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CHRISTOPHE JAFFRELOT
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CHRISTOPHE JAFFRELOT
The
Hindu Nationalist
Movement
in India
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Columbia University Press New York
Columbia University Press New York First
published as Les nationalistes hindous by
Presses de
la
Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques (© 1993) © C. Hurst & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1996
English translation and updating All rights reserved
Typeset by Print Line, New Delhi Printed in India by Thomson Press (India) Ltd
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Jaffrelot, Christophe.
[Nationalistes hindous.
The Hindu
nationalist
English]
movement
in India/
Christophe Jaffrelot.
cm.
p.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-231-10334-4 1.
India
politics
—
—
Politics
India.
I.
paper)
—20th
century.
2.
Hinduism and
Title.
DS480.45.J29813 324.254'082 dc20
—
(alk.
and government
1996
95-12330
CIP
C
10
987654321
For Matthieu
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1
is based on the second part of my Ph.D. thesis which was written in 1987-91 under the guidance of Jean Leca, whose help was especially useful in shaping the theoretical framework of the study, and of Bruce Graham,
This book
to
whom I largely owe my quest for accuracy in addition to much information. The
present edition draws from a French book
considerably amended, enlarged and updated.
English-reading public,
among whom
2
which has been
I tried to
are a greater
adapt
it
for the
number of people
familiar with India than there are in France. Secondly, the French version
has been brought up to date, which led me to add a fifth part. Besides my attempt at constructing a model of Hindu nationalist strategies,
one specific feature of this book
is
the concern
it
shows
for the
my fieldwork in Madhya Pradesh (central India). I thank Jean-Luc Chambard, the Diwan family and Mr relations between the national and local levels based on
N. Rajan as well as the successive directors of the Alliance Franc.aise in Bhopal Alain Passagne, Vincent Despagnet and Roger Thevenot for their help while I was conducting research in that state between 1988 and 1995. This work benefited from the assistance of Chandra Ranade in the I conducted in Delhi and Madhya Pradesh and from the advice of Dr Naheed Ahmad, Alice Thorner and Lorraine Kennedy. Most of my trips to India in connection with this work have been supported financially by the Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches Internationales (Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques) whose then director, Jean-Luc Domenach, has always been most helpful. The active work of translation was a co-operative effort, in which Christopher Hurst Hurst and Michael Dwyer, the directors of the originating publisher,
transcription of the Hindi interviews
C
& Co., played a vital part. Naturally the book's shortcomings are mine alone. Finally, this
my 1
'Des national istes en quete d'une nation. Les partis nationalistes hi.idous au siecle',
2
book would not have been possible without the support of
wife, Christine.
Ph.D. thesis,
Institut
XXeme
d'Etudes Politiques, Paris, 1991.
Les nationalistes hindous - Ideologie, implantation et mobilisation des annees 1 920 aux annees 1990, Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1993. vii
31
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
page
Abbreviations
vii
xviii
Glossary
xx
INTRODUCTION Part
1.
I.
1
THREE HINDU NATIONALIST STRATEGIES
STIGMATISING AND EMULATING THREATENING OTHERS' - THE FORMATION OF HINDU NATIONALISM The genesis of Hindu nationalism The A rya Samaj and 'A rya nationalism
1
12 '
1
The Hindu Sangathan movement: stereotypes of and the Hindu inferiority complex
the
Muslim 19
Savarkar and Hindutva ethnic nationalism
25
The RSS:
33 35 35
a Hindu nationalist sect
The sectarian crucible of the Hindu nation - An ideological akhara - The world- renouncer as an activist
40
RSS Brahminism and its social contradictions An ideology of the ethnic nation rather than of the race
50 53 55 58 62
or the state
German sources of Golwalkar' s
45
ideology
A
special kind of racism The primacy of social organism The organisation above men
shakha network The northward expansion and the pracharaks modus
Priority given to the expansion of the
64
'
66
operandi ix
61
Contents
x
Explaining the RSS's relative attractiveness in the 1940s
68 72 75
The RSS and the Hindu Mahasabha A North India movement 2.
THE STRATEGY OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS MOBILISATION AND THE POLITICS OF SECULARISM The
political context after
80
1947
81
Nehru's secularist struggle
The
first
Hindu
83
attempt to exploit the issue of
traditionalists
Ayodhya
and Hindu nationalists join together
91 in
defence of the Hindus of East Pakistan
Nehru and
the
Hindu
Secularism as a legitimate norm of the Indian political system
1
107
further marginalisation of the
Hindu Mahasabha
extremist party in
Madhya Bharat
A SPECIFIC PARTY-BUILDING STRATEGY: THE JANA SANGH AND THE RSS NETWORK The RSS and
its
109
1
14
115
politics
The birth of the Jana Sangh First the part, then the whole
The RSS and
02
107
The Hindu Mahasabha
1 1 1
affiliates
Minimal public involvement: the
19
1
23 23
1
25
1
The Jana Sangh, replica and auxiliary of the RSS The complementarity of the RSS and its affiliates party's organisational
129
priority
The Jana Sangh 's Sanghathanist party- building pattern The case of Madhya Pradesh
-Mandsaur - Ujjain -WestNimar
1
3
132 138 141
144
A counter-model of party-building
1
49
TOWARDS STRATEGIES OF MODERATION?
1
58
Adjusting to the political context
159
Part
II.
OSCILLATION AND HYBRIDISATION IN
4.
98
The
An
3.
96
traditionalists
THE
1960s
'
1
'
Contents
xi
The dual constraints of the 'Congress system - The Hindu traditionalists and state politics - Nehru and the politics of secularism The Jana Sangh 's opposition to public ownership of the economy - The desire for decentralisation - The Jana Sangh as spokesman for
1
59 60
1
65
1
69 69 172 1
1
'the
middle world'
From dogmatism
to pragmatism? The origins of integration with the legitimate opposition The 'cluster technique a party -building pattern borrowing from both Sangathanism and the aggregative method
1
78 80
1
83
1
93
1
',
5.
THE MIXED STRATEGY: HINDU MOBILISATION AND ELECTORAL ALLIANCES The Vishwa Hindu
Parishad: the strategy of stigmatisation/
emulation and the religious network
194
Pracharaks and 'modern gurus The VHP, a consistory for Hinduism?
196
The
1
94
strategy of ethno-religious mobilisation under a double
202 204 208 209 210
constraint
The cow protection movement The firm secularism of the Centre The cow protection movement in Madhya Pradesh The unreliability of religious leaders Electoral progress and increased reliance on notables
213
and princes Electoral alliances and coalition governments
Part
6.
III.
221
THE CONTRADICTIONS OF THE
1970s
LOCAL CADRES AND POPULISM The main
division within the Jana
Sangh
230 is
not vertical but
23
horizontal
The influence of the Sangathanist network
in
shaping
party strategy
The choice between traditionalist integration and Sangathanist populism The primacy of the organisation over individuals
The
central
government's fight against communalism
23
233 236 238
4 9 5
'
Contents
xii
The patriotic and populist roles of the Jana Sangh:
problem
the
of outdoing the Congress
The sociological
240
limits of populism: the Jana
Sangh's inability
widen its base The appeal to the masses and the decline of The cost of relying on princes
to
THE HINDU NATIONALISTS IN THE
7.
The
activist turn: the
and the
The
political
banks
MOVEMENT'
'J.P.
Jana Sangh leadership,
RSS back in
'vote
its
255
convergence of social reformers
258
associating without losing
266
one's identity
The
8.
Emergency: crucible of integration
272
Unity 'from above'
277
THE IMPOSSIBLE ASSIMILATION
282
Towards
283
a political culture of synthesis?
The ex-Jana Sanghis and
Return to
Part IV.
291
the question of unity
'Shakha culture' or 'Janata culture'? The Janata Party Hindi belt
9.
255
local cadres
step
A windfall and a dilemma:
244 245 246
in the
292 301
'political untouchability'
THE CONVERGENCE OF HINDU NATIONALIST STRATEGIES IN THE 1980s
THE CONTRADICTIONS OF THE B.J.P. AND THE EROSION OF SECULARISM The BJP:
heir to the Janata Party?
Risks of divorce from the grassroots and the
RSS
3
1
3
1
3
1
Notabilised swayamsevaks and ideological notables
320
and princes
The RSS's
reservations regarding the
The erosion of secularism 10.
BJP
as a political
norm
326
330
THE HINDU SENSE OF VULNERABILITY AND THE R.S.S.'s POLITICAL OFFENSIVE
338
The
338
inferiority
complex
of the majority revisited
Contents
The
VHP and building the Hindu
The
VHP
xiii
nation against the Other
as the spearhead of the RSS's
new
strategy
- The laborious relaunching of the VHP (1979-81) - Activists, sadhus and patrons - The emergence of a Hindu
network at
346 347 350
ecclesiastical structure
(1982-4)? The development of the VHP network at the local level The increasing involvement of a particular religious
The attempt
345
political
351
353 355
Hindu mobilisation
358
Reconversions, the welfarist tactic and temple-building
3^g
The Ekatmata Yatra - or the shaping of an ideological
The revival of the Ayodhya issue The contribution of ex- Congressmen
360 363 364
THE MAKING OF A HINDU VOTE?
369
devotionalism
11.
The communalisation of politics
369
Avoiding the dangers of 1967: the strength of the religious network
The BJP between integration and a mixed strategy
The reinstatement of the Sangathanists An accommodating 'legitimate opposition' The BJP is won over to the strategy of ethno- religious
and
A
374 375 378 381
mobilisation
The 1989
371
mobilisation: the success of
election campaign: populism, 'political bhaktV
383
riots
superimposition of strategies: the case
ofMadhya
Pradesh
Ram as a national hero for the Processions, communitas
and
'angry Hindu' riots
as an all-India
392 398
phenomenon The shilanyas
The BJP's
victory in
the forefront
384 388
Madhya Pradesh:
the activists in
404
9 2 1
Contents
tiv
Part V.
THE EARLY
HOW TO CONQUER
1990S:
AND RETAIN POWER MAKING A BID FOR POWER: THE SCOPE AND
12.
LIMITATIONS OF THE HINDU MOBILISATION Mandir versus Mandal: Hindu mobilisation and caste conflict From the mixed strategy to ethno- religious mobilisation pure and simple - The BJP, the VHP and V.P. Singh - Hindu nationalist reactions to the Mandal report - The Rath Yatra: a national procession and demonstration of strength
- Another wave of communal riots - The Kar Seva and the creation of a cult of martyrdom An expanding base, but why? The affinities between the new elite and the BJP: the impact of social and economic change -
The 1991
An aggressive electoral campaign The BJP as a national party? in
power
1
412 41 412 414
416 41 420 424 432 436 436 438 446
elections
The cost of being
4
•
THE PARADOX OF THE RAMJANMABHOOMI
13.
MOVEMENT
449
Problems of division of labour The BJP 's difficulties as a nationalist and a government 6 December 1992 party The unleashing of communal violence
449 450 455 458
The
464 464 468
reaction of the central government: an ambivalent tactic
A In
The
crackdown quest of a compromise
limited
at
Ayodhya
strategy of ethno-religious mobilisation in question
The resilience of BJP unity The risks in relying on sadhus and Bajrang Dalis 14.
THE B.J.P. HELD IN CHECK IN THE HINDI BELT A gradual shift in emphasis in the ethno-nationalist repertoire The 1993 campaign for the Assembly ethno-religious mobilisation ebbs
The BJP
in
473 474 478
482 482
elections: the strategy of
away
search of an ethno-nationalist image
485 485
1 1
Contents
xv
The difficulty of exploiting the Ayodhya issue - The weakening of the VHP - Ayodhya: an issue on the wane? The Congress (I) 's electoral strategy and the difficulty of the BJP in evolving an economic programme
The
of power:
test
- Indiscipline among party workers - Dissensions and the 1993 elections The poor performance and 'pro-rich' image of the Patwa government issue of loan-waiving
alienation of the tribals
OBC vote and the question of reservations The 1993 elections in Madhya Pradesh: the BJP sustains damage - The BJP becomes ever more urban - Bhopal: the making of a stronghold The BJP
49
Madhya Pradesh
The decline of the sangathanist pattern - Patwa, Sakhlecha and Joshi as faction leaders? - The development of groupism
- The - The - The
487 487 489
in Uttar Pradesh,
_
494 494 494 497 500 502 504 504 505 506
510 51 51
Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and 515
Delhi
CONCLUSION
522
EPILOGUE
533
Can
the
Hindu
nationalists cater for the socio-economic
interests of the
OBCs?
534
The BJP emphasises socio-economic rather than
536
ethno -religious issues
Populism and the 1994-5
The
state, the judiciary
539
state elections
544
and the Hindu nationalists
Will tensions emerge in the 'Sangh parivar'?
547
February 1996
550
APPENDIXES A.
Victims of Hindu-Muslim
riots,
1986-90 (map)
551
B.
Hindu-Muslim riots in India and resulting victims, 1954-93
552
C.
The same information
553
D.
Performance of the Jana Sangh and the BJP Sabha elections, 1952 to 1991
as in B. in graphic
form in
Vidhan 554
Contents
xvi
E.
Performance of the Jana Sangh and the BJP 1952 to 1993-5
in
Lok Sabha
elections,
555
F.
Notables and activists among Madhya Pradesh BJS and BJP MLAs by region, 1957-90
556
G.
Occupations of Madhya Pradesh BJS and BJP MLAs, 1 957-90
558
H.
Caste- and community-based distribution of Jana Sangh
and BJP J.
MLAs in Madhya Pradesh,
1
952-93
559
Madhya Pradesh Vidhan Sabha election results, 952-93 1
(9
560-8
maps)
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
569
Index
577
MAPS India
xxi
Madhya Pradesh Votes
won by
the
xxii-xxiii
BJP
in the national
Lok Sabha election, 1991
440
TABLES Distribution of castes, tribes and religious communities in
Madhya Pradesh, 1931
133
Analysis of individuals imprisoned during the Emergency
276
ILLUSTRATION Poster showing a model of the proposed temple on the site of the Babri
Masjid in Ayodhya, and
Ram
393
xvn
ABBREVIATIONS
ABKM
Akhil Bharatiya Kendriya Mandal (executive committee of the
RSS)
ABVP
Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarhi Parishad
AMU
Aligarh Muslim University
ARIPP
BHEL
Annual Register of Indian Political Parties Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
BHU
Benares Hindu University
BJP
Bharatiya Janata Party
BJYM BLD
Bharatiya
Yuva Morcha Lok Dal
Bharatiya Janata
BMAC BMCC
Babri Masjid Action Committee
BMS
Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh
Babri Masjid Coordination Committee
BSF
Border Security Force
CPI CPI(M)
Communist Communist
CRPF
Central Reserve Police Force
DAV College EPW
Dayanand Anglo- Vedic College Economic and Political Weekly Hindu Mahasabha Indian Annual Register
HM IAR IAS
.
Party of India Party of India (Marxist)
Indian Administrative Service
UPS INTUC
Indian National Trade Union Congress
IOLR
India Office Library and Records (London)
The Indian Journal of Political Science
Camp
ITC
Instructors' Training
JP
Janata Party
JS
Jana Sangh
JSAIGC
Jana Sangh All India General Council
JSCWC
Jana Sangh Central Working Committee
LSS
MAS
Lok Sangharsh Samiti Modern Asian Studies
MISA
Maintenance of Internal Security Act
MLA
Member of Legislative Assembly
xvm
Abbreviations
xix
MP
Member of Parliament
NAI
National Archives of India
NMML
Nehru Memorial Museum and Library
OTC PAC
Officers' Training '
Provincial
Army
(New
Delhi)
Camp
Constabulary (Uttar Pradesh Police)
PSP
Praja Socialist Party
RFSP
Revue Francaise de Science Politique
RRP
Ram
RSS
Rashtriya
SGPC
Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandak Committee
SP SSP
SVD VHP
VKA
Rajya Parishad
Swayamsevak Sangh
Socialist Party
Samyukta Socialist Party Samyukta Vidhayak Dal Vishwa Hindu Parishad Vanavasi Kalyan Ashram
GLOSSARY
dharna gherao
sit-in
a form of protest that involves surrounding an individual in
order to prevent him leaving a building or another location
Gram Raj Abhiyan campaign
for village
autonomy
where a guru teaches the Vedas
Gurukul
the place
jagirdar
a chief or noble to
whom
to
brahmacharis
local land revenues
and other
policing or judicial functions were assigned in the colonial
and pre-colonial period kar sevak
a volunteer at
who took part in the movement to build a temple
Ayodhya movement launched
Hindu Sangathan
a
Hindu Rashtra
the
kisan
peasant
Mandi Samiti
local market committee in charge of regulating the purchase and sale of notified agricultural produce
in the 1920s with the aim of uniting Hindu society by transcending divisions of caste and sect
Hindu nation
panchayat
local representative
Pandit
a learned
committee elected by several villages
Brahmin
pith
monastery
pracharak
propagandist and full-time
Ram Shila Pujan
the cult o/the bricks with which the
was
to
be
built (also
RSS worker
Ram temple at Ayodhya used as a means of fund-raising)
from debt
Rin Mukti
lit.
sadhu
world renouncer, ascetic Hindu
Sangathan Mantri
organising secretary of the Jana Sangh and later the
sanghchalak
a leading citizen acting as a local patron of the
liberation
sarpanch
head of a panchayat
sarsanghchalak
chief of the
satyagraha
non-violent protest
RSS RSS
shakha
local branch of the
tehsil
sub-division of a district
swayamsevak
a
zamindar
lit.
RSS
BJP
RSS
volunteer
a possessor of land; formerly a revenue farmer
recognised as a landlord by the British Raj
xx
XXI
XX11
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80°
26°
UTTAR PRADESH
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