The improvability of pitch discrimination

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NORTHWESTERN

UNIVERSITY

THE IMPROVABILITY OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS f o r th e d e g re e DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

BY RUTH FOX WYATT EVANSTON, ILLINO IS AUGUST, 1941

ProQuest Number: 10102162

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this rep roduction is d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e quality o f th e c o p y subm itted. In th e unlikely e v e n t th a t th e a u th o r did n o t sen d a c o m p le te m anuscript a n d th e re a re missing p a g e s , th e s e will b e n o te d . Also, if m aterial h a d to b e re m o v e d , a n o te will in d icate th e d eletio n .

uest ProQ uest 10102162 Published by ProQ uest LLC (2016). Copyright of th e Dissertation is held by th e Author. All rights reserved. This work is p ro te c te d a g a in st unauthorized copying u n d er Title 17, United States C o d e Microform Edition © ProQ uest LLC. ProQ uest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346

The w r i t e r w i s h e s t o a c k n o w le d g e w i t h s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e th e v a lu a b le g u id a n c e o f R. H. S e a s h o r e t h r o u g h o u t t h i s e x p e rim e n t. G r a t e f u l a c k n o w le d g e m e n t i s a l s o m ade t o D r. A. R. G i l l i l a n d , who o r i g i n a l l y s u g g e s t e d t h e p ro b le m some y e a r s a g o , t o D ean J . W. B e a t t i e , who a s s i s t e d w i t h s e l e c t i o n o f t h e m u s ic s u b j e c t s , a n d t o D r. C. E . B u x to n , f o r h e lp fu l co u n sel in p re p a ra tio n o f th e m a n u s c rip t.

iii

CONTENTS P age I.

INTRODUCTION

.......................................................... .

1

II.

ANALYTICAL SURVEY OP THE LITERATURE................. S t u d i e s on t h e e f f e c t o f m u l t i p l e r e p e ­ titio n S t u d i e s on t h e e f f e c t o f f o r m a l m u s i c a l in s tru e tio n S t u d i e s e m p lo y in g d i r e c t r e m e d i a l a i d

10

III.

STATEMENT OP THEPROBLEM................................................

58

S U B JE C T S....................................................................

60

V.

TESTS AND APPARATUSEMPLOYED..................................... The S e a s h o r e P i t c h D i s c r i m i n a t i o n T e s t The V y a t t T e s t o f P i t c h D i s c r i m i n a t i o n O s c illa to r Conn C h ro m a tic S t r o b o s c o p e

65

V I.

PROCEDURE................................................................................. T e s tin g P ro c e d u re s T ra in in g P ro c e d u re s

85

V II.

R E SU L T S...................................................................................... R e s u lts i n th e S e a sh o re P itc h T e s t R e s u l t s i n t h e W y a tt P i t c h T e s t R e s u lts i n th e O s c i l l a t o r T e s ts

105

CONCLUSIONS

....................................................................

155

BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................................

156

A PPE N D IX .....................................................................................

159

IV .

V III.

iv

TABLES

T able

Page I.

SCORES AMD RANKS OP CAPURSO’ S EXPERI­ MENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS IN THE SEASHORE PITCH T E S T ..................................

*9

II.

t VALUES FOR DIFFERENCES IN TEST RESULTS BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G .........................................1 0 ?

III.

SCORES AND RANKS IN ( l ) THE AVERAGE OF ALL SEASHORE TESTS BEFORE TRAINING AND AFTER TRAINING (2 ) THE LAST SEASHORE TEST BEFORE TRAINING AND AFTER TRAINING ................................. I l l

IV .

RATIOS OF IMPROVEMENT IN THE SEASHORE TEST AND THE WYATT T E S T ....................................................... 113

V.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR MUSIC AND NON­ MUSIC SUBJECTS AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE T E S T .................................................. 119

V I.

SCORES AND RANKS IN ( l ) AVERAGE OF ALL WYATT TESTS BEFORE TRAINING AND AFTER TRAINING (2 ) THE LAST WYATT TEST BEFORE TRAINING AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ................................. 132

V II.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR MUSIC AND NON­ MUSIC SUBJECTS AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT T E S T ......................................................... 143

V III.

RATIOS OF IMPROVEMENTS (IN PERCENT) FOR ALL SUBJECTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 2^0 AND 1000 CYCLES ........................................................................

1^9

IX .

SCORES AND RANKS FOR D .A . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................... 160

X.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR D .A . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ................................................................. 160

X I.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR P.M . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ......................................

l 6l

V

Table

Page X II.

* X III.

XIV.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR F.M . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ................................................................. l 6 l SCORES AND RANKS FOR G.M. IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................

162

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR G.M. AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER TR A IN IN G ................................................................... 162

XV.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR I . D . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................... 16?

XVI.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR I . D . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ................................................................ 1 6 ?

X V II.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR P .E . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ......................................1 64

X V III.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR P .E . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B , BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G .................................... 164

XIX.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR R .D . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................... 165

XX.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR R .D . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B , BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ................................................................. I 65

XXI.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR S .L . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................... 166

X X II.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S .L . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ................................................................. 166

Vi

Page

Table X X I II .

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

X X V II.

X X V III.

XXIX.

XXX.

XXXI.

XXXII.

X X X III.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR U.M. IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING......................................... 167 PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR U.M. AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................

167

SCORES AND RANKS FOR B .H . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ........................................

I 68

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR B .H . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................

168

SCORES AND RANKS FOR D .L . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ........................................

1 °9

PERCENTAGE OF' 'ERROR FOR D. L. AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................

169

SCORES AND RANKS FOR E .V . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ........................................ 170 PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR E .V . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................

170

SCORES AND RANKS FOR G .K . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ........................................

171

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR G .K . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................

171

SCORES AND RANKS FOR S.M . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ........................................

172

v ii

T able

Page

XXXIV.

XXXV.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S.M . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................

172

SCORES AND RANKS FOR S . J . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING .......................................... 173

XXXVI.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S . J . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ................................................................... 173

XXXVII.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR S . J o . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING ........................................... 174

X X X V III.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S . J o . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................... 174

XXXIX.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR T . J . IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...............................175

XL.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR T . J . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B , BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................... 175

X L I.

AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR ALL MUSIC SUBJECTS AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G .................. 176

X L II.

AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR ALL NON­ MUSIC SUBJECTS AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE SEASHORE TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINA­ TION, SERIES B, BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING.. 1 7 7

X L III.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR ALL MUSIC AND NON­ MUSIC SUBJECTS AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE LAST SEASHORE TEST TAKEN BEFORE TRAINING AND THE LAST SEASHORE TEST TAKEN AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................... 17©

v iil

Page

T a b le XL IV .

SCORES AND RANKS FOR D.A. IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................... 179

XLV.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR D .A . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING.. . 179

XLVI.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR F.M . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................... loO

X L V II.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR F.M . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING.. . l 8 0

X L V III.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR G.M. IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ..................................................................

l 8l

XLIX.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR G.M. AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . . l 8 l

L.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR I .D . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................... 182

L I.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR I . D . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . . 182

L II.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR P .E . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................... l8j>

L III.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR P .E . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . . 183

L IV .

SCORES AND RANKS FOR R .D . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................... 184

LV.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR R .D . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . . 184

LV I.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR S .L . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ...................................................................... 185

ix

Page

Table L V II.

PERCENTAGE OP ERROR FOR S .L . AT EACH LEVEL OP DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING ... 185

L V III.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR U.M. IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING ................................................................... 186

L IX .

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR U.M. AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING ... 186

LX.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR B .H . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING ................................................................. 187

L X I.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR B .H . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TESD OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . . 187

L X II. i

|

.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR D .L . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ......................... ....................................... .. 1 8 8 '

L X III.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR D .L . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . . 188

LXIV.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR E .V . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G .................................................................. 189

LXV.

LXVI. ! L X V II.

L X V III.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR E .V . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING .

189

SCORES AND RANKS FOR G .K . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING .................................................................

190

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR G .K . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING .

190

SCORES AND RANKS FOR S.M . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ................................................................

191

X

Page

Table LXIX.

LXX.

LXXI.

PERCENTAGE OP ERROR FOR S.M . AT EACH LEVEL OP DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . .

191

SCORES AND RANKS FOR S . J . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING ............................................................

192

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S . J . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . .

192

L X X II.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR S . J o . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G ..................................................... 195

L X X III.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S . J o . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . . 195

LXXIV.

LXXV.

LXXVI.

LXXVII.

l x x v iii.

LXXIX.

SCORES AND RANKS FOR T . J . IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER T R A IN IN G .................... .......................................

194

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR T . J . AT EACH LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY IN THE WYATT TEST OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING . .

194

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR D .A . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 OO, 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND........................................................

195

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR F.M . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND .....................................................

196

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR G.M. AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND .................... ..............................

197

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR I . D . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND....................................... ,

198

xi

T able LXXX.

LXXXI.

LXXXII.

Page PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR P .E . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND........................................................... 199 PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR R .D . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FSEQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND..................................................... PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S .L . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND................................................

200

201

EX X X III.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR U.M. AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND......................................................... 202

LXXXIV.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR B .H . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND......................................................... 205

LXXXV.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR D .L . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND......................................................... 204

LXXXVI.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR E .V . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND......................................................... 205

LXXXVII.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR G .K . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND......................................................... 206

LXXXVIII.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S.M . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND......................................................... 207

LXXXIX.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S . J . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND......................................................... 208

x ii Table

Page XC.

X C I.

PERCENTAGE OP ERROR FOR S . J o . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND...........................................................

209

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR T . J . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND...........................................................

210

x iii

FIGURES

F igure 1.

Page The F r o n t o f t h e I n s t r u m e n t U sed i n G iv in g t h e W y a tt T e s t o f P i t c h D i s c r i m i n a t i o n ..................

69

The B a c k o f t h e I n s t r u m e n t U sed i n G iv in g t h e W y a tt T e s t o f P i t c h D i s c r i m i n a t i o n ......................

70

3.

The O s c i l l a t o r a n d A u to m a tic T im in g D e v ic e . . . .

80

4.

C onn C h ro m a tic S t r o b o s c o p e .................................................

83

5*

A v e ra g e P e r c e n t a g e o f E r r o r f o r M u s ic ia n s a n d N o n - M u s ic ia n s a t E a c h L e v e l o f D i f f i c u l t y i n th e S e a sh o re T e s t o f P itc h D is c r im in a tio n , S e r i e s B , B e f o r e T r a i n i n g .................................................. 120

6.

A v e ra g e P e r c e n t a g e o f E r r o r N o n -M u s ic ia n s a t E a c h L e v e l th e S e a sh o re T e st o f P itc h D S e r ie s B, A f te r T ra in in g

2.

7.

f o r M u s ic ia n s a n d o f D iffic u lty in is c rim in a tio n , ................... .............

121

A v e ra g e P e r c e n t a g e o f E r r o r f o r M u s ic ia n s a t E ach L e v e l o f D i f f i c u l t y i n th e S e a sh o re T e s t o f P i t c h D is c r im in a tio n , S e r i e s B, B e f o r e a n d A f t e r T r a i n i n g .......................................

123

8.

A v e ra g e P e r c e n t a g e o f E r r o r f o r N o n -M u s ic ia n s a t E ach L e v e l o f D i f f i c u l t y i n th e S e a sh o re T e s t o f P itc h D is c r im in a tio n , S e r ie s B, B e fo re and A f te r T ra in in g .................................... 124

9.

A v e ra g e P e r c e n t a g e o f E r r o r f o r M u s ic ia n s a n d N o n -M u s ic ia n s a t E ach L e v e l o f D i f f i c u l t y i n t h e W y a tt T e s t o f P i t c h D i s c r i m i n a t i o n B e f o r e T r a i n i n g ............................................................................................

139

A v e ra g e P e r c e n t a g e o f E r r o r f o r M u s ic ia n s a n d N o n -M u s ic ia n s a t E ac h L e v e l o f D i f f i c u l t y i n t h e W y a tt T e s t o f P i t c h D i s c r i m i n a t i o n A f t e r T r a i n i n g ............................................................................................

14 q

A v e ra g e P e r c e n t a g e o f E r r o r f o r M u s ic ia n s a t E ac h L e v e l o f D i f f i c u l t y i n t h e W y a tt T e s t o f P itc h D is c r im in a tio n B e fo re and A f te r T ra in in g .

1*H

A v e ra g e P e r c e n t a g e o f E r r o r f o r N o n -M u s ic ia n s a t E ach L e v e l o f D i f f i c u l t y i n t h e W y a tt T e s t o f P itc h D is c r im in a tio n B e fo re and A f te r T r a i n i n g ............................................................................................

1^2

10,

11.

12.

THE IMPROBABILITY OF PITCH DISCRIMINATION INTRODUCTION " F o rtu n e s h a v e b e e n s p e n t and th o u ­ s a n d s o f y o u n g l i v e s h a v e b e e n m ade w r e tc h e d b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e th e o ry t h a t th e s e n se o f p i t c h can b e im p ro v e d w i t h t r a i n i n g . It is th e c a u se o f th e o u ts ta n d in g tra g e d y i n m u s ic a l e d u c a tio n . 0 The a b o v e q u o t a t i o n fro m S e a s h o r e ’ s r e c e n t " P s y c h o lo g y o f M u s ic ” ( 2 5 , p . 5 8 ) I s I l l u s t r a t i v e

o f th e

p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h o s e p s y c h o l o g i s t s who b e l i e v e t h a t c e r ta in se n so ry t r a i t s

a r e d e te r m i n e d b y c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

in h e r ita n c e and a r e r e l a t i v e l y u n a ffe c te d by t r a i n i n g . T h e s e p r e s u m a b ly s t a b l e t r a i t s — p o t e n t i a l p o w e rs p r o v i d e d b y and l im i te d b y b i o l o g i c a l i n h e r i t a n c e — a r e c a l le d " c a p a c i t i e s ” a n d a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d fr o m " a b i l i t i e s 11 w h ic h a r e t h o u g h t t o b e c o n d i t i o n e d b y e x p e r i e n c e a n d t o b e m a n ife s te d a s a c q u ire d s k i l l s i n th e u se o f c a p a c i t i e s . A c c o r d in g t o t h i s v ie w , i n s u c h a c a p a c i t y a s p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , w h ic h may s e r v e a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t r a i t i n th e f i e l d

o f a u d itio n ,

each in d iv id u a l p o sse sse s a

p h y s i o l o g i c a l o r " b e d - r o c k " l i m i t w h ic h i s f i x e d in fa n c y by I n h e r ite d n e r v o u s s y s te m .

e a rly in

s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e e a r an d

N e ith e r i n t e l l i g e n c e , ag e n o r t r a i n i n g

c a n a l t e r th e s e a n a to m ic a l f e a t u r e s and c o n s e q u e n tly th e y c a n h a v e n o e f f e c t on t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l l i m i t e x c e p t

2

i n s o f a r a s a g e o r t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f l i f e may c a u s e s tru c tu ra l d e te rio ra tio n . 1 T h is f u n d a m e n ta l p o s t u l a t e h a s n o t b e e n a c c e p t e d u n iv e rs a lly .

M u r s e l l ( 1 2 , p . 7^ - 6 ) , f o r e x a m p le , r e j e c t ­

i n g w h a t h e te r m s S e a s h o r e ’ s " s e n s a t i o n a l i s t i c p o s i t i o n ” , a s a n i n d e f e n s i b l e a n d f a l s e a s s u m p t i o n , h a s c o n te n d e d t h a t a w a re n e ss and r e s p o n s iv e n e s s to p i t c h d o e s n o t depend " s im p ly on t h e a c t i o n o f t h e e a r ” , h u t i s o f th e " in te g r a tin g ,

s e le c tin g ,

t h e c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s y s te m ” .

c h a ra c te ris tic

in te r p r e tin g a c tio n of

He a s s e r t s t h a t "we m u st

r e g a r d th e c la im t h a t p i t c h d i s c r im i n a t io n i s a f u n c tio n w h ic h d e p e n d s d i r e c t l y a n d s im p ly u p o n i n h e r i t e d

s tru c tu re

a n d s o c a n n o t h e i n f l u e n c e d h y t r a i n i n g a s a n u n p ro v e d a s s u m p tio n ” . Any d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p r o v a h i l i t y o r n o n - im p r o v a h ility

o f p i tc h d is c r im in a tio n n e c e s s a r ily in v o lv e s

m e a s u re m e n t. i s m e a s u re d i s

B u t i t i s p e r t i n e n t to i n q u i r e w h e th e r w h at t h e p u r e c a p a c i t y o r t h e c a p a c i t y e n c u m b e re d

hy o th e r f a c t o r s .

S e a sh o re re c o g n iz e s t h a t in th e a c tu a l

m e a s u re m e n t o f a c a p a c i t y ,

th e t r u e p h y s io lo g ic a l l i m i t

may n o t a lw a y s h e r e v e a l e d a t o n c e b e c a u s e o f d i f f i c u l t i e s w h ic h may h e i n h e r e n t i n t h e m e a s u re m e n t p r o c e s s . tra c tio n , f a ilu r e

D is ­

to u n d e rs ta n d p r o c e d u r e s , la c k o f

a p p l i c a t i o n , p o o r m o tiv a tio n , u n f a v o r a b le e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s — a l l o f th e s e o b s ta c le s to d is c lo s u r e o f th e 1 . F a tig u e , r e s t , a r e m e n tio n e d i n ( 2 5 , 2 7 ) a s some th e fu n c tio n s o f

m a ln u tritio n , d ru g s, d is e a s e o r in ju r y S e a s h o r e * s m o st r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e f a c t o r s w h ic h may r a i s e o r lo w e r t h e n e r v o u s s y s te m w i t h i n a s m a l l r a n g e .

3

t r u e o r p h y s i o l o g i c a l l i m i t o f t h e c a p a c i t y a r e te rm e d " c o g n itiv e ” f a c to r s . The p o s i t i n g o f a c o g n i t i v e l i m i t o f f e r s a n e x p l a n a ­ t i o n f o r t h o s e c a s e s w h ic h show im p ro v e m e n t u p o n r e t e s t . The e l i m i n a t i o n o f c o g n i t i v e f a c t o r s may r e s u l t i n a b e t ­ t e r re c o rd ;

th is is

i n te r p r e t e d by S e a sh o re , n o t a s any

im p ro v e m e n t i n t h e c a p a c i t y , b u t m e r e ly a s im p ro v e m e n t i n th e a b i l i t y

to m eet th e t e s t s i t u a t i o n b e t t e r .

The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e c o g n i t i v e a n d t h e p h y s i o ­ l o g i c a l l i m i t s i s h e ld to b e a n i n d i c a t i o n o f th e un­ re lia b ility

o f t h e m e a s u re m e n t.

S e a sh o re m a in ta in s th a t

th r e e c o n d itio n s w i l l re d u c e o r e lim in a te th e c o g n itiv e d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d r e v e a l t h e p r o x i m a te p h y s i o l o g i c a l l i m i t . T hese t h r e e c o n d itio n s a r e titio n ,

(l)

e x p e rt te s tin g ,

(3 ) i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i n g .

( 2) rep e ­

I t i s m a in ta in e d by

S e a sh o re t h a t ev en i n a g ro u p t e s t , w ith e x p e r t a d m in is ­ tra tio n ,

th e p h y s io lo g ic a l l i m i t f o r p i t c h d is c r im in a tio n

c a n b e a s c e r t a i n e d f o r th e m a jo r ity o f Ss i n th e f i r s t t e s t , w h ile w ith in d iv id u a l t e s t i n g ,

“th e p h y s io lo g ic a l

l i m i t may b e d e te r m i n e d w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e o f c e r t a i n t y fo r p ra c tic a lly a ll"

(25, p. 57).

A lth o u g h t h e a v e r a g e p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s c o r e f o r young c h ild re n i s

i n f e r i o r t o t h a t o f o l d e r c h i l d r e n and

a d u lts , 1 th is in f e r io r ity

i s a ls o a ttr ib u te d

to c o g n itiv e

1 . The m e a s u r e s a r e p u b l i s h e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t no rm s f o r a d u l t s ,e i g h t h g ra d e and f i f t h g ra d e c h i l d r e n .

4

c a u s e s and S e a sh o re a s s e r t s

t h a t " a n e x p e r t w o r k in g w i t h

I n t e l l i g e n t c h i l d r e n may r e a c h t h i s lim it) fiv e "

(th e p h y s io lo g ic a l

i n in d iv id u a l t e s t s a s e a r ly a s a t th e ag e o f

(25, p . 5 8 ) . R. H. S e a s h o r e (2 9 )

h as in d ic a te d

th e im p o rta n c e o f

w o rk m e th o d s a s a n o f t e n n e g l e c t e d f a c t o r u n d e r l y i n g in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s .

W ork m e th o d s h e d e f i n e s a s

" p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r w h ic h a r e a d o p te d b y e a c h i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e c o u r s e o f u t i l i z i n g h i s b i o l o g i c a l e q u ip m e n t d u r i n g le a rn in g " .

T hey a r e " a n y v a r i a t i o n i n s e t , a t t i t u d e ,

a p p r o a c h , t r i c k o f t h e t r a d e , a d j u s t m e n t m e c h a n is m s , e t c . , i n o t h e r w o r d s , q u a l i t a t i v e v a r i a t i o n s i n w ays o f r e a c t i n g to a s i t u a t i o n ” .

T hey a r e c l a s s e d a s a n i n t e r m e d i a t e

f a c t o r b e tw e e n d e p e n d e n c e u p o n b i o l o g i c a l b a s e s a n d u p o n th e am ount o f p re v io u s t r a i n i n g . I t w o u ld seem i n f e r a b l e fro m t h e a b o v e v ie w t h a t a p re re q u is ite

t o f a i r m e a s u re m e n t o f a c a p a c i t y w o u ld b e

t h e u t i l i z a t i o n b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l o f h i s m o st e f f i c i e n t w o rk m e th o d o r m e th o d s , a n d t h a t t h e c l o s e r h e c a n come to t h i s ,

t h e g r e a t e r t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e m e a s u re m e n t

w ill d is c lo s e h is p h y s io lo g ic a l l im it.

R. H. S e a s h o r e

h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t "we n e e d n o t c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e r e a r e n o p h y s i o l o g i c a l l i m i t s , b u t m e r e ly t h a t t h e s e l i m i t s ,

if

a n y , a r e v a l i d o n l y f o r a g i v e n w o rk m e th o d , a n d t h a t by

1 . R e f e r e n c e s I n t h i s p a p e r t o " S e a s h o r e " a r e t o C. E. S e a sh o re . W h en ev er R. E . S e a s h o r e i s r e f e r r e d t o , h i s i n i t i a l s a re u sed .

5

t h e u s e o f o t h e r w o rk m e th o d s a s i g n i f i c a n t im p ro v e m e n t •m a y b e a t t a i n e d 11 (29> p . 1 2 9 ) . W h ile S e a s h o r e d o e s n o t a l t o g e t h e r d i s c r e d i t t h e c o n c e p t o f w o rk m e th o d , h e a p p a r e n t l y r e g a r d s i t a s a f a c t o r c o m p a r a b le t o t h e c o g n i t i v e f a c t o r s a n d o f r e l a ­ tiv e ly l i t t l e te re d .

im p o rta n c e i f a t e s t i s p r o p e r ly a d m in is ­

H is f u n d a m e n ta l b e l i e f i n t h e s t a b i l i t y

" c a p a c i t y " r e m a in s u n c h a n g e d .

o f th e

I n a r e c e n t m o n o g ra p h

( 27, p . ^0 ) he sa y s: C h o ic e o f t h e b e t t e r w o rk m e th o d s may show r i s e i n th e p r a c t ic e c u rv e ; b u t su ch change in a c h ie v e ­ m ent d o es n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e an y ch an g e i n c a p a c ity f o r h e a rin g . The s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f S e a s h o r e * s p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m e a s u re m e n t o f m u s i c a l t a l e n t i s w ave.

t h e so u n d

T he p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o u n d w av e—

f r e q u e n c y , a m p l i t u d e , fo rm a n d d u r a t i o n — a r e r e g a r d e d a s !

t h e o n l y v a r i a b l e s b y w h ic h t h e p e r f o r m e r c a n c o n v e y m u s ic p e r s e t o t h e l i s t e n e r .

H ence, th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l

c o r r e la te s o f th e s e v a r ia b le s - - p itc h ,

lo u d n e s s , tim b re

a n d t i m e — a r e o f f u n d a m e n ta l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n of ta le n t.

I f one g r a n ts t h a t ( l)

th e a b i l i t y

to d is ­

c r im in a te s m a ll d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e s e f o u r v a r i a b l e s c o n s t i t u t e s a f u n d a m e n ta l n u c l e u s o f m u s i c a l t a l e n t , ( 2 ) a d e q u a te t e s t s

c a n b e s e t up t o m e a s u re i n d i v i d u a l

d if f e r e n c e s in th e s e t r a i t s , s e n t fix e d

a n d (3 ) s u c h t r a i t s

rep re ­

" c a p a c i t i e s ” e s s e n tia lly u n a lte r e d by e i t h e r

m a t u r a t i o n o r t r a i n i n g , I t w o u ld t h e n seem l o g i c a l l y

6

f e a s i b l e to e s t a b l is h a v a lid b a s is fo p th e e a r ly p r e d i c t i o n o f t a l e n t and f o r g u id a n c e .

T h is seem s t o b e

th e fo u n d a tio n f o r S e a s h o re f s t e s t b a t t e r y . T he t e s t s d e s i g n e d b y S e a s h o r e t o m e a s u re t h e s e tra its

r e f l e c t t h e i r a u t h o r 's d e s i r e t o d i v e s t th em o f

a l l p o s s i b l e m u s i c a l " m e a n in g s ” i n o r d e r t o m ake th em in d e p e n d e n t o f m u s ic a l t r a i n i n g .

The t e s t s a r e c a r e f u l l y

c o n tr o lle d and w h e re v e r p o s s ib le a l l f a c t o r s o th e r th a n t h e v a r i a b l e b e i n g m e a s u re d a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t .

In th e

t e s t f o r p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , f o r e x a m p le , a n a t t e m p t i s m ade t o h o l d c o n s t a n t t h e i n t e n s i t y , th e d u r a tio n a l f a c t o r s and th e t e s t i s Its

s im p le s t fo rm . 1

th e tim b re and th u s re d u c e d to

I t i s b e lie v e d by S e a sh o re th a t

t h i s c o n t r o l o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e t e s t s m akes th e m m e a s u re m e n ts o f " e l e m e n t a l c a p a c i t i e s " a n d r e n d e r s th em

2

u s e f u l f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f t a l e n t b e f o r e t r a i n i n g . ___________ 1 . By p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s m e a n t t h e a b i l i t y t o h e a r s m a ll d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e fre q u e n c y o f to n e s . I n many p s y c h o p h y s ic a l d e te r m in a tio n s o f th e r e l a t i v e th r e s h o ld , S s a r e g i v e n tw o f r e q u e n c i e s i n c l o s e s u c c e s s i o n a n d a r e a s k e d t o t e l l w h e t h e r t h e y a r e t h e sam e o r d i f f e r e n t i n p itc h . I n t h e S e a s h o r e m e th o d , h o w e v e r, a l l c o m p a r is o n s i n v o l v e a d i f f e r e n c e a n d S i s r e q u i r e d t o ;ju d g e w h e t h e r t h e s e c o n d t o n e o f t h e p a i r i s h i g h e r o r lo w e r i n p i t c h th a n th e f i r s t to n e . 2 . T h o se o p p o s e d t o t h e t h e o r y o f s p e c i f i c s v i g o r o u s l y c h a lle n g e th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f th e t e s t s f o r th e p u rp o se o f p r e d ic tin g m u s ic a l t a l e n t . M u rs e ll r e g a r d s " m u s ic a lity a s "an aw are n ess o f to n a l-rh y th m ic c o n f ig u r a tio n s o r t o t a l p a t t e r n s an d a n e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s iv e n e s s t h e r e t o " ( 1 2 , p . 3 2 3 ) a n d h o l d s t h a t t e s t s w h ic h d e p e n d e n t i r e l y upon se n so ry c a p a c itie s f a i l to r e v e a l th e s e p o w e rs. T he S e a s h o r e t e s t s a r e r e g a r d e d b y h im a s m e a s u r e m e n ts o f a c o u s t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n m u s i c a l a b i l i t i e s . P r a t t (1 5 ) m akes a s i m i l a r p o i n t , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t w h i l e s u c h f a c t o r s a s p i t c h , I n t e n s i t y , tim e e t c . a d m i t t e d l y

The c o n t e n t o f t h e o r i g i n a l b a t t e r y o f t e s t s i s s u e d b y S e a s h o r e i n 1 9 1 9 (2 2 ) i s w e l l know n.

The

r e c e n t r e v i s i o n o f t h e m e a s u r e s (2 6 ) h a s c e r t a i n f o r m a l d i f f e r e n c e s b u t i n t h e i r c o n t e n t , m e th o d a n d p r o p o s e d a p p l i c a t i o n s , th e r e v i s e d m e a su re s a r e g o v e rn e d b y su b ­ s ta n tia lly

t h e sam e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t io n s a s t h o s e

w h ic h fo rm e d t h e g ro u n d w o rk f o r t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s .

T he

r e v i s e d b a t t e r y c o n t a i n s t e s t s f o r t o n a l m em ory, p i t c h , l o u d n e s s , t i m b r e , tim e a n d r h y th m d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . Among t h e s e t a l e n t s p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s r e g a r d e d b y S e a s h o re a s th e m o st Im p o rta n t o f a l l .

He s a y s ( 2 5 ,

p . 63)5 S i n c e p i t c h i s t h e f u n d a m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r o f a to n e , and p i t c h d i s c r im i n a t io n i s a m ea su re o f t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h i s s e n s e , i t o r d i n a r i l y may b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e m o s t b a s i c m e a s u re o f m u s i c a l c a p a c i t y t h a t we h a v e . a n d i n h i s m o s t r e c e n t m o n o g ra p h ( 2 7 , p . 4 6 ) h e r e a f f i r m s ;! h i s b e l i e f t h a t t h e t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s a v a lid a s p e c t o f m u s ic a l t a l e n t and t h a t th e r e i s a d i r e c t 1 r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n a p e r s o n 's

" s t a n d a r d 11 s e n s e o f p i t c h a n d

I h i s f u n c t i o n a l h e a r in g o r p e rfo rm a n c e o f p i t c h i n a c t u a l || e x p l a i n m u s i c a l e f f e c t s , t h e y a r e n o t t h e e f f e c t s th e m s e lv e s . M a in ta in in g t h a t th e t e s t s f a i l to g e t a t th e k e r n e l o f m u s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , P r a t t a s s e r t s t h a t , "Ho 1 p s y c h o lo g ic a l e x p e rie n c e can be i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e con­ d i t i o n s e n u m e r a te d i n i t s e x p l a n a t i o n . M ost o f t h e c o n ­ d i t i o n s o f e x p e rie n c e e x i s t i n th e p h y s io lo g ic a l p ro c e s s e s o f t h e o r g a n is m a n d i n t h e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e s t i m u ­ l u s , b u t i n n e i t h e r o f t h e s e d o m a in s a r e t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f e x p e rie n c e to b e fo u n d . ( 15, p . 6l ) .

8

m u s ic : O b j e c t i v e p r o o f may come fro m a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s i n e x p e r i m e n t a l e v id e n c e s u c h a s t h e f a c t t h a t s u c c e s s f u l m u s ic ia n s a lm o s t w ith o u t e x c e p tio n r e v e a l a f i n e s e n se o f p i tc h ; t h a t a good o r a p o o r s e n s e o f p i t c h a t th e b e g in ­ n in g o f m u s ic a l e d u c a tio n s i g n i f i c a n t l y p r e d i c t s c o rr e s p o n d in g ly good o r p o o r p r o g r e s s i n th e m a s te ry o f p i t c h ; t h a t p e rs o n s w ith a f i n e se n se o f p i t c h a r e c o rre s p o n d in g ly c r i t i c a l in t h e ju d g m e n t o f p i t c h p e r f o r m a n c e ; t h a t t h e r e i s a te n d e n c y f o r p e r s o n s w i t h a f i n e s e n s e o f p i t c h t o s u c c e e d w i t h m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s w h ic h dem and i t ; a n d t h a t n u m ero u s c a s e s show t h a t a n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s e n s e o f p i t c h a c c o u n ts f o r m u s ic a l f a i l u r e an d d is c o u ra g e m e n t. G r a n t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , we a re

c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e p r o b le m o f w h e t h e r t h e a s s u m p t io n

o f n o n -im p ro v a b ility o f

th is

“ c a p a c i t y *1 a s m e a s u re d b y

t h e b e s t c u r r e n t t e s t s , may n o t p r o v e a l m o s t a s d e l e t e r ­ i o u s b y d is c o u r a g e m e n t o f p o t e n t i a l l y m u s i c a l i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e e n c o u ra g e m e n t o f t h e u n t a l e n t e d s o v ig o r o u s ly c r i t i c i z e d by S e a sh o re and h is f o llo w e r s . T he i s s u e w as s t a t e d b y W h ip p le ( l 4 , p p . 5 0 5 -5 0 4 ) a s e a r l y a s 1905 w hen h e w r o t e : I b e li e v e t h a t i t i s s t i l l a n open q u e s tio n , and o n e w o r th y o f s o l u t i o n , a s t o w h e th e r m u s i c a l i n c a p a c i t y , e s p e c i a l l y w hen d i s c o v e r e d e a r l y i n c h i l d h o o d may n o t b e re m e d ie d b y p r o p e r t r a i n i n g . A new i n c e n t i v e . . w o u ld b e g i v e n t h e m u s i c a l t r a i n i n g o f c h i l d r e n , i f we knew t h a t e n v i r o n ­ m e n ta l, r a t h e r th a n h e r e d ita r y o r i n n a te , i n f l u ­ e n c e s w e re r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c l o s i n g o f o n e o f th e g r e a t av en u es o f a e s t h e t i c e x p re s s io n and e n jo y m e n t. Upon t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s p ro b le m s t i l l d e p e n d s t h e p l a c i n g o f e m p h a s is i n m u s ic e d u c a t i o n to d a y . deed f u t i l e ,

I f tra in in g is

in ­

t h e n e m p h a s is may b e p l a c e d u p o n g u i d a n c e .

9

If,

h o w e v e r, t r a i n i n g s h o u l d p r o v e o f som e a v a i l ,

th e n

a t t e n t i o n may h e f o c u s e d on t h e d i a g n o s i s o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e b e s t w o rk m e th o d s t o o v e rc o m e them *

T he t e s t s m ig h t n e v e r t h e l e s s s e r v e a

h i g h l y u s e f u l p u r p o s e w hen d i r e c t e d to w a rd d i a g n o s i s r a t h e r th a n p ro g n o s is . I m p o r t a n t i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l p r o b le m above d e s c rib e d I s th e q u e s tio n o f th e in rp ro v a b ility o f p itc h d is c rim in a tio n by tr a in in g . re s u lts

T h is p a p e r p r e s e n t s

o f a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h i s p r o b le m .

I t is

c o n c e rn e d n o t o n ly w ith th e e f f e c t s o f t r a i n i n g upon p itc h d is c r im in a tio n a t one p a r t i c u l a r fre q u e n c y l e v e l , b u t a ls o w ith t r a n s f e r o f tr a in in g to d i f f e r e n t fre q u e n c y le v e ls .

ANALYTICAL SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE i

T he l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g -w ith t h e stability o f s c o r e s o r r a n k i n g s i n m e a s u re m e n ts o f m u s i c a l t a l e n t d o e s n o t y e t p e rm it e i t h e r a f i n a l c o n firm a tio n o r r e f u t a t i o n o f t h e a s s u m p t io n t h a t s u c h " e l e m e n t a l c a p a c i t i e s " a s p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a r e s t a b l e a n d c a n n o t b e im p ro v e d t h r o u g h tra in in g .

Many o f t h e p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

o f th e e f f e c t s o f t r a i n in g upon c a p a c ity s c o re s c o n ta in c o n c l u d i n g p a r a g r a p h s f a v o r i n g a n a s s u m p t io n o f s t a b i l i t y , b u t t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s a r e n o t a lw a y s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e d a ta p re s e n te d . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s i ! a r e a v a i l a b l e w h ic h p r e s e n t e v id e n c e o f im p ro v e m e n t a f t e r | t r a i n i n g a n d w h ic h e x p r e s s s k e p t i c i s m r e g a r d i n g t h e v a l i d || i t y

o f t h e a s s u m p t io n o f n o n - i m p r o v a b i l i t y .

In s h o rt,

I;

I th e re sp o n se to

t h e q u e s t i o n " d o e s t r a i n i n g im p ro v e p i t c h

II d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ? " r e m a in s i n c o m p l e t e a n d I n c o n c l u s i v e . A la r g e p a r t o f t h i s p r e v a ilin g in c o n c lu s iv e n e s s ! m u st b e a t t r i b u t e d of " tra in in g " .

to th e d i v e r s i t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

F a r n s w o r th ( 4 , p . 2 4 5 ) o b s e r v e s a p t l y

t h a t " d a t a on t h e e f f e c t s o f t r a i n i n g w i l l h a v e d i f f e r e n t ! m e a n in g s a s t h e m e a n in g o f t r a i n i n g v a r i e d 1, j

T he m e th o d s u s e d i n s t u d i e s c o l l a t e d u n d e r h e a d i n g s su c h a s " e f f e c t s o f t r a i n in g " a r e v a rie d I n n a tu r e and

I e x te n t. in c lu d e ;

A r o u g h c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e m e th o d s w o u ld (l)

m u l t i p l e r e p e t i t i o n o f a t e s t ( p e r h a p s m o re

11

p ro p e rly c a lle d

" p ra c tic e ”) ,

( 2 ) fo rm a l m u s ic a l i n s t r u c ­

tio n in v o ic e , in s tru m e n t o r th e o ry , a id a d a p te d to i n d iv i d u a l n e e d s .

(5 ) d i r e c t r e m e d i a l

T h e s e m e th o d s , h o w e v e r,

h av e n o t b e e n and n eed n o t b e m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e . R e s u l t s o b t a i n e d u n d e r a l l o f t h e s e m e th o d s a r e i n t e r e s t i n g b u t , a s s u m in g i n c o n c l u s i v e r e s u l t s w i t h t h e f i r s t tw o , e i t h e r a l o n e o r i n c o m b i n a t i o n , i t

i s d o u b tfu l

w h e t h e r a d e c i s i v e a n s w e r t o t h e p r o b le m c a n b e o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t e m p h a s is u p o n r e m e d i a l p r o c e d u r e s a d a p t e d t o in d iv id u a l n eed s. The l i t e r a t u r e b e a r i n g on t h e q u e s t i o n o f i m p r o v a b i l ity

o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s b r i e f l y r e v ie w e d i n t h e

fo llo w in g p a g e s.

D e s c r i p t i o n a n d a p p r a i s a l o f t h e m e th o d s

e m p lo y ed a n d t h e r e s u l t s

o b ta in e d a r e c o n s id e re d i n th e

l i g h t o f th e above c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

o f " ty p e s " o f t r a i n i n g .

S t u d i e s on t h e e f f e c t o f m u l t i p l e r e p e t i t i o n . S im p le r e p e t i t i o n o f a t e s t w i t h o u t r e s o r t t o t r a i n ­ in g te c h n iq u e s d o es n o t a t f i r s t g la n c e a p p e a r r e l e v a n t to a n in v e s ti g a t i o n o f th e e f f e c t s o f t r a i n i n g .

A

sum m ary o f t h e s e s t u d i e s i s i n c l u d e d , h o w e v e r, f o r tw o re a so n s:

(l)

t h e y p r o v i d e a s t a n d a r d u s e f u l f o r c o m p a r­

i s o n w i t h d a t a o b t a i n e d u n d e r o t h e r m e th o d s a n d ( 2 ) c e r ­ t a i n o f th e s e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c i t e d a s e v id e n c e r e l a t i n g

12

to

th e e f f e c t o f t r a i n i n g . 1 A v e r y e a r l y e x p e r i m e n t b y B u ffu m on t h e s t a b i l i t y

o f p i t c h d is c r im in a tio n i s d e s c rib e d by S e a sh o re ( l 6 ) a n d S m ith ( 3 0 ) . s u lts

The m e th o d u s e d an d t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e ­

o b t a i n e d a r e a m b ig u o u s , b u t t h e known d a t a a r e

in c lu d e d h e re f o r th e sa k e o f c o m p le te n e s s . 1 5 - m in . i n d i v i d u a l t e s t s tu n in g f o r k s ,

B u ffu m g a v e

in p itc h d is c rim in a tio n ,

t o 25 p u p i l s i n t h e e i g h t h g r a d e .

b a s is o f th e s e t e s t s ,

Ss w e re c l a s s i f i e d

g r o u p s w i t h m odes a t 3 , 8 a n d 17 c y c l e s .

in to

u s in g On t h e

th re e

T hey t h e n

r e c e i v e d 4 0 - m in . o f " s p e c i f i c a n d i n t e n s i v e p r a c t i c e " d a i l y f o r 20 s u c c e s s i v e d a y s .

I t w as f o u n d t h a t t h e

a v e r a g e f o r t h e t h r e e g r o u p s w as t h e sam e a t t h e end o f t h e 20 d a y s a s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d t h a t a l l b u t tw o o f t h e c h i l d r e n re m a in e d i n t h e sam e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a t t h e end o f t h i s p r a c t i c e p e r io d .

Of t h e s e tw o , o n e w as fo u n d

t o h a v e m i s u n d e r s to o d t h e p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t and t h e o t h e r w as n e a r t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e b e tw e e n tw o g r o u p s . In te rp re te d

th e s e f in d in g s a s an i l l u s t r a t i o n

S e a sh o re o f th e d e ­

g r e e o f f i n a l i t y w h ic h may b e o b t a i n e d I n a 1 5 -m in i n d i v i d u a l t e s t a n d h e c o n c lu d e d t h a t " e v i d e n t l y t h e 1 . S e a s h o r e d e s c r i b e s B u ffu m 1s e x p e r i m e n t on p i t c h d i s ­ c r i m i n a t i o n u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g "T he E f f e c t o f T r a i n i n g " , y e t i n t h e e x p o s i t i o n o f B u ffu m ’ s m e th o d , I t w o u ld seem t h a t t h i s w as m e r e ly " s p e c i f i c a n d i n t e n s i v e p r a c t i c e " (23* p . 6 o ) . A n o th e r e x p e r im e n t on i n t e n s i t y d i s c r i m i n a ­ t i o n (2 1 ) I n w h ic h Ss w e re " s u b j e c t e d t o a p r o l o n g e d s e r ­ i e s o f s p e c i f i c an d i n t e n s i v e p r a c t i c e " i s a l s o u s e d a s e v id e n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e f f e c t o f t r a i n i n g , t h e f a i l u r e o f Ss t o im p ro v e w i t h p r a c t i c e b e i n g r e g a r d e d a s p ro o f o f th e e le m e n ta l c h a r a c te r o f th e t e s t ( 2 3 * p . 100) .

15

p h y s i o l o g i c a l t h r e s h o ld had b een re a c h e d i n tw e n ty - f o u r o f th e tw e n ty -fiv e c a se s i n th e p re lim in a ry t e s t ” ( l 6 , p. 5 4 ). I n o ne p o r t i o n o f a n e a r l y

(1914)

s t u d y b y S m ith ( 5 0 ) ,

4 ?6 c h i l d r e n i n th e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls w ere g iv e n a s e r i e s o f 12 g r o u p t e s t s ,

e a c h b e i n g p r e c e d e d b y a ’’b r i e f warm­

i n g - u p e x e r c i s e i n w h ic h th e p u p i l s an sw ered o r a l l y ” . T h e s e t e s t s w e re g i v e n w i t h t u n i n g f o r k s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m e th o d recom m ended b y S e a s h o r e ( 1 6 ) . I n t h e e n t i r e g r o u p o f 4 7 6 , 206 c a s e s (4 5 $ ) made no a p p r e c i a b l e im p r o v e m e n t i n t h e i r a v e r a g e t h r e s h o l d s ,

th e

d a i l y a v e r a g e s s t a r t i n g a t 5 .9 c y c le s and e n d in g a t 5 .4 c y c le s.

The r e m a i n d e r o f t h e g r o u p , 270 c a s e s , d i d im ­

p r o v e , h o w ev er, and t h e i r d a i l y a v e r a g e t h r e s h o l d s w ere 7 .5 ,

7 . 1 , 5 . 7 , 5 . 0 , 4 . 5 , 4 . 1 , 5 . 4 , 5 . 5 , 5 . 0 , 5 .0 and 2 .9

c y c le s.

A l t h o u g h i n t h e i n i t i a l t e s t o n l y 17$ h a d

th re s h o ld s of 5 c y c le s o r l e s s , a f t e r th e p r a c tic e s e r ie s 69$ c o u l d b e s o c l a s s i f i e d . T h is p a r t o f S m ith es e x p e rim e n t c a n n o t b e c o n s id e r e d as a c h a ra c te ris tic

e x a m p le o f t h e e f f e c t s o f p r a c t i c e

a l o n e , h o w e v e r , s i n c e 106 o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n ( t h o s e w i t h th e lo w e st th re s h o ld s )

w ere g iv e n su p p le m e n ta ry i n d i v i d ­

u a l a s s i s t a n c e c o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h th e p r a c t i c e and S m ith i n c l u d e s t h e s e 106 c a s e s i n h i s r e s u l t s

under th e head­

i n g ’’e f f e c t o f p r a c t i c e ” . 1 The f a c t t h a t some o f t h e _____ 1 . T h e s e c a s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d o n p . 50 o f t h i s p a p e r .

14

270 Ss who I m p r o v e d h a d h a d t h i s i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c t i o n u n d o u b t e d l y h a d some e f f e c t on t h e a b o v e r e s u l t s , b u t s i n c e o n l y 106 c a s e s r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n a n d 270 im ­ p r o v e d , t h e im p r o v e m e n t o f a t l e a s t 164 c a s e s c a n b e su b su m e d u n d e r t h i s h e a d i n g ( e f f e c t s o f m u l t i p l e re p e titio n ). S m i t h a l s o p r e s e n t s p o l y g o n s s h o w in g p r a c t i c e c u r v e s f o r f o u r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s who p r a c t i c e d p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a ­ t i o n one h o u r d a i l y f o r 16 d a y s .

One b e g a n w i t h a t h r e s h ­

o ld o f 4 c y c l e s w h ich h e re d u c e d t o l e s s th e s i x t h day.

t h a n 1 c y c l e on

H i s f i n a l t h r e s h o l d was a b o u t 1 . 2 5 c y c l e .

A n o th e r beg an w ith a th r e s h o ld

o f a b o u t 2 .7 5 c y c l e s ,

d r o p p e d t o a b o u t 1 . 5 c y c l e on t h e e l e v e n t h d a y a n d e n d e d w ith a th re sh o ld of 2 c y c le s.

The r e m a i n i n g tw o c a s e s

had i n i t i a l t h r e s h o l d s o f a p p r o x im a te ly 1 .6 and 1 c y c l e re s p e c tiv e ly .

A t t h e end o f t h e p r a c t i c e ,

th e s e v a lu e s

w ere re d u c e d t o a p p r o x im a te ly .8 and .6 c y c l e . I n a s t u d y b y W r i g h t (39* 4 0 ) , a g r o u p o f 24 u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s w e re g i v e n t h e S e a s h o r e p i t c h t e s t ^ 1 . T he 1919 f o r m o f t h e t e s t w as r e c o r d e d on a d o u b l e fa c e d 1 2 -i n . phon o g rap h r e c o r d . T h e r e w e r e 100 t r i a l s , i n e a c h o f w h i c h t h e s t a n d a r d t o n e (4 3 5 c y c l e s ) w as e i t h e r th e f i r s t o r th e second to n e o f th e p a i r . The c o m p a r i s o n t o n e s w e r e h i g h e r b y 3 0 , 23* 17* 1 2 , 8 , 5* 5* 2 , 1 a n d .5 c y c le s r e s p e c tiv e ly . Two t u n i n g f o r k s , one o f w h i c h was * t h e s t a n d a r d , w e r e s o u n d e d i n s u c c e s s i o n a n d Ss w e r e a s k e d t o t e l l w h e t h e r t h e s e c o n d t o n e o f e a c h p a i r w as h i g h e r o r lo w e r th a n t h e f i r s t to n e . T en t r i a l s w e r e g i v e n a t e a c h o f t h e a b o v e t e n i n c r e m e n t s , a n d t h e s c o r e w as t h e p e r c e n t o f c o r r e c t answ ers. P e r c e n t i l e ra n k s w ere a v a i l a b l e f o r a d u l t s , e i g h t h g ra d e and f i f t h g ra d e c h i l d r e n .

15

one h o u r a day f o r f i v e d a y s .

1

The a v e r a g e s c o r e s f o r

t h e f i v e d a y s o f t e s t i n g w e r e 8 5 .7 1 * 8 5 .5 5 * 8 7 . 0 2 , 8 7 . 9 6 , a n d 8 7 .9 0 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The n e t m ean c h a n g e s f r o m t h e

f i r s t d a y o f t e s t i n g w e r e t h u s - 0 . 5 6 , + 1 .5 1 * + 2 . 2 5 , a n d + 2 .1 9 .

E x pressed a s a v e ra g e s ,

th e s e d iffe re n c e s appear

re la tiv e ly in sig n ific a n t. I n s p e c t i o n o f th e d a ta s h e e t i n d i c a t e s , how ever, g a in s f o r th e lo w e st th ir d

th a t

o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n w e r e much

l a r g e r on t h e a v e r a g e t h a n t h o s e f o r t h e m i d d l e t h i r d , w h i l e Ss i n t h e h i g h e s t t h i r d h a d a s m a l l d e c r e a s e i n s c o r e on t h e a v e r a g e . f i r s t day o f t e s t i n g ,

F or th e e ig h t lo w e st c a se s i n t h e ’ th e a v e ra g e changes i n th e f o u r

s e t s o f r e t e s t s w ere + 2 . 2 5 * + 4 .9 4 , + 4 .5 1 and + 4 .9 4 ; f o r se v e n c a s e s i n th e m id d le o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n , c h a n g e s w e r e - 1 . 0 , + 1 .2 9 * + 2 .9 5 n in e h ig h e s t c a s e s ,

th e se

a n d + 2 .1 7 * w h i l e f o r t h e

th e c h a n g e s w ere - 1 . 5 0 , - 1 . 7 8 , + 0 .1 7

and - 0 . 28 . M c C a rth y (1 0 ) g a v e t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t s f o u r t i m e s , t w i c e on o n e d a y a n d t w i c e two d a y s l a t e r ,

t o 58 a d u l t s

r e g i s t e r e d i n a l a b o r a to r y p sy c h o lo g y c o u rs e .

R e su lts

a r e e x p r e s s e d a s ra w s c o r e s a n d p e r c e n t i l e r a n k s f o r Q l , t h e m e d i a n a n d Q4.

F o r Q l,

t h e ra w s c o r e s i n T e s t s 1 a n d

4 w e r e 75»5 a n d 7 6 . 6 ( p e r c e n t i l e r a n k s o f 28 a n d 5 2 ) ;

th e

1 . The w r i t e r i s I n d e b t e d t o M is s W r i g h t f o r h a v i n g f u r ­ n i s h e d a n u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a s h e e t s h o w in g f l u c t u a t i o n s o f Ss i n t h e f i v e d a y s o f t e s t i n g .

16

m e d i a n raw s c o r e s w e r e 8 2 .0 a n d 8 2 .5 tile

( i d e n tic a l p e rcen ­

r a n k s o f 6 3 ) a n d f o r Q4, t h e raw s c o r e s w e r e 8 5 .0

a n d 8 7 .O ( r a n k s o f 7 9 a n d 8 7 ) .

The r a w s c o r e ;

d iffe re n c e s

b e tw e e n th e f o u r t h t e s t and th e f i r s t t e s t a r e a l l p o s i ­ tiv e

( i n d i c a t i n g im p r o v e m e n t) b u t t o o s m a l l t o b e

s ig n ific a n t. I n one p o r t i o n o f a s t u d y b y L a rs o n ( 8 ) ,

th e S eashore

m e a s u r e s w e r e g i v e n f o u r t i m e s t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 85 s i x t h g r a d e c h i l d r e n , a n i n t e r v a l o f f i v e m o n th s e l a p s i n g b e ­ t w e e n t h e f i r s t two a n d t h e l a s t tw o t e s t s .

T he a v e r a g e

s c o r e s f o r t h e f o u r t e s t s w e r e 6 8 . 6 , 6 9 . 4 , 6 8 .9 a n d 6 9 . 9 . T hus, th e a v e ra g e g a in s , u s in g th e f i r s t t e s t s c o re a s a b a s e , w ere . 8 ,

.3 a n d 1 . 3 p o i n t s .

These g a in s a r e v e ry

sm a ll and th e grou p a v e ra g e s a p p e a r f a i r l y s t a b l e .

In

v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d a t a was s o l e l y i n te rm s o f a v e r a g e g ro u p p e rf o r m a n c e , t h e r e i s no in f o r m a ­ tio n as to tre n d s in in d iv id u a l c a se s. R e s u l t s i n t h e s t u d i e s su b su m e d u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g "e ffe c ts

o f m u l t i p l e r e p e t i t i o n ” do n o t o f th e m s e lv e s

w a rra n t any d e f i n i t e c o n c lu sio n s a s to th e im p r o v a b ility o r n o n -im p ro v a b ility o f p itc h d is c rim in a tio n .

I n m ost o f

th e s e s t u d i e s , r e s u l t s a r e e x p re ss e d a s g rou p a v e ra g e s an d th u s th e f l u c t u a t i o n s f o r i n d i v i d u a l Ss a r e o b s c u re d . I f m u l t i p l e t e s t i n g g re w w e a r i s o m e t o t h e i n i t i a l l y h i g h c a s e s t o t h e sam e e x t e n t t h a t i t

su c c e e d e d i n im p ro v in g

17

t h e lo w c a s e s ,

t h e a v e r a g e s c o r e i n th e l a s t t e s t m ig h t

be s im ila r to th a t o f th e f i r s t

t e s t w ith o u t re v e a lin g

th e changes t h a t to o k p la c e i n th e i n d i v i d u a l r e c o r d s . I t i s q u i t e c l e a r i n t h e s e s t u d i e s t h a t som e Ss p r o f i t fro m r e t e s t i n g , w h ile o t h e r s do n o t . s i b l e t h a t w i t h m e re r e p e t i t i v e p r a c t i c e ,

I t i s pos­

t h o s e S s who

f a i l t o im p r o v e r e m a i n o n a “c o g n i t i v e p l a t e a u ” , w h i l e o t h e r s d e v i s e b e t t e r w o r k m e th o d s f o r t h e m s e l v e s d u r i n g th e co u rse o f th e r e t e s t in g .

In d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s in

t h i s r e s p e c t a r e p ro b a b ly r e s p o n s ib le , i n p a r t a t l e a s t , f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y lo w r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t i e s f o u n d i n t e s t s of th is c h a ra c te r.1 W h i p p l e ' s comment i n a n e d i t o r i a l n o t e w r i t t e n i n 1928 ( 4 , p . 2 40) s t i l l

seem s p e r t i n e n t :

T he i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s i n s u c h m a s s e x ­ p e r i m e n t s a s t h o s e o f B u ffu m a n d S m i t h i s , i n my j u d g m e n t , d e c i d e d l y d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t o f t e n m is le a d in g . C e r t a i n l y a n e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t m e th o d o f stu d y in g th e e f f e c t s o f p r a c tic e i s to c o n fin e o n e 's e f f o r t to d r i l l i n g a c o m p e te n t, th o u g h un­ m u s i c a l , a d u l t u n d e r l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s w h ich p e r m i t o f some q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f w h a t t a k e s p la c e . I n v i e w o f t h e r e c o r d o f im p r o v e m e n t I n d i c a t e d I n s t u d i e s i n w h i c h m ore s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g w as g i v e n (T y p e 5 ) , i t se e m s f a i r t o c o n c l u d e t h a t m e r e r e p e t i t i o n o f a t e s t may n o t i n d i c a t e o r m e a s u r e t h e “ p h y s i o l o g i c a l 1 . R e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t i e s f o r t h e S e a s h o r e p i t c h t e s t (1 9 1 9 form ) a s r e p o r t e d by d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s v a r y w id e ly . T he r a n g e o f c o e f f i c i e n t s e x t e n d s f r o m . 4 0 (5 4 ) t o .9 0 ( 8 ) w i t h t h e m e d i a n r o f 13 I n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r o u n d . 7 0 .

18

c a p a c ity ” nor is

it

lik e ly to c o n s titu te an e ffe c tiv e

m e th o d o f t r a i n i n g .

Studies on the e f f e c t o f formal m usical in str u c tio n in v o ic e , instrument or theory. The w o r k o f S t a n t o n a n d K o e r t h ( 5 1 , 3 5 ) a n d S ta n to n

(3*0

a t t h e E a s tm a n S c h o o l i s

th e m ost i n t e n s i v e

a n d e x t e n d e d r e s e a r c h a v a i l a b l e on t h e e f f e c t s o f f o r m a l m u s i c a l t r a i n i n g on s c o r e s m ade b y c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s i n th e S eash o re t e s t s .

These s t u d i e s have b e en a p p ro v ed

and sp o n so re d by S e a sh o re and have b e e n a c c e p te d g e n e r a l ­ ly as c o n s titu tin g p ro o f th a t tr a in in g i s

o f no a v a i l i n

im p ro v in g su c h t r a i t s a s p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . p r e f a c e t o one o f S t a n t o n ’ s s t u d i e s

In h is

(3 3 ) S e a s h o r e w r i t e s :

T he M e a s u r e s o f M u s i c a l T a l e n t h e r e d i s c u s s e d w e re b u i l t on th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t th e y s h o u ld m easu re th e s e s p e c i f i c c a p a c i t i e s b e f o r e m u si­ c a l e d u c a t i o n w as b e g u n a n d t h a t t h e c a p a c i t i e s w o u ld n o t b e g r e a t l y m o d i f i e d b y t r a i n i n g . A t­ tem p ts to v a l i d a t e t h i s a ssu m p tio n have b e e n m ade b y v a r i o u s I n d i r e c t m e t h o d s , b u t t h e f i n a l c r i t i c a l p ro o f h a s a w a ite d th e a c c u m u la tio n o f s u c c e s s i v e m e a s u r e m e n t u p o n t h e sam e i n d i v i d u a l s b e f o r e , d u rin g , and a f t e r m u sica l t r a i n in g . T h is h a s b e e n a c c o m p lish e d th r o u g h th e a c c u m u la ­ t i o n o f a r e m a r k a b l e s e r i e s o f m e a s u r e m e n ts b y P r o f e s s o r S ta n to n . S e a sh o re a p p a r e n tly r e l i e s upon su ch d a ta as S ta n to n ’ s t o s u b s t a n t i a t e h i s c la im t h a t t r a i n i n g does n o t m a t e r i a l l y im p ro v e t e s t s c o r e s , an d t h a t t h e t e s t s are,

th e re fo re ,

sta b le

" c a p a c i t y " m e a s u r e s , on t h e b a s i s

o f w h i c h p r e d i c t i o n s o f f u t u r e s c o r e s may s a f e l y b e m ad e.

19

I t w o u ld se e m , h o w e v e r , t h a t c o n c l u s i o n s d ra w n f r o m th e s e s t u d i e s sh o u ld r e f l e c t th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e p a r t i c u l a r " t r a i n i n g ” h e r e e m p lo y e d , v i z . , i n s t r u c t i o n i n a p p lie d an d t h e o r e t i c a l m u sic. The S s i n t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e 645 c h i l d r e n a n d 157 a d u l t s .

The c h i l d r e n w e r e r e g i s t e r e d i n t h e p r e p a r a ­

t o r y d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e E a s tm a n S c h o o l o f M u sic a n d t h e a d u l t s w ere a l l

e n ro lle d in th e fo u r - y e a r co u rse le a d in g

t o a d e g r e e a t t h e sam e s c h o o l . t h e s e s t u d i e s w as a s f o l l o w s ! w ere a d m i n i s t e r e d .

The p r o c e d u r e u s e d i n

(l)

The S e a s h o r e t e s t s

( 2 ) Ss r e c e i v e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e

y e a rs of m u sic a l i n s tr u c t i o n .

( 5 ) The sam e Ss w e r e

r e t e s t e d a t t h e end o f t h i s p e r i o d .

The c h i l d r e n r e ­

c e iv e d w eek ly h a l f - h o u r l e s s o n s i n m u s ic ia n s h ip and i n in s tr u m e n ta l m u sic, eac h c h i l d r e c e i v i n g a n a v e ra g e o f 21 6 h a l f - h o u r l e s s o n s i n t h e t h r e e - y e a r p e r i o d .

T ra in in g

f o r th e m u sic -d e g re e a d u l t s c o n s is te d o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e o r e t i c a l s u b je c ts such a s c o u n te r p o in t, a p p r e c ia tio n , h a rm o n y , t h e o r y a n d c o n d u c t i n g ;

in d iv id u a l le sso n s In

v o ic e o r in s tru m e n t;

ch o ru s,

o rc h e stra ,

e tc .

I t w as a s s u m e d b y t h e a u t h o r s t h a t i f v a rie d b u t l i t t l e

upon r e t e s t i n g ,

th e sc o re s

" t h e r e i s n o t o n ly

p r o o f from th e p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n t h a t t h e M easures w i l l y i e l d s t a b le r e s u l t s , b u t th e r e i s added in fo rm a tio n r e ­ g a rd in g th e in n a te n e s s o f m u sic a l t a l e n t and o f th e

20

c a p a c ity n a tu r e o f th e t e s t s ” (3 4 , p. 29). W it h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r p r e - t r a i n i n g a n d p o s t - t r a i n i n g sco res in p itc h d isc rim in a tio n ,

th e p r e - a d o le s c e n t g rou p

o f 285 c h i l d r e n i n g r a d e s 4 t o 6 h a d a n a v e r a g e i n c r e a s e i n raw s c o r e o f 4 . 7 p o i n t s ;

th e a d o le s c e n t g rou p c o n s i s t ­

i n g o f 208 c h i l d r e n i n g r a d e s 7 t o 9 h a d a n a v e r a g e g a i n o f 2 .1 p o i n t s ;

th e p o s t- a d o le s c e n t group o f in d iv i d u a ls

i n g r a d e s 10 t o 12 g a i n e d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 . 2 p o i n t s a n d t h e 157 m u s i c - d e g r e e a d u l t s h a d a n a v e r a g e i n c r e a s e o f .1 p o in t.

I t may b e o b s e r v e d t h a t f o r a l l g r o u p s t h e r e

w a s a m ean i n c r e a s e I n a l l t e s t s a n d t h a t t h e m ean g a i n s g re w p r o g r e s s i v e l y s m a l l e r a s t h e e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l r o s e . The r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e r g a i n s i n r e t e s t s c o r e s f o r t h e p r e - a d o l e s c e n t and a d o l e s c e n t g ro u p s w ere n o t a t t r i ­ b u te d by th e a u th o r s to t r a i n i n g , b u t to p r o g r e s s iv e re d u c tio n in c o g n itiv e d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith m a tu ra tio n ( le s s c lu m sin e ss i n o b s e r v a tio n , l e s s l im i te d sp an o f a t t e n t i o n , le s s d i f f i c u l t y in fo llo w in g a ta s k ,

l e s s e x c ite m e n t from

n o v e lty , b e t t e r c o n tro l of a tte n tio n ,

e tc .).

S in ce t h i s

p a p e r i s n o t co n cern ed p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith age d i f f e r e n c e s , th e fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n w i l l be c o n fin e d to th e p o s t­ a d o le s c e n t g ro up and th e m u sic -d e g re e a d u l t s . F or th e p o s t- a d o le s c e n t group,

th e av erag e p re ­

t r a i n i n g p e r c e n t i l e r a n k w as 5 7 . 4 a n d t h e a v e r a g e p o s t ­ t r a i n i n g p e r c e n t i l e r a n k w as 6 0 . 2 .

F or th e m u sic-d e g ree

21

a d u lts,

t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r a n k s w e r e 6 9 .3 a n d 6 9 . 8 .

I n a d d it i o n to e x p re s s in g s c o re f l u c t u a t i o n s i n te rm s o f a v e r a g e s ,

S ta n to n s e t f o r t h th e p e rc e n ta g e of

c a s e s f a l l i n g w i t h i n e a c h +3- u n i t sp a n o f v a r i a t i o n i n T e s t 1 and T e s t 2 s c o r e s .

The p e r c e n t a g e o f p o s t - a d o l e s ­

c e n t s a n d m u s i c - d e g r e e a d u l t s w h o se r e t e s t s c o r e s f e l l w ith in each

3 - u n i t sp a n o f v a r i a t i o n from i n i t i a l s c o r e

i n t h e p i t c h t e s t a r e shown b e lo w : Span of v a ria tio n

0

P o sta d o l. Mus. D eg.

± 1-3

± 4 -6

± 7 -9

6 .6 3 8 .8

2 3 .0

1 9 .1

5 .7 4 4 .6

2 8 .7

1 2 .7

± 1 0 - 1 2 ± 1 3 - 1 5 ± 1 6 -1 8 ± 1 9 - 2 4 8 .5

1 .3

.7

2 .0

8 .3

I t may b e o b s e r v e d t h a t ( l )

th e ran g e o f v a r i a t i o n

ten d ed to b e s m a lle r f o r th e m u s ic -d e g re e a d u l t s , v a ry in g m a x i m a l l y f r o m t h e i r i n i t i a l s c o r e s b y 12 p o i n t s , w h i l e t h o s e o f t h e p o s t - a d o l e s c e n t s h a d a maximum v a r i a t i o n o f 24 p o i n t s ;

( 2) th e p e rc e n ta g e :

of cases w ith in a f lu c tu a tio n

o f ± 3 u n i t s was som ew hat g r e a t e r f o r t h e m u s i c - d e g r e e a d u lts

( 5 0 *2$ )

th a n f o r th e p o s t-a d o le s c e n ts

S t a n t o n (3 4 )

(4 5 .4 ^ ).

reg a rd ed a f l u c t u a t i o n span o f + 3 u n its

a s a norm al f l u c t u a t i o n w i t h i n th e ra n g e e x p e c te d i n m e a s u r e m e n ts i n v o l v i n g t h e h e a r i n g t h r e s h o l d .

In th e

c a s e o f t h e m u s i c - d e g r e e a d u l t s h a l f o f t h e g r o u p was

22

v ith in

t h i s ra n g e o f v a r i a t i o n and h a l f o f th e g roup

exceeded i t .

If

he c o n sid e re d ,

t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e m u s i c - d e g r e e Ss

t h e s p a n o f v a r i a t i o n when t h e T e s t 1 a n d

T e s t 2 s c o r e s a r e c o m p a re d r a n g e s f r o m ± 4 p o i n t s t o ± 1 2 p o in ts .

The a u t h o r s h a v e n o t c o n s i d e r e d i n d i v i d u a l f l u c ­

t u a t i o n i n t e r m s o f p e r c e n t i l e s , h u t w hen t h e s e a p p a r e n t ­ l y s m a l l raw s c o r e f l u c t u a t i o n s a r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o r a n k s , t h e v a r i a t i o n s f r o m t h e i n i t i a l t e s t a p p e a r much m ore s ig n ific a n t.

If,

f o r e x a m p le ,

t h e m ean p e r c e n t i l e r a n k

i n t h e i n i t i a l t e s t o f t h e m u s i c - d e g r e e a d u l t s was 7 0 , a p l u s o r m in u s v a r i a t i o n o f f i v e ra w s c o r e p o i n t s m i g h t h e e q u i v a l e n t t o a c h a n g e o f 50 p e r c e n t i l e p o i n t s l o w e r o r 24 p o i n t s h i g h e r , i . e . ,

a n i n d i v i d u a l who had a n i n i t i a l

r a n k o f 70 m i g h t h a v e a r e t e s t r a n k o f 40 o r 94 i f h i s raw s c o r e i n T e s t 2 w e r e 5 p o i n t s l o w e r o r h i g h e r t h a n i n T e st 1.

A raw s c o r e f l u c t u a t i o n o f 8 p o i n t s

(th e

m e d ia n o f t h e ± 7 - 9 u n i t s p a n ) m i g h t m ean a v a r i a t i o n f r o m a n i n i t i a l r a n k o f 70 t o one l o w e r t h a n 50 o r h i g h e r t h a n 9 8 , y e t 21$ o f t h e m u s i c - d e g r e e a d u l t s had a raw s c o r e f l u c t u a t i o n a s g r e a t a s o r g r e a t e r t h a n t h i s a m o u n t. These f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e th e p o s s i b i l i t y

th a t a f a ir ly

l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f c a s e s m ig h t h av e f l u c t u a t e d m a rk e d ly in p e rc e n tile ranks, ity

c h a n g i n g f ro m m e d i o c r i t y t o s u p e r i o r ­

o r t o lo w m e d i o c r i t y .

I f in d iv id u a l v a ria tio n is

c o n s id e r e d i n term s o f p e r c e n t i l e r a n k s , p e rfo rm a n c e i n

23

p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n may h a v e b e e n f a r f r o m s t a b l e e v e n f o r t h e two o l d e r g r o u p s . Some o f t h e a u t h o r s 1 c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e i r d a t a a re as fo llo w s: The u l t i m a t e p r o o f o f t h e c a p a c i t y n a t u r e o f a n y t e s t p r o b a b l y c a n n e v e r b e fo u n d b u t t h e s e e x p e rim e n ts / r e t e s t s o f m u sic -d e g re e a d u lt£ 7 show t h a t t h e M e a s u r e s a p p r o a c h t h e i d e a l o f b e in g m ea su re m e n ts o f m u s ic a l c a p a c i t i e s .

(34, p. 2 8 ). T h e s e f a c t s / s i m i l a r i t i e s o f m eans i n T e s t s 1 and 2 f o r th e m u s ic -d e g re e a d u l t s 7 s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t w hen t h e M e a s u r e s a r e g i v e n u n d e r c o n t r o l le d c o n d itio n s by an e x p e rie n c e d e x a m in e r, th e p h y s i o l o g i c a l th r e s h o ld can be r e a c h e d t o s u c h a d e g r e e i n T1 t h a t , f o r t h e g ro u p , th e re w ill be l i t t l e a p p re c ia b le v a r i a ­ t i o n i n T2 ............. T h is s e v e r e l y t e s t e d e v id e n c e c o n t r i b u t e s to th e v ie w p o in t t h a t th e S e a sh o re t e s t s a r e m e a s u r e m e n ts o f c a p a c i t i e s a n d n o t o f a ch iev e m e n t. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n f ro m a d u l t s a m easure o f t h e i r g r e a t e s t d e g re e o f c a p a c i t y w h ic h w i l l n o t v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h m u s i c a l t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n ............. S h a ll w e; t h e n sa y t h a t m u s ic a l c a p a c i t i e s a s m easured by t h e s e t e s t s r e a c h a c e r t a i n d e g r e e when o n e b e ­ comes a n a d u l t w i t h no s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n a f t e r t h a t tim e ? E v id e n c e h e r e i n p r e s e n te d s u b s t a n t i a t e s an a f f i r m a t i v e answ er . . . . . . (34, p. 3 2 ). I n t e r p r e t a s t h e r e a d e r m ay, t h e f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t i f t h e s e M e a s u r e s d i d n o t come som ew here n e a r m e a su rin g n a ti v e c a p a c i t i e s th e r e sh o u ld b e much g r e a t e r g a i n s o b s e r v a b l e i n t e s t s c o r e s o f stu d e n ts a f t e r th re e y e a rs o f in te n s iv e m u s ic a l t r a i n i n g and e d u c a tio n . (3*1-, p . 3 9 ) . L a r s o n ( 8 ) a l s o e x a m in e d a l l t h e a v a i l a b l e r e c o r d s o f m u s i c m a j o r s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Iowa S c h o o l o f M usic who h a d b e e n t e s t e d

o v e r v a r i o u s s p a n s o f y e a r s a n d who

h a d h a d f o r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n m u s ic d u r i n g t h e s e p e r i o d s .

24

T he t r a i n i n g w h i c h t h e s e s t u d e n t s r e c e i v e d w as s i m i l a r to t h a t in d ic a te d above i n th e S ta n to n stu d y .

A f t e r one

y e a r o f , a t t e n d a n c e a t th e S c h o o l, 37 Ss had an a v e r a g e g a i n i n t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t o f .0 3 p o i n t ; a n a v e r a g e g a i n o f 1 . 6 p o i n t s was made by 20 S s who h a d a t t e n d e d t h e s c h o o l f o r two y e a r s a n d a n a v e r a g e g a i n o f 1 . 6 7 p o i n t s was f o u n d f o r n i n e S s who h a d h a d t h r e e y e a r s o f m u s i c a l t r a i n ­ i n g b e t w e e n t h e i r i n i t i a l a nd f i n a l t e s t s .

L arson con­

c lu d e s t h a t th e a v e ra g e p o i n ts g a in e d a r e a l l w i t h in th e P .E .

o f th e s c o re and t h a t t h i s i n d i c a t e s

" th a t th e re

w o u ld b e no i m p r o v e m e n t o v e r t h e s e v e r a l y e a r s o f m u s i c a l tra in in g "

(8, p. 6 4 ).

The p r e s e n t w r i t e r h a s e l s e w h e r e (4 2 ) i n d i c a t e d u n su ita b ility

of stu d ie s of th is

th e

t y p e a s c r u c i a l demon­

s t r a t i o n s t h a t p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a nd o t h e r s i m i l a r " c a p a c i t i e s " a r e u n s u s c e p t i b l e o f i m p r o v e m e n t.

S eashore

h as p r o t e s te d a g a i n s t v a l i d a t i o n o f th e t e s t s by th e use o f g r a d e s i n a p p l i e d m u sic and t h e o r y c o u r s e s , m a i n t a i n ­ in g t h a t th e s e a re re la te d to h is

" o m n ib u s " c r i t e r i a a n d a r e l a r g e l y u n ­

"sp e c ific "

ed t h a t t h e t e s t s

te s ts .

He h a s r e p e a t e d l y i n s i s t ­

" sh o u ld n o t be v a l i d a t e d i n term s o f

t h e i r s h o w in g on a r\ 'o m n ib u s *

th e o ry o r b la n k e t r a t i n g

a g a i n s t a l l m u s ic a l b e h a v i o r , i n c l u d i n g su ch d i v e r s e and l a r g e l y u n r e la te d s i t u a t i o n s a s c o m p o sitio n , d i r e c t i n g , v o ic e , p ia n o , v i o li n ,

saxophone,

th e o ry , a d m in is tr a tio n or

25

drum s; b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e h u n d re d s o f o t h e r f a c t o r s w h ich h e lp t o d e te rm in e th e jo b a n a l y s i s i n e ac h o f su c h fie ld s"

(24, p.

2 5 ).

But th e t r a i n i n g c o n sid e re d i n t h i s

s e c t i o n m ust a l s o

b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e t y p i c a l " o m n ib u s " s i t u a t i o n s ,

" d iv e rse

and l a r g e l y u n r e l a t e d " w h ic h w ere r e j e c t e d by S e a sh o re fo r v a lid a tio n of h is te s ts !

I f th e t e s t s c an n o t be

v a l i d a t e d a g a i n s t " o m n ib u s " c r i t e r i a ,

how c a n t h e f a i l u r e

o f s u c h t r a i n i n g t o r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t im p r o v e m e n t b e s a i d t o p ro v e u n e q u iv o c a l l y t h a t s c o r e s a r e n o t im p ro v ­ a b le by any k in d o f t r a i n in g ? c r i t e r i a fo r v a lid a tio n are e .g .,

If

th e o n ly a c c e p ta b le

" s p e c i f i c " and " i n t e r n a l ”,

c o r r e la tio n of a p itc h d is c rim in a tio n t e s t w ith

" o b je c tiv e r e c o r d s o f m u sic a l p erfo rm an ce i n p i t c h in to n a | tio n or a b ility

to h e a r a r t i s t i c

m u sic a l s i t u a t i o n " , c lo s e ly re la te d

p i t c h d e v ia tio n i n th e

t h e n may n o t a l s o

" sp e c ific "

tra in in g ,

to th e c o n te n t o f th e t e s t s , be n e c e ssa ry

f o r p ro o f o f th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t th e t e s t s c o r e s a r e unI

a ffe c te d by tra in in g ?

The r e a l q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r a n y ­

t h i n g s h o r t o f i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g w h ich i s p u r p o s e f u l l y r e m e d i a l (T y P e 3 )

can be sa id

to d e m o n stra te c o n c lu s iv e ly

th a t t r a i n in g i s im m a te ria l. A s su m in g t h a t t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t s a r e v a l i d a n d a c ­ c e p tin g S e a s h o r e 's c r i t i c i s m c rite ria

o f t h e u s e o f " o m n ib u s "

to c h a lle n g e th e v a l i d i t y

of h is t e s t s ,

it

seem s

26

p r o p e r t o q u e s t i o n a l s o t h e u s e o f ”o m n ib u s ” t y p e o f t r a i n i n g to d e m o n s tra te n o n -im p ro v a b ility . a n d S e a s h o r e h a v e a ssu m e d t h a t i f

B o th S t a n to n

s im ila r sco res a re

m ade b e f o r e a n d a f t e r f o r m a l m u s i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n , t e s t m easures a f ix e d n a tiv e c a p a c ity .

th e n a

These e x p e rim e n ts,

h o w e v e r c a r e f u l a n d i m p o r t a n t t h e y may b e , r e p r e s e n t o n l y o n e t y p e o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f ^ t r a i n i n g ” a nd s h o u l d n o t be re g a rd e d a s c o n s t i t u t i n g u n e q u iv o c a l f i n a l p ro o f o f th e sta b ility

of such a t r a i t as p itc h d is c rim in a tio n .

S t u d i e s e m p lo y in g d i r e c t r e m e d ia l a i d a d a p te d to i n d i v i d u a l needs. I n 1905 W h ip p le (3 6 ) r e p o r t e d t h e r e s u l t s

of p rac­

t i c i n g one e x tr e m e ly u n m u sic a l a d u l t i n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a ­ tio n .

T h is S c o u ld n o t d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n a m a jo r and

m in o r t r i a d

p l a y e d on t h e p i a n o n o r c o u l d s h e d e t e c t a

c h a n g e o f a s e m i t o n e i n a f a m i l i a r m e lo d y .

When p r e s e n t e d

w i t h s e m i t o n e d i f f e r e n c e s p l a y e d on t h e p i a n o a t t h r e e d iffe re n t le v e ls , m ad e .

o n ly 40$,

a n d 70^ r i g h t a n s w e r s w e r e

On t h e S t e r n t o n e - v a r i a t o r , a d i f f e r e n c e o f 12

c y c l e s f r o m a s t a n d a r d o f 250 c y c l e s c o u l d n o t b e c o r r e c t ­ l y ju d g e d . The p u r p o s e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t w as t o d e t e r m i n e w h e th e r o r n o t s y s te m a tic r e m e d ia l d r i l l and c o a c h in g w o u ld im p r o v e t h i s S f s p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

A fte r p ra c ­

t i c e w i t h t h e t o n e - v a r i a t o r ( n o t d e s c r i b e d a s t o m eth o d

27

or d u ra tio n ),

t h e t h r e s h o l d o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n was r e d u c e d

to 2 .8 c y c le s

( 78$ r i g h t a n s w e r s ) .

T h is p r a c t i c e and

im p ro v em en t d i d n o t a p p e a r t o t r a n s f e r v e ry e f f e c t i v e l y t o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f p i a n o t o n e s , h o w e v e r , f o r t h e num­ ber of rig h t

j u d g m e n t s o f s e m i t o n e d i f f e r e n c e s r e m a in e d

r e l a t i v e l y lo w a t 6 8 $ , 68$ a n d 70$ f o r t h e t h r e e freq u en cy le v e ls re s p e c tiv e ly . W h ip p le s t a t e d

t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d was e x t r e m e l y

s h o r t a n d h i s q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s l e d h im t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f t r a i n i n g w o u ld p r o b a b l y h a v e p r o d u c e d g r e a t e r im p r o v e m e n t :

"The r a p i d d a i l y r i s e o f

e f f i c i e n c y show n i n t h e t e s t s l e n d s some c o u n t e n a n c e t o t h e g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t l o n g e r p r a c t i c e w o u ld b r i n g n o t i c e a b l e im p ro v e m e n t.” The f a c t t h a t W h i p p l e ’ s S im p ro v e d i n p i t c h d i s c r i m ­ in a tio n of a lim ite d s o r t bu t f a ile d

to t r a n s f e r th is

im p r o v e m e n t t o t o n e s o f d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t y s u g g e s t s t h e need f o r f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , n o t o n ly o f th e im p ro v a­ b ility

of p itc h d isc rim in a tio n under a s p e c ific s e t of

c o n d itio n s, b u t a ls o of tr a n s fe r . i n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e v a l i d i t y

The p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d

of te s ts

of p itc h d is ­

c r im in a tio n a s t r u e m easures o f " c a p a c i ti e s " sh o u ld , i t i s b e lie v e d ,

i n c l u d e m ore t h a n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r o r

n o t i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g w i l l l e a d t o im p ro v e m e n t u n d e r c o n d itio n s i d e n t i c a l to th e i n i t i a l ones.

The q u e s t i o n

28

o f w h e t h e r i m p r o v e m e n t , i f a n y , w o u ld s p r e a d t o d i s c r i m i n a ­ tio n a t d i f f e r e n t frequency le v e ls ,

to d i f f e r e n t tim b re s ,

t o d i f f e r e n t p s y c h o p h y s i c a l m e th o d s and e v e n t o n o n ­ la b o r a to r y s i tu a ti o n s i s a ls o im p o rta n t. p e r tin e n t to in q u ire in to

I t w o u ld a l s o b e

th e p la c e of p itc h d is c rim in a tio n

i n p i t c h i n t o n a t i o n and i n t o

th e q u e s tio n of t r a n s f e r o f

im p r o v e m e n t i f a n y , f r o m p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t o p i t c h i n t o n a t i o n a n d v i c e v e r s a . - 1An e x p e r i m e n t b y S m i t h (3 0 ) i s

o fte n c ite d as e v i­

dence of th e n o n -im p ro v a b ility of p i tc h d is c r im in a tio n . S e a s h o r e r e f e r s t o S m i t h s r e s u l t s u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g "T he p h y s i o l o g i c a l l i m i t d o e s n o t im p r o v e w i t h p r a c t i c e ” (23* p . 59) and L a rs o n (8 , p. 7 ) a l s o c i t e s S m ith ’s f i n d i n g s a s e v id e n c e t h a t ” th e c a p a c i t i e s i n q u e s tio n a r e r e l a ­ t i v e l y e l e m e n t a l i n t h a t t h e y do n o t im p r o v e w i t h t r a i n i n g to any g r e a t e x te n t" .

I n v ie w o f t h e s e a n d o t h e r r a t h e r

d e c i s i v e com m ents ( 2 0 ) ,

one i s

su rp rise d

to f i n d from

a n a l y s i s o f S m i t h ’ s d a t a t h a t a v e r y l a r g e nu m b er o f h i s Ss d i d l o w e r t h e i r t h r e s h o l d s i n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ,

in

some i n s t a n c e s m a r k e d l y . S m ith ’s s tu d y a n te d a te s th e a p p ea ra n c e o f th e re c o rd e d S eashore m easu res.

The t u n i n g f o r k s , r e s o n a t o r s ,

e tc .

d e s c r i b e d by S e a sh o re ( 1 6 ) w ere used i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I n o n e p o r t i o n o f S m i t h ’ s r e s e a r c h , a g r o u p o f 200 a d u l t s 1 . T h e r e seem s t o b e no c o n c l u s i v e p r o o f t h a t p r o f i c i e n c y i n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a s m easured by any one t e s t i n d i ­ c a te s a group o f l i k e p r o f i c i e n c i e s i n th e s e o th e r s i t u a ­ tio n s .

29

w e r e g i v e n tw o p r e l i m i n a r y p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t e s t s a n d t h e p o o r e s t o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e g r o u p , 54 i n n u m b e r, w ere th e n g iv e n i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c t i o n "as t o th e a c t u a l n a tu re o f p itc h h e a rin g ".

"An e f f o r t w as made t o f i n d o u t

w hat p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s

t h e y r e r e e n c o u n te r in g , and

e x p l a n a t i o n s and i l l u s t r a t i o n s w ere b a s e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y upon t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n ." T h e s e 5 4 S s h a d made " b u t l i t t l e T est 2.

im p r o v e m e n t" i n

A f t e r i n d i v i d u a l " p e r s o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n " , how ever,

4 7 o f t h e S s m ade " r a p i d i m p r o v e m e n t 11.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f t h e t h r e s h o l d s f o r t h e s e 47 c a s e s b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h i s in d iv id u a l in s tr u c tio n i s

show n b e lo w :

T h resh o ld s ( i n c y c le s)

30

2?

17

12

8

5

3

2

1

.5

N b efo re in stru c tio n

6

2

8

8

12

11

—

--

—

—

1

1

1

5

11

12

5

7

N a fte r in stru c tio n

4

A f t e r r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n , 60$ o f t h e g r o u p h a d t h r e s h o ld s o f 3 c y c le s o r l e s s , w hereas n o t a s i n g l e S i n th e g ro u p had had a th r e s h o ld under 5 c y c le s b e fo re i n ­ s tru c tio n . S m ith * s c o n c l u s i o n ( 3 0 , p . 7 5) i s

th a t th is

" m a rk e d

re s p o n s e " to th e i n s t r u c t i o n and i n d i v i d u a l h e lp "d o u b ly e m p h a siz e s th e im p o rta n c e o f th o ro u g h n e s s and i n d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n in th e in s tr u c tio n s i f

th e r e c o rd s a r e to be

50

re lia b le ".

He f u r t h e r s t a t e s

ru le to say th a t a l l t e s ts in stru c tio n ;

if

( p . 75) *

wI t i s a s a f e

sh o u ld h e p rec ed e d by e f f i c i e n t

t h i s c a n b e made i n d i v i d u a l ,

s o much t h e

b e t t e r ; a n d a l l who show p o o r r e c o r d s m u s t b e s u b j e c t e d t o m o re i n t e n s i v e a n d s e a r c h i n g i n s t r u c t i o n b e f o r e t h e r e c o r d can be a c c e p te d f o r s e rio u s p u rp o s e s ." I n a n o t h e r p o r t i o n o f S m ith * s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a s p e c i a l s t u d y w as m ade o f a g r o u p o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l p u p i l s , 71 b o y s and 55 g i r l s , w hose t h r e s h o l d s i n t h e g ro u p t e s t

w e r e 20 a n d 3 0 c y c l e s .

T h e s e Ss w e r e g i v e n

" i n d i v i d u a l p r a c t i c e ” i n o r d e r t o a i d th em t o " d i s t i n g u i s h d i f f e r e n t to n e q u a l i t i e s and t o form r i g h t h a b i t s o f a t ­ te n tio n ".

T he d a i l y g r o u p a v e r a g e s i n t h e s e p r a c t i c e

t e s t s w e r e 17*5# 1 2 . 0 , 1 2 .5 # 1 2 .5 # 14*5# 15*5# 1 2 .5 # 1 1 .4 # 1 1 . 3 , 1 1 . 2 , 9 . 5 a n d 9 . 8 f o r t h e 71 b o y s a n d 1 7 .7 # 1 1 . 8 , 9 . 5 , 1 1 . 5 , 1 0 . 5 , 8 . 0 , 8 . 5 , 8 . 4 , 7 . 9 a n d 7 .1 2 c y c l e s f o r th e 35 g i r l s . S m i t h * s t r a i n i n g p r o c e d u r e s seem t o h a v e b e e n c o n ­ f in e d to e x p la n a tio n s , d e m o n s tra tio n s o r s u g g e s tio n s . W h il e t h e s e t r a i n i n g d e v i c e s w o u ld p r o b a b l y p r o d u c e a g r e a t e r im p r o v e m e n t t h a n m i g h t b e f o u n d w i t h m e re u n a i d e d p ra c tic e

(T y p e l )

o r w i t h m u s ic a l i n s t r u c t i o n (T ype 2 ) ,

t h e y m ig h t n o t b y th e m s e lv e s b e th e m ost e f f e c t i v e ones f o r p r o d u c in g im provem ent i n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

The improvement made by Smith*s Ss was a ttrib u ted by

51

h im a n d b y S e a s h o r e , who c o o p e r a t e d w i t h h im i n t h e p r e s e n ta tio n of g e n e ra l c o n c lu sio n s, o f c o g n itiv e d i f f i c u l t i e s

e n t i r e l y to re d u c tio n

(30, pp. 100-J 0 1 ) :

T he s e n s i t i v e n e s s o f t h e e a r t o p i t c h d i f f e r e n c e s c a n n o t b e im p r o v e d a p p r e c i a b l y b y p r a c t i c e .......... When a p e r s o n show s a c o g n i t i v e t h r e s h o l d p r a c t i c e o r d i n a r i l y r e s u l t s i n a c l e a r i n g up o f th e d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s w h i c h / s t a n d / i n t h e way o f a t r u e m e a s u r e o f d is c r im in a tio n by in fo rm a tio n , o b s e r v a tio n s , and th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f i n t e r e s t , i s o l a t i o n o f th e p r o b l e m i n h a n d , a n d m ore c o n s i s t e n t a p p l i c a t i o n to th e t a s k i n hand. S m ith ’ s e x p erim e n t a n te d a te d th e re c o rd e d S e a sh o re m e a s u r e s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o d e rn a p p a r a t u s i n w h i c h in te n sity ,

d u r a tio n and l o c a l i z a t i o n can be h e ld c o n s ta n t.

Such c o n t r o l o f v a r i a b l e s o th e r th a n p i t c h i s d i f f i c u l t o r i m p o s s i b l e w hen t u n i n g f o r k s a r e m a n u a l l y e x c i t e d .

In

e v a l u a t i n g S m i t h 1s f i n d i n g s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r , i n a d d i t i o n to t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x tra n e o u s c u e s ,

th e

d o u b tf u l a c c u ra c y o f p s y c h o p h y s ic a l th r e s h o ld s d e te rm in e d i n such b r i e f t e s t s . In th e o p in io n o f th e w r i t e r ,

th e m ost im p o r ta n t

c o n t r i b u t i o n o f S m i t h ’ s r e s e a r c h l i e s n o t s o much i n h i s a c t u a l q u a n t i t a t i v e d a ta a s i n th e q u a l i t a t i v e a n a ly s is of h is S s1 v erb al re p o rts .

I f p itc h d isc rim in a tio n

sh o u ld

b e i m p r o v a b l e , a n y s u g g e s t i o n s f o r i m p r o v i n g “w o r k m eth o d s* 1 o r r e d u c i n g “c o g n i t i v e d i f f i c u l t i e s " a r e e s p e c i a l l y v a l u a b l e a s p a r t o f th e t e c h n iq u e o f a d m i n i s t e r i n g rem e­ d ia l a id .

F o l l o w i n g a r e some o f t h e m ore i m p o r t a n t c l u e s

to an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e m en tal p ro c e s s e s in v o lv e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g p i t c h , a s g le a n e d from v e r b a l r e p o r t s o f

52

S m i t h 1s S s : a .)

Some Ss r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e h i g h e r t o n e se em e d m ore ’’’’p i e r c i n g ” a n d t h e l o w e r t o n e " d u l l e r " , " d e e p e r " , " h e a v i e r ” o r "m ore m e l l o w " .

b .)

Some i n d i v i d u a l s s t a t e d t h a t t h e y d e p e n d e d upon k i n a e s t h e t i c s e n s a tio n s i n th e v o c a l o rg an s o r e lse w h e re i n th e body. I n some c a s e s Ss s a i d t h e y w e r e u n a b l e t o t e l l w h e t h e r t h e s e c o n d t o n e was h i g h e r o r l o w e r u n l e s s t h e y rep ro d u c ed th e to n es e i t h e r " a u d ib ly o r m en ta lly ".

c .)

Many Ss i n d i c a t e d a u d i t o r y , v i s u a l o r k i n a e s ­ t h e t i c im a g e ry , e . g . , a s s o c i a t i o n o f th e h ig h t o n e w i t h t h e m a j o r k e y a n d o f t h e lo w t o n e w i t h t h e m i n o r k e y o r a s s i g n m e n t o f some s p a t i a l r e la tio n s h ip ( n e a r e r - f a r th e r or aboveb e lo w ) t o t h e t o n e s . O th e rs r e f e r r e d to n e s to some m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t a n d t h o u g h t o f how t h e i r f i n g e r s w o u ld move t o p r o d u c e a h i g h e r o r lo w e r to n e .

d .)

The e x p e r i e n c e o f " c o l o r e d h e a r i n g " was r e p o r t e d i n a few i n s t a n c e s .

e .)

Some in d iv id u a ls r e p o r t e d a t t e n d i n g t o a p a r t i ­ c u l a r p a r t o f th e t o n e - - i t s b e g in n in g , m id d le o r e n d in g --a n d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a h a b i t o f f o r m i n g t h e ju d g m e n t a t t h e i n s t a n t o f h e a rin g t h a t p o r tio n o f th e to n e .

f.)

C e r ta in in d iv id u a ls f e l t t h a t v ery c lo s e a t t e n ­ tio n cau sed n e rv o u s s t r a i n and le d t o m is ta k e s , w h ile r e l a x a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e d d is c r im in a tio n . F o r o t h e r s , t h e c l o s e s t a t t e n t i o n was fo u n d n ecessary .

g . ) One S f o u n d i t h e l p f u l t o t h i n k o f t h e two to n e s a s a u n i t r a t h e r th a n s e p a r a t e l y . I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h some o f t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s , c o g n itiv e d i f f i c u l t i e s d istra c tio n ,

fa ilu re

th e

u s u a l ly c i t e d by S e a s h o re , v i z . ,

to u n d e rsta n d th e I n s t r u c t i o n s ,

la c k

o f a p p li c a t io n , i n h i b i t i o n i n w r itin g o r sp e a k in g , la c k o f good w i l l ,

l a c k o f m e n ta l d e v e lo p m e n t, e t c .

seem r e l a t i v e l y

55

sim p le and s u p e r f i c i a l .

T h ey may w e l l b e e r a d i c a b l e

th ro u g h sim p le r e t e s t i n g a s S e a sh o re c la im s .

But th e

i n t r o s p e c t i o n s o f S m i t h s Ss seem t o i n d i c a t e t h a t i m p r o v ­ i n g p i t c h ' d i s c r i m i n a t i o n may b e i n l a r g e p a r t a m a t t e r o f c h a n g in g o n e 's h a b i t s o f l i s t e n i n g , t e s t p ro b lem d i f f e r e n t l y .

o f a p p ro a c h in g th e

T h i s se em s t o r e i n f o r c e R. H.

S e a s h o r e ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f " b e s t w ork m e t h o d s 1' d e v e l o p e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o m o t o r s k i l l s may b e a d a p t e d e f f e c t i v e l y t o t h e s e n s o r y f i e l d . An e x p e r i m e n t b y C am eron ( l )

i n 1917 was c o n c e r n e d

i n p a r t w ith th e e f f e c t o f p r a c t i c e i n s in g in g to n e s o f a c e r t a i n p i t c h on t h e a b i l i t y

to d is c rim in a te (l)

t o n e s a t t h e sam e p i t c h l e v e l ( 2 ) t o n e s a t a d i f f e r e n t p itc h le v e l. S ix a d u l t s p a r t i c i p a t e d , a l l th o ro u g h ly f a m i l i a r w ith p s y c h o lo g ic a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n .

T hey f i r s t r e c e i v e d

f iv e in d iv id u a l t e s ts in p itc h d isc rim in a tio n .

T u n in g

f o r k s w i t h f r e q u e n c i e s o f 100 c y c l e s a n d 225 c y c l e s w e r e used a s s ta n d a r d s i n th e s e t e s t s . r ie d a d ju s ta b le w e ig h ts. e x c ite d ,

The f o r k s w e r e e l e c t r i c a l l y

t h e s o u n d s t i m u l i r e a c h i n g S i n a n o t h e r room

th ro u g h a te le p h o n e a rra n g e m e n t. fie d as

C o m p a r is o n f o r k s c a r ­

(l) h ig h e r,

(2 ) l o w e r ,

J u d g m e n ts w e r e c l a s s i ­

( 3 ) sam e o r d o u b t f u l .

Two

p r e l i m i n a r y p e r i o d s o f 20 m in . e a c h w e r e a l l o w e d f o r a d a p ta tio n to th e c o n d itio n s o f th e e x p erim e n t.

The

t h r e s h o l d w as r e g a r d e d a s t h e s m a l l e s t d i f f e r e n c e a t w h i c h

34

S gave f i v e s u c c e s s iv e c o r r e c t ju d g m e n ts. A t a s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c y o f 100 c y c l e s ,

th e average

t h r e s h o l d o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n f o r a l l s i x Ss was 1 . 9 c y c l e s The b e s t r e c o r d a t t a i n e d w as 1 . 3 c y c l ^ a n d w as 2 . 4 c y c l e s .

th e p o o re s t

A t a s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c y o f 225 c y c l e s ,

t h e a v e r a g e t h r e s h o l d was 2 . 4 c y c l e s w i t h a r a n g e f ro m 1 . 5 cycleB t o 5 * 8 c y c l e s . S e v e r a l m o n th s o f d a i l y p r a c t i c e i n m a t c h i n g a g i v e n t o n a l s tim u lu s fo llo w e d th e s e t e s t s . p ra c tic e ,

th e sta n d a rd

In h a l f o f th e

t o n e was s o u n d e d f o r two s e c o n d s

and th e n , a f t e r a s h o r t p a u s e , $ a tte m p te d to re p ro d u c e th e to n e v o c a lly . h a lf o v er, w as s t i l l

When t h e p r a c t i c e p e r i o d w as a b o u t

S w as a s k e d t o s i n g w h i l e t h e s t a n d a r d t o n e so u n d in g .

T w en ty t r i a l s w e r e made d a i l y o v e r a

p e rio d o f s e v e r a l m o n th s --fo r each S a t o t a l o f a p p ro x i­ m a t e l y 1000 a t t e m p t s t o r e p r o d u c e v o c a l l y a s i n g l e f r e ­ quency.

T h r e e o f t h e Ss w e r e g i v e n p r a c t i c e I n s i n g i n g

t h e 100 c y c l e t o n e , b u t t h e o t h e r t h r e e w e r e p r a c t i c e d

on

s i n g i n g t h e 225 c y c l e t o n e . A t t h e end o f t h e p r a c t i c e p e r i o d , f o u r o f t h e s i x Ss h a d m ade m a rk e d im p r o v e m e n t i n r e p r o d u c i n g t h e s t a n d a r d to n e .

Of t h e o t h e r two S s , o n e g r e a t l y r e d u c e d h i s e r r o r

but s t i l l fa ile d

to a p p ro x im a te th e s ta n d a rd to n e .

The

o t h e r S> im p r o v e d w hen a l l o w e d t o s i n g w h i l e t h e s t a n d a r d t o n e w as s t i l l

so u n d in g , b u t n o t o th e rw is e .

In th e r e t e s t o f p itc h d is c rim in a tio n ,

t h o s e f o u r Ss

35

who h a d s u c c e e d e d i n m a r k e d l y r e d u c i n g t h e i r e r r o r s i n v o c a l r e p r o d u c tio n o f a to n e , a l s o a c h ie v e d lo w e r t h r e s h ­ o l d s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a t t h e same f r e q u e n c y l e v e l a t w h ic h t h e i r p r a c t i c e i n s i n g i n g o c c u r r e d , a s f o l lo w s : Average initial threshold Tin cycles)

Average final threshold (in cycles)

2.2 2.2 1.8

1.1 1.5 0.6

2 .6

1 .4

A t th e u n p r a c t i c e d l e v e l , h o w ev er,

th e av erag e th re s h o ld s

f o r t h e s e same f o u r Ss c h a n g e d o n l y s l i g h t l y a n d i n o n e c a s e w as s l i g h t l y h i g h e r : Average initial threshold Tin cycles)

2 .6 2.1 1 .3 1 .4

Average final threshold ( in cycles)

2 .4 2.0 1 .2 1 .8

I n t h e c a s e o f t h e o t h e r two S s , no im p r o v e m e n t i n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n was show n.

T h e ir t h r e s h o ld s changed

a t t h e l e v e l o f p r a c t i c e fro m 2 . 2 to 2 .5 c y c l e s and from 2 .1 to 2 .2 c y c le s r e s p e c t iv e ly . t h r e s h o l d s ch an g ed from 3 . 4

At th e u n p ra c tic e d l e v e l ,

to 3 .3 c y c l e s and from 1 .8 to

2 .0 c y c le s r e s p e c t iv e ly . To s u m m a r i z e :

t h o s e Ss who im p ro v e d i n p i t c h a c c u ­

r a c y i n s i n g i n g a l s o im p ro v e d I n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a t t h e sam e f r e q u e n c y , b u t n o t a t a d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c y l e v e l . T h o se Ss who d i d n o t I m p ro v e i n p i t c h a c c u r a c y i n

36

r e p r o d u c i n g a t o n e d i d n o t im p r o v e i n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n e ith e r.

These r e s u l t s

s u g g e s t t h a t i n o r d e r f o r im p ro v e ­

m e n t t o t a k e p l a c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e t o n a l r a n g e , i t may b e n e c e s s a ry to p r a c t i c e each to n e o r t o n a l re g io n s e p a r a t e l y I t may b e o b s e r v e d t h a t C a m e ro n ’ s Ss w e r e i n i t i a l l y q u i t e p r o f i c i e n t i n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a s e v id e n c e d by th e ir p re -tra in in g te s ts . in itia lly ,

Had Ss b e e n l e s s p r o f i c i e n t

I m p r o v e m e n t m i g h t h a v e b e e n m o re r e a d i l y demon­

stra b le . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s u c h s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e ­ t r a i n i n g a n d p o s t - t r a i n i n g t h r e s h o l d s may p e r h a p s b e q u e stio n e d .

M oreover,

th e th re s h o ld c r i t e r i o n o f f i v e

c o r r e c t s u c c e s s i v e r e s p o n s e s w o u ld seem s o e a s i l y o b t a i n ­ a b le by chance a lo n e t h a t i t s

re lia b ility

seem s d o u b t f u l .

F u r t h e r m o r e , many d e t a i l s i n C a m e ro n ’ s p r o c e d u r e a r e n o t c le a r:

w h e t h e r E p r o c e e d e d f r o m m ore d i f f i c u l t t o l e s s

d i f f i c u l t d iffe re n c e s or v ic e v e rsa ; a t each le v e l;

th e num ber o f t r i a l s

th e o rd e r o f re sp o n se s i n th e key,

On t h e w h o l e , t h e i n f e r e n c e s

e tc .

of im p ro v a b ility of p itc h d is

c r i m i n a t i o n a t t h e l e v e l o f v o c a l t r a i n i n g a nd o f i t s fa ilu re

t o t r a n s f e r t o o t h e r l e v e l s m u s t b e v ie w e d w i t h

re s e rv a tio n s . 1 . B e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e v o c a l m e c h a n is m s , v o c a l p i t c h re p ro d u c tio n th ro u g h o u t th e a u d ito ry ran g e w o u ld o b v i o u s l y b e i m p o s s i b l e . An e f f e c t i v e s u b s t i t u t e m ig h t b e fo u n d , how ever, i n p e r m i t t i n g S to m a n ip u la te some I n s t r u m e n t .

57

The q u e n c ie s

q u e stio n of tr a n s f e r of tr a in in g to o th e r f r e ­ h a s re m a in e d r e l a t i v e l y u n to u c h e d s i n c e

C a m e ro n * s s t u d y .

An e x t e n s i o n o f t h i s w o r k a l o n g s i m i l a r

l i n e s m i g h t h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e o f m o d e rn a p p a r a t u s ,

such

a s t h e Conn c h r o m a t i c s t r o b o s c o p e , m a k in g f o r g r e a t e r a cc u ra c y and p ro v id in g a v is u a l check o f p r e c is io n i n in to n a tio n . One

o f th e m ost i n t e r e s t i n g and im p o r ta n t e x p e rim e n ts

i n th e l i t e r a t u r e

on

t h e e f f e c t s o f t r a i n i n g upon p i t c h

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n was c o n d u c t e d b y W o ln e r (3 7 ) i n 1 9 3 2 . T h is i s a s tu d y o f th e e f f e c t s o f i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g upon t h e s i n g i n g a b i l i t y and p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f s e v e n c h i l d r e n - - t h r e e b o y s and f o u r g i r l s .

A lth o u g h

t h e s e c h i l d r e n w e r e 11 a n d 1 2 y e a r s o f a g e ,

th ey a p p a r­

e n t l y h a d no i n i t i a l c o n c e p t i o n o f p i t c h . d is tin g u is h o c ta v e s , f i f t h s ,

None c o u l d

t h i r d s , w h o le t o n e s o r s e m i ­

t o n e s p l a y e d on t h e p i a n o ; n o n e c o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h a t u n i n g f o r k d i f f e r e n c e o f 3 0 c y c l e s a t a f r e q u e n c y l e v e l o f 435 c y c l e s ; none o f th e c h i l d r e n c o u ld s i n g a lt h o u g h th e y had a l l b e e n i n m u sic c l a s s e s s i n c e th e f i r s t g r a d e and w ere i n g r a d e s 5# 6 a n d 7 a t t h e t i m e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T h e s e se v e n c h i l d r e n w ere s e l e c t e d f o r th e e x p e rim e n t b e c a u s e o f t h e i r e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e f i c i e n c y i n s in g in g and i n p e rc e iv in g p itc h d iffe re n c e s . The t r a i n i n g w h i c h t h e c h i l d r e n r e c e i v e d t o o k s e v e r a l

58

form s.

A s s i s t a n c e i n t h e fo rm o f w h at m ig h t b e c a l l e d

w o r k i n g t e c h n i q u e s w as g i v e n b y E i n ( l ) d e fin e p itc h , d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g i t and tim b re ,

h is a tte m p t to

from lo u d n e s s , d u r a t i o n

(2 ) h i s u se o f th e a n a lo g y o f a l a d d e r and a

m u s ic a l s c a l e a s an a id to v i s u a l im ag ery ,

(5) h i s s u g ­

g e s t i o n t o t h e S s t h a t t h e y t h i n k o f t o n e s a s one w o u ld t h i n k o f a *p r o b l e m . R e m e d i a l t r a i n i n g w i t h t h e p i a n o w as o f tw o t y p e s : (l)

v o c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f to n e s p la y e d on t h e p i a n o - - a t

f i r s t s i n g l e to n e s , b u t l a t e r seq u en ces and s t i l l l a t e r d i a t o n i c and c h ro m a tic s c a l e s ,

(2) d r i l l i n t h e d i s c r i m i n ­

a t i o n o f i n t e r v a l s , r e v e r t i n g t o s i n g i n g m e th o d s when w ro n g a n s w e r s w e r e g i v e n . W o ln e r a l s o e m p lo y ed t u n i n g f o r k s f o r p o r t i o n s o f h is tra in in g .

A s t a n d a r d f o r k o f 455 c y c l e s was u s e d

w i t h c o m p a ris o n f o r k s w h ich w ere h i g h e r i n p i t c h t h a n th e sta n d a rd . v o c a lly ,

The Ss w e r e r e q u i r e d t o r e p r o d u c e t h e t o n e s s i n g i n g t h e w o rd s " lo w " a n d " h i g h ” f o r l o w e r a n d

h ig h e r tu n in g f o r k to n e s .

D e v ic e s u se d i n a i d i n g Ss i n

d is c r im in a tio n o f tu n in g f o r k d if f e r e n c e s in c lu d e d e n c o u r a g i n g m o re c a r e f u l l i s t e n i n g , im a g ery ,

(l)

(2 ) e n c o u r a g i n g

(5) v e r b a l e x p l a n a t i o n s , and (4 ) r e p e a te d so u n d ­

in g of th e p a ir e d tu n in g f o r k s . T he t r a i n i n g was g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l l y ,

each c h ild

r e c e i v i n g 20 m in . o f t r a i n i n g e v e r y m o r n i n g , f i v e d a y s a w e ek f o r a p e r i o d o f 8 l d a y s — a n a v e r a g e o f 16 h o u r s .

The

39

n e c e s s i t y f o r g r e a t p a tie n c e and p e rs e v e ra n c e i n th e f a c e o f d i s c o u r a g e m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e e a r l y w e ek s of tra in in g ,

is

re p o rte d .

The i m p r o v e m e n t m ade b y t h e c h i l d r e n may b e c o n s i d ­ e red in th r e e c a te g o r ie s :

(l)

sin g in g ,

(2 ) d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

o f p ia n o t o n e s , and (3 ) d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f tu n in g f o r k t o n e s . A fte r tra in in g ,

a l l s e v e n o f t h e c h i l d r e n h a d im p r o v e d i n

sin g in g a b i l i t y .

T hree o f th e c h i l d r e n le a r n e d t o s in g

w i t h g r e a t im p ro v e m e n t,

but not p e rfe c tly ;

t o s i n g s c a l e s and i n t e r v a l s ;

two w e r e a b l e

one c o u ld s in g s c a l e s ,

i n t e r v a l s and th e tu n e o f a song w ith o u t w ords; a n o th e r succeeded: i n s i n g i n g , w ith o u t p i t c h d e f i c i e n c y , m a jo r and m in o r s c a l e s ,

c h ro m a tic s, i n t e r v a l s ,

to n e s p ick e d a t

random an d s e v e r a l so n g s w i t h w o rd s.

A ll o f th e c h ild r e n

le a rn e d to d is c r im in a te w ith o u t e r r o r a l l p itc h d if f e r e n c e s p la y e d on th e p ia n o — o c ta v e s , f i f t h s ,

t h i r d s , w h o le t o n e s ,

and s e m ito n e s --th ro u g h o u t a fo u r-o c ta v e ran g e . The r e s u l t s

o b ta in e d w ith tu n in g fo rk s a re s e n s a tio n a l.

F o r t h e t e s t s and t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s ,

t h e s ta n d a r d and

i n c r e m e n t a l f o r k s e m p lo y e d w e r e i d e n t i c a l i n f r e q u e n c y w ith th o s e used i n th e c o n s tr u c tio n of th e S eash o re p i tc h te st

(1 9 1 9 f o r m ) . 1

E s to o d d i r e c t l y b e h in d S, s t r u c k th e

tu n in g f o r k w ith a m a l l e t and h e ld i t 1 . S e e f o o t n o t e p . 1^
3> 1 a n d . 5 c y c l e s .

C a p u r s o * s m e th o d

d i f f e r s f r o m t h e S e a s h o r e m e th o d i n two r e s p e c t s :

(l)

th e

s t a n d a r d t o n e was c h a n g e d i n e a c h t r i a l a n d t h e d i f f e r ­ e n ce s i n p i t c h w ere a c h ie v e d by u s in g d i f f e r e n t p a i r s o f fo rk s in th e s u c c e ss iv e t r i a l s ,

and (2)

t h e r e s p o n s e was

i n te rm s o f " f i r s t to n e " o r "seco n d to n e " r a t h e r th a n " h ig h e r" o r "lo w e r". R e te s ts w ith th e S eash o re re c o rd fo llo w e d th e seven w eeks o f t r a i n i n g d e s c r ib e d a b o v e.

Raw s c o r e s a n d r a n k s

f o r t h e s e v e n e x p e r i m e n t a l Ss a n d t h e s i x c o n t r o l Ss i n th e f i r s t and second a d m i n i s t r a t io n s o f th e t e s t a r e r e p r o d u c e d i n T a b le lJ[fro m 2 , p . 8 1 6 ) : TABLE I SHOWING SCORES AND RANKS OF CAPURSO*S EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS IN THE SEASHORE PITCH TEST Ss 1 2

3

4 5 6 7 Av*

1 2 3 4 5 6 A v.

R anks S cores T est 1 T est 2 T est 1 T est 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l G ro u p 92 92 99 99 96 94 89 9° 88 90 98 91 88 96 91 91 81 86 32 21 78 3 6 73 96 90 50 3 61. 8 88 8 5 .7 79. 7 C o n t r o l G roup 88 88 91 91 88 87 91 87 82 56 87 87 70 70 84 84 3 2 81 50 77 21 74 23 73 8 2 .6 6 3 .2 655 83

50

I t a p p e a rs fro m i n s p e c t i o n o f T a b le I t h a t f i v e o f t h e s e v e n e x p e r i m e n t a l Ss i m p r o v e d i n t h e i r p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t w h i l e o n l y tw o o f t h e s i x c o n t r o l Ss i m p r o v e d .

For

t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p o f s e v e n S s , raw s c o r e s show ed a n a v e r a g e i n c r e a s e o f 8 .3 p o i n t s , w h ile t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p o f s i x Ss h a d a n a v e r a g e l o s s o f . 1 6 p o i n t . p e rc e n tile ran k s,

I n te rm s o f

th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p had an a v e ra g e

ra n k 2 3 .8 p o in ts h ig h e r a f t e r t r a i n i n g

th a n b e f o r e , w h ile

th e c o n tr o l g ro u p had an a v e ra g e ra n k 1 .8 p o in ts lo w e r. I t sh o u ld b e n o te d , h o w ev er,

t h a t o m is sio n o f th e

s p e c t a c u l a r r e s u l t s f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l S w h o se s c o r e s i n c r e a s e d f r o m 50 t o 90 w o u ld r e d u c e t h e a v e r a g e g a i n f o r th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p to 3 .0 p o in ts f o r s i x S s.

S till

f u r t h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s h o u l d b e made o f t h i s p o r t i o n o f C a p u r s o 's f i n d i n g s :

O nly t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a l Ss h a d i n i t i a l

s c o r e s low e n o u g h t o p e r m i t o f s i g n i f i c a n t i m p r o v e m e n t . a d d itio n , cases i s

th e r e l i a b i l i t y

of th e i n i t i a l sc o re s of th e se

open to s e r io u s q u e s tio n ,

o n ly one t e s t i n g ,

sin c e th e r e l i a b i l i t y

p a r t i c u l a r l y w hen t h e s c o r e i s lo w , i s

known t o b e d o u b t f u l .

S eash o re has e x p re s s ly a d v is e d

t h a t a l l low c a s e s b e r e t e s t e d .

T h u s, E ' s f a i l u r e

to

i n c l u d e a p r e - t r a i n i n g r e t e s t w o u ld t e n d t o d i m i n i s h t h e s ig n ific a n c e of h is r e s u lts . lo w c o n t r o l Ss f a i l e d

In

I t is

to a t t a i n

made b y t h e lo w e x p e r i m e n t a l S s .

t r u e t h a t C apurso*s

th e l a r g e r e t e s t g a in s B u t T a b l e I show s

of

51

c l e a r l y t h a t o n l y tw o o f t h e lo w c o n t r o l S s a r e c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e lo w e x p e r i m e n t a l Ss a n d t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l S who h a d t h e e x c e p t i o n a l l y low i n i t i a l s c o r e o f 50 ( a n d w h ose r e t e s t i m p r o v e m e n t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m ore t h a n h a l f o f t h e a v e r a g e g a i n m ade b y t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p a s a w h o le ) i s m a t c h e d b y a c o n t r o l S w ho se i n i t i a l h a r d ly c o m p a rab le,

s c o r e w as 7 4 —

e s p e c i a l l y i n v ie w o f t h e u n r e l i a b i l i t y

m e n tio n ed a b o v e. The s e c o n d p o r t i o n o f C a p u r s o ! s e x p e r i m e n t d e a l t w i t h two s p e c i a l S s who r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g o v e r a s i x - m o n t h p e rio d .

E a c h o f t h e s e Ss was g i v e n f i v e S e a s h o r e t e s t s ,

th e f i r s t and l a s t r e s p e c t i v e l y h a v in g b e e n g iv e n b e f o r e and a f t e r th e t r a i n i n g .

The s e c o n d t e s t w as g i v e n a f t e r

Ss had form ed a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r p e r f e c t f i f t h s and f o u r t h s and f o r m a jo r s i x t h s .

The t h i r d

t e s t fo llo w e d th e form a­

t i o n o f a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r th e rem a in d e r o f th e i n t e r v a l s , w h ile th e f o u r t h t e s t fo llo w e d t h a t p o r t i o n o f th e t r a i n i n g i n w h i c h t e c h n i c a l m u s i c a l nam es f o r t h e i n t e r v a l s w e r e s u b s titu te d f o r th e f i r s t a s s o c ia tio n s . f o u r t h and f i f t h

te s t,

B e tw e e n t h e

t r a i n i n g w i t h t u n i n g f o r k s w as

g iv e n . For one of the Ss, the scores in the five progressive tests were 62, 80, 88, 87 and 89 with equivalent ranks of 6,

45 , 91, 87 and 94 — a change, by stages, from the lowest

decile to the highest.

Capurso reports that prior to

52

t r a i n i n g t h i s S had n e v e r b e e n a b l e t o m atch to n e s v o c a l l y , b u t th a t a f t e r th e t h ir d

te s t,

sh e su c c e e d e d i n d o in g so

w ith o u t d i f f i c u l t y and even le a r n e d

to s in g an a sc e n d in g

and d e sc e n d in g m ajo r s c a l e w ith o u t th e a id o f th e p ia n o . P erhaps e q u a lly s i g n i f i c a n t i s

th e q u a l i t a t i v e a s p e c t

of in v e s tig a tio n s of th is c h a ra c te r. c e r p t from t h i s

F o llo w in g i s a n ex­

S’s v erb al re p o rt of h er p re -tra in in g

s t a t u s an d h e r p o s t - t r a i n i n g im p ro v em en t: S in c e I have been ta k in g v i o l i n le s s o n s , I have o f t e n w o n d e r e d i f i t w o u ld e v e r b e p o s s i b l e f o r me t o p l a y When I p r a c t i c e d I w o u ld b ecom e d i s c o u r a g e d a n d w o u ld g i v e u p i n u t t e r d e s p a i r . Many p e o p l e who p l a y a l i t t l e do n o t r e a l i z e w h en t h e y a r e w r o n g . And i n my c a s e , p e o p l e w o u ld h a v e t o t e l l me w hen I w as n o t p l a y i n g c o r ­ re c tly . B u t I w as u n c e r t a i n a s t o j u s t w h a t t o do. I f , f o r i n s t a n c e , I p l a y e d a t o n e on t h e v i o l i n a n d t r i e d t o c o m p a re i t on t h e p i a n o , I c o u l d n o t t e l l w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e t h e same o r n o t . I t seem s I c o u l d n o t h e a r t h e t o n e a t a l l ; t o me i t w as j u s t a b l a n k s o u n d .......... When I came t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y , I was a sh a m e d t o s a y I w as t a k i n g l e s s o n s f o r s o l o n g a t i m e a n d had a c c o m p lish e d so l i t t l e . I d id n o t u n d er­ s t a n d t h i n g s t h a t w e r e s u g g e s t e d f o r me t o d o , w h i c h s h o u l d h a v e g i v e n me some c l u e a s t o how to c o r r e c t c e r t a i n m is ta k e s . Wow, h a v i n g some t r a i n i n g i n p i t c h , I am b e g i n ­ n i n g t o h e a r th e to n e s and b e in g a b l e to d i s c r i m ­ i n a t e e s p e c i a l l y w e l l i n t h e low r e g i s t e r w h i c h w as o r i g i n a l l y t h e h a r d e r f o r me t o h e a r . F o r th e second s p e c i a l S i n t h i s

p o r tio n o f C ap u rso ’ s

e x p e rim e n t, p r o g r e s s iv e s c o re s i n th e f i v e S eash o re t e s t s were

5,

53 # 68, 61, 68 and 71 with equivalent ranks of 3 , 12,

12 a n d 1 7 .

A l t h o u g h b o t h o f t h e s p e c i a l Ss h a d

55

i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s i n t h e sam e d e c i l e ,

tr a in in g does

n o t a p p e a r t o h av e b e e n e q u a lly e f f e c t i v e i n im p ro v in g t h e i r i n i t i a l lo w r a n k s .

Some im p r o v e m e n t i s a p p a r e n t

f o r t h i s S b u t e v e n a f t e r s i x m o n th s o f t r a i n i n g h e s t i l l re m a in e d s u b - a v e r a g e i n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

C apurso

su g g e sts t h a t d iv e r s io n o f i n t e r e s t s and l e s s m o tiv a tio n th a n i n th e c a s e o f th e f i r s t

may b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e

a b s e n c e o f m o re s i g n i f i c a n t i m p r o v e m e n t. *

*

*

*

*

I t se em s r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e f r o m s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d to d a te th a t th e re i s

e v id e n c e o f th e i m p r o v a b il i t y o f

p i t c h d is c r im in a tio n a s a r e s u l t o f d i r e c t re m e d ia l t r a i n ­ i n g (T y p e 5 ) .

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

o f W o ln e r a n d R. H.

S e a sh o re i n p a r t i c u l a r i n d i c a t e lo w e rin g o f th r e s h o ld s o r in c re a se s in sco res.

These r e s u l t s a r e i n a p p a r e n t con­

f l i c t w i t h t h e c o n c lu s io n s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b a s e d upon m u ltip le r e p e t it i o n of t e s t s

(T y p e l )

o r upon r e t e s t s

a f t e r g e n e r a l m u s i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n (T y p e 2 ) . io n o f th e w r i t e r ,

I n th e o p in ­

th e w e ig h t o f th e e v id e n c e to d a te

seem s t o f a v o r i m p r o v a b i l i t y . An a n a l y s i s a n d c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e s e s t u d i e s s u g g e s t s th e fo llo w in g o b s e rv a tio n s :

1, I n s u c h e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e num ber a n d n a t u r e o f t h e Ss i s

Im p o rta n t.

The s t u d i e s b y W h ip p le a n d C a p u r s o

seem t o h a v e s u f f e r e d f r o m i n s u f f i c i e n c y o f c a s e s . A s i d e f r o m S m i t h 1s e x p e r i m e n t , t h e nu m b er o f Ss h a s

5*

g e n e r a lly b een q u i te sm a ll. I t w o u ld seem p r e f e r a b l e t o u s e , n o t a ra n d o m sa m p lin g b u t i n s t e a d ,

S s who a r e i n i t i a l l y q u i t e

d e f i c i e n t a n d who r e m a i n s o a f t e r s i m p l e r e t e s t i n g . M o reo v er, i n o r d e r to e l i m i n a t e i n s o f a r a s p r a c t i c a b l e , th e in flu e n c e of c o g n itiv e f a c to r s ,

i t may b e a d v i s ­

a b l e t o s e l e c t a s S s i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e i n t e l l i g e n t , p r e f e r a b l y a d u l t s , a n d who a l r e a d y h a v e a c o m p r e h e n ­ s io n o f th e n a tu re of p itc h . a re a tte n tiv e ,

If,

i n a d d i t i o n , Ss

p r a c t i c e d i n th e t a k in g o f t e s t s and

h a v e good m o t i v a t i o n , t h e s a m p l i n g i s e v e n m ore d e s i r a b l e f o r su ch an e x p e rim e n t.

2,

The i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d t o p r o d u c e t h e s t i m u l i a n d

t h e m e th o d o f t h e i r u s e a r e o b v i o u s l y a l s o i m p o r t a n t . T he g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e h e r e i s

th e e lim in a tio n o f cues

and t h e c o n s t a n c y o f a l l v a r i a b l e s o t h e r t h a n p i t c h . F o r t h i s r e a s o n th e s t i m u l i sh o u ld be p u re to n e s o f u n ifo rm i n t e n s i t y and d u r a t i o n and t h e r e sh o u ld b e no e x tr a n e o u s c u e s su c h a s l o c a l i z a t i o n o r n o i s e s . I t w o u ld seem p r e f e r a b l e , m o r e o v e r , f o r t h e p r o d u c ­ t io n of th e s tim u li to be a u to m a tic , sin c e th e re b y g r e a te r u n ifo rm ity i s lik e ly

to be a c h ie v e d .

T e sts

g i v e n b y m eans o f p h o n o g r a p h r e c o r d s a r e a d m i t t e d l y m a k e sh ifts

( 2 5 ) , b u t t h e y may b e p r e f e r a b l e t o i n s t r u ­

m en ts s u c h a s th e S t e r n t o n e - v a r i a t o r o r m a n u a lly e x c ite d tu n in g fo r k s .

T here a re a d v a n ta g e s , a l s o , i n

55

u sin g a s ta n d a rd iz e d t e s t

a s th e m e a su rin g c r i t e r i o n .

3 . A t t e n t i o n h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d i r e c t e d t o t h e im ­ p o r t a n c e o f m e th o d s o f t r a i n i n g .

T h e r e s h o u l d b e no

im p a tie n c e w i t h t h e f a i l u r e o f S t o im p ro v e r a p i d l y . W o l n e r 's s t u d y i n d i c a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a m p le t i m e and p e r s e v e r a n c e . I n a d d i t i o n , a c t i v e e x p e rie n c e i n p ro d u c in g p i t c h se em s h e l p f u l .

The e m p h a s i s s h o u l d b e u p o n

a d a p t i n g t h e t r a i n i n g t o I n d i v i d u a l n e e d s and th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e w o rk m e th o d s f o r e a c h S.

P r o c e d u r e s s u c h a s t h e "mood w o rd " a s s o c i a ­

t i o n o f C a p u r s o seem o f d o u b t f u l e f f i c a c y .

The u s e

o f v i s u a l a id s to e n a b le S to check th e a c c u ra c y of h i s own p i t c h i n t o n a t i o n s h o u l d a l s o p r o v e v a l u a b l e . 4.

The m e th o d o f q u a n t a t i v e l y d e s c r i b i n g S ’ s

p erfo rm an ce i n p i t c h d is c r im in a tio n r e q u ir e s c a r e f u l c o n sid e ra tio n . a f te r tra in in g

G i v i n g o n l y one t e s t b e f o r e a n d ( a s i n p a r t o f C a p u r s o f s s t u d y ) w o u ld

seem u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .

The u s e o f g r o u p a v e r a g e s

a l o n e may b e i n c o n c l u s i v e , f o r t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e g r o u p a s a w h o le t o r a i s e i t s a v e r a g e a f t e r t r a i n i n g may o b s c u r e i n d i v i d u a l i n s t a n c e s o f s i g n i f i c a n t im ­ p ro v e m e n t, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f

th e g roup i s n o t c a r e f u l l y

s e l e c t e d a n d c o n t a i n s a num ber o f i n i t i a l l y h i g h S s . A n o th er i n s t a n c e o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a v e ra g e s may b e m i s l e a d i n g i s

th e e x c lu s iv e u se o f th e av erag e

56

of p ro -tra in in g vs. te s ts ,

th e av erag e o f p o s t- tr a in in g

s i n c e t o o much w e i g h t w o u ld t h u s b e g i v e n

to an u n u su a lly p o o r f i r s t t e s t . W here t h e t h r e s h o l d o r some a r b i t r a r y e q u i v a l ­ e n t i s u s e d a s t h e b a s i s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g i m p r o v e m e n t, c a r e s h o u ld b e ta k e n t o see t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f such s ta n d a rd i s re a so n a b ly r e l i a b l e . c o n se c u tiv e c o r r e c t an sw ers, i f

th a t is

The num ber o f th e c r i t e r i o n

u s e d , s h o u l d b e l a r g e r t h a n 5 (C am ero n) o r e v e n 20 (W o ln e r)• T h e r e se em t o b e a n u m b er o f g a p s i n t h e s t u d i e s o f t h i s p ro b le m t o w h ich t h e a t t e n t i o n o f s u b s e q u e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s may b e d i r e c t e d .

Not o n ly sh o u ld t h e r e

b e a r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f im p ro v em en t, b u t a l s o , i f im p r o v e m e n t d o e s o c c u r , t h e q u e s t i o n o f its

p e r m a n e n c e w o u ld b e s i g n i f i c a n t . S e a sh o re * s i m p l i c i t a ssu m p tio n o f g ro u p f a c t o r s

sh o u ld be i n v e s ti g a t e d i n t h i s c o n n e c tio n i n o rd e r t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t r a i n i n g t h r o u g h o n e medium p r o d u c e s im p r o v e m e n t i n a b i l i t i e s m e a s u r e d b y o t h e r m ed ia.

The s i m p l e s t a s p e c t o f t h i s p r o b l e m o f

t r a n s f e r o r "sp read " o f th e e f f e c ts of t r a in in g , v iz .,

th e t r a n s f e r to o th e r freq u en cy l e v e l s , has

n o t y e t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y e x p l o r e d , C am eron *s s t u d y b e in g th e s o le a tte m p t i n t h i s d i r e c ti o n . A g e n e r a l comment a p p l i c a b l e t o many o f t h e

57

reports i s th eir fa ilu re to describe the apparatus and procedures used in su fficien t d eta il for f u ll comprehension by the reader.

A subsequent in v e sti­

gator should be able, from the published data alone, to evaluate the work done and i f desired, to dupli­ cate or check the experiment.

58

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM T he p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a r e (l)

to a s c e r t a i n th e im p ro v a b ility of p itc h d is c rim in a tio n

from th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f d i r e c t re m e d ia l t r a i n i n g to r e l a ­ t i v e l y p i t c h - d e f i c i e n t a d u l t s and (2 ) t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r s u c h im p ro v em en t t r a n s f e r s t o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f p i t c h d iffe re n c e s

(a ) pro d u ced by o th e r ty p e s o f t o n a l s t i m u l i

a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c y a s t h a t u s e d i n th e tr a in in g ,

(b ) p r o d u c e d b y t h e same t y p e o f t o n a l

s t i m u l i a s w ere u se d i n th e t r a i n i n g b u t a t d i f f e r e n t freq u en cy le v e ls . !

D e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e s e m p lo y e d i n t h i s e x p e rim e n t a r e f u l l y d i s c u s s e d b e lo w , b u t i n g e n e r a l t h e p la n o f th e e x p e rim e n t c o n s is te d o f th e fo llo w in g s t e p s : ( 1 ) The Ss w e r e g i v e n a t l e a s t tw o a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o f t h e S eash o re t e s t o f p itc h d is c r im in a tio n , S e rie s B (sta n d a rd f r e q u e n c y , 5 0 ° c y c l e s ) ; a t l e a s t two a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o f t h e W y a tt t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ( s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c y , 4 6 5 .2 c y c l e s ) ;

f a i r l y in te n s iv e t e s ts w ith an o s c i ll a t o r

a t 5 d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c y l e v e l s — 5 0 0 , 2 5 0 , a nd 1000 c y c l e s . ^ (2 ) I n d i v i d u a l t r a i n i n g g iv e n i n d i v i d u a l l y f o r 1 h r . w e ek ly t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e m e s t e r f o l l o w e d t h e s e t e s t s a n d w as o f tw o m a in t y p e s :

(a)

t r a i n in g i n d is c r im in a tin g o s c i l l a t o r to n es

1 . One o f t h e Ss (U .M .) e n t e r e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t l a t e a n d w as g iv e n a l l of th e above t e s t s ex cep t th e o s c i l l a t o r t e s t s a t s t a n d a r d s o f 250 a nd 1000 c y c l e s .

59

a t a s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c y o f 500 c y c l e s w i t h a t t e n t i o n c e n te r e d upon d ia g n o s is o f i n d iv i d u a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and u p o n d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e w o rk m e t h o d s ; (b )

t r a i n i n g i n v o c a l p i t c h in to n a tio n w ith th e a id o f

t h e Conn c h r o m a t i c s t r o b o s c o p e . as in

(l).

(5 )

P o st-tra in in g r e te s ts

6o

SUBJECTS Since circumstances prevented both large sampling and intensive training, a decision had to be made at the outset as to the rela tiv e d esira b ility of a small number of Ss who could be given intensive training or a large number of Ss who would receive le ss intensive training.

The decision in favor of intensive training,

i even though of a r e la tiv e ly small number, was predicated I upon several factors. II j;

I

It was believed that i f s t a t is t ic a l-

ly sig n ifica n t resu lts could be obtained with small nurn-

| bers, corroboration by rep etition with a larger group i

| could follow in normal course.

Also i t was expected that

through more Intensive training, techniques and methods J might be developed which would resu lt in greater e ffic ie n | cy in such future experimentation.

In addition, objec-

i

! tions ordinarily associated with small sampling are not

i; i|

as applicable in an experiment of th is character, since

!'

|; the purpose is not to measure the improvability of the i

■ population generally, but only to see i f that much

it

H !j |i

smaller group which is p itch -d eficien t can improve sig n ifica n tly .

Moreover, in an experiment of th is type the

1 data would readily lend themselves to the t te st technique i| (7)> a sp ecial te s t of significance devised for use with '!

j small samples.

61

S i x t e e n N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s - - t e n women a n d S i x m en— p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t . ^

A lth o u g h

t h e s e Ss w e r e c h o s e n b e c a u s e o f t h e i r low o r m e d i o c r e p i t c h d isc rim in a tio n sc o re s,

th e y w ere n o t h a n d ic a p p e d by su ch

" c o g n itiv e d i f f i c u l t i e s " a s im m a tu rity , in a b ility

to a p p ly th e m se lv e s,

e tc .

la c k of in te llig e n c e ,

The f a c t t h a t h a l f o f

t h e Ss w e r e t r a i n e d i n m u s ic a s s u r e d , w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t h a l f o f th e g rou p a t l e a s t ,

a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m e a n in g

o f p i tc h and p itc h d if f e r e n c e s . S e v e n o f t h e 16 Ss w e r e e n r o l l e d i n t h e S c h o o l o f M u sic a n d t h e e i g h t h , U .M ., was a p r o f e s s i o n a l m u s i c i a n | who s h o u l d b e c l a s s i f i e d w i t h t h e m u s i c S s a l t h o u g h s h e was e n r o l l e d i n th e C o lle g e o f L i b e r a l A r t s a t th e tim e .

j

The i n c l u s i o n o f t h e e i g h t n o n - m u s i c i a n s a f f o r d e d a b a s i s f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e m u s ic S s . Some t h o u g h t w as g i v e n t o t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f u s i n g c o n t r o l S s , b u t t h i s seem ed u n n e c e s s a r y f o r s e v e r a l r e a s | ons.

F irst,

th e l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a te s c le a r ly th a t n e ith e r

j m u lt i p le r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e s e t e s t s i

(T y p e l )

nor g en eral

; m u s i c a l t r a i n i n g (T y p e 2) r e s u l t s i n s i g n i f i c a n t i m p r o v e ' | m en t. S e c o n d , s i x o f t h e m u s i c Ss i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t c o n ­ s t i t u t e d a m i n i a t u r e c o n t r o l s i t u a t i o n w h ic h a f f o r d e d 1 . Two a d d i t i o n a l S s , o n e a m u s ic s t u d e n t a n d t h e o t h e r a L i b e r a l A n ts s t u d e n t , b e g an i n t h e e x p e rim e n t b u t f a i l e d t o c o m p lete t h e i r t r a i n i n g . One o f t h e s e S s l e f t s c h o o l | i n th e m id d le o f th e s e m e s te r b e c a u se o f i l l n e s s and th e o t h e r w as d i s m i s s e d f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t b e c a u s e o f i r ­ r e g u l a r a t t e n d a n c e a n d e x tr e m e d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y .

62

e v id e n c e o f th e e f f e c t s o f r e p e t i t i o n o f th e t e s t s

(no

s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n w as f o u n d f r o m t h e f i r s t t o t h e f o u r t h p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t ) and of th e e f f e c t s in stru c tio n

of g e n e ra l m u sic a l

( f r o m s i x t o e i g h t e e n m o n th s o f a t t e n d a n c e a t

t h e S c h o o l o f M u sic f a i l e d t o make a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ ence i n th e t e 3 t s c o r e s ) .

63

TESTS AND APPARATUS EMPLOYED The S e a s h o r e P i t c h P i s c r i m i n a t i o n T e s t , S e r i e s B D e sc rip tio n *

T h i s t e s t i s r e c o r d e d on o ne f a c e o f

a 1 2 - i n . r e c o r d a s p a r t o f t h e 1 939 r e v i s i o n o f t h e S eash o re m easures ( 26) .

The t e s t i s r e c o r d e d a t a

s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c y o f 500 c y c l e s a n d c o n s i s t s

o f 50

p a i r s o f s u c c e s s iv e to n e s w ith th e second to n e o f each p a i r e i t h e r h ig h e r o r lo w e r th a n th e f i r s t .

The 50

t r i a l s a r e a r r a n g e d i n o r d e r o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h 10 t r i a l s a t i n c r e m e n t s o f 8 , 5 , 3> 2 , a n d 1 c y c l e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e s e i n c r e m e n t s r e p r e s e n t a n a r r o w e r a n d m ore d i f f i c u l t ra n g e th a n i s found e i t h e r i n th e o r i g i n a l S e a sh o re p i t c h te st

(1 9 1 9 f o r m ) o r i n t h e r e v i s e d p i t c h t e s t ,

S e rie s B i s

S e r i e s A.

in te n d e d f o r m u s ic a l g ro u p s and " s e l e c t e d

i n d i v i d u a l s " a n d "may b e u s e d t o a d v a n t a g e i n m u s i c a l o rg a n iz a tio n s,

t h e m u sic s t u d i o and th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

l a b o r a to r y ” (26, p. 8 ) . The s o u r c e o f t h e s t i m u l i u s e d i n t h e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e t e s t w as a b e a t - f r e q u e n c y o s c i l l a t o r w i t h a n a t t a c h e d in c re m e n ta l freq u e n cy co n d en ser.

T h is a p p a r a tu s p ro d u ce d

" e s s e n t i a l l y p u re " to n es w ith t h e i r d u r a tio n c o n tr o lle d by a t a p e - t i m i n g d e v ic e and w i t h th e i n t e n s i t y h e ld c o n s t a n t . S ta n d a rd iz a tio n .

The norm s f o r t h e t e s t h a v e b e e n

e x p r e s s e d i n ra n k s r a n g in g from 1 to 10, a r a n k o f 1 r e p r e ­ s e n t i n g t h e h i g h e s t 10 $ o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a n d a r a n k o f 10

64

t h e lo w e st*

T hese ra n k s a r e f u r t h e r c o n v e r tib l e i n t o

r a t i n g s w ith a ra n k of 1 d e sc rib e d as " s u p e rio r" , 2 as " e x c e l l e n t " , 3 and 4 a s "good", 5 and 6 a s " a v e ra g e " , 7 a n d 8 a s " lo w a v e r a g e " , 9 a n d 10 a s " p o o r " . R e lia b ility .

The r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e r e v i s e d

S e a sh o re m ea su re s h as n o t b e e n .re p o rte d *

R e l i a b i l i t y co­

e f f i c i e n t s b a s e d o n c o r r e l a t i o n o f o d d -n u m b e re d a n d e v e n n u m b e re d i t e m s a n d c o r r e c t e d b y t h e S p e a rm a n -B ro w n p r o ­ phecy fo rm u la a r e s t a t e d by th e a u th o r s o f th e r e v is e d te s ts

(2 7 ).

For th e p itc h t e s t ,

r f o r 300 a d u l t s o f n a m e s) i s

S e r i e s B, t h e r e p o r t e d

( t h e f i r s t 300 i n th e a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r

* 7 3 + .0 2 .

The w r i t e r h a s g i v e n t h i s t e s t t o a d u l t s e n t e r i n g t h e S c h o o l o f M usic a t N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y s i n c e 1939 w hen t h e r e c o r d s w e r e f i r s t i s s u e d . la tio n

The s p l i t - h a l f c o r r e ­

( u p p e r h a l f v s . lo w e r h a l f ) b a s e d upon th e f i r s t

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h i s t e s t t o 233 c a s e s w as . 6 5 + .0 2 (c o rre c te d ).

T h e s e S s c o n s t i t u t e d a h i g h l y h om o g en eo u s

g ro u p w ith a r e l a t i v e l y n arro w ra n g e o f s c o r e s .

The m ean

n u m b er o f e r r o r s i n t h e u p p e r h a l f o f t h e t e s t w as 4 . 2 6 a n d i n t h e l o w e r h a l f 4 . 4 5 w i t h S. D .s o f 2 . 4 a n d 2 . 0 . The c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n two a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o f t h e t e s t t o 211 m u s i c s t u d e n t s a t N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y was a l s o c o m p u te d . te s ts .

A 2 4 - h r . i n t e r v a l e l a p s e d b e t w e e n t h e tw o

When t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d s c o r e s i n t h e p i t c h t e s t

65

y e r e c o r r e l a t e d , r w as . 4 0 + . 0 4 .

The m ean f o r t h e f i r s t

t e s t i n g w as 4 1 . 2 a n d f o r t h e s e c o n d t e s t i n g , 4 1 . 5 w i t h S .D . s o f 5 . 9 a n d 4 . 0 . S t a n t o n ( 5 2 , p . 9 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e i s no p u b lis h e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c o r r e l a t i o n v a lu e s f o r m easure m en ts i n w h ic h th e t h r e s h o l d o f h e a r i n g i s in v o lv e d and t h a t th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f su ch c o r r e l a t i o n s sh o u ld ta k e th is f a c t in to c o n sid e ra tio n .

F a r n s w o r t h (5* P* 5 0 2 )

c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e s p l i t - h a l f m e th o d w as m o re m e a n i n g f u l t h a n t h e r e t e s t m e th o d o f o b t a i n i n g r e l i a b i l i t i e s

(at

l e a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e 1919 m e a s u r e s ) f o r t h r e e r e a s o n s (l)

f o r m o st Ss t h e t e s t s a r e u n i n t e r e s t i n g an d f a t i g u i n g ,

an d i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o k e e p up t h e i n t e r e s t i n a se c o n d re n d itio n ;

(2 ) c u e s may b e n o t e d i n t h e s e c o n d t e s t w h i c h

m ig h t r a i s e

th e s c o re s ;

(5 )

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a memory

carry o v er.

A d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s w h i c h may o p e r a t e t o r e ­

duce th e r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y a r e su g g e ste d e lse w h e re i n t h is p a p e r.^ V a lid ity .

S e a sh o re h a s n o t ^ rep o rted any s t a t i s t i c a l

f i n d in g s i n s u p p o rt, of th e v a l i d i t y o f h i s t e s t s .

He h a s

a c c e p t e d a s s u b s t a n t i a t i o n t h e f i n d i n g s o f S t a n t o n (5 1 ) an d o t h e r s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r a c t i c a l u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e t e s t s i n p r e d i c t i n g a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e . th e r e l a t i v e (52) i s 1.

P . 74

sta b ility

M o reo v er,

o f s c o re s a s re p o rte d by S ta n to n

r e l i e d upon a s c o n f ir m a tio n t h a t th e t e s t s a r e

66

a d e q u a te m easu res o f " c a p a c i t i e s ” . h o w ev er,

I t sh o u ld be n o te d ,

t h a t t h o s e i n v e s t i g a t o r s who h a v e a t t e m p t e d

c o r r e l a t i o n te c h n iq u e f o r e s tim a tin g v a l i d i t y have r e ­ p o r t e d lo w r s

(12, 1 3 ).

S e a s h o r e 1s o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v a l i d i t y of h is

te s ts

o f p i t c h d is c r im in a tio n a re i n th e n a tu re

o f a n a p p e a l t o l o g i c o r common s e n s e .

H is arg u m en t

se em s t o r u n a s f o l l o w s : 1 . P i t c h i s e s s e n t i a l to a d e q u a te m u sic a l h e a r ­ i n g b e c a u s e a s one o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o u n d w ave i t i s on e o f t h e f o u r f u n d a ­ m e n t a l m e d ia t h r o u g h w h i c h m u s ic c a n b e h e a r d or ren d ered . 2 . P i t c h i s a " s p e c i f i c 11 a n d m u s t b e v a l i d a t e d as su ch , i . e . , a g a i n s t th e r o l e th a t p i t c h p e r se p la y s i n th e m u sica l s i t u a t i o n . P itc h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n sh o u ld n o t b e v a l i d a t e d a g a i n s t th e t o t a l m u s ic a l s i t u a t i o n b e c a u se hu n d red s o f o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e i n v o l v e d i n s u c h " o m n ib u s " ra tin g s. 3 . Good p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s n o t b y i t s e l f p r e d i c ti v e o f m u sic a l s u c c e s s . I t i s o ne o f many f a c t o r s . 4 . "When p r o p e r l y e s t a b l i s h e d , a lo w r a t i n g i s s i g n i f i c a n t and sh o u ld be ta k e n a s " p r e lim in ­ a ry in fo rm a tio n o f c o rre sp o n d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h may b e e n c o u n t e r e d i n m u s i c a l p u r s u i t s " (27, p. 4 3 ). 5 . The t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s "a m e a s u r e o f th e b a s ic a b i l i t y to h e a r p itc h " and i t " a p p lie s n o t o n ly to th e h e a rin g o f p i t c h , p u r e an d s im p le , b u t a l s o , th o u g h i n a d im in ­ is h in g d e g re e , to th e h e a rin g of p itc h i n i t s c o m p le x f o r m s a n d i n i t s i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r a s p e c t s o f to n e i n m u sic, b o th i n h e a r in g and p e rfo rm a n c e ( 2 7 .. P . 4 3 ) . ______ _______ ______ 1 . A lth o u g h e a c h m easu re i s re g a rd e d a s a n e le m e n ta l s p e c i ­ f i c " , S ea sh o re a p p a r e n tly h o ld s i m p l i c i t l y w ith a g roup f a c t o r th e o ry . I n a l m o s t a l l o f h i s w r i t i n g s on t h e s u b ­ j e c t , he has r e la te d p itc h d isc rim in a tio n to a c lu s te r of v a r i a n t s a n d c o m p o u n d s " , some s e n s o r y b u t a l s o i m a g i n a l , a f f e c t i v e and m o to r.

6* Individual differences in pitch discrimina­ tion are held to he sig n ifica n t f ir s t , because small differences in pitch discrimina­ tion are believed to function sig n ifica n tly in music (primarily in the a b ility to hear and employ a r t is t ic deviations from true pitch) and second, because there is a close but complicated relationship between a per­ son^ pitch discrimination and his hearing and intonation of pitch in musical performance (27, p. ^5-49). Seashore’s assumptions include, among others, f ir s t the fundamental one that pitch discrimination* properly | measured, i s a permanent index of an individual’s "capa­ city" and second, that h is te s ts afford valid techniques | for such measurement.

The verity of the former is the

subject of inquiry in this paper.

As to the la tte r , there

i s believed to be in su fficie n t experimental corroboration | in the litera tu re.

Such validation, however, i s not a

prerequisite in a study of th is character. Among the standardized and recorded te sts of pitch I discrim ination, the Seashore te sts appear to be the most accurate and relia b le and seem to have the best standard!

| ization .

I t was therefore believed advisable to use one

! of these te s ts (Series B) in the present experiment. The existence of marked improvement in performance in the i j!

Series B te s t a fter training would be sig n ifica n t, parti-

i cularly in view of the p o ssib ility of widespread use of the te s t in guidance.

68

The W y a t t T e s t o f P i t c h D i s c r i m i n a t i o n D e sc rip tio n .

T he d e v e l o p m e n t o f a new t e s t o f p i t c h

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w as b e g u n i n 1952 s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e w r i t e r w as p u t i n c h a r g e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t e s t s a n d m e a s u r e ­ m en ts i n m u sic a t N o r th w e s te r n U n i v e r s i t y .

At th is

t im e

b o t h t h e K w a lw a sse r-D y k e m a p i t c h t e s t a n d t h e S e a s h o r e p itc h te s t

(1 9 1 9 f o r m ) se em e d i n a d e q u a t e f o r p r e c i s e 1

m easurem ent o f t h i s f u n c t i o n i n a d u l t s m a jo r in g i n m u sic , a n d a n e e d w as f e l t f o r a t e s t w h i c h w o u ld b e d e p e n d a b l y a c c u r a te and s u f f i c i e n t l y d i f f i c u l t to d i f f e r e n t i a t e a d u l t s m a jo r in g i n m u sic a t N o rth w e s te rn U n i v e r s i t y .

T he

t e s t a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d b e lo w h a v e b een i n use s in c e 1955* 0 The a p p a r a t u s i l l u s t r a t e d i n P ig s . 1 and 2 c o n s is ts e s s e n t i a l l y o f 14 s t e e l t u n i n g b a r s (A i n P i g . 1) m o u n te d on r e s o n a t o r s a n d s t r u c k w i t h c o n t r o l l e d i n ­ t e n s i t y by f e l t - t i p p e d r u b b e r m a l l e t s (D ). D a m p ers, p ro v id e d a t th e to p o f each b a r ( e ) , o p e ra te i n sy n c h ro n ism w ith th e m a l l e t a c t i o n . At th e in s t a n t t h e m a l l e t s t r i k e s , t h e d a m p e r i s l i f t e d a n d when th e a c t i o n r e t u r n s t o n o rm al ( i . e . , to end t h e to n e ) th e dam per i s r e l e a s e d . T he m o t o r (H) i s p r a c t i c a l ­ l y i n a u d i b l e , b e i n g d o u b l y m o u n te d i n r u b b e r . A vacuum pump ( I ) i s q u a d r u p l e , m a k in g f o r s m o o t h n e s s of o p e ra tio n . Prom t h e m a in c h a m b e r o f t h i s pump, vacuum l i n e s ( j ) e x t e n d t o t h e vacuum a c t i o n r a i l s (K) w h i c h c a r r y t h e e l e c t r o - m a g n e t s (L a n d M) a n d s e r v e t h e tw o b a n k s o f vacuum a c t i o n s ( N ) . A v a l v e ( 0 ) p e r m i t s r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e vacuum w i t h i n a r a n g e o f 15 t o 60 i n c h e s o f w a t e r g a u g e vacuum . T he p n e u m a tic a c t i o n n o t o n ly i n s u r e s u n i f o r m i t y i n th e f o r c e o f th e b lo w , b u t p e r m its th e o p e r a t o r to v a ry th e i n t e n s i t y a t w i l l . 1. S p e c if ic re a s o n s f o r th e in ad eq u acy o f th e s e t e s t s a r e e n u m e ra te d i n o t h e r p a p e r s (4 0 , * H ). 2 . B u i l t b y J. C. D e a g a n , I n c . , C h i c a g o , 1 1 1 .

69

P i g . 1 . The f r o n t o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t u s e d i n g i v ­ i n g t h e W y a tt t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . (T he f r o n t p a n e l s h av e b e e n re m o v e d .) A, s t e e l t u n i n g b a r ; B, r u b b e r - i n s u l a t e d p i n ; C, r e s o n a t o r ; D, m a l l e t ; E, vacuum d a m p e r o r b e l l o w s ; P , d a m p e r f e l t ; G, d a m p e r vacuum l i n e ; H, m o t o r ; I , q u a d r u p l e vacuum pump; J , vacuum l i n e ; K, vacuum a c t i o n r a i l or h e a d e r; t , e le c tro -m a g n e t f o r to n a l s tim u lu s ; M, e l e c t r o - m a g n e t f o r i n t e n s i t y t e s t ; N, vacuum a c t i o n f o r m a l l e t ; 0 , vacuum p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r v a lv e ; P, p n e u m a tic .

TO

F i g . 2 . The h a c k o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t u s e d i n g i v ­ i n g t h e W y a tt t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . A, m a n u a l k e y b o a r d f o r t h e t o n a l s t i m u l i ; B, e l e c t r i c p l a y e r d e v i c e ; C, w i r e c o n t a c t s ; D, c o n ­ t a c t r o l l e r ; E, p e r f o r a t e d r o l l ; F , p l a y e r m o t o r G, m e t a l r o l l g u a r d ; H, h and a d j u s t m e n t f o r v a c ­ uum p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r v a l v e ; I , m a n u a l k e y b o a r d f o r i n t e n s i t y t e s t ; J , w a t e r vacuum g a u g e ; K, p i l o t l i g h t ; L. s w i t c h ; M, e x t r a p e r f o r a t e d r o l l s i n s t o r a g e c o m p a r tm e n t.

71

T he h a c k o f t h e I n s t r u m e n t ( F i g . 2) c o n t a i n s tw o m a n u a l k e y b o a r d s , o n e (A) f o r m a n u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s (one k ey a c t i v a t i n g one m a lle t) and th e o th e r ( i ) f o r m anual p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i n t e n s i t i e s a t t h e same f r e q u e n c y . M anual o p e r a t i o n o f t h e lo w e r k e y b o a rd i s u s e f u l f o r p r a c t i c i n g Ss i n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . E can b y t h i s m e th o d c a u s e a n y t u n i n g b a r s on t h e i n ­ s tru m e n t to be s tr u c k and can s u s ta i n th e to n e s f o r r e l a t i v e l y lo n g tim e i n t e r v a l s , s i n c e th e dam per i s n o t r e l e a s e d a s lo n g a s E r s f i n g e r d e p re s s e s th e key. I n th e a c t u a l t e s t i n g and a ls o i n th e w r i t t e n p r a c t i c e e x e r c i s e p r i o r to th e t e s t , th e m anual k ey b o ard i s n o t u sed . In s te a d , th e in stru m e n t i s o p e ra te d a u to m a tic a lly . A p e rfo ra te d t e s t r o l l (M o r E , F i g . 2) i s p l a c e d o v e r t h e c o n t a c t r o l l e r (D) a n d a s I t r e v o l v e s t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s p e r m i t s m a ll w ir e c o n t a c t s (0 ) to to u c h th e r o l l e r . T h is c lo s e s th e a p p ro p ria te c i r c u i t s . In a c tu a l o p e ra tio n , t h e c o n c e a l i n g p a n e l s ( n o t show n i n F i g s . 1 o r 2) a r e c l o s e d a n d E m e r e l y p r e s s e s a b u t t o n on t h e o u t s i d e o f th e in s tru m e n t to s t a r t th e t e s t .

jj

|

j

The p e r f o r a t e d r o l l s w e r e c u t i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h th e fo llo w in g f a c t o r s : t h e n u m b er o f t r i a l s d e s i r e d (so m e o f t h e r o l l s c o n t a i n s l o t s f o r 220 s e p a r a t e s t i m u l i ) ; t h e b a r s w h ic h E w is h e s s t r u c k ; th e o r d e r o f th e t e s t Ite m s; th e d u r a tio n o f each to n e ; th e t i m e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e two t o n e s o f a p a i r a n d b e tw e e n t h e p a i r s o f to n e s . The l a t e r a l p o s i t i o n o f th e p e r f o r a t i o n d e te rm in e s th e b a r to be s tr u c k . The l e n g t h o f t h e s l o t d e t e r m i n e s t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e t o n e , w h i l e th e d i s t a n c e b e tw e e n t h e s l o t s co n ­ t r o l s t h e tim e I n t e r v a l b e tw e e n t o n e s . P erfo ratio n s a p p r o p r ia te ly I n s e r te d i n th e r o l l s b r in g th e in s tru m e n t to a n a u to m a tic s to p . By t u r n i n g a v a l v e (E , F i g . 2) t h e i n t e n s i t y c a n b e v a r i e d a n d c a n b e q u i c k l y a n d a c c u r a t e l y a s c e r t a i n e d b y m ean s o f . a w a t e r vacuum g au g e ( j ) . T he s t a n d a r d b a r h a s a f r e q u e n c y o f 4 6 5 . 2 c y c l e s .

I T h i s f r e q u e n c y w as c h o s e n a r b i t r a r i l y ,

th e o n ly s p e c i f i c a -

! t i o n s im p o s e d b e i n g t h a t t h e f r e q u e n c y b e i n t e r m e d i a t e a n d t h a t i t b e some t o n e o t h e r t h a n “v i o l i n Aff ( i n o r d e r t o i l . I t i s a ls o p o s s ib le to p la y an i n t e n s i t y t e s t w ith t h i s !a p p a r a t u s , b u t t h e i n s t r u m e n t h a s n o t b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d i f o r t h i s purp o se. j

72

a v o i d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t m u s i c a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d J>s m i g h t h a v e d e v e l o p e d a s p e c i a l p i t c h memory f o r t h i s h i g h l y f a m i l i a r to n e and t h e r e f o r e b e s u p e r io r a t t h i s l e v e l ) . The c o m p a r i s o n b a r s i n t h e a p p a r a t u s a r e h i g h e r b y 18 , 15, 9* 7* 6* 5* 4 , 3* 2 .5 * 2 , 1 .5 * 1 a n d . 5 c y c l e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . V a r i o u s t e s t s h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g some o f t h e s e in c re m e n ts.

The o n e a d m i n i s t e r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s

e x p e r i m e n t h a s tw o f o r m s , i d e n t i c a l i n d i f f i c u l t y , w i t h 100 t e s t i t e m s i n e a c h a n d w i t h 10 t r i a l s a t 15* 7* 5* 4 , 5# 2 .5 * 2 , 1 .5 *

1 and .5 c y c le s .

I n f o r m A, t h e s e l e v e l s

o f d i f f i c u l t y a r e a r r a n g e d I n s e t s o f 10 w i t h t h e same i n c r e m e n t u s e d i n a l l 10 t r i a l s 13* 7* 5* 3* 1 .5 *

i n th e fo llo w in g o rd e r:

*5* 1* 2, 2.5 a n d 4 c y c l e s .

I n f o r m B,

e v e r y 10 t r i a l s p r e s e n t s t h e e n t i r e r a n g e o f d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h e f i r s t 10 p r o c e e d i n g f r o m e a s y t o d i f f i c u l t (13 t o . 5 ) a n d t h e s e c o n d 10 f r o m d i f f i c u l t t o e a s y ( . 5 t o 13) w i t h e v e r y 10 t r i a l s th e t e s t.

a l t e r n a t i n g i n t h i s fa s h io n th ro u g h o u t

E ach to n e p r e s e n t e d I s s u s t a i n e d f o r one s e c .

b e f o r e i t i s dam ped.

A t i m e i n t e r v a l o f one s e c .

th en

e l a p s e s b e tw e e n t h e to n e s o f e a c h t r i a l and t h r e e s e c s , a r e a llo w e d f o r th e re s p o n s e . tria ls

c o rre c tly

The s c o r e i s

t h e nu m b er o f

ju d g ed , w ith th e h i g h e s t p o s s ib l e s c o r e

100. The e x a c t p r o c e d u r e e m p lo y e d i n g i v i n g a t e s t i s a s fo llo w s:

75

1 , T he i n s t r u m e n t i s c o n n e c t e d t o a s t a n d a r d A .C . o u t l e t a n d t h e s w i t c h i s t u r n e d o n . The h a n d a d j u s t m e n t i s t u r n e d u n t i l 20 i n . o f w a t e r g a u g e vacuum i s a t t a i n e d . The p e r ­ f o r a te d r o l l i s p la c e d o v er th e c o n ta c t r o l l e r a n d t h e w i r e c o n t a c t s a r e l o c k e d down upon i t . 2. P re lim in a ry p r a c t ic e i s g iv e n , E u sin g th e lo w e r m anual k ey b o ard (A ). Two t o n e s a r e sounded s u c c e s s iv e l y a c c o rd in g t o a p r e ­ a r r a n g e d p l a n and th e Ss a r e a sk e d t o ju d g e w h e th e r t h e se co n d to n e i s h i g h e r o r lo w e r th a n th e f i r s t . A lo n g s e r i e s o f p r e lim in ­ a r y t r i a l s a r e g i v e n b y t h i s m e th o d a n d th e re s p o n se s a r e r e c i t e d by th e g rou p .

I j

I

j I i !

5 . S ta n d a rd b la n k s a r e p ro v id e d f o r th e w r i t ­ t e n e x e r c i s e a n d f o r t h e t e s t p r o p e r a n d Ss a r e t o l d t o p r i n t " h " f o r “h i g h e r a n d " l " f o r “lo w e r " . The s t a r t i n g b u t t o n i s p r e s s e d a n d 10 p r a c t i c e t r i a l s , ra n g in g in d i f f i c u l t y f r o m 18 c y c l e s t o 1 c y c l e , a r e p l a y e d a u to m a tic a lly . At th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e s e 10 t r i a l s t h e m e c h a n is m i s s t o p p e d b y t h e a p p r o p r ia te s l o t i n th e r o l l . A re s t p er­ i o d i s a l l o w e d d u r i n g w h i c h t h e Ss a r e p e r ­ m itte d to a sk q u e s tio n s . ty. The s t a r t i n g b u t t o n i s p r e s s e d a g a i n a n d th e t e s t p ro p e r i s a u to m a tic a lly a d m in is te re d , The t e s t i t s e l f c o n s i s t s o f 100 t r i a l s w i t h sh o rt r e s t pauses a f t e r e a c h 20 t r i a l s . S ta n d a rd iz a tio n .

The W y a tt t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a ­

t i o n h a s two s e t s o f norm s b a s e d on s c o r e s o f a d u l t : i

i

m u s ic ia n s and n o n ^ m u s ic ia n s .

S i n c e t h e t e s t w as r e a l l y

i n te n d e d f o r a d u l t m u sic s t u d e n t s o r p r o f e s s i o n a l m u si! c i a n s , t h e s c o r e s f o r m u s i c i a n s a r e m ore n u m e r o u s . P eri c e n t i l e r a n k s a r e a v a i l a b l e b a s e d on t h e s c o r e s o f 915 m u s i c i a n s a n d 25 2 n o n - m u s i c i a n s . i n t h e W y att t e s t s

In o rd e r f o r th e ran k s

t o b e c o m p a re d e a s i l y w i t h t h o s e i n t h e

74

r e v is e d S eash o re t e s t s ,

p e r c e n t i l e ran k s have been ex­

p r e s s e d i n t h e sam e f a s h i o n a s t h a t u s e d b y S e a s h o r e v i z . , 1 is

t h e h i g h e s t r a n k a n d 10 t h e l o w e s t r a n k a t t a i n a b l e . R e lia b ility .

C o r r e l a t i o n o f o d d -n u m b e re d i t e m s a n d

! ev en-num bered ite m s i n th e f i r s t

t e s t t a k e n b y 915 m u s ic

! m a j o r s g a v e a n r o f . 85 + .0 1 ( c o r r e c t e d b y t h e S p e a rm a n | Brown p r o p h e c y f o r m u l a ) .

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e h o m o g e n e it y o f

i

th e se S s,

th is r e lia b ility

seem s q u i t e a d e q u a t e .

The mean

n u m b er o f e r r o r s o n o d d -n u m b e re d t r i a l s was 6 . 8 a n d on evenn u m b e re d t r i a l s 6 . 5 w i t h S . D . s o f 4 f o r b o t h . C o r r e l a t i o n o f th e f i r s t and second t e s t s ta k e n by 215 m u s i c m a j o r s g a v e a n r o f . 4 5 + . 0 4 . b e t w e e n t h e t e s t s w as one d a y .

The t i m e i n t e r v a l

The mean s c o r e on t h e f i r s t

I I t e s t w as 8 9 . I a n d on t h e s e c o n d t e s t 91*5* and 7 .5 .

S .D .s w ere 7 .5

One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y low t e s t -

1

! r e t e s t r i s t o b e fo u n d i n t h e f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t I n d i v i d i u a l s r e s p o n d d i f f e r e n t l y t o a r e t e s t , some i m p r o v i n g w h i l e i

■ o th e r s sc o re lo w e r.

A c e r t a i n am ount o f f l u c t u a t i o n i s

j; n o r m a l , o f c o u r s e , b u t i f a n i n d i v i d u a l m akes a l o w e r | s c o re i n th e r e t e s t , r fa tig u e ,

t h i s i s n o t n e c e s s a r il y due to

lo s s of i n t e r e s t or poor m o tiv a tio n .

Some Ss

may b e o v e r s t i m u l a t e d t o do b e t t e r a n d i n t h e p r o c e s s may I becom e t o o t e n s e t o do t h e i r b e s t d i s c r i m i n a t i n g . Some i| I, j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y seem s i n f e r a b l e f r o m t h e !i

|| v e r b a l r e p o r t s o f some o f S m i t h ’ s S s . l| - ____ . | 1 . D i s c u s s e d on p .

51

t h is p ap er.

n

In th e r e t e s t th e re

75

i s a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e l o w e s t Ss t o im p r o v e t h e i r i n i t i a l t e s t s c o r e , w h ile th e h ig h e s t c a se s i n th e i n i t i a l

te st

t e n d , on t h e a v e r a g e , t o l o s e a few s c o r e p o i n t s .

T h is

i n e q u a li t y o f p r a c t ic e e f f e c t a ls o te n d s to red u ce th e s i z e o f r w hen r e l i a b i l i t y i s

c o m p u te d b y t h e r e t e s t

m eth o d . C o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n S e a s h o r e a n d W y a tt p i t c h j t e s t s . The c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e r e v i s e d S e a sh o re p i t c h t e s t and th e f i r s t a d m i n i s t r a t io n o f t h e W y a tt p i t c h t e s t f o r 227 m u s ic m a j o r s was . 5 5 + . 0 4 . T h i s r e l a t i v e l y lo w c o r r e l a t i o n may b e a t t r i b u t e d e ra l fa c to rs:

(l)

to sev­

t h e same c a u s e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n

su g g e ste d as lo w e rin g th e t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y ;

(2) th e

f a c t t h a t th e S eash o re t e s t c o v ers a ran g e o f in cre m e n ts j

f r o m 8 c y c l e s t o 1 c y c l e w h i l e t h e W y a tt t e s t c o v e r s a

J

■ r a n g e f r o m 15 c y c l e s t o . 5 c y c l e w i t h 50$ o f t h e t e s t a t i

in c re m e n ts s m a lle r th a n 5 c y c le s ;

(5 )

tw ic e a s lo n g a s th e S eash o re t e s t ;

t h e W y a tt t e s t i s

(4 )

th e d u r a tio n o f

I t h e t o n e s a n d t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l b e tw e e n t o n e s i s n o t t h e i same i n t h e two t e s t s ; i n t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t t h e t o n e i s s u s t a i n e d f o r o n l y . 6 s e c . , w h i l e i n t h e W y a tt t e s t t h e to n e i s

s u s ta in e d f o r 1 s e c .;

( 5 ) t h e W y a tt t e s t i s g i v e n

by m eans o f t u n i n g b a r s w h i l e t h e t o n a l s t i m u l i i n t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t a r e r e c o r d e d o s c i l l a t o r t o n e s ; a n d (6 )

th e

W y a tt t e s t i s p r e c e d e d b y b o t h o r a l a nd w r i t t e n p r a c t i c e

76

w h i l e I n t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t no p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r w ritte n p ra c tic e . V a lid ity .

The W y a tt t e s t h a s n o t b e e n u s e d f o r

g u i d a n c e a n d was n o t i n t e n d e d a s a " c a p a c i t y 1’ t e s t . w as d e s i g n e d a s a n a b i l i t y

It

t e s t w h ich c o u ld b e u sed

d ia g n o s tic a lly . One m e th o d o f " p u t t i n g t h e t e s t t o a t e s t " w o u ld b e ' to g iv e i t

to s u c c e s s fu l p r o f e s s io n a l m u sic ia n s.

If

| p l a y e r s o f s t r i n g e d i n s t r u m e n t s i n p a r t i c u l a r s h o u l d do | p o o r l y on a t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ,

th e v a l i d i t y of

' t h e t e s t w o u ld c e r t a i n l y b e o p e n t o q u e s t i o n . The w r i t e r h a s h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f a d m i n i s t e r i n g i

th is

t e s t t o 33 m u s i c i a n s who w e r e m em bers o f t h e o r c h e s ­

t r a a n d s o l o i s t s a t t h e N a t i o n a l B r o a d c a s t i n g Company i n ■C h ica g o .

The t e s t s w e r e g i v e n i n t h e s o u n d - p r o o f e d

i

i, s t u d i o s i n w h i c h t h e m u s i c i a n s r e h e a r s e d and b r o a d c a s t e d . i■

I The m o t i v a t i o n was g o o d , t h e m u s i c i a n s v o l u n t a r i l y e n t e r i n g I !i i n t o a c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r a n d e v i n c i n g c o n s i d e r ­ a b l e i n t e r e s t i n th e a p p a r a t u s and i n t h e i r s c o r e s , t

B ecau se o f t h e tim e f a c t o r ,

th e p re lim in a ry p r a c t ic e

h a d t o b e r e d u c e d t o a minimum a nd a s a r e s u l t , th e t e s t s

a few o f

( p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e ta k e n by f o r e i g n - b o r n m u si­

c i a n s who may n o t h a v e c o m p re h e n d e d f u l l y t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s ) I show some i n d i c a t i o n o f u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f m e a s u r e m e n t, e . g . , r a n e r r o r a t 15 o r 7 c y c l e s w hen no e r r o r s o c c u r r e d a t 5 , !|

k, 3 , o r 2 . 5 c y c l e s .

D e sp ite t h i s f a c t ,

th e g ro u p had

77

n e g l i g i b l e e r r o r a t 13, 7 , 5 > a n d 4 c y c l e s ( l e s s

t h a n 1$ ) ;

a v e r y s m a ll amount o f e r r o r a t 3 and 2 .5 c y c le s

(le ss

th a n

3%)*, w h i l e a t 2 , 1 . 3 , 1 a n d .5 c y c l e s t h e e r r o r was o n l y !a b o u t S$>, 19%, 30% a n d 3 4 $ . I

T hus, th e t h r e s h o ld f o r th e s e

\33> m u s i c i a n s a s a g r o u p w as b e tw e e n 1 a n d 1 , 5 c y c l e s a n d j t h e r e w as a n a b r u p t d r o p i n t h e a m o u n t o f e r r o r when t h e : s i z e o f t h e i n c r e m e n t was I n c r e a s e d t o 2 c y c l e s o r g r e a t e r . |

I n t h i s g ro u p o f p r o f e s s i o n a l m u s ic ia n s , s i x w ere

|v io lin is ts ,

f o u r p lay e d v i o l a ,

p l a y e d w in d i n s t r u m e n t s ; sin g e rs, a h a rp is t,

fc e llo ,

or bass v io l;

12„*(

t h e r e w ere f o u r p i a n i s t s and t h r e e

g u i t a r i s t and c h o ra l d i r e c to r .

The

mean s c o r e made b y t h e g r o u p w as 8 9 . 8 (maximum p o s s i b l e |1 0 0 ) .

The h a r p i s t a n d t h e g u i t a r i s t h a d s c o r e s o f 94 a n d

93 r e s p e c t i v e l y ; t h e v i o l i n i s t s h a d a mean s c o r e o f 9 2 . 5 ; j

t h e s i n g e r s s c o r e d 9 0 . 7 on t h e a v e r a g e ;

1o r h a d a s c o r e o f 9 0 ; t h e v i o l a ,

th e c h o ra l d i r e c t -

1c e l l o a n d b a s s v i o l

' p l a y e r s came n e x t w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 8 8 . 8 ; p l a y e r s o f | w in d i n s t r u m e n t s h a d a m ean s c o r e o f 8 9 . 5 a n d t h e p i a n i s t s 1 !; w e r e t h e l o w e s t i n t h e g r o u p w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 8 5 . 5 . I n ij-!

j t h e e n t i r e g r o u p o f p r o f e s s i o n a l m u s i c i a n s , 22 o f t h e 33 j h a d s c o r e s w h i c h w e r e b e t t e r t h a n t h e m e d ia n f o r m u s ic m a j o r s a t N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y a n d 29 o f t h e 33 h a d s c o r e s w h i c h e x c e e d e d t h e m e d ia n o f n o n - m u s i c s t u d e n t s a t th e U n iv e r s ity . E v en t h o u g h b e t t e r t e s t c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e o p p o r t u n ­ ity

t o g i v e a r e t e s t m i g h t w e l l h a v e im p r o v e d t h e s c o r e s ,

78

t h e i r o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e among t h e s e v a r i o u s c l a s s i ­ f i c a t i o n s i s a b o u t w h a t we w o u ld e x p e c t . r e q u i r e d i n t h e i r w ork t o

T h o se who w e r e

"make t h e i r own p i t c h " ,

a c t u a l l y d id have th e h ig h e s t s c o re s , w h ile th e p i a n i s t s , who h a d t h e l e a s t o c c a s i o n f o r g r e a t p r e c i s i o n i n p i t c h d isc rim in a tio n ,

had th e lo w e s t s c o r e s on th e a v e r a g e .

79

O sc illa to r F ig . 5 shows the resista n ce-tu n ed o s c illa t o r used in th is experiment.**' This instrument has a frequency range from 20 c y c le s to 20,000 c y c le s and the in te n s ity of the tones can be varied w ith in a 50 db. range. The standard tone i s produced by s e ttin g the main d ia l (th e large cen ter d ia l in F ig. j ; which i s ca lib ra ted d ir e c t ly in c y c le s per se c . when the main range sw itch (a t the upper l e f t ) i s s e t a t x l . By changing th is sw itch to xlO or xlOO, the standard frequency i s m u ltip lied 10 or 100 tim es. Thus, when the main d ia l i s s e t a t 50 and the range sw itch i s s e t a t xlO, the standard tone i s 500 c y c le s . The increm ental frequency d ia l (shown a t lower rig h t) i s used together w ith the increm ental range sw itch (a t lower l e f t ) ’? c o n tr o llin g the frequency of the comparison to n es. The increm ental d ia l i s ca lib ra ted to show readings in c y c le s up to 10, and as low as fr a c tio n s o f one c y c le . The frequency of the compari­ son tone depends not only upon the s e tt in g o f th is d ia l but a ls o upon the s e ttin g of the increm ental range sw itch (a t lower l e f t ) , When th is sw itch i s s e t a t x5* the readings on the increm ental d ia l are m u ltip lied by 5 regard less of the s e tt in g of the main d ia l or the main range sw itch. When the increm ental range sw itch I s s e t a t the only other p o s itio n a t which i t may be s e t ( x l , xlO, xlOO), then the in c r e ­ mental d ia l reading i s m u ltip lied by the fa c to r in d icated on the main range sw itch. Thus, depending upon th is l a t t e r s e t t in g , the increments presented should range from a fr a c tio n o f one c y c le to a maximum of 1000 c y c le s . When the increm ental range sw itch i s s e t a t x5»;th e increments can reach a maximum o f only 50 c y c le s , i The in te n s ity of the tones i s determined by the s e t ­ tin g of a ca lib ra ted attenu ator (th e d ia l a t the upper r ig h t ) . A v a ria tio n in in te n s ity o f 50 db. i s p o s s ib le . For the tones presented in th is experim ent,2 the atten u ator was s e t as in d icated in the photograph. The automatic timing device (shown a t the extreme r ig h t in F ig. 5) enabled JJ to present paired stim u li w ith the standard tone occurring e ith e r f i r s t or second. 1. Model #200 S-14 supplied by the Hewlett-Packard Co. , Palo A lto , Cal. j 2. The attenu ator d ia l was s lig h t ly readjusted when the istandard frequencies were 250 and 1000 c y c le s .

8o

F ig , 5 . The o s c i l l a t o r a n d a u t o m a t i c t i m i n g d e v i c e . The f r e q u e n c y o f t h e s t a n d a r d t o n e d e p e n d s u p o n t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e m a in d i a l ( t h e l a r g e c e n t e r d i a l ) a n d t h e m a in r a n g e s w i t c h ( a t u p p e r l e f t ) . The f r e q u e n c y o f th e in c re m e n t depends upon th e s e t t i n g o f th e i n ­ c re m e n ta l d i a l (lo w er r i g h t ) and th e in c re m e n ta l ra n g e s w itc h (lo w e r l e f t ) . The c a l i b r a t e d a t t e n u a t o r (upper r i g h t) c o n tr o ls th e i n t e n s i t y o f th e to n e s. The u n i t a t t h e e x t r e m e r i g h t i s t h e a u t o m a t i c t i m i n g d e v ic e w ith c l i c k l e s s s w itc h e s .

81

W ien E d e s i r e d t o p r o d u c e t h e s t a n d a r d t o n e f i r s t and th e In c re m e n ta l to n e seco n d , th e sw itc h a t t h e r i g h t w as moved t o t h e u p p e r p o s i t i o n ( A ) . M oving t h e s w i t c h t o t h e l o w e r p o s i t i o n (B) a u t o ­ m a t i c a l l y sounded th e in c r e m e n ta l to n e f i r s t and th e s ta n d a rd to n e second. T h i s s w i t c h w as c l i c k l e s s a n d c o u l d b e m oved w i t h o u t p r e s e n t i n g a n y p e r c e p t i b l e cue. The t i m i n g d e v i c e made p o s s i b l e a u t o m a t i c c o n ­ t r o l o f th e d u r a tio n o f th e to n e s ( l s e c . ) , th e i n ­ t e r v a l b e tw e e n th e p a i r e d to n e s ( l s e c . ) and th e i n t e r v a l a llo w e d f o r g iv in g th e re s p o n s e ( 4 i s e c .)* Two s e t s o f h i g h - f i d e l i t y h e a d - p h o n e a w e r e e m p lo y e d , o n e w o r n b y S , t h e o t h e r b y E. I t w as d i s c o v e r e d e a r l y i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e t r a i n i n g I

t h a t t h e r e w as some d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e a c t u a l i n c r e ­ m en ts and t h e d i a l r e a d i n g f o r t h e s e i n c r e m e n ts .

T h is

d i s p a r i t y w as c o n s t a n t a t a l l s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c y l e v e l s . When t h e d i s p a r i t y w as m e a s u r e d w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e s tr o b o s c o p e , i t a p p ea re d to be a p p ro x im a te ly one c y c le and i t w as a l w a y s a n a u g m e n t a t i o n o f t h e i n t e n d e d i n c r e m e n t . ! F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e s m a l l e s t i n c r e m e n t w h i c h Ss w e r e a s k e d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e w as 1 . 5 c y c l e ( a c t u a l f r e q u e n c y ) a n d I

when t h i s i n c r e m e n t was p r e s e n t e d , t h e r e a d i n g on t h e i n c r e m e n t a l d i a l was . 5 c y c l e . S i n c e t h e r e i s no s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t f o r u s e w i t h | th e o s c i l l a t o r ,

th e t e s t s a c t u a l l y d e v ise d a r e d is c u s s e d

, i n c o n n e c tio n w ith d e s c r i p t io n o f p ro c e d u re s . 1 . T he e n d i n g o f e a c h t o n e w as a t t e n d e d b y a b r i e f ! s n a p p i n g s o u n d , b u t a s t h i s s o u n d was i d e n t i c a l e a c h t i m e J i t o c c u r r e d , I t d i d n o t seem t o o f f e r a n y c u e . i

82

Conn C h r o m a t i c S t r o b o s c o p e As e a r l y a s 1 9 0 2 S e a s h o r e r e c o g n i z e d t h e p r a c t i c a l u se fu ln e ss,

o f some i n s t r u m e n t w h i c h c o u l d g i v e a n i n d i v i d ­

u a l a v i s u a l m eans o f c h e c k i n g t h e a c c u r a c y o f h i s v o c a l in to n a tio n .

The T o n o s c o p e , w h i c h w o rk e d o n t h e s t r o b o ­

sc o p ic p r i n c i p l e ,

s e rv e d t h i s p u rp o se i n th e p sy c h o lo g y

l a b o r a t o r y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Iow a ( 1 1 , 1 8 ) .

A tm o s p h e r ­

i c v i b r a t i o n s w ere c o n v e rte d i n t o v i s u a l c o n f i g u r a ti o n s on a s c r e e n m a k in g m e a s u r e m e n t o f p i t c h p o s s i b l e * I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , a Conn c h r o m a t i c s t r o b o s c o p e was a v a i l a b l e p lie d

T he u s e o f t h i s i n s t r u m e n t s u p ­

t o b o t h S and E a q u ic k c h e c k on t h e a c c u r a c y o f S ’ s

v o cal to n e s , in to

(P ig . 4 ) .

seq u en ces and in te r v a ls *

t h e m ic ro p h o n e i t

By p r o d u c i n g a t o n e

i s p o s s ib l e to d e te rm in e , n o t o n ly

t h e f r e q u e n c y , b u t a l s o , i f i t d e v i a t e s from t h e s ta n d a r d to n e w h ic h S i s a t t e m p t i n g to m atch , t h e d i r e c t i o n and am ount o f t h i s d e v i a t i o n . I t is

u n n e c e ssa ry to rep ro d u c e h e re d e t a i l s c o n c e rn in g

th e p h y s ic a l th e o ry u n d e rly in g th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e in stru m e n t (4 5 ), b u t th e e s s e n t i a l f e a tu r e s o f th e a p p a ra tu s a re as fo llo w s: I n th e s tr o b o s c o p e u n i t ( t h e u p p e r u n i t upon w h ic h t h e m ic r o p h o n e i s p l a c e d i n P i g . 4) t h e r e a r e 12 w in d o w s , e a c h c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o o n e o f t h e c h r o m a t i c t o n e s o f t h e o c t a v e * a n d a r r a n g e d i n t h e same r e l a ­ t i v e p o s i t i o n a s i n a p ian o k ey b o ard . T h e s e w indow s a r e i l l u m i n a t e d w hen s o u n d s a r e p i c k e d u p b y t h e m ic ro p h o n e. E a c h window r e p r e s e n t s a p a r t i c u l a r t o n e ( s u c h a s ^A11) o v e r a r a n g e o f s e v e n o c t a v e s .

1. According to equal temperament.

85

Fig* 4 .

The Conn C h r o m a t i c S t r o b o s c o p e .

84

"When t h e p o i n t e r o f t h e f o r k u n i t ( t h e l o w e r u n i t ) i s s e t a t z e r o , a f r e q u e n c y o f 440 c y c l e s s o u n d e d n e a r t h e m ic r o p h o n e w i l l p r o d u c e a s t a t i o n a r y p a t t e r n i n t h e "A" w indow ( i n P ig * 4 t h e s e c o n d window fr o m t h e l a s t o n e on t h e r i g h t i n t h e l o w e r r o w ) . If t h i s t o n e i s s h a r p e r t h a n 440 c y c l e s , t h e p a t t e r n w i l l move t o w a r d t h e r i g h t a n d i f i t i s f l a t t e r t h e p a t t e r n w i l l move t o w a r d t h e l e f t . I f E w ish e d t o g iv e S a s t a n d a r d to n e t o m atch , i t w as f i r s t n e c e s s a r y t o t u r n th e d i a l on th e f o r k u n i t so a s to b r i n g th e s tro b o s c o p e and th e s o u rc e u sed f o r th e s t a n d ­ a r d to n e ( o s c i l l a t o r o r p ian o ) th e n l i s t e n

i n t o sy n c h ro n ism .

S c o u ld

to th e s ta n d a r d to n e a n d , by o b s e rv in g th e

s t a t i o n a r y p a t t e r n i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e w in d o w , s e e f o r h i m s e l f t h a t t h i s s t a n d a r d w as " o n p i t c h " a n d c a u s e d no d r i f t e i t h e r to th e r i g h t or to th e l e f t .

S c o u ld th e n

s i n g i n t o t h e m ic r o p h o n e a n d d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r h i s own v o c a l i n t o n a t i o n w as s i m i l a r l y " o n p i t c h " o r w h e t h e r i t was s h a r p o r f l a t .

I f t h e d e v i a t i o n w as s o g r e a t a s t o

p r o d u c e a s t a t i o n a r y p a t t e r n i n a n o t h e r w indow , t h e n S c o u l d e a s i l y s e e t h a t h i s i n t o n a t i o n w as g r o s s l y i n c o r r e c t a n d h e c o u l d t e l l w h a t t o n e h e w as a c t u a l l y s i n g i n g .

If

t h e d e v i a t i o n f r o m c o r r e c t p i t c h w as l e s s t h a n a s e m i t o n e , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p a t t e r n i n d i c a t e d w h e t h e r h e w as s h a r p o r f l a t w h i l e t h e s p e e d o f t h e m ovem ent i n d i c a t e d r o u g h l y how g r o s s h i s e r r o r w as ( t h e s l o w e r t h e a p p a r e n t m o t i o n , th e le s s

th e d is c r e p a n c y ) .

85

PROCEDURE In the form ulation o f the procedures, the w riter was guided to some exten t by a survey of the lite r a tu r e and the im p lica tio n s therefrom. The apparatus used fo r train in g and te stin g was the most modern and e f f i c i e n t obtainable and the standardized t e s t s employed were the b est o f th e ir kind.

In a l l of

the t e s t s the production o f the stim u li was automatic. The time a llo t t e d fo r the experiment was one semester ( l6 weeks) w ith each S reporting fo r in d iv id u a l work fo r one hour a week.

Allowing approximately three hours on

the average fo r the Seashore and Wyatt t e s t s l e f t about j 13 hours fo r work w ith the o s c illa t o r and stroboscope. The m otivation of most of the Ss was good.

Several

1

o f the in d iv id u a ls even volunteered to continue with th e ir tra in in g during the in tervenin g Easter vacation. Others requested extra time to p r a ctic e w ith the strobo­ scope.

At the conclusion of the experiment many of the Ss

! s ig n if ie d th e ir d e sir e to continue w ith the tra in in g . ^ M otivation on the part of the musicians was c h ie fly a J d e sir e fo r self-im provem ent.

In the case of s ix o f the

| non-music Ss cooperative p a r tic ip a tio n in the experiment | was stim ulated In part by th e ir being excused from certa in o b lig a tio n s in th e ir c la s s e s .

The other two non-music Ss

them selves asked fo r perm ission to p a r tic ip a te in the experiment and^like the music Ss^sought self-b etterm en t.

86

A l l o f t h e t r a i n i n g w as g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l l y .

r'

The

t r a i n i n g p r o c e d u r e s p la c e d s p e c i a l e m p h asis upon d i s c r i m i n a ­ t i o n , h u t a b o u t o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e t r a i n i n g t i m e w as s p e n t I n d r i l l on p i t c h i n t o n a t i o n . in d iv id u a l c a se s.

T h is v a r i e d , how ever, i n

As s o o n a s S d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t h e c o u l d

m atch to n e s s u c c e s s f u l l y and c o u ld s i n g I n t e r v a l s ,

In c lu d ­

i n g c h r o m a t i c s , a c c u r a t e l y , n o f u r t h e r t i m e w as s p e n t i n such d r i l l ,

b u t e f f o r t w as c o n c e n t r a t e d e n t i r e l y upo n

tra in in g in d isc rim in a tio n .

In a l l In sta n c e s,

w o r k m e th o d f o r e a c h S w as s o u g h t .

th e b e s t

The t r a i n i n g i n d i s c r i m ­

i n a t i o n w as g i v e n a t o n e f r e q u e n c y l e v e l o n l y , v i z . , 500 I c y c le s. i j

In th e tr a in in g in d is c rim in a tio n ,

some p r a c t i c a l

I m e th o d h a d t o b e a d o p t e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g when a d e q u a t e | p r o f i c i e n c y had b e en o b ta in e d b y S a t a p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y b e f o r e m o v in g on t o t h e n e x t a nd m o re d i f f i i ! c u l t in c re m e n t. For t h i s purpose a re c o rd o f conse­ c u tiv e e r r o r le s s a ch iev e m e n t.

t r i a l s w as a d o p t e d a s t h e s t a n d a r d o f

T h i s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e n u m b er o f t r i a l s was

j b e lie v e d n e c e ssa ry i n o rd e r to e lim in a te p r a c t i c a l l y a l l I j p o s s ib ility of a d v e n titio u s success.

87

T e s tin g P ro ced u res S e a s h o r e and. W y a t t p i t c h t e s t s .

A l l Ss i n t h e e x ­

p e r i m e n t w e r e g i v e n a t l e a s t two S e a s h o r e p i t c h t e s t s p r i o r to t r a i n i n g and a f t e r t r a i n i n g .

S i x o f t h e m u s ic

Ss had a s many a s f o u r p r e - t r a i n i n g S e a s h o r e t e s t s , first

th e

two j u s t p r i o r t o t h e i r r e g i s t r a t i o n i n t h e S c h o o l

o f M u s ic .

F o r t h e s e S s t h e f i r s t two t e s t s w e r e g i v e n

a s g r o u p t e s t s , b u t t h e l a s t two w e r e g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l l y as p a rt of th is

ex p erim e n t.

The o t h e r two m u s i c Ss (R .D .

a n d U .M .) w e r e g i v e n o n l y t h e two i n d i v i d u a l p r e - t r a i n i n g | te s ts .

A l l o f t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss h a d two p r e - t r a i n i n g S e a -

| shore p itc h t e s t s . B o th t e s t s w ere g iv e n i n d i v i d u a l l y i I | to th r e e o f th e n o n -m u sic ia n s , b u t f o r th e rem a in d e r o f th e g ro up th e f i r s t p r e - t r a i n i n g

t e s t was a g r o u p t e s t a n d

' t h e s e c o n d was a d m i n i s t e r e d i n d i v i d u a l l y .

A ll b u t fo u r of

| t h e Ss i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t h a d two i n d i v i d u a l p o s t - t r a i n i n g i

| t e s t s , b u t e x t r a p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t s w ere g e n e r a l l y g iv e n | when S r e q u e s t e d a n o t h e r t e s t .

A new L a f a y e t t e r a d i o -

! p h o n o g r a p h w as u s e d i n g i v i n g t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t s . The f a c t t h a t s i x o f t h e m u s ic Ss h a d m u l t i p l e r e p e | t i t i o n o f th e t e s t p lu s in te r v e n in g m u sic a l i n s t r u c t i o n 1 b e t w e e n t h e i r s e c o n d a nd t h i r d p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t s f u r n i s h e s a c h e c k on t h e e f f i c a c y o f s u c h i n s t r u c t i o n a s c o m p a red w i t h t h e d i r e c t r e m e d i a l t r a i n i n g w h ic h t h e s e Ss r e c e i v e d .

88

A l l Ss i n th e e x p e rim e n t had i n a d d i t i o n a t l e a s t f o u r W y a t t t e s t s — two p r i o r t o t r a i n i n g a n d tw o a f t e r tra in in g .

I n e a c h c a s e t h e t e s t was g i v e n a f t e r b o t h o r a l

and w r i tte n p r a c tic e .

As i n t h e c a s e o f t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t s ,

s i x o f th e m u sic Ss had had m u s ic a l t r a i n i n g b e tw e e n c e r t a i n of th e ir p re -tra in in g te s ts .

T h i s p e r m i t s a f u r t h e r com­

p a r i s o n b e tw e e n th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f m u s ic a l i n s t r u c t i o n v s . r e m e d i a l t r a i n i n g a s m e th o d s o f e f f e c t i n g im p r o v e m e n t.

89

O s c illa to r t e s t s . g iv en in d iv id u a lly , o ra lly h is

A l l o f t h e o s c i l l a t o r t e s t s w ere

each S w e a rin g h ead-phones and g iv in g

ju d g m en t o f th e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e se c o n d to n e

a s c o m p a re d w i t h t h e f i r s t .

C a r e w as t a k e n t o s e a t Ss s o

t h a t th e y w ere u n a h le t o se e E o r th e a p p a r a t u s .

E

m a n ip u la te d th e d i a l s and s w itc h e s , fo llo w in g a p r e ­ a r r a n g e d k e y a n d c h e c k i n g Ss* r e s p o n s e s .

The k e y i t s e l f

w as made i n a d v a n c e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t "by t h r o w i n g a d i e 200 t i m e s ,

odd n u m b e rs b e i n g c a l l e d

" h ig h e r" and even

n u m b e rs " l o w e r ” , A minimum o f 40 c o n t i n u o u s t r i a l s w e r e g i v e n f o r e a c h m easu rem en t a t e a c h in c re m e n t o f th e t e s t s , Ss r e s p o n d in g o r a l l y f o r each p a ir of to n e s . n e x t 40 t r i a l s w e r e g i v e n . c y c le s,

A fte r a sh o rt r e s t ,

th e

A t a s t a n d a r d t o n e o f 500

t h e m u s ic S s w e r e t e s t e d a t a n a v e r a g e o f 6 i n c r e ­

m e n ts p e r t e s t a n d t h e n o n - m u s ic Ss a t a n a v e r a g e o f ! a p p ro x im a te ly 8 in c re m e n ts .

When t h e s t a n d a r d t o n e was

250 a n d 1000 c y c l e s , t h e a v e r a g e n u m b er o f i n c r e m e n t s i n I : t h e f o r m e r was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 . 5 f o r t h e m u s ic S s a nd a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 f o r t h e n o n - m u s i c S s , w h i l e a t 1000 c y c l e s t h e m u s ic g r o u p w as t e s t e d a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 i n c r e m e n t s on t h e a v e r a g e a n d t h e n o n - m u s i c g r o u p a t a b o u t 7 . I n o r d e r to p e rm it u se o f th e tim in g d e v ic e ,

i t w as

n o t p o s s i b l e t o u s e a n i n c r e m e n t l a r g e r t h a n 101 c y c l e s (10 on t h e i n c r e m e n t a l d i a l )

s i n c e t h e m a in r a n g e s w i t c h

90 .

w a s a l w a y s s e t a t xlO i n o r d e r t o p r o d u c e s t a n d a r d t o n e s of* 2 5 0 , 500 a n d 1000 c y c l e s .

S im ila rly , th e p re s e n ta tio n

I o f a n in c re m e n t l e s s th a n 1 .5 c y c le s ( .5 a c c o rd in g to th e | d i a l r e a d i n g ) w as deemed i n a d v i s a b l e b e c a u s e o f d o u b t a s t o | th e a cc u ra c y of such f in e d i a l a d ju s tm e n ts .1 ! 1 i

I n c r e m e n ts i n t h e o s c i l l a t o r t e s t s w ere s e l e c t e d i n acco rd an ce w ith each S ‘s in d iv id u a l le v e l of a b i l i t y in

!!

p itc h d isc rim in a tio n .

W herever p o s s i b l e ,

th e p r e - t r a i n i n g

i t e s t s b e g a n w i t h th e in c r e m e n t a t w h ic h S c o u ld g iv e a l l c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s on a t l e a s t 40 s u c c e s s i v e t r i a l s a n d w h i c h

j

! w as j u s t l a r g e r t h a n t h e i n c r e m e n t a t w h i c h e r r o r s b e g a n !; I I, |l I |l ||

to o ccu r.

T h is " l e v e l o f f a c i l i t y ” o r u p p e r l i m i t o f th e

t e s t r a n g e w a s , o f c o u r s e , n o t t h e same i n c r e m e n t f o r a l l S s ; f o r one i n d i v i d u a l i t was t h r e e c y c l e s , w h i l e f o r a n o t h e r i t w as a s l a r g e a s 101 c y c l e s .

The t e s t f o r

;J e a c h S was c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h a p r o g r e s s i v e l y m ore d i f f i c u l t i

s e r i e s o f i n c r e m e n t s e i t h e r t o t h a t i n c r e m e n t on w h i c h S

it

1 h a d f r o m 75$ t o 65$ c o r r e c t ju d g m e n ts o r , i f S c o n t i n u e d li j t o p e r f o r m a t a b e t t e r t h a n 7 5 -6 5 $ l e v e l , t h r o u g h t h e 1 . 5 jj

■I

c y c le in c re m e n t. The a g g r e g a t e s e r i e s o f t r i a l s f r o m t h e l e v e l o f fa c ility

to th e p ro x im a te th r e s h o ld

c y c le in c re m e n t i f

( o r th ro u g h th e 1 .5

t h e t h r e s h o l d was i n d e t e r m i n a t e ) f u r ­

n is h e d a re c o rd o f p erfo rm an ce a t each in c re m e n t o v e r th e ji

1. U n le ss s p e c i f i e d , a l l f u t u r e r e f e r e n c e s to o s c i l l a t o r i n c r e m e n t s a r e c o r r e c t e d , i . e . , a r e one c y c l e g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t i n d i c a t e d on t h e i n c r e m e n t a l d i a l .

91

ran g e of d i f f i c u l t y . p e rc e n ta g e o f t r i a l s

Prom t h i s c o u l d b e c o m p u ted t h e “w ro n g " o u t o f t h e t o t a l n um ber o f

t r i a l s a t each in c re m e n t i n th e t e s t ra n g e .

The p o s t ­

t r a i n i n g t e s t s f o r e a c h S c o v e re d t h e sam e r a n g e o f d i f f i ­ c u l t y , h en ce th e p e rc e n ta g e s o f p r e - t r a i n i n g e r r o r and p o s t - t r a i n i n g e r r o r a r e co m p a rab le. The p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t s b e g a n a t t h e p r e - t r a i n i n g " l e v e l s o f f a c i l i t y " a n d c o n t i n u e d i n many c a s e s t h r o u g h t h e new t h r e s h o l d i n c r e m e n t o r t h r o u g h t h e 1 . 5 c y c l e i n ­ crem en t i f

t h e p r o x i m a t e t h r e s h o l d w as n o t r e a c h e d a t a

l a r g e r in c re m e n t.

The c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e a g g r e g a t e p e r ­

c e n ta g e of e r r o r f o r th e in c re m e n ts i n th e p o s t - t r a i n i n g I t e s t d id n o t in c lu d e t h i s e x te n s io n o f th e p r e - t r a i n i n g I t e s t r a n g e , h o w e v e r , f o r t h a t w o u ld h a v e d e s t r o y e d t h e i c o m p a r a b i l i t y o f t h e p r e - t r a i n i n g and p o s t - t r a i n i n g ; p e rc e n ta g e s .^ 1. About m id -s e m e s te r, a q u a l i t a t i v e cue (a n i n i t i a l f u z z i ­ n e s s ) d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s t a n d a r d t o n e b u t was n o t n o t i c e a b l e i n th e in c re m e n ta l to n e . The p ro m p t i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a new r e l a y seem ed t o e r a d i c a t e t h i s c u e .

92

T ra in in g P ro ced u res T ra in in g in p itc h d is c r im in a tio n .

A ll of th e

p u r p o s e f u l l y r e m e d i a l t r a i n i n g i n p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n was g i v e n w i t h t h e o s c i l l a t o r a t a s t a n d a r d f r e q u e n c y o f 500

i

| c y c le s.

An e f f o r t was made t o a s c e r t a i n t h e n a t u r e o f

e a c h S ’ s i n d i v i d u a l d i f f i c u l t y a nd t o d e v i s e some m etho d | o f o v e r c o m in g i t .

A g r e a t many d e v i c e s w e r e t r i e d

out

u n t i l Ss " h i t u p o n " o r h ad s u g g e s t e d t o them b y E t h e m o st

i

u s e fu l ones.

F o l l o w i n g i s a n o u t l i n e o f some o f t h e

j p ro c e d u re s used d u rin g th e t r a i n i n g : i

1 . The S s w e r e t o l d t h a t t h e y w ou ld h e a r a s u c c e s s i o n

o f p a i r s o f to n e s and t h a t i n e a c h p a i r th e second to n e i! | w o u ld b e h i g h e r t h a n t h e f i r s t t o n e . The i n c r e m e n t c h o s e n ! f o r t h i s w as a lw a y s b e lo w S ' s m o s t r e c e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d I "le v e l of f a c ility " ,

i.e .,

S had n o t y e t d e m o n s tra te d

I t h a t h e c o u l d g i v e 40 c o n s e c u t i v e e r r o r l e s s a t t h is in cre m e n t.

ju d g m e n ts

A f t e r th e s e s u c c e s s iv e " h ig h e r s " w ere

! h e a r d , a s e r i e s o f " l o w e r s " w e r e p l a y e d a n d t h i s was i fo llo w e d by p e r m i t t i n g S to l i s t e n

to a l t e r n a t e

" h ig h e rs"

a n d " l o w e r s " w i t h k n o w le d g e i n a d v a n c e o f w h a t was c o m in g , j

F o llo w in g t h i s ,

S a tte m p te d to g iv e th e answ ers h im s e lf

a n d a s l o n g a s h e a n s w e r e d c o r r e c t l y h e was n o t i n t e r ru p te d . I f h e g a v e 40 c o n s e c u t i v e c o r r e c t a n s w e r s , i ; a n o t h e r a n d m ore d i f f i c u l t i n c r e m e n t w as g i v e n . I f he j

j made a n e r r o r , h o w e v e r , h e was a p p r i s e d o f i t a n d a g a i n

95

lis te n e d

to a s u c c e s s io n o f "h ig h e rs* 1 and " lo v e r s " v i t h

k n o w le d g e i n a d v a n c e o f w h a t w as t o come.

I 2.

When Ss a p p r o a c h e d t h e i r t h r e s h o l d s , E p l a y e d

i e a c h p a i r o f t o n e s two o r t h r e e t i m e s b e f o r e S g a v e h i s i

resp o n se.

T h i s m eth o d i n v a r i a b l y p r o v e d h e l p f u l i n o v e r ­

c o m in g a " p l a t e a u " .

The a d v a n t a g e h e r e l a y i n t h e f a c t

j t h a t S c o u l d make n o t m e r e l y one c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e j f i r s t and se co n d to n e s o f a p a i r , b u t a l s o b e tw e e n th e I s e c o n d t o n e o f t h e f i r s t p a i r and t h e f i r s t t o n e o f t h e ! second p a i r , e tc . 1

5 . W ith h i g h l y p i t c h - d e f i c i e n t S s who w e re u n a b l e

! t o d i s c r i m i n a t e i n c r e m e n t s a s l a r g e a s 50 c y c l e s , m e th o d s w e r e u s e d .

sin g in g

A d i f f e r e n c e o f a w h o le t o n e w as

1 p l a y e d on t h e o s c i l l a t o r a n d S was t o l d

t h a t th e second

t o n e was h i g h e r t h a n t h e f i r s t t o n e a n d t h a t h e s h o u l d I s i n g w i t h t h e t o n e s u s i n g t h e w o rd s " l o w e r " ,

"h ig h e r" .

i

I The s e q u e n c e w as t h e n r e v e r s e d . | p i t c h d isc rim in a tio n , b e tw e e n ( l )

F o r Ss w i t h v e r y p o o r

t h i s m eth o d p r o d u c e d a c o n n e c t i o n

t h e so u n d o f t h e t o n e s ,

(2 ) k i n a e s t h e t i c

s e n s a t i o n s i n th e v o c a l o rg a n s f o r h i g h e r and lo w e r to n e s I |i a n d ( 5 ) t h e t e r m s " h i g h e r " o r " l o w e r " . The Ss w e r e o f t e n j; g r o s s l y i n e x a c t i n t h e i r v o c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e t o n e s j|

I b u t n o e m p h a s i s was p l a c e d upo n f a i t h f u l d u p l i c a t i o n o f |! p i t c h i n t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e t r a i n i n g .

A t t e n t i o n w as c e n -

!| t e r e d p r i m a r i l y u pon t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p i t c h d i f f e r e n c e .

94

4.

When S s h a d d i f f i c u l t y w i t h a n i n c r e m e n t a n d

c l a i m e d t h a t t h e two t o n e s s o u n d e d a l i k e ,

E1 s h e a d p h o n e s

w e r e h e l d t o t h e m ic r o p h o n e o f t h e s t r o b o s c o p e w h i l e S sim u lta n e o u sly lis te n e d

to th e p a i r s o f t o n e s , w atch ed

t h e a l t e r n a t e s t a t i o n a r y and m o v in g p a t t e r n s , i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e w indow a n d s p o k e t h e w o rd s '’h i g h e r ” when t h e p a t t e r n f o r th e second to n e d r i f t e d

to t h e r i g h t and

’’l o w e r ” w hen t h e p a t t e r n f o r t h e s e c o n d t o n e d r i f t e d i

to

th e l e f t .

The device of thinking of the two tones as a part o f a larger whole was suggested to the Ss.

Scales

j were played on the piano and Ss were encouraged to a tj tend e s p e c ia lly to the beginning or ending of the sc a le C”do*| t i ” or " ti-d o ”) .

Semitone d iffer en ces were played on the

i

p i a n o a nd o n t h e o s c i l l a t o r a n d Ss w e r e a s k e d t o t e l l i,

» w h e t h e r t h e s c a l e was ”o n i t s way down” o r ” on i t s way u p ” . |

6 . I n o r d e r t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r a n y o f th e Ss had a

i c o n s t a n t e r r o r , a n a n a l y s i s was made o f t h e e r r o r s t o a s I c e r t a i n w h e t h e r t h e r e was a s t r i k i n g p r e p o n d e r a n c e i n one d i r e c t i o n .

In such c a s e s ,

t h e f i g u r e s w e r e show n t o

1 S a n d c o r r e c t i v e w o r k w as b e g u n on o v e r c o m in g t h i s dency.

T h i s w as e s p e c i a l l y h e l p f u l f o r R .D .

te n ­

When t h e

s e c o n d t o n e was l o w e r , i t w as e a s y f o r h e r t o d i s c r i m i n a t e > even v e ry sm a ll in c re m e n ts . I f i d e n t l y and r a p i d l y . how ever,

H e r r e s p o n s e w as g i v e n con~

When t h e s e c o n d t o n e was h i g h e r ,

t h e a n sw e rs w ere slo w , h e s i t a n t and f r e q u e n t l y

95

in c o rre c t.

The o v e r c o m in g o f t h i s e c c e n t r i c i t y r e q u i r e d

c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r s e v e r a n c e b u t seem ed t o b e e f f e c t e d i n slo w s t a g e s .

A b o u t m i d - s e m e s t e r R .D . r e m a r k e d t h a t s h e

c o u l d now t e l l w hen t h e s e c o n d t o n e was " n o t l o w e r " a n d I t h e r e f o r e she c a lle d i t i

as "h ig h e r". to

"h ig h er" w ith o u t r e a l l y f e e lin g i t

A t t h i s t i m e t h e two t o n e s so u n d e d i d e n t i c a l

h e r w hen t h e s e c o n d

t o n e w as h i g h e r .

t i o n a l s ta g e i n R .D .’s le a r n in g

T h i s w as a t r a n s i ­

pro cess.

By t h e end o f

| t h e s e m e s t e r t h e c o n c e p t o f " h i g h e r " h a d becom e a r e a l i t y ! to h e r.

7. For purposes of developing b e tte r auditory imagery j

! of

p itc h ,

t h e s t a n d a r d t o n e w as

p la y e d s e v e r a l tim e s and

| Ss were asked to try to g et a clea r image of i t .

Following

!

th is ,

Ss t r i e d

i w as t h i s

to t e l l w h e th er th e f i r s t to n e of a p a i r

s t a n d a r d o r some o t h e r t o n e .

Inasm uch a s th e s t a n d -

a r d r e c u r r e d i n e v e r y p a i r o f t o n e s ( a n d was a l w a y s l o w e r t h a n t h e c o m p a r i s o n t o n e ) , i t w as p o s s i b l e t o a n t i c i p a t e | th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e second to n e i f S c o u ld t e l l t h a t th e | first

t o n e w as o r w as n o t t h e s t a n d a r d .

|i t r a i n e d

The Ss w e r e t h e n

to l i s t e n to th e f i r s t to n e o f th e p a i r a n d , b e -

Ij f o r e h e a r i n g t h e s e c o n d t o n e ,

to ju d g e t e n t a t i v e l y w h e th e r

i t w o u ld b e h i g h e r o r l o w e r . A f t e r h e a r i n g t h i s s e c o n d I | t o n e , Ss c o u l d c h e c k t h e i r own t e n t a t i v e d e c i s i o n s a n d i

c h a n g e th em i f

i

th e y w ish e d ,

T h i s m e th o d p r o v e d v e r y h e l p f u l f o r m o s t o f t h e S s .

96

I n a d d i t i o n t o h e l p i n g th e m t o d e v e l o p m ore v i v i d i m a g e r y f o r t o n e s , i t k e p t th e m a l e r t a n d i n t e r e s t e d .

I t a ls o

g a v e E a c l u e a s t o t h e i r s p e e d i n m a k in g a d e c i s i o n . E w as s a t i s f i e d

If

t h a t t h i s was a “ g o o d " m e th o d f o r S a n d

j t h a t i t r e s u l t e d i n i m p r o v e m e n t, S was t h e n t r a i n e d

t o make

h i s t e n t a t i v e d e c i s i o n and c h e c k i t i n t h i s m anner h u t n o t to g iv e th e an sw er o r a l l y u n t i l a f t e r he had a c t u a l l y h e a rd th e second to n e . I

S o m e tim es t h e t e n t a t i v e a n d t h e f i n a l

d e c isio n s d iffe re d .

Ir e p e t i t i o n .

I f S was i n d o u b t , h e c o u l d r e q u e s t a

F o r some o f t h e S s t h i s a n t i c i p a t i o n m eth o d

p ro b a b ly tr a n s f e r r e d

j

t o th e S eash o re and ¥ y a t t t e s t s a s

Iw e ll a s to th e o s c i l l a t o r t e s t s . S . J . w o rk e d o u t a u s e f u l ( f o r him ) v a r i a t i o n o f t h i s I i !p r o c e d u r e . A f t e r h e a r i n g t h e f i r s t t o n e h e fo rm e d a n a n t i c i p a t o r y im a g e o f how a h i g h e r t o n e w o u ld s o u n d . w hen i t was p r e s e n t e d ,

it

If,

seem ed t o c o n fo r m t o t h i s i m a g e ,

i

S .J .

“h i g h e r ” a n d o t h e r w i s e h e c a l l e d i t

“l o w e r ” ,

8 . The r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t i m a g e r y i s a n i m p o r t a n t a s -

i

t

c a lle d i t

p e c t o f good d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s o m e tim e s o p e r a t e d l i k e i n s i g h t

> in a l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m .

E . V . , f o r e x a m p le , b e g a n r e v i s i n g

h e r w o r k m e th o d e v e n b e f o r e t h e t r a i n i n g h a d b e g u n . She I. I h a d b e e n v e r y u n c e r t a i n o f a l l o f h e r j u d g m e n ts a n d h a d e v e n m ade o v e r II w hen

l& fo

o f e r r o r on a n i n c r e m e n t o f 100 c y c l e s

t h e s t a n d a r d w as 1000 c y c l e s .

I t h a t s h e was m e n t a l l y a l t e r i n g

When s h e d i s c o v e r e d

th e f i r s t to n e b e fo re she

g o t t h e s e c o n d , E .V . r e m a r k e d t h a t s h e was g o i n g t o t r y

to

97

" re m e m b e r t h e f i r s t t o n e b e t t e r " .

S he h a d h e r s e l f s u d d e n l y

r e a l i z e d t h a t a c l e a r a u d i t o r y im a g e was a n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f th e p ro c e s s .

H e r r e c o r d was i m m e d i a t e l y im p ro v e d w i t h

a r e d u c t i o n f r o m s i x e r r o r s a t 25 c y c l e s a n d s i x e r r o r s a t 15 c y c l e s t o o n e e r r o r a t 10 c y c l e s . £.

I n t h e M a n u al f o r t h e 1919 t e s t s ,

S eashore in c lu d e d

th e fo llo w in g in s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e t e s t e r ( 22, p. 6 ): D i r e c t th e l i s t e n e r to ta k e a p o s i t i o n o f m u sc u la r t e n s i o n , l e a n i n g fo rw a rd w i t h m u sc le s f i r m i n th e m ost f a v o r a b le p o s i t i o n f o r w r i t i n g , i n a n a t t i t u d e o f a t t e n t i o n , eyes c lo s e d w h ile l i s t e n i n g . I t w as o b s e r v e d d u r i n g t h e t r a i n i n g t h a t some o f t h e b e s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w as d o n e w h i l e Ss seem ed m o s t r e l a x e d .

Some

o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who s p e a r e d a l m o s t I n d i f f e r e n t w h i l e m a k in g t h e i r j u d g m e n ts ( e x a m i n i n g t h e i r m a n i c u r e s , t o y i n g | w ith th e i r h a ir , J

g a z i n g a r o u n d t h e room , e t c . )

had a

g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r r e c t ju d g m e n ts t h a n when t h e y

: w ere c h a rg e d t o " ta k e a p o s i t i o n o f m u sc u la r t e n s i o n ” . I . The w r i t e r m e n t a l l y a c c u s e d t h e s e Ss o f a c t u a l i n d i f f e r e n c e ! u n t i l , i n r e - r e a d i n g S m ith ’s s tu d y th e fo llo w in g o b se rv e j | t i o n o f o ne o f S m i t h ’ s Ss was n o t e d ( 5 0 , p . 9 l ) : I f I h o ld m y s e lf i n a p a s s iv e a t t i t u d e and answ er w i t h e a s e , i n a r e f l e x w ay, I am q u i t e s u r e t o b e c o r r e c t i n ray j u d g m e n t; b u t i f I g e t t h e a t t i t u d e o f s t r i c t a t t e n t i o n I c a n n o t do so w e l l . I f I can ke?) i n a s t a t e o f r e l a x a t i o n , I e x p e r i e n c e no d i f ­ f i c u l t y I n g i v i n g th e ju d g m e n ts. S m ith fo u n d t h i s

t o b e t r u e a l s o i n h i s own c a s e .

n o t b e t r u e f o r a l l S s, how ever.

I t may

P erhaps i t i s b e s t f o r

98

E to sa y n o th in g and le a v e th e m a t t e r o f th e m ost f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e f o r l i s t e n i n g to each S to d e te rm in e f o r h im s e lf . W it h r e s p e c t t o t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f k e e p i n g t h e e y e s c lo s e d w h ile l i s t e n i n g , a s im ila r in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e was e v i d e n t i n t h e p r e s e n t e x p e rim e n t. h e lp f u l to keep t h e i r eyes c lo s e d .

Some S s f o u n d i t

P . E . , how ever, s a i d

t h a t s h e w as d i s t r a c t e d w hen s h e c l o s e d h e r e y e s b e c a u s e s h e " d re w p i c t u r e s 11.

In ste a d ,

she p r e f e r r e d to f i x h e r

g a z e u p o n some p a r t i c u l a r s m a l l s p o t a b o u t l e v e l w i t h h e r eyes.

S t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , t h i s w as s a t i s f a c t o r y w hen t h e

t r a i n i n g w as g i v e n a t 500 c y c l e s , b u t when t h e t e s t s a t t h e lo w t o n e (2 5 0 c y c l e s ) w e r e g i v e n , t h i s S h a d t o f i x h e r g a z e u p o n a s p o t on t h e f l o o r . A p p a r e n t l y some s p a t i a l c o n n e c t i o n h a d b e e n made f o r l o w n e s s a n d h i g h n e s s of p itc h . 10.

Many S s r e p o r t e d k i n a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s a c ­

c o m p a n y in g t h e i r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

P .E . moved h e r e y e b r o w s

u p when t h e s e c o n d t o n e w as h i g h e r a n d s h e moved h e r c h i n down a l i t t l e

when t h e s e c o n d t o n e w as l o w e r .

T .J .

th o u g h t o f a l e v e r p r o j e c t i n g fo rw a rd from h i s h ead and m o v in g u p a n d down f o r h i g h e r a n d l o w e r t o n e s . a sso c ia te d

G.K.

ju d g m e n ts o f " lo w e r ” w i t h f e e l i n g s o f r e l a x a ­

t i o n , w h i l e s t r a i n a n d t e n s i o n w e re a s s o c i a t e d w i t h j u d g m e n ts o f " h i g h e r ” . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e Ss r e l i e d h e a v i l y u p o n l a r y n g e a l a d ju s tm e n ts and i m i t a t e d th e to n e s s u b - v o c a l l y .

N o r th w e s te r n U n iv e r s ity QQ L ib r a r y

A few , h o w e v er, o c c a s i o n a l l y sa n g a u d i b l y b e f o r e g i v i n g th e ir resp o n ses. 1 1 . The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e w o r k m e th o d u s e d i s c l e a r l y show n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n f r o m U.M. *s r e c o r d d u rin g th e t r a i n in g : p a irs

U.M. w as a s k e d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e 20

o f t o n e s a t a s t a n d a r d o f 500 c y c l e s a n d a n i n c r e m e n t

ii

|| o f tw o c y c l e s w i t h o u t a n y w a r m in g - u p o r s p e c i a l i n s t r u c || t i o n s . S i x e r r o r s w e r e m ad e . She w as t h e n g i v e n 20 m ore I; t r i a l s and a sk ed to a n t i c i p a t e th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e second i t o n e a n d t o a n s w e r " h i g h e r 11 o r " l o w e r " o r a l l y b e f o r e h e a r |j i n g i t . The n u m b e r o f e r r o r s w as r e d u c e d t o t h r e e . i! I A n o t h e r 20 t r i a l s w e r e t h e n g i v e n i n w h i c h a n t i c i p a t o r y ; j u d g i n g w as e n c o u r a g e d , b u t t h i s was t o b e d o n e m e n t a l l y II |j a n d t h e r e s p o n s e w as n o t t o b e made u n t i l a f t e r t h e s e c o n d to n e had b een h e a rd . O n ly tw o e r r o r s w e r e m ad e. F o l l o w !' ; ! i n g t h i s , U.M. was4 p e r m i t t e d t o h e a r t e n p a i r s o f t o n e s ji

' w i t h k n o w le d g e i n a d v a n c e o f w h a t t h e c o r r e c t a n s w e r s ! w ere.

She t h e n r e s p o n d e d c o r r e c t l y t o t h e n e x t 20 t r i a l s .

i1

1 T h u s , i n l e s s t h a n i h r . t h e nu m b er o f e r r o r s i n t h e sam e i 1 t a s k w as r e d u c e d f r o m s i x t o z e r o . i

|

H e r l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s w as d e s c r i b e d b y U.M. a s f o l l o w s :

t

F o r th o s e p i t c h d if f e r e n c e s t h a t have b e en m a s te re d , t h e r e w as g u e s s i n g a t f i r s t , t h e n a f t e r l i s t e n i n g came a f e e l i n g f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e a n d f i n a l l y t h e d i f f e r e n c e was so a p p a r e n t t h a t i t w as d i f f i c u l t t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e i n t e r v a l h a d e v e r g i v e n me a moment o f d o u b t .

\ I j

100

T ra in in g i n p itc h in to n a tio n . d u rin g th e c o u rse of

From t i m e t o

tim e

t h e t r a i n i n g , a l l o f t h e Ss a t t e m p t e d

t o m atch to n e s v o c a l l y w h ile c h e c k in g t h e i r p r e c i s i o n by m eans o f t h e s tr o b o s c o p e . m itte d ,

W h en e v er Ss* v o c a l r a n g e p e r ­

t h e t o n e g i v e n th e m t o m a t c h w as a p p r o x i m a t e l y 500

c y c le s, b u t i f

t h i s w as t o o h i g h t o s i n g w i t h c o m f o r t , a

t o n e o f a b o u t 250 c y c l e s w as u s e d . B o t h t h e o s c i l l a t o r a n d t h e p i a n o w e r e e m p lo y ed f o r th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e sta n d a rd to n e.

The p o i n t e r on

t h e f o r k u n i t w as f i r s t a d j u s t e d s o a s t o p u t t h e s t r o b o ­ sco p e i n sy n ch ro n ism w ith th e p ia n o o r o s c i l l a t o r .

The

t o n e w as p l a y e d two o r t h r e e t i m e s , S l i s t e n i n g t o i t a t ­ t e n t i v e l y and o b se rv in g t h a t th e p a t t e r n i n th e a p p r o p r ia te j w indow o f t h e s t r o b o s c o p e w as s t a t i o n a r y . He t h e n a t t e m p t ­ ed t o m atch t h e to n e v o c a l l y .

I f t h e s t r o b o s c o p e show ed

a d e v i a t i o n f r o m c o r r e c t p i t c h , S t r i e d t o make t h e proper vocal c o rre c tio n .

When h e s u c c e e d e d i n m a t c h i n g

th e

s ta n d a rd to n e , a s h o r t sequence, a t f i r s t d ia to n ic

and

l a t e r c h r o m a t i c , w as a t t e m p t e d . The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m u s i c a l l y t r a i n e d a n d

u n t r a i n e d Ss w as v e r y m a r k e d .

A l l o f t h e m u s i c Ss c o u l d

m atch t o n e s , c o u ld s i n g d i a t o n i c s c a l e s and i n t e r v a l s a n d , w i t h a som ew hat l e s s e r d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y , c h r o m a t i c p ro g re ssio n s.

Some o f t h e m u s ic Ss w e r e a b l e t o s i n g a

101

c o m p lete c h ro m a tic s c a l e and g e t a s t a t i o n a r y p a t t e r n i n e a c h w in d o w .

T h e i r i n t e r e s t w as m a i n l y i n s e e i n g

how a c c u r a t e l y t h e y c o u l d s i n g u n u s u a l i n t e r v a l s a n d how c l o s e l y th e y c o u ld a d j u s t t h e i r v o ic e s to i n t e r v a l s s m a lle r th a n se m ito n e s.

(U.M.

( a p i a n i s t ) , f o r e x a m p le ,

w as g r e a t l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e new e x p e r i e n c e o f p r o d u c i n g to n e s w h ic h w ere l e s s

th a n a se m ito n e a p a r t .

I n t h e c a s e o f some o f t h e n o n - m u s i c i a n s , h o w e v e r , e v e n t h e t a s k o f m a t c h i n g a s t a n d a r d t o n e w as v e r y d i f f i ­ c u l t o r, a s i n th e case o f S .J o .,

im p o ssib le o f a c h ie v e ­

m e n t, a t l e a s t i n th e l i m i t e d tim e p e r i o d a l l o t t e d th is

to

ty p e o f t r a i n i n g . A l l Ss w ere f i r s t g iv e n t h e t a s k o f m a tc h in g a t o n e .

I n o r d e r t o h e l p some o f t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss who w e r e i n i t i a l ­ l y u n a b le to m atch a p ia n o o r o s c i l l a t o r to n e , E sa n g th e sta n d a rd , sin c e i t

seem ed e a s i e r f o r t h e s e m ore p i t c h -

d e f i c i e n t S s t o i m i t a t e a n o t h e r v o c a l stim u lu s t h a n t o m atch a n i n s t r u m e n t a l one.

I f S su cceed ed i n m atch in g

t h e s t a n d a r d , a s h o r t d i a t o n i c s e q u e n c e ( ’‘d o - r e - m i ” o r " m i - r e - d o ” ) was n e x t a t t e m p t e d . w ith t h i s p ro g re s s io n ,

When S s h a d d i f f i c u l t y

t h e t u n e nT h r e e B l i n d M ic e ” was

r e c a l l e d a n d t h i s u s u a l l y c l e a r e d up t h e d i f f i c u l t y .

As

s o o n a s a d i a t o n i c p r o g r e s s i o n w as m a s t e r e d , c h r o m a t i c s e q u e n c e s w e r e a t t e m p t e d a n d g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s w as p l a c e d u p o n this- d r i l l .

F o r S s who h a d d i f f i c u l t y

i n sin g in g

102

se m ito n e s ,

t h e t u n e f,By t h e S e a ” p r o v e d u s e f u l .

A l t h o u g h s h e w as a s e n i o r i n t h e S c h o o l o f M u s ic , o n e o f t h e Ss ( R .D .) h a d h a d g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y w i t h p i t c h in to n a tio n .

D e s p ite c a r e f u l v o c a l t r a i n i n g and th e p a t i e n t

a s s i s t a n c e o f h e r te a c h e rs , she p e r s i s t e n t l y sang f l a t . The t r a i n i n g w i t h t h e s t r o b o s c o p e was e s p e c i a l l y h e l p f u l i n R .D .* s c a s e f o r i t e n a b le d h e r n o t o n ly to v e r i f y th e f a c t t h a t s h e w as s i n g i n g f l a t , b u t a l s o t o t e l l how much f l a t a n d t o h e a r t h e d i f f e r e n c e w hen s h e made t h e c o r r e c ­ tio n . On t h e w h o l e , a l t h o u g h a few o f t h e Ss ( E . V . , G . K . , and S .J o . i n p a r t i c u l a r )

f a i l e d t o d e v e l o p goo d v o c a l

o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e b r i e f tim e d e v o te d to t h i s

ty p e o f

t r a i n i n g , m ost o f th e Ss im proved m a rk e d ly i n t h e i r p i t c h i n t o n a t i o n d u rin g th e c o u rse o f th e se m e s te r.

103

RESULTS I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x i s t e n c e a n d q u a n tu m o f Im p ro v em en t, th e c r i t i c a l f a c t s t o h e c o n s id e r e d a r e c o m p a ris o n s o f p e rfo rm a n c e i n t h r e e ty p e s o f t e s t s b e f o r e and a f t e r t r a i n i n g . p itc h te s t,

The d a t a w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e S e a s h o r e

t h e W y a tt p i t c h t e s t a n d t h e o s c i l l a t o r t e s t s

have been p re se n te d s e p a ra te ly .

The e f f e c t s

of re m e d ia l

t r a i n i n g can th u s be e v a lu a te d f o r each o f th e v a r io u s te s ts .

T h is s e p a r a t i o n a l s o p r o v id e s a b a s i s f o r m ea su r­

in g t r a n s f e r of t r a in in g to ( l)

t e s t s w ith d i f f e r e n t ty p e s

o f t o n a l s t i m u l i t h a n w e r e em p lo y ed i n t h e t r a i n i n g a n d a ls o to

( 2) t e s t s a t d i f f e r e n t fre q u e n c y l e v e l s th a n

w e r e e m p lo y e d i n t h e t r a i n i n g . I n m o s t o f t h e s e c o m p a r i s o n s , t h e m u s ic a n d n o n m u s ic Ss a r e c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y , b u t some a t t e n t i o n i s g iv e n a ls o

t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e g r o u p a s a w h o le a n d

to p a rtic u la r in d iv id u a ls . The S e a s h o r e a n d W y a tt p i t c h t e s t s h a v e s o many e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n common t h a t t h e d a t a i n t h e s e

E

e s t s h a v e b e e n t r e a t e d i n t h e sam e w ay.

T hree ty p e s o f

^ r i t i c a l c o m p a r i s o n s h a v e b e e n made u n d e r e a c h s u b - t o p i c i n

c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s e t e s t s : 1 . C o m p a r is o n s h a v e b e e n made o f t h e a v e r a g e s c o r e i n t h e sum o f a l l p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t s a n d a l l p o s t ­ tra in in g te s ts .

I n co m p u tin g t h e s e a g g r e g a t e

104

av erag es, a l l

o f th e d a ta a v a i la b l e have been

u tiliz e d . 2.

I n v ie w o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

t h a t i n ( l ) above

to o g r e a t w e ig h t m ig h t b e g iv e n t o th e f i r s t p r e ­ t r a i n i n g t e s t , w h i c h m i g h t b e u n r e l i a b l y lo w , a | i

c o m p a r i s o n h a s a l s o b e e n made o f s c o r e s i n t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t and th e l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g

ii

te s t. 3 . A c h e c k on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

i j

th ro u g h m u ltip le r e p e t i t i o n

o f im p ro v e m e n t

(T ype 1) a n d / o r

i

g e n e ra l m u sic a l tr a in in g

j

(T y p e 2) a s c o n t r a s t e d

!

w i t h t h e e f f e c t s o f d i r e c t r e m e d i a l t r a i n i n g was

!| I

made p o s s i b l e by a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e f i r s t p r e t r a i n i n g and th e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t s c o r e s .

!| jj

T hus, i n c o n n e c tio n w ith a lm o st e v e ry a s p e c t o f th e

r e s u l t s , a d i v i s i o n h a s b e e n made n o t o n l y a s t o m u s i c v s . f j n o n -m u sic S s , b u t a l s o a s to th e t h r e e c o m p a riso n s

i;

* in d ic a te d above. F o llo w in g i s a b r i e f p r e lim in a r y o u t l i n e I o f t h e m e th o d s o f t r e a t i n g t h e d a t a i n t h e S e a s h o r e a n d ! W y a tt p i t c h t e s t s : |j

I

1. S t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s ( a p p l i c a t io n o f th e t t e s t to th e d a t a ) .

i

j

I* j!

2 . G e n e r a l im p ro v e m e n t i n s c o r e s f o r t h e e n t i r e g r o u p o f 16 S s . 3 . Im p ro v e m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e m e d ia n o f t h e p o p u la tio n .

105

4.

Im provem ent o f m u sic and n o n -m u sic g ro u p s c o n sid e re d s e p a r a te ly .

5 . Im p ro v e m e n t i n r a n k s o f m u s ic a n d n o n - m u s i c g roups. 6 . I m p ro v e m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y . 7« I m p l i c a t i o n s .

106

R e s u lts i n th e S eash o re P itc h T e st S t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s .

In

o r d e r to d e te rm in e th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e o b ta in e d d i f f e r ­ en ces i n S eashore s c o r e s , t e s t c o m b in a tio n s.^

t h e t t e s t w as a p p l i e d t o v a r i o u s

In a l l of th e se a n a ly se s,

o f d e g re e s o f freed o m I s l im i te d

t h e num ber

to sev en , s in c e th e e ig h t

m u s i c Ss a n d t h e e i g h t n o n - m u s i c Ss a r e t r e a t e d i n d e p e n d p e n t l y a s s a m p le s f r o m d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s . The c o m p a r­ i s o n s made i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t r e l a t e I n e a c h i n s t a n c e o n l y t o t h e m u s ic g r o u p o r t o t h e n o n - m u s i c g r o u p a n d i n no I n s t a n c e to a c o m b in a tio n o f th e g ro u p s . I t may b e s e a i f r o m T a b l e I I t h a t a l l o f t h e d i f f e r ­ e n c e s b e tw e e n t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e b e f o r e and a f t e r t r a i n i n g a r e s i g n i f i c a n t , y i e l d i n g t v a lu e s w h ic h a r e fo u n d a t th e 1$ a n d 2$ l e v e l s o f c o n f i d e n c e .

I n o th e r w ords,

th e l i k e l i -

1 . The _t t e s t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c r i t i c a l r a t i o f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n m e a n s . S in c e th e S .D . f o r s m a l l s a m p le s t e n d s t o b e s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a m o d i f i e d a n d m ore c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r m u l a i s n e e d ­ e d . When t h e two s a m p le s a r e r e l a t e d , t h i s f o r m u l a i s :

t

Mo -

"a nU -D

I | , i

i n w h i c h d i s t h e d e v i a t i o n fro m t h e mean o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s . The o b t a i n e d t v a l u e i s t h e n i n t e r p r e t e d i n t e r m s o f n - 1 d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m ( c f . 9> c h a p . 3 ) . In th e p r o b a b i l i t y ta b le f o r t , t h e s m a l l e r ' t h e num ber o f d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m , t h e l a r g e r th e v a lu e o f t r e q u ire d f o r any g iv e n l e v e l o f c o n f i ­ dence. I f t o c c u r s a t a 5$ l e v e l o f p r o b a b i l i t y , I t i s r e ­ g a r d e d b y F i s h e r (7 ) a s “ s i g n i f i c a n t ” a n d i f i t f a l l s a t t h e 1$> l e v e l , i t i s r e g a r d e d a s “h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t ” . 2 . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e p o p u l a t i o n w o u ld c o n s i s t o f a d u l t m u s i ­ c i a n s o r n o n - m u s i c i a n s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y low p r e l i m i n a r y r a n k ­ in g s i n p itc h d is c r im in a tio n .

107

TABLE I I SHOWING t VALUES FOR DIFFERENCES IN TEST RESULTS BEFORE AND AFTER TRAINING

T e s t s c o m p a re d

S u b je cts

N

t

Level of s i g n i f .*

S eash o re t e s t s A ll t e s t s b e fo re t r . v s , j a ll te s ts a fte r tr.

M usic N on-m us.

8 8

5 .9 9 5 5 .0 6 7

1$_, 1-2$

L ast t e s t b efo re tr .v s . l a s t t e s t a f t e r tr*

M usic N on-m us.

8 8

5 .5 5 2 5 .7 5 8

1-2$ 1$

W y a tt t e s t s A ll te s ts b efo re t r a ll te s ts a fte r tr .

M usic n on-m us.

8 8

6.980 5 .6 5 1

1$ 1$

L ast t e s t b efo re t r la s t te st a fte r tr .

M usic 1N on-m us.

8 8

4 .1 0 2 2 .5 6 1

1$ , 2-5$

O s c illa to r te s ts A t 500 c y c l e s $ e rro r b efo re t r . $ erro r a fte r tr .

M usic N on-m us•

8 1 6 .2 4 8 8 1 1 .6 9 8

A t 250 c y c l e s $ e rro r b efo re t r . $ e rro r a fte r tr .

M u sic N on-m us•

7 8

5 .8 8 5 5 .2 4 4

1$_ 1-2$

A t 1000 c y c l e s $ e rro r b efo re t r . $ erro r a fte r tr .

M u sic N on-m us.

7 8

7 .1 6 1 5 .0 2 5

1$ 1$

1$ 1$

* I f F i s h e r 's p r in c ip le ( 7* p . 126) o f h a l v i n g p r o b a ­ b i l i t y v a lu e s f o r a change i n one d i r e c t i o n a lo n e i s h e re a p p l i c a b l e , th e l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e sh o u ld be d iv id e d b y tw o , s i n c e a l l o f t h e p o s t - t r a i n i n g r e s u l t s showed i m p r o v e m e n t.

108

h o o d t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e s e m a g n i t u d e s w o u ld h e d u e to chance a lo n e i s

c o n s i s t e n t l y l e s s th a n 2 $ .^

F o r t h e m u s ic g r o u p , age of a l l

th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e a v e r ­

th e S e a sh o re s c o r e s b e f o r e t r a i n i n g and t h i s

a v e r a g e a f t e r t r a i n i n g y i e l d s a t o f 3 .9 9 5 w h ic h i s f i c a n t a t t h e l/o l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . Ss t h i s

sig n i­

F o r th e n o n -m u sic

c o m p a riso n y i e l d s a t o f 3 .0 6 7 , i n d i c a t i n g s i g n i ­

f i c a n c e b e t w e e n t h e 1 $ ' a n d 2$ l e v e l s .

For b o th g ro u p s,

t h e n , t h e a v e r a g e o f t h e p o s t - t r a i n i n g s c o r e s was s i g n i ­ f i c a n t l y b e t t e r th a n th e av erag e o f th e p r e - t r a i n i n g sco res. A s i m i l a r d e g r e e o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i s fo u n d when s c o r e s i n t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t a r e com pared w i t h s c o re s i n th e l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t . sons t i s

In th e s e co m p a ri­

s i g n i f i c a n t a t a l e v e l b e t w e e n 1$ a n d 2$ f o r t h e

m u s i c Ss a n d s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 3$ l e v e l f o r t h e n o n - m u s ic Ss.

T h u s , f o r b o t h t h e m u s ic a n d n o n - m u s i c Ss t h e im ­

p r o v e m e n t i n t h e l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t a s c o m p ared w i t h t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t was so l a r g e a s t o b e s t a t i s t i ­ c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r o n ly sev en d e g re e s o f freed o m . 1 . A c c o r d i n g t o F i s h e r (7* p . 1 2 6 ) , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y v a l u e s shown i n T a b l e I I s h o u l d b e h a l v e d , s i n c e t h e o b t a i n e d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m eans w e re a l l p o s i t i v e a n d we a r e c o n s i d e r i n g p r i m a r i l y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t im p r o v e m e n t (ch a n g e o n ly i n a p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n ) m ig h t be due t o c h a n c e . Thus a l l o f t h e s e t v a l u e s w o u ld b e s i g n i f i c a n t a t a l e v e l of o r l e s s a n d w o u ld b e r e g a r d e d b y F i s h e r a s " h i g h l y sig n ific a n t" .

109

I t seem ed p e r t i n e n t , a l t h o u g h i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e p rim a ry p u rp o se o f t h i s

e x p e rim e n t,

to d e te rm in e th e

s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e s in th e s c o re s of te s ts

t a k e n b e f o r e t r a i n i n g w as b e g u n . ^ I t w i l l b e r e ­

c a l l e d t h a t s i x o f t h e e i g h t m u s ic Ss h a d f o u r p r e - t r a i n ­ i n g t e s t s w i t h a tim e i n t e r v a l o f from \ y r . b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n d a nd t h i r d t e s t s .

t o l |- y r s .

D u rin g t h i s

tim e ,

t h e s e s i x Ss a t t e n d e d t h e S c h o o l o f M u sic a s f u l l - c o u r s e s t u d e n t s and r e c e iv e d fo rm a l t r a i n i n g i n a p p li e d and t h e o r e t i c a l m u sic.

If,

th e n , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n

th e f i r s t and l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t s c o r e s o f th e s e s i x Ss s h o u l d p r o v e s i g n i f i c a n t , la te d

t h i s d i f f e r e n c e m ig h t b e r e ­

e i t h e r to r e p e t i t i o n o f th e t e s t ( p r a c tic e )

th e in te r v e n in g m u sic a l t r a i n in g .

o r to

I f th e d if f e r e n c e

s h o u ld p ro v e i n s i g n i f i c a n t , i t m ig h t b e c o n c lu d e d t h a t n e i t h e r f a c t o r h ad a n y i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t .

The l a t t e r

c o n c l u s i o n seem s c o r r e c t , f o r w hen t h e two s e t s o f s c o r e s w ere com pared, th o s e i n th e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t w e r e a n a v e r a g e o f two p o i n t s l o w e r t h a n i n t h e f i r s t p re -tra in in g te s t,

a n d j; w as o n ly . 6 4 7> w h i c h w o u ld b e e x ­

p e c t e d t h r o u g h c h a n c e b e t w e e n 50 fo and 60 fo o f t h e t i m e . The e i g h t n o n - m u s i c i a n s t o o k two S e a s h o r e t e s t s p r i o r to t r a i n i n g .

The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e s e two

t e s t s c o r e s showed a n a v e r a g e l o s s o f 1 . 7 5 p o i n t s i n t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g a s c o m p a red w i t h t h e f i r s t p r e - t r a i n i n g 1 . C f . t a b l e s i n t h e A p p e n d ix s h o w in g s c o r e s a n d r a n k s f o r each S i n each S eashore p itc h t e s t ta k e n .

110

t e s t a n d y i e l d e d a t o f o n l y , 9 9 ^> i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e m ig h t b e e x p e c te d t o r e s u l t b y ch an ce a lo n e b e t w e e n J>0 % a n d 4 0$ o f t h e tim e* Such sim p le r e t e s t i n g ,

th e n , e i t h e r w ith o r w ith o u t

in te r v e n in g g e n e ra l m u sica l i n s t r u c t i o n ,

re s u lte d in

d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e w h ich c o u ld r e a d i l y be a ttrib u te d

to chance a lo n e .

The s c o r e s i n t h e l a s t p r e -

t r a i n i n g t e s t w e r e a c t u a l l y l o w e r on t h e a v e r a g e t h a n s c o re s i n th e f i r s t p r e - t r a i n i n g hand,

te s t.

On t h e o t h e r

th e l ik e l ih o o d t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e s i n p r e - t r a i n i n g

and p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e c o u ld b e due to ch an ce a l o n e was r e m o t e . p o s t-tra in in g

I n a l l c o m p a riso n s o f t h i s s o r t ,

th e

t e s t s showed l a r g e im p r o v e m e n t o v e r t h e

p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t s and th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n w e re c o n s i s t e n t l y s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c a l l y . G e n e r a l im p r o v e m e n t i n s c o r e s . T ab le I I I ,

As may b e s e e n fro m

15 o f t h e 16 Ss show im p ro v e m e n t w hen t h e i r

a v e ra g e p r e - t r a i n i n g p erfo rm an ce i s

com pared w i t h t h e i r

a v e ra g e p o s t - t r a i n i n g p erfo rm an ce.

The a v e r a g e i n c r e a s e

i n s c o r e f o r t h e e n t i r e g r o u p w as a b o u t 6 p o i n t s o u t o f a maximum p o s s i b l e im p ro v e m e n t o f a b o u t 16 p o i n t s o r o u t o f a n im p r o v e m e n t o f a b o u t 9 p o i n t s n e c e s s a r y f o r a t t a i n m e n t of a ran k o f 1, m a n u a l.

th e h ig h e s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n th e S eash o re

I n te rm s o f th e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e s c o r e ,

th e ratio

I ll TABLE I I I SHOWING SCORES AND RANKS IN ( l ) THE AVERAGE OP ALL SEASHORE TESTS BEFORE TRAINING AND AFTER TRAINING ( 2 ) THE LAST SEASHORE TEST BEFORE TRAINING AND AFTER TRAINING T e s ts com pared

Ss

S cores B efo re A f te r

(i) M u sic

DA FM GM ID PE RD SL UM A ll

33*75 2 9 .0 0 3 4 .0 0 3 6 .5 0 3 7 .0 0 4 4 .0 0 2 9 .2 5 3 0 .5 0 3 4 .2 5 *

4 2 .5 0 4 5 .0 0 4 5 .5 0 4 5 .0 0 4 0 .0 0 4 1 .5 0 3 7 .0 0 4 5 .5 0 4 2 .0 0 *

7 .0 9 .0 7 .0 4 .5 4 .0 1 .0 9 .0 8.5 7 .° * *

1 .5 1 .0 1 .0 l.o 2.0 2 .0 4 .0 1.0 2 . 0 **

(i) N o n -m u sic

BH DL EV GK SM SJ SJo TJ A ll

3 6 .5 0 5 1 .0 0 3 1.50 3 1.50 5 4 .00 5 2 .50 3 0.50 3 6.50 5 3 .0 0 *

5 8 .0 0 4 1 .5 0 5 2 .00 5 2 .5 0 3 5 .5 0 4 2 .0 0 3 8 .5 0 4 0 .0 0 3 7 .5 0 *

4 .5 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0 7 .0 1*5 8 .5 4 .5 7 .0 * *

3 .0 2 .0 8 .0 7 .5 5 .5 2 .0 3 .0 2 .0 3 .5 * *

(2) M u sic

DA FM GM ID PE RD SL DM A ll

33 29 34 30 44 43 28 29 3 3 .7 5 *

45 43 43 43 41 41 37 42 4 1 .6 2 5 *

(2) N o n -m u s ic

BH DL EV GK SM SJ SJo TJ A ll

36 31 33 54 31

40 42 33 33 4o 43 28 37 40 33 3 2 .6 2 5 * 3 8 .5 *

* A v erag e s c o r e s ** E q u iv a le n t s o f t h e a v e r a g e s c o r e s

Ranks B efo re A f te r

7 9 7 9 1 1 10 9 7**

1 1 l 1 2 2 4 2 2 **

§ 8 7 7 8 6 10 7 7**

2 2 7 7 2 1 4 2 5 **

112

o f im p r o v e m e n t

f o r th e e n t i r e g ro u p i s aro u n d 37^ and i n

t e r m s o f t h e im p r o v e m e n t r e q u i r e d f o r a r a n k o f 1 , t h e ra tio is

c l o s e t o 65$ ( T a b l e I V ) .

I f we c o m p a re s c o r e s i n t h e l a s t t e s t t a k e n b e f o r e t r a i n i n g w ith th o se i n th e l a s t t e s t ta k e n a f t e r t r a i n i n g , th e a v e ra g e in c r e a s e i n th e l a t t e r i s a p p ro x im a te ly 7 p o i n t s o u t o f a b o u t 17 p o i n t s n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e t h e maximum s c o r e , ra n k o f 1.

o r o u t o f a b o u t 10 p o i n t s r e q u i s i t e f o r a

T h u s , t h e im p ro v e m e n t r a t i o s i n t h e s e c o m p a r i ­

s o n s a r e a b o u t 4 l °/q a n d l&/o i n t e r m s o f s c o r e s o f 50 a n d 43 re s p e c tiv e ly . I t may b e s e e n fro m T a b l e I I I t h a t 12 o f t h e 16 Ss show im p r o v e m e n t when t h e l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t a n d t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t a r e com pared.

T h e s e Ss h ad a n a v e r ­

a g e i m p r o v e m e n t o f n e a r l y 10 p o i n t s (im p r o v e m e n t r a t i o i n t e r m s o f p o s s i b l e maximum a b o u t 5 ^ 5 r a n k o b t a i n a b l e a b o u t 83.5$).

i n term s o f h i g h e s t

Of t h e f o u r Ss who f a i l e d

| t o im p r o v e i n t h i s c o m p a r i s o n , o ne h a d t h e same s c o r e , t

an d th e o t h e r t h r e e had l o s t o n ly 1 , 2 and 3 p o i n t s

1

I re s p e c tiv e ly . | 1 . The d e n o m i n a t o r f o r t h e r a t i o i s o b t a i n e d b y s u b t r a c t j in g fro m 5 0 , w h ich i s th e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e s c o r e , th e ■ a v e ra g e b e f o r e t r a i n i n g , i n t h i s c a se 3 3 .6 2 5 . The r e ­ m a i n d e r , 1 6 . 3 7 5 # i s t h e am o u n t o f im p r o v e m e n t w h i c h would b e n e c e s s a r y f o r a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e maximum s c o r e p o s s i b l e . The n u m e r a t o r f o r t h e r a t i o i s t h e a c t u a l num ber o f p o i n t s g a in e d , a s d e te rm in e d by s u b t r a c t i n g from th e a v e r a g e a f ­ t e r t r a i n i n g (h e re 3 9 . 6 2 ) th e a v e ra g e b e fo re t r a i n i n g (3 3 .6 2 5 ). The d e n o m i n a t o r f o r t h e s e c o n d r a t i o i s o b ­ t a i n e d by s u b t r a c t i n g th e p r e - t r a i n i n g a v e ra g e from 43, w h i c h i s t h e raw s c o r e e q u i v a l e n t o f a r a n k o f 1 .

TABLE IV SHOWING RATIOS OF IMPROVEMENT IN THE SEASHORE TEST AND THE WYATT TEST ( l ) WHEN THE AVERAGE OF ALL PRE-TRAIN­ ING TESTS I S COMPARED WITH THE AVERAGE OF ALL POST­ TRAINING TESTS AND ( 2 ) WHEN THE LAST PRE-TRAINING TEST I S COMPARED WITH THE LAST POST-TRAINING TEST

R a t i o o f im p r o v e m e n t T e s ts c o m p a re d

Ss

In term s o f h ig h e s t sco re p o ss ib le

I n term s o f sc o re needed f o r r a n k o f 1*

S eash o re

(i)

A ll

3 7 .4 0

6 5 .3 3

(2)

A ll

4 0 .8 9

76.28

s i

M usic N o n-m us•

4 9 .2 0 2 6 .4 7

8 8 .5 7 4 5 .0 0

in

.M u s ic N on-m us.

4 8 .4 6 3 3 .8 1

85.12 5 6 .6 3

W y a tt

■

(i)

A ll

5 0 .9 4

(2)

A ll

52.66

SI

M usic N on-m us.

56,00 4 7 .3 9

68.53 6 3 .4 8

11]

M u sic N on-m us.

5 9 .6 8 4 6 .9 0

72.08 6 5 .4 3

* S i n c e t h i s t e s t h a s d i f f e r e n t norm s f o r m u s i c i a n s a n d n o n -m u sic ia n s, th e sc o re needed f o r a ra n k o f 1 i s i d i f f e r e n t f o r n o n -m u sician s th a n f o r m u s ic ia n s .

114

Comparing the f ir s t and la s t te sts taken prior to training,'*' the corresponding figures show no such marked tendency in the direction of improvement.

In

the la s t

pre-training te s t as compared with the f i r s t , one case had the same score, 25$ scored higher (average gain of 6 points) and 68.75$ scored lower (average loss of about 4 p o in ts). F o r t h e g r b u p a s a w h o l e , t h e n , m e re r e t e s t i n g

(p lu s

m u s ic a l t r a i n i n g f o r s i x o f th e in d iv id u a ls ) had a te n d e n ! cy

low®** t h e s c o r e s f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f S s , w h i l e r e m e d i -

I i a l t r a i n i n g im p r o v e d t h e s c o r e s o f 7 5 - 9 4 $ o f t h e Ss j ( d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e c o m p a r is o n ) a n d b r o u g h t t h e g r o u p tw o ] t h i r d s t o t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f t h e way t o w a r d a t t a i n i n g t h e l h ig h e s t ran k p o s s ib le i n th e t e s t . r i G e n e r a l im p r o v e m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e m e d i a n o f t h e ! p o p u la tio n .

As may b e s e e n i n T a b l e I I I ,

In t h e i r average

s c o r e b e f o r e t r a i n i n g , n e a r l y 69$ o f t h e c a s e s w e r e b e lo w I ! t h e m e d i a n f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n on w h i c h t h e t e s t w as s t a n d j!

| a r d iz e d and i n th e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t a b o u t 8 l$ ! c l a s s i f i e d b e lo w t h e m e d i a n . A f t e r t r a i n i n g , h o w e v e r , ' 2 j o n l y 1 2 . 5 $ f a i l e d t o e x c e e d t h e m e d ia n . i

When t h e f i r s t a n d l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t s a r e com-

! p a r e d , h o w e v e r , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f low c a s e s i s a c t u a l l y j

. - - -

—

"

1 . F o r 10 Ss t h i s c o m p a r i s o n w as b e tw e e n T e s t s 1 a n d 2 , w h i l e f o r F Ss i t w as b e tw e e n T e s t s 1 a n d 4 . I 2 . E .V . a n d G.K.

115

greater In the la s t te st than In the f i r s t , increasing from 6 2 . 5$ in Test 1 to about 8l$. Improvement in scores of music and non- music groups considered separately.

For the music group, an increase of

7.75 points is found when the average of a l l pre-training te s ts Is compared with the average of a l l post-training te s ts .

Since the Increase necessary for th is group to

| attain the highest possible score would be 15»75 points, the ratio of improvement in terms of actual gain vs. maximum possible gain is about 49$ (Table IV).

In terms of the

! actual gain vs. the amount of gain necessary to achieve a j rank of 1 (equivalent to a raw score of 45), the improvement | ratio i s a l i t t l e over 88$.^* In the same comparison, the i

average increase for the non-music group is 4.5 points.

1 The !

ratio of improvement for these

Ss

is about 2 6 . 5$ in 2

j terms of actual vs. maximum possible gain and 45$ in terms | of the actual vs. the gain necessary to achieve a rank of When t h e r e s u l t s i n t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t a n d t h e l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t a r e c o m p a red f o r t h e m u s i c S s , t h e r a t i o s o f im provem ent a r e v e r y s i m i l a r t o th o s e f o r a v e ra g e s r e f e r r e d to i n th e fo re g o in g p a ra g ra p h . 1 . 7 . 75/ 8 . 7 5 .

2 . 4 . 5 /1 7 3 4 . 5/1G 4 .’ 7 ! 875 / 1 6 .2 5 or 48.46$ and 7.875/9.*25 or 8 5 . 12$

For th e

116

non-music group, however, the improvement ratios for the la s t pre-training te st vs. the la st post-training te st were even higher than when their aggregate averages were compared.

Their average gain was about 6 points out of a

maximum possible of about 17 points to a tta in a score of 50 and out of about 10 points to attain a score of 45.

|The improvement ratios for these values are about 54$ jand 57$ respectively. |

In contrast with these increases, when the f ir s t and

la s t pre-training tests are compared, small losses rather jthan gains are the rule.

For the entire grot© the la s t

|ipre-training te s t scores show an average loss of 1.4 jpoints when compared with the f i r s t .

Music Ss scored 2

(points lower on the average and non-music Ss an average Iof .75 points lower. I

These data corroborate the results indicated in the

iprevious section, v iz ., that mere retesting (and/or musical j|

training) was in effectiv e in producing improvement, while

1

|remedial training resulted in improvement which was large enough to bring the music Ss approximately nine-tenths of ithe way toward attaining the highest rank In the te st and I

|to bring the non-music Ss about half of the way toward :such 'attainment.

117

I m p ro v e m e n t i n r a n k s o f m u s ic a n d n o n - m u s ic g r o u p s . As may b e s e e n i n T a b l e I I I ,

th e a v e ra g e s c o re i n a l l p r e ­

t r a i n i n g t e s t s , a s v e i l a s i n th e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t by i t s e l f ,

f o r b o t h m u s ic ia n s and n o n -m u s ic ia n s v a s e q u iv a ­

l e n t t o a r a n k o f 7 ( " l o w a v e r a g e ,!) .

A fte r tr a in in g ,

th e

a v e r a g e s c o r e f o r a l l t e s t s was e q u i v a l e n t t o a r a n k o f 2 ( ’’e x c e l l e n t 11) f o r t h e m u s ic g r o u p a n d t o a r a n k o f 5 * 5 ( ng o o d M) f o r t h e n o n - m u s i c g r o u p . tra in in g te s t,

In th e l a s t p o s t­

th e r e s u l t s w ere v e ry s i m i l a r .

In t h e i r In d iv id u a l p o s t- tr a in in g av erages f o r a l l te s ts ,

o n l y one m u s ic S h a d a r a n k o f 4 ("good*’) .

rem a in in g sev en S s, fo u r c l a s s i f i e d

Of t h e

i n ra n k 1 ( " s u p e r i o r ”)

and th e o t h e r t h r e e c l a s s i f i e d I n r a n k 2 ( " e x c e l l e n t ” ) . These r e s u l t s o b ta in e d i n r e s p e c t to b o th th e a v e ra g e of a l l p o s t - t r a i n i n g s c o r e s and th e l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t a lo n e .

Among t h e n o n - m u s i c i a n s , no 5 s u c c e e d e d i n a c h i e v i n g

a n a v e r a g e p o s t - t r a i n i n g r a n k o f 1 , a l t h o u g h 5 7 * 5 $ w e re " e x c e l l e n t ” and

w ere "g o o d ".

Of t h e r e m a i n i n g t h r e e

n o n - m u s i c S s , one a c h i e v e d a r a n k o f 5*5 and t h e o t h e r two h a d r a n k s o f 8 . 0 and 7 . 5 . I t i s n o tew o rth y t h a t a lth o u g h a f t e r t r a i n i n g th e s c o r e s o f t h e n o n - m u s i c i a n s w e re I n f e r i o r g e n e r a l l y t o t h o s e o f t h e m u s i c i a n s , and a l t h o u g h t h e r a n k s o f two o f t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss r e m a in e d s u b - a v e r a g e ,

still

th e s c o re s of

th e n o n -m u s ic ia n s a s a g ro u p w ere s u p e r i o r a f t e r t r a i n i n g

118

to th o s e o f th e m u sic ia n s a s a group b e f o r e tr a in in g * M o r e o v e r , t h e n o n - m u s i c g r o u p was a b l e , a f t e r t r a i n i n g , t o a c h i e v e a n a v e r a g e s c o r e a b o v e t h e m e d ia n f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n on w h i c h t h e t e s t was s t a n d a r d i z e d . Im p ro v e m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y *

The Seashore te st has fiv e le v els of d iffic u lty with ten tr ia ls at each le v e l.

The percentage of error would be

expected to vary with the le v el of d iffic u lty , becoming j greater as the magnitude of the increment decreased. | The improvement at various lev els of d iffic u lty was comI

puted in terms of reduction in the percentage of error in the te sts taken after training as compared with those taken before training. |

1

Fig. 5 shows that prior to training, the musicians

| were markedly superior to the non-musicians in their a b ility to discriminate differences of eight and fiv e cycles, but that at the other three lev els of d iffic u lty , 1 their percentage of error was sim ilar.

Training practi-

; ca lly eliminated the d issim ilarity at the eight cycle i le v e l, but at a ll other le v e ls, after training the musi! cians were consistently superior to the non-musicians, as ! is apparent in Fig. 6.

Training was effectiv e in reducing

, the magnitude of error made by the musicians at every 1. Cf. tables in the Appendix showing percentage of error j made by each S at a ll le v els of d iffic u lty in each te st taken, | and in the average of a ll tests before and after training.

119

TABLE V SHOWING PERCENTAGE OP ERROR FOR MUSIC AND NON-MUSIC SUBJECTS AT EACH LEVEL OP DIFFICULT! IN THE SEA­ SHORE TEST ( l ) IN ALL TESTS TAKEN BEFORE v s . AF­ TER TRAINING ( 2 ) IN THE LAST TEST TAKEN BEFORE v s . AFTER TRAINING T est L e v e ls o f c o m p a riso n d i f f i c u l t y ( in c y c le s)

(1 )

-

(2)

Ss

ft error ft error R a t i o B efo re

a fte r

o f im­ provem ent ( i n $)

8

Mus, 1 0 .5 1 Non-m us. 2 5 .1 2

0 .0 0 • 62

1 0 0 .0 0 9 7 .3 2

5

2 5 .4 4 Mus. N on-m us. 3 5 . 7 5

4 .7 9 1 3 .9 6

7 5 .3 0 5 8 .6 4

3

Mus. 5 1 .8 7 N on-m us. 5 0 . 6 2

1 3 .1 2 3 7 .7 1

5 8 .8 3 lo ss

2

4 2 .8 1 Mus. N on-m us. 3 5 . 7 5

2 3 .5 4 3 0 .2 1

4 5.00 10.49

1

4 9 .0 6 Mus. N on-m us. 5 0 . 6 2

3 8 .5 4 4 5 .6 2

2 1 .4 4 9 .8 8

8

Mus. 6 .2 5 N on -m u s, 2 6 . 2 5

0 .0 0 1 .2 5

1 0 0 .0 0 9 5 .2 4

5

Mus. 2 8 .7 5 N on-m us. 5 2 . 5 0

6.25 1 5 .0 0

78.26 5 3 .8 5

5

Mus. 5 2 .5 0 N on -m u s, 3 5 .0 0

16.25 3 1 .2 5

50.00 1 0 .7 1

2

Mus. 4 8 .7 5 N on-m us. 3 1 . 2 5

2 6 .2 5 2 6 .2 5

4 6 .1 5 1 6 .0 0

1

Mus. 4 6 .2 5 N on-m us. 5 3 . 7 5

3 5 .0 0 4 1 .2 5

2 4 .3 2 2 3 .2 6

PERCENTAGE

OF

ERRO R.

120

Fig. 5. Shoving average percentage of error for musicians and non-musicians at each le v el of d iffic u lty in the Seashore te st of pitch discrimination, Series B, before training.

121

50

PER

C E WTAQE

OF

ERRO R

50

©

5

3

IL

L E V E L S O F D I F F I C U L T Y (( I M M CYCLE S )

I

P ig . 6 . Show ing a v e r a g e p e r c e n t a g e o f e r r o r f o r m u s i ­ c ia n s and n o n -m u sic ia n s a t each l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , S e r i e s B, a f te r tra in in g .

122

l e v e l o f th e t e s t .

The two c u r v e s i n d i c a t i n g p e r c e n t a g e s

of e r r o r (F ig . 7 ) a re f a i r l y

s i m i l a r i n sh a p e , and th e

s e p a r a t i o n i n d i c a t i n g im p ro v e m e n t p e r s i s t s

th ro u g h a l l

f i v e d e g r e e s o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h some s l i g h t , b u t e x p e c t e d , t a p e r i n g a t th e e x tre m e s.

T h is c a n n o t b e s a i d f o r t h e

p r e - t r a i n i n g and p o s t - t r a i n i n g c u rv e s o f th e n o n - m u s ic ia n s ’ i

erro rs, fa ile d

shown i n F i g . 8 .

As a g r o u p , t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss

t o im p r o v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f t h e

3 , 2 and 1 c y c le in c re m e n ts i n th e S e a sh o re t e s t .

A pos­

s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t m ost o f t h e i r t r a i n i n g had to be g iv e n a t e a s i e r l e v e l s and t h a t th e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d may n o t h a v e b e e n l o n g en o u g h t o i n c l u d e s u f f i c i e n t d r i l l i n d i s c r im i n a t in g th e s e v e ry sm a ll d iffe re n c e s. The d a t a i n F i g s . 5 t o 8 a r e a l s o e x p r e s s e d i n o t h e r t e r m s , v i z . , r a t i o s o f im p ro v e m e n t ( T a b l e V ) . T h e s e 1 ra tio s r e f l e c t t h e c o m p a r a t i v e im p ro v e m e n t o f t h e m u s ic and n o n -m u sic g ro u p s a t each l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y . On t h e w h o l e , t h e m u s ic Ss showed im p r o v e m e n t a t a l l l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y a n d showed t h e e x p e c t e d d e c l i n e i n ra tio

o f im p r o v e m e n t w i t h i n c r e a s e i n t h e l e v e l o f d i f f i ­

c u l t y th ro u g h o u t th e e n t i r e ra n g e .

The n o n - m u s i c i a n s ’

p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r t r a i n i n g d i d n o t show t h e same c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n o f i m p r o v e m e n t.

A t t h e m ore d i f f i c u l t l e v e l s

1 . Com puted a s f o l l o w s : The p e r c e n t a g e o f e r r o r a f t e r t r a i r t i g was s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f e r r o r b e f o r e tra in in g . The im p ro v e m e n t r a t i o was d e t e r m i n e d b y d i v i d i n g t h i s d i f f e r e n c e by th e p e rc e n ta g e of e r r o r b e f o r e t r a i n i n g .

125

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50

© le v e ls of

5d i f f i c u l t y ( aj m 3 c y c l *e s N )

P ig . 7. S h ow ing a v e r a g e p e r c e n t a g e o f e r r o r f o r m u s i ­ c ia n s a t each le v e l of d i f f i c u l t y i n th e S eash o re t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , S e r i e s B, b e f o r e a n d a f t e r tra in in g .

124

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2. CYCLES)

F i g . 8 . S h o w in g a v e r a g e p e r c e n t a g e o f e r r o r f o r n o n ­ m u sic ia n s a t each le v e l of d i f f i c u l t y i n th e S eash o re t e s t o f p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , S e r i e s B, b e f o r e a n d a f te r tra in in g .

125

t h e r e I s some e v i d e n c e o f a t r e n d

t o w a r d I m p r o v e m e n t,

h u t th e in d ic a tio n s a re n o t as c le a r .

W ith r e s p e c t t o

t h e one c y c l e i n c r e m e n t , f o r e x a m p le , h a l f o f t h e n o n m u sic Ss re m a in e d u n a b le t o d i s c r i m i n a t e t h i s d i f f e r e n c e , even a f t e r t r a i n i n g . I f th e th re s h o ld f o r p itc h d is c r im in a tio n i s reg ard ed a s t h a t i n c r e m e n t w h i c h y i e l d s 75$ c o r r e c t j u d g m e n t s , th e n t h e p o s t - t r a i n i n g t h r e s h o ld s a r e v e ry d i f f e r e n t from i th e p r e - t r a i n i n g t h r e s h o l d s f o r b o t h th e m u s ic ia n s and ! th e n o n -m u sic ia n s.

D e te r m in a tio n o f th e t h r e s h o l d from

! th e S e a sh o re t e s t m ust n e c e s s a r i l y b e a p p ro x im a te , b e c a u se o f t h e p a u c i t y o f in c r e m e n ts and t r i a l s and b e c a u s e o f th e I

s i z e o f t h e i n t e r v a l s b e tw e e n i n c r e m e n t s , b u t i t may b e I | e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e m u s i c i a n s ’ t h r e s h o l d was r e d u c e d fro m | a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e c y c l e s t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y two c y c l e s an d t h a t th e n o n -m u s ic ia n s lo w e re d t h e i r t h r e s h o l d from ji a p p r o x i m a t e l y e i g h t c y c l e s t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y f o u r c y c l e s . j I m p lic a tio n s f o r g u id a n c e . I f g u id an ce i s to be | b a se d upon th e h i g h e s t s c o r e s o b ta in a b le i n th e S e a sh o re i | p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t e s t — a s th e b e s t m easure o f th e i ! p ro x im a te p h y s i o l o g ic a l th r e s h o ld — i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t | th e r e s u l t s

o f t h e l a s t t e s t t a k e n b e f o r e t r a i n i n g m ig h t

(j h a v e b e e n s e r i o u s l y m i s l e a d i n g i n a t l e a s t 75$ o f t h e i 1 | c a s e s . _________ _________ ________________________________________ ___ 1 1 . The l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t w ou ld a p p a r e n t l y m e e t S e a ­ s h o r e ’ s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r v e r i f y i n g low i n i t i a l t e s t sco res. I t w as g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d was a t l e a s t t h e se c o n d , and i n s i x i n s ta n c e s th e f o u r t h , t e s t i n g . More­ o v e r , a l l Ss h ad a l r e a d y h a d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t a k i n g a t l e a s t o n e W y a tt t e s t .

126

J u d g in g from th e d a ta i n t h i s

s t u d y , f o r 12 o f t h e

S s , v o c a t i o n a l g u i d a n c e p r o f f e r e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t w o u ld h a v e b e e n i l l - f o u n d e d i n t e r m s o f w h a t t h e s e Ss l a t e r p r o v e d a b l e t o a c c o m p l i s h w ith re m e d ia l t r a i n in g .

The p r o o f o f t h i s s t a t e m e n t i s

a p p a r e n t from t h e f o llo w in g : C la ssific a tio n B efo re t r a i n i n g A f te r t r a i n i n g Poor Good. Poor E x c e lle n t Poor S u p e rio r E x c e lle n t Low a v e r a g e Low a v e r a g e S u p e rio r A verage E x c e lle n t A verage S u p e rio r i !

N 2 1 2 3 2 1 1

P r e - t r a i n i n g a n d p o s t - t r a i n i n g a v e r a g e s may a l s o b e c o m p a re d a s a g e n e r a l i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e a c c u r a c y o f

! p r e d i c t i o n b a s e d on a n a v e r a g e o f two t o f o u r t e s t s . F o r 75$ o f t h e m u s i c i a n s , g u i d a n c e b a s e d on t h e a v e r a g e o f a l l p r e - t r a i n i n g s c o r e s m ig h t h av e b e e n d i s t o r t e d ,

fo r

w h i l e t h e a v e r a g e r a n k s f o r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s w e re 7 , 9 , ' 7 , 4 . 5 3 9 and 8 .5 b e f o r e t r a i n i n g ,

th e a v e ra g e ran k s

a f t e r t r a i n i n g w ere 1 . 5 * 1 * 1 * 1 * 4 and 1 r e s p e c t i v e l y . Of t h e n o n - m u s i c i a n s , 3 7 . 5 $ m i g h t a l s o h a v e b e e n i n c o r r e c t ­ ly c la s s ifie d fin a l,

i f we r e g a r d e d t h e i r p r e - t e s t a v e r a g e s a s

f o r r a n k s o f 8 , 7 .5 and 8 .5 changed a f t e r t r a i n i n g

t o 2 , 2 and 3 r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h u s , f o r b o t h m u s i c i a n s and n o n - m u s i c i a n s , b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e case o f th e fo rm er,

two t o f o u r t e s t s ,

127

o f w h i c h a t l e a s t o ne and, i n many c a s e s two w e r e a d m i n i s ­ te re d in d iv id u a lly , f a ile d lim it”.

to d is c lo s e th e " p h y s io lo g ic a l

D isc o u rag e m en t o f a n i n d i v i d u a l on th e b a s i s o f

t h e s e t e s t s m ig h t w e l l h a v e b e e n ill- a d v i s e d ." * ’ 1 . W i t h o u t p r o o f o f t h e p e rm a n e n c e o f im p r o v e m e n t, i t w o u ld p r o b a b l y b e p r e m a t u r e , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o r e g o i n g r e s u l t s a lo n e , t o d i s c r e d i t g u id a n c e b a se d upon p r e ­ tra in in g sco res.

128

R e s u l t s i n t h e W y a tt P i t c h T e s t S t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f ic a n c e of th e d i f f e r e n c e s . t e s t was a p p l i e d

The _t

to r e s u l t s i n v a rio u s co m b in atio n s o f

p r e - t r a i n i n g a n d p o s t - t r a i n i n g s c o r e s i n t h e W y a tt t e s t . As i n t h e c a s e o f t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t s , o f freedom i s

t h e num ber o f d e g r e e s

l i m i t e d t o s e v e n , f o r t h e m u s ic Ss a n d t h e

n o n - m u s i c Ss a r e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y . I m p ro v e m e n t w e l l b e y o n d t h a t a t t r i b u t a b l e t o c h a n c e is

show n i n a l l c o m p a r is o n s o f t e s t s c o r e s a f t e r t r a i n i n g

w ith sc o res b efo re tra in in g .

In t h r e e o f th e s e c o m p a riso n s,

th e o b ta in e d d if f e r e n c e s a re " h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t " , y ie ld in g t v a l u e s w h i c h a r e fo u n d a t t h e 1fo l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . F o r t h e m u s ic g r o u p ,

t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e a v e r a g e

o f a l l o f t h e W y a tt s c o r e s b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t r a i n i n g y i e l d s a t o f 6 . 9 8 0 a n d s i m i l a r c o m p a r i s o n f o r t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss y ie ld s a t

o f 3 . 6 5 1 ( b o t h s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 1fo l e v e l ) .

When s c o r e s i n t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t a r e c o m p a re d w ith sc o re s i n th e l a s t p o s t- tr a in in g t e s t , m u sic ia n s i s 1 m u sic ia n s, 2$:

t f o r th e

s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 1$ l e v e l , b u t f o r t h e n o n -

t h i s s i g n i f i c a n c e i s r e d u c e d t o a l e v e l b e tw e e n

a n d 5 1°» I f » h o w e v e r , we c o n s i d e r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a

d i f f e r e n c e i n one d i r e c t i o n o n l y , w h i c h i s w h a t r e a l l y c o n c e r n s u s i n t h i s s t u d y , t h e n t h e c h a n c e s a r e b e t w e e n 1$ a n d 2 . 5$ t h a t so g r e a t a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n w o u ld b e d u e t o c h a n c e a l o n e . 1 . C f. f o o t n o t e , p . 108.

1

129

M ost o f t h e Ss h a d b e e n g i v e n two W y a tt t e s t s p r i o r t o t r a i n i n g , b u t o n e o f th e m u s ic Ss h a d t h r e e a n d a n o t h e r had fo u r p r e - tr a in i n g t e s t s .

F o r f o u r o f t h e m u s ic S s , ^

a p e r i o d , o f 1§- y r s . h a d e l a p s e d b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t a n d second p r e - tr a in i n g t e s t s .

D u rin g t h i s p e r i o d t h e s e

f o u r Ss w e r e e n r o l l e d a s f u l l - c o u r s e s t u d e n t s i n t h e S c h o o l o f M u s ic .

Two o f t h e r e m a i n i n g m u s ic Ss h ad h a d i y r .

of

s u c h t r a i n i n g i n t e r v e n i n g b e tw e e n t h e i r s e c o n d a n d t h i r d 2 p re -tra in in g te s ts . I f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e s e f i r s t and l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t s c o re s sh o u ld p ro v e s i g n i ­ f i c a n t f o r t h e s e s i x £>s, t h i s d i f f e r e n c e m ig h t b e r e l a t e d e i t h e r to r e p e t i t i o n o f th e t e s t o r to th e in te r v e n in g m u sic a l t r a i n i n g . in sig n ific a n t,

But i f

th e d i f f e r e n c e sh o u ld p ro v e

i t m ig h t b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t n e i t h e r t h e s e

r e p e t i t i o n s o f th e t e s t n o r th e In te rv e n in g m u sica l t r a i n ­ in g had had any s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t .

S i n c e _t was o n l y

. 2 1 ^ 5 , w h i c h , f o r f i v e d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m , w o u ld b e e x ­ p e c t e d t h r o u g h c h a n c e a l o n e b e tw e e n 80$ a n d 90$ o f t h e 5 t i m e , t h e l a t t e r c o n c l u s i o n seem s c o r r e c t . The n o n - m u s i c i a n s h a d two W y a tt t e s t s p r i o r t o t r a i n ­ in g .

T he d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e two t e s t s c o r e s y i e l d e d

a t o f o n ly I . 8 5 6 , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e m ig h t b e e x p e c t e d t o r e s u l t b y c h a n c e a l o n e b e tw e e n 10$ a n d 20$ o f t h e tim e __________________ _________________________________ 1 . D . A . , F . M . , G .M ., a n d I . D . 2 . P .E . a n d S .L . 3 . C f . t a b l e s i n t h e A p p e n d ix sh o w in g s c o r e s a n d r a n k s f o r e a c h S i n e a c h W y a tt t e s t t a k e n .

150

T he r e t e s t i n g a b o v e d e s c r i b e d , b o t h w i t h a n d w i t h o u t in te r v e n in g g e n e r a l m u sic a l i n s t r u c t i o n , r e s u l t e d i n d i f ­ f e r e n c e s i n t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e w h ich m ig h t e a s i l y have b e e n d u e t o chance*

The d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e - t r a i n i n g a n d p o s t ­

t r a i n i n g t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e , ho w ev er, w ere to o pro n o u n ced and c o n s is te n t to be a t t r i b u t e d

to chance a lo n e .

G e n e r a l Im p ro v e m e n t i n s c o r e s .

As may b e s e e n f r o m

T a b l e V I , a l l o f t h e Ss show im p r o v e m e n t when t h e i r a v e r ­ a g e p r e - t r a i n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e i s com pared w i t h t h e i r a v e r a g e p o s t - t r a i n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e i n t h e W y a tt t e s t . The a v e r a g e i n c r e a s e i n s c o r e f o r t h e e n t i r e g r o u p was a b o u t 14 p o i n t s o u t o f a maximum p o s s i b l e im p ro v e m e n t o f a b o u t 27 p o i n t s .

I n term s o f th e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e s c o r e , 1 t h e n , t h e im p r o v e m e n t r a t i o f o r th e e n t i r e g ro u p i s c lo s e t o 51$ ( T a b l e

IV).

A

c o m p a riso n o f s c o r e s i n th e l a s t

t e s t ta k e n b e fo re t r a i n i n g w ith th o se i n th e l a s t t e s t ta k e n a f t e r t r a in in g in d ic a te s an av erag e in c r e a s e in th e l a t t e r o f a b o u t 15*5 p o i n t s o u t o f a b o u t 26 p o i n t s n e c e s ­ s a r y t o a c h i e v e t h e maximum s c o r e - - a n im p ro v e m e n t r a t i o of n e a rly 55$.

The a b o v e r a t i o s a r e l a r g e r t h a n t h e

c o rre sp o n d in g r a t i o s f o r th e S eashore t e s t s ,

in d ic a tin g

a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f im p ro v e m e n t i n t h e W y a tt t e s t . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g f i g u r e s f o r t h e f i r s t a n d l a s t te s ts

t a k e n p r i o r t o t r a i n i n g show no s u c h c o n s i s t e n t

1 . C f. f o o t n o t e , p .

112.

151

t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i m p r o v e m e n t.

G ain s w e re

f o u n d f o r 6 2 . 5$ o f t h e c a s e s a n d l o s s e s f o r 5 7 .5 $ # h u t t h e a v e r a g e am o u n t o f g a i n ( 1 0 . 2 p o i n t s ) w as a l m o s t e q u a l le d b y th e a v e r a g e am ount o f l o s s (9 .8 2 p o i n t s ) . G e n e r a l im p r o v e m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e m e d ia n o f t h e p o p u la tio n .

The W y a tt t e s t h a s d i f f e r e n t norm s f o r a d u l t

m u s i c i a n s a n d n o n - m u s i c i a n s b a s e d o n 915 c a s e s a n d 252 cases re sp e c tiv e ly .

In o rd e r to keep th e r e s u l t s a t l e a s t

r o u g h l y c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h o s e fo u n d i n t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t s , a s i m i l a r sy s te m o f e x p r e s s in g and i n t e r p r e t i n g th e ra n k s h a s b e e n e m p lo y e d . As may b e s e e n i n T a b l e V I , i n t h e i r a v e r a g e s c o r e b efo re tra in in g ,

s e v e n o f t h e e i g h t m u s ic Ss w e r e b e lo w

t h e a v e r a g e r a n k f o r m u s i c i a n s on whom t h e t e s t w as s t a n d ­ a rd iz e d .

The a v e r a g e o f a l l o f t h e i r p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t s

g a v e t h e m u s ic g r o u p a r a n k o f 9 , w h ic h m i g h t b e c a l l e d ’'p o o r 1’, f o l l o w i n g S e a s h o r e ^ m e th o d .

I n th e a v e ra g e o f

t h e i r p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t s , h o w e v e r , o n l y one m u s ic S fa ile d

t o e q u a l o r e x c e e d t h e m e d ia n s c o r e f o r t h e m u s ic

p o p u l a t i o n used i n s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n .

Thus t h e p r e - t r a i n i n g

and p o s t - t r a i n i n g p r o p o r tio n s a r e e x a c tly re v e rs e d w ith t h e same p e r c e n t a g e o f c a s e s ( 8 7 . 5$ ) a t o r a b o v e t h e m e d i a n a f t e r t r a i n i n g a s w e r e b e lo w t h e m e d ia n b e f o r e tra in in g .

132 TABLE V I

3H0WING SCORES AND RANKS* IN (l)THE AVERAGE OP ALL WYATT TESTS BEFORE TRAINING AND AFTER TRAINING (2)THE LAST WYATT TEST BEFORE TRAINING AND AFTER TRAINING T e sts c o m p a re d

Ss

CD M u sic

S cores B efo re A f te r

R an k s B efo re A f t e r

DA FM GM ID PE RD SL UM A ll

7 7 .5 0 76*00 6 8 .5 0 7 6 .0 0 8 9 .0 0 7 3 .5 0 8 0 .5 0 8 4 .0 0 7 3 .1 2 5

8 5 .5 0 8 9 .0 0 9 1 .0 0 8 6 .0 0 9 6 .5 0 8 9 .OO 9 3 .0 0 9 3 .0 0 9 0 .3 7 5

9 10 10 10 5 10 9 7 9

4 5 4 7 1 5 3 3 5

BH DL EV GK SM SJ S Jo TJ A ll

7 2 .0 0 7 9 .5 0 6 1 .0 0 7 0 .0 0 7 5 .5 0 7 7 .0 0 4 5 .0 0 6 9 .5 0 6 8 .4 5 7

8 5 .0 0 9 2 .5 0 7 3 .3 3 7 4 .0 0 8 6 .0 0 8 4 .3 3 8 5 .0 0 8 7 .OO 8 3 .3 9 5

9 7 10 9 8 7 10 9 9

4 1 8 8 4 5 4 3 5

DA FM GM ID PE RD SL DM A ll

71 81 59 72 88 72 81 90 7 6 .7 5

93 87 91 86 97 88 91 92 9 0 .6 2 5

10 8 10 10 6 10 8 5 10

3 6 4 7 1 6 4 3 4

BH DL EV GK SM SJ S Jo TJ A ll

76 87 55 75 81

87 93 78 69 85 89 87 92 8 5 .0

8 3 10 8 6 8 10 6 9

3 1 7 9 4 3 3 1 4

(i) N o n -m u s ic I

(2) M u sic |l 1 j ij

i i

!i

(2) N o n -m u sic J .

i i

! I

-

4 4 -

» a

non-musicians.

7? 44 81 7 1 .7 5 «

4 *

o

e

j

j

133

"When t h e same c o m p a r i s o n i s made f o r t h e n o n - m u s i c S s , i t may b e s e e n f r o m T a b l e V I t h a t i n t h e a v e r a g e o f a l l of th e ir p re -tra in in g te s ts ,

100$ o f t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss

w e r e b e lo w t h e m e d ia n f o r t h e 252 n o n - m u s i c c a s e s on whom t h e t e s t w as s t a n d a r d i z e d . th e n o n -m u sic S s,

A fte r tra in in g ,

o n l y two o f

(E .V . a n d G . K . ) f a i l e d t o e q u a l o r

ex c e e d t h i s m ed ia n . I n t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t t a k e n , o n l y o ne m u s ic £» h a d a r a n k a s h i g h a s 5# a n d 50$ o f t h e m u s ic g r o u p h a d a | ran k o f 10.

I n t h e i r l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t , how ever,

| 5 o f th e m u s ic ia n s had ra n k s o f 4 o r b e t t e r and o n ly one S h a d a r a n k a s lo w a s 7 . I n t e r m s o f t h e n orm s f o r n o n - m u s i c i a n s , o n l y o n e o f t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss h a d a r a n k b e t t e r t h a n 6 i n t h e l a s t p r e tra ln ih g t e s t , b u t i n th e l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t , a l l b u t tw o o f t h e Ss h a d r a n k s o f 4 o r b e t t e r a n d two o f t h e c a s e s even a c h ie v e d a ra n k o f 1. The p r e - t r a i n i n g r e t e s t s d i d n o t a p p r o a c h t h i s d e g r e e o f Im p ro v e m e n t i n r a n k s .

In t h e i r f i r s t p re ^ ra in in g t e s t

s c o r e s , a l l o f t h e Ss w e re b e lo w t h e m e d ia n f o r t h e g r o u p s u s e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e n o rm s .

E ven i n t h e l a s t

p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t , a l l b u t two o f t h e m u s ic Ss w e r e s u b ­ a v e r a g e w i t h 50$ o f t h e c a s e s i n t h e l o w e s t r a n k . a rly ,

S im il­

o n l y one S i n t h e n o n - m u s i c g r o u p e x c e e d e d t h e n o n ­

m u s i c m e d ia n i n t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t , w h i l e a l l o f th e o th e r s had ra n k s o f 6 o r w o rse.

134

I m p r o v e m e n t o f m u s ic a n d n o n - m u s ic g r o u p s c o n s i d e r e d se p a ra te ly .

An i n c r e a s e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 12 p o i n t s i s f o u n d

w hen t h e a v e r a g e o f a l l p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t s f o r t h e m u sic ia n s i s

c o m p a re d w i t h t h e a v e r a g e o f a l l o f t h e i r

p re -tra in in g te s ts .

The i n c r e a s e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h i s

g r o u p t o a t t a i n t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e s c o r e w o u ld b e a b o u t 2 2 p o i n t s a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e r a t i o o f im p ro v e m e n t i n t e r m s o f a c t u a l g a i n v s . maximum p o s s i b l e g a i n i s 56$ ( T a b l e I V ) . I n te rm s o f th e a c t u a l g a in v s .

t h e am ount o f g a i n n e c e s ­

s a r y t o a c h i e v e a r a n k o f 1 ( e q u i v a l e n t t o a ra w s c o r e o f 96 f o r a m u s ic ia n )

t h e im p r o v e m e n t r a t i o i s a b o u t 6 8 . 5 $ . 1

I n t h e same c o m p a r i s o n , t h e a v e r a g e i n c r e a s e f o r t h e n o n ­ m u s i c g r o u p i s n e a r l y 15 p o i n t s .

The r a t i o

o f im p r o v e m e n t

f o r t h e s e Ss i s 47$ i n t e r m s o f a c t u a l v a . maximum p o s s i b l e 2 g a i n a n d a b o u t 63$ i n t e r m s o f t h e a c t u a l g a i n v s . t h e g a i n n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e a r a n k o f 1 ( a raw s c o r e o f 92 f o r a n o n - m u s i c i a n ) .- ^ I n t e r m s o f t h e maximum p o s s i b l e s c o r e , a c o m p a r i s o n |

o f th e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t and th e l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t y i e l d s r a t i o s o f im p r o v e m e n t f o r b o t h g r o u p s w h i c h a r e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e r a t i o s o f im p ro v e m e n t i n av erag es re fe rre d

to i n th e fo re g o in g p a ra g ra p h .

ra n k o f 1 I s s e t a s th e g o a l, ment r a t i o

When a

t h e m u s ic Ss h a d a n i m p r o v e ­

o f £ > o u t 72$ w h i l e t h a t f o r t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss was 1 . 1 2 . 2 5 / 1 7 -8 7 5 2 . 1 4 .9 5 7 5 /5 1 .5 6 2 5 5 . 1 4 .9 5 7 5 /2 5 .5 6 2 5 . , 4 . F o r t h e m u s ic S s , 1 5 . 8 7 5 / 2 5 . 2 5 o r 5 9 . 6 6 $ a n d f o r t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss 1 5 . 2 5 / 2 8 . 2 5 o r 4 6 . 9 0 $ .

155

about

6 5 $ .1

L im itin g o u r c o n s id e r a tio n to th e p r e - t r a i n i n g te s ts ,

a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e f i r s t a n d l a s t o f t h e s e shows

a n a v e r a g e l o s s o f a b o u t o n e p o i n t f o r t h e m u s ic S s a n d a n a v e r a g e g a i n o f n e a r l y se v e n p o i n t s f o r th e n o n -m u sic -Ss*

The l a t t e r c h a n g e d t h e i r a v e r a g e r a n k o n l y s l i g h t l y —

f r o m 10 t o 9 - * s n d t h e a v e r a g e s c o r e i n t h e l a s t p r e ­ t r a i n i n g t e s t w o u ld s t i l l h a v e b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s " p o o r ” . I t th u s a p p e a rs t h a t a lth o u g h th e change i n a c h ie v e 1

m e n t i n t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t a s co m p ared w i t h t h e I f i r s t p re -tra in in g

t e s t was n e g l i g i b l e , b o t h t h e m u s ic

a n d t h e n o n - m u s i c Ss a c h i e v e d a s u b s t a n t i a l im p ro v e m e n t I a f te r tra in in g ,

t h e i r a v e r a g e s a p p r o x i m a t i n g 6 0 - 70$ o f t h e

| im provem ent r e q u i s i t e f o r a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f " s u p e r i o r ” . I

I m p ro v e m e n t i n r a n k s o f m u s ic a n d n o n - m u s ic g r o u p s .

| The a v e r a g e s c o r e i n a l l o f t h e p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t s

ta k e n

|

w as a b o u t 78 f o r t h e m u s i c i a n s a n d a b o u t 68.^- f o r

th e

-

n o n -m u s ic ia n s (T a b le V I).

are

I

e q u iv a le n t to ran k s o f 9 ( " p o o r" ), b e in g i n t e r p r e t e d

i

B o th o f t h e s e a v e r a g e s

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e norm s f o r m u s ic s t u d e n t s a n d n o n - m u s i c

|! s t u d e n t s r e s p e c t i v e l y .

A v e r a g e r a n k s f o r t h e two g r o u p s

|! i n t h e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t a r e 10 a nd 9 r e s p e c t i v e l y . ■ T hus, b e f o r e t r a i n i n g , b o th g ro u p s w ere

" p o o r " a s com pared

jj w i t h o t h e r m em bers o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o p u l a t i o n s . 1 . F o r t h e m u s ic S s , 1 5 . 875/ 1 9 .2 5 a nd f o r t h e n o n - m u s i c S s , 1 3 .2 5 /2 0 .2 5 .

136

A fte r tra in in g , fic a tio n

t h e m u s ic _Ss im p r o v e d t h e i r g r o u p c l a s s i ­

t o a r a n k o f 5 ( '’a v e r a g e " ) when a l l o f t h e

p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t s a r e c o n s id e r e d and t o a r a n k o f 4 ( " g o o d " ) w hen o n l y t h e l a s t p o s t - t r a i n i n g t e s t i s c o n s i d ­ ered .

That i s ,

a s c o m p a red w i t h o t h e r m u s ic s t u d e n t s ,

t h e s e m u s i c S s , who a s a g r o u p , w o u ld h a v e r a t e d a s " p o o r " b e f o r e t r a i n i n g , w ere i n th e m id d le o r s l i g h t l y above t h e m id d le o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n a f t e r t r a i n i n g . The n o n - m u s i c Ss b e f o r e t r a i n i n g w o u ld h a v e c l a s s i f i e d i n th e n e x t to th e lo w e st d e c i le i n a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f non|

m u s i c c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , b u t a f t e r t r a i n i n g w o u ld h a v e b e e n

j a t o r a b o v e t h e m e d ia n f o r p i t c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n t h e i r own p o p u l a t i o n . i The i n d i v i d u a l r a n k s b e f o r e a nd a f t e r t r a i n i n g a r e '

s e t f o r t h i n T a b le V I.

I t w i l l be n o te d t h a t a s i n th e

i

! c a se o f th e S eash o re t e s t s ,

two o f t h e n o n - m u s ic j>s

J same t w o - - E .V . a n d G .K . ) r e m a i n e d s u b - a v e r a g e , li,1 |j t r a i n i n g .

(th e

even a f t e r

R e te s tin g a lo n e w ith o u t re m e d ia l t r a i n i n g d id n o t !

p r o d u c e im p r o v e m e n t.

Four o f th e m u sician s s t i l l

r a n k s o f 1 0 , two h a d " ra n k s !

o f 8 a n d two h a d r a n k s

even i n th e l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t ta k e n .

Of t h e

had of 5, non-

J m u s i c i a n s , i n t h e i r l a s t p r e - t r a i n i n g t e s t two s t i l l had 1

!! p a n k s o f 1 0 , t h r e e h a d r a n k s o f 8 , two h ad r a n k s o f 6 and th e re m a in in g S had a ra n k o f 3 .

No S a t t a i n e d a r a n k o f

157

1 " b e fo re t r a i n i n g , a l t h o u g h two c a s e s w e r e s o c l a s s i f i e d a f te r tra in in g . "While r e m e d i a l t r a i n i n g may h a v e f a i l e d t o r e - c l a s s i f y t h e s e two g r o u p s a s " s u p e r i o r * 1 o r " e x c e l l e n t " i n r e l a t i o n to t h e i r re s p e c tiv e p o p u la tio n s,

t h e i r average p o s t­

t r a i n i n g s c o r e s im p r o v e d s u f f i c i e n t l y t o a p p r o x i m a t e t h e m e d i a n f o r t h e s e two s e t s o f norm s a n d t h e i r l a s t p o s t ­ t r a i n i n g t e s t s w e r e s l i g h t l y b e t t e r t h a n t h e m e d ia n p erform ance.

158

Im provem ent I n r e l a t i o n t o l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y , c o m p a ris o n o f P ig . 9 w ith P ig .

A

10 show s f o r b o t h m u s ic

and n o n -m u sic g r o u p s , a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s t - t r a i n i n g r e d u c ­ t i o n i n th e p e rc e n ta g e s of e r r o r a t v a rio u s le v e ls o f d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e W y a tt t e s t .

B efo re t r a i n in g

( F i g . 9 )»

th e g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e p i t c h d isc rim in a tio n o f m u s i c a n d n o n - m u s i c g r o u p s was f o u n d a t i n c r e m e n t s o f 1 5 , 7 and 5 c y c le s .

A t a l l o th e r in c re m e n ts e x c e p t .5 c y c le ,

t h e m u s i c i a n s w e r e som ew hat s u p e r i o r t o t h e n o n - m u s i c i a n s , a lt h o u g h n o t a s m a rk e d ly a s f o r t h e s e t h r e e e a s i e s t i n c r e m e n t s . ' 1' T h i s p r e - t r a i n i n g c o m p a r is o n i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o w h a t w as f o u n d i n t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t s .

T here to o ,

th e groups

w e re s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t in . t h e i r p r e - t r a i n i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f 8 a nd 5 c y c l e s . S eashore t e s t ,

As i n t h e c a s e o f t h e

a f t e r t r a i n i n g ( P i g . 10) t h e m u s ic Ss w e r e

s u p e r i o r t o t h e n o n - m u s ic Ss a t a l l l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y . B ut th e l a t t e r g ro u p a p p ro x im ate d th e fo rm e r a l i t t l e m o re c l o s e l y i n t h i s t e s t t h a n i n t h e S e a s h o r e t e s t . T r a i n i n g e n a b l e d t h e m u s ic Ss t o r e d u c e t h e i r p e r ­ c e n ta g e s o f e r r o r a t ev ery le v e l of d i f f i c u l t y i n th e te st

(P ig .

ll).

The m o st m ark ed a l t e r a t i o n s o c c u r r e d a t

th e in te rm e d ia te in c re m e n ts--4 -1 c y c le s in c lu s iv e .

The

l a r g e r in c re m e n ts w ere d i s c r im i n a t e d f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y even b e fo r e t r a i n i n g .

D is c r im in a tio n o f th e .5 c y c le

1 . C f . t a b l e s i n t h e A p p e n d ix s h o w in g p e r c e n t a g e o f e r r o r m ade b y e a c h S a t a l l l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y i n e a c h W y a tt t e s t ta k e n and i n th e a v e ra g e o f a l l t e s t s b e fo r e and a f te r tra in in g .

159

32.

18

of

e r r o r

.

36

P ercentage

^ 0 ^ 5 ' ^ '

lb

12. 8

4 f ^ . a i f t l k l * ( Q E T O ^E l

O LEVEL5

OF D I F F I C U L T Y

(iN CYCLES)

F ig . 9« Showing average p ercen ta g e o f erro r f o r m u sician s and non-m usicians a t each l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y in th e Wyatt t e s t o f p itc h d is c r im in a tio n b e fo r e t r a in in g .

PERCENTAGE

OF

ERROR

ibo

LEV ELS OF DI FFI CU LTY ( l N C Y C L E S )

Pig. 10, Showing average percentage of error for musi­ cians and non-musicians at each level of difficulty in the Wyatt test of pitch discrimination after training.

PERCEMTA&g

OF ERROR

141

e r r o r

% e rro r

In itia l te s ts

fin a l te s ts

101 71 61 51 51 26 16 11 6 4 5 2 1 .5

0 .0 0 4 .0 0 7.50 1 0 .0 0 1 5 .5 5 16.67 15.00 2.50 15.00 12.50 15.00 5.00 7 .5 0

0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 5.00 2.50 5.00 0 .0 0 2.50 7.50 5.00 2.50 7.50

61 51 26 21 16 1 .5

0 .00 5.00 2.50 17.50 55.00

101 51 56 26 11 6 5 2 1 .5

16.67 17.50 20.00 10.00 7 .5 0 15.00 15.00 52.50 55.00

I n c r e m e n ts *

R a tio o f im p ro v e m e n t

m

6 9 .7 7 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 , 8 *7 5 v ( 12. 50) 85.42 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2.50 5.00 0 .0 0 5.00 7.50 7.50 5.00 8 0 .7 9

ji * T h e s e I n c r e m e n t s a r e o n e c y c l e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a c t u a l d i a l re a d in g to c o r r e c t f o r a d i s p a r it y r e f e r r e d to in th e t e x t .

ii

206

TABLE LXXXVII j SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR G.K. AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS i IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF I 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND i

S ta n d a rd I F re q .

I n c r e m e n ts *

!

i

ii 1l;'

500

j! I | ''

26 21 16 11 6 5 4

$ e rro r

fo e r r o r

in itia l te s ts

fin a l te s ts

0 .0 0 5 .0 0 5 .0 0 15.00 12.50 22.50 2 7 .5 0

0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2.50 5 .0 0 5 .0 0 7 .5 0 2 2 .5 0

|J |1

51.43 250

' 1

21 16 6 4 3

0 .0 0 15.00 1 0 .0 0 12.50 32.50

101

2.50 7.50 12.50 5.00 1 3 .3 3 10.00 1 7 .5 0 27.50

0 .0 0 2 .5 0 12.50 1 7 .5 0 2 0 .0 0 25.00




clL 53.54

* T h ese in c r e m e n ts a r e one c y c l e g r e a t e r th a n t h e a c t u a l d i a l r e a d in g t o c o r r e c t f o r a d i s p a r i t y r e f e r r e d t o i n th e t e x t .

208

TABLE LXXXIX

j li

SHOWING PERCENTAGE OP ERROR FOR S . J . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND

S ta n d a rd F re q .

500

250

I n c r e m e n ts *

$ e rro r in itia l te s ts

8 .5 6 5 4 3 2 1 .5

0.00 9.00 5 .00 6 .3 3 15.00 2 1 .6 7 25.00

3 2 1 .5

0.00 6 .2 5 2.50

i» e r r o r fin a l te s ts

R a tio o f im p ro v e m e n t («

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.00 9 3 .9 0 2.50 5.00 1 4 .2 9

1000

11 8 .5 6 4 2 1 .5

0.00 6 .2 5 5.00 1 2 .5 0 1 7 .5 0 2 2 .5 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 2 .5 0 12.50 7 6 .4 7

* T h ese in c r e m e n ts a r e one c y c l e g r e a t e r th a n th e a c t u a l j d i a l r e a d in g t o c o r r e c t f o r a d i s p a r i t y r e f e r r e d t o i n , th e t e x t .

TABLE XC SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR S . J o . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND. S ta n d a rd F re q .

500

In c re m e n ts *

36 26 21 16 11 6 4 3 2

$ e rro r

i e rro r

in itia l te s ts

fin a l te s ts

1 .1 1 1 .6 7 9 .0 9 8 .3 3 12.50 1 5 .0 0 18.50 3 0 .0 0

R a tio o f im p ro v e m e n t («

0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2.50 5 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 ( 3 7 .5 0 ) 81.81

250

1000

31 26 21 11 6 5 4 2 1 .5

0 .0 0 2 .5 0 2 .5 0 5 .0 0 2.50 1 2 .5 0 3 3 .3 3

46 31 21 16 6 4 3

2 .5 0 15.00 2 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 25.00 4 2 .5 0 3 2 .5 0

0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2.50 0 .0 0 7 .50 1 0 .0 0 (10.00) ( 27. 50) 6 5 .7 1 2.50 0 .0 0 2.50 2.50 25.00 17.50 37.50

4 0 .6 8

* T hese in c re m e n ts a r e one c y c le g r e a t e r th a n th e a c t u a l d i a l re a d in g to c o r r e c t f o r a d i s p a r it y r e f e r r e d to in th e te x t.

210

TABLE XCI SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF ERROR FOR T. J . AT VARIOUS INCREMENTS IN THE OSCILLATOR TESTS AT STANDARD FREQUENCIES OF 5 0 0 , 250 AND 1000 CYCLES PER SECOND

Standard Freq.

500

Increments*

16 11 6 5 4 3 2

$ error in it ia l tests 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 2 5 .0 0 7 .5 ° 1 3 .3 3 2 0 .0 0 5 2 .5 0

1.5 250

6

5 4 2 1 .5

1000

16 11 6 5 4

fo error

fin a l tests

Ratio of improvement («

0 .0 0 0 .0 0 5 .0 0 0 .0 0 2 .5 0 22.50 ( 4 0 .0 0 ) 7 3 .5 3

0 .0 0 2 .5 0 1 0 .0 0 2 0 .0 0 3 5 .0 0

0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 22.50 27.50 1 1 .1 1

0 .0 0 6.67 13.33 50.00 47.50

0 .0 0 5.00 7.50 12.50 22.50 5 1 .2 8

* T h e s e I n c r e m e n t s a r e one c y c l e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a c t u a l d i a l re a d in g to c o r r e c t f o r a d i s p a r i t y r e f e r r e d to I n th e te x t.