouns as follows:

228

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya

9. 3.4.

Intensives (see 2.4. 1. 6. 6 and 3. 3. Note) Koong( k ung is freely distributed throughout the Book of Songs, but not known except in citation elsewhere in Archaic Chinese. It is f r e ­ T

quent in the Sung and Ya, but in Kuo Feng less so, and often in "echoes" of earlier poems. This use of koong attests to the unity of the poetic tradition of the Book of Songs (see Appendix II). Horng ( g wang in intensive usage in the Ya is close phonologically to koong. hi certain citations of the c

T

diam occurs for koong. Book of Songs in Shih Chi shenn ( Shenn is known to LAC, but occurs only in the Book of Songs in Hsiao Ya and Kuo Feng in this usage. But shenn is closer phonologically to yeun 'ziwan and shyun

has one occurrence in Kuo 'siwen. Yeun { Feng, but predominates in the Sung and Ta Ya. Yeun is an EAC period word however, first occurs in Kuo Feng. Jong (see EAC 4. 3. 3). Shyun kiad like koong is of and jonq tiong occur late. Jih broad distribution in Sung and the Ya, but less frequent in Kuo Feng. This usage of uh is peculiar to the Book of Songs. This suggests: e

Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng It is of the nature of poetry to lean heavily upon attribute words and the occurrence with high frequency of these intensives before attributes is to be expected. What is worth observing is that two words, koong and in this usage, are peculiar to the Book of Songs and both widely jih distributed, attesting to the unity of its poetic tradition. 9. 3. 5. Appositional Forms (see 2. 5; 2. 5. 1) The appositional form, in which certain pronouns are apposed to nouns and nouns to proper names, is an Early Archaic feature, unknown, with the exception of certain stock collocations, to Late Archaic. This is reflected in the Book of Songs where the form preponderates in the Sung.

LINGUISTIC STRATA IN THE BOOK OF SONGS 9.4.

229

Modal Particles (see 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 3 and 3. 3. 1. ff.)

9.4.1.

Negatives *pwet and fwu

The indicative modal negatives bu the injunctive negatives wu i junctive negative wu

*piwat. *miw8t and the sub

*miwo ana wun

*miwo are constant throughout Archaic Chinese

and their general distribution in the Book of Songs shews that in the Book of Songs this constancy is maintained. miwad. Woang

The same is true for wey (

miwang, a subjunctive modal negative in EAC, oc­

curs once in the Ta Ya (256), thereafter it persists only in the stock col­ " r e c k l e s s , " in Ta Ya, Hsiao Ya and Kuo Feng. location woang-jyi A peculiarity of Chou Sung and Ta Ya is the use of feei *piwar (the two occurrences in Hsiao Ya, 177 and 192 are from po­ for wey < ems particularly prone to cite Ta Ya). A further peculiarity of the Ta Ya is the use of mii

*mia as a subjunctive negative. (Of the two occur­

rences in Hsiao Ya, one 163, is a citation of 260, and the other, 167 from a poem with cited lines from Ta Ya). The use of foou

piug in Hsiao Ya and Kuo Feng (see 3. 3 . 1 . 1 .

Note) is peculiar to the Book of Songs. This suggests: Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng 9.4.2.

Positive Replacement Modal Forms (see 3.3. 1.4.ff.)

The injunctive modal replacement dang

*tang occurs in an EAC

text, the Jeou Gaw, but for which there is no attestation on bronze inscrip­ tions. Dang does not occur in the Book of Songs. The injunctive modal r e ­ .ll:UJ:UJ:l.l:U.I is *diang. Shanq placements are shanq i (Kuo Feng) Yih ngia and yih higia earlier (Ya) than are clearly cognate. Both are Ya forms. The occurrence of yih

in

Kuo Feng is in a poem (35) much given to citation from the Ya. The late occurrence of bih piet, four times in Kuo Feng and :

once in Hsiao Ya, is consistent with a suggestion made in EAC 3. 3. 1. 5.

230

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

footnote 13, that bih derives from an allegro form of a dual negative t o ­ w a r d s the c l o s e of the Western Chou neriod.

Hour

is

*g u in all its occurrences when used for yeou T

confined to Hsiao Ya (8x) except for 290. Yeou

^giug is universal in Archaic Chinese as modal before verbs but in Hsiao Ya there is no occur­ rence of this use of yeou.

Shyh (

*siak, you i

ziog ana snun i /

siog are clearly cognate as modals, and are presumably truncated forms of Shyh however, seems to predate shuh and yuh. shuh-iii ( This suggests: Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng 9.5. Aspectuals (3. 3. 2) Jiang

*ts ia or liau T

tsiang, but not chiee (

liog is

universal m Archaic Chinese tor potential aspect and well attested for EAC. Chiee has one occurrence in Hsiao Ya and three in Kuo Feng and its aspectual usage must date f r o m this period.

Liau

i s not only confined

to Kuo Feng but is peculiar to the Book of Songs. Inchoative aspectuals derive from verbs meaning "to begin" "to open k iar are attested EAC forms d iog and chii ( "to r i s e . " Jaw :

T

11

T

*ts io is uni­ and occur in the Book of Songs in the Ya sections. Ciru *t iok is peculiar to the Sung. versal m Archaic Chinese, but chuh < T

T

Its occurrence in Hsiao Ya (212) being a citation from 290. Shyy ( siag is universal as an aspectual in Archaic Chinese and oi general d i s t r i ­ bution in the Book of Songs. Tzay usage to tne lnt.PT

.BOOK OI

nnniiTTPnr.ps

'tsag, however, is peculiar in this

songs oeing w p i c a i oi l a l a ,

A T P

mnst.lv

TIPAT-mtfltioTiS

Tn

IJU

t.hfi

ana snang sung, f o T m

Dne moment - the next -, "there is a suggestion of LAC jah \ Gu Fang i

ine

c

dz ag. T

ko for momentary aspect is universal in Archaic Chinese.

•'piwang is of general distribution as an aspectual in the Book of ) *xiang in this usage is peculiar to Hsiao Ya. Jih Songs but shiang ( *kiad as an aspectual is universal in Archaic Chinese and of general

LINGUISTIC STRATA IN THE BOOK OF SONGS

231

distribution in the Book of Songs. This suggests: Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng 9. 6. Agentive State (3. 3. 4) The particle of possibility, permissibility etc. , in Early Archaic Chinese is keh i

^k ak. This is common in the Book of Songs in Sung and Ta Ya. The three poems using keh in Hsiao Ya are all poems given to T

'k'a citation (178, 192, 211). In EAC it was pointed out that kee i though occurring in texts was unattested on bronze inscriptions (see EAC 3. 3. 3. 2). Even then kee ( only occurred as a combining form i In the Book of Songs, kee predominates in Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng, hi the Ta Ya (6 poems) all are in combining forms, hi Hsiao Ya, gee ka occurs as a verb "be able to. " It is possible that c

kee originated as a combining form of keh in the Ta Ya period, after which keh became obsolete and kee succeeded to its cenematic functions. Neng It emerges only in nang in Ta Ya is a verb "to endure" Hsiao Ya as a particle of agentive state. Keen

k'ang is universal in

Archaic Chinese and general in the Book of Songs. Yinn i function as keen) is restricted to Hsiao Ya. Hwang (

*ngien (same *g wang is peculi­ !

ar to Hsiao Ya and Kuo Feng. It is noticeable that all words in this series have guttural initials with the exception of *nang. This suggests: EAC Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng LAC

232

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

9.7. Post-verbal Particles (3.4) giwo is an EAC particle and is of general distribution in Yu the Book of Songs. Yi io is an interjection in EAC and occurs as g o is such prominently in Sung and Ta Ya in the Book oi Songs. Hu an interjection in EAC. Both yu and hu occur as post-verbal particles in Kuo Feng, hu preceding yu slightly (one occurrence in Hsiao Ya). The single occurrence of yu in 266 is presumably a textual e r r o r . This suggests: T

EAC Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng LAC 9. 8. Periphrastic Voice and Mode (3.4.5 and 3.4.6) The markers of cause, bih

*piag and shyy (

*sliag appear

in their distribution, to show bih as the earlier form. Shyy, however, is well-attested as an EAC bronze form, so that the contrast in distribution *b ieng, however, is peculiar to the Sung and here is puzzling. Ping Ta Ya. T

Chiang

ts'iang, used in modal sense I b e g " occurs 4x in Kuc *ts ieng. Feng and once in Hsiao Ya, and is reminiscent of LAC chiing i This suggests: ff

T

Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng

LINGUISTIC STRATA IN THE BOOK OF SONGS

233

9. 9. Distributives (3. 5. 3; 3, 5. 3. 2) *g em is an EAC particle and is attested in the Book of Shyan f

occurs in Kuo Feng in its LAC ioes not occur in this usage. The common distributive oi L A C , jie ( *g iu occurs in both role in the Book of Songs (but see 3.10.1). Jiuh the Ya. hi LAC it is a determinative form. Shuay "sliwat is an EAC form and occurs only in Sung. *miwo and woang The distributives yeou ( *giug and wu i Songs for Shang Sung and Ta Ya.

Jie

f

*miwang, "of the agents, some, none, e t c . , " are common in EAC and *mak. occur in the Book of Songs in Sung and Ta Ya. The series moh i huoh klak appear a little later but are well es g wak, and geh tablished early in the Book of Songs. Huoh occurs in Kuo Feng in a form f

for which LAC has shwu (

diok, and in Hsiao Ya as an indefinite sub­

stitute, suggesting a derivation for this series of distributives of Mii mia "of the agents, none" - as with modal mil (see 9.4. 1) predominates in Ta Ya but three e x ­ amples occur from Lu and Shang Sung, hi Hsiao Ya mii becomes "in no place, nowhere" (185, 191 and 194). This suggests: Sun^

j

Ta Ya

j [Place]

Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng 9.10. Reciprocity (see 3. 5. 6)

hi EAC the particle of reciprocity is shiu sio and in LAC, shiang kog-siang. Shiu occurs ir siang and jiau-shiang ( this usage in the Sung and Ta Ya and shiang in Hsiao Ya and Kuo Feng. The k

occurrences of shiu in Hsiao Ya (194, 195 and 223) are recognizable "ech­ oes" of Ta Ya poem lines. This suggests:

234

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

EAC Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng LAC 9.11.

Delegated Agency (see 3. 5. 7) The particle preceding the delegated agent in EAC is we

and in LAC it is wey

gwia. in

ana in

in tne

.LAU,

pre-veroaiiy.

*gwia and i_(

HJAU

HOOK

OI

*diwor

this is deployed post-verbally songs tne particles are wei

ier (wei in Ta Ya and Hsiao Ya, and i in Hsiao Ya and

Kuo Feng] The delegated agent occurs both pre - and post-verbally. Wei diwor, though frequent in the Book of Songs, does not occur in this usage. This suggests: EAC Sung Ta Ya Hsiao Ya Kuo Feng LAC 9.12. The Instrumental (3. 6) Both yii

*ziog and yonq

*diung are attested for EAC. Yii

is of general distribution in the Book of Songs, but yonq though broadly d i s ­ tributed occurs predominantly in combination e t c . , ) ex­ cept in Sung and Ta Ya. Shyh to the Ya. This suggests:

*siak and day

"now," "at (ii) Allegro form of yu-tzy this stage" > "then" Gay yun guei tzai stage, return h o m e ? " (227. 8) Yun tzuu her woang there to g o ? " (257. 20). Yun buh woo kee

"Why should [we] not, at this "K now [we] set out, where is "But now, [he] does not approve

of me" (199.12), Yun buh kee shyy/Der tzuey yu Tian-tzyy/Yih yun kee shyy/Yuann jyi perng-yeou ( "K now [I] do not allow myself to take office/[I] shall offend against the Son of Heaven/Though if now I did allow myself/[I] should involve my friends in resentment" (194.45).

APPENDIX I Yun woo wu suoo

245

"Now, we have no refuge"

[258. 34). Woo bwu jiann shi/Yun her shiu y u ( "When I do not see him/Then, how grieved I am" (225. 29 and 30 ech­ oed in 3.16 and cf. , 199. 30). Jih jian jiun-tzyy/Yun her bwu leh i "[I] have seen my lord/Why now should [I] not rejoice?" (228. 7-8 echoed in 116. 5-6). Yun her chyi iou (

I "Why now should [I] be s a d ? "

(116.12). I "How can pie] possibly come

Her yun neng lai ( now?" (33.12). Her yun neng guu i

) "How can [I] have good fortune

now?" (204. 20). ) "When now shall we r e t u r n ? "

Her yun chyi hwan (207. 15).

"Of whom now am [I] thinking?"

Yun shwei jy sy (38. 15, 48.3). Yun ru jy her (

"Then, what can be s a i d ? " (197. 8

echoed in 47. 7). Jan-arng min-tian/Yun ru her Iii ( "When [I] look up to Heaven/Then how distressed I am" (258.69-70). Jih jiann jiun-tzyy/Yun hwu buh yi "When [I] have seen my lord/Then how can [I] fail to find peace?" (90.4). (iii) Allegro form of yu-tzy

i - directive with demonstrative

in the second post-verbal position "[We] consulted the tortoise about Buu yun chyiJyi this, [The response was] Auspicious™ (50.13), Ping yun bwu day cause/then/not/come forward "Then [youl prevent rthe people! from coming forward" (257.44). Wei min bwu lih/Ru yun buh keh "When you cause harm to the people/It is as though, in this, you can­ not do so enough" (257. 103-104).

246

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS Yun is distributed in the Book of Songs as follows: "thus, so

(p. v.)

"now"

M

Ta Ya

256. 264. 265.

Hsiao Ya

192. 199. 207. 230. 194. 197. 199. 204.

257. 258.

257. 192.

207. 225. 227. 228. Kuo Feng (33 echo of 230)

33 3 (echo of 225) 116 (echo of 228) 47 (echo of 197) 38 (also 48) 90

u.f

50

APPENDIX II THE HOMOGENEITY OF THE POETIC TRADITION IN THE BOOK OF SONGS Two hundred and fifteen of the three hundred and five poems in the Book of Songs, that is, more than two-thirds of the total, have complete lines which they share with other poems. It is possible that if near-similar lines were also taken into account the proportions would be larger.

The

predominant tendency is for poems within one division to echo lines from poems in the same division. There is a strong tendency for similar lines to occur between neighbouring divisions such as Sung and Ta Ya, Ta Ya and Hsiao Ya, and Hsiao Ya and Kuo Feng. At the extremity, few lines in Kuo Feng occur in the Sung. This suggests a homogeneity in the anthology - a central poetic tradition - extending over a considerable period of time, in which poets from one period were familiar with the poems of an earlier period and cited complete lines verbatim from them. The extent of deriva­ tion of this kind is best seen, if the occurrences of identical lines are set out as follows: THE CHOU SUNG

Sung 299 Lu

Poem no. 266

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

235

267 268 283, 270

269

269

270

256.2

271 272 273 285

274 275

241

220, 209

Kuo Feng

248

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS THE CHOU SUNG Sung

290, 291

Poem no.

Ta Ya

280

278

290.4

279

278

280 281

269

212 220 239.2, 246

212.2, 209.2

282 283

154

284 274

285

287, 288

286

286, 288

287

289 286, 287

288

287

289

277, 279.4 281, 291

290

212, 220 172

291

212.2

292

215.2

290 290.3, 277

Kuo Feng

276 277

302 Sh

Hsiao Ya

293 294 296

295

295

296

235 205

249

APPENDIX II THE LU AND SHANG SUNG Chou Sung

Poem no.

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Kuo Feng

297 298 266

299

21, 13 256.2, 253.2

222, 182.2

235

192, 193 194

304 Sh

300

302.2 Sh

301

301.2 Sh

302

254, 241

208, 177

236

166, 209

154

262, 178

282 303 304 305 THE TA YA Sung 266, 299 Lu

Ta Ya

Poem no.

Hsiao Ya

262, 243

235

261, 260 257

236 237

181

239, 258 238, 252

238 239

186 174, 212. 2

Kuo Feng

294 300 Lu

281.2

246

209.2 240

300 Lu 235

241

218

242 243

215, 210

244 245

211

3

250

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS THE TA YA Sung

Ta Ya 239, 252

281

Poem no.

Hsiao Ya

246

209.2, 212

247

207, 209

Kuo Feng

216, 213 239

248 249

217 220

250

220

252, 239

251

219, 174

251, 239

252

219, 174 167, 224

251, 252

249, 246

178 299 Lu

254, 256

253

253

254

256, 257

255

193, 194

260 269.2, 299.2 Lu

257, 260

256

255, 253 260.2, 256

195, 196.2

58

198 257

255, 237

192.3, 181 177, 167

258 264, 257

258

265, 238 287

260.2 259.2, 261.3

194, 204

54

178 259 260

222 163, 167.2 177, 205

257.2, 256 255.2, 236 236, 260.3

261

179, 210

235, 263

262

205, 234

262 262, 253

263

265, 258

264

192.2, 233

150, 109

APPENDIX II

251

THE TA YA Sung

Ta Ya

Poem no.

Hsiao Ya 207, 197

Kuo Feng 63, 26

183, 198 264, 258

265

196, 222 195, 194

THE HSIAO YA

Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Poem no.

164, 175

161

208 168. 207

162

167.3, 171

Kuo Feng

121 147.14

183, 169.2 205, 218 260

300 Lu

252

214

163

54

217, 161 207

164 165

158

190. 172

166

154

167

121, 35

209. 210 211 252, 260

162.3, 168.3

257

169.3, 205 207. 260

14, 147

179, 191 177 178

168

154, 14.2

205.3

169

123, 119

167.2, 162

147. 14.2 170

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

252

THE HSIAO YA Sung

290

Ta Ya

251

Hsiao Ya

Poem no.

Kuo Feng

162, 231

171

4

222, 209

172

154

173

126, 116

210, 211 216 222, 217 228, 176

90, 10

168, 214

94, 130

218 239, 251

219

174

220, 163

175

123

228, 217

176

126, 116

252

173, 168

90, 10

225 300 Lu

257, 260

167

177

302 Sh

258, 252

183, 189

178

168 261

191, 167 220, 180.2

179

128

179

180

128

179

181

222, 213

182

130

178, 192.3

183

150, 109

181 237, 257 299 Lu 264

197, 207

63, 27

233, 162

26 184 185 186 187

129

T253

APPENDIX H THE HSIAO YA Sung

299 Lu

Ta Ya

257. 3, 264. 2 253

Hsiao Ya

Poem no.

Kuo Feng

188

54

190, 178

189

31

166, 189

190

179, 167

191

207.2, 193.2

192

157, 109

194, 233

63, 27

197.2, 183.3

150, 26

196

146

192, 195

193

198 258, 265

197, 195

194

155

196, 199 200 265

196.2, 193

195

194, 256 264, 256.2

195.2, 194

196

146, 58

197

35.2, 26

215, 197 192, 204 264

256

202, 204 233, 207

47, 27

192, 183

109, 63

199, 197

198

193 198, 194

199

194

200 201

204.3, 197

202 203

202.3, 197

92, 95

204

107.2

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

254

THE HSIAO YA Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Poem no.

Kuo Feng

258, 196 296

262, 260

169.2, 234

205

14

206 247, 264

168.2, 162

207

192.2, 233

150, 109 63, 27

197, 183 165, 167 300 Lu

161

208

152

209

154

210

154

211

154.3

212

154.2

182, 216

213

130

218.2, 233

214

158, 159

274

247, 246.2

210.5, 211.2

281. 2

239.2

212.2, 172

300 Lu

166 261, 243

209.5, 215 211.2, 172 166

245

212.5, 210.2 209.2, 172 166

291.2, 290. 2 277, 281.2

246, 239.2

211.4, 212 209.2

247

163, 173.2 292. 2

243

196, 210

215

247

229.2, 213

216

248

168, 228

217

132, 126.2

176, 173

14, 10.2

168, 164

116, 90

241, 214.2 162, 173

218

3

APPENDIX E

255

THE HSIAO YA Sung

290, 279

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Poem no.

239, 251 252

174

219

250, 249

179, 175

220

182, 173

221 222

Kuo Feng 131

274 299 Lu

259

4

172, 176 223 252

224 225

217, 176

226

24

227

153.2

228

116.2, 90

173, 168 216.2

126, 10 229

58, 28 33

230 171

33

231 232

264

214, 207

233

197, 192

63, 26

183 262

205

150, 109

234

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

256

THE CHOU NAN AND SHAONAN Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Nan

Poem no.

Kuo Feng

1 2 241

218

3

172, 222

4

171 5 9, 12

6

28, 156

7

cf. 148

8 12, 6 168, 228

14

9 10

217, 176

156, 28 126.2, 132 116, 90

173, 168 11 298 Lu

9, 6

12

168

21

13

217, 168.5

10

14

162, 167

156, 28 126, 132 147

169.2, 205 15 16 17 18 19 20 298 Lu

13

21 22 23

226

24 25

57

257

APPENDIX II THE KUO FENG Sung

Ta Ya 264

Hsiao Ya 183, 192 197, 207

Poem no. 26

233, 168 264

183, 192

Kuo Feng 45, 29 58, 63 109, 150

27

197, 207

63, 109 150, 26

233 229

28

33.2, 156 12. 9. 6

207

29

26

30

146, 33 91, 134

189, 168

31

82, 81 14

32 230, 229

33

28.2, 91 134, 30

34 197.2, 167

35

201 36 37

85, 88

38

48, 78

39

44, 51.2 59.3

40 41 42 43 44

39

45

26

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

258

THE KUO FENG

Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Poem no.

Kuo Feng

46 197

47 48

38

49 50 51

59.2, 39.2

52 53 258

188, 163

99

54 55 56

256

229

57

24, 88

58

26

59

73, 89

196 146, 51.2 39.3 60 61 62 264

183, 192

63

109, 150

197, 207

26, 63

233

27 64 65

121

66 67 68

80, 108 117, 151 92.3, 116

259

APPENDIX I I THE KUO FENG Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Poem no.

Kuo Feng

69 70 71 72

91

73

89, 146 59

74 75 76 77 78

78 77, 38

79 151, 117

80

68

81

31

82

83, 31

83

82, 130

108

84 85 86

88, 37 120

87

119, 120

88

85, 37 97, 57

89

146, 59 73

228, 217

90

176, 173

10

168 91

72, 134 33, 30

260

THE LANGUAGE OF THAE BOOK OF SONGS THE KUO FENG

Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya 201

Poem no. 92

Kuo Feng 68.3, 116

93 173

94

145, 106

95 96 97

88

98 99

53

100

158

101

158.2, 105

102

151, 146

103 104

203. 2

264

183, 192

105

101

106

94

107 108 109

197, 207

151, 117 80, 68 150, 26 63, 27

233 110 111 112

123

113 207 228.2, 217

114 115

126

116

126, 90

176, 173

10, 92

168

68

261

APPENDIX II THE KUO FENG Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Poem no. 117

Kuo Feng 151, 108 80, 68

118 169

119

120, 87 123

120

119, 87 86

162.2, 167

121

65

169, 205 122 175, 169

123

112, 119

124 125 217.2, 168.2

126

132, 14

228, 176

10.2, 116

173

90, 115 127

128

179, 180

128

127

186

129

182, 213 173

130

219

131

168, 217

132

83

126, 14 10

133 134

91, 33 30

135 136 137

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

262

THE KUO FENG Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Poem no.

Kuo Feng

138 139 140 141 142 143 144 196, 192

145

94

146

89, 73

197

59, 30 102

169, 162

147

39, 14

148

cf. 6

167 149 264

183, 192 197, 207

150

109, 63 27, 26

151

117, 108 80, 68

233

102 300 Lu, 283

208

152

227. 2

153

168.2, 211.3

154

212.2, 166 172, 209 210 194

155 156

28, 12 9, 6

263

APPENDIX II THE KUO FENG Sung

Ta Ya

Hsiao Ya

Poem no.

Kuo Feng

192. 2

157

214

158

101.3, 159

159

158

165 214

160 From the above tables, the following can be abstracted: Chou Lu and Sung Shang

Kuo

Hsiao Ta Ya

Ya

Nan Feng Totals

Total number of poems Poems not cited

31 9

9 4

31 3

74 8

25 15

135 51

305 90

Poems citing from their own section

19

3

24

57

7

70

180

-

4

8

13

2

1

28

-

-

-

32

1

7

40

-

-

-

-

6

38

44

Poems citing from the Sung Poems citing from the Ta Ya Poems citing from the Hsiao Ya

From these figures, it will be seen that one characteristic of the four divisions of the Book of Songs is that within each division the mutual b o r ­ rowing of lines is greater than borrowings from without. This bears out a characteristic shewn by linguistic analysis of the distinctiveness of the lin­ guistic characteristic of each of the four divisions. Another characteristic is the hierarchical ordering of the divisions, since the tendency to borrow lines is greatest from Sung in the Ta Ya, from Ta Ya in the Hsiao Ya, and fr°

m

Hsiao Ya in the Kuo Feng. This bears out a characteristic shewn by

linguistic analysis that the four divisions correspond with linguistic time periods, the Sung being of the earliest and the Kuo Feng of the latest period.

264

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS But the tendency for poems in one division to cite verbatim, lines

from earlier poems means that a simple count of grammatical auxiliaries for each division, which disregards citation from other divisions, will mis­ lead. For example, EAC has a negative used in forming privatives, woang (texts bronze form This is a feature of EAC. hi the Book of Songs, woang occurs only in woang-jyi "without limit" "unre­ strained" "reckless" but it occurs in Ta Ya (257, 253) Hsiao Ya (219, 202, 199) and Kuo Feng (109, 58). as a determinative demonstrative To take another example, jy occurs in the Oracle Bones. It occurs in this usage in the Book of Songs only in a stock collocation, jy-tzyy "this young person. " As such jy occurs in Hsiao Ya (229, 226, 214, 181 and 179) and in Kuo Feng (6, 9 12, 22, 28, 63, 156 and 158). Yun the Ya section.

(see Appendix I) occurs mainly in

Its occurrences in the Kuo Feng are mostly in lines cited

from the Ya. This is a factor that must be taken into account in dating in­ dividual sections of the Book of Songs.

APPENDIX III POETIC LICENCE The extent to which departures from the norms of Archaic Chinese prose writing occur in the Book of Songs is quite small. When such depar­ tures occur they appear to be governed by three factors; (i) the necessity to end a line with a rhyme, (ii) the necessity to maintain a given number of feet to the line, and (iii) the necessity to apportion stressed words in a line in a consistent stress pattern. Manipulations designed to bring a word artificially into the rhyming position consist of: (i) The inversion of customary compounds (for example, shuu-jih "millet" occurring as jih-shuu for a rhyme in *-o) see 3. 1. (ii) The inversion of noun/spatial to spatial/noun (for example, lin-jong to jonglin for a rhyme in *-iam) see 2. 4. 1. 5 and 2. 4. 1. 5. 2. (iii) The inversion of as//5 to /3/as (for example, haan fa to fa ha an for a rhyme in *-an). (iv) The shift of man from a man /3 to a

man, to bring man into the rhyming

position, see 3. 3. 3. 4. (v) The inversion of a. to /3 a (for example yaan ming to ming yaan for a rhyme in *-an), see 3. 5. 9. (vi) The shift of the instrumental particle to the rhyming position for a rhyme in *-iag, see 3. 6. 4. (vii) The inversion of the t e r m s of the determinative sentence to bring the determined t e r m into the rhyming position, see 4. 3. 4. Manipulations designed to ensure that a line has a given number of feet (almost invariably four) consist in: (i) The use of hendiadys, see 1. 2. 1. 3. (ii) The reduplicating of reduplicatives (A B A B o r A A B B) and the doubling of particles interspersed between reduplicatives, see 1. 3 and 3. 9. 1. Note 1. (iii) The parasitic use of the particles of determination jy and jee between attribute and noun, of jy and sy; between pronoun and noun and of jy between demonstrative and noun, see 2.4. 1. 5. 2, 2. 4 . 1 . 6. 1. 2 and 2. 4. 1. 6. 2. 2. (iv) The omission of the verb, see 3.4. 10. (v) The use of the metrical particles peculiar to poetry, see 3. 9 . 1 . (vi) The omission of yeou in occurrence and presence statements, see 4. 8. 2. Certain inversions of plerematic and cenematic words occur, where elsewhere in the verse plerematic and cenematic words form a detectable

266

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

s t r e s s pattern, for example, -o - u. matic word into the u position.

1

Inversions occur to bring the cene­

Such manipulations consist of: (i) The in­

version of attrib. /yeou and attrib. /chyi when forming reduplicatives, see 1. 2 . 1 . 4. (ii) The parasitic occurrence of certain demonstratives between and y, see 2. 4. 1. 6. 2. 2. (iii) The inversion of as ft to ft as^ and ceas to as a, see 3. 3. 2. 9. (iv) The shift of man from tfman (3 to man a p.

(v)

The occurrence of lexical directives after the locative, see 3. 4. 7 and 3. 10. 3. (vi) The causal marker following rather than preceding the agent, see 3. 4. 7. (vii) The shift of the instrumental particle to follow the instru­ ment, see 3. 6. 4. (viii) For the suggestion that hu-erl is a stretching of shi over two feet, see 3. 9. 1. Note 2. (ix) The particles of accentuation occurring in unconventional positions, see 3. 12. 2. Finally, what I have called the "evocative" - the self-standing phrase belongs peculiarly to poetry and is unknown, as such, to prose writing. These departures from the norm are observable. The Book of Songs is not, therefore, precluded as a linguistic informant for the kind of comparative study this work sets out to undertake.

I hope to deal with the problem of the stress patterns of the Book of Songs in a forthcoming article.

LIST OF WORKS MENTIONED The list which follows gives full details of works to which reference has been made in the text. Abbreviations AS

Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology (Academia Sinica) (Taiwan)

BMFEA Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (Stockholm) BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (London) HJAS

Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (Cambridge)

JAOS

Journal of the American Oriental Society (Baltimore)

Lang.

Language, Journal of the Linguistic Society of America (Baltimore)

TP

T ouner Pao (Paris and Leiden)

YYYJ

Yeu-yan Yan-jiou

T

(Peking)

Dobson, W.A.C.H. Late Archaic Chinese - a Grammatical Study (Toronto, University of Toronto P r e s s , 1959). Cited as LAC. Early Archaic Chinese - a Descriptive Grammar (Toronto, University of Toronto P r e s s , 1962). Cited as EAC. Mencius - a new translation (Toronto, University of Toronto P r e s s , 1963, reptd. 1966). Late Han Chinese - the Archaic-Han Shift (Toronto, University of Toronto P r e s s , 1964). Cited as Late Han. "Studies in the Grammar of Early Archaic Chinese: I , The Particle Wei" TP. XLVI, (1958) 339-68. "Studies in the Grammar of Early Archaic Chinese: II, The Word Jo" TP. XLVn, (1959) 281-93. "Studies in the Grammar of Early Archaic Chinese: IE, The Word Yan" TP. LI, (1964) 295-321. "Studies in the Grammar of Early Archaic Chinese: IV, The Evolution of Huoh" TP. LII, (1966) 247-53.

268

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS "Studies in Middle Archaic Chinese - the Spring and Autumn Annals" TP. L, (1963) 1-28. "Towards a Historical Treatment of the Grammar of Archaic Chinese (i) EAC yfteh becomes LAC chi" HJAS. XXHI, (1961) 5-18. "Linguistic Features which contrast in Early and Late Archaic Chinese" Proceedings of the XXVth International Congress of Orientalists (Moscow, V, 1963) 96-101. "Towards a Historical Grammar of Classical Chinese - from Late Archaic to Han" Proceedings of the XXVIth International Congress of Orientalists (New Delhi, 1964) (to appear). "Linguistic Evidence and the Dating of the Book of Songs" TP. LI, (1964) 322-34. "Classes de mots ou classes distributionnelles en chinois archaique" in L. Hambis (ed.) Melanges de Sinologie offerts a Monsieur Paul Demi6ville (Paris, Bibliotheque de Phistitut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, XX, 1966) 27-33. "Negation in Archaic Chinese" Lang. XLII, 2. (1966) 278-84.

Downer, G. B. "Derivation by Tone-change in Classical Chinese" BSOAS. XXE, (1959) 258-90. Fwu, Dinq-i Lian-mian Tzyh-dean

(Peking, 1943). Cited as

LMTD. Granet, Marcel Fetes et chansons ancienne de la Chine ( P a r i s , 1929). Harvard-Yenching Institute Sinological Index Series, Supplement no. 9. A Concordance to Shih Ching (reprint, Tokyo, 1962). Jou, Faa-gau "Reduplicatives in the Book of Odes" AS. XXXIV, (1963) 661-98 Karlgren, Bernhard "Glosses on the Kuo Feng Odes" BMFEA. XIV, (1942). "Glosses on the Siao Ya Odes" BMFEA. XVI, (1944). "Glosses on the Ta Ya and Sung Odes" BMFEA. XVIII, (1946). The Book of Odes (Stockholm, 1950).

LIST OF WORKS MENTIONED

269

"Word Families in Chinese" BMFEA. V, (1953) 9-120. "Cognate Words in the Chinese Phonetic Series" BMFEA. XXVIII, (1956). Grammata Serica Recensa (Stockholm, 1957). Kennedy, George A. "Equation no. 5 (Chinese Fusion Words)" JAOS. LXVE, 1, (1947) 56-9. Legge, James Chinese Classics, vol. 4, The Book of Poetry (reprint, Hong Kong, 1960). Peir, Shyue-hae Guu-shu Shiu-tzyh Jyi Shyh

(Shanghai,

1934). Simon, Walter Chinese-English Dictionary (London, 1947). Waley, Arthur The Analects of Confucius (London, 1938). The Book of Songs (with Supplement) (London, 1937). Wang, She an

"Shy-jing jong gen chorng-yan tzuoh-yonq shiang-dang-de Yeoutzyh shyh, Chyi-tzyy shyh, Sy-tzyh shyh, her Sy-tzyh shyh" yyyyj. iv, (1959) 9-43, Yang, Shuh-dar Tsyr Chyuan

(Shanghai, 1928).

This page intentionally left blank

LEXICON AND INDEX OF WORDS TREATED AT SOME LENGTH Note, hi this index are included all words in the Book of Songs which have a cenematic usage, to which is added a description of their plerematic usage in the Book of Songs only. Arrangement is alphabetical by the G. R. system of romanization. A starred entry refers to the reconstruction of the phonology in Archaic Chin­ ese as given by Karlgren, though, for typographical reasons this is given in a modified form.

With the references given, however, Karlgren s original 1

form can be quickly found. A number preceded by K is a reference to the paragraph number in Grammata Serica Recensa. A number preceded by YSD is the page and section number of the Particle Lexicon of Yang Shuhdar. A number preceded by PSH is the page number of the entry in the Collected Explanations of the Particles of Archaic Chinese by Peir Shyuehae. The six-figure reference is to the classification number under which the entry will be found in the Harvard-Yenching Index Series. The following abbreviations are used: p.n. proper name, n. noun, y. verb, attrib. attributive usage before nouns and as determinant term, man. attributive use before verbs, redupl. reduplicative, compd. compound word, gram, grammatical usage, u.f.

T

usedfor , > 'becomes', "without discrimination" 3. 3. 2. 8 (see also 3. 3. 2. 9). *b ak (refs. K771; YSD. 1. 1; PSH. 859; 3. 33034) read baur *b ak "thin" ( -of ice) 195.45; 196. 36. (attrib.) f

f

(redupl.) (grain.)

read bo-bo *p ak-p ak "sound of horses galloping" 105.1. (a) Far demonstrative, in place position, "at that place, T

f

there" 3. 10. 1. (b) Far demonstrative, in time position, "at that juncture, thereupon" 3. 10.1. Note 1. (c) Far demonstrative, used anaphorically as quasipronoun, "those, they, etc. " 3. 8.1 (see also 7.4). See also 9. 20. Bu

*pwat (refs. K999; YSD. 1. 16; PSH. 866, 873; 1. 70600) (read bwu before fourth tone words and buh before other tones) (gram. )

(a) Forms privatives, "un-, -less, not-" 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 3. (b) Modal negative, indicative, unstressed form 3. 3 . 1 . 1 . (c) hi buh-ru ( In neng-bu

4. 5. ) 7. 5. 2. 5. Note.

274

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS hi chii-bu

her -bu

ana nwu-pu

hwu-bu

and shya-bu

7.5.3.4. iN HER-BU 7. 5. 3. 5 See also 9. 4 . 1 . Buh (

see bu.

Bwu (

see bu.

Charni

"close" > "narrow" ( - of limits) 275. 7. "draw near" 277.2, in ge-eei i (a) Non-status personal pronoun, person/s addressed. pregnant torm. 7. 2 . 1 . (b) Used as determinant pronoun. 2 . 4 . 1 . 6 . 1 . (c) In apposition. 2. 5. (d) As agentive form. 3. 5. 2. (see also 3.4. 5; 3. 5.4.

Note 2; and 3. 5. 7. Note). See also 9.19. *niog (refs. K982; YSD. 10. 5; PSH. 496, 521; 3. 72820)

Erl

(gram.;

(a) Non-status personal pronoun, person/s addressed, determinative form. 2 . 4 . 1 . 6 . 1 ; 7. 2 . 1 . (see also 2 . 4 . 1 . 6.1.1). (b) Conjunction of simple connection between verbs. 3. 3. Note 1. (c) Affixed to determination of manner

9

3. 3. 3 . 1 .

(d) Substitute for determination of manner. "in such a manner" "thus" 3. 3. 3 . 1 . (see also 4. 3 . 1 . Note). (e) Marker of a subordinate clause. 3. 7. (f) Conjunction of narrative sequence, "and so" 6 . 4 . 1 . (see also 6 . 4 . 1 . Note 2). (g) Metrical word, in final position, hu-erl perhaps a slow-speech form of shi (

see 3 . 9 . 1 . Note

(h) u.f. ru

"be like" 47.15: 225. 2C See also 9. 3 . 1 ; 9. 18. 2; 9.19; 9. 21. Fang

*piwang (refs. K740; YSD. 1. 40; PSH. 889; 3. 01220) Place name, 168.18 e t c . , hi personal names, Fang-shu (P. n . ) 178. 28 etc. (nj

i) "A place, region, area, - side " dong-fane "the eastern regions" 29.14; i-fan "a certain "the south side" 137. 6; place" 108. 7; nan-fang

LEXICON AND INDEX OF WORDS

281

the four quarters" 191. 20. syh-fang (ii) "A set-square" > "a gauge or pattern" ( - of virtue) 241. 71, M

(iii) Name of a sacrifice. 258.56. (V.)

(i) "to take up a place in" ( - of a bird occupying a nest) 12. 6; "to take a place" ( - of a queen beside the king) 193.32. (ii) "to travel by raft" 9. 8. (iii) "to perform the fang sacrifice" 211.13.

(attrib.)

"squared-off" > "even" "regular" (-of crops growing) 245.41. "square-cut" 305. 34.

(gram.)

Momentary aspect. 3. 3. 2. 3. See also 9. 5.

Farn
cause to follow " l e a d " ( - an a r m y ) 178. 7 etc. [compd. )

hi shuay-tsorng

"to obey" 222. 32; i n shuay-you

" f o l l o w " ( - ancient precedents) 249. 12). [gram. )

(a) Synthesising c o l l e c t i v e .

2 . 4 . 1. 6. 5 (see a l s o 2 . 4 . 1.

6.5.1). (b) C o l l e c t i v e of p o s t - v e r b a l e l e m e n t s .

3. 5. 3.

See a l s o 3. 5. 3. Note 2: 9. 3. 3 and 9. 9. Shuh

*siag (refs. K804; Y S D . 5. 79; P S H . 802; 4. 02361) (attrib. )

h i great quantity > " i n abundance" ( - of b l e s s i n g s ) 166. 6; " i n p r o f u s i o n " ( - of duties) 207. 18.

(compd. )

hi shuh-jii

(gram. )

(a) C o l l e c t i v e , identifying 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 5 (see a l s o 2. 4. 1. 6.

" p a s s a b l e " ( - of food) 218. 16.

5. Note 1 and 2 . 4 . 1.6. 5. 1). ;b) P o l a r m o d a l f o r m , e x p r e s s i n g w i s h or hope also as s h u h - j i i , 3. 3 . 1 . 4 . See a l s o 9. 3. 3 and 9. 4. 2. Shwei

*diwor (refs. K575; Y S D . 5. 83; P S H . 184, 697, 828; 5.08974)

304

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS (gram. )

(a) Interrogative substitute, substituting i n syntagma, 7. 5 . 1 ; i n the agential and delegated agential p o s i t i o n , 7. 5. 2. 3; for p o s t - v e r b a l e l e m e n t s , 7. 5. 2. 6. (b) Indefinite substitute, " w h o m s o e v e r " 7 . 6 . 4 .

* g ' â (refs. K 3 3 ; Y S D . 4. 59; P S H . 268; 5. 77841)

Shya

hi buh-shya

(attrib. ) (gram.)

" f l a w l e s s " ( -reputation) 160. 8;

"unflagging" ( - of energy) 240.18; cf.

"leisure. "

hi buh-shya

"lest there be'

before y e o u , See 4. 8. 1.

Shva (

*g'a (refs. K 3 3 ; Y S D . 4. 59; P S H . 268; 2.09841)

(ïiJ

"to keep at a d i s t a n c e " 10. 8.

(attrib. )

" f a r - r e a c h i n g " ( - f e l i c i t y ) 166.11.

(compd. )

hi shya-shin

" a m i n d to stay away" "thoughts

of keeping away" 186.24. (a) Interrogative substitute, with b u i

(gram. )

(b) h i buh-shya

7. 5. 3. 5.

before yeou (

"lest there

be . . . . doubtless there i s . . . . " 4. 8 . 1 . See a l s o 9. 22. Shyan

*g'em ( r e f s . K 6 7 1 ; Y S D . 4. 60; 2. 50181) (v. )

"to c o m p l e t e " ( - a task) 300. 29.

(gram. )

A g e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i v e . 3. 5. 3. See a l s o 9. 9.

Shyh

*siak (refs. K 9 1 8 ; Y S D . 5. 59; P S H . 799; 2. 30770)

(nj

(i) " a pattern, an e x e m p l a r " 243.10 and thus " r e g u l a t i o n s " 209. 38. (ii) employment > "task" 253.40. (i) "to pattern upon, to e x e m p l i f y " "to be a m o d e l "

(Si.)

(ii) "to u s e " "to e m p l o y " "to a v a i l oneself of" (compd. )

In shyh-shyng

(gram. )

(a) P o l a r m o d a l positive r e p l a c e m e n t ,

"to use as a m o d e l " 272.4. subjunctive.

3. 3 . 1 . 4. (b) Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e l i n k i n g two agents. 3. 5.4. (c) Instrumental p a r t i c l e . 3. 6. 1. See a l s o 9. 3 . 1 ; 9. 4. 2 and 9. 12. Shyh

*dieg (refs. K866; Y S D . 5. 55; P S H . 774, 807; 3. 88792)

L E X I C O N A N D INDEX OF WORDS

305

(attrib. )

" r i g h t " 109. 7.

(gram. )

(a) D e m o n s t r a t i v e , used d e t e r m i n a t i v e l y . 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 2 (see a l s o 2. 4 . 1 . 6. 2. 1 and 2 . 4 . 1. 6. 2. 2). (b) D e m o n s t r a t i v e , used a n a p h o r i c a l l y . 3. 8. 1 (see a l s o 3. 8. 2). (c) A s d e t e r m i n e d t e r m , i n d e t e r m i n a t i v e sentence. 4.10.1. (d) h i cause and consequence sequences, as s h y h - y i i and shyh-yonq

) "therefore" 4 . 1 1 .

See a l s o 9. 20. *diad (refs. K336; Y S D . 5. 59; P S H . 840; 5. 88671)

Shyh (

(gram. )

h i n a r r a t i v e sequence "to r e a c h the point w h e r e " 3 . 1 0 . 1 . See a l s o 9 . 1 5 .

Shyh

*diad (refs. K 2 8 7 ; Y S D . 5. 59; P S H . 840; 2. 09520) ( 5 J

"the p a s s i n g " ( - of the o l d y e a r ) 114.10.

(V.)

T o pass by > "to v i s i t " "to pass away" (into the distance, - of a boat) 44. 6; " p a s s e d " (of an appointed t i m e ) 169. 24; to go by way of > "pass through" 250. 22; "pass b y " ( w i t h ­ out b e i n g noticed - of something said) 2 5 6 . 4 8 .

(gram. ;

h i n a r r a t i v e sequence "to r e a c h the point at w h i c h , etc. " 3.10.1. See a l s o 9. 15.

Shyi

*siak (refs. K798; 3. 37883) (N.)

"the p a s t " 3 5 . 4 7 .

(attrib.. ))

"of the past" ( - the f o r m e r m e n of ) 196.4.

(gram. )

h i t i m e p o s i t i o n , " i n the past" 3 . 1 0 . 1 a l s o i n t z y h - s h i " s i n c e t i m e s of o l d " and t z a y - s h i

"in

the past" Shyr

*diag (refs. K 9 6 1 ; Y S D . 5. 51; P S H . 719, 823; 5. 88332) ( 5 J

" c o r r e c t ones" 220. 28.

(attrib. )

(i) " s e a s o n a l " ( - of t o u r s ) 273. 1; i n b u h - s h y r "untimely, unpropitious" (ii) p r o p e r , good ( - of food) 217.16; c o r r e c t ( - of b e h a v i ­ our) 209. 69.

(gram. )

(a) N e a r d e m o n s t r a t i v e , used d e t e r m i n a t i v e l y , 2 . 4 . 1 . 6 . 2

306

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS and pregnantly 2. 5 and 7.4. (b) Demonstrative used a n a p h o r i c a l l y , 3. 8 . 1 ; 4 . 1 0 . 1. (c) Conjunction i n n a r r a t i v e sequence, 6 . 4 . 1; 6 . 4 . 1. Note 2. See a l s o 9. 20.

Shyr (

*d iet ( r e f s . K398; Y S D . 5. 59; P S H . 807; 3. 02897) T

(N.)

" f r u i t " ( - of a t r e e ) " e a r s " ( - of grain)

(V.)

"to be t r u e " 2 5 4 . 6 .

(reduplL. )

h i s h y r - s h y r " s o l i d " ( - of the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a temple) 300. 2; i n y e o u - s h y r "abundant" ( - of foliage) 191.10; " r i c h " ( - of g r o w i n g grain) 290. 20; u . f . s h y r " p r e c i o u s stone" 225. 14.

(gram. )

(a) Intensive before attributes, " t r u l y " 2 . 4 . 1,. 6 . 6 . (b) P o l a r m o d a l positive r e p l a c e m e n t , indicaitive, " r e a l l y is" 3.3.1.4. (c) Demonstrative used a n a p h o r i c a l l y . 3. 8.1 ; 4. 10. 1 and 7. 4. (d) Conjunction i n n a r r a t i v e sequence.

6.4.1,

See a l s o 9. 20. Shyr

*diak (refs. K866; P S H . 807; 3. 02892) (gram. )

Shyun

h i a s s e r t i o n s of t r u t h and f a l s i t y , " t r u l y " 4. 9,. 1. *siwen ( r e f s . K392; Y S D . 6. 102; 5. 01222)

(attrib.. ))

"far a p a r t " (31.19).

(gram. )

Intensive before attributes, " v e r y " 2 . 4 . 1. 6. 6 See a l s o 9. 3 . 4 .

* s l i a g (refs. K 9 7 5 ; Y S D . 5. 53; P S H . 794; 5. 90502)

Shyy ( Y J

"to appoint" ( - t o office) 194.45.

(gram. )

M a r k e r of the p e r i p h r a s t i c causative.

3 . 4 . 5.

See a l s o 9. 8. *siag (refs. K976; Y S D . 5. 54; P S H . 793; 5. 34681)

Shyy (V.)

"to begin w o r k "

( g r a m . ;)

(a) Inchoative aspect, "begin t o " 3. 3. 2. 2. (b) A s p e c t of i n c i d e n c e , "for the f i r s t t i m e " ¿3 . 3 . 2 . 7. (c) h i t i m e p o s i t i o n , "at f i r s t , p r i o r to t h i s " i3.10. 1.

Sue^

*dziwad (refs. K526; Y S D . 6. 98; P S H . 716; 2. 09960

L E X I C O N A N D INDEX OF WORDS (v. )

307

"to f o l l o w " > " c o m p l y w i t h " "obey" "to continue" ( - i n favour) 151. 12; "to advance" 3 0 4 . 4 2 ; "to c o m p l e t e " ( - a song) 252.49; "to end" ( - a famine) 194.30.

(gram. )

Conjunction of r e s u l t a t i v e sequence, "with the r e s u l t that" 6. 5. 5. See a l s o 9.18. 2.

Suh

*siok ( r e f s . K1030; Y S D . 6. 91; 2. 81720) "to be too e a r l y " 100. 12; "to give b i r t h p r e m a t u r e l y ' 245. 8. b. ) (attrib.

" e a r l y " > i n good t i m e > " b e t i m e s "

(gram. )

(a) h i s u h - s h i h

c u s t o m a r y aspect, "constant -

l v " 3. 3. 2. 6. (b) A s p e c t s of i n c i d e n c e , " e a r l y " 3 . 3 . 7. 7. Suoo

*$3io (refs. K 9 1 ; Y S D . 6. 92; P S H . 786; 5. 82821)

(nj

" a p l a c e " ( - where someone i s ) 78. 8; " r i g h t f u l p l a c e " 113. 8.

(gram. )

Indefinite substitute.

7. 6 . 1 ; i n m i i - s u o o

Note 1; i n wu-suoo

4. 8.

" l i t t l e t i m e f o r " 159. 6.

See a l s o 9. 23. Swei

*siwor ( r e f s . K 5 7 5 : Y S D . 6. 95; P S H . 184, 697, 828; 5.86976) (gram.

(a) C o n c e s s i v e conjunction, a l s o as s w e i - t z e r { 6. 3. 2 (see a l s o 6. 3. 2. Note 3). (b) R e s t r i c t i v e c o p u l a . 4 . 4 . 2 . See a l s o 9.18. 1.

*siog ( r e f s . K 9 7 3 ; Y S D . 6. 79; P S H . 708; 3. 88014) (ruj

"thoughts"

(y^j

"to think of" "to long f o r "

(attrib. )

"thoughtful"

(gram. )

(a) P r e f i x e d to attributes f o r m s q u a s i - r e d u p l i c a t e s . 1. 2 . 1 . 2. (see a l s o 1. 2 . 1 . 3). (b) D e m o n s t r a t i v e , i n d e t e r m i n a t i v e usage. 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 2. (c) D e m o n s t r a t i v e , i n anaphoric usage. 3. 8 . 1 ; 4 . 1 0 . 1 . See a l s o 7.4; 9. 2; 9. 13 and 9. 20.

*sieg (refs. K869; Y S D . 6. 76; P S H . 702; 5. 39823) (p. n . )

In H s i - s z u (a noble of Lu) 300.118.

308

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS (v. )

M

(gram. )

to l o p " ( - b r a n c h e s f r o m a t r e e ) 1 4 1 . 2 .

(a) P r e f i x e d to attributes and suffixed to v e r b s , nouns and n u m e r a l s , f o r m s q u a s i - r e d u p l i c a t e s .

1. 2. 1. 2.

(see a l s o 1. 2 . 1 . 3 and 1. 2 . 1 . 4 ) . (b) P a r t i c l e of d e t e r m i n a t i o n . 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . (c) D e m o n s t r a t i v e , i n determinative usage. (d) D e m o n s t r a t i v e , i n anaphoric usage.

2 . 4 . 1. 6. 2.

3.8.1.

(e) M e t r i c a l w o r d . 3. 9 . 1 . (f ) h i s y - h e r

7 . 5 . 3 . 1.

See a l s o 7.4; 9. 2; 9. 3. 2; 9. 13 and 9. 20. Syh

*siad ( r e f s . K509; Y S D . 6. 80; P S H . 710; 5. 86502) (n. )

(i) to cut down ( - a n enemy) 241.4; 236. 55. ff

11

(ii) "to s p r e a d out" ( - a sleeping mat) 246. 7; "to set out

1

( - s a c r i f i c e s ) 282. 6; ( - s a c r i f i c i a l meat) 209. 17; "to set f o r t h " ( - v i r t u e before others) 273.14. (gram. )

(a) Intensive before attributes.

2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 6.

(b) Conjunction, r e s u l t a t i v e sequence.

6. 5. 5.

See a l s o 9.18. 2. * t â (refs. K 4 ; Y S D . 2. 26; 5. 90310)

Ta

!

"the o t h e r s " ( - other than those mentioned) 217. 6; "the

"be pregnant" 236. 13;

i n ye o u - s h i n (

) have/thoughts > "be c o n c e r n e d " h a v e / c h a r g e "feudal a p ­

256. 84; i n y e o u - m i n q

pointees" 236.22; a l s o , before nouns "the r u l e r of" as i n

(gram. )

yeou-bee i (

"the r u l e r of the N o r t h " 200. 27;

yeou-jou (

'the r u l e r of C h o u " 235. 5.

(a) A s suffix and p r e f i x f o r m i n g q u a s i - r e d u p l i c a t i v e s . 1. 2. 1. 2. (see a l s o 1. 2. 1. 3). (b) h i w o r d - f o r m a t i o n , positive r e f l e x f o r m of c e r t a i n p r i v a t i v e s . 2 . 4 . 1 . 6. 3. (c) M o d a l determinant of v e r b , subjunctive.

3. 3 . 1 . 4 .

(d) A g e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i v e "of the agents, s o m e " 3. 5. 3 . 1 . (e) A s d e t e r m i n e d t e r m i n statements of o c c u r r e n c e and presence.

4. 8. (see a l s o 7. 5. 3. 3).

(f ) Indefinite substitute.

7. 6. 1.

(g) Conjunction for n u m e r a l s . (h) U s e d i n aspectuals.

8. 3.

3. 3. 2. 6.

See a l s o 9 . 4 . 2; 9. 9; 9.17 and 9. 23. Yeu

*zio ( r e f s . K 8 9 ; Y S D . 9. 11; P S H . 1; 3. 87900) [n. ;

" a c o m p a n i o n " 37. 6.

(v. )

(i) "to a s s o c i a t e w i t h " ( - another person) 22. 8; ( - with r u m o u r s , i . e. give credence to them) 125.12. (ii) "to grant t o , to give t o " (see 3 . 4 . 8).

LEXICON AND INDEX OF WORDS (attrib. )

" r i c h " ( - of s a c r i f i c e s ) 301. 1.

(redupl. )

r e a d i u i n i u - i u " r i c h , abundant" ( - of c r o p s ) 209. 5.

(gram. )

(a) Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e , s i m p l e connection. 2 . 3 . See a l s o 3. 5 . 4 . (b) Interjection, a l s o i n i - y e u (

) 5.1.

See a l s o 9. 3. 1. *ziwan ( r e f s . K468; Y S D . 9. 33; P S H . 82; 3. 60210)

Yeun ( (EiJk) (v. ))

h i Chung-ytin (a M i n i s t e r ) 193. 28.

(gram.)

(a) Intensive before attributes.

"to advance, t r a v e l b y " 2 9 6 . 4 . 2. 4 . 1 . 6. 6.

(b) C o p u l a , " i s indeed" 4 . 4 . 2 . (c) D e t e r m i n e d t e r m i n statements of t r u t h and f a l s i t y . 4. 9. 1. See a l s o 9. 3 . 4 . *ngia (:r e f s . K 2 1 ; Y S D . 7.4; P S H . 439; 3. 02873)

Yi

Make r i g h t > " o r d e r w e l l " ( - a household) 6. 8 > " d r e s s "

( Y J

( - game f o r the table) 82. 8; be r i g h t > "be appropriate f o r " "befit" ( - of a r e w a r d ) 238. 8; "do things p r o p e r l y " 214. 20; be r i g h t f o r > "fit to b e " ( - a king) 249. 10; as a r i g h t > "be j u s t l y due t o " 2 1 6 . 4 ; think r i g h t > "approve" 300.48. (attrib. )

(see 3. 2).

R i g h t , p r o p e r ( - f o r Y i n to r e c e i v e the Mandate) 303. 21; suitable, appropriate ( - o f f i c e r s ) 300. 107.

(gram. )

(a) M o d a l p o l a r f o r m , injunctive. 3. 3. 1.4. (b) A s d e t e r m i n e d t e r m , "just it i s that" 4. 9. 1. See also 9 . 4 . 2.

*giog (i (refs. K954; Y S D . 7. 24; P S H . 257; 3. 88395)

Yih (v. )

"to be different f r o m " 108. 6; to differ > "to e r r " 188.18.

(attrib. )

different > "strange, r a r e " ( - of a plant) 4 2 . 1 0 ; different > " s e p a r a t e " ( - b e d c h a m b e r s ) 73. 9; see 7.4 f o r y i h - r e n

Yih (

Yih (

* . i e d ( r e f s . K395; P S H . 255, 206; 5.31011) (attrib. )

"beautiful" ( - of v i r t u e ) 273. 13; ( - of a basket) 154.16.

(gram.)

Interjection, OI 5 . 1 .

*ziak (refs. K800; Y S D . 7. 27; P S H . 171; 3. 01220)

THE LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK OF SONGS

318 (man. )I

" a m p l y " 277. 7.

( g r a m . ))

(a) Disjunctive conjunction, s i m p l e connection.

L

6.3.1.

(b) C o n c e s s i v e conjunction, 6. 3. 2. (see a l s o 6. 3. 2. Note 3). See a l s o 9 . 1 8 . 1 . Yih

'ngia (refs. K 2 ; Y S D . 7. 26; 3. 91350) (attrib.. )

"justly h e l d " ( - reputation) 235. 51; ( - authority) 255. 19.

(gram. )

P o l a r m o d a l f o r m , injunctive.

3. 3. 1.4.

See a l s o 9.4. 2. Yih

:

. iak (refs. K 9 1 5 ; Y S D . 7. 33; P S H . 206, 255; 5. 50820)

(attrib.. ))

hi yih-ruoh

(redupl. ¡

h i y i h - y i h " r e s t r a i n e d " ( - of deportment) 220. 38, 249. 13,

" r e f i n e d " (see 4. 3 . 1 . Note).

256. 1. (gram. )

(a) M o m e n t a r y aspect, i n y i h - v e r b y i h - v e r b , 3. 3. 2. 3. (b) Interjection,

5.1.

z i o g (refs. K976; Y S D . 7. 21; P S H . 13, 200; 3. 60990)

Yii (

(gram. )

Metrical particle.

3. 9 . 1 .

See a l s o 9. 13. * z i o g ( r e f s . K976; Y S D . 7. 8; P S H . 13, 37, 716; 5.27900)

Yii (nj

"a cause or r e a s o n " 37. 8.

(v. )

"to use, e m p l o y " ( - wine) 203. 33; ( - f l u t e s ) 208.19.

(gram. )

(a) Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e l i n k i n g two agents. 3. 5.4. (b) Instrument p a r t i c l e . (c) h i y i i - w e i

3. 6 . 1 ; 3. 6. 2 . (see a l s o 3. 6 . 4 ) . c o n s t r u c t i o n s , see 3. 6. 3.

(see

a l s o 3. 6. 3. Note 1). (d) P o s t - v e r b a l p a r t i c l e .

3 . 4 . 8.

(e) h i cause and consequence statements, a l s o as s h y h yii

4. 11.

(f ) F o r h e r - y i i

see 7. 5. 2 . 4 and 7. 5. 3. 5.

See a l s o 9. 3 . 1 and 9 . 1 2 . Yinn

*ngien (refs. K1251; P S H . 441; 3.39010) (gram. ;

State of agency, "be w i l l i n g " 3 . 3 . 4 . (see a l s o 3. 3 . 4 . 1 ) See a l s o 9. 6.

Yonq

*diung (refs. K1185; Y S D . 9. 36; P S H . 84, 90; 2. 82504) (v.)

(i) "to offer i n s a c r i f i c e " 1 3 . 3 .

L E X I C O N A N D INDEX OF WORDS

319

(ii) "to u s e " > "to handle" ( - weapons) 31. 2 > "to e m p l o y " ( - good men) 193.12; "to make use of" ( - b a d j e s t s ) 254.30; "to a v a i l oneself of" ( - w a r n i n g s ) 193.10 > "to heed" ( - admonitions) 194. 34. (attrib. )

hi yonq-bing (

(gram. )

(a) Instrumental p a r t i c l e . 3. 6. 1.

i "prone to v i o l e n c e " 257. 15.

(b) h i y i i - w e i c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

3. 6. 3. Note 1.

(c) h i cause and consequence sequences, as shyh-yonq (

"therefore" a l s o

4.11.

(d) h i her -yone

) 7.5.3.5.

See a l s o 9 . 1 2 . * z i ô g ( r e f s . K1096; Y S D . 7.48; P S H . 67, 72; 5.42982)

You

(nj

" p l a n s " " c o u n s e l " 178.40 etc.

(v. )

"to make p l a n s " > " c o n s p i r e " 189. 7.

(attrib. )

hi buh-you (

"not l i k e " ( - others > " p e e r l e s s " )

208.14; ( - it should be > " f a l l i n g short") 229. 8; " u n a l i k e " ( - a s one p e r s o n s lot with another) 2 1 . 1 0 . T

(gram. )

(a) M o d a l p o l a r r e p l a c e m e n t , subjunctive.

3.3.1.4.

(b) h i c o n c e s s i o n , see 6. 3. 2. Note 2. (c) u . f . y o u {

as l e x i c a l d i r e c t i v e . 3.4. 6.

See a l s o 9. 4. 2. You

* d i ô g ( r e f s . K1079; Y S D . 7. 51; P S H . 64, 67, 72; 1.58884) Iv. )

(i) "to go by way of" ( - a c e r t a i n road) 101. 4; "to f o l l o w " ( - w o r d s > "to agree w i t h , admit") 197. 59, 220. 66; ( - statutes > " c o m p l y with") 249. 12; ( - an example) 249.16. (ii) "to come f r o m " ( > " d e r i v e f r o m " as q u a r r e l s d e r i v e f r o m men) 193. 56.

( g r a m .. )) Yow

L e x i c a l d i r e c t i v e . 3. 4. 6.

*giug (refs. K 9 9 5 ; Y S D . 7. 58; P S H . 149, 161; 1. 88400) (v. )

(i) "to grant a second t i m e " ( - H e a v e n s Mandate) 196. 12. T

(ii) "to urge a guest to d r i n k or eat m o r e " 220. 69, 171.16. ( i i i ) u.f, (attrib. )

"help" 220. 26.

" a d d i t i o n a l , m o r e " (in

"more w h a t ? " ) 222. 7,

320

T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E B O O K O F SONGS 276. 7. (gram. )

(a) Durative aspect "continue t o " 3. 3. 2 . 4 . (b) A s p e c t of incidence "once m o r e " 3. 3. 2. 7. (c) Disjunctive conjunction, s i m p l e connection.

6.3.1.

See a l s o 9. 1 8 . 1 . Yu {

*dio (refs. K 8 3 ; P S H . 259; 2. 90760) (gram. )

Yu

P r o n o u n (see 7. 2. 1. footnote).

*giwo (refs. K 9 7 ; Y S D . 9. 7; P S H . 4 1 , 4 9 , 301; 1. 70300) (vj

"to go t o " (see 3. 3. Note 1).

(gram. )

(a) P a r t i c l e of the p o s t - v e r b a l p o s i t i o n . 3 . 4 . (b) h i place i n d i c a t i o n s . 3 . 1 0 . 1 . (c) Interjection, i n y u - j i e ( (d) h i y u - h e r i

5.1.

and y u - h w u (

7. 5. 2. 2

(see a l s o 6 . 4 . 1 . Note 2). Yu

* . i o (refs. K 6 1 ; Y S D . 9. 1; P S H . 4 9 , 251, 254; 5.02900) (gram. )

(a) P a r t i c l e of the p o s t - v e r b a l p o s i t i o n . 3 . 4 . (b) Syntagmatic p a r t i c l e l i n k i n g two agents. 3. 5. 4. (c) R e a d u *. o, Interjection, a l s o i n u - h u u-hu

I and

5. 1.

See a l s o 9. 3. 1 and 9. 7. Yu

*dio (refs.

K 8 3 ; P S H . 1, 259; 3. 10720)

(v. )

"to g i v e " ( - a gift) 53.12; see 3 . 4 . 8.

(gram. )

(a) P e r s o n a l pronoun, p e r s o n speaking. (b) h i determinant usage, 2 . 4 . 1. 6. 1 (see a l s o 2 . 4 . 1. 6. 1. 1); i n apposition, 2. 5; i n agentive use, 3. 5. 2.

(see

also 3 . 4 . 5; 3. 5. 7 and 7. 2. 1). See also 9. 19. Yuan

*giwan (refs. K255; Y S D . 9. 26; P S H . 145; 3. 22740) (redupl. )

h i yuan-yuan "move c a u t i o u s l y " 70. 1.

(gram. )

A l l e g r o f o r m of y u - t z y

i and thus:

(a) h i place p o s i t i o n , r e c a p i t u l a t e s p l a c e , "there" 3 . 1 0 . 1 , (for i n t e r r o g a t i v e f o r m " w h e r e ? " see 7. 5. 2. 2). (b) Conjunction, "whereupon" 6 . 4 . 1 . See a l s o 9. 21. Yuh i

*biwat (refs. K502; Y S D . 9. 21; P S H . 138; 1. 58002)

L E X I C O N A N D INDEX OF WORDS

321

(v )

"to r e a c h t o " ( - its c l o s e , of the y e a r ) 207.16.

(gram.)

In t i m e p o s i t i o n , "by the t i m e that, before, u n t i l " 3 . 1 0 . 1 . See a l s o 9.15.

Yuh

*giwet (refs. K507; Y S D . 9. 22; P S H . 138; 2. 09121) (redupl. )

In h w e i - y u h * g w a r - g i w e t " a w r y " 195. 3; "go a s t r a y " T

257. 105 "to deflect, or t u r n f r o m " ( - v i r t u e ) 256. 113. (gram. ) Yun

In t i m e p o s i t i o n , "by this t i m e , u n t i l " etc. 3 . 1 0 . 1 .

*giwan (refs. K460; Y S D . 9. 28; P S H . 197; 3. 11600) See appendix I.