THE LANGUAGE OF PEDAGOGY TODAY: WHAT ARE THE NEW TEACHING CHALLENGES?

Table of contents :
Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1
Neologism of Loans in the Language of Pedagogy
Interlingual Loans: Anglicisms
Voices from Classical Languages
Intralinguistic Loan
Loans in Primary Education
Acataphasia
Acatagraphia
Acatalepsia
Acatamathesia
Acatisia
Acianoblepsia
Accommodation
Bradyglossia
Bradylalia
Bradylexia
Cacolalia
Catalepsy
Conductism
Counterconditioning
Coprolalia
Cryptography
Criptolalia
Cryptomnesia
Dereism
Decentration
Deconditioning
Dyscalculia
Dysphasia
Dyslexia
Diglossia
Dysgraphia
Dysgrammatism
Dyslalia
Dyslogia
Dysorthography
Echolalia
Echolocalisation
Eidetic
Embolalia
Embololexia
Empathy
Graphomotricity
Graphotherapy
Hyperactivity
Hypomnesia
Hypoprosexia
Idioglossia
Logotherapy
Macropolitical
Music Therapy
Oliglubia
Oligophasia
Psychodiagnostic
Psychometrics
Psychotecnia
Realism
Intensifier
Reinforcement
Reyfication
Chapter 2
Terminology in the Pedagogy Language
“Sector Language” in Pedagogy: Technicisms
“Secondary Terminoligisation”
Acronyms
Primary Education Abbreviations
Secondary Education Abbreviations
Vocational Training Abbreviations
University Level Abbreviations
Syntactic Expressions: Nature and Function
Conclusions
References
About the Authors
Index
Blank Page

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LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS

THE LANGUAGE OF PEDAGOGY TODAY WHAT ARE THE NEW TEACHING CHALLENGES?

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LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS

THE LANGUAGE OF PEDAGOGY TODAY WHAT ARE THE NEW TEACHING CHALLENGES? REBECCA SOLER COSTA AND

TURGAY HAN

Copyright © 2018 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions to reuse content from this publication. Simply navigate to this publication’s page on Nova’s website and locate the “Get Permission” button below the title description. This button is linked directly to the title’s permission page on copyright.com. Alternatively, you can visit copyright.com and search by title, ISBN, or ISSN. For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact: Copyright Clearance Center Phone: +1-(978) 750-8400 Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470 E-mail: [email protected]. NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN: H%RRN

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

CONTENTS Introduction

vii

Chapter 1

Neologism of Loans in the Language of Pedagogy

Chapter 2

Terminology in the Pedagogy Language

1 61

Conclusions

171

References

175

About the Authors

223

Index

225

INTRODUCTION In the field of Pedagogy, there are different publications about the processes of interaction didactic in the classroom, as well as the processes of verbal and non-verbal communication. However, there currently exists no scientific work that reflects an analysis showing the terms and expressions this language of specialty has, in the conformation of its lexicon. This linguistic aspect in the discipline of Pedagogy (Language Discourse in Pedagogy) is extremely necessary and is experiencing changes constantly. When teachers interact in the classroom and out of it, they make use of a language, terms and expressions that contain specific semantic meanings that strictly belong to this epistemological community and, in fact, those terms and expressions bestow the pedagogical speech its scientific status. In light of the fact that the pedagogical speech is constantly altered by the implementation of educative Acts, teachers, researchers and other educative agents need to be aware of the new terms. These reasons have driven the creation of this book, which we deem essential for the professionals who work in the field of education, on all levels, formal and non-formal. It is true that teachers make use of a language that seems understandable by anyone. However, if we analyze the voices and

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expressions used, we detect that the terms that make up their vocabulary are formed both by words that belong to the general language as well as by specific terms, which strictly belong to the discipline of Pedagogy. In order to analyze and show what kind of language teaching professionals use, how they communicate with students, what terms are used to explain to parents the academic development of their child, what kind of lexicon is used in specific meetings, speeches, etc. the reader will find in this book a characterization of the language of Pedagogy through the analysis of its neologisms, anglicisms and technicisms. This book, therefore, is aimed at teachers, researchers, teaching professionals, and to anyone interested in the field of Education. Reading it they will find helpful insights into the scientific field of Pedagogy, as well as discovering how a science or a discipline builds its language. In short, it is one step forward to learn more about the epistemology of this discipline. The progress of this 21st-century society, the emergence of the socalled “knowledge society,” and the existence of epistemological communities in the different scientific disciplines all contribute vastly, along with other factors, to disseminate specific knowledge, terminology and expressions. The dissemination of novel words to represent facts is connected with the new socio-educative needs. The epistemological community of Pedagogy is required to refer to new language resources, new concepts, and thus, this community creates new terms and expressions that facilitate communication (neologisms, anglicisms, technicisms and syntactic expressions). The epistemological communities are not watertight compartments; they interact with other disciplines, they are interdisciplinary and this prompts new specialized and complex linguistic codes with an idiosyncratic vocabulary. The concept of the knowledge society is closely related to the type of vocabulary of a particular epistemological community, since it is the most differentiating feature that characterize specialized languages. Many of the terms Pedagogists use have undergone processes of semantic neology.

Introduction

ix

Since the general language cannot create new lexical units that meet the new socio-educative needs, they simply adopt already existing meanings in the linguistic system and assign them a new meaning. As a reader, therefore, you will find in this book an analysis of the terms that have acquired a specific meaning in the language of Pedagogy and allow communication in this epistemological community (fathers, teachers, counselors, researchers, pedagogists, psychologists…). The book is divided into two major parts. The first one provides an extensive and current theoretical framework on neologisms of the loan in the language of Pedagogy, covering the interlingual loan, the voices of classical languages and the inter-linguistic loan, with numerous examples with the hope of facilitating its understanding in the reader. The second part of this book shows a terminological analysis of technicisms, secondary terminologizations, acronyms and syntactic expressions. Therefore, the reader will have a holistic and specific overview of the language of Pedagogy in order to understand its terms and express their reference needs. Secondary terminologizations constitute a procedure to use the terms of a discipline in a different discipline with a new specialized meaning. Acronyms are also very frequent in the language of Pedagogy and they supplement the lack of technicisms. They transmit the meaning objectively, precisely and in a depersonalized way. The syntactic expressions contribute to allowing communication between professional and non-professional speakers and are characteristic of the language of Pedagogy. The epistemological community of Pedagogy has a special language, used in specific communicative contexts and with different forms of content. This does not mean it is necessary to develop a semantic analysis, but rather to be aware of how words are created and what meanings are legitimized. For all these reasons, we considered the book was necessary to contribute to a better knowledge and understanding of the discipline of Pedagogy.

Chapter 1

NEOLOGISM OF LOANS IN THE LANGUAGE OF PEDAGOGY Regardless of the existence of “formal, functional and semantic resources” (Cabré, 1993: 188-191) or the processes of word formation, (Almela, 1999; Benveniste, 1977; Coseriu, 1977, 1978, 1982; Guilbert, 1976; Lang, 1992; Lázaro, 1986; Lyons, 1989; Marchand, 1967; Martinell, 1995; Rainer, 1993; Scalise, 1987; Varela, 1990, 1993), the general linguistic system has got other procedures to obtain new terms as well. Since specialized languages make use of the same lexical, semantic and syntactical procedures than the general language, as sublanguages which belong to this linguistic system, neology of the loan will be the same as the one used in general language. First, the phenomena of the interlingual loan will be analyzed, which will demonstrate how this specialized language makes use of lots of anglicisms, due to the development of this scientific discipline. Second, the phenomenon of semantic calque will be studied. This specialized language does not contain many forms of borrowings; instead it is in its pure state and there are few cases in which it has been preceded with a phonetic graphic adaptation to the language linguistic system.

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Third, interlingual loans and voices with origin in classical languages will be examined. Punctuation loans are all those terms which the “sector language” of Pedagogy borrows from other disciplines. Loans whose origin comes from classical languages - usually from the Greek and Latin - have been adopted in the linguistic systems by changing its spelling. In both cases, the meaning of the word which is borrowed maintains the language that borrows its original meaning. Cases of interlinguistic loan from other disciplines are very frequent, especially the terms borrowed from Psychology, due to its thematic affinity of study. Fourthly, “high terminologisation” procedures will be developed, through which a technical term of a specialized language is taken as a loan from other scientific discipline and its sense is redefined, by modifying their semantic selection traits (well restricted, well expanded). Finally, specific technical terms from the “sector language” of Pedagogy will be indicated. The number of specific terms in this scientific discipline is limited. This is an indicator that this language is in a “threshold level,” in which there are words from the general language and technical terms, typical of “scientific-technical languages.” Most of these technical terms have been created specifically in this sublanguage and, consequently, they only make sense and use in the educational context.

INTERLINGUAL LOANS: ANGLICISMS The interlingual loan does not imply an important dedication in this research since its analysis is part of the general language study. It is known as interlingual loan acquisition of new lexical units which maintain their original form through the intervention of other codes, for example, English: input, mobbing, leasing. This procedure allows language to widen its vocabulary without having to proceed with mechanisms of word formation which build or divert an existing meaning or to create a unit new lexical (with included signifier).

Neologism of Loans in the Language of Pedagogy

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For the language, it is effective to adopt words of other linguistic systems, provided that it does not have serious consequences (difficulty in pronunciation, inability to transmit the significant due to lack of adaptation with the alphabet of the target language, etc.). The interlingual loan involves a neological enrichment in any language. Considering the influence and the effects of globalization and the emergence of the 21st-century knowledge society, it is easy to observe that these continuous technological, scientific and technical advancements require and will require lexical units representing them. From the linguistic point of view, this sociological development has direct consequences in the language: it is a deployment and growth especially in the specialized languages, which is where more specific terms are generated, although, to a lesser extent, the general language is also affected by this phenomenon of expansive growth and new discoveries. In the scientific field, and by scientific we must understand any professional discipline, it is essential to name those objects, concepts, processes, products, mechanisms or procedures, among others, which arise from new creations and that, furthermore, proliferate quickly enough. To do this, the linguistic system must have terms which convey and represent these new referential realities effectively. Native speakers’ tendency of a language is to seize words from other languages, usually from languages of prestige - such as English and, to a lesser degree, French as well. Of course, this does not mean that it is easy to differentiate between a foreign word or xenium1 and loan2. Guerrero (1995: 37), as well as other linguists, establishes differences between loans by need or denotative and luxury loans or connotation. In the first case, denominative needs which must be satisfied linguistically supposed to opt out of the use of terms borrowed from another language, and then include them in our own vocabulary. In the second case, the loans are adopted for reasons of prestige.

1 2

Those voices that are not assimilated into the receiving language are called xenismos. The loan means that the word has already been accepted in the lexicon of a language portfolio.

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Obviously, the language with a greater number of loans of this type for example in the case of Spanish and Turkish it would be English, American English in particular – we see a powerful language, with social, economic and cultural prestige, spoken in a dominant country and extended all over the world. These reasons suggest that many terms are taken through direct lending, with minor modifications in its spelling, especially in its graphemes. They are the anglicisms of the form: counseling3, used with meaning: Systematic support, offered to a person, so that this person gets to a better understanding of its characteristics and potentialities, to the acceptance of their own reality and the achievement of setting-out oneself capacity. All of this is focused on the development of his personality and on an effective contribution to the society in which he lives. (Sánchez, 1988)

The anglicism hoster has been spread successfully in the Spanish language, to such an extent that, on many occasions, this English form is preferred to the voice of a tutor or the person who acts as a guardian to a student from another University4. See the following excerpt of text from the University of Limerick of the Department of physical education and Sports Sciences: The PESS department has a high reputation and has been recognized nationally as a leader in the delivery of physical education and sport science programs. The department hosts two undergraduate full-time Bachelor of Science programs, Physical Education, and Sport and Exercise Sciences. The popularity of the PESS programs attracts the highest qualified students to UL at the undergraduate level and exposes

3 4

As direct lending, Spanish language, of course, does not collect it in any general dictionary. Note that the meaning of these foreign forms shows exclusive references to the paradigm of Pedagogy.

Neologism of Loans in the Language of Pedagogy

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them to an exceptional sporting environment. In addition, the department also hosts three graduate programs5.

The anglicisms are, therefore, other types of loans of the English language. Sometimes, these are produced by situations of contact between languages. Sapir (1921: 34) states that a human community can give another community or take any aspect of culture from it: We know that myths, religious ideas, types of social organisation, the industrial ingenuities and other traits of culture may be extended from one place to another, becoming house in cultures in which at first they seem unrelated. (Ibid.)

Significantly, Schmidt (1872) understands that languages, as cultural elements, are subject to the broadcasting. Consequently, depending on the linguistic situation and on the circumstances in which they exist - if it is a situation of languages in contact or rather issues of cultural and social prestige, etc.-, one feature or another will be taken. He distinguishes five situations in which a grammatical loan may take place. The first one is due to a situation in which more or less the same people have spoken several languages in the same area for a long period of time, resulting in a situation of formal convergence, more visible in the phonic level because “... language systems sounds can evolve in a manner increasingly similar without a clear influence in a certain direction” (Appel and Muysken, 1996). The reason why this type of convergence occurs is hard to determine. Appel and Muysken (1996) suggest that it may be due to the proximity of two languages or that there is a population numerically important which speaks two languages and tend to use the same structures in both languages.

5

http://www2.ul.ie/web/WWW/Faculties/Education_&_Health_Sciences/Departments/Physical_ Education_and_Sport_Sciences/ (Accessed: 16/06/2010).

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On the other hand, Dixon (1997: 20) says that “... a language tends to take borrowed new constructions which are compatible with their overall pattern of grammatical organization.” In this way, languages often borrow some words in order to fill in gaps in their own grammatical systems. It is true that speakers who have some competence in a second and even third language (L2) try their language to accommodate the way grammar is organized under the influence of other languages. It is the process of relexicalization; the replacement of the vocabulary of one language by another, while keeping the original grammar. However some authors, such as Appel and Muysken (1996), consider that it is often impossible to maintain the original grammar in the process of relexicalization, especially when function words are introduced- for example, adverbs, prepositions, etc. — of the new language. On one hand, the words of a language are independent, but on the other hand they are compelled to become part of a system: the lexicon. Their partial structures together with the context in which the words appear in the sentence impose structural restrictions on the loan6. Of all grammatical phenomena, the replacements -as good/better-, morphological irregularities- such as sing/sang -or the full paradigms- as the conjugation of a verb- are the least likely to the loan, in comparison with the lexemes or grammatical structures. The third situation in which a grammatical loan can take place is the one in which a language becomes divergent from its original form because it has been transported to another region. Therefore, when the speakers of other languages of this region adopt it as a second language because of its cultural or social prestige, the original language of these speakers can influence the new language in different ways. In this sense, Appel and Muysken (1996) claim that arguing in favor of a trait of the substrate in a particular system involves consideration of three steps:

6

As Dwight already noted (1881), in Sanskrit, these restrictions are manifested in the fact that some categories may be provided more easily than others, or at least more frequently.

Neologism of Loans in the Language of Pedagogy

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[…] first show that there is a diachronic, stylistic and sociolinguistic variation—; then, show that one of the variants is characteristic of the process of acquisition and, finally, show that this could have resulted from the loan, since it is in fact also present in other linguistic systems. (Ibid., 235) The fifth and final situation in which a grammatical loan may occur has to do with the imitation of models of a sentence or complex expressions of a language of prestige. This case will be exclusively limited to superficial phenomena, since only grammatical aspects that are easily perceived may imitate. (Ibid., 236)

The only aspect which differentiates the grammatical loan from other types of change lies in that the cause stipulated for its realization is the presence of the feature provided in other grammatical systems of the linguistic environment (Appel and Muysken, 1996: 242). However, one aspect that requires special emphasis in the moment in which two languages are in a contact situation, is who borrows from whom. The fundamental issue lies in the possibilities of broadcasting, that is, who takes borrowed from whom and what is borrowed. (Dixon, 1997: 22). In relation to the first question, two important factors should be pointed out. The first is prestige, which, in turn, shows two possibilities in extremis: if the prestige of two languages in the same community is the same, there will be no bilingualism in both directions7 But if a certain language has got a special prestige - as the language of the ruling class or as a language of culture - and there is another language present, the usage of this second language will feel pressure from the first which enjoys greater prestige. However, the opposite case will never occur when it comes to reasons related to the prestige. The second relevant factor as who borrows from whom is closely related to complexity.

7

As it may be the case of the German and French in Luxembourg or Austria, countries where more than two languages (French, German, Italian) are spoken. It is, therefore, multilingualism.

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In this sense, Dixon (1997: 23) considers that “... if the X language is more complex than the language Y and then X speakers will find it easier to understand and speak Y as a second language rather than the contrary.” In such circumstances, Dixon (1997), says, X will be prone to borrow from Y in order to look like more to Y, while Y will be less likely to change in the direction of X: The complexity can be both phonological - it could have a more complex syllabic structure - such as grammar - it could use the syntactic function through pronouns linked to the verb while Y would use the contrastive word order. (Ibid., 23)

The second question which has been raised covers both the social and the linguistic attitudes, since both are triggers for the choice of the language features which are provided. There is a general tendency to regard language as an indicator of ethnic identity. An example is introduced by Aikhenvald (1996: 24) when he describes the basin of the Vaupés River on the border between Colombia and Brazil, where, he says, everyone should marry someone of another linguistic group: “[...]those who speak the same language... are like brothers, and here we do not marry our sisters.” In cases like this, there is multilingualism where loan vocabulary is hardly perceived. Its speakers are very careful because they do not want to mix languages, and they consider languages to the lexicon exclusively. It is, with no doubt, a question of attitude. Thus, it seems that some people are reluctant to borrow and, on the other hand, they prefer to create names for new things. Dixon (1997) adds that this is the case of a minority of languages, since in the majority of cases of contact of languages “... we find loan vocabulary at a regular rate and loan of grammatical forms in one much smaller proportion” (Ibid., 25-26). Weinreich (1979: 247) considers that, rather than who borrows from whom or what is borrowed (Dixon, 1997), the question is what social and cultural factors influence the adoption of loans.

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According to Weinreich (1979), this linguistic phenomenon is produced by cultural influence and they can be divided into six different situations, all of which are basically influenced by cultural factors. First of all, it is estimated that there may be rare native words that are lost and should be replaced by foreign words. Secondly, it considers that it may happen that two native words are spoken so similarly than the substitution of one of them by a foreign word resolve possible ambiguities. Thirdly, it states that cultural influence in the selection of foreign forms generates a constant need of synonymous terms of effective words that have lost their expressive force. Fourthly, it exposes that loans can generate new semantic distinctions. Fifthly, it specifies that cultural factors can influence the selection of words of a language of low status which are used in a pejorative sense. And finally, that a word can almost be made unconsciously because of a situation of intense bilingualism. Thus, the linguistic loan constitutes “a form of expression which a linguistic community receives from another” (Deroy, 1956: 20) in such a way that the situation of languages in contact promotes loans linguistic phenomena and conditions its adoption. Note that there are around 6000 languages in the world and many of them are in contact situations. Therefore, it is not surprising that a language adopts from other loans, in the same way that a culture adopts traditions from another one. It is clear that the languages arise from nothing, nor cultures are created as unique and unrepeatable communities. Therefore, the loan involves several languages, not just one, and really, on a few occasions, the meaning of a loan is the same as the original word. The loan affects the lexico-semantic level. But what it is really exceptional is that a borrowed term has got the same meaning as in the original in the target language. A loan is a word adopted by a language from another language for which it is assigned a meaning that the lexicon of this language was unable to call. Therefore, it is a word required by a language, borrowed for this reason but assigned a meaning completely different to the original one.

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That is, the loan is the result of the influence of one language on another – for political, social, cultural or other reasons - due to numerous situations of contact. The result is often the alteration of the level of the language it effects: sometimes it will be phonic, sometimes lexical-semantic such as in the example above, or it can affect the morphology and perhaps even the syntax if it has never existed in a given language that has been completely isolated and, consequently, devoid of loans. When two populations come into contact, they not only influence each other at the language level but also in all aspects of culture. The current use of the media greatly favors this situation. When the loan in a specific language takes place, it has several possibilities, depending on the linguistic level which is affected. Thus, they can differentiate phonic language loans (for example, the phoneme b in the final word in words such as club, pub), spelling (for example, Zimmerman), morphological (as in the case of the suffix - ing in, for example, vending machine, clubbing, jogging, parking), syntactic (an example is the nominal phrase Tennis Club) and lexical-semantic (for example, son-of-a-bitch where the result is the creation of a new word) which are also called neologisms by some linguists to assign a grammatical category. These types of loans are accepted by most authors. However, there are other classifications established according to the considerations on the relationship between the target language and the donor (Urrutia, 1978: 21). Therefore, for Urrutia (1978), the loans can be of two types: a) the external, coming from a foreign language (as, for example, stop in English); and, b) inmates, which are the ones which the target language adopts from its own dialects (such as, for example, peritonitis). Other classifications consider the frequency of use and the level of integration of the loan in the language of the recipient, distinguishing four types of loans: a) the ones of general use (for example, status, college in English), b) the very usual (as hall, input from English), c) of medium use (as slogan from English too),

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d) of limited use (such as nickel in German, novice from French), and, finally, e) sporadic loans (landing from French, and the Italian sketch). Fernandez (1997-99) says that, in many cases, neither the frequency of use nor the integration of loan are taken into consideration, but only the development of taxonomies which allow to classify the type of loan from the language which donates it, deriving Anglicisms, Gallicisms, Americanisms, Italianisms, etc. Medina (1996: 24-25) introduces, in this respect, the latest etimo terms and immediate etimo. The first of them, appoints: […] the originally provided a language like, for example, Latin, Greek, German, French, English... In the Spanish case, numerous voices considered anglicisms have been provided by the English, but this has turned them, at the same time, in some other language. (Ibid.)

The second, the immediate etimo, is “... the language which directly supplies the loan to another one.” On the other hand, it is usually the most renowned type of etimo typically on the cataloguing of anglicisms (Ibid.). These two concepts are important insofar as they both allow to distinguish loans which enter a language, either directly from the donor language, or indirectly, through an intermediary language, such as for example the Latin and Greek words introduced into the Spanish through the English. There are other classifications of lexico-semantic loans that meet criteria of form. Fernandez (1997-99) distinguishes two types: a) Loans involving the adoption, both the signifier and the meaning of the term. These, in turn, are divided into three types: 1) raw: they do not modify the signifier (i.e., feedback); 2) the adapted, both phonetically spelling and morphologically (i.e., campo from English → champa in Spanish);

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han 3) the rubbings: borrowed words taken as a model to be translated word-to-word (as, for example, football). Within the rubbings, it is distinguished: a) the calques themselves, as the example of football; b) the so-called “assume” that, in the words of Fernandez (1997-99: 22) are existing voices in the target language which adopt the meaning (for example, executive, in Spanish ejecutivo). c) False loans: they are words or foreign expressions which, although they are created in the target language, they do not exist in the donor (as it is the case of coach).

Another important aspect that should be taken into account in relation to loans is if they are adopted out of necessity or on the contrary, are not required but nonetheless adopted in the same way. This consideration about the need or absence of need to take loans in a language is closely related to the positions adopted by the speakers. Common sense dictates that necessary loans will be those in which the target language does not have an equivalent expression to represent the concept of the language from which the loan will be taken. Conversely, unnecessary loans are those for which there are equivalent alternatives in the target language. There are three different positions adopted by speakers when words are borrowed by necessity. Firstly, it should be noted the attitude of absolute refusal, preserving an exaggerated purism in the language in question. Second, speakers show a completely contrary position to the previous one, in which the trend is to take loans by profusion unless they are necessary. This attitude is due to the unfounded belief that the foreign is always better than others. Finally, the third position is full acceptance, that is, a belief that loans enrich the lexicon of a language and that for this reason, they are accepted. Fernandez (1997-99) shows two approaches in relation to the degree of integration of the loans in the language. On the one hand, the diachronic

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approach, where every element of a foreign language is a loan and on the other hand, the synchronous one, where it is possible that speakers have become accustomed to using a loan so as not to perceive it as a foreign term and consider it typical of its language. The factors which determine the adoption of loans can be of various kinds, whether they are social, political, economic, cultural, etc. Here again, prestige is the powerful force around which everything else turns: if a country is powerful, it is logical that their language will become the reason for imitation on the part of other, less powerful countries. Their interest in emulating this powerful country with bring about many loans and will result in its language attaining a hegemonic position in the region. The reasons that will cause that adoption of loans of the powerful language will be communicative needs, probably in trade, in politics, in the economy, and there will also be effective needs to create a personal style. Very succinctly Deroy (1956: 24) calls these effective needs reasons of the heart. The anglicisms are a linguistic reality which, as such, require a detailed analysis. Currently, there are abundant works dedicated to thoroughly study this issue, namely Lorenzo (1980) who deals with the generality of the anglicisms. Other authors focus on a particular type of anglicism, such as for example the work of Medina (1996) which studies the anglicisms on the basis of their nature lexical, or Gomez (2000) which focuses on the raw anglicisms which have come to be used in our language without suffering any kind of adaptation. There are many works that analyse the varieties of the language, like Stone (1991) on the oral variety, Pratt (1980) and Mellado (1992) on the geographical variety, Alcaraz (2000) on anglicisms in specific languages, Rodríguez (1980) on anglicisms in the slang of the drug, Gooch (1987) on anglicisms in the political language, or Alzurgaray (1985) on foreign words in the sporting world or the entertainment industry. In addition, there is a long list of authors who have dedicated themselves to the study of the anglicisms in Spanish. In the field of the media, with studies in texts with narrative character argumentative texts

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(such as, textbooks or manuals of style of newspapers: “Manual of urgent Spanish” the EFE agency, “ABC style book” of Spanish press, “The book of country style” of the country, the “book of drafting of the avant-garde” of “La Vanguardia,” through radio stations (as, for example, “Manual of style for informants of the radio” RTVE-RNE), or through television channels (such as the “Manual of style of TVE” tight). Dictionaries, although they consist of a different support, also contribute and have contributed throughout history in the study of the anglicisms. Not only do they put direct translations within the reach of any citizen, but that also they collect those who agree to language in its lexicon8, as well as the date of entry of the voice in the Spanish, in the case of historical dictionaries9. There is neither a single classification universally accepted for loans nor a single classification for the anglicisms. Despite this, some authors have developed complete and closed classifications for the analysis of this linguistic phenomenon. About the different types of anglicisms in the Spanish language, Pratt (1980: 116 and ss.) proposes a solid classification, distinguishing two lexical types: the patent anglicism and the non-patent anglicism and within this taxonomy, he considers it necessary to classify the anglicisms formed by a word or more than one (as, for example, Frogman, third programme, etc.). Under the name of univerbal patent anglicism, Pratt (1980) includes all those English forms that can be found, unless they have not undergone any modification as it is the case with ranking, jogging, sidecar, or with partial or total modifications, as with the words boxing, champagne, slogan. For Pratt (1980) the fact that anglicisms suffer modifications or not in their spelling allows us to identify and classify them from synchronic

8

9

In this regard, see Garcia’s “Dictionary of English media” (1991) and Perales’s “Dictionary of the Video” (1997). In relation to the cinematographic techniques, the following dictionaries are interesting: “Dictionary of anglicisms” Alfaro (1969), “Dictionary of words and foreign phrases in the modern Spanish” Del Hoyo (1984), “The New dictionary of anglicisms” Rodríguez (1980) and Lillo (1999), and the “Dictionary of foreign expressions of Gregorio Doval.”

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linguistic traits, which brand them as foreign, or they accommodate them to the written form of the Spanish language. The unique feature of these types of anglicisms is, at a minimum, that they have a spelling feature that reveals that they are “... foreign to the linguistic system” (Stone, 1957: 119). This descriptive model of identification of the anglicism (univerbal patent) includes not only the spellings that occur in a specific language but their combinations. So, the patent univerbal anglicisms, according to Pratt (1980: 123 and ss.), may have an acceptable spelling (when it is in harmony with the current Spanish orthographic guidelines, in this case) or unacceptable (if it is not). Those who have an unacceptable spelling are sub-classified into five possible types depending on the elements which form the combination: a) Non-Spanish spelling combinations: 1) Consonants: spelling forms where the anglicisms do not find Spanish ones. They are divided into geminated spellings, as in caddie, hobby, hippy, and consonant groups, like Christmas, playback, shock. 2) Vowels: They are grouped in: geminated vowels as in engineering, jeep, sleeping-car and vowel groups such as a compound, round, yogurt. b) The unacceptable spelling itself: this group consists of the letters k and w, as they are frequently used in English but not in Spanish, for example, coke, folklore, karts, bungalow, sweater and twist. c) Unacceptable replaced spellings are very rare. They consist of the replacement of an unacceptable spelling in the original English voice by another spelling which is equally unacceptable, such as for example kaki, steak, notepad. d) The hyper characterized spellings: they are those in which an English spelling, whether it is acceptable or not in Spanish, is replaced by another one which “tries” to be more English than the original. Examples would be parking, establishment, break.

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han e) The unacceptable distribution spelling: they are acceptable spellings within the Spanish orthographic guidelines, but their use is restricted according to certain rules of distribution. For example, handicap, snobbish, cross country. (Ibid., 115-160)

For Pratt (1980) acceptable spellings have got seven identifiable features: a) The original retained spelling: they are the graphs which do not present any change but are replaced by others which represent the acoustic equivalent of the English sound, that is represented by the original spelling. For example, hall where jol is also registered in which the potential change from “h” to “j.” They are distinguished in turn: 1) Consonants: where there are patent anglicisms starting with “y,” for example pajamas, yip, sweater. 2) Vowels: where the relationship between English spelling and phonetics is very complicated and hinder the description of the analysis. For example baseball, cocktail, leader. b) The spelling of simple reduction: they are simple spelling from bent English spellings that represent a sound. For example mecano, bitters, stress. c) The post-plural spelling: they are acoustic equivalents of the English spelling with its Spanish representation. The typical case registered in Lorenzo’s work (1980) is the one of the final English Y, preceded by a consonant. Examples are Brandi, penalty, pony. d) The imitative spelling of the original English pronunciation: they are the most difficult to analyze. They usually produce doublets, an anglicism with an unacceptable original spelling and another one with an adapted spelling. It is the case for soccer, drainage, goal. e) The resulting spelling of the Spanish pronunciation of the original one: boy-scout, mildew, vatio.

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f) The spelling made acceptable by adding: it is about anglicisms which have an or postponed, snobbish, dogo, elfo. g) The spelling made acceptable by elimination: when losing the second spelling, as in pudding, bumerang, rally. Anglicisms can be no patent if they have become part of the lexicon of the Spanish language10. In this sense, Pratt (1980) differentiates traditional voices, because the influence operates at semantic level - as it is the case of lecture attend, sectors, and neological voices, because the voice can be completely new, for example super value, supermarket-. The latter is the semantic calques, that is, anglicisms in which the translation of an English term does not have a direct etymological relationship between voice and its Spanish translation. Another example would be to channel (Pratt, 1980: 160-202). All those foreign voices formed by more than one word, but which constitute only one in Spanish are multiverbal anglicisms (Pratt, 1980: 202). For example, skyscraper in English, skyscraper in Spanish. Lorenzo (1995) proposes an anglicism classification different to Pratt (1980). He considers all possible types: phonetic orthographic, morphological, syntactic and lexical-semantic, anglicisms, though focusing, especially, on the lexical and the syntactic ones. Lorenzo (1995) divides the first ones into two classes. On the one hand, the loans which, in turn, are subdivided into raw anglicisms - English words that have passed intact to the Spanish in its written form and which try to imitate the original pronunciation, as in the 10

In the “sector language” of Pedagogy, the dominant and exclusive interlingual loan is that of the anglicisms. There are univerbal anglicisms to both patent and non-patent. Cases of patent univerbal anglicisms without modification in the Spanish language are chunking and counseling. Patent univerbal anglicisms with non-Spanish orthographic combinations with geminated spelling: feedback, self-media. Examples of patent univerbal anglicisms with non-Spanish orthographic non-vowel Spanish combinations are behavior. The patent ones with a hipercharacterised spelling brainstorming, overachievement. Univerbal anglicisms with a resulting spelling from the Spanish pronunciation of the native spelling is master, etc. “Sector language” from the Science of Education does not have multiverbal anglicisms. No patent models are not frequent in this specialized language. Some cases can be found such as anglicisms from traditional voices (input, output) or neological voices (“retroalimentación” feedback in English).

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case of brandy, dolly, sexy; and the adapted ones - words which have adapted their phonetics, spelling and morphology to the Spanish language partially or totally – such as for example sport, rally, boycott-. On the other hand, the rubbings also subdivided into actual calques and semantic calques - frequent periphrastic passive voice used in excess, in some prepositional and adverbial uses and prepending the subject to the verb in constructions that in Spanish the order is the reverse. According to the authors consulted, lexical loans are subdivided into loans - patent anglicisms according to our classification taken from Patt’s work (1980) - and rubbings11- not patent anglicisms according to Pratt (1980). Loans have, in turn, a further subdivision between the raw anglicisms and the adapted anglicisms. One of the shortcomings detected in Lorenzo’s classification (1995) is that it does not propose a distinction between univerbal or multiverbal anglicisms, an aspect which is considered itself in Pratt’s proposal (1980). However, Lorenzo’s classification (1995) is appropriated for the study of the anglicisms because, among other reasons, it makes a subclassification within the lexical anglicisms. This allows distinction between two types: the “frequency anglicisms12” and the “pseudoanglicisms13.” Lorenzo (1995) adopts a neutral and descriptive view of the anglicism as a cultural enrichment of the language and he considers it as immersed in a “process of transculturation,” which is cause and consequence of linguistic applications arisen from it. Latent purism in English language speakers, accompanied by the appropriation of elements, has contributed to the enrichment of its lexicon or to the advance in the field of syntax. The Hispanic contribution is much 11

Note that Lorenzo’s actual rubbings Lorenzo (1995) are Pratt’s semantic calques (1980). “Frequency anglicisms” are “... words or expressions fully legitimate, from a clean Hispanic lineage, and the only wrong thing is the frequency with which they appear, excluding others so legitimate and Hispanic that they escape to the translator’s kindness on duty” (Lorenzo, 1995: 166). 13 Lorenzo (1995: 167) defines “pseudoanglicisms” as “... apparently English sayings in their form but coined in other languages, such as auto-stop.” In the “sector language” of Pedagogy they are “pseudoanglicisms”: bottom-up or drop-out. 12

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lower if compared with the German, French, Latin or Greek, languages that, par excellence, have been a source of creation of many neologisms. This linguistic picture of the creation of terms finds their difficulties when establishing the etymological origin of neologisms. Sometimes, they arise as a result from hybrid creations of two classical languages, while in others, they are the result of marriages of convenience offered by specialists in a scientific discipline. The factors favoring the neologic creation are associated with politics, economics, and culture (especially the Anglo-Saxon), etc. The element that enables the creation of English terms is not an accumulation of advantages that the native community is situated in a position of superiority in relation to other cultural groups, but rather its great capacity to assimilate and integrate their linguistic units. This aspect gives the English language universal features which facilitate the adoption of anglicisms by other languages, along with the linguistic uses. Therefore, Lorenzo (1995) considers that the anglicisms are adopted by socio-cultural issues due to “transcultural processes”: […] facts which are not marked by a special linguistic distinction, but which reveal attitudes and behaviours in the target society which had not existed without the radiated influence by the Anglo-Saxon […]. (Lorenzo, 1995: 167)

For this author, the most characteristic features that define the current anglicism are their intensity and immediacy. However, these features are not easily reflected in etymological dictionaries which collect the meaning and origin of a neologism. A detailed analysis of the anglicisms would be incomplete if we only focused on referring to the term in an etymological dictionary because the origin of neologisms can be diverse, because they speak a language of intermediate form that has more prestige, or because it suffers some adulteration in its transformation. In the case of the freethought calque, with French origin, as well as the freethinker synonymous (of free thought or free penseur), or as a trace of

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the German freidenker (by the English model free thinker). However, Pratt (1980) analyzed this ended as an addition to free thought. This procedure shows a linguistic conformity that causes a lack of affiliation of the anglicism when it returns to our language, but the acceptance or rejection of the linguistic uses of a foreign word depends not only from this aspect, but also the degree of tolerance of the specialists who use them. Thus, the term brainstorming has been widely accepted and, consequently, diffused by the teachers. Finding out the composition of neologisms is not easy, especially when most of the dictionaries limit themselves to provide the origin of their components. It is true that dates, inventors, researchers, discoverers contribute to etymological research of a term, but it is not enough. Lorenzo (1995) argues that to establish the English origin of a status we must forget the Greek, Latin, or French heritage. The newly created anglicisms tend to designate some place name (such as Harbermaniense in “sector language” of Pedagogy) or eponymous (such as a Carpenter). If we used these terms out of this specialised language, they would be pretentious and pedantic for any speaker. They only acquire meaning in the specialty scientific field. In less modern anglicisms, the starting point is unclear and it complicates linguistic analysis. The broadcasting of the anglicisms is an issue that has caused linguists concern. Lorenzo (1995) points out that many of them are used in books or journals pages and even in doublings of films, for reasons of prestige, fashion, and style. This attitude buries other equally acceptable forms of the language. English is considered a language with both prestige and universal acceptance so that, in addition to being part of the Spanish educational system, it tends to be used in many different ways in the dialogue of the speakers of the cultured class through metaphors, clichés or spins, usually, with unknown equivalents in Spanish. This procedure gradually introduces English lexical units in our language. If it is an enrichment of the language, it is also a deterioration of some forms of Spanish origin.

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Significantly, the lexicon of Pedagogy presents a limited number of cross-linguistic loans. They are mostly foreign words (anglicisms) adopted in their alien form in the Spanish language, for several reasons namely issues of advertising influence, causes related to the language of origin prestige, being terms of recent creation and having no equivalent in the target language, because they refer to little plausible realities within the field of Education, by not having equivalents adapted to the target language syntax, because they persist in the specialty lexicon for linguistic tradition reasons, etc. This is because the field of Pedagogy mainly uses vocabulary from the general language which is expanded, restricted or moved and words suffer from a “secondary terminologisation,” with specific meaning in the professional field through the creation of new terms. Occasionally, this specialised language uses terms from other languages to describe reality, object or representation which tries to describe. For example, the anglicism biofeedback, with a sense of: Procedure through which, by means of using appropriate instrumentation, immediate, direct, and accurate information is given to the subject about Psychophysiological Pedagogy processes which he is not ordinarily aware of, allowing a perception of the activity of these bodily functions and make them undergo voluntary control. (Sánchez, 1991)

Another example would be brainstorming, anglicism used to refer to that: […] brainstorming, […] working way where a wide range of ideas on the same subject are proposed, either to enrich them or to clarify its own meaning, and that it is used in order to generate new ideas, where any proposal is accepted, without limiting thinking so that creativity is favoured to give a comprehensive response or guidance in the solution of a problem. (AA.VV., 2003)

Even syllabus, rather than its semantic calque programming:

22

Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han A detailed account of the main teaching contents which contains a particular course or level and in an area or specific subject. Knowledge considered important in order to achieve objectives explicitly for this course is its own reflection.

The abstract is another anglicism frequently used in general language and also within this specialized language in the same sense as in the English language: […] publications, generally regular, which collect articles, studies and some research published in various countries on a particular subject. Data about the authors is collected, a title of the work, as well as place and date of publication and a brief summary (the names derives from this) of main ideas and results from each work […]. (Sánchez, 1991)

Sometimes, it is preferred to adopt the expression as it is used in the original language. It is the case of action research, used in the sector “language” of Pedagogy whose meaning is: […] action-research the systematic refinement process of an activity by the very controlled action. It consists of perfecting educational action trying to adapt it to the ideas and rules arising from the own teaching activity. It is, therefore, a type of research that puts the greatest emphasis on action. (Sánchez, 1991)

The borderline anglicism is also part of those neological processes of the interlingual loan in this specialized language. See the meaning used in the pedagogical discourse: Subject with an intellectual capacity level between 70 and 85 ratios approximately, in a border area, therefore, between normal intelligence and strict deficiency […]. (Sánchez, 1989)

Within the specialized language and the general language, anglicisms such as input, counselling or database are widely known.

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Similar foreign words have reached individuality defining characteristics and they have been taken as a foreign word pretending to be significantly clear to ease communication among specialists. Note, for example, every time acting out is more frequently used in technical texts with the sense of “English expression used in psychopathology to refer to the sudden step from a mental representation of an act, with clear emotional evidence […]” (Sánchez, 1988). The same happens with bachelor: Title or university degree especially obtained in the Anglo-Saxon countries, after three or four years of study. In Europe it implies 180 or 240 ECTS credits, taking into consideration that a full academic year is 60 ECTS credits. See ECTS. (Riaces, 2004)

Behaviourism is also a widely used anglicism, rather as a loan in the discipline of Psychology of Education, but on being closely related to the object of study with which they deal with, it is indistinctively used in the sector “language” of Pedagogy with the sense of: "From the classic behaviourist point of view, motor or glandular activity resulting in a change and/or transformation where the body transformation occurs and/or the way in which it is developed […]” (Sánchez, 1988). These foreign forms adopted into the language of Pedagogy field reach a speaker’s prestige goal which sets out discursive style, credentials or status voices of another language, even by being strongly linked on occasions to specialized contexts in the epistemological community of Pedagogy. On other occasions, specialists in the Pedagogy field prefer to adopt foreign words and use them in their original form because they are so frequent in the pedagogical discourse which tends to select the foreign word against a possible translation or equivalent form to facilitate communication among the own specialists. For example, the expression community schools are preferred facing a possible equivalent semantic calque in this specialized language:

24

Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han School, especially developed in Great Britain, with the basic intention of breaking the isolation between school and the surrounding community, so that doors are opened to parents and other members after school hours in order to use school facilities. The aim of these centers is a contribution to the search for the poorest educational and economic problem solutions. (AA.VV., 2002)

Other foreign words exchange its original form in the target language when this has not developed equivalent terms which express the concept. This causes that specialists make use of the foreign term, being spread to such an extent that their use becomes normal: flash cards14, handicap15, imprinting16 or blended learning17. On other occasions, we find terms which designate realities outside Education. In these cases, the foreign form prevails over the analogous Spanish for being unusual to our culture: nurture18, screening19, staff20or suggestopedia21.

Low use to refer to a “[…] collection of variable size cards with rectangular shape, each of which has got a picture on one side and a word or explanatory text on the other […]” (Sánchez, 1991). 15 It is used to refer to a “Disadvantage in relation to others” in order to do something (AA.VV. 2002). 16 With a meaning of “[…] specific learning process different on some characteristics of the associative learning, since it implies subject’s responsiveness genetic programming (response capacity) when facing certain keys or environment signs which promote such a process” (Sánchez, 1989). 17 Within the didactic environment, it is used with “[…] training curriculum which combines multiple types of media. It typically refers to learning based on the combination of the classroom with ‘e-learning’” (cut, 2006).” 18 With a sense of: “[…] nutrition, upbringing, and by extension, Education. In this last sense, the meaning would be something close to culture, or ‘cultural baggage’ which is passed on intentionally or not - to younger generations” (Sánchez, 1988). 19 Usually to designate a “[…] searching process and problems identification or population deficiencies. It is about the detection of those afflicted individuals with memory lapses or maladjustment, for which numerous evaluation procedures...” (Sánchez, 1991). 20 In this specialized language, it refers to a “support structure which is in charge of advisory functions within a company of institution: research, projects, studies, etc., necessary for other authorities to have enough information to make decisions on their responsibility areas” (Sánchez, 1988). 21 As a teaching method, especially in foreign languages, this anglicism represents the “educational and psychotherapeutic Technique created by the Bulgarian scientist C. Lozanov. It is based on the creation of a relaxation state (using hypnosis and suggestion processes) which facilitates learning...” (Sánchez, 1991). 14

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On the other hand, some foreign words make use of the foreign word due to its difficult graphic adaptation and target language phonetics. In this regard, see the anglicism accountability whose meaning is: […] It implies that teachers and educational systems are responsible for the students’ improvement performance and that this improvement can be measured through teaching efficiency tests carried out by external agencies... ” (Sánchez, 1991)

Or the anglicism benchmark which refers to: Dimension, style or objective with which someone wants to reach to be compared. In Education, the following report is widely known: Progress Towards the Common Objectives in Education and Training: Indicators and Benchmarks de la Commission of the European Communities. It includes the definition and statistical comparison of the 29 indicators in order to monitor the European educational and learning system progress. (Riaces, 2004)

According to an analogous sense, the anglicism tapping is used when referring to: […] a simple motor speed task (and a proof) in which the subject has to hit or push buttons with fingers as quickly as possible, at a predetermined or chosen speed […].” (Sánchez, 1989)

Even bottom-up to make reference to: […]cognitive processes which fly 'bottom-up', for instance, from the most simple levels (controlled by motivating conditions) to the most complex ones (where processing higher central mechanisms are involved) […]. (Sánchez, 1989)

These anglicisms have phonetic and even graphic incompatibilities. For this reason, it is difficult to find Spanish equivalents. However, certain forms show onomatopoeias which complicate its pronunciation and this

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reason again leads to the use of a foreign form against a possible Spanish equivalent. Note the anglicism mobbing, currently used in all professional areas, with a sense of: The word mobbing comes from the English verb “To mob” (attack with violence) ethologically borrowed, where it was introduced by Konrad Lorenz to refer to the aggressive behavior of some birds species against their contenders. The first person who studied mobbing as psychological violence in the workplace as pathology is the German psychologist, based in Sweden, Heinz Leymann who, in 1986, described the consequences in a book, especially in the mental sphere of people exposed to a prolonged and hostile behavior in the time from superiors or co-workers in a book22. […]

In the same way, the output is frequently used and presents easy phonetics: It indicates the peripherals which receive computer data and the data transfer from the computer to the outside as well. The term is applied to both devices and the process and the results themselves […]. (Sánchez, 1991)

Another possible reason leading to the selection a foreign form against the Spanish one in the Pedagogy lexicon is related to the target language equivalencies. Some terms may not get a neological form because they are new, which have not included yet in specialized dictionaries. They have syntactic and morphological adaptation difficulties so they keep their foreign form to facilitate understanding among the specialists due to the absence of terminological standardization. For instance, eureka experience:

22

http://www.unizar.es/gine/MB/fases.htm (Accessed: 25/02/2010).

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It is a term used in the learning discovery context to describe the sense of achievement and satisfaction obtained by an individual when facing a problem and is able to consider it properly and to sort it out. (Sánchez, 1991)

Another example would be life-span, a term which has no Spanish equivalent: Current approach especially used in evolutionary and differentia psychology, which pays attention to all the human life cycle opposed to classical works whose focus was the developmental study in the early stages the individual’s life (children and adolescents). (Sánchez, 1989)

Similarly, the expression life-long learning or mastery learning keeps theme class traits which lead to a complete transmission of semantic features. Although in this case, there is a Spanish translation, the lifelong learning calque does not transmit information: […] personal significant learning, which involves mastery of what is known. Type of learning is possible for all individuals when each beginner is provided the appropriate instruction to meet his needs and is given all the time he requires. (Sánchez, 1989)

Some anglicisms have been incorporated into this specialty sub lexicon by tradition. They are classical languages loans, for instance learned words such as magister –“Art and skill in teaching or executing something” (DRAE, 2001)-, or master “Specialisation course taught in universities and colleges to students who have already obtained their degree” (AA.VV., 2001). On other occasions, the Science of Education lexicon upholds foreign forms by lexicographical questions. For example, bricolage- “activity which consists in carrying out decoration manual work, repair...” […]” (AA.VV., 2001); déjà vu (from French)-“French expression used to describe a memory alteration which stands out because of the subject” (Sánchez, 1989).

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However, the interlingual loan, as an incorporation procedure of lexical items into a language, is necessary, not only to designate new realities, even outside our own culture, but also to express those for which our language has no terms to define it: role-play23 or ruleg24. It is a very valuable linguistic tool which favors specialized communication - when linking expression and content into a common form to several languages -and it reinforces the specialized lexicon inclusion, facilitating communication among specialists in their original language. What is more, it contributes to the linguistic economy, since lots of anglicisms, borrowed in the target language, tend to disappear quickly. Due to the economic, technological and scientific superiority of the Anglo-Saxon countries, most of the terms from other disciplines are known in the English language. It seems that this first world language has become a lingua franca for specialized communication. Not only it has replaced other languages which, in the same way, accomplished the same prestige as in former times - such as Latin or French - but also it is imposed on any language with linguistic wealth, supported by a wide percentage of speakers of any nationality. The lack of external areas which determine the development of this discipline, as advertising media, helps linguistic terminology of educational “sector language” is reduced. The lexicon of the educational “sector language,” like any other specialized vocabulary, follows the uniqueness and universality principles. This entails that the linguistic performance of native speakers should try to avoid keeping the foreign word and create a new one in our language, either through a semantic calque or through another new signifier. However, this attitude has been criticized by some linguists as reluctant to follow expansion and analogy principles with other languages. This neological procedure within this specialized language must be understood as a mechanism which enables the creation of new terms by 23

24

With the meaning of “[…] technique joined to group dynamics which is based on the experience transfer” (Sánchez, 1988). According to Lexical Dictionary. Pedagogy. Educational Technology (Sánchez, 1991), with the sense of “Technique employed in scheduled education for the systematization of concepts, concepts, and contents of an instructional program.”

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using the literal translation of another language word (actuación25, retroalimentación26) to a particular code. Generally, words borrowed through the calque are adapted to the target language phonological system and they do not mean any problem for speakers. They are spread out quite quickly between the native communities and, they are frequently strengthened and become accepted as words of the linguistic system. For example fútbol27, lluvia de ideas28. This second type of new loan in this specialized language shows a nonwide number which has been adopted as semantic calques into the original language. For example, the term display, widely used in Didactics with the original meaning of “... any means of informative display” (Sánchez, 1991), has been replaced by a calque rather than being accepted in their foreign form. Thus, the Spanish linguistic system has created its equivalent- showwith its meaning being included in the Spanish language General dictionary with the same meaning as it has in the English language; the Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy of Language (DRAE, 2001) defines display as “(From Latin exhibitĭo,-ōnis).” “1 f. action and effect of display,” and exhibit, in its verbal form, as “(From Latin exhibēre).” “1 tr. Manifest, show in public”; “2 tr. Der. Present writings, documents, evidence, etc., to whom applicable” (Ibid.). A very frequent use of the voice exhibition, as a calque of the English term display, in the sector “language” of Pedagogy is as follows: Material resources should not be established neither in relation to types nor deficits categories as the curricular response to a student in a specific educational context […] A perceptively clear exhibition concentrates the visual information and reduces distraction […]

25

Performance in English. Feedback in English. 27 Instead of using the English voice football. 28 The calque used is lluvia de ideas in Spanish and not the English one brainstorming. 26

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han A thorough materials display helps anyone to find and puts them back in their place. Then, materials will be found without difficulty, both for children with vision problems such as for the others. 29

Cross-linguistic borrowings may be accompanied by a “secondary terminologisation.” It is the case of the anglicism drive, which belongs to the field of Psychology and has not only lost its original meaning of: The […] concept of momentum. The term drive is especially referred to as the theory of C. L. Hull, for whom conduct (C) is a function of the interaction between the drive (D), (H) habit and the incentive (K): C D x H x K; (Sánchez, 1988)

In addition, it has been actually replaced by a semantic calque (impulse) among the specialists in this discipline. These phenomena do not receive specific treatment and are not materialized in the language. Something similar happened with the English expression quality circles, with initial meaning: […] people’s meeting who perform the same work, in order to address different issues focused on the efficiency and production rise. […]The basic themes of his conflict are: creative thinking techniques, graphical methods of problems analysis, human relations and interpersonal and group communication. […]. (Sánchez, 1988)

This original meaning has been replaced by another more in agreement with the current denominative needs: Secondary Education teaching staff meeting, Council of Department in Secondary Schools and at University level. On many occasions, it turns to the English lexicon heritage to create new lexical semantic units through semantic calque, to borrow the foreign voice and adapt it to the target language phonological system.

29

http://www.psicologoescolar.com/ARTICULOS/PSICOPEDAGOGICOS/acneaes_como_ organizar_recursos_materiales.htm (Accessed: 11/06/2010).

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There are also cases of semantic calques of complex lexis or expressions with some lexicalization degree. For example, action research/investigación acción and open education, educación abierta. Although it is true that semantic calque also acts on nouns or simple verbs, and not necessarily often on cases of complex lexis in sector “language” of Pedagogy. Note that this phenomenon, as well as allowing forms identification in relation to the ones borrowed from other languages, it contributes to strengthening uniqueness and universality which is typical in all specialized language. Moreover, this linguistic practice enables the recovery of inherited lexicon -some obsolete ways have been activated by Neology, being adapted to graphic and phonetic requirements of the linguistic system which belongs to the target language, as, for example, bus library, audiobook30- and the making of metaphors - establishes relations of identity between two or more concepts-. As it has been noted, neological loan includes not only the interlingual loan but also the semantic calque phenomenon, which has also received other names according to the current linguistics in question. Guerrero (1995: 37) indicates the semantic calques or sensible loans as types of neological procedures which overshadow the lexicon allocation belonging to a specific linguistic system. They are difficult to recognize because of the lexical structure acquired in the target language. For example, the anglicism chunk is initially used in the target language whose meaning is “unit of information stored in the memory.” Each incentive with a unitary representation in long-term memory (Sánchez, 1991), is difficult to identify if its meaning is not previously known. In fact, the sense adopted when used in “sector language” of Pedagogy is: “Process of reorganization entry elementary units into more complex ones but more family and minor in number” (Sánchez, 1991). In this case, the meaning of the word has been changed, therefore, it would rather be a part, of what has been called “secondary termino-

30

They are formations of the general language, inherited voices with Greek and Latin loans.

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logisation,” although, apart from being an interlingual loan it is part of another scientific discipline. In the Anglo-Saxon didactic tradition, this term is used in the specific Didactics of the second language acquisition. This example indicates that some loans do not entirely conform to the rates proposed in this section (interlingual loan, semantic calque, “secondary terminologisation”; interlinguistic loan or technicisms). There are cases, such as this, in which two phenomena have simultaneously occurred; on the one hand, an interlingual loan (because in the field of Pedagogy language used in their foreign form), which, moreover, constitutes a case of “secondary terminologisation,” since it has been adopted from another discipline and its meaning is redefined.

VOICES FROM CLASSICAL LANGUAGES Under the heading Voices from classical languages is included both those directly borrowed from classical languages and those composed voices, being built, at least, with a radical constituent or Greco-Latin theme. Voices from classical languages, which are namely found in “sector language” of Pedagogy, have been adapted to the phonetic-graphic of the target language system, keeping the meaning they had in the original language. Examples of semantic calques which have recovered ancient lexicon are: paideia (from Greek, children education) by paideia31; re fortio (from Latin re, which indicates repetition and fortio, give strength) for reinforcement32. 31

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With a sense of “Key-concept in the Hellenistic culture which used to express the ideal of education in Greek thought, which consisted of the development and harmonious training of all physical and mental skills of the individual” (Sánchez, 1988) in the language of Pedagogy field. Meaning of “Experimental method mainly used by American psychologists E.L. Thorndike and Skinner B-F-in their research with animals, through which supplied with an *enhancer as a result of a certain conduct” (Sánchez, 1988), in this specialised language.

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The term alocentrism was contracted from the Greek, alos, another, different, and centrism. It belongs to the specialized vocabulary of Psychology and it is used with the same meaning in Pedagogy. It refers to the Tendency to direct the interests and attention towards others, as opposed to “selfishness” (Sánchez, 1988). It is used to observe the child’s tendency to give to his mates, cooperation in the game, sharing material, companionship, etc.: We are all born marked or cataloged within a particular sex and our neurological and physiological apparatus brings appropriate programming so we operate with this sex. That is, there are many aspects in human species which we must learn from the environment that surrounds us, and we do it by stages and usually by imitation […] Stage 13-16 years: this idioglossic opens with the advent of formal thinking and the task to be carried out is to avoid confusion by making sure of it is identity. Global socialization starts in this period and begins to experience the pleasure with another. We are in puberty and with it, maturity of the genital organs and their products come (ejaculation and onset of menstrual periods), but it is not only a physiological maturation but also at the level of sexual impulses which already need the participation of the “other” to be complete, from egocentrism to the alocentrism. […] Friends of a high affective tone (unisex or intersex) appear as a common way of relationship in this period which sometimes carries high phone bills, etc., etc. […]. (Fedón, 2008: 10)

The word logocentrism, built with the theme logo-, is part of the current lexicon of this specialized language. It emerges as a contrast to the paidocentrism. Its meaning forwards to the: The function performed by a leader within a group. It usually involves an unequal relationship, known and accepted by the parts involved (managerial role of the leader) with other members of the group. According to White and Lippitt, three types of leadership are mainly distinguished: authoritarian, laissez-faire and democratic, in relation to leader’s action either actively or authoritatively, it inhibits and let the

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han group without any guideline, or acts as facilitator and promoter of all the members' actions, favoring the cohesion of the Group. (Sánchez, 1988)

Logocentrism focuses its attention into the pupil as an active agent in the teaching-learning process: Derrida points out that the principle of Identification has got paradoxes and aporias, as it is the case of nature that assuming it is selfsufficient and identical to itself, however, it presents shortcomings which are accompanied by a supplement, which shows that the self-sufficiency of nature (identical to itself) and the shortcomings that hold are opposite, contradictory, so that identity can only be in one of the two, but not in both. Derrida calls this Identity self-presence of nature. Facing this paradox, he extracts the conclusion that this identity impurity or the Selfpresence destruction is really inevitable (Lechte, 1997:142). behavior this way, the development of Derrida’s ideas are based on the criterion of the inconsistency of the identity principle within Logocentrism […] Logocentrism is related to Logos, whose meaning is Reason and Language, although Reason took greater prominence, as thinking, modelling idealism, while at the same time, he prevailed phonocentrism, in the sense of trying the oral expression to be predominant in front of notion of the signifier as spelling (foreign) and where it just seemed that the thinker’s conscience and the meanings (intentions) that she wants to manifest (say)33. (Hottois, 1999: 464)

The term psitacism comes from the Greek language, which localization in the language of Pedagogy: (From Gr. psittakós, loro, cotorra) *Teaching method based exclusively on the exercise of the *memory. In this sense, a synonym of *memorization. Memorizing thus leads to a kind of mechanical *learning, without understanding the meaning of what they learned. (Sánchez, 1988)

Teaching method entirely based on memory: 33

http://servicio.cid.uc.edu.ve/derecho/revista/idc24/24-11.pdf (Accessed: 08/06/2010).

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Barach disliked neither your provicero huero position nor your imposture of the rickety oracle, nor peta you your psittacism (as etymological as possible) or any other of your teaching methods… (Obra dispersa, v.2, De mocotercer mamtotreto, Bajo el signo de Leo, 1.XXX, p. 484). (Macías y Velásquez, 1957: 469)

Semantic uses of this term identify them with the theoretical postulates as a reason to be studied by the Pedagogy: Those who choose common words are more likely to be understood by the largest number of readers. The use of difficult words can mean lack of meaning, distorted meaning, time loss and distractions of the message which was communicated. If we write: The self-Gnosis facilitates the relationship with others and psittacism helps to remember things longer, the reader will surely force the consists to use the dictionary, which is not the case in the second situation: Self-knowledge facilitates the relationship with others and teaching based solely on the exercise of memory helps to remember things longer34.

The voice practicum is also borrowed from Latin, and it is used in “sector language” of Pedagogy with a similar meaning: It responds to the following rule reflected in RD 14971987: possibility of being considered as credits of the curriculum, in the terms provided for in the article 6.3 of RD. 14971987, work experience in enterprises, professional work academically-led and integrated into the curriculum, as well as the accreditation of studies carried out within the framework of international agreements endorsed by University. Some degrees devote credits of its curriculum to this figure. (AA.VV., 2006)

As a result, there are cases of classical languages loans which despite suffering from further punctuation loans, they continue to maintain its original meaning. 34

http://www.insht.es/InshtWeb/Contenidos/Documentacion/FichasTecnicas/NTP/Ficheros/201 a300/ntp_272.pdf (Accessed: 07/07/2010).

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INTRALINGUISTIC LOAN Loan neology Phenomena may also show intralinguistic loans among different scientific disciplines - mainly from Psychology-. The general tendency is that this type of loan maintains, in target discipline, the meaning it has in the scientific area from which analyzer. Cases listed below -Psychology loans- keep in the “sector language” of Pedagogy the same meaning as in their original discipline. However, the most representative and more currently used on the pedagogical discourse will be pointed out in order to demonstrate the denominative need that this specialized language has, when on many occasions, it is forced to take voices borrowed from other disciplines. Most of them, within this specialized language, which comes from Psychology are used in the “sector language” of Pedagogy with the same meaning. Note that Psychology, applied to Education, allows detecting student deficiencies behavior the information processing, both in the reading and writing acquisition, behavior disorders, etc. For this reason, the area of Pedagogy makes use of these intralinguistic loans, with the meaning that Psychology provides and applies them to their object of study. The term abasia, although it comes from the Greek language (with the meaning of negation “no” in Spanish) and basis (with the sense of “action of the walk”), are in fact attached to the lexical paradigm of Psychology and according to the authors, therefore, to Psychiatry. Within these two scientific disciplines it has the following meaning: "Hysterical paraplegia which is characterized by the inability to walk and stand normally, remaining sensation, muscle strength and lower motor coordination intact" (Sánchez, 1988). Note that when this term is used in the language of Pedagogy, its meaning, according to specialty dictionaries and texts of the field consulted, is the same: The generic syndrome typically associated with hysteria, which is characterized by the inability to walk normally, remaining intact

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sensation, muscle strength and lower motor coordination. It is usually manifested along with astasia, inability to stand. (Sánchez, 1989) Hysterical paraplegia which is characterized by the inability to walk and stand normally, both remaining intact sensation, muscle strength and lower motor coordination. (Sánchez, 1988)

Note its linguistic use within this text: They are typical illnesses from childhood. Students’ performance is bad during their primary schooling […] It is characterised by the presence of signs and symptoms (neurological type) affecting motor functions (significant Charcot convulsive crisis, paresis, irregular movements, and coordination difficulties such as the astasia-abasia […] and suggest a neurological disease, which is not explained neither by exploratory discoveries nor other mental disorders35.

It is a fact that not all words have a bi-univocal correspondence between signifier and signified. Occasionally, the same signifier can have several meanings. See the technicism analyzer, specialized term on the discipline of Pedagogy, carrying five different meanings. 1) Which analyses (DRAE, 2001); 2) Mechanism or device used to analyze (AA.VV., 2006); 3) Complex nerve structure which has the reception of certain stimuli as a function (light, sound, smell, etc.) and its specific properties, which consists of three main parts: the receiver or peripheral sector, the aferente-eferente nerve via driver sector, and the corresponding cortical zone, or brain or central sector (AA.VV., 2003); 4) Term used by the Russian physiologist I. Pavlov to refer to 'all neurophysiological system which does not perceive and analyze the outside world’ (Sánchez, 1991); 5) The term a. is used by representatives of the pedagogical trend called 'institutional pedagogy’ - M. Lobrot, among others-, who, 35

http://modulo6psiquiatria.com/2008_09_01_archive.html (Accessed: 17/05/2010).

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han by applying the official school institutions analysis, argue that their aims are students ‘subjugation to the conventional social norms by the superior Organisation (Sánchez, 1988).

The word analyzer, categorized as an adjective, has the meaning “Which analyses” (DRAE, 2001) in the general language, whereas in the specialized language, within the educational field, it is a noun which refers to as: From the Gr. analysis, decomposition, dissolution) (Pedag.) The term a. is used by representatives of the pedagogical trend called 'institutional pedagogy’ - M. Lobrot, among others-, who, by applying the official school institutions analysis, argue that their aims are students ‘subjugation to the conventional social norms by the superior Organisation. (Sánchez, 1988)

However, for some authors, this concept arises as a result of Foucault’s application on the alienation of discursive practices in educational contexts. There are different types of devices emerged as a result of different needs of transmission, analysis, and training throughout history. All kinds of devices can be recognized in different disciplines: technical, theoretical and methodological. According to the epistemological concept of each practice, the device will take new forms. In every discipline, we can recognize a work methodology. This behavior, along with conceptions which appear about the practice, and the relationship between theory and technique, will give rise to different representations of the task concerning these practices. This task is translated into devices staging […] the methodological approach which must be established is that of the multi-referentiality: taking into account the complexity of the social environments and multiple factors contributing at the same time, they cannot be analyzed from a unique perspective, but it is necessary to articulate different perspectives to understand reality and intervene in it. For all of the above reasons, we can say that a device can respond to different aspects and become:

Neologism of Loans in the Language of Pedagogy      

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a producer of transformations and changes; a technical artifice, which is in turn ingenious and original; an agitator, which causes dispositions, favors doing and creating; a developer, who allows deploying meanings; a parser, which makes possible an inside analysis; a technical organizer, who guarantees intention to change 36.

When this term is used in the field of Pedagogy, the referential reality referred to is not something or someone’s quality, but the stimuli reception which allows, through the higher nervous feeling, observe the acquisition of children`s teaching-learning processes. It should serve as a type of instrument which enables the obtaining of reliable data from the analysis that takes place in the discipline of Psychology. However, within Psychology, we can have two different meanings; it can either refer to rules compliance by students from the stimuli reception or a neurophysiological structure which allows the perception of stimuli from the outside world. The second definition, closer to the psychological theory defended by Pavlov, remains valid today. According to the conceptual framework or trend to which someone will assign, one of them will be used: A term used by the Russian physiologist I. Pavlov to refer to 'all neurophysiological system which does not allow to receive and analyze the outside world.’ (Sánchez, 1991) 1. Complex nerve structure which has the reception of certain stimuli as a function (light, sound, smell, etc.) and its specific properties, which consists of three main parts: the receiver or peripheral sector, the aferente-eferente nerve via driver sector, and the corresponding cortical zone, or brain or central sector. (AA.VV., 2003)

When a teacher mentions an analyzer, he refers to an instrument which enables data analysis and collection in their working sector. It can be 36

http://www.investigacionaccion.com.ar/site/proyecto.php?id=00000019 (Accessed: 07/05/ 2010).

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elements which allow observing the student’s behavior in different places (playground, classroom, hallways, etc.) and provide qualitative information, or can be quantitative data that contribute to this analysis: During this early century, where science is delighted with scientific movements which revolutionize the thinking, Psychology moves towards the behavior phenomenon, with the dark and incomprehensible subconscious. We hope to find into the 21st century, a common path which synthesizes and clarifies existing questions. On this itinerary, it is legitimate to consider Pavlov’s background. Pavlov conceived his researching activity as a method of analysis of the higher nervous activity, contributing in turn to a better understanding of the analyzers' doctrine and the concept of learning units. He demonstrated the flexible dynamic and plastic character of the cerebral cortex, on which the psychic activity and higher brain functions are based. This dynamic approach allowed to see that, in the cortex, function, the higher nervous activity and the complex processes of analysis and synthesis. Pavlov characterized behaviors in relation to three aspects: life experiences and their strength, brain functional characteristics, and the concept of analyzer37.

This concept takes on greater importance in the pedagogical field from the Psychology contributions. Since students are the recipients of educational processes, this word interest is focused on the stimuli encoding from the outside and on the nerve activity structuring which enables certain connections that favor the assimilation of concepts: Following the reflex arc theory, Pavlov considered animal behavior as a reaction to the antecedent stimulation, being dependent on nerve circuits formed by receptors, central afferent and efferent pathways, and muscles. It, therefore, insists on the reflex nature of the animal behavior. Impulses coming from the internal or external environment were taken to the central nervous system, and they were redistributed there and sent to the nerves which went down to the muscles.

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http://www.alcmeon.com.ar/3/11/a11_06.htm (Accessed: 03/05/2010).

Neologism of Loans in the Language of Pedagogy Reflex arc must be divided into three parts. The analyzer, which begins in each natural peripheral end of the centripetre nerve, finishes in the receptor cells of the central organ which break down external stimuli. The connection between receivers and the effector and effector or acting part. Each of the different physiological centers (food, defensive, engine...) represents a projection of the peripheral receiver and responds specifically to the stimulation. This response is reflex unconditioned or innate. The reflex arc should be divided into three parts. The analyzer which begins in each natural peripheral end of the centripetal nerve and ends in receptor cells of the central body which separates external stimuli. The connection between receptors and the effectors and effector or acting part. Each of the various physiological centres (food, defensive, engine...) represents a projection of the peripheral receiver device which specifically answers to stimulation. This response is unconditioned or innate reflex. Innate reflexes were the basic behavior mechanisms. Pavlov distinguished several innate or unconditioned reflexes, all of them coming from a bit more general to which called life reflection and each one connected to a sensory concrete mechanism or analyzer and with a center of the nervous system. The most powerful reflection was the food and defense reflection followed in importance. Pavlov believed that conditional reflexes were established in the cortex, and responded to some nerve connections between sensory analyzers and cortical projections of the centers of innate reflexes, but he did not give more details about this connection38. It is clear then, how this preconception about education operates as an instrument for change: it anticipates and reduces change strategies; it limits the analysis of the problem and - while it is part of the belief system which it departs from- it unavoidably becomes criteria for interpreting the experience (the results). That is to say, failures, rather than weaken convictions, reinforce them: more and better educational actions are needed. Particularly, pedagogical optimism serves as analyzer from which reviewing the way the educational action is assumed in that area 39. 38 39

http://www.uv.es/seoane/boletin/previos/N83-3.pdf (Accessed: 03/05/2010). http://www.sistemasjudiciales.org/nota.mfw/21 (Accessed: 03/05/2010).

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han In the area of cognitive psychology, we find Luria (1981) relates perception thinking as an active and complex process where several organs of the senses or analysers are involved, highlighting as a peculiarity itself, in such a way that perception follow feeling, being responsible for creating intellectual forms, internal representations of the outside world, which make knowledge possible. Meaning, recognizable images construction from a set of stimuli which are received through feeling and also separately […] visual perception is the most important analyzer to achieve success in the technical-tactile or strategic learning of a high-performance boxer40. The very existence of the human being presumes knowledge of objective reality, the senses organs offer sensitive concrete knowledge through practice. The psychic activity is in essence, reflective, with the particularity that, in the anthropogenic course, a complex analyzers system was formed within men, which provides information from the outside world. Within that set of analysers in the process of sensory reflex, according to V I. Lenin, the leading role belongs to the vision […] we assume the leading role played by the vision in the field of cognition and the importance which sensations and perceptions encloses within executing predominant action of personality, above all, in cases of impaired sensory […] The feeling is a simple cognitive process, reflection of the isolated qualities of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as the internal state of the body, resulting in an action of material stimuli receptors41.

In this educational context, the term analyzer is also used to detect the students’ difficulties in finding visual perception which will shape the perception of reality and this, in turn, will modify children‘s behavior in the absence of that information processing. The visual analyzer allows visual coordination and graph-motor handling. In children with poor vision, difficulties on the visual analyzer during the first years of life can inhibit the functional and structural development of the retina and the visual pathway to the brain. In the

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http://www.efdeportes.com/efd98/boxeo.htm (Accessed: 03/05/2010). http://169.158.184.3/index.php/enlace/article/viewFile/24/22 (Accessed: 07/05/2010).

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same way, the visual area of the brain is not developed since the overall maturity of the visual system depends on the visual experiences. The lack of maturity or visual system development leads to a reduction of the visual information used by children so that the quantity and quality of the learning through the visual organ is limited […] Differences between a low vision child and blind one start at four-month life. It is in this period when the child who does not have effects on the visual analyser gets visual coordination with the grip and manipulation of objects under visual control, with an increasingly greater interest in the outside world […] The child with low vision knowledge acquires a fragmented nature in his interaction with the environment, and he will only see a part of this, the one which is within reach of their available visual remainder […] In other research, it has been possible to corroborate how the state of the visual analyzer functions affects the perception of the surrounding reality objects, since visual disorders affect not only speed but also the quality of perception, its accuracy, and integrity42.

However, there is a long tradition which associates the curriculum with the analyzer, understood as an instrument that favors the achievement of information on the macropolitical stage as well of the school institutions, and, in addition, it allows the staging of that game between the prescriptive and educational innovation. In this case, the term denotation is not the one which specialty dictionaries show, but the real meaning derived from the language uses which are made of this voice. The curriculum, both in its curricular design dimension (which includes curriculum and programs) as in the development (which includes everyday practices of members of the institution), is a useful analyser to decode the institutional senses, as well as being a scenario where a game between the established and the instituting occurs, institute practices are expressed in dissent or change of the established which some people recognised as innovation.

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http://www.monografias.com/trabajos21/baja-vision/baja-vision.shtml (Accessed: 07/05/2010).

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han The curriculum is an analyzing device which causes the emergence of aspects which are not normally seen, such as negotiations for the assignment of ratings between teachers and students, deficiencies in the conceptual integration of curricula, democratic or autocratic forms of management which ease or impede academic development, teaching styles, tutorial mechanisms, etc. In the same way, the curriculum as the analyzer is also an organizer which lets us get closer to the complex network where standards and values43 are built.

Even in psychoanalytic theory, this concept is vital as long as it is still used with sense of device but, on this occasion, it refers to another reality different to the pedagogical one -next to the meaning which the general language: In the field of health, more precisely mental health, the device is understood as an analyzer. In psychoanalysis, Mazza (Mazza, 2003) claims that two core components make healing progression possible, a set of elements (the couch, armchair, schedules, sessions, etc.) and a transfer process whereby “the analyst becomes the other pole which catalyses the unconscious side of the other, and it assumes the function of analyser.” (Lapassade, 1979) Following this development, we can argue that “the idea of analyzer device, whose examples are part of the Psychoanalytical device, it is associated with the emergence of meanings. A device presents the character of an analyser in the way as it promotes the emergence of meanings not visible or hidden so far.” (Mazza, 2003)

Similarly, the term anamnesis, though it comes from the Greek. ana, according to, bottom-up, and mnesis, memory,), is part of the Psychology sublexicon, even more specifically than in Psiquiatry. It refers to: Deep summary of all data from a patient’s biography, which may have some connection with his present problem. It includes family history (heritage and a context/background), evolutionary aspects, clinical 43

http://www.congresoretosyexpectativas.udg.mx/Congreso%201/Mesa%20F/mesa-f_4.pdf. (Accessed: 07/05/2010).

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symptoms and many other details which may be superfluous to the profane, but which are essential for a correct *diagnosis and *prediction. (Sánchez, 1988)

Note that this term aims to gather information on clinical, social, academic data of a person. In the case of education, it is important because in the case of students who have some sort of deficiency, disabilities, behavioral problems, etc., then an anamnesis comes (history of the student) which will help to determine his school performance. That is, the student is observed in relation to different situations of teaching-learning situations and is done some specific tests (intellectual, behavioral, physical) applied to Psychology: Bibliography points out that in the TA children history, previous antecedents are frequent to the history of speech (21); and there has been a concurrence of 44 of TA and attention problems in children with a history of motor coordination disorders (22). Therefore, these data should be explicitly asked during the anamnesis and must be correctly valued in our exploration. A problem such as gross and fine motor skills in lower age children are not aroused spontaneously by the family when what worries them is a TA and, in addition, is a sign that tends to become less appealing over time (23). Language or motor coordination disorders can be warning alert signs for the pediatrician to rate evolution and their school performance in those children and be able to detect a TA child […] Anamnesis on the school performance will be done frequently in each children’s revision, as many TA are not evident until academic requirement increases in secondary education. Children’s satisfactory performance in lower courses decreases significantly, which results in frustration and it also undermines self-esteem in such a critical age as adolescence (18, 19). Sometimes parents do not refer the school problems behavior but they consult their child’s social adaptation problem social (23) or various psychosomatic complaints which can be the manifestation of a TA.

The word fainting is another inter-linguistic loan. In the general language, it refers to “1. m. “Action and effect of fading away” (DRAE,

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2001). However, in the educational context, this voice meaning refers to one: Conditioned learning technique that weakens gradually keys or indicators which facilitate response. It is applied to scheduled teaching: the first pictures or items of a learning sequence programming feature numerous supports (indications, suggestions...) that guide the student towards the correct answer, these subsidies are reducing progressively until disposed of in its entirety. (Sánchez, 1991) Behavior modification technique based on operant conditioning, which is characterized by a gradual and progressive reduction of the discriminative stimulus (of their frequency or intensity). (Sánchez, 1989)

It is used in the educational context because it is a technique which allows you to modify the student’s behavior; with a psychologist and counselor's intervention at school, the teacher can perform a systematic observation to detect students' achievements or difficulties; Three techniques point out to carry out the development and maintenance of behavior over time: shaping, casting, fading, and chaining. Before applying any of these techniques, as well as any behavior modification technique, it is necessary to define the behavior in operational terms. That is, as an observable behaviour and objective way. So, it will be easier to carry out their registration and therefore the realistic verification of the results. The fading is based on the gradual decrease in relation to the help being given to the individual in order to perform the desired behavior. It aims to keep the individual’s behavior despite the reduction in the number of help provided to learn it. Various authors (Méndez, Olivares and Belendez, 2001; Larroy, 2008) agree that the fading consists of two phases: 

Additive phase: the individual is given all the help necessary for the achievement of the goal behavior.

Neologism of Loans in the Language of Pedagogy 



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Subtractive phase: help is reduced progressively until he can perform behavior without any outside assistance. The decrease can be developed in different ways: either reducing or delaying help or its intensity. In both phases, they must favor continuous and contingent reinforcement after behaviors closer to the target one. This technique is used together with shaping and, unlike shaping, it is usually used for everyday learning and more specific 44 behaviors too.

Loans in Primary Education There are many loans that sector “language” of Pedagogy borrows, especially, from Psychology. The most frequent loans in Primary Education are:

Acataphasia Inability to create sentences or to use the words according to the syntax laws, so that the expression, either verbal or written, the thought does not save grammatical consistency, but if follows the logical sequence of ideas. There are authors who identify this term with acataphasia or agrammatism and use them interchangeably for the same fact. (Sánchez, 1988) Acatagraphia Disorder of written expression characterized by the improper construction of sentences, caused by a disruption of the linguistic formulation at the cerebral level. (Sánchez, 1989) Acatalepsia (From Gr. akatalepsia, incomprehensibility). Lack of understanding, mental deficiency. (Sánchez, 1988) 44

http://www.portalpsicologico.org/tratamientos-tecnicas-cognitivo-conductuales/tecnicas-demodificacion-de-conducta.html (Accessed: 07/07/2010).

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Acatamathesia Disorder in the capacity of understanding language. (AA.VV., 2002) Acatisia Organic origin impossibility to sit or stay quiet, seated, motivated by motor instability. (Sánchez, 1988) Acianoblepsia A visual disorder that involves the inability to distinguish the color blue. (Sánchez, 1991) Accommodation (From lat. accommodatĭo, - ōnis). The a., like assimilation, is for J. Piaget, types of exchange of the organism relationship with the environment, with the subject or with the object. Specifically, the a. is the kind of exchange through which the body or the subject is influenced, determined by the object. A. points out, therefore, the influence of the environment on the organism […]. (Sánchez, 1988) Bradyglossia Disorder of the oral language consisting of a slow joint of the phonemes due to malformations of the peripheral organs of speech, without any central neurological lesion. (Sánchez, 1988) Bradylalia (Gr. bradys, slow, and laleo, talk, babbling). Abnormal slowness in the emission of the word, which is, in general, monotonous and without modulations. It is common distress in depressions, certain schizophrenic states (catatonia), Parkinson's disease, cerebral lobes injury, etc. It is also seen as a side effect of certain medications such as tranquilizers (neuroleptic); in poisoning by barbiturates, etc.

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Bradylexia Difficulty to read at normal speed; slow reading. It can be seen as associated with organic and psychological causes. It tends to be evolutionary and transitional if the subject, as it is frequent, has the intellectual capacity which is required to learn reading. (Sánchez, 1989) Cacolalia Language disorder consisting of a very elemental or childish way of speaking, even incorrect, and it is seen as symptoms of certain forms of dementia. (Sánchez, 1988) Catalepsy Reading disorder consisting of a repetition of the phrase already read, a lap back in reading, without having a cause that justifies it (spelling, syllabic reading...). It is part of dyslexic type disorder and it highlights a lack of security in reading, either because the individual has had difficulties in its learning, or because of a type of psychological disorder. (Sánchez, 1988) Conductism From the classic behavioral point of view, motor or glandular activity that results in a change and/ or transformation of the body in which occurs and/ or of the medium in which it is developed. Classic behaviorist school adopts the word c. to call themselves, emphasizing the observable and measurable of external behaviors and focusing on Psychology aims. Currently, the term c. acquires a more important meaning, considered to be inside or outside activity of the body, directly or indirectly observable, measurable or descriptive, being elementary or complex... (Sánchez, 1988) Counterconditioning Variety of classical conditioning where it is used as a signal or conditioned stimulus provided with a motivational and evocative meaning of a contradictory and incompatible answer with the motivational meaning and the answer to the reinforcing stimulus, as a result of the first becoming

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the conditioned stimulus to the second so it changes its effective sense and its reply in relation to it. When the counter conditioning refers to stimulus signs previously conditioned, it has an important point in common with extinction. In both cases, a conditioned stimulus is shown as not being followed by reinforcing stimulus with which it was associated, although the counter-conditioning is, in addition, an inconsistent response which may happen. Counterconditioning, in its way of eliminating answers against previously conditioned stimuli, is the phenomenon which underlies the therapeutic principle of reciprocal inhibition formulated by J. Wolpe. (Sánchez, 1988)

Coprolalia (From Gr. kopros, lalia, excrement, and conversation). Constant issuance of words, sometimes compulsive, either obscene or ordinary or not socially supported (“bad word”). From a psychoanalytic point of view, c. is associated with the permanence of opposition features of the anal stage. (Sánchez, 1988) Cryptography Written language disorder. The subject writes for himself only, using a private language mode. It is usually presented as a manifestation of thought disorders linked to psychiatric syndromes. (Sánchez, 1988) Criptolalia Disorder of spoken language characterized by the use of an incomprehensible language; the communicative aspect is altered: the subject speaks for himself, in such a way that others cannot understand him. It is often associated with thinking disorders. (Sánchez, 1988) Cryptomnesia Disorder of memory in which the subject has the conviction of being in front of an idea, experience or new concept, when in fact, he has already experienced them. It is usually a fault in relation to the temporal localization of the memory, caused by agents (effective situations,

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inhibitions, etc.) psychogenic or organic (as in the case of shocks, poisoning, etc.). (Sánchez, 1988)

Dereism A mental state characterized by a distance from reality and the no linking to the laws of logic. The subject gradually loses interest in what surrounds him, growing in importance the dreams and fantasies that people and the outside world events which shape their environment: Autistic thinking. (Sánchez, 1989) Decentration (Psic). “Centration overcoming, in the field of thought, by coordinating different views or aspects of a situation.” (Sánchez, 1988) Deconditioning Processes by which a previously conditioned response ceases to occur, without breaking, in fact, the association which had previously determined the conditioning. The answer is simply inhibited based on a process of extinction through the elimination of the enhancer. This response can be repeated before a single presentation of the enhancer or the simple presentation of a distractive stimulus during the process of extinction (disinhibition). The paradigm of d. extinction is used in behavior modification techniques to decrease the likelihood of occurring disadaptive behavior that you want to delete. (Sánchez, 1988) Dyscalculia (From lat. dis, with difficulty, and calculation, count). The difficulty for consists learning of the basic mathematical concepts in subjects who have a normal intelligence level. The disturbance affects both the interpretation and use of numeric symbols and the acquisition of notions of number and number and automation of operative mechanisms […]. (Sánchez, 1988)

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Dysphasia Not organic language disorder, resulting in the acquisition of speech, due to modifications in the responsible structures for perception, integration, and the conceptualisation of language. Authentic dysphasia should not have an emotional motor or sensory literalities. It is a partial loss, while the aphasia means total speech lack, due to a cortical lesion in the areas of language. It is shown as a moderate or serious delay in the normal stages in the language development, not being attributable to intellectual disability. (Sánchez, 1989) Dyslexia (From Gr. idea, difficulty, and Lexis, Word). Language anomaly consisting of an incoordination of the words from the oral expression of ideas is the speech organs normal. It is a word used to describe disease of language and speech since many authors to include it within the term dysphasia. (Sánchez, 1988). Language disorder manifested in the emergence of difficulties related to children reading learning with sufficient age, and there are no intellectual sensory deficiencies or neurological disorders which justify it. This disturbance of the reading ability is framed within the general framework of the organization of child’s language deficiencies. Previously, it was called verbal congenital blindness or a kind of dysphasia. Currently, when it is called reader delay or delay in the acquisition of reading difficulties, they are due to a bad pedagogical approach of the reading learning, and they easily follow an adequate education program (pseudo-dyslexia) […]. (Sánchez, 1989) Diglossia Joint disorder due to organic causes, whose origin is not central neurological, which determines a voice timbre alteration, by modification of resonance cavities. They are also referred to as organic dyslalias, and some authors, as Seeman, call them mechanical dyslalias. (Sánchez, 1988)

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Dysgraphia (From Gr. dys, difficult, awkward, and graphe, writing). Inability to reproduce written features total or partially, without any intellectual or neurological deficiency which can be justified. It also occurs as an evolutionary disorder resulting in difficulty and too slow on the path (drawing and writing). Possible factors involved in this disorder are: delays in motor development, problems in the spatiotemporal orientation; problems of *language and/or affective problems (school maladjustment, difficulties in communication, etc.). D. appears frequently attached to the dysorthography, disturbing both disorders the normal school advancement of the child disgrafico. (Sánchez, 1988) Dysgrammatism Disorder of language characterized by the presence of grammatical mistakes in the discourse that, despite hindering their understanding, they do not completely destroy its semantic content. It frequently appears in the dysphasia symptomatology. (Sánchez, 1988) Dyslalia (From Gr. dys, evil, and laleo, talk). Speech disorder manifested by a permanent or temporary difficulty for the proper pronunciation of reducing others phonemes or groups of them, due to faults in the place of articulation of these phonemes. If the disturbance of speech is complete, it is called alalia. It may be; of organic origin, when it is a disorder of the verbal joint due to deformations or injury of the phonation organs; of functional origin, when the circulatory disorder is due to certain malfunctions suffered by the subject of neurological and psychological origin […]. (Sánchez, 1989) Dyslogia (From Gr. dys, difficulty, bad state, and logos, thought, reason). Language and thought alteration. A disorder consisting of the inability to express concepts in a clear and coherent way, the logical order of the sentence being altered. The language disorder comes associated with

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*retardation or mental impairment, as it occurs in the mentally handicapped and the psychotic ones. D. is produced by functional and organic causes. Neurobehavioural disorders which can cause them are well located in the frontal lobes or the rough body; they also originate by corticsub cortical dysfunction or immaturity. (Sánchez, 1988)

Dysorthography (From Gr. dys, difficulty, orthos, right, and graphe, writing). Difficulty to write the spelling of the language correctly. It is often associated with one certain degree, of dyslexia, but it does not necessarily imply an intellectual deficit. The most common mistakes committed by individuals with this type of disorder are: a) phonetic; (b) of use); (c) separation of the words errors; (d) confusion between parts of a phrase; (e) ignorance of the syntax errors […]. (Sánchez, 1988) Echolalia (From Gr. cast, sound, ECHO, and lalia, conversation). Spontaneous verbal repetition which consists of repeating syllables, words or phrases that you have just heard. It is very common in the evolutionary stage of language acquisition of between nine and twelve months. (Sánchez, 1988) Echolocalisation Ability to locate obstacles through the echo of sounds. It develops and widens through learning, notably in the blind. (Sánchez, 1988) Eidetic (From Gr. eidetikos, from eidos, form, outward appearance, figure, representation, idea). In general, it indicates the ability to represent the consciousness of the exact images of objects seen previously. It is called eidetic tendency to convert all the mental processes in images... (Sánchez, 1988)

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Embolalia Spoken language disorder characterized by the appearance of senseless superfluous words in speech, hindering the communication of the subject. (Sánchez, 1988) Embololexia Reading activity alteration characterized because of the subject, in the course of the same, pronounces words or syllables which are not written. It is a type of dyslexia which can also show other alterations such as the confusion of letters, order inversion, etc. (Sánchez, 1989) Empathy A capacity of feelings to be reproduced on another person, idioglossic them and be understood. In other words, it would be 'to put in the place of others'. It is used in psychoanalysis and in C. Rogers’s non-directive therapy (and other similar conversational therapies), in which the therapist must understand the patient, without judging. (Sánchez, 1988) Psychology Bulletin Use of an imaginary language involving the fixation of new meanings to the words and the formation of an own lexicon. This language is virtually incomprehensible, being, therefore, the possibilities of communication quite limited. (Sánchez, 1988) Graphomotricity Motor activity linked to the realization of graphism. The development of graph-motricity is an aspect of psychomotor education, whose purpose is the acquisition of the motor and psychomotor skills directly related to writing […]. (Sánchez, 1988) Graphotherapy (From Gr. graphe, writing, and therapeuo, cure). Treatment to reeducate and improve writing, both in children and in adults. (Sánchez, 1988)

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Hyperactivity Alteration of children behavior which is very frequent among school population, and whose most relevant characteristics are: inability to sit still in a room; impossibility of sitting; excessive movement during sleep and always being 'up', or act 'as if he was moved by an engine'. These features must appear before the age of seven and last at least six months. The demand for these criteria is highly recommended. Otherwise, the hyperactivity diagnosis would be based on reports, usually conjectural, from parents and teachers, who have a very variable tolerance towards the outside level of activity […]. (Sánchez, 1989) Hypomnesia (From Gr. hypo, below of, and mnesis, memory). Weak memory, characterized by the decreasing ability to retain or evoke and relate past events. (Sánchez, 1988) Hypoprosexia Light attention deficit, manifested by the subject’s weak capacity to set his mind on a certain target. Attention is at the same time a little wide and intense, so the capacity to fix and reflect is significantly diminished. This inattention is observed in emotional blockage and regressive processes cases (depression, fatigue, asthenia, hyperthymia). Opposite: hyperprosexia. (Sánchez, 1991) Idioglossia (From Gr. idios, own, special, and glossa, language). Excessive, irregular and disorderly verbal production in a child, characterized by the introduction of many new words, but with communicative purpose. The child thus constitutes his own idioglosic language and communicative code, which must be interpreted by those who listen to him (adult or same)... The origin of the i. is a disruption of the excitation mechanisms and a malfunction of internal inhibition mechanisms, both processes which govern the higher nervous activity. (Sánchez, 1991)

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Logotherapy (From the Gr.: logos, Word, and paideia, education). Re-education of the inborn or acquired language disorders in children and adults, especially of oral expression. These disorders include stuttering, articulation disorders, certain aphasia, etc. (Sánchez, 1988) Macropolitical Pathologic alteration of the oral language which causes a slow and intelligible speaking; it is not a disorder of the joint of phonemes, so it must not be associated with the term dyslalia. (Sánchez, 1989) Music Therapy A therapeutic technique which uses music in all its forms, with receptive or active participation on the part of the patient. By itself, it constitutes a paramedical profession with its own identity, and for their full effectiveness, it means that the music therapist works in close contact with the psychiatrist.’ The use of therapeutic music aims to relief, improvement, prevention or cure of physical, mental or emotional disorders of individuals, according to the problems shown. (Sánchez, 1988) Oliglubia Disorder in the sphere’s behavior (of its control and direction) by a deficit of brainpower. This translates into low activity and motor clumsiness. (Sánchez, 1988) Oligophasia Language disorder which appears in oligophrenia and is characterized by alterations in the ability to use the elements of the language, both in their composition (phonemes, syllables, words) and its meaning, and which usually have their origin in the brain injury that has produced the oligofrenia. (Sánchez, 1988) A disorder caused by a mental deficiency in the intellectual sphere. The attitude by a mental inertia and inability to read and write. (Sánchez, 1989)

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Psychodiagnostic (From Gr. psyche, soul; diá through, and gnosis, knowledge). Psychological diagnosis. Identification of the psychological traits of a subject (not necessarily sick) through special techniques. This process goes through the following phases: a) Anamnesis or compilation of all biographical information relating to the individual at the time of the diagnosis, as well as their possible pathological hereditary history. b) Application of exploratory techniques (psychometric and projective) c) Synthesis of all the data obtained in order to frame them in a final p. and establish the prognosis. d) Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, and psychologist used the term p. to designate a form of understanding of the total personality, in its multiple aspects, as well as a specific technique of exploration of the personality (test p. of Rorschach). (Sánchez, 1988)

Psychometrics (From Gr. psyché, soul, and metron, measure). Branch of mathematical psychology which aims in the measurement of mental activity, the development of different measurement instruments (tests, scales, questionnaires, etc.) and the subsequent mathematical treatment of the data obtained. Its origins are in the studies in the field of sensory differences by W. M. Wundt, E. H. Weber and G. T. Fechner. (Sánchez, 1988) Psychotecnia (Gr. psyche, soul, and techne, art). A term coined by the German psychologist W. L. Stern (1903). The set of techniques and methods aimed at providing AIDS for examination and psychological treatment are grouped under this area. It is oriented to solve work-related problems, especially derivatives of selection and career guidance. (Sánchez, 1989)

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Realism (Del lat. res, ser, objeto, realidad concreta). Término empleado por J. Piaget para indicar la tendencia del pensamiento infantil an atribuir existencia sustancial (cosificación) a productos psicológicos (pensamientos, sentimientos, sueños, etc.). It appears in the preoperational stage (2-7 years), where the child does not discriminate clearly psychological facts of physicists from an egocentric perspective; the self from the outside world). (Sánchez, 1991) Intensifier (From lat. re, which indicates repetition and fortio, give strength) SIN: reinforcement.) Any stimulus presented in the form of reward to increase the frequency of a response or certain behaviour. When it comes to weakening a behavior, the r. consists of an unpleasant stimulus (punishment). This term has been used by the learning theoreticians, mainly by I.P Pavlov, E.L. Thorndike, B.F. Skinner, C.L. Hull and E.R. Guthrie. Main kinds of reinforcers: primary or unconditioned ones (do not require previous learning), secondary or conditioned (formed by association with a primary r.), positive (appetitive stimulus, reward), negative (aversive stimulus). (Sánchez, 1988) Reinforcement (From lat. re, which indicates repetition and fortio, give strength). The experimental method used mainly by American psychologists E.L. Thorndike and Skinner B.F. in their research with animals, which provide reinforcement as a result of a certain *conduct. It shows that the Association response-reinforcement determines an increase in the probability of emission of the response itself in similar situations. The acceptance of a subject will depend on the pattern and frequency enhancers administrated during its acquisition-related... (Sánchez, 1988)

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Reyfication (Lat. res, thing, and facio, do). Attitude of the individual that establishes relationships by reducing others to a mere functional presence or a series of attributes or social categories (role, status, class). This attitude, and the absence of an authentic individual contact makes the relationship depersonalized. (Sánchez, 1988)

Chapter 2

TERMINOLOGY IN THE PEDAGOGY LANGUAGE “SECTOR LANGUAGE” IN PEDAGOGY: TECHNICISMS The “sector language” of Pedagogy, as a mixed-type forming the "threshold level" which places it in the middle of the polar scale (one end being the slang and the other “scientific and technical languages”), contains a number of small but representative of this scientific disciplinespecific terms. For example, the term competence is a technicality in the language of Pedagogy. In the general language, it has the meaning of “(from lat. competentĭa; CF. compete).”1 f. dispute or contest between two or more people on something" (DRAE, 2001). On the other hand, its significance in the field of education refers to the “... satisfaction produced by the control of the environment and, even, by its own modification” (Sánchez, 1988). That is45: It is defined as potential, conceptual, procedural and attitudinal character, acquired through formal or informal training or through

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See section 2.1. The neologism lexicon in the Pedagogy, the treatment which has been awarded and the current meaning both voice competence, as the recent basic skills expression.

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han experience, whether it is professional, personal or social, which manifests itself in its implementation in productive situations. (IQPIB, 2002)

It's a positive feeling that the child has because he takes control of his environment and is capable of modifying what bothers him. It arises in the educational field as an answer to the direct consequence of the lack of theoretical satisfaction of the classic behavioral cognitive model in Psychology, in order to incorporate aspects of interpersonal relationships to the child. The poor conceptualization of this phenomenon led to the creation of new theories on this type of relations, in which the term competition acquires great significance, not only for its theoretical interest but also for its relationship with assertiveness46: Interpersonal competence oriented to give expression to a desire (assertive intention) through the action of a subject (assertive act), and whose satisfaction is only possible to reach in an interpersonal dynamics, as secondary and implied consequence a generative effect occurs (intra and interpersonal generativity) on the relationship of the involved 47 subjects.

It represents know-how, both academic and attitudinal, that the child has acquired and which allows you to perform activities with suitable results: When defining Competence, it is important to note that in every definition there are different prior assumptions with which each author operates, what causes that the conceptual result is different, and as Le Boterf expressed, the concept of current competence has a singular In fact, assertiveness “is a complex and interpersonal competence, learnable, and modifiable, issued in the labor context, oriented to meet the individual and organizational objectives, taking the interlocutor into account by both rights of others and respect for the characteristics of the particular situation. 47 http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:MwLtpZUkfwwJ:https://www.ucursos.cl/medicina/2009/1/ENFINHUCO2/1/material_docente/objeto/210037+competencia +remite+a+la+satisfacci%C3%B3n+psicolog%C3%ADa&cd=3&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=es (Accessed: 18/05/2010). 46

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attraction, the difficulty of defining it grows with the need to use it, so as this actor points out rather than an operational concept is a concept in way of being manufactured. The main axis of competency-based education is the performance as the concrete expression of the resources which the individual brings into play when he carries out an activity, and that he puts the emphasis on the use or handling which the subject must do what he knows, not of isolated knowledge, in conditions where the performance is relevant. (Malpica 1996) From this perspective, the important thing is not the possession of certain knowledge, but the use that is made of them. This criterion requires educational institutions to rethink what has been commonly regarded as training. Under this view, to determine if an individual is competent or not, the actual conditions in which performance makes sense must be taken into account, instead of formal compliance with a set of learning objectives which sometimes have no relation with the context48.

The term distractor is also part of Pedagogy sublexicon. It refers to: Any element inserted in the process teaching-learning without being programmed, and therefore which introduces alterations in any of the factors, the process and the result. (Sánchez, 1988)

An alternative of a wrong answer (or less valid) included, along with the correct answer on a multiple choice item within a test or an objective test... (Sánchez, 1991). Any element which, without being programmed, is introduced into the teaching-learning process causing an alteration in the same or its outcome. (AA.VV., 2002)

An answer to an item in an objective test which is considered incorrect or unacceptable. It presents a remarkable interest in the analysis of items 48

http://www.monografias.com/trabajos16/diseno-curricular-competencias/diseno-curricularcompetencias.shtml (Accessed: 06/06/2010).

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since it can meet the need for a fine and accurate discrimination between answers or to highlight an inadequate formulation of the distractor (Salvador, M.; Rodriguez, J.L.; Bolívar, a., 2004). Any wrong answers which are interspersed between the correct ones within the set of options to choose in a test or objective multiple-choice test. When it is well formulated, the d. is chosen by many of the students with a low dominance of the subject, being, on the other hand, not frequently chosen by those who possess a good knowledge of that subject […]. In the teaching-learning processes, lots of distractors can interfere, even the own pedagogical material used by the teacher: Distractors in the psychosocial and cognitive development begin at the moment when stimuli which the individual receives do not have a benefit in their sensory registers, that is, what is learned is not useful to understand what is outside. As educators, we can believe that systems and didactic materials are truly effective for better cognition and learning of our students. However, when do these didactic objects become learning distractors? […] We will then meet with parents and people who think that their own skills or their children‘s skills are being stimulated properly and in the best way, being the same didactic objects which become audiovisual distractors in many cases, that just show a simple way to view a topic, but not a more viable way of understanding the world49.

On the other hand, the term docimology, although it comes from a classical language, is part of the group of “sector language” technicalities of Pedagogy. Note that its use only acquires meaning in the pedagogical discourse. The objective to which this term aims is the study of the tests: (From Gr. dokimé, test, trial, and logos, treaty). A term commonly used in French pedagogical literature (H. Pieron, J. Guillaumin, G. De Landsheere, etc.) which designates the science whose object is the 49

http://grupos.emagister.com/debate/_en_que_momento_el_material_didactico_se_convierte_en _un_distractor_en_el_aprendizaje_y_deja_de_ser_un_beneficio_para_el_desarrollo_cogniti vo_y_social_del_individuo_/1012-13930 (Accessed: 08/06/2010).

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scientific study of the *tests. It is initially concerned with the systematic analysis of the tests; it currently deals with systems of correction and the examiners and examinees’ behavior, becoming an experimental science. Their concerns include the fact of reaching *methods, tools and *techniques that meet the conditions of precision and rigor which allow a valid *assessment, in the technical sense of the term, pedagogically oriented, and which avoids to the greatest extent possible the traumas to schoolchildren. (Sánchez, 1988)

Pedagogical tests are called this way in the field of Pedagogy: The study of evaluation constitutes one of the issues which are a matter of concern for pedagogical sciences. Henri Piéron, more than six decades ago, proposed the name of docimology to the discipline focused on the systematic study of educational tests, commonly called exams from comparisons on grading systems between different examiners to appreciate what is produced by student learning. In 1958 an international educational contest was held in Hamburg, under UNESCO auspices, to discuss the results of an investigation into the use of tests in various countries. (Abraham, 2007: 6)

Another example is the term educability, widely used since 2004 in this specialized language. Only two dictionaries specialized in the language of Pedagogy collect its meaning: A person’s ability to be educated or trained and, therefore, improve and/or acquire new aptitude, behaviors, skills, etc. The educability, or ability to be trained, is not a natural quality and cannot be set in absolute terms. People can be teachable in different conditions, even with important limitations in their biological endowment. (Valcárcel, 2004) 1. Willingness, ductility and individual plasticity to receive educational influences and make them new mental structures. (AA.VV., 2003)

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This term represents a prerequisite which has to emerge from the student so that he can be educated within the school environment. Even some authors put limits to the educability: […] pupil’s educability, as ductility or plasticity, is an essential condition to have education […] these educability boundaries; "the change capacity which enables education occurs in the trainees, but not in an unlimited way. “The nature of who is educated, the historical circumstances and the own orientation given in the learner himself put borders to the influence of the educator.” (AA.VV., 2004: 27-29)

This does not diminish prominence or importance to the use of this term, but, it rather recognizes him as an expressly created term to refer to the individual ability to be educated, to be trained. Note its semantic usage in specialized texts: The interactions between learnability, teachability, educability, learning, teaching and educating oneself, set up a new field of research which gives, pedagogies and experimental sciences didactics, a different dimension to which it had been attributing so far. It is a challenge of theorizing which requires conceptual and methodological reframes regarding registration, at least, in relation to teaching, learning, and education, a critical review of the epistemological assumptions that underlie such concepts. It is necessary in the case of experimental sciences, to argue that each of them, from their own interdisciplinary structure and base budgets which configure them, it also found a conception of the world which realizes and requires a way of thinking and acting in such a position and structure discipline. Hence, which becomes in an order which educates to whom decides getting into their form of organization and critically adopt their structures of meaning, their meaning and ways of acting. This is what constitutes the educability in experimental sciences and which breaks, incidentally, the so called criticized relationship of externality in which they cease to be simply a good to use, commercially available goods in the educational market. Meeting the interdisciplinarities, codisciplinarities and trans-disciplinarities, which talk about how and in

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which way historically, all academic knowledge, in one way or another, whether remote or current, are related with each other, in their conceptual supports... (Gallego y Pérez, 2006: 89-96)

The importance of the students themselves has increased the significance of this term giving it a more active role in didactic processes aimed at the achievement of curricular objectives. All this implies recognizing that educational praxis involves the recognition of both the figure of the teacher and the student and that the work of educating people is clear from this conception of educability: In the beginning, and recalling old points of view which had dominance in past times, this category runs the risk of being conceptualized in terms of plasticity, of how the learner is allowed to be shaped at will and the educator’s arbitrariness, under the justification that what he seeks, in short, is the learner’s property. Students are assimilated, so metaphorically, but decisive for the traditional educational practice, to the idea that they are a mass report or a marble block on which the educator sculpts what he wants. This position is close to the belief that students come to the process with an empty mind. No. That is not the way to refer to the problem of the educability, since it denies all the current discourse about the person who is, in principle, the student. The educability may not set aside the logic of curricular intentions in the indisputable direction that all learners must, finally, join critically to the cultural, social, political and economic project and its processes of production of goods and services, with a view to financially sustain their ethical life project. Returning to the category of order, in the context of the recognition of the plurality and multi-diversity, they are all the previous minimum factors that co-determine that order and the epistemological, pedagogical, didactic and curriculum ordering in whose interior the educability builds and acquires its real praxis. To formulate it is a practice in which we must cross these factors in a complex manner. In the beginning, we would have to think of the educators ‘intentionality that, by political delegation, have been introduced to learners in a given order; something which has to be

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han understood as a proposal subject to negotiation. (Gallego and Pérez, 2006: 112-114) In this sense, we frame this reflection on education by competence from one of the most important elements of the “basic and common nuclei of pedagogical knowledge” already defined from the Order 272 of February 11, 1998, corresponding to the Educability. It is our intention in this document, to permeate the attention “of” and “on” the University with its relevance, every time that it has been more noticeable in the higher education environment in the country, the reflection on the Teachability of Disciplines and the Sciences Didactics, than the consideration about the Educability as basis for all educational attention, and this, in our view, has been one of the most harmful elements for the understanding of competency-based education, because it has made invisible to the real substrate of this proposal. (Muñoz y Muñoz, 2007: 16)

As discussed previously, the word formation processes in the “sector language” of Pedagogy, as well as other specialized languages, use the same procedures as the general language. A good example of this type of construction is this term, formed by a procedure of morphological derivation, by adding a suffix to the lexical base. This added suffix confers a sense of semantic specificity which, together with the context and co-text in which it is used, restrict the features of semantic selection and the specificity of its extension. Another example of a technical term in the language of the field of Education is educability. Different from the one before, educability. In this case, the meaning refers to the conditions, the environment of teaching and learning where person’s educability will take place: The conditions which identify a specific learning environment and which give it its capacity so that certain people can be educated and/or trained in it. Educability is, therefore, a quality of certain “environment,” here that its determination is closely linked to the concept of quality. Educability cannot be determined in absolute terms, it can only be determined by its relationship with the subjects ‘characteristics’. (Valcárcel, 2004)

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This term, specifically created in this specialized language, has spread remarkably quickly and it is used in a number of scholarly articles. It is not about person’s capacity to be influenced and acquire knowledge and react to them with his cultural background, but it is a capacity that an individual has to influence others. The teaching-learning processes take place in a classroom and in a specific environment, in a social context50 which is very important for these processes to be developed correctly: Without defending a pedagogism of the problem, here we intend that the action or intervention generated by the models is educational. As a result, we advocate the pedagogical as an integrating system for the development or construction of the intervention model. The pedagogical problem, that in social, political, psychological, legal, law enforcement actions […] can be one more component, becomes a need here if we search for an educative-preventive action, which is the case. The pedagogical, by definition, guarantee the educability of the model. However, there are internal constraints to the pedagogical model which can generate reductionist risks […] The mindset which separates the social-community as something alien to the process itself within the educational process is considered in the pedagogical research as a wrong reflection. All the more reason, it will be on the subject that concerns us. Within educational action and delinquency, the special and important role that the social-community acquires is demanding that educability of the social-community must not only be predominantly careful in relation to other dimensions and agents of the educational process, but the model must ensure that educative […] Research and pedagogical action through primary pedagogical intervention models can and should offer regulations, directions, strategies and power-ups methods which are generators of educative and, Therefore, adjusting the individuals and groups capacity and potential with the dynamics and stimulus of the social, cultural and economic reality […]. (Merino, 1993: 191-208)

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See definition of the expression social context in terms which have undergone a semantic constraint.

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This term represents the double possibility of education; the power to educate individuals in the 21st century, with the roles required, both by teachers and the students. For this reason, both the educability and the educative are necessary for the process of training. Individuals’ educability of demand educative: […] who is the teacher required? so he acts in what kind of educational institution? The teachers we have today, do they practice a job. What we could say so far is that higher education institutions and, especially faculties of education, should engage in the task of reviewing the existing literature about the teachers training (educative), recognize the new society demands and the educational sector, in order to proceed with the transformation in the teachers’ preparation for the whole educational system […] The educational process offered by the University should be the result of the articulation of the four conceptual axes which make up the pedagogical knowledge and which constitute its theoretical foundation: educability, educative, learnability, and teachability. (Peláez, 2008: 32)

The term inductor comes from Latin inductor (which induces) and it is a technicality of Pedagogy specialty sublexicon. It refers to the roles function of all those involved in the teaching process: given that the teacher has the role and responsibility of not only developing the teaching and learning processes of the classroom but also motivating students, the word inductor reflects that particular sense of one of several of the teacher’s roles. Not only the master is inductor, but also all those people who are involved in these learning processes, either in an active or passive way: we could apply it to all ‘educational agents’, such as teacher, family, school, and in general, any environment in which the learners find themselves (Sánchez, 1988). The following fragment of text demonstrates the semantic use according to the agents involved in the teaching and learning processes:

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The test consists of an essay on a current topic and objective issues which assess competencies and skills developed by students at the school- i.e., their ability to reason and sort problems out, instead of measuring the contents memorization of the each discipline. Its objective is not to identify deficiencies but stimulate the formation of citizens who are able to think with autonomy and act dynamically on the modern life problems.

Another technicality is paidocentrism. It is born as an educational principle in The New School where the child is considered to be the center of interest of teaching-learning processes, which must be articulated according to their interests, needs, and abilities. Created through a process of Greek-Latin composition, this word does not belong to the general language lexicon. It is a word of the language of Pedagogy. It only makes sense to talk about paidocentrism as a principle of teaching performance in the field of education, regarding the child. And with this respect, the word meaning goes beyond the expected compositionality of the constituent parts of the compound word as it is semantically expanded. From this movement, everything revolves around the child; the school does no longer focus on the “logos” or academically, but on the world of the child's interests: From Gr. country, child, and centrism). SIN: Puerocentrism. (Pedag.) A pedagogical doctrine which makes the learner the basis and axis of all educational task. It considers childhood as a stage with its own characteristics, which should be enhanced, and not a moment of transition towards the development of the adult […]. (Sánchez, 1988) (PED.) A pedagogical doctrine which makes the pupil becomes the axis of education. 2002). The important references to develop curricular projects from the stages in basic education are the following: to) the aims of basic education; (b) the educational principles which shape paidocentrism; (c) school justice; (d) the evolutionary time of the pupils and their individual

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han and collective situations; (e) the sociocultural environment conditions and requirements51.

Paidocentrism was a change from traditional conceptions of educational processes. It pointed out the student’s role by making him the real protagonist of their own learning. The New school replaced its old dictatorial and authoritarian slogan of Magister dixit, discipulus credit by the Discat to puero magister suggesting more possibilities in the figure of the child regarding spontaneity and personalism. The educational principles around which this pedagogical current revolves are: The fundamental premise of effective basic education is the paidocentrism. The educational principles which make up paidocentrism are: a) individualisation of learning […]; (b) socialization […]; (c) globalisation of learning […]; (d) self-education or active and autonomous learning oriented towards the acquisition of cognitive attitudes and skills and cognitive skills […]52. The dominant formal education in the nineteenth century was fought during the 20th century from different positions. In the first decades, it was fought from the movement of “active school” or “new school,” whose “non-directivism” was analyzed with diverse and well-known approaches. The configuration of psychology and its evolutionary directions were recent- heirs of “Rousseau naturalism” - which strengthened the paidocentrism, emphasizing the child’s learning spontaneity. To European guidelines, overturned against which they called “traditional pedagogy,” the philosophical direction of Dewey in the United States was joined, which exalted the importance of functional or informal education, soaking into it in the intramural school […] The doctrine of this movement, so praised and controversial as infrequently valid, it endures in prestigious courses of initial literacy, either in the auto-constructivism (Ferreiro 1990), “as display of an endogenous plan” (Coll, 1990, 140) or revalidation of functional education which emphasises learning by immersion in the environment

51 52

http://www.ctv.es/USERS/apevex01/edu.html (Accessed: 17/03/2010). http://www.ctv.es/USERS/apevex01/espacios.html (Accessed: 18/03/2010).

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(Goodman 1990). These directions are complementary and reduce the teacher action, opposing their intrusion on the spontaneous child learning. The attacks against formal education were exacerbated in the mid20th century from the procreation theories, coming from sociology, and the schooling and the contra-schooling, generated in pedagogy. Recognizing their criticisms, other sociologists make them responsible for the “black legend,” as arguably as the pink legend of the “traditional school” (Filmus 1990). “Black legend” also on the teacher whose “image” (Nassif 1980, 153-171) seems to follow the pendulum of the functional and formal education prevalence. It was slave and server in ancient times and The Middle Ages; sovereign or missionary in the 19thcentury herbartism and rationalism; forgotten in paidocentrism; oppressive, tyrannical and genocidal; finally, again slave in the reproductivism and deschooling theories 53. […] the age of Enlightenment rationalism sanctioned this minority status while celebrating the creatures as the wealth of tomorrow and the future builders of the enlightened society. Due to this emphasis in the future, pending progress, children are qualified as “still-not--human beings still do not know, they may not even be, not yet.” Its status of «still-not» characterizes them as a different social category (Verhellen, 1992: 39). However, who raised (to rephrase) this vision to the altars was Jean-Jacques Rousseau, heir of the illustrated climate but by keeping advertising distances of Romanticism. His childhood re-invention framed in the new lifestyle context of the ascending bourgeoisie - would have a huge significance whose echoes are still audible. The Genevan was the first to expressly write that the child is not a small man, who has his particular ways of seeing, thinking and feeling, and it would be foolish to claim to replace them with adults […] The small child is not already conceptualized as clay or soft wax which parents or tutor ahormah, but as a seed which must know and care himself from the outside in order to flourish all his innate virtualities […] It cannot be denied that “psi resulting pedagogies” have promoted a different interaction with students, stimulating and respectful of their individuality and protective of its activity, as well as a decrease in the teacher traditional authoritarianism, the elimination of severe 53

http://www.educoas.org/Portal/bdigital/contenido/interamer/BkIACD/Interamer/Interamerhtml/ Rodr38html/Rod38_Brasl.htm (Accessed: 16/03/2010).

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han punishments or the most striking forms of surveillance and discipline... copies to political education we saw above are insufficient to close the debate, since they are not free from undergoing revision socialisation patterns which underlie this sort of romantic paidocentrism hovering behind54.

This pedagogical movement reached a greater role by modifying the traditional education system because the figure of the student related an official recognition of this in education, with the defense of the school justice, with the right of the child to education and with the real possibility that he could achieve the aims of education: The pure paidocentrism was born to advertising... Then, we looked at the schoolchild, the child who learns. And the look was so acute, which began to eulogize to the child’s individualism, to promote his spontaneity and the development of his animality. Se olvidaba que el niño es una persona en lugar de un individuo en desarrollo. We forgot that a child is a person instead of a developing individual. The teacher diminished into the peculiar development of each child […] 55. The full development of the human personality is summarized in the aims of basic education and the educational principles which make up the paidocentrism […] The right to education understood as such is the necessary condition so that all students can make their rights and fundamental freedoms effective. The realization of the basic education aims, the educational principles which form the paidocentrism and school justice in operational and functional objectives in each school must take into account the sociocultural environment constraints to find effective responses to the challenges posed by56.

An active and cooperative learning is assigned to the child. Not only is the axis on which the teaching and learning process is built, however, he is responsible and is his main protagonist. These actions in the education 54

http://www.ub.es/geocrit/sv-96.htm (Accessed: 02/04/2010). http://www.canalsocial.net/GER/ficha_GER.asp?id=5404&cat=educacion (Accessed: 17/03/2010). 56 http://www.ctv.es/USERS/apevex01/espacios.html (Accessed: 18/03/2010). 55

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system were promoted by the New School movement: A person, driven with an eminently active methodology, should develop a critical spirit of cooperation [The New School] This movement emerged towards the end of the XIX century, and one of its main promoters, if not the main one, is the Swiss Adolphe Ferriere (1879-1960), who proposes a pedagogical attitude of respect for the child’s needs and interests, who, driven by an eminently active methodology, should develop a critical spirit of cooperation. The child is the axis of all the educational activity (paidocentrism), in contrast with the traditionalism which considers the teacher as a responsible and main protagonist of the educational process 57. The origin of The New School was also powerfully influenced by the scientific context, that is, the expansion of human and social sciences and the development of new anthropological theories derived from Darwinian evolutionism. […] The inherited Rosseau paidocentrism, i.e., the concern for placing the child in the center of the educational process made arouse a great interest in the study of the child’s nature and his autonomous and independent development from of adults’ ideal. The axiom that Pedagogy should rest on the study of the child (Claparède, 1927) helped the origins and consolidation of the sciences for the study of child - called Paidology, child’s Psychology or Experimental Pedagogy–, whose initial story was parallel to the New School, and even most of these early psychologists – Claparède and Piaget– […] All these influences, often opposite and contradictory, are at the origin of the New School and made the establishment of a comprehensive dialectic possible, which usually led to more or less accepted synthesis 58. The new school movement arises from the end of the 19th century, in several European countries. Psychologists are linked to the process of construction of the New School, doctors and teachers are linked, among them are the contributions of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Fröebel, Ferriere, 57

http://www.monografias.com/trabajos35/teorias-pedagogicas/teorias-pedagogicas.shtml# construct (Accessed: 14/03/2010). 58 http://www.monografias.com/trabajos29/escuela-nueva/escuela-nueva.shtml (Accessed: 17/03/ 2010).

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han Dewey, Montessori, Claparede, Cecil Readie y Decroly among others. According to Jaime Jaramillo, the New School history can be traced in the 19th-century tradition which a Pestalozzi and some of his disciples as Froebel embody and the different currents of philosophical ideas characteristic of the time too. From the second decade of the 20th century, active school breaks into Colombia and its thinking go in the field of guiding an intellectual group of educational reform, which seeks to modify the traditional school. This large group of thinkers warns about a discursive complexity and application proposals. However, some elements or converged principles which characterize it are distinguished: One of them uses paidocentrism, which determines the key importance of the student within the educational process […] From postulates and multiple and diverse experimental practices and it accomplishes generalization of pedagogical procedures and creates a school with an important biopsychosocial basis. This pedagogical concept foundation and its new methodology rely on the child knowledge and the development of his thought, from which he adepats the processes, content, activities, and the school59.

This voice has not only resulted in the passage of a traditional methodology, anchored in the figure of the teacher as the only responsible and protagonist of the teaching-learning process, he has also linked the child to the educational system on the basis of their interests, concerns, and capabilities, etc. This meant giving up the old logocentrism or magistrocentrism labeling and proceeding with another one which is more consistent with a child vision as the main focus of the teaching and learning process, pedagogical individualism, and naturalism. Two stages are distinguished in the West history of pedagogical ideas: the vision advocated by Rousseau, who considered the teacher and decisive factors of the pedagogical process (called by some authors, as Gentile “bias of the pedagogism”) and the following one, in which the learner becomes the most important. Two stages are distinguished in the west history of 59

http://www.utp.edu.co/~chumanas/revistas/revistas/rev27/pabon.htm (Accessed: 17/03/2010).

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pedagogical ideas: pedagogical individualism supporters considered it a revolution in contemporary education. According to some authors, didactics is a discipline in search of its identity. Leaving behind his philosophical dependency, it starts to become a scientific discipline when it relies on Psychology. From Comenius in his “Didactica Magna,” Treaty of universal art teach everything all in a safe and excellent way it is a normative science, in such a way that teaching is effective, through the application of logical and rigorous methods. This approach also makes reference to Ratke’s Realism and Bacon's Empiricism according to which the “Experimental method” opens the way to a new investigation of the natural world, and a more practical and safe knowledge: After Comenius’s methodical proposal marked by safety, efficiency, soundness, of purely rationalist and empiricist character, didactics enters an explanatory phase theoretically based on the action and on individuality. Rousseau’s ideas were the ones with which paidocentrism, functionalism, and the teaching individualisation deepened. These principles prepare for the big change. But it is J. F. Herbart (1776-1811) who starts teaching as educational instruction or education as intellectual training60.

This educational principle had much influence, even spreading the word paidocentrism not only to refer to that change in the student conception at school and his role and organization of education from his figure, but any aspect of education was paidocentric. Once voices are created, they can expand their meaning. Note the influence of the Greek word Paidós (child) paidocentrism. In the field of Education, when this word was used not only was referring to a new, different to the previous methodology, but they were paidocentric teaching models61, personal levels in the processes of 60

http://www.feeye.uncu.edu.ar/web/posjornadasinve/area4/Practica%20y%20residencia/259%20 -%20Berardini%20y%20Ortiz%20-%20FEEyE.pdf (Accessed: 17/03/2010). 61 It is redundant to use that expression because, although it means a change with regard to the methodology and previous educational principles (magistrocentrism), as the word itself

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teaching and learning are created, biopsychosocial fundamentals are developed in schools, paradigms based on this principle are created, new educational approaches are consolidated, etc. Everything related to education is, by definition, paidocentric or based on the paidocentrism. American psychological current based on Functionalism (James and Dewey) founded this active or action pedagogy which has greatly spread in contemporary education. Therefore, the teaching process is understood as a self-activity in which the child learns through the teacher’s suggestions and guidance. Child auto-shapes, he does very varied, functional and spontaneous activities through the beginning of paidocentrism. This pedagogy interprets that each child thinks differently and it is necessary to respect his needs, growth, and development: […] what is new consists in that, as in other active models, the learning activity is based on the child, it is paidocentric, and it is organized by the teacher in the form of game […] If we consider, with Ferrández (sf), a general model of the educational act, in which its components are the teacher, the learner, the learning and teaching strategies context, we could describe the active model as paidocentric and opposed to the classic model, we have defined magistrocentrico […] The name of active methods leads us to place them immediately in relation to the movement of the New School, which precisely promoted paidocentric teaching methods, in contrast to previous school practices of the traditional type and magistrocentric. By the data which we have, it is difficult to establish a direct relationship between the New School and active methods of music education: it is not possible to say with certainty that the authors of active music education methods have had a direct relationship with the teachers of the new school. In traditional education, curriculum has been created and is focused on the teacher experience who teaches the subject (endocentric focus), as all captured revolves around how the teaching has to be taught (learning

indicates, the teaching and learning process revolves around the child, his interests, and needs, etc.

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objectives, material support, group dynamics, assessment of learning, etc) […] Unlike the face to face modality, in distance education, the program focuses more on the student and the attention received is customized (paidocentric approach) […] In this category, the educational program must be as much structured as possible, because the student should not have any doubts about any of the actions to be performed to achieve the learning objectives 62.

In terms of the analysis proposed by Jimenez, Gonzalez, and Ferreres (1989) from the Decroly’s model, Dalcroze’s proposal complies with the requirements which these authors synthesize:   

it is a paidocentric model (individual level); the needs are contemplated, in this case of musical learning and expression (generator level); the teacher is guide and counselor, but in turn, he proposes relatively structured musical materials63.

The paidocentric paradigm. Under this paradigm, different authors can be included, but all of them prioritize the student or apprentice’s centrality, in the educational process. All other variables are subject to the child or apprentice (child or adult). In this sense, different denominations such as “New school,” “Active School,” “Adapted School,” “School by interests,” “Non-directive,” etc., they apply the same principle and give shape to the same learning and education, because education is always based on learning, without which it would not be possible. This paradigm has been, above all, the product of a reaction against the previous paradigm. If the didascalocentric paradigm is mainly sociological, the paidocentic paradigm is strongly psychological. In particular, it has been intended to fill the vacuum left by the traditional school and conductism, with respect to the absence of consideration by human being’s effectivity, for his freedom and creativity in learning. 62

http://www.cuaed.unam.mx/boletin/boletinesanteriores/boletinsuayed02/roquet.php (Accessed: 11/03/2010). 63 http://musica.rediris.es/revista/jorquera.pdf (Accessed: 17/03/2010).

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han Carl Rogers has been a representative of the ideas which underlie this paradigm. The entire learning process, formal and informal, is centered on the person who learns: his ability to explore and understand himself, and to study and understand his own problems, as well as the ability to solve these problems64. Paidocentrism means to understand the child as the axis of the entire educational process. It was a radical change of the prevailing educational systems based on the efficacy of the method which students had to adapt. For the first time, it will be considered that children as a stage with its own characteristics and not a transit towards the development of the adult. Education must, therefore, scheduled methods and materials appropriated to the children's needs and adapt to the child’s natural development65.

Although there are different opinions which paidocentrism with the father-centrism/parents-centrism:

resemble

The fashion style is to put students at the center of gaze. It is not only the new legislation which has placed the student in the central position. It is something that had been happening in all Western education since ancient times, perhaps since the 1960s, at least. And this happens not only in primary and secondary schools but also, and very intensely, in the university. We can accept that primary education is more focused towards the student, but is not well understood how it keeps happening at the University, where knowledge should be the significant and essential, and not the student, who is old enough. Maybe, this can be known and “paidocentrism.” It is such a significant error, although it is a demagogic and extremely useful one. Because OS layer of care and attention, what is usually done is pandering to all the students’ whims and immaturities, which is the starting point for social control. Of course, when there is no “paidocentrism” there is, to compensate, «fatherscentrism»; or both at the same time. The widespread idea that parents, as children‘s first educators, have the supreme authority at schools and even at universities. In the worst case, because of pay 64

http://www.philosophiedudroit.org/daros,%20paradigmes%20education.htm (Accessed: 11/03/2010). 65 http://www.formaciondidactica.com/corrientes.pdf (Accessed: 14/03/2010).

the

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receipts... We have arrived at the extreme that, at University, parents ask for interviews with their children’s teachers 66. For a few months now, I'm having as much fun as a dwarf, truly, and there are days when I laugh so much that I am about to give me an attack. The ones who are somewhat aware of what is happening in the world of education, even the most absent-minded ones, you have already appreciated that changing winds blow […] its fiercely advocates start to weaken and adjust dogmas: yes, friends, I have already noticed it too: pedagogical rats are beginning to abandon ship of the LOGSE. The truth is that in recent times, they seemed confusing and their legs trembled, but a few months ago, when the Minister Gabilondo started talking about effort, respect and all those things that, at the moment - at least for me - sound so little credible in the mouth of a Socialist Minister, they received the final cornet touch and began, with more furtiveness than others to put down weapons from paidocentric67 dogmatism and carry out retreat. (Ibid.)

As Bernat (1992) points out, paidocentrism is an element of the pedagogism released by the educational legislation and in vogue, which is consolidated as a fundamental principle of action: From pedagogism, we identify the following elements: activism […]; teacher’s perception as “mediator” […]; no questioning of political assumptions interest in methods, in detriment of the contents; paidocentrism, resulting from the child’s needs dogmatically defined by an adult, and finally focused on the development of capabilities rather than on the activities […]. (Bernat, 1992: 199) The step from logocentrism to a paidocentrism, which has led to focus attention more on psychological criteria than on logical criteria, driven in part by the recent interest in the first educational levels 68.

66

http://perfiles.wordpress.com/2010/02/23/los-profesores/ (Accessed: 14/03/2010). http://deseducativos.com/2010/02/15/%C2%BFconversos-o-cinicos-sin-verguenza/ (Accessed: 14/03/2010). 68 http://revistas.ucm.es/edu/11302496/articulos/RCED9696120013A.PDF (Accessed: 17/03/2010). 67

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Subsequently, the child’s vision as the main axis of interest in the process of teaching and learning, with a great cognitive activity, with an intellectual development from interests (Decroly’s centres of interest) connects with cognitivism, with a more inclusive vision, seeking to overcome individualism, with a focus on the cognitive activity of students: […] putting it in the balance between the individual subjective and social objective. However, the paidocentrism had great influence on the New School and laid the foundations of what later on has become innovative and contemporary movements. (Sánchez, 1988: 1065)

This technicality is idiosyncratic from the language of Pedagogy. It represents an educational principle different to those used during the 19th century. In the field of education, the figure of the student and his importance in the educational context favors this teaching approach which is based on the student’s interests, by assigning it an active role, with a base of acquisition of knowledge through his cognitive processing. Currently, it is being replaced by cognitivist and constructivist approaches. The portfolio is another technicality of the sector “language” of Pedagogy. It's a new assessment technique which allows you to collect various documents making the student give a rating/mark: Assessment procedure based on a sample of works, in order to demonstrate the author’s competence. A candidate collects samples of his work over a period of time. Esos trabajos, esas aportaciones concretas, constituyen el material sobre el que se centra la evaluación. By habitual use which is common in Spanish, some prefer to translate this assessment strategy, originating in the Anglo-Saxon context, by learning folder. In addition, to mean 'realize' (show) the skills acquired in a testimonial way, for the purpose of assessment, it is an instrument for reflection and teachers' learning and their personal and professional development. On the other hand, at university education, within the European perspective to understand the 'credit' as student’s work, it acquires special relevance as an assessment strategy together with tutoring […]. (Salvador, M.; Rodríguez, J.L.; Bolívar, A., 2004)

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It has entered the stage of Primary Education as a new instrument of assessment which does not substitute for their different types, but it does supplement the information assessed on the student. In the same way, especially in the Faculty of Education of the Saragossa University, it has been inserted within the new Bologna curricula; in Degrees, some subjects already have this assessment system which is almost always complemented by an examination: The Portfolio is a teaching, learning and assessment method consisting of the contribution of productions of different nature from the student through which you can judge capabilities within the framework of a discipline or field of study. These productions report personal process followed by the student, allowing him and others see their efforts and achievements in relation to the learning objectives and previously assessment criteria. Portfolio as a teaching-learning model is based on the theory that assessment marks the way how a student raises his learning. Student’s portfolio answers to two essential aspects of the teachinglearning process, it implies a whole working methodology and teaching strategies in the interaction between teacher and learner; a body of evidence to issue the most adjusted rating to the reality which is difficult to acquire with other more traditional assessment tools which provide a more fragmented view. (Hernández, 2006: 2-8)

The term proaction is also specified within the “sector language” of Pedagogy. Its specialized meaning within this language refers to: Activity which aims to put every student on the level that suits him, according to his learning pace and achievement of the proposed objectives. Once the objectives have been assessed, it is appropriate to go ahead (proaction), to go back to unreached objectives (recovery feedback). Proaction, as a result, is active and personalized learning which meets the students’ demands and which is applied when those have far exceeded the proposed objectives. In a narrow sense, it is the educational activity which aims to each student updates his ability to the limit. (Sánchez, 1991)

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han (ENS.) “Activity intended to place students in proper level according to his learning pace and the objectives to be achieved.” (AA.VV., 2002) Activity which aims to place each student in a *level that suits them according to their *learning pace and *achievement of the *proposed objectives. Once the goals are assessed, it is proceeded: either continuing (proaction) or returning to the unreached objectives (feedback or *recovery). P., as a result, is active and personalized learning which meets the students' demands and it is applied when those have far exceeded the proposed objectives. In a restricted sense, it is the educational activity which aims each student to update his ability to the limit. (Sánchez, 1988)

Another example of a technicality in the sector “language” of Pedagogy is psicocentrism. Its meaning is specific from the field of Science, by sending to: Criteria for selection of the teaching contents which takes into account, first, students’ adaptation, their biological, psychological or social needs, interests, skills, and attitudes. It is a curriculum focused on the figure of the learner […]. (Salvador, M.; Rodríguez, J.L.; Bolívar, A., 2004) (From Gr. psyché, soul, y kéntron, center). In the planning and design of the *curriculum, p. attends characteristics,*traits, personal settings, *needs and *interests, etc., constitutive of the child’s psyche. Hence the main contents of the *program have to be based on the heart of the student's psychological *variables. This psicocentric criterion should not be unique and exclusive when planning the curriculum, but it must combine with the sociological variables, with the logical order or scientific structure of the materials, there are guidelines which are based on the direct experiential situations as generators of the teaching and learning process. (Sánchez, 1988)

As a teaching strategy used in the pedagogical language, especially in the elaboration of didactic settings which constitute the third level of curriculum implementation:

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Currently, targeting is done on the basis of their validity, significance, and adequacy. Validity refers to the relationship between the general education and learning objectives. It is necessary to consider that the objectives are also different depending on their level of generality. The validity will be as the internal coherence of the objectives system, cohesion between formal and content behaviors, the close relationship with the general objectives. Significant knowledge would be those which have the updated scientific characteristics. At the present time, there are many disciplines and fields of knowledge in which events, concepts, and principles become quickly obsolete. Finally, the third criterion is a reformulation of the classic principle of the psicocentrism. Adequacy will occur when the target responds to the interests and possibilities of subject acquisition. It does not seem too appropriate for example, to select content related to trigonometry at the pre-school level. (Díaz, 2002: 141)

The term resilience is another example of “sector language” -coming from English- technicality of Pedagogy which has been created especially to designate all the difficult situations in which the student may experience an extreme reaction: Capacity to act well under conditions of adversity, and that it is a personality and experience product. (AA.VV., 2003) The Anglo-Saxon term resilience has been used by Stefan Vanistendael (2002) and defined as “the ability to overcome difficulties and present ourselves in life.” In other words, a way to recognize and enhance the capacities to deal with serious problems and get the most out of life. Although, at first, it has got sociopolitical connotations, while governments discharge their safety responsibilities and the citizens’ comfort, so these are those who face them themselves, in fact, it has educational implications, which will increase in the coming years. Resilience comes from infant determinism, according to which an abused child plays such behavior in adult life, showing that the situation has been, in fact, got over by many individuals, the environment and the construction of life projects. Thus, the role of the environment is reinforced, facing determinism, and there is evidence that education in the

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han ability to resist (resilience), confront problems, deal with them, rather than to govern them, train for a more fulfilling and socially integrated life. Resilience helps us to go out of the well, find coherence and meaning to life when it seems that you touch bottom and all is desolation in our environment. It is to make the inner force that human beings have for extreme situations […]. (Salvador, M.; Rodríguez, J.L.; Bolívar, A., 2004)

Disadvantaged situations in certain social sectors favor the development of these attitudes, usually in Compulsory Secondary Education students, by the characteristics of the evolutionary stage in which: […] within the framework of social epidemiology research, it was noted that not all the subjected people to risky situations suffered from diseases or conditions of any kind, but that, conversely, there were those who exceeded the situation and even emerged strengthened from it. This phenomenon is called nowadays resilience... The work which gave rise to this new concept was of E. E. Werner (1992), who studied the influence of risk factors, which occur when processes of the way of life, of work, of everyday life consumption, political, cultural and ecological relations, are characterized by a deep inequality and social discrimination, gender and ethno cultural inequality which generate unfair compensation ways with their consequences: poverty, a life full of stressors, physical overload, exposure to hazards (rather than “risk factors” should consider them destructive processes Breilh, 2003 which characterize certain modes of social functioning or human groups)69.

In conclusion, note - as it has been explained in the section on a characterization of the “special languages,” there are different loans classifications. Alvariño, Martínez y Sánchez (2004) suggest a classification, following the one suggested by Wunderli (1989), Bussman (1990), Höfler (1971) and Kiesler (1993), where four different loan types are distinguished: (1) foreign words, adopting its graphic and phonetic

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representation; (2) adaptations, which show adaptations to the syntax, differentiating between total adjustments and partial adaptations; (3) form and semantic calques and, 4) hybrid loans. Other authors, such as Santamaría (2005), they conceive that the loan has not got creation rules in terms of its meaning, understanding that the terms can be created through two neology processes: “terminologization” and transfer (interlingual and intralingual loan). For those linguists who believe that the neology of loan is an external modality to the language which allows the incorporation of lexical elements without using morpho lexical or syntactic from the linguistic system, the terms are taken from a foreign language to a receiving language can only be accepted. Thus, they distinguish types of the loan according to the degree of integration in the target language. In such a way that the loan can be of three types: “quoted words,” “words adapted” and “hybrids70” (Santamaría, 2005: 15). The “quoted words” (Ibid.), better known as foreign words (in the same sense that Guerrero, 1995), are words borrowed from other languages which have not undergone any alteration. They keep, therefore its signifier and its meaning: brainstorming, input. On the other hand, if the loan has suffered any adaptation in the target language, loans are called “adapted words” (Ibid.). On the other hand, 'hybrids' (Ibid.), which are the third type of loan in Santamaria’s classification (2005), are conceived as units created from loans which have been previously done. They are rather phenomena which take place in the general language, but not in the sector “language” of Pedagogy. For example, click, laze around. In addition to the exposed classifications by the different authors (Alvariño, Martínez and Sánchez, 2004; Bussman, 1990; Höfler, 1971; Kiesler, 1993; Santamaría, 2005; Wunderli, 1989), they must outline another type of loans which some linguists propose in order to provide a comprehensive overview of neology creation of loan procedures. In this sense, Santamaría (2005: 15) only admits within specialized language, the 70

For example, the Anglicism e-learning is a combination of a foreign form with a Spanish one. These hybrid loans may form syntagmatic compounds. Its use may be due to several reasons; specialists use this type of loan issues due to stylistic reasons, for being new terms not collected yet being kept in specialized dictionaries, for being unusual or received disclosure.

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presence of “denotative loans” - in our terminology, does not cease to be cross-linguistic loans –. He defines as terms borrowed from other languages which refer to new realities from alien cultures regarding ours. They are generally considered unnecessary if there is an equivalent term within the target language. Given a situation of this nature, “denotative loans” which are adopted are merely stylistic. For example, the Anglicism performance71 is very useful within the teaching field in order to performance teaching-learning situations and to favor the students’ understanding of contents. Despite there is the term translated with a borrowed word (acting), specialists/professionals like to use the Anglicism. The same happens with screening72. It is used with the spelling which corresponds with the Anglicism rather than its equivalent in Spanish (rastreo). Although most of the loans come from the English by power, prestige, political issues, etc. languages tend to create lexical units through the attachment of classic formats. It is evidence of more powerful resources which the common language has. Not only are they the same which are used to create technical terms in the specialized languages, but, in addition, to facilitate the graphic analogy in different languages. Note adaptación in Spanish, adaptation in English, adaptation in French, adaptação in Portuguese, in Italian addatamento. Or, for instance, the Anglicism planning73 formed by an autonomous basis and a derivative procedure. Sometimes, loans change their spelling in the target language full or partially. Complete adaptations involve a minimal change in the spelling: analysis (from Greek) for análisis74; anámnësis (from Greek) for

With a sense of “Representation, put in a scene” (AA.VV., 2001). With the meaning “[…] identification of problems or deficiencies search process […]” (Sánchez, 1991). 73 With a specialized sense of “Concrete procedure that must be followed to achieve a goal within a certain period” (AA.VV., 2002). In our type of loan Neology, it would form part of the cross-linguistic loans, created in the original language with morphological derivation procedures. 74 Understood as “Detailed examination of one thing to know its characteristics or qualities, or its state, and draw conclusions, which is done by separating or considering separately the parts by which it is formed” (AA.VV., 2006). 71 72

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anamnesis75. In those cases in which adaptation is partial, the foreign term suffers a minimum phonetic, graphic, or accentual modification: anékdota (from Greed, unknown matters) for anécdota76; oligos phren (from Greek oligos, poco, escaso, and phren, understanding, intelligence) for oligofrenia77. In other cases, the classical language loan is adopted as it is, and even when an inter-linguistic loan maintains its initial meaning: Abasia78, acatagrafía79 o disfasia80. On the other hand, the “terminologization high school” process in “sector language” of Pedagogy is indicators of the denominative needs which the lexicon from scientific discipline has to face the lexicon of this scientific discipline. What it is really borrowed is the signifier; the meaning is modified to allude to the referential reality that you want to transmit. It is not a strict interlinguistic loan, but that this is accompanied by an alteration or deviation of the meaning. It is normal that these processes happen because pedagogical language interacts with many other scientific disciplines, such as Psychology, Pedagogy, Anthropology, Sociology, etc. The meaning of this term in the sector “language” of Pedagogy is: “collection of data about an individual, including his personal and family history, his environment, past experiences, and memories, necessary to analyze his health situation” (AA.VV., 2003). 76 With meaning: “significant fact of the student’s behavior which reveals aspects of his learning, personality, and development (exceptional behaviors favorable and unfavorable incidents to the subject, extracurricular incidents, behavior repeated with certain frequency, etc.). Each fact or isolated incident is recorded in a card (anecdotal card) of accurate, brief, clear and objective” (Sánchez, 1991). 77 Used with a sense of “mental Pathology which consists of a serious mental deficiency. It differs from dementia in that it is congenital or acquired in the initial moments of maturation, while dementia refers to a deficiency of intelligence in individuals who have previously followed a normal development” (Sánchez, 1988). 78 Used in the psycho-pedagogical field with a sense of: 'generic syndrome, classically associated with hysteria, which is characterised by the inability to walk normally, remaining sensation, muscle strength and lower motor coordination intact. It is usually manifested along with astasia, inability to stand” (Sánchez, 1989). 79 With meaning: “Disorder of written expression characterized by the improper construction of phrases, caused by a disruption of the linguistic formulation in the brain” (Sánchez, 1989), both in the field of Psychology and the school of Psychopedagogy. 80 This loan is used to designate a “language Disorder, not organic in nature, resulting in the speech acquisition due to modifications in the structures responsible for perception, integration, and the language conceptualisation. Authentic dysphasia should not have emotional, motor or sensory disturbances. It is a partial loss, while the aphasia means total deprivation of speech, due to a cortical lesion in the language areas. It is manifested as a moderate or serious delay in the normal stages in the development of the language, not attributable to intellectual disability” (Sánchez, 1991). 75

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Teachers, pedagogues, psychologists, sociologists, etc. work with children or students. We do not program machines but develop a didactic, educational and training work in values and therefore it undoubtedly generates links between concepts and representations of disciplines processes which are closely related to Pedagogy. So, those processes or concepts which represent linguistic signs, suffer from an adaptation of the approach that each scientific discipline has regarding the one they have in the field of Pedagogy. But not all the words which are borrowed from other scientific disciplines changed their meaning. In interlinguistic loans, we have analyzed cases in which a term is adopted from another discipline but keeps its original meaning. Only the processes of "secondary terminologisation" divert the meaning which at first, a term presents in a particular knowledge area. In any case, the little presence of loans within the field of Pedagogy indicates that it is a discipline which has considerably evolved in specialization theme, creating their own terms, instead of taking them borrowed from other languages or disciplines. Loans (Anglicisms) which have been analyzed in this lexical corpus have the risk of being forgotten in specialized communication contexts. Remember, that the terms borrowed from other scientific fields, if they are not consolidated within a specialized language, remain a short period of time, and then fall into oblivion, being replaced by new ones. They are not settled down in the target language and, although they temporarily resolve the terminological problems of this scientific discipline, they do not endure over time and are not consolidated as specialty lexicon.

“SECONDARY TERMINOLIGISATION” There are voices which have suffered a “high terminologisation” procedure through which a technicality belonging to the vocabulary of a particular scientific discipline is used in another area of knowledge with a new specialized meaning. The educational sublexicon has terms that have undergone this neologic process, although the vast majority respects the original meaning in other knowledge areas. It is not unusual to share areas

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of knowledge with other disciplines because educational processes take place with people (well, children, adolescents or adults) and, as individuals, they have a configuration of their personality, values, attitudes. It is not unusual to share areas of knowledge with other disciplines because educational processes take place with people (well, children, adolescents or adults) and, as individuals, have a configuration of your personality, values, attitudes, etc. However, there are terms which have suffered a “secondary terminologisation” and terms commonly used in the pedagogical discourse. For example, the term acceptance comes both from the field of Psychology and Pedagogy and it is part of the general language vocabulary: “(From lat. acceptatĭo, -ōnis) 1. f. Action and effect of accepting” (DRAE, 2001). Specialized dictionaries in Pedagogy do not indicate differences between its belonging to the field of Psychology or Pedagogy. In both cases the sense of: PSIC. and EDUC.) Positive attitude which consists of accepting people as they are, situations and oneself”; It is an attitude “[…] welcomed and/or opening, towards something (a fact, an idea, an opinion, a belief, etc.) or someone (to one same - spoken in this case of *selfacceptance - or towards another person) […]. (Sánchez, 1988) (PED;) PSIC; SOC.) The acceptance of the other is the first step of the educational process. Security acquired by the individual who feels accepted enables him to start processes such as self-education or the construction of new knowledge.” (AA.VV. 2002)

Given that both disciplines are related to the subject of analysis which is of our interest, the student, the senses are different but related. In Psychology, this term refers to an attitude where the child has to accept himself and accept others, allowing him to act in a natural way, and not to feel rejected, etc..: Acceptance: the role of sympathy. Children who are more accepted by classmates differ from the rejected children to be much more sensitive to the other children’s initiatives, to accept what others propose, and then

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han they are accepted by others. When relations between children are observed, it is checked that that child’s behavior he directs towards his schoolmates is close to what he gets from them. Children who cheer up, praise, pay attention and accept more, are the ones who are paid more compliments, who have more attention and who have a greater acceptation. This mutual sympathy makes the child like being with their peers and find high-quality opportunities to develop his social and emotional intelligence in this relationship. On the other hand, children who are rejected by their peers often express negative behavior towards them (physical or verbal aggression, disputes, and criticism) and receive similar behaviors from other children. This mutual antipathy tends to provoke an escalation which makes negative behaviors increase as time goes by81.

On the other hand, the pedagogical speech rather refers to an internal state which allows the child to feel competent and it motivates him to acquire new knowledge: The other a., without demands or exchange impositions, is the first step in the educational process. From security derived from a., the student may feel the need to make changes in his own person, thus initiating the process of training or *self-education […]. (Sánchez, 1988)

In this case, the two senses are related. The aim is that child accepts himself and that predisposition allows him to grow as a person, both academically and in school context: The entrance to the school implies that the child must face and adapt to a new environment in which he must deal with unknown claims so far, learn school and teachers’ expectations and gain acceptance of his peer group. Adaptation and adjustment which the child achieves in this new environment, as we will see later, has a significance that transcends the immediate. The extent to which the child is considered comfortable and included in at school is an expression of success in his adaptation. 81

http://www.ite.educacion.es/w3/recursos2/convivencia_escolar/6_3.htm (Accessed: 07/06/ 2010).

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Anxiety, avoidance or negative attitudes reactions may be early signs of difficulties in his setting and which can become future problems 82.

In Psychology, the term praxeonomy refers to an approach which allows us to identify the students’ teaching needs. When this goes to the Pedagogy sublexicon, it reduces its meaning and it undergoes a process of “secondary terminologisation,” referring to a strategy that the teacher uses in the didactic programming making: (From Greek. praxis, work, performance, action, and nómos, law) Word translated from English praxeonomy and coined by Gilbert in 1962. Strategy concerning the field of selection and ranking of *operating objectives other than the known taxonomies. It emerges as an original alternative, based on pragmatic criteria, whose purpose is to make it profitable to the limit *learning system or the cost of an *instruction system […]. (Sánchez, 1988)

The high percentage of interlinguistic loans (74) and, although to a lesser extent, also of processes of “secondary terminologisation” (24), they are indicators that this specialized language has expanded, has restricted the meaning of its terms, and has specialized them.

ACRONYMS The contents of the voices of a language allow transmission of referential reality. This procedure is useful in the general language, with work of words categorization in a given linguistic system, but it does not happen in the same way in the specialized languages. It should be taken into account that general language segments the meaning of words by intuition or by the influence of certain cultural models. On the other hand, specialized languages divide their contents objectively, without subjective interference which may arise while enunciating a specific concept. 82

http://escuela.med.puc.cl/publ/ManualPed/DessPsicEsc.html (Accessed: 11/05/2010).

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This objectivity also tends to eliminate any bias of ambiguity. In such a way, the general language voices transmit cross-sectional information, while the terms of the specialized languages broadcast only what they represent. For some authors, this conception of the lexicon of the general language and the sublexicons mean to admit that there are certain semantic procedures which mainly operate in the special “languages” but that does not do it in the overall language (Cabré, 1993; Coseriu, 1977; Galán y Montero, 2002; Guerrero, 2005; Gutierrez, 1998; Martin, 2004). This research outlines word formation mechanisms or construction and diversion of meanings which act in the specialty lexicon are those happening in the common language. The aspect which differentiates both languages are grammatical and pragmatic features. The aspect which distinguishes both languages are grammatical and pragmatic features. This does not imply that specific characteristics of these specialized languages will not be considered. Obviously, there are certain idiosyncratic features of these languages. In the case of the “scientific and technical languages” some universality, neutrality, objectivity characteristics are given. But this does not mean that lexical-semantic procedures which take place in the sector “language” of Pedagogy, as one of the three types of “special languages,” is necessarily different from those used in the general linguistic system. Nor even that those specific features of specialized languages placed in one polar end (the “scientific and technical languages”) are purchased on their own. They are answers to the characterisation of a specific type of language, used in specific professional areas which bringing together different other types of language features. The authors who consider that specialized languages, more specifically, their lexicon “... acquires reverse semantic features to the common language” (Coseriu, 1977: 96; Cabré, 1993: 216; Galán y Montero, 2002: 31; Gutierrez, 1998: 90; Martin, 2004a: 29) three morphological procedures as elements involved in the configuration of this sublexicon: abbreviations, acronyms and eponymy. Precisely, one of the most outstanding aspects that characterize the Pedagogy lexicon is neologisms in a way. This scientific discipline

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vocabulary is not a comparable terminology to the ones of “scientific and technical languages,” and therein lies that this thesis does not see on terminology. This does not exclude that there are some voices which have those scientific- technical conditions. Note that one specialized language terminology83 shows a similar structure to the rest of the general language words, with one peculiarity: they make use of some particular “formal types” (Cabré, 1993: 187) –acronyms, terms with learned forms, phrases, derivations- and they have got a higher index in the use of certain common forms from some disciplines. So the terms formants and their structure are based on the general linguistic system of the language84. The difference is in that terms of specialized languages are bi-univocal and do not always refer to the same concept. On the other hand, the lexical units of the language of Pedagogy85 are unambiguous and are not polysemic. They are unirreferencial units, formed by words which have the general linguistic system. It is a subsystem of the general language and, consequently, the linguistic system used is the same as the common86 language. Hence, the mechanisms of word formation using the Pedagogy sublexicon are the same as the procedures which the general language serves to form new words. Therefore, the aspect distinguishing this "sector language" from one scientific is the notorious shortage of technical terms. Therefore, it will move to the procedures of abbreviations establishment 83

In general terms, all specialty sublanguage terminology consists of a reference to the general lexicon system and another reference to the lexicon of the discipline of specialty subsystem (Cabré, 1993: 187). 84 It is a source of different grammatical resources, especially lexical, which offers specialists this baggage of instruments to enable the creation of new words by word needs arising from advances in the knowledge society and new attributions of meaning to words already existing in the general language, even though these attributions can introduce certain polysemy. However, it is true that when we focus our attention on a specific discipline, the proper meaning is taken for granted; It is part of the lexicon of the specialists (forwards to a meaning that only these handles). 85 Lexical units created in the language of education acquire specialized meaning in the scientific context in which they are used. As they are not entirely original formations, but they depart from the lexical resources of the system and the possibilities of Spanish grammar with their rules and guidelines, involves, for the professional, a cognitive processing minimized in comparison with which would be necessary to create terms ex novo (Cabré, 1993: 192). 86 The educational community, therefore, do not create new terms, they apply linguistic rules which are part of the Spanish grammar.This is possible thanks to a previous assimilation of the rules of Spanish grammar language system.

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and acronyms, its phonetic representation, the degree of consolidation acquired in the language and the role in “sector language” of Pedagogy. First, phenomena such as acronysm/acronym and initialism understood as lexical creation mechanisms must be distinguished because they summarize elements which form a compound word. Guerrero (1995: 35) defined the initialism as a procedure of creation of terms taking place as a result of a merger of the words which form a compound term or a phrase, either through initial truncation or means of end truncation. This mechanism of word formation is rare in Spanish since our language has no real need to appoint new realities with this type of constructions, it is rather foreign acronyms. However, in the “sector language” of Education, we can find some examples: educational psychology, educational. As you can see in these two examples, initialism can be of different types. This has meant that some authors consider acronyms as a singer-songwriter, Eurocup (Ibid.), in which one of the two elements remains as a whole as if they were created by expressive motivations syncopated composition processes. Guerrero (1995: 36) says that this type of initialism is quite frequent in trade, in the world of advertising, etc. (Banesto “Spanish Credit Bank,” Rumasa Ruiz Mateos S.A., ABSE in the Secondary Education terminology “absenteeism,” APDO “Home support,” APME “Support machining,” APO “Support,” APSA “Health support” ISDS “Psychosocial Area”). However, acronyms are a procedure of word creation through the juxtaposition of a sentence or phrase initialisms, without a correlation between the initialisms of each of the words. This phenomenon has become so prevalent that many acronyms have been lexicalized, so you don't need to know the meaning of each initial of the term to understand its meaning. Guerrero (1995: 36) indicates steps which some acronyms experience, prior to their lexicalization: 1) they are spelled or pronounced in an integrated87 way; 2nd) they are written with initial capital letter (Pab, Cbil, Apsa); and 3rd) they are conceived as one word more88. The full In the “sector language” of Education, there are representative examples: LOE “Organic Education Act”; ACNEAE “Student with specific needs of Educational Support.” 88 ACE “Curriculum Adaptation”; ice, “Institute of Pedagogy.” 87

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lexicalization of an acronym, according to this author, takes place when the acronym is written in lowercase generating potential compounds (music therapy, play therapy) or derivatives (trade unionist, party). Occasionally, acronyms with craving origin rather than need ones become “acronyms again.” Representative examples of this way of proceeding are UNO, converted to ONU; UFO (Unidentified flying object;) “Unidentified flying object”). When they become acronyms again, the resulting term is OVNI. They do not always work with sounds nor even the spelling. See the example UGT (“General Union of workers”)/OTAN ~ NATO/GE (heime) STA (ats) PO (lizei). In relation to the phenomenon of the lexicalization by acronysm, it must be noted that several authors, including Rodriguez (1993: 9), designate the 70s as the beginning of the lexicalisation era by acronysm which, in the words of Salinas, would be “The century of the acronym” (Ibid.). The date proposed is not surprising since it coincides with the aim of the Franco dictatorship, the legalisation of political parties and the full entry of Spain in a multitude of international organisations of different nature, all of them, appointed through the process that we are discussing: the EEC in 1982, OTAN in 1982 and a long etcetera. Therefore, one of the first notes to keep in mind is that lexicalization processes by acronym effect linguistic and language of high specialization, as it is policy, industry, medicine, chemistry or, in the case which concerns us, education. One of the first obstacles when defining accurately these nonmorphological lexical creations procedures- is the diversity of terminology used to describe these processes of lexical innovation. Some authors, such as Casado (1985), Martínez de Sousa (1984), Rodriguez (1982), use the term acronym for “all abbreviated complex term or name formed with the letters, figures I the initial symbols of its elements. An acronym is a sequence whose pronunciation is alphabetic, syllabic or both” (Giraldo and Cabré, 2004: 26). For other authors, initialisms are also all processes formed by selecting the first letter of a key phrase taken to create the short form- i.e., at the same time, the acronym. These two meanings of the term are collected in the twenty-first edition of the dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy of

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Language, and they are also shared by Casado (1985: 20) and Martinez de Sousa (1984: 26-27; 52), although it points out that, when using the term acronym, “[…]It is normal to refer to the group” (Ibid., 27). However, Lang’s study (1990) chooses the term acronym for this type of training. The acronyms, as opposed to the initialisms (Giraldo Cabré, and 2004: 28), are “abbreviated complex terms with several sets of letters of a term whose pronunciation is exclusively syllabic.” This differentiation is rather weak, as Marcos expresses (1994: 665), pointing out that the distinction between abbreviation and acronym is based on that “... an acronym is read as if it was a word, while the symbol is spelled.” Thus, USA would be an acronym and EEUU an acronym but, immediately, this author acknowledges that “in practice, this distinction does not hold” (Ibid.). Similarly, Alvarez (2001: 2) reveals his bewilderment when analyzing the initialism process: “It continues to cause some perplexity that today can carry the same label as different formations such as Equatorial Guinean and AIDS.” From their point of view, you should: […] booking the word acronym for the lexicalized acronym (no matter the way it is read or written and whatever its components, provided that these are letters). Then, acronym, in its restricted and more technical sense, would apply to the names of agencies, organizations, brands or similar, namely the so-called names, to the acronym not lexical. (Ibid., 8)

Casado (1999: 85) gives another definition of acronyms and defines this process as: By acronym, we understand the morphological procedure which consists of the formation of a word from two of them- or occasionallythree lexical units, being represented at least one of them, by a fragment (one of more syllables) of its significant; the first, by the initial fragment of its significant, the first one, by the initial fragment of its significant, and the last one by the final fragment of its own one: docudrama (drama documentary), Eurocracy. (European + bureaucracy)

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The most reasonable thesis about abbreviations and acronyms is that that difference does not exist since acronyms are a kind of initial which allows a syllabic reading without being spelled (Rodríguez, 1993). The blending is another type of acronym through combinations or mixtures of words, designating the words formed by an initial fragment of one of them and a final fragment of another fragment. The number of these blends in the Spanish language is very low: cantautor (singer author), frontenis (Racquetball Tennis) publirreportaje (advertisement report; “advertising story”) and office (office computer; “information office”). The notion of the acronym would be perfect to these terms, so duplication and the admission of the English term seems to be superfluous. For Rodriguez (1993: 23), the definition should specify something else, hence it proposes that acronym “[…] the situation should be moved to the field of acronyms formation, in which their foreign cognates are usually kept.” On their behalf, Martinez de Sousa or Casado (1985) reserve the term acronym for the procedure called blending in English, that is, the combination of word fragments to form a new lexical unit. According to Wittlin (1981), he called acronym to the initial read as a word rather than spelling the initialisms which, while Martinez de Souza (1984: 32) refers to those initialisms which allow integrated reading as syllabic abbreviations against consonants acronyms. Following the thesis that the terminology which should prevail is that of acronyms, Girado and Cabré suggest (2004: 101) a classification of the same: a) The own abbreviations, formed from lexical units’ initialisms of syntagmatic structure: SSCP (“Single-Strand conformational polymorphism”); b) The improper acronyms, formed with secondary characters (letters which are not initial lexical units, numbers, symbols) or by the omission of key parts of the developed form. At the same time, this type is divided it into three subclasses: unfit, typical, acronyms and crosses (blends)

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han 1) improper acronyms are units which use or omit key parts of their developed form and whose pronunciation can be alphabetic, syllabic, or both: DCI (“Interchromosomal domain”); 2) acronyms are units formed by several groups of letters of their elements whose pronunciation is only syllabic: HUGO (“Human Genome Organization”); and, 3) the crosses or blends with units similar to the acronym but formed through the combination of two segments of a lexical unit with syntagmatic structure and syllable pronunciation. Crossings can take different forms according to the segments which comprise them, for example, can combine the initial segments of the first and second element of the phrase: PubMed (“Public access to MEDLINE”).

Facing what happens with scientific-technical vocabulary, where the use of abbreviations and acronyms is frequent, in “sector language” of Pedagogy, they are a much more common procedure, not only because the abbreviations are qualitatively important and relevant in relation to the meaning they have within this scientific discipline, but also because they are a very habitual mechanism for the specialists’ discourse. This makes this specialty become a well-known category within the scientific field, as teachers know and use a lot of abbreviations, what means to possess a previous scientific knowledge of the abbreviations themselves. It is enough to think of abbreviations such as COU (“University orientation course”), EGB (“Basic General Education”)coming from LOGSE ("Organic Law on General Education System") 1990- which have changed from an educational law, becoming well-known and legible abbreviations in general discourse by common language speakers. This shows that some abbreviations have been spread so muchin tutorials with teachers and parents, publications, means of communication, etc.- that their meaning has become to be “trivialized,” becoming terms which form part of Pedagogy specialty sublexicon to words of the general language lexicon, losing their specialized meaning.

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The reason is understandable: they give space and time economy, an aspect which favors a fast recognition of the concepts by the specialized readers. Once the abbreviation has been formed, it can remain within the language with the same form and mean or it can become a term, what it supposes a change in its written form and starts being used in lower- case letters instead of capital ones in the transcription. In a sense, it is a comprehensible phenomenon, as lots of abbreviations find their broadcasting and use the field within the subdomains of the Education field. Second, the abbreviations representation with “sector language” of Pedagogy is normally done through the pronunciation of syllables with having the abbreviation. This tendency is frequent in other specialized languages, what allows that the linguistic system keeps using some phonological rules, despite there are others which are pronounced thanks to combinations of word segments that are part of the abbreviation itself. Campsa is an example of abbreviation which does not follow the phonetic laws of the general language. On the other hand, other abbreviations such as URSS are unusual consonants clusters in our language. However, there are other acronyms which contain strange consonants in the final position, as OPEC, UNICEF. In this specialized language, almost all cases are pronounced and read as if we had to spell consonant or normal word hyphenation. This phenomenon is known as phonemicization of the graphemes; it implies a higher level of lexicalization and, consequently, acceptance in the general language. For those cases where the pronunciation of the acronym is not close to the phonological laws of the linguistic system, there is phonotactic variation according to Rodriguez (1993), as, for example, “PSOE, PSUC, MPAIAC,” etc. (Morin and Castellano, 2009: 93-94). As regards to the accent, in general, they are pronounced as deep words when they end in a vowel and as high-pitched words when they end in a consonant (not the spelling but the enunciation), there are always exceptions to this general rule. Then, the different types of acronyms are grouped (proper, improper) according to the different educational stages. This will allow observing the degree of consolidation which “sector language” of Pedagogy has, as well

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as its phonetic representation. Despite the lack of unanimity when it comes to establishing an acronym typology, the general tendency among various linguists is to consider, improper acronyms and sigloids. The proper ones are exclusively formed from the initialisms of lexical units with syntagmatic structure; its pronunciation is done formulating the first letter of each unit. Inappropriate abbreviations are formed with secondary characters (letters which are not necessarily initial lexical units) or through the omission of important parts of their developed form. The pronunciation is, therefore, alphabetic, syllabic, or a combination of both. Within this type of abbreviation, some authors differ acronyms (units formed by several groups of letters of their elements, with purely syllabic pronunciation) and blends (similar units to the acronym, but formed from the combination of two segments of a syntagmatic structure lexical unit, with syllabic pronunciation) (Giraldo and Cabré, 2006: 101). Finally, sigloids are acronyms which have been lexicalized and consolidated within the language; they are one more word in the lexicon of the language and are subject to their spelling rules. In this research, we will proceed with a classification of proper or improper acronyms. There is no point in considering sigloids since the difference between the degrees of consolidation of proper acronyms in this specialized language is identical. Therefore, the difference in classification is how they are pronounced, according to whether they are proper or improper, and their degree of consolidation in the language.

Primary Education Abbreviations The first educational stage of compulsory schooling, the stage of Preschool and Primary education, like other educational stages, has got numerous acronyms, especially, proper ones. Teachers manage the following types of proper abbreviations:  

AAO (“learning computer-aided”), AC (“curricular adaptation”),

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ACNEAE (“Students with Special Educational Needs”), AD (“attention to diversity”), SEE “Speech and Ear Education,” AMPA (“Association of parents of students”), ATES (“technical assistants in education”), CA (“Learning Communities”), CAREI (“Aragonese Centre of Intercultural education and resources”), CCP (“Pedagogical Coordination Commission”), CE (“Written Comprehension”), CE (“School Board”), CEIP (“School for Pre-school and Primary Education”), CI (“Centres of Interest”), CPR (“Centre for Teachers and Resources”), CRA (“Rural school clustered”), CL (“Reading comprehension”), CO (“Oral comprehension”), DA (“Learning Difficulties”), DCM (“Minimal Brain Dysfunction”), EC (“Compensatory Education”), ED C (“Diagnosis Evaluation”), EE (“Emotional Education”), SE (“Special Education Especial”), WE (“Written Expression”), PE (“PED (“Diagnosis Evaluation”), EE (“Physical Education”), EFPD (“State Teaching Evaluation”), EI (“Infant Education”), EM (“Musical Education”), ERPA (“Summary of the Registration Staff Student”), FD ('Directive'), IE (“Educational Innovation”),

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IPI (“Programmed Individual Instruction”), LE (“Foreign Language”), NCC (“Curricular Competence Level”), PA (“Annual Programme”), PAD (“Attention to Diversity Plan”), PAT (“Tutorial Action Plan”), PC (“Coexistence Plan”), PCC (“Centre Curricular Project”), PGA (“Annual General Programming”), POAT (“guidance and Tutorial Action Plan”).

This “sector language” has also got improper abbreviations in the stage of Pre-school and Primary education, more difficult to identify by those masters of new addition, but widely used within pedagogical discourse:   

CCBB (“Basic Skills”), LE (“Reading and Writing”), PMA (“Battery of Primary Mental Attitudes Tests”).

Secondary Education Abbreviations Similarly, in Compulsory Secondary Education, there are the following types of proper initialisms, with the corresponding phonetic representation depending on the type89:    89

ACI (“Curricular Individual Adaptation”), AE (“Study Activities”), CAA (“Learn how to learn skill”),

It should be noted that it is an educational system with the same legislation and compulsory schooling from 6 to 16 years old, some of the abbreviations mentioned in P PICTIC (“Plan of Inclusive Curriculum of integration of the information and communication technologies”), PR (“Strengthening Programming”) pre-school and Primary Education are equally valid for Compulsory Secondary Education.

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CAREI (“Aragonese Centre of Resources and Intercultural Education”), CCA (“Cultural and Artistic Skill”), CCL (“Linguistic Communication Competence”), CL (“Reading Comprehension”), CM (“Mathematical competence”), CSC (“Social and Civic Competence”), DC (“Curricular Diversification”), DO (“Orientation Department”), EC (“Compensatory Education”), EI (“Individual Instruction”), EOEP (“Psycho-Pedagogical and Educational Guidance Teams”), EPA (“Adult Education”), GESO (“Compulsory Secondary Education Certificate”), IPI (“Instruction Individually Prescribed”), JDD (“Teaching Department Head”), MECD (“Culture and Sports Ministry of Education”), OAP (“Academic and Vocational Guidance”), OE (“Educational Orientation”), PA (“Annual Programming”), PAB (“Basic Learning Programs”), PAD (“Diversity Attention Plan”), PAT (“Tutorial Action Plan”), PC (“Coexistence Plan”), PCC (“Curricular Centre Project”), PDI (“Individual Development Program”), PICTIC (“Plan of Inclusive Curriculum of integration of the information and communication technologies”), PR (“Strengthening Programming”), PRC (“Ramon and Cajal” Program), PROA (“Reinforcement, Orientation and Support Program”), ROC (“Organic Regulation of Centres”),

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RRI (“Internal Regulation System”), TMC (“Behaviour Modification Technique”), UIEE (“Specific Educational Intervention Unit”).

Improper abbreviations are much less frequent than the proper ones at this stage of Compulsory Secondary Education:    

AEUI (“UIEE Study Activities”), ATI (“Interaction between fitness and treatment”), CBIL (“Coordinating Bilingualism”), EFUI (“UIEE Physical Education”).

Vocational Training Abbreviations In Vocational Training, the following types of own initials are significant:               

AAD (“Auxiliary and Home Help”), AAP (“Attention and Psychosocial Support”), AB (“Basic Area”), ABM (“Math Basic Area”), AC (“Follow-up Activities”), ACT (“Scientific Technical Field”), ADA (“Artistic Dynamics Area”), AFD (“Physical and Sports Activity”), AL (“Linguistic Area”), AMP (“Maritime-fishing activities”), AP (“Practice Area”), APV (“Visual and Plastic Support”), ASL (“Social Linguistic Field”), CA (“alternative communication”), CAU (“Care and User Attention”),

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MCC (“Quality Metal Constructions”), CMFP (“Vocational Training Modular Catalogue”), NCP (“Professional Qualifications National Catalogue”), CP (“Professional Qualification”), DA (“Artistic Dynamic”), DGCM (“Geometry, Constructions and Mechanical Developments”), EOC (“Building and Civil Engineering”), ETCO (“Training Workshops and houses of offices”), FB (“Basic Training”), FCL (“Workplace Training”), FCT (“workplace training”), FOL (“Training and Labour Orientation”), FPB (“Base Vocal Training”) GM (“Medium-grade”), GS (“Higher grade”), MCS (“Social Media”), MDPS (“Means of Personal and Social Development”), MP (“Professional Module”), MPC (“Counting and Clothing Means”), MSP (“Maintenance and Production Services”), MVA (“Self-propelled vehicle Maintenance”), NCP (“Professional Qualification Levels”), PC (“Communication Processes”), IPPP (“Initial Vocational Qualification Programs”), TCP (“Textile, clothing and Leather”) UC (“Competence Unit”).

Improper abbreviations are common in Vocational training, more than earlier stages of compulsory schooling:  

AAPP (“Professional Fields”), ACA (“Agricultural Activities”),

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ALI (“Food and Nutrition”), ALSE (“Institutional Application Technique”), API (“Instrumental Learning”), ARD (“Graphic Arts”), ATE (“health care”), (“trade and Marketing”) COM (“Commerce and Marketing”), EFOR (“Training Room”), ELE (“Electricity and Electronics”), THIS (“Business Stay”), FAO (“Management and Administration Fundamentals”), FCTM (“Training Work Centre”), FME (“Manufacturing and Mechanics”), FPÖ (“Occupational Training”), IMP (“Personal Image”), INA (“Food Industry”), VIC (“Glass and Ceramics”).

Note that in the expansion and growth of acronym in education, even with the first letter of the alphabet, we can find this extensive list of acronyms within the vocational training scope. This educational stage is the one which presents more improper abbreviations that, according to Giraldo's and Cabre's typology (2006), many of them would be acronyms or blends.

University Level Abbreviations At the University level, it is also common to find initials, both proper and improper, which have been mainly created, with the introduction of the Bologna degrees. Note that in a field in which, until 2005, there were many abbreviations, the same number is considerably increased. Therefore, we pretend to resemble other European models this “sector language” at the

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University level and give it a more scientific look; and make this specialized language universal. The most relevant proper abbreviations are90:                    

CAE (“Student Support Centre”), CIDE (“Research, Documentation and Evaluation Centre”), EC (“Quality Education”), ECTS (“European Credit Transfer System” “European Credit System”), ESHE (“European area of higher education”), IAE (“Annual Educational Report”), IIE (“Innovation and Educational Research”), INAPE (“National Assistance Institute and Student Promotion”), IP (“Participatory Research”), MEC (“Qualifications European framework for lifelong learning”), NTE (“New Education technologies”), NTI (“New Information Technologies”), OE (“School Organisation”), PAS (“Administration and Services Personnel”), PAU (“University Access Tests”), PCT (“International Cooperation Programs”), PDI (“Research and Teaching Staff”), PIA (“Aragonese International Programs”), SEA (“Aragonese Educational System”), ICT (“information and communication technologies”) UNED (“National University of Distant Education”).

Improper abbreviations are also less common in this educational field:   90

CBTE (“Teachers education based on competence”), CE (“Assessment Centre Accreditation of”),

This section is intended to show which is more representative, as well as the type to which they belong according to their own theoretical classification.

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ICFU (“International Council on the University Future”), POE (“Orientation and Educational programs”), UEALC (“Common Space UEALC space”).

The function of abbreviations in “sector language” of Pedagogy is to replace the lack of specific vocabulary. They transmit their scientific nature since it is a language only known by the epistemological teachers’ community. In the absence of terms, “sector language” of Education makes use of the acronym. They do not have a fixed meaning, given that many acronyms have the same physical appearance, the same signifier, but their meaning is different. For example, AC may have two different meanings; in Compulsory Secondary Education acquires the meaning of “Curriculum Adaptation,” while in Vocational Training it has got the meaning of “Complementary Activities.” Although they are abbreviations, acronyms, in the “sector language” of Education are equivalent to a lexical term. All of them are nouns (AAO, AAPP, ABM, ABSE, CIU, EFP, FOL, MCS, MEC, MLP, PAU, PEC, PC, IPPP, PP, etc.) and they are linked to a specific communication field, to such an extent that, in the Autonomous Community of Aragon, the Provincial Service (Regional Administration) creates terms which are not understandable for other Communities (CRIET, GIR) and they only acquire meaning in the field of education (CTO in medicine has a meaning different from the education). These creations, both for specialties in the field of Pedagogy (ICE, OE), as the diatopic creations (CRA, CRIET), show the richness and the expansion of abbreviations in the field of Education. Similarly, there are acronyms created and used in our English language and others in Spanish. Not all of them are unpronounceable (PFA → “Fixed action pattern,” PIEE “Integration Program of school spaces,” AGCP → “Administration, management and small business trade”) and some of them require an intellectual effort to decode its meaning and have access to their understanding and internalization. However, despite finding multiple examples of initialisms in the “sector language” of Education, it is necessary to underline that they do not only exist in this area, but they may find this procedure of word formation

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in other disciplines, but most frequently in the Pedagogy. It is worth mentioning the terms transfer from this specialized language to the common language and vice versa. As it happens with any specialty sublexicon in the “special languages,” some abbreviations of this scientific field have been banalised, becoming part of the general language lexicon. (PAU, that), while others are General in the field of Education and they have not gone to the general language (ACI, SAAC, TEACH), keeping their specialized primitive meaning in the field of education and have not passed to the general language (ACI, SAAC, TEACH), keeping its primitive specialized meaning. Third, the degree of consolidation that these acronyms have in the “sector language” of Pedagogy is deep. Most of the previous acronyms are completely inserted into the pedagogical discourse, to be used in equal conditions than any other voice. A conversation between teachers is full of this type of abbreviations and an explicit decoding of the meaning to which they refer to is not necessary because they are known by the members of the educational community. However, that consolidation takes place because they have been lexicalized in this specialized language. As Rodriguez (1993) points out, some abbreviations, as well as being a procedure of lexical enrichment of remarkable success from the last century 70s, suffering from a progressive lexicalization process of which make some to be accepted in the general language, while others remain anchored to the specialised language which has generated them. So, with time and its general acceptance, they form a sequence of lexemes which becomes fixed and stereotyped. This raises the real need for the creation of initials in some fields. The main acronym defender when being introduced into the standard language and, therefore, bringing many of them to the general public are the media. The journalistic language, which makes use of abbreviations in a very frequent way, being aware of their main ignorance by the public, and according to the principle of reaching the widest possible audience, it often accompanies - in the body of the text, but never, for obvious space reasons, the holder or opening paragraph - the acronym with which the syntagmatic

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base unit refers to, put ahead or postponed - OMS (“World Health Organisation”), “International Monetary Fund” (IMF)-. In the case of “sector language” of Pedagogy, abbreviations replace the lack of technical terms and they approach this scientific-technical language. Here is where it most varies this language within the "threshold level" concerning the two types of “special languages.” In addition, its graphic reduction has got many benefits as, for example, the linguistic economy, since it represents the phrase reduced form, it speeds up reading and the mnemonics, although it shows some disadvantages, such as the semantic opacity (especially non-expert people in the subject or who are in training), the creation of generous homonymy, as points out Morin and Castellano (2009: 89): […] the communication begins to be lost by the receiver`s inability to easily understand the message conveyed. It is not unusual that this happens, the speaker’s competence does not allow you to assimilate the initials corresponding to the unlimited amount of treated, associations, agencies, etc. […]

In this sense, Zolondek (1992: 5): The use of acronyms produces economy and opacity while the use of phrases, although they are more transparent nationally, makes the text be tough to be read, due to its extension. Initialisms’ opacity is most evident for the apprentice than to the expert.

Note that this specialized language has lexicalised and consolidated these acronyms because, as a specialized language, it is used by a specific group of professionals, teachers, and it allows you to refer to reference specific realities. Therefore, the abbreviations consolidation depends on whether they conform or not the evolution of the lexicalization process which we are now going to show. Note that this language of specialization has lexicalised and consolidated these abbreviations because, at first stage, the word or phrase abbreviation takes place only in the grapheme field, for example, the word TV from television, which would mean a mere

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abbreviation. The growing use of abbreviations imposes its spelling (“literation”), i.e., the graphemes taken as isolated letters in a re-phonemic process: T.V /te=úbe/. It is the same with AC (“Curriculum Adaptation”). In this phase, the abbreviation has already got some lexical autonomy for what it can be considered “acronym” (Rodríguez, 1993: 10-11). Eventually, what it is expected is that the use of points in writing starts to be less frequently used, and it usually happens. Although the most classic writing consists of letters separated by dots, although in recent years (so it is reflected in Martinez Sousa’s International abbreviations and acronyms Dictionary and the glossaries of El País newspaper style and the EFE agency books) the trend is the omission of the points. From this omission, it is also frequent that just the first letter which is written in capital letters, while the rest of the symbol is written in lowercase, this indicates one new step forward in the lexical independence, although this process is not general, for example, occurs in Campsa, Talgo or Unesco but not in other formations as ONCE or ONU which is usually written in capital letters. Besides this new graphematic shortening another phonological type takes place: with the increasingly rapid reading, it tends to omit adjacent vowels which sometimes accompany the spelling of the names of the letters. Similarly, the loss of capitalization is very difficult when the symbol has no syllabic form, an example of LSD, TVE, UHF, IBM... In relation to the shortening, Garcia-Page (2008) specifies this procedure much more considering as it is based: […] in the language economy, consisting of a reduction of the phonetic extension of a word. At first, shortening can be made by any of the three general meta-plasmatic operations or by the conjunction of several (aphaeresis, syncope, apocope), but, no doubt, the most frequent resource is an apocope: Math Mate (s), Professor profe, University uni, Zoo zoo, Metropolitan Subway, kg kilogram, photography photo, etc.; but not only: autobus bus. (Garcia-Page: 2008: 173)

In this sense, the word which is shortened is lexicalized and acquires autonomy, even “... to form their own compounds or derivatives” (Ibid.):

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han It is a fairly productive artifice in the compound words, to the extent of giving rise to new formations due to the autonomy achieved by one of the components: (a) mobile phone (a) mobile, train talgo (the) talgo (TALGO), etc. (Garcia-Page, 2008: 173)

For Giraldo and Cabré (2004), when the abbreviations have been lexicalized, for example, when an abbreviation (or an acronym) is incorporated into the general language as a word and are subject to the rules of this are called acronyms. Martínez de Sousa (2000: 508) defines them as: […] all the common lexicon word formed by the same procedure as the abbreviation, that is, taking the nouns and adjectives initials in a phrase or name. The acronyms are written in a round and with initial capital letter. (Ibid.)

If the lexicalization process had concluded, they would be written in lower case, and moreover, they would allow the use of common morphological procedures such as bypass: S.I.D.A. → AIDS (“acquired immunodeficiency syndrome”) → AIDS sufferer. However, in the “sector language” of Pedagogy, such integration in the use of the acronym, has not been reached despite the fact that they are very numerous. Consequently, it can be said that there are no abbreviations of this kind in the lexicon of this specialized language. In short, abbreviations, literation, and acronym are in general three continuous milestones in the process of lexicalisation which is carried out at different levels: graphematic, phonological and semantic (Rodríguez, 1993). While the graphematic and phonological features constitute the outer cover under which takes shelter the symbol on their way to a new linguistic status, however, semantic factors are the ones which have more influence on this direction. Finally, as discussed above, the importance of acronyms have in the “sector language” of Pedagogy should be noted. This indicates that they only make sense for the teachers. This function of replacing technical terms is one of the features of this specialized language. It comes to oral

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communication, it is not a mere symbol as “scientific and technical languages,” and its use among specialists allows maintaining actively within this specialty sublexicon. This counteracts the low presence of technicisms as the presence of acronym overrides that lack of scientific vocabulary of the discipline. It is a way to specialize this language and give him greater scientific rigor and universality.

SYNTACTIC EXPRESSIONS: NATURE AND FUNCTION When dealing with the “sector language” of Pedagogy the syntactic procedures are not interesting in themselves, because they are similar to the general language. What is peculiar from the syntactic point of view in this specialized language is what matters, what the “sector language” of Education reveals through the syntactic expression. It is easy to appreciate that one of the most peculiar properties of the educational speech is the presence of nominal constructions that seem to have a certain degree of fixation or consolidation as expressions. In fact, it can be explained how a resource that the specialist employs to supplement the inadequacy of pedagogical technicalities in such a way that these constructions are a misunderstandable phenomenon by the specialist and the non-specialist. In this sense, the nominal expressions (we have not seen the significant presence of verbal or adverbial expressions) specific within the “sector language” of Pedagogy, seem to be the result of a compensatory mechanism by which the specialist supplements the absence of own terminology with the creation of concepts through syntactical resources. The problem raised is what type of linguistic unit from those consolidated expressions91. The most likely options are that, in addition to 91

From the perspective of the creation of a specific language for a discipline, the most favourable situation for the thesis that is shown would be that these expressions were syntagmatic compounds or nominal locutions: "Stable combination of two or more terms which functions as a sentence element and whose ubiquitous unitary sense is not justified, without more, as a sum of the normal meaning of its components" (Casares, 1950: 170). However, the expressions with which we work do not seem to have reached such an extent of lexicalization or idiomatisation.

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free phrases without lexicalization, they are fixed expressions or placements. However, both a type and the other do not cease to be combinations of words (preferred) that form a linguistic unit. These combinations are restricted syntactically, although they may also have semantic restrictions: […] after without an infinitive can appear, but not a gerund, while after follow a gerund but not an infinitive can appear […]it is not possible to give rise to a book, but a reaction to it; that the pressing need to find a job is never urgent, not the employment itself that one needs to find; that is not narrated in a football team, but the game that the team plays; that a problem cannot be decisively solved, but it can decisively contribute to the problem solution; that a birthday party can happen, but not for someone […]. (Bosque, 2005: LXVI)

This does not mean that the language supports any combination of words; it does not seem effective, on the other hand, to establish a classification of all the lexical combinations that exist in a linguistic system given. Although several possibilities exist, combinations will depend on the language syntax and on the speaker’s needs: “[…] the linguistic system determines many of the options we usually recognize explicitly” (Bosque, 2005: LXXIX). The general tendency, although it is not completely valid, is to consider the idiomatic expressions, the “free combinatorial.” routines, clichés, and tendencies which establish grammatical and semantic coordinates of the words, as well as those stereotypes, fashions or word loans, among others. For this reason, Syntactic tools that will be examined have got a purely operational objective; they will allow observing how combinations of words are in the subsystem of Education. Bosque (2005) believes that the evolution of contemporary linguistics allows you to use statistical procedures that measure the frequency or infrequency of some phenomena, but it also indicates that this does not solve the problem of differentiating between “routines, habitual ways of combining words and combinatorial properties of certain words” (Ibid., LXXXI). Naturally, it is not a sufficient criterion analyzing the degree of

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frequency with which the specialists and not- specialists make use of certain combinations of words in a specific sublanguage to determine what type of units are, but it indicates their preferences, tendencies and habitual uses within these speeches. It is also necessary to know the degree of fixation and consolidation in this specialized language. Traditionally, those phraseological studies differ between “free combinatorial” and “restricted combinatorial.” There is no way to establish a difference in this data corpus as combinatorial, as Bosque points out (2005), is always restricted semantically or syntactically. In the “free combinatorial,” there are no semantic restrictions in words, which is not entirely true since predicates, in general, impose some kind of semantic restrictions to their reasons or lexical units.: *Be Buenos Aires, but it does accept I know Buenos Aires (Bosque, 2005: LXXXI). Some authors consider that, when it is not possible to combine certain words in an expression, it is due to a lack of compositionality; the syntactic structures created starting from the principles of grammar in order to get complex units from others much more simple, do not allow certain combinations of lexical units. So, instead of analyzing the patterns of syntactic or semantic relationships created in the combination of words, everything seems to be explained under selective condition inherent in the complex syntactic structure. Within a syntactic structure, an element or a set of elements, select that with which it is combined. The predicate selects the element with which it is combined. For example, cooperative learning can only be combined with a student. Most linguists associate placements with the co-occurrence frequency of two lexical units. This argument has got certain weaknesses because the co-occurrence frequency of two units and its fixation is relative in grammar (Bosque, 2005: CLIII). In addition, it can be an indicator of speakers’ habits or linguistic trends (“sweeping the sidewalk, clean car,” “take the dog”) (Ibid.) but it does not specify how they are built nor what linguistic status have. They simply collect the tendency in the speech. The second stream considers that

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placements are the result of conferring a lexical form to certain semantic relations that can be formally described92. While these two currents approach and define the concept of placement from different perspectives, they do not solve the difficulties of its application in specialized languages. It is true that the concept of placement93 involves a conceptual difference that, on many occasions, will lead to consider it as a usual expression by their frequency of cooccurrence in the general language. This argument leads to Bosque (2005) to say that, in many cases, they are lexical combinations (preferential frequent expressions), and they are neither placements nor selective relations between lexical units, although some combinations are placements in the linguistic system94. In the “sector language” of Pedagogy, as in any other specialized language, there are restrictions, though not strictly semantic. This does not necessarily imply that they have to be placements. Rather, this specialized language contains constraint relationships (Bosque, 2005: CLIV). When a speaker specialist makes use of an expression, that combination of lexical units solves a conceptual need that this language of specialty has. Within the combination created there are certain restrictions: cooperative learning is an expression of preferential combination which shows restrictions that apply only to a process, by the characteristics of its definition. 92

For this current developed by theory meaning-text (TST) placements are analysed using lexical which establish; the words set semantic connections with a wide range of semantic relationships between the theme and each unit that is part of the series of units connected with it: "[…]They provide different lexical relations that inform us of what we can do with each word. If it's a nominal concept, we are told what the verb is that means its emergence or its manifestation, its loss or disappearance, its maintenance or its effective realization […]" (Bosque, 2005: CLVII). 93 There are different conceptions about the degree of membership of this concept to other disciplines, especially to the phraseology. In this sense, some authors, for example, Wotjak (1998 a and b), claim that placements do not form part of the phraseology. Others, like Corpas (1996), on the other hand, consider that they do form part of it. Considering that this investigation is not about phraseology, is not going to delve into whether they belong to the phraseology context and, as a result, it must be included in its study, or if, on the other hand, they do not form part of it. 94 Other authors such as Coseriu (1967) call these specific restrictions that exist in common expressions in the general language “multi-lateral lexical solidarity.” Salvador (1989-1990) considers that the lexical restrictions are determined by the specific characteristics of the thing defined. Corpas (1996: 65) consider that the concept of placement is quite wider than “exical solidarity.”

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Cooperative learning does not support another subject than the student; the person who learns starting from the established relations with peers to acquire certain concepts and to deepen them, as well as serving to the teacher’s explanations. So, the student forms part of the cooperative language definition. This type of restriction is usual in this specialized language because of its referential reality and by their definitions of the lexical units which form the combination. Bosque (2005: CLV) collect an example taken from the general language and he indicates the existence of technical combinations - especially in specialized languages –: […] the verb cloud over does not admit another subject different to sky, and - occasionally - perhaps the morning or the afternoon. Of course, the sky is part of the definition of cloud over (of the “context,” to be precise). Restrictions of this nature include a very large number of cases, ranging from common combinations in the everyday language to other highly technical […] Examples of this kind are plentiful in the scientific language. Thus, the verb esporulate has got a small number of nouns as a subject that designate plants and bacteria. […]

Bosque (2005) considers that in those specialised languages there are lots of this type of restrictions that, although expected, contribute to the characterization of properties, processes o specific concepts95 of the referential reality of these disciplines. That these restrictions are part of this “sector language” does not mean that the problem is solved and that the type of linguistic units forming such combinations has been specified. See the following example of a combination with restrictions on the general language: It has been only exceptionally noted, for example, that when we talk about sealing we designate a particular type of closure, specifically which “does not pass air or other fluid” (DRAE). If we are based on this 95

Bosque (2005: CLV-CLVI) also indicates that not only specialised languages contain processes, concepts or specific representations, but that the general language also includes specific actions, properties, processes, etc. and he applies them to other entities. But, when that happens, he understands it is not a reason to study grammar, but, rather, the terminology.

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han definition, where the adjective hermetic is only applied to closing, it will be a consequence of the semantic restriction imposed by the adjective to the noun that it modifies. If we restrict 'ways of closing', instead of any other action, what is natural is that the concept of 'closing' must appear on the adjective or adverb characterization that designates the restriction that we consider […] it is more interesting the figurative use that the language sometimes does over these restrictions, for instance,, the adverb hermetically does not only modify verbs which designate the idea of close (close, seal, lock up, shield…), but it also spreads out to others such as silence, protect o keep or the fact that the adjective hermetic is applied to thinking, points of view and other ideas to which the concept of closing is applied (or maybe sealing off) by meaning extension. (Bosque, 2005: CLVI)

These combinations with the restrictions shown, both the general language and specialized languages, consist, generally, of nominal groups. These can be built, either by a single name - the simplest of all of them-; or because of more items. In this latter case, the restrictions depend on the lexical information that the noun and the type of syntactic relationship that creates with their constituents provides. For example: in “Light comes into […],” the fact that light is an uncountable noun means a restriction in relation to the lexical information which the noun light implies and that “light comes into” is acceptable, except for a specific context (RAE, 2009). The nominal groups built by more than one unit allow their expansion through the addition of other elements. These groups are frequent in the general language and sometimes found in the specialized languages, but they are always included in texts or speeches and not in isolation. The construction [heterogeneous grouping] would never appear in isolation in a pedagogical discourse and would be combined with [grouping] [of the students] because it brings together subjects to develop different objectives depending on the activity: The [heterogeneous grouping [of the students]]. It is difficult to establish the degree of fixation which these nominal groups expanded in specific or general speeches have. A statistical analysis would make possible to find out the extent of use by speakers, but since they are not the type of linguistic units which are part of this “sector language,”

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they will not give more importance. As a result, the expansions or modifications of the nominal constructions are going to be considered only as an object of tests; as an instrument of analysis in themselves, it will, therefore, be, heterogeneous grouping and not the heterogeneous grouping of students. Combinations of two or more units with fixed meaning are lexicalised within the language and are collected in general dictionaries of the Spanish language. The New Grammar of the Royal Spanish Academy of Language (RAE, 2009: 853) proposes a classification of the nominal locutions96 of the general language, in an independent way97: 1) “Noun + Adjective”: minor waters, respiratory tree, closed ark, magnetic head, loose end, safe, trampoline, round bed, Turkish bed cotton, prickly person, the blank cheque, lost cause. 2) “Adjective + Noun”: tricks, soul mate 3) “Noun + of + Noun of Noun Phrase”: acknowledgment of receipt, a soul of a pitcher, bandwidth, support of camera, a baptism of fire, a golden calf, wolf’s mouth, warhorse (little horse), scatterbrain, scapegoat, etc. 4) “Determinant + Noun + of +Name”: el amo del cotarro, el chocolate del loro, el gusanillo de la conciencia, el lucero del alba, el pelo de la dehesa, el rigor de las desdichas, la cresta de la ola, etc. 96

The New RAE Academy (2009) does not consider nominal phrases the restricted combinations of nouns and adjectives (“enemy, immense effort or blunder,” Ibid., 855), that is, collocations. It considers the syntagmatic compounds, understanding that they always pluralise only one of its components: house headquarters >; houses headquarters (New Grammar2009: 741). This gives rise to the fact that they can be interpreted both as combinations of syntactic units (key issues), and morphological units (key issue, the second part of a compound), which have got possessing a “double categorization” (Ibid.). Syntagmatic compounds with double plural are considered coordinating compounds (N + N). They are more frequently used as morphological units by the difficulty of identifying its nucleus. However, although this option is not considered in the analysis of the terms of this research, there are examples of this type in the "sector language" of Pedagogy: actionresearch. 97 This means that this classification does not collect other types of syntactic indications as, for example, whistles and flutes guidelines, because it is part of the speech between whistles and flutes, between the jigs and the reels. That is, this classification does not set models for those nominal formulas included in other idioms.

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han 5) “Other Issues”: alfa y omega, cara y cruz, carros y carretas, dimes y diretes, duelos y quebrantos, el oro y el moro, santo y seña, sapos y culebras, tira y afloja, tirios y troyanos, toma y daca (Ibid.).

Some of these nominal groups are not easily distinguishable in relation to the compounds. It appears that the most accepted criterion by linguists is to consider that nominal phrases follow rules of syntactic consistency (a loose end >several loose ends). In fact, inflexion becomes one of the fundamental indexes to decide the degree of “lexicality” of a combination especially of noun and adjective - (civils guards/civil guards). With the same example civil guard, Garcia-Page (2008) points out that, within the frame of the phraseological units, due to the structure that certain fixed combinations present, problems on the interference of structures initially stable arise: “pluriverbal and multi-lexical are also, with equal reason when less, other non-phraseological combinations as the syntagmatic and synaptic compounds (civil guard, bedcar, porthole, houndstooth, bird of Paradise),” etc. […]-, collocations (sub-Judice rule, torrential rain, overwhelming majority, employment termination, skein of yarn, head of garlic, debug responsibility […] (Garcia-Page, 2008: 24). With the theoretical principles of the consulted authors, we can say that the phrase belongs to the scope of phraseology, while the compound is linked to morphology: Considering that caboose is a nominal phrase, rather than a compound, it is understood that it is also part of a group of expressions which form part of fooling somebody or it makes no difference to him, that is, to a certain group of lexical units which are characterised by their non-compositional nature, not so much because they belong to the field of morphology. (RAE, 2009: 854)

Collocations differentiate from the locutions and compounds because they build their meanings compositionally in the first case and to be syntactic constructions and not morphological in the second. As a result, in the locutions there is no semantic compositionality – the meaning cannot

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be obtained from the words which form the terms. Therefore, the locutions are the object of study of the phraseology. See the following example: […] the expression a milk tooth indicates a tooth, but a dandelion appoints to a plant; a straw man means a man, but a snow man means a snow human-like puppet; a safe refers to a box, but a box of teeth means a dentures in some American countries. (RAE, 2009: 852-853)

There is no agreement regarding the type of collocations. Whereas, for some authors, there are seven different types98 (Benson, 1986), other authors consider six99 (Hausmann, 1989; Corpas, 1996: 66-76; Castillo, 1998: 54; Koiké, 2000: 43), others even four100 (Írsula, 1994: 281). There even seems not to be agreement as to the designation which receives these linguistic units is concerned. For authors like Lipka (1992), traditionally known as collocations, would be included in “lexical solidarities” –similar name as Coseriu applied (1967)– and they represent: “[…] inhaltliche Bestimmung eines Wortes durch eine Klasse, ein Archilexem oder ein Lexem” (Lipka, 1992: 164; apud Coseriu, 1967: 26). This is, “lexical solidarities” allow to establish the meaning of a word through a group of words, of an archilexeme; they are a combination of words which has a unitary meaning: Solidarities are directed, oriented, unilateral implications. Thus, e.g., the determined lexeme kiss contains the meaning of the determining lexeme lips, but not vice versa. The classeme [+HUMAN] is contained in the following verbs, and their grammatical subject: marry, apologize, admit, criticize, murder, assassinate. (Lipka, 1992: 164)

Benson et al., (1986) proposes the following types of loans: “verb (usually transitive) + noun/pronoun (or prepositional phrase)”; “verb + noun”; “adjective/noun+ noun”; “noun + verb”; “noun 1 + of + noun 2”; “adverb + adjective”; “verb + adverb.” 99 Hausmann (1989), Corpas (1996), Castillo (1998) and Koiké (2000) establish: “noun + adjective,” “noun + verb,” “verb + noun,” “verb+ adverb,” “adjective + adverb,” “noun + (of) + noun.” 100 Írsula (1994) considers: “verb + noun,” “adjective + noun,” “verb + adverb,” “adverb + adjective.” 98

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han He distinguishes, the same as Coseriu (1967), three types of “lexical solidarities”: of affinity, selection, and involvement. See the example that he takes from Kastovsky (1980: 87; apud Lipka, 1992: 164) (21): (a) The boy apologized: classeme [+HUMAN] (b) A week elapsed: archilexeme TIME (c) Henry shrugged (his shoulders): lexeme shoulders

= 1. affinity = 2. selection = 3. implication

According to Lipka (1992), the “lexical solidarities” are co-notions or syntagmatic combinations of lexical items regardless of what kind of words or syntactic structures they have. Given that is not confined, it allows us to analyze the type of syntactic relation established between two elements: “This holds on both the syntactic level and on the level of word formation, such as compounds and nominalisations” (Lipka, 1992: 166). This argument lets Lipka (1992) confirm that the “lexical solidarities” are neutral phrases, with lexical relations among their components, but they are never syntagmatic. So they are: They are therefore parallel to the ‘lexical sets’ on the paradigmatic axis which are not necessarily sense-relations. A further parallel between the two is caused by the psychological notion of association. Just as lexical sets are paradigmatically linked by association […] collocations are syntagmatically associated, learned and memorized […] and need not necessarily be contiguous. (Lipka, 1992: 166)

Firth (1957) used the term collocation for the first time to designate the frequent lexical combination. Halliday (1961: 276) understands collocations […] syntagmatic associations of lexical units, literally quantifiable such as the likelihood of their occurrence in n intervals (a distance of n lexical units) from a unit x, units a, b, c …” Corpas (2001) considers them, in the same sense Blasco (2002), phraseological units:

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[…] formed by two lexical units with a syntactical relationship, which do not constitute by themselves, speech acts or formulations; and, due to its fixation in standard, they present combinatorial restrictions established by use, usually of a semantic base. (Corpas, 1996: 53)

Bosque (2001) considers that collocation is a concept which can be found in an intermediate situation among several disciplines, and that makes its analysis and categorization more difficult: […] many scholars place the collocations at some intermediate point between the grammar and the lexicography. There are also many specialists who understand that the study of collocations is part of the phraseology, but some remark that nonetheless, it remains outside the strict scope of the syntax and lexical semantics in relation to grammar.” (Bosque, 2001: 10)

This lack of direct affiliation to a unique scientific discipline places collocations in an intermediate stage where, according to the linguist concerned, will be considered to be of one type or another. For Bosque (2001), it is, rather, a limitation when it comes to understanding the phenomenon that a lack of consistency in its analysis. He says that, generally, locations are considered “semi language units” (Bosque, 2001: 10) and that “[…] they are not really part of actual phraseology, but they rather belong to the call lexical-syntax interface” (Ibid.). He considers collocations from the concept of “lexical selection” (Ibid.). Thus, the predicates selected to their arguments, restricting the set of realities that can denote starting from their semantic traits. They are not single words that the predicates select, but lexical of greater or lesser intention kinds. This argument keeps a close relationship with the concept of “semantic tailoring,” in this case of nouns, proposed by Koike (2002). In a two-unit combination, one of the conditions the restriction characteristics of the other. Bosque (2001) understands that collocation basis is not a matter of unique semantic suitability, but they can be combined with other units and its meaning be compatible. The fact that Bosque (2001) ascribes to this

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consideration of loans means that these will be analyzed according to the frequency and preference of combinations between its components, and not that of support. To do this, he refers to “common place” (Ibid., 11) which allows to explain why some collocations are peculiar cases of other concepts, whose analysis must not be purely linguistic, but literary too, sociologic, or from other disciplines which form part of this “common place” (Ibid.). While Bosque (2001) shows the high number of studies which have been performed on them loans in statistical terms, he considers that this does not solve the problem because that kind of studies lack a solid conceptualization and only take percentages and frequencies of use that, although they are very useful because they filter corpus of study, “[…] they are not a direct contribution to the Science of Language” (Ibid.). Following Bosque’s ideas (2001) collocations are syntactic combinations of two words which have a frequent use in a concrete corpus: It is clear that it is not possible to give a homogeneous (or even comprehensible) compendium in theoretical terms to the varied set of phenomena covering this loose use of the term “placement,” whatever the linguistic theory of lexical combinatory from which the researcher departs. In fact, someone wants to coin any term to designate this vast use of collocation, it would be It would be desirable to find a more neutral one, as co-occurrence, or maybe, some equivalent to it. This way the term colocación would be kept– as it is usually made between us - to designate a proper linguistic concept, for instance, a unit of analysis that is restricted depending on the lexical and syntactic criteria that they limit the fields which can be set in the scientific study of language […]We would, certainly, facing collocations if we defined the notion of 'collocation' in strictly statistical terms (i.e., limiting us to measure the frequency of co-occurrence of these two units in comparison with other possible alternatives), but […] this criterion is hardly useful, considering it in conceptual terms. (Bosque, 2001: 15-19)

For Bosque (2001: 15) collocations are specific cases of lexical selection, where “[…] the relation between the ‘collocative' and its ‘bases'

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comes to a particular case of between one predicate and its arguments.” This understanding is similar to Koike's ideas (2002) of “semantic conception” or “of the noun to another kind of words.” Always, in a collocation, one of one of the terms determines the meaning of others. But Bosque’s evidence (2001) means, besides, the property of the predicate will indicate the relationship between extension and intension. Although they can be defined as specific cases of “lexical selection,” they should be considered as such by their frequency of appearance, although it is not a useful criterion in conceptual terms. This conception of the locations allows Bosque (2001: 20) to establish a formal classification, not from the concatenation of types of words, but grouping lexical categories depending on selective predicates: The collocations ‘verb + noun’, are cases of internally selected arguments by a verb; the ‘verb + adverb’ collocation refers to those cases in which an adverb (usually of manner) mentions the action implied by a VP; ‘noun + preposition + noun’ collocations are cases of quantity names - being shortening or of other types, which have, as it is well known, a predicative nature. The reasoning extends to other cases. (Bosque, 2001: 20)

Considering collocations as specific cases of lexical selection involves proceeding with an analysis from the “lexical-syntax interface” (Ibid.) and not with a phraseological study. Even considering them within the scope of the phraseology, it should specify related disciplines that share conceptual content. Bosque (2001 says that, although the general trend is to consider collocations idiomatic or semi idiomatic constructions, in fact, they are not; they are rather frequent and preferred combinations with “"stability,” “reproducibility,” “relapse” and “semantic specialization”: Collocations are usually defined as “semi idiomatic” units […] it seems logical to assume that the characteristic feature of the idiomatic elements is the absence of compositionality. This absence can be understood from the formal or semantic point of view […] Moreover, if formal operations governing the ‘semi idiomaticity’ affect the ability of

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han buildings to admit or reject the formal guidelines which correspond to their syntactic structure, certainly locations are not semi idiomatic constructions, since its singularity is fundamentally limited to the small set of entities that the collocations can be selected as bases. That does not certainly mean that is easy to decide if certain constructions constitute cases of ‘locution’, of ‘syntactic compound’ or of ‘collocation’, but even so, it is obvious that to find its place in the set of existing options does not imply that collocations will become part of the phraseological units. (Bosque, 2001: 22)

Bosque (2001) approaches the concept of placing the “semi idiomatic unit” because these are always restricted combinations, such as the syntactic elements of the general discourse. Somehow, they are always subject to a restriction and are not free combinations, as some phraseologists claim. Since relations between the lexicon and syntax lead to restricted combinations, neither contributes this argument to consider the loans as “semi idiomatic units.” In any case, what is clear is the difference between this concept and the locutions: […] the opposition between ‘verbal speech’ and ‘collocation’ is not determined according to the number of elements that make up the formed paradigm, but according to the grammatical behavior of the analyzed elements. There may be, therefore, 'collocatives' which are restricted to a single ‘base’ unless it means that we necessarily have locutions. (Bosque, 2001: 24)

However, Corpas (2001) considers that collocations can be interpreted as phraseological units because they meet their requirements: they are “multi lexical or multi verbal,” “the located […] the placed usually appear together with relative frequency in speech,” “they have become an institution,” “have become idiomatic and they acquire a proper, unitary and figurative meaning,” “have become idiomatic and acquire a proper, unitary and figurative meaning” and have got “variation, understood as a linguistic variant and discursive manipulation” (Corpas, 2001: 46). However, he

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admits that it may be the object of study of other disciplines, such as syntax, statistics and semantic: Both the phraseology and a possible “Combinatorial” or "syntagmatic" discipline can perfectly claim this side of linguistic knowledge as the object of own study. In any case, the lexical phenomenon of the suitability is a type of combinatorial restriction on the syntagmatic plan. Collocations, in both concrete realizations of the restricted possibilities of combination of a language lexical unit, would also become part of the “combinatory.” And, equally, because of its defining features, collocations which are full-fledged phraseological units. Ultimately, the collocations are a "triple" nature, in both property and resulting combinatory, on the one hand, and as either unit, on the other. Its multi-purpose character has led to the development of two opposite, yet complementary approaches and the statistical and the semantic, which have been reflected, in turn, in the different organization and internal selection of collocation dictionaries that currently exist in the market. (Corpas, 2001: 53)

For Aguilar-Amat (1990) collocations are distributed between “support idiomatic verbs” and often used expressions. The first is fixed combinations that include nominal elements, which do not support its replacement by synonyms and that have lexicalized in the language. The fact that collocations promptly admit even lexical or grammatical alterations do not condition that they cannot be considered as such and they should be locutions. One of the authors who has paid greater attention to placings is Koiké (2001, 2002). Distancing himself from criteria such as the “reproducibility” or the “institutionalization101,” the deals with the delimitation and collocations in a grammatical analysis. Koiké (2002) focuses their study in two types (noun-verb and noun-adjective) and 101

Consider that they present the characteristic of “institutionalization,” it means conceiving collocations as phraseological units (Corpas, 1996). In this research, they are considered non-phraseological units and that, more than “reproducibility,” they are preferred restricted combinations which frequently appear in the pedagogical discourse, and which have been conventionalised in this “sector language,” being understood by its speakers, internalized, and widely used in his speeches.

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analysed the degrees of transparency and semantic cohesion of collocations determined by the “[…] semantic phenomena of semantic tailoring, semantic specialization, and semantic neutralization” (Koiké, 2002: 5). With respect to “semantic clothing,” Koiké (2002) states that this concept, proposed by Allerton (1982) “[…]is based on the semantic primacy of the noun against other kinds of words” (Ibid.), so, nouns have fixed meanings and make the meaning of other kinds of words, facing prepositions, which are made by the kind of words with which they are combined. Therefore, the meaning of the adjective depends on the meaning of the noun. So, “[…] the noun determines the meaning of the adjective, the possessive, verb or preposition that merges (and) the verb and the adjective can do it only with the preposition with which they appear” (Ibid.). For example: "the meaning of the adjective astronomical (very high) depends on - or it is made by - the meaning of the noun price in astronomical price because the same adjective changes its meaning to refer to another noun (astronomical knowledge, 'of astronomy') (Ibid.). Considering that the noun has got semantic stability on the theory of “semantic clothing” allows considering it as the base, being the verb and the collocatives adjective in collocations such as noun-verb or nounadjective. However, Koiké (2002). It indicates that when the noun is polysemic, this theory which sees the noun as semantic stability finds difficulties in the collocations analysis of noun-adjective since the meaning of the noun is determined by the meaning of the verb or adjective. This reversal of functions only occurs in those cases in which the noun can have different meanings. In the case of mono-referential nouns, the consideration of “semantic primacy of the noun” is accepted (Ibid.). The compositionality, previously referred to, allows you to attribute the collocations semantic autonomy to select, in its collocative, a specific meaning that only when it is combined with it. For this reason, it is confirmed that collocations have some degree of compositionality; when being governed by the collocation selection by the semantic-based autonomy, there is no point in talking about semantic transparency or absence of idiomaticity, but the degrees of semantic expertise acquired by

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the fixed the co-occurrence of two restricted lexical units, and understood as changes in the original meaning of a lexical unit (Koiké, 2002: 7). As a result, those units of a collocation that have some type of semantic specialization will have a more stable lexical cohesion. Given that the noun is the element that presents greater semantic stability facing other kinds of words, semantic specialization will most influence the verb and the adjective than on the noun. Koiké (2002) also examines the semantic specialization of verbs, adjectives, and nouns. In the first one, collocations meanings can be of three types (Corpas, 1996: 83; Koiké, 2002: 8): 1) the ones which are produced fruit of a semantic specialisation that restricts their possibilities of switching (“knit one’s brows”); 2) responsible for the meaning of verb is abstract or figurative (“quell a revolt”); and, lately, 3) those obtained from the grammaticalisation of meaning, especially in the placement of delexicalized verb (“initiate”). This typology is built starting from the concept that “the bases tend to select secondary, abstract or figurative meanings in its collocations” (Corpas, 1996: 84): The verb frown specializes its meaning when combined with brow, indicating a ‘gesture of anger, annoyance, amazement, surprise or disappointment’ that is in your rectum meaning, and the verb extinguish has got a figurative sense in quelling a revolt. In noun-verb collocations, is the verb which experiences more frequently the semantic specialization. (Koiké, 2002: 8)

Consequently, semantic verb specialization is necessary to differentiate between abstract and concrete nouns. The abstract ones are often determined, by the strict or figurative sense of the verb102, which has got a 102

There are verb-noun collocations in which the verb has got a strict sense and the noun a figurative meaning. In this case, the figurative meaning of the concrete noun selects the figurative sense of the verb forming the collocation: “[…] in look for trouble (‘trouble’) and lose your patience (‘peace and calm’) the verbs look for y lose already have their corresponding figurative meaning (assemble the army, losing the passport)” (Koiké, 2002: 16). This does not mean, as Koiké argues (2002) that, necessarily, when two elements of the collocation are combined by their figurative sense, the collocation has to be figurative, nor they have less semantic transparency. This happens in the general language, but not in the

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continuous semantic specialization. The general trend, in the case of abstract nouns, is that they are often combined with the figurative sense of the verb (“quench the thirst,” “ “) (Ibid.) and that makes its strict meaning become specialised with abstract nouns instead of concrete nouns: “[…]verbs built with abstract nouns only obtain functional value (“give advice = advise”) either a different from the original lexical meaning (“give a gift”)” (Ibid., 9). Verbs that lose their strict sense only remain functional or aspectual value, suffering from a delexicalization or grammaticalization: “Hope for the prize”; “Hope to win the prize” (Ibid.). On the other hand, concrete nouns tend to select the strict sense of the verb and, in consequence, there is a semantic specialization: “lay down their arms,” “thresh wheat” (Ibid., 10). Although, in some occasions, Koiké (2002) points out that “[…]” a verb with semantic specialization comes to be placed with a particular noun: stop scratching the violin that gives me a headache103” (Ibid.). The second type of semantic expertise that Koiké explains (2002), the adjective collocations in diction occur more in the adjective than in the noun. The base (the noun) selects a figurative sense of the adjective (collocative) and it generates that the adjective specializes its original meaning. However, these processes of semantic expertise of the adjective, as indicated by Koike (2002), are gradual, being “[…]” the abstract nature of the noun which facilitates the adjective specialises its meaning: galloping horse (‘which gallops’) > accelerating tuberculosis (‘that develops very quickly’).” In addition, they tend to prefer the abstract noun; in such a way that the adjective happens to be explanatory or epithet rather than specific: “high-quality product = product of quality” (Ibid., 12). On the other hand, when an abstract noun is combined with an adjective, you select the figurative sense of the noun. Thus, some adjectives suffer gradual lexical value loss as it increases the abstract

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specialized languages, where it is viable that the two elements used figuratively and the resulting collocation is not be figurative, but strict (because of the specific and technical conceptual reality that it refers to). Not there are emblematic cases of this type of locations in the "sectoral language” of Pedagogy.

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nature of the noun with which it is combined, becoming intensifier or delexicalized adjectives. For instance: “sovereign power > sovereign beauty > drubbing > sovereign failure” (Ibid., 13). In the case of noun-adjective collocations, Koiké (2002) says that, on many occasions, there are semantic redundancies between the noun and the adjective: It is the case of huge difference; the abysmal adjective, derived from the noun abyss, which means ‘big and dangerous depth’, already has the idea of 'deep', so it merges with the noun difference, which can be placed at the same time with the adjective deep (deep difference). In this case, the placement is semantically motivated. (Koiké, 2002: 13)

The third type of semantic specialization indicated by Koiké (2002), the one of the noun, is less frequent than the verb of an adjective. It occurs when the collocation is formed by a verb in its strict sense and a figurative sense noun: […] in the spill the beans, the noun cake has got a figurative sense ('agreement or plan secret bad purposes'). Here the verb (collocative) specifies the meaning of the noun (base); but, unlike what happens with the verb, the noun hardly comes to obtain a functional value, and it is only used figuratively: strict meaning (eating a cake); meant figurative (spill the beans). (Koiké, 2002: 13)

This semantic specialization of the noun also happens in metaphoric uses, such as in “I’m fed up of so many flies and bores around me” (Ibid.). Nevertheless, nouns always combine with the same verb with which its original meaning is formed, although they have a figurative meaning. Therefore, it keeps that lexical bond (Ibid.). Koiké (2002) says that the semantic specialization of nouns has got two features which have no other usual collocations: First, the statement supports two readings - one, literal and, another, figurative-, so you should pay attention to the context. This fact brings

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han such metaphorical collocations to idiomatic expressions. Second, a double semantic specialization is observed (in the noun and verb), because the noun metaphorisation tends to require the figurative use of the verb with which is built. (Koiké, 2002: 14)

Koiké (2002) considers that, generally, collocative collocations have non-meaningful collocability104 and this aspect increases their own semantic cohesion, as well as the meaning of the noun within nounadjective collocations105. In a similar sense, a semantic motivation of the collocation elements increases the semantic cohesion because one of the elements of the placement always requires a specific lexical unit of the specialty context. For this reason, lexical collocations are not considered not to have the semantic motivation, it even could overshadow their semantic cohesion. The presence of one of the two elements in the collocation determines the selection of another unit that is part of the collocation in a specialized context, regardless of whether a noun-adjective, verb-adjective, verb-noun collocation or of another kind. This less important collocability of the collocative favors the semantic cohesion. Koiké (2000: 77-78) establishes one classification of the verbs which form part of the collocations, classifying them into functional and lexical, and at the same time, in general, and specific:    

General functional verbs: to have hope Specific functional verbs: cherish hope General lexical verbs: play the harp Specific functional verbs: tolling harp (Ibid.).

So, according to Koiké (2002: 17):

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105

Koiké (2002) considers that semantic cohesion of collocations is always less important than idiomatic expressions. Since these are not reviewed in this research, they will not be given special attention. Nakamoto’s contribution (1996) in terms of the degrees of collocational intensity from the semantic attraction of elements of the collocation, is interesting, but, in this case, we prefer to use the concept of Koiké’s "collocability" (2002).

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[…] specific verbs are formed with a minor number of nouns regarding the general ones, what strengthens the semantic relationship of the collocation. On the contrary to what happens with collocability, verbs and adjectives verbs or adjectives with a narrow collocational RADIUS tend to engage more typical relations and, therefore, stronger collocations that those who have a broader collocational radio. This way, semantic cohesion among components is stronger in order to reveal a secret and repay a debt to be hungry. (Koiké, 2002: 17-18)

Semantic neutralization is important to analyze the collocations. The concept of “semantic clothing” or “semantic primacy of the noun against another kind of words” (Koiké, 2002) conditions the meaning of verbs and adjectives, and adjectives with which they are combined to form part of collocations. This semantic aspect, together with the semantic specialisations which suffer the elements of the collocation, generate that the verbs and adjectives which have different meanings become neutralised semantically in some collocations106. The process of semantic neutralization takes place after the semantic specialization; several non-synonymous lexical units acquire a synonymic value, and therefore it produces a semantic neutralization. That is, verbs of strict meaning other than the one they have in general language become synonyms when being combined with a noun in a collocation, it occurs when a semantic neutralization. In noun-verb collocations, this process takes place when the noun is combined with more than one verb to form synonymous collocations. Thus, the meaning of different verbs is semantically neutralized because they function as synonyms. For example, the following verbs indicate a synonymic semantic value and, in consequence, they are semantically neutralised: “warm/hold/feed/keep/feel/bear a grudge; give/free/launch a laugh; assemble/get into/put together/build/do rukus” (Koiké, 2002: 19). This phenomenon happens, both in the lexical 106

Semantic neutralisations are harder to find in the “sector language” of Pedagogy because the adjectives do not have an intensifier value and cannot be replaced by synonyms, as they never have the same meaning. There are only isolated cases and always with lexical verbs: assessing learning; validating research; modifying the behavior; guiding the student; promoting the course.

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collocations, as in the functional ones and it also affects the noun-adjective collocation. In the same way that it happened with the verbs, the adjectives that have different meanings are neutralized semantically in synonymous collocations. Koiké (2002) says that this neutralization is much more frequent in functional collocations than in lexical ones because the adjective has an intensifier meaning: “extreme cold/black/tremendous/ horrendous/terrifying” (Koiké, 2002: 20). In the “sector language” of Pedagogy, this phenomenon does not happen in nominal expressions such as noun + adjective, which are the most recurrent ones: open assessment/flexible/wide. In these examples, each adjective provides a specific meaning, because of this, neutralization can never happen. Koiké adds (2002) that, regarding semantic neutralisations, lexical units do not necessarily become to have the same meaning: […] since register or stylistic differences can be determined. Thus, adjectives that modify noun Victoria in the following examples, although all work with synonymic value is not semantically identical: We won with a landslide victory; the party won an overwhelming victory in the elections; Our team won a complete victory in the last match. (Koiké, 2002: 20)

Usually, the collocations come to lexicalise in the language, enabling the transfer of information from the syntactic dimension, through combinations of words, to the pragmatic, represented with an only lexical element (Blasco, 2002: 35). Blasco (2002) distinguished two types of lexicalization: On the one hand, the term lexicalization, in a wide sense, is synonymous of fossilization and, as such, designates the linguistic phenomenon which intervenes, for instance, in the formation of lexical units and in the acronym formation from initials. On the other hand, in a strict meaning, the term lexicalization designates the linguistic phenomenon by which certain grammatical units become lexical units with a referential value that they first had. Therefore, in this last sense,

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lexicalization leads from a grammatical side up to the lexical side or it takes place during a concrete. (Blasco, 2002: 36-37)

Lexicalisation can occur due to several factors, which vary according to the authors referred. Blasco’s parameters (2002: 36) seem to be more appropriate to determine the type of lexicalization of the lexical units: 1) Sociological parameters: “[…] certain sequences will be more easily lexicalised in a sociolect or in a specific technolect” (Ibid.); 2) Pragmatic parameters: “[…] they are lexicalized in a particular communicative situation” (Ibid.); 3) Cognitive parameters: “[…] they are lexicalised according to the way they are adapted to our way of judging” (Ibid.); 4) Linguistic parameters: “[…] they are lexicalised because they answer to some denominative needs” (Ibid.). However, the fact that the factors that motivate the lexicalisation of some units are varied does not mean that, by default, all scripts are lexicalized. Only a part of them in the general language is lexicalized. Instead, in the specialized languages of units that are lexicalized. Blasco (2002) considers that irregularity, lack of motivation and sequence fixation which are lexicalised, are not the consequence of this phenomenon. So, some elements which take place in a sequence formation limit the possibility that it may become lexicalized: 1) The length and complexity of the structure: recursion, in practice, shows its limitations. 2) The type of structure: it is known that structures such as “verb(article)-noun” or “noun-of-noun” constitute in Spanish language schemas perfectly available for the lexicalisation. 3) The nature of the linguistic mechanism is originated in the structure, that is, if lexicalization is part of its morphological or syntactic. Both the morphological and the syntactic level are valid to generate lexical complex ideas perfect to become phraseological

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It is true that, although there is no agreement among linguists concerning factors that motivate lexicalization, or even on the factors that condition the sequence construction which can get to be lexicalized is, it seems to have unanimity in its irreversibility. Most of the authors consider that once a grammatical element becomes a lexical unit, it cannot go back to its original grammatical conditions. So, lexicalization, according to this author, starts both on the grammatical sidefinishing in the lexical side-, and the syntactic one- getting to the lexical ones. Some phrases can experience lexicalization processes, such as in “dropper” –phrase– or in “identity bracelet” –clause– (Blasco, 2002: 39). In both cases, the lexical side is obtained. Moreover, this phenomenon implies, to a certain extent, conventionalisation of the units which have been lexicalized. When the meaning of a syntactic structure is lexicalized, it does not only conventionalise but also, the individual meaning of each of the units that form the syntactic construction is lost, so it acquires a global meaning. Those elements that form such construction lose their individual meanings, so its sense is not segmentable in each of the units to reach the global. The formation, therefore, has got a non-compositional meaning that only exists in that combination and that it will be different to other lexicalised formations because of that concrete element with another one. As a result, the lexicalization involves the loss of meaning and compositional characteristics of phrases. So, gradually, syntactic constructions are restricted to the number of contexts in which may appear and gain autonomy until they become lexicalised units. These processes of lexicalization may contain semantic, morphosyntactic or phonological alterations during the process (Blasco, 2002: 40-41). However, Blasco (2002) considers that the collocations do not constitute lexicalizations. It can be that in the general language it does not happen because the elements that are lexicalized tend to be language

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expressions and free combinations, more typical in phraseology (Bosque, 2005). Blasco (2002: 43) understands that the collocations can have different meanings: […] We will say that it sometimes refers to likely or usual combinations of two words; and others, to restricted combinations in which a lexeme requires the presence of another one. As well as, the placement is a type of unit either that presents some fixing internal to the combine two or more words; i.e., a sequence will be a placement when between them two lexemes that the form, regardless of if there are in the sequence other words that not are lexemes (determinants, prepositions...), is set a relationship of sense such that causes a union syntagmatic. For example, the isosceles triangle would be a collocation because it can hardly explain the meaning of the adjective isosceles without mentioning the figure geometric. (Blasco, 2002: 43-44)

Garcia-Page (2008) establishes one type of characterizations of the phraseological units and its faults. He understands that these often experience, speakers’ violations leading to faults. Restrictions on this type of units are more likely to happen when they have “[…] some kind of synonymic or antonymic relations of some kind of semantic affinity which allows categorizing them in the same field” (Garcia-Page, 1995: 155). According to this author, that some units become lexicalized or fixed in the phraseological language does not depend on one grammatical reason which justifies it: The fixed expression give [something/ to someone.] a –which accepts two types of prepositional terms: a NP (walk, to hell, to hell with it, in the boonies, in the other side of the World…) or purpose clause [VP → V + NP/PP]–, when it selects a purpose clause, the predicative nucleus may be represented exclusively by the verbs fry, take and make, and their complements are already lexicalized in the following way: fry: black pudding, asparagus, monkeys; make: gargle, hecks; take: wind (fresh), por culo, por saco. So the sequence is ungrammatical if it is the switching of a term by another alien to the expression, still belonging to the same

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It is surprising that phrases such “go to hell” (Garcia-Page, 1995: 156) are grammatical. With good criteria, this author argues that: From a non-linguistic point of view, those nouns black and sausages designate realities (meat trade products) that can be fried. Less acceptability this assumption presents - at least in our cultural sphere - the combination fry issues and, however, it is an impeccable phraseological sequence. (Ibid.)

That these locutions have set in the language is due to issues of use, as Garcia-Page says (1995). When an expression comes to be used in a record by some speakers, it is included within that variety and it comes to be embraced and be accepted as such. The correct uses of the phraseological units depend on: […] among other factors, of the level of user’s competence, the frequency and level of use of the idiom (colloquial, literary, etc.), the existence of a parallel in other languages, of their more or less structural complexity [...], [...] semantics, and pragmatics. (Garcia-Page, 1995: 160)

This same author, in his work of 1990, says that phraseological units are idiomatic when, after having belonged to previous synchronous stages to which currently is found in a language, have a given value. So, out of the context in which that phraseological unit is used, it lacks sense. As a result, it has idiomatic sense. Regarding the fact that phraseological units are set in a language given as opposed the concept of lexical variation, as Garcia-Page says (1996: 477): “One of the fundamental ‘laws’ that govern the code of fixed expressions: their immodifiability or inalterability.” This means that, although there is a general tendency to consider the phraseological units as idiomatic, not all of them are. Some are set in the language, but others are not.

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Rather, it should affirm that the phraseological units have a relative fixation, as Garcia-Page says (1996). Sometimes, lexical variants are not accurate to the original and this makes that there are doubts about its consideration as a multi verbal unit or not. Garcia-Page’s contribution (1996) to this respect is crucial: there are certain locutional structures that, although they belong to free, syntax have fewer variants. See the example “stay at home” of this same author. He specifies that its verbal nucleus cannot be switched by nouns with similar semantic features: “*stay in the office,” “*stay at school” (Garcia-Page, 1996: 477). This argumentation leads to affirming that the idiomatic or semi idiomatic sense is an indicator of the phraseological character of a multi verbal expression (Ibid.). The precision with which traditionally different authors define and consider collocations is never the same than when it is about collocations. These, always located in an intermediate area between the locutions and the free combinations, can be interpreted as elements that allow filling up of lexical lapses that the language general suffers. They function as supplementary forms of non-existing lexemes in the general linguistic system107. Bosque’s definition of collocation (2002), is similar to Koiké (2002) and Bosque’s (2005): collocations have got a direction set by one of the units which “prepares” the meaning of the other element and consists of one “collocated108,” one base109 and one collocative110. In the collocations such as noun + adjective, the base is the noun (due to the “semantic tailoring” or “noun supremacy against another type of words,” Koiké, 2002); in verb + noun collocations, verb, the verb is the base; and, in adverbs + adjectives collocations, the adjectives are the base (Blasco, 2002: 44). 107

In our opinion, it is one affirmation which has total value with expressions showing lexicalisation. 108 Blasco (2002: 44) defines “collocated” as “[…] any of the members of that fixed collocation.” 109 Together with Bosque (2005) and Koiké (2002), Blasco (2002: 44) considers that the base is “[…] the member which determines with which words can be combined.” It is autonomous and does not need the collocative to be defined. 110 The collocative is "the determined element or elements" (Blasco, 2002; Bosque, 2005; Koiké, 2002). The collocative definition requires being completed by the base.

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For other authors, such as Garcia-Page (1992), in this intermediate area between locutions and free combinations which exist for many authors, idioms, sayings and other literal formulae are also found which constitute: […] cultural repetition facts with stereotyped value put in practice in certain communicative situations and not as linguistic creation facts from some syntactic-semantic combination rules, as it happens with the phrases and clauses111. […]

These formulae, although they have been internalized in certain segments of the population, show socio-cultural differences. Not all of them must be considered collocations or expressions that, in greater or lesser extent, have been lexicalized in the language. In many occasions, these fixed phrases or idioms have had very little broadcasting, but despite this, they are indicators of speakers' trends in different communicative situations starting from certain variables: […] idioms of general little broadcasting could be distributed in areas according to the pragmatic situations used, other variables such as profession, social stratum, the cultural level, sex, religion, etc. can be determined in greater or lesser extent, knowledge of certain idioms and not others, or preferences towards certain idioms and not its synonymous variants112.

Garcia-Page (1992) uses the term “idiom” as “[…] synonymous expression of the “fixed phrase,” “permanent expression” o “locution” (among the most frequent Spanish names), following the generalized feeling113.” In his study on the idioms in the teaching of Spanish, he considers that cases such as "for instance, cost an arm and leg = cost a bundle,” are idioms used by a medium or medium-high socio-cultural level population.

111

http://www.anmal.uma.es/numero10/Garcia-Page.htm (Assessed: 01/09/2010). http://www.anmal.uma.es/numero10/Garcia-Page.htm (Assessed: 01/09/2010). 113 http://www.anmal.uma.es/numero10/Garcia-Page.htm (Assessed: 01/09/2010). 112

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When establishing an analysis of terms in a “sector language,” it is very suitable to make use of principles like these, in which, although we start from a communicative situation, other variables that allow getting relevant conclusions on the type of population are considered. However, in the case that is of our interest, these variables are clearly defined; the communicative situations in which the expressions are used, they belong to the speech of a professional sector with a cult record shared with a medium register to interact with non-specialists speakers (students' parents, for example). While it may seem affordable to establish the distinction in linguistic analysis among idioms, phrases, idioms, or formulae, there is a single criterion, as Garcia-Page (1992) indicates. He considers it necessary to start from a conception of the delimited Phraseology, paying special interest to the locutions, in detriment of those sayings or proverbs. He says that that need arises by the inclusion: […] of a new category: the sentence locution, with the consequent cancellation of the syntactic restrictions traditionally imposed on the notion of locution, for example, failure to take the form of grammatical sentence, which it would discriminate with regard to those sayings and other formulations. Examples of locutions –and not sayings, nor proverbs or formulae– would be Keeping things inside or Waters back on track. He also recovers the condition of locutions for certain structures arbitrarily considered proverbs, such as Prevention is better than cure and another analogous construction […]. (Battiston, 2009: 179)

From this notion of locutions, Garcia-Page (2008) confirms that they are problematic units that, even though they are usually defined by the context of the phraseological unit, they have got some features that “[…] they not are univocal nor exclusive: complex structure formed by at least two words, settings or stability and potential variation, idiomaticity, institutionalization” (Garcia-Page, 2008: 23). If these features-just like this author explains in his work (2008)- allow to establish one particular typology of the locutions, some of them, such as multi verbality, allow the establishment of a defined typology of locutions, among them, multi

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verbal. Following this author, the locution “is a two-word or more combination” (Ibid., 23); a principle which means denying: […] the condition of phraseological unit and the possibility of getting confused with certain signs such as the simple lexical units (although it is about pragmatic formulae or routines), such as Bless you, Good-bye!, Hello! and Thank you), graphic compounds (corkscrew) or just the simple bound morphemes that, as idioms, some authors suggest. (Garcia-Page, 2008: 24)

Garcia-Page’s Introduction to the Spanish Phraseology (2008) is one of the most complete, descriptive and detailed masterpieces in Phraseology. However many of the expressions which have been traditionally considered speakers' expressions from the linguistic registers used, are locutions or idioms, perfectly delimited if we consider the necessary variables. His notion differentiates from the ones given by Corpas (1996), Mena (2003) and other authors. He shows a broad phraseological approach. With good criteria, Garcia-Page (2008: 24) clarifies that in order to reflect the locutions’ “general property,” several names such as “multi lexicability or multi verbality” have been suggested, although, as this author points out and explains, “[…] they may not be completely accurate when we attempt to describe certain structures” (Ibid.). Garcia-Page (2008) remarks, to this respect, that: […] on the one hand, with regard to the first term, numerous locutions are composed of a single lexical unit, of only one lexeme, although they fulfill with other grammatical signs (maybe, astride), and in several locutions the word is grammaticalised of hasn’t got lexical value (in search of, considering that, in order to, even though, therefore). On the other hand, when it is said that a phraseological unit is multi verbal or that it is formed of at least two words, It can be assumed that he is thinking about the graphic nature of those words, that is, they are written dissociated, which is true in all the locutions (kill two birds with one stone, put one’s foot in it, pull someone’s leg, suddenly, together…); that way, It is restricting the possibility of analysing as locutions, for

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example, graphic compounds and simple words with figurative or idiomatic meanings such as be receptive ‘leave’ o sing ‘reveal a secret or narrate a criminal event’; that same graphical separation criterion is the one which should prevail to avoid that they are denied the status of idioms or agglutinated forms such as management or pass away, so, it is enough that the verb is run with the inflected or conjugated form to irrefutably try its locutional nature: “I will manage.” (Garcia-Page, 2008: 24)

The second trait that, in the locutions characterization, Garcia-Page proposes (2008) is not completely definitive: […] they are numerous the phrases that violate this rule. On the one hand, tradition, being preferably oral, has favoured along the years - or the centuries - the creation of variations due to different causes (greater expressivity, popular etymology, localism, diastratic mark, existence of productive models, emphasis, learning reinforcement or memorization help, linguistic economy, modernisation and greater or lesser length of the speech...): be nothing special/be nothing to write home, make things difficult, put goosebumps. Although these alternatives are consolidated, penalized by the community, encoded, expect in the system, which does not prevent, at first, to go on talking about fixation or fixed combinations. (Garcia-Page, 2008: 25)

Although, as this author points out, there are several phraseological units which admit some changes by “signs of free technique; it is normally about lexical rise with intensifier value –be in a (very) bad mood, have gusts, have a rotten time […]” (Ibid.). Other authors understand this intermediate area in which collocations are placed as space where those free phrases and collocation have placed in it. In this sense, Blasco (2002) considers that the first are structures formed by two elements, minimum, where their meaning is the result of all the meanings of each of the units which form part of the phrase, and their signifier is the product of their significant combination: it is the union of two linguistic signs, whose significant and signifier are establish from the

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general rules of the linguistic system. For example, “write a note, glass figure, red pen, leave slowly, etc.” (Blasco, 2002: 44). On the other hand, this author conceives the collocation: […] a combination of, at least, two lexemes (A and B), so that its significant is the result of the regular sum of the lexemes in constituent significants and their meaning include the meaning of the lexeme A and a meaning ' C', presenting the following options, according to Alonso (1994-95):

1) either, ' C' is empty, that is., the lexeme B serves as support to keep a structure that responds to some syntactic pattern of the Spanish language. It is the case of certain verb-noun collocations: give a blow, bring to light, be hungry, be squeamish, etc. 2) Or, ' C' is not empty, but the lexeme B express 'C' only in combination with A or with other few synonymous lexemes. Thus, we find the meaning ' intensity ' in enemy staunch, febrile activity, living interest, etc. 3) Or, ' C' corresponds to ' B' but the lexeme B is restrictively selected. This is, B keeps its meaning only in combination with A and does not admit possible replacement by a synonym. Example: strong coffee/* powerful flavor coffee, black coffee/ * only coffee, etc. 4) The meaning of 'A' is included in 'C'. For instance: isosceles triangle, felling trees, stressed on the third-to-last syllable word, etc. (Blasco, 2002: 44-45). Blasco’s contribution (2002) concerning the collocations is interesting because he differentiates between formal and semantic aspects: “[…] since the point of view of the system, collocations do not distinguish from free corresponding phrases of the syntactic rules of the language” (Blasco, 2002: 46) and “[…] they are clear examples of the preferences of combination within the lexicon and the restrictions imposed by the use of a

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linguistic community.” Hence Coseriu (1964) considers them “lexical solidarities" as set units only in the standard, and not in the system” (Ibid.). It is true that, from the syntax point of view, there are no differences between collocations and free phrases, although if they take place from the semantic point of view. The collocations arise by the denominative need of a community of professionals that cannot find terms to represent that conceptual specificity to which we want to allude. This means that they share, of course, restriction rules and preferences of a combination of the units lexical in them collocations. In relation to those formal aspects, the collocations set the standard, in the linguistic system, in the speech. This results in no fixing in its creation, but in its use, since they are already formed expressions that can be collected in dictionaries. Blasco (2002) considers that collocations, as in phraseological units, can have five different types of fixation: 1) The impossibility of permutation or fixation in the order of the constituent elements: in most of the cases, the investment would give place to an ungrammatical sequence; in others, the permutation would lead to a very emphatic type of formation. 2) The impossibility of switching of the constituent elements: those components cannot be replaced by others without the phraseological unit is either ungrammatical or lose meaning. 3) The impossibility of insertion or withdrawal of any element. 4) Fixing of the grammatical categories (gender, number, time, etc.). 5) Transformative fixing or impossibility that the sequence supports nominalisation, pro-nominalisation, passivization, relativisation… (Blasco, 2002: 47). Regarding formal aspects, these five type of collocation allows categorize them as “free collocations114,” “restricted collocations115” and “bridge category116” (Cowie, 1981). 114

The “free collocations” are “optional combinations of words whose constitutive elements keep its meaning constant.” For example cause, start, win, lose, etc a fight/cause a fight, an argument, a war, a breakup, etc. (Blasco, 2002: 48).

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From the semantic point of view, Blasco (2002: 52) explains that “verb-noun” collocations show several options –are just going to be mentioned, since they do not constitute a characteristic appearance on the specialized language which is reported–: 1) or semantic specialization that restricts completely (gather the frown, reveal a secret) or almost completely (take/adopt a decision) the possibilities of collocative substitution or switching; 2) or a translated meaning, figurative or secondary (unleash a storm, lay the groundwork, hold a conversation…), 3) or a weak or empty meaning, as it happens with collocations where the verb is the support (explain, be afraid...) (Ibid.). The idea that Blasco transmits (2002) is that not all those verbs can create collocations by the polysemy presented117. This aspect, attached to the degree of productivity, lead to this author to say that the verb is: […] carier of grammatical and syntactic functions, attributing its verbal character to the collocation. The verb, not being able to realize the action of an accurate way, maintain a very narrow link with the nominal component, to form a semantic unit and grammatical inseparable with this last one. (Blasco, 2002: 52)

The “restricted locations” have got possibilities of combination of other collocations: "[...]" be in danger/luck/adventures, etc. are more limited not only by semantic-grammatical reasons but also by the established usage. “The meaning in which one of those components is used comes determined by the literal sense of the other term” (Blasco, 2002: 48). It is the case of the noun “semantic tailoring” into collocations noun + adjective proposed by Koiké (2002). 116 Blasco (2002) takes Cowie’s idea for granted (1981) and considers a third type of collocation from the degree of fixation of its components called “bridge category”: “[…] the dividing line between collocations and the locutions are in the bridge category which includes units such as raising a slander. These units consist of a settled figurative or specialized meaning (lift) with a base whose appearance is determined contextually (slander) Because of its relative semantic compositionality they look like collocations, but they do not admit the possibility of the switching of their elements, so they look like locutions. In a strict sense, these units are closer to locutions than collocations” (Blasco, 2002: 48). 117 The semantic aspects of collocations, according to Blasco (2002), refer to the type of restriction that the verb generates and regarding noun + adjective collocations, which establishes the noun base. 115

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Therefore, there is no unanimity in the establishment of criteria that clearly differentiate collocations with regard to another type of formations. The collocation formation is conditioned by the restriction semantic-lexical combinatorial and that shares a speakers’ community (in the case of the specialised language that is analysed, the educational one)118. The reviewed studies are mainly Koike's (2001, 2002), which allow removing formal and semantic traits necessary to characterize the collocations and differentiate them from other types of formations. They are the following: 1) “[…] frequent co-occurrence of two lexical units” (Koiké, 2001: 25). For example, if only one criterion was taken into account, in the “sector language” of Pedagogy, the expression learning by discovery always seems to be combined and has a frequency of 7 text entries specialized in Education, with 1,256 words, and with 508,000 entries on the Internet. Koiké (2001: 26) proposes the following example: […] to find out the co-occurrence of two lexical units (to and B) in question, we have to bear in mind the frequency of each of them, the percentage of its co-occurrence and in what meaning these units lexical are employed if are polysemic: Lexical unit frequency A; Lexical unit frequency B; Co-occurrence of A and B. We are going to explain this with a particular example. In order to confirm the noun-adjective collocation drastic measure, it is necessary to check the frequency of measure, la de drastic and its co-occurrence in a concrete corpus. We have carried out this in DP examples and we have obtained the following results: Frequency of measure: 250; Frequency of drastic 8; Co-occurrence: 4; Co-occurrence percentage of drastic with measure: 4/8x100=50%; Co-occurrence percentage of drastic with drastic: 4/250x100=1,6%. Following these figures, 50% of the co-occurrence of the adjective drastic is produced with the noun measure, so a lexical preference is noticed of drastic to appear with measure; on the other hand, the noun measure does not seem to collocate with drastic. In this case, we have to take into account the polysemy of this noun, so it would be suitable to find out the frequency of measure employed with the meaning of ' available ' or ' prevention ' (semantic condition) to know the real percentage of cooccurrence of measure with drastic. In our opinion, when the 118

Corpas (2001: 49) considers that “[…] regarding stable word combinations […] common in a given language and formed according to that language system, whose “typicity” or “tradition,” fined by the speakers community, determines their characteristic combinatorial restriction.”

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2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

percentage of co-occurrence of two lexical units is greater than 20%, there may be a syntactic or lexical cohesion. (Koiké, 2001: 26-27) “[…] preferential or habitual combinations that present certain combinatorial restrictions imposed by the traditional use, which generate that the selection of a noun requires the presence of a particular verb119” (Koike, 2001: 27). In this sense, Koiké (2001: 27) shows the following example: […] in the collocation overcome a difficulty, other verbs such as save or beat can occupy the place of overcome indicating a synonymic content. The lexical combination seen in these examples is not but a lexical preference. Obviously, the grade of fixation is lower than in them locutions, which is due to the fact that fixation is produced within the standard, not in the system. “[…] formal compositionality” (Koiké, 2001; 27). In the general language, he confirms that some collocations allow some: […] formal flexibilities, such as the component substitution (for instance, violate/break/violate rules), verbal modification (for example, he gave a satisfactory explanation), pro-nominalisation, nominalisation (for instance, ring the bell again > bells ringing), passive transformations, etc.” (Ibid.) “[...] two lexemes link” (Koiké, 2001: 28). For example 120: “fiercely fight – fierce fight, getting hot [the argument] – fiercely argue – heated argument, etc.” “[…] typical relation among its components (Koiké, 2001: 29). For example121: “Because of the typicity of the relationship among their components, they are collocations to play the guitar and strum the guitar, but they are not clean the guitar and save the guitar because the noun guitar can only establish typical the relationship as the musical instrument.” (Ibid.) “[…] semantic precision of the combination” (Koiké, 2001: 29). For example122: […] in the first notion of the DP rumor, the collocation run [news] can be detected (' vague and informal piece of news that runs between the people '). In the notion of being rumored ('run a rumor, transmit from one to others'), is located the collocation run [rumor]. The collocation adduces reasons is used in the verb definition of

In the “sector language” they would be collocations with this criterion: pass a course; achieve integration. 120, Examples of this link between lexemes in the language of Pedagogy are Psycho Pedagogical analysis, educational community. 121, In the sublanguage that is of our interest, examples of expressions with typicity of the relationship would be meaningful learning, curricular adaptation, and effective school. 122 In the “sector language” of the Sciences Education, there would be expressions with precision semantic such as tutorial action, educational program, curriculum project. 119

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justifying which DP proposes (‘adduce reasons to demonstrate that something is not reprehensible').

Koiké (2001: 31-36) establishes a series of reasons to differentiate collocation from locution: “Syntactic transformation”: “Adjective modification”: Collocation shows a greater flexibility than the locution […], the collocation tolerates adjectival modifications, while the phrase does not usually accept them as they do not show such feature (Koiké, 2001: 31). Koiké (2001) presents the following example: make a landing/make a forced landing [collocation] land/*land necessarily [locution] (Ibid.); ii. “Pronominalisation”: Noun pro-nominalisation regarding the direct object is another characteristic which separates a collocation from a locution, which does not usually tolerate transformation. See Koiké’s example (2001: 32): He took the position of mayor, but his sudden illness prevented him from carrying it out [carry out a charge]; iii. “Relativisation”: The noun in the collocation noun-verb can be transformed into the precedent within the relative clause, which does not happen with the noun which contains a verbal locution. (Ibid.). Koiké (2001: 32) suggests the following example: This book marks the line that their supporters should follow [collocation: mark the line] *I have just had a look at that dress… [locution: have a look at something]; iv. “Transformation to passive”: The collocation can admit transformation into passive, while the locution does not usually accept it. (Ibid.). For example: The organ was transplanted [colocation: transplant an organ] *The buck was passed [locution: pass the buck (Koiké, 2001: 33); v. “Nominalisation”: Nominalisation is a very common operation among collocations, but not locution (Ibid., 33). See the example which Koiké suggests (2001):

a)

i.

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Rebecca Soler Costa and Turgay Han Transplant an organ > organ transplantation [collocation] Pass the buck > *buck passed [locution]; vi. “Component removal”: Given its syntactic flexibility, a component of the collocation can be extracted to operate autonomously, while the locution does not usually present such possibility (Ibid.): I had been waiting for an hour. I had tried to go on with a conversation that the Cuban was avoiding due to shyness. However, I wanted to contain him, as if his presence lit up the tavern, a brightness which nobody witnessed. (Torrente Ballester, 1982: I-260) [collocation: light up] If that child does not stop making noise, I am going to get on his nerves/ am going to send him away with a flea in his ears, the big ears he has got [locution: flea in his ears] (Koiké, 2001: 33); vii. “Others”: Besides transformations and previously mentioned operations, collocational morphological or morphosyntactic operations or allow the following transformations: Establish a friendship > several friendships, established friendship [collocation] carry the can > carry the *cans, *carried can [locution]. (Koiké, 2001: 33) b) “Co-occurrence and structural fixation”: Koiké (2001: 34) shows that: […] a locution put one’s foot in it loses its idiomaticity if other combinations happen (*put one’s leg, *put one’s leg in it), while the collocation quench somebody’s thirst keeps its synonymic content even when it is substituted by the verb quench by others such slake, satisfy o satiate. c) “Semantic differences”: in the collocation, there is a two lexeme link and in the locution, there may appear more than two lexemes (Koiké, 2001: 38). The locution has got an only idiomatic meaning, while the collocation may have semantic compositionality. They are typical relations between the verb and the noun which this collocation establishes. Locutions do not always establish typical relations. (Ibid.)

This evidence allows Koiké (2001: 46) establish a typology of collocations in the Spanish language:

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a)

Noun + verb Nounsubject + verb: mull over [the cow]. Verb + nounDO: commit murder, acquire the habit, get married, put down weapons or attitude. iii. Verb + preposition + noun: be joking, put (something) into practice. b) Noun + adjective: torrential rain, blind love, deadly hatred, just-baked bread, infernal noise, impeccable behavior. c) Noun + of + noun: shoal of fish, slice of bread, ounce of chocolate. d) Verb + adverb: eat sumptuously, rain heavily, seal hermetically, wish fervently, congratulate effusively, weep bitterly, turn down categorically. e) Adverb + adjective/participle: diametrically opposed, amply known, utterly crazy, hopelessly in love, visibly affected, highly reliable, closely related. f) Verb + adjective: be unarmed, get hurt, result/be harmless. (Koiké, 2001: 46) i. ii.

From the theoretical framework and tests exposed to different authors, Bosque’s (2001), Koike’s (2001) and Blasco’s (2002) have been selected to analyse what type of formation (locution, collocation, syntagmatic compound or type of PPEE) are the corpus expressions of the corpus lexicon of the “language sectoral” of Pedagogy123. In this type of “special language,” the characteristic expressions and almost exclusive are of nominal nature. The most frequent and abundant ones are constituted by a nominal core and a complement, well adjectival or prepositional, although this does not exclude more complex formations that are the result of a combination of the two previous ones. In all those cases, the nominal expression works as a word unit in which the

123

Koiké’s tests cannot be used (2001: 31-36) to find out whether they are collocations or phrases because the types of formations that form the reasons for the analysis of this specialised language corpus to be nominal and non-verbal. Consequently, they do not accept syntactical transformations of the type “pro-nominalisation,” “relativisation,” “transformation in passive,” “nominalization,” nor even “extraction of a component,” exposed by Koiké (2001). Instead, the criterion of “adjectival modification” is applicable, although this is not a reason enough to consider them collocations. Regarding phrases of the “sector language” of Pedagogy, if the base is replaced by a synonym, the meaning of the expression is not the same.

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complement restricts the nucleus intention traits and allows delimit a new concept. This consideration anticipates that there will be no formations with evaluative adjectives. As an example, some expressions are going to be analyzed that represent types of formations with multiple occurrences in the corpus. An expression, such as active learning, shows a nominal formation with an adjective124. For the adjective typology, Demonte’s ideas are followed125 (1999). The adjectives which form the “sector language” of For Almela (2000) adjectives do not work as “[…] qualifying or relational, but they “are” qualifying or relational; and, to the opposite, it is not that the adjectives “are” defining or non-defining, but they “work” as such. (Almela 2000: 296). So, Almela (2000) understands that relational adjectives do not become adjectives, but they operate as explanatory. It is a phenomenon of “reorganization.” For Demonte (1999) adjective which refers to a group of properties and they somehow relate are “relational adjectives.” Fundamentally, the great majority of authors distinguish two types of adjectives: the ones which designate qualities in a strict sense and which indicate properties that an object possesses by its degree of relationship with something external to it. Therefore, Bosque (1993) characterizes relational adjectives such as “[…] are not qualitative, that is, they do not denote noun qualities or properties but they establish links between entities and other domains or external fields to them” (Ibid., 10). Demonte (1999: 136) estimates that relational adjectives are almost nominal adjectives with adjective form; therefore, they are pseudo adjectives. But “Although we adopt the denomination of ' restrictive ' and ' not restrictive ' to designate in a general way to opposite and set above adjectives respectively, we are aware of the fact that a fair characterisation of the values of the adjective position requires much more elements that a semantic one, so to say, of the classification or restriction against the enhancement or not restriction.” A new description novel of this distinction has to take into consideration two aspects: the semantic of the adjective-noun relationship, that is, in which way an adjective can relate to the adjective which modifies, and the nature of the nominal phrase in which the relationship of modification is located, more specifically, if the noun phrase where the adjective takes place is definite or non-definite (Ibid., 191). 125 Demonte (1999) establishes an adjective classification. In the first place, he considers relational adjectives, which establish a link between the noun and a particular field and “[…] they refer to a set of properties (to an external entity) with which the modified name establishes a semantic determined relationship, pending to be specified”: (5) a. Political /religious/institutional crisis; b. Educational/constitutional/political remodeling” (Demonte, 1999: 150). They can be classified as qualitative if they are appended to the noun or if they become to designate several properties instead of only one: “Re-classification allows relational adjectives add characteristics from qualitative adjectives: (6) a. political speech/the (very) political ambassador’s speech; b. military discipline/the (very) resident military discipline” (Ibid.). In the second place, adverbial adjectives, which do not attribute properties to nouns but they indicate “[…] the way by which the concept or intension of a term is applied to a given reference” (Ibid., 201). Demonte (1999: 206-210) suggests four types of adverbial adjectives: 1) modal adjectives (“the likely female president,” “the certain victory 2) adjectives markers of the intension or reference (“his truly friend,” “his 124

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Pedagogy are relational because they refer to a group of properties and its expressions establish a bond with it. Applying different tests show the following behavior: a.*active learnings b. *actives learning c. *[learning] [active in class] d. *Excessive active learning e. *Earnest/sharing learning f. *Active acquisition g. Active learning and ___ passive

In the previous examples, it is observed that that noun and adjective formation does not allow or internal exclusive inflection nor the marginal inflection of the formation. It is only possible the inflection of both constituents through syntactic concordance (active learning). It is not, therefore, a compound. C test– addition of a complement to the adjective-shows that, with the specific meaning of the active learning formation, this has limited its possibilities of combinatorial expansion. The adjective active allows the prepositional complement in formations such as He is very active in class. The same formation active learning can be complemented by that prepositional phrase, but with the following analysis: [active learning] in class. The expression analyzed shows that it either allows the adjective modification, as it appears in d test. The formation loses its meaning when its old adjective is replaced by other synonymous or approximate terms, as it appears in e and f. It lacks, in this sense, Koiké’s possibility of semantic neutralization in (2002). On the other hand, the adjective can coordinate, in this case, to give rise to an expression of the active and passive learning, reflected in g. only friend”); 3) circumstantial, time, place and manner adjectives (“the next female president,” “the near river,” “the gentle touch”); 4) aspect adjectives (“his frequent/constant/repeated visits”). Nevertheless, these adverbial adjectives “[…] would be represented by the corresponding adverb finished in- ly if the expression where they appear was the sentence and not nominal" (Ibid., 210).

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As we can see, it is a formation with a certain degree of lexicalization that restricts the combinatorial possibilities within the expression. It is, likewise, a formation which, from the perspective of the general language speaker is not idiomatic, but for a specialist speaker, it has features added to the ones from the individual constituents. In this sense, the noun learning motivates the presence of new traits from the own active within this. It is true that, according to Koiké (2001), semantic neutralization is a requirement to assign that type of colocation. Infringe, transgress, break the rules are because the verbal meaning does not require a particular lexical unit as it allows several synonyms. Regarding active learning, substituting learning by acquisition does not mean it is a synonymic expression. However, Koiké’s concern (2001) is that there could be formations where finding a synonym is not possible to become a nuclear constituent. However, the fundamental difficulty to consider it a collocation relies on the impossibility of modifying the adjective. Facing active learning, a typical collocation such as terrible fire admits, for example, tremendously terrible fire. In this sense, therefore, these formations seem to have the level of phrases with a certain degree of lexicalization. When not allowing adjectival modification (too much active learning) or finding synonyms, this test is quite difficult to be applied. Regarding Blasco’s point of view (2002: 36) it would be a noun + adjective formation, fixed within this specialized language, which has been lexicalized. Therefore, it meets the sociological parameters similar to the sociolects or technolects; it is only used in specific communicative situations (pragmatic parameter); it has widespread because, not only represents a technical conceptual concept, but, in addition, it adapts to the way of understanding learning (cognitive parameter), and finally because it meets a nominative need, only attainable through the enunciation of this expression. This set expression, conventionalized and lexicalized, facilitates communication among its speaker's community. It is strengthened in the lexicon of this specialized language and becomes conventional, spreading among its speakers.

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The formation educational inequality126 is analogous regarding the previous one, although it appears as a compositional meaning. The application of the tests above offers a similar result: a. *educational inequalities b. *educationals inequality c. *[educational] [inequality of students] d. *Poorly educational inequality e. *Discrimination/ Educational inequality f. school inequality g. Educational and administrative ______ inequality

He admits, notably, the existence of semantic neutralization since, within an informal speech among specialists, expressions the likes of Educational discrimination or Educational inequality could be accepted as the synonymic concept in relation to the expression educational inequality. Inequality or educational discrimination refers to the unfavorable economic, social and family conditions etc. of a student in a compulsory school period: The situation of disadvantaged entry to which an individual is subjected, and more widely a community, due to social, economic or environmental reasons, etc. (environmental risks) with respect to the educational opportunities of the whole population. Educational inequalities try to be early confronted by actions that favor the application of the 'opportunities equality principle', and secondarily by the actions of 'compensatory educational programs'. Educational inequalities are currently considered as the first causal variable of social inequalities, though it is obvious that both have circular effects of inequality. (Sánchez, 1989) 126

With fixed meaning: “situation of disadvantaged input to which an individual is submitted and more widely a community, for social, economic, environmental reasons, etc. (environmental risk) with respect to the population-educational opportunities. Educational inequalities try to be countered early by actions that promote the implementation of the 'principle of equal opportunities', and secondarily by the actions of 'compensatory educational programs'. “The educational inequalities are currently considered as the first causal variable of social inequalities, although as it is evident both have inequality circular effects” (Sánchez, 1989).

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On the other hand, it is compositional and this means it can be a collocation. The compositionality of the expression comes from the fact that the basic meaning of the formation corresponds to “inequality in relation to the Education.” This is the value that is shared by all speakers. It is true, however, that in the frame of Pedagogy, the specialist would require more, in the sense of inequality regarding the conditions of access and development of the educational process. With the actual legislative development, the Organic Act of Education 2/2006, of 3rd May, this concept receives more attention modifying the class organization and the resources and supports assigned to the population, both with learning difficulties and (huge amount of immigrant students who shapes the classrooms of Primary and compulsory Secondary Education). Consequently, for the specialist, the compositionality of the expression would be broadened with own features from the field of Pedagogy. Note that the collocative does not accept the adjectival modification (Koiké, 2001) (d). It is true that there is a high rate (in pedagogic discourses) of co-occurrence of these lexical units, which supports the argument that there is a link between them (Koiké, 2001). On accepting the adjectival modification, the base is which places semantic restrictions on the meaning of the adjective. This nominal formation is created in the lexical paradigm of Pedagogy with the implementation of the Organic Act of Education 2/2006, of 3rd May, that gives special importance to students with specific needs of educational support and to those who have special educational needs by joining late to the educational system and find themselves in disadvantaged situations (cultural, social, economic, family, etc.). The lexicalisation means a restriction of the combinatorial possibilities of the phrase and, eventually, an absence of semantic compositionality. There are different degrees of lexicalization. This expression has got a certain degree of lexicalization because its combinatorial possibilities are limited. In addition, it represents a new concept that can only be formulated with this expression (cognitive parameter), it is used in

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specialized communicative contexts (pragmatic parameter), and it responds to a nominative need (linguistic parameter) (Blasco, 2002). It is uncommon that the combinatorial possibilities are altered and which are used in the general language. In this sense, the syntactic expressions of this specialized language correspond to well-constructed expressions and also general in the standard language. There is, however, a case which deserves to be highlighted. It is the expression of curricular adaptation. The word adaptation, as defined in the dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Spanish language (2001), is a process in which an entity is adapted to another: An individual adapts to his hostile environment; The pet adapts to its new home, and even This replacement is well adapted to this pen. What adaptation shows when it is used within “sector language” of Pedagogy– and a good example is the expression curricular adaptation - is that adaptation selects as relational adjective an element derived from the subject of adapting: The curriculum adapts to the child, facing the usual which is that in general language what is designated by the subject fits someone or something designated by the object. That is, adaptation is combined, both with a relational adjective, as with the subject, but not with the object, which would be usual. For example, environmental adaptation is an adaptation to the environment (to the object); school adaptation implies an adaptation to school (to the object too). Instead, the child’s curricular adaptation means the curricular adaptation to the child (combined with the subject and not the object). Apart from this consideration, it is necessary to carry out tests which support the hypothesis that it is a lexicalized and consolidated expression in this type of “special language”: a. * curricular adaptations b. *curriculars adaptations c. *[curricular] [adaptions of students] d. * curricular modification e. *educational adaptation f. Curricular and environmental _______ adaptation

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It has not got semantic neutralization (Koiké, 2001) (d). Curricular acts as a fixed adjective for this expression which imposes a restriction to the base. Its meaning is compositional because of curricular adaptation, necessarily, implies the curricular adaptation under the normative regulations, adjusted to the child’s educational needs: A form of attention to the diversity, based in curricular concretions that allow individualisation of teaching-learning processes in order to pay attention to students, that is usually preceded of an evaluation of child’s educational needs and of a specific proposed curriculum. (AA.VV., 2003)

Moreover, this expression is part of a specialised language (technolect) (sociological parameter); it is used in specialised communicative situations (pragmatic parameter); it has adapted to the way of conceptualising the referential reality of this special language (cognitive parameter) and, finally, its formation and consolidation in this type of language responds to a denominative need (linguistic parameter) (Blasco, 2002). Its use in this specialized language speakers' community has become conventionalised. The validated peculiarity in the example above (curricular adaptation) is not generalized in all the appearances of the adjective curricular. In this sense, a curricular design is just partially an analogous example to curricular adaptation. Its behavior, when applying tests are carried out in these cases, similarly as in the previous case: a. *curricular designs b. * curricular design c. *[curricular] [programming design] d. * curricular creation e. *prescribed design f. *Curricular and artistic _____ design

If it is observed c, this expression cannot be complemented individually. It does not admit semantic neutralization, as in d shows that the semantic content is not the same (Koiké, 2001). Therefore, it is not a

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collocation, although its meaning is compositional (Koiké, 2001). It is neither a speech. It cannot be re-analysed as a compound because it does not admit marginal inflection (b) and it is only accepting the inflection with the mark in the two constituents (curricular designs). On the other hand, this expression as opposed to curricular adaptation presents the story combination that is common in the general language. Curricular is a relational adjective which corresponds to the verbal object design: design the curriculum = curricular design. The meaning of curricular design is compositional, even though as in educational inequality involves specialization as it implies the creation of one proposal adjusted to the official curricular prescriptions: The educational proposal made to the highest level of responsibility within the educational system. It is called “national curriculum” in some countries. It sets the guidelines for the educational policy of a country at a given time. It is the basic matrix of the educational project which establishes the objectives and guidelines of national validity, in an open and flexible way, so that it will become realized at different specificity levels and to each specific context. As César Coll explains, “the cultural forms or content” are defined (knowledge, values, skills, etc.), whose assimilation is crucial in order for the pupils to become an active member of society and an agent of cultural creation. (Multidisciplinary team of professionals within the sector of Education, 2009)

It is an expression with limited combinatorial possibilities (widely curricular design cannot be said), what gives it a certain degree of lexicalization. However, it is clear that it is a relational adjective, modification possibilities are already limited and that conditions the test. In addition, it enables the communication among specialists (pragmatic parameter), it transmits a basic concept in any educational institution (cognitive parameter) and it is used in a specific professional sector (sociological parameter) (Blasco, 2002). The following linguistic units of the “sector language” of Pedagogy are also expressions with nominal construction of the type noun + adjective, conventionalised and with different grade of lexicalization: open

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classroom, behavioural change, educational centralization, training cycle, educational climate, adaptive behaviour, didactic Department, pedagogical diagnostic, curriculum diversification, compensatory education, curricular axis, accelerated learning, programmed learning, educational strategies, continuous assessment, occupational training, school inclusion, educational innovation, early intervention, training module, educational objective, educational level, school organisation, vocational guidance, educational package, electronic blackboard, school pluralism, didactic programming, curriculum project, teaching unit, etc. Within this “sector language,” there are other expressions which are nominal formations of another type: noun + of+ noun. If the previous tests are applied, we realize they are expressions lexicalised in a different degree. For example, expressions such as learning package127 y escape behavior128 have the same behavior. Although two expressions adapt the plural nuclear inflection (a), only escape behavior allows marginal inflection (b). None of them has got semantic neutralization (e). When the noun package is replaced by a synonymous term box, the semantic content is not the same. In a metaphorical sense, it could be considered that it admits the certain degree of compositionality. In the general language, the word package has got the meaning of “(From Fr. Paquet).1. m. Mess or wrapper well prepared and not very bulky of things of a similar or different type” (DRAE, 2001). Within the expression learning package, the noun package refers to a small bundle which collects didactic material. The package does not mean the same when a speaker says I'm going to the post office to pick up the package I received. The meaning it acquires in the expression is figurative because anyone is given a learning package; the teacher prepares learning packages or publishers, and they are educational materials that the center has got for didactic use for its faculty: 127

Note the applied tests to the expression learning package: a. learning packages; b. *learnings packages; c. *[Primary learning] [package] d. *Much learning package; e. *Learning box; f. *Content package; g. Efficient learning ________ package. 128 In the same sense, tests are applied to the expression escape behavior: a. escape behaviors; b. escapes behavior; c. *[Juan’s] [escape behavior:]; d. * Several escape behavior:; e. * Escape behavior; f. *Exit behavior; g. Escape and aggressive ______ behavior.

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Generic name that receives an integrated group of teaching material designed to facilitate the learning of certain content. This type of material finds its meaning in the context of open learning, where it is the student who orients its learning process. Thus, the construction of the teaching material has to be modular, so that the student can select thematic units that will be developed in the corresponding learning package for its assimilation. (Sánchez, 1991)

In this expression appears the noun package, with its metaphorical meaning, as it is used, for example, in Computer Science: routines package. With this value, the expression seems to be semantically compositional, likewise the expression escape behavior. If the noun behavior is substituted by synonymic term manners, the semantic meaning which is transmitted is not the same because behavior implies the “(From Lat. conduct, conducted, guided) 1. f. “Way with which men will behave in their life and actions” (DRAE, 2001). In a way, the meaning of the expression refers to a person’s way of reacting to a conflict. It is not fully compositional; it semantically incorporates the object of escape, that is the conflict. Thus, escape behavior has got the behavior of “escape from a conflict”: Within the paradigm of the operant conditioning, it refers escape behavior when an aversive or unpleasant situation it is presented, the Agency performs a behavior and, with it, the aversive situation disappears. (Sánchez, 1989)

The two expressions have become conventionalized within the pedagogic discourse, since the specialty context, the pedagogic field and the communicative situation features are the ones which give them specific attached characteristics that allow representing those ideas within the specialized language. It does not happen the same way in the general language, where a package is useful both for objects, and mechanic, etc. Or with the noun behavior which can be used to define somebody's behavior as well (aggressive conduct, disorderly conduct) and for environmental behavior.

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They can be collocations because they do not support the adjectival modification (d). There is a link between the lexemes of both expressions, more semantic than syntactic. In fact, they are used within a concrete scientific discipline (linguistic parameter), with the purpose of making the enunciation of referential realities and conceptual specific and technically possible (pragmatic and cognitive parameter) in a particular group of professionals (sociological parameter) (Blasco, 2002). These expressions have got the certain degree of lexicalization within this “sector language” as they do not because they do not have total freedom to be combined with other elements and they have restrictions; in fact, much learning package nor quick escape behavior cannot be enunciated. A slightly different case is found in the expression support classroom. It is a construction of noun + the + noun, does not have the same behavior than the previous ones: a. support classroom b. supports classroom c. *[curricular] [diversification supports classroom] d. *Much support classroom e. *Support class f. *Auxiliary classroom g. Computers and auxiliary ______ classroom

If these tests are observed, (a) it indicates that the expression supports the internal inflection of the noun and (b) the marginal inflection too. However, (c), as it used to happen in previous situations, it shows that combinatorial possibilities of this formation are restricted. It loses its specific sense when it is combined with other elements (e and g). Its meaning is then compositional: […] any school organizational strategy that makes possible the attention to the students with special educational needs with deficiencies or specific learning difficulties within the framework of the ordinary educational system. Support classroom aims to promote and achieve the

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full integration of impaired people through the provision of necessary support services. The possibilities and modalities for specific attention which may occur are very different, but all of them are put together through the classroom support: complementary support programmes carried out in the ordinary classroom; specific sessions of rehabilitation or recovery taken place within classroom support; individualised programs part- time support classroom and the regular classroom […]. (Sánchez, 1991)

In this sense, it differs from the previous two cases. Here, the meaning is fully compositional. It neither admits the adjectival modification (d) nor it has got semantic neutralization (e). It cannot be expanded and combined with other elements, since it has got restrictions in its combinatorial possibilities. It is, therefore, an expression with some degree of lexicalization in this “sector language.” The following possibilities are similar to the lexicalized expressions of the type of nominal formation noun + of + noun: maintenance learning, tests flood, centre of interest, learning difficulties, group dynamic, instructional design, economy, learning environment, learning strategy, diagnostic test, training route, learning hierarchies, framework of qualifications, school organisation models, level of concreteness, period of concrete operations, period of formal operations, program of expansion, activity principle, skills test, learning net, problem-solving, assembly technique, observation technique, learning unit, etc. The expressions lifelong learning, problem- focused learning, discovery learning, learning by trial and error, impregnating learning, osmosis learning, quality of education, etc. work exactly the same as the examples before although the preposition or prepositional phrase is different. Another type of expressions that this “sector language” of Pedagogy has got is the nominal formations of the type noun + adjective + adjective. They are expressions with a certain degree of fixation and lexicalization in this specialized language, in the same sense as the examples previously exposed. The expression social school assistant responds to a parallel way regarding the expressions noun + adjective mentioned before, concerning

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the adjectival modification tests or coordination or substitution by synonyms. Note their behavior: a. *[students`social school] [assisstant] b. *Social school worker c. *Social educational assistant d. Geriatric and social school _______ assistant e. *School social assistant

Following Koiké's ideas (2001), it cannot be characterized as collocation, as, it does not admit adjectival modification (c), nor it has got semantic neutralization (b). The expression indicates the person in charge of entertaining pupils with pleasure activities (football, dance, workshops, etc.), even, in some centers, he participates in review sessions which help students to do their homework in an hour-sessions when the finish lessons. It is not part of the staff meeting or the Childhood and Primary Education School (CEIP, acronym in the Spanish language), nor of a Compulsory Secondary Education school (IES, acronym in the Spanish language). However, the social school worker forms part of the staff meeting in a CEIP or in an IES and his functions are helping families at home in order to talk to them about their problems with pupils, develop behavior modification techniques with him, giving advice about how to behave and act, etc. Consequently, it should be inferred that it is not a compositional formation semantically. Note the meaning provided by the English Encyclopedic of Education (CEAC, 2002): Who is in charge of the social and family problems involved in the students’ educational process of a particular school. The school social worker tries to alleviate the social and family problems that preclude the students’ integration in the school filed. It can also develop tasks regarding specific problems such as truancy or vocational training. The most common techniques of the school social worker are the interviews with parents, tests, and questionnaires.

In addition, the dictionary of Pedagogy (1988) defines it as:

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[…] is the professional that is in close contact with the school, he is in charge of the problematic of the social family interaction that intervenes in the process of development and maturity of the educating. His functions are… The basic activities are […] Very particular interventions are […] The most common techniques used are the personal interview of students with their families, having to move occasionally to their own houses; surveys and questionnaires, whose data should be summarized in a social family file.

It is an expression of the “sector language” of Pedagogy that belongs to the type of noun + adjective + adjective and has a degree of lexicalization129 as far as it deals with restrictions in its combinatory possibilities. It transmits a set meaning, specific to the scientific discipline of Pedagogy. It allows referring to an educative agent who is neither a teacher nor an administrative person (sociological parameter), with specific functions (cognitive parameter), that does only exist in educative institutions (linguistic parameter) (Blasco, 2002). This noun construction belongs to the type: noun + adjective + adjective130. 129 130

What is not always evident in these works. Sometimes, the structural complexity of the nominal formations goes more beyond from the ones seen until this time, although the expressions combined with the previous formations are not too frequent. Therefore, following the model noun + adjective + prepositional phrase, some expressions appear such as minimum teaching from vocational training, minimum teachings in CSE, basic learning needs, educational integrated planning, classroom-level curriculum programming, etc. which are consolidated within the specialised language. Of the same nature as social school worker is minimum teaching from vocational training, special educational needs, etc. If this is done with the application of the tests mentioned, the following behavior in the expression minimum teachings from vocational training is noticed: a. * minimum teachings from vocational training b. * minimums teachings from vocational training c. *[ minimum teachings from vocational training] [in Aragon] d. minimums teachings from vocational training e. *Minimum contents in vocational training f. *Minimun teachings in educational stage g. * minimums teachings from vocational and termodynamic______ training First, it has not got plural nuclear inflection (a) it is not marginal (b) and the adjectival phrase minimums teachings from vocational formed, at the same time, by the prepositional phrase of vocational training cannot be complemented individually (c) Minimum teachings are the ones prescribed by the official curriculum for a particular educational stage, made by the Educational Administration and mandatory for all the institutions of an Autonomous Community (first level of curriculum implementation). However minimum teachings are created by the teacher himself from the official curriculum and his own classroom

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The expressions used in the “sector language” of Pedagogy are phrases with restricted combinatorial possibilities and, in each case, compositional or not, in a semantic way. They are not locutions because they have not got a single meaning for all the speakers. That, in any case in this specialized language, there may be some degree of lexicalization is possible (active learning, the expression which might be called half- idiomatic). As it can be noted, many of the complex expressions which appear in the "sector language" of Pedagogy form phrases with restricted combinatorial possibilities and with a meaning which cannot be compositional fortuitously. Within this “sector language,” these expressions tend to become fixed and consolidated. And this is basically because they respond to a nominative need that acquires meaning in a specific sector. That means the “sector language” of Pedagogy takes advantage of the constructive possibilities of the linguistic system to create expressions and insert them in a process of lexicalization. In some cases, each constituent in the expression loses some of its initial meaning in its individual form, so that its unitary sense is not segmental in the sense that each unit has. The very term acquires specific meanings that only exist in this combination

programming (third level of curriculum implementation). Therefore, despite its apparent compositionality (Koiké, 2001), it is neither a phrase nor a nominal locution. Second, it is neither a collocation nor a re-analysed formation. It has not got semantic neutralization (e) (Koiké, 2001) nor accepts adjectival modification (Koiké, 2001). The semantic content of it is generic, it can be applied to any school stage (it is not specified to which stage), while the initial expression (Minimum teachings in vocational training) alludes to a particular stage. It is neither an idiomatic expression (g) because it has not got the same meaning the expression minimum teachings in vocational training–which represents the teaching which must be developed in all the centres of the Autonomous Community for prescription of the Educational Administration through the official curriculum of the corresponding order – that the expression thermodynamic minimum teachings–where it refers to the content of the teaching-learning processes that will be developed in a subject; as thermodynamics is part of the curriculum of the degree in Industrial Engineering. It is, therefore, a set expression in this “sector language.” It has become lexicalized because it is used in a unique professional field (Education) (sociological parameters), its enunciation takes place in the educational context (pragmatic parameter), it represents a conceptualization of the organisation of the educational system, as well as of the prescriptive curriculum by the Administration (cognitive parameter) and its creation and use response to nominative needs (linguistic parameter) (Blasco, 2002).

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and that it will be different from which may acquire in other combinations with other units. The lexicalisation leads to the loss of the individual meaning in the units of an expression and compositional characteristics and combination of phrases (Blasco, 2002). The components of a combination will be more fused when fewer synonyms are allowed. And that is a condition so that they develop an idiomatic meaning. Thus, syntactic formations restrict contexts increasingly in which they may appear, win autonomy and become lexicalised. As this language is located in a “threshold level” of access in relation to the general language, it makes use of words (not always technical terms) and it is forced to create, set and consolidate expressions that allow communication between their speakers. The type of analyzed expressions meets the absence of technical terms that represent the concepts, notions, theories, paradigms, etc. in this “sector language,” it is not necessary to make use of another type of units. In this sense, the linguistic function of these elements is to fill lexical gaps existing both in the general language and in the “sector language” (above all) and promote the designation of specific referential realities and communication between speakers of a specific epistemological community, in this case, the educational one. The degree of frequency of use in the pedagogical discourse, as well as certain preferences in these combinatorial formations supports the argument that they tend to become lexicalised and that its syntactic combination is restricted. There is not, therefore, a technical term that denotes the expression curricular adaptation, for example. “Sector language” that departs from Pedagogy, from the terminology of “scientific and technical languages.” On the other hand, the possibility of having the expression curricular adaptation brings it closer to the general language and its speakers.

CONCLUSIONS In the field of Pedagogy, there are different publications about the processes of interaction didactic in the classroom, as well as the processes of verbal and non-verbal communication. However, there are not scientific works that reflect an analysis showing the terms and expressions this language of specialty has in the conformation of its lexicon. This linguistic aspect in the discipline of the Educational Sciences (Language Discourse in Pedagogy) is extremely necessary and is experiencing changes constantly. When teachers interact in the classroom and out of it they make use of a language, terms and expressions that contain specific semantic meanings that strictly belong to this epistemological community and, in fact, those terms and expressions offer to the pedagogical speech its scientific status. Especially, if we consider that the pedagogical speech is constantly altered by the implementation of educative Acts, teachers, researchers and other educative agents need to know the new terms. These reasons have inspired the creation of this book, essential for the professionals who work in the field of Education, in all its stages (formal and non-formal education). It is true that teachers make use of a language that at first, seems understandable by anyone. However, if we analyze the voices and expressions used, we detect that the terms that make up their vocabulary are formed both by words that belong to the general language but by

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specific terms as well, that strictly belong to the discipline of the Educational Sciences and Pedagogy. In order to analyze and show what kind of language teaching professionals use, how they communicate with students, what terms are used to explain to parents the academic development of their child, what kind of lexis is the norm in specific meetings, speeches, etc. the reader will find in this book a characterization of the language of Pedagogy through the analysis of its neologisms. This book, then, is aimed at teachers, researchers, teaching professionals, as well as to anyone interested in the field of Education. Reading it they will find useful insights into the scientific field of the Educational Sciences and Pedagogy, learning how a science or a discipline builds its language. In short, it is one step to contribute to learning more about the epistemology of this discipline. The progress of this 21st society, the emergence of the so-called knowledge society, the existence of epistemological communities in the different scientific disciplines, among other factors, highly contribute to disseminate specific knowledge, terminology, expressions, etc. The dissemination of new words to represent facts is connected with the new socio-educative needs. The epistemological community of Pedagogy needs to refer to new language resources, new concepts, and thus, this community creates new terms and expressions that facilitate communication (neologisms, anglicisms, syntactic expressions). The epistemological communities are not watertight compartments, they interact with other disciplines; they are interdisciplinary and this provokes new specialized and complex linguistic codes with an idiosyncratic vocabulary. The concept of the knowledge society is closely related to the type of vocabulary that has a particular epistemological community since it is the most differentiating feature and specialty languages are thus characterized. Many of the terms Pedagogists use have undergone processes of semantic neology. Since the general language cannot create new lexical units that meet the new socio-educative needs, they adopt already existing meanings in the system linguistic and confer them a new meaning.

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The reader, therefore, will find in this book an analysis of the terms that have acquired a specific meaning in the language of Pedagogy and allow communication in this epistemological community (fathers, teachers, counselors, researchers, pedagogies, psychologists…). The book is divided into two major parts. The first one provides an extensive and current theoretical framework on neologisms of the loan in the language of Educational Sciences, covering the interlingual loan, the voices of classical languages and the inter-linguistic loan, with numerous examples with the purpose to facilitate its understanding in the reader. The second part of this book shows a terminological analysis of technicisms, secondary terminologizations, acronyms and syntactic expressions. The reader will have a holistic and specific overview of the language of Pedagogy in order to understand its terms and express their needs. Secondary terminologizations constitute a procedure to use the terms of a discipline in a different discipline with a new specialized meaning. Acronyms are also very frequent in the language of Pedagogy and they supplement the lack of technicisms. They transmit the meaning objectively, precisely and in a depersonalized way that grants for scientific. The syntactic expressions allow contribute to allowing communication between professional and non-professional speakers and are characteristic of the language of Pedagogy. As it can be seen the epistemological community of Pedagogy has a special language, used in specific communicative contexts and with different forms of content. This does not mean it is necessary to develop a semantic analysis, but rather to be aware of how words are created and what meanings are legitimized. For all these reasons, we considered the creation of this book was necessary to contribute to a better knowledge and understanding of the discipline of Pedagogy.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Rebecca Soler Costa is a Doctor by the University of Zaragoza (Spain) and Assistant Professor in its Faculty of Education; she belongs to the area of knowledge of Didactics and School Organization. She has published several research works about the analysis of the language of Pedagogy from a pragmatic-discursive and critic perspective, the power relationships in the didactic communication and in the political discourse in educative innovations and educative acts. She has participated in international and national scientific conferences, developing teaching and research in her

224

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training perspective, participating as well in different postdoctoral research stay in foreign and Spanish universities. Her consolidated research lines are: discourse analysis in the didactic interaction, critical discourse analysis in education, the school organization for inclusive educative and the use of the Virtual Learning Environments as powerful didactic tools that convey the use of the new language of Pedagogy.

Turgay Han is an assistant professor at the Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Letters of Kafkas University (2006 2016) and Ordu University (2016 - present). He has a PhD in linguistics and his training and research orientation are related to functional/usagebased approaches to linguistic explanation. Further, his areas of research interest center on EFL measurement and assessment issues and technology use in foreign language teaching.

INDEX # 21st century, 40, 70, 216 21st-century knowledge society, 3

A adaptation, 1, 3, 13, 25, 26, 45, 84, 87, 88, 90, 92, 96, 102, 104, 110, 113, 150, 159, 160, 161, 169, 179, 200 analyzer, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 215 anglicism, viii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 87, 88, 90, 172, 177, 186, 189, 193, 200, 201, 203, 209, 211, 214 assessment system, 83

B bilingualism, 7, 9, 106, 178 Bologna degrees, 108

C calques, 12, 18

class organization, 158 classical languages, ix, 2, 19, 27, 32, 35, 173 classroom, vii, 24, 40, 69, 70, 162, 164, 165, 167, 171, 183, 184, 209, 211, 212, 217, 220 cognitive activity, 82 cognitive parameter, 137, 156, 158, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168 cognitive processing, 82, 95 cognitivism, 82 collocations, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 141, 142, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 164, 180, 185, 196 communicative needs, 13 communicative situations, 142, 143, 156, 160 compulsory secondary education, 86, 104, 105, 106, 110, 166 conceptualization, 62, 126, 168, 211 connotation, 3 constructivist approaches, 82 contemporary education, 77, 78

226

Index

context, 6, 27, 44, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 73, 75, 78, 82, 92, 95, 118, 119, 120, 133, 134, 140, 143, 161, 163, 180, 186, 193, 200, 215, 217 cooperative learning, 74, 117, 118, 119 co-text, 68 counselors, ix, 173, 196 cross-linguistic loans, 21, 88 cultural background, 69 culture, 5, 7, 9, 10, 19, 24, 28, 32, 105, 179, 180, 188, 197, 201, 203, 208, 212, 213 curriculum, 24, 35, 43, 44, 67, 78, 84, 96, 104, 105, 110, 113, 150, 159, 160, 161, 162, 167, 168, 175, 187, 199, 201, 212, 213, 215

D denominative needs, 3, 30, 89, 137 didactics, 29, 32, 66, 68, 77, 176, 178, 180, 187, 189, 190, 191, 203, 204, 205, 212 discourse, 53, 67, 100, 128, 163, 177, 184, 191, 193, 198, 202, 203, 205, 216, 217, 218

educational field, 38, 62, 109 educational innovation, 43, 103, 162 educational legislation, 81 educational praxis, 67 educational principle, 71, 72, 74, 77, 82 educational process, 40, 69, 70, 72, 75, 76, 79, 80, 91, 92, 158, 166 educational sciences, 171, 172, 173 educational stage, 101, 102, 108, 167 educational system, 20, 25, 70, 76, 80, 104, 109, 158, 161, 164, 168, 186, 203, 204 educative acts, vii, 171 epistemological community, vii, viii, ix, 23, 169, 171, 172, 173 epistemological teachers’ community, 110 ethnic identity, 8 etymological relationship, 17 European models, 108

F factors, viii, 7, 8, 9, 13, 19, 38, 53, 63, 67, 76, 86, 114, 137, 138, 140, 172 foreign term, 13, 24, 89 foreign voices, 17

E G education, vii, viii, 4, 5, 17, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 36, 41, 45, 52, 55, 57, 61, 63, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 115, 116, 149, 150, 158, 161, 162, 165, 166, 168, 171, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 194, 195, 197, 198, 199, 200, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218 educational approaches, 78 educational context, 2, 29, 38, 42, 46, 82, 168, 188

general language, viii, ix, 1, 2, 3, 21, 22, 31, 38, 44, 45, 61, 68, 71, 87, 91, 93, 94, 95, 100, 101, 111, 114, 115, 118, 119, 120, 121, 131, 135, 137, 138, 150, 156, 159, 161, 162, 163, 169, 171, 172, 217 general linguistic system, 1, 94, 95, 141 grammatical loan, 5, 6, 7 grammaticalization, 132, 215 guidance, 21, 58, 78, 104, 105, 162, 191, 212

Index I identity, 31, 33, 34, 57, 77, 138, 204, 208 interlingual loan, ix, 1, 2, 3, 17, 22, 28, 31, 32, 36, 173 internalization, 110

L language discourse, vii, 171 lexical loans, 18 lexical units, ix, 2, 3, 20, 88, 95, 98, 99, 102, 117, 118, 119, 122, 124, 125, 131, 135, 136, 137, 144, 149, 158, 172, 203 lexicalization, 31, 96, 97, 101, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 136, 137, 138, 156, 158, 161, 164, 165, 167, 168, 181, 205 lexicalization process, 97, 111, 112, 114, 138 lexicon, vii, viii, 3, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 17, 18, 21, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 55, 61, 71, 89, 94, 95, 100, 102, 111, 114, 128, 146, 153, 156, 171, 179, 180, 182, 183, 195, 199, 203, 210, 212, 213, 219 lexicon of pedagogy, 21 lexico-semantic loans, 11 lingua franca, 28 linguistic, vii, viii, ix, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 37, 45, 47, 87, 89, 90, 93, 95, 97, 101, 105, 106, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 123, 126, 128, 129, 136, 137, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 159, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 177, 179, 180, 181, 185, 187, 188, 190, 191, 196, 201, 203, 205, 210, 216, 217, 218, 220 linguistic attitudes, 8 linguistic group, 8 linguistic parameter, 137, 159, 160, 164, 167, 168

227

linguistic phenomenon, 9, 14, 136, 205 linguistic trends, 117 loan procedures, 87 locutions, 115, 121, 122, 128, 129, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 148, 150, 152, 168, 180

M macropolitical stage, 43 meaning, ix, 2, 4, 9, 11, 12, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 42, 43, 44, 46, 49, 57, 61, 64, 65, 66, 68, 71, 77, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 93, 95, 96, 100, 110, 111, 115, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 172, 173, 187, 203, 214, 215, 216, 219 metaphors, 20, 31 morphological derivation, 68, 88 morphology, 10, 18, 122, 178, 208, 213, 218 multilingualism, 7, 8 multiverbal anglicisms, 17, 18

N neologic creation, 19 neological form, 26 neological loan, 31 neological procedure, 28, 31, 205 neologisms, viii, ix, 10, 19, 20, 94, 172, 173, 194 neology, viii, 1, 31, 36, 87, 88, 172, 179, 180, 189, 195, 205, 209, 210 neology creation, 87 nominal constructions, 115, 121, 219

228

Index O

original language, 6, 22, 28, 29, 32, 88 original word, 9

psychology, 2, 23, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 55, 58, 62, 72, 75, 77, 89, 91, 93, 96, 207, 211, 219, 220

R P paideia, 32, 57 paradigms, 6, 78, 169, 186, 199, 209 pedagogical discourse, 22, 23, 36, 64, 91, 104, 111, 120, 129, 169 pedagogical ideas, 76 pedagogical language, 84, 89 pedagogical movement, 74 pedagogical technicalities, 115 pedagogy, i, iii, v, vii, viii, ix, 1, 2, 4, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 47, 61, 63, 64, 65, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 78, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 100, 101, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 118, 121, 132, 135, 136, 149, 150, 153, 155, 158, 159, 161, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 191, 192, 207, 214, 220 personal style, 13 phonic language loans, 10 phraseological unit, 122, 124, 128, 129, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 147, 203 phraseology, 118, 122, 123, 125, 127, 129, 139, 143, 144, 180, 185, 192, 219 political language, 13 portfolio, 3, 82, 83, 216 powerful language, 4, 13 pragmatic parameter, 137, 156, 159, 160, 161, 168 primary education, 47, 80, 83, 102, 103, 104, 166, 193 procedures, 1, 2, 3, 24, 68, 76, 88, 94, 95, 97, 114, 115, 116, 178, 204

relexicalization, 6 resilience, 85, 86, 204 roles, 70

S school institutions, 38, 43 scientific fields, 90 scientific-technical languages, 2, 210, 211 second language acquisition, 32 secondary terminologisation, 21, 30, 32, 90, 91, 93 sector language, 2, 17, 18, 20, 28, 31, 32, 35, 36, 61, 64, 68, 83, 85, 89, 95, 96, 100, 101, 104, 108, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 118, 119, 120, 121, 129, 135, 136, 143, 149, 150, 153, 154, 159, 161, 162, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169 semantic calque, 1, 17, 18, 21, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 87 semantic neutralisations, 135, 136 semantic selection, 2, 68 semantic specificity, 68 semantic traits, 125, 149 sensible loans, 31 socio-cultural issues, 19 socio-educative needs, viii, ix, 172 specialized communication contexts, 90 specialized languages, viii, 1, 3, 68, 88, 93, 94, 95, 101, 118, 119, 120, 132, 137, 200, 215, 217, 220 specialized lexicon, 28, 193 specialty lexicon, 21, 90, 94 spelling, 2, 4, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 34, 49, 54, 88, 97, 99, 101, 102, 113, 204

Index sub lexicon, 27 syntax, 10, 18, 21, 47, 54, 87, 116, 125, 127, 128, 129, 141, 147, 183, 184, 194

T target language, 3, 9, 10, 12, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 87, 88, 90 teaching performance, 71 teaching-learning situations, 45, 88 technical languages, 61, 94, 95, 115, 169 technical terms, 2, 88, 95, 112, 114, 169, 220 technicality, 61, 70, 71, 82, 84, 85, 90 terminological problems, 90 terminological standardization, 26 terminologisation, 2, 90 threshold level, 2, 61, 112, 169 traditional methodology, 76 training work, 90, 107, 108

229 U

unirreferencial units, 95 univerbal patent anglicism, 14 universality, 28, 31, 94, 115

V vocabulary, viii, 2, 3, 6, 8, 21, 28, 33, 90, 91, 95, 100, 110, 115, 171, 172, 191, 192, 200, 206, 219 voice, 4, 14, 15, 17, 18, 29, 30, 35, 43, 46, 52, 61, 76, 111

W word formation, 1, 2, 68, 94, 95, 96, 110, 124, 178, 183, 199, 202, 208, 210 word formation mechanisms, 94