The Global Carbon Cycle and Climate Change: Scaling Ecological Energetics from Organism to the Biosphere [1 ed.] 0128202440, 9780128202449

Table of contents :
Cover
The Global Carbon Cycle and Climate Change
Copyright
List of figures
List of tables
Author Bio
Foreword
Suggested Reading
Acknowledgments
1. An introduction to ecological energetics and the global carbon cycle
1.1 Recommended Reading
2. The physical and chemical bases of energy
2.1 Energy, work, and power
Calories and Joules
2.2 The different forms of energy
Chemical energy
Radiant energy
Heat energy
2.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Work
Enthalpy
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy
2.4 Gaia hypothesis
2.5 Carbon and energy
The forms of carbon
Measures of carbon
Carbon chemistry
2.6 Recommended reading
3. Energy relationships between organisms and their environment
3.1 Energy balance
3.2 Functional interrelationships affecting leaf temperature
3.3 Solar
3.4 Thermal energy
3.5 Energy balance of a leaf
3.6 Radiative energy balance of a forest
3.7 Energy exchange of animals
3.8 Recommended reading
4. Biological energy transformations by plants
4.1 Solar radiation
4.2 Photosynthesis
The Light Reaction in photosynthesis
The Calvin Cycle
Energy-rich molecular bonds
4.3 Strategies for coping with environmental constraints
Photosynthetic adaptations
Modified structures
4.4 Energy conversion efficiencies
4.5 Recommended reading
5. Energy processing by animals
5.1 Metabolism
5.2 Free energy
5.3 Respiration
5.4 Energy value of foods
5.5 Digestion and assimilation
5.6 Respiration rates
5.7 Energy costs of digestion
5.8 Food energy budget for an individual
5.9 Why pork is cheaper than beef and chicken costs least of all
5.10 Recommended Reading
6. Species adaptations to their energy environment
6.1 The limits of survival
Thermal properties of water
Specific heat of water
Chemical reaction rates
6.2 Adaptation to the energy environment
Adaptive mechanisms
Adaptive strategies
6.3 Phenological relationships
Phenology
6.4 Extreme environments
6.5 Recommended Reading
7. Food chains and trophic level transfers
7.1 Food chains
7.2 Population dynamics and food chains
7.3 Food webs
7.4 Trophic levels
7.5 Trophic level efficiencies
7.6 Trophic structure of different ecosystems
7.7 Recommended reading
8. Energy flow in ecosystems
8.1 Ecosystem energetics
8.2 Ecosystem production equations
8.3 Measurement of pools and fluxes
8.4 The carbon cycle in ecosystems
8.5 Comparison of carbon metabolism among ecosystems
8.6 Net ecosystem production and net ecosystem exchange
8.7 Emergent properties of ecosystems
8.8 Recommended Reading
9. Ecosystem productivity
9.1 Terrestrial ecosystems
9.2 Freshwater ecosystems
9.3 Marine ecosystems
9.4 Secondary production
9.5 Global biome-scale production
9.6 Factors affecting global productivity
9.7 Scaling from stand to the planetary boundary layer
9.8 Recommended reading
10. The global carbon cycle and the biosphere
10.1 The components of the global carbon cycle
10.2 Carbon cycle regulators
10.3 Units of measure for the global scale
10.4 History of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
10.5 Uptake of carbon dioxide by the oceans
10.6 Carbon exchange between the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems
10.7 Modeling carbon in the biosphere
10.8 Recommended reading
11. Anthropogenic alterations to the global carbon cycle and climate change
11.1 Changing atmospheric concentrations of CO2
11.2 The greenhouse effect
11.3 Climate change
11.4 Greenhouse gases
11.5 Anthropogenic contributions to atmospheric CO2
11.6 Where are the CO2 emissions being generated?
11.7 Carbon cycle model projections of future atmospheres
11.8 Climate changes and climate model projections for the future
11.9 The effects of climate change
11.10 Recommended Reading
12. Carbon, climate change, and public policy
12.1 What are the potential consequences of inaction?
12.2 Do we know enough?
12.3 International accords
12.4 Mitigation and adaptation
12.5 The economics of clean energy
12.6 What has been the impedance?
12.7 Is it too late to act?
12.8 Recommended reading
13. Postscript
14. Suggested classroom uses of this book
Bibliography
Author Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Subject Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
Back Cover

Citation preview

The Global Carbon Cycle and Climate Change Scaling Ecological Energetics from Organism to Biosphere

David E. Reichle Associate Director, retired Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States Copyright Ó 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-820244-9 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Candice Janco Acquisition Editor: Marisa LaFleur Editorial Project Manager: Emerald Li Production Project Manager: Prem Kumar Kaliamoorthi Cover Designer: Christian Bilbow

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List of figures Figure 3.1

Figure Figure Figure Figure

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8

Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5

Energy exchange of the Earth and atmosphere for the northern hemisphere (100 units ¼ 0.485 cal cm2 min1) based upon a solar constant value of 1.94 cal cm2 min1 Global map of global horizontal radiation on the earth’s surface, kWm2. Radiation exchange for a leaf. The boundary layer between a leaf and its environment. The oak forest of Virelles-Blaimont energy balance from 25 May to 24 October, 1967 (cal cm2). So, extraatmosphere solar radiation on a horizontal surface (short waves); aSo, extraatmospheric solar radiation reflected by Earth-atmosphere system; Soabs, solar radiation absorbed by atmosphere; S, direct solar radiation on a horizontal surface; U, extraatmospheric upward radiation (long waves); D, diffuse scattered radiation on a horizontal surface (short waves); G, global radiation on a horizontal surface (S þ D) (short waves); Te, terrestrial radiation (long waves); A, atmospheric radiation (long waves); aS, reflected solar radiation; aD, reflected diffuse radiation, aG, reflected global radiation; aNA, reflected atmospheric radiation; apG, global radiation utilized in net photosynthesis; Q1, short-wave radiation balance (G - aG); Q2, long-wave radiation balance (A - Te); Q, short- and long-wave radiation balance (G - aG þ A - aNA - Te); QG, sensible heat flux in soil; QV, sensible heat flux in vegetation; K, sensible heat turbulent flux; V, latent heat in evapotranspiration; QR, latent heat in water condensation; Qh, advective sensible heat; Qprec, sensible heat flux in precipitation water. Parameters of the stand (per ha): biomass, 156 ton; net primary production (ground), 14.6 ton. Exchange aerial surfaces (ha ha1): foliage (2 faces) of trees, 14; bark of trees, 2; herb layer, 2; litter, 1.5; total exchange surfaces (except litter, 18 haha1). Figures in brackets are estimated values (metric ton ¼ 106 g). Energy exchange for a lizard in its natural desert environment, showing the energy flows to the desert surface and to the lizard. Core-shell (two-layer) model for a lizard and a schematic representation of the thermal energy flows with its environment (Porter et al., 1973). Model predicted seasonal behavior patterns for the desert iguana, Diposaurus dorsalis, compared to behavioral observations shown as solid bars. Electromagnetic wavelength distribution of radiant energy. Schematic of a chloroplast from a plant cell. Photosystem II, the photolysis of H2O, and Photosystem I, producer of ATP and NADPH, both occurring in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast. The Calvin cycle. Atoms are: black - carbon, white - hydrogen, red - oxygen, pink - phosphorus. ADP-ATP cycle fueled by the glycolysis of a glucose substrate.

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xiv List of figures Figure Figure Figure Figure

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Figure 5.5

Figure 5.6 Figure Figure Figure Figure

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6 Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.5 Figure 7.6

Relationship between enthalpy (H), free energy (G), and entropy (S). Summary of anaerobic respiration: the metabolic pathway of glycolysis. The citric acid or Kreb’s cycle. Radioactive elimination curve for two cryptozoan species (Parcoblatta sp., the wood roach, and Sphaeroderus stenostomus, a snail-feeding carabid ground beetle) fed with 134Cs isotope-tagged food. Idealized relationship between the metabolic rate of a mouse and environmental temperature. BMR, basal metabolic rate; MR, maximal rate; Tlc, lower critical temperature; Tuc, upper critical temperature; Tb, body temperature. Energy flow in an organism showing the categories of energy allocation and loss. Chemical reaction rate plotted against temperature,  C, change. Comparison of respiration and photosynthesis with temperature. Response of ectotherms and endotherms to increasing temperature. The phenology, leaf expansion and senescence, and biomass growth components of a soybean simulation model interact dynamically and demonstrate how each are influenced by weather variables. TDM, Total above ground dry matter, RDM, Below ground dry matter, LDM, Leaf dry matter, STDM, Stem dry matter, SDM, Seed dry matter, CG, Crop growth, SG, Seed Growth, MG, Relative maturity group, Stem Term, Stem termination type (Indeterminate vs Semi-determinate), RH, Relative humidity, ET, Reference evapotranspiration, Irrig., Irrigation. Flowering phenophases in a temperate deciduous forest. Phenological degree-day summation predicting flowering for 133 species of vascular plants in an oak-hickory forest at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Scheme of matter and/or energy flow for a food chain or trophic level. MR, total material removed by the organism or population; NU, material removed, but not consumed; C, consumption; FU, rejecta; F, egesta; U, excreta; A, assimilation; D, digested energy/material; P, production; Pg, production due to body growth; Pr, production due to reproduction; R, respiration; DB, changes in mass of the individual or population; E, elimination. Nomenclature after Petrusewicz and Macfadyen, 1970. The time delays between peaks of radioactivity concentrations in trophic levels reflect the temporal delay in the flux of energy along food chains. Fluctuation of biomass and numbers of a hypothetical population in time. Assumptions are: a life span of 3 years, one litter per year, maturation in 1 year, completion of growth of young in 4 months, and a stable population and reproductive rate from year to year. The insert shows partitioning of biomass for net production per year. The net production exceeds the biomass peak because of the production of animals dying prior to the time of biomass peak. BO, biomass of current generation; B1,2 . n, cumulative biomass from earlier generations; EO, elimination and MR, material removed by predation. Food web showing the interactions between organisms across trophic levels in the Lake Ontario ecosystem. Primary producers are outlined in green, primary consumers in orange, secondary consumers in blue, and tertiary (apex) consumers in purple. Arrows point from an organism that is consumed to the organism that consumes it. A stylized trophic level pyramid with the area in each level representing biomass or chemical energy content. Ecological pyramids comparing biomass and energy for trophic levels from different aquatic ecosystems. Notation: C1, primary consumer; C2, secondary consumer; C3, tertiary consumer; P, Producer; S, saprotroph.

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List of figures Figure 7.7

Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3 Figure 8.4 Figure 8.5

Figure 8.6

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.2 Figure 9.3 Figure 9.4 Figure 10.1

Figure 10.2 Figure 10.3 Figure 10.4

Figure 11.1

Figure 11.2

Heterotroph biomass as a function of primary production per unit plant biomass. The six points represent ecosystem types: Cs, cone spring; Df, deciduous forest; Po0, pond; Sm, salt marsh; Tu, tundra; Tf, tropical forest. Oxygen production during the light bottle:dark bottle experiment. A diagrammatic representation of the pathways of energy and carbon flux in a freshwater ecosystem: Silver Springs, Florida. Carbon values given in Table 8.1. Conceptual representations of stream spiraling and uptake length affecting carbon metabolism in flowing waters. The biogeochemical cycle of carbon in the ocean ecosystem. The carbon cycle in a mesic deciduous forest in Tennessee. Trees, left to right, represent understory, dominant Liriodendron tulipifera, and all other overstory trees. Decomposers are separated by surface litter and soil zones. Heterotrophs are invertebrates only for both herbivores and carnivores; values do not include vertebrates. All values are in g C m2 for biomass (boxes, upper left standing crop; lower right, annual increment) and in g C m2 yr1 for fluxes (arrows). Approximate turnover times in years representative for carbon in major world ecosystem types: vegetation in green and soils/sediments in brown, approximate average times in years derived from the sources below. The global distribution of biomes, or “ecofloristic zones” mapped by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization. Source: Ruesch and Gibbs, 2008. Ecofloristic zones (biomes) as determined by mean annual temperature and annual precipitation. IPCC Tier-1 Global Biomass Carbon Map (above and below-ground) for the Year 2000 in metric tons carbon per hectare (100 g m2). Patterns of ocean circulation. The natural global cycle of carbon showing the major reservoirs (pools) and pathways (fluxes) of carbon flow in the biosphere, as illustrated in the structure of an early, multidimensional box model. Interannual fluctuations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations reveal the “breathing” of the biosphere across the seasons of the year. Contours of soil carbon (kg C m2) plotted on a Holdridge (1967) life-zone chart. A compartment model of the global carbon cycle with couplings to other elements. The model construct incorporates rapid ecological processes (A) with slow geologic processes (B) averaged over the latter portion of postCambrian time. (A) Landscapes is early Holocene (recent) time had approximately equal quantities of rapidly cycling (mostly photosynthetic) tissue from woody and nonwoody parts of plants. The latter probably were of negligible mass before the late Silurian Period about 400 million years ago. Estimated values and uncertainties are given in Table 10.7. (B) Summary of oceanic and lithospheric cycles. Note: 1 mol carbon dioxide ¼ 12 g carbon. Global atmospheric CO2 versus Mauna Loa CO2. Measurements at Mauna Loa reflect the global average derived from many worldwide monitoring stations. Atmospheric CO2 levels (parts per million, ppm) over the past 10,000 years. Blue line from Taylor Dome, Antarctica ice cores. Green line from Law Dome, Antarctica ice cores. Red line from direct atmospheric measurements at Mauna Loa, Hawaii.

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xvi List of figures Figure 11.3

Figure 11.4 Figure 11.5 Figure 11.6 Figure 11.7 Figure 11.8 Figure 11.9

Figure 11.10

Figure 11.11 Figure 11.12

Figure 11.13

Figure 11.14 Figure 11.15 Figure 12.1 Figure 12.2

Figure 12.3 Figure 12.4 Figure 12.5 Figure 12.6

Global satellite measurements of atmospheric CO2 concentrations in July 2008 from the NASA Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) on the Aqua satellite. The Greenhouse Effect. Comparison of global temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentrations from 1880 to 2010, with temperature deviations from historic norms. An estimate in 1990 of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions. Values are 1012 g CO2-eq. Fossil fuel consumption by the world. Breakdown of annual worldwide greenhouse gas emissions by industrial sector in 2010. Values are 1012 g CO2-eq. The world’s carbon cycle at the beginning of the 21st century as influenced by human activities, showing how carbon atoms flow between various reservoirs in the Earth system. Reservoir sizes are in Gt (1015 g) C; fluxes are in Gt C yr1. The red numbers and arrows show the additional fluxes and reservoir changes caused by humans, such as the burning of fossil fuels and land use changes, averaged over 2000e2009. The airborne CO2 fraction showing global carbon dioxide emissions (as gigatons of carbon without oxygen molecular weight added) from 1960 through 2012, and the amount of emitted CO2 that has remained in the atmosphere. The biological pump of carbon in the ocean. Future atmospheric CO2 levels as projected for the four RCP emission scenarios (IPCC SRES Report, 2007). All forcing agents’ atmospheric CO2-equivalent concentrations (in parts-per-million-by-volume (ppmv)) according to four RCPs. Radiative-forcing components used by the IPCC in 2007 in the calculation of climate outcomes from four different representative concentration pathways (RCPs) dependent upon possible future levels of greenhouse gas emissions. The 10 hottest years globally. Despite technological improvements that increase corn yields, extreme weather events have caused significant yield reductions in some years. Schematic diagram illustrating current and/or projected impacts of climate changes on major components of marine and coastal ecosystems. Past and future ocean heat content changes (OHC). Annual observational OHC changes are consistent with each other and consistent with the ensemble means of the CMIP5 models (Taylor et al., 2012) for historical simulations pre-2005 and projections from 2005 to 2017, giving confidence in future projections to 2100 (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5) (see the supplementary materials). The mean projected OHC changes and their 90% confidence intervals between 2081 and 2100 are shown in bars at the right. The inset depicts the detailed OHC changes after January 1990, using the monthly OHC changes updated to September 2018 (Cheng et al., 2017), along with the other annual observed values superposed. Worldwide greenhouse gas emission in 2005. Carbon flows in the energy system and sources of emissions in the United States in 1995 in millions of metric tons (1012 g C). Carbon intensity of electricity: history and forward trends necessary to reach a zero-carbon electricity grid by mid-century. The world’s economies vary considerably in how efficiently their GDPs utilize carbon-based fuels.

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List of tables Table 2.1 Table 3.1 Table 3.2

Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5

Table 3.6

Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 5.1 Table Table Table Table

5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Table 5.6 Table 5.7

Table 5.8 Table 5.9

Units of measure for energy in its various forms and transformations. Transmission (langleys min
1) of direct solar radiation through a canopy of red pine plantation. Total emissivity, ε, all wavelengths and short-wave absorptivity of common bodies occurring in the natural environment (Handbook of Chemistry and Physics). Typical albedo values for environmental surfaces on earth. Typical thermal conductivities of environmental media, biological constituents, and other reference materials at ordinary temperatures. Convection coefficients (cal cm
2 min
1 oC) for free convection in laminar flow. DT is the temperature difference in oC between the surface of the object and the surrounding air. L is the dimension of the plate in the direction of flow. Rates of heat transfer (cal.cm
2min
1) for forced convection across a flat plate as a model for a plant leaf in the environment. Values (cal.cm
2min
1) are a function of the temperature differential between surface and air, dimension of the surface, and wind speed. The energy value of different wavelengths of solar radiation. Efficiencies of photosynthetic radiant energy conversion into biomass by plants. Summary of aerobic respiration: The efficiency of ATP production by glycolysis. Thermal equivalents (kcal L
1) for different compounds. Heats of combustion to H2O (L) and CO2 (g) at 25 C and constant pressure. Energy values for plant parts and animal taxa. Food assimilation for different foods and by different trophic level consumers reported in the scientific literature. Values for the body weight exponential function, b, for different animal types. The relationship between food energy and heat production, the calorigenic effect or specific dynamic action (SDA), in a dog fed 100 kcal day-1 of lean meat (protein) [columns 1-4], compared with the food energy and heat production equivalents to be obtained from a pure fat [columns 5-6] or carbohydrate [columns 7-8] diet. Comparison of dietary energy utilization in the domestic pig and cow (values are % food energy ingested). Rate of production and production efficiency in relation to dietary energy intake in farmed animals.

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xviii List of tables Table 6.1

Table 6.2 Table Table Table Table

6.3 7.1 7.2 7.3

Table 7.4

Table 7.5 Table 8.1

Table 8.2 Table 8.3

Table 8.4

Table 8.5

Table 9.1 Table 9.2

Table 9.3 Table 9.4 Table 9.5

Table 9.6 Table 9.7

The development time of sea urchin eggs as a function of temperature demonstrates how energy (heat) affects biological processes, and how acclimation to warmer summer temperatures, or cooler winter temperatures, affects development. Natural populations of Paracentrotus lividus range between 13  C
28 C. Some examples of adaptive strategies of plants and animals to their energy environment. Some aspects of an energy budget for hummingbirds. Comparison of productivity between mouse, deer, and elephant. Ecological energetic efficiencies. Values reported for ecological energetic efficiencies for different trophic levels. Calculated ingestion, production, respiration, and egestion by heterotrophs in a grassland ecosystem in kcal m
2 yr
1 per 100 kcal m
1 yr
1 net annual primary production. Ecological energetic efficiencies for three different ecosystems (cal cm
2 yr
1). Comparison of the carbon budgets of five aquatic ecosystems: Spartina Salt Marsh, GA (Teal, 1962); Silver Springs, FL (Odum, 1957); oligotrophic Lake Eckarfja¨rden, Sweden (Andersson and Kumblad, 2006); Lake Washington, WA (Eggers et al., 1978); eutrophic Lake Lawrence, MI (Wetzel and Rich, 1973). Units are: fluxes in kg C m
2 yr
1, standing crop in kg C m
1). Mean values and ranges for GPP, RE, and NEP for aquatic ecosystems Values are g O2 m
2 day
1). Comparison of the carbon budgets of eight terrestrial ecosystems: Spruce Forest, Sweden (Karlberg et al., 2007); Mesic Tulip Poplar forest, TN (Reichle et al., 1973); Oak-Pine forest, NY (Woodwell and Botkin, 1970); Tropical Rain Forest, Thailand (Tan et al., 2010); Shortgrass Prairie, CO (Andrews et al., 1974); Tundra (after Reichle, 1975); Agricultural ecosystems values from L. Ryszkowski (Reichle, 1981). Units are: fluxes in kg C m
2 yr
1, standing crop in kg C m
2). Comparative metabolic parameters for six different forest ecosystems. All values above the dotted line are in kg C m
2 and kg C m
2 yr
1; values below the dotted line are dimensionless indices. Comparison carbon fluxes of five forest ecosystem using eddy covariance: WB¼Walker Branch; TN, MMSF ¼ Morgan Monroe State Forest, IN; HF¼Harvard Forest, MA; UMBS¼University of Michigan Biological Station, MI; WC¼Willow Creek, WI. Units are: fluxes in kg C m
2 yr
1, standing crop in kg Cm
2. Conversion factors of units of measure for mass and energy values. Summary of global area, annual net primary production (NPP), plant carbon content, and soil carbon content in broadly categorized terrestrial ecosystems. Primary production and biomass estimates for the biosphere. Net primary productivity in the ocean. Secondary production (NSP) by consumers in different ecosystems. Values are for specific consumer groups, except where indicated by “A” ¼ productivity for the entire animal trophic level. Various estimates of total global production in carbon and energy units. Ranking of the net primary productivity of the biomes based upon the values reported by the references cited in Chapter 8 and Tables 9.2 and 9.3.

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List of tables Table 9.8 Table 10.1 Table 10.2 Table 10.3

Table 10.4 Table 10.5

Table 10.6 Table 10.7 Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 11.3 Table 11.4 Table 11.5 Table 12.1 Table 12.2 Table 12.3 Table 12.4 Table 12.5 Table 12.6 Table 12.7 Table 12.8

Biomass of ecosystems of the main biomes each with distinct vegetative structure. Metric ton ha
1 (¼ 102 g m
2). Values, and uncertainties of parameters, in the global carbon cycle. Units of measure for the global carbon cycle. Atmospheric carbon dioxide fluxes (Gt C yr
1 or 1015 g C yr
1). Errors represent  standard deviation of uncertainty estimates and not interannual variability which is larger. The atmospheric increase (first line) results from fluxes to and from the atmosphere: positive fluxes are inputs to the atmosphere (emissions); negative fluxes are losses from the atmosphere (sinks); and numbers in parentheses are ranges. Note that the total sink of anthropogenic CO2 is well constrained. Thus, the ocean-to-atmosphere and land-to-atmosphere fluxes are negatively correlated: if one is larger the other must be smaller to match the total sink, and vice versa. Estimated oceanic carbon pools. Carbon in major pools of the biosphere. Contemporary estimates using Whittaker & Likens, 1973 and IPCC 2014 in parentheses. Percentages of total carbon pools (columns 2 and 3) are based upon Reiner’s 1973 calculation using Bolin’s 1970 values. Carbon balance in terrestrial detritus by biome (Schlesinger, 1979). Simplified global carbon inventory and budget estimates for recent, early Holocene times. Values here are 1015 g C yr
1. Internet sources of data relative to the issue of climate change. Methane sources and sinks, both natural and anthropogenic (Schlesinger, 1997; after Prather et al., 1995). Units are 1012 g CH4 yr
1. Warming increases ( C) projected by the radiative forcing functions resulting from different assumptions of GHG emission scenarios. Estimated global NPP by terrestrial ecosystems. Future sea level rise (in meters) projected from different radiative forcing function scenarios from assumptions of different GHG emissions. Historical timeline of milestones in establishing international climate policy. Cumulative CO2 emissions limits from a 2011 emissions baseline necessary to limit global warming to