The Fundamentals of Event Design 0815350910, 9780815350910

Table of contents :
Contents
Authors
Contributors
Acknowledgements
1 Event design unpacked
2 Events as an experience industry
3 Event experience
4 Storytelling and event concepting
5 Atmospherics and servicescapes
6 Five senses in event design
7 Interactive technologies
8 Pragmatic team management
9 Project management tools and budgeting
10 Pitching and winning
11 Creative marketing
12 Environmentally sustainable event design
Index

Citation preview

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF EVENT DESIGN The Fundamentals of Event Design aims to rethink current approaches to event design and production. The textbook explores the relationship between event design and multiple visitor experiences, as well as interactivity, motivation, sensory stimuli and co-creative participation. Structured around the key phases of event design, the book covers all the critical dimensions of event concepting, atmospherics, the application of interactive technologies, project management, team leadership, creative marketing and sustainable production. The concepts of authenticity, creativity, co-creation, imagineering and storytelling are discussed throughout, and practical step-by-step guidance is provided on how to create and deliver unique and memorable events. The chapters include industry voices offering real-life insight from leading international event practitioners and individual and/or team assignments to stimulate learners’ creativity, visualisation and problem solving. This is the first textbook in event design that integrates areas of anthropology, social psychology, management, marketing, graphic design and interactivity. Focusing on bringing theory into practice, this is essential reading for all Events Management students. Vladimir Antchak is Senior Lecturer in Applied Management at the University of Derby, UK. His research interests focus on event portfolio design and management, place experience, destination branding and strategic storytelling. He has over ten years of experience in events management, including organisation of business forums and conferences, cultural exhibitions, international business visits and presentations. The geography of his completed projects includes Austria, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Russia. Olivia Ramsbottom is Senior Lecturer in Business and Management at the University of Derby, UK. She has significant project and event management experience in various organisations, from a membership body to a university. She is also an experienced trainer and consultant, offering workable solutions to make business improvements, as well as recommending and carrying out appropriate staff training and development activities. Her areas of expertise are in strategic, project and people management, and her research focuses on the transferability of management skills from general concepts to specific application.

“Confused about event design? How is it different from management? Where does design fit in the planning process? Are event designers artists or engineers? This book provides a comprehensive, state-of-the-art perspective on experience design applied to events. The authors and contributors provide the concepts and tools to make the reader an effective, creative designer. Tools include storytelling, concepting, how to utilize all five senses, interactive technologies, project and team management, pitching and winning ideas, and creative marketing. Exercises built around real cases will stimulate creativity. The overall theme is about becoming a ‘design thinker’. Through constant observation, collaboration, visualisation of ideas, rapid concept prototyping and testing, design thinkers will distinguish themselves and their events.” Donald Getz, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus at the University of Calgary, Canada “The addition of this text for the teaching of events management will be invaluable. The emphasis on the successful event design process in its own right will offer students a comprehensive background to topics such as design thinking and Imagineering, ­storytelling, technology and event design, and event experiences. Not only does this volume offer this theoretical background, it also gives students the tools and techniques to operationalise these as part of their programmes and when they enter the work place and must deliver pitches, manage projects, and integrate good design into sustainable event management. A much-needed textbook for all event management students.” Louise Platt, Senior Lecturer in Festival and Event Management, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF EVENT DESIGN VLADIMIR ANTCHAK AND OLIVIA RAMSBOTTOM

First published 2020 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 Vladimir Antchak and Olivia Ramsbottom The right of Vladimir Antchak and Olivia Ramsbottom to be identified as authors of this work, and of the contributors for their individual chapters has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Antchak, Vladimir, author. | Ramsbottom, Olivia, author. Title: The fundamentals of event design/Vladimir Antchak and Olivia Ramsbottom. Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019039083 (print) | LCCN 2019039084 (ebook) | ISBN 9780815350910 (hardback) | ISBN 9780815350927 (paperback) | ISBN 9781351142083 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Special events–Management. Classification: LCC GT3405 .A67 2020 (print) | LCC GT3405 (ebook) | DDC 394.2068–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019039083 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019039084 ISBN: 978-0-8153-5091-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-8153-5092-7 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-14208-3 (ebk) Typeset in ITC Stone Serif and Rockwell by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/antchak

Contents List of figures

ix

List of tables

x

List of boxes

xi

Authors xii Contributors xiii Acknowledgements xiv   1 Event design unpacked

1

Defining event design  1 Design thinking in events  3 An event designer’s personality  6 Imagineering 7 Designing events: An integrative framework  8 Summary 10 Further reading  11 References 11

  2 Events as an experience industry

13

Experience industry  13 From commodities to transformations  14 Commoditisation versus customisation  16 Value of authentic experience  17 Shareability of experiential offerings  20 Know your consumers: Generations Y and Z  20 CRUSH event brand  21 Summary 23 Further reading  24 References 25

  3 Event experience

27

What is experience?  27 Product experience  29 Interactive experience  29 Realms of experience  30 Meaningful experience  32 Immersion in events  33

v

Contents

How the audience becomes immersed  35 Summary 40 Further reading  41 References 41

  4 Storytelling and event concepting

43

From event idea to event concept: The 5Ws  43 Storytelling in business  45 Key parameters of a good story  46 Event story planning process  49 Creative tools for event concept development  50 Summary 53 Further reading  55 References 55

  5 Atmospherics and servicescapes

57

Defining atmospherics and servicescapes  57  Spatial planning  62 Visitor flow  63 Summary 75 Further reading  76 References 76

  6 Five senses in event design

79

Sarah Jones and Vladimir Antchak The five senses and event experience   79 How to apply the five senses in event design   84 Summary 92 Further reading  93 References 93

  7 Interactive technologies

97

What is interactivity?  97 Value of interactive technologies   98 Interactive solutions in event design  100 Summary 107 Further reading  108 References 108

  8 Pragmatic team management Evolution of management and leadership styles  111 Key components of pragmatic team management  113

vi

111

Contents

Event design management framework  115 Summary 122 Further reading  123 References 123

  9 Project management tools and budgeting

125

Project objectives  125 Design breakdown structure  126 Responsibility assignment matrix   127 Calculating the duration and dependencies of tasks  128 Gantt chart  129 Risk assessment and management  130 Costs 131 Drawing up a budget from costs  132 Monitoring costs  133 Reporting costs and progress  136 Summary 137 Further reading  139 References 139

10 Pitching and winning

141

Business case and evaluation  141 Business proposal  144 Business pitching  145 Communications 145 Preparation 146 Rehearsal 147 Delivery 147 Main part  148 Conclusion 148 Dos and don’ts of a pitch presentation  149 Visual aids  149 Voice and body  150 Questions 150 Summary 151 Further reading  152 References 152

11 Creative marketing

153

Valentina Gorchakova Defining creative marketing  153 The “P”s  154 The ambition and value of an event  156

vii

Contents

The audience  158 Audience centricity and market segmentation  158 “Core” and “peripheral” audience  159 The art of marketing communications  161 Digital marketing  162 Social currency  163 Digital authenticity  165 Online platforms  167 Summary 173 Further reading  175 References 175

12 Environmentally sustainable event design

177

Aurore Julien and Clare Mackay A six-step methodology for environmentally sustainable event design  177 Summary 192 Further reading  193 References 193

Index 195

viii

FIGURES

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 5.1 5.2

Event design thinking Event designer’s personality profile Design, content and experience in events Event design framework. The progression of economic value CRUSH event brand The four realms of experience Liminality in events Event experience Empty conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany Jaguar presentation, conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany 5.3 Corporate dinner, conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany 5.4 Different venue layouts 5.5 The axis layout 5.6 The centrepiece layout 5.7 The theatre layout 5.8 The fortress layout 5.9 The conglomeration layout 5.10 The plaza layout 6.1 Applying the five senses in event design 8.1 Key management theories 1990s–2010s 8.2 Effective event design team management 9.1 A design breakdown structure for a planned event 9.2 A simple consideration of time duration and dependencies of tasks 9.3 A Gantt chart 10.1 Four stages of a pitch presentation 10.2 Elements of a successful pitch presentation 11.1 The Ps of the marketing mix for events 11.2 Events attendee value model 11.3 Tweet posted by the organisers of Glastonbury Festival 11.4 Four pillars of digital authenticity 11.5 The Facebook page of Manchester International Festival in the UK 11.6 Twitter page of the World of Wearable Art Show 11.7 Instagram account of Roland Garros 11.8 A page of the International Hotel Investment and Design Conference on LinkedIn 11.9 YouTube channel of the Wimbledon Tournament 11.10 Live broadcast on Wimbledon’s YouTube channel 12.1 The six-step methodology for environmentally sustainable event design

4 6 9 9 15 21 30 36 38 61 61 61 62 65 67 68 69 70 72 85 112 116 127 129 130 146 149 155 157 164 166 168 169 170 171 172 173 178

ix

TABLES

3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 8.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7

x

The Three Contexts of Interactive Experience The Quadrants of the Experience Realms Items to Measure Event Experience Archetypes, Story Gists and Examples Sensory Channels and Dimensions Servicescape Dimensions Six Layouts. A Comparison Chart Colour Meaning Employee Skills Level and Relevant Management Style SMART Objectives A RAM with a Detailed Description of the Tasks Allocated A RAM with a Basic Allocation of Tasks RACI Method in Action A Simple Excel Spreadsheet for an Event Design Budget A Simple Excel Spreadsheet to Monitor an Event Design Budget An Action Checklist to Monitor an Event Design Budget

30 31 31 46 58 59 73 87 116 126 128 128 128 133 133 134

BOXES

3.1 5.1

Industry voice: Bertie Watkins, Artistic Director, COLAB Theatre, London Industry voice: Courtesy of Exhibitor Magazine. Illustrations by Sachel Josefson and Chris Rotondo 6.1 Industry voice: Dr Rob Davidson, Managing Director, MICE Knowledge. Education, Research and Consultancy Services for the MICE Industry 7.1 Industry voice: Dominic Sutton, freelance promoter, social media and digital marketing manager 7.2 Industry voice: Cathryn Peach-Barnes, freelance creative producer and event mediator 7.3 Industry voice: Karen Sutton, freelance production manager 7.4 Industry voice: Dr Rob Davidson, managing director, MICE Knowledge 9.1 Industry voice: Clare Ruby, co-founder, RubyBlosse Events, UK 12.1 Industry voice: Christopher Johnson, operations director and senior sustainable events consultant at Kambe Events, UK

38 64 91 104 105 106 106 137 191

xi

Authors

Vladimir Antchak is Senior Lecturer in Applied Management at the University of Derby, UK. His research interests focus on event portfolio design and management, place experience, destination branding and strategic storytelling. He has over ten years of experience in events management, including organisation of business forums and conferences, cultural exhibitions, international business visits and presentations. The geography of completed projects includes Austria, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Russia. Olivia Ramsbottom is Senior Lecturer in Business and Management at the University of Derby, UK. She has significant project and event management experience in various organisations, from a membership body to a university. She is also an experienced trainer and consultant, offering workable solutions to make business improvements, as well as recommending and carrying out appropriate staff training and development activities. Her areas of expertise are in strategic, project and people management and her research focuses on the transferability of management skills from general concepts to specific application.

xii

Contributors

Valentina Gorchakova is Senior Lecturer at the University of Derby, UK, teaching and leading an online business and management programme. She returned to academia after spending more than ten years working in business, not-for-profit organisations and the UN Development Programme. Her research interests lie within service and arts marketing, branding, place-making and cultural and event tourism. She is also exploring the area of online learning and learning in adulthood. Sarah Jones is a graduate student from the BA (Hons) Events Management programme at the University of Derby and now an event and visitor services coordinator at the Devonshire Dome in Buxton, UK. Aurore Julien is Senior Lecturer in Environmental Design at the School of Architecture at the University of East London and technical tutor at the Royal College of Art, UK. She also carries out environmental assessments for “A Greener Festival”, an international not-for-profit organisation committed to helping events to reduce their environmental impacts and become more sustainable. She previously was a sustainability consultant for 17 years, a lecturer at University College London, and a course provider for the World Green Building Council. Her research interests relate to buildings and events sustainability. Clare Mackay is Senior Lecturer in Events Management at the University of West England, UK, and an assessor for “A Greener Festival”. She has worked on international, national, civic and community events across the public, private and not-for profit sectors.

xiii

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Sarah Jones for contributing to Chapter 6, Valentina Gorchakova for contributing Chapter 11 and Aurore Julien and Clare Mackay for contributing Chapter 12. We are very grateful for the contributions of our “Industry Voices”, people who took the time to offer ideas, tips and thoughts from their experience to enrich this book: Dr Rob Davidson, managing director of MICE Knowledge; Christopher Johnson, operations director and senior sustainable events consultant at Kambe Events, UK; Cathryn Peach-Barnes, freelance creative producer, event mediator and festival manager; Clare Ruby, co-founder, RubyBlosse Events, UK; Travis Stanton, editor of Exhibitor Magazine, and his team of experts; Dominic Sutton, freelance promoter and social media and digital marketing manager; Karen Sutton, freelance production manager; Bertie Watkins, artistic director, COLAB Theatre, London. We also would like to thank our graduate students, Selena Howell-Williams, Katie Howie and Aleksandra Jaworska, who applied and tested design tools and techniques discussed in this book, and shared their ideas on events design and production with us. Vladimir and Olivia 15 July 2019

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1 Event design unpacked

Chapter outline •• •• •• •• ••

Diverse spectrum of definitions of event design; Key principles of design thinking in events; Personal characteristics and skills of an event designer; Concept of imagineering and its application in event design and production; Key elements of the event design framework.

Key words event design design thinking creativity imagineering

This chapter sets the pace for the book. We will define event design and discuss its key principles. We will explore event design from a new perspective with a focus on design thinking, creativity and imagineering. The chapter examines new approaches in the event industry to orchestrate authentic and extraordinary experiences for the event audience. The outline of the book will be introduced and explained.

Defining event design The Fundamentals of Event Design is a book about the successful orchestration of the processes behind the creation of interesting, engaging and extraordinary events. An event is a “temporary and purposive gathering of people” (Bladen, Kennell, Abson and Wilde, 2012, p. 3) “generally lasting from a few hours to a few days, designed to celebrate, honour, discuss, sell, teach or learn about, encourage observe or influence human endeavours” (Matthews, 2016, p. 3).

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The field of event studies is overwhelmed by texts about event management, where event design is often introduced as a part of project management along with event marketing, budgeting, stakeholder networking, logistics, operations and event evaluation (Allen, O’Toole, Harris and McDonnel, 2008; Bowdin, Allen, O’Toole, Harris and McDonnel, 2011; Ferdinand and Kitchin, 2017). However, more and more debates have emerged around the socially constructed nature of planned events and the capability of event managers to design for unique and authentic customer experiences. This paradigmatic shift from managing to designing has generated a new area of exploration (Brown, 2014), namely the integrative role of event design in delivering positive impacts for an event’s audience. This is the focus of this book. Design, as a concept, has become a critical function in today’s businesses, strategically linking creativity and innovation. Creativity is the generation of new ideas, or a new way of dealing with existing problems, or the exploration of new opportunities (Best, 2006). Innovation is “the process that carries a new concept through to new products, services, or ways of operating the business” (Best, 2006, p. 18). Design, in its turn, “shapes ideas so that they become practical and attractive propositions for users and customers” (Best, 2006, p. 18). Folkmann (2013, p. 15) explores design as a means “of creating meaning and experience and for giving shape and structure to the world through material forms and immaterial effects”. Events play a role of a medium in the construction and communication of meaning through the material (venue, décor, furniture) and immaterial (escapism, immersion, transformation). In event studies, there is no one universally agreed definition of what constitutes event design. Event design can be seen as a concept of a structure for an event (Berridge, 2012). Richards, Marques and Mein (2014) argue that designing in events configures the relationships between different event dimensions, stakeholder interests and community perceptions. O’Toole (2011, p. 183) describes event design as a “purposeful arrangement of elements of an event to maximise the positive impression of the attendees and other key stakeholders”. Sonder (2004, p. 411) considers design in events as “the incorporation of a themed message along with audio-visual, entertainment and musical elements”. Summarising key elements of event design, Getz (2012) emphasises the role of themes, settings, services, consumables and programmes that deliver a positive experience. We also can add entertainment (Silvers, 2004), ambience (Shone and Parry, 2004), creativity (Sonder, 2004) and décor (Monroe, 2005) as essential components of event design. Despite the diversity of the design elements, what unites all the above-mentioned definitions is a strategic focus on developing a “purposeful space” or “value creating platform” where intentionally designed activities and relationships produce specific behaviour (Orefice, 2018). The event design process requires thinking with the emphasis on feelings, fantasy, imagination, perception, associations and mental stimuli.

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RESEARCH NOTE Orefice, C. (2018). Designing for events: A new perspective on event design. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 9(1), 20–33.

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the paradigm shift towards event design–­ predominant research by presenting an analysis of how the concept of event design has developed in the events literature and by exploring a new perspective based on its contribution to value co-creation. Design/methodology/approach – Theory from design management and service design is discussed to provide insights on the role of event design as contributing to the creation of value in social systems. Findings – A new framework for categorising the role of event design is proposed, called the “event design ladder”. Event design is no longer considered as a problem-solving activity, but as a contributor to value creation and an ongoing pursuit carried out over time and space. Stakeholders become co-designers of value systems. Research limitations/implications – Service design and design management literature offer interesting potential for event researchers to advance the conceptualisation of event design. Considering events as platforms for long-term stakeholder engagement implies that the concept of design becomes strategic. Design as strategy is identified as a new area of event research. Originality/value – This paper proposes a new perspective on events considered as catalysts of value systems, where the role of design is not only to orchestrate meaningful experiences but also to facilitate collaboration across projects, integrating resources and building on stakeholders’ skills and knowledge. Theories of practice are explored as a way to theorise and carry out research on how value is co-created by actors. Keywords: design thinking, co-creation, event design, social systems, event value

As will be discussed in the following chapters, consumers are less focused nowadays on satisfying their primary needs and are more focused on the experiential outcomes of consumption. To design an experience is to integrate the knowledge of human behaviour, the designer’s imagination and business modelling into a holistic framework. There is an approach that can facilitate this process, namely design thinking.

Design thinking in events Design thinking is a human-centred process of developing new products and services. It emphasises constant observation, collaboration, visualisation of ideas, rapid concept prototyping and testing. The objective is to involve your customers, your colleagues and industry experts in an integrative process of idea generation and evaluation in

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order to imagine and predict future trends and bring new products, services and experiences to market (Lockwood, 2010). The process of thinking as an event designer (Figure 1.1) can be split into four stages. During the first stage, fieldwork and information, the task is to understand the consumer’s or client’s needs, expectations or issues and to collect information. The best way to do this is to communicate with your target audience directly, with an open mind and willingness to learn from them. This stage involves fieldwork research, including observation, watching, listening and discussing. These methods are common datacollection methods in anthropology and sociology, and they can also be successfully used by event designers. If you have an idea of an event (it can be your own idea or a request from your client), spend some time exploring the target audience, their wishes, expectations and perceptions. You can create a short questionnaire or interview potential attendees of your event. You also can use social media, asking your audience to share their experience and thoughts. This is the key stage on your way to delivering an interesting and memorable event. It involves collaboration with the final users of your product (event) as well as with your partners, suppliers and, of course, clients. The second stage, inspiration and imagination, involves visualisation, experimentalism and prototyping. As some experts say, “the goal is to fail quickly and frequently so the learning can occur” (Lockwood, 2010, p. xi). At this stage, the objective is to “make the intangible become tangible” (Lockwood, 2010, p. xii). You should brainstorm and consider several, sometimes alternative, ideas, options or solutions. You can use sketches, mind maps, mood boards, story boards or event role-playing. Visual explanations will help to make your event concepts come alive and be grounded in context.

Evaluation

Business Modelling and Implementation

Fieldwork and Information

Inspiration and Imagination

Figure 1.1  Event design thinking. Adapted from Lockwood (2010).

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The third stage, business modelling and implementation, stands for the integration of business analysis in your design thinking and application of the approved design. Events are a big industry. Your event projects should be financially successful and deliver a number of positive outcomes to all the involved stakeholders. Every attractive event idea should be tested at this stage on its feasibility. You should be able to evaluate the resources you may require, the financial risks, the environmental issues and the overall success of the project. The aim is to achieve a balance between creativity and business pragmatism. After the feasibility of the project has been approved, you enter the implementation phase, where you execute your event design. During the final stage of evaluation, you should reflect on the achieved outcomes and the overall effect of the event design project. The project data should be collected and examined in order to identify any emerged issues and future directions. Each stage of event design thinking is iterative and repetitive, which means that it can be reviewed and changed at any time. What is also important is that design thinking is an ongoing process (Figure 1.1), so the results of evaluation should call for new research and fieldwork to improve the design and, as a result, the overall event experience.

RESEARCH NOTE Liedtka, J. (2015). Perspective: Linking design thinking with innovation outcomes through cognitive bias reduction. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 32(6), 925–938.

Abstract: “Design thinking” has generated significant attention in the business press and has been heralded as a novel problem‐solving methodology well suited to the often‐cited challenges business organizations face in encouraging innovation and growth. Yet the specific mechanisms through which the use of design, approached as a thought process, might improve innovation outcomes have not received significant attention from business scholars. In particular, its utility has only rarely been linked to the academic literature on individual cognition and decision‐making. This perspective piece advocates addressing this omission by examining design thinking as a practice that is potentially valuable for improving innovation outcomes by helping decision‐makers reduce their individual level cognitive biases. In this essay, I first review the assumptions, principles and key process tools associated with design thinking. I then establish its foundation in the decision‐making literature, drawing on an extensive body of research on cognitive biases and their impact. The essay concludes by advancing a set of propositions and research implications, aiming to demonstrate one particular path that future research might take in assessing the utility of design thinking as a method for improving organizational outcomes related to innovation. In doing so, it seeks to address the challenge of conducting academic research on a practice that is obviously popular in management circles but appears resistant to rigorous empirical inquiry because of the multifaceted nature of its “basket” of tools and processes and the complexity of measuring the outcomes it produces.

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An event designer’s personality Tim Brown, the CEO and president of IDEO, an innovation and design company, has constructed a personality profile of a design thinker who applies design methods to problem solving (Brown, 2008). As an event designer, you should develop and master the skills and qualities of empathy, integrative thinking, optimism, experimentalism and collaboration (Figure 1.2).







Empathy is the ability to see and explore the world from different perspectives, those of your clients, customers, colleagues and partners. The skill of empathy helps you to imagine, concept and implement solutions that are desirable and meet the expectations or “latent” needs of your target audience. Integrative thinking. Martin (2009, p. 15) defines integrative thinking as “the ability to face constructively the tension of opposing ideas”. Instead of choosing one alternative, you as a design thinker should exhibit the ability to generate a creative solution by crafting a new idea that contains valuable points of the opposing ideas but also goes beyond and improves them. Optimism. No matter how challenging the problem or the task is, you should have an optimistic mindset to identify and explore at least one potential solution which is better than existing alternatives. Experimentalism in event design refers to an enduring testing and adjusting of event concepts and design patterns. New directions and trends can emerge only through the exploration of constraints in creative ways.

Empathy

Integrative Thinking

Collaboration

Event Designer

Experimentalism

Optimism

Figure 1.2  Event designer’s personality profile. Adapted from Brown (2008).

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Collaboration. Event designers do not work in isolation or solitude. They collaborate with colleagues from other disciplines to share knowledge, to create a sense of community and to facilitate decision-making. Contributions from multiple sources can make your event and its design more innovative, attractive and interesting.

Creativity on its own does not create new products or experiences. It is an artistic process of exploring things differently. Innovation is the realisation of a business idea. But again, without creativity, you cannot be innovative. There is a strategy that unites both phenomena: this is imagineering.

Imagineering Imagineering is a trendy buzzword and concept today. More and more enterprises are trying to implement the principles of imagineering in their product development and customer relationship strategies. As is clear from the etymology of this word, imagineering absorbs the meanings of “imagination” and “engineering”. Imagination stands for the ability of our mind to be creative and resourceful. Engineering is the act of working artfully to produce something. Hence, the overall meaning of imagineering is to use the power of our imagination to craft new products, processes or services. Walt Disney went further and defined imagineering as the process of creating new experiences for the visitors of Disney parks through thematic stories, technologies and theatrical elements. Van Gool and van Lindert (2008), cited in Kuiper and Smit (2014), introduce imagineering as an innovative strategy focused on fulfilling the emotional needs of consumers through communicating the symbolic value of a product or service. Nowadays, people look for meaning that helps them to develop or redevelop their own identity. Moreover, they should be able to share this meaning. Happiness and satisfaction have to be measurable and shareable. As part of the experience industry, events directly affect the attendees’ emotions, mood and overall level of satisfaction. How can imagineering be applied in Event Design? Kuiper and Smit (2014) argue that imagineering can be employed as a strategy, a process and an instrument. At the level of strategy, imagineering can be used as a means to develop cohesion between an event brand and its social significance. It is important to offer an experience that can transform the audience from being just consumers to becoming followers of a brand’s corporate ideology and values. This can be done through the process of imagineering, where the combined power of imagination, technologies and innovative solutions is applied. As an instrument, imagineering is tasked to reach synergy between creativity and rational analysis.

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ABOUT IMAGINEERING Walt Disney Imagineering is the unique, creative force behind Walt Disney Parks and Resorts that dreams up, designs and builds all Disney theme parks, resorts, attractions, cruise ships, real-estate developments and regional entertainment venues worldwide. Imagineering’s unique strength comes from a dynamic global team of creative and technical professionals building on the Disney legacy of storytelling to pioneer new forms of entertainment through technical innovation and creativity. Building upon the legacy of Walt Disney, imagineers bring art and science together to turn fantasy into reality and dreams into magic. Disney Imagination https​://di​sneyi​magin​ation​s.com​/abou​t-ima​ginat​ions/​about​-imag​ineer​ing/

The refocus from a product to consumers and their willingness to explore, enjoy and share is described as concepting. Concepting differs from positioning, which is the place a product or brand occupies in the customer’s mind. Concepting is designed around communication where brand value, vision and range of thoughts are intensively and collaboratively defined by both producers and consumers. As a result of this dialogue, a new product emerges with a focus on profitability and the lifecycle of the client (Kuiper and Smit, 2014).

Designing events: An integrative framework As a creative process, event design should be focused not on the amorphous “audience”, but on the individual participants or attendees. Step by step, an event designer should compose and orchestrate the emotional and intellectual stimuli of the event to deliver a meaningful and transformative experience. The challenge with experiences is that “the designers do not directly control the experience, and no two experiences are identical even when the same props and script are used” (Candi and Beltagui, 2016, p. 226). The event design proposal reflects the intended experience; however, each customer brings their own perceptions and expectations, which are usually grounded in their previous experiences and their cultural, religious or social background. As a result of the interaction between the event design and different individuals’ minds, a unique customer experience emerges. Thus, Svabo, Larsen, Haldrup and Berenholdt (2013) state that it is only possible to design for experience. The design, play and experience (DPE) framework (Winn, 2009), created for computer games, depicts and explains the relationship between the game designer and the player. This framework seems to be relevant and applicable in events (Figure 1.3). The event designer develops and plans every critical element of the event, having direct control over the event design. The process of consuming the event through participating

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or attending is a mediated experience and is greatly influenced by the event consumer and their social, cultural and experiential background. The event content component may include all the activities during the course of the event, for example, welcome drinks, an award ceremony, dancing, etc. Experience reveals the overall impression from the event, including participation, emotional response and interaction. The arrow from experience to event design reflects the influence of the objectives of the initial design and the iteration on the design once it has been experienced. The process of event design is very complex. There is no way it can be structured in a linear way – in an agreed order of steps. Actually, any suggested structure might kill the event designer’s imagination and creativity. Bearing this in mind, we suggest a flexible framework (Figure 1.4) which covers key phases of event design, but does not restrict the design process. The framework consists of three thematic areas: event design context, event design concepting and event design implementation. This framework also reflects the structure of the book.

Event Designer

Event Design

Event Content

Experience

Event Consumer

Figure 1.3  Design, content and experience in events. Adapted from Winn (2009).

Event Design Context

Event Design Concepting

Event Design Implementation

Figure 1.4  Event design framework.

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Event design context refers to the contextual environment in which event designers operate. Thus, Chapter 2 explores the experiential nature of events and their place and role in the current economic environment. Chapter 3 introduces and explores diverse concepts and theories of event experience. Event design concepting deals with the process of event concept development. In Chapter 4, we will discuss storytelling as an innovative strategy for event design. Several creative tools for concept development, including mind mapping and sketching, will be introduced. Chapter 5 is focused on atmospherics and servicescapes and on space planning. Chapter 6 explores the use of the five senses in event design. Chapter 7 discusses interactivity and the application of technologies to optimise event design. Event design implementation includes pragmatic team management (Chapter 8), project management tools and budgeting (Chapter 9), pitching and winning (Chapter 10), creative marketing (Chapter 11) and sustainability in event design, which is discussed in Chapter 12.

Summary This chapter introduced the idea of event design as an essential field of event studies. Event design was defined as a creative and purposeful arrangement of event elements to deliver a memorable and transformative experience. The concepts of design thinking and imagineering were explored. These are human-centred processes of creating new products and services using imagination. The chapter introduced an integrative framework for event design and outlined the structure of the book. In the next chapter, we will explore an experiential nature of events and critically review the conditions of experience economy and experience industry.

Hot takeaways for event designers •• •• •• ••

The design process links creativity, imagination and innovation. Design thinking is an integrative process of idea generation and is always centred around your customer’s needs. As an event designer, you should develop and master skills and qualities of empathy, integrative thinking, optimism, experimentalism and collaboration. Event design is a complex, nonlinear process, which includes concepting, content development and ongoing reflection on the experiences obtained by the event’s audience.

Discussion questions and activities ••

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You have been asked to organise a 1-day business conference for the IT industry. Please apply a design thinking framework (Figure 1.1) and explain what activities you plan to do in order to collect enough data and make a proposal.

Event design unpacked

•• ••

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In teams, discuss the elements of the personality profile (Figure 1.2) and how you can develop or improve the qualities and skills required. How can imagineering be employed as a strategy, a process and an instrument? Provide examples.

Further reading ••

Kuiper, G. and Smit, B. (2014). Imagineering: Innovation in the experience economy. Boston, MA: CABI. Great introduction to the world of imagineering. Essential reading for those who want to apply innovative and creative approaches in any areas of business and life.

••

Lockwood, T. (2010). Design thinking: Integrating innovation, customer experience, and brand value. New York, NY: Allworth Press. A very good collection of academic research texts which explore and discuss different aspects of design thinking in different areas of business.

••

Martin, R. (2009). The opposable mind: Winning through integrative thinking. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. This book introduces the concept of integrative thinking, using theory and insights from business leaders.

References Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R. and McDonnel, I. (2008). Festival and special event management (4th ed.). Milton, QLD: John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd. Berridge, G. (2012). Designing event experience. In S.J. Page and J. Connell (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of events (pp. 273–288). New York, NY: Routledge. Best, K. (2006). Design management: Managing Design strategy, process and implementation. Lausanne, Switzerland: AVA Publishing. Bladen, C., Kennell, J., Abson, A. and Wilde, N. (2012). Events management: An introduction. Abingdon, England: Routledge. Bowdin, G., Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R. and McDonnel, I. (2011). Events management (3rd ed.). Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann. Brown, S. (2014). Emerging professionalism in the event industry: A practitioner perspective. Event Management, 18(1), 15–24. Brown, T. (2008). Design thinking. Harvard Business Review, 84–92. Candi, M. and Beltagui, A. (2016). Designing services that sing and dance. In M. Luchs, S. Swan and A. Griffin (Eds.), Design thinking: New product development essentials from the PDMA (pp. 223–236). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons. Ferdinand, N. and Kitchin, P. (2017). Events management: An international approach (2nd ed.). Sage. Folkmann, M. (2013). The aesthetics of imagination in design. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Getz, D. (2012). Event studies: Theory, research and policy for planned events (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Kuiper, G. and Smit, B. (2014). Imagineering: Innovation in the experience economy. Boston, MA: CABI.

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Liedtka, J. (2015). Perspective: Linking design thinking with innovation outcomes through cognitive bias reduction. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 32(6), 925–938. Lockwood, T. (2010). Design thinking: Integrating innovation, customer experience, and brand value. New York, NY: Allworth Press. Martin, R. (2009). The opposable mind: Winning through integrative thinking. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The process (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Monroe, J. (2005). Art of the event: Complete guide to designing and decorating special events. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Orefice, C. (2018). Designing for events: A new perspective on event design. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 9(1), 20–33. O’Toole, W. (2011). Events feasibility and development: From strategy to operations. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann. Richards, G., Marques, L. and Mein, K. (2014). Event design: Conclusions and future research directions. In G. Richards, L. Marques and K. Mein (Eds.), Event design: Social perspectives and practices (pp. 198–212). Abingdon, England: Routledge. Shone, A. and Parry, B. (2004). Professional event management: A practical handbook. London, England: Thomson. Silvers, J. (2004). Professional event coordination. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Sonder, M. (2004). Event entertainment and production. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Svabo, C., Larsen, J., Haldrup, M. and Berenholdt, J. (2013). Experience spatial design. In J. Sundbo and F. Sørensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 310–324). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar. van Gool, W. and van Lindert, C. (2008). Imagineering. Breda: NHTV Internal Publications. Winn, B. (2009). The design, play and experience framework. In R. Ferdig (Ed.), Handbook of research on effective electronic gaming in education, Vol. 3 (pp. 1010–1024). New York: Information Science Reference.

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2 Events as an

experience industry

Chapter outline •• •• •• ••

Changes in the economy from an emphasis on commodities to transformative experiences; Principles of the experience economy; Aspects of authenticity, co-creation and shareability of experiences; CRUSH brands for Generations Y and Z.

Key words experience economy co-creation authenticity transformative experiences

This chapter provides an introduction to some of the critical debates around the value of planned events and their experiential nature. In this chapter, we will discuss the changing focus of economic values towards offering unique and authentic customer experiences. We will explore the philosophy of the experience economy and analyse events as part of the experience industry. We will also explore the changed relationship between brands and consumers and how this change affects contemporary event business. The concepts of authenticity, co-creation and shareability will be unpacked and explained. Finally, we will discuss event brand perspectives in light of the wants, needs and expectations of a new generation of consumers.

Experience industry In this book, we debate that events should be considered as an inseparable part of the experience industry. Pine and Gilmore (2013, p. 31) argue that Economically, you are what you charge for. A company that charges for undifferentiated stuff is in the commodities business. One that charges for tangible things is in the goods business. One that charges for the intangible activities

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its people execute is in the service business. But if it charges for the time its customers spend with it, then economically it is in the experience business. The experience industry is seen as an industry “where experiences are the main product, that is, a product that gives the customer a unique, personal, out-of-the ordinary and memorable event” (Nilsen and Dale, 2013, p. 80). The key characteristics of the experience industry are that: •• •• •• •• ••

It involves the simultaneous presence of producer and consumer; Consumer participation is required; It involves uniqueness and innovation; It is technologically oriented; It is non-material and cannot be stored (Nilsen and Dale, 2013, p. 75).

Contemporary, highly innovative and technologically advanced events in music, business, culture and sport fit into this definition. Current global trends suggest that with their focus on user or customer satisfaction and even transformation, the experience industry is a fast-growing sector with huge potential. In order to understand the experiential nature of the event industry and its trends, we will need to start with a discussion on the broad general process of the experience economy, where businesses begin operating within an experiential domain to increase product or service value.

From commodities to transformations THE ORIGIN OF THE EXPERIENCE ECONOMY CONCEPT Late one night … Joe [Joseph Pine] had made enough progress in his thinking to get out a piece of paper and write down all of the distinctions he could think of between each of the four economic offerings at the core of the four economies – commodities, goods, services and experiences – plus a fifth (and as it turns out, final) economic offering, transformations…. Joe knew he really had something – something that would change how executives saw the world of business. So, the next morning he typed it all up into a table, [and flew off] to see his favourite client – Jim Gilmore, then head of CSC Consulting’s process innovation practice…. They soon knew they would have to write about it – culminating in the 1999 book The Experience Economy: Work Is Theatre and Every Business a Stage (Pine and Gilmore, 1999) and later decided to join together to found Strategic Horizons LLP, a thinking studio dedicated to helping companies conceive and design new ways of adding value to their economic offerings (Pine and Gilmore, 2013, p. 23).

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Every economy is defined by its type of economic offering – what a buyer obtains from a seller in exchange for money. In their model of the progression of economic value, Pine and Gilmore (2011, p. 245) identify five such offerings: commodities, goods, services, experiences and transformations (Figure 2.1). An agricultural economy is focused mainly on planting, growing and producing commodities. A commodity (extracted) is an undifferentiated offer, such as apples, potatoes, coffee beans and so on. Such offerings are usually purchased on the basis of price. Goods (made) are physical objects such as equipment, clothing, furniture and cars. Goods emerged through the development of mass production during the Industrial Revolution. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, goods became the predominant economic offering on the market. Mass production means standardisation. Industrial products are market-oriented with a goal to provide every customer with a standardised product, be it a car or a hammer. Services (delivered) are defined as “intangible activities performed on behalf of another individual, such as cooking meals, distributing and merchandising goods, repairing tools or equipment, cleaning clothes, cutting hair …” (Pine and Gilmore, 2013, p. 25). The economic value was originally designed around providing a particular service and developing a positive customer relationship. Eventually, it was not enough just to produce good products; the task of a producer became also to offer value-added services: repair programmes, contract warranties, loyalty programmes and so on. By the second half of the twentieth century, more people were employed in the service sector than in goods production.

N

TIO ISA

M TO

S CU

Transformations Experiences Services

Goods

N

TIO ISA

DIT

Commodities

O MM

CO

Figure 2.1 The progression of economic value. Adapted from Pine and Gilmore (2011, p. 245).

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Experiences (staged) are memorable occurrences that engage an individual on a personal level. Examples include a sporting event, an art exhibition, a theatrical play or a festival. Research by Carter and Gilovich (2010) found that experiencing something makes people much happier than buying goods or services. The production or staging of experiences has overtaken the service economy in terms of investment, employment and overall value. The idea of staging experiences lies at the heart of event design. The key reason for purchasing a ticket to an event is the anticipated experience. By consuming event experiences, event attendees strive to create a “state of internal pleasure or wellbeing” (Nilsen and Dale, 2013, p. 71), and the task of event designers is to facilitate the production and consumption of these positive emotions, inviting the participants and attendees to become co-producers or co-creators of their own experience. The final element from Figure 2.1 is guided transformations, whereby “experiences are used to guide customers to change” (Pine and Gilmore, 2013, p. 32). An example might be a tour of India. The experience of local traditions, religious rituals and authentic cuisine can affect an individual’s worldview, change their preconceptions and transform them as a person. After the trip, they will see the world differently. Mobile technologies have also affected our lives and have hence transformed us. It is difficult to imagine our daily routine without the Internet and smart apps. How can an event experience become transformative? Kuiper and Smit (2014) suggest layering different experiences. Multiple layers of an event experience (décor, catering, performers, music, engaged staff) are interlinked through the attendee’s interpretation and interaction. The consumer of an event not only experiences the event, but also integrates the experience into their life. As a result, the event causes transformation to some extent.

Commoditisation versus customisation The model of the progression of economic value (Figure 2.1) also demonstrates the relationship between two processes of commoditisation and customisation. Commoditisation refers to a situation in the market when particular services or products become simple commodities in the eyes of the consumers (smart phones, cleaning, laundry, hairdressing). They are consumed without any additional value attached. Commoditisation removes the unique characteristics of the brand. Applying customisation, companies create offerings to meet the needs and wants of individual clients. This strategy leads to differentiation and value creation. For example, several sports brands like Nike and Adidas offer their clients an opportunity to customise footwear or clothing, which makes their offer very attractive and personalised. The customer is engaged in the process and it becomes a memorable event.

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The next step of the principles of the experience economy is mass customisation, which “breaks apart a company’s offerings into modules that then can be brought together in different ways for different customers like LEGO building bricks” (Pine and Gilmore, 2013, p. 28). A relevant example is insurance companies. Usually, they use a number of offerings, including car, household, life and travel insurance, but customise them according to their clients’ needs and expectations. As a result, insurance consultants can offer a variety of bundled products and services. These offerings are unique to a particular client but do not require any extra cost from the company. The future of event businesses lies in this direction. Rather than developing a new project from scratch every time a new client approaches with a great idea for a family party or cultural celebration, it is strategically more effective to have a portfolio of already developed “modules”, which can be mixed and presented as a unique value proposition. Such an approach will inevitably lead to a niche specialisation and expertise. Event companies without a clear vision and value proposition are unlikely to succeed in the current and future economic conditions with a focus on authenticity and cocreation of experience.

Value of authentic experience Any staged experience should meet the consumer’s requirement of authenticity. To be authentic, an experience should be “real” or “true to itself”. Pine and Gilmore (2013, p. 29) define authenticity as “purchasing on the basis of conformance to self-image”. As buyers, we all possess self-images or visions of who we are and who we want to be. When purchasing a product, service or experience, we want this purchase to correlate with this self-image. If the experience generates a “sympathetic vibration”, it is seen as authentic and real. If not, it is fake. Kuiper and Smit (2014) add that authenticity usually correlates with the professionalism of the service providers or experience designers. A company client, a hotel or restaurant guest or an event attendee should be engaged in interaction with the staff who play different roles depending on the business scenario. Goffman’s (1959) metaphor of theatre, which sociologically describes how we, as human beings, give performances and play different roles in front of each other, has become a dominant paradigm in the current changing economic conditions. The designers and producers of experience should act in such a way as to create and maintain the attention and engagement of the customers. An event manager who helps their guests to become familiar with the venue, a restaurant worker who helps with the choice from a menu, a night manager who is ready to discuss the latest football results with you and support you before an important corporate presentation the following morning – all act in a manner to draw their customers into an experience which, in turn, builds trust, connection and a positive relationship with the company and its brand.

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Authenticity of experience is a pivotal element of the experience economy. Customers are looking for experiential and emotive values in the offerings they buy and consume. A pint of Guinness in a traditional (and authentic) Irish pub could cost three times more in comparison to a bottle of the same brew in a supermarket. However, the owner of the pub is capable of charging a higher price because in addition to the stout, he/she provides a unique experience of wining and dining. Every visit to an Apple store can bring a new, extraordinary experience because of the way the products are showcased in the hi-tech interior and the overall atmosphere of luxury, quality and inspiration. Interestingly, Apple designers are inspired by the design of the hospitality experience in the Ritz-Carlton and several boutique hotels (Pine and Gilmore, 2013). The hoteliers were among the first to understand that they can no longer sell bed-nights and provide basic hospitality services. The guests demand an “experience” and are ready to pay a premium for it.

Co-creation Due to the oversupply in the market, which is caused by producers’ relatively easy access to their target audiences and low investment costs, consumers are challenged by the increased “communication noise” and time constraints when making a valuable choice (Kuiper and Smit, 2014). Usually, we make decisions based on the influence of

RESEARCH NOTE Sukalakamala, P. and Boyce, J. B. (2007). Customer perceptions for expectations and acceptance of an authentic dining experience in Thai restaurants. Journal of Foodservice, 18(2), 69–75.

Abstract: Multiculturalism is an intrinsic part of the historical formation and development of the USA. The USA is a multiethnic and multilingual society, a trend expected to increase in the future. One component of ethnicity is expressed in the manner by which ethnic groups prepare and serve their food. Today, Americans are more accepting of international cuisines. However, because of the high rate of restaurant failures, the importance of restaurateurs knowing consumer preferences and demands is essential to success. This research study investigated customers’ perceptions, acceptance and expectations related to an authentic Thai dining experience. Additionally, this research assessed the degree of authenticity customers expect from the dining experience. One of the major goals of this research is to provide information for ethnic restaurant owners/managers based on customer expectations for an authentic ethnic cuisine experience. Keywords: authentic dining, customer perceptions and expectations, Thai restaurant, Thai food

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the brand associations. Because of this subconscious decision-making, it is difficult for new firms and their products to attract our attention and persuade us to try and buy a new offering. A creative solution for this problem is to follow the changing perceptions of consumers: from consuming to co-creating. Whereas producers base the price of their product on the exchange value (money), consumers consider the user value (experience, transformation, status, image). To help consumers realise the value of a product, they should be involved in the production process, during which they co-produce or co-create a desirable experience. The idea of co-creation was introduced by Ramaswamy and Prahalad in a series of publications between 2000 and 2004 (Ramaswamy and Gouillart, 2010). The authors argued for the implementation of a new business strategy with a connected and empowered customer in the centre and networking as an essential competence of any enterprise. Ramaswamy (2011, p. 195) defines co-creation as “the process by which mutual value is expanded together, where value to the participating individuals is a function of their experiences, both their engagement experiences on the platform, and productive and meaningful human experiences that result”. As is clear from the definition, co-creation builds long-term relationships between multiple stakeholders. Reic (2017) argues that because events are temporal occurrences and rather limited in terms of creating long-term impacts, it is important for event designers to extend the impacts and design conditions to engage the audience before, during and after the event. During co-creation, a consumer plays an active role within the process of product development. This can be done through focus-group meetings, discussion panels, brainstorming sessions or online surveys. This collaboration with the customer can be applied at any stage of product development, realisation or feedback collection. Co-creation can also be utilised in the form of crowd sourcing via the Internet. The key advantage is the ability to reach a wider audience to generate innovation and fund raise. Co-creation leads to the development of a community of followers who share the brand’s values and demonstrate loyalty to the firm’s offerings. Godin (2008) introduced the concept of “tribal marketing” where a group of followers is created, their needs are interlinked and a new product is developed to meet the group’s wants and needs. Eventually, a fun club emerges around the product. For many cultural and music events and festivals, productive communication with the tribes and clubs of fans and supporters is a critical element of success. Without their support and participation in the content development, it is unlikely to deliver an interesting and desirable event.

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RESEARCH NOTE Crowther, P. and Donlan, L. (2011). Value-creation space: The role of events in a service-dominant marketing paradigm. Journal of Marketing Management, 27(13–14), 1444–1463.

Abstract: This paper provides a new conceptual contribution to our understanding of the value of events, examining their potential through the lens of service dominant logic. Through a conceptual analysis and discussion, augmented by a small-scale and exploratory empirical study using semi-structured interviews, it evaluates the growing resonance of events in modern-day marketing. The paper advances the conception of “value-creation space” as an overarching term to coalesce the otherwise disparate range of organisational events that have marketing imperative and/or impact. The underpinning virtues of events are recognised and used to build a discussion that can provide a coherent basis for further conceptual development. The findings depict considerable synergy between the collaborative nature of events and the service dominant logic notions of co-creation (or co-destruction) and co-production. However, an intuitive and well-executed event marketing approach is critical to events’ continued success as valuecreation spaces. Keywords: service dominant logic, marketing events, co-creation, co-destruction, qualitative interviews

Shareability of experiential offerings In the era of social media and smart apps, the offered experience must be shareable, otherwise it is unlikely to attract customers’ attention and convince them to pay. A new generation of consumers requires shareability. It is not enough to absorb and enjoy an experience. It should be captured and shared, liked and reviewed by friends, colleagues and subscribers. It is imperative for event designers to carefully design the shareable qualities of a planned event, be it a city-scale festival or a business conference. Videos, images or tweets from an event are often seen as a more reliable and truthful representation of what is happening or has happened in comparison to very formal press-releases or radio and TV adverts and interviews.

Know your consumers: Generations Y and Z Events as part of the experience industry should consider Millennials/Generation Y and Generation Z as one of their primary audiences. Millennials or Generation Y are those born between 1980 and 1996. By 2025, approximately 75% of the world’s workforce will be Generation Y. Generation Z are people born from the mid-1990s to the

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early 2000s. Both groups are social media generations. They depend on visual learning. They are the consumers who “live in the moment” (Smilansky, 2017) and demand quick, almost immediate responses in communication with brands. They are emotional consumers. They value emotional engagement with a product or service rather than its functional characteristics. They also look for authenticity, uniqueness and the opportunity to self-identify with a particular brand. To be accepted, explored and embraced by the new generation of consumers, a brand should have its own style, deliver a positive emotional experience, stay up-to-date, provide a safe feeling and be ecologically friendly (Van der Bergh and Behrer, 2016).

CRUSH event brand The basic building blocks of a successful event brand for the new Generations Y and Z can be summarised in the CRUSH acronym (Coolness, Realness, Uniqueness, SelfBrand Identification and Happiness) (Van den Bergh and Behrer, 2016). Figure  2.2 depicts the event brand leverage model where leverage is defined as “a combination of brand satisfaction, recommendation and closeness to ideal” (Van den Bergh and Behrer, 2016, p. 47). Brand leveraging guarantees that an event will remain “hot” for a long time.

Cool

Happiness

Real

Event Brand Leverage

Self-brand Identification

Unique

Figure 2.2 CRUSH event brand. Adapted from Van den Bergh and Behrer (2016).

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What coolness means The research conducted by Van den Bergh and Behrer (2016) on brand coolness identified three key components of being “Cool”. These are originality, which stand for an original way of servicing, performing or communicating with the audience; ­p opularity, which refers to the general public agreement that “this is in fact very cool”; and appeal, which describes the overall attractiveness and positive personal experience of communicating with an event. The main channels through which the standard of coolness is defined and disseminated are friends, TV, magazines and advertising. To meet the requirements of being “Cool”, an event should offer an original theme or attractive and interesting activities to achieve popularity and public recognition.

Realness We have already discussed the value of authenticity in the experience economy. It is about being true to yourself, not imitating or being fake. Generations Y and Z value honesty. Good event design is about being respectful, listening and discussing ideas with your audience. A brand should become a friend, transparent, open and friendly. As an event designer, you should think about the ways and rules of communication with the target audience of your event. What content do you share? Do you respect the audience’s feedback and critical comments? How do you introduce the original value of your event?

Uniqueness Van den Bergh and Behrer (2016, p. 147) suggest that brand managers think about and answer a series of questions which shed light on the uniqueness of the brand and its identity: •• •• •• ••

Who are you? What is your unique brand DNA; your identity that makes you stand out from competition? What are you? What ‘brand meaning’ do you offer me? What’s your brand’s vision?

Clear and straightforward answers to these questions will help Generations Y and Z to understand whether they share your values and interests and are willing to identify themselves with your vision. It is not easy to formulate and correctly communicate your event’s identity. What is so special in your event that other people should pay attention and spend their money and time attending or participating in it?

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Self-identification with the brand To help a target audience identify themselves with an event brand, it is important to make sure that the brand values reflect the central themes in the lives of Generations Y and Z: •• •• •• •• ••

Celebrating and enjoying youth, “party-cipation” and desire to feel part of the crowd; Killing boredom; Sharing good stories which are funny, unpredictable, reliable and bring emotions; Live and learn, which means exploring new domains, making mistakes, trying again and developing one’s own identity; Being a global citizen with a local identity (Van der Bergh and Behrer, 2016).

Happiness Van den Bergh and Behrer (2016) argue that happiness is “the most important emotion evoked by hot brands because this emotion caters for youths’ needs of hedonism and escapism” (p. 208). An event brand should be capable of arousing happiness, gratification and challenging experiences. An event brand should attract full attention and provide opportunities for individuals to connect with their peers.

Summary The chapter explored the world of the experience economy. Events have been introduced as part of the experience industry, where consumers pay for obtaining intangible but meaningful experiences. The principles of mass customisation were discussed. Attention was also paid to the value of authenticity. The argument is that nowadays, the meaning of authenticity has been transformed. It is no longer about history, heritage or traditions. Authenticity is about being true to yourself and your brand values, transparency and professionalism. This chapter calls for the application of creative and innovative strategies to meet the demands of consumers. Thus, co-creation puts a customer at the centre of the design process and creates an environment of ongoing productive conversation with the target audience. In this chapter, we also explored the CRUSH brand model and how this model correlates with the values, desires and dreams of Millennials and Generation Z. In the world of the experience economy and co-creative experience, where customers equally participate in creating and sharing unique experiences, events play an integral role. Event attendees are looking for new ways of participating and expressing their identities. There is a strong demand for new patterns of engaging and entertaining the audience. The competitive advantage and distinctiveness of an event lies in its ability to generate immersion and escapism, creating a unique and visitor-friendly environment that entices us to explore. While planning an event, event designers should

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consider multiple aspects of audience satisfaction and engagement. Interactivity, motivation, sensory stimuli and co-creative participation – all these aspects should be taken into consideration and thoroughly explored to deliver an enjoyable, captivating and transformative experience. The next chapter will follow on from the discussion of current trends in the experience economy and explore different relevant concepts of human experience and how they can be employed while designing events.

Hot takeaways for event designers •• •• •• •• •• ••

Events are part of the experience industry. Attendees pay for a ticket to immerse themselves and absorb a unique and authentic experience. The progression of economic value calls for the design of transformative experiences. Customisation of offerings is a strategic solution for event companies. Co-creation is a process of building long-term relationships with customers by inviting them to participate in concept or product design. A designed experience should be shareable. Consumers should be able to capture it, keep it for memories and share it with a wider audience. An event brand should be Cool, Real, Unique, help with Self-identification and provide Happiness.

Discussion questions and activities •• •• ••

••

What are the key characteristics of a planned event that demonstrate its experiential nature? How do commoditisation and customisation work in the event industry? Develop your statement and provide some arguments and examples. Choose any event you attended in the past and provide some examples of a shareable experience. What devices and social media did you use to share the experience with your subscribers and followers? You are about to launch a new event company. Apply a CRUSH model and explain the value of your company’s proposition.

Further reading

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Boswijk, A., Thijssen, T. and Peelen, E. (2007). The experience economy: A new perspective. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Pearson Education. This text provides an overview of the Experience Economy concept and its evolution. Contains a lot of case-studies and experts’ opinions.

••

Van der Bergh, J. and Behrer, M. (2016). How cool brands stay hot: Branding to Generations Y and Z. London, England: Kogan Page Limited. Interesting exploration of brand development and promotion for new generations of consumers.

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References Carter, T. J. and Gilovich, T. (2010). The relative relativity of material and experiential purchases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(1), 146–159. Crowther, P. and Donlan, L. (2011). Value-creation space: The role of events in a servicedominant marketing paradigm. Journal of Marketing Management, 27(13–14), 1444–1463. Godin, S. (2008). Tribes: We need you to lead us. London, England: Little Brown. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York, NY: Anchor Books. Kuiper, G. and Smit, B. (2014). Imagineering: Innovation in the experience economy. Boston, MA: CABI. Nilsen, B. and Dale, B. (2013). Defining and categorising experience industries. In J. Sundbo and F. Sorensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 65–83). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. Pine, B. J. and Gilmore, J. H. (1999). The experience economy. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press. Pine, B. J. and Gilmore, J. H. (2011). The experience economy: Updated edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press. Pine, B. J. and Gilmore, J. H. (2013). The experience economy: Past, present and future. In S. J. and F. Sorensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 21– 46). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Ramaswamy, V. (2011). It’s about human experiences … and beyond: To co-creation. Industrial Marketing Management, 40, 195–196. Ramaswamy, V. and Gouillart, F. (2010). The power of co-creation: Build it with them to boost growth, productivity and profits. London, England: Free Press. Reic, I. (2017). Events marketing management: A consumer perspective. Abingdon, England: Routledge. Smilansky, S. (2017). Experiential marketing: A practical guide to interactive brand experiences. London, England: Kogan Page Limited. Sukalakamala, P. and Boyce, J. B. (2007). Customer perceptions for expectations and acceptance of an authentic dining experience in Thai restaurants. Journal of Foodservice, 18(2), 69–75. Van der Bergh, J. and Behrer, M. (2016). How cool brands stay hot: Branding to Generations Y and Z. London, England: Kogan Page Limited.

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Chapter outline •• •• •• •• ••

Definitions of experience; Theories of product, interactive and meaningful experiences; The nature of immersive experience; Liminality and communitas in event design; Event experience framework.

Key words experience escapism immersion interaction meanings

Event participants and attendees are interested in the emotions, feelings and memories that an event leaves. Thus, it is imperative for event designers to address these needs to create a unique and extraordinary experience. Designing both physical and sensory experiences, event designers should put a customer at the centre of any design model, with consideration of their motives, perceptions and expectations. It is not enough just to plan an event. What is important is to compose and deliver the authentic experiential value of an event, taking into account its personality and meaning. This chapter explores several of the most important experience concepts, including product and interactive experiences, meaningful experiences and immersion. We propose a new framework of event design that synergises immersion, the event environment and symbolic interaction, to create the optimum experience.

What is experience? Different positive experiences have become an extremely important element of business, with consumers demanding quality and unique experiences from products and services. Experiences provide people with greater happiness than material goods and possessions (Bhattacharjee and Mogilner, 2014). This change in consumer expectation should be carefully considered by all industries, particularly the events industry, as

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events are a medium of experience (Swaminathan, 2018) that can provide a “unique special moment” and memories to event attendees (Berridge, 2007, p. 5). Generically, the term “experience” can be either a noun or a verb and therefore there is already scope for a multifaceted interpretation. Tynan and McKechnie (2009) argue that the word “experience” as a construct is problematic, as it operates as both a noun, such as the “event experience”, and a verb, as in “to experience an event”. There is no single agreed definition of what constitutes “experience”. Instead, there appear to be multiple definitions. Dewey (1938) understands experience to be a result of individual interaction with the environment. Nilsen and Dale (2013) define it as an increase in value, either personal or economic, from different goods and services. Kuiper and Smit (2014) see experience as a psychological process of attaching meaning and emotions to a product or service which leads to both an emotional response and rational thinking. An emotional response entails activation, which is the intensity of the emotion activated by an encounter with a product; impression, which can be described as the inner feelings that emerge while encountering a product; and expression, which is a visible, physical expression of emotions (Kuiper and Smit, 2014). O’Sullivan and Spangler (1999, p. 120) formulate the following key components of an experience: •• •• •• •• ••

Involvement and participation of the individual in the consumption; The state of being physically, mentally or emotionally derived through such participation; A change in knowledge, skill, memory or emotion derived through such experience; The conscious perception of having intentionally encountered, gone to or lived through an activity or event; An effort directed at addressing a psychological or internal need of the participant.

Event industry trends have changed over several years, with post-modern event consumers now expecting personalised, memorable, unique and extraordinary experiences at events. We are witnessing a significant move towards more experientially led events with more engaging activities and new creative formats. Events will always produce some form of emotional outcome for attendees, whether this be behavioural or cognitive, satisfaction, or disappointment (Geus, Richards and Toepoel, 2016). Thus, an event experience can be seen as an emotional encounter with the event content that affects an individual’s perceptions, mood and pre-, during- and post-event behaviour. There is an array of theories and concepts that describe and explain multiple aspects of product, service and event experience. In the following sections, some of the most important frameworks will be discussed.

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Product experience Brassington and Pettitt (2006, p. 228) define a product as “a physical good, service, idea or place that is capable of offering tangible and intangible attributes that individuals or organisations regard as so necessary, worthwhile or satisfying that they are prepared to exchange money, patronage or some other unit of value in order to acquire it”. As events provide a form of service as well as tangible and intangible attributes and often require an exchange of money to attend, they are products. Product experience is a result of interacting with products (Hekkert and Schifferstein, 2008). Focusing on the emotions of consumers whilst interacting with a product (or event), Desmet and Hekkert (2007) identify three types of experiences: Emotional experience – A personal attachment or connection, leading to either positive or negative emotions; Aesthetic experience – A characteristic that is appealing to the human senses; Experience of meaning – Personal ethical or symbolic value. A combination of all three types of product experience will lead to the formation of a core emotion, which can be either positive or negative (Desmet and Hekkert, 2007). Different elements of a planned event can instigate positive emotions, for example, astonishment, curiosity, desire and inspiration; or they can cause boredom, sadness and disappointment.

Interactive experience The interactive experience framework contains of three contexts that facilitate a successful individual perception of experience. These are personal, social and physical contexts (Falk and Dierking, 1992). The framework claims that individual experiences are developed based on personal, social and physical environments. Through these contexts, experiences are different for every individual, and therefore individuals are partly responsible for developing their own experiences, something that should be remembered when designing an event experience. Each of the contexts are detailed in Table 3.1. McKenna-Cress and Kamien (2013) call for advocacy for the visitor experience, which should involve setting cognitive and affective goals and deep exploration of visitor perceptions, their learning styles and behaviour within the designed physical environment. An event or an exhibition project should be “for someone” and not just “about something” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 26).

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Table 3.1 The Three Contexts of Interactive Experience

Context

Experiences

Personal

Personal interests, motivations, emotions, memories and knowledge etc. These characteristics enable the individual to select the experience based on what it means to them. Concerned with shared experiences, completing this experience as part of a group. Experiences can be influenced and enhanced through sharing and interacting with others. Includes the environment, location and sensory stimuli of the experience. This should be a balance of spontaneity and a controlled situation.

Social

Physical

Adapted from Kuiper and Smit (2014).

Realms of experience As explained in Chapter 2, the experience economy has become a new business paradigm that outlines a shift from the consumption of products to the consumption of services and experiences. Pine and Gilmore (1999) present a framework that captures the multiplicity and inter-connectedness of individual experiences. It includes the four realms of entertainment, education, escapism and aesthetics (see Figure 3.1). ABSORPTION

Entertainment

Education

PASSIVE

ACTIVE

Aesthetics

Escapism

IMMERSION

Figure 3.1 The four realms of experience. Adapted from Pine and Gilmore (1999, p. 51).

The realms are defined by the level of an individual’s participation and the degree to which they are either absorbed or immersed in the experience. Table 3.2 summarises the key characteristics of each of the quadrants of the framework. In addition to the four individualistic experience realms, Ayob, Wahid and Omar (2011) add a new, fifth dimension, festivity to illustrate and explore the attendee’s experience within planned event settings. The dimension of festivity is of a collective, shared and communal nature. Festivity is introduced as a “shared feeling or spirit” which creates a sense of connection and togetherness. As special happenings, events

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Table 3.2 The Quadrants of the Experience Realms

Quadrant

Experiences

Passive and Immersive

Referred to as aesthetic experience. Individuals do not play an active role, such as a sight-seeing tour with a driver. Passive and Absorptive Experiences through entertainment. Individuals choose the experience but are a passive aspect and have no influence (e.g., listening to a band). Active and Absorptive The educational aspect where individuals take an active part in the experience, such as an educational lecture, quiz or game. Active and Immersive Individuals actively participate to become immersed in their environment and escape daily reality, known as escapism. An example is where individuals become so focused and involved in a computer game that all external factors are forgotten. Adapted from Pine and Gilmore (1999).

are capable of intertwining individualistic experiences with shared festivity, allowing the participants and attendees to weave their own narrative and achieve their own desired level of participation, absorption and immersion within the settings of communal celebration. Ayob et al. (2011) also suggest a measurement scale of event experience to understand the totality of emotions and feelings the attendees obtain on-site (Table 3.3). Table 3.3 Items to Measure Event Experience

Entertainment

Education

Escapism

Aesthetics

Festivity

•• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

Activities here were amusing to watch Watching others perform was captivating I really enjoyed watching what others were doing Activities here were fun to watch My experience here has made me more knowledgeable I learnt a lot It stimulated my curiosity to learn new things It was a real learning experience I felt I played a different character here I felt like I was living in a different time or place The experience here let me imagine being someone else I completely escaped from reality I felt a real sense of harmony Just being here was very pleasant The setting was very attractive/pretty bland The environment here was full of joy and cheerfulness People at the event seemed to be in high spirits and festive The event was a meeting point for community to enjoy I felt the celebration at this event

Adapted from Ayob et al. (2011, p. 8).

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RESEARCH NOTE Geus, S. De, Richards, G. and Toepoel, V. (2016). Conceptualisation and operationalisation of event and festival experiences: Creation of an event experience scale. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 16(3), 274–296.

Abstract: Experiences are becoming increasingly important in events and festivals, which are prime manifestations of the experience economy. However, research on event experiences has generally been concerned with economic impacts and visitor motivations (Gursoy, D., Kim, K. and Uysal, M. [2004]. Perceived impacts of festivals and special events by organisers: An extension and validation. Tourism Management, 25(2), 171–181). Few studies have attempted to operationalise and quantitatively analyse experiences, and there is no consensual definition regarding the essence of experiences (Walls, A. R., Okumus, F., Wang, Y. and Kwun, D. J.-W. [2011]. An epistemological view of consumer experiences. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(1), 10–21). This article develops an Event Experience Scale (EES) for event experiences. In this exploratory study, the item generation and selection for this scale are presented in three phases, specifying the domain of construct and generation of items, item selection and scale purification. An 18-item scale, comprising four dimensions – affective engagement, cognitive engagement, physical engagement and experiencing newness – with satisfactory values for Cronbach’s alphas (.83, .86, .86 and .87), emerged. Implications for theoretical and practical research are discussed. Keywords: events, event experiences, festivals, scale development, leisure experiences, experience measurement

Meaningful experience Boswijk, Thijssen and Peelen (2007) ague that meaningful experience entails sensory perception, emotion, two types of experience (Erlebnis and Erfarung) and the final stage of giving meaning to an experienced object or activity. The process of experiencing something begins with the activation of our senses. To understand environmental surroundings and process signals to the brain for interpretation and reactions, the human body relies on the faculties of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell, known as the five senses (Ackerman, 1990; Hellier, 2017). The five senses are responsible for everything we feel, taste, hear, smell and see. The brain processes each of the senses, enabling us to explore and make sense of the outside world. Ackerman (1990, p. 11) argues “there is no way in which to understand the world without first detecting it through the radar-net of our senses … our senses define the edge of consciousness”. The way all five senses can be applied in event design will be thoroughly discussed in Chapter 6.

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Sensory perception leads to emotion, both positive and negative. Emotions are “an involuntary, unintended, non-deliberate way of dealing with the outside word” (Frijda, 1986 cited in Boswijk et al., 2007, p. 21). Emotions manifest themselves through feelings, expressive and motivated behaviour and physiological changes. When you enter an event venue, you will start to immediately evaluate the surroundings. You will explore the space design and meet the event designers and other attendees. This first encounter with the event will generate feelings (positive or negative), and these feelings will guide your behaviour and possible physiological changes during the course of the event. This is a dynamic process; the emotions and behaviour can change several times, depending on the context and atmosphere at the event. Experience (Erlebnis) is “an immediate, relatively isolated occurrence with a complex of emotions that make an impression and represent a certain value for the individual within the context of a specific situation” (Boswijk et al., 2007, p. 22). This is a direct result of sensing and feeling. If you are not welcomed at an event, you feel unhappy and upset, and thus you have a negative experience. If a performance is colourful and engaging, you have an overall positive experience. The overall feeling of playfulness and pleasure in the activity gives rise to positive emotions through positive immediate experience (Erlebnis). The meaningful experience (Erfarung) can be described as obtaining •• •• ••

Knowledge through observation; Practical skills; Conscious knowledge (Jantzen, 2013).

Hence, the meaningful experience, when you experience and attach meanings, is an interactive process of action and reflection, of cause and effect, which has meaning for the individual in different contexts (Boswijk et al., 2007). Meaningful experiences of an event involve all senses, increase the level of concentration and focus, touch a person emotionally and alter their sense of time. This process is unique and has an intrinsic value. While experiencing the event context, attendees interact with the event elements and zones, reflect on their feelings and emotions and construct meanings.

Immersion in events Immersion is one of the key prerequisites of a positive and rich event experience. As indicated in the previous section, Pine and Gilmore (1999) regard immersion and absorption as contrasting qualities. However, other authors, for example, Mainnemelis (2001), do not emphasise the difference and use both terms as synonyms.

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We will follow Hansen and Mossberg (2013) and define immersion as “a form of spatiotemporal belonging in the world that is characterised by deep involvement in the present moment. Immersion involves a lack of awareness of time and a loss of selfconsciousness” (p. 212). As a concept, immersion is highly relevant and widely applied in computer games. Players become totally immersed in the game, and the line between reality and virtual reality becomes blurred. In gaming, individuals can become so focused and involved in the game itself that all external factors and environments are forgotten (Cheng, She and Annetta, 2015). Toft-Nielsen (2014) identifies three different types of immersive gaming experiences: Sensory immersion – When the game’s surface features leave a perceptual impact on the gamer; Challenge-based immersion – The cognitive element of wanting to meet the challenges set by the game; Imaginative immersion – The gamer’s absorption in the game story. These forms of immersion leave emotional impacts on the gamer, whether it be adrenaline, excitement, anxiety, confusion, enjoyment or stress release (Oswald, Prorock and Murphy, 2014). An immersive event is thought to involve an increased amount of participation and interaction from the audience. The immersive environment encourages the participants to become more involved within the experience, which leads to an increased level of satisfaction with the event and therefore results in a positively influenced event experience. Caru and Cova (2007) argue that immersion occurs within an enclavised, secure and thematised context. An enclavised context of a planned event should have specific boundaries which help the participants and attendees to contrast this “territory” and the obtained experience with their daily routine. The “start” and “finish” points help the audience to switch off from their daily life and enter a liminal zone with unfamiliar rules, new roles and unexpected encounters. The consumers “get into a separate world of enhancement where all the worries and hardships that they face in their ordinary life disappear” (Caru and Cova, 2007, p. 41). The proper design of welcoming activities, the decoration of entrances and exits and a well thought out “farewell” ritual could facilitate the process of immersion. In the enclaved environment of an event, the consumers expect the event planners to take control of the situation. They allow themselves to be guided and led. That is why a sense of security is paramount (Hansen and Mossberg, 2013). Usually, event goers treat events as risk-free spaces where they can enjoy their time. The itineraries, guides and programmes and friendly staff can facilitate the creation of a safe and relaxed atmosphere.

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The theme is understood as a “symbolic packaging of the context” (Caru and Cova, 2007, p. 41). The event theme should communicate the relevant content in an understandable, meaningful and memorable way (Hansen and Mossberg, 2013). Again, the key task of the event designer is to facilitate the process of absorption and immersion, to stimulate the visitors’ senses and imagination, so they can escape from their everyday life and enjoy an extraordinary experience which is intensive, positive and intrinsically enjoyable (Arnould and Price, 1993).

How the audience becomes immersed Caru and Cova (2007) identify three stages of immersion: nesting, investigating and stamping. The nesting stage includes familiarisation with the event environment and a sense of comfort and membership. During the investigating stage, the participants explore new elements and extend their comfort zone. Stamping deals with imagination and involves visitors’ creativity and meaning making. Another theory which explains the origins of the immersive experiential domain in events is the theory of liminality. A French anthropologist, van Gennep (1960), identified and explained the structure of traditional rites of passage, which define and accompany a person’s transition from one social category to another (birth rites, wedding rituals, adulthood, funeral rituals). He argued that the structure of such rites incorporates the phases of separation, transition and reintegration. For example, during religious pilgrimage, pilgrims leave their homes and relatives; they detach from their normal life. This is separation. During transition, when all the statuses and ranks have been stripped away, pilgrims experience fellowship with other pilgrims and shared performance. Reintegration occurs when, because of the adventurous experience, a transformed person returns and reintegrates into their community and family (Arnould and Price, 1993). The transitional phase belongs to liminal people, who exist in a “moment in and out of time”. Liminality is a creative space, where no structural relations exist. It creates an opportunity of “becoming other” through experiencing new norms, a new environment and a new way of living. One of the central activities within a liminal space is the experiencing of communitas, which is a feeling of oneness and flow. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) developed a theory of flow or optimal experience, which describes the conditions when we literally lose a sense of time because of an interesting activity, task or challenge we are involved in. Several conditions should be met to experience this flow: •• •• ••

An activity should have a clear direction, structure and goal; The participant must have a good balance between his or her skills and observed challenges; Fast and clear feedback should be provided to the participant to allow them to adapt to the requirements of the task and remain involved in the flow.

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Pre-event communication Tickets Travel

Separation from Everyday Life

Liminal Zone and Communitas Enclaved, themed, secure Physical Environment Interaction and Celebration

Return Change in attitude and behaviour Post-event communication Re-Integration with Everyday Life

Figure 3.2 Liminality in events.

Liminality and communitas are the critical requirements for immersion. Let’s take an example of a music festival (Figure  3.2). Before the event, you prepare to attend the festival. You communicate with your friends and you read reviews and feedback about the chosen event. You consider particular needs, expectations and motives. Finally, you buy a ticket. And then you enter a separation zone. You take a day off from work or from study, you pack your belongings, you leave your home and quite often your city or town. You are on the way. Upon arrival at the festival, you enter the liminal zone. As Getz (2012) argues, this is a cognitive and affective dimension of the experience. This is a special place, where you and the rest of the audience have put aside your social statuses; everyone is equal, every attendee is a part of the festivity. The transition from your routine life to the event space and then between different experiencescapes within this space affects the process of immersion into the festival activities and overall aura of celebration. After the festival ends, you return home and reintegrate with normal life as a transformed and renewed person. In a so-called “bubble of consumption”, inside the liminal zone, consumer immersion is supervised by facilitators. Such facilitators include the personnel (event designers, volunteers and security officers), other consumers (event attendees), tangible products involved in the experience (gifts, handouts at a business conference, merchandising) and the physical environment (event venue, accommodation, layouts) (Hansen and Mossberg, 2013).

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RESEARCH NOTE Pielichaty, H. (2015). Festival space: Gender, liminality and the carnivalesque. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 6(3), 235–250.

Abstract: Purpose – Contemporary outdoor rock and popular music festivals offer liminoidal spaces in which event participants can experience characteristics associated with the carnivalesque. Festival goers celebrate with abandonment, excess and enjoy a break from the mundane routine of everyday life. The purpose of this paper is to explore the way gender is negotiated in the festival space. Design/methodology/approach – The rock and popular music tribute festival known as “Glastonbudget” provides the focus for this conceptual paper. A pilot ethnographic exploration of the event utilising photographic imagery was used to understand the way in which gender is displayed. Findings – It is suggested that liminal zones offer space to invert social norms and behave with abandonment and freedom away from the constraints of the everyday, but that neither women nor men actually take up this opportunity. The carnivalesque during Glastonbudget represents a festival space which consolidates normative notions of gender hierarchy via a complicated process of othering. Research limitations/implications – This is a conceptual paper which presents the need to advance social science-based studies connecting gender to the social construction of event space. The ideas explored in this paper need to be extended and developed to build upon the research design established here. Originality/value – There is currently a paucity of literature surrounding the concept of gender within these festival spaces especially in relation to liminality within events research. Keywords: gender, fantasy, events, festival, liminality, carnivalesque

Overall, the process of experiencing an event is dynamic and complex. Figure  3.3 introduces a holistic framework of event experience where an interplay of immersion, event environment and symbolic interactions sets the ground for a positive, meaningful and transformative event experience. During the course of an event, attendees symbolically interact with one other and the overall environment of the event. To meet the expectations of the participants and attendees, planned events should be provocative and stimulating through tangible and intangible elements of the event environment (Getz, 2012). Tangible elements of events are things you can touch, such as food, beverages and merchandise. Intangible element of events are things you cannot physically touch, such as the event dimensions, the event flow and aspects of service such as performances. Environmental properties, including music, video and audio effects, noise, décor and layout, set an event apart from being something that is merely observed and make it instead an interactive

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Immersion

Event Experience

Event Environment

Symbolic Interactions

Figure 3.3 Event experience. A conceptual framework.

and immersive experience. Sensory stimuli “set the scene” for the event experience; they captivate the audience. Liminality and communitas and the overall atmosphere of festivity create unique conditions for symbolic interaction. At a festival or business event, the community of participants and attendees co-create extensively through meaning creation and interpretation. Active participation, interactivity and engagement lead to audience satisfaction.

BOX 3.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: BERTIE WATKINS, ARTISTIC DIRECTOR, COLAB THEATRE, LONDON Bertie set up COLAB Theatre six years ago and has since produced seven immersive shows. He also set up and is Artistic Director of the COLAB Factory, which is London’s first ever immersive specific theatre space. Bertie is discussing the immersive performance Montagues and Capulets set in a warehouse squat during the 1990s, when rave culture was massive.

In what way was the performance designed to educate the audience and stimulate their thinking? Well as a theatre production, its primary focus is to entertain the audience. As the production is an alternative take on a classic play, the audience will be expected to make comparisons between the original and the adaptation, which will stimulate thought process and in some respects educate them as to how classic stories can be just as relevant today and how the narrative of the play can be equally as relatable and enjoyable when put into a more contemporary context. I would say that the way the actors engage

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with the audience would stimulate thinking as they’re [the audience] presented with a question or task and would need to respond, not as themselves, but in a way relevant to the context of the performance, which would require quick thought processes and remaining engaged with the surroundings.

Could you describe the intended atmosphere and how you aimed to achieve this through the use of sensory stimuli? So first of all, it was important to create an environment that the audience could get completely lost in and almost lose themselves and become a part of the performance. We wanted it to be a completely immersive experience to the point where the audience felt so consumed by the atmosphere that they take on personas of fictional characters to blend in with their surroundings. In relation to the performance specifically, we wanted to create or promote a feeling of animosity between the two houses [Montagues and Capulets] to further immerse the audience and give the impression that there is a genuine hatred between the characters and impose this upon the audience. With the adaptation being set in the thick of 1990s rave culture, we tried to portray this by heavily embedding the environment with visual props, and the stage itself was an old warehouse, which we felt gave the impression of a bare, industrial environment which adds to the aesthetic of the environment. And we tried to appeal to the audience’s senses through a heavy focus on audio-visual effects, like strobe lights and lasers to reinforce the concept of a rave atmosphere. Sound and lighting was a really useful tool in creating ambiance and transitioning between scenes.

What was the intended outcome for the audience? The main aim was to expose the audience to a completely immersive theatre production that turned the tables on a traditional theatre setting to produce an experience that is made unique by their own interactions with the performance and by engaging in activities that have the potential to alter the outcome of the play. And through a sense immersion within the environment, the audience could experience an escape from reality and feelings of release and happiness with the performance.

In what way was the audience participation expected to influence their individual experience? I think being actively involved within the performance it makes the experience that bit more exciting in comparison to a traditional theatre production. As the audience are encouraged to interact and join in with the play, they’re expected to feel like a part of the performance and through their contribution they’re expected to feel more invested with the outcome of the play. But of course, the audience are encouraged to interact at whatever level feels comfortable for them. So, there will be individuals who experience the performance from a more observational standing point; however, they’ll still feel the effects of the immersive atmosphere and be able to move around and explore the environment freely. Overall, I think through actively engaging with the performance, the audience are able to develop a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction and because they had the power to control their own experience in some respects, rather than simply being the receiver of a simulated or constructed reality, they were able to influence their surroundings. This was expected to encourage self-expression and a sense of freedom to break away from the rigid confines of their everyday lives and even potentially act as catharsis for them.

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Summary This chapter follows on from the discussion of the experience economy and experience industry in Chapter 2. We have explored different aspects of experience theory. we have reviewed dominant concepts of product and interactive experience, as well as the evolution of a seminal model of the four realms of experience. It became evident from the discussion that experience is a complex but essential aspect of any planned event. As with tangible and intangible products, events can enhance experiences through having personal and meaningful connections with attendees. The chapter has explored the process of producing meaningful experience through sensory perception and emotion. We have also introduced a concept of immersion and examined how it is applied in the realm of planned events. We have discussed anthropological concepts of liminality and communitas and explained how they can be employed by event designers. Finally, a new model of event experience design has been introduced. The model deals with immersion, event atmosphere and diverse symbolic interactions which lead to meaning creation. The next chapter will explore the power of a good story and how to apply storytelling in event concepting.

Hot takeaways for event designers •• •• •• ••

Experience is a psychological process when we attach meaning and emotions to a product, service or event. A state of immersion is a key component of a meaningful experience at any event. It includes familiarisation, exploration and imagination. An anthropological theory of liminality can be used as a guide for event design. It explains how attendees feel before, during and after the planned event. Event experience is guided and depends on the quality of immersion, event environment and symbolic interaction of the attendees.

Discussion questions and activities •• ••

••

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What are the conditions for designing a unique and meaningful event experience? Choose any event you have attended or participated in (a festival, a sporting competition, a business conference) and discuss the quality and value of the event experience using one of the experience theories (product experience, interactive experience or realms of experience). Choose another event and apply a suggested event experience framework (Figure  3.3). How did event environment affect your perceptions and expectations? Provide some evidence of an immersive experience. How did you interact with the other attendees?

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Further reading ••

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper Collins. A famous investigation of “optimal experience”. The author explores the conditions that make experience genuinely satisfying and memorable. In the state of “flow”, people experience enjoyment, creativity and mindfulness.

••

van Gennep, A. (1960). The rites of passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A seminal anthropological investigation of the nature of the ritual ceremonies and rites that accompany the landmarks of human life. The underpinnings of liminality are introduced and discussed.

References Ackerman, D. (1990). Natural history of the senses. New York, NY: Vintage Books. Arnould, E. J. and Price, L. L. (1993). River magic: Extraordinary experience and the extended service encounter. Journal of Consumer Research, 20(1), 24–45. Ayob, N., Wahid, N. and Omar, A. (2011). A measurement model of event experience within festival and special events. In Proceeding of the 5th international conference of the Asian Academy of Applied Business (AAAB). Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Berridge, G. (2007). Events design and experience. Oxford, England: Elsevier. Bhattacharjee, A. and Mogilner, C. (2014). Happiness from ordinary and extraordinary experiences. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(1), 1–17. Boswijk, A., Thijssen, T. and Peelen, E. (2007). The experience economy: A new perspective. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Pearson Education. Brassington, F. and Pettitt, S. (2006). Principles of marketing. Essex, England: Pearson Education. Caru, A. and Cova, B. (2007). Consumer immersion in an experiential context. In A. Caru and B. Cova (Eds.), Consuming experience (pp. 34–47). London, England: Routledge. Cheng, M.-T., She, H.-C. and Annetta, L. A. (2015). Game immersion experience: Its hierarchical structure and impact on game-based science learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 31(3), 232–253. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper Collins. Desmet, P. and Hekkert, P. (2007). Framework of product experience. International Journal of Design, 1(1), 57–66. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: Touchstone. Falk, J. and Dierking, L. (1992). The museum experience. Washington, DC: Howels House. Frijda, N. (1986). The emotions: Studies in emotion and social interaction. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Getz, D. (2012). Event studies: Theory, research and policy for planned events (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Geus, S. De, Richards, G. and Toepoel, V. (2016). Conceptualisation and operationalisation of event and festival experiences: Creation of an event experience scale. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 16(3), 274–296. Hansen, A. and Mossberg, L. (2013). Consumer immersion: A key to extraordinary experiences. In J. Sundbo and F. Sorensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 209–227). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. Hekkert, P. and Schifferstein, H. (2008). Introducing product experience. In H. Schifferstein and P. Hekkert (Eds.), Product experience (1st ed.). New York, NY: Elsevier. Hellier, J. (2017). The five senses and beyond: The encyclopaedia of perception. CA: ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.

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Jantzen, C. (2013). Experiencing and experiences: A psychological framework. In J. Sundbo and F. Sorensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 146–170). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. Retrieved from www​.elga​ronli​n e.co​m /978​17810 ​0 4210​ .0001​3.xml​ Kuiper, G. and Smit, B. (2014). Imagineering: Innovation in the experience economy. Boston, MA: CABI. Mainnemelis, C. (2001). When the muse takes it all: A model for the experience of timelessness in organisations. Academy of Management Review, 26(4), 548–565. McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. (2013). Creating exhibitions. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Nilsen, B. and Dale, B. (2013). Defining and categorising experience industries. In J. Sundbo and F. Sorensen (Eds.), Handbook on the experience economy (pp. 65–83). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. O’Sullivan, E. and Spangler, K. (1999). Experience marketing: Strategies for the new millennium. Abingdon, England: Spon Press. Oswald, C., Prorock, C. and Murphy, S. (2014). The perceived meaning of the video game experience. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(2), 110–126. Pielichaty, H. (2015). Festival space: Gender, liminality and the carnivalesque. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 6(3), 235–250. Pine, B. J. and Gilmore, J. H. (1999). The experience economy. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press. Swaminathan, D. (2018). The art of building experiential events: An event designer’s almanac. Chennai: Notion Press. Toft-Nielsen, C. (2014). Worlds at play: Space and player experience in fantasy computer games. Nordicom Review, 35, 237–249. Tynan, C. and McKechnie, S. (2009). Experience marketing: A review and reassessment. Journal of Marketing Management, 25(5–6), 501–517. van Gennep, A. (1960). The rites of passage. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

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4 Storytelling and event concepting

Chapter outline •• •• •• ••

Event concepting strategies; Key principles of storytelling in event design; Value of brainstorming: planning and facilitating a brainstorming session; Creative tools for event designers: mind maps, mood boards and sketching.

Key words storytelling event concept event idea value creation visualisation brainstorming mind maps

This chapter will thoroughly discuss the application of storytelling principles while creating the concept for a new event. The advantages of storytelling will be presented by comparing it to a conventional 5Ws approach. The basic principles and elements of storytelling will be explained and discussed. The second part of the chapter will focus on the application of several design techniques to organise and visualise event concepts and design ideas. Firstly, brainstorming methods will be explored. Secondly, creative tools such as mind mapping, mood boards and sketching will be introduced and explained.

From event idea to event concept: The 5Ws Every event begins with an idea. An event idea can be described as a simplistic description of what the event is about; what the event is planned to achieve; and its basic objectives, target audience, place and time. Event ideas usually lack details. They inspire, emphasise new directions and suggest unusual event themes. But it is unlikely they can be used to evaluate an event project’s feasibility or financial requirements.

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EVENT IDEAS •• •• ••

A party on a roof to celebrate the end of the academic year A lantern festival in the park sometime in June A fundraising marathon to support a local cancer society

In order to do so, an event idea should be transformed into an event concept, a clear statement that shapes the event into a feasible business project. The concept connects separate elements of the event idea or ideas to create a whole. As Kuiper and Smit (2014) state, “[T]he concept works like an umbrella: the binding factor between all the predetermined goals, requirements, conditions, needs, starting position and expectations of people that become a part of the concept” (p. 93). The most conventional way to transform any interesting event idea into a concept is by using a 5Ws framework, suggested by Goldblatt (2005). The proponents of this method emphasise its strategic nature and easy applicability. Event creators should provide answers to five questions: who, what, why, when and where? Thus, who refers to the event target audience and any involved stakeholders. What helps to identify the overall event experience, event goals and mission statements. Why explains the reasons behind the event. When and where determine the event timing and location.

EVENT CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT – APPLYING THE 5WS Event idea: End of the Year Award Party for students at the University of Derby. Who: Undergraduate and postgraduate university students and academic team. What: An award ceremony followed by a gala dinner and dance. Key theme: New York in the 1920s. Black and white décor, theme-inspired dress code. Why: To celebrate the end of the academic year in the university. When: 14th of April 2018. Where: Buxton Campus, Buxton, UK.

The 5Ws model sets the direction for the event project by identifying and strategising its key components. The next step is to allocate a team of professionals, conduct a market and feasibility study and implement project management tools to plan, deliver and evaluate the event project. However, this model has a significant limitation. Being purely focused on the event management aspect, the concepts created by applying the 5Ws quite often are not

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easily conveyable and meaningful. To put it simply, they do not appeal to people’s imagination. As discussed in the previous chapters, nowadays businesses operate within a very competitive and changing environment, where creativity, co-creation and imagineering determine the overall success or failure of new products and services. The current business focus on customers’ meaningful and transformative experiences dictates new rules and approaches. If an event concept does not inspire or motivate, no one will attend or participate. Hence, a new approach is required for event concepting, with a focus shift from event management to event design. Pink (2008) has introduced new terms to reflect the changes in the perceptions and expectations of consumers. These terms are “High Concept” and “High Touch”. High Concept “involves the ability to create artistic and emotional beauty, to detect patterns and opportunities, to craft a satisfying narrative, and to combine seemingly unrelated ideas into a novel invention” (Pink, 2008, pp. 51–52). High Touch “involves the ability to empathise, to understand the subtleties of human interaction, to find joy in one’s self and to elicit it in the others, and to stretch beyond the quotidian, in pursuit of purpose and meaning” (Pink, 2008, p. 52). The outcome of a High Concept with High Touch in events is a transformation of the participating or attending group of people with a lasting effect (Kuiper and Smit, 2014). It is obvious that a 5Ws model does not work anymore if the task is to create a long-lasting experience and not just a project to be completed. It is necessary to search for another, more creative method. One of the trending approaches in the business world is storytelling, which is designing brands or entire businesses around an interesting and captivating story.

Storytelling in business Human memory is story based (Schank, 1990, p. 12). Story-based memories facilitate learning and understanding. Guber (2007, p. 54) defines storytelling as “a force for turning dreams into goals and then into results”. Stories generate more positive feelings in customers. They sound more convincing than facts. They raise awareness and increase brand trust. For example, recent research in marketing indicates that the story content in a TV advertisement increases positive emotions (Escalas, 2004) and creates expectations (Rosen, 2000). Good stories stimulate imagination, and also awake archetypes and stimulate archetypal behaviour. An archetype represents an idea that is not learnt but is with us from birth. It is a part of the collective human subconscious (Megehee and Woodside, 2010). The Hero, the Creator, the Ultimate Strength, the Antihero – these are the examples of popular archetypes which are successfully employed by famous brands through storytelling. Table 4.1 provides several examples. Primarily, people make their decisions through their emotions, and only after the decision is made do they try to justify it using logic (Mooney, 2018). Stories facilitate these processes of decision making and justification.

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Table 4.1 Archetypes, Story Gists and Examples

Archetype

Story gist

Brand examples

Ultimate Strength The Hero

When an obstacle is there, it must be overcome; strength must be proven in use. Fortitude, courage and victory; a journey and transformation. Universal message of destruction and attraction of evil; the bad dude. Creative inspiration and the potency of imagination; originality, authenticity.

Timex – “It takes a licking and keeps on ticking” Michael Jordan and Nike shoes Che Guevara, Harley-Davidson Walt Disney, Apple

The Antihero The Creator

Adapted from Megehee and Woodside (2010, p. 607).

INDUSTRY EXAMPLE: HARLEY-DAVIDSON It is one of the world’s enduring brands. It is the midlife crisis brand. ‘What we sell,’ a HarleyDavidson marketing executive once famously said, ‘is the ability of a 43-year-old accountant to dress in black leather, ride through small towns and have people be afraid of him’. A Harley rider’s love for his motorcycle has nothing to do with how fast it goes or how much it costs. It has to do purely and simply with the Harley story: when that accountant rides his Harley, he is unleashing himself from his family and work commitments and, even if only for three hours a week, becoming somebody he has never been and never will be – except when he gets his Harley. (Papadatos, 2006, p. 382)

A study by Lundqvist, Liljander, Gummerus and van Riel (2013) demonstrates that a good story creates positive associations with a brand and may increase consumers’ willingness to pay for it. A brand, experienced through a story, retains positive associations which affect the overall customer value of its products and services.

Key parameters of a good story Your event story should be simple, unique, concrete and emotional. Simple stands for your ability to create and tell a story that is easily comprehended by the audience. Unique refers to the authentic qualities of the story and the event you create. Concrete means that you have identified a clear goal, aim and objectives and have communicated them accordingly. And finally, emotional refers to the ability of your story and event to target emotional levels of your audience by using all senses and offering an extraordinary and creative design.

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Fog, Budtz, Munch and Blanchette (2010) identify four key elements of any good story, be it a fairy tale or a commercial advertisement on TV. These are message, conflict, characters and plot. The message. Storytelling in event design should be applied not for the sake of a good story only, but also to communicate key values of the event, its authentic characteristics and uniqueness of experience. Hence, a clearly defined message should be developed. What is the central theme of your event? How does it correlate with the demands and expectations of your target audience? The creators of the immersive interactive game Sherlock Escape Game, inspired by a famous BBC series, send the following message to the fans of the franchise: “London needs Sherlock: unfortunately, it has you. Can you step into the shoes of the legendary detective? Good luck: The Game Is Now”. The meaning of the message is clear. You are invited to buy a ticket and escape into the universe of Sherlock’s London and “dive into an all-new mystery”. The conflict. Fog, Budtz, Munch and Blanchette (2010) argue that every good story contains a tension between the unpredictable chaos and predictable harmony of a described situation. Something should happen and change the ordinary world. Look at your event idea. What is the purpose of the event? What does it offer? For example, if you aim at organising an evening for senior retired people where they can mix and mingle, learn dancing or listen to music, you are definitely solving one of the most serious issues in their life, which is loneliness. Retired lonely people quite often suffer from lack of attention and communication. Your event can help solve this problem by providing a place where they can be engaged in interesting activities and feel attention and care. Another example is a fundraising event to support one of the local charity organisations. The conflict is obvious: we have so many people around us who need support and care, but usually we are too busy with our own problems and we do not have time to think about other people’s needs. Your event can help attract attention to a charity and support it financially. The characters. As Fog, Budtz, Munch and Blanchette (2010, p. 41) mention, “a successful conflict needs a hero”. Who are the main characters in your story/event? The audience? The performers? You as a company? One of the very useful and successful techniques of identifying your event target audience is creating stories around them. Take your notepad or use a whiteboard. Sketch a person, a male or a female. And invent a story about them. Ask yourself, who are they? What are their names? Where do they live? Where do they work? What do they like? How much money do they earn? What music do they listen to? What food do they prefer? What are their problems? What makes them happy? What events do they attend? Why? What attracts them? This exercise will help you to visualise your audience, to understand what they expect from an event that is similar to yours, how they can be reached, what sort of message you should send and what method of communication you should choose. The plot. The plot unites all the critical elements of your story into a consistent narrative with a nice flow. The plot is responsible for the progress of the story. A good

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story often begins by creating a scene: the hero is introduced and certain details are uncovered so we get an idea of what to expect. A presentation of conflict then follows. The story develops over time until the story reaches its climax and the hero contributes something that solves the conflict. The hero reaches a goal. When projecting this process onto your event and its story, consider the key idea behind your event – the core message you plan to communicate. The event should have a purpose which helps to resolve a particular conflict. Who are the characters or maybe only one main hero? For example, when you design for a launch event where a new model of Ferrari should be presented, Ferrari could be your main character, or it could be a person who drives the car. It all depends on the event content and its context.

STORYTELLING TIPS FROM PIXAR ••

•• ••

Choose an idea. What is the core idea of your story? Does it offer many possibilities for dramatic moments? Do all of your characters, narrative decisions, scenes and themes pertain to your core idea? Are you constantly exploring and expanding the seed of your story as it progresses? Have you branched off in directions that aren’t part of your core idea? Creating compelling characters. What is important to them? What do they believe in? How can you use their values and history to make the events of your plot have stronger impact on your characters? Drama and conflict. What is the most dramatic question in your story? What is the answer the audience must stick around to see? (Movshovits, 2015)

RESEARCH NOTE Mossberg, L. (2008). Extraordinary experiences through storytelling. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 8, 195–210.

Abstract: A global trend in the experience industry is to build an entire business or parts of a business around a story. This might apply to a single product, an organization or a destination. The purpose of this conceptual paper is to discuss and highlight critical issues to reveal new insights into conceptualizing tourism and hospitality organizations as stories. For the consumer to be immersed in the story and to have an extraordinary experience, two preconditions are proposed which relate to the type of service and the setting: one is the need for the experience to take place in a hedonic service consumption setting and the other is a servicescape that allows the consumer to step away from everyday reality. It is also proposed that involvement and co-creation, as well as a guide, can be used to facilitate a tourist's immersion in a story and a servicescape. Should the organization succeed in creating a unique story, the benefits include the difficulty other organizations face copying the achievement and attention from the media. Keywords: storytelling, servicescape, dramaturgy, extraordinary experiences, strategy, hospitality

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There are several aspects of storytelling that event designers can adapt from computer games. Game designers distinguish three different storytelling dimensions: •• •• ••

Out-of-game: Any storytelling that is done on the computer while the game is running, but when the players are not actually playing the game; In-game: Covers any storytelling that occurs while players are actually playing the game; External materials: Any storytelling done completely outside of the computer, such as in an introduction written in the manual, maps or a collection of artefacts (Rouse, 2005).

Interestingly, the same dimensions can be designed and applied in events. Out-of-game (out-of-event) storytelling can stand for all the activities and communication you run with the target audience. It can include promotional materials, adverts, presentations and so on. The purpose of the out-of-event story is to create a positive and engaging aura around the event, to attract attention and to build trust and rapport with the event audience. In-game (in-event) storytelling is responsible for everything that happens at the event. It is not an itinerary but the meaningful narrative your event delivers. If it is the award ceremony, what is the content of the event? What do you want your guests to experience? Whom do you want them to meet? Finally, external materials can consist of souvenirs, beautifully designed event programmes and so on.

Event story planning process In this section, we will discuss the process of crafting an original, interesting and attractive story around and about your event. There are three key stages in this process: research, imagination and testing and implementation.

Research This is the initial stage of story development. This is where you can apply the 5Ws framework discussed at the beginning of this chapter. The task for your design team is to collect as much information as possible about the event, whether it is your own event or an external project requested by a client. Consider the location, the dates, a core theme for the event, its target audience, the event objectives and the key stakeholders. Make some preliminary financial calculations, conduct initial market analysis and learn about your competitors. The research stage provides you with the basic data and determines the thematic orientation of your event project. At the end of this stage, you should have a clear understanding of what sort of event you want to create (a music concert, a sporting competition, a club night, a business workshop, a new product presentation). A client brief, which is a generic description of an event they want you to organise, can already contain all the required information. If this is your own project, you will need to spend several hours or days collecting and structuring all the necessary data about a new event.

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Imagination At this stage, storytelling is actually happening. Imagination consists of the development of the key elements of your story and its overall design. Make sure that you have formulated and explored all four key elements of a good story: message, conflict, characters and plot.

Testing and implementation The final stage of a storytelling design involves testing and implementation. First, the task is to test a new story, to evaluate the emotional reaction of the audience to the content of the story and to measure its social and business value. Share a story you created about the event with your colleagues, your client and other relevant stakeholders. Try to co-create with them, as co-creation is the best strategy to produce meaningful products and services. After you have adjusted the plot of the story and added more details about the conflict or main characters, the story is ready to be communicated to the wider population. The implementation stage should always be accompanied by reflection and evaluation of the success of the applied storytelling strategy. There are at least three areas you should pay attention to: •• •• ••

Meaning – Has your event story communicated all the meanings you attached to it? Purpose – Has the audience fully understood and approved the overall purpose of your event based on the story you shared? Outcome – Have you achieved what you planned to achieve with this particular story? (adapted from Mooney, 2018)

Creative tools for event concept development This part of the chapter will explore different techniques and tools that facilitate idea generation and concept formulation. We will discuss how brainstorming, mind mapping, sketching and other methods can positively affect the event design process while working on event concepts.

Brainstorming The transformation of an idea into an event concept is a creative process. It requires “big thinking”, an open mind and the willingness to explore alternatives and a friendly and supportive environment. Nowadays, when we say “idea generation process”, we mean brainstorming. Brainstorming is defined as “attacking a problem from many directions at once, bombarding it with rapid-fire questions in order to come up with viable solutions” (Lupton, 2011, p. 16). The basic steps for a brainstorming session are: 1. Appoint a moderator. The moderator is a leader of the session responsible for recording new ideas (on a whiteboard, big pads of paper, etc.) and engaging other participants

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to share their thoughts. Another role of the moderator is to define a time limit for the brainstorm session. You cannot create and discuss ideas all day long. Ideally, the duration of the session should be around 15–20 minutes. 2. State the topic. It is pointless to share ideas in general, for the sake of sharing. Assume you want to design a new cultural event. This is the topic for discussion. Now every participant in the session should rapidly reflect on the topic and suggest one or several ideas of what this event could look like. Is it a cultural fair or a music festival? Do you want to celebrate the diversity of the world’s cultures or only local traditions? 3. Note down everything. Only by writing down all the suggested ideas, even if they sound unrealistic, can you create a full picture of possibilities and opportunities. During the session, no idea should be rejected as this can create tension between the participants and limit the number of opportunities to solve a problem or create an interesting event concept. In addition, recording of the ideas helps your mind to focus on new thinking. And finally, if the idea is not written down, it does not exist as an opportunity, only as an assumption. 4. Follow up. Later, some of the ideas can be combined to provide a richer description or possible solution. Other ideas can be discarded or saved for future projects. You can rank ideas depending on their feasibility, cost effectiveness, novelty and overall attractiveness. There are three types of ideas, namely: •• •• ••

NOW ideas, feasible ideas with low risk and high acceptability; HOW ideas, future ideas, not yet feasible, but challenging and inspiring; and WOW ideas, innovative ideas, energetic and feasible (Kuiper and Smit, 2014, p. 179).

As a result of a successful brainstorm session, you should be able to identify at least several WOW ideas which are beneficial from the perspective of event concept development.

Visual organisation of event concepts Ideas and concepts for events should be properly organised and documented. There are several techniques that facilitate the process of a concept visualisation. These are mind maps, mood boards and sketching.

Mind maps The mind map is “a loose visual composition of the concepts and their connections” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 224). Mind mapping can be used: •• ••

To explore all the creative possibilities of a given subject; To clear the mind of previous assumptions about the subject, thus providing space for new creative thought;

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•• •• •• •• ••

To generate ideas that result in specific action being taken, or physical reality being created or changed; To encourage more consistent creative thinking; To create a new conceptual framework within which previous ideas can be reorganised; To capture and develop “flashes” of insight when they occur; To plan creatively (Buzan and Buzan, 2003, pp. 132–133).

To begin mind mapping your event concept, take a large piece of paper and several different coloured pens and write down a central word or image. Then create a web of associations around this core element of your mind map. Use simple drawings or words to describe the event, for example, event objectives, settings, elements of décor, target audience, key facts, key terms, event genre, venue locations, different experiences, colour schemes and so on. Use different colours for different branches and use lines to link some elements from different branches. This will help you to identify similarities and differences between categories. The task is to summarise the discussion of a brainstorm session, to highlight and visualise key findings. The next step is to transform your initial, often a bit chaotic, map into a concept diagram, which “refines the broader concepts and connections made in the mind map, and … is drawn and labelled in more detail to establish clusters of ideas that make sense working together” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 226).

Mood boards A mood board is an arrangement of sets of visual data which event designers use to visualise different event experiences they design for. A mood board can be used for personal and team inspiration and for discussing and communicating key event design ideas to a client or any other stakeholder involved in the process. Mood boards provide “a ‘space’ to arrange the collected visuals in a meaningful manner to the designer that enables the flow of thoughts, inspirations, and creativity for design outcomes” (Cassidy, 2011, p. 230). The mood board development process begins after the event concept has been brainstormed and several WOW ideas have been identified, agreed upon and mind mapped. Now the task is to visually capture the sensory experience of the event audience. Mood boarding employs so-called soft and hard tools. The soft tools refer to intangible qualities such as awareness, observation, intuition and inspiration. Hard tools include all tangible data available (Cassidy, 2011). This can be objects, shapes, textures, figures, colours and so on. Some of the images, for example, can have a visual quality, others, cultural importance.

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There are no prescribed rules on how to create a mood board. McDonagh, Bruseberg and Haslam (2002) advise using abstract images as they provoke a more intensive emotional response than literal images. Your mood boards should be “active” and change and transform with the project (McDonagh and Storer, 2004). They should provide visual stimuli to encourage discussion and facilitate communication between event designers and clients.

Sketching The purpose of sketching is to activate your visual thinking and communicate possibilities, visual options and thoughts in an interactive and playful way. The process of visual thinking consists of four simple steps: look, see, imagine and show (Roam, 2012). Look stands for collecting information and screening. You can take visual information from everywhere. For example, you can look through a client brief and sketch the requirements, venue ideas, number of guests, style of music and so on. You can also summarise key suggestions at the end of a brainstorm session. See refers to selecting and clumping. At this stage, we are selecting the best ideas and conducting a more detailed investigation. Such questions as “How many?” “When?” and “How?” help us to visualise each of the important details of the event project. Imagine reflects a skill of seeing something that is not there. This is an act of pure creativity. Manipulate the ideas; analyse the event from different perspectives; add emotions, experiences and feelings to your sketch. Show is responsible for making it all clear. Find the best framework to present the results of sketching to your colleagues and clients. Of course, this is not a linear process. Roam (2012) suggests seeing it as a series of loops, which continue again and again until you clearly see what event you want to develop. It could be a portrait, a chart, a map, a flowchart or a storyline. There is no need to be a professional artist to start sketching your ideas. All you need is a pen or pencil, a paper or a whiteboard and a rubber. You can use simple shapes, lines and forms to create an interesting and easy-to-communicate sketch.

Summary This chapter explored the peculiarities of event concepting. It introduced storytelling, a relatively new creative approach in event design. By applying key elements of storytelling, which are the message, the conflict, the characters and the plot, you can significantly improve the attractiveness and value of your event concepts. “Story is a basic principle of mind” (Turner, 1996, p. v); thus, telling stories about/around your event is the best way to communicate your values, intentions and objectives to the audience. This chapter also introduced and discussed several important design tools, which should be in the arsenal of any event designer. Brainstorming can be employed for idea sharing and problem solving. Mind mapping helps to summarise and categorise the discussion. Mood

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boards are used to introduce and communicate the experiences and feelings you plan to design for. And sketching is a good way to visualise the design ideas. In the next chapter, we will discuss the key principles of atmospherics and servicescapes. The fundamentals of spatial planning will be also explored.

Hot takeaways for event designers ••

•• •• •• ••

Event concepting is a creative process. Storytelling provides an event designer with an opportunity to attract and engage the audience at the initial stages of event development. A good story should be simple, unique and emotional. Storytelling involves research, imagination, and testing and implementation. Visual organisation of event ideas and concepts provides visual stimuli to encourage discussion and creative solutions. Sketching and mood boards are used to introduce and communicate diverse experiences you plan for your event.

Discussion questions and activities ••

Storytelling in action You have been hand-picked by the well-known perfume brand “Dior” to design and launch a promotion campaign for its new product, Sauvage fragrance for men. Please brainstorm and design a story for the brand. •• •• •• •• ••

Introduce the main characters. Tell the audience about their past, lifestyle, habits and hobbies. Put your story into a context. Where and when is your story happening? Surprise the audience. What is the message? What is the conflict? Have a clear picture of who your audience is. Do not just retell the narrative; visualise it.

Stories must have meaning. What is the main takeaway from your story? Ideally, your audience should be convinced enough to go and buy the product you promote. As a storyteller, you should be able to help them to associate themselves with the main characters, their image and charisma. Because we live in the era of the experience economy (see Chapters 1 and 2), we do not want to just buy a product, a new fragrance; we want to have access to a new captivating experience. ••

Ideas for a surreal event You have been contacted by a client who admires Salvador Dali and his paintings. He wants to organise a birthday party for his wife and to design the event around two themes: Dali’s surrealism and the Alice in Wonderland story. Please run a brainstorm session, apply all the basic steps discussed in this section and come up with several WOW ideas about the concept of a birthday party themed around surrealism and the Alice in Wonderland book. Consider décor, venue design, catering, entertainment and other activities.

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Sketching in practice •• •• ••

Tea Party Disco Night Grandmother’s Birthday

Select an event from the list, brainstorm and sketch your design ideas.

Further reading ••

Mooney, M. (2018). Trust me, I’m a human: Why storytelling works at work. Red Fox Books. A short interesting text about the value of storytelling in business.

••

Movshovits, D. (2015). Pixar storytelling: Rules for effective storytelling based on Pixar’s greatest films. Bloop Animation. An exploration of Pixar’s storytelling techiques.

••

Roam, D. (2012). The back of the napkin: Solving problems and selling ideas with pictures. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish International. An outstanding guide to how to solve problems and create and sell new ideas using sketching.

References Buzan, T., & Buzan, B. (2003). The mind map book. London, England: BBC Worldwide. Cassidy, T. (2011). The mood board process modeled and understood as a qualitative design research tool. Fashion Practice: The Journal of Design Creative Process & the Fashion Industry, 3(2), 225–252. Escalas, J. (2004). Imagine yourself in the product: Mental simulations, narrative transportation, and persuasion. Journal of Advertising, 33(2), 37–48. Fog, K., Budtz, C., Munch, P. and Blanchette, S. (2010). Storytelling: Branding in practice (2nd ed.). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Goldblatt, J. (2005). Special events: Event leadership for a new world. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. Guber, P. (2007). The four truths of the storyteller. Harvard Business Review, 85(12), 53–59. Kuiper, G. and Smit, B. (2014). Imagineering: Innovation in the experience economy. Boston, MA: CABI. Lundqvist, A., Liljander, V., Gummerus, J. and van Riel, A. (2013). The impact of storytelling on the consumer brand experience: The case of a firm-originated story. Journal of Brand Management, 20, 283–297. Lupton, E. (2011). Graphic design thinking: Beyond brainstorming. New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press. McDonagh, D., Bruseberg, A. and Haslam, C. (2002). Visual product evaluation: Exploring users’ emotional relationships with products. Applied Ergonomics, 33(3), 231–240. McDonagh, D. and Storer, I. (2004). Mood boards as a design catalyst and resource: Researching an under-researched area. The Design Journal, 7(3), 16–31. Megehee, C. and Woodside, A. (2010). Creating visual narrative art for decoding stories that consumers and brands tell. Psychology and Marketing, 27(6), 603–622. McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. (2013). Creating exhibitions. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Mooney, M. (2018). Trust me, I’m a human: Why storytelling works at work. Red Fox Books. Mossberg, L. (2008). Extraordinary experiences through storytelling. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 8, 195–210. Movshovits, D. (2015). Pixar storytelling: Rules for effective storytelling based on Pixar’s greatest films, Bloop Animation. Independently Published, 2015. Papadatos, C. (2006). The art of storytelling: How loyalty marketers can build emotional connections to their brands. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23(7), 382–384. Pink, D. (2008). A whole new mind: Why right-brainers will rule the future. London, England: Marshall Cavendish International. Roam, D. (2012). The back of the napkin: Solving problems and selling ideas with pictures. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish International. Rosen, E. (2000). The anatomy of buzz: How to create word-of-mouth marketing. London, England: Harper Collins. Rouse, R. (2005). Game design: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Worldware Publishing. Schank, R. (1990). Tell me a story: A new look at real and artificial memory. New York, NY: Charles Scribner & Sons. Turner, M. (1996). The literary mind: The origins of thought and language. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

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5 Atmospherics and servicescapes

Chapter outline •• •• ••

Key elements of atmospherics; Successful servicescapes; Design of spatial layouts and visitor flows.

Key words atmospherics servicescapes venue layout visitor flow

In this chapter, we will explore the concepts of atmospherics and ­servicescapes and understand how they can be successfully applied in event design. The intended and perceived atmosphere of festivity will be defined. The key dimensions of a servicescape, such as ambient conditions, spatial functionality and artefacts and symbols will be discussed. We will introduce the fundamentals of event space planning, including spatial layouts and visitor flows. The purpose of the chapter is to offer solutions on how to design a desirable event space and to meet the expectations of different target groups.

Defining atmospherics and servicescapes The event experience is produced as a result of the event environment (Berridge, 2007), which in turn is shaped by the event atmosphere. Environmental psychology, which studies the interplay between our behaviour and the built and natural environment, maintains that a change in surroundings significantly affects our behaviour, experience and wellbeing (Gifford, 2002). Atmosphere determines the quality of the environment and entails factors that facilitate production of the desired conditions. Thus, we can discuss “good”, “busy”, “encouraging” or “depressing” atmospheres in a café, park, hotel or event. Atmospherics is a term coined by Kotler (1973) to describe a deliberate design and manipulation of space in order to create certain positive emotional effects in buyers to enhance their purchase probability. The properties of an atmosphere are taken in

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Table 5.1 Sensory Channels and Dimensions

Visual dimension

Aural dimension

Olfactory dimension

Tactile dimension

•• •• •• ••

•• Volume •• Pitch

•• Scent •• Freshness

•• Softness •• Smoothness •• Temperature

Colour Brightness Size Shapes

Adapted from Kotler (1973, p. 51).

through an individual’s senses, resulting in features of the atmosphere commonly being described in terms of sight, sound, scent and touch (see Table 5.1) (Kotler, 1973). Kotler (1973) argues that taste, the fifth sense, does not apply directly to atmosphere. However, in Chapter 6, we will discuss how to design a meaningful and memorable event experience using this particular sensory channel. Kotler (1973) also distinguishes between the intended atmosphere and the perceived atmosphere. The intended atmosphere entails the set of sensory qualities which an event designer intends to use while creating an experiential environment for clients. For example, one may think of applying elements of virtual reality, artificial scents, background music and specific décor to create an atmosphere of celebration, interactivity and festivity at an event. On the other hand, the perceived atmosphere is due to individual reaction to the sensory stimuli, clients’ expectations and cultural preferences. The event attendees can have a very different attitude to the designed surroundings, tangible objects, smells, sounds and visual elements at an event venue. A strategic use of atmospherics can affect the event audience in three ways: ••

•• ••

Attention creation. To stand out from the competitors, a combination of colours, noise, extravagant décor and technological solutions can be applied by event designers to emphasise the uniqueness of the event product and experience offered. Message creation. The atmosphere at an event is able to communicate the event designer’s intentions, values, passion and level of concern for the attendees. Affect creation. Sensory and visual stimuli can captivate the audience and directly arouse visceral reactions and trigger sensations (Kotler, 1973).

A servicescape is a built surrounding where production and consumption of services occur simultaneously (Bitner, 1992). At any event, both event designers and event attendees produce and consume the content at the same time. The quality of the materials used in the construction of the service or eventscapes can communicate specific symbolic meanings and affect the overall impression of the service [event] provided. The most important elements of a servicescape design are outlined in Table 5.2.

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Table 5.2 Servicescape Dimensions

Dimension

Components

Ambient conditions •• •• •• •• •• Spatial layout and •• functionality •• •• •• •• Signs, symbols and •• artefacts •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

Temperature Lighting Noise Music Scent Machinery Equipment Furnishings Size and shape Spatial relationships Signage Walls Artwork Certificates and diplomas Photographs Personal items Floor coverings Tablecloths Lighting Furniture

Adapted from Bitner (1992) and Nelson (2009).

A combination of atmospherics and servicescape provides conditions that create a unique experience for attendees. The key task of an event designer is to thoroughly plan and implement every useful element of an eventscape to engage the participants and attendees in a unique immersive experience.

RESEARCH NOTE Nelson, K. B. (2009). Enhancing the attendee’s experience through creative design of the event environment: Applying Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 10(2), 120–133.

Abstract: Environmental psychologists who have studied transactions between individuals and their physical settings have known for almost 40 years that when an individual’s environment is changed, his/her behavior and experience are also changed by the environment (Gifford, 2002). This article explores the relationship between the design elements utilized in experience creation and emotional connection

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for event attendees, as well as for those who provide the experiences including the service, through the application of Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective (1959) and the components of atmospherics (Kotler, 1973) and servicescapes (Bitner, 1992). Relevant design elements of these existing models are then applied to the event environment, where the dramatic elements of an event unfold in an interactive theatrical setting. Keywords: dramaturgy, atmospherics, servicescape, event design, environmental psychology

A typical scenario for event designers is to think of the event space as four bare walls or an empty space (see Figure 5.1). A space is a three-dimensional location where an event can take place. It might be an open field, a park, a stadium, a conference hall, a ballroom, a lobby or a foyer at a hotel. The task is to temporarily transform this space into a place, a location in space to which people assign meaning (Lehtovuori, 2010). An event designer should consider what has to take place in this space to create a meaningful event experience. Something has to fill the space: objects or settings which trigger emotions and positive behaviour (see Figures 5.2 and 5.3). One of the first steps is to define the size and the scope of the space and examine the existing conditions. Lower ceilings, for example, can give a sense of intimacy, but could also feel tight and claustrophobic (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013). Matthews (2016) advises paying attention to the already available constructions and objects in the chosen event space. Columns, obstructive corners, overhanging balconies, air walls and unmovable furniture as well as doors and windows may require your careful consideration and extra work. What is your main intention in this particular event? How will your guests feel after they enter your event venue? Will they perceive joy and playfulness? What about graphic styles, shapes of objects and overall sensory perceptions? These are just a few questions your design team should consider while designing the atmospherics and eventscape. The event designer’s creativity and knowledge of atmospherics and servicescapes helps to transform boring empty venues into authentic places of experience, joy and happiness. The event design elements, such as the venue’s size and scope, décor, colour schemes, lighting, acoustics and sound, should provide emotional connection with the event. This, in turn, delivers a desirable “wow” effect. As Ali, Ferdinand and Chidzey (2017, p. 74) mention, “being ‘wowed’ and constantly reminded of the unforgettable is an emotional response to a significant occurrence in one’s life”.

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Figure 5.1 Empty conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany. Courtesy of Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz.

Figure 5.2 Jaguar presentation, conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany. Courtesy of XE meets Berlin/Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz.

Figure 5.3 Corporate dinner, conference hall, Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz, Berlin, Germany. Courtesy of Umspannwerk Alexanderplatz.

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RESEARCH NOTE Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The resources. New York, NY: Routledge. Special events are emotional and sensory experiences. The more an event can appeal to the emotions and the five senses, the more memorable and successful it will be. People attend events to be transported into an environment that is different from their everyday life, whether it is a concert, a championship football game or a formal dinner. Frequently, these events are held in what would ordinarily be venues that are not conducive to such a fantasy environment unless they are transformed through the magic of well-designed décor. Successful event décor design needs talent and considerable thought to be effective. It has become a speciality in itself and the designer is a key member of the production team, with the producer and designer working together to bring the wow factor of décor into the event (Matthews, 2016, p. 53).

Spatial planning Another key aspect to consider and thoroughly develop is spatial planning and venue layout. Every section in your event space, as well as the venue as a whole, should be explored as a three-dimensional physical experience (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013). The selection and implication of the right layout can significantly improve the overall attendee experience and their willingness to stay and enjoy the event. When you apply spatial design to a conference or a symposium, the following options can be considered (Figure 5.4):

Figure 5.4 Different venue layouts.

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A chosen layout should reflect the genre of an event. For example, if the key intention is to brainstorm and discuss, the most appropriate layout is boardroom. This layout facilitates idea sharing and sense of equality. If your task is to design a space for a workshop or interesting talk, then you can consider a crescent or U-shaped option to facilitate interactivity and communication with the audience. Finally, if you organise a more formal event, with several speakers and a lot of tasks and activities, it is reasonable to apply a classroom option. Nowadays you can find a lot of useful space design tools online, for example, Meetingmatrix (https://online.meetingmatrix.com/) or Socialtables (www.socialtables. com/). Such software helps in producing professional venue designs in both 2D and 3D formats.

Visitor flow A visitor f low is the planned route you design to engage event attendees with the venue space and the content of the event. Approaches differ: some events offer very flexible and open visitor paths; others restrict the audience to particular venue zones. It is possible to outline four types of visitor flows: directed, radial, random and open (McKenna-Cress & Kamien, 2013): Directed visitor flow. This flow gives a very limited choice to the attendees. Usually such flows are applied in museums and art galleries. The attendees are led through a linear single route with little or no deviation. It is ideal for exhibitions where everyone gets a similar experience, encountering the storyline of the event. You can also apply a directed flow while planning some city events, for example parades or carnivals. A directed flow provides event designers with more control over the crowd, which is critically important when you design for large-scale city celebrations. Radial visitor flow. This plan has a central event area from which other supportive thematic spaces radiate. For example, at a Christmas celebration, you will probably choose to place a Christmas tree in the very centre of the venue to emphasise the central theme of your event. And then you can design other elements of the event layout, including a bar, a dance floor and a stage, and adjust them in relation to the core attraction. Random visitor flow. This plan allows greater freedom and provides the audience with the possibility of exploring the event at their own pace. There is less control over the attendees; they are free to follow self-determined routes and experience the event from different angles and perspectives. To help the audience to become familiar with the event space, you can provide them with a map or written instructions. This is ideal for B2B (business to business) or B2C (business to customer) trade shows and expositions. Open visitor flow. Imagine a large evening reception or a wedding celebration. The guests are wandering around, chatting with each other, and they are free to go anywhere within the venue. This is an open visitor flow plan which provides the audience with a free choice of movement and exploration.

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Many successful event designers apply different visitor flows in one event. If you design an eventscape for an open-air large festival, what options do you have? You can offer a radial plan with a big stage at the centre. You can also design either an open or a random flow, depending on the security requirements and the overall theme of the event. Spatial and visitor flow planning are critically important at business events, for example, trade shows and exhibitions. Space design can affect how many people enter your space and are interested in and engaged with your products or services.

BOX 5.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: COURTESY OF EXHIBITOR MAGAZINE. ILLUSTRATIONS BY SACHEL JOSEFSON AND CHRIS ROTONDO The key objective of Exhibitor Media Group is to be the indispensable source of expert education on trade show and corporate event marketing, through the delivery of high value and demonstrably superior solutions via seminars, conferences, publications and its website (www.ExhibitorOnline.com). While floor plans (aka layouts) are almost an afterthought for many exhibitors, picking the wrong one can impact your program’s effectiveness, influencing everything from your brand to your lead count. Plus, one false move in floor-plan selection – which can create critical problems your company likely has to endure for the life of the exhibit (which could be as much as eight years or more) – can mean the demise of your program. In fact, according to Erick Gustafson, senior exhibit designer at Rochester, NY-based RES Exhibit Services LLC, The layout you choose dramatically affects the degree to which you achieve your exhibiting goals. Since it often impacts everything else in your booth to one degree or another, layout selection is potentially more important than the graphics, messaging, and products you choose to display in your space. Giles Rickett, creative and marketing director at Pinnacle Exhibits in Hillsboro, OR, concurs and adds that floor plans have a large effect on brand perception: The way your visitors circulate in the space and the size, shape, and location of the structures all create a very specific dialogue about your brand. Plus, the layout can impact how many attendees enter your space, where they go and don’t go, what messages they see, and how long they remain in the booth. Given the importance of layouts, one would assume that exhibit managers have all been trained in the fine art of floor plans. But the opposite is true, as very few classes, articles, books, or seminars even touch on the topic. As a result, exhibit managers are more likely to grasp the benefits of a Queen Ann home versus a New Orleans shotgun than they are to understand the high points of a plaza layout or the drawbacks of a theatre-centric space.

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What’s more, whether they’re for booths or living abodes, layouts offer as much variation as mobile calling plans. So choosing between a fortress-style floor plan and a centrepiece layout, for example, is a shot in the dark unless you have at least a bare-bones understanding of what each option has to offer. Matt Hill, president of The Hill Group of San Jose, CA, also asserts that this lack of knowledge keeps some exhibitors stuck in a rut with the same-old exhibit floor plan year after year simply because it’s all they know. Granted, some people might argue that exhibit designers, not exhibit managers, should be responsible for floor-plan selection. But Tony Castrigno, owner and designer at Design Contact in New York, says that’s simply not always the case. He maintains that good designers will offer their clients a crash course in layouts if prompted or allowed. “But simply relying on your exhibit house or independent design firm to select your layout doesn’t ensure you a successful outcome”, he says. Exhibitors need to understand that they hold the key to a good floor plan by virtue of their knowledge of their brand, products, and customers. Along with that, exhibitors should come to the design table armed with a general understanding of the most common layouts. To help you select the best option given your objectives, we explain six of the most common booth layouts, including the benefits and drawbacks of each.

The Axis With this layout, which is particularly effective for companies with numerous products or divisions of equal importance, a central structure acts as an axis while independent elements surround it. The axis is often an identification tower or maybe a core component featuring storage and hospitality areas, information desks, conference rooms, etc. Typically this structure is relatively tall, perhaps even a doubledeck element, offering ample room on its exterior for branding, logos, etc., along with top-tier graphics (e.g., the company/product name or logo). The surrounding elements might include product displays, additional graphics, activity stations, product-demo pods, kiosks, etc. (Figure 5.5).

Figure 5.5 The axis layout.

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Advantages •• •• •• •• ••

The layout offers the ability to display a messaging hierarchy, with first- and second-tier messaging available on the central structure and third-tier graphics on the aisle-side components. Given the sizeable structure and impressive feel of this layout, it can turn even a so-so show-floor location into a strong presence. The height of the central structure makes the booth easy to spot on a crowded show floor. Its corporate feel can lend a sense of permanence and authority to almost any exhibitor. Multiple entry and exit points exist to create free-flowing traffic into and out of the space.

Disadvantages ••

•• ••

•• ••

Due to the large central structure, only one half of the booth elements are visible from any given vantage point, and traffic tends to enter and exit from the same side as opposed to circling the axis. Thus, attendees can easily miss key activities or products unless designers devise ways (e.g., staffing, signage placement) to combat the issue. The monolithic structure may be intimidating or too “corporate” for some attendees and/or industries. Traversing the space to the central structure requires a much larger attendee commitment than merely interacting with aisle-side exhibitry. Thus, luring attendees in from the aisles may be challenging. Highly effective staffers are needed to direct attendees to various areas of the booth – or to other staffers – that are not visible from attendees’ current vantage point. Given the limited sight lines, attendees may not grasp the connections between products, messages and divisions. The axis layout is best suited to exhibitors with somewhat distinct but equal products, divisions, or messages. It’s a good way for a pharmaceutical company, for example, to display a diverse portfolio, or for a manufacturer to show several distinct product lines, each with their own third-tier marketing messages. (Tony Castrigno, owner/designer, Design Contact, New York)

The Centrepiece One product, message, or activity is the star, i.e., the centrepiece, of this layout and is featured almost exclusively. Any additional components – information desks, graphic banners, storage rooms, meeting spaces, etc. – play second fiddle and are usually located on the outer edges of the footprint. The manner in which the central element is displayed varies, from a large, key product attached to a pedestal to a huge graphic mural proclaiming a brand statement. The floor plan is best for companies with an identity centred on a single product, message, or service, or for those launching a new product. But to avoid potentially expensive refurbishment costs, the exhibitor’s singularly focused marketing strategy should remain fairly consistent for the life of the booth (Figure 5.6).

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Figure 5.6 The centrepiece layout.

Advantages •• •• ••

All eyes are on the “star”, ensuring that anyone that views the booth will see the main message, product, etc. Attendees can quickly and effortlessly access the centrepiece. The simplicity and strength of this uncluttered, singular experience offers a refreshing change for attendees and fosters conversations.

Disadvantages •• •• •• •• ••

With the layout’s tight focus on one activity, product, or message, attendees will typically vacate the booth as soon as their interest in that element wanes, resulting in shorter dwell times. Attendees will likely beeline to the main attraction and “park” in its vicinity – resulting in a traffic jam that prevents attendees from viewing anything else in the booth and/or entering the space. If the “star” changes – perhaps the product is discontinued or the brand message is altered – the exhibit may need to undergo an expensive transformation to remain relevant. Should the exhibitor need to focus on multiple elements for a specific show (or indefinitely), there’s little flexibility in the design. Depending on the structures used, there may not be ample room for graphics, ­making it difficult to establish a multitiered messaging hierarchy. This design is best suited to exhibitors that want to highlight a single new product or capability – or to those with a series of products that are somehow unified under one central product or capability, allowing the design to tell a story of connectivity. (Erick Gustafson, senior exhibit designer, RES Exhibit Services LLC, Rochester, NY)

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The Theatre The core purpose of this floor plan is to offer some type of presentation – e.g., product demo, multimedia presentation, audience-survey activity, performance – as a prominent activity. The location of the theatre within the space varies, and additional elements, perhaps monitors showing the presentation schedule, product-info stations, and a storage/identification tower, may surround it. The layout is ideal for exhibitors hoping to communicate complex product information, which makes it well suited to the high-tech industry. However, a lacklustre presentation, minimal attendance, and/or lengthy “down time” can deter attendees from visiting the booth – and can reflect poorly on the exhibitor’s products and brand (Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7 The theatre layout.

Advantages •• •• •• ••

A properly sized theatre will appear crowded, which in turn will attract more attendees. The mere presence of numerous chairs can draw people to the space simply to rest their feet (and absorb messaging in the process). While graphic messaging isn’t typically this layout’s strong point, the theatre can communicate myriad messages to a wide swath of people at one time. Given the increased brand-immersion and dwell time associated with presentations, the layout can positively impact brand awareness and message retention.

Disadvantages •• ••

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With a presentation dominating the space, attendees who prefer other communication methods or are unwilling to commit considerable time to your activity may opt out of your booth experience entirely. Exhibitors must plan attractions and activities for attendees whenever the presentation is not taking place; otherwise, the number of booth visitors will plummet.

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If the theatre is too big for the quantity of attendees it attracts, the space may reflect badly on the exhibitor and inhibit other attendees from entering the space. The interaction is more about the exhibitor than the attendee, which may alienate some visitors. An exhibitor introducing a new product that’s conducive to emotive storytelling or any exhibitor needing to relay a body of research or significant product information would benefit from this layout. (Jeff Janes, creative director, Global Experience Specialists Inc., Minneapolis)

The Fortress A fortress floor plan uses a solid or semitransparent material (laminated panels, opaque or semitransparent fabric, beaded curtains, graphic-adorned foam core, etc.) to create a fully or semi-enclosed environment. The goal is often to keep new products and proprietary designs shielded from competitors, journalists, and the general public and/or to offer VIPs access to private meeting spaces, products, food and beverages and more. Given the layout’s formidable character, the majority of attendees won’t enter unless they’re lured inside via promotions or invitations. While the structure can house anything from conference rooms to high-tech demos, the design offers both a sense of exclusivity (for those allowed inside) and an off-putting sense of exclusion (for those turned away) (Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.8 The fortress layout.

Advantages ••

Attendees within the space become a captive audience, resulting in longer dwell times and increased intimacy of one-on-one conversations.

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The layout’s implied exclusivity makes visitors feel valued. By carefully designing entrance and exit points, exhibitors can route traffic past specific products or messages. The perimeter walls offer ample space for graphics, and can be used to attract attention to the space. Plus, they often buffer the noise and frenetic atmosphere of the show floor to create a tranquil oasis.

Disadvantages •• •• ••

The floor plan is suitable only for exhibitors hoping to limit attendance (at least to some degree), as many attendees will be intimidated by the exterior walls and minimal entry points. Unless care is taken to prevent it, traffic within the structure can clog up, thereby subtly or literally pushing people out of the space. The inside must truly offer something of value to attendees, as a disappointing experience likely won’t be forgotten. The fortress floor plan offers optimal privacy for product viewing, meetings, and more. Plus, by limiting admittance to certain attendees, you can efficiently direct your resources (e.g., staffers, hospitality offerings, and giveaways) to targeted attendees. (Todd Schwartz, design engineer and estimating manager, Steelhead Productions, Las Vegas)

The Conglomeration The conglomeration is an arbitrary arrangement of shapes, activities and elements that subtly invites attendees to explore at their own pace and to set their own course. Born out of the modern design school, this layout deconstructs formal floor plans in an effort to look unique and cutting edge. Given the layout’s multiple points of interaction, attendees often linger in the booth, creating longer dwell times. The

Figure 5.9 The conglomeration layout.

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number and size of elements within the space varies, but too many graphics and activities can dilute the overall message and hinder memorability. Plus, the random traffic patterns may confuse visitors, and without the aid of directional tools, attendees may completely miss key elements (Figure 5.9).

Advantages •• •• •• •• ••

Atypical compared to many other exhibits on the floor, this unconventional layout can tempt attendees to stop and consider your offerings. Numerous product and messaging opportunities exist. Attendee interactions with exhibit elements can be choreographed via careful traffic-flow planning, or attendees can be left to seek out areas of interest at their leisure. With multiple interaction points, dwell time is typically lengthened. Individual elements can be changed out periodically without incurring significant refurbishment charges. Thus, the layout is a decent solution for exhibitors with frequent marketing-strategy changes.

Disadvantages •• •• •• ••

Unless cohesion is considered in the design and messaging, the booth can resemble a garage sale filled with mismatched elements. Attendee attention is scattered as opposed to focused. While multiple products or messages may be viewed, memorability is lessened given the shotgun approach. Effective signage is critical to assist attendees in finding specific elements and understanding what they are viewing. The traffic flow can seem haphazard and confusing, and traffic may clog in high-interest areas. The conglomeration is the perfect solution for a company plagued by mergers and/or acquisitions. With minimal rebranding and refurbishment, existing exhibitry from multiple companies can be combined into an effective random display. (Matt Hill, president, The Hill Group, San Jose, CA)

The Plaza With all structures pushed out toward the aisles, the plaza layout features an open, expansive, central space – perfect for a lounge – that lures attendees inside for casual conversations, low-pressure product displays, etc. Well suited to lengthy conversations and relationship building, it provides booth activities, products, etc. with equal emphasis. The welcoming air beckons attendees to wander in and manoeuvre within the exhibitor’s world, where they have unrestricted access to, and likely a full visual view of, all offerings. The antithesis of a closed floor plan, the plaza fosters lengthy dwell times and multitiered messaging opportunities. However, it can lack cohesion between elements, and attendees may view too many open areas as dead space or handy “cut throughs” to other exhibitors (Figure 5.10).

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Figure 5.10 The plaza layout.

Advantages •• •• •• ••

Welcoming and open, the layout communicates a comfortable and relaxed atmosphere perfect for lounging and lengthy dwell times. A subtle psychological pull lures attendees toward the centre of the space where they can be easily spotted and greeted by staff. The plaza’s inherent characteristics offer easy access and few risks of congestion or overcrowding. Often including lounge or conversation areas, the floor plan fosters conversations and supports relationship-building goals.

Disadvantages •• •• •• ••

A balance of occupied and open space must be achieved to prevent cluttering and emptiness, respectively. Given the minimal number of elements, traffic typically clogs around them. Depending on the orientation of the footprint in the exhibit hall, the openness of the booth may cause attendees to “cut through” the space on their way to other exhibits. While a certain amount of open space is desired, designers must ensure that the elements and messaging remain cohesive regardless of their distance from one another. The relaxed vibe, open plan, and minimal components can prompt attendees to engage in lengthy conversations and increase visitor dwell time. (Giles Rickett, creative and marketing director, Pinnacle Exhibits, Hillsboro, OR)

A comparison chart While the preceding diagrams provide a broad overview of each layout option, the chart in Table 5.3 summarises key points from the discussion and provides additional analysis to aid your decision making.

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Table 5.3 Six Layouts. A Comparison Chart Layout

Overview

The Axis

•• A central structure •• Mostly open aisleacts as an axis around which independent elements revolve. •• It offers multiple, tiered messaging opportunities. •• This plan is prominent and authoritative.

The Centrepiece

Access

Messaging

Traffic

•• The large, beacon•• Attendees can easily side areas offer like axis draws access and exit the multiple entrance attention from afar, space from multiple and exit points. but limited sight lines points. •• Distance from aisle across the space •• Visitors are drawn to axis requires decrease visibility. by the layout’s sense significant attendee •• While height of importance and commitment. visibility from afar, variations among but without aisle-side •• Visitors can slip components allow for engagement, they into (and out of) multiple messaging may resist crossing the exhibit without tiers, only one the threshold. staff intercepting location for a highthem. impact statement •• Directing traffic in •• Non-axis elements exists, i.e., the axis. a circular pattern must engage •• Creating a mental around the axis is visitors and draw connection between challenging, but them into the tier-three messages ideal. space. on the exhibit perimeters can be challenging.

•• The “star” takes

•• The open layout •• If integrated into the •• While the centre stage allows easy access centrepiece, a key centrepiece will while all other to the centrepiece, message or two will attract significant components and less-important be seen by almost all traffic, visitors may fade into the elements visitors. cluster around the background. surrounding it don’t •• All graphics must star and prevent •• Attendees beeline steal attention. support the main others from to centrepiece, •• Visitors can easily message, as opposed effectively viewing it. but without other access interior. to offering seemingly •• To best approach attractions, they •• Shorter dwell unrelated product or attendees and exit quickly. times mean staff company info. not add to the must interact with •• Minimal multitiered congestion, staffers •• This plan attracts attendees quickly. should position attention with messaging themselves around a single, sharp opportunities the perimeter and focus. exist unless careful actively engage consideration is taken passers-by. to include additional structures to support •• Attendees can graphics. easily move into and through the space.

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The Theatre

•• The singular focus •• Attendees can

•• A carefully crafted •• Crowd gatherers may drives all eyes easily access presentation offers be needed to direct to the theatre, the space at all strong messaging attendees into the whether or not a times, but will opportunities. theatre prior to the presentation is in likely be unwilling Dynamic and emot­ presentations. progress. to do so when a ional presen­t ations •• Even hot prospects •• A crowded presentation isn’t in provide significant are likely to bolt from theatre attracts progress. potential for impact the booth following additional •• Without a compe­ and memorability. the presentation, so attendees. lling presentation, steps must be taken •• Ancillary exhibit visitors will ease to redirect attendees •• Any ancillary elements supply out of the space to products or staff. elements messaging as quickly and must capture opportunities to •• The back of the effortlessly as they attendees’ draw people into theatre can be a entered it. attention when the presentation dead area that the theatre is •• For packed presen­ and reiterate its key drives traffic away not in use, but tations, exhibitors messages. from the space. become less must provide •• Given the open space, Dynamic, multimedia important during adequate space with the bulk of the messa­ messaging can a presentation. optimal viewing for ging opport­unities lie combat the issue. •• This plan is attendees to stand within the presentation exhibitor (not within the exhibit as opposed to on attendee) centred. (not in the aisles). architecture.

The Fortress

•• This plan provides •• The highly

•• Exterior surfaces •• Entrance and exit an emotive, restrictive layout offer myriad mess­ points can easily immersive envi­ provides minimal aging opportunities, clog if booth traffic ronment to house access points. and can be used to is high. special products •• Walk-up traffic lure people into the •• Staff or structural and host VIPs. is practically space. elements can direct •• While exterior nonexistent unless •• Interior messaging is traffic past key walls may deter promotions, inv­ viewed by admitted products, graphics, people from itations, and/or attendees only. etc. entering, they graphics lure people •• Tiered messaging •• Pathways within the offer a vast mes­ to the space. is possible to some interior can funnel saging canvas. •• An exhibitor can degree with overhead visitors through a •• The invitation-only also control access signage, exteriormultistep experience aesthetic back into the aisle wall messages, and ensuring attendees communi­cates after the visitor interior graphics. are exposed to all exclusivity and experience has elements of the secrecy. concluded. space.

Atmospherics and servicescapes

The Conglome­ ration

•• The arbitrary

•• Careful placement arrangement of of exhibitry will various elem­ ensure multiple ents can invite access points. exploration and •• With various suggest a cuttingvisible interest edge environ­ment. points, exhibitors •• Numerous equ­ increase their ally important chances of luring elements tempt large quantities of attendees to visitors inside the investigate them, booth. thereby lengthe­ •• Attendees are ning dwell time unlikely to enter if but diluting focus. they can’t tell who •• This plan can the exhibitor is, or create a scattered, what it’s offering. shotgun focus, as opposed to a single-bullet strategy.

The Plaza

•• This layout is void •• An open layout

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•• Ample messaging

•• Traffic flow is opportunities meandering and are available, but haphazard, requiring graphics must signage, wayfinding, direct and inform or staffing to assist effectively. visitors. •• The more messages •• High-interest areas there are, the less can cause traffic likely any one of them jams. will be remembered. •• Visitors may spend more time •• Most messaging considering traffic opportunities are paths than the third tier, so care products. must be taken to include prominent first- and second-tier messaging.

•• Care must be taken •• Multiple access of a single focus, entices visitors to ensure toppoints allow visitors and is peppered into the booth tier messaging is to smoothly flow into with a handful of and directly to the included above the the centre of the elements. centre of the space. central plaza or in a space. •• The open floor •• While exhibit prominent location. •• Attendees can plan supports elements dot •• Perimeter elements manoeuvre the layout conversation the perimeter, offer ample secondat their leisure and and hospitality/ attendees have and third-tier will likely stop in the lounge areas, and multiple access messaging solutions. centre to converse is welcoming and points, and flow is •• The openness allows with staffers, which relaxed. unencumbered. for clear visibility of can create traffic •• Multitiered •• Clean sight lines most graphics. jams. messaging throughout make •• Too many exhibit opportunities the space less elements can abound, but imposing, thereby impede traffic flow designers drawing additional and decrease traffic must employ visitors. volume careful planning to ensure cohesiveness.

Summary This chapter explored several complex theoretical concepts related to event venue design and looked at how these concepts can be applied. In particular, the chapter reviewed the concepts of atmospherics and servicescapes. Atmospherics refers to the application of sensory channels while building an attractive environment for customers. It includes aural, visual, olfactory and tactile dimensions. A theory of servicescapes

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explains how various ambient conditions, spatial layouts, functionality and furniture can be applied to design a “place out of space”, an attractive area where the attendees can experience diverse positive feelings and enjoy the event. After that, the chapter explored different venue layout design solutions and visitor flow options, evaluating their advantages and disadvantages. The next chapter will explain how to apply the five senses in event design and production.

Hot takeaways for event designers •• •• ••

••

Atmospherics at an event can be strategically used to attract attention, communicate a message and create a desirable effect. Through visual, oral, olfactory and tactile dimensions, atmospherics affect our perceptions, expectation and overall experience of an event. Ambient conditions, spatial layout, signs and different artefacts should be taken into careful consideration as these dimensions define the quality of an eventscape, a space where attendees and participants consume and experience an event. A venue layout and visitor flow plan can determine the number of attendees and the quality of their experience.

Discussion questions and activities ••

••

Work in groups. Apply both theories of atmospherics and servicescape to Figure 5.1 (above) and suggest design ideas (furniture, colour schemes, lighting, décor, etc.) for a club party, themed around street art, graffiti and modern urban fashion. A producer of virtual reality (VR) equipment has contacted you. The company wants to introduce their new product at a forthcoming exhibition. Please propose an appropriate booth layout for your client.

Further reading ••

Kotler, P. (1973). Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of Retailing, 49(4), 48–64. A seminal conceptual article about the value of atmospherics in the service industry.

References Ali, N., Ferdinand, N. and Chidzey, M. (2017). Event design. In Events management: An international approach (2nd ed.). (N. Ferdinand & P. Kitchin, Eds.) London, England: Sage Publications. Berridge, G. (2007). Events design and experience. Oxford, England: Elsevier. Bitner, M. (1992). Servicescapes: The impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees. Journal of Marketing, 56(2), 57–71. Gifford, R. (2002). Environmental psychology: Principles and practices. Colville, WA: Optimal Books. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Anchor Books.

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Kotler, P. (1973). Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of Retailing, (4), 48–64. Lehtovuori, P. (2010). Experience and conflict: The production of urban space. Farham, England: Ashgate Publishing. Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The resources. New York, NY: Routledge. McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. (2013). Creating exhibitions. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Nelson, K. B. (2009). Enhancing the attendee’s experience through creative design of the event environment: Applying Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 10(2), 120–133.

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6 Five senses in event design

Sarah Jones and Vladimir Antchak

Chapter outline •• •• ••

A review of the five senses; The five senses and the immersive event experience; The five senses and their application in event design: A strategic framework.

Key words emotions five senses immersion event experience

In this chapter, we will explore how to apply the complex system of five senses in event design. The event environment will be analysed through the main sensory channels: sight, sound, touch, taste and smell. Firstly, the chapter will briefly review the nature of each of the senses available to human beings. Then an immersive experience model will be introduced. The model explains the relationship between passive and active event experiences and provides guidance on how to apply all five senses to create a positive and engaging atmosphere at any event.

The five senses and event experience Introducing and engaging the five senses within event design can heighten event experiences and make them more memorable for the consumer (Bhalla and Anuraag, 2010). Adding the five senses to event design links to the 2018 event trend highlighted by Eventbrite (Booker, 2018). Goldblatt (2011, p. 81) advises that “combining the five senses – tactile, smell, taste, visual and auditory – to satiate the needs of guests” should be “the primary consideration when designing the event environment”. Despite the significance and impact of the five senses, only 27% of event professionals think that the five senses are being used effectively by the industry (London & Partners, 2015). Event designers do not currently fully incorporate the five senses

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in event design due to time pressures, lack of understanding and budget restrictions (London & Partners, 2015). The incorporation of the five senses in event design can “create instant emotional and creative reactions” from attendees (Goldblatt, 2011, p. 81). Implementing the five senses in event design is an area that could be vastly improved in the event industry.

A brief review of the five senses To understand environmental surroundings and process signals to the brain relating to interpretation and reactions, the human body relies on the faculties of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell, known as the five senses (Hellier, 2017; Ackerman; 1990; Goldblatt, 2011). The five senses are responsible for everything you feel, taste, hear, smell and see (Prior, 2012). The brain processes each of the senses, enabling humans to make sense of the environmental surroundings (Prior, 2012). Ackerman (1990, p. 11) argues “there is no way in which to understand the world without first detecting it through the radar-net of our senses … our senses define the edge of consciousness”.

RESEARCH NOTE Krishna, A. (2012). An integrative review of sensory marketing: Engaging the senses to affect perception, judgment and behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), 332–351.

Abstract: I define “sensory marketing” as “marketing that engages the consumers' senses and affects their perception, judgment and behavior”. From a managerial perspective, sensory marketing can be used to create subconscious triggers that characterize consumer perceptions of abstract notions of the product (e.g., its sophistication or quality). Given the gamut of explicit marketing appeals made to consumers every day, subconscious triggers which appeal to the basic senses may be a more efficient way to engage consumers. Also, these sensory triggers may result in consumers' self-generation of (desirable) brand attributes, rather than those verbally provided by the advertiser. The understanding of these sensory triggers implies an understanding of sensation and perception as it applies to consumer behavior—this is the research perspective of sensory marketing. This review article presents an overview of research on sensory perception. The review also points out areas where little research has been done, so that each additional paper has a greater chance of making a bigger difference and sparking further research. It is quite apparent from the review that there still remains tremendous need for research within the domain of sensory marketing—research that can be very impactful. Keywords: sensory marketing, smell, taste, touch, grounded cognition, embodied cognition

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The human senses are complex; not only do they “make sense of life in bold or subtle acts of clarity, they tear reality apart into vibrant morsels and reassemble them into meaningful patterns” (Ackerman, 1990, p. 17). To thoroughly understand the functions and purpose of the five senses, they are each examined in the sections below.

Sight Human vision is a unique sense, which is more than just seeing (Edwards and Bhaumik, 2010). Whilst other senses, such as touch and taste, require intimacy to experience the sense, sight can collect information from both extremely short and long distances (Ackerman, 1990). Light waves from the environment are received from the retina in the eye, which sends visual sensory information to the brain to process and react to (Ayres and Robbins, 2005). Seventy percent of the human body’s receptors are situated in the eye, with sight providing the most accurate information on the environment of all the senses; it therefore could be argued that it is the most powerful sense (Ackerman, 1990; Pelosi, 2016).

RESEARCH NOTE Horská, E. and Berčík, J. (2014). The influence of light on consumer behavior at the food market. Journal of Food Products Marketing, 20(4), 429–440.

Abstract: The article deals with a comprehensive, interdisciplinary examination of the effect of lighting on the purchasing decisions of consumers and the perception of lighting on the food market. It is the integration of questionnaire survey and measuring of light intensity and color temperature (chromaticity), respectively, of emitted color spectrum in grocery shops. The object of the study is the accent lighting in served shop departments of fresh food (meat, deli, dairy products, fruit, vegetables, bread, pastry) but also in other departments of supermarkets (wine, alcohol, organic food, specials, seasonal goods). Based on the light tests conducted in retail stores, we have identified the light conditions in national and international chains operating in Slovakia. Using EEG equipment in simulated conditions, we discovered true consumer preferences for different lighting conditions (color temperature, color rendering index) for the selected type of food. The article concludes with certain managerial implications in the sphere of food retailing and recommendations for further research studies. Keywords: light, consumer, neuromarketing

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Sound We depend on sound and hearing for communication, to interpret and to express ourselves (Ackerman, 1990). Hearing covers a range of intensities, from hearing the wings of a bee to a loud crack of thunder miles away, emphasising how significant hearing is as a sense (Ackerman, 1990). Sound and hearing have many powers through music (Rio, 2009). It has been proven that music can bring back memories from a specific occasion, special memories or memories from several years ago. This is often referred to as music memory and can have a great influence on those suffering with dementia, a progressive degenerative disease (Rio, 2009; Ridder, 2005). For people suffering with dementia, music can access parts of the brain like nothing else, unlocking memories and enhancing interaction. This demonstrates how powerful sound is as a sense.

RESEARCH NOTE Magnini, V. P., and Parker, E. E. (2009). The psychological effects of music: Implications for hotel firms. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 15(1), 53–62.

Abstract: If used properly, music can be a useful tool employed by hoteliers. This article synthesizes most, if not all, of the recent and seminal work from a variety of disciplines to outline the positive effects that atmospheric music can have on a hotel’s patrons and employees. Specifically, the psychological influences of music in a hotel’s physical environments, a hotel’s telephone system, and a hotel’s proprietary website are discussed. In terms of the physical environment, music can: (1) cause guests to spend more time and money in an establishment; (2) influence buyer/seller interactions; (3) improve customers’ attitudes during a wait; (4) amend guests’ perceptions of brand personality and décor; and (5) enhance employee productivity. Regarding telephone interactions, evidence suggests that the proper use of music can bolster customer’’ satisfaction with the telephone encounter. Lastly, emerging research indicates that website music can enhance viewers’ arousal, interest, satisfaction, and learning. Keywords: atmospheric music, hotel music, music, telephone music, website music

Touch Known for being the sense that cannot be fooled or deceived (Gallace and Spence, 2014), the tactile sense (or touch) makes everything real through touching and experiencing (Ackerman, 1990; Gallace and Spence, 2014; Linden, 2015). The human body is covered in skin, a receptor that sends signals to the brain based on what it comes

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RESEARCH NOTE Peck, J. and Wiggins, J. (2006). It just feels good: Customers’ affective response to touch and its influence on persuasion. Journal of Marketing, 70(4), 56–69.

Abstract: Prior research has assumed that touch has a persuasive effect only if it provides attribute or structural information about a product. Under this view, the role of touch as a persuasive tool is limited. The main purpose of this research is to investigate the persuasive influence of touch as an affective tool in the absence of useful product-related information. The authors find that for people who are motivated to touch because it is fun or interesting, a communication that incorporates touch leads to increased affective response and increased persuasion, particularly when the touch provides neutral or positive sensory feedback. People who are not motivated to touch for fun will also be persuaded by a communication that incorporates touch when they are able to make sense of how the touch is related to the message. The authors explore the effectiveness of different types of touch in generating an affective response, and they replicate the effects on attitudes and behavior in a real-world setting. This research suggests that the marketing implications of touch are more substantial than previously believed. The authors present research implications for direct marketing, product packaging, point-of-purchase displays, and print advertising. in contact with in the surroundings (Gallace and Spence, 2014). Gallace and Spence (2014, p. 6) emphasise the importance of touch as “it plays a major role in terms of contributing to differentiating ourselves from the external world”, showing how our touch and skin makes people individual and unique.

Taste Taste is the human act of experiencing different strengths and sensations (sweet, sour, salt or bitter) through receptors on the tongue, which are processed at the back of the brain to develop taste (Lynch and Alexander, 2012). The sense of taste is commonly associated with food (Korsmeyer, 2014). Ackerman (1990, p. 127) highlights that “if an event is meant to matter emotionally, symbolically, or mystically, food will be close at hand to sanctify and bind it”. Food is associated with many different cultures, celebrations, rituals and festivals, emphasising how widely taste has meanings and characteristics for everyone (Ackerman, 1990).

Smell It is argued that “nothing is more memorable than the sense of smell” (Ackerman, 1990, p. 5). Receptors in the nasal cavity detect odours, which then send signals to

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RESEARCH NOTE Rimkute, J., Moraes, C. and Ferreira, C. (2016). The effects of scent on consumer behaviour. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 40(1).

Abstract: This article presents a systematic review of extant research on the effects of scent on consumer behaviour for readers of the International Journal of Consumer Studies. Although many articles have been published on this topic in recent years, there is a need for a comprehensive summary of up-to-date findings in this area of research. A systematic literature review is conducted with selected Chartered Association of Business Schools-ranked journals in the fields of marketing and psychology, covering the period between 1980 and 2015. Thematic areas include the impact of scent on consumers’ cognitive and affective responses, attitudes and perceptions, as well as memory and behaviours. Relevant mediators and moderators of the effects of scent on these variables include affect, cognition, awareness and individual or environmental stimuli. Gaps for future research are identified and include the role of consumer awareness of scent and its influence on behaviour. Although this article provides a systematic review of the literature within the fields of psychology and marketing, it acknowledges that a large body of research regarding human responses to odours exists within other disciplinary fields such as neuroscience. The potential for, as well as the ethical caveats of, using scent stimuli for marketing purposes are also considered. This article makes a significant contribution to the consumer behaviour literature given its systematic article selection and review process, encompassing the most up-to-date research and focusing on all key thematic areas related to scent and consumption. Keywords: consumer behaviour, scent, sense of smell, sensory marketing, systematic literature review

the brain to process and remember the smell (Shaw, 2017). Humans can detect tens of thousands of odours (Ackerman, 1990). Some academics maintain that the sense of smell is the dominant sense, as smells can recall familiar instincts through déjà-vu (Grooveyard, 2016). It is argued that the sense of smell is also highly emotive, creating feelings such as relaxation, vitality and power (Fifth Sense, 2018).

How to apply the five senses in event design For immersive event experiences to happen, a combination of emotional experience influencers is needed. Emotions are instinctive reflexes and impulses that respond to different surroundings and circumstances defining humans as individuals (Barrett, 2017). An influencer is something or someone that has the power to change a person’s opinion and behaviour towards something (Santo, 2015; Brown and Hayes, 2008). Therefore, emotional experience influencers can be defined as factors that prompt certain impulses in someone, changing their behaviour and opinion and impacting on their experiences. In events, these include factors such as colours, smells, human

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Music Genre Lyrics Acoustics

Sound

Touch

Sight

Human Touch

Colours

Immersion

Social Interaction

Lighting

Tangible Objects

Technologies

Taste

Smell

Healthy

Entrance Smell

Variety

Bathroom Facilities

Figure 6.1 Applying the five senses in event design.

contact, sound and music and social interaction. The model in Figure 6.1 can be used as a guideline for event designers for considering the application of the five senses to the design of an array of immersive event experiences. Through a consideration of each of the five senses, event experiences can become more atmospheric and meaningful to attendees. This will increase their satisfaction and help them positively remember the event. Event designers could apply this model to different types of events, such as sports and family celebrations, to ensure the attendee experience is maximised, unique and immersive. The model explains interlinks between passive and active experience through sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.

Sound and music considerations The sense of sound is proven to be extremely powerful, with music accessing parts of the brain to help recall memories (Rio, 2009; Ridder, 2005). Music is also a key feature for influencing moods and creating atmosphere (Kotler, 1973). Therefore, it is essential to select music carefully depending on the type of event. The structural components of music, including sound level, tempo and rhythmicity, can significantly affect consumer behaviour. Research that explored the effect of music on customer behaviour concluded that music of high tempo increased the in-store

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customer flow and decreased sales volumes (Milliman, 1982). Slow music encourages customers to stay longer at a restaurant and spend more money (Milliman, 1986). The style of music also influences consumer behaviour. Thus, classical music is associated with higher-priced store merchandise (Yalch and Spangenberg, 1993), whereas pop background music is associated with alcohol consumption (Jacob, 2006). The suggested model highlights how event designers should consider whether the genre of music is appropriate for the demographic of attendees and theme. A decision should be made whether to have simple background music or a live band, depending on the event outcomes and intended experiences. The distant sound of a live bass adds excitement and adrenaline to attendees’ experiences when queuing to enter a festival venue. A crowd singing together reflects an essence of unity, portraying an element of pride and a community atmosphere (Pegley, 2011). Live music makes guests feel more relaxed, adding enjoyment through music and dancing. However, it also adds excitement and adrenaline to the event atmosphere, encouraging attendees to actively participate in the event experience, joining together to dance. This also reflects an essence of unity and a sense of community, forming a connection between immersive experiences through meaningful human contact. Live bands are more prominent in active immersive experiences as they encourage people to relax into the event and join others in sharing the event experience. However, live bands may not always be the most appropriate type of music performance. For more passive immersive event experiences, it is recommended that background music is used. If background music is used, the volume should be quiet and subconscious, allowing conversation to still be had. Background music can also be used to create a relaxing and calming atmosphere. Light classical music in the background can help the attendees and participants to focus on a task. Alternatively, for a celebration or festival environment, the music should be loud, building adrenaline and excitement to reflect a party environment. Regardless of the type of music, event designers should ensure that the sound quality is clear. Ideally, background music should not be lyrical as the words take away from what you are trying to achieve and may distract the attention of the audience. If the music is lyrical, event designers should consider how the lyrics may be interpreted by attendees and ensure that their selection adds significance and meaning to the event (Pegley, 2011).

Sight considerations Of all the senses, sight provides humans with the most accurate information and is argued to be one of the most powerful senses (Ayres and Robbins, 2005; Pelosi, 2016; Ackerman, 1990). To ensure that the aesthetic appearance of the event enhances the experience, the model highlights how colours, lighting and various technologies can add atmospherics and facilitate immersive experiences.

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The choice of colour should be used to reflect the type of event. For example, a party and celebratory atmosphere can be designed through using bold, bright and warm colours. Such colours create overwhelming and happy emotions and refreshing and visual spectacles. Alternatively, a refined and professional atmosphere can be reflected through mellow and pastel calming colours. Any colours used should be consistent throughout the event decoration, helping associate a certain combination of colours with the event. Event attendees usually respond positively to new sights, and where possible it is recommended that event designers use different forms of colourful decorations – for example, art sculptures and objects painted different colours to normal. Event attendees want to see different colours rather than grey buildings and concrete. Table 6.1 summarises the key meanings of the most common colours in event design.

Table 6.1 Colour Meaning

Colour

Meaning

Red

•• Colour of fire and blood. •• Associated with energy, war, danger, strength and power, as well as passion, desire and love. •• Has very high visibility. •• Can be used when an event involves active games, items related to sport and high physical activity. •• Colour of sunshine. •• Associated with joy, happiness, intellect and energy. •• Produces a warming effect; stimulates mental activity. •• Very effective for attracting attention; can be used to highlight the most important elements of a design. •• Colour of nature. •• Symbolises growth, harmony, freshness and fertility. •• Has strong emotional correspondence with safety. •• Can be used in any event that has a component of nature as part of the design. •• Colour of the sky and sea. •• Associated with depth and stability. •• Symbolises trust, loyalty, wisdom, confidence and faith. •• Considered beneficial to the mind and body. •• Can be used in any event associated with calmness and tranquillity. •• Associated with light, goodness, innocence and purity; considered to be the colour of perfection. •• Usually has a positive connotation. •• Appropriate colour for high-tech and futuristic events. •• Traditional colour for weddings. •• Associated with power, elegance, formality and mystery. •• Denotes strength and authority; considered to be a very formal and prestigious colour. •• Appropriate colour for official events, gala dinners and receptions.

Yellow

Green

Blue

White

Black

Adapted from Matthews (2016, pp. 57–58).

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As McKenna-Cress and Kamien (2013, p. 153) maintain, lighting is a poetry that brings the entire event together and sets the experience. Appropriate lighting causes attendees to emotionally respond to the event experience. The lighting influences the attendees’ experience through creating entirely positive emotions, immersing them in the event environment. Although attendees are not immersed through active involvement, they are immersed passively through the visual experience. This emphasises the power of lighting at events, and how aesthetic and atmospheric features add to immersive experiences. There are two different approaches to lighting in event design, depending on the type and nature of the event. For professional aesthetics and atmospherics, event designers tend to keep the lighting natural and airy, so the event can be treated as a blank canvas. The alternative approach mainly used for weddings and celebrations is to use lighting and colour to create an aesthetical “wow factor” for attendees. Matthews (2016) identifies five main qualities of light: intensity, light distribution, colour, direction and movement. Intensity means the strength of a light source. There are two technical terms important to an event designer: illuminance defines the light level falling on the surface of an object, while brightness is the effect of light leaving the surface of an object being illuminated. Objects that are bright attract more attention. Therefore, the task for an event designer is to appropriately brighten those event areas that require attention (e.g., a stage, a bar, particular elements of décor). Light distribution refers to the way light strikes the surface of an object. One might want some objects to be lit softly with no sharp edges, or, in contrast, a designer may decide to apply sharp light beams. Light colour is the “most noticeable and strongest quality of light” (Matthews, 2016, p. 197). We have already discussed the importance of a welldesigned colour mixture at your event. The combination of different colours, their tone, shade and saturation can significantly improve the overall atmosphere of the event. There are several directions of light. Front lighting is essential when you plan to attract attention to a performance on a stage or a speaker. Top lighting adds nice highlights to the performance. Rear lights add “a third dimension and make a display seem more alive” (Matthews, 2016, p. 201). Up lighting is used to highlight walls, ceilings and backdrops. Finally, light movement indicates changes in lighting in terms of direction, colour, intensity and distribution. McKenna-Cress and Kamien (2013, pp. 154–155) suggest the following questions to consider regarding lighting design at events: •• •• •• •• •• ••

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What is the quality of the light? Is the light warm or cold? Is there high contrast between highlights and shadows? What are the finishes/textures? Wall colours? Floor? Ceiling? Is there enough electricity in the building to accomplish what the design requires? Are there light level considerations for objects or patron safety?

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Smell considerations Current studies suggest that alongside music, smell also directly resonates in our longterm memory (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013). A pleasantly scented servicescape elicits approach behaviour, while an unpleasant smell can elicit customer avoidance of a particular environment (Bone and Ellen, 1999). Whilst many event designers focus on the aesthetic appearance of an event, the sense of smell is just as important to consider. Humans can detect thousands of odours (Ackerman, 1990), which can influence many emotions and memories (Fifth Sense, 2018; Shaw, 2017). Natural or artificial scents can facilitate certain emotional outcomes, such as lemon for concentration or lavender for relaxation. Some scents can stimulate the audience; others calm down the participants. Whilst some scents enhance event experience, unpleasant smells can prevent immersion occurring. For example, the unpleasant smells of human odours, waste and bathroom facilities can override previously created positive feelings and experience. As a result, the attendees’ experience becomes negative and immersion does not occur, as the event environment becomes something people do not enjoy being part of. To ensure the event experience is entirely immersive, event designers should mask the unpleasant odours in basic facilities such as the bathrooms and waste areas. This can be achieved by adding pleasant artificial scents. This will prevent unpleasant smells damaging immersive event experiences. Furthermore, with there being a strong connection between the sense of smell and memory (Ackerman, 1990), practitioners should consider having a pleasant scent at the event entrance to passively immerse attendees instantly along with the colour and lighting “wow factor”. It is also important to consider that some attendees have allergies to all or some artificial smells.

Taste considerations The sense of taste is predominantly associated with food (Korsmeyer, 2014) and can be used to add meaningful elements to event design. It is imperative for event designers not to underestimate the importance of food and taste at events, and how “bad” food will always be remembered and associated with a particular event. With people becoming more conscious of healthy living and wellbeing, attendees should have a choice of a variety of healthy food (Mosconi, 2018). Healthy food can also help actively immerse attendees into the event experiences, acting as “brain food” to increase concentration and encourage more participation in the event (Mosconi, 2018).

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The aspect of food and taste could become a sensory event experience itself. Event designers should focus on the colour and texture of the food as well as the taste, following the trend of developing extraordinary and unique event experiences (Getz and Page, 2016; Paul, 2017; Pine and Gilmore, 2011; Sussman and Alter, 2012). Catering offers can reflect a destination where an event is being held. In this instance, the food becomes more meaningful to the attendees, helping to immerse them into the event surroundings. At some events, business conferences in particular, so-called “brain food”, such as salads, fish, fruits, sparkling water and smoothies, should be offered to help people focus more. If food is not carefully considered, negative emotions such as “fuming” could be experienced by attendees, damaging the meaningful and immersive event experience.

Touch considerations The sense of touch is known for making everything real (Gallace and Spence, 2014) and is a significant sense for designing actively immersive and meaningful experiences. Active immersive experiences consistently occur when people are in close proximity with others, sharing a social and crowded surrounding. This makes attendees feel part of a community, and therefore they feel actively involved in the event experience. Event designers should encourage human contact, either through handshakes and hugs when guests first enter the event, or through the gathering of crowds of people when designing immersive experiences. These experiences are usually recalled positively and produce different positive emotional responses such as happiness, excitement and comfort. For example, the closer you go to the stage, the tighter the crowd is. And the experience of being part of this crowd makes people feel more involved and engaged. In contrast, if you are sitting somewhere at a distance from the event stage, it is harder to get the full feeling of the event experience. Providing tangible objects for people to interact with also helps actively immerse attendees whilst making the event meaningful. Interactive experiences, such as writing well-wishes and adding a thumbprint on a photo frame, actively involve attendees. They are personal touches and therefore meaningful to individuals, following the trend of personal event experiences (Getz and Page, 2016; Paul, 2017). It is also recommended that practitioners provide tangible objects for attendees to keep and take away from the event, helping them to remember the event experience. It could be small give-aways, like fountain pens or booklets, branded flipflops or polaroid photographs with personal wishes. Adding physical dimensions for attendees to interact with and providing keep-sakes to take away from the event helps attendees recall the event experience. They also influence emotional responses such as joy, relaxation, happiness and comfort, forming an emotional connection with the event and therefore adding meaning.

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BOX 6.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: DR ROB DAVIDSON, MANAGING DIRECTOR, MICE KNOWLEDGE. EDUCATION, RESEARCH AND CONSULTANCY SERVICES FOR THE MICE INDUSTRY Rob’s main areas of expertise are business events and business travel, and over the last 15 years, he has written widely on these themes. He has carried out research projects for a number of major organisations, and he is regularly invited to speak at international conferences on themes linked to business events, in particular to present the results of his ongoing research into MICE industry trends.

How can event designers engage the audience by using all the senses? To begin with an obvious example, the sense of taste is important at any business event because people look forward to the coffee breaks and the lunches. We now understand much more about taste and how to make those meals much more memorable and exciting by stimulating the participants’ sense of taste – offering food that’s a little more experimental, for example, such as fusion cuisine or food that is typical of the destination where the conference is being held. In such ways, the catering can be much more of a sensorial experience which directly enhances the participants’ enjoyment of the event. We now know much more about the science of food and the impacts of different types of food on the brain. There is a strong trend towards offering so-called “brain food” – more salads, fish, fruits, sparkling water, smoothies – which actually help people engage more and concentrate more on the event, instead of dulling the brain, which is often what happens with heavy food, too much fatty food, red meat and sugars. To focus on another sense – sight – the choice of colour of the venue’s décor at any event should not be something that is simply left to chance. Our knowledge of the impacts of different colours has grown enormously, and we now understand that certain colours can be used to help events to successfully achieve their objectives by engaging the participants in the appropriate way. For example, it has been demonstrated if the principal objective of a meeting is to encourage people to come up with creative, imaginative ideas or solutions, a blue décor in the venue helps to promote creativity. Whereas, if participants in a meeting are expected to carry out tasks requiring accuracy and attention to detail, red is the colour that most effectively facilitates this activity. Many venues have white walls so that different coloured up-lighting can easily be used to change the décor as required.

And what about sound? How are different sounds used to stimulate our sense of hearing at business events such as conferences? I believe that one under-used resource in conference design is music. We know that light classical music, for example, helps people to focus on a task. So at conferences where the participants are required to work together on tasks in small groups, light classical music in the background can help them to focus on those tasks. Alternatively, if you want to energise participants as they arrive at the business event and get them in the mood for the day ahead, then you can play some military music for example. Also, popular songs that most people recognise can be played at business events, to reinforce the objective of the

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event. For instance, at a conference where the principal objective is to enthuse and motivate colleagues, songs such as We Are the Champions and Simply the Best can emphasise that message, even subliminally.

What about different smells or scents? This is an extremely powerful sense, as it is the only one that is directly connected to the body’s limbic system, the area of the brain that processes emotions and memories. Again, our knowledge of the impact of different scents on human beings’ olfactory systems has expanded enormously in recent years. For example, we now know that the scent of lemon can help people to concentrate, while lavender helps people to relax. We can use this knowledge directly in the design of business events. So, for instance if it is known in advance that a meeting risks being somewhat stressful for participants, table decorations featuring sprigs of lavender could be provided. It is easier than ever to create a suitable fragrance in an event venue, as a whole new industry offering scent marketing, fragrance diffusion and ambient scenting services has evolved in recent years.

We haven’t spoken yet about the fifth sense, which is touch … Touch permeates our lives and enables almost every activity we do, from typing to swimming to kissing. The skin is the body’s largest organ and the source of our vital sense of touch. And in a world where so much of our interaction is virtual – Facebook, e-mails, texts – physical contact is more precious than ever. We know that people generally respond well to touch, so we can – and should – use this sense much more in events design. For example, during breaks in a conference programme, professional mobile massage services can be provided to give participants the chance to relieve tension, revitalise the body and refresh the mind through back rubs or neck and head massages. These help participants remain calm and focused for the duration of the event. It has been shown that even something as simple as greeting individual participants by shaking their hands can improve the quality of the attendees’ overall experience of the event. And, speaking of hands, our fingers are a key component of our feeling of touch, so it’s important to give attendees something to do with their hands to stimulate this sense. For example, by placing a few playthings on the meeting room tables for them to pick up and use (stress balls, PlayDoh or paper and pens for people to doodle with) meeting planners can help participants stay alert during events.

Summary This chapter explored the realm of the five senses and their application in event design. The senses of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell were examined from a perspective of creating an immersive and unique guest experience. Several strategic considerations were made as to how to use the five senses in event design and provide an unforgettable and enjoyable atmosphere. A new model was introduced which explains an interlink between different senses and how they affect attendee perceptions, expectations and memories. The next chapter explores the usage of interactive technologies in event design.

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Hot takeaways for event designers •• •• ••

The five senses have been increasingly used in marketing, promotion and service industries. Through visual, oral, olfactory and tactile dimensions, an event affects our perceptions, expectation and overall experience of an event. Through considering the five senses, event designers can offer more atmospheric and meaningful experiences to attendees.

Discussion questions and activities •• •• ••

How do different music tempos affect our purchase decisions? Provide examples. Choose one of the senses discussed in the chapter and debate what considerations should be taken into account while planning a children’s birthday party. Apply a design model (Figure 6.1) to your next event. Consider music genres, technologies, scents, types of food and tangible objects. What experience do you want to design for?

Further reading ••

Ackerman, D. (1990). Natural history of the senses. New York: Vintage Books. A seminal book which explores human senses from a historic perspective.

••

Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The resources. New York, NY: Routledge. A very useful reference guide to special event production. Includes a detailed description of visual presentation technologies, lighting and audio systems, special effects, entertainment and décor.

References Ackerman, D. (1990). Natural history of the senses. New York: Vintage Books. Ayres, J. and Robbins, J. (2005). Sensory integration and the child: Understanding hidden sensory challenges, 25th Anniversary Ed., Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services. Barrett, L. (2017). How emotions are made: The secret life of the brain. London: MacMillan. Bhalla, S., & Anuraag, S. (2010). Visual merchandising. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. Bone, P. and Ellen, P. (1999). Scents in the marketplace: Explaining a fraction of olfaction. Journal of Retailing, 75(2), 243–262. Booker, B. (2018). Eventbrite: 22 event trends for 2018. Available at: ww ​w.eve​ntbri​te.co​.uk/b​ log/e​vent-​trend​s -for​-2018 ​- ds00​/. Accessed 13 March 2018. Brown, D. and Hayes, N. (2008). Influencer marketing. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Edwards, E. and Bhaumik, K. (2010). Visual sense: A culture reader. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Fifth Sense (2018). Psychology and smell. Available at: www.f​i fths​e nse.​org.u​k /psy​c holo​g y-an​ d-sme​ll/. Accessed 3 April 2018. Gallace, A. and Spence, C. (2014). In touch with the future: The sense of touch from cognitive neuroscience to virtual reality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Getz, D. and Page, S. (2016). Event studies: Theory, research and policy for planned events (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. Goldblatt, J. (2011). Special events: A new generation and the next frontier (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Grooveyard (2016). The future of events – Multi-sensory events. Available at: http:​//gro​oveya​ rd.ie​/mult​i-sen​s ory- ​event ​s /. Accessed 12 March 2018. Hellier, J. (2017). The five senses and beyond: The encyclopedia of perception. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. Horská, E. and Berčík, J. (2014). The influence of light on consumer behavior at the food market. Journal of Food Products Marketing, 20(4), 429–440. Jacob, C. (2006). Styles of background music and consumption in a bar: An empirical evaluation. Hospitality Management, 25, 716–720. Korsmeyer, C. (2014). Making sense of taste: Food and philosophy. New York: Cornell University Press. Kotler, P. (1973). Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of Retailing, (4), 48–64. Krishna, A. (2012). An integrative review of sensory marketing: Engaging the senses to affect perception, judgment and behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), 332–351. Linden, D. (2015). Touch: The science of hand, heart and mind. London: Penguin UK. London & Partners (2015). Events industry not using sensory experience to their full potential, according to new study. Available at: www.l​o ndon​a ndpa​r tner​s .com​​​​ /medi​a -cen​t re/p​r ess-​ relea​s es/2​015/2​01510​13-ev​e nts-​i ndus ​t ry-n​o t-us​i ng-s​e nsor ​y -exp​e rien​c es-t​o -the​i r-fu​l l-po​ tenti​al-ac​cordi​ng-to​- new-​s tudy​. Accessed 3 April 2018. Lynch, E. and Alexander, A. (2012). The sense of taste. New York: Nova Science Publisher. Magnini, V. P. and Parker, E. E. (2009). The psychological effects of music: Implications for hotel firms. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 15(1), 53–62. Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The resources. New York: Routledge. McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. (2013). Creating exhibitions. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Milliman, R. (1982). Using background music to affect the behaviour of supermarket shoppers. Journal of Marketing, (46), 86–91. Milliman, R. (1986). The influence of background music on the behaviour of restaurant patrons. Journal of Consumer Research, (13), 286–289. Mosconi, L. (2018). Brain food: How to eat smart and sharpen your mind. London: Penguin. Paul, L. (2017). The value of experiential event design. Available at: ww ​w.hos​pital​ityne​t.org​/ opin​ion/4​0 8485​0.htm​l. Accessed 12 March 2018. Peck, J. and Wiggins, J. (2006). It just feels good: Customers’ affective response to touch and its influence on persuasion. Journal of Marketing, 70(4), 56–69. Pegley, K. (2011). Music in television: Channels of listening. Edited by Deanville, J. London: Routledge. Pelosi, P. (2016). On the scent: A journey through the science of smell. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pine, J. and Gilmore, J. (2011). The experience economy. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press. Prior, J. (2012). The five senses. Huntington Beach: Teacher Created Materials. Ridder, H. (2005). Music therapy and neurological rehabilitation: Performing health. Edited by Aldridge, D. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Rimkute, J., Moraes, C. and Ferreira, C. (2016). The effects of scent on consumer behaviour. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 40(1), 24–34. Rio, R. (2009). Connecting through music with people with dementia: A guide for caregivers. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Santo, S. (2015). How companies succeed in social business. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

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Shaw, B. (2017). The smell of fresh rain: The unexpected pleasures of our most elusive sense. London: Icon Books. Sussman, A. and Alter, A. (2012). The exception is the rule: Underestimating and overspending on exceptional expenses. Journal of Consumer Research, 39, 800–814. Yalch, R. and Spangenberg, E. (1993). Using store music for retail zone: A field experiment. Advances in Consumer Research, 20, 632–636.

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Chapter outline

Key words

•• •• ••

technology interactivity event experience

Different levels of interactivity; Value of interactive technologies in events; Interactive solutions for event designers.

This chapter explores interactivity and the use of technologies to optimise interactive and engaging event design. Firstly, we will provide definitions and discuss different levels of interactivity. Secondly, the value of interactive technologies will be discussed with the focus on the event audience. Finally, a diverse range of interactive solutions will be introduced, including artificial intelligence (AI), gamification, facial recognition and virtual reality (VR).

What is interactivity? Interactivity is a complex concept which can be explored and understood on different levels. The first level refers to the “direct physical and mental interplay” (McKennaCress and Kamien, 2013, p. 168) with the objects, physical setting, rules, action and animation (Rossman, 2003). The second level, due to the social nature of most event experiences, is social interaction or socialisation with the other attendees at the event (Berridge, 2007; AbreuNovais and Arcodia, 2013; Dos Santos and Montoro Rios, 2016). As attendees interact with each other, each of them also interacts with the physical experience of the event. At the third level, interactivity in the modern world refers to human-to-computer communication. Post-computers and post-Web 2.0, computers and AI have become an

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inseparable part of our everyday lives. In Chapter 5 and 6, we have already discussed the effects of atmospherics and servicescapes on our emotions and experience. In this chapter, the focus will be on the third level: interaction with technologies at events.

Value of interactive technologies Technological advances have significantly affected the behaviour of the event audience. From being simply passive consumers of an event, attendees and participants can now create content, promote and advertise an event using mobile digital technologies, share information via blogs and social media posts, instantly commend experiences they enjoy or critically reflect on those that do not meet their expectations (Davidson, 2019). Recent research by the International Association of Conference Centres (IACC, 2017) has revealed a significant role of emerging technologies in delivering unique and memorable experiences to event attendees. Interactive technologies can aid people to see and experience things in an entirely different way. Tressider and Hirst (2012, p. 21) argue that “imagination is integral to consumption and consumer experience”, and our imaginations can be led by technologies. Beard and Russ (2017, p. 366) consider that “experiences can be made more compelling by applying habit forming, persuasive technologies that intentionally mould human life”. In order to utilise interactive technologies, we need to employ our imagination, aiding the minds of our audience in the pursuit of escape, comfort and meaning. Overall, attendees respond positively to technology being incorporated in event design, as they experience things that they would not see on a daily basis. Application of technology is vital for meaningful active and passive immersive experiences. However, technology should always be considered from the perspective of “What will this add?  How will it enable a deeper connection?” Rather than adding in technology for the sake of it, an event designer should aim at achieving artistic integrity and fascination. Diverse technological solutions should be used to fine-tune the desirable experience from an event. Event designers should also be aware that technology could create a barrier between the event and the attendee rather than enhancing the relationship. An event designer should consider “how, and why this particular area would benefit from mechanical or electronic dynamism” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 168). Value does come in a number of forms, and technology can achieve significant personal and social benefits. Technologies allow us to connect with events from our homes or from remote locations. This has a connecting impact as well as being time and travel saving, and therefore a beneficial environmental impact. For example, the CMI (Chartered Management Institute) in the United Kingdom broadcasts webinars to all of its members. Registered attendees can log in, watch, listen and interact by sending in queries.

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Live streaming technology could allow for the connection of marginalised groups, less advantaged individuals, with others. This is a counter-argument to the view that technology leads to dissociation and isolation, with interaction with technology replacing interaction with other people (Pantano and Gandini, 2017). However, whilst the use of headsets at silent discos, museums and art galleries for example offers different perspectives and aids the imaginative consumption of experiences, it could also remove any shared, communal experience of standing, talking and experiencing with others. Technologies allow us to operate more easily than previously. For example, a venue salesperson can use augmented reality (AR) or virtual reality (VR) to present a venue to a client with various set-ups so they can see what it would look like for a wedding, a conference or a product launch. They can take clients on virtual tours. Festival goers can have a cashless experience. Thus, there are many arguments for interactive technology bringing value to event consumers. However, the event designer needs to understand the added value they are trying to achieve before embarking on what can be a complex and expensive design project. A collaborative approach to technology use is required as an event designer cannot possibly know all of the options available and keep up to speed with developments. Finding creative specialists who can make your vision work, or bring a new vision to the discussion, will help the event design to reach new levels.

RESEARCH NOTE Pantano, E. and Gandini, A. (2017). Exploring the forms of sociality mediated by innovative technologies in retail settings. Computers in Human Behaviour, 77, 367–373.

Abstract: The retail setting is characterised by an increasing usage of advanced and interactive technologies (i.e., mobile apps, Near Field Communication, virtual and augmented reality, etc.) based on high connectivity, ubiquitous and contactless systems that enhance and support consumer shopping experience. As a result of the consumers’ interaction with technology while shopping, technology-enriched stores provide new experiences and enable different forms of sociality. The aim of this paper is to explore the forms of sociality mediated by innovative technologies in retail settings. To achieve this goal, we use a qualitative approach involving 20 young consumers in the London-based market, where technology use by this group of consumers is growing. Findings show that digitally-mediated in-store activity mainly responds to a need for advice and trust, and the forms of sociality deployed around it are essentially ephemeral, low-intensity and publicity-oriented modes. Keywords: shopping experience, retailing, consumer computer interaction, interactive technologies, sociality

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Interactive solutions in event design The development of new technologies provides event designers with endless means to design for customised extraordinary experiences. Different technological solutions can be used to deepen the audience’s connection with the event ideas and story. It enables the participants and attendees to experience the event environment in new provoking ways, introducing them to wonder and spectacle different to their daily routine. This section introduces a number of the most popular interactive solutions in the event industry nowadays.

Apps and audience response systems Appliances include VR headsets and information points with visuals that you press on icons for further information. These information points can be found in galleries, museums and tourist information centres. Downloadable apps can be used pre-event to plan anything from the order of seminars to attend, to meeting other attendees, for treasure hunts, to choose the songs at a party, for a quiz whilst looking around an exhibition, to share thoughts in real-time and to follow up with reviews and questions. Audience response systems such as PollEverywhere (www.polleverywhere.com/) can be used for feedback or reviews, or to determine the content of a session.

RESEARCH NOTE Tarute, A., Nikou, S. and Gatautis, R. (2017). Mobile application driven consumer engagement. Telematics and Informatics, 34, 145–156.

Abstract: The growing popularity of mobile technologies and applications leads many companies to develop relations with consumers through mobile applications. Therefore, it is important to understand how to design applications based on consumer preferences. This research seeks to understand which features of mobile applications stimulate consumer engagement and lead to continuous use of mobile applications. This study used an online questionnaire to collect data from 246 respondents. The data was analyzed making use of Structural Equations Modeling (SEM). The results indicate that perception of such features as design solutions and information quality will result in higher engagement leading to continuous usage of mobile applications. Moreover, consumer engagement positively influenced users’ intention to continuous usage of mobile applications. Inconsistent with expectation, consumer interaction and functionality features are not found to be positively related to consumer engagement with mobile applications. Keywords: consumer engagement, mobile application, consumer behaviour, intention to use

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RESEARCH NOTE Kim, S. and Baek, T. H. (2018). Examining the antecedents and consequences of mobile app engagement. Telematics and Informatics, 35, 148–158.

Abstract: Understanding how and why consumers engage with mobile apps is critical to the success of ubiquitous mobile marketing. This study proposed and tested a structural model to investigate the antecedents and consequences of mobile app engagement. Results show that time convenience, interactivity, and compatibility positively influenced mobile app engagement, in turn leading to strong relationship commitment and self-brand connections. Furthermore, informational and experiential mobile apps moderated the effects of time convenience, interactivity, and compatibility on mobile app engagement. Theoretical and practical implications for effective app engagement strategies are discussed. Keywords: mobile app innovation, consumer engagement, relationship commitment, self-brand connection

Artificial intelligence (AI) AI is a special class of software that models and imitates human behaviour and ­decision-making (Friedman, 2016, p. 10). AI projects digital information and images on to the real physical world via smartphones, smart glasses or tablets. It can be used to collect information about the attendees’ or participants’ interests and goals and automatically connect them for networking or leisure purposes during the event (Davidson, 2019). Smart bots such as Siri or Echo can be employed to provide the guest with instant responses, direct them or to give advice on the itinerary. QR (Quick Response) codes are used at information points to get information on events. They are commonly used on tickets, storing valuable identification information and to allow for admission, as well as, through the code, allowing attendees to access social media, additional information and links to offers, discounts and future events. A QR code is a small and compact way to store a large amount of information without having to show it publicly.

Facial recognition software Facial recognition can add value to any event through the power to scan individual or group emotions, understanding how the attendees or participants feel by detecting and measuring facial expressions. This technological solution has the power to quickly capture demographics, record the attention span of an audience and help to understand what motivates and grabs their attention. This ability to identify patterns in emotional behaviour and engagement, segmenting by age and gender, will be incredibly valuable in providing metrics for ROI (return on investment), pinpointing specific

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moments within the event. In business events, a range of automated face recognition systems can be used to speed up registration (Davidson, 2019).

Gamification Gamification is defined as “the application of game-design principles in order to change behaviours in non-game situations” (Robson et al., 2015, p. 411). According to Urh et al. (2015), gamification has multiple effects including motivation, engagement and satisfaction. Hamari (2015) states that gamification increases user activity and engagement. A number of authors on gamification talk about achieving the “flow” experience or an enhanced “aesthetic” (Suh, Cheung, Ahuja and Wagner, 2017) experience: generally, the state of concentration and immersion. When combined with the right content and audience, gamification can bring diverse positive outcomes to an event (Davidson, 2019). For example, interesting and challenging tasks during an event can facilitate icebreaking and community creation. Friendly competitions or treasure hunts, and leader boards can boost interactivity and engagement of the audience. For example, the Heineken Experience in Amsterdam (w​w w.he​ineke​n.com​/ hein​eken-​ exper​ience​) has turned its brewery tour into an interactive playground with motion controlled games and videos, including games to test attendees’ ability to pour the perfect pint of lager and kick a rugby ball on target.

Radio frequency identification (RFID) and near field communication (NFC) RFID was initially used in retail to maintain accurate inventory of products (Lee, Boshnakova and Goldblatt, 2017). In events, it can be used to monitor people’s access to various areas, attendees’ flow through the event and the duration of time they spend at a particular area. Using Wi-Fi or a Bluetooth connection, it is possible to generate a heat map of the event, identifying the most popular “hot” zones. This information could provide valuable data with regard to the layout design. NFC enables communication between devices when they are touched or brought together within a short distance and allows the audience to interact with interactive posters, make contactless payments and exchange information. However, to use these technologies, the attendees should agree on being connected to the system. Sometimes, people may be suspicious with regard to the safety of their personal data. The National Outside Events Association (NOEA) in the United Kingdom recognised that the “constant trend for acquiring data has resulted in a cynicism among consumers … Consumers are increasingly savvy now and realise they are exchanging data but they want to know what they will receive in return” (NOEA, 2017, p. 4). Consumers may need to be more convinced of any benefits of technology use than previously.

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Social media Social media is a two-way asymmetric model. There is a source of information and people who react by commenting, liking and sharing (Lee, Boshnakova and Goldblatt, 2017). Social media, including such platforms as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram and YouTube, can be used pre- during and post-event for numerous reasons: ••

•• •• •• •• ••

To create anticipation about the event by sharing information with the prospective audience. Blogs, for example are “an integral part of a company’s online presence and interactive by way of comments so readers and writers can interact” (Matthews, 2016, p. 225). Event designers can use blogs to communicate with the event audience, to share their ideas and invite the followers to co-create; To enhance contacts between guests before the event. Event designers can create an online community to facilitate collaboration and co-creation with the audience; To receive information from the guests in advance. Via social media, event designers can collect opinions, dietary requirements, recommendations and ideas; To generate excitement and recreation by encouraging attendees to participate in quizzes, votes, award programmes; To prepare the guests for the event by sharing valuable information, conference programmes, videos and other relevant data; To prolong the life of the event, maintaining online communication with the event community, sharing videos and photos (Lee, Boshnakova and Goldblatt, 2017).

Virtual reality (VR) Application of VR has accelerated dramatically during the last decade. Diverse industries such as education, tourism and events are implementing the elements of VR and hologram projections into their products and services. The investments are huge, and the worldwide market of VR and AR devices is expected to grow by an average of 50% annually. According to the research firm CCS Insight, in 2022, a total of 121 million units will be sold, with a value of $9.9 billion. Here are some examples from the event and entertainment industries. At the York Art Gallery, UK, in a 2018 exhibition called The Sea’s the Limit, a VR headset could be used to look around a created underwater world. FOX Sports Eredivisie, a Dutch premium television service, in collaboration with VR sportstech company Beyond Sports, launched a free VR app showing highlights of the previous weekend’s football matches through the eyes of the players. Audi, a luxury car brand, developed a VR showroom to show cars in a personalised and engaging manner. Music show producers apply holographic technologies to recreate beloved pop icons of the past. Just imagine a stage where the “King of Rock ’n Roll” Elvis Presley sings together with Maria Callas, a famous opera singer; sounds impossible? But holographic technology allows event designers to realise such impossible ideas. In 2012, Tupac Shakur, an American rapper and actor, appeared in front of an audience 16 years after his death. It happened at Coachella

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annual music and arts festival held at the Empire Polo Club in Indio, California. The VR team pulled together Tupac’s performance by looking at old footage and creating an animation that incorporated characteristics of the late singer’s movements.

RESEARCH NOTE Caggianese, G., Gallo, L. and Neroni, P. (2018). Evaluation of spatial interaction techniques for virtual heritage applications: A case study of an interactive holographic projection. Future Generation Computer Systems, 81, 516–527.

Abstract: The increasing use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in museums is providing curators with new opportunities for the display of cultural heritage content, making it possible to merge real and digital works of art in a coherent exhibition space. However, humans learn and perceive by following an interactive process, a fact that is particularly true in relation to the understanding, analysis and interpretation of the cultural heritage. In order to allow visitors to fully exploit the potential of this new hybrid cultural communication, interactivity is essential. This paper analyzes interaction design focusing on a holographic projection system equipped with a gesture-based interface and discussing the results of both quantitative and qualitative user studies aimed at empirically investigating users’ preferences in relation to interaction techniques when used in a museum context. The experimental findings suggest the adoption of taskspecific patterns in the design of touchless user interfaces for the exploration of digital heritage content. Keywords: holographic projection, touchless interaction, interaction technique, museum, user study

BOX 7.1: INDUSTRY VOICE: DOMINIC SUTTON, FREELANCE PROMOTER, SOCIAL MEDIA AND DIGITAL MARKETING MANAGER Dominic has been running private events with an element of “cool” since 1995. The private parties, or “small network parties”, are not advertised nationally and attract an underground crowd, and it is the mystery that attracts people and keeps them loyal. For Dominic, technology should offer something that can’t be experienced in normal life, echoing his event design ethos.

On access to history Dominic Sutton admires the work of the Bradford Media Museum, UK: They are starting a collection of vintage music equipment: a piece of the original Isle of Wight PA, the PA when Jimi Hendrix played the Isle of Wight, some of the actual speakers, so some things that are not actually very attractive to look at, but really, they’re genuinely significant, things happened that were facilitated by those things that changed the cultural landscape, so technology is allowing access to history, and access to significant cultural landmarks to a new generation.

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BOX 7.2: INDUSTRY VOICE: CATHRYN PEACH-BARNES, FREELANCE CREATIVE PRODUCER AND EVENT MEDIATOR Until becoming freelance, Cathryn worked for Wild Rumpus. Wild Rumpus produces ambitious outdoor large-scale family events such as the Timber Festival, the Just So Festivals, the Lost Carnival and the Day at the Lake. These events seek to take families out of their day-to-day lives into enchanting places and stories. Cathryn’s freelance experience has continued this concentration on the evocative and other-worldly.

On the value of interactive technologies The use of interactive technologies is key to my events experience and producing practice. Each of Wild Rumpus’ events used interactive technologies to draw diverse audiences into storytelling. Whilst many see the use of technologies as contradictory to a focus on natural spaces I believe that they can be used to deepen our connection with the natural world, enabling audiences to experience the day-to-day in new provoking ways, reintroducing them to the wonder and spectacle of the outside world. At Timber Festival we utilised digital installation such as Luke Jerram’s Moon, to instil a sense of wonder for the natural world – a giant moon, lit from within, hung between the trees utilising a bespoke soundscape and special printing technology to replicate the moon. At Day at the Lake we employed 360 photographs to create an interactive map, which meant that online audiences could switch between the history of the site, to the modern day, engaging with the central theme of the event, which was to explore the heritage of the area, revitalising a once bustling area where history had been made with a huge tightrope walk by Carlos Trauer in the 1800s. At Just So Festival we used ‘sound capsules’, sending audiences CDs with recordings of the bands that were to appear at the festival that year. Whilst it allowed audiences to become more familiar with lesser known bands it also relieved anxiety about what the festival may feel and sound like, drawing on aims we had regarding widening access. The CDs played a key part in our ‘social storytelling’ – drawing audiences into the atmosphere of Just So before they arrived, building anticipation and transporting them from their current surroundings into the world of adventure that would await. Songs can hold key memories for us and the soundtracks continue to have a lasting legacy encouraging families to reminisce about their shared experiences at Just So when replaying them. During 2018 I have worked on Aurora. This is an epic immersive experience about our changed global relationship to water. It combines custom sensory and interactive technologies with water in its different states to invite audiences to explore a living and responsive environment. The use of touch responsive equipment means that audiences get to experience the natural world in a personal manner, combined with the use of surround-sound audio of field recordings of glaciers crashing together as well as carefully programmed waterfalls. A variety of their senses are drawn upon, synchronising water in its different states to completely immerse the audience’s sense of touch, sound, smell and sight.

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BOX 7.3: INDUSTRY VOICE: KAREN SUTTON, FREELANCE PRODUCTION MANAGER Karen has a range of experience in the music industry, but a recent project has been with Matthew Herbert’s Brexit Big Band, a music recording and performance project that encourages collaborations of musicians, and performances to audiences, across Europe.

On audience engagement Whilst working for Matthew Herbert’s Brexit Big Band, Karen proposed the idea of projecting a Twitter hashtag above the band to encourage real-time audience participation. Whilst not necessarily against the idea, the band leader did not see it as necessary. As Karen related, for him, “audience participation is the energy that you get from the audience, and he knows that more than anybody else, he performs nearly every weekend, so he knows when people are interacting or not, when you get the vibe or you don’t, and as a performer, that’s really important. Why do something that removes that energy because everyone’s looking at and interacting with their own screens?”

BOX 7.4: INDUSTRY VOICE: DR ROB DAVIDSON, MANAGING DIRECTOR, MICE KNOWLEDGE. EDUCATION, RESEARCH AND CONSULTANCY SERVICES FOR THE MICE INDUSTRY Rob’s main areas of expertise are business events and business travel, and over the last 15 years, he has written widely on these themes. He has carried out research projects for a number of major organisations, and he is regularly invited to speak at international conferences on themes linked to business events, in particular to present the results of his ongoing research into MICE industry trends.

On VR in the MICE industry The use of virtual reality (VR) in business events is growing rapidly, particularly in the exhibitions sector of the MICE industry, where we are seeing increasing use of VR headsets to deliver high-quality, 3D, highly engaging “virtual” experiences in a digital environment through immersive images and sound. Developed by companies such as Oculus and Samsung, these headsets are increasingly being used in the context of exhibitions and trade shows to demonstrate products and engage visitors with experiences that are vivid and original and which evoke genuine emotions. From the perspective of exhibitors, the use of this tool means that instead of them spending 10 minutes or more trying to explain a complex product to a visitor to their stands, the product’s features can

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be demonstrated in an immersive 3–4-minute video shown on a VR headset. This kind of technology is exceptionally useful for companies who cannot easily fit their products on to the exhibition floor, such as manufacturers of theme park rides or civilian aircraft for example. Manufacturers of vehicles can use VR headsets to enable potential customers to experience their product in action. Or for holiday/conference destinations, the potential tourist/events planner can be “transported” into the city or resort for a few minutes. An early example of the use of this technology for destination marketing purposes was seen at Meetings Professionals International’s World Education Congress in Atlantic City in 2016, when the Los Angeles Convention and Visitors Bureau offered event planners a VR site tour of their city. It is clear that the application of VR offers considerable advantages to both exhibitors and visitors, and that the potential of this tool has only begun to be realised.

Summary An event designer should understand the event audience and utilise the relevant technological elements suited to them. The aim should be to co-create interactive experiences with the participants and attendees of your event. There are many ways to apply technological solutions, and there are associated pros and cons to doing so. This chapter has discussed different levels of interactivity, technological values and interactive solutions for designing unique and immersive experiences for diverse event audiences. The next chapter will explain new approaches to team building and management. The key aspects of pragmatic leadership will be introduced and discussed.

Hot takeaways for event designers •• •• •• ••

Engage your creative imagination: technology has the power to take your audience (and you) out of the ordinary; Be sure that your technology adds to the experience; Share ideas on the use of technology with your audience to co-create the added value and check their willingness to participate; Keep up to speed with technological changes (or get to know people “in the know”).

Discussion questions and activities ••

••

In teams, brainstorm the technologies that you have recently experienced at events. Keep the list for future reference to see how things change. Debate the pros and cons of the use of technologies that you have recently experienced. You are planning a two-day nurses and midwives’ conference. Each day of the conference programme includes a keynote speech, followed by three strands of conference workshops, another keynote speech and then another three strands of conference workshops. The average age of attendees is 46. The level of qualification

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is degree and above. The conference is free for professional members and costs £500 for non-members. Find and present fully referenced information on the background to the delegates and the subject area of the conference. Make recommendations for appropriate technology use that will enhance the experience of the delegates. What are the risks of technology use at this conference?

Further reading ••

Lee, S., Boshnakova, D. and Goldblatt, J. (2017). The 21st century meeting and event technologies: Powerful tools for better planning, marketing and evaluation. Oakville, Canada: Apple Academic Press. This book addresses the rapid changes and advances in technology in the planning, management and marketing of meetings and events. 

••

Martin, V., and Cazarre, L. (2016). Technology and events. Oxford, England: Goodfellow Publishers. Recently published textbook that covers all the critical areas of event management and explains how to use appropriate technologies at different stages of event planning.

References Abreu-Novais, M. and Arcodia, C. (2013). Music festival motivators for attendance: Developing an agenda for research. International Journal of Event Management Research, 8(1), 34–48. Beard, C. and Russ, W. (2017). Event evaluation and design: Human experience mapping. Event Management, 21, 365–374. Berridge, G. (2007). Events design and experience. Burlington, MA: Elsevier. Caggianese, G., Gallo, L. and Neroni, P. (2018). Evaluation of spatial interaction techniques for virtual heritage applications: A case study of an interactive holographic projection. Future Generation Computer Systems, 81, 516–527. CCS Insight. (2018). Virtual reality and augmented reality device market worth $1.8 billion in 2018. Available at: ww ​w.ccs​i nsig​h t.co​m /pre​s s/co​m pany​- news​/ 3451​- virt​u al-r​e alit ​y -and​ -augm​ented​- real​ity-d​evice​- mark​et-wo​r th-1​8 -bil​lion-​in-20​18/. Accessed 12 July 2019. Davidson, R. (2019). Business events (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Dos Santos, M. A. and Montoro Rios, F. J. (2016). Scale of spectators’ motivations at soccer events. Soccer & Society, 17(1), 58–71. Friedman, J. (2016). Future trends: Impacting the exhibitions and events industry. International Association of Exhibitions and Events. Available at: ww​w.iae​e.com​/wp-c​o nten​t /upl​o ads/​ 2016/​0 4/20​16-IA​EE-Fu​t ure-​Trend​s -Imp​actin​g -the​- Exhi​bitio​ns-an​d -Eve​nts-I​ndust​r y-Wh​ite-P​ aper.​p df Hamari, J. (2015). Do badges increase user activity? A field experiment on the effects of gamification. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 469–478. IACC. (2017). Predicting the meeting rooms and spaces of the future and improving meeting dynamics. International Association of Conference Centres. Available at: ww​w.iac​conli​ne.or​ g/doc​s /IAC​C _Asi​a _Aus ​_ Futu​re_Me​eting​s _201​9.pdf​ Kim, S. and Baek, T. H. (2018). Examining the antecedents and consequences of mobile app engagement. Telematics and Informatics, 35, 148–158. Lee, S., Boshnakova, D. and Goldblatt, J. (2017). The 21st century meeting and event technologies: Powerful tools for better planning, marketing and evaluation. Oakville, Canada: Apple Academic Press.

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Martin, V. and Cazarre, L. (2016). Technology and events. Oxford, England: Goodfellow Publishers. Matthews, D. (2016). Special event production: The process (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. (2013). Creating exhibitions: Collaboration in the planning, development, and design of innovative experiences. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons. NOEA. (2017). What is the future of outdoor events and what role do we play in preparing the industry for it? Outdoor Events Industry Leadership Forum. Available at: www.glevents. co.uk /wp conte ​ n t/up ​ l oads ​ / 2017​/ 03/F​ u ture ​ s -For ​ u m-Wh ​ i te-P​aper-​S.pdf​ . Accessed 15 February 2018. Pantano, E. and Gandini, A. (2017). Exploring the forms of sociality mediated by innovative technologies in retail settings. Computers in Human Behavior, 77, 367–373. Robson, K., Plangger, K., Kietzmann, J., McCarthy, I. and Pitt, L. (2015). Is it all a game? Understanding the principles of gamification. Business Horizons, 58(4), 411–420. Rossman, J. R. (2003). Recreation programming: Designing leisure experiences. Champaign, Illinois: Sagamore Publishing. Suh, A., Cheung, C. M. K., Ahuja, M. and Wagner, C. (2017). Gamification of the workplace: The central role of the aesthetic experience. Journal of Management Information Systems, 34(1), 268–305. Tarute, A., Nikou, S. and Gatautis, R. (2017). Mobile application driven consumer engagement. Telematics and Informatics, 34, 145–156. Tressider, R. and Hirst, C. (2012). Marketing in food, hospitality, tourism & events: A critical approach. Oxford: Goodfellows Publishers. Urh, M., Vukovic, G., Jereb, E. and Pintar, R. (2015). The model for introduction of gamification into e-learning in higher education. 7th World Conference on Educational Sciences, (WCES2015), 05–07 February 2015, Novotel Athens Convention Center, Athens, Greece. Published in Procedia – Social and Behavioural Sciences, 197, 388–397.

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8 Pragmatic team management

Chapter outline •• ••

Review of extant management theories and concepts; Key components of a pragmatic approach to event design team management.

Key words event design team management pragmatic management collaboration conflict handling healthy working environment

Event design team management is a new area of study, with limited specific works done on what it means to be a manager of an event designers’ team. However, as management itself is not an absolute and there can be no defined way of managing that suits all situations, at all times, then event design team management can benefit from various theories and models of management, leadership and team building and take tools from each area to create a model for event design management use. This is the pragmatic approach to event design team management. In this chapter, we will review several relevant theories and frameworks of management and introduce a practical leadership model for event design teams with the associated tools and techniques a manager can utilise and practise for project success.

Evolution of management and leadership styles The leadership styles and management theories we see today are the result of more than 100 years of development from the first iterations of management theory in the late nineteenth century (Drucker, 1999; Witzel, 2009). Each management theory or style has learned from what has gone previously, and trial and error of different theories or styles in management situations have fine-tuned society’s management skills. More recent management schools of thought are introduced in Figure 8.1.

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2010s 2000s 1990s

Postmodernism

Triangular Management Approach

Learning Organisations

Figure 8.1 Key management theories 1990s–2010s.

1990s – Learning organisations •• •• ••

•• ••

Managers should look externally; Managers need to be responsive to internal and external demands and constraints; Managers should recognise the potentially damaging effect of change and uncertainty, and respond with experimentation and adaptation, learning from change and experience; As managers learn, they should also “create an environment conducive to learning” (Certo and Certo, 2013, p. 68) for their staff; Every member of an organisation should understand their own job and how those jobs fit together, have a common view of what they are trying to achieve, always seek to look at and improve the way business is done and work together on those improvements, but also find an individual deep and rich understanding of work.

2000s – Postmodernism •• ••

•• ••

There can be no complete and coherent theory of management because of the range of situations management must face; The impact of change, of globalisation, internationalisation, multiculturalism and technology means that a manager needs to be flexible and adaptable and take a wider view of what is going on inside and outside the organisation; There should be an emphasis on always learning; Postmodernists, whilst not irrational, may take a more instinctive, guttural, emergent approach to management.

2010s – Triangular management approach •• •• ••

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This approach combines the different schools of management: the scientific and mechanistic and the humane, or the process-driven and the people-driven; A modern manager is a person who can balance the various approaches to be effective; The pragmatic use of whatever skills and practices are appropriate for any situation, echoing the Situational Leadership theory of Hersey and Blanchard (1976);

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Modern organisations are complex, combining the demands of company values, the macro environment and the customer; A management approach that takes all of the previous studies into consideration and effectively asks managers to do whatever is right for the situation is probably the most effective.

To sum up, it is evident that management theory has developed in response to itself (learning from what has gone before) and in response to the surrounding environment. The effective management style for “now” needs to show learning from the past and reflect in particular the changes (increasingly turbulent) in the modern working environment. The key management skills that emerge from this discussion of the most recent management theories are the needs for awareness, balance and learning. A combination of the management theories and models from the last 30 years leads to the recommendation of a pragmatic approach to management, as relevant to the modern world, and to event design team management.

Key components of pragmatic team management Effective modern management should amalgamate the previously developed and applied theories. This is a pragmatic style of management and leadership, willing to combine any theories or methods as necessary in order to achieve an effective solution for the management task in hand. This approach is particularly relevant to event design, as event design combines a number of potentially conflicting elements that require an open, solution-based approach to management: people, impermanence, integration and guidance and outward focus.

People Event design requires a collaboration with different people (co-workers, suppliers and other stakeholders) to design events and experiences for other people (attendees and participants). In all cases, an event design manager will not have the time and competence to do everything. In many cases, they may have the organisational and some technical skills, but maybe not the technical expertise needed. Thus, a manager needs to get things done through other people (Stewart, 1967; Naylor, 2004; Boddy, 2005). This requires specific knowledge and organisational skills to avoid misunderstanding, power games and other issues, to deliver the project on time.

Impermanence The event design team is likely to be temporary and may be made up of employees, subcontractors, suppliers, the client’s representatives and so on. In this situation, the management tools used for different members of the event design team may need to vary depending on who you are working with and the nature of their interest in the project.

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Integration and guidance In the events world, the manager is often the pivot point (Witzel, 2009) between a number of relevant stakeholders. In most event design situations, there are a mixture of people involved: some employees under direct responsibility of the manager and those brought in from “outside”. Those brought in from outside for an event design project are more likely to be of equal status in the project. Thus, a conventional hierarchical team model, where the manager is the “boss” and the others are “followers” will not work. Handy (1985) discusses different types of organisational structures and advocates the need for a different leadership and management style for creative teams and collaborative networks which recognises individual expertise. The main point is that outside experts may struggle with being “led”. The role of the event design manager is to give direction, to keep people on track and to encourage collaborative action.

Outward focus Management of an event needs “to understand an underlying process, to be perpetually pursuing interesting ways to … ensure that visitors are at the center (sic) of all decisions” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. x). Thus, when considering management in events, the wider group of stakeholders is an essential part of consideration, not just those in the immediate relationship of manager and employee. The manager and the event design team have to respond to the outward demands, taking into consideration current trends and the diverse interests of the involved stakeholders. Overall, the pragmatic approach to management and leadership should be centred around people and integrative solutions, taking into consideration the impermanency and outward focus of the majority of event design projects.

RESEARCH NOTE Allio, R. (2012). Leaders and leadership – many theories, but what advice is reliable? Strategy & Leadership, 41(1), 4–14.

Abstract: Purpose – The paper seeks to use the experience of the author, a veteran consultant and author of many articles on leadership, who aims to summarize several fundamental concepts that have shaped the current debate about leaders and leadership. The author’s goal is to dispel some leadership myths and offer some advice to leaders about how to perform more effectively in their roles.

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Design/methodology/approach – Taking the long view, the author concludes that leadership actually emerges or develops over time – not at a unique specific instant. It seems to appear and then disappear; it is elusive. Findings – Invisible forces act on the leadership process: the expectations of the followers, the culture of the organization and the circumstances. The task at hand and the context seem to dictate when and how leadership appears. The leadership dynamic thus depends on the situation. Practical implications – The primary role of the leader must be to develop a culture that enables individuals to coalesce around the shared purpose of the enterprise. Originality/value – Leaders act like Higgs bosons, activating and energizing the members of the organization as they interact. And like the boson, leadership may show up in the power it imparts to effective, committed followers. Keywords: leader, leadership advice, leadership paradigm, followers, potential leaders, leadership history, toxic leaders, coaching, training

Event design management framework In order to reflect the above requirements for managing an event design team effectively, and recognising the sense in learning from a range of theories in order to exercise the best management style, a model of a pragmatic approach to management of event design is presented in Figure 8.2. The model represents an interplay of four areas of management: manage the person, collaborate, handle conflict and create a healthy working environment. The following subsections discuss each of the areas in detail.

Manage the person As has already been discussed, event design is a people-focused business. Hersey and Blanchard (1976) argue that a “one size fits all” management approach is not suitable as different employees are at different stages of knowledge and development (maturity or competence), and therefore their needs in the management relationship and how to get the best from them, will be different. Before an event design team manager can lead a group of people appropriately, they need to give some thought and time to understanding the skills levels of the team members and change and flex their management style according to the needs of the employee (Table 8.1).

Collaborate Collaborative management recognises the need to combine different approaches to a range of stakeholders to achieve a common goal. This mirrors the characteristics of the event design team of “impermanence” and “integration and guidance”.

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Assess levels of skills of employees

Manage the Person

Be present, communicate, appreciate and build trust.

Create a healthy working environment

Event Design Team Management

Collaborate

Recognise the strengths and needs of others -Establish a ‘community’ -Encourage advocacy

Handle Conflict

Practice intra and inter emotional intelligence; listen, use questioning skills and be assertive

Figure 8.2 Effective event design team management. Table 8.1 Employee Skills Level and Relevant Management Style

Skills levels – employees

Management style

Lack the knowledge, skills or confidence to work on their own, and often need to be pushed to take the task on. Willing to work on the task, but without the skills to complete it successfully. Ready and willing with more skills but not full confidence.

Telling/directing: Managers tell their people what to do and how to do it.

Able to work alone with strong confidence and skills. Adapted from Hersey and Blanchard (1976).

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Selling/coaching: More communication and mentoring. Participating/consulting: Focus on the relationship and less on direction – sharing decisions. Delegating: Responsibility passed to employee with some monitoring.

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RESEARCH NOTE Lee-Kelley, L. (2002). Situational leadership: Managing the virtual project team. Journal of Management Development, 21(6), 461–476.

Abstract: Shifting work patterns and increasing organisational cooperations have led to electronically integrated “unbounded” organisations and virtual teams. This study is pivotal in exploring the project manager’s leadership style and control in managing changing project boundaries and permeable interfaces. A survey of clinical research projects indicates that project managers are not overly affected by internal market mechanisms or constraints on face-to-face interactions. However, certain project variables such as project objectives, team size, frequency of team changes and project duration play significant roles in the relationship between the project leader and his/her perception of project difficulties. The study’s observations and conclusions are useful to the project owner/sponsor as well as the project manager; either might seek to select situations that would best match the manager’s inclination or style and to avoid projects that are likely to present him/her with situations that are counter to his/her default preference. Keywords: project management, virtual reality, teams, leadership, management

Collaborative leadership is “adept at leading otherwise disparate groups successfully” (Archer and Cameron, 2009, p. 232) and is “a management style and skill-set that engages all participants by designing constructive processes for working together, convenes appropriate stakeholders, and facilitates and sustains their interaction” (Archer and Cameron, 2009, p. 232). To collaborate, it is imperative to consider the stakeholders involved in an event design project. Stakeholders are individuals or organisations who will be affected by or will affect an event design project (Freeman, 1984; Nutt and Backoff, 1992; PMI, 2013) and can be anyone in or around the organisation and the event, including the clients, employees, customers, local community and government (Smith, 2009; CMI, 2019). The key steps in stakeholder management are: 1. Identify stakeholders; 2. Determine the nature of the relationship with the stakeholders – objectives, needs and interests; 3. Decide how to involve them and how to communicate with them. For the majority of event projects, the stakeholders would be sponsors, media, local community, local authorities and performers. Once stakeholders have been identified and their needs discussed, their level of power and interest in the event design project

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should be defined. There is potential for conflict between different parties who have an interest in an event (conflict between stakeholders and between stakeholders and organisers). This may cause issues for the smooth accomplishment of the event production (operational impacts) and have longer-term impacts in terms of relationships (strategic impacts).

RESEARCH NOTE Bryson, J.M. (2004). What to do when stakeholders matter – Stakeholder identification and analysis techniques. Public Management Review, 6(1), 21–53.

Abstract: This article focuses specifically on how and why managers might go about using stakeholder identification and analysis techniques in order to help their organizations meet their mandates, fulfill their missions and create public value. A range of stakeholder identification and analysis techniques is reviewed. The techniques cover: organizing participation; creating ideas for strategic interventions, including problem formulation and solution search; building a winning coalition around proposal development, review and adoption; and implementing, monitoring and evaluating strategic interventions. The article argues that wise use of stakeholder analyses can help frame issues that are solvable in ways that are technically feasible and politically acceptable and that advance the common good. The article concludes with a number of recommendations for management research, education and practice. Keywords: stakeholders, strategic management, strategic planning, coalition, common good, smart practice

Project teams should seek positive stakeholder involvement (Getz, 2009; Elkington, 2004; Freeman, 1984). However, correctly engaging and engaging the correct stakeholders is challenging (Bostock, 2014; Sadd, Fyall and Wardrop, 2017) due to “time, money, and local politics” (Maginn, 2007 cited in Sadd, Fyall and Wardrop, 2017, p. 346). The intention for the event design team manager should be to encourage collaboration with the key stakeholders. The collaborative approach recognises the strengths of others and the “many ways to approach a problem or create a solution” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 6) and the concept of “shared leadership” rather than “unilateral action” (Archer and Cameron, 2009, p. 232). This appropriately reflects the nature of the group of experts brought together to design an event, and the essential co-dependency of the event design manager with the team. Thomas and Kilmann describe collaborating as “an attempt to work with others to find some solution that fully satisfies their concerns” (Kilmann Diagnostics, 2018).

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RESEARCH NOTE Davis, K. (2017). An empirical investigation into different stakeholder groups’ perception of project success. International Journal of Project Management, 35, 604–617.

Abstract: Organizations use projects to manage customized, one-off events across a wide range of functions. Project management is an essential operational tool and process that is utilized to effectively and efficiently manage resources, tasks and activities, and associated timelines. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the possibility that failure is a result of different interpretations of the criteria and factors used for success by multiple stakeholder groups. Currently, there is no recorded theory to determine project success within the project management literature, which includes both the perspective of multiple stakeholder groups and shared use of success dimensions for a given project. This omission is the basis of the current work, which explores the impact of using all stakeholder views as opposed to a selected few to define project success. The research outcomes are important for informed managerial decision making that enables the minimization of major financial losses. Keywords: project success and strategy, managing stakeholders, project success, perception of project success, multiple stakeholders

Overall, to achieve collaboration, a team leader should lead and facilitate the processes of: •• •• ••

Establishing a sense of “community” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 5) in the team and beyond; Reaching a level of “shared commitment” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 3); Encouraging advocacy by understanding people’s roles, accountabilities and responsibilities and encouraging people to be advocates for certain perspectives and functions.

Input from advocates can be obtained from brainstorming, or a charrette: “an intensive group work session sustained over multiple days and that typically involves experts with a variety of skills and viewpoints. The goal of the group’s focussed immersion is to generate a broad range of ideas and possible solutions for a project or problem” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, p. 215). More visual ways of sharing ideas can be used, including visualisation, sketching and mind mapping (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013; Xiang and Formica, 2006; Beard and Russ, 2017). These visualisations and shared ideas can lead to collaborative efforts in creating floor plans and visitor walkthrough plans, as well as an understanding of where different aspects of an event are influenced by different members of the group.

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Handle conflict We can assume that if an event is worth doing, and there is a diverse range of stakeholders involved, there will be different opinions, and “it can be stressful when opinions and egos collide” (McKenna-Cress and Kamien, 2013, p. 3). The ability to deal with conflict is important to prevent event breakdown, and conflict can be viewed positively as an aid to collaboration: “an opportunity to get to the heart of things. Conflict may produce scenes of painful confrontation, but at least it is honest communication – even if people do not understand or cannot articulate what is really bothering them, the feelings of frustration, disappointment and anger are genuine. And often it is the catalyst to getting things moving” (Archer and Cameron, 2009, p. 234). The Thomas-Kilmann diagnostic tool for understanding one’s own conflict management styles and to understand the different ways of managing conflict might be of interest and can be accessed at www​.kilm​a nndi​agnos​t ics.​com/o​vervi​ew-th​omas-​k ilma​ nn-co​n flic​t-mod​e -ins​t rume​nt-tk ​i. According to Thomas and Kilmann (2018), “Conflict situations are those in which the concerns of two people appear to be incompatible. In such situations, we can describe an individual’s behaviour along two dimensions: (1) assertiveness, the extent to which the person attempts to satisfy his own concerns, and (2) cooperativeness, the extent to which the person attempts to satisfy the other person’s concerns” (Kilmann Diagnostics, 2018). The intention would be to achieve a highly cooperative and highly assertive solution, that is, a collaborative solution. Rather than trying to win (competing) or passively accommodating or accepting another’s view, and assuming that in a work situation we cannot “avoid”, then we as event managers need to look for collaborative approaches, being “both assertive and cooperative” (Kilmann Diagnostics, 2018) and “digging into an issue to pinpoint the underlying needs and wants of the two individuals … exploring a disagreement to learn from each other’s insights” (Kilmann Diagnostics, 2018). In order to deal with a conflict, we need to understand our own relationship to conflict and holding difficult conversations (Archer and Cameron, 2009). These points reflect the need for emotional intelligence, active listening and questioning skills and assertiveness. Emotional intelligence is “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990) and the ability “to recognise and regulate emotions in ourselves and others” (Goleman, 1995). Intra-emotional intelligence is the inner intelligence we use to know, understand and motivate ourselves, and it includes our self-awareness and emotional management. Understanding your emotions, why you feel as you do, and understanding how to deal with your negative emotions and moods so that they don’t spoil your relationships with other people is important. Inter-emotional intelligence is the outer intelligence we use to read, sense and understand and manage our relationships with

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other people. This is relationship management and involves us seeing alternative viewpoints. Consciousness of self, consciousness of others and consciousness of context are all part of emotional intelligence (Levy, Shankman, Allen and Haber-Curran, 2015). Active listening and questioning should be used to get to the heart of a problem or conflict in order to understand all of the issues and seek a solution that meets all needs. In the process, an assertive presentation of one’s own wants and needs is important to avoid being forced into an unwanted solution. A conflict resolution checklist can be used when dealing with different issues: •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

Regard it as a problem to be solved – but don’t assume you know what the problem is and don’t leap to a solution; Be open about your point of view/state your case clearly; Try to understand the other’s point of view: listen, ask questions to find out what the other person wants/thinks/feels; Identify the problem/get all the facts you can; Separate what the person is saying from how they are saying it – try to understand the non-word cues – body language and tone of voice; Try to identify what has caused the problem; Try to find something in common; Put forward ideas to solve the problem; Listen to the other person’s ideas about how to solve the problem; Summarise to check that you both understand and are happy with the solution.

Create a healthy working environment Finally, an event design manager needs to create a healthy working environment that encourages trust and commitment. The skills required here are people skills, communication, building professional relationships and appreciation. •• •• ••

People skills. Always be there and be engaged, know your staff, talk to them, listen to them, engage them in team activities. Communication. Keep the team informed with regard to business activities in a positive, stress-free and appropriate way. Building professional relationships. Employees see their managers as role models, figureheads and leaders, and managers should act in a responsible manner. They should also have passion and enthusiasm. Team members wish to receive pastoral support in terms of care, as well as development opportunities. Creating a bond and trust within a team is part of building a professional relationship, and favouritism has no place. People should be treated fairly and equally. There needs to be a line between a friend and manager, but there is a balance to be struck here, as the

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••

detached manager who does not consider themselves part of the team is thought ineffective. A bossy and overly authoritative manager is also thought ineffective. Appreciation. Recognising staff in terms of thanks, feedback and debriefing is important. Praise is well received. Trust in staff is seen as a sign of appreciation also.

The model therefore recognises the need to learn from a number of ideas and combine or balance skills and practices for best effect. It requires managers to be aware of the environment the team is operating in, and the needs of the team itself. Effective management requires a combination of personal management, collaboration, conflict resolution and creating a healthy working environment.

Summary Management is an amalgamation of a variety of ideas that have developed over more than 100 years, and event design team management similarly needs to be an amalgamation of management theories: a pragmatic approach to management. A management approach that combines managing the person, collaboration, conflict handling and building a healthy working environment should meet the needs of event design team management. There are particular skills that a manager can use to consider the person, promote collaboration, handle conflict and build a healthy environment. Personal management means attending to individual team members’ needs. Collaboration means understanding others’ needs and reaching a solution acceptable to all. Conflict handling requires a systematic approach to all conflict situations, using listening, empathy and assertiveness. Finally, creating a healthy environment reflects some of the previously considered skills but emphasises the need to set standards and appreciate team members when they perform well. The next chapter explores the art of project management in event design.

Hot takeaways for event designers •• •• ••

Be pragmatic – use a combination of management tools and techniques appropriate to your own event design team; Your “mantra” should be “Manage the person, encourage collaboration, handle conflict and create a healthy working environment”; As management is the product of 100 years of development and learning from experience, so you will learn from your event design team management experiences (but don’t worry, it won’t take 100 years!).

Discussion questions and activities ••

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Advocacy group exercise. An advocate is a person who “publicly supports or ­suggests an idea, development, or way of doing something; a person who puts a case on someone else’s behalf” (Cambridge Dictionary, 2019; Google, 2018). Consider

Pragmatic team management

••

the design of a launch event for a local bar or restaurant. Assign each person in the group a role of advocate for the following stakeholders: (a) the customers, (b) the bar or restaurant, (c) the local community and (d) the staff. Now brainstorm ideas for the event design, with each advocate taking the “hat” or position in the group they are representing. Create a plan that reflects the needs and interests of each group. Note if and where conflict arises and develop approaches to mediate in this conflict. Identify key stakeholders for a town’s arts festival. Discuss their needs (see a table below as an example) and suggest stakeholder management strategies. Stakeholder

Stakeholder Needs

Performers

Economic return. Clear communications concerning locations, expectations and requirements. Economic or reputational return.

Sponsors Community Media ••

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Discussion – What is in your events management “toolkit”? Out of the content above, what ideas have most resonated with you and your experience of event design management (either as a manager or a team member)? What are you going to try out in a future event design management scenario?

Further reading ••

Archer, D. and Cameron, A. (2009). Tough times call for collaborative leaders Industrial and Commercial Training, 41(5), 232–237. This article discusses the development of collaborative leadership skills to address an identified gap in management capability. The article gives specific emphasis to conflict handling.

••

Marquet, L.D. and  Worshek, A. (2018). The turn the ship around! workbook:  Implement intent-based leadership in your organization. Penguin Publishing Group. A bold new approach to leadership, based on Marquet’s experiences of turning around the troubled submarine USS  Santa Fe. Instead of the traditional command-and-control model, he inspired every member of his crew to embrace accountability.

References Archer, D. and Cameron, A. (2009). Tough times call for collaborative leaders. Industrial and Commercial Training, 41(5), 232–237. Beard, C. and Russ, W. (2017). Event evaluation and design: Human experience mapping. Event Management, 21, 365–374. Boddy, D. (2005). Management: An introduction (3rd ed.) Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Bostock, J. (2014). Stakeholder centric approach. In L. Sharples, P. Crowther., D. May, and C. Orefice (Eds.), Strategic event creation. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers.

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Cambridge Dictionary. (2019). Definition of ‘Advocate’. Cambridge dictionary. Available at: https​://di​c tion​ary.c​ambri​dge.o​rg/di​c tion​ary/e​nglis​h/adv​ocate​. Accessed 17 May 2019. Certo, S. C. and Certo S. T. (2013). Modern management: Concepts and skills (13th ed.). Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. CMI. (2019). Stakeholder analysis and management. Available at: ww ​w.man​agers​.org.​u k/kn​ owled​ge-ba​nk/st​akeho​lder-​analy​sis-a​nd-ma​nagem​ent. Accessed 12 July 2019. Dr uc ker, P. F. (1999). Manage me nt: Tas ks, res ponsibilities, prac tices . O x ford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Elkington, J. (2004). Enter the triple bottom line. In A. Henriques and J. Richardson (Eds.), The triple bottom line: Does it all add up? (pp. 1–16). Routledge. Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston, MA: Pitman Publishing. Getz, D. (2009). Policy for sustainable and responsible festivals and events: Institutionalization of a new paradigm. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1(1), 61–78. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam. Google Dictionary. (2018). Definition of ‘Advocate’. Available at: www.google.com. Accessed 17 May 2019. Handy, C. (1985). Understanding organizations (3rd ed.). London: Penguin Books. Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1976). Management of organizational behaviour (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc. Kilmann Diagnostics. (2018). An overview of the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI). Available at www​. kilm​a nndi​a gnos ​t ics.​c om/o​vervi​e w-th​o mas- ​k ilma​n n-co​n flic ​t-mod​ e-ins​trume​nt-tk​i. Accessed 10 July 2018. Levy Shankman, M., Allen, S. J. and Haber-Curran, P. (2015). Emotionally intelligent leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Maginn, P. (2007). Towards more effective community participation in urban regeneration: The potential of collaborative planning and applied ethnography. Qualitative Research, 7(1), 24–43. McKenna-Cress, P. and Kamien, J. A. (2013). Creating exhibitions: Collaboration in the planning, development, and design of innovative experiences. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Naylor, J. (2004). Management (2nd ed.) Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Nutt, P. C. and Backoff, R. W. (1992). Strategic management of public and third sector organisations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. PMI. (2013). A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK Guide) (5th ed.). Newtown Square, PA: PMI. Sadd, D., Fyall, A. and Wardrop, K. (2017). Evaluative event frameworks: A learning destination perspective. International Journal of Tourism Research, 19, 339–348. Salovey, P. and Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9, 185–211. Smith, A. (2009). Theorising the relationship between major sport events and social sustainability. Journal of Sport and Tourism, 14(2–3), 109–120. Stewart, R. (1967). Managers and their jobs. London: Macmillan. Witzel, M. (2009). Management history: Text and cases. Oxon: Routledge. Xiang, Z. and Formica, S. (2006). Mapping environmental change in tourism: A study of the incentive travel industry. Tourism Management, 28, 1193–1202.

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9 Project management tools and budgeting

Chapter outline

Key words

•• •• •• •• •• •• ••

project management planning costing budgeting monitoring control

Scope, objectives and design breakdown structure; Responsibility assignment; Calculation of the duration and dependency of project tasks; Application of Gantt charts; Risk assessment and management; Understanding what needs to be costed and how to cost; Tools and processes for monitoring and reporting on the event design budget.

The planning process provides order and flow for any business project. It requires allocation of responsibilities, assignment of tasks, project monitoring and risk assessment and proper budgeting. The purpose of this chapter is to provide event designers with a set of useful and simple-to-use tools with the emphasis on planning and realisation of a design project. We will thoroughly explore design breakdown structures, responsibility assignment, calculating the duration and dependency of tasks, Gantt charts, risk assessment, costing and budgeting.

Project objectives It is imperative for any event design team to determine the scope of the project and break it down into SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, resourced and timed) objectives or deliverables (see Table 9.1). As a result, everyone in the team should understand what is required for the success of the project; time, costs, resources and quality criteria should be set.

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Table 9.1 SMART Objectives

Specific Measurable

Achievable Resourced Timed

•• What do we want to achieve? •• Do we have a clear design objective and vision? •• What are the expected tangible and intangible outputs of our project? •• How will we measure these outputs? •• Is this project feasible, taking into consideration the internal and external climates? •• Do we have enough resources and staff numbers? •• Do we have enough expertise? •• Do we have enough time to complete this project and meet the deadline?

Design breakdown structure In order to understand the constituent parts of an event design project, a design breakdown structure (DBS) can be developed (Figure 9.1). A DBS puts emphasis on the “how” questions of the project and is defined as a structured, hierarchical, graphical documented team process where the entire design team, including the project manager, works through the fundamental issues they must overcome to reach their preset goal. This wellstructured documentation acts as a road map of the project, and spreads an awareness of both the issues that each individual designer faces, and the interconnectedness of all the issues. It forces the team to work as a coordinated, well-knit unit rather than as a team of isolated individuals. This road map is essential towards allowing the project manager to effectively manage the project. (Diegel, 2002) To create a DBS: •• •• ••

Work in collaborative teams to describe all of the work that needs to be performed to complete a design project; Work “top down”, by dividing the design project into meaningful tasks or “chunks”; The hierarchy should contain no gaps (all the work required should be included) and no overlaps (each component should represent a unique task), and should allow the necessary resources to be attached to it.

After the DBS is completed, resources, timescales and milestones can be assigned to each “chunk” as required. The assigning of resources and the figuring out of timescales may change things, and the event design team need to be aware that this process is not linear.

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Car Model Presentation

Discover

Define

Develop

Deliver

Initial review and team assignment

Initial ideas and concepts

Develop basic design package

Financial project review

Confirmation of all key deliverables

Venue search and evaluation

Consultations and testing

Pitch

Design challenges, legal, ethical, etc.

Resources

Develop detailed project design

Contract

Figure 9.1 A design breakdown structure for a planned event.

Overall, the DBS facilitates the event designer’s ability to structure a creative process into feasible and clear blocks and is extremely effective when working on large-scale and complex events.

Responsibility assignment matrix After the DBS is completed, each activity should be assigned to team members by using a responsibility assignment matrix (RAM). A member of the design project team must own each activity or its sub-component. The RAM will reflect who is responsible for a task rather than who must perform that task, but this is often semantics as your event project team may be so small that those who are performing the task are also responsible, and vice versa. Two examples of RAMs are presented in Tables 9.2 and 9.3.

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Table 9.2 A RAM with a Detailed Description of the Tasks Allocated

Member of the team Jeff Dan Anna

Food experience – Consult Food experience – client Sensory design Venue design – Arrange Venue design – consultation with client Search options Visual effects – Initial ideas Visual effects and consultations with – Prototyping the client

Food experience – Search for suppliers Venue design – Arrange assessment Visual effects – Costs

Table 9.3 A RAM with a Basic Allocation of Tasks

Member of the team

Food experience

Jeff Dan Anna

x

Venue design

Visual effects

x x

Table 9.4 RACI Method in Action

Team member

Food experience

Venue design

Visual effects

Jeff Dan Anna

R A C

I R, A C

I A C

In addition to RAM, a RACI method can also be applied (Table 9.4). RACI documents who will be responsible (persons involved in doing the work, or making the decision), accountable (the person who is ultimately accountable), consulted (persons who are consulted before a decision is made or action is taken) and informed (persons informed after the decision is made or action is taken).

Calculating the duration and dependencies of tasks The process of identifying project dependencies and calculating their duration allows event design teams to work out the total project time from start to finish, and organise the workforce to ensure that one job is done before another that is dependent on it. Once the tasks in the DBS have been timed and a date applied to them, the team are ready to embark on the necessary work.

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Having taken the time to think through all the tasks and activities and to assign timings to those tasks, it is possible to calculate the critical path: the longest-duration path of the event design project. The activities that lie on this path cannot be delayed without delaying the whole project, and to accelerate the project it is necessary to reduce the total time required for the tasks that lie on the critical path. A project manager can also see where the project has “slack” or “float” (extra time available to finish a task before it results in a delay) which occurs through activities with different task times being scheduled at the same time. Knowing where the team has activities with slack can help in the assignment of resources. Faster workers may be put on tasks on the critical path, whereas slower workers may be put on those with slack. Once an activity with slack is completed, the worker assigned to that task can move tasks and assist someone working on the critical path. The thinking through of an event design project from start to finish in detail enables the event design project manager to be able to assign and cost resources appropriately. Figure 9.2 demonstrates a simple critical path designed in MS Visio. The identification of critical tasks and their duration can minimise a risk of project failure and eliminate any misunderstandings among team members and between a project team and the client.

Consult Client regarding Catering Choices 1 day

Engage Team in Sensory Design of Food Experience 2 days

Obtain Costings from Three Catering Suppliers 10 days

Consider Quotes and Engage Supplier 3 days

Ideas Brainstorm on Venue 1 day

Venue Search 1 day

Book and Contract Venue 3 days

CATERING

VENUE

Figure 9.2 A simple consideration of time duration and dependencies of tasks.

Gantt chart The Gantt chart (GC) allows project teams to collate all project tasks and their timings within one document. A GC can be done in Excel or in MS Project (Figure 9.3). The chart shows the various tasks that need to be done in a time-sequenced order and can be used to monitor individuals’ progress against their objectives. It is a horizontal bar chart, an easy-to-view, visual representation of the various activities/tasks involved,

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Figure 9.3 A Gantt chart.

their duration, potential clashes and overlaps, the deadlines and the impact of tasks being delayed (Shone and Parry, 2010; Kloppenborg, 2011). The members of the team can update it regularly, making changes to the process where necessary. There are several advantages of the GC, including that it •• •• •• •• ••

Breaks down large, complex projects into specific tasks; Helps to allocate responsibilities for tasks; Provides both holistic and micro views of the project; Illustrates time frames; Identifies task durations (Pielichaty et al., 2017).

Overall, a GC is a useful tool that summarises the planning and delivery stages of the event design project and helps to identify and monitor the realisation of the key project tasks and activities.

Risk assessment and management Throughout the process of planning, the event design team needs to be aware of risks to the project. The stages of risk assessment and management are to 1. Identify the risk; 2. Assess/evaluate the risk; 3. Plan ways to minimise or eradicate the risk. The team can identify risks through a brainstorm. Then risks are assessed in terms of probability and impact. Those that are high probability and high impact are higher risk, and ways to minimise or eradicate those risks need to be considered.

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Costs Everything costs money! As an event design manager, you will be required to cost an event design project in order to explain to a client or decision-maker the likely requirements from their budget. Once approved, the costs you have calculated become the event design budget, and you will be required to monitor the budget through the realisation of an event design project in order to ensure that your event design project does not go over budget, or to explain why, and to know the figures well enough to ask for more money if required. This section will help you to create an event design project budget and consider ways to monitor, control and report on expenditure. Costs can be elicited from the “bottom-up”, which means the event design team should be asked to calculate the costs of the particular tasks and activities that make up the overall design plan. Then you add up the costs to understand the overall costs and the budget for the project. The benefits of this “bottom-up” approach are that you and the event design team will have ownership of the event design project and the costs, and therefore the event design project is likely to be more realistic (you will have worked out carefully what the costs are based on what you need to realise your event design vision). In certain situations, though, you may not have this freedom, and you may be allocated a certain amount of money for an event design project. This is beneficial in some ways (it is quicker and prevents lengthy negotiations with the budget-holder, and from the budget-holder’s point of view, it is definitive and reduces the room for inflation). In reality, it is likely that an event design budget is decided from both the bottom-up and the top-down, with negotiations taking place as to what can be done, within an envelope of funding suggested by the budget-holder, with requests for extensions of that budget needing to be reasoned and justified with an explanation of the expected benefits (see Chapter 10 for making a business case). The cost elements that need to be considered are: •• •• •• •• •• ••

Human resources (people’s time); Consumables such as paint, decorations, food; Equipment, should it be bought or rented, such as projectors, staging, lighting, Wi-Fi; Expenses such as transportation, training or expertise to advise on certain aspects of the design (legal, health and safety); Overheads (a contribution to a central body in the organisation supplying administrative support or office space); Contingency: a standard 10% margin or allowance for (the inevitable) flexing of sums.

With experience comes more certainty, although it should always be understood that costs for an event design are always “best estimates” until the event design has actually been carried out. The team can do their best to get accurate quotes from suppliers,

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but there needs to be a realistic sense that there is a lack of absolute certainty until an event design project has been completed. Of course, once an event design project has been completed, those costs can become the foundation for the next similar project, helping to build certainty. To cost, all tasks and activities must be broken into their constituent parts; understanding the detailed costs behind the building of an event structure will mean that hidden costs are less likely. Take, for example, the building of a marquee. “Building a marquee” might get you a couple of quotes from local marquee firms, but has sufficient attention been given to the preparing of the land for the marquee; the supply of power to the marquee; the necessary items to be put into the marquee? It is the same principle as the DBS; breaking costs down into their smallest constituent parts will give clarity. There is a principle, the “learning curve”, that repeating a task (or a project) results in quicker delivery the next time and thus, with experience, these savings can be built into the next project. One issue with costing is a natural “optimism bias” (Maylor, 2010). Human beings are generally not good at seeing the negative risks that may occur when planning. Kaplan and Mikes (2012) write about risk in strategy, but the same principle applies: We tend to be over-confident about the accuracy of our forecasts and risk assessments and far too narrow in our assessment of the range of outcomes that may occur. We also anchor our estimates to readily available evidence despite the known danger of making linear extrapolations from recent history to a highly uncertain and variable future. We often compound this problem with a confirmation bias, which drives us to favor information that supports our positions (typically successes) and suppress information that contradicts them (typically failures). When events depart from our expectations, we tend to escalate commitment, irrationally directing even more resources to our failed course of action – throwing good money after bad. Of course this “optimism bias” has been evidenced in a number of high-profile overbudget projects. Shenhar et al. (2001) write about the construction of the Sydney Opera House. The UK’s Brexit has also gone over-budget and over-time due to a shared “optimism bias” that a solution could be found quickly. So a healthy regard for risk and chance can help in terms of drawing up costs.

Drawing up a budget from costs The costs you have calculated become the event design budget. These costs can be recorded using a variety of tools, as discussed above. For example, the Gantt chart/ MS Project can be used to record budgeted costs and actual costs, and reports can be

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Table 9.5 A Simple Excel Spreadsheet for an Event Design Budget

Task

Cost

Contingency

Cost budgeted

Design Print Construction Technical Advice – Health and Safety Technical Advice – Legal Total

560 200 5000 500 500 6760

56 20 500 50 50 676

616 220 5500 550 550 7436

drawn from MS Project. Alternatively, Excel can be used, with appropriate formulae to calculate totals (Table 9.5).

Monitoring costs Having established that costs are estimated, we need to monitor those costs when it comes to managing the budget in our event design project realisation. This can be done in a number of ways. Firstly, Excel or similar can be used to measure estimated and actual spend and therefore the variances between those two figures. Variances are referred to as adverse or favourable. A favourable variance is one that leads to higher than expected profit. An adverse variance is one that reduces profit (Table 9.6). Secondly, an action checklist (Table 9.7), formed from your design breakdown structure, your Gantt chart and so on can include costs allocated to tasks, and then those costs can be monitored.

Table 9.6 A Simple Excel Spreadsheet to Monitor an Event Design Budget

Task

Cost

Contingency

Cost budgeted

Design Print Construction Technical Advice– Health and Safety Technical Advice – Legal Total

560 200 5000 500

56 20 500 50

616 220 5500 550

500

50

6760

676

Actual cost

Difference

Variance

600 150 6500 500

16 70 −1000 50

Favourable Favourable Adverse Favourable

550

600

−50

Adverse

7436

8350

−914

Adverse

133

134

Health and Safety Press and Publicity Design and Artwork

Exhibition

Print posters and leaflets

Approach company with requirements for quote Source furniture hire companies and agree cost Cost AV equipment required Source Health and Safety advisor Advert design

Design and Artwork

Furniture

Task

15.7.19

15.7.19

VA OR

15.6.19

30.6.19

30.6.19

30.6.19

Original deadline

VA

VA

OR

OR

Responsible

200

500

250

1000

150.00

600

Budgeted cost

Actual cost

Status

Notes

Completed

 9

Area

Table 9.7 An Action Checklist to Monitor an Event Design Budget

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The problem with some of these approaches is that the information given can be static and may not disclose the full detail of the achievement or otherwise of the tasks or of the costs involved. For example, in Table 9.6, £600 has been spent on design. But do we know from this entry in the spreadsheet that the work we expected to be done on design for £560 has been completed, over-budget (although within our contingency), or is there more work to be done on achieving our objective, and therefore this task will in fact go more over budget? Earned value analysis (EVA) can be used for a more accurate assessment. EVA concentrates on three basic parameters: ••

How much work should have been done so far – budgeted cost of work scheduled (BCWS); How much money has actually been spent to progress the project so far – actual cost of work performed (ACWP); The value of the work that has been accomplished so far– budgeted cost of work performed (BCWP) where BCWP = baseline cost × % complete

•• ••

If If If If

BCWP > BCWS = ahead of schedule BCWP  ACWP = under budget BCWP