The labor factor in copper mining

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THE LABOR FACTOR IN COPPER MINING

by Howard Lloyd B alsley

Subm itted to th e F a c u lty of th e Graduate School in P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t o f the Requirements f o r th e Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in th e Department o f Economics In d ian a U n iv e rsity June 195>0

ProQuest Number: 10295218

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uest. ProQuest 10295218 Published by ProQuest LLC (2016). Copyright o f th e Dissertation is held by th e Author. All rights reserved. This work is p r o te c te d a g a in st unauthorized co p y in g under Title 17, United States C o d e Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ,

.................................... vili

C hapter X«

INTR0BOGTIOH*.................................................

*

Procedure and Scope o f th e Study Sources o f B ata O rganization o f th e Study II,

PHYSICAL RESOURCES AND LOCATION OF THE COPPER-MIKING INDUSTRY.............................. . . ..........

The Im portance o f Copper to th e Economy The Geology o f Copper Ore D eposits The Technology o f Ore Removal The Mining o f Porphyry D eposits Tli© Mining o f F ein o r Lode D eposits The L ocation o f th e In d u stry The Copper-Mining D i s t r i c t s Butte* Montana Bingham* Utah E ly, Nevada Morenci, Arizona Globe-Miami, Arizona A jo, Arizona Yavapai County, A rizona Ray, A rizona S u p e rio r, Arizona B isbee, Arizona C e n tra l (S anta R ita ) , Hew Mexico Lake S u p e rio r, Michigan

ii

I 2 h 5 8 8 Hi 21 21 25 3k 1*2 U3 kk U6 kJ 1$ 51 52 5U 55 % 57 58

TABLE OF

comma

(Continued)

Chapter III-

Page THE ECONOMICS OF MTOCTIQN AND MARKETING...........

Consumption

6l

F oreign and Secondary Copper The Mature o f th e Demand f o r Copper Production

93

The Market S itu a tio n P o stu la te d

98

THE VOLUME OF SMPIXKMBN? AMD CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORKING FORCE........................

WAGES AMD HOURS..................................................... Wage-Paymoat P ra c tic e s

102 102 110 111; 121 127 138 D& H i

The S lid in g S cale

Ilf?

Recent Changes in E arnings O ccupational and R egional D if f e r e n tia ls Summary V I.

71 73 77 83 89 92

D is trib u tio n o f th e Income

S im F lu c tu a tio n s in S iae Occupatioguil S tru c tu re Age*, Sex*, and Race~0roup S tru c tu re Labor M obility Summary: C h a r a c te r is tic s of th e Labor Force V.

6$ 67 71

The F a c to rs and T h eir P ro p o rtio n s P roduction and P ric e s The O rg an isatio n o f P roduction Large-Scale Economies and Excess C ap acity Copper Ore Reserves The Mature o f th e Supply o f Copper

IV .

6l

LABOR MARKET INFLUENCES

..........................................

The P ro d u c tiv ity o f Labor The Working Environment iii

156 16$ 172 17? 177 195

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) C hapter V I.

Page LABOR MARKET INFLUENCES (Concluded) C o lle c tiv e B argaining i n th e In d u stry H isto ry o f U nio n izatio n C urrent P ro v isio n s o f Union C o n tracts Governmental R eg u latio n Summary

711.

202 203 217 220 221;

THE LABOR MARKET IN COPPER MINING . . . . . . . . . . C h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e Labor F a c to r The Labor Market P o stu la te d

230 230 2);3

APPENDICES A.

The C h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e M etal Copper

259

B.

G lossary

261;

C.

Reduction Methods f o r Copper Ores

273

D.

Ownership o f World Copper Resources

27S

S.

Copper Mining O ccupations, w ith D e fin itio n s , and C la s s if ic a tio n by Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s

231

3I31IQGRAPHX

289

iv

LIST OF TABLES Table 1.

Page U nited S ta te s M e ta llic Ore Production f o r 19U*, 191*5, 19l*6, i n S h o rt Tons and P ercen t o f T o ta l P roduction .....................

9

2.

U nited S ta te s Mine P roduction o f th e C hief M etals by Weight* in S h o rt Tons o f Recoverable M etal, f o r 19Wi, 191*5> 191*6. * 10

3*

A ctual Value o f U nited S ta te s S m elter Production o f C hief M etals, i n Thousands o f D o lla rs , f o r th e T ears 19hh> 19k$, 191*6........................................... . ..............................

10

U nited S ta te s Production o f Prim ary and Secondary M etals and Im ports f o r th e Tears 19l*b, 19&5, 191*6. ........................

12

5.

C hief Economic Copper M inerals . ........................

16

6.

C hief Copper Ore Producing D i s t r i c t s o f th e U nited S tates* w ith P ercentages o f T o ta l P roduction, by Average o f th e T ears 191*1*, 191*5* 191*6, C hief Ore M in erals, G enetic C la s s i­ f i c a t i o n , and Form C la s s if ic a tio n ..................................

1?

Mine P roduction o f Copper i n C hief D i s t r i c t s i n th e U nited S ta te s by Producing Regions, i n Q u a n titie s (S h o rt Tons) and P ercentages o f T o ta l P roduction, Averages f o r th e Years 19l*U, 19h$f I9ti$.........................................

37

8*

E stim ated Uses o f Copper i n th e U nited S ta te s , 1939 . . . .

6l

9,

E stim ated Use o f Copper i n th e United S t a te s , by P r in c ip a l Use, 1919-3?..................................... *

62

S m elter Output o f Copper and E le c tr o ly tic Copper P ric e s in th e U nited S ta te s , 1917-191*6, in S h o rt Tons o f Copper, and Average Y early P ric e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

11.

Leading Producers o f Copper i n th e U nited S ta te s , 1350-1937

81

12.

U nited S ta te s Mine Production o f Copper f o r th e Years 1933, 1936, 1937, 1933, i n Thousands o f Pounds. . . . . . . . . .

82

13 . E stim ated Copp er Reserve®, by S ta te , D i s t r i c t , and Mine . .

90

U.

7.

10.

lb .

W eighted Average C osts o f American Copper P roduction, 1929 and 1930, i n Cents Per Pound. . . . . . . . . . . v

9k

LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Table 15. 16. 17#

Page Average Costs of American Copper Production, 1922-1932, in Gents Per Pound . . . . . . . . . ........... . ......... Estimated Apportionment of Operating Costs for Open-Cut and Underground Mines, 1929 to 1932 # * * .....................................

95

96

Sis© Relationship of Employment in Copper lining to Iron Mining, Total Metal Mining, and to the Total Economy for .............. . . . ....... the tears 1939-1&7 . . •

10U

18*

Copper Mining Employment by Mining Method, 191? to 1936 . .

108

19.

Comparison o f th e Basic Mining Methods, 1917 to 1936- . . .

109

20*

E stim ated Average Annual Employment i n Copper M ining, M etal Mining, T o ta l Mining, M anufacturing, N o n a g rlc u ltu ra l Employ­ ment, and T o ta l Employment, w ith Copper Mining P ro p o rtio n o f Each Economic S e c to r, 1929-1936 and 1939-19W . . . . , .

HI

E stim ated Average Monthly Employment i n Copper Mining, M etal Mining, T o ta l Mining, M anufacturing, K o n a g ric u ltu ra l Employment, and T o ta l Employment, 192*6-194*8, w ith Copper ......................... Mining P ro p o rtio n o f Bach Economic S e c to r ,

113

O ccupational C la s s if ic a tio n o f Workmen i n Copper Minesby Region and D ates o f S u r v e y s ..................... . . . . . ....................

116

Percentage o f Workers i n Major C la s s if ic a tio n s o f Work i n Copper Mining f o r August 192*1 and June 192*3 . . . . . . . .

118

Men Employed i n Mining C la s s if ic a tio n Only i n Copper Mining, by Occupation and Mining Method, as o f June 191*3* *

119

Age and Sex D is trib u tio n o f Employed Workers in M etal Mini rig, Coal Mining, T o ta l Mining, M anufacturing, and th e T o ta l Economy, i n Number and. Percentage i n 192*0.....................

122

Race D is tr ib u tio n o f Employed Workers i n M etal Mining, Coal Mining, T o ta l Mining, M anufacturing, and th e T o ta l Economy, by Sax, i n Number and Percentage in 192*0 . . . . .

126

N a tio n a litie s o f Workers Employed in Underground Copper Mining in Arizona in 1929 * .........................................................

127

Monthly Labor Turnover Rates (P er 100 Employees) in M anufacturing and Copper-Gr© Mining, 191*5-192*8.........................

130

21.

22. 23. 21*. 25.

26.

2?. 28.

vi

LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Table 29*

Page Labor Turnover Hates In Mining In d u s trie s and Manufactur­ in g (P er 100 Employees) f o r th e Tears 191*3-191*3 . * , . .

13?

Average Copper P ric e s , by Months, 1907-19**9, in Cents Per P o u n d .................. * . * * .................................-* ............................

153

Averages o f Hourly E arn ings, Weekly Hours, and Weekly E arnings i n Copper Mining, w ith Consumersf P ric e Index and Average Beal E arnings i n Copper Mining, 1939-191*3 ♦ . , .

1?7

Average H ourly E arnings, Average Weekly Hours, and Average Weekly E arnings o f Workers in Copper Mines, by Occupation ................................ and by Region, August 191*1.

166

Indexes o f O utput Per Man-Hour in Copper Mining, Iro n M ining, Bituadnous-Coal Mining, T o ta l Mining, and A ll M anufacturing, 193? to 191*7............................. * ........................

179

Output Per Worker a t Copper Mines, in Tons o f Ore and Pounds o f Copper Per Ito -H o u r, 1911 to 1936 . . . . . . .

18?

Output Per Man-Hour a t Copper Mines, In S h o rt Tons o f Has? Ore S old o r T rea te d , by Mining Method, 1917 to 1936 . . *

191

Output P er Man-Hour a t Copper Mines, in S h o rt Tons o f Haw Ore S old o r T reated , by S ta te , 1917 to 1936 . . . . , . ,

193

37*

B ust Produced During Work a t Face

199

38.

M etal Mining Onion Membership, 1900-191*3. . . . . . . . .

30. 31*

32.

33•

3l*. 3?. 36.

v ii

.............................

216

LIST OF ILLUSTRATION Figure

Page

1.

W eathering Zones o f an Id e a l Copper D eposit. . . . . . . .

19

2.

Open-Cut S urface Mining........................................

23

3.

w01ory Hoi©11 S urface M in in g .........................

21*

1*.

Block Caving

21*

?.

Open Sioping ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

6.

R oom -and-Pillar S to p in g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

7*

S u b lev el Stoping «

8.

Shrinkage S to p in g .............................................................

28

9*

C u t-a n d -F ill Stoping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

10.

Square-S et Stoping

30

11.

S u blevel Caving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.

Top S lic in g . . . . . . . .

13.

U nited S ta te s Copper Production by S t a te s , Average 191*1*4 *3- 1*6....................

...................... .............................

*

.................... .................

. . . . . . .

28

32 32

of

........................

3?

li*.

U nited S ta te s Copper-Mining D i s t r i c t s .

1?.

Trends i n Mine P roduction o f Copper f o r th e U nited S ta te s , and f o r C hief Producing Regions o f th e U nited S ta te s , i n Thousands o f S h o rt Tons, by Averages o f 5-T ear P e rio d s, 181*5-191*5..................................................................................... 1*0

16.

O rganization C h a rt, Phelps Dodge C orporation . . . . . . .

79

17.

R e la tiv e Trends o f Average H ourly Earnings and Market P ric e s o f Copper by Months, 1939-191*8. . .............................

160

Output Per M an-Shift a t Copper Mines, in Pounds o f Copper and Tons o f Ore, 1860 to 1936..........................................................

161*

18.

v iii

38

CHAPTER 1 INTRODIOTIGN

The rem arkable i n d u s t r ia l is a t i o n o f th e U nited S ta te s sin c e th e C iv il War has created, a r a p id ly growing need f o r knowledge o f in d iv id u a l i n d u s t r ie s .

T his need has ch allen g ed econom ists t o d ev ise methods o f

study* to c o ll e c t data* and to i n t e r p r e t info rm atio n i n a manner u s e fu l to th e people o f an i n d u s t r ia l nation#

Governmental agencies have been

o rg an ised and o p erated f o r th e above purposes, such as th e U nited S ta te s Bureau o f Mines, serv in g th e mining industry#

Since in d u s tr ie s w ith in

an economic a re a , such as b iium inous-coal m ining, iro n m ining, o r copper m ining, w ith in th e mining In d u s try , have p e c u lia r in d iv id u a l c h a r a c te r0

i s t i c s , a s w e ll as some i n common, th e stu d y o f such i n d u s t r ie s , and indeed o f se p a ra te firm s , has assumed an im portant p o s itio n in economic research# The i n d u s t r ia l is a t i o n o f th e n a tio n has wrought changes in th e s ta tu s o f th e workman. widened.

The d ista n c e between employer and employee has

The s a la r ie d c o rp o ra te execu tiv e has to a la rg e e x te n t re p la c e d

th e ow ner-operator as th e employer.

The in d iv id u a l craftsm an who was

once an e n tre p re n e u r has la r g e ly disap p eared , rep la ce d by th e fa c to ry worker#

The la rg e - s c a le use o f machinery and advancing tec h n o lo g ies have

changed th e p o s itio n o f th e in d iv id u a l workman.

Kith th ese changes have

come in te n s if ie d union a c t i v i t y and the emergence o f th e p rin c ip le of c o lle c tiv e bargaining# 1

2 Th© stu d y o f th e la b o r f a c t o r In copper mining becomes a proper one, and an im p o rtan t one, a t t h i s time#

With th e growth o f th e e le c ­

t r i c a l in d u s try i n th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , th e copper in d u s try has expanded*

While a sm all in d u s try compared w ith some o th e r s , such a s th e

ir o n and s t e e l in d u s try o r c o a l m ining, th e n a tu re o f i t s product and th e uses t h a t have been found f o r i t have given th e In d u stry an Im portant p lac e i n th e economy,

la b o r i n copper mining was u n ionised e a r ly , t h i s

u n io n is a tio n o ccu rrin g p r a c t ic a l l y sim u ltan eo u sly w ith th e westward move­ ment o f th e f r o n t i e r i n th e l a t t e r decades o f th e p a s t c e n tu ry . W estern F e d e ra tio n o f Miners was born in t h a t tu rb u le n t tim e .

The I t was

one o f th e f i r s t o f th e m ilita n t la b o r unions founded on th e in d u stry ­ wide p r in c ip le .

The b o iste ro u sn e ss and u n re s t o f th ese e a r ly days may

be c o n tra s te d to th e q u ie tn e s s o f modern union a c t i v i t y in th e w estern m etal mines.

The p re s e n t work seeks to determ ine th e p rin c ip le s under­

ly in g th e la b o r factof* in copper m ining, as w e ll as to determine* the c h a ra c te ris tic s of th a t fa c to r. Procedure and Scope o f th e Study T his study attem p ts to rec o rd some o f th e f a c ts concerning th e la b o r f a c t o r in copper mining through th e use o f th e h i s t o r i c a l and s t a t i s t i c a l methods and to draw conclusions from th e se f a c t s , which nay y ie ld fundam ental p r in c ip le s .

These p rin c ip le s a re th en to be discu ssed

i n term s o f economic th eo ry , talcing cognisance o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n f lu ­ ences in th e i n te r p r e t a t i o n .

Thus i t i s hoped t h a t th e study may re v e a l

such th in g s as th© probable demand and supply s itu a t i o n f o r la b o r, w ith th e causes and e f f e c t s p e rta in in g th e r e to | an a p p ra is a l o f th e a c tio n s and re a c tio n s o f th e la b o r market in r e la tio n to b u sin ess c o n d itio n s;

3 what may be expected to occur in given s i t u a t i o n s ; an e stim a te o f how c lo s e ly th e d i s t r ib u t i o n o f income approxim ates th e m arginal valu e o f th e p ro d u ct; how wages a re determ ined) and a number o f o th e r fundam ental item s o f th© economics o f copper-m ining la b o r. P ric e and d i s t r ib u t i o n th e o ry a re e s s e n t i a l l y on© and th© same thing*

The product o f on© in d u s try in an overwhelming number o f cases

becomes a f a c t o r i n a n o th e r,

Almost a l l consumption item s re p re s e n t th©

end r e s u l t o f products becoming f a c to r s through a lin e o f processes* Thus in copper mining * la b o r i s a f a c to r help in g produce copper o re , which i s a f a c t o r help in g produce b l i s t e r copper, which i s i n tu r n a f a c to r in producing re fin e d copper, which i s a f a c to r in th e w ire and cab le in d u s try , which become f a c to r s i n th© e l e c t r i c a l and te le g ra p h and telephone in d u s­ t r i e s , whose pro d u cts may become f a c to r s i n many o th e r i n d u s tr ie s .

I t is

contem plated, th erefo r© , t h a t a s a t is f a c to r y stu d y o f th© la b o r f a c t o r i n copper mining may not be mad© w ith o u t a r a th e r comprehensive stu d y o f th e copper mining in d u s try .

I t i s n e cessary , however, to d e lim it any stu d y ;

th e r e must be some p o in t where in v e s tig a tio n c e a se s. i t s e l f to copper m ining.

T his stu d y lim its

I t w i l l be necessary f o r some purposes to c a rry

th e stu d y in to th e p re p a ra tio n o f th e ore and th e sm elting o f th e copper, b ut t h i s w i l l b© h e ld to a minimum.

However, some probing in to th e s i t u ­

a tio n beyond copper mining and i t s im m ediately r e la te d a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be found n eedfuls th u s , i t i s e s s e n t ia l to estim ate th© n a tu re o f th© demand f o r copper d e riv ed

from i t s us© as a f a c to r i n th©

e l e c t r i c a l in d u s try ,

th© most im portant u se r o f th e m etal, in o rd er to ev alu ate th e e f f e c t upon th e demand f o r th e la b o r f a c to r i n copper m ining. It

may be s t a te d , th e r e fo re , t h a t f i r s t , a

d e ta ile d stu d y o f

a sp e c ts o f th© la b o r f a c to r in copper mining w i l l be made.

Second, th e

fc

copper mining industry will be t r e a te d b r i e f l y but n o n e th e le ss compre­ hensively in o u tlin e .

Third* th e in flu e n c e s and e f f e c t s upon th e la b o r

f a c t o r i n copper mining o f p ro cesses involving copper t h a t occur a f t e r th e mining o f th e m etal w i l l be s tu d ie d .

The p r in c ip le s evolved a t th e s e

th r e e le v e ls a re f i n a l l y to be co n sid ered a lto g e th e r , t h e i r in te r a c tio n s ex p lo re d , causes and e f f e c t s determ ined, and th e market s i t u a t i o n f o r copper-m ining la b o r p o s tu la te d . Sources o f Bata The bulk o f th© d a ta used In th e study i s s t a t i s t i c a l . so u rces o f th e s e s t a t i s t i c s e x i s t .

S e v e ra l

In s o fa r as p o s s ib le , F edora! Govern­

ment s e r ie s have been used, c h ie f ly i n th e i n t e r e s t of u n ifo rm ity and c o m p a rab ility .

S e rie s p u b lish ed by p riv a te o rg a n is a tio n s , such as th e

American Bureau o f M etal S t a t i s t i c s and th e n a tio n a l I n d u s t r i a l Conference Board, have been used on ly when n ecessary to f i l l gaps in Governmental d a ta . The p u b lic a tio n s o f th re e Governmental bureaus have been th e p r in c ip a l sources o f s t a t i s t i c s .

These bureaus are th e United S ta te s

Bureau of Labor S t a t i s t i c s , th e United S ta te s Bureau o f Mines, and th© United S ta te s G eological Survey.

The d a ta were secured c h ie f ly from th e

p e rio d ic p u b lic a tio n s o f th ese o f f i c e s , such as M inerals Yearbooks and Handbook o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s .

However, much m a te ria l was o b tain ed from

o th e r p u b lic a tio n s of th e s e departm ents.

Such a re th e G eological Survey

p ro fe s s io n a l papers and b u lle tin s on s p e c ia l to p ic s and mining d i s t r i c t s , Bureau o f Mine© s tu d ie s o f in d iv id u a l d i s t r i c t s and m ines, and Labor Department s tu d ie s o f such to p ic s as la b o r m o b ility , c o lle c tiv e b arg ain in g i n m etal m ines, and wage and hour surveys of mining a re a s .

The study o f

5 Technology, jSmployroent, m d Output Per Han In Copper M ining, a n a tio n a l Research P ro je c t by th e F e d e ra l Works Agency, Work P ro je c ts A dm inistra­ t i o n , done in c o o p eratio n w ith th e U nited S ta te s Bureau o f Mines, which was drawn upon c o n sid era b ly in t h i s work, re p re s e n ts a stu d y by an agency o th e r th a n th e th re e mentioned above.

The Census Bureau p u b lic a tio n s

fu rn ish e d some d a ta f o r th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e la b o r fo rc e i n copper m ining.

Some unpublished d ata wore fu rn ish e d by th e Bureau o f Labor

S t a t i s t i c s , which made p o ss ib le the e rte n s io n o f c e r ta in s t a t i s t i c a l s e r ie s back f o r a number o f y e a rs . P riv a te p u b lic a tio n s were th e sources o f some d a ta .

F acts o f

la b o r h is to r y were secured from sta n d ard works on th e s u b je c t.

Some of

th e g e o lo g ic a l and g eo g rap h ical info rm atio n m s o b tain ed from g e o lo g ic a l t r e a t i s e s , and some from p u b lic a tio n s o f o rg a n isa tio n s such a s th© I n t e r n a tio n a l G eological C ongress,

S tandard economic works were c o n su lte d ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y those d ealin g w ith economic th e o ry . The la c k o f f u l l d a ta t h a t might have been u s e fu l i n drawing con­ c lu s io n s has n e c e s s ita te d q u a lif ic a tio n and m o d ifica tio n in th e se conclu­ s io n s .

While in some case s d a ta d e sire d do not e x is t and in o th e r cases

have se rio u s gaps, n e v e rth e le ss i t i s e v id en t t h a t enough m a te ria l la y a v a ila b le to be garnered and brought to g e th e r to enable a f a i r l y d e ta ile d and comprehensive p ic tu re o f th e la b o r f a c to r in copper mining to be drawn. O rg an isatio n o f th© Study T his stu d y c o n s is ts o f seven c h a p te rs and an appendix, which in c lu d e s c e r ta in In form ation t h a t , w hile not re q u irin g in c lu s io n in the text, may be found u s e fu l,

inform ative*

A statem ent concerning each c h a p te r may be

6

C hapter I I o f t h i s book i s a d e s c rip tio n o f th e p h y sic a l reso u rce s and th e lo c a tio n o f th© copper mining industry*

I t In clu d es a c o n sid era­

t i o n o f th e n a tu re o f th e m etal, the geology o f the d e p o s its , and th e in flu e n c e o f lo c a tio n a l f a c to r s * A knowledge o f th ese item® i s e s s e n t ia l to an understanding o f la b o r c h a r a c te r is tic s l a t e r d e lin e a te d and i s n ecessary a s a background f o r C hapter III*

For the convenience o f th e

re a d e r who may f in d p a rts o f t h i s c h ap ter r a th e r te c h n ic a l, a g lo ssa ry of term s has been provided in th© Appendices, C hapter I I I e x p la in s th e economics, th a t i s , th e p ro d u ctio n , con­ sum ption, and m arketing, o f copper,

I t attem p ts to e x p la in th© market

s i t u a t i o n f o r copper and why i t i s such, through th e a p p lic a tio n o f economic reaso n in g .

The demand s i t u a t i o n , i t s d e riv ed n a tu re , th e supply

s i t u a t i o n , and th e d i s t r ib u t i o n o f income in copper mining a re tr e a te d . L a s t, an attem p t i s made to d e sc rib e the market s i tu a tio n f o r copper. C hapter I? in v e s tig a te s th e c h a r a c te r is tic s of th e la b o r fo rce in copper m ining.

The sis© o f th© la b o r fore© , flu c tu a tio n s in s iz e ,

o c cu p a tio n al s tr u c tu r e , a g e -, s e x -, and raco-group s tr u c tu r e , and la b o r m o b ility a re stu d ie d ,

f i n a l l y , a summary o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e te r­

mined i s g iven. C hapter V i s a trea tm e n t o f wages and h o u rs.

These two item s a re

examined i n re s p e c t to irage-payment p r a c tic e s , to th© tre n d s in d ic a te d , to th e d i s t r ib u t i o n o f workers by e arn in g s, to In d u stry comparisons* and to o c cu p a tio n al and re g io n a l d iffe re n c e s .

A summary o f the c h a p te r i s

in clu d e d . C hapter VI i s an exam ination of la b o r market In flu e n c e s.

These

in flu e n c e s a re fo u r in number» the p ro d u c tiv ity o f la b o r, the w>ridng

? ern iro n iaen t, c o lle c tiv e bargaining* and governm ental re g u la tio n .

They

were s tu d ie d in an e f f o r t to determ ine f a c to r s t h a t a re im portant i n h e lp ­ ing t o cause th e la b o r fo rce to have th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i t has* and wages and hours to be such a s th e y a re ,

The summary and co n clu sio n s, b e sid es

l i s t i n g th e c h a r a c te r is tic s evolved, attem pt to a ssig n some kind o f r e l a ­ t iv e im portance to th© c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . C hapter VII i s th© f i n a l c h a p te r, th e s y n th e s is ,

^ h ile Chapter I

i s in tro d u c to ry and C hapters I I to ? I in c lu s iv e c o n s is t o f m a te ria l p re se n tin g th e f a c t s o f th e la b o r s i tu a tio n i n copper m ining, C hapter V il attem p ts to i n te r p r e t th e s e fa c ts*

I t aims to combine th e d isc u ssio n o f

th e n a tu re o f th e la b o r f a c to r w ith th e d isc u ssio n o f th e p r in c ip le s o f th e economica o f copper m ining, to i n te r p r e t th e s i t u a t i o n o f th© Labor f a c t o r and th e cau ses th erefo r® , and to d escrib e t e n t a t i v e l y i t s market p o s itio n .

CHAPTER IX PHYSICAL RESOURCES A I® LOCATION OF THE COPPER iaMIfSO IIIDUSTHT The Inportsuice of Copper to the Economy

Copper I® ono o f th e most im portant m etals to th© economy.

The

d i f f i c u l t y i n judging r e l a t i v e im portance may he apparent when i t ia con­ s id e re d t h a t v a rio u s m etals have d if f e r e n t reco v erab le c o n te n ts , d i f f e r e n t lo c a tio n s , d i f f e r e n t te c h n o lo g ie s, d if f e r e n t uses*

I n term s o f w eig h t,

e ig h t c h ie f m inerals accounted f o r 93% o f a l l m inerals produced in 1939s petroleum , c o a l, n a tu r a l g a s, cem ent, iro n o r e , sto n e , sand and g ra v e l, and copper*

These e ig h t a ls o accounted f o r $k% o f th e d o lla r value o f

a l l m in erals *3* The o res o f iro n and copper to g e th e r accounted by w eight f o r 72% o f a l l m etal o re s e x tra c te d in 19395 ir o n o re , f o r 33;*; and copper o re , f o r 3ii$.

Lead-sdne o res c o n s titu te d V?% o f w eight o f o re s ;

g o ld - s ilv e r , 12$j and a l l o th e rs , approxim ately 1%^ r e l a ti v e p ro d u ctio n o f th e c h ie f m e ta llic o re s .

Table 1 l i s t s th e

In th e y e a rs shown

copper f e l l behind ir o n ore p ro d u ctio n c o n sid e ra b ly ; however, i t s t i l l re p re se n te d about 3% o f th e t o t a l w eight o f m e ta llic o res e x tracted * Concerning th e r e l a t i v e p ercentages o f m etal recovered from th e o r e s , however, iro n ore y ie ld e d about %0% m etal i a 1939; copper o re , some­ th in g le s s th a n 2%$ lea d and sin e o re s , le s s th an

and gold and s i l v e r

^Industrial L ocation and National R esources, R a tio n al Resources Planning Board (Washingtont Gover S e n t^ P r in tin g O ffic e , 19U3), PP* 19-21*

9 o r e s , a v ery a v a il f r a c t io n o f

These e stim a te s have changed hut

l i t t l e i n t h e i r r e l a ti o n s to one a n o th e r, although th e p e rc e n t y ie ld o f m etal from copper and lea& nsine o re s shows a downward tre n d over tim e, r e f l e c t in g co n tin u in g te c h n o lo g ic a l advances i n re d u c tio n methods which TABLE 1 UNITED STATES WtMJAC ORE PRODUCTION FDR 19t*2*# X9U5, 191*6 IB SHORT TORS AND PERCENT OF TOTAL PRODUCTION* X9UU Ores S hort Tons P ercent Iro n 106,552,320 U3.6 91, 06lt,000 37.3 Copper® Lead-zinc® 38,693,000 15.8 G o ld -s ilv e r 2,620,000 1 .1 1,735,228 Manganese0 .7 B auxite^ 3,162,570 1 .3 T itanium 287,561 . 1* A ll others** 85,502 .035 T o ta ls 2U1*,200,181 100.0

19U5 S hort Tons P ercent 93,713,1*2*0 2*5.7 76,356,000 35.6 35,393,000 16. 2* 1,93k, 000 .9 .8 1,705,191 1,098,730 .5 .1 5 315,355 .02 ... 53,2*32 216,119,12*8 100.0

192*6 S h o rt Tons Percent 78,500,800 2*3.3 6 1, 72*1,000 32t.i* 33,276,000 13.6 2,995,000 1.7 1,312*, 318 .7 1,200,862* .7 290,222 . 2.02 36,757 179,355,2*61 100.0

% ig u re s a re approxim ate, and in some c ases re p re s e n t e s tim a te s . C o p p e r, le a d , and zinc as by-product o res o f each o th e r a re in clu d ed under 11A ll o t h e r s .n cXricludes a l l m anganiferous o re s . ^R epresents d rie d b au x ite e q u iv a le n t. Sources S t a t i s t i c a l A b stra ct o f th e U nited S t a t e s , 1?U3, Bureau o f th e Census, tJ. S . Department of~2aiaajerce (Washingtons Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 19^3), pp* 7^-7U 5* have enabled th e e x p lo ita tio n o f le a n e r o r e s .

Copper y ie ld in p e rc en t

reco v ery o f m etal from th e o re s has d eclin ed ms follow ss 1910, l«33/»$ 1920, 1.63S6* 1930, 1.U3S* 1935, 1.89& 192*0, 1.2C#; 19hk, *99%; 192*5, .93$; 192*6, .9 1 $ .^

I t i s e v id e n t, th e r e f o re , t h a t a v a s tly g r e a te r w eight

3 lb id », p . 30. S t a t i s t i c a l A b stra c t o f th e United S ta te s , 192*3, Bureau o f th e Census, U* S . Department of'"commerce T lash in g to n : Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 192*8), p . 756.

10 o f ja e ta l i s produced i n ir o n th a n i n any o th e r m etal.

In th e y e a rs 19kh9

19h$t 191*6 , a s i s re v e a le d In t a b l e 2 , ir o n was f i r s t i n w eight o f m etal produced, o f c o u rse , w ith l e a d l i n e second, and copper t h i r d , although th e w eights o f th© l a t t e r two were only s l i g h t l y d iffe re n t# TABLE 2 UNITED STATES MINE PRODUCTION OF THE CHIEF METALS ST WEIGHT, IH SHORT TOMS OF RECOVERABLE METAL, FOR 19U*, 19US, 19k& Ketals Iron® Copper t Leaa-zinc0

1944 60,996,000 972,5h9 991,311*

aPig ir o n p ro d u ctio n , ^Sinc i s sm e lte r p ro d u ctio n , ^F igures u n a v aila b le f o r s in e .

1945 $3, 265,000 772,994 357,915

1946 4 5 ,076,000 608,737 . . . .°

Lead pro d u ctio n was 33>,a?>.

Sources Compiled from S t a t i s t i c a l A b s tra c t, 1?1*3, op, c i i , , p . Ih k, Table 330; p . 7$6, T a b l e ! ® ; p . ' Yp3; f a b le 3 J 5 T p . ? 6 o 7 T a h le 8Wu The r e l a t i v e v alu es o f th© c h ie f m etals a re rev ealed in Table 3. The com parisons c it e d tak e no account o f secondary copper, t h a t i s , th e TABLE 3 ACTUAL VALUE OF UNITED STATES SALTER PRODUCTION OF CHIEF METALS, III THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS, FOR THE TSARS 19hh, 19h$, I9h& Petals Iron3 Copper*3 Leao-ziao*3 Alunlnum Gold and silver

1944 1,278,931 236,797 149,295 222,416 61,130

1945 1,172,435 134,723 125,974 140,364 53,173

1946 1,103,929 172,701 131,014 115,312 63,233

a7a lu e o f pig ir o n p ro d u ctio n . bDoes not in c lu d e premiums p aid miners under the premium p ric e p la n o f th e Government. Source* Compiled from S t a t i s t i c a l A b stra c t, 19^3, op. c i t . , p# 7hh, T able 830.

11

copper produced in r e f i n e r i e s from scrap*

T his elem ent i s an im portant

one i n th e t o t a l w eight o f copper produced each y e ar by r e f i n e r i e s , and in t o t a l v a lu e of re f in e d copper*

Since 191*0 th e r e f in e r y o u tp u t o f

secondary copper hm been each y e a r roughly -as much as th e o u tp u t o f dom estic new c o p p er.5 im ports*

Further, th e comparisons tak e no account o f copper

Since copper e n te rs in to fo re ig n tra d e e a s i l y where tra d e b a r­

r i e r s do n o t e x i s t , p a r t l y a t l e a s t because o f i t s q u a lity o f homogeneity, and p a r t l y because o f r e l a t i v e l y high bulk value which p erm its b earin g tr a n s p o r ta tio n c o s t s , considerable copper i s secured in t h i s manner, c h ie f ly re fin e d copper.

Table k shows th e r e l a t i v e importance o f sec­

ondary and im ported m etals f o r re c e n t years* The p ro d u ctio n o f p ig iro n i s by i t s n a tu re prim ary, being th© p ro d u ct o f ir o n o r e . th e m etal.

Domestic o re i s p r a c t ic a l l y th e e x clu siv e source o f

Secondary iro n i s used e x te n siv e ly in making s t e e l , b u t has

no p a r t i n p ig ir o n p ro d u ctio n .

Both copper and lea d are produced from

secondary m etal on about a p a r w ith prim ary m etal, w hile sin e has a r e l a ­ t i v e l y low r a t i o o f m etal recovered from scrap*

However, c o n sid e ra b le

im ports o f sin e occur each y e a r, t o some e x te n t as o res and to a g re a t e x te n t as r e fin e d metal*

There i s r e l a ti v e ly l i t t l e im porting o f le a d .

I t must be remembered t h a t th e y ears c ite d a re war y e a rs , in clu d in g th e immediate a fte rm a th o f th© war? i n t h i s p eriod i t i s l ik e ly t h a t th e in flu e n c e o f secondary metal was g r e a te r th an otherw ise might have been expected? and th e in flu e n c e o f im ports could be expected to be l e s s . However, th e im ports a re alm ost w holly from t h i s hem isphere, and th e re fo re th e in flu e n c e o f th e war upon im ports has been le sse n e d . S l b l d ., p . 757-

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18

su lp h id e s a re th e o re s mined alm ost e x c lu s iv e ly ; v e ry l i t t l e o x id ise d ore i s mined; th e n a tiv e copper d e p o sits a re r e s t r i c t e d , econom ically a t l e a s t , to th e Lake S u p e rio r d i s t r i c t and fu rn is h about

o f t o t a l copper;

and th e complex o r e s , re p re se n te d by by-product copper, a re o f l i t t l e im portance.

T his s i t u a t i o n ha© .not always e x is te d , o f c o u rse .

Luring

th e f o r t y y e a rs o f Lake S u p e rio r si^jremacy i n Im portance, n a tiv e copper was by f a r th e c h ie f so u rc e.

In some mines th e e a r ly source o f copper

was o x id is e d o r e s , a® occurred a t th e !f©w C o rn e lia mine a t Aj o , A rizona, where th e o x id ise d or© n e ar th e su rfa c e was th e c h ie f source f o r a tim e, u n t i l 1930, when it. was la r g e ly exhausted, and th e underlying su lp h id e s , e n ric h e d by th e o x id a tio n o f th e upper la y e r s , 'became th e im portant so u rc e . 10 The o x id is e d , e n ric h e d , and sulphide mm® of an id e a l copper d e p o s it a re i l l u s t r a t e d i n F igure 1 .

The prim ary gone re p re s e n ts the

o r i g in a l d e p o sit o f copper by hypogen®, o r r i s i n g , s o lu tio n s , which a re magmatic w a te rs , c o n tra s te d to th e m eteoric w aters a ff e c tin g th e oxida­ t i o n o f th e p a r t o f th e d e p o sit m a r th e s u rfa c e .

The en rich ed zo m i s

t h a t zo m o f supergen© sulphid e ore®, forming a f t e r o r ig in a l occurrence o f th e copper d e p o s it; enrichm ent comes about through p r e c ip ita tio n when th e d o w n -trick lin g s o lu tio n s p e n e tra te th e w ater t a b l e .

In th e o x id ised

so n s, leach in g s o lu tio n s c re a te d a t o r near th e su rfa c e by m eteoric w ater and atm ospheric elem ents may lo s e p a r t o f t h e i r m e ta llic c o n te n t and c r e a te a zone o f o x id iz ed o r e s .

The m inerals e x is tin g in th e v a rio u s

zone® o f an i d e a l d e p o sit a re in d ic a te d in th e f ig u r e . 2*Q&. D. Gardner and McHenry h o s ie r , Qpen«0ut M etal Mining. B ulle­ t i n U33» Bureau o f L in es, If. S. Department o f th e I n t e r i o r X ^aihingtons Government P rin tin g O ffic e , I2?4l)> p . 90.

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hOO t . c i t . , passim ; Gardner and H o sier, op. c l t . , passim ; E. B. G ardner, C. FI. Johnson, and B. S . B u tle r, Copper Mining i n North America, B u lle tin i|X>5, Bureau o f Mines, U. S. Department of1 Ih e I n t e r i o r (fasS in g to n s Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 1933), pp. 11U251; H erb ert G. Hoover, P rin c ip le s o f Mining (Hew Yorks McGraw-Hill Book Company, I n c ., 1912); Robert P e e le , Mining E ngineers' Handbook (New Yorks John W iley and Sons, I n c ., 19U l).

22 O p e n -cu ttin g .

T his c o n s is ts o f s tr ip p in g o f f th e overburden,

“which i s dumped as w a ste, and th e n c u ttin g in to th e d e p o sit from the su rface*

A roughly c i r c u l a r o r e l l i p t i c a l o u tlin e i s d e scrib e d by th e

benches, which s p i r a l downward, im parting a slope to th e s id e s o f th e p i t , which p re v e n ts c a v e -in s .

Ore i s b la s te d out on th e benches and hauled

away by r a i l o r tru c k o p e ra tin g along th e benches.

Figure 2 p re s e n ts a

h o r iz o n ta l, o r s e c tio n a l, view o f th e method* f f lo r y - h o lin j.

T his su rfa c e method i s one by means o f which th e

broken o re i s passed by g r a v ity down

through a s h a f t

p i t to an a d i t , serv in g as en tra n ce and e x i t , out o f by m ine-car o r tr u c k .

i n th e bottom o f th e which i t i s h au led ,

T his method has bean used where h i l l y topography

p e rm its advantageous use o f th e fo rc e o f g ra v ity to remove th e o re .

It

I s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F ig u re 3, i n a h o riz o n ta l view. Underground b lo ck -cav in g .

The porphyry deposit© w ith th ic k over-*

burden may be e x p lo ite d by t h i s method, which i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F igure iw I t i s e n ti r e l y an underground o p e ra tio n , but on© which can move la rg e tonnages o f low -grade ore econom ically.

A s h a ft i s sunk from th e su rfa ce

down in to o r beyond th e ore body, and d r i f t s are d riv e n o u t h o riz o n ta lly in to th e d e p o sit a t v a rio u s l e v e ls . mapped out w ith re s p e c t to th e le v e l

A number o f caving blocks may be from which each

i s to be e x p lo ite d

and w ith re s p e c t to th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e h o st rock and th e w a ll ro ck . A p a r t i c u l a r caving block i s u ndercut, and th e sid e s c u t through w ith raise® , which enable d r i l l i n g and b la s tin g around a l l s id e s o f th e b lock. The b lock th e n caves under i t s own w eight, th e bottom p a rts being crushed and broken by th e fo rc e o f th e f a l l .

Chutes in th e underlying rock f u r ­

n is h o u tle ts f o r th e o re from th e bottom o f th e mass, and th e ore i s

FIGURE 2 O PEN -CU T

S UR FA C E

MINING

ore

or© W all ro ck

\

✓✓ * * s✓ Wall rock

ore

Pit or©

O u tlin e after b la st Track D r ill h o les

(Bench d e t a i l )

FIGURE 3 GLORY

HOLE" SURFACE MINING

W o rk in g b e n c h e s

Broken ore VP** \®. ✓/>dW

Mames may be g iv en to com binations o r v a ria tio n ® , such as wr i l l e d sq u a res e t , ” ttin c lin e d c u t- a n d - f i l .l ,M nsem ishrinkage s to p e .” Although lea ch in g in p lace can h a rd ly be c a lle d a mining method, c o n sid e ra b le q u a n titie s o f prim ary copper a re secured from t h i s so u rc e, a s w e ll as from leach in g o ld t a i l i n g s , o r m st© d i i^ s .

The p r a c tic e con­

s i s t s o f allow ing lea ch in g s o lu tio n s to p e rc o la te through unmined or©. The o re may be o f too low a grade f o r re g u la r mining methods, o r i t -may e x i s t i n abandoned p o rtio n s o f m ines, whose ren o v a tio n would n o t be war­ ra n te d ! th e o re i s o f te n broken o r f ra c tu re d by o th e r o p e ra tio n s , and i t s rem oval made d i f f ic u lt # f i e d su rfa c e water#

The s o lu tio n may be mine drainage w a ter o r a c id i­

The s o lu tio n s , upon emergence, a re c o lle c te d and th e

copper p r e c ip ita te d on sc ra p ir o n i n tanks in to which th e flow i s guided. I n some workings th e p r e c i p it a ti o n process occurs underground.

Most mine

d rain ag e w a te r, even where n o t ro u te d s p e c i f i c a ll y through ore b o d ie s, c o n ta in s so lu b le copper s a l t s , which may be recovered# The L ocation o f th e In d u stry Copper rairdng m ust, o f c o u rse, tak e p lace a t th e d e p o sits o f copper o r e .

These deposit© a re s c a tte r e d , b u t th e la rg e ones a re con­

f in e d c h ie f ly to th e w estern s ta te s #

These s t a te s a re A rizona, Mew

Mexico, Utah, Kevada, Montana, and o f l e s s e r im portance, C a lifo r n ia , Id ah o , C olorado, and W ashington, th e Rockies i s Michigan#

The la r g e s t source o f copper e a s t o f

However, Tennessee and some e a s te r n s t a t e s pro­

duce a m inor amount o f copper* F ig u re 13 show® th e lo c a tio n s o f th e copper-producing s t a te s f o r r e c e n t y e a rs .

Three p r in c ip a l w estern d i s t r i c t s stan d outs Arizona-Mew

Mexico, Utah-Hevada, and Montana*

In th e e a s t o n ly Michigan i s prom inent.

FIGURE 13

36 The nonproducing c e n tr a l p la in s .area i s e v id e n t) and th e c h ie f roanufactar­ ing b e l t , which fu rn is h e s th e bulk o f th e demand f o r re fin e d copper, i s in d ic a te d be n o ted .

The wide s e p a ra tio n o f th e mines from, th e e v e n tu a l m arket may T his s e p a ra tio n has been one o f th e moat p re ssin g reaso n s f o r

th e lo c a tio n o f re d u c tio n and sm elting f a c i l i t i e s a t th e mine s i t e s , sin c e copper ore b earin g 1$ o r l e s s o f copper cannot b e ar shipping c o s ts , w hile " b l i s t e r *1 copper, th e product o f th e sm e lte r, i s r e l a t i v e l y o f a high b u lk v a lu e and th e re f o re ab le to b ear shipping c o s ts to th e copper markets# The copper-producing re g io n s a re c l a s s i f i e d i n Table 7, and th e c h ie f producing lo c a l mining area® l i s t e d .

The Arizona-New Mexico

d i s t r i c t produces n e a rly one h a l f , and th e U taM tevada d i s t r i c t n e a rly one t h i r d , o f th e t o t a l production* producing a t l e a s t 10%, a re a s , o r m ines.

Montana i s th e only o th e r d i s t r i c t

F igure lb shows th e lo c a tio n s o f th e producing

The most im portant s e c tio n o f th e c o u n try , o f c o u rse ,

i s th e g re a t w e stern c o r d l l ls r a n a re a .

The la rg e producing mines a re

lo c a te d around th e edges o f th e Colorado p la te a u s) th ese in clu d e th e la rg e A rizona mines and th e Utah m ines. Mountain Region.

The New Mexico mines a re lo ca te d i n , o r on th e edge o f ,

th e Trans-Peco® Region* Upland#

Only one m ajor mine i s i n th e Rocky

The Michigan rninm a re lo c a te d in th e S u p erio r

The l e s s im portant d i s t r i c t s in th e E ast are a l l lo c a te d in high­

la n d re g io n a l th e M issouri mines i n th e 0 zark -Q o ieh iia H ighlands, and th e o th e r e a s te rn mines in th e 'Ridge and Malloy and Blue Ridg© Regions, ex cep t f o r th e Vermont mine, which i s lo c a te d i n th e h i l l y highlands o f New England.

To r e tu r n to th e w estern mines o f l e s s e r im portances s e v e ra l

a re lo c a te d in th e Rocky Mountain Region) s e v e ra l, in th© Columbian and Colorado P la te a u Region®j and s e v e ra l, in th e S ierra-C ascade and P a c ific

TABLE 7 3SIHE PRODUCTION OP COPPER IN CHIEF DISTRICTS IB THE UNITED STATES 31 PRODUCING REGIONS, IS QUAOTITISS (SHORT TOHS) At® PESCEIiTAOBB OF TOTAL FRQDHCTIOK, AVERAGES FOR THE TEARS 19l*U, 191*5, 191*6* D is tric ts ie s te rn lfe g io n ' Arisona-Mew'1"Sfas&co M orenci (Copper Mountain) Glohe*4&aist C e n tra l (in c lu d in g S an ta H ita )

Ajo

Yavgpad County (m ostly Verde /je r o m e y d i s t r i c t ) Hay (M n a ra l Creek) B isbee (W arren) S u p e rio r (P io n e er) Lordsburg Burro Mountain U n d istrib u te d Utah-Nevada Bingham ( f a s t Mountain) E ly (Robinson) U n d istrib u te d

Average Tonnage 101,039 87,$02 $6,508

l&,lJkh

Average P ercen t 12.9 11.2 7 .2

5.5 3 *U 2 .7 2 .1 1.2* .2 *2, 1.3*

26,695 21,159 16,618 11,110 1,56? 1,261 S

ul

205,822 2*9,868

26.2

Montana B u tte (Sussaii V alley )

87,739

11.1

S ciavterea a tte r e d Chelan la k e , W ashington Klamath E lv e r, C a lif o m ia F l a t C reek, C a lifo r n ia C opperopolis, C a lif o m ia lo n e , C a lifo r n ia Coeur d* Alane, Idaho San Juan M ountains, Colorado U n d istrib u te d

5 ,2*72 2*,,709 1,568 1,112 689 1,03" 9f

.? .6 .2 .1 .1 n .1

E a s te rn Region rT"^fehT^aTi, Lake S u p e rio r S c a tte re d U n d istrib u te d

.1

.1 2.0 31,1*95

k.O 2 • 0®

fcChief d i s t r i c t s a re th o se producing 1,000 o r more s h o rt to n s average p e r y e a r. Two exception® a m in clu d ed . ^ U n d istrib u te d r e f e r s to th o se mines producing l e s s th an 1,000 s h o r t to n s average p e r y e a r. ^ U n d istrib u te d r e f e r s to th o se mines producing lo s s th a n 1,000 s h o r t to n s average p e r y e a r, and to th o se mines tdioso f ig u r e s a re u n a v a ila b le f o r p u b lic a tio n by th e Bureau o f Minos* Sources Minerals Yearbook. 192*6, op. c i t . , p . 1*61*.

OOH| 59 ra r

s

k s °

0§J

CO O A -lU 7, 220. Hansom©, Copper D eposits o f Bay and MiaSTT . c i t . S t a t i s t i c a l d a ta f o r r-iven y ears may be found in M inerals arbSSk, C le a r). op. c i t . 9 and M ineral Eesourees o f th e U nited S ta te s , ■ wm — ■ v ■""■"* "--rsx " — 111 ’" ■ ”1 1 ■li,jti■ ’ r ,"ri — *1 *■1 vu~v"1 .......... ( f e a r ) , op* c i t .

f

R eserves war® e stim a te d i n th e l a t e 1930* s a t 2,160,000 tons o f m e ta llic copper a t a grad© o f 1 .6 $ , t h i s re p re se n tin g 6.01$ o f t o t a l U n it e d

S ta te s r e s e r v e s . 32 S u p e rio r, Arizo«a33 The Magma mine began p ro d u ctio n in th e decade o f 18?0, and was

o p e ra te d i n te r m i t t e n t ly u n t i l 1909, when th e Magma Copper Company, th e p re s e n t o p e ra to r, a c q u ired i t * s id e r a b le importance*

S ince th e n th e mine has become o f con­

I t i s lo c a te d about 65 m iles e a s t o f Phoenix i n

mountainous t e r r i t o r y , a t an e le v a tio n o f 3,1*00 f e e t .

The o re body i s

a s s o c ia te d w ith a f a u l t zone, th e Magma f a u l t , and probably w ith porphyry i n tr u s io n in to P aleozoic sedim ents and e a r l i e r in tru d e d d iab ase s i l l s , m in e ra liz a tio n o c cu rrin g i n a l o c a ll y r ic h a re a through replacement*

The

o re m in e ral i s e n ric h ed su lp h id e , oh&Xcocitej a t depth th e hypogena o r prim ary su lp h id e i s b o m ite , w ith l o c a l ch& lcopyrite*

The "vein" i s

about 25 f e e t i n g i r t h and extends downward i n le n g th f o r more th a n 3,000 fe e t*

I t i s mined by th e sq u a re-settlin g method, i n com bination w ith c u t-

a n d - f i l l stoping*

The o re I s co n ce n tra te d and sm elted a t th e mine.

Some

d i r e c t sm elting o re i s mined* R eserves were e stim a te d i n th e l a t e 1930* s a s 220,000 to n s o f m e ta llic copper a t unknown g rad e, rep re se n tin g .61$ o f t o t a l United 32j.

S ta te s r e s e r v e s .A B isbee, A rizona-^ The copper d e p o s its a t Bisbee are th e Copper Queen, Sacramento B i l l , and th e Warren D eposits#

They were discovered i n 18??, and mining

was o rg a n ise d two y e a rs l a t e r ,

th e y a re o p e ra ted by th e Phelps Bodge

C o rp o ratio n .

The a re a i s i n th e so u th e a st c o rn e r o f A rizona, lo c a te d i n

th e s o u th e a s t end o f th e Mule 'Mountains, between 5,000 and 6,000 f e e t in e le v a tio n .

The o re d e p o sits occur a© replacem ents i n Paleozoic sedim ents

and i n in tr u s iv e porphyry, m in e ra liz a tio n being a sso c ia te d w ith th e in tr u s iv e sto c k s and f a u l t in g , th e whole a c tio n probably occu rrin g i n th e Mesozoic era*

The copper o re m ineral i s c h ie f ly c h a le o p y ritc w ith

b o r n ite , both prim ary s u lp h id e s . The c e n te r o f th e d e p o sits was f i r s t worked by th e open-cut and th e n th e g lo ry -h o le methodsj t h i s was th e o ld Porphyry mine.

About 1925

th e und ercu t block-caving method was used i n mining th e a ss o c ia te d ore body, known a s th e Copper Queen Mine} and i n th e lim estone d iv is io n ( t h a t p a r t o f th e o re body found i n h o s t lim e sto n e ), s q u a re -s e ttin g was i n i t i ­ a te d .

T o p -slic in g and c u t - a n d - f i l l have a ls o been used, th e s e le c tio n

o f th e s e methods depending upon th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e ore and th e c h a ra c te r 3^Leong a t a l . , op. c i t . 3% or a d e ta ile d trea tm e n t o f tho d i s t r i c t see th e follow ing# Tenney, op. c i t . , pp. 221-228. G ardner, Johnson, and B u tle r, 0£ . c i t . , p p . 16-17, l&SKLSO, 196-197, 2U3-2U5. F . L. Eansome, The Geology and Ore D eposits o f th e Bisbee Q uadrangle, A rizona. P ro f. Paper 21, U nited S ta te s G eological Survey, uT S . S ep artao n t o f th e I n t e r i o r {Washington# Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 190^)* S t a t i s t i c a l d a ta f o r g iv en y e a rs may be found i n M inerals Yearbook, (Y ear) , op. c i t . , and M ineral Resources o f th e B nited S’t i t e s , (Yea?) , op. c i t .

57 o f th e w a ll ro o k .

I n 1932, 55$ o f th e o re was mined by s q u a re -s e ttin g ,

kQ& by to p s l i c i n g , and 1$% by eut~ and"»fill.

Leaching In o ld sto p e s and

f i H s i s done; both su rfa c e and underground leach in g and p r e c ip ita tio n a re p ra c tic e d *

P re p a ra tio n I s a t th e d e p o s it, and sm elting i s done a t

Douglas * Some d i r e c t sm elting ore I s shipped to Douglas. The Shattuck-D enn mine a t Lowell, which a d jo in s th e Copper Queen p r o p e r tie s , a ls o i s a d e p o sit i n lim esto n e, and i s worked by th e sq u ares e t t i n g method. p o r t.

The o re and m i l rock a re stro n g , but re q u ire some sup­

The or® I s c o n cen trated a t Bisbee and sm elted a t S I Paso.

This

mine came under c o n tro l o f th e Phelps Dodge C orporation i n 192*7.36 E stim ated reserves of metallic copper in the late X930fs were 670,000 tons a t a grade of 5*3$, re p re se n tin g 1*86$ of th e total reserves o f the U nited States.2? C e n tra l (S anta R ita ) , New M exico^ Although copper was known and e x tra c te d to some e x te n t as e a rly a s 130U, I t d id n o t b egin p roduction tinder U nited S ta te s ownership u n t i l 1873.

The p r o p e r tie s , c h ie f ly th e Chino mine, a re o p erated by th e Kenne-

c o t t Copper Company.

The d e p o sits are lo c a te d a t S anta R ita , near th e

36isinerala Yearbook, 191*6, og, c i t . , p . 1325. 3?teong et al., og. cit. 3%or a d e ta ile d trea tm e n t o f th e d i s t r i c t see th e follow ings S id n e y P aig e, "S anta R ita and Tyrone, New Mexico," Copper Resources o f th e World, op. c i t * , pp. 327-332, Gardner, Johnson, and B u tle r, og. c i t , , pp. 3 S 7 T 8 ~b9, 12ll, Gardner and N o sier, og. c i t *, pp. 100-101, 315. A, C. Spencer and Sidney Paige,' Geology of th e Santa R ita Mining A rea, Mew Mexico* B u lle tin 859, U n ite d 'S ta te s TieologicS^Survey, U. S. Depart­ ment o f th e I n t e r i o r (Washington* Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 1935)* S t a t i s t i c a l d a ta f o r g iven y e a rs may be found in M inerals Yearbook, (Y ear) , og. c i t . , and M ineral Resources o f th e U nited S ta te s '* (Y ear) , op• c i t .

58 A rizona b o rd e r, a t a n e le v a tio n o f more th a n 5,000 f e e t .

The d e p o sits

a re a s s o c ia te d w ith g ranodlorlt© in tr u s io n s which in te n s e ly f ra c tu re d them selves and th e .invaded ro ck s, which a re P&laoaoic and Mesozoic s e d i­ ments and a mass o f q u a rts d i o r i t e porphyry*

M in e ra lis a tio n o f th e

f r a c tu r e s fo llo w ed , caused by w idespread hyd ro th en aal a c tio n .

The de­

p o s i t s a re dissem in ated su lp h id es c h ie f ly ; c h a lc o c ite i n th e enriched 2o ae, below which i s prim ary c h a lc o p y rite and above which a re o x id ise d o r e s , m a la c h ite , a s u r i t e , c h iy s o c o lla , c u p r ite , and some n a tiv e copper. The Chino mine i s worked by th e open-cut method.

The ore body l i e s i n

a sm all b a s in , v ery roughly e l l i p t i c a l , about k,O00 to 5,000 f e e t a c ro s s . The o re v a r ie s w idely a s to hardness and breaking q u a l i t i e s , and th e r e ­ fo re b la s tin g methods v a ry ; I n a d d itio n , th e m etal c o n te n t v a r ie s , so t h a t w aste h as to be removed along w ith th e or© above th e c u t- o f f grade. The o re arid w aste a re b la s te d and th e n removed by power shovels which lo ad in to r a i l r o a d c a rs along: th e benches. a t H urley, 10 m iles from th e mine.

The or© i s co n cen trated and sm elted

There i s some leach in g o f waste dumps.

R eserves i n m e ta llic copper were e stim ate d i n th e l a t e 1930* a a t 2,1*50,000 to n s a t a grade o f Uk% i n porphyry copper o re s ; t h i s fu rn ish ed 6.8$ o f th e t o t a l U nited S ta te s r e s e r v e s . ^ Lake S u p e rio r, Michigan^0 The n a tiv e copper d e p o sits o f t h i s d i s t r i c t were worked in p r e l i t e r a r y tim es by p rim itiv e hand methods, and th e rem aining p i t s and ^L eong e t a l . , og, c i t . ^ % o r a d e ta ile d trea tm e n t o f t h i s d i s t r i c t see th e follow ing: T. U• B roderick and C. L. Hohl, ”The Michigan Copper D i s t r i c t , ” Copper Resources o f th e World, op. c i t . . pp. 2? 1-28k. G ardner, Johnson, and , i r; "i

rr

w w p N W M M N M lM ’

*******

59

tre n c h e s g iv e evidence o f some a c t i v i t y .

The f i r s t p ro d u ctio n i n modern

tim e s , o f any im portance, o ccu rred i n 181*5, follow ing Douglass Houghton* s r e p o r t o f th e d i s t r i c t i n 182*1.^

The c h ie f o p e ra to r i n th e a re a i s th e

Calumet and H ecla C onsolidated Copper Company.

The d e p o sits a re i n th e

upper p e n in su la o f th e s t a t e o f M ichigan, along th e so u th ern ■edge o f Lake Siqperior, a t an e le v a tio n o f about 500 f e e t .

The c o u n tie s o f Houghton

and Keweenaw have fu rn ish e d th e g re a t hu lk o f production? th e y l i e i n th e c e n t r a l p a r t o f th e b e l t o f o r e , which i s from 2 to 1* m iles wide and about 200 m ile s lo n g .

The conglom erate and am ygdaloidal lo d es and f is s u r e

v e in s , c o n s titu tin g d e p o sits o f n a tiv e copper, were probably caused by u p ris in g hydrotherm al s o lu tio n s g iv en o f f by underlying b a sic in tru s iv e s ? th e s e s o lu tio n s e a s i l y perm eated th e lode and v e in a re a s , and th e reduc­ t io n to n a tiv e copper occurred by chem ical a c tio n w ith hem atite a t th e s u rfa c e . The Calumet and H ecla p r o p e rtie s hav© fu rn ish e d a l l o f th e pro­ d u c tio n i n re c e n t y e a rs .

The I s l e Royal© mine, a t Houghton, i s an

amygd&loidal lo d e having an average th ic k n e ss o f 9 f e e t of or©, dippiijg B u tle r , op. c i t . . pp. 12-13, 68-70, 212, 223. B. B. B u tle r and ?L S . Burbank, The "Sopper D eposits o f M ichigan, F ro f. Paper U*l*, United S ta te s G eo lo g ical Survey, U. S. Department 'of th e I n t e r i o r (W ashington: Govern­ ment P rin tin g O ffic e , 1929). The e a r ly h is to r y o f copper mining f o r the whole U nited S ta te s a s w e ll as f o r M ichigan i s Included i n J . W, F o ste r and J . D. W hitney, Report on th e Geology and Topography o f a P o rtio n o f th e Lake S u p e rio r Land D i s t r i c t , i n tho S ta te of M ichigan, U nited S ta te s G eneral Land O ffice? House o f R e p re s e n ta tiv e s ,* 3 ls t Congress, 1 s t S essio n , Ex. Doc. Ho. 69 (Washington: p rin te d f o r th e Home o f R e p re se n ta tiv e s, 1850)? P a rt I Copper Lands. S t a t i s t i c a l d a ta f o r given y e ars may be found i n M inerals Yearbooks ( Y ear) , op. c i t . , and M ineral Resources o f th© U nited S t a t e s , (T ear)', op. c i t . ^^This re p o rt i s p u blished in f u l l in George N. F u lle r ( e d .), G eo lo g ical R eports o f Douglass Houghton, F i r s t S ta te G eologist o f Michi­ gan 1337-13^5 CThe Michigan H is to r ic a l C o m issio n , Lansing, 19237? ”l!Jl*l, Annual Report o f th e S ta te G e o lo g is t,w pp. 1*33-651*.

a t $6°i i t i s mined by shrinkage 'sloping# sm e lte r a t Hubbell#

Calumet and H eela has a

Much o f th e p ro d u ctio n i s by leach in g t a i l i n g s .

Two o th e r mining companies, which went o u t o f p ro d u ctio n in A ugust, 19h>> a re th e Copper Rang© Company, o p e ra tin g th e Champion mine a t P a in e s d a le , and th e Quincy Mining Company.

The Champion mine i s a

lo d e from 10 to BO f e e t w ick, and 8,000 f e e t o f i t a re on Champion prop* e r t y j i t i s mined by c u t - a n d - f i l l s lo p in g .

More th a n one t h ir d o f I t s

p ro d u ctio n i s o r d in a r ily from t a i l i n g s , and th e rem ainder from complex ores#

The company has i t s own m il l , t a i l i n g p la n t, and sm e lte r.

Th© ore

o f th© Quincy mine 1® sm elted a t th© Calumet and Hecla sm e lte r a t Hubbell th© company has a rec lam atio n plant# »

Reserves o f m e ta llic copper as e stim ate d in th e l a t e 1930* s a re 373,1*00 to n s a t a grade o f probably c lo s e to l £ j t h i s re p re se n ts l.Gbp o f t o t a l U nited S ta te s r e s e r v e s .^ 2

CHAPTER I I I

THE ECQIQMICS Of PRODUCTION MB MAHKETIMG Consumption P ro p o r tio n a lity and S u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y The l a r g e s t s in g le p a r t o f each y e a r 's copper p ro d u ctio n goes in to th e e l e c t r i c a l Industry*

T able 8 in d ic a te s th e p ro p o rtio n s i n m ajor

u ses i n 1939* and Table 9 shows uses from 1919 to 1937. TABLE 3 BSTIlttTSD USES OP COPPER IH THE UNITED STATES , 1939 P ercentage o f T o ta l Consumption

Bse E l e c t r i c a l m anufactures O ther w ire B uildings Automobiles L ight and power lin e s Telephone and te le g ra p h R e frig e ra to rs M anufactures f o r e x p o rt O ther uses

2 3.1 11.9 11*1 10.6 8*1* U.9 1*3 6*5 22.2 100.0

Source? E# 8* A ld e rfe r and R« S. M ichl, Economics o f American Indust r y (new Yorks McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19112JVpV S i, c itin g Yearbook o f American Bureau o f M etal S t a t i s t i c s , 1939. ''Other uses*1 includes c a s tin g s and wrought and hammered products, both o f copper and copper a lloys* and bronze c a st products.

Considerable copper i s used fo r brass

I t may be said that copper has r e la tiv e ly few 61

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123 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o approxim ate th o se o f m etal m in in g * ^

The rem arks o f

E rd re ic h and Leong concerning ago d i s t r ib u t i o n , quoted on page 121, may ^>e e j e c t e d t o ap p ly t o ir o n m ining, and a ls o to m etal mining g e n erally * With th e assum ption o u tlin e d , th e r e f o re , a comparison o f m etal mining age and sex c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ith th o se o f o th e r in d u s tr ie s and sector® o f th e economy may be expected to approxim ate to a t l e a s t some degree a compari­ son o f copper mining c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ith th e o th e r in d u s tr ie s and se c to rs* th e fo llo w in g o b se rv a tio n s may be made from f a b le 23*

The 2S-3U

age group i s th e modal group f o r a l l th e I n d u s trie s and s e c to rs o f th e economy c o n sid e re d , and f o r both m n and women*

The median age i s

s l i g h t l y g r e a te r i n m etal mining among males th a n i n c o a l and t o t a l min­ in g I i t i s g r e a t e r titan i n m anufacturing, bu t low er th a n i n th e t o t a l economy*

Among women, th e median age i s h ig h e r i n m etal mining th a n in

any o f th e o th e r a re a s ; however, because o f th e extrem e s c a r c i ty o f 13«Because o f th e n a tu re o f most o f th e p roduction jo b s , women a re n o t g e n e ra lly employed a t iron-m ining o p e ra tio n s except a s o f f ic e workers* At th e tim e o f th e Bureau1s survey, o n ly 2$ women, most o f whom were employed a t one m ine, were found i n th e p ro d u ctio n occupations s e le c te d f o r study* These worker® were a l l engaged i n su rfa c e occupa­ tion® and, w ith b u t two e x c e p tio n s, were p a id th e same h o u rly r a t e as male worker® perform ing s im ila r d u tie s* 11 Wage® i n Iro n Mining October 19k3t B u lle tin Mo* ?87, Bureau o f la b o r S t a t i s t i c s , U nited S ta te s D epart­ ment o f Labor (Washington* Government P rin tin g O ffic e , l?itU ), p* $* The s c a r c i ty o f women employees i n ir o n mining i s s im ila r to th e s c a r c i ty o f women i n n o nferrous m e ta ls, c h ie f m etal o f w hich, o f c o u rse , i s copper, i n p ro d u c tio n , v a lu e o f p ro d u c t, and employment* “With th e ex cep tio n o f o f f i c e employee®, th e la b o r fo rc e employed in th e mining o f nonferrous m etals was composed e x c lu s iv e ly o f male w orkers; in th e m ills covered by th e su rv e y , o n ly 2$ women were employed In th e occupations studied* The average h o u rly e arn in g s o f th e few woman worker® wore somewhat below th e av erag es p a id to male worker® in th e same occupations *fi Wages i n th e M oaferrous-M etals in d u s tr y , June 19k3* op* c t t *» p* 6 . And also? ’’"The mining "5 2 ' a d llin g o f nonferrous m etals I s composed e x c lu siv e ly o f m ales*’* Wago S tr u c tu re o f th e Mopfergo.u® M etals In d u stry , 19U.-U2, 0£* c i t * , p* it.

I2h women © alloyed i n mining I n d u s tr ie s , t h i s f a c t can h a rd ly be c o n sid ered s ig n if ic a n t*

Among male w orkers, m la m i n a t io n o f th e p ercen tag es in

v a rio u s age groups re v e a ls a g e n e ra lly w ider d isp e rsio n in th e o th e r, a re a s th a n i n m etal m ining.

In th e t o t a l economy t h i s i s most marked?

The p e rc en ta g es o f employees i n th e low er and upper age groups a re g r e a t e r th a n in m etal m ining; i n m etal m ining, th e ages 20 to 5k in clu d e 85*1? o f th e w orkers, w hile i n th e t o t a l economy th e se ages in clu d e 7 8 .6 $ .

th e s e ag es, however, a re th e c e n t r a l group c o n ta in in g th e ma­

j o r i t y o f workers i n ev ery a re a co n sid ere d .

I t may be noted- t h a t in

m e ta l m ining th e e a r ly y e ars Ik to 19 re g u la r ly have sm a lle r percentages th a n th e y do i n guy o f th e o th e r a re a s ; b u t th e o ld e r y e a r s , 55 to 75 and o v e r, have i n m etal mining g r e a te r percentage® employed th an th e y do i n any o f th e o th e r a re a s except th e t o t a l economy.

I t would seem, th e re ­

f o r e , t h a t i n m etal mining th e percentage o f o ld e r people employed i s g r e a t e r th a n in c o a l minim;;, t o t a l m ining, and m anufacturing, but l e s s th a n i n th e t o t a l economy.

A lso, i n m etal mining a sm a lle r percentage

o f younger people i s employed th a n i n c o a l m ining, t o t a l m ining, manu­ f a c tu r in g , and th e t o t a l economy.

F u rth e r, a g r e a te r percentage o f th e

w orkers i n m etal mining i s in clu d ed i n th e middle age g ro t^ s 20 to 5k th a n i n any o f th e o th e r a re a s co n sid ere d .

The median age f o r m etal min­

in g , c o a l m ining, and t o t a l mining i s approxim ately th e same, bu t i s g r e a te r f o r th e s e th a n f o r m anufacturing, and le s s f o r th o se than f o r th e t o t a l economy. The o b se rv a tio n s f o r fem ale workers a re approxim ately th e same, w ith m inor v a r ia tio n s ; b u t because o f th e sm all percentage o f women employed i n th e mining in d u s tr ie s r e l a ti v e to those i n m anufacturing and

125 th e t o t a l economy, difference® can h a rd ly b© expected to be s i g n i f ic a n t . The p e rc en ta g es o f fem ale to male worker® i n th e v a rio u s a re a s a re as fo llo w s? i n m etal m ining, .96$; i n c o a l m ining, .6$; i n t o t a l m ining, 1*2%; i n m anufacturing, 28,1 $ ; and i n th e t o t a l economy, 32.7$* The ra c e d i s t r ib u t i o n i n th e same in d u s tr ie s and s e c to rs o f th e economy a re re v e a le d In Table 26.

A g r e a te r percen tag e o f w hite employees

e x i s t s i n m etal mining th a n i n any o f th e o th e r a re a s .

F u rth e r, a l e s s e r

p ercen tag e o f negroes e x is ts to a marked degree i n m etal m ining.

These

observation® a re tr u e f o r both male and fem ale em ployees. Among th e w hite w orkers, la rg e p ercen tag es o f Mexicans a re l i k e l y t o be found i n p a r t i c u l a r m ines, e s p e c ia lly i n th e southw est, which, in copper m ining, means A rizona and Hew Mexico.

I n August 19kl th e 3LS

su rv e y reco rd ed th e com position o f th e la b o r fo rc e i n copper mining as fo llo w st w h ite , o th e r th a n Mexican, 83.6$; Mexican, I k . 5$; Ifegro, le s s th a n a te n th o f 1 p e rc e n t; and o th e r , 1 . 8$

. Percent ages o f n a tio n a li­

t i e s were reco rd ed i n 1929 f o r p a r t i c u l a r m ines, as i s in d ic a te d in T able 27*

I f a p ro p o rtio n o f I k *5$ Mexican may be co n sid ered a r e l a ­

t i v e l y r e l i a b l e f ig u r e , t h i s c o n s titu te s a f a i r l y la rg e p a r t o f copper m ining employment; and, sin c e th e se Mexicans may be expected to be con­ c e n tr a te d i n th e southw est, la rg e p ercen tag es o f them a re to be expected i n A rizona and Hew Mexico copper m ines.

T his i s borne o u t by Table 27;

th e p ro p o rtio n o f Mexicans in p a r t i c u l a r mines in th e southw est may be ex p ected to b© la r g e .

Some o f th e s e , o f co u rse, a re American-born

w o rk ers, w h ile some o f them a re brought i n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n w ar-tim e, to % a g £ S tru c tu re o f th e Nonferrous M etals In d u s try . 19kl-k2, op. c i t • , p . 5*

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m a jo rity o f th e companies o p e ra ted on s h i f t s , payment o f d i f f e r e n t i a l s f o r s h i f t work has n o t been common.^ The change i n pay f o r overtim e and h o lid a y work over re c e n t y e a rs i s in d ic a te d to some e x te n t by th e d iffe re n c e s between th e above p rac­ tice® and th o se ty p ic a l o f m etal mining i n 1931*

The BLS survey o f t h a t

y e a r s t a t e s th e follo w in g s Overtime I s a ry tim e worked b efo re o r a f t e r th e re g u la r tim e o f beginning and q u ittin g work on each day o f th e week (in c lu d in g Sundays and h o lid a y s f o r th o se whose working schedules provide f o r work on th o se d a y s), and any tim e worked during th e re g u la r tim e e s ta b lis h e d f o r m eals, re g a rd le s s o f th e r a t e o f pay o r amount o f tim e c re d ite d f o r such e x tr a work* Work on Sundays and h o lid a y s i s overtim e only when perform ed by wage e a rn e rs whose re g u la r hours do n o t provide f o r work on th o se days* Of th e 139 mines covered i n th e 1931 study o f th e in d u s try 99 re p o rte d c e r t a i n o f t h e i r wage e a rn e rs a s having worked some overtim e, and 13 re p o rte d e x tr a work on Sundays and h o lid a y s by c e r t a i n wag© earn ers* There was, th e r e f o re , no overtim e i n 1*0 m ines, and noe x tr a work on Sundays and h o lid a y s i n 96 mines* The r a t e p a id f o r overtim e was th e sameas f o r re g u la r working tim e i n 92 mines and one and o n e -h a lf tim es th e re g u la r r a t e i n ? m ines. The r a t e o f one and o n e -h a lf tim es the r e g u la r r a te was p aid to th© m aintenance crew o f $ m im e, to c a g e rs , h o is t men, pimp men, and m aintenance men in 1 mine, and to e l e c t r i c i a n s , pipemen, and timherman and h e lp e rs i n 1 mine. The r a t e f o r e x tr a work on Sundays and h o lid a y s was th e same as f o r r e g u la r working tim e I n Ul of th e U3 mines i n which th e re was such work; i n 1 mine th e r a t e was one and o n e -h a lf tim es th e re g u la r r a t e , which was p a id to e le c t r i c i a n s , pipemea, timbermen, and timbermen h e lp e r s ; and i n 1 mine to c a g e rs, h o is t men, pump men, and m aintenance m o n .^ ftlb id * •^%a£©s and Hours o f Labor i n M e ta llife ro u s Mines, 192h and 1931, op* c i t *, pp* la - 1 5 • While w age-papient p ra c tic e s in m e ta llife ro u s mining may not be i d e n t i c a l to th o se i n nonferroua m etal mining a t a p a r t i c u l a r tim e , th e s i m i l a r i t i e s i n them may bo re v e a le d by co n sid erin g th e p r a c tic e s in ir o n mining i n 19U3, sin c e ir o n mining" and nonferrous m etal mining make up th© m e ta llif e r o u s mining in d u s try alm ost com pletely: °¥ag© e a rn e rs i n most occupations in iro n -o re mines a re paid on a tim e b asis* Xncentive-wag© p la n s , however, a re t y p ic a lly used to d e te r­ mine th e e arn in g s o f w orkers employed as c o n tra c t m iners, loading-m achine

Ik? Th© BIS su rvey o f 19kl re p o rte d t h a t cu sto m a rily no re g u la r lunch p e rio d s were sch ed u led , alth o u g h some mines do provide such p e r io d s * ^ The “S lid in g S c a le ” A “s lid in g s c a le ” o f wages i s re p o rte d by th e 1 9 U l survey.

The

su rv ey s ta te s * I t i s co n v en tio n a l p r a c tic e in m etal mining to a d ju s t th e earn­ in g s o f w orkers i n accordance w ith th e movements o f m arket p ric e s o f s p e c if ic m e ta ls. T his method has been developed by employers over a long p e rio d o f tim e , has g e n e ra lly been accepted by th e unions, and i s w id ely p re v a le n t i n n e g o tia te d wage agreem ents. The s lid in g s c a le p ro v id es a rough means o f a d ju s tin g wages to th e v a rio u s phases o f th e b u sin e ss c y c le . The autom atic adjustm ent o f p ro d u ctio n c o s ts i n response to changing m etal p r ic e s ten d s to s t a b i l i s e company e arn in g s and may c o n trib u te somewhat tow ard r e g u la r ity of employment* In view o f th e wide divergence between th e movements o f m etal p ric e s and th o se i n th e c o s t o f l iv i n g , however, i t i s apparent t h a t th e s lid in g s c a le f a l l s s h o rt of a ssu rin g a s ta b le “r e a l ” income f o r th e w orker.12 o p e ra to r s , and muckers. These workers a rc p a id on a tonnage o r footage b a s is and a re guaranteed a minimum base r a t e . Somewhat more th an th r e e te n th s o f th e w orkers s tu d ie d i n th e survey were employed i n occupations i n which in c e n tiv e payment p r e v a ils . “The m a jo rity o f th e mines in clu d ed i n th e survey re p o rte d th e o p e ra tio n o f more th a n one s h i f t . Approxim ately 62 p e rc en t o f th e w orkers s tu d ie d were employed on th e f i r s t , o r d a y lig h t, s h i f t , 23 p e r­ c e n t on th e second s h i f t , and only 1$ p ercen t on th e t h i r d , o r n ig h t, s h i f t . The payment o f s h i f t premiums i s not common p r a c tic e i n th e ir o n mining in d u s try . Only two mines re p o rte d d i f f e r e n t i a l payment to workers on th e second o r t h i r d s h i f t . P e rio d ic r o ta tio n o f s h i f t s m s found in n e a rly th r e e - f o u r th s o f th e e stab lish m en ts covered, “Each o f th e mines in clu d ed i n th e stu d y p a id w orkers a t th e r a t e o f tim e and a h a lf f o r a l l work above kO hours a weak. Workers i n 90 o f th e mines were a ls o p a id t h i s overtim e r a te f o r hours In excess o f 8 a day, although 8 h ours c o n s titu te d th e normal workday f o r a su b stan ­ t i a l p o r tio n o f th e In d u s try . In 93 of th e m ines, workers were compen­ sa te d f o r h o lid a y work a t th e rat© o f tim e and a h a l f . ” Wages i n Iro n Mining O ctober 19)43, B u lle tin Ho. ?37, Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s , U nited S ta te s Department o f Labor (Washingtons Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 19UU), p* 7 . ffiffage S tru c tu re o f t he Nonferroua M etals In d u s try , 19hl-k2, op. c i t . , p . 8.

^ I b i d . , pp. 7~S»

11*6

T y p ic a l p ro v isio n s o f union c o n tra c ts i n th e copper-m ining indus­ t r y i n 1938 were s t a t e d by a BIS survey to in clu d e th e “ s lid in g s c a le ” * Wage d e te rm in a tio n s based upon th e p r ic e o f th e m etal mined a re c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e s e c o n tra c ts* Minimum wages are s e t f o r tinderground m iners, w ith d i f f e r e n t i a l s e s ta b lis h e d f o r o th e r employees covered by th e agreement* In th e Anaconda copper mines th e minima a re based on th e p r ic e p e r pound o f e l e c t r o l y t i c copper as quoted i n th e sta n d a rd tr a d e jou rn al* When th e p ric e exceeds 9 3/h c e n ts f o r a p e rio d o f 30 su c ce ssiv e days, an in c re a s e o f 50 c e n ts a day i s added to th e b a sic wage* In c re a s e s o f 25 c e n ts p e r day a re made f o r each 1 l / 2 c e n t r i s e i n th© average p r ic e o f copper f o r any 30day p e rio d . D ecreases i n th e wage a re made upon th e same condi­ t i o n s , b u t each newly e s ta b lis h e d r a te must continue unchanged f o r a t l e a s t 30 su c ce ssiv e days* 13 The “s lid in g s c a le 1* was f i r s t in tro d u c ed a t th© Butt© mines in 1907, and accepted by th e W. F. o f M* a t t h a t tim e i n th e agreement w ith A m algam ated.^

I t I s t o be noted th a t th e form ula has changed over tim e.

Thus, i n 1907, w ith 18 c e n ts th e c r i t i c a l p r ic e , a wage o f lk .0 0 o r $3*>0 on ly was p a id , and no p ro v isio n e x is te d f o r f u r th e r in c re a se s o r d e crea se s f o r f r a c t io n a l changes away from 18 c e n ts .

In 1938, as s ta te d

above, in c re a s e s o f 25 c e n ts p e r day were made f o r each 1 1/2 cen t r i s e In th e p r ic e o f copper f o r any 30-day p e rio d .

T herefore th e “s lid in g ”

p ro v is io n o f th e 190? c o n tra c t was o f a r e l a t i v e l y crude n a tu re , and th e e f f o r t to a d ju s t wages to th© p ro s p e rity -d e p re s s io n cy cle o f copper p r ic e s a most rough approxim ation. ^3»«Development o f C o lle c tiv e B argaining in M etal M ining,” Monthly Labor Review, September 1938, og. c i t . , R ep rin t S e r ia l do, R. 317, p . 3. l k i n 190? Butt© Miners* Union Mo* 1 c o n tra c te d w ith Amalgamated f o r f iv e y e a rs f o r an e ig h t—horn* day a t a “s lid in g s c a le ”— :f>b. 00 a day f o r a l l underground w orkers i f copper so ld f o r more th an 18 c e n ts p e r pound f o r a c a le n d a r month, and 13*50 p e r day i f copper so ld f o r l e s s . S e lig Perlman and P h ilip T a f t, Labor Movements, Volume IV o f H isto ry o f Labor i n th e U nited S t a te s , 1396-1932, e d . John Rogers GommodTTNew"York: The MacMillan Company, 1935), P* 256*

3 i9 The " s lid in g scale*1 was a sta n d ard p r a c tic e i n th e B utte D i s t r i c t and o th e r A naconda-controlled mines f o r roughly kO y e a rs .

During World

War I I th e p ro v isio n was f i n a l l y e ra d ic a te d from union agreem ents, th e l a s t ma^or c o n tra c t c o n ta in in g th e p ro v isio n e x p irin g In 1 9 ^ 7 * ^

The new

b a rg a in in g s tre n g th o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l Union o f Mine, M ill, and S m elter W orkers, along w ith th e wartime s c a r c i t y of la b o r and p o s s ib le in flu e n c e s o f th e Premium P ric e Flan f o r Copper, made th e abolishm ent o f th e p ro v iT& s io n p o s s ib le . I t i s d o u b tfu l t h a t th e " s lid in g sc a le " had such w idespread use a s i s in d ic a te d in th e above q u o ta tio n s .

I t was never employed in Kanne-

c o t t m ines, and i t s use a t Phelps-Dodge p ro p e rtie s was h ig h ly l i m i t e d . ^ The p lan was employed a t tim es i n th a Southwest D i s t r i c t , bu t n o t to any c o n sid e ra b le degree i n th e B tah-Isvada D i s t r i c t o r th e M ichigan D i s t r i c t . I t was l a r g e ly confined to mines i n th e N orthw est, o r B u tte , a re a .

On©

e stim a te i s t h a t i t pro b ab ly never a ffe c te d as many as one h a lf o f th© workers employed i n copper mining a t any tim e.

18

I t may be noted t h a t ,

alth o u g h no c o n tra c ts sig n ed by th e Mine, M ill, and S m elter Workers con­ ta in e d th e p ro v isio n a f t e r 194? , and very few a f t e r 19^3, some sm all mines s t i l l o p e ra te w ith th e s lid in g s c a le . a re re p re se n te d by unions

The w orkers in th e s e mines

u s u a lly a f f i l i a t e d w ith th e A. F. o f L. The

p rev alen ce o f such c o n tra c ts i s s l i g h t , sin c e tha Mine, M ill, and S m elter Union re p re s e n ts roughly 30 p er c e n t o f copper mining w o r k e r s .^

There

^ D eterm in ed from c o n v ersa tio n s w ith union and company o f f i c i a l s . l6 See pp. 150, 162, 217; i b i d . -^Determ ined from

c o n v ersa tio n s w ith

company o f f i c i a l s .

^ D eterm in ed from

c o n v e rsa tio n s w ith

company o f f ic ia ls *

l?See Table 38, p . 216.

150 have been a tte m p ts by o p e ra tin g companies to g e t th e " s lid in g s c a le ” r e in ­ s t a t e d , on th e p le a o f t h i s p ro v isio n allow ing m arginal mines to o p e ra te , and th u s fu rn is h in g jo b s ,20 The b a sic p r in c ip le o f th e s lid in g s c a le remained th e same a f t e r i t s in tr o d u c tio n i n 1907, although some refin em en ts were made, and th e r a t e s o f pay changed from tim e to tim e . p e r day a t th e B utte workings*

I n 1907 th e b a sic wage was IU

A r a is e o f 50 c e n ts p e r d a y was added

when th e p r ic e o f e l e c t r o l y t i c copper exceeded 18 c en ts p e r pound, reg a rd ­ l e s s o f amount, and h e ld f o r 30 daysj and th e newly e s ta b lis h e d wage rem ained f o r a t l e a s t 30 days.

With a d e c lin e i n th e p ric e of copper o f

any amount below 18 c e n ts , a c u t o f 50 c en ts p e r day was made in wages. Throughout th e p e rio d o f use o f th e s lid in g s c a le , a change o f 50 c e n ts p e r day i n wages seems to have been normals however, adjustm ents i n th e " c r i t i c a l " p r ic e o f copper were e v id e n tly made from tim e to tim e,

The

p ro v is io n re q u irin g th e new p r ic e to rem ain c o n sta n t f o r 3° days before b rin g in g a wage change, and th e continuance o f th e new wage f o r 30 days, was a ls o m ain tain ed .

Th© in c re a s e s f o r continued r i s e s i n p r ic e s , such

a s th e 25 c e n t in c re a s e f o r each 1 l / 2 c e n t in c re a s e i n th© p ric e of copper which was p re v a le n t In 1938, re p re se n te d a refinem ent o f th e " s lid in g s c a le ." The o r ig in a l purpose o f th e p lan i n 1907 was a t l e a s t in p a r t to a c t as a c o u n terp ro p o sal by th e o p e ra to rs to th e demand of th e B utte M iners Union f o r a b a sic wage r a t e o f ;|ii.50.

?1

The Union opposed th e

p ro p o sa l, and p a r t i c u l a r l y opposed th e p ro v isio n t h a t th e agreement was 20 s0© th e r e p o r t o f Park C ity n e g o tia tio n s in th© S a lt Lake Telegram , S a l t Lake C ity , Utah, Monday, February 13, 195°, p. 13. ^ R e fe re n c e fo o tn o te ll*.

151 t o o b ta in f o r 5 y e a r s .22

The acceptance o f th e s lid in g s c a le on th e

company* a term s r e f l e c t s th e r e l a t i v e l y u n s a tis f a c to r y b arg ain in g p o si­ t i o n o f th e Union. Another purpose o f th e Flan may have been to allo w th e o p e ra tio n o f mines which would become subm arginal w ith a f a l l i n th e p ric e o f copper.

A re d u c tio n o f 50 c e n ts a day i n wages may have been enough to

make a s i g n i f ic a n t d iffe re n c e In o p e ra tin g c o s t.

While th e p ro p o rtio n

o f th e t o t a l c o s ts o f mining which was accounted f o r by la b o r in 1907 i s unknown, i t may have been la rg e enough to have been a determ ining f a c t o r i n mine o p e ra tio n . c e n t.28

The p re s e n t p ro p o rtio n i s roughly 35-1*0 p e r

f i ll s "m arginal mine'1 argument i s one advanced a t th e p re se n t

tim e f o r th e e sta b lish m e n t o r m aintenance o f th e “s lid in g s c a l e . T h e c o s t- p r ic e r e la tio n s h ip s involved may have been c a lc u la te d c a r e f u lly by th e company; th e con tin u ed use o f th e pay method f o r 1*0 y e a rs may in d ic a te t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , and may s u b s ta n tia te th e case t h a t th e "m arginal mine" argument was an im portant one i n 1907, as i t may be to d a y* A t h i r d purpose o f th e " s lid in g sc a le " may have been m erely to m ain tain a spread between c o s t and p ric e f o r a l l mines i n th e B utte a re a . T h is o s te n s ib ly would, have c o n trib u te d to th e m aintenance roughly o f a c e r t a i n p r o f i t m argin.

That t h i s may have proved tr u e may a ls o be sub­

s t a n t i a t e d by th e !*Q-year p e rio d o f o p e ra tio n o f th e pay method.

Again,

t h i s argument r e s t s upon th e r a t i o o f la b o r c o s t to t o t a l cost*

22Ib ld . 23gee p. 9 7 . The "eliding scale" has been alwst exclusively employed i n underground m ining. The share of t o t a l c o s ts a tt r ib u t e d to la b o r i n th e s e mines would probably approxim ate th e h ig h e r p ercen tag e, o r even somewhat above i t .

2^R efer fo o tn o te 2Q.

152 Th© la b o r unions opposed th e p lan a t i t s in c e p tio n and have opposed i t s in c e .

While i t i s mentioned t h a t th e re iaay have been some

tendency t o s t a b i l i s e employment through th e use o f th e p la n , y e t i t f a i l e d to s t a b i l i s e r e a l wages because o f d iffe re n c e s i n th e f lu c tu a tio n s o f m etal p r ic e s and th e c o s t o f l i v i n g . 2'* Over th e 1*0 y e a rs o f th e opera­ t i o n o f th e p la n , th e c o n sta n t 5 0 -cen t change i n wage® i n response to p r ic e changes has become o f a d i f f e r e n t s ig n ific a n c e , as money wages have changed.

With changes i n th e p ric e of copper, changes have occurred in

th e " c r i t i c a l " p ric e f o r com putation o f changes i n th e s c a le , co n tin u ed , i t i s t r u e , f o r 5 -y e a r p e rio d s .

With h ig h er money wages, a 5 0 -cen t wage

change becomes a sm a lle r p ro p o rtio n : th u s , a 50 -cen t change a t a g iv en c r i t i c a l copper p r ic e i s o f much l e s s s ig n ific a n c e w ith a going wage o f ro ughly | 6 , as i t was i n 1940* compared w ith a wage o f $h i n 1907* Table 30 l i s t s average monthly copper p ric e s from 190? to 1949* These p r ic e s , New York q u o ta tio n s f o r e le c t r o l y ti c copper, a re averages o f th o se which serv ed i n com putations o f th e " s lid in g s c a le ."

During th e

e a r ly months o f 190?, when th© " s lid in g scale*1 m s f i r s t d isc u sse d , th e mine o p e ra to rs may have expected a p ric e d e c lin e .

The d e c lin e d id occur,

c o n tin u in g roughly to th e middle o f 1908, and p r ic e s from t h a t tim e f lu c ­ tu a te d ro u g hly w ith in 2 c e n ts o f 12 o r 13 c e n ts u n t i l 1912.

I t m s no t

u n t i l 1915 t h a t th e p ric e of copper again reached 18 c e n ts , which was the c r i t i c a l p ric e e s ta b lis h e d when th© " s lid in g scale*1 was i n s t i t u t e d i n 190? 2 ^ 2% ee q u o ta tio n p . 11*7. 2% age e stim a te f o r 1940 fu rn ish e d by o p eratin g company o f f i c i a l s , and through exam ination o f ty p ic a l c o n tr a c ts . 27’The c r i t i c a l p ric e fix e d f o r com putation o f th e 5 0-eent wage change when th e " s lid in g s c a le ” m s adopted was 18 c e n ts .

TABLE 30 AVERAGE COPPER PRICES, BY MONTHS, 1907-191*9 IN CENTS PER POUND3

— fan.----- Esh*---Karsil— LsnH___ May.--- June. July 1907 1903

2 U.U0U 2U.669 25.065 2U.22U 2U.OU8 22.665 21.130 13.726 12.905 12 .701* 12.71*3 12.593 12.675 12.702 13.893 12.91*9 12.387 12.56* 12.893 13.211* 12.880 13.620 13.332 13.255 12.733 12.550 12.1*01* 12.215

1909 1910 1911 12.295 1912 11*.091* 1913 16.1*88 1911* 11*.223 1915 13.61*1 1916 21*.003 1917 23.673

12.256 11*.081* 11*.971 11*.1*91 11*.391* 26.1*1*0 31.750

12.139 12.019 11*.698 15.71*1 17.713 15.291 11*.1*31 11**211 U*.737 16.311

11.989 16.031 15.1*36 13.996 13.506 26.310 2 7 . 8 9 5 28.625 31.1*31 27.935 28.788

1918 23.500 23.500 23.500 1919 — c 16.763 15.356

1920

1927

13.913 12.597 13.1*65 15.510 12.501 15.709 13.322 12.990

13.569 12.556 12.865 15.355 12.708 15.563 13-999 12.692

13.515 15.005 13.359 13.079

1928

13.355

13.323

13.355

1921

1922 1923 1925 1925 1926

1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1935 1935

1936 1937 1933 1939 191*0 191*1 191*2 191*3 19UJ* 191*5 191*6

191*7 191*8 191*9

13.331 11.976 12.567 16.832

23.500 15.256

13.660 12.533 12.573 16.663

13.535 12.752 13.111 15.550 13.206 12.772 13.252 13.357 13.706 13.599

21.200 23.200

21.200 23.178

12.1*63 17.190 11*.190

13.223 18.796 26.601 23.865

Sept.

Oct.

18.356 13 .1*62 13.007 12.1*90 12.1*05 17.1*98 15.1*00 — b 16.91*1

15.565 13.169 13.388 13.351* 12.870 12.700 12.379 12.553 12.201 12.189 17.508 17.311* 16.328 16.337 — b — b 17.502 17.686 26.120 26.855 27.193 25.380 25.073 23.500

29.962 26.620 23.500 25 .901* 26.000 26.000 26.000 17.610 21.605 22.319 21.755 21.535

13.576 18.356 11.635 13.655 13.723 15.321 13.822 12.390 13.221 13.956 15.590 13.925 15.175 12.808 12.621 12.370 12.532 12.971 13.986 15.203 15.527 15.527 15.526 19.500 17.775 17.775 17.775 17.775 15.621 12.756 12.059 11.023 10.693 9.392 8.665 3.025 7.698 7.292 5.565 5.237 5.155 5.053 5.219

16.603 17.727 21.257 17.775 17.775 17.775 9.938 9.725 9.955 7.060 5.965 5.763 5.775 5.775 5.011 5.395 7.890 7.777 7.775 8.173 5.775 3.775 8.775 8.775 9.025 9.025 9.025 9.169 12 .1*15 13.527 15.775 15.121 10.199 9.775 9.775 9.775 11.025 11.025 11.025 10.265 11.951* ll.U*8 11.160 11.087 11.319 11.791* 11.911* 11.820 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 U.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 19.270 19.31*9 20.911 21.225 21.200 23.200

23.500 15.365

12.385 17.231* lli.672 13.603 19.1*77

August

18.065 12.697 13.575 15.663 12.327 13.399 13.656

12.170

6.698

7.773

8.635

8.768

3.275

8.595

8.775

3.775

8.635

9.275 13.775 9.375 9.833 11.079 11.815 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775

9.275 13.775 8.775 9.775

3.775 7.775 9.352 13.775 9.585 9.976 10.561* 11.812 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775

11.128 11.810

11.775 11-775 11.775 11.775 11.775 U*.o55 11*.150 22.105 21.31*8 21.21*6 21.200 21.200 21.200 21.375 21.1*50 17.763 16.31*2 16.906

18.155 11.958 13.758 13.323 12.917 15.376 15.062 12.950 15.725 17.775 10.310

7.979

15.935 12.673 13.632 12.575 12.933 15.300 13.862 12.958 15.202 17.775 9.597 6.988 6.775 5.978 5.733 8.753 7.950 8.775 8.775 8.505 8.967 9.525 9.563

9.525 13.775 13.530 9.900 10.028 10.261 11.635 10.708 11.296 11.778 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 l!*.l5o ll*.l50 21.225 21.225 23.005 23.200 17.325 17.325

11.838

10.760 12.215 11.826 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775 ll*.l50 21.209 23.200 17.325

Nov.

13.391 U*.130 13.125 12.71*2 12.616

Dec.

13.163 ll*.lll 13*298 12.581 13.552 17.376 11*.22!* 12.801 20.133

17.326 15.182 11.739 18.627 30.625 31.890 23.500 23.500 26.000 — c 19.758 18.295 15.257 13.188 13.035 13.555 13.598 15.075 12.727 12.823 13.635 15.260 15.353 13.866 13.576 13.302 13.319 13.775 15.778 15.855 17.775 17.775 10.113 10.300 6.558 6.580 5.131 5.813 7.881 7.885 8.775 8.775 9.025 9.025 10.161 10.763 10.797 10.006 11.025 11.025 12.275 12.275 11.800 11.802 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.771 11.775 11 .??* 11.775 11.775 11.775 11.775* 17.036 19.275 21.200 21.200 23.200 23.200

17.981 13.200

aNew York quotation for electro ly tic copper, F. 0. B. refinery. bNot reported. cNo market. Source: Engineering and Mining Journal, "Summary of the Markets1' and "Metal S ta tistic s," issues 1907-191*9, Vols. Hi*—150.

154 With th e e x p e c ta tio n o f low er copper p r ic e s , th© o p e ra to rs may have p r o f e rr e d th e p la n w ith th e hope t h a t th© 5 0-cent in c re a s e would never have t o be p a id .

Thus th e m iners1 demand® f o r a pay r a i s e from $k to $4*50

p e r day were s u c c e s s fu lly th w a rte d .28 During World War X copper p ric e s reached th e h ig h e s t p o in t i n t h e i r h i s t o r y , th e peak o ccu rrin g i n th e p e rio d December 1916 to March 1917 > when th e p r ic e exceeded 31 c e n ts p e r pound.

P ric e s follow ed a long

d e c lin e from 1917 to th e l a t e months o f 1928; a r i s e i n th e s e months to a m ain tain ed high le v e l through 1929 and th e e a r ly months o f 1930 was fo llo w ed by a n o th er d e c lin e i n p ric e s to th e d ep re ssio n y e ars o f th e e a r ly 193Qf s .

The " c r i t i c a l ” p r ic e s o f th e d ep ressio n p e rio d were prob­

a b ly h ig h enough to p r o h ib it in c re a s e s under th e s lid in g s c a le , f o r unem­ ployment was h ig h , wages low (#3 to $4 p e r day30), and u n io n is a tio n a t i t s lo w est p o in t sin c e th e founding o f th® W estern F e d e ra tio n o f Miners i n 1393. 31 A r i s e i n th e p ric e o f copper occurred i n th e l a t e 1930*0, to th e OPA ad m in istere d p r ic e o f th e p e rio d 1941 to 194&*

T his was th e p e rio d

a ls o o f th e o p e ra tio n o f th e Premium P ric e P lan f o r copper.

(An attem p t

to a p p ra ise th® e f f e c t upon wages o f th® OPA and th e P. P. P. i s made in 23Th0 u n a v a ila b ility o f l a t e r " c r i t i c a l ” p ric e s p rev e n ts a con­ tin u e d h i s t o r i c a l tre a tm e n t her®. Few agreem ents before World War I were i n th e form o f w r itte n c o n tr a c ts . Indeed, i t has o n ly been sine© 1935 t h a t p u b lish e d la b o r c o n tr a c ts have become common i n th e copper-m ining in d u s tr y . O perating company la b o r reco rd s f o r th ese e a r ly y ears a re in many case® n o n e x is te n t. ^ E s tim a te fu rn is h e d by o p e ra tin g company o f f i c i a l s . 3 ° Ib id . 31gee f a b le 33, p . 216.

155 th e fo llo w in g s e c tio n on E eceat Changes i n E arn in g s. )

By th e tim e o f th e

p r ic e r i s e follo w in g th© removal o f OPA c o n tro ls in 1946, th e “s lid in g s c a le " had been n e a rly com pletely removed from union c o n tr a c ts . S e v e ra l f a c t s may be a s c e rta in e d concerning th e " s lid in g s c a l e .” F i r s t , th© t o t a l p e rio d o f i t s o p e ra tio n was 40 y e a rs—from 1907 to ro u g h ly 1947* during which tim e i t was c h ie f ly employed by Anaconda, in th e B u tts d i s t r i c t , and th e re fo re was r e l a t i v e l y r e s t r i c t e d to underground m ining.

Second, i t s purpose when e s ta b lis h e d may have been to a d ju s t

c o s ts to p r i c e s , to a llo w otherw ise m arginal mines to o p e ra te , o r to th w a rt pay r a i s e demands; o r i t may have been proposed because o f a l l o f th e s e c o n s id e ra tio n s .

T h ird , i t was proposed and m aintained a s company

p o lic y , u s u a lly o v er th e o b je c tio n s o f th e unio n ised workers*

F o u rth ,

d uring d e c lin e s i n p ric e from th e e s ta b lis h e d " c r i t i c a l " p r ic e , i t worked to th e advantage o f th e o p e ra to rs a t th e same tim e t h a t red u c tio n s in th e b a sic wage were p o s s ib le ; w hile during r is in g p r ic e s , when new b a sic wage r a t e s might r i s e , i t was p o s s ib le t o r a i s e th e 11c r i t i c a l ” p ric e during each new s e t o f n e g o tia tio n s , backed by th e "m arginal mine-employment” argum ent, i . e . , i f mines go out o f p ro d u ctio n , employment f a l l s .

F u rth e r,

p e rio d s o f d e c lin e i n p ric e have been lo n g er and more g rad u a l th a n p e rio d s o f r i s e in p r ic e : t h i s can be observed by in s p e c tio n o f Table 30. F i f t h , sin c e a p ric e r i s e over th e " c r i t i c a l " p ric e must have been main­ ta in e d f o r 30 days b e fo re th e 5Q-c©nt in c re a s e o ccu rred , th© d a lly and weekly f lu c tu a tio n s i n p ric e tended to be "iro n ed out.*1 Only r i s e s which might r e s u l t In a genuine upward tre n d r e s u lte d in wage in c re a se s due to th e " s lid in g s c a le ."

I t m y be noted again t h a t th e s e p erio d s were sh o rt

and se v e re , being r e s t r i c t e d to World War I and th e 1929 boom.

BLS d a ta e x i s t f o r re c e n t y e a rs on average h o u rly e a rn in g s, a v e rage -weekly h o u rs, and average weekly earn in g s .32

These f ig u r e s may be

used f o r th e p e rio d 1939 to 191*8 i n two wayss f i r s t , average r e a l e arn in g s may be determ ined from average w eekly e arn in g s and th e Consumers P ric e In d ex , and th e re c e n t changes n o ted ; and second, average h o u rly e arn in g s may be c o n sid ere d along w ith copper p ric e changes i n an e f f o r t to a p p ra ise th e e f f e c t o f th e " s lid in g sc a le " and th e Premium P ric e Plan f o r Copper upon earnings* Table 31 l i s t s th e d a ta f o r copper mining f o r th e p erio d 1939 to 191*8, and l i s t s th e BIS consumers1 P ric e index w ith th e d e fla te d average w eekly e a rn in g s , which become th e r e a l e arn in g s o f copper mining workers* The p r ic e index used i s th e BLS Consumers’ P ric e Index f o r m oderateincome f a m ilie s I n la rg e c i t i e s .

The us© o f t h i s index may be c r i t i c i s e d

as a t o o l f o r d e f la tin g w eekly earn in g s ease,

i n copper m ining. In o n ly one

namely th e copper mining d i s t r i c t a t B u tte , Montana,

is

th e p r ic e

in d ex s t r i c t l y a p p lic a b le to a p a r t i c u l a r d i s t r i c t ; i n a l l o th e r c ase s copper mining occurs away from la rg e c i t i e s , and in s o f a r a s p ric e s a re d i f f e r e n t In th e s e communities from th o se i n la rg e c i t i e s , th e us© o f th© index may be in ap p ro p ria te *

However, although i t may n o t be s t r i c t l y

a p p lic a b le to a l l o f th© mining d i s t r i c t s , i t may be v a li d to a degree when used w ith th e average wages o f copper mining w orkers in a l l d i s t r i c t s , sin c e wages d i f f e r re g io n a lly , a s p ric e s d i f f e r from c i t y to c i t y .

In

e f f e c t , average o f p ric e s ar© employed in co n ju n ctio n w ith averages o f earning* l^These d a ta a re a v a ila b le on a monthly b a s is only as f a r back as 1939; therefor© th e p e rio d 1939 to 191*3 i s tak en f o r stu d y in th e attem p t to d isc o v e r re c e n t changes in earn in g s and h o u rs.

157 TABLE 31 av erag es o f h o u rly e a rn in g s, weekly h o u r s , and w e e k l y e arn in g s IN COFFER MIMING, WITH CONSUMERS’ PRICE INDEX AID AVERAGE REAL EARNINGS I I COPPER MIMING, 1939-191*3 ( Indexi Average 1935-39 » 100)

T ear 1939 191.0 19U1 I9li2 1?U3 19UU 19i£ 191.6 19h7 1?U9

A v era g e H o u r ly E a r n in g s® 67.9* 72.7 79.2 90.1* 100.7 102.h 10k M 115.7 130.9 11*3.9

A verage W eek ly H ou rsa 1*1*9 3*1.7 1*2.3 *5.2 1.5.8 *5.2 14.-7 1.2.3 l*ii.7

A v era g e W eek ly E a rn in g s® 823.03 29.95 33.17 1.0.81. 1*6.15 1*6.21. 1.6,61. U9.U9 53.17 6U.32

C on su m ers' P r ic e In d ex" 99.5 100.3 105.2 116.5 123.6 125.5 128.1* 139.3 159.2 171.2

A v era g e B e a l W eek ly E a r n in g s 0 $28.97 30.13 31.53 35.08 37.33 36.85 36.33 35.53 36.52 37.58

aD ata From 1939 to 193*1* From Bureau oF Labor S t a t i s t i c s | 191*5 to 191*7 From Handbook oF Labor S t a t i s t i c s 191*7 E d itio n , o p * c i t . , p . 30; 191*3 From Monthly Labor Review/ V ol. '55~ Mo« 3, March 191*9, og, c i t . , p . 366. ^Data. For 1939-1*0 From Handbook o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s 191*1 E d itio n , V ol. I A ll Topics Except Wages, B u lle tin H o .® !* , Bureau of Labor S t a t i s t i c s , U nited S ta te s Department o f Labor (W ashington: Govern­ m ent P r in tin g O ffic e , 191*2), p . 36$ 191*1 to 191*7 From Handbook o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s 191*7 E d itio n , op. c i t . , p . 10?$ 191*3 From Monthly ’Labor Review, Vol* 58 Ho. 3, March 157*9, &g* c i t . , p . 375* eComputed by d iv id in g f ig u r e s i n t h i r d column by f ig u r e s in Fourth column. The r e a l e a rn in g s i n th e l a s t column o f th e ta b le were computed by d iv id in g average weekly e a rn in g s by th e consumers1 p ric e in d ex .

Aver­

age w eekly earn in g s were used r a th e r th a n average h o u rly e arn in g s because o f th e d iffe re n c e caused by v a ry in g hours o f work.

A measure o f income,

o f c o u rs e , should d e a l w ith a c tu a l Income For a p e rio d o f tim e—th e re fo re h o u rly e a rn in g s were ignored For th e purpose o f making an e stim a te of changes i n areal incomes o f copper naning w orkers.

The average r e a l

iseekly income th u s computed in c re a se d from 128.97 i n 1939 to $37*53 in

158 191*8, o r n e a rly a t h i r d i n te n y e a rs . T his income in c re a s e d id n o t tak e p la c e i n a s t r a i g h t l in e trend* An in c re a s e o ccu rred from 1939 to 191*3, follow ed by a d e c lin e i n income from 191*3 to 191*6; s in c e 191*6 th e re has been an in c re a s e .

I t would seem,

th e n , t h a t th e e a r ly war y e a rs o f 191*14*2, and a ls o 192*3, a ffo rd e d th e most r a p id g a in s .

With Governmental control® , in c lu d in g m oral su a sio n ,

r e a l income appears to have d e c lin e d , although s l i g h t l y i n comparison w ith le v e ls reach ed i n th e e a r l y war y e a rs .

T his d e c lin e continued a f t e r

th e end o f th e w ar, no doubt r e f l e c t in g th e g e n e ra l d ip i n b u sin ess con­ d i t i o n s , i n 191*6, due i n p a r t t o reco n v ersio n and perhaps i n p a r t to mis­ ta k e n e x p e c ta tio n s o f immediate re c e s s io n .

However, th e y e a rs 191*7 and

191*8 were both y e a rs o f renewed in c re a s e i n r e a l weekly e a rn in g s. Undoubtedly th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s of c o lle c tiv e b arg ain in g was im portant h ero , b u t th e degree o f such e ffe c tiv e n e s s must be l e f t f o r l a t e r d isc u ssio n . The r i s e i n th© p ric e le v e l i n th© te n -y e a r p e rio d may be ob serv ed , b e sid e s n o tin g t h a t th e in c re a s e was from 99*5 in 1939 to 171.2 i n 191*3, by in sp e c tin g th e d iffe re n c e i n r e a l weekly e arn in g s and average w eekly earning® : i n 1939 th e copper mining worker drew 128.08 per week, which approxim ated $28*97 in purchasing power r e l a te d to a base of th e average o f 1935-395 i n 192*3 he drew $61u 32, which approxim ated $37.53. The tre n d i n average h o u rly e arn in g s has been s t e a d i ly upward over the la s t te n y e a rs.

I n no y e a r d id a decrease o ccur; th e r i s e was from $ 0 ,6 7 9

p e r h our In 1939 to $1.1*39 i n 192*8.

However, t h i s in c re a se in h o u rly

e a rn in g s i s not g r e a tly s i g n i f ic a n t when th© weekly income of th e worker i s c o n sid e re d ; i t i s an in c re a s e o f approxim ately 112$; b u t th e weekly pay in c re a s e d o n ly 30$ approxim ately, i n term s o f r e a l wages.

159 The In flu e n c e o f th e tre n d In w eekly hours worked may be examined* I f w eekly hours d e c lin e , o f c o u rse , w h ile h o u rly e a rn in g s in c re a s e , w eekly e a rn in g s may r i s e b u t slo w ly , indeed In extreme c ase s th e y may f a l l .

Aver­

age w eekly hours decreased o n ly s l i g h t l y from 1*1.9 i n 1939 to 2*1.7 p e r week i n 192*0.

Then i n response to w ar endeavors average working hours p e r

week ro se i n 19i*3 t o 1*5*8 hours*

D ecline i n th e le n g th o f th e average

work week o ccu rred from 192*3 to 192*6, when average hours shrunk t o 2*2.8, and th en ro se t o 1*2*.7 i n 192*8.

The changes i n th e hours o f work would

n o t seem to be a s s o c ia te d w ith th e changes i n average h o u rly e arn in g s; however, i t must be noted h e re t h a t hours i n excess o f 1*0 p e r week were g e n e r a lly p a id a t overtim e r a t e s , t h a t i s , a t tim e and one h a l f .

Thus,

to some e x te n t th e changes i n average h o u rly e arn in g s must r e f l e c t changed hours o f o v ertim e, and th e earn in g s f o r a l l o f th e y e a rs co n sid ered must be a f f e c te d i n t h i s manner* F ig u re 17 p re s e n ts th e tre n d s i n th© m arket p ric e o f copper and average h o u rly e a rn in g s i n percentage changes by months over th e p e rio d 1939-192*8.

The g e n e ra l tre n d s i n th e two v a ria b le s a re both upwards over

th e p e rio d , w ith m arket p r ic e s r i s i n g r e l a t i v e l y more th a n average h o u rly e a rn in g s .

The s e n s i t i v i t y o f both p r ic e s o f copper and earn in g s o f

w o rk ers, a s w e ll as employment, t o f lu c tu a tio n s , has a lre a d y been p o in te d o u t.

Th© r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r changes i n p ric e s a re to be expected.

Many

f a c to r s e n te r in to th© reaso n s f o r th e upward trends* th e in flu e n c e o f th e ”s lid in g s c a le ” ; in c re a s in g u n io n is a tio n i n th e in d u s tr y , w ith con­ sequent p re s su re from th© union f o r h ig h e r wages as p r ic e s mount; th e in flu e n c e o f such f a c to r s as th e degree o f la b o r m o b ility p re s e n t, and th© s c a r c i t y o f la b o r , a s w e ll a s th e s k i l l s re q u ire d o f t h a t la b o r.

FIGURE 17 yiliiiilflflililiiililliisr--""-1 IWHliiiiillSli-------- - is

Jee-

fM «

leen -

• ■•

so-

•
6? E d i t i o n , o p , c i t * , p . 1 3 9 . PLeong e t s i * , og# c i t . , pp. 2 8 , 1 0 * 6 ib id , , p* 29*

1 Ib id . , pp. 27-29* rfThe p r ice o f copper d eclin ed to an a ll-tim o low in 1 9 ^ 7 i&il® fchs stock o f copper reached, an tgjprecedented peak in 1 922.w I b id ., p * 27, fo o tn o te 3 .

182 Qpen-cut o p eratio n s, as p rev io u sly exp lain ed , must be ca rried on a t a la rg e outputj in order to make th e method pay, large q u a n titie s o f ore must be mined and processed, and machinery employed o n a v a st sca le*

The

g rea t curtailm ent in copper ore production from su rface m ines, although le s s r e la tiv e ly than the curtailm ent In ore production o f underground m ines, meant th a t operations m r e carried on a t much le s s than cap acity ; thus machinery was not f u lly u t ilis e d , and sin ce the m echanical tech ­ nology, so h ig h ly developed in open-cut m ining, was used on ly to part o f i t s ca p a c ity , i t may be expected th a t p ro d u ctiv ity in output o f ore per man-hour should be le ss*

This unused ca p a city mad© p o ssib le the rapid

expansion o f open-cut mining w ith recovery a fte r 1933Further stren gth i s le n t t h is argument when i t i s remembered th a t iron mining has been don© alm ost s o le ly b y open-cut methods sine© long before the f i r s t world war, and bitum inous-coal, a n th ra cite, and lead and sin e mining have been done c h ie fly by underground methods* There was in th ese in d u str ies no fundamental change in mining technique a v a ila b le fo r depression in flu en ces to play upon, which a t the same tim e would account fo r larg e and sudden changes in labor p ro d u ctiv ity . Copper mining p ro d u ctiv ity measured in terms o f recoverable m etal shows no p a rticu la r low in the f i r s t few years o f the period covered by Table 33*

There I s probably some r is e in p rod u ctiv ity throughout the

p eriod , but i t i s s lig h t , and fa r from constant In rat© o f in crea se.

It

i s ev id en t th a t p ro d u ctiv ity measured thus i s r e la tiv e ly as high as the p r o d u c tiv itie s o f the other areas in general fo r the period in d icated j and i t was high er than th a t o f any o f the oth ers fo r the f i r s t two y ea rs, f a llin g in th e r ec essio n year o f 1938 along w ith iro n m ining.

The

183 tech n iq u es and m echanieation o f th© concentrating and sm elting process were w e ll developed before and throughout th e period.^

Since copper

mining output per man-hour measured In terms o f recoverable m etal in clu d es th e removal o f th© or© from the earth as w e ll as concen tration and sm eltin g , th© high development o f reduction technology i s fu rth er made m anifest*

The su ggestion may be made th at over the years In dicated

in Table 33* labor p ro d u ctiv ity in creases were due probably to changes in ore mining technology rather than to improvements in concentration and sm eltin g , bearing in mind th© assumption adopted in th is paragraphs th a t labor p ro d u ctiv ity in crea ses in the copper industry are duo to improving techn ology, ch iefly *

This improvement was caused a t le a s t to

some ex ten t by the in crea sin g ly important part played by open-cut m ining, and, as w ill be evidenced la t e r in th is chapter, by the adoption o f the block-cavin g method o f e x p lo itin g underground porphyry d ep o sits on a la rg er sc a le than occurred during the depression y ea rs, p a r tic u la r ly during th e low year o f 1933* The long-term trend in labor p rod u ctivity i s revealed in Table 3-i in th e man-hour measure, and in Figure 18 in the m an-shift measure* two trends have the same peaks and t r o t h s in a c tiv ity *

The

B eferring to

Table 3U, th© in crease in tons o f ore per man-hour has been, over the years 1911 to 1936, 30>«95, or roughly 3 tim es, w hile th e in crease in pounds o f copper per man-hour has been 2U5*95, or approxim ately 2 | tim es. Ill©©© proportions o f in crease are e s s e n tia lly th© same as those th a t are %‘h© r is e in percent o f copper content o f ore recovered rose from a low o f approxim ately 625 about 1915 to 305 in 1919- 20 $ by 1932 recovery was 905, roughly i t s present (192$) le v e l. See Leone e t a l . , o*>* c i t . , pp. 173-178 fo r a d iscu ssio n o f long-term changes in reduction techn iqu es.

'LA

S tT

CM

CM

s §r

Os

K

ttt

s

O § OUTPUT PER MAN-SHIFT AT COPPER MINES, IN POUNDS OF COPPER AND TONS OF ORE, 1880 TO 1936

m a ©

CM

o>

*8 «cop TJ © 43 t=> 6o Jh

a* © &

bo

•H

-p •H o §i 31

Os CO

CO

®l & o 5 ••

©

o

CO

a O

-P

CO

— CO CO

OH

185 ©vldsnt in Figure 1 .

Copper ore produced per man-hour shows low s, In

Table -3U, in the years 1913, 1919, 1921, 1929-30, and 1932-33.

These are

TA3LE 3li o u t pu t p e i

m m m at

c o p p e r m in e s ,

i h toms

o f orb mjb p o m r n

or c o m a fe e man-hour, 1911 to 1936

Tear 1911 1912 1913 191U 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1921* 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

193k 1935 1936

C op p er O re an d T a i l i n g s - ............ ........ (Tons)_________ 0.272 0.282 0.262 0.342 0.382 0.382 0.388 0.U12 0.390 0.1(26 0.375 0.448 0.552

0.602

O.638 O.68X 0.738 0.734 0.714 0.718 0.835 0.662 0.623 0.796 0.857 1.104

Recoverable Copper (Pounds) 9 ,9 38 9.601 8.731 10.970 12.788 13.003 12.222 12.328 12.559 13.433 12.768 15.778 17.583 19.372 19.796 20.097 20.985 22.399 20.461 20.987 25.416 24.981 27.334 3I.O 76 33.094 34.475

Sourcei Leong s t a l« , og. e it * , p . 21lu th e same years o f lows In copper or© produced per m an-shlft in Figure 18 • Recoverable copper produced per man-hour in Table 3 k shows lows in 1913, 1917 and 1910, I 92I , 1929-30, and 1932.

These are the same years o f lows

In pounds o f copper per raan-shift in Figure IB .

From th© observed low s, and from a p eru sal o f Figure 18, i t i s ev id en t th a t th ere i s a sim ila r ity la the movements o f p ro d u ctiv ity measured in ton s o f or© and pounds o f copper* d iffe r e n c e may be observed in the e a r ly 1930*s*

However, a n o ticea b le While the year 1931 was

one o f highs fo r p ro d u ctiv ity measured both by recoverable m etal and by ore removed, 1932 was a much lower year in terms o f ore removed than in terms o f recoverable metal*.

The year 1933 continued s t i l l lower fo r

p ro d u ctiv ity measured in ton s o f o r e, but r eg iste re d an in crease over 1932 fo r p ro d u ctiv ity measured in tern s o f recovered metal*

When the

upturn came, however, in the ton s o f or© measurement, th e recovery was more rapid than in the case o f the pounds o f copper measurement*

This

f a c t su b sta n tia tes the su ggestion made e a r lie r in t h is ch ap ter, th a t the in flu en ce o f the depression may have been c h ie fly th e cau se, or a t le a s t in part th e cau se, o f th© r e la tiv e ly low p rod u ctiv ity in terms o f ore removal in 1935 contrasted to th a t in terms o f recovered m etal.

The sug­

g e stio n made was th a t the depression in flu en ce ssay have operated through the d iffe re n c es in mining method, r esu ltin g in a much lower p ro d u ctiv ity , a t th e bottom o f th© dep ression , I n t e r m

o f ton s o f ore mined* then,

w ith recovery, a sharp in crease in p ro d u ctivity measured in tons o f ore occurred because o f the rapid readoption o f the open-cut method, or, ra th er, reopening o f the open-cut m ines.

Further, the much s lig h te r

slump in p ro d u ctiv ity measured in terms o f recovered m etal in 1332 and th© r e la tiv e ly stead y in crease a fte r th a t year may r e f le c t th e h igh ly developed technology o f or© concentration and sm eltin g, a technology in which there was no advantage to be gained during the w orst depression years by change in methods.

13?

Other fa c to r s contrib uted to t h is sharp drop in p ro d u ctiv ity in th e e a r ly depression years in ton s o f or© contrasted to th© s lig h te r drop in pounds o f copper*

Leong mentions th ese as folios?®, in h is d iscu ssio n

o f underground mining* The decrease during the depression was due p rim arily to se v er a l causes* F ir s t, when th© mines operated a t on ly a sm all fr a c tio n o f th e ir productive ca p a city , the number o f men engaged in maintenance was reduced but s lig h t ly , w ith th e r e s u lt th a t t h is r e la tiv e ly largo overhead lab or had a depressing e ff e c t on th© output per worker during th© period s o f low production* Secondly, s e le c tiv e mining which was p ra cticed in te n siv e ly during the depression a lso tended to c u r ta il th e output o f ore per worker, fo r i t required a consid­ erab le amount o f tim e to so r t th® broken or© underground by hand# Moreover, as the amount o f broken m aterial rejec ted and l e f t in th© mines was r e la tiv e ly la i^ e r than when s e le c tiv e mining was not done o r don© le s s in te n s iv e ly , th© output o f or® per worker was neces­ s a r ily sm aller than i t otherw ise would have been* F in a lly , some o f th® block-cavin g mines th a t had a high ore output per man reduced th e ir production more than p rop o rtio n a lly, thus causing a sharp d ec lin e in th© o v e r -a ll tren d . As copper output per man a t th ese minss was only m oderately higher than th a t a t the r e s t o f the j£md©rgroraid_/ m ines, t h is decrease in production had v ir tu a lly no e f f e c t on trend o f output o f copper per worker. * • • • The high m etal conten t in th© or© mined s e le c t iv e ly helped to maintain the output o f m etal per man a t a high le v e l even though s e le c tiv e mining required a g rea ter amount-of labor per ton o f o r e .9 Thus, a t the tim e when open-cut m ining, w ith i t s r e la tiv e ly high p ro d u ctiv ity in or® r e m o v e d , w a s shaxply c u r ta ile d , there were in flu ­ ences operating in underground mining to account fo r downward s h if t s in p ro d u ctiv ity i n mines using th is method.

E eversals in th ese in flu e n c e s,

occurring w ith expanding production in the years a fte r 1933, helped, along w ith the reopening and expanded production o f the open-cut m ines, to account fo r the rapid r is e in p ro d u ctiv ity follow in g th a t year.

9l*@ang e t a l . , op# c i t *, pp. 70-71* ^ D iffe r e n c e s in p ro d u ctiv ity due to mining method are d iscu ssed

i n d e t a il la te r in t h is chapter.

188 The fo reg o in g d is c u s s io n , w hile e x p la in in g i n nom degree th© trend® i n p ro d u c tiv ity i n copper m ining, and co n sid erin g i n some d e t a i l th e change® m d th e causes th e re fo re during th e d e p re ssio n y e a rs 19321936, a ls o make® e v id e n t a p o s s ib le tr u th s t h a t probably th e c h ie f f a c to r in flu e n c in g la b o r p ro d u c tiv ity i n copper mining has been th e developing technology o f th e in d u stry * 3^

beong consider® th e most im p ortant event

i n th e h is to r y o f copper mining to be th e in tro d u c tio n o f th© open-cut and b lo ck -cav in g methods o f mining porphyry d e p o s its , th e form er f o r th o se d e p o s its ly in g c lo s e to th© s u rfa c e , and th e l a t t e r f o r th e la rg e porphyry masses a t g r e a te r d ep th , .n e c e ssita tin g an underground, method cap ab le o f handling la rg o tonnages o f le a n or® economically* ^

In under­

ground mining th e re has been an in c re a s in g use o f g ra v ity i n o re rem oval, and some refin em en ts i n th e p ro ce sses o f o re rem oval, w ith few m ajor c h a n g e s#23

M echanisation in th© in d u s try has grown from'® t o t a l h orse­

power o f 13,500 i n i860 to 700,000 i n 1929*

Baduced to terms o f workmen,

t h i s m a n s a change from 2*2 horsepower p e r worker in 1880 to 15#8 31» Improvements i n mining and o re -d re ss in g technology a re th e most im p ortant f a c to r s re sp o n sib le f o r th e rem arkable r i s e i n th© outpu t p e r u n it o f labor* These advances were la r g e ly stim u la te d by th e d e s ire on th e p a rt o f th® mine o p e ra to rs t o reduce c o a ts and in c re a se p r o fits * Kmn c o m p etitio n w ith in th e in d u s try and mounting n a tu r a l handicaps prompted a p p lic a tio n o f th e most e f f i c i e n t and economical methods o f minifig* The ex h au stio n o f more a c c e ss ib le and r ic h e r d e p o sits n e c e ssi­ t a t e d e x p lo ita tio n o f o re s po o rer i n copper c o n te n t and ly in g a t g re a te r depths* To cope w ith r i s i n g pro d u ctio n c o s ts r e s u ltin g from in c re a sin g p h y s ic a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and h ig h e r wages and ta x e s , rain© o p e ra to rs re s o rte d t o a p p lic a tio n o f la b o r-sa v in g and co st-re d u cin g devices* Technologic advances were th u s induced by th e d e s ire to reduce p ro d u ctio n c o s ts and to widen m argins o f p ro fit.* 1 Leong e t a l» , og. c i t * , p . 3* 1 2 |b id ., p* 13jbid .

9*

189

horsepower p er worker in 1929.^ T h is change In m echanisation has c o n s is te d o f improvements th roughout th e mining and re d u c tio n p ro c e sse s, in which in v e n tio n has play ed a la rg e p a rt#

Improvements i n th e e ff ic ie n c y o f d r i l l i n g equip­

ment, w ith s p e c ia l d rill® f o r p a r t i c u l a r jo b s , and th e s u b s titu tio n o f dynamite and g e l a t i n e x p lo siv e s f o r black pomior, have in c re a se d th e e f f ic ie n c y o f ore bxm k-up.

Loading and haulage equipment have improved,

rep lacin g - th e hand shovel' and man-powered mine car* .P a r tic u la r ly i n th e o p en -cu t mines lo ad in g and haulage equipment have c o n trib u te d to g ro a t g a in s i n worker p ro d u c tiv ity ? e l e c t r i c and steam power sho v els which handle v a s t yardage® o f o re p e r day and lo ad i t in to r a ilr o a d c a r s have meant la r g e q u a n titie s o f o re handled a t minimum c o s t and e f f o r t . Improved mine management and la rg e - s c a le prom otional e f f o r t s , along w ith improved working c o n d itio n s and s a f e ty programs i n s t i t u t e d by forw ard -looking mine d ir e c tio n , have a lso c o n trib u te d to th e r i s i n g prod­ u c tiv ity .^

Probably th e in te g r a tio n i n th e in d u s try may have in flu e n c e d

la b o r p r o d u c tiv ity . ^ fth ile in c re a s e d la b o r p ro d u c tiv ity i s p o s s ib ly duo c h ie f ly to te c h n o lo g ic a l Improvement, t h i s in c re a se was accom plished only a g a in st mounting p h y sic a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n any given sine*

In underground m ines,

^ I b i d . , pp. 10-11.

tiib id * , p. 15* ^ I n t e g r a t i o n o f th® in d u s try , although la r g e ly a p a ssiv e f a c to r i n th e r i s e o f la b o r p ro d u c tiv ity , has n e v e rth e le s s e x e rte d a s ig n if ic a n t In flu e n c e on o u tp u t p e r man, f o r i t has f a c i l i t a t e d re se a rc h work i n th® f i e l d s o f mining and m etallu rg y and th e a d a p ta tio n o f a more e f f i c i e n t tech n o lo g y and b e t t e r tech n iq u es t h a t have, i n tu r n , ra is e d la b o r produc­ t i v i t y and reduced p ro d u ctio n costs.® I b i d . , p . 21.

190

o p e ra tio n s a t g r e a te r depths in c re a s e c o s ts , and le a n e r o re s mined mean a le s s e r y ie ld .

I n th e open-cut m ines, as th e p i t in c re a s e s i n e ls e

o r d i n a r i ly th e s trip p in g r a t i o becomes l e s s fa v o ra b le a s overburden In cre ases.

A lso, th e d e p o sits around w a ter ta b le l e v e l, c o n s is tin g o f

o x id is e d and rapergone en ric h ed su lp h id e o re s , a re th e ric h e s t*

With

in c re a s in g depth o f o p e ra tio n th e prim ary su lp h id es a re norm ally much le a n e r .

Tempering th e modifying e ffe c t- o f in c re a sin g p h y sic a l d i f f i ­

c u l t i e s i n e x p lo itin g a p a r t i c u l a r mine, however, a re new d isco v eries* As o ld mines become m arginal, and th e n cease o p e ra tio n , now ones may be

opened.^ The p r o d u c tiv ity o f la b o r i n v a rio u s mining methods may make p o s s ib le u s e fu l comparisons*

Table 35 lis t® th e output p e r man-hour f o r

th e y e a rs 191? to 1936, by th e c h ie f mining methods.

Over th e tw enty-

y e a r p e rio d th e open-cut method was by f a r th e h ig h e s t i n p ro d u c tiv ity . The second h ig h e s t was th e block-caving method o f underground mining* The method w ith th e p o o re st showing was sq u a re -se ttin g *

The f a c t to be

n o te d , however, i s t h a t output p e r man-hour in open-cut mining has been from f iv e to n e a rly te n tim es as high as i n a l l underground methods* Labor has been most p ro d u ctiv e i n o re removal in su rfa c e m ining.

T his

i s p o s s ib ly th e most im portant s in g le f a c to r i n th e improving technology which h as probably caused th e r i s e i n p ro d u c tiv ity o f copper-m ining la b o r. 2-7At a g iven tim e , I t i s o fte n th e h a b it o f th o se viewing th e e x p lo ita tio n o f n a tu r a l re so u rc e s to e stim a te when th ey w i l l be ,fusod up,® assuming t h a t a l l has been discovered and e x p lo ite d a t t h a t tim e . T his was tr u e a c e n tu ry ago and w i l l probably he tr u e a c e n tu ry hence. However, new d is c o v e rie s , l i k e t h a t o f th e San Manuel p ro p e rty n e ar T ig e r, A riso n a, which had proved by th e end o f 192*6 a major new copper ore body o f immense p ro p o rtio n s , c o n tin u a lly confound th e Hview ers w ith alarm*®

191 The o p en -cut method, borrowed from th e iron-m ining in d u s try , and th e underground b lock-caving method, th e in n o v a tio n o f copper m ining, both being adopted i n th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , a re undoubtedly more re sp o n sib le TABUS 3S OBXFUT PER M M O U R AT COPPER MI?®, IB SHORT TOm Of RAW ORE SOLD OR TREATED, BY MJHI5Q METHOD, 1917 TO 1936

Year 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 192k 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 2931 1932 1933 1931, 1935 1936

All Wines 0.1*36 0 .1,87 Q.hb2 0.1*91 0.24,0 O.U58 0.566 0.623 0.639 0.670 0.705 0.765 0.716 0 .722, 0.851 0.720 0,731 0.862 0.952 1.191

o|

I 1

Source:

OpenCut Wines 1 .782, 1.81*9 1.1(1,7 1.589 2.0to 2.662, 1.930 1.903 1.776 1.960 2.237 2.376 2.237 2.032 2.518 2.183 2.585 2.75U 3.U53 3.931

Under­ ground lines 0*323 0*323 0.32k 0.353 0.31,6 0.329 0,363 0.398 0.202, 0.202, 0.!*5l 0.24>? 0.24,7 0,516 0.565 0.2,38 0.268 0.302 0.366 0.536

SlockCavlnE 0.736 O .860 0.899 0.957 1.229 0.929 0.879 0.935 1.068 1.12!* 1,135 1.280 1.277 1.627 2.110 2.203 1.035 2.671 1.337 2.858

CutOpen- Squareand- Shrink­ Stope F1H age Set 0.390 0.152 0.220 0.31*3 0.162 0.198 0.335 0.392, 0.335 0.12,5 0.201 0.377 0.378 0.161 0.198 0 .1*23 0.172 0.2,36 0.H7 0.103 0.270 0.161 0.198 0.387 0.318 0.132, 0.22,0 0.365 0.2,01, 0.336 0.221 0.229 0.206 0.372, 0.14,1 0.216 0.267 0,321 0.203 0.24,8 0.290 0.324* 0.210 0.519 0.223 0.352 0.275 0.529 0.261 0.331, 0.216 0,2,35 0.251, 0.250 0.2,57 0.353 0.382, 0.22,9 0.223 0.1(91 0.212 0.230 0.199 0.2,32 0.369 0.21,3 0.057 0.399 0.270 0.1£9 0.105 0.173 0.10*2 0.212 0.351 0.358 0.223 0.556 0.380 0.509

*1. » OP. pit., pp. 222,-237.

th a n any o th e r f a c to r s f o r the r i s e i n p ro d u c tiv ity * 1^

?Jhlle a l l o f th e

methods show an in c re a s e i n p ro d u c tiv ity over th e p e rio d covered in T able 35, th e p ro d u c tiv ity o f th e mines using th e block-caving method has in c re a s e d a t th e g r e a te s t r a t e , w ith th e open-cut method second* iS j b id ., p.

9*

Thtss,

192 n o t o a ly has th© adop tio n o f th e two m eth o d been o f prim© im portance in in c re a s in g p ro d u c tiv ity , bu t th e g r e a te s t g a in s i n la b o r p ro d u c tiv ity have o c cu rred i n mines using th e s e methods* Labor p ro d u c tiv ity by s t a t e s a ls o a ffo rd s in te r e s tin g comparisons f o r study*

f a b le 36 g iv es p r o d u c tiv itie s on t h i s re g io n a l basis*

I t is

obvious t h a t re g io n a l p r o d u c tiv itie s a re l a r g e ly determ ined by mining method*

M ichigan and Montana (C a lifo rn ia and Idaho fu rn is h to g e th e r

l i t t l e more th a n 1$ o f t o t a l ore e x tra c te d ) a re s t r i c t l y underground o p eratio n s*

Since y ie ld from t a i l i n g s i s excluded, and th e fig u re s a re

th erefo r© based e n t i r e l y on o re removed, th© p r o d u c tiv itie s are r e l a ­ t i v e l y low*

I t m ight n o t be expected t h a t Montana o u tp u t p e r man-hour

sh o u ld be low er th a n t h a t o f Michigan, b u t such i s th e case*

In s p ite

o f g r e a t e r depth o f o p e ra tio n s i n th© M ichigan m ines, and a l e s s e r degree o f m echanisation and m odernisation th a n th© Montana m ines, th e output i s g r e a te r .

T his s i t u a t i o n may p a r t i a l l y be accounted f o r by th© high

degree o f s e le c tio n i n th© o p e ra tio n o f given mines in Michigan*

Since

a la r g e number o f m arginal mines e x is te d i n th© Michigan a re a throughout th e y e a rs l i s t e d , probably only th© most e a s i l y worked, w ith the h ig h e st y i e l d , and n e a re s t th e s u rfa c e , were o p e ra ted .

The p ro p o rtio n o f mar­

g in a l mines i n th e Montana a re a was much l e s s ,

f u r t h e r , th e low er prod­

u c t i v i t i e s o f th© C a lif o rn ia and Idaho mines which a re included w ith th o se o f Montana, w hile o f much lo s s im portance in t o t a l or© e x tra c te d , t o some e x te n t low er th e o u tp u ts shown f o r Montana.

Another f a c to r to

be n o ted I n comparisons o f th e s e two d i s t r i c t s i s th e in c re a se in prod­ u c t i v i t y o ver th© y e a rs f o r Montana and th© g e n e ra lly d e c lin in g produc­ t i v i t y f o r M ichigan.

T his d iffe re n c e may r e f l e c t th e r e l a t i v e l y g r e a te r

193 © xteat o f m echanisation and o th e r te c h n o lo g ic a l advances adopted i n Montana.

TA3LE 36 output fee im -iio m A t coffee is sm m TOMS OF HAW OHS SQiiB OH tMAfM> 31 STATE, 191? TO 1936

Year

A ll Bines

Arisons

191? 1913 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1921* 1925 1926 192? 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 393h 1935 1936

0.1*36 0.1*3? 0 ,14*2 0.1*91 0 .10*0 0.1*53 0.566 0.623 0.639 0.670 0.705 0.765 0.716 0.721* 0.351 0.720 0 .7 31 0.362 0.952 1.391

0.1*33 0 .1*91 0.1*85 0.509 0.586 0.636 0.591* 0.661* 0.753 0.770 0,815 0.829 0,838 0.950 1,166 1.026 0.315 0.730 0.931* 1.392

Alaska, C alifo rn ia Gorth Caro­ Idaho, lin a , and and Michigan. Tennessee Montana

Mexico, Meirada, and Utah

0 .161* 0.181* 0.177 0.131* 0.166 0.175 0.183 0.203 0.176 ' 0.176 0.189 0.205 0.136 0.216 0.221* 0,133 0.167 0.150 0.220 0.255

1.500 1 ,1*59 1,113 1.332 1,1*16 2.013 1.61*0 1,590 1.1*70 1.673 1.853 1.932 1.811* 1.601 2,093 2.050 2.537 2.602 3.1*1*3 i*.Q5l*

0.359 0,315 0.311 0.31*5 0.3U 0.231* O.260 0.2?6 0.310 0.297 0.317 0,311* 0.295 0.320 0.351* 0,191* 0.21*9 0.228 0.230 0.369

0.1*15 0 .1*78 0 .1*1*0 0.1*53 0 .1*61 0.1*92 0.515 0,51*7 0.531 0.1*63 0.507 0.507 0.52*1* 0.553 0.513 0.703 0,701* 0.857 0.779 0.752

Hew

Scarce t hoong et al*» op* cite, p p. 239-251.

The d i s t r i c t s o f A laska, ilorth C a ro lin a , and Tennessee show g r e a te r o u tp u ts i n a l l th e y e a rs th an Michigan.

Some o f th e mines i n

th e s e a r e a s , a s f o r in sta n c e th o se i n A laska, were r ic h i n y i e l d , and r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y worked, alth o u g h , lik e Michigan and Montana m ines, th ey have been o p e ra ted by underground methods.

I t I s l i k e l y t h a t th e e a s i l y

worked and r ic h d e p o sits o f A laska, no lo n g e r operated because o f th e p r o h ib itiv e tr a n s p o r ta tio n d i f f e r e n t i a l , may have served to i n f l a t e th e

19h However, i t i s to be noted t h a t th e o u tp u ts

productivities listed*

in c r e a s e s t e a d i l y over th e y e a rs , although slowly*

T his in c re a s e in d i­

c a te s improving technology i n th e face o f g r e a te r depths o f operation* The d i s t r i c t s d isc u sse d i n th e foregoing paragraphs a re th o se employing alm ost s o le ly underground method®, and underground methods o th e r th an th e block-caving method* f i s s u r e v e in s o r lo d e s .

The d e p o sits have c o n s is te d o f

The rem ainder o f th e s t a t e s l i s t e d g a in most o f

t h e i r p ro d u ctio n from d issem in ated , o r "porphyry” d e p o s its , and a re mined c h i e f l y by th e open-cut su rfa c e method, w ith some s l i g h t g lo ry -h o lin g and use o f th e block-caving underground method*

A rizona, however, has

con­

s id e r a b le p ro d u ctio n from underground mines employing o th e r th an th e b lo ck -cav in g method*

T his s i t u a t i o n i s r e f le c te d i n th e p r o d u c tiv itie s

l i s t e d , which a re g r e a te r i n every y e a r th an f o r the d i s t r i c t s using underground methods o th e r than block-caving c h ie f ly , and le s s th an f o r th e Hew Mexico, Nevada., and Utah d i s t r ic t s *

The la tter-n am e d d i s t r i c t s

employ c h ie f ly open-cut methods, w ith some o f th e mine© i n Nevada, which a re underground o p e ra tio n s , using th e block-caving method.

Underground

o p e ra tio n s by o th e r th a n block-caving in th e s e s t a te s a re s lig h t*

In

b o th th e Arizona a re a , and th e New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah group, th e o u tp u ts in c re a se s t e a d i ly and a t an obviously g r e a te r r a te th a n th o se o f any o th e r s t a t e o r group o f s t a t e s l i s t e d . I t seems e v id e n t t h a t i t may be s a id w ith some assurance t h a t p ro b ab ly th e most im portant f a c t o r i n la b o r p ro d u c tiv ity has been th a t o f changing and improving technology? and i n p a r t i c u l a r , th e method o f o re e x tr a c tio n has w ith l i t t l e doubt played the most Im portant p a r t . method employed, however, although developed and i n s t i t u t e d by men, i s

The

1 95 r i g i d l y d eterm ined by. th e g e o lo g ic a l and g eo g rap h ical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th® d ep o sit* The Working Environment S ince copper d e p o sits o f commercial grade e x i s t i n m ountain, o r a t l e a s t h ig h la n d , reg io n s e x c lu s iv e ly , th ey o r d in a r ily a re d i f f i c u l t o f access*

They a re i n a re a s removed from c i t i e s and m e tro p o litan d i s t r i c t s .

Some o f th e f a c i l i t i e s a s s o c ia te d w ith la rg e urban development, such as sewage d is p o s a l, p u r if ie d w a ter, e l e c t r i c i t y , and f u e l su p p ly , a re th e r e ­ f o r e o r d in a r ily lacking*

As c i t i e s o r towns grow up i n mining communi­

t i e s , such f a c i l i t i e s a re norm ally forthcom ing, a t l e a s t i n th e im portant copper-m ining d i s t r i c t s *

However, i n d i s t r i c t s o f sm all m ines, o r mar­

g in a l m ines, permanent mining camps may e x is t in s te a d o f more developed towns? and i n some mining a re a s th e se c o m u n itie s may be tem porary.

It

may be ex p ected , th e r e f o re , t h a t i n th e d i s t r i c t s o f la rg e and s u s ta in e d cop p er p ro d u ctio n , mining communities w i l l norm ally he su p p lied w ith pure and adequate w a te r, an adequate f u e l supply, e l e c t r i c i t y , modern plum bing, and o th e r h e a lth conveniences, and t h a t th ese w i l l lik e w ise be su p p lie d to th® m iners on th e jo b .

I t may be expected, however, t h a t in

many sm all and m arginal mining d i s t r i c t s th© f a c i l i t i e s n e cessary to h ig h h e a lth sta n d ard s may be lack in g both f o r the mining community and f o r th© workmen i n th© m ines. A stu d y o f th e working environment in some o f th© Utah nonferrous m etal m ines, made i n 195? and 1939-kO, re v e a le d c o n d itio n s such as th© follow ing* d rin k in g w a ter o r ig in a tin g in abandoned mine tu n n e ls , su b je c t to contam ination? s h a f t seepage used f o r d rin k in g w a te r, and showing con­ ta m in a tio n ; w aste d isp o sa l achieved w ith th e use o f open flumes in mine

196 tu n n e ls , and raw sewage dumped in to a d ja c e n t stream s by community r e s i ­ dents^ occurrence o f d ysentary and typhoid fe v e rj and overcrowded housing fa c ilitie s •

C onditions such as th e se may be expected i n m m mining

d is tric ts * The h e a lth o f th e workmen i n mining occupations i s o f immediate economic concern to them* H ealth i s p robably o f g r e a te r valu e to th e -miner than to most people a s h is occupation alm ost in v a ria b ly demands t)\e p o ssessio n o f f a r more th a n o rd in a ry p h y sic a l a b i l i t i e s * lh©n liis h e a lth f a i l s , he i s u s u a lly re le g a te d to th e scrap heap* The m iner has •numerous ad v an tag es, a s w e ll as some v e ry d e f in ite d isad v an tag es, as reg ard s h e a lth , i n com parison w ith persons engaged i n o th e r ty p es o f Indus** t i d a l endeavor. P r a c tic a lly a l l m iners a re fo rc e d to ta k e c o n sid e r­ a b le amounts o f e x e rc is e ; i n g e n e ra l, th e mim w orker, in reaso n ab ly w ell-co n d u cted m ines, has alm ost id e a l c o n d itio n s i n h is working p la c e as to tem perature and humidity* There a re , however, e x ce p tio n s. Many deep mines have high tem p era tu re s, o th e rs h av, high tem peratures and h ig h h u m id itie s, and open o r shallow mines a re exposed to extreme changes o f weather#*® T hus, w h ile h e a lth i s o f f i r s t im portance to m iners, some o f them o fte n have c o n d itio n s o f work more n e a rly approaching optimum i n d e s i r a b i l i t y th a n do workers i n many o th e r i n d u s t r ia l o ccu p atio n s.

O ther miner® may

fa c e more u n d e sirab le c o n d itio n s th an many o th e r w orkers. ^ H e a lth and Working Environment o f Efonferrous M etal Mine Workers 9 P ublic H ealth B u lle tin Ho* 2??, F e d e ra l S e c u rity Agency, United S ta te s P ublic H ealth S erv ice (Washingtons Government P rin tin g O ffic e , l? it2 ), p . %$* T his stu d y was made by th e Utah S ta te Board o f H ealth, th e S ta te I n d u s t r i a l Commission, and th e U nited State® P ublic H ealth Service* Th© mines in v e s tig a te d were 30 in number, o p erated by th re e companies i n th e th r e e m ajor mining d i s t r i c t s i n Utah5 Bingham, Park C ity , and T in tic # A ll o f th e mines observed were underground w orkings. 20j)# H arrin g to n , !,The Miner* s H e a lth ,” N ational S a fe ty Hews, O ctober 1933, p« 32, quoted i n H ealth and M iscellaneous Hazards in M etal M ines, Miners* C irc u la r ST, Bureau o f Mines, United S ta te s B eparteent o f th© I n t e r i o r (Washingtons Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 19U6), p . h.

91

1 There I s l i t t l e doubt t h a t sic k n ess l a more c o s tly both i n term s

Of money and i n h e a lth th an a c c id e n ts .2’*’ T his i s probably tr u e f o r both in d u s tr y i n g e n e ra l and f o r m etal m ining.22

th e p r in c ip a l d ise a s e to

which m etal m iners a re a d d ic te d i s s i l i c o s i s . ^

T ills i s a d ise a se o f th e

lu n g s , due to some form o f th e element s i l i c o n , and o r d in a r ily i s con­ t r a c t e d by b re a th in g d u s t - f i l l e d a i r c o n ta in in g

s

i l i c

a

.

S i l i c a Is a

c h ie f elem ent in th e h ard -ro c k form ations o f which most m etal mine® con­ s i s t ? p ro bably no mine i s f r e e o f i i . 2^

However, d u s t, along w ith

noxious g ases and sudden tem perature changes, i s p a r t l y th e cause o f o th e r r e s p ir a to r y d ise a se s to which m iners a re su b je c ts b r o n c h itis , i n f l u ­ e n z a , pneumonia, pulmonary tu b e rc u lo s is , and a n th r a c o s ilic o s is A nother d ise a se o f im portance t o m etal m iners, although not norm ally as -common i n copper mines as i s s i l i c o s i s , i s le a d poiso n in g . A Bureau o f Minas stu d y a tt r ib u t e d most c ases o f le a d poisoning among m iners to th e In h a lin g o f d u st laden w ith le a d c a rb o n a te .2?

j t is

h e a l t h and Mjaeellaneou® Hazards i n M etal Mines, Miners* C ir c u la r 37," Bureau o f Mines, UziiWd ^ ta te s Bepartmant o f th e I n t e r i o r (Washingtons Government P rin tin g O ffic e , l!?U6)> p . 3# 22I b i d . 2 3 lM d ., pp. 5 -6 . ^ ro ld . 2% b i d ., p# 9 * f firb id . , p . 6 .

2?a . L. Murray, Load Poisoning: in th e Mining: o f Lead i n Utah, T ech n ical Paper 339, Bureau o f Mines, United S ta le s Department o f Coimaeitse (Washington* Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 1926), passim .

198 e v id e n t, therefore, t h a t th© c h ie f h e a lth hazard to metal miners i s probably th e presence of dust.23

The in cid en ce and s e v e r ity o f lung d ise a s e s among m etal m iners depends upon th e d u st c o n c e n tra tio n in th e a i r and th e len g th o f ex p o su re,*^

A w orker o f t e n y e a r s 1 experience,, f o r example, i s more

l i k e l y to have a lung ailm ent than one o f two o r th re e years* e x p erien c e, g iv en I d e n tic a l d u st conditions*

A w orker, lik e w ise , exposed to more

d u s t-la d e n a i r th a n a n o th e r I s more lik e l y to c o n tra c t a lung disease* I n underground mines th e work a t th e face (th e p o in t a t which ore i s being removed i n th© d r i f t o r stop©) has been found to p o ssess th© high­ e s t d u s t c o n c e n tra tio n s * Table 37 in d ic a te s th e d u st produced during work*

I t i s ev id e n t t h a t a t any tim e when work l a o ccu rrin g a t th© face

th e r e w i l l be dust*

The p ro p o rtio n s t h a t a re harm ful w i l l v a ry , o f

c o u rs e , w ith s i l i c a o r lead c o n te n t, h e a lth o f th® p a r t i c u l a r workman, th e e x e r tio n th e workman p u ts f o r t h , th© hum idity, and w i l l v a ry a t d iffe re n t fa c e s.

Thus w hile no ex act stan d ard s can be s e t , i t i s s a f e

t o sa y t h a t any d u st c o n te n t i s

u n d e s ir a b le

*30

The o p e ra tio n s t h a t p re s e n t th e g r e a te s t d u st hazard a re th o se o f d r i l l i n g , mucking, and b l a s ti n g .31 Consequently th e occupations o f 2% lealth and M iscellaneous Hazards i n M etal Mines, op * c i t * , p . £* T his was a ls o borne o u t by th© Utah mine stu d y , H ealth and Working Environment o f Honferrons M etal .Mine. Workers, oj># c i t . , p a s s i s . ^ H e a lth and Misce lla n e o u s Hazards i n i e t a l n in e s , op* c i t . , p . 3, H ealth and 'ffiorkto? ■E m S o x im ilt'oF^Monferrous M etal Mine Workers, 0£>. c i t . ,

?rw : “ ~

3^ ie a ltli and M iscellaneous Hazards in M etal Mines, op. c i t . , p . 3. 3% e a lth and fo rk in g Environment o f honferrous M etal Mine Workers, og. c i t * , p. 157

199

d r i l l i n g machine o p e ra to r and h e lp e r, loading machine o p e ra to r and h e lp e r, mucker, m t r a il a s tim bsrsm n, show hig h r e l a t i v e in cid en ce o f long d i s e a s e s . 32

S urface •workers a re r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f long d ise a s e s d m to

d u s t, compared to underground w orkers.33

TA3L3 37 DUST PM5DTOP DURB8G WORK AT FACE B e st, M illio n s o f P a r tic le s p e r Cubic Foot o f A ir

O peration Face i d l e S e ttin g up d r i l l D r illin g (av erag e) Blowing h o le s Charging h o le s A fte r b l a s ti n g - - 5 m inutes, m t v e n tila te d

«

*

30

«

w

tt

60

w

»

750.0

, v e n tila te d

hO.O

»

6*0 6.0

« « 11*0 « , ^ucking-- A

3

•*2 Aw#

*% . t e e s i n th© Honferrotss T d e ta lg In d u stry , June 19U3* B u lle tin Ho# 76$. Bureau o f la b o r S t a ti s t i c s * United S ta te s Department o f Labor. Washington# Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 19kh*

2 9$

Reports (Continued) Wood, W. H. Geology and Ore D eposits o f th e B utte D i s t r i c t , Montana* P ro f. Paper 7ET* D nitod S ta te s G e ^ o g ic a T S u rv e y . U nited S ta te s Department o f th e I n t e r i o r . Washington? Government P rin tin g o m c ® , 1912. Unpublished l ia t e r i a l s Long, C larence B. L ecture d e liv e re d i n economics sem inar. U n iv e rs ity , B altim ore, F ebruary 19W.

Johns Hopkins

Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s . S t a t i s t i c a l d a ta fu rn ish e d in mimeographed form to re s e a rc h e r upon re q u e s t.