The historical development of the problem-solving method in education
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THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROBLEM-SOLVING- METHOD IN EDUCATION
A D is s e rta tio n P re s e n te d to t h e F a c u lty o f th e
S c h o o l o f E d u c a ti o n )
T he U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a
I n P a r t ia l F u lfillm e n t o f t h e R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e D e g re e D o c to r o f E d u c a tio n
by L a w re n c e L e r o y P e t e r s o n A u g u s t, 1950
UMI Number: DP25809
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F il i^
'boo Y.O . \
•r.r
e ^ . o .
'* * /
TA/j dissertation, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance Committee and ap proved by all members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements fo r the degree of D octor of Education. D ate
August A, 1950
....... ........ ,............................
Dean Guidance Committee
tan
TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.
PACE
' THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED T he p r o b le m
. .
1
...................................................................
2
S t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m ....................................
2
I m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p r o b le m
3
/
D e f in itio n s o f te rm s u se d F o re w o rd S itu a tio n P r o b le m
............................... . . . . . . . .
* .............................................. .
.
* .........................................................
. . . . . . . .
P ro b le m -s o lv in g
. * .
M e th o d
8 9
....................................
11
.........................................
13
...................................
T he s c o p e o f t h e s t u d y
...............................
14 16
H i s t o r i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s ..........................
16
P h ilo s o p h ic a l lim ita tio n s
18
In te rp re ta tiv e
.........................
lim ita tio n s
O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e
s tu d y
In tro d u c to ry c h a p te rs B ack g ro u n d c h a p t e r s C e n tra l c h a p te rs
. . . . . . . .
19
..........................
20
....................................
20
. . . . . . . . . .
.........................................................
C o n c lu d in g c h a p t e r s II.
8
...............................................
21 21 21
PROCEDURE AMD REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE P ro c e d u re
........................................................................ . . .
...............................
. . . . . .
23 23
iii CHAPTER
PAGE The d a t a f o r t h e
s t u d y .........................................
C ritic is m
o f th e d a ta
R e p o rtin g
th e r e s e a r c h
2k
..........................
25
.....................
26
Sum m ary o f t h e o v e r a l l p u r p o s e o f t h e p ro c e d u re
.
........................................................
R e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e
27
. . . . . . . . .
29
...............................................
29
O rig in a l so u rc e s
.........................
29
The e a r l y G r e e k s
....................................
29
In tro d u c tio n
L ite ra ry d iv is io n s
. . . .
.........................
30
.....................
30
.
...................................
30
A r i s t o t l e 's P ro b le m a ta
....................................
31
E a r ly a n d m e d ie v a l w r i t i n g s A r i s t o t l e 1s C a t e g o r i e s a n d De I n t e r p r e t a t lo n e
O a t e s 's S t o i c an d E p ic u r e a n P h i l o s o p h e r s ........................................
33
P l a t o ' s R e p u b l i c ........................................
Jk
A q u i n a s ' The Summa T h e o l o g l o a
35
E a r l y m o d e rn t r e a t i s e s
.
. . . .
...............................
B a c o n 's T he A d v a n c e m e n t o f L e a r n i n g
36
.
36
C o m e n iu s ' T he G r e a t
D i d a c t i c ...................
37
F r o e b e l ' s E d u c a tio n
o f Man
38
. . . . . . .
H e rb a rt* s L e t t e r s a n d L e c tu r e s on E d u c a tio n
.............................................
39
lv CHAPTER
PA&E L ocke* s An E s s a y C o n c e r n in g Human U nder s t and 1ng
....................................................
40
R o u s s e a u * s E m i l e ...................................................
42
M o d e rn s o u r c e s ............................................. .
.
. .
43
Dewey *s How We T h i n k .........................................
43
Jam es* E s s a y s i n R a d i c a l E n r p lr lc la r a
44
. .
P a r k e r * s G -e n e ra l M e th o d s o f T e a c h in g i n E le m e n ta ry S c h o o ls
. . . . . . .
45
T h o r n d ik e * s The P s y c h o l o g y o f L e a r n i n g .
47
K i l p a t r i c k * s F o u n d a t i o n o f M e th o d
. .
48
i n t h e S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s ..........................
49
R e l a t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .........................................
50
M o r r is o n * s T he P r a c t i c e o f T e a c h in g
In tro d u c tio n
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
W in c h 1 s 11A c c u r a c y i n S c h o o l C h i l d r e n ” •
50
D u n c k e r’ s su rv e y o f 1926
51
W a s h b u rn e * s i n v e s t i g a t i o n
o f 1927
C la rk and V in c e n t’ s r e s e a r c h :
. .
53
”A
C o m p a ris o n o f Two M e th o d s o f A r i t h m e t i c P r o b le m A n a l y s i s ”
. . . .
55
B u r t o n * s s u r v e y o f 1 9 3 ^ -1 9 3 5 Sum m ary III.
.
56
........................................................................
ASSUMPTIONS AND HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY A s s u m p tio n s o f t h e
.
59
.
60
s t u d y ..........................................
60
V
CHAPTER
PACE ..........................................
H y p o th e s e s o f t h e s tu d y Sum m ary IV .
60
. . . . . .
EARLY AND MEDIEVAL BACKCROTJND T he r e a s o n i n g p r o c e s s
.
63
..........................................
63
D e d u c tio n
............................... * ....................................
63
In d u c tio n
.............................................
65
The C r e e k e r a S o c ra te s
.
.
.
6l
...................................................................
66
♦ ..................................................................
66
S y l l o g i s t ic re a s o n in g
.
S e a r c h f o r k n o w le d g e
. . . . . . . . . .
P la to * s th e o ry o f e d u c a tio n
A ris to tle
. . . .
A ris to tle * s
n o tio n o f e d u c a tio n
A ris to tle O u tlin e
.
70
. .
* .............................................
73 7^
....................................................
75
.
.
o f C r e e k c o n t r i b u t i o n s .....................
•
76 77
. . . . . . . . . . . .
S c h o la s tic is m .
71
. . . .
on I n d u c tio n a n d d e d u c tio n
S c h o la s tic th o u g h t
T hom ism
*
6? 69
. . . . . .
D e d u c tiv e r e a s o n in g f o r c h i l d r e n
T he O rg a n o n
.
73 •
?3
* ..................................
79
The t i m e s I n f l u e n c e p h i l o s o p h y .....................
79
A q u in a s a n d
d e d u c tio n
60
In q u iry and
fa ith
......................................
..................................................
The S c h o l a s t i c m e th o d i n e d u c a t i o n
. . .
81 81
vi CHAPTER
PAGE The d e d u c t i v e m e th o d t o d a y ...............................
82
.............................................................................
83
MODEM HISTORICAL BACKGROUND....................................
8^
Sum m ary V.
The r i s e
t h i n k i n g ..........................
Qk
.....................
85
t h i n k e r s ..............................................
87
o f in d u c tiv e
T he R e n a i s s a n c e T he i n d u c t i v e
R ene D e s c a r te s
(1 5 9 6 -1 6 5 0 )
87
M in d -b o d y d ile m m a
...............................................
89
D e s c a r t e s 1 d u a lis m
...............................................
89
Im p lic a tio n s
o f D e s c a r te s 1 th in k in g
.
.
F r a n c i s B acon (1 5 6 1 -1 6 2 6 )
91 ...............................
T he m e th o d o f i n d u c t i o n M e th o d o f i n q u i r y
P re ro g a tiv e
The B r i t i s h
.........................................
93
....................................
9^
in d u c tio n
95
to
e m p iric is ts
Jo h n L ocke (1 6 3 2 -1 7 0 ^ ) T a b u la r a s a
$2
in s ta n c e s
B a c o n 1s c o n t r i b u t i o n
.
.
. . . . . . . . .
96
. . . . . . . . .
96
..............................
L o c k e ’ s e m p iric is m
91
.
........................................
M a tu r e o f e x p e r i e n c e
90
96
...............................................
I n d u c tio n an d d e d u c tio n
97
...............................
98
T he k n o w in g p r o c e s s
....................................
10 0
P e r c e p t i o n a n d m em ory
. . . . . . . .
101
U n i v e r s a l s ...................................................................
101
v ii CHAPTER
PAGE The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f L o c k e G e o rg e B e r k e le y
..............................
(1 6 8 ^ -1 7 5 3 )
B e rk e le y * s e p is te m o lo g y E x is te n c e an d r e a l i t y
'
10^
.........................................
105
.
.
D a v id Hume ( 1 7 1 1 - 1 7 6 6 ) .............................................. F act and b e l i e f
I m p lic a tio n s
p o s itio n
.
.
106 107
.
108
.
10 9
o f Hume*s w o rk f o r
p r o b le m -s o lv in g
. .
.........................................
Ill
P o s i t i v i s m ..................................................................................
112
T hom as H o b b e s ( 1 5 3 8 - 1 6 7 9 ) S c ie n tific
In q u iry
N a t u r a l la w s
*
.....................
...................................................
.........................................................
T he c o n t r i b u t i o n o f Thom as H o b b e s
11^ 115 116
T he t h e o r y o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n ...............................
11 7
(1 7 2 4 -1 8 0 ^ )
. .
.........................
Im m a n u e l K a n t a n d h i s C r i t i q u e s K n o w led g e
.
113
.
Im m a n u e l K a n t
.
. .
.......................................................................
I n d u c tio n an d d e d u c tio n
...............................
A p r io r i v e rs u s ta b u la r a s a
. . . . .
I m p lic a tio n s o f K a n t’ s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n Sum m ary V I.
103
....................................
I m p lic a tio n s o f B e rk e le y * s t h e o r i e s
Hume a n d th e r e a l i s t i c
102
.
. . .
117 118 119 120
.
............................................................................
MODERN CONCEPTS IN INDUCTIVE REASONING
117
122 123 125
v iii CHAPTER
PACE F o re w o rd :
I n d u c t i v e m e th o d a n d t e c h n o
lo g ic a l advance The r i s e
......................................... .....
of p o s itiv is tic
th in k in g
Jo h n S t u a r t M i l l (1 8 0 6 -1 8 7 3 ) In d u c tio n and u t i l i t y
.
* .
* .
.
. . . . . .
.
.
.
H e rb e rt S p e n c e r (1 8 2 0 -1 9 0 3 )
The k n o w in g p r o c e s s
127 129 130
K n o w le d g e o r t h e h i g h e s t g e n e r a l i t y R e fle c tio n and in fe re n c e
126 126
................................... .
I m p lic a tio n s f o r p ro b le m -s o lv in g
125
.
. . . . . . .
133
.........................................
S p e n c e r 's u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n
* .
.
131
.
134 135
W illia m Jam es (1 8 4 2 -1 9 1 0 ) R a d ic a l e m p iric is m
136
........................................................
137
...................................................
138
P e rc e p t and co n cep t S e n s a tio n a n d th in k in g
. . . . . . . . .
How t h i n k i n g b e c o m e s o r d e r e d W il l i a m J a m e s '
.
.
. .
140
i n f l u e n c e o n p r o b le m .............................................
s o lv in g
Jo h an n F r ie d r ic h H e rb a rt (1 7 ? 6 -I8 4 l)
142
T he d o c t r i n e o f a p p e r c e p t i o n ..........................
143
C o m p le x e s a n d b l e n d i n g s M a th e m a tic s
.
'd o c t r i n e o f
..........................
a p p e rc e p tio n '
.
.
l4 l . .
F u rth e r a n a ly s is o f th e
* s»-
.
13 9
. . . . . . .........................
.............................................
144 146 147
ix CHAPTER
;
PAG-E
I m p lic a tio n s o f a p p e rc e p tio n f o r p ro b le m -s o lv in g J o h n Dewey ( 1 8 5 9 R e fle c tiv e
. . . . . . . . . . . ) a-s e p i s t e m o l o g i s t
th in k in g
A c ts o f r e f l e c t i o n
.
............................................... . . . . . . . . . . .
C 1A9 ) 150 152
P r a g m a tis m i n e p i s t e m o l o g y ...............................
15 3
The t h e o r y o f c o n t i n u i t y
15*f
. . . . . . . .
F u n c t i o n .............................................................................
155
Dewey* s e f f e c t o n s c i e n t i f i c
.
156
.
157
in q u iry
P ro b le m -s o lv in g a n d s c i e n t i f i c Sum m ary V II.
1^8
.
in q u iry
....................................
159
THE STATUS OF MODERN PROBLEM—SOLVINGT he e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s Jo h an n F r ie d r ic h H e rb a rt
160
.........................................
161
. . . . . . .
T he d o c t r i n e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n s
162
....................................
163
..............................................................
16^
P re s e n ta tio n
..........................
A s s o c ia tio n
* ..............................................................
S y s te m a tiz a tio n A p p lic a tio n
. . . . . . . .
166 16?
..........................................
I 69
...................................................................
1?0
P ro b le m -s o lv in g an d a p p e r c e p tio n The H e r b a r t i a n s
161
.....................
in le a rn in g
P re p a ra tio n
160
..........................
H e rb a rt* s l e a r n in g th e o r y
N a tu ra lis m
. . . .
. . . .
.........................................
171 172
X
CHAPTER
PACE H e rb a rtia n is m
i n A m e ric a
. ...................................
173
New m e th o d s
* * .............................................................
174
E d w a rd L e e T h o r n d i k e .......................................................
176
........................................
P s y c h o lo g ic a l b a s is
T h o r n d ik e *s t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g N a tu ra lis m
in
177
. . . . .
177
l e a r n i n g ..............................................
The bond t h e o r y a n d p r o b le m - s o lv in g The e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l
.
.
.
180
........................................
Sam uel C h e s te r P a r k e r
182
..............................................
The i m p o r t a n c e o f p r o b l e m s P a r k e r 1s e f f e c t
.
179
. . . . . . .
183 184
.............................................................
The s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls
. . . . . . . . . .
P r o j e c t a n d p ro b le m H e n ry C. M o r r i s o n
185 186
..............................
I 87
........................................................
188
U n ity o f le a r n in g
......................... .
18 9
T h in k in g a s p r o b le m - s o lv in g
. . . . . .
190
P ro b le m -s o lv in g a n d th e h ig h s c h o o l P ro b le m -s o lv in g
in h ig h e r le a r n in g 1
P ro b le m -s o lv in g a n d t r a d i t i o n a l i s m
.
.
192
. . . .
192
.
193
. .
J o h n Dewey a n d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .......................... ( 1 9 5 j T he b e g i n n i n g
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. The n a t u r e o f l i f e ........................................................ T he w h o l e n e s s o f t h i n k i n g T he i d e a l c l a s s r o o m
196 198
....................................
199
...................................................
200
xi CHAPTER
PACE T he m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
V III.
202
.
20L
..............................................
20 6
..........................
20?
.........................
R e c a p itu la tio n Sum m ary
.....................
.............................. .
CRITIQUE OF PROBLEM-SOLVING In tro d u c tio n
.
. .
.......................................................................
T h e m e th o d o f s c i e n t i f i c
i n q u i r y .........................
207
.........................................
209
T he n a t u r e o f i n d u c t i o n
The d e f e n s e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l m e th o d V a r i o u s m e a n in g s o f i n d u c t i o n I n d e fe n s e o f d e d u c tio n In r e f u ta tio n
20?
o f Dewey
.
.
.
.
•
211
.
213
. . . . . . . . • * * * .....................
The w e a k n e ss o f in d u c tio n
....................................
215 ^ -
216
A d v a n ta g e s o f d e d u c tio n
....................................
D e w e y 's r e f u t a t i o n
.......................................... "(2 2 ^
.
. .
.........................
T he s t a t u s o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y M o d e rn t h e o r i e s o f
le a rn in g . . . . . . .
The F o r t y - F i r s t Y e a rb o o k
.........................................
The m o d e rn p s y c h o l o g i c a l v i e w V a rio u s o p in io n s
. . . . .
.............................................................
R e fle x e s an d r e f l e c t i o n
...............................
T he w e a k n e s s e s o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
.
. .
218
22k 225 225 226 227 229 23 0
T he w h o l e n e s s o f
le a rn in g . . . . . . .
232
R a m if i c a t i o n s
in
l e a r n i n g * ............................
233
T he d ile m m a
.
.........................
23 5
.
►*.• • •
x ii CHAPTER
PAGE D ew ey’ s p o s i t i o n The s u b j e c t i v e
a n a ly z e d
n a tu r e o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g *
R e se a rc h in th e f i e l d
........................................
.
.
236 238 240
.........................................
243
..................................................................
244
L a2 e r t e * s i n v e s ti g a t i o n T he r e s e a r c h
....................................
K i g h t a n d M ic k e ls o n * s i n v e s t i g a t i o n
.
.
246
The r e s e a r c h ............................................................... I m p lic a tio n s fro m th e s tu d y
.
...........................
J o s e p h T. Jo h n so n * s i n v e s t i g a t i o n
* .
.........................
T he r e s e a r c h
246
.
250
.
250
C r i t i q u e o f J o h n s o n ’ s s t u d y ....................................... Joseph J .
G o ld s te in and o th e rs *
rese a rch .
The r e s e a r c h ....................................................................... C o n c lu s io n s fro m t h i s ty p e o f s tu d y
249
251 252 253
.
.
254
a n d H e le n M u ir B is h o p * s i n v e s t i g a t i o n
.
254
H e r b e r t T. O l a n d e r , M. J .
V an W agenen
The r e s e a r c h ........................................................
254
Im p lic a tio n s
256
.
.............................................
C a r l W. H a n s o n ’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n C o n trib u tio n s
. . . . . .
. . . . .
...................................
H a r r y C. J o h n s o n ’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n P ro c e d u re o f th e e x p e rim e n t
257
. . . .
258
. . . . . .
258
I n s t r u m e n t a l m a t e r i a l s .............................................. Im p lic a tio n s o f t h i s
258
in v e s tig a tio n
. ‘.
.
260 26l
x iii CHAPTER
PAGE Sum m ary o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n
262
. . . . . . . .
P h i l o so p h i o a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f p r o b l e m -
s o lv in g Sum m ary IX .
» • ♦ • » • • ♦ . ♦ » •
» • •
•
263 265
THE EVALUATION OF THE HYPOTHESES
..........................
26 6
A s tu d y o f th e e a r l i e s t b e g in n in g s o f th e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d h e l p e d i n c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s .............................................................................
266
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e d u r e o f s c i e n tific
i n q u i r y w as n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n
.
.
.
.
26?
The p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d w e re r e v e a l e d a s a r e s u l t o f a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta g a th e re d by t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n
..........................................
268
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e w o r k s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d e d u c a to r s g u id e d th e p ro c e d u re a n d w e re im p o r ta n t in t h e p r o p e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h i s s tu d y T he v a l i d i t y
. . . . . . .
o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g w as
e s ta b lis h e d th ro u g h r e s e a r c h in to a v a ila b le
268
e v id e n c e
th e
..........................
269
T he p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d h a s i n f l u e n c e d m o d e rn A m e ric a n e d u c a t i o n
. . . . . . .
269
x iv CHAPTER
-PAGE I n t e r e s t i n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a s a m e th o d o f le a rn in g i s
s t i l l g r e a t .......................... .
270
The w o rk a n d i n s i g h t s o f t h e l e a d e r s i n t h e f i e l d o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g c o n tr ib u te d to th is
s t u d y ........................................................................
C la rific a tio n
271
o f th e h i s t o r i c a l and p h i l
o s o p h i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o m p r e h e n s io n o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g Sum m ary X.
as
a m e th o d f o r e d u c a t i o n
...............................................■ .
.....................
SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Sum m ary
271
.
.
272 .
......................................... . . . . . . . .
S ta te m e n t
o fth e
P ro c e d u re
.
T e r m in o lo g y T he l i t e r a t u r e
274
p ro b le m . . . . . . . .
I m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p r o b le m
274-
274 *
275
...................................................................
27 5
.
276
.
....................................................
f o r th e
E a r ly a n d m e d ie v a l
s tu d y . . . . . .
so u rc es.
T he p r e - m o d e r n t r e a t i s e s M odem s o u r c e s
........................
. . . . . . . .
27 6 277 280
...............................................
283
..........................
285
R e se a rc h in th e f i e l d
P h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f p r o b le m s o lv in g A re v ie w
.......................... .....
.......................... , 288
.............................................
294
XV
CHAPTER
PAG-E C o n c lu s io n s fro m T he h y p o t h e s e s R e c o m m e n d a tio n s
t h e s t u d y .......................................
29A
o f th e s tu d y
29 5
................................
..............................................* .
C o n c l u s i o n ........................................................ BIBLIOGRAPHY
...............................................................................
.
.
297 299 300
CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED One of* t h e I m p o r t a n t I s s u e s w i t h w h i c h e d u c a t i o n i s c o n c e rn e d to d a y i s
th a t o f th e r e l a t i v e m e rits o f v a rio u s
m e th o d s o f t e a c h i n g *
M e th o d o lo g y h a s b e e n a s o u r c e o f c o n
t r o v e r s y am ong e d u c a t o r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t i o n * T h ere h av e b e e n d e f e n d e r s o f ,
a s w e ll a s d e t r a c t o r s fro m ,
t h i s o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r m e th o d .
T h ere h av e b e e n c r i t i c i s m s
a s a r e s u l t o f m e re o b s e r v a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f som e w r i t e r s , and th e re have been d e f i n i te m e th o d f r o m o t h e r s h o w e v e r,
s u g g e s t i o n s f o r Im p ro v e m e n t o f
engaged in e m p iric a l v a lid a tio n .
h as b e en done in
L ittle ,
t h e w ay o f c a r e f u l a p p r a i s a l o f
t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a n y o n e m e th o d so a s t o o f f e r some c l e a r b a s i s f o r c o m p a r is o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n .
An h i s t o r i c a l a n d
p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a n y g i v e n m e th o d seem s one d e f i n i t e m eans f o r t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n od.
In d e fe n se o f su ch a p o s itio n
o f t h a t m e th
F in n e y s t a t e s :
♦ . * t h e m o re t h e f i n d i n g s o f r e s e a r c h i n t h e v a r i o u s f i e l d s o f s c ie n c e , th e g r e a t e r becom es th e n e e d o f p i e c i n g t h o s e f i n d i n g s t o g e t h e r i n t o a new m odus v i v e n d l fo r p ra c tic a l a f f a irs . R e se a rc h i s in c re a s in g r a th e r th a n d e c r e a s in g th e n e e d f o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l w o rk . T h is c a n n o t be to o e m p h a tic a lly o r i n s i s t e n t l y a s s e r t e d . The m ore s c i e n c e we h a v e , t h e m o re we n e e d p h i l o s o p h y . . • . P h i l o s o p h i c a l w o rk i s t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e p r e r e q u i s i t e t o a s u c c e s s fu l r e - a lig n m e n t.1
1
tio n
R o ss L. F in n e y , A S o c io lo g ic a l P h ilo s o o h v o f E d u ca (New Y o rk : T he M a c m illa n C om pany, 1 9 2 9 )» p«
2 H is to r ic a l and p h ilo s o p h ic a l a n a ly s is a p p e a rs n e ce s s a r y f o r c l e a r i n g u p some o f t h e c o n f u s i o n r e g a r d i n g s p e c i f i c m e th o d s o f t e a c h i n g ro o m .
It
and le a r n in g
i n t h e A m e ric a n c l a s s
i s r e a s o n a b l e t o a ssu m e t h a t t r u e p r o g r e s s i n a n y
e d u c a t i o n a l m e th o d o lo g y i s
h in d e r e d by l a c k o f i n s i g h t i n t o
t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h a t m e th o d .
C r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f th e
a s s u m p t i o n s o f a n y i m p l i e d m e th o d o lo g y s h o u l d p r o v e h e l p f u l . F in n e y w r i t e s : T h e re i s s t i l l a n o t h e r n e e d f o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l w o rk , an d one t h a t a r i s e s o u t o f th e v e ry n a tu re o f s c ie n t i f i c r e s e a r c h i t s e l f , n a m e ly , t o s c r u t i n i z e a n d r e c t i f y t h e a s s u m p t i o n s i n v o l v e d *2 I .
THE PROBLEM
S t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m . ( T he p u r p o s e o f t h i s w a s t o e x a m in e c r i t i c a l l y is
s tu d y
th e h i s t o r i c a l e v o lu tio n o f w hat
com m only know n t o d a y i n A m e ric a n e d u c a t i o n a s t h e p r o b le m
s o l v i n g m e t h o d . j ^ T h i s c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s w as d o n e t h r o u g h h i s t o r i c a l " ”r e s e a r c h - a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e n tire
d e v e l o p m e n t . J T he i n v e s t i g a t i o n t r i e d
to
f i n d a n sw e rs
to th e fo llo w in g p e r t i n e n t q u e s tio n s : 1.
F rom w h a t o r i g i n a l s o u r c e s d i d t h e p r o b le m
s o l v i n g m e th o d a s s u c h a r i s e ? 2.
2
To w h a t e x t e n t d i d t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d
F in n e y , l o c > c i t .
e m e rg e f r o m t h e
s c ie n tific
p ro c e d u re,
l.e * ,
th e in d u c tiv e
a s d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e p u r e l y d e d u c t i v e m e th o d o f r e a s o n i n g ? 3*
W hat a r e t h e b a s i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o r
a s s u m p tio n s u n d e rly in g 4.
W hat e a r l y
t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d ? t h i n k e r s , w r i t e r s o r e d u c a t o r s w e re
m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d ? A p p r o x i m a t e l y how g r e a t w a s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f e a c h o f th e s e ?
W hat h a v e b e e n t h e
c h a n g i n g c o n c e p t s o f t h e p r o b le m
s o l v i n g m e th o d ? 5* re se a rc h , 6*
How m uch v a l i d i t y ,
a s e v id e n c e d by s c i e n t i f i c
d o e s t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d h a v e ? How w id e a n i n f l u e n c e h a s i t
e x e r t e d o n A m e ric a n
e d u c a tio n ? 7*
W hat i s t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s a s r e g a r d s t h i s p a r
t i c u l a r m e th o d o lo g y ? 8.
Who a r e i t s
9*
W hat i m p l i c a t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s c a n b e o f f e r e d
a s h a v in g now a n d i n
l e a d i n g p r o t a g o n i s t s to d a y ?
s i g n i f ic a n c e f o r e d u c a tio n i n th e U n ite d S t a te s th e fu tu re ?
Im p o rta n c e o f th e p ro b le m * f o r th e fo llo w in g re a s o n s :
(l)
T h e p r o b le m i s
m e th o d s o f t e a c h i n g a r e t h e
v e ry b a s e s o f o u r e n t i r e e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e d u re * m e th o d s s h o u l d b e ,
o r s h o u ld n o t b e ,
is
c a tio n a l c i r c l e s a t th e p r e s e n t tim e . tio n
im p o rta n t
i s fro m a r e c e n t a u t h o r i t a t i v e
W hat t h e s e
a v i t a l is s u e in edu The f o l l o w i n g q u o t a
so u rc e:
k T he g o a l s o f t e a c h i n g i n a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y h a v e been f a i r l y w e ll c la r if ie d # T h e r e i s a n e e d now f o r r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s w h ic h w i l l a tte m p t to i d e n t i f y t h e ty p e s o r p a t t e r n s o f te a c h in g w h ic h a r e m o st c o m p a tib le w ith th e a tta in m e n t o f th e s e g o a ls * 3 T h u s,
a lo n g w ith t h e v a s t i n c r e a s e i n
th e
scope o f
e d u c a t i o n t h e r e g o e s t h e n e e d f o r a d j u s t i n g m e th o d s t o new c o n d itio n s *
T h e re seem s t o be a f u r t h e r n e e d , n o t o n ly f o r
e x a m in in g m e th o d s t o f i t
p r e s e n t- d a y e d u c a ti o n a l d em an d s,
b u t a l s o f o r e x a m in i n g p a s t m e th o d s i n o r d e r t o d e r i v e w ay s o f t e a c h i n g m o re n e a r l y c a l c u l a t e d t o f i t o u r e v e r-c h a n g in g c o n d itio n s *
P ro b le m -s o lv in g
m o re I m p o r t a n t e d u c a t i o n a l m e th o d s * g e n e r a l te rm s r e g a r d in g
th e p a tte r n s o f i s one o f th e
K ilp a tric k ,
w ritin g
in
th e p ro b le m -s o lv in g te c h n iq u e ,
s ta te s : We h a v e f o u n d t h e u s e o f p r o b le m w o rk i n c r e a s i n g i n e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e d u re p a r tly b e c a u se i t u t i l i z e s b e t t e r th e c o n d itio n s fa v o r a b le to le a r n in g , p a r t l y b eca u se i t b e t t e r s e r v e s to o r g a n iz e f o r th e l e a r n e r th e f i e l d o f a tte n tio n * A f a v o r a b l e s e t a n d r e a d i n e s s m ay b e e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e i n i t i a l i m p u l s e , a n d t h i s , b y w e ll- k n o w n p s y c h o l o g ic a l p r i n c i p l e s , i s l i k e l y to b e e n h a n c e d by t h e th w a r tin g w h ic h s e t s t h e p ro b le m . B e s id e s b o th t h e s e , a p r o b le m i t s e l f h a s a c h a l l e n g e w h i c h a r o u s e s t h e a l e r t m in d t o a p a r t i c u l a r e n d e a v o u r . F rom t h e s e th re e f a c to r s d i s t i n c t l y fa v o ra b le c o n d itio n s f o r le a r n i n g a r e m o re l i k e l y . ^
3
L i n d l e y J* S t i l e s , S t e p h e n M* C o r e y , a n d W a l t e r S . M o n ro e , " M e th o d s o f T e a c h i n g , " E n c y c l o p e d i a o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h ( W a l t e r S . M o n ro e , e d i t o r ; Hew Y o rk : T he M a c m illa n C om pany, 1 9 5 0 ) , p* 751*
k
W i l l i a m H e a rd . K i l p a t r i c k , F o u n d a t i o n s o f M e th o d (Hew Y o rk : T he M a c m illa n C om pany, 1 9 ^ 5 ) , P* 2^9*
( 2 ) T h e re i s
s till
a g r e a t am ount o f d o u b t a s to
th e s p e c if
i c e m p h a s i s t o b e p l a c e d e i t h e r u p o n m e th o d o lo g y o r u p o n c o n te n t* c le a rly is
T he r e l a t i v e s e ttle d .
im p o rta n c e o f e a c h h a s n o t b e e n
A c c o r d i n g t o D ew ey,
fo r in s ta n c e ,
m e th o d
" b u t a n e f f e c t i v e w ay o f e m p lo y in g som e m a t e r i a l f o r som e
end.M ethod, c o n te n t.
f o r D ew ey, i s n o t t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d fro m
I n u p h o l d i n g t h i s v i e w , Dewey s t r e s s e s t h e p r o b le m
s o l v i n g m e th o d i n h o w e v er, th e re
th e l e a r n in g p r o c e s s .
a r e n o t so c o n v in c e d ,
O th e r e d u c a to r s ,
and f o r t h i s r e a s o n a lo n e
s e e m s t o b e som e n e e d f o r a c l e a r e r r e a l i z a t i o n
p rin c ip le s
o f th e
i n v o l v e d i n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d o lo g y .
( 3 ) The v a l u e a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d h a v e b e e n e s p o u s e d b y m any l e a d i n g e d u c a t o r s i n t h i s c o u n try .
One o f th e m w r i t e s ,
" M a s te ry o f th e p r i n c i p l e s a n d
g e n e r a liz e d te c h n iq u e s in v o lv e d i n p ro b le m -s o lv in g th in k in g is
o n e o f t h e d e s i r e d o u tc o m e s o f e d u c a t i o n . " ^
p ro b le m -s o lv in g te c h n iq u e p re h e n s io n o f w hat i t f o r p re s e n t-d a y
is
i n w id e v o g u e ,
S in c e th e
a c l e a r e r com
I m p l i e s w o u ld seem t o h o l d s i g n i f i c a n c e
te a c h e rs .
A c c o rd in g t o R is k :
P u p il e x p e r ie n c e i s th e e s s e n t i a l l y Im p o rta n t p a r t o f a n y c l a s s w o rk . L e a rn in g i s a m a t t e r o f s e l f - a c t i v i t y
J o h n D ew ey, D e m o c ra c y a n d E d u c a t i o n T h e M a c m illa n C om pany, 1 9 2 5 ) , p* 11*
(New Y o rk :
^ W i l l i a m H. B u r t o n , "T h e P r o b l e m - S o l v i n g T e c h n i q u e , " E d u c a t i o n a l M e th o d , 1 ^ : 1 8 9 , J a n u a r y , F e b r u a r y , M a rc h , 1935*
6 on th e p a r t o f th e l e a r n e r to a c q u ir e d e s i r e d a d ju s t m e n ts o r t h e a b i l i t y t o m ake s a t i s f a c t o r y a d j u s t m e n t s to l i f e p ro b le m s . . . . T e a c h e rs m u st r e c o g n iz e th e f a c t t h a t i n l i f e p e o p l e do n o t r u n a r o u n d w i t h t e x t b o o k s u n d e r t h e i r a rm s r e c i t i n g a b o u t f a c t s t h e y f i n d th e re * T hey d e a l w i t h f a c t s a s t h e y a p p ly to l i f e p r o b le m s * The s c h o o l m u s t g i v e p u p i l s t r a i n i n g i n such e x p e r ie n c e s .' F rom t h e f o r e g o i n g in g t o e s t a b l i s h
q u o ta tio n s
th e Im p o rta n c e o f t r y
th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o r v a l i d i t y
o f so im
p o r t a n t a te c h n iq u e a s p ro b le m -s o lv in g c an b e s e e n . (^ )
T h e re i s a n e e d ,
i n v ie w o f t h e p r e s e n t a n d e v e r-g ro w in g
c o n f l i c t i n e d u c a tio n ,
f o r m o re d a t a c o n c e r n i n g o n e o f t h e
m o re p r o m i n e n t d e v i c e s e m p lo y e d a s a t e a c h i n g m e th o d o lo g y i n t h e A m e ric a n s c h o o l r o o m . te a c h e r can b e s t u t i l i z e s h o u ld f i n d i t
I t s e e m s l o g i c a l t o a s k how t h e
m e th o d o f a n y k i n d .
v a lu a b le to
e x a m in e c r i t i c a l l y
e v o l u t i o n o f a t e c h n i q u e w h ic h i s u sag e.
in
T ea ch e rs th e h i s t o r i c a l
s u c h w id e a n d c u r r e n t
B u rto n s t a t e s :
T he m ode o f p r o c e d u r e c a l l e d ” p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g ” r e g a r d e d e i t h e r a s a m e th o d o f t e a c h i n g o r a m e th o d o f l e a r n in g , h a s b e en p r e s e n t in v a r io u s fo rm s a n d g u is e s u n d e r v a r i o u s nam es s in c e e a r l i e s t tim e s . T he m e th o d u se d b y S o c r a te s in h i s a t t a c k upon v a r io u s s o c i a l p r o b l e m s h a s m any e l e m e n t s i n common w i t h w h a t we now c a l l p ro b le m -s o lv in g . The m e th o d w as i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y f o r m a liz e d f o r s c h o o l p u r p o s e s i n m a th e m a tic s b u t i n m o d e rn t i m e s h a s u n d e r g o n e g r e a t d e v e l o p m e n t a n d b een a p p lie d in a l l f i e l d s . y
7
T hom as M. R i s k , P r i n c i p l e s a n d P r a c t i c e s o f T e a c h i n g i n t h e S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s (New Y o rk : A m e ric a n B ook C om pany, 1 9 ^ 7 )» p* ^ 8 . 8 W i l l i a m H. B u r t o n , o p . c l t . , p . 1 9 0 .
7 M e l v i n , a r e c e n t w o r k e r I n m e th o d s o f t e a c h i n g , s t r e s s e s t h e n e e d f o r k n o w le d g e I n i n s t r u c t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s * He w r i t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g a s a d v i e e t o
te a c h e rs :
C o n s e q u e n t l y i t i s o f m a j o r I m p o r ta n c e t h a t t h e s t u d y o f m e th o d s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r t a k e n w i t h o u t c a r e f u l m e d ita tio n . T e a c h e r s m u st s e e t h e i r t e a c h i n g a s a w h o le b e f o r e t h e y c a n u n d e r s t a n d i t s p a r t s * 9 ( 5 ) I t w o u ld a p p e a r ,
i n v ie w o f th e w id e - s p r e a d u s a g e a n d
p r o m in e n c e o f th e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g te a c h in g
s itu a tio n s ,
u a tio n o f i t s ta n c e .
It
te c h n iq u e i n l e a r n in g an d
t h a t a c r i t i c a l a n d c o m p r e h e n s iv e e v a l
g e n e s i s a n d s u b s t r u c t u r e w o u ld a s s u m e im p o r
I s p ro b a b le
t h a t n o t e c h n i q u e o r m e th o d m ay b e
f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d o r a p p r e c i a t e d w i t h o u t som e i n s i g h t i n t o its
b a c k g ro u n d *
M o rris o n s t a t e s : C -... 7' So i t i s w i t h u s s c h o o l m a s t e r s . W h e th e r we r e a l i z e i t o r n o t , o u r c r a f t a s e x e r c i s e d an d o u r p ro b le m s a r e s t a t e d c h i e f l y i n c t e r m s o f t h e s y s te m o f t h e J e s u i t se c o n d a ry s c h o o ls o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry . . . . M ore t h a n t h a t , e v e r y t i m e we d e v i s e a s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t , a n d m o s t t i m e s w hen we c a r r y t h r o u g h a p e d a g o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t , we a r e t r y i n g t o l e a r n how b e t t e r t o c a r r y I n t o e f f e c t t h e s y s te m o f t h e J e s u i t s , who a f t e r a l l w e re s u p r e m e l y g o o d s c h o o l m a s t e r s , w h a t e v e r we may t h i n k o f t h e i r t h e o r y o f e d u c a t i o n . E ven s o , i t i s f a r b e t t e r t h a t we s h o u l d c o n s i s t e n t l y f o l l o w t h a t s y s te m t h a n t o l a p s e i n t o t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a o s o f n o s y s te m a t a l l . 3 *0 B ecau se o f th e s e o b s e r v a tio n s ,
Y o rk :
th e re fo re *
a s to th e
9 A . G o rd o n M e l v i n , M e th o d s f o r Hew S c h o o l s (Hew T he J o h n B ay C om pany, 1 9 ^ 1 )> p* 5*
^ H e n r y C. M o rris o n , B a s ic P r i n c i p l e s o f E d u c a tio n (N ew Y o rk : H o u g h to n M i f f l i n C om pany, 193**) * P* 5*
8 v a lu e an d n e c e s s ity o f an h i s t o r i c a l an d p h ilo s o p h ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e ,
i t m ay b e c o n t e n d e d t h a t a r e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s
p r o b le m c a n m ake a c o n t r i b u t i o n c ritic is m
to e d u c a tio n .
and e v a lu a tio n th a t th e v a li d i ty
i s by
and p ra g m a tic
w o r t h o f a n y t e a c h i n g m e th o d may b e p r o p e r l y T h is p a r t i c u l a r s tu d y i s
It
s u b s ta n tia te d .
an a tte m p t a t an h i s t o r i c a l an d
p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d . II. F o re w o rd . fo rm a l lo g ic ,
DEFIN ITION S OF TERMS USED In o p p o s itio n to
a p ro c e d u r e w o rk e d o u t b y
t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y w o u ld r a t h e r u s e t h a t
ty p e o f lo g ic p e c u l i a r to
p r a g m a ti s m .
I t is
hoped t h a t
l o g i c a l fo rm s a n d d e f i n i t i o n s w i l l a c c ru e fro m th e s u b je c t m a tte r (o r d is c u s s io n )
as i t p ro g re sse s,
p re su p p o se d a s in fo rm a l lo g ic . • i n d u c t i o n 1 a n d 1s c i e n t i f i c
I n s t e a d o f b e in g
T he m e a n in g s o f t h e
in q u iry *
te rm s
w i l l d e v e lo p a s a r e
s u l t o f th e a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta o f t h i s in v e s tig a tio n . B e c a u se o f t h e s e m a n tic d i f f i c u l t y w h ic h o b t a i n s i n th e f i e l d m o lo g y , a ll,
fro m w h ic h p r o b le m - s o lv in g d e r i v e s ,
c e rta in
te rm s m u st b e c a r e f u l l y d e f in e d .
a lth o u g h i t
p ro b le m -s o lv in g
a te a c h in g ,
seem s o b v io u s , is
fo c u s e d upon i t s is
i.e .,
c o m p le x .
e p is te -
F irs t o f
i t m u st be s a i d t h a t
The e m p h a s i s i n
th is
e p is te m o lo g le a l Im p lic a tio n s ,
s tu d y i s
a lth o u g h i t
a n d e v e n p e r h a p s a c u r r ic u lu m , p ro b le m .
I t w as n e c e s s a r y t o b r e a k u p t h e s u b j e c t I n t o v a r i o u s
9 s e c tio n s f o r I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y # f r o m tim e t o
t i m e w hen i t
O th e r d e f i n i t i o n s - w e re ad d ed
w as c o n s id e r e d n e c e s s a r y *
w h ic h e v e r c o n te x t th e te rm p r o b le m - s o lv in g w as u s e d , When i t
In an e f
f o r t w a s m ade t o a c k n o w le d g e i t
so.
i s a ls o b ro u g h t
t o m in d t h a t m any p h i l o s o p h i e s ,
s o m e tim e s d i v e r g e n t o n e s ,
c o n tr i b u te d to p r o b le m - s o lv in g ,
th e n e c e s s ity f o r c a u tio u s
w o r d in g i s a p p a r e n t . F o r th e
d e f i n i t i o n s o f 11p r o b l e m ” a n d “ p r o b l e m
s o l v i n g , ” D ew ey*s c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r t e r m s w e r e e m p lo y e d .
J o h n D ew ey*s nam e i s p e r h a p s m o re c l o s e l y a s s o
c ia te d w ith th e f i e l d it
is
o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g th a n any o t h e r ,
o n ly r i g h t t h a t h i s d e f i n i t i o n s be u s e d .
d ire c tly
f ro m h i s p r a g m a t i c
and
T h e y s te m
p h i l o s o p h y w h ic h p r o f e s s e s a
m o n is tic e p is te m o lo g y g ro u n d e d i n e x p e r ie n c e .
To d e r i v e t h e
b e n e f i t o f D ew ey*s e a r l i e r a s w e l l a s h i s l a t e r t h o u g h t , b o t h e d i t i o n s o f h i s g r e a t w o rk , How We T h i n k , w e r e u s e d . I f Dewey* s m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g w e r e u s e d i n t h e s c h o o lr o o m a s he s u g g e s t s , t h e n i n s t r u c t i o n , c u r r i c u l u m a n d l e a r n i n g w o u ld b e c e n t e r e d u p o n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g . p ro ac h i s
H is a p
a u n i q u e o n e , f o r Dewey h o l d s t h a t p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
e m e r g e s fro m s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h p r o v o k e i t l o g i c a l to p ro v id e
and hence i t
is
s i t u a t i o n s i n t h e c l a s s r o o m w h i c h w o u ld
a c t a s s t i m u l i f o r r e f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g , a p h r a s e w h ic h h e e q u a te s w ith p ro b le m -s o lv in g . S itu a tio n *
P ro b le m -s o lv in g ,
a c c o r d i n g t o D ew ey, m u s t
10 be lo g ic a l
(in h is
sen se)
a n d m u st a r i s e fro m a s i t u a t i o n
w h ic h dem ands r e s o l u t i o n .
A i m le s s d i s p e r s i v e t h i n k i n g i s
n o t p ro b le m -s o lv in g .
He s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f
th o u g h t s p r i n g s fro m a s i t u a t i o n ity .
of d iffic u lty
o r p e rp le x
He w r i t e s : T h i n k i n g b e g i n s i n w h a t may f a i r l y e n o u g h b e c a l l e d -•* a f o r k e d - r o a d s i t u a t i o n , a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h i s a m b ig u o u s , w h ic h p r e s e n t s a d ile m m a , w h i c h p r o p o s e s a l t e r n a t i v e s . As l o n g a s o u r a c t i v i t y g l i d e s s m o o t h ly a l o n g fro m one t h i n g t o a n o t h e r . . . t h e r e i s no c a l l f o r r e f l e c t i o n . D i f f i c u l t y o r o b s t r u c t i o n i n t h e w ay o f r e a c h i n g a b e l i e f b r i n g s u s , h o w e v e r , t o a p a u s e . 11 H e re,
th e n ,
s o l v i n g m e th o d *
is
If
s e e n t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h e p r o b le m
t h e r e i s no s i t u a t i o n
of d iffic u lty
or
p e rp le x ity ,
t h o u g h t b e c o m e s a i m l e s s , b u t , a s Dewey w r i t e s
fu rth e r,
.
w.
be re s o lv e d , to a d e f in ite
. a q u e s tio n to b e a n sw e red , s e t s up an e n d an d h o ld s th e c h a n n e l.”
s o l v i n g f o r Dewey i s
12
an a m b ig u ity to c u rre n t o f id e a s
T hus th e b e g in n in g
o f p r o b le m
a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h may b e d e f i n e d a s
one o f d oubt o r p e r p le x ity o r a s t a te
o f c o n f u s i o n w h ic h d e
m an d s r e s o l u t i o n ,
t h e w h o le I s a n i n
a n d , a s he s e e s I t ,
t e r r e l a t e d p r o c e s s w h ic h c a n n o t b e a r b i t r a r i l y e x p e rie n c e .
Of t h i s e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n
s e p a r a t e d fro m
he w r i t e s :
T he c o n c e p t i o n s o f s i t u a t i o n a n d i n t e r a c t i o n a r e i n s e p a r a b le fro m e a c h o t h e r . An e x p e r i e n c e i s a lw a y s w h a t i t I s b e c a u s e o f a t r a n s a c t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e b e tw e e n
J o h n D ew ey, How We T h in k (New Y o rk : a n d C om pany, 1 9 3 3 )* P* 1^*
12
L oc. c i t .
D. C. H e a th
11 th e i n d i v i d u a l a n d w h a t, a t t h e tim e , c o n s t i t u t e s h i s e n v iro n m e n t. * . . T he e n v i r o n m e n t . . . i s w h a t e v e r c o n d itio n s i n te r a c t w ith p e rs o n a l n e e d s, d e s i r e s , p u r p o s e s , a n d c a p a c i t i e s t o c r e a t e t h e e x p e r i e n c e w h ic h i s h a d . 3*3 T h is c o n c e p t o f s i t u a t i o n h i s own l o g i c
i s a d i r e c t i n f e r e n c e fro m
i n w h ic h he h o ld s t h a t a l l l o g i c a l th o u g h t
e m e rg e s fro m e x p e r ie n c e a n d t h a t e x p e rie n c e b r i n g s to i t l o g i c a l fo rm s an d s ta n d a rd s *
T he s i t u a t i o n ,
th e n , i s
th e
i n c e p t i o n o f D ew ey1s p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g c o n c e p t a n d w i l l b e so c o n s tru e d . P ro b le m * c ific th e
s itu a tio n
s itu a tio n .
To D ew ey a p r o b le m
i n d i v i d u a l l y g ro u n d e d an d i s d e p e n d e n t upon F or in s ta n c e , ra in
t e r e d hum an b e i n g i s a s i t u a t i o n m a in in g d r y , w h ic h c a n b e
s itu a tio n
upon a n u n s h e l
e v o k in g t h e p r o b l e m o f r e
s o lu tio n s .
A n o th e r i n s t a n c e o f
i s t h a t o f a man l o s t
I n b o th c a s e s th e p e rso n in tio n
fa llin g
s o lv e d b y e r e c tin g a s h e l t e r ,
s e e k in g o n e , o r o th e r l i k e a p ro b le m a tic
i s o c c a s io n e d by a sp e
i n t h e w oods.
q u e s tio n m u st s e e k f o r a s o lu
t o t h e p r o b l e m w h ic h i s p o s e d b y h i s s i t u a t i o n .
d e fin e s
'p r o b le m *
Dewey
a s fo llo w s :
. . . i f we a r e w i l l i n g t o e x t e n d t h e m e a n in g o f t h e w o r d p r o b le m t o w h a t e v e r — n o m a t t e r how s l i g h t a n d c o m m o n p la c e i n c h a r a c t e r — p e r p l e x e s a n d c h a l l e n g e s t h e m in d s o t h a t i t m a k e s b e l i e f a t a l l u n c e r t a i n , t h e r e
J o s e p h R a t n e r , e d i t o r , I n t e l l i g e n c e i n th e M o d ern W o rld — J o h n Dewey * s P h i l o s o n h v (Hew Y o rk : T he M o d e m L i b r a r y , 1 9 3 9 )* P* 66$*
12 i s a g e n u i n e p r o b le m o r q u e s t i o n i n v o l v e d i n p e r i e n c e o f su d d e n change* ^
th is ex
I t m u st b e m e n tio n e d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a in t h a t f o r Dewey a p r o b l e m g r o w s o u t o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d i s p a rt of i t .
an in te g r a l
T h e r e c a n b e n o d ic h o t o m o u s t h i n k i n g
v i t a l is s u e , f o r i t t h is p o in t f u r th e r :
is
th e c ru x o f h i s th e o ry .
a s itu a tio n
e x p e r ie n c e w h ic h l i t e r a l l y (th e le a r n e r in
on t h i s
To e l u c i d a t e
o c c u rs In an I n d iv id u a l^
f o r c e s th e e x p e rie n c in g a g e n t
th e e d u c a tio n a l s e n s e )
to
s e e k a n a n sw e r.
11The p r o b l e m f i x e s t h e e n d o f t h o u g h t a n d t h e e n d c o n t r o l s th e p ro c e ss o f th in k in g . “ I n t h i s , l i g h t a n d f r o m D ew ey f s d e f i n i t i o n , may b e f u r t h e r
th o u g h t o f a s a s t a t e
g ro w s o u t o f a s i t u a t i o n th e o ry i s
o f u n c e r t a i n t y w h ic h
in d iv id u a lly e x p e rie n c e d .
so m e w h at a n a l o g o u s t o t h e
T h is
1f i e l d t h e o r y 1 o f t h e
G - e s t a l t i s t w h ic h h o ld s t h a t t h e r e a r e l i v i n g w h ic h m u s t i n
a p r o b le m
te n s io n s c au se d by
som e w a y , r e f l e c t i v e l y
o r o th e rw is e , be
r e d u c e d , s o t h a t t h e hum an o r g a n is m c a n a c h i e v e t h e lib r iu m , w h ic h , b e c a u s e o f I t s v e r y n a tu r e ,
e q u i
i t m u s t a lw a y s
seek. T he p r o b l e m b e i n g f a c e d t h e n d e m a n d s a s o l u t i o n a n d t h e a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f t h i s d em an d b e c o m e s t h e n e x t s t e p i n
J o h n D ew ey, How We T h i n k , o p . c l t . , p .
15 I b ia . , p. 15-
13*
13 th e
re fle c tiv e
p ro c e ss.
P ro b le m -s o lv in g .
It
has been seen th a t a s itu a t io n
f o r Dewey w as p a r t o f a h o l i s t i c u a l e x p e rie n c e *
P rom t h i s
w h ic h dem anded r e s o l u t i o n . in g e n su e d ,
p ro c e ss lin k e d to
s itu a tio n
th e re
B ecau se o f t h i s
a n d , a s D ew ey w r i t e s ,
e m e rg e d a p r o b le m p ro b le m ,
th e p r o c e s s o f t h i n k i n g . 9
i n m in d i f
any c o g en t d e f i n i t i o n
th in k
th e l e i t m o t i f w as th e
ri p r o b le m ” w h ic h 9f i x e s t h e e n d o f t h o u g h t a n d t h e tro ls
in d iv id
end co n -
I h l s p o in t m ust b e h e ld o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g i s d e
s ire d . A c c o r d i n g t o D ew ey, p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g jLs t h i n k i n g , o r a s he c a l l s
it,
re fle c tio n ,
and i t
I s p a r t o f th e
sam e c o n
tin u u m w h i c h c o m p r i s e d b o t h s i t u a t i o n a n d p r o b le m a s a l r e a d y e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f D ew eyf s p h i l o s o p h y , o r m o re s p e c i f i c a lly ,
h i s e p is te m o lo g y . D ewey u s e s t h e
te rm r e f l e c t i v e
th in k in g
s y n o n y m o u s ly
w i t h p r o b le m - s o lv in g , w h ic h h e d e f i n e s a s f o l lo w s : . . . r e f l e c t i v e th in k in g , in d i s t i n c t i o n fro m o th e r o p e r a t i o n s t o w h i c h w e a p p l y t h e nam e o f t h o u g h t , i n v o lv e s ( l ) a s t a t e o f d o u b t, h e s i t a t i o n , p e r p l e x i t y , m e n t a l d i f f i c u l t y , i n w h ic h t h i n k i n g o r i g i n a t e s , a n d ( 2 ) an a c t o f s e a r c h in g , h u n tin g , i n q u ir in g , to f i n d m a te r ia l t h a t w i l l r e s o l v e th e d o u b t, s e t t l e an d d i s p o se o f th e p e r p l e x i t y . 17 I n v ie w o f t h e f o r e g o i n g d e f i n i t i o n ,
16 17
J o h n D ew ey, l o c * c l £ . I b i d * , p* 1 2 .
p ro b le m -s o lv in g
w i l l be e q u a te d w ith r e f l e c t i v e th o u g h t. tio n in i t s
A b s tra c t r e f le c
t r a d i t i o n a l c o n n o ta tio n i s c a te g o r ic a lly rep u
d i a t e d b y Dewey*
R e f le c tio n i s p ro b le m -so lv in g and i s
th a t
p h a se o f a c o n ti n u a l p r o c e s s u n d erg o n e b y e a c h i n d i v i d u a l in a life -tim e
o f e x p erien c e*
S p e c ific a lly a p p lie d to
th e
s c h o o l room ,
situ a tio n s
w o u ld b e so d e v i s e d fro m e a c h l e a r n e r ' s
e x p e rie n c e th a t
p r o b l e m s w o u l d b e s e t b e f o r e e a c h o ne*
T h e n , w hen f i n d i n g
some a n s w e r t o be u n d e rg o in g
t h e p r o b le m s t h u s p o s e d , t h e l e a r n e r w o u ld th e p ro cess of r e f le c tiv e
way, p r o b le m - s o lv in g becom es and w ith i t ,
In th is
b o th i n s t r u c t i o n and le a r n in g ,
c u r r i c u lu m a s w e ll*
M e th o d * fic a tio n *
th o u g h t*
One l a s t
te rm i s d e f in e d f o r f u r t h e r c l a r i
To p o i n t o u t a c o n t r a s t t o D e w e y 's c o n c e p t i o n o f
m eth o d a n o t h e r t y p i c a l d e f i n i t i o n
is
in c lu d e d .
R isk d e f in e s
m eth o d a s : A way o f r e a c h i n g a g i v e n e n d b y a s e r i e s o f a c t s w h ic h te n d t o s e c u r e i t * M e th o d i m p l i e s a r r a n g e m e n t * C o n se q u e n tly i t s u se h a s b een a p p l i e d t o a n o r d e r l y p ro ced u re. The t e r m s h o u l d b e , a n d h a s b e e n , a p p l i e d to o r d e r ly p ro c e d u re s t h a t have b een a d o p te d o r d e v ise d fo r t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f som e e n d . 1** D ew ey,
how ever, w ages a d i r e c t p o lem ic
he c a l l s np r o f e s s e d l y
R isk ,
19
'lo g ic a l*
m e th o d s .ttl9
He a d v o c a t e s a
op* c l t * , p . 45*
D ew ey , How We T h i n k , o p .
a g a in s t w hat
c i t . , p. 82.
15 m eth o d w h ic h w i l l r e a l i z e
and g e a r i t s e l f
e x p e rie n c e s o f each le a rn e r*
to
th e n a t u r a l
E ach t e a c h e r m ust b e aw are:
T h a t w h ic h i s s t r i c t l y l o g i c a l fro m t h e s t a n d p o in t o f s u b je c t m a tte r r e a l l y r e p r e s e n t s th e c o n c lu s io n s o f a n e x p e r t t r a i n e d m in d* T he d e f i n i t i o n s ! d i v i s i o n s , and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f th e c o n v e n tio n a l te x t r e p r e s e n t t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s b o i l e d down* The o n l y w ay i n w h i c h a p e r s o n c a n r e a c h a b i l i t y t o m ake a c c u r a t e d e f i n i t i o n s , p e n e t r a t i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , a n d c o m p re h e n s iv e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , i s by t h i n k i n g a l e r t l y a n d c a r e f u l l y on h i s own p r e s e n t l e v e l . 20 M e t h o d , f o r D ew ey,
i s p a r t o f t h e w h o le p r o c e s s o f
p ro b le m -so lv in g o r r e f l e c t i v e
th in k in g , b u t in t h i s phase
th e te a c h e r i s
co n ce rn e d w ith th e in c e p tio n and g u id a n c e o f
th e r e f l e c t i v e
th o u g h t.
By J u d i c i o u s l y s e l e c t i n g
situ a tio n s
b u i l t aro u n d in d iv id u a l e x p e rie n c e and by a p r o g r e s s iv e p ro m o tio n o f th e s e
situ a tio n s,
a b o d y o f k n o w le d g e c a n b e d e
r i v e d b e n e f i c i a l to e d u c a to r and educand
a lik e .
M e th o d i s
a w ise c o m b in a tio n o f th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l and t h e l o g i c a l . It
is
th is
th e
te a c h e r* s p a r t in p ro b le m -so lv in g .
Dewey a r g u e s
case f u rth e r: . T he a im o f e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d b e t o s e c u r e a b a l a n c e d I n t e r a c t i o n * • . h a v in g s u f f i c i e n t r e g a r d to th e d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l n o t to ham per a n d c r i p p l e w h a t e v e r p o w e r s s ire n a t u r a l l y s t r o n g i n h i m . E very o p p o rtu n ity th a t o c cu rs w ith in p r a c t ic a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r d e v e lo p in g c u r i o s i t y and s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to i n t e l l e c t u a l p ro b le m s s h o u l d b e s e i z e d . 21 To sum i t u p , m ethod, i s
D ew ey,
lo o * c l t *
22T b l d . , p .
229.
t h e d o m a in o f t h e t e a c h e r a s
16 p ro b le m -s o lv in g I s t h a t o f th e le a rn e r*
B o th , how ever, a r e
e n g a g e d i n a common p u r s u i t o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g g e a r e d t o e a c h m a t u r a t i o n l e v e l so t h a t f r o m r e f l e c t i v e
th in k in g th e re
w i l l o c c u r g e n u in e e d u c a t i o n a l g ro w th . Ill*
THE SCOPE OF THE STUDX
H isto ric a l lim ita tio n s * b a sic a lly
T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n was
c o n ce rn e d w ith th e o v e r - a l l p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e
e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m eth o d a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d fro m o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s e m p lo y ed i n t h e p rocess*
te a c h in g and le a rn in g
The f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e b y w h i c h t h i s
g u id e d , a n d fro m w h ic h i t
d rew i t s
s t u d y w as
b a sic p o s tu la te s ,
a r o u n d t h e g e n e s i s o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d * e r a r e c e iv e d undue e m p h a sis u n le s s n e c e s s a r y , one f i g u r e
re c e iv e
to o m uch p ro m in e n c e i n
th is
re v o lv e d
No o n e
n o r d id any stu d y .
A ll
serv ed , r a th e r ,
a s a b a ck g ro u n d in a c o n tin u o u s p r o c e s s ,
d a tin g fro m th e
e a rlie s t
c o n c e p ts o f th e p ro b le m -s o lv in g
te c h n iq u e to th e p r e s e n t tim e . T h a t t h e r e w o u ld b e g a p s i n o b v io u s,
s u c h a t r e a t m e n t seem s
but th e ta s k of h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a rc h i s to p roceed
i n an o r d e r l y m e th o d .
C o n c e rn in g t h e h i s t o r i c a l m eth o d
W h itn e y s t a t e s : P e r t i n e n t e v id e n c e i s so u g h t on t h e v a l u e o f l i k e l y s o l u t i o n s , w h ic h becom e c o n c lu d in g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f m o re o r l e s s p e r m a n e n t v a l u e f o r p r o g n o s i s . The s c i e n t i f i c h i s t o r i a n , h ow ever, k e e p s t h e s e o p e n -m in d e d ly
17 te n ta ti v e f o r m o d ific a tio n In th e d isc o v e ry o f a d d i t i o n a l a n d b e t t e r s o u r c e s . 22 S in c e m ost h i s t o r i a n s a g re e is
t h a t m an * s d e v e l o p m e n t
i n th e n a t u r e o f a c o n tin u u m , a n d t h a t no e v e n t o c c u r s
i n a vacuum #
t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h e r m ust a r b i t r a r i l y d e
l i m i t one f i e l d ,
p e rh a p s a t th e expense o f o th e r s .
so i n o r d e r t o p u r s u e one p a t h l o g i c a l l y w ith th e hope o f a d d in g ,
to i t s
i n sm a ll m easu re, to
t i o n s o f k n o w le d g e on t h e
su b je c t.
He d o e s
c o n c lu sio n
th e a c c r e
G o od, B a r r a n d S c a t e s
d e fe n d t h i s v ie w p o in t: H is to ry d e n o te s any e f f o r t to r e c o u n t any a s p e c t o f th e p a s t l i f e o f m an k in d , s u c h a s w a r, d ip lo m a c y , a r t , i n s t i t u t i o n s , t r a v e l , s c ie n c e , In d u s try , b io g rap h y , o r th o u g h t. T h e re fo re , th e p o s s ib le f i e l d o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h i s a s b r o a d a s l i f e i t s e l f . 23 W ith t h e
i m p e r f e c t i o n s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l m eth o d o f
r e s e a r c h i n m in d ,
th is in v e s tig a to r a r b itr a r ily
m a rc a tio n as fo llo w s : t i o n o f p ro b le m -so lv in g S o c ra te s, w rite rs;
th e in v e s tig a tio n tr a c e d th e th r o u g h (1 )
P la to and A r i s t o t l e ; (3 )
s c ie n tific
s e t up a de e v o lu
th e e a r ly G re ek s, v i z . ,
( 2 ) th e im p o rta n t m e d ie v a l
th e e r a o f th e R e n a is s a n c e a n d th e em ergence o f
in q u iry ; and f i n a l l y ,
(4)
t h e m odern e r a .
W h ile
p e r h a p s som e p h a s e s w e r e o v e r - e m p h a s i z e d a n d o t h e r s n e g l e c t e d ,
(New Y o r k : 23
F r e d e r i c k L am so n W h i t n e y , The E l e m e n t s o f R e s e a r c h P r e n t l c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 3 7 / 7 p* 309*
C a r t e r V. G o o d , A l e x a n d e r S. B a r r , a n d D o u g l a s E . S c a t e s , T h e M e t h o d o l o g y o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h (New Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y C om pany, 1 9 3 6 ) , P* 2&L.
18 th e p u rp o se re m a in e d to f i n d
th e c l e a r e s t p o s s ib le
a n a ly sis
o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d * P h i l o so p h i o a l l i m i t a t i o n s *
T h is
stu d y c o n f in e d i t
s e l f t o e x a m in in g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v in g te c h n iq u e .
The a t t e m p t w a s m ade t o p r e s e n t t h e u n d e r l y i n g
a s s u m p tio n s a s g a t h e r e d fro m th e p rim a ry e x p o n e n ts o f th e sc ie n tific
m e th o d a s a t e c h n i q u e o f t h e l e a r n i n g
p ro cess.
P ro m t h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s a c o n c e n s u s o f t h e b a s i c p o s t u l a t e s w as draw n an d i n t e r p r e t e d w h e n e v e r i t f o r e x p o sitio n .
w a s. d e e m e d n e c e s s a r y
No o n e p h i l o s o p h y w a s p r o p o u n d e d , t h e i n
t e n t i o n b e in g
t o t r a c e down t h e a g r e e d - u p o n a n d m o s t i m p o r
ta n t te n e ts .
T he e m p h a s i s w a s t o w a r d s c o n t r i b u t i n g c l a r i t y
and p re c is io n . T he p h i l o s o p h y u n d e r l y i n g p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g i s a l l i e d to
th a t o f th e s c i e n t i f i c
c lo se ly
o r i n d u c t i v e m eth o d o f r e a
s o n in g w h ic h s e e k s e m p i r i c a l v a l i d a t i o n f o r i t s
p o stu la te s*
T h e r e w e r e many e x p o n e n t s a n d many d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e tific
m e th o d *
proved i t s
W h ile p r a g m a t i c a l l y t h i s m e th o d seem s to h a v e
w o r t h , t h e r e a r e s t i l l t h o s e who a t t a c k i t
c o n c lu s iv e m eans f o r s e e k in g an d e s t a b l i s h i n g The r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f t h e tra d ic tio n
as a
tru th .
i n d u c t i v e m eth o d i n con
to th e d e d u c tiv e te c h n iq u e a s a so u rc e o f se e k in g
k n o w le d g e d i d n o t e n t e r i n t o p ro b lem .
sc ie n
th is
i n v e s t i g a t i o n a s a p rim a ry
T he a b s o l u t e p o s i t i o n o r v a l u e o f e a c h h a s y e t t o
19 be d e te rm in e d .
T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n l i m i t e d i t s e l f
to ex
p l o r i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h o s e m e t a p h y s ic a l p r i n c i p l e s from w h ic h th e p r o b le m - s o lv in g te c h n iq u e c o n c e p t a r i s e s . T here i s n e ed f o r r e s e a r c h i n
th is area.
F in n e y
d e s c r ib e s th e v a lu e o f su c h r e s e a r c h a s fo llo w s : T here i s s t i l l a n o t h e r n eed f o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l w ork, and one t h a t a r i s e s o u t o f th e v e ry n a tu r e o f s c ie n t i f i c r e s e a r c h i t s e l f , n a m e ly , t o s c r u t i n i z e a n d r e c t i f y t h e a s s u m p tio n s I n v o l v e d . . . . A l l s c i e n t i f i c w ork i s u n a v o id a b ly s h o t th ro u g h w i t h a ssu m p tio n s . I n M ath e m a tic s th o s e a ssu m p tio n s a re o v e r tly re c o g n iz e d a s a x io m s. I n t h e f i e l d s o f t h e new h u m a n i t i e s t h i s e l e m ent r e q u i r e s v e r y s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n , b e c a u s e th e a s s u m p t i o n s a r e s o v e r y l i k e l y t o e s c a p e t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r 1s n o tic e . ^ P h ilo so p h ic a l re s e a rc h is its
ta sk .
T h a t t h e r e a r e many o p p o s i n g v i e w p o i n t s i n t h e
p h ilo s o p h y o f e d u c a tio n search .
l i m i t e d by t h e n a t u r e o f
seem s I n h e r e n t i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e
T he t a s k o f t h i s
in v e s tig a tio n c e n te re d i t s e l f in
s e e k i n g some p a t t e r n w h i c h w o u l d b e o f h e l p f o r e d u c a t i o n to d a y by th e tiv e
c o n so lid a tio n of c e r ta in
b a s ic c o n c e p ts r e l a
t o t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m eth o d . In te rp re ta tiv e
lim ita tio n s.
S in c e t h i s i n v e s t i g a
t i o n was p h i l o s o p h i c a l a s w e l l a s h i s t o r i c a l i n n a t u r e ,
cer
t a i n w e l l- d e f in e d l i m i t s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w ere s e t up.
In
th is
stu d y as l i t t l e
s i b l e was d o n e .
in te rp o la tio n
o r e x tra p o la tio n
T h e e f f o r t w as m ade t o l i m i t
24 F in n e y , op. c i t . ,
p p . 14-15*
th e
as pos
in te rp re -
20 ta tlo n
to a s r i g i d a consonance w ith th e id e a s of th e le a d
in g p h ilo s o p h e rs as p o s s ib le , in o rd e r to e f f e c t a c o n s o li d a tio n o f c o n c e p ts . ta tiv e
fu n c tio n ,
re se a rc h in to In lin e
Some s p a c e w a s d e v o t e d t o t h e i n t e r p r e
b u t t h e b u l k o f t h e w o rk was c o n f i n e d t o
b a sic m a te ria ls . w i t h C r a w f o r d 1s c o n c e p t i o n o f r e s e a r c h ,
t e r p r e t a t i o n a s s u c h was l i m i t e d .
in
C raw ford s a y s :
R e s e a r c h i s sim p ly a s y s te m a tic a n d r e f i n e d t e c h n ic o f t h i n k i n g , e m p lo y in g s p e c i a l i z e d t o o l s , in s tr u m e n ts a n d p r o c e d u r e i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a m o re a d e q u a t e s o l u t i o n o f a p ro b le m t h a n w o u ld b e p o s s i b l e u n d e r o r d i n a r y m eans. I t s t a r t s w i t h a p ro b le m , c o l l e c t s d a t a o r f a c t s , a n a ly z e s th e se c r i t i c a l l y , and re a c h e s d e c is io n s b a s e d on th e a c t u a l e v id e n c e . I t in v o lv e s o r ig in a l w ork i n s t e a d o f m ere e x e r c i s e o f p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n . It e v o l v e s f r o m a g e n u i n e d e s i r e t o know — r a t h e r t h a n a d e s i r e to p ro v e so m e th in g . * T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n
lim ite d i t s e l f to an e x p o s itio n o f
th e d a t a t h a t w ere g a t h e r e d . sid e ra tio n ,
O b j e c t i v i t y was a p r im a r y con
w ith th e r e a l i z a t i o n
in v o lv e d ,
how ever,
th a t
some s u b j e c t i v i t y w a s u n a v o i d a b l e . IV .
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
In tro d u c to ry c h a p te rs . cern s o rg a n iz a tio n ,
T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
i s lo g ic a lly d iv id e d in to
a s con
fo u r p a rts .
P a r t I i n c l u d e s t h e f i r s t t h r e e c h a p t e r s w h ic h s e r v e a s g e n e r a l b ack g ro u n d and in tr o d u c tio n
25
to t h i s
stu d y :
C h a p te r I ,
Q u o t e d b y C l a u d e C. C r a w f o r d , i n F r a n k L . W h i t n e y and o t h e r s , “i n i t i a t i o n a n d P r a c t i c e s o f P h i D e lta K appa, 9 P h i D e l t a K a p p a n , 1 2 : 1 2 3 - 1 2 6 , D e c e m b e r , 1929*
21 T he P r o b l e m a n d D e f i n i t i o n s o f T e rm s U s e d ; C h a p t e r I I , c e d u r e a n d R e v ie w o f t h e R e l a t e d L i t e r a t u r e ; III,
P ro
an d C h a p te r
A s s u m p t i o n s a n d H y p o t h e s e s o f t h e S tu d y * B ackground c h a p t e r s *
t e r s w h e re in t h e e m p h a sis i s S p e c ific a lly ,
th is
background f o r
T hese
th e chap
a lm o st e n t i r e l y h i s t o r i c a l .
second p a r t in c lu d e s :
a n d M e d ie v a l B ackground; c a l B ackground.
C h a p t e r s IV a n d V a r e
C h a p te r IV , E a r l y
a n d C h a p t e r V, M o d e rn a n d H i s t o r i
tw o c h a p t e r s f o r m t h e h i s t o r i c a l
th e fo llo w in g
C e n tra l c h a p te r s .
c h a p te rs.
C h a p te rs V I, V II,
and V III a re th e
m ost Im p o rta n t c h a p t e r s i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
They a r e
m a i n l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n n a t u r e a n d l e n d s u b s t a n c e a n d m ean in g to th e stu d y o f p ro b le m -so lv in g . in c lu d e : in g ;
C h a p t e r V I , M o d e rn C o n c e p t s i n I n d u c t i v e R e a s o n
C h a p te r V II,
C h a p te r V I I I , e v a lu a te
S t a t u s o f t h e M odern P r o b l e m - S o lv i n g ;
C r itiq u e o f P ro b le m -S o lv in g .
and
C h a p te r VI w i l l
th e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o r a s s u m p tio n s o f t h e p ro b lem
s o l v i n g m eth o d . of
The c e n t r a l c h a p t e r s
C h a p te r V II w i l l g iv e a b r o a d p r e s e n t a t i o n
th e s t a t u s o f th e p ro b le m to d a y .
sent a c ritiq u e
o r e v a lu a tio n o f th e
C o n c lu d in g c h a p t e r s .
C h a p te r V III w i l l p re e n t i r e p ro b lem .
T he c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r s a r e
com posed o f C h a p te r IX , E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e H y p o th e s e s , a n d C h a p t e r X, F i n d i n g s ,
Sum m ary a n d R e c o m m e n d a ti o n s *
C h a p te r
22 IX w i l l a t t e m p t a n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s s e t u p f o r th e e x e c u tio n o f t h i s
in v e stig a tio n *
C h a p te r X i s
th e f i n a l
c h a p te r o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and, a s su ch , w i l l p r e s e n t a sum m ary o f t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d , o f f e r a c o n c l u d i n g s t a t e m e n t and l i s t
some p r a g m a t i c r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s *
T h is c h a p te r w i l l
f u r n is h c e r t a i n p r in c ip le s o r g e n e ra l e x p re s s io n s o f th e d a ta b ro u g h t o u t by th e r e s e a rc h , b o th h i s t o r i c a l and p h ilo so p h ic a l* e d u c a tio n
It
i s an e f f o r t to b rin g
to th e f i e l d
o f m o d e rn
some s p e c i f i c c o n c e p t s w h i c h c o u l d p o s s i b l y b e o f
e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e *
F in a lly ,
it is
th e p u rp o se o f th e chap
t e r to o f f e r d e f i n i t e rec o m m e n d atio n s fro m t h e c o n c lu s io n s w h ic h em erge fro m t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
T hese rec o m m e n d atio n s
a r e m ade i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e p r a g m a t i c p h i l o s o p h y t h a t e d u c a tio n a l r e s e a r c h o f any ty p e has a s i t s
d e f i n i t e a im t h e
m e a n in g fu l and r e l e v a n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a l l I t s
e v id e n c e *
U n l e s s some p r e s e n t - d a y v a l u e a n d u s e c a n b e a t t a c h e d t o a n e d u c a tio n a l p ie c e o f re s e a rc h ,
it
does not f u l f i l l
Its
o b lig a tio n . T h e sum m ary a g a i n s t a t e s t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f t h e stu d y :
( 1 ) t h e c a r e f u l a p p r a i s a l o f th e h i s t o r i c a l a n d
p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d ; (2 ) a c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is of i t s b a sic p o s tu la te s ;
and ( 3 ) a
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d a t a o f u s e f o r m odern e d u c a t i o n . C h a p te r I I w i l l
s e t f o r t h th e
p r o c e d u r e e m p lo y ed by t h i s
s o u rc e s an d th e ty p e o f
in v e s tig a to r to
se cu re th e d a ta .
CHAPTER I I PROCEDURE AND REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE In tro d u c tio n * tio n
The f i r s t c h a p t e r o f t h i s
s t a t e d t h e p ro b le m i n
ta n c e ,
its
e n tire ty ,
in v e s tig a
gave i t s
im p o r
a n d p r e s e n t e d some d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e m o re b a s i c
te rm s n e c e s s a ry to
th e
stu d y .
A lso p r e s e n t e d w ere th e h i s
to r ic a l and p h ilo s o p h ic a l lim ita tio n s , o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e s tu d y . p ro c e d u re fo llo w e d b y th e o f th e r e l a t e d
a n d a b r i e f sum m ary
C h a p te r I I
e x p la in s th e
I n v e s t ig a to r and g iv e s a re v ie w
lite ra tu re . I.
PROCEDURE
The h i s t o r i c a l m eth o d o f r e s e a r c h h a s t h r e e w e l l d e fin e d d iv is io n s a lre a d y e s ta b lis h e d .
T h is s tu d y ,
in ac
c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e s e p r o c e s s e s a s o u t l i n e d b y ( fo o d , B a r r a n d S c a t e s , ”^ f i r s t
c o lle c te d th e so u rce m a te ria ls n e c e ssa ry f o r
its
second,
e v o lu tio n ;
c ritic a lly
and f i n a l l y ,
a tte m p te d to
In te llig ib le
fo rm .
a n a ly z e d th e m a te r ia ls ;
p re s e n t th e
d a ta w h ic h e n su e d i n
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e h a s b e e n
s t a t e d by R e is n e r : I t may b e s a i d t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y o f e d u c a t i o n d o es n o t p r e s e n t u s w i t h read y -m ad e a n d p e r f e c t
C a r t e r V. (fo o d , A l e x a n d e r S . B a r r a n d D o u g l a s E. S c a t e s , T h e M e t h o d o l o g y o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h (New Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y C om pany, 1 9 3 & ) , p . 2 4 l .
24 c o n c e p t i o n s w h i c h may e n t e r w i t h o u t m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n t o o u r e d u c a t i o n a l t h o u g h t • • * I n so f a r a s e d u c a t i o n i s a s o c i a l p r o c e s s , c o m p re h e n sio n an d r e a l i s t i c t h i n k i n g a b o u t e d u c a t i o n m u st d e p e n d u p o n a k n o w le d g e o f t h e o r i g i n s w h ic h i n f lu e n c e i t s p r e s e n t s ta te * I t i s sub m i t t e d f u r t h e r t h a t t h e s e r i a l a p p r o a c h m akes e a s i e r th e r e c o g n itio n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e b a f f l i n g l y c o m p lic a te d p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n . 2 In i t s
pro ced u re t h i s
in v e s tig a tio n a tte m p te d a
c r i t i c a l e s t im a t e o f th e i n s i g h t s o f f i e l d o f p ro b le m -so lv in g and i t s fro m t h e i r p a r t i a l w r i t i n g s . c e d u r e w o u ld r e v e a l t h e i r m e a n in g s. in to
th e t h in k e r s i n
a n te c e d e n ts as g a th e re d
I t was h o p ed t h a t t h i s p r o
c o m p re h e n siv e a n d d e v e lo p m e n ta l
One o f t h e n e e d s i n e d u c a t i o n t o d a y i s
c u r r e n t p ro b le m s.
th e
in sig h t
H usk s t a t e s :
R e s e a rc h in th e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n , i f p r o p e r ly d i r e c t e d , may r e i n f o r c e p r o g r e s s i v e t e n d e n c i e s a n d sh o u ld c o n s e q u e n tly n o t b e ig n o re d i n , o r e x c lu d e d fro m , program m es o f e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h . 3 The d a t a f o r t h e s t u d y .
The d a t a f o r t h i s
s tu d y w ere
f i r s t c o l l e c t e d and th e n e v a lu a te d a s to t h e i r b e in g o f a p rim a ry o r a se co n d a ry n a tu r e . ly bro ad , v ie w e d .
o n ly th o s e w o rk s c o n s i d e r e d m ost a p ro p o s w ere r e T h e se w ere l i s t e d
tig a tio n .
S i n c e t h e f i e l d w a s im m e n se
in th e b ib lio g ra p h y o f th e in v e s
T he d a t a w e r e t h e n s e p a r a t e d i n t o
c h ro n o lo g ic a l
2
E d w a r d H. R e i s n e r , MThe H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n a s a S o u r c e o f F u n d a m e n t a l A s s u m p t i o n s , 11 E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d S u p e r v i s i o n , 1 4 :3 7 8 , S e p te m b e r, 1928. 3
R o b e r t R . R u sk , R e s e a r c h i n E d u c a tio n (L ondon: U n i v e r s i t y o f L o n d o n P r e s s , L t d . , 1 9 3 2 ) , p . 38*
25 and lo g ic a l o rd e r,
T he g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e w a s g i v e n
p rim a ry d a ta , b e c a u s e ,
a s G ood, B a r r ,
to th e
and S c a te s a s s e r t:
In a tte m p tin g to s o lv e a d e f i n i t e , a n sw e ra b le and s i g n i f i c a n t p ro b le m i n t h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t i o n , i t m u st b e rem em b ered t h a t p r im a r y s o u r c e s a r e th e o n ly s o l i d b a s e s o f h i s t o r i c a l w o rk . P rim a ry s o u r c e s a r e th e o r l g i n g l d o c u m e n ts o r r e m a in s , th e f i r s t w i t n e s s e s to a f a c t. The d a t a w e r e e i t h e r q u o t e d v e r b a t i m o r u s e d i n e l u c i d a t i n g a m e a n in g so a s t o b r i n g t o l i g h t t h e re la tio n s
and to c l a r i f y
th in k in g In th e f i e l d .
t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f som e o f t h e O v e r-a ll c o n trib u tio n
to
w as u s e d a s a y a r d s t i c k f o r em p lo y in g th e d a t a , i n g to m ake t h e
o rg a n ic
th e stu d y th e id e a be
i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e l e v a n t a n d m e a n in g fu l f o r
to d ay . C ritic is m
of th e d a ta .
th e p rim a ry t a s k f o r t h i s t h e n t o e v a l u a t e th em .
A fte r c o lle c tin g th e d a ta ,
s tu d y was t o a n a l y s e c a r e f u l l y a n d
T he c o m p a r a t i v e a n d g e n e t i c m e t h o d s
o f r e s e a r c h w ere u s e d f o r t h i s t a s k ;
H isto ric a l resea rch
g iv e s an a c c o u n t o f e v e n ts a f t e r th e e v e n ts o r c o n d itio n s have ta k e n p la c e . try
I t w as n o t th e p u rp o se o f t h i s
to e s t a b l i s h c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s to o
stu d y to
stric tly ,
but ra
t h e r to g iv e a f a c t u a l a c c o u n t o f th e c o n d i t i o n s b a s i c to th e p ro b le m a s I t e x i s t e d i n th e p a s t . to
c ritic iz e
T h is s tu d y a tte m p te d
th e so u rce m a te r ia l w ith re le v a n c e to i t s
G-ood, B a r r a n d S c a t e s ,
op. c l t . , p.
250.
26 p u rp o s e i n s t e a d o f su m m arizin g i s o l a t e d f a c t s
to th e ex
c lu s io n o f any in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e fin d in g s -
A c co rd in g
t o S m ith :
♦
H is to ry a s i t i s g e n e r a lly w r i t te n se e k s to g iv e a riG h e r a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e p a s t and th e p r e s e n t and to p ro v id e g u id a n c e f o r and to a ro u s e a k e e n e r i n t e r e s t in th e fu tu r e I t sh o u ld t e l l n o t o n ly w hat happened, b u t a l s o why men o f t h e t i m e a l l o w e d i t t o h a p p e n . 5 In i t s
c r itic a l aspect th is
s tu d y a tte m p te d to p ie c e
t o g e t h e r s c a t t e r e d f r a g m e n ts t o fo rm a u n i f i e d w h o le .
Many
o f th e f a c t s needed In
its
th is In v e s tig a tio n
and b a s ic to
s o l u t i o n w e r e s p r e a d o v e r a w i d e a r e a a n d t h r o u g h o u t many c e n tu rie s.
In
c ritic iz in g
th e so u rce m a te ria ls th e e f f o r t
w a s m ade t o m ake th e m c o h e r e n t a n d r e l e v a n t f o r t o d a y . R e p o rtin g th e r e s e a r c h c o lle c te d and e v a lu a te d , so t h a t
A f te r th e d a t a had been
i t b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y t o p r e s e n t th e m
th e y w ere c l e a r a n d r e a d a b l e .
ceeded w ith th e
hope t h a t
th e r e s u l t s
T he i n v e s t i g a t o r p r o o f th e
in v e s tig a tio n
w o u l d b e m ade a v a i l a b l e a n d w o u l d b e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t o o th e rs In th e f i e l d in g to a d e f i n i t e
o f e d u c a tio n .
I t w as o r g a n iz e d a c c o rd
c h r o n o l o g i c a l a n d t o p i c a l p l a n , w h ic h was
p u rsu e d th ro u g h o u t th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e a i m r e m a i n e d t o s e e k u n i f i e d a n d c o h e s i v e know l e d g e f r o m t h e p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n s a n d co m m en ts g a t h e r e d .
-’H e n r y L e s t e r S m i t h , E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h P r i n c i p l e s an d P r a c t i c e s (B lo o m in g to n : E d u c a tio n a l P u b lic a tio n s , 1 9 ^ ) , P- 1 1 7 -
27 T he i n v e s t i g a t o r t r i e d and in te r p r e ta tio n
to b e a c c u r a te i n h i s d o c u m e n ta tio n
o f im p o rta n t s ta te m e n ts and s o u rc e s .
A
c o m p le te a n d c a r e f u l r e c o r d o f a l l t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l was m ade p a r t o f t h e s t u d y a n d a p p e n d e d a s a b i b l i o g r a p h y . T h is r e c o r d w o u ld p e r m it t h e c h a n c e f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e In te rp re ta tio n
and d o c u m e n ta tio n o f th e d a ta to o t h e r s .
The a t t e m p t w a s m ad e t o w r i t e to
th e s tu d y a c c o rd in g
t h e t e n e t s o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h a n d t o a v o i d a s m uch
as p o ss ib le
th e f i l l i n g
in
e v id e n c e to
s u p p o r t th em .
o f gaps th a t had l i t t l e In je c tio n
o r no
o f o p in io n o r b i a s in to
t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a w a s r e d u c e d t o a m inim um . i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was i n s e r t e d i n l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e , m ake t h e
stu d y m e a n in g fu l,
Some
in o rd e r to
f o r in th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s a stu d y
m u s t p r o d u c e f a c t s a p p l i c a b l e t o m o d e rn e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b le m s.
A b eIso n e x p la in s :
K n o w le d g e c o n c e r n i n g t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s i n a n y o f I t s p h a ses i s v a lu a b le as g iv in g d ir e c tio n an d e f fe c tiv e n e s s to a c tio n . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t I f we c a n d e te r m i n e t h e 'c a u s e o r t h e e f f e c t o f a c o n d i t i o n , i f we a r e a b l e t o p r e d i c t i t o r t o d e t e r m i n e m e a n s f o r m o d i f y i n g i t , we a r e t h e n i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o c o n — t r o l th a t c o n d itio n . . . . A k n o w le d g e o f h i s t o r y c a n n o t i t s e l f y i e l d th e b a s i s f o r c o n tr o l, i t p la y s th e r o l e o f o f f e r i n g s u g g e s t i o n s w h i c h may b e i n v e s t i g a t e d m o re t h o r o u g h l y b y o t h e r m e t h o d s . ^ Sum m ary o f t h e o v e r a l l p u r p o s e o f t h e p r o c e d u r e .
6
The
H a r o l d H. A b e l s o n , T he A r t o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h (X o n k e rs-o n -H u d so n : W o r l d B o o k C om pany, 1 9 3 3 ) *
28 d a t a w ere a l l c o l l e c t e d f i r s t *
A f te r th e l i k e l y
w ere d e te r m in e d a n d t h e i r a u t h e n t i c i t y lis h e d ,
th e c r i t i c a l
re a so n a b ly e s ta b
e v a l u a t i o n was b eg u n , f i r s t w i t h th e
p rim a ry an d th e n w ith th e se c o n d a ry m a t e r i a ls . w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n
T hese so u rc e s
th is c h a p te r.
The d a t a w e r e s u b j e c t e d t o ic ism ,
so u rces
in te r n a l and e x te rn a l c r i t
th e p u rp o s e o f th e f i r s t m eth o d b e in g t o d e te r m in e
t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f t h e d o c u m e n ts t h e m s e l v e s ,
and th e se co n d
b e i n g t o e s t a b l i s h t h e m e a n in g a n d t h e t r u t h o f t h e m e n ts.
G-ood, B a r r a n d S c a t e s s t a t e
sta te
th e p u rp o se o f h i s t o r i r
c a l re s e a rc h a s fo llo w s: T he p r e l i m i n a r y s u r v e y o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , d i s c u s s i o n s , an d e x p e r ie n c e r e l a t i n g t o th e p ro b le m u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n may a c c o m p l i s h f i v e p u r p o s e s : ( 1 ) show w h e th e r t h e e v id e n c e a lr e a d y a v a i l a b l e s o lv e s th e p ro b lem a d e q u a t e l y w i t h o u t f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; ( 2 ) p r o v id e id e a s,' t h e o r i e s , e x p la n a tio n s , o r h y p o th e s e s v a l u a b l e i n f o r m u l a t i n g t h e p ro b le m ; ( 3 ) s u g g e s t m eth ods o f re s e a rc h a p p ro p ria te to th e s o lu tio n o f th e p ro b le m ; (4 ) l o c a t e c o m p a ra tiv e d a t a u s e f u l t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s ; and ( 5 ) c o n tr ib u te t o th e g e n e ra l s c h o la rs h ip o f th e in v e s tig a tio n .? T he f i n a l t a s k o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
a f t e r th e d a ta
h ad been c o l l e c t e d and s u b je c te d to
c r i t i c i s m , was t o
f o r t h th e r e s u l t s
It
in l o g i c a l form .
set
i s th e b e l i e f of th e
I n v e s t i g a t o r t h a t o th e r s w i l l a v a i l th e m se lv e s o f th e r e su lts.
(ro o d ,
B a rr and S c a te s , p p .
c i t . , p. 100.
29 X I.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A.
O rig in a l so u rc es.
INTRODUCTION Two t y p e s o f p r i m a r y s o u r c e ma
t e r i a l s w ere a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s
stu d y .
F i r s t t h e r e w e r e t h e r e c o r d s w r i t t e n b y t h e m en who a c t u a l l y c o n trib u te d o r i g in a l th in k in g o r e x p e rim e n ta tio n to th e p ro b le m ,
and se c o n d ly ,
t h e r e w ere t h e w r i t i n g s o f o t h e r s
who d i d n o t m ake o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s . d i v i d e d i n t o tw o c l a s s e s :
(l)
T h e l a t t e r w e re
c r i t i c s o f th e p ro b lem
s o lv in g m eth o d , an d ( 2 ) t r a n s l a t o r s o r i n t e r p r e t e r s o f th o s e m en who d i d m ake o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g # T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o n c e rn e d i t s e l f m a in ly w i t h th e so u rce m a te ria l,
o rig in a l
th e p o s s ib le fla w in t h i s so u rc e b e in g in
t r a n s l a t i o n fro m th e o r i g i n a l la n g u a g e . The e a r l y C r e e k s . m odern c o n t r i b u t o r s to T h is i n v e s t i g a t o r ,
in
P o s s ib ly th e g r e a t e s t o f a l l p re
t h e re a lm o f th o u g h t w ere a tte m p tin g to tr a c e
th e C re e k s.
th e g e n e s is o f
th e p r o b le m - s o lv in g m eth o d , fo u n d t h a t a n e x a m in a tio n o f th e i n d u c t i v e m eth o d o f r e a s o n i n g was b a s i c t o t h i s p u r p o s e . I t w a s t h e C r e e k s who m o s t i n f l u e n c e d t h e e a r l y r i s e d u c tiv e th in k in g .
of in
R o b in so n s t a t e s :
W h il e t h e t e r m i n d u c t i o n w a s u s e d b y A r i s t o t l e , a n d a c e r t a i n fo rm o f i n d u c t i v e p r o c e d u r e was r e c o g n i z e d by t h e m e d i e v a l s c h o o lm e n , i n d u c t i v e l o g i c i n t h e m odern se n se o f t h e w ord r e a l l y b eg an a s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e
t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s e m p lo y e d i n m ak in g t h e th e e x a c t e x p e rim e n ta l s c ie n c e s .° L ite ra ry d iv is io n s . s e c tio n o f th e
d isc o v e rie s of
The t r e a t i s e s r e v i e w e d i n t h i s
s tu d y w ere d i v i d e d i n t o
th re e phases.
f i r s t d e a ls w i t h th e e a r l y and m e d ie v a l t h i n k e r s ,
The
th e second
w ith th e e a r l y m oderns, a n d th e l a s t w ith r e c e n t w o rk e rs i n th e fie ld *
The t h i r d p h a s e c o v e r s m a t e r i a l n o t o n ly fro m
b o o k s, b u t a l s o fro m a r t i c l e s a n d t h e s e s a s w e ll. B.
EARLY AND MEDIEVAL WHITINGS
A r i s t o t l e 1s C a t e g o r i e s a n d De I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
9
T h is
p a r t i c u l a r v o l u m e o f A r i s t o t l e 1s im m e n se w o r k d e a l s w i t h t h e c a te g o r ie s o f th o u g h t. su b s ta n c e ,
q u a n tity ,
In i t
r e la tio n and q u a lity .
c u s s e s th e f o u r c l a s s e s o f in
th in k in g .
he d e a ls w ith th e c o n c e p ts o f He a l s o d i s
‘o p p o s ite s 1 and th e ir c o r r e la tiv e s
The e n t i r e w o rk i s d i d a c t i c i n n a t u r e ,
ta k in g
t h e fo rm o f g i v e n h y p o th e s e s w h ic h h e t h e n a t t e m p t s t o p ro v e by m eans o f r e a s o n . v o te d to
W h ile a g o o d d e a l o f th e w ork i s d e
e s ta b lis h in g th e v a li d i ty
some o f i t v a lid a tio n *
o f d e d u c tiv e re a so n in g ,
t r e a t s w ith d e m o n s tra b le o r r a t h e r e m p ir ic a l I n t h i s e a r l y w ork c a n b e s e e n t h e g erm s o f
0 in g
D a n i e l Som m ers R o b i n s o n , T he P r i n c i p l e s o f R e a s o n (New Y o r k : D- A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y C om pany, 1 9 3 6 T 7 p* 203* 9
E d g a r M. E d g h i l l , W o rk s o f A r i s t o t l e C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 2 6 ) , 1 0 5 pp*
(O xford;
The
31 I n d u c t i v e t h i n k i n g a s we know i t up and so lu tio n s r a tio n a lly
to d a y .
su g g e ste d .
P ro b le m s a r e s e t I n Book X I, A r i s
t o t l e w ro te : T he k i n d s o f q u e s t i o n we a s k a r e a s m any a s t h e k i n d s o f t h i n g s w h i c h we k n o w . . . . T hus when o u r q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n s a c o m p l e x o f t h i n g s a n d a t t r i b u t e s a n d we a s k w h e t h e r t h e t h i n g i s t h u s o r o t h e r w i s e q u a l i f i e d — whe t h e r , e . g . , t h e s u n s u f f e r s e c l i p s e o r n o t — t h e n we a r e a s k in g a s t o th e f a c t o f a c o n n e x io n . T hat o u r in q u iry c e a s e s x D e c e m b e r , 1 9 1 0 .
I b i d . , p. 559*
51 in v o lv e d i n t h e e x p e r im e n t was g i v e n p r a c t i c e sum s o f r u l e ,
w h ile
h is to ry and lik e
i n w o rk in g
th e o t h e r g r o u p was g iv e n d ra w in g ,
su b je c t m a tte r.
of p ra c tic e days, f u r th e r
A f t e r a c e r t a i n num ber
s e t s o f p r o b le m s w e re e m p lo y ed t o
t e s t b o th g ro u p s in a r ith m e tic a l re a s o n in g .
In th e f i r s t
s c h o o l t e s t e d t h e r e was no e v id e n c e o f t r a n s f e r , 1 b u t in th e
second,
th ird
show ed d e f i n i t e
and f o u r th sc h o o ls,
im p ro v e m e n ts o v e r t h e
o u t p ro b le m s i n a r i t h m e t i c . n u m e ric a l c o m p u ta tio n i s
If
th e p r a c t i c e d s e c t i o n o th e r in re a so n in g
im p ro v e m e n t i n a c c u r a c y o f
not tra n sfe rre d ,
how c a n t h e
im
p ro v em en t i n r e a s o n i n g i n t h e p r a c t i c e d g ro u p s b e a c c o u n te d fo r?
The i n v e s t i g a t o r b e l i e v e d t h a t g r e a t e r f a c i l i t y
n u m e ric a l c o m p u ta tio n s e t f r e e ,
as i t
in
w e r e , m o re m e n t a l
e n e rg y to d e a l w ith th e r a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n o f p ro b le m s. The r e s e a r c h w as c o n c l u d e d w i t h t h e o p i n i o n t h a t m o re e x p e r i m e n t s a r e n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e d e f i n i t e
c o n c lu sio n s
can be d raw n .
F ro m t h e d a t a o f f e r e d b y W inch* s i n v e s t i g a
tio n ,
it
h o w ev er,
s e e m e d t h a t som e s o r t o f c o n n e c t i o n may
e x i s t b e tw e e n im p ro v em en t i n n u m e r i c a l c o m p u ta tio n a n d m a th e m a tic a l r e a s o n in g . D u n e k e r 1s S u r v e y o f 1 9 2 6 .
D uncker
48
a tte m p te d an
a n a ly s is o f th e p ro c e ss o f s o - c a lle d p ro d u c tiv e th in k in g hO
K a r l D u n c k e r , 11A Q u a l i t a t i v e ( E x p e r i m e n t a l a n d T h e o r e t i c a l ) S tu d y o f P r o d u c tiv e T h in k in g ( S o lv in g o f C o m p le x P r o b l e m s ) , H P e d a g o g i c a l S e m i n a r y , 3 3 * 6 4 2 - 7 0 8 , 1 9 2 6 .
52 i n te rm s o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g .
D u n c k e r e x a m in e d c r i t i c a l l y
t h o s e t h e o r i e s w h ic h a c t u a l l y l a i d c la im , m ig h t have c la im e d ,
an d th o s e w h ic h
t o s o lv e p ro b le m s a d e q u a te ly , w i t h a
v ie w to e s t a b l i s h i n g
th e v a l i d i t y
of each.
He r e v i e w e d t h e
t h e o r i e s o f J a m e s , Dewey a n d t h e G - e s t a l t i s t s a l o n g w i t h C a r r , W atso n a n d T h o r n d ik e w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o p r o b l e m so lv in g as such.
D uncker a ls o
p e r i m e n t a l m eth o d s i n
th e f i e l d
e v a lu a te d s e v e r a l o f th e ex by a n a ly z in g t h e i r r e s u l t s .
He g a v e s t u d e n t s s u c h p r o b l e m s a s t h e u s e o f th in k in g a lo u d , T w a in p r o b l e m , its
use o f
th e X -ra y ,
t h e p e n d u lu m i n a c l o c k ,
and f i n a l l y
v a rio u s a sp e c ts a s i t
o t h e r p l a n e ts a ro u n d th e
t h e M a rk
a p r o b l e m c o n c e r n i n g t h e moon i n re v o lv e d in i t s
sun.
o r b i t w ith th e
He summed u p h i s
stu d y by
sta tin g : I n n o t a s i n g l e o n e o f o u r c a s e s c o u l d we f i n d p o s i t i v e e v id e n c e f o r t r a n s f e r fro m s i m i l a r c a s e s ( w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f c o u rs e , o f w hat c o n ce rn e d th e second ty p e o f p r o c e s s o f r e a l i z a t i o n . ) M ost o f t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s o c c u r r e d p l a i n l y a f t e r , o r so m e tim e s, a lo n g w i t h t h e s o l u t i o n . *9 In c o n c lu sio n , o f th e
th e
f u n c t i o n a l v a lu e *
in v e s tig a tio n s tr e s s e d th e n a tu re of a b stra c t
th in k in g by m a in ta in
i n g t h a t f u n c t i o n i s n o t an a b s t r a c t i o n ,
p er se,
but ra th e r
a v e ry n e c e s s a ry p ro c e s s in th in k in g and p ro b le m -so lv in g .
I b i d . , p. 707.
53 W a s h b u r n e 1s I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f 1 9 2 ? ♦ a rtic le
d e s c rib e s a p ie c e
W ashburne1
o f r e s e a r c h w h ic h g rew o u t o f t h e
n e e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g why s t u d e n t s h a v e d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e m ec h an ics o f a r i t h m e t i c le m s.
H is p r e l i m i n a r y q u e s t i o n w as:
g re a te r a b ility m e tic to a re
a s a p p li e d to
th e
th e s o lv in g o f p ro b W ill c h il d r e n
a c q u ire
to a p p ly th e fu n d a m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s i n a r i t h
s o l u t i o n o f v e r b a l p ro b lem s i f
th e p ro cesses
in tro d u c e d th ro u g h s i t u a t i o n s w ith in th e c h il d r e n ’ s
e x p e rie n c e and a re a p p lie d th ro u g h o u t th e p e rio d o f p r a c t ic e d ire c tly
to
th e
s o lu tio n
o f p ro b le m s,
th a n i f
a re le a r n e d and p r a c tic e d w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e situ a tio n s
an d l a t e r a p p l i e d to t h e
s o lu tio n
th e p ro c e s s e s
to c o n c re te o f p ro b lem s.
The s t u d y w as h a n d l e d b y a c o m m itte e s e l e c t e d t o t r e a t o f th e p ro b lem fro m a l l p h a s e s . o r d e r to
e x e c u te th e e x p e rim e n t,
six te e n c i t i e s
o f n o rth e rn
T he c o m m i t t e e e x p e r i m e n t e d a t t h r e e l e v e l s .
f i r s t le v e l, stitu tio n
in
s e c u re d th e c o o p e ra tio n o f
s u p e rin te n d e n ts and p r i n c ip a l s in Illin o is.
T h is c o m m itte e ,
o r s e c o n d g r a d e , was t o b e t a u g h t f i f t y
fa c ts;
th e second le v e l,
sub
o r f o u r t h g r a d e , was t o
be g iv e n th e p ro c e s s o f lo n g d i v is io n ; se v e n th g ra d e s ,
T he
th e s i x t h and
w h ic h c o m p ris e d t h e t h i r d l e v e l ,
w ere to
G a r l e t o n W a s h b u r n e , 11C o m p a r i s o n o f Two M e t h o d s o f T e a c h in g P u p i l s t o A p p ly t h e M e c h a n ic s o f A r i t h m e t i c t o t h e S o l u t i o n o f P r o b l e m s , 11 E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l J o u r n a l , 2 7 : 7 5 8 - 6 7 , J u n e , 19 2 7 *
54 l e a r n th e p r i n c i p le o f p e r c e n t-
I n each g rad e th e
c h ild re n
w ere g iv e n : An i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t ( t h e H a g g e r t y I n t e l l i g e n c e E x a m in a tio n , D e l t a 1 ; i n G rade I I , t h e N a t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t , S c a l e A, F o rm 2 , i n t h e o t h e r g r a d e s . ) A p ro b le m -so lv in g t e s t in th e n e a r e s t r e l a t e d p ro c e s s w h ic h th e y h ad s t u d i e d ( a d d i t i o n f a c t s , s h o r t d i v i s i o n , a n d C ase I o f p e r c e n t a g e , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , a n d a t e s t i n th e m e c h a n ic s o f th e p r o c e s s . A f t e r t h e r e s u l t s w ere t a b u l a t e d ,
t h e c o m m itte e
c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e r e was no i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e r e s u l t s o f t e a c h i n g b y t h e tw o m e t h o d s . o f a r i t h m e t i c a l m ec h a n ic s,
i.e .,
T he t e a c h i n g
f a c t s an d p r o c e s s e s m e re ly
by th e m se lv e s, d o es n o t l e a d to d i f f i c u l t y
i n m ak in g p r a c
t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e m ec h an ics to t h e s o l u t i o n o f p ro b le m s.
The c o m m i t t e e
sta te d ,
in
c o n c lu sio n :
A c o m b in a tio n o f th o r o u g h t r a i n i n g i n th e m ec h an ics o f a r ith m e tic and th o ro u g h t r a i n i n g in th e u se o f th e s e m e c h a n ic s i n s o l v i n g p r a c t i c a l p ro b le m s p ro d u c e s good re s u lts . . . . T he m e c h a n i c s o f a r i t h m e t i c may b e ta u g h t th o ro u g h ly and th e n a p p lie d to p r a c t i c a l pro b l e m s o r t h e tw o t y p e s o f t e a c h i n g may b e i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d th ro u g h o u t th e te a c h in g p ro c e s s w ith e q u a l e f fic ie n c y .^ T h is r e s e a r c h , w h ile one o f t h e sc ie n tific
enough in i t s
e a r l ie r ones,
is
m e t h o d s o t h a t t h e r e s u l t s may b e
a c c e p te d In d e fe n se o f t r a n s f e r of tr a in in g
in
c o n tro lle d
e x p e rim e n ta tio n .. C l a r k a n d V i n c e n t *s R e s e a r c h :
51 I b i d . , p .
759-
52 I b i d . , p .
?67-
A C o m p a r i s o n o f Two
55 M eth o d s o f A r i t h m e t i c P r o b le m A n a l y s i s #
C l a r k a n d V in
c e n t - ^ a tt e m p t e d to com pare th e r e l a t i v e
m e r i t s o f tw o d i f
f e r e n t m eth o d s o f p ro b le m a n a l y s i s , v i z . , t i o n a l m e th o d a n d ( 2 ) t h e g a to rs h e ld th e b e lie f
(l)
1g r a p h i c a l 1 m e t h o d .
th a t te a c h e rs
p ro b le m -so lv in g te c h n iq u e .
th e conven T he i n v e s t i
sh o u ld u se th e
The c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d wa.s
d e fin e d as a p ro c e ss fo llo w in g fo u r q u e s tio n s : 1 . W hat i s a s k e d f o r i n t h e p r o b l e m ? 2 . W hat f a c t s a r e g i v e n i n t h e p r o b l e m ? 3 - How s h o u l d t h e s e f a c t s b e u s e d t o s e c u r e an sw er? . k . W hat i s t h e a n s w e r t o t h e p r o b l e m ? * ^
th e
T he 1g r a p h i c a l 1 m e t h o d d i r e c t e d t h e p u p i l t o d e t e r m in e w h a t i s
to be fo u n d i n th e p ro b lem , w hat i t d e p en d s
on, w hat e a c h o f th e s e d e p e n d e n ts i n tu r n depend upon, and so on u n t i l t h e e s s e n t i a l f a c t s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s
in th e
p ro b le m h ave b e e n u n r a v e le d . F or s u b je c ts in
t h i s e x p e r i m e n t som e e i g h t y o r m o re
p u p i l s o f th e L in c o ln E le m e n ta ry S c h o o l w ere d i v id e d i n t o tw o e q u i v a l e n t g r o u p s .
T h e d i v i s i o n w a s made on t h e b a s i s
o f a r ith m e tic a l re a so n in g a b i l i t y q u o tie n ts.
and g e n e ra l in te llig e n c e
The m a t e r i a l s u s e d a s a m eans o f c o m p a rin g th e
tw o m e t h o d s o f p r o b l e m a n a l y s i s c o m p r i s e d a l i s t
53
of fifty
J o h n H. C l a r k a n d E . L e o n a V i n c e n t , BA C o m p a r i s o n o f Two M e t h o d s o f A r i t h m e t i c P r o b l e m A n a l y s i s , w M a t h e m a t i c s T e a c h e r , 1 7 : 2 2 6 - 3 3 > A p r i l , 19^5 *
5k J I b id . , p. 227.
56 p ro b le m s c h o sen by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o r e p r e s e n t a s n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e t h e p ro b le m s u s u a l l y fo u n d i n t e x t - b o o k s . On t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h ,
th e se in v e s tig a to r s
c o n c lu d e d t h a t s e v e n t h a n d e i g h t h g r a d e p u p i l s seem t o h av e little
d i f f i c u l t y i n r e c o g n i z i n g w hat i s w a n te d i n th e p ro b
lem a n d i n
se le c tin g
e n c o u n te r q u ite
th e r e l e v a n t d a ta *
som e d i f f i c u l t y
th e v a rio u s r e la tio n s h ip s p ro b lem *
T hey d i d ,
in c h o o sin g an d o rg a n iz in g
in v o lv e d in
th e s o lu tio n
T h e f o r m a l a n a l y s i s o f m any p r o b l e m s i s
i m p o s s i b l e h o w e v e r s i m p l e t h e s o l u t i o n may b e * p o rta n t,
th e re fo re ,
o r so s t a t e
th a t te a c h e rs f in d o u t th e se
how ever,
th e se
It
of th e a lm o st is
im
tw o i n v e s t i g a t o r s ,
ty p e s o f p ro b lem s b e fo re h a n d .
The a u t h o r s a d v i s e d t h e u s e o f f o r m a l a n a l y s i s a s an a d j u n c t f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f a p r o b le m o n ly when a s o l u t i o n o th e rw ise p o s s ib le .
P u p i l s who p r a c t i c e d t h e
is not
‘g r a p h i c a l *
m e t h o d I m p r o v e d m o re t h a n d i d t h o s e who p r a c t i c e d t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l m eth o d . B u r t o n 1s S u rv e y o f 1 9 3 ^ -1 9 3 5 * sc h o la rly
a n a ly sis,
in th re e p a rts ,
m eth o d i n
t h e A m e ric an c la s s r o o m .
g e n eral in tro d u c tio n to ,
*5
b u t th e re
w e r e g l i m m e r i n g s o f i n d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g among t h e th in k e rs,
and t h i s
first
c h a p te r w i l l p r e s e n t e v id e n c e o f th e s e
e a r ly b e g in n in g s . I. It of th is
THE REASONING PROCESS
h as a lr e a d y b e en s t a t e d t h a t th e p rim a ry p u rp o se
s t u d y was an i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f sp e a k in g , p ro cess,
th e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m eth o d .
t h i s m eth o d ,
a s a s t a t e d a d ju n c t to
i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y new .
o ld a s re a so n in g i t s e l f . c a tio n ,
it
A c tu a lly i t s
As a s p e c i f i c
d e r i v e s from t h e
w h ic h h a s i t s
T e c h n ic a lly th e le a rn in g g e n e sis i s
te c h n iq u e
as
in edu
i n d u c t i v e m eth o d o f r e a s o n i n g
ro o ts c e n tu rie s back.
D e d u c tio n .
The d e d u c t i v e m e t h o d o f r e a s o n i n g , w h i c h
e x i s t s by d e f i n i t i o n
o n ly ,
e x is te d b e fo re in d u c tio n .
th e p u rp o ses o f th is c h a p te r,
For
a b ro a d c o n n o ta tio n o f th e s e
t e r m s w i l l be g i v e n , a l t h o u g h m odern p s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e lo n g sin c e
a g re e d t h a t any c le a r - c u t d i s t i n c t i o n
re fle c tiv e
p ro cess is
im p o ssib le *
s e p a r a tio n h o ld s tr u e p a r t i c u l a r l y H lb b en s t a t e s :
in th e
T h is i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n th e p h y s i c a l sc ie n c e s*
wT he i n d u e t o - d e d u c t i v e m e t h o d ,
th e re fo re ,
b e co m es e s p e c i a l l y e f f i c i e n t i n e x t e n d i n g t h e d o m ain o f p h y sic a l sc ie n c e .
.
.
.
| B u t t h e r e d o e s e x i s t now , b y d e f i n i t i o n ,
a d lstin c -
\
t i o n b e tw e e n d e d u c t i o n a n d i n d u c t i o n a s a p r o c e s s o f t h i n k in g .
The i n d u c t i v e m e t h o d w h i c h b e g i n s x-zith ' p a r t i c u l a r s *
and p ro c e e d s to draw u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e s f o r a p p li c a t io n
is
som ew hat d i f f e r e n t fro m t h e d e d u c t i v e a p p r o a c h w h ic h b e g i n s th e
t h i n k i n g p r o c e s s fro m - s t a t e d u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e s ,
th e n p ro ceed s w ith th e s e p a rtic u la rs.
and
a s a fram e o f r e f e r e n c e b ack to
^
H ib b en d e f i n e s d e d u c t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r:. I t i s d e d u c t i v e w h e n t h e p r o c e s s sh o w s t h a t f r o m a u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e o r l a w t h e r e m u s t f o l l o w som e s p e c i a l c a s e , o r som e m o r e s p e c i a l p h a s e o f t h a t p r i n c i p l e o r la w .2 A n o th e r l o g i c i a n d e f i n e s d e d u c tio n a lo n g t h e l i n e s w hen h e w r i t e s :
".
.
same
. d e d u c tio n p r o c e e d s fro m a
Jo h n G r i e r H ib b e n , L o g ic - I n d u c t i v e a n d D e d u c tiv e (New Y o r k : C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s S o n s , 1 9 1 0 ) , p - 375 *
2
I b i d . , p. 96*
65 u n iv e rsa l
to a n o th e r u n i v e r s a l o r t o a p a r t i c u l a r . “
3
T hese
tw o d e f i n i t i o n s w i l l a p p l y f o r t h e c h a p t e r a n d t h e s t u d y . D e d u c tiv e r e a s o n i n g a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e w h o le p r o c e s s o f th in k in g h a s p la y e d an im p o rta n t p a r t in th e e d u c a tiv e pro cess,
and s t i l l
In d u c tio n . in g m anner:
“I t
does. H ib b en d e f i n e s
is
in d u c tio n in
i n d u c t i v e when t h e p r o c e s s
g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e o r la w m u st r e s u l t from t h e it o f sp e c ia l c a s e s . n S e e m in g ly , t h i s d e f i n i t i o n th e d e f i n i t i o n
th e fo llo w show s t h a t a in v e s tig a tio n
s ta n d s in o p p o s itio n to
o f t h e d e d u c tiv e m eth o d , b u t t h e r e
an d f a s t d ic h o to m y ,
a s e v id e n c e d by th e fo llo w in g
i s no h a rd p e rtin e n t
q u o ta tio n : Ho . . . b o u n d a r y l i n e s a r e t o b e d r a w n b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t s ta g e s o f th e r e a s o n in g p r o c e s s , b u t i t m ust b e sh o w n t h a t t h e w h o l e n a t u r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i s i n v o l v e d m ore o r l e s s e x p l i c i t l y a t e a c h s t e p . So, f o r e x a m p le , t h e m odern c o n t e n t i o n i s t h a t d e d u c t i o n a n d i n d u c t i o n a r e tw o i n s e p a r a b l e , t h o u g h d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e a s p e c ts o f s c i e n t i f i c re a s o n in g .* ^ T h e p r o b le m - s o lv in g m eth o d , th is
stu d y , i s
3 (B o sto n : A 5
a s has been d e fin e d in
a d i r e c t o u t g r o w t h o f t h e i n d u c t i v e m eth o d
A l b e r t C. C o t t e r , S . J . , L o g i c a n d E - p l s t e m o l o g y T he S t r a t f o r d C om pany, 1 9 3 0 7 , p . ^ 7 ^ H ib b e n , p p .
c i t . , p . 97*
J a m e s E . C r e i g h t o n a n d H a r o l d R* S m a r t , An I n t r o d u c t o r y L o g i c (New Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n C om pany, 1 9 2 6 ) ,
p. 39.
66 o f re a so n in g . its
essence.
Q u e stio n s,
d iffic u ltie s ,
In o th e r w ords, p a r t i c u l a r
in g doubt and u n c e r ta in ty
fu rth e r b e lie f
th a t
II.
in v o lv first
and th e n w ith th e
)
THE GREEK ERA
C r i t i c a l re a s o n in g th ro u g h b o th deduc
a n d i n d u c t i v e p r o c e s s e s r e a c h e d n ew a n d g r e a t h e i g h t s
d u rin g th e heyday o f G re c ia n th o u g h t. n ists
situ a tio n s
are
s o -c a lle d u n iv e rs a ls and a p p lic a b le
p r in c i p le s w i l l a c c ru e th e re fro m .
B e g in n in g s.
e tc .,
a re p re s e n te d to th e p u p il,
w i t h t h e hope o f im m e d ia te s o l u t i o n ,
tiv e
d ile m m a s,
T he c h i e f p r o t a g o
o f r e a s o n i t s e l f a s a m eans o f s e e k in g
k n o w le d g e w e re t h r e e lin k e d to g e th e r: A risto tle
and d is c o v e rin g
p h i l o s o p h e r s w hose nam es a r e a lw a y s
S o c ra te s
(364-322 B .C .) .
(A7 O-A3 9 ) , P l a t o P rio r to
(^27- 347),
and
t h e i r t i m e m u ch t h a t
w as c a l l e d r e a s o n w as p r e j u d i c e a n d m ere s p e c u l a t i o n .
In
l a t e r c e n t u r i e s t h e r e was a g r a d u a l c o a l e s c e n c e o f th e re a so n in g
of th e se th re e
stim u lu s to
p h i lo s o p h e r s w h ic h s e r v e d a s a
th in k in g d u rin g th e p e rio d s o f S c h o la s tic is m and
th e R e n a issa n c e . S o c ra te s*
T he f i r s t
o f t h i s g r e a t t r i u m v i r a t e was
t h e p h i l o s o p h e r S o c r a t e s o f t h e f a m o u s *S o c r a t i c M e t h o d . 1 S o c r a t e s u r g e d men t o
se ek u n d e rly in g p r i n c i p le s ,
(to be u n iv e r s a lly a c c e p te d )
by h i s
or ru le s,
in c e s s a n t q u e stio n in g
6? c o n c e r n i n g co m m o n ly u s e d w o r d s a n d t h e i r a p p a r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d s u b s e q u e n t m e a n in g s a s em p lo y ed i n d i s p u t a t i o n . I t w a s S o c r a t e s who b e g a n t h e now u n i v e r s a l l y know n c l a s s i c e x a m p le i n
a c a d e m ic c i r c l e s
sy llo g is m ru n s th u s : m an, h e n c e i t
A l l men a r e m o r t a l ,
S o c ra te s i s
does sta n d a s a le g itim a te
a tte m p t a t
r e a s o n in g th a n t h a t w h ic h had h e r e t o f o r e b e en
a c c e p te d i n t h e tim e o f S o c r a t e s .
H e re was a d e f i n i t e e f f o r t
to u se lo g ic f o r d e m o n s tra tiv e p u rp o ses* e x a m p le o f t h e S o c r a t i c
sy llo g is m ,
F o r,
in th e
i f th e f i r s t
p re m is e s a r e a c c e p te d a s h a v in g v a l i d i t y ,
S y llo g istic
re a so n in g .
c o n c e rn in g m o r ta li t y ,
In th e
t h e a im i s
c la s
tw o
th e n any r a t i o n a l
b e in g w o u ld b e c o m p e lle d t o a c c e p t th e c o n c lu d in g
tio n
a
o f s y l l o g i s t i c re a s o n in g h a s lo n g s in c e
been re fu te d , b u t i t
sic
H is
f o l l o w s t h a t S o c r a t e s m u st be m o r t a l .
T h is ty p e
m o re c r i t i c a l
o f d e d u c tiv e re a so n in g #
sta te m e n t#
above n o te d i l l u s t r a lo g ic a lly to p resen t
s t e p s fro m u n i v e r s a l s ta te m e n t s to p a r t i c u l a r i n f e r e n c e s . In th e
sy llo g is m ,
I t i s q u i te p o s s ib le t o t e s t any co n seq u en t
c o n c lu s io n d e r i v e d from it
as
t h e p r e c e d i n g p r e m i s e s b y s h o w in g
t h e s o - c a l l e d l o g i c a l r e s u l t o f t h e u n i o n o f tw o a c -
c e p te d ly v a lid g e n e ra l p r in c ip le s ; g en eral p rin c ip le
o r fro m o n e r e l i a b l e
and p a rtic u la r ru le
as sta te d .
T h is f i r s t p o s t u l a t i o n o f se e m in g ly a i r - t i g h t g e n e r a l iz a tio n s
show s a g o o d e x a m p le o f s p e c i o u s r e a s o n i n g .
F or,
68 in th e a c c e p ta n c e o f a p r i n c ip le ,
or p rin c ip le s,
may h e , w i t h o u t a n y a t t e m p t a t i t s l a t e r ensue*
S o c r a te s , h o w ev er,
th e use o f h is i n t e l l e c t .
a n a ly sis,
as th e case
m u ch e r r o r c a n
h a d no o t h e r r e c o u r s e t h a n
C o ffe y d e s c r i b e s t h e m eth o d o f
S o c ra te s a s fo llo w s: S o c r a t e s u s e d t o s e e k fro m o t h e r s t h e k n o w le d g e t h e y i m a g in e d t h e y p o s s e s s e d , a n d w h ic h he h i m s e l f p r e t e n d e d not to possess. H is a rg u m e n ts to o k th e fo rm o f d i a l o g u e s , e a c h i n tw o p a r t s . I n t h e f i r s t , h i s wi r o n y 11 co n fo u n d ed h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r and c o n v in c e d th e l a t t e r o f th e w e a k n e sse s a n d draw b ack s o f h i s p o s i t i o n . In th e s e c o n d , S o c r a t e s g r a d u a l l y d r e w f r o m h im a new a n d t r u e r d e f in itio n , a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g , o f th e m a tte r in d is p u te . A fte r s ile n c in g h is opponent in th e f i r s t o r d e s t r u c t i v e s t a g e , he w o u ld b e g in b y a n o t h e r s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s t o c o n s t r u c t a n ew s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b lem * . » • H e r e c a n b e d i s c e r n e d som e o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g te c h n iq u e
in d i r e c t
a c tio n *
by a d r o it q u e s tio n in g
S o c ra te s hoped to
su b s titu te
a n e w -fo u n d t r u t h f o r t h e e r r o r w h ic h
had been d is c lo s e d th ro u g h d i a l e c t i c .
T he c o n c l u s i o n s o f
th e d ia lo g u e s th u s en d ed , o r r a t h e r te m p o ra rily c o n c lu d e d , w i t h new s o l u t i o n s t o e x p lo re d .
th e p ro b lem o r p ro b le m s w h ic h had b e e n
T h e s e n ew s o l u t i o n s g a i n e d a d d e d c o n v i c t i o n b y
r e a s o n o f b e i n g p e r s o n a l o u t g r o w t h s o f t h e d i s p u t a n t * s own th in k in g . P la to .
S m ith ,
The s e c o n d o f t h e t r i o
6 P au l C offey, 1 9 3 3 ) , I , 15*
of in te lle c tu a l g ia n ts
The S c i e n c e o f L o g i c
(New Y o r k :
P e te r
69 c a rrie d th e c r i t i c a l h i g h e s t peak*
te n d e n c y in
I n h i s A cadem y* he e x a l t e d t h e p u r s u i t o f
p u re m a th e m a tic s w ith r e l a t i o n u p o n t h e m ind* fe lt
th in k in g to p erh ap s i t s
to i t s
T h is he p o s i t e d in
d isc ip lin a ry
in flu e n c e
t h e o r e t i c a l te rm s a s he
t h e r e w as no n e e d f o r t h e p r a g m a ti c a p p l i c a t i o n o f
th e se p r in c ip le s . W ith h i s p u p i l s o f c la rify
P la to
h e lp e d to
t h e i s s u e s c u r r e n t i n h i s d a y a s r e g a r d s t h e m e a n in g
o f c e r t a i n te rm s* id e a s,
t h e A cadem y P l a t o a l s o
He a c c o m p l i s h e d t h i s a im b y c o n s t r u c t i n g
c h a in -fa sh io n ,
in
d eg rees o f d e c re a sin g g e n e r a lity .
su b d iv id e d a t each le v e l,
th u s:
B e in g s a r e c o r p o r e a l a n d i n c o r p o r e a l ; c o r p o r e a l b e in g s a r e a n im a l an d n o n -a n im a l; a n im a l b e in g s a re r a t i o n a l a n d n o n - r a t l o n a l ; a n d so on* By t h i s m e t h o d , w o r k i n g down o n e s i d e o f t h e l a d d e r o f s u b d i v i s i o n s , t h e y w e r e a b l e t o d e f i n e man a s a r a t i o n a l a n i m a l , c o rp o re a l b e in g .7 S e a rc h f o r k n o w le d g e * tr u e w ith th e good.
ra tio Its e lf
to
tru th Its e lf.
7
He m e n t i o n e d t h a t i n
search
th e c h a n c e s f o r I t s d is c o v e r y w ere i n d i r e c t
th e d eg ree
of a ll
e q u a te d th e
He s t r e s s e d t h e n e e d f o r t r u t h - s e e k i n g
on e v e ry l e v e l o f r e a s o n i n g . in g f o r t r u t h
P la to c o n s ta n tly
t o w h ic h o u r i n t e l l e c t c o u ld d i v e s t
c o n s id e ra tio n s fo re ig n
to th e c o n ce p t o f
He w r o t e I n t h e R e p u b l i c :
H a r o l d A. L a r r a b e e , R e l i a b l e K n o w le d g e (New Y o r k : H o u g h t o n - M l f f l l n C om pany, 1 9 ^ 5 ) .» PP* 8 6 —87*
70 A nd y o u w o u l d s a y t h e sa m e o f t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e good? U n til th e p erso n i s a b le to a b s tr a c t and d e fin e r a t i o n a l l y th e id e a o f good, and u n le s s he can ru n th e g a u n tle t o f a l l o b je c tio n , and i s read y to d isp ro v e th e m ,g n o t by a p p e a ls t o o p in io n , b u t t o a b s o l u t e tr u th * •
♦
•
W h ile P l a t o tio n ,
s e e m in g ly e m p lo y ed t h e m e th o d o f i n d u c
h i s w h o le t h e o r y i s b a s e d on t h e d o c t r i n e o f
tio n . 1
But i t
is
in te re s tin g
to n o te th a t in
p o u n d in g o f t h i s n o tio n o f I n n a t e d u c tiv e r e a s o n in g o ccu rs*
R e c o lle c
th e v e ry pro
id e a s , v ery e v id e n t in
H ow ever, t h e e n t i r e
b a s e d on u n i v e r s a l la w , f o r he w r i t e s f u r t h e r ,
th e s is in
is
t h e R e
p u b lic ; B u t w h e t h e r t r u e o r f a l s e , my o p i n i o n i s t h a t i n t h e w o rld o f k n o w le d g e, t h e i d e a o f goo d a p p e a r s l a s t o f a l l , a n d i s s e e n o n l y w i t h a n e f f o r t , a n d w hen s e e n , i s a l s o i n f e r r e d t o be t h e u n i v e r s a l a u t h o r o f a l l t h i n g s b e a u tif u l an d r i g h t , p u re s t l i g h t , and o f th e lo r d o f' l i g h t i n t h i s v i s i b l e w o rld , a n d t h e im m e d ia te s o u r c e o f rea so n and t r u th in th e i n t e l l e c t u a l ; and th a t t h i s i s t h e p o w e r u p o n w h i c h h e who w o u l d a c t r a t i o n a l l y * . . m ust have h i s e y e fix e d * ° P la to * s th e o r y o f e d u c a tio n * g r e a t m odern c r i t i c s , P la to
G o rn fo rd ,
o n e o f P l a t o *s
h o ld s th a t th e in n a te - id e a th e o ry o f
i s th e k e y n o te o f h i s e n t i r e
e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m *
T hat
t h e d o c t r i n e o f i n n a t e i d e a s i s d e d u c t i v e i n m e a s u r e sh o w s th a t
e d u c a tio n f o r P la to ,
8
a s i n h i s a n a lo g y o f t h e C ave,
B e n j a m i n J o w e t t , t r a n s l a t o r , The R e p u b l i c o f P l a t o (New Y o r k : W i l l e y B o o k C o m p an y , 1 9 0 1 ) , p . 232*
9 I b i d . , p. 212.
71 ste in s u l t i m a t e l y fro m th e
u n iv e rs a l Id ea.
O o rn fo rd w r ite s :
The Meno h a d a l r e a d y a n n o u n c e d t h e t h e o r y o f ‘A n a m n e s is * t h a t k n o w l e d g e I s a c q u i r e d * n o t t h r o u g h t h e s e n s e s o r a s i n f o r m a t i o n c o n v e y e d f r o m o n e m in d to a n o th e r by te a c h in g , b u t by r e c o l l e c t i o n i n t h i s l i f e o f r e a l i t i e s a n d t r u t h s s e e n a n d kn ow n b y t h e s o u l b e f o r e i t s i n c a r n a t i o n .* * - ® P la to * s v ie w s o f e d u c a tio n a r e
so m e w h a t i n o p p o s i t i o n
t o o u r d e m o c r a t i c v i e w p o i n t a s v o i c e d b y o u r m odern p h i l o s o p h ers in e d u c a tio n .
They a r e none
a b le f o r t h e i r c l a r i t y
th e l e s s q u i t e rem ark
and b re a d th o f scope.
P l a t o was t h e
f i r s t w r i t e r o n e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e who d e f i n ite ly be tru e
su b sc rib e d to e d u c a tio n ,
th e
th e o ry th a t e d u c a tio n ,
in o rd e r to
m ust co m prehend t h e w h o le o f l i f e .
Jo w e tt d is c u s s e s t h i s
th e o ry a s fo llo w s:
He h a s l o n g g i v e n u p t h e n o t i o n t h a t v i r t u e c a n n o t b e t a u g h t , a n d h e i s d i s p o s e d t o m o d ify t h e t h e s i s o f t h e P r o t a g o r a s , t h a t t h e v i r t u e s a r e o n e a n d n o t m any. He i s n o t u n w i l l i n g t o a d m i t t h e s e n s i b l e w o r l d i n t o h is school of tru th . . . . S t i l l we o b s e r v e i n h im th e re m a in s o f th e o l d S o c r a tic d o c tr in e t h a t t r u e k n o w le d g e m ust b e e l i c i t e d fro m w i t h i n , a n d i s t o b e sought f o r in id e a s , n o t p a r t i c u l a r s o f s e n s e . Educa t i o n , a s he s a y s , w i l l im p la n t a p r i n c i p l e o f i n t e l l i g e n ce w h ic h i s b e t t e r th a n a th o u s a n d e y e s . H D e d u c tiv e re a s o n in g f o r c h i l d r e n . w ith d e d u c tio n even in in
in fa n c y .
P l a t o w o u ld b e g in
F o r th e b e g in n in g
e d u c a tio n he a d v is e d f i r s t m u sic an d l i t e r a t u r e
sta g e s and th e n
^ F r a n c i s M a c D o n a l O o r n f o r d , P l a t o 1s T h e o r y o f Know* l e d g e (L o n d o n : K e g an P a u l , T r e n c h , T r u b n e r a n d G o . , L t d . , 1 9 3 5 ) , P* ^ B e n j a m i n J o w e t t , T he R e - p u b l i c o f P l a t o T h e C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 8 8 8 ) , p . CGI.
(O xford:
72 g y m n a stic s*
I n t h e H e p u b l i c , i n h i s d i a l o g u e s on e d u c a
tio n ,
h e b e g in s w ith th e ag e a t w h ic h he sa y s th e c h i l d i s
fu lly
a b le to
re c e iv e id e a s ,
a n d t h a t he m u s t t h e n b e
t a u g h t th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n w h at i s fa lse .
M o d e rn e d u c a t i o n w i t h i t s
sta n d s in
tr u e and w hat i s
p ro b le m -s o lv in g
ap p ro ach
d i r e c t o p p o s i t i o n t o t h i s t h e s i s o f P l a t o 1s .
c o rd in g t o
Ac
P la to :
The a im o f e a r l y e d u c a t i o n i s n o t t r u t h a s a m a t t e r of f a c t , b u t t r u t h a s a m a tte r o f p r in c ip le ; th e c h ild i s to be t a u g h t f i r s t sim p le r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s , an d th e n sim p le m o ra l t r u t h s , and i n s e n s i b l y t o l e a r n th e le s s o n o f good m anners and g o o d t a s t e . P la to ’ s th e o r ie s o f re a so n in g p e r s i s t c a tio n
to d a y i n edu
a s w e l l a s e l s e w h e r e I n o p p o s i t i o n t o many w e l l -
e s ta b lis h e d p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t s c o n c e rn in g th e th in k in g p ro cess.
That a c h ild l e a r n s b e t t e r by I n tr o d u c tio n
p ro b lem a r i s i n g
o u t o f a f e l t n e e d seem s o b v i o u s .
to
a
The v e r y
m e th o d o f i n d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g h a s a c c o u n te d f o r t h e b e s t s c ie n tific
and te c h n o lo g ic a l advancem ent of o u r c i v i l i z a
tio n . A p p lie d to b ilitie s
e d u c a tio n ,
it
h o ld s even g r e a te r p o s s i
th a n w hat h a s a lr e a d y b een a c c o m p lish e d .
c e p ta n c e o f b l in d l y good le a rn in g m ust a r i s e
s ta te d p rin c ip le s
situ a tio n s.
L e a rn in g ,
fro m p ro b lem s e n t e r e d i n t o
Jo w e tt,
lo c .
c it.
M e re a c
i s n o t c o n d u c iv e to if
it
is
to e n d u re ,
and s o lv e d by th e
73 stu d e n t* H o w e v e r, i n v i e w o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s , l a c k o f th em , b y w h ic h P l a t o f a i r to
sta te
fo rm u la te d h i s th e o r i e s ,
t h a t he a c c o m p lish e d a g ife a t d e a l .
n o t d isc o u n t th e use o f s e n se -d a ta ; im p o rta n c e .
or ra th e r, it
is
He d i d
he a c k n o w le d g e d t h e i r
P ro b le m s, a s su c h , p la y e d a p ro m in e n t r o l e in
P l a t o 1s t h e o r i e s , b u t h e i n t e n d e d t o s o l v e t h e m f r o m u n i v e rsa l ru le s,
r a th e r th a n by a n a ly s is .
A risto tle *
The t h i r d a n d l a s t o f
s o u g h t t o u n i f y a n d t o m ake c o h e r e n t a l l v e n tu re s o f h is te m p te d t h i s
te a c h e r and frie n d ,
th e se g r e a t th in k e r s th e
P la to .
sp e c u la tiv e A risto tle
a t
t a s k b y c o l l a t i n g i n t o a c o h e r e n t w ork a l l t h e
k n o w le d g e o f h i s tim e w h ic h h a d b e e n g a i n e d b y o b s e r v a t i o n o f phenom ena.
A risto tle
s c ie n tis t of h is day.
may t r u l y b e s a i d t o b e t h e f i r s t
He l e f t a l e g a c y f o r m o d e r n s c i e n c e
f o r w h i c h man c a n b e g r a t e f u l .
He w r o t e :
The f i r s t o f t h o s e who s t u d i e d s c i e n c e w e r e m i s l e d i n t h e i r s e a r c h f o r t r u t h a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s by t h e i r i n e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h , a s i t w e r e , t h r u s t th e m i n t o a n o t h e r p a t h . . . t h e y e x a g g e r a t e d a n d w e n t so f a r a s t o d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a p l u r a l i t y o f t h i n g s , m a in t a i n i n g t h a t o n ly B e in g i t s e l f i s . 1^ By a c c e p t i n g
th e v iew e x ta n t in h i s tim e t h a t a l l
k n o w le d g e e m e rg e s fro m p r e - e x i s t e n t k n o w le d g e , A r i s t o t l e
^ (O x fo rd :
W i l l i a m D- R o s s , t r a n s l a t o r , T he C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 ) >
The W o rk s o f A r i s t o t l e 191a*
7^ w o rk ed to d e m o n s tr a te th e
ju stific a tio n
o f P l a t o 1s t h e o r y
c o n c e rn in g th e p la c in g o f th e v a r io u s c la s s e s such descendency le v e ls *
He f e l t
th a t a ju s tific a tio n
be e f f e c te d by r e l a ti n g
th e
tio n w ith y e t a th ird *
L arrab ee c i t e s th e
tra tio n
of th in g s in c o u ld
tw o c l a s s e s o f o b j e c t s i n q u e s fo llo w in g i l l u s
o f t h i s v iew :
A n im a ls a r e o r g a n is m s h a v in g s e n s a t i o n s an d t h e p o w e r o f i n d e p e n d e n t l o c o m o t i o n ; a n d s o a r e m en; t h e r e f o r e , men b e i n g u n d e r t h e w i d e r c l a s s , a n i m a l s . T h is v ie w to o k i t f o r g r a n t e d t h a t e v e ry i n d i v i d u a l b e in g i n n a t u r e h a d i t s p r o p e r p l a c e i n som e s p e e i e s , w h i c h w a s i n c l u d e d i n some w i d e r g e n u s , w h i c h w a s i n t u r n i n c l u d e d a s a s p e c i e s i n some s t i l l h i g h e r g e n u s * 1 **' For A ris to tle , m ak e c e r t a i n n ic h e s in
t h e c h i e f jo b o f th e s c i e n t i s t was t o
t h a t a l l t h i n g s w ere p u t i n t o
one g i g a n t i c
t h e i r p ro p er
sy ste m o f “ p ig e o n h o le s w i t h in p ig e o n
h o l e s w h i c h n a t u r e w a s a s s u m e d t o b e * M^ A r i s t o t l e 1s n o t i o n
o f e d u c a tio n *
t h a t t h e p u p i l s o f h i s fam ous s c h o o l, ta u g h t by in c u lc a tin g
A r is to tle b e lie v e d
t h e Lyceum , w e re b e s t
e ffe c tiv e h a b its .
He w r o t e :
Why do we s a y t h a t we a c q u i r e a h a b i t a s t h e r e o f p u r s u i n g some s c i e n c e s b u t n o t o t h e r s ? A r e we to a c q u ire a h a b it o n ly by su ch s c ie n c e s a s e n a b le to m a k e .d is c o v e r ie s , s in c e d is c o v e ry i s th e r e s u l t h a b i t * 16
14 ^
16
L arrab ee, Lqc.
op.
su lt sa id us of
c l t . , p . 87 •
c lt*
W i l l i a m D. R o s s , The W o rk s o f A r i s t o t l e The C la re n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 ) , V I I , 955 b .
(O x fo rd :
75 A risto tle p ro c liv itie s
w rite s a ls o
to n a tu r e ,
t h a t we owe o u r h a b i t - m a k i n g
w h ic h i s t h e f o u n t o f a l l k n o w led g e*
He s t a t e s : F o r i n t e l l i g e n c e i s among t h e t h i n g s i m p l a n t e d i n u s b y n a t u r e , b e in g a s I t w ere an i n s t r u m e n t a n d , w h e r e v e r t h e s c i e n c e s a n d a r t s a r e am ong t h e t h i n g s c re a te d _ b y u s, i n te l li g e n c e i s one o f th e g i f t s o f n a tu re . A risto tle
f u r n i s h e d h i s p u p i l s w ith a w h o le s e r i e s
o f h a n d b o o k s on t h e
a r t o f d is p u ta tio n in p u b lic ,
m o n ly k n o w n a s d i a l e c t i c . w as to t r a i n b a te *
The p u r p o s e o f t h e s e h a n d b o o k s
a l l th e young p u p ils
A risto tle
In th e e x c e lle n c e o f de
a tte m p te d to p la c e th e a r t o f d i a l e c t i c
o n a m o re s o l i d b a s i s
th an P la to d id .
A risto tle
s t r a t e d how a n y d i s p u t a n t c o u l d , b y v i r t u e b o th th e m is ta k e s o f h i s
The O r g a n o n .
d em on
of reaso n ,
a v o id
a d v e r s a r i e s a n d a t t h e sa m e t i m e
f o r c e th em t o a c c e p t t h e v a l i d i t y A risto tle
o f h i s own c o n c l u s i o n s .
and h is l a t e r p u p ils f u r
n i s h e d an i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e r a p i d t e s t i n g c o n se q u e n c e s o f any f a l l a c i e s p o n e n ts .
t h e n com
o f th e d e d u c tiv e
in th e th in k in g
T h is was done a f t e r t h e f i r s t
o f t h e i r op
p re m ise s had a lre a d y
been s ta te d .
T he O r g a n o n w a s a h a n d b o o k d e s i g n e d p a r t i c u
la rly
a rt o f d isp u ta tio n
f o r th e
G reek s in
17
a s i t w as p r a c t i c e d b y t h e
th e a c a d e m ie s a n d p u b lic
R oss,
h a lls.
l o c * c i t * (P ro b le m a ta )
?6 T h is h a n d b o o k o r O rganon w o u ld in f o r m t h e p r o s p e c t i v e d e b a te r o f th e
p o s s ib l e t r a p s and p i t f a l l s
In h e re n t in an
a p p a r e n t l y a im l e s s and in n o c u o u s v e r b a l a d m is s io n . O rganon w as o n e o f t h e f i r s t
o f th e
The
s y l l a b i i n e d u c a tio n *
I t w as b a s e d on l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g a n d o f f e r e d an a i d i n a r g u m e n ta tio n . d isp u ta tio n ,
It
o u t l i n e s w h o le a r g u m e n ts , t h e
and w hat p i t f a l l s
to
a v o id .
It
th e o ry of
re m a in s a s an
o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p le o f a h a n d b o o k f o r e d u c a t i o n an d t h e d e d u c t i v e m eth o d o f l e a r n i n g . A ris to tle h is
s c ie n tific
s i b l y m ore t h a n tiv e
on i n d u c t i o n a n d d e d u c t i o n *
v ie w s,
it
m en tio n ed i t
seem s a p p a r e n t t h a t A r i s t o t l e ,
S o c ra te s and P la to ,
ty p e o f re a so n in g * q u ite o fte n
S u re ly i t
w as aw are o f t h e may b e
pos
in d u c
s a i d t h a t he
and i t a p p e a rs t h a t he r e a l i z e d
o n ly to o w e ll t h e i n a b i l i t y such,
B ecause o f
o f an in c o m p le te e n u m e ra tio n ,
as
to c o n c lu s iv e ly pro v e a g iv e n u n iv e r s a l p r i n c i p l e .
C offey w r i t e s : A r i s t o t l e d i s t i n g u i s h e s c l e a r l y b e tw e e n th e fo rm a t i o n o f a n a c t u a l w h o le fro m i t s p a r t s , a n d t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f a u n i v e r s a l n o tio n * 11E v e n i f we s u c c e e d e d i n s h o w i n g s e p a r a t e l y , # h e w r i t e s , nw h e t h e r b y t h e sam e o r b y s e p a r a t e p r o o f s , t h a t e q u i l a t e r a l , i s o s c e l e s , and s c a le n e t r i a n g l e s have e a c h t h e i r in t e r i o r a n g l e s e q u a l t o tw o r i g h t a n g l e s , we s h o u l d n o t y e t have any r i g h t to a s s e r t th e u n iv e r s a l p r o p o s itio n : t h e t r i a n g l e , a s s u c h h a s i t s tw o i n t e r i o r a n g l e s e q u a l t o tw o r i g h t a n g l e s .
^
Coffey, pp. cit., p. 3 0 .
77 A r i s t o t l e b e l i e v e d t h a t s e p a r a t e p r o o f s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y g i v e u n i v e r s a l k n o w le d g e , b u t a l l he h a d t o w o rk w i t h w as t h e m in d .
I t m ust b e a d m itte d t h a t A r i s t o t l e * s t e s t i n g
in stru m e n t,
sp ite
fic ie n t. in d u c tio n .
in
of its
W ith A r i s t o t l e
l i m i t a t i o n s , was r e m a r k a b ly e f
one c a n a t l a s t d i s c e r n
In h is s c ie n tif ic
th e u se o f
a p p ro a c h he c o n s t a n t l y
em pha
s iz e d th e need f o r o b s e rv a tio n and a n a ly s is . O u tlin e
o f G reek c o n t r i b u t i o n s .
T hough t h e r e w ere
o t h e r G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s who c o n t r i b u t e d t o re a so n in g , th is
it
i s p rim a rily th e th re e
th in k e rs
c h a p t e r who a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i t s
c o n s e q u e n t e v o lv e m e n t.
it
rem ove t h e m in d fro m i t s
u p o n a m ore r a t i o n a l p a t t e r n
T h e i r i d e a w a s t o r i d man o f h i s h i s m ag ic,
c o n s o l i d a t i o n and
T hey,
at le a st,
a t
m any p r e j u d i c e s a n d s e t
1w i t c h - d o c t o r 1 t h i n k i n g ,
and h is in c a n ta tio n s .
d e fin ite
rev ie w e d I n
and to w a rd s a h ig h e r g o a l.
Not t h a t th e y th e m se lv e s
w ere w h o lly d e v o id o f t h i s b u r d e n , first
p ro cess of
W i t h th e m r e a s o n i n g a s a m a j o r p r o
c e s s f o r s e e k in g k n o w led g e to o k fo rm . te m p te d .to
th e
b u t t h e i r s was o n e o f t h e
g ro p in g s to w a rd th e f r e e
use of a b s t r a c t
th in k in g . It c o n n e c tin g
w a s t h e s e men w h o ,
th ro u g h d e d u c tio n , v i z . ,
of fix e d c la s s -c o n c e p ts ,
e r e c t e d a sy ste m o f
th o u g h t w h ic h e n d u re d , w i t h o n ly s l i g h t m o d if i c a t io n s , a b o u t tw e n ty c e n t u r i e s .
th e
fo r
T hese i n f l u e n t i a l w r i t e r s and
/
78 th in k e rs first
sta n d
in a p e c u lia r ly p a ra d o x ic a l p o sitio n *
a s i n n o v a t o r s t h e y m ade a g r e a t c o n t r i b u t i o n ,
l a t e r t h e i r te a c h in g s, tu a lly
i n p a r t i c u l a r A r i s t o t l e 1s ,
to h in d e r th e advancem ent o f s c ie n c e .
” The c r e a t i o n
of t h is
At but
cam e a c
As B ode s a i d ,
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l w o r l d w a s a t t h e sam e
tim e one o f th e m o st b r i l l i a n t
a c h i e v e m e n t s and. o n e o f t h e
m a j o r t r a g e d i e s o f hum an c i v i l i z a t i o n . By i n d u c i n g m a n k i n d t o b e l i e v e
in th e
v e r b a l an d m a th e m a tic a l id e a s to th e p a t t e r n s n a tu re ,
th e se
e a r ly G reek s c r e a te d a s t a t e
c a l to p ro g re s s. in
c h a p te r.
th e e r a o f G reek c u lt u r e III. S c h o la s tic is m . t u r i e s of b a rb a rism ,
a r b i t r a r i l y fro m
t o t h e M id d le A ges. SCHOLASTIC THOUGHT '*
*
B e c a u s e o f t h e m any i n t e r v e n i n g th e
cen
n e x t I m p o r t a n t m ovem ent i n t h e h i s
t o r y o f t h o u g h t a n d r e a s o n i n g w as th e
tia n
o f th in g s in im i
T he n e x t p i o n e e r s i n
th in k in g w i l l be t r e a t e d by le a p in g
c a lle d
of p h y sic a l
T he e f f e c t o f t h i s p a r a d o x w i l l b e show n
th e next phase of t h i s
e a rly
sim ila rity of
p h i l o s o p h i c a l m o v em en t
s c h o l a s t i c i s m , w h i c h was d o m in a n t i n w e s t e r n C h r i s
c i v i l i z a t i o n fro m t h e C a r o li n g i a n e r a of Ren? D e s c a rte s .
( 7 5 2 - 9 8 7 A. D . )
u n til
th e r i s e
Im p o rta n t e x p o n e n ts o f
ro ad s
B oyd H. B o d e , P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t i o n a t t h e C r o s s (New Y o r k : N ew son a n d C o m p an y , 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 2 2 .
79 th is
s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t w e re A l b e r t u s M agnus, Buns S c o t u s ,
and g r e a t e s t o f a l l ,
T hom as A q u i n a s *
These C h r i s t ia n
th in k e r s fo rm u la te d p h ilo s o p h ic a l
sy ste m s a n d s p e c u l a t i v e te n d e n c i e s b a s e d upon a b a c k g ro u n d o f f i x e d r e l i g i o u s dogm a.
But in t h e i r
anew t h e p r o b le m s o f p h i l o s o p h y ,
a tte m p t to
th e y d id r e s u l t in
o n c e m ore a p l a c e f o r r e a s o n i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n q u e stio n s .
As a r e s u l t ,
T h o m lsm . An e c l e c t i c , o p h ers,
so lv e
of
se c u rin g
re lig io u s
A r i s t o t l e w as o nce a g a in s t u d i e d .
G re a te s t o f a l l th e
sc h o o lm e n w as A q u in a s .
A q u in a s drew f r e e l y fro m a l l th e g r e a t p h i l o s
e s p e c i a l l y fro m A r i s t o t l e .
He b e l i e v e d t h a t know
le d g e began w ith sen se p e rc e p tio n .
F ro m t h e d a t a o f s e n s e
th e
In te lle c t
a b s tr a c ts th e
u n iv e rsa l,
and on t h i s b a s i s i t
p ro c e e d s th ro u g h d e d u c tio n an d in d u c tio n to
s c i e n c e o f know
le d g e o f t h i n g s in t h e i r c a u s e s and th e n c e t o p h ilo s o p h y o r k n o w le d g e o f u l t i m a t e
c a u sa lity .
i The t i m e s i n f l u e n c e and liv e d la n lsm
-p h ilo so p h y .
in th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry ,
of S t.
m ost o f th e A r i s t o t e l -
T h om as A q u i n a s b e c a m e r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t f r o m
A r i s t o t l e * s o r i g i n a l v ie w s. th e
B e c a u s e he w o r k e d
A ris to tle
c a n n o t be b la m e d f o r
i d e a s o f t h o s e who f o l l o w e d h im a n d w h o s e g o a l s a n d
p u r p o s e s w ere so d i f f e r e n t h is lo g ic
f r o m h i s ow n.
a s h e may h a v e w i s h e d .
in f lu e n c e d by t h e i r m il i e u s .
They d i d n o t u s e
M odes o f t h i n k i n g becam e
A lo g ic ia n w rite s ,
c o n c e rn in g
80 th is
te n d e n cy : The m e th o d o f p h i l o s o p h y , t o o , l i k e t h e m e th o d s o f th e s c ie n c e s , i s l a r g e l y in f lu e n c e d by th e p r e v a i li n g g e n e r a l v ie w s and s ta n d p o in ts o f e a c h s u c c e s s iv e p e r i o d ; s y n t h e s i s p r e d o m in a te s i n one s c h o o l; o r i n an ep o ch o f p h ilo s o p h ic d e v e lo p m e n t, a n a l y s i s i n a n o th e r ; th e fo rm e r, f o r in s ta n c e in P la to , and N e o -P la to n ism , i n S t* A u g u s t i n e a n d t h e e a r l y m i d d l e a g e s . * . . * 0 A q u in a s a n d d e d u c t i o n *
of
A n a ly sis as an i n te g r a l p a r t
th e in d u c tiv e p ro c e s s r e a l l y began w ith th e R e n a iss a n c e .
That i s to
say,
t h e e m p h a s is becam e i n d u c t i v e ,
d e d u c tiv e ,
b u t th e sc h o o lm e n and t h e i r c h i e f p r o t a g o n i s t ,
A q u in a s, fo u n d e d t h e i r th in k in g
r a t h e r th an
p r im a r ily upon d e d u c tiv e
re a so n in g . The s c h o l a s t i c
th e o lo g ia n s,
le d by S t.
h a d a s t h e i r c h i e f a im s a l v a t i o n f o r m an. le d g e f o r
t h i s p u rp o se a lo n e .
t h a t t h e y h a d m u ch k n o w l e d g e i n s tra c te d a lik e
e x is te d ,
T h e y ' s o u g h t know
A lre a d y th e y w ere c o n v in c e d th e g u i s e o f p r e m is e s ab
fro m t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s ,
B ib le and A r i s t o t l e . tio n
T hom as A q u i n a s ,
F o r t h e S c h o o lm e n ,
or ra th e r
s u b s is te d ,
tr u th s of re v e la
w h ic h th e f r a i l
o f man c o u l d n e i t h e r g r a s p n o r e n v i s i o n .
th e
in te lle c t
A q u in a s w r o te :
. . . th e g i f t o f k n o w le d g e, l i k e t h e g i f t o f u n d e r s ta n d in g , i s o r d a in e d to th e c e r t i t u d e o f f a i t h . Now f a i t h c o n s i s t s p r im a r ily and p r i n c i p a l l y i n s p e c u la t i o n , in a s m u c h a s i t i s fo u n d e d on t h e F i r s t T r u t h . B ut s in c e th e F i r s t T r u th i s a ls o th e l a s t and f o r th e sak e o f w h ic h o u r w o rk s a r e d o n e , hen ce i t i s t h a t
C o ffe y , op . c l t . , p . 1 0 .
81 f a i t h e x te n d s to w o rks * . . . The c o n s e q u e n c e i s t h a t th e g i f t o f k n o w le d g e, a ls o # p r i m a r i l y an d p r i n c i p a l l y i n d e e d , r e g a r d s s p e c u l a t i o n , i n so f a r a s man k n o w s w h a t h e o u g h t t o h o l d b y f a i t h . 2^ I n q u ir y and f a i t h * it
I n v ie w o f th e above q u o t a tio n ,
can r e a d i l y b e s e e n t h a t A q u in a s a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s b e
lie v e d th a t f i n i t e q u e stio n s
m in d s m u s t u l t i m a t e l y l e a v e t h e u n i v e r s a l
to f a i t h .
n a tu re of i t s
F i n i t e m in d i s
lim ita tio n s ,
to a r i g i d
th o s e c o n se q u e n c e s w h ic h a r e senses.
The e n t i r e
c o m p e lle d , by th e v e ry
u n iv e rse ,
d e d u c tio n o f o n ly
c o m p re h e n sib le
to
its
lim ite d \ a c c o rd in g t h T h o m istic re a s o n
i n g , f o r m s a u n i f i e d a n d r a t i o n a l o r d e r f o r t h e m i n d o f God to
c o n te m p la te *
A nd m an ,
a s G o d 1s g r e a t e s t c r e a t i o n , w a s
e n d o w e d b y God t o s h a r e i n a l e s s e r m e a s u r e t h % t w is d o m w h ic h i s
t h e c o m p re h e n sio n o f a b s o l u te
T ru th .
The S c h o l a s t i c m e t h o d i n e d u c a t i o n . th e S c h o la s tic s , C a th o lic
w h ic h I s v e r y m uch i n e v i d e n c e t o d a y i n
e d u c a tio n ,
c e n te re d
th e g r e a te s t ta s k i s a m eans o f f i n d i n g b e lie v e r,
2i
its
I t s e l f aro u n d th e t h e s i s th a t
th e a p p lic a tio n
s a lv a tio n f o r th e
a c c o rd in g to
w ith T ru th in
The m e th o d o f
o f hum an l e a r n i n g
as
in d iv id u a l so u l.
The
th e S c h o la s tic s ,
g re a te s t sense,
w as a l r e a d y endow ed
a lth o u g h i t c o u ld n o t be
The Summa T h e o l o g l c a o f S t . T hom as A q u i n a s (L o n don: R . a n d T . W a s h b o u r n e L t d . , 1 9 1 ?)> P* 1 1 6 . (T ran s l a t e d by F ra n c is c a n F a th e r s : l i t e r a l l y by F a th e r s o f th e E n g l i s h D o m in ic a n P r o v i n c e . )
82 to o e a s i l y
used o r d isc o v e re d .
w as t o em p lo y h i s f a c u l t i e s c o n c e p ts c o u ld f i t d iv in e
sy ste m ,
in to
For th is
reaso n,
th e p u p il
o f r e a s o n t o d i s c o v e r w h a t hum an
th e d iv in e
o rd e r of th in g s .
In th is
th e p r im a r y t e n e t s w ere a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d
a n d w e l l know n b y men t h r o u g h v i r t u e
of fa ith .
A q u in a s
w rite s: I t seem s t h a t k n o w le d g e i s n o t a g i f t . F or th e g i f t s o f t h e H o ly G h o st s u r p a s s t h e n a t u r a l f a c u l t y . B u t know le d g e im p lie s an e f f e c t o f n a t u r a l re a s o n : f o r th e p h i l o s o p h e r s a y s t h a t a d e m o n s tr a tio n i s a s.v llo g ism w h i c h p r o d u c e s k n o w l e d g e . . . no w A u g u s t i n e s a y s ( D e . T r i n . X IV ) t h a t many o f t h e f a i t h f u l l a c k k n o w l e d g e th o u g h th e y have f a i t h . ^ The d e d u c t i v e m e th o d t o d a y . re a so n in g it
of th is
I n t h e m odern e r a th e
sch o o l o f S c h o la s tic is m
seem s n a iv e .
But
m u st b e k e p t i n m in d t h a t no f i n a l a n s w e r s h a v e y e t b e e n
e s t a b l i s h e d , a n d t h e S c h o l a s t i c s c o u l d n o t show u n d u e i n te r e s t in
sc ie n tific
f a c t s c o n sid e rin g
had not been e s ta b lis h e d . re a d ily
to
th a t sc ie n c e
D e d u c tiv e re a s o n in g le n d s I t s e l f
t h i n k e r s w hen n o o t h e r a p p a r a t u s i s
That th e re seem s a p p a r e n t ,
its e lf
is v a lid ity
read y .
in t h e d e d u c tiv e a p p ro ach
s i n c e we c a n n o t a l w a y s a s c e r t a i n t h e
co g en cy o f e v id e n c e in
a ll
th e s c ie n c e s .
sam e
Even A q u in a s
r e a l i z e d t h a t m any t i m e s u l t i m a t e p r o o f w a s l a c k i n g
in ex
p e r im e n ta tio n and t h a t one c o u ld go on o n ly by f a i t h .
22
I b i d . , p. 111.
83 S u m m ary *
T h is c h a p te r has t r e a t e d in
th e background o f d e d u c tiv e re a s o n in g .
I t w as h o p ed t h a t by
s u c h a t r e a t m e n t i n s i g h t w o u ld b e g a in e d i n t o p ro b lem o f r e a s o n i n g . d u c tiv e ,
v e rs io n s o f w hat c o n s t i t u t e s th is
b a s i s f o r th e
stu d y ,
th e
re a so n in g .
a t t e m p t w a s m ade t o
T he b a c k g r o u n d i s
o f re a so n in g and th e ro o ts a re
th e re fo re ,
p ro v id e a
a s w id e a s t h e w h o le as deep.
T h is c h a p te r,
s h o w e d t h e e a r l i e s t kn ow n b e g i n n i n g s o f d e d u c t i v e
and in d u c tiv e
re a so n in g .
The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l p r e s e n t t h e
e a r l y m odern t h i n k e r s a n d t h e t r u e tific
T h e r e a r e m any
u n d e rs ta n d in g of p ro b le m -so lv in g a s a te c h
n iq u e o f le a r n in g . fie ld
t h e w h o le
R e f le c tio n , w h e th e r d e d u c tiv e o r in
h a s n o t b e en c o m p le te ly d e f in e d .
In
sum m ary f a s h i o n
mode o f r e a s o n i n g .
b e g in n in g s o f th e s c ie n
CHAPTER V MODERN HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The l a s t
c h a p te r p re s e n te d ,
in
su m m arize d fo rm ,
e v id e n c e o f th e o r i g i n s o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g . th a t,
w h ile p ro b le m -s o lv in g
I t w as s e e n
em erges a lm o s t w h o lly fro m th e
i n d u c t i v e m eth o d o f r e a s o n i n g , omy c a n b e
th e
in r e a l i t y ,
no s h a r p d i c h o t
s e t up b e tw e e n d e d u c tio n a n d i n d u c t i o n .
To f u r
th e r a m p lify t h i s p o in t th e l a s t c h a p te r a tte m p te d to
sh o w
how e v e n t h e e a r l i e s t o f d e d u c t i v e t h i n k e r s u s e d t h e i n d u c t i v e m eth o d .
C h a p te r V w i l l p r e s e n t
i n d u c t i v e m eth o d a s i t I.
th e b e g in n in g s o f th e
i s know n t o d a y .
THE R ISE OF INDUCTIVE THINKING
W h ile t h e r e
is
no w a y o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e x a c t d a t e
o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e i n d u c t i v e w ay o f t h i n k i n g ,
it
is
r a t h e r w e l l a g r e e d am ong h i s t o r i a n s t h a t i t w a s w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e and th e c o n c o m ita n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f n a t u r a l phenom ena t h a t its
in c e p tio n *
in d u c tiv e re a so n in g r e a l l y had
I t was n o t e d w i t h th e
e a r ly G reeks a n d w ith
t h e S c h o o lm e n t h a t s c i e n t i f i c a p p a r a t u s , to d a y , w as m arked m a in ly by I t s
as i t
i s know n
absence.
In a tte m p tin g to s o lv e t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p ro b le m s, t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s h a d n o r e c o u r s e o t h e r t h a n t h e i r own in te lle c ts .
The m e d ie v a l t h i n k e r s w e re d e t e r m i n e d i n a l l
85 t h e i r re a so n in g
to p ro v e
t h e e x i s t e n c e o f God.
W ith th e
a d v e n t o f th e t r a d e r o u t e s w h ic h w ere o p e n ed up t o w o rld c o m m e r c e , m o re o b j e c t i v e The R e n a i s s a n c e . b irth ,
is
a p p lie d to
s c ie n tific
i n q u ir y w as b eg u n .
The w o r d R e n a i s s a n c e ,
m e a n in g r e
c e r ta in c u ltu r a l and s c ie n tif ic
d e v e lo p
m e n ts t h a t b eg an in th e f o u r t e e n t h and c o n tin u e d i n t o s ix te e n th c e n tu ry . of tra n s itio n . its
The R e n a is s a n c e
h a s b een c a l l e d a n age
I t was a t r a n s i t i o n fro m m e d ie v a lis m , w i t h
e m p h a sis on S c h o l a s ti c i s m ,
c ism ,
th e
t o m o d ern ism , w i t h i t s
c h u rch a u th o r ity and a s c e ti
e m p h a sis on s c i e n c e ,
s k e p tic is m
and in d iv id u a lis m . As f a r a s c i v i l i z a t i o n w a s c o n c e r n e d , E u ro p e h ad l a i n c irc u m s ta n c e s ,
d o rm an t f o r c e n t u r i e s . new l i f e
a ro se.
By t h e
th e w est o f
But by a s e r i e s of end of
th e fo u rte e n th
c e n t u r y , E u r o p e w a s a s t i r w i t h m o re a d v a n c e d t h i n k i n g . A g a in t h e r e w as a s t r i v i n g p h y sic s,
a f t e r k n o w le d g e i n
re a so n in g and so on.
a b r e a k d o w n o f m any o f t h e
a stro n o m y ,
T h i s m o m e n to u s c e n t u r y
saw
s h a c k le s w h ic h h ad b e e n f o r g e d
b y th e t r a d i t i o n a l t h i n k e r s a n d w h ic h w ere so o n t o be t o r n a p a rt. T h is c e n tu r y a ls o
sa w t h e a w a k e n i n g o f d o u b t r e g a r d
in g th e need f o r c o n s ta n t d e a lin g s in m a tte rs of n a tu ra l.
It
saw a n a t t e m p t a t p r o g r e s s
o f hum an r e a s o n .
th e s u p e r
th r o u g h t h e pow er
I n c o n tr a s t to th e in c e s s a n t h a ir s p l i t t i n g
86 o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s , s u b s titu te
m en o f t h i s
in v e s tig a tio n s
a im e d a t
c e n tu ry a tte m p te d to sc ie n tific
re a so n in g *
L e a d e r s n e c e s s a r y t o a n y f o r w a r d m ovem ent w e re a l s o p r e s e n t d u r in g th e R e n a issa n c e *
A ll th ro u g h th e f o u r te e n th ,
f i f t e e n t h a n d s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y men w e r e p r o b i n g f o r new w ays o f e x p l o r i n g n a t u r a l phenom ena* new a c t i v i t y
F u lle r d e sc rib e s th is
a s fo llo w s:
I n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e D i s c o u r s e on M e th o d , D e s c a r t e s r e m a r k s t h a t , 11a f t e r s t u d y i n g t h e s c h o o l o f b ook l e a r n i n g he b e to o k h im s e lf , f o r f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n , t o k n o w le d g e o f h i m s e l f an d o f t h e g r e a t b o o k o f t h e w o rld * I n s o d o i n g he w a s b u t f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p l e s e t h im b y t h e R e n a i s s a n c e . a ^ Thus i n and in th e in to
th e l a t t e r p a r t of th e f o u r te e n th c e n tu ry
tw o f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r i e s ,
a n ew way o f l i v i n g .
w e s te r n E u ro p e
th e w est fo rg e d ahead
D u rin g t h i s
p e rio d o f a c t iv i t y ,
o n c e a g a i n r e v i v e d t h e G-reek a n d Roman m a s t e r
p i e c e s w h ic h h ad b e e n so lo n g f o r g o t t e n . T h e e x p l o r a t i o n s a n d c o n s e q u e n t d i s c o v e r i e s o f new h o r i z o n s o f t h e t h e n u n k n o w n w o r l d o p e n e d u p new v i s t a s o f th o u g h t*
S in c e n a v i g a t i o n was u r g e n t l y n e e d e d ,
o f a stro n o m y ,
g e o g rap h y a n d l i k e
a r e a s w ere r e s u r r e c t e d .
New b o r d e r s c a l l e d f o r n e w m e t h o d s . its
ow n , a n d w i t h i t
th e
th e f i e l d s
sc ie n tific
S c i e n c e w a s c o m in g i n t o m e th o d o f r e a s o n i n g .
1 B e n j a m i n A* G. F u l l e r , A H i s t o r y o f P h i l o s o p h y (New Y o r k : H e n r y H o l t a n d C om pany, 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 433*
8?
II.
THE INDUCTIVE THINKERS
W h il e m an y men w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e n t i r e m ove m ent o f i n d u c t i v e t h i n k i n g , b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b y tim e
o n ly th o s e w hose p ro m in e n c e h a s
a re p re s e n te d in t h i s
stu d y *
No
a t t e m p t i s m ad e t o p r e s e n t t h e e n t i r e p h i l o s o p h y o f a n y o n e m an.
O n ly t h a t p h a s e o f a n y p h i l o s o p h y r e l e v a n t
th e s is of th is
In v e s tig a tio n
i s p re se n te d .
who c o n t r i b u t e d t h e m a j o r e f f o r t s
sib le
in
th e
T he p h i l o s o p h e r s
to th e r i s e
o f t h e i n d u c t i v e m e th o d a r e l i s t e d .
to
and p o p u la rity
T h e s e men a r e r e s p o n
som e m e a s u r e f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m
s o l v i n g m eth o d o f t o d a y . A.
RENE DESCARTES ( 1 5 9 6 - 1 6 5 0 )
A lth o u g h he i s
rig h tly
exponent of ra tio n a lis m a r e e le m e n ts in
th e
d u c tiv e in n a tu re .
c l a s s i f i e d a s an o u ts ta n d in g
and m a th e m a tic a l d e d u c tio n ,
th in k in g One o f
th e re
o f Rene D e s c a r t e s w h ic h a r e i n
t h e f i r s t a t t a c k s u p o n t h e mode
o f d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g w a s m ade b y t h i s F r e n c h p h i l o s o p h e r m a th em a t 1c l a n . . . . th e fo u n d e r o f F re n ch p h ilo s o p h y , th o u g h a r a t i o n a l i s t and s p i r i t u a l i s t in p r in c ip le , r e a l l y ap p ro x im a te s e m p iric ism an d m a te r ia lis m . H is a n im a lm a c h i n e a n t i c i p a t e s t h e M an, A M a c h i n e o f L a M e t t r i e . Though d o g m a tic in h i s b e l i e f t h a t e x t e n s i o n i s a r e a l i t y , h e i s t h e p r e c u r s o r o f L o c k e , Hume, a n d K a n t , I n t h a t he m akes a c l e a r and a b s o l u t e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n o u r i d e a s o f m a t e r i a l q u a l i t i e s a n d t h e i r
88 e x te rn a l causes*2 To D e s c a r t e s t h e
I d e a o f d e d u c t i o n f e l l down b e c a u s e o f I t s
d e p e n d e n c e on t h e u s u a l u n w a r r a n t e d a c c e p t a n c e o f u n l v e r s a l s . To h im u n i v e r s a l e
h a d no r e a l e x i s t e n c e o f
t h e i r own*
For
e x a m p le , F u l l e r w r i t e s o f D e s c a r t e s 1 r e a s o n i n g : T h in g s l i k e d u r a t i o n , o r d e r , a n d n um ber, e i t h e r a r e m o d es o f p h y s i c a l e x i s t e n c e , o r , w h e n a b s t r a c t e d b y t h e m in d a n d e m p t i e d o f t h e i r c o n t e n t , a r e m o d e s o f t h i n k in g ; g e n e r a l id e a s a r e fo unded on re se m b la n c e s, and a re sim p ly s i g n s s ta n d in g f o r g r o u p s o f s i m i l a r p a r t i c u l a r s , n o t f o r a common n a t u r e p e r v a d i n g t h e m . 3 F u r th e r e v id e n c e o f in d u c tiv e th o u g h t in D e s c a r t e s ’ re a so n in g
i s p r e s e n t e d b y W in d e b a n d :
To t h o s e m e t h o d i c a l t h o u g h t s w h i c h a r e common t o Bacon an d G r a lile o , D e s c a r t e s a d d e d a p o s t u l a t e o f t h e g r e a t e s t im p o rta n c e : he dem anded t h a t t h e m e th o d o f in d u c tio n o r r e s o l u t i o n sh o u ld l e a d to a s in g le p r i n c i p l e o f h i g h e s t a n d a b s o l u t e c e r t a i n t y , fro m w h ic h a f t e r w a r d s , b y t h e m e t h o d o f c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e w h o le com pass o f e x p e r i e n c e m ust f i n d i t s e x p l a n a t i o n . T h is dem and was e n t i r e l y o r i g i n a l a n d h a d i t s r o o t s i n th e f e l t n e e d f o r a s y s t e m a t i c , c o n n e c te d w h o le o f a l l hum an k n o w l e d g e ; i t r e s t e d u l t i m a t e l y u p o n h i s s u r f e i t o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l r e c e p tio n o f h i s t o r i c a l l y c o lle c te d k n o w l e d g e , a n d u p o n h i s l o n g i n g f o r a n ew p h i l o s o p h i c a l c r e a t i o n fro m one m o u ld . D e s c a r te s w i l l , th e n , b y an in d u c tiv e e n u m e ra tio n and a c r i t i c a l s i f t i n g o f a l l id e a s , p re s s fo rw ard to a s in g le , c e r ta in p o in t, in o r d e r fro m t h i s p o i n t to d e d u c e a l l f u r t h e r t r u t h s . The f i r s t t a s k o f p h i l o s o p h y i s a n a l y t i c , t h e s e c o n d sy n th e tic .
^ A l f r e d W eb er, H i s t o r y o f P h i l o s o p h y C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s S o n s , 1 9 3 0 /* P* 253* o F u l l e r , o p . c i t * , p . 6k.
(Hew Y o r k :
^ W. W i n d e b a n d , A H i s t o r y o f P h i l o s o p h y (New Y o r k : The M a c m illa n C o .,
19267,
p p . 3S9-90*
89 M i h d - b o d v d ile m m a * ta tio n
D e s c a r t e s m akes a f o r m a l p r e s e n
o f t h e c o n c e p t t h a t o u r m in d s a r e
th e o b je c ts o f sen se p e rc e p tio n se, is
as co n cern s th e o b je c ts ,
and th e n w ith t h e i r q u a l i t i e s . aw are o f e t e r n a l
c a rte s b e lie v e d , he s a id ,
tru th s .
H e a l k n o w le d g e,
c a n be d i v i d e d i n t o
per
O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e m in d
a lw a y s b e g i n s w i t h t h e
t h i n g s and t h a t w h ic h i s
in c o n ta c t w ith
h o w e v e r, D es
senses.
tw o c l a s s e s , v i z . ,
th o u g h t upon,
O b je c ts, th in k in g
e x te n d e d o r p h y s ic a l
b o d ie s.
*
T h o s e a t t r i b u t e s o r q u a l i t i e s w i t h w h i c h t h e m in d endow s t h e o b j e c t s o f o u r t h in k i n g a m in d -b o d y a c t i o n p r o c e s s . c a r te s d isc u sse d ,
a r e b u t th e
T h is p o s t u l a t i o n w h ic h D es
h a s re m a in e d u n t i l
e p ls te m o lo g ic a l th in k e r s .
re s u lta n t of
t h i s day to p la g u e
T h e w ay i n w h i c h t h e m i n d c o m e s
to know th e e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s
is
s till
e v id e n c e seem s t o d i s p u t e D e s c a r te s *
in c o n te n tio n . d u a listic
L a te r
e p is te m o lo -
g i c a l ap p ro ach . D e s c a r te s 1 d u a lism .
D e sc a rte s b e lie v e d th a t th e e s
s e n c e o f m a n ’ s m in d i n t h e a b s t r a c t s e n s e i s ‘th in k .1
T he b o d y ,
sim p ly t o
as th e p h y s ic a l o b je c t h as f o r i t s d u ty
t h e f a c t o f b e i n g e x te n d e d i n tim e a n d s p a c e . h o w ever,
is
th e r e a s o n in g
g i n s th o u g h t by d o u b tin g . done je
s u i s . 11
I th in k ,
aspect of th is
d u a lity and i t
As D e s c a r t e s w r o t e : th e re fo re ,
I am.
T he m in d , be
11J e p e n s e ,
90 P u t in te rm s o f d o u b t, "If I
d id n o t d o u b t, I w o u ld n o t e x i s t . "
in a p o sitio n th in k in g . d o u b t,
to deduce th e n a tu re
F irst,
t h e m in d s t a r t s
and s p e c u la tio n ,
its e lf. to
h e -w ould p o s s i b l y h a v e s a i d ,
o f th e c o u rse
in d u c tiv e ly by p r o je c tin g
th in k in g can b rin g us d e d u c tiv e ly
t h e a n s w e r t o o u r d ile m m a s a n d f i n a l l y of co u rse,
to
th e f i n a l
i s God*
Im p llc a tio n s of D e s c a rte s * th in k in g * th e d e d u c tio n o f an e x t e r n a l , b e g in s f i r s t
of a ll
F o r D e sc a rte s
p h y s ic a l a n d s e n s a te w o rld
i n h i s own i n t e r n a l e x p e r i e n c e .
se n se s a re w itn e s s to th e e x is te n c e
B u t G od, who w o u l d n o t d e c e i v e m an,
o f im m e d ia te s e n s a t i o n
s i n c e G od h a s l o n g
v e a l e d a s an I n c o r p o r e a l m in d o r s p i r i t . r a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g t h e m in d a n d b o d y ,
The
of e x te rn a l o b je c ts and
c a u s e s w h e th e r o r n o t th e w o rld r e a l l y e x i s t s it.
of our
e v en upon th e f a c t o f e x is te n c e
L a te r i n te l li g e n t
a n sw e r w h ic h ,
F u r t h e r , we a r e
is
a s man s e e s
n o t th e cause
s i n c e been-, r e B ut by c l e a r an d
th ro u g h u n iq u e i n t e r
a c t i o n , d o e s com e t o k n o w t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d i t
in h a b its
and u ltim a te ly
o f G od.
com es t o a c l o s e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
In t h a t he d e f i n i t e l y m eth o d f o r f i n d i n g b u t i o n to so lv in g
in d u c tiv e
k n o w l e d g e , R e n £ D e s c a r t e s made a c o n t r i th in k in g .
te c h n iq u e can be
h is re a so n in g
a tt a c k e d d e d u c tio n a s th e o n ly
in d o u b t.
E v id e n c e of a l a t e r
seen in th e
p ro b lem
f a c t o f h i s b e g in n in g
91 B.
FRANCIS BACON ( 1 5 6 1 - 1 6 2 6 )
T h is E n g lish m a n o f t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s was c o n s i d e r e d a p r o d u c t o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e * in g h i s c a r e e r he e m p h a size d th e u se o f re a s o n to to d is c o v e r th e e n tir e
tru th
D ur
seek and
c o n c e rn in g ou r u n iv e rs e *
T he
g r e a t m o d a lity f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g o u r w o rld , a c c o rd in g to B acon,
is
in v e n tiv e n e ss.
He a b a n d o n e d t h e t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r
te c h n iq u e f o r d e li b e r a t e m is s a p p ro a c h t o
research .
th in k in g
R a th e r th a n a h i t - o r -
o u t p ro b le m s , B acon a d v o c a te d an
o r d e r ly and p la n n e d p ro c e d u re in v o lv in g l o g i c a l s te p s in th e re a so n in g p ro c e ss. R e s e a r c h f o r B acon w as e x t r e m e l y p r a c t i c a l i n t h a t it
d i d a tte m p t to d o m in a te n a tu re *
l e d g e was p o w e r. p re ta tio n r is e s to
is
K n o w le d g e o f n a t u r e a n d i t s
th e in e x o ra b le
p ro p er in te r
c o n d itio n o f in v e n tio n *
Man
h i s ascen d an cy th ro u g h th e v a n q u is h in g o f n a tu r e .
Bacon s t r e s s e d t h e p o i n t , o b e d ie n c e
He b e l i e v e d t h a t know
how ever,
t h a t to c o n q u e r n a tu r e
t o h e r p r i n c i p l e s was b o t h n e c e s s a r y a n d o b l i g a
to ry . T he m e t h o d o f i n d u c t i o n .
F r a n c i s B a c o n 1s m e t h o d f o r
e d u c a ti o n w as i n d i r e c t o p p o s i t i o n t o w h ic h he o p p o se d in a l l s o lv e any p ro b le m ,
its
fa c e ts.
Bacon a s s e r t e d ,
c a r e f u l c o m p a ris o n o f th e
th e d e d u c t i v e m eth o d , In o rd er to r ig h tf u lly
t h e r e m ust f i r s t be a
‘in sta n c e s*
i n w h ic h a c e r t a i n
92
phenom enon d o e s ,
o r does n o t,
ap p ear*
th e r e can th en b e e x t r a c t e d c e r t a i n a n d a s p e c t s w h ic h a r e
F ro m t h o s e
in sta n c e s
n ece ssa ry c o n d itio n s
e s s e n t i a l f o r an y r e a l c o m p re h e n s io n *
B acon w ro te : A g ain by t h e k n o w le d g e o f p h y s i c a l c a u s e s t h e r e c a n n o t f a i l t o f o l l o w m an y i n d i c a t i o n s , a n d i n d i c a t i o n s o f new p a r t i c u l a r s , i f m en i n t h e i r u s e a n d p r a c t i c e w i l l k eep one eye o p e n .5 B a c o n 's u s e o f i n d u c t i o n i s q u o ta tio n *
i l l u s t r a t e d b y th e above
R a th e r th a n b e g in n in g w ith th e u n i v e r s a l ap
p r o a c h , w h ic h w as so p o w e r f u l u p u n t i l t h a t d a t e , g e s te d th e use o f p a r t i c u l a r rea so n in g *
P a rtic u la rs ,
of fu rth e r p a rtic u la rs ,
p e c ts , b u t a ls o
In sta n c e s as a ta k e -o ff fo r
he a s s e r t e d , w i l l g i v e k n o w le d g e an d even u l ti m a t e l y o f u n iv e rs a ls *
M eth o d o f i n q u i r y * t h a t , w hen t r e a t i n g
B acon a l s o p ro p o u n d e d th e th e o r y
o f i n s t a n c e s , n o t o n ly t h e p o s i t i v e a s
t h e n e g a t i v e , m ust b e c o n s i d e r e d .
i n s t a n c e s w ere q u i t e a s i m p o r ta n t t o th e p o s itiv e .
T hat i s
to
say,
h im i n
such.
He f e l t t h a t i n
N e g a tiv e
in d u c tio n
as
t h a t i n any g iv e n e x p e rim e n t,
t h e i n s t a n c e s w h ic h re m a in e d u n d is tu r b e d a r e as
he s u g
t o b e m arked
any e x p e rim e n t undue a c t i v i t y w as
a sig n o f n e g a tiv e in f lu e n c e
a t w o rk a n d he b e l i e v e d t h a t
a c o g n iz a n c e o f n e g a tio n w as j u s t a s im p o rta n t a s th e
F r a n c i s B aco n , The A dvancem ent o f L e a r n in g T h e C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 8 6 8 ) , p* 1 2 3 *
(O x fo rd :
93 p o sitiv e
a sp e c ts.
No c o n c l u s i o n s ,
he s ta te d ,
u n t i l th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s e x p lo re d .
c o u ld r e a l l y be a c c e p te d
o f a l l th e n e g a tiv e in s ta n c e s a re
C o n c e r n in g h i s m eth o d f o r r e a s o n i n g on a p r o b
lem , B acon w r o te : T h e re i s so g r e a t a num ber o f p a r t i c u l a r s a n d t h a t a rm y s o s c a t t e r e d a n d d i s p e r s e d a s t o d i s t r a c t a n d c o n fo u n d th e u n d e rs ta n d in g , l i t t l e i s to be hoped f o r , from t h e s k ir m is h in g s a n d s l i g h t a t t a c k s a n d d e s u l t o r y m o v e m e n ts o f t h e i n t e l l e c t , u n l e s s a l l t h e p a r t i c u l a r s w h ic h p e r t a i n to t h e s u b j e c t o f i n q u i r y s h a l l b e m eans o f T a b le s o f D is c o v e ry , a p t, w e ll- a r ra n g e d , and as i t w e r e a n i m a t e , b e d r a w n u p a n d m a r s h a l d , a n d t h e m in d b e s e t to w ork upon th e h e lp s d u ly p r e p a r e d a n d d i g e s t e d w h ic h t h e s e t a b l e s s u p p ly .o N a tu re o f e x p e r ie n c e .
B acon b e l i e v e d t h a t e x p e r ie n c e
i s a lw a y s a t f i r s t a d e r i v a t i v e o f o u r f i v e e x p e rie n c e b e g in s w ith th e p ro c e s s o f d o u b tin g
That
we a s c e r t a i n t h r o u g h t h e
e v en o u r e x p e r i e n c e , w h ic h m akes u s
c r i t i c a l a t ev ery s te p in sp irit is
senses,
senses.
our th in k in g .
som ehow a b s e n t a n d i n i t s
If th is
c ritic a l
ste a d th e re i s
an un
to w a rd u rg e t o l e a p a t
c o n c lu s io n s , th e n o n ly c r e d u l i t y and
p re ju d ic e
O n ly by a c a u t i o u s a n d c r i t i c a l p r o
can r e s u l t .
c e s s o f i n d u c t i o n from i n s t a n c e s t o fo rm s i s s ib ility
of v e rify in g
th e re
any p o s
th e e f f e c t s o b ta in e d b y c o n tin u e d
o b s e rv a tio n th ro u g h e x p e rie n c e .
B acon w r o te :
F r a n c i s B a c o n , Novum O r g a n u m , i n T h e E n g l i s h P h i l o g o p h e r s f r o m B a c o n t o H i l l (New Y o r k : T h e M o d e rn L i b r a r y , 1 9 3 9 ) » P* 7 0 .
94 F o r th e v i c e o r d i s e a s e o f l e a r n in g w h ic h c o n c e iv e th d e c e i t o r u n t r u t h , i t i s o f a l l th e r e s t th e f o u l e s t . . * a s t h a t w h ic h d o th d e s t r o y th e e s s e n t i a l fo rm s o f k n o w le d g e, w h ic h i s n o t h in g h u t a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t r u t h ; f o r t h e t r u t h o f b e i n g a n d t h e t r u t h o f k n o w in g a r e o n e , d i f f e r i n g no m ore t h a n t h e d i r e c t beam a n d t h e b e am r e f l e c t e d . T h is v i c e , t h e r e f o r e , b r a n c h e th i t s e l f i n t o tw o s o r t s o f d e l i g h t i n d e c e i v i n g a n d a p t n e s s t o be d e c e iv e d ; im p o s tu re a n d c r e d u l i t y * . . . So i n n a tu ra l h is to - n Ch o i c e a n d ju d g m e n t T h erefo re, sta rtin g
c a r e f u l and a n a ly tic a l e x p e rie n c e
p o i n t an d g u id e f o r r e a s o n in g w h ic h i s
w ith lo g ic *
To B a c o n ,
u n c ritic a l re fle c tio n
is th e
consonant
w as a v i c e
w h ic h p ro d u c e d n o th in g b u t c o n fu s io n an d d e c e p ti o n . re fle c tio n
e m e rg in g fro m c a r e f u l l y
O n ly
s c r u tin iz e d e x p e rie n c e
p o s s e s s e s any v a l i d i t y . d e ro g a tiv e
in sta n c e s.
D e a lin g w ith n a tu r e a s a
c o m p le te e n t i t y , B acon e m p h a siz e d th e f a c t t h a t m ust be c r i t i c a l even d u r in g
in d u c tio n ,
f a c t o r in any g iv e n e x p e rim e n t. be a id e d ,
t h e m in d
n e v e r o m ittin g any
The c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e
he s a i d , b y o u r s e l e c t i o n o f c e r t a i n
In s ta n c e s f o r o b s e rv a tio n and e x p e rim e n ta tio n .
can
p re ro g a tiv e T hese
i n s t a n c e s a r e p h e n o m e n a w h i c h a l w a y s p r e s e n t u n i q u e exam p l e s o f ty p e and w h ic h a r e f r e e fro m a d u l t e r a t i v e
in flu
ences. He c l a s s i f i e d
7 35*
tw e n ty -s e v e n v a r i e t i e s o f s u c h i n s t a n c e s .
B acon, A dvancem ent o f L e a rn in g , op.
c i t . , pp. 34-
95 F or c le a rn e s s concept of ty p e*
In In d u c tiv e re a s o n in g ,
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he p o s t u l a t e d t h e
a lo n g w ith th e p r e r o g a tiv e
T hese s in g u la r in s ta n c e s h ad v e ry l i t t l e
e x c e p t a s c o r r e l a t i v e s o f t h e phenom enon b e in g
i n common in v e s tig a te d *
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th e need f o r c r i t i c a l research *
m ust s e rv e a s a b e g in n in g , b u t a n a l y s i s i s T h is te c h n iq u e i s so lv in g :
a q u e stio n o r d i f f i c u l t y
som e s o l u t i o n i s
th ro u g h i d e n t i t y , son,
i.e .,
sin g u la r In sta n c e s,
t h e k e y n o te *
m a rk e d ly s i m i l a r to p ro b le m is
posed,
u se d a s an e x p e rim e n ta l r e f e r e n c e p o in t, a n a ly sis
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to I n d u c tio n .
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o u t p ro b lem s*
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s e t t i n g u p , an d th e n d e m o lish in g , k in d s o f p re ju d ic e , i n h i s day*
i n s i s t e n c e on o p e n -
h e o p e n e d t h e w ay f o r
in q u iry .
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te c h n iq u e
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l i e v e d t h a t i n d u c t i o n t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e w as t h e m eth o d o f l e a r n i n g *
B acon b e o n ly
P r o b l e m - s o l v i n g p o s t u l a t e s m uch th e
sam e n o t i o n . Ill* A* John L ocke, th in k in g
in a l l
THE BRITISH EM PIRICISTS JOHN LOCKE ( 1 6 3 2 - 1 7 0 4 )
th e p ro ta g o n ist of fre e
sp h eres,
a l s o h a d a tr e m e n d o u s e f f e c t on
t h e i n d u c t i v e m eth o d o f r e a s o n i n g . ophy by f i r s t
speech and fre e
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a n a l y z i n g c e r t a i n w e l l - f o u n d e d d o u b ts on t h e
u n l im i te d p ow ers o f r e a s o n w ith r e f e r e n c e I n C h a p t e r IV o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n R e c o lle c tio n has been d e fin e d .
to
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t h a t t h e m in d w a s e n d o w e d a t b i r t h x ^ i t h c e r t a i n p r e c o n c e i v e d n o t io n s o r i d e a s w h ic h i f to r e a l i t y .
r i g h t l y d e v e lo p e d w o u ld c o r r e s p o n d
The e x t e r n a l w o r ld p r e s e n t e d ,
f a c e t s o f one i d e a o r i d e a s . th e se
to
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many
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o b je c t. T a b u la r a s a * o f P la to n ic
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o p p o s itio n to th e th e o ry
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e x i s t no s o -
l o g i c a l o r m a th e m a tic a l la w s I n h e r e n t
in th e in te lle c t* n a te
id e a th e o ry ,
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to
th is
in
p o s t u l a t e d t h e t h e s i s t h a t man i s b o r n
w i t h a m in d w h ic h a t b i r t h r a s a 11 a s h e c a l l e d i t ,
i s a b la n k s l a t e ,
o r a 11t a b u l a
a n d a l l o f. o u r i d e a s a n d n o t i o n s o f
t h i s w o rld a re w r i t te n upon i t
in th e
o u r v a rio u s in d iv id u a l e x p e rie n c e s.
c o u rs e o f tim e by He d e s c r i b e d t h e
th e o ry as fo llo w s; . . . t h e m a t e r i a l s o f a l l o u r k n o w le d g e a r e s u g g e s t e d a n d f u r n i s h e d t o t h e m i n d o n l y b y t h o s e tw o w ays . . . s e n s a t io n a n d r e f l e c t i o n * When t h e u n d e r s ta n d in g i s once s t o r e d w i t h t h e s e sim p le i d e a s , i t h a s t h e -power t o r e p e a t , c o m p a r e a n d u n i t e t h e m , e v e n t o a n a l m o s t i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y , a n d s o c a n m ak e a t p l e a s u r e n ew c o m p l e x i d e a s . B ut i t i s n o t in th e pow er o f th e m ost e x a l t e d w i t o r e n l a r g e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g , by any q u ic k n e s s o r v a r i e t y o f th o u g h t t o i n v e n t o r fram e one new s i n g l e i d e a i n . t h e m in d , n o t t a k e n i n by t h e w ays b e f o r e m e n t i o n e d .y T h a t Locke a tte m p te d t o ra tio n a lism
seem s o b v io u s .
s u b s titu te
He d i d n o t c o m p l e t e l y d e n y
t h e d e d u c t i v e m eth o d o f r e a s o n i n g , to
e m p iric ism f o r
but ra th e r,
e m p h a siz e t h e p rim a c y o f i n d u c t i o n .
he w ish e d
A c c o rd in g to
o n ly t h e s e n s e s c o u ld b r i n g k n o w led g e i n i t s
L ocke,
In itia l
sta g e s. L o c k e 1s e m p i r i c i s m * o f e m p iric ism ,
sta te d
J o h n L o c k e , know n a s t h e f a t h e r
t h a t i d e a s c a n em erge f i r s t fro m s e n
s a t i o n and a f te r w a r d s from r e f l e c t i o n .
S
P rim a rily ,
we e m p l o y
J o h n L o c k e , C o n c e r n i n g Human U n d e r s t a n d l n g i n The E n g l i s h P h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m B a c o n t o M i l l 1E d w in A* B u r t t , e d i t o r ; New Y o r k : T h e M o d e rn L i b r a r y , 1 9 3 9 ) > P* 2 5*
98 o u r s e n s e s to th e se
p e rc e iv e and f e e l ,
t h e n we r e f l e c t a b o u t
sam e p e r c e p t i o n s a n d f e e l i n g s .
P ro m p e r c e p t i o n s , a c
c o r d i n g t o L o c k e , we d e r i v e
sim p le q u a l i t i e s ,
o r fro m a m u lt i p le
The p e r c e p t i o n s t h u s e t c h e d
so u rce.
u p o n t h e m in d do n o t e v e r v a n i s h i n t o t o . e x p u n g e d b y o u r m in d s i n r a p i d f a s h i o n .
e ith e r sin g ly
N e ith e r a re
th ey
And w h i l e m any o f
o u r s e n s a tio n s d e r iv e d fro m e x p e rie n c e f a d e im p e rc e p tib ly , t h e y l e a v e a n i n d e l i b l e m a rk by w h ic h t h e m in d c a n o n ce a g a i n r e - g r o u p th em . P e rc e p tio n s a re r e ta in e d , th a t la te r
th e f a c u lty
w o r k in g s o f t h e m in d .
a s h as been s t a t e d ,
o f rem em b ran ce c a n e n t e r i n t o It
is
th is p e rsiste n c e
w h i c h p e r m i t s t h e hum an m i n d t o The c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f l i n g e r i n g
s im ila ritie s
g iv e n i t by th e
of p e rc e p tio n s
p e r c e p t i o n s w a s a i d e d I n no
and d if f e r e n c e s
f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n t h e s e .
L a te r,
a b ility
t h r o u g h c o m p o sin g a b i l i t y
l f a c u l t l e s t o f fa n c y and im a g e ry ,
From t h i s
to
and to co m p are a n d d i f
c a n a r r a n g e p e r c e p t i o n s w h ic h a r e n o t d i r e c t l y se n sa tio n .
th e
c o n te m p la te and r e - o r g a n iz e .
s m a ll m e a s u re , L ocke b e l i e v e d , by th e m in d 's d isc e rn
so
t h e m in d
d e r i v e d fro m
arran g em en t g e n e r a l id e a s can l a t e r
be a b stra c te d . In d u c tio n and d e d u c tio n . t h a t i n Jo h n L o c k e 's e r a tie s '
I t m u st be rem em b ered
such e n t i t i e s a s
'm i n d '
and 'f a c u l
w e r e a c c e p t e d a s c o m p l e t e a n d s u f f i c i e n t u n t o th e m
se lv e s.
M odern p s y c h o l o g i c a l d a t a w h ic h p o s t u l a t e s t h i n k i n g
a s a n i n t e g r a t e d p r o c e s s w a s un k n o w n t o L o c k e * d i d r e c o g n i z e som e f a c t o r s w h i c h a r e d u c t i v e m eth o d i s
still
In d isc u ssin g th a t th e se
v a lid
B u t Locke
to d ay *
H is in
s ig n ific a n t.
s o -c a lle d g e n e ra l id e a s,
Locke h e ld
i d e a s w ere m e r e ly p a r t i c u l a r f a c s i m i l l e s o f t h e
c l a s s u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n an d w ere r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of a ll
t h e o t h e r p a r t i c u l a r s w h ic h a d h e re t o t h a t c l a s s .
T h is i s
i n l i n e w i t h m any o f o u r m o d e r n c o n c e p t s * O n ly m an, t h r o u g h h i s m in d , stra c t,
s a id L ocke.
h a s th e a b i l i t y
He d e c l a r e d :
S in c e i t i s th e u n d e r s ta n d in g th e r e s t o f th e s e n s i b l e b e in g s , a d v a n ta g e a n d d o m in io n w h ic h h e c e r ta in ly a su b je c t ev er fo r i t s lab o u r to in q u ire in to .° Locke b e l i e v e d p o in t o f In d u c tio n , sim p le Id e a s*
t h a t th e
he s a id ,
t io n s o f one k in d o r a n o th e r .
sary
t h a t s e t s man a b o v e a n d g i v e s h im a l l t h e h a s o v e r th em , i t i s n o b le n e ss, w o rth ou r
senses,
u su a lly
endow c e r t a i n
th re e k in d s:
t h i n g s w h ic h a r e
v iz .,
o c c u r i n c o m b in a
o f o u r id e a s w ith n eces
(l)
He d i v i d e d c o m p l e x
d is tin c t p a rtic u la r
s u b s ta n c e s In th e m se lv e s;
w h ic h e n t a i l d ep en d en cy upon o t h e r I d e a s ; tio n s '
s ta rtin g
By t h e p o w e r o f r e - a r r a n g i n g ,
and v a r i o u s s h a d in g s a n d n u a n c e s .
Id ea s In to
as th e
c a n f u r n i s h u s w i t h c o m p lex a s w e l l a s
Id eas,
t h e m in d I s a b l e t o
to ab
(2 )
1m o d e s 1
and (3 )
i n w h ic h I d e a s s t a n d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith ,
° I b id . , p. 229.
'r e l a o r in
100 o p p o sitio n a g a in s t,
one a n o th e r*
Locke t a u g h t t h a t a l l
i d e a s e m a n ate fro m o u r s e n s e s *
T hese se n se s p r e s e n t u s w i t h d a ta , th e form o f i d e a s a n d f e e l i n g s .
th ro u g h e x p e rie n c e ,
These id e a s a r e
in
sto re d
aw ay i n t h e m in d , l a t e r r e - a r r a n g e d a n d b r o u g h t f o r t h when ev er n ecessary . and u n ite tio n . It
is
th e se
It
is
th e a b il i ty
o f t h e m in d to
so rt out
i d e a s w h i c h g i v e s man t h e p o w e r o f a b s t r a c
A b s tra c t th in k in g a p rim a ry p ro c e s s ,
d e fin ite ly
depends upon se n se d a ta .
n o t a l a t e r o n e , a s m any o f t h e
r a t i o n a l i s t s o f h is day h e ld . T h e know ing: p r o c e s s . in h e re s in
our id e a s,
a r e w h o lly i n
K n o w le d g e I s a
a c c o r d i n g to L o c k e .
ag reem en t o r d is a g re e m e n t,
I d e n tity o r d iv e rg e n c e ,
th en th e re
s u b s ta n c e w h ic h If
th e s e
th a t is
is c la rity .
id e a s
a s co n cern s Locke p o s
t u l a t e d f o u r c o n c e p ts f o r ag reem en t a n d d is a g re e m e n t. w ere a s f o llo w s : e x is te n c e , ence.
i d e n t i ty an d d iv e rg e n c e ,
n e c e s s a ry c o n n e c tio n s,
re la tiv e
and f i n a l l y ,
T hese
co
re a l e x is t
T he e x t e n t o f o u r k n o w le d g e d e p e n d s u p o n t h e s e f o u r . L o c k e 1s p o s t u l a t i o n
p ro cess*
fo r I t
i m p l i e s som e
i n t h i n k i n g w h ic h a n t e d a t e s m odern f i n d i n g s .
i d e a s m u s t som ehow s t a n d w as f u l l y
I s In g e n io u s,
aw are.
In co n so n an ce w ith o t h e r s ,
T h in k in g i s
do n o t em erge a s s t i l l - l i f e
a c o n tin u o u s p ro c e s s ;
p ic tu re s.
T hat
Locke id e a s
T h a t i s why L o c k e
e m p h a siz e d th e a g re e m e n t a n d d is a g r e e m e n t c o n c e p t w i t h i t s fo u r
su b -p o s tu la te s.
1GX P e r c e p t i o n a n d m e m o ry * a c tu a l,
W h eth er t h e p e r c e p t i o n s a r e
im m e d ia te o r h a b i t u a l i n i n d u c t i v e t h i n k i n g ,
t h e m in d w h ic h i n t h e f i n a l v a lid ity *
P e rc e p tio n s ,
m a te ria l f o r id e a s. m em o ry .
i s g iv e n in th e
a s h as b een se e n , l a t e r f u r n i s h th e th e n p re s e rv e d ,
th ro u g h
o f id e a s w h ic h have d e m o n s tra te d id e a s
f a c t t h a t w hat h a s b e en p ro v e d a s
t h e m in d r e m a i n s u n t i l t h e m e m o ry .
is
a n a ly sis e s ta b lis h e s th e ir
The i d e a s a r e
T he v a l i d i t y
it
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s u b je c t h a s been b ro u g h t up by
K n o w le d g e i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n p e r c e p t i o n a n d m em ory.
O n ly t h o s e p r i m a r y i d e a s v a l i d b y L o c k e * s c r i t e r i a c a n a c t u a l l y b e known. Locke, th a t i t
is
When t h i s tio n
h ow ever,
co n cern ed w ith e x p e rie n c e d , c rite rio n
is a p p lie d ,
c e rta in ty .
t r u s t s k n o w led g e o n ly t o t h e
e x te n t
d e m o n stra b le th in g s .
o f v a l i d e x p e rie n c e and sen se p e rc ep
i t b rin g s
fo r th th e concept of a b so lu te
T h ro u g h o u t o u r e x p e r ie n c e ,
th e i d e n t i t y and d i f
fe re n c e s o f o u r id e a s a re p e rc e iv e d and f e l t . U n iv e rsa ls.
L o c k e h e l d t h a t m any g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s
t h a t a r e m ad e may b e u n t r u e .
Man c a n m ake c e r t a i n U n i v e r
s a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d p o s s i b l y c a n d e r i v e r e a l k n o w l e d g e w h en it
can be d e te rm in e d t h a t p r o p o s itio n s ,
m e a n in g s c a n b e v a l i d a t e d can be a c e r t a i n t y b e lie v e d
e m p iric a lly .
d e fin itio n s
F o r e x a m p le t h e r e
a s r e g a r d s m a th e m a tic a l th e o re m s.
t h a t t h e c o m p a r a tiv e m eth o d i s
and
Locke
th e essen ce f o r
e sta b lis h in g
tru th .
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u n iv e rs a l p r in c ip le s h o ld tr u e a t a l l
tim e s a n d in
a ll
p la c e s. L ocke h e l d t h a t k n o w le d g e m ust b e v a l i d a t e d e m p ir i c a lly .
A nd e v e n t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e
th e p r o b a b ility
sta g e *
o f re a so n in g and th e m ent o f tio n
He a t t a c k e d t h e s y l l o g i s t i c
in o rd in a te use of lo g ic
th e i n t e l l e c t .
fa ile d
t e c h n i q u e l e a v e s man i n m eth o d
a s an i n s t r u
The t r a d i t i o n a l i s t m e th o d o f d e d u c
i n m any r e s p e c t s a c c o r d i n g t o L o c k e .
F u rth e r,
he d e c la r e d t h a t g e n e r a l i t i e s n e i t h e r e s t a b l i s h e d p r o b a b i l i t i e s n o r w id e n e d th e b o u n d a r ie s o f r e a s o n . The l a c u n a e i n r e a s o n a r e n o t d u e c o m p l e t e l y t o a fa ilu re
in
s y llo g is tic
o f o b sc u ra n tism
re a so n in g ;
in o u r id e a s .
w h ic h a c c o u n ts f o r f a u l t y k n o w le d g e t h a t any re a s o n in g .
i s p o ss ib le
It
p o s s ib le to
sitio n
is
re fle c tio n .
th is la c k of c la r ity T he m o s t p o s i t i v e
t o t h e hum an m in d i s p r i o r t o
O n ly b y s o u n d d e m o n s t r a t i o n f r o m i d e a t o
i d e a a n d b y f o r g i n g n ew l i n k s i n it
t h e y a r e m ore t h e r e s u l t
th e nexus of th in k in g
d e r i v e t r u e k n o w le d g e .
It
is
i s by a ju x ta p o
o f p e r c e p t s a n d c o n c e p t s t h a t k n o w in g b e c o m e s a
s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t pro cess* The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f L o c k e .
J o h n L o ck e * s p o s t u l a t i o n
o f d e m o n stra b le t r u t h s a n d th e i d e a o f p r o b a b i l i t y
a s op
posed to u n iv e rs a l c e r t a i n t y l a i d a s o lid fo u n d a tio n f o r
sc ie n tific
in q u iry .
It
Is
th ro u g h i n t e l l i g e n t
sk e p tic is m
t h a t t h e f r o n t i e r s o f k n o w le d g e c a n be e n la r g e d #
D o u b ts
th e m se lv e s m ust be s t r u c t u r e d and so p r e s e n te d a s to la te
stim u
and a b e t s o lu tio n s # The t o o q u i c k a c c e p t a n c e o f u n i v e r s a l 3.aws ( r u l e s o r
p rin c ip le s)
o r t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f th e m b e c a u s e o f i n e r t i a ,
c a u s e s t r u e k n o w le d g e to v a n i s h .
T he s c i e n t i f i c
b e e x e c u te d o n ly th ro u g h c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . h is c o lle a g u e s in tie r
th in k e rs#
in d u c tio n sc ie n tific
m e th o d c a n
J o h n L ocke a n d
th e e m p iric a l R e n a issa n c e s e rv e d a s f r o n
T h r o u g h t h e m a n d t h r o u g h t h o s e who f o l l o w e d ,
cam e t o
th e f o r e a s th e s c i e n t i f i c
m eth o d i n
m eth o d .
tu r n gave im p e tu s to th e
T h is
te c h n iq u e o f
p ro b le m -so lv in g . B#
GEORGE BERKELEY ( 1 6 8 4 - 1 7 5 3 )
T he s e c o n d o f m an , L o r d B e r k e l e y .
th e B r i t i s h E m p i r i c i s t s w as th e I r i s h A l o n g w i t h t h e S c o t s m a n Hume a n d t h e
E n g lish m a n L o ck e , he t a k e s h i s p l a c e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f in d u c tiv e th in k in g . n o th in g e x i s t s
"E sse e s t p e rc ip i,"
o r 11p e r c i p e r e , "
e x c e p t p e rc e iv in g o r b e in g p e rc e iv e d ,
k e y n o t e o f G -eorge B e r k e l e y ^ p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n . c o i n e d t h i s now c l a s s i c m is sio n to a u t h o r i t a t i v e
p h ra se in o p p o sitio n u n iv e rs a l s ta te m e n ts
to
th e
is
th e
He sub
c la im e d by
t h e S c h o o lm e n . B e rk e le y m a in ta in e d t h a t a b s t r a c t a n d g e n e r a l term s
do n o t a d d a n y th in g to t h e T hese g e n e r a l te rm s,
sum t o t a l o f k n o w l e d g e ,
p o sin g a s a b s tr a c tio n s ,
b o ls a rra n g ed c o n v e n ie n tly .
a r e m e r e sym
T h is c o n v e n ie n t a lig n m e n t i s
f o r th e p u rp o se o f re p re s e n tin g m in d im a g e s o f t h i n g s ,
a s such.
a n d c o m m u n ic a tin g t o
r a t h e r th a n
th e
th e th in g s th e m s e lv e s .
T h ese im a g e s o f o b j e c t s em erge fro m e x p e r i e n c e and f i n is h in
e x p e rie n c e .
T hey have no i n t r i n s i c
v a lu e a s con
v e y o r s o f k n o w le d g e e x c e p t a s s e n s e r e f e r e n t s . d e s c r i b e d t h e k n o w in g p r o c e s s i n
B e rk e le y
th e s e te rm s:
I t i s e v i d e n t t o a n y o n e who t a k e s a s u r v e y o f t h e o b j e c t s o f hum an k n o w l e d g e , t h a t t h e y a r e e i t h e r i d e a s a c tu a lly im p rin te d in th e se n se s; o r e ls e su ch a s a re p e rc e iv e d by a tte n d in g to th e p a s s io n s an d o p e ra tio n s o f t h e m i n d ; o r l a s t l y , i d e a s f o r m e d b y h e l p o f memory a n d i m a g i n a t i o n — e i t h e r c o m p o u n d in g , d i v i d i n g , o r b a r e ly r e p r e s e n tin g th o se o r i g i n a l l y p e rc e iv e d in th e a f o r e s a i d w a y s . 10 B e r k e l e y 1s e p i s t e m o l o g y .
B e rk e le y c a r r i e d
j e c t i v e v ie w p o in t in p h ilo s o p h y to I t s in
so lip sism .
It
i s tru e
th e sub
e x tre m e a n d f i n i s h e d
t h a t l a t e r he am ended h i s p o s i t i o n
i n t h a t he b e ca m e som ew hat l e s s n o m i n a l i s t i c a n d e m p l r l c l s t i e H is l a t e r d i a l o g u e s , te n d e n c y .
n a m e ly B i r l s a n d A l c i p h r p n ,
show t h i s
B u t h i s e m p h a s is r e m a in e d on t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t
u n i v e r s a l I d e a s and a b s t r a c t c o n c e p ts a r e m e re ly im ag es o f p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t s g a t h e r e d fro m e x p e r i e n c e .
10
le d g e
G e o r g e B e r k e l e y , T h e P r i n c i p l e s o f Human Know (L e ip z ig : F e l i x M e i n e r , 1913)> P * 2 9 .
105 W h ile k n o w le d g e , p e r s e , f o r B e r k e le y t h a n m ere f a c t s sen se by in d u c tio n ,
l a t e r becam e m ore i m p o r t a n t
as g a th e re d by th e o rg an s o f
he s t i l l c lu n g to
h is p rim a ry th e o ry :
P e rc e p tio n s b e g in n in g w ith an d th ro u g h th e th e o n ly f o u n d a tio n s o f t r u e
k n o w le d g e.
u n d e r s t a n d i n g fro m s e n s a t i o n
in
th is
In d iv id u a l are
He d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
re a so n in g p ro c e s s .
He
sa id : . . . a l l k n o w le d g e a n d d e m o n s tr a ti o n a r e a b o u t u n i v e r s a l n o t i o n s , t o w h ic h I f u l l y a g r e e ; b u t th e n i t d o t h a p p e a r t o me t h a t t h e s e n o t i o n s a r e f o r m e d b y a b s t r a c t i o n i n t h e m a n n e r p r e m i s e d —- u n i v e r s a l i t y , s o f a r a s I c a n co m p rehend, n o t c o n s i s t i n g i n th e a b s o l u te , p o s i t iv e n a tu r e o r c o n c e p tio n o f a n y th in g , b u t th e r e l a t i o n i t b e a rs to th e p a r t i c u l a r s s i g n i f i e d o r r e p r e s e n te d by i t ; by v i r t u e w hereof i t i s t h a t t h in g s , n a m e s , o r n o t i o n s b e i n g i n t h e i r own v i r t u e , p a r t i c u l a r s , are re n d e re d u n iv e r s a l. E x ls te n o e a n d r e a l i t y . th e o ry of th e r e a l i t y E x is te n c e ,
o f e x is te n c e p la y e d a m a jo r r o l e .
he s a i d , w as f i r s t c o m p ris e d o f
c a lle d c ru d e se n se im p re ss io n s , R e a lity i s
In B e r k e le y ’s p h ilo s o p h y th e
’s p irits ,'
a s he
an d th e n l a t e r becam e i d e a s .
i n t u r n m ade u p o f i m m a t e r i a l
1t h l n k l n g -
s u b s ta n c e s 1 w h ic h m a n if e s t th e m s e lv e s in th o u g h ts d e r iv e d from e x p e rie n c e . su b s ta n c e ' It
The g r e a t e s t a n d u l t i m a t e
’th in k in g -
o f c o u r s e i s G od, who i s e t e r n a l a n d i n f i n i t e . i s G o d who c r e a t e d t h e o t h e r s u b s t a n c e s w h i c h a r e ,
in d is tin c tio n ,
fin ite
11 I b i d . , p . 17*
and te m p o ra l.
F in ite e x p e rie n c e s
lo 6 and id e a s k in d s.
e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s c o n s i s t o f tw o
One o f t h e s e i s p r o d u c e d b y i t s
p e rc e p tu a l a c tiv ity , a s th e
a n d t h e o t h e r b e c o m e s k now n t o
e x te r n a l w o rld .
c lo s e d to
th e f i n i t e
own t h i n k i n g a n d
T h is r e a l i t y
t h e m in d
o f th e w o rld i s d i s
m in d b y t h e i n f i n i t e m i n d ,
i.e .,
G od,
t h r o u g h t h e k n o w led g e p r o c e s s . The r e a l i t y in g
to B e rk e le y .
sta n c e .
o f m a tte r c an n o t be a s c e r ta in e d ,
acco rd
I t d o e s n o t e x i s t a s a n in d e p e n d e n t sub
M a tte r i s a t b e s t a c o n v e n ie n t te rm f o r th o s e
ra m ifie d id e a s o r p e rc e p tio n s o f p h y sic a l o b je c ts . o b je c ts a re e x te rn a l to
th e
a l l p h y s ic a l o b je c ts have Im o lio a tio n s
fin ite
q u iry .
T h e re i s no
p h i lo s o p h y h a s b e e n m is c o n It
som e q u a r t e r s a s a n I n d e f e n s i b l e is
i s G od i n whom
o f B e r k e l e y 1s t h e o r i e s .
s t r u e d , a n d so m e tim e s m is q u o te d .
But i t
It
th e ir essence.
d o u b t t h a t m u ch o f B e r k e l e y 1^
in
m in d .
T hese
is
s t i l l under a tta c k
so lip sistic
n o n e th e le ss a p r o tr a c te d e f f o r t in
p o sitio n .
sc ie n tific
in
B e r k e le y h a s b e e n a c c u s e d o f h a v in g f a s h i o n e d an
e p is te m o lo g y w h ic h c o n t r a d i c t s When M s p o s i t i o n t h a t he d i d n o t r e f u t e
is
th e e v id e n c e o f th e
c a re fu lly d e fin e d ,
sense d a ta .
is
o b v io u s
He d i d n o t p r o p o u n d a n
h y p o t h e s i s so a t o d d s w i t h e m p i r i c a l d a t a . he c o n fin e d h im s e lf a lm o st e x c lu s iv e ly e m e rg e s fro m t h e s e n s e a p p a r a t u s .
it
senses.
On t h e c o n t r a r y ,
to th e
e v id e n c e w h ic h
He b e l i e v e d o n l y w h a t
c o n sc io u sn e ss,
a s h e knew i t ,
g a v e him*
I f a n y man t h i n k s we d e t r a c t f r o m t h e r e a l i t y o f e x is te n c e o f th in g s , he i s f a r fro m u n d e rs ta n d in g w hat h a s b e e n p re m is e d i n th e p l a i n e s t te rm s I c o u ld t h in k o f. . . . I t w i l l b e u r g e d t h i s m u ch a t l e a s t i s t r u e , v i z . , t h a t we t a k e a w ay a l l c o r p o r e a l s u b s t a n c e s * . . . T hat w hat I s e e , h e a r an d f e e l d o th e x i s t , i . e . , i s p e r c e i v e d - b y m e. I n o m o r e d o u b t t h a n I d o my own b e i n g ; b u t I d o n o t s e e how t h e t e s t i m o n y o f s e n s e c a n b e a l l e g e d a s a p r o o f o f a n y th in g w h ic h i s n o t p e r c e i v e d by s e n s e . 12 I t w a s B e r k e l e y who a t t e m p t e d t o d i s c o v e r t h e f o u n d a tio n s o f th e u n p e rc e iv e d m a tte r o r p r o d u c e s k n o w le d g e. to
s u b s ta n c e o r c a u s e w h ic h
He h e l d t h a t s i n c e k n o w l e d g e i s
th e id e a s p ro d u c e d ,
it
m u st becom e s p e c u l a t i v e .
lim ite d B e rk e ley
r e - s t a t e d t h e p ro b le m by e m p h a siz in g t h e q u e s t i o n s f i r s t be ra ise d *
He a s k e d how r e s u l t s c a n b e d e d u c e d f r o m a b s t r a c t
m a tte r s su c h a s c au se and su b s ta n c e w ith o u t f i r s t th e r e a l i t y In
sh o rt,
B e r k e l e y w a n te d t o know t h e
th e p rim a c y o f th e
any g iv e n te rm .
i n d u c t i v e m eth o d i n
s o l v e t h i s g r e a t d ile m m a o f r e a s o n i n g t r i b u t e d m u ch t o
its e lf,
a c tu a l c o n sc io u s By s e t t i n g a tte m p tin g to B e rk e le y con
th e fo u n d a tio n s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g . G.
DAVID HUME ( 1 7 1 1 - 1 7 6 6 )
The n e x t i n l i n e i n and p o s s ib ly
k n o w in g
o f t h a t w h ic h th e y im p ly .
c o n te n t w h ic h c o rr e s p o n d s t o fo rth
to
e m p i r i c a l th o u g h t w as t h e t h i r d
th e g r e a te s t o f th e th re e
^ I b ld * , pp. 48-^9*
B r itis h E m p iric ists—
108 D a v i d Hume, t h e
S c o tsm a n .
I n Hume, t h e
a new h i g h i n d e v e l o p m e n t . in v io la te
In q u iry s ta g e reach ed
Hume d o u b t e d e v e n t h e s e e m i n g l y
law s o f c a u s a l i t y ,
m a in ta in in g
th a t
h a b itu a tio n
is
m any t i m e s w r o n g l y c o n s t r u e d a s a s e q u e n c e o f c a u s e a n d e f fe c t.
He a s s e r t e d t h a t
e x p e rie n c e t h a t
it
i s fro m t h e law o f o u r c o n s c io u s
c a u se and e f f e c t em erge.
He d i v i d e d c o n s c i o u s e x p e r i e n c e a r b i t r a r i l y k in d s o f th in g s o r o b je c ts .
In h is d iv is io n
c e p tio n s he h e ld th a t th e re
tw o
of sense p er
re m a in s a d e f i n i t e d i s t i n c t i o n
b e tw e e n w h at he te rm e d im p r e s s io n s o f t h i n g s , and id e a s of th e s e v e ry
in to
sam e t h i n g s .
and o u r th o u g h ts
He a n t e d a t e d som e o f
o u r m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g i s t s b y p o s t u l a t i n g t h e c o n c e p t t h a t m o re to n e and f o r c e accom pany im p r e s s io n s , w h ile i d e a s , t h e y a r e t h e w o r k o f m em o ry a n d i m a g i n a t i o n ,
because
a re c o ld and
c o lo rle s s . F a c t and b e l i e f .
S i n c e f o r D a v i d Hume a l l
k n o w le d g e w e re d i v i d e d i n t o v a r i e t i e s , re so lv e d i t s e l f
in to
th e im p o rta n t is s u e
th e p ro b le m o f a s c e r t a i n i n g
tio n
o f th e id e a s c o n c e rn in g
te rs
of fa c t.
th e s e o b je c ts t o
th e
re la
c e r t a i n m at
He a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h i c h o b
t a i n b e tw e e n c e r t a i n
id e a s a r e e v o lv e d i n a c c o rd w ith th e
p r i n c i p l e s im p lie d in th e la w s o f l o g i c . can e s ta b lis h th e v a l i d i t y fa c t,
o b je c ts of
on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
L o g ic a l re a so n in g
of c e rta in re la tio n s .
M a tte rs of
a re n o t in a lo g ic a l nexus, because
109 th e o p p o s ite o f any f a c t p o s itiv e
c o n c e iv a b le ,
and th e n b o t h th e
a n d n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n w o u ld b e p r o v e d .
lo g ic a l c o n tra d ic tio n i s A risto tle , th e
is
e v id e n t,
in
th a t,
a c c o rd in g to
a th in g c an n o t be and n o t be a t th e
sam e p l a c e .
T h is
sam e t i m e i n
T h u s i m t t e r s o f f a c t a r e c o n n e c t e d b y som e
k in d o f cause and e f f e c t ,
n o t n e c e s s a ry , b u t r a t h e r p la c e d
t h e r e b y t h e m in d f r o m c u s t o m o r h a b i t .
Hume w r o t e :
A l l t h e o b j e c t s o f hum an r e a s o n o r e n q u i r y may n a t u r a l l y b e d i v i d e d i n t o tw o k i n d s , t o w i t : R e la tio n s o f Id e a s and M a tte rs of F a c t. . . . P re p o sitio n s o f th is k i n d a r e d i s c o v e r a b l e b y t h e m ere o p e r a t i o n o f t h o u g h t , w i t h o u t d e p e n d e n c e on w h a t i s a n y w h e re e x i s t e n t i n t h e u n iv e rse . Though t h e r e n e v e r w ere a c i r c l e o r a t r i a n g le i n n a tu r e , th e t r u t h s d e m o n s tra te d b y E u c lid w o u l d f o r e v e r r e t a i n t h e i r c e r t a i n t y a n d e v i d e n c e . 3-3 In o rd e r to d is tin g u is h f a c ts
fro m f a n c i e s ,
i n s i s t e d on a d e f i n i t e m e n ta l a t t i t u d e as he c a lle d i t ,
f o r som e i d e a s .
on ' b e l i e f
But n o t a l l
s p i r e d a n d a c c o m p a n ie d b y b e l i e f .
B e lie f i s
Hume in f a c t s , 1
id e a s a re in fo u n d e d upon
i m p r e s s i o n s w h i c h a r e n o t h i n g b u t s e n s a t i o n s w h i c h we c a n n o t escape*
H ence t h e y a n d
th e m r e m a i n a l i v e
th e m e m o rie s c o n n e c t e d w i t h
i n t h e m in d .
T h e y a r e m o re v i v i d a n d
f r e s h t h a n i d e a s a b o u t th e m o r p i c t u r e s w h ic h t h e
im a g in a
tio n has fa b ric a te d . Hume a n d t h e r e a l i s t i c
13 sta n d in g
p o sitio n .
Hume p o s i t e d t h e
D a v i d Hume, E n q u i r i e s C o n c e r n i n g t h e Human U n d e r (O xford: The C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 0 2 ) , p* 25*
th e s is th a t b e lie f
in th e
e x is te n c e o f an e x te r n a l w o rld
can n o t be a c c e p te d w ith o u t c a v il. by sound in d u c tiv e r e a s o n in g .
It
He a v e r r e d t h a t t h i s b e l i e f
need not be co n fu sed w ith th e b e l i e f i m p r e s s i o n s w h ic h , f o r h im ,
m ust be i n v e s t i g a t e d
in th e r e a l i t y
of our
w as t h e r e a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e
d i s t i n c t i o n o b t a i n i n g b e tw e e n a n y g iv e n num ber o f f a c t s c o n c e rn in g
some p r o b l e m .
T h is b e l i e f c o m p a ra tiv e in
in
th e e x is te n c e
n a tu re .
o f an e x t e r n a l w o rld i s
Hume m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e b e l i e f w a s
c o m p o sed o f tw o p h a s e s .
One f a c e t o f t h e b e l i e f
a fa ith
som ehow ,
th a t o b je c ts do,
c e i v e d b y t h e m in d . in e p is te m o lo g y . re a litie s
is
is
re a lly
e x i s t e v e n w hen n o t p e r
T h is p o s itio n
is
t h a t o f th e
re a lis ts
The s e c o n d a s p e c t o f b e l i e f i n e x t e r n a l
t h a t o b j e c t s m ust c o n tin u e to e x i s t d i s t i n c t l y
a p a r t fro m e a c h o t h e r . T h e s e two b e l i e f s , do d i f f e r .
w h ile p a r t s
F o r w h ile f a i t h
th e e x te r n a l e x is te n c e
in th e
c o rre sp o n d in g
th is p ro je c tio n
re a lity
of
th e re
fo llo w th e b e l i e f t h a t t h i s e x i s t
e n c e m u s t c o n t i n u e w hen t h e r e i s
s o l e l y fro m e x p e r ie n c e
sam e c o n c e p t ,
o f any o b je c t i s p o s s ib le ,
d o es n o t th e n n e c e s s a r ily
Hume a l l
o f th e
no e x p e r i e n c in g
c o n c e rn in g
th e
and in d u c tio n .
a g e n t.
For
o u ts id e w o rld a r i s e s He d e s c r i b e d w h a t w o u l d
to d a y be c a l l e d p ro b le m -so lv in g : E a c h s o l u t i o n s t i l l g i v e s r i s e t o a new q u e s t i o n a s d i f f i c u l t . . . and l e a d s u s to f a r t h e r e n q u ir i e s . When i t i s a s k e d , W hat i s t h e n a t u r e o f a l l r e a s o n i n g s c o n c e r n in g m a t t e r o f f a c t , th e p r o p e r an sw er seem s to b e
Ill
t h a t th e y a r e fo u n d e d on th e r e l a t i o n o f c a u s e and e f fe c t* When a g a i n i t i s a s k e d , W hat i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a l l o u r re a s o n in g s and c o n c lu s io n s c o n c e rn in g th a t r e l a t i o n i t may b e r e p l i e d i n o n e w o r d : e x p e rie n c e . I m p l i c a t i o n s o f H um e1s w o r k f o r p r o b l e m - s o I v i n g . d u c tio n ,
a s a m eth o d ,
a llie s*
Hume b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e t a s k o f e x p e r i e n c e
d e riv e
a b stra c t
but la te r
f o u n d i n Hume o n e o f i t s
i d e a s a s w o u ld seem f i r s t
to h e lp it*
In
stro n g e st is
to
to tra n s c e n d i t ,
T h e r e w e r e no i d e a s o f
in fin ity *
A ll
i d e a s t h e m in d h a s a r e d r a w n f r o m e x p e r i e n c e a n d a r e s u f f i c ie n t as re p re s e n ta tiv e s
o f e x p e rie n c e .
S p ace a n d tim e i n
e x p e rie n c e n e v e r p r e s e n t th e m se lv e s a s i n f i n i t e In fin ite ly d iv is ib le . fin ite
T h ere i s no i n f i n i t e
tim e , a c c o rd in g to
e q u iv a le n t to
Hume.
o b je c ts o r
space o r i n
A g a in , t h e r e
e x i s t s n o th in g
a b s o l u t e m a th e m a tic a l s p a c e o r a b s o l u t e m o tio n
and tim e .
T h e r e e x i s t s no e x a c t s c i e n c e ,
g e o m e try .
T h is l a s t
concept is
n o t even in c lu d in g
som ew hat a n a lo g o u s t o Jo h n
D e w e y 's i d e a o f a " w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s . 11
Even c o m p a r a tiv e
sp e ed s and w e ig h ts can n e v e r b e c o m p le te ly an d p r e c is e ly m ea su re d a n d w e ig h ed f o r t h e r e can n e v e r be s u c h a p p a r a t u s - th a t is ,
f o r H u m e 's t i m e .
Hume b e l i e v e d t h a t a l l
s t a n d a r d s o f m easurem ent
w e re , a n d h a d to b e , m ere a p p r o x im a tio n s . he a n t e d a t e d
14
some o f t h e
Ibid. , p*
32 .
In
th is b e lie f
t e n e t s o f m odern p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
112 C o n c e rn in g t h e m a t t e r o f e x a c t i t u d e i n m easu rem en t o r th e w e ig h in g o f e v id e n c e th r o u g h I n d u c t i v e m e th o d s,
he s ta te d :
W hat t h e n , i s t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e w h o l e m a t t e r ? A sim p le o n e; th o u g h , i t m ust b e c o n f e s s e d , p r e t t y r e m o te f r o m t h e common t h e o r i e s o f p h i l o s o p h y . A ll b e l i e f o f m a t t e r - o f - f a c t o r r e a l e x is te n c e i s d e r i v e d m e re ly f r o m some o b j e c t p r e s e n t i n t h e m e a n i n g o r s e n s e s , a n d a c u s t o m a r y c o n j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h a t a n d som e o t h e r o b j e c t . . . .1 5 D a v i d Hume s t r e s s e d a n a l y t i c
re a so n in g *
The r e l a
t i o n s d i s c o v e r e d b y t h e s e n s e s c o n c e rn in g i d e a s w ere j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t o r m o re s o t h a n t h e
id e a s*
T he r e l a t i o n s h i p s
w ere in v o lv e d i n t h e i d e a s com pared a n d c o u ld n o t b e a l t e r e d w ith o u t a su b seq u en t change.
E x p e rie n c e , above a l l ,
sta rtin g
a n d t h a t was t h e k e y s t o n e o f
p o in t
in r e f l e c t i o n ,
is
th e
Hume1s p h i l o s o p h y . IV .
POSITIVISM
T he e r a o f p o s i t i v e t h i n k i n g A ges.
T h is e r a
to su p ersed e th e
f o llo w e d t h e M id d le
s tre s s e d th e p o s itiv e
e x p lo ra tio n
of fa c ts
th e o lo g ic a l and m e ta p h y sic a l e x p la n a tio n s .
The su p re m ac y o f m e t a p h y s i c s a n d t h e d e d u c t i v e m e th o d , g re a tly
in flu e n c e d by th e
th e o lo g ic a l s p ir it,
d e n t a l l th ro u g h th e m e d ie v a l e ra .
The g r e a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l
d e b a t e s b e tw e e n th e n o m i n a l i s t s a n d r e a l i s t s A ges1 o f re a so n in g .
^
had been e v i
ended th e
T h e se d e b a t e s w ere th e f i r s t
I b id * , p* 4 6 .
real
* D a rk
113 a tte m p t to
d iv e s t th in k in g A.
of v e rb a l a b s tra c tio n s .
THOMAS HOBBES {1 5 8 8 - I 6 7 9 )
T hom as H o b b e s , a n a d v o c a t e o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c a ls o
s t r u g g l e d w i t h t h e p r o b le m o f k n o w le d g e*
w as i n
some w a y s a r a t i o n a l i s t ,
p o sitio n re g a rd ii^
m e th o d *
A lth o u g h he
he a r r i v e d a t a n o m ln a lis tic
d e m o n s t r a t e d k n o w le d g e*
s u c h k n o w led g e w as a r b i t r a r y a n d t h a t i t s
He s t a t e d
th a t
p rim a ry p r i n c i p l e s
w ere b u t a r b i t r a r y d e f i n i t i o n s r e f e r r i n g n o t t o
th in g s as
th e y e x i s t b u t m e r e ly t o t h e nam es s u p p o s e d ly r e p r e s e n t i n g th e s e th in g s . H obbes w as a c t u a l l y
first
in re s p e c t
to
sc ie n tific
I n q u i r y am ong t h e B r i t i s h n o m i n a l i s t s a n d e m p i r i c i s t s . 'u n iv e r s a ls *
w e r e u n i v e r s a l i n nam e o n l y a n d n o t b y v i r t u e
o f any in h e re n t u n iv e r s a lity
as th e r a t i o n a l i s t s
sta te d *
F o r H obbes b e l i e v e d t h a t
a nam e o f a n o b j e c t i s m e r e l y a
sym bol g iv e n
to
w h ic h ,
a rb itra rily
B acon,
th e l a s t a n a ly s is ,
In
th e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t th e to o
p o sitio n * a lre a d y
is
t h e m in d
d e s i g n a t e s t h e nam es o f o b j e c t s .
The w o r k o f H o b b e s ,
c o m p la c e n t a c c e p ta n c e
a n d b e f o r e h im o f
tr e a te d in t h i s c h a p te r,
had i n g r e a t m easure
i n q u i r y fro m th e t r a d i t i o n
W ith H obbes a l l
by th e sen ses*
It
T ho m as H o b b e s t o o k a p r o m i n e n t a n d a p o s i t l v -
freed s c ie n tific ages.
re p re se n t it*
in
of u n iv e rsa ls, is tic
H is
o f th e m id d le
t h e o r e t i c a l t h i n k i n g w as d e te r m in e d
He s u c c e e d e d i n u n r a v e l i n g
r e a s o n fro m i t s
m e d ie v a l en ta n g lem en t* S c ie n tific
in q u iry *
Hobbes a s s e r t e d
m o re c o r p o r e a l t h a n i n d i v i d u a l .
th a t r e a lity
He p o s t u l a t e d t h i s
is
asser
t i o n b e c a u s e he b e l i e v e d t h a t a l l w h ic h e x i s t s i s body* a n d a ll
t h a t happens to
s p iritu a l
e x i s t i n g b o d ie s i s m o tio n .
s u b s t a n c e b e c o n c e i v e d i n t h e m in d , f o r i t
n o t e x i s t a s an e n t i t y . su p ersed e
Nor can
sense.
does
No e l e m e n t i n hum an k n o w l e d g e c a n
He d e f e n d e d t h i s
v iew a s f o l l o w s :
B ut e f f e c t s and th e ap p earan ce of th in g s to se n s e , a r e f a c u l t i e s o f p o w e r s o f b o d i e s , w h i c h m ak e u s d i s t i n g u i s h th em fro m o n e a n o t h e r ; t h a t i s t o s a y , c o n c e i v e one b o d y t o b e e q u a l o r u n e q u a l., l i k e o r u n l i k e t o a n o th e r body . . . m o tio n o f g o in g i s t h e p r o p e r t y t h e r e o f , a s b e in g p r o p e r to l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s , and a
In d e v e lo p in g h i s p e rc e p tio n l i e s d e riv a tio n s.
under a l l
H obbes a s s e r t e d t h a t s e n s e
id e a s a n d c o n c e p tio n s , w h ic h a r e
He h e l d w h a t c o u l d b e t e r m e d a n e x t r e m e l y s u b
je c tiv e p o sitio n
in re a so n in g .
suprem acy o f u n i v e r s a l s , d a ta .
th e s is ,
He d e n i e d t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n
and a s s e rte d
th e p rim a cy o f se n se
He e x p l a i n e d t h i s n o v e l d e p a r t u r e f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l
th in k in g
i n h i s fam ous t r e a t i s e ,
th e L e v ia th a n .
. . . c o n c e r n i n g t h e t h o u g h t s o f m an , I s h a l l c o n s i d e r th e m f i r s t s i n g l y , a n d a f t e r w a r d s i n t r a i n , o r d e p en d en ce upon one a n o th e r . S in g ly th e y a re ev ery o n e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r a p p e a r a n c e o f some q u a l i t y o r "|
F r e d e r i c k J . E . W o o d b r i d g e , The P h i l o s o p h y o f H obbes (M in n e a p o lis : T he H. W. W i l s o n C om pany , 1 9 0 3 ) * P* 6 .
U5 o t h e r a c c i d e n t o f a b o d y w i t h o u t u s , w h i c h I s com m only c a lle d an o b je c t- . - T he o r i g i n a l o f th e m a l l I s t h a t w h i c h we c a l l s e n s e . N a tu ra l la w s.
H o ld in g a s he d i d a m a t e r i a l i s t i c
p h i l o s o p h y , H o b b es h a d no p l a c e i n stra c t,
a n d to h im ,
as a stro lo g y ,
fa lla c io u s
a lc h e m y ,
k in d re d f i e l d s
sy ste m s.
t h e d o m in io n o f
th e s e f a ls e
th e u n iv e rs e had a u n ify in g p r in c ip le th ro u g h o u t by th e is
’sp irit*
sc ie n c e s,
he p ro v e d t h e i r a b s u r d i t y .
th e ab
Such p se u d o -sc ie n c e
w ere u n d e r a t t a c k b y H obbes.
n a t u r a l phenom ena i n f in d th e se ,
h is th in k in g f o r
life
and
He s e a r c h e d f o r and f a i l i n g
to
H obbes b e l i e v e d t h a t in th a t i t
sam e n a t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s .
was g o v e rn e d
T h is h y p o th e s is
a l s o a m odern o n e . N a t u r a l la w ,
th e la w o f c a u s e an d e f f e c t ,
n a t u r a l t o h im , w as t h e g o v e r n in g f e a t u r e The u n i v e r s e w a s c a p a b l e o f b e i n g th e s e n a t u r a l la w s.
th e u n iv e r s e .
s y s te m a tiz e d by v i r t u e
H obbes e x te n d e d t h i s r e a s o n in g
p h a ses of th o u g h t in a l l a law o f n a t u r e
of
b e in g m ost
s p h e r e s o f m an’ s l i f e .
of
to a l l
He d e f i n e d
th u s:
A Law o f N a t u r e , ’ l e x n a t u r a l ! s * i s a p r e c e p t o r g e n e r a l r u l e , f o u n d o u t b y r e a s o n , b y w h i c h a man i s f o r b i d d e n t o do t h a t , w h ic h i s d e s t r u c t i v e o f h i s l i f e , o r t a k e t h aw ay t h e m ea n s o f p r e s e r v i n g t h e sam e; a n d t o o m i t t h a t b y w h i c h h e t h i n k e t h i t m ay b e b e s t p e r c e i v e d . 3-°
17 I b i d . , p .
84.
18 I b i d . , p .
251.
The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f T hom as H o b b e s * b e s t w o rk d u r i n g t h e
age o f r a tio n a lis m .
H obbes d i d h i s C h ie fly ,
p o s i t e d th e m a th e m a tic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f n a tu r e s e s s in g th e m ost v a l i d i t y .
He f o l l o w e d i n
th e
he a s pos
tra d itio n
of
B aco n a n d p r o v i d e d one m ean s w h e re b y t h e s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d w as h e l p f u l i n
its
d e v e lo p m e n t*
T h is s t e p w as one w h ic h
c o n ce rn e d i t s e l f w ith th e a p p li c a t io n o f m a th e m a tic a l a n a l y sis
to th e th in k in g
fin ite ly
o f h um an b e i n g s .
T h is e f f o r t was d e
a s te p to w ard s a m a t e r i a l i s t i c
m e ta p h y s ic s an d
e p is te m o lo g y .
He a c c e p t e d t h e b e l i e f t h a t s i n c e m a t h e m a t i c s
can be a p p lie d
to m e c h a n ic a l f i e l d s ,
t h a t w hen u s e d i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s o b ta in .
In h is e f f o r t to
a c tiv ity
w h ic h em erg es fro m I t
tio n s ,
it
h en ce m ust f o llo w
o f men i t m u s t a l s o
so
a n a l y z e hum an e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e in
te rm s o f m a th e m a tic a l no
h e m ade t h e e r r o r o f o v e r l o o k i n g t h e p e r s o n a l e q u a
tio n . H ow ever, to
fo llo w ,
he s u c c e e d e d I n s e t t i n g
fo r o th e rs
and h i s w o rk s p re s a g e d th e g r e a t e r u se o f th e
m eth o d o f i n d u c t i o n . th in k e rs.
a p a tte rn
He s e t a n e x a m p l e f o r l a t e r
in d u c tiv e ,
S in c e p ro b le m -s o lv in g n e c e s s a r ily b e g in s in ex
p e rie n c e th ro u g h In d u c tio n , c o n trib u tin g
H o b b es* w o r k i s d e f i n i t e l y
f a c to r in t h a t i t b o l s t e r s t h i s
p o sitio n .
a
117 v.
THE THEORY OF RECONCILIATION A.
IMMANUEL KANT ( 1 7 2 4 - 1 8 0 4 )
Im m anuel K ant a n d h i s
C ritiq u e s .
T he g r e a t p h i l o s o
p h e r K a n t s t a n d s m id w ay b e t w e e n d e d u c t i o n a n d i n d u c t i o n . He a t t e m p t e d t o h im ,
re c o n c ile
th e d ich o to m y w h ic h ,
e x i s t e d b e tw e e n e x tre m e r a t i o n a l i s m
c ism .
" C r itiq u e ,” in
tic ism .
It
Is
sense,
seem ed t o
a n d e x tre m e e m p ir i is
n o t m e re ly c r i
p erh ap s r a t h e r a c a r e f u l a p p r a is a l o f re a so n
in o rd e r to d e sc rib e h e ld th a t
th e K a n tia n
it
I t s b o u n d a rie s i f
su c h do e x i s t .
K ant
o u r s e n s e s , w h ic h a re a c k n o w le d g e d i m p e r f e c t ,
d is
t o r t m u ch o f t h e d a t a t h e y t r a n s m i t t o t h e m in d . K a n t ! s " d i e r e l n e n v e r n u n f t ," c a lle d i t ,
is
m ean t t o b e k n o w le d g e i n d e p e n d e n t o f s e n s a
t i o n a n d a p a r t fro m e x p e r ie n c e . an u n iq u e ly in h e re n t s tr u c tu r e k n o w le d g e i t s e l f .
i.e .,
The m in d i s so t h a t i t
is
endow ed w ith a b le
to p r e s e n t
I t b r i n g s c e r t a i n k n o w led g e to
se n sa tio n .
K ant w ro te t h a t slu m b e rs,
h i s p u re re a s o n a s he
he w a s a w a k e n e d f r o m h i s d o g m a t i c
d e d u c tiv e r e a s o n in g , by th e
sh a rp o n sla u g h t
o f Hume a n d t h e o t h e r E m p i r i c i s t s a g a i n s t t h e m e t h o d o f d e d u c tio n . a b le
to
K a n t Vs r e b u t t a l m a i n t a i n e d t h a t i t
is
u n reaso n
assu m e t h a t a l l k n o w le d g e I s d e r i v e d c o m p le te ly
th ro u g h th e o rg an s o f s e n s e . t h e r e w as no r e a l s c i e n c e
He o p p o s e d Hume1s i d e a s t h a t
n o r any r e a l s o u l.
T hat th e se
118 w ere m e re ly te rm s t o w h a t man c a l l e d b ilitie s . la y
Hume i s
now c e r t a i n .
Hume h e l d t h a t
c e r t a i n t i e s c o u l d n e v e r h e m o re t h a n p r o b a
K a n tf s r e f u t a t i o n
o f* th is n o m in a l!s tie
i n h i s b e l i e f t h a t Hume h a d i n i t i a t e d
h is
th in k in g
i n q u i r y from
a f a l s e p re m ise an d h en ce h ad a r r i v e d a t i n v a l i d c o n c lu s io n s . K n o w le d g e. fro m d i f f e r e n t is
To a s s u m e m e r e l y t h a t k n o w l e d g e a r i s e s
s e n s a t i o n s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m ean t h a t i t
t h e t r u e k n o w le d g e o r t h a t any o t h e r k n o w le d g e n e e d c e r
ta in ly
fo llo w .
K ant h e l d t h a t a b s o l u t e k n o w led g e c a n n o t be
d e riv e d in d u c tiv e ly , b u t r a th e r th a t
th e re
is
c e rta in
’a
p r i o r i 1 k n o w le d g e i n d e p e n d e n t o f s e n s e - e x p e r i e n c e .
K ant
b e l i e v e d t h a t a l l k n o w le d g e a c t u a l l y d o e s b e g i n i n
sensa
tio n , to
b u t t h a t t h e m in d b r i n g s c e r t a i n
it.
He m ade a g e n u i n e
c a te g o rie s
a tte m p t to r e c o n c ile th e
d i v e r g e n t m e th o d s o f r e a s o n i n g , v i z . , a lism ,
a p rio ri
o r in d u c tio n v e rs u s d e d u c tio n .
o r in stru m e n ts in h e re n t in th e
se e m in g ly
e m p iric ism a n d r a t i o n T hrou gh th e m o d a litie s
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m in d , e x
p e r i e n c e i s s o a r r a n g e d a s t o becom e u n i f i e d a n d c o h e r e n t* T hese m o d a l i t i e s o f q u a n t i t y , s h i p a s s i s t t h e m in d t o it
stru c tu re
e x p e r i e n t i a l d a ta so t h a t
becom es k n o w le d g e a n d n o t c h a o s .
in g ,
k n o w le d g e i s
e n tire
im p o ssib le .
q u a lity and r e l a ti o n
W ith o u t t h i s
In h is In tro d u c tio n
s tru c tu r to th e
s u b j e c t o f k n o w le d g e, K ant w r i t e s :
E x p e rie n c e i s no d o u b t th e f i r s t p r o d u c t o f o u r un d e r s t a n d i n g , w h i l e em p lo y ed i n f a s h i o n i n g t h e raw
m a te ria l of our s e n s a tio n s . I t i s th e re fo re our f i r s t in stru c tio n * . . . N e v e r t h e l e s s e x p e r i e n c e i s b y no m eans th e o n ly f i e l d t o w h ic h o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n b e c o n fin e d . E x p e rie n c e t e l l s u s w hat i s , b u t n o t t h a t i t m u st b e n e c e s s a r i l y - a s i t i s a n d n o t o t h e r w i s e .^9 In d u c tio n and d e d u c tio n *
F o r K a n t,
in d u c tio n
t h e o n ly c h a n n e l t h r o u g h w h ic h k n o w led g e f l o w s . may i n f o r m
t h e m in d o f t h e f a c t s o f t h e c a s e ,
f a c ts are p e c u lia rly
so i s
s till
its
v ery n a tu r e ,
sists
in r a is in g
fo r a c e rta in d o u b t.
t r u t h s , 1 sta m p e d w ith t h e
E x p e rie n c e
b u t why t h e s e
a m oot q u e s tio n *
w h ic h K ant th o u g h t o f a s a d i s c r e t e e n t i t y ,
R eason,
i s c u r io u s , by
ty p e o f k n o w le d g e ,
T rue k n o w le d g e ,
is not
I.e .,
and p e r
'g e n e r a l
in h e re n t c h a ra c te r o f n e c e s s ity ,
and in d e p e n d e n t o f e x p e rie n c e ,
com es a p r i o r i
th ro u g h th e
u n iq u e endow m ent o f th e m in d . 0 - e n e r a l t r u t h s , w h i c h a t t h e sa m e t i m e b e a r t h e c h a r a c t e r o f an In w ard n e c e s s i t y m ust b e in d e p e n d e n t o f ex p e rie n c e — c l e a r and c e r t a i n by th e m se lv e s. They a r e t h e r e f o r e c a l l e d k n o w l e d g e a p r i o r i . . . e v e n i f we r e move f r o m e x p e r i e n c e e v e r y t h i n g t h a t b e l o n g s t o t h e s e n s e s , t h e r e re m a in s n e v e r t h e l e s s c e r t a i n o r i g i n a l co n c e p t s , a n d c e r t a i n Ju d g m e n ts d e r i v e d fro m th em , w h ic h m ust have h ad t h e i r o r i g i n e n t i r e l y a p r i o r i and in d e p e n d e n t o f a l l e x p e r i e n c e . . . .2 0 T h a t we c a n m a k e p r o g r e s s a p a r t f r o m a l l e x p e r i e n c e in re fle c tio n , m a th e m a tic s ,
i s d e m o n s tra te d c l e a r l y
K ant s a id .
in th e f i e l d o f
He m a i n t a i n e d t h a t k n o w l e d g e
19 I m m a n u a l K a n t , C r i t i q u e o f P u r e R e a s o n (New Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n C o m p an y , 1 9 2 5 ) ,
^
Ibid., pp. 1-2.
P* ! •
(T r.
b y F . Max M u l l e r . )
d e riv e d m a th e m a tic a lly i s
d e fin ite ly
su re and n ecessary
k n o w le d g e i n e v e r y i n s t a n c e o f r e a s o n in g *
T here e x i s t
m any s u c h e x a m p l e s o f n e c e s s i t y a n d c e r t a i n t y , B u t we c a n n o t d e r i v e
he in s is te d *
th e se n s e o f a b s o lu te n e s s an d
v e r i t y fro m e x p e r ie n c e a lo n e , f o r e x p e rie n c e i s u a l m a tte r,
fu rn ish in g
o n ly e x p e rie n c e p e c u l ia r to
d iv id u a l and th u s in c a p a b le o f u n iv e r s a l t e s t i n g c a tio n *
an in d iv id each in
and a p p l i
F o r K ant b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e w ere a p r i o r i
c rite ria
f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e a l k n o w le d g e , v i z * , k n o w le d g e w h i c h a l l m i n d s c a n com e t o kno w a n d kn ow a s r e a l * th e c ru x o f h i s e p is te m o lo g y . has a u n iv e rsa l sp e c ie s.
s tru c tu re
The m in d o f e a c h hum an b e i n g
p e c u lia r to
T h is i n h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e
know a n d d i s c o v e r t r u e P la to
homo s a p i e n s a s a
g i v e s m in d t h e a b i l i t y
D o c trin e o f R e c o l le c t i o n w here
b y t h e m in d w a s e n d o w e d a t b i r t h w i t h c e r t a i n w h ic h t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n c o u l d b e aw akened* co rresp o n d ed to r e a l i t y .
in h e re n t s tru c tu re . p sy c h o lo g y in is
to
a n d i n e v i t a b l e k n o w le d g e .
has p o s ite d th e
tw e n ty c e n t u r i e s l a t e r ,
T h is i s
It
is
in n a te
id e a s
T hese id e a s
s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t K a n t,
some
p o s tu la te d n o t in h e re n t id e a s b u t
T h is h y p o t h e s is i s c l o s e r t o m odem
t h a t t h e m in d e x i s t s s o m e w h a t a s a p r o c e s s ,
not p a ssiv e but a c tiv e ,
b rin g in g
t o k n o w le d g e c e r t a i n
s tru c tu ra l p rin c ip le s. A p r io r i v ersu s ta b u la r a s a *
In o p p o sitio n
i d e a o f t h e m i n d a s a 1t a b u l a r a s a , * K a n t s t a t e d
to Locke*s
th a t th e
m in d i s n o t a b l a n k i n a n i m a t e s l a t e
upon w h ic h i s
c e r t a i n d a ta by th e
s ty lu s o f e x p e rie n c e .
an a b s tr a c tio n .
is
It
a d isc re te
c a te g o rie s,
re m o ld s th e
lin e s s and co h eren ce. p r io r i in
T he m i n d i s
not
an d a c t i v e e n t i t y w h ic h
fa sh io n s and a rra n g e s sense m a te ria l in to its
w ritte n
id e a s,
and th ro u g h
chaos o f e x p e rie n c e in to
o rd er
He d e s c r i b e d t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e a
th e re a so n in g p ro c e ss th u s ;
I c a l l a l l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n w h ic h t h e r e i s n o th in g th a t b e lo n g s to s e n s a tio n , p u re (in a tra n s c e n d e n ta l sen se). T he p u r e f o r m , t h e r e f o r e , o f a l l s e n s u o u s i n t u i t i o n s , t h a t fo rm i n w h ic h t h e m a n if o ld e le m e n ts o f th e phenom ena a r e se e n i n c e r t a i n o r d e r , m ust be fo u n d i n t h e m in d a p r i o r i . T h e c r u x o f K a n t 1s a p r i o r i
th in k in g l i e s
t h a t n o t o n ly d o es re a s o n f u n c tio n in d u c tiv e ly , th ro u g h i t s
u n iq u e s t r u c t u r e
led g e c e r ta in
ta b lish e d .
but
o r c o m p o s itio n , b r in g s
u n iv e rsa l p rin c ip le s .
common h e r i t a g e
in th e f a c t th e m in d , t o know
T hese p r i n c i p l e s a r e a
o f a l l m in d s a n d a r e c a p a b l e o f b e i n g
K ant w ro te f u r t h e r ,
so e s
in h i s C r itiq u e o f P u re
R eason: The k n o w le d g e , t h e r e f o r e , o f e v e r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g , o r a t l e a s t o f t h e hum an u n d e r s t a n d i n g , m u s t b e b y m e a n s o f c o n c e p ts n o t i n t u i t i v e , b u t d is c u r s iv e , a l l i n t u i t io n s b e in g se n su o u s, depend on a f f e c t i o n s , c o n c e p ts o r fu n c tio n s. By t h i s f u n c t i o n I m ean t h e u n i t y o f t h e a c t o f a rra n g in g d i f f e r e n t r e p r e s e n ta tio n s u n d er one common r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . C o n c e p ts a r e b a s e d t h e r e f o r e , on t h e s p o n t a n e i t y o f th o u g h t. . . . The o n l y u s e w h i c h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n m ake o f t h o s e c o n c e p t s i s t o fo rm ju d g m e n ts o f th e m . . . 21
I b i d ., p. 16.
22 I b i d . , p . 5 6 .
122 I m p l i c a t i o n s o f K a n t 1s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n *
Im m an u el
K a n t 's a tt e m p t a t c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e v e r y m eth o d o f re a so n in g in g .
its e lf
is
U n t i l K a n t 's
o f th o u g h t.
a lan d m ark in tim e ,
t h e onw ard m a rc h o f t h i n k
no one q u e s t i o n e d t h e modus o p e r a n d !
The p r im a r y q u e s t i o n s r e v o l v e d a ro u n d th e
o f w hat w as th o u g h t.
H ere f o r t h e f i r s t
tru th
tim e a p h ilo s o p h e r
d a r e d a s k how we t h i n k . K a n t 's c r i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y , c e n d e n ta l p h ilo s o p h y ,
d e s c r i b e d b y h im a s t r a n s
was a d i r e c t a n d p r o t r a c t e d e f f o r t t o
a n a ly z e th e v e ry s t r u c t u r e t h e m in d w a s s t r u c t u r e d .
o f t h e m in d i t s e l f ,
a llo w in g t h a t
T h a t t h e r e w as a m in d o r i n t e l l e c t
w as ta k e n f o r g r a n t e d b y K a n t.
He t r i e d
c a l l e d i n n a t e la w s o f t h o u g h t.
K a n t was t h e g r e a t c o n c i l i
a to r. c is ts
to p ro b e th e s o -
The i n d u c t i v e m e th o d e s p o u s e d b y t h e B r i t i s h E m p iri seem ed t o be l a c k i n g
i n so m e th in g .
p eared a g ro ss o v e rs im p lific a tio n In o rd e r to p o s tu la te d th e
re fu te
To K a n t i t
o f a v e r y co m p lex p ro b le m .
th e E m p iric is ts lo g ic a lly ,
th e o ry o f th e
ap
a p rio ri.
K ant
H is a t t e m p t s w ere
a i m e d a t e x p l a i n i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r some u n i v e r s a l p r i n c ip le s in
c o n ju n c tio n w ith s e n s a tio n .
As h e s a i d ,
p e rc e p ts
m u st d e p e n d on c o n c e p ts a n d v i c e v e r s a i n an i n t e r a c t i n g p ro cess.
As y e t h i s t h e o r y r e m a i n s a s v a l i d a s a n y o t h e r s
p ro m u lg a te d ,
i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f t h e m odern p s y c h o l o g i s t s .
In th e f i e l d
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g ,
a p p lic a b le .
The p r o b le m w h ic h a r i s e s fr o m s e n s e d a t a i s
K a n t 's m id d le w ay seem s
123 answ ered b e t t e r i f is
c e rta in
tr u e and a p r i o r i in fo rm a tio n
p re se n t* V I.
SUMMARY
T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e d t h e w o r k o f some o f t h e f i r s t l e a d e r s an d e x p o n e n ts o f
t h e i n d u c t i v e mode o f r e a s o n i n g .
W h i l e m any men w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e n t i r e m o v e m e n t o f in d u c tiv e
th in k in g ,
o n ly t h o s e w hose p ro m in e n c e h a s b e e n
e s t a b l i s h e d b y tim e w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d . to p re s e n t th e e n t i r e
No a t t e m p t w a s m ade
p h i lo s o p h y o f a n y one m an.
t h a t p h ase o f any p h ilo s o p h y r e le v a n t to t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was p r e s e n t e d . c o n t r i b u t e d th e m a jo r e f f o r t s
in
th e p u rp o se o f
T h o s e p h i l o s o p h e r s who
to th e r i s e
o f t h e i n d u c t i v e m eth o d w ere l i s t e d . fo u n d to be r e s p o n s ib le
O n ly
and p o p u la r ity
T h e s e m en w e r e
so m e m e a s u r e f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
o f th e p r o b le m - s o lv in g m eth o d o f to d a y . Rene D e s c a r t e s , exponent o f ra tio n a lis m
a lth o u g h r i g h t l y
c l a s s i f i e d a s an
a n d m a th e m a tic a l d e d u c tio n ,
v e a l e d e le m e n ts of. i n d u c t i o n
in h is th in k in g .
F r a n c i s B acon f u r n i s h e d a s t r o n g im p e tu s t o m e th o d f o r r e a s o n i n g o u t p r o b le m s .
re
T he w o r k o f
in d u c tio n as a
T h rou g h h i s
on o p e n -m in d e d n e ss w ith o u t p r e j u d i c e
or fear,
t h e w ay f o r a m o r e c l e a r a p p r o a c h t o
s c ie n tific
in siste n c e
he opened in q u iry
w h ic h i n t u r n b ecam e t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l r o o t o f t h e m odern p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m eth o d .
The B r i t i s h e m p i r i c i s t s ,
p a rtic u la rly
John Locke,
h a d a t r e m e n d o u s e f f e c t o n em
p i r i c a l m e th o d s o f t h i n k i n g .
In K a n t* s c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s
o f t h e m eth o d o f r e a s o n i n g i t s e l f first
a tte m p ts
to d e te rm in e
i s fo u n d one of th e
how man t h i n k s .
T he n e x t c h a p '
t e r w i l l p r e s e n t t h e t h o u g h t o f so m e o f t h e m o r e m o d e rn p h i l o s o p h e r s who d e a l t , p ro b le m -so lv in g
o r are
te c h n iq u e .
still
d e a lin g , w ith th e
CHAPTER VI MODERN CONCEPTS IN INDUCTIVE REASONINGThe p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d , a te d fa sh io n , re a so n in g . to
th e
th e r i s e
som ex^hat a b b r e v i
an d e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n t o f i n d u c t i v e
That phase in
su b je c t o f th is
in
e a c h p h i l o s o p h e r * s w o rk r e l e v a n t
i n v e s t i g a t i o n w as b r o u g h t o u t f o r t h e
p u rp o se o f co h eren ce and c o n tin u ity .
I t was t h e
in itia l
w o rk o f t h e s e p h i l o s o p h e r s w h ic h b r o u g h t i n d u c t i o n l a t e r p ro m in e n c e .
S c ie n tific
t h e mode o f i n d u c t i v e
in q u iry ,
re a so n in g ,
is
t h e f o u n d a tio n fro m
s e n t c h a p te r w i l l a tte m p t t o p o r tr a y th e
te e n th c e n tu ry
c o n tin u in g d e v e lo p
from t h e b e g in n in g o f th e n i n e
I n d u c t i v e m e th o d a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d
The a d v e n t o f t h e
tu rn in g p o in t
The p r e
t o t h e m odern e r a .
F o rew o rd : vance.
such
a s an o u tg r o w th o f
w h ic h th e m e th o d c a l l e d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g e m e rg e d .
m ent o f in d u c tiv e re a s o n in g
In to
i n d u s t r i a l re v o lu tio n p ro v ed a
in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s c i e n t i f i c
R e n a issa n c e had s tim u la te d in q u ir y in
in q u iry .
a ll fie ld s
The
o f en d eav o r.
The n e e d f o r a l l k i n d s o f I n s t r u m e n t s t o k e e p p a c e w i t h d i s c o v e ry a n d e x p l o r a t i o n w as i m p e r a tiv e . dem anded f o r n a v ig a ti o n ,
a g ric u ltu re
New t e c h n i q u e s w e r e
and th e
lik e .
g r e a t i n d u s t r i a l c h a n g e s a d d e d e v e r m ore i m p e t u s to tific
i n q u ir y a n d m eth o d o lo g y .
T he sc ie n
126 From an almost completely agrarian civilization the whole of the western world was now more or less transformed, into a technological culture*
Again there was the impera
tive need for scientific aids to march along with and aid the rising technology.
For these purposes also the new
technique in theoretical thinking was further developed. Deductive reasoning with its universal postulates to particular instances was of little help.
For these stirring
times a method of reasoning which could investigate and analyze all the particulars* and formulate general prin ciples for immediate application was required* was
The keynote
u t i l i t y , and for this philosophy of utilitarianism, men
arose to formulate a positivistic reasoning. I.
THE RISE OF POSITIVISTIC THINKING A..
JOHN STUART MILL (1806-1873)
John Stuart Mill may rightfully be designated as the philosopher par excellence of the system of utilitarianism. He was perhaps more a social philosopher than a worker in that particular branch of philosophy called epistemology, but in his task of proving the justice of his contentions concerning utilitarianism and social reform, he demonstrated clearly the value of inductive reasoning. subject of knowledge, he wrote:
Regarding the
12? • . . q u e s tio n s o f u ltim a te en d s do n o t a d m it o f p ro o f, in th e o r d in a r y a c c e p ta n c e o f th e te rm . To b e i n c a p a b l e o f p r o o f b y r e a s o n i n g i s common t o a l l f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s ; t o t h e f i r s t p r e m is e s o f o u r k n o w le d g e, a s w e ll a s t o th o s e o f o u r c o n d u c t. B u t th e fo rm e r, b e i n g m a t t e r s o f f a c t , may b e s u b j e c t o f d i r e c t a p p e a l t o t h e f a c u l t i e s w h ic h ju d g e o f f a c t ; n a m e ly ,, o u r s e n 's e s , a n d o u r i n t e r n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 1 In d u c tio n and u t i l i t y *
I t w a s M i l l who m ade a p r o
t r a c t e d e f f o r t t o c o n s t r u c t a m ore a d e q u a t e a n d c o h e r e n t p h ilo s o p h y o f u t i l i t a r i a n i s m .
He s t a t e d t h a t s i n c e h a p p i
n e s s was th e
a l l e x is te n c e
s o l e a im o f l i f e ,
and th in k in g
m ust b e g e a r e d to w a rd s a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h i s g o a l. ta s k ,
k n o w led g e w as t o p l a y a g r e a t p a r t ,
lig h te n e d can
seek and f i n d tru e
th a t in d u c tiv e
re a so n in g
Is
In th is
f o r o n ly th e e n
h a p p in e ss .
M ill reaso n ed
t h e o n l y a d e q u a te m eth o d f o r
t h i s k n o w le d g e. In
some m e a s u r e t h i s
p ra g m a tism , w h ic h a ls o e d u c a tio n .
e m p h a siz e s th e u t i l i t y
P ra g m a tism ,
t i o n a l p h ilo so p h y ,
concept in
p o s s i b l y m o re t h a n a n y o t h e r e d u c a
e m p lo y s t h e t e c h n iq u e o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g *
John S tu a rt M i l l's th e s is be u t i l i t a r i a n ,
p h i l o s o p h y f o r e s h a d o w e d m odern
i.e .,
th a t
th e a im o f an y s o c i e t y m u st
h a p p in e ss ,
w ork f o r o u r c u r r e n t t h e o r i e s , w h o le , b u t a l s o f o r i t s
l a i d m u ch o f t h e g r o u n d
n o t o n ly f o r s o c ie ty a s a
e d u c a tio n a l f a c e t.
^ John S tu a r t M ill, D is s e r ta tio n s and D is c u s s io n s : P o l i t i c a l i P h ilo s o -p h ic a l an d H i s t o r i c a l (B o sto n : W illia m S p e n c e r , 1 8 6 4 ) , I I I , 3^8*
128 He c o n t r a s t e d , e m p i r i c a l v a l i d a t i o n w i t h d e d u c t i v e re a so n in g
i n h i s e s s a y on U t i l i t a r i a n i s m .
He s t a t e d :
Q u e s tio n s o f u l t i m a t e ends a r e n o t a m e n a b le to d i r e c t p ro o f. W h a t e v e r c a n b e p r o v e d t o b e g o o d , m u s t b e so b y b e i n g show n t o b e a m e a n s o f s o m e t h i n g a d m i t t e d t o b e good w ith o u t p ro o f. . . . T h e r e i s a l a r g e m e a n in g o f t h e w o r d “ p r o o f 11 i n w h i c h t h e q u e s t i o n i s a s a m e n a b l e t o i t a s any o t h e r o f th e d i s p u t e d q u e s tio n s o f p h ilo s o p h y . The s u b j e c t i s w i t h i n t h e c o g n i z a n c e o f t h e r a t i o n a l fa c u lty . M ill h e ld t h a t th e te n tio n and d ire c tio n
to
‘ f a c u l t i e s ’ o f t h e m in d g a v e i n th in k in g .
s i d e r a t i o n s a c c o m p a n y in g q u e s t i o n s l e c t d id o r d id n o t a s s e n t to p r e s e n t e d by t h e m in d . so t h a t i t e x p e rie n c e *
In
th e fo llo w in g
o r p ro b le m s,
th e a c c e p ta n c e
T h e m in d i s
can d is c rim in a te
B ecause o f c e r t a i n co n th e
o f th e
in h e re n tly
in te l s o lu tio n
c o n stru c te d
in th e d a ta p re s e n te d to
i t by
w r i t i n g o f M i l l ’ s e p i s t e m o l o g y , Dewey g i v e s
c o n n o ta tio n :
No h a r d a n d f a s t r u l e s f o r t h i s o p e r a t i o n o f s e l e c t in g a n d r e j e c t i n g , o r f i x i n g upon s i g n i f i c a n t e v i d e n t i a l f a c t s , can be g iv e n . I t a l l c o m e s b a c k , a s we s a y , t o th e good ju d g m e n t, t h e g o o d s e n s e , o f th e one ju d g in g . To b e a g o o d j u d g e i s t o h a v e a s e n s e o f t h e r e l a t i v e in d ic a tiv e o r s ig n ify in g v a lu e s o f th e v a rio u s f e a tu r e s o f th e p e rp le x in g s i t u a t i o n . 3 M i l l ’ s p h i l o s o p h y h e l d t h a t k n o w le d g e w as n o t p a s s i v e . S i n c e m in d h a d a l l and r e je c tio n ,
t h i s d i s c r im i n a t o r y pow er o f s e l e c t i o n
th o u g h t w as d e f i n i t e l y
an o n g o in g a c t i v i t y .
2 I h i d . , p. 304. J o h n D ew ey , How We T h i n k ( B o s t o n : C om pany, 1 9 3 3 ) > P* 123 *
D* C.
H e ath a n d
129 I t w as a p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n an e n t i t y , a c tiv ity
t h e v e r y m e a n in g o f l i f e .
It
g ra sp in g
in i t s
i s by fa c in g th e
p ro b le m s i n h e r e n t i n a h o s t i l e e n v iro n m e n t t h a t th e com es t o know a n y t h i n g a t
a ll.
I m p li c a t io n s f o r -p ro b le m -so lv in g . tio n th a t u tilita r ia n is m ,
m in d
In h is
o r I t s e q u a l te rm ,
th e e n d to be m ost so u g h t a f t e r ,
h a p p in e ss ,
M ill a r b i t r a r i l y
th in k in g on an e x p e r i e n t i a l l e v e l .
stip u la is
p la c e d
He w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h
t h e q u e s t i o n o f why man s h o u l d o v e r c o m e t h e m any o b s t a c l e s p l a c e d i n h i s p a t h b y an a d v e r s e e n v iro n m e n t. A l o n g w i t h A u g u s t Q o m te, p o s itiv is tic
p h ilo s o p h e r,
a n o t h e r a n d p e r h a p s m ore
M ill d e n ie d th e th e o ry t h a t a
s p e c i a l c o n t e n t o r m eth o d o b t a i n e d i n p h i lo s o p h y . m en , a n d t h o s e who p r e a c h e d t h e d o c t r i n e
T hese
of p o sitiv is m ,
h e ld
t h a t p h ilo s o p h y i s
a d i s c i p l i n e w h ic h s h o u ld b e i n t e r e s t e d
o n ly i n
and u n ify in g th e
c la rify in g
s c ie n c e s w h ic h c o n t r i b u t e
to p h ilo s o p h y . The d e s i r e d g o a l o f u t i l i t a r i a n i s m , fo llo w e rs,
was t h e u n i t y o f t h e v a r i o u s
h e re n t p h ilo s o p h y .
S c ie n c e m ust be
f o r M ill and h is
sc ie n c e s in to
su b o rd in a te to p h ilo s
o p h y , a l t h o u g h p h ilo s o p h y m ust a l s o b e s c i e n t i f i c * K a n t* s p h r a s e , o f a l l th e re a lis tic so lv in g .
M ill b e lie v e d
s c i e n c e s . 1*
In
and i s r e f le c te d
a co
t h a t p h ilo s o p h y w as th e
th is re s p e c t M ill's
To u s e nq u e e n
th in k in g
is
i n m u ch o f t h e m e t h o d o f p r o b l e m
130 B.
HERBERT SPENCER ( 1 8 2 0 - 1 9 0 3 )
H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , who may a l s o p o sitiv is tic good l i f e
in
h is th in k in g ,
a s t h e a im o f a l l
le g itim a te ly be c a lle d
p o s i t e d th e th e o r y o f th e
e d u c a tio n .
In h is
S p e n c e r r e s p o n d e d som ew hat i n t h e m an n er o f , doubt in flu e n c e d by, c e r n s k n o w le d g e* Id e a s ,*
c o n tra ry
th e
te rm ,
’D o c t r i n e o f
of th in g s .
p ro b a b ly )
T h is
a p p lie s
to
’ su b s ta n c e * th a t re a l
o u tw a rd a p p e a ra n c e .
had s ta te d t h a t u n d e rn e a th a l l o f w hat i s
p reh en d ed th e r e
s u b s is ts
t h e m in d t h r o u g h i t s c o n tra s t to
u ltim a te r e a l i t y
th is p o s itio n ,
I n n a te id e a s*
K ant had d e c l a r e d t h a t th e
lim ita tio n s .
M e t a p h y s ic s was
re a lm o f re a s o n f o r S p e n c er a l s o .
p r i m a r y t a s k o f a l l k n o w i n g w as t o o f th e g a la x y o f th e
ap
c o m p re h e n s ib le to
endow m ent o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g
m in d c a n n o t s t e p b e y o n d i t s beyond th e
and h is
As c o n
I m p o s s i b i l i t y o f e v e r k n o w in g
w h ic h p re s u m a b ly u n d e r l i e s a l l P la to
a n d w a s no
p h i lo s o p h e r K a n t.
to P la to
’ su b sta n c e *
( f o r la c k o f a b e tt e r
In
c ritic a l
Spencer a s s e rte d th e
w h at he c a l l e d
ity
th e
e p is te m o lo g y ,
sc ie n c e s in
e f f e c t th e
To S p e n c e r t h e Ju x ta p o sitio n
an i n t e l l i g i b l e
p h ilo s o p h
ic a l u n iv e rse . Spencer c a lle d th e th e p h y s ic a l se n se s, c lo s e ly
u n k n o w la b le ,
o r t h a t d o m ain b e y o n d
b e c a u s e h e w i s h e d m o re
to d e f in e th e b o u n d a rie s o f r e f l e c t i o n .
t h a t th e r e a l su b s ta n c e um i n
su b s ta n c e ,
s u c h a w ay t h a t
He f e l t
s tim u la te d th e e x p e r ie n tia l c o n tin u
t h e d a t a o f s e n s e w ere b u t r e f l e c t i o n s .
131 F or S p en cer,
any e x p e rie n c e i s
c o n stitu tiv e
o f,
in c id e n ta l to ,
r e a l k n o w le d g e*
r a t h e r th a n
He w r o t e :
The u tm o s t t h a t a n y a n a l y s i s o f r e a s o n c an e f f e c t i s to d e s c r i b e th e a c t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s th r o u g h w h ic h th e s e a n d a l l o t h e r m o d e r a t e l y know n t r u t h s a r e . d i s c e r n e d ; a n d t h i s we h a v e i n t h e i n w a r d p e r c e p t i o n o f l i k e n e s s o r u n lik e n e s s of r e la tio n s . But a t r u t h of t h i s k in d d o es n o t a d m it o f a x io m a tic e x p r e s s io n s b e c a u s e th e u n i v e r s a l p o w e rs o f r a t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e c a n n o t becom e s o l i d i f i e d in to any s in g le p ro d u c t o f r a t i o n a l i n te l li g e n c e .^ R e l a t i o n s h ip s becam e th e p aram o u n t i s s u e The s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f o n e o n ly
tru th
i n k n o w in g *
to a n o th e r i s
t h i n g t h e m in d c a n a n a l y z e a n d p r e s e n t t o
th e
t h e m in d .
K n o w le d g e t h e n , b e c o m e s a s t u d y n o t o f t h e o b j e c t s g i v e n t o c o n sc io u s n e ss b u t o f th e d isc e rn m e n t of th o s e one o b je c t to is
th a t o f th e
a n o th e r and to n e o -re a lists
t h e m in d . in th a t
t i e s w h ic h u n i t e
In a sense th is
sta n d
t h e m in d f o r t h e m i s
a l
s o t h e m e d i a t i n g a g e n t a n d o b j e c t s o f s e n s e a r e n o t know n im m e d ia te ly . K n o w le d g e o r t h e h i g h e s t g e n e r a l i t y *
Spencer a s s e rte d
t h a t n o t o n ly e p is te m o lo g y b u t a l l o f p h i lo s o p h y w as b u t k n o w le d g e o f t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e o f g e n e r a l i t y e ls e *
I n h i s now f a m o u s a n a l o g y o f t h e r i v e r ,
th a t th e flo w of i t s
he s t a t e d
w a te rs se rv e s b u t as an in sta n c e
g e n e r a l la w o f th e d y n a m ics o f f l u i d s .
Y o rk:
a n d n o th in g
F u rth e r,
of th e
th e law o f
^ H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , The P r i n c i p l e s o f P s y c h o lo g y D. A p p l e t o n C om pany,. 1 8 8 3 ) , I I , 95*
(Hew
132 d y n a m ics i s
i t s e l f b u t a n o th e r and l e s s e r in s ta n c e
g e n e r a l la w , fie ld
i.e .,
g e n e r a l d y n a m ics i n r e l a t i o n
o f m ovem ent i n
to
o f a m o re t h e w h o le
s o lid s and f lu id s .
H e r b e r t S p e n c e r m a i n t a i n e d t h a t k n o w le d g e c a n n o t e x i s t in
d is c re te phases o r a t
p h ilo s o p h y ,
p a rtic u la rly
d iffe re n t le v e ls .
The t a s k o f
e p is te m o lo g y , i s
to c o r r e l a t e a l l
t h e know n f a c t e e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e its
h ig h e s t g e n e ra l sta g e .
senses in to
k n o w led g e a t
D e d u c tiv e r e a s o n in g ,
p er se,
was
a n a iv e m eth o d u s e d o n ly b y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s b e c a u s e th e y h a d no o t h e r . fo llo w in g
S p en cer,
d e sc rip tio n
of
in h is F i r s t P r in c ip le s , g iv e s
th e
se n se -d a ta :
E v e r y t h o u g h t i n v o l v e s a w h o le s y s te m o f t h o u g h t , a n d c e a s e s to e x i s t i f s e v e r e d fro m i t s v a r i o u s c o r r e l a t i v e s . A s we c a n n o t i s o l a t e a s i m p l e o r g a n o f t h e l i v i n g b o d y , and d e a l w ith i t a s th o u g h i t . h a d a l i f e in d e p e n d e n t o f th e r e s t ; so , fro m t h e o r g a n iz e d s t r u c t u r e o f o u r cog n i t i o n s , we c a n n o t c u t o u t o n e , a n d p r o c e e d a s t h o u g h i t had su rv iv e d t h i s s e p a ra tio n . He m a i n t a i n e d t h a t w h i l e t h e t a s k o f p h i l o s o p h y w a s m a in ly to
c o rr e la te and re -a rra n g e
p h i l o s o p h y w a s y e t m o re t h a n p h ilo s o p h y b e a r th e tru th s
th e o f f e r in g s o f s c ie n c e ,
sc ie n c e ,
sam e r e l a t i o n
to
fo r th e
tru th s of
th e h ig h e s t s c i e n t i f i c
t h a t e a c h o f t h e m b e a r s to. l o w e r s c i e n t i f i c In th e
hegem ony o f t r u t h s ,
tru th s .0
k n o w le d g e a s t h e h i g h e s t
^ H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s (New Y o r k : A p p l e t o n a n d C o m p any, 1 9 3 0 ) ,
6 I b i d . , p . 37-
p.
121.
D.
133 g e n e ra lity
ta k e s p re c e d e n c e o v er o th e rs*
g e n e ra lity
has i t s
s e n s e s fro m t h e
in c e p tio n in th e
is
u se le ss
to
h ig h e st
d a ta , d e r i v e d b y t h e
e x p e r i e n t i a l c o n tin u u m c a l l e d
R e fle c tio n and in fe re n c e * it
A nd t h i s
In
life *
S p e n c e r 1s e p is te m o lo g y
s e e k a l l e g e d o r r e a l k n o w le d g e i n m etap h y
s ic a l s p e c u la tio n .
T he p r i n c i p l e s g o v e r n i n g k n o w l e d g e a r e
to b e i n f e r r e d fro m
t h e sam e p r i n c i p l e s g o v e r n i n g p h y s i c s ,
m o tio n ,
and even th e f i e l d o f s o c ia l a c tio n .
c ip le s a re g a in e d i n f e r e n t i a l l y fle c tio n
A ll
fro m e x p e r ie n c e .
such p rin F ro m r e
on t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s t h e h i g h e s t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s
w i l l em erge. G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s g a t h e r e d fro m s c i e n t i f i c f u r n i s h one o f th e m ost s u b s t a n t i a l fo u n d a tio n s d ic tio n
of c e rta in
o n ly fro m i n d u c t i v e
n a tu ra l fa c ts . re a so n in g .
a l l i e d p h a ses o f p h ilo s o p h y :
T hese f a c t s
c o sm o lo g y ,
o f r e a s o n in g w as an a p p ro x im a tio n . S p e n c e r w as m e re ly i n t e r p r e t a t i v e , to d e te rm in e
o n to lo g y , e t c . , but th is
can ty p e
m e th o d t o
la c k in g any o th e r capa
tru th . In d u c tio n i s
F or p h ilo so p h y i s
n a tu re th a n th e n a tu r a l s c ie n c e s . th e g e n e r a liz a tio n s
c an be d e r i v e d
The d e d u c t i v e
H ow ever, f o r H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , sim p lifie d p ro c e ss.
fo r th e p re
M e ta p h y sic s and p e rh a p s
b r i n g f o r t h c o n c e p t s from d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g ,
c itie s
in q u iry
o f th o se
It
not a
m o re g e n e r a l i n i t s p ro ceed s f u r t h e r w ith
f a c t s w h ic h a r e m u tu a lly d e a l t
13 k w ith by b o th d is c ip lin e s .
T he g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s
s c ie n c e d e te rm in e th e t r u t h o f th e th e f a c ts p lin e , In
th is
th e
sense
sc ie n c e s.
th e n a tu r a l d e fin ite
f a c t s o n ly i n
it
is
I s n o t,
In i t s
sc ie n c e s,
su b d iv id e d in to n o r can i t b e ,
In te g ra tiv e
so f a r a s
l e t as a d is c i
th e m se lv e s can be s u b s t a n t i a t e d ,
p h ilo s o p h y to o
fu rn ish e d by
p re sc rib e d a re a s. m ore g e n e r a l t h a n
fu n c tio n
it
may s u r p a s s
b u t i n m ere g e n e r a l i z a t i o n I t
has v ery
lim ita tio n s .
T h e know ing: - p r o c e s s *
P h ilo so p h y ,
as does
sc ie n c e ,
t r e a t s o f p ro b le m s w h ic h a r e e i t h e r s p e c i f i c o r g e n e r a l . P h ilo so p h y a s k s q u e s tio n s d i f f e r e n t from th o s e o f s c ie n c e , or
so S p e n c e r a s s e r t e d .
h im ,
i s d iv id e d in to
T he k n o w i n g p r o c e s s ,
two p h a s e s ,
g o in g -p ro ce ss o f k n o w in g ,
th e f i r s t ,
and th e
second,
a c c o rd in g to
th e a c t u a l on
th e
a n a ly sis of
t h o s e f a c t s w h i c h a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e m in d b y t h e k n o w i n g p ro cess. W hereas t h e v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s a r e w h a t he d e sc rib e d as c la s s lf ic a t in g
d is c ip lin e s ,
e p is te m o lo g y i s n o t
o n ly a d i s c i p l i n e b u t a p ro c e s s a s w e ll.
T h ro u g h I n d u c tio n ,
t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s t u d i e s t h e w h o le k n o w in g p r o c e s s th e f a c t s
a lr e a d y a c c u m u la te d .
T he m ain p u r p o s e o f t h e
p h ilo s o p h e r qua e p ls te m o lo g is t i s g a th e r th e f a c t s p re s e n te d .
as w e ll as
t o u n if y a n d n o t m e re ly to
Spencer d e sc rib e s t h i s fu n c tio n
w h e n h e d e f i n e s t h e know n t r u t h s o f p h i l o s o p h y a s f o l l o w s :
135 . . . a k n o w le d g e o f t h e e x tr e m e o p p o s i t e i n k i n d t o t h a t w h ic h e x p e r ie n c e f i r s t a c c u m u la te s . I t i s th e f i n a l p r o d u c t o f t h a t p r o c e s s w h i c h b e g a n w i t h a m e re c o l l e g a t i o n o f c ru d e o b s e r v a t i o n s , g o e s on e s t a b l i s h i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e b r o a d e r a n d m o re s e p a r a t e d f r o m p a r t i c u l a r c a se s, and ends in u n iv e rs a l p ro p o s itio n s . Or t o b r i n g t h e d e f i n i t i o n t o i t s s i m p l e s t a n d c l e a r e s t f o r m : — K n o w le d g e o f t h e l o w e s t k i n d i s u n - u n i f i e d know le d g e ; S c ie n c e i s • p a r t i a l l y - u n i f i e d k n o w le d g e; P h ilo s o p h y I s c o m p l e t e l y - u n i f i e d k n o w le d g e . V T h i s t h e o r y o f u n i f i e d k n o x v le d g e i s
In ag reem en t w ith
t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e m o re m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g i s t s , O e sta ltis ts.
K n o w le d g e ,
s is t of d isc re te
phases,
f o r c e f u l and m e a n in g fu l, a se rie s of d isc re te and c o h e siv e ,
w h ile i t
may i n t h e b e g i n n i n g c o n
m u s t so m e h o w , i n o r d e r t o b e c l e a r , assum e u n i f i c a t i o n .
a c ts;
a c c o rd in g to
it
is
K n o w in g i s n o t
a p r o c e s s w h ic h i s
t h e s i s t h a t p h ilo so p h y an d a l l i t s
I n p r e s e n t i n g th e
phases i s
c o m p le te ly u n i
Spencer l e f t a d i s t in c t iv e h e rita g e to
th e w h o le f i e l d
o f re a so n in g .
K n o w le d g e e m e r g e s ,
a c c o rd in g to
h im ,
u n i f i e d w h o le fro m t h e v a r i o u s n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s . h is
u n ifie d
S p en cer.
S pencer* s u n iq u e c o n t r i b u t i o n .
fie d ,
n o ta b ly th e
e p is te m o lo g y on t h e
as a
He b a s e d
s c i e n c e s r a t h e r t h a n on s p e c u l a t i o n .
I n t h i s way h e l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r m o re s c i e n t i f i c
th in k
in g . Too e a s y a c c e p t a n c e o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e b e come h y p o s t a s i z e d d o e s n o t l e a d t o g e n u i n e p r o g r e s s .
^ I b i d . , p . 119-
B e lie f
136 I k u n q u e stio n e d u n lv e r s a ls
s ta te d d e d u c tiv e ly
c o rd w ith th e canons o f s c i e n t i f i c
in q u iry *
is
no t in ac
S p e n c e r em p h a
s i z e d th e v ie w t h a t t h e f i e l d o f m e ta p h y s ic s c a n n o t p o s s i b l y be o f any h e lp in s c ie n tific
sc ie n tific
re a so n in g ,
i.e .,
in q u iry . in d u c tio n ,
It is
o n ly th ro u g h
t h a t k n o w le d g e i s t o
be fo u n d . K n o w in g i s p r o c e d u r a l , p e rie n c e m in d ,
is
in a u n ifie d
fa sh io n .
t o know, w as S p e n c e r * s f i r s t d i c t u m .
t h r o u g h c e r t a i n en doitfed f a c u l t i e s ,
h a rm o n ize a n d u n i f y
th e
and a s an o r i g i n a l t h i n k e r , p o rta n t r o le
But th e
h e lp s c o n s tru e ,
se n se -d a ta in to f a c ts
As a p r e d e c e s s o r o f J a m e s a n d Dewey i n
To e x
th e
o f k n o w le d g e .
sc ie n tific fie ld ,
H e r b e r t S p e n c e r a s s u m e s a n im
i n f u r n i s h i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r m odern
p ro b le m -so lv in g . II.
WILLIAM JAMES ( 1 8 4 2 - 1 9 1 0 )
T he g e n i u s o f W i l l i a m J a m e s , n o v a to r,
was m a n y -s id e d ,
but i t
is
g re a t th in k e r and in p e rh a p s w ith th e p h ilo s
o p h y o f p r a g m a t i s m t h a t h i s name h a s b e e n m o s t c l o s e l y a s so c ia te d ,
T h is p h ilo s o p h y w h ic h h a s so g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d
t h e m o d ern A m e ric a n e d u c a t i o n a l s c e n e ow es m uch o f i t s p ro m in e n c e t o W illia m Ja m e s , its e lf
had i t s
*r a i s o n d ' e t r e *
A c c o rd in g t o h im , p h i lo s o p h y in
t h e f a c t t h a t men a r e
m o v ed t o p h i l o s o p h i z e b y t h e v e r y f a c t o f t h e i r b e i n g m en. T h is m o tiv a tin g
in flu e n c e
f a s c i n a t e d Jam es a n d I s
th e cru x
137 o f h i s e p is te m o lo g y . tric a b ly
He b e l i e v e d t h a t k n o w i n g w a s i n e x
l i n k e d w ith e m o tio n .
R a d ic a l e m p iric ism . im p lie s t a c i t
a c c e p ta n c e
The e n t i r e
of
B u t f o r h im ,
a ll
b e g in and end w ith e x p e rie n c e .
It
tio n ,
by c a r e f u l l y
e ra l a p p lic a tio n , and r e a l i t y m o lo g y i n
t h e w arp a n d woof o f
th in k in g m ust n e c e s s a r il y is
o n ly th ro u g h in d u c
p r o c e e d in g fro m s i n g l e
in sta n c e s
to g en
t h a t t h e m in d c a n e v e r g r a s p t h e t r u t h
o f any f a c t .
th e
o f Jam es
th e p r a c t i c a l a s w e ll a s th e
e m o tio n a l t h r e a d s w oven t o g e t h e r i n t o hu m an k n o w l e d g e .
th in k in g
He d e f i n e d h i s t h e o r y o f e p i s t e
f o llo w in g m anner:
I g i v e t h e name o f ‘ r a d i c a l e m p i r i c i s m 1 t o my W eite n sc h a u u n g . E m p i r i c i s m i s know n a s t h e o p p o s i t e o f ra tio n a lism . R a t i o n a l i s m te n d s t o e m p h a size u n i v e r s a l s a n d t o m ak e w h o l e s p r i o r t o p a r t s i n t h e o r d e r o f l o g i c as w e ll a s th a t o f b e in g . E m p iric is m , on t h e c o n t r a r y , la y s th e e x p la n a to r y s t r e s s upon th e p a r t , th e e le m e n t, th e in d iv id u a l, and t r e a t s th e w h o le ^ s a c o l l e c t i o n , and th e u n i v e r s a l as an a b s t r a c t i o n . S in c e H e rb e rt S p e n c e r p la y e d a g r e a t p a r t in Ja m e s’ p h ilo s o p h ic a l nonage an d th e n in h i s l a t e r is
n o t to o d i f f i c u l t
to
p h a s is upon e m p iric ism . a p o stle
o f th e
th in k in g o f h is
see
e v o lv e m e n t,
it
t h e i n f l u e n c e b e h i n d h i s em
S p en cer,
a s h a s b e e n s e e n , w as an
th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n and h i s
i n f l u e n c e on th e
d a y a n d u p o n t h o s e who f o l l o w e d h i m w a s
g re a t.
Y ork:
W illia m Jam es, E s s a y s in R a d ic a l E m p iric ism L o n g m a n s , G r e e n a n d C om pany, 1 9 1 2 ) , p . 5TI
(New
138 The m eth o d s a d v o c a te d b y S p e n c e r a r e e s s e n t i a l l y th o s e in u se to d a y In s c i e n t i f i c
in q u iry .
By t h e u s e o f t h e
tw o t e c h n i q u e s o f . c o n t r a s t a n d t h e g e n e t i c a p p r o a c h ,
Spencer
a n t e d a t e d m u ch o f t h e
S c ie n
tific
sc ie n tific
th in k in g
in q u ir y m ust have y a r d s t i c k s .
d a t a T ir ith o u t a n y I d e a a s t o i t s o r a s to
its
rise
i n k n o w le d g e. knew t h a t
T he i n s p e c t i o n o f s e n s e
c o m p a riso n w i t h o t h e r d a t a ,
an d d e v e lo p m e n t,
Jam es,
o f to d a y .
p r e s e n ts n o th in g o f v a lu e
a s w e ll as h i s p re d e c e s s o r S p en cer,
su b s ta n tia tio n
r e q u ir e d c o m p a ra tiv e t e s t i n g
and
a n a l y s i s o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f o b j e c t s . P e r c e p t and c o n c e p t.
E d u c a tio n , a s a le a r n in g p ro
c e s s , w as t h e m eans w h e re b y t h e m in d c o u l d l e a r n fr o m p r a c t i c a l e x p e rie n c e .
T h is l e a r n i n g w as l a t e r
to have p r a c t i c a l
a p p lic a tio n . L e a rn in g , p e rc e p tio n ,
In th e b e g in n in g ,
Jam es s a i d ,
a lw a y s o c c u r r e d th r o u g h
b u t th a t p e r c e p tio n w as i n t e r r e l a t e d
w i t h c o n c e p t i o n w as o b v i o u s to h im . t h i n g s * a r e known to u s b y o u r s e n s e s , a n d a r e c a l l e d p r e s e n t a t i o n s * b y som e a u t h o r s , t o d i s t i n g u i s h th e m f r o m t h e i d e a o r 1r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s 1 w h i c h we may h a v e w hen o u r s e n s e s a r e c l o s e d . I m y s e l f h a v e grow n a c c u s t o m e d t o t h e w o r d s 1p e r c e p t * a n d ‘ c o n c e p t 1 i n t r e a t i n g o f th e c o n tr a s t, b u t c o n c e p ts flo w o u t o f p e r c e p t s a n d i n t o th e m a g a i n , t h e y a r e so i n t e r l a c e d , a n d o u r l i f e r e s t s on th e m so i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y , t h a t i t i s o f te n d i f f i c u l t to im p a rt q u ic k lv t o b e g in n e r s a c l e a r n a tu r e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e m e t.^ Q Y o rk :
W i l l i a m J a m e s , Bome P r o b l e m s o f P h i l o s o p h y L o n g m a n s G r e e n a n d C om pany, 1 91 17> p* ^7*
(New
139 Jam es w as on s a f e in v e s tig a tio n
had a ls o
g ro u n d h e r e ,
advanced th e
b e tw e e n p e r c e p t a n d c o n c e p t*
in th a t
p sy c h o lo g ic a l
th e o ry o f in te r a c tio n
In a sense th is
p o sitio n i s
K a n tia n , f o r K ant h e ld t h a t a p e r c e p t w ith o u t a c o n c e p t w as b l in d and c o n v e rs e ly t h a t e m p ty * tio n
a c o n c e p t w i t h o u t a p e r c e p t was
J a m e s w e n t b e y o n d K a n t i n t h a t he p i c t u r e d i n t e r a c
in th e n a tu re
o f an o n g o in g p r o c e s s an d n o t a s d i s c r e t e
phases of a p e c u lia r p ro cess c a lle d S e n sa tio n an d th in k in g .
’k n o w in g .1
W illia m Jam es a d v an c ed th e
th e o ry t h a t s e n s a tio n and th o u g h t a re g e th e r.
in e x tr ic a b ly bound t o
T h in k in g w i t h o u t t h e a c c o m p a n im e n t o f f e e l i n g
im p o ssib le ;
som e e m o t i o n w a s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o
was
re fle c tio n .
Jam es c o u ld n o t r e a s o n a b ly d ic h o to m iz e p e r c e p t i o n an d con c e p tio n ,
a l t h o u g h he
sta te d
t h a t 11t h e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e
tw een p e r c e p t s a n d c o n c e p ts i s
t h a t p e rc e p ts a re c o n tin u o u s
and c o n c e p ts a re d i s c r e t e . ”
It
p la in s,
th a t
feren ce l i e s
is
n o t, a s he l a t e r ex
th e y a re a p a r t In t h e i r
’b e i n g ’ b u t t h e d i f
in
t h e i r s e v e r a l m e a n in g s .
When h e s t a t e d was v o i c i n g h i s ness. ’
th a t p e rc e p ts a re c o n tin u o u s,
s trik in g
th e o ry o f th e
Jam es b e li e v e d t h a t th in k in g
e v e ry hour of th e day.
^
Ibid*, p. ^6.
In
sle e p ,
Jam es
’ stre a m o f c o n s c io u s
o f som e k i n d w e n t o n
t h i n k i n g becam e sub m erg ed
140 and su b c o n sc io u s. in g ,
S p e e c h was c a l l e d
o r ra th e r a rtic u la te In
th is
a rb itra rily .
1s u b c o n s c i o u s 1 t h i n k
th o u g h t.
stre a m o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ,
c o n c e p tio n i s d iv id e d
E a c h c o n c e p t h a s a d i s t i n c t m e a n in g w h ic h t h e i n
t e l l e c t m ust a n a ly z e .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p o b t a i n i n g b e tw e e n a l l
t h e v a r i o u s h u e s a n d s h a d e s o f m e a n in g i s
th e g r e a t ta s k in
t h e k n o w in g p r o c e s s .
Jam es lik e n e d th in k
As h a s b e e n s t a t e d ,
i n g t o a s tr e a m w h ereb y t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s f lo w s on a n d o n , v o lu n ta r ily th ro u g h th e pow er o f th e w i l l,
o r in v o lu n ta rily
d u rin g s le e p in g and s o - c a l le d n o n -c o n s c io u sly How t h i n k i n g b e c o m e s o r d e r e d ^
th in k in g h o u rs.
To W i l l i a m J a m e s e x i s t
e n c e w as a c o n f u s i o n o u t o f w h ic h k n o w le d g e h a d f i r s t a n a ly z e d >
th e n
p e r f orm ed a l l
s o rte d and f i n a l l y th e s e u n i q u e 'd u t i e s
c la ss ifie d *
of life *
A g a in , i t
was t h i s
p e r m i t t e d h im t o l e a d t h e
The I n t e l l e c t
i n m an , a n d i t
sam e I n t e l l e c t w h i c h s e p a r a t e d man f r o m t h e
to be
w as th e
*l o w e r *
fo rm s
c r e a t i o n p e c u l i a r t o man w h i c h
’b e t t e r l i f e *
th ro u g h re a so n .
W illia m Jam es b e l i e v e d t h a t c o n c e p tio n was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m an’ s p r o g r e s s , from p e r c e p t i o n ,
and w h ile he n e v e r a d m itte d i t s he a l w a y s a c c o r d e d i t
s e p a ra tio n
th e m a jo r e m p h a sis.
T h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e o f m an c o n s i s t s a l m o s t w h o l l y in h is s u b s ti t u t io n o f a c o n c e p tu a l o rd e r f o r th e p e r c e p t u a l o r d e r in w h ic h h i s e x p e r ie n c e o r i g i n a l l y
came?-^
^
I b id . , p. T 1 .1
.3
51*
141 C o n c e p t i o n i s p e r h a p s m o re i m p o r t a n t t h a n p e r c e p tio n term s.
he a s s e r t e d ,
b u t a s a p r o c e s s he e q u a t e d t h e
A l l k n o w le d g e b e g a n i n p e r c e p t i o n .
c o n c e rn in g
p e rc e p tio n
day and s t i l l
serv e
two
Jam es'
th e o rie s
an d c o n c e p tio n w ere la n d m a rk s i n t h e i r
as g u id e s in
t h e w h o l e p r o b l e m o f how
man t h i n k s . T h in k in g
is
th e
'o r d e r in g '
fu se d s e n s e -d a ta a re p la c e d in to Jam es s a i d .
T he m i n d ,
c r im in a to r y p o w ers.
p r o c e s s w hereby th e con th e ir r ig h tf u l c a te g o rie s,
as an a c tiv e a g e n t,
has d is tin c t d is
F ro m t h e j u m b l e o f d a t a ,
c o h e r e n t a n d u n i f i e d c o r p u s o f k n o w le d g e. e x p e r i e n c e a n d u se w ere
m in d m a k e s a
He b e l i e v e d t h a t
t h e tw o c r i t e r i a f o r
th e o r d e r ly
sequence o f th e c o lle c te d d a ta . W illia m Jam es'
i n f l u e n c e o n o r o b i era- s o 1 v l n g ♦
A m e ric an c l a s s r o o m , w i t h i t s is
g re a tly
in d e b te d to
p ra g m a tism a n d i t s
th is
The
e m p h a sis on p r a g m a tic l e a r n i n g , p io n e e r th in k e r.
H is w o rk on
c o n s e q u e n t i n f l u e n c e i n A m e ric an e d u c a
t i o n p l a c e s h im d e f i n i t e l y
in
th e f o r e p a r t o f a l l
th e con
trib u to rs . H is i n s i g h t
in to
t h e p r o b le m o f k n o w in g a n d h i s
a r d e n t a d v o c a c y o f t h e p r i m a c y o f e m p i r i c a l v a l i d a t i o n m ake h im o n e o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g . and u t i l i t y ,
th e l e i t m o t i f o f Jam es'
For e m p iric ism
e p is te m o lo g y ,
v e r y t e n e t s o f m odern p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
are
th e
T h in k in g b e g in s w i t h
ik z
a p r o b l e m a n d m u s t l a t e r h a v e som e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n . P ro b le m -so lv in g a s
a te c h n iq u e
in le a rn in g
fo llo w s
Ja m e s1 e p is te m o lo g ic a l t h e o r i e s a lm o st r e l i g i o u s l y , s t a r t s w ith d i f f i c u l t i e s
of p a rtic u la r
■ in sta n c e s*
an d th e n
g o e s to p r i n c i p l e s c a p a b le o f g e n e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n . te c h n iq u e to
is
th e essen ce o f s c ie n tif ic
a b s tr a c t th in k in g .
Jam es*
v iz .,
* s t r a w men* o f
le a rn in g
T h is
in q u ir y a s opposed
many p o l e m i c s w e r e d i r e c t e d
a g a in s t d e d u c tiv e and a b s tr a c t re a so n in g . t a c k s on t h e
fo r i t
’u n iv e rsa ls*
fo r le a rn in g ’ s sake,
T h ro u g h th e a t and
*a b s t r a c t i o n s *
J a m e s a d v o c a t e d h i s own
t h e o r i e s o f p ra g m a tism a n d e m p iric is m . The n a t u r e o f a l l e v o lu tio n and s c ie n c e . in
o f Jam es*
t h i n k i n g w as g ro u n d e d i n
O th e rs w ere a s g r e a t l y
in flu e n tia l
th e adv an cem en t o f s c ie n c e , b u t W illia m Jam es,
p erh ap s
m ore t h a n a n y o t h e r t h i n k e r , b r o u g h t p r a g m a tis m i n t o nence. in g
A l o n g w i t h t h e p r a g m a t i c p h i l o s o p h y cam e t h e l e a r n
te c h n iq u e III.
c a lle d p ro b le m -so lv in g . JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERBART ( 1 7 7 6 - 1 8 4 1 )
H e r b a r t ’ s g e n iu s w as e x p r e s s e d in fie ld s,
c h ie fly ,
p h ilo s o p h y .
h o w ever,
in
th e f i e l d s
H is e d u c a ti o n a l t h e o r i e s ,
d iv o rc e d from h i s p h ilo s o p h y , tu re s .
p ro m i
In c lu d e
sev eral d iffe re n t o f e d u c a tio n and
w h ile th e y c a n n o t be some d i s t i n c t i v e
fea
H is p h i l o s o p h i c a l w r i t in g s p ro v e d a s tim u lu s to
sc ie n tific
stu d y and e x p e rim e n ta tio n ,
n o t o n ly in p h ilo s o p h y
14-3 b u t a ls o
i n t h e r e a lm o f e m p i r i c a l th o u g h t*
H is e d u c a t i o n
a l v ie w s w i l l be p r e s e n te d i n th e n e x t c h a p te r* c h a p te r,
H e rb a rt* s e p is te m o lo g y w i l l be d is c u s s e d .
The d o c t r i n e ic a l
o f a rrp e rc e o tio n *
H e rb a rt* s e p ie te m o lo g -
sy ste m c e n t e r e d a ro u n d th e c o n c e p t o f
He d e f i n e d a p p e r c e p t i o n a s t h e j e c t s g iv e n to ‘fa c u lty *
a b ility
us by o u r senses*
o f b e in g a b le to
th em w i t h l i k e
to
A p p e rc e p tio n .1 sin g le
ou t th e ob
A p p e rc e p tio n a ls o
had th e
d e te rm in e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p e
c u l i a r to any o b je c t i d e n t i f i e d tra s tin g
In th is
th ro u g h th e s e n s e s by con
o b j e c t s 3mown t o t h e m in d p r e v i o u s l y .
T hro u g h th e a p p e r c e p t iv e p r o c e s s ,
th e
in te lle c t,
t e r h a v in g i d e n t i f i e d t h e
o b je c t g iv e n i t
a tte m p ts to e x p la in
te rm s o f p r e v io u s k n o w le d g e.
th is
it
in
m a n n e r t h e l e a p f r o m t h e k now n t o
p o ss ib le .
In
fa c t,
b u i ld s a c o n n e c tin g
by e x p e r ie n c e ,
f o r th e
m in d
l i n k b y m e a n s o f t h e s e know n f a c t s . in e f f e c t s i m il a r ,
h a s a t o o l b y w h ic h i t
a ll
T h ro u g h t h i s t o o l t h e o b je c t o f
it.
k n o w led g e i s
a ls o
c la s s if ie d and p u t in to
k n o w le d g e i s
added in
*s t o r a g e . 1
t h e m in d n o t i c e s t h e
f e a t u r e s a p a r t fro m th e b a s i c
sense d a ta .
c o m e s t o kn o w
New
th e p ro c e s s o f c o n tr a s tin g w ith p re
v io u s k n o w le d g e, b e c a u s e tin c tiv e
In
t h e m in d
th ro u g h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t h a t com es to
In
t h e unknown b eco m es
no l e a p i s n e c e s s a r y ,
asm uch a s a l l k n o w led g e i s
af
T he m i n d s t o r e s
new a n d d i s
sim ila rity
away a l l i t s
d a ta to
of a ll be c a l l e d
144 upon l a t e r f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n The l o c a t i o n a c c o rd in g
o f th e
sto ra g e
to H e rb a rt,
m o re [k n o w le d g e t h a t i s
space
is
p u rp o ses*
so m e w h a t v a g u e , b u t ,
th e b ra in a c ts as a re p o s ito r y . c o lle c te d ,
s t r e n g t h e n n ew p e r c e p t i o n
The
t h e m o re t h e m i n d c a n
a n d i n tim e
come t o
k now a l l t h e
c u l t u r a l a c c r e t i o n s h a n d e d down f r o m t h e p a s t . F u rth e r a n a ly sis o f t io n .'l^
th e
*d o c t r i n e o f a p p e r c e p -
The c o n c e p t o f a p p e r c e p t i o n
th em e a n d t h e r e f o r e
d eserv ed fu rth e r
is
H e r b a r t 1s c e n t r a l
a m p lific a tio n .
U pon
t h is co n cep t H erb art b ased h is e n tir e
e p is te m o lo g y a s w e ll
a s h i s p h ilo s o p h y .
s t a r t s w ith sense
d a ta , b u t th e se fa sh io n ,
K n o w in g , h e s a i d ,
s e n s e d a t a a r e s t o r e d aw ay i n
m y ste rio u s
re m a in in g e v e r l a t e n t and w a itin g f o r a c a l l to
h e lp r e - in f o r c e
new p e r c e p t i o n s .
te m o lo g y ,
ap p aren t th a t id e a s a re l e f t
it
is
m in d fro m e a c h e x p e r i e n c e ,
I n th e H e rb a rtia n e p is
and t h i s
o v e r in th e
accru ed gro u p of id e a s
a lw a y s e m e rg e s fro m c o n s c i o u s n e s s d u r in g p e r c e p t i o n s w h ich r e q u i r e th em . M o dern p s y c h o lo g y h a s d e r i v e d t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e 1t h r e s h o l d o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s * p e rc e p tio n .
fro m H e r b a r t* s t h e o r y o f a p
He p r e s e n t e d t h e t h e o r y t h a t i d e a s a r i s e
th a t th r e s h o ld o f u n c o n scio u sn e ss in to
above
c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h en
J o h a n F r i e d r i c h H e r b a r t, A T ex t-B o o k i n P s y c h o lo g y (Hew Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n a n d C om pany, 1 9 0 1 ) , pp* 1 3 6 - 5 2 1 ( T r a n s l a t e d b y M a r g a r e t K. S m i t h . )
3A5 a llie d
id e a s
dorm ant in
s tim u la te
th e b r a in
th em .
The m ass o f
sto re d id e a s l i e s
a n d a p e r c e p t u a l s t i m u l u s im p e ls one
o r m any t o t h e s u r f a c e w h e n n e e d e d .
H e rb a rt d e s c rib e d th e
p ro c e ss a s fo llo w s: The f i r s t c h a o s o f c o n c e p t s , w h i l e i t c o n s t a n t l y r e c e i v e s new a d d i t i o n s , i s a t t h e sam e t i m e s u b j e c t e d t o a c o n tin u o u s s e p a r a tio n . M ot t h a t c o m b i n a t i o n s o n c e c o m p le te d w o u ld e v e r be b ro k e n u p ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e num ber o f c o n c e p ts i s c o n s t a n t l y i n c r e a s e d an d t h e i r i n n e r c o n t e n t s a u g m e n te d . . . . The o b j e c t s m o v e , a n d c h i e f l y b e c a u s e o f th em , t h e e n v ir o n m e n t i s b r o k e n up in to d i s t i n c t i o n s ; in t h i s m anner a p l u r a l i t y o f th in g s o r i g i n a t e s f r o m m a n * s p o w e r o f c o n c e p t i o n . -**3 F ro m t h e a b o v e q u o t a t i o n a n d f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s t r e a t m ent o f r t h i s
c h a p te r,
th e D o c trin e
o f A p p e r c e p t i o n may b e
su m m arize d .
H e r b a r t b e l i e v e d t h a t k n o w le d g e, w h ic h a t f i r s t
c o n s i s t s o f som ew hat v a g u e a n d d i s c r e t e t h e m in d t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e .
T h ere,
s t o r e d aw ay f r o m p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , and c la s s if ie d f o r f u r th e r use. in
o b je c ts ,
com es t o
because o f o th e r id e a s t h e new d a t a a r e
A f t e r b e in g
some u n d e s c r i b e d r e c e s s o f t h e b r a i n ,
th e
th u s p ig e o n h o le d id e a s l i e
m ant u n t i l c a l l e d upon f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p u r p o s e s . k n o w le d g e t h u s i s e s s e n t i a l l y c h a o tic fo rm .
H ow ever,
th ro u g h t h i s
U
add to
th e re a re n ovel id e a s
A ll
and d i s t i n c t
T hese d i s t i n c t c h a r
t h e sum t o t a l o f k n o w l e d g e .
p ro cess,
d o r
s i m i l a r w hen d i v e s t e d o f i t s
f e a t u r e s a b o u t o b j e c t s o f k n o w le d g e . a c te ristic s
so rte d
I n tim e ,
H e r b a r t b e l i e v e s t h a t m en w o u l d come
I b i d . , pp. 1 5 0 - 5 1 .
146 to
th e
t r u e w is d o m o f t h e
ages.
C o m o le x e s a n d b l e n d i n g s . in g s*
H e r b a r t 1s n o t i o n
of
‘b l e n d
and ‘ c o m p le x e s ,1 p r e s e n ts th e th e o ry t h a t id e a s a re
c o n tig u o u s a s r e g a r d s t h e i r t h a t o p p o site
id e a s c o u ld u n ite
t o m ake o n e c o h e r e n t i d e a . c o m p le x ity o f id e a s on t h e
or
He a l s o b e l i e v e d
'b le n d '
a s he c a lle d i t
He b a s e d h i s t h e o r i e s o f t h e
and t h e i r p o s s i b l e b l e n d i n g s
concept of th e
S in c e th e
‘p r o p e r t i e s . 1
to g e th e r
s im p lic ity and u n ity o f th e
s o u l i s a. s i m p l i f i e d a n d u n i f i e d w h o l e ,
a s a n e x a m p le f o r t h e p e r f e c t
'e s s e n c e '
so u l. it
serv es
b e h in d a l l b le n d in g s
a n d c o m p le x e s. H e r b a r t p o s t u l a t e d t h i s a w k w a rd a n d r a m i f i e d t h e o r y o f c o m p l e x i t y a n d b l e n d i n g b e c a u s e he r e a l i z e d o fte n appear in
c l u s t e r s a n d i n m any r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
th e s e m ix tu re s an d r e l a tio n s h ip s i n tim e j u s t a s d i d th e a d e fin ite
t h a t id e a s
so u l in
d riv e fo r p e rp e tu ity
stra ig h te n som e d i s t a n t
But
th e m se lv e s o u t era.
T here i s
in th e a c tio n and r e a c tio n
o f i d e a s upon one a n o th e r . F or H erb art
'id e a *
He u s e d t h e Grerman t e r m
w as u s e d i n i t s
" V o r s t e l l u n g , " w h ic h b r o a d ly t r a n s
l a t e d b e co m es “m e n t a l im ag e" tio n ."
T h is p r e s e n t a t i o n
o r m o re l i t e r a l l y ,
first
o ccu rs a f te r
have been p re s e n te d w ith an o b je c t. o b je c t,
th e
h ig h e st sense.
id e a b e h in d i t ,
" re p re s e n ta
our senses
The 'e s s e n c e *
of th is
r e a c ts w ith th e o th e r id e a s
1M7 t h e m in d p o s s e s s e s * sen ces and th e
T he i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e
re la tio n
g iv e s us id e a s ,
es
i n w h ic h one a c t s upon a n o t h e r
som ew hat i n t h e
fa sh io n of th e o ld k in e
scope* M a th e m a tic s.
Johann F r ie d r ic h H erb art
because o f h is e f f o r ts
to red u ce th e f a c t s o f
m a th e m a tic a l s ta te m e n ts . risin g
and sin k in g
He c o n s i d e r e d t h e
fact
t h e m in d t o
id e a th a t
o f id e a s in c o n sc io u sn e ss
p l i e d m a th e m a tic a l r e l a t i o n s .
i s n o te d a ls o
some hot* im
T h is im p lic a tio n l i e s
t h a t i d e a s m any t i m e s o c c u r r e d s e r i a l l y .
th e
in th e
S i n c e one
i d e a b r i n g s u p one o r m ore d i f f e r e n t i d e a s b l e n d e d w i t h i t , it
m ust th e n l o g i c a l l y f o llo w t h a t
some s e r i e s .
T he sam e i d e a w i l l u s u a l l y f o r m o n e o f a
c h a i n i n o n e o r m o re s e r i e s . sh ip ,
H erb art arg u ed ,
w as show n.
id e a s a re but u n its in
By t h i s m a t h e m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n
th e c o m p le x ity o f a s s o c i a t io n o f id e a s
He w r o t e :
T h e c o n c e p t o f a s e r i e s i s sh o w n m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y i n th e n o t i o n s o f i n t e g r a l p o s i t i v e n u m b ers . . . b e t w e e n w h o l e n u m b e r s c o n t i n u o u s t r a n s i t i o n s a r e made by m eans o f f r a c t i o n s ; a l s o a b ackw ard, p r o l o n g a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s may b e m ad e b y m e a n s o f m i n u s n u m b e r s . . . . B rie fly , f o r p s y c h o lo g is ts , a rith m e tic fu rn is h e s a r e m a r k a b le e x a m p le o f a c o n c e p t o f a s e r i e s c o n s t a n t l y b e c o m i n g m o r e a b s t r a c t e d , w h i c h may b e t r a v e r s e d i n b o th d i r e c t i o n s a n d b y i n f i n i t e l y m in u te s t e p s . ^ M a th e m a tic a l fo rm u la e p la y e d an im p o rta n t p a r t in
1^
I b id . , p. 56.
148 th e th e o ry of a p p e rc e p tio n .
H e r b a r t, by m eans o f v e r b a l
sc a ffo ld in g ,
th e o ry aro u n d m a th e m a tic s,
c o n stru c te d h is
w h ic h s e rv e d a s th e s k e l e t a l
stru c tu re *
p e rc e p tio n has not been e n tir e ly
The t h e o r y o f a p
e x p lo d e d ,
a l t h o u g h some
o f H e r b a r t 's o th e r c o n c e p ts have b e e n , n o ta b ly t h a t o f th e in tro d u c tio n of w ill in reaso n . co re,
W ith m a th e m a tic s a s a
t h e t h e o r y o f a p p e r c e p t i o n t a k e s on l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . Im p lic a tio n s o f a p p e rc e p tio n f o r p ro b le m -so lv in g .
H e r b a r t 1s p o s t u l a t i o n w ith p ro b le m -so lv in g .
of s c ie n tific A ll
th in k in g b e g in s
w o rld b e c a u se o f d i f f i c u l t i e s It
is
th o u g h t i s
h a rm o n y
in th e o u te r
e n c o u n te re d by
th e
th ro u g h th e s e n s e s t h a t th in k in g b e g in s .
c a te g o ric a lly
in
senses. H erb art
sta te d :
The p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l o f e x p e r i e n c e i s p r i n c i p a l l y th e w ork o f t h e o u t e r s e n s e s , o f to u c h , t a s t e , sm e ll, h e a rin g an d s e e in g . The f i v e s e n s e s m e n tio n e d a r e e n u m e r a te d a c c o r d i n g to th e o rg an s o f se n se . T h ere i s a l a r g e r num ber o f t h e d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f s e n s u o u s i m p r e s s i o n s . ' M o re o v e r, th e o rg a n s th e m se lv e s c o n ta in s e n s i t i v e s u r f a c e s , h e n c e i n n u m e r a b l e s e n s i t i v e p l a c e s . 3-5 T here i s
one a p p a r e n t f la w i n H e rb art* s t h i n k i n g
w h ic h m u st be m e n tio n e d a t o f th e
th e o ry
th is
tim e .
T h ere I s e v id e n c e
s e t up by Rene D e s c a r t e s w h ic h h a s p la g u e d
e p is te m o lo g y f o r c e n t u r i e s .
15 I b i d . , p . 5^
T he m i n d - b o d y c o n t r o v e r s y i s
s till
u n se ttle d ,
b u t d u a lism
is
som ew hat i n
d isre p u te .
H e r b a r t b e l i e v e d t h e r e w as a n i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n m in d a n d bod y w h ic h m u st b e i n c l u d e d i n h i s m a th e m a tic a l c a l c u l a tio n s .
T h i s p h a s e o f H e r b a r t 1 s e p i s t e m o l o g i e a l sc h e m e i s
a n ta g o n is tic to H ere a g a i n i s 'f a c u l t i e s ' s p ite
t h a t upon w h ic h p r o b le m - s o lv in g
seen th e o ld th e o ry o f
o f t h e m in d a s d i s t i n c t
of th is
e n titie s .
H e rb a rt,
r e a l l y m ade a n e f f o r t
sy ste m i s r a t h e r h eav y and p e d a n t ic ,
i s n o n e - th e - le s s an in g e n io u s e p is te m o lo g y .
th a t th in k in g
is
t u l a t e d th e fo u r p h a se s o f th o u g h t:
i s u n iq u e .
re c o g n itio n ,
h a rm o n iz a tio n an d u n i f i c a t i o n ,
lo g ic a l.
T hese fo u r s te p s
com es t o k n o x ^ le d g e. so lv in g ,
IV .
n o t to o u n l i k e p ro b lem
a l l liv in g th e o ry of
p h ilo s o p h e rs . sc ie n tific
c la ss ifie d ,
sought a f t e r .
JOHN DEWEY ( 1 8 5 9 -
J o h n Dewey r a n k s
c la s s ifi
a r e t h e p a t h b y w h i c h t h e m in d
The s y s t e m i s
so lu tio n s
He p o s
w h ic h a r e n o t i l
i n t h a t p ro b le m s a r e to b e r e c o g n iz e d ,
an d h a rm o n io u s
H is i d e a
a p r o c e s s b a s e d on p r e v i o u s a n d s t o r e d -
a w ay k n o w l e d g e , m a t h e m a t i c a l l y g u i d e d ,
c a tio n ,
in
th in k in g .
W h ile H e r b a r t ' s it
'm e n ta l phenom ena1 an d
ap p aren t c o n tra d ic tio n ,
to w a rd s c i e n t i f i c
i s based.
) AS EPISTEMOLOGIST
i n m any c i r c l e s
as th e g re a te s t of
As a f o r c e f u l e x p o n e n t o f t h e
in q u iry ,
f e c t on e d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n ,
he h a s few e q u a ls .
and s t i l l
is,
H is e f
tre m e n d o u s.
H is
150 im p a c t i s f e l t le a rn in g ,
i n t h e A m e ric an c la s s r o o m .
i.e .,
n ex t c h a p te r.
H is t h e o r i e s on
p ro b le m -s o lv in g , w i l l be p r e s e n te d in th e T h is p h a se o f th e s tu d y w i l l a tte m p t to
a n a l y z e h i s v ie w s on s c i e n t i f i c
in q u iry a s a fo u n d a tio n f o r
p ro b le m -so lv in g . R e fle c tiv e th in k in g .
Dewey s t a t e s :
. . . r e f l e c t i v e t h in k i n g , i n d i s t i n c t i o n fro m o th e r o p e r a t i o n s t o w h i c h w e a p p l y t h e nam e o f t h o u g h t , i n v o lv e s ( l ) a s t a t e o f d o u b t, h e s i t a t i o n , p e r p le x ity , m e n ta l d i f f i c u l t y , i n w h ic h t h in k in g o r i g i n a t e s , and (2) a n a c t o f s e a r c h in g , h u n tin g , i n q u i r y , to f i n d and d is p o s e o f th e p e r p l e x i t y . 1° T h is s ta te m e n t i s a s re g a rd s th e
p erh ap s th e c le a r e s t
e p is te m o lo g y b a s ic t o
to b e found
p ro b le m -so lv in g .
T h is
k n o w in g p r o c e s s o f D ew ey*s i s b a s e d u pon t h e t h e o r y o f in stru m e n ta lis m . in te lle c t, le ss
th an
w eapon i s
T h is
th e o ry h o ld s t h a t th e
o r m a n 's a b i l i t y an i n s t r u m e n t .
F u rth e r,
f o r use in a d ju s tin g
M in d a s w e l l a s b o d y i s r e s u lt o f th e .c o n s ta n t h is
to t h in k ,
to
‘m in d ,*
o r th e
i s n o t h i n g m o re o r
th is in stru m e n t o r an h o s t i l e
e n v iro n m e n t.
a n o rg a n w h ic h h a s e v o lv e d a s th e s t r u g g l e o f man f o r e q u i l i b r i u m
in
ev er je a lo u s m ilie u . R e fle c tiv e
th in k in g ,
in g m ust b e r e f l e c t i v e ,
is
a n d f o r Dewey a l l
r e a l th in k
e x p la in e d not as a r e s u l ta n t o f
J o h n D ew ey , How We T h i n k ( B o s t o n : a n d C o m p an y , 1 9 3 3 ) > P* 1 2 .
D. C. H e a t h
151 any m e ta p h y s ic a l o r s u p e r n a t u r a l phenom ena.
It
Is ra th e r
a t o o l w i t h w h i c h n a t u r e h a s e n d o w e d man f o r h i s
s u rv iv a l.
By i t
in a d is -
he can a c h ie v e
som e m e a s u r e o f e q u i l i b r i u m
e q u i l i b r a t e d w o rld * D e w e y 1s p h i l o s o p h y h e r e i s d e f i n i t e l y
n a tu ra listic .
T h i n k i n g a r i s e s b e c a u s e a n d o n l y b e c a u s e man*
in
o rd e r to
su rv iv e ,
h a s t h i s w eapon b e q u e a th e d b y a n o th e r w is e h a r s h
n a tu re .
M in d i s a n a t u r a l e n d o w m e n t n o t t o b e s e p a r a t e d
fro m body i n i t s tity ;
it
is
essen ce in tic
d e v e lo p m e n t.
a h ig h e r ty p e
M in d i s n o t a d i s c r e t e
o f n e u r a l p r o c e s s h a v in g
th e body a s a t o t a l i t y .
i n e p is te m o lo g y a s o p p o sed to
as ex p ressed in
are
a ttrib u te s
th e d u a lism
its
v ery
i s m o n is
o f D e sc a rte s
C h a p te r IV .
Dewey m a i n t a i n s of life
T h is p o s i t i o n
en
t h a t th e o t h e r s o - c a l l e d lo w e r fo rm s
e a c h endow ed, of siz e ,
a g a in b y n a t u r e , w i t h th e
speed,
b r a i n w h i c h he u s e s t o
stre n g th ,
e tc .
sev eral
Man a l o n e h a s a
com bat an e n v iro n m e n t w h ic h a p p e a rs
in im ic a l to h i s i^ e lfa re .
In th is
u se d f o r re a s o n in g and i s
not lik e
s e n s e , m an’ s b r a i n t h a t o f th e
is
o th e r
a n im a ls w h ic h seem s t o a c t t h r o u g h random a c t i v i t y
and so-
c a lle d in s tin c t. M an’ s u n iq u e a b i l i t y t h i n k i n g h a s h e l p e d h im t o w o rld . th is
to
s u rv iv e and to r u l e
O th e r fo rm s o f l i f e ,
a b ility ,
p e r is h e d from
use h i s b r a in f o r r e f l e c t i v e t h e know n
se e m in g ly b e c a u s e th e y la c k e d th e f a c e o f
th e e a r t h .
Of a l l
152 th e c o n ta in e d fo rm s o f l i f e th e a b i l i t y su rv iv a l l i e
of re fle c tiv e in
on t h i s
p la n e t,
th in k in g *
o n l y m an h a s
H is s t r e n g t h a n d M s
th is a b ility .
B e ca u se o f m an’ s a b i l i t y m any o f h i s w e a k n e s s e s . t o o w o u ld b e l o s t ,
t o r e a s o n he h a s o v erco m e
W ith o u t t h i s u n iq u e a b i l i t y
a c c o rd in g
t o J o h n D ew ey.
And t h i s
i n g w h i c h h a s s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d homo s a p i e n s i s and o r ig in a te s p ro b lem . tin c tly
in and te m p o ra rily
T h is p ro b lem i s u n frie n d ly
in d u c tio n is ts . d is tin c tiv e
c a u se d by
c o n c lu d e s a g a in w ith a
su rro u n d in g s. Dewey i s
ex p ressed th e
th e g r e a t c o l l a t o r .
th in k in g
But h is a b i l i t y
and o rig in a l.
fo r
o f m any o f t h e g r e a t
sta tin g
In th e fo llo w in g
th e cru x o f h i s e p is te m o lo g y . in g can r e s u l t
th in k
e v e r p r e s e n t i n th e fo rm o f d i s
A c ts o f r e f l e c t i o n . T h ro u g h h im i s
he
th e
th e s is is
s ta te m e n t l i e s
A c c o r d i n g t o D ewey,
i n o n ly t e n t a t i v e
c o n c lu sio n s,
th in k
sin c e th e re
a r e no u l t i m a t e a n s w e r s : The p o s i t i o n t h a t I t a k e , n a m e ly , t h a t a l l k n o w le d g e o r w a rra n te d a s s e r ti o n depends upon in q u ir y an d t h a t in q u ir y i s t r u i s t l e a l l y c o n n e c te d w ith w hat i s q u e s t i o n a b l e (a n d q u e s tio n e d ) in v o lv e s a s c e p t i c a l e le m e n t o f w h a t P e i r c e c a l l e d 1f a l l i b i l i s m . 1 Dewey s e e m s t o b e l i e v e
17
th a t
t h e o n l y w ay t o
J o h n D e w e y , P r o b l e m s o f Men (New Y o r k : s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , 19 ^ 6 ) , p . 3 3 5 •
The P h i l o -
com p reh en d t h i n k i n g sta n c e s*
is
to w a tc h i t
sp e c ific
in
R e f le c tio n d o e s n o t b e g in w ith u n iv e r s a l p re m ise s,
b u t a lw a y s r a t h e r w i t h d o u b t in g . em erg es a h y p o th e s is w h ic h becom es th e
sk e p tic ism th e re
c o n c lu s io n f o r w h ic h i t a g a in s e e k s an p re m ise .
th e h y p o th e s is i s
p e rim e n ta tio n
F ro m t h i s
( b y Dewey c a l l e d a w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s )
a d e q u a te b u t t e n t a t i v e th in k in g
em erge i n
In
th e f i n a l
s u b je c te d to
or a p p lic a tio n .
sta g e of
th e c r i t e r i o n
of ex
F o r in p ra g m a tic th o u g h t th e
t r u t h o f any c o n ce p t o r h y p o th e s is
is
d e te rm in e d by i t s
consequences in a p p lic a tio n . P ra g m a tism i n e -p is te m o lo g y . a p o s t l e o f p ra g m a tism , i s g e a re d to t h i s
it
S i n c e D ew ey i s
m ust f o llo w
ty p e o f t h in k in g .
th a t h is A b s tra c t
D ew ey i n v a c u u o i s o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n . p r a c tic a l a p p lic a tio n , sin c e th in k in g
is fo r use,
and h ig h ly te n ta tiv e e p is te m o lo g y in
does re fle c tiv e
sta g e .
it
th e
e p is te m o lo g y th in k in g f o r
W hat v a l u e , th in k in g
i.e .,
have?
And
i s a lw a y s i n a p r o b le m a tic Dewey r e f l e c t s
on h i s
own
th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n :
I n e x p e r i m e n t a l k n o w in g , t h e a n t e c e d e n t i s a lw a y s t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f som e e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h h a s i t s o r i g i n i n n a t u r a l c a u s e s , b u t w h ic h , n o t h a v in g b een c o n tr o lle d in i t s o c c u rre n c e , i s u n c e r ta in and p ro b le m a tic . O rig in a l o b je c ts o f e x p e rie n c e a re produced by th e n a t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o f o rg a n ism a n d e n v ir o n m ent a n d i n th e m s e lv e s a r e n e i t h e r s e n s i b l e , co n c e p t u a l n o r a m i x t u r e o f t h e tw o . . . . T he d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n s e n s e - d a t a a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i v e i d e a s i s d e l i b e r a t i v e , i n s t i t u t e d by th e p ro c e s s o f in q u ir y f o r th e sak e o f c a r r y i n g i t fo rw a rd to an a d e q u a te ly
15^
*| o te s te d c o n c lu sio n .
D e w e y 's t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e p r e s u p p o s e s a n e m p i r i c a l a n d p r a g m a t i c t h e o r y o f m in d .* th in k in g a t i t s
Dex^ey p r e s e n t s n a t u r a l i s t i c
h ig h e st le v e l in t h i s
i d e a t h a t k n o w le d g e i s
a p r o c e s s w h ic h em erg es fro m d i f f i c u l t y
t h r o u g h t h e m in d ,
w h ic h i s b u t an i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y e f f e c t i v e tio n .
o n ly in r e f l e c
T h e re seem s to b e no p la c e h e r e f o r th e
'a -p rio ri1
o r u n iv e r s a l g e n e r a liz a tio n s c o n v e n ie n tly a c c e p te d . in g in t h i s e p is te m o lo g y i s be c a r e f u l l y
e q u a te d w ith in q u ir y w h ic h m ust
c o n tro lle d and o rd ered .
T he t h e o r y o f c o n t i n u i t y . th in k in g
m ust a lw a y s a r i s e
in g p ro c e ss i s
in
The t h i n k
In th is p o stu la tio n Dewey r e - a f f i r m s
o f th e
h is d o c trin e
c o n t i n u i t y o f b o d y a n d m in d a s o n e d y n a m i c o r g a n i s m
a so c ie ty
h o s tile
to
its
h e t e a r s dow n t h e d u a l i s m p ro v ed a h in d ra n c e to
in
su rv iv a l.
Ab h a s b e e n s t a / t e d ,
o f D e s c a r t e s w h ic h h a s
so ~ o fte n
a c l e a r c o n c e p t o f e p is te m o lo g y .
D e w e y 's p r o c e s s o f t h i n k i n g m in d i s
th a t
th e n a t u r e o f a c o n tin u u m b e c a u s e o f th e
m in d a s a n o n - g o i n g p r o c e s s ,
in
J o h n Dewey s t a t e s
f r o m som e d i f f i c u l t y .
c o n s t a n t p r o b l e m s man f a c e s .
o f th e
Know
is
s te e p e d in p h y sio lo g y .
som e way d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e b r a i n ,
T he
and n o t o n ly
upon th e b r a i n b u t upon a l l th e o th e r p a r t s o f th e body a s
^ J o h n D ew ey, T h e Q u e s t f o r C e r t a i n t y M i n t o n B a l c h a n d C o m p an y , 1 9 2 9)* P* 173*
(New Y o r k :
155 w e ll.
A ll th in k in g T here i s
i s done
in
'c o n t i n u u m .1
no c l e a r - c u t d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n p h y s i c a l
a n d p s y c h i c a l i n D e w e y 's p h i l o s o p h y .
T h i n k i n g f o r Dewey i s
a u n i q u e l y b l e n d e d c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h m in d a n d b o d y w h i c h are
d iv id e d a r b i t r a r i l y
ju n c tio n w ith n a tu re . tio n .
o n ly .
T h u s we h a v e t h e t h e o r y o f i n t e r a c - ^
T h in k in g in t h i s
c o o rd in a te d e f f o r t , U ltim a te
T he m i n d - b o d y w o r k s i n c o n
th re e -w a y p ro c e s s ,
in r e a l i t y
m ust have a p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t a lw a y s.
a im s h a v e no p l a c e
in t h i s
e p is te m o lo g y .
I t is
c o n tin u o u s p r o c e s s w h ic h b e g in s and m erg es in d o u b t. is
one
a fo rm o f s o c i a l b e h a v io r a s i t
a
It
e v o lv e s fro m a s o c i a l
m ilie u . F u n c tio n .
F u n c t i o n i s a c o n c e p t w h i c h Dewey h a s m ade
fam o u s n o t o n ly in h i s w o rld a s w e ll.
e p is te m o lo g y > b u t in th e e d u c a tio n a l
A c c o rd in g t o Mm,
th in k i n g m ust n e c e s s a r i l y
h a v e some s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n w M c h m u s t b e a p p l i e d i n t h e s o c ia l su rro u n d in g s.
The i n d i v i d u a l f i n d s h i m s e l f i n
s o r t o f c o n jo in e d s o c ia l a d ju s t to
th is
so c ie ty
He i s f o r c e d t o d o t h i s
g ro u p in
he
some
t h e m odern c u l t u r e .
is fo rc e d to
To
use h i s i n t e l l e c t .
th in k in g by th e v e ry p ro b le m s s e t
u p b y t h e s o c i a l g r o u p o f w h i c h he f o r m s a u n i t .
In d if
f e r e n t c i v i l i z a t i o n s a n d i n d i f f e r e n t e r a s t h e p ro b le m s w ere d i f f e r e n t ,
b u t th e re
was an d a lw a y s w i l l b e p ro b le m s
f a . c i n g man s o l o n g a s h e e x i s t s .
In o rd er to
face and
156 o v erco m e t h e s e o b s t a c l e s , ta lity .
t h e hum an o r g a n i s m a c t s a s a t o
T h is t o t a l a p p ro a c h o r u n i ty o f t h in k in g
o f t h e w ay i n w h i c h a l l
p a rts of
th e body f u n c t i o n t o g e t h e r
a s one i n t e g r a t e d w h o le .
A con seq u en t e q u ilib riu m
t a i n e d w h ic h i s v i t a l f o r
s u rv iv a l.
p o s itio n
c o n sists
i s m ain
Dewey s u m m a r i z e s t h i s
a s fo llo w s:
We may r e c a p i t u l a t e b y s a y i n g t h a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h i n k i n g i s some p e r p l e x i t y , c o n f u s i o n , o r d o u b t . T h in k in g i s n o t a c a s e o f s p o n ta n e o u s c o m b u s tio n ; i t d o e s n o t o c c u r J u s t i n * g e n e ra l p r i n c i p l e . 1 T h ere i s so m e th in g t h a t o c c a s i o n s a n d e v o k e s i t . . * . To t h i n k , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e e x i s t e n c e i n h i s own e x p e r i e n c e o f som e d i f f i c u l t y t h a t t r o u b l e s a n d d i s t u r b s h i s e q u i l i b r i u m , i s f u t i l e . . . .1 9 To c a r r y h i s v i e w f u r t h e r i s
to
s a y t h a t D ew ey i s
th e p h i lo s o p h e r o f p ra g m a tism p a r e x c e ll e n c e .
T h in k in g
m u st em erg e a s a * f e l t need*
t o u s e h i s own p h r a s e *
fin d
p ro b le m ,
stim u lu s
in
some a c t i v e
I t m ust
doubt o r d if f ic u lty
and th en a r i s e
a s som e 1w a r r a n t e d a s s e r t i o n *
h y p o th e s is f o r
s till
or te n ta tiv e
a n o th e r p ro b le m .
Dewev* s e f f e c t on s c i e n t i f i c in te lle c tu a l
^
th in k in g ,
in q u iry *
C o n c ern in g
Dewey w r i t e s :
T h is f u n c t i o n w hereby one t h i n g s i g n i f i e s o r I n d i c a t e s a n o t h e r , t h u s l e a d i n g u s t o c o n s i d e r how f a r t h e o n e may b e r e g a r d e d a s w a r r a n t f o r b e l i e f i n t h e o t h e r , i s , th e n , th e c e n tr a l f a c to r in a l l r e f l e c t i v e o r d i s tin c tiv e ly i n te l le c t u a l th in k in g . By c a l l i n g u p v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s to w h ic h s u c h te rm s a s s i g n i f i e s an d
^
John Dewey, How We T h in k , p . 1 1 .
157 in d ic a t e s a p p ly , th e s tu d e n t w i l l r e a l i z e th e a c tu a l f a c t s d e n o te d . Dew ey1s g r e a t e s t e f f o r t , d efen se of s c i e n t i f i c m eans o f
in q u iry .
He i s
c o n tro lle d in q u iry . a u n ity
as
i n o r d e r t o m ore i n t e l l i g e n t l y
th in k in g
th e o n ly
su c c e ss fu ll in itia tio n Man r e v o l v e s i n
a so c ia l
to use h is i n t e l l e c t .
Now
surm ount h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s ,
sh o u ld be o rd e re d and c o h e siv e .
i s n ecessary .
th e
re g a rd s th e p h y s ic a l and p s y c h ic a l,
m oved by t h e p r o b le m s o f s o c i e t y
h is th in k in g
has been in
He b e l i e v e s t h a t
s e c u r i n g k n o w le d g e i s t h e
of lo g ic a lly scene.
p erh ap s,
f o r h im se lf ^
N a tu ra lis tic
D ew ey p u t s a w a y a n y a t t e m p t a t
re a s o n in g by d e d u c tiv e ly
d e riv e d u n iv e rs a l p rin c ip le s *
^
K n o w le d g e m u s t b e g i n i n e x p e r i e n c e a n d e x p e r i e n c e m e a n s d o u b t, p e r p le x ity a th in k in g
and d i f f i c u l t y .
p ro cess.
The w h o le b o d y r e a c t s i n
K n o w in g i s a w h o l e p r o c e s s .
in g m ust b e l o g i c a l k n o w in g .
And f r o m t h i s
k n o w in g com es w a r r a n t e d a s s e r t i o n s t o s t o n e s f o r f u r t h e r k n o w in g i n
o rd ered ,
s e v e ra l tim e s,
th e th in k in g
se rie s. As h a s b e e n
p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d e r i v e s a l m o s t com
p l e t e l y fro m i n d u c t i o n . c o rn e rs to n e o f th e
lo g ic a l
se rv e a s s te p p in g
P ro b le m - so lv in g : an d s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y . s ta te d
T r u e know
S c ie n tific
in q u iry
is
th e v ery
te c h n iq u e c a lle d p ro b le m -so lv in g .
i m p l i e s t h e e q u a tio n o f i n q u i r y w i t h p ro b le m .
20 Dewey, l o c . c i t .
Dewey
An i n q u i r y
158 m ust be o c c a s io n e d b y d o u b t and c o n fu sio n * a s a d v o c a t e d b y m any, a l s o ly fa sh io n .
P ro b le m -so lv in g ,
a tte m p ts to p ro ce ed in
an o r d e r
T h is to p ic w i l l be d is c u s s e d in a l a t e r
chap
te r. D e w e y 1s e p i s t e m o l o g y I s p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , o f sp e a k in g . scene.
It
is
S c ie n tific
a ls o
in a m anner
a d i s t i n c t p r o d u c t o f t h e A m e ric an
in q u iry
r e c e iv e d im p e tu s fro m th e g r e a t
t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e i n A m e ric a.
The p r o b l e m s w h i c h a r o s e
fro m t h e f o r w a r d m arch o f i n d u s t r y
d em anded new t e c h n i q u e s
of th in k in g .
T he A m e r i c a n c l a s s r o o m
A m e ric a n l i f e . tifid
in q u iry
As s u c h I t
i s a m in ia tu re of
p a rta k e s o f th e e sse n ce o f s c ie n -
in le a rn in g .
D ew ey*s i d e a t h a t t h i n k i n g i n w h ic h t h e I n t e l l e c t
is
i s a c o n tin u o u s p ro c e s s
a sp e c ia l in stru m e n ta lity fo r
su rv iv a l i s
i n d i r e c t a g re e m e n t w i t h th e t h e o r y o f e v o lu
tio n
so -c a lle d s c ie n tif ic
in
o r th e
chaos and p e r p le x ity ,
u n iq u e ly endow ed w eapon, c u ltie s.
ap p ro ach .
T h in k in g b e g in s
and th ro u g h th e m o d a lity o f a t h e m in d c a n o v e r c o m e I t s
d iffi
The m i n d c a n a n a l y z e , c l a s s i f y a n d e a / t e g o r i z e
th e d a ta g a th e r e d by th e
s e n s e s fro m e x p e r ie n c e .
T h e m i n d c o m e s t o know b e c a u s e f o r t h e hum an i n d i v i d u a l s o l v e d on e p e r p l e x i t y ,
to
e x is t.
When t h e m in d h a s r e
a n o th e r a r i s e s
o f p e r p l e x i t i e s w h ic h i s
life .
i t m u st know i n o r d e r
in an u n b ro k e n c h a in
T h is s ta te m e n t i s
in a
s e n s e th e e p ito m e o f I n d u c t i v e t h in k i n g a n d h en ce o f
159 p ro b le m -so lv in g .
D e w e y 1s c o n t r i b u t i o n i s g r e a t .
t h e m odern f o u n d a t i o n f o r
p ro b le m -so lv in g
He l a i d
th ro u g h h is
e p is te m o lo g y . V.
SUMMARY
T h is c h a p te r h a s p r e s e n te d t h a t p h ase o f th e e p is t e m o l o g y o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m B a c o n t o D ew ey w h i c h i s r e la te d to
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p ro b le m s o l v i n g .
Each
t h i n k e r * s w o r k i n t h e k n o x ^ le d g e p r o c e s s w a s p r e s e n t e d , h a rm o n y -w ith th e c e n t r a l
them e o f t h i s
a s t o m ake a u n i f i e d p a t t e r n . se n t th e
so
The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l p r e
s t a t u s o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m eth o d t o d a y a s
re p r e s e n te d by th e le a r n in g m en i n
in v e s tig a tio n ,
in
th e f i e l d .
th e o r ie s o f th e o u tsta n d in g
v
CHAPTER VTI THE STATUS OF MODERN PROBLEM-SOLVING The p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r p o r t r a y e d t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l th o u g h t o f th e Dewey*
i n d u c t i o n i s t s fro m F r a n c is B acon to
The m e th o d o f s c i e n t i f i c
to have begun w ith B acon. e x p re ss io n in th e f i e l d D ew ey.
It
i n q u i r y may w e l l h e s a i d
has fo u n d i t s
f u l l e s t m odern
o f e d u c a t i o n i n t h e w ork o f J o h n
The t a s k o f t h i s p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w i l l b e t o
and p r e s e n t th e v a rio u s f a c e t s a s w e ll a s th e o f p ro b le m -so lv in g in th e tw e n tie th
d e fin ite
to ta l p a tte rn
c e n tu ry .
t h e A m e ric a n p u b l i c
and tra c e a b le
M o d e rn p r o b l e m
s c h o o l ro o m i s b a s e d u p o n
fo u n d a tio n s.
S p e c ific a lly ,
A m e r i c a n s c h o o l ro o m ,
t h e s e b e g in n in g s em erge fro m
p h ilo s o p h ic a l e f f o r ts
o f Johann F r ie d r ic h H e rb a rt.
G erm an p h i l o s o p h e r a n d p e d a g o g u e i n s t i t u t e d s y s t e m w h i c h cam e t o . t h i s b ro th e rs,
a n a ly z e
t h e A m e ric an e d u c a t i o n a l s c e n e o f
The e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s * so lv in g in
John
th e T h is
an e d u c a tio n a l
c o u n t r y t h r o u g h t h e M cM urry
C h a r l e s De Garmo a n d o t h e r s .
c a to r s in tro d u c e d th e
f o r th e
d o c trin e
founded a H e rb a rtia n s o c ie ty .
in to th e
T h ese A m erican e d u sc h o o ls and a ls o
Rugg w r i t e s :
On t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s i d e t h e H e r b a r t i a n s w e r e m o s t a c tiv e and i n f lu e n ti a l. De G a rm o * s E s s e n t i a l s o f M e t h o d a p p e a r e d i n I 8 8 9 , C h a r l e s M cM urry * s 1 s p e c i a l m e th o d * b o o k s a p p e a r e d i n t h e l a t e 9 0 ‘ s a n d t h e tw o
161 M c M u r r y s 1 T he M e t h o d i n t h e R e c i t a t i o n i n 1 9 0 3 . In I 8 9 2 t h e s e men a n d t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e R a tio n a l H e r b a r t S o c i e t y , w h ic h a f t e r th e t u r n o f th e c e n tu r y becam e t h e N a t i o n a l S o c ie ty f o r t h e S c i e n t i f i c S tu d y o f E d u c a tio n . The H e r b a r t i a n honor in 1892.
s o c i e t y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n H e r b a r t 1s
T en y e a r s
N a tio n a l S o c ie ty f o r
th e
la te r,
h o w ev er,
it
becam e th e
S c i e n t i f i c S tu d y o f E d u c a tio n .
The H e r b a r t i a n p h i l o s o p h y w as c h a n g e d and new f e a t u r e s a d d e d in
c o n f o r m ity w i t h t h e n e e d s o f th e A m e ric an s c h o o l .
ev er,
even w ith th e s e m o d if ic a tio n s an d a d a p ta tio n s *
H e r b a r tia n sy s te m o f l e a r n in g c a tio n a l p ra c tic e s ap p eared w ith h is
In th e
th e
c o n tin u e d to d e te rm in e edu
U n i t e d S t a t e s u n t i l J o h n Dewey
i n d i g e n o u s A m eric an p h i l o s o p h y .
I.
JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERBART
H e r b a r t may w e l l s t a n d a s h ie ra rc h y
How
th e f i r s t
nam e i n t h a t
r e s p o n s ib le f o r p ro b le m -so lv in g in
th e U n ite d S ta te s .
It
is
ra th e r
stra n g e
e d u c a tio n in
t h a t a f o r m a l G er
man p h i l o s o p h e r c o u l d s o c h a n g e e d u c a t i o n a l t h o u g h t a n d p ra c tic e
i n a d e m o c rac y s o d i f f e r e n t fro m th e m onarchy un
d e r w h ic h he w r o te . H e r b a r t 1s l e a r n i n g
th e o ry .
H e rb a rt w as,
in a sen se,
H a r o ld R ugg, F o u n d a tio n s f o r A m e ric an E d u c a tio n (New Y o r k : W o r l d B o o k C o m p a n y , 1 9 ^ 7 ) > p* 5 ^ 2 .
162 a p h ilo s o p h e r o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o o l, b u t h is th e o r y w as h a i l e d a s a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e . 'P e d a g o g i k o f 1 8 0 6 ,
In
le a rn in g
h i s A llg e m ein
h i s m ain e d u c a t i o n a l t r e a t i s e ,
he p r e
s e n t e d a schem e f o r l e a r n i n g
w h ic h was a m a s t e r p i e c e o f
c o n stru c tio n .
la te r
H is f o l l o w e r s
o f le a rn in g and p re se n te d
it
as
fo rm a liz e d h is
* fiv e
ste p s*
th e o ry
in th e le a rn
in g p r o c e s s . H e rb a rt* s le a rn in g m o lo g y w h i c h ,
th e o ry r e s t s upon h i s e p i s t e -
a s has been
seen,
H is s y s te m w as f o r m a l in t h a t i t
is
in d u c tiv e in n a tu re .
e m p l o y e d m u ch s u b j e c t m a t
t e r a n d d e p e n d e d a g r e a t d e a l upon th e w as a s t e p in
a l sy ste m r e s t s
upon th e
p ro p o sitio n
th e e s s e n c e o f m e n ta l
p e n d upon th em .
It
is
th e
a c tiv ity
H e rb a rt* s e d u c a tio n th a t
re sp o n sib le
*p r e s e n t a t i o n s *
a n d a n y k n o w in g m u s t d e
i n t e r a c t i o n s and c o m b in a tio n s
o f t h e s e p r e s e n t a t i o n s w h ic h h e lp r e f i n e w h ic h a r e
but it
th e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .
The d o c t r i n e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n s *
are
in stru c to r,
k n o w le d g e a n d
f o r t h e fo rm s i n w h ic h c o n s c io u s n e s s
re a c ts . T hese v o r s te llu n g e n t h i n k i n g a s do t h e
h o ld th e
e le m e n ts in th e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s .
p e rie n c e b rin g s th e s e p r e s e n ta tio n s , p re te d ,
sam e i m p o r t a n c e i n
c o m p lex i d e a s ,
to
o r m o re f u l l y
Ex
in te r
t h e m in d f r o m t h e a p p e r c e p t i v e
m ass an d t h u s b e g in s t h e p r o c e s s o f k n o w le d g e.
T hrough
163 a p p e rc e p tio n
t h e k n o w in g p r o c e s s b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e *
s e n t a t i o n s fo rm t h e a p p e r c e p t iv e m a ss, tio n s
are g a th e re d a re
P re
hence w hat p re s e n ta
im p o rta n t;
T h e re a r e no i n b o r n i d e a s i n t h e a p p e r c e p t i v e m a ss, H e rb a rt sa id *
W ith L o c k e ,
H e r b a r t h e l d t h a t t h e m in d i s a
t a b u l a r a s a upon w h ic h e x p e rie n c e w r ite s m ass o f p r e s e n t a t i o n s w h ic h a r e a lr e a d y as th e b a s is f o r le a r n in g . scene,
fo r i f
e r m ust u s e
th e re i s
n a tu ra listic led g e *
in
sto ry *
to be p r a c tic a l le a r n in g ,
in le a rn in g :*
th e
th e
te a c h
e l i c i t k n o w le d g e .
H erb art in s is t e d
c o n c e p t o f e x p e rie n c e
The
t h e m in d s e r v e
How t h e t e a c h e r e n t e r s
th e se p r e s e n ta tio n s to
N a tu ra lis m
its
as
upon th e
t h e b a s i s o f know
He d e c l a r e d :
I d e a s s p r i n g f r o m tw o m a i n s o u r c e s , e x p e r i e n c e a n d so c ia l in te rc o u rs e . K n o w le d g e o f n a t u r e — i n c o m p l e t e a n d c ru d e — i s d e riv e d fro m th e fo rm e r, th e l a t t e r f u r n is h e s th e s e n tim e n ts e n t e r t a i n e d to w a rd o u r f o l l o w e r s , w h ic h , f a r fro m b e i n g p r a i s e w o r t h y , a r e on t h e c o n t r a r y o f t e n v ery re p re h e n s ib le * T o ^ i m p r o v e t h e s e i s a m o re u r g e n t t a s k ; b u t n e i t h e r o u g h t we t o n e g l e c t t h e k n o x v le d g e o f n a tu re . I f we d o , we may e x p e c t e r r o r , f a n t a s t i c a l n o tio n s , and e c c e n t r i c i t i e s o f ev ery d e s c r i p t io n .2 S in c e n a tu r e se n ta tio n , and th e n
is
t o p r o v i d e t h e m ain b o d y o f r e p r e
t h e p u rp o s e m u st re m a in t o s tu d y f i r s t
so c ie ty .
T he p r i m a r y t a s k o f e d u c a t i o n ,
p r e p a r a t i o n , w h ic h i s
th e g r e a t t a s k o f th e
n a tu re th en ,
is
in stru c to r.
John F r i e d r i c h H e rb a rt, O u tlin e s o f E d u c a tio n a l D o c t r i n e (New Y o r k : T h e M a c m i l l a n C om pany , 1 9 0 1 ) > p . 25*
164 The i n s t r u c t o r m u st a s s i s t t h e l e a r n e r b y p r o v i d i n g q u a te p r e p a r a tio n ,
w h i c h i s m ade p o s s i b l e i n
u a l th ro u g h an i n t r i c a t e
ade
each in d iv id
sy s te m o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n
la tio n
a c c o m p lis h e d by m eans o f a p p e r c e p tio n .
sta te s
th a t th e
and c o r r e
H erb art
s tu d e n t m ust be in tr o d u c e d to :
. . . tw o m a i n b r a n c h e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n — t h e h i s t o r i c a l and th e s c i e n t i f i c . T he f o r m e r e m b r a c e s n o t o n ly h i s t o r y p r o p e r , b u t la n g u a g e stu d y a s w e ll; th e l a t t e r i n c l u d e s b e s i d e s n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , m a th e m a tic s. 3 The e m p h a s i s u p o n n a t u r a l i s m p r o a c h was a d e p a r t u r e rie s.
tio n ,
th e H e rb a rtia n p ro ced u re
Bf i v e f o r m a l s t e p s . 11
n a m e ly , p r e p a r a t i o n ,
p re s e n ta tio n ,
s y s te m a tiz a tio n and a p p lic a tio n ,
T hese s te p s a sso c ia
fu rn is h e d th e b a s is
f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l m eth o d t h r o u g h o u t A m e ric a a t n in g o f th e
th e o
C h a r l e s De G-armo, a n d C h a r l e s
am ong o t h e r s ,
becam e s y s te m a t i z e d i n t o of le a rn in g ,
th e s o c ia l ap
fro m th e t r a d i t i o n a l l e a r n i n g
T hrough th e A m e ric a n s,
a n d F r a n k M c M u rry ,
even in
th e b e g in
tw e n tie th c e n tu ry .
P re p a ra tio n .
H e r b a r t 1s f i v e
sta g e s of le a rn in g
are
i n one se n se a v e r s io n o f e x tre m e ly fo rm a liz e d le a r n in g . H o w e v e r,
th e y a r e a b r e a k fro m f o r m a l l e a r n i n g
in
t h a t th e
i n d iv id u a l becom es th e c e n te r o f g r a v i t y .
th e sense How
e v e r , b o th te a c h e r and s u b je c t m a tte r p la y a ra ,th e r heavy
^
H e r b a r t, l o c .
c lt.
165 ro le .
But H e rb a rt f e l t
th a t p re p a rin g th e
r i g h t t h o u g h t s w o u ld l o g i c a l l y in g .
s tu d e n t w ith th e
i n s u r e m o re e f f e c t i v e
le a rn
He d i s c u s s e d t h i s v i e w p o i n t a s f o l l o w s : . . . o u t o f t h o u g h t s come f e e l i n g s , a n d f r o m th e m p r i n c i p l e s o f m odes o f a c t i o n . To t h a t e n d i n r e l a t i o n t o th e c h a in o f d e v e lo p m e n t, e a c h and e v e r y th in g th a t can be o f f e r e d to th e p u p il and f i n d a p la c e in h i s m i n d ; t o e n q u i r e how e a c h i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e w h o l e , how o n e p a r t m u s t f o l l o w a n o t h e r a n d a g a i n b e come a l i n k t o t h a t w h i c h s u c c e e d s — t h i s a p p l i e d t o th e tr e a tm e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s o f f e r s an i n f i n i t e num ber o f p r o b le m s .^ He i n s i s t e d
come t h e t a s k
th a t f i r s t
of p re p a rin g
in
th e
th e
le a rn in g
stu d e n t.
p r o c e s s m ust
T h is s t e p was b e s t
a c c o m p l i s h e d b y p r e p a r i n g h i s m in d w i t h t h e p r o p e r i d e a s * fro m th e a p p e r c e p t iv e m a ss. i n r e c e i v i n g new ite m s i n f o u n d .e d t h i s
T hese i d e a s w ere l a t e r
t h e k n o w in g p r o c e s s .
H erb art
t h e o r y on p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h s t a t e
t h a t d a t a a r e d e r i v e d from th e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e P r e p a r a t i o n d e p e n d s upon i n t e l l e c t u a l t o p r e p a r e t h e m in d f o r i t s m a n y -sid e d i n t e r e s t i s
u ltim a te p u rp o se,
th e o b lig a tio n
th e i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y tio n
to a id
race.
a c tiv ity .
Thus
a b a la n c e d ,.
o f e d u c a tio n .
T hrough
o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l m in d ,
in stru c
l e a d s t o w a r d t h e c o g n i z a n c e o f m any o b j e c t s .
To p r o
d u c e a b a la n c e d m ass o f i d e a s , be a llo w e d to
(L o n d o n :
no o b j e c t o r e f f o r t
assum e to o g r e a t I m p o rta n c e ,
sh o u ld
f o r a l l are
J o h a n n B’r i e d r i c h H e r b a r t , T h e S c i e n c e o f E d u c a t i o n (G eorge R o u t l e d g e a n d S o n s , L t d . , 1 9 2 4 / 7 p* 85*
166
e q u a te d .
In te re st
is
th e k e y n o te o f p r e p a r a t i o n .
T he t if o c o n d i t i o n s n o te
of a tte n tio n
th e c o n c e p t o f p r e p a r a t i o n i n
and e x p e c ta tio n key
th e H e rb a rtia n
th e o ry .
F irst
in te re s t
s t i m u l a t e d by t h e i n s t r u c t o r
t h e m i n d m u s t b e m ade a t t e n t i v e b y p e r s o n a l
c e p tiv e m ass m ust b e p u t i n t o
and th e n th e a p p e r
a p o s itio n of re a d in e ss or
e x p e c ta n c y f o r th e n o v e l p r e s e n t a t i o n . sta g e
is
set fo r
and i t
to be re c e p tiv e
no e f f e c t i v e
l e a r n i n g may
behooves b o th th e i n s t r u c t o r and th e le a r n e r to th e
P re se n ta tio n .
s te p s to fo llo w . As h i s n e x t s t e p i n l e a r n i n g ,
d e v e lo p e d th e c o n c e p t o f p r e s e n t a t i o n . re fle c tio n
I n t h i s w ay t h e
th e o t h e r p h a s e s w h ic h l e a d t o t h e g o a l.
W ith o u t a d e q u a te p r e p a r a t i o n fo llo w ,
le a rn in g
H erb art
C o n c e n tra tio n and
are n e c e ssa ry f o r t h is phase in
le a rn in g .
He
w ro te : S in c e i n s t r u c t i o n b u i l d s on t h e p u p i l * s e x p e r i e n c e , we s h a l l d e a l w i t h t h a t f o r m o f s y n t h e s i s w h i c h i n i t i a t e s o r c o p ie s e x p e rie n c e * We may nam e I t p u r e l y p r e s e n t a t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n : The te r m s y n t h e t i c , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , w i l l h e n c e f o r t h b e r e s e r v e d f o r t h a t form o f i n s t r u c t i o n w h ic h p e r c e i v e s c l e a r l y th e " p r o c e s s o f b u i l d i n g a w h o le o u t o f p a r t s p r e s e n t e d s i n g l y b e f o r e h a n d .^ H erb art s a id th a t p re s e n ta tio n m eans o f o u r s e n s e s . by th e f i v e
The o b j e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e w e r e c u l l e d
se n se s and b ro u g h t to th e
^ H e rb a rt,
o c c u rre d th ro u g h th e
a p p e r c e p tiv e m ass,
O u tlin e s o f E d u c a tio n a l D o c trin e , p. 101.
167 th e re
to w a it u n t i l n e e d e d .
te r.
For H erb art i t
L e a rn in g i s
a n i n d i v i d u a l m at
w a s b o t h an a n a l y t i c a l a n d a s y n t h e t i c
process* T h e m i n d m o v es a n a l y t i c a l l y and c l a s s i f i e s
th e p r e s e n ta tio n s .
v e rs im ilitu d e ,
is
The s y n t h e t i c a l
H e rb a rt,
d ep en d s upon th e
th ro u g h
e x p e rie n c e *
in g a re
p a rts
is
th en
to
P re se n ta tio n s
t h e m in d t h r o u g h t h i s
been p ro p e rly b r ie f e d ,
m ust fo llo w .
W ith o u t i t w h ic h ,
i.e .,
a rb itra ry
is
le a rn in g doc
A f t e r t h e m in d h a s
senses,
some j u x t a p o s i t i o n
T h is p ro p e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f th e
th e re
d u a lity ,
p re p a re d and th e n p re s e n te d
o b je c ts of th e
a p p e r c e p tiv e m ass i s
a re co r
r e a d y f o r th e n e x t ste p *
th e concept o f a s s o c ia tio n .
w ith th e r i g h t
a c c o rd in g to
e le m e n ts o f se n se d a t a g iv e n
A s s o c ia tio n * T h ird in t h i s trin e
th e a n a l y t i c a l
asp ect o f le a rn in g ,
o f t h e sam e p r o c e s s .
m in d i s
of
a s w e ll a s
B o th a n a l y t i c a l and s y n t h e t i c a l l e a r n
fo rm ed a n d g iv e n
and th e
se p a ra te s
C o m p le te n e ss,
an in h e r e n t f e a t u r e
p ro cess.
re c tly
In th a t i t
id e a s in th e
n e c e s s a r y f o r c l e a r c o n c e p tio n s* . o n ly
chaos.
A s so c ia tio n i s
a p ro cess,
as H e rb a rt p o in te d o u t:
. . . c o n s i s t s i n p o i n t i n g o u t t h e m ain fa„ cts o f a g iv e n w h o le , th e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e p a r t s , t h e i r c o n n e c tio n s and t h e i r m o v a b ility . . . . B e g in n in g f i r s t w i t h t h e o b j e c t s , we d e r i v e f r o m th e m t h e p r e d i c a t e b y s e a r c h i n g o u t t h e i r a t t r i b u t e s ; t h i s d o n e , we m u s t i n t u r n m ak e t h e p r e d i c a t e o u r s t a r t i n g - p o i n t , a n d
168
c la ss ify
th e
o b je c ts u n d e r th e h ead s th u s o b ta in e d . ^
T h is a s s o c ia tio n i s b o th an i n t e r n a l and an e x te r n a l fu n c tio n .
Id eas are
p e rc e p tiv e m ass, o f th e p a tte r n
to be c le a r ly
and in
th e id e a s
In h eren t in
a s s o c ia te d In th e ap th e m se lv e s
th e t o t a l i t y
e a c h m ust be seen and d e te rm in e d .
The a s s o c i a t i v e
f u n c t i o n f u r t h e r d e p e n d s a g r e a t d e a l upon
th e
o ffered .
in stru c tio n
The i n s t r u c t o r p r e s e n t s t h e th e
stu d e n t g ra s p s
i d e a s fro m w ith o u t and
th e m f r o m w i t h i n
in
B ecause he h as been p ro p e rly p re p a re d , sim ila te
th e p r e s e n ta tio n s an d see
tio n s h ip . in g .
th e le a r n e r can a s
th e m i n a c a u s a l r e l a
P r e s e n ta tio n a lo n e does n o t
I t m ust be p la c e d i n a s t a t e
a to ta l re a c tio n .
su ffic e
fo r le a rn
o f b a la n c e .
Im b a la n c e
o r im p ro p e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p r e s e n t a t i o n s m e re ly c a u s e s co n fu sio n
in
th in k in g .
A c c o rd in g to H e r b a r t, m a te ria ls fo r
in stru c tio n ,
th e
b u t sc ie n c e le a rn e d
sc ie n c e , v i z . , c la s s if ic a tio n
o f o b je c ts ,
f o r le a rn in g .
The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s
b ro u g h t to
a tte n tio n
th e
s c ie n c e s c o n ta in th e b a s ic
of a ll
is
ju s t as
in su ffic ie n t
s c ie n c e s m ust be
o f th e le a r n e r .
That i s
m ust b e e m p h a s iz e d .
to
say,
u n ity ,
not d iv e rs ity ,
o f th e
s c ie n c e s can be p r e s e n te d to th e l e a r n e r th ro u g h th e
use of
su ch te rm s as
1F o r m s , '
6 I b i d . , p. 11*K
'S y m b o ls '
T h is h o m o g e n e ity
and 'T h in g s .1
169 The p u r p o s e o f t h e s e te r m s i s c ia tiv e fu n c tio n . sense o b je c ts
Form ,
in h e re n t p ro p e rty of a l l
F ro m t h e
’ fo rm *
se n t,
a sso c ia tio n .
in h e re n t,
a n d fro m
a s so c ia tio n is
a b le
From t h e 't h i n g s '
and a s id e a s th e y
' f o i ’m1 o f o b j e c t s
x v h ich a r e v i s i b l y p r e
to fu n c tio n p ro p e rly .
W ith o u t c o g n iz a n c e o f o b j e c t s i n r e l a t i o n tu re
o r w ith o u t c o n tr a s t
c o u ld n o t be p o s s i b l e . p ro p er c o g n itio n .
id e a of
T h in g s th e m s e lv e s
a r e th e o u tw a rd m a n i f e s ta t io n o f o b j e c t s , g i v e m e a n in g t o
le n d s
concept th e
and o p p o s ite s o f th in g s a r i s e s .
w h ic h i s
th e a s s o
and d e te rm in e d th ro u g h a b s tr a c tio n ,
o rd e r to a s s o c ia tio n . id e n tity
b e in g th e
to a s s i s t
of in h e re n t p r o p e r tie s ,
to
stru c
k n o w le d g e
T hus sy m b o ls a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r
S y m b o ls p r e s e n t ,
an in s tr u m e n t w h ereby a s s o c i a t i o n
i n th e fo rm o f la n g u a g e ,
o f id e a s can
ta k e p la c e .
I n t h e H e r b a r t i a n c o n c e p t t h e m ain p u r p o s e o f l a n g u a g e i s to
a ssist
ju n c ts of
th e a s s o c ia tiv e 'F o r m s , *
ta k e s p la c e in f o r th e
fu n c tio n .
'T h i n g s ,'
th e le a rn in g
s y s te m a tiz in g
a n d 'S y m b o ls ,'
th re e ad
a sso c ia tio n
p r o c e s s a n d p r e p a r e s t h e way
o fid e a s.
B y ste m a t1z a t i o n . p ro ced u re o f le a rn in g
Bo, w i t h t h e
is
The f o u r t h s t e p i n
th is
th a t o f s y s te m a tiz a tio n .
fo rm al F irst
t h e m in d w a s p r e p a r e d b y a f a v o r a b l e g r o u p o f a p p e r c e p t i v e id e a s,
th e n ,
b y t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m ore i d e a s .
T he t h i r d
s t e p was t h e c o g n iz a n c e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f i d e a s ,
th e ir
in h e re n t p r o p e r tie s and t h e i r n ic h e schem e.
The f o u r t h s t e p ,
in th e H e r b a r tia n
th e s y s te m a tic
k n o w le d g e , r e l i e s upon r e p e t i t i o n .
arra n g em e n t o f
H erb art sa id :
Now i t b e c o m e s t h e b u s i n e s s o f r e p e t i t i o n i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e t o g a t h e r t o g e t h e r i n t o a s m a l l e r com pass w hat h as b een ex p an d ed , a rra n g e d , and l a s t l y , i s o f te n o f u s e f o r m a k i n g t h e i n s t r u c t i o n m o re c o m p l e t e a n d f o r o r d e r in g th e d i f f i c u l t and th e c o m p a ra tiv e ly e asy . H ere t h e m odes o f p r e s e n t a t i o n i t s e l f c h a n g e t o m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a m o re a d v a n c e d g r a d e o f w o r k . 7 R e p e t it i o n i s a k e y n o te o f id e a s a re
sy s te m a tiz a tio n .
c o r r e l a t e d a n d c l a s s i f i e d m o re e a s i l y
p r e s e n t e d i n s e q u e n c e tim e a f t e r t im e . d ire c tly
if
R e p e titio n
a f t e r p r e s e n t a t i o n m ust a lw a y s be p r e s e n t .
T he th e y a re even T he ma
t e r i a l o f i n s t r u c t i o n m u s t b e s y s t e m a t i z e d so a s t o g i v e c o h e r e n c e a n d m e a n in g . A rra n g e d in s e r i a l fo rm a n d a c c o r d in g to c l a s s i f i c a tio n ,
t h e i d e a s i n t h e a p p e r c e p t i v e m a s s a r e now a c o n
trib u tin g
f a c t o r in
te m a tiz a tio n , p la c e .
p ro cess.
th e n e x t sta g e o f le a rn in g
W ith o u t s y s c o u ld n o t ta k e
B u t w i t h i d e a s now s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c a t e g o r i z e d a n d
p ig e o n h o le d ,
th e n ex t ste p i s
A p p lic a tio n . le a rn in g trin e
th e l e a r n in g
in o rd e r.
The c o n c l u d in g
p r o c e s s w as a p p l i c a t i o n .
s te p in th e a c tu a l In th e H e rb a rtia n doc
t h i s was t h e c ro w n in g a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h e l e a r n i n g
7 I b i d . , p. 2 1 .
1?1 p ro cess.
H erb art b e lie v e d th a t a l l le a rn in g
p u rp o se o f m o ra lity .
The i n f l u e n c e
sc h o o l o f p h ilo so p h y i s
e v id e n t
w as f o r t h e
o f th e n e o -K a n tia n
in t h i s b e l i e f .
T h r o u g h a b a l a n c e d a n d m a n y - s i d e d a p p e r c e p t i v e m ass th e le a r n e r i s b e h a v io r. th e
read y f o r
c h a r a c t e r fo rm a tio n an d h ig h m o ral
The s u b j e c t m a t t e r ,
stu d e n t,
m u st s t a n d on i t s
a fte r
it
h as been le a r n e d by
own i n h e r e n t v a l u e s .
If
th e
i n s t r u c t o r a n d t h e l e a r n e r w e r e p r o p e r l y g e a r e d f o r m ora.1ity ,
i t w ill not f a il.
H erb art s ta te s :
The p r i n c i p l e s b e c o m e d e f l e c t e d j u s t i n t h e y e a r s w hen t h e p h y s i c a l s i d e o f t h e m an a n d t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s come t o t h e f o r e w i t h i r r e s i s t a b l e c l a i m s . W hat w i l l now p r o t e c t t h e t o i l s o m e w o r k o f e d u c a t i o n ? W hat o u g h t to p r o t e c t i t ? W hat i f n o t i t s i n n e r r i g h t n e s s , th e t r u t h o f c o n v ic tio n s , th e c le a r n e s s and b r e a d th o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l g a z e , i f n o t th e f e e l i n g of m a ste ry o v e r men a n d o p i n i o n , a n d t h e r e s p o n s i v e I n w a r d g r a t i tu d e f o r t h a t one w h ic h h as r e n d e r e d s u c h an a s c e n d ency p o s s ib le .® P ro b le m - s o I v 1ng a n d a iy p e r c e p tl o n . it
m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t H e r b a r t 1s
b itra rily
In re c a p itu la tio n ,
'f i v e
f o r m a l i z e d b y t h e A m erican H e r b a r t i a n s ,
M cM urry s , ' C h a r l e s De G-armo a n d o t h e r s .
in
ju s t due,
its fu lle s t
he p r e s e n te d i t
sense,
w ere a r th e
H e rb art h im se lf d id
n o t so d e s i g n a t e o r d e m a r c a te h i s l e a r n i n g h im h i s
ste p s'
th e o ry .
as a p ro cess,
b u t a s an i n t e r a c t i o n ,
p erh ap s n ot
n o n e th e le ss .
g H e rb a rt,
To g i v e
The S c i e n c e o f E d u c a t i o n , p .
286.
172 H o w ev er,
In H e rb a rt* s
th eo ry
o f le a rn in g
t o o m u ch
d e p e n d e d on t h e t e a c h e r .
I t w a s a n o v e r - e l a b o r a t e and.
a w k w a rd s y s t e m , b u t s t i l l
i t was a n a d v a n c e o v e r t h e t h i n k
in g o f h is
tim e .
The w h o le f u n c t i o n
o f l e a r n i n g w as w rap p ed
up i n m o r a l i t y a s Im posed fro m w ith o u t* w as a r b i t r a r y
an d su p e rim p o se d .
s o l v i n g a im s a t a c t i v i t y
In
As s u c h t h e
c o n tra s t,
th eo ry
p ro b le m
fro m w i t h i n .
T he w h o l e a im o f H e r b a r t 1s d o c t r i n e w a s s u b m e r g e d i n m o ra lity .
T he m a n y - s i d e d I n t e r e s t w a s f a l s e l y
th a t
i t .w a s n o t b a s e d o n t h e
ty p e
ju d g e d b e s t by th e t e a c h e r .
p o s ite d in
l e a r n e r ’ s i n t e r e s t b u t on t h a t As s u c h i t
is
a t odds
w ith p r o b le m - s o lv in g fro m th e lo w e s t th ro u g h t h e h i g h e s t le v e ls o f e d u c a tio n . E ven w i t h I t s
o b v io u s
tem o f l e a r n i n g w as a c r u d e so lv in g
in
th a t
im p e rfe c tio n s, p ro to ty p e
o f m odern p ro b le m
i t beg an w ith th e raw d a ta o f e x p e rie n c e
d e r iv e d fro m th e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s a n d th e th en tr a n s m itte d th e s e te a c h e r,
in to
H e r b a r t 1s s y s
d a ta ,
s o c ia l scene.
It
under th e rig id , a e g is o f th e
a s y s te m a tiz e d g roup o f id e a s f o r a p p lic a tio n
to w a rd s m o r a l it y . th e p ro b le m -so lv in g
It
d id
serv e a s
th e ro u g h b e g in n in g s o f
t e c h n i q u e i n A m e ric an e d u c a t i o n . II.
THE HERBARTIANS
The d o c t r i n e o f l e a r n i n g f o r m u la te d an d e s p o u s e d by Jo h a n n F r i e d r i c h H e r b a r t w as i n t r o d u c e d to t h i s c o u n tr y by
173 som e n o t a b l e A m e r i c a n e d u c a t o r s *
T h e M cM urry b r o t h e r s *
F r a n k N . , a n d C h a r l e s A. M cM urry* a n d C h a r l e s De Grarmo b r o u g h t t h e H e r b a r t i a n d o c t r i n e b a c k to A m e ric a a f t e r s tu d ie s a t th e U n iv e rs ity g o g i c a l sy s te m
o f J e n a i n G-ermany.
th e ir
T he p e d a
a d v o c a te d b y H e r b a r t h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d by
T u i s k o n Z i l l e r a n d W i l l i a m R e in *
tw o o f H e r b a r t 1s d i s c i p l e s .
The men who d e v e l o p e d H e r b a r t i a n ! s m
in
th e U n ite d
S t a t e s x-fere n o t p s y c h o l o g i s t s b u t t e a c h e r s who p r a c t i c e d t h e i r p ro fe s s io n and w ro te a b o u t it* p e l th ro u g h o u t th e m o v em en t*
c o u n t r y a n d sw ayed t h e w h o le e d u c a t i o n a l
The n ew m e t h o d o f i n s t r u c t i o n
th e p u b lic a tio n o f y earb o o k s* p lic a tio n
T hey s p r e a d t h e g o s
in
and p r a c t i c a l ap
th e c la ss ro o m .
H e rb a rtla n lsm d e v e lo p th e
te x tb o o k s,
g a in e d im p e tu s by
i n A m e ric a *
id e a th a t le a rn in g
E ach w r i t e r
a tte m p te d to
o c c u rs m ost e f f e c t i v e l y
th r o u g h t h e f a c i n g o f a c t u a l p ro b lem s i n
th e
c la ss ro o m ,
b y o v e rc o m in g th e m t h r o u g h i n d i v i d u a l a c t i v i t y *
and
The A m e ri
can e n th u s ia s ts gave H e rb a rtf s th e o r ie s a f la v o r o f t h e i r own b y i n j e c t i n g a c tiv ity . m o ra lity
in to
t h e A m e ric a n s c h o o l s a new c o n c e p t o f
They d i d n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y g e a r t h i s as such.
a c tiv ity
H e r b a r t h a d sh o w n t h e m a m o re
to
s c ie n tific
w ay t o l e a r n .
T he H e r b a r t i a n s w e r e n o t s c i e n t i s t s ;
w ere p r a c t i c a l
te a c h e rs.
th e y
T h e y r e c o g n i z e d i n H e r b a r t 1s t h e o r y a b e t t e r m e t h o d
17^ of le a rn in g .
The o l d t r a d i t i o n a l m eth o d , I n t h a t i t w as a t
m ost tim e s s u p e r im p o s itio n , T hey d e s i r e d m o re a c t i v i t y th e le a rn in g
p ro cess.
l a c k e d s o m e t h i n g f o r t h e s e m en. on th e p a r t o f
th e i n d i v i d u a l i n
One o f t h e m w r o t e :
T h ro u g h o u t c h i l d l i f e e a c h h o p e fu l s h o u ld be g a in in g in th e pow er o f i n t e l l i g e n t s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n w ith f r e q u e n t o p p o r tu n ity and en co u rag em en t to s e l f - d i r e c t i o n . T h is b o l d th e o r y o f s e l f - a c t i v i t y a n d s e l f - d i r e c t i o n i n th e le a r n in g p ro c e s s o f c h ild r e n has been v ig o ro u s ly a d v o c a te d fro m age t o a g e . ' Hew m e t h o d s . s id e re d by h is to r ia n s
The H e r b a r t i a n s i n A m e ric a a r e as re sp o n sib le fo r
new m e th o d s f o r t e a c h i n g
h isto ry
con
th e in tr o d u c tio n o f
and l i t e r a t u r e .
These i n
n o v a tio n s m o d ifie d th e th e n e x i s t e n t p ro c e d u re and s e rv e still
a s a b a s i s o f m odern m e th o d .
th eo ry as a r a lly in g
p o in t,
W ith th e
H e rb a rtia n
t h e A m e ric a n s s p r e a d t h e doc
t r i n e w h ic h a n te d a t e s p ro b le m -s o lv in g . Now t h e i n d i v i d u a l , in to
p ro m in e n c e , w i t h th e
as th e f i r s t
p re re q u is ite
a s a th in k in g
u n i t , w as b ro u g h t
d o c trin e o f i n t e r e s t b ro u g h t out to good in s tr u c tio n .
H i s t o r y w as
in tro d u c e d in to
th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls ,
w ere i n s t i t u t e d
i n t h e h i g h s c h o o l t h r o u g h t h i s new m e t h o d
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g f o r i t s It
an d new er c u r r i c u l a
day.
seem s a p p a r e n t t h a t an y c h a n g e i n t h e c o n tin u u m
9 C h a r l e s A. M c M u rry , C o n f l i c t i n g P r i n c i p l e s i n T e a c h i n g (B o sto n :
H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n C o m p an y , 191*0 > p* 8 2 .
175 o f t e a c h i n g w o u ld c h a n g e t h e w h o le o f i t . be d is tu r b e d w ith th e r e s t
re m a in in g a s th e y w e re .
m e th o d s c h a n g e d th e a im s a n d c u r r i c u l u m s . p ro b le m -so lv in g i s ual is
No o n e f a c e t c a n
in d iv id u a l a c tiv ity
The new
The e s s e n c e o f
i n w h ic h th e i n d i v i d
f a c e d w i t h t h e o v e r c o m i n g o f h i s own d i f f i c u l t i e s .
Thus f o r th e f i r s t
tim e i n A m e ric an h i s t o r y ,
s u b j e c t m a t t e r t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l was n o t e d . gan i t s
th e
t r e n d fro m
T he s c h o o l b e
move t o w a r d s c h i l d - c e n t e r e d n e s s . The H e r b a r t i a n s l a i d
th e fo u n d a tio n s f o r
s u c h m odern
v ie w s a s th e f o llo w in g a s v o ic e d by a v ig o r o u s a d v o c a te o f p ro b le m -so lv in g : One g o o d way t o f o r m u l a t e v a l u a b l e s c h o o l p r o b l e m s i s to f a c e th e p ro b le m s w h ic h p e o p le f o r m u l a t e f o r th e m se lv e s* T he p u p i l s 1 m i n d s a r e b r i s t l i n g w i t h i n te lle c tu a l d iffic u ltie s .. T h in k in g on t h e t e a c h e r ^ p ro b le m i s o f t e n s u p e r f i c i a l a n d a r t i f i c i a l . T h in k in g o n t h e p u p i l 1s own u r g e n t p r o b l e m i s r e a l , g e n u i n e , s i n c e r e , a n d l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n a c t i o n when t h e s o l u t i o n i s r e a c h e d . 10 It
was t h e m e th o d o f H e r b a r t i a n i s m ,
m o d ifie d to f i t w h ic h i s it
a d a p te d and
th e d y n a m ic c o n d i t i o n s o b t a i n i n g
i n A m e ric a,
in p a r t r e s p o n s ib le f o r p ro b le m -so lv in g .
H ow ever,
w a s n o t u n t i l m any y e a r s a f t e r H e r b a r t 1s d e a t h t h a t a n y
g r e a t d e v elo p m e n t o c c u r r e d .
E m p ir ic a l p sy c h o lo g y and th e
th o u g h t o f e d u c a tio n a s a s c ie n c e p ra c tic a l
cam e t o A m e r i c a t h r o u g h
t e a c h e r s who h a d g o n e t o Grermany t o
le a rn
th e
^ C l a u d e C. C r a w f o r d , How To T e a c h ( L o s A n g e l e s : S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a S c h o o l B o o k D e p o s i t o r y , 1 9 3 8 )> P* 2 0 1 .
176 d e e p e r i m p l i c a ti o n s o f p sy c h o lo g y f o r te a c h in g . th e s e p io n e e rs th e g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c w as in tr o d u c e d ,
T hrough
stu d y o f e d u c a tio n
d u r i n g a p e r i o d betx*reen 1 8 8 0 a n d 1 9 0 1 , i n
to th e U n ite d S ta te s . III.
EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE
B e c a u s e t h e new m e t h o d i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e H e r b a r t i a n s w as e m p i r i c a l l y b a s e d and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y g ro u n d e d ,
it
needed a s c ie n tif ic
T he man
w as on th e
a d v o c a te
scene fo r t h is
to advance
d u ty .
th e
cause.
A c co rd in g to
w o r k o f E d w a r d L ee T h o r n d i k e w a s g r e a t l y d ire c tin g
its
B u rto n ^ l th e
in stru m e n ta l in
s tr e a m o f e d u c a t i o n a l th o u g h t fo llo x tfin g th e
i n i t i a l H e r b a r tia n im p e tu s. The w o r k o f t h e H e r b a r t i a n s b e g a n a p p e a r i n g i n I 8 8 9 a n d o f f e r e d e x p e r im e n ta l v a l i d a t i o n f o r t h e n ew er m eth o d s. T h o rn d ik e ,
th ro u g h Jam es'
r e n t o f h i s th o u g h t in to so lv in g r e l a te d flu e n c e
to
in flu e n c e ,
d ire c te d
t h e m ain c u r
p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s o f p ro b le m
'p u r e l y 1 p s y c h o lo g ic a l p h a se s .
o f T h o r n d ik e 's p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p ro a c h i s i n
to d a y a s w i t n e s s e d by th e
The i n e v id e n c e
fo llo x tfin g q u o t a t i o n : *
. . . h i s c o n tr ib u tio n to p ro b le m -so lv in g i s o f th e g r e a t e s t v a lu e and h a s a f f e c t e d fu n d a m e n ta lly th e th in k in g and w r itin g o f ev ery p e d a g o g ic a l a u th o r . . . . c u r r e n t l y t h e i s s u a n c e o f p ro b le m m a n u a ls o r e x e r c i s e
11
W i l l i a m B u r t o n , “ T he P r o b l e m - S o l v i n g T e c h n i q u e — I t s A p p e a ra n c e a n d D e v e lo p m e n t i n A m e ric a n T e x t s on G -eneral M e t h o d , ” E d u c a t i o n a l M e t h o d , XIV: P a r t I I , 248-53 *
177 b o o k s t o a c c o m p a n y t e x t s may b e t r a c e d t o P sy c h o lo g ic a l b a s i s . T h o rn d ik e
s tr e s s e d th e
w ith th e a r t i f i c i a l i t y
I n a n o t h e r p i o n e e r w o rk x
le a rn in g
in te rm s o f r e f l e c t i v e
a c tiv ity
and th e l ik e .
th in k in g ,
show s t h i s b i a s :
an a c tiv e
it
p r o c e s s a n d on t h e
he d i s c u s s e d
in stin c t,
m o to r
H is t r e a t m e n t o f
d e fin ite ly
p o s its le a rn in g as
sam e l e v e l w i t h p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
T h o r n d i k e * s t h o u g h t t h u s p a r a l l e l s Dewey* s . th e o rie s o f le a rn in g
of tra -
L e a r n in g was b a s e d f i r s t a n d l a s t
on s i m i l a r p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s . th in k in g
e a r l i e s t te x ts-^ 3
im p o rta n c e o f th e p ro b le m -s o lv in g
a p p ro a c h and c o n t r a s t e d i t d itio n a l te a c h in g .
In one o f h i s
T h o r n d i k e . * 1-^
are
d is tin c tiv e
H o w ev er, h i s
enough to be f a m i l i a r
la n d m a rk s to a l l e d u c a t o r s a s t y p i c a l o f T h o rn d ik e and none o th e r.
H is w ork s e r v e d a s b a s i c t e x t m a t e r i a l i n n o rm al
sc h o o ls
a n d t e a c h e r s c o l l e g e s i n A m e ric a , f o r t h e f i r s t
decad es o f th e
tw e n tie th c e n tu ry .
T h o r n d i k e *s t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g . e a rly
in h is w ritin g s
12
Y ork: Y ork: PP*
two
I b id . , p.
th a t le a rn in g
T h o rn d ik e d e c l a r e d
ta k e s p la c e th ro u g h a
250.
E d w a r d L e e T h o r n d i k e , P r i n c i p l e s o f T e a c h i n g (New A. C . S e i l e r , 1 9 0 6 ) , 293 PP* ili , E d w a r d L e e T h o r n d i k e , E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y (New T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 1 0 ) , 2A8
178
p ro cess of th e o ry .
s tim u lu s a n d re s p o n se w h ic h he c a l l e d
T h is c o n c e p t h o ld s t h a t e x p e rie n c e
is
t h e S -R
a stim u lu s
a n d t h a t t h r o u g h m an’ s n e u r a l m ec h an ism c e r t a i n r e s p o n s e s a r e m ade i n r e p l y . th e
He h e l d t h a t m an c o m e s t o "know t h r o u g h
c o n n e c tio n s fo rm ed by th e f u n c tio n in g
in tro d u c e s t h is
concept in
o f t h e m in d .
He
t h e f o l l o w i n g m an n er:
. . . t h e o r i g i n a l t e n d e n c i e s o f man a s a s p e c i e s w ere l i s t e d and d e s c r i b e d . I t w a s sh o w n t h a t t h e s e c o n s t i t u t e a n en o rm o u s f u n d o f c o n n e c t i o n s o r b o n d s o f v a r y in g d e g r e e s o f d i r e c t n e s s a n d s t r e n g t h b e tw e e n th e s i t u a t i o n s f u r n is h e d by p h y s ic a l f o r c e s , p l a n t s , a n i m a l s a n d t h e b e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r men a n d t h e r e s p o n s e s o f w h i c h t h e human c r e a t u r e i s c a p a b l e . 3-5 F o r T h o rn d ik e l e a r n i n g
is
im p lic a tio n s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g The e s s e n c e o f
th e
in a n a tu r a lis tic s tim u li from th e d iv id u a l,
if
c o n n e c tin g . c a n be se e n i n
T h o rn d ik e a n l e a r n i n g m e ta p h y s ic s.
th is
situ a tio n
e x t e r n a l w o rld a n d r e s p o n s e fro m
T h is th e o r y o f l e a r n i n g
in h e re s
is
th e i n
b r i n g s f o r t h k n o w le d g e . g rounded in
th a t th e n e u ra l phase
th e f o c a l p o in t o f le a r n in g .
th e o ry .
The i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n
p ro p e rly c o n tro lle d ,
e p is te m o lo g y i n
Many o f t h e
a m e c h a n istic
of th e b r a i n
becom es
T h o rn d ik e d e m o n s tr a te s t h i s
m e c h a n i s t i c v i e w p o in t by h i s b o n d t h e o r y .
He s t a t e s :
The b o n d s l e a d n o t o n l y fro m e x t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n s - f a , c t s o u t s i d e , t h e m an— t o r e s p o n s e i n h i m , a n d f r o m s i t u a t i o n s i n h im t o a c t s b y w h i c h he c h a n g e s o u t s i d e n a t u r e , b u t a l s o fro m one c o n d i t i o n o r f a c t o r e v e n t
15 (New Y o r k :
E dw ard L ee T h o r n d ik e , The P s y c h o lo g y o f L e a r n in g C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y , 1913)> I I , 1 .
179 I n h im t o a n o t h e r a n d s o on i n a l o n g s e r i e s . Of t h e c o n n e c t i o n s t o b e s t u d i e d i n men* s l e a r n i n g a n e n o r m o u s m a j o r i t y b e g i n a n d e n d w i t h some s t a t e o f a f f a i r s w i t h t h e m a n ' s own b r a i n — a r e b o n d s b e t w e e n o n e m e n t a l f a c t and a n o th e r. N a tu ra lis m p la n a tio n
in le a rn in g ..
of le a rn in g ,
w h ile
T h o r n d ik e 's m e c h a n i s t i c e x
I n some d i s r e p u t e
to d a y ,
is
s till
d isc e rn ib le
i n many o f t h e t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g l e a r n
in g .
T h o r n d i k e h a s e m e n d e d m uch o f h i s e a r l i e r t h e o r y .
T h e s e e m e n d a tio n s a r e n o t I n t h e d o m ain o f t h i s tio n .
in v e s tig a
O n ly t h e p h a s e r e l e v a n t t o p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
H ow ever,
i t w as p r i m a r i l y
t h e o u tw o rn b e l i e f s
Is
tre a te d .
t h r o u g h T h o r n d ik e 's e f f o r t s
o f m e n ta l d is c ip lin e
t r a i n i n g w ere d i s m i s s e d fro m
th a t
and tr a n s f e r of
e d u c a tio n a l th in k in g .
I t was
h i s v ig o ro u s ad v o cacy o f p sy c h o lo g y a s a b a s i s f o r l e a r n in g t h a t h e lp e d b r in g p ro b le m -s o lv in g
i n t o w id e a c c e p t a n c e .
T h o r n d i k e 's e m p h a s is on t h e n a t u r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f le a rn in g
le ft
so lv in g a ls o
a g r e a t i m p r e s s on p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g . is
d e p en d e n t upon th e n a t u r a l i s t i c
P ro b le m
ap p ro ach .
T h o r n d i k e 's p r i n c i p l e s h a v e w id e a p p l i c a t i o n f o r g o o d sc h o o lro o m m eth o d to d a y .
H is p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s r e g a r d
in g
s tre n g th e n e d by v a s t e x p e rim e n ta
th e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s ,
tio n ,
h a v e a u g m e n te d , t h e Out o f h i s
s t a t u s o f m odern p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
e m p i r i c a l p s y c h o l o g y h a v e come m e t h o d s
I b i d . , p. 55
180
b a s e d on n a t u r a l i s t i c le a rn in g
v ie w s*
T h ese d e v i c e s a n d m eth o d s i n
h a v e becom e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
n o tio n o f e n c o u rag in g le a r n in g by s c i e n t i f i c ro u n d in g l i f e p sy c h o lo g y .
p ro b lem s h a s a l s o
The
endeavour su r
r e c e i v e d im p e tu s fro m h i s
T h ro u g h o u t T h o r n d ik e * s w ork t h e
e m p h a sis i s
on so u n d t h i n k i n g a n d r e f l e c t i o n b a s e d on h i s b o n d th e o ry * He s t a t e d : . I n m u c h o f hum an b e h a v i o r e s p e c i a l l y i n p u r p o s i v e th in k in g and p ro b le m -so lv in g , th e re i s c o o p e ra tiv e ac t i o n o f m any c o n n e c t i o n s . U n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f some m e n t a l s e t , many t e n d e n c i e s s t a r t w o r k i n g ; some o f t h e r e s p o n s e s p r o d u c e d a r e d i s c a r d e d a l t o g e t h e r ; some a r e p u t a s i d e t o g i v e i n f l u e n c e l a t e r ; some a r e u s e d t o g e t h e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e n e x t s t e p . ^-7 T h is e q u a tio n o f p u rp o s iv e so lv in g g iv e s a c le a r in d ic a tio n m o lo g y .
o f T h o rn d ik e ’ s e p i s t e -
F o r T h o r n d i k e a s f o r D ew ey,
so lv in g . in
t h in k in g a n d p ro b lem
le a rn in g
is
p ro b lem
D ew ey’ s t h e o r y o f th e p r o c e s s i n v o lv e d d i f f e r s
some r e s p e c t s f r o m t h e
but e s s e n tia lly
T h o rn d ik e a n ad v o cacy o f b o n d s,
p ro b le m -so lv in g
i s b a s ic to b o t h l e a r n in g
th e o rie s. T h e b o n d t h e o r y a n d -p ro b le m - s o l v i n g *
E d w a r d L ee
T h o r n d i k e ’ s i n g e n i o u s S -R t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g m a r k s a n re p o c h i n
th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l d ev elo p m e n t o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g .
H e rb a rt had a tte m p te d to
17
ground i t
s c ie n tific a lly ,
but i t
E d w a r d L e e T h o r n d i k e , Human L e a r n i n g : (Hew Y o r k : T h e C e n t u r y C o m p an y, 1933-)* P* 1 ^ 7 *
181
w a s T h o r n d i k e who a c t u a l l y n o t p sy c h o lo g is ts .
d i d so*
As t e a c h e r s
s o lv in g w as p r a g m a tic .
its
c rite rio n .
th e ir in te re s t
in p ro b le m -
W o u ld i t w o r k i n t h e c l a s s - r o o m
was th e p rim a ry q u e s t i o n . p ir ic a l v a lid a tio n .
The H e r b a r t i a n s w ere
When i t
d id ,
t h e y s o u g h t no em
T he c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e
They j u s t i f i e d
its
c o n c e p t was
c o n tin u in g
usage in i t s
p ra c tic a l re s u lts . T h o rn d ik e h e lp e d to it
on a f i r m
a ls o
p ro b le m -so lv in g and p u t
p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n b y h i s m o n u m e n tal i n
v e stig a tio n s . in g .
s ta b iliz e
He p o s t u l a t e d t h e c o n n e c t e d n e s s o f a l l l e a r n
T he n o t i o n t h a t l e a r n i n g w a s a f u n c t i o n s tre n g th e n e d th e
u n le ss
p r i n c i p le s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g .
t h e m in d d o e s f u n c t i o n fro m p r o b le m t o
w h o le c o n c e p t f a l l s
o f t h e m in d
so lu tio n ,
p r o b l e m - s o l v in g m eth o d i n t h e
s ta le d th a t le a rn in g
is
th e
b a s e d upon th e fo rm a tio n
sc h o o ls.
stru c tu rin g
p rin c ip le
use o f
H is th e o r y
o f hum an a c t i v i t y
P ro b le m -s o lv in g le n d s i t s e l f
a d m ira b ly to t h i s p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r i n c i p l e . fo r th is
th e
o f e f f e c t i v e bonds o r c o n n e c tio n s
between s ti m u l u s and r e s p o n s e .
tu la te
th e
do w n.
T h o r n d i k e 1s t h e o r i e s p r o v i d e d i m p e t u s t o th e
For
of le a rn in g
is
The l a r g e r p o s
t h a t le a rn in g
oc
c u r s m o st e f f e c t i v e l y w hen t h e n e u r a l c o n n e c t i o n s a r e c o n tro lle d . so lv in g
T he d e v e l o p m e n t a n d p r e s e n t s t a t u s is
d e te rm in e d .
i n d e b t e d to a n y t h e o r i e s w h ic h a r e
o f p ro b lem e m p iric a lly
182
A fu n d a m e n ta l f a c t , is
th a t le a rn in g
a lm o st u n i v e r s a l l y
a g re ed upon,
t a k e s p l a c e b e s t w hen c e r t a i n b a s i c n e e d s
a r e m et.
T h is p o i n t
is
a p p lic a b le
d o c trin e s
on l e a r n i n g a n d t o t h e m e t h o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
T he b o n d s b e t w e e n o n e f a c t s a tis fa c to ry
re sp o n se s to
need e q u ilib ra tio n . seen.
The p a r a l l e l
of
of le a rn in g .
lik e
P ro b le m s a lw a y s
is ra th e r p la in
and p ro b le m -so lv in g
is
to be
r e s t upon
It
a te c h n iq u e w h ic h a p p l i e s on a l l
in v o lv e s,
at a ll
ages.
a ll i e d w ith v a rio u s
T h o r n d i k e o r D ew ey,
th e f i e l d .
s tr e n g th e n e d by
a s Dewey w o u l d h a v e i t ,
arra n g em e n t o f s u b je c t m a tte r to
th e le a r n e r
or le ss
T h o rn d ik e ’ s
THE ELEMENTARY LEVEL
P ro b le m -s o lv in g
a p ro g re ssiv e
to
sam e f o u n d a t i o n s . IV .
le v e ls
and a n o th e r a re o v ert stim u li.
T h o rn d ik e ’ s th e o ry
v e r y m uch t h e
d ire c tly
fit
th e n eed s
C e r t a i n m en, h o w e v e r , l e v e ls o f th e
sc h o o l;
a r e m o re o th e rs,
w r o t e m o re o r l e s s g e n e r a l l y
in
H o w e v e r, w h i l e h i s i n f l u e n c e w a s g r e a t e s t a s a
p h ilo s o p h e r o f e d u c a tio n ,
Dewey a l s o
founded an e x p e rim e n ta l
sc h o o l. T he man who d i d m o s t t o m ake p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g p ro m in e n t te c h n iq u e C h e ste r P a rk e r. use in
in
th e
e le m e n ta ry
a
s c h o o l s was Sam uel
H e n r y C. M o r r i s o n p a v e d t h e way f o r i t s
t h e h i g h s c h o o l w i t h h i s w o rk i n m eth o d f o r th e
second ary
/■"
sc h o o l.
T h o r n d i k e , Dew ey, K i l p a t r i c k ,
B ode a n d
o t h e r s e x p o u n d e d t h e n ew i d e a s i n t h e
te a c h e rs c o lle g e s
and u n iv e r s itie s ,
th o u sa n d s o f p ro s
p e c tiv e
th e re b y
in flu e n c in g
e d u c a to rs . The n ew t e c h n i q u e p r o j e c t e d a n d d e f e n d e d b y t h e s e
m en f o u n d r e a d y a c c e p t a n c e b y m any o n a l l l e v e l s a n d s o o n cam e i n t o g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y . a tt a c k s upon i t ,
Today, i n
p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g i s m uch i n
s tro n g ly d efen d ed a g a in s t i t s Sam uel C h e s te r P a r k e r . w ork i s p r o b a b l y t h e f i r s t
o f t h e many e v id e n c e and
c ritic s . T h is A m e ric an p e d a g o g u e * s
to d is c u s s a d e q u a te ly th e
p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d a s a s p e c i f i c a d ju n c t.
sp ite
te a c h in g
P a rk e r d e v e lo p e d v e ry th o ro u g h ly th e
e m p iric a l th in k in g .
T h is t h e s i s i s
and le a rn in g th e o ry of
p ro m in e n t i n
h is te x ts .
He w r o t e : . . * t h e p u p i l l e a r n s t h r o u g h h i s own r e s p o n s e , r e c i t a t i o n s , a t t i t u d e s , b e h a v io r. T he f i r s t f a c t r e f e r r e d t o i s t h a t a p u p i l l e a r n s t h r o u g h h i s own r e sp o n ses, r e a c tio n s o r b e h a v io r. O n ly b y m a k i n g t h e s e re sp o n se s h im s e lf can th e p u p il a c q u ire s k i l l . . . and h a b its o f e x e r c is in g s e l f - e o n t r o l and c a r e f u l j u d g m e n t . 3*8 P ark er se p a ra te d h is phases.
The f i r s t
o f th e a b i l i t y
th e o ry o f le a r n in g
a n d m o st i m p o r t a n t was t h e
to f in d
so lu tio n s to
w h ic h he s u b o r d in a te d to
th e f i r s t ,
p ro b le m s; w as t h e
in to
tw o
im p ro v e m e n t th e
second,
s tre n g th e n in g
S am uel C h e s t e r P a r k e r , G e n e r a l M eth o d s o f T each i n g i n E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l s (Hew Y o r k : G-inn a n d C o . , 1 9 1 9 ) > p . 116.
184 of th e a b i l i t y of sense.
t o a b s t r a c t g e n e r a l m e a n in g s fro m t h e
o b je c ts
P a r k e r was a w are t h a t t h i n k i n g i s a n o n - g o in g
p ro cess and n o t a s ta tic
c o n d itio n a c c o m p lish e d i n v a c u o *
T h is p o in t i s b ro u g h t o u t in th e fo llo w in g e x p o s itio n : A d i s t i n c t c o n t r i b u t i o n i s m ade i n t h e c o m p l e t e e l i m i n a t i o n o f th e te r m s I n d u c tio n an d d e d u c tio n * . . . T h u s t h e e r r o n e o u s s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e tw o w a s e n d e d * and, a s P a rk e r h im s e lf p o in te d o u t, t h i s opens up th e w ay f o r e l i m i n a t i n g t h e v a r i o u s e r r o n e o u s I n t e r p r e t a t io n s o f e ac h , w h e th e r re g a rd e d s e p a r a te ly o r t o g e t h e r .1 ' When h e f i r s t
d is c u s s e d th e
su b je c t,
P a rk e r d e v e l
oped th e c o n c e p t o f p ro b le m -so lv in g a s a t o t a l p ro c e s s , som e o f h i s w o r k s h o w s t h e v ie w s on th e tio n ,
it
an e ra ,
su b je c t.
e f f e c t o f th e o ld t r a d i t i o n a l
He w a s w o r k i n g i n a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i
m ust b e rem em b ered , a n d ,
as is
th e case
e v e r y t h i n g show ed t r a c e s o f change*
em erge fro m t h e o l d a n d , in by o th e r s ,
first
but
u n til a d a p ta tio n s
in
such
New t h e o r i e s are
in tu rn
set
c h a n g e s re m a in p e rm e a te d w ith th e o ld
in flu e n c e s* The Im p o r ta n c e o f p r o b le m s *
P a rk e r w ro te :
When t h e p u p i l s a r e g i v e n c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t i n p l a n n in g and su c h p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s . . . . We h a v e w h a t may b e c a l l e d p r o j e c t t e a c h i n g . Such p la n n in g f r e q u e n tly in v o lv e s c o n s id e ra b le I n v e s tig a tio n and d is c u s s i o n b y t h e p u p i l s a n d th e d e v i s i n g o f w ays a n d m eans o f s o lv in g th e p r a c t i c a l p ro b le m s w h ic h t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s p r e s e n t . 20
19
B u rto n ,
op.
c i t . , p . 249*
20 P a r k e r ,
op.
c it.,
p. 121.
185 Sam uel P a r k e r e m p h a siz e d th e im p o rta n c e o f p ro b le m s w h e th e r t h e y assum e l a r g e t i c a l o r p u re ly o f hum an l i f e
s m a ll p r o p o r t i o n s .
s p e c u l a t i v e p r o b l e m may f a l l
or le a rn in g .
le a rn in g m a te ria l. lem s.
or
T he p r a c
in to
any sp h ere
T hey com pose t h e b u l k o f t h e
The l e a r n e r b e g in s w i t h p r a c t i c a l p ro b
They a r e c o n s t a n t l y f a c e d b y t h e l e a r n e r i n
school
and in l i f e . S o l u t i o n s may b e f o u n d t o a l l near or fa r.
B u t i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h Dew ey*s t e n t a t i v e
p o th e tic a l in sta n c e s, in a d e q u a te .
p ro b le m s, l a r g e ,
P ark er f e l t
I n any c a s e ,
th a t o fte n
a te n ta tiv e
b e t t e r th a n n o n e , o r one a r b i t r a r i l y sa l g e n e ra litie s. th e p rim a ry f o r c e
sm a ll, hy
s o l u t i o n s w ere
answ er to a d o u b t i s d e te rm in e d by u n iv e r
P a r k e r b e l i e v e d t h a t p r o b l e m - s o l v in g w as in r e f le c tio n .
He m a i n t a i n e d :
. . . a s t u d e n t who i s p r e s e n t e d w i t h c e r t a i n p r o b le m s c o n c e r n i n g v e n t i l a t i o n o r f o o d s u p p l y , f o r e x a m p le , and h a s to s e a rc h f o r r e le v a n t m a te r ia l fro m v a rio u s s o u r c e s , may b e d o i n g t h e h i g h e s t g r a d e o f l o g i c a l r e f le c tiv e th e o riz in g . I f he k e e p s h i s p ro b le m c l e a r l y I n m in d , i f he s e a r c h e s f o r e v i d e n c e , i f he e v a l u a t e s t h i s I n a n u n b ia s e d m an n e r, i f he r e j e c t s i r r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l , i f he a r r a n g e s and o r g a n iz e s h i s i d e a s , i f he f o r m u la te s and v e r i f i e s h i s c o n c l u s i o n s , he i s b e in g l o g i c a l i n t h e h i g h e s t s e n s e . 2 *1P a r k e r 1s e f f e c t . lo g ic
is q u ite
The i d e a o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
a n ew d e p a r t u r e .
as
P a r k e r w as i n f l u e n c e d by
S am u el C h e s t e r P a r k e r , M e th o d o f T e a c h i n g i n H i g h S c h o o l s (New Y o r k : & in n a n d C om pan y, 1 9 1 5 ; , P* 7 1 •
th e r i s e
o f t h e new d i s c i p l i n e
o f p sy c h o lo g y an d p a r t i c u l a r
l y b y t h e w o rk o f E dw ard T h o rn d ik e *
P a r k e r seem s t o
e q u a te
p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g w i t h t h o u g h t , a n d f o r h im a l l m e r e f a c t i s m ad e i n c i d e n t a l t o
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g .
A cco rd in g to
th e P a rk e r th e o ry ,
" n o t sim p ly t h e r e c e n c y o f i d e a s n e c tio n s ,
re fle c tio n
in o l d - e s ta b li s h e d con
b u t th e
se a rc h in g f o r and te s tin g op d e a lin g w ith p e rp le x in g s i t u a t i o n s . ” P a r k e r 1s t h e o r y ,
d e v e lo p th e id e a o f p ro b le m -so lv in g
s c h o o l ro o m .
sch o o l le v e l and e q u a l in
up a w h o le new t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g
in th e
He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e b e s t w ay o f l e a r n i n g o n
a l l l e v e l s was th r o u g h t h e in g fro m s o c i a l ity .
on t h e e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l
p ro b le m -so lv in g and r e f l e c t i o n
b ecam e a c c e p t e d on t h e g r a d e He s e t
h e lp e d to
o f th e th e o ry th ro u g h h is t e x t s ,
and th ro u g h h i s in flu e n c e
w e ig h t.
o f m eans o f
a s m uch a s a n y o n e e l s e ' s
He f o u n d w i d e a c c e p t a n c e
In v o lv e s
j u d i c i o u s u s e o f p ro b le m s em erg
s itu a tio n s and so lv e d by in d iv id u a l a c tiv
The e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l w a s h i s p a r t i c u l a r d o m a i n a n d
he sh ap ed th e c o u rs e o f i t s
p a tte rn
of le a r n in g w ith h is
c o n c e p t o f p ro b lem s o l v i n g .
/
,V .
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
T he s e c o n d a r y l e v e l w a s i n i t i a t e d
22 ibia. , p. 40.
in to
p ro b le m -
so lv in g
th ro u g h
*u n i t s * *
th e u s e o f
‘p r o j e c t s , 1 ‘a c t i v i t i e s , 1 and
T hese a c t i v i t i e s
use in th e
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g
cu rren t p ra c tic e
of th e in c e p tio n of th e se
o f te a c h in g .
te rm s,
are
B u rto n ,
still
in
te llin g
says:
In 1900 t h e r e a p p e a re d th e te rm “ p r o j e c t ” d e s i g n a t in g a c o n ce p t d e s tin e d t o have c o n s id e r a b le in f lu e n c e on t h e f u r t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g . The b e s t and m ost c l e a r l y j u s t i f i e d d e f i n i t i o n of a p r o j e c t i s a “ p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m . ” T he f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t i s p l a n n i n g , d e v i s i n g , s c h e m i n g how t o c a r r y o u t a p r a c tic a l e n te rp ris e . I t i s a p ro b lem e x e r c i s e o f a p r a c t i c a l n a tu re . B u rto n a m p l i f i e s t h e
id e a th a t th e p ro je c t
concept
i s m e re ly an e x te n s i o n o f th e i d e a t h a t p r o b le m - s o lv in g i s c o n ce rn e d w ith f a c t s o th e r th a n th o s e p r e s e n te d by t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e l l e c t u a l p ro b le m s.
T ra d itio n a c c e p te d
a b s t r a c t p ro b le m s w ith o u t b o th e r in g im p o rta n c e
c o m p lish t h i s to f a l l in to
fle c tio n g iv e n .
th e ir
m uch:
it
The u s e o f t h e p r o j e c t d i d a c
c a u s e d t h e p u r e l y d e d u c t i v e m eth o d
d isre p u te g e n e ra lly .
T h ere had e x i s t e d f o r
u n q u e s tio n e d a n d u n d is tu rb e d ., t h e i d e a t h a t r e i s a s s o c ia te d w ith g e n e ra liz a tio n s
T he p r o j e c t s , v i z . ,
in d iv id u a l a c tiv ity
d e d u c tiv e ly
a c tiv itie s and u n its ,
in le a rn in g
o f c o n te m p o ra ry p r o b le m - s o lv in g .
23
as to
f o r m odern a p p l i c a t i o n .
P r o je c t and p ro b le m .
to o lo n g ,
to in q u ire
so -c a lle d
b ro u g h t
in to p la y th ro u g h th e use B u rto n d e c l a r e s t h a t th e
B u rto n , o p . c i t . , I I , 253*
188 p r o j e c t m e th o d g a v e r i s e He d e s c r i b e s
to
tw o f i r s t - r a t e
c o n trib u tio n s *
th e m a s f o l l o w s :
* . . f i r s t , b r i n g t o t h e f o r e m o to r a c t i v i t y o r d o i n g a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e new i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t i e s . . . . T he i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f o v e r t m o t o r a c t i v i t y t o t h i n k i n g , a n d h e n c e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g w a s m o re c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y im p ro v e d p r a c t i c e . S e c o n d , f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r o j e c t m ade c l e a r to a l l th e u n if ie d , i n te g r a t e d n a tu re o f a le a r n in g situ a tio n . L e a rn in g a s an e x e r c i s e s h o u ld n o t be f r a g m e n ta ry an d c o m p a rtm e n ta liz e d . ^ Thus th e tie s
in
p r o j e c t s 1 re v o lu tio n iz e d le a rn in g
a c tiv i
th e h ig h sc h o o l. M uch o f t h e o l d m e t h o d w a s b r u s h e d a w a y b y t h e new
m eth o d o f p r e s e n t i n g a u n i f i e d a p p r o a c h t o and. b y t r e a t i n g
th e w h o le a s p r o b l e m - s o l v in g .
cam e a l a r g e p r o b l e m w i t h a l l i t s •p ro je c t*
su b je c t m a tte r A p ro je c t be
im p lic a tio n s *
As s u c h
was a n o t h e r s t e p i n t h e p r o g r e s s o f p ro b le m
so lv in g . H e n r y G. M o r r i s o n .
The t e r m
m a in ly t h r o u g h M o rriso n * s P r a c t i c e
*u n i t *
o f T e a c h in g i n
S econ dary S c h o o l, an e x h a u s tiv e t r e a t i s e . t h i s book fo llo w s H erb art in c e n te re d , riso n ,
th a t th e
th e
The t h e s i s o f
u n it is
su b je c t-
a lth o u g h th e l e a r n e r t a k e s p re c e d e n c e h ere*
m ore t h a n d i d o t h e r e x p o n e n t s o f t h e
s iz e d b o th th e
2k
w as p o p u l a r i z e d
s y s te m ,
em pha
te a c h e r and th e m a te ria l f o r le a rn in g .
I b i d . , p. 2 5 2 .
M or
189 M o rriso n fo llo w e d H e rb a rt in in g *
h is v e rsio n of s te p s
H is g r e a t e s t e m p h a s is i s upon t h e n o t i o n
in le a r n
th a t le a rn in g
o u tco m es s h o u ld be o f a u n i f i e d a n d c o h e r e n t n a tu r e *
He
sta te s: When a s t u d e n t h a s f u l l y a c q u i r e d a p i e c e o f l e a r n in g , he h a s m a s te re d it* H a lf l e a r n in g o r l e a r n in g r a t h e r w e l l , o r b e i n g o n t h e w ay t o l e a r n i n g , a r e n o n e o f th e m m a s t e r y . M a ste ry im p lie s c o m p le te n e s s; th e th in g i s done; th e stu d e n t has a rriv e d , as f a r a s th a t p a r t i c u l a r p ro b lem i s c o n c e rn e d . T h e re i s no q u e s t i o n o f how w e l l t h e s t u d e n t h a s m a s t e r e d o r he h a s n o t m a s te re d i t * 25 M o rris o n s concept o f le a rn in g p ro ach i s
c o n ta in e d in th e
ab so rb ed ,
o r in c o m p le te ly a p p re c ia te d ,
I n M o r r is o n 's l e x i c o n , p lie s
th ro u g h th e
w o rd ‘m a s t e r y . 1
u n i t ap
A u n it h a lf
i s a u n i t w a ste d .
m a s te r y m eans e n t i r e l y w h at i t
in th e th in k in g p ro c e ss .
im
No h a l f - w a y m e a s u r e s c a n b e
a c c e p te d . U n ity o f le a r n in g * m a s te ry , M o rriso n im p lie d , c o m p le te a s s i m i l a t i o n i s m a n d a to ry . th is
id e a of
in th e v e ry w ord ' u n i t , * t h a t
of a l l th e f a c t s
of any g iv e n o b je c t
P ro b le m -s o lv in g o p e r a te s e f f e c t i v e l y v i a
u n it ap p ro ach .
U n le s s t h e w h o le p a t t e r n
com p reh en d ed o r m a s te r e d , m ust o f a n e c e s s i t y
25
In a cco rd an ce w ith th e
any s o lu tio n
is
th o ro u g h ly
to a s t a t e d p ro b le m
re m a in v ag u e a n d s e m i- f o r m u la te d .
H e n r y C. M o r r i s o n , The P r a c t i c e o f T e a c h i n g i n t h e S eco n d ary S cho ol (C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1 9 3 2 ) , P* 3 6 .
190 F u r t h e r , m a s t e r y o f a u n i t i m p l i e s t h e w h o le i d e a o f p ro b le m -so lv in g . d ik e an v ie w .
In th is
*
i d e a M o rris o n r e s e m b le s t h e T h o rn
He s t a t e s :
T h in k in g i s e s s e n t i a l l y p r o b le m - s o lv in g , t h e i n t e r p re ta tio n of novel s itu a tio n s . I t i s hu m an n a t u r e t o t h i n k , c o n t r a d i c t o r y a s t h i s s t a t e m e n t may s e e m t o t h e f a c t s o f common e x p e r i e n c e . . . . We c a n s a y w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f c o n fid e n c e th a t g iv e n : (a) m a te r ia l to t h i n k a b o u t; (b ) a m eth o d o f t h i n k i n g ; a n d ( c ) a m o tiv e f o r th in k in g , any n orm al i n d iv i d u a l w i l l th in k w ith in t h e l i m i t a t i o n s w h ic h h i s o r g a n i c a l l y i n h e r e n t m e n ta l s t r u c t u r e s d e te rm in e . . . . T hese a re th e c o n d itio n s u n d e r w h ic h t h i n k i n g t a k e s p l a c e . 26 T h in k in g a s p r o b le m - s o lv in g .
M o rriso n a c c e p t s , th e n ,
th a t th in k in g
is
p ro b le m -so lv in g .
T h is th e o r y , a c c o rd in g
to W a h lq u is t,
is
“u n q u e s tio n a b ly th e m ost w id e ly a c c e p te d
i n n o v a t i o n o f t h e l a s t tw e n ty y e a r s i n A m e ric an s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n . I n
h is
s u g g e s t i o n s f o r a d e q u a te p ro b lem
s o lv in g te c h n iq u e s , M o rriso n d e p lo r e d th e
id e a o f d a y -to -
day te a c h in g an d in tro d u c e d th e co n ce p t o f s u b je c t m a tte r in
c o m p le te a n d i n t e g r a t e d u n i t s .
sig n ific a n t, of a sc ie n c e ,
He d e f i n e d a u n i t a s “ a
c o m p re h e n s iv e , a rt,
a s p e c t o f th e e n v iro n m e n t, o r 28 o r of c o n d u c t.”
M o r r i s o n ’ s u n i t s w e r e d i v i d e d b y h im i n t o f i v e f o r m a l
^
I b id ., p.
27 c a tio n
53*
J o h n T . W a h l q u i s t , T he P h i l o s o p h y o f A m e r i c a n E d u (New Y o r k : T he R o n a l d P r e s s C o m p an y , 1 9 ^*2 ) , p . 1 73*
^
L o c. c i t .
1 9*1 ste p s f o r m a tte rs of d e f in itio n
o n ly .
He b e l i e v e d t h a t
l e a r n i n g w as a p r o c e s s a n d n o t a s e r i e s o f d i s c r e t e W hereas H e r b a r t 's l e a r n i n g A m e ric an H e r b a r t i a n s , trin e
h im se lf.
or u n it,
p lo ra tio n ,
(2)
z a t i o n a n d (5)
t h e o r y was f o r m a l i z e d b y t h e
M o rriso n a r b i t r a r i l y
To b e t t e r e x p e d i t e
he su g g e ste d th e
fo llo w in g
p re s e n ta tio n , re c ita tio n .
(3 )
d iv id e d h is doc
th e le a rn in g fiv e
ste p s:
a ss im ila tio n ,
o f a c o u rse (1 ) (4 )
ex
o rg a n i
T hese s t e p s w ere t o b e u t i l i z e d
c h ro n o lo g ic a lly a s w e ll a s lo g ic a l l y . th e re i s
a c ts.
an e x c e lle n t tre a tm e n t of
In W a h lq u is t* s book
th e se f iv e
ste p s:
1* E x p l o r a t i o n - c o n s i s t i n g o f a p r e - t e s t q u i z o r I n fo r m a l d i s c u s s i o n , d e s ig n e d to a s c e r t a i n th e a p p e r c e p tiv e m ass, to a r r i v e a t a s u i t a b l e s t a r t i n g p o i n t , and to e lim in a te r e p e t i t i o n an d w a ste o f e f f o r t . 2. P re s e n ta tio n - c o n s is tin g o f a s h o r t o r a l o v er v i e w b y t h e t e a c h e r , p r e s e n t i n g a * r o a d map* o f t h e t e r r i t o r y to b e in c lu d e d , to m o tiv a te and a ro u se in t e r e s t and to e s t a b l i s h g o a ls . T he s t u d e n t s w e r e t o b e t e s t e d f o r ‘m a s t e r y * o f t h i s s t e p . 3* A s s i m i l a t i o n - s u p e r v i s e d s t u d y b a s e d u p o n a g u id e -s h e e t p re p a re d in advance by th e te a c h e r . An o t h e r 1m a s t e r y * t e s t i s h e r e i n v o l v e d . 4. O rg a n iz a tio n - c o n s is tin g o f th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f s tu d e n t o u tlin e s o f th e u n it w ith o u t re c o u rs e to n o te s. 5. R e c ita tio n - c o n s is tin g o f a s e r ie s of stu d e n t f l o o r - t a l k s , e x h i b i t i n g a c t u a l m a s t e r y o f t h e u n i t . 29 T hese f i v e s t e p s
seem f o r m a l ' i f
a p p ro a c h e d m e re ly
a s s t e p s a n d w i t h o u t a t o t a l O e s t a l t i n m in d b y b o t h
29 I b i d . , pp. 1 7 3 - 7 ^ .
192
in s tr u c to r and le a r n e r . M o rriso n d e v is e d ,
th e
B ut in a le a rn in g th e o ry
ste p s lo g ic a lly
fo llo w
P ro b le m - s o l v i n g a n d th e h ig h s c h o o l. o f te a c h in g s t i l l c a t i o n on t h e
s till
t h i s u n iq u e fo rm o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g i s th e U n ite d S ta te s .
p o p u l a r i t y h a s d im m ed i n t h e
th e co n cep t o f th e u n it, so lv in g te c h n iq u e ,
T h is p a tt e r n
M o d ifie d an d a d a p te d to
a p a r t o f many h i g h s c h o o l s i n
Some o f i t s
one a n o th e r.
h o l d s a n i m p o r ta n t p l a c e i n A m e ric an e d u
seco n d ary le v e l.
lo c a l c o n d itio n s,
such as
c o u rs e o f tim e , b u t
w h i c h may b e c o n s i d e r e d a p r o b l e m
i s w id e ly
a c c e p t e d i n t h e m odern h i g h
sc h o o l. V I.
PROBLEM-SOLVING* IN HIG-HER LEARNING
The m e th o d o f m odern p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g o n a l l is
i n f l u e n c e d b y J o h n D ew ey.
a ls o
sp read t h e i r d o c trin e
tic u la rly
le v e ls
He a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s h a v e
th ro u g h th e h ig h e r l e v e ls ,
th e n o rm al s c h o o ls and te a c h e r s c o ll e g e s .
p a tte r n o f c o lle g e s v a rie s
so g r e a t ly
p ar The
th ro u g h o u t th e U n ite d
,rf&m
^J
S t a t e s t h a t i t w o u ld b e a lm o s t im p o s s ib le t o
a sc e rta in
d e g re e o f a c c e p ta n c e an d u sag e o f p ro b le m -so lv in g c o lle g e and u n iv e r s ity a‘
D ew ey1s t e x t s
on th e
le v e l.
a n d t h e many s p e e c h e s o f W i l l i a m H e a r d
K ilp a tr ic k have p ro p a g a te d th e am ong e d u c a t o r s .
th e
id e a of p ro b le m -so lv in g
B o t h o f t h e s e men h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d
193 w i t h C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y a n d t h i s m uch i n f l u e n c e
in th e f i e l d
in stitu tio n
e x e rc ise s
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g
th e o ry .
S t u d e n t s fro m C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y h a v e gone o u t t o s p r e a d t h e g o s p e l on a l l l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n . are
s till
Many c o l l e g e
t a u g h t th r o u g h t h i s m eth o d .
o n 11S c i e n t i f i c
Bode,
c la ss e s
in h is c h a p te r
M e th o d a n d H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n , 0 w r i t e s :
The o n e t h i n g t h a t r e a l l y m a t t e r s i n e d u c a t i o n i s a r e a l i z i n g s e n s e t h a t we m u s t g o o n c o n t i n u o u s l y t o n ew i n s i g h t s in a l l our fu n d a m e n ta l b e l i e f s a n d p r a c t i c e s . . . . The c e n t r a l p ro b le m i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i s t o c l a r i f y t h i s new o u t l o o k so a s t o s e t i n t e l l i g e n c e f r e e f o r t h e b e t t e r m e n t o f hum an l i f e . 30 P ro b le m - s o lv in g a n d t r a d i t i o n a l i s m . D exvey^ t h i n k i n g , a p p ro ach .
In lin e w ith
some p r o f e s s o r s f o l l o w t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
O th e rs in
th e u n i v e r s it i e s
a d v o c a te a r e t u r n
s o - c a l l e d t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f te a c h in g .
to
S ev eral u n iv e r s itie s
h a v e c h a m p io n e d a r e n e w a l o f t h e h u m a n i t i e s a n d h a v e sp o n s o r e d a ”b a e k t o
t h e G r e e k s ” m o v e m e n t.
Bode r e m a r k s : The A r i s t o t e l i a n i d e a l o f t h e ” c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e m i n d ” h a s come t o m e a n a n a r r o w n e s s t h a t i s u n a b l e t o s e e t h e w oods on a c c o u n t o f t h e t r e e s . I f we a c c e p t s u c h a s t a n d p o i n t t h e r e I s l i t t l e m o re to be s a id . T he o n l y t h i n g t o d o i s t o g o o n a s we h a v e been d o in g , f o r th e p u rp o se of r e s e r v in g a c h o ic e so u l h e r e a n d t h e r e f r o m t h e mob o f m i s f i t s t h a t p o p u l a t e o u r c o l l e g e s . 31
Y ork:
B o y d H. B o d e , M o d e r n E d u c a t i o n a l T h e o r i e s T h e M a c m i l l a n C o m p a n y , 1 9 2 7 )* ' p* 285*
31 I b i d . , p.
28k.
(Hew
19^ I t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o be t h e d o m ain o f la r
in v e s tig a tio n
to d e te rm in e th e r e l a t i v e m e r its o f th e
m eth o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v in g i n w ith ,
c o n tra st to ,
o th e r th e o r ie s o f le a rn in g *
th e
lim ite d i t s e l f
o r i n c o m p a riso n
O th e r i n v e s tig a tio n s
a r e n e e d e d on e v e r y l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n t o p o ss ib le ,
tills p a rtic u
a sc e rta in ,
e x a c t s t a t u s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g .
if
T h is stu d y
t o a g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h a n d i n m any c a s e s w a s
r e q u ir e d t o u se a p p ro x im a tio n r a t h e r th a n e n u m e ra tio n . R.
F reem an B u t t s h a s w r i t t e n
w h ic h he d e v o t e s a n e n t i r e te lle c tu a lis m
a te x t-^
on c o lle g e s in
c h a p t e r t o t h e p r o b l e m o f **In-
v ersu s In te llig e n c e ."
H is b ook i s
a n e x a m p le
o f th e d ich o to m y w h ic h e x i s t s to d a y i n h ig h e r l e a r n i n g . h as been s ta te d ,
t h i s d ich o to m y i s
no c o n c e r n o f t h i s
H ow ever, w h at he w r i t e s o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
p ro g re ssiv e
stu d y .
re la te s d ire c tly
t o a d is c u s s io n o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g on th e c o lle g e I n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e
As
le v e l.
p h ilo s o p h y o f e x p e r l-
m e n ta lism he w r i t e s t h a t : . . . P r e s id e n t B u tle r h as te rm ed i t p s e u d o -p h ilo s ophy, P r e s i d e n t H u tc h in s h a s condem ned a s a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d P r e s i d e n t A n g e l l h a s f o u n d 1f e e b l e a n d u n p r o m i s i n g . * T h e p o s i t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l l am h a s c o n s t a n t l y grow n i n I n f l u e n c e a n d i n a b i l i t y t o co m b at t h e c o n s e rv a tiv e p h ilo s o p h y o f r a tio n a lis m , l a r g e ly th ro u g h t h e g r o w i n g a d h e r e n c e o f m o re a n d m o re e d u c a t o r s t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f s u c h men a s J o h n D ew ey, W i l l i a m H. K i l p a t r i c k , J o h n L . C h i l d s , a n d B o y d H. B o d e . 3 3 12 (New Y o r k :
33
R. F reem an B u t t s , The C o lle g e C h a r ts I t s C o u rse M c G -r a w - H ill B o o k C o m p any , 1 9 3 9 ) > 5 6 4 p p .
I b id . , p. 2 9 3 .
195 F r a s e r 's
sta te m e n t i s
a ls o
in d ic a tiv e
of
th e
sta tu s
o f m odern p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g : T h e p l a n o f t e a c h i n g p r o b l e m s w a s am ong t h e f i r s t d e p a r t u r e s i n t h e A m e ric an c o l l e g e c u r r i c u lu m fro m t h e t r a d i t i o n o f te a c h in g o n ly bo o k s and a r b i t r a r i l y o r d e p a rtm e n ta lly o rg a n iz e d s u b je c t m a tte r. P ro b le m s w h ic h i l l u s t r a t e o r t e s t t h e a b i l i t y to a p p ly k n o w le d g e , to be s u r e h a v e a lw a y s b e e n t a u g h t i n c i d e n t a l l y i n p r a c t i c a l l y ev ery c o lle g e c o u rse. But a g e n e r a tio n ago sp e c i a l c o u r s e s b eg an to b e g iv e n w h ic h c o n c e rn e d . . • p ro b le m s p r i m a r i l y . 3^ In
th e n e x t c h a p te r a c r i t i q u e
w i l l be p re se n te d * th e s is of
th is
th e w h o le i s s u e
I n o r d e r t o m ore f u l l y
In v e s tig a tio n ,
illu s tra te
o f J o h n Dewey* s v i e w s
i d e a l o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a s c o n c e i v e d b y h im . V II.
JOHN DEWEY AND PROBLEM-SOLVING*
The m odern m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g i n g e a r e d on e v e r y l e v e l t o
th e
e x e m p l i f i e d b y D e w e y 's v i e w s . am ong e d u c a t i o n a l w r i t e r s
so lv in g
T h e re seem s t o
to t h i s
e ffe c t,
f o r c e f u l p r o p o n e n t i n J o h n Dewey* th e l a s t
fiv e
be a c o n c e n s u s
a lth o u g h in
th is
H ow ever, p r o b le m
in th e U n ite d S t a te s f in d s i t s
w h ic h i n
th e c la ssro o m
l e a r n e r 's m a tu rity i s b e s t
s t u d y a c o m p a r is o n c a n n o t b e m ade.
Y ork:
th e
th e n e x t s e c tio n o f t h i s
c h a p te r w i l l p re s e n t an e x p o s itio n and th e
of
m ost o r i g i n a l an d
H is t h e o r i e s a r e
d e c a d e s o r so h a v e s e t t h e
th o se
sta n d a rd s
^ Mowat Or. F r a s e r , T h e C o l l e g e o f t h e F u t u r e C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 7 )> p* 3 1 9 *
(New
196: and g iv e n th e b a s ic i n g r e a t m easure# it
p o stu la te s.
O th e rs have c o n tr ib u te d
a n d H e r b a r t * s w ork w as f u n d a m e n ta l, b u t
i s o u t o f J o h n Dewey* s t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e r e
r u b r i c fro m w h ic h t h e p r o b le m - s o lv in g An e x a c t p i c t u r e th e
o f th e s ta tu s
em erges th e
of to d ay d e riv e s . o f p ro b le m -so lv in g in
s c h o o l s to d a y w o u ld dem and n u m ero u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
T h is i n v e s t i g a t o r p o s i t s fie ld .
t h e n e e d f o r 'm o r e r e s e a r c h i n th e
B ut th e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w i l l g iv e a b r o a d o v e rv ie w
o f th e id e a l c o n d itio n s a s a p p lie d g e n e r a lly
to
th e
cu rren t
e d u c a tio n a l scene. The b e g i n n i n g . p e rim e n ta l sch o o l a t
In
1 8 9 7 J o h n Dewey f o u n d e d h i s e x
th e U n iv e r s ity o f C h ic a g o .
h i s t h e o r i e s g rew u n t i l to d a y th e y m ost f u l l y d e te rm in e
t h e m eth o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
a l t h e o r i e s r e s t upon h i s
e x p la in and
Dewey* s e d u c a t i o n
e p is te m o lo g y a n d upon th e g r e a t e r
im p lic a tio n s o f h i s p ra g m a tic p h ilo s o p h y . th e in c e p tio n
F ro m t h e r e
B u rto n d e s c r ib e s
o f Dewey* s t h e o r y o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
in
th e
sc h o o lro o m : I n 1 8 9 5 Dewey r e a d a p a p e r b e f o r e t h e H e r b e r t S o c i e t y in w h ic h he p o i n te d o u t th e in a d e q u a c y o f th e H erb a r t i a n th e o r y o f i n t e r e s t in t h a t i t d id n o t In c lu d e th e i n s t i n c t s an d e m o tio n s o f th e c h i l d . . . . I n 1899 t h e r e a p p e a r e d t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f D e w e y * s no w f a m o u s book, School and S o c ie ty * . . . H ere f o r t h e f i r s t tim e we f i n d m e n t i o n o f t h e f a c t t h a t l e a r n i n g may p r o d u c e a . t e c h n i q u e , a p o w e r t o o v erco m e o b s t a c l e s a n d t o a t t a c k new s i t u a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s s u p p l y k n o w l e d g e . 35
35 B u rto n , o p . c i t . , I I , 2 4 8 .
197 T h e s e r a t h e r h u m b le b e g i n n i n g s m a r k t h e o n s e t o f o n e of
th e g r e a t e s t
sin g le
i n f l u e n c e s i n A m e ric an s c h o o l s .
t h i n k i n g o f J o h n Dewey, m ore t h a n
t h a t o f a n y o t h e r m an ,
is
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g in
re sp o n sib le
f o r th e a p p lic a tio n
th e c la ss ro o m . w ife A lic e ,
H is f i r s t
s c h o o l w as c r e a t e d b y Dewey, h i s
a n d s e v e r a l n e i g h b o r s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i
cag o i n 189^*
T here th e
i n s t i g a t e d a c c o rd in g to D ew ey.
The
d o c t r i n e o f p r o b l e m - s o l v in g was th e th e o r ie s of le a rn in g
o f John
T he s c h o o l e n d u r e d f r o m 1 8 9 ^ t o 1 9 0 ^ a n d w i l l b e
r e m e m b e r e d a s A m e r i c a 1s f i r s e Rugg d e s c r i b e s
e le m e n ta ry la b o r a to r y
sc h o o l.
it:
The e s s e n c e o f th e t h e o r y t e s t e d i n t h e S c h o o l was t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e a c t w h i c h we h a v e now a n a l y z e d in g re a t d e t a i l . . . . T h is i s th e e sse n c e o f th e o p e ra tio n a l th e o ry in a c tio n in a sc h o o l: a school a t l a s t b a se d on th e n a t u r a l p h ilo s o p h y o f e x p e r ie n c e and a sound p sy c h o lo g y o f th e a c t .7 b Dewey* s e p i s t e m o l o g y i s p ro b le m -so lv in g . w e ll as
It
s u b s ta n c e .
answ er i s
th e
i s an o p e ra tio n a l concept in s p i r i t as
use o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g .
so lu tio n
to th e f o r e by r e f l e c t io n
J36
th e a c t of
The e s s e n c e o f m e t h o d I n a n y s c h o o l I s
to b e fo u n d e d on th e th e
c e n tr a liz e d in
(te n ta tiv e ) its e lf,
R e f l e c t i o n on
o f p ro b le m s b ro u g h t
in a n e v e r-e n d in g p ro c e s s .
R ugg, o p . c i t . , pp. 5 ^ 6 -^ 7 •
198 The n a t u r e o f l i f e . in g ,
a b stra c tio n ,
as
I n D ew eyf s I d e a l
such,
t i n u a l p ro b le m s and t h e
cannot e x is t.
th e o ry o f le a r n
L ife p ro d u ces con
i n d i v i d u a l m u st o v erco m e th e m .
th e p rim a ry ta s k of e d u c a tio n i s to
e q u ip i t s
Thus
c lie n te le ,
th r o u g h t h e m eth o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v in g t o f a c e
th e p ro b le m s
of lif e
T h i s know
(so c ie ty )
le d g e i s
w i t h a p p l i c a b l e k n o w le d g e.
t o be o f a k i n d w h ic h can
p re s e n t, b u t in
th e f u t u r e
as w e ll.
a s s i s t not o n ly i n th e I n E x p e r i e n c e an d Edu
c a t i o n , w h e r e J o h n Dewey a s s u m e s t h e r o l e h is d o c trin e ,
he d e f in e s
of a p o lo g is t fo r
t h e d y n a m ics o f s o c i e t y :
A l l s o c i a l m o v em e n ts i n v o l v e c o n f l i c t s w h ic h a r e r e f le c te d I n te lle c tu a lly in c o n tro v e rsie s . I t w o u ld n o t be a s ig n o f h e a l th i f su c h an Im p o rta n t s o c i a l I n t e r e s t a s e d u c a t i o n w ere n o t a l s o an a r e a o f s t r u g g l e , p r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l . . . . I t i s th e b u s in e s s o f an i n t e l l i g e n t th e o ry o f e d u c a tio n to a s c e r ta in th e cause f o r th e c o n f l i c t w h ic h e x i s t s an d th e n , i n s t e a d o f t a k in g one s i d e o r t h e o t h e r , to i n d i c a t e a p l a n o f o p e ra t i o n s p r o c e e d i n g f r o m a l e v e l d e e p e r a n d m ore I n c l u s i v e th a n I s r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e id e a s and p r a c t i c e s o f th e c o n t e n d i n g p a r t i e s . 37 I n Dewey *s w r i t i n g s o n e may s e e f o r t h e f i r s t th e
to ta lity
so lv in g .
of th e p a tte r n
T here
rid e s th e p ra c tic e o f in fo rm a tio n .
37
of l e a r n i n g c a l l e d p ro b le m
i s a te n d e n c y h e re
o l d e r p sy c h o lo g y w ith i t s
a to m istic
o f d iv id in g
D isc re te
tim e
t o c h a n g e m uch o f t h e ap p ro ach .
Dewey d e
th o u g h t in to u n r e la te d b i t s
f a c t s a r e o f no v a l u e u n l e s s
J o h n Dewey, E x p e r i e n c e a n d E d u c a ti o n T h e M a c m i l l a n C om pany , 1 9 3 8 ), p . v .
(Hew Y o r k :
199 m e a n in g fu lly r e l a t e d and a p p lic a b le The w h o le n e s s o f t h i n k i n g * is
to l i f e
situ a tio n s*
D ew ey’ s h o l i s t i c
an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g .
ap p ro ach
He d e s c r i b e s t h i s
p h ase o f h i s p h ilo s o p h y a s fo llo w s : I t a k e i t t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l u n i t y o f t h e new p h ilo s o p h y i s f o u n d i n t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e i s an i n tim a te a n d n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n th e p r o c e s s o f a c tu a l e x p e rie n c e in e d u c a tio n . I f t h i s b e t r u e , th e n a p o s i t i v e a n d c o n s t r u c t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i t s own b a s i c i d e a d ep en d s upon h a v in g a c o r r e c t id e a o f ex p e r i e n c e . 38 Dewey d e p a r t s f r o m
tra d itio n a l
o f th e u n i t y o f e x p e r ie n c e a n d th e is
a c o n tin u u m .
a llty *
th in k in g in
a ssu m p tio n t h a t
th is
Idea
e x p e rie n c e
He f o l l o w s Hume’ s t h i n k i n g a s r e g a r d s c a u s - ^
D ew ey’ s t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g
th a t re la tio n sh ip s e x is t
in
a ls o c o n ta in s th e b e li e f
e x p e r ie n c e w h ic h c a n n o t be s e t
down d e f i n i t e l y
in a o n e-fo r-o n e
a c t o f th in k in g
i s u n if ie d and I n te g r a te d w ith c a u se s and
e f f e c t s b le n d in g in to
c o rre la tio n .
a t o ta l p a tte rn .
has had g r e a t re p e rc u s s io n s .
T he w h o l e
The t o t a l
K n ig h t b e l i e v e s
th a t
ap p ro ach t h i s k in d
o f t h i n k i n g b y Dewey 11p o s s i b l y h a d w i d e r e f f e c t u p o n e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y t h a n a n y o n e o t h e r I n f l u e n c e . **39 Dewey e m p h a s i z e d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c o n n e c t i n g t h e p ro b le m s o f l i f e
o u tsid e th e
sc h o o lro o m w i t h t h o s e o f th e
38 I b i d . , p . 12.
39 E d g a r ¥ . K n i g h t . E d u c a t i o n I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (New Y o r k :
G-inn a n d C o m p a n y , 1 9 2 9 ) ,
p* 571*
CS
200 le a rn in g p ro c e ss in th e
sc h o o lro o m .
when a c t u a l a n d r e l e v a n t l i f e le a rn e r fo r h is
re s o lu tio n .
m e a n in g i n p r o b le m s ,
L e a rn in g ta k e s p la c e
p ro b le m s a r e p r e s e n t e d to
th e
I f th e le a rn e r cannot fin d
th e te c h n iq u e
fa ils
of i t s e l f .
G -enuine e d u c a t i o n m u s t b e g r o u n d e d u p o n t h e n a t u r e o f th e c h ild . is
K n o w le d g e w h i c h i s
an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e
le a rn e rs.
It
is
T h e m in d i s
I n te lle c tu a l h e rita g e
a reso u rce
com es an e f f e c t i v e
t o be g a i n e d i n
th e
school
of a ll
common t o a l l m i n d s a n d i t b e
m eans o f c o n t r o l l i n g th e e n v iro n m e n t.
a p ro cess,
g r o w th h in g e s upon t h e
a d e v e lo p m e n ta l a f f a i r , am ount o f f u n c t i o n in g
it
and i t s is
com
p e lle d to do. The i d e a l c l a s s r o o m . room i s It
is
one w here d o in g
as
sim p le a s t h a t .
is
A c c o r d i n g t o D ew ey t h e p a ram o u n t a n d l e a r n i n g
A k n o w led g e o f h u r d l i n g
s e ttin g up h u rd le s an d a tte m p tin g to tim e s.
L e a rn in g can ta k e p la c e i n
c o n d itio n s a re e rc ise
id e a l o r n o t,
id e a l
i s d o in g . com es b y
l e a p o v e r th em e n o u g h \
a c la ss ro o m , w h e th e r th e
th ro u g h p ro b le m -so lv in g .
Ex- ^
th ro u g h m e a n in g le ss a b s t r a c t i o n s d o es n o t p roduce
k n o w le d g e . K n i g h t ' s h i s t o r i c a l a p p r a i s a l o f Dewey g i v e s t h e o p in io n th a t tic
th in k in g .
le a rn in g
th is
th e o ry o f th e a c t has a lte r e d a l l
sc h o la s
He d e s c r i b e s t h e e f f e c t o f D e w e y 's i d e a l o f
a s fo llo w s:
201 T h is a n d o th e r p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h he s e t f o r t h s e rv e d t o m o d ify a n d im p ro v e s c h o o l p r a c t i c e s n o t o n ly i n t h i s c o u n t r y , b u t i n m any o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a s w e l l * . * • S p e a k in g i n g e n e r a l t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a r e : T h at th e p rim a ry b u s in e s s o f th e sc h o o l i s to t r a i n c h ild r e n in c o o p e ra tiv e and m u tu a lly h e lp f u l l i v i n g . . . • That th e p rim a ry r o o t o f a l l e d u c a tio n a l a c t i v i t y i s in th e i n s t i n c t i v e , im p u ls iv e a t t i t u d e of th e c h i l d , and n o t i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x t e r n a l ma te ria ls .^ 0 Thus a p ic tu r e
of th e id e a l
o f e d u c a t i o n w o u l d b e o n e where t h e and g e a re d to
in d iv id u a l th in k in g .
em erge fro m e x p e r i e n c e ,
c la s s ro o m on any l e v e l p ro b lem s a r e m e a n in g fu l T h ese p ro b le m s w o u ld
w o u ld b e r e l e v a n t
to t h e l e a r n e r ,
a n d w o u l d p r e s e n t a c h a l l e n g e t o h im t h a t w o u l d c o m p e l th in k in g .
D ew ey w r i t e s :
I t i s a c a r d i n a l p r e c e p t o f th e new er sc h o o l o f edu c a t i o n t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f i n s t r u c t i o n s h a l l b e m ade w ith th e e x p e rie n c e le a r n e r s a lre a d y have; t h a t t h i s e x p e rie n c e an d th e c a p a c i t i e s t h a t have b e e n d e v e lo p e d s th e s t a r ti n g p o in t fo r a l l W hat o f t h e p l a c e m a tte r in
th e
c la ss ro o m ?
Dewey i s c l e a r . te n t is
but i t
th e g ro w th o f
g re a te r p o sitio n d o x ic a lly ,
ho
te a c h e r and th e s u b je c t
T h is p o i n t i s
T here i s
im p o rta n t,
w h ic h i s
o f th e
a p la c e f o r s u b je c t m a tte r. is
s u b o rd in a te to
th e c h i l d .
in th e
Con-
t h e g r e a t e r a im
The t e a c h e r h o l d s a
id e a l s itu a tio n
m ore d e p e n d s u p o n h e r i n
I b id . , p.
one upon w h ic h
th a n b e fo re .
P ara
a c h ild -c e n te re d school
523-
Dewey, How We T h in k , o p . c i t . , p . 8 8 .
202 th a n in th e t r a d i t i o n a l
sc h o o l.
R a tn e r s t a t e s t h i s
i n h i s f o r e w o r d t o Dewey* s I n t e l l i g e n c e
p o in t
i n t h e M odern W o rld :
To m ake a n d m a i n t a i n t h e s c h o o l a s a g e n u i n e e d u c a t i o n a l e n v iro n m e n t r e q u i r e s a l l th e s k i l l , a l l t h e a r t a n d k n o w le d g e t h a t a d u l t s p o s s e s s . T he D e w e y a n e d u c a t i o n r e q u i r e s i n f i n i t e l y more: t h o u g h t a n d e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f te a c h e r s th a n t r a d i t i o n a l e d u c a tio n e v e r d id . A nd i t r e q u i r e s t e a c h e r s who h a v e . a l e r t , I n f o r m e d , s e n s i t i v e a n d d i s c i p l i n e d m in d s. 2 T he m e t h o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g *
In a r e c e n t te x t^ 3
D ew ey r e - e m p h a s i z e s h i s t h e s i s on how l e a r n i n g b e s t t a k e s p la c e .
T h e m in d i s
an In stru m e n t u n iq u e ly f i t t e d by n a tu re
t o a s s i s t man i n a d j u s t i n g i.e .,
so c ie ty .
c e n tra liz e d in in a d d itio n c o n c e p t.
t o h i s u n f r ie n d ly e n v iro n m e n t,
T he m e t h o d o f t h e m o d e m s c h o o l I s t h i s th e m e .
t o m eth o d o lo g y ,
to be
The a i m s a n d t h e c u r r i c u l u m , m ust b e a d j u s t e d t o
t h is b a sic
Dewey s t a t e s :
The q u e s t i o n o f m e th o d i s u l t i m a t e l y r e d u c i b l e to th e q u e s tio n o f t h e o r d e r o f d e v elo p m e n t o f th e c h ild * s pow ers a n d i n t e r e s t s . The la w f o r p r e s e n t i n g an d t r e a t i n g m a t e r i a l , i s t h e law I m p l i c i t w i t h t h e c h ild * s own n a t u r e . . . . ^ R eal le a rn in g
re q u ire s a n a tu r a lis tic
p ro c e e d in g fro m a n a t u r a l i s t i c
ap p ro ach
m e ta p h y s ic s , a n d w o rk in g
^ J o s e p h R a t n e r , e d i t o r , I n t e l l i g e n c e I n t h e M o d e rn W o r l d , J o h n D ew ey * s P h i l o s o p h y (New Y o r k : The" M o d e rn . L i b r a r y , 1 9 3 9 )> P* 1 0 *
A3 hh,
Dewey, E x p e r ie n c e in E d u c a tio n , o p . c i t . , ,
i b i a - > p.
56.
116 pp.
th ro u g h t e n t a t i v e
h y p o t h e s e s t o m o re t e n t a t i v e
Ho ’ u l t i m a t e 1 t r u t h s
are
sought o r p o s tu la te d *
h y p o th e se s* S o c ia l
p ro b le m s e x i s t a n d t h e l e a r n e r m u st f a c e th em ; t h u s , e d u c a te th e
stu d e n t i s
A c tiv ity
t h e k e y n o te o f m e th o d w h e re b y I n d i v i d u a l s
is
to
t e a c h h im t o f a c e
th e s e
to
p ro b le m s. sh are
e x p e rie n c e . A w e l l - o r d e r e d c la s s r o o m on a n y l e v e l f a c e s p ro b le m s w h i c h a r i s e f r o m t h e n e e d 's o f t h o s e c o m p r i s i n g t h a t c l a s s * T hese p ro b le m s w o u ld h a v e t o be r e a l l i f e
p ro b le m s*
t e a c h e r w o u ld b e a f o r c e f u l a n d c l e v e r g u i d e , her w ill a r b itr a r ily .
The
n e v e r im p o s in g
A l l o f th e l e a r n e r s w o u ld p a r t i c i p a t e
in th e fin d in g o f s o lu tio n s
to p ro b le m s.
T hese s o lu tio n s
w o u ld s e r v e a s p r e m is e s f o r f u r t h e r p ro b le m s .
The p r o c e d u r e
i s d e v e lo p m e n ta l and g e a r e d to th e m a tu ra tio n l e v e l of e a c h c la ss .
K ilp a tric k a s s e r ts ;
We may t h e n r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t o f i t e m p h a s i s on s u c h a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f i t s own a c t i v i t i e s a s w i l l b rin g th e stu d e n t to a c o n sc io u sn e ss o f th e c h a ra c te r o f h i s p r e s e n t w o r l d w i t h a n a l l e g i a n c e t o a m ode o f a c t i o n w h ic h a t t a c k s th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i a l v a l u e s i n a n I n t e l l i g e n t a n d s i n c e r e m a n n e r . ^5 I t m ay b e s t a t e d t h e n , ers,
t h a t f o r Dewey a n d h i s f o l l o w
m e th o d m ean s p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
w h i c h h a s a im a n d d i r e c t i o n .
It
is
p ro b le m -so lv in g
P ro b le m s a r i s e
fro m th e s o c i a l
m a tr ix an d , w ith th e I n t e l l i g e n t g u id a n c e an d p a r t i c i p a t i o n v/
A5 F ro n tie r
W i l l i a m H. K i l p a t r i c k a n d o t h e r s , T h e E d u c a t i o n a l (Hew Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n a n d C om pany , 1 9 3 2 ) , P* 1 6 2 .
of th e te a c h e r,
s o lu tio n s a r e fo u n d by th e le a r n e r s
in a
^
c o o p e ra tiv e e f f o r t . The s c h o o l s o f t o d a y a n d to m o rro w m u st b e a w are o f th e
concept o f e x p e rie n c e .
p ro b le m s e x p e r ie n c e d i n ence.
l i f e — fro m th e p ro b le m s i n e x p e r i
W ith m eth o d w i l l a l s o
th e re are ta in
som e f l a w s i n
c ritic s.
t h i s re a so n in g i s
In a tte m p tin g
s ta tu s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g ,
a sse rte d by cer
t o p r e s e n t t h e m odern
i t w as n o t e d t h a t p r o b le m - s o lv in g
some m e a s u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d o n
a ll le v e ls
of le a rn in g .
I t was f u r t h e r n o t e d t h a t t h e e x
s t a t u s c a n n o t b e m easu red in
one o f t h i s k in d .
h o w ev er,
any one s t u d y , p a r t i c u l a r l y
F o r t h i s p u r p o s e m any i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e
needed and a d v is e d . so lv in g ,
That
stu d y .
H e c a o itu la tio n *
e x is ts in
com e g o a l s a n d c o n t e x t .
T hese v ie w s w i l l b e t r e a t e d l a t e r i n th e
c ritiq u e o f th is
act
M e th o d w i l l a r i s e f r o m t h e
A p i c t u r e o f th e i d e a l i n p ro b le m
has been p re se n te d .
In g re a te r or le s s e r
d e g r e e t h i s m e t h o d i s p r a c t i c e d i n m any A m e r i c a n s c h o o l s . D ew ey a n d ‘ p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g * i n A m e ric a .
h a v e b eco m e synonym ous
R a tn e r sa y s:
J o h n D ew ey i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e f o r c e i n t h e p r o g r e s s i v e e d u c a t i o n m o v e m e n t. B u i l d i n g on v a r i o u s s p o r a d i c r e f o r m s t h a t h a d b e en i n i t i a t e d , he d e v e l o p e d a new p s y c h o l o g y o f l e a r n i n g a n d l o g i c o f t h i n k i n g a n d l a i d dow n t h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s t h a t m ade i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e new e d u c a t i o n
205 to d e v e lo p and p r o s p e r . P r o b l e m - s o l v i n g o w e s m u ch t o D e w e y . m ad e I t
a te rm f a m i l i a r t o a l l e d u c a to rs #
It
w a s h e who
In I t s
m eth o d s
a n d a im s p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g i s b a s e d up o n a n a t u r a l i s t i c a n d
^
p r a g m a t i c p h i l o s o p h y w i t h w h i c h m any m o d e r n e d u c a t o r s do n o t ag ree.
They f e e l t h a t
in
its
in
tra d itio n .
its
th e ap p ro ach i s
to o n arro w and
a d h e r e n c e t o e m p i r i c i s m o v e r l o o k s m u ch t h a t i s g o o d B u t a c c o r d i n g t o Dewey, p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g I n
r i c h e s t c o n n o ta tio n i s
‘ P e d a g o g u e ’ s C reed*
t h e w ay t o l e a r n .
In h is
he s ta te s :
. • . Id eas ( in te lle c tu a l and r a tio n a l p ro cesses) a ls o r e s u l t fro m a c t i o n and e v o lv e f o r th e sak e o f th e b e t t e r c o n tr o l o f a c tio n * W hat we t e r m r e a s o n i s p r i m a r ily th e la w o f o r d e r l y o r e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n , To a t te m p t to d e v e lo p t h e r e a s o n in g p o w e rs, t h e p o w e r o f ju d g m e n t w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o th e s e l e c t i o n a n d a r ran g em en t o f m eans in a c tio n , I s th e fu n d a m e n ta l f a l . l a c y I n o u r p r e s e n t m eth o d s o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h e m a t t e r . 7 hope o f th e f u tu r e r e s t s to h is
so c ie ty .
in a d ju s tin g
th e le a rn e r
T h ere I s hope t h a t c l e a r e r i n s i g h t g a in e d
b y m e a n i n g f u l p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g w i l l a i d t h e e d u c a t e d man t o b e t t e r h im se lf and h is
so c ie ty *
D ew ey b e l i e v e s t h a t im
pro vem en t r e s u l t s fro m e d u c a tio n , b u t t h a t t h i s m ust be s c i e n t i f i c in q u iry in to
life
is
a fo reg o n e c o n c lu sio n .
p ro b le m s sh o u ld be th e b a s i s
e d u c a tio n
S c ie n tific fo r a ll
R a t n e r , f o r e w o r d i n D ew ey’ s I n t e l l i g e n c e M odem W o rld , o p . c i t * , p . 1 6 .
Dewey, E d u c a tio n Today, o p . c i t . , p . 31*
in th e
206 sound t h e o r i e s o f le a r n in g . V III.
SUMMARY
T h i s c h a p t e r r e v i e w e d t h e c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h m ade u p t h e m odern s c e n e i n e d u c a t i o n . trib u to ry
fa c e ts in to
By p i e c i n g t o g e t h e r t h e c o n
one b ro a d p a t t e r n ,
m eth o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v in g w as d raw n . w as p o s s i b l e .
Ho c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e
The p u r p o s e o f t h e c h a p t e r w a s t o d r a w u p a
g e n e r a l s u r v e y o f m odern p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , to
a p ic t u r e of th e
su g g est th e needs in
and, i f
p o ss ib le ,
th is area fo r fu rth e r p u rsu it.
n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l p r e s e n t a c r i t i q u e o f p ro b le m -so lv in g *
T he
CHAPTER V I I I CRITIQUE OF PROBLEM-SOLVINO In tro d u c tio n *
The p r e c e d i n g
p i e c e t o g e t h e r fro m th e o f th e scene.
c o m p o s ite f a c t o r s a c o h e r e n t v iew
s t a t u s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g T h is c h a p te r ,
c h a p te r a tte m p te d to
in
in
th e m od ern A m e ric an
ag reem en t w ith th e c o n c e p t o f con
t i n u i t y , w i l l a tte m p t an e v a lu a tio n o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g . c h a p te r i s d iv id e d in to
th re e d is tin c t
T he
s e c tio n s f o r th e p u r
pose of t h is e v a lu a tio n . The f i r s t
se c tio n
of
th e
c h a p te r w i l l a n a ly z e th e
f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v in g m eth o d , n a m e ly , o f of s c ie n tific p o stu la te s;
in q u iry ,
t h e m e th -
in o r d e r to d e te rm in e th e b a s ic
p a r t tw o w i l l p r e s e n t a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e con
c e p t s o f t h e l e a d i n g m od ern p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n d i r e c t ence to p ro b le m -so lv in g ;
th e t h i r d p a r t w i l l d e a l w ith th e
e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a c t u a l l y m ade i n t h e f i e l d . w i l l be n o te d t h a t th e r e s e a rc h In t h i s
refer
is
It
an u n f o r tu n a te d e a r t h o f r e
s p e c i f i c a r e a a n d m u ch f u r t h e r I n v e s t i g a t i o n
a p p ears n e c e ssa ry . I. It
THE METHOD OF S C IE N T IF IC INQUIRY
h a s b e e n e m p h a s iz e d t h a t no r e a l d ic h o to m y o b t a i n s
b e tw e e n I n d u c t i o n a n d d e d u c t io n a n d t h a t t h e s e d i v i s i o n s have been s e t up a r b i t r a r i l y .
H ow ever, t h e f i e l d o f
208 re a so n in g
a s a w h o le i s
d e sc rib e s
th is
n o t c le a r ly d e fin e d .
M o n ro e
in d e c is io n :
W h a te v e r s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s t h e n a t u r e o f “ m e n t a l ” a n d ” P s y c h o l o g i c a l 11 v a r i e s w i t h t h e v a r i o u s c o n c e p t i o n s o f 11m i n d ” a n d “ p s y c h o l o g y . ” F u n d a m e n t a l l y , m i n d h a s b e e n c o n c e i v e d o f a s 9 s u b s t a n c e , 11 a s “ p r o c e s s ,” a s ”r e l a t i o n , ” a s 9i n t e n t i o n a l a c t , ” a s “ s u b s t a n t i v e , 1* a n d a s nf u n c t i o n . M ost p s y c h o l o g i s t s a r e a g r e e d t h a t t h i n k i n g , c a l l e d h ig h e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s , i s
a to ta l p a tte rn
o f an o n -g o in g a c t i v i t y
th a n a s t a t i c
n a tu re of r e f le c tio n
u n d e c id e d an d th e
is
in c o n tro v e rsy .
N e v e rth e le ss,
an d to e x p e d ite th e tific
in q u iry
a n d m o re
The r e a l
i s s u e a s a w h o le
f o r p u rposes of d isc u ssio n
p ro g ress of th is in v e s tig a tio n ,
i s d e fin e d
g a th e re d by th e su b je c ts
is
e n tity .
o r so-
a s a m eth o d w h ic h u t i l i z e s
sc ie n th e d a ta
s e n s e a p p a r a t u s fro m e x p e r ie n c e a n d th e n
th e se to
e m p iric a l J u s tif ic a tio n *
The p r o c e s s i s
o n e o f i n d u c t i o n w hereb y one I n v e s t i g a t e s p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s f o r th e p u rp o se o f d ra w in g g e n e r a l b u t t e n t a t i v e ru le s fo r a p p lic a tio n . That i t
is
by th e fo llo w in g
p a r t o f a c o m p lex p r o c e s s i s
a tte s te d
to
s ta te m e n t:
H ig h e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s : T h e m e a n i n g o f “ m e n t a l 11 a n d “ h i g h e r ” m u st b e c l a r i f i e d a s a m eans o f d e l i m i t in g t h i s to p ic . “ M e n t a l 11 r e f e r s t o a p r o c e s s o f a p s y c h o lo g ic a l n a tu r e — s e n s in g , p e r c e iv in g , im a g in in g ,
*** W a l t e r S . M o n r o e , e d i t o r , T he E n c y c l o p e d i a o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h (New Y o r k : T h e M a c m i l l a n C o m p any, 19*KU , p . 5 7 1 .
209 re m e m b e rin g , t h in k i n g * ju d g in g , w i l l i n g a n d th e l i k e . 2 W ith t h e f i e l d o f t h i n k i n g d e a rth o f e m p iric a l l i t e r a t u r e f a c e s o b v io u s d i f f i c u l t i e s . s u b s ta n tia te
a p o s itio n ,
If
It,
a c ritiq u e
th e r e i s a la c k o f d a ta to
th a t p o s itio n
a s D ew ey s t a t e s
fe e lin g ,
in c o n te n tio n and a
on t h e s u b j e c t ,
The n a t u r e o f i n d u c t i o n . re a so n in g ,
re a so n in g ,
is
none to o s e c u re .
The s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d o f Is
co n cern ed w ith :
. . . a s c e r ta in in g th e c o n ju n c tio n s o f c h a r a c te r is t i c t r a i t s w h ic h d e s c r i p t i v e l y d e te r m in e k i n d s I n r e l a t i o n to one a n o th e r, and w ith th e I n t e r r e l a t i o n s o f c h a r a c t e r s c o n s t i t u t i n g a b s t r a c t c o n d i t i o n s o f w id e a p p l i c a b i 1 i t y .3 In o th e r w ords, c ism ,
is
sc ie n tific
In q u iry ,
a m e th o d w h ic h r e s t s upon d o u b t a n d q u e s t i o n i n g .
Q u e stio n s a re a sk e d c o n c e rn in g c e r t a i n are
te s te d e m p iric a lly .
‘g e n e ra l p r in c ip le s ,*
S c ie n tific s o le ly upon th e
phenom ena an d th e s e
T h e r e c a n b e no m ere a c c e p t a n c e o f
o r lo g ic in
th e A r i s t o t e l i a n
u n i v e r s a l law s p r e c e d in g p a r t i c u l a r In q u iry i s
sense o f
in sta n c e s.
e m p iric a lly gro u n d ed , r e ly in g
s e n s e s a n d w hat e v id e n c e th e y c an b r i n g un
a id e d o r w ith th e h e lp o f s c i e n t i f i c
2
b o rn o f s k e p ti
a p p a ra tu s.
In d u c tio n
M onroe, l o c > c l t .
^ J o h n D ew ey, I n t e l l i g e n c e ( J o s e p h R a t n e r , e d i t o r ; New Y o r k : p . 913-
i n t h e M odern W o rld The M odem L i b r a r y ,
1939)>
u s e s m e c h a n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e w henever p o s s ib le t o a i d in d isc lo s in g f a c ts .
In
e d u c a tio n t h i s u se o f in d u c tio n has
m eant e m p h a sis upon t e s t i n g , n a ire
in r e s e a r c h and a l l
tific
e d u c a tio n .
c o n tr o l g ro u p s,
th e
q u e stio n
th e o t h e r a c c o u tre m e n ts o f s c ie n
A g a i n D ew ey s t a t e s :
“In d u c tio n ® . . . i s a p sy c h o lo g ic a l p ro c e ss , a l th o u g h n o t i n t h e s u b j e c t i v e s e n s e o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l w h i c h h a s c o n t r o l l e d s o m uch o f m o d e r n s p e c u l a t i o n . T he p r o c e s s i n q u e s t i o n i s r a t h e r b i o l o g i c a l a n d t h e b i o l o g i c a l i s an a c t u a l i z a t i o n o f th e c o s m o lo g ic a l. I t i s , a c c o rd in g ly , p erh ap s b e t t e r to th in k o f i t as a p e d a g o g ic a l p r o c e s s i n w h ic h c e r t a i n s e l e c t p e r s o n s I n whom t h e p o t e n t i a l i t y o f r e a s o n i s b r o u g h t t o a c t u a l ity . . . I n Dewey* s t h e o r y o f i n d u c t i o n ,
t h e s e “ s e l e c t 11 p e o
p l e i n whom p o t e n t i a l r e a s o n h a s b e c o m e a c t u a l t h r o u g h com p re h e n s io n o f th e fo rm s In h e r e n t in are
th e o b je c ts o f e x p e rie n c e
“l e d up t o o r in d u c e d to a p p re h e n d u n i v e r s a l e w h ic h have
been n e c e s s a rily
In v o lv e d ,
a ll
th e tim e ,
in
sense q u a litie s
and o b je c ts o f e m p iric a l p e rc e p tio n . H ere i s
th e v e ry essen ce o f s c i e n t if i c
i n t h e m e a n in g i s
q u ite lu c id .
I n q u i r y w here
T h o u g h t , f o r D ew ey,
is a •
p r o c e s s i n h e r e n t i n t h e m i n d , r e a d y w h e r e v e r ana. w h e n e v e r a ro u sed by th e p ro p e r s tim u li. to
a r e a l i z a t i o n o f th o se
n a tu re .
I b id ., p.
918
In
t h i s w ay t h e m i n d i s l e d
g en eral p rin c ip le s
In trin s ic
in
211 In d e fe n s e o f th e
e x p e r im e n ta l m eth o d .
e r s have i n s i s t e d t h a t a s c a t i o n a l a d v an c em en t,
Many t h i n k
a p r e r e q u is ite f o r g e n e r a l edu
nth e e d u c a to r u n d e rs ta n d f u l l y
th e
c o n d i t i o n s a n d m e t h o d s o f hum an e x p e r i e n c e a s a s p e c i a l f i e l d o f r e s e a r c h . 11^
T h is q u o t a t i o n i s fro m
l o g i c i a n s who h a v e t r e a t e d tiv e ly *
T hese w r i t e r s
fu n c tio n s
th e p ro b lem o f th in k in g
fe lt
is
In c lu d in g th e p h ilo s o p h y o f
wt h e e p i s t e m o i o g l c a l p r o b l e m o f d i s c o v e r i n g ,
e v a lu a tin g and h a rm o n iz in g th e v a r io u s t e s t s They s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s fe c tiv e ly
exhaus
t h a t o n e o f th e m o st I m p o r ta n t
o f a l l p h ilo s o p h y ,
e d u c a tio n ,
t h e w o rk o f tw o
fu n c tio n
of tru th .
I s a c c o m p lish e d m ost e f
t h r o u g h t h e m eth o d o f p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i m e n t a t io n .
In a d d itio n
to th e s e w o rk e rs,
d e fe n d e rs of th e s c i e n t i f i c n o t doubt to d a y ,
in
sp ite
t h e r e h a v e b e e n m any
m eth o d o f i n q u i r y .
of an y .c ritic is m ,
T h ere i s
t h a t t h i s m eth
od h as m a t e r i a ll y a s s i s t e d th e advance of te c h n o lo g y in th is
and o th e r c o u n trie s .
safe
to sa y ,
In f a c t,
I t w o u ld b e
m uch o f t h e p r o g r e s s w o u ld n o t h a v e o c c u r r e d .
As h a s b e e n n o t e d ,
i n d u c t i o n i s a h i g h l y a m b ig u o u s
t e r m w hen l o o k e d a t b y I t s e l f . fo r d iffe re n t
w ith o u t i t ,
a reas.
6
It
h a s d i f f e r e n t m e a n in g s
To a p s y c h o l o g i s t ,
fo r In sta n c e ,
it
D. L u t h e r E v a n s a n d W a l t e r S . G - a m e r t s f e l d e r , L o g i c , T h e o r e t i c a l a n d A p p l i e d (N ew Y o r k : D o u b le d ay D o ra n a n d G om pany, 1 9 3 7 ) 7 p* ^ 1 6 . 7
L oc. c i t .
212 m eans one t h i n g , R o b in so n ,
to
h o w ev er,
an e c o n o m ist a n o t h e r ,
a n d s o on*
s ta te s:
W h ile t h e t e r m i n d u c t i o n w as u s e d b y A r i s t o t l e , a n d a c e r t a i n fo rm o f i n d u c t i v e p r o c e d u r e w as r e c o g n iz e d b y t h e m e d ie v a l sc h o o lm e n , i n d u c t i v e l o g i c i n th e m odern s e n s e o f t h e w o rd r e a l l y b e g a n a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s e m p lo y e d i n m ak in g t h e d is c o v e ry o f th e e x a c t e x p e rim e n ta l sc ie n c e s* T h is p h ilo s o p h e r i n s i s t s does n o t e x is t a lo n e .
It
is
th a t
p art o f
in d u c tio n can n o t and th e
sam e p r o c e s s a l o n g
w ith d e d u c tio n b o t h o f w h ic h e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r i b u t e le a rn in g .
R o b in so n
says,
ttT h e tw o w a y s o f p r o c e e d i n g a r e
n o t a n t a g o n i s t i c b u t s u p p l e m e n t a r y . 119 o f m ost t h i n k e r s t h a t d e d u c tio n i s
It
is
th e concensus
p re s e n t in
f o r t h i n k i n g m u s t b e g i n w i t h some a s s u m p t i o n s , im p lie d .
a ll
th in k in g ,
s ta te d or
B ut t h a t a l l k n o w le d g e b e g i n s i n e x p e r i e n c e i s
v i g o r o u s l y d e f e n d e d b y D ew ey who a s s e r t s , tre a tis e
to
I n h i s fam ous
on l o g i c a s a m e th o d o f i n q u i r y :
N o th in g so f a t a l t o s c i e n c e can be im a g in e d a s e lim in a tio n o f e x p e rim e n ta tio n , and e x p e rim e n ta tio n i s a fo rm o f d o in g a n d m ak in g . A p p lic a tio n o f c o n c e p tio n s a n d h y p o th e s e s t o e x i s t e n t i a l m a t t e r s th r o u g h th e m ed iu m o f d o i n g a n d m a k i n g i s a n i n t r i n s i c c o n s t i t u e n t o f s c i e n t if i c m e th o d .^
D a n i e l S . R o b i n s o n , T he P r i n c i p l e s o f R e a s o n in g : (New Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y C om pany, 19365"* P* 203* ^ I b i d . , p* 205 *
Y ork:
10 J o h n D e w e y , L o g i c : T h e T h e o r y o f I n q u i r y H e n ry H o l t a n d C om pany, 1 9 3 8 ) , p . ^39*
(New
In f u r th e r d efen se
o f h is t h e s is th a t e x p e rie n c e i s
th e m a tr ix o u t o f w h ic h s c i e n t i f i c
in q u ir y m ust e v o lv e ,
Dewey m a i n t a i n s t h a t t o t a k e a n y o t h e r c o u r s e k n o w le d g e w o u ld b e i n i m i c a l t o sc ie n tific
in q u iry .
In te llig e n tly ca t io n .
in se e k in g
sc ie n c e and a n ta g o n is tic to
He b a s e s h i s p h i l o s o p h y o n e x p e r i e n c e
c o n t r o l l e d a n d u s e d f o r som e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i -
I n m any d i f f e r e n t w a y s t h e r e
ap p ears
w r i t i n g s t h i s p o lem ic a g a i n s t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s h i s own s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d s .
i n 'Dewey* s as opposed to
In e x p lic a tio n o f th is b ia s
Dewey c o n t i n u e s : D o g m a tic r e s t r i c t i o n o f s c i e n c e to g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s c o m p e ls d e n i a l o f s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h s a n d v a lu e t o e v e r y fo rm o f p r a c t i c e . I t o b lite r a te s , lo g ic a lly , th e en o rm o u s d i f f e r e n c e t h a t e x i s t s b e tw e e n a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a r e r o u t i n e a n d th o s e t h a t a r e i n t e l l i g e n t ; b e tw e e n a c tio n d i c t a t e d by c a p r ic e , an d th e c o n d u ct o f a c t s t h a t em body t e c h n o l o g i e s , a n d t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f e x p r e s s i n g s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t e s t e d i d e a s . 11 H ere t h e n ,
c a n b e sum m ed u p t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e b a s e s
o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g . d e fin e d ,
It
a s opposed to
d eal of i t
i s o b v io u s.
a s e x p r e s s e d by I t s
is
th e
i n d u c t i v e m eth o d , a r b i t r a r i l y
d e d u c tio n .
T he v a l u e
A r e v i e w o f som e o f
of a g reat th e w e a k n e sse s,
o p p o n e n ts , w i l l f o llo w a f t e r a d i s c u s
sio n o f th e a re a s o f in d u c tio n .
A r e b u t t a l d raw n fro m
Dewey* s w r i t i n g s w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d l a t e r i n V a r io u s m e a n in g s o f I n d u c t i o n .
th e c h a p te r .
The t e r m
‘ in d u c tio n *
21k h as been d iv id e d in to
t h r e e o r m ore w e l l - d e f i n e d a r e a s b y
c e r t a i n w r i t e r s who f e e l t h a t t h e t e r m b y I t s e l f e n u m e ra tio n , e lim in a tio n and s c i e n t i f i c
i s vague:
a n a ly sis.
T hese
t h r e e f a c e t s o f t h e I n d u c t i v e m eth o d h a v e b e e n so l i m i t e d and d e sig n a te d because of th e n a tu re of th e f i e l d s th e y a re u sed .
I n d u c t i o n b y s i m p l e e n u m e r a t i o n Mi s
p ro c e ss o f fo rm u la tin g p o sitiv e
i n w h ic h
a g e n e ra liz a tio n
th e
on t h e b a s i s o f
i n s t a n c e s . 11*^
In d u c tio n by e lim in a tio n i s
a m eth o d w h ic h a t t e m p t s
to r e d u c e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f a n y g iv e n phenom enon t o f r o m am ong m a n y .
In d u c tio n by s c i e n t i f i c
one la w
a n a ly sis Is a
m eth o d w h ereb y a n i n v e s t i g a t o r In a c h o s e n f i e l d
su b je c ts:
. . . a v a rie ty o f In sta n c e s to c a re fu l a n a ly s is or e v en t o e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , a n d b y c o m p a rin g a n d s t u d y i n g th e r e s u l t s , u n t i l th e u n d e rly in g sy s te m , o f w h ic h th e in s ta n c e s and t h e i r e le m e n ts a r e a l l fra g m e n ts , i s f i n a l l y b r o u g h t to l i g h t a n d f o r m u la te d a s a la w . ^ T h ese t h r e e m eth o d s o f i n d u c t i o n h av e b e e n e x t e n s i v e ly used in a l l
th e
sc ie n c e s.
c e n t l y becom e on e o f i t s
E d u c a tio n ,
p erh ap s,
g r e a te s t a d h e re n ts.
has re
E n u m e ra tio n
a s a m eth o d o f i n d u c t i o n h a s b e e n u s e d f o r s t a t i s t i c s ;
in
d u c tio n by e lim in a tio n h as been u sed In th e s o c i a l f i e l d , p a rtic u la rly is
e d u c a tio n ,
and f o r th e p h y sic a l sc ie n c e s th e re
t h e m eth o d o f s c i e n t i f i c
12
a n a ly sis.
H o b in so n , p p . c i t . , p . Ib id . , p. 211.
210.
H ow ever, a l l t h r e e
215 f i e l d s o f I n d u c t i o n m erge i n t o one a n o t h e r a n d a n y o n e o r a l l may b e u s e d i n a n y o n e d i s c i p l i n e . in sta n c e ,
S ta tis tic s ,
fo r
i s u s e d In p r a c t i c a l l y e v e ry f i e l d .
In d efen se o f d e d u c tio n . a l sch o o l of th in k in g d u c t i v e m eth o d .
A d h e re n ts o f
th e t r a d i t i o n
s e e so m e o b v i o u s w e a k n e s s e s i n
They s a y t h a t a l l
in d u c tiv e
th e in
in fe re n c e s
h a v e some g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s
d e riv e d d e d u c tiv e ly
o r n o t.
o u t t h is p u rp o rte d gap a s fo llo w s:
R o b in so n s i n g l e s
w h e th e r s t a t e d
. . . e v e r y s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n m akes a d e f i n i t e a ssu m p tio n a s to th e w o rld o f f a c t s . T h is a ssu m p tio n I s a t th e b ack g ro u n d o f a l l s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h , even t h o u g h t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n v e s t i g a t o r may n o t b e c o n s c i o u s o f i t s p r e s e n c e i n h i s own t h i n k i n g . T hus, t h e r e
seem s to
be an a ssu m p tio n on th e p a r t
o f t h e i n d u c t i o n i s t w h i c h l e a d s h im t o b e l i e v e b a sic p o s tu la te s o f h is th e o rie s are v a lid . t a k e s th e m f o r g r a n t e d , n o t c o n s i d e r th em .
t h a t th e
He e i t h e r
o r e v e n a s t h e c a s e m ay b e , d o e s
But to
Ig n o re th e s e a ssu m p tio n s d o es
n o t t h e n m ake t h e m v a n i s h I n t o t h i n a i r .
The i n d u e t i o n l s t
h a s no s u c h m a g ic w o r d s . In re fu ta tio n a ssu m in g t h a t
o f Dew ey.
a l l l e a r n in g m ust b e g in w ith e x p e r ie n c e ,
seem s t o b e b e g g in g th e its e lf
q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e re t h e m eth o d
had g o t su c h k n o w le d g e.
1^
The s c i e n t i f i c m e th o d , b y
I b i d . , p. 216.
D ew ey h a s i n s i s t e d
upon
216 th is p o in t,
a s q u o t e d m an y t i m e s i n
th is
in v e s tig a tio n .
R o b in so n a t t a c k s t h e l o o p h o l e i n D ew ey’ s i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t l c le a rn in g
th e o ry .
He s t a t e s
th a t th is
th e o r y a d v o c a te d by
Dewey s o u n d s w e l l , b u t c a n n o t s t a n d u p t o c r i t i c i s m .
In
s tr u m e n ta lis m , R o b in so n w r i t e s : . . . i n v o l v e s s u e h s t a t e m e n t s a s t h e s e ( l ) t h a t we c a n v e r i f y a l l th o s e o f o u r I d e a s , w h ic h a r e t r u e ; ( 2 ) ' t h a t a l l t h o s e am ong o u r I d e a s w h i c h we c a n v e r i f y a r e t r u e ; (3 ) t h a t a l l o u r t r u e i d e a s a r e u s e f u l ; (k) t h a t a l l th o s e o f o u r i d e a s , w h ic h a r e u s e f u l , a r e t r u e ; ( 5 ) t h a t b e l i e f s may b e t r u e a t o n e t i m e , a n d n o t t r u e a t a n o t h e r ; ( 6 ) t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s n o t o n l y m ake t h e i r b e l i e f s , b u t t h a t t h e y m ak e t h e m t r u e . I t i s v ery easy t o show t h a t a l l o f t h e s e a s s e r t i o n s a r e f a l s e ; a n d y e t th e I n s tr u m e n ta l th e o ry o f t r u t h c o u n ts i t s a d v a n ta g e t o m a s t e r i n g t h e m . 3-5 D ew ey’ s t h e o r y o f
t h e m in d a s I n s t r u m e n t h a s l e d t o
h i s p h ilo s o p h y o f p ra g m a tism .
T h is p h ilo s o p h y i s
i n a l l h i s w o r k o n how hum an b e i n g s t h i n k . h i s a s s u m p t i o n s may n o t h o l d u p i n f a c t u a l e v id e n c e to
th e c o n tra ry I s
m a in ta in e d by R o b in so n stric tly
e m p iris tic
V ie w s o f t h e s e o p p o n e n ts a r e n e x t p r e s e n t e d . The w e a k n e s s e s o f i n d u c t i o n .
Q u ite a few t h in k e r s
In e d u c a tio n a s w e ll a s i n
o th e r f ie ld s ,
m e th o d o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n ,
by i t s e l f ,
tio n .
T h a t som e o f
th e l i g h t o f stro n g
a s w e ll a s by o t h e r o p p o n e n ts o f t h e sc h o o l.
im p lic it
If
h o ld t h a t th e
is g u ilty
u s e d w h o lly In t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i t
I b i d ., p. 217.
o f presum p* n e g le c ts
217 to to o
acco u n t f o r th e
o b v io u s g e n e r a l i z a t io n
s ta n d s a n d o u t o f w h ic h i t d e v e lo p s .
upon w h ic h i t It
may e v e n a s s u m e
t h i n g s w h ic h a r e n o t t r u e . F u rth e r,
it
is
h e ld ,
th e re a re
some a r e a s o f t h o u g h t
i n w h ic h t h e r e
o b t a i n s su c h c o m p le x ity t h a t
by d e f i n i t i o n ,
i s n e ith e r fe a sib le
o f hum an r e l a t i o n s
th e re a re
s e p a r a tio n even
nor v a lid .
In th e a re a s
s o m any f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d t h a t
p u re i n d u c tio n m ust o f a n e c e s s i t y
fa ll.
H ib b e n s t a t e s :
The f o r c e s m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e p r o c e s s e s o f v i t a l g ro w th a re e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t to d e te rm in e by e x p e r i m en t, f o r t h e y o n ly o p e r a t e a n d p ro d u c e c e r t a i n o t h e r e f f e c t s in a p ro c e s s o f c o n tin u o u s c o n s tr u c tio n . . . . M o re o v er, t h e la w s o f d e v e lo p m e n t a r e f u r t h e r q u a l i fie d by e x te rn a l th in g s . The r e s u l t o f t h e I n n e r f o r c e s a n d o u t e r i n f l u e n c e s w o rk in g t o g e t h e r c o m p lic a te s t h e p r o b le m to s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t p u r e I n d u c t i v e m eth o d s a r e w e l l - n i g h i m p o s s i b l e o f a p p l i c a t i o n . 3-6 T h is q u o ta tio n e x e m p lif ie s th e b e l i e f d is a g re e w ith th e in d u c tiv e
o f m any who
and e x p e r i m e n t a l m eth o d .
m e th o d , when a p p l i e d t o c h i l d r e n p a r t i c u l a r l y , ig n o re
th e f a c t t h a t
T he
seem s t o
such I n d iv id u a ls a re in a c o n sta n t
p r o c e s s o f d e v e lo p m e n t.
The p r o c e d u r a l c o n c e p t o f l i f e
is
m ore o b v i o u s d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d b e c a u s e o f t h e m a n i f e s t c h a n g e s o c c u rrin g .
T he p r o b l e m o f l e a r n i n g h e r e
p le x and i s n o t
so lv e d ,
a c c o rd in g
is
e x t r e m e l y com
to th e c r i t i c s ,
m e re ly by
e x p e r im e n ta l m eth o d s.
l6
J o h n d r i e r ,H i b b e n , L o g i c — I n d u c t i v e a n d D e d u c t i v e (New Y o r k : C h a rle s S c r ib n e r s Sons, 1 9 1 0 ), p . 376.
218 T he f i e l d a p ro b le m i n
o f e d u c a tio n in p a r t i c u l a r p r e s e n ts
t h a t th e l e a r n e r a n d th e
m ake u p a n i n e x t r i c a b l e
p a tte rn .
It
such
o b je c ts of le a rn in g is
ra th e r d if f ic u lt
t o p i n down t h e
exact s ta rtin g
cess.
su c h a h ig h d e g re e o f c o m p le x ity and su c h
T h ere i s
p o in t f o r th e le a r n in g pro
w id e r a m i f i c a t i o n s t h a t a n y a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n tin u u m i n te rm s o f in d u c tio n
seem s to
B o lste rin g th is
i n v a l i d a t e t h e w h o le a t t e m p t .
i d e a o f th e w h o le n e ss o f le a rn in g *
t h e G e s t a l t t h e o r y h o l d s t h a t l e a r n i n g i s n o t m ade u p o f d i s c r e t e f a c t o r s i n f e r e n t i a l l y g ra sp e d by th e
senses.
t h e o r y h o l d s t h a t l e a r n i n g com es t h r o u g h i n s i g h t , f o r w h ic h th e y g i v e no c l e a r e x p l a n a t i o n ,
T h is
a p ro cess
b u t w h ic h g r a s p s
th e Im p o rt o f a g iv e n num ber o f phenom ena a n d m akes i t an i n t e l l i g i b l e
w h o le .
In in d u c tio n t h i s c o n n o ta tio n i s
la b o rio u s:
th a t of s ta rtin g
c o n tro llin g
th e m s c i e n t i f i c a l l y .
le a rn in g
in to
c a r e f u l l y w ith in sta n c e s -. and W ith th e G e s t a l t i s t s ,
o c c u r s s u d d e n l y b y some s t r a n g e p o w e r o f i n s i g h t .
A d v a n ta g e s o f d e d u c tio n .
In
c o n tra s t to
in g d i s c r e t e n e s s o f t h e i n d u c t i v e m eth o d ,
th e
G a rm ic h ae l
se em says:
Among t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f a d e d u c t i v e e x p o s i t i o n o f s c i e n c e b a s e d on a s y s te m o f p o s t u l a t e s i s an i m p o r t a n t o n e t o w h i c h we m u s t g i v e some a t t e n t i o n . I t e n a b le s u s to l o c a l i z e t h e d o u b t i n c a s e t h e su p p o s e d la w s o f phenom ena l e a d to c o n t r a d i c t i o n w ith e m p ir ic a l f a c t o r m e re ly to c o n c l u s i o n s w h ic h a r e m u tu a lly c o n t r a d i c t o r y among t h e m s e l v e s . 17
R i c h a r d D. C a r m i c h a e l , T h e L o g i c o f D i s c o v e r y (C h ic a g o : T he O pen C o u r t P u b l i s h i n g C om pany, 1 9 3 ° ) * P* ®7*
219 The d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s w h ic h o b t a i n i n an y p a r t i c u l a r in s ta n c e ,
it
seem s upon i n s p e c t i o n ,
in d u c tiv e ly * are
c an n o t be d e te rm in e d
T h e f a c t o r s w h i c h a r e p a r t o f a. l a r g e r , w h o l e
in th e m se lv e s p a r t s o f o th e r t o t a l i t i e s — an i n f i n i t e
s e r i e s o f m i c r o c o s m s w i t h i n m ic r o c o s m s *
The i n h e r e n t
stru c
tu re
o f in d u c tio n p r e c lu d e s th e p o s s i b i l i t y
o f an e x p la n a
tio n
o f t h o s e p r i n c i p l e s Ttfhich a r e t h e v e r y s u b s t a n c e o f
any p a r t i c u l a r in s ta n c e . On t h e c o n t r a r y * d e d u c t i v e d e fin itio n f o r m s th em *
th e o ry p re su p p o se s th e
o f th o s e p r i n c i p l e s and o f th e
1s t u f f
w h ic h
A f t e r c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f any phenom ena,
th e re : . * . re m a in s th e p ro b lem , n o t to be o v e rlo o k e d , o f e x p l a i n i n g t h a t w h i c h i s common t o a l l t h e i n s t a n c e s , and fro m w hence t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d u c t i o n d re w i t s g en e ra liz a tio n s* B u t i n so d o in g t h e r e i s a t a c i t assu m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e d o e s e x i s t a c o m m o n a lity , a c o n n e c tin g l i n k to a l l t h e s e p r o b l e m s . ^ T hrough t h i s p e rfo rc e b ro u g h t in . p rio ri fa c to rs
a s s u m p t i o n m any d i f f e r e n t
p ro b le m s a re
T h i s p o i n t i s m ade b y K a n t*
are b ro u g h t to
th e th in k in g p r o c e s s ,
W hat a g ra n te d
t h a t a l l th in k in g b e g in s in e x p e rie n c e ?
T h e re a lw a y s r e
m a i n s t h e g a p o f a s s u m i n g how e x p e r i e n c e
i s known t o b e so
a ll-in c lu s iv e ,
a n d fro m w hence i t
a n d i n f e r e n t i a l pow ers.
18 I b i d . , p . 89-
draw s i t s
d is c rim in a tin g
220 P erh ap s a l l s ta te
th a t
s t r u c t u r e s o r s y s te m s o f l e a r n i n g w h ic h
th o u g h t can be e q u a te d w ith s c i e n t i f i c
r e s t on p r e c a r i o u s g ro u n d . a im o f
sc ie n tific
To s a y ,
c o rd in g to h is
a s Dewey d o e s ,
in q u iry o r in d u c tio n i s
su m in g a g r e a t d e a l w h ic h r e s t s
in q u iry t h a t th e
p ra g m a tic i s a s
upon u n te n a b le g ro u n d s, a c
c ritic s .
One c r i t i c
re p lie s
in t h is fa sh io n :
To g r a n t t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e common p r a g m a t i c f o r m u l a f o r t h e a im o f s c i e n c e — n a m e ly p r e d i c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l , a n d a c c o r d i n g l y t o a c c e p t P r o f e s s o r D e w e y 1s t h e o r i e s . . . i s i n p r i n c i p l e t o d en y t o k n o w le d g e , e s p e c i a l l y t o s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e , a n y m e a n i n g o n i t s own a c c o u n t , i . e . , a s a s p e c if ic c o n tr ib u tio n to o u r u n d e rsta n d in g o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s i n c l u d i n g o u r s e l v e s . **-9 In
sc ie n tific
in q u iry th e re
is
p e r h a p s t o o m u c h em
p h a s is p la c e d upon i t s
fu n c tio n a s in q u iry .
th a t
c o n cern ed w ith th e
th e m eth o d i s
v e stig a tio n ,
to o
to
say,
te c h n iq u e o f in
th e re b y p a s s in g over th e r e a l l y
of g e n e ra liz in g .
That is
im p o rta n t f a c e t s
T h ere d o e s n o t seem to be en o u g h a t t e n t i o n
p a i d to w h a t m ig h t b e c a l l e d th e
r a tio n a l b a s is o f th e f a c ts
under in v e s tig a tio n . It
i s p o ssib le
th a t th e re
is
to o c lo s e
to th e se e k in g o u t o f fa G ts to th e d e trim e n t th e m se lv e s. c e rta in
T h ere
i s a ls o
of th e
an o b l i g a t i o n i n i n q u i r y
th e b a s is o f th o se f a c t s ,
19
an a d h e re n c e fa c te to
as
n o t o n l y t o d i s c o v e r th e m .
/ H a r o l d H. S m a r t , T h e L o g i c o f S c i e n c e (New Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n a n d C o m pany, 1 9 3 1 )> P* 2 .
221 I n i n d u c t i o n t h e c h i e f a im i e sense d a ta .
T here i s
little
o t h e r f a c t o r s m ak in g u p t h e th e o th e r hand, a t l e a s t
to d e s c rib e th e
o b je c ts of
o r n o c o n c e r n w i t h some o f t h e to ta l p a tte rn .
D e d u c tio n ,
t r i e s w henever p o s s ib le
on
t o m ake
th e d a ta o f e x p e rie n c e i n t e l l i g i b l e . The m e th o d o f i n d u c t i o n a p p a r e n t l y d e l i m i t s to
th e f a c t s
a n o th e r.
th e m s e lv e s a n d t o t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h one
One o f t h e o b v i o u s w e a k n e s s e s i n
q u iry i s
in q u iry
in i t s
s c ie n tific
i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t no h i g h e r k n o w l e d g e c a n
t r a n s c e n d t h a t k n o w le d g e d e r i v e d fro m e x p e r i e n c e .
R o b in so n
s u g g e s t s t h a t a n y k n o w le d g e i s b u t p a r t o f a g r e a t e r , th a t
so lu tio n s
in
to p ro b le m s a r e in
c o n tin u u m .
and
He s t a t e s :
W h ile , how ever I n v e s t i g a t i o n s t a r t s w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r p ro b le m , th o u g h t o f s e r i a l l y a n d n o t c o n c e iv e d a s p a r t s o f a w h o le , th e s o l u t i o n o f one p ro b lem w i l l y e t l e a d t o a n o t h e r , so m e tim e s a s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o t h e r , f o r I t s own s o l u t i o n , o r s o m e t i m e s b e c a u s e I t n e e d s t h a t o t h e r f o r i t s own s o l u t i o n . ^ T hrough t h i s
i m p e r c e p t i b l e b l e n d i n g a n d e v e n som e
t i m e s c o - a c t i o n o f two o r m o r e p r o b l e m s , t h e r e d e v e l o p s a r a t h e r s y s t e m a t i c bod y o f k n o w le d g e.
As o n e s o l u t i o n l e a d s
t o a n o t h e r t h e o r g a n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s becom e m a n i f e s t . tim e ,
I f t h i s c o n n e c tio n i s
c a rrie d
sio n th e re a r i s e s th e q u e stio n : c ip le ?
If
20
th e re i s ,
th en
it
is
is
In
to i t s l o g i c a l c o n c lu th e re a g e n e ra l p rin
th e p rem ise o f d e d u c tio n
R i c h a r d R o b i n s o n , T he P r o v i n c e o f L o g i c 0 e o r g e R o u t l e d g e a n d S o n s , L t d . , 1 9 3 1 )» p* 2*
(L o n d o n :
222 a s t h e m in d e n t e r s
in to
T h is p o i n t i s in d u c tio n . sc ie n c e s,
th e
th e
s o l u t i o n o f a n o th e r p ro b le m .
cru x o f th e c r i t ic i s m
le v e le d a t
C o n c e rn in g th e u s e o f I n d u c tio n i n
any o f th e
R o b in so n s t a t e s :
Now t h a t i s a q u e s t i o n w h i c h d o e s n o t c o n d i t i o n o r o r ig in a te th e a c t i v i t y o f th e s c ie n c e , and, a c c u ra te ly s p e a k i n g , d o e s n o t b e l o n g t o t h a t a c t i v i t y a t a l l ; on th e c o n tr a r y , i t p re s u p p o se s th e p ro c e d u re o f th e s c ie n c e a s a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g a n d a r r i v e s fro m a new k i n d o f t h i n k i n g , i . e . , n o t t h e t h i n k i n g w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e m eth o d . . . b u t r e f l e c t i o n on t h a t m e th o d I t s e l f . 21 It
may b e s e e n h e r e t h a t w h i l e Dewey a n d h i s d i s
c i p l e s have c a s t m e ta p h y s ic s o u t, in to
it
h a s n o n e t h e l e s s im p e r
c e p tib ly i n f i l t e r e d
its e lf
th e f ib r e s o f
p i r i c a l re a so n in g .
Even t h e s e n s e s c a n n o t d en y th e in c o n
t r o v e r t i b l e f a c t o f w hat fo rm s l i e
t h e i r em
u n d e r any s t r u c t u r a l
p a tte r n o f th o u g h t. D e w e y 1s r e f u t a t i o n . th e c ase .
B u t Dewey h o l d s t h a t
such i s n o t
T he d e d u c t i o n l s t s h a v e o v e r s h o t t h e i r m a r k .
Dewey i n s i s t s
t h a t no m a t t e r w hat one a s s e r t s ,
le d g e m ust p e r f o r c e
a l l know
s t a r t w ith e x p e rie n c e and th e t r a d i
t i o n a l i s t s w ith t h e i r d e d u c tio n s a re
sp e a k in g c la p tr a p .
He
b e lie v e s t h a t th e d e d u c tio n ls ts have m is c o n s tru e d h i s th e o ry and in d e fen se o f i t
he i n s i s t s
th e d e f i n i t i o n g iv e n
to e x p e rim e n ta tio n .
R o b in so n , l o o , c i t .
th a t
i t m ust d e p e n d upon
223 Dewey s t r e s s e s
th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n e x p e r i e n c e
w h ic h i s ran d o m a n d u n c o n t r o l l e d a n d e x p e r i e n c e w h ic h i s sc ie n tific a lly p ra c tic e d
re g u la te d .
He e m p h a s i z e s * t h a t
in d u c tio n
in d is c r im in a te ly w ith o u t p u rp o se o r g u id a n c e i s
v a l u e l e s s f o r a c q u i r in g k n o w le d g e . th e v ery c o rn e rsto n e o f sc ie n c e .
B ut e x p e rim e n ta tio n i s A nd c o n t r o l l e d a n d p u r
p o s e fu l e x p e rim e n ta tio n c a r r i e s w ith i t
its
own m e t a p h y s i c s .
He d i s c u s s e s t h i s w i t h m u c h i n s i g h t : T h e H a t u r e o f I n d u c t i o n o n t h e G-round o f P r i o r A n a l y sis. I s h a l l g iv e a b r i e f fo rm a l s ta te m e n t o f i t s n a tu re in th e l i g h t o f p re v io u s d is c u s s io n . ( l) P ar t i c u l a r s a r e s e l e c t i v e l y d i s c r i m i n a t e d so a s t o d e t e r m in e a p r o b l e m w h o s e n a t u r e i s s u c h a s t o i n d i c a t e p o s s i b l e m odes o f s o l u t i o n . T h is s e l e c t i v e p r e d e t e r m in a tio n o f p e rc e iv e d o b je c ts and t h e i r q u a l i t i e s n e c e s s a r ily in v o lv e s e x p e rim e n ta l tra n s fo rm a tio n o f o b j e c t s a n d q u a l i t i e s i n t h e i r g i v e n “ n a t u r a l 11 s t a t e , w h e re a s i n t h e c l a s s i c l o g i c th e y w ere ta k e n “ a s i s . T h i s q u o t a t i o n f r o m t h e p o r t i o n o f L o g i c , t h e M eth o d o f In q u iry
c o n ta in e d in th e
c o m p e n d iu m o f h i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t
w orks a g a in e m p h a siz e d h i s e p ls te m o l o g i c a l s t a n d . b e lie v e s th a t
th e
sen se d a ta o f e x p e rie n c e a re
h e r e n t p a r t s o f th e p ro b lem , b u t th e y a r e a l s o fo r th e ir v e rific a tio n .
S c ie n tific
D ew ey
n o t o n ly i n in d ic a to rs
In q u iry a d e q u a te ly con
t r o l l e d w i l l p r o d u c e new d a t a w h i c h f u r n i s h t h e g e n e r a l i z a tio n s fo r
th e n e x t.
D ew ey’ s t h e s i s l i e s
c o n tin u ity o f a l l lif e
pp.
in
a n d o f a l l k n o w le d g e.
D ew ey , I n t e l l i g e n c e 918 -19*
t h e d y n am ic These a re
i n t h e M odern W o r ld , o p . c l t . ,
in d is o lu b le and any d ic h o to m ie s a r e f a l s e Dewey h o l d s t h a t m eth o d o f
s c ie n tific
grounded*
and i t
g e n e ra liz a tio n s
is
and a r b itr a r y .
th e b a s ic a ssu m p tio n s in h e re
I n q u i r y . , K n o w le d g e i s
in th e
e m p iric a lly
o n ly fro m t h i s e x p e r im e n ta l m i l i e u t h a t
can e n su e .
It
is fu tile
to
sp e ak o f gen
e r a l i z a t i o n s p r i o r to e x p e rie n c e , b e c a u s e o n ly e x p e rie n c e can p ro d u c e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f any k in d , c a l l s th em ,
1w a r r a n t e d a s s e r t i o n s . *
t i o n can b e g a th e r e d fro m
o r,
a s Dewey
H is m e ta p h y s ic a l p o s i
th e fo llo w in g q u o t a t i o n ,
Dewey d i s c o u n t s m e t a p h y s i c s .
a lth o u g h
He s a y s :
The p r i m a r y m e a n in g s a n d a s s o c i a t i o n s o f i d e a s a n d h y p o t h e s e s a r e d e r i v e d from t h e i r p o s i t i o n a n d f o r c e i n com m on-sense s i t u a t i o n o f u s e - e n j o y m e n t . They a r e e x p e r i e n c e d i n sy m b o ls d e v e lo p e d o r i g i n a l l y f o r t h e sa k e o f s o c i a l c o m m u n ic a tio n r a t h e r th a n to s e r v e th e c o n d itio n s o f c o n tro lle d Inquiry. 3 The s t a t u s o f t h e of th is issu e
c o n tro v e rsy .
can d e te rm in e
g a t o r l e a n s to w a rd th e
c o n c lu siv e ly .
sy ste m o f s c i e n t i f i c
th a t c e rta in d e fic ie n c ie s ca n n o t be o v e rlo o k e d .
it
O n ly f u t u r e o u t c o m e s T h is i n v e s t i in q u iry , b u t
e x is t In th is le a rn in g
At p r e s e n t th e
c o n tro v e rsy
e x i s t s a s to t h e b e s t m eth o d o f l e a r n i n g ,
sy ste m still
a lth o u g h e m p iric a l
s tu d ie s b e a r o u t th e v a lu e o f th e in d u c tiv e p ro c e s s . n ex t phase o f th is
The
c h a p t e r w i l l p r e s e n t som e o f t h e p r o s
and cons a s c o n c e rn s s c i e n t i f i c
in q u iry .
T he w o r k o f t h e
225 l e a d i n g m odern p s y c h o l o g i s t s w i l l he r e v ie w e d fro m t h e F o rt.v - F l r s t Y e a rb o o k o f t h e i f a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r t h e S c ie n tific
S tu d y o f E d u c a tio n . II.
MODERN THEORIES OF LEARNING-
T h i s p a r t o f t h e c h a p t e r m oves fro m p h i l o s o p h i c a l c ritic is m
to p s y c h o lo g ic a l a n a ly s is .
T he s t e p
i s m ade p r i
m a r i ly b y m eans o f p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f th e v ie w p o i n t s o f th e l e a d e r s i n A m e ric an p s y c h o lo g y a s r e g a r d s le a rn in g
in g e n e r a l and p ro b le m -so lv in g
in p a r tic u la r .
W h ile
t h e F o r t y - F i r s t Y e a r b o o k 2 *** o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r t h e S tu d y o f E d u c a tio n fo rm s t h e b u lk o f th e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l , o t h e r w r i t e r s a r e draw n up o n f o r c o m p re h e n s io n . The F o r t y - F i r s t Y e a r b o o k . a n a ly z e d a re a s fo llo w s :
T he t h e o r i e s o f l e a r n i n g
A T h eo ry o f L e a rn in g
i n T erm s o f
S tim u lu s -R e s p o n s e a n d A s s o c i a t i o n ; 2^ C o n n e c tio n !sm ,
Its
O r i g i n a n d M a jo r F e a t u r e s ; 2^ C o n n e c tio n is m , P r e s e n t C o n c e p ts a n d I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ; 2 ? The F i e l d T h e o ry o f L e a r n in g a n d I t s
F o r t y - F i r s t Y earb o o k o f th e N a tio n a l S o c ie ty f o r th e S tu d y o f E d u c a tio n , P a r t I I (C h ic a g o : N a tio n a l S o c ie ty f o r t h e S t u d y o f E d u c a t i o n , 1 9 ^ 2 ) , ^ 6 3 pp* 25 I b i d . , E . R . G u t h r i e ,
pp.
2^ I b i d . , P e te r S a n d ifo rd ,
^
1 7 -5 8 .
pp*
9 7 -1 3 5 .
I b i d . , A rthu r I . G a te s, pp. 1^1-63*
226 E d u c a t i o n a l C o n s e q u e n c e s ; ^ ® The F i e l d T h e o r y o f R e c o n c ilia tio n o f L e a r n i n g a n d T h e re .a re
fin a lly ,
P ro b le m -S o lv in g .
a ls o c h a p t e r s in t h e Y earb o o k d e v o te d .to
th e r o le o f m o tiv a tio n in le a r n in g , b e h a v io u r upon th e l e a r n e r , a n d m e a n in g , a n d a t o p i c sequence in r e l a ti o n
th e e f f e c t o f e m o tio n a l
p ra c tic e
in le a rn in g ,
la n g u a g e
w h ic h d i s c u s s e s o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d
to th e c u r r ic u la r phase o f le a rn in g .
I h i s Y e a r b o o k , e d i t e d b y N e l s o n B. o f C h ic a g o , i s
Learning;2^
H enry o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y
re c o g n iz e d as a u th o r i ta t iv e
in
th e f i e l d s o f
e d u c a tio n and p sy c h o lo g y . W h ile t h e c o m p le te o f f e r i n g w as i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d e v a lu a te d , in
t h e m a jo r e m p h a s is was p l a c e d upon p r o b l e m - s o l v in g
t e r m s o f t h e p u r p o s e s o r i g i n a l l y l a i d dow n b y
tig a tio n .
The f i e l d
in c o n te n tio n .
th is in v e s
o f th e p sy c h o lo g y o f l e a r n i n g
P o i n t s o f a g r e e m e n t do e x i s t ,
g a rd in g p ro b le m -so lv in g ,
is
as y et
ho w ev er, r e
a n d t h e s e p o i n t s o f a g re e m e n t w ere
sought f o r . The m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g i c a l v i e w .
W i l l i a m A. B r o w n e l l ,
P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y a t D uke U n i v e r s i t y ,
I b i d . , C -eo rg e W. H a r t m a n n , p p . 1 6 5 - 2 0 3 * ^
I b i d . , K u r t L e w in , p p . 2 1 5-37* I b i d . , T. R. M c C o n n e ll, p p .
^
2^3-7^*
I b i d . , W illia m B r o w n e ll, p p . 4l5-*K>.
227 gave th e e x p o s itio n o f p ro b le m -so lv in g
in th e Y earbo ok *
He
b e lie v e s
t h a t p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g 11n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d s e
p a ra te ly
fro m o t h e r k i n d s o f le a r n in g *
an unu su al one,
is
The s e p a r a t i o n ,
a c c o m p a n ie d b y d e f i n i t i o n .
not
32
B r o w n e l l h o l d s t h a t f o r h im t h e r e i s n o d i c h o t o m o u s p ro b le m ,
a lth o u g h c e r ta in
o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i s t s 11g o s o f a r a s
t o m ake a s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d l e a r n i n g o n t h e o t h e r * *33 V a rio u s o p in io n s * d e fin ite ly
B ro w n e ll a s a p s y c h o lo g is t i s
a s u p p o rte r o f th e p ro b le m -so lv in g
he e q u a te s i t w ith le a rn in g * o th e r in v e s tig a to rs in o f p ro b le m -so lv in g * Y earb o o k t h e r e so lv in g .
H ow ever, h e i s
th e f i e l d
In f a c t,
are
fo r
aw are t h a t
do n o t t a k e t h i s
sam e v i e w
f o r a n o th e r c o n tr ib u to r to
a r e m an y f a c t o r s
A ll f a c to r s
th e o ry ,
a s im p o r ta n t a s p ro b le m
subsum ed u n d e r t h e one h e a d ,
le a rn in g * (ra te s s a y s : c re a tiv ity ,
"In re a so n in g ,
p ro b le m -so lv in g
in g o f a c t s a n d s k i l l s ,
and In
in sig h t
in v e n tio n ,
s im p le r fo rm s o f l e a r n
. . .
I s o f co u rse in
v o lv e d *
32
B ro w n e ll, o p .
33 I b i d . , G a te s,
p.
c i t * , p p . 415 -16*
415-
op* c i t . , p . 156.
a rtistic
228 S a n d lfo rd ,
now d e c e a s e d b u t f o r m e r l y P r o f e s s o r o f
E d u c a tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y a t
th e U n iv e r s ity o f T o ro n to ,
C anada,
who d e a l s w i t h t h e t h e o r y o f c o n n e c t i o n i s m , h a s a n o t h e r d e fin itio n
o f le a rn in g *
i n g n o t s o m u ch i n
H is c l e a r e x p o s itio n
term s o f f in d in g
so lu tio n s
e x p la in s le a rn to p ro b le m s,
b u t r a t h e r in te rm s o f c o n n e c tin g a to m is tic f a c t s
to g e th e r
i n a n i n t e l l i g i b l e w ay. He d o e s n o t , le a rn in g .
h ow ever,
ig n o r e t h e p ro b le m ty p e
of
He t o o a g r e e s t h a t som e e l e m e n t s o f p r o b l e m
s o l v i n g a r e e m b o d ied i n h i s t h e o r y . T h o r n d lk e a n v ie w w h ic h he i s
He q u o t e s a f a m o u s
e x p la in in g .
T he
sta te m e n t i s
a s fo llo w s: A m an’ s l i f e w o u ld b e d e s c r i b e d b y a l i s t o f a l l th e s i t u a t i o n s w h ic h he e n c o u n te r s an d t h e r e s p o n s e s w h i c h h e m ad e t o t h e m , i n c l u d i n g am ong t h e l a t t e r e v e r y d e t a i l o f h i s s e n s a t i o n s , p r e c e p t s , m e m o rie s, m e n ta l Im ag e s, ju d g m e n ts, e m o tio n s , d e s i r e s , c h o ic e s a n d o t h e r s o - c a l l e d m e n ta l f a c t s . 35 T h is
1h o l i s t i c 1 v i e w o f T h o r n d i k e 1s c o n n e c t i n g o r
bond th e o ry i s
r a th e r p a ra d o x ic a l.
It
b e in g b o th m e c h a n is tic and a to m is tic . above q u o ta tio n th e r e a re im p lic a tio n s in le a rn in g . w h ic h o b t a i n i n t h e o r i e s t io n o f d eg ree
^ p. 99.
has been accused o f Y et a c c o rd in g to th e
c e r t a i n l y d y n a m ic a n d o r g a n ! s m i c Many t i m e s t h e d i v e r g e n c i e s a re a m a tte r o f e m p h a sis,
a ques
r a th e r th a n o f k in d .
E. L* T h o rn d ik e, q u o te d b y S a n d ifo r d , p p . c i t . ,
229 R e fle x e s and r e f l e c t i o n * ty p e o f le a r n in g to r s are at
it
in v o lv e d ,
th is th e o ry .
seem s c e r t a i n as is
In
th is
s i tu a tio n -re sp o u se
t h a t m o re t h a n tw o f a c
im p lie d by th e a c c u s a tio n s le v e le d
T h e r e m u s t so m e w h e r e o c c u r a d i s t i n c t i o n ,
h o w e v e r , b e t w e e n S -R a s a p p l i e d t o t h e p u r e l y r e f l e x i v e a c t i o n o f T h o rn d ik e * s a n im a ls i n t h e i r v a r i o u s m azes and boxes and th e
t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s o f h u m an b e i n g s .
T h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s on th e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f c o g n i t i o n are
c e r t a i n l y m o re c o m p l e x t h a n t h a t s e e m i n g l y s i m p l e t a s k
o f p r o c e e d in g fro m p ro b le m t o th e se c o g n itiv e p ro c e sse s
s o lu tio n .
B urt
sta te s
th a t
are:
• . . summed u p u n d e r t h e n a m e s o f ‘ T h o u g h t* a n d *U n d e r s t a n d i n g . 1 On t h i s l e v e l t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e tw o m a i n g r o u p s o f f a c t o r s . They a r e m a n i f e s t e d m ost ty p ic a lly in X l ) s c i e n t i f i c o r l o g i c a l th in k in g , and (2; a r t i s t i c and a e s t h e t i c a p p r e c ia tio n r e s p e c tiv e ly . B o t h g r o u p s a p p e a r e s s e n t i a l l y t o d e p e n d o n t h e com p re h e n sio n , e x p l i c i t o r I m p lic it, o f a b s tr a c t r e l a tio n s .^ It
is
th is
i g n o r i n g o f a b s t r a c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h ic h
a p p e a rs to be one o f th e g la r in g w eaknesses of so lv in g te c h n iq u e . tio n
It
th e p ro b lem
seem s r a t h e r a g r o s s o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a
to Ig n o re th e a b s tr a c tiv e im p lic a tio n .
It
is
tru e
t h a t n o t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g o r o f m in d h a s b e e n p r o v e d w h o lly J u s t i f i e d ,
b u t e v id e n c e fro m c a r e f u l
s c ie n tific
^ S i r C y r i l B u r t , HT he S t r u c t u r e o f t h e M in d — A R e v i e w o f t h e R e s u l t s o f F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , 11 T h e B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y , X IX : P a r t I I I , 1 9 0 , N ovem ber, 19^9*
230 r e s e a r c h su c h a s t h a t done b y one o f fig u re s in
p s y c h o l o g y may n o t l i g h t l y
th e w o r ld ’ s le a d in g be Ig n o re d .
E v e n B r o w n e l l , who i s e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t p r o b l e m so lv in g ,
p re se n ts
tw o f a u l t s
o f t h e m eth o d :
* . . t h e m eth o d o f s t e p - a n a l y s i s r e p r e s e n t s a l o g i c a l p a t t e r n o f t h i n k i n g w h i c h may o r may n o t c h a r a c t e r i z e e x p e r t t h i n k i n g on t h e p a r t o f a d u l t s , b u t w h ic h c e r t a i n l y h a s n o t y e t b e e n show n t o c h a r a c t e r i z e go o d t h i n k i n g on t h e p a r t o f c h i l d r e n . 37 A nd s e c o n d l y ,
he g o e s o n t o s a y i n r e f e r e n c e
n e s s e s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g ,
”. . .
t h i s m e t h o d p u t s t o o m u ch
t r u s t i n te c h n iq u e a lo n e an d d is r e g a r d s e ffe c tiv e
p ro b le m -so lv ln g ♦
o g i s t su c h a s B ro w n e ll i s c ritic iz e
to
and l a t e r
som e o f t h e d e f e c t s o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , i t
any s t r o n g l y
in th e d e fe n se
I t may n o t b e ,
sc io u sly .
It
In
X b ia ., p.
43 2 .
seem to
o f a s tr o n g ly h e ld th e o ry ,
c e rta in
so m e tim e s o v e r l o o k e d b y t h e a d
in f a c t o fte n
In th e
B ro w n e ll, p p .
is
th e e x p o s itio n
is
n o t,
done con
c o u ld be s a i d t h a t c l e a r th in k in g
enough a t any tim e .
^
W eaknesses, h ow ever,
a d v o c a te d sy s te m .
b i a s e s c r e e p in w h ic h a r e h e re n t.
When a p s y c h o l
p u rp o rte d to be does n o t h e s ita te
o b v io u s t h a t th e y do e x i s t . in h e re
o th e r e s s e n tia ls in
p ro b le m -so lv in g .
The w e a k n e s s e s o f
to
t o th e w eak
is
d iffic u lt
e s ta b lis h m e n t o f one th e o ry
c i t . , p.
am ong m any s i m i l a r t h e o r i e s known t h a t o f t e n c o n stru e f a c t s
i t b e c o m e s a p ro b lem *
th e p r o ta g o n is ts o f a c e r t a i n
to f i t
th e ir b e lie fs
The a d h e r e n t s o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g th is
fa u lt.
fa ils
is
sy ste m w i l l
r a t h e r th a n v ic e v e r s a .
have n o t,
it
seem s, e sc a p e d
N o r th r o p d i s c u s s e s t h e w ork o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s
who s u b s t i t u t e when i t
It
e n th u s ia sm in p a tie n c e
fo r p re c isio n ,
fo r
and e x a c titu d e .
sc ie n c e f a i l s
N o rth ro p s t a t e s :
A g a in a n d a g a in i n v e s t i g a t o r s h av e p lu n g e d i n t o a s u b j e c t . . * g a th e r in g a trem en d o u s am ount o f d a ta , e v e n p e r f o r m i n g e x p e r i m e n t s , o n l y t o com e o u t a t t h e e n d w o n d e rin g w hat I t a l l p r o v e s , a n d r e a l i z i n g a f t e r y e a rs of In d u stry and e f f o r t th a t th e re a l d i f f ic u lt y h a s s l i p p e d t h r o u g h t h e i r f i n g e r s . 39 T h e r e c a n b e no s u b s t i t u t e f o r c r i t i c a l a tte n tio n
to
a ll d e ta ils
o f a p ro b lem .
a n a ly s is and
To p l a c e m e t h o d a t
th e to p o f th e h ie r a r c h y w eakens th e p o s i t io n . W ith r e l a t i o n
to
t h e m eth o d o f i n q u i r y ,
N o rth ro p
says: O th e rs , n o tin g th e su c c e s s o f a g iv e n s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d I n o n e f i e l d , h a v e c a r r i e d t h e m e th o d h a s t i l y a n d u n c r i t i c a l l y i n t o t h e i r own, o n ly t o e n d l a t e r on in a s im u la r d is illu s io n m e n t. A ll such e x p e rie n c e s a re a sig n th a t th e i n i t i a t i o n o f in q u iry has been g l o s s e d o v e r to o h a s t i l y , w ith o u t any a p p r e c i a t i o n o f i t s Im p o rta n c e o r i t s d i f f i c u l t y . ^ T he a b o v e q u o t a t i o n i s c ritic ism
of sc ie n tific
th e
In q u iry ,
h e a rt o f one e x c e lle n t or its
o u tg ro w th in
F r e d e r i c h Q. S . N o r t h r o p , The L o g i c o f t h e S c i e n c e s a n d t h e H u m a n i t i e s (New Y o r k : The M a c m i l l a n G om pany , 1 9 ^ 8 ) , P-
7-
232 e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m -so lv in g . se,
and th e ir
sid e d *
T he e m p h a s i s u p o n p r o b l e m s p e r
s o l u t i o n s a p p e a r s t o m ake t h e p i c t u r e
T h is d i s t o r t i o n
is
b o u n d t o o c c u r w h e n t o o m uch em
p h a s i s i s p la c e d upon one p h ase o f a l e a r n i n g expense o f a n o th e r.
th e o ry a t th e
H a rtm a n n , i n h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e
e d u c a tio n a l consequences o f th e f i e l d th e p ro b le m -so lv e rs to
th e o ry ,
t a k e s some o f
ta sk .
The w h o le n e s s o f l e a r n i n g * a d m its t h a t any s i g n i f i c a n t lem s a n d t h e i r
lo p
s o lu tio n s ,
W h i l e H a r tm a n n r e a d i l y
le a r n in g c e n t e r s a ro u n d p ro b
he o b s e rv e s ,
som ew hat i r o n i c a l l y
th a t: I n many o f t h e m o r e e l a b o r a t e a n i m a l e x p e r i m e n t s th e Jo k e was o n t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r b e c a u s e th e p ro b le m he th o u g h t h e w as s e t t i n g f o r t h e l e a r n e r w as n o t th e one a c t u a l l y a c c e p te d by th e a n im a ls a s a r e s u l t o f h i s c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith th e ta sk -c o m p le x . * . s i m il a r ly w h a t t h e c h i l d s e e s a s i t s m o s t i m m e d i a t e p r o b l e m may n o t b e t h a t u p o n w h i c h t h e t e a c h e r i s i n s i s t i n g . **1 F o r H a r tm a n n a n y s e p a r a t i o n o f l e a r n e r f r o m l e a r n e d I s o u t o f th e q u e s tio n .
T he l e a r n e r d o e s n o t g r a s p t h e
s o l u t i o n o f a n y p ro b le m w ith o u t w h a t t h e G -e s ta lt, s c h o o l o f p sy c h o lo g y c a l l s
1i n s i g h t 1 w h i c h H a r t m a n n d e f i n e s a n d e x
p la in s as fo llo w s:
”I n i t s
s im p le s t fo rm i t
c o n n o te s ap
p r o p r i a t e b e h a v io r in th e p re s e n c e o f any l i f e • .
* re a lly
a k in d o f s i g h t ,
H a rtm a n n , Loo,
c it*
op.
i.e .,
c i t . , p.
situ a tio n
a m ode o f p e r c e p t i o n . n^
191•
233 Thus I n s i g h t f o r th e G - e s t a l t l s t s d o e s n o t o p e ra te , on th e h ig h c o g n itiv e p ro cesses* In
th e G -e sta lt ty p e o f t h in k i n g , p ro b le m -s o lv in g i s
n o t w h o lly a s sim p le a te c h n iq u e fo r,
as re p re se n te d by o th e rs ,
a s H a rtm a n n p o i n t s o u t , * . . th e f i e l d s o f th e le a r n e r and of th e e x te rn a l o b s e r v e r , w h ile u s u a l ly o v e rla p p in g , a r e f a r fro m id e n t i c a l — a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f som e I m p o r t a n c e I n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p ro b le m s a n d i n th e a p p r a i s a l o f th e ir so lu tio n s. ^ But in
som e c o n t r a s t t o
H a r tm a n n 's , B r o w n e ll s t a t e s
th is
h o lis tic *
d e fin ite ly
th e o ry of
th a t:
. . . t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f th e p ro b le m fro m o t h e r s o r t s o f l e a r n i n g t a s k s I s m o re o r l e s s a r t i f i c i a l , a n d I t s d iffe re n c e s a re la rg e ly m a tte rs o f d eg ree. . . . T he p ro b le m s o f f e r e d by t h e s c h o o l s h o u ld d e p e n d f o r t h e i r s o l u t i o n , n o t on g u e s s i n g on th e h a b i t u a t i o n o f c h a n c e s u c c e s s , b u t on p r o g r e s s i v e g r o w t h in . u n d e r s t a n d i n g * ^ T here a p p e a rs to be l e s s o f a h o l i s t i c
ap p ro ach h e re
t h a n i n t h e l e a r n i n g t h e o r y o f H a r tm a n n 's w h ic h , o f c o u r s e , is
p ro fe s se d ly
so.
B o th t h e o r i e s o f l e a r n in g
are as y et
a s s u m p t iv e a n d do n o t b e a r t h e m ark o f g e n u i n e a p p r o v a l* B u t H a r tm a n n 's f i e l d in
Its
a n a lo g u e s*
th e o ry fo llo w s
P ro b le m -s o lv in g
th e a d v a n c e o f p h y s ic s is
m o re n a t u r a l i s t i c
m o re s u b j e c t i v e . R am i f i c a t i o n s i n
k3 LIl
H a rtm a n n ,
le a rn in g ? .
T h ere i s
lo c * c it *
B ro w n e ll, p p .
c it.,
,
p . 417*
no c o m p le te
or
ag reem en t a s to w hat c o n s t i t u t e s l e a r n i n g , s o lv in g e q u a te d w i t h l e a r n i n g by a l l th e Y earbook.
T hese i n v e s t i g a t o r s
m an y d i f f i c u l t i e s
ahead f o r any th e o ry .
is
te st
th e o r y m ust b e la u n c h e d ,
no e x c e p tio n to t h i s
aw are o f t h e
Many s c i e n t i f i c a l l y th e
su b s tru c tu re o f
an d p ro b le m -s o lv in g
need.
The p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g t h e o r y a s s u m e s t h a t , le a rn , come i f
p ro b lem
c o n tr ib u to r s o f th e
se em t a c i t l y
c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n ts d e s ig n e d to any s p e c if ic
nor is
in o rd er to
th e p ro b le m s w h ic h do e x i s t m ust b e f a c e d and o v e r th e ir so lu tio n s a re to
f u r n i s h k n o w le d g e*
s u m p t i o n m ay b e a g r o s s o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , n o t p u rp o rt to
e x p l a i n how t h i s f a c t i t s e l f
a p r i o r i e le m e n ts in
le a rn in g a re n o t to
T h is a s
fo r it is
know*
be l i g h t l y
does T he passed
o v er. N o rth ro p f e e l s
t h a t t h e v e r y p r o b l e m s w h i c h f a c e man
k i n d a r e d i v e r s e a n d co m p lex a n d t h a t p ro b le m s t o s o lv e i s
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n d u c iv e to
T h ere m ust b e a p r i o r i se lv e s,
and i t
t h i s po w er.
t h e m ere a c c e p t a n c e o f
in v e s tig a tio n
k n o w le d g e.
o f t h e p r o b le m s th em
may b e t h a t p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d o e s n o t h a v e
He s t a t e s :
. . . b e f o r e e x a m in in g th e te c h n iq u e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f o u r p ro b le m w h ic h i n i t i a t e s i n q u i r y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to c l a s s i f y th e m a jo r k in d s o f p ro b le m s. . . f a i l u r e to do t h i s h a s r e s u l t e d i n th e h a s ty and e r r o n e o u s l y draw n c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e r e i s b u t one s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d .
4*5
N o rth ro p , p p . p i t . , p* 9*
235 T he d i l e m m a * m eth o d , i s
I f p ro b le m -so lv in g p ro d u ce s I t s
t h i s m eth o d t h e n f i t t e d
to d e te rm in e th e
own ty p e
a n d k in d o f p ro b le m deem ed t o b e a d e q u a te f o r l e a r n in g ? seem s to th e
in v e s tig a to r th a t th is
is
one o f t h e m ajo r
d ile m m a s i n w h ic h p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g f i n d s i t s e l f , p ro b le m -so lv in g i s
ta k e n
P ro b le m s a r i s e w h ic h y e t f u r t h e r , tio n s ,
i.e .,
If
th e
u n c r itic a l sta g e s.
and th e y in
t u r n p ro d u c e m eth o d ,
In an in e x p lic a b le
k n o w le d g e .
m y ste rio u s p ro c e ss to
In i t s
It
W h ere a r e
c h a in ,
p ro d u ce s o lu
th e c r i t e r i a f o r t h i s
so n e a t l y e v o lv e d .
T h is q u e s tio n a p p e a rs
th e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o p o se a t a u t o l o g i c a l a rg u m e n t, a n d i t
m ust be a d m itte d f a i r l y
t h a t redundancy d o es n o t answ er
m e ta p h y s ic a l p ro b lem s w h ic h a ls o n e e d r e s o l u t i o n
f o r an
a d e q u a te th e o r y o f l e a r n in g . T h is c o n n o ta tio n o f d e v e lo p m e n ta l th in k in g d o e s n o t b e g in t o a n sw e r th e fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m o f i t s as to re sts.
th e r e a l i t y A c ritic a l
upon w h ic h th e
th e o ry o f p ro b le m -so lv in g
a n a l y s i s o f t h e m e ta p h y s ic a l p ro b le m s
m u st p r e c e d e t h e w h o le m eth o d i f N o rth ro p s t a t e s
own c l a i m s
th a t th is
it
is
to be lo g ic a l.
s u b s tr u c tu r a l se e k in g
. . . i s a p a r t o f I n q u ir y t h a t m ust p re c e d e th e a c t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e m eth o d . It i s w h a t com es a t t h e b e g in n i n g w h ic h i s t h e k e y t o s u c c e s s , s i n c e i t i s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s w i t h w h i c h we i n i t i a t e In q u iry t h a t d i r e c t s one to th e key f a c t s and d e s i g n a t e s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m ethod.^*®
I b i d . , p. 2
T h i s p r o b l e m a p p e a r s t o b e o n e o f t h e g r e a t w e ak nesses of
th e p ro b le m -s o lv in g th e o ry *
p ro b le m -so lv in g c a p a b le o f s o lv in g lem ? it
Is
its
t h e m eth o d o f
own m e t a p h y s i c a l p r o b
The t h e o r y i m p l i e s l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e a p r i o r i i n t h a t
p u r p o s e s t o g i v e s u b s t a n c e a n d m e a n in g t o t h e
k n o w le d g e w h ic h i t d e r i v e s *
In th is
resp ect i t
se lf-sa m e may b e
c a l l e d d e d u c tiv e * D e d u c t i o n , m o v in g a s i t in sta n c e s,
d o es fro m g e n e r a l to s p e c i f i c
i m p l i e s fo rm a n d s ta n d a r d *
I n t h i s way t h e p a r
t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s d raw t h e i r l o g i c a l fo rm s fro m t h e l a r g e r g e n e ra liz a tio n . c o n s titu tiv e in sta n c e s
in
D e d u c tio n i s th a t i t
and d i c t a t e s
g e n e ra liz a tio n
th u s b o th l e g i s l a t i v e
g iv e s s tru c tu re its
fo rm *
I s m ad e t h a t
to i t s
For in sta n c e ,
and
p a rtic u la r if
th e
1a l l t a b l e s a r e s q u a r e , 1 t h e n
t h e t a b l e s w h ic h a r e o b s e r v e d h a v a a fo rm
‘s q u a re n e s s ,1 and
m ust be ju d g e d a s s u c h . A man b r o u g h t u p a p a r t f r o m c i v i l i z a t i o n w i t h o u t t h e ru d im e n ts o f le a r n in g
c o u ld th e n h av e one fo rm ,
t o c o n s i d e r t a b l e s by* sy llo g is tic
Of c o u rse th e fla w s in
sq u aren ess, th is
ty p e o f
re a s o n in g have been lo n g exposed.
Dewey* s p o s i t i o n a n a l y z e d * a c c e p t th e absence o f th e h is th e o ry o f le a r n in g .
Dewey, h o w e v e r, d o e s n o t
a p r i o r i a s a w eakness in th is He s a y s :
The p r o b le m r e d u c e d t o i t s l o w e s t t e r m I s w h e t h e r i n q u i r y c a n d e v e l o p i n i t s own o n g o i n g c o u r s e t h e
237 l o g i c a l s ta n d a r d s an d form s to w h ic h f u r t h e r in q u ir y s h a l l su b m it. One m i g h t r e p l y b y s a y i n g t h a t i t c a n b e c a u s e i t h a s .^ 7 B ew ey h o l d s t h a t l o g i c a l f o r m s a c c r u e i n n a tu re th e re
o f su b je c t m a tte r.
w h ic h dem and h arm o n y i n h e r e
v ery
T h is r e a s o n in g th e n a ssu m e s t h a t
a re r a t i o n a l p a tte r n s in th e u n iv e rse ;
t y p e o f h arm o n y m u st e x i s t .
th e
How e l s e to
th a t
some
c o u ld l o g i c a l fo rm s
s u b je c t m a tte r?
B u t Bew ey
a g a in r e p l i e s : I n f e r e n c e fro m one t o a l l i s c o m p le te ly a n d e x c l u s i v e l y d e te rm in e d by p r i o r e x p e rim e n ta l o p e r a tio n s th ro u g h w h ic h t h e on e h a s b e e n d e te r m in e d to be an e x e m p la ry sp e cim en o f an o r d e r o f i n t e r a c t i o n s o r o f f u n c t i o n a l c o rre la tio n s of v a ria tio n s . T h i s o r d e r , when i t i s a s c e r t a i n e d i s th e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . But t h i s
c a te g o r ic a l sta te m e n t th a t p a r t i c u l a r s can
by i n f e r e n c e becom e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s For i t its
som ew hat s p e c i o u s .
s t i l l b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n o f how I n q u i r y c a n i n s t i t u t e
own l o g i c a l f o r m s .
p e rie n c e A p erfect ists,
is
To s a y t h a t t h e y e m e r g e f r o m e x
i s n o t to say a n y th in g .
It
is
e x a m p le o f a n y o n e i n s t a n c e ,
s till if
d o es n o t h o ld tr u e o f a l l in s ta n c e s .'
g e n e ra liz a tio n s bespeak a f a lla c io u s
an a s s u m p tio n .
su ch a th in g
ex
Bew ey s a y s t h a t
lo g ic , b u t h is in f e r
e n t i a l p r o c e s s f r o m s p e c i f i c t o g e n e r a l may a l s o b e s u b j e c t e d t o h i s own c r i t i c i s m .
Y ork:
J o h n B e w e y , L o g i c . T he T h e o r y o f I n q u i r y H e n r y H o l t a n d C o m p an y , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 5* lq
I b i d . , p. WO.
(New
238 Dewey f a l l s th e
In to
d e d u c tlo n ists .
th e
sam e p i t f a l l t h a t h e d u g f o r
To s a y t h a t i n s t a n c e s l e a d u n i v e r s a l e
o r v ic e v e rs a p ro v es n e ith e r tr u e ,
and i t
seem s p o s s i b l e
t h a t Dewey may h a v e h o i s t e d h i m s e l f o n h i s own p e t a r d . L e w in s a y s o f c o n c e p t s : As a n y s c i e n c e , p s y c h o l o g y i s i n a d i l e m m a w h en I t t r i e s to d e v e lo p ’g e n e r a l* c o n c e p ts a n d la w s . I f one a b s t r a c t s f r o m i n d i v i d . u a ! d i f f e r e n c e s ; t h e r e i s no l o g i c a l w ay b a c k f r o m t h e s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t o t h e in d iv id u a l case. . . . W hat i s t h e v a l u e o f g e n e r a l c o n c e p t s i f t h e y do n o t p e r m i t p r e d i c t i o n f o r t h e I n d iv id u a l case?^9 D ew ey*s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e any o th e r . h is
P e r h a p s e v e n m o re s o ,
‘ e x e m p la ry in s t a n c e s *
J u s t as v u ln e ra b le as if
he s t a r t s
and le a p s to
g e n e ra liz a tio n s .
ho w t h e n d o e s h e m ak e t h e
lo n g t r e k b a c k a g a in ?
gum ent I s
su re,
c irc u la r,
do es n o t a v o id i t by d e f in itio n
to be
q u ite
f i r s t w ith
T h is a r
a n d i t may b e t h a t Dewey
a s w e ll as he s t a t e s .
To p r o c e e d
d o e s n o t m ean t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e i s
s a r i ly th e r i g h t one,
For
neces
a s N o rth ro p s a i d .
T he s u b j e c t i v e n a t u r e o f o r o b l e m - s o 1 v i n g . w r ite s t h a t p ro b le m -so lv in g i s
B ro w n e ll
e x tre m e ly i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c :
T he c r i t e r i a b y w h i c h p r o b l e m s a r e s e t o f f f r o m o t h e r l e a r n i n g t a s k s a r e . . . w h o lly o r l a r g e l y sub je c tiv e . To som e t h i s f a c t w i l l m ak e t h e d e f i n i t i o n u n p a la ta b le * Y e t, th e c r i t e r i a c o u ld s c a r c e ly be o th e r th a n s u b j e c t i v e , f o r th e c r u x o f th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw een p ro b le m s a n d o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s l i e s i n t h e p e c u l i a r r e l a t i o n s h i p w h ic h e x i s t s b e tw e e n th e l e a r n e r and h i s
'
L ew in, p p . c i t * , p . 215*
239 t a s k .'*0 T h a t t h e r e m ay h e th is
su b je c tiv e
b e lie v e s th a t
som e d i v e r g e n c e o f o p i n i o n a s t o
c rite rio n
is
a d m itte d b y B ro w n e ll, h u t he
th e
- . . d i f f e r e n c e i s I n h e r e n t i n t h e s y s t e m s th e m se lv e s: t h a t i s to say th e y a r e g e n e r a l i n c h a r a c te r an d h o l d f o r a l l b e h a v i o r phenom ena and n o t p ro b le m s o lv in g a lo n e * T h a t h e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o r r e c t i n h i s v ie w seem s re a so n a b le , lie v e s ,
i n l i g h t o f p r e s e n t e v id e n c e *
h ow ever, t h a t th e
s u b je c tiv ity
B ro w n e ll b e
in v o lv e d in
p ro b le m -so lv in g p o s itio n d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r ily any o f i t* and s in c e
He b e l i e v e s l e a r n i n g th is
i s th e case,
m u s t b e so a s w e l l *
its
in v a lid a te
p rim a rily e g o -c e n te re d ,
i t fo llo w s t h a t p ro b le m -so lv in g
T h is arg u m en t s tr e n g th e n s th e th e o r y
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g r a t h e r B ro w n e ll*
is
th e
B ro w n e ll a l s o
th a n w eakens i t ,
a c c o rd in g to
h o ld s t h a t p ro b le m -so lv in g p ro d u ces
own f o r m a n d s t r u c t u r e *
A g r e e i n g w i t h D ew ey, h e w r o t e :
The m e a n in g s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s e s s e n t i a l - t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l s o l u t i o n o f e d u c a ti o n a l p ro b le m s can n o t b e g iv e n to c h ild r e n . L ik e th e te c h n iq u e s o f p ro b le m s o lv in g , th e y , to o , m ust be c a r e f u l l y d e v e lo p e d th ro u g h a w id e v a r i e t y o f e x p e r i e n c e . T here i s re a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t m e a n in g s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a r e m o st u s e f u l i n p r o b l e m - s o l v in g when th e y h a v e th e m s e lv e s b e e n a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h t h e s o l v i n g o f p r o b l e m s . -52
50 ^
B ro w n e ll, o p . hoc, c lt .
52 I b i a . » P-
^ 39 •
c l t * , p . 4 l6 «
240 H ere a g a i n I s
se en th e i m p l i c i t b e l i e f s tru c tu re
th a t
some pow
e r w h ic h i n h e r e s t o
th e
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g i s
c a p a b le o f b r in g in g
m e a n in g a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o t h e i n d i
v id u a l le a rn e r. B ro w n e ll
su m m arize s h i s v ie w on p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
as
fo llo w s: The c o n t e n t o f t h e c h a p t e r h a s b e e n b o t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l and p e d a g o g ic a l, b o th t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l . P rob' le m s h a v e b e e n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d fro m o t h e r t y p e s o f l e a r n in g s i t u a t i o n s w h ic h ev o k e b e h a v io r . S t r e s s h as been c o n t i n u a l l y g iv e n th e f a c t t h a t th e s u b j e c t s b e h a v io r i s a fu n c tio n o f h i s a p p re h e n sio n o f th e s tim u la tin g situ a tio n . T h is m ean s, a s f a r a s th e s c h o o l i s c o n c e rn e d , th a t c h ild r e n engage in tr u e p ro b le m -so lv in g b e h a v io r o n l y w hen t h e y e n v i s i o n t h e i r l e a r n i n g t a s k s a s p r o b l e m s . 53 T h i s su m m ary s t a t e s so lv in g in
s t r e s s e d b y B ro w n e ll.
T h e n e e d f o r m o re r e s e a r c h w a s The r e s e a r c h s u r v e y e d w i l l b e t r e a t e d
th e n e x t and f i n a l s e c tio n o f t h i s
III. In
o f p ro b le m
so f a r a s t h e m odem p s y c h o l o g i s t s a r e c o n c e rn e d
i n c la ss ro o m p ro c e d u re .
in
th e p r e s e n t s t a t u s
c h a p te r.
RESEARCH IN THE FIELD
so f a r a s t h e
w ere c o n s id e r a b le g a p s .
a c tu a l re s e a rc h i s
co n cern ed ,
T h e re w ere r e s e a r c h
th e re
s t u d i e s w h ic h
w e re p a r t l y r e l e v a n t a n d t h e s e w ere c a r e f u l l y r e v ie w e d . th e g e n u in e
53
s tu d ie s in p ro b le m -so lv in g ,
I b id ., p. 440.
i t w as th o u g h t
Of
2kl a d v isa b le
to
s e le c t fiv e
i m p o r t a n t ones*
o f t h e m o re r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a n d
C o m p le te c o v e r a g e w as n o t n e c e s s a r y a n d a
tr u e p ic t u r e c o u ld be had in m a te ria l is
an u n f o r tu n a te
t h i s way*
T hat t h i s d e a r th o f
s i t u a t i o n B ro w n e ll a d m its , an d
says of i t : T he e x t e n t o f e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h on p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g i s s u r p r is in g ly lim ite d * C om pared w i t h t h e a b u n d a n c e o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on d i f f e r e n t m e th o d s o f t e a c h i n g , on d i s a b i l i t y , d i a g n o s i s , a n d r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s , on t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g , and th e l i k e , t h e num ber o f r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s on p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g i s s m a l l . A nd t h i s i s m o st u n f o r t u n a t e , f o r b o t h t h e o p p o r t u n i t y a n d th e p r a c tic a l need f o r sound r e s e a rc h in t h i s f i e l d a re . c l e a r l y a p p a r e n t i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e c la ssro o m * In
th is
in v e s tig a tio n
choose fro m a f t e r th e fie ld *
t h e r e w a s n o t t o o m u ch t o
a c a r e f u l p e r u s a l o f th e l i t e r a t u r e
T h is l i t e r a t u r e
in c lu d e d th e
in
Jo u rn a ls, b u lle tin s ,
and e x t r a c t s o f th e l e a d in g p s y c h o lo g ic a l and e d u c a ti o n a l b o d i e s h e r e a n d a b r o a d f o r t h e p a s t d e c a d e o r so* W h a t e m e r g e d s h o w e d o n c e a g a i n a s i n B r o w n e l l 1s d a y (1 9 ^2 )
t h e d i r e n e e d f o r m ore a n d g r e a t e r e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s .
T h e re was s u c h a v a r i a t i o n
of d e fin itio n s ,
a im s,
and p u r-,
p o se s in th e r e s e a r c h re v ie w e d t h a t co h eren c e f o r t h i s
in
v e s t i g a t i o n w as h am p ered in
some m e a s u r e .
o f co u rse o b ta in s n a tu r a lly
In so c o n t r o v e r s i a l an a r e a .
When i t v ery b a s is
5^
i s rem em bered t h a t th e
of le a rn in g ,
. I b i d *, p . 419*
is
T h is s i t u a t i o n
V m ind'
a s y e t u n d e fin e d ,
its e lf,
th e
th e p ro b lem
2k2 m a n ife s ts i t s e l f g la r in g ly . in g ?
How i s
le a r n in g .b e s t e f f e c te d ?
to be f u l l y an sw ered . t h e E n g lish m a n B u r t , tio n
W hat i s m in d ?
W h at i s l e a r n
T h ese q u e s t i o n s re m a in
One o f t h e g r e a t e s t o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s , g iv e s
o f m in d , w h ic h w i l l
th e fo llo w in g t e n t a t i v e
su ffic e
fo r th is
stu d y .
d e fin i He s t a t e s :
T a k e n t o g e t h e r , t h e f a c t s * . . s u g g e s t a f a r m o re c o m p lex a n d s y s t e m a t i c t y p e o f s t r u c t u r e , a n d go f a r t o c o n f i r m t h e n o t i o n t h a t m in d i s o r g a n i z e d o n w h a t may b e c a l l e d a h i e r a r e h a 1 b a s i s . 55 T h u s , w hen a g r e e m e n t i s n o t r e a c h e d , fic u ltie s
o b ta in ,
th e re
is
d iffic u lty
a n d se m a n tic d i f
in a rriv in g
c o n c lu sio n s f o r th e in v e s tig a tio n s e n te re d i n to .
a t d e fin ite Some o f
th e r e s e a r c h w as n o t to o c l e a r a n d o t h e r p o r t i o n s w ere un d e c id e d a s to
te rm in o lo g y .
B u t som e t e n t a t i v e
w ere r e a c h e d by m ost o f th e r e s e a r c h e r s .
c o n c lu sio n s
T hey m ore o r l e s s
a g re e d t h a t t r a i n i n g f o r p ro b le m -so lv in g a b i l i t y
w as p o s
sib le . F u rth e r, titio n
in
m o st o f th e m e m p h a s iz e d t h e n e e d f o r r e p e
p ro b le m -so lv in g .
succeed a t f i r s t , a ls o
seem ed t o
ual in te re s t,
try ,
try
T he o l d s a w t h a t i f a g a in ,
seem s a p p r o p r i a t e .
T here
b e c o n c u rre n c e a s to th e p rim a c y o f in d iv i d and th e f a c t t h a t th e re
t i o n b e tw e e n a g e a n d a b i l i t y
55
you d o n * t
a lw a y s w as a c o r r e l a
in p ro b le m -so lv in g .
A ll of
S i r C y r i l B u r t , "T h e S t r u c t u r e o f t h e M in d — A R e v i e w o f t h e R e s u l t s o f F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , " T he B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1 9*17 9> N o v e m b e r , 1 9 ^ 9 *
2^3 th e c o n c lu s io n s o f th e p o in ts ,
stu d ie s,
seem ed a g r e e d a s to
w h i l e v a r y i n g o n m any
th e r e a l v a lu e o f p ro b le m
so lv in g a s a te c h n iq u e f o r le a r n in g . L a z e r t e 1s I n v e s t i g a t i o n *
L a z e rte ^
d id a stu d y in
C anada on th e g ro w th o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g a b i l i t y tic .
B ecause o f i t s
in h e re n t n a tu re ,
a rith m e tic
e n t i r e f i e l d o f m a th e m a tic s le n d s i t s e l f in p ro b le m -so lv in g .
in a rith m e
su ita b ly
and th e to re se a rc h
But L a z e rte d is a g r e e s t h a t any tr u e con
c l u s i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e a n d so s t a t e s i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n t o h is te x t: When t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t d i s c u s s e s t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g o f a d u l t s he e n u m e r a te s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n a l y s e s th e fra m in g an d t e s t i n g o f h y p o th e s is and o th e r f a c t o r s a s th e no rm al s te p s i n th e p r o c e s s . In th e sc h o o l t r a i n in g o f e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l p u p i l s any c o m p le te d e v e lo p m en t o f a s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d o f t h i n k i n g a n d r e a s o n i n g i s i m p o s s i b l e . 57 Then he
su m m arize d t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
in th e f i e l d
a n d c o n c l u d e d fro m th e m t h a t h a r d l y a n y s t u d e n t s o n t h e e le m e n ta r y l e v e l em erge fro m i n s t r u c t i o n w i t h an y ty p e o f s y s te m a tic
th in k in g a s such.
Even p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g c a n n o t
p ro d u ce any s y s te m a tiz a tio n o f th o u g h t. v e stig a tio n
is
The f o l l o t ^ r l n g i n
ty p ic a l.
56
M i c h a e l M. L a z e r t e , T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f P r o b l e m S o l v i n g A b i l i t y I n A r i t h m e t i c — A Sum m ary o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n s ( T o r o n t o : C l a r k , I r w i n a n d C om pan y, L t d . , 1 9 3 3 T 7 3 o 5 p p *
^
I b i d . , p . 1*
zkk The r e s e a r c h *
T w e n ty -th re e p u p ils from th e t h i r d to
th e f i f t h g ra d e s w ere chosen a t random by t h e i r te a c h e r s i n th e town o f Edmonton, Canada.
These p u p ils had a l l been
somewhat backw ard in g ra s p in g th e s u b je c t m a tte r .
However,
la c k o f a b i l i t y was n o t g iv e n a s th e cause f o r r e ta r d a tio n * I n o rd e r to a t t a i n th e maximum o f d ia g n o s tic e f f i c i e n c y , th e p u p ils w ere b ro u g h t i n t o a q u ie t room one a t a tim e f o r an I n te r v ie w by an ex am in er. form o f a q u iz p e r io d .
T h is in te r v ie w was in th e
W ith ea ch I n d iv id u a l s tu d e n t th e
p e r io d : . . . was a p p ro x im a te ly t h i r t y m in u tes in l e n g t h and was d e v o te d to th e , s tu d y o f a s in g le problem* There were s e v e r a l s i t t i n g s w ith e a c h p u p i l . A com p l e t e r e c o rd was k e p t o f a l l o r a l and w r i t t e n r e sp o n se s. A p re lim in a ry p r a c t i c e p e r io d was g iv e n * ----- - f a m i l i a r i z e h im -w ith th e ro u The d a y 1s problem was g iv en to e a c h s u b je c t in th e form o f a s m a ll ty p e w r itte n in d e x c a rd .
The s tu d e n t re a d
th e problem a lo u d and t h i s re a d in g was re c o rd e d by th e ex am in er, t h e f i r s t tim e by se c o n d s.
I n th e e v e n t th e re a d
in g seemed u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , th e s tu d e n t was ask e d to re a d th e problem once a g a in .
T h is r e - r e a d in g was done o f te n
enough to in s u r e com prehension* A f te r re a d in g f o r com prehension, e a c h s tu d e n t was ch eck ed a s to h i s r e p l i e s to a g iv e n s e t o f q u e s tio n s . 56 Ibid*, p. 5*
A
245 w o r d - a s s o c i a t i o n t e s t a c c o m p a n ie d t h e s e l e c t e d fro m
th e i n i t i a l
p ro b lem to
w o rd s w ere p r e s e n t e d one a t p u p i l w as th e n i n s t r u c t e d
i n t e r v i e w w i t h w ords serv e a s c u es.
These
a tim e on s m a ll c a r d s .
to t a l k
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an o r a l an sw er,
T he q u e s t i o n l i s t w a s i d e n t i c a l f o r a l l
s tu d e n ts in v o lv e d in
th is
c o n tr o lle d e x p e rim e n t.
in f o r m a tio n r e l e v a n t t o t h e p ro b le m , so lu tio n .
fro m t h i s
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An o r a l q u i z o f f r o m t e n t o t w e n t y q u e s t i o n s
w as a g a in g iv e n .
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H ere f o l l o w s t h e i n f e r e n c e s d raw n by L a z e r t e
i n d iv id u a l e x p e rim e n t:
T he e v i d e n c e . . . i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e m any a b i l i t i e s w h ic h c o n t r i b u t e d t o e f f i c i e n c y i n p ro b lem so lv in g . When a l l t h e d a t a w e r e a n a l y z e d i t w a s f o u n d t h a t s e p a r a t e s c o r e s had b een o b ta in e d f o r e a c h o f th e fo llo w in g : ( l ) r a t e o f o r a l r e a d in g ; (2) e s tim a tin g a n sw e rs; (3 ) a n a ly z in g p ro b le m s i n t o know ns a n d un k n o w n s; I 4 ; s e l e c t i n g c u r r e n t s o l u t i o n s ; (5 ) d ra w in g sim p le s t r a i g h t l i n e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e m a g n itu d e s in v o lv e d i n t h e p ro b le m ; (6 ) c h o o s in g a p p r o p r i a t e m eth o d s a n d (? ) g e n e r a l i z i n g th e s o l u t i o n c a l l e d f o r b y t h e g i v e n p r o b l e m . 59 F ro m t h i s p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s e e n t h a t m any f a c t o r s a r e m any f a c t o r s e n t e r i n t o
in c lu d e d .
In
sta te
is
som ew hat p r e s u m p tu o u s .
c a t e g o r i c a l l y t h a t p ro b le m -so lv in g
59 Ib id * * P* 10
can be
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246 s o l v i n g h a d h e lp e d t h e s e p u p i l s com prehend a r i t h m e t i c little tio n
b e tte r,
b u t h e d i d n o t make a n y d e f i n i t e g e n e r a l i z e
as to i t s
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K i g h t a n d M i c k e l s o n 1s i n v e s t i g a t i o n * e x p e rim e n t in
a
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A sig n ific a n t
p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g on th e h l g h - s e h o o l l e v e l was
m ad e b y tw o i n v e s t i g a t o r s f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a lifo rn ia , c a lly
c o n tr o lle d stu d y ,
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K ig h t an d M ic k e lso n .
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In te re stin g
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lis h e d d o c to ra l d is s e r ta tio n C le a r in g H ouse*
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a n d w a s w e l l s u m m a r i z e d i n T he says th a t
th e se r e s e a r c h e r s
w ish e d : . . . t o d e te rm in e th e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t s on l e a r n in g o f p ro b le m -c e n te re d a n d s u b je c t c e n te re d u n its o f in stru c tio n . C o o p e ra tin g in t h e i r e x p e rim e n t w ere tw e n ty -fo u r te a c h e r s in e le v e n sc h o o ls. D r. K ig h t and D r. M ic k e ls o n c o n s t r u c t e d e i g h t p r o b le m - c e n te r e d u n i t s and. e i g h t s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d u n i t s , w h i c h w e r e t a u g h t t o 1 ,1 4 5 p u p i l s i n 96 c l a s s e s * ° 1 T hese i n v e s t i g a t o r s
fe lt
t h a t t h e r e w e r e m any
S t a n f o r d S . K i g h t a n d J o h n M. M i c k e l s o n , MP r o b l e m VS S u b j e c t , 11 T he C l e a r i n g H o u s e , 2 4 : 3 - 7 > S e p t e m b e r ,
19 ^ 9 * ^
I b i d . , E d it o r * s n ote*
247 v a ry in g o p in io n s a s to in s t r u c t i o n u n it*
th e r e l a t i v e
I t w o u ld be v a l u a b l e f o r e d u c a ti o n to
d e te rm in e e m p i r i c a l l y w h ic h ty p e i s They f e l t
m e r its o f each ty p e o f
th a t a lre a d y i t
th e b e t t e r o f th e
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t e a c h in g o f m eth o d s t h a t a p ro b le m - s o lv in g a t t i t u d e c e s s a r y f o r g ro w th i n e d u c a tio n * to th e fo llo w in g
H ence t h e y
two*
i s ne
so u g h t an sw ers
s p e c if ic q u e stio n s :
1* W h at a r e t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t s o f t h e tw o t y p e s o f p re s e n ta tio n in : a* L e a rn in g o f r u l e s o f a c tio n ? b* L e a rn in g o f f a c t u a l In fo rm a tio n ? e. The r a t i o o f r u l e s o f a c t i o n l e a r n e d t o f a c t u a l in fo rm a tio n le a rn e d ? d* T he c o n n e c t i n g o f s p e c i f i c f a c t s w i t h t h e i r c o rre sp o n d in g r u le s o f a c tio n ? 2. To w h a t e x t e n t i s t h i s l e a r n i n g r e l a t e d t o t h e I .Q . o f th e l e a r n e r ? 62 To e x p e d i t e t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
th e a u th o r s con
s t r u c t e d Me i g h t p r o b l e m - c e n t e r e d a n d e i g h t s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c e n te r e d u n i t s o f i n s t r u c t i o n in E n g lis h c o m p o s itio n , sc ie n c e ,
so c ia l
s t u d i e s a n d E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e . 11^
life
These
u n i t s w e r e t h e n g i v e n a s i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l t o $6 c la s s e s in e le v e n d i f f e r e n t w ith th e m en t.
s c h o o ls i n t h e Los A n g e le s a r e a
su p p o rt o f th e te a c h e rs
ta k in g p a r t in th e e x p e ri
One t h o u s a n d f o u r h u n d r e d a n d f i f t e e n
te a c h e rs c o n trib u te d to th e
62 ^
I b id *, p. Lo g . c i t .
,
4.
in v e s tig a tio n .
p u p i l s a n d 21 F or each u n it,
tru e -fa lse
t e s t s w ere f a b r i c a t e d t o a t t e m p t e x a c t m e a su re
m ent o f t h e in f o r m a tio n d e r i v e d by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s * The a t t e m p t w as m ade t o p r e s e n t b o t h s i d e s f a i r l y a n d w i t h a m inim u m o f b i a s f o r e i t h e r , m ost v a l i d r e s u l t s .
so a s t o g e t th e
F ro m t h e r e s u l t s g a t h e r e d ,
th e a u th o rs
f i r s t d e te r m in e d to w hat e x t e n t f a c t u a l i n f o r m a tio n fro m th e u n its
ta u g h t had been le a rn e d .
S e c o n d ly ,
t h e r e was an
a tt e m p t to m ea su re to w h at e x t e n t t h e p u p i l s l e a r n e d b o t h th e r u le s o f a c tio n an d th e f a c tu a l in fo rm a tio n .
F in a lly ,
t o w h at e x t e n t d i d th e p u p i l s c o n n e c t, s p e c i f i c r u l e s o f a c tio n and s p e c if ic fin d in g s fo llo w s:
fa c ts?
T he su m m ary o f t h e
Im p o rta n t
They h a v e s u c h s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r p ro b le m
so lv in g th a t a l l a re l is t e d : 1. P u p i l s l e a r n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore r u l e s o f a c t i o n , r e g a r d le s s o f s u b j e c t - m a t te r f i e l d w ith th e p ro b le m ty p e * 2. P u p i l s in th e I .Q . ra n g e o f 6 2 -8 5 le a r n e d s ig n i f i c a n t l y m o re r u l e s o f a c t i o n w i t h t h e p r o b l e m t y p e * 3* T he f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e , b u t d o n o t c o n c l u s i v e l y p ro v e , t h a t p u p ils in th e I .Q . ra n g e o f 115-1 ^3 le a r n e d m o re r u l e s o f a c t i o n w i t h t h e p r o b l e m t y p e . 4. I n te r m s o f t h e t o t a l co m b in ed r e s u l t s , p u p i l s l e a r n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore f a c t u a l I n f o r m a t i o n w i t h t h e p ro b lem ty p e ; b u t i n te rm s o f th e r e s u l t s by s u b j e c t m a t t e r f i e l d s a n d I . Q . l e v e l s , t h e s e f i n d i n g s w ere i n a ll cases s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ific a n t. 5* P u p i l s m ade s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o re c o n n e c t i o n s o f s p e c if ic r u l e s o f a c tio n w ith t h e i r c o rre sp o n d in g f a c t s w i t h t h e p ro b lem ty p e , r e g a r d l e s s o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r f i e l d o r I.Q . le v e l* 6* When f a c t s l e a r n e d w e r e c o m p a r e d w i t h r u l e s o f a c t i o n l e a r n e d w i t h i n th e p ro b le m ty p e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n t h e r e w as no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e en t h e am ount o f r u l e s o f a c t i o n a n d f a c t u a l i n f o r m a tio n l e a r n e d r e g a r d l e s s o f s u b j e c t m a tte r f i e l d o r
2^9 I.Q . l e v e l . 7* When f a c t s l e a r n e d w e r e c o m p a r e d w i t h r u l e s o f a c tio n le a r n e d w ith in th e s u b je c t m a tte r ty p e o f p re s e n t a t i o n , p u p i l s l e a r n e d s i g n l f i c a n t l y m ore f a c t u a l in fo rm a tio n th a n th e y le a rn e d r u l e s o f a c tio n , re g a rd l e s s o f s u b je c t- m a tte r f i e l d s o r I.Q . l e v e l s . ^ The i n v e s t i g a t o r s
th e n c o n c lu d e d w ith d e f i n i t e
sug
g e s t i o n s t h a t a l l o r g a n i z e d u n i t s on t h e h i g h - s c h o o l l e v e l b e “b u i l t a r o u n d a c l e a r l y
s t a t e d g e n u in e p u p i l p ro b lem .
The e n t i r e c l a s s r o o m p r o c e d u r e i n h i g h s c h o o l s , to K ig h t and M ic k e lso n , t h e r th a n m e re ly to
sh o u ld be s u b o r d in a te d to d o in g r a
a c q u irin g f a c t s .
a c q u i r e d m u s t b e m ade s u b o r d i n a t e t o le m s.
T h is s o l u t i o n
a c c o rd in g
A nd t h e s e f a c t s w hen th e
so lu tio n
o f pro b
th e n m ust h av e f u r t h e r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i
c a tio n . Im p lic a tio n s
fro m th e s t u d y .
t i o n w h ic h e m p lo y ed a l l t h e tio n a l p ro ced u re. o rd e rly and th e
H ere w as an i n v e s t i g a
te c h n iq u e s o f
sc ie n tific
T he s a m p l i n g w a s l a r g e ,
re s u lts
sta tis tic a lly
th e p ro ced u re
s ig n ific a n t.
p a r t i c u l a r e x p e rim e n t s e r v e s a s a c r i t e r i o n th en p ro b le m -so lv in g i s school le v e l. e ffe c tiv e n e ss.
educa
If
th is
f o r o th e rs,
t h e m e t h o d t o b e u s e d on t h e h i g h -
T h e s e men a t t e m p t e d f a i r l y T h e ir r e s u l t s a re
to d e te rm in e I t s
s i g n i f ic a n t f o r e d u c a tio n .
250 J o s e p h T. J o h n s o n 1s i n v e s t i g a t i o n * th e th e s is
of h is
Johnson in d ic a te s
s t u d y w hen he w r i t e s :
T h e re seem s t o b e a g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n t h a t r e s e a r c h in th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f re a d in g and p ro b le m -so lv in g in a r it h m e tic s h o u ld b e in te rm s o f s p e c i f i c r e a d i n g . s k i l l s r a t h e r th a n i n te rm s o f g e n e r a l re a d in g a b i l i t y . T h is i n v e s t i g a t o r assum ed a t t h e o u t s e t o f h i s r e se a rc h th a t th e f a c to r s o f g e n e ra l in te llig e n c e
are b e s t ♦
e x p re s s e d i n T h u rs to n e ’ s th e o r y o f th e s i x p rim a ry m e n ta l a b i l i t i e s w h ic h he p o s t u l a t e d . i n t o w h ic h i n t e l l i g e n c e
is
T hese s i x a s s e r t e d f a c t o r s
d i v i d e d a r e “N u m b e r, V o c a b u l a r y ,
S p a c e P r i n c i p l e , W ord F l u e n c y , R e a s o n i n g a n d M em ory. R e a s o n i n g a n d m em ory a r e
tw o o f t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s
a s s o c ia te d w ith p ro b le m -s o lv in g . T he r e s e a r c h .
Johnson se n t
e ig h th g rad es o f six d if f e r e n t o f C h icag o t o g i v e
th e s e p u b lic
an a s s i s t a n t to th e
sc h o o ls in v a rio u s t e s t s and to
se c tio n s
c o lle c t:
A l l t h e r e l e v a n t d a t a i n I . Q . r s , M . A . * 8 , t h e Hew S ta n f o r d A rith m e tic T e s t (T e st I , A rith m e tic R eason i n g ) , t h e C h ica g o S u rv e y T e s ts ( S e c t i o n on R e a s o n in g ) and th e r e s u l t s o f th e t e s t s , a l l o f w h ic h w ere i n t h e s t u d e n t 1s f o l d e r . P ro b le m s n u m b erin g
66
s e v e ra l h u n dred,
som e o f w h i c h
J o s e p h T . J o h n s o n , "On t h e N a t u r e o f P r o b l e m S o lv in g in A r ith m e tic ,u J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h , O c t o b e r , 19^9 > PP* 1 1 0 - 1 5 * 7 Ib id .,
p.
68 T ., Loc. c l t ♦
111.
251 e n t a i l e d n u m e ric a l f ig u r in g it,
w ere g i v e n t o
and o t h e r p ro b le m s w h ic h o m itte d
th e s e l e c te d p u p ils *
T he f i r s t
p a rt in
c l u d e d s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s MR i c h a r d r e c e i v e s 5 c e n t s f o r p a p e r s he s e l l s *
He p a i d 3 c e n t s a p i e c e f o r th em *
w i l l he have to
se ll
in o r d e r to e a rn #
5
How m an y p a p e r s *
0
Th e p r o b
le m s w h ic h o m it t e d nu m b ers p o s e d s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s :. Tom h a d some m o n ey i n h i s p o c k e t a n d J i m a l s o m o n ey i n h i s p o c k e t , t o t a l am ount i s
11I f
h a d some
how w o u l d y o u f i n d o u t how m u c h t h e
t h a t b o t h h av e?* 1^
The a n s w e rs t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w ere g a t h e r e d fro m th e
s e v e r a l h u n d r e d s t u d e n t s c h o s e n a t ran d o m f r o m t h e
e ig h th g rad e in th e s e A fte r s t a t i s t i c a l n iq u e ,
sc h o o ls jo in in g in th e
t r e a t m e n t em p lo y in g t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
th e w r i t e r c o n c lu d e d t h a t v o c a b u la ry ,
te llig e n c e
a n d memory a r e
f o r fin d in g
s o lu tio n s to
recom m ends t h a t
in v e s tig a tio n *
a l l c lo s e ly r e la te d p ro b le m s.
te c h
g e n e ra l in to th e a b i l i t y
I n h i s su m m a ry J o h n s o n ’
s c h o o l s 11n e e d t h e h e l p o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s
h e r e i n d e f i n i n g m em ory a n d r e a s o n i n g a n d t h e h e l p o f e d u c a to rs in
d e fin in g p ro b le m -s o lv in g
C ritiq u e
o f Johnson*s stu d y .
6 9 I b i d . ■ P* 1 1 2 . 70 I b i d . . p - 1137^ I b i d . i
p . 115*
i n a r i t h m e t i c . 1*'^3' T h is ty p e o f s tu d y
252 d o e s n o t b r i n g m u ch u s e f u l e v i d e n c e t o te n ta tiv e
ap p ro ach to
m eth o d i s
em p lo y ed ,
It
th e p ro b le m , a n d , w h ile th e
th e re
seem s t o b e a l a c k
M uch o f t h e r e s e a r c h i n t h i s f i e l d and does not c la r if y
lig h t.
is
o f th e
is
a
s c ie n tific
of su re ty . sam e n a t u r e
o r a d d to t h e k n o w le d g e c o n c e r n in g
p ro b le m -so lv in g . Jo seo h J . G o ld ste in and o th e r s 1 r e s e a r c h . s tu d y was a n o t h e r g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h to
Th i s
th e p ro b le m .
The
r e p o r t i n g was v a g u e a n d t h e p r o c e d u r e d i d n o t a p p e a r en tire ly
sc ie n tific .
I t w as a g e n e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n
c e r t a i n t h e b e s t m eth o d o f u t i l i z i n g
th e te c h n iq u e o f p ro b
l e m - s o l v i n g on th e e le m e n ta r y l e v e l i n w as an e f f o r t t o h e lp t h i n k m ore c l e a r l y
a ll su b je c ts.
c h ild r e n to d e v e lo p in
and to
to a s
It
th e a b i l i t y
to
f a c e t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l p ro b le m s
m ore i n t e l l i g e n t l y . The r e s e a r c h e r s w e r e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n w h a t w as c a l l e d t h e 11O p e n -M in d ed n e ss* * c ity
o f P h ila d e lp h ia .
d re n i n an e f f o r t
s tu d y in th e p u b lic s c h o o ls in th e T hese w r i t e r s w ork ed w i t h th e c h i l
to d e v e lo p th e
f i c i e n t p ro b le m -so lv in g .
s k i l l s n ecessary
T hey s t a t e
to e f
t h e i r c ase as fo llo w s:
T e a c h e rs i n t h e S tu d y b e l i e v e t h a t a d i r e c t a p p r o a c h m u s t b e m ade b y s c h o o l s t o h e l p c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s t o t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y a b o u t t h e many p r o b l e m s w h ic h c o n f r o n t th em . I t is f e l t th a t th is is best d o n e t h r o u g h h e l p i n g p e o p le t o know an d to v a l u e t h e u s e o f s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d s o f s o l u t i o n s o f hum an r e l a t i o n p ro b le m s a s w e ll a s o f th o s e I n v o lv in g
253 p h y s i c a l phenom ena**^ T he r e s e a r c h * stu d y by c i t i n g
T he i n v e s t i g a t o r s i l l u s t r a t e d
a c tu a l c a se s in v o lv in g te a c h e r - p u p il r e la
t i o n s h i p s i n p ro b lem s i t u a t i o n s . h e r p u p ils to r a is e in te r e s t in d a ily tr a v e l and c iv ic
th e ir
T he t e a c h e r e n c o u r a g e d
q u e s t i o n s a c t u a l l y e m e rg in g fro m t h e i r
life * life ,
The p r o b le m s o f w a r a n d p e a c e , e tc .,
th e m se lv e s and d is c u s s e d in
w ere b r o u g h t u p b y t h e p u p i l s th e c la s s ro o m s .
T he r e p o r t d i d n o t d i s c l o s e o r th e am ount o f p u p i l s
t h e num ber o f s c h o o ls
in v o lv e d on any g rad e
r e p o r t w as g e n e r a l a n d d i f f u s e *
le v e l.
The
T h e re seem ed t o b e no e f
f o r t a t any s t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e la tio n o r c o n tr o lle d i n v e s ti g a tio n .
I t a p p e a r e d , a l t h o u g h i t w as n o t s t a t e d ,
c h i l d r e n on a l l l e v e l s i n
th e
s c h o o ls in v o lv e d w ere g iv e n
p ro b le m s o r a s k e d to e n t e r i n t o t h e i r own o r c u r r e n t a f f a i r s * m ade a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e
th a t
s i t u a t i o n s e m e rg in g fro m A ll p o ss ib le
s o u r c e s w ere
s o l u t io n o f th e s e p ro b le m s.
G o ld ste in and h is
c o -w o rk e rs c o n c lu d e t h a t :
P a r t i c i p a n t s i n th e S tu d y r e c o g n i z e th e n e e d f o r m any t y p e s o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n i n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g . It i s o n ly th r o u g h s u c h an e x p a n d e d p rogram o f e x p e rim e n t a t i o n i n m any s c h o o l s i n m an y p l a c e s t h a t t h e g o a l o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g b y th e g r e a t m ass o f o u r p e o p le can b e r e a l i z e d . *3
72
J o s e p h J . G o l d s t e i n a n d o t h e r s , “ T h i n k i n g Gan Be L e a r n e d ,” E d u c a ti o n a l L e a d e r s h i p , 6 : 2 , J a n u a r y , 19?9*
73 I b i d . , p . 2 5 3 .
2 5^ C o n c lu s io n s fro m t h i s of th is in v e s tig a tio n
ty p e o f s tu d y .
a re e x c e lle n t,
from th e r e p o r t i s u n s c i e n t i f i c . p h ilo s o p h ic a l in ap p ro ach . p ro b le m -so lv in g i s q u ite p ro cesses,
It
W h ile t h e
its
m eth o d a s d e r i v e d
is
a c a d e m ic o r r a t h e r
A rm -c h a ir p h ilo s o p h iz in g a b o u t
a c c e p ta b le
in th e
h ig h e r th o u g h t
p e rh a p s , b u t on th e e le m e n ta ry l e v e l s
s tu d ie s are needed,
a im s
e m p iric a l
a s even th e a u th o r s c o n c lu d e .
H e r b e r t T. 0 l a n d e r , M. £ . V an W ag en en a n d H e l e n M u i r B ish o p * s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
P erh ap s
am ount o f w ork done i n a r i t h m e t i c lie s
th e re a so n f o r th e g r e a t e r s t u d i e s s u c h a s t h i s one
in th e f a c t th a t: . . . o f a l l s p e c ia l c a p a c itie s p e rh ap s th e b e s t e s t a b l i s h e d i s t h a t u n d e rly in g e f f i c ie n c y in n u m e ric a l c o m p u ta tio n . A r ith m e tic a l o r m a th e m a tic a l a b i l i t y has a lm o st, a lw a y s b e e n r e g a r d e d a s a d i s t i n c t a b i l i t y o r g i f t . 7^ T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n
i s p e r h a p s m o re s c i e n t i f i c
th e p re c e d in g one J u s t r e p o r t e d . fic ie n c ie s
in i t
d iffic u lty
h e re , p lu s th e
th an
But th e re a r e c e r ta in de
w h ic h a r e o b v io u s .
T h ere i s a se m a n tic
f a c t t h a t t h e a im s a n d p u r p o s e s
are n o t c le a r - c u t The r e s e a r c h .
In
t h i s p a r t i c u l a r in v e s ti g a t i o n to
d e te rm in e a p r e d i c t i o n b a s i s f o r a r i t h m e t i c a l a c h ie v e m e n t, a t e s t was g i v e n t o
74.
th e
c h ild re n a t
B u r t, p p . c i t . ,
p . 253*
th e f i r s t g ra d e le v e l
255 o f th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l.
T h is t e s t f o r p r e d i c t i n g
a rith
m e t i c a c h ie v e m e n t o f c h i l d r e n ’ s p e r f o r m a n c e s was c o n s t r u c t e d in to
tw o d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s : One s c a l e , S c a l e A c o n s i s t i n g o f tw o f o r m s , A - l a n d A ~2, w a s d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e q u a n t i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n p o s s e s s e d by young c h ild r e n . . . . The p u r p o s e o f t h e s e c o n d s c a l e , S c a le B, w as t o m e a su re c h i l d r e n ’ s a b i l i t y to p e rc e iv e n u m e ric a l r e la tio n s h ip s .7 5 B o th o f t h e s e t e s t i n g s w ere i n d i v i d u a l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d
by tr a in e d t e r e d to
e x a m in e rs.
T e n ta tiv e t e s t s w ere f i r s t
te n p u p ils f o r a p re lim in a ry
R e s u lts o f f i r s t
A r e v i s e d t e s t w as t h e n draw n u p a n d
g iv e n to 19^ f i r s t - g r a d e S t.
p u p i l s fro m a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
sehool
P a u l, M in n e so ta . The f i r s t
s c a le w as d e s ig n a te d s p e c i f i c a l l y
su re q u a n tita tiv e Q u e stio n s
s u c h a s ’’W hat i s
a c l o c k f o r ? ” ’’How m any l e g s
w ere a s k e d .
The s e c o n d s c a l e w as s e t
te rm s o f f a m i l i a r a n a lo g ie s .
I t was c o u c h e d i n
l a n g u a g e w h i c h i n c l u d e d s u c h i t e m s a s ’’p i n t : s m a l l : (la rg e , b ig ).
.
t o mea
in fo rm a tio n th ro u g h th e q u e s tio n s p o sed .
d o e s a d o g h a v e ? 11^ up in
s u rv e y a s to o u tco m es.
t e s t d a t a w e r e g a t h e r e d a n d so m e o f t h e m
p ro v ed u n j u s t if i a b le .
in
a d m in is
: q u a rt;
.
75
H e r b e r t T. O l a n d e r , M. J . V a n W agenen a n d H e l e n M u i r B i s h o p , ’’P r e d i c t i n g A r i t h m e t i c A c h i e v e m e n t , ” J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , S e p t e m b e r , 19^9> P* 6 8 . ^
I b i d ., p.
^
Loc* c l t .
66.
256 A f te r t h i s f i r s t r e v i s i o n had been a d m in is te r e d and th e r e s u l ts tu te d *
ta b u la te d ,
In t h is
s t i l l a n o t h e r r e v i s i o n was i n s t i
second an d f i n a l r e v i s io n th e
tw o a r i t h
m e tic s c a l e s w ere t r a n s f o r m e d a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d t o d itio n a l firs t-g ra d e c a lly
p u p ils*
The tw o t e s t s w e r e
c o n s tr u c te d and ch eck ed f o r r e l i a b i l i t y
510 ad s c ie n tifi
and v a lid ity *
A c c o rd in g to t h e a u t h o r s t h e t e s t s w ere f o u n d b o t h r e l i a b l e and v a lid . T he c o n c l u s i o n s w h i c h f o l l o w e d s t a t e d t h a t p r e d i c t i o n o f a c h ie v e m e n t s u c c e s s in a r i t h m e t i c w as h i g h e s t in p ro b le m -s o lv in g an d fu n d a m e n ta l o p e r a tin g n e x t h i g h e s t w as p r o b le m - s o lv in g a lo n e ;
a rra n g e m e n ts ;
th e
a n d t h e l o w e s t was
fu n d a m e n ta l o p e r a t i o n s . I m p ll c a t io n s ♦
T he p r e c e d i n g
stu d y i s
th e a v e ra g e a r i t h m e t ic a l e x p e rim e n t and i s
a n e x a m p le o f
illu s tra tiv e
th e d i f f i c u l t i e s
e n c o u n te re d in any su ch i n v e s ti g a t i o n .
P ro b le m -so lv in g ,
u n q u e stio n a b ly ,
m a th e m a tic s ,
a rid m o re s o i n
has been a s s o c ia te d w ith
a r i t h m e t i c th a n an y o t h e r area*
T he b i b l i o g r a p h i e s r e v i e w e d b y t h i s some f i f t y
p u b lis h e d e x p e rim e n ta l
so lv in g in a rith m e tic * to f u r n i s h a p a t t e r n . d i f f i c u l t i e s o f th e
in v e s tig a to r
sh o w e d
s t u d i e s on p ro b le m
T h ese w ere so d i s c r e t e a s h a r d l y They c e n t e r e d th e m s e lv e s a ro u n d th e
stu d e n t,
o f d i f f e r e n t m eth o d s,
of
t h e i r w ork h a b i t s ,
a c o m p a riso n
and th e v a rio u s f a c to r s in v o lv e d in
257 th e
s o l u t i o n o f f e l t p ro b lem s*
v ie w e d a r e
in d ic a tiv e
T h e n e x t tw o s t u d i e s r e
o f m o s t o f th em .
C a r l W. H a n s o n 1 s i n v e s t l g a t i o n . in v e s ti g a t o r a tte m p te d to
In t h i s stu d y
th e
a sc e rta in ;
. . . w h e th e r c e r t a i n a b i l i t i e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w ith s u p e r i o r a c h ie v e m e n t in s o lv in g v e r b a l a r i t h m e t i c p ro b le m s * T e s ts In p r o b le m -s o lv in g w ere a d m in is te r e d to 681 s i x t h g r a d e p u p i l s i n 10 c o m m u n itie s r a n g i n g I n s i z e f r o m a n a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e o f k-00 I n h a b i t a n t s t o an i n d u s t r i a l a n d c o m m e rc ia l c i t y o f 25 >000. A fte r th e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e te n c o m m u n itie s w ere f o u n d to b e hom ogeneous w i t h r e s p e c t to v a r i a b l e a n d m ean a c h i e v e m e n t , t h e y w e re g r o u p e d i n o n e c o m p a ra t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n w h ic h i n c lu d e d t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n . 7° H anson d e r i v e d c e r t a i n f a c t s fro m h i s s t u d y w h ic h s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s c o n v i c t i o n s in c o n n e c tio n w i t h p ro b le m so lv in g .
H is fra m e o f r e f e r e n c e c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e
of in te llig e n c e
a s com posed o f f a c t o r s s u c h a s th o s e T h u r-
s to n e h ad e n u m e ra te d .
T h i s c o n c e p t o f I n t e l l i g e n c e was t h e
f o c u s o f h i s s tu d y and fro m i t c e rn s th e
concept
h i s o r i g i n a l b i a s a s con
f a c t o r i a l t h e o r y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e was c o r r o b o r a t e d *
He c o n c l u d e d h i s r e s e a r c h b y a s s e r t i n g t h a t : F u r t h e r s t u d y on t h e s e f a c t o r s w o u ld a p p e a r t o b e d e sira b le . I n v e s t i g a t i o n i s u r g e n t l y n e e d e d on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n v a r i o u s r e a d in g s h i l l s a n d s u c c e s s in s o lv in g v e r b a l a r i t h m e t ic p ro b le m s. E x p e rim e n ta tio n i n p r a c t i c a l c la s s ro o m s i t u a t i o n s a p p e a rs n e c e s s a r y to r e c o n c i l e t h e f i n d i n g s b a s e d on s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s
C a r l W. H a n s o n , 11F a c t o r s A s s o c i a t e d w i t h S u c c e s s f u l A c h i e v e m e n t i n P r o b l e m - S o l v i n g i n S i x t h C-rade A r i t h m e t i c ^ J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , O c t o b e r , 19^4> p . 111.
258 and a c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e p u p ils * C o n trib u tio n s*
T h is ty p e o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n
m e n tary i n n a t u r e and i t sitio n * th e
stre n g th e n th e o r ig in a l b e li e f s ,
a u th o r p e rh a p s n e g le c t e d th e s c i e n t i f i c
tio n
to
m e th o d o f s e e k
But H ansons resea rch i s
th e p u rp o se o f t h i s
c e rta in re le v a n t d a ta .
p ro b le m -so lv in g # b u t i t
is frag
p ro c e e d e d fro m a s t a t e d p re s u p p o
I n h i s e f f o r t to
in g th e f a c t s p e r s e .
it
79
stu d y i n
th a t th e re
The n e x t s t u d y i s
a c o n trib u em erg ed fro m
r e l a t e d to
d e a ls w ith in s tr u c tio n
and vocabu
la ry . H a r r y C . J o h n s o n 1s i n v e s t i g a t i o n * su m m arize d i n search lim ite d
t h i s r e p o r t i n t h e J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e its e lf
to
a n arro w p h a se o f th e g e n e r a l d i f
f i c u l t y t h a t p ro b le m -so lv in g p r e s e n ts . q u e s t i o n t h a t w as c o n s i d e r e d w as, le a rn in g
T he e x p e r i m e n t
S p e c ific a lly ,
th e
"W hat e f f e c t d o e s t h e
o f m a th e m a tic a l v o c a b u la ry have upon th e
s o lu tio n
o f n u m e r ic a l p ro b le m s I n w h ic h t h e s e w o rd s p la y an im Q a
p o rta n t p a rt? " P ro ced u re o f th e
79 I b i d . , p .
00
e x p e rim e n t.
T h is e x p e r im e n t w as
118.
H a r r y C. J o h n s o n , " T h e E f f e c t o f I n s t r u c t i o n i n M a t h e m a t i c a l V o c a b u l a r y u p o n P r o b l e m - S o l v i n g I n A r i t h m e t i c , 11 T he J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , O c t o b e r , 1 9 ^ , p* 98*
259 p a r t o f a d o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n done by H arry Jo h n so n a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f M in n e so ta . in
I n th e e x p e rim e n t 898 p u p i ls
28? J u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l c l a s s e s w ere t e s t e d .
h ig h s c h o o ls w ere l o c a t e d In th e c i t y Y ork, and th e
o f N i a g a r a F a l l s , New
e x p e r im e n t w as c o n d u c te d d u r in g t h e
o f 19^1 and 1 9 ^ 2 . by a tte m p tin g
T hese ju n io r
tw o y e a r s
An a t t e m p t w a s m ade a t s c i e n t i f i c
to e q u a te th e s u b je c ts .
c o n tro l
The i n v e s t i g a t o r
w rite s; I n o r d e r to j u s t i f y t h e co m b in in g o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n s fro m t h e s e s c h o o l s i n t o one l a r g e g r o u p , i t w as n e c e s s a r y t o d e m o n s tr a te t h a t th o s e s c h o o ls w ere s t a t i s t i c a l l y hom ogeneous. T he f o l l o w i n g t e s t s w e r e u s e d ; th e W elch -N a y e r t e s t f o r t h e h o m o g e n e ity o f v a r i a b i l i t y , a n d " y s i s o f v a r i o u s t e s t s f o r th e h o m o g e n e ity o f F ro m t h e s e d a t a I t w a s g a t h e r e d t h a t t h e hom ogeneous. g ro u p s,
its
h a b ita n ts .
N ia g a ra F a l l s
is a c ity
of d iv e rse n a tio n a lity
p ro x im ity to C anada a f f e c t i n g Thus in o r d e r f o r
s c h o o l s w ere
Its
m ores a n d i n
th e s tu d y t o be s c i e n t i f i c
It
w as n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d an a p p ro x im a te h o m o g e n e ity so t h a t th e r e s u l t s w o u ld b e v a l i d . tw o r e s p e c t s , id e n tity
show ed t h a t I n t h e s e
on e a c h o f t h e f o llo w in g m e a s u re s ,
som e common
o b ta in e d ;
1 ., 2. 3*
81
T he t e s t s
C h ro n o lo g ic a l ag e. M e n t a l Age ( H e n m a n - N e ls o n I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t ) R e a d in g A b i l i t y ( C a te s R e a d in g T e x t - a b i l i t y to r e a c t to n o te d e t a i l s )
I b i d . , p. 99*
26o
5*
A rith m e tic p ro b le m -so lv in g and a r ith m e tic vo c a b u la r y ( A n a ly tic S c a le o f A tta in m e n t) K n o w le d g e o f a r i t h m e t i c v o c a b u l a r y s t u d i e d p r i o r to th e b e g in n in g o f th e e x p e rim e n t* (B a s e d upon r e s u l t s f r o m a 40 p o i n t o b j e c t t e s t o f t h e m u ltip le c h o ic e ty p e * )°^
In stru m e n ta l m a te r ia ls *
The t e s t w as e x e c u te d p r i
m a r i l y th r o u g h f u r n i s h e d m a t e r i a l s e m p lo y ed i n
a fu n c tio n a l
sense.
T he e x p e r i m e n t w a s g i v e n s e r i a l l y
in th re e d is tin c t
ste p s*
I t w as f e l t b y t h e I n v e s t i g a t o r t h a t m o st o f t h e ex
p e r i m e n t s h a d b e e n to o f a r rem oved fro m t h e o f th e c la ss ro o m a n d c a r r i e d th u s in v a lid a tin g a im e d a t r e a l i t y
on i n t o o
th e r e s u l t s .
a c tu a l e x p e rie n c e
a b s t r a c t a m anner,
J o h n s o n s in v e stig a tio n
and a c t u a l c la ss ro o m s i t u a t i o n s .
fo u n d sim p le to s e p a r a t e t h e
stu d y in to
th re e
o f w h ic h w as p r e c e d e d and f o llo w e d b y t e s t s
I t was
sta g e s ,
“e a c h
in v o c a b u la ry
a n d p r o b le m - s o lv in g , b a s e d upon th e m a t e r i a l t a u g h t d u r in g th e re s p e c tiv e
p e r i o d s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t . **^3
I t was f e l t t h a t f ro m t h e p r o c e d u r e o f p o s i n g s im p le q u e s t io n s i n a p ro b lem s i t u a t i o n , and tre a te d .
m o re d a t a c o u l d b e d e r i v e d
S u c h sa m p le q u e s t i o n s a s t h e f o l l o w i n g w ere
used: V o c a b u la ry t e s t : P e r i m e te r m eans: ( a ) th e am ount o f s u r f a c e , (b ) v o lu m e , (c ) d i s t a n c e a ro u n d , (d ) d i s tan ce a c ro s s .
82
Johnson, I b i d ., p.
lo c . c l t . 100-
261 P ro b le m t e s t : F in d th e p e rim e te r o f th e r e c ta n g le w hose l e n g t h i s 12 I n c h e s a n d w hose w id th i s 8 i n c h e s . T h is t e s t was f o r m u l a t e d so t h a t f o r e a c h w o rd w h ic h w as t e s t e d
in th e v o c a b u la ry ,
t h e r e w as g iv e n a p ro b le m in
th e p ro b le m t e s t w h ic h u t i l i z e d a n d r e q u i r e d c o m p re h e n sio n o f t h a t w ord.
Johnson say s:
The p u r p o s e o f t h e p r a c t i c e e x e r c i s e s , d e s i g n e d f o r u s e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s e s , w a s t o d e v e l o p a m ean i n g f u l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f v o c a b u la r y beyond t h a t w h ic h was p r o v id e d by th e t e x t b o o k i t s e l f . ^ * T h is i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l was p r e s e n t e d o ral d r ills
u s in g s e l e c t e d w o rd s.
th e d ic tio n a r y
in d a ily
The i n d i v i d u a l u t i l i z e d
to d e r i v e w ord m e a n in g s , a n d t h e
in d iv id u a l
s t u d e n t s r e c o r d e d m e a n in g s o f g i v e n w o rd s i n t h e i r n o t e books.
To s u p p l e m e n t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n ,
t e r i a l s and d r i l l s
w ere o f f e r e d .
c o m p r e h e n s i o n ma
T he a u t h o r s u m m a r i z e d t h e
use o f m a te r ia ls th u s : T he w r i t e r h a s sh o w n t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l s h e u s e d t o b r i n g a b o u t g r e a t e r g r o w t h i n v o c a b u l a r y an d concom i t a n t l y in p r o b le m - s o lv in g , w ere e q u a lly v a lu a b le to p u p ils of a l l le v e ls of a b i l i t y . L ik e w is e t h e y seem ed to b e e q u a lly u s e f u l in th e h an d s o f b o th in e x p e r ie n c e d and e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e r s . T h e s e f a c t s s h o u l d re c o m m e n d a g e n e ra l u se o f s im ila r v o c a b u la ry b u ild in g e x e rc is e s to a l l te a c h e r s o f a r i t h m e t i c - ^ Im p lic a tio n s tio n had f o r i t s
of th is
in v e s tig a tio n .
The i n v e s t i g a
fu n d a m e n ta l p u rp o se th e d e m o n s tr a tio n o f
Qh
Johnson,
lo c - c l t .
85 Z M 4 - » P- 1 0 1 • 86 I b i d . , p .
109.
262 s p e c if ic v o c a b u la ry
in stru c tio n
s o lv in g f o r m a th e m a tic s In th e
in
th e u se o f p ro b lem
se v e n th g ra d e .
The i n v e s t i
g a t o r e m e r g e d w i t h m o r e d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s a n d re c o m m e n d a t io n s th a n u s u a l.
He c o n c l u d e d t h a t v o c a b u l a r y i n s t r u c t i o n
a n d c o m p re h e n sio n w ere e s s e n t i a l t o p r o b le m - s o lv in g and t h a t p r o b l e m - s o l v in g was t h e m o st e f f e c t i v e m eans to w a rd l e a r n i n g a rith m e tic . S tu d ie s so lv in g in
th e
su c h a s t h e s e b o l s t e r th e u se o f p ro b le m sc h o o ls. IV .
SUMMARY OP THE EVALUATION
Fro m t h e t h r e e c h a p te r, th e f i r s t
c e rta in
a s p e c ts o f th e e v a lu a tio n
f a c t s c o n tin g e n t to
phase o f th e c r i t i q u e ,
th e
in th is
s tu d y em erged.
i t w as s e e n t h a t
d u c t i v e m eth o d o f r e a s o n i n g h a s b e e n e m p i r i c a l l y in
sc ie n tific
in q u iry .
In
th e in Ju s tifie d
T he a d v a n c e m e n t o f t e c h n o l o g y
s ta n d s w itn e s s to th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f in d u c tiv e th o u g h t. P ro m a p e r u s a l o f t h e m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g i c a l l e a r n i n g th e o rie s, o f th e
e v id e n c e w as d e r i v e d t o s u b s t a n t i a t e
th e v a li d i ty
te c h n iq u e o f p ro b le m -so lv in g b o th p s y c h o lo g ic a lly
and e d u c a tio n a lly . p lie d th e b e li e f
The p s y c h o l o g i s t s e i t h e r
s t a t e d o r im
in e x p e rie n c e and in p ro b le m s.
In d u c tio n
is
th e b a s i s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g and to b e g in in e x p e rie n c e
is
to b e g in le a r n in g
a d e q u a te ly .
As c o n c e r n s t h e r e s e a r c h e r s ,
n o t m any g e n e r a l
263 p a t t e r n s o f b e l i e f c o u l d b e d e r i v e d f r o m them * w ere c a r r i e d o u t m o s tly i n t h e f i e l d a p a r t in p u rp o se and p ro c e d u re .
T he s t u d i e s
o f a r i t h m e t i c an d w ere
R e p re se n ta tiv e in v e s tig a
t i o n s w ere p r e s e n t e d an d t h e s e a t t e s t e d t o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p r o b l e m - s o l v in g a s a m eth o d f o r l e a r n i n g . c o n c lu sio n o f th e r e s e a rc h e rs t h a t th e re
I t was t h e
i s a g r e a t need
f o r m o re s t a b i l i z e d a n d o r d e r l y r e s e a r c h i n
th is fie ld .
P h ilo s o o h le a l fo u n d a tio n s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g . g a rd s th e
fo u n d a tio n s u n d e rly in g
As r e
t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v in g m eth o d ,
s e v e r a l p o in ts o f a g reem en t a re r e v e a le d a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s a n a ly tic a l
stu d y o f th e w o rk s o f e d u c a to r s , p h ilo s o p h e r s ,
and th e v a r io u s p h ilo s o p h ie s . ag reem en t a r e l i s t e d .
Some t e n p r i m a r y p o i n t s o f
T h e s e t e n p o i n t s may b e c o n s i d e r e d
b y som e e d u c a t o r s a s t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s u p o n w h i c h p r o b l e m so lv in g r e s t s .
As p r i n c i p l e s ,
b y D ewey’ s d e f i n i t i o n ,
th e y
have e v o lv e d a s a r e s u l t o f th e d a t a d i s c l o s e d by t h i s stu d y .
By o t h e r e d u c a t o r s o r o t h e r p h i l o s o p h e r s ,
th e se
p o i n t s o f a g r e e m e n t may b e l o o k e d u p o n a s a s s u m p t i o n s u p o n w h ic h p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a s a m eth o d m u st s t a n d . p o i n t o f v iew o f t h i s
In v e s tig a to r,
s ta n d o r f a l l upon th e s e
F ro m t h e
p r o b le m - s o lv in g m ust
fu n d a m e n ta l a ssu m p tio n s w h ic h can
n e ith e r be p ro v ed n o r d isp ro v e d ,
a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s t h e hy
p o t h e s e s e m e rg in g fro m th e m c a n b e J u s t i f i e d b y t h e
fa c ts.
T hese fu n d a m e n ta l p o i n ts o f a g reem en t a r e a ls o b a s i c to
264 sc ie n tific
in q u iry as i t
e m e r g e s f r o m t h e i n d u c t i v e mode
o f re a so n in g * P r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a s a m eth o d o f s e e k i n g k n o w le d g e s ta rts
in e x p e rie n c e and th ro u g h th e
e ra liz a tio n s.
I n Dewey* s p h i l o s o p h y t h e s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s
m ust have p ra g m a tic v a l u e . w ith le a rn in g a c c o rd in g to te rn .
It
sen ses a r r iv e s a t gen
P ro b le m -s o lv in g I s
sy n o n y m o u s
w h ic h o c c u r s o n ly th r o u g h s c i e n t i f i c its
a d h e re n ts.
T h is l e a r n i n g i s
I s d y n am ic a n d o r g a n ! s m i c ,
c e s s w hereby t h e kn o w er com es to
in q u iry ,
a to ta l p a t
in v o lv in g
a ’ w h o le * p r o
t h e known.
The f u n d a m e n t a l p o i n t s o f a g r e e m e n t a r e : 1.
That le a rn in g
b e g in s i n e x p e r ie n c e and d raw s I t s
p re m is e s fro m i t . 2.
That th e ap p ro a ch to le a r n in g
3.
T hat th e e p is te m o lo g y i s m o n is tic .
4*
T hat th e re
5*
That le a rn in g
c a n b e no d i s c r e t e
is n a tu ra listic *
ap p ro ach to le a r n
in g . is
a p r o c e s s w h ic h i s
a t once
d y n a m ic a n d o r g a n i s m i c . 6.
That th e sen se d a ta a re
th e o n ly m eans f o r a c
q u i r i n g k n o w le d g e . 7*
T h a t t h e m in d i s
ju stm e n t and i s
u n a b le to
an In stru m e n t d e sig n e d f o r ad
f u n c t i o n a p a r t fro m th e b i o l o g i c a l
o r g a n i sm. 8.
T hat le a rn in g
i s d o in g and t h a t t h i s d o in g b e g in s
2 65 w i t h a p ro b le m a n d c o n c lu d e s w i t h t e n t a t i v e 9. 10.
so lu tio n s.
T hat s o lu tio n s a re w a rra n te d a s s e r tio n s . That
‘u n i v e r s a l e 1 a r e
sy m b o ls an d d o n o t e x i s t
in r e a l i t y . I n o n e w ay o r a n o t h e r t h e s e
te n p o in ts have been d i s
c u sse d and a n a ly z e d th ro u g h o u t th e body of t h i s i n v e s tig a tio n .
T h e ir p ro o f i s n o t y e t p o s s ib le .
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g r e s t s
upon th em .
B ut th e te c h n iq u e
T here i s
s t i l l d isa g re e
m e n t i n m any q u a r t e r s w i t h t h e s e b a s i c p o s t u l a t e s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g .
Tim e a n d e v i d e n c e m u s t b e t h e c r i t e r i a . V.
SUMMARY
T h is c h a p te r p r e s e n te d an e v a lu a tio n and c r i t i q u e th e
e n t i r e m eth o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
w ere c r i t i c a l l y upon w h ic h th e
The p r o s a n d c o n s
e x a m in e d i n o r d e r t o d ra w o u t t h e stru c tu re
of
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g r e s t s .
fo u n d a tio n s T he n e x t
c h a p t e r w i l l p r e s e n t an e v a l u a t i o n o f th e h y p o th e s e s w h ic h w ere p o s t u l a t e d i n C h a p te r I I I .
CHAPTER IX THE EVALUATION OF THE HYPOTHESES The l a s t c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d a c r i t i q u e o f t h e e n t i r e a r e a o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g so t h a t
som e c o n c e p t i o n s o f i t s
so u n d n e ss c o u ld be d e te rm in e d *
T h is c h a p te r w i l l a tte m p t an
e v a lu a tio n o f th e n in e h y p o th e se s g iv e n i n th e t h i r d c h a p te r a s a s t r u c tu r e f o r th e e x e c u tio n o f t h i s a tte m p t to
a n s w e r s u m m a r ily t h e m ore b a s i c
a l s o b e i n c l u d e d I n C h a p t e r IX . m ore o r l e s s
An
q u e stio n s w ill
A l l o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s w ere
s u b s t a n t l a t e d by th e f in d in g s ,
m ust be l e f t i n 1.
in v e s tig a tio n .
a l t h o u g h tw o
a b e y a n c e u n t i l m o re e v i d e n c e i s a v a i l a b l e .
A s tu d y o f th e e a r l i e s t b e g in n i n g s o f t h e p ro b lem
s o l v i n g m eth o d h e l p e d i n
c r itic a l a n a ly sis*
b a s ic t e x ts o f th e G reek s, A r i s t o t le ,
A re v ie w o f th e
P la to and o th e r s ,
and
o f t h e m e d i e v a l S c h o o lm e n , r e v e a l e d t h e g erm o f i n d u c t i v e re a so n in g . p re c ia tio n
W i t h o u t t h e c o n t r a s t o f d e d u c t i o n a n d som e a p of th e g e n e sis of a l l re a so n ,
a c le a r p ic tu re of
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g c a n n o t b e had* th e s e e a rly p h ilo s o p h e rs a re r i g h t f u l l y d u c tiv e th in k e r s ,
W h il e
c l a s s i f i e d a s de
t h e i r w ork g av e e v id e n c e o f i n d u c t i o n .
T h is e a r l y g lim m e rin g o f i n d u c t i o n w as n o te d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n A r i s t o t l e ’ s cru d e usage o f
sc ie n tific
in q u iry .
D ia lo g u e s, w ith S o c ra te s a s in te r lo c u to r ,
P la to ’s
d i s c l o s e d e le m e n ts
26? o f p ro b le m -so lv in g
in t h a t S o c ra te s , by a d r o it q u e s tio n in g ,
s e t up p ro b lem s f o r p o s s i b l e
so lu tio n *
In one p a r t i c u l a r
s e c t i o n o f th e H e p u b lic d e v o te d to d i a l e c t i c , s o lv in g te c h n iq u e i s m a n if e s t.
th e p ro b lem
W ith A q u in a s t h e r e a p p e a r e d
som e I n d i c a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e o f I n d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g . p o stu la te d
A q u in a s
th e t h e o r y t h a t t r u e k n o w led g e m u st b e so u g h t i n
s p i t e o f t h e m any p r o b l e m s t o b e o v e r c o m e b e f o r e
th e d i s
cov ery . 2*
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e d u r e o f s c i e n t i f i c
in
q u i r y w as n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e d e v elo p m e n t o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t w as se e n t h a t , tific
in e sse n c e ,
i n q u ir y fo rm ed t h e
s u b s tr u c tu r e f o r p ro b le m -so lv in g
i n t h e A m e ric an c la s s r o o m . fo u n d a tio n s,
th e a c c e p te d th e o ry o f s c ie n
W ith o u t a n e x a m in a tio n o f t h e s e
a c l e a r c o m p re h e n s io n o f th e t e c h n iq u e w as n o t
q u ite p o s s ib le .
A t o t a l p a t t e r n m ust b e p r e s e n t e d f o r a
t r u e p e r s p e c t i v e o f any p ro b le m , c o m p le te .
By p r o b i n g
and by s e ttin g it
e ls e
it
Is in
th e s e fo u n d a tio n s o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g
f o r t h a c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is o f th e f in d in g s ,
w a s p o s s i b l e t o m ake c l a r i f i c a t i o n
m ore n e a r l y p o s s i b l e . re sts
in s ig h t In to
It
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g
w as fo u n d t h a t
sc ie n tific
In q u iry
upon e x p e rim e n ta l d a t a d e r iv e d by th e s e n s e s and a n a l
yzed and c l a s s i f i e d by th e in d iv id u a l in to z a tio n s .
T he r i s e
te n ta tiv e
g e n e ra li
a n d g r o w t h o f m od ern t e c h n o lo g y w as i n
g r e a t m easure f a c i l i t a t e d by t h i s
te c h n iq u e an d an a n a lo g y
268 w as draw n fro m t h i s d e v e lo p m e n t to a p p l y t o e d u c a t i o n a l p ro g ress. 3.
The p h l l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e p r o b l e m
s o l v i n g m eth o d w ere r e v e a l e d a s a r e s u l t o f a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a ta g a th e re d by t h i s had been d is c lo s e d ,
in v e s tig a tio n .
F ro m t h e d a t a w h i c h
t e n b a s i c p o s t u l a t e s w e r e l a i d dow n.
T hese fu n d a m e n ta l p o i n t s o f a g re e m e n t, l i s t e d c lu s io n o f C h a p te r V I I I , q u ir y and hence o f i t s
a t th e con
fo rm th e b a s i s o f s c i e n t i f i c
d e riv a te ,
p ro b le m -so lv in g .
in
W h il e
t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s may s u f f e r t h e f a t e
o f su c h p ro b le m s i n
m e ta p h y sic s,
a s a fram e o f r e f e r
ence f o r
th e y none th e l e s s
th e te c h n iq u e .
serv e
W ith o u t th em i t
i s d i f f i c u l t to
c o n c e iv e o f a n y g e n u i n e .a d v a n c e m e n t i n l e a r n i n g . p ro b le m -so lv in g a c h ie v e s a se n se o f d i r e c t i o n .
W ith th e m , I n C h a p te r
X a m ore c o m p l e t e e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t io n s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g w i l l be p r e s e n te d .
k.
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e w o r k s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d
e d u c a t o r s g u id e d t h e p r o c e d u r e a n d w ere i m p o r t a n t i n th e p ro p e r d e v elo p m e n t o f t h i s
stu d y .
No p r o b l e m may b e d e s i g
n a te d a s c o m p le te d w ith o u t a c r i t i q u e trib u te d
to i t
a n d m ad e i t s
of
t h o s e men who c o n
g e n e sis p o ss ib le -
The w o rk s o f
t h e men who t r e a t e d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g w e r e c a r e f u l l y r e a d and a n a ly z e d . d a ta fo r th is
F rom t h e s e a n a l y s e s t h e r e stu d y .
e m e r g e d m u ch o f t h e
A re v ie w o f th e v a rio u s p o s itio n s o f
269 t h e s e men p r e s e n t e d e v i d e n c e i n l i n e w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f th e
in v e s tig a tio n *
F ro m t h e e a r l i e s t G r e e k t h i n k e r s o n
t h r o u g h t h e w o r k s o f Dewey a n a r b i t r a r i l y w as w ro u g h t,
a n d i t was t h e l i n k s o f t h i s c h a i n w h ic h l e d
fro m p ro b le m t o 5*
c o n c lu sio n *
T he v a l i d i t y o f t>rob 1 e m - s o I v l n g w a s e s t a b l i s h e d
th ro u g h r e s e a r c h in to
th e
a v a ila b le e v id e n c e *
e v id e n c e o f th e r e s e a r c h a j u s t i f i c a t i o n w as,
fa s h io n e d c h a in
in a se n s e , p o ssib le *
F ro m t h e
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g
But in th e la r g e r se n se ,
f i c a t i o n w as n o t q u i t e p o s s i b l e .
ju sti
C o m p le t e v a l i d a t i o n w a s
n o t s e c u r e d b e c a u s e r e s e a r c h i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d was found to be d e f i n i t e l y lim ite d *
B u t en o u g h d a t a w ere fo u n d
w h ic h w ere c o n fir m a to r y i n n a tu re *
The r e s e a r c h e r s
se e m e d
p r e t t y w e l l a g r e e d t h a t t h e r e w a s m u ch m e r i t i n p r o b l e m s o l v i n g a s a m eth o d o f l e a r n i n g ; te c h n iq u e
and th a t i t
i s an e f f e c tiv e
i n t h e c l a s s r o o m w as a m p ly d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a r e
v ie w o f th e c o n t r o l l e d e x p e r im e n ta tio n .
H o w e v e r , m uch r e
m a in s t o b e done b e f o r e t h i s m eth o d i s
th o ro u g h ly j u s t i f i e d .
In
a ll,
th e r e s e a r c h e r s c o n c lu d e d w ith p o s i t i v e
a s to th e 6*
sta te m e n ts
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o r t h i s m eth o d o f le a r n in g * The p r o b l e m - s o I v l n g m e t h o d h a s i n f l u e n c e d m o d e r n
A m erican e d u c a t i o n *
T he s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l
a u t h o r i t i e s b e a r w i t n e s s t h a t t h e m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g h a s been i n f l u e n t i a l in th e f i e l d o f te a c h in g p ro c e d u re s.
2?0 The u s e o f
th e te c h n iq u e
ro o m t h r o u g h t h e y e a r s .
h a s i n c r e a s e d i n t h e A m e ric an c l a s s J o h n D e w e y 1s e p i s t e m o l o g y a n d p h i l
o so p h y d o m in a te t h e A m e ric a n p u b l i c p erh ap s tru e
th a t th e
th e o ry
school scen e.
of p ro b le m -so lv in g has been
m o re w i d e l y a c c e p t e d t h a n t h e a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . b r o u g h t o u t t h a t Dewey e q u a t e s t h e w ith p ro b le m -so lv in g . M o rriso n ,
P a rk er and o th e rs ,
in th e ir t r e a ti s e s .
t h a t th e e f f e c t o f p ro b le m -so lv in g
7•
a s s o c ia tio n s
e m p h a siz e d
T here i s
little
doubt
i s v e r y m uch w i t h u s .
in
The J o u r n a l s o f t h e l e a d i n g e d u c a t i o n a l
c o n trib u te a r t i c l e
a fte r a rtic le
need fo r f u r th e r re se a rc h .
on t h i s
i s d is c u s s e d pro and con.
r e s e a r c h in th e f i e l d , w h ile lim ite d ,
tech rA c tu a l
a lw a y s s t r e s s e d t h e
The t e x t s o f D e w e y , M o r r i s o n ,
a n d t h e r e s e a r c h o f th e m odern i n v e s t i g a t o r s
c o n c e rn w ith t h e p ro b lem . ev er,
a ll
M uch o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e
E v ery a s p e c t o f i t
P ark er,
v iz .,
o f m e th o d c o n c e r n s I t s e l f w i t h v a r i o u s p h a s e s o f
p ro b le m -s o lv in g .
n iq u e .
th e f i e l d ,
I n t e r e s t i n o r o b i em- s o l v i n g a s a me t h o d o f l e a r n
in g i s s t i l l g r e a t . th e f i e l d
has been
B o d e a n d t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s , De Q-armo,
t h e M cM urry b r o t h e r s , p ro b le m -so lv in g
It
e n tir e p ro ce ss of le a rn in g
M odern a u t h o r i t i e s i n
K ilp a tric k ,
I t is
T he e f f o r t s
in th is
se em m o r e d i s p e r s i v e t h a n o t h e r w i s e .
area,
show how
Some c e n t r a l i z e d
f u n c t i o n in g o f r e s e a r c h seem s a d v is a b l e i n v ie w o f th e con c e r n w i t h t h i s m eth o d , te a c h in g .
a s w e l l a s i^ ith o t h e r m eth o d s o f
271 8*
T he w o r k a n d i n s i g h t s o f t h e l e a d e r s i n
o f -p ro b le m -so lv in g c o n t r i b u t e d to e sis
stu d y .
T h is h y p o th
i s a c o n c o m ita n t o f num ber t h r e e , b u t i t
d o e s g o so m e
w hat f u r t h e r . to in d u c tiv e
T he o t h e r ,
th is
or e a rlie r,
It
in q u iry ,
p ro b le m
w a s s e e n t h a t B a c o n , Hume, M i l l ,
a n d m any o t h e r s e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , sc ie n tific
th in k e rs c o n trib u te d
re a s o n in g r a t h e r th an d i r e c t l y to
so lv in g in e d u c a tio n .
d e v e lo p e d th e th e o ry o f
put of sc ie n tific
g ro w s th e m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
in q u iry ,
J o h n Dewey.
W ith t h i s
hoped,
to o
stro n g
th e
and s t i l l
t h o u g h t i n m in d , B e w e y * s m a j o r
t e x t s w ere c a r e f u l l y e x a m in e d t o d i s c e r n and c o n trib u tio n .
h o w ev er,
W ith o u t a d o u b t,
fo re m o st p ro p o n e n t o f p ro b le m -so lv in g h as b e e n , is,
th e f i e l d
h i s u n iq u e i n s i g h t
H is v ie w s w ere p r e s e n t e d , w i t h o u t , a b i a s o n e w ay o r a n o t h e r .
o u t J o h n Dewey*s v a s t c o n t r i b u t i o n ,
it
Is
H o w ev er, w ith r-
t h i s p a r t i c u l a r in v e s
t i g a t i o n w o u ld h a r d l y h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e . 9.
C la rific a tio n
o f th e h i s t o r ic a l an d p h ilo s o p h ic a l
d ev elo p m e n t o f p r o b le m -s o lv in g c o n t r i b u t e d to th e
com prehen
s i o n o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a s a m eth o d f o r e d u c a t i o n *
A c o m p lex
m e t h o d w i t h m any r a m i f i c a t i o n s I s n o t c l e a r e d u p t h r o u g h a n y one in v e s tig a tio n . t h e r e re m a in s , In th e e n t i r e
A dded t o
th e d i f f i c u l t y o f c o m p le x ity ,
f o r th e p r e s e n t, a re a o f le a rn in g .
m a in s u n j u s t i f i e d i n a c o m p le te
a g r e a t d e a l o f c o n tro v e rsy T h is h y p o th e s is , sense*
It
is
th e n , r e
hoped,
how ever,
2?2 th a t
som e c l a r i t y w a s m ade p o s s i b l e
tio n
so t h a t n e w i n s i g h t
A ny c o n t r i b u t i o n a t
th ro u g h th e in v e s tig a
i n t o th e p ro b le m c o u ld r e s u l t .
a l l to th e c la r if ic a tio n
o f t h e p ro b lem
s o l v i n g m e t h o d s h o u l d b e o f some v a l u e . S um m ary.
T h is c h a p te r h as o f f e r e d an e x p la n a tio n and
e v a lu a tio n o f t h e fu n d a m e n ta l h y p o th e s e s o f th e s tu d y . Seven h y p o th e s e s w ere f o u n d t o b e J u s t i f i e d ; d a te d o n ly in p a r t .
tw o w e r e v a l i
T he f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s t o b e p r o v e d i n
c o m p le te ly J u s t i f i e d w as t h a t r e s e a r c h c o v e r e d by t h i s s tu d y c o u ld e s t a b l i s h th e v a l i d i t y
o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a s a m eth o d .
I t w as fo u n d t h a t a d e a r t h o f s c i e n t i f i c
i n v e s t i g a t i o n ob
t a in e d and n o t enough c o n c lu s iv e e v id e n c e c o u ld be d is c o v e re d . The s e c o n d h y p o t h e s i s t o b e f o u n d u n j u s t i f i e d w a s t h a t t h e w h o le f i e l d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
c o u ld be c l a r i f i e d .
T h is h y p o th e s is c o u ld n o t b e p ro v ed tr u e b ecau se o f th e v a s t am ount o f d a t a i n t h e f i e l d
and th e num ber o f c o n f l i c t i n g
th e o r ie s and o p in io n s . The o t h e r s e v e n h y p o t h e s e s w e r e c o n f i r m e d , o r l e s s e r d e g re e , b y th e d a t a o f th e s tu d y .
In g re a te r
The o r i g i n s o f
p r o b le m - s o lv in g w ere t r a c e d b a c k to t h e G re e k s .
I t was t h e y
who f u r n i s h e d t h e i m p e t u s , f o r f u r t h e r I n q u i r y i n t o o f th o u g h t.
th e re a lm
E x a m in a tio n o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d fro m I t s
b e g in n in g s w as h e l p f u l f o r t h i s
stu d y and r e v e a le d
te n b a s ic
p o i n ts o f ag reem en t u t i l i z e d a s a n e c e s s a r y fram e o f
273 referen ce.
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e w o r k s o f t h e a n c i e n t ,
m e d i e v a l a n d m o d e rn t h i n k e r s d i d m u c h t o ced u re.
e n lig h te n
th e pro
T h r o u g h t h e m I t w a s show n how t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g
m e th o d h a s i n f l u e n c e d A m e ric an e d u c a t i o n a n d h a s p r o d u c e d i n t e r e s t in i t su m m a ry ,
to d a y .
The n e x t c h a p te r w i l l p r e s e n t th e
c o n c l u s i o n s a n d re c o m m e n d a tio n s o f t h e e n t i r e
stu d y .
CHAPTER X SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS T h is c h a p t e r i s
th e f i n a l one o f th e in v e s tig a tio n
and, as such, d e a ls w ith (2 )
( 1 ) a sum m ary o f t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d ,
th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a c o n c lu d in g s ta te m e n t,
som e p r a g m a t i c
rec o m m e n d a tio n s*
th e c h a p te r i s
d iv id e d in to
p a r t , A,
p ro c e d u re and fin d in g s *
th e l i t e r a t u r e
In th e f i r s t p a r t ,
is
sake o f c le a r n e s s ,
se c tio n s:
su m m arize s t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
im p o rta n c e , so,
th re e
F o r th e
and (3 )
T he f i r s t
v iz .,
its
p u rp o se,
I n th e f i r s t p a r t ,
a l
re v ie w e d and t h e te rm in o lo g y e x p la in e d *
B, a n e x p o s i t i o n
of th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l
fo u n d a tio n s o f p ro b le m -so lv in g i s p r e s e n te d .
The s e c o n d
p a r t c o n ta in s a s ta te m e n t o f th e m a jo r c o n c lu s io n s o f th e s t u d y a n d a n e x p o s i t i o n o f th em .
P a rt th re e
i s d e v o te d to
some p r a c t i c a l s u g g e s t i o n s t o b e a p p l i e d I n t h e f i e l d o f m odern e d u c a t i o n . PART I A.
SUMMARY
S ta te m e n t o f t h e p ro b le m * of th is
stu d y to
e x a m in e a n d t o c r i t i c a l l y
v e lo p m e n t an d f o u n d a t i o n s it
is
I t w as th e o r i g i n a l p u rp o se e v a lu a te
th e de
o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m eth o d a s
com m only e m p l o y e d t o d a y I n t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l s .
The
275 in v e s tig a tio n
sought to f in d
a G -e s ta lt w h ic h w o u ld c l a r i f y
t h e m e t h o d a n d a d d n ew i n s i g h t i n t o
i t s v a l u e a s a m eth o d
o f le a rn in g . Im p o rta n c e o f t h e p ro b le m . p ro b lem I s p ro ced u re.
An i n v e s t i g a t i o n
im p o rta n t b e ca u se a l l le a r n in g In
of th is
i s c e n te r e d aro u n d
o u r A m e ric an s c h o o ls o f to d a y m e th o d s o f
t e a c h i n g a n d m e t h o d s o f l e a r n i n g m ay b e s a i d t o b e e q u a t e d in a t o t a l p ro c e ss c a lle d e d u c a tio n . m eth o d i s
T he w h o l e i s s u e
In c o n te n tio n an d th e le a d e r s in th e f i e l d
t e m p t i n g t o s e e k som e k i n d o f a g r e e m e n t . c o n fu sio n a s to
T h ere I s
of are a t
s till
t h e p ro b le m o f c o n t e n t v e r s u s m eth o d .
re la tiv e
im p o rta n c e o f e a c h i s a m a tte r o f c o n tro v e rs y .
w as f e l t
th a t an in v e s tig a tio n
n iq u e s o f le a rn in g
som e
T he It
o f one o f th e fo rem o st te c h
( p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g ) c o u l d d i s p e l som e o f
th e doubt su rro u n d in g
it.
I t w as h o p e d , f u r t h e r ,
e x p o s i t i o n w i t h an h i s t o r i c a l
t h a t by an
and p h ilo s o p h ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e ,
some u s e f u l a d j u n c t c o u l d b e g i v e n t o e d u c a t i o n a l m e t h o d . P ro ced u re.
T h is s tu d y ,
c o n c e rn in g i t s e l f
w ith th e p ro b lem o f s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y , as c lo s e ly as p o s s ib le to sib le ,
its
te n e ts .
th e g e n e r a liz a tio n s o f t h i s
as i t does
a tte m p te d to ad h ere I n so f a r a s w as p o s
s t u d y w ere d e r i v e d fro m
th e p a r tic u la r in s ta n c e s .
O b je c tiv ity
in th e re p re s e n ta tio n
w as a c o n s t a n t g u l d e p o s t .
The p h i l o s o p h y b e h i n d t h e u s e o f
t h e h i s t o r i c a l m eth o d o f r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s
In v e s tig a tio n
276 w as p r a g m a tic . and f i n a l l y u se fu ln e ss
The d a t a ,
first
c o lle c te d ,
th en c r i t ic i z e d
r e p o r t e d , w ere a l l s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r to th e p u rp o se s o f t h i s
stu d y .
F u rth e r,
w ere c h o se n s o t h a t th e s tu d y i t s e l f c o u ld o f f e r t i c a l re c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r m odern e d u c a t i o n i f
th e d a ta
som e p r a c
th e f in d in g s
p ro v e d th e m se lv e s w a rra n te d * T e rm in o lo g y . f in e d in th e f i r s t
The b a s i c te r m s o f t h i s c h a p te r.
s t u d y w ere d e
O th e r d e f i n i t i o n s w ere ad d ed
w h en ev er i t w as b e lie v e d a d v is a b le f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n e v o lv e m e n t o f th e
stu d y *
o b ta in s in t h i s f i e l d , s e l e c t e d fro m th o s e
in th e
B e c a u se o f t h e i n d e c i s i o n w h ic h
c e rta in a rb itra ry
d e f i n i t i o n s w ere
s o u r c e s c o n s id e r e d m ost a u t h o r i t a t i v e .
T he p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e t h o d w a s s e e n a s a p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g w h ereb y th e l e a r n e r p r o c e e d s fro m a s p e c i f i c v o lv in g doubt and p e r p le x ity to e m p iric a lly v a lid a te d .
a te n ta tiv e
s itu a tio n in so lu tio n
T h i s m eth o d i s d e f i n e d a s a n o r g a n -
i s m i c a n d d y n a m ic p r o c e s s c o n c l u d i n g , w a rra n ta b le a s s e r tio n s .
as h as been n o te d ,
T hese t e n t a t i v e
its
a d h e re n ts,
in
p re m ise s a re th en
e m p lo y ed f o r f u r t h e r r e s o l u t i o n o f l i k e s i t u a t i o n s . s h o r t, a c c o rd in g to
to be
p ro b le m -so lv in g i s
In le a rn
in g . The l i t e r a t u r e research ,
f o r th e
th e l i t e r a t u r e
e x e c u tio n o f th e stu d y .
stu d y .
As i n a l l h i s t o r i c a l
se rv e d as th e fo u n d a tio n s to th e I t was fo u n d t h a t a g r e a t am ount o f
277 s c a t t e r e d w ork e x i s t e d i n a lth o u g h l o g i c a l ,
th is area,
nexus had to be
co h eren ce an d c o n tin u ity .
and th a t
som e a r b i t r a r y ,
s e t up so a s to f u r n i s h
The a c t u a l r e s e a r c h i n
th e f i e l d
l a c k e d a common p u r p o s e a n d p r o c e d u r e a n d a l s o w a s l i m i t e d . M o re r e s e a r c h , w i t h common g o a l s ,
i s d e f in ite ly needed.
E a rly and m e d ie v a l s o u r c e s . s t u d y was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e m e d ie v a l s o u r c e s f a l l i n g
The l i t e r a t u r e
o f th e
s e c t i o n s , w ith th e e a r l y and
c h ro n o lo g ic a lly in to f i r s t p la c e .
T h ese s o u r c e s w ere m a in ly t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e G re e k s a n d th e S ch o o lm en o f t h e M id d le A g e s . a n d Be I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w as d i s c e r n e d .
In
F ro m A r i s t o t l e ’ s C a t e ^ o r l a e
a f a i n t h in t o f in d u c tiv e re a so n in g
t h i s e a r l y w ork w h e re in p ro b le m s a r e
up a n d s o l u t i o n s r a t i o n a l l y
s u g g e s te d can b e seen th e g e r
m in a l s e e d s f o r l a t e r s c i e n t i f i c n o t w h o lly e x p l i c i t , in g o f ttlm e s i t to
is a
i s m o re
u n iv e r s a ls th a n v ic e
in q u iry .
The m e t h o d , i f
t a c i t u n d e rsta n d in g t h a t in le a r n
e f f e c t i v e t o p r o c e e d from p a r t i c u l a r s v ersa.
A r i s t o t l e ’ s P r o b l e m a ta was i n c l u d e d i n t h e re le v a n c e ,
tic ity
th e m a s te r h a s n e v e r b een a d e q u a te ly
pro v ed .
It
w ork, b u t i f
c o m p le te a u th e n
i s know n t h a t A r i s t o t l e d i d p r o d u c e som e s u c h it
are not c e r ta in e x is t is
a lth o u g h i t s
in v e s tig a
tio n because o f i t s a s a w ork o f
set
ever e x is te d of i t .
in i t s
But th a t
p r e s e n t fo rm ,
such a t r e a t i s e
e v id e n c e d by A r i s t o t l e ’ s a l l u s i o n s to
it
sc h o la rs d i d once in
h is
o t h e r w o r k s , a n d b y t h e f a c t t h a t o t h e r w r i t e r s h a v e men tio n e d i t s
e x is te n c e *
The P r o b l e m a t a , a s i t s p le te ly
nam e I m p l i e s *
to p ro b lem s a n d a n s w e rs.
D e d u c tiv e re a s o n in g
is
b u t th e v e ry u s e o f p ro b lem s i s p ro b le m -so lv in g i s
d e v o t e d com
Each c h a p te r i s
c h a p te r and s o lu tio n s a re g iv e n to tio n s .
is
each o f th e
a p ro b lem
s ta te d ques
o f c o u r s e p r i m a r i l y e m p lo y e d * in d ic a tiv e o f th e f a c t th a t
an o ld te c h n iq u e o f le a rn in g *
I t may
h o n e s t l y b e a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e m eth o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g h a s n o t a l w a y s b e e n i n u s e * f o r how c o u l d som e f o r m o f i t b e a v o id e d ?
The p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m c o n c e r n i n g t h e
d e a ls not w ith i t a s
such,
te c h n iq u e
h o w e v e r, b u t r a t h e r w i t h m an’ s
a w a r e n e s s o f h i s own p r o c e s s e s . In
a d d i t i o n t o A r i s t o t l e ’ s w o r k , P l a t o ’ s f a m o u s R e
p u b l i c w as a n a ly z e d i n r e f e r e n c e t o p r o b le m - s o lv in g . R e p u b lic * one o f th e l e a d i n g t r e a t i s e s i n w e s te r n can a ls o be seen tr a c e s o f n a rra to r, te x t.
sc ie n tific
in q u iry .
In th e
c u ltu re ,
S o c ra te s,
as
e m p lo y s t h e m eth o d o f q u e s t i o n i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e
T im e a n d a g a i n he b r i n g s t h e d i s c u s s i o n
g e n e ra liz a tio n s to
sp e c ific
fro m sw e e p in g
I n s t a n c e s i n o r d e r t o m ake h i s
p o in t. S o c r a t e s a lw a y s dem anded to know t h e r e a s o n f o r c e r ta in
phenom ena and t h e p o s s i b l e
"fcke R e p u b l i c d e v o t e d t o d isc e rn e d .
s o lu tio n s .
e d u c a tio n ,
The s t u d e n t s a r e
In
th e phase o f
a m o d e rn a p p r o a c h may b e
to f a c e r e a l p ro b le m s p o se d by
279 life
and th r o u g h t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e s e p ro b lem s a c q u ir e
r e a l k n o w le d g e *
T h i s p r o c e s s i s r o u g h l y a n a l o g o u s to m odern
p ro b le m -so lv in g • A l s o r e v i e w e d w e r e some o f t h e w o r k s o f t h e S t o i c a n d E p ic u re a n p h ilo s o p h e r s .
I t was n o t e d t h a t
t h e y t o o h a d som e
a w a r e n e s s o f w h a t l a t e r becam e m odern s c i e n t i f i c
in q u iry .
Many t i m e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r w r i t i n g s t h e s e e a r l y
th in k e rs
posed s p e c ific
p ro b le m s a n d s o u g h t f o r
E p ic u re a n s in p a r t i c u l a r to
th e ir so lu tio n s .
sought to re d u c e l i f e ^
a m inim um a n d a s s e r t e d
th a t t h e i r so lu tio n
The
p ro b lem s
la y in p le a
s u r e s ta k e n m o d e ra te ly . F ro m t h e G r e e k s t h e t r a n s i t i o n w a s a r b i t r a r i l y d r a w n t o t h e S ch o o lm e n o f t h e m e d i e v a l a g e s . w ork c o u ld be r e v ie w e d , chosen.
S in c e n o t a l l o f t h e i r
t h e m o st r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w r i t e r was
T h e Summa T h e o l o g i c a o f S t . T hom as A q u i n a s w a s r e
v ie w e d b e c a u s e i t C a th o lic
i s o n e o f t h e m o re i m p o r t a n t t e x t s
c u ltu re *
It
is
r a th e r w e ll ag reed t h a t th e
in C a th
o l i c c h u rc h k e p t th e l i g h t o f le a rn in g a liv e d u rin g th e D ark A g e s. The Summa T h e o l o g l c a h a s p l a y e d a g r e a t r o l e o lic
th o u g h t, b o th e d u c a tio n a l and o th e rw is e ,
and in th e p r e s e n t.
i n C a th
in th e p a s t
I n t h i s w ork A q u in a s i m p l i e s u s e o f t h e
p r o b le m - s o lv in g m eth o d .
In p a rts o f h is t r e a tis e ,
he p o sed
t h e p ro b le m o f k n o w le d g e a n d th e g r e a t n e e d f o r s e c u r i n g an sw ers.
T he w h o l e a p p r o a c h , h o w e v e r , w a s f r o m t h e
280 d e d u c tiv e
a n d n o t t h e i n d u c t i v e p o i n t o f v ie w #
The p r e - m o d e rn t r e a t i s e s # on p ro b le m -so lv in g
tre a te d
The n e x t b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e
i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w as d e r iv e d
f r o m t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k s o f t h o s e men who w r o t e tu rie s#
in th e
six te e n th ,
s e v e n te e n th and e ig h te e n th cen
B aco n ’ s A dvancem ent o f L e a rn in g i s
t e x t on t h e u s e o f i n d u c t i v e r e a s o n in g # th o u g h t,
and i t
by th e te rm em p h asized *
i s assum ed t h a t
’th o u g h t.1
an o u tsta n d in g
It is
s c ie n tific
i n q u ir y i s m eant
T h ro u g h o u t t h e w ork,
In d e fin ite
a h isto ry of
in d u c tio n i s
o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e S c h o o lm e n , B acon
a d v o c a te d th e use o f t r a i n e d
s k e p tic is m in le a rn in g #
B acon’ s a n t a g o n is ti c v ie w p o in t as r e g a r d s d e d u c tio n o p e n e d u p a new t r a i n o f r e a s o n i n g . tio n
H is e a r l i e s t
of th e th e o ry o f in d u c tiv e re a so n in g
fo rm u la
stre sse d p a rtic u la r
In s ta n c e s as opposed to b lin d ly a c c e p te d g e n e r a liz a tio n s . B a c o n ’ s p o le m ic was d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f f a l s e k n o w le d g e, w h ic h he m a in ta in e d m ust a r i s e fro m in c o m p le te ly a n a ly z e d u n lv e rs a ls# C o m e n i u s , a G e rm a n e d u c a t o r o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , c o n trib u te d
t o t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m eth o d t h r o u g h h i s e d u c a
tio n a l. refo rm s.
T h ro u g h h i s G re a t D i d a c t i c , one o f th e
e a r l i e s t o f e d u c a t i o n a l t e x t s d e v o te d t o m eth o d , he s t r e s s e d in q u iry by th e le a r n e r , le d g e ,
r a th e r th a n le a rn in g by ro te #
C o m e n iu s b e l i e v e d ,
Know
w as a c q u i r e d th r o u g h q u e s tio n in g #
H is m e th o d o f t e a c h i n g w as g r o u n d e d i n e m p i r ic i s m . H is e n t i r e w o rk i s
s p e c ific a lly
I n s tr u c ti o n o f a rt* to be i n s t il l e d
d e v o te d t o m eth o d s f o r t h e
la n g u a g e s , m o ra ls and p i e t y .
T hese w ere
th ro u g h t h e c h ild * s g r e a t e r a c t i v i t y .
He
h e l d t h a t l e a r n i n g o c c u r s m o st e f f e c t i v e l y w hen t h e l e a r n e r i s p r e s e n te d w ith m e a n in g fu l p ro b le m s. d id not s ta te
h is b e lie f
A l t h o u g h C o m e n iu s
t h u s , m uch o f h i s w o rk c o n f i r m s
t h i s v ie w . A n o th e r c o n t r i b u t o r t o s i b l y one o f t h e g r e a t e s t ,
s c ie n tific
and pos
w a s J o h n L o c k e i n h i s An E s s a y
C o n c e r n i n g Human U n d e r s t a n d i n g . th e
in q u iry ,
T h a t t h i s g r e a t w o rk m ark s
i n c e p t i o n o f m o d e r n e m p i r i c a l t h o u g h t i s co m m o n ly a c
k n o w le d g ed by h i s t o r i a n s o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h i n k i n g . g iv e s h ere a s tr ik in g re a so n in g . e ra liz a tio n .
Locke
e x a m p le o f t h e m eth o d o f I n d u c t i v e
He sh o w e d t h e f a l l a c y He s u g g e s t e d ,
o f a c c e p tin g u n te s te d gen
in ste a d ,
t h a t k n o w le d g e i s
c u re d o n ly th ro u g h th e u s e o f th e f i v e
se
s e n s e s w ith w h ic h
n a t u r e h a s e n d o w e d m an. The 1t a b u l a r a s a * is
o r b la n k s l a t e
p re s e n te d h e re f o r th e f i r s t tim e ,
t h e o r y o f t h e m in d
in c o n tra s t
P la to n ic th e o ry o f th e in n a te n e ss o f id e a s . a t b i r t h e a c h 1so u l* are
i s g iv e n an in n a te
th e e s s e n c e o f a l l m a t e r i a l m a t t e r .
to th e
P la to h e ld th a t
s e t o f i d e a s w h ic h T hese id e a s a re
l a t e r b ro u g h t to c o n s c io u s n e s s by e d u c a tio n a n d e x p e rie n c e . B u t w h ere P l a t o p r o j e c t e d t h i s r a c i a l i n h e r i t a n c e t h e o r y ,
to
u s e a m odern t e r m ,
Locke h e l d t o p r e c i s e l y t h e r e v e r s e *
H is
c o n c e p t e m p h a s i z e d t h e p r i m a c y o f e x p e r i e n c e a s t h e know led g e fa c to r* T h i s w o r k by L o c k e may b e s a i d t o b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p ro m in e n c e o f t h e m eth o d o f s c i e n t i f i c h im t h e f i e l d is
in q u iry *
r e c e i v e d n ew i m p e t u s a n d v i g o r .
t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f m odern p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g ,
com e i n t o p r o m i n e n c e , been such l a t e r
it
is
in te re s t.
T hro u g h
As s u c h , f o r had i t
it not
h a r d l y p o s s i b l e t h e r e w o u ld h av e W i t h o u t men l i k e L o c k e , p r o b l e m
s o l v i n g a s a m eth o d c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d o r d e v e lo p e d .
Any s y s t e m a t i c b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e s a s u b
stru c tu re .
T h is re q u ir e m e n t i s a p h y s i c a l law w h ic h even
S' l e a r n i n g sy ste m s c a n n o t v i o l a t e w i t h im p u n ity . E m ile o f R o u sse a u i s a n o th e r t e x t o f th e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y w h ic h g ro u n d s a l l to
e d u c a tio n in a c t i v i t y .
In c o n tra st
th e w h o lly d e d u c t i v e m e th o d s o f h i s d a y , J e a n J a c q u e s
R ousseau c o n tr iv e d a u n iq u e
sc h em e o f e d u c a t i o n w h e r e b y t h e
c h i l d I s r a i s e d th ro u g h n a t u r e an d l e a r n s fro m h i s e x p e rie n c e th e re in .
He r e m o v e d h i s h e r o , E m i l e , f r o m t h e a r t i f i c i a l
and s t i l t e d tu re
a t m o s p h e r e w h i c h e n g u l f e d h im ,
o f f e r e d b o t h th e p ro b le m s and t h e i r
m e th o d o f e d u c a t i o n , tio n of
t o o n e w here n a
so lu tio n s .
h o w ever, m is s e s t h e c r i t i c a l
1p l a n n i n g , 1 a n d i s
im p lic a
a r a t h e r random p r o b l e m - s o l v in g
t e c h n i q u e n o t a d v o c a te d b y t h e m odern p r o t a g o n i s t s * w as a s t e p
in th e d i r e c t i o n
T h is
o f p ro b le m -so lv in g ,
It
ho w ev er, a n d .
283 a s su ch assu m es im p o rta n c e f o r t i l l s M o d e rn s o u r c e s *
stu d y .
T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n re v ie w e d o n ly
t h o s e b o o k s w h ic h w ere m o st r e l e v a n t t o
th e s u b j e c t a n d w h ic h
have b e e n a ck n o w le d g ed a s m ost a u t h o r i t a t i v e
in th e f i e l d .
The m o d e r n e x p o n e n t s o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e t h o d a r e know n and stu d ie d in S ta te s .
te a c h e r s c o lle g e s th ro u g h o u t th e U n ite d
In t h is h ie ra rc h y o f w r ite r s ,
Beiirey m u s t n o d o u b t b e p l a c e d f i r s t .
t h e n am e o f J o h n H i s L o g ic * —T h e T h e o r y
o f I n q u i r y f u r n i s h e d m uch o f t h e d a t a f o r t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f th is
stu d y * In
th is
tre a tis e ,
over a g a in w ith fo rc e w h o le d i s c i p l i n e itia te d
and c l a r i t y .
of lo g ic
A c c o r d i n g t o h im ,
I s b u t in q u iry ,
canons.
in
B ecause
an d t e n t a t i v e l y c o n c lu d e s w ith p h y s ic a l r e f e r
he a d v an ces th e th e o r y t h a t e x p e rie n c e can and does
p ro d u ce l o g i c a l fo rm s and s ta n d a r d s . e x p e rie n c e th e r e w ill ensue
He h o l d s t h a t f r o m
‘w a r r a n t e d a s s e r t i o n s *
a p h r a s e he h a s em p lo y ed i n h i s w o rk . e n tire
th e
s c ie n tific a lly
i n e x p e r i e n c e an d c o n t r o l l e d by i t s
Dewey s t a r t s e n ts ,
Dewey p r o p o u n d s h i s t h e s i s o v e r a n d
w h ic h I s
Dewey h o l d s t h a t t h e
p ro b le m o f m e ta p h y s ic s i s a p se u d o -d ile m m a p o s e d by
th e r a t i o n a l i s t i c
p h ilo s o p h e rs .
L o g ic , by h i s d e f i n i t i o n ,
I s no l o n g e r t r o u b l e d w i t h s u c h n e e d l e s s q u e s t i o n s , b e c a u s e It
c a rrie s i t s It
is
own b r a n d o f m e t a p h y s i c s .
p o s s ib le to
d e r i v e D e w e y 1s e p i s t e m o l o g l c a l
p o s i t i o n fro m t h i s
tre a tis e *
He d e f e n d s h i s m o n i s t i c e p l s -
t e m o lo g y w i t h v i g o r a n d f r o m h i s e p l s t e m o l o g y e m e r g e s t h e m o d e rn m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g * ‘e te rn a l v e ritie s * fere n ce .
‘U ltim a te t r u t h s '
a r e u n n e c e s s a r y i n D e w e y 's f r a m e o f r e
P ro b le m -s o lv in g n e i t h e r s e e k s n o r d e s i r e s
e te rn a lity .
and
Dewey b e l i e v e s t h a t l i f e
is
su ch
an e v o lu tio n a r y
e p is o d e a n d o n e w h ic h m u s t b e m a t e r i a l i s t i c a l l y c e n te r e d * P r o b le m - s o lv in g , w h ic h e m e rg e s fro m a p r a g m a tic p h ilo s o p h y ,
is
s h o t th ro u g h w ith th e u t i l i t a r i a n
S o lv in g f o r w h at p u rp o s e , asked.
T he r e s o l u t i o n
is
c o n c e p t*
th e e s s e n c e o f th e q u e s t io n
I s g i v e n i n D e w e y 's How We T h in k .
The p u rp o s e o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g i s to p o th e s is to be u sed as s te p s
In
hy
i n t h e e n r i c h m e n t o f m a n k in d .
D ew ey d o e s n o t o m it e t h i c s , b u t i t g ro u n d e d in m a te r ia lis m .
p ro d u c e t e n t a t i v e
a p p e a rs t h a t h i s e th o s i s
t h e t e x t J u s t m e n t i o n e d , Dewey
r e p e a t s h i s one d o g m a tic a s s e r t i o n :
a l l k n o w le d g e s te m s
f r o m e x p e r i e n c e , a n d t h i s k n o w le d g e m u s t b e p r a g m a t i c t o h o ld v a l i d i t y . s o lv in g
is
I n t e r m s o f D e w e y 's t h i n k i n g ,
p ro b le m
a p r o c e s s w h e reb y th e g r e a t e s t g o o d i s d e r i v e d
in te llig e n tly
f o r t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r.
One o f t h e
c o n t r i b u t o r s t o J o h n D e w e y 's t h o u g h t w as
W i l l i a m J a m e s , w ho, i n h i s E s s a y s o n R a d i c a l E m p i r i c i s m , la id
t h e g r o u n d w o r k f o r m o d e rn p r a g m a t i s m .
of u tility
is
T he p h i l o s o p h y
p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f D e w e y 's c o n n o t a t i o n o f
p ro b le m -s o lv in g .
J a m e s ' p r im a r y e m p h a s is o f t h e c o n c e p t o f
u s e b e g a n a m o v em en t d e s t i n e d t o
change th e e d u c a tio n a l
th o u g h t o f one e n t i r e n a t i o n a n d to A c c o rd in g t o J a m e s , t h e c r i t e r i o n t i o n a n d e ls e w h e re w as i n
its
I n f l u e n c e m any o t h e r s *
o f any co n cep t in
p ra c tic a l e ffe c ts .
educa
T h e m o d e rn
p r o g r e s s i v e m o v em en t s t a n d s a s a v o c a l m onum ent t o
th e p ra g
m a tis m e x p o u n d e d b y J a m e s a n d c o n t i n u e d b y D ew ey. A l s o i n c l u d e d i n t h e m o d e rn s e c t i o n w e r e r e v i e w s o f T h o r n d i k e 1s P r i n c i p l e s o £ L e a r n i n g , K i l p a t r i c k ^ o f M e th o d , a n d o t h e r s o f t h i s c l a s s . augm ent th e th e o r y b ro u g h t o v e r t o
F o u n d a tio n
T h e se a r e w o rk s w h ic h
t h i s c o u n t r y b y De Crarmo
a n d t h e M cM urry b r o t h e r s f r o m t h e i r s t u d i e s i n G e rm a n y . cause o f t h is
In flu e n c e ,
B e
H e r b a r t ’ s w o rk w as r e v ie x ^ e d a s a
b a s i s f o r th e e a r l i e r b e g in n in g s o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g .
T hese,
a n d m any o t h e r t e x t s , f u r n i s h e d t h e m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e
s tu d y .
Be s e a r c h i n t h e f i e l d .
The n u m b e r o f r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s
o n p r o b le m - s o lv in g w as fo u n d t o b e s m a ll. r e v ie w e d I n c l u d e d th e th e
T he l i t e r a t u r e
jo u r n a ls , b u l l e t i n s and e x tr a c t s o f
le a d in g p s y c h o lo g ic a l an d e d u c a tio n a l b o d ie s h e re and
a b ro a d .
T hose
th o ro u g h ly
s t u d i e s w h i c h s e e m e d m o s t r e l e v a n t w e re
in v e s tig a te d .
L a z e r te d i d a s tu d y i n C a n ad a on t h e g ro w th o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g a b i l i t y im p o s s ib ility
in
a rith m e tic .
o f re a c h in g tru e
s o l v i n g o r a n y m e th o d .
He e m p h a s i z e d t h e
c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t p r o b le m
He b e l i e v e d t h a t h i s own r e s e a r c h
Z86 w as f u r t h e r e v id e n c e t h a t
s t u d e n t s on t h e e le m e n ta r y l e v e l
do n o t d e v e lo p s y s te m a tic
th in k in g
a b ility .
s o lv in g c a n n o t p ro d u c e an y s y s te m a tiz a tio n
E v e n p r o b le m o f th o u g h t.
The b i b l i o g r a p h i e s r e v i e w e d b y t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r sh o w e d som e f i f t y s o lv in g
p u b l i s h e d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s o n p r o b le m
in a rith m e tic *
fu rn is h a p a tte rn . fic u ltie s
T h e s e w e re so d i s c r e t e
a s h a rd ly to
T hey c e n t e r e d th e m s e lv e s a ro u n d t h e d i f
o f th e s tu d e n t,
t h e w o rk h a b i t s , a c o m p a r is o n o f
d i f f e r e n t m e th o d s , a n d th e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s i n v o lv e d i n th e s o l u t io n o f f e l t p ro b le m s . A s i g n i f i c a n t e x p e rim e n t i n p r o b le m - s o lv in g on th e h i g h s c h o o l l e v e l w a s m ade b y K i g h t a n d M i c k e l s o n .
T h ey a t
te m p te d t o d e te r m in e t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t s on l e a r n i n g
of
p ro b le m -c e n te re d a n d s u b je c t- c e n te r e d u n i t s o f in s tr u c tio n * T hey c o n s t r u c t e d e i g h t p r o b le m - c e n te r e d an d e i g h t s u b j e c t c e n te re d u n its o f in s tr u c tio n lis h
c o m p o s itio n , l i f e
in e ac h o f th e f i e l d s
s c ie n c e ,
s o c ia l
o f E ng
s tu d ie s an d E n g lis h
lite ra tu re . T h ese u n i t s w e re g iv e n a s i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l , fo r each u n it tr u e - f a ls e
t e s t s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d so a s t o a t
te m p t a s c l o s e a m e a su re m e n t a s w as p o s s ib le * in d ic a te d t h a t p ro b le m -c e n te re d m a te r ia l in o f r e f e r e n c e w a s f a r m o re e f f e c t i v e t h a n c e n te r e d ty p e
of u n it.
th e p u rp o se o f t h i s
and
th e
T he r e s e a r c h
its
own f r a m e
s u b je c t-
T h is - in v e s tig a tio n c o n tr ib u te d to
s tu d y .
I t w as s c i e n t i f i c a l l y
c o n d u c te d
a n d th e r e s u l t s
e m p iric a lly v a lid a te d .
Jo h n so n ’ s in v e s tig a tio n
t e s t e d e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l pu
p i l s a s to th e e f f e c t o f v o c a b u la ry a s a f a c t o r in a rith m e tic .
T h i s r e s e a r c h w as r a t h e r a g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h t o
p ro b le m , a n d i n
its
th e
w ay w a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f m o s t o f t h e
o t h e r s c a r e f u l l y re v ie w e d .
W h ile t h e a t t e m p t w as s c i e n t i f i c
e n o u g h , t h e w h o le o p e r a t i o n w as m o re e x p l o r a t o r y i n n a t u r e th a n a n y th in g e l s e .
Jo h n so n s ta te d ,
th a t v o c a b u la ry , g e n e r a l i n te l li g e n c e c lo s e ly r e la te d
to p ro b le m -s o lv in g
Jo sep h J .
in M s c o n c lu s io n s , a n d m em ory a r e a l l
a b ility .
G - o l d s t e in a n d o t h e r s d i d som e r e s e a r c h i n t o
p ro b le m -s o lv in g th ro u g h th e b ro a d
s o c ia l a p p ro a c h .
p o r t i n g w a s n o t t o o c l e a r a s t o a im s o r p r o c e d u r e .
The r e T h is r e
s e a r c h p ro v e d t o b e a r a t h e r in c o n c lu s iv e a tte m p t to d e t e r m in e t h e b e s t m e th o d o f u t i l i z i n g i n t h e e le m e n ta ry te r. ic a lly
t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d
s c h o o ls , u s in g a l l
t y p e s o f s u b j e c t m a t
I t w a s a n e f f o r t t o a s s i s t s t u d e n t s t o g ro w d e m o c r a t by d e v e lo p in g an a b i l i t y d a n d e r,
tig a tio n
in
to
s o lv e p ro b le m s .
Van W ag en en a n d B i s h o p c a r r i e d o u t a n . i n v e s
th e f i e l d
o f a r i t h m e t i c , w h ic h c o n s i s t e d o f a t
te m p tin g a p r e d i c t i o n b a s i s f o r a r i t h m e t i c a l a c h ie v e m e n t. T he r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t w a s a t e s t g i v e n t o c h ild re n o f th e f i r s t g ra d e . th e s e r e s u l t s ,
s e v e r a l h u n d red
A f te r ta b u la tin g an d a n a ly z in g
th e r e s e a r c h e r s c o n c lu d e d t h a t p r e d i c t i o n o f
a c h i e v e m e n t s u c c e s s i n a r i t h m e t i c w a s h i g h e s t i n p r o b le m
288 s o lv in g an d th e b a s ic o p e ra tio n a l p ro c e d u re . In
a ll,
re v ie w e d .
som e s i x t y
o f th e s e s t u d i e s w e re c a r e f u l l y
T h o s e s u m m a r iz e d i n t h i s
s tu d y p r e s e n te d a good
i n d i c a t i o n o f th e ty p e o f r e s e a r c h m o st a tte m p te d i n th e fie ld
o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a n d w e re t y p i c a l a s t o t h e r e s u l t s
m ost o f te n
a c h ie v e d .
th e g o a ls a re a ls o
No c l e a r r a t i o n a l e
s o m e w h a t' ra n d o m .
It
se e m s a p p a r e n t , a n d h a s a g a i n b e e n em
p h a s i z e d t h a t m uch m o re r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d . B.
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PROBLEM-SOLVINO
F ro m t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e s t u d y , t e n f u n d a m e n t a l p o s tu la te s
a re p re s e n te d .
T h e s e b a s i c p o i n t s a r e d e r i v e d fro m
th e e v id e n c e d i s c lo s e d by th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n in f e r e n c e s th e re fro m .
It
and a re lo g ic a l
i s th e s e te n c o n d en se d p o s tu la te s
w h i c h f u r n i s h t h e r u b r i c f r o m w h ic h p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d ra w s its
essen ce.
T h a t t h e r e may b e m o re i s e n t i r e l y
b u t th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l lis te d
p o s s ib le ,
an d fu n d a m e n ta l p o i n t s o f a g re e m e n t
h e re a r e a d i r e c t o u tg ro w th o f th e d a t a o f t h i s
in
v e s tig a tio n . 1*
L e a r n in g ; b e g i n s i n a n d d r a w s i t s
e x p e rie n c e . a s s u m p tio n
I n v ie w
o f m o d e rn p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h ,
seem s w e l l g ro u n d e d .
p a rtic u la rly
p r e m i s e s fro m
E v id e n c e fro m
th e
s tu d y ,
fro m th e m odem p s y c h o lo g ic a l l e a r n in g
p o in ts d e f in ite ly
to
th e o rie s ,
t h e e m p i r i c a l b a s i s o f k n o w le d g e *
t h e r e x p e r i e n c e d e t e r m i n e s a l l o f k n o w le d g e i s
th is
s till
Whe
con
289 b u t e v e n t h e g r e a t German p h i l o s o p h e r K a n t
tro v e rs ia l,
s t a t e d t h a t k n o w le d g e m u s t b e g i n i n e x p e r i e n c e * s e a rc h e rs a p p e a r to have r a t h e r u n iv e r s a lly
M o d ern r e
a c c e p te d t h i s
p r e m is e * 2*
T he a p p r o a c h t o l e a r n i n g
is n a tu r a lis tic »
who h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g h a v e , s tr e s s e d th e n a t u r a l i s t i c fo rts
o f men l i k e
a p p ro a c h .
on t h e w h o le ,
The p h y s i o l o g i c a l e f
C annon, L a s h le y , T h o rn d ik e , a n d o t h e r s ,
p r e s e n t c o n c r e te e v id e n c e to o f le a rn in g ,
Men
show t h a t t h e b r a i n
a lth o u g h le a r n in g
is
is
th e s e a t
an o rg a n is m ic p r o c e s s .
E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n o n a n i m a l s o n a w id e s c a l e h a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y v a lid a te d t h i s th e o ry .
In a d d itio n , b ra in
tu m o rs c a u s e d
i n h u m an s b y a c c i d e n t s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d a n d s t u d i e d * T hese in s ta n c e s le n d a s tr o n g b a s i s f o r n a t u r a l i s t i c in g .
re a so n
D a rw in * s t h e o r y o f t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f man f o r s u r v i v a l
p u rp o se s i s b a se d upon n a tu r a lis m .
It
is tru e th a t a l l
f a c e t s o f p h y s i o l o g ic a l r e a c t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e b r a i n a s th e c e n t e r o f l e a r n in g h av e n o t b e e n c o m p le te ly e x p lo r e d . H o w e v e r, t h e g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e b r a i n e ffo rt,
in
any c o g n itiv e
a n d a lo n g w ith t h a t t h e im p o rta n c e o f th e n a t u r a l
e n d o w m en t o f t h e l e a r n e r , 3*
c a n n o t b e d e n ie d .
L e a rn in g i s m o n is ti c .
W illia m J a m e s , A le x a n d e r
B a i n , E d w a rd L e e T h o r n d i k e , J o h n D ew ey, am ong o t h e r t h i n k e r s , a re a l l m o n is tic
in t h e i r e p is te m o lo g ie s *
T h ere e x i s t s f o r
2 90 th e m n o m in d - b o d y c o n t r o v e r s y .
The w h o le t h e o r y o f c o n n e c
t i o n ! sm a s e x p o u n d e d b y S a n d l f o r d i n t h e F o r t y - F i r s t Y e a r b o o k d e f e n d s t h e t h e s i s o f m onism i n l e a r n i n g . th a t o th e r le a rn in g
t h e o r ie s a ls o
s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t t h i s v ie w .
T h e re i s no d i s c r e t e a p p ro a c h t o seem s t h a t th e
id e a s o f
‘ fa c u lty *
c i p l i n e 1 h av e lo n g s in c e
I t w as s e e n
le a rn in g .
It
l e a r n i n g a n d ‘m e n t a l d i s
b e en e x p lo d e d .
The c o n c e p t o f w e l l -
d e f in e d s t e p s i n th e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i s no l o n g e r t e n a b le . T he t h e o r y o f m a s s a c t i o n
and m u ltip o te n tia lity o f b ra in
f u n c t i o n h a s s u p p la n te d th e o ld th e o r y o f l e a r n i n g b y w e l l d e fin e d s ta g e s .
A c tu a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n w ith th e c o r t i c a l
a r e a s i n a n i m a l s sh o w s t h a t t h e r e a r e no r e c o g n i z a b l e s t e p s in th e le a rn in g ily
h o ld tr u e
p ro c e ss.
W h ile t h i s f a c t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r
i n hum an l e a r n i n g ,
c o r d e d I n m e d ic a l a n n a l s t o
th e r e a re
s u b s ta n tia te
enough f a c t s r e
th e th e o r y o f l e a r n
in g a s b e in g an h ig h ly In v o lv e d p r o c e s s .
5* la te
L e a r n i n g i s d y n a m ic a n d o r g a n ! s m i c .
i s a c o ro lla ry
p a rtic u la rly
o f num ber f o u r .
T h is p o s tu
H ecent le a rn in g th e o r ie s ,
t h e G e s t a l t t h e o r y , e m p h a s iz e t h e d y n a m ic a n d
o rg a n is m ic a s p e c ts o f l e a r n i n g .
In
o th e r w o rd s, le a r n in g i s
a h i g h l y i n t e r r e l a t e d a n d c o n t i n u a l l y m o v in g p r o c e s s I n v o l v i n g t h e w h o le o r g a n i s m . e p is te m o lo g y .
T h is t h e o r y i s
In a d d itio n to
d u la r e x p e rim e n ts ,
th is
am ong o t h e r s ,
p a r t o f D ew ey*s
th e o r e tic a l s u p p o rt, g la n
have p ro v e d t h a t th e r e i s
m uch m ore i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g t h a n J u s t C e re b ra tio n in d riv e s ,
its e lf
i s n o t q u ite
'm e n t a l*
enough.
a c tio n .
P s y c h o lo g ic a l
im p u ls e s a n d i n h i b i t i o n s w h ic h a f f e c t th e e n t i r e
b o d y a r e c o n c o m ita n t p a r t s
o f th e le a r n in g
p ro c e ss.
A s tu
d e n t le a r n s w ith h is e n ti r e
e n d o w m e n t, b o t h m e n t a l a n d p h y
s i c a l , w h e th e r th e y be o n e ,
tw o o r a p r o c e s s - o f b o t h .
6*
Ifre s e n s e - d a t a a r e
t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s o f k n o w le d g e .
T h is a s s u m p tio n seem s s e l f - e v i d e n t , n e s s i s n o t com m only a c c e p t e d * b e d e n ie d , no m a tte r w h at e l s e sp eak s th e f iv e le a rn
if
sen ses.
T he f a c t o f e x i s t e n c e c a n n o t i s d e n ie d .
How e l s e ,
T h is e x is te n c e b e
th e n , d o e s th e
in d iv id u a l
n o t t h r o u g h t h e s e c h a n n e l s t o t h e o u t s i d e w o r ld ?
P u t i n a n o th e r w ay, i t any c o g n itio n le a rn in g
a lth o u g h t h i s o b v io u s
is
th e q u e s tio n o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y
w h a ts o e v e r w ith o u t t h e s e a id s *
p ro c e s s en su e i f
m an i s e n d o w e d ?
T h is i s
s o p h is tic o e titlo
n o t fro m
th e f i v e
it
How d o e s t h e s e n s e s w i t h w h ic h
no b e g g in g o f th e q u e s t io n ,
no
p r i n c i p i i a s r e g a r d s a - p r i o r i k n o w le d g e *
T h i s k n o w le d g e may e x i s t f o r e v e r , b u t i t assu m e t h a t
of
is n o t lo g ic a l to
t o o h a s b e e n g a t h e r e d fro m p r e v i o u s e x p e r
ie n c e s a n d once a g a in re p ro d u c e d th ro u g h th e s e n s e s . The I n s t r u m e n t a l l t v b a s ic
to o r o b le m - s o lv ln g .
o f t h e m in d i s
T h is p o s t u l a t i o n
is
b u l w a r k s o f J o h n D e w e y 's p r a g m a t i c p h i l o s o p h y . sc h e m e o f D ew ey, man i s p i c t u r e d a s s t r u g g l i n g
a n a s s u m p tio n one o f th e In th e u p w a rd s i n
292 an e v e r h o s t i l e
e n v ir o n m e n t #
Dewey h a s c o n c e i v e d t h e m in d
a s a n i n s t r u m e n t w h i c h a s s i s t s man t o s u r v i v e
and to ad v an ce
i n h i s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t c o n tin u o u s p ro b le m s .
T h is c o n c e p
tio n
i s a d i r e c t o u t g r o w t h o f D a r w in 1 s t h e o r y o f t h e
v iv a l o f th e f i t t e s t . th a t i t to
It
fits
in w ith p r o b le m -s o lv in g in
p r e d ic a te s th e th e o ry o f o p e ra tio n a l!s m
s o lu tio n .
T h is t h e o r y o f in s t r u m e n t a l is m
l e n g e d m any t i m e s .
T he c r i t i c s
su r
fro m p r o b le m
h a s b e en c h a l
o f th e c o n c e p t h o ld t h a t
t o c o n s i d e r t h e m in d a s a t o o l j u s t f o r s u r v i v a l p u r p o s e s is
a g r o s s o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e w h o le m in d - b o d y i s s u e .
M any h o l d w i t h A r i s t o t l e w h i c h man i s
t h a t r e a s o n i s a d i v in e g i f t by
s e p a r a te d fro m
th e r th is
a lle g a tio n be
p h y s ic s .
So f a r i t r e m a i n s
th e lo w e r fo rm s o f a n im a ls .
so o r n o t,
v a rie ty ,
i s a p r o b l e m f o r m e ta
ju s t th a t.
m u ch e v i d e n c e , b o t h s c i e n t i f i c
H o w e v e r, t h e r e i s
a n d o f t h e c o m m o n -s e n s e
to h o ld w ith th e o p e r a tio n a l c o n c e p t.
p r e s e n t m a n if o ld p ro b le m s a n d r e a s o n in g com e th e m .
Whe
L ife does
i a e m p lo y e d t o o v e r
T h is f a c t seem s t o b o l s t e r th e th e o r y
of in s tru
m e n ta lity . 8.
L e a rn in g i s d o in g .
fo llo w e rs , a c t i v i t y
is
A c c o r d i n g t o D ew ey a n d h i s
th e le itm o tif o f le a rn in g .
a s s im ila tio n o f f a c tu a l d a ta i s f a ls e b e som e i n t e r a c t i o n * is m ! c p r o c e s s ,
S in c e l e a r n in g
le a rn in g .
P a s s iv e T h e re m u st
i s a d y n a m ic a n d o r g a n
k n o w le d g e m u s t c o m e , i t
seem s,
as a r e s u lt
293 of some action on the part of the learner.
Of course there
must be intrinsic interest along with the doing, but the fo cus of interest hinges on doing, viz., accomplishment from problem to solution.
Hence the value of solving real life
problems as advocated by the exponents of progressive edu cation. 9*
S o lu tio n s a re w a rra n te d a s s e r t i o n s .
l o g i c o n ly su e fro m
‘w a r r a n t e d a s s e r t i o n s *
s c ie n tific
in q u iry .
w ays o n ly t e n t a t i v e l y s to n e s to
and n o t e te r n a l tr u th s en
S o l u t i o n s t o p ro b le m s a r e a l
ju s tifia b le
o th e r s o lu tio n s .
I n D ew ey1 s
and a re u se d a s s te p p in g
T hese a r e th e g e n e r a l in f e r e n c e s
w h i c h e m e rg e a s a r e s u l t o f c o n t r o l l e d i n q u i r y . t i n g u i s h e s b e tw e e n e x p e r i e n c e a n d e m p i r i c i s m .
Dewey d i s R andom e x
p e r i e n c e may o r may n o t p r o d u c e d a t a o f p r a g m a t i c v a l u e . E x p e rie n c e s c i e n t i f i c a l l y
in itia te d
d o e s b r i n g f o r t h f a c t s w h ic h i n te s te d .
tu rn
m e ta p h y s ic s . a s s e rtio n .
P ro b le m -s o lv in g
I n p ra g m a tic p h ilo s o p h y , th e u n d e rly in g
a re so u g h t n o r
c a r r ie s w ith i t
The n a t u r e o f r e a l i t y
h o w e v e r,
c a n be e m p i r i c a l l y
No u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d g e n e r a l i t i e s
a r e th e y d e s ir e d .
d e te rm in e
and c o n tro lle d ,
its e lf is it
is
its
own
a w a rra n te d
u n im p o rta n t to
e s s e n c e o f a n y th in g a s lo n g a s i t
can be u se d f o r p r a c t i c a l p u rp o s e s .
10.
Universale are nominallstic in nature*
The evi
dence has disclosed that generalizations are Inferred from
in s ta n c e s *
T h i s v i e w i s Dewey* s*
s e r tio n s t o b e p ro v e d tr u e
o r u n tru e , o r to b e p ro v e d u s e f u l
o r n o t u s e f u l th ro u g h s c i e n t i f i c lo o m so l a r g e
T hese u n i v e r s a l e a r e a s
te s ts .
U n i v e r s a l s w h ic h
in t r a d i t i o n a l th in k in g a r e , a c c o rd in g to
D e w e y , o n l y a s s e r t i o n s w h i c h m u st s t a n d t h e g a g e o f e m p i r i c a l v e rific a tio n . p ro c e d u re , m any l i k e
to
U n i v e r s a l s a r e s y m b o ls , i n p r o b le m - s o lv in g be u se d i f
in s ta n c e s ,
A re v ie w .
n e c e s s a r y f o r th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
a n d a lw a y s s u b j e c t t o c h a n g e '.
A lis t
o f t h e t e n m o re o r l e s s m o s t f u n d a
m e n ta l a s s u m p tio n s b a s i c s e n te d .
of
to p ro b le m -s o lv in g h a s b e e n p re
T hey c a n b e n e i t h e r w h o lly p ro v e d n o r d is p r o v e d an d
m u st w a it upon th e
s o lu tio n
p o se.
s c ie n tif ic c irc le s ,
E v id e n c e i n
c o rro b o ra te
th e m .
to
th e p a r t i c u l a r p ro b le m th e y
S u b s ta n tia tio n
is
h o w e v er, g o e s f a r to
a ls o o f f e r e d by th e
d a t a fro m t h e r e s e a r c h o f t h e p s y c h o lo g ie s o f l e a r n i n g r e v ie w e d e a r l i e r i n
th is d is s e rta tio n .
T hese le a r n in g
a re s te e p e d i n e x p e rim e n ta l!s m and n a tu r a lis m . n e s s i t m u st b e a d m itte d , b y an y m eans c o n c l u s i v e , le d g e c a n n o t be l i g h t l y II.
h o w e v e r,
th a t
th e o rie s
In a l l f a i r
th e e v id e n c e i s n o t
a n d t h a t o t h e r t h e o r i e s o f know d is c a rd e d .
CONCLUSIONS FROM THE STUDY
T he c o n c l u s i o n s a r r i v e d a t b y t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r h a v e a lr e a d y b een s t a t e d o r im p lie d . s i o n s i s now p r e s e n t e d .
A sum m ary o f t h e s e c o n c l u
295 T he h y p o t h e s e s o f h y p o th e s e s , i t tifia b le #
th e
s tu d y .
C o n c e rn in g t h e
o rig in a l
i s a s s e r t e d t h a t o n l y s e v e n o f th e m w e re j u s
Two o t h e r s w e r e p a r t i a l l y
ju s tifie d ,
b u t becau se
o f th e l a c k o f e v id e n c e on h a n d , th e s e , m u st r e m a in o p e n i n one c a se and te n ta tiv e (1 )
in
th e o th e r .
S a r i l e s t in c e p tio n o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g .
e a r l y G -reek w r i t e r s d o sh o w d e f i n i t e o f in d u c tiv e th in k in g , ris e
to
s c ie n tific (2 )
a n d A r i s t o t l e , f o r one h e lp e d g iv e
in q u iry .
t h e m e th o d o f s c i e n t i f i c
in to
e v i d e n c e o f som e t y p e
S c i e n t i f i c p r o c e d u r e e x a m in e d .
f o r th e e n t i r e
T he
In q u iry f u rn is h e d
The a n a l y s i s o f th e a s s u m p tio n s
p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g f i e l d a n d g a v e som e i n s i g h t
t h e m e th o d .
W it h o u t t h e b a s i s o f s c i e n t i f i c
in q u iry ,
p ro b le m -s o lv in g h a s no f o u n d a tio n . (3 )
P h ilo s o p h ic a l fo u n d a tio n s o r a s s u m p tio n s .
T he
p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g w e re d e r i v e d fro m th e e n t i r e
f in d in g s o f th e
stu d y a n d a re l o g i c a l i n f e r
e n c e s d ra w n f r o m t h e f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
(b ) in c lu d e d i n
The c o n t r i b u t o r s *
T he w o r k s o f a l l o f t h e men
t h i s I n v e s t i g a t i o n f u r n i s h e d t h e d a t a w h i c h m ade
p o s s ib le th e e x e c u tio n o f th e
s tu d y .
W it h o u t t h e i r c o n t r i
b u t i o n s t h e r e w o u ld h a v e b e e n a n i n c o m p l e t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . (5 )
R e se arch and j u s t i f i c a t i o n .
B ecau se o f th e
29 6 l i m i t e d am ount o f r e s e a r c h In th e f i e l d ,
no d e f i n i t e
c o n c lu
s io n a s t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g w as p o s s i b l e . F ro m t h e r a t h e r l i m i t e d r e s e a r c h e x a m in e d ,
som e a f f i r m a t i o n
o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s w a s d e r i v e d , b u t m uch m o re i s n e e d e d f o r g e n u in e c o n f ir m a tio n . (6 )
The I n f l u e n c e o f p r o b le m - s o lv in g .
A l l A m e ric a n
e d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n t o u c h e d i n som e m e a s u r e b y t h e m e th o d o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g o r b y i t s
im p lic a tio n s .
T h ere I s
h a rd ly a
m od.ern c l a s s r o o m o n a n y l e v e l w h i c h h a s n o t f e l t i t s
in flu
en ce to a g r e a te r o r l e s s e r d e g re e . (7 )
I n t e r e s t to d a y .
i c a ls and re s e a rc h r e p o r ts ,
From t h e l e a d i n g it is
te x ts ,
p e rio d
o b v io u s t h a t t h e r e
i s con
c e r n e v i n c e d o v e r t h e m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g . c o n c e r n i n g l e a r n i n g p r o c e d u r e o r m e th o d o lo g y i s a n d t h e m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g i s T h ere i s a dem and, a c c o rd in g t o
n e c e s s a rily
th e l i t e r a t u r e ,
Thought in fe rm e n t, in v o lv e d . fo r c la rifi
c a tio n o f t h i s v i t a l is s u e . (8 )
In s ig h t o f th e
c o n trib u to rs .
W ith o u t t h e i n
s i g h t s a s o f f e r e d t h r o u g h t h e w o r k s o f L o c k e , Hume, l a m e s , H e r b a r t a n d m any o t h e r s ,
th is
s t u d y w o u ld n o t b e p o s s i b l e .
U n d o u b t e d ly t h e s t u d y o w e s m o s t t o D ew ey. c o n trib u tio n s
in
re a liz in g
a im s .
its
e n tire f ie ld
t h i s a r e a h e lp e d t h i s
H i s m o n u m e n ta l
in v e s tig a tio n
in
H is u n iq u e g e n iu s h a s i l l u m i n a t e d th e
o f le a rn in g .
297 (9 )
T he w h o le m e th o d c l a r i f i e d .
th e d a ta o f t h is
I s hoped th a t
s t u d y p r o v e s u s e f u l t o o t h e r s i n c o m p re h e n d
i n g a n d a p p l y i n g t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d . to o b ro a d ,
It
The f i e l d
th e r e s e a r c h to o l im i te d an d th e a r e a
s till
c o n t r o v e r s i a l t o p r e s e n t a num ber o f d e f i n i t e a n s w e r s . te n ta tiv e
o n e s h av e a r i s e n fro m t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e I ll.
is to o Some
s tu d y .
RECOMMENDATIONS
A n a ly s is and c r i t i c a l e v a lu a tio n o f p ro b le m -s o lv in g a s a m e th o d o f l e a r n i n g m ent o f e d u c a tio n .
It
i s n e ce ssa ry is
tru e th a t
to th e g e n u in e a d v a n c e s c h o o ls o u g h t t o b e f ir m
l y g ro u n d e d upon p ro v e d m e th o d o lo g ic a l p r i n c i p l e s . c o rd w ith th e p ra g m a tic p h ilo s o p h y , re c o m m e n d a tio n s c o n c e r n in g is
hoped th a t th e s e
th is
In ac
s t u d y p r e s e n t s som e
t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d .
It
s u g g e s tio n s , e n g e n d e re d b y th e p h ilo
s o p h i c a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p r o b le m s o lv in g , w i l l b e a c c e p te d f o r w hat th e y a r e .
T h ey a r e a s
fo llo w s : 1.
T h a t m uch n e e d e d r e s e a r c h b e l a u n c h e d a s q u ic f e ly
a s p o s s ib le in
t h e w h o le a r e a o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .
f i e l d b e d iv id e d f o r p u rp o se s o f e x p e d itio n , be c a re fu lly
T hat th e
t h a t e a c h p h ase
I n v e s tig a te d and t h a t th e r e p o r ts be p u b lis h e d
f o r s tu d y . 2. p ro c e d u re .
T h a t t h e r e s e a r c h b e i n t e g r a t e d a s t o a im s a n d T h is i n t e g r a t i o n
s h o u ld b e done b e f o r e
th e
298 re s e a rc h b e g in s , to 3*
a v o id c o n fu s io n *
T h at a t t e n t i o n b e g iv e n to
th e e n ti r e f i e l d
of
m e th o d s o a s t o o f f e r b a c k g r o u n d a n d c o n t r a s t f o r p r o b le m s o lv in g .
It
i s b y e x a m i n a t i o n a n d c o m p a r is o n o f a l l t h e
m e th o d s t h a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f a n y o n e c a n b e d e t e r m in e d .
k.
That some agreement be arrived at by educators
as to a general meaning for problem-solving.
Most educators
are pretty clear as to Dewey's definitions, but a restate ment would be beneficial. 5* ly in g
T h at th e b a s ic
p r i n c i p l e s o r a s s u m p tio n s u n d e r
t h e m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g b e e x a m in e d a n d c o m p re
h e n d e d b y t h o s e who u s e i t .
W ith o u t a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f w h at p r o b le m - s o lv in g m ea n s, a t e a c h e r i s h a n d ic a p p e d .
This method in particular demands insightful handling. 6.
T h a t t h e a im s o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g b e m o re w i d e l y
d is s e m in a te d .
The n a t u r e o f i t s
s c i e n t if i c , p ro c e d u re and
p r a g m a tic g o a l s n e e d t o b e e m p h a s iz e d . 7.
T h a t p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g b e m ade p a r t o f t h e c u r
r i c u l a o f a l l te a c h e r s c o lle g e s In one fo rm o r a n o th e r ,
e i
t h e r i n a c o u rs e f o r th e b e g in n in g te a c h e r o r to b e u se d a s a m e th o d b y t h e i n s t r u c t o r s
th e m s e lv e s .
w i d e s p r e a d u s a g e o f t h e m e th o d , fo rm a tio n 8.
is
e a s ily
I n v ie w o f t h e
th e n e c e s s ity
f o r m o re i n
seen .
T h at te a c h e r s in th e f i e l d
th e m s e lv e s s tu d y th e
m e th o d o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g 9. be tr ie d
if
T h a t som e d e g r e e o f t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g m e th o d in a l l o f th e p u b lic
10.
so n e ed e d .
T h at e d u c a tio n i n
s c h o o l s o f A m e r ic a . t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a s a w h o le
c o n c e r n i t s e l f w i t h t h i s m e th o d . od o f le a rn in g
I s h e re
to
P r o b le m - s o lv in g a s a m e th
s t a y a n d e d u c a to r s d a r e n o t a v o id
it. C o n c lu s io n . tig a to r th a t c la r ity s o lv in g
I n c o n c lu s io n # as to
to
th e in v e s
a im s a n d p r o c e d u r e s o f . p r o b le m
a s a m e th o d o f l e a r n i n g
e d u c a tio n i s
I t a p p e a rs to
I s n e c e s s a r y I f A m e ric a n
h a v e a p r o p e r m e th o d o lo g y i n
its
sch o o l sy s-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY A.
BOOKS
A b e ls o n , H a ro ld H ., The A r t o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a r c h . Y o n k e r s - o n - H u d s o n , New Y o rk : W o rld B o o k C om pany, 1933* 332 p p . B a c o n , F r a n c i s , T he A d v a n c e m e n t o f L e a r n i n g . C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 18£>8. 37§ p p .
O x fo rd :
B e r k e l e y , G e o r g e , T he P r i n c i p l e s o f Human K n o w le d g e . z ig : F e l i x M e in e r, 1913* 13^"”pp* B o d e , B oyd H . , M o d ern E d u c a t i o n a l T h e o r i e s . M a c m illa n C om pany, 1927* 351 p p .
L e ip
New Y o rk :
_________ , P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t i o n a t t h e C r o s s r o a d s . N ew son a n d C om pany, 1 9 3 8 . 128 p p . B u r t t , E d w in A . , e d i t o r , to M ill. New Y o rk :
T he
T he
New Y o rk :
The E n g l i s h P h i l o g o p h e r s f r o m B a c o n T he M o d e rn L i b r a r y , 1939* 10*0. p p .
B u t t s , R . F r e e m a n , The C o l l e g e C h a r t s I t s C o u r s e . M c G r a w - H ill B ook C o m p an y , 1939* ti&U p p .
New Y o rk :
/ C a r m i c h a e l , R i c h a r d D . , T he L o g ic o f D i s c o v e r y . C h ic a g o : T he O pen C o u r t P u b l i s h i n g C om pany, 1 9 3 0 . 27A p p . C o f f e y , P a u l , T he S c i e n c e o f L o g i c . P e t e r S m i t h C om pany, 1 9 3 8 .
2 v o ls .;
N e w -Y o rk :
C o r n f o r d , F r a n c i s M c D o n a ld , P l a t o 1s T h e o r y o f K n o w le d g e ♦ London: K egan P a u l , T r e n c h , T r u b n e r a n d C om pany, L t d . , 1935. 236 p p . _________, T he R e p u b l i c o f P l a t o . P re s s , 19^5. 3&> PP*
London:
O x fo rd U n iv e r s ity
C o m e n iu s , J o h n Am os, T he G r e a t D i d a c t i c . London: Adam a n d C h a r l e s B l a c k , 1907* 3 1 ^ PP* T r a n s l a t e d b y M. W. K e a tin g e . C o t t e r , A l b e r t C ., S . j . , L o g ic a n d E p f s t e m o l o g y . T he S t r a t f o r d C om pany, 1 9 3 0 278 p p .
B o s to n :
C r a w f o r d , C la u d e C . , F u n c t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n * C. C. C r a w f o r d , 1949* 2 3 9 PP*
L o s A n g e le s :
_________, How t o T e a c h * L o s A n g e l e s : S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a S c h o o l B ook D e p o s i t o r y , 1938* 5 1 1 pp* . C r e i g h t o n , J a m e s E * , a n d H a r o l d R . S m a r t, An I n t r o d u c t o r y L o g ic . Hew Y o rk : T h e M a c m illa n C om pany, 1 9 2 6 . ¥96 PP*
2 D ew ey , J o h n , D e m o c ra c y a n d E d u c a t i o n * m i l l a n C om pany, 1 9 2 5* 5*3^ pp* _________ , E x p e r i e n c e a n d E d u c a t i o n . C om pany, 1 9 3 8 ♦ ll6 pp.
3 _________, How We T h i n k . 1933* V
B o s to n :
Hew Y o r k :
New Y o rk :
The Mac
T he M a c M illa n
D . 0 . H e a t h a n d C om pany,
301 p p .
L o g ic , th e T h eo ry o f I n q u i r y * H o l t a n d C om pany, 1 9 3 8 . 5^6 p p . _________, P r o b l e m s o f M en. Hew Y o rk : L ib ra ry , 1946. 424 pp. , T he Q u e s t f o r C e r t a i n t y . a n d C om pany, 1929* 312 pp.
Hew Y o rk :
H e n ry
T he P h i l o s o p h i c a l
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