The Global Context for New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development : New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, Number 147 [1 ed.] 9781119058441, 9781119058311

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New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development

Number 147 Spring 2015

The Global Context for New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development

Elena L. Grigorenko Editor

New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development

Elena L. Grigorenko Editor-in-Chief

William Damon Founding Editor

The Global Context for New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development

Elena L. Grigorenko Editor

Number 147 • Spring 2015 Jossey-Bass San Francisco

THE GLOBAL CONTEXT FOR NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Elena L. Grigorenko (ed.) New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, no. 147 Elena L. Grigorenko, Editor-in-Chief © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Company. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923; (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River St., Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Microfilm copies of issues and articles are available in 16 mm and 35 mm, as well as microfiche in 105 mm, through University Microfilms, Inc., 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106-1346. ISSN 1520-3247 electronic ISSN 1534-8687 NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT is part of The Jossey-Bass Education Series and is published quarterly by Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., a Wiley company, at Jossey-Bass, One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594. Postmaster: Send address changes to New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, Jossey-Bass, One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development is indexed in Cambridge Scientific Abstracts (CSA/CIG), CHID: Combined Health Information Database (NIH), Contents Pages in Education (T&F), Educational Research Abstracts Online (T&F), Embase (Elsevier), ERIC Database (Education Resources Information Center), Index Medicus/MEDLINE (NLM), Linguistics & Language Behavior Abstracts (CSA/CIG), Psychological Abstracts/PsycINFO (APA), Social Services Abstracts (CSA/CIG), SocINDEX (EBSCO), and Sociological Abstracts (CSA/CIG). INDIVIDUAL SUBSCRIPTION RATE (in USD): $89 per year US/Can/Mex, $113 rest of world; institutional subscription rate: $416 US, $456 Can/Mex, $490 rest of world. Single copy rate: $29. Electronic only–all regions: $89 individual, $416 institutional; Print & Electronic–US: $98 individual, $500 institutional; Print & Electronic–Canada/Mexico: $98 individual, $540 institutional; Print & Electronic–Rest of World: $122 individual, $574 institutional. COVER PHOTOGRAPHS: ©iStock.com/paulaphoto (top); ©iStock.com/vm (middle); ©iStock.com/ericsphotography (bottom) EDITORIAL CORRESPONDENCE should be e-mailed to the editor-in-chief: Elena L. Grigorenko ([email protected]). Jossey-Bass Web address: www.josseybass.com

Elena L. Grigorenko, Editor-in-Chief Yale University, USA Editorial Board David Preiss, PhD ´ Pontificia Universidad Catolica, Chile

Baptiste Barbot, PhD Pace University, USA Linda Jarvin, PhD Paris College of Art, France

Peggy McCardle, PhD, MPH Peggy McCardle Consulting, LLC, USA

Fumiko Hoeft, MD, PhD University of California San Francisco, USA

Damian Birney, PhD University of Sydney, Australia

CONTENTS Preface

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Lene Arnett Jensen, Reed W. Larson

Preface

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Elena L. Grigorenko

1. Genomic Sciences for Developmentalists: A Merge of Science and Practice

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Elena L. Grigorenko This essay explores the intersections of genetics/genomics and developmental sciences.

2. Utilizing Biopsychosocial and Strengths-Based Approaches Within the Field of Child Health: What We Know and Where We Can Grow

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Jessica M. Black, Fumiko Hoeft This article examines the evidence that early experiences confer both risk and protective processes on biopsychosocial development in childhood and touches on some implications of this dynamic for the life course.

3. Challenges for an Interdisciplinary Consideration of Cognitive Training

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Damian Patrick Birney According to this opinion piece, although the debate regarding the malleability of fluid cognitive functions has been ongoing for at least 100 years, more specific research is needed to resolve it.

4. Edutainment, Games, and the Future of Education in a Digital World Linda Jarvin This brief review examines the literature on edutainment and games, discusses the limits of the current state of research, and proposes research questions investigating broad issues linked to the adaptation of games for education.

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5. Bilingualism: Research and Policy

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Peggy McCardle This opinion piece provides a brief overview of the education policies and practices regarding bilingualism in the United States and asserts that more complex research is needed to understand the bases of language learning and to put in place (and study) informed policies and practices that can benefit all children, regardless of how many languages they speak or learn.

6. The Utility of Neuroimaging Studies for Informing Educational Practice and Policy in Reading Disorders

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Jessica M. Black, Chelsea A. Myers, Fumiko Hoeft Using reading disorder as an example, this essay probes the emerging scientific field of educational neuroscience, which brings together researchers from neuroscience, psychology, and education to explore the neurocognitive processes underlying educational practice and theory.

7. New Directions for the Study of Within-Individual Variability in Development: The Power of “N = 1”

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Baptiste Barbot, Cyrille Perchec This article provides an introduction to the idiographic approach (“N = 1” research) in developmental psychology and an overview of the methodological and statistical techniques employed to address the study of within-individual variability in development.

8. Challenges of Adolescent Psychology in the European Identity Context

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Lyda Lannegrand-Willems, Baptiste Barbot This article discusses the European historical context and the current initiatives from the EU that aim to encourage civic engagement among young people.

9. Anger and Globalization Among Young People in India

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Sonia Suchday Using India as an example of a fast-globalizing country, this article highlights the experiences and challenges faced by adolescents and emerging adults in the developing world as they strive to establish interpersonal and professional identities.

10. Classroom Research and Child and Adolescent Development in South America David Daniel Preiss, Elisa Calcagni, Valeska Grau This review examines recent classroom research developed in South America, stressing its relevance to the overall inquiry into child and adolescent development.

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11. Adverse Environments and Children’s Creativity Development: Transforming the Notion of “Success in Adversity” in China

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Li Cheng, Mei Tan, Zhengkui Liu This article briefly explores the historical sources and modern meaning of “success in adversity,” the strongly held belief in China that individuals who suffer adverse environments can rise to creative excellence and success through persistence.

12. Seeing the Trees Within the Forest: Addressing the Needs of Children Without Parental Care in the Russian Federation

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Rifkat J. Muhamedrahimov, Elena L. Grigorenko This essay comments on the current system of care for children growing up without their biological parents and exemplifies different components of this system in the Russian Federation.

13. Cultural Considerations in the Treatment of Mental Illness Among Sexually Abused Children and Adolescents: The Case of Bali, Indonesia

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Cokorda Bagus J. Lesmana, Luh Ketut Suryani, Niko Tiliopoulos Using Bali (Indonesia) as a focal culture, this opinion piece discusses the effects of cultural elements and showcases their potential contribution and systematic implementation in a holistic and sensitive interventional model for the treatment of mental illness in childhood and adolescent sexual traumatization.

14. Commentary—Child and Adolescent Development in the Focus of Emerging Developmental Science

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Sergey A. Kornilov

15. Commentary—A United Front: Using the Range of Psychological Variance in Cutting-Edge Practice and Emerging Research

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Simon Anthony Jackson, Sabina Kleitman

16. Commentary—Of Quadrants and Fish Scales: Reflections on New Directions in Research in Child and Adolescent Development

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Jens F. Beckmann

INDEX

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PREFACE

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or both of us, serving as editor-in-chief of New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development (NDCAD) has been one of the most interesting and gratifying things we have done in our careers. We had the pleasure of enlisting outstanding editors and authors to develop deep, innovative issues on a wide range of exciting “new directions.” We were fortunate to be handed a strong legacy from Bill Damon and are now pleased to pass that legacy into Elena L. Grigorenko’s capable hands. Elena and her international editorial team bring a distinguished record and broad intellectual reach to NDCAD, and those assets are richly manifest in the impressive interdisciplinary depth and breadth of articles in this first issue. The review articles and essays represent pearls such as: • emerging evidence of the potential for adults to receive training that ex-

pands their fluid intelligence (Birney, Article 3);

• use of intensive time sampling data to analyze dynamic system processes

in N = 1 studies (Barbot & Perchec, Article 7);

• promising educational interventions that build on Chinese cultural con-

ceptions and that appear to help children in adverse environments develop skills for creative problem solving (Cheng, Tan, & Liu, Article 11); • improved mixed-model strategies for caregiving placement of orphaned children in Russia (Muhamedrahimov & Grigorenko, Article 12). These are but a few examples in the string of 13 contributions where each has something genuine and new to tell the reader. Collectively, the contributions also come together into several strands that we join with Elena L. Grigorenko in regarding as necessary directions for the social sciences: • attention to worldwide cultural diversity, with the present contributions

focusing on Bali (Lesmana, Suryani, & Tiliopoulos, Article 13), China (Cheng et al., Article 11), Europe (Lannegrand-Willems & Barbot, Article 8), India (Suchday, Article 9), Russia (Muhamedrahimov & Grigorenko, Article 12), South America (Preiss, Calcagni, & Grau, Article 10), and the United States (Black & Hoeft, Article 2); • a push to address timely positives in development, including in regard to skills such as bilingualism (McCardle, Article 5) and contexts such as Author note: As in our previous work as editors-in-chief, we shared equally in the authorship of this preface. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT, no. 147, Spring 2015 © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). • DOI: 10.1002/cad.20090

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media (Jarvin, Article 4) that have tended to be singled out as risky rather than beneficial; • a focus on the cutting edge in technology (Grigorenko, Article 1), methodological design (Barbot & Perchec, Article 7), and topics of realworld consequence such as globalization (Suchday, Article 9); • the translation of up-to-date, locally relevant social science knowledge into practices and policies that will improve the lives of children, adolescents, and adults (all contributions). This strong first issue demonstrates that the pages of NDCAD will continue to expand in scope through scientific inquiry into the types of questions that developmental scholars face today. As we mentioned at the outset, our tenure as editors-in-chief has been a rare privilege, and it is only made all the more gratifying by knowing that this issue is a harbinger of the liveliness, intellectual wisdom, and creativity that Elena L. Grigorenko and her board are bringing to New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development. Lene Arnett Jensen Reed W. Larson Editors-in-Chief

LENE ARNETT JENSEN is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at Clark University, USA. REED W. LARSON is a professor in the Department of Human and Community Development at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

PREFACE

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his first issue of New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development (NDCAD) is rather unrepresentative of its past and of its future; therefore, its idea and realization need explaining. To remind our readership, this issue signifies the transition of the editorship to new leadership (see issue 144, June 2014, doi:10.1002/cad.20056). This “new” course of the journal, although highly connected to its previous progression, is marked by three features: NDCAD now has an editorial board; all submissions are now peer-reviewed; and the journal now explicitly solicits independent commentaries from the field. This first issue attempts to exemplify these new features. It was the Board who conceived and implemented this collection of capsule reviews, essays, and opinions. The issue contains submissions and solicitations from each Board member to sample work from around the world pertaining to issues in child and adolescent development. We prepared this collection to introduce ourselves, to share our thoughts with the readership, and to solicit feedback and suggestions from the readership for subsequent issues of NDCAD. These brief articles are, by no means, comprehensive reviews on specific topics; they are teasers designed to highlight particular issues in child and adolescent development. With this issue, the readership can get a glimpse of what we see in the field at large. If you agree with our vision and see a fit for your work with one of these areas, please submit a proposal for an edited issue. If you disagree and think that we have omitted something that is important and needs to be represented in the literature, please submit a proposal for an edited issue. All of these contributions were peer-reviewed and benefited highly from the solicited feedback. Peer review is now a standard for NDCAD. Finally, we round out the issue with independent commentaries. In this instance, the commentaries were solicited from potential, but not committed, readers of NDCAD at various levels of their careers, junior (students) and senior (renowned scientists). This new feature of NDCAD is aimed at gaining immediate feedback from the field on an issue. Depending on the content of a particular issue, this feedback will vary in its orientation (policy, practice, or research), magnitude (short or long), and embeddedness to the field (within or outside the field). In sum, here we are. The new leadership of the journal tested its new ideas on itself. We are highly interested in readers’ appraisals of these

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT, no. 147, Spring 2015 © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). • DOI: 10.1002/cad.20076

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changes. Please let us know what you think. And please submit your proposals for new issues of NDCAD. Elena L. Grigorenko Editor-in-Chief

ELENA L. GRIGORENKO is the Emily Fraser Beede Professor of developmental disabilities, child studies, psychology, and epidemiology and public health at Yale University, Child Study Center, New Haven, CT, USA, and also a professor at the Laboratory of Translational Science of Early Childhood, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

Grigorenko, E. L. (2015). Genomic sciences for developmentalists: A merge of science and practice. In E. L. Grigorenko (Ed.), The global context for new directions for child and adolescent development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 147, 5–12.

1 Genomic Sciences for Developmentalists: A Merge of Science and Practice Elena L. Grigorenko Abstract The etiological forces of development have been a central question for the developmental sciences (however defined) since their crystallization as a distinct branch of scientific inquiry. Although the history of these sciences contains examples of extreme positions capitalizing on either the predominance of the genome (i.e., the accumulation of genetic factors driving development) or the environmentome (i.e., the accumulation of environmental factors driving development), the moderate view of development as the emergence of a person from a particular genome and within a specific context has settled into the driver’s seat and is disputed no longer. Yet, although there is a converging theoretical perspective, a gap between this perspective and practice remains. In other words, society needs to translate this position into praxis. This opinion exemplifies the current state of corresponding knowledge in the developmental sciences, with a particular emphasis on the understanding of the role of the genome in child and adolescent development, and offers a set of comments on how this translation is being shaped by the newest technologies in the genomic sciences. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The work on this essay was supported by the Government of the Russian Federation (grant no. 14.Z50.31.0027) and the Spencer Foundation. I am grateful to Ms. Mei Tan for her editorial assistance. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT, no. 147, Spring 2015 © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). • DOI: 10.1002/cad.20083

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he developmental sciences have, by definition, been attentive to the question of the etiology of human development in general and child and adolescent development in particular. Although specific answers to this question have been determined, chiefly, by philosophical– psychological theories and the availability of particular research methods, developmentalists have continued to ask this question, rephrasing it as theories of development and methods to study it have multiplied in number and sophistication. By definition, then, the etiology question could not remain dormant in the outburst of relevant knowledge generated by the completion of the Human Genome Project and subsequent wave of technological and methodological advances. The complexities of translating these advances into the domain of public health for either prevention or health management are still not well understood, nor mastered in the general and developmental sciences in particular. In this opinion piece, only four junctions of genomic and developmental sciences (prenatal genetic testing, newborn genetic testing, diagnosis of complex disorders, and tracking of the epigenome throughout development) are sampled to exemplify these complexities and outline the relevant lines of inquiries that are likely to soon originate in the context of research into child and adolescent development.

Prenatal Genetic Testing Previously limited primarily to high-risk pregnancies, prenatal genetic testing has recently changed its potential as the technology has developed to incorporate two innovations (Hui, 2013). The first pertains to the utilization of cell-free fetal nucleic acids (cffNA, i.e., both fetal DNA and RNA), which originate primarily from trophoblasts (the layers of cells that surround an embryo and attach it to the uterus), then enter maternal circulation after crossing the placenta at quantities large enough to become detectable from about 7 weeks of gestation, and comprise up to 10% of the total maternal cell-free DNA. The second pertains to the development of the technologies that allow using next-generation sequencing with cffNA. These two innovations have resulted in the development of noninvasive prenatal diagnostic (NIPD) tests that have been rapidly gaining popularity. The first commercial tests became available only in 2011 and were limited to the diagnoses of three aneuploidies—Down (trisomy 21), Edwards (trisomy 18), and Patau (trisomy 13). Since then, the technology has been improving, and, although different commercial providers offer different services, the repertoire of the test has now grown including microdeletions and the detection of specific mutations (Sequenom, 2014). NIPD can be performed at early stages of pregnancy, does not pose physical risk to the fetus, and is minimally associated with maternal distress. There are companies (e.g., Sequenom, Verinata, Ariosa, Natera) developing NIPD tests with direct-to-consumer NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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potential. Thus, in the second quarter of 2014, Sequenom reported approximately 40,800 accessioned patient samples for the company’s prenatal test MaterniT21, more than 7% over the prior year’s last quarter and 3% over the first quarter of 2014. Although there do not appear to be any published data yet on the impact of the results of NIPD on pregnancyrelated decision making, there are rising concerns (Allison, 2013) pertaining to NIPD’s widespread availability, its capacity to provide comprehensive whole-genome coverage, relative lack of quality control and administration and interpretation regulation, and the potential for encouraging discrimination against those with genome syndromes (first, causing increased termination rates of fetuses identified with certain genomic syndromes and, second, de-incentivizing the development of treatments for existing or future patients with these syndromes). It is important to instigate specific lines of inquiry into all aspects of pregnancy-related decision making, as it pertains to the formation of the next generation of children and the representation of children with special needs among them.

Newborn Genetic Testing Although having celebrated its 50th anniversary in the United States in 2013, irrespective of its “age” and reputation as one of the most successful public health programs of the 21st century (CDC, 2011), the horizons of newborn genetic screening have also been transformed under the pressure of new technologies. The program, although as controversial now as at its inception, identifies annually ∼12,500 newborns with specific heritable disorders mandated by health authorities for identification; these disorders cause ruinous effects if not diagnosed and treated prior to symptom manifestation. Yet, even though this program is appraised as having inestimable value to children and families, for whom devastating manifestations have been prevented due to the early diagnoses, it is still fraught with controversy (Lewis, 2014). Today’s controversy pertains to the utilization of the sequencing data from newborn testing. The field has high expectations regarding the findings and recommendations that will be generated within the framework of the Genomic Sequencing and Newborn Screening Disorders (GSNSD) program, initiated by the U.S. government in 2013 (Kaiser, 2013). One of the charges of the program is to educate the public about the superiority of sequencing information over the data that have been gathered for years by conventional newborn screening methods, and their usefulness for families and practitioners in preventing, treating, and maintaining inherited conditions. Depending on the findings and observations generated in the context of this program, it is possible that whole-genome-based tests will not replace what is currently known as newborn genetic screening. Yet, as in the case of prenatal screening, the market has offered commercial alternatives that are completely within reach of upper-middle class and wealthy NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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families. Thus, using either direct-to-consumer or obligatory testing, a significant portion of parents will get such data. Therefore, the system needs to prepare for situations when both pediatrician and other health professionals will face educated parents armed with the genomic sequences of their children and arguing for particular decisions, placements, and accommodations. The GSNSD program is an attempt to at least start the relevant discussions, if not provide solutions.

Diagnosis of Complex Disorders Irrespective of both the spectacular successes and disappointing lack of progress, the major premise behind genetic and genomic research pertains to its capacity to be used as a diagnostic tool (Korf, 2013). This tool is especially important in the developmental sciences, as the majority of childhood and adolescent conditions, although heritable, do not onset early in life, opening a particularly important window of opportunity for prevention and intervention. There is hope that, as with Mendelian disorders diagnosed by newborn tests, individual risk for complex disorders may also be detected early in life, so that their manifestation may be ameliorated or prevented. Today the premise for genetic/genomic diagnoses for complex behavior disorders is exemplified by the data-armed discussion of three possibilities: whether the genetic contribution to so-called common (i.e., with the prevalence of >1%) conditions may be captured as (a) a combination of a large number of specific common alleles, each of which might be characterized by a small effect; (b) an impact of a specific rare allele with a large effect (i.e., one of many alleles whose frequency in the general population is 4,300) of these were due to parental petitions, a substantial number (878) due to neglect, and yet a third set (34) were reverted because of abuse (Russian Federation Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare, 2012). Second, there has been a demographic change in the population of orphanages. Now, in Russia, this group is composed primarily of adolescents (70%). Many (40%) have siblings and many (33%) have special needs. Such a change probably reflects the preferences among families to accept children who are younger and have no siblings and no disabilities. Of note is that, in the CEECIS countries, the number of CwoBPC with disabilities in institutional care has remained remarkably stable over the past 15 years, suggesting that little has been done to provide nonresidential alternatives for them (UNICEF/CEECIS, 2010). At this point, there are no comparable data for Russia. Children with disabilities typically enter the system of alternative care early in life (many at birth) and seem to represent a subgroup least desired by alternative families. Such children typically travel through all elements of the system, starting in baby homes and then transferring, at the age of 36–48 months, to specialized children’s homes. Third, in Russian institutions for children aged 0–4 years, a typical ward contains 6–12 children who are divided according to age and disability status. Each group has its own staff (Muhamedrahimov, 2000), consisting mostly of medical nurses (24-hour shifts, 1 in 4 days), assistant teachers (10-hour shifts, 25 hours a week), and nursery nurses (14-hour shifts, 32 hours a week). In addition, many different staff members typically visit each ward, and many children graduate to new groups, so children might see 60–100 different caregivers in the first 19 months of life, and no caregiver today whom they saw yesterday or will see tomorrow (St. Petersburg– USA Orphanage Research Team, 2008). Analysis of the social environment in orphanages shows that together with personnel instability, there is an acute deficit in the responsiveness and social and emotional availability of caregivers, that is, a limited quantity and duration of caregiver contact with children, extremely poor initiation of social interaction by caregivers, and rare response to children’s signals and initiations (Muhamedrahimov, 2000). Thus, in a changing Russia, both the new and old elements of the system of care for CwoBPC require alterations. Three comments are warranted here. First, long-term developmental outcomes of children in substitution families are known to be modulated by a number of critical factors, including stability of placement (Berrick, Barth, & Needell, 1994), socioeconomic status of the family (Duyme, Dumaret, & Tomkiewicz, 1999), and the presence/absence of abuse and neglect (Terling, 1999). Moreover, a critical condition for the effective functioning of the substitution family model NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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is support and supervision provided by qualified social service providers (Fox, Almos, Degnan, Nelson, & Zeanah, 2011). Without such support and supervision both family environment and the parenting skills of substitution parents might not be adequate for the needs of these children, especially children with special needs. As mentioned earlier, the effectiveness of substitution family care has been studied primarily or exclusively in high-resource countries, where families that offer placements typically provide advantageous modulating factors. Little or no information is available on the efficacy and effectiveness of the substitution family model of care in low-resource countries. In Russia, returns by parents of CwoBPC to institutions are typically due to unanticipated disruptions to family life, when little or no support and supervision is provided. This might be explained by various factors, including a lack of preparedness (financial, psychological, and pedagogical) on the part of substitution families and lack of social service providers’ capacity to support families in the initial, and perhaps most difficult, period of the child’s placement. Therefore, in lowand middle-resource countries, both the families willing and able to take on the burden of bringing up CwoBPC and the social services providing care for such children need time to mature, historically and socially, in order to maximize children’s developmental outcomes. Thus, a direct “transplant” of the substitution family model from high- to low- and middle-resource countries encounters difficulties. Yet, second, it is obvious that, while maintained, the old residential care system needs substantial reform. One would expect that the variation in institutions caring for CwoBPC, given that they are all strictly federally regulated, should be minimal, but this is not the case—they are extraordinarily variable. The major dimensions of their variability can be captured by the following characteristics: the number of children in a ward (from 9 to 16+), child–caregiver ratio (6–8+), dividing children into groups (either by age or by disability status), and transitions to new groups (Bakermans-Kranenburg et al., 2012). It is namely these characteristics that determine the quality of institutions within and across countries. Interestingly, although the literature is rather rich with comparative studies evaluating impacts of institutional care versus substitution families, the literature on improving institutional capacities is rather small. One of the most comprehensive institutional interventions attempts to improve caregiving environments by developing close-to-family living conditions (St. Petersburg–USA Orphanage Research Team, 2008). In a comparative quasi-experimental study, carried out in one baby home, the personnel received training to improve the sensitivity and responsiveness of caregivers, and structural changes were implemented to increase caregiving stability and consistency. In another home, the personnel received training only. Finally, the third home was merely observed delivering treatment as usual. Structural changes included reducing the size of each caregiver’s group to 6–7 children, and assigning each group two primary caregivers who consistently worked with the NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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same group throughout the week, integrating children by age and disability status, stopping the periodic graduation of children to new groups, and arranging time for children to be alone with their group caregivers twice daily. The results unequivocally demonstrated the advantages of the “reform” involving both training the personnel and implementing structural changes that supported the premises of the training (St. Petersburg–USA Orphanage Research Team, 2008). This intervention has been demonstrated to be effective for both children with disabilities and typically developing children (St. Petersburg–USA Orphanage Research Team, 2008), sustainable (McCall et al., 2013) and disseminable, both within Russia (Muhamedrahimov, Pal’mov, Kon’kova, & Shevchuk, 2009) and in Latin America (McCall et al., 2010). The success of this work has resulted in the development of the document linked to Russian Family Law, which now introduces expectations for how care should be provided in institutions (Russian Federation Government, 2014). Specifically, living conditions should be close to the family environment: group size should not exceed 6 for children up to 4 and 8 for those over 4 years of age; groups should include children of different ages and levels of development and be cared for by a limited number of caregivers, minimizing substitutions of caregivers and transfer of children from one group to another. Third, to conclude, it appears that the “one-size-fits-all” approach of placing CwoBPC into alternative families might not work well, especially for young children and children with disabilities, throughout the world in general and in Russia in particular. Instead of simply replacing institutions with unsupported and unsupervised substitution families, it is important to consider maintaining family-based institutional care and, delivering both types of support for CwoBPC, emphasize the best quality of care based on the frontiers of developmental sciences. Such a dual system appears to be especially important for children with special needs. As CwoBPC differ and many of them have disabilities, there should be different options for addressing their needs, not limited to substitution families. Recognizing the needs of individual CwoBPC is as important as addressing their needs as a group. To accomplish that recognition, three types of research need to be carried out. First, the research on CwoBPC should be diversified methodologically, so that the current dominance of the group-based approach is balanced by a person-based approach, such that individual trajectories of different children in different alternative care settings may be studied and explored for differences and commonalities. Second, much more research needs to be carried out on CwoBPC with disabilities; currently, this research is minimal, if existent, of any methodological type. Third, social–psychological, sociological, and policy research needs to be carried out among adults and families who are targets of new policies on CwoBPC, to make sure that society is ready to accept and implement these policies. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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To conclude, we fear that the foreseeable future holds neither the elimination nor even the decrease of the number of CwoBPC. Thus, informative research and thoughtful policies are crucial to meet the needs of all children without biological parental care, especially those with disabilities. Seeing the trees within the forest is as vital as seeing the forest that engulfs the trees. References Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Bunkers, K. M., Dobrova-Krol, N. A., Engle, P., Fox, N. A., Gamer, G., . . . Zeanah, C. H. (2012). The development and care of institutionallyreared children. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 174–180. Bamba, S., & Haight, W. L. (2007). Helping maltreated children to find their Ibasho: Japanese perspectives on supporting the well-being of children in state care. Children and Youth Service Review, 29, 405–427. Berrick, J., Barth, R., & Needell, B. (1994). A comparison of kinship foster homes and foster family homes: Implications for kinship foster care as family preservation. Children and Youth Services Review, 16, 33–63. Duyme, M., Dumaret, A., & Tomkiewicz, S. (1999). How can we boost IQs of “dull children”?: A late adoption study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 96, 8790–8794. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.15.8790 Fox, N. A., Almos, A. N., Degnan, K. A., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2011). The effects of severe psychosocial deprivation and foster care intervention on cognitive development at 8 years of age: Findings from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 919–928. Grosa, V. K., Bunkers, K. M., & Gamer, G. N. (2011). Ideal components and current characteristics of alternative care options for children outside of parental care in lowresource countries. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76, 163–189. Japanese Ministry of Health-Labor-and-Welfare. (2014). Current state of alternative care. Retrieved from http://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/komodo/syakaltekl_yougo/dl/yougo _genjou_01.pdf Johnson, D. E., & Dole, K. (1999). International adoptions: Implications for early intervention. Infants and Young Child, 11, 34–45. Loman, M. M., Wiik, K. L., Frenn, K. A., Pollak, S. D., & Gunnar, M. R. (2009). Postinstitutionalized children’s development: Growth, cognitive, and language outcomes. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 30, 426–434. doi:10.1097 /DBP.0b013e3181b1fd08 McCall, R. B., Groark, C. J., Fish, L., Harkins, D., Serrano, G., & Gordon, K. (2010). A socioemotional intervention in a Latin American orphanage. Infant Mental Health Journal, 31, 521–542. doi:10.1002/imhj.20270 McCall, R. B., Groark, C. J., Fish, L., Muhamedrahimov, R. J., Palmov, O. B., & Nikiforova, N. V. (2013). Maintaining a social–emotional intervention and its denefits for institutionalized children. Child Development, 84, 1734–1749. doi:10.1111/cdev.12098 Muhamedrahimov, R. J. (2000). New attitudes: Infant care facilities in St. Petersburg, Russia. In J. D. Osofsky & H. E. Fitzgerald (Eds.), WAIMH handbook of infant mental health. Vol. 1. Perspectives on infant mental health (pp. 245–294). New York, NY: Wiley. Muhamedrahimov, R. Z., Pal’mov, O. I., Kon’kova, M. Y., & Shevchuk, E. A. (2009). Opyt izmenenia sotsial’nogo okruzhenia detei v domakh rebenka [Alterations to the social environment of children growing up in orphanages]. Krasnoiarskm, RF: Polis.

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Pinheiro, P. S. (2006). World report on violence against children. New York, NY: United Nations. Russian Federation Family Law N 223-FZ (1995, December 29). Passed by the Russian Federation Duma on 12/8/1995, the current version was ratified on 11/4/2014. Russian Federation Government. (2014). O deiatel’nosti organizatsii dlia detei-sirot i detei, ostavshikhsia bez popechenia roditelei i ob ustroistve v nikh detei, ostavshikhsia bez popechenia roditelei [On the work of organizations for orphans and other children without biological parental care and the life conditions of children living in such organizations]. Moscow, Russia. Russian Federation Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare. (2012). Gosudarstvennyi doklad o polozhenii detei i semei, imeiuschikh detei v Rossiiskoi Federatsii [The federal report on the state of children and families with children in the Russian Federation]. Retrieved from http://www.svdeti.ru/images/files/doklad-o-pologenii-detey-2012.doc St. Petersburg–USA Orphanage Research Team. (2008). The effects of early social– emotional and relationship experience on the development of young orphanage children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 73, vii–viii, 1– 262, 294–295. Terling, T. (1999). The efficacy of family reunification practices: Reentry rates and correlates of reentry for abused and neglected children reunited with their families. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23, 1359–1370. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(99)00103-9 Tottenham, N. (2012). Risk and developmental heterogeneity in previously institutionalized children. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51, S29–S33. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth .2012.04.004 UNICEF/CEECIS. (2010). At home or in a home? Formal care and adoption of children in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/ceecis /media_17384.html UNICEF/CEECIS. (2011). End placing children under three years in institutions. A call to action. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/media_17370.html UN General Assembly. (2009). Guidelines for the alternative care of children. New York, NY: UN. van den Dries, L., Juffer, F., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2009). Fostering security? A meta-analysis of attachment in adopted children. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 410–421. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.09.008 Wilson, S. L., Weaver, T. L., Cradock, M. M., & Kuebli, J. E. (2008). A preliminary study of the cognitive and motor skills acquisition of young international adoptees. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 585–596. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.10.017 Zeanah, C. H., Egger, H. L., Smyke, A. T., Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., Marshall, P. J., & Guthrie, D. (2009). Institutional rearing and psychiatric disorders in Romanian preschool children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 777–785. doi:10.1176 /appi.ajp.2009.08091438

RIFKAT J. MUHAMEDRAHIMOV is a professor at the Department of Psychology Division of Child and Parent Mental Health and Early Intervention, and also a professor at the Laboratory of Translational Science of Early Childhood, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation. ELENA L. GRIGORENKO is the Emily Fraser Beede Professor of developmental disabilities, child studies, psychology, and epidemiology and public health at Yale University, Child Study Center, New Haven, CT, USA, and also a professor at the Laboratory of Translational Science of Early Childhood, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

Lesmana, C. B. J., Suryani, L. K., & Tiliopoulos, N. (2015). Cultural considerations in the treatment of mental illness among sexually abused children and adolescents: The case of Bali, Indonesia. In E. L. Grigorenko (Ed.), The global context for new directions for child and adolescent development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 147, 109–116.

13 Cultural Considerations in the Treatment of Mental Illness Among Sexually Abused Children and Adolescents: The Case of Bali, Indonesia Cokorda Bagus J. Lesmana, Luh Ketut Suryani, Niko Tiliopoulos Abstract Childhood and adolescence sexual abuse can have long-lasting and devastating effects on personal and interpersonal growth and development. Sexually abused children tend to exhibit higher rates of poor school performance, aggressive behavior, PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder), or depressive symptomatology, as well as social and relational deficits (e.g., age-inappropriate sexual behaviors). The trauma following such abuse can further affect neurodevelopment and physiology, aggravating mental or physical problems in adulthood. Early symptom recognition and appropriate interventional applications are important factors in successfully treating or even preventing the development of mental disorders in such cohorts. A central element of effective treatment is the selection of treatment targets. Cultural considerations are rarely or peripherally considered in sexual abuse treatment strategies. Western-trained psychiatrists and clinical psychologists tend to overlook or underestimate such factors in cross-cultural settings, resulting in interventional efforts that may interfere with traditional approaches to healing, and potentially contributing to a transgenerational cycle of trauma. By using Bali (Indonesia) as a focal culture, in this article we discuss the effects of cultural elements and showcase their potential contribution and systematic implementation into a holistic and sensitive interventional model for the treatment of mental illness in childhood and adolescence sexual traumatization. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT, no. 147, Spring 2015 © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). • DOI: 10.1002/cad.20092

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Child Sexual Abuse Child sexual abuse (CSA) violates the trust, safety, and age-appropriate development that should be a natural part of a child’s and adolescent’s life. Its frequency and deeply harmful impact make it one of our most serious psychosocial problems with potentially lasting long-term costs and consequences to individuals, families, and communities. A brief definition of CSA refers to any sexual activity—for example, fondling of genitalia, incest, rape, sodomy—that the child or adolescent cannot understand or give consent to or that violates the law (World Health Organization, 1999). It can involve noncontact sexual exploitation, for example, indecent exposure or voyeurism (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Meta-analytic and epidemiological data suggest that the average global prevalence of CSA is 11.8–13.8% with higher rates among girls (18– 19.7%); Africa shows the highest rates of CSA (approx. 34%), while the lowest appear in Asia (approx. 10%) and Europe (approx. 9%; Barth, Bermetz, ´ Heim, Trelle, & Tonia, 2013; Pereda, Guilera, Forns, & Gomez-Benito, 2009; Perez-Fuentes et al., 2013; Stoltenborgh, van Ijzendoorn, Euser, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2011). CSA can have lasting psychological effects on personal and interpersonal growth throughout the lifespan. These psychological outcomes can be grouped under PTSD/trauma symptoms, internalizing and externalizing problems (Lalor & McElvaney, 2010; Maniglio, 2009; McLean, Rosenbach, Capaldi, & Foa, 2013; O’Brien & Sher, 2013; Perez-Fuentes et al., 2013; Young & Widon, 2014). Internalizing symptoms refer to depression, anxiety, paranoid ideation, self-harm behaviors, guilt, shame, self-injurious and suicidal ideation or behavior, and low self-esteem. Externalizing symptomatology includes conduct problems, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, poor academic performance, marital or familial dysregulation, social impairment, substance abuse, hostility and aggression, inappropriate or high-risk sexual behavior and preoccupation, and further polyvictimization in adulthood. CSA has also been identified as a general, nonspecific risk factor for negative health outcomes, such as cancer or heart disease, as well as epigenetic dysregulation and brain or neurodevelopmental abnormalities (e.g., Anderson, Teicher, Polcari, & Renshaw, 2002; Choi, Reddy, Liu, & Spaulding, 2009; De Bellis, Spratt, & Hooper, 2011; Felitti et al., 1998; Tomoda, Navalta, Polcari, Sadato, & Teicher, 2009).

Treatment The main objectives of CSA treatment are to deal with specific and the most prominent mental health sequelae of the sexual abuse, and to decrease the risk of future sexual victimization. However, only a rather low number of reliable studies of CSA interventional effectiveness exist. Two recent NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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meta-analyses on the efficacy of psychosocial interventions on sexually abused individuals under the age of 18 on average reveal medium effect sizes (Harvey & Taylor, 2010; Trask, Walsh, & DiLillo, 2011). The reviewed studies tended to possess a single-disorder, linear session sequence—for example, exclusively treating PTSD or depressive symptomatology, usually through some form of cognitive therapy—and were almost exclusively conducted in individualistic societies. Weisz (2004, 2014) questions the utility of single-disorder treatments for children and adolescents and proposes the development of innovative psychotherapies through a deployment-focused model. Such a model operates on transdiagnostic protocols, that is, protocols that simultaneously address comorbid symptomatology, for example, by concurrently treating PTSD and depression when both are present, while contextually considering the specificity of client needs and interventional settings. Furthermore, since minimal evidence exists regarding the effectiveness and applicability of current CSA interventions in collectivistic cohorts (e.g., Murray et al.’s [2014] work in Zambia), a need for the development of culturally competent biopsychosocial treatments is becoming evident (Murray, Nguyen, & Cohen, 2014). For example, cultural norms appear to affect the likelihood of CSA cases being diagnosed or even disclosed by a child, as well as the reporting of such abuse to authorities (Fontes & Plummer, 2010). Since cultural elements appear to be present in the reporting of CSA cases, cultural components should be considered in designing treatment programs, particularly in collectivistic societies (Kanukollu & Mahalingam, 2011; Plummer & Njuguna, 2009). Combining the earlier developments and considerations, we propose that an expanded, culturally sensitive, and informed deployment-focused model may be a more effective approach to the treatment of sexually abused children in collectivistic cultures. Hereinafter, we demonstrate the efficacy of such a model using Bali (Indonesia) as a case culture. We firmly believe that the model described next can be adapted to the parameters of other collectivistic cultures and successfully applied accordingly.

Case Focus on Bali Bali is one of 17,000 islands that form the archipelago of Indonesia—the fourth largest nation in the world (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2012a). Most of the 3.9 million inhabitants of Bali are Hindu (83%; Badan Pusat Statistik, 2012b). The Balinese Hindu religion is unique. Although it has roots in India, it was developed largely in Java. It has been influenced by Buddhism, by the aboriginal Balinese culture, and by Balinese pre-Hindu animistic and ancestral cults (Jensen & Suryani, 1992). Furthermore, its relatively isolated nature—being practiced almost exclusively on the island of Bali—makes it a unique sect, having both function and content that at times largely NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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deviate from mainstream Hinduism. In fact, it is this cultural uniqueness of the Balinese society, combined with its collectivistic structure, that has made it the focus of major anthropological and sociological research (e.g., Bateson & Mead, 1942; Edge, 1996; Geertz, 1973; Suryani & Jensen, 1993).

Balinese Cultural Elements of Relevance to CSA The Balinese culture possesses a pervasive spiritually based system that emphasizes relationships to foster solidarity and cooperation within the nuclear family, the extended family, and the community. In Bali, family and community are tightly enmeshed and interdependent. Children are highly respected, a respect firmly rooted in the Balinese belief that children are reincarnated ancestors whose souls are physically reborn into the bodies of infants. Since the souls of ancestors are highly revered and worshipped, it follows that their reincarnated physical form is similarly honored and worshipped. Such child worship, embedded in religious beliefs, forms the basis for the degree of respect, sustained attention, love, and devotion shown to children and appears to be a significant contributor to the formation of secure childhood attachments to primary caregivers. Furthermore, due to the closeness and support of both the nuclear and extended families, children tend to attach to more than one primary caregiver, that is, parents, older siblings, and extended family members. As a culture-wide value, maintaining balance and control of impulses and actions is respected, valued, and indeed expected. Any deviation from this norm would be interpreted as inappropriate at best and as evil spirit possession at worst. Preservation of relationships with others takes precedence over nearly all other values in society, and the abuse of children, whether physical, sexual, or psychological, would disrupt the socioculturally defined boundaries of a relationship with another person.

Traditional Healing and Western Psychiatry in Bali In Bali, two types of psychotherapists exist: the Western-trained, hospitalbased psychiatrists and the spiritual (traditional) healers, known as Balians. Although often psychiatrists and Balians aim at the same symptoms and problems, important differences in treatment premises, theories, methods, techniques, and modalities exist. Balians focus on the healing of illness based on spiritual beliefs, psychiatrists on the treatment of psychobiological disorders. Psychiatrists tend to rely on external manipulations, such as medication, cognitive, or otherwise therapy; treat illness and symptoms concurrently; and view the treatment goals largely achieved when symptoms disappear. Thus, after the completion of a successful course of treatment, both patients and therapists may assume a complete, or near complete, recovery. Balians may use traditional medicine, but their main aim is to “reset” the body systems so that they regulate themselves harmoniously, NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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while they regard the process as continuing for a long time and the patient as being responsible for their own health. Evidence suggests that Balinese people tend to seek treatment originally from the Balians; however, subsequently approximately 76% of them seek further treatment from psychiatrists. Interestingly, of those ones who have been treated by psychiatrists, approximately 80% return to the Balians for further treatment (for a detailed description of such practices and beliefs see Suryani & Jensen, 1992; Suryani, Lesmana, & Jensen, 2006).

A Culturally Sensitive Approach to the Treatment of CSA Over the past 12 years or so, we have been developing and implementing in Bali a treatment that integrates the earlier approaches into a holistic model of biopsychosocial intervention (Lesmana, Suryani, Jensen, & Tiliopoulos, 2009; Lesmana, Suryani, Tiliopoulos, & Jensen, 2010; Suryani, Lesmana, & Tiliopoulos, 2011). The model recognizes and respects the importance and interconnectedness of every person’s mind, body, and spirit, as well as the ways these elements are influenced by and in return affect, positively or negatively, one’s sociocultural relationships and religious/spiritual beliefs. Rather than following a single-disorder treatment approach and isolating interventional foci (such as the psychobiological focus of the psychiatrist or the spiritual focus of the Balian), the model eclectically combines all of them, primarily at an idiographic level, in order to treat the individual as holistically and with as much cultural sensitivity as possible. In essence, this approach is an expanded, culturally sensitive, and informed deploymentfocused model. Through this model, victims of CSA are initially clinically interviewed (ICD 10 interview protocols), in order to identify the presence of potentially severe symptomatology that may require a pharmacological intervention. However, the focus of the approach is to bring the individual back into a state of psychological balance. This is achieved through guiding the child or the adolescent to perform intentional self-care—that is, actively pay attention to their mind, body, and spirit—and the involvement of culturespecific agents. The children are advised to meditate twice daily (a practice that is well respected in the Balinese culture) and to visit or revisit a Balian to receive further spiritual healing and guidance. The families are encouraged to perform purification ceremonies in order to cleanse the spiritual burden that resulted from their exposure to the illness. Furthermore, the children’s families, both nuclear and extended, and communities are offered workshops, many times in the temple or other religiously holy places, educating them on the relevant issues in a meaningful and respectful language to their culture and local customs. Public dialogues are frequently set up, where affected families and interested individuals are openly invited and encouraged to participate, exchange information, and receive further advice and support. Mutual support groups are created by the families, neighbors, NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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schoolteachers and school counselors, and community leaders who are responsible for maintaining healthy communication and reporting relevant mental health state changes of community members (a detailed description of the approach is presented in Lesmana et al., 2010). Since 2004, we have treated 102 children with CSA who were victims of 38 sex offenders. The mean age of the children was 12.17 years (SD = 3.35 years), while 52 were male (51%). The children’s mental health state was reassessed a week after the last treatment session, six months later, and in many instances four years thereafter. Their symptoms were evaluated through the ICD 10 interview protocol, as well as through parent and teacher reports. No residual symptoms relating to their trauma have been observed in any of the children yet.

Conclusion Culture implementation is a potential and systematic contributor into holistic and sensitive interventional models for the treatment of mental illness outcomes of childhood and adolescence sexual traumatization. Mainstream psychotherapeutic approaches to CSA arguably still possess questionable levels of efficacy and external validity, which may be reduced further in the absence of an acculturated agenda. In areas in the world, such as Bali, where a relatively homogenous collectivistic cultural and spiritual infusion permeates all aspects of life, such therapies need to follow an integrated, multimodal, and synergic approach to intervention. Such an approach would mobilize modern psychotherapeutic techniques and medication, while respecting and responsibly utilizing the traditional health practices and religious beliefs of the focal human geography. In conclusion, it is our conviction that through the prudent and systematic implementation of holistic and culturally competent strategies, a development of mental health deployment-focused models can be achieved that offer a fair and effective service to the population.

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COKORDA BAGUS J. LESMANA is an associate professor, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Udayana University, Denpasar, Indonesia, and can be reached via email at [email protected] LUH KETUT SURYANI is a professor, Suryani Institute for Mental Health, Denpasar, Indonesia, and can be reached via email at [email protected] NIKO TILIOPOULOS is a senior lecturer at School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

Kornilov, S. A. (2015). Commentary—Child and adolescent development in the focus of emerging developmental science. In E. L. Grigorenko (Ed.), The global context for new directions for child and adolescent development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 147, 117–121.

14 Commentary—Child and Adolescent Development in the Focus of Emerging Developmental Science Sergey A. Kornilov Abstract In this brief essay, I comment on the constellation of papers published in the current issue. I argue that it represents the new beginning of the new era for the journal, driven by several considerations. Among these, three are key. First, the collection of articles in this issue is explicitly concerned with the multivariate and multidisciplinary nature of development and developmental science. Second, they explicate this point by providing an overview of several crossdisciplinary methodological approaches and the ways they can be used to study development. Finally, a common thread among the papers appearing in this issue is to attempt to relate and integrate research, practice, and policy in child and adolescent development. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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evelopment is arguably the most fascinating and complex subject for scientific inquiry. Most contemporary developmental theories and models place an emphasis on relational, mutually regulative developmental systems (Overton, 2013) that span multiple levels of organization (from basic neurobiology to complex behaviors to cultural contexts) and domains (from physical to psychological development), focusing on contextually bound plastic interactions between these systems and domains (Lerner, 2006). The multidisciplinary character of the scientific study of development, coupled with the amount of evidence accumulated in the past several decades, put the field in the critical state where the dissolution of the boundaries between different disciplines that study development in one way or another (e.g., molecular genetics, physiology, psychology, education) can have two mutually exclusive outcomes. On the one hand, it can lead to the emergence of the new type of developmental science, equipped with a unique combination of conceptual and methodological frameworks. On the other hand, paradigmatic, conceptual, and methodological gaps between and within its satellite disciplines, if not addressed timely, may prevent the field from crystallization. Needless to say, strong calls for multidisciplinary, multilevel approaches have appeared in multiple fields related to developmental science and beyond (e.g., developmental psychopathology, Cicchetti & Toth, 2009; health science, Ogino et al., 2012, to name a few). As is the case for other composite fields, developmental science has long been facing progressive compartmentalization of the subfields of scientific inquiry that constitute it. This compartmentalization, in part driven by the increase in sophistication of research methods and complexity of generated data, is linked to the lack of cross-talk between different fields and represents a major threat to integrative efforts in the science of human development. The current issue of New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development represents a solid effort in sampling from a variety of developmental science subdisciplines and its satellite fields to address the needs of the emerging field. First, it covers a wide range of levels of analysis, from providing an overview of the impact of key areas of genomic research on the development of the field in terms of both research and practice (Grigorenko, Article 1) to the consideration of the role of globalization in multilevel identity development (Lannegrand-Willems & Barbot, Article 8) and the illustration of potential frameworks for taking into account cultural factors in treatment of sexually abused children and adolescents (Lesmana, Suryani, & Tiliopoulos, Article 13). These (and other) succinct, state-of-the-art reviews appearing in this issue tap into both typical and atypical development across different domains of functioning, levels of analysis, and even cultures, underscoring the multidisciplinary, multilevel nature of the field of developmental science. In fact, the contributions to this issue are noteworthy in providing a combined reflection of the field as both getting progressively biologized and yet increasingly sensitive to environmental sources NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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of changes in developmental systems, understood in terms of globalization (Lannegrand-Willems & Barbot, Article 8; Suchday, Article 9), culturespecific contextual constraints (Cheng, Tan, & Liu, Article 11), family and institutionalized contexts (Muhamedrahimov & Grigorenko, Article 12), and interventions (Birney, Article 3; Lesmana et al., Article 13). Second, these contributions are supplemented by overviews that emphasize novel applications of neurobiological and statistical techniques (or both) to addressing the ever-growing methodological needs of developmental science (Barbot & Perchec, Article 7; Black & Hoeft, Article 2). From the standpoint of the author of this commentary, exposure of mainstream developmental scientists to either novel methods or novel applications of methods that have been in developmentalists’ toolboxes for a while is crucial for the training of the new generation of developmental scientists as well as for broadening the perspectives of seasoned researchers. The representative sampling of the methodological approaches suitable for developmentalists, if continued by the journal under the new leadership, will undoubtedly help the researchers to start overcoming frequently noted obstacles in the crystallization of the field—e.g., the mismatch between the scientific question and the methods used to address them in developmental science (Bergman & Vargha, 2013) as well as the lack of understanding of some of the newer, more complex analytic methods (such as the ones developed within the systems science framework; Urban, Osgood, & Mabry, 2011). The field is dynamic and complex, and it is possible that some of the challenges it has been facing, in terms of the cross-talk between different sub- or satellite disciplines, can in fact be alleviated by the establishment of the basic common understanding of what developmental scientists’ toolkit includes or will include in the nearest future, and what research questions can be addressed by using one or more of the methodological approaches and techniques. The fundamental treatment of these topics naturally requires an in-depth coverage provided in frequently less accessible sources. The appearance of these methodologically informative and illustrative accounts in New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development is certainly welcome as potentially providing just the right amount of familiarization with the methods and their potential applications to facilitate such cross-talk. Finally, the contributions to this issue span the three major domains of research, practice, and policy. It is important that while the word “translational” became a widely used concept in research, translational research in its contemporary form is still in infancy, and common-currency definitions of translational research itself are only being established (e.g., Rubio et al., 2010). As the separation between basic and translational science is artificially dichotomizing (e.g., Dietz, 2014), the contributions to the current issue provide an excellent sampling of this continuum, ranging from policy implications grounded in the frequently controversial bilingual research (McCardle, Article 5) to the promises and controversies related to both theoretical and methodological advances in genomic sciences NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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(Grigorenko, Article 1) to prediction of functional reading outcomes in children with reading disability using neuroimaging techniques (Black, Myers, & Hoeft, Article 6). In sum, I believe there are three threads that bind together the current issue and establish the starting portfolio for the new era of New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development: (a) deliberately implemented attention to the multivariate nature of development and the multidisciplinary, multilevel character of developmental science, which can be frequently only found in textbook introductions or journals’ aims and mission statements; (b) a careful consideration of novel methodological approaches that could transcend their original applications and inform developmental science; and (c) the recognition of the fundamental and continuous nature of the interactions between research, practice, and policy taken in the context of child and adolescent development and, more broadly, in the context of challenges the field of developmental science is facing. Much as developmental science emerges as a field as the result of the interactions between researchers and practitioners from multiple subfields, the mission of the (new) New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development emerges as the result of the consideration of all of these three threads. This is an important milestone for the journal and the field, and it is my hope that the journal will continue in this direction under the new leadership. While moving in the direction set by the current issue is necessarily challenging, Dr. Grigorenko’s outstanding expertise and track record in the dynamic field of developmental science, as well as journal leadership, will undoubtedly result in the establishment of the role of New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development as one of the leading publications in the field.

References Bergman, L. R., & Vargha, A. (2013). Matching method to problem: A developmental science perspective. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10(1), 9–28. Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: The coming of age of a discipline. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 50(1–2), 16–25. Dietz, H. (2014). A healthy transition in translational research. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 124(4), 1425–1429. Lerner, R. M. (2006). Developmental science, developmental systems, and contemporary theories of human development. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Theoretical models of human development. Handbook of child psychology (6th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 1–17). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Ogino, S., King, E. E., Beck, A. H., Sherman, M. E., Milner, D. A., & Giovannucci, E. (2012). Interdisciplinary education to integrate pathology and epidemiology: Towards molecular and population-level health science. American Journal of Epidemiology, 176(8), 659–667. Overton, W. F. (2013). Relationism and relational developmental systems: A paradigm for developmental science in the post-Cartesian era. In R. M. Lerner & J. B. Benson (Eds.), Embodiment and epigenesis: Theoretical and methodological issues in NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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understanding the role of biology within the relational developmental system. Part a: Philosophical, theoretical, and biological dimensions (pp. 21–64). London, UK: Elsevier. Rubio, D. M., Schoenbaum, E., Lee, L. S., Schteingart, D. E., Marantz, P. R., Anderson, K. E., . . . Esposito, K. (2010). Defining transitional research: Implications for training. Academic Medicine, 85(3), 470–475. Urban, J. B., Osgood, N., & Mabry, P. (2011). Developmental systems science: Exploring the application of non-linear methods to developmental science questions. Research in Human Development, 8(1), 1–25.

SERGEY A. KORNILOV is a postdoctoral associate at Child Study Center, School of Medicine at Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

Jackson, S. A., & Kleitman, S. (2015). Commentary—A united front: Using the range of psychological variance in cutting-edge practice and emerging research. In E. L. Grigorenko (Ed.), The global context for new directions for child and adolescent development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 147, 123–126.

15 Commentary—A United Front: Using the Range of Psychological Variance in Cutting-Edge Practice and Emerging Research Simon Anthony Jackson, Sabina Kleitman Abstract Psychological and behavioral variance can be explained by differences in the environment, and between and within individuals. Almost 60 years ago, Cronbach (1957) called for converging investigations into all three sources as important for the development of accurate science and useful applications in the real world. Yet rifts among researchers tackling these various sources still exist. The articles in this issue, for example, differ greatly in terms of content, methodological approaches, and the sources of variance being addressed. On the basis of these articles, this commentary seeks to reignite Cronbach’s call as an important step for psychological research to progress as a unified and useful science. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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he articles in this special issue cover a broad range of emerging areas of interest in the contemporary psychological sciences. Together they investigate scope for genetics and neuroimaging to understand the human mind (e.g., Black & Hoeft, Article 2; Grigorenko, Article 1); the development of psychological feelings and attributes on the basis of changes at continental and national levels of influence (e.g., Cheng, Tan, & Liu, Article 11; Lannegrand-Willems & Barbot, Article 8; Muhamedrahimov & Grigorenko, Article 12; Suchday, Article 9); how digital gaming and cognitive training may better address educational and individual cognitive improvement (e.g., Birney, Article 3; Jarvin, Article 4); and even the development of culturally specific and individualized treatments for sexual abuse and other clinical needs (e.g., Barbot & Perchec, Article 7; Lesmana, Suryani, & Tiliopoulos, Article 13). These articles varied not only in terms of the content covered, but also in terms of the research methodology employed. Here, we wish to discuss one avenue for uniting these new and exciting fields as a science moving into the future: converging the different sources of psychological variance. Variance can be explained by differences in the environment, and between and within individuals. Typically, spiders elicit greater anxiety than teddy bears (environment). But individuals differ from each other in the anxiety they experience in response to spiders (between individuals), and their own experience can change over time (within individuals). Converging investigation on all three sources of variance can be useful for the development of accurate and applicable psychological research. Calls for the convergence of investigations into all sources of variance have a long history originating with Cronbach (1957), almost 60 years ago. The methods for investigating these sources differ on a range of scientific and practical grounds. Environmental effects are best addressed via experimental methods that aggregate and nullify individual differences. Betweenindividual differences are better addressed by assessing large samples, exposed to the same environment, with measures and correlation-based methods derived from the psychometric approach. Within-individual variability is best assessed via repeated observations of an individual over time. It is therefore unsurprising that scientists investigating each source of variability are often at odds with one another over the validity and utility of their research. Cronbach (1975) discussed these difficulties 18 years after his 1957 call for converging the approaches. Researchers today are still often divided by the variance source they investigate and the methodologies they employ. Arguably, this has been amplified by some journals in which particular methodologies are criteria for publication. The articles in this special issue, however, represent a more complete range. On one hand, a number of the authors discuss environmental effects, albeit without much reference to individual variability in the size of those effects (e.g., Jarvin, Article 4; Suchday, Article 9). At the other NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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extreme, Barbot and Perchec (Article 7) investigate within-person individual variability only, suggesting that it is the most valid approach in practical settings. This makes it difficult to reconcile the science behind these different approaches and put their recommendations into practice: a point discussed in Birney’s article (Article 3). Yet today we have access to statistical methods (many discussed by Barbot and Perchec, Article 7) such as mixed effects models that avoid the problems described by Cronbach (1975). Thus, here, we wish to reignite Cronbach’s (1957) call by communicating the utility of converging results from investigations into all sources of psychological variance. A challenge will be to implement this in research. One option, where possible, will be to test psychological theories using all three sources of variance. While this might seem trivial, much experimental work still rarely takes individual differences research into account and vice versa. We will use metacognitive confidence as an example of how this might be done. Metacognitive confidence is the experience of accuracy associated with a thought or action (Koriat, 2012). Various contexts are known to result in more or less confidence than others. Regardless, robust individual differences in confidence are known to exist to the degree that it can be considered “trait like” (see Stankov, Kleitman, & Jackson [2014] for review). Koriat’s cognitive model proposes that the experience of confidence is derived from the consistency and amount of evidence sampled in favor of our thoughts/actions. While this model has been investigated through experimental approaches, our goal is to also assess differences in sampling consistency and evidence among individuals with varying levels of confidence. Our hypothesis is that individuals who are consistently more confident than others tend to sample information in favor of their thoughts/actions with more consistency and/or in greater amounts than less confident individuals. Individual differences in confidence are therefore no longer associated with an abstract psychometric construct, nor does the cognitive model avoid explaining them. In this way, we will be testing a model of metacognitive confidence by converging results from various sources of psychological variance. While Cronbach (1957) attempted to encourage this a long time ago, rifts among researchers still exist. Overall, we hope that researchers tackling psychology from any direction consider and even make use of the findings from those approaching from other directions and perspectives. In developmental psychology, for example, there is as much information to be gained from investigating common developmental trajectories as there is investigating the individual variability surrounding them. Publishing in journals that do not discriminate on the basis of methodology can support this goal. Converging investigations of all sources of psychological and behavioral variance will be of great use for psychology to progress as a unified and useful science. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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References Cronbach, L. J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 12, 671–684. Cronbach, L. J. (1975). Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 30, 116–127. Koriat, A. (2012). The self-consistency model of subjective confidence. Psychological Review, 119(1), 80–113. Stankov, L., Kleitman, S., & Jackson, S. A. (2014). Measures of the trait of confidence. In G. J. Boyle, D. H. Saklofske, & G. Matthews (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological constructs (pp. 158–189). London, UK: Academic Press.

SIMON ANTHONY JACKSON is a doctoral student in psychology at University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia. SABINA KLEITMAN is a senior lecturer at School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

Beckmann, J. F. (2015). Commentary—Of quadrants and fish scales: Reflections on new directions in research in child and adolescent development. In E. L. Grigorenko (Ed.), The global context for new directions for child and adolescent development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 147, 127–133.

16 Commentary—Of Quadrants and Fish Scales: Reflections on New Directions in Research in Child and Adolescent Development Jens F. Beckmann Abstract In this article, I reflect on how ways of reporting research as well as reviewing and commenting on submitted manuscripts could take new directions to promote progress in the discipline of developmental science. I argue for (a) attitudinal openness toward migratory impulses in relation to Stokes’s quadrant model of science, (b) the relinquishment of an unproductive sense of problem ownership in authors, reviewers, and commentators, (c) active attempts to fill intra- and interdisciplinary gaps rather than solely focusing on strengthening existing islets of disciplinary expertise, (d) a strategic diversification of expertise in the selection of reviewers and commentators, (e) adopting a communication style that can be described as deferential transgressions, and (f) promoting attempts for transdisciplinary replications. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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rogress in general can be brought about in at least two ways. One approach is where we keep going into the same direction, but faster or more efficiently. The other approach is to take new directions altogether. Whereas we might know where we are going when we keep doing what we have been doing, we might not quite know whether taking new directions will result in what then can be considered progress. I myself experienced such uncertainty when the incoming editor of New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development asked me to write an opinion piece for this journal, as I would not necessarily consider myself a dedicated specialist in child and adolescent development. Shifting the focus to “new directions” instead tempted me to resist an initial impulse. Triggered by the notion of nonspecialists versus specialists, an idea came to mind that some might refer to as Benchley’s Law of Differentiation. It states that there are two kinds of people in the world: those who do believe that there are two kinds of people in the world and those who do not. The attractiveness of this “law” stems from its implicit promise of explanatory power in a most parsimonious way. Therefore it is not surprising to also find a few of its various manifestations also in the world of research. One of which is the notion that research is either basic or applied. It may seem that we nowadays are finding less often explicit references to this particular dichotomy. Would this already be an indication of progress? Not necessarily. I would argue that a declining salience of this dichotomy is mainly due to the tendency of academic journals to more or less narrowly define their thematic and methodological scope. The subsequent segregation in the way what kind of and how research is reported reduces the necessity to explicitly call upon the “law of differentiation.” A journal such as New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, however, is intentionally less segregated in these respects and therefore provides an arena where we still have the chance to encounter potential conflicts that are originated in the persisting, albeit implicit, dichotomous worldview. In this article, I argue that an inhomogeneity in research foci and methodological approaches provides opportunities for taking new directions in addressing conceptual and practical barriers that tend to stifle progress and development in our field. Basic research is characterized by its primary concern to contribute to the general knowledge and understanding of nature and its laws without thoughts of practical ends. Applied research, on the other hand, is directed toward some individual or group or societal need or use and without seeking a deeper understanding of scientific implications. In addition to these rather generic criteria, both category labels carry a rather fuzzy range of more or less implicit connotations, some of which are value-laden. Consequently, any attempts to categorize the various contributions in this issue as representing either basic or applied research will ultimately turn into a moribund task. For instance, whereas researchers might agree with the idea of controlled experimentation, subscribing to the notion of being NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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disinterested, if not uninterested, in the application of research findings might be challenged. On the other hand, so-called applied researchers’ pursuance of a mission “to make the world a better place” might not necessarily be coupled with a disregard of scientific principles. Deviating from a strict dichotomous model and attempting to place the articles on a continuum between “basic” on one end and “applied” on the other would still imply that being closer to one pole means being farther from the other. Also, works that were positioned anywhere in the middle region of this scale would signify some sort of “neither-nor research.” In contrast to both a discrete, dichotomous model and a continuous model, one might adopt a (semi)dynamic view, which is underpinned by the assumption that resources invested and efforts exerted in the context of basic research will eventuate in form of applicable results that help to solve real-life problems. While this view will not necessarily help solve the conundrum of sorting the articles in this issue, this model is also plagued with two major limitations. One is that it implies a unidirectional cause– effect relationship (i.e., understanding precedes use and hence the label “semidynamic”). And the other is that it raises the question of whether applied research, by attempting to address a real-life issue without worrying about the underlying conceptual understanding, then has to be perceived as attempted unscientific shortcut. Donald Stokes (1997) gives an interesting account of how to overcome the unproductive basic-applied schism. He uses the work of Louis Pasteur as an exemplar to show that neither a purely dichotomous model (i.e., either basic or applied) nor a continuous model (i.e., research can be placed anywhere between the two poles of basic and applied) is suitable to think about research. He subsequently introduces a framework that is based on the fundamental question of what the initiating motives behind the respective research activity were. The answers to two questions determine where a particular research is to be positioned in a two-dimensional conceptual plane. The two questions are: “Is the research inspired by considerations of use?” and “Is the research inspired by the quest for fundamental understanding?”1 This two-dimensional model (see the left panel in Figure 16.1) allows to represent research that is both interested in solving so-called real-life problems and is interested in gaining fundamental understanding. The quadrant that accommodates “use-inspired basic research” has been labeled as Pasteur’s quadrant. The prototypical occupant of the upper left quadrant (labeled “pure basic research”) is Niels Bohr with his research related to the atomic structure being considered purely discovery-focused. Thomas Edison is the chosen representative of research that is guided solely by applied goals (see quadrant labeled “pure applied research” in Figure 16.1). I argue that progress in a (meta-)discipline such as developmental science can be achieved by aiming to populate Pasteur’s quadrant. This would not mean for a journal such as New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development to only accept manuscripts that justifiably deserve the label of NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

Figure 16.1. Combining Stokes’s Quadrant Model of Scientific Research (Stokes, 1997, p. 73) and Campbell’s Fish-Scale Model of Omniscience (Campbell, 1969, p. 329) to Identify Directions for Progress in Research and Reporting of Its Results

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“use-inspired basic research.” I rather see potential for conceptual, methodological, and application-related progress by means of directing and facilitating migration processes into Pasteur’s quadrant. Populating Pasteur’s quadrant will have to be accomplished collectively. One approach would be to intentionally expose manuscripts to the productive scrutiny of peers who do not share the postcode of the quadrant the research seems to originate from. This obviously would deviate from common practice where peers are invited to provide feedback on manuscripts that are preferably related to their respective field of expertise. I envision a practice that strategically deviates from that to facilitate migrations into Pasteur’s quadrant while also ensuring the quality of submissions. For instance, research that seems predominantly driven by attempts to find “what works” will benefit from impulses that emphasize the quest for an understanding as to why. Research that seems primarily concerned with increasing conceptual understanding should be exposed to encouragements to speculate about answers to the “so-what question.” At this stage, I can identify at least two prerequisites to the effectiveness of such approach. The first is to overcome a false sense of problem ownership that often develops as a side product of acquired expertise. As understandable as this might be, it carries the risk of holding back progress, especially in relation to migration attempts into Pasteur’s quadrant. Real-life problems rarely are of a monodisciplinary nature. Hence, answers or solutions that subject experts might be able to provide are likely to have limited impact. This, again, emphasizes the importance of a collective approach. The potential success of such a collective approach depends to a great extent on the second prerequisite, which is the requirement for a specific communication culture. I would like to see a communication style of deferential and considerate transgressions. A collective approach to the migration into Pasteur’s quadrant should also include commentaries from peers who are invited with the same agenda of a strategic diversification of expertise in mind. A journal then becomes a forum for what might be called distributed research where different papers offer different answers to the same or related questions. This notion of strategic diversification of expertise resonates with Donald Campbell’s model of omniscience introduced in a seminal article published in 1969. A deliberately diverse combination of reviewers and commentators could achieve what Campbell (1969) called “collective comprehensiveness through overlapping patterns of unique narrowness” (p. 328). Such an approach could not only help populate Pasteur’s quadrant, it also could prove instrumental to counteracting an ethnocentrism of (sub-)disciplines, which is likely to produce redundant clusters of highly similar specialties––albeit with sophisticated depth––but leaving inter- as well as intradisciplinary2 gaps (see the middle panel in Figure 16.1). Progress in terms of new directions (rather than aiming for more of the same with greater efficiency) should focus on those gaps. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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Campbell also makes reference to the guilt scholars tend to feel when they realize that they might have not read what others have read in the field central to their academic identity. We all know that reviewers can be very effective in evoking such feelings of guilt. However, this guilt of neglect is the inevitable predicament of all. Once one acknowledges that scientific competence can never be embodied in single minds, the sense of guilt should be (re-)directed into an ambition that one’s individual pattern of inevitably incomplete competence covers areas neglected by others. This would, in Campbell’s terms, constitute a novel fish scale in his model of omniscience contributing to “a continuous texture of narrow specialties that overlap with other narrow specialties” (Campbell, 1969, p. 328; see the right panel in Figure 16.1). The overlap of multiple narrow specialties can be facilitated through collective communication characterized by deferential transgressions. I believe that New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development is well positioned to effectively instigate and mediate such communication. To help bridge inter- or intradisciplinary gaps (i.e., stimulating the emergence of novel-fish scales), the journal should aim to defy the common tendency to favor statistically significant, novel results over replication studies or studies that report inconclusive results or noneffects. This is not just a (repeated) call for “simple” replications, which, of course, have high, although underappreciated, value for disciplines. I wish to include studies that aim to replicate effects “discovered” in one subdiscipline within developmental sciences in the conceptual and methodological context of another. These kinds of transdisciplinary replications should not be constrained to empirical studies, but should also include reenactments of lines of descriptive and explanatory arguments in the context of a conceptual framework different from the originating one. Such an approach will serve as a validity check for generalizations that often are based on rather narrow foundations. In conclusion, on a conceptual level, I argue for (a) attitudinal openness toward migratory impulses in relation to Stokes’s quadrant model of science, (b) the relinquishment of an unproductive sense of problem ownership in authors, reviewers, and commentators, and (c) active attempts to fill intra- and interdisciplinary gaps rather than solely focusing on strengthening existing islets of monodisciplinary expertise. On a practical level, I argue for (d) a strategic diversification of expertise in reviewers and commentators, (e) facilitation of a style of deferential transgressions in transdisciplinary communication, and (f) promotion of attempts for transdisciplinary replications. I would like to thank all the contributors to this special issue for confronting me with a situation that resulted in some hopefully productive transgressions, and I would like to thank the editor of New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development for her encouragement to share them. I also hope that all the brilliant thinking that went into producing the NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

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interesting contributions to this special issue was not only informative but will also be formative in its implementation in (research) practice, policy making, public understanding, and behavior.

Notes 1. It is worth noting that although adhering to the doctrine of parsimony by introducing a dual dichotomy (i.e., two questions with dichotomous answer options), the discussion can be progressed in a new direction. 2. The meaningfulness of a distinction between “interdisciplinary” and “intradisciplinary” depends on the self-image of the respective researcher. Conceptual, methodological, or application gaps appear to be interdisciplinary for colleagues who identify themselves primarily as neuroscientist, geneticist, psychologist, anthropologist, sociologist, educationalist, and so forth. For developmental scientists, those gaps will be perceived as intradisciplinary.

References Campbell, D. T. (1969). Ethnocentrism of disciplines and the fish-scale model of omniscience. In M. Sherif & C. W. Sherif (Eds.), Interdisciplinary relationships in the social sciences (pp. 328–348). Chicago, IL: Aldine. Stokes, D. E. (1997). Pasteur’s quadrant. Basic science and technological innovation. Washington, DC: The Bookings Institution.

JENS F. BECKMANN, a psychologist, is a reader at School of Education, Durham University, Durham, UK. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT • DOI: 10.1002/cad

INDEX Abbott, D. A., 81 Abutalebi, J., 43 Ackerman, P., 25 Adams Becker, S., 36 Addy, S., 15 Adesope, O. O., 42 Adonis, M. N., 81 Agnew, R., 80 Al-Amer, E., 9 Alario, F. X., 26 Albaugh, E., 44 Albert, D., 35 Alden, A. R., 22, 28, 30 Allison, M., 7 Al-Mahroos, F., 9 Almeida, M., 81 Almonte, D. E., 36 Almos, A. N., 105 Al Otaiba, S., 52 Alphonse, M., 78 Altschuler, E. A., 36 Alvarez, A., 53 American Psychiatric Association, 110 American Psychological Association (APA), 45 American Speech Language Hearing Association, 45 Amn˚a, E., 72, 73 Anda, R. F., 110 Anderson, C. M., 110 Anderson, K. E., 119 Ansari, D., 22, 23 Anson, E. A., 17 Applegate, J. S., 15 Applied research, 128–129 Apter, B. J. B., 27, 28, 30 Arcoleo, K. J., 17 Armstrong, J. M., 10 Arndt, J., 97 Arnett, J. J., 78 Arredondo, J., 43 Asanowicz, D., 43 Ashburner, J., 43 Assel, M., 17 Atkinson, R. K., 35

August, D., 45 Aulas en Paz (Colombian program), 89 Avants, B. B., 16 Avila, C., 43 Aylward, B. S., 62 Bach, S., 53 Badan Pusat Statistik, 111 Baddeley, A. D., 25, 27 Badenoch, B., 15 Bailenson, J., 35 Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., 9, 103, 105, 110 Baker, S. A., 43, 45 Bales, S., 72 Bali, 111–114 Balsano, A., 73 Bamba, S., 103 Barbot, B., 10, 57, 67, 69, 73, 76 Bariaud, F., 63 Barnes, M., 50, 52 Barth, A. E., 50 Barth, J., 110 Barth, R., 104 Basic research, 128, 129 Bass, J. K., 111 Bateson, G., 112 Bauer, D. J., 64, 65 Bavelier, D., 27, 36, 37 Beck, A. H., 118 Beck, A. T., 79–81 Becker, B., 97 Becker, M., 71 Beckmann, J. F., 127, 133 Bedard, A., 27 Beech, J., 88 Beier, M. E., 25 Bejjanki, V. R., 37 Belloch, V., 43 Bell, T. A., 16, 17 Benchley’s Law of Differentiation, 128 Ben-Shachar, M., 53 Benz, R., 53 Bergman, L. R., 119 Bermetz, L., 110

135

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GLOBAL CONTEXT FOR NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Berrick, J., 104 Berry, R., 79 Berzonsky, M. D., 73 Betancourt, L., 16 Beyers, W., 72 Bhugra, D., 78, 81 Bhullar, A., 53 Bialystok, E., 42, 44 Bick, J., 10 Bi, G. Y., 97 Bilbao, M., 88 Bilingualism, 41, 42: behavior and brain, research on, 42–44; policy and practice, 44–46 Binet, A., 22 Biopsychosocial model of development, 13–18: with strengths-based approach, 15–17 Birney, D. P., 21, 23, 25, 31, 32 Bishop, G. D., 80 Blackburn, E. H., 18 Black, J. M., 13, 20, 49, 51, 53, 56 Blades, M., 36 Blanco, C., 110 Blascovich, J., 35 Blauw, G. J., 10 Bleckley, M. K., 25 Blumberg, F. C., 34–36 Blum, R. W., 15, 78 Bogost, I., 35 Bogulski, C. A., 42, 43 Boiger, M., 80 Bolger, D. J., 43 Bolton, P. A., 111 Booth, J. R., 53 Born, M., 73 Bosman, A. M. T., 64 Bouman, T. K., 60 Bourne, E., 73 Bowman, D. B., 23, 25, 31 Boyce, W. T., 10, 14–16, 97 Boyle, M. O., 25 Brain: bilingual and monolingual, 43: growth and maturation, 14; stress on, effect of, 15 Brandeis, D., 53 Braver, T. S., 25 Bray, S., 52 Brecht, R. D., 42 Brem, S., 53 Briec, J., 63

Broadway, J. M., 25 Brodsky, N. L., 16 Bruns, B., 89 Bryant, D. M., 52 Bryant, J., 36 Bucher, K., 53 Bunkers, K. M., 103, 105 Burchinal, M., 17 Burns, M. K., 64 Buschkuehl, M., 22 Buss, C., 17 Bustamanted, J. C., 43 Calcagni, E., 85, 92 Campbell, C. G., 64, 65 Campbell, D. T., 130–132 Campbell’s model of omniscience, 131– 132 Canessa, A., 87 Cannard, C., 73 Cannon, T. D., 52 Capaldi, S., 110 Caravolas, M., 52 Cardoso-Leite, P., 37 Carlson, S. M., 44 Carnoy, M., 89 Carpenter, P. A., 43 Carrasco, D., 89 Carreiras, M., 43 Carvajal-Castillo, C. A., 88 Casey, B. J., 16 Castro, D., 45 Cattell, R. B., 58, 61 Celano, M. J., 14, 15 Cell-free fetal nucleic acids (cffNA), 6 Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 15 Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CEECIS), 102, 104 Chabris, C. F., 25 Chacko, A., 27 Chan, J. M., 18 Chan, T.-W., 35 Charsky, D., 34–37 Chaux, J., 89 Chein, J. M., 22 Chen, F.-C, 35 Cheng, H. N., 35 Cheng, L., 93, 95, 97, 100 Chen, J.-K., 43

INDEX Children without biological parental care (CwoBPC), 102: in CEECIS, 102; with disabilities, 102, 104; international community on, 102–103; practices in high-resource countries, 103; research on, 103, 106. See also Russian Family Law, reform of Child sexual abuse (CSA), 109, 110: Bali, as case study, 111–114; culturally sensitive approach to treatment of, 113–114; definition of, 110; and deployment-focused model, 111; effects of, 110; treatment, 110–111 Chimiklis, A., 27 China, 93–98 Choi, K. H., 110 Christmas-Best, V., 72 Chung, J., 80 Cicchetti, D., 8, 97, 118 Cicognani, E., 73 Cirino, P. T., 51 Civic engagement, 72–74 Classroom research, in South America, 85, 86: ethnicity, 86–87; learning process, 89–90; school climate and violence, 87–89 Cody, M. J., 35 Cogmed computerized training, 26–27 Cohen, J. A., 111 Cohen, L. L., 58–59, 64 Cole, R. E., 17 Colflesh, G. J. H., 25, 28 Complex-span WM task, 25, 26 Conservative dual criteria (CDC) method, 60 Conway, A. R., 25, 28 Correa, M., 89 Costa, A., 26, 42 ˆ e, J. E., 74 Cot´ Cox, R. F. A., 64 Cradock, M. M., 103 Crago, M. B., 44 Craik, F. I. M., 42 Creativity, in Chinese culture, 95: adversity and, 95–98; of migrant children, 96–97 Crinion, J. T., 43 Crocetti, E., 73, 74 Cronbach, L. J., 123–125 Crone, E. A., 23, 30 CSA. See Child sexual abuse (CSA)

137

Csikszentmihalyi, M., 35, 97 Cueto, S., 87 Cui, X., 52 Cummins, J., 42 Cummins, M., 36 Curran, P. J., 64, 65 Cushing, C. C., 60–61 CwoBPC. See Children without biological parental care (CwoBPC) Daly, J., 35 Das, T., 43 Davis, E. P., 17 De Bellis, M. D., 110 Decoste, C., 17 De Deyne, S., 80 Deffenbacher, J. L., 80 DeFries, J. C., 51 Degnan, K. A., 105 de Greck, M., 81 de Jong, P. F., 53 de Jong, P. J., 60 den Boer, J. A., 60 Denton, C. A., 51 Deo, N., 80, 81 Deshler, D. D., 51 De Smedt, B., 22, 23 D’Esposito, M., 16 Devlin, A. M., 10 Dewey, J., 36 DFA. See Dynamic factor analysis (DFA) Diamond, A., 26, 27 Dietz, H., 119 Digital games, 35–36: benefits of, 36–37 DiLillo, D., 111 Dimino, J., 45 Discrepancy model, for RD diagnosis, 50 Diversi, M., 72 DNA methylation, 9 Dobrova-Krol, N. A., 105 Dole, K., 103 Dougherty, R. F., 53 Douglas, L., 62 Douglas-Palumberi, H., 10 Dozier, M, 10 Dumaret, A., 104 Duncan, G. J., 17 Duncan, L., 51 Dussias, P. E., 42, 43 Duyme, M., 104

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GLOBAL CONTEXT FOR NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Dynamic factor analysis (DFA), 60–61 Dynamic systems approach, 59, 62, 63 Eckstein, K., 72 Edge, H., 112 Education for All global initiative, 44 Edutainment, 34–35, 37–38 Edwards, V., 110 Efrim, C., 52 Egger, H. L., 103 Eklund, K. M., 52 Ellis, B. J., 97 Elson, M., 36 Engelhardt, W., 15 Engle, P., 105 Engle, R. W., 22, 25, 27, 30 Entringer, S., 15, 18 Epel, E., 18 Epigenetic mechanisms, role of, in development, 9–10 Equifinality, 8 Erikson, E. H., 73, 78 Erny-Newton, E., 35 Esposito, K., 119 Espy, K. A., 52 Essex, M. J., 10 Estrada, V., 36 Europe 2020, 71 European Commission, 71, 72 European identity, 69, 70: and civic engagement, 72–74; and current initiatives, 71–72; historical context of, 70– 71 “European identity crisis,” 71 European integration, 70 European Youth Event, 71 Euser, E. M., 110 EU Youth Strategy, 71 Evans, G. W., 16 Event-related potential (ERP) studies, 52 Everson-Rose, S. A., 79–80 Executive functions (EFs), 23, 25, 42–43 Fackler, M., 70 Familiar, I., 111 Family history, in reading disorder, 52 Fanning, J., 16, 17 Farah, M. J., 15, 16 Farkas, G., 17 Farris, E. A., 53

Fatusi, A. O., 78, 79 FCF. See Fluid cognitive function (FCF) Feinstein, A., 58–59, 64 Feirsen, N., 27 Felitti, V. J., 110 F´elonneau, M., 71 Fend, C.-M., 43 Ferguson, C. J., 36 Fern´andez, A. P., 43 Ferreira, V. S., 42 Fiebach, C. J., 52 Fiez, J., 43 Fisch, S. M., 34, 35, 37 Fisher, W. W., 60 Fish, L., 106 Flanagan, C., 72 Fletcher, J. M., 50–52 Fluid cognitive function (FCF), 21– 31: levels of analysis, differences in, 23, 24; nomenclature, differences in, 23, 25; outcome expectations, differences in, 25–27; spatial abilities, 28– 30; working memory (WM), 27–28 Fluid intelligence (Gf), 23 Foa, E. B., 110 Fontes, L. A., 111 Forn, C., 43 Forns, M., 110 Fournier, B., 73 Fox, N. A., 103, 105 Frackowiak, R. D., 43 Fredrickson, B. L., 97 Freeman, A., 36 Freire, P., 90 Frenn, K. A., 103 Friborg, O., 97 Friedberg, J. P., 81 Fried, D. E., 22 Fuchs, D., 51, 52 Fuchs, L. S., 50, 52 Gabrieli, J. D., 53 Gajardo, J., 88 Gala, J., 79 Galambos, S. J., 42 Gamer, G. N., 103, 105 Games, adaptation of, for education, 35– 36: research on, 36–37 Gand´ara, P., 45 Gantman, A., 53 Gao, J.-H., 43

INDEX Gao, W., 97 Garbin, G., 43 Garcia, E. E., 45 Garc´ıa-Penton, L., 43 Garner, A. S., 14, 15 Gavray, C., 73 Gayda, J., 53 Gee, J. P., 36 Geertz, C., 112 Genesee, F., 44 Genome-wide association study (GWAS), 8 Genomic sciences: diagnosis of complex disorders, 8–9; epigenome, 9–10; newborn genetic testing, 7–8; prenatal genetic testing, 6–7 Genomic Sequencing and Newborn Screening Disorders (GSNSD) program, 7–8 George, P., 78 Gerber, A. J., 15 Gerber, P. J., 52 Ge, W., 10 Ge, X., 94 Giannetta, J. M., 16 Gibson, G., 8 Giedd, J. N., 14, 15, 16 Gillon-Dowens, M., 43 Gimenez, P., 53 Ginsberg, R. J., 52 Giovannucci, E., 118 Globalization: and anger, 79–82: in India, 77, 80–82; and youth, 77, 78– 79 Glover, G. H., 52, 53 Gniewosz, B., 72 Goldin, A. P., 44 Goldin-Meadow, S., 42 Gollan, T. H., 42 ´ Gomez-Benito, J., 110 Gonsalves, A., 79 Goossens, L., 73 Gordon, K., 106 Grabner, R. H., 22, 23 Grau, V., 85, 92 Gray, J. R., 25 Greenberg, Z. I., 43, 44 Green, C. S., 27, 36, 37 Green, D., 43 Green, S. C., 37 Grigorenko, E. L., 5, 10, 12, 101, 108

Groark, C. J., 106 Grosa, V. K., 103 Grosjean, F., 42, 44 Growth charts, 53 Grunau, R., 10 Guilera, G., 110 Gunnar, M. R., 103 Gupta, S., 78, 81 Guthrie, D., 103 Guttorm, T. K., 52 Gu, W., 97–98 Hackman, D. A., 15, 16 Haight, W. L., 103 Hakuta, K., 42 Hamalainen, J. A., 52 Hambrick, D. Z., 22, 30 Hamilton, D., 34 Hancock, R., 53 Hand, L. L., 22, 28, 30 Hang, T., 95 Hanks, C. A., 17 Han, S., 81 Harkins, D., 106 Harper, B. D., 80 Harrison, T. L., 22, 30 Harvey, S. T., 111 Hasegawa, M., 43 Hasselhorn, M., 52 Hasselman, F., 64 Hastak, Y., 79 Head, K., 17 Head Start preschool programs, 16 Hegarty, M., 27, 28 Heijmans, B. T., 10 Heim, E., 110 Hein, S., 10 Hertzman, C., 10 Hicks, K. L., 22, 25, 27, 30 Hilchey, M. D., 42 Hindin, M. J., 78, 79 Hinton, H. L., 22 Hitch, G. J., 25, 27 Hjemdal, O., 97 Hoeft, F., 13, 20, 49, 51, 53, 56 Hoffman, L., 60–61 Hollenstein, M., 25 Hollenstein, T., 62 Hooper, S. R., 110 Hopkins, M., 45 Horizon 2020, 71

139

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GLOBAL CONTEXT FOR NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Horton, R., 81 Hoskyn, M., 50 Houston, S. M., 16 Howe, C., 90 Hubbard, J. A., 80 Huepe, D., 90 Hui, A., 95 Hui, L., 6 Hulme, C., 22, 27–28, 51–53 Human Genome Project, 6 Hunter, S., 10 Hu, X. S., 43 Idiographic approach. See Withinindividual variability in development Ijalba, E., 45 India, 77, 79–82 Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), 50 ´ y Asesoramiento Instituto de Evaluacion Educativo (IDEA), 87, 88 International Reading Association (IRA), 45 Isbell, E., 16, 17 Iturra, C., 90 Iturria-Medina, Y., 43 Ivanova, I., 42 Iwanaka, T., 9 Jackson, J. J., 97 Jackson, S. A., 123, 125, 126 Jaeggi, S. M., 22 Jahromi, P., 73, 74 Jansen, L., 62 Japanese Ministry of Health-Labor-andWelfare, 103 Jarvin, L., 33, 40 Jayanthi, M., 45 Jensen, G. D., 111, 112, 113 Jensen, L. A., 78 Johnson, D. E., 103 Johnson, E., 87 Johnson, L., 36 Johnson, S. B., 15 Jolles, D. D., 23, 30 Jones, M. E., 62 Jonides, J., 22 Jordans, M. J. D., 9 Joshi, M. S., 80 JREE (Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness), 42, 45

Juffer, F., 103 Jurcoane, A., 52 Just, M. A., 43 Jutte, D., 16 Kaiser, J., 7, 52 Kan, E., 16 Kane, M. J., 25, 28 Kanukollu, S. N., 111 Kapadia, S., 79 Kaufman, J., 10 Kawashima-Ginsberg, K., 73 Keenan, J. M., 51 Keller, M. C., 52 Kelley, M. E., 60 Kemp, C., 18 Kesler, S. R., 51 Khanna, A., 35 Kickmeier-Rust, M. D., 35 Kim, Y., 97 King, E. E., 118 Kitayama, S., 80 Kitzman, H. J., 17 Klein, A., 17 Klein, D., 43 Klein, R. M., 42 Klein, S., 16, 17 Kleitman, S., 123, 125, 126 Koboldt, D. C., 8 Kobor, M. S., 10 Kocur, J. L., 80 Kong, K. Q., 96 Koposov, R., 10 Korczykowski, M., 16 Korf, B. R., 8 Koriat, A., 125 Kornilov, S. A., 117, 121 Kousaie, S., 43 Kovelman, I., 43 Kranz, F., 53 Krathwohl, D. R., 35 Kratochwill, T. R., 60 Kroll, J. F., 42, 43, 44 Kuebli, J. E., 103 Kunnen, S., 62, 64 Kuriakose, P. S., 25 Kurtzberg, T. R., 97 Lalonde, F. M., 14, 15 Lalor, K., 110 Lambert, W., 42

INDEX Lamb, M., 73 Lamey, A. V., 62 Lamiell, J. T., 58, 65 Lam, L., 10 Landry, S. H., 17 Langston, R., 35 Language policies, 44 Lannegrand-Willems, L., 69, 71, 73, 76 Larkin, K. T., 81 Larra´ın, A., 90 Larson, D. E., 8 La Sorbonne, in Paris, 34 Laughlin, J. E., 25 Lavin, T., 42 LeDoux, J. M., 50 Lee, L. S., 119 Lee, M., 10 Lee, N. R., 14, 15 Lefly, D. L., 52 Le Maner-Idrissi, G., 63 Lemel, Y., 71 Lemerise, E. A., 80 Lenroot, R. K., 14, 15 Leppanen, P. H., 52 Lerner, R. M., 73, 118 Lervag, A., 52 Lesaux, N., 45 Lesmana, C. B. J., 109, 113, 116 Levine, M. H., 34, 37 Levin, J. R., 60 Lewis, M. D., 62, 80 Lewis, M. H., 7 Lewis, T. T., 79–80 Liao, C. C., 35 Li, B., 95, 97 Lin, C., 96 Lindberg, S., 52 Lindsey, D. R. B., 25, 28 Lin, E. S., 73 Lin, J., 15, 18 Linkersdorfer, J., 53 Litavsky, M., 52 Liu, G., 96 Liu, N. H., 110 Liu, Y., 43 Liu, Z., 93–97, 100 Li, X., 94 Loman, M. M., 103 Lomas, J. E., 60 ´ Lopez, V., 88

141

Lopez de Mesa-Melo, C., 88 Low achievement criteria, for RD diagnosis, 51 Ludgate, H., 36 Luke, J., 89 Luk, G., 42 Lumey, L. H., 10 Luthar, S. S., 10, 97 Lu, Y., 96 Luyckx, K., 73 Lu, Z., 37 Lyon, G. R., 50, 52 Lyytinen, H., 52 Mabry, P., 119 Mahalingam, R., 111 Ma, H.-H., 95 Malone, T. W., 35 Malykhina, E., 36 Maniglio, R., 110 Manzi, J., 86 Marantz, P. R., 119 Marchesi, A., 88 Marcia, J. E., 73 Mardis, E. R., 8 Markos, A. M., 45 Marks, D., 27 Marks, J. S., 110 Markus, H. R., 80 Marshall, P. J., 103 Marsh, R., 15 Marta, E., 73 Martin, C. D., 26 Martin, E., 53 Martinic, S., 90 Martini, T. S., 80, 81 Martinussen, M., 97 Marwan, N., 62 Marzana, D., 73 Marzecova, A., 43 Masten, A. S., 97 Masuda, A., 58–59, 64 Mather, N., 52 Matsumoto, D., 80 Matsuoka, Y., 97 Mattoo, S. K., 81 Maurer, U., 53 Mayer, R. E., 95 McAuliffe, M. D., 80 McCall, R. B., 106 McCandliss, B. D., 53

142

GLOBAL CONTEXT FOR NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

McCardle, P., 41, 48 McCormick, J., 70 McDonald, J., 10 McElvaney, R., 110 McEwen, B. S., 14, 15, 16 McGonigal, J., 35 McLaughlin, M., 72 McLean, C. P., 110 McLean, M., 80 McMahon, T. J., 17 McNorgan, C., 53 Mead, M., 112 Meadow, N. G., 22, 28, 30 Meaney, M. J., 15, 16 Mechelli, A., 43 Meeus, W., 73, 74 Meier, M. E., 25 Melby-Lerv˚ag, M., 22, 27–28 Meng, W., 95 Mental flexibility, 42 Mesquita, B., 80 Metacognitive confidence, 125 Meyler, A., 53 Michalopoulos, L. M., 111 M´ıguez, D., 88 Mileaf, M. I., 36 Miller, S. A., 62 Milner, D. A., 118 Misri, S., 10 Miura, T. K., 25, 28 Modglin, A., 52 Moffatt, K., 78 Mok, K., 43 Molenaar, P. C. M., 58, 59, 61, 64, 65 Molfese, D. L., 52 Molfese, P. J., 50 Molfese, V. J., 52 Morcillo, C., 110 Morley, D., 70, 71 Morris, J., 45 Morrison, A. B., 22 Morris, R., 50, 52 Morrow, M. T., 80 Mousikou, P., 52 Mueller, J. S., 97 Muhamedrahimov, R. J., 101, 104, 106, 108 ˜ Munoz, M., 88 Murray, L. K., 111 Myers, C. A., 49, 53, 56

Nail, O., 88 National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE), 44 National Health and Family Planning Commission, 94 National Woman and Child Organization, 94 Naumova, O. Y., 10 Navalta, C. P., 110 Needell, B., 104 Nelson, C. A., 103, 105 Nelson, J., 43 Nelson, T. D., 62 Nelson-Mmari, K., 78 N´emec, J., 34–35 Nesselroade, J. R., 58, 65 Neumann, S. M. A., 10 Neville, H. J., 16, 17 Newborn genetic testing, 7–8 Newcome, N. S., 22, 28, 30 New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 118–120, 128–133 Newell, K. M., 59, 61 Newman-Gonchar, R., 45 Nguyen, A., 111 Nieto, A. M., 89 Nikiforova, N. V., 106 NIPD. See Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD) Nishi, D., 97 Niu, W., 95 Njuguna, W., 111 Noack, P., 72 Noble, K. G., 16 Nomothetic approach, 58, 59 Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD), 6–7 Noppeney, U., 43 Nordenberg, D., 110 Northoff, G., 81 Oates, C., 36 Oberlander, T. F., 10 Obradovi´c, J., 97 O’Brien, B. S., 110 O’Doherty, J., 43 Oelhafen, S., 25 Ofiesh, N., 52 Ogino, S., 118 Olds, D. L., 17

INDEX Olfson, M., 110 Olson, R. K., 51 Onochie-Quintanilla, E., 52 Ornish, D., 18 Osgood, N., 119 Overton, W. F., 118 Paap, K. R., 43, 44 Padakannaya, P., 43 Painuly, N., 81 Pakulak, E., 16, 17 Pallier, G., 23, 25 Palmov, O. B., 106 Pan, Y. Z., 97 Pang, Y., 95, 97 Papanicolaou, A. C., 51 Papsdorf, M., 10 Paradise, L. V., 52 Paradis, J., 44 Parant, A., 71 Parental stress, effect of, 17 Pasteur’s quadrant, 129–131 Peal, E., 42 ˜ M., 44 Pena, Pennington, B. F., 51, 52 Perchec, C., 57, 63, 67 Pereda, N., 110 Perepletchikova, F., 10 Perez-Fuentes, G., 110 Perfetti, C. A., 43 Perrig, W. J., 22, 25 Peterson, B. S., 15 Petitto, L. A., 43 Phillips, N. A., 43 Physical violence, in classroom, 89 Piaget, J., 59 Pinheiro, P. S., 102 Piquero, A. R., 81 Piquero, N. L., 81 Plucker, J. A., 96 Plummer, C. A., 111 Poblete, M. P., 87 Polcari, A., 110 Pollak, S. D., 10, 103 Polman, A., 60 Popp, P. A., 52 Pouget, A., 36 Pozzi, M., 73 Preiss, D. D., 85, 86, 90, 92 Prenatal genetic testing, 6–7

143

Preston, S. D., 35 Price, C. J., 43 Proctor, C. P., 45 Pruessner, J. C., 17 P-techniqe, 61 Pugh, K. R., 43 Puterman, E., 15, 18 Putter, H., 10 Qian, M., 96 Qin, H., 35 Radovic, D., 90 Raefski, A., 10 Ramos, C., 89 Rao, H., 16 Rao, K. R., 79 Rao, M. A., 79 Raudenbush, S. W., 65 Rau, P. L., 35 Rausch, J. R., 62 Raval, P. H., 80, 81 Raval, V. V., 80, 81 Reading disorder (RD), neuroimaging studies and, 49, 50: identification criteria, 50–52; policy and practice, implications for, 53–54; reading outcomes, prediction of, 52–53 Recurrence quantification analysis, 62 Reddy, L. F., 110 Redick, T. S., 22, 25, 28, 30 Reiff, H. B., 52 Reiss, A. L., 52, 53 Ren, B., 9 Renkl, A., 35 Renshaw, P. F., 110 Research: basic and applied, 128–129: Campbell’s model of omniscience, 131–132; Stokes’s quadrant model of, 129–131 Resilience, 97 Response to intervention (RTI) model, 51 Reverse digit span task, 25 Rezaie, R., 51 Ribeiro, S., 44 Rice, J. W., 35 Rice, S. K., 81 Richardson, U., 53 Rindskopf, D., 61

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GLOBAL CONTEXT FOR NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Ritterfeld, U., 35 Rivera, C. M., 9 Rivers, W. P., 42 Robins, K., 70, 71 Robinson, J. P., 42 Rodr´ıguez, J. I., 88 Rodriguez-Pujadas, A., 43 Roeser, R. W., 79 Rogers, E. M., 34, 35 Rogosch, F. A., 8 Romano, L. J., 80 Romens, S. E., 10 Rosenbach, S. B., 110 Rosenberger, P., 17 Rosenvinge, J. H., 97 Routledge, C. D., 97 R-techniqe, 61 Rubio, D. M., 119 Rudowicz, E., 95 Runco, M. A., 97 Runnqvist, E., 42 Russell, R. L., 62 Russian Family Law, reform of, 102–103: implementation challenges of, 103– 104; recommendations for, 104–106 Ruzek, E., 17 Sabido, M., 35 Sadat, J., 26, 42 Sadato, N., 110 Safont-Mottay, C., 73 Saleebey, D., 14–16 Salminen, H., 52 Salmon, D. P., 42 Salvendy, G., 35 Sandman, C. A., 17 Sandoval, T. C., 42 Sanjuan, A., 43 Sapolsky, R. M., 15 Sarsour, K., 16 Satterfield, T., 43 Sawyer, B., 35 Schneiders, C. A., 52 Schoenbaum, E., 119 Schrater, P., 36 Schteingart, D. E., 119 Schulz, E., 53 Schwartz, B., 74 Schwartz, S. J., 73 Scielo initiative, 86

Scientific idiographic approach, 59, 61– 62 Secada, W., 87 Seligman, M. E. P., 97 Serrano, G., 106 Shadish, W. R., 61, 64 Shahbaba, B., 17 Shah, M., 79 Shalev, I., 15, 17, 18 Shanahan, T., 45 Shapiro, J. R., 15 Sharan, P., 81 Sharma, S., 81 Shaywitz, B. A., 50, 52 Shaywitz, S. E., 50, 52 Sheridan, M. A., 16 Sher, L., 110 Sherman, M. E., 118 Shi, B., 96 Shi, J., 96 Shipstead, Z., 22, 25, 27, 30 Shi, Z., 81 Shonkoff, J. P., 14, 15 Sigman, M., 44 Silbereisen, R., 72 Simos, P. G., 51 Sims, C. R., 37 Singh, A., 35 Singhal, A., 34, 35 Singh, N. C., 43 Single-case approach, 60–61 Siok, W. T., 43 Skavenski, S., 111 Skinner, C., 15 Smith, L. B., 62 Smith, S. D., 51 Smits, I., 73 Smyke, A. T., 103 Soenens, B., 73 Song, S., 9 Soto-Godoy, M. F., 88 South America, 85–91 Sowell, E. R., 16 Spatial abilities, 22, 28–30 Spatial n-back WM task, 25, 26 Spaulding, W. D., 110 Spinks, J. A., 43 Spitz, A. M., 110 Spolsky, B., 44 Spratt, E. G., 110

INDEX Stankov, L., 125 Stanley, L. M., 51 Stanovich, K. E., 50, 51 State space grid analysis, 62, 63 Steenbeek, H., 62 Stein, A. D., 10 Steinberg, K. M., 8 Sternberg, R. J., 95 Stevens, C., 16, 17 Stevenson, A. J., 17 Stiles, T. C., 97 Stokes, D. E., 129, 130 Stokes’s quadrant model of scientific research, 129–131 Stoltenborgh, M., 9, 110 St. Petersburg–USA Orphanage Research Team, 104–106 Strengths-based approach, for biopsychosocial development, 16–17 Strijkers, K., 42 Stuebing, K. K., 50 Substitution family model, 104–107 Success in adversity, 93–98 Suchday, S., 77, 81, 84 Suchman, N. E., 17 Suderman, M., 10 Sun, Y., 89 Suryani, L. K., 109, 111–113, 116 Susser, E. S., 10 Svaren, J., 10 Swank, P. R., 17 Swanson, H. L., 50 Symbolic violence, in classroom, 88 Szyf, M., 10 Taft, M., 43 Tanaka, H., 51 Tan, L.-H., 43 Tan, M., 93, 100 Tanskanen, A., 52 Tao, L., 43 Taylor, H. B., 17 Taylor, J. E., 111 Teicher, M. H., 110 Telomerase, 18 Terling, T., 104 Terman, L. M., 22 Thelen, E., 62 Thiel, M., 70, 71, 74 Thomas, K. M., 16

Thompson, T., 42 Tian, Q. H., 96 Tiliopoulos, N., 109, 113, 116 Tipton, E., 22, 28, 30 Tobi, E. W., 10 Tol, W. A., 9 Tomkiewicz, S., 104 Tomoda, A., 110 Tonia, T., 110 Torrance, E. P., 96, 97 Toth, S. L., 118 Tottenham, N., 103 Trask, E. V., 111 Trelle, S., 110 Trna, J., 34–35 Tugade, M. M., 97 Tuholski, S. W., 25 Ueno, S., 9 Ueno, T., 53 Underman, J. Z., 27 UNESCO, 44 Ungeleider, C., 42 UN General Assembly, 102 UNICEF, 102, 104 University of Paris, 34 Unsworth, N., 25 Urban, J. B., 119 Urrea-Roa, P. N., 88 U.S. Census Bureau, 42 Uttal, D. H., 22, 28, 30 Vaala, S. E., 34, 37 Valdes-Kroff, J., 42, 43 Valenzuela, S., 90 van Bergen, E., 53 van den Dries, L., 103 van der Leij, A., 53 Vandermosten, M., 53 van Dijk, M., 62 van Geert, P., 58, 60, 62, 64 van Ijzendoorn, M. H., 9, 103, 110 Van Orde, G., 64 Vansteenkiste, M., 73 Vargha, A., 119 Variance, sources of, 124–125 Vaughn, S., 51 Vergara, C., 90 Verma, S., 81 Video games, 36–37

145

146

GLOBAL CONTEXT FOR NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Villegas, L., 110 Vorderer, P., 35, 36 Vowles, K. E., 58–59, 64 Wadhwa, P. D., 15, 18 Wadsworth, S. J., 51 Wallace, G. L., 14, 15 Waller, D. A., 27, 28 Walsh, K., 111 Walters, R. W., 60–61 Wandell, B. A., 53 Wang, F., 97 Wang, G., 81 Wang, S., 110 Wang, T., 97 Wang, X., 81, 97 Warren, C., 22, 28, 30 Watkins, K., 43 Weaver, T. L., 103 Webber, C. L., 62 Weder, N., 10 Weidner, G., 18 Weinberg, J., 10 Weiss, B., 50 Weisz, J. R., 111 White, S. L., 14, 15 Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., 51, 53 Widon, C. S., 110 Wiik, K. L., 103 Wijnants, M. L., 64 Wiley, T. G., 42 Willcutt, E. G., 51 Williams, J. M., 17 Williamson, D. F., 110 Wilson, R. K., 8 Wilson, S. L., 103 Winkler, D. R., 87 Within-individual variability in development, 57, 58, 64–65: dynamic systems approaches, 62, 63; experimental single-case approach, 60– 61; idiographic approach, 58–59, 62–

65; scientific idiographic approach, 61–62 Wodniecka, Z., 43 Wolkowitz, O. M., 15, 18 Working memory (WM), 22, 23, 25, 27– 28 World Bank, 86 World Health Organization, 110 Wright, W. E., 42 Xiong, J., 43 Xu, Y., 97 Yang, B. Z., 10 Yang, X., 81 Yeatman, J. D., 53 Yonekura, T., 9 Yoo, S. H., 80 Young, J. C., 110 Youniss, J., 72, 73 Yue, X. D., 95 Zaff, J. F., 73 Zain, N. Z. M., 35 Zakerani, N., 53 Zani, B., 73 Zapata, A., 89 Zeanah, C. H., 103, 105 Zhang, H., 10 Zhang, R., 37 Zhang, S. Y., 97 Zha, Z. X., 95, 96 Zhou, L., 96 Zhou, T., 80 Zhu, C. H., 96 Zhu, L., 95, 97 Zimmermann, G., 73 Zin, H. M., 35 Zucker, T. A., 17 Zufiaurre, B., 34 ˇ Zukauskien´ e, R., 72 Zuo, X., 81

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