The Fate of the Dead and the Living at the Lord¿s Parousia: Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10; 4:13-18; 5:1-11 9783631850626, 9783631856888, 9783631856895, 363185062X

Table of contents :
Cover
Series Information
Copyright Information
Dedication
APPRECIATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
A. Statement of the Problem
B. The Thesis
C. Methodology
D. The Scheme of Work
E. Paul’s Missionary Activity in Thessalonica
F (i). Foundation of Thessalonica and its Political Development
F (ii). Socio- Economic Situation in Thessalonica
F (iii). Religious Condition in Thessalonica
G. Date, Purpose and Occasion of Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians
H. The Structure of First Thessalonians.
CHAPTER ONE Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10
Introduction
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 1:9-10 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10
1.1. (i). 1 Thess 1:9a: “For they themselves report concerning us” (αὐτοὶ γὰρ περὶ ἡμῶν ἀπαγγέλλουσιν).
1.1. (ii). 1 Thess 1:9c: “And how you turned to (i.e. towards) God from the idols” (καὶ πῶς ἐπεστρέψατε πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων).
1.1. (iii). 1 Thess 1:9d: “to serve the living and true God” (δουλεύειν θεῷ ζῶντι καὶ ἀληθινῷ).
1.1. (iv). 1 Thess 1:10a: “And to wait for his son from heaven” (καὶ ἀναμένειν τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν).
1.1. (v). 1 Thess 1:10b: “Whom he raised from the dead” (ὃν ἤγειρεν ἐκ [τῶν] νεκρῶν).
1.1. (vi). 1 Thess 1:10c: “Jesus who delivers us from the coming wrath” (Ἰησοῦν τὸν ῥυόμενον ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης).
CHAPTER TWO Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18
Introduction
2.1. (i). 1 Thess 4:13
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:13 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:13
2.1. (ii). 1 Thess 4:14
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:14 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:14
2.1. (iii). 1 Thess 4:15
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:15 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:15
2.1. (iv) 1 Thess 4:16
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:16 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:16
2.1. (v). 1 Thess 4:17
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:17 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:17
2.1. (vi). 1 Thess 4:18
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:18 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:18
CHAPTER THREE Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11
Introduction
3.1. (i). 1 Thess 5:1-3
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:1-3 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:1-3
3.1. (ii). 1 Thess 5:4-5
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:4-5 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:4-5
3.1. (iii). 1 Thess 5:6-7
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:6-7 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:6-7
3.1. (iv). 1 Thess 5:8
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:8 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:8
3.1. (v). 1 Thess 5:9
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:9 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:9
3.1. (vi). 1 Thess 5:10
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:10 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:10
3.1. (vii). 1 Thess 5:11
A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:11 (with Notes)
B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:11
GENERAL CONCLUSION
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1. Sources
1 (i) Bible
1 (ii) Judaism
1 (iii) Selected Hellenistic Greek and Roman Literature
2. Dictionaries, Grammars, Concordances and Lexicons
3. Commentaries on First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians
4. Other Books and Articles
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Sources
1 (i) Bible
1 (ii) Judaism
1 (iii) Selected Hellenistic Greek and Roman Literature
2. Dictionaries, Grammars, Concordances and Lexicons
3. Commentaries on First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians
4. Other Books and Articles
INDICES
A. INDEX OF BIBLICAL AND OTHER ANCIENT REFERENCES
B. INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS, COMMENTATORS, EDITORS AND TRANSLATORS
Series Index

Citation preview

The Fate of the Dead and the Living at the Lord’s Parousia: Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10; 4:13-18; 5:1-11

NEW TESTAMENT STUDIES IN CONTEXTUAL EXEGESIS NEUTESTAMENTLICHE STUDIEN ZUR KONTEXTUELLEN EXEGESE Edited by / Herausgegeben von Johannes Beutler, Thomas Schmeller und Werner Kahl

Vol./Bd. 13

Zu Qualitätssicherung und Peer Review der vorliegenden Publikation Die Qualität der in dieser Reihe erscheinenden Arbeiten wird vor der Publikation durch einen Herausgeber der Reihe geprüft.

Notes on the quality assurance and peer review of this publication Prior to publication, the quality of the work published in this series is reviewed by one of the editors of the series.

Eric Owusu

The Fate of the Dead and the Living at the Lord’s Parousia: Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10; 4:13-18; 5:1-11

Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. Zugl.: Frankfurt (Main), Phil.-Theol. Hochschule Sankt Georgen, Diss., 2020

F 42 ISSN 1616-816X ISBN 978-3-631-85062-6 (Print) E-ISBN 978-3-631-85688-8 (E-PDF) E-ISBN 978-3-631-85689-5 (EPUB) DOI 10.3726/b18515 © Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften Berlin 2021 Alle Rechte vorbehalten. All rights reserved. Peter Lang – Berlin · Bern · Bruxelles · New York · Oxford · Warszawa · Wien All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. This publication has been peer reviewed. www.peterlang.com

In memory of Archbishop Thomas Kwaku Mensah Weihbischof Werner Guballa Karl Kardinal Lehmann and Mr. Robert Owusu Fordjour (my father)

APPRECIATION I am very grateful to Most Reverend Gabriel Justice Yaw Anokye (Roman Catholic Archbishop of Kumasi, Ghana), Most Reverend Peter Kohlgraf (Roman Catholic Bishop of Mainz, Germany), Prof. Dr. Ansgar Wucherpfennig SJ: my supervisor and the first reviewer of my work (Philosophisch-​Theologische Hochschule Sankt Georgen, Frankfurt am Main), Prof. Dr. Melanie Peetz: the second reviewer of my work (Philosophisch-​Theologische Hochschule Sankt Georgen, Frankfurt am Main), Reverend Father Stefan Barton (the parish priest of St. Martin Catholic Church, Dietzenbach in the diocese of Mainz), the editors of Neutestamentliche Studien zur kontextuellen Exegese /​New Testament Studies in Contextual Exegesis, i.e. Prof. Dr. Johannes Beutler SJ (Frankfurt am Main), Prof. Dr. Werner Karl (Hamburg) and Prof. Dr. Thomas Schmeller (Frankfurt am Main), the management of Peter Lang Verlag (a publishing house in Berlin, etc.), and every individual or group of persons –​who assisted me in diverse ways –​for their support and motivation which made my stay in Germany become fruitful and this work (or dissertation) a success. May the almighty God continue to grant you abundant blessings. Meda mo ase pii. To God be the glory and honour for ever and ever. Dietzenbach (Germany), 5th January, 2021.

Eric Owusu

TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  13 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ��������������������������������������������������������������������  21 A.

Statement of the Problem ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  21

B.

The Thesis ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  25

C.

Methodology �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  35

D.

The Scheme of Work ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  36

E.

Paul’s Missionary Activity in Thessalonica ���������������������������������������������  37

F (i). Foundation of Thessalonica and its Political Development �����������������  39 F (ii). Socio-​Economic Situation in Thessalonica ���������������������������������������������  44 F (iii). Religious Condition in Thessalonica �������������������������������������������������������  49 G.

Date, Purpose and Occasion of Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  56

H.

The Structure of First Thessalonians. ������������������������������������������������������  59

CHAPTER ONE Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10 ���������������������  61 Introduction �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  61 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 1:9-​10 (with Notes) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  62 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-​10 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  64 1.1. (i). 1 Thess 1:9a: “For they themselves report concerning us” (αὐτοὶ γὰρ περὶ ἡμῶν ἀπαγγέλλουσιν). ���������������������������������������������  64 1.1. (ii). 1 Thess 1:9c: “And how you turned to (i.e. towards) God from the idols” (καὶ πῶς ἐπεστρέψατε πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων). ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  66 1.1. (iii). 1 Thess 1:9d: “to serve the living and true God” (δουλεύειν θεῷ ζῶντι καὶ ἀληθινῷ). ���������������������������������������������������������������������  77

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1.1. (iv). 1 Thess 1:10a: “And to wait for his son from heaven” (καὶ ἀναμένειν τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν). �������������������������������������  87 1.1. (v). 1 Thess 1:10b: “Whom he raised from the dead” (ὃν ἤγειρεν ἐκ [τῶν] νεκρῶν). ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������  90 1.1. (vi). 1 Thess 1:10c: “Jesus who delivers us from the coming wrath” (Ἰησοῦν τὸν ῥυόμενον ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης). �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  91

CHAPTER TWO Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18 ������������������  99 Introduction �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  99 2.1. (i). 1 Thess 4:13 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  104 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:13 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  104 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:13 ��������������������������������������������������������������������  105 2.1. (ii). 1 Thess 4:14 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  125 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:14 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  125 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:14 ��������������������������������������������������������������������  126 2.1. (iii). 1 Thess 4:15 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  152 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:15 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  152 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:15 ��������������������������������������������������������������������  154 Excursus I: λέγομεν (“we tell”) in 1 Thess 4:15a ����������������������������������  154 2.1. (iv). 1 Thess 4:16 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  184 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:16 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  184 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:16 ��������������������������������������������������������������������  185 2.1. (v). 1 Thess 4:17 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  202 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:17 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  202 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:17 ��������������������������������������������������������������������  203

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2.1. (vi). 1 Thess 4:18 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  222 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:18 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  222 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:18 ��������������������������������������������������������������������  223

CHAPTER THREE Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11 ���������������  229 Introduction �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  229 3.1. (i). 1 Thess 5:1-​3 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  233 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:1-​3 (with Notes) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  233 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:1-​3 �������������������������������������������������������������������  235 3.1. (ii). 1 Thess 5:4-​5 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  298 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:4-​5 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  298 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:4-​5 �������������������������������������������������������������������  300 Excursus II: Identification of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls with the Essene Religious Community.  ������������������������  320 3.1. (iii). 1 Thess 5:6-​7 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  324 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:6-​7 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  324 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:6-​7 �������������������������������������������������������������������  325 3.1. (iv). 1 Thess 5:8 �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  346 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:8 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  346 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:8 ����������������������������������������������������������������������  348 3.1. (v). 1 Thess 5:9 �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  362 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:9 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  362 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:9 ����������������������������������������������������������������������  363 3.1. (vi). 1 Thess 5:10 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  377 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:10 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  377 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:10 ��������������������������������������������������������������������  379

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3.1. (vii). 1 Thess 5:11 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  391 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:11 (with Notes) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  391 B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:11 ��������������������������������������������������������������������  393

GENERAL CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������  401 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ����������������������������������������������������������������������  411 BIBLIOGRAPHY ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  421 A. INDEX OF BIBLICAL AND OTHER ANCIENT REFERENCES �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  439 B. INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS, COMMENTATORS, EDITORS AND TRANSLATORS ����������������������������������������������������  483

Preface The belief in immortality of persons has existed in the course of human history, a belief which assures persons that they can survive the experience of natural death and total annihilation of their existence. Connected with this belief in immortality is the belief in life after death which is one of the core religious beliefs held by members of the revealed religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) and of many other religions in the world such as the African Traditional Religion (AfTR). The adherence to the belief in immortality and in life after death is, however, not without challenges. For instance, when it is a question of immortality, what is the place of the human person who is actually seen as or is, in fact, a mortal being? Morever, when the talk is about the afterlife, how does the hereafter look like? No one has ever gone there and come back to report on the nature and the condition of the hereafter. Thus, at first glance such a religious belief seems to be tenable only in principle. Denney remarks that: “The faith in immortality, as is well known, has existed in very various forms. In its primitive forms it is almost purely negative. It has its origin not in the ambition of man, nor in his sense of his own value, but rather in the impotence of his mind. He believes in the continuance of his being after death because he is incapable of forming such an abstract conception as that of his extinction. Broadly speaking we may say this is what we find in the earlier stages of religious history in races [i.e. people] so unlike as the Hebrews and the Greeks. The Sheôl of the Old Testament and the House of Hades in the Odyssey both belong to this stage. In both there is a world beyond death in which existence is continued, but men [or persons] do not believe in it or hope for it under the impulse of motives which have any meaning or any value for us. They believe in it only because they are unable to realise the alternative of [eternal] annihilation”1.

The religions which hold the belief in life after death try to defend the plausibility of this belief, and much as there may be similarities in their approach and interpretation of this belief, there are also areas where they differ. The individual person becomes the focus of study, and the anthropological concept that a human being is a composition of both spiritual and material elements is adhered to. While the soul, the spirit or the breath are seen as the spiritual elements of

1 Cf. James Denny, “Factors of Faith in Immortality” (Vol. I), in: Robertson W. Nicoll (editor), The Expositor (Eighth Series, Volume I), London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1911, p. 2.

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a person, the body and blood are considered as his or her material or physical component parts. Among the ancient Greeks, an absolute distinction is drawn between the soul and the body, i.e. the soul is said to be immortal and only a part of a human being, but the body is mortal and perishable. For the ancient Greek, it is only the soul (or the spirit) which makes a journey to Hades or the netherworld after death2. The belief in the descent of the soul or the spirit to the underworld in ancient Greek mythology or in classical Greek and Hellenistic cultures3 finds an echo in the African Traditional Religion (AfTR) and in many other religions and cultures in the world. Bauckham remarks that: “For the Greco-​Roman world, descents to Hades were more than stories about the gods and heroes. They were also apocalypses, revealing the fate of souls in the netherworld, and they were models which could in some sense be imitated, especially in the experience of initiation in the mysteries, which dispelled the terrors of the underworld and secured a blessed immortality”4.

Due to the so-​called “cultural borrowing and transformation”, it becomes evident that though the Greco-​Roman conception of a human (person), immortality and the hereafter has influenced the teachings of AfTR as far as the Traditional African’s concept of a human being, death, immortality and the hereafter are concerned, there are areas where the teachings of AfTR in this respect differ from those in ancient Greek mythology. Even within the AfTR, one can identify variations in such teachings because AfTR is a broad concept which comprises of different cultures in Africa, and every identifiable cultural group of people5 may have a worldview and culture which differs sharply or slightly from that of the others. I come from Ghana (West Africa), a country with a population of about thirty million people and more than 46 identifiable groups of people with

2 See, for example, Plato’s Phaido 64c-​67d, 70a-​d, 80a-​e, 105e, 106e, 107a-​e; and Homer’s Odyssey 11.130-​151, 210-​224. 3 For a detailed discussion of the descent (katabasis) to the underworld in Greco-​Roman cultures, confer Richard Bauckham, The Fate of the Dead: Studies on the Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Supplements to Novum Testamentum 93), Leiden: Society of Biblical Literatur, 1998, pp. 19–​32. 4 Cf. Richard Bauckham, The Fate of the Dead: Studies on the Jewish and Christian Apocalypses, p. 32. 5 Since the words “tribe” or “tribalism”, “ethnic group” or “ethnicity” have negative connotations just like “race” or “racism” and are not encouraged in recent diction, I prefer to use here “identifiable cultural group of people” instead of what ethnologists often describe as “tribe” or “ethnic group”.

Preface

15

their own distinguished cultures and mother or native tongues. I belong to the Akan cultural group which comprises of the people called the Asantes, Fantes, Akuapems, Bonos, etc. Despite our cultural differences, we see ourselves as Ghanaians who have a strong sense of national identity which has been shaped over the years by our history. I would like, therefore, not only to use the Akan traditonal belief as a case study in this discussion, but basically the Ghanaian concept of death and the hereafter. With regard to the concept of human personality, most Ghanaians believe in the dualistic nature of a person. As Sarpong puts it: “The Akan for example believe that the mother gives her child its blood (bogya [or mogya]), the father a spirit (sunsum) which individualizes the child, and God the soul (‫כ‬kra), and the breath of life (honhom)”6. Sarpong explains that: “The soul is said to be a small particle of God and it is this which makes a person a human being. The breath of life accompanies the soul and enables the person to breathe, making him a living human being. When the breath of life leaves the person, he stops breathing, and he is dead. Then the soul leaving him, returns to God, the spirit turning into a ghost [saman] or an ancestor and setting out for the world of ancestors [asamando]. The person’s body is buried in the ground”7.

Gyekye calls the abode of the dead “the world of spirits”, and he explains that “the reality of the world of spirits, inhabited by those who have departed this life, is based upon the assumptions about the immortality of the human soul and personal survival in an afterlife”8. The journey to the world of spirits is such that after the death of a person, the spirit of the dead “travels for a certain number of days during which he may climb mountains, cross rivers, become tired on the way, and need money, food and water”, and so some cultures (in Ghana) have the custom of pouring water into the dying person’s mouth as the last act of kindness towards him or her, and when the dead is being placed into the coffin, he is accompanied with money, blankets and other precious objects which the people think he or she may need on his way, or on arrival at his destination9. Such a description of the concept of human beings and their destiny after death, so far as their journey to the world of spirits is concerned, definitely has marked 6 Cf. Peter Sarpong, Ghana in Retrospect: Some Aspects of Ghanaian Culture, Accra-​ Tema: Ghana Publishing Corporation, 1974, p. 37. 7 Cf. Peter Sarpong, Ghana in Retrospect: Some Aspects of Ghanaian Culture, p. 37. Confer also Kwame Gyekye, African Cultural Values: An Introduction, Accra: Sankofa Publishing Company, 1996, pp. 13–​14. 8 Cf. Kwame Gyekye, African Cultural Values: An Introduction, pp. 13–​14. 9 Cf. Peter Sarpong, Ghana in Retrospect: Some Aspects of Ghanaian Culture, p. 38.

16

Preface

parallels with that of the myths or narratives in ancient Greek mythology referred to above. The Akan (or the Ghanaian) knows that part of the human personality survives after death. A person is never annihilated even after death, he or she only changes his/​her earthly mode of existence for another, in fact, better one10. However, for the Akan the world of the ancestors (or the spirits) is equated with the abode of God, to enter the world of the ancestors is to return to God, and at the place of the dead or the ancestors the person is supposed to lead exactly the same life that he/​she led while on earth, i.e. a chief here is a chief there, a farmer here is a farmer there11. Those who do evil, a person who dies young and does not live to a ripe old age, or a person whose death is surrounded by tragic circumstances, etc. cannot enter the world of the spirits or the underworld. Those who do not get admission into the next world become ghosts (nsaman twεntwεn) and hover around the earth frightening people. They will continue doing this until they are conceived and born again into this world and fulfil the conditions necessary for entry into the other world12. Though life in the ancestral world is a life of happiness and justice insofar as there is no cheating, no physical pain or deformity, and no evil intentions or machinations, etc., the Akan or the Ghanaian is not eager to attain it. As Sarpong puts it: “He [i.e. the Ghanaian] would [rather] immortalize himself if he could. He wants wealth, fame, children, peace, long life, position, and so on, here on earth; and he prays for these, never for a future life of bliss after death”13. The Christian doctrine of the Resurrection of Christ or on the Last Day is, therefore, one which makes little impression on the Akan14 or any other traditional African. The ancestors are believed to visit the living now and again from the world of spirits15, bringing the living gifts, good luck and granting them protection, and so the living pour libation to thank their ancestors and ask them for peace and happiness here on earth. For the Akan, therefore, Jesus Christ may have been some people’s ancestor. Only that in Jesus’ case he may have returned earlier than was expected or anticipated16. Thus, the Akan or any other traditional African 1 0 Cf. Peter Sarpong, op. cit., p. 22. 11 Cf. Peter Sarpong, op. cit., p. 38. 12 Cf. Peter Sarpong, op. cit., p. 39. 13 Cf. Peter Sarpong, op. cit., p. 22. 14 Cf. Peter Sarpong, op. cit., p. 23. 15 Sarpong explains that the living do not, as a rule, see these ancestors or spiritual beings but those “with the eyes” or “power” can at least sense their presence. Cf. Peter Sarpong, Ghana in Retrospect: Some Aspects of Ghanaian Culture, p. 23. 16 Cf. Peter Sarpong, op. cit, p. 23.

Preface

17

may not have the difficulty of believing that Jesus Christ –​who was cruxified, died on the cross, was buried and was raised from the dead and went up to God, his father in heaven17 –​would come back to earth for the second time. He or she may only be confronted with the questions: Is this Jesus Christ coming back for my sake or for the sake of his own people (the Jews), and to what extent can I be able to sense or experience his presence when he returns? In spite of the belief in a mystical presence of the dead (among the living), the Ghanaian considers death as a kind of unjust, heartless oppressor which ruthlessly delights in forcibly taking away one’s mother or husband, brother or sister, or a best friend, for whom there can be no real substitute, and so for the Ghanaian the power of death is wickedly irresistible18. The personification of death as a merciless oppressor of humanity in the Ghanaian community is attested in the Ghanaian proverbs, symbols (especially the Adinkra symbols), songs and dirges at funeral ceremonies, etc. Christianity tries to explain the significance of Christ’s death and resurrection for the entire humanity, and especially for those who believe in Christ. By his death and resurrection, Christ defeated death itself and the power of Hades, Sheol or the underworld, and so the hereafter can be described in terms of resurrection into a new life with Christ. Much as the early Christian teachings about death and the afterlife may contain some allusions to some aspects of ancient Greek mythology and philosophy, there is no doubt that such early Christian doctrines have been influenced largely and basically by the Old Testament and the Jewish apocalyptic expectations. Bauckham remarks correctly that: “The influence of pagan myths of descent to the underworld on Christian ideas of Christ’s descent to Hades was probably minimal …. In fact, the idea of Christ’s defeat of the powers of Hades is sufficiently explained from the Jewish apocalyptic expectation that at the last day God would ‘reprove the angel of death’ (2 Bar 42:8), command Sheol to release the souls of the dead (2 Bar 42:8), abolish death (Pseudo-​Philo, Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum [LAB] 3:10), close the mouth of Sheol (LAB 3:10) or seal it up (2 Bar 21:23….) In the expectation of resurrection there was a sense of death and its realm as a power which had to be broken by God (cf. also Mt 16:18; 1 Cor 15:44-​45; Rev 20:14; 4 Ezra 8:53). These ideas were transferred to the context of Christ’s descent to Hades because of the early Christian belief that Christ’s death and resurrection were the eschatological triumph of God over death. The details, as we have seen, derived from

17 The Akan has no hell or purgatory, his or her equivalent of “heaven” is only another, if happier, form of our world. Cf. Peter Sarpong, Ghana in Retrospect: Some Aspects of Ghanaian Culture, p. 22. 18 Cf. Peter Sarpong, op. cit., p. 23.

18

Preface that process of christological exegesis of the Old Testament which supplied so much of the phraseology and imagery of early Christian belief ”19.

The Christian doctrine stresses that Christ died for the salvation of all, and he will come back so that the salvation of those who believe in him may be fully accomplished insofar as the believers shall live forever in the presence of Jesus and in the presence of God, the Father. This doctrine is elaborated in the NT especially by Paul in 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11 and then in 1 Cor 15. I am happy to write about the passages in 1 Thessalonians which talk about the fate of the dead and the living at the parousia or the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. Throughout human history, persons have been finding difficulties in dealing with the phenomenon of death and the fate of the dead. The problem of the Thessalonian community in the second-​half of the 1st century CE was that the believers were not certain about the fate of the dead at the parousia or the second coming of Christ. The living may have the opportunity to see him and meet him, but what about those believers who are already dead and are buried? (see 1 Thess 4:13). The problem of the Ghanaian or the traditional African today with death may be different from that of the Thessalonian community. For the Ghanaian community death is, for example, something that destroys and brings to an end everything that one has planned, built, achieved or enjoyed in life. The Pauline teachings about death and the hereafter are supposed to help me as a Ghanaian –​and for that matter as a person who has accepted and professes the Christian faith and lives by this faith –​to shape and redefine my idea and understanding of death and the afterlife hand in hand with the Christian conception and definition of death as a victory for the believer in Christ, and with the belief in the resurrection of the dead which is an opportunity for me as a believer in Christ to be united forever with God and his son Jesus Christ. Thus, I shall no more consider natural death as something evil but would rather accept it to be part of human life, and so when death comes I will have the courage to embrace it and the so-​called “cold or icy hand of death” –​not really in the same attitude of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates who was courageous and happy to die with the hope that by his death, his soul would finally be liberated from the body for the soul to travel to the other world and be able to remain pure, to perceive things as they truly are, and to philosophise better20 –​but rather with the

19 Cf. Richard Bauckham, The Fate of the Dead: Studies on the Jewish and Christian Apocalypses, p. 43. 20 Confer the conversation between the Socrates of the Phaido and his friends in Plato’s Phaido.

Preface

19

Christian hope that I will meet my God and be united forever with my creator. I shall be rest assured that my saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ –​in whom I believe and to whom I have dedicated my entire life –​died for me and I have a share in his victory over death, and at his second coming I shall see the fulfillment of my salvation through him, whether I am dead or alive.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION A.  Statement of the Problem Human beings are born and they are destined to taste death. Physical death, of course, is the end of human existence on this earth. There has, however, been the question as to whether there is life after death. There is, indeed, the belief in “life after death” in Judaism, Christianity, African Traditional Religion (AfTR), and in many other religions in the world. Though the content of the teachings about life after death (and immortality) may differ from one religion to the other, in all these religions there is the belief that physical death is not the end of persons but they continue to live in “another world” after their death. In Christianity, resurrection is identified with the fate of the dead. Christians21 have the hope in the resurrection of the dead. Christians believe that after their death, they will be raised from the dead in order to have salvation and eternal life in the presence of the Lord (Almighty God) or to face judgement and eternal condemnation. All depends on how the Christian led his/​her life here on earth before his/​her death (Jn 5:28-​29; see also Dn 12:2). In these biblical passages of Dn 12:2 and Jn 5:28-​29, for instance, the resurrection of the dead is discussed in eschatological contexts, and it is not a “realized eschatology” but a “future eschatology” that the authors present. That is to say, the event of the resurrection of the dead (from their tombs) is envisaged to take place in the future, at the end of time, but not presently22. In 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11, and later in 1 Cor 15, Paul presents elaborate teachings about the Christian community’s hope and belief in the future

21 The term “Christians” (οἱ Χριστιανοί) is used to describe the members who believe in Christ and are associated with Christ (Acts 11:26). It is clear in Acts 11:26 that the Christians were identified with the members of “the community”, “the assembly”, or “the congregation” (ἡ ἑκλλησία), i.e., “a people with shared belief ” who assembled in a specific place or area for “worship” and for discussion of “matters of concern to the community”, and the Gentile members of the community “enabled it to stand out clearly from Judaism”. It is assumed that the term was a designation that was applied to the believers in Christ by “outsiders” (cf. Acts 26:28). The designation ὁ Χριστιανός or οἱ Χριστιανοί appears 3 times in the NT (Acts 11:26; 26:28; 1 Pt 4:16). For more discussions about the term, confer Gerhard Schneider, “Χριστιανός”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), pp. 477–​478. 22 A “realized eschatology” can rather be seen, for instance, in Jn 5:19-​27.

22

General Introduction

resurrection of the dead at the second coming or at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. After a thorough and reflective reading and study of these Pauline passages, I found out that in 1 Thessalonians Paul makes excessive use of apocalyptic imageries and eschatological motifs which are actually rooted in the Old Testament (OT), and in early Jewish and early Christian apocalyptic literature to convey his message on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia. In 1 Cor 15, however, he not only employs eschatological and apocalyptic motifs and imageries but also aspects of Greek philosophy such as the application of the literary device known as diatribe23 (see 1 Cor 15:12-​13.35; and even 15:29-​49). Thus in his effort to answer the possible question in regard to how the “bodily resurrection” can take place (1 Cor 15:35), Paul engages himself in an extensive argument with his “imaginary discussion partners”, and it is evident in this argument (cf. 1 Cor 15:35-​54) that Paul has in mind the Greek philosophical conception that human beings are composed of “body” (σῶμα) or “flesh” (σάρξ), “blood” (αἷμα), “soul” (ψυχή), “spirit” or “breath” (πνεῦμα) and so he tries, in a way, to refute the precedence given to the soul in Greek (mythical) conception of life after death that it is only possible for the soul (but not the body) to survive death and live in the heareafter. In Plato’s work Phaido, for example, Plato presents an extensive discussion of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates and his conversation partners about life here on earth but especially about life after death. In this conversation, “death” is described as the parting away of the soul from the body and vice versa, so that either the soul or the body can be alone (see Phaido 64c), or simply and specifically: “death” is the separation and deliverance of the soul from the body (see Phaido 67d). So long as in this life persons (or the philosophers) do not try as much as possible to keep their souls pure and undiluted from their bodies until the time that God himself effects the liberation of their souls from their bodies (i.e. until the time of their death), they cannot be in a position to know the reality of things or the truth and live by the truth (Phaido 66e-​67a.b.) The Socrates of the Phaido stresses in this conversation that after the death of a person (i.e. after the separation or liberation of the soul from the body [by God]) it is only the soul (and not the body or both the body and soul) that “makes a journey into the underworld” –​accompanied by the spirits, e.g. the “daimon” –​and the soul survives in the “underworld” where it (i.e. the soul) would then be reborn (Phaido 70a-​d). While the soul is described as invisible, divine and immortal, the body is

23 This literary device is explained below in footnote 194 under chapter one: Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-​10.

Statement of the Problem

23

seen as visible, mortal and corruptible, and so after the death of a person the soul goes back –​so far as it has remained pure and not been diluted by the body –​ to the spirit world, i.e. to the wise and good God, but the body obliterates and decays (see Phaido 80 a-​e; 105e; 106e; 107a.c-​e). When the Socrates of the Phaido talks about the fate of the dead person, it is only about the fate of the different natures of the soul which are bound to face judgement and to be punished or rewarded based on their merits (Phaido 113d.e-​ 114a-​c). For instance, the kind of souls which excel in a life of holiness are set free from every kind of imprisonment; they are purified and they live wholly for all generations without body but in a more beautiful dwelling (Phaido 114c). The body is, however, destined to be buried or burnt to decay (cf. Phaido 115e-​166a). The Socrates of the Phaido proves the tenability or trustworthiness of his assertion and teaching by maintaining that what he says is not a mere empty gossip or prattle but “there is indeed an old saying” (παλαιὸς μὲν οὖν ἔστι τις λόγος)24 on which his assertion is based (Phaido 70c). This “old saying” (παλαιὸς λόγος [οὗτος]) refers definitely to the account or description of the souls in “Hades” (Ἄϊδος) or “the underworld” in Book XI of Odyssey, the epic poem attributed to Homer. The Homeric account of the souls in Hades –​the abode of the departed spirits or souls (see, for example, Odyssey 11.130-​151.210-​224)25 –​was indeed familiar to every educated or learned Greek in Plato’s time26. It can be observed that even in 1 Cor 15 where Paul combines both ancient Greek philosophy and Jewish apocalyptic scenarios in his treatment of the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia, his emphasis is not solely on the survival and the immortality of the soul in the “underworld” where the soul shall be reborn, but he also lays emphasis on the body which –​together with the soul –​would be changed or transformed (1 Cor 15:51-​53). Thus even in 1 Cor 15 where Paul employs ancient Greek philosophy, he tries to transform this philosophy and bring it in tune with his theological reflections that the kingdom of God is the final destination of the Christ’s faithful (both the dead and the living), 24 Quoted from: Plato (427-​347 BCE), Platons Phaidon: Griechisch und Deutsch mit kritischen und erklärenden Anmerkungen (Dritte verbesserte und vemehrte Auflage) (Platons Werke 2), Leipzig: Engelmann, 1852, p. 36. 25 For the full text of Odyssey 11, confer: Homer, Odyssee: Griechisch und Deutsch. Übertragen von Anton Weiher. Mit Urtext, Anhang und Registern. Einführung von A. Heubeck (Sammlung Tusculum) (12. Auflage), Düsseldorf. Zürich: Artemis & Winkler Verlag (u.a.), 2003, pp. 288–​321. 26 Cf. Theodor Ebert (translator), Phaidon (Platon Werke: Übersetzung und Kommentar 14), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004, p. 166.

24

General Introduction

and that since “flesh and blood” (or the body) cannot inherit the kingdom of God (as it is conceived in ancient Greek philosophy), the dead will be raised incorruptible and we (the living) together with the dead will be changed, so that death shall be defeated, and this victory is brought about by God himself through Jesus Christ (1 Cor 15:54-​57). The Hellenistic philosophical conception of life after death which places emphasis only on the survival of the soul in the underworld or in the spirit world has actually no significant place in the Pauline teachings on the afterlife. The Hellenistic idea of the afterlife gives no room for a better understanding of Paul’s teachings about “bodily resurrection”. It is not surprising, therefore, that the addressees of Paul (and of the Paul portrayed by Luke in the Acts of the Apostles) in the Greco-​Roman world –​who were nurtured in this kind of Hellenistic philosophical idea of life after death –​always found it difficult to understand Paul’s teachings or references to “bodily” resurrection of the dead (see Acts 17:31-​33; 1 Cor 15:12-​14.35). With the Greco-​Roman idea of life after death in mind, it was also not easy for the newly converted Christ’s faithful in the Thessalonian community to simply believe the teachings of Paul that the believers who died before the Lord’s parousia could be raised from the dead to meet the Lord at his second coming, and so they continued to grieve for the dead in Christ (1 Thess 4:13). Especially in 1 Thesssalonians, Paul is silent on Hellenistic philosophical conception of the afterlife. The ancient Greek philosophical idea of the composition of persons plays no significant role in Paul’s teachings on “bodily resurrection” in 1 Thessalonians because Paul simply says, “the dead in Christ will rise” (1 Thess 4:16b) and “they will be snatched away” simultaneously with the living to meet the Lord and be with the Lord always (1 Thess 4:17). Paul thus depends more on early Jewish apocalypse, OT and Deuterocanonical Books of the OT in his teachings on the theme under discussion here in 1 Thessalonians. In the OT ᾅδης (“Hades”: “the underworld”) is the Septuagint (LXX) translation of the biblical Hebrew ‫“( ְׁשאֹול‬Sheol”: “the abode of the dead”). The OT speaks of a variety of concepts of “Hades” or “Sheol”. The term Hades or Sheol is associated with death (Ps 18:5-​6; 116:3 MT; Hos 13:14; Hab 2:527) and perdi��tion (Prov 15:11 LXX). Sheol is insatiable and never says “enough” (Prov 27:20; 30:16; Hab 2:528), and it is ever ready to welcome every person (Isa 14:9). For the pious or just one, Sheol is not a good place to yearn for (cf. “Hezekiah’s Hymn of Thanksgiving” in Isa 38:9-​20 MT). By his anger, God sends consuming fire in

2 7 See also Job 33:22 (LXX). 28 See also Pss.Sol 4:13.

The Thesis

25

the underworld (Dt 32:22), the dead go down to “Hades” or “Sheol” in mourning (Gen 37:35), in grief (Gen 42:38; 44:29), and in their weakness the dead decay in the underworld (see Isa 14:10-​11; 38:17). Nonetheless, from heaven, God hears and answers those who cry out to him in their distress in the underworld (Ps 18:6-​7 MT; Jon 2:3), and he (God) is able to bring people out who hide themslves in the underworld because no person can escape from his sight (Amos 9:2-​3; Ps 139:8-​9 MT; Jon 2:7). It is interesting to note here that unlike in Hellenistic philosophy where emphasis is solely on the soul which travels or makes a journey into the “underworld” (Ἄϊδος or ᾅδης) after the death of a person, in the OT it is the whole person (body and soul) who goes down into Sheol. For instance, in Gen 37:35 (MT) Jacob does not say: “My soul will go down in mourning to Sheol to my son” but he says: “I will go down in mourning to Sheol to my son” (cf. also Gen 42:38; 44:29)29. Moreover, God saves and brings persons out of Sheol in their entirety (Ps 30:4 MT; Amos 9:2; see also Jon 2:7). These observations prompt the conviction that in his teachings about the destiny of the dead and the living at the second coming of the Lord in 1 Thessalonians, Paul allows himself to be influenced more by his Jewish roots and Pharisaic background than by his orientation to ancient Greek philosophy and concept of life after death.

B.  The Thesis The hope and belief in the future bodily resurrection of the dead have their roots in the OT and in the Deuterocanonical Books of the OT. It is clearly stated in 2 Macc 7, for example, that God –​the creator of the universe and the king of the world –​is the one who raises the dead or the just (on the last day) to everlasting life (2 Macc 7:9.14.23.28-​29.36)30. Already in 2 Maccabees, “the power of the living to offer prayers for the dead” (2 Macc 12:39-​46) and the “intercession of the saints in heaven for people living on earth” (2 Macc 15:11-​16) find expression. It is also known in Ps 15 (LXX) that behind the bodily resurrection of the just is God himself who does not allow his faithful ones to taste corruption and remain in the world of the dead, but raises them from the dead to everlasting life. This is especially evident in Ps 15:10 (LXX) where the Psalmist says: “For you will not abandon me (literally “my soul)31 in Hades, neither will you allow your 2 9 Confer also Isa 38:18-​19; Jon 2:3; Ps 18:6-​7 (MT). 30 Confer also 2 Macc 12:43-​44; 14:46; Dn 12:2. 31 The Greek word ψυχή which translates the Hebrew ‫ נֶפֶ ׁש‬in this context does not actually mean the “soul” per se, but an individual person (cf. Gen 46:15; Exod 1:5; 12:4.19; Nm 19:20) or a “living being” (see Gen 1:24; 9:10; Lv 11:46).

26

General Introduction

devout one to see corruption or decay” (ὅτι οὐκ ἐγκαταλείψεις τὴν ψυχήν μου εἰς ᾅδην, οὐδὲ δώσεις τὸν ὅσιόν σου ἰδεῖν διαφθοράν). This Psalm is quoted not only in the speech of Peter at Pentecost (cf. Acts 2:25-​32) but also in Paul’s address in the Synagogue (cf. Acts 13:35-​37). Peter and Paul interpret this Ps 15:10 (LXX) in the New Testament (NT) “as referring to Christ’s resurrection” which is effected by God himself32. Thus in their proclamation of the resurrection of Christ and its “messianic significance” in the Acts of the Apostles, Peter and Paul indicate that God (the creator) is the one who raised Jesus Christ from the dead, and their belief and conviction are traceable to the OT (Ps 15 [LXX] or Ps 16 [MT], see also the Deuterocanonical Book of the OT: 2 Macc 7, etc.) While in the OT and in the Deuterocanonical Books of the OT it is God himself who has given the righteous and the just ones the hope for the resurrection of the dead (2 Macc 7:14; also Ps 16:10-​11 [MT]), in the NT it is Jesus Christ –​the one raised from the dead by God –​who gives the believers in Christ this hope of the resurrection of the dead (see 1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14; Rom 8:11; 1 Thess 4:14)33 because Jesus Christ is risen from the dead as the first fruit of those who have fallen asleep (1 Cor 15:20.23). It is beyond doubt that the Christian community’s hope and belief in the (eschatological) resurrection, salvation or eternal life, judgement and eternal condemnation are inherited from Judaism. This belief is mostly talked about in apocalyptic literature which is highly coloured with eschatological motifs and apocalyptic imageries. Bauckham asserts correctly that: Jewish and then Christian understandings of life after death developed mainly in the apocalypses and it entails among other things the expectation of judgement and resurrection for all the dead, the final destinies of eternal life and eternal condemnation, and the ‘intermediate state’ of the dead between death and the general resurrection34.

Paul himself was a Jew (Acts 22:3; Phil 3:5; 2 Cor 11:22) –​a Pharisee (Acts 23:6; 26:5; Phil 3:5) from the tribe of Benjamin (Rom 11:1; Phil 3:5). Like any other Pharisee (unlike the Sadducees), he believed and hoped in the resurrection of the dead (Acts 23:6; 24:15). In his letters, especially in 1 Thess 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11,

32 Confer in Peter’s speech: Acts 2:24.27.31-​32; 3:15; 4:10, and in Paul’s address: Acts 13:30.33-​35; 17:31. 33 Confer also 1 Cor 15:20-​23. 34 Cf. Richard Bauckham, The Fate of the Dead: Studies on the Jewish and Christian Apocalypses, p. 1.

The Thesis

27

and in 1 Cor 15, Paul writes extensively about topics such as death, resurrection of the dead (in Christ), immortality, salvation and the final union with the Lord Jesus Christ (in the kingdom of God), etc., and his writings about such topics are filled with apocalyptic scenarios, especially in 1 Thessalonians. For Paul, the belief of the Christ’s faithful in the (bodily) resurrection of the dead is based on Christ’s death and resurrection, i.e., just as the Lord Jesus Christ died and was raised from the dead (by God), so shall the believers in Christ be raised from the dead (Rom 8:11; 1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14)35. Thus in Paul’s teachings on the fate of the dead (especially with regard to the Christ’s faithful), the Lord Jesus Christ occupies the centre stage because Jesus Christ is the one through whom God fulfils his salvation plan on behalf of humankind (1 Cor 15:22). Especially in 1 Cor 15 and in 1 Thess 4:13-​18, one realises that the event of the resurrection of the dead and the final union with Christ shall take place at the parousia or the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 4:15-​16; 1 Cor 15:23, 52), and that it is not only the fate of the dead (in Christ) which is a matter of concern at the Lord’s parousia but also the fate of “the living”, i.e., those who would happen to be still alive at the event of the Lord’s parousia (1 Thess 4:15-​17; 1 Cor 15:51-​52). It is in the light of this that I have chosen to write about the theme: The Fate of the Dead and the Living at the Lord’s Parousia: Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11. With this theme, I focus attention more on Paul’s teachings in 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11 about topics such as death, resurrection of the dead (in Christ), immortality, parousia, salvation, and the final union of the Christ’s faithful (i.e. both the dead and the living) with the Lord Jesus Christ in the kingdom of God. I have chosen to talk mainly about 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11 because it is in these pericopes that one can identify Paul’s teachings about the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in 1 Thessalonians. Nonetheless, a thorough discussion of this theme in First Thessalonians cannot base on these three passages in isolation from other chapters or pericopes of the letter. That is, apart from 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11 other passages from the letter may be useful in the discussion about Paul’s exhortations on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in 1 Thessalonians.

35 See also 1 Thess 4:14.

28

General Introduction

I am strongly of the opinion that the theme of the fate or destiny of both the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia occupies a dominant position in First Thessalonians. The newly converted believers in Christ in Thessalonica actually yearned for an answer to the question of the fate of the dead (and the living) at the Lord’s parousia, and the answer (or solution) to this perplexing and problematic question was what Paul and his co-​authors Silvanus and Timothy did not hesitate to give the Christ’s faithful because this question plunged the community of believers in Thessalonica into fear, anxiety and uncertainty especially about the destiny of the believers who die before the Lord’s second coming. So far as Paul and his co-​authors’ treatment of this theme of the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in 1 Thessalonians is concerned, the influence of Greek philosophy and conception of the hereafter is not so evident as the influence of the Jewish worldview embodied in the OT, Jewish apocalyptic and prophetic literature and early Christian apocalyptic writings (which, of course, developed from the Jewish apocalyptic tradition). As a Jew belonging to the Pharisaic movement, Paul became convinced that Jesus is the Messiah; and he became a believer in Christ (Gal 1:13-​17); and in his teachings on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians –​unlike in 1 Cor 15 –​, he was influenced more by his Jewish background; and he depended more on sources from the Hebrew Bible as well as Jewish and early Christian apocalyptic traditions. Though Paul treats such topics in question in both 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​ 11 and in 1 Cor 15, a carefull study of both texts (1 Thessalonians; 1 Corinthians 15) reveals that Paul’s approach to the treatment of such themes in 1 Thessalonians is somehow different from his approach to 1 Corinthians 15. While his teachings on such topics in 1 Thessalonians are dominated mainly by the Jewish worldview and idea of the hereafter and its inherent apocalypse (see 1 Thess 4:16-​17; 5:1-​3, 6-​7), those teachings in 1 Cor 15 are also influenced by the Jewish tradition and apocalytic imagery (see 1 Cor 15:52a) but the dominance of ancient Greek philosophy and idea of the hereafter is more evident in 1 Cor 15 (see 1 Cor 15:35-​44, 50-​53) and less evident in 1 Thessalonians. Paul was indeed a Jew by race, religion and promise (2 Cor 11:22; Rom 11:1), but he was also a Roman citizen (Acts 16:37; 22:25-​29) by birth (Acts 22:28). It is not surprising, therefore, that his teachings on the subjects in question in his writings or letters happen to be influenced not only by his Jewish background but also by his Greco-​Roman environment. However, so far as the theme of the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11 is concerned, Paul depends more on sources from the Jewish worldview and conception of the hereafter than those from Hellenistic philosophy and mythology.

The Thesis

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There may be traces of thought (on this theme) in First Thessalonians borrowed from Greco-​Roman literature. Malherbe, for example, indicates that the exhortations in First Thessalonians have Hellenistic hortatory character36, and Luckensmeyer also observes that: “Arguably, there are no explicit quotations from the Old Testament [in 1 Thessalonians]. The epistolary form of the letter, while following many established structures, differs in significant ways raising numerous questions of interpretation (and even of interpolation). There is a strong dependence on Hellenistic philosophical traditions which is not so prevalent in Paul’s other letters”37.

First Thessalonians may have a “Hellenistic hortatory character” as Malherbe observes but that is the medium which Paul employs to get his message across38. The content of Paul’s message in the passages in question in First Thessalonians does not share the worldview of Greco-​ Roman literature in toto. In First Thessalonians, Paul identifies the fate of the dead and the living with texts which are mainly about the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ, the day of the Lord, resurrection, wrath (of God), salvation and the state of being with (or in the presence of) the Lord Jesus Christ. The theme of the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians is, actually, discussed in relation to some other predominant themes such as eschatology and parousia all of which fall in the domain of apocalyptic discourse which refers mainly to “the constellation of apocalyptic topics as they function in larger early Jewish and Christian literary and social contexts”39. According to Collins “apocalypse means revelation, but the name is reserved for revelations that deal either with eschatology (the end of history and the fate of the dead) or the heavenly and infernal regions, or both”40. 36 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 32 B), Doubleday: New York, 2000, p. 56. 37 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians (NTOA/​StUNT 71), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009, p. 1. 38 Malherbe himself admits that Paul modifies the conventions of Greco-​Roman literature “to conform his letter to the setting in which the letter would be read and the function he wished it to perform”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 90. 39 Cf. Greg Carey, “Introduction: Apocalyptic Discourse, Apocalyptic Rhetoric”, in: Carey/​ Bloomquist (1999) 1–​17, here page 10. Luckensmeyer also considers the motifs of the parousia of the Lord, judgement (or salvation), the resurrection of the believers in Christ, etc. as belonging to the “eschatological discourse”. Confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 2–​3. 40 Confer the preface in: John J. Collins (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature, Oxford. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.

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General Introduction

He further points out that apocalyptic literature first appears in Judaism at the end of the OT period in the book of Daniel, died out in Judaism after the failure of the Jewish revolts in the late first and early second centuries BCE, but it was revived to some degree in the Middle Ages. He observes that the apocalyptic worldview is characterized by eschatological expectation and by the prominence of supernatural agents41. The essential literature to be considered in this work, so far as apocalypse is concerned, include the book of Isaiah (e.g. Isa 26:19), the book of Daniel (especially Dn 12:1-​3), 2 Macc 7, and also the books of Enoch, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch42, the Sibylline Oracles, etc.43 First Thessalonians is dominated by eschatological perspective44 (cf. 1 Thess 1:10; 4:13-​5:10; 5:23)45. Koester observes correctly that the profuse eschatological tone in First Thessalonians differentiates the letter from philosophers’ speeches and writings46. The dominant theme of eschatology and other eschatological motifs in First Thessalonians such as παρουσία (i.e., the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ), ἡ όργή –​“the wrath of God” (1 Thess 1:10; 5:9) or judgement; and ἡμέρα κυρίου –​“the day of the Lord” (1 Thess 5:2; also 5:4, 5, 8) can better be discussed and understood from the Jewish perspective and not from the viewpoint of Greek philosophy. Several terminologies and expressions found in the pericopes in which Paul speaks about the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in 1 Thessalonians actually trace their source to the OT, Jewish apocalyptic and prophetic writings, etc. Such expressions to be considered

4 1 See op. cit. 42 According to Collins, the books of Enoch, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, etc. formed the main corpus of Jewish apocalypse but was not included in the Hebrew Bible. It was rather mainly preserved by Christians in translation in various languages which include Latin, Syriac, Old Church Slavonic, and Ethiopic. Confer the preface in: John J. Collins (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature. 43 The literature will actually be extended to include not only the Deuterocanonical Books of the OT and Old Testament Pseudepigrapha but also New Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha such as the “Gospel of Thomas” and “Acts of Thomas”. References will also be made to some Gnostic and syncretistic writings such as Corpus Hermeticum. 44 It is in the light of this observation that Luckensmeyer argues in his monologue that Eschatology is the best hermeneutical key to understanding Paul’s pattern of exhortation in First Thessalonians. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 6. 45 See also 1 Thess 2:12, 16, 19-​20; 3:13; 4:6. 46 Cf. Helmut Koester, “First Thessalonians –​Experiment in Christian Writing”, in: Continuity and Discontinuity in Church History: Essays Presented to George Huntston Williams (SHTC 19), Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1979, pp. 33–​44.

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include: “you turned to God” –​ἐπεστρέψατε πρὸς τὸν θεὸν (1 Thess 1:9c), “to wait for his son from heaven” –​ἀναμένειν τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν (1 Thess 1:10a), “sleep” (κοιμᾶσθαι) functioning as euphemism for “death” (1 Thess 4:13, 14, 15), God “gathering” (ἄγειν) “those who are asleep”47 (τοὺς κοιμηθέντας) with himself through Jesus (1 Thess 4:14), “those who are left” –​οἱ περιλειπόμενοι (1 Thess 4:15, 17), the sound of “the trumpet of God” –​σάλπιγξ θεοῦ (1 Thess 4:16), “and so we shall always be with the Lord”48 –​ καὶ οὕτως πάντοτε σὺν κυρίῳ ἐσόμεθα (1 Thess 4:17), “the times and seasons” –​χρόνοι καὶ καιροί 1 Thess 5:1), and many other expressions in Paul’s entire exhortation on the believer’s hope for the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ and the eschatological resurrection and salvation in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11. I am of the view that when one delves into parallel references to these terminologies and expressions as they appear in the OT (the Hebrew Bible or the Jewish Scripture), Jewish apocalyptic and prophetic literature as well as early Christian apocalypse49, one can better explain and understand Paul’s exhortations on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians. Though there is no direct quotation from the OT in First Thessalonians, there are in fact a great many allusions to OT texts or passages in First Thessalonians, and references to such texts or passages will be made known in the course of this work. Malherbe traces few OT references in First Thessalonians50, and he attributes the lack of direct quotations from the OT in First Thessalonians to the fact that Paul “has in mind readers not nurtured on the Jewish Scriptures”51. The absence of direct quotations from the OT in First Thessalonians does not necessarily mean that Paul did not make any use of the OT in his writing of this letter, or that the Hebrew Bible plays less or no important role in Paul’s exhortations in 47 Malherbe maintains correctly that though Paul uses the expression “those who are asleep” to say something about the state of an individual after his death, nonetheless here Paul does not show any interest in the so-​called “intermediate state” between death and resurrection. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 280–​281, 285. 48 Malherbe remarks that: “In Jewish apocalyptic literature it was expected that the risen or raptured faithful would forever live with the Messiah (4 Ezra 14:9; 6:26; 1 Enoch 39:6-​7; 62:13-​14; 71:16)”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 277. 49 These writings are associated with or developed from Judaism. The list may include Jewish Wisdom literature, rabbinic writings as well as the works of the Jewish writers such as Flavius Josephus and Philo of Alexandria, a contemporary of Paul. 50 Such references are 1 Thess 2:4, 16; 4:5, 6, 8; 5:8, 22. 51 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 56.

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General Introduction

First Thessalonians. He actually alluded to and played on OT passages in First Thessalonians, and especially in his teachings on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia, he made lots of references not only to the OT but also to other writings that are associated with or developed from Judaism. By so doing, Paul presents his teachings about resurrection, salvation, the fate of the dead and the living on the day of the Lord (or at the Lord’s parousia) from the Jewish point of view but not from the perspective of ancient Greek philosophy. Paul’s dependence on the Jewish worldview of the afterlife can be seen in the numerous references to passages from the OT, Jewish apocalyptic literature as well as from the early Christian apocalyptic tradition. It is to be stressed here that the apocalyptic or eschatological discourses in the apocalyptic traditions are normally about events that will take place in the hereafter or in the future. One realises, however, that the focus of Paul’s exhortations on the themes under discussion in First Thessalonians is not only on the eschaton or at the end of time but also on the present life situation of persons. That is, the present prepares for the future, and so the fate of the dead and the living –​be it resurrection, judgement, salvation, etc. –​at the Lord’s parousia shall not be a destiny that would automatically befall the individual persons in the future but rather what they prepare themselves for in their present life situations. The fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia will be determined mainly on the basis of the attitudes of individual persons in relation to their preparedness to know and accept God in their life and to lead their life presently in accordance with the word and the will of God (see 1 Thess 5:4-​8). Luckensmeyer rightly indicates that: “… the parousia of the Lord, judgement (including the day of the Lord) and the resurrection of Christians, all point to Paul’s vision of the future but also ideologically inform Paul’s and the Thessalonians’ ethical decisions [here and now]”52. Paul emphasizes strongly on sanctification of the Christ’s faithful in First Thessalonians (see 1 Thess 3:13; 4:3-​8; 5:23). Meeks observes that the summary statement in 1 Thess 1:9-​10 reminds Paul’s addressees of their conversion to God and the moral commitment of this conversion53. Paul’s insistence on holiness in First Thessalonians is in conformity with God’s command to his elected people Israel to remain holy by virtue of the fact that God himself is holy (Lev 11:44; 19:2; 20:7)54. Such a strong emphasis on holiness and moral uprightness on the part of the “newly converts” or the believers in Christ in general has no 5 2 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 2–​3. 53 Cf. Wayne A. Meeks, The Origins of Christian Morality: The First Two Centuries, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993, pp. 33–​36. 54 See also 1 Pt 1:16 in the New Testament.

The Thesis

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parallel in Hellenistic thought or culture. Malherbe joins other commentators and maintains correctly that: “In pagan thought, cultic requirements of ritual purity aside, there was no essential connection between religion and morality, and religious conversion generally did not call for commitment to moral transformation”55.

The stress on uprightness in First Thessalonians can actually be discussed in the context of “apocalyptic ethics and behavior”56 which “presupposes and reinforces common, widespread moral ideals” for early Jews and early Christians in their belief in the (near) approach of the eschatological end. In 1 Thess 5:4-​11, Paul stresses mainly on how the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica should lead their life in anticipation of the imminent day of the Lord which may catch them up unexpectedly. Basing on the above considerations, I want to argue in this work that it is from the Jewish perspective (but not from the viewpoint of ancient Greek philosophy and idea of the hereafter) that the pericopes in First Thessalonians which talk about the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia (namely, 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11) can better be interpreted and understood. The exegetes who strongly advocate for the avoidance of any form of dichotomy between the Jewish and the Greco-​Roman philosophies or cultures in the interpretation of the Pauline letters57 (or even passages from the NT as a whole) may not find my thesis –​which seeks to lay more emphasis on the Jewish conception of the afterlife as the main brain behind Paul’s teachings on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in the chosen passages from First Thessalonians –​ so plausible in modern or recent scholarship. It will, however, be evident in the course of my work that there are, of course, exceptional cases such as those concerning the passages under discussion in 1 Thessalonians where a line can actually be drawn between the two main philosophies and cultures which influenced Paul in his writings58. In his treatment of the fate of the dead and the living at the 5 5 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 133. 56 For an elaborate explanation of “apocalyptic ethics and behaviour”, confer Dale C. Allison (Jr.), “Apocalyptic Ethics and Behavior”, in: John J. Collins (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature, pp. 295–​297. 57 Confer, for instance: Esther Kobel, Paulus als interkultureller Vermittler: Eine Studie zur kulturellen Positionierung des Apostels der Völker (Studies in Cultural Contexts of the Bible, Volume 1), Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2019, pages 39–​55. 58 Kobel, for one, studied mainly passages from First Corinthians, and of course, in connection with other passages from the Pauline writings and from the NT which supported her view that such a dichotomy between these two cultures is not helpful or must be avoided in recent scholarship. It is interesting to note that she cited passages

34

General Introduction

Lord’s parousia in 1 Thessalonians, Paul actually drew the bulk of his sources not from ancient Greek philosophy and literature but mainly from Judaism and early Christianity (which was founded out of Judaism). I believe that the African Traditional Religion (AfTR) cannot provide the background information on the interpretation and a better understanding of Paul’s teachings about the afterlife in First Thessalonians. Paul and his co-​missionaries (Sylvanus and Timothy) neither knew the AfTR nor came into contact with the African culture. There can be no strong grounds, therefore, for claiming that the African Traditional Religion and culture were influential in Paul’s treatment of the theme in question. As a Ghanaian I should allow myself to be informed of what Paul says about the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia. Nonetheless, my cultural background can help me appreciate and accept these teachings of Paul because I have ever heard in my community that there is life after death which I can believe and hope for. The destiny and the (final) destination of the dead may not be described in my community in terms of “bodily resurrection” and eternal life with Christ and God the creator as Paul does in his teachings, but the concept of the afterlife commonly held by members of my community will serve as my motivation and the starting point for my appreciation of the value of Paul’s exhortations on life after death in First Thessalonians. That is, as a Ghanaian and a person who professes the Christian faith, I will not be in the shoes of the Corinthians (or the Athenians) who shunned and rejected the teachings of the Paul in the Acts of the Apostles about bodily resurrection when they found such teachings to be unimaginable and difficult to understand (see Acts 17:16-​34, especially Acts 17:31-​33). With “the eyes of faith” I can see how the bodily resurrection Paul describes would take place at the Lord’s second coming, and also the glorious moment of meeting the Lord and staying forever with him (cf. 1 Thess 4:16-​17).

from First Thessalonians, but so far as the passages under discussion here (i.e. 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11) are concerned, she could only quote 1 Thess 1:9 to indicate that Paul’s addressees were pagans. Cf. Esther Kobel, Paulus als interkultureller Vermittler…, p. 133. She never quoted any text from 1 Thess 4:13-​18 or 5:1-​11 –​not even the controversial text of 1 Thess 5:3 –​to buttress her point that Paul’s writings must always be interpreted in the light of both the Jewish and the Greco-​Roman cultures or philosophies.

Methodology

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C. Methodology I have decided to work on the theme: The Fate of the Dead and the Living at the Lord’s Parousia: Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11. The work is purely exegesis and the approaches I have adopted to defend my thesis are among the main methods used in biblical interpretation, namely, the approach of History of Religion (Religionsgeschichte), Source, Form and Text Criticisms59. In the process of interpretation a special stress will, however, be put on the approach of history of religion (Religionsgeschichte) because, so far as my work is concerned, I consider this method to be most appropriate. With this method, I will try, especially, to determine the place of the texts to be interpreted, i.e. within the theological history of early Christianity against the background of the Old Testament, early Judaism and in relation to Greco-​Roman Hellenism. This approach does not only allow a hermeneutical location of the place of the texts to be interpreted, but it also allows references to the theological home of the author and his addressees60. The “Religionsgeschichtliche” approach (or history of religion) also delves into the literature and history of religion. Consequently, in this work particular attention will be paid to the writings which are associated with or developed from Judaism (early Judaism, Hellenistic Judaism and later Judaism) and writings from the Greco-​Roman world which provide information about the theme. The source, form, and text critical approaches, on the other hand, deal particularly with the individual texts and pericopes so far as their historical background, origin, genre, content, arrangement, and function, etc. are concerned. With the application of these methods of biblical interpretation, it will be evident in my exegesis of the texts under consideration that although Paul’s addressees are heathens or pagans (who are not Jews), he depends more on motifs and traditions of the OT, early Judaism and early Christianity in his teachings about the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians. I am of the opinion that the pericopes under discussion do not have so much in common with pagan motifs, traditions and ancient Greek philosophy.

59 For an elaborate study and discussion of these and other methods of biblical interpretation, confer Thomas Söding /​Christian Münch, Kleine Methodenlehre zum Neuen Testament, Freiburg. Basel. Wien: Verlag Herder, 2005, especially, pp. 32–​147. 60 For further details of the“Religionsgeschichtliche” approach, confer Thomas Söding /​ Christian Münch, op. cit., pp. 140–​142.

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General Introduction

In the course of reviewing the various available literature on this work, I made efforts to translate original texts either from Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, Latin, German, or French into English. Such translations are done with emphasis, and so when they do not conform strictly to the renditions found elsewhere, the emphasis (or otherwise) is mine. Meanwhile, sources are named for lots of (original) texts and their respective translations that are direct quotes.

D.  The Scheme of Work The work has been structured as follows: Preface General Introduction Chapter One: Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-​10 Chapter Two: Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-​18 Chapter Three: Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-​11 General Conclusion In the “Preface” I tried to bring the theme under discussion into contact with my (cultural) background as a Ghanaian, an African. The preface is my reflection on how to reconcile the Pauline teachings or exhortations on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia with the conception of the afterlife in African Traditional Religion. In the “General Introduction” to this work, I present the statement of the problem, the thesis, the methodology and scheme or structure of the work. I then elaborate on Paul’s missionary activities in Thessalonica to throw more light not only on the city and its environs, but also on the inhabitants and their political, socio-​economic and religious situation at the time Paul and his co-​missionaries (Silvanus and Timothy) ministered there. I also touch on the date, purpose and occasion as well as the structure of First Thessalonians. As it is indicated above, the work has been divided into three main chapters which focus attention mainly on the pericopes in which Paul and his co-​authors speak about the Fate of the Dead and the Living at the Lord’s Parousia in First Thessalonians. Thus while Chapter One deals with exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-​10, Chapter Two focuses on exegesis of 1 Thess 4:13-​18, and Chapter Three is dedicated to exegesis of 1 Thess 5:1-​11. The “General Conclusion” of the work will be summary statements on and systematization of the main arguments for the thesis that it is from the Jewish perspective (and not from the viewpoint of ancient Greek philosophy) that one can better interpret and understand Paul’s exhortations on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians.

Paul’s Missionary Activity in Thessalonica

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E.  Paul’s Missionary Activity in Thessalonica The universal nature of the Church’s mission is emphasized by the evangelists (Mt 28:19; Mk 16:15; Lk 24:47)61. While the evangelists Matthew and Luke identify the target group –​the receivers or beneficiaries of the Gospel message or those to preach to –​as “all nations”: πάντα τὰ ἔθνη62 (Mt 28:19; Lk 24:47), the author of Mk 16:9-​20 (the so-​called “Canonical Longer Ending to the Marcan gospel”) names it as “the entire creation”: πάσῃ τῇ κτίσει (Mk 16:15). These terminologies (πάντα τὰ ἔθνη; πάσῃ τῇ κτίσει) seek to explain that the Church is commissioned to evangelize all people in the universe. The Acts of the Apostles, for instance, report not only on the journeys and preaching of the apostles and the disciples of Christ, but also on the wonders and miracles they performed in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and the various Christian communities they founded. One of the central messages in the preaching of Peter and his collaborators was that God raised Jesus Christ –​who died on the cross –​from the dead and they are witnesses to the resurrection of Christ (Acts 1:22; 4:33)63. They also made the effort to convince the Jews especially, that the resurrected Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 3:20; 5:42; 9:22)64. There is indication in the preaching of Peter and his companions in Acts 4:1-​2 that they believed that there is resurrection of the dead which results from the resurrection

6 1 See also Acts 1:8. 62 The expression τὰ ἔθνη can refer to “people groups foreign to a specific people group” and in the LXX τὰ ἔθνη corresponds to ‫ ּגֹויִ ם‬in the Hebrew Bible which can mean (“the nations”, “Gentiles”, “heathens”, “pagans”, “non-​Jews” or “non-​believers“) to refer to “those who do not belong to groups professing faith in the God of Israel”. τὰ ἔθνη is the opposite of ὁ λαός which corresponds to ‫ עַ ם‬in the Hebrew Bible and it can refer to “the people of God” or “the people of Israel”. Cf. BDAG, pp. 276–​277, 586–​587. However, the distinction between τὰ ἔθνη and ὁ λαός (also “gentes” and “populus” in the Vulgate) has now no or little theological significance due to the fact that Jesus Christ gathers the “New People of God”, the Church, not only from the “chosen people of the covenant” but from people of all nations. This gives reason for Paul to emphasize in Rom 10:12 that “there is no distinction between Jew and Greek; the same Lord is Lord of all and is generous to all who call on him” (οὐ γάρ ἐστιν διαστολὴ Ἰουδαίου τε καὶ Ἕλληνος, ὁ γὰρ αὐτòς κύριος πάντων, πλουτῶν εἰς πάντας τοὺς ἐπικαλουμένους αὐτόν) and “everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved” –​ πᾶς γὰρ ὅς ἄν ἐπικαλέσηται τὸ ὄνομα κυρίου σωθήσεται (Rom 10:13; cf. also 1 Cor 1:2). 63 See also Acts 2:32; 3:15; 4:10; 5:32. 64 Confer also Acts 17:3; 18:5, 28.

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General Introduction

of Jesus Christ65. Paul also preached about “Jesus and the resurrection” in Athens (Acts 17:18) and he emphasized that the resurrection of Christ Jesus was the “reason” or “assurance” (πίστις) for the resurrection of the dead, who will have to face the judgment of God at the appointed time (Acts 17:31); and for this “new teaching” (Acts 17:19) about the hope of the “resurrection of the dead” (Acts 23:6; 24:15; 26:6-​8) Paul was most often summoned and was “on trial” (Acts 23:6; 24:21; 28:20). Peter and the other apostles and disciples of Christ actually believed and were convinced that there is salvation only in the name of Jesus Christ (Acts 4:12); and they called on the people to repent and to believe in Jesus Christ so that they may have life (Acts 11:18; 13:46, 48)66. They basically proclaimed to the people the “Way” (Acts 9:2; 19:9, 23)67 which is the “Way” of the Lord (Acts 18:25, 26) and the “Way” of salvation (Acts 16:17). This was the era of the beginnings of the early Church. It is in the context of the early Church’s mission that one can locate Paul and his missionary activities in the gentile world. In all, Paul made three main missionary journeys68. It is remarkable to note that Paul sent the gospel message to the people in the provinces69 within the Roman Empire70. It becomes clear 65 It is reported in the text (Acts 4:1-​2) that the priest, the captain of the temple (guard) and the Sadducees were annoyed, “because they [Peter and his companions] were teaching the people and proclaiming in Jesus the resurrection of the dead” (διὰ τὸ διδάσκειν αὐτοὺς τὸν λαὸν καὶ καταγγέλλειν ἐν τῷ Ἰησοῦ τὴν ἀνάστασιν τὴν ἐκ νεκρῶν). 66 See also Acts 14:15; 19:4; 20:21; 26:20. 67 Confer also Acts 22:4; 24:14, 22. 68 Confer the biblical evidence from Acts 13-​14; 16-​28. 69 The provinces mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles include: the province of Macedonia (Acts 16:9-​10, 12; 19:21, 29; 27:2); the province of Achaia (Acts 18:12; 19:21); and the province of Asia (Acts 19:10, 22, 26, 27, 29, 31; 20:4, 16, 18; 21:27; 24:19; 27:2). 70 The Historian Karl Christ writes about the missionary journeys of Paul in the provinces within the Roman Empire (“Imperium Romanum”) in the 1st century CE when Christianity was taking shape. He writes thus: “Circa 48 CE, Paul worked already in Cyprus, Pamphylia, Pisidia and Lystra on his first great missionary journey; in the years 50 to 52 CE the radius began to widen: Now Syria and Cilicia, Phrygia and Galatia, Macedonia and Greek were reached. In the third missionary journey in the years 54 to 58 CE, Paul journeyed across from the provinces of Asia and Macedonia as far as Illyricum, so that he could say about himself: ‘Setting off from Jerusalem, I have brought [proclaimed] the Gospel of Christ as far round as Illyricum’ [Rom 15:19]” (Um 48 n. Chr. wirkte Paulus auf seiner ersten großen Missionsreise schon auf Cypern, in Pamphylien, Pisidien und Lykaonien; in den Jahren 50 bis 52 n. Chr. war der Radius bereits weiter gezogen: Nun wurden Syrien und Kilikien, Phrygien und Galatien, Makedonian und Griechenland berührt. Auf der dritten Missionsreise, in den Jahren 54 bis 58 n. Chr.,

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from the historical evidence that it was on his second missionary journey around 50-​52 CE71 that Paul and his collaborators (Silas and Timothy) set foot on the Macedonian province and ministered in Philippi (Acts 16:11 ff.), Thessalonica (Acts 17:1-​9) and Beroea (Acts 17:10-​15) in the northern part of Greece (now somewhere in the Republic of North Macedonia). Paul then went to Athens (Acts 17:16-​34) and later to Corinth (Acts 18:1-​17) in the province of Achaia in the southern part of Greece and the Aegean region72. The purpose of the missionary journeys and activities of Paul was that in the geographical horizons of the Imperium Romanum which he thought of, “the Christian belief should be preached in the whole cosmos”73. According to Elliger, Thessalonica –​unlike Philippi (and Beroea) in the Macedonian region –​was over the centuries a political, commercial, cultural and religious center, the significance of which could not be described in words. For this reason, it became the target of several tribes and nations to capture the city and submit it under their rule74. The discussions that follow will center on the factors that contributed to the success or otherwise of Paul’s mission in Thessalonica. These factors will be delved into from the spectrum of the foundation of Thessalonica, its political development as well as its socio-​economic and religious conditions before, during and after Paul’s mission in the city.

F (i). Foundation of Thessalonica and its Political Development Commentators are on the consensus that Thessalonica was established in 316 or 315 BCE75. This was after the bloody wars that broke out after the death of stieß Paulus dann über die Provinzen Asia und Makedonia bis nach Illyricum vor, so dass er von sich sagen konnte: „Ausgehend von Jerusalem, habe ich in weitem Umkreis bis nach Illyricum überallhin das Evangelium Christi gebracht“ (Römer 15, 19). Cf. Karl Christ, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit: Von Augustus bis zu Konstantin, München: Verlag C. H. Beck, 1988, p. 587. 71 Some scholars, however, are of the opinion that Paul reached Thessalonica in the province of Macedonia in 49 CE. Confer, for instance, Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 13. 72 Confer the “Map of the Aegean” for the locations of these cities as presented by Malherbe in: Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. xii. 73 Cf. Karl Christ, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, p. 587; also Rom 1:8. 74 Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland: Philippi, Thessaloniki, Athen, Korinth (SBS 92/​93), Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1978, p. 78. 75 Cf. Oreste Tafrali, Topograghie de Thessalonique, Paris: Librairie Paul Geuthner, 1913, p. 3; Abraham J. Mahlherbe, ibidem, p. 14; Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus: Eine frühe christliche Gemeinde in ihrer

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Alexander the Great (323 BCE), the king of Greece, and the subsequent partition of his kingdom (Greece). Macedonia then came under the rule of Cassander –​ a son of Antipater –​after emerging as conqueror of the area76. According to the Geographer and Historian Strabo, it was King Cassander who founded the city and named it after his wife Thessalonica77, who was one of the half-​ sisters of Alexander the Great78. The writings of Strabo indicate that the city was founded on the Thermean Gulf and it was populated by inhabitants from the nearby settlements. He describes how the city was built by King Cassander by writing that Cassander pulled down twenty-​six towns on the Thermean Gulf and brought them into one city (Thessalonica), which is presently the Metropole of Macedonia79. Among the twenty-​six towns were: Apollonia, Chalastra, Therme,

heidnischen Umwelt (WUNT II 125), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001, p. 12; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief: Kommentar, Freiburg: Verlag Herder, 2016, pp. 36, 38. Winfried Elliger, however, pegs the date for the founding of the city at 315 BCE. Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland, p. 79. 76 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 12; Oreste Tafrali, Topograghie de Thessalonique, pp. 2–​3. 77 Strabo writes: “Thessalonica was founded by Cassander… and he named the city after his wife Thessalonice” (Θεσσαλονίκεια Κασσάνδρου κτίσμα … ἐπωνόμασε δὲ τὴν πόλιν ἀπὸ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ γυναικὸς Θεσσαλονίκης). Cf. Horace Leonard Jones (transl.), The Geography of Strabo…, Book 7 Fragments 21, 24: in: The Loeb Classical Library (LCL) 182, Harvard: University Press, 1967, pp. 342, 343; 346–​348. Another version of the etymology of the city –​which Elliger considers less tenable –​goes that it was King Philipp II who founded the city and named it Θεσσαλῶν νίκη to serve as a remembrance of a “victory over the Thessaly”, a tribe in the Macedonian region. A “victory over the Thessalians” is the Genitivus Subiectivus translation of Θεσσαλῶν νίκη. Elliger, however, argues that a “victory of the Thessaly” –​the Genitivus Obiectivus translation of Θεσσαλῶν νίκη –​is more plausible. Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland, p. 79, footnote 2. Tafrali also remarks that Θεσσαλῶν νίκη does not mean “victory over the Thessalians” but rather “victory of the Thessalians”; and he is of the opinion that it is not possible that Philipp II founded Thessalonica because history does not tell much about this version. Cf. Oreste Tafrali, Topograghie de Thessalonique, pp. 1–​2; also footnote 1 of page 2. 78 Vom Brocke explains further that Cassander married the half-​sister of Alexander the Great in order that he could secure his claims on the throne. Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 12. 79 Strabo writes: “He [King Cassander] rased to the ground the towns on the Thermean Gulf, about twenty-​six in number, and settled all the inhabitants together in one city; and this city [Thessalonica] is the metropolis of what is now Macedonia” (καθελὼν τὰ ἐν τῇ Κρουσίδι πολίσματα καὶ τὰ ἐν τῷ Θερμαίῳ κόλπῳ περὶ ἕξ καὶ εἴκοσι καὶ συνοικίσας

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Garescus, Aenea and Cissus80. Strabo concludes that Thessalonica was built to replace the old settlement of Therme81. Macedonia remained militarily a powerful force to reckon with. This manifested in the fact that it emerged victorious in the wars against his foes –​even in the third Macedonian war (171-​168 BCE) against the Romans under the leadership of Quintus Marcius. However, the defeat of the last Macedonian King Perseus in the war against the Romans under the leadership of Lucius Aemilius Paulus at Pydna in 168 BCE meant the surrender of the most important Macedonian cities –​beginning with Beroea and thereafter Thessalonica and Pella (the then Macedonian capital city82), and within a couple of days later the rest of Macedonia –​to the Roman rule, the then emerging world’s “superpower”83. The province of Macedonian was meanwhile divided into four regions or parts84 (the so-​called μερίδες) and Thessalonica

εἰς ἕν. ἡ δὲ μητρόπολις τῆς νῦν Μακεδονίας ἐστί). Cf. Horace Leonard Jones (transl.), The Geography of Strabo, pp. 342, 343. 80 “Among those included in the synoikismus [settlement] were Apollonia, Chalastra, Therme, Garescu, Aenea, and Cissus” (τῶν δὲ συνοικισθεισῶν ἦν Ἀπολλωνία καὶ Χαλάστρα καὶ Θέρμα καὶ Γαρησκος καὶ Αἰνέα [Αἴνεια] καὶ Κισσὸν). Cf. Horace Leonard Jones (transl.), The Geography of Strabo, Book 7 Fragment 21, in: LCL 182, pp. 342, 343. 81 “Thessalonica is a city, which was formerly called Therme” (ἡ Θεσσαλονίκη ἐστὶ πόλις, ἥ πρότερον Θέρμη ἐκαλεῖτο). Cf. Horace Leonard Jones (transl.), op. cit., pp. 346, 347. Strabo’s assertion became a subject of debate among some commentators over the years. Vom Brocke affirms that it is now the consensus among scholars that the old settlement was indeed Therme. Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 13, footnote 6. Vacalopoulos, however, remarks that the description by Strabo –​that the city came about through the destruction of those settlements to pave way for the establishment of a new centralized city (the so-​called synoikismus) comprising the inhabitants from the demolished towns –​is nothing to go by. Cf. A. E. Vacalopoulos, A History of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki: 1972 (ND 1984), p. 6. 82 According to Elliger, Pella was the capital city and the residence of the Macedonian Kings since circa 400 BCE, but it had no harbour. Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland, p. 79. 83 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, pp. 13–​14; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 36–​37; Rainer Riesner, Die Frühzeit des Apostels Paulus: Studien zur Chronologie, Missionsstrategie und Theologie (WUNT 71), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1994, p. 298–​299. 84 Vom Brocke presents the reason for the division of Macedonia by the Romans as a means to prevent the Macedonians from becoming militarily strong again. Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 14. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 37.

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became the capital city of the second provincial region or part (μερίς) since 167 BCE85. Two decades of “civil unrest” in Macedonia culminated in an invasion led by Andriskos86 against the Romans and in 148 BCE he suffered defeat by the Romans under the leadership of Quintus Caecilius Mettellus. Macedonia then became a Roman province (“provincia Macedonia”87) from 148/​147 BCE and Thessalonica became the capital city of the whole united Macedonian province and the seat of the Roman Procurator and the provincial administration. Macedonia maintained its status as senatorial province until 15-​43 CE when it became an imperial province88. The establishment of the Macedonian province meant the cessation of Greece to exist as a sovereign state. The newly created “provincia Macedonia” and its environs on the Balkan-​Peninsula were characterized by absolute instability which resulted from military revolts led by the kings of the indigenous folks in the “Danube region” against the Roman rule. Those revolts began with King Mithridates of Pontus and lasted until the middle of 80 BCE when the Romans defeated King Mithridates in the Boeotian War in 85 BCE and restored order in the province89. The outbreak of the roman bloody civil wars also continued to disturb the peace and stability in the Macedonian province. This is due to the fact that the province happened to be the center where most of those Roman civil wars were staged90. The victory of Antonius and Octavian in Autumn 42 BCE was reported

85 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 14. 86 Andriskos is said to have claimed that he was a son of Perseus, the last King of Macedonia. 87 It was the first Roman province in the east of Greece and until 27 BCE when Achaia was carved out, the province comprised also the whole Balkan-​Peninsula with parts of Illyria and Thrace. Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 14. 88 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 14; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 37. 89 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit., p. 15; Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., p. 37. Besides those revolts, there existed already invasions led by the barbarian tribes from the “Danube-​ region” which threatened Macedonia since the end of the second century BCE. Vom Brocke reports that it was not until the end of the first century BCE that the “Roman provincial administration” seemed to have brought the problem of the sporadic invasions under control. Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit., p. 15. 90 Vom Brocke writes that in 49 BCE Pompey the Great fought with Julius Caesar in Thessalonica in one of the Roman civil wars. Thereafter in 44 BCE Caesar was brutally

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to have had a meaningful “turning-​point” in the history of Thessalonica. As a reward for the loyalty of those recruited to fight on the “winning side” in the Roman civil wars, Thessalonica was raised by the conquerors (Antonius and Octavian) to the status of “an independent city” (civitas libera91) and Thessalonica was exempted from the payment of direct taxes and submission of other contributions to the Romans. This status paved way for the city’s self-​government and economic sovereignty92. Octavian and his allies later turned against Antonius and his wife Cleopatra from Egypt. When Octavian defeated Antonius in the War at Actium in 31 BCE, the former became the sole ruler and there was stability in the Roman Empire and in the Macedonian province, a condition which meant a remarkable progress in Thessalonica93. Though the Macedonian province witnessed a number of invasions, after the creation of the nearby provinces of Dalmatia under Emperor Augustus, Mysia under Emperor Tiberius (16 CE) and Thrace under Emperor Claudius (45/​ 46 CE) it ceased to be threatened by invasions such as that of the barbarians. Macedonia happened to live in the “bosom of the Roman Empire” and it gradually developed in the 1st Century CE to become a provincia inermis94. According to vom Brocke the protective hand of Rome and its legions at that period ensured (at least in the central parts of the empire) a maximum amount of “peace and security” which one had never witnessed before; and this paved way for “growth and prosperity” in that realm95. If the opinion shared by many exegetes that Paul arrived in Thessalonica around 49 CE96 is anything to go by, one would notice murdered by Brutus and Cassius. Then in 42 BCE Brutus and Cassius were also defeated at Philippi by Antonius and Octavian. Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit., pp. 15–​17. 91 This status is in contrast to civitas stipendiaria. 92 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit., p. 17; Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 14; Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., p. 37. 93 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., p. 39. 94 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit, p. 19. 95 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 19. Vom Brocke goes further to quote the witness of the Greek writer Θεόδωρος Χ. Σαρικάκης, in his book Ρωμαίοι Ἀρχοντες της επαρχίας Μακεδονίας, Μέρος Α´, Thessaloniki 1971, p. 24 to support this claim. The quote reads: “From this period Macedonia became a totally peaceful province in the Roman Empire and it was under the protective guard of the Dalmatians and the Mysians, from 45 CE also the Thracians” (Ἔκτοτε ἡ πολυπαθὴς Μακεδονία κατέστη εἰρηνικὴ πλεόν ἐπαρχία [provincia inermis] τοῦ ‘Ρωμαϊκοῦ κράτους καὶ ἐτέθη ὑπὸ τὴν προστασίαν τῶν φρουρῶν τῆς Δαλματίας καὶ Μοισίας, απὸ 45 μ. Χ. καὶ τῆς Θρᾷκης). Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit., page 19, footnote 43. 96 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 13.

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that it was in that period of political stability, growth and prosperity that Paul visited Thessalonica97. The question under discussion among a number of scholars is whether Paul’s speech about “peace and security” (εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια) in 1 Thess 5:3 ff. has anything to do with the stable and peaceful political situation in the then Macedonian province of the Roman Empire98. Opinion is, however, divided among the exegetes on this discussion. Vom Brocke asserts that Thessalonica in the 1st century CE was a commercial and provincial capital city, which was developing to become the greatest commercial city in (the northern part of) the Aegean region; and at the beginning of the 4th century CE Thessalonica was raised to become the “city of residence” in the eastern part of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarch Galerius and it held the position as the second capital city of the Byzantine Empire until the Middle Ages99.

F (ii).  Socio-​Economic Situation in Thessalonica According to Christoph vom Brocke, the inhabitants of Thessalonica in the 1st century CE comprised mainly of the Greek or Macedonians, and a minority group of Thracians and Romans. The Thracian tribe called Mygdonians first settled around the Thermean Gulf and they are said to have founded the town which Thessalonica replaced, i. e. Therme (formerly called “Tinde” in Thracian language and later “Therme” in Greek) around 1000 BCE100. He further maintains that when Paul arrived in Thessalonica in the middle of the 1st century CE, he met a mixed population of Thracians, Greeks, Macedonians and Romans (and possibly other groups of people which belonged to the Roman Empire and also a number of Jews)101. The geographical location of Thessalonica opened more avenues for its socio-​ cultural and economic development. As noted earlier, the city was founded on the Thermean Gulf and it owned one of the best natural harbours on the Aegean see. The construction of the Egnatian Way (“Via Egnatia”) around 125 BCE

97 Confer also Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 19. 98 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit., page 19, footnote 43. 99 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit., pp. 19–​20. Elliger writes that after Constantinople, Thessalonica was the most important city in the Byzantine Empire. Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland, p. 78. 100 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit., p. 86. 101 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, op. cit., pp. 87–​88; also footnote 8 of page 88.

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added to the city’s infrastructure and development potentials102. Consequently, a lot of people (nomads) from Asia Minor, Greece and Italy, flocked to Macedonia (in the Northern Province of Greece), but especially to Thessalonica, the harbour city103. According to the Church Father Theodoret of Cyrus who lived in the 5th century CE, “Thessalonica is a very big and populous city”104. Strabo does not mince words, therefore, when he emphasizes that Thessalonica was “the most

102 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 39. Malherbe explains that the Egnatian Way made journeys from the West to the East possible because it served as the “major route” which linked Rome to the East (of the Aegean see where Macedonia and the harbour city Thessalonica were situated); and together with other “major trade routes” connecting north and south (of the Aegean region), Thessalonica was made “further accessible”. This geographical location “early made Thessalonica a city of commercial importance, not only to Macedonia, but regions beyond, as it is to this day”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 14; also Oreste Tafrali, Topograghie de Thessalonique, pp. 20–​21. Tafrali remarks that the Macedonian Kings had already constructed the Via Regia and this route became the Via Egnatia under the Romans. Cf. Oreste Tafrali, Topograghie de Thessalonique, p. 21. About the Via Egnatia writes Strabo: “Macedonia is bounded … on the south by the Egnatia Road, which runs from the city Dyrrhachium towards the east as far as Thessalonica” (ἡ Μακεδονία περιορίζεται … ἐκ νότου δὲ τῃ Ἐγνατία ὁδῷ ἀπὸ Δυρραχίου πόλεως πρὸς ἀνατολὰς ἰούσῃ ἕως Θεσσαλονικείας). Cf. Horace Leonard Jones (transl.), The Geography of Strabo, Book 7 Fragment 10, in: LCL 182, p. 329. He further writes: “From Apollonia to Macedonia, one travels the Egnatian Road to the east” (ἐκ δὲ τῆς Ἀπολλωνίας εἰς Μακεδονίαν ἡ Ἐγνατία ἐστιν ὁδὸς πρὸς ἕω). Cf. Horace Leonard Jones (transl.), The Geography of Strabo, Book 7.7.4, in: LCL 182, p. 293. Basing on the witness from Strabo, some scholars like Riesner maintain that the name Via Egnatia is only meant for the route between Dyrrhachium/​Apollonia and Thessalonica. Cf. Rainer Riesner, Die Frühzeit des Apostels Paulus, p. 299, footnote 8. According to another witness of Strabo, the Via Egnatia stretches from the Ionian Gulf in the west as far as the Aegean Sea in the east. He writes thus: “The Egnatian Road, also beginning from the Ionian Gulf, ends at Thessalonica [which is found also on the coast of the Aegean See in the east]” (καὶ τὴν Ἐγνατίαν ὁδὸν τελευτᾶν εἰς Θεσσαλονίκειαν ἀπὸ τοῦ Ἰονόυ κόλπου). Cf. Horace Leonard Jones (transl.), The Geography of Strabo, Book 7 Fragment 13, in: LCL 182, p. 333. 103 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 38; Oreste Tafrali, Topograghie de Thessalonique, p. 9. 104 While the Greek rendition reads: Θεσσαλονίκῃ πόλις ἐστὶ μεγίστη καὶ πολυάνθρωπος; the Latin version is rendered as: Thessalonica urbs est maxima et populosa. Cf. Theodoret of Cyrus, Historia Ecclesiastica 5.17, in: Patrologia Graeca (Tomus LXXXII), 1859, pp. 1231–​1232.

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populous of all the cities in Macedonia”105. The poet Antipater, a child from Thessalonica who lived during the time of Emperor Augustus, also describes the city as “Mother of all Macedonia” (μήτηρ ἡ πάσης…Μακεδονίης)106. It has been the endeavour of many demographers, archaeologists and scholars to reconstruct the exact population of Thessalonica from the 1st century CE to at least the Byzantine period. Riesner, for instance, assumes that the number of inhabitants of Thessalonica could be up to 100,000 and he explains further that with that population “Thessalonica was not only the most densely populated Macedonian city…, but also with this (big) number of inhabitants it was undoubtedly counted among the leading great cities of the Roman Empire” (Thessaloniki war damit nicht nur die volkreichste Stadt Mazedoniens…, sondern gehörte mit dieser Einwohnerzahl zweifelsohne zu den herausragenden Großstädten des römischen Imperiums)107. Hoppe, however, is of the opinion that the population of Thessalonica in the 1st century CE could not exceed 40,000 inhabitants108. His argument flows partly from and is in support of the assertion of Karl Christ that the inhabitants of the important harbour and commercial cities as well as the provincial cities (in the 1st century Roman Empire [Imperium Romanum]) could number (only) up to between 25,000 and 50,000109. Hoppe emphasizes that this population does not give any indication as to how big the faithful was, to whom Paul in Thessalonica preached110. Elliger notices that the population of Thessalonica in 1913 CE was 158,000 inhabitants –​among them 61,000 Jews111. If this information of Elliger is taken 105 Strabo writes: “As far as the Thermean Gulf and Thessalonica, a Macedonian city, which at the present time is the most populous of all the rest” (μέχρι τοῦ Θερμαίου κόλπου καὶ Θεσσαλονικείας, Μακεδονικῆς πόλεως, ἣ νῦν μάλιστα τῶν ἄλλων εὐανδρεῖ). Cf. Horace Leonard Jones (transl.), The Geography of Strabo, Book 7.7.4, in: LCL 182, pp. 296, 297. 106 Cf. Anthologia Palatina IX, 428; also Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 19; Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 14; Oreste Tafrali, Topograghie de Thessalonique, p. 7 and footnotes 3, 4, 5. 107 Rainer Riesner, Die Frühzeit des Apostels Paulus, p. 301. 108 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 41. 109 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., p. 42, footnote 33. Karl Christ maintains that it was only a “handful of cities” whose population exceeded 100,000 inhabitants; and he names such cities as Alexandria, Antioch, Cartago, and Rome itself (the capital city of the Imperium Romanum). Cf. Karl Christ, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, p. 449. 110 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., p. 42. 111 Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland, p. 91, footnote 18. That population census took place before the destruction of the city after it was set on fire in 1917 and

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into account, the figure of 100,000 inhabitants quoted by Riesner could be rendered implausible for the reason that the very slow rate of population growth –​ i.e. from 100,000 in the 1st century CE to 158,000 in the 20th century CE which results in an increase of only 58,000 within a period of 1,900 years –​cannot be associated with a city (a metropole as such) which experienced a considerable influx of immigrants. The population of the city in the middle of the 1st century CE could even be far less than 40,000 inhabitants. Hoppe asserts that it was not until the period 2nd and 3rd century CE that the population of Thessalonica appeared to increase steeply for the city to grow to become an important city in the whole region of Greece112. The scholars emphasize that the socio-​cultural and economic significance of Thessalonica results from the fact that the city is situated on the Thermean Gulf and on the Via Egnatia which link the city to other parts of the Aegean region and of the world. This made possible travels, journeys and transportation of goods from the city to the outside world or vice versa. Consequently, the city became a commercial center where traders and trade-​unions carried out their businesses and transactions113. Vacalopoulos writes that “Thessaloniki114 is the only sea-​board city of contemporary Greece that has never, from its foundation (316 BCE) till today, lost its commercial importance”115. Thessalonica was also noted for its agricultural potentials. The arable land on the coast of Thessalonica and other parts of Macedonia –​irrigated by surrounding rivers such as Loudias, Axios, Echeidoros (Gallikos), etc. –​was not only fertile and rich for the cultivation of root and cereal crops, fruits and vegetables, but also for the rearing of animals. It is for this reason that Papazoglou suggests that Macedonia was (not a city) but a “rural area”116. There was also a famous wine-​tapping or brewery in the surroundings of Thessalonica of the

1 12 113 1 14 115 116

the rebuilding of the city after the Second World War. Cf. Winfried Elliger, op. cit., p. 102; Rainer Riesner, Die Frühzeit des Apostels Paulus, p. 300. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 42. Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, pp. 74–​78. “Thessaloniki” and “Saloniki” are alternative names for “Thessalonica”. Cf. A. E. Vacalopoulos, A History of Thessaloniki, p. 3. He writes: “Macedonia has a lot of arable land and excellent pasture; it is, therefore, a priori likely that … Macedonia was essentially a rural area”. Cf. F. Papazoglou, Macedonia under the Romans, Economy and Society, in: M. B. Sakellariou (editor), Macedonia, 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization, Athens: 1992, pp. 199–​202, the quotation here on page 200.

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1st century CE which played an important (religious) role in the worship of Dionysus, the god of wine and fruitfulness or fecundity117. Vom Brocke, however, is of the view that there is no accurate information as to whether agriculture contributed meaningfully (or at all) to the economic development of the city118. Archeological findings have also shown that there were artisans such as tanners who made leather from animal skins and others who dyed clothes purple119. There were also blacksmiths and other metalworkers among the dwellers in Thessalonica. The metalworkers produced, among other things, coins out of bronze during the time of the Roman Emperors and inscribed the names and portraits of some of the Emperors such as Julius Caesar and Augustus on the coins. There were also masons and architects who engaged themselves with the construction and furnishing of buildings120. Hoppe remarks that Paul and his co-​ workers (Silas and Timothy) came to the great and lively city Thessalonica, when it was developing into a great city. He is of the opinion that Paul’s emphasis on his own manual labour or profession121 and Paul’s word of advice to his addressees to learn from him by working to earn a living (1 Thess 2:9; 4:11-​12; also Acts 20:33-​ 35) may have a direct bearing on the situation of the artisans (and the general commercial undertakings) in Thessalonica122.

1 17 Cf. Inscriptiones Graecae Volume X, 2, 1, Nr. 259. 118 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, pp. 79–​80. 119 Inscriptiones Graecae Volume X/​2, Nr. 821 indicates that there was an association of purple-​dyers in Thessalonica. This is one example of the numerous business and economic associations found in the commercial city. Acts 16:14 also speaks of Lydia, a woman from the city of Thyatira in the province of Macedonia who was “a dealer in purple cloth”. 120 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, pp. 81–​82; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 42. 121 Evidence from Acts 18:1-​3 is that Paul was a “tentmaker” (σκηνοποιός) by profession. The historian Karl Christ is of the opinion that Paul’s profession also contributed to the success of his missionary work. Christ, therefore, writes: “He [Paul] profited also from his manual labour as ‘tentmaker’ … lived on his work and was proud that he was not a burden on the community [of believers] and for this reason he won a great measure of trustworthiness” (Er [Paulus] profitierte aber auch von seinem handwerklichen Können als Zeltmacher … lebte von seiner Arbeit, war stolz darauf, den Gemeinden nicht zur Last zu fallen, und gewann so ein hohes Maß an Glaubwürdigkeit). Cf. Karl Christ, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, p. 588. 122 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 43.

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F (iii).  Religious Condition in Thessalonica Through excavations and archaeological findings, some information about religion in Thessalonica (even before the time of the Roman Empire) is at hand. One of such great archaeological findings is the discovery of the Serapeion –​ a small temple in which numerous inscriptions and sculptures, among them a Sphinx made out of black stone, were found. It is assumed that the temple might have been one of the shrines of the Egyptian gods123. Elliger refers, also, to three inscriptions of Egyptian cults: the cults of Isis, Serapis and Osiris which were discovered in or around the Serapeion124. Elliger is of the opinion that long before the Roman era, the Egyptian deities were worshipped and revered in Thessalonica125. He explains further that among the Egyptian gods only two of them –​ Isis and Serapis –​won general acceptance in the surroundings of Greece for the reason that by choice, adaptation and specific functions Isis and Serapis could be identified with the Greek deities Demeter and Dionysus respectively126. He maintains that there is inscriptional evidence for a state cult (“Staatskult”) of Dionysus at Thessalonica prior to the time of the Roman emperors. However, this civic cult of Dionysus must have existed since the foundation of the city by Kassander in the 4th century BCE127. Additionally, some coins from the roman 123 Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland, pp. 80–​81. Koester and other commentators are of the opinion that the construction of the Serapeion can be dated around the 2nd century CE. Cf. Helmut Koester, Archäologie und Paulus in Thessalonike, in: Cilliers Brytenbach (ed.); Ingrid Behrmann (transl.), Frühchristliches Thessaloniki, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007, p. 7; also the references in footnote 24. 124 Vom Brocke maintains that the inscriptions from the Serapeion play a special role; and he remarks that there has never been any ancient building in Thessalonica which contains so many inscriptions like that of this “shrine” (Kultzentrum) of the Egyptian gods. He writes that, as it is shown in the Inscriptiones Graecae (Volume X, 2, 1) the inscriptions found number up to over 70 and they show different rituals, functions and worship of the Egyptian gods. Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 132. Koester and other scholars are of the opinion that the oldest of the inscriptions dates from 187 BCE. Koester, however, notices that other archaeological findings which indicate the existence of a chain of typical religions in Thessalonica during the Hellenistic era and the time of the Roman Empire do not give a clue to the nature of the rituals and the popularity of the religions. Cf. Helmut Koester, Archäologie und Paulus in Thessalonike, pp. 7–​9. 125 Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland, p. 81. 126 Op. cit. p. 83. 127 Confer op. cit. p. 98; also Charles Edson, Cults of Thessalonica (Macedonica III), in: HTR 41 (1948), p. 164. Hugo Gaebler also indicates that the oldest coins from

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epoch which were discovered at Thessalonica give evidence for the presence of the Imperial Cult128 in Thessalonica. Of special importance is the exemplar (of the coins) which has the head of Julius Caesar crowned with diadem together with the inscription ΘΕΟΣ (“god”) engraved on one side of the coin, and the head of Emperor Augustus (Octavian) with the inscription ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΕΩΝ (“of Thessalonians”) on the other side129. With the emergence of the Romans as rulers of most parts of the world, some of the Roman Emperors (especially Julius Caesar) considered themselves as gods and divinities with supernatural abilities and special status in society130. During this period, politics and religion in Rome –​the capital city of the Imperium Romanum –​were merged together and some historians and scholars allege that this mergence was part of the propaganda of the Imperium Romanum. For a long time, the religion of the Romans with its polytheistic basic structure remained

Thessalonica with a portrait of Dionysus originates from the 2nd century BCE. Cf. Hugo Gaebler, Die antiken Münzen von Makedonia und Paionia (Die antiken Münzen Nordgriechenlands III) 1. Abteilung, Berlin 1906, 2. Abteilung, Berlin 1935, 117,1; 119,9; 120,15. 128 The Imperial Cult was basically about the reverence and worship of the Roman Emperors who were considered as gods or divine beings. Cf. Karl Christ, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, p. 159; Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 116. 129 Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland, p. 97 and footnote 29; also Hugo Gaebler, Die antiken Münzen von Makedonia und Paionia, 125, 43. Contra Koester, who alleges that in the earlier times of the Roman Emperors, only the portrait of the “divine” Julius Caesar (“divus Iulius”) with the inscription ΘΕΟΣ appeared on bronze-​ coins: Neither the portrait of Emperor Augustus (Octavian) nor any of the successors of Julius Caesar (with the exception of Emperor Nero) appeared on a bronze-​coins. Cf. Helmut Koester, Archäologie und Paulus in Thessalonike, p. 6; also the references in footnote 16. Hoppe writes that the coin in question had only the head of Julius Caesar with the writing ΘΕΟΣ on one side and the writing ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΕΩΝ on the other. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 47. 130 Karl Christ, for instance, writes: “Caesar [Julius] persistently traced the descent of his family to [the god] Aeneas and even to the [goddes] Venus, whenever it became necessary to uplift the social prestige of his family –​the gens Iulia [Julius family] –​ through mythological constructions with the purpose of justifying his special position in the society” (Caesar scheute auch nicht davor zurück, immer wieder auf die Abstammung seiner Familie von Aeneas und gar von Venus hinzuweisen, wenn es galt, das gesellschaftliche Prestige seines Geschlechtes, der gens Iulia, durch mythologische Konstruktionen zu erhöhen, um seine einzigartige Stellung in der Gesellschaft zu begründen). Cf. Karl Christ, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, p. 159.

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dominant and the worship and reverence in foreign cults (such as the cults in Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, etc.) were principally not tolerated in the Imperium Romanum. The state cult of the Egyptian gods was subdued and the object of divine worship and reverence was eventually directed to the Roman Emperors and the roman politicians, especially, the procurators who were responsible for the administration of the Greeks and other people in the Roman Empire131. According to Koester, the local cults at Thessalonica gave way to the imperial cult of the Roman Emperors, and the Emperor took over the function of the god Cabirus as the protector of the city (Thessalonica)132. Malherbe and other commentators, however, maintain that the imperial cult and its priests might have played an outstanding role in Thessalonica but in the second and third centuries CE “the main civic cult was that of the Cabiri, divinities associated with certain mystery sanctuaries”133. Religious and traditional observances as well as cultic activities carried out primarily from political motives in the Roman Empire were found already during the time of Julius Caesar. In 63 BCE he was elected as pontifex maximus (“High Priest”) out of political reasons134. It was his will that people worshipped him. He was officially promoted to the status of the gods; in 42 BCE he was consecrated; and he officially set up the cult of Divus Iulius (“Divine Julius”)135. Unfortunately, those events contributed to the Roman civil wars which lasted for decades136. The civil wars ended with the victory and enthronement of Emperor Augustus (Octavian) and he too was worshipped and revered by the people in the Roman Empire for the reason that they considered him as a god who had at last restored peace in the kingdom137. The historians and scholars are of the opinion that a new form of the Ruler or Emperor Cult developed under Emperor 1 31 Cf. Karl Christ, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, p. 159. 132 Cf. Helmut Koester, Archäologie und Paulus in Thessalonike, pp. 5–​6. Some scholars are, however, of the opinion that Saint Demetrius was considered the protector of the city. A legend describes Cabirus as the chief and tutelary deity of Thessalonica, and the “forerunner” of Saint Demetrius. Cf. Charles Edson, Cults of Thessalonica (Macedonica III), p. 192 and footnote 28. 133 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 15. 134 Emperor Augustus was also voted as pontifex maximus on 6th March 12 BCE but his election was by consensus. 135 Divus eventually became a title for the Roman Emperors. 136 Cf. Karl Christ, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, pp. 159–​160. 137 The civil wars which began with Julius Caesar’s revolt against Pompey ended with the victory of Octavian and his military over Antonius and Cleopatra in the battle of Actium in 31 BCE.

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Augustus (31 BCE-​14 CE). However, he did not consider himself a deity138; and he also gave some space for traditional forms of worship in the Roman provinces (such as Macedonia)139. One can, therefore, speak of plurality of religions in Thessalonica. Malherbe and other exegetes emphasize that apart from Judaism, other religions were present in Thessalonica. The Roman, Greek and Egyptian cults which were represented by archaeological remains were “interconnected” so that elements of the Greek cult of Dionysus might have been absorbed in the Egyptian cults of Isis, Serapis, and Osiris140. The religiosity of Thessalonica was, however, characterized mostly by a mixture of Greek tradition and Egyptian influences141. According to Koester, when it comes to the religions of Thessalonica, the worship and reverence of the Egyptian gods and divinities was the only religion whose existence has been known through monuments from different centuries142. Vom Brocke adds that the religious situation of persons in the ancient times was not like that of today where, for instance, in Christianity the Christ’s faithful have absolute and exclusive allegiance to one God. He explains that in Thessalonica one could be a worshipper of the Egyptian goddess Isis and at the same time belonged to a cult association, which worshipped and revered the Greek god Dionysus. It could also happen that members of such cult associations took part in the activities in the Imperial Cult which sought to revere the Roman Emperor as a divine being. Consequently, prior to the introduction and foundation of Christianity in Thessalonica, one could not pin down the religious life of the Thessalonians to one specific type of religion or cultic association143. Ascough writes that in Thessalonica there were voluntary associations for different purposes and functions; and most of the religious and cultic activities such as the worship of the gods and the divinities took place in the voluntary (cult) associations and thiasoi144 of

138 Contra Julius Caesar and Emperor Caligula (37-​41 CE) who considered themselves gods and divine beings to be worshipped. 139 Cf. Karl Christ, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, pp. 158–​162. 140 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 14–​15. 141 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 43. 142 Cf. Helmut Koester, Archäologie und Paulus in Thessalonike, p. 7. 143 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 116. 144 An example of the thiasoi is the Thiasos of Asiani –​a cult association which was found mostly in the Balkan area: Heraclea, Perinthus, Thessalonica, Kutlovica, Ferdanovo and Napoca. According to Edson, “the Asiani of Thessalonica did not

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the  Thessalonians145. It is the opinion of vom Brocke that in 1 Thess 1:9, Paul speaks about the “turning” (ἐπιστρέφειν) away from “idols” (εἴδωλα) and not from “an idol” (εἴδωλον) for the reason that the religious life of the Thessalonians was characterized by a plurality of religions and the worship and honouring of many gods and divinities. He, however, remarks that due to the numerous numbers of the gods and divinities in Thessalonica, it becomes a Herculean task to identify the specific gods and divinities that Paul in 1 Thess 1:9 refers to146. Elliger suggests that the cult of Dionysus and the cult of Cabirus were widely spread in the city; and he shares opinion with other exegetes that Paul’s reference to “idols” (εἴδωλα) in 1 Thess 1:9 could be concretized on them147. Paul and his co-​missionaries were confronted with the most influential among the numerous deities and cults which were revered in Thessalonica, namely, the cult of Cabirus, the cult of Dionysus and the cult of the Egyptian deities148. Hoppe lays emphasis on the plurality of religions in Thessalonica in the middle of the 1st century CE which resulted from influences of different religions from the surrounding communities, and he maintains that religion was not centralized and organized by the Roman authority. The Imperial Cult served primarily as a means to maintain the status of the city as the metropolis of the Roman province, Macedonia. The cultic activities served the needs of the indigenous people and the nomads who came to settle in the city. He remarks that just as cults appeared in the city, so could they vanish at any point in time149. The content of Paul’s proclamation in Thessalonica include monotheism and salvation through Jesus Christ (1 Thess 1:9-​10); God’s choice of the gentiles (1 Thess 1:4; 2:12, etc.); death, resurrection and the parousia of Christ (1 Thess 4:13-​ 18; 5:1-​11); ethics (1 Thess 4:3-​8); and caution for the impending persecution of the Christ’s faithful (1 Thess 2:14; 3:4)150. The proclamation of Paul and his collaborators in Thessalonica (the capital city of the Macedonian province) about limit membership in their thiasos to persons of Asianic origin”. Cf. Charles Edson, Cults of Thessalonica (Macedonica III), pp. 154–​158, here pp. 155, 157 footnote 14. 145 Cf. Richard S. Ascough, Paul’s Macedonian Associations: The Social Context of Philippians and 1 Thessalonians (WUNT II 161), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003, pp. 176–​190; also pp. 24–​28. 146 Cf. Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, p. 116. He notices that the Table of Content of Inscriptiones Graecae (Volume X 2, 1) alone names about 50 gods and heroes under the title Res Sacrae (“divinities”). 147 Cf. Winfried Elliger, Paulus in Griechenland, p. 97. 148 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 44. 149 Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 47. 150 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., p. 51.

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the ONE GOD who raised his son Jesus –​the Lord who is coming to save the chosen ones from the wrath of his father –​was perceived by the Thessalonians, who were accustomed to religious pluralism, as a message of a new religious movement151 from the east which could basically be granted publicity so far as it conformed to the social life; and this religious environment contributed greatly to the success of the mission of Paul and his companions at Thessalonica152. Paul and his co-​workers arrived in Thessalonica after they left Philippi where they faced persecution (Acts 16:16-​40; 1 Thess 2:2). There is evidence from Acts 17:1 that Paul and his co-​missionaries came to Thessalonica via Amphipolis and Apollonia153. Scholars are of the opinion that they travelled on the Egnatian Way because it was the major road which linked the West to the East (e.g. Italy and the Roman provinces in Asia Minor) and it was one of the most travelled highways in the whole Imperium Romanum154. This means that apart from the conducive religious situation in Thessalonica, the economic infrastructure such as the Via Egnatia also contributed immensely to the missionary journeys and activities of Paul and his collaborators in Thessalonica and other areas they could reach within the Imperium Romanum. The missionary activity of Paul and his companions in Thessalonica became a success (1 Thess 1:6-​10; Acts 17:4); he was able to found a Christian community155 which was known throughout the provinces of Macedonia and Achaia in the north and south of Greece respectively (1 Thess 1:7-​8) and was one of the early Churches on the European soil. Exegetes have also been making an effort to reconstruct the duration of Paul’s ministry in Thessalonica. According to the information in Acts 17:1-​2, the Paul portrayed by Luke argued with the Jews from the scriptures in the synagogue in Thessalonica “on three Sabbath (days)”: ἐπὶ σάββατα τρία. This information appears to be vague for the reason that it does not give a precise time

1 51 See Acts 9:2; 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:14, 22; also Acts 17:19. 152 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 47–​48. 153 Thus, “They took the way through Amphipolis and Apollonia and came to Thessalonica” (Διοδεύσαντες δὲ τὴν Ἀμφίπολιν καὶ τὴν Ἀπολλωνίαν ἦλθον εἰς Θεσσαλονίκην). 154 Cf. Rainer Riesner, Die Frühzeit des Apostels Paulus, p. 279; Christoph vom Brocke, Thessaloniki-​Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus, pp. 188 ff. 155 Hoppe leaves the question open as to whether it was Paul who founded the Church in Thessalonica. He is of the view that there was already “Believers-​in-​Jesus Christ” (Jesusgläubige) before the three missionaries (Paul, Silas and Timothy) arrived in Thessalonica. He, however, maintains that it was Paul who took the decisive missionary initiative in Thessalonica. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 63 and footnote 136.

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frame for Paul’s stay in Thessalonica156. There is an indication that Paul stayed there for “three weeks” because a Sabbath is taken for one week. However, the “three Sabbath (days)” can also mean Paul ministered in the city for two days157. The information in Phil 4:15-​16 goes that when Paul was in Thessalonica the Christian community in Philippi sent something for his needs “more than once” (ἅπαξ καὶ δίς). Based on this information and other factors, the exegetes refute Luke’s claim in Acts 17:2; and the consensus among them is that Paul rather stayed for some few months in Thessalonica158. While Riesner assumes that Paul stayed in Thessalonica for four months or less159, Schnelle suggests that Paul stayed there for about three months in the middle of the year 49 CE160. The missionaries, however, had to flee Thessalonica due to the “persecution” they suffered in the hands of the Jews in Thessalonica (1 Thess 2:15-​16; Acts 17:5-​10)161. They settled at Beroea (Acts 17:10-​13) and from there Paul continued his missionary journey to Athens (Acts 17:14-​34) and Corinth (Acts 18:1-​17) in the province of Achaia.

156 It is reported in Acts 18:11 with precision that Paul stayed in Corinth for “a year and six months” (ἐνιαυτὸν καὶ μῆνας ἕξ), teaching the word among the people; and in Acts 19:8 he preached about the kingdom of God in the synagogue at Ephesus “for three months” (ἐπὶ μῆνας τρεῖς); and “in the lecture hall of Tyrannus” (ἐν τῇ σχολῇ Τυράννου) Paul lectured “daily”: καθ᾽ ἡμέραν (Acts 19:9). 157 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 50. Fee also alleges that Luke’s time reference had to do with “the length of Paul’s ministry in the Jewish synagogue, not with his stay in Thessalonica as such”. Cf. Gordon D. Fee, The First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2009, p. 6. 158 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 50–​51; Gordon D. Fee, The First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 6. 159 Cf. Rainer Riesner, Die Frühzeit des Apostels Paulus, p. 323. 160 Cf. Udo Schnelle, Die ersten 100 Jahre des Christentums 30-​130 n. Chr.: Die Entstehungsgeschichte einer Weltreligion (UTB 4411), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015, p. 240. 161 It is to be noted that 1 Thess 2:14 speaks about the “persecution” that members of the Christian community suffered from their own (gentile) “compatriots” (συμφυλεταί). 1 Thess 2:15-​16, however, gives a clue that the Jews also took part in the “persecution”. Cf. Udo Schnelle, Die ersten 100 Jahre des Christentums 30-​130 n. Chr., p. 240. Contra Hoppe, who refutes any claim that Paul suffered “attacks” from the Jews. He is of the view that 1 Thess 2:14 speaks about “attacks” from Jews against “Jewish communities”. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 53.

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G. Date, Purpose and Occasion of Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians First Thessalonians162 is not only “the earliest extant letter of Paul” but also “the earliest preserved Christian writing”163. Paul refers to the addressees of First Thessalonians mainly as “gentile Christians” (1 Thess 1:9-​10; 2:14) –​among them “God-​fearers” –​and the letter can serve not only as “the starting-​point” for the research into Paul’s early mission in the gentile world but also it is the most important source for the research into “Paul’s early Gospel-​Proclamation”164. While some scholars argue that Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians was written in Athens165, others like Malherbe suggest that Paul wrote the letter when he was “active in Corinth and its environs”166 around 50 CE, about six to eight months after he had established the Church in Thessalonica167. As it was not possible for Paul to visit the newly established Christian community in Thessalonica (1 Thess 2:17 ff.), he sent the “new converts” message through the letter he wrote to them in his effort to continue to remain in contact with them and to strengthen their faith (1 Thess 3:1-​5). The letter, therefore, restored (and served as a continuation of) the communication process between Paul and his converts 162 After a long debate over the authenticity of First Thessalonians in the 19th century CE, which emanated mainly from Ferdinand Christian Bauer and other exegetes, there is now consensus among scholars that First Thessalonians was written by Paul himself. Cf. Robert Jewett, The Thessalonian Correspondence: Pauline Rhetoric and Millenarian Piety, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986, p. 3 ff; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 61–​63; Gordon D. Fee, The First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 3–​4. 163 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 75. 164 Cf. Thomas Söding, “Der erste Thessalonicherbrief und die frühe paulinische Evangeliumsverkündigung: Zur Frage einer Entwicklung der paulinischen Theologie”, in: Das Wort vom Kreuz (WUNT 93), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1993, pp. 31–​56, the quotation here on pages 31, 33. 165 Such exegetes base their argument partly on the mention of Athens in 1 Thess 3:1 from where Paul sent Timothy to the Thessalonians (1 Thess 3:2). For more elaborate analyses of the refutation of this theory, confer Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 71–​74. 166 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 68–​69; 71–​72; Gordon D. Fee, The First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 4, 8. 167 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 73. Rudolf Hoppe also shares the opinion that First Thessalonians was written in 50 CE in Corinth, the capital city of the province of Achaia. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 63–​64.

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in Thessalonica which began during Paul’s visit to the Thessalonians but seemed to have been broken after Paul left the city168. Some exegetes postulate that Paul wrote First Thessalonians following a “report” brought to him by Timothy about the situation of the newly formed Christian community in Thessalonica (1 Thess 3:6); and that the content of the letter highlights the situation of the “new converts” to Christianity and seeks to address issues pertinent to the Christian community in Thessalonica169. Faw, Malherbe and others share the opinion that First Thessalonians was a response to a letter brought to Paul by Timothy from the Christian community in Thessalonica170. An expression worthy of notice in this connection is περὶ δέ (“but concerning” /​“as regards”)171. Faw studied the uses of περὶ δέ in 1 Cor 7:1, 25; 8:1; 12:1; 16:1, 12, compared such usage with περὶ δέ in 1 Thess 4:9, 13; 5:1, 12 and concluded that Paul applies περὶ δέ to “introduction to a series of comments”, which are Paul’s “responses to written inquiries” from his addressees (the Corinthians and the Thessalonians respectively). Apart from First Corinthians and First Thessalonians, περὶ δέ is used in Mk 12:26; 13:32; Jn 16:11; Acts 21:25 in the NT; and in these contexts περὶ δέ “has to do very specifically with replies”172. A subject of debate among exegetes is whether in 1 Thess 5:1-​11 Paul gives an answer to a question raised by the Thessalonians concerning the times and the seasons. Rigaux does not deny the probability that just like in the case of 1 Thess 4:13-​18, in 1 Thess 5:1-​10 Paul is responding to an oral question from the Thessalonian community173. Plevnik also asserts that “Paul is here correcting a question about the date of the Lord. In his answer he [Paul] emphasizes the continued seriousness of the event, reassures the faithful that they are bound for salvation, and exhorts them to readiness”174. Best too is of the opinion that Timothy 168 Cf. Thomas Söding, Der erste Thessalonicherbrief und die frühe paulinische Evangeliumsverkündigung, pp. 33–​34; Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 71–​72, 75; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 52. 169 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, op. cit., pp. 76–​78, 217, 261; Thomas Söding, op. cit., pp. 33–​ 34; Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., p. 52; Gordon D. Fee, The First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 8. 170 Cf. Chalmer E. Faw, “On the Writing of First Thessalonians”, in: JBL 71 (1952) 217–​ 225; Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 75–​78. 171 See 1 Thess 4:9; 5:1; also 4:13; 5:12. 172 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 75–​76. 173 Cf. Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1 –​10”, in: NTS 21 (1975), pp. 326–​327. 174 Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, in: Bib 60 (1979) 71–​90, here page 87.

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reported to Paul that the Thessalonians want to know accurately (see 1 Thess 5:2a) when the parousia will be. For him since the adverb ἀκριβῶς (“accurately”, “exactly”, “well”) is not used frequently by Paul (i.e. it is used only in 1 Thess 5:2a)175, the adverb ἀκριβῶς comes from his readers (the Thessalonians); and so what Paul does here is to answer “their query by saying that the parousia’s time can be known as accurately as the arrival of a thief … (cf. Mk 13:32; Acts 1:7)”176. Collins, however, asserts that there is no substantial reason to maintain that Paul has introduced the topic in order to respond to a query which has come to him from the Thessalonians either by letter or via a communication through Timothy (1 Thess 3:6)177. Hoppe also shares this opinion with Collins and he enumerates the passages in which Paul uses περὶ δέ178 and points out that it is only in 1 Cor 7:1 which reads: “concerning what you wrote (to me)” –​περὶ δὲ ὧν ἐγράψατε (μοι) that Paul clearly shows that he is giving an answer to a question that has been written to him by the Corinthians; other than that in the other περὶ δέ passages Paul either addresses some pertinent problems known to him in the Christian communities (1 Cor 7:25; 8:1) or he chooses a theme to talk about (2 Cor 9:1; 1 Thess 4:9)179. Hoppe further refutes Best’s assertion that the adverb ἀκριβῶς stems from the Christian community in Thessalonica on the grounds that Best’s assertion is not convincing enough. Paul’s use of the adverb ἀκριβῶς might be in line with its use in early Christian writings (cf. Acts 18:25, 26; 24:22), in Jewish-​apocalyptic literature (cf. Dn 7:16) and in the works by some Jewish authors (cf. Flavius Josephus, Contra Apionem 2.175; cf. also 2.17)180. The expressions like “as you know” –​καθὼς οἴδατε (1 Thess 1:5; 2:2, 5; 3:4); “just as you know” –​καθάπερ οἴδατε (1 Thess 2:11); “you know well” –​ἀκριβῶς οἴδατε (1 Thess 5:2); “we foretold you” or “we warned you” –​προελέγομεν ὑμῖν (1 Thess 3:4); “remember then” –​μνημονεύετε γάρ (1 Thess 2:9), etc. actually suggest that Paul used the letter as a medium to remind his converts of what he

1 75 See also Eph 5:15. 176 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians (BNTC 9), London: Adam & Charles Black, 1986, p. 205. 177 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”. BETL 53. Leuven: University Press, 1980, p. 334. 178 See 1 Cor 7:1, 25; 8:1, 4; 12:1; 16:1, 12; 2 Cor 9:1; 1 Thess 4:9; 5:1; cf. 4:13. 179 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 289 and footnote 297. 180 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., p. 291 footnote 305. For further references to the views of other authors on this debate, confer Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 71 footnote 2; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 287 and footnote 28.

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taught them before he had to leave the city and to “reinforce” what they already know181. The expressions “we do not need to write to you” –​οὐ χρείαν ἔχετε182 γράφειν ὑμῖν in 1 Thess 4:9 and “you do not need to be written to” –​οὐ χρείαν ἔχετε γράφεσθαι in 1 Thess 5:1 also indicate that there were occasions that Paul was of the opinion that he did not need to write to the community of believers in Thessalonica. He probably thought that all that needed to be taught and said were done when he was with them. The report or the letter from the community of believers in Thessalonica that reached him through Timothy (1 Thess 3:6), however, might have prompted the need for further teachings (1 Thess 3:10), and it prepared the occasion for Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians.

H.  The Structure of First Thessalonians. Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians can be structured by using thematic, epistolary or rhetorical analyses183. One notices about Jewett’s “conspectus” on pages 216-​221 of his book that it is common among the exegetes that 1 Thess 1:1-​10 constitutes the “address/​salutation/​greeting/​prescript/​exordium” and the “(opening/​ introductory) thanksgiving (prayer/​ blessing)” of the letter; 1 Thess 4:1-​ 5:22 forms the “exhortation/​paraenesis/​probatio”; and 1 Thess 5:23-​28 is “conclusion/​ closing/​benediction/​peroratio/​epilogue” of the letter. The point about which the commentators seem to differ slightly or otherwise in opinion is 1 Thess 2:1-​3:13 which some few, but not all exegetes, consider as “the body of the letter”. Duane structures First Thessalonians into: “exordium” (1 Thess 1:2-​10); “narratio” (1 Thess 2:1-​3:10); “transitio” (1 Thess 3:11-​13); “probatio” (1 Thess 4:1-​ 5:22); and “peroratio” (1 Thess 5:23-​28)184. This structure is based on modern rhetorical approaches. Hoppe suggests a three-​part-​outline of the letter. He considers 1 Thess 1:1-​10 as Briefeingang (“Letter Opening”); 1 Thess 2:1-​5:11 as Briefcorpus (“Body of the Letter”) and 1 Thess 5:12-​28 as Briefabschluss (“Conclusion of the Letter”). He also presents sub-​divisions for each of the three

181 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 5, and footnote 92; Gordon D. Fee, The First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 7–​8. 182 Other manuscripts, i.e., ‫א‬2 D F G ψ 0278 104 lat syh, etc., read εχομεν. 183 Confer the outlines of First Thessalonians using thematic, epistolary, and (comparison with other) rhetorical analyses from different exegetes which are presented by Jewett in charts 1-​3 of his book: The Thessalonian Correspondence: Pauline Rhetoric and Millenarian Piety, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986, pp. 216–​221. 184 Cf. Watson F. Duane, “Paul’s Appropriation of Apocalyptic Discourse: The Rhetorical Strategy of First Thessalonians”, in: CAREY/​BLOOMQUIST (1999) 61–​80.

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main parts and his outline is based on thematic analyses185. Malherbe makes an effort to present a “straightforward” outline of First Thessalonians. He suggests a four-​part-​division of the letter: Address (1 Thess 1:1); Autobiography (1 Thess 1:2-​3:13); Exhortation (1 Thess 4:1-​5:22); and Conclusion (1 Thess 5:23-​ 28). He also has sub-​divisions for the Autobiography and the Exhortation186. Luckensmeyer agrees on a three-​part-​division of the letter. He considers 1 Thess 1:1 as “Letter-​Opening”; 1 Thess 1:2-​5:22 as “Main Part” of the letter; and 1 Thess 5:23-​28 as “Letter-​Closing”. He further divides the “Main Part” of the letter as follows: Letter-​Thanksgiving (1:2-​10); Disclosure of a Past-​Present Relationship (2:1-​16); Apostolic Parousia (2:17-​3:13); and Letter-​Paraenesis (4:1-​5:22)187. The following structure of First Thessalonians can also be considered: ADDRESS (1:1) THANKSGIVING AND REPORT ON THE MINISTRY IN THESSALONICA (1:2-​3:13) 1:2-​10 Thanksgiving 2:1-​12 Ministry of Paul in Thessalonica 2:13-​16 Thanksgiving for the Reception of the Gospel Message in Thessalonica 2:17-​3:8 Apostolic Parousia or Visitation 3:9-​13 Thanksgiving, Benediction and Prayer EXHORTATION (4:1-​5:22) 4:1-​12 Exhortation on a Life of Holiness 4:13-​18 Exhortation on the Resurrection of the Dead in Christ 5:1-​11 Exhortation on the Parousia and the Day of the Lord 5:12-​22 Exhortation on Christian Life in Community CONCLUSION (5:23-​28) 5:23-​27 Final Commendations and Instructions 5:28 Concluding Benediction. Such a structure helps to clearly identify the themes of the letter. While, for instance, 1 Thess 4:13-​18 and 5:1-​11 form part of the “Exhortation”, 1 Thess 1:9-​ 10 is located in the “Thanksgiving” of the letter188. 1 85 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 56–​60. 186 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 78–​79. 187 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 71–​72. 188 For further details of the “methodological debate” over the structure of 1 Thessalonians, confer Karl P. Donfried, Johannes Beutler (editors), The Thessalonians Debate: Methodological Discord or Methodological Synthesis? (The Thessalonians Correspondence Seminar of the Studiorum Novi Testamenti Societas [SNTS] 1995–​ 1998), Grand Rapids, Michigan /​Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000, pp. 15–​27, especially pages 15–​21.

CHAPTER ONE Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10 Introduction By textual analysis, one identifies 1 Thess 1:9-​10 generally with the pericope 1 Thess 1:1-​10 which constitutes the “Address” (prescript) and the “Thanksgiving” (prooemium) of the letter but precisely with 1 Thess 1:2-​10 which forms the letter “Thanksgiving” (prooemium). Unlike in 1 Thess 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11 where Paul speaks extensively about resurrection and the fate of the dead and the living with regard to the Lord’s parousia, in 1 Thess 1:9-​10 he handles the topic in passing. Paul identifies the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians with the texts which are mainly about resurrection, wrath (of God), the parousia (of the Lord), the day of the Lord, salvation or deliverance and the state of being with or in the presence of the Lord Jesus Christ always. He makes reference to the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia right from the beginning of the letter in 1 Thess 1:9-​10. This passage highlights the effect of the preaching of Paul and his collaborators (Silvanus and Timothy) on the Christian community in Thessalonica by emphasizing that through this preaching (word of God) the Christ’s faithful abandoned the (worship of) idols and turned to worship or “to serve the living and true God”; and this attitude of the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica is worthy of emulation to that effect. Now the Christian community is waiting for the coming of the risen Lord, Jesus Christ, who will deliver them from the wrath (of God) to come. Three main points are stressed in 1 Thess 1:9-​10: the statement on how “they [the believers] turned to God away from the idols in order to serve the living and true God” (ἐπεστρέψατε πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων δουλεύειν θεῷ ζῶντι καὶ ἀληθινῷ); the recognition of God’s hand in the resurrection of Christ Jesus –​for it is God who “raised him [Jesus] from the dead” (ὃν ἤγειρεν ἐκ [τῶν] νεκρῶν); and the eschatological expectation of God’s resurrected son, Jesus, who will save the believers from the coming wrath [of God] (ἀναμένειν τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν… Ἰησοῦν τὸν ῥυόμενον ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης)189. Christ is presented in Paul’s proclamation to the Thessalonians as the one who died for their sake (1 Thess 5:10) and the one who would be their deliverer from the eschatological wrath of God (1 Thess 1:10). Thus, in 1 Thess 1:9-​10 Paul 189 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 117; also op. cit. p. 90.

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comments on what the Thessalonians responded to, and “that summary provides the context for these comments on Christ’s vicarious death and eschatological deliverance”190. This text of 1 Thess 1:9-​10 will be organized and translated with notes. The interpretation of the individual verses of the pericope will then follow.

A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 1:9-​10 (with Notes) 9a. αὐτοὶ γὰρ περὶ ἡμῶν ἀπαγγέλλουσιν 9b. ὁποίαν εἴσοδον ἔσχομεν πρὸς ὑμᾶς, 9c. καὶ πῶς ἐπεστρέψατε πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων 9d. δουλεύειν θεῷ ζῶντι καὶ ἀληθινῷ 10a. καὶ ἀναμένειν τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν, 10b. ὃν ἤγειρεν ἐκ [τῶν191] νεκρῶν, 10c. Ἰησοῦν τὸν ῥυόμενον ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης192. 9a. “For they themselves report concerning us193, 9b. (of) what sort of reception we had among you194,

1 90 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 126. 191 Many manuscripts (Þ46vid A C K 323. 614. txt ‫ א‬B D F G I L P Ψ 0278, etc.) read ἐκ τῶν νεκρῶν. 192 Cf. Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, et al. (editors), The Greek New Testament (Fifth Revised Edition), Stuttgart, 2014, p. 677. 193 The personal pronoun in the 1st person plural: “us” refers here to Paul, Silvanus and Timothy (cf. 1 Thess 1:1a). 194 It is a “You” plural referring here to the addressees, namely the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica. This is in sharp contrast to some verses in 1 Cor 15:12 ff, where Paul makes use of a literary device known as diatribe, whereby he addresses persons who are not specifically identified but remain imaginary figures. It is worthy of notice here that “diatribe (based on the Greek noun διατριβή) can mean conversation, discourse or lecture. It is a modern literary term to describe an informal rhetorical mode of argumentation principally characterized by a lively dialogical style including the use of imaginary discussion partners (often abruptly addressed), to whom are attributed hypothetical objections and false conlusions”. Cf. David E. Aune, The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric, Louisville. Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2010, p. 127. Thus Diatribe has the character of a dialogue; it is used profusely by the Greek philosophers, especially, Epictetus. In the NT, apart from Paul who uses this literary device in Rom 1:18-​24; 8:31-​39; 11:1-​ 24; 1 Cor 4:6-​15; 9:1-​18; 15:29-​49; 2 Cor 10-​12, it is only the author of the Letter of James who uses it in Jas 2:14-​16. Cf. Marius Reiser, Sprache und literarische Formen des

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9c. and how you turned to [towards] God from the idols, 9d. in order to serve the living and true God; 10a. and to wait for his son from heaven, 10b. whom he raised from the dead, 10c. Jesus who delivers us195 from the wrath to come”.

Notes: The particle γάρ in 1:9a has the function of explication and can be translated here as “for”, “because”, “indeed”, etc. It stresses on the reason why Paul and his co-​authors need not talk any more about the Thessalonians’ faith in God. What “they (i.e. the neighbours) report” (αὐτοὶ ἀπαγγέλλουσιν) about the Thessalonians’ faith in God is enough witness that Paul and his co-​workers’ missionary journey and activities in Thessalonica have been fruitful. In 1:9b one finds the (Greek) expression εἴσοδον ἔχειν πρός τινα “to have or to find acceptance by somebody” or “to receive a welcome from someone”196. Thus, verse 9b can be rendered as “what sort of welcome or reception we had among you”. This meaning also echoes in the use of the noun εἴσοδος in 1 Thess 2:1197. The noun εἴσοδος can also mean “entrance” or “access” (see Heb 10:19; 2 Pt 1:11) and so it is not out of place to translate verse 9b as “what sort of entrance we had to you”198. The positive impact of Paul and his co-​missionaries’ proclamation or “evangelization” in the Gentile regions of Thessalonica and its environs is, thus, stressed here in verse 9b and also in 1 Thess 2:1 by the use of the word εἴσοδος. It is evident in Acts 14:15 that Paul and his co-​missionaries proclaimed the Good News (especially to the Gentiles) so that their addressees would turn from idols to the living God, the creator of heaven and earth. Here in 1 Thess 1:9 the positive effect of the missionaries’ proclamation is seen in the use of the verb “to Neuen Testaments: Eine Einführung, Parderborn. München. Wien. Zürich: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2001, pp. 184–​186, and footnote 265 on page 186. For further details of the term diatribe, confer David E. Aune, op. cit., pp. 127–​129. 195 It is asserted that the 1st person plural refers here not only to Paul, Silvanus and Timothy but also the entire Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica. 196 Cf. BDAG, p. 294 § 3. 197 The noun εἴσοδος can be rendered in the active sense to mean “entrance” and in the passive sense to mean “welcome”/​“reception”/​“visit”. Most exegetes are of the opinion that while in 1 Thess 1:9b εἴσοδος is used in the active sense, in 1 Thess 2:1 it is used in the passive sense. Cf. Ernst von Dobschütz, Die Thessalonicher-​Briefe (KEK 10, 7th edition), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1909, p. 76; Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 118; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 118, and footnote 180. 198 Confer Luckensmeyer’s translation in: David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 75.

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turn” (ἐπιστρέφειν) in verse 9c; and in the expression “you turned to God from the idols” (ἐπεστρέψατε πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων) one realizes that both the prepositional phrases πρὸς τὸν θεόν (“towards God”) and ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων (“away from idols”) serve as the objects of the verb ἐπιστρέφειν (“to turn”). That is to say, the Thessalonians turned to God and they turned away from idols. The purpose of this action of turning (ἐπιστρέφειν) which can be seen as an act of “conversion” is giving especially in verse 9d as “to serve the living and true God” (δουλεύειν θεῷ ζῶντι καὶ ἀληθινῷ). In verse 10, other consequences that manifest in the Thessalonians’ “conversion” are also presented. Thus, they are waiting (ἀναμένειν) for God’s son who will come from heaven (verse 10a). This son is the one God raised from the dead (verse 10b); and he is no other than Jesus Christ, the one who actually delivers us from the coming wrath. This “coming wrath” (ἡ ὀργή ἡ ἐρχομένη) is, indeed, the “wrath of God” (ἡ ὀργή τοῦ θεοῦ).

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-​10 1.1. (i). 1 Thess 1:9a: “For they themselves report concerning us” (αὐτοὶ γὰρ περὶ ἡμῶν ἀπαγγέλλουσιν). It has just been hinted in the foregoing “notes” that the particle γάρ (“for”/​ “indeed”) in 1 Thess 1:9a has an explicative function. It introduces the reason for the irrelevance to speak further of the faith of the Thessalonians about which Paul had already heard from Timothy’s report (1 Thess 1:8; 3:2)199. Malherbe notices that in Paul’s view, faith springs from hearing the message of Christ’s death and resurrection preached (Rom 10:5-​17). He further asserts that the grammatically unnecessary repetition of πίστις (“faith”) in 1 Thess 1:8c (ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν ἡ πρὸς τὸν θεόν: “your faith in God”) is used for emphasis, “specifying God as the object of their [the Thessalonians’] faith” and the content of this faith described in 1 Thess 1:8c is summarized in 1 Thess 1:9-​10200. Holtz stresses that this formulation ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν ἡ πρὸς τὸν θεόν in 1 Thess 1:8c is found nowhere else in the NT201; and it originates from (Hellenistic)

1 99 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 118. 200 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, op. cit., p. 117; also Traugott Holtz, Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher (EKK 13), Köln: Benziger Verlag, 1986, p. 53. 201 He explains that ἡ πίστις in Philemon 5 is connected with ἡ ἀγάπη and it is about “faith” (ἡ πίστις) “in the Lord Jesus” (πρὸς τὸν κύριον Ἰησοῦν).

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

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Judaism202. Holtz explains further that what is meant in the formulation “your faith in God” (ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν ἡ πρὸς τὸν θεόν) is the Thessalonians’ “turning towards the God proclaimed to them” (by Paul and his collaborators); and the strong emphasis on God as the object of the Thessalonians’ faith recurs in 1 Thess 1:9-​10 which speaks about the report of the communities on the Thessalonians’ faith which manifests in their “turning” towards the God who saves203. Hoppe buttresses this point made by Holtz and supported by Malherbe by explaining that 1 Thess 1:8c prepares for the decisive thoughtful development in 1 Thess 1:9-​ 10 which becomes noticeable through the expression in 1 Thess 1:9c: “turning to (i.e., towards) God away from the idols” (ἐπιστρέφειν πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων). With this expression, Paul connects 1 Thess 1:9-​10 with the “faith in God” (πίστις πρὸς τὸν θεόν) in 1 Thess 1:8c and brings the “new orientation” of the Thessalonians into a concise form204. The personal pronoun in the 3rd person plural: “they” (αὐτοί) refers primarily to the people in the then roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaia and by extension the people “everywhere”205 who heard of the strong faith of the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica and their “turning” towards God as a response to (and fruit of) the proclamation of Paul and his collaborators in Thessalonica about the “living and true God”. The αὐτοί, therefore, does not mean any other people in “every place” than those who became “believers” through the witness of the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica; and these believers become the subject of the verb ἀπαγγέλλειν (“to report” /​“to proclaim”) in 1 Thess 1:9a206. Thus, 202 The references Holtz makes to support his assertion are the expressions: “That noble mother disregarded all of it because of her faith in God” (ἁπάσας ἡ γενναία μήτηρ ἐξέλυσεν διὰ τὴν πρὸς θεὸν πίστιν) in 4 Macc 15:24 and: “Therefore, you, who have the same faith in God must not be dismayed” (καὶ ὑμεῖς οὖν τὴν αὐτὴν πίστιν πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἔχοντες μὴ χαλεπαίνετε) in 4 Macc 16:22; as well as Philo, On The Life of Abraham 268, 271, 273. 203 Cf. Traugott Holtz, Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher, p. 53. 204 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 118–​119. 205 Cf. 1 Thess 1:7: “So that you became model [models] for all the believers in Macedonia and in Achaia” (ὥστε γενέσθαι ὑμᾶς τύπον [τύπους] πᾶσιν τοῖς πιστεύουσιν ἐν τῇ Μακεδονίᾳ καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἀχαΐᾳ); and 1 Thess 1:8: “For from you the word of the Lord has sounded forth not only in Macedonia and [in] Achaia, but [also] your faith in God has gone forth everywhere….” (ἀφ᾽ ὑμῶν γὰρ ἐξήχηται ὁ λόγος τοῦ κυρίου οὐ μόνον ἐν τῇ Μακεδονίᾳ καὶ [ἐν τῇ] Ἀχαΐᾳ, ἀλλ᾽ [καὶ] ἐν παντὶ τόπῳ ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν ἡ πρός τὸν θεὸν ἐξελήλυθεν….) 206 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 116, 117. Hoppe explains that the verb ἀπαγγέλλειν means here and also in Lk 14:21; 24:9; Acts 11:13; 12:14; 15:27; 23:16 the report about what has been seen or heard. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., p. 116,

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10

they (those who have become believers through the witness of the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica) do not only report (ἀπαγγέλλουσιν) about Paul’s ministry in Thessalonica (1 Thess 1:9b) but also about the positive response of the Thessalonians to this missionary activity (1 Thess 1:9c-​10) which in turn has caused them (the reporters) to become believers.

1.1. (ii). 1 Thess 1:9c: “And how you turned to (i.e. towards) God from the idols” (καὶ πῶς ἐπεστρέψατε πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων). 1 Thess 1:9b-​10 forms the object and the content of the verb “to report” (ἀπαγγέλλειν) in 1 Thess 1:9a. The verses contain what the “believers” report about the ministry of Paul and his collaborators in Thessalonica, i.e. the kind of “entrance”; “welcome” or “reception” they (the missionaries) had among the Thessalonians (1 Thess 1:9b) and how the Thessalonians responded to Paul’s mission (1 Thess 1:9c-​10). While 1 Thess 1:9b forms the first part of the report, 1 Thess 1:9c constitutes the second part of the content of this report. The points of emphasis here in 1 Thess 1:9c lay on the verb “to turn” (ἐπιστρέφειν) and the object of the turning, i.e. “to or towards God” (πρὸς τὸν θεόν) and “away from the idols” (ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων). The particle πῶς (“how?”, “in what way?”) is an interrogative pronoun. Some exegetes, however, are of the opinion that this interrogative particle in 1 Thess 1:9c can function either as a modal adverb to describe the manner of turning, i.e. “how you turned” (ὡς ἐπεστρέψατε); or as a conjunction to emphasize the fact of turning to mean “that you turned” (ὅτι ἐπεστρέψατε)207. The opinions of the biblical commentators on this issue are evenly divided but the parallel between πῶς and ὁποῖος (cf. also ὁποίαν in 1 Thess 1:9b) gives a clue that in 1 Thess 1:9c Paul uses the interrogative particle in the modal sense to describe the manner of the Thessalonians’ “conversion”208. Thus just as ὁποῖος in 1 Thess 1:9b describes the

footnote 174. Malherbe also notices that ἀπαγγέλλειν is used here and in 1 Cor 14:25 “of an exclamation of faith” and he concludes that “the terms used to describe reports about the Thessalonians and Paul are all evangelical in quality”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 118. 207 For an extensive discussion about such different views, confer: David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 80–​81. 2 08 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 118; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 81; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 118–​119, and footnote 184 of page 119.

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

67

kind or quality of entrance or reception (ὁποίαν εἴσοδον) that Paul and his collaborators had among the Thessalonians209, so does πῶς describe the qualitative manner of the Thessalonians “conversion”. Hoppe emphasizes that the particles ὁποίαν and ὡς describe the qualitative manner of the Thessalonians’ “conversion” because the particles are not only in tune with the qualitative “message of the gospel” (τὸ εὐαγγέλιον) which came to the Thessalonians (1 Thess 1:5; cf. also 2:13) but also with the Thessalonians’ reception of the faith preached to them even in tribulation (1 Thess 1:6). He explains further that these qualitative commendations seek not only to stress on the correct decision of the Thessalonians to have chosen to turn to God but also to motivate them in their rejection of the idols210. It has been noted earlier that the exegetes find a connection between 1 Thess 1:8c and 1 Thess 1:9c. Malherbe, for instance, stresses that what Paul referred to in 1 Thess 1:8c as the Thessalonians’ “faith in God” (πίστις… πρὸς τὸν θεόν), Paul describes it here in 1 Thess 1:9c as their “turning to God” (ἐπιστρέφειν πρὸς τὸν θεόν)211. The verb ἐπιστρέφειν plays a significant role not only in 1 Thess 1:9c but also in the whole pericope under consideration (1 Thess 1:9-​10); and that calls for the need to delve into the meaning and function of the verb as it appears in this passage. The infinitive verb ἐπιστρέφειν can be used either transitively to mean “to turn to” or intransitively to mean “to turn”, “to turn around”, “to return”212. In 1 Thess 1:9c, ἐπιστρέφειν is used in the intransitive sense, i.e. ἐπεστρέψατε (1st aorist indicative active, 2nd person plural) and it should be rendered as “you (pl.) turned”. It is suggested that the intransitive use of the verb implies “the change of one’s mind or cause of action”213. What to turn from is often expressed in the preposition ἐκ (ἐξ before vowel) with the genitive case (=

2 09 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 79. 210 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 119. Best who favours the conjunctive use of πῶς in 1 Thess 1:9c also maintains that if the interrogative particle should be used in the modal sense then it will refer to “their [the Thessalonians’] conversion in tribulation (1 Thess 1:6)”. Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 82. 211 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 119; also Traugott Holtz, Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher, p. 53; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 118–​119. 212 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament: Being Grimm’s Wilkes’s Clavis Novi Testamenti. Translated, Revised and Enlarged by Joseph Henry Thayer (Fourth Edition, Reprint), Edinburgh: T & T Clarke, 1908, pp. 243–​244. 213 Cf. BDAG, p. 382.

68

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10

“from, i.e. out from”) or the preposition ἀπό with the genitive case (= “from”, i.e. away from”); and what to turn to or towards is rendered in any of these prepositions: πρός plus accusative (“to, towards”), ἐπί plus accusative (“to, towards”) and εἰς plus accusative (“to, into”). In 1 Thess 1:9c, the Thessalonians turned away from idols (ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων) and turned to God (πρὸς τὸν θεόν). Malherbe is of the opinion that ἐπιστρέφειν is a terminus technicus used to describe an act of “conversion”214. Apart from 1 Thess 1:9c, Paul uses the verb ἐπιστρέφειν only in 2 Cor 3:16215 and Gal 4:9216. While Malherbe shares the view that the use of ἐπιστρέφειν in 1 Thess 1:9c is parallel to the uses of the verb in Gal 4:9 and 2 Cor 3:16 and that in these contexts Paul “plays on the language of conversion”217, Bussmann rather maintains that neither Gal 4:9 nor 2 Cor 3:16 is par��allel to 1 Thess 1:9c. Bussmann explains that in Gal 4:9 the “conversion” is not to God but the object of ἐπιστρέφειν is rather “the elemental powers” (τὰ στοιχεῖα); and in 2 Cor 3:16 Paul speaks about “conversion” of the Jews to Christ but not “conversion” of idol worshippers to God (1 Thess 1:9)218. In 2 Cor 3:16 Paul quotes from Exod 34:34 but his redaction and interpretation of Exod 34:34 in 2 Cor 3:16 seem different219. Paul changes the verb εἰσπορεύσθαι (“to go or come in”, “to enter”) in Exod 34:34 which is the LXX rendering of the Hebrew verb ‫ּבּוא‬ 214 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 119. Chamberlain also writes that the substantive of the verb (i.e. ἑπιστροφή) is used figuratively to mean “conversion” and he cites Sir 18:21; 49:2 (LXX) to support his assertion. Cf. Gary Alan Chamberlain, The Greek of the Septuangint: A Supplemental Lexicon, Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2011, p. 70. 215 The verse reads: “But whenever one turns to the Lord, the veil is removed” (ἡνίκα δὲ ἐὰν ἐπιστρέψῃ πρὸς κύριον, περιαιρεῖται τὸ κάλυμμα). 216 The verse reads: “But now that you have come to know God, or rather to be known by God, how can you return again to the weak and miserable elemental powers, whom you want to serve all over again?” (νῦν δὲ γνόντες θεόν, μᾶλλον δὲ γνωσθέντες ὑπὸ θεοῦ, πῶς ἐπιστρέφετε πάλιν ἐπὶ τὰ ἀσθενῆ καὶ πτωχὰ στοιχεῖα οἷς πάλιν ἄνωθεν δουλεύειν θέλετε;). 217 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 119. 218 Cf. Claus Bussmann, Themen der paulinischen Missionspredigt auf dem Hintergrund der spätjüdisch-​hellenistischen Missionsliteratur (EHS.T 23/​3), Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1971, p. 49; also David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 81–​82. 219 Exod 34:34 in the LXX reads: “But whenever Moses went in before the Lord to speak with him, he would take the veil off, until he came out. And when he came out, he told the Israelites what the Lord had commanded him” (ἡνίκα δ᾽ἄν εἰσεπορεύετο Μωυσῆς ἔναντι κυρίου λαλεῖν αὐτῷ, περιῃρεῖτο τὸ κάλυμμα ἕως τοῦ ἐκπορεύεσθαι καὶ ἐξελθὼν ἐλάλει πᾶσιν τοῖς υἱοῖς Ισραηλ ὅσα ἐνετείλατο αὐτῷ κύριος).

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

69

(in the modification qal) which can mean “to go or come in”, or “to enter”. The Hebrew verb ‫( ּבּוא‬unlike ‫ׁשּוב‬, ‫ּפָ נָה‬, ‫סָ בַ ב‬, or ‫ )הָ פַ ְך‬and its rendering εἰσπορεύσθαι in the LXX do not suggest an act of conversion. Luckensmeyer and other exegetes emphasize that: “In the Septuagint text, the reference is to Moses spatially going in (εἰσεπορεύετο) before the Lord (ἔναντι κυρίου). Paul provides an interpretation of the passage (Exod 34:34) by changing the verb to ἐπιστρέφειν, and by making the subject indefinite (ἡνίκα δὲ ἐὰν ἐπιστρέψῃ: ‘but whenever one turns’ [2 Cor 3:16]) –​(and) the application is thereby broadened to include individual ‘conversions’ ”220.

Outside the Pauline letters, ἐπιστρέφειν also appears in the Acts of the Apostles221; and in these passages the verb is said to be a technical term used to describe conversion222. In Acts 3:19, for instance, both verbs μετανοεῖν (“to repent”) and ἐπιστρέφειν (“to turn to”) are mentioned but emphasis is on ἐπιστρέφειν, i.e. the conversion to God and especially knowing Jesus and accepting him as the Messias, the Christ (Acts 3:20); and in the other passages parallels are found where the verb ἐπιστρέφειν describes the “conversion” of non-​Jews into the ekklēsia (“the Church”)223. The closest parallel to 1 Thess 1:9c include Acts 14:15 where the Paul according to Luke tells the Gentiles in Lystra: “We bring you the good news that you should turn away from these worthless things to a (the) living God” (Εὐαγγελιζόμενοι ὑμᾶς [ὑμῖν] ἀπὸ τούτων τῶν ματαίων ἐπιστρέφειν ἐπὶ [τὸν] θεὸν ζῶντα)224. Here there is a reference of non-​Jews or pagans turning to the living God. Luckensmeyer sums up the other parallels by emphasizing that Acts 15:19 also refers to Gentiles “turning to God” (ἐπιστρέφουσιν ἐπὶ τὸν θεόν); in Acts 26:17-​18 mention is made of “non-​Jews” (ἔθνη), whose eyes are opened not only to turn “from darkness to light” (ἀπὸ σκότους εἰς φῶς), but also from “the authority of satan to God” (καὶ τῆς ἐξουσίας σατανᾶ ἐπὶ τὸν θεόν), “that they may receive forgiveness of sins” (τοῦ λαβεῖν αὐτοὺς ἄφεσιν ἁμαρτιῶν); and in Acts 26:20 “repentance” (μετανοεῖν) precedes the “turning” (ἐπιστρέφειν) and 220 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 81; Georg Bertram, στρέφω κτλ, in: TDNT 7 (1971) 728; Victor P. Furnish, II Corinthians: Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Commentary (AB 32A), New York: Doubleday & Company, 1984, p. 211. 221 See Acts 3:19; 9:35; 11:21; 14:15; 15:19; 26:18, 20; 28:27. In Acts 28:26-​27, the Paul according to Luke quotes from Isaiah 6:9-​10. 222 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 119. 223 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 82. 224 Some manuscripts (D, Irlat, etc.) have variant readings like ὑμῖν τὸν θεὸν ὅπως.

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their actions or deeds (ἔργα πράσσοντας) should be consistent with the repentance. Thus “the process depicted here seems to be threefold: first repentance, then turning to God, then service”225. Luckensmeyer, however, observes that Paul neither makes such a connection between μετανοεῖν and ἐπιστρέφειν, nor is the result of turning, for Paul, a forgiveness of sins. Rather ἐπιστρέφειν is actually more than a change of thought (μετάνοια); it is a change of life226. It must be emphasized here that the verb ἐπιστρέφειν is used in 1 Thess 1:9c in the aorist tense with the indicative mood, i.e., ἐπεστρέψατε, and it functions as constative (punctiliar, comprehensive, etc.) aorist. According to Wallace, the punctiliar aorist “normally views the action as a whole, taking no interest in the internal workings of the action. It describes the action in summary fashion, without focusing on the beginning or end of the action specifically… The event might be iterative in nature, or durative, or momentary, but the aorist says none of this. It places the stress on the fact of the occurrence, not its nature”227. The punctiliar aorist in 1 Thess 1:9c only summarizes the action of the Thessalonians’ turning to God. It neither specifies the beginning of the action nor the durative nature of the event. The force of the tense is that the Thessalonians turned to God. Hoppe asserts that Paul’s primary emphasis on the use of ἐπιστρέφειν in 1 Thess 1:9c is the “existential turning” to the living and true God and the connected “turning” away from the idols. Hoppe considers this event as an “existential change” which is made evident through the use of the punctiliar aorist ἐπεστρέψατε228. Hoppe further explains that though the verb ἐπιστρέφειν is also used in secular Greek (literature), in those instances the verb is seldom used in the sense of “conversion” which leads to new orientation in life. He notices that the verb is used in secular Greek to express a “change of thought”229. He contrasts the use of the verb in secular Greek with its use in Judaism, especially in Hellenistic Judaism, by emphasizing that the term ἐπιστρέφειν in Hellenistic Judaism speaks about the total new orientation on Israel’s one God. Thus, Paul’s use of ἐπιστρέφειν is not focused on a “change of thought” (μετάνοια) just as the Greek philosophers understood the word to be, but rather the verb implies basically a “paradigmatic 2 25 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 82. 226 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 82. 227 Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament, Michigan: Zondervan, 1996, p. 557. 228 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 119. 229 See op. cit., pp. 119–​120; also Arthur Darby Nock, “Bekehrung”, in: RAC 2 (1954), 108–​110.

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

71

change” in relation to the Jewish God which also entails social responsibilities. He correctly remarks that the existential change of the Thessalonians expresses itself in the words in 1 Thess 1:9d which reads: “In order to serve the living and true God” (δουλεύειν θεῷ ζῶντι καὶ ἀληθινῷ)230. Collins too notes correctly that “Paul’s description of the conversion of the Thessalonian Christians makes use of formulas traditionally employed in the missionary discourses of Hellenistic Judaism”231. A person can decide either to turn (or return) to the Jewish God or to turn away from the Jewish God. Paul’s use of the verb ἐπιστρέφειν in 1 Thess 1:9c is closer to the use of the verb in Judaism (specifically in Hellenistic Judaism) than its usage by the Greek philosophers. Malherbe rightly remarks that: “Philosophers might speak of turning to the divine in the pursuit of wisdom or truth…, but turning to God and away from all human values and opinions is the same as turning to oneself (ἐφ᾽ αὐτόν), a coming to one’s senses…, and differs radically from the biblical idea of turning to God”232.

The verb ἐπιστρέφειν in the LXX is most often the Greek rendering of the Hebrew verb ‫ׁשּוב‬233 in the MT or the Hebrew Bible. In other occasions, ἐπιστρέφειν 2 30 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 119–​120. 231 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, in: NJBC (1990), p. 775 § 46:16. 232 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 119. 233 The verb ‫ ׁשּוב‬in the modification qal can mean “to turn” or “to return” and with the preposition ‫ אֶ ל‬the verb can mean specifically “to turn” or “to return” to the Lord/​God (Dt 30:10; 2 Chr 30:6; Eccl 12:7b); and in Exod 5:22 it means to return in prayer to the Lord. Cf. David J. A. Cline, et al. (editors), DCH 8 (2011), pp. 279 § 2d; 283 § 11e. The formulation of ‫ ׁשּוב‬plus the preposition ‫ אֶ ל‬with the Lord or God as object is often rendered in the LXX as ἐπιστρέφειν plus either the preposition πρός or ἐπί. Confer, e.g. ‫( וַּיָ ׁ֧שָ ב מֹ ֶ ׁ֛שה אֶ ל־יְ הוָ ֖ה‬Exod 5:22) MT) //​ἐπέστρεψεν δὲ Μωυσῆς πρὸς κύριον (Exod 5:22 LXX); ‫ֹלהיָך‬ ֶ ֔ ֱ‫( ִ ּ֤כי תָ ׁשּוב אֶ ל־יְ הוָ ֣ה א‬Dt 30:10 MT) //​ἐὰν ἐπισταφῇς ἐπὶ κύριον τὸν θεόν σου (Dt 30:10 LXX); ‫( ׁ֤שּובּו אֶ ל־יְ ה ֗ ָוה‬2 Chr 30:6) //​ἐπιστρέψατε πρὸς θεόν (2 Par 30:6 LXX); ‫ֹלהים‬ ֖ ִ ֱ‫( וְ הָ ֣רּוחַ ּתָ ׁ֔שּוב אֶ ל־הָ א‬Eccl 12:7b) //​καὶ τὸ πνεῦμα ἐπιστρέψῃ πρὸς τὸν θεόν (Eccl 12:7b LXX). Paul’s usage of ἐπιστρέφειν is identical with the use of ‫ ׁשּוב‬plus the preposition ‫ אֶ ל‬and so in all the three passages in which he uses ἐπιστρέφειν, the verb is with either the preposition πρός or ἐπί. Confer: 1 Thess 1:9c (καὶ πῶς ἐπεστρέψατε πρὸς τὸν θεόν); 2 Cor 3:16 (ἡνίκα δὲ ἐὰν ἐπιστρέψῃ πρὸς κύριον); and Gal 4:9b (πῶς ἐπιστρέφετε πάλιν ἐπὶ τὰ ἀσθενῆ καὶ πτωχὰ στοιχεῖα). Moreover, the verb ‫ ׁשּוב‬can also be used with the preposition ‫ ִמן‬to mean “to escape” from a bad situation like darkness (Job 15:22). Cf. David J. A. Cline, et al (editors), DCH 8 (2011), p. 281 § 7b. Worthy of notice here is that the verb ‫ ׁשּוב‬in Job 15:22 is translated in the LXX as ἀποστραφῆναι, not as ἐπιστρέφειν. In Rom 11:26, Paul also uses the variant ἀποστρέφειν as a translation for ‫ ׁשּוב‬in Isa 59:20 which he quotes.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10

appears in the LXX as a translation of the biblical Hebrew verbs ‫ּפָ נָה‬234, ‫סָ בַ ב‬235, or ‫הָ פַ ְך‬236. There are several references in the LXX where ἐπιστρέφειν is used to speak about Jews turning or returning to the Lord (God) –​ either individually or corporately237. Ἐπιστρέφειν is also used in the LXX in the sense of turning away from God (Dt 31:18, 20238; 2 Par 36:13; Jer 3:10)239. There are also references in the LXX where ἐπιστρέφειν is used to tell about non-​Jews or Gentiles turning to the Lord (Ps 21:28 [22:27 MT]; Isa 19:22; Tob 14:6240). The formulation ‫( ׁ֭שּוב ִמּנִ י־חֹ֑ ׁשֶ ְך‬Job 15:22 MT) and ἀποστραφῆναι ἀπὸ σκότους (Job 15:22 LXX) are identical with Paul’s formulation ἐπιστρέφειν ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων (1 Thess 1:9c). Confer also ‫( וְ ׁשָ ב֙ ֵ ֽמחַ ּטָ אתֹ֔ ו‬Ezk 33:14 MT) //​ καὶ ἀποστρέψῃ ἀπὸ τῆς ἁμαρτίας αὐτοῦ (Ezk 33:14 LXX); ‫( וְ ׁשָ ב֙ הַ ֣ ֹּגוי הַ ֔הּוא מֵ ָ ֣רעָ תֹ֔ ו‬Jer 18:8 MT) //​ καὶ ἐπιστραφῇ τὸ ἔθνος ἐκεῖνο ἀπὸ πάντων τῶν κακῶν αὐτῶν (Jer 18:8 LXX); ‫א־ׁשב י ָָר ְבעָ ֖ם ִמּדַ ְרּכֹ֣ ו הָ ָרעָ ה‬ ֥ ָ ֹ ‫( ֽל‬1 Kgs 13:33 MT) //​οὐκ ἐπέστρεψεν Ιεροβοαμ ἀπὸ τῆς κακίας αὐτοῦ (3 Kgs 13:33 LXX). 234 The Hebrew verb ‫ ּפָ נָה‬can be used intransitively in qal to mean “to turn (towards)” to specify the direction towards which a person turns (Nm 21:33; Dt 2:3; Ezk 10:11). It can also mean “to turn (away) from a person or from an object (Exod 7:23; 2 Kgs 23:16). ‫ ּפָ נָה‬can, however, mean specifically “to turn in worship”: to the Lord (Isa 45:22); to an image or god (Lv 19:4 MT; Dt 31:20); or to turn away from the Lord to worship other gods (Dt 29:17; 30:17 MT). Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 6 (2007), pp. 705 § 1a; 706 §§ 1b, 3a. 235 Used intransitively in the Hebrew verb modification Qal, ‫ סָ בַ ב‬can mean “to turn”, “to turn around”, or “to turn away” (1 Sam 15:27; 22:18; 2 Sam 14:24; 2 Chr 18:31; Eccl 1:6; Ezk 42:19). Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 6 (2007), p. 106 § 3. 236 Used intransitively the verb ‫ הָ פַ ְְך‬in the modification qal means “to turn”, “to turn around”, or “to return” (1 Sam 25:12; 2 Chr 9:12). Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al (editors), DCH 2 (1995), p. 580 § 4. 237 See Dt 30:2, 8, 9, 10; 1 Kgs 7:3-​4; 3 Kgs 8:33, 2 Par 30:6; Isa 6:10; Jer 24:7; Hos 5:4; 6:1; 14:2; Joel 2:12-​13; Zech 1:3; Jdt 5:19; Sir 5:7. In all the passages cited from the LXX (i.e. excluding the apocrypha Judith and Sirach), ἐπιστρέφειν is the rendering of the verb ‫ ׁשּוב‬in the Hebrew Bible. It is only in some few passages that ἐπιστρέφειν and ‫ׁשּוב‬ mean an act of conversion in their respective contexts (e.g. Joel 2:12-​13). 238 In Dt 31:18, 20, the biblical Hebrew verb in the MT equivalent to ἐπιστρέφειν in the LXX is ‫ ּפָ נָה‬plus the preposition ‫ אֶ ל‬and in these contexts –​notably in Dt 31:20 –​the Jews turned (away from God) to serve (or worship) other gods. 239 The references include Hos 7:10; Amos 4:6, 9; Mal 3:7. Apart from Dt 31:18, in all the other passages cited from the LXX ἐπιστρέφειν is equivalent to ‫ ׁשּוב‬in the MT. 240 Metzger, et al translate πάντα τὰ ἔθνη ἐπιστρέψουσιν in Tobith 14:6 as: “the nations in the whole world will all be converted” and they explain that it is a conversion (of all nations) to Judaism. Cf. Bruce M. Metzger, et al (editors), The New Oxford Annotated Apocrypha: The Apocryphal/​Deuterocanonical Books of the Old Testament (New Revised Standard Version), New York: Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 18, and the note on Tob 14:6.



Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

73

In 1 Thess 1:9c “God” (ὁ θεός) is differentiated from “idols”, “images” or “deities” (τὰ εἴδωλα); and the implied emphasis is on the fact that it is better to turn to God and serve him than to idols. There are parallel passages in the LXX and in the Jewish Bible where such a contrast is made between the Jewish God and other deities (2 Kgs 23:24-​25; 2 Par 24:18-​19; Dt 4:27-​30)241. In these pericopes, there is emphasis on the worship and service to the only one God of Israel (cf. 1 Kgs 7:3-​4), and this act of sole allegiance to the one God is in keeping with the observance of the Laws of Moses (cf. 2 Kgs 23:25)242. Thus, in 1 Thess 1:9c Paul preaches (or introduces) to the Thessalonians the religion of the Jews which is characterized by monotheism; and it is from the scripture of this religion that Paul draws his sources. Though here he does not quote directly from the Hebrew Bible, his usage of the verb “to turn” (ἐπιστρέφειν) in relation to “God” (ὁ θεός) and “the idols” (τὰ εἴδωλα) in the context of worship or service makes it evident that in his use of ἐπιστρέφειν, Paul plays on the usage of the equivalent verb ‫ ׁשּוב‬and the other verbs ‫ּפָ נָה‬, etc. in the Jewish scripture. It is less likely that Paul would use ἐπιστρέφειν the way it was understood in Greek philosophy to preach about the Thessalonians’ “conversion” from polytheism to monotheism. There are also passages from Joseph and Aseneth (Jos.Asen.) which support a possible influence of Hellenistic Judaism on Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians. Jos.Asen. is a work associated with Hellenistic Judaism and a passage from this story speaks about the Gentile Aseneth who is in a reflective mood to turn to the Jewish God. In her soliloquy, Aseneth says in Jos.Asen. 11:10-​11: “But I have heard many saying that the God of the Hebrews is a true God, and a living God, and a merciful God, and compassionate and long-​suffering and pitiful and gentle, and does not count the sin of a humble person, nor expose the lawless deeds of an afflicted person at the time of his affliction. /​Therefore I will take courage too and turn to him and take refuge with him and confess all my sins to him, and pour out my supplication before him”243 (10. Ἀλλ᾽ ἀκήκοα πολλῶν λεγόντων ὅτι ὁ θεὸς τῶν Ἑβραίων

2 41 See also 1 Kgs 7:3-​4. 242 Confer Dt 6:4: “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one” (‫ֹלה֖ינּו יְ הוָ ֥ה אֶ ָ ֽחד‬ ֵ ֱ‫)ׁש ַ ֖מע יִ ְׂש ָר ֵ ֑אל יְ הוָ ֥ה א‬. ְ In Exod 20:2-​5, the Lord spoke to Moses: “2. I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery. 3. You shall have no other gods before me. 4. You shall not make for yourselves an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 5a. You shall not bow down to them or worship them” (NRSV). And the reason for this command of God is found in Exod 20:5b: ‫ֹלהיָך֙ ֵ ֣אל קַ ֔ ָּנא‬ ֶ ֨ ֱ‫“( ִ ּ֣כי ָ ֽאנֹ ִ֞כי יְ הוָ ֤ה א‬For I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God”). Confer also Dt 5:6-​9. 243 Cf. C. Burchard, “Joseph and Aseneth”, in: OTP 2 (1985), p. 218.

74

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10 θεὸς ἀληθινός ἐστι καὶ θεὸς ζῶν καὶ θεὸς ἐλεήμων καὶ οἰκτίρμων καὶ μακρόθυμος καὶ πολυέλεος καὶ μὴ λογιζόμενος ἁμαρτίαν ἀνθρώπου ταπεινοῦ καὶ μὴ ἐλέγχων ἀνομίας ἀνθρώπου τεθλιμμένου ἐν καιρῷ θλίψεως «αὐτοῦ». 11. Ὄθεν τολμήσω κἀγὼ καὶ ἐπιστρέψω πρὸς αὐτὸν καὶ καταφεύξομαι ἐπ᾽ αὐτὸν καὶ ἐξομολογήσομαι αὐτῷ πάσας ἁμαρτίας μου καὶ ἐκχεῶ τὴν δέησίν μου ἐνώπιον αὐτοῦ)244.

The reflection of Aseneth in this passage is an act of conversion245. The point to emphasize here is that in her conversion, Aseneth turns away from idols to worship and serve the true and living God of the Jews and take refuge in him. Her main sin against God for which she needs to confess to God and ask God for forgiveness is that instead of worshipping God, she served idols. In Jos.Asen 11:7-​8 she says: “7. And the Lord the God of the powerful Joseph, the Most High, hates all those who worship idols, because he is a jealous and terrible god (cf. Exod 20:5f; Dt 5:9f; 4:23-​ 24) toward all those who worship strange gods. 8. Therefore he has come to hate me, too, because I worshipped dead and dumb idols, and blessed them”246 (7. Καὶ κύριος ὁ θεὸς τοῦ δυνατοῦ Ἰωσὴφ «ὁ ὕψιστος» μισεῖ πάντας τοὺς σεβομένους τὰ εἴδωλα, διότι θεὸς ζηλωτής ἐστι φοβερὸς ἐπὶ πάντας τοὺς σεβομένους ἀλλοτρίους. 8. διὰ τοῦτο κἀμὲ μεμίσηκε, διότι κἀγὼ ἐσεβάσθην εἴδωλα νεκρὰ καὶ κωφὰ καὶ εὐλόγησα αὐτὰ)247.

Aseneth sins through ignorance (ἀγνόημα) for in Jos.Asen 12:(6) she declares categorically: “I have sinned, Lord, before you I have sinned much in ignorance, and have worshipped dead and dumb idols. And now I am not worthy to open my mouth to you, Lord”248 (ἥμαρτον, κύριε, ἐνώπιόν σου πολλὰ ἥμαρτον ἐν ἀγνοίᾳ καὶ ἐσεβάσθην εἴδωλα νεκρὰ καὶ κωφά. καὶ νῦν οὐκ εἰμὶ ἀξία ἀνοῖξαι στόμα μου πρὸς σέ, κύριε)249.

The predominant verb in Jos.Asen 11:7-​8 and 12:(6) is σεβάζειν or σέβειν which translates as “to fear; to revere; to worship250; to show reverence to251”. While in 244 Quoted from: Eckart Reinmuth, et al. (Hrsg.), Joseph und Aseneth (SAPARE 15), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009, p. 76. 245 Confer, for instance, Johannes Woyke, Götter, ‚Götzen‘, Götterbilder: Aspekte einer paulinischen Theologie der Religionen‘ (BZNW 132), Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2005, p. 113, footnotes 40, 41. 246 Confer C. Burchard, “Joseph and Aseneth”, in: OTP 2 (1985), p. 218. 247 Cf. Eckart Reinmuth, et al. (Hrsg.), Joseph und Aseneth, p. 76. 248 Cf. OTP 2 (1985), p. 221. 249 Cf. Eckart Reinmuth, et al. (Hrsg.), Joseph und Aseneth, p. 80. Here there is variation in the verse so that in the Greek version the quotation is found in Jos.Asen 12:5. Cf. also Jos.Asen 13:11. 250 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 572. 251 Cf. BDAG, P. 917.

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75

the Greco-​Roman world the worship or reverence to deities such as Dionysus (2 Macc 6:7; 14:33; 3 Macc 2:29), Artemis (Acts 19:27) and others were tolerated, in Judaism and in Christianity every worship, reverence and allegiance had to be directed to the one God (Isa 29:13; Mt 15:8-​9; Mk 7:6-​7). The term “God fearers” or “worshippers of God” (σεβόμενοι τὸν θεόν252) in Acts 16:14; 18:7; 18:13253 developed from this verb (σεβάζειν or σέβειν) and it was applied to “former polytheists who accepted the ethical monotheism of Israel and attended the synagogue, but who did not obligate themselves to keep the whole Mosaic Law”254. Thus, “the God fearer or worshipper” (ὁ σεβόμενος [τὸν θεόν]) was the “Gentile who accepted the one God of Judaism and attended the synagogue but did not follow all the details of the Jewish way of life”255. The Jewish historian Josephus draws parallels between the Jews and the “God fearers” or “worshippers of God” in his Jewish Antiquities 14.110 by writing: “But no one need wonder that there was so much wealth in our temple, for all the Jews throughout the habitable world, and those who worshipped God, even those from Asia and Europe, had been contributing to it for a long time” (Θαυμάσῃ δὲ μηδεὶς εἰ τοσοῦτος ἦν πλοῦτος ἐν τῷ ἡμετέρῳ ἱερῷ, πάντων τῶν κατὰ τὴν οἰκουμένην Ἰουδαίων καὶ σεβομένων τὸν θεόν, ἔτι δὲ καὶ τῶν ἀπὸ τῆς Ἀσίας καὶ τῆς Εὐρώπης εἰς αὐτὸ συμφερόντων ἐκ πολλῶν πάνυ χρόνων)256.

Aseneth converted from paganism to Judaism. Paul does not address specifically Gentiles who converted from idol worship to Judaism but to the community of believers (or to the Christian community). The Christian community in Thessalonica began among “those who fear God”257 and the picture in 1 Thess 1:9-​ 10 suggests a predominance of Gentile converts in the community of believers in Thessalonica258. Some exegetes like Ascough opine that the piece of evidence in

252 Confer also “the fearers of God” (οἱ φοβούμενοι τὸν κύριον) in Ps 113:19; 117:4; 134:20 (LXX) and the Hebrew equivalent of the term: “Fearers of the Lord” (‫ )יִ ְר ֵ ֣אי יְ הוָ ֑ה‬in Ps 115:13; 118:4; 135:20 in the MT. 253 See also Acts 17:4, 17. 254 Cf. BDAG, p. 918. 255 Cf. Barclay M. Newman (editor), A Concise Greek-​English Dictionary of the New Testament (Revised Edition), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2010, p. 163. 256 Cf. Josephus VII, in LCL 365. London: Havard University Press, 1933, pp. 504–​505. 257 According to Acts 17:4, Paul could convert a great number of Greeks who were worshippers (of God) in the synagogue of the Jews in Thessalonica (Acts 17:1) into the community of believers in Christ. 258 Cf. Gordon D. Fee, The First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 6–​7; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 53–​54.

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1 Thess 1:9-​10 shows that “prior to their conversion the Thessalonians had been involved in ‘worshipping idols’ ” and the content of the passage is “an unlikely designation for Jews or God-​fearers”259. It is worthy of notice here that there was a synagogue of the Jews in Thessalonica as the Paul of Luke and his co-​ missionaries came into the city (Acts 17:1); and the report in Acts 17:4 suggests that apart from the gentiles, there were also Jews among the Christ’s faithful in the community of believers in Thessalonica. The numerical strength of the Jews among the believers in Christ in Thessalonica cannot be measured with precision; but it is likely that there were not many Jews among the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica. Ascough, for instance, shares opinion with other exegetes that if there were Jews and God-​fearers among the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica, their number was very few260. This being the case, it can be established here that when Paul talks about conversion from polytheism into monotheism in 1 Thess 1:9, he addresses especially the situation of the Gentile-​converts into the community of believers in Thessalonica. It must be stressed here that in Pauline theology –​just as in the theology of Judaism –​idolatry (εἰδωλολατρία) is a negative practice and it is a sin against God (Rom 1:25; 1 Cor 10:14; Gal 4:9261; and in the Hebrew Bible see Exod 20:3-​ 5; Lv 19:4; Dt 4:15-​19262). 1 Thess 1:9c-​d must be understood in the context of Jewish monotheism in which the commandments of the one God forbid idolatry (εἰδωλολατρία) which is a characteristic feature of polytheism in the Greco-​ Roman world (1 Cor 12:2; Gal 4:8)263. In 1 Thess 1:9c-​d, Paul neither accuses nor rebukes the Thessalonians for idolatry (εἰδωλολατρία). He rather praises them not only for their rejection of idols but also for their conversion and their resolution to worship and serve the one living and true God. The verb ἐπιστρέφειν in 1 Thess 1:9c actually speaks about “a movement from and a movement towards”264,

259 Richard S. Ascough, “The Thessalonian Christian Community as a Professional Voluntary Association”, in: JBL 119 (2000) 311–​328, here p. 312. 260 Confer op. cit., page 312 and footnote 6. 261 See also 1 Cor 10:19-​20. 262 The references include Exod 23:33; Lv 26:1; Dt 4:23-​24; 6:13-​15; 17:2-​3; 27:15; 31:18; 1 Kgs 11:5-​6; Job 31:26-​28; Wis 14:12; Isa 44:6-​20; Jer 13:25; 16:19. 263 Under εἴδωλον in BDAG, the editor correctly remarks that: “since Mosaic Law forbade material representation of God, all references in our literature to a divine image, usually translated ‘idol’, relate to polytheistic Greco-​Roman depiction”. Cf. BDAG, pp. 280–​281 § 1. 264 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, in: NJBC (1990), p. 775 § 46:16.

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77

i.e. the Thessalonians’ movement “from idols” (ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων) and their movement “towards God” (πρὸς τὸν θεὸν) –​a movement which focuses on the belief in one God (monotheism)265. The verb ἐπιστρέφειν, therefore, emphasizes more on the change of the object of worship (σέβασμα) than a change of thought (μετάνοια).

1.1. (iii). 1 Thess 1:9d: “to serve the living and true God” (δουλεύειν θεῷ ζῶντι καὶ ἀληθινῷ). The verb “to serve” (δουλεύειν) in 1 Thess 1:9d is in the infinitive active and it complements the verb ἐπεστρέψατε in 1 Thess 1:9c to express the goal of “conversion”266. Luckensmeyer remarks that pertaining to the use of the verb ἐπιστρέφειν with the combination of the prepositional phrases πρὸς τὸν θεὸν and ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων in 1 Thess 1:9c, Paul stresses on “the turning experience of the Thessalonians by polarizing the two choices: God and idols”267. It becomes evident in 1 Thess 1:9d that the Thessalonians have chosen to serve God, not idols. Aside from δουλεύειν, Paul also uses verbs such as σεβάζειν or σέβειν, and λατρεύειν268 or προσκυνεῖν269 to describe the worship, reverence and service to God or deities. In Rom 1:25, for instance, he uses σεβάζειν and λατρεύειν to describe the reverence and worship of the creature (idols) instead of the creator (God). In the NT, λατρεύειν means “to render service or homage” or “to worship” (Acts 7:7; Heb 9:14; Rev 22:3)270 and in the strict sense the verb means “to perform sacred services”, “to offer gifts”, and “to worship God in the observance

2 65 266 267 268 269

Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 775 § 46:16 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 120. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 84–​85. Cf. Rom 1:9; Phil 3:3. See also 2 Tim 1:3. In the Pauline corpus προσκυνεῖν is a hapax legomenon and it appears only in 1 Cor 14:25b: “And so, falling on his face he will worship God, declaring: ‘God is really among you’ ” (καὶ οὕτως πεσὼν ἐπὶ πρόσωπον προσκυνήσει τῷ θεῷ ἀπαγγέλλων ὅτι ὄντως ὁ θεὸς ἐν ὑμῖν ἐστιν). The saying in this verse is a prophecy from the OT (Isa 45:14 LXX). Elsewhere in the LXX, προσκυνεῖν is also used in a religious context to mean “to bow down in reverence” or “to worship” God (Gen 24:48; Exod 4:31; Dt 26:10; 2 Kgs 17:36; Ps 94:6; 98:5, 9 LXX) or divine beings, images or idols (Ps 96:7 LXX); and the verb translates the Biblical Hebrew verb ‫( חָ וַה‬in the modification hishtaphal) or ‫( ׁשָ חַ ה‬in the modification hitpalel). Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 8 (2011), pp. 316–​317. In the NT, the risen Christ is especially the object of worship (Mt 28:9, 17; Lk 24:52). Cf. BDAG, p. 883. 270 See also Acts 7:42; 24:14.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10

of the rites instituted for his worship (Heb 9:9; 10:2)”271. The term λατρεύειν can thus be rendered as “to serve” but only in the sense of “the carrying out of religious duties, especially, of a cultic nature, by human beings”272. In 1 Thess 1:9d, Paul uses neither σεβάζειν/​σέβειν nor λατρεύειν nor προσκυνεῖν but δουλεύειν to emphasize on what the service to God really entails. The verb δουλεύειν means “to be a slave” or “to serve (as a slave)”. In the LXX it translates the Hebrew verb ‫עָ בַ ד‬273. The verb implies “to be owned by another” and “to act or conduct oneself as one in total service to another”274. The substantive of the verb, i.e. δουλεία means “slavery”, “bondage” or the “condition of a slave or servant” (δοῦλος/​δούλη)275. In the NT, the slave can either be in service to humans (Lk 15:29; Gal 5:13; Eph 6:5)276; or to transcendent beings –​especially in expressions relating to God or Jesus Christ as recipients of undivided allegiance because a slave can take orders from only one master (Mt 6:24//​Lk 16:13; Eph 6:7); and in this way God is thought of as κύριος (“Lord”) and a human being as δοῦλος: “slave” or “servant” (Rom 14:18; 16:18; Col 3:24)277 –​ or to things: e.g. being in slavery to sin (Rom 6:6, 16), to the law of God or of sin (Rom 7:25). Someone can also be a slave to serve in the cause of the gospel (Phil 2:22)278. Thus the act of serving (as a slave) entails more commitment than to worship. In the Pauline corpus, the term slavery is normally used only of those who are slaves of human masters and in reference to Paul’s own service as an apostle whereby he refers mostly to himself as a slave of Christ (Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10; Phil 1:1)279. With this terminology slave of Christ, Paul plays on the Jewish 271 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, pp. 372–​373. 272 BDAG, p. 587. 273 The verb ‫ עָ בַ ד‬in the modification qal in the Hebrew Bible can mean either “to serve, i.e. be subservient to, or be subject to a nation or a king” (Jer 25:11; 1 Sam 4:9//​2 Chr 10:4; or “to serve (in a religious sense), i.e. “to worship”; and this service can be to the Lord (Dt 6:13; Ps 2:11 MT); to other gods and their images (Exod 23:33; Dt 4:28; Jdg 2:13-​14) or to heavenly bodies (Dt 4:19; 17:3; Job 31:26-​28). Cf. David J. A. Clines (editor), The Concise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2009, pp. 305–​306. 274 Cf. BDAG, p. 259. 275 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 157. 276 See also 1 Tim 6:1. 277 See also Eph 6:6-​7. 278 Cf. BDAG, p. 259. 279 See also Tit 1:1.

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

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understanding of a slave (in the LXX: δοῦλος) which is used not only to denote slaves of human masters, but also to describe kings and prophets as servants of the Lord. Consequently, though Paul speaks of himself as the slave of his converts (2 Cor 4:5) and of those to whom he preaches the gospel (1 Cor 9:19), he considers them not as his masters because he acknowledges only one master, Christ, and he serves others for Christ’s sake (2 Cor 4:5)280. For Paul, the one who is truly free is the person who is a slave of Christ because paradoxically the person who is enslaved to Christ is free from sin and death and free to do the will of God and live. Thus the new slave-​master relationship with Christ not only results in “freedom from sin –​that destructive tyrant that leads its captives to destruction –​but it also results in obedience to Christ, who leads his ‘slaves’ into holiness, goodness and eternal life”281. The verb δουλεύειν in 1 Thess 1:9d prepares for 1 Thess 1:10 where attention shifts from God to Jesus Christ: the one who delivers us (the faithful in Christ) from the coming wrath of God (1 Thess 1:10c; also 5:9)282. In Judaism, among those who suffer the wrath of God are those who serve other gods, images or idols (Exod 32:8-​10; Jdg 2:13-​14; 1 Kgs 11:9-​10). Once the Thessalonians have made the radical decision to turn to God and serve him, they will not face the anger or wrath of God but they will be saved through his son Jesus Christ. Here in 1 Thess 1:9d, Paul describes the nature of the God the Thessalonians have turned to and have decided to serve as a “living and true God” (θεὸς ζῶν καὶ ἀληθινός). Apart from this text, there is no such description of God anywhere in the Pauline corpus. Paul owes his qualification of God as a “living God” (θεὸς ζῶν) to the Hellenistic Jewish propaganda in which the epithet θεὸς ζῶν was used as a polemic to differentiate God from idols. In a related usage, this epithet describes God as the creator so that in this Jewish propaganda it is to the living God, the creator of heaven and earth, that the Gentile converts turn in order to serve him283. There are passages and stories from Jewish literature 280 Cf. Gerald F. Hawthorne, et al (editors), Dictionary of Paul and his Letters, Leicester: Inter Varsity Press, 1993, pp. 869–​870. 281 Cf. Gerald F. Hawthorne, et al (editors), op. cit., page 882. 282 It must be stressed here that in 1 Thess 1:9c the Thessalonians turned to God, not to Jesus Christ. However, in 1 Thess 1:10c Jesus Christ is described as the deliverer, not God. Some scholars are of the opinion that the “strong polarity here emphasizes the distinction between the respective roles ascribed to God and Jesus”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 85, footnote 60; Jürgen Becker, „Die Erwählung der Völker durch das Evangelium. Theologiegeschichtliche Erwägungen zum 1 Thess“, In: FS Greeven (1986), pp. 95–​96. 283 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 120.

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which emphasize that the Jewish God is the “living God”. In the story of Bel and Dragon, for instance, Daniel answers King Cyrus the Persian who asks him why he (Daniel) does not worship the Babylonian god Bel and says: “Because I worship not idols made with hands, but only the living God who made heaven and earth and has dominion over every person” (Ὅτι οῦ σέβομαι εἴδωλα χειροποίητα, ἀλλὰ τὸν ζῶντα θεὸν τὸν κτίσαντα τὸν οὐρανὸν καὶ τὴν γῆν καὶ ἔχοντα πάσης σαρκὸς κυριείαν [Bel and Dragon 5, Theodotion]).

In this way Daniel describes to the king the quality or nature of the God he (Daniel) worships or serves284. The living God is the Almighty (3 Macc 6:28) and the creator of heaven and earth and everything that exists (Sir 18:1). It is, therefore, to this living God that the Gentile converts turn (Jos.Asen 11:10-​11) in order to revere and serve him because this God alone can save (Dn 6:27-​28 [LXX])285. In the LXX version of Dn 6:27-​28, King Darius writes to all nations and people of every language on earth and decrees that: “All people who are in my kingdom are obliged to revere and fear the God of Daniel: [For] he is a living God and he endures forever through all generations (Ps 101:13; 134:13 [LXX]). I Darius, I will worship and serve him all the days of my life. For the handmade idols cannot save” (Πάντες οἱ ἄνθρωποι οἱ ὄντες ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ μου ἔστωσαν προσκυνοῦντες καὶ λατρεύοντες τῷ θεῷ τοῦ Δανιηλ, αὐτὸς γάρ ἐστι θεὸς μένων καὶ ζῶν εἰς γενεὰς γενεῶν ἕως τοῦ αἰῶνος. ἐγὼ Δαρεῖος ἔσομαι αὐτῷ προσκυνῶν καὶ δουλεύων πάσας τὰς ἡμέρας μου, τὰ γὰρ εἴδωλα τὰ χειροποίητα οὐ δύνανται σῶσαι)286.

Through the prophets in the Hebrew Bible, God, the Lord himself exhorts the people of Israel and all the earth to turn to him, because he the Lord can redeem them (Isa 45:21-​22287)288. Paul’s description of God as “true God” (θεὸς ἀληθινός) also traces its source to Judaism. The Hebrew Bible and the Deuterocanonical Books of the OT describe

284 Confer also Bel and Dragon 4 (Theodotion) where the premise is set that the king worshipped and adored the idol Bel “but Daniel worshipped his own God” (Δανιηλ δὲ προσεκύνει τῷ θεῷ αὐτοῦ). 285 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 120. 286 Quoted from: Alfred Rahlfs /​Robert Hanhart (editors), Septuaginta: Id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes, Duo volumina in uno (2nd edition), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2006, p. 911. 287 Isa 45:22 in the LXX reads: “Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth! For I am [the one] God, and there is no other [god]” (ἐπιστράφητε πρός με καὶ σωθήσεσθε, οἱ ἀπ᾽ ἐσχάτου τῆς γῆς· ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ θεός, καὶ οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλος). 288 Confer also Isa 41:14; 43:11; 44:22; 45:20.

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81

the one God as true God (Dt 4:28; Ps 115:2-​7//​135:15-​18 MT)289 and in these passages the majesty of the one living true God of the Hebrews is contrasted with the gods of the nations who are described as dead and dumb. The psalmist, therefore, provides a litany in which the various classes of the people –​ “house of Israel” (οἶκος Ισραηλ), “house of Aaron” (οἶκος Ααρων), and “the God-​fearers” (οἱ φοβούμενοι τὸν κύριον) –​ express their trust or confidence in the Lord (Ps 135:19:20//​ 134:19-​20 LXX). In 1 Thess 1:9, Paul seems to allude to the situation of the Israelites in 2 Chr 15:3-​4290 by emphasizing that the God of Israel is the true or genuine God in contrast to the gods of the nations; and it is in this direction that Paul praises the Thessalonians for the decision they have taken to abandon the (fake) gods in order to turn to the true and genuine God of Israel. The expression “true God”: θεὸς ἀληθινός (1 Thess 1:9d) is, therefore, in this sense equivalent to the term ‫ֹלה֣י אֱ ֗ ֶמת‬ ֵ ֱ‫א‬: true God (2 Chr 15:3 MT) which refers to ‫ֹלה֣י יִ ְׂש ָר ֵ ֑אל‬ ֵ ֱ‫ ​– יְ הוָ ֖ה א‬the Lord, the God of Israel (2 Chr 15:4 MT). The attribute “true” (ἀληθινός) is here explained as “real and true, genuine or authentic” in contrast to what is “fictitious, counterfeit, imaginary, simulated or pretended” and it thus contrasts realities with their semblances291. Paul’s usage of ἀληθινός as an attribute describing God can best be understood from the nuance of the biblical Hebrew verb ‫ אָ מַ ן‬which in the verb modification nifa‘l can mean “to be trustworthy, faithful and reliable” (Isa 49:7292). The participle of the verb can also be used as an adjective to describe God as “trustworthy, faithful and reliable” (Dt

2 89 See also Hab 2:18-​19; 3 Macc 4:16. 290 The passage in the LXX (2 Par 15:3-​4) reads: “3. For a long time Israel was without the true God, and without a teaching priest, and without law; 4. But when in their distress they turned to the Lord, the God of Israel, and sought him, he was found by them” (3. καὶ ἡμέραι πολλαὶ τῷ Ισραηλ ἐν οὐ θεῷ ἀληθινῷ καὶ οὐχ ἱερέως ὑποδεικνύοντος καὶ ἐν οὐ νόμῳ. 4. καὶ ἐπιστρέψει ἐπὶ κύριον θεὸν Ισραηλ, καὶ εὑρεθήσεται αὐτοῖς). Cf. also Dt 4:27-​31; 31:8. 291 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 27 §§ 1, 1a, 1b; BDAG, p. 43 § 3. 292 The passage reads: “Thus says the Lord, the Redeemer of Israel and his Holy One, to one deeply despised, abhorred by the nations, the servant of Rulers: ‘Kings shall see and arise; princes, and they shall prostrate themselves; because of the Lord, who is faithful, the Holy One of Israel, who has chosen you’ ” [NRSV] (Οὕτως λέγει κύριος ὁ ῥυσάμενός σε ὁ θεὸς Ισραηλ Ἁγιάσατε τὸν φαυλίζοντα τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ τὸν βδελυσσόμενον ὑπὸ τῶν ἐθνῶν τῶν δούλων τῶν ἀρχόντων· βασιλεῖς ὄψονται αὐτὸν καὶ ἀναστήσονται, ἄρχοντες καὶ προσκυνήσουσιν αὐτῷ ἕνεκεν κυρίου· ὅτι πιστός ἐστιν ὁ ἅγιος Ισραηλ, καὶ ἐξελεξάμην σε [LXX]).

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7:9293)294. Collins stresses that “ ‘true’ (ἀληθινός) suggests God’s fidelity (1 Thess 5:24295), especially his covenant fidelity”296. In the passages cited (Isa 49:7; Dt 7:9) the forms of ‫ אָ מַ ן‬are rendered in the LXX not with ἀληθινός, but with πιστός (“faithful, trustworthy, dependable”). In the Pauline corpus too all citations from the Hebrew Bible which contains ‫ אָ מַ ן‬and its forms297 are rendered as πιστεύειν, πίστις or πιστός just as in the LXX. Thus the translation of ‫ אָ מַ ן‬and its cognates in the LXX is what Paul maintains or uses in his quotations. Nonetheless, the forms of ‫ אָ מַ ן‬in the MT are sometimes rendered in the LXX as ἀληθινός, ἀλήθεια, etc.298 Paul does not use ἀληθινός the same way he uses πιστός in other passages in his letters. The adjective ἀληθινός is a hapax legomenon in the Pauline corpus and here in 1 Thess 1:9d where the adjective appears, though Paul maintains the nuance of the nature of God as a faithful, trustworthy and reliable God, he uses ἀληθινός uniquely as an attribute to describe the God of Israel as a true, real, authentic and genuine God in contrast to the gods of the nations which the Thessalonians supposedly served before. These gods are conversely described as ‫הֶ בֶ ל‬299. In Jer 10:1-​16 (MT), for instance, the prophet Jeremiah distinguishes the Lord, the God of Israel, from the idols and the gods of the nations; and within 293 The passage reads: “Know, therefore, that the Lord your God, the faithful God who keeps covenant and steadfast love with those who love him and keep his commandments, to a thousand generations” [NRSV] (καὶ γνώσῃ ὅτι κύριος ὁ θεός σου, οὗτος θεός, θεὸς πιστός, ὁ φυλάσσων διαθήκην καὶ ἔλεος τοῖς ἀγαπῶσιν αὐτὸν καὶ τοῖς φυλάσσουσιν τὰς ἐντολὰς αὐτοῦ εἰς χιλίας γενεάς [LXX]). 294 Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 1 (1993), pp. 314 § 1; 315 § 6. 295 Cf. also 1 Cor 1:9. 296 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 775 § 46:16. 297 Cf. Gen 15:6 in Rom 4:3 and Gal 3:6; Isa 28:16 in Rom 9:33; 10:11; and Hab 2:4b in Rom 1:17 and Gal 3:11. 298 A substantive of ‫ אָ מַ ן‬is ‫“( אֱ מֶ ת‬truth”) and ‫ אֱ מֶ ת־יְ הוָ ֥ה‬in Ps 117:2 (MT) is rendered in the LXX as ἡ ἀλήθεια τοῦ κυρίου (Ps 116:2 LXX) and can be translated as “the fidelity or faithfulness of the Lord”. In Isa 65:16 (MT) the expression ‫ֹלה֣י אָ ֔ ֵמן‬ ֵ ֱ‫ א‬is rendered in the LXX in the accusative as τὸν θεὸν τὸν ἀληθινόν (Isa 65:16 LXX) and it can be translated as “the God of truth or faithfulness” but more precisely as “by the true God or by the God of truth/​faithfulness”. Thus ‫ אמן‬and its forms in the Hebrew Bible are rendered in the LXX either as ἀληθινός, ἀλήθεια or πιστεύειν, πίστις, πιστός. 299 ‫ הֶ בֶ ל‬is equivalent to the biblical Greek word μάταιος and it is described as something devoid of force, truth, success and result (Jas 1:26); or a vain thing, that is useless and to no purpose (1 Cor 15:17). It also describes something given to vain things and leading away from salvation (1 Pt 1:18). In the LXX, the term τὰ μάταια refers to vain things, idols (εἴδωλα) or Gentile deities and their worship (Jer 2:5; 10:3; 4 Kgs 17:15 LXX). The worship of “idols” or “vain things” provokes the Lord, the God of Israel

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

83

this context the prophet declares emphatically without mincing words in Jer 10:10: ‫ּומלְֶך עֹ ולָ ֑ם‬ ֣ ֶ ‫ֹלהים חַ ִּי֖ים‬ ֥ ִ ֱ‫ֹלהים֙ אֱ ֔ ֶמת ֽהּוא־א‬ ִ ֱ‫“( ַוֽיהוָ ֤ה א‬But the Lord is the true God; he is the living God and the eternal King”)300. In 1 Thess 1:9d, Paul does not quote directly from Jer 10:10 (MT), but he plays on the verse (Jer 10:10 MT)301 by chan�� ging the order of arrangement in the verse, i.e. instead of “true, and living God” in Jer 10:10 (MT), Paul writes “living, and true God” in 1 Thess 1:9d. In this pericope (Jer 10:1-​16, especially verses 11-​12), the creative power of the Lord is seen as a salvific power; and the attributes of God as “true and living God” (Jer 10:10 MT) distinguish God from the vain idols of the non-​Jews (τὰ νόμιμα τῶν ἐθνῶν μάταια, Jer 10:3 LXX) which cannot save (Isa 45:18-​20)302. In Jer 10:11 (a text rather written in Aramaic in a Hebrew context), there is a strict denunciation of idolatry because the gods (of the nations) will perish303. It is the true and living God of the Jews that all people should fear and serve in sincerity (Jos 24:14304). (Jer 8:19; Dt 32:21). Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, pp. 392–​393. 300 This verse (Jer 10:10) appears only in the MT but not in the LXX. Jerome also includes the verse in the Vulgate (his translation of the Old Testament and the New Testament into Latin); and in the Vulgate the verse reads: Dominus autem Deus verus est ipse Deus vivens et rex sempiternus (“But the Lord is the true God; he is the living God and the eternal King”). Cf. Bonifatius Fischer/​Robert Weber (editors), Biblia Sacra: Iuxtam Vulgatam Versionem (3rd Edition), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1983, p. 1181. 301 Woyke, for instance, asserts that the characterization of God as “true” and “living” must be a reference from Jos.Asen 11:10 and Jer 10:10. He writes thus: Für die Charakterisierung Gottes als „wahr“ und „lebendig“ muss neben Jos.As 11,10 auf jeden Fall auf Jer 10,10 verwiesen werden…. Cf. Johannes Woyke, Götter, ‚Götzen‘, Götterbilder, p. 116. 302 Woyke explains thus: Die Schöpfermacht JHWHs wird hier (Jer 10,5.9-​12) also als Rettermacht gesehen und mit dem Begriff des „wahren und lebendigen Gottes“ gegen die ohnmächtigen Götzen (‫הֶ בֶ ל‬, μάταια) gewendet, die nicht retten können [cf. Isa 45:18-​20]. Johannes Woyke, Götter, ‚Götzen‘, Götterbilder, p. 116. 303 Thus: ‫ן־ּתחֹות ְׁשמַ ּיָא אֵ ּלֶה‬ ְ ‫ּומ‬ ִ ‫י־ׁשמַ ּיָא וְ אַ ְרקָ א לָא עֲבַ דּו יֵאבַ דּו מֵ אַ ְרעָ א‬ ְ ‫אמרּון לְ הֹום אֱ לָהַ ּיָא ִּד‬ ְ ֵ‫“( ּכִ ְדנָה ּת‬Thus shall you say to them: The gods who did not make the heavens and the earth shall perish from the earth and from under the heavens” [NRSV]). 304 The passage reads: “Now, therefore, fear the Lord, and serve him in sincerity and in faithfulness; put away the gods which your fathers served beyond the river, and in Egypt, and serve the Lord” [RSV] (καὶ νῦν φοβήθητε κύριον καὶ λατρεύσατε αὐτῷ ἐν εὐθύτητι καὶ ἐν δικαιοσύνῃ καὶ περιέλεσθε τοὺς θεοὺς τοὺς ἀλλοτρίους, οἷς ἐλάτρευσαν οἱ πατέρες ὑμῶν ἐν τῷ πέραν τοῦ ποταμοῦ καὶ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ, καὶ λατρεύετε κυρίῳ” [LXX]).

84

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10

The polemic between the living and true God and the vain idols are also a subject of concern in the Sibylline Oracles (Book 3.8-​45) and the Sibylline Fragment 3.1-​45305. In these Oracles, which are dominated by eschatological undertones, the non-​Jews are exhorted to reject the gods and idols and to worship the one true and eternal God who is the creator (Sib.Orcs 3.20-​28; Sib.Fragm 3.3-​7, 16-​ 17), omniscient (Sib.Fragm 3.15-​16) and the source of life (Sib.Fragm 3.8-​10, 34). It is expressed in an antithetical parallelism that those who revere idols and refuse to know God (Sib.Fragm 3.41-​42) wander in vain (Sib.Orcs 3.29-​33; Sib. Fragm 3.27-​33), they incur the wrath and judgement of God (Sib.Orcs 3.34-​ 35; Sib.Fragm 3.18-​20) and eternal fire comes upon them (Sib.Fragm 3.43-​45) because the worshippers of idols have no knowledge of God, they are impious and their deeds are immoral (Sib.Orcs 3.36-​45); but those who honour the true and eternal God will inherit everlasting life (Sib.Fragm 3.46-​49) because a true worship of God is associated with the knowledge of God, uprightness and moral life. The believers in Christ in Thessalonica have abandoned the worship of idols and turned to God in order to serve and worship this living and true God. Their decision and willingness to turn to God make it possible for them not only to know God and lead upright life, but also to escape God’s wrath and to have eternal life through the Lord Jesus Christ whom they are waiting to save them from the impending divine wrath (1 Thess 1:10). Paul’s description of God as “living and true God” (θεὸς ζῶν καὶ ἀληθινός) in 1 Thess 1:9 d is to be interpreted from the Jewish viewpoint as it is expressed in the OT, in the story of Joseph and Aseneth, and in the Sibylline Oracles 3, etc., and from the perspective of the eschatological judgement in 1 Thess 1:10306. The living and true God is –​in contrast to the gods and idols of the non-​Jews –​ the only dependable, saving God, who is the mighty creator of all things307. The Thessalonians’ act of turning away from idols to serve the living and true God (like the situation of Aseneth in the story Joseph and Aseneth, etc.), not only seeks to demonstrate the greatness and mightiness of this living and true God and his (eschatological) salvific act in his son Jesus Christ, but also it lays bare the true nature of the idols which are themselves created vain things which cannot play any meaningful role in the creation of things and eschatological salvation308. In 3 05 Cf. J. J. Collins (transl.), “Sibylline Oracles”, in: OTP 1 (1983), pp. 362–​363; 470–​471. 306 Cf. Johannes Woyke, Götter, ‚Götzen‘, Götterbilder, p. 119. 307 So emphasizes Woyke: Der „lebendige und wahre Gott“ ist –​im Gegenüber zu den heidnischen Götter(bilder)n, den εἴδωλα –​der einzig vertrauenswürdige, Heil schaffende und rettende Gott, der allmächtige Schöpfer des Alls. Johannes Woyke, op. cit., p. 120. 308 Cf. Johannes Wolke, op. cit., p. 120.

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

85

contrast to the true God who has revealed himself through Jesus Christ, “the idols” (τὰ εἴδωλα) are but phantoms in the Greco-​Roman sense of the term (1 Jn 5:20-​21)309. Luckensmeyer notices that Paul’s use of εἴδωλον in 1 Corinthians (especially 1 Cor 8 and 10) coincides with 1 Thess 1:9 in the notion of idolatry (εἰδωλολατρία), though in 1 Thess 1:9 there is no reference to demons310. Speaking about (food) offering to idols (εἰδωλόθυτον) in 1 Cor 8, Paul seems to deny the existence of other deities apart from the one God (1 Cor 8:4311). However, in 1 Cor 8:5, he acknowledges the existence of the “so-​called gods” (εἰσὶν λεγόμενοι θεοὶ) in heaven and on earth; and he emphasizes that there are indeed “many gods and many lords” (ὥσπερ εἰσὶν θεοὶ πολλοὶ καὶ κύριοι πολλοί). Luckensmeyer correctly remarks that “when Paul refers to many gods and lords, he is neither denying nor affirming their existence; rather, he is acknowledging other’s belief in and worship of those gods and lords”312. It is, however, evident in 1 Cor 8:6313 that for Paul and, by extension, for the believers in Christ, there is only one God the Father (εἷς θεὸς ὁ πατήρ) and one Lord, Jesus Christ (εἷς κύριος Ἰησοῦς Χριστός). Whereas it is from the Father that all things are and for whom we exist, it is through the Son that all things are and through whom we exist314. It is in the light of this that Paul categorically exhorts the Corinthians in 1 Cor 10:14-​22 to avoid and flee from idolatry (εἰδωλολατρία)315 because paradoxically, the idols which are metonymy for gods cannot represent gods316. Idols are notional, that is to say,

3 09 Cf. BDAG, p. 281. 310 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 85. 311 1 Cor 8:4 reads: “We know that ‘an idol has no real existence’, and that ‘there is no God but one’ ” [NRSV] (οἴδαμεν ὅτι οὐδὲν εἴδωλον ἐν κόσμῳ καὶ ὅτι οὐδεὶς θεὸς (ἕτερος) εἰ μὴ εἷς). Cf. also 1 Cor 10:19; Gal 4:8. 312 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 85. 313 The Greek text reads: ἀλλ᾽ ἡμῖν εἷς θεὸς ὁ πατῆρ ἐξ οὗ τὰ πάντα καὶ ἡμεῖς εἰς αὐτόν, καὶ εἷς κύριος Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς δι᾽ οὗ τὰ πάντα καὶ ἡμεῖς δι᾽ αὐτοῦ. 314 The Catholic Study Bible suggests that “since the Greek contains no verb here [1 Cor 8:6] and the action intended must be inferred from the preposition εἰς, another translation is equally possible: “to whom we return”. Confer the note on 1 Cor 8:6, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible: New American Bible, Including the Revised New Testament, Translated from the Original Languages with Critical Use of All the Ancient Sources, New York. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 262. 315 1 Cor 10:14 reads: “Therefore, my beloved, free from the worship of idols” (Διόπερ, ἀγαπητοί μου, φεύγετε ἀπὸ τῆς εἰδωλολατρίας). 316 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 85, 86.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10

idols have no real existence in the universe (1 Cor 8:4)317. Consequently, Paul concludes this pericope (1 Cor 10:14-​22) with the warning that through idolatry the Corinthians may incur the anger of the Lord318. Unlike in 1 Cor 8 and 10, Paul does not specifically say in 1 Thess 1:9 that the Thessalonians worshipped idols; but it is implied. What stands out clearly is that Paul’s insistence on turning to the one God in 1 Thess 1:9 supports a monotheistic context319 which characterizes Judaism; and so it is best to understand the turning away from idols as a turning from one religious domain (the Greco-​Roman polytheism) to another (the Jewish monotheism)320. Paul, therefore, speaks from the Jewish monotheistic perspective in his distinction made between the one God and the other gods or lords and this is attested to by the profuse references in the Jewish Bible and literature which seek to draw a line between the one God and the other gods by stressing that while the one God is the creator, the other gods are created things321. Moreover, the one God is superior to and greater or mightier than the other gods or lords322. The one God is even worshipped by the other gods and lords323. Thus in 1 Thess 1:9, Paul emphasizes that the other gods or deities are not living (ζῶντες) and genuine or true (ἀληθινοί) gods like the one God of Israel324 who can save. “Conversion to the living and true God has a christological and eschatological implication”325 because God’s salvific act in creation is carried out through his son Jesus Christ (1 Cor 8:6326).

3 17 Cf. BDAG, p. 281. 318 Cf. 1 Cor 10:22a: “Or shall we provoke the Lord to jealous anger?” [NAB] (ἤ παραζηλοῦμεν τὸν κύριον;). In 1 Cor 10:22a, Paul refers to Dt 32:21 where “idols” (εἴδωλα) are identified with “vain things” (τὰ μάταια). Confer also Jer 8:19. 319 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 85, footnote 68. 320 Cf. Earl J. Richard, First and Second Thessalonians (SacPag 11), Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1995, p. 52; David Lukensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 86. 321 1 Chr 16:26; Ps 115:4-​8//​135:15-​18 MT; Isa 43:15; 44:9-​21; Wis 13:10; 14:8. For more references, confer Friedrich Büchsel, “εἴδωλον”, in: ThWNT 2 (1935), p. 377. 322 Confer, for instance, Dt 10:17; 1 Chr 16:25; Ps 135:5 MT. 323 Cf. Neh 9:6. 324 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 86. 325 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 775 § 46:16. 326 The Catholic Study Bible notes that “the earliest reference in the NT to Jesus’ role in creation” is found in this passage (1 Cor 8:6). Confer the note on 1 Cor 8:6, in: Donald Senior, et al (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 262.

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

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1.1. (iv). 1 Thess 1:10a: “And to wait for his son from heaven” (καὶ ἀναμένειν τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν). In 1 Thess 1:10, attention is shifted away from the theological domain in verse 9 where Paul describes God from the viewpoint of Hellenistic Judaism to the christological realm which is introduced in verse 10a by the use of the infinitive verb ἀναμένειν327. Paul speaks here about Jesus Christ; and his formulations are probably based on early Christian christological reflections328. Concerning the shift from the theological to the christological domain, Malherbe remarks that: “Complete certainty about how he [Paul] preached eludes us, but according to 2 Cor 4:1-​ 6 he introduced God as Creator through the preaching of Christ (1 Cor 2:2). In 1 Cor 8:6, which also reflects preaching to Gentiles, Paul speaks of Jesus Christ as God’s agent in creation, but here [1 Thess 1:10a] he speaks of Jesus as God’s son from an eschatological perspective”329.

Paul emphasizes that God is the “Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (2 Cor 1:3; Rom 15:6) and the title “son” (υἱός) is used as a title for the risen Christ (Rom 1:4; also 5:10). The Hebraic notion of “sonship” is at the root of the NT application of the title to Christ330. Fitzmyer explains that “the dominant idea underlying the use of ‘Son of God’ in the Jewish world was that of divine election for a God-​given task and the corresponding obedience to such a vocation”331. He emphasizes that: “When Paul says that Jesus was ‘set apart as a Son of God in power with a spirit of holiness as of the resurrection from the dead’ (Rom 1:4), he [Paul] uses the title in the Hebraic sense [and] it expresses the role of Jesus endowed with a life-​giving spirit for the salvation of human beings (1 Cor 15:45)”332.

327 The verb ἀναμένειν is a hapax legomenon in the NT and it appears only in 1 Thess 1:10a. The verb can mean “to wait for” or “to expect” somebody or something with the added notion of patience and trust (Jdt 8:17; Sir 2:7; Isa 59:11; Jos.Asen 24:9). Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 40; BDAG, p. 68. 328 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 121; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 85, footnote 60; Jürgen Becker, „Die Erwählung der Völker durch das Evangelium…“, pp. 95–​96. Raymond Collins also maintain that 1 Thess 1:10 is a “Christian complement to the traditional categories of Hellenistic Jewish apologetics”. Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 775 § 46:16. 329 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 121. 330 Cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Pauline Theology”, in: NJBC (1990), p. 1393 § 82:50. 331 Cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, op. cit., p. 1393 § 82:50. 332 Cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, op. cit., p. 1393 § 82:50.

88

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10

With the use of the verb ἀναμένειν (“to wait for”) in this schift from the theological to the christological realm in 1 Thess 1:10, Paul especially focuses attention on the eschatological dimension of the salvation effected through God’s son, Jesus Christ. Eschatology is one of the themes that dominate Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians333. Apart from ἀναμένειν (1 Thess 1:10a), Paul normally uses ἀπεκδέχεσθαι (“to await eagerly”) for eschatological waiting334 which concerns basically in the NT the Christian hope with its various objects, e.g., for the final coming of the saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ (Phil 3:20); for the revelation of the sons of God (Rom 8:19, 23; 1 Cor 1:7) and for righteousness (Gal 5:5)335. Sometimes too Paul uses verbs such as ὑπομένειν (“to wait for with persistence”) or its substantive ὑπομονή: “the act or state of patient waiting for someone or something” (Rom 2:7; 8:25) to express Christian eschatological waiting for the fulfillment of God’s salvation, judgement, etc., through the Lord Jesus Christ336. The verbs and words which Paul uses apropos of the believers’ eschatological waiting or expectation have a Semitic character. Malherbe correctly asserts that: “The tradition from which Paul derived the words appears to have been influenced by the LXX, where it is used of waiting with faith and full assurance for God’s righteous judgement, mercy, and salvation (Isa 59:11; Jer 13:16; Jdt 8:17; Sir 2:6-​8)”337.

In the LXX, ἀναμένειν is the Greek rendering of the biblical Hebrew verb ‫קָ וַה‬ which in the verb modifications qal and pi‘el means “ ‘to wait (for)’; ‘to hope (for)’; or ‘to look forward (to)’ in anticipation or expectation”338 (Isa 59:11; Jer 13:16). The verb ‫ קָ וַה‬is also translated into Greek in the LXX as ὑπομένειν339; or περιμένειν340 (Gen 49:18) or μένειν341 (Isa 5:7) and ἐλπίζειν342 (Isa 25:19; 26:8).

3 33 See 1 Thess 1:10; 2:19; 3:13; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11. 334 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 121. 335 Cf. BDAG, p. 100. 336 See also the use of προσδέχεσθαι (“to wait for” or “to look forward to”) in Tit 2:13. 337 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 121. 338 Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 7 (2010), pp. 211–​212 § 1. 339 See 1sa 59:9; Jer 14:19; Job 17:13; Ps 24:5; 26:14; 36:34; 38:8-​9; 129:5-​8 LXX. The manuscript Þ46vid reads ὑπομένειν instead of ἀναμένειν in 1 Thess 1:10a. 340 The verb περιμένειν (“to wait for”) is a hapax legomenon in the NT and it appears only in Acts 1:4. 341 The verb μένειν can be used transitively to mean “to wait for” or “to await” (Acts 20:5, 23). 342 It should be noted here that the synonym of ‫ קָ וַה‬is ‫ יָחַ ל‬which in the verb modification pi‘el means “to wait for” or “to hope in/​for” (Ps 33:22; 71:14) and sometimes these verbs appear together in a passage probably for emphasis and also to explain how the

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The MT speaks about “those who wait for God” (Isa 40:31) or “those who wait for the Lord” (Ps 37:9) and in the LXX they are referred to as οἱ ὑπομένοντες τὸν θεὸν (Isa 40:31 LXX) or οἱ ὑπομένοντες τὸν κύριον343 (Ps 36:9 LXX). Those who wait for God (οἱ ὑπομένοντες τὸν θεόν) never wait and hope in vain344. They wait steadfastly and hopefully for God’s salvation345 or redemption346, for peace (Jer 14:19), for light (Isa 59:9; Jer 13:16), for judgement (Ps 37:34 [36:34 LXX]; Isa 26:8-​9), etc. Not only the Jews, but also the non-​Jews wait hopefully for the salvation of the Lord (Isa 51:5). In the NT, the hope of those who wait for God or the Lord is fulfilled through Jesus Christ and so, for instance, Jesus the son of God (1 Thess 1:10a) is described as the “King of Peace” (Heb 7:2-​3347), the “Light of the World” (Jn 8:12348; 9:5; 12:46)349, the one appointed by God (ὁ ὡρισμένος ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ) to judge “the living and the dead” (Acts 10:42; cf. 17:31)350, and the “Salvation of God” (Lk 2:30-​31351; 3:6; Acts 28:28) or the “Saviour of the World” (Jn 4:42; 1 Jn 4:14). Unlike the case where a person may either in good mood wait and hope for a fortune or in fear wait and hope for a misfortune, in the NT what the faithful wait and hope for is always associated with something good. The hope of the Christ’s faithful is a good hope (2 Thess 2:16) for the reason that though the believers’ hope may be towards something which is not yet visible or something

acts of waiting (for) and hoping (for) are connected (Ps 130:5-​8 MT; Isa 51:5; Lam 3:25-​26). Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 4 (1998), p. 201 § 1. In Job 14:14 ‫ יָחַ ל‬in the MT is rendered in the LXX not as ἐλπίζειν (“to hope for”) but as ὑπομένειν (“to wait for”) and this passage demonstrates how ‫ קָ וַה‬can be used in place of ‫ יָחַ ל‬and vice versa. In Rom 15:4 and in 1 Thess 1:3, Paul connects ὑπομονή with ἐλπίς (“hope”) –​the substantive of ἐλπίζειν –​to emphasize on the ability to steadfastly wait and hope in God or the Lord Jesus Christ even in difficult situations. Confer in addition Rom 8:25. These passages show how Paul plays on the nuances of ‫ קָ וַה‬and its synonym ‫ יָחַ ל‬as they are translated in the LXX. 343 Likewise, there are also those who hope in the Lord (Ps 31:25 MT), i.e. οἱ ἐλπίζοντες ἐπὶ κύριον (Ps 30:25 LXX). 344 See Ps 25:3 (24:3 LXX); 37:9 (36:9 LXX); 69:7 (68:7 LXX); Lam 3:25-​26. 345 See Gen 49:18; Isa 25:9; 59:11; Ps 25:5 (24:5 LXX). 346 See Ps 130:5-​8 (129:5-​8 LXX); 39:8-​9 (38:8-​9 LXX). 347 Cf. Gen 14:17-​20. 348 Cf. Isa 9:1; 49:6; 60:1-​3. 349 Confer also Lk 2:32. 350 Paul emphasizes that God judges (the living and the dead) through Jesus Christ (Rom 2:16; 14:9; 2 Cor 5:10). See also 2 Tim 4:1. 351 Cf. Isa 40:5 LXX; 52:10; Ps 66:3 LXX.

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that is yet to come in the (near) future (Rom 8:24-​25; Col 1:5), this hope is not doubtful or uncertain because it has a steady ground in Jesus Christ who is the hope of believers (Col 1:27; 1 Tim 1:1). It is in Christ that all the promises of God have their Amen and fulfillment (2 Cor 1:20)352. When, for instance, the psalmist exhorts Israel to wait in hope for the Lord, their redeemer (Ps 130:5-​8 MT), this redemption of Israel from all their iniquities was achieved by Christ the divine Redeemer (Lk 2:38)353 but at the same time God himself is the saviour (Lk 1:47; Jude 25). In the NT, salvation is a general term which denotes deliverance of varying kinds: preservation in times of peril; Jesus’ healings; deliverance from sin; and the ultimate deliverance when the saved enter bliss with Christ at the end of the age354. God acted the salvation of the world in Christ and this teaching is summed up by Paul in 2 Cor 5:19. Thus, from one point of view it is obvious that salvation comes with God, the Father355 and from another it was Jesus, the Son who did what was necessary to bring about salvation (Phil 3:20; 2 Tim 1:10; Tit 1:4356)357.

1.1. (v). 1 Thess 1:10b: “Whom he raised from the dead” (ὃν ἤγειρεν ἐκ [τῶν] νεκρῶν). Here in 1 Thess 1:10b, Paul describes Jesus –​whose coming the Thessalonians are waiting and hoping for with full assurance –​as the son of God (1:10a) whom God raised from the dead. In the Pauline corpus, apart from 1 Thess 4:14 –​which emphasizes that “Jesus died and rose [by himself]” –​Paul attributes the efficiency of the resurrection of the Son, Jesus Christ, to God the Father, the author of the salvific plan. Paul maintains, therefore, that “God the Father raised him [Jesus] from the dead […]358 and this act, according to 2 Cor 13:4, is an expression that resurrection to life is effected ‘by the power of God’ (ἐκ δυνάμεως θεοῦ)”359. God’s saving will and power manifest precisely in the crucifixion or death and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ (cf. also 1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14; Rom 8:11). The 352 Cf. Elberfelder Studienbibel mit Sprachschlüssel und Handkonkordanz, hrsg. von Spiros Zodhiates (3. Auflage), Witten: SCM R. Brockhaus, 2012, p. 1934 § 1664. 353 Confer also 2 Pt 1:1, 11; 2:20; 3:2, 18. 354 Cf. Gerald F. Hawthorne, et al. (editors), Dictionary of Paul and his Letters, p. 858. 355 See 1 Tim 1:1; 2:3; Tit 1:3; 2:10; 3:4. 356 See also Tit 2:13; 3:6. 357 Cf. Gerald F. Hawthorne, et al. (editors), Dictionary of Paul and his Letters, p. 858. 358 See the references: Gal 1:1; 1 Thess 1:10b; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:15; 2 Cor 4:14; Rom 4:24; 8:11; 10:9; also Col 2:12, etc. 359 Cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Pauline Theologie”, in: NJBC (1990), pp. 1395–​1396 § 82:59.

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basis of the Christian hope is especially the raising of Jesus Christ from the dead by God (1 Cor 15:19 ff) and in the NT the Christian hope (just as the Christian faith) is eventually directed towards God himself (1 Pt 1:21)360. Christ’s resurrection is attributed to the living God, the creator (cf. also Rom 4:17, 24; 8:11) and Christ’s resurrection prepares for his return and the resurrection of the Christ’s faithful at his coming (1 Thess 4:14, 16; 1 Cor 15:20-​28)361.

1.1. (vi). 1 Thess 1:10c: “Jesus who delivers us from the coming wrath” (Ἰησοῦν τὸν ῥυόμενον ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης). Paul describes the function of Jesus, the son of God, in 1 Thess 1:10c specifically as the one who delivers us from the coming wrath (ὁ ῥυόμενος ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης). In the Pauline corpus, Paul speaks about salvation and deliverance by using the verb σῴζειν (“to save”) 29 times (which is more than anyone else in the NT), the noun σωτήρ (“saviour”) 12 times (exactly half its NT occurrences), σωτηρία (“salvation”) 18 times, σωτήριος (“bringing salvation”) and σωτήριον (“pertaining to salvation”) once each362, ῥύεσθαι (“to rescue from danger”, “to save”, “to deliver”) 12 times363. Such statistics demonstrate that “Paul is interested in the concept of salvation, more so, indeed, than any other NT writer”364. In his usage of ῥύεσθαι, Paul normally expresses the thing or condition from which to be delivered or rescued either by using the preposition ἀπό 360 Cf. Elberfelder Studienbibel mit Sprachschlüssel und Handkonkordanz, hrsg. von Spiros Zodhiates (3. Auflage), Witten: SCM R. Brockhaus, 2012, p. 1934 § 1664. 361 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 122. Raymond Collins also asserts that in 1 Thess 1:10b, “Paul makes use of an early Christian credal formula to affirm that God has raised Jesus from the dead … [and] the resurrection identifies Jesus as the one by whom God will effect salvation … [because] with the resurrection, God enables Jesus to fulfill a divine function”. Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 775 § 46:16. 362 Another verb to consider is λυτροῦν (“to redeem”) which also appears once in Tit 2:14. 363 While Morgenthaler shows that ῥύεσθαι appears 11x in the Pauline corpus, cf. Robert Morgenthaler, Statistik des Neutestamentlichen Wortschatzes (3. Auflage), Zürich: Gotthelf-​Verlag, 1982, p. 139, Aland indicates that the verb appears 12x in the Pauline writings, cf. Kurt Aland, Vollständige Konkordanz zum griechischen Neuen Testament (Teil 2), Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1983, p. 1194. The disagreement in number of times ῥύεσθαι occurs in the Pauline corpus lies on the triple occurrence of the verb in 2 Cor 1:10. While Morgenthaler counts 2, Kurt Aland considers all the three occurrences of the verb in 2 Cor 1:10. 364 Cf. Gerald F. Hawthorne, et al. (editors), Dictionary of Paul and his Letters, p. 858.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10

(“[away] from”)365 or most times the preposition ἐκ (“[out] from”)366. In Col 1:13, for instance, the author who writes in place of Paul writes that God the Father “delivered us from the dominion of darkness (ἐρρύσατο ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆς ἐξουσίας τοῦ σκότους) and transferred us to the kingdom of his beloved Son”367. In 2 Cor 1:10a, Paul stresses that God “rescued” (ἐρρύσατο) him and his collaborators “from a great danger of death” (ἐκ τηλικούτου θανάτου) when they trusted not in themselves but “in God who raises the dead” –​ἐπί τῷ θεῷ τῷ ἐγείροντι τοὺς νεκρούς (2 Cor 1:9)368. Apart from 1 Thess 1:10c, Paul uses a participle of ῥύεσθαι in Rom 11:26, i.e. ὁ ῥυόμενος (present participle active nominative masculine singular) to express the subject of the act of delivering and so ὁ ῥυόμενος translates as “the deliverer” or “the one who delivers”. In Rom 11:26, Paul quotes a prophecy from Isa 59:20369 to speak about the salvation of all Israel of which the non-​Jews also have a share (Rom 11:25). The use of the participle of ῥύεσθαι in 1 Thess 1:10c, i.e. τὸν ῥυόμενον (present participle active accusative masculine singular) can be understood in connection with the infinitive verb ἀναμένειν in 1 Thess 1:10a. The participle is correctly in the accusative because it functions as an object of the verb ἀναμένειν: the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica are waiting for the deliverer, Jesus, and he is to save us “from the wrath to come” (ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης). The term ὀργή appears 37 times in the NT and in the Pauline writings alone 21 times. Ὀργή can be translated as “wrath”, i.e. strong indignation directed at wrongdoing with focus on retribution. In the Bible it can refer to the past, present or the future judgement of God which is specifically qualified as punitive370. The term ὀργή is to be distinguished here from θυμός: a state of intense displeasure, anger, wrath, rage, indignation, or strong emotional expressions371. While θυμός expresses “anger forthwith boiling up and soon subsiding again”, ὀργή denotes

3 65 Cf. Rom 15:31. See also 2 Thess 3:2; 2 Tim 4:18. 366 Cf. Rom 7:24; 11:26; 2 Cor 1:10a; 1 Thess 1:10c. See also Col 1:3; 2 Tim 3:11; 4:17. 367 It is emphasized in Col 1:12 that the Father has qualified the Christ’s faithful to share in the inheritance of the holy ones in light. 368 It is explained that rescue is the constant pattern of God’s activity; and God’s final act of encouragement is the resurrection (of the dead). Confer the note on 2 Cor 1:9-​10, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 277. 369 The LXX of Isa 59:20 reads: “And the deliverer shall come for Sion’s sake, and shall turn away ungodliness away from Jacob” (καὶ ἥξει ἕνεκεν Σιων ὁ ῥυόμενος καὶ ἀποστρέψει ἀσεβείας ἀπὸ Ιακωβ). 370 Cf. BDAG, pp. 720–​721 § 2ab. 371 Cf. BDAG, p. 461 §§ 1 & 2.

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

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“indignation which has arisen gradually and become more settled”372. Fitzmyer stresses that in the OT, from which Paul inherits the term, ὀργή “expresses not so much a divine emotion as God’s reaction to evil and sin. God may seem to be portrayed anthropomorphically with an angry frame of mind, but ‘the wrath of God’ is not meant to express his malicious hatred or jealous caprice”373. Generally speaking, there is a slight difference between the terms but just like in the LXX374, Paul sometimes employs the terms ὀργή and θυμός together (Rom 2:8)375. Wrath is sometimes defined as the “wrath of God”: ἡ ὀργὴ τοῦ θεοῦ376, or the “wrath of the Lamb” (Jesus Christ): ἡ ὀργὴ τοῦ ἀρνίου (Rev 6:16377), but other times it is given as “the wrath” without any specification with regard to whose wrath it is378. Some exegetes correctly maintain that Paul is indebted to the OT and later Jewish literature for his use of the term wrath of God379. In the LXX, ὀργή is most times the rendering of the biblical Hebrew term ‫“( אַ ף‬nose”, “anger”)380 or the expression ‫“( חָ ַרה אַ ף‬to burn with anger”, “to be angry”)381. The Hebrew Bible speaks about the wrath or anger of the Lord (God) against people382, against Israel383, Samaria (Hos 8:5), etc. Persons incur the wrath of the Lord (God) through disobedience and through their sinful ways384; and most often when they forsake the Lord (God) and worship or serve other gods and idols385. In other Jewish writings like the 372 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 293 § 1. 373 Cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Pauline Theology”, p. 1390 § 82:38. 374 See Sir 45:18-​19; Jer 32:37; 37:24; cf. Hos 12:15. 375 See also Eph 4:31; Col 3:8. 376 See Rom 1:18; Eph 5:6; Col 3:6; Jn 3:36; Rev 19:15. 377 It is clarified here that ὀργή is attributed to Christ also when he comes as Messianic judge. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 452; and it is used to express thoughts on eschatology (also Rev 11:18). Cf. BDAG, p. 721 § 2b. 378 See Mt 3:7; Lk 3:7; Rom 5:9; 12:19; 13:5; 1 Thess 1:10c; 2:16. Some manuscripts (D F G 629 latt), for instance, read ἡ ὀργὴ τοῦ θεοῦ instead of ἡ ὀργή in 1 Thess 2:16 to specify that it is about the wrath of God. 379 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 122; Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Pauline Theology”, p. 1390 § 82:38. 380 Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 1 (1993), p. 353 § 2. 381 David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 3 (1996), p. 313 § 1. 382 See Exod 32:10-​11; Nm 11:1, 33; Dt 31:17; Ps 106:40 MT. 383 See Nm 25:3; 32:13; Dt 6:15; Jos 23:16; Jdg 2:14, etc. 384 See Nm 11:1; 25:3; 32:13; Jos 7:1; Isa 5:25. 385 See Exod 32:10-​11; Dt 6:15; 7:4; 11:17; 31:17; Jos 23:16; Jdg 2:14, 20; 3:8; 10:7; Hos 8:5; Ps 106:40 MT.

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Sibylline Oracles 3:545-572, non-​Jews are also warned of God’s eschatological wrath (Sib.Orcs 3.556) which is firmly determined (Sib.Orcs 3.571-​572) because of their idolatry (Sib.Orcs 3.548, 554). When this wrath comes, the Gentiles will call on God, the great King, for protection (Sib.Orcs 3.560) and they will also seek a deliverer to save them from the great wrath of God (Sib.Orcs 3.561)386. In Rom 2:5, Paul warns that by their hard and unrepentant heart, sinners store up wrath for themselves on the day of wrath387; and in 1 Cor 10:22a, Paul emphasizes on how idolaters “provoke the Lord to jealous anger”388. The wrath of God is expected to be revealed on “the great day of the Lord”: ἡ ἡμέρα τοῦ κυρίου ἡ μεγάλη389. This great day of the Lord is referred to in the OT and also in the NT as the “day of wrath”: ἡμέρα (τῆς) ὀργῆς390 which is associated with God’s final just judgement of the world391. Jer 37:24 LXX gives a clue to the eschatological dimension of the “day of wrath”392. Other OT passages which describe the “day of wrath” as a future event include Zeph 1:15393, Jer 30:7, and Amos 5:18. In the Pauline writings, the “wrath (of God)” 3 86 Cf. J. J. Collins (transl.), “Sibylline Oracles”, in: OTP 1 (1983) p. 374. 387 Cf. also Rom 2:8. 388 The Greek verb involved here is παραζηλοῦμεν (present indicative active 1st person plural of παραζηλοῦν). In the LXX παραζηλοῦν can be the translation of the Hebrew verb ‫ קָ נַא‬and it means “to be jealous”, “to provoke”, “to provoke to jealousy or rivalry” (Dt 32:21). However, in the context of Dt 32:21 which Paul quotes in 1 Cor 10:22a, the verb means “to provoke to anger” and so, for instance, the NAB translates the verse ἢ παραζηλοῦμεν τὸν κύριον as: “Or are we provoking the Lord to jealous anger?” Cf. also Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 482; BDAG, p. 763; David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 7 (2010), p. 264 § 4. 389 See Joel 2:11; 3:4; Zeph 1:14; Amos 5:18 LXX; also 1 Thess 5:2; 2 Pt 3:10. In 1 Thess 5:2, one reads “a day of the Lord” (ἡμέρα τοῦ κυρίου), but in many manuscripts (A K L Ψ 0278. 104. 365. 630. 1175. 1242, etc.), it is read “the day of the Lord” (ἡ ἡμέρα τοῦ κυρίου). 390 See Zeph 1:15; also Rom 2:5; Rev 6:17; 11:18. 391 See Zeph 1:18; Mal 3:19-​24; also Rom 2:5; 2 Pt 3:7. 392 The LXX passage of Jer 37:24 reads: “The fierce anger of the Lord shall not return, until he shall execute it, and until he shall establish the purpose of his heart: in the latter days you shall know these things” (οὐ μὴ ἀποστραφῇ ὀργὴ θυμοῦ κυρίου, ἕως ποιήσῃ καὶ ἕως καταστήσῃ ἐγχείρημα καρδίας αὐτοῦ· ἐπ᾽ ἐσχάτων τῶν ἡμερῶν γνώσεσθε αὐτά). Cf. Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English, Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2003, p. 951. 393 Joseph Fitzmyer correctly notes that “related to ‘the day of the Lord’ (Zeph 1:14-​ 18), wrath was often conceived of as God’s eschatological retribution”. Cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Pauline Theology”, p. 1390 § 82:38.

Exegesis of 1 Thess 1:9-10

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(ὀργὴ [τοῦ θεοῦ]) frequently has a particularly eschatological tinge to it, especially in Romans (Rom 2:5, 8; 3:5; 5:9394)395. Elsewhere in the NT, the term has also an eschatological undertone (Mt 3:7//​Lk 3:7; Rev 19:15396). In three occasions in the NT (Mt 3:7; Lk 3:7; 1 Thess 1:10c), a present participle qualifies ὀργὴ (τοῦ θεοῦ). Mt 3:7 and Lk 3:7 speak of “to flee away from the wrath about to come” (φυγεῖν ἀπὸ τῆς μελλούσης397 ὀργῆς). In both passages, the present participle of the verb μέλλειν which qualifies ὀργὴ (τοῦ θεοῦ) gives a clue without question that the point of time (ὁ καιρός) for the revelation of God’s wrath lies in the future. 1 Thess 1:10c rather speaks about “Jesus who delivers us from the coming wrath” (Ἰησοῦν τὸν ῥυόμενον ἡμᾶς ἐκ398 τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης399). The present participles ῥυόμενον and ἐρχομένης in this passage raise questions as to whether the event takes place now at the present time or later in the future. Wallace remarks that “the aspect of the present participle can be diminished if the particular context requires it” because, unlike the participles in other tenses, the present participle “is well suited to a generic [but not specific] notion, lending itself to a gnomic [or complex] tense use”. For Wallace, the sentence Ἰησοῦν τὸν ῥυόμενον ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης in 1 Thess 1:10c does not mean: “Jesus, the one continually delivering us…,” but “Jesus, our deliverer from the wrath that is coming”. He explains that the future tone of the sentence is evident by “the

3 94 Confer 1 Thess 1:10; 5:9; and also Eph 5:6; Col 3:6. 395 Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 101 footnote 78. 396 In Rev 6:17; 11:18, however, the verb ἦλθεν (2nd aorist indicative active 3rd person singular of the infinitive verb ἔρχεσθαι) in the passages suggests that the “day of wrath” has (already) come. The LXX passage of Jer 37:23 also stresses that the anger of the Lord “has gone forth” (ἐξῆλθεν) but at the same time it is said in the verse that this anger “shall come” (ἥξει) to suggest a futuristic event; and the subsequent verse 24 categorically fixes the point of time (ὁ καιρός) in the future. 397 Μελλούσης is present participle active genitive 3rd person feminine singular of the infinitive verb μέλλειν (“to be about to”, “to be on the point of ”, i.e., to take place at a future point of time; “to be inevitable”, “to be destined to”, “imminent”); and the participle is used absolutely in the meaning “(in the) future”, “to come”). Cf. BDAG, pp. 627–​628 §§ 1-​3. 398 Some manuscripts (C D F G K L Ψ 104. 365, etc.) read ἀπὸ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης. 399 ἐρχομένης is present participle active genitive 3rd person feminine singular of the infinitive verb ἔρχεσθαι (“to come”, “to take place”). The present participle can mean “coming”, “future”, “imminent” so that ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης in this passage (1 Thess 1:10c) can be translated as: “the wrath which will be revealed (at the judgement)”. Cf. BDAG, pp. 393–​394 §§ 1 and 4.

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prepositional phrase (ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης) that refers to a future time”400. Wallace, however, emphasizes that the passage may also be similar to Heb 7:25401 because the present participle can also mean “that which (or the one who) continually delivers us from the imminent day of God’s wrath”402. What stands out in the argument is that though the effect of the role of Jesus as “the deliverer” has a present dimension –​because paradoxically expressed, the eschatological wrath of God is “already operative in history” (1 Thess 2:16; Rom 1:18)403 –​yet the prepositional phrase ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης helps to understand Christ’s act of salvation as an event whose full accomplishment lies in the future404. In the LXX ῥύεσθαι is mostly used of the Lord (God) as “the deliverer” (Dn 3:88 LXX), the creator who delivers or redeems his people Israel (Isa 41:14; 49:7; 54:5). In the NT ῥύεσθαι is associated with eschatological events (Mt 6:13). Here in 1 Thess 1:10c ῥύεσθαι is attributed to “God’s son who died for sinners and will save them from God’s wrath (see also Rom 5:8-​10; Phil 3:20)”405. In Eph 2:3, the author who writes in place of Paul sounds categorical by saying: “And so we were by nature children of wrath406, like the rest [of humankind]” (καὶ ἤμεθα τέκνα φύσει ὀργῆς ὡς καὶ λοιποί). This passage appears to be in stark contrast to 1 Thess 1:10 and especially to 1 Thess 5:9 where Paul stresses that “God has not destined

400 Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 620 §§ 4–​5, and footnote 19. Malherbe and other exegetes also emphasize that the repetition of the article τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης “gives more weight to the participle, drawing attention to its essential feature, that wrath is certainly coming”. For Malherbe, the “futuristic use of the present form of the participle” buttresses the confidence in the imminent wrath. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 122. 401 The verse reads: “Therefore, he is always able to save those who approach God through him, since he lives forever to make intercession for them” (NAB) –​ ὅθεν καὶ σῴζειν εἰς τὸ παντελὲς δύναται τοὺς προσερχομένους δι᾽ αὐτοῦ τῷ θεῷ, πάντοτε ζῶν εἰς τὸ ἐντυγχάνειν ὑπὲρ αὐτῶν. 402 Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 620 § 4. 403 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 775 § 46:16. Joseph Fitzmyer also maintains that for Paul, the wrath of God is either “already ‘manifested’ or still awaited”. Cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Pauline Theology”, p. 1390 § 82:38. 404 Raymond Collins, for instance, maintains that “Paul uses a present participle to emphasize not only that Jesus is God’s agent in the deliverance but that deliverance is already begun, even though its final manifestation has not yet occurred”. Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 775 § 46:16. 405 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 122. 406 In other words, “children destined for wrath”. Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 101.

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us for wrath” but he has destined us “to obtain salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ” (Cf. also 2 Thess 2:13; Rom 14:9). Wallace correctly notices that the point of the passage of Eph 2:3 –​in the light of the entire pericope of Eph 2:1-​10 –​ is not “to describe humanity in terms of attributes (such as wrathful children), but to speak of the hopeless situation of those who were without Christ”407. The Thessalonians who believe in Christ are not destined for the divine wrath (1 Thess 5:9) but they will be saved from the imminent wrath through their deliverer –​Jesus, the son of God –​whose coming they are waiting for in hope (1 Thess 1:10). The significance of 1 Thess 1:9-​10 is that the passage serves as a summary statement of Paul’s teachings on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in the letter. Most biblical scholars even share the opinion that 1 Thess 1:9-​10 is the summary of the entire letter. Luckensmeyer, for example, agrees with Custer that the “triadic motif ” of faith, love and hope in 1 Thess 1:3 (and 1 Thess 5:8) also comes into play in 1 Thess 1:9-​10408. He traces other links of 1 Thess 1:9-​10 with other passages in the letter by stating correctly that: “The reference to Paul’s founding visit is taken up in 1 Thess 2:1 while the Thessalonians’ service to God is expanded in the paraenesis of 1 Thess 4:3-​12. Finally, the pericope introduces eschatological motifs (such as resurrection, deliverance and wrath) and prepares for more extensive treatments in 1 Thess 4:13-​18 and 1 Thess 5:1-​11” [and] “that which is presented as fact at the beginning of the letter is later developed in detail”409.

1 Thess 1:9-​10 is, indeed, a summary statement which plays an anticipatory role in the whole letter. One also identifies the so-​called “resurrection formula”410 in 1 Thess 1:10. This formula also plays an important role in 1 Corinthians. Paul writes extensively on the fate of the dead (specifically on resurrection) in 1 Cor 15. However, prior to this ­chapter 15, he makes an allusion to this theme already in 1 Cor 6:14. In the “resurrection formula” and in the pericopes where Paul treats the theme on resurrection of the dead in passing or in detail (1 Thess 4:13-​18; 1 Cor 15), Paul emphasizes that the Christian hope and belief in the resurrection of the dead have their basic foundations on the resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ411. Those who die in Christ –​οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ (1 Thess 4:16b) shall be raised

4 07 408 409 410 411

Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 101. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 77. See op. cit., p. 77. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 98, 305. Cf. 1 Cor 6:14; Rom 8:11; 2 Cor 4:14; 1 Thess 4:14; also 1 Thess 1:10.

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(ἀναστήσονται) from the dead because “Jesus died and was raised” –​Ἰησοῦς ἀπέθανεν καὶ ἀνέστη (1 Thess 4:14a) from the dead. What is noticeable in these texts (1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14 and Rom 8:11)412 is that the resurrection of the dead is a future event. It is in the light of this that the leading verbs concerning the subsequent resurrection of the dead –​which results from the resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ –​are expressed in the future tense (cf. ἐξεγερεῖ413 in 1 Cor 6:14; ἐγερεῖ in 2 Cor 4:14; ζῳοποιήσει in Rom 8:11)414. In these contexts, the fate of the dead is that of salvation or deliverance through the risen Lord Jesus Christ415. This manifests itself in 1 Thess 5:9 where it is emphatically expressed that the Christ’s faithful are not destined for the wrath (of God) or judgment but for salvation through the Lord Jesus Christ. Paul speaks namely about an ultimate triumph of the believers in Christ.

4 12 See also 1 Thess 1:10. 413 Some manuscripts, however, read the aorist tense (ἐξήγειρεν) and others also read the present tense (ἐξεγείρει). For the numerous manuscripts that read the future tense (ἐξεγερεῖ), cf. Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, et al. (editors), The Greek New Testament (Fifth Revised Edition), p. 561. Metzger notices the variant readings of the verb in the manuscripts and he is of the opinion that the context makes the future tense (ἐξεγερεῖ) necessary. Cf. Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (Second Edition), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1994, pp. 486–​487. 414 Consider also ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης in 1 Thess 1:10. As explained earlier, the prepositional phrase is in present participle but it can have a futuristic nuance. That is the “wrath” (or judgment) which is yet to come. Cf. also David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 105. 415 These texts are in contrast to passages such as 2 Cor 5:10; Roms 2:16; Acts 10:42; 17:31 which emphasize much on judgment.

CHAPTER TWO Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18 Introduction This pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​18) forms part of Paul’s paraenesis in the First Letter to the Thessalonians (4:1-​5:22). The Greek substantive παραίνεσις has its root from the Greek verb παραινεῖν (“to advise strongly”, “to recommend”, “to urge”, “to exhort”, “to admonish”)416. Thus the term paraenesis can mean, first and foremost, any form of exhortation and ethical instruction417. Paraenesis as a genre of form criticism was introduced by the German exegetes Paul Wendland and Martin Dibelius418. Reiser maintains that in the NT, aspects of paraenesis are mostly found in the conclusions to letters419 and that the Sitz im Leben –​which here means especially the purpose or function –​for the early Christian paraenesis was to serve as catechesis for the initiation rite of baptism420. It was also “to provide rules and regulations to direct the practical ethical lives of the people”421. Aune observes that “one of the distinctive features of the Pauline letter tradition is the presence of a concluding section of paraenesis (Rom 12:1-​15:13; Gal 5:1-​6:10; 1

416 In the NT, the substantive παραίνεσις is never found and the verb παραινεῖν appears only in the speeches of the Paul according to Luke in Acts 27:9, 22. In the LXX, the verb is found in 2 Macc 7:25-​26 and in 3 Macc 5:17. The verb παρακαλεῖν rather appears about 109 times in the NT and most often it serves as a synonym of παραινεῖν. Paraenesis is, however, distinguished from “paraclesis” (παράκλησις), the substantive of παρακαλεῖν. The English paraenesis (also Paränese in German and la parénèse in French) is transliteration of the Greek παραίνεσις. 417 Marius Reiser, Sprache und literarische Formen des Neuen Testaments, p. 187, and footnote 270. David Aune emphasizes that “paraenesis has often been understood as the linking together of traditional moral precepts and exhortation”. Cf. David E. Aune, The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric, p. 334. 418 Martin Dibelius, Der Brief des Jakobus (herausgegeben und ergänzt von H. Greeven) (KEK 15), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1964, pp. 16–​17. 419 See, for instance, Rom 12/​13; Gal 5:13-​6:10; Eph 4:1-​6:20; Phil 4:4-​9; Col 3:5-​4:6; 1 Thess 4:1-​12; 5:1-​22; Heb 13:1-​19 and 1 Pt 2:11-​5:11. 420 Cf. Marius Reiser, Sprache und literarische Formen des Neuen Testaments, p. 188 and footnotes 275 and 277. 421 Bernard O. Ukwuegbu, “Paraenesis, Identity-​defining Norms, or Both? Galatians 5:13-​6:10 in the Light of Social Identity Theory”, in: CBQ 70 (2008) 538.

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Thess 4:1-​5:22422)” and that “the frequent occurrence of lengthy paranaetic sections in the latter part of Pauline letters has encouraged the division of the body of Paul’s letters into two main sections: doctrinal and ethical”423. Aune, however, asserts that: “There are other letters (in the Pauline corpus and in the NT generally) in which paraenesis is not concentrated in the concluding section but is woven throughout the composition (1 Corinthians; 2 Corinthians; Philippians; cf. James, Hebrews)”424.

1 Thess 4:1-​5:22 speak about Paul’s specific exhortations in the letter425, i.e. exhortation on a life of holiness (4:1-​12), exhortation on the resurrection of the dead in Christ (4:13-​18), exhortation on the parousia and the day of the Lord (5:1-​11), and exhortation on Christian life in community (5:12-​22). It is worthy of note that the ethical exhortations (4:1-​12 and 5:12-​22) bracket 4:13-​5:11, the pericope which speaks elaborately on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia. Légasse traces the marks which help to identify the literary units in 1 Thess 4:1-​5:22 (24) and the specific subjects they handle. He notices that the first pericope (4:1-​12) can notably be identified by Paul’s profuse use of inclusio in the passage. The verb “we exhort” (παρακαλοῦμεν) in 4:1 appears also in 4:10; the exhortation “so progress more and more [in your conduct to please God]” (ἵνα περισσεύητε μᾶλλον) in 4:1 also appears in 4:10 in the form of “to progress more and more [in your conduct to please God]” (περισσεύειν μᾶλλον). The verb “to conduct one’s life” (περιπατεῖν) in 4:1 also appears in 4:12 in the form περιπατῆτε, precisely ἵνα περιπατῆτε (“that you may conduct yourselves”). The

4 22 See also Col 3:1-​4:6. 423 Cf. David E. Aune, The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric, p. 334. 424 Cf. David E. Aune, op. cit., p. 334. 425 Légasse describes 1 Thess 4:1-​5:24 as “Instructions on Christian life” (Instructions pour la vie Chrétienne) and he shares opinion with other exegetes that by all analyses (thematic, epistolary and rhetoric), 1 Thess 4:1-​5:24 form the second main part of the letter which begins with 1 Thess 4:1. He explains further that by content this second part of the letter is characterized by a long exhortation addressed to the new Christian converts in Thessalonica and the value of their new faith. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens (LD 7), Paris: Les Edition du Cerf, 1999, p. 201, and footnote 1. Malherbe also agrees with C. J. Bjerkelund that the exhortations in ­chapters 4 and 5 of 1 Thessalonians are to serve Paul’s main purpose in writing the letter. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 216.

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address “brethren” (ἀδελφοί) in 4:1 also appears in 4:13 and, as Légasse rightly observes, this address rather marks a new phase in 4:13426. Légasse explains that beginning from 4:13, there is a change of subject from ethical instructions in 4:1-​12 to teachings on the parousia (of the Lord Jesus Christ) which extends to 5:11. He maintains that the whole of 4:13-​5:11, which is subdivided in two parts (i.e. 4:13-​18 and 5:1-​11), handles the subject on the parousia (of the Lord). The address: “Brethren, concerning those who are asleep” (ἀδελφοί, περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων) in 4:13 opens the first part (4:13-​18); and here Paul and his collaborators respond to the anxiety of the Thessalonian converts over the fate of their dead ones at the parousia. The second part (5:1-​11) is then introduced by the expression: “Concerning the times and the seasons, brethren” (περὶ δὲ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν, ἀδελφοί) in 5:1. This passage (5:1-​11) is about “the point of time” (ὁ καιρός) of the end-​time and its consequences on the present life of the Christ’s faithful. The words “console one another” or “encourage one another” (παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους) in 4:18 and in 5:11 closes the pericopes 4:13-​18 and 5:1-​11 respectively. The phrase “but we beseech you” (ἐρωτῶμεν δὲ ὑμᾶς) and the address “brethren” (ἀδελφοί) in 5:12 then open another part of the exhortations which extends to 5:22 (24)427. Légasse entitles 1 Thess 4:13-​18 as “the deceased Christians on the coming of the Lord” (les chrétiens défunts à la venue du Seigneur), but it is preferable to read “the fate of the dead Christians on the coming of the Lord” (le sort des chrétiens défunts à la venue du Seigneur) just as he alludes to earlier428 because it is precisely the fate of the dead believers in Christ that Paul seeks to address. Légasse entitles 1 Thess 5:1-​11 more appropriately as “the parousia and the season: a call to vigilance” (la parousie et le temps: appel à la vigilance)429. One of the dominant themes in 1 Thess 4:13-​18 is the traditional hope of the resurrection in the face of death430. By his description of the content of 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11 as “a teaching on the parousia” (un enseignement sur la parousie431)432, 426 He writes thus: L’adresse adelphoi, qu’on lit en 4,1, réapparaît en 4,13 où elle marque un nouveau début. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 201. 427 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, pp. 201–​202, 242. 428 Cf. Simon Légasse, op. cit., p. 242. 429 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 279. 430 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 173. 431 Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 201. 432 Légasse is emphatic that: “The unity of the two parts [4:13-​18 and 5:1-​11] is at least visible, because here everything is dominated by the idea of the next coming of the Lord Jesus” (L’unité des deux parties [4,13-​18 et 5,1-​11] est néanmoins bien visible, car tout ici est dominé par l’idée de la venue prochaine du Seigneur Jésus). Cf. Simon Légasse,

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Légasse seems to emphasize that Paul’s exhortation on the resurrection of the dead in Christ (1 Thess 4:13-​18) can be discussed in the context of eschatology and the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. Luckensmeyer asserts without mincing words that 1 Thess 4:13-​18 is the quintessence (or most important feature) of early Pauline eschatological and apocalyptic thought because in this pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​18) Paul relates “a detailed portrayal of the parousia of the Lord”433. This parousia, the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ, is what the Thessalonians are waiting for (1 Thess 1:10) and Paul’s exhortation or rather consolation (1 Thess 4:18; cf. also 5:11) is a way of providing a solution to the problematic and unanswered questions confronting the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica concerning the fate of their dead ones, i.e. could the dead too be saved at the parousia of the Lord? The structure of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 is such that in verse 13 Paul identifies the problem pestering the “new converts” in Thessalonica “concerning those who are asleep [i.e. dead]” (περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων) and he exhorts them not to behave like those (the rest) who have no hope (οἱ λοιποὶ οἱ μὴ ἔχοντες ἐλπίδα) by grieving (λυπεῖσθαι) so much for the believers who have died. It is evident in verse 14 that Paul’s words of consolation are mainly based on the belief in the death and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ: Just as “Jesus died and rose” (Ἰησοῦς ἀπέθανεν καὶ ἀνέστη) from the dead, so too will God (ὁ θεός), “through Jesus” (διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ), bring with him (σὺν αὐτῷ) “those who have fallen asleep” (τοὺς κοιμηθέντας). In verse 15, Paul then emphasizes that the fate of the living will in no way be more favourable or better than the fate of the dead because “by the word of the Lord” (ἐν λογῳ κυρίου), the living, those who remain “until the coming of the Lord” (εἰς τὴν παρουσίαν τοῦ κυρίου), will not have advantage over or “will not precede” (οὐ μὴ φθάσωμεν) “those who have fallen asleep” (τοὺς κοιμηθέντας). In verses 16-​17, Paul describes how, at the coming of the Lord, the dead in Christ and the living will be brought (together) to meet the Lord and “to be always with the Lord” (πάντοτε σὺν κυρίῳ εἶναι). With the command “console one another with these words” (παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους ἐν τοῖς λόγοις τούτοις) in verse 18, Paul concludes this passage and this command or exhortatory imperative buttresses the point that Paul addresses the life situation of Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 242. Malherbe also shares the opinion that 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11 is about the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. He describes 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11 as “eschatological exhortation” which has two parts: exhortation on those who have fallen asleep (4:13-​18) and exhortation on the day of the Lord (5:1-​11). Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 216, 260–​261, 286. 433 David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 173.

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the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica by means of exhortation, consolation or instruction. These words of consolation in verse 18, thus, forms an inclusio to this passage which Paul began in verse 13 with a concern for the grief of the “new converts”: “That you may not grieve” (ἵνα μὴ λυπῆσθε)434. By syntactic and semantic considerations, the pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​18) comprises of four parts, namely, verse 13, verse 14, verses 15-​17, and verse 18435. The exegesis of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 will revolve around these component units or parts of the pericope. Luckensmeyer notices that according to the confirmation of the history of research, a component problem for the interpretation of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 as Paul’s response and solution to the Thessalonians life-​situation “by way of consolation”, is how to find “a balanced approach to the competing influence of Jewish traditions and popular Hellenistic culture”436. As part of my interpretation of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 and the related passage 1 Thess 5:1-​11, I intend to pay attention to these competing influences of “Jewish traditions” and “popular Hellenistic culture”, but particularly to the Jewish traditions because Paul and his co-​authors’ exhortation on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians is basically influenced by the Jewish conception of the afterlife and this exhortation can better be interpreted and understood from the Jewish perspective. The individual texts or verses of the pericope of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 will be organized, translated and interpreted.

434 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 261. Légasse notices this inclusio and he presents a kind of chiastic structure for the entire 1 Thess 4:13-​18. He draws inspiration from John Gillman who indicates a chiastic structure in his arrangement of the passage. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 243; John Gillman, “Signals of Transformation in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-​18”, in: CBQ 47 (1985) 263-​281, here p. 272. For a detailed discussion about the arrangement and structure of the pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​18) and the various features such as “chiastic structures, repetitions, parallelisms and inclusiones” that have been identified with the passage, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 175–​181. 435 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 258. 436 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 173.

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2.1. (i). 1 Thess 4:13 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:13 (with Notes) 13a. Οὐ θέλομεν δὲ ὑμᾶς ἀγνοεῖν, ἀδελφοί, 13b. περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων437, 13c. ἵνα μὴ λυπῆσθε 13d. καθὼς καὶ οἱ λοιποὶ οἱ μὴ ἔχοντες ἐλπίδα.

13a. 13b. 13c. 13d.

We do not want you to be ignorant, brethren, concerning those who are asleep, so that you may not grieve like the rest, who have no hope.

Notes: The particle δέ (“but”) in verse 13a can remain untranslated but its connection with the preposition περί (“concerning”) in verse 13b cannot be overlooked. The particle δέ and the preposition περί can be considered, therefore, as one expression, i.e. περὶ δέ, whose components are distributed in verse 13. It rather becomes more evident in the expression περὶ δέ (“concerning”, “about”, “but with regard to”, etc.) that here in 1 Thess 4:13 Paul begins a new subject of exhortation, i.e. “about those who have fallen asleep” or died (περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων). With the word or vocative “brethren” (ἀδελφοί) Paul identifies his addressees, and these addressees are all the members of the community of believers. The particle ἵνα (“so that”, “in order that”, etc.) in verse 13c is a marker which denotes purpose or goal, and with its combination with μὴ λυπῆσθε (“you may not grieve”) Paul emphasizes the reason and purpose of his exhortation about

437 Instead of the present participle κοιμωμένων which is read by the manuscripts ‫א‬ A B 0278. 33. 81. 326. 1175, etc., there is a variant reading of the perfect participle κεκοιμημένων in some manuscripts (D K L Ψ 104. 365. 630. 1241. 1505. M, etc.) Malherbe shares the opinion that the present participle κοιμωμένων is to be preferred because it is witnessed by the older manuscripts. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 263. Luckensmeyer also argues that the present participle is to be preferred for the reason that there is the likelihood that “κοιμωμένων has been changed to κεκοιμημένων” and that κοιμωμένων rather conforms to the other forms of the verb, i.e. κοιμηθέντας (aorist passive participle) in 1 Thess 4:14, 15. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 213, and footnote 75 for his refutation of Bruce Metzger’s argument that κεκοιμημένων is more appropriate here because it is the usual expression in Mt 27:52 and 1 Cor 15:20.

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those who have fallen asleep. Thus, because of the words of this entire exhortation of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica should not grieve at all for the death of community members. The expression καθὼς καί (“like”, “as”) further brings out a comparison between the Christ’s faithful and the rest of people (pagans or non-​believers) who have no hope in the resurrection of the dead and no hope in the Lord’s parousia. Just like the expression καθάπερ καί (“just as”) in 1 Thess 4:5, καθὼς καί here in verse 13d functions to compare and contrast.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:13 There are already indications in 1 Thess 4:13 which speak for a commencement of a new pericope and a new subject of exhortation which are different from the preceding passage (4:1-​12). The first indication is the particle δέ in 4:13a which is to be combined with the preposition περί in 4:13b to form an expression περὶ δέ plus the genitive case (4:13b)438. In 4:13, the particle δέ does not stand on its own but in connection with the preposition περί and that here the particle has “no adversative force” but it rather functions as a “transitional connective”439 which marks the beginning of a new passage and a new subject (cf. also 1 Thess 5:1, 12). Thus, the preposition περί in 4:13b not only introduces the subject of verse 13, i.e. “those who are asleep” (4:13b), but it also ushers in the entire new pericope440. Another indication for the introduction of a new subject in 4:13 is Paul’s use of the address “brethren” (ἀδελφοί) in the vocative in 4:13a. Here and in other passages in the Pauline corpus441, the vocative ἀδελφοί is used by Paul in “transitions or when he introduces a new idea”442. The term ἀδελφός –​the singular of 438 Luckensmeyer asserts that “along with the disclosure of verse 13a –​which is marked by the initial verb of disclosure οὐ θέλομεν and a negative noetic verb in the infinitive ἀγνοεῖν –​the presence of δέ … περί (verses 13a, b) accentuates an introduction of a new topos: περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 213. 439 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 262. Hoppe also maintains that here “the (particle) δέ does not have an adversative, but a connective character” (das δέ hat keinen adversativen, sondern verbindenden Charakter). Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 260, note 172. 440 David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 176. 441 Cf. 1 Thess 2:1, 17; 4:1; 5:12, 14. See also 2 Thess 3:1, 13. 442 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 262; Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 202, Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 257. Luckensmeyer notices that here and in other parts of the Pauline letters (1 Thess 2:17; 4:10; 5:1, 4, 12, 14), the beginning of a new section can be telegraphed by

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

ἀδελφοί –​comprises of “a” copulative and “δελφύς”, and it means “from the same womb” (Mt 1:2, 11)443. That is to say, ἀδελφός like the Hebrew ‫“ אָ ח‬denotes any blood-​relation or kinsman [or kinswoman, or simply kinship]” or “having the same national ancestor and belonging to the same people” (Gen 13:8; Exod 2:11; Dt 18:15)444, and in this sense ἀδελφός (or ‫ )אָ ח‬is the opposite of ὁ ἀλλότριος (or ‫ )הַ ּנָכְ ִרי‬which means “the foreigner or stranger” (Dt 15:3; 17:15)445. The term ‫אָ ח‬ also denotes a member of a religious group (1 Kgs 13:30). In the vocative, ‫ אָ ח‬is used often as a “polite or official form of address”446 but the Greek equivalent of ‫ אָ ח‬i.e. ἀδελφός in the dative case can also function as an address (especially in epistles)447. In the NT, brethren of Christ is used of his (Jesus’) brethren by blood (Mt 12:46; 13:55; Mk 3:32)448, of the apostles (Mt 28:10; Jn 20:17), and of “Christians, as those who are destined to be exalted to the same heavenly glory (δόξα) which Christ enjoys (Rom 8:29)”449. The term ἀδελφός or ἀδελφοί also indicates “membership in the community of believers” (Acts 6:3; Rom 16:23; 1 Cor 16:12450)451. Thus, in the NT ἀδελφοί (“brethren”) is a generic term used to describe the members of the community of believers, and with regard to the “frequent description of the members of the Christian community as ἀδελφοί in the NT, it is important

the “transitional marker” δέ and an element of “direct address” ἀδελφοί. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 176 and footnote 1. 443 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 10 § 1; BDAG, p. 18 § 1. 444 See also 1 Sam 20:29; 2 Kgs 10:13. 445 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 10 §§ 1 and 2. 446 Examples of such forms of address in the vocative are: ‫ אַ חַ י‬in Gen 29:4 (MT) and ἀδελφοί (Gen 29:4 LXX) which translate “my brethren” and serve as an address of Jacob to shepherds; ‫ אַ חַ י וְ עַ ִּמי‬in 1 Chr 28:2 (MT) and ἀδελφοί μου, καὶ λαός μου (1 Par 28:2 LXX) which mean “my brethren and my people” and serve as an address of David to chiefs of Israel. Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 1 (1993), p. 174 §§ 4b and 6. 447 Confer, for example, 2 Macc 1:1 (LXX): “The Jews in Jerusalem and in the land of Judea send greetings to their brethren, the Jews in Egypt, and wish them true peace!” [NAB] (Τοῖς ἀδελφοῖς τοῖς κατ᾽ Αἴγυπτον Ἰουδαίοις χαίρειν· οἱ ἀδελφοὶ οἱ ἐν Ἱεροσολύμοις Ἰουδαῖοι, καὶ οἱ ἐν τῇ χῶρᾳ τῆς Ἰουδαίας, εἰρήνην ἀγαθήν). 448 See also Lk 8:20; Acts 1:14. 449 Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 10 § 6. 450 See also Eph 6:13; 1 Thess 3:2. 451 Cf. BDAG, p. 18 § 2a.

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to note that the Hebrew Bible often uses the term ‫ אָ ח‬rendered ἀδελφός in the LXX, for kinsfolk and fellow Israelites (members of an extended kin group) and this usage in Judaism is continued into NT times and beyond”452. In its varied contexts, the term ἀδελφοί speaks of “the existence of, or the desire for, a sibling-​ like bond between speaker and addressee(s)”453. Rigaux explains that in the NT, the term brethren is not defined by blood, national or friendship bonds but it is based on the acceptance of a God who is Father and of a Messiah (Jesus) who is Lord, (who) lets his disciples to be participants in his (Jesus’) filiation454. The term ἀδελφοί is used frequently by Paul to address the Christ’s faithful to whom he writes (Rom 1:13; 11:25; 1 Cor 1:10)455. Apart from Roms 9:3 where Paul uses the plural ἀδελφοί to refer to the (unbelieving) “people of Israel”, ἀδελφοί is used by Paul to refer to the believers in Christ about 112 times in his “seven authentic letters”456. In 1 Thess, ἀδελφός-​language is used 19 times457. Here in 1 Thess 4:13a (and in other places in the letter), Paul uses the address ἀδελφοί (“brethren”) to identify the members of the community of believers in Thessalonica who have accepted God and serve him (God), and are waiting hopefully for the coming of God’s son Jesus Christ (1 Thess 1:9-​10). The ἀδελφοί (“brethren”) are distinguished from the rest of people who do not believe in God and have no hope (1 Thess 4:13d). Exegetes make an effort to reconstruct the meaning of the expression: “We do not want you to be ignorant” (ὁυ θέλομεν δὲ ὑμᾶς ἀγνοεῖν) in 1 Thess 4:13a. While some exegetes opine that with these words Paul either introduces a subject that hither to remained unknown to his addressees or corrects “some misconception the community has about a topic he [Paul] has already discussed with them”, others are of the opinion that Paul uses this phrase either to introduce a

452 Cf. David G. Horrell, “From ἀδελφοὶ to οἶκος θεοῦ: Social Transformation in Pauline Christianity”, in: Journal of Biblical Literature 120/​2 (2001) 293–​301, here p. 296. Cf. also Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epîtres aux Thessaloniciens (ÉBib. 10), Paris: Gembloux, 1956, p. 370. 453 David G. Horrell, “From ἀδελφοὶ to οἶκος θεοῦ…”, pp. 296–​297. 454 He writes thus: La fraternité ne repose pas sur les liens du sang, de la nation ou de l’amitié, mais sur l’acceptation d’un Dieu qui est Père et d’un Messie, qui étant Seigneur, rend ses disciples participants à sa filiation. Cf. Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epitres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 370. 455 See also 1 Cor 16:15; 1 Thess 5:1; 5:14, etc. 456 I.e., 1 Thess, Gal, 1 and 2 Cor, Rom, Phil, Phlm. Cf. David G. Horrell, “From ἀδελφοὶ to οἶκος θεοῦ…”, pp. 299–​300. 457 It is only in 1 Thess 3:2; 4:6 where the singular ἀδελφός is used.

108

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

subject whose significance the addressees did not sufficiently value or to emphasize (cf. 1 Cor 12:1) and clarify the “existential relevance” of the material or subject458. Hoppe shares the opinion that here in 1 Thess 4:13a this phrase ὁυ θέλομεν δὲ ὑμᾶς ἀγνοεῖν459 does not only function to highlight what follows in the passage but it also introduces a new subject460. The subject about which Paul wants to speak in this pericope concerns especially the fate of the dead (περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων461). Paul addresses the problem of death which is “an obvious exponent of social disintegration” in the community of believers in Thessalonica. His “pattern of exhortations, which includes references to eschatological motifs, provides a way for the Thessalonians to understand what happens to those who are asleep” (before the parousia or the coming of the Lord), and his words of consolation (1 Thess 4:18) reinforce solidarity in the Christian community462. Malherbe correctly notices that the phrase ὁυ θέλομεν δὲ ὑμᾶς ἀγνοεῖν in 1 Thess 4:13a does not necessarily introduce “completely new information” about resurrection and the fate of the dead because if it does, it would mean Paul did not instruct his converts in Thessalonica about their resurrection prior to the sending of the letter. Malherbe maintains that here Paul rather focuses on a major detail, namely, “the eschatological gathering of the (Christ’s) faithful” –​a subject in the “apocalyptic tradition with which his [Paul’s] readers were familiar” –​and it is on this basis or means that Paul seeks to assuage the grief of the members of the community of believers in Thessalonica463 (1 Thess 4:13c).

Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 262. Confer in addition Rom 1:13; 11:25; 1 Cor 10:1; 2 Cor 1:8. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 260 footnote 172. Bruce makes effort to bring out clearly the meaning of Paul’s use of the present participle κοιμωμένων (from the verb κοιμᾶσθαι) in 1 Thess 4:13b and the aorist participle κοιμηθέντας in 1 Thess 4:14 (cf. also 1 Thess 4:15) by explaining that while the aorist participle κοιμηθέντας relates to the moment of their falling asleep (dying), the present participle κοιμωμένων relates to their consequent state of sleep (death). He observes that in the NT, it is only in 1 Thess 4:13 and in 1 Cor 11:30 where the present tense of κοιμᾶσθαι in the sense of death appears. Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians (WBC 45), Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1982, p. 98. Askwith also explains that while the present participle οἱ κοιμωμένοι (“those that are sleeping” or “those that are asleep”) points to “the fact of death, and not the act of dying”, οἱ κοιμηθέντας (“those that fell asleep”) refers to “their condition at the moment of death”. Confer E. H. Askwith, “The Eschatological Section of 1 Thessalonians”, in: Expositor, 8th Series, 1 (1911) 59–​67, here page 61. 462 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 173. 4 63 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 262–​263. 4 58 459 460 461

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Paul was probably aware of how ignorance could have disastrous consequences for the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica. Hence, the urgent need for him to instruct them on what they needed to have a detailed knowledge of. For instance, a person can sin through ignorance (ἀγνόημα464 or ἄγνοια465) and for this reason the exhortation in Sir 5:15a LXX466. What Paul wants the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica to know about in this passage (1 Thess 4:13-​18) is found in verse 13b: “Concerning those who are asleep” (περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων), that is to say, about the fate of those believers who are dead before the parousia or the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. The preposition περί plus a noun in the genitive case in 1 Thess 4:13b –​just like in 1 Cor 12:1 –​introduces the object of the verb ἀγνοεῖν (“to be ignorant [of]” or “to be uninformed about”). However, with the negative ὁυ θέλομεν (“we do not want”), Paul reverses the meaning and the force of ἀγνοεῖν and declares his will “to inform” or “to make known” to the community of believers in Thessalonica about a subject or information they do not have a detailed knowledge467. The subject of concern here is located in the expression περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων (“about [the fate of] those who are asleep”) in 1 Thess 4:13b. Κοιμωμένων is the present passive468 participle 3rd person plural genitive of the verb κοιμᾶσθαι (“to sleep”/​“to fall asleep”). Paul uses only the passive form of the verb κοιμᾶσθαι469, and these forms appear only in 1 Cor (6 times)470 and in 1 Thess (3 times)471. Aside from 1 Thess 4:13b, it is only in 1 Cor 11:30 that

464 Confer in the LXX: 1 Macc 13:39; Tob 3:3; Sir 23:2; and in the NT Heb 9:7; also Jos. Asen. 12: (6); 13:11. 465 Confer ἄγνοια in Acts 3:17. Thus, in Peter’s speech (Acts 3:11-​26) he declares that he knows that the Jews and their leaders “acted in ignorance” (κατὰ ἄγνοιαν πράσσειν) by crucifying Jesus, the Christ (Act 3:17), and he appeals to the Jews and their leaders to repent for their sins and turn to God (Acts 3:19). 466 The passage in the LXX reads: “Be not ignorant of anything in a great matter or a small” (Ἐν μεγάλῳ καὶ ἐν μικρῷ μὴ ἀγνόει). Cf. Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 78. 467 The concensus among many scholars is that in 1 Thess 4:13, Paul does not introduce “new information”. Luckensmeyer, for instance, shares opinion with other commentators that “1 Thess 4:13-​18 is more likely a clarification of certain points than first communication”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 212–​213, and footnote 74. 468 Luckensmeyer prefers to render it rather in the “middle voice”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 213 footnote 75. 469 It is observed that the verb occurs in the NT only in the passive form. 470 I.e. 1 Cor 7:39; 11:30; 15:6; 15:18, 20, 51. 471 I.e. 1 Thess 4:13, 14, 15.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

Paul uses the present passive participle of the verb. The passive form of the verb can literally mean “to be asleep”, “to sleep”, or “to fall asleep” but used figuratively or metaphorically the verb means “to die” or “to pass away”472. In the figurative sense, the word becomes a euphemism for death and it “is used instead of the more usual terms describing death or dying”473. The literal meaning of the verb κοιμᾶσθαι (“to sleep” or “to be asleep”) occurs in only a few passages in the NT474. Exegetes share the view that the description of death as sleep is “natural” and was “widespread”, and aside from Hebrew writings and traditions, it appears in Greek and Latin literature from the time of Homer and thereafter475. The description of death as sleep also appears in the LXX (Gen 47:30; 1 Kgs 2:10) and on Jewish epitaphs, “sometimes expressing hope in life after death, whether a resurrection is in view or not”. In some Jewish writings, the terms describing death as sleep “have in view death before an awakening in a resurrection (Dn 12:2; 2 Macc 12:44-​45; 1 En 92:3…476)”. Bruce explains that while the believers in Christ took up the euphemistic use of κοιμᾶσθαι as a congenial mode of expression in which death was viewed by them [the Christ’s faithful] as a sleep from which one would awake to resurrection life, in contemporary paganism this usage “was too often viewed as a sleep from which there would be no awakening”477. A passage which Bruce cites to support his point that in contemporary paganism there is

4 72 Cf. BDAG, p. 551 §§ 1 and 2. 473 The usual verbs include ἀποθνῄσκειν used to describe Jesus’ death in 1 Thess 4:14; 5:10; νεκροῦν (Rom 4:19) or the adjective νεκρός (1 Thess 4:16); and τελευτᾶν which does not appear in the Pauline corpus but elsewhere in the NT (e. g. Mt 2:19). Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 263. 474 Luckensmeyer cites such few references as: Mt 28:13; Lk 22:45; Jn 11:12; Acts 12:6. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 213, and footnote 77. 475 Malherbe cites some Greco-​Roman literature in which such expressions are found; e. g. Sophocles, Elektra 509, (also Ajax 832), Aelian, Miscellaneous Stories 2.35; Cicero, On Old Age 81; Catullus 5.4-​6. Cf Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 263. R. Latimore also presents such expressions found on epitaphs in his work: Themes in Greek and Latin Epitaphs, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1962, pp. 82–​83; 164f. Confer BDAG, p. 551 §§ 1 and 2; Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 351 for more examples of literature which contain such descriptions. Luckensmeyer also presents a detailed LXX references in this connection. CF. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 213 footnote 79; and also footnote 80 for some examples of Greek and Latin references. 476 See also 4 Ezra 7:32. 477 Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 96.

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a pessimistic view of death as a sleep from which there would be no awaking is Catullus 5.4-​6. This pagan literature reads: “The sun can set and rise again; but once our brief light sets, there is one unending night to be slept through” (soles occidere: nobis, cum semel occidit breuis lux, nox est perpetua una dormienda)478.

Malherbe rightly observes that the euphemistic use of κοιμᾶσθαι in Jewish literature has been thought more relevant to the NT479. The Greek verb κοιμᾶσθαι in the LXX translates the Hebrew verb ‫ ׁשָ כַב‬which in the modification qal has a variety of meanings but used euphemistically it means “to lie down together with ancestors” or “to join in the grave”. This euphemism is especially used to speak of Kings dying a natural death –​ i.e. as distinct from the literal expression ‫ַוּיָמָ ת‬ which translates “and he died [an unnatural death]”480 (see 1 Kgs 15:8 MT or 3 Kgs 15:8 LXX; 1 Kgs 15:24 MT or 3 Kgs 15:24 LXX)481. 1 Kgs 15:24a in the MT, for instance, reads: ‫וַּיִ ְׁשּכַ ֤ב אָ סָ א֙ עִ ם־אֲ בֹ ֔ ָתיו וַּיִ ּקָ בֵ ר֙ עִ ם־אֲ בֹ ֔ ָתיו ְּב ִ ֖עיר ּדָ ִ ֣וד אָ ִ ֑ביו‬482 (“Then Asa rested with his forefathers and was buried with his ancestors in the city of his forefather David”). The Hebrew ‫ ׁשָ כַב‬in the MT can also mean “to lie down dead” or “to lie in repose” (Job 3:13483). In Isa 43:17 ‫ ׁשָ כַב‬has not only the nuance of 4 78 Confer op. cit., p. 96. 479 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 263. 480 This explains that ‫ ׁשָ כַב‬which in the modification qal can literally mean “to sleep” is rather used metaphorically or euphemistically to mean “to die (a natural death)” instead of the verb ‫ מּות‬which normally translates “to die” (Gen 2:17; Hab 1:12; Exod 20:19). Thus, the metaphorical use of κοιμᾶσθαι to mean “to die” instead of the normal verbs ἀποθνῄσκειν (1 Thess 4:14; 5:10); νεκροῦν (Rom 4:19) or τελευτᾶν (Mt 2:19) in the NT is in line with the euphemistic use of ‫ ׁשָ כַב‬in the OT and in other Jewish literature. 481 See also 1 Kgs 16:6 (MT) or 3 Kgs 16:6 (LXX); 1 Kgs 22:40 (MT) or 3 Kgs 22:40 (LXX); and also Gen 47:30 (MT and LXX). 482 This passage in the LXX (3 Kgs 15:24) reads: Καὶ ἐκοιμήθη Ἀσὰ μετὰ τῶν πατέρων αὐτοῦ, καὶ θάπτεται μετὰ τῶν πατέρων αὐτοῦ ἐν πόλει Δαυὶδ πατρὸς αὐτοῦ. 483 Job 3:13 in the MT reads: ‫ּוח ָ ֤אז ִ ֽלי‬ ֽ ַ ֬‫י־עּתָ ה ׁשָ כַ ְ֣ב ִּתי וְ אֶ ְׁשקֹ֑ וט ֝יָׁשַ֗ נְ ִּתי יָנ‬ ַ ֭ ‫“( ִ ּֽכ‬For now I will be lying down in peace; I will be asleep and at rest”). In this passage (Job 3:13), there is a play on some related nuances of ‫ ׁשָ כַב‬which are: ‫ ׁשָ קַ ט‬which in the verb modification qal means “to be quiet”, “to be at peace”, “to have rest” (Zech 1:11); ‫ נוח‬which in the verb modification qal can mean “to have rest” or “to repose” (Exod 20:11; Job 3:26; Isa 14:7; Dn 12:13); and ‫ יָׁשַ ן‬which in the modification qal can mean “to sleep” or “to be asleep” (literally: cf. Gen 2:21; 1 Kgs 19:5; Ps 44:24; figuratively or metaphorically: cf. Jer 51:39, 57 MT; cf. also the adjective ‫“[ יָׁשַ ן‬asleep or sleeping”], the constructive form of which is found in Dn 12:2a: ‫“[ וְ ַר ִּ֕בים ִמּיְ ׁשֵ נֵ ֥י אַ ְדמַ ת־עָ פָ ר‬And the multitude who are sleeping in the earth of dust”]). In Jer 51:39, 57 and Dn 12:2a the contrast of ‫ יָׁשַ ן‬is not ‫ קּום‬but ‫קיץ‬

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‫“( דָ עַ ְך‬to be extinguished”) and ‫“( כָבַ ה‬to be quenched”), but also it contrasts with ‫“( קּום‬to rise”). Isa 43:17b in the MT reads thus: “They lie down (dead), they cannot rise, and they are extinguished, quenched like a wick”484 [RSV] –​ (‫)יִ ְׁשּכְ בּו֙ ּבַ ל־י ָ֔קּומּו ּדָ ע ֲ֖כּו ּכַּפִ ְׁש ָ ּ֥תה כ ָֽבּו‬485. The preference of κοιμωμένων (present passive participle)486 to κεκοιμημένων487 (perfect passive participle) raises exegetical concerns. Some scholars opine that the present tense (which is more probably timeless) anticipates a future awakening or resurrection of “those who are asleep” more than the perfect tense could do, and that the present tense purports to speak not only about “those who have already fallen asleep” (died) before the coming of the Lord, but also about “those who were likely to die before the parousia”488. Luckensmeyer, however, argues in line with other exegetes against this opinion by assuming that there are no “semantic implications” associated with the word κοιμᾶσθαι especially with regard to “a hope for a future resurrection”. He bases his argument on the findings that “the majority of references in the LXX and apocalyptic literature (e.g. Jub 23:1-​3; 36:18; 1 En 49:3)489 give no indication of a hope for a future resurrection”490. He is of the opinion that with references which do give an inference which in the verb modification hiphil means “to awake” or “to wake up” literally from sleep (Jer 31:26 MT) or figuratively and metaphorically from death (also in Isa 26:19; Jer 51:39, 57; Job 14:12; Dn 12:2). Worthy of notice, however, is that in Isa 26:19 and in Job 14:12, ‫ קּום‬appears with ‫ קיץ‬and in the LXX they are rendered as ἀνιστάναι (“to raise up” or “to rise up” [from sleep or from the dead]) and ἐγείρειν (“to wake” [from sleep or from the dead]) respectively (cf. especially Isa 26:19 LXX). In Job 14:12 ‫קיץ‬ is not translated as ἐγείρειν but as ἐξυπνίζειν (“to wake up from sleep”: literally 1 Kgs 3:15 MT or 3 Kgs 3:15 LXX). In the NT ἐξυπνίζειν appears only in Jn 11:11 and it means “to awake a person from sleep or from the dead”). 484 The passage in the LXX reads: ἐκοιμήθησαν, καὶ οὐκ ἀναστήσονται, ἐσβέσθησαν ὡς λῖνον ἐσβεσμένον. Worthy of notice is that in the LXX ‫ דָ עַ ְך‬and ‫ כָבַ ה‬are rendered as σβέννυμι (“to extinguish” or “to quench”; and the passive: “to be extinguished” or “to be quenched”). These nuances associated with the verb buttress the figurative use of ‫ ׁשָ כַב‬as “death” or “passing away”. Cf. the active use of σβέννυμι in 1 Thess 5:19. 485 For more information on the euphemistic use of ‫ ׁשָ כַב‬in the MT, cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 8 (2011), pp. 346–​347 § 7. 486 In 1 Thess 4:14, 15; and in 1 Cor 15:18, Paul uses κοιμηθέντας (the aorist passive participle). 487 Cf. 1 Cor 15:20; Mt 27:52. 488 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 263. 489 See also Jub 45:15; 1 En 100:5; T. Mos 1:15; 10:14; T. Reub 3:1; T. Jos 20:4; 2 Bar 11:4; 85:3. 490 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 214.

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(e.g. 2 Macc 12:44-​45; 1 En 91:10; 4 Ezra 7:32)491, it is impossible to discern Paul’s use of the term κοιμᾶσθαι in this regard492. Luckensmeyer maintains further that though Paul gives κοιμᾶσθαι a Christian stamp in 1 Cor 15:18 and in 1 Thess 4:14, “there are probably no semantic implications associated with the word, either with regard to a hope for a future resurrection or to a so-​called intermediate state493”494. He concludes with the opinion that:

4 91 See also 1 En 92:3; 2 Bar 30:2; Dn 12:2. 492 Luckensmeyer notices, for instance, that in Dn 12:2 LXX the verb in question is not κοιμᾶσθαι but καθεύδειν, and on this ground he considers Dn 12:2 to be “indirectly relevant” to the argument. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 214, and footnote 84. Luckensmeyer probably does not value the fact that, just like κοιμᾶσθαι, καθεύδειν can be understood metaphorically or figuratively as “to sleep” or “to be dead”. Cf. BDAG, p. 490 § 3. Moreover, Bruce affirms that “the use of sleep as a euphemism for death was commonplace in antiquity” and “in Greek it is attested from Homer onward, even of death in battle …”, and that “not only κοιμᾶσθαι but εὔδειν and its compound καθεύδειν are found in this sense….” Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, pp. 95–​96. Luckensmeyer may, however, have a point because, especially in the NT, the literal use of καθεύδειν is more noticeable than its figurative or metaphorical use. In Eph 5:14; 1 Thess 5:10 etc, the metaphorical use of καθεύδειν has a strong impact; but in other passages, such an impact is not strong enough. For instance, some scholars prefer the figurative use of καθεύδειν (i.e. “to be dead”) in Mt 9:24 and parallels (Mk 5:39; Lk 8:52). Meanwhile this position is debatable because the normal verb ἀποθνῄσκειν (“to die”) appears at the same time in the contexts in question and ἀποθνῄσκειν clearly serves as a contrast to καθεύδειν. Confer the expressions: οὐ γὰρ ἀπέθανεν τὸ κοράσιον ἀλλὰ καθεύδει (Mt 9:24); τὸ παιδίον οὐκ ἀπέθανεν ἀλλὰ καθεύδει (Mk 5:39); and οὐ/​οὐκ γὰρ ἀπέθανεν ἀλλὰ καθεύδει (Lk 8:52). The contrasts in the expressions suggest that the literal meaning of καθεύδειν (“to sleep”) should be preferred in such contexts. 493 The term intermediate state is defined as the period between death and resurrection. Some scholars opine that κοιμᾶσθαι “describes the state of the dead before the coming of the Lord, as an interim, imperfect condition in which the dead have a different time consciousness”. There is, however, consensus among many exegetes that by his use of κοιμᾶσθαι, Paul does not show any interest in this so-​called intermediate state. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 280–​281. 494 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 214. Luckensmeyer seems to add his voice to the discussion which revolves around Paul’s possible use of the term κοιμᾶσθαι “to say something about the state of an individual after his death”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 280.

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“Paul prefers the present tense because it serves to introduce the subject of the pericope (περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων [1 Thess 4:13b]) much better than the perfect would have”495.

It must be stressed, however, that the tenability of the hope for the resurrection or awakening of the dead (in the future or otherwise) should not base on or be limited only to semantic considerations but it must also base on other factors which support this hope. The question with regard to the plausibility of the view that Paul uses κοιμᾶσθαι euphemistically to describe “death” instead of, for instance, the normal verbs “to die” –​ἀποθνῄσκειν (1 Thess 4:14; 5:10) and the expression “the dead” –​οἱ νεκροί (1 Thess 4:16) has been of concern to scholars. Some exegetes assume that though the concepts “sleeping” and “death” are not entirely synonymous, it is possible that Paul sounds euphemistic with his use of κοιμᾶσθαι496. Richard sums this position up by emphasizing that the verb κοιμᾶσθαι “literally means ‘to sleep’ and is so used in Mt 28:13; Lk 22:45; and Acts 12:6. In its most frequent NT and exclusive Pauline usage, however, it stands as a metaphor for death. Beginning from the time of Homer this term and synonyms were used in inscriptions, epitaphs, and Hellenistic literature; in the LXX it is particularly employed of ‘sleep with the ancestors’ or the death of kings…. Such usage, therefore, was common in the NT period (Mt 27:52; Acts 7:60; 2 Pt 3:4…497) and appealing to Paul (1 Cor 7:39; 11:30; 15:6 ….498; three times in 1 Thessalonians –​4:13, 14, 15)”499. Bruce observes that Paul uses κοιμᾶσθαι as euphemism for “the death of believers” but neither Paul nor any other NT author uses the term κοιμᾶσθαι for “the death of Christ himself ”. He opines that by the use of the “straightforward 495 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 214. Other scholars also claim that Paul shows no special interest here in the term κοιμᾶσθαι but he uses it in “a self-​evident way”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 281. 496 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 214. Bruce assumes that the Jewish and Christian term κοιμητήριον (“cemetery”) was coined from the “optimistic nuance of κοιμᾶσθαι” that death is a sleep from which a person is hoped to awake to resurrection life. Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 96. Hoffmann also shares the opinion that in 1 Thess 4:13b, Paul uses κοιμᾶσθαι (“to sleep”) euphemistically to mean “to die”. Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus: Eine religionsgeschichtliche und exegetische Untersuchung zur paulinischen Eschatologie (NTAbh/​ Neue Folge 2), Münster: Verlag Aschendorff, 1966, pp. 186 ff., 208–​209. 497 See also Acts 15:26. 498 See also 1 Cor 15:18, 20, 51. 499 Earl J. Richard, First and Second Thessalonians, p. 224. Cf. also Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 244, and footnote 3; BDAG, p. 551.

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verb ἀποθνῄσκειν” (“to die”) to describe the death of Christ (1 Thess 4:14), Paul “probably intended to stress the reality of his (Christ’s) death as something not to be alleviated by any euphemism” because “the reality of his death points to the divine miracle accomplished in his resurrection”, and to that effect the resurrection of believers in Christ is a corollary [or natural consequence] of Jesus’ resurrection500. He concludes correctly that the continuing life of the Christ’s faithful depends on and is, as a matter of fact, an extension of Christ’s own life (Rom 8:11; see also Jn 14:19)501. Jesus becomes a life-​giving spirit (εἰς πνεῦμα ζῳοποιοῦν) and a source of life for, especially, the believers in Christ and others (1 Cor 15:45b). Richard and other commentators also share the opinion that 1 Thess 4:13b gives a clue that in this pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​18) Paul is “responding to a problem formulated in a precise question communicated to him”, and this question is about “those who die before Jesus’ return”502. Unlike in 1 Cor 15:12 ff. (cf. also 1 Cor 15:20-​23) where Paul speaks about a general awakening or resurrection of the dead, in First Thessalonians Paul speaks specifically about the resurrection of the believers who die in Christ (cf. 1 Thess 4:16d)503. 1 Thess 1:9-​10 also buttresses the point that Paul addresses specifically the Christ’s faithful who have 5 00 Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 97. 501 Cf. F. F. Bruce, op. cit., p. 97. 502 Cf. Earl J. Richard, First and Second Thessalonians, p. 225; F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 96; Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 263. 503 Bruce is of the opinion that the term κοιμωμένων in 1 Thess 4:13b refers to “deceased Christians, presumably members of the Thessalonian Church” because they are the ones about whose “lot and prospects” questions have been raised. Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 96. Légasse also maintains that: “The dead in question here are not the dead in general, but those of the community to which the letter is addressed” (Les morts dont il est ici question ne sont pas les morts en général, mais ceux de la communauté à laquelle la lettre est addressées). Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 244, and the discussion in footnote 6. Sellin also writes: “Already here in the earliest Pauline deliberation on the resurrection of the dead, it stands (also throughout [1 Thessalonians]), that Paul shares, in no way, the idea of a general resurrection of [i.e., all] the dead. It [the idea of the resurrection of the dead] for Paul is always christologically directed. It is only the dead Christians who would be resurrected [from the dead]. This is more evident in 1 Thess 4:14” (Schon hier bei der ältesten paulinischen Erwähnung der Totenauferstehung gilt (wie dann durchgehend), dass Paulus keineswegs die Vorstellung einer allgemeinen Auferweckung der (= aller) Toten teilt. Immer ist sie bei ihm christologisch ausgerichtet. Auferweckt werden nur die toten Christen. Deutlicher wird das in Vers 14). Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten: Eine religionsgeschichtliche und exegetische Untersuchung von 1 Korintherbrief 15 (FRLANT 138), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,

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accepted the word of God preached to them by Paul and his companions, have turned to God from idols to serve the living and true God, and are now waiting for the coming of the risen Lord Jesus Christ –​their deliverer from the coming wrath (of God). Paul, therefore, differentiates these believers from the rest of the people who do not have hope (cf. 1 Thess 4:13d). Malherbe emphasizes that the non-​believers “are left out of consideration altogether” because in this context Paul is addressing a particular pastoral problem which is “the grief of his readers (1 Thess 4:13c)”504. For Luckensmeyer, “Paul does not refer to the dead in general, nor are the Thessalonians grieving about anyone other than their deceased community members”, and that if there happens to be any question about “the fate of outsiders”, Paul does not answer it in this context505. Légasse also maintains that it is about the dead in Christ whose fate at the coming of the Lord (Jesus Christ) is primarily described506. It is, indeed, a question of “what will be the lot of the Christ’s faithful who die before the parousia or the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ?” The answer to this question has been the source of worry among the believers in Thessalonica, and as a result they grieve and probably mourn bitterly for their dead ones because they believe that only the living could meet the Lord and be with him at his parousia, but not the dead. Many commentators share the opinion that the grief of the Thessalonians, about which Paul speaks in the letter, is not hypothetical or a subject which Paul has formulated by himself and wants to write about. It is rather a real perplexing problem among the “new converts” which needed to be addressed, and it was Timothy who reported it to Paul on his (Timothy’s) return from Macedonia507. While some exegetes opine that the Thessalonians might have never heard

1986, pp. 44–​45. Cf. also Stanley E. Porter, “Development in German and French Thessalonians Research: A Survey and Critique”, in: CR:BS 7 (1999) 309–​334, here page 320. 504 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 263. 505 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 214–​215. 506 Légasse writes thus: Il va de soi que ce qui concerne ces morts vaut pour tous les autres morts chrétiens, les “morts en Christ”, dont le sort à la venue du Seigneur sera prochainement décrit. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, pp. 244–​245. 507 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 246. Malherbe too stresses that “Paul was writing to people who were (actually) grieving about their dead”, and Paul’s exhortation on the grief is his response to a specific question the Thessalonians had addressed to him. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 264.

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about the “resurrection of the dead”508, others like Légasse find the argument not tenable and they are rather of the opinion that Paul had taught them (the Thessalonians) about “resurrection of the dead” but here (1 Thess 4:13 ff.) there was need for him to deepen their belief and hope in the parousia of the Lord and in the “resurrection of the dead”509. Sellin stresses that: “The statement [by Paul] on the resurrection of the dead serves the purpose of explaining to the Thessalonians that those who have died before the parousia have not been left out from salvation [1 Thess 4:15]” (Die Aussage von der Auferstehung der Toten dient dabei dazu, den Thessalonichern zu erklären, dass die vor der Parusie verstorbenen Christen vom Heil nicht ausgeschlossen sind)510. Paul’s exhortation on the fate of the dead or those who are asleep (1 Thess 4:13b) has the purpose not only to encourage the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica to tone down their grief over those who die before the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ, but also to give them hope in the resurrection of the dead (in Christ). The expression “so that you may not grief ” (ἵνα μὴ λυπῆσθε) in 1 Thess 4:13c introduces this purpose of the exhortation. The verb λυπῆσθε is present subjunctive passive 2nd person plural of λυπεῖν (“to grieve”, “to be sorrowful or distressed”, “to be affected with sadness”, “to offend”, etc.)511 The particle ἵνα (“that”, “in order that”, etc.) is a marker to denote purpose, aim or goal512, and it can also function as a final conjunction denoting purpose and end (of the action expressed by the preceding

508 Sellin, for instance, writes: “1 Thess 4:13 ff. proves that Paul introduces something new….The ‘resurrection of the dead’ could have not been known to them [i.e. the Thessalonians] by then” (1 Thess 4, 13 ff. bestätigt das: Paulus führt etwas Neues ein…. Die „Auferstehung der Toten“ kann ihnen [das heißt, den Thessalonichern] bis dahin nicht bekannt gewesen sein). Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, 1986, p. 39. 509 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, pp. 245–​246. 510 Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, p. 38. 511 The substantive λύπη and the verb λυπεῖν “are used of bodily as well as emotional pain, grief, sorrow, and trouble”, and they have a wide range of meaning in the OT, in the LXX, in the NT and in Greek Philosophy. Cf. H. Balz, “λύπη, λυπέω ”: in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 363. Malherbe opines that in 1 Thess 4:13c, “Paul uses λυπεῖν to describe an inward sorrow, rather than another word that could describe a visible demonstration of grief ” such as: θρηνεῖν : “to sing a dirge; or to mourn, to lament” (Mt 11:17//​Lk 7:32); κλαίειν: “to weep” (Mk 5:38-​39; Jn 16:20; 1 Cor 7:30; Jas 5:1); ὀδυρμός: “lamentation, mourning” (Mt 2:18; 2 Cor 7:7 [N.B.: ὀδυρμός is the substantive of the verb ὀδύρεσθαι which never appears in the NT]); and πενθεῖν: “to be sad, to grieve, to mourn”[Rev 18:11]). Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 264. 512 Cf. BDAG, p. 475 § 1.

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verb)513. The present subjunctive with the negative particle μή (i.e. ἵνα μή: “that not”), however, “prohibits the continuation of something….”514 Malherbe maintains that in Paul’s elaborate discussion of λυπεῖν in 2 Corinthians (especially in 2 Cor 7), Paul shows some philosophical views on grief but he (Paul) does not develop his discussion in a philosophical direction. He explains that in 1 Thess 4:13, however, Paul shows no interest either in the nature of grief or any positive goal grief might have. Malherbe asserts further that “the cause of the Thessalonians’ grief is clear: their incomplete understanding of matters pertaining to Christians who had died, and Paul’s attitude towards this grief is equally straightforward: it [i.e. the grief] is prohibited”515. Malherbe is emphatic that: “Paul is not writing in the tradition of philosophical reflections on the nature of grief as an emotion, but is writing the earliest Christian condolence or consolation in a manner that echoes a consolation tradition that utilized philosophical elements … The consolation literature [the style of which Paul adopts] called for grief to cease”516.

Luckensmeyer, however, is of the opinion that the expression ἵνα μή in 1 Thess 4:13c serves as a final clause to express a negative purpose of the pericope. He is of the view that it makes more sense to understand 1 Thess 4:13c not as a prohibition (as Malherbe claims) but as a final clause negatively describing the way and manner or how the Thessalonians are to regard the dead or those who are asleep517. He explains that Paul actually acknowledges a grief common to humanity which is experienced at the death of the brethren, and that Paul takes up the social aspect of grief directly in the final admonition of the pericope: “Console one another with these words” –​παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους ἐν τοῖς λόγοις τούτοις (1 Thess 4:18)518. Grief (as well as suffering, pain and sadness) is part of the believer’s life519. Here, Paul does not put absolute ban on grief, but he addresses the theme of death with associated grief by reasoning with and appealing to the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica to come to terms with grief arising from deaths among community members, and to behave or live as people who believe and have hope in the future existence where death and grief would have 513 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 302 § II 1. 514 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 263–​264. 515 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, op. cit., p. 264. 516 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, op. cit., p. 264. 517 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 215. 518 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 218. 519 Cf. Rudolf Bultmann, “λύπη, λυπέω κτλ.”, in: ThWNT 4 (1942), pp. 314–​325, here pp. 320–​321.

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no meaning520. Keck also emphasizes that according to Paul, Christian hope is grounded in the resurrection of Jesus. Paul’s purpose in the discussion is, therefore, not to assuage normal grief caused by death but to deal with despair, and this does not call for comforting sentiments, but for instructions521. Paul does not prohibit the Thessalonians from grieving, but he exhorts them not to grieve with the same motive, manner, and measure as the pagans or the non-​believers do522. It is noticed in the MT and in the LXX that much as persons must struggle to avoid pain, suffering and grief (Prov 15:13; 25:20; Sir 3:12)523 for the reason that they are usually perceived as the consequence of evil deeds (Prov 10:1, 10; Sir 18:15)524 and especially the result of hostility against the pious (Ps 54:3 LXX; Isa 15:2; Jer 15:18)525, pain, suffering and grief are not to be abolished in this life. They are even intermingled with joy (Prov 14:13 MT/​LXX; Tob 2:5 f.; Sir 12:9…526)527. All the same, they are sometimes perceived in the OT as standing in contradiction to the purposes of God with his creation, and so the pious may hope for the cessation or termination of suffering and pain by God (Isa 35:10;

5 20 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 218–​219. 521 Cf. Leander E. Keck, “The First Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians”, in: Charles M. Laymon (editor), The Interpreter’s One-​ Volume Commentary on the Bible, London: William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd, 1972, p. 871. 522 Légasse too emphasizes categorically that: “Paul does not intend to prohibit the Christians from mourning the dead. On the contrary, he cannot imagine how they do that (i.e. how they grieve over the dead) ‘just like the others’ –​οἱ λοιποί (Paul n’entend pas interdire aux chrétiens de pleurer leurs morts. En revanche, il ne conçoit pas qu’ils le fassent “comme les autres”). Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 246. Earl also stresses that: “Paul is not saying that the community should not grieve but that it should ‘not grieve as (καθὼς καί –​‘in the way that’) others do (who have no hope). Cf. Earl J. Richard, First and Second Thessalonians, p. 225. According to Hoffmann, “it is not the grief per se which the Apostel wants to prohibit, but only the way and manner [they grieve] or the excess or the motive [for the grief], just as they are found among the pagans” (Nicht die Trauer überhaupt wolle der Apostel verbieten, sondern nur die Art und Weise oder das Übermaß oder das Motiv, wie sie bei den Heiden zu finden waren). Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 210, and footnote 11. 523 See also Sir 4:2; 4:1; 30:21, 23. 524 See also Ezk 16:43. 525 See also Lam 1:22. 526 See also Sir 26:28; Eccl 3:4; 7:2f. 527 Cf. Horst Balz, “λύπη, λυπέω”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 363.

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40:29; 51:1528)529. In the NT, the faithful in Christ are exhorted to bear pains, sufferings, sorrows, etc. (1 Pt 1:6; Heb 12:7; Jas 1:2)530. Paul speaks about grief (λυπεῖν) from different perspectives. In 2 Corinthians where pain and grief play a major role in his debate, Paul makes reference to the Corinthians “grief unto repentance” (2 Cor 7:9-​11) which he further describes as a “godly grief unto salvation” (2 Cor 7:10a). This “godly grief unto salvation” is a contrast to a “wordly grief ” which produces death (2 Cor 7:10b)531. Paul emphasizes that “worldly grief ” (ἡ τοῦ κόσμου λύπη) produces death (2 Cor 7:10b) “because it originates for the sake of the world and is bound to concern for the world”532. The believer (and only the believer) may, however, grieve in human terms but still full of joy (2 Cor 6:10) because this pain separates the believer from the world (2 Cor 4:8 f; 6:7 ff; 11:23 ff.), and thus brings the believer near the cross of Christ and the fellowship of his resurrection (cf. Phil 2:27; Gal 6:14)533. Plevnik stresses that the issue at stake was the hope for participation in the parousia of the Lord, and that if the remaining Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica had lost such hope then their grief would be like “the rest” (οἱ λοιποί) who actually have no hope in the parousia534. With the expression καθὼς καί (“like”, “as”) which introduces 1 Thess 4:13d, i.e. “like the rest who have no hope” (καθὼς καὶ οἱ λοιποὶ οἱ μὴ ἔχοντες ἐλπίδα), Paul institutes a comparison between the believers in Christ and pagans. The expression, therefore, becomes an antithesis which may be rendered, in the words of Frame, as “as the non-​Christians grieve (sc. λυποῦνται) who do not have, as you do, the hope of being with Christ” (1 Thess 4:17; 5:10)…535 at his parousia. Thus, 528 Other texts include Tob 3:6; 7:17; Wis 8:9; 4 Ezra 7:13; T. Jud. 25:4; confer also Ps 125:5 LXX. 529 Cf. Horst Balz, “λύπη, λυπέω”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 363. 530 See also 1 Pt 2:19. 531 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 215; also Earl J. Richard, First and Second Thessalonians, p. 225. Hoppe notices that Paul uses λύπη or λυπεῖν mostly in the sense of “sadness, distress” (Betrübnis) or “to sadden, to be distressed” (betrüben), and it is only in Phil 2:27 that Paul uses the term in the sense of “grief ” (Trauer) in connection with death. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 262 footnote 179. 532 Cf. Horst Balz, “λύπη, λυπέω”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 364. 533 Cf. Horst Balz, op. cit., p. 364. 534 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “The Parousia as Implication of Christ’s Resurrection: An Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:13-​18”, in: FS Stanley (1975) 199–​277, here pp. 204–​205. 535 James Everett Frame, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians (ICC 13), Edinburgh: T & T Clarke, 1912, p. 167. Keck also points

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this expression καθὼς καί (“like, as”) functions here like the expression καθάπερ καί (“just as”) in 1 Thess 4:5 to compare and contrast. While καθὼς καί compares the Christ’s faithful with “the rest, who do not have hope” (οἱ λοιποὶ οἱ μὴ ἔχοντες ἐλπίδα); καθάπερ καί contrasts the believers in Christ from “the Gentiles, who do not know God” (τὰ ἔθνη τὰ μὴ εἰδότα τὸν θεόν)536. Paul uses “the rest”: οἱ λοιποί (1 Thess 4:13d; 5:6)537 to describe those who do not believe in Christ. Many exegetes share the view that the term may be compared to (but not equated with) the terms “the Heiden”: τὰ ἔθνη (1 Thess 4:5) and “the outsiders”: οἱ ἔξω538 (1 Thess 4:12)539. They opine that the term οἱ λοιποί “refers to a subset of non-​followers of Jesus, namely, those who have no hope, including Jews”540. Barclay maintains that “despite Jewish beliefs in afterlife, and the negative rhetoric against οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι (‘the Jews’) elsewhere in the letter (1 Thess 2:14-​16), Paul has no problem gathering Jews and non-​Jews under the phrase οἱ λοιποί”541. Malherbe also emphasizes that “it is reasonable to suppose that οἱ λοιποί in 1 Thess 4:13d does not merely refer to non-​Christians as a social group but those to whom the teaching out that Paul probably refers to pagans in general, whom he has just described as not knowing God (1 Thess 4:5; cf. also Eph 2:12). He emphasizes that Paul is doubtless aware that many Gentiles believed either in the natural immortality of the soul or in immortality conferred by rites of initiation into the many cults, but for him (Paul) such pagan ideas of life after death are no hope at all. Cf. Leander E. Keck, “The First Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians”, p. 871. 536 Malherbe emphazises that καθάπερ καί in 1 Thess 4:5 “introduces a negative comparison that functions antithetically”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 264. Hoppe also shares the opinion that καθάπερ καί in 1 Thess 4:5 is a negative comparison (Negativvergleich). Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 238, and footnote 75. 537 Confer also Eph 2:3. 538 The term οἱ ἔξω can pertain to “non-​inclusion in a group” and so in Mk 4:11 it is used to describe those who did not belong to the circle of the twelve apostles or disciples of Christ. In the parallel passages, while Luke replaces οἱ ἔξω with οἱ λοιποί (Lk 8:10), Matthew does that with ἐκεῖνοι: “they” (Mt 13:11). The phrase οἱ ἔξω can also refer generally to “non-​members of the community of believers” (1 Cor 5:12-​13; Col 4:5; 1 Thess 4:12). Cf. BDAG, p. 354 § 3. 539 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 216, and footnote 97. 540 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 216, and footnotes 99 and 100. 541 Cf. John M. G. Barclay, “That you may not grieve, like the rest who have no hope” (1 Thess 4:13), in: ΘΑΝΑΤΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΠΡΩΤΗ ΧΡΙΣΤΙΑΝΙΚΗ ΤΑΥΤΟΤΗΤΑ (“Death and Early Christian Identity”), (Ερμηνεία του Α᾽ Θεσσαλονικείς 4:13-​5:11). Deltio biblikōn meletōn 19 (2000) 26–​53, here p. 36.

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of Jesus does not apply”542. He shares opinion with other exegetes that with the term “the rest”, Paul has in mind not only Gentiles but also Jews543. The phrase καθὼς καί in 1 Thess 4:13d, therefore, introduces basically a contrast or comparison between believers’ attitudes and the attitudes of “the rest” –​οἱ λοιποί (who could be “pagans”, “non-​believers” or “the outsiders”) towards grief. Rigaux maintains that the difference between the attitude of the Christ’s faithful and that of pagans toward grief is “hope” (ἐλπίς)544. He explains that: “The point of comparison is not between the grief of Christians and the grief of pagans (per se). It is simply said that Christians must not grieve for any reason because they (the believers) have hope, and this hope is not hope in general, it is the hope about which Paul is going to speak (in the next verses and the next chapter): bodily resurrection and participation in the parousia of the Lord” (La pointe de la comparaison n’est pas entre tristesse chrétienne et tristesse païenne. Il est simplement dit que les chrétiens ne doivent pas avoir de tristesse et la raison: ils ont l’espérance, et espérance n’est pas l’espérance en général, c’est l’espérance dont Paul va parler, résurrection des corps et participation à la parousie du Seigneur)545.

It is only “those who do not know the hope for the resurrection of the dead [who] regard pain over death as an unconquerable power”546. In his exhortation, Paul encourages the community of believers in Thessalonica that since “those who are asleep” before the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ have not died in vain but died in Christ (1 Thess 4:16), their grief over the dead in Christ should be associated not with sadness and hopelessness but rather with the joy in the hope for the resurrection of the dead. Earl remarks that grief at a person’s death (Phil 2:27) is normal, but “a grief of despair, one that sees only helplessness, is a denial of hope itself ”547. He maintains that “those who lament as though there is no afterlife or resurrection are like so many in the pagan world who are lacking in

5 42 Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 265. 543 See op. cit., p. 265. Confer also Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 246 footnote 3. 544 Rigaux writes thus: “One observes that Paul seeks to draw a contrast. Compared to Christians are the others –​οἱ ἔξω (1 Thess 4:12), pagans, Jews: the difference between the two (the believers and the others) is hope –​ἐλπίς (On voit que Paul a insisté pour obtenir un contrast. En face des chrétiens il y a les autres, οἱ ἔξω [1 Thess 4:12], les païens et les Juifs: la différence entre les deux c’est l’elpis). Cf. Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epitres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 532. 545 Cf. Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epitres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 533. 546 Cf. Horst Balz, “λύπη, λυπέω”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 363. 547 Cf. Earl J. Richard, First and Second Thessalonians, p. 225.

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hope (ἐλπίς)”548. Bruce also makes a point that “the hopelessness of much of the pagan world of that day in the face of death is well illustrated by contemporary literary and epigraphic material”549. Theocritus, for instance, writes in his pastoral poetry Idylls 4.42 that: “Hopes are for the living; the dead are without hope” (ἐλπίδες ἐν ζῴοισιν, ἀνέλπιστοι δὲ θανόντες). Moreover, in Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 115 one finds an expression of hopelessness in the face of death in a “letter of condolence” which was addressed to a bereaved family, i. e. a married couple (Philon and Taonnophris) who have lost their son by Eirene, a friend of theirs, who also had lost a dear son or husband Didymus. The letter reads: “I grieved and wept over your dear departed one just as I wept over Didymus….but really, there is nothing one can do in the face of such things. Therefore do console each other” (Καὶ οὕτως ἐλυπήθην ἔκλαυσα ἐπὶ τῶι εὐμοίρωι, ὡς ἐπὶ Διδυμὰτος ἔκλαυσα… .ἀλλ᾽ ὅμως οὐδὲν δύναταὶ τις πρὸς τὰ τοιαῦτα. παρηγορεῖτε οὖν ἑαυτούς)550.

Deissmann explains that the formula of “Eirene’s letter of condolence” might have had influence on Paul’s solution to the Thessalonians’ grief (1 Thess 4:13d) in that he might have thought of the grief of “the rest” or “the others” (οἱ λοιποί) over “the helpless souls” of their dead ones, but the attitude of resignation, helpnessness and hopelessnees expressed by the pagans such as found in Eirene’s letter is not that found in Paul’s letter. On the contrary, “behind the lines of Paul’s letter is not the resignation of ‘the rest’ or ‘the others’, but an assurance which triumphs and overcomes death”551. Malherbe maintains that in 1 Thess 4:13d, Paul alludes to neither pagan nor Jewish views of the hereafter. For him, Paul rather speaks specifically of “Christian

5 48 Cf. Earl J. Richard, op. cit., p. 225. 549 Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 96. Rigaux also writes that: “The hopelessness of the pagans has expressions in their literature and inscriptions. Much of these bear (the saying): nobody is immortal” (Le désespoir païen a trouvé des expressions dans la littérature et les inscriptions. Beaucoup de celles-​ci portaient: personne n’est immortel). Cf. Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epitres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 533. 550 Cf. Adolf Deissmann, Licht vom Osten: Das Neue Testament und die neuentdeckten Texte der hellenistisch-​römischen Welt, (4th edition), Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1923, p. 143. Confer also Catullus 5.4-​6 which considers death as everlasting sleep with no hope for resurrection. For more literature and inscriptions on the “hopelessness of the pagans” in the face of death, confer Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epitres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 533. 551 Deissmann writes thus: … hinter seinen [das heißt, Pauls’] Briefteilen steht nicht die Resignation der „Anderen“, sondern eine sieghafte, den Tod überwindende Gewißheit. Cf. Adolf Deissmann, Licht vom Osten…, p. 145.

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hope, which has a very particular content”552. Luckensmeyer is of the view that as the context dictates, the phrase “the rest who have no hope” (οἱ λοιποὶ οἱ μὴ ἔχοντες ἐλπίδα) in 1 Thess 4:13d is a thoroughly Christian one but it (the phrase) must be understood with OT and LXX background in mind. He explains that: “Paul’s conception of ἐλπίς/​ἐλπίζειν (‘hope’; ‘to hope’) is so strongly coloured by his kerygma (‘proclamation’) that he is able to characterize all non-​followers of Jesus as those οἱ μὴ ἔχοντες ἐλπίδα (‘who have no hope’)… As a result, the category specified by the articulated negative clause is not restricted much; all οἱ λοιποί (‘the rest’)… are lumped together…. This is not surprising since the word group is used extensively in the LXX to distinguish between the righteous (δίκαιοι) and ungodly (ἀσεβεῖς). Thus, the hope of the ungodly is κενή: ‘empty’/​‘vain’ (Wis 3:11; Job 7:6), it is ἐν νεκροῖς: ‘in dead things’ (Wis 13:10), and the ungodly die without hope (Prov 11:7; Wis 3:18). Such hope comes to an end (ὀλέσθαι, Prov 10:28; 11:7) and perishes (ἀπολέσθαι, Job 8:13; Prov 11:23). In contrast, there is hope to the godly (ἐλπὶς τῷ εὐσεβεῖ, Isa 24:16 [LXX]), whose hope is fixed on God (Sir 34:13; Pss. Sol. 5:11; 8:31…553) as σωτήρ: ‘savior’ (Pss. Sol. 17:3). It [i.e. the hope of the godly] extends to the resurrection (2 Macc 7:14)”554.

Bruce asserts that “the rest” or “the others” (οἱ λοιποί) in 1 Thess 4:13d are the Gentiles who do not know God (1 Thess 4:5; also Gal 4:8a), and that for Paul “to be without God is to be without hope555”556. Von Dobschütz also remarks that the “hopelessness” in this context is the lack of assurance in the “future life” (i.e. life after death), and such “hopelessness” is closely connected with “not knowing God” (1 Thess 4:5)557. For Rigaux, “those who do not know God are, so to speak, those who have no hope”, and that “hopelessness is a general attitude found among pagans”558. He remarks, however, that: “All the same if they [pagans] believe in a life after death, one cannot tell whether their hope is that of Christians” (Même quand ils croient à une survie, on ne peut dire que leur espèrance est celle des chrétiens)559.

Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 265. See also Pss. Sol. 17:34; Ps 17:3; 30:7, 15, 25 (LXX); Jer 17:7. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 217. See Eph 2:12. Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 96. Von Dobschütz writes thus: Die Hoffnungslosigkeit, das heißt, der Mangel an Gewissheit künftigen Lebens, hängt mit dem „Gott nicht kennen“ (1 Thess 4:5) eng zusammen. Cf. Ernst von Dobschütz, Die Thessalonicher-​Briefe, p. 188. 558 Cf. Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epitres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 532. 5 59 See op. cit., p. 532. 5 52 553 554 555 556 557

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Luckensmeyer cautions that 1 Thess 4:13d is not to be interpreted that non-​ followers of Jesus have no hope at all560. He emphasizes further that persons who are categorized under “the rest” (οἱ λοιποί) may or may not have a resurrection hope, but they certainly have no hope of being with Christ (Phil 1:23), and their lot is only “wrath”: ὀργή (1 Thess 1:10; 2:16; 5:9561)562. He shares the opinon that faith and hope constitute the existence of the believers in Christ both in life and death563. Richard buttresses this view by emphasizing that the concept of hope which appears in 1 Thess 1:3; 2:19, etc. is basic to “the Pauline vision of life”, and his (Paul’s) initial point “is not a full-​blown notion of hope as waiting for the future, confidence, and patience, but, (as in 1 Thess 1:3), a focus on confidence in a divinely assured future (even beyond death) that translates in present belief and action564. The content of the hope of the Christ’s faithful in the resurrection of the dead in Christ at the Lord’s parousia is what Paul elaborates in 1 Thess 4:14 ff.

2.1. (ii). 1 Thess 4:14 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:14 (with Notes) 14a. εἰ γὰρ πιστεύομεν ὅτι Ἰησοῦς ἀπέθανεν καὶ ἀνέστη, 14b. οὕτως (καὶ ὁ θεὸς565) τοὺς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ.

14a. For if we believe that Jesus died and rose, 14b. so too will God bring (together) those who have fallen asleep, through Jesus, with him (i.e., with God).

560 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 217–​218. Légasse also emphasizes that: “The text (1 Thess 4:13) does not say that the pagans and the Jews grief because they do not have hope” (Le text ne dit pas que les païens et les Juifs s’attristent parce qu’ils n’ont pas d’espérance). He explains further that here Paul does not analyse the faith or hope of the non-​followers of Christ concerning the afterlife. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 246 and footnote 5. 561 See also Rom 1:18-​32. 562 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 218. 563 See op. cit., p. 218 and footnote 114. 564 Cf. Earl J. Richard, First and Second Thessalonians, p. 225. 565 Some manuscripts (B and 1739) supply the phrase καὶ ὁ θεός (“God too”). This phrase makes it clear that God is the subject of the verb ἄξει, i.e. it is God (but not Jesus) who will bring (together) the dead with himself.

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Notes: The preposition εἰ (“if ”) in verse 14a is a marker of condition, and it is combined here with the particle γάρ (“for”, “since”, etc.) which expresses the reason or cause for an action or statement. With the expression εἰ γάρ (“for if ”), Paul introduces the premise or the reason for which he establishes the hope and belief of the Christ’s faithful in the resurrection of the dead. That is to say, the dead (in Christ) will be raised from the dead by God because Christ died and he was raised from the dead. The plural verb πιστεύομεν (“we believe”) applies to all followers of Jesus Christ including the Thessalonians who accepted Paul’s message of Jesus’ resurrection (1 Thess 1:10) and knew the significance of Christ’s death (1 Thess 5:10) to the believer566. The conjunction ὅτι (“that”) in verse 14a can be described as ὅτι-​recitativum because it introduces here a direct discourse which is drawn from or based on a credal formula which highlights Christ’s death and resurrection (see also 1 Cor 15:3-​4). The adverb οὕτως (“so”) is combined with the conjunction καί (“too”, “even”, “also”), and this expression οὕτως καί (“so too”, “so also”, “even so”, etc.) introduces in verse 14b the inference drawn from the preceding statement or premise in verse 14a. In verse 14b, ὁ θεός is the subject of the verb ἄξει (future indicative active 3rd person singular of the verb ἄγειν [‘to bring’, ‘to lead’, etc.]), and so the expression σὺν αὐτῷ (“with him”) here should be understood as “with God” and not “with Jesus” because it will sound awkward to understand οὕτως καὶ ὁ θεὸς τοὺς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ as: “So too will God bring (together) those who have fallen asleep, through Jesus, with Jesus”. Verse 4b is rather to be understood as: “So too will God bring (together) those who have fallen asleep through Jesus with God himself ”.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:14 In 1 Thess 4:14, Paul introduces the hope in the resurrection of the dead at the parousia of the Lord by emphasizing that God will bring or gather the dead (i.e. “those who have fallen asleep”) with him (God) through Jesus Christ. This hope in the resurrection of the dead is basically grounded on the traditional

566 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 265; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 219.

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Christian credal formula or belief that Jesus Christ died and he rose from the dead. Luckensmeyer makes it clear that: “Paul does not comfort the Thessalonians with a psychological reassurance but reminds them of their acceptance of a kerygma [or proclamation] tied to history, or to a salvation history made accessible in the πίστις [‘faith’] and ὁμολογία [(‘confession’ or ‘profession’] of Christ as resurrected κύριος [‘Lord’]. This includes a πίστις [‘faith’] which is provisionally temporal, but primarily oriented to the future”567.

This means that: “The ὁμολογία (‘profession [of faith]’) begins with what God has already done (by raising the Lord Jesus Christ from the dead [cf. Rom 10:9; also 1 Thess 4:14a]) and looks to the future of what God will do (i.e. God will raise the dead [cf. 1 Thess 4:14b; also Rom 6:8])”568.

Paul’s explanation of the “content of faith” as found in Rom 10:9569 includes “the acknowledgement of Jesus’ resurrection and the acknowlegement that Jesus is Lord”570. This acknowledgement is part of the believers’ kērygma571. Jesus’ death

5 67 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 220. 568 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 220, and footnote 117. Malherbe also remarks that compared to the “earlier or traditional credal formula”, more notable or significant in the content of Paul’s credal formula is that Christ’s resurrection “points forward”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 265. 569 Rom 10:9 reads: “Because if you profess with your lips that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved” (RSV) –​ ὅτι ἐὰν ὁμολογήσῃς ἐν τῷ στόματί σου κύριον Ἰησοῦν καὶ πιστεύσῃς ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ σου ὅτι ὁ θεὸς αὐτὸν ἤγειρεν ἐκ νεκρῶν, σωθήσῃ. 570 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 219. 571 See Rom 10:8c: “That is the word of faith which we proclaim” (τοῦτ᾽ ἔστιν τὸ ῥῆμα τῆς πίστεως ὃ κηρύσσομεν). The substantive κήρυγμα (transliterated as kērygma) comes from the verb κηρύσσειν (“to proclaim, to preach, to announce”) and that κήρυγμα basically means “proclamation”, “preaching”, or the “message”, i.e. the content of what is proclaimed. Paul basically proclaims and preaches “the cruxified Christ”, though this proclamation appears a “stumbling block” to the Jews and “foolishness” to the Gentiles (1 Cor 1:23). For Paul, this proclamation or message (foolish as it may appear to the wise) has the purpose to bring salvation to those who have faith (1 Cor 1:21) because the proclamation or the message is the “power of God” to save believers (Rom 1:16; cf. also 1 Cor 2:4-​5; 1 Thess 1:5). Christ himself is the “power of God” and the “wisdom of God” to “those who are called”, i.e. Jews as well as Greeks or Gentiles (1 Cor 1:24).

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on the cross occupies a central position in Paul’s proclamation so far as the salvation of believers is concerned. For Paul, the cruxificion and the resurrection of Jesus Christ572 do not only define and shape the faith and kerygma of the Christ’s faithful, but they also provide the basis for the Christian faith and kerygma. In 1 Cor 15:14, Paul is emphatic that, “If Christ has not been raised [from the dead], then our proclamation is in vain and your (or our573) faith too is empty” (εἰ δὲ Χριστὸς οὐκ ἐγήγερται, κενὸν ἄρα καὶ τὸ κήρυγμα ἡμῶν, κενὴ καὶ ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν). A number of features have led some exegetes opine that in 1 Thess 4:14 Paul makes use of a “traditional Christian credal formula”. For example, here in 1 Thess 4:14a Paul uses the name “Jesus” (Ἰησοῦς) instead of the name “Christ” (Χριστός) which he uses more frequently574. Again, here Paul uses the verb ἀνέστη (from the verb ἀνιστάναι575) rather than its synonym ἐγείρειν which is regularly used in the Pauline corpus for resurrection –​ whether of Christ or of the Christ’s faithful576. Apart from 1 Thess 4:14a, Paul’s use of the verb ἀνιστάναι for resurrection is also found in 1 Thess 4:16577. The verb ἀνιστάναι corresponds 572 Except in 2 Cor 13:4, Paul’s statements about the cross have almost no direct association with any assertions about the resurrection of Christ, though such statements do presuppose it (the resurrection). Thus, the Pauline theology of the cross appears to be from Paul himself, apparently with no predecessor in earlier tradition. Cf. H.-​W. Kuhn, “σταυρός”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), pp. 267–​270, here page 270. 573 Some manuscripts –​B D 0243. 1241. 1739, etc. –​read ἡμῶν (“our”) instead of ὑμῶν (“your”). 574 The name “Christ” (Χριστός) appears in the Pauline corpus 379 times, i.e. about two-​ thirds of the total appearance of the title in the NT (529 times). However, out of the 905 appearances of the name “Jesus” (Ἰησοῦς) in the NT, only 213 appearances are found in the Pauline letters. Cf. Robert Morgenthaler, Statistik des Neutestamentlichen Wortschatzes (3. Auflage), pp. 107, 156. 575 Used transitively, ἀνιστάναι means “to raise up, i.e. to raise up by bringing back to life”, and used intrasitively the verb means “to rise up, i.e. to come back to life from the dead”. Cf. BDAG, p. 83 §§ 2 and 7. 576 Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 97. 577 In the Pauline corpus, the verb appears also in Rom 14:9; 15:12. In Eph 5:14, the expression “from the dead” (ἐκ τῶν νεκρῶν) is added to the verb but in the context of Eph 5:14 the author cites OT passages (Isa 26:19; 60:1), and the verb is rather used figuratively or metaphorically to mean “to arise from spiritual death”. In Rom 15:12, the participle ὁ ἀνιστάμενος (“the one raised up”) is found. Rom 15:12 is understood in the context of the prophetic word in Isa 11:10 [LXX] where ὁ ἀνιστάμενος refers to the messianic King who is “the one raised or set up” from “the root of Jesse” (i.e. ‫[ ׁשֹ ֶרׁש יִ ׁשַ י‬MT] or ἡ ῥίζα τοῦ Ιεσσαι [LXX]) to rule over the nations, and he is the one, in him the Gentiles will hope and trust. Moreover, in other passages in the Pauline

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to the Hebrew verb ‫ קּום‬which in the verb modification hif ’il (cf. ‫ )הֵ קִ ים‬means “to raise up” or precisely “to cause to raise up” and can be understood in the technical sense of “resurrection”, i.e. raising up from the dead (Hos 6:2). In the LXX ‫ קּום‬is translated either as ἀνιστάναι, ἐξανιστάναι or ἐγείρειν (cf. 2 Sam 12:17 MT//​ 2 Kgs 12:17 LXX). These words (ἀνιστάναι and ἐγείρειν) are used interchangeably and can bear the nuance of “resurrection of (or from) the dead (Hos 6:2 MT and LXX; Sir 48:5 LXX)578. Thus, the verb ἐγείρειν appears in the NT most often as a synonym of ἀνιστάναι which is the more frequent LXX translation of the Hebrew verb ‫קּום‬579. There are lots of passages in the NT in which ἀνιστάναι is used in the context of “resurrection from the dead”580, and in Mk 9:9 and Lk 24:46 it is precisely about Christ’s resurrection. Paul uses the verb ἐγείρειν 41 times581, ἀνιστάναι 5 times and ἐξανιστάναι only once. A subject of debate concerning the use of ἀνιστάναι or ἐγείρειν in the context of Jesus’ resurrection is the question as to whether Jesus rose up from the dead by himself or the resurrection of Christ was caused and effected by God. Malherbe opines that while other NT writers use ἀνιστάναι to talk about the resurrection of Christ (Mk 9:9; Lk 24:46; Acts 2:24)582, Paul uses ἐγείρειν normally in the passive to “describe Christ’s resurrection by God” (Rom 6:4, 9; 1 Cor 15:4, 12, 13; but letters the substantive ἀνάστασις (“resurrection”) is found especially in the expression ἀνάστασις νεκρῶν (“resurrection of or from the dead”: cf. Rom 1:4; 1 Cor 15:12, 13, 21; also ἀνάστασις τῶν νεκρῶν in 1 Cor 15:42). Another variant expression is ἐξανάστασις ἐκ [τῶν] νεκρῶν (“resurrection from the dead”) which is only found in Phil 3:11. In Acts 17:32, the Paul portrayed by Luke speaks about ἀνάστασις νεκρῶν (“resurrection of the dead”) in the context of the resurrection of Jesus Christ which was effected by God himself (Acts 17:31). 578 While in Hos 6:2 it is God himself who causes or effects the raising of the dead, in Sir 48:5 it is Elijah who raises the dead to life by the will of the Lord (cf. also 1 Kgs 17:22). God raises the dead to life because it is God who gives life. Thus, the Lord kills and brings to life, he brings down to Sheol (i. e. the nether world) and raises up from Sheol (see 1 Sam 2:6; Wis 16:13; cf. also Dt 32:39; Ps 30:4). 579 Cf. Jacob Kremer, “ἐγείρω”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), pp. 372–​376, here page 372. 580 See Mk 8:31; 9:9-​10; 12:25; Lk 18:33; 24:7, 46; Jn 20:9; Acts 2:24, 32; 13:34; 17:31. 581 Mostly in 1 Cor (20 times) and in Rom (10 times), but in 1 Thess ἐγείρειν appears only once (1 Thess 1:10). The substantive ἔγερσις (“resurrection from death”) is a hapax legomenon which appears only in Mt 27:53 to describe Jesus’ resurrection. In Eph 2:6, the author uses the compound verb συνεγείρειν (“to raise up together with”) to refer to “participation in the resurrection of Jesus Christ”. Cf. also ἐξεγείγειν (“to raise up”) which appears in the NT only in 1 Cor 6:14 and in Rom 9:17; and it is only in 1 Cor 6:14 where it has the nuance of “to raise up from the dead”. 582 The references include Mk 9:10; Acts 2:32.

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the active of the verb is used in 1 Cor 6:14)583. In Paul’s letter to the Romans, it is only in Rom 13:11 (cf. also Rom 4:25) where Paul does not use ἐγείρειν to refer to the resurrection of Christ, and the point made in the other passages of the letter where Paul uses ἐγείρειν is that Jesus was raised from the dead by God (Rom 6:4; 7:4; 8:34)584 or God raised Jesus from the dead (Rom 4:24; 8:11; 10:9). In 1 Cor where Paul uses ἐγείρειν most frequently, the verb appears in 1 Cor 6:14 and in ­chapter 15 where he talks about the resurrection of Christ (1 Cor 6:14; 15:4, 12) and about the general resurrection of the dead which will happen as a result of the resurrection of Christ585. In those passages where Paul uses ἐγείρειν (either in the passive or active voice), Paul emphasizes that it is God who raised Jesus from the dead and, by extension, God will raise the dead through Jesus Christ586. It is only in few passages where Paul applies the verb ἀνιστάναι in connection with “rising from the dead” (1 Thess 4:14a, 16; See also Rom 14:9587)588, and the point made in these passages is that the subjects involved rise up from the dead by themselves. In 1 Thess 4:14a, 16 (cf. also Rom 14:9), it is evident therefore, that Jesus himself rose from the dead. Elsewhere in the NT589, ἀνιστάναι is used transitively to indicate that it is God who raised Christ from the dead. However, in the Acts of the Apostles590 it is rather the verb ἐγείρειν which is used to express that God raised Jesus from the dead, and especially in Acts 26:8, the Paul according to Luke emphasizes that it is God who raises the dead. Thus, the interchangeable use of the verbs ἀνιστάναι and ἐγείρειν in the NT makes it difficult

5 83 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 265. 584 See also Rom 6:9. 585 See 1 Cor 6:14; 15:12, 13, 15, 16, 20. Confer also 1 Cor 15:14, 17, 29, 32, 35, 52. 586 Other Pauline passages in which ἐγείρειν is used in the context of resurrection are 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14; 5:15; Gal 1:1; 1 Thess 1:10. See also Eph 1:20; Col 2:12; 2 Tim 2:8. Kremer remarks that “when Paul uses ἐγείρειν throughout 1 Cor 15 for both Christ’s resurrection and the general resurrection of the dead, it becomes evident thereby how closely the resurrection of the dead is connected with the message of Easter”. Cf. Jacob Kremer, “ἐγείρω”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), p. 373. 587 In Rom 14:9, one reads: “Christ died and lived again” (RSV) –​ Χριστὸς ἀπέθανεν καὶ ἔζησεν. Other manuscripts (‫א‬2 D L P Ψ 0209. 33. 81. 1241. Μ, sy(p), etc.) rather add ἀνέστη and read: Χριστὸς ἀπέθανεν καὶ ἀνέστη καὶ ἔζησεν (“Christ died and rose and lived again”). Confer also Eph 5:14. 588 Cf. also Acts 17:3 (and Lk 24:46) where ἀνιστάναι is found in the aorist infinitive form and can rather be rendered intransitively to mean that “Jesus himself rose from the dead”. 589 See Acts 2:24, 32; 3:26; 13:33-​34; 17:31. 590 See Acts 3:15; 4:10; 5:30; 10:40; 13:30, 37; 26:8.

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to attach a particular nuance to either of the verbs. Their proper meanings –​“to rise” or “to raise” –​can be properly understood only in context. Kremer shares the view that the resurrection of the dead is effected through the divine creative power, and this belief is expressed unmistakably by the (transitive) use of ἐγείρειν591. He explains that Paul’s question in Acts 26:8 –​“why is it thought incredible by any of you that God raises the dead?” –​refers to the faith rooted in the OT that “God is lord over life and death” (Dt 32:39; 1 Sam 2:6; 2 Kgs 4:7)592, and it is strikingly reminiscent of the divine predicate –​“Lord, who gives life to the dead” –​ in the second of the Eighteen Benedictions which Paul cites in Rom 4:17 but adds “and calls into being the things that do not exist”593. In this connection, ἐγείρειν (‫ )קּום‬in Acts 26:8 can be equated with ζῳοποιεῖν (“to cause to live”, “to make alive”, “to give life to”)594 which Paul uses in Rom 4:17; 8:11; 1 Cor 15:22595. Kremer adds that in 2 Cor 1:9, Paul alludes again to the Jewish con�� fession and interprets his (Paul’s) danger of death as the test of his hope in “God who raises the dead”596. It is argued that neither of the passives of the earliest expressions of ἐγείρειν and ἀνιστάναι (i.e. ἠγέρθη and ἀνέστη respectively) used to describe the resurrection of Christ specifically expresses that Christ’s resurrection particularly was effected by God or that Christ rose from the dead himself. Kremer, for one, stresses that the emphasis that “Christ rose from the dead himself ” was rather a late development in the Christian faith. He maintains that: “As a synonym of ἀνέστη and as a rendition of [the Hebrew] qum [‫]קּום‬, ἠγέρθη does not specify that Jesus’ resurrection was an act of God. At the same time these earliest formulations also do not say that the resurrection [of Christ] was an act caused by the Cruxified one himself, as has been emphasized lately (Jn 2:21-​22; 10:17-​18; Ignatius, [Letter to the Smyrneans] Sm 2.1). For [the expression] ‘he is risen’ is really a more descriptive (phenomenological) conviction which alludes to the perceptive experience, but it makes no statement about the agent [of the act of the resurrection]” (Als Synonym zu ἀνέστη und als Wiedergabe von qum sagt ἠγέρθη demnach nicht aus, dass die Auferstehung Jesu eine Tat Gottes war. Allerdings sagen diese ältesten synonymen Formulierungen auch nicht, dass die Auferstehung eigenständige Tat des Gekreuzigten war, wie dies in späterer Zeit betont wurde (Joh 2, 21f; 10, 17f; Ignatius, Sm 2, 1). Denn „er ist auferstanden“ ist bloß

Cf. Jacob Kremer, “ἐγείρω”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), p. 374. See also Wis 16:13; Tob 13:2; Dn 5:19; 2 Macc 7:23. Cf. Jacob Kremer, “ἐγείρω”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), p. 374. Confer the corresponding Hebrew verb ‫ חָ יַה‬in the modification piel in Job 33:4; Hos 6:2; and also Dt 6:24. 595 See also 1 Cor 15:45; and ζῳογονεῖν in 1 Tim 6:13. 5 96 Cf. Jacob Kremer, “ἐγείρω”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), p. 374. 5 91 592 593 594

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eine mehr beschreibende (phänomenologische) Feststellung, die sich auf die wahrgenomene Erfahrung bezieht, ohne eine Aussage über den Urheber zu machen)597.

Kremer further points out that the earliest levels of formulations which are already found in the NT (Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 6:14)598 that “God hat raised him i.e. Jesus (from the dead)” are, on the contrary, to be characterized as secondary or additional statements which define Jesus’ resurrection specifically as an act of God, and this was rather acceptable in Jewish conception or worldview to explain that: “He [Jesus] is risen because God raised him [from the dead]”599. Schnackenburg correctly remarks that: “The resurrection of the dead [in the NT] centers around the belief in Gott, who revives the dead to life” (im Kern geht es bei der Totenerweckung [im Neuen Testament] um den Glauben an Gott, der Tote lebendig machen kann)600. He emphasizes that Jesus (as the son) works in unity with God (the father), but resurrection (or the act of bringing back to life) takes place and is effected by the power of God601. Fitzmyer draws attention to how Paul speaks about the resurrection of Christ and remarks that it is only in 1 Thess 4:14a that Paul says that “Jesus died and rose again” (as if by his own power). He explains further that elsewhere in the Pauline corpus, the efficiency of the resurrection (of Christ) is attributed to God who is the gracious author of the salvific plan: thus “God the Father raised him (Jesus) from the dead” (Gal 1:1; 1 Thess 1:10; 1 Cor 6:14602)603. Légasse also maintains that though the verb ἀνέστη (2nd aorist passive indicative of ἀνιστάναι) is about an intransitive action of ἀνιστάναι (“to rise [by oneself]”), application of the verb to Christ’s resurrection never excludes the act of God in operation, and one can deduce this act of God not 597 Jacob Kremer, “Auferstanden –​auferweckt”, in: ZB/​Neue Folge 23 (1979), 97–​98, here p. 98. 598 Confer also 1 Thess 1:10; Gal 1:1, etc. In the texts involved here, Paul uses the verb ἐγείρειν in the active voice. 599 He writes thus: Die im Neuen Testament schon in den ältesten Schichten belegten Formulierungen „Gott hat ihn auferweckt“ (Röm 10, 9; 1 Kor 6, 14; vgl. 1 Thess 1, 10; Gal 1, 1 u.a.) sind demgegenüber als sekundäre Aussagen zu characterisieren, die die Auferstehung Jesu ausdrücklich als Tat Gottes erklären (für Juden war dies selbstverständlich) bzw. deuten: er is auferstanden, weil Gott ihn auferweckte. Cf. Jacob Kremer, “Auferstanden –​auferweckt”, in: ZB/​Neue Folge 23 (1979), p. 98. 600 Cf. Rudolf Schnackenburg, „Zur Aussageweise ‚Jesus ist (von den Toten) auferstanden‘ “, in: BZ/​Neue Folge 13 (1969), 1–​17, here pp. 10–​11. 601 Cf. Rudolf Schnackenburg, op. cit., pp. 10–​11. 602 The references include 1 Cor 15:15; 2 Cor 4:14; Rom 4:24; 8:11; 10:9. Confer also Col 2:12; Eph 1:20. 603 Cf. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Pauline Theology”, p. 1395 § 82:59.

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only from the use of the same verb in the active with God as subject (Acts 2:24, 32; 3:26604) but also from its use in 1 Thess 4:16 (ἀναστήσονται) to refer to the resurrection of the Christ’s faithfull (i.e. they will not rise by themselves [but God will raise them up])605. In 1 Thess 4:14b, Paul tries to reveal the significance of Christ’s death and resurrection by maintaining that since Christ died and rose from the dead, “so will God too bring those who have fallen asleep, through Jesus, with him” (οὕτως [καὶ ὁ θεὸς]τοὺς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ). Sellin asserts that when one considers the content of 1 Cor 15 where Paul defends vehemently the necessity or urgency of the teaching about the resurrection of the dead, one could imagine that this teaching has been part of Paul’s original fundamental theology and proclamation right from the beginning. Such a seemingly corresponding teaching (on the resurrection of the dead) is found also in the earliest Pauline letter, i.e. Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians606. Sellin, however, emphasizes categorically that unlike in 1 Cor (or precisely in 1 Cor 6:14; 15), in 1 Thess Paul does not explicitly make a connection between the resurrection of Christ and the resurrection of the dead (except in 1 Thess 4:16), and in 1 Thess 4:14 Paul rather does so only implicitly. Sellin maintains that 1 Thess 4:13-​18 is de facto about the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ and this is evident in the close connection between 1 Thess 4:13-​18 and 1 Thess 5:1-​11607. He challenges, therefore, the notion that in 1 Thess 4:14 there is a kind of direct connection between the resurrection of Christ and the resurrection of the dead. He rather stresses that the parousia forms the basis for salvation. He writes thus: 6 04 See also Acts 13:33-​34; 17:31. 605 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 248, footnote 4. 606 Sellin writes thus: Im Blick auf 1 Kor 15, wo Paulus die theologische Notwendigkeit des Satzes von der Auferstehung der Toten so vehement verteidigt, könnte man vermuten, dieser Satz habe zum ursprünglichen Grundbestand seiner Theologie und Verkündigung von Anfang an gehört. Dem scheinbar entsprechend begegnet eine derartige Aussage dann auch im ältesten erhaltenen Paulus-​Brief, dem 1 Thess. Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, p. 37. 607 He writes thus: Sieht man sich den Text 1 Thess 4, 13 ff. jedoch genauer an, macht man eine überraschende Entdeckung: Offenbar zieht Paulus hier erstmals und mehr am Rande das Motiv von der Auferweckung der Toten heran. Explizit erwähnt wird es nur in Vers 16, dem der Argumentation (die in Vers 15 vorliegt) nur als Stütze dienenden „Herrenwort“. In Vers 14 ist es nur implizit enthalten. In Wahrheit geht es in 1 Thess 4, 13-​18 um die Parusie. Das zeigt sich schon daran, dass dieser Abschnitt (1 Thess 4, 13-​18) eng mit 1 Thess 5, 1-​11 zusammengehört. Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, pp. 37–​38, and footnote 2.

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“Parousia is the basis for salvation. One can find there (in 1 Thess 4:14) nothing about the connection between Christ’s resurrection and the resurrection of the dead” (Parusie ist das Erlösungsmodell. Von einer Verbindung von Auferweckung Christi und Auferweckung der Toten findet sich dort (1 Thess 4, 14) nichts)608.

The assertion that in 1 Thess 4:14 Paul makes use of a “traditional or early Christian credal formula” is thus open to debate. The early Christian credal formula or act of faith which Paul received and handed on to his readers, audience or converts (1 Cor 15:3a) is a two-​part formula which “highlights the death and resurrection of Jesus and implicitly attributes Jesus’ resurrection to an act of God”609. In 1 Cor 15:3b-​7, for instance, Paul presents an expanded form of the early Christian credal formula. What Paul presents in 1 Thess 4:14 is rather a redaction of this act of faith. Malherbe opines that in 1 Thess 4:14 Paul makes an “independent formulation” just as found in Rom 14:9 where –​in addition to the credal formula –​Paul goes further to explain that Christ’s lordship over the dead and the living is the reason for which Christ died and lived again610. Sellin too observes that the actual traditional or early Chistian credal formula that Paul uses or cites is found in Rom 4:24, in 1 Cor 15:3b-​5, and in 1 Thess 1:10611 but this traditional formula (which is based on the Easter proclamation) rather makes statements only about Christ’s resurrection (effected by God), and they say nothing about the resurrection of the dead (in Christ)612. Sellin is, however, emphatic that it is Paul (among all writers) who first brought the resurrection of Christ and the resurrection of the dead in close relation to explain that by virtue of the resurrection of Jesus Christ, those who die (in Christ) shall be resurrected or raised to life, and the resurrection of the dead is an endtime event which is also linked with the parousia of the Lord (1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14; Rom 8:11; also 1 Thess 4:14)613. He concludes that Paul’s 6 08 Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, p. 38. 609 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 777 & 46:32. 610 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 265. 611 See also Rom 7:4; 10:9; Gal 1:1. 612 Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, p. 38 footnote 3. 613 Sellin writes thus: Es is erst Paulus, der das Osterkerygma und die Vorstellung von der endzeitlichen Totenauferweckung in Beziehung bringt … Paulus selber benötigt dazu (wenn auch noch nicht in 1 Thess 4, 14) bereits hellenistisch geprägte Motive, um die Entsprechung zum Ausdruck zu bringen. In den formal verwandten Aussagen 1 Kor 6, 14; 2 Kor 4, 14 und Röm 8, 11 verbindet er die formelhafte Wendung von der Auferweckung Jesu mit der soteriologischen Aussage von der künftigen Auferweckung der Christen. Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, p. 38 footnote 3. Luckensmeyer also shares the opinion that the connection between the

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credal formulation in these verses (especially in 1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14; Rom 8:11, [see also 1 Thess 4:14]) appears to be from Paul himself, and one can identify how Paul develops the analogy itself: first in 1 Thess 4:14 in passing and then in 1 Cor 15 (especially in 1 Cor 15:12 ff.) in detail614. Worthy of notice here is that the content of Paul’s credal formulation is based on the Jewish belief that it is God –​the architect and the source of life –​who raises the dead to life. Paul builds on the belief of the Christ’s faithful that God indeed raised Jesus from the dead. He then adds that since God raised Jesus from the dead, God will also raise the deceased believers from the dead through Jesus Christ so that they will always be in the presence of the Lord. Since the resurrection of Jesus, this Jewish belief –​that it is God who raises the dead –​has a new aspect and interpretation which Paul presents emphatically in 1 Cor 6:14: “God raised the Lord, and will also raise us up by his power” (ὁ δὲ θεὸς καὶ τὸν κύριον ἤγειρεν καὶ ἡμᾶς ἐξεγερεῖ διὰ τῆς δυνάμεως αὐτοῦ); in 2 Cor 4:14: “Knowing that the one who raised the Lord Jesus will raise us also with Jesus and bring us with you [in his presence]” (εἰδότες ὅτι ὁ ἐγείρας τὸν κύριον Ἰησοῦν καὶ ἡμᾶς σὺν Ἰησοῦ ἐγερεῖ καὶ παραστήσει σὺν ὑμῖν); and in Rom 8:11 (“If the spirit of the one who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, he who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will give life to your mortal bodies also through his Spirit which dwells in you” (εἰ δὲ τὸ πνεῦμα τοῦ ἐγείραντος τὸν Ἰησοῦν ἐκ νεκρῶν οἰκεῖ ἐν ὑμῖν, ὁ ἐγείρας Χριστὸν ἐκ νεκρῶν ζῳοποιήσει καὶ τὰ θνητὰ σώματα ὑμῶν διὰ ἐνοικοῦντος αὐτοῦ πνεύματος ἐν ὑμῖν). In these passages, Paul expresses the connection between the resurrection of the dead and the resurrection of Christ and, especially in 2 Cor 4:14, Paul stresses that the future resurrection will occur with Jesus. Thus, the fellowship with Jesus that began at baptism finds its completion in participation in his resurrection615. Paul’s new interpretation of the resurrection of Christ is also seen in 1 Thess 4:14, though it is not explicitly expressed that God raised Jesus from the dead (1 Thess 1:10) and that God will consequently raise the believers (those who die in Christ) also from the dead. Thus, Paul’s formulation in 1 Thess 4:14ab is resurrection of Jesus and the resurrection of the Christ’s faithful is Pauline. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 224–​225, also pp. 45–​46. 614 He writes thus: Es ist kaum zu glauben, dass ihm die genannten drei Stellen (1 Kor 6, 14; 2 Kor 4, 14; Röm 8, 11) als ganze schon als Formeln vorgegeben waren. Man kann noch zeigen, wie Paulus die Analogie selbst entwickelt –​erstmalig in 1 Thess 4, 14, dann ausführlich in 1 Kor 15. Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, p. 38 footnote 3, also pp. 45–​46. 6 15 Cf. Jacob Kremer, “ἐγείρω”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), p. 374.

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associated with a number of structural inconsistencies. The awkwardness of the Greek formulation of 1 Thess 4:14b (οὕτως [καὶ ὁ θεὸς] τοὺς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ) has been noticed by many exegetes. Malherbe judges that the whole sentence in 1 Thess 4:14ab is grammatically incorrect for the reason that the sentence having begun in 1 Thess 4:14a with a conditional clause (εἰ γὰρ πιστεύομεν ὅτι: “for if we believe that”), is not followed by “a result or consequent clause” but it rather continues in 1 Thess 4:14b with a comparative clause (οὕτως καὶ: “so also/​too”)616. Thus the proper feature of conditional sentences which consist of a protasis (“if or conditional clause”) followed by its corresponding apodosis (“result or consequent clause”) is not strictly maintained here. Malherbe correctly observes that one expects the second clause in 1 Thess 4:14b to be symmetrical to the first (i.e. to the conditional clause which began in 1 Thess 4:14a) and read like “since (or for if) we believe, so we believe that (or it is necessary to believe that)”. This, however, happens not to be the formulation here and the contents of the two clauses appear to be different. Unlike in 1 Cor 6:14 and in 2 Cor 4:14 where Paul’s affirmation of Christ’s resurrection is directly followed by his affirmation of the resurrection of the Christ’s faithful, in 1 Thess 4:14 after his affirmation of Christ’s resurrection (1 Thess 4:14a), Paul rather “moves to the gathering at the parousia of those who have fallen asleep”617. While 1 Thess 4:14a talks about the death and the resurrection of Christ (i.e. Ἰησοῦς ἀπέθανεν καὶ ἀνέστη), verse 14b speaks of God’s eschatological act of salvation in favour of “those who have fallen asleep” (i.e. ὁ θεὸς τοὺς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ). Hoffmann also notices that the conditional sentence which begins with εἰ (“if ”) in verse 14a is rather interrupted in verse 14b by the comparative phrase οὕτως καί (“so too”) in verse 14b, so that verse 14b does not follow the normal trend of the Pauline formulation εἰ πιστεύομεν (as found elsewhere in Rom 8:11; 1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14), because the verse does not introduce a syllogism or synonymous parallelism like “since we believe that Jesus died and rose (from the dead), so too do we believe that God will raise those who have been asleep (from the dead)”618. The verbs found in 1 Thess 4:14 too appear to be out of tune with those verbs in the Pauline formulations in Rom 8:11, 1 Cor 6:14 and 2 Cor 4:14. While the verb ἀνέστη (“rose”) in verse 14a is expected to be built on in verse 14b with any of the verbs such as ἀναστήσονται (“shall rise”: cf. 1 Thess 4:16), ἐγερεῖ /​ ἐξεγερεῖ

6 16 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 265. 617 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 265–​266. 618 Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 212.

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(“shall raise”: see 1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14), or ζῳοποιήσει (“will give life to”: cf. Rom 8:11), the verse is rather developed in verse 14b by the verb ἄξει which is the indicative active future 3rd person singular of the verb ἄγειν (“to lead” or “to bring”, etc.) found in the phrase ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ (“shall bring with him”)619. The verb ἀναστήσονται which could have particularly followed ἀνέστη in an appearance in verse 14b shows up later in verse 16. Moreover, the prepositional phrases in verse 14b –​i.e. διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ (“through Jesus”) and σὺν αὐτῷ (“with him”) –​do not only make the translation of the verse difficult, but also its interpretation. While some exegetes prefer to link the prepositional phrase “through Jesus” (διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) to the preceding noun phrase “those who have fallen asleep” (τοὺς κοιμηθέντας) to read: “those who have fallen asleep through Jesus” (τοὺς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ)620, others connect this διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ to the verb ἄξει (“will bring”) to read: “God … will bring through Jesus” (ὁ θεὸς … διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει)621. Malherbe indicates that the Greek verse of 4:14b ὁ θεὸς τοὺς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ could literally translate as: “God those who had fallen asleep through Jesus will gather with him”, and he correctly remarks that it is not immediately obvious whether διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ (“through Jesus”) goes with the preceding τοὺς κοιμηθέντας (“those who had fallen asleep”) or with the verb ἄξει (“will gather”)622. According to him, when διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ is linked to τοὺς κοιμηθέντας what it signifies is unclear, and he prefers to link διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ with the verb ἄξει because for him “it is more natural to read διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ with ἄξει and to understand it (i.e. διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) as a genitive of instrument or agent”623. He explains further that the connection of διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ to ἄξει is in keeping with Paul’s use of the preposition διά with Christ to 619 Hoffmann remarks that the interpretation of the verb ἄγειν in the verse becomes difficult because the verb has no direct bearing on the predicates ἀναστήσονται, ἐγερεῖ /​ ἐξεγερεῖ, or ζῳοποιήσει, and aside from that the verb is not used here as a terminus technicus to refer to any of the named predicates. Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 216. 620 This phrase “those who have fallen asleep through Jesus” could be equated with “those who have fallen asleep in Christ” (τοὺς κοιμηθέντας ἐν Χριστῷ) in 1 Cor 15:18, or with “the dead in Christ” (οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ) in 1 Thess 4:16. For an elaborate discussion of this issue, confer: Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epitres aux Thessaloniciens, pp. 535–​537; Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, pp. 249–​254. 621 For an elaborate deliberation on the complexity of the interpretation of the prepositional phrase “διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ” which in the Pauline letters appears only here in 1 Thess 4:14, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 221–​223. 622 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 266. 623 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, op. cit., p. 266.

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mean that God –​who raised Christ (1 Thess 1:10) and will also raise the Christ’s faithful (Rom 8:11; 1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14) –​effects the resurrection of the believers in Christ διὰ τοῦ Χριστοῦ, i.e. through (God’s agent) Christ, just as he (God) will render judgement διὰ τοῦ Χριστοῦ, i.e. through Christ (Rom 2:16; cf. also Rom 5:9; 1 Thess 1:10)624. Sellin asserts that both expressions –​διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ and σὺν αὐτῷ –​depend on the verb ἄξει625. He explains that: “διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ [‘through 624 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, op. cit., p. 266. Luckensmeyer shares this opinion and he remarks that if διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ is taken with the verb ἄξει, then it (διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) would modify the verb ἄξει and function as an adverbial phrase of instrumentality, where Jesus is an intermediate agent of God’s action. He buttresses his point by indicating among others that elsewhere in the Pauline corpus resurrection is effected δι᾽ ἀνθρώπου (“through a human being”, i.e. Jesus, [1 Cor 15:21]); victory over death is granted διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (“through our Lord Jesus Christ [1 Cor 15:57]); eternal life is mediated “through Jesus Christ our Lord” (διὰ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν [Rom 5:21]); creation is mediated “through him” (δι᾽ αὐτοῦ, i.e. the Lord Jesus Christ [1 Cor 8:6]); and “for the day of Christ” (εἰς ἡμέραν Χριστοῦ [Phil 1:10]), the Philippians are filled with the fruit of righteousness “that (comes) through Jesus Christ” (τὸν διὰ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ [Phil 1:11]). Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 223. 625 Schneider, however, has a different opinion. He maintains that the verb ἄξει has connection only with σὺν αὐτῷ and διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ can be tied to τοὺς κοιμηθέντας. Cf. Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens: Eine exegetische Untersuchung von 1 Kor 15, 51-​52 and 1 Thess 4, 13-​18 (FB 97), Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 2000, pp. 260–​ 261, and footnote 589 of page 260 for the references of several commentators who rather share opinion with Sellin that διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ and σὺν αὐτῷ depend on the verb ἄξει. Apart from Schneider, most interpreters who associate διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ with τοὺς κοιμηθέντας do not share the opinion that both διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ and σὺν αὐτῷ depend on the verb ἄξει. Confer, for instance, E. H. Askwith, “The Eschatological Section of 1 Thessalonians”, p. 61; and also Lightfoot who does not consider the function of the preposition διά in 1 Thess 4:14b as an instrument but as “the διά of passage” and prefers to link the meaning of τοὺς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ (“those who have fallen asleep [or died] through Jesus”) with the nuance of οἱ κοιμηθέντες ἐν Χριστῷ (“those who have fallen asleep [or died] in Christ”) in 1 Cor 15:18. Cf. Joseph Barber Lightfoot, Notes on Epistles of St. Paul: From Unpublished Commentaries, New York: MacMillan and Co., 1895, pp. 64–​65. Askwith shares opinion with Lightfoot but he (Askwith) takes the preposition διά in this context for “the διά of attendant circumstances” because for him “the apostle (Paul) is speaking of those who had fallen asleep in the faith of Jesus who was raised from the dead.” Cf. E. H. Askwith, “The Eschatological Section of 1 Thessalonians”, pp. 62–​63. For more references to interpreters who connect διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ not with the verb ἄξει but with τοὺς κοιμηθέντας, confer Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, p. 259 footnote 586 (and also footnote 587 for some commentators’ reinterpretations (Umdeutungen) of the preposition διά in

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Jesus’], therefore, can only stay for the cause, or more precisely for the means and vehicle of the salvation [from God]” (διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ kann dann nur für die Ursache, oder genauer: das Mittel und Werkzeug der Erlösung stehen)626. Malherbe correctly observes that as it is evident in 1 Thess 5:9, God has appointed or called the Christ’s faithful to be saved “through our Lord Jesus Christ” (διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ), and this means hope (of salvation or of the resurrection of the dead) consists essentially in what God accomplishes “through Jesus” (διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ)627. Hoppe also asserts in this direction that by his use of the genitive of instrument διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ, Paul alludes to Jesus’ resurrection effected by God by virtue of which God will give life also to the dead in Christ who together with the living would participate in the parousia of the coming Lord Jesus Christ628. The complexity of the sentence formulation and the structure of 1 Thess 4:14ab (especially in Greek) does not, however, destroy the unity of the entire text and “the sense of Paul’s thought”629. That is to say, verses 14a and 14b do not stand apart from each other but they are closely connected. Malherbe correctly notes that the clauses in 1 Thess 4:14ab are not totally set apart because it is best to comprehend οὕτως καί (“so too”) in 1 Thess 4:14b as drawing an inference from the preceding clause εἰ γὰρ πιστεύομεν ὅτι (“for if we believe that”) in 1 Thess 4:14a630. Hoffmann shares the opinion that though there is lack of that this context). Hoppe is also among the many exegetes who take the preposition διά in this context for “the διά of instrument”. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 265 and footnote 200 for the references of some commentators who also interpret the preposition διά as an instrumental or causal διά. 626 Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, p. 45. Though Schneider does not share the opinion that both διά τοῦ Ἰησοῦ and σὺν αὐτῷ depend on the verb ἄξει, he prefers to translate the preposition διά here “with its basic causal meaning” (mit seiner kausalen Grundbedeutung). Cf. Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, p. 260 footnote 590. 627 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 266. 628 Hoppe writes thus: Mit dem instrumentalen διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ spielt er deshalb auf die Auferweckung Jesu durch Gott an und leitet von Gottes lebenstiftendem Wirken an Jesus sein Handeln auch an den Toten in Christus her, die dann in der paulinischen Vorstellung mit den Lebenden am Parusiezug des kommenden Jesus teilnehmen. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 265–​266. 629 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 223, and footnote 142. 630 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 266. Malherbe indicates that such inferences are also found elsewhere in the Pauline letters. Just as Rom 1:15, for instance, draws an inference from the preceding verse of Rom 1:14, Rom 6:11 makes an inference about Rom 6:10. See op. cit., p. 266.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

kind of syllogism between verses 14a and 14b, verse 14b links the resurrection of the Christ’s faithful to the content of the ὅτι-​phrase (i.e. ὅτι Ἰησοῦς ἀπέθανεν καὶ ἀνέστη: “that Jesus died and rose”) in verse 14a631. Becker finds the link between verses 14a and 14b in the verb ἄξει (ἄγειν) itself because according to him this verb ἄγειν (“to bring”; “to lead”) appears to be part of the “language of resurrection” (Auferstehungssprache)632. He explains that the discrepancy in the formulation is due to the fact that the dominant aspect of the parousia must come out much as the impact of the act of Jesus’ resurrection on the fate of the dead must be explained. Thus, in 1 Thess 4:14 Paul wants to say that at the parousia God will bring out the dead from their graves und bring them to the coming Christ633. It becomes evident in this connection that the belief in the resurrection of the dead which results from or is connected with Christ’s resurrection (1 Cor 6:14; Rom 8:11; 2 Cor 4:14) is also referred to in 1 Thess 4:14; only that here in 1 Thess 4:14 this belief is formulated differently in order for Paul to address particularly the pertinent Thessalonian problem or the uncertainty about the fate of the dead at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ634. Luckensmeyer shares opinion with 6 31 Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, pp. 212–​213, and footnote 25. 632 Becker bases his argument on the use of the compound verb ἀνάγειν (“to bring up”) in the NT to talk about the resurrection of Christ. Thus God, who brings out the dead from the abode of the dead, is the one who brings Jesus up (from the abyss of the dead) in Rom 10:7 and also in Heb 13:20 (see also 1sa 63:11 LXX). Cf. Jürgen Becker, Paulus: Der Apostel der Völker (UTB 2014), Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1998, p. 151. Hoppe too shares the view that Paul refers to the resurrection of those who have fallen asleep (the dead) when he speaks of ἄγειν σὺν αὐτῷ, and he (Hoppe) finds a connection between the verb ἀνάγειν in Rom 10:7 and the use of ἐγείρειν in Rom 10:9. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 265, and footnote 199. Schade also maintains that the verb ἄξει in 1 Thess 4:14 has something to do with resurrection because though there is distortion in the protasis and apodosis so far as the formulation of 1 Thess 4:14ab is concerned, Jesus’ resurrection corresponds to the act of bringing the dead with Jesus and, therefore, to the resurrection of the dead. Cf. Hans-​Heinrich Schade, Apokalyptische Christologie bei Paulus: Studien zum Zusammenhang von Christologie und Eschatologie in den Paulusbriefen (GTA 18), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981, p. 145. 633 He writes thus: Durch die besondere Sprachführung wird festhalten, dass die Dominanz des Parusieaspektes erhalten bleibt und zugleich das auferweckende Handeln angedeutet ist. Paulus will sagen: Gott führt bei der Parusie die Toten aus den Gräbern heraus und hin zum kommenden Christus (vgl. 2. Kor 4, 14). Cf. Jürgen Becker, Paulus: Der Apostel der Völker, p. 151. 634 Cf. Jürgen Becker, Paulus: Der Apostel der Völker, p. 151.

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Köster that although there are implications for the resurrection of the dead in Christ, the crux of the pericope does not lie in resurrection, but in the communal question of whether the dead will be united with the living to meet the Lord at the parousia635. Luckensmeyer suggests that if emphasis remained on resurrection but not on the parousia, Paul would have repeated the verb ἀνέστη (or used ἐγείρειν) in a properly constructed apodosis636. Thus, the Christian hope is ultimately to be with the Lord (1 Thess 4:14b, 17), and with the assurance that the dead and the living will meet the Lord at his parousia (1 Thess 4:15-​17) Paul gives the reason why the Christ’s faitful in Thessalonica should not grieve for the dead like the rest who have no hope (1 Thess 4:13). Hoppe also maintains that Paul’s formulation in verse 14a cannot continue normally in verse 14b because God’s act (of salvation), especially on behalf of the dead, was the decisive knowledge which was vague or lacking in the Christian community in Thessalonica, and that in verse14b Paul saw the need to pay particular attention to intensify their knowledge about the fate of the dead Christians (at the parousia of the Lord)637. He explains further that in verse 14b Paul wants to bring out the certainty of the assurance of faith that he presents, i. e. by virtue of God’s act of salvation, the fate of the dead will take a positive turn638. This God’s act of salvation on behalf of the dead is not separated from the resurrection of Christ because as Giesen puts it: “It is understood here in 1 Thess 4:14 that Jesus’ resurrection is the condition for the meeting with the Lord at his parousia” (Hier in 1 Thess 4, 14 ist die Auferweckung Jesu verstanden als Voraussetzung für die Begegnung mit dem Herrn bei seiner Parusie)639. An aspect of theological importance in 1 Thess 4:14 is the shift of subject or focus from Jesus Christ to God. This Pauline style of writing is also found in 1 Thess 1:9-​10 where in verse 9 the focus is on God but in verse 10 the subject shifts from God to Jesus. Such a change or shift in subject seeks to emphasize the respective functions of God (the father) and Jesus Christ (the son) in salvation history which began from the OT and finds its fulfillment (through Jesus Christ) in the NT. Hoffmann correctly asserts that through the formulation in 1 Thess 635 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 224 footnote 148; Helmut Köster, “Imperial Ideology and Paul’s Eschatology in 1 Thessalonians”, in: R. A. Horsley (1997) 158–​166, here page 159. 636 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 224. 637 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 264–​265. 638 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, op. cit., pp. 264–​265. 639 Cf. Heinz Giesen, “Naherwartung des Paulus in 1 Thess 4, 13-​18?”, in: SNTU.A 10 (1985) 123–​150, here page 129.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

4:14b, focus is shifted from the talk on the death and resurrection of Jesus in 1 Thess 4:14a to the positive statement ἄξει (“will bring”) which forms the main predicate in verse 14b and introduces God as the subject of this act640. Thus, the death and resurrection of Christ have a positive impact also “on those who have fallen asleep” but it is God who will effect the act of bringing (together) with him those who have fallen asleep (τοὺς κοιμηθέντας). Rigaux remarks in this regard that: “ὁ θεός, with the article seeks to emphasize here that it is this God that you serve and only he will raise the dead to life” (ὁ θεός, avec l’article marque ici l’emphase, ce Dieu que vous servez et celui-​là seul ressuscitera les morts)641. Nonetheless, this act of salvation will be carried out “through Jesus” (διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) who is God’s agent in salvation history642. It appears that over the years it has not been easy for exegetes to interpret the prepositional phrase σὺν αὐτῷ with regard to the question as to whether σὺν αὐτῷ refers to with him “God” or with him “Jesus”. This expression consists of the preposition σύν643 and αὐτός644. This preposition σύν is followed by a noun (or a pronoun) in the dative case, 640 Hoffmann writes thus: „Dieser Tendenz entspricht es, dass an Stelle des Nebeneinanders von Tod und Erweckung im Vordergrund im Nachsatz allein die positive Aussage ἄξει das Prädikat bildet und als Subjekt dieses Geschehens ὁ θεός eingeführt wird“. Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 213. Hoppe also shares this opinion that the distortion in the formulation through the verb ἄξει in verse 14b results in a change of subject from Jesus to God and talks about God’s act of salvation on behalf of the dead which will take place in the future through Jesus Christ. He writes thus: Die Konstruktion is dabei nicht konsequent, denn Paulus fährt nicht sinngemäß fort: „so glauben wir, dass die Verstorbenen auferstehen werden“ oder „dass Gott die Verstorbenen (durch Jesus) auferstehen lässt“. Stattdessen verbindet er mit dem Subjektwechsel von Jesus zu Gott einen folgernden Vergleich und formuliert eine ‚objektivierende‘ Aussage über das in Zukunft durch Jesus ergehende Handeln Gottes an den Verstorbenen. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 264, and footnote 195. 641 Cf. Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epîtres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 535. 642 Hoffmann remarks that: “The thought of Christ as the eschatological mediator is brought to bear in the thought developed [here in verse 14b]” (Der Gedanke an Christus als den eschatologischen Heilsmittler fügt sich dem Gedankengang gut ein). Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, pp. 215–​216. 643 The preposition σύν is used here as a “marker of accompaniment and association”, and especially “with him” –​dative of person –​it means “with” in the sense of “in association or in company with”. For the various meanings of σύν, confer BDAG, pp. 961–​962 §§ 1–​3, especially § 1. 644 Αὐτός can be 3rd person personal pronoun, “a reference to a definite person or thing: he, she, it”, but αὐτός can also have a reflexive meaning “self ”, i.e. himself, herself, itself. For the various meanings of αὐτός, confer BDAG, pp. 152–​153 §§ 1–​3, especially § 2.

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hence the prepositional phrase σὺν αὐτῷ (“with him”). The complexity of the interpretation of this expression lies not in its translation but in the determination of whether αὐτός refers here in 1 Thess 4:14b to Jesus or to God. While some exegetes prefer to associate αὐτός with Jesus645, others link it to God646, and it appears that still others interpret the verse but they do not dare to indicate whether αὐτός alludes specifically to God or to Jesus Christ. The interpretation that both the prepositional phrases διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ and σὺν αὐτῷ depend on the verb ἄξει renders God as the principal figure in 1 Thess 4:14b. While the prepositional phrase διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ determines Jesus as the instrument of God’s saving act, the prepositional phrase σὺν αὐτῷ alludes to the union of “those who have fallen asleep” with God. It is God who brings his people together with himself –​or as Schneider puts it with God himself647 –​but through Jesus who is God’s instrument. The literal meaning of the verb ἄγειν: “to bring”, “to lead”, etc. does not suffice to bring out the intended meaning of the verb as Paul uses it in 1 Thess 4:14. Elsewhere in the Pauline corpus, Paul uses the verb in the sense of “to lead and to guide morally or spiritually” (Rom 2:4; 1 Cor 12:2; Gal 5:18)648. Some exegetes, therefore, make use of the compound verbs of ἄγειν in their interpretation of ἄξει 645 Hoppe, for one, prefers to render ὁ θεὸς τοὺς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ as: “God will bring through Jesus the dead with him [Jesus]” (Gott wird durch Jesus die Verstorbenen mit ihm [Jesus] führen), and he maintains that Jesus’ resurrection (1 Thess 4:14a) is connected with God’s act of salvation on behalf of the dead because: “Its decisive condition [id est: conditio sine qua non] is Jesus’ resurrection to which is connected the bringing together with the resurrected one [Jesus Christ] those who have fallen asleep” (Deren entscheidende Voraussetzung ist die Auferstehung Jesu, aus ihr erschließt sich die Zusammenführung der Entschlafenen mit dem Auferweckten). Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 265. 646 Schneider, for instance, renders ὁ θεὸς ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ as: “God will bring together with himself” (Gott wird mit sich zusammenführen). Thus Schneider associates αὐτός with God by emphasizing rather on the reflexive meaning of αὐτός (“self ”) which is basically used for emphasis. Cf. Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, p. 261. Confer also Norbert Baumert /​Maria-​Irma Seewann, In der Gegenwart des Herrn: Übersetzung und Auslegung des ersten und zweiten Briefes an die Thessalonicher, Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 2014, pp. 55, 57. For the meaning of αὐτός as “self ” confer, Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 85 § 1; BDAG, p. 152 § 1. 647 Cf. Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, p. 261. 648 See also Rom 8:14. The text 2 Tim 4:11 appears to be the passage in which the author uses ἄγειν directly with a preposition, i.e. ἄγε μετὰ σεαυτοῦ (“bring with you”); cf. also εἰς μετάνοιάν σε ἄγει (“would lead you to repentance”) in Rom 2:4.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

in 1 Thess 4:14649. In the Vulgate, for instance, Jerome does not translate ἄξει into Latin literally as ducet (from the infinitive ducere [“to lead or to bring”]) but as the compound verb adducet (from the infinitive adducere [“to lead or bring to/​ towards”; “to bring or pull together”]). It becomes evident in such a translation that what is implied in the verb ἄξει is a movement from one place to another. Luckensmeyer correctly remarks that most commentators take ἄξει in 1 Thess 4:14 literally and interpret it as implying a direction of movement of an object from one position to another, and as a result the discussion tends to concentrate on the implied direction of movement and the goal of the verb ἄξει650. Rigaux maintains that: “Paul does not want to say that God will bring the dead from heaven with Jesus, but that God will lead them to heaven with him. The point of thought focuses more on the reunion with Jesus on the day of retribution than the union with him” (Paul ne veut pas dire que Dieu ramènera les morts du ciel avec Jésus, mais que Dieu les mènera au ciel avec lui. La pointe de la pensée porte plus sur la réunion avec Jésus au jour de la rétribution que sur l’union avec lui)651. 649 It is worthy of note that even in some Pauline passages where ἄγειν appears, some manuscripts replace the verb with its appropriate compound verb. For instance in Rom 2:4, some manuscripts read ἐνάγει (cf. the verb εἰσάγειν [“to bring or lead in/​ into”]) instead of ἄγει; in 1 Cor 12:2 some manuscripts read ἀνήγεσθε (from the verb ἀνάγειν [“to lead or to bring up”; “to bring before”]) instead of ἤγεσθε; and in 2 Tim 4:11 some manuscripts read ἀνάγαγε (from the verb ἀνάγειν) instead of ἄγε. Cf. Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger (Hrsg.), Novum Testamentum Graece, 28. Revidierte Auflage, hrsg. vom Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung Münster unter Leitung von Holger Strutwolf, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2012. 650 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 224. 651 Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epîtres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 537. Légasse remarks that, far from 1 Thess 4:17, the expression with the verb ἄγειν in verse 14b should be understood as existencial but not local or place. He, however, shares opinion with Rigaux that the point of thought (in 1 Thess 4:14b) focuses more on the reunion with Jesus on the day of retribution than the union with him. He writes thus: L’expression est existentielle, non locale, comme plus loin au verset 17. Mais il est vrai de dire, avec Rigaux, que “La pointe de la pensée porte plus sur la réunion avec Jésus au jour de la rétribution que sur l’union avec lui”. Légasse asserts that the verb ἄξει expresses indeed an act of the parousia and it seeks only to stress that God will bring the dead in a state of communion with Christ (see 1 Thess 4:17). Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 249, footnotes 2 and 3. The exegetes who deduce a “direction or movement” from the verb ἄγειν in 1 Thess 4:14b rather link their discussion with the expression “to meet the Lord in the air” (εἰς ἀπάντησιν τοῦ κυρίου εἰς ἀέρα) in 1 Thess 4:17. For more details of this discussion, confer David Luckensmeyer, The

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Luckensmeyer suggests that attempts to elicit a direction from the verb ἄγειν in 1 Thess 4:14 misses the point because through the use of ἄγειν Paul has purposefully avoided technical resurrection language in verse 14b in order to highlight solidarity between ekklēsia members and Jesus652. Malherbe has a point when he opines that the literal meaning of the verb ἄγειν –​ “to lead” or “to bring” –​ does not come out in the verse better than the translation “to gather” (συνάγειν). Consequently, he prefers to render the expression ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ as “will gather with him” to “will lead or bring with him” because for him the action described here is the “eschatological gathering”653. In this connection, Malherbe associates ἄξει in the verse (1 Thess 4:14b) with the theme of “God gathering his people which finds expression in the OT (e.g. Isa 11:12; 43:5; Ezk 11:17654)655. It is worthy of mention here that in the OT this theme of God gathering his people (Israel or the nations) is expressed mostly by the verbs ‫ אָ סַ ף‬and ‫ קָ בַ ץ‬which can be used transitively (in the modifications qal and pi‘el) to mean “to gather (people together)” or “to assemble”; and instransitvely, in the passive, or reflexively (in the modifications qal, nifal, pual and hitpa‘el) to mean “to be gathered”, “to be assembled”, or “to gather together”, “to assemble (together)”656. In the LXX these synonymous Hebrew verbs are mostly rendered as συνάγειν (“to cause to come together”/​“to gather in”; “to bring together with” /​“to lead or bring to”; and “to bring together, i.e. in the sense of “to reconcile”)657. There are instances where God gathers his people from exile (Isa 11:12; 43:5;

Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 260–​268; Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, pp. 264–​267. 652 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 225. 653 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 266. Hoffmann, however, maintains emphatically that the verb ἄγειν in this context can mean nothing more than its literal meanings in the dictionaries (“to bring”, “to lead [to]”), and that it does not by itself carry any eschatological meaning but it functions here as parallel to ἀνέστη by virtue of its link with σὺν αὐτῷ and with the eschatological character of the whole passage. Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 216. 654 See also Zech 12:3. 655 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 266. 656 Cf. David J. A. Clines (editor), The Concise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, pp. 27–​28 (for the nuance of ‫ )אָ סַ ף‬and pp. 386–​387 (for the meaning of ‫)קָ בַ ץ‬. Another Hebrew verb to be considered in this connection is ‫( קָ וַה‬II) in the modification nifal which in Jer 3:17 refers to the “gathering of all nations in Jerusalem” which will take place “at that point of time or at the appointed time” (‫[ ּבָ עֵ ת הַ ִהיא‬cf. ἐν τῷ καιρῷ ἐκείνῳ in the LXX]). 657 For the various meanings of the Greek συνάγειν, cf. BDAG, p. 962 §§ 1, 2, and 3.

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Ezk 11:17)658, and this gathering is prompted by the fact that these people of God (Israel and Judah) are scattered or dispersed among the nations. It is, especially, “the scattered or dispersed people” (see ‫ נְ פֻצֹות‬and its Greek equivalent τοὺς διεσπαρμένους in Isa 11:12 [MT and LXX])659 which God seeks to bring together. God, however, gathers also the nations together (Jer 21:4; Zeph 3:8). In these passages where God is the subject of the act of gathering, the verb συνάγειν (the Greek equivalent of the synonymous Hebrew verbs ‫ אָ סַ ף‬and ‫ )קָ בַ ץ‬is mostly giving in the future660 because such a gathering points to the future. In 1 Thess 4:14b too, God is the subject of the verb ἄξει and the act of God bringing together the dead (and the living) points at the event of the Lord’s parousia in the future. By his use of ἄγειν Paul plays on the nuance of the compound verbs συνάγειν, ἐπισυνάγειν, etc. which translate ‫ אָ סַ ף‬and ‫( קָ בַ ץ‬cf. also ‫[ קָ וַה‬II] in Jer 3:17) in the LXX. Paul uses the compound verb συνάγειν elsewhere in his letters but only once (in 1 Cor 5:4), and in that context he does not speak about God gathering his people but about the people who gather together in worship of God. The substantive ἐπισυναγωγή661 (“a gathering together to or toward at some location”; “a meeting”) is, however, used once in 2 Thess 2:1. In that context the writer refers specifically to “our assembling with ihm” (ἡμῶν ἐπισυναγωγῆς ἐπ᾽ αὐτὸν), i.e. with the Lord Jesus Christ at his parousia. Paul’s use of ἄγειν in 1 Thess 4:14b can be equated with the use of ἐπισυναγωγή (cf. also ἐπισυνάγειν) in 2 Thess 2:1 because in 1 Thess 4:14b, Paul uses ἄγειν in a context where he speaks about God’s assembling of the dead with himself through Jesus Christ at the parousia. Thus, Paul’s proclamation or teaching about the bringing together of (the dead and the living) Christ’s faithful at the parousia of the Lord is rooted in the theme of God assembling his people “on that day” (‫[ ּבַ ּיֹום הַ הּוא‬cf. ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἐκείνῃ in

6 58 See also Mic 2:12; 4:6. 659 See also ‫“( ּפּוצַ י‬my scattered people”) in Zeph 3:10. The passive participle ‫ ּפּוצַ י‬is from the verb ‫ פוץ‬which in the modification qal can be used intransitively to mean “to scatter”. 660 Cf. συνάξει in Isa 11:12; Jer 38:10 LXX; συνάξω in Isa 43:5; Jer 21:4; Ezk 11:17; Mic 4:6 LXX; συναχθήσεται in Mic 2:12 LXX. 661 This substantive is from the verb ἐπισυνάγειν (“to gather together”) which never appears in the Pauline corpus. In the LXX, ἐπισυνάγειν is the rendition of the Hebrew verb ‫ אָ סַ ף‬in Zech 12:3, and in that passage the emphasis is on the metaphor of Jerusalem as a rock on which the nations will gather themselves. In Zech 14:2 also, the verb is used to describe how God will assemble the nations in Jerusalem. Cf. also 2 Macc 2:7, 18 where ἐπισυνάγειν and its substanstive ἐπισυναγωγή are used to describe God’s gathering of his people.

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the LXX]). Moreover, there are instances in the LXX where ἄγειν is found in contexts where God brings together his people, and in these passages ἄγειν translates the Hebrew verb ‫ ּבֹוא‬which in the modification hifil means “to bring”662. The passages in which ‫ ּבֹוא‬functions in this way with ‫ אָ סַ ף‬and ‫ קָ בַ ץ‬include Isa 43:5663 and Jer 31:8. In such contexts the implied purpose for God’s act of bringing (back) his scathered people is to assemble them (together) with (God) himself. The expression ὁ θεὸς … διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ in 1 Thess 4:14b, therefore, should be understood in the sense of God bringing together (συνάξει) through Jesus (the agent of God’s salvation plan) with him (God) “those who have fallen asleep” (τοὺς κοιμηθέντας). The reunion of the dead with Jesus at his parousia, of course, features prominently in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11. This reunion of the dead with Jesus –​which means a participation in his glory and victory as the resurrected Christ –​is rather elaborated especially in 1 Thess 4:17 and in 1 Thess 5:10. It is worthy to note that while the preposition σύν in 1 Thess 4:14b is a “marker of accompaniment and association”, the σύν in 1 Thess 4:17 and in 1 Thess 5:10 is a “marker of linkage” (i.e., “with”, “in addition to”), and σύν is used in this sense in those contexts (1 Thess 4:17; 5:10) precisely in combination with the particle ἅμα (which can be used as a “marker of simultaneous occurrence” or as a “marker of association”)664. A perfect instance where an author speaks of God and Jesus, shifts focus from God to Jesus as the subject of an action but uses the prepositional phrase σὺν αὐτῷ to refer to Jesus is found in Col 2:13ab: “And even when you were dead [in] transgressions and the uncircumcision of your flesh, he brought you to life along with him” (Καὶ ὑμᾶς νεκροὺς ὄντας [ἐν] τοῖς παραπτώμασιν καὶ τῇ ἀκροβυστίᾳ τῆς σαρκὸς ὑμῶν, συνεζωοποίησεν ὑμᾶς σύν αὐτῷ)665. By interpretation and 662 Rigaux shares the opinion that ἄξει in 1 Thess 4:14b has its Semitic roots in the Hebrew verb ‫ ּבֹוא‬in the modification hifil. Cf. Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epîtres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 537. 663 Isa 43:5b in the MT reads: ‫ ִ;מ ִּמז ְָרח֙ אָ ִ ֣ביא ז ְַר ֔ ֶעָך ִּומּמַ ע ֲָרב אֲ קַ ְּב ֶ ֽצ ָּך‬and in the LXX: ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν ἄξω τὸ σπέρμα σου, καὶ ἀπὸ δυσμῶν συνάξω σε (“I will bring your seed [offspring or descendants] from the east and will gather thee from the west”). Thus, in Isaiah 43:5, God brings (back) his people who are scathered and gathers them (together). Confer also εἰσάξω (a future tense of the compound verb εἰσάγειν: “to bring or lead into”) which is the LXX rendition of ‫( ּבֹוא‬in hifil) in Neh 1:9; Ezk 34:13; 36:24; 37:21; Zech 10:10. 664 Cf. BDAG, pp. 961–​962 §§ 1 and 3. For the use of the particle ἅμα, confer BDAG, p. 49 §§ 1–​2. 665 This verse (Col 2:13ab) is more understandable when one reads it within the context of Col 2:4-​15.

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translation, it is evident that God is the subject of the verb συνεζωοποίησεν and that the prepositional phrase σύν αὐτῷ alludes to Jesus in this context. Consequently, some translators confidently render συνεζωοποίησεν ὑμᾶς σύν αὐτῷ in Col 2:13 as: “God gave you new life in company with Christ” (NAB); or Gott aber hat euch mit Christus zusammen lebendig gemacht666. An interpreter can, therefore, assert without mincing words that: “Thereupon God ‘brings us to life together with Christ’ (Eph 2:5; Col 2:13), so that now we ‘live together with him’667 (Rom 6:8; 2 Tim 2:11), because having died with Christ, we are raised up with him (Eph 2:6; Col 2:12; 3:1). Thus is completed the process whereby we ‘become like Christ’ (Phil 3:10), ‘conformed’ to him (Rom 8:29; Phil 3:21)”668.

The context in Col 2:13ab, however, cannot be equated with that of 1 Thess 4:14b, because in 1 Thess 4:14b, the focus is not yet on the union with Christ at his parousia but on the union with God whose ultimate aim is to bring together his people in close union with himself. God accomplishes this purpose through Jesus Christ, whose instrumental role as mediator is primarily emphasized here in 1 Thess 4:14b. Schneider remarks correctly that: “When Jesus is namely the ‘instrument’ [διά] through whose help God works on behalf of the dead, they [i.e., the dead] already have association with Jesus in the course of this act. The statement that the aim of the whole event is ‘association with Jesus’ [σὺν αὐτῷ] is, thus, superfluous and disruptive” (Wenn nämlich Jesus das „Werkzeug“ [διά] ist, mit dessen Hilfe Gott an den Entschlafenen wirkt, haben sie bereits während dieser Handlung mit Jesus Gemeinschaft. Die Aussage, das Ziel des ganzen Geschehens sei „Gemeinschaft mit Jesus“ [σὺν αὐτῷ], ist daher überflüssig und störend)669.

One factor which appears to be a hindrance to a consensual interpretation of 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11 is Paul’s use of the name or title κύριος (“Lord”) or with the article ὁ κύριος (“the Lord”)670. This title κύριος or ὁ κύριος is the LXX translation of the Hebrew ‫( יְ הוָה‬Exod 13:3, 9, 11671, etc.) which is to be read as ‫( אֲ דֹ נָי‬in the 666 Cf. Die Bibel: Einheitsübersetzung der Heiligen Schrift, Gesamtausgabe (1. Aufl.) (Die Paulinischen Briefe), Stuttgart: Verlag Katholische Bibelanstalt, 2017, p. 1360. 667 The original Greek expression reads συζήσομεν αὐτῷ. 668 Brendan McGrath, “ ‘Syn’ Words in Saint Paul”, in: CBQ 14 (1952) 219–​226, here page 226. 669 Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, p. 260. 670 The word κύριος comprises of the terms ὁ ἔχων κῦρος (“having power or authority” –​ i.e. “Lord”, “master”, etc.) Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 365. 671 The LXX explains ‫ יְ הוָה‬here in Exod 13:9, 11 by adding with emphasis ὁ θεὸς, i.e., κύριος ὁ θεὸς (“the Lord God”).

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LXX Αδωναι –​ i.e., Adōnai –​ [confer Jdg 13:8b; 16:28b])672. In the NT, ὁ κύριος can refer to God but most often it is a title for Jesus, the Christ673. It is worthwhile, therefore, to ask whether in this pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​5:11) –​specifically in the context of Paul’s teachings about eschatology, parousia (of the Lord), the gathering or bringing together of God’s people, the ultimate union with (the Lord), and about other apocalyptic motifs or imageries which are mostly predominant in the OT and in other Jewish literature –​Paul uses ὁ κύριος (“the Lord”) to refer to God or to Jesus, the Christ674. Most scholars, unfortunately, take it for granted that in this pericope whenever Paul talks about ὁ κύριος he means Jesus Christ675. It can be noticed that in this passage (1 Thess 4:13-​5:11), in all the verses where Paul mentions God, the name of Jesus, the Christ appears (4:14ab, 16; 5:9), and in these verses Paul assigns specific features and function(s) to God and Jesus Christ676. It appears that the title ὁ κύριος (“the Lord”) in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11 is a neutral term which can either refer to God or to Jesus Christ depending on particular roles and functions Paul assigns to every one of them within a particular verse or verses. Apart from 1 Thess 5:9 which reads “through our Lord Jesus Christ” (διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ) and in 4:15b where the manuscript B reads “of the Lord Jesus” (τοῦ Ἰησοῦ κυρίου), the possibility that the title ὁ κύριος refers to Jesus or to God is not so evident in all the verses where the title appears (see 1 Thess 4:15a, 15b, 16a, 17a, 17b; 5:2, 9). Even if each of the titles ὁ κύριος in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11 must be a reference to Jesus Christ, the specific roles and functions of God that Paul highlights in this pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​5:11) –​ especially in 1 Thess 4:14b –​must not be toned down so as to make Jesus Christ appear to be the only principal figure in this passage (1 Thess 4:13-​5:11).

672 For more information on the use of this title ‫ יְ הוָה‬in the OT, confer: David J. A. Clines et al. (editors), DCH 4 (1998), pp. 122 ff. 673 Cf. BDAG, pp. 577–​578 § 2. 674 There are instances in the Pauline letters where ὁ κύριος is used to refer specifically to God (2 Thess 3:3; see also 2 Tim 1:16, 18). Cf. BDAG, p. 577 § 2. Dunn remarks in an article which examines the use of the title κύριος in Acts that the author of Luke-​Acts can use this title for both God and Jesus. Cf. James D. G. Dunn, “Κύριος in Acts”, in: Landmesser/​Eckstein/​Lichtenberger (1997) 363–​378, here pages 377–​378. 675 Thayer remarks correctly that: “There are some [interpreters] who hold that Paul (except in his quotations from the OT viz. Rom 4:8; 9:28 sq; 11:34; 1 Cor 1:31; 2:16; 3:20; 10:26; 2 Cor 6:17 sq.; 10:17; 2 Tim 2:19) uses the title κύριος everywhere not of God, but of Christ”.Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 366 § d. 676 Confer also 1 Thess 1:10 for the specific functions Paul allots to God and Jesus Christ.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

Most commentators interpret the prepositional phrase σὺν αὐτῷ in 1 Thess 4:14b in connection with the prepositional phrases σὺν κυρίῳ ἐσόμεθα –​“we shall be with the Lord” (1 Thess 4:17) and σὺν αὐτῷ ζήσωμεν –​“we shall live with the Lord” (1 Thess 5:10), and conclude that σὺν αὐτῷ in 1 Thess 4:14b should be understood as “union with Jesus Christ”. Kim, for instance, writes: “The phrase σὺν αὐτῷ of verse 14 has to be interpreted in the light of its elaboration in 4:17 and 5:10. In 4:15-​17, in unfolding and substantiating the summary conclusion of 4:14 on the basis of ‘the word of the Lord’, Paul first of all states in verse 15b the implication of ‘the word of the Lord’ which he is about to give … By paraphrasing the ‘word of the Lord’ in 4:16-​17a, Paul substantiates the part of the conclusion, ὁ θεὸς τοῦς κοιμηθέντας διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἄξει, of 4:14 as well as the implication he drew in verse 15b from the ‘word of the Lord’. However, Paul draws another implication in verse 17b from the ‘word of the Lord’ paraphrased in verses 16-​17a: ‘And so we shall always be with the Lord.’ This (together with the part of the ‘word of the Lord’ cited in verse 17a) clearly unfolds and substantiates the ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ of 4:14. This means that we must understand the phrase ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ of 4:14 in the sense of the phrase σὺν κυρίῳ ἐσόμεθα of 4:17: ‘to be with him’. This confirms A. Malherbe’s view: ‘the meaning of syn autō is equivalent to eis to einai autous syn auto”677.

Though 1 Thess 4:14 must be interpreted in connection with 1 Thess 4:15-​17 –​ and of course with the entire pericope –​, this text (1 Thess 4:14) must be handled or treated first and foremost as a text that can stand on its own. Moreover, the specific functions and roles of God and Jesus Christ in 4:14ab should be the primary focus in the interpretation of this text (4:14) because these specific functions dertermine correctly whom σὺν αὐτῷ refers to in 1 Thess 4:14. If it is understood that God is the subject of the act of “bringing together” his people and that Jesus is here the instrument through whom God gathers his people, then those who are to be brought together should definitely be with God –​the one who brings his people together but not with Jesus, who in this context plays solely an instrumental role. In his effort to trace the tradition behind Paul’s expression “a word of the Lord” (1 Thess 4:15a), Kim finds the source in the Jesus tradition –​precisely in Mt 24:30-​31//​Mk 13:26-​27, and he writes: “Many commentators see in [1 Thess] 4:16-​17 an echo of the Synoptic saying of the Son of Man coming on clouds and sending out his angels with a loud trumpet call to gather the elect”678.

677 Cf. Seyoon Kim, “The Jesus Tradition in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11”, in: NTS 48 (2002) 225–​ 242, here pp. 226–​227. 678 Cf. Seyoon Kim, op. cit., page 233.

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To buttress this point, Kim writes: “So really the question is whether Paul could not have interpreted the idea of the Son of Man ‘gathering his elect’ from the four corners of heaven or of heaven and earth through his angels (Mt 24:31 //​Mk 13:27)679 as implying the resurrection of the dead believers in view of the concerns of the Thessalonians. From the saying of Jesus Paul could clearly have understood that all the elect, both the dead and the living, would be with the Son of Man or the Lord. Then, he could have seen that it presupposed the prior resurrection of the dead believers. In view of the Thessalonians’ anxiety, Paul is stressing this implication of the saying (4:14b, 16b)”680.

In Mt 24:31//​Mk 13:27, the roles of the characters (the Son of Man and the angels) are clearly specified, i.e., the Son of Man gathers his elect but he carries out this act through his angels (Mt 24:31) and at the end of it all, the elect would not be with the angels –​through whom the Son of Man gathers his people –​but rather with the Son of Man himself, who is the principal subject of this act in this context. In 1 Thess 4:14b, however, it is God who gathers or brings together his people but through Jesus, and so here in 1 Thess 4:14b the people God brings together will be with God himself, and not with Jesus who in this context plays an instrumental role681. The union of the dead and the living with Christ is rather more evident in 1 Thess 4:17; 5:10682. Sellin rightly asserts that: 679 In Mt 24:31 //​Mk 13:27, the verb for the “act of gathering together” is ἐπισυνάγειν. While in Mt 24:31 the emphasis is on the angels who will bring together the elect of Christ (the Son of Man) –​i.e., “And they [the angels] will bring together his [Christ’s] elect” (καὶ ἐπισυνάξουσιν τοὺς ἐκλεκτοὺς αὐτοῦ) –​, in Mk 13:27 it is the Son of Man himself who brings together his elect –​i.e., “And he [the Son of Man] will gather his elect” (καὶ ἐπισυνάξει τοὺς ἐκλεκτοὺς αὐτοῦ). 680 Cf. Seyoon Kim, “The Jesus Tradition in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11”, page 234. 681 It is worthy to mention here that Paul speaks nowhere in his main letters about “Son of Man”, and it is even questionable if he does know any such tradition about the “Son of Man”. Hahn, for one, asserts categorically that: “An indirect reference to the Son of man tradition in Paul is unlikely…. ‘Son of man’ does not appear in Paul”. Cf. Ferdinand Hahn, “υἱός”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), pp. 381–​392, here pages 390–​391. For Hahn’s comments on the citation of Ps 8:5 in Heb 2:6, the citation of Ps 8:7b in 1 Cor 15:27, and the statements about Christ as “the man [or person]” in 1 Cor 15:21, 47; Rom 5:15, and also in 1 Tim 2:5-​6, confer Ferdinand Hahn, op. cit., pages 390–​391. 682 Siber, for instance, can only assume that 1 Thess 4:14 may also be talking about the union with Christ at his parousia. He writes thus: “It is, therefore, likely that the ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ in 1 Thess 4:14 too would like to express not only a single course within the events on the final day, but also to express extensively the eschatological ultimate condition or final state of the union with Christ” (Es is darum wahrscheinlich, dass auch das ἄξει σὺν αὐτῷ in 1. Thess 4, 14 nicht nur einen Einzelvorgang innerhalb der

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

“The [issue of] ‘being-​with-​Christ’ is also the salvation which the Thessalonians are expecting [and hoping for]. The open question is only whether the dead [in Christ] will be part of it [i.e., the parousia]. To affirm this is exactly the aim for Paul’s explanations found in 1 Thess 4:17 and 5:10” (Das σὺν–​Χριστῷ–​Sein ist das auch von den Thessalonichern erwartete Heilsgut. Offen ist nur, ob die Toten dabeisein werden. Genau das zu bejahen, ist nach 4, 17 und 5, 10 Ziel der paulinuschen Ausführungen)683.

There is an inseparable relationship between Christ and the Christ’s faithful, and believing in the resurrection of Jesus (1 Thess 4:14a) means believing also in the participation of the believer in Jesus’ exaltation in the heavenly kingdom (1 Thess 4:17; 5:10). Hence, at the parousia of the Lord, “those who have fallen asleep” (τοὺς κοιμηθέντας) will not be left out but will be with the Lord together with the living684. In 1 Thess 4:15-​17, Paul elaborates further on the assurance of the belief in the resurrection of the dead and how the bringing together of the dead and the living at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ shall be effected.

2.1. (iii). 1 Thess 4:15 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:15 (with Notes) 15a. Τοῦτο γὰρ ὑμῖν λέγομεν ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου, 15b. ὅτι ἡμεῖς οἱ ζῶντες οἱ περιλειπόμενοι εἰς τὴν παρουσίαν τοῦ (Ἰησοῦ685) κυρίου οὐ μὴ φθάσωμεν τοὺς κοιμηθέντας.

15a. For we tell you this by a word of the Lord, 15b. that we who are alive, who are left until the coming of (Jesus) the Lord, will not at all have precedence over those who have fallen asleep.

Notes: The demonstrative pronoun τοῦτο (“this”) is given here with reference to what follows, i.e. “a word of the Lord” (λόγος κυρίου). The particle γάρ (“for”)

Endereignisse, sondern umfassend den eschatologischen Endzustand der Gemeinschaft mit Christus ausdrücken will). Cf. Peter Siber, Mit Christus leben: Eine Studie zur paulinischen Auferstehungshoffnung (AThANT 61), Zürich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich, 1971, p. 30. 683 Cf. Gerhard Sellin, Der Streit um die Auferstehung der Toten…, p. 41. 6 84 Cf. Leander E. Keck, “The First Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians”, p. 871. 685 At least one of the manuscripts, i.e. B, adds Ἰησοῦ.

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attached to τοῦτο is a marker of clarification, and as Luckensmeyer correctly puts it, the particle γάρ identifies verse 15 as an explication of the previous verse686. It becomes clear in the appearance of the verb λέγομεν (“we tell”) in verse 15a that Paul is not speaking or writing alone but certainly with his co-​authors Silvanus and Timothy (see 1 Thess 1:1). The preposition ἐν (“by”, “with”, “in”, etc.) is combined with the expression λόγος κυρίου (“a word of the Lord”), and it functions here as a “marker introducing means or instrument”, hence the translation of ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου as “by a word of the Lord”. Through this expression ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου Paul and his co-​authors stress here that their instruction or exhortation to their addressees is based on “a word of the Lord” (λόγος κυρίου). The conjunction ὅτι (“that”) in verse 15b is “a marker of narrative discourse”, and it functions here to indicate the content of what Paul and his co-​authors want to tell their addressees. The conjunction ὅτι can also be ὅτι-​recitativum because it introduces the content of a direct discourse which is based on “a word of the Lord” (λόγος κυρίου). The participial phrases οἱ ζῶντες (“those who are alive”) and οἱ περιλειπόμενοι (“those who are left”) are in (nominative) apposition, and they are related to the personal pronoun ἡμεῖς (“we”). The preposition εἰς in verse 15b is translated as “until” because it indicates an extension of time up to which something continues (to exist or function) –​the time on which something happens or the time at which something takes place687. The main focus of attention here is “the parousia or the coming of Jesus, the Lord” (ἡ παρουσία τοῦ Ἰησοῦ κυρίου). The prepositional phrase “until the parousia or the coming of Jesus, the Lord” (εἰς τὴν παρουσίαν τοῦ Ἰησοῦ κυρίου) indicates that the event of the Lord’s parousia which is the Lord’s second coming has not yet taken place but it is still pending. It is also evident in verse 15b that the fate of the dead and the living will manifest at the Lord’s parousia whereby “the living” will have no precedence over “the dead” with regard to the salvation to be acquired through the Lord Jesus Christ (see also 4:17; 5:9-​10). The verb φθάνειν actually means here “to precede” or “to come before”, and the double negation οὐ μὴ (“not at all”) which goes with φθάνειν, i.e. οὐ μὴ φθάσωμεν (“we will not at all precede”) rules out any possibility that those who shall still be alive until the Lord’s parousia may have precedence (or advantage) over those who would be dead by the time of the Lord’s parousia. In other words, we, the 6 86 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 177. 687 Cf. BDAG, p. 289 § 2.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

living shall not attain to the fellowship of Christ sooner than the dead, nor have precedence over the dead in blessedness688.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:15 The verb ἄξει in 1 Thess 4:14b suggests that the parousia is an event of eschatological nature which points to the future. The particle γάρ here in verse 15, therefore, is explicative and it functions as a signal that “Paul will now provide information on how the eschatological association with Jesus will come about”689. The demonstrative pronoun τοῦτο (“this”) also points forward to the content of Paul’s explanation which begins with the recitative ὅτι in verse 15b and extends to verse 16 through to verse 17. 1 Thess 4:15-​17, therefore, forms a unit within the pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​18) and can be handled separately690 while highlighting also on its link and significance for the entire pericope. Légasse rightly remarks that: “A new development is signalized at the beginning of verse 15 by a solemn phrase which announces what follows, but at the same instance establishes a link, indicated by [the preposition] γάρ, with what precedes in verse 14b” (Un nouveau développement est signalisé au début du verset 15 par une phrase solennelle qui annonce la suite, mais en même temps établit un lien, indiqué par [la preposition] γὰρ, avec ce qui précède au verset 14b)691.

Paul’s application of the verb λέγομεν (“we tell”) in 1 Thess 4:15a is discussed in the following excursus. Excursus I: λέγομεν (“we tell”) in 1 Thess 4:15a With the verb λέγομεν (“we tell”) in 1 Thess 4:15a (and elsewhere in 1 Thessalonians), Paul appears not to be speaking alone. In many contexts in the NT, especially in the epistles, the use of the first person plural we is not always clear692. It is even worthy to note that Paul uses ἐγώ (personal pronoun, 1st person nominative singular “I”) only once in First Thessalonians (see 1 Thess

688 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 652 § 1. 689 CF. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 267. 690 Légasse rather overemphasizes that: “It is evident that verses 15-​17 bear neither the fundament nor the explanation of the resurrection of Christ” (Il est clair que les versets 15-​17 n’apportent ni le fondement ni l’explication de la résurrection du Christ). Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 254 footnote 3. 691 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 254; also footnote 2. 692 Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 393 and footnote 6.

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2:18693)694. In this context prior to his use of ἐγώ, Paul uses a verb in the first person plural, i.e. ἠθελήσαμεν ἐλθεῖν (“we wanted to come”), shifts from the first person plural (ἠθελήσαμεν) to the first person singular (ἐγώ) before he mentions his (or their) addressees as ὑμᾶς (personal pronoun, 2nd person accusative plural “you”), and then refers again to ἡμᾶς (personal pronoun, 1st person accusative plural “us”). Thus, such a text is characterized by complexities because while it is evident to identify the addressees as the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica, one may not know whether Paul in his letter refers to himself alone or together with his co-​missionaries (Silvanus and Timothy) as the co-​senders695. Wallace talks about three nuances of the usage of the first person plural and explains that by the use of we, the author may simply refer to himself/​herself, or the author may mean to include his/​her associates (i.e. co-​authors), or his/​her audience. He writes thus: “The use of the first person plural to refer only to the author is known as the editorial ‘we’ (or epistolary plural); the use of the first person plural to refer to the author and his associates as distinct from the audience is called exclusive ‘we’; and the use of the first person plural to refer to both author(s) and his reader(s) is called the inclusive ‘we’ ”696. Commentators make efforts to interpret Paul’s profuse use of verbs in the “First Person Plural” especially in 1 and 2 Thessalonians697 and in this enterprise, their arguments are based primarily on epistolary considerations698. While Lofthouse argues that always when Paul used we in his letters “he was thinking of himself as one of a number, either the little band of his companions, or his readers, or the whole company of believers always in the background of his mind”699, Askwith can

693 This personal pronoun in the 1st person nominative singular never appears in 2 Thessalonians. 694 The other passages in which Paul uses “I” in First Thessalonians is 3:5 where the word κἀγώ (“I too”) appears; and in 5:27 he uses a verb in the 1st person singular, i.e. ἐνορκίζω (I adjure”). In 2 Thessalonians, verbs in the 1st person singular “I” are used only in 2:5; 3:17. 695 Askwith maintains that the singular first person pronoun ἐγώ in 1 Thess 2:18 is emphatic “I”, and it is fortified by the addition of the name Παῦλος in the expression ἐγὼ μὲν Παῦλος. Cf. E. H. Askwith, “ ‘I’ and ‘We’ in the Thessalonian Epistles”, in: Expositor, 8th Series, 1 (1911) 149–​159, here page 154. For his explanation of the transition from the plural to the singular first personal pronoun in especially 1 Thess 2:18 and also in 1 Thess 3:5 and in 2 Thess 2:5, confer E. H. Askwith, “ ‘I’ and ‘We’ in the Thessalonian Epistles”, especially pages 153–​158. 696 Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 393. It is worthy to note that the terminologies differ among the grammarians. The epistolary plural, for instance, is also termed as literary plural or authorial plural. 697 For the statistics of such usages in the letters, confer Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 86. 698 For the arguments of some of the commentators, confer Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 87–​89. 699 Cf. W. F. Lofthouse, “ ‘I’ and ‘We’ in the Pauline Letters,” in: ExpTim 64 (1952) 241–​245, here page 241.

156

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

see no reason for thinking that Paul ever said “we” when he meant “I”700. It is unlikely that Paul’s use of λέγομεν (“we tell”) in 1 Thess 4:15a functions as an epistolary plural to refer only to himself without any reference to his associates or his audience because apart from the fact that “the use of epistolary plural, though established in the papyri letters, is neither common in the papyri nor in the NT letters”701, the presuppositions or features that determine such usage –​for instance an abrupt shift from the singular to the plural702 –​is lacking in 1 Thess 4:15a. Malherbe distinguishes Paul’s use of the “first person plural” in 1 Thess 1-​3 (the first part of the letter) from 1 Thess 4-​5 (the second part of the letter which is paraenetic in nature)703. He supports the argument that the plural is a “hortatory subjunctive plural”, and he explains that such plurals are characteristic of paraenesis. According to him, just like in the Epistles of Seneca –​a contemporary of Paul –​such plurals have the effect that the author “places himself on the same level as his reader and creates a warmer [or cordial] tone”; and thus Paul too uses the “first person plural” in “specifying what he shares with his readers”704. Malherbe, however, emphasizes that though the style of Seneca’s letters is instructive for the purpose of clarifying Paul’s use of the “plural” in 1 Thessalonians, the letters of Seneca differ from Paul’s in that “his [Seneca’s] relationship with Lucius, his correspondent, ruled out the inclusion of a co-​sender”705. He remarks correctly that the character of the “first person plural” which lends a warm tone to the letter approximates a sermon (or homily), and it was in Jewish and Christian preaching in which the “first person plural” functioned exactly in the way Paul uses it706. Thus, by his use of the first person plural in 1 Thess 4-​5 –​a passage which forms part of the exhortation of the letter –​Paul does not depend much on Greco-​Roman style of writing707 but he is rather more indebted to the Judeo-​Christian 700 Cf. E. H. Askwith, “ ‘I’ and ‘We’ in the Thessalonian Epistles”, p. 159. Askwith points out, for instance, that though Paul mentions Sosthenes in the salutation of 1 Corinthians, Paul uses the singular “I” and speaks in his own name throughout the letter because Sosthenes has “no real part in the Epistle” and “had not been instrumental in founding the Church there [in Corinth]”. But in the case of 1 Thessalonians, “we know from the narrative of the Acts [of the Apostles] that it was with the aid of Silvanus and Timothy that St. Paul evangelized, and founded the Churches in Macedonia and Achaia. It is perfectly intelligible, then, that in writing to the Thessalonians he should associate them with himself in what had to be said to them. Accordingly, nearly everywhere in the Thessalonian Epistles it is … ‘we’ and not ‘I’ ”. Cf. E. H. Askwith, “ ‘I’ and ‘We’ in the Thessalonian Epistles”, p. 150. 701 Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 394 and the references in footnote 8. 702 Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 394 and footnote 9 for other such “presuppositions”. 703 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 89. 704 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 88–​89. 705 See op. cit., p. 88. 706 See op. cit., p. 89. 707 Malherbe explains that “Latin letter writing was indebted to Greek epistolary theory and practice; it is only by historical accident that the letters preserved from the

. 1 Thess 4:15

157

style of writing708 because “sermons or homilies are normally speeches of exhortation, often using arguments based on the interpretation of biblical passages, directed to insiders”709 like the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica. Moreover, Paul’s use of the plural “we” –​especially in the paraenetic part of 1 Thessalonians –​should not be understood to function as editorial, epistolary or authorial plural which functions as 1st person personal pronoun singular (“I”) to refer to Paul as an individual person. When Paul uses “we” –​especially in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11 –​the “we” is either an exclusive “we” (cf. 1 Thess 4:13a, 15a) in which case Paul refers to himself together with his co-​workers (Silvanus and Timothy) who were instrumental in the foundation of the community of believers in Thessalonica in the Macedonian region of the province of Asia Minor710; or an inclusive “we” or a hortatory subjunctive plural711 which Paul uses to refer not only to himself and his co-​senders (Silvanus and Timothy) but also to his addressees or audience in the community of believers with whom he identifies and associates himself.

In 1 Thess 4:15a, Paul and his co-​authors introduce their solution or answer to the Thessalonian problem by emphasizing that their instruction is based on “a word of the Lord” (λόγος κυρίου). In the prepositional phrase ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου (“by a word of the Lord”), the preposition ἐν is used with a noun in the dative case (i.e. λόγῳ), and it functions as an instrument712. The use of the preposi��tion ἐν with the dative to describe means or instrument is not unknown in classical Greek, but it becomes common in the LXX, first under the influence of the Hebrew preposition ‫( ְּב‬in, by, with, etc.)713. Owing to the influence of the Hebrew

708

7 09 710 711 712

713

first century B.C. to the second century A.D. are primarily in Latin.” Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 88. It is worthy of mention that “no rigid distinctions can be made between the sermonic or homiletic forms and styles used in early Judaism and early Christianity, since early Christianity only gradually emerged from Judaism”. Cf. David E. Aune, The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric, p. 219. Cf. David E. Aune, op. cit., p. 219. Confer Acts 15:40-​41; 16:1-​10; 17:1-​9; 1 Thess 1:1; 3:1-​3. Confer 1 Thess 4:14a, 15b, 17; 5:5b, 6, 8, 9, 10. The preposition ἐν takes only the dative but it has several meanings in different contexts. For the various meanings and functions of the preposition ἐν, confer BDAG, pp. 326–​330; Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, pp. 209–​213. Légasse indicates the numerous interpretations this preposition ἐν in 1 Thess 4:15a may have. He, however, prefers the instrumental use of this preposition ἐν in 1 Thess 4:15a. He writes thus: “The preposition ἐν is susceptible to several nuances … We opt here for its instrumental value” (La preposition ἐν est susceptible de plusiers nuances … On opte ici pour la portée instrumentale). Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 258 footnote 4. Cf. Winfried Elliger, “ἐν”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), pp. 448–​449 § 4.

158

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

preposition ‫ּב‬,ְ this usage of the preposition ἐν as the instrument or means by or with which something is accomplished is much more common in the sacred writings than in the works of profane authors714. Such instrumental use of the preposition ἐν is evident, for instance, in the profuse use of ἐν in Acts 17:31: “Because he [i.e., God] has fixed a day on which he will judge the world with righteousness by a person [Jesus] he has appointed; and he [God] has given assurance to all by raising him from the dead” (καθότι ἔστησεν ἡμέραν ἐν ᾗ715 μέλλει κρίνειν τὴν οἰκουμένην ἐν δικαιοσύνῃ, ἐν ἀνδρὶ [Ἰησοῦ716] ᾧ ὥρισεν, πίστιν παρασχὼν πᾶσιν ἀναστήσας αὐτὸν ἐκ νεκρῶν).

In Rom 5:9, Paul makes use of the instrumental ἐν to emphasize that since the “believers in Christ” are now justified “by his [i.e., Christ’s] blood” (ἐν τῷ αἵματι αὐτου), they will be saved “by [or through] him” (δι᾽ αὐτοῦ) from God’s wrath. Paul further explains in Rom 5:10 that since “the believers in Christ” are reconciled with God “through the death of his son [i.e., Jesus Christ]” (διὰ τοῦ θανάτου τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ), they will be saved “by his life” (ἐν τῇ ζωῇ αὐτοῦ). It becomes evident, therefore, in Rom 5:9-​10 (cf. also Rom 5:11) that the preposition ἐν plus dative can be used in place of the preposition διά plus genitive to introduce the instrument with which something is accomplished or effected. In 1 Thess 4:15a, Paul seeks to instruct and give the Thessalonians assurance by means of a “word of the Lord” and not by any fabricated fictitious or vain words of human beings. Hoppe correctly emphasizes that the expression “by a word of the Lord” (ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου) calls to mind the authority of the Lord and that Paul speaks here in the authority of the Lord717. Over the years, exegetes have been making efforts to reconstruct the tradition behind the expression “a word of the Lord” (λόγος κυρίου) to which Paul alludes here in 1 Thess 4:15a. They try, thus, to find out the source(s) of Paul’s “word of the Lord” as it is reffered to here in 1 Thess 4:15a. While “some [exegetes] have thought that the Apostle is himself uttering an original prophetic message, spiritually revealed to him; some have argued that the reference is to some spoken word of the Lord Jesus, whether or not that word be recorded in our Gospels”718.

714 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 210 § 5d. 715 The preposition ἐν in ἐν ᾗ rather functions as a “marker of a period of time” within which something takes place. 716 Some manuscripts (i.e., D and Irlat) read ἐν ἀνδρὶ Ἰησοῦ (“by a person, Jesus”). 717 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 269. 718 Cf. E. H. Askwith, “The Eschatological Section of 1 Thessalonians”, page 63.

1 Thess 4:15

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In recent times, this discussion pertaining to the reconstruction of the sources of the Pauline expression “by a word of the Lord” revolves around the views such as the fourfold formulation of Best who writes: “There are a number of possibilities: (a) Paul may have had access to a collection (probably oral) of sayings of the earthly Jesus from which he has selected this; (b) he may be using a saying of the exalted Jesus given to the church through one of its prophets (including himself); (c) he may have felt that he lived so close to his Lord that he could say what the Lord would have said if faced with the problem of those who had died before the parousia; (d) he may have drawn the saying from a Jewish, or early Christian, apocalyptic writing not now extant”719.

The expression λόγος κυρίου must be understood and interpreted in its combined form because here Paul does not in any way speak about the λόγος, “the independent personified expression of God –​cf. the Logos (Jn 1:1, 14)”720. When it is understood that by the expression ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου Paul means to be a prophet and speaks here in this context a prophetic oracle, λόγος κυρίου should then be associated with the Hebrew ‫( ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬i.e., the construct form of ‫“[ ּדָ בָ ר‬word”, “speech”, command, etc.] with ‫“[ יְ הוָה‬the Lord”] which translates as “the word of the Lord”). In other instances in the OT, λόγος κυρίου is rendered as ‫נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬ (i.e., the construct of ‫“[ נְ אֻ ם‬utterance”, “prophetic oracle”, etc.]721 with ‫“[ יְ הוָה‬the 719 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, pp. 189–​190. For Best’s own assessment and evaluation of how weighty each of his formulations bears on the discussion, confer Ernest Best, op. cit., pp. 189–​193. He considers formulation (b) to be the most plausible of the formulations but he does not consider it to be the absolute solution. He writes thus, “of the views outlined above, (b) is by far the most probable, but whatever view is accepted Paul is affirming divine authority, not human or even apostolic authority, for what he says”. See op. cit., p. 193. Schneider also presents a five-​fold formulation. Cf. Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, pp. 231–​232. Schneider maintains that this Pauline saying could be an “early Christian prophetic utterance or saying”. He emphasizes thus: “What remains in the five formulated solutions is that when one for once considers that 1 Thess 4:15-​17 is about a Theophanie, then it remains only that Paul has quoted an early Christian prophetic utterance or oracle” (Von den fünf vorgetragenen Antworten bleibt also, geht man einmal von der Annahme aus, die VV 15-​17 seien eine Theophanie, nur jene übrig, bei der man annimmt, Paulus habe einen urchristlichen Prophetenspruch zitiert). Cf. Sebastian Schneider, op. cit., p. 233; also pp. 231–​237 for his detailed discussion or treatment of this Pauline expression ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου. 720 BDAG, p. 601 § 3. 721 The construct ‫ נְ אֻ ם‬is from the verb ‫ נָאַ ם‬which in the modification qal means “to utter a prophetic oracle” (Jer 23:30-​31). In Jer 23:31, the plural form of the verb and its substantive are represented in the expression ‫“( וַּיִ נְ אֲ מּו נְ אֻ ם‬yet they [i.e. ‘the prophets’]

160

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

Lord”]). If Paul is supposed to declare here a prophetic oracle as a prophet or a messenger of the Lord, his λόγος κυρίου (“a word [singular] of the Lord”) could be more equivalent to ‫ נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬than ‫ ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬because in the OT the use of ‫נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬ is more precise722, and while ‫ ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬may sometimes be expressed in the plural –​ i.e., ‫“( ִּד ְב ֵרי־יְ הוָה‬the words of the Lord”: cf. Exod 4:28, etc.) ‫ נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬almost always appears in the singular and in most cases it is said to be: ‫“​– נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬an utterance of the Lord” (Gen 22:16; 1 Sam 2:30; Isa 43:10)723, ‫“​– נְ אֻ ֖ם יְ הוָ ֣ה צְ בָ אֹ֑ ות‬an utterance of the Lord of Host” (Isa 14:22-​23; Jer 30:8; Hg 2:4)724, or ‫הוה צְ בָ אֹֽ ות‬ ֖ ִ ְ‫“​– נְ אֻ ם־אֲ דֹ נָ ֥י י‬an utterance of Adonai, the Lord Almighty” (Jer 2:19; 49:5; 50:31725)726. Most often the prophetic oracles begin either with the expression (‫)צְ בָ ֔ ֹאות‬ ‫​– ּכֹ֤ ה אָ מַ ר֙ יְ הוָ ֣ה‬which is rendered in the LXX as: τάδε λέγει κύριος (παντοκράτωρ/​ σαβαωθ) –​(i.e., “Thus says the Lord [Almighty or of Hosts]”), a formula which is profusely used especially in Zech 8727; or even ֮‫​– ו ַּ֣י ֹאמֶ ר יְ הוָה‬which is translated in the LXX as: καὶ εἶπεν κύριος –​i.e., “(and) the Lord says” (Isa 7:3; 8:1; Jer 1:7). The oracles can also begin with ‫​– נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬which is mostly rendered in the LXX as: λέγει κύριος (“the Lord utters/​says/​declares, etc.) or sometimes with the expression ‫​– וַיְ ִ ֥הי ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָ ֖ה )אֵ לַ ֥י( לֵאמֹֽ ר‬which is translated in the LXX as: καὶ ἐγένετο λόγος κυρίου (πρός με), λέγων, i.e., “(and) a or the word of the Lord came (to me) saying (cf. Ezk 6:1; 34:1; 35:1). What is evident in such expressions associated with prophetic oracles is that the prophets are called or elected and authorized by the Lord Almighty to proclaim his (God’s) word (Amos 7:14-​15; cf. Dt 18:15, 18-​19)728, and this “word of the Lord” must be distinguished from the utter an oracle”). Though in the LXX the expression ‫ נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬is most often rendered as λέγει κύριος (“the Lord says”), in the MT ‫ נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬can be understood as “(it is) an oracle of the Lord”). Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 5 (2001), p. 579. 722 The substantive ‫ ּדָ בָ ר‬can, for instance, mean “word”, “thing”, “matter”, “cause”, etc. and the plural ‫ ְּדבָ ִרים‬can mean “words”, “things”, “events”, “deeds”, etc. In Zech 9:1 the prophet uses ‫ ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬but he emphatically specifies that the word he is about to speak (or is speaking) is ֙‫“ מַ ָ ּׂ֤שא ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬an oracle, the word of the Lord”). Confer also 2 Kgs 9:25 and Jer 23:33 where ‫ מַ ּׂשָ א‬means an “oracle of the Lord”. For OT references to the various meanings of ‫ ּדָ בָ ר‬and its plural ‫ּדבָ ִרים‬,ְ confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 2 (1995), pp. 397–​410. 723 The texts include Isa 43:12; 54:17; 59:20; 66:22; Jer 1:8, 15; 23:31, etc. 724 See also Hg 2:9, 23; Zech 1:3, 16; 8:6, 11; 13:2. 725 Confer also Isa 1:24; 19:4. 726 For more details of the uses of ‫ נְ אֻ ם‬in the OT, confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 5 (2001), pp. 579–​580. 727 See Zech 8:1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 14, 19, 20, 23. Confer also Isa 10:24; Ezk 3:27. 728 It is to be emphasized here that in Nm 11:24-​30, Moses was in charge of the people but it was the Lord himself who authorzed the “seventy elders” (11:25) as well as Eldad

1 Thess 4:15

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“words of other gods” (cf. Dt 18:20) or the “words of false prophets” (cf. the story of the Prophet Micaiah and the other prophets in 1 Kgs 22). The OT prophets also believed that they gave the word of the Lord to God’s people (Ezk 34:1-​2; Amos 5:1; Joel 1:1-​3)729. Best points out that among the early Christians, there were prophets who spoke under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit730, and the Revelation of John terms itself a prophecy and its content “prophetic message or words” (Rev 1:3; 22:7, 10, 18-​19)731. He explains further that the early Christian prophets foretell the future (Acts 11:27-​28; 21:11732) and instruct and console believers (1 Cor 14:31), which is also the function of the content of the Pauline “word of the Lord” (1 Thess 4:18)733. It is also worthy of notice that in the MT, the prophetic word or oracle is most often expressed in the singular form and without the definite article ַ‫“( ה‬the”) so that one almost always reads or hears, for instance, ‫ נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬or ‫ ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬which can be rendered as “an utterance or a word of the Lord”734 but in some translations “the word of the Lord”. Paul’s use of the expression λόγος κυρίου has a characteristic of the use of ‫ נְ אֻ ם־יְ הוָה‬or ‫ ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬as a prophetic oracle in the OT, especially when the Pauline λόγος κυρίου here is found to be without the definite article735. Henneken asserts correctly following and Medad (11:26) to prophesy. Confer also Acts 2:17-​18 which is a quotation from Joel 3:1-​5. It is, however, said in Acts 19:6 that Paul raised his hands on the people who received baptism and they were filled with the Holy Spirit and they spoke in tongues and prophesied. This event is to be interpreted in connection with the reception of the Holy Spirit through baptism in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ whereby the Holy Spirit is conferred on the baptized through members of the Twelve Apostles such as Peter and John (Acts 8:14-​17) or their representative Paul (Acts 19:1-​6). The Catholic Study Bible explains that: “This may be Luke’s way of describing the role of the Church in the bestowal of the Holy Spirit”. Confer the note on Acts 8:16, in: Donald Senior, et al (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 197. 729 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 193. 730 See Acts 11:27-​28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-​11; 1 Cor 12:10, 28; 14:29. 731 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 191. 732 It is noted here in Acts 21:11 that: “The symbolic act of Agabus recalls those of Old Testament prophets (Isa 20:2; Ezk 4:1; Jer 13:1)”. Confer the note on Acts 21:11, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 216. 733 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 191. 734 This nuance is maintained in the translations in some languages like in German and in French which literally render this expression as Spruch des Herrn or parole de Yahvé respectively. 735 Davies maintains that the word κύριος here in 1 Thess 4:15a is used anarthrously and that “a study of Pauline usage indicates that there is no necessary distinction in meaning between the word with or without the article: so, for example, in 1 Cor 10:21

162

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

von Rad that λόγος κυρίου –​debar JHWH (or word of the Lord) is terminus technicus (a technical term) for the word of a prophet in the OT736. The Pauline expression ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου is the LXX rendition of the Hebrew ‫הוֽה‬ ָ ְ‫“( ִּב ְד ַב֥ר י‬by a word of the Lord”). Schneider indicates that ‫הוֽה‬ ָ ְ‫ ִּב ְד ַב֥ר י‬appears in the MT 11 times737 and once in the plural (2 Chr 29:15). He remarks that in the LXX ‫הוֽה‬ ָ ְ‫ ִּב ְד ַב֥ר י‬is not always but most often translated as ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου738. He adds that there are also passages in the LXX where one finds expressions which bear the nuance of ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου but are constructed somehow differently. Such similar expressions include “in the words of the Lord” (ἐν λόγοις κυρίου) and “by a word of the Most High” (ἐν λόγῳ ὑψίστου) found in Sir 42:15 and Sir 48:5 respectively739. Henneken interprets the Pauline ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου in 1 Thess 4:15a in the light of the appearances of ‫( ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬λόγος κυρίου: “word of the Lord”), ‫הוֽה‬ ָ ְ‫( ִּב ְד ַב֥ר י‬ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου: “by a word of the Lord”) and their related nuances in the MT and in the LXX740. He then concludes correctly that: “In this formula, reference is always on YHWH’s own word which is given. This is already made evident in the content by the marked technical expression of the prophetic word: debar jhwh = λόγος κυρίου. ‘The prophet is prompted by the word of the Lord to speak, i. e., the command to speak and its content come from the Lord. His

there is ποτήριον κυρίου, while in 1 Cor 11:27 one reads τὸ ποτήριον τοῦ κυρίου”. Cf. J. G. Davies, “The Genesis of Belief in an Imminent Parousia”, in: JTS/​New Series 14 (1963) 104–​107, here page 106. Confer also Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 254 footnote 4. 736 Cf. Bartholomäus Henneken, Verkündigung und Prophetie im Ersten Thessalonicherbrief: Ein Beitrag zur Theologie des Wortes Gottes (SBS 29), Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1969, p. 92. Henneken makes reference to the statistics of von Rad who indicates that: “The concept ‘word of YHWH’ (‫)דבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬ ְ is found 241 times in the OT literature; of these a total of 221 texts [92 %] talk about a prophetic word of God. It is without doubt, therefore, that this expression [‫]דבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬ ְ was used in Israel as terminus technicus for the revelation of a prophetic word [or oracle]” (Der Begriff des „Wortes Jahwes“ [‫]דבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬ ְ findet sich 241 mal im alttestamentlichen Schrifttum; davon bezeichen allein 221 Belege (92 %) ein prophetisches Gotteswort. Es kann also keinem Zweifel unterliegen, dass diese Wortverbindung in Israel geradezu als ein terminus technicus für die prophetische Wortoffenbarung gebraucht wurde). Cf. Gerhard von Rad, Theologie des Alten Testaments (Band 2), München: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1965, p. 96. 737 See 1 Sam 3:21; 1 Kgs 13:1, 2, 5, 9, 17, 18, 32; 20:35; 2 Chr 30:12; Ps 32:6. 738 I.e., in 3 Kgs 13:1, 2, 5, 32; 21:35; 2 Chr 30:12. 739 Cf. Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, pp. 234–​235. 740 Cf. Bartholomäus Henneken, Verkündigung und Prophetie im Ersten Thessalonicherbrief…, pp. 92–​95.

1 Thess 4:15

163

authority guarantees the effective fulfillment of the word. It does not work magically, but because JHWH backs it [with his authority]”. (In dieser Formel ist immer ein Bezug auf Jahwes eigenes Wort gegeben. Das beweist schon der in ihr enthaltene technische, das Prophetenwort bezeichnende Ausdruck debar jhwh = λόγος κυρίου. „Auf das Wort des Herrn hin“ spricht der Prophet, d. h. der Auftrag zum Reden und dessen Inhalt kommen vom Kyrios. Seine Macht garantiert die wirksame Erfüllung des Wortes. Dieses wirkt nicht magisch, sondern weil Jahwe hinter ihm steht)741.

However, in his conclusion, Henneken identifies Kyrios with Jesus Christ and maintains that Paul speaks “a word of the Lord Jesus Christ which came to him as a prophet”. He writes thus: “It is in the same way that Paul speaks in 1 Thess 4:15 to the community in Thessalonica. In accordance with his New Testament faith, it is the Lord Christ who appears to him instead of the Kyrios-​YHWH…. One can, therefore, be sure that although he [Paul] does not use a strict formula, he really means what is even evident in the formulaic wording of the Old Testament, i.e. I tell you that ‘as a reference to a word of the Lord’ which came to me” (In derselben Weise spricht Paulus 1 Thess 4, 15 zu der Gemeinde von Thessalonich. An die Stelle des Kyrios-​Jahwe tritt bei ihm entsprechend seinem neutestamentlichen Glaubensverständnis der Kyrios-​Christus …. Um so mehr wird man sicher sein können, dass er keine rein formelhafte Wendung gebraucht, sondern wirklich meint, was auch in der formelhaften Wendung des Alten Testaments noch deutlich wird: Ich sage euch das „auf ein Wort des Herrn hin“, das an mich ergangen ist)742.

Such arguments seem to support the opinion that here in 1 Thess 4:15a Paul utters a prophetic oracle, be it that Paul himself was the medium of transmission of this prophetic oracle or that the oracle came through some other prophet. The prophetic word or oracle is most often uttered by an individual person in the name of the Lord. Dunn asserts that: “Religionsgeschichtliche743 parallels strengthen the probability that where prophecy had a vigorous existence most if not all of the utterances took the form of ‘I’-​sayings, where the ‘I’ was understood to be the Lord of the cult. The same picture emerges whether we look to the typical utterances of the classical prophets in the OT, or to the prophetic oracles of Hellenism typified by those of the Pythia at Delphi. Bultmann and P. Vielhauer put much weight on Ode of Solomon 42:6: ‘And I have arisen and am among them; And

7 41 Cf. Bartholomäus Henneken, op. cit., p. 95. 742 Cf. Bartholomäus Henneken, Verkündigung und Prophetie im Ersten Thessalonicherbrief…, p. 95. 743 The German word (adjective) religionsgeschichtliche is from the noun Religionsgeschichte, i.e. “history of religion”.

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I speak through their mouth’. Several of the few early Montanist prophetic utterances still extant are in an ‘I’-​form”744.

It can, therefore, be asserted that by his formulation: “For we tell you this by a word of the Lord” –​τοῦτο γὰρ ὑμῖν λέγομεν ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου (1 Thess 4:15a), Paul neither strictly follows the OT prophetic formula nor that of Hellenism because the verb λέγομεν (“we tell”) indicates that Paul is not speaking alone (in the name of the Lord Almighty) but probably he includes Timothy and Silvanus who were also instrumental in founding the community in Thessalonica. Askwith remarks that: “In favour of the first of these, namely, that the Apostle is speaking prophetically, we have the fact that ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου is the Old Testament phrase in connexion with such prophetic utterances. It has always seemed to me, however, that a serious argument against this interpretation is that the Apostle is not here speaking specially for himself. He does not say, ‘This I say unto you by the word of the Lord’; but ‘This we say unto you, etc.,’ so associating with himself Silvanus and Timothy in whose names as well as his own the Epistle is written (1 Thess 1:1). Here surely if the appeal were to some prophetic word revealed to St. Paul himself he would have employed the singular first personal pronoun”745.

Dunn also adds that: “It is likely that had Paul been the prophet he would have alluded to this by, for instance writing ‘I say’ because ‘we say’ is plural; besides, Acts 15:32 describes Silas (or Silvanus) as a prophet, and if Silas had rather been the prophet who uttered the oracle Paul would have mentioned this since Silas was known to the Thessalonians”746.

By refuting Merklein’s assertion that 1 Thess 4:15b begins a quotation of a prophetic oracle which Paul himself as a prophet utters747, Hoppe remarks that the introductory expression “we tell by a word of the Lord” –​λέγομεν ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου (1 Thess 4:15a) does not in any way mark an introduction of a citation of a prophetic word or utterance but it can rather be understood as an “appeal to the

744 Cf. James D. G. Dunn, “Prophetic ‘I’-​Sayings and the Jesus Tradition: The Importance of Testing Prophetic Utterances within Early Christianity”, in: NTS 24 (1978) 175–​198, here page 177; Cf. also the references in footnotes 3, 4, 5. 745 Cf. E. H. Askwith, “The Eschatological Section of 1 Thessalonians”, p. 64. 746 Cf. James D. G. Dunn, “Prophetic ‘I’-​Sayings and the Jesus Tradition…”, p. 192; also J. G. Davies, “The Genesis of Belief in an Imminent Parousia”, especially pages 105–​106. 747 Cf. Helmut Merklein, Studien zu Jesus und Paulus II (WUNT 105), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998, p. 385.

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authority of the Lord”748. What, however, remains unique in the content of what Paul (and his co-​workers) tell the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica “by a word of the Lord” here in this passage of 1 Thess 4:15b-​17 is that it is marked by and is full of apocalyptic sayings and imageries as well as theophany descriptions which are rather typical characteristics of OT, Jewish apocalyptic literature and early Christian writings. It could be argued that Paul’s λόγος κυρίου is a reference to some spoken word of the Lord Jesus in the early Church. This assertion is, however, prone to debate when one considers the fact that almost all the known sayings of Jesus are recorded in the Gospels. The whole content of what Paul says “by a word of the Lord” in 1 Thess 4:15b-​17 is found nowhere in the Gospels, except some aspects of it (cf. Mk 9:1)749. Davies points out that “modern exegetes interpret this (ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου) to be a reference of the historical Jesus, not preserved elsewhere. [And that] they are agreed that it is an agraphon”750. Dunn notices that: “The only really Synoptic-​like saying of Jesus preserved outside the Synoptics in the earliest Christians literature is Acts 20:35751. But its origin as a prophetic oracle is even less likely than its place in the original Jesus-​tradition”752.

Another problem associated with the tracing of Paul’s λόγος κυρίου to some spoken word or saying of the Lord Jesus is that the exegetes talk of the words or sayings of the Jesus-​Tradition, i.e., of the earthly Jesus before his cruxifixion and resurrection on one hand, and the words or sayings of the resurrected Christ on

748 Hoppe writes thus: Die Einführung λέγομεν ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου muss keineswegs ein „Zitat“ einleiten, sondern kann als „Berufung auf die Authorität des Kyrios“ verstanden werden. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 269. 749 See also Mt 24:30-​31 //​Mk 13:26-​27; Jn 6:39-​40. 750 Cf. J. G. Davies, “The Genesis of Belief in an Imminent Parousia”, p. 105; and also the references in footnote 4 to the commentators who share this view, especially Joachim Jeremias, Unbekannte Jesusworte (3. Aufl.), Gerd Mohn: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 1963, pp. 64 ff, 80–​83. Best also draws attention to this view of “modern defenders” who generally admit that “there is no satisfactory parallel in our gospels to any portion of 1 Thess 4:15-​17” and consider the saying (ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου) to be an “agraphon”, i.e., “a saying of Jesus preserved outside our gospels”. Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 190. 751 Acts 20:35b reads: “Remembering the words of the Lord which he himself said: ‘It is more blessed to give than to receive’ ” (μνημονεύειν τε τῶν λόγων τοῦ κυρίου Ἰησοῦ ὅτι αὐτος εἶπεν· μακάριόν ἐστιν μᾶλλον διδόναι ἢ λαμβάνειν). Cf. also Sir 4:31. 752 Cf. James D. G. Dunn, “Prophetic ‘I’-​Sayings and the Jesus Tradition…”, p. 181 footnote 2.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

the other753. It appears that over the years scholars have not been very successful even in differentiating the “words” (logia) of the earthly Jesus from those of the exalted or risen Christ754. It is worthy to note that it is only in 1 Cor 7:10-​11 (in reference to Mk 10:9) and in 1 Cor 9:14 (with reference to Mt 10:10; Lk 10:7) where Paul explicitly refers to a word or saying of (the earthly) Jesus, “though there are also places where he shows awareness of Jesus’ teaching”755. Best remarks correctly that while the cited Corinthian passages relate to “ethical instruction”, 1 Thess 4:15-​17 relate to “doctrinal comfort”, hence the difference also in the “introductory formulae” as seen in the Corinthian passages and in 1 Thess 4:15a. Thus, in the Corinthian passages the Lord is made the subject of the sentence –​ i.e., the Lord instructs or commands –​rather than introduced obliquely as in 1 Thess 4:15a, “by a word of the Lord”756. Merklein also maintains that: “Unlike 1 Cor 7:10; 9:14 (cf. Rom 14:14), 1 Thess 4:15 does not give any clue to synoptic or gospel parallels. It remains only to take it that [here in 1 Thess 4:15] Paul has quoted an unknown word or saying of Jesus, i.e., an agraphon” (Anders als bei 1 Kor 7.10; 9.14 [vgl. Röm 14:14] lässt sich allerdings im Falle von 1 Thess 4.15 keine synoptische oder evangeliare Parallele auffinden. So bleibt nur die Annahme, dass Paulus ein unbekanntes Jesuswort, ein Agraphon, zitiert habe)757.

Given that this Pauline saying belonged to the (unknown) sayings of Jesus –​an utterance by Jesus himself (ipsissima vox /​ipssimum verbum) –​, the question still remains as to whether this word or saying of Jesus belongs to the Jesus-​tradition 753 Dunn, for one, writes: “I use the phrase ‘Jesus-​tradition’ and ‘I’-​sayings’ as a convenient shorthand for ‘sayings attributed to the earthly, pre-​Easter Jesus’ and ‘prophetic utterances spoken in the person of the risen Jesus’ respectively. Cf. James D. G. Dunn, “Prophetic ‘I’-​Sayings and the Jesus Tradition…”, p. 175 footnote 3. 754 Rudolf Bultmann laid this fact bare in his work: Die Geschichte der Synoptischen Tradition (FRLANT/​Neue Folge 12), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1964, pp. 127 ff. Since then some scholars have been making efforts to find out whether such a distinction could be made. Confer, for instance, the work of James D. G. Dunn, “Prophetic ‘I’-​Sayings and the Jesus Tradition…”, especially pages 179–​183. 755 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 191. Kim remarks that “also 1 Cor 11:23-​25 where Paul gives the word or command of the ‘Lord’ in his own formulation without any suggestion of a particular prophetic inspiration, is quite suggestive”. Kim indicates further that in 1 Cor 2:16 Paul claims to have “the mind of Christ” and that called to be an apostle, Paul is a fully empowered agent of the Lord Jesus Christ, by God’s grace or mercy (Rom 1:5; 12:3; 15:15; 1 Cor 3:10, etc.) Cf. Seyoon Kim, “The Jesus Tradition in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11”, p. 236 and footnote 41. 756 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 191. 757 Cf. Helmut Merklein, Studien zu Jesus und Paulus II, p. 388.

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(the earthly Jesus) or to the risen Lord Jesus Christ. The opinion which finds more support among exegetes is that this Pauline saying in 1 Thess 4:15a more likely belonged to the logia (or agrapha) of the earthly Jesus than the exalted or risen Lord Jesus Christ. Dunn maintains that there is lack of evidence to validate Bultmann’s hypothesis which saw no distinction between the sayings of the earthly Jesus and those of the risen Christ, and which maintained that “sayings of the risen Jesus were incorporated within the Jesus-​traditon” in early Christianity. Dunn opines that even if some sayings of the risen Lord were incorporated in the logia of the Jesus tradition, this could not have been done yet in the early 1st century Christianity (a period in which the Pauline letters were written) but rather in the late 1st century Christianity. He writes thus: “Revelation 2-​3 is a good example of a parallel which stops short at the crucial point. For while these chapters (Rev 2-​3) provide wholly adequate proof that the exalted Christ was recognized as the author of many inspired utterances within first-​century Christianity, the decisive fact is that these utterances are attributed precisely to the exalted Christ. There is no evidence here or elsewhere in Revelation for the transition of such sayings into the tradition ascribed to the earthly Jesus. And if John has incorporated earlier prophetic material into his writing, then it becomes all the more significant that as late as the end of the first century A.D. such prophetic utterances remain firmly attached to the exalted Christ and have not yet been incorporated within the Jesus-​tradition”758.

He maintains further that: “The almost total absence of such evidence suggests that there were not after all so many sayings of the risen Jesus which circulated among the earliest communities as Bultmann assumes”759.

Hoppe also asserts that: “The opinion that here [1 Thess 4:15a] Paul cites a word of the Exalted [Christ] is in recent research less presented” (Die Auffassung, Paulus zitiere hier ein Wort des Erhöhten, wird in der gegenwärtigen Forschung weniger vertreten)760. Thus, in recent times the debate over the source of the Pauline saying ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου in 1 Thess 4:15a appears to focus more on the sayings belonging to the Jesus-​tradition or the earthly Jesus. The exegetes, who somehow do not consider this Pauline saying as an agraphon, make efforts to trace the saying to the gospels. Gewalt opines that 1 Thess 4:15a has something to do with Mk 9:1 because both texts “speak expressly about a word of the Lord, i. e., a word of Jesus which they introduce with ὅτι 7 58 Cf. James D. G. Dunn, “Prophetic ‘I’-​Sayings and the Jesus Tradition…”, p. 180. 759 Cf. James D. G. Dunn, op. cit., p. 181. 760 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 267 and footnote 208.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

recitativum”761. Kim also shares opinion with other commentators that this Pauline saying in 1 Thess 4:15 ff. can be identified with the Jesus’ saying in Mt 24:30-​31 //​ Mk 13:26-​27762. It appears, however, that such opinions have not won the support of most commentators. Best, for one, asserts that Mk 9:1 envisages that some will have died before the parousia while others will not, and he explains that there was also speculation in Judaism about the matter (4 Ezra 5:41 f; 2 Bar 30:2; 50:1-​4) but he questions whether the saying in Mk 9:1 is a genuine “logion of Jesus” or whether this saying in Mk 9:1 is in its original form763. Thus, the view that this Pauline expression λόγος κυρίου in 1 Thess 4:15a originates from “sayings or words of the Lord Jesus Christ” –​be it from the earthly Jesus or the exalted Christ or even an agraphon –​is based on assumption because there appear to be no concrete evidence from the gospels or elsewhere outside the gospels to support such a claim or opinion. Moreover, consensus is split among exegetes on this view. Schneider has a point, therefore, when he asserts that: “In all, the questions about the source and location of the word of the Lord present thus an unsatisfactory picture, and this calls for a new solution to the search” (Insgesamt ergibt sich bei den Fragen nach Herkunft und Ort des Herrenwortes also ein unbefriedigendes Bild, das dazu einlädt, nach einer neuen Lösung zu suchen)764.

He suggests that the content of 1 Thess 4:15-​17 should be seen as a theophany in which case the title κύριος constantly means God, because this (the content of verses 15-​17) betrays the views that it is about a word of the earthly or exalted Christ. He maintains that it is not apocalypse but the “literary genre theophany” (Gattung Theophanie) and its associated imageries –​which is well known and elaborately exhibited in Exod 19 –​might have guided Paul in putting down these verses, though much as Paul is very close to the main or principal features of this theophany, he does not quote explicitly from Exod 19. For Schneider, Paul has taken hold of a known (traditional) material in his environment and has reworked it765. He finally asserts that here Paul has made reference to an “early 761 Dietfried Gewalt, „1 Thess 4, 15-​17; 1 Kor 15, 51 und Mk 9, 1 –​Zur Abgrenzung eines ‚Herrenwortes‘ “, in: LB 51 (1982) 105–​113, here page 108. Throughout his article, Gewalt actually compares the texts: 1 Thess 4:15-​17, 1 Cor 15:51-​52 and Mk 9:1. 762 For a detailed discussion of the issue, confer Seyoon Kim, “The Jesus Tradition in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11”, especially pages 233–​241. 763 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, pp. 190–​191. 764 Cf. Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, p. 233. 765 Schneider writes thus: Bei dieser Suche kann das Ergebnis weiterhelfen, dass die VV 15-​ 17 als Theophanie anzusehen sind und κύριος daher stets Gott meint, denn dies legt die

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Christian prophetic utterance or oracle”766. Löhr also opines that the Pauline saying in 1 Thess 4:15a –​a “word of the Lord” (Herrenwort) –​could be about a circulating tradition in early Christianity767. Though Löhr does not specify whether this “word of the Lord” is traced to the logia of Jesus Christ, to an early Christian prophetic utterance or to any other possible sources, he shares the opinion that the content of 1 Thess 4:15-​17 is characterized by a description of theophany found in Exod 19:17 ff768. Theophany should not be considered as having nothing to do with apocalypse. Theophany (“appearance of a god”) refers to traditional literary description of the “coming” of God and its consequences, and it is typically structured in two forms, i. e., “God’s coming” and the description of “the upsetting of the natural order”769. It is worthy to note that the theophanies in the NT are traced to the descriptions in the OT (cf. Rev 1:12-​16 and Dn 7:12-​14; 10:5-​6) because “theophanies describe revelatory vision experiences in traditional imagery”770. In his description of the content of 1 Thess 4:15-​17, Hoppe does not emphasize more on theophany descriptions but on apocalyptic motifs771. Though Schneider does not share in toto the opinion that 1 Thess Vermutungen, es handle sich um ein Wort des irdischen oder erhöhten Christus, kaum als wahrscheinliche Antworten nahe. Nicht minder unwahrscheinlich ist aus diesem Grund auch der fünfte Vorschlag, Paulus zitiere eine Apokalypse, denn nicht die Apokalyptik, sondern die Gattung Theophanie und die damit verbundenen Vorstellungen dürften ihn bei seiner Niederschrift geleitet haben, deren wohl bekannteste und ausführlichste Darstellung in Ex 19 er außerdem, obwohl er ihr in den Hauptzügen sehr nahe kommt, nicht zitiert. Doch ist an diesem Vorschlag so viel richtig, dass Paulus auf bekanntes Material seiner Umwelt zurückgegriffen und es verarbeitet hat. Cf. Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, p. 233. 766 Cf. Sebastian Schneider, op. cit., p. 233. 767 Löhr writes thus: Man darf wahrscheinlich davon ausgehen, dass es sich bei diesem „Herrenwort“ um eine in der frühen Christenheit umlaufende Tradition handelt. Cf. Löhr von Gebhard, „Das ‚Herrenwort‘ “, in: ZNW 71 (1980) 269–​273, here page 271. 768 Cf. Löhr von Gebhard, op. cit., pp. 272–​273. 769 Cf. David E. Aune, The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric, p. 459. 770 Cf. David E. Aune, op. cit., p. 459. 771 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 269 and footnote 220. Siber also considers 1 Thess 4:16-​17a as kleine Apokalypse (“minor apocalypse”). Cf. Peter Siber, Mit Christus leben…, p. 43 and the reference in footnote 108. There are also numerous commentators who consider 1 Thess 4:15-​17 to be characterized by apocalyptic motifs. Collins remarks that “in the presentation of this scenario, Paul has drawn heavily from a variety of typically apocalyptic motifs. Cf. Raymond F. Collins, Studies on the First Letter to the Thessalonians (BETL 66), Leuven: Leuven University

170

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

4:15-​17 is grounded more on apocalyptic motifs than on theophany772, he admits that there are some features of apocalyptic motifs in 1 Thess 4:13-​18, but for him such apocalyptic imageries do not suffice to qualify the entire pericope of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 as a passage which is fully characterized by apocalyptic motifs773. By his application of the expression “by a word of the Lord” (ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου) in 1 Thess 4:15a, Paul refers to a future event “by an appeal to the authority of the Lord” with which he (Paul) associates himself; and when Paul is understood to speak in the “authority of the Lord”, he does so here much more autonomously in a prophetic art of speaking (without considering himself being a prophet as such) by incorporating apocalyptic motifs or imageries774. Hoppe shares this opinion with Schneider775 who finds the structure of 1 Thess 4:15-​17 to have close paral��lels with 1 Kgs 13 where “a man of God” (‫ֹלהים‬ ִ ֱ‫[ ִאיׁש א‬in the MT] or ἄνθρωπος τοῦ θεοῦ [in the LXX]) came from Judah “by a (or the) word of the Lord” (ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου)776 to Bethel during the reign of King Jeroboam. Schneider maintains that in 1 Thess 4:15-​17 Paul does not quote a prophetic word as such but he formulates the content and speaks throughout (verses 15b-​17) by himself so that it could be understood that though the content of 1 Thess 4:15b-​17 originates from God, the formulation comes from Paul himself and that the subject of the predicate or verb λέγομεν which is though in the 1st person plural should be understood to refer to Paul777.

Press, 1984, p. 162; and pages 28-​33 for his discussion about several authors who consider 1 Thess 4:15-​17 as a text full of apocalyptic motifs and traditional (apocalyptic) materials which are also found “in the patently apocalyptic sections of the letter, i. e., 4:13-​5:11”. 772 For Schneider’s assessment of the issue as to whether 1 Thess 4:15-​17 belongs to the genre of apocalypse or theophany, confer Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, pp. 215–​226. 773 See op. cit., p. 219. 774 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 269. 775 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 269 footnote 220. 776 The expression ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου –​ which is a rendition of the Hebrew ‫​– ִּב ְדבַ ר־יְ הוָה‬ appears in this context in the LXX (i.e. 3 Kgs 13) 4 times, i.e., 13:1, 2, 5, 32. Confer also 13:9, 17, 18. 777 Schneider writes thus: Im Einzelnen bedeutet das, dass Paulus in den VV 15b-​17 nicht zitiert! Vielmehr muss man, weil durch die erste Person Plural „Wir = ich“ der Briefschreiber als Subject des λέγομεν ausgewiesen ist, davon ausgehen, dass der Apostel hier durchgängig selbst spricht und formuliert. Cf. Sebastian Schneider, Vollendung des Auferstehens…, p. 238.

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The content of the Pauline expression “a word of the Lord” (λόγος κυρίου) in 1 Thess 4:15a unfolds in 1 Thess 4:15b-​17. It is clear from the text that while verse 15a serves as an introductory part in which Paul “appeals to the authority of the Lord” in the expression “for we tell you this by a word of the Lord” (τοῦτο γὰρ ὑμῖν λέγομεν ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου), verses 15b-​17 comprise the content of what to be said or delivered. This content which begins with verse 15b is ushered in by the ὅτι recitativum778 followed by the explicative ὅτι in verse 16a; and in verse 17a the adverb ἔπειτα779 takes the place of the ὅτι recitativum to give further explanations in regard to the content of the “word of the Lord”. This means that the whole of verses 15b-​17 should be taken for the content of the expression λόγος κυρίου (“word of the Lord”) in verse 15a780. Considered in its entirety, 1 Thess 4:15b-​17 is characterized by words or sayings of prophecy about a future event. With the formulation “by a word of the Lord” (ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου) Paul appeals to the authority of God Almighty who is the source of prophetic sayings or oracles. In Gal 1:11-​12, for instance, Paul stresses that the gospel he preaches is not of human origin but it came through a revelation of Jesus Christ; but in Gal 1:15, the language which Paul uses to describe his call to be “Apostle to the Gentiles” (Gal 1:16), echoes the OT prophetic call of Jeremia (see Jer 1:5) and also that of Isaiah (cf. Isa 49:1). The title “the Lord” (ὁ κύριος) here in 1 Thess 4:15a should, therefore, be understood as a reference to God and not Jesus Christ because the source of prophetic utterances or oracles in the OT is solely God781, and in the NT the prophets in the early Church spoke or prophesied in and through the 778 The conjunction ὅτι can mean “that” and it functions here as a “marker of narrative or discourse content, direct or indirect”, and in this usage ὅτι is joined to verbs of saying or declaring. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, pp. 458–​459 § 1; BDAG, p. 731 § 1. 779 This word ἔπειτα –​comprised of ἐπί and εἶτα functions here as adverb of time and order and can mean “then”, “thereupon”, i. e., “being next in order of time” or “being next in position of an enumeration of items”. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 230 §§ ab; BDAG, p. 361 §§ 1 and 2. 780 Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 257. Such a formula used by Paul in saying or delivering the content of a message can be found also in 1 Cor 15:3b-​5 where he does not talk about a “prophetic utterance or oracle” as such but rather hands on to his addressees a tradition he received (1 Cor 15:3a) which was an early “credal formula”. Unlike in 1 Thess 4:15a where Paul uses a verb in the 1st person plural (λέγομεν), in 1 Cor 15:3a he speaks in “I” terms by the use of the 1st person singular verb, i. e. “For I handed on to you” (παρέδωκα γὰρ ὑμῖν). 781 Confer the prophetic formulae such as ‫ נְ אֻ ם יְ הוָה צְ בָ אֹות‬in Isa 14:22-​23 and similar ones in Isa 7:3; Zech 8; Ezk 6:1; 1 Kgs 13:1.

172

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

inspiration of the (Holy) Spirit, i. e., the Spirit of God (Acts 11:27-​28; 13:1-​2; 15:21)782. Given that the content of 1 Thess 4:15b-​17 was formulated by Paul himself, the verb λέγομεν in the 1st person plural (“we tell”) should not necessarily be taken for an epistolary or authorial plural to mean that it is only Paul who speaks here, but rather together with the co-​senders of the First Letter to the Thessalonians. It is evident already in the “thanksgiving” of the letter (see 1 Thess 2:13) how Paul and his co-​authors emphasize that they proclaimed the “word of God”, and the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica heard and received what the missionaries preached to them not as a “human word”, but as “what it really is”: the “word of God” which is at work in the believers. The entire proclamation of Paul and his co-​missionaries is, indeed, based on this word of God (1 Thess 4:15a); and it is even with God’s word (which is at work in the believers) that the Christ’s faithful are to console, encourage, and build one another up (see 1 Thess 4:18; 1 Thess 5:11). With the words: “That we who are alive, who are left until the coming of [Jesus] the Lord, will not at all have precedence over those who have fallen asleep” (ὅτι ἡμεῖς οἱ ζῶντες οἱ περιλειπόμενοι εἰς τὴν παρουσίαν τοῦ (Ἰησοῦ) κυρίου οὐ μὴ φθάσωμεν τοὺς κοιμηθέντας) in 1 Thess 4:15b, Paul strengthens the assurance that the Christ’s faithful who have hope (in the resurrection of Christ and his parousia) need not grieve over those who died prior to the parousia of the Lord because the living would in no way have advantage over the dead, i. e. both the living and the dead will have the advantage or the opportunity to participate in the triumph and glory of the resurrected Christ at his second coming. Thus, from this point (1 Thess 4:15b) the event of the parousia of the Lord which Paul implied in 1 Thess 4:14b (cf. also 1 Thess 1:10) through the verb ἄξει and its implications for the Christ’s faithful who believe in the death and resurrection of Christ (1 Thess 4:14a) begin to unfold explicitly. While in 1 Thess 4:14b the focus is on God whose intention it is to “bring together” his people “with himself ” on that day or at the end of the ages, in 1 Thess 4:15b the focus expressly shifts to Jesus Christ whose parousia is the subject of attention. In verse 15b one can confidently say that the title “Lord” (κύριος) refers to Jesus Christ and not God because there is at least a witness from a manuscript (i.e., B) which reads εἰς τὴν παρουσίαν τοῦ Ἰησοῦ κυρίου (“at the parousia of Jesus, the Lord”). Here Paul does not only talk about the categories of persons who will benefit from the resurrection of Christ (4:14a) at his parousia –​i. e. both “the living” (οἱ ζῶντες) and “the dead” (οἱ κοιμηθέντες) –​but also about the fate of each of these parties (the living

782 See also Acts 21:9-​11.

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and the dead) in relation to each other as regards the parousia of the Lord. With the verb φθάσωμεν (aorist active subjunctive 1st person plural of the infinitive φθάνειν [“to precede”/​“to come before” in the sense of “to have precedence or advantage over”]) which is strongly negated by οὐ μὴ (“not at all”, “in no way”), Paul emphasizes categorically that there is no way that “the living” will precede or have advantage over “the dead” at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ; and with the 1st person plural personal pronoun “we” (ἡμεῖς), Paul identifies himself with the living Christ’s faithful in the Thessalonian community. In verse 15b and also in verse 17a where “the living” (οἱ ζῶντες) appear, they are talked about in apposition to “those who are left” (οἱ περιλειπόμενοι). Thus, the condition of the concepts οἱ ζῶντες and οἱ περιλειπόμενοι –​which are in the nominative case –​can be termed as “nominative in simple apposition”. This means that οἱ ζῶντες and οἱ περιλειπόμενοι are to be understood as one concept because “an appositional construction [such as the one found here] involves two adjacent substantives that refer to the same person or thing and have the same syntactical relation to the rest of the clause”783. Paul could have used only οἱ ζῶντες (present active participle nominative masculine plural of the infinitive verb ζῆν: “to live”, “to be alive”, etc.) in verses 15b and 17a. The fact that he adds οἱ περιλειπόμενοι in these verses could mean his intention to use traditional material in his description here in 1 Thess 4:15-​17. The substantive περιλειπόμενοι is the present passive participle nominative masculine plural of the infinitive verb περιλείπεσθαι which in the active sense means “to leave over”, and in the passive sense (as it appears here) it means “to remain over” or “to survive”. The verb or the participle can be used to talk of things or persons. In 2 Macc 1:31 (LXX), one finds the present passive participle neuter singular: τὸ περιλειπόμενον ὕδωρ (“the water that was left”), and in 2 Macc 8:14 the perfect passive participle accusative neuter plural: τὰ περιλελειμμένα πάντα (“all that was left”) appears. In 4 Macc 12:6 one finds the present passive participle accusative masculine singular: τὸν περιλειπόμενον (“the survivor”) and in 4 Macc 13:18 the participle οἱ περιλειπόμενοι refers to persons, i. e. “the rest, who remain” in contrast to “those who died previously” (οί προαποθανόντες). Spicq points out that the use of the present participle passive of the verb περιλείπεσθαι (i. e. περιλειπόμενοι) in the sense of drawing a contrast between “the living” and “the dead” was in vogue in the 1st century CE784, and he quotes some biblical passages and also from the 7 83 Cf. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 198. 784 Spicq writes thus: Le participe présent passif était courant en cette acception au Ier siècle. Cf. Ceslas Spicq, Notes de Lexicographie Néo-​ Testamentaire (Tome II), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978, p. 683.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

works of some authors –​including the Jewish writer Flavius Josephus –​in whose writings such a meaning of οἱ περιλειπόμενοι is found785. In his work Contra Apionem786 1.34-​35, Josephus writes: “In the not infrequent event of war, for instance when our country was invaded by Antiochus Epiphanes, by Pompey the Great, by Quintilius Varus, and above all in our own times, the surviving priests compile fresh records from the archives” (πόλεμος δ᾽ εἰ κατάσχοι, καθάπερ ἤδη γέγονε πολλάκις, Ἀντιόχου τε τοῦ Ἐπιφανοῦς εἰς τὴν χώραν ἐμβαλόντος καὶ Πομπηίου Μάγνου καὶ Κυντιλίου Οὐάρου μάλιστα δὲ καὶ ἑν τοῖς καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς χρόνοις, οἱ περιλειπόμενοι τῶν ἱερέων καινὰ πάλιν ἐκ τῶν ἀρχείων γράμματα συνίσταντανι)787;

and in Jewish Antiquities 7.9 he writes: “When Saul’s commander-​in-​chief Abenner, son of Ner, a man of action and of good character, learned that the king and Jonathan and his two other sons had fallen [in the war], he hastened to the camp and, carrying off his surviving son, who was called Jebosthos, brought him over to the people across the Jordan” (Ὁ δὲ τοῦ Σαούλου μὲν ἀρχιστράτηγος Ἀβεννῆρος Νήρου δὲ παῖς, ἀνὴρ δραστήριος καὶ ἀγαθὸς τὴν φύσιν, ὡς ἔγνω πεσόντα τὸν βασιλέα καὶ τὸν Ἰωνάθην καὶ τοὺς δυο τοὺς ἄλλους αὐτοῦ παῖδας, ἐπειχθεὶς εἰς τὴν παρεμβολὴν καὶ τὸν περιλειπόμενον ἐξαρπάσας υἱὸν αὐτοῦ, Ἰέβοσθος δ᾽ ἐκαλεῖτο, διαβιβάζει πρὸς τοὺς πέραν τοῦ Ἰορδάνου)788.

Thus, Josephus uses οἱ περιλειπόμενοι here in Contra Apionem 1.35 and in Jewish Antiquities 7.9 in contexts of war, and the concept οἱ περιλειπόμενοι describes “those who survive war” in contrast to “those who die or fall in war” (cf. also the use of the concept in such contexts in 4 Macc 12:6; 13:18). It is the passive meaning of περιλείπεσθαι which reflects in 1 Thess 4:15b, 17a and that the term οἱ περιλειπόμενοι in 1 Thess 4:15b, 17a can be understood as “those who remain”, and they are also identified, of course, as “the living” (οἱ ζῶντες) in contrast to “the dead” (οἱ κοιμηθέντες). Spicq, however, maintains further that this passive περιλείπεσθαι “expresses the result of a subtraction, that which is left” (ce passif explime le résultat d’une 785 For more details of the use of this expression in those works, confer Ceslas Spicq, Notes de Lexicographie Néo-​Testamentaire (Tome II), p. 683 and footnotes 1 and 2. 786 Josephus’ work Contra Apionem (“Against Apion”) belongs to his minor works and it was written in the 1st century CE, somehow “later than 94 CE”, or it can be assigned to “the beginning of the second century” in the Commom Era. Cf. Josephus I, in LCL 186. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926, p. xii-​xiii. Apion was considered merely as “one representative of Israel’s enemies”. See op. cit., p. xvi. 787 Josephus I, in LCL 186, pp. 176, 177. 788 Cf. Josephus V, in: LCL 281. London: Harvard University Press, 1934, pp. 362, 363.

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soustraction, ce qui reste)789 and he remarks that Paul’s use of οἱ περιλειπόμενοι in 1 Thess 4:15b, 17a can be understood in the sense of “the remnant or the rest of Israel and Judah” (ce qui reste d’Israël et de Juda, cf. 2 Chr 34:21790) because according to him “this verb applies also to persons who survive or survivors” (ce verbe s’applique aussi aux hommes qui survivent). He concludes thus: “It is in this sense that [οἱ περιλειπόμενοι: ‘the living’] in 1 Thess 4:15, 17 are in contrast to the dead, literally ‘those who have fallen asleep” [τοὺς κοιμηθέντας] and ‘we, who are [still] alive, the rest, we the living, those who are left’” (C’est en ce sens que 1 Thess IV, 15, 17 oppose les morts, littéral “ceux qui se sont endormis” [τοὺς κοιμηθέντας] et “nous les vivants [encore], les restants, ἡμεῖς οἱ ζῶντες οἱ περιλειπόμενοι”)791. Much as Spicq may have a point in his assertion, it must be emphasized that Paul does not use the concept οἱ περιλειπόμενοι in the sense of “the remnant or the rest of Israel and Judah”. The verb περιλείπεσθαι never appears in the NT and the only participle of the verb in the NT –​ οἱ περιλειπόμενοι –​ is the one used by Paul in 1 Thess 4:15b, 17a792. The verb περιλείπεσθαι in the LXX can translate the Hebrew verb ‫ׁשָ אַ ר‬793 which in the verb modification nifal can mean “to remain (over)”, “to be left (over), “to be left behind”, “to stay back”, “to escape”, or “to survive”. In the modification hif ‘il too this Hebrew verb can mean “to leave over” or “to preserve alive”. The synonym of ‫ ׁשָ אַ ר‬is ‫ יָתַ ר‬in the modification nifal (1 Kgs 19:10, 14) or hif ‘il (2 Kgs 4:43-​44). The participle of ‫ ׁשָ אַ ר‬which can be used as noun is ‫“ ​– הַ ּנִ ְׁשאָ ר‬one who remains/​survives/​escapes or one who is left”

7 89 Cf. Ceslas Spicq, Notes de Lexicographie Néo-​Testamentaire (Tome II), p. 683. 790 Spicq quotes also from the Griechische Papyri im Museum des oberhessischen Geschichtsvereins zu Giessen (PGiess) which reads: πρὸς τὸ ἡμᾶς τοὺς ἔτι περιλειπομένους (PGiess 82, 23) and other sources to support his assertion. Cf. Ceslas Spicq, Notes de Lexicographie Néo-​Testamentaire (Tome II), p. 683. 791 Cf. Ceslas Spicq, Notes de Lexicographie Néo-​Testamentaire (Tome II), p. 683 and footnotes 1 and 2. 792 Paul, however, uses related verbs like καταλείπειν (“to cause something to remain in existence or to be left over, etc.) in 1 Thess 3:1 (cf. also the substantive τὸ κατάλειμμα [“remnant”] read by some manuscripts [P46 ‫ א‬D F G K L 33.81.104, etc.] in Rom 9:27 as a quotation from Isa 10:22 LXX); ὑπολείπεσθαι (“to be left remaining, etc.) in Rom 11:3 as a quotation from 1 Kgs 19:10, 14. Confer also the substantive τό ὑπόλειμμα (“remnant”) in Rom 9:27. 793 There are, however, variations in translations in the LXX. Related verbs are also found such as καταλείπειν (2 Par 34:21), ὑπολείπεσθαι (2 Kgs 17:18; Amos 5:3; Zech 12:14); and most often ‫ ׁשָ אַ ר‬or its synonym ‫ יָתַ ר‬is rendered in the LXX as καταλείπειν. Confer, for instance, οἱ καταλειπόμενοι in Neh 1:3, and also the aorist passive participle of καταλείπειν used in 2 Chr 34:21 to describe the “remnants” of Israel and Judah.

176

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

(cf. 2 Chr 34:21; Isa 4:3) or the plural ‫“ ​– הַ ּנִ ְׁשאָ ִרים‬the remaining ones”, “the survivors”, etc. (cf. 2 Kgs 25:11). The participle ‫ הַ ּנִ ְׁשאָ ר‬can also be understood as the substantive ‫“( ׁשָ אַ ר‬rest”, “remnant”, “one who is left”, “remainder”, “residue”; or “posterity”, “offspring”)794. It is, however, necessary to focus attention here more on the meaning of οἱ περιλειπόμενοι as Paul uses it here in 1 Thess 4:15b, 17a to emphasize on “the living” as a contrast to “the dead” than on the nuance “the rest” or “the remnant” of Israel or Judah which in the OT is rather basically used as a contrast to “those in exile” or “the dispersed ones” who, of course, needed to be restored or brought back to their Jewish Homeland (cf. Ezk 37:1-​14; especially 37:11-​12, 14)795, or who “seek refuge in the Lord Almighty” (Isa 10:20-​21) because such a terminology (‫ )ׁשָ אַ ר‬can be equivalent to ‫ ּפְ לַיטָ ה‬which means “remnant or survivor” in the sense of “one who is (already) saved” (Isa 10:20)796. Though the participle of the verb περιλείπεσθαι can mean “the remnant or the rest of Israel and Judah”, it never appears in the LXX strictly in that sense. In the LXX, the verbs which translate the Hebrew verbs ‫ ׁשָ אַ ר‬and ‫ יָתַ ר‬in the sense of “the remnant or the rest of Israel and Judah” are mostly ὑπολείπεσθαι and καταλείπειν (cf. οἱ καταλειπόμενοι in Neh 1:3 and the expression περὶ παντὸς τοῦ καταλειφθέντος ἐν Ισραηλ καὶ Ιουδα [“on behalf of all those who are left in Israel and in Judah”] in 2 Chr 34:21). When Paul wants to refer to the concept of “the remnant or the rest of Israel and Judah”, he actually quotes from the Masoretic Text (cf. Rom 9:27 as a quotation from Isa 10:22 [MT and LXX]; Rom 11:3 as a quotation from 1 Kgs 19:10, 14 [MT and LXX]). In these passages where Paul specifically refers to “the remnant of Israel and Judah”, the Hebrew substantive ‫( ׁשָ אָ ר‬from the verb ‫ )ׁשָ אַ ר‬is rendered in the LXX as τὸ κατάλειμμα (from the verb καταλείπειν). Paul’s use of οἱ περιλειπόμενοι is rather closer to the use of this

794 For more details of this verb and its substantive, confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 8 (2011), pp. 218–​221. 795 In Ezk 37:1-​14, the vision (‫ )חָ זָה‬of Jeremiah is basically about the symbolic (or spiritual) death of the “dispersed ones” as is evident in their hopelessness for restoration and that “this vision is a predition of the restoration of Israel under the figure of a resurrection from the dead; it is not concerned with the doctrine of resurrection itself ”. Confer the note on Ezk 37:1-​14 in: Donald Senior, et al (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 1072. 796 The LXX, for instance, renders ‫ ּופְ לֵיטַ ת ּבֵ ית־ ַיעֲקֹ ב‬in Isa 10:20 (MT) accordingly as καὶ οἱ σωθέντες τοῦ Ιακωβ (“and the saved ones [in the house] of Jacob. ‫ ּפְ לֵיטָ ה‬is from the verb ‫ ּפָ לַט‬which in the modification qal means “to escape” (see Ezk 7:16). In the modification pi‘el ‫ ּפָ לַט‬can mean “to save” (see Mic 6:14), and in the modification hif ‘il the verb can mean “to deliver or give birth of people” (see Mic 6:14).

1 Thess 4:15

177

concept in the LXX but especially in 4 Macc 13:18 where οἱ περιλειπόμενοι is used in contrast to οί προαποθανόντες (“those who died previously”). In 1 Thess 4:15b, Paul does not use the present participle οἱ κοιμωμένοι but the aorist participle οἱ κοιμηθέντες just as found also in οί προαποθανόντες in 4 Macc 13:18; and while οἱ περιλειπόμενοι remains in the nominative masculine plural in these passages (4 Macc 13:18 and 1 Thess 4:15b), one finds the concept related to “the dead” in the accusative masculine plural in these passages, i. e., τοὺς προαποθανόντας (4 Macc 13:18) and τοὺς κοιμηθέντας (1 Thess 4:15b). In 1 Thess 4:15b, 17a Paul actually uses the term οἱ περιλειπόμενοι as a contrast to οἱ κοιμηθέντες, and his use of οἱ κοιμηθέντες can mean οί προαποθανόντες without necessarily making any reference to war or martyrdom (as found in the Maccabean context) but to draw parallels between “those who are living presently” and “those who have already died” with regard to their fate at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. The relationship between “the dead” and “the living” which Paul talks about here in 1 Thess 4:15b (or in 1 Thess 4:15b-​17) might have been based on the “speculation in Judaism” that “those who are alive at the end, in the last generation, will be particularly fortunate” at the coming of the Messiah because they will survive the “Messianic Woes”. 4 Ezra 5:41, for instance, reads: “And I said: But lo, O Lord, thou art ready to meet (with blessing) those who survive in the end; but what shall our predecessors do, or we ourselves or our posterity?”797 (Et dixi: Sed ecce, Domine, tu praees his qui in fine sunt, et quid facient qui ante nos sunt aut nos aut hi, qui post nos?)798.

Cross notices that the “view that those who are alive at the end, in the last generation, will be particularly fortunate is nicely explicit in the Psalms of Solomon 18”799. Pss.Sol 18:6-​7 reads: “The Lord cleanses Israel for the day when he shall have mercy upon them and shall bring back his anointed /​Blessed are they that shall be in those days: for they shall see

797 Cf. G. H. Box (transl.), 4 Ezra, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 572. There are variations in translation of this book (4 Ezra) and that another translation of 4 Ezra 5:41 reads: And I said, “yet behold, O Lord, thou dost promise those who are alive at the end, but what will those do who were before us, or we, or those who come after us? Cf. Frank Moore Cross (editor), A Commentary on the Book of Fourth Ezra, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990, p. 141. 798 Quoted from: A. F. J. Kliyn (Hrsg.), Der lateinische Text der Apokalypse des Esra (Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, Band 131), Berlin: Akademie-​Verlag, 1983, pp. 36–​37. 799 Cf. Frank Moore Cross (editor), A Commentary on the Book of Fourth Ezra, p. 148 and the remarks in footnote 28.

178

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

the goodness of the Lord which he shall bring to pass for the generation that cometh” (καθαρίσαι ὁ θεὸς Ἰσραὴλ εἰς ἡμέραν ἐλέου ἐν εὐλογίᾳ, εἰς ἡμέραν ἐκλογῆς ἐν ἀνάξει χριστοῦ αὐτοῦ/​μακάριοι οἱ γινόμενοι ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις ἐκείναις ἰδεῖν τὰ ἀγαθὰ κυρίου, ἃ ποιήσει γενεᾷ τῇ ἐρχομένῃ)800.

Cross asserts further that this idea is clearly behind Dn 12:12 which in the LXX (Theodotion) reads: “Blessed is the one who perseveres or waits for and reaches the thousand three hundred and thirty-​five days” (μακάριος ὁ ὑπομένων καὶ φθάσας εἰς ἡμέρας χιλίαι διακόσιαι ἐνενήκοντα πέντε801).

For Cross, “the notion of the last generation and the righteous who will survive in it is encountered often in 4 Ezra”, and the concept which is almost always used is “the survivors”802. While 4 Ezra 6:25-​26, for instance, reads: “And it shall be whosoever shall have survived all these days that I have foretold unto thee, he shall be saved and shall see my salvation and the end of my world /​And the men [or persons] who have been taken up, who have not tasted death from their birth, shall appear”803 (Et erit, omnis qui derelictus fuerit ex omnibus istis quibus praedixi tibi, ipse salvabitur et videbit salutare meum et finem saeculi mei /​Et videbunt qui recepti sunt homines, qui mortem non gustaverunt a nativitate sua, et mutabitur cor inhabitantium et convertetur in sensum alium)804;

4 Ezra 13:16-​18 reads: “Oh show me now moreover the interpretation of this dream! /​For as I conceive in my mind, woe unto them that shall survive in those days! But much more woe unto them that do not survive! /​For they that do not survive must be sorrowful /​knowing as they do what things are received in the last days, but not attaining805 unto them”806 (Et nunc demonstra mihi adhuc et interpretationem somnii huius /​Sicut enim existimo in sensu meo: Vae qui derelicti fuerint in diebus illis, et multo plus vae his qui non sunt derelicti!

800 Original text and translation quoted from: Herbert Edward Ryle, Montague Rhodes James (editors), Psalms of the Pharisees commonly called the Psalms of Solomon, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1891, pp. 148, 149, 150, 151. 801 Dn 12:12 in the MT reads: ‫ֹלׁשים ַוח ֲִמ ָ ּֽׁשה‬ ִ ‫אַ ְׁש ֵ ֥רי ַ ֽה ְמחַ ּכֶ ֖ה וְ יַּגִ יַע לְ י ִָ֕מים ֕ ֶאלֶף ְׁשֹלׁש מֵ אֹ֖ ות ְׁש‬ 802 Cf. Frank Moore Cross (editor), A Commentary on the Book of Fourth Ezra, p. 148. 803 Cf. G. H. Box (transl.), 4 Ezra, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 576. 804 Quoted from: A. F. J. Kliyn (Hrsg.), Der lateinische Text der Apokalypse des Esra, p. 40. 805 The verb “attaining” here has the nuance of φθάνειν (“to come to or arrive at a particular state”, “to attain”, or “to reach”). Cf. also Dn 12:12 LXX (Theodotion). Paul uses the verb φθάνειν in this sense in Rom 9:31 and in Phil 3:16. Cf. BDAG, p. 1053 § 3. 806 Cf. G. H. Box (transl.), 4 Ezra, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 617.

1 Thess 4:15

179

/​Qui enim non sunt derelicti tristes erunt /​intellegentes nunc quae sunt reposita in novissimis diebus, et non occurrent eis)807.

It is worthwhile to mention here that in 4 Ezra 7:67, one does not find the term “survivor” but a related term “those preserved alive”. 4 Ezra 7:67 reads thus: “For what doth it profit us that we shall be preserved alive, but yet suffer great torment?”808 (Nobis autem quid prodest, quoniam salvati salvabimur sed tormento tormentabimur!)809. Cross indicates that the term “survivors” is used in 4 Ezra to talk about “those who will survive the messianic woes” and in some passages like 4 Ezra 12:34; 13:26; 13:48-​49, the term refers particularly to “those who survive the great eschatological battle waged by the Redeemer”810. 4 Ezra 13:48-​49, for instance, reads: “But the survivors of thy people, even those who are found within my holy border (shall be saved). /​It shall be, therefore, when he shall destroy the multitude of the nations that are gathered together, he shall defend the people that remain”811 (Sed et qui derelicti sunt de populo tuo, qui invenientur intra terminum meum sanctum. /​Erit ergo quando incipiet perdere multitudinem earum quae collectae sunt gentes, proteget qui superaverit populum)812.

Much as this apocalyptic idea might have informed Paul of his use of the term οἱ περιλειπόμενοι in 1 Thess 4:15b, 17, it can still be argued that “precisely the same term is not used in the apocalyptic writings”. In the Pauline application, the terms οἱ περιλειπόμενοι and οἱ ζῶντες are in apposition, and they “describe people who have not yet died, not people who have survived the Messianic Woes”813. Cross observes, for instance, that the term “survivors”, as it appears especially in 2 Bar 29:1-​2814; 71:1815; and in 1 En 10:17 is “limited to those dwelling in the land” (of 8 07 Cf. A. F. J. Kliyn (Hrsg.), Der lateinische Text der Apokalypse des Esra, pp. 82–​83. 808 Cf. G. H. Box (transl.), 4 Ezra, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 586. 809 Cf. A. F. J. Kliyn (Hrsg.), Der lateinische Text der Apokalypse des Esra, p. 48. 810 Cf. Frank Moore Cross (editor), A Commentary on the Book of Fourth Ezra, 148. 811 Cf. G. H. Box (transl.), 4 Ezra, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 619. 812 Cf. A. F. J. Kliyn (Hrsg.), Der lateinische Text der Apokalypse des Esra, p. 85. 813 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 271. 814 2 Baruch 29:1-​2 reads: And he answered and said to me: “whatever will then befall (will befall) the whole earth; therefore all who live will experience (them) /​For at that time I will protect only those who are found in those self-​same days in this land ….” Cf. R. H. Charles (transl.), 2 Baruch, or the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 497. 815 2 Baruch 71:1 reads: And the holy land shall have mercy on its own, and it shall protect its inhabitants. Cf. R. H. Charles (transl.), 2 Baruch, or the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 518.

180

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

Israel and Judah)816. Paul would definitely not use οἱ περιλειπόμενοι as “survivors” in this limited sense, especially when in this letter he addresses the Thessalonian community which is found in a “heathen” or “pagan” world outside Israel and Judah. One may rather find the nuance of the term “survivors” which appears in 2 Bar 29:1-​2; 71:1 and elsewhere in 4 Ezra 12:34817; 13:48 and in 1 En 10:7, etc. in Mk 13:13 where the term ὁ ὑπομείνας (present participle of the verb ὑπομένειν [“to remain or to stay”, “to endure”, “to wait for in persistence”]) occurs. In 1 Thess 4:15b the term οἱ περιλειπόμενοι is “related to a different eschatological view” because there (in 1 Thess 4:15-​17) the issue is clearly the question of the believers who are still alive and the Christ’s faithful who have died before the eschaton and their situation at the end818. It is, however, evident that by his use of the verb φθάνειν (“to have precedence over”) in 1 Thess 4:15b to talk about the relationship between “the dead” and “the living” in connection with their fate at the parousia of the Lord, Paul actually draws material from Judaism to somehow correct that kind of “speculation” or “misconception” in Judaism that “the living” would have advantage over or be more fortunate than “the dead” at the end of days. The Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica –​among whom there were Jews –​might have been confronted with this “notion” or “misconception” in relation to the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ at the end of time, hence their grief over the uncertainty of the fate of the dead at the parousia of the Lord819. Malherbe correctly observes that: “The Thessalonians evidently shared these concerns with those Jews in the first century who discussed at great length the status of the living and the dead at the end of time. It was held in such circles that those alive, ‘who are left are more blessed than those who had died’ (4 Ezra 13:24…820). But, despite the fear that the dead would be disadvantaged (4 Ezra 13:16-​18; 2 Bar 28), the conviction was that both groups would arrive at the

8 16 Cf. Frank Moore Cross (editor), A Commentary on the Book of Fourth Ezra, p. 148. 817 4 Ezra 12:34 reads: “But my people who survive he shall deliver with mercy, even those who have been saved throughout my borders, and he shall make them joyful until the End come, even the Day of Judgement, of which I have spoken unto thee from the beginning”. Cf. G. H. Box (transl.), 4 Ezra, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 614. For the Latin version of the text, confer A. F. J. Kliyn (Hrsg.), Der lateinische Text der Apokalypse des Esra, p. 79. 818 Cf. Frank Moore Cross (editor), A Commentary on the Book of Fourth Ezra, pp. 148–​149. 819 For the various opinions of some commentators on the reconstruction of the Thessalonian problem as regards the cause of their grief over the dead, confer: Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 283–​285. 820 Confer also 4 Ezra 6:25; 7:26-​44; Pss.Sol 17:44; 18:6.

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judgement at the same time (4 Ezra 5:41-​45) and, after the resurrection at the coming of the Annointed One, would appear together and all would be joyous (2 Bar 30:1-​3)”821.

He then concludes that: “Paul’s strong affirmation that those left until the parousia would no means have precedence over those who would have died clearly reflects these concerns”822.

The verb φθάσωμεν (aorist active subjunctive 1st person plural of the infinitive φθάνειν [“to come before”, “to precede”]) is used in this sense only here in 1 Thess 4:15b. Paul uses this verb in a negative construction, i. e., οὐ μή φθάσωμεν (“we will not at all have precedence over”). Such a construction of οὐ μή + aorist subjunctive expresses emphatic denial823. Thus, Paul denies emphatically that “the living” shall precede or have advantage over “the dead” at the parousia of the Lord, and this parousia shoud be considered here as a future event because οὐ μή is “the most decisive way of negativing something in the future”824. Here in 1 Thess 4:15b, Paul uses the verb φθάνειν uniquely to mean “to precede” /​ “to have precedence or advantage over”. Elsewhere in the NT the verb φθάνειν can either mean “to have just arrived” or “to reach” (Mt 12:28825; 2 Cor 10:14; 1 Thess 2:16), or “to attain” (Rom 9:31; Phil 3:16)826. In the LXX (or in Hellenistic Judaism), φθάνειν can either translate the Hebrew ‫ קָ דַ ם‬which in the modification pi‘el means “to be in front” (Ps 68:26 MT), “to be first to arrive”, “to come before” (Ps 59:11 MT; Ps 95:2 MT)827, or ‫ ָנגַע‬which in the modification qal can mean “to come upon” (Jdg 20:34828), or ‫ דָ בַ ק‬which in the modification hif ‘il can mean “to overtake” (Jdg 20:42). Thus, in the MT there is no passage where one finds an equivalence of how Paul uses φθάνειν in 1 Thess 4:15b, except in a text found 8 21 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 284. 822 See op. cit., p. 284. 823 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 235. Confer also BDF, p. 184 § 365. 824 Cf. BDAG, p. 646 § 4. It is also stressed in BDF that οὐ μή with the aorist subjunctive or future indicative, both of which are classical, is “the most definite form of negation regarding the future”, and that “this mode of expression is more common in the NT and for the most part less emphatic than in the classical language, but it is virtually limited to quotations from the LXX and sayings of Jesus”. Cf. BDF, p. 184 § 365. 825 See also the parallel text of Lk 11:20. 826 Cf. BDAG, p. 1053 §§ 1, 2, 3; Victor Hasler, “φθάνω”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), pp. 421–​422. 827 In the LXX the compound verb προφθάνειν is rather found in the passages cited here, i. e. Ps 67:26; Ps 58:11; 94:2. 828 The verb φθάνειν itself appears in Jdg 20:34 in the LXX but not in the sense as Paul uses it in 1 Thess 4:15b.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

rather in one of the Deuterocanonical Books of the Old Testament (i.e. Wis.Sol 6:13). The verb φθάνειν in the sense of “to come before”/​“to precede” as Paul uses it in 1 Thess 4:15b appears in the LXX only in Wis 6:13. Helbing notices that: “φθάνειν meaning ‘to come before’/​‘to precede’ is found approximately only in Wisdom 6:13 … in all the other passages it appears in the very common meaning which was in use in the Hellenistic period and also in Modern Greek, i. e., ‘to reach’, ‘to hasten to’, ‘to attain’, ‘to meet’, ‘to come upon’ ” (Zuvorkommen heißt φθάνειν circa nur Weisheit 6:13 … An allen andern Stellen liegt die in hellenistischer Zeit sehr übliche, auch im Neugriechischen gangbare Bedeutung „erreichen, ereilen, hingelangen, treffen auf, kommen zu“ vor ….)829

Wis 6:13 which reads: “She [Wisdom] is first to make herself known to those who desire [knowledge of] her”830 (φθάνει τοὺς ἐπιθυμοῦντας προγνωσθῆναι) does not even suffice to bring out the exact meaning of the verb as Paul uses it in 1 Thess 4:15b. Luckensmeyer observes that though Paul’s peculiar use of the verb φθάνειν in 1 Thess 4:15b is rarely found in the LXX, this “older definition” of the verb, i. e., “to come before”/​“to precede” with the accusative of the person preceded is widespread in the work of Josephus, namely, The Jewish Antiquities831 and in the works of other ancient authors832. While in Jewish Antiquities (Ant.) 7.176 one reads: “But someone reached there before them and reported to the King that they had all been murdered by Absalom” (φθάσας δέ τις αὐτοὺς ἅπαντας ὑπὸ Ἀψαλώμου πεφονεῦσθαι τῷ πατρὶ προσήγγειλεν)833;

829 Cf. Robert Helbing, Die Kasussyntax der Verba bei den Septuaginta: Ein Beitrag zur Hebraismenfrage und zur Syntax der Κοινή, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1928, p. 104. For his discussion of the verb and its compounds, see op. cit., pp. 104–​105. 830 Cf. David Winston, The Wisdom of Solomon (AB 43), New York: Doubleday & Company, 1979, p. 152. Confer also the use of this verb φθάνειν in Wis.Sol. 4:7; 16:28. 831 For Luckensmeyer’s discussion of the verb φθάνειν, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 235–​236. 832 For references to such authors, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 236 footnote 200; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 270 footnote 228. Plato also uses the verb in this sense but with the compound verb προφθάνειν (“to come before”; “to do before or previously”) in his work Res Publica, Book 6.500a. Thus, ἐγὼ μὲν γάρ σε προφθάσας λέγω ὅτι ἐν ὀλίγοις τισὶν ἡγοῦμαι, ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐν τῷ πλήθει, χαλεπὴν οὕτω φύσιν γίγνεσθαι. In the NT, this compound verb προφθάνειν is a hapax legomenon which appears only in Mt 17:25. 833 Cf. Josephus V, in: LCL 281. London: Harvard University Press, 1934, pp. 454, 455.

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Jewish Antiquities 7.247 reads: “But when Achimas again requested him to entrust the message to him, saying that he would mention only the victory and would keep silence about the death of Absalom, Joab granted him permission to make the journey to David. And so, by striking off into a shorter road, which he alone knew, he arrived before [or preceded] Chūsis” (τοῦ δ᾽ Ἀχίμα πάλιν δεηθέντος αὐτῷ τὴν ἀγγελίαν ἐφεῖναι, περὶ μόνης γὰρ αὐτὴν ποιήσεσθαι τῆς νίκης ἡσυχάσειν δὲ περὶ τῆς Ἀψαλώμου τελευτῆς, ἐπέτρεψεν αὐτῷ τὴν πρὸς τὸν Δαυίδην ἄφιξιν. καὶ τὴν ἐπιτομωτέραν ἐκβαλὼν τῶν ὁδῶν, καὶ γὰρ μόνος αὐτὴν ἐγίνωσκε, τὸν Χουσὶν φθάνει)834;

and Jewish Antiquities 7.263 reads: “And first of all the tribes to meet the King at the river Jordan was Judah” (πάντας δὲ τοὺς ἄλλους ἔφθασεν ἡ Ἰούδα φυλὴ πρὸς τὸν Ἰόρδανον ποταμὸν ἀπαντῆσᾶι τῷ βασιλεῖ)835.

Thus in 1 Thess 4:15b, Paul uses the verb φθάνειν in conformity with its use in the Jewish traditional domain as found somehow in Wis.Sol 6:13 (LXX) or in Josephus’ Jewish Antiquities 7:176.247.263, but he uses the verb here in 1 Thess 4:15b uniquely to bring out the relationship between “the living” and “the dead” as regards their fate at the parousia of the Lord, Jesus Christ. In the verses that follow, he does not only describe vividly the event of the parousia but also the fate of “the dead” and “the living” in relation to the parousia of the Lord, and by so doing he dwells much on apocalyptic motifs. Hasler rightly remarks in connection with Paul’s use of the verb φθάνειν in 1 Thess 4:15b that: “In 1 Thess 4:15 ff. Paul assures his readers with an apocalyptic saying of the Lord … that the believers who will actually experience the parousia will not precede those who have already fallen asleep (i. e., died)”836.

At the sound of the trumpet of the Lord –​which is a signal of the parousia –​“the dead in Christ” (οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ) shall be first to arise from the dead after which “the living” together with the dead shall meet the Lord and forever be with the Lord (1 Thess 4:16-​17).

8 34 Cf. Josephus V, in: LCL 281. London: Harvard University Press, 1934, pp. 490–​493. 835 See op. cit., pp. 498, 499. Apart from these passages, Josephus uses the verb φθάνειν elsewhere in his work but with different meanings such as “to anticipate” (Ant. 6.228), “to reach” (Ant. 7.64), “to hasten” (Ant. 9.70). 836 Cf. Victor Hasler, “φθάνω”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), p. 422.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

2.1. (iv) 1 Thess 4:16 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:16 (with Notes) 16a. ὅτι αὐτὸς ὁ κύριος ἐν κελεύσματι, ἐν φωνῇ ἀρχαγγέλου καὶ ἐν σάλπιγγι θεοῦ, καταβήσεται ἀπ᾽ οὐρανοῦ 16b. καὶ οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ ἀναστήσονται πρῶτον/​πρῶτοι837.

16a. For the Lord himself will descend (or come down) from heaven with a command, with the voice of an Archangel and with [the sound of] the trumpet of God, 16b. and the dead in Christ will rise first (i. e., from the dead).

Notes: The conjunction ὅτι here in verse 16a is a “marker of causality” which indicates the reason why anything is said to be or to be done838, hence ὅτι can be rendered here as “for”, “because”, “since”, etc. It can also function as a “marker of explanatory clauses” which gives further explanations to what has already been said. The word αὐτός is a reflexive pronoun (“self ”) and it is an “intensive marker, setting an item off from everything else through emphasis and contrast”, and it is used in all persons, genders and numbers839. Here, αὐτός (“self ”) is used with the subject ὁ κύριος (“the Lord”). The phrase αὐτὸς ὁ κύριος is translated appropriately as “the Lord himself ”, and it emphasizes that “the Lord” is the subject of the event of the “descending” or “coming down” (καταβαίνειν). The preposition ἐν (“with”) appears three times in verse 16a, and in all these appearances ἐν functions as a marker which indicates means or instrument. In verse 6b, however, the preposition ἐν is to be rendered as “in” becase it is then a “marker of close association within a limit”, and it indicates the state of being filled with or gripped by something840. The prepositional phrase ἐν Χριστῷ (“in Christ”) means, therefore, “in Christ’s innermost being”, i.e. in the person, nature, soul and thought of Christ. Thus, while the preposition ἐν in verse 6a is

8 37 Some manuscripts, i.e., D F G latt; Tert Eus, read πρῶτοι instead of πρῶτον. 838 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 459 § II. 839 Cf. BDAG, p. 152 § 1. 840 Cf. BDAG, p. 327 § 4.

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understood in an “instrumental” sense, in verse 6b it is to be understood in a “local” sense841.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:16 The ὅτι which begins this verse 16 is not ὅτι-​recitativum but an explicative ὅτι (“for”, “because”) which functions here as a parallel to the particle γάρ in 1 Thess 4:15a to give further explanations to what Paul had already claimed. In his elaboration, Paul makes use of apocalyptic imagery either from Judaism or from early Christian apocalyptic tradition, and he “represents the apocalyptic scenario as a message from the Lord that he [Paul] offers in a way designed to address his readers’ immediate needs”842. 1 Thess 4:16a opens a subordinate declarative clause with a new subject ὁ κύριος (“the Lord”) preceded by the intensive pronoun αὐτός (“himself ”) in apposition843. The title ὁ κύριος refers here to Jesus Christ because in this pericope (1 Thess 4:15b-​17) Jesus plays a pivotal role, i.e. he is the pivot around which the events revolve. Ὁ θεός (“God”) is also mentioned here but in the expression ἐν σάλπιγγι θεοῦ (“with the trumpet of God”), i. e. focus is not on God per se but on his trumpet. Moreover, the title (ὁ) κύριος is Paul’s favourite for Jesus in a parousia connection, either by itself844 or in a more complete formulation; and the intensive marker αὐτός primarily serves here to emphasize the identity of the descending one because the Lord is none other than Jesus, who died and rose (1 Thess 4:14a)845. Thus, unlike in 1 Thess 4:14b where God is identified as the one who brings together his people through his agent Jesus Christ, here in 1 Thess 4:16 ff. it is rather the principal role of Jesus Christ as the agent of the bringing together of “the living” and the “dead” which is stressed. Luckensmeyer correctly remarks that Jesus as κύριος at his parousia emphasizes his role as eschatological agent, exercising God’s authority, which 841 Luckensmeyer, however, shares the opinion that: “The ἐν-​construction appears to give no indication of how it is to be interpreted … and there is no clue as to how Paul uses the phrase [ἐν Χριστῷ] in 1 Thess 4:16 from the other occurrences in the letter”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 246. 842 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 273; also Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 196; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 271 and footnote 231. 843 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 238. 844 See 1 Thess 3:13; 4:15b, 16, 17; 5:2; 1 Cor 4:5; 5:5; 11:26. 845 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 238 and footnote 203. Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 273 footnote 239.

186

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

Paul makes explicit in his reference to (the) “day of the Lord” (ἡμέρα κυρίου) in 1 Thess 5:2846. Malherbe also maintains that: “Immediately following the denial of what the living faithful will experience, Paul emphatically turns to what the Lord will do. In verse 14 it had been God who would act through Jesus as his agent; now the divine gathering is described in terms of Jesus’ role”847.

The title κύριος, therefore, invests authority in Jesus because he now exercises the same authority with God, and in this connection it is not surprising to find the title in close association with traditions of resurrection, exaltation and parousia, each successive of the former (i.e., the resurrection); and if by Jesus’ resurrection he is considered κύριος, then his exaltation is confirmation of that lordship848. Some exegetes opine that with the emphatic formulation “the Lord himself ” (αὐτὸς ὁ κύριος) will come down from heaven, Paul may seek to correct here some Jewish ideas or expectations that the Messiah would have no major or decisive role in the end of the ages so far as the salvation of God’s people are concerned because God himself will act to save his people849. Bruce refers to Isa 63:9 as an example of such an expectation850. Isa 63:8b-​9 in the LXX reads: “8b. And he [the Lord God] became to them a deliverance from their entire affliction. 9. Not a messenger nor an angel but the Lord himself saved them because he loved them and spared them. He himself redeemed them and took them up and lifted them all the days of old” (8b. καὶ ἐγένετο αὐτοῖς εἰς σωτηρίαν ἐκ πάσης θλίψεως. 9. οὐ πρέσβυς οὐδὲ ἄγγελος, ἀλλ᾽ αὐτὸς κύριος ἔσωσεν αὐτοὺς διὰ τὸ ἀγαπᾶν αὐτοὺς καὶ φείδεσθαι αὐτῶν. αὐτὸς ἐλυτρώσατο αὐτοὺς καὶ ἀνέλαβεν αὐτοὺς καὶ ὕψωσεν αὐτοὺς πάσας τὰς ἡμέρας τοῦ αἰῶνος).

Dt 4:37 (LXX) also reads: “Because he [the Lord God] loved your fathers he also chose their descendants after them and he himself brought you out of Egypt by his great power” (διὰ τὸ ἀγαπῆσαι

8 46 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 238. 847 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 273. 848 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 238. 849 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 196; Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 273; F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 100. 850 Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 100. He also makes reference to “the divine assertion” from the Passover Haggada which reads: ‫“( אני הוא ולא אחד‬I myself and no other [will act to deliver Israel from Egypt]”). See op. cit., p. 100.

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αὐτὸν τοὺς πατέρας σου καὶ ἐξελέξατο τὸ σπέρμα αὐτῶν μετ᾽ αὐτοὺς ὑμᾶς καὶ ἐξήγαγέν σε αὐτὸς ἐν τῇ ἰσχύι αὐτοῦ τῇ μεγάλῃ ἐξ Αἰγύπτου).

It is worthwhile to mention in this connection that an OT pseudepigraphon, i. e. 4 Ezra, records a prophecy that the Messiah himself will die at the end of days when his time is due. 4 Ezra 7:27-​29 reads thus: “And whosoever is delivered from the predicted evils, the same shall see my wonders /​ For my Son the Messiah shall be revealed, together with those who are with him, and shall rejoice the survivors four hundred years /​And it shall be, after these years, that my Son the Messiah shall die, and all in whom there is human breath”851 (Et omnis qui liberatus est de praedictis malis, ipse videbit mirabilia mea /​Revelabitur enim filius meus Iesus cum his qui cum eo, et iocundabit qui relicti sunt annis CCCCtis /​Et erit post annos hos, et morietur filius meus Christus et omnes qui spiramentum habent hominis)852.

Malherbe rather stresses that Paul’s use of the emphatic “the Lord himself ” (αὐτὸς ὁ κύριος) can be explained in connection with how Paul talks about the parousia in 1 Thessalonians because “the parousia is always connected in 1 Thessalonians with the κύριος (1 Thess 2:19; 3:13; 4:14; 5:23), and Paul wants to make clear to his readers what it is that the Lord will do at his coming in which they can take comfort”853. Bruce notices that the emphasis on the description of the coming (down) of the Lord with reference to the parousia of Jesus Christ can also be found in Acts 1:11854 which reads: “This Jesus, who has been taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you have seen him going into heaven” (οὗτος ὁ Ἰησοῦς ὁ ἀναλημφθεὶς ἀφ᾽ ὑμῶν εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν οὕτως ἐλεύσεται ὅν τρόπον ἐθεάσασθε αὐτὸν πορευόμενον εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν).

Best too locates the “central idea” of 1 Thess 4:16 in the words “the Lord himself … will descend”, and he explains that “the early Christians believed that Jesus was exalted at God’s right hand in heaven (Rom 8:34; Acts 2:33; Eph 1:20855)”, and 8 51 Cf. G. H. Box (transl.), 4 Ezra, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 582; and the notes f-​j. 852 Quoted from: A. F. J. Kliyn (Hrsg.), Der lateinische Text der Apokalypse des Esra, p. 45. For a variant reading of 4 Ezra 7:27-​29 in the Armenian Version, confer Michael E. Stone (editor), Concordance and Texts of the Armenian Version of IV Ezra (Oriental Notes and Studies 11), Jerusalem: The Israel Oriental Society, 1971, pp. 8–​9; and for a brief commentary on the text in the Armenian Version, confer Michael E. Stone, A Textual Commentary on the Armenian Version of IV Ezra (Society of Biblical Literature: Septuagint and Cognate Studies Series 34), Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990, pp. 162–​163. 853 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 273. 854 Cf. F. F. Bruce, 1 & 2 Thessalonians, p. 100. 855 The texts include Col 3:1; 1 Pt 3:22, etc.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

the story of Acts 1:9-​11 recounts how Jesus went to heaven from earth so that 1 Thess 4:16 ff can be considered as “a journey of ascent and descent” and the images associated with this event “serve to emphasize the grandeur and finality of the parousia”856. In the LXX, the verb καταβαίνειν can be a translation of the Hebrew ‫י ַָרד‬ which in the verb modification qal means “to go down”, “to come down”, “to descend”857, etc. It can describe the coming down of an object like the manna (Nm 11:9) or of persons or human beings (Nm 16:30, 33)858 such as a messenger (4 Kgs 6:33 LXX), an anointed one of the Lord, i. e. a king (1 Kgs 26:9-​10 LXX), a priest (Lv 9:22; Sir 50:20; 3 Kgs 1:38 LXX), a prophet (3 Kgs 1:38 LXX), etc. It can also describe the descending of angels of God (Gen 28:12), the coming down of God (Gen 46:4) or the descending of the Lord (Gen 11:5; Exod 3:8; 19:11)859. The act of God’s or the Lord’s descent is one associated with benevolence (Gen 11:5; Nm 11:17; 1 En 25.3), judgement (2 Kgs 22:10; Ps 143:5 LXX; Mic 1:3)860, or deliverance (Gen 46:4; Exod 3:8; Isa 31:4-​5)861. The Lord (God) comes down not only to intervene in the affairs of humankind (Gen 11:5-​9) but out of love he comes down (from heaven) to save those who call upon him and cry out to him in the shadow of death and in their afflictions (Ps 18:5-​20 MT). In Exod 34:5 and in Nm 11:25; 12:5, it is emphasized that the Lord (God) descends in a cloud (καὶ κατέβη κύριος ἐν νεφέλῃ)862; in Exod 19:18 the Lord descends in fire; and in 2 Kgs 22:10 (LXX) and in Ps 143:5 (LXX) the stress is on the fact that the Lord (God) “inclines, bends or bows the heavens” (κλίνειν οὐρανούς) and descends. It is, however, in the description of the event of the theophany in Exod 19 that almost all the imageries associated with the coming or the parousia of the Lord, as Paul describes it in 1 Thess 4:16 ff, are present. Löhr, for instance, writes: Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 196. Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 4 (1998), pp. 284–​285. Confer also Exod 19:14, 21, 24, 25. The references include Exod 19:18, 20; 34:5; Nm 11:17, 25; 12:5; Jdg 5:13; 2 Kgs 22:10 LXX; Ps 143:5 LXX; Isa 31:4; Mic 1:3; Neh 9:13. In the OT Pseudepigrapha, narratives about the descent of the Lord can be found in 1 En 25.3: “This tall mountain which you saw whose summit resembles the throne of God is (indeed) his throne, on which the Holy and Great Lord of Glory, the Eternal King, will sit when he descends to visit the earth with goodness”. Cf. E. Isaac (transl.), 1 (Ethiopic Apocalypse of) Enoch, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 26. 860 Confer also Sibylline Oracles 3:308. 8 61 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 244. 862 In Exod 19:9 and in Nm 12:5 (LXX), it is stated precisely that “the Lord descended in a pillar of a cloud or in a dense cloud” (κατέβη κύριος ἐν στύλῳ νεφέλης). 8 56 857 858 859

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“In the Theophany description of Exod 19:17 ff appear also the expressions σάλπιγξ [‘a trumpet’], νεφέλη [‘a cloud’], καταβαίνειν [‘to descend’ or ‘to come down’] … and φωνή [‘a voice or sound’] found in the ‘word of the Lord’ [i. e., in 1 Thess 4:16 ff], and so one should accept the LXX as the background to the reconstructed tradition [in 1 Thess 4:16 ff.]” (In der Theophanieschilderung von Ex 19, 17 ff. tauchen auch die im „Herrenwort“ vorkommenden Ausdrücke σάλπιγξ, νεφέλη, καταβαίνειν … und φωνή auf, so dass man als Hintergrund für die rekonstruierte Tradition die LXX annehmen sollte ….)863

Glasson also observes that OT theophanies have connection with NT conceptions of the parousia of the Lord at the end time, and he maintains that: “These divine comings of the future reflect the theophany at Sinai, and the conviction grew that as the Lord had come down at the beginning of Israel’s history, so he would come down at the end. At Mount Sinai ‘the Lord descended upon it in fire … the voice of the trumpet waxed louder and louder (Exod 19:18 f.) Again in verse 20 it is affirmed that ‘the Lord came down’. In the corresponding description in Dt 33:2-​3 it is said that ‘the Lord came from Sinai … and with him were myriads of holy ones streaming along at his right hand’ (NEB). These features reappear in connection with the coming of the Lord, the fire, the trumpet, the holy ones etc.”864

There can indeed be a synopsis of Exod 19:16 ff and 1 Thess 4:16 f as shown in Table I below. The synopsis of Exod 19:16 ff and 1 Thess 4:16 f (see Table I below) reveals that both passages talk of the “descent of the Lord” (Exod 19:18, 20 LXX //​1 Thess 4:16a), “a sound or a voice of God or of the trumpet” (Exod 19:16, 19 //​1 Thess 4:16a), and “a (heavy) cloud” (Exod 19:16 //​1 Thess 4:17)865. Nonetheless, while in the Exodus description the Lord appears or descends on Mount Sinai (Exod 19:11, 18, 20), in Paul’s description of “the coming of the Lord” in 1 Thess 4:16 f, there is no mention of a specified place where the Lord will descend but Paul is rather more specific about the fact that the Lord himself “will descend from heaven”: αὐτὸς ὁ κύριος … καταβήσεται ἀπ᾽ οὐρανοῦ (1 Thess 4:16). Moreover, it is clear from the Exodus description that Moses leads the people “to meet God”: εἰς συνάντησιν τοῦ θεοῦ (Exod 19:17), but he alone is supposed to meet God on the mountain (Exod 19:12, 20-​21, 23) –​the people (together with the priests) are not allowed “to come up” (ἀναβαίνειν) to

8 63 Cf. Löhr von Gebhard, „Das ‚Herrenwort‘ “, in: ZNW 71 (1980), p. 272. 864 Cf. Francis T. Glasson, “Theophany and Parousia”, in: NTS 34 (1988) 259–​270, here page 259. 865 In Exod 19:13 (LXX), there is mention of all these three signs associated with “the descent of the Lord”, i. e., “the voices or sounds” (αἱ φωναὶ), “the trumpets” (αἱ σάλπιγγες), and “a cloud” (νεφέλη).

190

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

Table I:  A synopsis of Exod 19:16-​20 and 1 Thess 4:16-​17. Exod 19:16-​20 (NRSV) 16. On the morning of the third day there was thunder and lightning, as well as a thick cloud on the mountain, and a blast of a trumpet so loud that all the people who were in the camp trembled. 17. Moses brought the people out of the camp to meet God. They took their stand at the foot of the mountain. 18. Now Mount Sinai was wrapped in smoke, because the Lord had descended upon it in fire; the smoke went up like the smoke of a kiln, while the whole mountain shook violently. 19. As the blast of the trumpet grew louder and louder, Moses would speak and God would answer him in thunder. 20. When the Lord descended upon Mount Sinai, to the top of the mountain, the Lord summoned Moses to the top of the mountain, and Moses went up.

1 Thess 4:16-​17 16. For the Lord himself will descend from heaven with a command, with the voice of an Archangel and with [the sound of] the trumpet of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. 17. Then we the living, those who are left, will be snatched away simultaneously with them [i. e., the dead in Christ] in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air; and so we shall always be with the Lord”. See also: “The Lord himself will descend from heaven” in 1 Thess 4:16a.

See also: “And with [the sound of] the trumpet of God” in 1 Thess 4:16a. See also: “The Lord himself will descend from heaven” in 1 Thess 4:16a.

the Lord (Exod 19:24866)867. In Paul’s description in 1 Thess 4:16 ff, however, he identifies himself with the Thessalonian community and emphasizes that it is not any individual person but “we”, “the living, those who remain”, together with “those who have fallen asleep, i. e., those who have already died” are “to meet the Lord”: εἰς ἀπάντησιν τοῦ κυρίου (1 Thess 4:17). Furthermore, in the theophany description of Exod 19 there is no mention of “resurrection of the dead”, and the event revolves around “God’s encounter” with “Moses” especially, and then with “Aaron”, and by extension with “the priests” and “the people” who are alive, but 866 In Exod 19:24 Moses is rather “to come up” (ἀναβαίνειν) to the mountain Sinai (or to the presence of God) with Aaron, and in Exod 19:13b (LXX) it is emphasized that the people are allowed “to come up” (ἀναβαίνειν) on the mountain only “when the voices and trumpets and the cloud depart from the mountain” (ὅταν αἱ φωναὶ καὶ αἱ σάλπιγγες καὶ ἡ νεφέλη ἀπέλθῃ ἀπὸ τοῦ ὄρους). 867 Confer also Exod 19:12, 21-​23.

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in 1 Thess 4:16 ff. Paul goes further to add that “with a command”, “with [the sound] of a trumpet of God”, and “at the descent of the Lord himself ”, “the dead in Christ will rise” (οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ ἀναστήσονται) and “we shall always be with the Lord” (1 Thess 4:17). The theophany description in Exod 19 is especially important for the interpretation of Paul’s description of the parousia of the Lord in 1 Thessalonians because just as the Israelites are required to sanctify themselves while they prepare for the coming of the Lord Almighty (Exod 19:10, 14, 22)868 “on the third day” –​τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τῇ τρίτῃ (Exod 19:11,16) or τρεῖς ἡμέρας (Exod 19:15), so are the Christ’s faithful exhorted by Paul to sanctify themselves towards the event of the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 4:1-​12; 5:4-​6, 8) which according to Paul will happen on “the day of the Lord” (1 Thess 5:2, 4). In 1 Thess 4:16a, apart from “the trumpet” (ἡ σάλπιγξ) which is mentioned as “a trumpet of God” (σάλπιγξ θεοῦ) and “the voice or sound” (ἡ φωνή) which is named as “a voice of an archangel” (φωνή ἀρχαγγέλου), “the command” (τό κέλευσμα) is not attributed to any specific figure in the pericope or context. The question, therefore, arises as to whether by the expression ἐν κελεύσματι –​“with a command, i. e., “when the command is given”869 –​Paul is referring here to “a command of God”, “a command of the Lord Jesus Christ”, or “a command of an (arch)angel”. Best is concerned with the one who speaks the command and to whom the command is addressed –​whether it is “the command of God to Jesus to descend and begin the parousia”870. It can be understood here that it is God –​and not Jesus or the archangel –​who gives the “command”; and the archangel referred to is also an archangel of God, and so the verse can be reconstructed as: “For the Lord himself will come down from heaven with a command of God, with a voice of God’s archangel, and with the sound of a trumpet of God”. “With a command of God” here does not mean necessarily, however, that the Lord Jesus Christ will descend at God’s command. The divine command is rather to summon “the dead in Christ” to rise up from the dead. The notion that God gives Jesus a command to begin the parousia could only be superfluous.

868 Confer also Ps 14:1-​2 (LXX) which reads: “O Lord, who shall sojourn in your tent? And who shall dwell on your holy mountain? The one who walks blameless and works righteousness; [the one] who speaks truth in his heart” (Κύριε, τίς παροικήσει ἐν τῷ σκηνώματι σου; καὶ τίς κατασκηνώσει ἑν τῷ ὄρει τῷ ἁγίῳ σου; Πορευόμενος ἄμωμος, καὶ ἐργαζόμενος δικαιοσύνην. λαλῶν ἀλήθειαν ἐν καρδίᾳ αὐτοῦ). 869 Cf. BDAG, p. 538. 870 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 196.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

The word κέλευσμα is a substantive of the verb κελεύειν (“to command”, i. e., “to give a command, ordinarily of an official nature”; “to order”; “to urge”)871. In the NT, κέλευσμα is a hapax legomenon which appears only here in 1 Thess 4:16a and in the LXX too κέλευσμα appears only once in Prov 24:62 (i. e., 30:27), and there too the noun is without the definite article. Prov 24:62 (30:27) LXX reads: “The locust have no king, and yet march orderly at one command” (Ἀβασίλευτόν ἐστιν ἡ ἀκρὶς καὶ [ἐκ] στρατεύει ἀφ᾽ ἑνὸς κελεύσματος)872. In Prov 24:62 (30:27) and in Thucidides’ work Historiae 2.92, κέλευσμα is understood to be “a command” given to “soldiers” (or locusts) by a commander (or a king)873. The expression ἐν κελεύσματι as Paul uses it in 1 Thess 4:16a is found also in Josephus’ work Jewish Antiquities 17.140 and 17.199 but without the preposition ἐν. Ant. 17.199, for instance, reads: “For it was there that the burial took place by his own order” (τῇδε γὰρ αὐτῷ ἐγένοντο αἱ ταφαὶ κελεύσματι τῷ αὐτοῦ)874.

Herodotus also uses the word in his work Historiae 4.141 in the sense of “a cry of command” as “a signal for engagement in battle”875. Herodotus’ Historiae 4.141 reads thus: “But in obedience to the first command, Histiaios [the tyrant from Milet] made the fleet of ship available to carry [them] across the river and he joined the army on the battlefield/​bridge” (Ἱστιαῖος δὲ ἐπακούσας τῷ πρώτῳ κελεύσματι τάς τε νέας ἁπάσας παρεῖχε διαποθμεύειν τὴν στρατιὴν καὶ τὴν γέφυραν ἔζευξε)876.

8 71 Cf. BDAG, p. 538. 872 Cf. Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 812. 873 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 343. Confer also the use of the prepositional phrase ἀπὸ ἑνὸς κελεύσματος in Thucidides’ work Historiae 2.92: i. e., “But bravery took hold of the Athenian who saw all that happened, and so with a command they rushed on them [the foes] while shouting aloud” (τοὺς δ᾽ Ἀθηναίους ἰδόντας ταῦτα γιγνόμενα θάρσος, τε ἔλαβε καὶ ἀπὸ ἑνὸς κελεύσματος ἐμβοήσαντες ἐπ᾽ αὐτοὺς ὥρμησαν). The original Greek text is taken from: Carolus Hude (editor), Thucydidis Historiae (Vol. I., Libri I-​IV), in: Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (Editio Minor), Lipsiae: Typis B. G. Teubneri, 1905, p. 181. 874 Cf. Josephus VIII, in: LCL 410. Cambridge.London: Havard University Press, 1963, pp. 462, 463. 875 BDAG, p. 538. 876 Cf. Carolus Hude (editor), Herodoti Historiae (Editio Tertia, Tomus Prior), in: Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis, Oxonii: E Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1960.

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It appears that in these passages the word κέλευσμα has a military tone, but it is less probable that Paul’s use of the word κέλευσμα has connections with military contexts877. The use of the word κέλευσμα by Philo, an Alexandrian Jew and a contemporary of Paul, in his work De Praemiis et Poenis (“About Rewards and Punishments”) is considered “a close parallel” with Paul’s use of the word in 1 Thess 4:16a878 on the grounds that the word is also used there in Philo’s work rather within a religious domain, and God is known to be the one who gives the command. De Praemiis et Poenis 19 (ii. p. 928 M) reads thus: “Now just as God can easily with a command bring human beings, living in the very ends [of the earth], from these boundaries or ends [of the earth] to a place where he wants [them to be], so ….” (Καθάπερ οὖν ἀνθρώπους ἐν ἐσχατιαῖς ἀπῳκισμένους ῥᾳδίως ἂν ἑνὶ κελεύσματι συναγάγοι θεὸς ἀπὸ περάτων εἰς ὅ τι ἂν θελήσῃ χωρίον, οὕτω ….)879

Philo refers here to the one command (ἑνὶ κελεύσματι) of God gathering together exiles from the very ends of the earth880. Luckensmeyer gives other texts in which God makes commands, and these include: God’s command to Abraham in Testament of Abraham (T. Ab.) 15:9, and God’s command to death in T. Ab. 16:3-​5, etc881. The command of God to death in T. Ab. 16:4-​5 reads: Then the unseen God said to death, “come, bitter and fierce name of the world, hide your ferocity, cover your decay, and cast off from yourself your bitterness, and put on your youthful beauty and all your glory /​and go down to my friend Abraham and take him and conduct him to me882.

877 Luckensmeyer maintains that the word κέλευσις is often used in a political context to denote an official “order”, “decree” or “resolve” issued by government officials or the emperor himself, and for him, Paul intentionally uses the word κέλευσμα here in 1 Thess 4:16 (instead of κέλευσις) to make a statement against the ideology of imperial eschatology by contrasting the word κέλευσις of imperialism with the κέλευσμα associated with the coming of the Lord. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 239–​240. 878 Cf. George Milligan, St Paul’s Epistles to the Thessalonians: The Greek Text with Introduction and Notes, London: McMillan and Co., 1908, p. 60. 879 Cf. Philonis Judaei, Operum Omnium (Tomus V), in: Patrum Ecclesiae Graecorum, Pars II (Bibliotheca Sacra), Lipsiae: Sumtibus E. B. Schwickerti, 1828, p. 243. 880 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 240. 881 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 240. For more references to texts in which God makes commands, confer Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 271 footnote 232. 882 Cf. E. P. Sanders (transl.), Testament of Abraham, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 892.

194

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

The command given in most of the contexts where the word κέλευσμα appears may be interpreted in the military domain, but what is evident in the use of κέλευσμα in 1 Thess 4:16a and in the other passages or contexts is that “at, by, or with a command” a particular action is carried out or an event takes place. The prepositional phrase “with a command” (ἐν κελεύσματι) as Paul uses it in 1 Thess 4:16 cannot be interpreted in isolation from the other two ἐν phrases (i.e., ἐν φωνῇ ἀρχαγγέλου and ἐν σάλπιγγι θεοῦ) because ἐν κελεύσματι –​though without a genitive of qualification –​functions here semantically as the head phrase of the other two phrases883. When ἐν κελεύσματι is interpreted together with these other two ἐν phrases, it becomes evident that the main events at stake here are threefold, i. e., the descent of the Lord from heaven or the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 4:16a; cf. 1 Thess 1:10a); the resurrection of “the dead in Christ” (1 Thess 4:16b); and the subsequent “union of the dead in Christ and the living with the Lord” (1 Thess 4:17; cf. also 5:10), whereby here the emphasis is more on the resurrection of the dead in Christ. When Paul says “and the dead in Christ will rise first” (1 Thess 4:16b), it should be understood that “the dead in Christ” (οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ) will not rise up (from the dead) by themselves or by their own might but by the power of God884 and “by the command of God” (ἐν κελεύσματι θεοῦ) or even at the sound of the trumpet of God (cf. also 1 Cor 15:52). There are instances in the gospels where the dead rise up to life by a divine command. In Mk 5:41, Jesus commands a girl who was dead with the words: ταλιθα κουμ(ι)885 –​a command in Aramaic which translates in Greek as τὸ κοράσιον, ἔγειρε (“little girl, rise up [from the dead]) –​and the 12 year old girl rose up from the dead (Mk 5:42). In Jn 11:43 too Jesus gives a command to Lazarus –​who had passed away –​with the words: “Lazarus, come out [of the grave]!” (Λάζαρε, δεῦρο ἔξω), and “the dead man” (ὁ τεθνηκώς) Lazarus “came out” (ἐξῆλθεν) of the tomb (Jn 11:44). Moreover, in Jn 5:25 Jesus says that “the dead will hear the voice of the Son of God, and those who hear [it] will live” (οἱ

883 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 242–​243 and footnote 234. 884 Plevnik remarks that: “Having affirmed in 1 Thess 4:14 that the deceased will be taken up by the power of God, Paul then in 1 Thess 4:16-​17 shows how this will happen: they will first be brought to life, then they will be taken up”. Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thessalonians 4:17: The Bringing in of the Lord or the Bringing in of the Faithful?”, in: Bib 80 (1999) 537–​546, here page 545. 885 The word κουμι is the Greek transliteration of the imperative ‫קּומי‬ ִ of the Aramaic verb ‫ קּום‬which in the modification qal can mean “to rise up”, “to stand up”, etc.

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νεκροὶ ἀκούσουσιν τῆς φωνῆς τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ οἱ ἀκούσαντες ζήσουσιν)886. Thus, the Lord Jesus Christ signals the resurrection of the dead887. Nonetheless, here in 1 Thess 4:16 the command to raise the dead is to be understood to be given rather by God because throughout the Pauline theology God is the one who raises the dead (Rom 4:17; 2 Cor 1:9), and God is the one who raised Jesus from the dead888. In Eph 2:6 where the author, who writes in place of Paul, speaks about resurrection (of the dead) in a different context, he specifically says that: “And he [God] raised us up with him [Jesus] and made us sit with him [Jesus] in the heavens in Christ Jesus” (καὶ συνήγειρεν καὶ συνεκάθισεν ἐν τοῖς ἐπουρανίοις ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ)889.

For Paul, God is the one who raises persons from physical death and also from spiritual death, and the resurrection of “the dead in Christ” is participation in the resurrection of Christ (Rom 8:11; 1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14) and in Christ’s victory over death (1 Cor 15:55-​56). Hoppe maintains that: “ἐν κελεύσματι refers to God, who wields the κέλευσμα or ‘the order’ ” (“ἐν κελεύσματι verweist auf Gott, dem allein das κέλευσμα zukommt”)890. Hoppe explains then that: “Just as God, in the leading statement in verse 14, brought about the gathering together of the dead with Jesus891, so is he [God] the one who gives the signal for the occurrence of the gathering together at which forefront stands the coming of the Lord” (So wie Gott in der thesenartigen Aussage in Vers 14 die Zusammenführung der Verstorbenen mit Jesus herbeiführt, so ist er es, der das Signal zum Vollzug der Zusammenführung gibt, an deren oberster Stelle also das Kommen des Kyrios steht)892.

Paul often refers to “the dead” (οἱ νεκροί) in connection with resurrection893 or else with reference to God’s ability to raise the dead (Rom 4:17; 2 Cor 1:9)894 8 86 Confer also Jn 5:28-​29. 887 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 240, 243. 888 See Rom 4:24; 6:4, 9; 8:11, 34; 10:9; 1 Cor 15:12-​16, 20; Gal 1:1; 1 Thess 1:10b; cf. 1 Thess 4:14a. See also Eph 1:20; Col 2:12. 889 Confer also God’s act of “bringing (the dead) back to life” (συζωοποιεῖν) with him (σὺν αὐτῷ), i. e. with Christ ([ἐν] τῷ Χριστῷ) in Eph 2:5 and Col 2:13. 890 Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 271. 891 It has already been argued above that in 1 Thess 4:14 Jesus Christ plays an instrumental role in the gathering together of the dead, and the dead will be with God whose intention it is to bring together his people with himself. 892 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 271–​272. 893 See 1 Cor 15:13, 15, 16, 21, 29, 32, 35, 42, 52; Phil 3:11. 894 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 245.

196

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

because for Paul the resurrection is always the action of God (Rom 4:17; 10:9; 1 Thess 1:10895)896. Luckensmeyer observes correctly that the term “trumpet” (σάλπιγξ) has a complex trajectory through Jewish, intertestamental and early Christian literature. He remarks that “trumpet” appears in theophanies897. For him, it is the eschatological significance of the trumpet which is of more relevance to Paul because in this connection the σάλπιγξ is associated with the judgement of the day of the Lord898. He further points out that in the intertestamental literature the term σάλπιγξ has various connections including salvation (Pss.Sol 11:1; Apoc.Ab 31:1-​4), and “the trumpet of God” (ἡ σάλπιγξ τοῦ θεοῦ) is symbolic of a call to resurrection899. The Greek Apocalypse of Ezra 4.36, for instance, reads: “And after these things a trumpet, and the graves will be opened and the dead will rise up uncorrupted”900. Pryor too presents an inscription of the late 2nd or 3rd century CE which gives a clear description of the enduring symbolism of the trumpet of God as a call to resurrection. This inscription reads: “Neither gold nor silver but bones lie here awaiting the trumpet of God” (οὐ χρυσὸς οὐκ ἀργύ[ρ]ιoν ἀλ«λ»᾽ ὀστέα κατακίμενα, περιμένοντα φωνὴν σάλπινγος)901.

Trumpet-​sounds are also traditionally associated with the “revelations of God” (Exod 19:16; Zech 9:14), and it is emphasized in Pss.Sol 11:1 that the trumpets are to be blown in Zion “to summon the saints” because “God has had pity on Israel in visiting them” (Pss.Sol. 11:2)902. Paul uses this traditional theophany description to talk about the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ here in 1 Thess

8 95 See also 2 Kgs 5:7 in the OT. 896 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 247 and footnote 258. 897 See Exod 19:13, 16, 19; 20:18; cf. Aristobus 8.10.13, 16, 17; Heb 12:19. 898 See Isa 27:13; Ezk 7:14; 33:3, 4, 5, 6; Hos 5:8; Joel 2:1, 15; Zeph 1:16; Zech 9:14, etc. 899 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 241–​242 and footnotes 225, 226, 229. For the various functions of σάλπιγξ and Luckensmeyer’s detailed treatment of σάλπιγξ, confer David Luckensmeyer, op. cit., pp. 241–​243. 900 Cf. M. E. Stone (transl.), Greek Apocalypse of Ezra, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 575. Stone remarks in note n that the closest parallel to this text is 1 Cor 15:52, upon which GkApEzra depends entirely. 901 Cf. J. W. Pryor, “Awaiting the Trumpet of God”, in: NewDocs 9 (2002) 102–​105, here page 102; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 243 footnote 236. 902 In Ezk 7:14, the sound of the trumpet is rather associated more with the judgement of God.

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4:16-​17 and elsewhere in 1 Cor 15:51-​52. Milligan correctly remarks that in 1 Cor 15:52 this accompaniment “with God’s trumpet” (ἐν σάλπιγγι θεοῦ) is “twice referred to as a distinguishing sign of Christ’s approach”903, and he explains that the figure in 1 Cor 15:52 is apparently drawn from “the parallel description in Joel 2:1” which reads: “Sound the trumpet in Sion … for the day of the Lord is coming, it is near” (σαλπίσατε σάλπιγγι ἐν Σιὼν … διότι πάρεστιν ἡμέρα Κυρίου, ὅτι ἐγγύς)904. Though –​unlike in 1 Thess 4:16a –​Paul does not use the word καταβαίνειν (“coming down”) in 1 Cor 15:52, exegetes can still make reference to the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ through Paul’s use of the substantive σάλπιγζ (or the verb σαλπίζειν) in 1 Cor 15:52 because Paul uses the word in connection with the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ (at the end of the ages)905, and this use is in tune with the traditional trumpet-​sounds as signals for theophany or the revelation of God906. Though Paul speaks here of ἐν σάλπιγγι θεοῦ (“with a trumpet of God”), it is neither God (nor Jesus Christ) who blows or sounds the trumpet but an archangel (of God) because traditionally speaking it is part of the roles of angels to blow or sound the trumpet (Rev 8:13b907). There is only an instance in the OT where it is said that the Lord God will sound the trumpet by himelf at his coming

903 This double reference to the trumpet-​sound in 1 Cor 15:52 is found in the formulation: “At the last trumpet. For the trumpet will sound” (ἐν τῇ ἐσχάτῃ σάλπιγγι· σαλπίσει γὰρ ….) 904 Cf. George Milligan, St Paul’s Epistles to the Thessalonians…, p. 60. 905 The only instance Paul uses σάλπιγζ as a signal or sound for battle or war is in 1 Cor 14:8a. Luckensmeyer maintains that “the older conception of σάλπιγξ where it appears as a LXX translation of the Hebrew ‫“( ׁשֹ פָ ר‬horn”), as an instrument blown in battle, is no longer present in the NT except perhaps at 1 Cor 14:8 where it appears as a metaphor”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 241. 906 In their reports of the story of “the coming of the Son of Man” by Matthew, Mark and Luke in the gospels (Mt 24:32-​36 //​Mk 13:28-​32 //​Lk 21:29-​33), it is only Matthew who brings out this traditional meaning of the trumpet-​sound in Mt 24:31a by emphasizing that “he [the Son of Man] will send out his angels with a loud trumpet sound” (καὶ ἀποστελεῖ τοὺς ἀγγέλους αὐτοῦ μετὰ σάλπιγγος [φωνῆς] μεγάλης). 907 Rev 8:13b reads: “Woe, woe, woe, to those who dwell on the earth from the rest of the trumpet blasts which the three angels are about to blow!” (οὐαὶ, οὐαὶ, οὐαὶ τοὺς κατοικοῦντας ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς ἐκ τῶν λοιπῶν φωνῶν τῆς σάλπιγγος τῶν τριῶν ἀγγέλων τῶν μελλόντων σαλπίζειν). Confer also Rev 8:6; 9:1, 13; 10:7; 11:15. Luckensmeyer notices that “the connection between φωνή and ἄγγελος is common” (Ps 102:20 LXX; Job 38:7 LXX; Rev 5:2, 11-​12; 7:2; 8:13; 14:9, 15, 18; 19:17). Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 241 and footnote 220.

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or appearance to save his people (see Zech 9:14), and also in the Apoc.Ab 31.1 God declares: “And then I will sound the trumpet out of the air, and I will send my chosen one, having in him one measure of all my power, and he will summon my people, humiliated by the heathen”908.

The expression “with a voice of an archangel” (ἐν φωνῇ ἀρχαγγέλου) can, therefore, be interpreted in the light of the expression “with a trumpet of God” (ἐν σάλπιγγι θεοῦ) and be understood simply as “the sound of the trumpet of God” blown by an archangel. The mention of the sound of the trumpet of God and of an archangel, etc. buttresses the point that here Paul makes use of apocalyptic material. In the pseudepigraphal Apocalypse of Moses (Apoc. Mos.) 37.1-​6, for instance, the author describes the snatching away of Adam into Paradise by saying: “Behold, the angel sounded the trumpet … the other angels … cried out with a fearful voice” (ἰδοὺ ἐσάλπισεν ὁ ἄγγελος … οἱ ἄγγελοι … ἐβόησαν φωνὴν φοβερὰν λέγοντες [Apoc. Mos 37.1]); “Adam was snatched away” (ἥρπασεν τὸν Ἀδάμ [Apoc. Mos. 37.3]); and the archangel was asked by the Father of All to “take him (Adam) up into Paradise” (ἆρον αὐτὸν εἰς τὸν παράδεισον [Apoc. Mos. 37.5])909.

Such a description in Apoc. Mos. 37.1-​6 has something of Paul’s description in 1 Thess 4:16. In his assessment of these texts, Luckensmeyer remarks correctly that: “For certain, it cannot be stressed strongly enough that there are far too many differences in the texts for Apoc. Mos 37.1-​6 to be of more than general use for illuminating Paul’s thought. But the common elements –​context of death, trumpet, voice of angels, being snatched away, the presence of an archangel, meeting God –​demonstrate how ancient authors use apocalyptic imagery to serve a purpose. In the case of the Apocalypse of Moses, the images are part of a presentation of the coming of God (ἐρχόμενος, 33.2); Paul’s use of similar imagery is also given in the context of the coming of the Lord. In both cases, the references serve to emphasize the eschatological power of the coming one”910.

Paul does not specify or name the archangel he refers to here in 1 Thess 4:16911. He simply mentions an archangel. Luckensmeyer shares the opinion that “in the 9 08 909 910 911

Cf. R. Rubinkiewicz, Apocalypse of Abraham, in: OTP 1 (1983), pp. 704–​705. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 241. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 241. In the NT, apart from 1 Thess 4:16a the word ἀρχάγγελος (“archangel”) appears only in Jude 9; and in the LXX the word never appears. In the OT Pseudepigraphon 4 Ezra 4:36, there is mention of the archangel Jeremia and an unnamed “list of other

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Pauline context, the reference to an archangel is consistent with the association of angels with the eschaton”912. The role of the archangel is associated here with the sounding of the trumpet of God. Best correctly remarks that: “The trumpet was used by the Jews in their festivals and was also associated with theophanies (Exod 19:13, 16, 19; 20:18) and with the End (Zeph 1:14-​16; Isa 27:13; Mt 24:31); in 1 Cor 15:52 it is linked as here [1 Thess 4:16] with the resurrection of the dead and the End [time]”913.

Thus, the sound of the trumpet –​either the trumpet is blown by God himself or by his angels –​is associated with messages of salvation and judgement especially in the apocalyptic tradition from which Paul draws much material for 1 Thess 4:16-​17 to talk about the parousia of the Lord, the resurrection of the dead in Christ and the union of the living and the dead in Christ with the Lord at the end of the ages. Paul, however, emphasizes more on salvation than judgement in 1 Thessalonians (1:10; 5:9; cf. 5:5), and therefore it can be understood that with the command of God and with the sound of the trumpet of God at the end of the ages the Lord will come and the dead in Christ will rise from the dead to attain salvation whereby together with the living they will always be with the Lord (4:17; 5:10). The verb ἀναστήσονται –​which was expected to follow the verb ἀνέστη in 1 Thess 4:14 to form a kind of syllogism as regards Christ’s death and resurrection and the subsequent resurrection of the believers in Christ (see Rom 8:11; 1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14) –​rather appears here in 1 Thess 4:16b because it is here (1 Thess 4:16 ff) that Paul talks explicitly about the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ, the resurrection of “the dead in Christ” and the union of the living and the dead with the Lord Jesus Christ. Through the expression “the dead in Christ” (οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ), Paul specifies the persons he is referring to here. Unlike in 1 Cor 15:35, 52 where he speaks generally of “the dead” (οἱ νεκροί)914, emphasis is made here that the fate of those concerned here is that of “the dead in Christ”, i.e., the Christ’s faithful or those who were converted into the community of believers (1 Thess 1:9) and were waiting for the coming of God’s son, Jesus Christ, to save them from the impending wrath of God (1 Thess 1:10; 3:13; 5:9) but died before

archangels”. For a detailed references to archangels in the OT Pseudepigrapha, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 240 footnote 213. 912 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 240–​241. 9 13 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 197. 914 Confer also νεκροί (“dead persons”) in 1 Cor 15:15, 16, 29, 32.

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the Lord’s parousia915. By virtue of the fact that they were believers in Christ, they died in Christ916. The Christ’s faithful have hope in the coming of the Son of God, Jesus Christ, and in the resurrection of the dead. Paul contrasts the believers in Christ with the non-​believers who have no (such) hope (1 Thess 4:13)917. Best rightly remarks that: “The summons is addressed to the dead in Christ for in this passage Paul is concerned only with the Christian dead and not with what happens to the wicked … As Christian dead they will rise when they hear the summons”918.

With the adverb “first” (πρῶτον)919 –​which modifies the verb ἀναστήσονται –​ Paul further explains that at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ “the living, those who are left” (οἱ ζῶντες, οἱ περιλειπόμενοι) will in no way have precedence over “those who have fallen asleep” (οἱ κοιμηθέντες) by emphasizing that it is even the οἱ κοιμηθέντες –​those referred to here in verse 16b as οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ –​ who will rise first, i.e., they will not forever remain in their graves. Moreover, it is after the resurrection of “those who have fallen asleep” (οἱ κοιμηθέντες) that “the living, those who are left” (οἱ ζῶντες, οἱ περιλειπόμενοι) will join “the dead in Christ” (οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ) and together with them they will forever be with the Lord (1 Thess 4:17c). Hoppe observes that the explicit antithesis of “first” (πρῶτον) at the end of verse 16 and “then” (ἔπειτα) at the beginning of verse 17 does not only emphasize expressly the resurrection of the dead (in Christ) as an act on its own at the occurrence of the the parousia-​event but it also becomes evident that the resurrection of the dead (in Christ) is the precondition for the

915 For further interpretations of the expression οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ by some commentators, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 245–​247. 916 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 273 footnote 240. 917 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 273 footnote 243. 918 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 197. 919 Some manuscripts, i.e., D F G latt; Tert Eus, read πρῶτοι instead of πρῶτον. Probably these manuscripts prefer the plural πρῶτοι to the singular πρῶτον because of the plural noun οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ (“the dead in Christ”) which is the subject of the verb ἀναστήσονται which the adverb πρῶτοι modifies. Flavius Josephus uses the plural πρῶτοι with plural verbs and plural subjects in his work Ant. 17.98: “They were arranged in the following order: first came his bodyguards, then the Thracians, and following them, whatever Germans he had, and next came the Gauls” (οὕτως νεμηθέντες, πρῶτοι μὲν οἱ δορυφόροι, μετὰ δὲ τὸ Θρᾴκιον, ἐπὶ δὲ τούτοις ὁπόσοι Γερμανοί, καὶ τὸ Γαλατικὸν μετ᾽ αὐτούς). Cf. Josephus VIII, in: LCL 410. Cambridge.London: Havard University Press, 1963, pp. 462, 463.

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common future (or fate) of the dead in Christ and the living920. The explanation of van der Horst that καὶ οὕτως in 1 Thess 4:17c (just as in Rom 11:26) can be better understood in a temporal sense to mean “only then” or “thereafter” rather than the more commonly explained modal sense “and so” also becomes relevant here. He writes concerning the translation and explanation of 1 Thess 4:16-​17 that: “ … after the descent of Jesus Christ from heaven ‘the dead in Christ will rise first; thereafter we who are alive, who are left, will be caught up in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air; and (only) then we will be with the Lord forever’ … This translation makes at least as much sense as the traditional ‘and so’, if only because the text so unambiguously indicates that the apostle is speaking about a temporal order: first A, thereafter B, and finally (but only then) C”921.

At the end of the ages, “the dead in Christ” (οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ) shall be raised from the dead, and they shall participate especially in the victory and glory of the Lord Jesus Christ922 at his parousia. This belief is in tune with the words in 2 Bar 30:1: “And it will happen after these things when the time of the appearance of the Anointed One has been fulfilled and he returns with glory, that then all who sleep in hope of him will rise”923.

920 Hoppe writes thus: Die ausdrückliche Entgegensetzung von πρῶτον (zuerst) am Ende von V. 16 und ἔπειτα (dann) am Beginn von V. 17 hebt die Auferstehung der Toten als einen eigenen Akt im Vollzug des Parusiegeschehens ausdrücklich hervor und ist die Voraussetzung für die gemeinsame Zukunft von Toten und Lebenden. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 273. 921 Cf. Pieter W. van der Horst, “ ‘Only Then Will All Israel Be Saved’: A Short Note on the Meaning of καὶ οὕτως in Rom 11:26, in: JBL 119 (2000) 521–​525, here page 524. 922 By his resurrection, Jesus has victory and power over death (1 Cor 15:26, 54-​55; Rom 6:9). Luckensmeyer correctly remarks that the resurrection of Jesus is an overcoming of death (Rom 6:9) whereby the crucified one is no longer under the power of death; and that the authors of the NT also describe the resurrection of Jesus with terms like “exalt”: ὑψοῦν (Jn 3:14; 8:28; 12:32; Acts 5:31) and “glorify”: δοξάζειν (Jn 7:39; 12:16, 23, 28; 13:31; 17:1). He explains that the resurrected one is now the Son of God (Rom 1:4) made to be Christ and Lord (Acts 2:36), exalted to the right hand of God (Acts 2:33; cf. Mk 16:19), the first fruits of the resurrected (1 Cor 15:20) and a life given spirit (1 Cor 15:45). Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 247 and footnotes 264, 266, 267; Jacob Kremer, „Auferstehung der Toten in bibeltheologischer Sicht“, in: Greshake/​Kremer (1986) 5–​161, here pages 10–​12. 923 Cf. A. F. J. Klijn (transl.), 2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) Baruch, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 631.

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Thus, Paul reassures the Thessalonians that the dead in Christ will rise from the dead (1 Thess 4:16) and that they too will overcome death by God’s action through Jesus (1 Thess 4:14). The resurrection of the dead (in Christ) is understood by Paul only in close dependence on the resurrection of Jesus and mostly in the context of the parousia924 when he (Jesus Christ) comes in his glory.

2.1. (v). 1 Thess 4:17 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:17 (with Notes) 17a. ἔπειτα ἡμεῖς οἱ ζῶντες οἱ περιλειπόμενοι ἅμα σὺν αὐτοῖς ἁρπαγησόμεθα ἐν νεφέλαις 17b. εἰς ἀπάντησιν [ὑπάντησιν]925 τοῦ κυρίου εἰς ἀέρα· 17c. καὶ οὕτως πάντοτε σὺν κυρίῳ926 ἐσόμεθα.

17a. Then we the living, those who are left, will be snatched away simultaneously with them (i. e., the dead in Christ) in the clouds 17b. to meet the Lord in the air; 17c. and so we shall always be with the Lord.

Notes: The adverb πρῶτον or πρῶτοι (“first”) in the preceding verse 16b suggests that ἔπειτα (“then”, “thereupon”, etc.) is used here in verse 17a in enumeration of time and order, and so together with πρῶτον or πρῶτοι in verse 16b, ἔπειτα in verse 17a indicates a “chronological sequence”, i.e., πρῶτον … ἔπειτα (“first…then”)927. That is to say, the adverb ἔπειτα is to be interpreted here in verse 17a in connection with πρῶτον in verse 16b, and the meaning of ἔπειτα as “then”, “thereupon” is to be understood in the sense of “being next in order of time”928.

924 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 247; Joseph Plevnik, “The taking up of the Faithful and the Resurrection of the Dead in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-​18”, in: CBQ 46, No. 1 (1984) 274–​283, here page 281. 925 The manuscripts D F G read here ὑπάντησιν, a synonym of ἀπάντησιν. Another synonym of ἀπάντησιν is συνάντησις which appears in the NT only in Mt 8:34 (in the manuscripts C K L N W Δ 0242vid, etc.). 926 The prepositional phrase σὺν κυρίῳ (“with the Lord”) is to be understood here in 1 Thess 4:17 as “with the Lord Jesus Christ”. 927 See also 1 Cor 15:46, and other variant usages such as: πρότερον…ἔπειτα (Heb 7:27); ἀπαρχή….ἔπειτα (1 Cor 15:23); ἔπειτα…ἔπειτα (1 Cor 15:6-​7). 928 The chronological sequence of “first…then” (πρῶτον … ἔπειτα) in 1 Thess 4:16b-​17a is no order of preference.

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In verse 17a, the adverb ἅμα is a “marker of simultaneous occurrence” and it means “simultaneously”, “at the same time”929. Here (just like in 1 Thess 5:10) the adverb ἅμα is followed directly by the preposition σύν, i.e. ἅμα σὺν. While the phrase ἅμα σὺν means here “simultaneously” or “at the same time” with, etc. the ἅμα σύν in 1 Thess 5:10 is to be rendered appropriately as “together with” because in 1 Thess 5:10 the adverb ἅμα is rather a “marker of association”. Thus, the expression ἅμα σύν can convey the nuance of “temporarity” and “association”930. The preposition εἰς which begins verse 17b functions to denote purpose, and so it can be rendered here as “to”, “in order to”. The prepositional phrase εἰς ἀπάντησιν is, therefore, to be understood as “in order to meet” or “for the purpose of meeting”. The preposition εἰς in εἰς ἀέρα is rather a “marker of extension involving a goal or place” and it means here “into, in, toward”, i.e. extension toward or in the direction of a specific place to be reached, hence εἰς is used in this sense with nouns that denote an accessible place931. The prepositional phrase εἰς ἀέρα (“in the air”) can, therefore, be understood as “toward the air” or “into the air”. In the phrase καὶ οὕτως (“and so”, “and thus”) in verse 17c, the adverb οὕτως is combined with the conjunction καί, and the phrase functions to summarise the thought expressed in the preceding verses932.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:17 Paul continues to recount here in 1 Thess 4:17 the events that will happen “with a command of God” and “with the sound of a trumpet of God blown by an archangel”. The focus now is especially on the event of “the meeting” (ἀπάντησις) of “the living” and “the dead in Christ” with the Lord Jesus Christ (verse 17b) and their everlasting union with him (verse 17c) after they have been snatched away (verse 17a). The verb ἁρπαγησόμεθα as Paul uses it here is future indicative passive 1st person plural of the infinitive ἁρπάζεσθαι (“to be snatched or to be taken away”, etc)933. In this sense the verb is “used of divine power transferring a person

9 29 See BDAG, p. 49 §1. 930 Cf. BDAG, p. 49 §§ 1, 2; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 254. 931 Cf. BDAG, p. 288 § 1. 932 See also the use of καὶ οὕτως in 1 Cor 14:25. 933 The verb also appears in this sense in the infinitive active ἁρπάζειν (“to snatch, to take away”, etc.).

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marvellously from one place to another”934. In Rev 12:5, it is reported that the child that the woman gave birth to “was snatched away to God and to his throne” (καὶ ἡρπάσθη τὸ τέκνον αὐτῆς πρὸς τὸν θεὸν καὶ πρὸς τὸν θρόνον αὐτοῦ). The destination of the “snatching away” is indicated in Rev 12:5 by the preposition πρός plus nouns in the accusative case (i.e., πρὸς τὸν θεόν [“to God”]; πρὸς τὸν θρόνον αὐτοῦ [“to his throne”]). Sometimes, however, the destination is indicated by the preposition εἰς plus the name of the place in the accusative case. In 2 Cor 12:4, for example, one reads: “He was taken away into paradise” (ἡρπάγη εἰς τὸν παράδεισον)935. Thus, in the NT the places to which persons “are snatched away” are indicated by especially the prepositions εἰς plus accusative or πρός plus accusative (cf. also ἕως plus genitive of place in 2 Cor 12:2), except in Acts 8:39 where it is not specified to which place Philip “was snatched away” by the Spirit of the Lord. In the other passages where Paul uses the verb or its participle, he indicates the place(s) to which the person in question “was snatched away”, i. e. “as far as the third heaven”: ἕως τρίτου οὐρανοῦ (2 Cor 12:2), and “into paradise”: εἰς τὸν παράδεισον (2 Cor 12:4). Here too in 1 Thess 4:17, Paul indicates the place to which “we, the living, those who are left” will be taken away (ἁρπαγησόμεθα) simultaneously with “the dead in Christ”. The prepositional phrases ἐν νεφέλαις (“in the clouds”) and εἰς ἀέρα (“into the air”) help to identify the destination of the snatching away but in the arrangement of the Greek text both of them do not

934 Cf. Josepf Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, pp. 74–​75; BDAG, p. 134 § 2. Hoppe maintains that by the use of the verb ἁρπάζεσθαι or the “snatching away” motif, Paul makes use of the widespread idea in both Hellenistic-​Greek tradition and in Jewish-​apocalyptic literature which vary in their concrete forms but report of “translations” or “snatching away” of persons from one place to another, even as far as the heavenly realms including “heavenly journeys”. He explains further that what differentiates Paul’s teaching from these traditions is his emphasis that the living will be snatched away simultaneously with the dead in Christ. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 274–​275. For a detailed discussion of such events of “snatching away” in Greco-​Roman literature and in Jewish apocalyptic writings, confer G. Strecker, „Entrückung“, in: RAC 5 (1962) 461–​476; Gerhard Lohfink, Die Himmelfahrt Jesu: Untersuchungen zu den Himmelfahrts-​und Erhöhungstexten bei Lukas (SANT 26), München: Kösel-​Verlag, 1971, pp. 41–​74. Malherbe also adds “the theophanic elements” present in “the Son of Man tradition” in the NT to the apocalyptic imagery. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 276–​277. 935 Confer also ἕως plus genitive of place in 2 Cor 12:2: “I know a person in Christ … who was taken away as far as the third heaven” (οἶδα ἄνθρωπον ἐν Χριστῷ … ἀρπαγέντα τὸν τοιοῦτον ἕως τρίτου οὐρανοῦ).

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follow directly the verb ἁρπαγησόμεθα; the prepositional phrase εἰς ἀέρα rather comes after εἰς ἀπάντησιν τοῦ κυρίου (“to meet the Lord”). This means that in order to bring the nuance of εἰς ἀέρα to bear on the event of “the snatching away” (ἁρπάζεσθαι) and also on the function of ἐν νεφέλαις, one needs to rearrange or reconstruct the Greek text of the verse to get a translation like: Then we the living, those who are left, will be snatched away simultaneously with them [i. e., the dead in Christ] in the clouds into the air to meet the Lord; and so we shall always be with the Lord. In this way, it becomes clear that both ἐν νεφέλαις (“in the clouds”) and εἰς ἀέρα (“in the air”) point to the direction and the destination of the event of the snatching away. Luckensmeyer shares the opinion that the expression εἰς ἀέρα implies direction. He writes thus: “In 1 Thess 4:17, the motif of translation is announced not only through the verb ἁρπάζειν but also by a reference to clouds and an implicit statement of direction, εἰς ἀέρα (at least initially the direction is upward)”936.

The preposition ἐν in ἐν νεφέλαις is to be taken for a “marker of extension toward a goal that is understood to be within an area or condition” and can mean “in” in the sense of “into”. The preposition ἐν (“in”) is “sometimes used with verbs of motion where εἰς [‘into’] would normally be expected”937. Paul uses the preposition ἐν (“in”) with the verb of motion ἐξέρχεσθαι (“to go out”, “to proceed”, etc.) in 1 Thess 1:8 which reads: “For not only has the word of the Lord sounded forth from you in Macedonian and [in] Achaia, but your faith in God has gone forth everywhere” (RSV) –​ ἀφ᾽ ὑμῶν γὰρ ἐξήχηται ὁ λὸγος τοῦ κυρίου οὐ μόνον ἐν τῇ Μακεδονίᾳ καὶ (ἑν τῇ) Ἀχαΐᾳ, ἀλλ᾽ ἐν παντὶ τόπῳ ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν ἡ πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἐξελήλυθεν.

The purpose of this event of “being snatched away in the clouds into the air” is given as: “in order to meet the Lord” (εἰς ἀπάντησιν τοῦ κυρίου), and consequently or more importantly “to be always with the Lord” (πάντοτε σὺν κυρίῳ εἶναι). This Pauline description of “being snatched away in the clouds into the air” is in tune with the apocalyptic narratives concerning “translation”, and so here in 1 Thess 4:16-​17 one can clearly observe that Paul blends apocalyptic imagery with his theophany description. Haufe has made the effort to trace the events of “translation” (Entrückung) in the OT and in OT Pseudepigrapha, and he discusses such events in relation to the “Jewish worldview” that at the eschaton or

9 36 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 255. 937 Cf. BDAG, p. 327 § 3.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

at the end of the ages the rigthteous ones or persons who are “taken away” by God (into heaven) will come back or return (to life)938. The story about Enoch is the prototype of the “translation” stories in Judaism. In Gen 5:24 one reads: ‫אֱֹלהים‬ ִ ‫אֱֹלהים וְ אֵ י ֕ ֶנּנּו ּכִ י־לָקַ ח אֹ תֹו‬ ִ ָ‫“( וַּיִ ְתהַ ּלְֵך חֲנֹוְך אֶ ת־ה‬Enoch walked with God. And he [Enoch] was no more; because God took him [away]”)939. Sir 44:16 explains that Enoch “was taken away or translated” because “he pleased God” (cf. also Heb 11:5). The predominant Hebrew verb in these events of “translation” in the OT and in the OT Pseudepigrapha is ‫ לָקַ ח‬which in the verb modification qal can mean “to take/​receive/​seize/​capture” (Gen 5:24); and in the modification nifa‘l the verb can mean “to be taken [away]”, “to be removed”, “to be captured”, “to be received”, etc)940. In 2 Kgs 2:9, Elijah predicts to Elishah that he (Elijah) “will be taken away”941, and the Hebrew verb ‫ לָקַ ח‬is used to describe how Elijah “went up into heaven in a whirlwind”942. In the LXX, ‫ לָקַ ח‬is rendered into various equivalent Greek verbs. In Gen 5:24 LXX the Greek verb μετέθηκεν (1st aorist indicative active, 3rd person singular of the infinitive μετατιθέναι: “to convey from one place to another”, “to effect a change in state or condition”, etc.) takes the place of ‫לָקַ ח‬, and in 2 Kgs 2:9, i.e., 4 Kgs 2:9 LXX the Greek verb ἀναλημφθῆναι (future passive infinitive of the active infinitive verb ἀναλαμβάνειν: “to take up”, etc.) translates the Hebrew ‫לָקַ ח‬. It is clear, therefore, that in these contexts where the OT speaks of the “taking away” of Enoch (Gen 5:24) and of Elijah (2 Kgs 2:9 MT or 4 Kgs 2:9 LXX), ‫ לָקַ ח‬is never rendered in the LXX as ἁρπάζεσθαι but either as μετατιθέναι or ἀναλημφθῆναι943. Haufe, however, asserts that the Greek ἁρπάζεσθαι is terminus technicus (“technical term”) for “translation” or “snatching away” in the sense of the Hebrew ‫ לָקַ ח‬as it is used in Gen 5:24 and in 2 Kgs 2:9 MT, or in the sense of the corresponding Greek renditions of ‫ לָקַ ח‬in the LXX, 938 For further details of his article, confer Günther Haufe, „Entrückung und eschatologische Funktion im Spätjudentum“, in: ZRGG/​Heft 2, 13 (1961) 105–​113. 939 Confer also Sir 49:14. 940 For detailed references to the use of ‫ לָקַ ח‬in the sense of “translation”, confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 4 (1998), pp. 565 § 1a, 574 § 3. 941 The good and wondrous deeds of Elijah as well as the honour bestowed on him by God are recounted in Sir 48:4-​10. 942 The Hebrew ‫ לָקַ ח‬is rendered here in the LXX as ἀναλαμβάνειν. The expression ‫“( ַוּיַעַ ל אֵ לִ ּיָהּו‬and Elijah went up” [i.e., active]) in 2 Kgs 2:11 MT is rather rendered in 4 Kgs 2:11 LXX in the aorist passive as: καὶ ἀνελήφθη Ἠλιού (“and Elijah was taken up”). Thus, the LXX interprets Elijah’s translation here as an event which was not caused by Elijah himself (but by God). 943 Confer also the use of μετατιθέναι in Sir 44:16, and the use of ἀναλημφθῆναι or ἀναλαμβάνειν in Sir 48:9; 49:14.

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i. e. μετατιθέναι (Gen 5:24; Sir 44:16), ἀναλημφθῆναι or ἀναλαμβάνειν (4 Kgs 2:9; Sir 48:9; 49:14)944. The nuance of ἁρπάζεσθαι can also be found in the use of the Hebrew ‫ לָקַ ח‬in 2 Kgs 2:11 and in the corresponding Greek ἀναλημφθῆναι in 4 Kgs 2:11 LXX945. Haufe further gives details of other narratives concerning events of “translation” in OT Pseudepigrapha which include: the “translation of Enoch into paradise” (1 En 70:1-​4), the appearance of the “persons” who “have been taken up” (4 Ezra 6.26), and the prophecy about the “taking up” of Ezra (4 Ezra 14.9; cf. also GkApEzra 5.7)946. Lohfink also shares the opinion that the verb ‫​– לָקַ ח‬as it appears in Gen 5:24 MT with its Greek renditions in the LXX, i.e. μετατιθέναι (Gen 5:24; Sir 44:16) and ἀναλαμβάνειν (4 Kgs 2:9-​10) –​is terminus technicus for “translation” in Hebrew; and he explains that it is mainly because of these two passages (Gen 5:24; 2 Kgs 2:9 or 4 Kgs 2:9 LXX) that μετατιθέναι and especially ἀναλαμβάνειν became part of verbs used to describe “translation” of persons in Greek speaking Judaism947. He further remarks correctly that 944 Haufe actually reaches this conlusion in reference to the use of ἀπαρθῇ in Mk 2:20 where Jesus talks about his “taking away” (into heaven). He also buttresses his point by the use of ἐπήρθη (“he [Jesus] was lifted up”) in Acts 1:9. In Novum Testamentum Graece, it is indicated that the use of ἐπήρθη in Acts 1:9 functions as ἀναλημφθῆναι or ἀναλαμβάνειν in Mk 16:19; 2 Kgs 2:11 MT (or 4 Kgs 2:11 LXX); Sir 48:9; 1 En 70.1-​4; 2 Bar 76. It is further shown that this meaning of the verb ἁρπάζεσθαι is found in 1 Thess 4:17 and in Rev 11:12. Haufe adds that it is about the “translation” of the “righteous persons in the OT” (Entrückung alttestamentlicher Frommer). Cf. Günther Haufe, „Entrückung und eschatologische Funktion im Spätjudentum“, pp. 112–​113, and footnote 24. 945 The verb ἁρπάζειν itself in the LXX mostly translates the Hebrew verb ‫ ָּגזַל‬which in the modification qal can mean “to rob someone” (Lv 19:13), “to seize or take away something” (Job 24:2), “to snatch someone (away) from something” (Job 24:9); or the Hebrew verb ‫ חָ טַ ף‬which in the modification qal can mean “to seize” or “to snatch away someone” (Jdg 21:21); or the Hebrew ‫ טָ ַרף‬which in the modification qal can mean “to tear (apart)”, or “to savage” (Ezk 22:27); and the Hebrew verb ‫ ָלכַד‬which in the modification qal can mean “to capture”, “to seize”, “to catch”, etc. (Amos 3:4). It appears, however, that though ἁρπάζειν can also be rendered in the LXX as “to snatch away (someone)” or “to be taken away” (ἁρπάζεσθαι), ἁρπάζειν or ἁρπάζεσθαι never appears in the LXX in the sense of “the snatching away of a person(s) into heaven, into paradise, into the clouds, or into the air”. That is, when one wants to trace the source of Paul’s use of ἁρπάζεσθαι in 1 Thess 4:17 to the OT, it is to be found in the verbs ‫ לָקַ ח‬and ‫ עָ לַה‬in their meanings as they are used in Gen 5:24; 2 Kgs 2:9 and in 2 Kgs 2:11 respectively. 946 For further details of such narratives, confer Günther Haufe, „Entrückung und eschatologische Funktion im Spätjudentum“, pp. 108–​110. 947 Cf. Gerhard Lohfink, Die Himmelfahrt Jesu…, p. 73.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

in Judaism apart from the verb ‫ לָקַ ח‬and its Greek equivalents, it can be said of persons who have been snatched away or have been translated that “they never tasted death” (4 Ezra 6.26948), or that “nobody knows of their death” (1 Clem 9.3949), or simply that “they have been preserved” (2 Bar 13.3950)951. Within the domain of Judaism, it was believed that the personalities or “the righteous ones” who were taken up (into heaven or paradise) did not actually die. The Derech Erez Zuta I, for instance, mentions nine persons in Judaism who were taken up alive into paradise. Those were: Enoch, son of Jared (Gen 5:18); Elijah; the Messiah952; Eliezer, the steward of Abraham (Gen 15:2); Hiram, the King of Tyre; Ebed-​Melech, the Cuschite (Jer 38:7 ff; 39:16-​18); Jabez, the son of the Patriarch Jehudah; Bithiah, the daughter of Pharaoh (1 Chr 4:18); and Serah, the daughter of Asher (Gen 46:17; 1 Chr 7:30)953. 2 Bar 76.2 also reads: For you will surely depart from this world, nevertheless not to death but to be kept unto (the end) of times954.

948 4 Ezra 6.26 reads thus: “And they shall see the men [or persons] who were taken up, who from their birth have not tasted death ….” (Et videbunt qui recepti sunt homines, qui mortem non gustaverunt a nativitate sua ….) For the translation, confer Bruce M. Metzger (transl.), The Fourth Book of Ezra, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 535; and for the Latin text, see A. F. J. Kliyn (Hrsg.), Der lateinische Text der Apokalypse des Esra, p. 40. 949 1 Clem 9.3 reads: “Let us take Enoch who proved irreproachable in obedience and was translated without a trace of his death”. Cf. James A. Kleist (transl.), The Epistles of St. Clement of Rome and St. Ignatius of Antioch, in: Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation (No. 1), London: The Newman Press, 1946, p. 14. 950 2 Bar 13:3 reads: “Because you have been astonished at that which has befallen Zion, you will surely be preserved until the end of times to be for a testimony”. Cf. A. F. J. Klijn (transl.), 2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) Baruch, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 625. 951 Cf. Gerhard Lohfink, Die Himmelfahrt Jesu…, p. 73. 952 Billerbeck explains here that it was assumed that the Messiah was already born, but in his earthly life the Messiah went back into paradise. Billerbeck writes thus: „Vom Messias ist hier vorausgesetzt, dass er bereits geboren, aber bei Leibesleben wieder in das Paradies zurückgezogen worden ist“. Cf. Hermann L. Strack/​Paul Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrash (Band IV), Exkurse zu einzelnen Stellen des Neuen Testaments in zwei Zeilen: Abhandlungen zur Neutestamentlichen Theologie und Archäologie (Zweiter Zeil), München: C. H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1978, p. 766, footnote 1. 953 Cf. Hermann L. Strack/​Paul Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrash (Band IV)…, p. 766. 954 Cf. A. F. J. Klijn (transl.), 2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) Baruch, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 646.

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Josephus too reports on the “translation” of Enoch and Elijah not in terms of a description that they died but that they disappeared and became “invisible” (ἀφανεῖς). He writes in Jewish Antiquities 9.28 thus: “However, concerning Elijah and Enoch, who lived before the flood, it is written in the sacred books that they became invisible, and no one knows of their death” (περὶ μέντοι γε Ἠλία καὶ Ἐνώχου τοῦ γενομένου πρὸ τῆς ἐπομβρίας ἐν ταῖς ἱεραῖς ἀναγέγραπται βίβλοις ὅτι γεγόνασιν ἀφανεῖς, θάνατον δ᾽ αὐτῶν οὐδεὶς οἶδεν)955.

This belief in the “translation of the righteous ones” in Judaism gives grounds for Paul’s teaching that it is possible for us, the living, those who are left to be “taken away” (alive) to be with God956. Paul is, however, emphatic that the subjects involved in this “snatching away” are not only “we, the living, those who are left” but also “the dead in Christ” because the “dead in Christ” shall be raised from the dead. Plevnik remarks correctly that in the apocalyptic depiction of the parousia in 1 Thes 4:16-​17, the depiction of the dead being raised from their graves is a means enabling the deceased faithful to participate in the Lord’s parousia. This preliminary act of the power of God places the deceased on the same footing with the living faithful with respect to their participation in the parousia, which is here depicted as an assumption, because a presupposition for the assumption (as found in all accounts of assumptions in the OT and elsewhere in antiquity) is that one has to be alive to be assumed957. Though Paul draws much from Judaism in his description of the simultaneous “taking away” of “the living” and “the dead in Christ” to meet the Lord, he has his own way of presenting the material available to him, and this is obvious also in his use of the prepositional phrases “in the clouds, into the air to meet the Lord” (ἐν νεφέλαις, εἰς ἀέρα εἰς ἀπάντησιν τοῦ κυρίου). In the events of translation of persons the cloud can function as an instrument through which the snatching away takes place. Lohfink, for instance, remarks that:

955 Cf. Josephus VI, in: LCL 326. Cambridge.London: Havard University Press, 1937, pp. 16, 17. 956 Jesus himself says: “Truly, I say to you, there are some standing here who will not taste death before they see that the kingdom of God has come with power” –​ἀμὴν λὲγω ὑμῖν ὅτι εἰσίν τινες ὧδε τῶν ἑστηκότων οἵτινες οὐ μὴ γεύσωνται θανάτου ἕως ἄν ἴδωσιν τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ ἐληλυθυῖαν ἐν δυνάμει (Mk 9:1; cf. also the parallels: Mt 16:28; Lk 9:27). 957 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 76, and the references in footnote 20.

210

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

“God himself is the one who translates persons [Gen 5:24], but it goes without saying that the ascent takes place with the help of whirlwind (4 Kgs 2:11; Sir 48:9 LXX), wagon (Sir 48:9 LXX), cloud (Rev 11:12) or angels. Just like in the ancient literature, the cloud does not only function as a carriage but it also functions to cover the sight of the people from the actual event of the ascent [2 En 67.1]” (Gott selbst ist es, der entrückt [Gen 5:24], aber das schließt nicht aus, dass die Auffahrt mit Hilfe von Sturmwind (4 Kg 2, 11; Sir 48, 9 LXX), Wagen (Sir 48, 9 LXX), Wolken (Apk 11, 12) oder Engeln vonstatten geht. Wie in der antiken Literatur begegnet die Wolke nicht nur als Gefährt, sondern auch in der Funktion, die eigentliche Auffahrt vor menschlichen Blicken zu verbergen (2. Henochbuch 67, 1)958.

In the OT (just as in the NT) the cloud symbolizes the presence of the divinity (cf. Exod 13:21959; 19:16; 40:34-​35)960, and God reveals himself in a cloud (Lv 16:2). When Paul says here in 1 Thess 4:17 that both the living and the dead in Christ shall be snatched away in the clouds in order “to meet the Lord” (εἰς ἀπάντησιν τοῦ κυρίου), Paul emphasizes more on the presence of the Lord and our union with the Lord. Plevnik remarks correctly that: “The cloud here is not the vehicle for the Lord’s descent from heaven, as in the synoptic portrayals of the parousia, nor is it the shroud of God, as in theophanies. It serves, rather, as a transport for the human beings that are taken up from their place on earth to a place in the beyond, as is the case in the portrayals of assumptions in both Jewish and pagan sources. The cloud motif is employed when a living human being is taken up. For that person, life on earth has thereby come to an end, and a new and higher life has begun”961.

Paul’s application of the expression “being snatched away in the clouds into the air” in 1 Thess 4:17 is somehow like the situation of Elijah who is described in 4 Kgs 2:11 LXX in the words: “And Elijah was taken up in a whirlwind like into heaven” (καὶ ἀνελήφθη Ἠλιοὺ ἐν συσσεισμῷ ὡς εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν). One can also find a perfect parallel between the account of Rev 11:11-​12 and Paul’s description in 1 Thess 4:16-​17. Rev 11:1-​14 actually recounts the story of the “two witnesses” (Rev 11:3) who are also referred to as “prophets” (Rev 11:3, 6, 10) or “martyrs” who were killed (Rev 11:7). In Rev 11:11-​12 it is said of them:

9 58 Cf. Gerhard Lohfink, Die Himmelfahrt Jesu…, p. 73. 959 Confer also Pss 77:14 LXX; 104:39 LXX. In 1 Cor 10:1 ff, Paul talks about this presence of the Lord in the “Desert Experience” of the Israelites. 960 The OT texts include 1 Kgs 8:10-​11; Wis 19:7. Confer also Mt 17:5//​Mk 9:7; Lk 9:35 in the NT. 961 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thessalonians 4:17:: The Bringing in of the Lord or the Bringing in of the Faithful?”, in: Bib 80 (1999) 537–​546, here page 544.

1 Thess 4:17

211

“11. But after the three and a half days, a breath of life from God entered them, and they stood up on their feet … 12. Then they heard a loud voice from heaven saying to them, ‘come up here!’ So they went up into heaven in a cloud ….” (Καὶ μετὰ τὰς τρεῖς ἡμέρας καὶ ἥμισυ πνεῦμα ζωῆς ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ εἰσῆλθεν ἐν αὐτοῖς, καὶ ἔστησαν ἐπὶ τοὺς πόδας αὐτῶν… 12 καὶ ἤκουσαν φωνῆς μεγάλης ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ λεγούσιν αὐτοῖς· ἀνάβατε ὧδε. καὶ ἀνέβησαν εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἐν τῇ νεφέλῃ ….)

It is believed that those who are “snatched away” in a cloud into heaven or into paradise by the divine power are received by God in his presence (4 Ezra 14:9). Though the Pauline account predates that of Revelation, the narratives concerning the “snatching away or the ascent of persons into the cloud(s), into heaven or into the air” in 1 Thess 4:17 and in Rev 11:12 especially are based on Elijah’s event in 2 Kgs 2:11 MT or 4 Kgs 2:11 LXX. In these three accounts (4 Kgs 2:11 LXX; 1 Thess 4:17; Rev 11:12) there are marked double prepositional phrases (one with the preposition ἐν plus a noun in the dative case and the other with the preposition εἰς plus a noun in the accusative case) indicating the place, direction or means of the “translation” –​i.e., ἐν συσσεισμῷ … εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν (4 Kgs 2:11 LXX) //​ ἐν νεφέλαις … εἰς ἀέρα (1 Thess 4:17) //​εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν … ἐν τῇ νεφέλῃ (Rev 11:12). Paul goes strictly by the LXX account of 4 Kgs 2:11 by using a verb in the passive (ἁρπάζεσθαι) to emphasize that those who are involved in the “natching away” do not perform the act by themselves but through a divine power, i.e., through God (cf. also 2 Cor 12:2, 4). Moreover, in the Pauline description of the “translation” he does not make use of a “verb of movement” like ἀναβαίνειν (“to be in motion upwards”, i.e., “to go up”, “to ascend”, etc.) or ἀναλαμβάνειν (“to lift up and carry away”; “to take someone along on a journey”, etc.)962 or μετατιθέναι (“to convey from one place to another”, “to put in another place”, etc.)963 as such, but he employs the passive of the verb ἁρπάζειν which basically means “to rob”, “to grab and seize suddenly (by force) so as to remove or to gain control, i.e. “to snatch or take away”964. Thus in Paul’s description there is obviously an aspect of a movement or transfer of persons from one place to another, but the “translation” Paul describes here in 1 Thess 4:17 is not to be understood primarily in the sense of a movement or transfer from the terrestrial domain into the celestial realm but rather a “translation” in the sense of an existential change whereby the believers in Christ will meet the Lord and will forever live with the Lord. Hoppe

9 62 Cf. BDAG, pp. 66–​67 §§ 1, 4. 963 See BDAG, p. 642 § 1. 964 Cf. BDAG, p. 134 §§ 1, 2.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

stresses that though “the cloud” belongs to the instrument of the snatching away (confer T. Ab. [A]‌9.8; 10.1; GkApEzra 5.7), “The purpose of the parousia-​account is not the ‘translation’ itself but the meeting with the Lord which is evident in the destination-​clause εἰς ἀέρα but above all the permanent union of all with him” (Das Ziel der Parusieschilderung ist allerdings nicht die Entrückung selbst, sondern die Begegnung mit dem Kyrios mit der Zielangabe εἰς ἀέρα, letztlich aber die dauerhafte Zusammengehörigkeit aller mit ihm)965.

Hoppe explains further that here Paul is not concerned with a description of a specified place for the meeting with the Lord but it can only be taken that Paul considers “the clouds of the heavens” to be the place where the Lord will meet his people966. Luckensmeyer also shares the opinion that “Paul does not say where the final destination of the faithful will be”967, but “Paul is able to summarise his whole argument in terms of being with the Lord”968. The “translation” Paul talks about here in 1 Thess 4:17 is distinct from the purely Hellenistic influenced Pauline description of “transformation of [the body of] the dead” (ἀλλαγὴ τῶν νεκρῶν) in 1 Cor 15:52. That is, Paul’s application of ἀλλαγησόμεθα (“we will be changed or be transformed”)969 in 1 Cor 15:52 cannot be equated with ἁρπαγησόμεθα (“we will be snatched away”) in 1 Thess 4:17. Paul’s use of ἁρπάζεσθαι in 1 Thess 4:17 should basically be understood as equivalent to μετατιθέναι which in Gen 5:24 LXX translates the Hebrew ‫ לָקַ ח‬in Gen 5:24 MT. Though the Greek verb μετατιθέναι bears the nuance of “the conveyance of persons or things from one place to another”, it also means “to effect a change in state or condition”970. Plevnik explains the “taking up” of the faithful and the change in condition implied in the use of ἁρπάζεσθαι in 1 Thess 4:17 when he writes:

Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 275. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 275 footnote 253. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 266. See op. cit., p. 267. The verb ἀλλαγησόμεθα is future indicative passive 1st person plural of the infinitive passive ἀλλάσσεσθαι: “to be changed”, “to be transformed”; and the infinitive active ἀλλάσσειν supplies better the nuance here: “to change or to transform in the sense of to cause one thing to cease and another to take its place”. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 28. 970 Cf. BDAG, p. 642 § 2. 9 65 966 967 968 969

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213

“The taking up, as employed in 1 Thess 4:17, implies that the believers thereby leave the present mode of life on earth and are given the exalted Christ’s mode of existence. This is a permanent change of life, not a mere change of location. It is an exaltation”971.

In 1 Thess 4:17, the situational change of the living and the dead in Christ means basically the condition of being always in the presence of the Lord and forever belonging to the Lord as God’s own possession. This interpretation is in tune with a Semitic nuance of the verb ἁρπάζειν which denotes “to seize or snatch away” in the sense of “to take in possession” (Jdg 21:21; Jn 10:12, 28-​29972). Unlike the personalities in Judaism such as Elijah and others who are “translated” alive and are still expected by some pious Jews to return to physical life on earth even after their “translation”973 (Mal 3:23 [or 4:5]974; Mt 17:10-​13)975, the persons involved here in Paul’s description are not expected to return into physical existence on earth after their “translation”. Paul is rather emphatic that after the resurrection of “the dead in Christ”, they will be “snatched away” at the same time with the living in order “to meet the Lord”, and consequently “we shall 971 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thessalonians 4:17:: The Bringing in of the Lord or the Bringing in of the Faithful?”, p. 545. In his other article, Plevnik asks whether there is no hint in the presentation in 1 Thess 4 that the reunion with Christ at his parousia involves at the same time a transformation, which implies a change in the physical constitution of a person. He maintains then that: “Paul, of course, does not talk directly about this in 1 Thessalonians 4. Yet the structure of assumption can express something like this in its own terms. Through the assumption, wrought by the power of God, the faithful are taken out of the world in which they live and are brought into the exalted world of the risen Lord. This is the world of heaven, eternal life with Christ in the presence of God. The phrase kai houtōs pantote syn kyriō esometha (1 Thess 4:17) suggests the eschatological existence in which death has no more claim on them”. Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “The taking up of the Faithful and the Resurrection of the Dead in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-​18”, p. 282. 972 Jn 10:28-​29, for instance, reads: “28. And I give them eternal life, and they shall never perish, and no one shall snatch them out of my hand. 29. My Father, who has given them to me, is greater than all, and no one is able to snatch them out of the Father’s hand” [RSV] (28. κἀγὼ δίδωμι αὐτοῖς ζωὴν αἰώνιον καὶ οὐ μὴ ἀπόλωνται εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα καὶ οὐχ ἁρπάζει τις αὐτὰ ἐκ τῆς χειρὸς μου 29. ὁ πατήρ μου ὅ δέδωκεν μοι πάντων μεῖζόν ἐστιν, καὶ οὐδεὶς δύναται ἁρπάζειν ἐκ τῆς χειρὸς τοῦ πατρός). 973 Cf. Günther Haufe, „Entrückung und eschatologische Funktion im Spätjudentum“, p. 112. 974 Mal 3:23 [or 4:5] reads thus: ‫ּנֹורא‬ ָ ַ‫ִהּנֵה אָ נֹ כִ י ׁשֹ לֵחַ ָלכֶם אֵ ת אֵ לִ ּיָה הַ ּנ ִָביא לִ פְ נֵי ּבֹוא יֹום יְ הוָה הַ ּגָדֹול וְ ה‬ (“Behold, I will send to you Elijah the Prophet before the coming of the great and terrible day of the Lord”). 975 Confer also Mt 11:14; 16:14; Lk 1:17; Jn 1:21, 25.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

forever be with the Lord” (1 Thess 4:17c). It becomes evident that though Paul makes use of theophany and apocalyptic motifs in his description of the parousia of the Lord and the snatching away of the living and the dead, he neither goes strictly by this Jewish-​apocalyptic imagery976 nor does he employ here the idea of Hellenistic-​Greek (Roman) parousias in his redaction of the available traditions he depends on. Plevnik correctly remarks in the summary of his article –​which seeks to contradict E. Peterson and other exegetes who claim that “Paul’s model here [in 1 Thess 4:16-​17] is that of Hellenistic parousia, where the citizens go out to greet the royal visitor and joyfully bring him into the city”977 –​that: “The image of the bringing in, which, in dependence on Hellenistic parousia depictions, denotes the bringing in of the Lord at his coming, does not fit the imagery and the theology of Paul in 1 Thess 4:13-​18. Hellenistic parousias depict the citizens making the royal visitor welcome in their city, whereas 1 Thess 4:13-​18 depicts the effect of the Lord’s coming on them. The faithful are raised; the faithful are taken up. 1 Thess 4:13-​18 really depicts the bringing in of the faithful, not of the Lord. The implication is that they [the faithful] do not return to the earth, but stay with the Lord forever”978.

Plevnik further explains that: “The focus of Peterson’s depiction is more on the faithful than on the Lord coming down from heaven. It is the faithful who are active, in congruence with Hellenistic parousias. They seize the initiative and go forth to meet the Lord. This, however, causes problems with the passive voice of ἁρπάζω, which Paul employs here. ἁρπαγησόμεθα means ‘we shall be taken up’. It is also doubtful that the faithful in Thessalonica regarded going up from the earth to be like going out of the city. In addition, it poorly agrees with 1 Thess

976 Malherbe shares the opinion that Paul’s description in 1 Thess 4:16-​17 is similar to the theophany descriptions with their associated apocalyptic elements found in the gospel tradition, but it is remarkable how much Paul has reduced the apocalyptic element in 1 Thess 4:16-​17. Malherbe remarks that for Paul to develop the apocalyptic imagery, he retains his focus on the gathering of the Christians to the Lord”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 276–​277. 977 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thessalonians 4:17: The Bringing in of the Lord or the Bringing in of the Faithful?”, p. 537. Peterson’s opinion on this Hellenistic parousia is found in his article: „Die Einholung des Kyrios“, in: ZST 7 (1929–​1930) 682–​702, confer especially page 698. For references to scholars who interpret the coming of Christ described in 1 Thess 4:13-​18 as a replica of Hellenistic imperial parousias, confer Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thessalonians 4:17: The Bringing in of the Lord or the Bringing in of the Faithful?”, p. 541 footnote 33. 978 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thessalonians 4:17: The Bringing in of the Lord or the Bringing in of the Faithful?”, p. 546.

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215

4, 14, which states that God will through Jesus bring the deceased faithful with him [to his presence]”979.

Most exegetes make comparison between 1 Thess 4:16-​17 and 1 Cor 15:51-​52, and some of them correctly point out that while 1 Thess 4:16-​17 is purely characterized by apocalyptic terminology and Jewish worldview, 1 Cor 15:51-​52 is marked by a combination of apocalyptic imagery and Hellenistic ideas. Gewalt remarks that: “In both cases, he [Paul] maintains that the resurrection of Christ determines the future of the dead Christians [1 Thess 4:14; 1 Cor 15:13f, 23]. 1 Cor 15:51f. unfolds the preceding verse 50 which also brings out the dichotomy between the physical and the spiritual or the earthly and the heavenly aspects of the human-​body. In this connection, the apocalyptic terminology recedes and the emphasis is rather placed well on the Hellenistic thought of transformation of the body towards immortality” (In beiden Fällen geht er [Paulus] davon aus, dass die Auferstehung Christi die Zukunft der verstorbenen Christen bestimmt [1 Thess 4, 14; 1 Kor 15, 13 f. 23]. 1 Kor 15, 51 f. entfaltet den Obersatz Vers 50, der wiederum an die Erörterung über den psychischen und pneumatischen bzw. irdischen und himmlischen Adamsleib anschließt. In diesem Zusammenhang tritt die apokalyptische Terminologie zurück und der Ton liegt gut hellenistisch auf der Verwandlung des Leibes zur Unvergänglichkeit)980.

Gewalt emphasizes further that: “In 1 Cor 15:51 f, Paul lets the apocalyptic terminology decline [in importance] without doing away with the basic structure of apocalyptic” (Paulus lässt in 1 Kor 15, 51 f die apokalyptische Terminologie zurücktreten, ohne die Grundstruktur der Apokalypse aufzuheben)981.

The questions about the dead that Paul had to answer in the Corinthian community revolved especially around the questions in 1 Cor 15:35: “How are the dead raised? With what kind of body do they come [back to life]? (πῶς ἐγείρονται οἱ νεκροί; ποίῳ δὲ σώματι ἔρχονται;). Those unanswered questions might have caused some of the Corinthians to deny the belief in the resurrection of the dead (1 Cor 15:12). How Paul answers or goes about this Corinthian question is a bit different from how he deals with the Thessalonian problem which is mainly

979 See op. cit. p. 541; confer also Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 277. 980 Cf. Dietfried Gewalt, „1 Thess 4, 15-​17; 1 Kor 15, 51 und Mk 9, 1 –​Zur Abgrenzung eines ‚Herrenwortes‘ “, p. 108. 981 Cf. Dietfried Gewalt, „1 Thess 4, 15-​17; 1 Kor 15, 51 und Mk 9, 1 –​Zur Abgrenzung eines ‚Herrenwortes‘ “, p. 110.

216

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

about the fate of the dead Christ’s faithful at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ982. While in 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11 Paul employs mainly apocalyptic motifs and Jewish conception of the afterlife to address the Thessalonian question, his approach to the Corinthian question is different. Within the context of the parousia of the Lord, it is possible for Paul to talk about bodily resurrection of the dead in Christ in 1 Thess 4:17 by his use of the verb ἁρπαγησόμεθα (“we will be snatched away”) because as Strecker correctly puts it: “The snatching away includes the body and the soul of the person as an unchanged unity  ….” (Die Entrückung umfasst Leib und Seele des Menschen in unveränderter Einheit ….)983.

Luckensmeyer reviews a work of Lüdemann and maintains that: “Lüdemann finds 2 Baruch 50:2-​3984 particularly relevant since by resurrection the dead are made to be on equal footing with the living. That a transformation is described separate from the resurrection (2 Baruch 51.1985) and that the dead are not changed by the resurrection but are still recognized by the living (see ἅμα σὺν αὐτοῖς [‘together with them’] in 1 Thess 4:17a), is evidence for Lüdemann that Paul did not conceive of resurrection as transformation in 1 Thess 4:13-​18”986.

It is worthwhile to note here that 2 Bar 50:2-​3 and 2 Bar 51:1 give two different answers to the question of the shape in which the living (and the dead) will live in the day of the Lord (see 2 Bar 49.2-​3). While 2 Bar 50:2-​3 answers this question with translation and bodily resurrection in view as found in 1 Thess 4:16-​17, 2 Bar 51:1 rather emphasizes the transformation (of the body of the dead) which rather has close parallels with 1 Cor 15:51-​52. Hoppe remarks that an answer to 9 82 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 280. 983 G. Strecker, „Entrückung“, in: RAC 5 (1962), p. 462. 984 2 Bar 50:2-​3 reads: “2. For the earth will surely give back the dead at that time; it receives them now in order to keep them, not changing anything in their form. But as it has received them so it will give them back. And as I have delivered them to it so it will raise them. 3. For then it will be necessary to show those who live that the dead are living again, and that those who went away have come back”. Cf. A. F. J. Klijn (transl.), 2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) Baruch, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 638. 985 2 Bar 51:1 reads: “And it will happen after this day which he appointed is over that both the shape of those who are found to be guilty as also the glory of those who have proved to be righteous will be changed”. Cf. A. F. J. Klijn (transl.), 2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) Baruch, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 638. 986 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 250. Cf. also Gerd Lüdemann, Paulus, der Heidenapostel Band I: Studien zur Chronologie (FRLANT 123), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1980, p. 260.

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a bodily resurrection of the dead as described by 2 Bar 50:1-​3 would be for the Hellenistic Corinthians something incomprehensible987. He considers the simultaneous “snatching away of the living and the dead” as an aspect in 1 Thess 4:17 which is distinct from Paul’s teaching in 1 Cor 15:52 about the “transformation of the body (of the dead) for resurrection and for entrance into the Kingdom of God”988. Luckensmeyer too rightly remarks that: “It appears that the motif of resurrection in this pericope only serves a more important process of translation [but not necessarily transformation as is the case in 1 Cor 15:51-​52]”989.

The emphasis of the Pauline description in 1 Thess 4:16-​17 should not be placed on the spatial but more on the situational aspect. It is a description of the situation or condition in which the dead in Christ and the living Christ’s faithful will find themselves at the parousia of the Lord, i.e., they will be brought to the presence of the Lord. Parousia can mean the presence of a person (2 Cor 10:10; Phil 2:12) or the presence of God (Ant. 9.55). Here Paul brings out not only the meaning of parousia as the coming of the Lord (1 Thess 2:19; 3:13; 4:15b)990 to bear on the Thessalonian situation, but also the experience of the Lord’s presence which is expressed here in the sense of being always with the Lord (1 Thess 4:17) or living with the Lord (1 Thess 5:10). Plevnik rightly remarks that: “In 1 Thessalonians 4 he [Paul] affirms that God can, in his power over death, restore the dead to life and so make them share not only in the parousia of Christ but ultimately in life with the risen Lord in his presence forever”991.

987 He writes thus: Eine Antwort auf die Leiblichkeit der Auferstehung, wie sie Apk Bar (syr) 50, 1-​3 gab, wäre für die hellenistischen Korinther nicht nachvollziehbar gewesen. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 280 footnote 264. 988 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 282. For an elaborate comparison between 1 Thess 4:16-​17 and 1 Cor 15:51-​52, confer Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 279–​282; Dietfried Gewalt, „1 Thess 4, 15-​17; 1 Kor 15, 51 und Mk 9, 1 –​Zur Abgrenzung eines ‚Herrenwortes‘ “, pp. 106–​113. Confer also David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 250–​251 for the opinions of some exegetes on the question of whether transformation is inherently a part of resurrection in 1 Thess 4. 989 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 237. 990 See also 1 Thess 5:23. 991 Joseph Plevnik, “The taking up of the Faithful and the Resurrection of the Dead in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-​18”, p. 282.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

The purpose of the resurrection of the dead and the simultaneous snatching away of the living and the dead is to meet the Lord. The word ἀπάντησιν in the prepositional phrase εἰς ἀπάντησιν (“in order to meet”) is accusative of the substantive ἀπάντησις (“a meeting”), and its verb is ἀπαντᾶν (“to meet”, “to encounter”, etc.) Apart from 1 Thess 4:17, the expression εἰς ἀπάντησιν appears 2(3) times elsewhere in the NT, and in those passages εἰς ἀπάντησιν is either followed by a substantive in the genitive case992 or by a substantive in the dative case993. The Pauline εἰς ἀπάντησιν here is followed by a substantive in the genitive case, hence the expression εἰς ἀπάντησιν τοῦ κυρίου: “in order to meet the Lord”. In the other NT passages where the expression εἰς ἀπάντησιν appears (Mt 25:1, 6; Acts 28:15), the predominant verb that defines the preceding action is ἐξέρχεσθαι: “to come out”, “to go out”, etc. (see also ἔρχεσθαι: “to come”, “to go” in Acts 28:15), and it is basically a verb of movement or motion. In the LXX, the verb ἀπαντᾶν and its synonyms –​ συναντᾶν and ὑπαντᾶν –​ which mean “to meet a person(s)” are renditions of various Hebrew verbs in the MT. Such Hebrew verbs include ‫ּפָ גַע‬ in the modification qal (Exod 5:20), ‫ ּפָ גַׁש‬in the modification qal (1 Sam 25:20 or 1 Kgs 25:20 LXX), ‫( קָ ַרא‬II) in the modification qal (Gen 46:29; 1 Kgs 2:19), and ‫ קָ ַרה‬in the modification nifa‘l (Nm 23:3). The verb ἀπαντᾶν can mean to meet a person with hostility, i.e., “to attack a person”. In Hos 13:8, for instance, ἀπαντᾶν (the Hebrew ‫ )ּפָ גַׁש‬is used in a context in which the Lord promises to meet and attack the Israelites “by the way of the Assyrians”, and it is said that there shall be no aid for Israel in his “destruction” (Hos 13:9)994. There is, however, no such hostile implication in Paul’s use of the verb ἀπαντᾶν. Paul actually uses the substantive of the verb and specifically in the expression εἰς ἀπάντησιν which in the LXX is very often equivalent to the Hebrew ‫ לִ קְ ַראת‬in the MT995. The Hebrew ‫ לִ קְ ַראת‬is the infinitive construct of the verb ‫( קָ ַרא‬II), and it comprises of the preposition ְ‫“( ל‬to”) –​which functions here to introduce the purpose of an action –​and the infinitive of ‫( קָ ַרא‬II), hence ‫ לִ קְ ַראת‬is rendered accordingly as: “in order to meet”. In the LXX too, just as in the NT, the aspect of εἰς ἀπάντησίν 992 See Mt 25:6: “Behold, the bridegroom! Come out to meet him” (ἰδοὺ ὁ νυμφίος, ἐξέρχεσθε εἰς ἀπάντησιν αὐτοῦ). Confer also Mt 25:1: “To the ten maidens who took their lamps and went out to meet the bridegroom” (δέκα παρθένοις, αἵτινες λαβοῦσαι τὰς λαμπάδας ἑαυτῶν ἐξῆλθον εἰς ὑπάντησιν [ἀπάντησιν] τοῦ νυμφίου). 993 See Acts 28:15: “And the brothers from there … came [out] to meet us” (κἀκεῖθεν οἱ ἀδελφοὶ … ἦλθαν [ἐξῆλθον] εἰς ἀπάντησιν ἡμιν). 994 Confer also 1 Kgs 17:48 LXX which reads: “And the Philistine arose and went to meet David” (καὶ ἀνέστη ὁ ἀλλόφυλος καὶ ἐπορεύθη εἰς συνάντησιν Δαυιδ). 995 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 54.

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219

τινος or τινι (“to meet somebody”)996 as equivalent to the Hebrew ‫ לִ קְ ַראת‬in the MT is evident997. While in Exod 5:20 (LXX) one reads εἰς συνάντησιν αὐτοῖς (“in order to meet them”), in 1 Kgs 25:20 (LXX) one finds εἰς συνάντησιν αὐτῆς (“in order to meet her”). A perfect instance where a person meets God is found in the context of the theophany description in Exod 19:16-​25 where it is said that Moses met with God: ‫ֹלהים ִמן־הַ ּמַ ֲחנֶה‬ ִ ֱ‫( וַּיֹוצֵ א מֹ ׁשֶ ה אֶ ת־הָ עָ ם לִ קְ ַראת הָ א‬Exod 19:17 MT): καὶ ἐξήγαγε Μωυσῆς τὸν λαὸν εἰς συνάντησιν τοῦ θεοῦ ἐκ τῆς παρεμβολῆς (Exod 19:17 LXX) –​“And Moses led the people out of the camp in order to meet God”. In Nm 23:3-​4 too the Lord met with Balaam. The passage in the LXX (i.e. Nm 23:3-​4) makes it clear that when God meets a person, he (God) appears to the person. Nm 23:3-​4 (LXX) reads thus: “3. And Balaam said to Balak, stand by your sacrifice and I will go and see if God will appear to me and meet me … 4. And Balaam went to inquire of God … And God appeared to Balaam” (3. καὶ εἶπε Βαλαάμ πρὸς Βαλὰκ, παράστηθι ἐπὶ τῆς θυσίας σου, καὶ πορεύσομαι εἴ μοι φανεῖται ὁ θεὸς ἐν συναντήσει … 4. καὶ Βαλαὰμ ἐπορεύθη ἐπερωτῆσαι τὸν θεόν … καὶ ἐφάνη ὁ θεὸς τῷ Βαλαάμ).

Thus those with whom God meet he reveals himself to them or he appears to them face to face, and those persons experience the divine presence. It is from this OT theological background that Paul’s εἰς ἀπάντησιν τοῦ κυρίου in 1 Thess 4:17b is to be understood. Dupont, for instance, argues that the vocabulary and imagery in 1 Thess 4:16-​17 bear striking resemblance to the Sinai theophany described in Exod 19:10-​18 and Dt 33:2998. He considers the prepositional phrase εἰς ἀπάντησιν as terminus technicus for parousia which is not specific to imperial parousias. He observes that εἰς ἀπάντησιν is a common expression which together with its synonyms occurs 129 times in the LXX, and it usually translates the Hebrew ‫לִ קְ ַראת‬. He writes thus: “The imagery in 1 Thess 4:16-​17 is Jewish apocalyptic and scriptural rather than Hellenistic. It ressembles the depiction of the Sinai theophany of LXX Exod 19:10-​18, which involves Yahweh’s coming down from heaven on Mount Sinai and the people coming up [on] the mounting to meet him. This passage has the following motifs in

9 96 Confer also εἰς ὑπάντησίν or εἰς συνάντησίν τινος or τινι. 997 For detailed references to passages in the LXX where these expresssions –​εἰς ἀπάντησιν, εἰς συνάντησιν, εἰς ὑπάντησιν, –​are found, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 260 footnotes 318, 320, 321. 998 Cf. Jacques Dupont, Σὺν Χριστῷ: L’union avec le Christ suivant Saint Paul, Louvain: E. Nauwelaerts/​Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1952, pp. 69, 97; Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thessalonians 4:17: The Bringing in of the Lord or the Bringing in of the Faithful?”, p. 542.

220

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

common with 1 Thess 4:13-​18: the trumpets, the cloud, the descent of the Lord, and the approach of the people to the place of meeting (εἰς συνάντησιν) on the mountain”999.

In 1 Thess 4:17c Paul further emphasizes the divine presence in the expression: “And so we shall always be with the Lord” (καὶ οὕτως πάντοτε σὺν κυρίῳ ἐσόμεθα). This verse stresses on the union of the dead and the living with the Lord Jesus Christ. Lüdemann rightly remarks that the purpose of the simultaneous snatching away or translation of the living and the dead is so that they can participate in the union with Christ1000. Luckensmeyer shares opinion with Kremer that resurrection is more than just life after death but it includes an emphasis on “community life with the Lord”, and “this emphasis is not so much that resurrection facilitates a translation motif but that both the resurrection and translation facilitate Paul’s emphasis on being with the Lord (1 Thess 4:17c)”1001. Plevnik also maintains that when in 1 Thess 4:14 Paul writes that God will employ Christ to bring in the deceased, “the destination, of course, is not explicitly stated by the text, but the best guess would be that the faithful are taken into God’s presence; 2 Cor 4:14, which offers the best parallel to this text [1 Thess 4:14], suggests this. In this passage [2 Cor 4:14] Paul, defending his own share in the ultimate fulfillment, asserts to the Corinthians: ‘We know that the one who raised the Lord Jesus will raise us also with Jesus, and will bring us with you (into his presence, παραστήσει σὺν ὑμῖν)’. Here everybody is brought near to God”1002. It can be stressed here that Paul actually takes up the Exodus-​pericope (i.e Exod 19:16 ff) –​which talks basically about the Lord’s descent on Mount Sinai to meet his people –​as a pattern to describe how both the living and the dead will meet 999 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thessalonians 4:17: The Bringing in of the Lord or the Bringing in of the Faithful?”, p. 542; Jacques Dupont, Σὺν Χριστῷ: L’union avec le Christ suivant Saint Paul, pp. 64–​73. For a detailed discussion of the question as to whether Paul’s use of εἰς ἀπάντησιν was influenced by Hellenistic Parousias (as claimed by E. Peterson and other exegetes) or by the LXX references to εἰς ἀπάντησιν and particularly by the account of the Sinai theophany in Exod 19 (as claimed by Jacques Dupont and other commentators), confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 263–​266. Luckensmeyer maintains that: “Even if Paul has the Sinai theophany (and the LXX tradition) solely in mind when he uses the phrase εἰς ἀπάντησιν, the influence of Hellenistic formal receptions is significant”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, op. cit., p. 265. 1000 Cf. Gerd Lüdemann, Paulus, der Heidenapostel Band I…, p. 260. 1001 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 251; Jacob Kremer, „Auferstehung der Toten in bibeltheologischer Sicht“, pp. 18–​20. 1002 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thessalonians 4:17: The Bringing in of the Lord or the Bringing in of the Faithful?”, p. 544.

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the Lord Jesus Christ at his parousia. The Lord’s parousia or second coming is, thus, not described in 1 Thess 4:15-​17 in the model of Hellenistic understanding where παρουσία became the official term for a visit of a person of high rank, especially of kings and emperors visiting a province to meet their subjects1003, but in the manner of the theophany on Mount Sinai where God descended to meet his people. Paul’s expression “and so we shall always be with the Lord” (1 Thess 4:17c) which buttresses on the divine presence can also be interpreted from the Jewish apocalyptic point of view. Malherbe notices that in Jewish apocalyptic literature it was expected that the risen or the faithful who have been snatched away would forever live with the Messiah (4 Ezra 14.9)1004. 4 Ezra 14:9 reads thus: “For you shall be taken up from among men [or persons], and henceforth you shall live with my Son and with those who are like you, until the times are ended”1005 (Tu enim recipieris ab hominibus, et converteris residuum cum filio meo cum similibus tuis, usquequo finiantur tempora)1006.

Malherbe throws light on the fact that also in the Hellenistic worldview, the dead are believed to live with the gods. He, however, brings out the contrast between the Jewish and the Hellenistic perspectives by emphasizing that: “Paul’s stress on being with the Lord and other Christians would therefore have been recognized by his contemporaries as good consolatory practice. Where he differs from them is in their conviction that it is ‘souls that have lived in accordance with virtue that have as the crown of their happiness that, being freed from the unreasonable element and purified from all body, they are in union with the gods and share with them the government of the whole universe’ (Sallustius, On the Gods and the Universe 21)”1007.

Malherbe asserts further that Paul always uses the preposition σύν plus dative (“with”) to describe the relationship with Christ after the resurrection (Rom 6:8; 2 Cor 4:14; 13:4)1008, and here in 1 Thess 4:17c Paul employs σύν (“with”) to emphasize that those who had died in Christ (together with the living) will now

1003 Cf. Polybius, Histories 18.48.4; Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum 4896, 8f.; Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum 495, 85f.; 741, 21, 30; Urkunden der Ptolomäerzeit (Ältere Funde) 42, 18 [162 BCE], etc. See also other references in BDAG, pp. 780–​781 § 2b. 1004 Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 277. 1005 Cf. Bruce M. Metzger (transl.), The Fourth Book of Ezra, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 553. 1006 Quoted from: A. F. J. Kliyn (Hrsg.), Der lateinische Text der Apokalypse des Esra, p. 87. 1007 Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 278. 1008 See also the use of μετά plus genitive (“with”) used by the Evangelists in Mt 28:20 and in Jn 17:24.

222

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

be with the Lord forever1009. Luckensmeyer also shares the opinion that the various elements of the apocalyptic scenario (e.g. descent, resurrection, translation, meeting) are (or may be) telescoped into the ultimate goal of being with the Lord (1 Thess 4:17c)1010. Schmid too brings this final or main aim into focus when he writes: “The ultimate goal of all events at the parousia [of the Lord] is the πάντοτε σὺν κυρίῳ εἶναι [i.e. ‘being with the Lord always’] of believers (verse 17; cf. Phil 1:23). Other points have no independent significance; they are simply means to an end or embellishing details which may fluctuate. This insight is essential to a true understanding of the eschatological statements of Paul”1011.

2.1. (vi). 1 Thess 4:18 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 4:18 (with Notes) 18a. Ὥστε παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους 18b. ἐν τοῖς λόγοις τούτοις (πνεύματος1012).

18a. Therefore, console one another 18b. with these words (of the Spirit).

Notes: The word ὥστε which begins 1 Thess 4:18 is a consecutive conjunction which expresses consequence or results1013, and it can be translated here as “for this reason”, “therefore”, “so”, “so then”, etc.1014 Just like the particle τοιγαροῦν (“for that very reason”, “then”, “therefore”) in 1 Thess 4:8 which introduces an inference; and the inferential conjunction διό (“therefore”, “for this reason”) in 1 Thess 5:11, ὥστε functions here not only to introduce an independent clause but also it “provides a practical consequence to the preceding statements” in this pericope of 1 Thess 4:13-​181015.

1 009 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 277. 1010 David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 253. 1011 Cf. Lothar Schmid, “κέλευσμα”, in: ThWNT 3 (1938), pp. 656–​659, here pages 658–​659. 1012 The manuscript 1739c adds πνεύματος (“of the Spirit”). 1013 Cf. Joseh Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 683. 1014 Cf. BDAG, p. 1107 § 1. 1015 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 178. Malherbe notices that the particle ὥστε is synonymous with τοιγαροῦν (“therefore,

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223

The conjunction ὥστε is followed here by the imperative παρακαλεῖτε (“console”, “comfort”), and the object of this imperative παρακαλεῖτε is expressed in the accusative plural of the reciprocal pronoun, i.e. ἀλλήλους (“each other”, “one another”, “mutually”, etc.) The consolation or comfort to be given is, thus, reciprocal by nature whereby each and every member of the community of believers is expected to console or comfort one another mutually. The preposition ἐν in verse 18b is a “marker of agency”, and it can be rendered here as “with”, “by” in the sense of “with the help of ”. The prepositional phrase ἐν τοῖς λόγοις τούτοις (“with these words”) is, therefore, to be understood instrumentally because it is with these very words that the members of the community in Thessalonica are to console or comfort one another1016. These words of consolation refer actually to the “word of the Lord” (λόγος κυρίου) in 1 Thess 4:15a on which the entire exhortation of Paul and his co-​authors is based.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 4:18 Unlike in 1 Cor 5:8, for example, where ὥστε is followed by a “hortatory subjunctive” ἑορτάζωμεν (“let us celebrate the feast or festival”), here in 1 Thess 4:18a ὥστε is followed by the imperative of the verb παρακαλεῖν, i.e. παρακαλεῖτε (“console”, “comfort”). The verb παρακαλεῖν appears quite often in the Pauline writings (54 times) and in 1 Thessalonians it appears 8 times1017. Παρακαλεῖν can have a variety of meanings: “to appeal to”, “to urge”, “to exhort”, “to encourage”, “to entreat”, “to admonish”, etc. and such meanings also reflect in how Paul uses the verb in several passages of his letters. The meaning of παρακαλεῖν in 1 Thess 4:18 and in 5:111018, however, conveys the nuance of “to comfort or to console” in the sense of “to instill someone with courage” or “to encourage and strengthen by consolation”1019. Thayer remarks that this use of παρακαλεῖν is rarely employed by the Greeks (except Plutarch in his biography Otho 16) but it is often used in

consequently”) in 1 Thess 4:8 and διό (“therefore”) in 1 Thess 5:11, and he explains that these particles all draw practical consequences from what has just been said (see also the use of ὥστε in 1 Cor 15:58). Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 278; also David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 268–​269 and footnote 340. 1016 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 178–​179. 1017 See 1 Thess 2:12; 3:2; 3:7; 4:1; 4:10; 4:18; 5:11; 5:14. 1018 Confer also 2 Cor 1:4; 2:7; 7:6. 1019 Cf. BDAG, p. 765 §§ 3, 4; Joseh Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, pp. 482–​483 §§ 2, 3, 4.

224

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

this sense in the Bible and in Jewish literature1020. In the LXX, παρακαλεῖν translates the Hebrew ‫ נִ חַ ם‬in the verb modification pi‘el which means “to comfort” or “to console”1021. In the OT (and in the LXX), God comforts and consoles his people who mourn or who are in affliction (Isa 49:13; 61:2; Jer 31:13). There are also instances where individual persons comfort and console others in grief and in affliction. In Gen 37:34, for example, Jacob mourns and grieves for his son Joseph when news reaches him that Joseph is dead; and in Gen 37:35 the sons and daughters of Jacob console him but he refuses to be comforted. Other such instances are found in 1 Chr 7:22; Job 2:11; 42:111022. The words of consolation actually serve the purpose of giving life and reassurance to those who mourn or are in affliction (Gen 50:21; Ruth 2:13; Ps 70:20-​21)1023. Here Paul and his co-​missionaries do not present the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica with these words of consolation because they (the Thessalonians) are in affliction (1 Thess 1:6; 3:3; cf. 3:7) but because of their grief over the fate of the believers in Christ who have died (1 Thess 4:13) before the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 1:10; 3:13). The purpose of these words of consolation is to revive their hope for the parousia of the Lord, the resurrection of the dead in Christ and our subsequent union with the Lord so that they would not continue to grieve over the dead believers like the “hopeless” do over their dead (1 Thess 4:13). Moreover, these words are to give them assurance of the reality of God’s salvation plan for his creation, especially, for the lives of the Christ’s faithful and their fate in the future. Thus, the imperative “console one another with these words!” (παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους ἐν τοῖς λόγοις τούτοις) used here in 1 Thess 4:18 (cf. 5:11) plays an important role not only in this verse but also in the entire pericope of 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11. This imperative concludes Paul’s words of exhortation concerning the fate of the dead in Christ and the destiny of the entire Christ’s faithful in relation to the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. The Thessalonians are to console one another “with these words” (ἐν τοῖς λόγοις

1020 Cf. Joseh Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, 483 § 3. 1021 For detailed references to passages where ‫ נִ חַ ם‬appears with the meaning “to comfort” or “to console”, confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 5 (2001), p. 664 § 1. The Greek παρακαλεῖν in the LXX can also be a rendition of various Hebrew verbs depending on the specific meaning it bears in a context. For references to such Hebrew verbs, confer T. Muraoka, A Greek-​Hebrew /​ Aramaic: Two-​Way Index to the Septuagint, Louvain: Peeters, 2010, p. 90. 1022 The texts include 2 Kgs 10:2 LXX //​1 Par 19:2 LXX; Sir 48:24 LXX. 1023 The references include Ps 118:49-​50 LXX; Isa 66:13-​14; Jer 31:13.

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τούτοις) which, of course, refer to the “word of the Lord” (λόγος κυρίου) in 1 Thess 4:15a (see also 1 Thess 2:13). This means that the prepositional phrase “by a word of the Lord” (ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου) in 1 Thess 4:15a and the prepositional phrase “with these words” (ἐν τοῖς λόγοις τούτοις) here in 1 Thess 4:18b form a kind of inclusio. Malherbe rightly remarks that: “Paul has provided the basis for their comfort and had earlier provided them with an example of how it was done when he had been with them (1 Thess 2:11-​13). Now it is the community that must engage in reciprocal comfort”1024. This reciprocal consolation should not base on individual wisdom or words but mainly on the word of the Lord because the basis of Paul’s consolation and proclamation is the word of the Lord (1 Thess 4:15a; 2:13). Theodoret of Cyrus, therefore, explains correctly in reference to 1 Thess 4:15a that in our reciprocal exhortations and consolations as believers in Christ: “We do not make use of our own words or ideas but the teaching has been revealed to us from God” (Οὐ γὰρ οἰκείοις χρώμεθα λογισμοῖς, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκ θείας ἡμῖν ἀποκαλύψεως ἡ διδασκαλία γεγένηται)1025.

For Paul, the Christ’s faithful do not die in vain because they belong totally to God, and that: “If we live, we live for the Lord, and if we die, we die for the Lord; so then, whether we live or die, we are the Lord’s /​For this is why Christ died and came to life, that he might be Lord of both the dead and the living [NAB]” (Rom 14:8-​9). Though Paul’s exhortions in 1 Thessalonians contain aspects of consolation marked especially by his use of the verb παρακαλεῖν, it would be an exaggeration to consider the entire letter as “a letter of consolation” and to assert that this letter has been influenced by pagan consolation letters as Malherbe does1026. In 1 Thess 4:13, Paul exhorts the Thessalonians not to grieve over their dead ones in the same way “the others” who have no hope mourn the deceased. The “others” are, of course, the pagans who do not have the believers’ hope for the Lord’s

1024 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 278. Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 277. 1025 Cf. Theodoret of Cyrus, Interpretatio Epistolae I Ad Thessalonicenses, in: Patrologiae Gracae (Tomus LXXXII), Paris, 1859, p. 648. 1026 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, “Exhortation in First Thessalonians”, in NovT 25 (1983) 238–​256, here p. 254; Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 278–​ 280. For a counter-​claim to Malherbe’s opinion, confer Juan Chapa, “Consolatory Patterns: 1 Thess 4:13.18; 5:11”, in: Raymond F. Collins (editor), The Thessalonian Correspondence (1990) 220–​228.

226

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18

parousia and the resurrection of the dead, and so it can be said that Paul would not make use of pagan forms of consolation in his exhortation. Chapa remarks correctly that: “Paul’s expression μὴ λυπῆσθε in 1 Thess 4:13 (which is found at the very beginning of the consolatory section of 1 Thessalonians) can certainly be found in the epitaphs … I would suggest that the expression μὴ λυπῆσθε fits in with the consolatory patterns of letters of condolence in a very wide sense, in that it is a way of showing sympathy with those who are grieving. It is remarkable, however, that insofar as it reminds us of funerary formulae, these belong more to Jewish than to Greek tradition”1027.

Chapa brings out the contrast by explaining that: “In general, we can say that in the Greco-​Roman world the exhortation to master grief is based upon the common nature of human beings and comfort is given by the word of a friend as a substitute for one’s presence. For Paul, on the contrary, consolation is Christian hope, based on Christ’s resurrection and his coming. Christian hope contrasts with pagan emptiness which is unable to give a greater comfort than that of the word of exhortation to self-​mastery”1028.

Consolation is part of Paul’s pattern of exhortation1029 in 1 Thessalonians but this consolation can better be interpreted from the biblical and the Jewish perspectives because such viewpoints provide impetus for Paul’s use of the instrumental phrase “with these words” (ἐν τοῖς λόγοις τούτοις) which goes with the imperative “console one another” (παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους). The manuscript 1739c prefers to add πνεύματος (“of the Spirit”) to ἐν τοῖς λόγοις τούτοις, and this could mean that this manuscript wants to emphasize that “these words” are not “words of humans” but “words of the Spirit (of God)”. Some exegetes share the opinion that Paul’s use of παρακαλεῖν here has its closest parallel with the application of the verb in 2 Macc 71030. The parallels between 1 Thess 4:13-​18 and 2 Macc 7 can be found in the expressions “they exhorted one another” (ἀλλήλους παρεκάλουν) in 2 Macc 7:5 and “console one another” (παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους) in 1 Thess 4:18. In both passages the verb παρακαλεῖν appears in a context of death or grief over the dead and the need to console and encourage one another in the face of death. Moreover, in 2 Macc 7 there is a reference to the belief in the

1 027 Cf. Juan Chapa, “Consolatory Patterns: 1 Thess 4:13.18; 5:11”, p. 225. 1028 See op. cit., page 226. 1029 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 269. 1030 Cf. Juan Chapa, “Consolatory Patterns: 1 Thess 4:13.18; 5:11”, p. 228; Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 269 footnote 1; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 269.

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resurrection (2 Macc 7:14; cf. 7:20) and in the hope for God’s promises just as found in 1 Thess 4:13, 14, 161031. The Christ’s faithful draw their consolation from God and his words because for the believer, God is the comforter; the one who consoles (Isa 51:121032). God gives endurance to the low in spirit and he gives life to the broken-​hearted (Isa 57:15; cf. Isa 61:1-​3). Thus, it is the Lord who gives “true consolation or comfort” to the afflicted (Isa 57:18c LXX1033). It is worthwhile to mention here that the word for “comforter” in Isa 51:12 (MT) is ‫( ְמנַחֶ ם‬Menahem) –​the participle of the Hebrew verb ‫ נִ חַ ם‬in the modification pi‘el. The Rabbis attribute the Hebrew name Menahem which means “comforter” to the Messiah because he refreshes the soul of the person who loses heart or hope1034. By comforting one another in the face of death and grief over the uncertainties of the fate of the dead at the parousia of the Lord, the community of believers in Thessalonica share in the divine act of consolation, and so Paul can only exhort them to console one another with these words of the Lord or of the Spirit (cf. the manuscript 1739c)1035. The Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica are, actually, to console one another with the divine word which Paul and his co-​missionaries preached to them and which the believers heard and received not as a human word but rather, “as it is truly is”, the word of God (1 Thess 2:13).

1 031 Cf. Juan Chapa, “Consolatory Patterns: 1 Thess 4:13.18; 5:11”, p. 228. 1032 Confer: ‫( אָ נֹ כִ י אָ נֹ כִ י הּוא ְמנַחֶ ְמכֶ ם‬Isa 51:12 MT); ἐγώ εἰμι ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ παρακαλῶν σε (Isa 51:12 LXX); “I, I am he that comforts you” (RSV’s translation of Isa 51:12). 1033 Isa 57:18c LXX reads thus: “I have seen his ways [i.e., the ways of the afflicted, the people of God] but I healed him and consoled him and gave him true comfort” (τὰς ὁδοὺς αὐτοῦ ἑώρακα καὶ ἰασάμην καὶ παρεκάλεσα αὐτὸν καὶ ἔδωκα αὐτῷ παράκλησιν ἀληθινήν). 1034 Cf. Hermann L. Strack /​Paul Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrash (Erster Teil): Das Evangelium nach Matthäus erläutert aus Talmud und Midrash, München: C. H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1922, p. 66. See also Isa 61:2. 1035 Confer, for example, the consoling words of God in Isa 40:1: ‫“( ַנחֲמּו ַנחֲמּו עַ ִּמי יאֹ מַ ר אֱ ֹלהֵ יכֶם‬Comfort, comfort my people, says your God”), and the entire pericope of Isa 40:1-​11.

CHAPTER THREE Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11 Introduction 1 Thess 5:1-​11 is part of the letter paraenesis in Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians, and this pericope is specifically about exhortation on “the times and the seasons” of “the day of the Lord”1036 associated with the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. The phrase περὶ δέ (1 Thess 5:1a) gives an indication that 1 Thess 5:1-​11 introduces a new topic by focusing attention on the day of the Lord, the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ and the need for vigilance on the part of the Christ’s faithful as they await the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. This pericope (1 Thess 5:1-​11) will, however, be discussed as a continuation of and in conjunction with 1 Thess 4:13-​18 for the reason that 1 Thess 5:1-​11 is complementary to 1 Thess 4:13-​18 in speaking elaborately about resurrection of the dead in Christ at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ and the everlasting union of both the dead and the living with the Lord1037. Plevnik works out the “formal resemblances” found between the structures of 1 Thess 5:1-​11 and 1 Thess 4:13-​181038 and he observes that by content there is “a striking contrast of thought between the two passages”1039. Such marked disparities between the contents of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 and 5:1-​11 especially brought into question the authenticity of 1 Thess 5:1-​11. The authenticity of 1 Thess 5:1-​11 was challenged by Gerhard Friedrich who opined that the pericope might have originated from some later author other than Paul. His argument is based, among others, on the seemingly disparity of thought and expression between the contents and themes of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 and 1 Thess 5:1-​11. He writes thus:

1 036 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1 –​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 71. 1037 Collins maintains that: “It is better to interpret the pericope [1 Thess 5:1-​11] as an instructive complement to 4:13-​18. There [1 Thess 4:13-​18] Paul commends the fate of the dead to God; here [1 Thess 5:1-​11] he reflects on the implications of the eschaton for those who are alive”. Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 778. 1038 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 77. Confer also Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, p. 327. 1039 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 78.

230

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

Während der erste Thessalonicherbrief sonst sehr lebendig geschrieben ist und ganz konkrete Aussagen macht, hebt sich der Abschnitt 5, 1-​11 von den anderen Ausführungen dadurch ab, dass er sehr allgemein gehalten ist, sehr viele formelhafte Wendungen enthält und fast ausschließlich traditionellen Stoff bietet. In den elf Versen finden sich wenig typisch paulinische Wörter und Wendungen, und es werden Ausdrücke gebraucht, die Paulus sonst in anderer Weise verwendet. Abgesehen von diesen formalen Dingen fällt inhaltlich auf, dass die Intention von 1. Thess. 4 eine andere ist als die von 1. Thess. 5, 1-​11….1040

Plevnik sums up Friedrich’s argument by pointing out that the difference of thought, according to Friedrich, is evident in the question of “the times and the seasons” in 5:1 and in the tone as well as the content of the answer in 5:2-​3, for they all imply a slackening of the parousia expectation which cannot possibly be reconciled with the lively awaiting of the parousia in 4:13-​18. Moreover, for Friedrich, the tone and the content of 5:2-​3 are incongruent with 4:13-​18 on the grounds that the same community which in 4:13-​18 manifests a lively expectation of the parousia, is being scolded in 5:2-​3 for disregarding the imminence of the parousia. Plevnik, however, refutes Friedrich’s argument and maintains that the writer does not necessarily scold the Thessalonian community but he makes distinction by speaking in 5:2-​3 about others, as the 3rd person plural form λέγωσιν (“they say”) indicates. 5:2-​3 thus describe an attitude characteristic of the outsiders, and that they refer to the community only indirectly and should not be used as a proof that the community had abandoned its lively parousia expectation. For Plevnik, both passages (4:13-​18; 5:1-​11) manifest a lively expectation of the ultimate completion. He, therefore, considers 1 Thess 5:1-​11 to be authentically Pauline1041. Schmithals and Harnisch also share the opinion that 1 Thess 5:1-​11 was written by Paul but they opine that it (1 Thess 5:1-​11) was to serve as Paul’s anti-​gnostic polemic1042. Luckensmeyer too does not rule out the 1040 Cf. Gerhard Friedrich, „Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher“, in, J. Becker /​ H. Conzelmann /​G. Friedrich, Die Briefe an die Galater, Epheser, Thessalonicher und Philemon (NTD 8), Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1976, pp. 206–​207; also p. 245. 1041 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1 –​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, pp. 72–​73, 74. 1042 Cf. Walter Schmithals, Paulus und die Gnostiker: Untersuchung zu den kleinen Paulusbriefen (TF 35), Hamburg-​Bergstedt: Reich, 1965; Wolfgang Harnisch, Eschatologische Existenz: Ein exegetischer Beitrag zum Sachanliengen von 1. Thessalonicher 4, 13-​5, 11, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1973, pp. 52–​ 158. For a review and disproof of their argument and claim, confer Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1 –​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, pp. 75–​77. Confer also Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, pp. 319, 320.

Introduction

231

authenticity of 1 Thess 5:1-​11 because for him 1 Thess 5:1-​11 has parallels not only with the Pauline tradition but also with the synoptic tradition which are evident in the verbal and thematic parallels between Rom 13:11-​14 and 1 Thess 5:1-​8 as well as the “alleged” parallels between 1 Thess 5:1-​11 and some synoptic texts such as: 1 Thess 5:1-​2 (Mt 24:36); 1 Thess 5:2, 4 (Mt 24:42-​44; Lk 12:39-​40); 1 Thess 5:3 (Mt 24:37-​39; Lk 17:26-​30; 21:34-​36); 1 Thess 5:6-​7 (Mt 24:45-​50; Lk 12:42-​46). According to Luckensmeyer, among a majority of commentators the most certain of these alleged parallels are the motif of the day of the Lord coming like a thief in the night (1 Thess 5:2, 4) and the motif of the sudden destruction coming upon unaware outsiders (1 Thess 5:3)1043. Thus, despite the “marked disparities” between the contents of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 and 1 Thess 5:1-​11, there is now a consensus among scholars that the pericope (1 Thess 5:1-​11) is not, for instance, an interpolation by a later author but originates in the Pauline tradition. Some terms and phrases in 1 Thess 5:1-​11 have appeared already and have been explained (fully or partly) in this work either in the discussion of 1 Thess 1:9-​10 or about 1 Thess 4:13-​18. For this reason, the exegesis of 1 Thess 5:1-​11 will not necessarily base on verse for verse interpretation but especially on thematic analyses. Thus, as shown in Table II below, focus will be on 1 Thess 5:1-​3; 1 Thess 5:4-​5; 1 Thess 5:6-​8; 1 Thess 5:9-​10; and 1 Thess 5:11. Table II:  Themes of the various divisions of 1 Thess 5:1-​11. Verse(s) of the pericope (1 Thess 5:1-​11) 1 Thess 5:1-​3 1 Thess 5:4-​5 1 Thess 5:6-​8 1 Thess 5:9-​10 1 Thess 5:11

Theme Times and the seasons concerning the “day of the Lord”. The need for vigilance. Guidelines on how to be vigilant and alert. The reason for the exhortation on alertness and watchfulness. Conlusion of the exhortation.

While verses 1-​3 introduce the theme of the passage concerning the “times and the seasons” and “the day of the Lord” which comes unexpectedly, verses 4-​5 draw attention to the need for vigilance on the part of the Christ’s faithful. In

1043 For Luckensmeyer’s elaborate discussion of the authenticity of 1 Thess 5:1-​11, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 283–​286, together with the references in the footnotes.

232

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

verses 6-​8 Paul gives some guidelines to help believers to be alert, and in verses 9-​10 he provides the reason for his call for watchfulness and for his entire exhortation. Verse 11 then functions as 1 Thess 4:18 to inculcate behaviour that is to follow from the instructions just given1044. 1 Thess 4:18 appears to conclude only the pericope of 1 Thess 4:13-​18 but 1 Thess 5:11 serves to bring a link between 1 Thess 4:13-​18 and 1 Thess 5:1-​11 by functioning as a conclusion of the entire pericope of 1 Thess 4:13-​5:111045. Though 1 Thess 5:11 takes up the expression “console or encourage one another” –​παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους (see 1 Thess 4:18)1046, this expression in 1 Thess 5:11 is more about exhortation on the building-​up of communal relations1047. Thus, despite the fact that both pericopes (1 Thess 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11) conclude with very similar statements (including παρακαλεῖν), Paul’s emphasis in each passage is different, but then the unity of these passages is also evident in the fact that in 1 Thess 5:1-​11 Paul continues to address the problem of death among community members (cf. 1 Thess 4:13-​18), but only in an indirect way1048. As said earlier, the organization, translation and interpretation of the pericope of 1 Thess 5:1-​11 will be carried out based on thematic considerations.

1044 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 287. Confer also Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 280; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 284–​285; Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, pp. 320–​321. Collins opts for three main divisions of 1 Thess 5:1-​11 which are: Announcement of the topic by way of praeteritio (verses 1-​3); Pauline paraenesis, based on the eschatological condition of the faithful (verses 4-​10); and final exhortation (verse 11). Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13-​5, 11”, p. 334. 1045 Plevnik remarks that “the phrase ‘whether we wake or sleep’ in 1 Thess 5:10 indicates that the conclusion of 5:1-​11 is also the conclusion of the entire eschatological section which began with 4:13”. Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 77. Luckensmeyer also maintains that: “The similarity in structure between (1 Thess) 4:18 and (1 Thess) 5:11 leads to the observation that the latter verse (1 Thess 5:11) may serve as a conlusion not only to the topos on the times and seasons (5:1-​11), but also to the previous topos on those who are asleep (4:13-​18)”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 281. 1046 Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 229. 1047 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 287. 1048 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 294.

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233

3.1. (i). 1 Thess 5:1-​3 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:1-​3 (with Notes) 1a. Περὶ δὲ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν, ἀδελφοί, 1b. οὐ χρείαν ἔχετε ὑμῖν γράφεσθαι, 2a. αὐτοὶ γὰρ ἀκριβῶς οἴδατε 2b. ὅτι (ἡ)1049 ἡμέρα κυρίου ὡς κλέπτης ἐν νυκτὶ οὕτως ἔρχεται. 3a. ὅταν (δὲ)1050 λέγωσιν· εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια, 3b. τότε αἰφνίδιος αὐτοῖς ἐφίσταται1051 ὄλεθρος 3c. ὥσπερ ἡ ὠδὶν τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ, 3d. καὶ οὐ μὴ ἐκφύγωσιν1052. 1a. Concerning the times and the seasons, brethren, 1b. you have no need to be written to, 2a. For you yourselves know exactly 2b. that the day of the Lord so comes like a thief in the night. 3a. When they say: “Peace and Security”, 3b. it is then that disaster suddenly comes upon them 3c. like birth pang comes upon a pregnant woman, 3d. and they shall in no way escape.

Notes: In the expression περὶ δέ, the preposition περί (“about”, “concerning”, etc.) is joined to the particle δέ (“but”); and δέ itself can be termed here as “δέ metabatic” which marks a transition to something new1053. The phrase περὶ δέ, therefore, marks here a transition from one subject or exhortation to another1054. Unlike in 1 Thess 4:13 where Paul and his co-​authors talk “about those who have fallen asleep” (περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων), here in 1 Thess 5:1 they open a new topic which

1049 The manuscripts A K L Ψ 0278. 104. 365. 1241. 1505, etc. read ἡ ἡμέρα κυρίου (“the day of the Lord”) instead of ἡμέρα κυρίου (“day of the Lord”). 1050 The manuscripts: ‫ּא‬2 B D 0226. 104. 1505. 1739. 2464. syh, etc. add the particle δέ. 1051 While the manuscripts F G txt A vid D K P 0278. 81. 104, etc. read φανήσεται, other manuscripts: ‫ ּא‬B L 33. 326. 1881. 0226 vid (lat), etc. read ἐπίσταται. 1052 Some manuscripts F G, etc. read ἐκφεύξονται. The word ἐκφύγωσιν is second aorist subjunctive active 3rd person plural of the infinitive verb ἐκφεύγειν (“to escape”, “to flee away”, etc.) 1053 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 125 § 5. 1054 See also the use of περὶ δέ in 1 Cor 7:1; 8:1.

234

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

“concerns the times and the seasons” (περὶ δὲ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν). The vocative ἀδελφοί (“brethren”) found in 1 Thess 4:13 is repeated here in 5:1a1055. In 5:1b one finds the expression οὐ χρείαν ἔχειν (“to have no need to”, “to need not to”)1056. The conjunction γάρ (“for”) in 5:2a can either be a “marker of cause or reason” or a “marker of clarification” because it introduces the reason and clarifies why the “brethren” (ἀδελφοί) in Thessalonica have no need to be written to. The reflexive pronoun αὐτοί (yourself) which is combined with the conjunction γάρ1057 is to be translated in connection with the verb οἴδατε (“you know”) and its adverb ἀκριβῶς (“exactly”, “well”), i.e. “you yourselves know well”; and such a formulation intensifies the assertion made in the subsequent verse 2b which is introduced by the ὅτι-​recitativum (“that”). The “day of the Lord” (ἡμέρα κυρίου) is the focus of attention in verse 2b, and the correlation between the comparative particle ὡς (“so”, “as”, “like”) and the comparative adverb οὕτως (“so”, “just”, “in this manner”) –​seen in the expression ὡς…οὕτως (“so…like”, or simply: “as”, “so”, “in the manner”, etc.) –​describes how the “day of the Lord” comes, i.e. the day of the Lord comes “just like the manner a thief comes in the night” (ὡς κλέπτης ἐν νυκτὶ οὕτως ἔρχεται). The particle of time ὅταν in verse 3a can be translated as “when”, “whenever”, “at the time that”, “as often as”, etc., and it is to be interpreted in connection with the adverb of time τότε (“then”, “thereupon”) in verse 3b. The construction or formulation here in verses 3ab is, thus, ὅταν (with present subjunctive) … τότε (“when … then”), i.e. ὅταν (δὲ) λέγωσιν· … τότε… (“[and] when they say … then”)1058. Such a formulation most often expresses customary or repeated actions (cf. 2 Cor 12:10), but here in 1 Thess 5:3 there is no idea of repeated action. The formulation indicates here a specified action in time and the consequence of this action. The action expressed in verse 3a is introduced by λέγωσιν (present subjunctive active 3rd person plural of the verb λέγειν, “to say”); and what they say can be considered as a direct speech and put in inverted commas or quotation marks, i.e. “Peace and Security” (εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια). As verse 3b indicates, what follows from their utterance is that “disaster suddenly comes upon them”. 1 055 Confer the note on ἀδελφοί in 1 Thess 4:13 above. 1056 See also οὐ χρείαν ἔχειν in 1 Thess 4:9; and μὴ χρείαν ἔχειν in 1 Thess 1:8. 1057 Confer such a combination of αὐτοὶ γάρ also in 1 Thess 2:1; 3:3; and 1 Thess 1:9; 4:9. 1058 Confer such a construction also in 1 Cor 15:28; and also in Josephus’ The Jewish War 6.287. See also the formulation ὅταν γὰρ … τότε … (“for when … then …”) in 2 Cor 12:10.

1 Thess 5:1-​3

235

In verse 3c, the “sudden disaster” (ὄλεθρος αἰφνίδιος) that comes upon those who say “peace and security” is compared with “the birth pang of a pregnant woman” (ἡ ὠδὶν τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ)1059. This comparison is introduced by the adverb ὥσπερ (“like”, “just as”, “as”) which stands in close relation to the preceding action and shows the similarity between how the sudden disaster comes upon the people and how the birth pain comes on a pregnant woman. The double-​negation οὐ μή (“in no way”, “not at all”) followed by the subjunctive ἐκφύγωσιν in verse 3d emphasizes categorically that there will be no possibility for those who say “peace and security” of escaping the sudden disaster.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:1-​3 In 1 Thess 5:1a, the prepositional phrase περὶ δέ (“concerning”) gives the indication that Paul and his co-​authors introduce a new topic in 1 Thess 5:1-​111060 which follows the passage of 1 Thess 4:13-​18. Their main concern here is not “about those who have fallen asleep, i.e., the dead” –​ περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων (1 Thess 4:13b) but “about the times and the seasons” (περὶ δὲ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν) associated with “the day of the Lord” (ἡ ἡμέρα τοῦ κυρίου) or with the Lord’s parousia, i.e. the season or the appointed time when Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is expected to come back from heaven to save “us” from the impending wrath of God (1 Thess 1:10; 5:9)1061. The Greek terms ὁ χρόνος and ὁ καιρός which Paul employs in 1 Thess 5:1a can appear in the LXX as renditions of the Hebrew ‫זְמָ ן‬, ‫עֵ ת‬, ‫מֹועֵ ד‬, etc. each of which can mean either “time” or “season” or both. Just as the Greek χρόνος in the LXX can be a rendition of the Hebrew ‫( זְמָ ן‬also Aramaic),

1 059 Here in verse 3c, one finds the expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν (“to be pregnant”). 1060 Collins rightly remarks that in 1 Thess 5:1, “Paul’s use of a presentation formula, περὶ δὲ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν, joined with the vocative ἀδελφοί and the praeteritio οὐ χρείαν ἔχετε ὑμῖν γράφεσθαι clearly offers a new topic for the Thessalonians’ reflection”. Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 334. In a similar vein, Hoppe maintains that: Mit der Wendung περὶ δὲ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν (hinsichtlich der Zeiträume und Termine) und der Anrede ἀδελφοί ist ein Neueinsatz deutlich markiert. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 283. Confer also Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, p. 322. 1061 Hoffmann rightly observes that: “Paul writes Περὶ δὲ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν in the apocalyptic way of writing. It is all about the schedule [time] of the parousia” (Περὶ δὲ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν schreibt Paulus nach apokalyptischem Sprachgebrauch. Es geht also um den Termin der Parusie). Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 229.

236

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

‫( עִ ּדָ ן‬also Aramaic), ‫יֹום‬, ‫עֵ ת‬, ‫ּפַ עַ ם‬, etc. so also καιρός which can be a translation of ‫זְמָ ן‬, ‫עֵ ת‬, ‫מֹועֵ ד‬, ‫יֹום‬, ‫עִ ּדָ ן‬, ‫ּפַ עַ ם‬, etc.1062 There can, however, be a distinction between both terms (χρόνος and καιρός) so far as their meanings and applications are concerned. The Hebrew and the Aramaic ‫ זְמָ ן‬can help in the definition of these terms (i.e., χρόνος and καιρός) from the Semitic point of view. The substantive ‫ זְמָ ן‬is from the verb ‫ זמן‬which in the modification pu‘al means “be set (of time)”, i.e. “to set or appoint a time” (Neh 2:6). The term ‫ זְמָ ן‬is, therefore, understood as a “set or appointed time” (Esther 9:27). It is synonymous with ‫( עֵ ת‬and ‫)מֹועֵ ד‬, and there are expressions in which both terms are put together to express “appointed or set times” –​ i.e., ‫( לְ עִ ִּתים ְמזֻּמָ נִ ים‬Ezra 10:14; Neh 10:35); ‫( ְּבעִ ִּתים ְמזֻּמָ נֹות‬Neh 13:31). Though the Greek χρόνος can be a rendition of the Hebrew ‫ זְמָ ן‬or ‫עֵ ת‬, it can better translate the Hebrew ‫“( יֹום‬day”1063) which also means “time” in the expression ‫“ ​– ּכָל־הַ ּיֹום‬all the day” or “all the time”, i.e. “continually or always” (Gen 6:5; Dt 28:32-​33; 33:12)1064. The meaning of the Greek χρόνος comes out clearly in the Hebrew Bible in such expressions as ‫“ ​– ּקֵ ץ )…( י ִָמים‬end of (…) days”, in the sense of “course of time” (Gen 4:3; Neh 13:6; Jer 13:6)1065; and the events of such days (or times) i.e. ‫“ ​– ִּד ְב ֵרי הַ ּי ִָמים‬events of the days or times” are referred to in one word as “chronicles” (1 Kgs 14:19; 15:7, 231066)1067. Thus, ὁ χρόνος is basically associated with a general unspecified period of time during which an event takes place (Gen 26:8) and the term can also apply to the event itself. The Greek term καιρός in the LXX appears to be a more appropriate rendition of the Hebrew ‫זְמָ ן‬, ‫ עֵ ת‬and ‫מֹועֵ ד‬. The term ‫עֵ ת‬, for instance, is mostly associated basically with a specific time or season. It can mean a recurring time in nature: either a time less than 24 hours, e.g. noontime –​‫( ְּבעֵ ת צָ ה ֳָריִ ם‬Jer 20:16), time of the going down of the sun or sunset –​‫( לְ עֵ ת ּבֹוא הַ ּׁשֶ מֶ ׁש‬Jos 10:27; 2 Chr 18:341068)

1062 Cf. T. Muraoka, A Greek-​English Lexicon of the Septuagint, Louvain: Peeters, 2009, pp. 61, 128. 1063 The Hebrew ‫ יֹום‬which means “day” can express “day, as opposed to night, i.e. daytime”, “day, of 24 hours”, “day, as a particular point in time”, “day, as part of a date”, or “days of life, lifespan”, etc. For further references, confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 4 (1998), p. 166 §§ 1, 2, 5, 6, 7. 1064 The texts include Isa 28:24; 51:13; 65:5; Ps 25:5 MT (24:5 LXX). 1065 The references include Jer 42:7. See also Gen 41:1; Dn 12:13. 1066 The references include 1 Kgs 14:29; 15:31, etc. 1067 For more references, confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 4 (1998), p. 173. 1068 In 2 Chr 18:34 the expression is ‫לְ עֵ ת ּבֹוא הַ ּׁשָ מֶ ׁש‬.Thus, there is a variation in vocalization: 2 Chr 18:34 reads ‫ הַ ּׁשָ מֶ ׁש‬instead of ‫ הַ ּׁשֶ מֶ ׁש‬in Jos 10:27.

1 Thess 5:1-​3

237

or the evening time –​ ‫ לְ עֵ ת עֶ ֶרב‬or ‫( עֵ ת הָ עָ ֶרב‬Gen 8:11; Jos 8:29; Isa 17:14); rainy season –​ ‫( הָ עֵ ת ּגְ ׁשָ ִמים‬Ezra 10:13)1069; harvest season –​ ‫( עֵ ת־הַ ּקָ צִ יר‬Jer 51:331070; cf. ‫ ְּבעֵ ת קָ צִ יר‬in Jer 50:16), etc. It can describe the proper time, the appropriate time, the suitable time or the right moment or the due time for the Lord to accomplish salvation (Isa 60:221071), for the Lord to take action (Ps 119:126 MT [118:126 LXX]), for persons to seek the Lord (Hos 10:12 MT). It can also be the time or moment determined by the Lord, either for blessing or favour –​‫( עֵ ת ָרצֹון‬Isa 49:8; Ps 69:14) or for punishment (see ‫ ְּבעֵ ת ּפְ קֻ ּדָ תָ ם‬in Jer 8:12) or more precisely the time for final punishment (see ‫ ְּבעֵ ת עֲֹון קֵ ץ‬in Ezk 21:30; 35:5). In 2 Sam 24:15, the term ‫ עֵ ת‬describes an “appointed time” (‫)עֵ ת מֹועֵ ד‬1072. Sometimes, however, the Hebrew ‫ מֹועֵ ד‬alone stands for an “appointed time”. While Dn 8:19 speaks of the appointed time of the end (‫ )מֹועֵ ד קֵ ץ‬or ‫“​– עֵ ת קֵ ץ‬end time” (see also Dn 8:17; 11:35; 12:4)1073, Ps 102:14 (MT) speaks specifically about the appointed time of the Lord which has come (‫ּכִ י־בָ א מֹועֵ ד‬: “for the time has come”1074)1075. Thus, in the LXX the Greek term ὁ καιρός is used mostly to translate the Hebrew ‫זְמָ ן‬, ‫עֵ ת‬, or ‫מֹועֵ ד‬, etc. especially when they mean to refer specifically to an “appointed time or season”. The effort to draw a distinction between ὁ χρόνος and ὁ καιρός, however, is by no means exhaustive because while in some contexts ὁ χρόνος in the LXX can mean a “point in time” (Isa 54:9), ὁ καιρός can also mean in some contexts a “historical, chronological period associated with particular events or circumstances” which are always with reference to the future (Amos 5:13; Joel 3:1; Jer 27:41076)1077, and this even explains the reason why each of the Hebrew terms ‫זְמָ ן‬, ‫יֹום‬, ‫עֵ ת‬, ‫ּפַ עַ ם‬1078, etc. can sometimes be rendered in the LXX either as χρόνος or καιρός. In Eccl 3:1, for instance, both terms ὁ χρόνος and ὁ καιρός appear 1 069 Confer also Lv 26:4; Dt 11:14; Ezk 34:26; Zech 10:1. 1070 Confer the Greek ἡ ὥρα θερίσαι in Jn 14:15. 1071 Here in Isa 60:22, the Hebrew ‫( ְּבעִ ּתָ ּה‬in its time) is rendered in the LXX as κατὰ καιρὸν (“in due time or season”). 1072 For a detailed explanation and more references to the term ‫עֵ ת‬, confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 6 (2007), pp. 626–​632. 1073 Confer also Dn 11:40; 12:9. 1074 Confer the Greek equivalence: ὅτι ἥκει καιρός in Ps 101:14 (LXX). 1075 For more references to the meaning of ‫ מֹועֵ ד‬as “an appointed time”, confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 5 (2001), p. 179 § 3. 1076 See also Amos 5:19, 20; Zeph 3:16. In Zeph 3:16 the Hebrew ‫ יֹום‬in the MT is translated as καιρός in the LXX. 1077 Cf. T. Muraoka, A Greek-​English Lexicon of the Septuagint, pp. 355–​356; 738. 1078 The Hebrew ‫ ּפַ עַ ם‬can mean “time, moment, occasion, occurrence”, and it can be used as an adverb to mean “now”, “this time”, “now at last”, etc. (Gen 2:23; 29:34-​35; Exod

238

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

concurrently just as they do in 1 Thess 5:1a. The Hebrew terms found in Eccl 3:1 for ὁ χρόνος and ὁ καιρός are ‫ זְמָ ן‬and ‫ עֵ ת‬respectively which appear to be synonymous1079. It can be said that Paul applies the terms ὁ χρόνος and ὁ καιρός concurrently in 1 Thess 5:1a to mean one thing, and both synonymous terms bear the nuance of the Hebrew ‫זְמָ ן‬, ‫ עֵ ת‬and ‫מֹועֵ ד‬: a set or appointed time or season. Here in 1 Thess 5:1a, Paul uses ὁ χρόνος and ὁ καιρός to refer specifically to “the set or appointed time for the day of the Lord” –​ ἡμέρα κυρίου (see 1 Thess 5:2b), and so in the interpretation of “the times and the seasons” in 1 Thess 5:1a emphasis must be on καιρός and its meaning of appointed or set time for a decision or an event. Hübner rightly observes that: “Even though the NT stands very much in the OT and Jewish tradition and emphatically understands human existence as temporal, nowhere does it reflect on time as such, and temporality is spoken of almost nowhere with χρόνος. This is because in the NT χρόνος does not occupy the same position it does in Greek philosophy. The main NT expression for ‘time’ is καιρός, which in significant passages refers to time qualified by the Christ-​event”1080.

Paul uses the term καιρός in his letters more than he employs χρόνος. While καιρός appears 30 times in his letters, χρόνος appears 9 times (comparatively about 1/​3). The term χρόνος also happens to be a hapax legomenon in 1 Thessalonians (i.e., it appears only here in 1 Thess 5:1a) and it is never found in 2 Thessalonians; but καιρός appears twice in 1 Thessalonians (i.e., 1 Thess 2:17; 5:1a) and in 2 Thessalonians it appears once (i.e., 2 Thess 2:6). Paul’s use of καιρός in 1 Thess 2:17 is, however, distinct from that of 1 Thess 5:1a because unlike in 1 Thess 5:1a, in 1 Thess 2:17 Paul does not refer to καιρός as an “appointed time” but as a “point of time” or “time period” which precisely means “for a short time” (πρὸς καιρὸν ὥρας1081). In Rom 9:91082, 1 Cor 7:5 and in Gal 6:10 καιρός refers to an indefinite period of time; and in Gal 4:10 it refers to “beginnings of the seasons”1083. Thus in the Pauline writings, the term καιρός has a variety of meanings. It can mean a measure of time, i.e., a larger or smaller portion of time 8:28; 9:14; Dt 9:19; 10:10). For more references, confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 6 (2007), p. 731 § 7. 1079 Confer also the prophetic expression “in those days and at that time” (‫ )ּבַ ּי ִָמים הָ ֵהּ֖מָ ה ּובָ עֵ ת הַ ִהיא‬in Joel 4:1. 1080 Cf. Hans Hübner, “χρόνος”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), pp. 488–​489, here p. 488. 1081 Literally: “for a season of an hour”. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 318 § 2a. 1082 Cf. also Gen 18:10, 14. 1083 Cf. Jörg Baumgarten, “καιρός”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), pp. 232–​235, here page 233.

1 Thess 5:1-​3

239

(1 Cor 7:5; 1 Thess 2:17); but it can also be a fixed or a definite time (Rom 13:11; 2 Cor 6:21084)1085. In Rom 5:6, Paul speaks specifically of the “appointed time” (κατὰ καιρὸν) set for Christ to die “for the ungodly” (ὑπὲρ ἀσεβῶν), and in 1 Cor 4:5 he exhorts that no one should judge “before the appointed time” (πρὸ καιροῦ), i.e., “until the Lord comes” (ἕως ἄν ἔλθῃ ὁ κύριος). In Paul’s letters1086, therefore, καιρός belongs together with χρόνος in the Pauline word-​field for “time”; καιρός and χρόνος are used partially as synonyms –​especially where the statement of a specific duration of time of human life in the calendrical sense is involved. Nevertheless while χρόνος designates a “period of time” in the linear sense, καιρός frequently refers to “eschatologically filled time, time for decision”1087. Luckensmeyer shares the opinion that the phrase “the times and the seasons” (οἱ χρόνοι καὶ οἱ καιροί) may be interpreted alternatively according to the special Pauline definition of καιρός as referring to “the eschatological time that began [already] with the sending of Christ” (see for ­example 2 Cor 6:2)1088. The “time” Paul refers to in 1 Thess 5:1a with the terms χρόνος and καιρός (specifically in the plural: περὶ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν1089) is not to be identified with the “time” he expresses, for instance, in Rom 3:26; 11:5; 2 Cor 8:141090 where he speaks of “the present or the now existing time” (ὁ νῦν καιρός). The “time” Paul speaks about in 1 Thess 5:1a can be equated with that found in 1 Cor 4:5; Gal 6:9, etc. where καιρός refers to “coming moment of judgement and /​or parousia of the Lord”. In 1 Thess 5:2b the day of the Lord is considered the appointed time for the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ just as in 2 Thess 2:2, 6 where the parousia is referred to as the Lord’s time or the day of the Lord. The Church’s knowledge of the time is illustrated through the “eschatological call to watchfulness”1091 and that is exactly what motivates Paul to exhort the Thessalonians to be vigilant as they wait for the day of the Lord which comes unexpectedly (1 Thess 5:4 ff.) Paul’s expression of time with the plural terms χρόνοι and καιροί, i.e. περὶ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν in juxtaposition (1 Thess 5:1a) can also be found in Acts 1:7, i.e., “the times or seasons” (χρόνους ἢ καιρούς). These juxtapositions are 1 084 Confer Isa 49:8 LXX. 1085 See also 1 Tim 4:1. 1086 The texts to consider include: Rom 3:26; 5:6; 8:18; 9:9; 11:5; 13:11; 1 Cor 4:5; 7:5, 29; 2 Cor 6:2; 8:14; Gal 4:10; 6:9, 10; 1 Thess 2:17; 5:1, etc. 1087 Cf. Jörg Baumgarten, “καιρός”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 232. 1088 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 288. 1089 Confer also Gal 4:10 where Paul uses καιροὺς, a plural of καιρός to express “time”, specifically “the beginnings of the seasons”. 1090 See also Rom 8:18. 1091 Cf. Jörg Baumgarten, “καιρός”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 233.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

found in eschatological passages (see also Mk 13:32) because the events associated with them refer to the eschaton and the juxtapositions are “in all probability hendiadys”1092. Malherbe shares the view that both terms are used eschatologically (cf. the use of χρόνος in Acts 3:21; 1 Pt 1:20, and the use of καιρός in Lk 19:44; 1 Pt 1:5); and they are, in fact, hendiadys because the two terms express the same idea and their collocation has biblical roots1093. In the OT (LXX), passages in which χρόνος and καιρός are found to be hendiadys include Dn 2:21; 7:12 (see also Eccl 3:1). While in Dn 2:21 the plural expression ‫“( עִ ּדָ ַנּיָא וְ ז ְִמ ַנּיָא‬times and seasons”) is found, in Dn 7:12 the singular ‫“( זְמָ ן וְ עִ ּדָ ן‬time and season”) appears, and these expressions are from the Aramaic words ‫ עִ ּדָ ן‬and ‫ זְמָ ן‬respectively. Collins observes that this hendiadys is found not only in extra-​biblical literature but also in the apocalyptic and sapiential literature and in some expressions found in the literature of Qumran. He stresses that “the expression was taken over by Christian tradition in specific reference to the parousia”1094. Malherbe points out that the notion of divinely fixed periods of time led to apocalyptic calculations to lay bare God’s scheme of things and to determine when the critical events would take place (4 Ezra 4:33-​37, 44-​47, 51)1095, and a connotation of such apocalyptic curiosity is present in Paul’s expression “the times and the seasons” here in 1 Thess 5:1a and also in Acts 1:7 –​ the only other place in the NT where the two terms or words appear together1096. These passages (Acts 1:7; 1 Thess 5:1-​3; cf. Mk 13:32) echo the tradition that the exact time of the parousia of the Lord is not revealed to human beings1097. While in Acts 1:7 Jesus tells the disciples present that it is not for them “to know the times and the seasons that the Father 1 092 Hans Hübner, “χρόνος”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), p. 488. 1093 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 288. Luckensmeyer would like to consider the terms χρόνος and καιρός as synonymous but not as hendiadys because for him it is not necessarily the case that one is dependent on the other. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 287–​288. 1094 Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13-​5, 11”, p. 334. Confer also Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, especially page 322 and the references in footnote 2; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 290. 1095 See also 2 Bar 25-​30. 1096 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 288–​289. The passages Mt 24:3; Mk 13:4; Lk 21:7, etc. give clues to the “apocalyptic curiosity” which Malherbe refers to. 1097 Confer the note on Acts 1:7 in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 186. Mt 24:36 also emphasizes that neither the angels of heaven nor the Son knows “that day and hour” but the Father alone.

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has set or fixed by his own authority” (γνῶναι χρόνους ἢ καιροὺς οὕς ὁ πατὴρ ἔθετο ἐν τῇ ἰδίᾳ ἐξουσίᾳ) to establish his kingdom (see Acts 1:6), 1 Thess 5:1-​3 is about the times and the seasons related to the day of the Lord which the Thessalonians know will definitely come but whose appointed time eludes them because it is God alone who causes the changes of “the times and the seasons” (cf. Dn 2:21), and it is only the Lord, the Almighty God, who knows the time set for this day (Zech 14:7; 2 Bar 21:8). Hoppe asserts correctly that Paul’s expression “concerning the times and the seasons” (περὶ δὲ τῶν χρόνων καὶ τῶν καιρῶν) is about a set-​phrase related to “times and seasons” (χρόνοι καὶ καιροί) which is traced to the Jewish wisdom and apocalyptic literature. He explains that it is expressed with conviction in such set-​phrases in Jewish wisdom and apocalyptic literature that it is God and God alone who knows the time set for his salvific and revelatory deeds1098. In the OT, the term day of the Lord is expressed as ‫( יֹום יְ הוָה‬Isa 13:6; Ezk 13:5; Joel 1:151099)1100, and its Greek equivalent in the LXX in all the passages just cited is ἡμέρα κυρίου except in Amos 5:18, 20 (LXX) where the equivalent expression ἡ ἡμέρα τοῦ κυρίου is found1101. The day of the Lord is said to be near (Isa 13:6; Ezk 30:3; Joel 1:15)1102, and on that day there shall be no idol worship (Isa 2:20). It is 1098 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 287, and the references in footnote 283. 1099 The texts include Isa 13:9; Ezk 30:3; Joel 2:1, 11; Amos 5:18, 20; Obd 15; Zeph 1:7, 14; Mal 3:23. 1100 Confer David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 4 (1998), p. 140. Ishai-​Rosenboim observes that the exact collocation ‫“( יֹום יְ הוָה‬the day of the Lord”) appears in the Bible 16 times, and it appears in any variation of this wording 15 times more, i.e. a total of 31 times. This concept ‫ יֹום יְ הוָה‬is referred to some hundred times by ‫הַ יֹום הַ הּוא‬ (“that day”) both in prophecies in which ‫ יֹום יְ הוָה‬is found and in prophecies in which ‫ יֹום יְ הוָה‬does not appear. For the references, confer Daniella Ishai-​Rosenboim, “Is ‫( יֹום יְ הוָה‬the Day of the Lord) a Term in Biblical Language?” in: Bib 87 (2006) 395–​401, here page 398. 1101 Ishai-​Rosenboim argues that the expression ‫ יֹום יְ הוָה‬is a collocation but not a “term” because it has “none of the characteristics of a term”. She adds that the collocation is not fixed but rather variable, and it is frequently modified and appears in different variations such as: “on the day of the Lord’s wrath” (Ezk 7:19; Zeph 1:18), “the day of the Lord’s anger” (Zeph 2:2.3; Lam 2:22), “on the day of the Lord’s sacrifice” (Zeph 1:8), “a day of the Lord is coming” (Zech 14:1), “that day” (Isa 2:11, 17, 20; Ezk 30:9; Zeph 1:9, 10, 15), and “the day” (Ezk 30:2). Cf. Daniella Ishai-​Rosenboim, “Is ‫יֹום יְ הוָה‬ (the Day of the Lord) a Term in Biblical Language?”, pp. 396–​398; 400–​401. Confer also her argument on page 399. 1102 See also Joel 2:1; 4:14; Obd 15.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

marked by punishment (cf. Zeph 1:9) and destruction (Isa 13:6; Joel 1:15) –​specifically the destruction of sinners (Isa 13:9). It is also applied in connection with the Lord’s wrath and anger (1sa 13:9; Zeph 1:15), darkness, gloom, clouds, mist (Ezk 30:3; Joel 2:2)1103 as well as greatness and dreadfulness (Joel 2:11; Zeph 1:14; Mal 3:23). Reiterer traces the use of the expression “the day of the Lord” to the history of God’s elected people (the Israelites) and points out that “the day of the Lord” expresses an aspect of the relationship between God and his people before, during and after the exilic period. In Hos 2:20-​25, for instance, God promises to make a covenant with his people on that day so as to restore peace and fertility in the land, and this is based on the condition that his people turn away from the fertility cults and abide by him alone. Reiterer explains further that especially in the times when the people faced rampant dangers of war in the pre-​exilic period, the Israelites wished for the day of the Lord to be a day of salvation, and it was for that reason that in Amos 5:18 the prophet Amos prophesied sharply –​contrarily to their wish and expectation –​ that the day of the Lord would not be light but darkness whereby “light” meant welfare and safety while “darkness” was danger and impending death. The imagery portrayed in Amos 5:19 made it explicit that the day of the Lord would be about “life and death”1104. The day of the Lord developed from the imagery in Amos 5:19 to become a common expression for a time of judgement and destruction for Israel (Joel 1:15; 2:1-​2; Zeph 1:14-​151105)1106. That perspective on the day of the Lord, however, changed in the post-​exilic period such that the day of the Lord was considered as a time of God’s final intervention to save his people which at the same time presupposed the elimination of the foes or the nations such as Babylon (Isa 13:4-​6) and Egypt (Ezk 30:3-​4)1107.

1 103 Confer also Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15. 1104 Cf. F. V. Reiterer, „Tag des Herrn“, in: Johannes B. Bauer, Bibeltheologisches Wörterbuch /​vierte völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage, herausgegeben in Gemeinschaft mit Johannes Marböck und Karl M. Woschitz, Graz. Wien. Köln: Verlag Styria, 1994, pp. 528–​530, here page 529. 1105 See also Joel 2:11. 1106 Cf. F. V. Reiterer, „Tag des Herrn“, p. 529. 1107 Cf. F. V. Reiterer, „Tag des Herrn“, pp. 529–​530. The day of the Lord described in the prophetic writings generally signified the coming of the Lord (God) in power and majesty to destroy his enemies and inaugurate his kingdom, and the figures used to describe the day of the Lord conveyed the idea of horror and destruction. Cf. the note on Isa 13:6 ff, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 892. See also Isa 14:1.

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243

The day of the Lord was, therefore, characterized by apocalyptic features (Zeph 1:7, 11-​16) and it became a day of destruction for the foes, but for God’s people salvation. That is, while one side of the day of the Lord appeared terrible (Joel 3:4), the other showed that every person who called on the name of the Lord would be saved (Joel 3:51108)1109. Malherbe rightly asserts that the source of Paul’s use of the term “day of the Lord” in 1 Thess 5:2b is ultimately the OT, where it describes God’s decisive intervention, either to judge or to save1110. In the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha too, the “day of the Lord” is sometimes expressed in different concepts and these ideas also echo those images of the “day of the Lord” found in the OT. Such concepts include: “The day of tribulation, torment” (1 En 1:1) and “the great day of judgement” (1 En 19:1; 84:4)1111. The day of the Lord in such passages, therefore, does not always portray a picture of hopefulness and assurance of salvation but also a gloomy atmosphere of judgement, retribution and even punishment for the ungodly or sinners1112. It shall, however, be for the righteous and God-​fearers a day of healing (Mal 3:20 [4:2]) and a day of blessing (1 En 1:8); and for “the elect” it shall be a day of light, joy, and peace (1 En 5:7). It is a day on which the Lord provides relief for his people from suffering, bondage and hard service (Isa 14:3). By his application of the term “day of the Lord” in 1 Thess 5:2b, Paul draws material from the idea of the day of the Lord as it appears not only in the OT but also in other Jewish and early Christian apocalyptic literature to talk about the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ which the Thessalonians are eagerly awaiting. What Paul had described in 1 Thess 4:15 ff as the parousia of the Lord he describes in 1 Thess 5:2 as the day of the Lord, a term he uses twice as often as parousia1113. For Paul too, the day of the Lord can 1 108 Confer also Acts 2:20. 1109 Cf. F. V. Reiterer, „Tag des Herrn“, pages 529–​530. 1110 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 290. Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 288, and the references in footnotes 286, 288, 289, 290; also p. 291. 1111 Cf. Daniella Ishai-​Rosenboim, “Is ‫( יֹום יְ הוָה‬the Day of the Lord) a Term in Biblical Language?”, pp. 399–​400. 1112 1 En 1:8, 9 speak of judgement for all (the ungodly and the righteous) on the day of the Lord, and in 1 En 1:1, there is emphasis that the ungodly shall be removed. 1113 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 288. In some other passages, Paul actually describes the day of the Lord in terms of the day of the Lord Jesus (Christ). See 1 Cor 1:8; 5:5 (in 1 Cor 5:5, some manuscripts: ‫ א‬L 81, etc. add Ἰησοῦ; while the manuscripts A D F G P 33, etc. add Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ); Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16. See also 2 Thess 2:2 (in 2 Thess 2:2, while the manuscripts D2 K 630, etc. add Χριστοῦ, the manuscripts 33. ‫ א‬A B F G L, etc. add Ἰησοῦ). For further details of

244

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

be a day of wrath (Rom 2:5)1114, and it is otherwise associated with judgement (Rom 2:16)1115; and especially in 1 Thess 5, it is a day of ruin (vers 3), darkness (verses 5, 7), but also a day of light (verses 5, 8) and salvation (verses 9-​10)1116. The title “Lord” in Paul’s expression ἡμέρα κυρίου in 1 Thess 5:2b refers not to God, but to the Lord Jesus Christ. Malherbe observes correctly that: “The Lord here is Jesus, as is evident from the context (1 Thess 4:15, 16, 17; 5:9)”, and he maintains further that “what is said of the day of Yahweh in the OT is said of the day of the Lord Jesus Christ by Paul”1117. Légasse also shares the opinion that the title κύριος (“Lord”) here in 1 Thess 5:2b does not refer to God but to Jesus Christ because it is about the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ1118. Rigaux too asserts that the coming for which the Christ’s faithful are waiting under the slogan: “day of the Lord” is no more applied to God but to Christ Jesus (La venue que l’on attend sous le slogan: ‘jour du Seigneur’ n’est plus appliqué à Dieu mais au Christ Jésus)1119. Lövestam too maintains that: “Paul, in several places, uses the expressions ‘the Lord’s day’ (1 Cor 5:5; cf. Phil 1:10), ‘our Lord Jesus Christ’s day’, ‘Jesus Christ’s day’ (Phil 1:6), and so on …. Ἡμέρα κυρίου (or similar) is thus an expression for the day of Jesus Christ’s appearance for salvation and judgement at the end of time, which recurs in Paul’s Epistles”1120.

the number of times the phrase ἡμέρα κυρίου appears in the NT and the number of variations in the phrase that arise in the NT generally and in the Pauline writings in particular, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 288 and the references in the footnotes 35, 36, 37, 38, 39. 1114 See also Rev 6:17. 1115 Confer other NT passages: 2 Pt 2:9; 3:7; 1 Jn 4:17. 1116 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 291. 1117 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 291. Roose too is of the view that in the expression ἡμέρα κυρίου (“the day of the Lord”) in 1 Thess 5:2, “the Lord” could refer to Jesus Christ because in 1 Thess 4:15-​17 the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ was the topic at stake. It is Jesus Christ who is coming to save “his people or followers” –​the ones loved and chosen by God (1 Thess 1:4) –​from the wrath of God (1 Thess 1:10). Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief (Die Botschaft des Neuen Testaments), Neukirchen-​ Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlagsgesellschaft, 2016, p. 87. 1118 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 283. Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 291. 1119 Cf. Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, p. 326. 1120 Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament (translated by W. F. Salisbury), Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1963, p. 46.

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245

Luckensmeyer reviews Joseph Plevnik’s work (i.e., Paul and the Parousia: An Exegetical and Theological investigation) on the history of development of ‫יֹום יְ הוָה‬ in his (Plevnik’s) extensive survey of the OT and Jewish apocalyptic writings and remarks that Plevnik notices that: “In addition to the ambivalence (i.e., judgment and salvation) inherent in the term (‫)יֹום יְ הוָה‬, a transference of association developed, from God to his agent (usually a messianic figure). This development culminates, for Paul, in identifying the parousia of the Lord (Jesus) as identical with the day of the Lord … although there is a different emphasis associated with each (n.b. celebration in 1 Thess 4:15-​17; judgment in 5:1-​3)”1121.

Malherbe further observes that 1 Thess 5:2 is the earliest occurrence of the term day of the Lord in the NT as applied to Jesus, and for Paul –​just as the prophets –​ the term has a moral dimension (Rom 5:2-​8, 15-​16; 13:11-​14), and this moral dimension manifests in the call to vigilance and a life of holiness (1 Thess 5:4 ff; Rom 13:11-​14)1122. Hoppe too remarks correctly that Paul already talked about the need for the Christ’s faithful to lead lives worthy of emulation in order that they may please God who has called them to this life of holiness, and that it is

1121 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 288–​289, and footnote 41 for references to some other authors who share this opinion. Collins is rather of a different opinion and he opines that: “The traditional nature of ‘day of the Lord’ implies that kyrios = God, rather than Jesus”. Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 778. Luckensmeyer reacts to the claim of Collins by emphasizing correctly that: “Despite the traditional nature of the motif of the day of the Lord, in view of the development of the motif, it is not likely that κύριος = ‘God’ ”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 289 footnote 42. 1122 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 291. Malherbe indicates that though the sources of the Synoptic gospels (Mt, Mk, Lk) knew the theology of the day of the Lord, they did not use the formula; they rather speak about the day of the Son of Man (Lk 17:22-​26; cf. Mt 24:26-​27), the day of Judgement (Mt 11:22; 12:36), and that day (Mt 7:22). See op. cit., p. 291. Collins also notices that “the introduction to the Lukan apocalypse (Lk 17:22-​37) presents ἡμέραι ([the] days) at 17:22 and then rapidly identifies these days with ‘the days of the Son of Man’ (αἱ ἡμέραι τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου). Matthew’s parallel with the Lukan passage, i.e., Mt 24:23-​27, further specifies that these days mark the ‘parousia of the Son of Man’ (παρουσία τοῦ υἱοῦ ἀνθρώπου)”. Collins shares the opinion that “the topic about which Paul will write to the Thessalonians is a common one for presentation in early Christian tradition. Within this tradition the days of the Lord have been identified as the time of the parousia”. Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 335.

246

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

also a condition for entering into the glory and the kingdom of God (1 Thess 2:12; 4:1-​12). He maintains that Paul does not present such teachings on holy living as orientation towards the final times until the event of the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ, but they take effect generally in the daily practical lives of the Christ’s faithful1123. Luckensmeyer also observes that: “The motif [of the day of the Lord] is able to encompass a significant tension between past, present and future, such that its original identification with Israel’s past is expanded into a concept of cosmic significance … [and] this tension is well expressed in the parallel texts of 1 Thess 5 and Rom 13. In the one [1 Thess 5], Paul exhorts his audience to live appropriately because they are sons of the day. In the other [Rom 13], he exhorts his audience to live appropriately because the day is near (ἐγγίζειν)”1124.

In Paul’s exhortation on “the times and the seasons” associated with the day of the Lord and the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ, the impression is given that the Thessalonians already have a full knowledge of “the times and the seasons” because in 1 Thess 5:1b he writes: “You have no need to be written to” (οὐ χρείαν ἔχετε ὑμῖν γράφεσθαι), i.e. concerning “the times and the seasons” (1 Thess 5:1a)1125. The expression “for you yourselves know exactly” (αὐτοὶ γὰρ ἀκριβῶς οἴδατε) in 1 Thess 5:2a1126 further gives the clue that the Thessalonians

1123 Hoppe writes thus: Für sich gesehen, gewinnt der letztgenannte Abschnitt zu Fragen der ethischen Lebensgestaltung sein Profil nicht als Orientierung für das „Ende der Zeit“ bis zum Eintreten des Parusiechristus, sondern hat seine Gültigkeit allgemein in der Realität des Lebensalltags. In 1 Th 4, 1 –​8. 9 –​12 ging es um die Praxis eines Lebensmodells, das seine Begründung allein in der Konversion hat, nicht aber ausdrücklich mit dem Eschaton in Zusammenhang steht. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 283. 1124 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 289, and the references in footnote 43. Elsewhere, Luckensmeyer draws attention to Rom 13:11 where the term καιρός is used to “describe an awareness of salvation history, whereby salvation is ever nearer (νῦν γὰρ ἐγγύτερον ἡμῶν ἡ σωτηρία)”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 288. 1125 Collins, for instance, remarks that the times and the seasons are identified with the day of the Lord about which the Thessalonians know full well. Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 335. 1126 The verb οἴδατε is indicative active perfect II, 2nd person plural of the infinitive verb ἰδεῖν, which can mean “to see” or “to know”/​“to understand” (cf. also the infinitive ὁρᾶν which can also mean “to see” or “to know”). When it means “to see”, its equivalent in the Hebrew Bible is mostly ‫ ָראַ ה‬or ‫ ;חָ זַה‬and when it means “to know” its equivalent in the Hebrew Bible is ‫יָדַ ע‬. The perfect tense of ἰδεῖν has the signification of the present tense, and the plusperfect tense has the signification of the imperfect

1 Thess 5:1-​3

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have accurate knowledge of “the times and the seasons”. Nonetheless, the adverb ἀκριβῶς (“well”, “exactly”, etc.) which modifies the verb οἴδατε (“you know”) does not carry here the nuance of having investigated diligently to learn or to have exact knowledge of something (see the use of ἀκριβῶς in Mt 2:8; Lk 1:3)1127. It is not to be understood in the sense of having a full and accurate knowledge of the dimensions of divinely appointed and scheduled times and seasons for the Lord to carry out his actions, but in the sense of having been accurately informed, taught or instructed (cf. Acts 18:25; 24:22) in the “times and the seasons” for the Lord’s day and how the Lord will come. In all probability, the Thessalonians have ever received reliable teachings and instructions in “the times and the seasons” but they do not know the exact day or time when the Lord will come back. Plevnik rightly remarks that: “His [Paul’s] reason (γάρ) for not discussing this subject is that the faithful have already received the necessary information (ἀκριβῶς οἴδατε), which is ‘that the day of the Lord will come like a thief in the night’ (1 Thess 5:2)”1128.

Paul’s use of οἴδατε here in 1 Thess 5:2a is rather closer to that of his use of οἶδα (indicative active perfect II, 1st person singular of the infinitive verb ἰδεῖν) in 1 Cor 1:16 where the infinitive ἰδεῖν have the meaning: “to remember”, “to recall”, “to be aware of ”. In 1 Cor 1:16, Paul rather uses the verb in the negative by saying “I do not know, if ….” (οὐκ οἶδα εἰ…) and he means exactly “he is not aware, if …” or “he does not remember, if ….”1129 Paul uses ἀκριβῶς οἴδατε in 1 Thess 5:2a primarily to emphasize that the Thessalonians are well aware of “the times and the seasons”, i.e. the day of the

tense. Hence, the translation of οἴδατε here in 1 Thess 5:2a as “you know”. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, pp. 173–​174. In 1 Thess 4:9, the expression “you have no need for anyone to write to you” (οὐ χρείαν ἔχετε γράφειν ὑμῖν) is found and the reason for which the Thessalonians need not be written to is that they have been taught by God (αὐτοὶ γὰρ ὑμεῖς θεοδίδακτοί ἐστε). In 1 Thess 5:1, however, how the Thessalonians got the knowledge or awareness of the times and the seasons is not explicitly stated. Légasse opines that the Thessalonians did not have the knowledge of the times and the seasons from God, but from Paul and his co-​missionaries during their residence among them. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 282. Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 290. 1127 Confer also Acts 23:15, 20. 1128 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 71. 1129 Confer, in addition, Paul’s use of οἴδατε in 1 Cor 16:15 which can also bear the nuance of “awareness”.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

Lord is near and that it will definitely come like a thief in the night (5:2b). However, how paradoxical this phrase ἀκριβῶς οἴδατε could sound manifests in the fact that nobody knows exactly when the day will come. It becomes evident, therefore, that Paul writes explicitly about the how aspect involved in the coming of the day of the Lord but that of the when appears to be downplayed. Hoffmann shares the view that in 1 Thess 5:1 Paul does not opt for talking precisely about the exact schedule or time for the parousia of the Lord (which remains unknown to human beings and even the angels in heaven [cf. Mt 24:36]) but rather he refers to the Thessalonians or the readers to their own knowledge, i.e. their own awareness of the “times and the seasons” regarding the coming of the Lord, and so in 1 Thess 5:3 it becomes evident that Paul turns the question of “when is the parousia” into “how will the parousia (take place)”1130. Best also shares this opinion and maintains that: “Paul refuses to be lured into discussion of a precise time telling them that they have no further need of instruction from him on dates and times”1131. Thus, Paul neither gives room for speculation about the specific schedule nor the point in time the Lord will come but he rather emphasizes on the certainty of the Lord’s parousia1132. Malbon who tries to bring out the implications of the appearances of “knowing” in 1 Thess 5:1-​11 also maintains that: “A double assertion of ‘knowing’ is presented in 5:1 and 2 –​‘you have no need to have anything written to you’ (οὐ χρείαν ἔχετε ὑμῖν γράφεσθαι, 5:1) and ‘For you yourselves know well’ (αὐτοὶ γὰρ ἀκριβῶς οἴδατε, 5:2). The ‘knowledge’ which is asserted is the manner in which ‘the day of the Lord’ will come, and it is this ‘knowledge’ which is demonstrated/​explained in 5:3”1133.

Best appears to sum it all up by asserting that as regards the time when the parousia would take place, Paul has no instruction to give the Thessalonians further than what he has already given; he (Paul) repeats it in two vivid metaphors in 1 1130 Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 229. It should be emphasized here that Paul’s description of how the parousia of the Lord will take place begins not from 1 Thess 5:3 but right from 1 Thess 5:2b: “The day of the Lord so comes like a thief in the night” (ἡμέρα κυρίου ὡς κλέπτης ἐν νυκτὶ οὕτως ἔρχεται). 1131 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, pp. 203–​204. Hoppe also stresses that it is not a matter of times and deadlines, but how the addressees prepare themselves for the parousia of the Lord. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 290 footnote 299. 1132 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 287. 1133 Cf. Elizabeth Struthers Malbon, “ ‘No Need to have any one write?’ A Structural Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians”, in: Semeia 26 (1983) 57–​83, here page 62.

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Thess 5:2, 3 which bring out its unexpectedness, and consequently its unpredictability, and yet its inevitability1134. Thus, the Thessalonian community is already aware that despite the unpredictability of the exact time for the Lord’s parousia, it is near and it will definitely come as people do not even expect it1135. Considered within the framework of time, the day of the Lord could either be the past, the present, or the future1136. There are moments when Paul speaks about the day of the Lord and actually refers to the past and events brought into effect by the Lord in the past. In Rom 5:6, for instance, Paul speaks of a past moment in time1137. There are also passages in which Paul refers specifically to the present time by the use of the expression ὁ νῦν καιρός (Rom 3:26; 8:18;

1 134 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 203. 1135 Some commentators also maintain that in 1 Thess 5:1-​3 Paul actually talks about the “when and how” of the Lord’s parousia. Collins mentions –​without elaborating on his point –​that Paul, of course, speaks here about the “when and how” of the parousia. Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 334. Luckensmeyer too asserts that: “Despite the impression that Paul only refers to how the Lord will come, he also addresses the when question. No one knows when the day of the Lord will come because it comes unexpectedly, indeed, like a thief in the night. Paul asserts that the Thessalonians know this accurately”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 294. Luckensmeyer, however, appears to explain further the “how” of the parousia, especially, when he bases his argument on the phrase “like a thief in the night”. Légasse explains correctly that the inability to research into the exact time for the parousia of the Lord is characterized here in 1 Thess 5:2 by the imagery or the comparison of “the thief in the night”. He writes thus: Le “comment” de la parousie, qui rend vaine toute recherche en vue de préciser sa chronologie, c’est son caractère imprévisible que traduit ici la comparaison du “voleur dans la nuit”. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 284. 1136 Ishai-​Rosenboim, for instance, asserts that: “Indeed, as the collocation ‫ יֹום יְ הוָה‬is not a term, not limited to one specific day of one specific nature, it may refer to several different days, and it does exactly that: it refers to the eschatological day in the future (called today ‘The Day of the Lord’), as well as to a day in the past (Ezk 13:6; Lam 1:12; 2:1, 21, 22). Cf. Daniella Ishai-​Rosenboim, “Is ‫( יֹום יְ הוָה‬the Day of the Lord) a Term in Biblical Language?”, p. 400. Baumert/​Seewann also share the opinion that the Greek rendition of ‫יֹום יְ הוָה‬, i.e. ἡμέρα κυρίου in 1 Thess 5:2 lacks the definite article (ἡ) and so the concept “day” in the expression “day of the Lord” is to be taken for a general concept which does not refer to any specific day. Cf. Norbert Baumert /​ Maria-​Irma Seewann, In der Gegenwart des Herrn…, pp. 70 ff. 1137 Cf. Jörg Baumgarten, “καιρός”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 233.

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2 Cor 8:14)1138. Here in 1 Thess 5:1-​2, Paul refers to the parousia of the Lord by means of “traditional language”, and his horizon remains that of “apocalyptic expectation”1139. The verb ἔρχεται in 1 Thess 5:2b which have ἡμέρα κυρίου as its subject is indicative active present 3rd person singular of the infinitive verb ἔρχεσθαι (“to come”, “to take place”, etc.), and that the translation of ἡμέρα κυρίου … ἔρχεται can be “the day of the Lord … comes or is coming”. The present tense can also have the nuance of future tense1140 and so in 1 Thess 5:2b it can be understood that “the day of the Lord will come”. The present tense functions here basically to emphasize the certainty and unexpectedness of the coming of the day of the Lord associated with the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ1141. Paul’s focus on time here can be seen as a blend of the future and the present because he actually refers to the eschatological day in the future but he exhorts his readers to make good use of the present time as they wait for the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. Hoppe emphasizes that with the expression “the day of the Lord comes like a thief in the night”, not only the coming of the day is meant, but also the eschatological reality associated with the day which is already projected into the present and qualifies the present so that the future is already anticipated in the present1142. Luckensmeyer also asserts that: “Far from understanding this motif [day of the Lord] as referring to something literally expected in the future, the day of the Lord expresses an ongoing tension of being a Jesus-​ follower. According to Paul, at some time whether contemporary or future, everyone faces [God’s] wrath or salvation”1143.

In the entire passage of 1 Thess 5:1-​11, Paul does not leave room for the Christ’s faithful to be sceptical about the day of the Lord, and his appeal for vigilance and a life of holiness culminates in the assurance that the believers in Christ shall be saved from the wrath of God (cf. 1 Thess 1:10) because they are destined for salvation (1 Thess 5:9). Légasse rightly remarks that Paul, in fact, perceives on a similar horizon the impact of the divine wrath (1 Thess 1:10; 2:16), but concerning the events of the end-​time, he dissociates it from the coming of Christ

1 138 See also Rom 11:5. 1139 Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 334. 1140 Cf. BDAG, p. 394 § 4. 1141 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 290; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 294. 1142 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 286. 1143 David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 276.

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because, for him, the parousia will never endorse any traits of vengeance1144. Hoppe also stresses that the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ is announced to the community of believers totally as a message of salvation (1 Thess 1:10; 2:19; 4:15-​171145)1146. Luckensmeyer too notices the outstanding positive impact of Paul’s exhortation in 1 Thess 5:1-​11 and remarks that: “As the argument unfolds, however, Paul begins to shift to the positive aspect of his pattern of exhortation by emphasizing the insider/​outsider distinction found elsewhere in the letter. The rhetorical pairs of day/​night, light/​darkness, awake/​asleep, sober/​drunk, salvation/​wrath, some of which are repeated a number of times, reinforce social disintegration and at the same time, community identity … But the function of these motifs is positive. The Thessalonian community is characterized by the triad of faith, love and hope, and is destined for salvation, and especially to be with the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 5:9-​10)”1147.

Plevnik also observes that in 1 Thess 5:4-​5, 9-​11, Paul tones down the threat of judgement expressed in 1 Thess 5:2-​31148. He explains that: “Verses 4-​5 present an abrupt switch from the unyielding assertion in verses 2-​3. In fact Paul corrects the statement he had just made (in verses 2-​3) and reassures the faithful again and again that this disaster is not in store for them. He tells them that they are all ‘sons of light and sons of the day’, hence the lucky ones destined for the glorious day of salvation”1149.

The positive tone notwithstanding, Paul exhorts his readers that the reality of the final times must not entice them into a false sense of security (1 Thess 5:3)1150 because the day of the Lord associated with the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ will come suddenly and unexpectedly, and it shall be an inescapable disaster for those who are not ready for the Lord’s second coming1151. The circumstances surrounding the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ, therefore, call for strict vigilance and alertness.

1 144 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 284. 1145 See also 1 Thess 3:13. 1146 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 291 footnote 306. 1147 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 275. 1148 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1 –​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 74. 1149 See op. cit., p. 78. 1150 Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 334; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 291. 1151 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1 –​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 71.

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Collins observes that Paul gives three descriptions of the day of the Lord. That is, it will come like a thief in the night (1 Thess 5:2b); it will come with sudden destruction (1 Thess 5:3b); and the destruction or disaster will happen like labour pains suddenly come upon a woman who is about to give birth (1 Thess 5:3bc)1152. With the descriptions “like a thief in the night” and “like a labour pain come upon a woman”, Paul employs the literary device “simile” which is evident in the use of the words “like” (ὡς) in verse 2b and “as” (ὥσπερ) in verse 3c. The similes are used here purposely to effect comparison. The Hebrew word for thief is ‫ ; ַּגּנָב‬it is from the verb ‫ ָגנַב‬which in the modification qal can mean “to steal” or “to deceive” (cf. Gen 31:27), and in the modification hitpa‘el the verb can mean “to go stealthily”1153. In the LXX, the substantive ‫ ַּגּנָב‬is mostly rendered as κλέπτης from the verb κλέπτειν (“to steal”, “to come deceitfully”, etc.) In the OT, similes for “thief ” or “thieves” are found in Job 24:14; 30:5, Jer 2:26 and in Joel 2:9 but none of them appears to have a parallel with the Pauline formulation “like a thief in the night”. In Job 24:14, for example, the murderer is compared with a thief in the night, and in Job 30:5 (MT) Job talks about people who are banished and shouted at like thieves. In Jer 2:26 the shame of the house of Israel (i.e., of the leaders of Israel) is compared to that of a thief caught, and in Joel 2:9 the attack or operation of an invading force against a city-​wall is likened to thieves entering (into a house) through windows1154. Collins maintains, therefore, that “applied to the day of the Lord and the coming of Yahweh, the simile of the thief in the night (as found in 1 Thess 5:2b) has no OT parallel”, i.e., “the expected day of the Lord is not described by means of such a comparison within the prophetic tradition (or elsewhere in the OT)”1155. Hoppe has a different opinion and he asserts that the passages from Jeremiah, Job, Joel, etc. (just mentioned above) are enough to maintain that the connection between the imagery of the day of the Lord and the thief in the night already has some traces in the OT, and for him the claim that there exist no such parallels in the OT needs to be modified1156. 1152 Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 335. Rigaux also identifies these three characteristics of the “day of the Lord”, and he maintains that these three elements are connected with the tradition to which Paul adds his redaction. Cf. Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, p. 323. 1153 Cf. David J. A. Clines, et al. (editors), DCH 2 (1995), pp. 366–​367. 1154 Jer 49:9 emphasizes that thieves come by night to steal, and Hos 7:1 also speaks of the activities of thieves and robbers. 1155 Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 335. 1156 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 291–​292, and footnote 311.

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In the NT too, there are several similes and metaphors associated with “thief ” or “thieves” (Mt 24:42-​44 //​Lk 12:39-​40; 2 Pt 3:10)1157. In Mt 24:42-​44 and in Lk 12:39-​401158, for example, “the theme of vigilance and readiness is continued with the bold comparison of the Son of Man to a thief who comes to break into a house”1159. Opinion is, however, divided among commentators over the source of the imagery “like a thief in the night” in 1 Thess 5:2b. As Plevnik points out, many exegetes opine that the expression “thief in the night” refers to a non-​ Pauline tradition, and they consider that Lk 12:39-​40 //​Mt 24:43-​44 (Q-​source) have parallels with the imagery1160. That is, it appears that most exegetes are of the view that Paul’s use of the imagery “thief in the night” in 1 Thess 5:2 (3) has its likeliest source from the tradition which was incorporated in the Q-​source text of Lk 12:39-​40 and parallel1161. These parallel gospel passages and 1 Thess 5:2b naturally talk about similar themes of vigilance and the need for preparedness for the day or hour of the coming of “the Son of Man” or of “the Lord Jesus Christ”, but the comparison in the synoptic tradition is different from that found in 1 Thess 5:2b. While Matthew and Luke compare “the Son of Man” to “a thief who breaks through a house (at night)”, Paul rather personifies the day of the Lord as a thief who comes in the night. In this way, Paul’s comparison is closer to that found in 2 Pt 3:101162. The comparison found in the synoptic parallels is 1 157 The texts include Rev 3:3; 16:15, etc. 1158 Confer also the Gospel of Thomas (Logion 21). 1159 Confer the note on Mt 24:42-​44 in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 54. In the Gospel of Thomas (Logion 103), Jesus rather emphasizes that: “Blessed is the man who knows at what point (in time) the brigands will enter”. Cf. Simon J. Gathercole, The Gospel of Thomas: Introduction and Commentary, Leiden: Brill, 2014, p. 571. 1160 Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1 –​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 81. 1161 The exegetes who share this opinion include Rigaux and Harnisch: Confer Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Epîtres aux Thessaloniciens, p. 557; also “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, p. 324; and Wolfgang Harnisch, Eschatologische Existenz…, pp. 84–​95. 1162 Hoppe also observes this close connection and maintains that: Begrifflich am nächsten zu 1 Thess 5, 2 steht die Metapherverbindung „Tag des Herrn“ –​„Dieb (in der Nacht)“ in 2 Pet 3, 10. Hoppe lays bare the question as to whether in the context of 2 Pt 3, 10 the title κύριος (“Lord”) refers to God or to Jesus Christ, and he correctly remarks that from 2 Pt 3, 12 it becomes evident that the author is speaking about God. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 293. It is worthwhile to mention here, however, that in 2 Pt 3:15-​16 the author alludes to the writings of Paul in which he (Paul) speaks of “these things” which include, of course, “the coming of Christ” (see 1 Thess 4:16-​17; 1 Cor 15:23-​52).

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rather closer to that in Rev 3:3; 16:15. Thus, the imagery “like a thief in the night” in 1 Thess 5:2b may not have very close parallels in the OT or in the Jewish apocalyptic literature per se, but this imagery has its parallels in early Christian apocalyptic literature. Collins remarks correctly that: “Given the singularity of his use of the comparison at 1 Thess 5:2, one can only conclude that Paul is borrowing one of the common motifs of Christian apocalyptic as he makes his exposition of the significance of the eschatological situation which confronts the community to which he writes”1163.

Hoppe also asserts that the effort of many exegetes who trace Paul’s use of the thief in the night motif to the Jesus-​tradition1164 is difficult to prove but he shares the opinion that the connection between Paul’s use of the day of the Lord and the thief in the night which calls for constant readiness and alertness (cf. the verb γρηγορεῖν in 1 Thess 5:6) was available in the community of believers1165. The consensus among scholars on the use of the imagery “like a thief in the night” is that this imagery has the objective to reinforce vigilance and alertness1166. It points to the suddenness and unexpectedness, but above all, to the certainty of the “day of the Lord” or the “coming of the Lord or of the the Son of Man”1167. The expression in 1 Thess 5:3a: “Then when they say: ‘Peace and security’ ” (ὅταν [δὲ] λέγωσιν· εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια) marks a shift in Paul’s address from the 2nd person plural (“you”) to the 3rd person plural (“they”). With this personal pronoun “they”, Paul talks about a different category of persons, i.e., “the rest or the others” (οἱ λοιποί) who in this joint pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​5:11) are a diametrical opposite of the Christ’s faithful (cf. 1 Thess 4:13d; 5:6a). The 2nd person plural appears also in 1 Thess 5:7, and it draws a distinction between “the others” and the believers in Christ. Apart from the 2nd person plural, Paul and his co-​authors use the 1st person plural (“we” /​“us”) in verses 4-​6; 8-​10 to identify 1163 Cf. R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, pp. 335–​336. Hoffmann also maintains that in 1 Thess 5:2b Paul employs the NT imagery of the thief in the night. Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 229. 1164 One of such exegetes is Jeremias. Cf. Joachim Jeremias, The Parables of Jesus (3rd edition), London: SCM Press, 1972, p. 60. 1165 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 292–​293, and footnote 314 for further references to some authors who trace the thief in the night motif to the Jesus-​tradition. 1166 Cf. Wolfgang Harnisch, Eschatologische Existenz…, pp. 60–​62, 84–​116; Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, pp. 323 ff; R. F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 335. 1167 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 293.

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themselves with the Christ’s faithful. Thus throughout 1 Thess 5:1-​11, the pronouns (you, we, us, they, etc.) are interwoven and through that Paul is able to bring out in vivid terms the relationship between his addressees (the believers in Christ) and “the rest” of the people (the non-​believers or the outsiders) in their disposition towards the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. The variations in the use of personal pronouns in the pericope (1 Thess 5:1-​11), thus, give clues to the persons or characters to whom Paul refers. The verb λέγωσιν (“they say”), however, appears to give no clear picture concerning the subject of the verb. Holtz maintains that the verb λέγωσιν (“they say”) is “indefinite” and “vague”. He explains that it is difficult to know who is quoted here in 1 Thess 5:3a because the verb can be rendered as one says („man sagt“); and for him, the verb λέγωσιν can hardly refer to the “non-​Christians”1168. Hoppe observes correctly that through the vocative or the address “brethren” (ἀδελφοί) in 1 Thess 5:1 and the reminder “you know exactly well” (αὐτοὶ ἀκριβῶς οἴδατε) in 1 Thess 5:2, Paul addresses the Christian community’s knowledge of “the times and the seasons” which “the others” do not have. Moreover, the accentuated “but you” (ὑμεῖς δέ) in 1 Thess 5:4 calls for a concrete opposite of the addressees or the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica. He maintains then that if the expression ὅταν λέγωσιν can be associated with “the others who have no hope”

1168 Holtz writes thus: „Das unbestimmte λέγωσιν (‚man sagt‘) läßt nicht erkennen, wer zitiert wird. Kaum ist an die Nicht-​Christen gedacht“. Cf. Traugott Holtz, Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher, p. 215. Crüsemann shares opinion with Holtz that the expression ὅταν λέγωσιν apparently has no subject and can simply mean here “when one says” („wenn man sagt”) because the real subject appears to be unspecified. She, however, maintains that ὅταν λέγωσιν is obviously connected with “those to be destroyed”. Cf. Marlene Crüsemann, Die pseudepigraphen Briefe an die Gemeinde in Thessaloniki: Studien zu ihrer Abfassung und zur jüdisch-​christlichen Sozialgeschichte (BWANT 191), Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 2010, p. 221. Best also opines that with the expression ὅταν λέγωσιν· εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια, Paul begins with a general statement. Consequently, he (Best) renders ὅταν λέγωσιν as: “At a time when men say” or “as often as men say” because for him “there is impersonal usage of λέγωσιν” in 1 Thess 5:3. Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, pp. 206–​207. Plevnik also considers the λέγωσιν here in 1 Thess 5:3 as impersonal. Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 82. According to Légasse ὅταν λέγωσιν possesses a hypothetical nuance of the eventual condition type because for him the verb λέγωσιν designates neither the Christians nor the non-​Christians nor any particular group among the Christians. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 285 and footnote 4, also page 286 footnote 2.

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(1 Thess 4:13), then they (“the others”) or the “outsiders in the pagan or heathen society” are meant here by the expression ὅταν λέγωσιν (“when they say”)1169. Hoppe rightly remarks further that “they” are those who refused to accept the “Good News” proclaimed by Paul and his co-​missionaries and did not turn to the “living and true God” (1 Thess 1:9), and so in Pauls’ judgement or opinion “they” incur God’s wrath1170. Roose asserts that those people who in 1 Thess 5:3a say “peace and security” cannot be any opposition group within the Christian circle1171 because “we do not hear about such a group in 1 Thessalonians”1172. For Roose, it is more plausible to assert that they are rather “all non-​Christians”, i.e. those from whom Paul, Timothy and Silas (i.e., the authors of the letter) and their addressees (the Christ’s faithful) already in 1 Thess 4:13 differentiate themselves, and are referred to as “the others”: οἱ λοιποί (1 Thess 4:13; 5:6)1173. Though it is emphasized that the day of the Lord is characterized as an event which “will take place” or “will come” (ἔρχεται) unexpectedly and that it will also be inescapable, the coming of the day will only surprise the heathen (or the ungodly) but not the Christ’s faithful because Paul makes it clear that the believers in Christ are sons (and daughters) of the day (1 Thess 5:4, 5a)1174. This explains why Paul, in his address, shifts from the 2nd person plural (you) in 1 Thess 5:1-​2 to the 3rd person plural (they) in 1 Thess 5:3, and by this technique he shifts focus from the Christ’s faithful whom he addresses with the pronoun “you” to talk about “they” the heathen or the others, i.e. “the rest”: οἱ λοιποί (1 Thess 4:13d; 5:6a) who have no hope (1 Thess 4:13d). The expression “peace and security” (εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια) in 1 Thess 5:3a has been interpreted by scholars from different points of view. What renders the interpretation of this expression problematic is its combined use. Some scholars 1 169 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 294 and footnote 326. 1170 See op. cit., pp. 294–​295. 1171 Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 295. This opinion shared by Hoppe and Roose is in contrast to Crüsemann’s view that those referred to in the expression “when they say” in 1 Thess 5:3a are opponents of the Christian community in Thessalonica. Cf. Marlene Crüsemann, Die pseudepigraphen Briefe an die Gemeinde in Thessaloniki…, pp. 220, 221. 1172 Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 87. 1173 Roose writes thus: Wahrscheinlicher ist daher die Annahme, dass alle Nicht-​Christen im Blick sind, also diejenigen, von denen die Verfasser sich und ihre Adressatinnen und Adressaten schon in 1 Th 4, 13 abgegrenzt haben. Diese Deutung wird durch Vers 6 (i.e., 1 Th 5, 6) gestützt, weil dort –​wie in 4, 13 –​von „den anderen“ die Rede ist. Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 87. 1174 Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 229.

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are of the opinion that εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια is a slogan which Paul quotes here in 1 Thess 5:3a. The question then remains as to how to locate the source of this supposed slogan. Konradt indicates that the closest linguistic parallel of the combined expression εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια is found in Plutarch’s work Antonius 40.4 which reads: τοῦ δὲ Πάρθου ταῦτα μὲν ἐᾶν κελεύοντος, ἀπιόντι δὲ εὐθὺς εἰρήνην καὶ ἀσφάλειαν εἶναι φήσαντος, ὀλίγαις ἡμέραις συσκευασάμενος ἀνεζεύγνυειν. Konradt, however, asserts that the correlation of εἰρήνη with ἀσφάλεια here in Plutarch’s writing is certainly not a slogan and it is not necessarily inspired by a slogan as such1175. Roose also maintains that the word ἀσφάλεια (a hapax legomenon in the Pauline corpus) could be used in connection with “peace” in the texts of antiquity to talk about the pacification of the world through Rome, i.e., the Roman Empire or the Imperium Romanum. She explains further that considering the fact that in the city of Thessalonica the Roman Emperor and the Procurators or the Benefactors were idolized and revered in the Imperial Cult, it is likely that by the expression “peace and security” Paul, Silvanus and Timothy make allusion to the “peace propaganda” of the Roman empire1176. This “peace propanganda” was the Pax Romana which according to Rose was the personification of “political peace” in the Roman Empire which was scarcely heard of before Emperor Augustus and so it was sometimes referred to as Pax Augusta. It was aimed at the maintenance of quiet at home and abroad and it represented “one of the principal factors which made the imperial government both strong and popular”1177. Wengst points out a principle of the Pax Romana by maintaining that: 1175 Cf. Matthias Konrad, Gericht und Gemeinde: Eine Studie zur Bedeutung und Funktion von Gerichtsaussagen im Rahmen der paulinischen Ekklesiologie und Ethik im 1 Thess und 1 Kor (BZNW 117), Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003, p. 144 footnote 667. Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 295 footnote 329. 1176 Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 88. 1177 Cf. Herbert Jennings Rose, “Pax”, in: OCD (1996), p. 1129. Schreiber describes in vivid terms how the time of Augustus’ reign was considered one of the “golden ages” in world history. Cf. Stefan Schreiber, Weihnachtspolitik: Lukas 1-​2 und das Goldene Zeitalter (NTOA/​StUNT 82), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009, pp. 28–​46. Hendrix also maintains that: “The ‘Roman Peace’ was promoted emphatically in Augustan and Julio-​Claudian propaganda”. Cf. Holland Lee Hendrix, “Archaeology and Eschatology at Thessalonica”, in: Birger A. Pearson, et al (editors), The Future of Early Christianity: Essays in Honor of Helmut Koester (FS H. Koester), Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991, pp. 107–​118, here page 113. Wengst too indicates that Pax, the goddess of peace, usually portrayed in the Greek sphere with a cornucopia, appears on Roman coins, for instance, “on the obverse of a denarius from the early period of Augustus’ sole rule”. In his description of this coin, Wengst remarks that: “The head of the goddess [of peace] has an olive branch in front

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“The use of weapons, which is indispensable for it, is shifted as far as possible to increasingly distant ‘frontiers’ so that in this way it is possible to have peace from revolts in an increasingly large centre and to be able to exercise rule undisturbed”1178.

Once the pacification of the world pursued especially by Emperor Augustus (and the other emperors) was considered as “propaganda”, it goes without saying, that it involved “active manipulation of opinion and some distortion of the truth”1179. The historian Tacitus Cornelius (born circa 56 CE) describes in his work Annales (i.e., Annals) 1.2 the strategy Emperor Augustus (Octavianus) used to entrench himself in power. According to Tacitus, after the death of Brutus and Cassius the (Roman) Republic had no army anymore. Sextus Pompeius was killed at Sicily, Lepidus was taken out of the way, and Antonius was violently killed; and so there remained in the party of the Julius family no other leader than Octavianus Caesar. He (Octavianus) laid down the title Triumvir1180 and preferred only to be a (Roman) Consul claiming that it was enough for him to defend the people through the power of the Tribunes1181. However, after enticing the army with monetary gifts, the people with donations of cereals, and everybody with the and a cornucopia behind, but on the reverse side Octavian is portrayed in military clothing with a spear”. Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987, pp. 11–​12; confer also C. H. V. Sutherland, Münzen der Römer, München: Ernst Battenberg Verlag, 1974, p. 120 numbers 210, 211, and pages 119 number 209; 181 number 335 for furher illustrations of the goddess Pax with the olive branch and cornucopia. Wengst describes another coin by writing that: “On a tetradrachm from the same period Pax is standing on a sword with the staff of peace in her hand”. Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 12; confer also C. H. V. Sutherland, Münzen der Römer, p. 122 number 227. 1178 Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 23. For more details of the military aspect of the Pax Romana, confer Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, pp. 11–​17. 1179 Cf. Simon Hornblower, “Propaganda”, in: OCD (1996), p. 1257. 1180 Triumviri were a board of three (persons) in Roman public life, of many diferrent kinds, usually elected by the people to form the Triumvirate. The most famous triumvirate was that consisting of Mark Anthony, Aemelius Lepidus and Octavianus (Augustus). Cf. Theodore John Cadoux, Andrew William Lintott “Triumvir (or tresviri)”, in: OCD (1996), p. 1555. 1181 The tribunes were sometimes referred to in Greek as φύλαρχοι (“heads of a tribe”) or δήμαρχοι (“heads of the people”). The tribunes became officers of the plebeians (“the common people or the mass of the Roman citizens as distinct from the privileged patricians) and they were charged with the defence of the persons and property of the plebeians (ius auxilii). Their power was not initially derived from statute but from

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sweetness of peace, Octavianus began to rise gradually to power and he ascribed to himself the prerogatives of the senate, the officials and legislation and no person could resist him1182. The fact that Augustus is said to have enticed everybody with the sweetness of peace (Annales 1.2.1) leaves room for the assertion that the peace promised to everybody or to the world by Octavianus and the Roman Emperors was something to soothe the world. Over the years, several exegetes have expressed the opinion that Paul’s use of “peace and security” in 1 Thess 5:3a purports to be a criticism of the Pax Romana which bore the slogan pax et securitas (“peace and security”)1183. Wengst is of the view that the expression “peace and security” (εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια) was a common worldly or mundane slogan which was, however, not advocated or used by the believers in Christ, and that Paul rather quotes the motto or catchphrase here to criticise the “Peace Propaganda” of the Imperium Romanum because, as it were, the combination of the terms εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια expressed an important claim of Pax Romana1184. He remarks further that the “peace” the Roman sovereignty or power sought to ensure can be explained in terms of the fact that the “Roman power brings peace as a permanent state free of wars; it guarantees security from hostile attacks from within its frontiers; and finally, too, ‘inner security’, the maintaining of order and the preservation of the security of law is part of that”, and so peace and security can be explained as “a conservative slogan which affirms the existing order and wants to see it preserved”1185. According to Wengst, in 1 Thess 5:3 Paul takes up the motto or catchphrase but he (Paul) considers it to be an idle slogan which the Christ’s faithful need not repeat because for Paul the slogan pax et securitas associated with Pax Romana is nothing but “illusion of peace and security”1186. Crüsemann also shares the opinion that in 1 Thess 5:3, the claim of “peace and security” by “the others” identifies them with

the oath sworn by the plebeians to guarantee their inviolability (sacrosanctitas). Cf. Peter Sidney Derow, “Tribuni plebis (or plebi)”, in: OCD (1996), pp. 1549–​1550. 1182 Confer the full text in: Tacite, Annales (Livres I-​III), Texte Etabli et Traduit par Henri Goelzer, Paris: Société d’Edition “Les Belles Lettres”, 1923, p. 5. 1183 For more information on the earlier proponents of this claim, confer Holland Lee Hendrix, “Archaeology and Eschatology at Thessalonica”, p. 112, and footnotes 13, 14, 15. 1184 Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana: Anspruch und Wirklichkeit; Erfahrungen und Wahrnehmungen des Friedens bei Jesus und im Urchristentum, München: Kaiser, 1986, p. 98. 1185 Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, pp. 77–​78. 1186 Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 78.

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the propagandists of the Pax Romana because by this claim εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια they (“the others”) quote pax et securitas which was a known slogan associated with the ideology of the Roman state1187. There are, in fact, works of ancient writers and even of Apostolic Fathers like Clement of Rome which directly or indirectly criticise the Imperium Romanum and especially the “peace propaganda” of the Roman Emperors1188. Nonetheless, Paul’s use of “peace and security” in 1 Thess 5:3 does not serve as a criticism of the “peace propaganda” of the Imperium Romanum. The Pax Romana or Pax Augusta was indeed a purely, politically oriented peace propaganda1189 which sought to guarantee “peace and security” in the Imperium Romanum and beyond. It is evident in the works of some writers such as the historian Cornelius Tacitus that there was some kind of disillusionment with the Pax Romana in some quarters of the Imperium Romanum. Though Tacitus refers to the time after the Civil War between Otho and Vitellius as the time of security restored1190, it is evident in Tacitus’ report in his work Histories 2.21.1-​2 that the people were 1187 Cf. Marlene Crüsemann, Die pseudepigraphen Briefe an die Gemeinde in Thessaloniki…, pp. 221–​222. Confer also Stefan Schreiber, Der Erste Brief an die Thessalonicher (ÖTK 13/​1), Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2014, pp. 272–​277, especially p. 276. For references to the numerous scholars who share the opinion that Paul’s use of the expression εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια is a reference to the slogan pax et securitas of the Imperium Romanum, or scholars who opt for a political association of the expression εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια in 1 Thess 5:3, confer Marlene Crüsemann, Die pseudepigraphen Briefe an die Gemeinde in Thessaloniki…, p. 222 footnote 130; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 295 footnote 328; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 291 footnote 60. 1188 Wengst indicates that some passages in First Letter of Clement by the theological apologetic and Church Father Clement of Rome make allusions to the Pax Romana and its slogan pax et securitas. For more details of Wengst’s assertion, confer Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana: Anspruch und Wirklichkeit…, pp. 131–​146; Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, pp. 105–​118. Wengst also cites some passages from the Pauline Corpus (such as 1 Cor 6:1-​8; 15:24-​26; 15:20-​28; 2 Cor 11:20, 25; Rom 13:1-​7; Phil 3:20; 1 Thess 2:2; 5:3, etc.) which allude to some aspects of the Imperium Romanum. Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana: Anspruch und Wirklichkeit…, pp. 92–​112. 1189 Wengst, for instance, asserts that: “First of all it must be remembered that the Pax Romana rested on compelling military power; the military aspect was the dominant one”, and to this dominant political aspect of the Pax Romana belonged the slogan pax et securitas which meant first and foremost “being able to enjoy one’s possessions in peace”. Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 19. 1190 Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 20.

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actually saddened because of the great loss they incurred during the war in terms of public property, i.e., the burning down of the splendid building of the amphitheatre. The surprise, grief and disappointment of the people is evident in Histories 2.21.2b where Tacitus writes: “As it was always the case, when something dreadful was to be feared, the people did not take such a thing so serious; but when the sense of security was restored, they were distressed as if something troublesome could never happen to them” (quocumque casu accidit, dum atrociora metuebantur, in levi habitum, reddita securitate, tamquam nihil gravius pati potuissent, maerebant)1191.

It is also obvious in Histories 2.12.1 that the people were “thoroughly disillusioned” by Otho’s troops1192. Wengst remarks, therefore, that those who lauded the “peace and security” based their praise on limited perception1193. One cannot, however, totally rule out the fact that the imperial peace propaganda made its mark on the people in the Imperium Romanum. Though there was some kind of disillusionment with the “peace propaganda”, to a large extent this campaign was successful in granting peace and security. Some writers, who were actually critical of the Pax Romana, could not hide the fact that the imperial peace propaganda had its positive side. Wengst, for one, maintains that “peace and security” belonged closely together, and that indeed the “Roman power offered security”1194. He then presents examples of writers in whose works the positive side of the Pax Romana is shown. These include a Syrian inscription recorded in Orientis Graeci Inscriptionis Selectae (OGIS) 613 which reads: “The Lord Marcus Flavius Bonus, the most illustrious Comes and Dux of the first legion, has ruled over us in peace and given constant peace and security to travelers and to the people”1195 (Ὁ κύριος Μᾶρκος Φλάβιος Βόνος, ὁ λαμπρότατος πρώτου τάγματος κόμης καὶ δούξ ἄρξας ἡμῶν ἐν εἰρήνῃ καὶ τοὺς διοδεύοντας καὶ τὸ ἔθνος διὰ παντὸς εἰρηνεύεσθαι ἠσφαλίσατο)1196.

1191 The original Latin text is quoted from: Helmuth Vretska (translator), P. Cornelius Tacitus /​Historien: Lateinisch/​Deutsch, Stuttgart: Reclam, 1984, p. 180. 1192 Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, footnote 94 of the Notes of pages 19–​22 on page 181. 1193 Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 20. 1194 See op. cit., p. 19. 1195 Translation quoted from: Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 19. 1196 The original text of OGIS 613 is quoted from: Wilhelm Dittenberger (editor), Orientis Graeci Inscriptionis Selectae: Supplementum Sylloges Inscriptionum Graecarum (Volumen Alterum), Lipsae: Hirzel, 1905, p. 310. White challenges the validity of this evidence by writing that: “Though a number of scholars see this [inscription]

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Aelius Aristides (circa 125 CE –​187 CE) also emphasizes hyperbolically in his work Eulogy of Rome 104 that: “Now the earth itself and its inhabitants have been granted universal security which is evident to all”1197.

In his work Epistles 91.2, Seneca (circa 4 BCE –​65 CE) also describes the era as a time “when weapons are everywhere at rest and when peace prevails throughout the world”1198. Josephus (circa 37/​38 CE –​100? CE) also reports in his work Jewish War 4.92-​94 that in order to save the people from indiscriminate destruction, Titus appealed to the defenders of the city of Gischala (Γισχάλος) to surrender to Rome because those who entrusted themselves to the Roman security had their possessions in safety. Titus’ appeal was laudable because: “They had seen cities far stronger than their own overthrown at the first [or single] assault, but beheld in the secure enjoyment of their possessions all who had trusted the pledges proffered by Roman hands –​hands which he [Titus] now extended to them without a thought of vindictiveness for their obstinacy” (ἑωρακότες μὲν ὀχυρωτέρας πολλῷ πόλεις ὑπὸ μίαν προσβολὴν κατεστραμμένας, ἐν ἀσφαλείᾳ δὲ τῶν ἰδίων κτημάτων ἀπολαύοντας ὅσοι ταῖς ῾Ρωμαίων δεξιαῖς ἐπίστευσαν, ἃς καὶ νῦν προτείνειν αὐτοῖς μηδὲν μνησικακῶν τῆς αὐθαδείας)1199.

Josephus further reports in his work Jewish Antiquities 14.156-​157 on how Antipater restored order in Judaea. He writes thus: “Now when Caesar had settled the affairs of Syria, he [Caesar] sailed away. And Antipater, after escorting Caesar out of Syria, returned to Judaea … and going about

as a clear indication of a far-​reaching Roman claim to be the world’s guarantor of peace and security, it is weak evidence, at best. First of all, the inscription makes no use of the phrase εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια. The term εἰρήνη is, of course, present, but the noun ἀσφάλεια is not. Instead we have a complex verbal construction that literally reads: ‘he made secure to live peacefully’, hardly a catchy slogan. More importantly, the inscription dates from the fourth century CE and surely cannot be considered relevant to the discussion of Roman imperial ideology three centuries earlier”. Cf. Joel R. White, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thessalonians 5:3): Is It Really a Roman Slogan?”, in, NTS 59 (2013) 382–​395, here page 391. 1197 Translation quoted from: Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 19. 1198 Translation quoted from: Klaus Wengst, op. cit., p. 19. Wengst explains that: “What is primarily envisaged here is protection against any threat from outside the boundaries of the [Roman] empire”. See op. cit., p. 19. 1199 Cf. Josephus III, in: LCL 210, Cambridge.London: Havard University Press, 1928, pp. 28, 29.

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the country suppressed disorders therein by both threatening and advising the people to remain quiet. For, he said, those who were on the side of Hyrcanus would be left in peace and could live undisturbed in the enjoyment of their own possessions, but if they clung to the hope of achieving something by revolution and were counting on any gains therefrom, they would have in him [Antipater] a master in place of a protector, and in Hyrcanus a tyrant in place of a king, and in the Romans and Caesar bitter enemies in place of rulers … Through such words he [Antipater] restored order throughout the country by his own efforts” (Καῖσαρ δὲ διοικήσας τὰ κατὰ τὴν Συρίαν ἀπέπλευσεν. ὡς δὲ Καίσαρα προπέμψας ἐκ τῆς Συρίας Ἀντίπατρος εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν ὑπέστρεψεν … καὶ τὸν κατὰ τὴν χώραν θόρυβον ἐπιὼν κατέστελλεν, ἀπειλῶν τε ἅμα καὶ συμβουλεύων ἠρεμεῖν· τοὺς μὲν γὰρ τὰ Ὑρκανοῦ φρονοῦντας ἐν εὐδίᾳ διάξειν, καὶ βιώσεσθαι τῶν ἰδίων ἀπολαύντας κτημάτων ἀταράχως, προστιθεμένους δὲ ταῖς ἐκ τοῦ νεωτερίζειν ἐλπίσιν καὶ τοῖς ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν κέρδεσιν προσανέχοντας αὐτὸν μὲν ἕξειν ἀντὶ προστάτου δεσπότην, Ὑρκανὸν δὲ ἀντὶ Βασιλέως τύραννον, ῾Ρωμαίους δὲ καὶ Καίσαρα πικροὺς ἀνθ᾽ ἡγεμόνων πολεμίους … ταῦτα λέγων καθίστα δι᾽ ἑαυτοῦ τὰ κατὰ τὴν χώραν)1200.

Horace (circa 68 BCE –​8 CE) in his work Odes 4.15.17-​20 praises Augustus in the words: “While Caesar guards the state, not civil rage, nor violence nor wrath that forges swords, embroiling hapless towns, shall banish peace”1201 (Custode rerum Caesare non furor civilis aut vis exiget otium, non ira, quae procudit enses et miseras inimicat urbes)1202.

Horace maintains further in respect of Augustus’ fame in his work Odes 3.14.14-​ 16 that: “This day is truly for me a day of feast which takes away torments. I will neither fear civil strife nor death by violence, so long as Caesar holds the earth” (Hic dies vere mihi festus atras eximet curas; ego nec tumultum nec mori per vim metuam tenente Caesare terras)1203.

1200 Cf. Josephus VII, in: LCL 365, Cambridge.London: Havard University Press, 1933, pp. 530–​533. 1201 Translation quoted from: Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ; See Notes of pages 19–​20 on page 181 footnote 91. 1202 The original Latin text is quoted from: Horace (Tome 1): Odes et Epodes: Textes établi et traduit par F. Villeneuve, Paris: Société d’édition “Les Belles Lettres”, 1927, p. 182. 1203 The original Latin text is quoted from: Horace (Tome 1): Odes et Epodes: Textes établi et traduit par F. Villeneuve, p. 123. For an elaborate discussion of what the Pax Romana stood for in the Imperium Romanum and the positive side of this peace propaganda, confer Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, pp. 19–​22, including the respective footnotes on pages 180–​181.

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Epictetus also writes in his work Διατριβαί i.e., Discourses 1.9.7 that: “The relationship to Caesar or to any of the great powers in Rome sufficed to guarantee that persons live in security, not to be despised, and not to fear anybody or anything whatsover (ἀλλὰ πρὸς μὲν τὸν Καίσαρα ἡ συγγένεια ἤ ἄλλον τινὰ τῶν μέγα δυναμένων ἐν ῾Ρώμῃ ἱκανὴ παρέχειν ἐν ἀσφαλείᾳ διάγοντας καὶ ἀκαταφρονήτους καὶ δεδοικότας μηδ᾽ ὁτιοῦν.)1204.

It becomes obvious in the works of the writers Aristides, Seneca, Josephus, Horace, Epictetus, etc. that the Pax Romana was not a complete illusion because, to a large extent, some people found solace in the Roman peace propaganda. For Wengst, Paul “does not refute the claim that the Pax Romana brings ‘peace and security’ by an empirical analysis”, and that Paul could have certainly made some contribution to this as a result of his [Paul’s] sufferings1205. Wengst, however, appears to claim that based on assumption, it can be said that in 1 Thess 5:3 Paul devalues the Pax Romana in the light of quite another dimension because of some criticism of the negative experiences of the Pax Romana1206. He maintains that by Paul’s view that the slogan pax et securitas was an illusion of peace and security, “he [Paul] is radically distinct from those who, like Virgil and Aelius Aristides, associate conceptions of salvation with the Pax Romana”1207. The description of the Pax Romana as an illusion is a point of departure of many commentators who opine that in 1 Thess 5:3 Paul makes allusion, especially, to pax et securitas which they (the commentators) claim to be a slogan of the Pax Romana. The fact, however, remains that the Pax Romana was not a total failure and illusion in the eyes of many people. In the light of this fact, it becomes rather more laudable to interpret and understand the expression “peace and security” (εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια) in 1 Thess 5:3 not from a political but from a religious point of view as reflected in the OT and in Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Hoppe remarks that by the use of the signals “peace” and “security” Paul writes about the religio-​political condition in the Hellenistic-​Roman environment of the Macedonian capital city (Thessalonica) in order to announce to the Christian community the impending ruin and to protect his addressees from going astray. He (Hoppe), however, asserts 1204 The Greek text of Epictetus’ Discourses 1.9.7 is quoted from: Epictète: Entretien (Livre I); Texte établi et traduit par Joseph Souilhé, Paris: Société d’édition “Les Belles Lettres”, 1943, p. 38. 1205 Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 78. 1206 See op. cit., 78. For an elaborate discussion of some of the negative aspects associated with the Pax Romana, confer Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, pp. 22–​24. 1207 Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 78.

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that it would be so superficial to understand Paul’s saying solely as an explicit protest against the Roman religio-​political claims and its ideological system1208. For him, the wording εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια in 1 Thess 5:3a is Paul’s “prophetic word”, and he maintains that by εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια Paul is less concerned about raising a direct protest against the Roman politics but more concerned about strengthening the Christian community’s renunciation of idols or idol worship, their subsequent turning to worship and serve the true God and their orientation towards the coming of the Son which Paul calls to mind in 1 Thess 1:9-​10 as positive or certain and further substantiates emphatically in 1 Thess 4:16 ff1209. It is worthwhile to stress here that there is no general consensus among scholars that pax et securitas was ever a slogan par excellence of the Pax Romana. Crüsemann maintains that pax et securitas (“peace and security”) was a slogan which was associated with the Imperium Romanum; it was especially popular during the time of Emperor Augustus (31 BCE –​14 CE), and apart from Rome the slogan was known in the East even during the time of the military campaigns of Pompey (66 -​63 BCE). She shares opinion with Faust that the oldest documentation of the slogan in connection with Pompey’s entry is found in Pss.Sol 8:18 (20) which reads: “He entered, as a father enters the house of his son, in peace: He set down his feet with great assurance” (εἰσῆλθεν ὡς πατὴρ εἰς οἶκον υἱῶν αὐτοῦ μετ᾽ εἰρήνης, ἔστησεν τοὺς πόδας αὐτοῦ μετὰ ἀσφάλειας πολλῆς)1210.

White, on the other hand, argues that notwithstanding the mention of “peace” and “security” in the parallel lines in Pss.Sol. 8:18, there are several reasons why this text should be deemed inconsequential for the thesis. For White, the early date, i.e. roughly two decades before the dawn of the Principate, makes it unlikely that this should be viewed as an instance of Roman imperial propaganda. 1 208 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 295–​296. 1209 Hoppe writes thus: Es geht ihm mit seinem prophetischen Spruch weniger um einen direkten Widerspruch gegen die Politik Roms als vielmehr um die Festigung jener Abkehr von den εἴδωλα und ihrer Hinwendung zum „wahrhaftigen Gott“ einschließlich der damit verbundenen Ausrichtung auf den kommenden Sohn, die er in 1, 9f positiv in Erinnerung gerufen und in 4, 16f mit Nachdruck untermauert hatte. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 296. 1210 Cf. Marlene Crüsemann, Die pseudepigraphen Briefe an die Gemeinde in Thessaloniki…, p. 222, and footnote 131; Faust Eberhard, Pax Christi et Pax Caesaris: Religionsgeschichtliche, traditionsgeschichtliche und sozialgeschichtliche Studien zum Epherserbrief (NTOA 24), Fribourg und Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994, p. 444 footnote 42.

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Moreover, for him “peace” and “security” do not describe here the state of affairs that Pompey has brought about in Jerusalem, but rather his own sense of confidence and well-​being during the conquest. White finally draws attention to the fact that there is no indication of a recognizable slogan behind the reference1211. Weima too argues that the phrase “peace and security” in 1 Thess 5:3 involves an allusion to the Roman political propaganda, and he makes mention of a monumental evidence in a form of “a statue and accompanying inscription honouring the Roman military and political leader Pompey”. He explains further that this inscription (SEG 46, 1565) was in “gratitude to Pompey for preserving humankind from ‘barbarian wars and the dangers of pirates’, thereby ‘restoring peace and security on land and sea’ ” (ἀποκαθεστάκοτα δὲ [τὴν εἰρ]ήνην καὶ τὴν ἀσφάλειαν καὶ κατὰ γῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλασσαν)1212. Weima consequently asserts that: “Here [in this inscription] we find the two benefits of peace and security combined in exactly the same manner as that of Paul’s citation in 1 Thess 5:3”1213.

White reacts to Weima’s assertion by writing that: “Here [in this inscription] we encounter the phrase ‘peace and security’ for the first time, but given the date –​35 years before the establishment of the Principate –​it is anachronistic to view this as an instance of Roman imperial propaganda …The inscription evokes familiar tropes which associated the absence of conflict on land with ‘peace’ and on the sea with ‘security’, but it would go beyond the evidence to claim that the phrase has the character of a slogan here”1214.

Hoppe also denies emphatically that the phrase εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια or pax et securitas was ever a slogan of the Pax Romana because for him it cannot even be verified that εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια or pax et securitas was ever a marked slogan at all1215. For Hoppe, it becomes hardly laudable to maintain that Paul considers εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια as a slogan and cites it here in 1 Thess 5:3 because, as

1211 Cf. Joel R. White, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thessalonians 5:3): Is It Really a Roman Slogan?”, p. 386. 1212 Cf. Jeffrey A. D. Weima, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5:3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?”, in: NTS 51.3 (2012) 331–​359, here pages 341–​342, and the reference in footnote 32. 1213 Cf. Jeffrey A. D. Weima,“ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5:3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?”, p. 342. 1214 Cf. Joel R. White, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thessalonians 5:3): Is It Really a Roman Slogan?”, p. 385. 1215 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 295, and also footnote 329 for his challenge to the credibility of similar assertions of some commentators.

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it is evident in several documentations, both words “εἰρήνη” and “ἀσφάλεια” are rather understood each in its solitary sense while at the same time they can be understood in their correlation as they were in circulation1216. Konradt also shares the opinion that the phrase εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια in 1 Thess 5:3a is not to be associated with the Roman peace propaganda because εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια or pax et securitas as a concise programmatic Roman propaganda formula cannot be proved1217. Hendrix too maintains in a similar vein that εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια in 1 Thess 5:3a cannot be “a direct allusion to the Roman propaganda or to Greek propagandistic responses to Roman beneficence”1218. He explains further that: “The peculiar correlation of εἰρήνη and ἀσφάλεια as applied to Romans originally may have been a Greek convention as the Pergamene declaration … [cf. the ‘Decree of Pergamum’ in: Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 14.247-​255] suggests. Although the correlation may have been commonplace in Greek responses to Roman beneficence, it may not have been internalized systematically in imperial propaganda”1219.

Hendrix suggests, therefore, that: “The complex relationship of the two sets of terms [εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια] warrants a separate study”1220. One of the recent scholars who have elaborately researched into the plausibility or otherwise of the assertion that εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια was a slogan of the Pax Romana is White1221 who actually examines this view of numerous scholars1222 –​particularly the article of Weima1223 and the evidence Weima presents to prove his claim that εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια was a Roman imperial slogan to which Paul makes an allusion in 1 Thess 5:3. In the conclusion of his article, White remarks that:

1 216 See op. cit., p. 295. 1217 Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 145, and footnote 676. 1218 Cf. Holland Lee Hendrix, “Archaeology and Eschatology at Thessalonica”, p. 114. 1219 Cf. Holland Lee Hendrix, “Archaeology and Eschatology at Thessalonica”, p. 114 footnote 20. 1220 See op. cit., p. 114 footnote 20. 1221 Cf. Joel R. White, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thessalonians 5:3): Is It Really a Roman Slogan?”, in, New Testament Studies 59 (2013) 382–​395, especially pages 384–​391. 1222 For references to the numerous commentators who are of the opinion that εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια in 1 Thess 5:3 is a reference to a Roman imperial slogan, confer Joel R. White, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thessalonians 5:3): Is It Really a Roman Slogan?”, p. 383 and footnote 7. Confer also Jeffrey A. D. Weima, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5:3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?”, p. 333 footnote 5. 1223 Cf. Jeffrey A. D. Weima, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5:3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?”, in: New Testament Studies 51.3 (2012) 331–​359.

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“None of the literary, epigraphic, or numismatic sources offered in support of this thesis unambiguously demonstrates the existence of such a slogan. The only verbatim use of the phrase in Greek before 1 Thess 5:3 predates the establishment of the Principate by a third of a century, and there is no evidence that it gained currency as an easily recognizable slogan, whether in Greek or Latin, even at a later date. It is, of course, undeniable that pax played an important role in the propaganda of the Roman Empire from the time of Augustus onward. It seems equally clear that this was one of many terms with positive connotations, among them (occasionally) securitas, that Rome pressed into the service of her self-​serving agenda. A strong emphasis on securitas, however, was a later development in imperial political ideology, one that postdated Paul’s reference to ‘peace and security’ by at least 15 years. Thus, the conclusion that the ‘believers in Thessalonica would have immediately recognized in Paul’s brief phrase ‘Peace and security’ a clear allusion … [to] the sloganeering of the ‘Roman state’ [as Weima claims1224] is by no means a certain one”1225.

For Konradt, the saying εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια is not a direct quotation from the Pax Romana or elsewhere but it is Paul’s own concise formulation of his objective judgement on the non-​believers1226. It is plausible to assert that by his formulation of the phrase εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια, Paul depends more on the OT understanding of the words “peace” and “security” and how these words meant to the people of God in the course of salvation history. In the OT, ‫“( ׁשָ לֹום‬peace”) conveys a variety of meanings which include “welfare”, “well-​being”, “health” and “prosperity” often as reflecting the Lord’s favour, hence “blessing” (Nm 6:26; Jer 33:6; Ps 29:11)1227. ‫ ׁשָ לֹום‬can at the same time imply “safety” or “security” (Gen 28:21; Jos 10:21; 2 Chr 15:5)1228. In the LXX, εἰρήνη is mostly the rendition of the Hebrew ‫“( ׁשָ לֹום‬peace”), i.e, “a state of national tranquility, exemption from the rage and havoc of war”, “peace between individuals, i.e., harmony, concord”, or “security, safety, prosperity, felicity, etc.” because peace and harmony make and keep things safe and prosperous1229. The Lord, the Almighty God, is the one who

1224 Cf. Jeffrey A. D. Weima, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5:3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?”, p. 358. 1225 Cf. Joel R. White, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thessalonians 5:3): Is It Really a Roman Slogan?”, p. 395. 1226 Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 144. 1227 See also Ps 128:6. 1228 The texts include Jer 12:5; 12:12; Zech 8:10; Job 21:9; cf. Mic 5:4-​5. 1229 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 182. The LXX, however, never translates ‫ ׁשָ לֹום‬as ἀσφάλεια. Thus, when ‫ ׁשָ לֹום‬means “security” or “safety” it is only implied or understood in that sense. Cf. Traugott Holtz, Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher, p. 215 footnote 364.

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guarantees “peace and security” because the Lord is peace (Jdg 6:24). Thus, the evidence from the OT shows that the word ‫ ׁשָ לֹום‬can mean security in disguise and so it can be said that from the semitic point of view the word ‫ ׁשָ לֹום‬alone can stand for “peace and security”, and the nuance it conveys might have definitely impacted on Paul’s use of the expression “peace and security” in 1 Thess 5:3a. Though the concurrent usage of the expressions εἰρήνη (“peace”) and ἀσφάλεια (“security”) as found in 1 Thess 5:3a has no parallel in the OT, ‫ ׁשָ לֹום וֶאֱ מֶ ת‬in Jer 33:6 MT, for example, could be interpreted as “peace and security”1230 whereby it is to be understood that in the OT the security associated with peace has more to do with truth and perpertual or everlasting well-​being or prosperity. In 1 Thess 5:3, there is an irony whereby one says something or expects something but the opposite takes place. In this context the people who claim to have peace and are living in safety deceive themselves because their claims, expectations and hopes are based on empty promises or assurances. Such a situation is also noticed in Apocalypse of Elijah 2.40 where one reads: “Then when you hear that there is security in Jerusalem, tear your garments, O priests of the land, because the son of perdition will soon come”1231. Hoppe points out that the problem of phoney security (Scheinsicherheit) was actually a theme in the exilic and post-​exilic prophecy in Israels history (see Isa 47:8; Zeph 2:15)1232. It goes without saying that Paul certainly knew the problem of false sense of security already from his prophetic tradition (as a Jew)1233. It can be said, therefore, that the expression εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια (“peace and security”) in 1 Thess 5:3a reminds readers and Paul’s addressees of the claims of the false prophets who prophesied “peace, peace” notwithstanding the fact that there was no peace (Jer 6:14; 14:13; Ezk 13:101234)1235. In Jer 6:14 (cf. also Jer 8:11 MT) the prophets and priests (Jer 6:13) give false-​assurance of well-​being to the people by claiming that there is peace (and security) while in actual fact there exists no such peace:

1230 Confer also Jer 14:13 (LXX) which renders the Hebrew ‫ ְׁשלֹום אֱ מֶ ת‬as ἀλήθεια εἰρήνη (“truth and peace”). In this context the Lord promises to give “truth and peace on the land” (ἀλήθειαν καὶ εἰρήνην δώσω ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς). 1231 Quoted from: O. S. Wintermute, Apocalypse of Elijah, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 742. 1232 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 297, and footnote 335. 1233 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 296. 1234 The texts include Jer 8:11 (MT); Mic 3:5. 1235 Cf. Traugott Holtz, Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher, p. 215 and footnote 364. Confer also Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 88; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 296–​297; Gordon D. Fee, The First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 189.

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‫‘ “( לֵאמֹ ר ׁשָ לֹום ׁשָ לֹום וְ אֵ ין ׁשָ לֹום‬peace, peace!’ they say, when there is no peace”)1236. In Jer 14:13-​16, the prophet Jeremiah speaks once again about the “false prophets” who deceive the people and try to build up the people’s confidence with their “vain prophecies”. The prophet Ezekiel too is very emphatic that the “false prophets” contribute to the illusion of security by their predictions of peace (see Ezk 13:10, 16). In Jer 5:12, the people expect “peace” in vain because they themselves speak falsely about the Lord, and “they act as though God does not exist and will not interfere”1237. The people, therefore, make “lies” their “refuge”, and they find “a hiding place” or take shelter in “falsehood”. The theme of “peace” also features in the OT pseudepigraphon 2 Bar 48.32-​33. While 2 Bar 48:32 reads: “And it will be in those days that all inhabitants of the earth will live with each other in peace, because they do not know that my judgement has come near”1238,

2 Bar 48:33 further emphasizes that: “For in that time there will not be found many wise men [or persons] and there will also be not many intelligent ones, but, in addition, they who know will be silent more and more”1239.

2 Bar 48:32-​33, in fact, gives the clue that the day of the Lord which is coming is a day of judgement and that those who know about it –​like Paul’s addressees in Thessalonica who are said to be aware of the “times and the seasons” concerning the Lord’s day (see 1 Thess 5:1-​2) –​will not lead a carefree life and go about claiming or saying “peace, peace, and security!” but will rather “keep silent and pray” and prepare themselves for its approach. For Hoppe, the prophetic critique of Israel offers Paul the thoughtful qualification to make the Christ’s faithful understand the need to hold on to the living God under the difficult basic conditions in the Macedonian capital city1240. Thus, the prophetic texts of Jer 6:13-​14; 14:13; Ezk 13:10; Mic 3:5; 2 Bar 48:32-​33, etc. can serve as the background to the interpretation of Paul’s formulation “peace and security” in 1 Thess 5:3a.

1236 The LXX of Jer 6:14, however, reads: “They say, ‘peace, peace’, but where is peace?” (καὶ λέγοντες, εἰρήνη εἰρήνη· καὶ ποῦ ἐστιν εἰρήνη;). Thus, the LXX renders the expression “when there is no peace” in a question, i.e., “but where is peace?” 1237 Confer the note on Jer 5:12, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 957. 1238 Cf. A. F. J. Klijn (transl.), 2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) Baruch, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 637. 1239 See op. cit., p. 637. 1240 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 297.

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Konradt observes that the defect in the interpretation which traces the source of the phraseology “peace and security” (εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια) to the utterances of the false prophets is the alteration Paul makes to the words “peace, peace” announced by the false prophets1241. Weima also remarks that: “The OT prophetic warnings deal only with the false claim of ‘peace’ and say nothing about the false claim of ‘security’, thereby differing in a significant way from Paul’s joining of these two terms”1242.

Such a defect, however, does not offer any meaningful credit to those who advocate for a political association of εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια in 1 Thess 5:3a. White, for instance, doubts the evidence that the combined Latin phrase pax et securitas ever existed. He writes thus: “Careful examination of the evidence, however, does not bear out that conclusion (that the reference to ‘peace and security’ in 1 Thess 5:3 was a well-​worn first century slogan summing up the benefits of Roman imperial rule). There are only two verbatim occurrences of the phrase εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια in the textual evidence. The first is found in an inscription that dates to 64 BCE … long before the dawn of the Principate and somewhat longer still before Roman imperial propaganda began to glorify Augustus as the universal guardian of the peace of the empire. The second stems from Plutarch in the early second century … but seems to be nothing more than a casual combination of synonyms that betrays no imperial connotations. One other text contains the phrase in reverse order (…ἀσφάλεια καὶ εἰρήνη), but it dates from the third century CE. It should particularly be noted that the Latin phrase pax et securitas occurs nowhere in the evidence presented”1243.

White is very emphatic that all the three theories (i.e., the theories which trace εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια in 1 Thess 5:3 to either the OT tradition, the Roman imperial propaganda or even the Jesus tradition1244) ultimately labour under the same weakness because: “While they can adequately explain Paul’s reference to εἰρήνη, none of them has yet been able convincingly to trace his singular use of the term ἀσφάλεια to a particular source”1245.

1 241 Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 145. 1242 Cf. Jeffrey A. D. Weima, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5:3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?”, p. 332. 1243 Cf. Joel R. White, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thessalonians 5:3): Is It Really a Roman Slogan?”, pp. 391–​392. 1244 For more details of the Jesus tradition, confer David Wenham, Paul: Follower of Jesus or Founder of Christianity, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995, pp. 314–​316. 1245 Cf. Joel R. White, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thessalonians 5:3): Is It Really a Roman Slogan?”, p. 395.

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Légasse shares opinion with Rigaux that instead of the repetition “peace, peace” (“εἰρήνη, εἰρήνη”) prophesied by the false prophets in Jer 6:14, Paul rather puts in place “security” (ἀσφάλεια) as second part of the words of the false prophets and writes instead “peace and security” (εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια)1246. Rigaux points to the assertion (but does not necessarily support the opinion) that by this substitution Paul would probably like to insist on the nuance of security which is already implicit in the term “peace” (εἰρήνη)1247. Légasse too opines that the term ἀσφάλεια explains the first (εἰρήνη) and takes away the religious aspect or dimension that εἰρήνη (“peace”) has elsewhere in the Pauline letters1248. With the addition of ἀσφάλεια to εἰρήνη in 1 Thess 5:3, Paul does not only want to bring out the aspect of self-​confidence and carefree state of the people (i.e. the non-​believers) but also to describe in vivid terms a situation of self-​deception and disillusionment resulting from dependence on false assurance of “peace and security”. From the biblical point of view the adjective of ἀσφάλεια, i.e., ἀσφαλής (which in the Pauline Corpus appears only once in Phil 3:1) can mean “capable of providing security and safety” (see Prov 3:18 LXX)1249. This adjective ἀσφαλής describes also the state of being “self-​assured”, “self-​confident”, “steadfast, secure,

1246 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, pp. 285–​286; Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, p. 324. 1247 Cf. Béda Rigaux, “Tradition et Rédaction dans 1 Th. V. 1-​10”, p. 324. 1248 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 286. Weima also remarks that elsewhere in the Pauline writings the word εἰρήνη always has a religious meaning but here in 1 Thess 5:3 it has a secular sense such that it is paralleled with the word ἀσφάλεια. For Weima, this is a factor which rather indicates that the brief phrase εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια does not originate from Paul himself but from some other source. Cf. Jeffrey A. D. Weima, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5:3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?”, p. 331 footnote 1. Plevnik also notices that: “Paul himself uses ‘peace’ in a religious sense which is not attested here [in 1 Thess 5:3]”. Cf. Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, p. 82 footnote 35. For references to the texts in the Pauline letters where the word εἰρήνη appears, confer Rom 1:7; 2:10; 3:17; 5:1; 14:17, 19; 15:33; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:3; 7:15; 14:33; 2 Cor 1:2; 13:11; Gal 1:3; 6:16; Phil 1:2; 4:7, 9; 1 Thess 1:1; 5:23; Phlm 3. See also 2 Thess 1:2; 3:16; 1 Tim 1:2; 2 Tim 2:22; Tit 1:4, etc. 1249 In Prov 3:18 LXX, “wisdom” is described as: “She is a tree of life to all that lay hold upon her, and she is a secure help to all that stay themselves on her, as on the Lord” (Ξύλον ζωῆς ἐστι πᾶσι τοῖς ἀντεχομένοις αὐτῆς, καὶ τοῖς ἐπερειδομένοις ἐπ᾽ αὐτὴν ὡς ἐπὶ κύριον ἀσφαλής). Cf. Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 790.

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and carefree” (Wis 7:231250)1251. Thus, the category of persons Paul refers to as “they”, i.e., “the rest”, “the outsiders”, or “the non-​believers” are those who claim to have “peace and security” and, therefore, have a carefree attitude to the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. In their carefree state or condition, they surrender themselves to unexpected disaster, destruction or ruin from which they can never escape. The phraseology εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια in 1 Thess 5:3a can be said to be no direct quotation but a formulation by Paul himself1252. Paul takes up the “εἰρήνη, εἰρήνη” prophesied by the false prophets in the OT but adds ἀσφάλεια to εἰρήνη, and in this new formulation with the addition of ἀσφάλεια to εἰρήνη, Paul would like to express in vivid terms the carefree way of life of the non-​believers which the Christ’s faithful should not emulate. The believers in Christ should rather be alert and remain vigilant at all times with respect to the day of the Lord which will come unexpectedly. There are, in fact, instances in the NT where texts are quoted from the OT not verbatim but with additions or subtractions (i.e., redactions) so as to give a new interpretation to such OT quotations in their respective contexts in the NT. A typical example is Jesus’ citation from Dt 6:5 in Mk 12:30. Dt 6:5 LXX actually reads: “And you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might” (Καὶ ἀγαπήσεις κύριον τὸν θεόν σου ἐξ ὅλης τῆς καρδίας σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς δυνάμεώς σου).

In Mk 12:30, however, διάνοια (“mind”, “thought”, etc.) is added to the human faculties, and the new formulation reads: “And you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind, and with all your strength” (Καὶ ἀγαπήσεις κύριον τὸν θεόν σου ἐξ

1250 In Wis 7:23, the qualities of “wisdom” include: “Loving toward humankind, steadfast, sure, free from care, all-​powerful, all-​surveying, and penetrating through all spirits that are quick of understanding, pure, subtil” (φιλάνθρωπον, βέβαιον, ἀσφαλὲς, ἀμέριμνον, παντοδύναμον, πανεπίσκοπον, καὶ διὰ πάντων χωροῦν πνευμάτων νοερῶν, καθαρῶν, λεπτοτάτων). Confer the translation in: Samuel Holmes (transl.), The Wisdom of Solomon, in: APOT 1 (1913), p. 547. 1251 Cf. T. Muraoka, A Greek-​English Lexicon of the Septuagint, p. 99. 1252 Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 144. Weima, however, maintains that the reason why “all translations place the brief phrase ‘Peace and security’ (εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια) in quotation marks” is that “it is clear from the introductory formula ‘whenever people say’ that the apostle here is not creating but citing these words”. Cf. Jeffrey A. D. Weima, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5:3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?”, p. 331.

274

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

ὅλης τῆς καρδίας σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς διανοίας σου καὶ ἐξ ὅλης τῆς δυνάμεώς σου).

Thus, the addition of ἀσφάλεια to replace one of the repeated εἰρήνη in 1 Thess 5:3 could be in line with the redactions such as the one found in Jesus’ quotation in Mk 12:30. Paul’s formulation εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια is to be interpreted from the religious and not the political point of view. Oakes opines that with the phrase εἰρήνη καὶ ἀσφάλεια: “He [Paul] asserts that the [Roman] Empire cannot guarantee ‘peace and safety’. Its claim to do so will be disproved by the arrival of Christ. The implication seems to be that the Thessalonians should not put faith in the imperial promise of peace and safety. In their experience of persecution they should stay faithful, trusting in Christ’s security rather than that of the state. Paul undermines the value of the status quo in order to enhance allegiance to an alternative reality”1253.

Though the Roman ideology might, of course, be an example of false assurance or empty promise, especially, for the believers in Christ who are to trust and depend solely on God for their salvation, the focus here in 1 Thess 5:3 should primarily be on the empty assurances of the false prophets which could in no way be a guiding principle for the achievement of salvation of any kind. Unlike the Roman Peace Propaganda which could at least grant some measure of peace and safety to the people, the assurances of the false prophets in the OT were vain, empty and defenseless and so Paul could be very emphatic that the lot of those people who depend on empty words and prophecies was nothing but destruction1254. The theme of over-​confidence based on false assurance or conviction 1253 Cf. Peter Oakes, “Re-​mapping the Universe: Paul and the Emperor in 1 Thessalonians and Philippians”, in: JSNT 27.3 (2005) 301–​322, here page 318. Weima also concludes his article with the words: “It may well be that the ‘fellow citizens’ (1 Thess 2:14) of the believers in Thessalonica responded to Christian claims about ‘the day of the Lord’ (5:1) and the ‘coming wrath’ (1:10; also 5:9) by referring to Rome as the protector of their present peace and security. Paul, however, has a stern warning for all those who trust in the political power of Rome … For the apostle, peace and security belong only to those who instead trust in God ….” Cf. Jeffrey A. D. Weima, “ ‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5:3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?”, pp. 358–​359. Wengst also maintains that: “Paul does not count on the continuation of history, on a possible growth to consummation, but expects salvation from the definitive end of history, from the eschatological final coming of Jesus which will radically change the world”. Cf. Klaus Wengst, Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ, p. 78. 1254 It is worthwhile to emphasize here that if the “peace and security” in 1 Thess 5:3 were to be an attack on or a critique of the Roman peace propaganda as some commentators opine, Paul’s description of this peace propaganda as a complete illusion would

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which turns out to be a total illusion and results in unexpected disaster, ruin or destruction (on the day of the Lord) is also sensed in Zeph 1:12b; 2:15. While Zeph 1:12b (LXX) is about impending divine punishment on “those despising ordinances incumbent upon them”1255 (τοὺς καταφρονοῦντας ἐπὶ τὰ φυλάγματα αὐτῶν) and “saying in their hearts: ‘The Lord will not do any good, neither will he do any evil’ ”1256 (“οἱ λέγοντες ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις αὐτῶν, Οὐ μὴ ἀγαθοποιήσῃ κύριος οὐδ᾽ οὐ μὴ κακώσῃ), Zeph 2:15 (MT) talks about “the desolation of the exultant or carefree city Niniveh that supposedly dwelt in safety or security” and said to herself: “I am, and there is none besides me”1257. With the formulation “peace and security” Paul, no doubt, wants to emphasize that the yearning of humankind for “peace and security” is to be realized in Jesus Christ. Christ, the Prince of Peace (see Isa 9:5), is with us, and that this “peace and security” can be attained here and now when people turn to God, trust the word of the Lord and model their life or live according to God’s word and will. This “peace and security” will, however, be realized fully on the day of the Lord at the Lord’s parousia when both the dead in Christ and the living will meet the Lord Jesus Christ. Disaster, ruin or destruction can befall anybody –​ the Christ’s faithful or the non-​believers1258. For Paul, however, on the day of the Lord, disaster, destruction, or ruin will not be the portion of those who believe in Christ but they will always enjoy salvation, peace and security. The fate of the

sound incredulous in the ears of those who actually believed that the Roman peace propaganda was somehow successful in bringing “peace” and “security” in (some parts of) the Imperium Romanum. 1255 The translation is quoted from: T. Muraoka, A Greek-​English Lexicon of the Septuagint, p. 722. 1256 The translation is quoted from: Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 1109. 1257 Cf. John R. Kohlenberger III (editor), The NIV Interlinear Hebrew –​ English Old Testament: Four Volumes in One/​Genesis –​Malachi (Volume Four/​Isaiah –​Malachi), Michigan: Zondervan, 1987, p. 555. Some translators render ‫ הָ עִ יר הָ עַ ּלִ יזָה‬in Zeph 2:15 (MT) as “the carefree city”. The LXX, however, renders ‫ הָ עִ יר הָ עַ ּלִ יזָה‬as ἡ πόλις ἡ φαυλίστρια (“The scornful or contemptuous city”). 1258 In Job 9:22-​23 (MT), Job maintains that God destroys both the righteous and the wicked in his wrath (Job 9:22; cf. Eccl 9:2), and that disaster can bring sudden death even to the righteous (Job 9:23). It is also argued in Eccl 9:11-​12 that persons (i.e., the wicked or the righteous, cf. Eccl 9:11) do not know their own time (Eccl 9:12a), i.e., the time of death and sudden disaster, and so they are caught in a snare when the “evil time falls suddenly upon them” because the “evil time” remains unknown to both “the righteous” and “the wicked”.

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believers in Christ and the destiny of the non-​believers on the day of the Lord shall be diametrically opposite1259. In 1 Thess 5:3b, Paul uses the adverb αἰφνίδιος (“unexpected”, “sudden”, “unforeseen”, etc.) to emphasize the intensity of the disaster that comes upon the people who falsely claim to enjoy “peace and security”. It appears that here Paul brings the meaning of the adverb αἰφνίδιος (and its synonyms ἐξαίφνης, ἐξάπινα, ἐξαπίνης or ἄφνω) in the LXX to bear on the idea he wants to put across. Daube makes a general remark on the nature of suddenness and awe in scripture by maintaining that: “The unexpected is feared. It is too often evil, and in any case its constant potential intervention conflicts with the deep-​rooted need for security. Held against the planned, it must appear particularly unsatisfactory: the planned is, of course, by its very nature agreeable. All this feeling must be intensified in the face of the unexpexted event that breaks in suddenly. The sudden is, so to speak, the unexpected in concentration: something not only unexpected but also swift and startling, striking”1260.

The LXX uses αἰφνίδιος 3 times (Wis 17:15; 2 Macc 14:17; 3 Macc 3:24)1261. In Wis 17:15, fear comes suddenly upon the people; 2 Macc 14:17 talks about the sudden appearance of the enemy which terrifies Simon; and 3 Macc 3:24 speaks of sudden tumult that may be raised against the people. Daube sums up the contexts in which αἰφνίδιος appears in the LXX by remarking that in the Book of Wisdom during the plague of darkness, the Egyptians were haunted by apparitions and “sudden fear came upon them” (Wis 17:15); in Maccabees we hear three times of a “sudden” military attack (2 Macc 5:5; 14:22; 3 Macc 3:24) and also of an army thrown into “sudden consternation” (2 Macc 14:17)1262. In the LXX, αἰφνίδιος and its synonyms are the renditions of the Hebrew ‫ּפִ ְתאֹ ם‬, ‫ ּפֶ תַ ע‬and sometimes ‫( ֶרגַע‬I), etc., and they are mostly used in the context of the sudden and unexpected arrival of something which cannot be predicted. Spicq points out that in the LXX apart from an instance (i.e., Mal 3:11263), the composite ἐξαίφνης appears only in the context of disaster (Prov 24:22; Job 1:19;

1 259 Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 89. 1260 Cf. David Daube, “Suddenness and Awe in Scripture”, in: Calum Carmichael (editor), Collected Works of David Daube (Volume 3): Biblical Law and Literature, Berkeley, California: University of California, 2003, p. 453. 1261 Confer also the use of αἰφνιδίως (“suddenly”) in 2 Macc 5:5; 14:22. 1262 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964, p. 14. 1263 It is said in Mal 3:1 that “the Lord, whom the people seek, will suddenly (‫ )ּפִ ְתאֹ ם‬come to his temple”.

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Hab 2:7…1264)1265. Daube examines some passages in the OT where sudden calamities and misfortunes befall persons and individuals1266 and finds out that: “In all these cases the ‘sudden’ ruin of one party coincides with the triumph of the other –​not to mention the role of God, standing above both”1267. He presents the features of “sudden events” in the OT by indicating that: “The ‘sudden’ event is ‘an evil’ (Isa 47:11; Eccl 9:12), ‘death’ (Nm 6:9; 35:22-​23; Jos 10:9-​ 10…1268), ‘blow’, ‘wound’ or ‘smiting’ (Jos 10:9-​10; 11:7-​9; Jer 18:21-​22…1269), ‘breaking’ (Isa 30:13; Jer 4:20; 51:8…1270), ‘desolation’ (Isa 47:11; Prov 3:25; Ps 73:18-​19), ‘calamity’ (Prov 6:15; 24:22; Isa 47:11), ‘fall’ (Jer 51:8; Ps 73:18-​19), ‘spoiling’ (Jer 4:20; 6:26; 15:8), ‘consuming’ (Exod 33:5; Nm 16:21; 17:10…1271)”1272.

Daube asserts that “these things” or “sudden events” either “come upon persons” (Jos 10:9; Isa 47:9; Jer 6:26)1273 or “fall upon a person” (Isa 47:11; Jer 15:8; Eccl 9:12)1274. He explains further that it is not known how “these things” or “events” happen (Isa 47:11; Prov 24:22; Eccl 9:12), they “confuse” or “terrorise” the person or the victim (Jos 10:9-​10; Jer 15:8; Job 22:10)1275, and “night” is the proper time for such things or events (Jos 10:9; Job 34:201276)1277. 1264 The texts include Isa 47:9 and Jer 6:26. The Hebrew word for “suddenly” in Prov 24:22; Jer 6:26; 15:8 is ‫ ּפִ ְתאֹ ם‬but in Hab 2:7 it is ‫ּפֶ תַ ע‬. In Job 1:19 (MT), however, neither ‫ ּפֶ תַ ע‬nor ‫ ּפִ ְתאֹ ם‬is found. Unlike Spicq, Daube observes an aspect of disaster or judgement in the context of the Lord’s sudden coming into his temple in Mal 3:1. Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, pp. 4–​5. For an elaborate discussion of ‫ ּפִ ְתאֹ ם‬and ‫ ּפֶ תַ ע‬used in the OT exclusively in the sense of “suddenly”, confer David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, pp. 1–​8. 1265 Cf. Ceslas Spicq, Lexique Théologique du Nouveau Testament: Réédition en un volume des Notes de lexicographie néo-​testamentaire, Fribourg: Editions du Cerf, 1991, pp. 62–​63. 1266 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, pp. 3–​4. 1267 See op. cit., p. 4. 1268 The texts include Jer 18:21-​22; Job 9:23; 34:20. 1269 See also Ps 64:8. 1270 The texts include Prov 6:15; 29:1. 1271 See also Job 9:22-​23. 1272 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, pp. 10–​11. 1273 See also Jos 11:7; Isa 47:11; 48:3; Prov 3:25; 6:15. 1274 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, pp. 10–​11. 1275 Confer also Ps 6:11; 73:19; Prov 3:25. 1276 2 Kgs 19:35 (MT) and Isa 17:14 also report on events of terror which take place in the night (or in the evening) but the word “sudden” is not found in such contexts. 1277 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, p. 11.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

The meanings of fear and disaster and sometimes awe, etc., associated with “suddenness”, “sudden” or “suddenly” in the OT or in the LXX are carried over into the NT. Daube studies the words for “sudden” and “suddenly” in the NT –​ i.e., αἰφνίδιος, ἄφνω (Acts 2:2; 16:26; 28:6), ἐξαίφνης (Mk 13:36; Lk 2:13; Acts 9:3)1278, and ἐξάπινα (Mk 9:8), etc. –​and remarks that: “When they are not associated with disaster, are nonetheless confined to the region of the awesome, the supernatural, and the impressively numinous. They still now and then accompany disaster, such as the last judgement which may be ‘sudden’ (Lk 21:34). But even where the event is welcome, it is of an awesome nature, with ‘terror and trembling’ appropriately in its train”1279.

Such characteristics of “sudden events” or “sudden disasters” in the OT, indeed, manifest also in the imagery Paul uses in talking about the “times and the seasons” of the day of the Lord associated with the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ in 1 Thess 5:1-​11, though the word αἰφνίδιος is mentioned only once (cf. 1 Thess 5:3b) in this pericope. Daube correctly observes that: “In the preceding and following verses of 1 Thessalonians (5) the day of the Lord is compared to ‘a thief in the night’. The comparison recurs several times in the New Testament, but ‘suddenness’ is never introduced. This is hardly accidental. A thief may indeed break in when not expected, the element of ‘not knowing the hour’ is indeed there (Mt 24:43; Lk 12:39; Rev 3:3)1280, but a ‘sudden’ event is in addition striking, stunning, often violent. The onset of pangs of childbirth (1 Thess 5:3c) is ‘sudden’. Admittedly, as time goes on, the simile of the thief gets more and more mixed up with others; so that in the later sources1281 it would not be

1 278 See also Lk 9:39; Acts 22:6. 1279 Cf. David Daube, “Suddenness and Awe in Scripture”, p. 454. Daube explains elsewhere that in the NT, the word “sudden” or “suddenly” is met in two areas only: i.e., in the area of eschatology where it is said that the last judgement may overtake persons in this way, i.e., suddenly, and the three passages that belong to the area of eschatology are Mk 13:36; Lk 21:34 and 1 Thess 5:3. He associates the other area with the supernatural, awesome occurrences which are found in Mk 9:8 (the event of the transfiguration), Lk 2:13 (the multitude of the heavenly host), Lk 9:39 (the epileptic seized by a spirit), Acts 2:2 (the event of Pentecost), Acts 9:3 (the event of Paul’s conversion), Acts 16:26 (the severe earthquake in the event of the deliverance of Paul and Silas from prison at Philippi), Acts 22:6 (the event of Paul’s conversion), Acts 28:6 (Paul’s deliverance from a poisonous snake in Malta). Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, pp. 33–​34. 1280 Confer also Mt 24:50 //​Lk 12:46 (concerning the Lord’s parousia at an “unknown hour”). 1281 Daube considers the “later sources” in which the imagery of the thief in the night is found as Mt 24:43 //​Lk 12:39 where judgement is connected with the parousia; 1

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surprising to find ‘suddenness’ intruding. In fact, however, the intrusion never takes place”1282.

Thus, despite the fact that the word “sudden” does not appear frequently in this passage (1 Thess 5:1-​11), the overwhelming impact of “suddenness” runs through the imageries Paul uses to convey his message to the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica. Daube gives the reason for the absence of “sudden” in the thief (in the night) episodes like those found in 1 Thess 5:2, 4 by emphasizing that: “A theft may be totally unexpected but … since it does not startle (though, to be sure, the news of it may), it is not described as ‘sudden’ ”1283. The fear, anxiety and disaster that characterise the “sudden, unexpected and unforeseeable events” actually call for strict vigilance. Spicq opines that in 1 Thess 5:3, Paul has maintained the technical sense of αἰφνίδιος and its synonyms1284 as found not only in classical Greek literature, in the LXX (and transferred to the NT) but also in the work of Philo1285. Much as Spicq’s assertion can be taken, it is to be emphasized that Paul’s use of αἰφνίδιος in connection with disaster or destruction cannot be so close to the use of the word as it appears in classical Greek literature because it is clear in ancient Greek philosophy that persons have other views on sudden disasters and other means of facing them squarely. Polybius, for one, asserts in his work Polybius’ Histories 3.4.5 that disasters may turn into benefits or blessings if persons support or take them bravely1286. In 1 Thess 5:3, Paul does not suggest that with bravery the people proclaiming “peace and security” and leading carefree life can master the impending disaster. He rather stresses categorically that they can in no way escape the sudden ruin (1 Thess 5:3d). Paul appears to go by the OT theology that sometimes when God makes a pronouncement in his wrath and anger such

Thess 5:2, 4 where it is said that the day of the Lord comes like a thief in the night, and that the day of the Lord may overtake people like a thief; 2 Pt 3:10 where it is understood that the day of the Lord comes like a thief; and Rev 3:3; 16:15 where Christ says he will come like a thief. Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, p. 29 footnote 6. 1282 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, p. 29. 1283 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, p. 72. 1284 The technical sense of αἰφνίδιος and its synonyms is associated with “fear”, “awfulness”, “disaster”, “unpredictability”, etc. 1285 Cf. Ceslas Spicq, Lexique Théologique du Nouveau Testament…, p. 62. 1286 Cf. Polybius, Polybios Geschichten: übersetzt von Johann Friedrich /​Christian Campe (Band 3, Abteilung 1), Stuttgart: Metzler, 1863, p. 241.

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a pronouncement cannot be averted (Nm 20:12; Dt 1:37; 3:25-​26)1287, and even in his mercy God’s wrath and destruction cannot be averted in favour of those who refuse to repent (cf. Hos 11:5-​6), those who sin against God by turning away from the Lord to worship and serve other gods (Dt 4:25-​26; 6:13-​15; 7:4)1288, and those who refuse to follow God’s commandments (Exod 32:8-​10). If Paul suggests any remedy for the sudden disaster, this remedy could be traced, for example, to the saying that: “A son that keeps the commandments [of God] shall escape destruction, for such an one has fully received it”1289–​ λόγον φυλασσόμενος υἱὸς ἀπωλείας ἐκτὸς ἔσται, δεχόμενος δὲ ἐδέξατο αὐτόν (Prov 24:22a LXX1290)1291.

The safest means to escape such sudden disasters or calamities is to be wise in the sense of knowing and doing the will of God and leading holy and righteous life. Thus, Paul’s use of αἰφνίδιος in 1 Thess 5:3b parallels how the word appears in the OT and in the NT. In the NT, αἰφνίδιος appears only twice, i.e., here in 1 Thess 5:3b and in Lk 21:34. Just as in Lk 21:34 the people are exhorted by the Lord Jesus Christ to be vigilant so that “that day” of the final judgement may not come upon them suddenly like a trap or snare, so is the imagery Paul presents in 1 Thess 5:3b geared to the need for vigilance. Thus, in 1 Thess 5:3 and in Lk 21:34 the word αἰφνίδιος appears in eschatological contexts and the events are described in apocalyptic scenario (cf. 1 Thess 5:1-​3; Lk 21:34-​36) with emphasis on the need for vigilance with regard to the day of the Lord and the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. Roose is of the opinion that both passages (1 Thess 5:1-​3 and Lk 21:34-​36) probably have their source from the same tradition but are interpreted differently. She explains that both passages talk about “the day (of the Lord)” and “escape”, but whilst Lk 21:34-​36 describes vividly an “apocalyptic scenario” whereby catastrophe will come upon all and the only means to get away from such a disaster is through a prescribed ethical behaviour, 1 Thess 5:1-​3 describes a situation in which everything is fixed and certain because the fate of “the others” or the non-​ believers is described metaphorically as “destruction” which they cannot escape

1 287 See also Dt 4:21-​22; 32:50-​52; 34:4-​5. 1288 See also Dt 11:16-​17; 28:20. 1289 Cf. Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 811. 1290 This text in the LXX does not appear in the MT. 1291 Cf. Alfred Rahlfs /​Robert Hanhart (editors), Septuaginta: Id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes, Duo volumina in uno (2nd edition), p. 224.

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because it will befall them suddenly like a “birth-​pang” comes upon a woman at childbirth1292. Hartman also draws a comparison between 1 Thess 5:3 and Lk 21:34-​361293 and maintains that: “The similarities between the two texts are so great that it seems necessary to assume that 1 Thess 5:3 uses the same tradition as Lk 21:34 ff.”1294 He explains that: “In 1 Thess 5:6f. we meet with turns of phrases that are related to further details in the verses quoted from Luke, viz. the exhortations to watch (γρηγορεῖν), to be sober and not drunk (μεθύσκειν)”, and “in addition to the mere parallelism, there is the fact that αἰφνίδιος occurs only in these two passages in the NT and that ἐφίστημι (or ἐφιστάναι) only occurs in 2 Tim 4:2, 6 among the letters attributed to Paul in the NT, and elsewhere only in Luke’s Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles”1295. For Hartman, the appearances of “the travail” (ἡ ὠδίν) in 1 Thess 5:3 and “the snare” (ἡ παγίς) in Lk 21:35 rather seem to separate the two texts, but this disparity in the Greek words ἡ ὠδίν and ἡ παγίς is only a matter of “an ambiguity in the Hebrew root ‫חבל‬, which underlies this passage” because “if we vocalize them as ‫חֵ בֶ ל‬, they mean ‘travail’ [or birth pain], but if we vocalize them as ‫חֶ בֶ ל‬, they mean ‘snare’ ”1296. The assertion that 1 Thess 5:3 has the same tradition with Lk 21:34-​36 has, however, been supported or refuted by some exegetes on different grounds1297. For Légasse, the source of Lk 21:34-​36 itself is questionable because it has no parallel in the synoptic gospels and there is no consensus among authors that this pericope has its source from Luke1298. Much as the traditions behind 1 Thess 5:1-​3 and Lk 21:34-​36 may differ from each other, the fact remains that both passages are found in eschatological contexts and they are dominated by imageries associated with Jewish or early Christian apocalyptic literature. 1292 Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 89. Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 297–​298; Joseph Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, pp. 83–​84. 1293 For the list of points established by Hartman in his comparison of 1 Thess 5:3 and Lk 21:34-​36, confer Lars Hartman, Prophecy Interpreted: The Formation of some Jewish Apocalyptic Texts and of the Eschatological Discourse Mark 13 par (ConBNT 1), Lund: Gleerup, 1966, p. 192. 1294 See op. cit., p. 192. 1295 Cf. Lars Hartman, Prophecy Interpreted…, pp. 192–​193. 1296 Cf. Lars Hartman, Prophecy Interpreted…, p. 192, and also the references on page 192 footnote 8. 1297 For the views of some scholars on this claim, confer Josepf Plevnik, “1 Thess 5, 1-​ 11: Its Authenticity, Intention and Message”, pp. 284–​286. 1298 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 288 and the references in footnotes 3, 4.

282

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

The significant role the adverb αἰφνίδιος plays in the interpretation of 1 Thess 5:1-​3 becomes evident also in Paul’s use of the verb ἐφίσταται –​present middle indicative 3rd person singular of the infinitive ἐφιστάναι (“to happen to”, “to come upon”, “to overtake”, “to befall”, especially of misfortunes which [suddenly] come upon someone)1299 –​and the verb’s subject, i.e., ὄλεθρος in 1 Thess 5:3b1300. Here in 1 Thess 5:3b, the object of the verb ἐφιστάναι is the dative plural αῦτοῖς (“them” or “upon them”) and αῦτοῖς refers to “those who say, ‘Peace and Security’ ” (1 Thess 5:3a). Hoppe points out that just like in 1 Thess 5:3, on several occasions in pagan literature such as in Homer’s work Iliad 10.496, in Herodotus’ work Histories 1.34 and in Thucydides’ work Histories 3.82.2 the verb ἐφίστημι (ἐφιστάναι) is used to talk about the occurrence of an unexpected event1301. It is, however, worthwhile to emphasize here that though in such pagan literature the verb ἐφιστάναι is also used to talk about evil or disastrous events that come upon persons (see also Sophocles’ work Oedipus Rex 777), the verb is not used there in eschatological contexts but in other contexts such as that of war. Moreover, the verb ἐφίσταται in such pagan literature is not found to be expressly modified by 1299 Cf. BDAG, p. 418 § 2; Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 265. 1300 In Lk 21:34 the verb ἐφιστάναι bears the same meaning as that found in 1 Thess 5:3b, but elsewhere in the NT, the verb ἐφιστάναι has different meanings. In Lk 2:9, 38; 4:39; 10:40; 20:1; 24:4; Acts 4:1; 6:12; 10:17; 11:11; 12:7; 22:13, 20; 23:11, 27 the verb means “to stand at or to stand by”, “to be near” or “to approach”, “to appear to”, etc. While in Acts 17:5, the verb ἐφιστάναι means “to come near” with the intention of “harming” or “attacking”, in Acts 28:2; 2 Tim 4:6 the verb means “to be near” or “to be at hand” in the sense of “to be imminent to occur”, and in 2 Tim 4:2 ἐφιστάναι conveys the nuance of “persistency, readiness, attentiveness, etc.” to discharge a task. Cf. BDAG, p. 418. In the NT, the verb ἐφιστάναι appears mostly in the double works of St. Luke, i.e., the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostels where the verb appears 18 times (7 times in Luke and 11 times in Acts), and in the Pauline writings including the letters attributed to Paul the word appears 3 times (1 Thess 5:3; 2 Tim 4:2, 6). Another favourite Lukan word which is synonomous with ἐφιστάναι is ἐπέρχεσθαι (“to come about/​upon”, “to happen”, “to attack”, etc) which in the NT, apart from Lk 1:35; 11:22; 21:26, 35; Acts 1:8; 8:24; 13:40; 14:19, appears only twice elsewhere in Eph 2:7 and in James 5:1. The verb ἐφιστάναι mostly takes the dative object (Lk 2:9; 24:4; Acts 4:1; 17:5; 23:11; 1 Thess 5:3; cf. Acts 12:7) or a prepositional phrase such as ἐπάνω αὐτῆς (“over her”) in Lk 4:39, ἐπὶ τὸν πυλῶνα (“at the gate or entrance”) in Acts 10:17, and ἐπὶ τὴν οἰκίαν (“at the house”) in Acts 11:11 or ὑπ᾽ αὐτῶν (“upon them”). In 1 Thess 5:3 the verb ἐφιστάναι takes dative objects, i.e. αὐτοῖς in 1 Thess 5:3b and τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ in 1 Thess 5:3c. 1301 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 298 footnote 342.

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the adverb αἰφνίδιος or any of its composites. Thucydides’ Histories 3.82.2, for instance, reads: “And a lot of misfourtunes or troubles befall the cities, they come about and will always continue to be as long as human nature remain the same, but to the utmost degree they mislead or calm down and change the form according to every variation which comes in [or upon] the situations or circumstances” (Καὶ ἐπέπεσε πολλὰ καὶ χαλεπὰ κατὰ στάσιν ταῖς πόλεσι, γιγνόμενα μὲν καὶ αἰεὶ ἐσόμενα, ἕως ἄν ἡ αὐτὴ φύσις ἀνθρώπων ᾖ, μᾶλλον δὲ καὶ ἡσυχαίτερα καὶ τοῖς εἴδεσι διηλλαγμένα, ὡς ἄν ἕκασται αἱ μεταβολαὶ τῶν ξυντυχιῶν ἐφιστῶνται)1302;

and in Herodotus’ Histories 1.34.3-​4 it is said: “Forthwith, a dream came upon him while he was asleep and revealed to him how certainly the imminent misfortunes would come to him because of his son” (Αὐτίκα δέ οἱ εὕδοντι ἐπέστη ὄνειρος, ὃς οἱ τὴν ἀληθείην ἔφαινε τῶν μελλόντων γενέσθαι κακῶν κατὰ τὸν παῖδα).

Though the adverb αὐτίκα found in Herodotus’ Histories 1.34 can generally mean “at once”, “in a moment”, “immediately”, etc., and can also be used “in a slightly future sense” to mean “presently”1303, the use of this adverb αὐτίκα in Histories 1.34 does not play the same role as αἰφνίδιος in 1 Thess 5:3 because in Histories 1.34 it is the dream which comes immediately and not the imminent misfortunes. Considering that in 1 Thess 5:3 (unlike in ancient Greek literature) the verb ἐφιστάναι appears in the context of eschatology, it can be said that a better interpretation of the use of ἐφιστάναι in 1 Thess 5:3 can rather be reached from a religious point of view. In Wis 6:8 (LXX) the verb ἐφιστάναι is used in connection with an “impending evil, judgement or calamity” that is “to come upon” those who exercise authority unjustly on earth. Such a meaning of ἐφιστάναι in Wis 6:8 (LXX) is carried over into Lk 21:34 and into 1 Thess 5:31304, but in Wis 6:8 (LXX) the adverb αἰφνίδιος is never found to modify the verb ἐφιστάναι like it does in Lk 21:34 and in 1 Thess 5:3b. Daube draws attention to the fact that the saying

1302 The original Greek text is quoted from: Raymond Weil, Jacqueline de Romilly (transl.), Thucydide: La Guerre du Péloponnèse (Livre III), Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1967, p. 57. 1303 Cf. Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott (comp.), A Greek-​English Lexicon (A new edition /​revised and augmented throughout by Henry Stuart Jones 1869–​1939), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953, p. 279. 1304 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 265.

284

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

in Lk 21:34: “Take heed, lest that day come upon you as a sudden one, as a snare, for it shall come upon all them that dwell on earth” is the traditional fear of the apocalyptic day, represented in the OT and quoted, for example, by the prophet Malachi in Mal 3:11305. He explains further that “the appearance of ‘to come upon’ (ἐφιστάναι) is significant” for the reason that “from early on this verb (ἐφιστάναι, etc.) is associated with sudden calamity”1306. In the OT, the predominant Hebrew verb used in the passages where it is said that sudden events or disasters “come upon persons” is ‫ּבֹוא‬. The Hebrew verb ‫ ּבֹוא‬in the modification qal can mean “to come”. When the verb ‫ ּבֹוא‬takes the preposition ‫“( אֶ ל‬to”, “into”, “onto”, “against”, “upon”, etc.) it becomes ‫ּבֹוא אֶ ל‬ and it can be rendered in some contexts as “to come upon or against” (Jos 10:9; Mal 3:1). The Hebrew ‫ ּבֹוא‬can also take the preposition ‫“( עַ ל‬to”, “against”, “upon”, “over”, etc.) so that ‫ ּבֹוא עַ ל‬can also mean “to come upon or against” (Jos 11:7; Jer 15:8; 18:221307)1308. Nonetheless, the Hebrew verb ‫ ּבֹוא‬does not belong to the verbs which are directly rendered in the LXX as ἐπίσταναι1309. The Greek verbs used to translate ‫ ּבֹוא‬in the LXX include παραγίνεσθαι (Jos 10:9), ἔρχεσθαι (Jos 11:7; Prov 6:15), ἄγειν (Isa 47:9, 11; Jer 6:26), and ἐπέρχεσθαι (Isa 48:3; Prov 3:25). These verbs can actually bear the nuance “to come upon” (or “to bring upon”) in these contexts. In 1 Thess 5:3b, Paul does not employ any of such verbs which are used as renditions of ‫ ּבֹוא‬in the LXX. This, however, does not rule out the fact that ἐφιστάναι can be understood from the Semitic point of view. It becomes evident

1 305 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, p. 28. 1306 See op. cit., p. 28. 1307 In Jer 15:8; 18:22, the hif ‘il of ‫ ּבֹוא‬is used, i.e., ‫“( הֵ ִביא‬to bring”) and ‫ הֵ ִביא עַ ל‬is rendered as “to bring upon or against”. 1308 See also Isa 47:9, 11; Jer 6:26. 1309 For the numerous Hebrew verbs which are rendered in the LXX as ἐπίσταναι, confer T. Muraoka, A Greek-​Hebrew /​Aramaic: Two-​Way Index to the Septuagint, p. 53. It is evident in the various root meanings of ἐπίσταναι in the LXX that ἐπίσταναι is actually a composite verb comprising of the preposition ἐπί (“on”, “upon”, “near”, “over”, “toward”, “about”, etc.) and the verb ἱστάναι which can either mean “to set”, “to place”, “to allow to come”, “to bring”, “to establish”, “to maintain”, etc.; or “to stand” in the sense of “to come up” or “to appear”, etc. Some manuscripts, i.e., F G Augpt txt Avid D K P Ψ 0278. 81. 104. 365. 630, etc. present the meaning of ἐπίσταναι in 1 Thess 5:3b as “to appear” and so such manuscripts read φανήσεται (“will appear to”) instead of ἐφίσταται (“comes upon”). The use of φανήσεται (a passive verb used in the active sense) –​i.e., indicative passive future II 3rd person singular of the infinitive φαίνειν: “to become visible”, “to appear”, “to become known”, “to be apparent”, etc. –​ indicates that the events described here in 1 Thess 5:3 have eschatological dimension.

1 Thess 5:1-​3

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in Daube’s study of the passages in the NT where “calamities” come upon persons that the verb ἐπέρχεσθαι –​which appears in the LXX in Isa 48:3 and in Prov 3:25 –​ and its “strengthened form” ἐπεισέρχεσθαι have some connection with ἐφιστάναι1310. Daube observes that out of the 10 appearances of ἐπέρχεσθαι in the NT the verb appears in two passages in questions of “attack” (Lk 11:22; Acts 14:19), in five passages the verb is employed in connection with “calamity” (e.g., Acts 8:24), and in four passages the verb is applied in contexts of eschatology (Lk 21:26, 35; Acts 13:40; Jas 5:1). For Daube, just like the verb ἐπεισέρχεσθαι in Lk 21:35, the verb ἐφιστάναι is used in Lk 21:34 and in 1 Thess 5:3 not only in eschatological contexts but also in contexts of disaster and calamity1311. Paul could have used ἐπέρχεσθαι (or its synonym ἐπεισέρχεσθαι) in 1 Thess 5:3b but he chose ἐφιστάναι probably because as Daube indicates: “It [ἐπέρχεσθαι] is practically confined to adverse and ‘wondrous’ things”1312. It can be said that Paul rather makes use of ἐφιστάναι (and the adverb αἰφνίδιος) in 1 Thess 5:3b so as not only to bring out the eschatological dimension of the passage but also to highlight the aspect of judgement and especially the imminent inescapable disaster that await “the others”, i.e., the non-​believers1313. Daube correctly remarks that there is reference to the last judgement in the words in 1 Thess 5:3 which read: “When 1310 The verb ἐπέρχεσθαι (“to come upon”) which appears in the LXX of Isa 48:3 and of Prov 3:25 as renditions of the Hebrew verb ‫ ּבֹוא‬is found in the NT –​especially in the double works of Luke, i.e., the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles –​ as a synonym of ἐφιστάναι, and it is used in eschatological settings or contexts. As indicated earlier, Daube remarks that ἐπέρχεσθαι is a Lucan favourite, and Luke uses the verb “either in connection with disasters or threats of disasters or in connection with awe-​inspiring occurrences”. Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, p. 35. In Eph 2:7, the participle of the verb ἐπέρχεσθαι is used in the phrase: “In the coming ages” (ἐν τοῖς αἰῶσιν τοῖς ἐπερχομένοις) to talk not about disasters but rather about “the coming ages” in which God will show the immeasurable riches of his grace in kindness to us in Christ Jesus. For Daube, the appearance of ἐπέρχεσθαι in Eph 2:7 is exceptionally used in the technical phrase “the coming ages” and that even this phrase (“the coming ages”) has its ultimate origin in an eschatological setting. Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, p. 35. For Daube’s detailed discussion of ἐπέρχεσθαι and its synonym ἐπεισέρχεσθαι in the NT, see op. cit., pp. 34–​38. 1311 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, pp. 35–​36. 1312 See op. cit., p. 18. 1313 In 1 Thess 2:16, Paul rather uses φθάνειν ἐπί (i.e, a synonymous verb with ἐφιστάναι) to describe how “the wrath of God has finally come upon them (i.e., the Jews)”. In 1 Thess 5:3, the “outsiders” or the “rest” may include “the Jews” but they cannot necessarily be referred solely to “the Jews” or even the “compatriots” (συμφυλέται) found in 1 Thess 2:14.

286

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

they say, peace and safety, then sudden destruction cometh upon them, as travail upon a woman with child”, and this reference is evident in the word “destruction” (ὄλεθρος) and the verb “to come upon” (ἐφιστάναι) which are, of course, “the old typical words connected with ‘suddenness’ [αἰφνίδιος]”1314. Through the particle ὥσπερ (“just as”, “like”, “so”, etc.) in 1 Thess 5:3c, Paul continues to liken the “sudden disaster” to “the birth-​pain upon a pregnant woman” (ἡ ὠδὶν τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ), and this imagery seeks to intensify the seriousness and urgency of the situation with regard to the fate of the non-​believers in the face of eschatology and (final) judgement. In this imagery, the substantive ὠδίν means “experience of pains associated with childbirth”, “the pain of childbirth”, “birthpang”, “travail pain”, “anguish”, etc., and it is from the verb ὠδίνειν (“to feel the pains of childbirth”, “to have birth-​pains”, “to travail”, etc.). In the LXX, ὠδίν can translate the Hebrew ‫( חֵ בֶ ל‬III) which can mean “labour pains”, “pains”, “anguish”, “foetus”, “distress”, “child”, etc. (see Isa 13:8; Hos 13:13), and the verb ὠδίνειν can accordingly be the rendition of the Hebrew verb ‫( חבל‬III) which in the modification pi‘el can mean “to be pregnant (with)”, “to be in labour (with)”, “to give birth (to)”, etc. (see Song of Songs 8:5)1315. In the NT, ὠδίν (or forms of its plural ὠδῖνες) appears four times (Mt 24:8 //​Mk 13:8; Acts 2:24; 1 Thess 5:3), and in all these appearances the substantive ὠδίν draws its best interpretation from its OT usage. Mt 24:6-​8 and its parallel Mk 13:7-​8 as well as 1 Thess 5:3 are found in the context of eschatology and they bear the stamp of apocalyptic imageries1316. Acts 2:24 rather talks about the resurrection of Jesus Christ and 1 314 Cf. David Daube, The Sudden in the Scriptures, p. 29. 1315 The Hebrew verb ‫( חבל‬III) in the modification pi‘el is synonymous with the verbs ‫ הָ ַרה‬which in the modification qal can mean “to conceive”, “to be pregnant”, etc., ‫ָילַד‬ which in the modification qal can mean “to give birth to”, “to beget”, etc., ‫ צָ ַרר‬which in the modification hif ‘il can mean “to suffer distress or labour pains, and ‫ חיל‬which in the modification qal can mean “to be in pain”, “to be in labour” (Isa 54:1). The Hebrew substantive ‫ חֵ בֶ ל‬is likewise synonymous with the nouns ‫( צִ יר‬III) –​“pang” or “labour-​pain” (Isa 21:3), ‫“​– צָ ָרה‬groan of a woman in labour” (Jer 4:31), ‫“​– ִחיל‬writhe”, “travail pain” (Isa 13:8), ‫“​– מַ כְ אֹוב‬pain” or “suffering” (Exod 3:7), or ‫“ ​– ֶילֶד‬child”, “unborn child” or “foetus”(Exod 21:22; cf. Isa 26:17) and ‫“( יֹולֵדָ ה‬a woman in labour”). In the OT, there are expressions associated with “a woman in pain” (‫ )יֹולֵדָ ה‬such as: ‫“ ​– ּכַּיֹולֵדָ ה ִחיל‬pain like a woman in labour” (Jer 6:24; 50:43; Mic 4:9; Ps 48:6 MT) ,‫ירי ֽ ֹיול ָ ֵ֑דה‬ ֖ ֵ ִ‫“​– ּכְ צ‬like pains of a woman in travail” (Isa 21:3), and ‫“​– חֶ ְבלֵי יֹולֵדָ ה‬pains as of a woman in childbirth” or “birth-​pangs” (Hos 13:13), etc. See also Isa 23:4; 26:18; Mic 4:9-​10; Sir 19:11. 1316 Compare Mt 24:6-​7 //​Mk 13:7 with Isa 19:2, 1 En 99.4, Rev 6. Compare also Mt 24:8 //​Mk 13:8 (and 1 Thess 5:3) with Isa 26:17, 1 En 62.4.

1 Thess 5:1-​3

287

how God raised him (up) by “releasing (him) from the throes of death or Hades” (λύσας τὰς ὠδῖνας τοῦ θανάτου [ᾅδου]1317). Though this passage (Acts 2:24) is neither found in an eschatological context nor bears any apocalyptic stamp, the expression λύσας τὰς ὠδῖνας τοῦ θανάτου (ᾅδου) is traced to its OT source and interpreted from the viewpoint of (early) Judaism. In the LXX, ὠδῖνες θανάτου (2 Kgs 22:6 LXX; Ps 17:5; 114:3 LXX) corresponds to the Hebrew ‫( חֶ ְבלֵי־מָ וֶת‬Ps 18:5; 116:3), and ὠδῖνες ᾅδου (Ps 17:6 LXX) is equivalent to ‫( חֶ ְבלֵי ְׁשאֹול‬2 Sam 22:6 MT; Ps 18:6 MT). The fact that these expressions ὠδῖνες θανάτου and ὠδῖνες ᾅδου are synonymous is evident in the LXX translation of ‫“( חֶ ְבלֵי ְׁשאֹול‬cords1318 [or pangs] of Sheol”) in 2 Sam 22:6 because the LXX of 2 Sam 22:6 (i.e. 2 Kgs 22:6) does not render ‫ חֶ ְבלֵי ְׁשאֹול‬as ὠδῖνες ᾅδου (“pangs of Hades”) but ὠδῖνες θανάτου (“pangs of death”)1319. In his commentary on the expression: πάντα δὲ ταῦτα ἀρχὴ ὠδίνων (“But all this is the beginning of the birth-​pangs”) in Mt 24:8, Billerbeck singles out the plural ὠδῖνες (and its Hebrew equivalent ‫ )חֲבָ לִ ים‬and points out in his interpretation that the Rabbis sometimes interpreted ‫ חֲבָ לִ ים‬as ַ‫“( חֶ ְבלֵי הַ ּמָ ִׁשיח‬the woes of the Messiah”). He explains further that in reference to this imagery in passages such as Isa 26:17; 66:8; Jer 22:231320, it is not to be understood that these “woes” (Wehen) or “sufferings” (Leiden) are those to be experienced by the Messiah himself, but they are those “woes” and “sufferings” out of which the Messianic era will come1321. Thayer also explains that this term “Woes of the Messiah” ( ַ‫ )חֶ ְבלֵי הַ ּמָ ִׁשיח‬refers to “the intolerable anguish, with reference to the dire calamities which the Jews supposed would precede the advent or the parousia of the Messiah”1322. Billerbeck remarks that this expression “woe(s) of the Messiah” was 1317 Some manuscripts such as D, latt, syp, Irlat, etc. read ᾅδου (“of Hades”) instead of θανάτου (“of death”). 1318 In these passages, the MT uses the construct form of the Hebrew substantive ‫חֶ בֶ ל‬ which actually means “cord” or “rope” (its Greek equivalent: τό σχοινίον), but the LXX translates the passages rather with the construct of the Hebrew substantive ‫ חֵ בֶ ל‬which rather means “labour-​pains”, “birthpangs”, etc. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 679. 1319 Confer also the use of ‫“( ְׁשאֹול‬Sheol”) and ‫“( מָ וֶת‬death”) in Hos 13:14 MT or ᾅδης (“Hades”, “the realm of the dead’, “the nether world”, etc.) and θάνατος (“death”) in Hos 13:14 LXX. 1320 The passages include Hos 13:13 and Mic 4:9-​10 1321 Cf. Hermann L. Strack, Paul Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch (Erster Band): Das Evangelium nach Matthäus…, p. 950. 1322 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 679. The Catholic Study Bible explains further that “the labour pains” in Mt 24:8

288

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

used by the Rabbi R. Eliezer (ca. 90 CE). According to Eliezer, those who vigilantly observe the Sabbath would be kept or saved from three punishments: “The woes of the Messiah” (cf. Mal 3:23), “the Day of Gog” (Ezk 38:18), and “the Great Day of Judgement” (cf. Zeph 1:15-​18)1323. Thus, one can notice in the interpretations of the Rabbis that persons cannot master impending calamities or disasters with bravery (unlike from the perspective of ancient Greek philosophy) but they can be saved from them through their observance of God’s commandments such as that of “keeping holy the Sabbath” (Exod 20:8; Dt 5:12). Moreover, not all persons are destined to suffer the woes (or pains), disasters or calamities that precede the coming of the Messiah but only those who do not observe and keep God’s commandments or do not lead holy and righteous lives in preparation for the Messiah’s parousia. In Hos 13:13, the prophet Hosea categorically emphasizes that the pangs of child-​birth will come upon Israel (Ephraim) for the reason that “he is an unwise child” and so “when the time arrives [for his delivery] he does not come to the opening of the womb” which is the safest place where unborn children break forth from their mothers’ womb. In other words, “Israel’s sin is such as to warrant its destruction (Hos 13:12) because it refused to do penance. It will therefore perish as surely as the unborn child which dies in its mother’s body because it does not properly employ the only way to safety”1324. Likewise, the imagery of the “birthpang” in 1 Thess 5:3c has a purely negative orientation in that: “Childbirth explicates the deadly ruin (see 1 Cor 5:51325; 1 Tim 6:9) which will come upon the people who do not belong to Jesus Christ”1326.

refers to “the tribulations leading up to the end of the age” and they are compared with “the pains of a woman about to give birth”. It maintains that “there is much attestation for rabbinic use of the phrase ‘the woes of the Messiah’ after the New Testament period, but in at least one instance it is attributed to a Rabbi who lived in the late first century A.D. In this Jewish usage it meant the distress of the time preceding the coming of the Messiah; here [in Mt 24:8], the labour pains precede the coming of the Son of Man in glory”. Confer the note on Mt 24:8 in, Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 52. 1323 Cf. Hermann L. Strack, Paul Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch (Erster Band): Das Evangelium nach Matthäus…, p. 950, note b. 1324 Confer the note on Hos 13:13 in, Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 1120. 1325 1 Cor 5:5 is about the instruction Paul gives for an excommunication ceremony. Confer also the “positive” directives Paul gives to avert “excommunication” from the community of believers in 2 Cor 2:5-​11. 1326 Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 89.

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Roose remarks that: “In the NT, the metaphor of the ‘woes’ of the endtime is found in the sayings about the endtime in the synoptic gospels [Mk 13:8; Mt 24:8]. However, while the woes in the synoptics depict the [preliminary] signs of the eschaton, those ‘woes’ in 1 Thess 5:3 describe the endtime itself which suddenly and without any discernible sign befalls those who (wrongly) imagine themselves to have ‘peace and security’ ”1327.

In the NT, it is only Paul who uses the term ὠδίν in the singular, and how he uses this term is in tune with how it is used in the OT. Here in 1 Thess 5:3c where ἡ ὠδίν appears as a hapax legomenon, it is used in the idiomatic expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν (“to be with child”, i.e., “to be pregnant”)1328. Paul’s formulation ὥσπερ ἡ ὠδὶν τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ appears not so simple to translate1329. There are passages in which the use of the expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν is straightforward. Isa

1 327 Cf. Hanna Roose, op. cit., p. 89. 1328 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 110. The expression is also used by ancient Greek authors. The historian Herodotus uses the expression in his work Histories 3.31-​32 in reference to “the woman Cambyses” (ἡ γύνη Καμβύσεα) who was killed by King Cambyses (her husband and at the same time her brother) while she was pregnant. Histories 3.32.4 reads thus: “But he furiously jumped upon her, the woman with child, to cause her to die through miscarriage” (τὸν δὲ θυμωθέντα ἐμπηδῆσαι αὐτῇ ἐχούσῃ ἐν γαστρί, καί μιν ἐκτρώσασαν ἀποθανεῖν). The Greek text is quoted from: Carolus Hude (editor), Herodoti Historiae (editio tertiae: tomus prior). Spicq remarks that this expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν was first attested in the work of the historian Herodotus, and it was carried over into the LXX to translate the Hebrew substantive ‫“( הָ ָרה‬a pregnant woman”). Cf. Ceslas Spicq, Lexique Théologique du Nouveau Testament…, p. 302, and the references in footnote 2. The precarious incident reported here by Herodotus actually depicts the character of King Cambyses and thus portrays how callous, wicked and inhuman King Cambyses was. 1329 The complexity of the translation of the verse may lie in the use of the participle of ἔχειν with the definite article in the dative case, i.e., τῇ … ἐχούσῃ. The prophet Hosea also uses the expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν whereby he employs the participle of ἔχειν with the definite article but in the nominative plural, i.e., καὶ αἱ ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχουσαι αὐτῶν –​ “And their pregnant women or their women with child” (Hos 14:1 LXX). In 4 Kgs 8:12 LXX the expression is used whereby ἔχειν is rendered in the participle in the accusative plural with the definite article also in the accusative plural, i.e., καὶ τὰς ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσας αὐτῶν ἀναρρήξεις (“And their women with child you will rip up”). The word ἐχούσῃ in 1 Thess 5:3c is present active participle dative feminine 3rd person singular of the infinitive ἔχειν (“to have”, “to keep”, “to possess”, etc.) Here ἐχούσῃ is combined with the definite article (dative feminine singular τῇ), hence τῇ

290

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

7:14b LXX reads: “The virgin shall be with child, and bear a son” (ἡ παρθένος ἐν γαστρὶ ἕξει καὶ τέξεται υἱόν)1330. In the synoptic gospels, there is also the expression “woe to pregnant women … in those days” –​οὐαὶ δὲ ταῖς ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσαις … ἐν ἐκείναις ταῖς ἡμέραις (Mt 24:19 //​Mk 13:17 //​Lk 21:23)1331, and Rev 12:2 also reads: “She was with child and she cried out in her birth-​pangs as she laboured to give birth” (καὶ ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχουσα, καὶ κράζει ὠδίνουσα καὶ βασανιζομένη τεκειν)1332. For a correct translation and understanding of the formulation ὥσπερ ἡ ὠδὶν τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ in 1 Thess 5:3c, the comparison Paul makes through the particle ὥσπερ in 5:3bc needs to be stressed. That is, the “destruction” (ὄλεθρος) “suddenly” (αἰφνίδιος) “comes upon” (ἐφίσταται) “them” (αὐτοῖς)1333 just like (ὥσπερ) birth-​pang (ἡ ὠδίν) comes upon a woman with child (ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχουσα). This means that the verb ἐφίσταται and the adverb αἰφνίδιος affect the translation of ὥσπερ ἡ ὠδὶν τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ, and this explains the appearance of the dative τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ because the verb ἐφίσταται takes a dative object. Thus, ὥσπερ ἡ ὠδὶν τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ can be reconstructed as: ὥσπερ ἡ ὠδὶν αἰφνίδιος ἐφίσταται τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ –​“Just as birth-​pang suddenly comes upon a woman with child”1334. Paul’s application of ὥσπερ ἡ ὠδὶν

… ἐχούσῃ. The prepositional phrase ἐν γαστρί comprises of the preposition ἐν (“in”, “on”, “at”, “with”, “among”, etc.) and the dative γαστρί of the substantive ἡ γαστήρ (“the belly”, “the womb”, “the stomach”, etc.) In the MT ἡ γαστήρ is equivalent to ‫ּבֶ טֶ ן‬ which usually means “the womb of a woman” (Ps 22:11). The expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν, therefore, means literally “to have in the womb or in the belly (a child)”, that is to say, “a woman is pregnant”. 1330 Confer the citation of this passage in Mt 1:23. 1331 Confer also Lk 1:31 where a similar expression –​συλλαμβάνεσθαι ἐν γαστρί (“to conceive”, “to become pregnant”, etc.) –​is used. In the LXX versions of Gen 25:21, Exod 2:2, Isa 8:3, another synonymous expression λαμβάνειν ἐν γαστρί (“to conceive”, “to become pregnant”, etc.) is employed. 1332 In Jn 16:21, the anguish or pain of a woman in travail is paralleled to the joy that she experiences after she has given birth to her child, and Jesus rather uses this imagery to talk about the sufferings and sorrows of his disciples here and now which cannot be compared with the joy that they will have when he (the Lord Jesus Christ) returns “on that day“ –​ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ (Jn 16:23) or at the end of time. 1333 I.e., “the others”, “the non-​believers”. 1334 See also Isa 21:3b (LXX) where the verb ἔλαβον (strong aorist indicative active 3rd person plural of the infinitive λαμβάνειν: “to seize”) in the comparison καὶ ὠδῖνες ἔλαβόν με ὡς τὴν τίκτουσαν· (“and pangs have seized me like a woman in labour”) can be reconstructed as καὶ ὠδῖνες ἔλαβόν με ὡς ὠδῖνες ἔλαβόν τὴν τίκτουσαν· (“and pangs seized me like pangs seized a woman in labour”).

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τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ in 1 Thess 5:3c, therefore, stands in close relation to what unfolds in the preceding sub-​verse of 1 Thess 5:3b. Though the expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν was used earlier by the ancient Greek writers and later carried over into the LXX and into the NT1335, the uniqueness of how Paul uses this expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν lies in its relation to “the birth-​ pang” (ἡ ὠδίν) and how he likens the imminent sudden “disaster” or “ruin” (ὄλεθρος) of the people to “the pang of a woman in childbirth” (ἡ ὠδὶν τὴς ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσης) through the particle ὥσπερ (“just like”, “as”, etc.); and that rather helps to interpret Paul’s usage of this expression exclusively from the perspective of the OT. The imagery or the comparison of “birth-​pangs like a woman in travail” abounds in the OT1336. In Jer 4:31 one reads: “For I have heard your groaning as of a woman in travail, like the anguish of a woman that brings forth her first child –​the voice of the daughter of Zion” (Ὅτι φωνὴν ὡς ὠδινούσης ἤκουσα, τοῦ στεναγμοῦ σου, ὡς πρωτοτοκούσης, φωνὴ θυγατρὸς Σιων·).

Isa 13:8a LXX also reads: “And pangs shall seize them [i.e., all persons on earth] as of a woman in labour” (καὶ ὠδῖνες αῦτους ἕξουσιν ὡς γυναικὸς τικτούσης·). It is noticed that the contexts of such passages –​where “pangs, anguish or pains” are compared with those of “a woman in childbirth” –​are characterized by intense anxiety, pains, helplessness, fear, etc., and the impact of “suddenness” on such an atmosphere or situation is also evident. In the Bible, the pangs of child-​birth

1 335 Cf. Ceslas Spicq, Lexique Théologique du Nouveau Testament…, p. 302. 1336 See the use of the expression ὠδῖνες ὡς τικτούσης (“pains as of a woman in childbirth”) in the LXX of Jer 6:24; 50:43; Isa 21:3; Hos 13:13; Mic 4:9, Ps 47:6; also the expression ὠδῖνες … ὡς γυναικὸς τικτούσης (“pangs … as of a woman in labour”) in Isa 13:8b (LXX). Confer also Isa 26:17 (LXX). The word τικτούσης is present participle active genitive feminine singular of the verb τίκτειν (“to give birth”, “to bear”, “to bring forth”, “to produce”, etc.) In the LXX, τίκτειν can be the rendition of any of the Hebrew verbs ‫( ָילַד‬in the modification qal), ‫( חבל‬III) in the modification pi‘el or ‫( הָ ַרה‬in the modification qal) all of which can mean “to conceive”, “to be pregnant”, “to give birth”, “to be in labour”, etc. The verb τίκτειν in the LXX is, therefore, synonymous with the expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν but the expression ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν in the LXX normally translates the Hebrew ‫ הָ ַרה‬in the modification qal (Gen 16:4, 5, 11; 38:24-​25; Exod 21:22; Jdg 13:3, 5, 7; 4 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 14:1). In Job 21:10 LXX, ἐν γαστρὶ ἔχειν rather translates the Hebrew ‫פלט‬ (II) which in the modification pi‘el means “the giving birth of a cow” (cf. also Isa 40:11 LXX). The only place where Paul uses the Greek verb τίκτειν (“to give birth”, “to bring forth”, etc.) is Gal 4:27 which is actually a quotation from Isa 54:1.

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often typify extreme anguish, and this is evident, for example, in the proverbial expression of King Hezekiah in Isa 37:3 (LXX) which reads: “And they said to him, ‘Thus says Hezekiah, this day is a day of affliction, of reproach, of rebuke, and of anger; for birth-​pang comes upon the woman with child, but she has no strength to bring forth [her child]’ ” (Καὶ εἶπαν αὐτῷ, τάδε λέγει Ἐζεκίας, ἡμέρα θλίψεως καὶ ὀνειδισμοῦ καὶ ἐλεγμοῦ καὶ ὀργῆς ἡ σήμερον ἡμέρα, ὅτι ἥκει ἡ ὠδὶν τῇ τικτούσῃ, ἰσχὺν δὲ οὐκ ἔχει τοῦ τεκεῖν).

Thus, “in this instance there is reference to the desperate situation of Hezekiah from which he was scarcely able to free himself ”1337. Spicq notices some connection between Paul’s use of the imagery ὥσπερ ἡ ὠδὶν τῇ ἐν γαστρὶ ἐχούσῃ in 1 Thess 5:3c and the theme of the Lord’s parousia and maintains that: “At the parousia, the pains of humanity shall be equivalent to those of a woman about to give birth” (A la Parousie, les douleurs de l’humanité seront analogues à celles de la femme qui va enfanter)1338.

For Paul, however, not all persons are destined to have a share of the ruin at the Lord’s parousia. It is the lot of those who lead a carefree life and boast of false security and peace that does not exist, and in 1 Thess 5:3d Paul is very emphatic that “they shall in no way escape” (καὶ οὐ μὴ ἐκφύγωσιν). The particle or the conjunction καί in 1 Thess 5:3d functions as consecutive καί to connect what has been said before in the sub-​verses of 1 Thess 5:3abc. Hence, καί can be translated here as “and so”. This means that the subject of the verb ἐκφεύγειν (“to flee out of ”, “to flee away”, “to run away”, “to seek safety in flight”, “to escape”, “to avoid”, etc.)1339 is the same people who say “peace and security” (1 Thess 5:3a). The use of the verb ἐκφεύγειν by some authors in the Hellenistic world suggests that people can be aware of danger or catastrophe and devise some means to avoid or run away from it. Diodorus Siculus reports

1337 Confer the note on Isa 37:3, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 915. 1338 Cf. Ceslas Spicq, Lexique Théologique du Nouveau Testament…, p. 302 footnote 3. It appears that Spicq makes reference to the rabbinic teachings on ὠδῖνες as ַ‫“( חֶ ְבלֵי הַ ּמָ ִׁשיח‬the woes of the Messiah”) which are interpreted as “the pains or anguish that will precede the coming of the Messiah”. Cf. Hermann L. Strack, Paul Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch (Erster Band): Das Evangelium nach Matthäus…, p. 950. Légasse also emphasizes that the imminent “ruin” (ὄλεθρος) will be universal and it will strike the entire humanity. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 287. 1339 Cf. BDAG, p. 312 §§ 1, 2, 3.

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in his work Greek World History 17.112.3 on the instructions the Chaldaean astrologers and soothsayers gave to Alexander the Great “to escape danger” (τὸν κίνδυνον ἐκφεύγειν)1340 while he and his army were marching on Babylon after his victory over the people called “Kossaeans” (Κοσσαῖοι: [see 17.112.1]). The instruction was that: “He [Alexander the Great] can escape or avoid the danger, if he reconstructs the grave of Belos which had been destroyed by the Persians, abandons his intended route, and passes by the city” (δύνασθαι δὲ αὐτὸν ἐκφυγεῖν τὸν κίνδυνον, ἐὰν ἀναστήσῃ τὸν καθῃρημένον ὑπὸ Περσῶν τοῦ Βήλου τάφον καὶ τὴν βεβουλευμένην ὁδὸν ἐπιστήσας παρέλθῃ τὴν πόλιν)1341.

Josephus also reports on the “escape” of Antiochus of Aspendus in the Jewish War 1.65 by writing: “Pursued by the brothers [i.e., Aristobulus and Antigonus, the sons of King Herod] he [Antiochus of Aspendus] got away” (καὶ ὁ μὲν μέχρι Σκυθοπόλεως διωχθεὶς ὑπὸ τῶν ἀδελφῶν ἐκφεύγει)1342.

The use of the verb ἐκφεύγειν in the context of war as reported by Flavius Josephus and Diodorus Siculus suggests that through “flight” persons can escape imminent danger or peril. In the religious sense, however, a person can escape danger or peril but not by his/​her own strength or skills but through the help and grace or mercy of God, hence the need for a person not to depend on his/​her own knowledge or strength, but to trust and depend on God1343. It is reported in the Shepherd of Hermas: Vision that Hermas escapes “a beast as big as can destroy people”. He is consequently paid a compliment by “a young woman” with the words: “It is well that you escaped it [the beast] –​καλῶς ἐξέφυγες” (see Vision 4.2.4a). The “lady”, however, revealed to Hermas in the vision and told him why he was delivered from the beast in the words:

1340 The said danger was the impending death of the King of Babylon which was foretold by the Chaldaean astrologers and soothsayers (cf. Greek World History 17.112.2). 1341 The Greek text is quoted from: Diodorus: Bibliotheca Historica, edidit Curtius Theodorus Fischer (Volume IV), in: Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana, Lipsiae: in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1906, p. 306. 1342 Cf. Josephus II, in: LCL 203. Cambridge.London: Havard University Press, 1927, pp. 32, 33. 1343 Sir 11:10 is very emphatic that his addressee “shall not escape by fleeing” (οὐ μὴ ἐκφύγῃς διαδράς). Cf. Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 83.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

“… You [Hermas] cast your care upon the Lord and opened your heart to the Lord, believing that you could be saved by no other than the great and glorious name. Therefore, the Lord sent his angel in charge of the beasts, whose name is Thegri, who shut its mouth so that it might not hurt you. ‘You have escaped great tribulation’ [Μεγάλην θλῖψιν ἐκπέφευγας] because of your faith and because when you saw such a huge beast, you did not become doubleminded” (Vision 4.2.4b)1344.

In Vision 4.2.5, the “lady” further asks Hermas “to go and explain to the Lord’s elected ones” that: “This beast is an omen of the great tribulation that is coming [τύπος ἐστὶν θλίψεως τῆς μελλούσης τῆς μεγάλης]. If then you (the elected ones) are prepared in advance, and are converted with all your heart to the Lord, you will be able to escape it [i.e. the tribulation], if your heart becomes cleansed and blameless, and you serve the Lord blamelessly for the rest of the days of your life”1345.

In her commentary, Osiek remarks that Vision 4.2.4 seeks to address Hermas by making allusion to Ps 55:22 (or 54:23 LXX) which exhorts the faithful to cast their care upon the Lord1346. For Osiek, the great tribulation is something life-​ threatening that can only be escaped through faith in God’s help1347. The application of ἐκφεύγειν in these passages from the Visions of the Shepherd of Hermas and other texts in the OT, in the Deuterocanonical Books of the OT and in OT Pseudepigrapha actually gives clues to divine intervention in favour of God’s people in regard to salvation, and the use of ἐκφεύγειν in 1 Thess 5:3d echoes such a religious point of view. Sir 16:13, for example, is emphatic that: “The sinner shall not escape with his spoils; and the patience of the godly shall not be frustrated”1348 (οὐκ ἐκφεύξεται ἐν ἁρπάγμασιν ἁμαρτωλός, καὶ οὐ μὴ καθυστερήσει ὑπομονὴν εὐσεβοῦς).

In line with the Exodus event when the Hebrews were led out of Egypt, the land of slavery, Josephus reports in Jewish Antiquities 2.341 that “the Hebrews fled 1344 Cf. Carolyn Osiek, Shepherd of Hermas: A Commentary, edited by Hermut Koester, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999, pp. 89–​90. 1345 Cf. Carolyn Osiek, Shepherd of Hermas: A Commentary, p. 90. 1346 Confer also Ps 117:8 (LXX) which reads: “It is better to take refuge in the Lord than to trust in human being” (Ἀγαθὸν πεποιθέναι ἐπὶ κύριον ἤ πεποιθέναι ἐπὶ ἄνθρωπον). 1347 Cf. Carolyn Osiek, Shepherd of Hermas: A Commentary, p. 94. Osiek, however, stresses that “the encounter with the beast uses apocalyptic symbols but [it] does not develop them in the direction of a description of end-​time events, except in the brief explanation of the four colours in Vision 3.2-​5”. See op. cit., p. 94. 1348 Cf. Lancelot C. L. Brenton, (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 87.

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unharmed” (Ἑβραῖοι δέ ἀπαθεῖς ἐκφυγόντες) from the Egyptians, and for him, the hand of God was seen in this safe escape of the Hebrews. He writes thus: “They [the Hebrews], having thus escaped from danger and, moreover, having seen their enemies punished as no others among human beings previously have been retained within memory, they spent the entire night in songs and amusements; and Moses composed [cf. Exod 15:1] a song to God in hexameter rhythm containing praise and also gratitude for his [God’s] favour [see Exod 15:20-​21; Jdg 5]”1349 (Καὶ οἱ μὲν αὐτοί τε τὸν κίνδυνον οὕτως ἐκφυγόντες καὶ προσέτι τοὺς ἐχθροὺς ἐπιδόντες κεκολασμένους, ὡς οὐκ ἄλλοι τινὲς μνημονεύονται τῶν πρόσθεν ἀνθρώπων, ἐν ὕμνοις ἦσαν καὶ παιδιαῖς ὅλην τὴν νύκτα, καὶ Μωυσῆς ᾠδὴν εἰς τὸν θεὸν ἐγκώμιόν τε καὶ τῆς εὐμενείας εὐχαριστίαν περιέχουσαν ἐν ἑξαμέτρῳ τόνῳ συντίθησιν)1350.

In the LXX, the verb ἐκφεύγειν (“to escape”) is employed in different contexts and situations. The verb is used in 2 Macc 9:22 in a context where King Antiochus speaks about his hope to escape or recover from the incurable sickness that has befallen him through divine power and writes in his letter addressed to the Jews: “I do not despair about my health, but I have great hope to escape or recover from this illness” (οὐκ ἀπογινώσκων τὰ κατ᾽ ἐμαυτόν, ἀλλὰ ἔχων πολλὴν ἐλπίδα ἐκφεύξεσθαι τὴν ἀσθένειαν)1351.

In 3 Macc 6:29, the Jews acknowledge God as their only saviour who has released them from bondage, and they praise God because “now they escaped from [violent] death” (ἄρτι τὸν θάνατον ἐκπεφευγόντες). Here in 3 Macc 6, “death” is synonymous with “destruction” (ὄλεθρος) because it is evident in 3 Macc 6:30 that the place of bondage where they were to die was considered “the place they were expected to submit themselves to ruin or destruction” (ἐν ᾧ τόπῳ ἔδοξαν τὸν ὄλεθρον ἀναλαμβάνειν)1352. Isa 66:7 also reports on the luck of a woman, i.e., “Mother Zion” who escapes the “pain of childbirth” and “safely gives birth to a male child”. Isa 66:7 (LXX) reads thus:

1349 Cf. Flavius Josephus: Judean Antiquities 1-​4, translation and commentary by Louise H. Feldman, Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, Inc., 2004, pp. 229–​230. 1350 Quoted from: Flavii Iosephi Opera (Vol. 1, Libri I-​V), edidit et apparatu critico instruxit par Benedictus Niese, Berolini: Apud Weidmannos, 1887, p. 155. 1351 King Antiochus suffered from an excruciating pains in the bowels and his inner parts (see 2 Macc 19:5, 11). Though he hoped to recover from his illness, he died a miserable death after extreme sufferings (cf. 2 Macc 19:28). That is, once it was not the will of God that he (Antiochus) recovered from his illness, he could in no way “escape” or “recover” from it by his own might or strength. 1352 Confer also 3 Macc 6:31-​32.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

“Before she that in labour gave birth, before the pain of childbirth came on, she escaped it and brought forth a male child” (Πρὶν ἤ τὴν ὠδίνουσαν τεκεῖν, πρὶν ἐλθεῖν τὸν πόνον τῶν ὠδίνων, ἐξέφυγεν καὶ ἔτεκεν ἄρσεν).

God was with “Mother Zion” and so she could escape the pain of childbirth, and the absence of labour (pain) in Mother Zion’s childbearing is, of course, a symbol of the joyful begetting of the new people of God1353. In 1 Thess 5:3d, Paul uses ἐκφεύγειν in a religious sense to emphasize that the believers who have put their trust in God by “turning to God to serve him” (see 1 Thess 1:9), and are hopeful about the coming of his Son, Jesus Christ, the Saviour (see 1 Thess 1:10) can escape (or be saved from) the impending disaster (ὄλεθρος); but for Paul the non-​believers who do not have hope for the Lord’s second coming and the resurrection of the dead (cf. 1 Thess 4:13 ff; 5:6) but have a carefree attitude to the Lord’s parousia and probably trust in their own strength and wisdom can in no way escape the imminent destruction. In the verses that follow (i.e., 1 Thess 5:4-​10), Paul draws a line between two categories of persons –​the believers in Christ or the God-​fearers and non-​ believers –​and elaborates on how the Christ’s faithful are destined for salvation (1 Thess 5:9) but “the others” (1 Thess 5:6, cf. also 5:3a; 5:7) for inescapable destruction (1 Thess 5:3d). Such a distinction between God-​fearers or the righteous and the ungodly or “sinners” with regard to their fate (in the end of time) abounds in the OT, in the Deuterocanonical Books of the OT and in OT Pseudepigrapha. Prov 6:15 (LXX) teaches that for the wicked, the ungodly, or the unwise person (ἀνὴρ ἄφρων, cf. Prov 6:12) who does not walk the way of the Lord “disaster will overtake him in an instant, and he will suddenly be destroyed without remedy” (διὰ τοῦτο ἐξαπίνης ἔρχεται ἡ ἀπώλεια αὐτοῦ, διακοπὴ καὶ συντριβὴ ἀνίατος). Prov 3:25 (LXX) also stresses that the wise disciple may be confident, hence the exhortation: “Have no fear of sudden disaster or of the ruin that overtakes [or comes upon] the wicked” (καὶ οὐ φοβηθήσῃ πτόησιν ἐπελθοῦσαν οὐδὲ ὁρμὰς ἀσεβῶν ἐπερχομένας) because the Lord will be the confidence of the wise and the righteous and will keep their feet from being snared (Prov 3:26). 2 Macc 7:34-​35 cautions that the “ungodly” should not be puffed up with “uncertain hopes” (ἀδήλοις ἐλπίσιν) because the ungodly has not yet escaped the judgement of the Almighty God, who sees all things (cf. οὔπω γὰρ τὴν τοῦ παντοκράτορος ἐπόπτου θεοῦ κρίσιν ἐκπέφευγας in 2 Macc 7:35). Pss.Sol

1353 Confer the note on Isa 66:7-​9, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 948. Confer also Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 287.

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15:8b also emphasizes that: “Those who act lawlessly shall not escape the Lord’s judgement” (οὐκ ἐκφεύξονται οἱ ποιοῦντες ἀνομίαν τὸ κρίμα κυρίου), and in fact “on their forehead [is] the mark of destruction” –​τὸ γὰρ σημεῖον τῆς ἀπωλείας ἐπὶ τοῦ μετώπου αὐτῶν (see Pss.Sol 15:9b) because “the inheritance of sinners is destruction and darkness” –​ἡ κληρονομία τῶν ἁμαρτωλῶν ἀπώλεια καὶ σκότος (Pss.Sol 15:10a)1354. While sinners shall perish forever in the day of the Lord’s judgement (Pss.Sol 15:12, 13c), those who fear the Lord shall find mercy in it (i.e., the day of the Lord’s judgement) and shall live by their God’s mercy (Pss. Sol 15:13; cf. also Pss.Sol 13:11)1355. Elsewhere in Rom 2:3, Paul stresses that a person who acts “immorally” shall not escape God’s judgement, and he thus puts the question: “Do you suppose then, you [O man!] who judge those who do such things and yet do them yourself, that you will escape the judgement of God?”1356 (Λογίζῃ δὲ τοῦτο, ὦ ἄνθρωπε ὁ κρίνων τοὺς τὰ τοιαῦτα πράσσοντας καὶ ποιῶν αὐτά, ὅτι σὺ ἐκφεύξῃ τὸ κρίμα τοῦ θεοῦ;).

Through the double negation οὐ μή (“not at all”; “in no way”, etc.) in the negative construction οὐ μὴ ἐκφύγωσιν in 1 Thess 5:3d, Paul emphatically denies that those who say “peace and security” or the non-​believers shall escape the imminent sudden destruction on the day of the Lord. Luckensmeyer points out clearly that: “The negative plus the subjunctive, ἐκφύγωσιν … rules out a potentiality, which is much stronger than οὐ plus the indicative which merely rules out a certainty … As decisively as possible, Paul is saying that there is no escape”1357.

The day of the Lord and the “sudden” destruction as described in 1 Thess 5:1-​3 can be considered as events that will take place in the future because the negative construction οὐ μή is “the most decisive way of negativing something in the

1354 Confer also Pss.Sol 14:9a which reads: “Their inheritance is Hades, and darkness and destruction” (ἡ κληρονομία αὐτῶν ᾅδης καὶ σκότος καὶ ἀπώλεια). 1355 Pss.Sol 14:10 also reads: “But the devout of the Lord will inherit life in happiness” (οἱ δὲ ὅσιοι κυρίου κληρονομήσουσιν ζωὴν ἐν εὐφροσύνῃ), and Pss.Sol 3:12 stresses that: “But those who fear the Lord shall rise up to eternal life, and their life shall be in the Lord’s light, and it shall never end” (οἱ δὲ φοβούμενοι τὸν κύριον ἀναστήσονται εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον, καὶ ἡ ζωὴ αὐτῶν ἐν φωτὶ κυρίου καὶ οὐκ ἐκλείψει ἔτι). 1356 Apart from Rom 2:3 and 1 Thess 5:3, the other place Paul uses the verb ἐκφεύγειν is 2 Cor 11:33. In 2 Cor 11:33, Paul rather talks about his escape from the hands of the governor under King Aretas (cf. Acts 9:23-​25). 1357 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 279.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

future”1358. The rendition of ἐκφύγωσιν as ἐκφεύξονται –​future active indicative 3rd person plural of the infinitive ἐκφεύγειν –​by the manuscripts D F G1359 also suggests that Paul’s use of ἐκφεύγειν in 1 Thess 5:3d has eschatological dimension.

3.1. (ii). 1 Thess 5:4-​5 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:4-​5 (with Notes) 4a. ὑμεῖς δέ, ἀδελφοί, 4b. οὐκ ἐστὲ ἐν σκότει, 4c. ἵνα ἡ ἡμέρα ὑμᾶς ὡς κλέπτης1360 καταλάβῃ· 5a. πάντες γὰρ ὑμεῖς υἱοὶ φωτός ἐστε καὶ υἱοὶ ἡμέρας. 5b. Οὐκ ἐσμὲν1361 νυκτὸς οὐδὲ σκότους·

4a. But you, brethren, 4b. (you) are not in darkness,

1358 Cf. BDAG, p. 646 § 4. It is also explained in BDF that οὐ μή with the aorist subjunctive or future indicative, both of which are classical, is “the most definite form of negation regarding the future”. Cf. BDF, p. 184 § 365. 1359 Cf. Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, et al. (Hrsg.), Novum Testamentum Graece, 28. Revidierte Auflage…, p. 628. 1360 The manuscripts: A B bopt read the plural κλέπτας (“thieves”) instead of the singular κλέπτης (“a thief ”). Best remarks that the singular κλέπτης (which appears in the majority of the manuscripts: e.g. ‫ א‬D F G, etc.) is to be preferred because the nuance conveyed by the singular is more helpful in understanding “the day” (ἡ ἡμέρα) here in verse 4c as referring to “the day of the Lord” (ἡμέρα κυρίου) in 1 Thess 5:2b but not to “daylight”. For more details of Best’s arguments in favour of the preference for the singular, confer Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 209. Lövestam also maintains that: “Both the story of the thief metaphor and the use of this metaphor in verse 2 seem … to speak decisively for κλέπτης”. Cf. Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, p. 48 and the references in footnote 5. When one considers that the day of the Lord (ἡμέρα κυρίου) is the subject here which comes like a thief, then the singular κλέπτης is to be preferred because “the day” (ἡ ἡμέρα) is singular. 1361 The manuscripts D F G it vgmss syp, etc. read ἐστέ (“you”) instead of ἐσμέν (“we”). The 1st person plural personal pronoun ἐσμὲν (“we”) can be preferable here to the 2nd person plural personal pronoun ἐστέ (“you”) on the grounds that the pronoun “we” gives the clue that Paul and his co-​authors identify themselves with the community of believers in Thessalonica to whom they address the letter.

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4c. for the day to overtake you like a thief; 5a. For you are all sons of light and sons of day. 5b. We belong neither to night nor darkness.

Notes: The particle δέ (“but”) in verse 4a is a “marker of contrast”1362. It connects the preceding verses 1-​3 to verses 4-​5 but it has an adversative function because combined with the personal pronoun ὑμεῖς (“you”), i.e. ὑμεῖς δέ (“but you”) it rather expresses a contrast between the fate of “those who say peace and security” in verse 3 and that of the members of the community of believers who are addressed here in verse 4a as “brethren” (ἀδελφοί). The negative adverb οὐκ or οὐ (“not”) in verse 4b is a “marker of negative prepositions” which denies any reality or alleged fact that the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica are “in darkness” (ἐν σκότει). The conjunction ἵνα in verse 4c can be translated here as “so that” to mean that it is a marker which serves as a substitute for the infinitive of result, but it can also be rendered as “for”, “that”, “to the extent that”, etc. to mean that it is a marker which denotes purpose or end1363. The particle γάρ (“for”) in the expression πάντες γὰρ ὑμεῖς (“for you all”) in verse 5a seeks to clarify or explain who the believers are in reality (or at least in principle), i.e. all of them are “sons of light” (υἱοὶ φωτός) and “sons of day” (υἱοὶ ἡμέρας). A further clarification on the status of the Christ’s faithful as “sons of light” and “sons of day” is seen in verse 5b in the statement which literally translates “we are not of night nor of darkness” and can mean “we belong neither to night nor darkness”. The negative construction οὔκ … οὐδέν (“neither … nor”) in verse 5b is actually a strengthened form of the negation in the previous verse 4b. Thus, here in verse 5b Paul and his co-​authors continue to emphasize categorically that the believers in Christ do not belong to night nor darkness but they rather belong to light and day. The repetition of and the play on the terms “darkness”, “night”, 1 362 See also the use of δέ in 1 Cor 2:15. 1363 Luckensmeyer points out that the conjunction ἵνα (verse 4c) plus the subjunctive καταλάβῃ (verse 4c) take the place of an infinitive of results, and so ἵνα can be translated as “so that” to indicate a consecutive use. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 279. Cf. also Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 294 footnote 1; and BDAG, p. 477 § 3. Hoppe, however, is of the opinion that here ἵνα is not followed by the infinitive καταλαβεῖν and so it (ἵνα) cannot be described here purely as consecutive but it rather contains a motive for a wish. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 300 and footnote 354.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

“light” and “day” allow a chiastic structure not only in 5:5 but also in 5:4-​5. The chiastic arrangement will be considered in the course of the exegesis of this unit of 1 Thess 5:4-​5.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:4-​5 It is very clear in the vocative or direct address in 1 Thess 5:4a, i.e., ὑμεῖς δέ, ἀδελφοί (“but you, brethren”) that there is a new syntactical unit1364. Attention is shifted from “they” –​i.e., those who say “peace and security” in 1 Thess 5:3a and the “prophecy” of the imminent inescapable destruction that befalls them –​to the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica whom Paul addresses as ἀδελφοί (“brethren”). The particle δέ, therefore, functions here to draw a distinction between the “outsiders” and the Christ’s faithful addressed here as ὑμεῖς, ἀδελφοί (“You, brethren”)1365. Through the expression “you are not in darkness” (οὐκ ἐστὲ ἐν σκότει) in 1 Thess 5:4b, Paul states categorically that the believers in Christ do not belong to darkness1366. Thus, Paul begins the pericope (1 Thess 5:4-​5) by describing what the Christ’s faithful are not whereby he plays on the theme of darkness and light with a reassuring affirmation of the true identity of the believers, which provides the basis for the exhortation in this passage and those that follow1367. The conviction that the believers are not in darkness explains the reason why they should not be overtaken by the day as a thief (1 Thess 5:4c, 5ab). Thus, here in 1 Thess 5:4-​5 Paul continues to talk about the day of the Lord, and the repetition of the phrase “like a thief ” –​ὡς κλέπτης (1 Thess 5:2b; 5:4c) demonstrates not only how unpredictable its arrival can be, but also how surprisingly the day of the Lord can befall persons. It becomes evident, therefore, that

1 364 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 279. 1365 Luckensmeyer observes correctly that here in this syntactical unit of 1 Thess 5:4-​5 Paul uses ὑμεῖς twice in verses 4a and 5a and this double usage of ὑμεῖς “makes a strong contrast between the Thessalonian community and those for which there shall be no escape”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 279. Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 299. This ὑμεῖς (“you”) is seen here as an emphatic “you” which emphasizes the distinctive status of the Christ’s faithful who are not in darkness but rather sons of light and day and are prepared and ready for the Lord’s parousia. In 1 Thess 5:5a the phrase “all of you” (πάντες ὑμεῖς) refers to the entire community of believers in Thessalonica or even all believers in Christ. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 301. 1366 This implies that Paul rather considers the “outsiders” to be those who are in “darkness”. 1367 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 293.

1 Thess 5:4-​5

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“the day” (ἡ ἡμέρα) in 1 Thess 5:4c refers to “the day of the Lord” (ἡμέρα κυρίου) in 1 Thess 5:2b. While in 1 Thess 5:2b it is said that “the day of the Lord comes like a thief in the night” (ἡμέρα κυρίου ὡς κλέπτης ἐν νυκτὶ οὕτως ἔρχεται), in 1 Thess 5:4c the day (of the Lord) is described as potential enough “to overtake” (καταλαμβάνειν) persons like a thief. However, unlike in verse 2b where the talk about the day of the Lord is followed by and (is) connected with the talk about the destruction that suddenly comes upon them (i.e., the outsiders) in verse 3 (cf. αἰφνίδιος αὐτοῖς ἐφίσταται ὄλεθρος), verse 4c speaks of the day of the Lord primarily in connection with the conviction that the day of the Lord cannot overtake, surprise or suddenly befall the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica because they are not in darkness. The verb καταλαμβάνειν which in 1 Thess 5:4c means “to overtake”, “to catch (up with)”, etc., is actually synonymous with the verb ἐφιστάναι in 1 Thess 5:3b because καταλαμβάνειν means here “to come upon someone, with implication of surprise”1368. In the LXX, the verb καταλαμβάνειν with the meaning “to overtake”, “to catch up with” can translate the Hebrew ‫( ִה ִּׂשיג‬the hif ‘il of the verb ‫נׂשג‬1369), and in the passages where καταλαμβάνειν is used in this sense the “overtaking” is preceded mostly by “pursuing” (διώκειν and sometimes καταδιώκειν)1370, and those who are “caught up with” or “overtaken” (by events) find themselves in an unpleasant situation. Dt 28:45 (LXX), for example, reads: “All these curses shall come upon you and pursue you and overtake you, till you are destroyed, because you did not obey the voice of the Lord your God, to keep his commandments and his statutes which he commanded you”1371 (καὶ ἐλεύσονται ἐπὶ σὲ πᾶσαι αἱ κατάραι αὗται καὶ καταδιώξονταί σε καὶ καταλήμψονταί σε, ἕως ἂν ἐξολεθρεύσῃ σε

1368 Cf. BDAG, p. 520 § 3. The RSV translates the clause ἵνα ἡ ἡμέρα ὑμᾶς ὡς κλέπτης καταλάβῃ as “for that day to surprise you like a thief ” (1 Thess 4:5c). Malherbe remarks that the verb καταλαμβάνειν can have the sense of hostility, i.e., “to overtake” or “to seize”, and the meaning “to surprise” is consistent with the use of the image in 1 Thess 5:2. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294. 1369 See Gen 44:4; Exod 15:9; Dt 19:6; 28:45; Jer 52:8; Lam 1:3. Other Hebrew verbs which are rendered in the LXX as καταλαμβάνειν include, ‫ ּדָ בַ ק‬which in the modification qal can mean “to overtake” or “to befall” (Gen 19:19); ‫ מָ צָ א‬which in the modification qal can mean “to befall”, “to overtake”, “to catch hold of ” (Jdg 1:5B); and ‫ ָלכַד‬which in the modification qal means “to capture”, “to seize”, “to catch”, etc. (Job 5:13; Nm 21:32). 1370 In these contexts, the Greek διώκειν or καταδιώκειν translates the Hebrew ‫ ָרדַ ף‬which in the modification qal can mean “to pursue”. 1371 Quoted from the RSV.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

καὶ ἕως ἄν ἀπολέσῃ σε, ὅτι οὐκ εἰσήκουσας τῆς φωνῆς κυρίου τοῦ θεοῦ σου φυλάξαι τὰς ἐντολὰς αὐτοῦ καὶ τὰ δικαιώματα αὐτοῦ, ὅσα ἐνετείλατό σοι).

Dt 19:6 (LXX) also reads: “Lest the avenger of blood pursue after the slayer, because his heart is hot, and overtake him, if the way be too long, and slay him, though there is to this man no sentence of death, because he hated him not in time past”1372 (ἵνα μὴ διώξας ὁ ἀγχιστεύων τοῦ αἵματος ὀπίσω τοῦ φονεύσαντος, ὅτι παρατεθέρμανται τῇ καρδίᾳ, καὶ καταλάβῃ αὐτόν, ἐὰν μακροτέρα ᾖ ἡ ὁδός, καὶ πατάξῃ αὐτοῦ τὴν ψυχήν, καὶ ἀποθάνῃ, καὶ τούτῳ οὐκ ἔστιν κρίσις θανάτου, ὅτι οὐ μισῶν ἦν αὐτὸν πρὸ τῆς ἐχθὲς καὶ πρὸ τῆς τρίτης).

In Gen 19:19 (LXX), καταλαμβάνειν is the rendition of the Hebrew ‫ ּדָ בַ ק‬which in the modification qal can mean “to overtake” or “to befall”, and there ‫ ּדָ בַ ק‬is used specifically to talk about a “misfortune which overtakes or befalls someone”1373. Gen 19:19 (LXX) reads thus: “But I shall not be able to escape to the mountain, lest perhaps the calamity overtake me and I die” (ἐγὼ δὲ οὐ δυνήσομαι διασωθῆναι εἰς τὸ ὄρος, μή ποτε καταλάβῃ με τὰ κακά, καὶ ἀποθάνω)1374.

In Jer 10:19b (LXX), it is a wound that befalls or overtakes a person. The text reads thus: “And I said, surely this is thy wound, and it has overtaken thee” (κᾀγὼ εἶπα, ὄντως τοῦτο τὸ τραῦμά σου, καὶ κατέλαβέ σε)1375. The use of καταλαμβάνειν in such OT passages helps to interpret Paul’s application of the verb in 1 Thess 5:4c because here when καταλαμβάνειν means “to overtake” it does not mean “to pass by” or anything else other than “to be taken by surprise”, “to be taken by events” or “to be caught up unawares by events”. The verb appears in 1 Thess 5:4c in the middle voice, i.e. καταλάβῃ (indicative middle present 3rd person singular) and can mean “to seize” or “to lay hold of ”, “to fall upon”. In the Pauline writings, it is only here in 1 Thess 5:4c where

1372 Cf. Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 257. 1373 Cf. David J. A. Clines (editor), The Concise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, p. 73. 1374 Quoted from: Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 22. See also Sir 7:1. 1375 Quoted from: Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 916. This text (Jer 10:19b) does not appear in the MT. For the various meanings of καταλαμβάνειν in the LXX, confer T. Muraoka, A Greek-​English Lexicon of the Septuagint, pp. 374–​375.

1 Thess 5:4-​5

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καταλαμβάνειν conveys the meaning “to overtake” or “to befall”1376. Elsewhere in the NT, there are passages in which the verb is used in this sense as found in 1 Thess 5:4c (see Mk 9:18; Jn 8:3, 4; 12:35). Jn 12:35 appears to have the closest parallel with 1 Thess 5:4c, considering the contexts in which the verb is used in these texts. Jn 12:35 reads: “Jesus, therefore, said to them, ‘The light is with you for a little longer. Walk as long as you have the light, so that the darkness may not overtake you; the one who walks in the darkness does not know where he goes’ ” (εἶπεν οὖν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς· ἔτι μικρὸν χρόνον τὸ φῶς ἐν ὑμῖν ἐστιν. περιπατεῖτε ὡς τὸ φῶς ἔχετε, ἵνα μὴ σκοτία ὑμᾶς καταλάβῃ· καὶ ὁ περιπατῶν ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ οὐκ οἶδεν ποῦ ὑπάγει)1377.

It is implied here in 1 Thess 5:4c that the day (of the Lord), which is the subject of the verb καταλαμβάνειν, can have a negative dimension just as ὄλεθρος –​the subject of ἐφιστάναι in verse 3b. Nonetheless, in verse 4c the verb καταλαμβάνειν rather speaks positively in favour of the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica because since they do not belong to darkness (verse 5) and are living as sons or children of light in the expectation of the Lord’s coming, they will not face judgement and destruction (unlike the outsiders) but they will rather have salvation. A predominant theme in 1 Thess 5:4-​5 is the contrast between “darkness” and “light”. The expression “to be in darkness” (ἐν σκότει εἶναι) can be understood in the metaphorical sense to mean “ignorance respecting divine things and human duties, and the accompanying ungodliness and immorality, together with their consequent misery”1378. It is “the state of spiritual or moral darkness”, or “the state of being darkened by sin”, and this state is mostly associated with “the state of unbelievers and of the godless”1379. Best explains that: “Darkness is associated with behaviour which does not please God but the faithful enter a new age of light (Isa 30:26; 60:19-​20); and while darkness is associated with behaviour which does not please God (Job 22:9-​11; Ps 74:20; 82:5), light is connected with behaviour which pleases God (Job 29:3; Isa 2:5; Mic 7:8)”1380.

1376 In Rom 9:30; 1 Cor 9:24; Phil 3:12, 13, the verb is used in the sense of “to reach a target”, “to grasp” or “to attain”. See also Eph 3:18 where the verb means “to grasp with the mind” or “to comprehend”. 1377 In his work De Josepho 145, Philo also uses the verb καταλαμβάνειν to talk about the fall of darkness in a context where “darkness” is contrasted with “light”. 1378 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 580. 1379 Cf. BDAG, p. 932 § 3. 1380 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 209.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

Ps 74:20 makes it clear that “the dark places on earth are filled with iniquity or violence”, and it is evident in Ps 82:5 that “those who walk in darkness have neither knowledge nor understanding [of God]”. Darkness represents perdition, judgement, destruction and death (1 En 102.7; 103.7-​8). The opposite of such a state described as “darkness” (σκότος) is “light” (φῶς), which rather means “light that illuminates the spirit and soul of humans” (Odes.Sol 11:19); and this φῶς is “generally the element in which the redeemed person lives, rich in blessings without and within (Pss.Sol 3:12)”1381. Best sees the discussion of the contrast between darkness and light to be associated with the moral and eschatological realms. He maintains that such a contrast became especially strong in the writings of Qumran (e.g. 1QS 3.13-​4.26) and in the apocalyptic literature generally (e.g. T. Naph 2.7-​10; T. Benj 5.3). After it was taken up by the first believers in Christ, it appeared throughout the NT (e.g. Mk 13:24; Rev 8:12; 1 Pt 2:9), and in the NT this contrast is especially important in the Johannine literature and also in the Pauline writings (cf. Rom 1:21; 2:19; 13:11-​131382)1383. Malherbe echoes this fact by stressing that the contrast between night and day, darkness and light which describes the human condition was widespread in philosophy and religion, particularly the religion of Israel (Job 29:2-​3; see also Gen 1:4b; Job 22:111384), and such a contrast became very sharp in apocalyptic literature (3 Bar 6:13; 1 En 41.8; 2 En 30:151385)1386. There are, in fact, instances in ancient Greek philosophy where the contrast between “light” and “darkness” is emphasized. “Darkness” is associated with dying (Hom Il 18.10f; Eur Iph Aul 1506 ff), death (Eur Alc 237), Hades (Hom Il 4.461; 15.191; 21.561387), blindness (Soph Oed Tyr 419; Eur Phoen 376f; 1533 ff1388), lack of knowledge or understanding, i.e. error (Democr fr 11)1389, but 1 381 Cf. BDAG, p. 1073 § 1β. 1382 See also 1 Cor 4:5; 2 Cor 4:6; 6:14; 1 Thess 5:4-​5, and also Eph 5:8-​11; 4:18; 6:12; Col 1:13. 1383 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 209. 1384 Confer also Ps 82:5; Isa 42:6-​7; 60:19-​20; Mic 7:8. 1385 See also 4 Ezra 14.20; 1QS 3.13-​4.26; T. Naph 2.7, 10; T. Benj 5.3; and T. Levi 19.1; 1 En 41.8; 108.11-​14; 1QM 13.4-​5, 9-​12, 15-​16. 1386 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 293. 1387 See also Hom Od 11.57; Eur Phoen 1453; Eur Hec 1; Virgil Aen 6.264 ff. 1388 See also Dt 28:29 in the OT; and Acts 13:11 in the NT. 1389 Cf. Hans Conzelmann, “σκότος, σκοτία, σκοτόω, σκοτίζω, σκοτεινός“, in: Gerhard Kittel (founder), Gerhard Friedrich (editor), Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament (Band VII), Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer Verlag, 1964, pp. 425–​427 and the references in the footnotes 12, 13, 16.

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“light” (φῶς) is connected with “daylight” (Hom Od 23.371; Plat Resp 6.508c). The return from Hades (the place of the dead) is coming back to light (Soph Phil 624f; El 419); to see light means to live (Hom Il 18.61.442), and to depart from light means to die (Hom Il 18.10f; Aristoph Ach 1185) because light is seen as the possibility of life (Plat Crat 418 c –​d). Consequently, “from darkness into light”: ἐκ σκότους εἰς φῶς (Plat Resp 7.518a) means to be saved (cf. Hom Il 6.6). Light is also associated with knowledge (Plut Aud 17) or the means to acquire the knowledge which helps a person to know him/​herself and also to understand the world. Light corresponds to truth (Plat Resp 6.508b), and the source of this light is the gods or the deities (cf. Hom Od 6.43 ff)1390. The “darkness-​light” metaphor in ancient Greek philosophy can be said to have little bearing on the contrast Paul draws between “darkness” and “light” in 1 Thess 5:5. Conzelmann remarks that though such a contrast exists in Hellenistic philosophy (e.g., Plutarch, Consolatio ad uxorem 8; Col 24), its occurrences are not innumerable but few, and the most popular direct expression of the contrast between “darkness” and “light” in ancient Greek philosophy is witnessed in the movement “from darkness into light”: ἐκ σκότους εἰς φῶς (Plat Resp 7.518a; Parm fr 1) or ἐκ τῶν σκοτεινῶν καὶ ταρακτικῶν πρὸς τὰ φωτεινὰ καὶ λαμπρά (Plutarch, Consolatio ad uxorem 8)1391. The contrast between “darkness” and “light” in Greek philosophy is rather made to be understood mostly in the context of separate discussions of the individual terms. Moreover, this contrast in Greek philosophy may have emphasis on the morality of persons but “darkness” does not necessarily mean “sinfulness or guilt” but a mere comparison or opposite of “light” (Parm fr 8.54)1392. This means, therefore, that unlike in early Jewish literature and in writings of Hellenistic-​Judaism1393 –​where the movement from darkness into light is associated with conversion motif, i.e., from the worship and service of deities in the Hellenistic polytheism into the worship and service of the one almighty God in Jewish monotheism, or from “error to the truth” (see Jos.Asen 8.9) –​this movement from darkness into light in ancient Greek philosophy has nothing or little to do with this kind of conversion. Though in both ancient Greek philosophy and in early Jewish writings the term “light” has something to do with “the truth”, “life”, “knowledge”, “hope”, etc., while the contrasting 1 390 Cf. Hans Conzelmann, “φῶς, κτλ”, in: ThWNT 9 (1973), pp. 305–​307. 1391 Cf. Hans Conzelmann, “φῶς, κτλ”, p. 305; also Hans Conzelmann, “σκότος, σκοτία, σκοτόω, σκοτίζω, σκοτεινός“, pp. 425, 426 and footnote 8. 1392 Cf. Hans Conzelmann, “φῶς, κτλ”, p. 306. 1393 See, for example, Jos.Asen 8.9; Odes.Sol 11:19; T. Jud 5.3-​4; T. Gad 5.7; T. Jos 19:3; Sib.Fragm 1.25-​34; 1QH 9.26 f.

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term “darkness” is associated with “error”, “death”, “ignorance”, “hopelessness”, etc., the emphasis made in the expression of such terms in ancient Greek philosophy sometimes differ from that in early Jewish writings. In Judaism, the contrast between the terms “darkness” and “light” has a “conversion motif ” and it is evident in some early Jewish literature that it is God who calls his people or his creation from “the darkness to the light” (Jos.Asen 8.10; Odes.Sol 11.19; T. Jos 19:3)1394, from “error to the truth” (Jos.Asen 8:10), and from “death to life” (Jos. Asen 8:10)1395. Unlike in ancient Greek philosophy, the condition of those in darkeness prior to their coming into light is considered in early Jewish literature to be associated with “immorality”, “sinfulness”, “perdition”, “ignorance” and “ungodliness”. In T. Gad 5.6, Gad admits that it was after his repentance that he learnt all the things about the need to avoid hatred and abide by God’s love and to lead righteous life. He further explains in T. Gad 5.7 that: “… true repentance after a godly sort (destroys ignorance, and) drives away the darkness, and enlightens the eyes, and gives knowledge to the soul, and leads the mind to salvation”1396 (ἡ γὰρ κατὰ θεὸν ἀληθὴς μετάνοια ἀναιρεῖ τὴν ἄγνοιαν, καὶ φυγαδεύει τὸ σκότος, καὶ φωτίζει τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς, καὶ γνῶσιν παρέχει τῇ ψυχῇ, καὶ ὁδηγεῖ τὸ διαβούλιον πρὸς σωτηρίαν)1397.

In early Jewish literature, a person who is in darkness is believed to be prevented from doing the works of light or good deeds pleasing to God (see T. Naph 2.10), and where there is reverence for good works and light in the mind, even darkness flees away from a person (see T. Benj 5.3). The contrast between “darkness” (τὸ σκότος) and “light” (τὸ φῶς) is also evident in T. Job 43:6 where Elihu (referred to as the evil one [see T. Job 43:5, 17]1398) is said to be of darkness and not of light because: “He did not take to himself the Lord, nor did he fear him /​But even his [i.e. God’s] honored ones (the angels) he provoked to anger” (see T. Job 43:9)1399. 1 394 Confer also Sib.Fragm 1.25-​34; 1QH 9.26 f. 1395 Konradt indicates that the “light –​darkness” imagery in early Jewish and early Christian writings are often associated with the interpretation of conversion (Jos. Asen 8.9 [15.12]; Sib.Fragm 1.25-​30; T. Gad 5.7; Philo, On Virtues 179; Acts 26:18; Eph 5:8; Col 1:12-​14; 1 Pt 2:9; 1 Clem 59:2; 2 Clem 1:4, 6). Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 160 footnote 740. 1396 Quoted from: R. H. Charles (transl.), The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs /​“The Testament of Gad”, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 341. 1397 Quoted from: Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 160 footnote 736. 1398 In the NT, the Evil One is associated with Satan (cf. Mt 6:13; 13:19). 1399 Cf. R. P. Spittler (transl.), “Testament of Job”, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 862.

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Consequently, Elihu’s fate is pronounced as: “The Lord has forgotten him, and the holy ones abandoned him /​But wrath and anger shall be his tent /​He has no hope in his heart, nor peace in his body” (T. Job 43:10-​11)1400. Paul’s use of the darkness-​light metaphor in 1 Thess 5:5 actually has a conversion motif which is linked to the situation of his addressees, the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica. It is evident from the “General Introduction” to this work that the religious condition of the people in Thessalonica, the capital city of the then Macedonian province, was such that every one could worship as many deities as he/​she wished. The society was marked by a plurality of religions. When in 1 Thess 1:9 Paul speaks of the conversion of the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica, it goes without saying that they were converted from polytheism in order to worship and serve the only one, living and true God of Israel. It is by virtue of this conversion that they can be described as those who have light or those who are not living in darkness but in light and for that matter can be saved from God’s wrath through Jesus Christ (1 Thess 1:10). The expression “to be in darkness” (ἐν σκότει εἶναι) abounds in the OT and in early Jewish (apocalyptic) literature. This phrase (ἐν σκότει εἶναι) is equivalent to the expressions “to sit in darkness”: καθῆσθαι ἐν σκότει (Isa 42:7; Ps 106:10 LXX), “to walk in darkness”: πορεύεσθαι/​περιπατεῖν ἐν σκότει/​τῇ σκότιᾳ (Isa 9:1 LXX)1401. The opposite is the case when one is said “to be in (the) light” (ἐν [τῷ] φωτὶ εἶναι), and the situation of “being in the light” also means “to walk in the light (of the Lord)”: ἐν τῷ φωτὶ (κυρίου) πορεύεσθαι /​περιπατεῖν (Isa 2:5) or “to walk in truth”: ἐν ἀληθείᾳ πορεύεσθαι /​περιπατεῖν (3 Kgs 2:4 LXX; 4 Kgs 20:3 LXX; Prov 28:6 LXX)1402 and not in falsehood (cf. Prov 28:6)1403. Walking in truth means then doing good deeds, i.e. acts that please the Lord (4 Kgs 20:3 LXX). This Jewish idea about the darkness-​light metaphor is translated or carried over into the NT, but unlike in Judaism where God is the one who calls people from darkness into light1404, in the NT it is stressed that it is through Jesus Christ that God calls people from darkness into the light (see Col 1:13-​14). Clement 1400 Cf. R. P. Spittler (transl.), “Testament of Job”, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 862. Other references to the darkness-​light metaphor in Jewish apocalyptic literature are found also in T. Levi 19.1; T. Jos 20.2; 1 En 108.11-​15. 1401 In the NT, such expressions can be found in Jn 8:12; 12:35b; 1 Jn 2:11. 1402 See also Tob 3:5 LXX. 1403 It is stressed in Col 3:9-​10 too that the believers in Christ are renewed in the knowledge of truth, and for that matter they have nothing to do with falsehood. Confer also Rom 1:25; 2 Thess 2:11-​12; 1 Jn 2:21, 27, and Rom 2:8. 1404 See Jos.Asen 8.10; Odes.Sol 11:19; T. Jos 19:3; Sib.Fragm 1.25-​34; 1QH 9.26 f.

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of Rome buttresses this point by emphasizing that it is through Jesus Christ, God’s beloved son, that God “called us [i.e. the Christ’s faithful] from darkness into light, [which means] from ignorance into the knowledge of his glorious name”: Ἐκάλεσεν ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ σκότους εἰς φῶς, ἀπὸ ἀγνωσίας εἰς ἐπίγνωσιν δόξης ὀνόματος αὐτοῦ (1 Clem 59.2). Jesus is the light of the world because he is the true light which comes into the world to enlighten every person (Jn 1:9), and his followers (the believers in Christ) will not walk in darkness but will have the light of life (Jn 8:12). Whoever believes in Jesus Christ, the light of the world, does not remain in darkness (Jn 12:46a). In the NT too the situation of “being in darkness”: ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ εἶναι (1 Jn 2:9b, 11a) is equivalent to “walking in darkness”: ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ περιπατεῖν (1 Jn 1:6; 2:11b). Those walking in darkness take part in the fruitless works of darkness (Eph 5:11), and they do not act in truth (1 Jn 1:6b). On the contrary, those in the light (1 Jn 2:9a) are “sons or children of the light” (Jn 12:36c; 1 Thess 5:5a; also Lk 16:8) who walk in the light (1 Jn 1:7a). Thus, “the disciples’ self-​understanding and the attestation of their faith includes their being ‘the light of the world’ (Mt 5:14; [Phil 2:15]), ‘shining before people’ (Mt 5:16)1405, and (parenthetically formulated) being oriented toward God (Mt 6:23 par. Lk 11:35)”1406. The term τό φῶς is associated with “life” (Jn 8:12), and it also means “truth” (cf. τὸ φῶς τὸ ἀληθινόν in 1 Jn 2:8)1407. In the Johannine writings, the Christ’s faithful are exhorted to walk in the light and in truth (2 Jn 4; 3 Jn 3-​4; cf. 1 Jn 1:6-​7) because that is “a way of living in which the Christian faith is visibly expressed”1408. Especially in the Johannine literature, light and truth (or goodness) are synonymous (see 1 Jn 1:5-​7), and the state of being filled with Christian truth means either “to walk in the light”: ἐν τῷ φωτὶ περιπατεῖν (1 Jn 1:7a), or “to be in the light”: ἐν τῷ φωτὶ εἶναι (1 Jn 2:9a), or “to remain in the light”: ἐν τῷ φωτὶ μένειν (1 Jn 2:10). It is clear in 1 Jn 2:11 that those who are in darkness and walk in darkness are in a state of spiritual blindness because the “darkness” blinds (τυφλοῦν) their eyes so that they are not able to see the true light or the 1 405 In Mt 5:16, the good deeds of the disciples of Christ are stressed. 1406 Cf. H. Ritt, “φῶς, φωτός, τό”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), pp. 447–​448. 1407 In Paraleipomena Jeremiou 9:2, Jeremiah makes mention of “true light that enlightens me until I ascend to you” (τὸ φῶς τὸ ἀληθινὸν τὸ φωτίζον με ἕως οὗ ἀναληφθῶ πρὸς σέ). Quoted from: Robert A. Kraft, Ann-​Elizabeth Purintun (editors & translators), Paraleipomena Jeremiou, Missoula, Montana: Society of Biblical Literature, 1972, pp. 44–​45. 1408 Confer the note on 2 Jn 4, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 393.

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knowledge of truth (cf. also Jn 12:40). Such a theology finds an echo in 2 Cor 4:4 where Paul writes concerning “those who are perishing” (οἱ ἀπολλυμένοι [cf. 2 Cor 4:3]) that: “The god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelievers, to keep them from seeing the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the likeness of God”1409 (ὁ θεὸς τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου ἐτύφλωσεν τὰ νοήματα τῶν ἀπίστων εἰς τὸ μὴ αὐγάσαι τὸν φωτισμὸν τοῦ εὐαγγελίου τῆς δόξης τοῦ Χριστοῦ, ὅς ἐστιν εἰκων τοῦ θεοῦ)1410.

Best remarks that in 1 Thess 5:4-​5 “the ‘darkness’ is that of the unbelief in which the whole world lies apart from Christ and from which the Christians are redeemed (2 Cor 6:14; Col 1:13)”1411. Those who are in the light, and live, walk or remain in the light are called “sons of (the) light”: υἱοὶ (τοῦ) φωτός (1 Thess 5:5a; also Lk 16:8; Jn 12:36c) or “children of light”: τέκνα φωτός (Eph 5:8b) who are “to put on the armour of light”: ἐνδύειν τὰ ὅπλα τοῦ φωτός (Rom 13:12). In Eph 5:9, the author who writes in place of Paul mentions “the fruit of light” (ὁ καρπὸς τοῦ φωτός) as “goodness” (ἀγαθωσύνη), “righteousness” (δικαιοσύνη), and “truth” (ἀλήθεια), and these are to manifest in the lives of the believers who are no more darkness but light in the Lord Jesus Christ (Eph 5:8). Thus, the Christ’s faithful are to learn and do what is pleasing to the Lord and rather expose or bring to light the fruitless works of darkness (Eph 5:10-​11). For Paul, “light” and “day” are synonymous terms just as “darkness” and “night”1412. In 1 Thess 4:5, Paul does not only make it clear that “light” is synonymous with “day” just as “darkness” is synonymous with “night” but he also stresses the contrast between “light and day” and their antonyms “darkness and night”. He does this also in Rom 13:121413. What follows such passages is the appeal to moral conduct which demands that those in the light or in the day should comport themselves in a way that befits their status as sons or children of light or of day (1 Thess 5:6 ff; Rom 13:13 ff; cf. 2 Cor 7:1). 1 409 Quoted from the RSV. 1410 Confer also Rom 10:2-​3. 1411 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 209. Malherbe also describes the darkness Paul talks about in 1 Thess 5:4-​5 as “the darkness associated with the unjust when the day of the Lord comes”. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 293. 1412 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 296; Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 209. 1413 In 2 Cor 6:14, “φῶς (“light”) is related to δικαιοσύνη (“righteousness”) while σκότος (“darkness”) is connected with ἀνομία (“lawlessness”). Cf. W. Hackenberg, “σκότος”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), p. 255.

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The verb σκοτοῦν (“to be or become darkened in mind”) appears only once in the Pauline writings (i.e including the writings ascribed to Paul) in Eph 4:18 to describe the Gentiles as: “They are darkened in their understanding, alienated from the life of God because of the ignorance that is in them, due to their hardness of heart”1414 (ἐσκοτωμένοι τῇ διανοίᾳ ὄντες, ἀπηλλοτριωμένοι τῆς ζωῆς τοῦ θεοῦ διὰ τὴν ἄγνοιαν τὴν οὖσαν ἐν αὐτοῖς, διὰ τὴν πώρωσιν τῆς καρδίας αὐτῶν).

In Eph 4:19 it becomes evident that in this state of life “they [the Gentiles] have become callous and have given themselves up to licentiousness, greedy to practice every kind of uncleanness”1415 (οἵτινες ἀπηλγηκότες ἑαυτοὺς παρέδωκαν τῇ ἀσελγείᾳ εἰς ἐργασίαν ἀκαθαρσίας πάσης ἐν πλεονεξίᾳ), and so in Eph 4:17 the author exhorts the believers in Christ “no longer to live as the Gentiles do, in the futility of their [i.e. the Gentiles’] mind” (μηκέτι περιπατεῖν, καθὼς καὶ τὰ ἔθνη περιπατεῖ ἐν ματαιότητι τοῦ νοὸς αὐτῶν). In Eph 4:21, the author is very emphatic that unlike the Gentiles, the believers have heard about Christ and were taught in Christ as the one in whom there is truth, and so those who have become believers in Christ are exhorted to “put on the new self ” which is created in God’s way in righteousness and holiness of truth (Eph 4:24) because “truth expresses itself in virtues like righteousness and holiness”1416. In the OT prophetic literature, especially in the book of Isaiah, God promises to bring light that will shine on the nations, on the people who sit or walk in darkness (Isa 9:1; 42:6; 49:6)1417. The incarnation of Jesus itself actually reveals God’s ultimate fulfillment of this and all other prophetic hopes for the Gentile nations1418 because Jesus is the light which shines on the Gentile nations, those who sit in darkness and in the shadow of death (see Lk 2:32; also Mt 4:16; Lk 1:79). Another implication of the fulfillment of this prophecy in Jesus Christ is that the vocation of the Lord’s Servant (or the Messiah) will not only be the restoration of Israel, but also the conversion of the world (Lk 2:32; Acts 26:23) so that the Lord’s salvation may reach the ends of the earth (Isa 49:6)1419. It is evident in 1 Pt 2:9 that the Christ’s faithful are “a chosen race” (see also Eph 1:4-​6),

1 414 Quoted from the RSV. 1415 Quoted from the RSV. 1416 Cf. BDAG, p. 42 § 2b. 1417 See also Isa 60:1-​2. 1418 Cf. H. Ritt, “φῶς, φωτός, τό”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), p. 448. 1419 Confer the note on Isa 49:6, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 931.

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“a royal priesthood”, “a holy nation” and “God’s own people” who have the task of declaring the wonderful deeds of the one who called them out of darkness (of paganism) into his marvelous light (of faith in Christ). Thus, here God’s saving work is described as “a transition from darkness to light”, and there is also an allusion to the “later opening of mission from ‘Israel’ to the Gentiles” (Mt 4:16; Isa 9:1)1420. It is understood in the NT that the followers of Christ take over from Jesus –​ who is the light of the world (Jn 8:12; cf. Jn 1:9; Rev 21:24) –​the responsibility and the task of bringing light to the Gentile nations for their conversion and salvation (Mt 5:14, 16). In Rom 2:19, Paul makes allusion to the fact that persons can be “a guide to the blind and a light to those who are in darkness”. John the Baptist in the gospel tradition, for example, testified to the light (Jn 1:8) but he was light (Jn 5:35) so far as he was the fulfillment of the prophecy in Ps 132:17b (MT) –​ i.e., “the lamp prepared for God’s Annoited [One], the Christus” –​and he gave God’s people “knowledge of salvation” (see Lk 1:77). The Paul according to Luke emphasizes categorically in Acts 13:47 that God has set them, the missionaries (i.e., Paul and Barnabas) to be “a light to the Gentiles” in order that “they may be instruments of salvation to the ends of the earth”. Thus the Paul in the Acts of the Apostles identifies his ministry with that of the servant of the Lord (in the prophecy of Isaiah) who brings light to the nations (cf. Isa 42:6; 49:6)1421. In 2 Cor 4:5-​6, Paul seems to allude to his conversion and “apostolic ministry” (cf. Acts 9:1-​19; 22:3-​16; 26:2-​18) which he considers as “a new creation” (see Gen 1:3; Ps 112:4 MT), and for Paul and his co-​missionaries their ministry is “to bring to light the knowledge of the glory of God on the face of Jesus Christ”1422. By their proclamation which aimed at giving the Thessalonians (a people in the Gentile world) knowledge of salvation through Jesus Christ, the son of God, Paul and his co-​missionaries were able to convert the Thessalonians, and by virtue of the Thessalonians’ conversion or turning to God away from idol worship to serve the living and true God (1 Thess 1:9), they can say with conviction that the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica are no more in darkness (1 Thess 5:4b) because they now know about the Light of the world –​Jesus Christ (Jn 1:9). In the LXX, σκότος can literally mean “darkness”, i.e. “absence of light or sunlight” (Exod 14:20; Isa 60:2; Joel 2:2)1423, and it can metaphorically mean “absence 1 420 Cf. H. Ritt, “φῶς, φωτός, τό”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), p. 448. 1421 See also Isa 9:1; 42:16. 1422 Confer the note on 2 Cor 4:6, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, pp. 280–​281. 1423 See also Amos 5:20; Zeph 1:15; Job 10:21.

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of life” or “absence of God”. Job 10:22 (LXX), for example, describes Hades (the place of the dead) as “a land of perpertual darkness where there is no light and no life” (cf. also Pss.Sol 14:9). In the passages where “darkness” means “absence of light” (see Exod 14:20; Isa 60:2; Joel 2:2, etc.), the word σκότος goes almost always with the word γνόφος (“gloom” or “darkness”)1424. In 1 Thess 5:4, σκότος does not mean “darkness” in the literal sense of “absence of light”. The term σκότος in 1 Thess 5:4 is rather to be understood figuratively as “darkness” in the sense of “helpless and hopeless situation” such as that described, for instance, in the LXX of Nah 1:8; Isa 8:22; 9:21425. The expressions “people walking in darkness” (ὁ λαὸς ὁ πορευόμενος ἐν σκότει) or “those dwelling in the shadow of death” (οἱ κατοικοῦντες ἐν χώρᾳ σκιᾷ θανάτου) in Isa 9:1 (LXX) and especially “those living in darkness and in the shadow of death” (οἱ καθημένοι ἐν σκότει καὶ σκιᾷ θανάτου) in Ps 106:10 (LXX)1426 or simply οἱ καθημένοι ἐν σκότει in Isa 42:7 can be very helpful in the interpretation of the expression “to be in darkness” (ἐν σκότει εἶναι) in 1 Thess 5:4b, 5b. In the NT, such a formulation is found in the “canticle of Zecharia” (see Lk 1:67-​80) where it is said specifically in Lk 1:79 that “the dawn from heaven” –​ἀνατολὴ ἐξ ὕψους (see Lk 1:78) “will appear [as light] to those who sit in darkness and in the shadow of death” (ἐπιφᾶναι τοῖς ἐν σκότει καὶ σκιᾷ θανάτου καθημένοις)1427. This text (Lk 1:78-​79) actually talks about God’s salvific act through Jesus Christ. It can be said that the people sitting or living in darkness and in the shadow of death find themselves in a pitiable situation because they lack the knowledge of God’s ways and of salvation made known through Jesus Christ. 1 Thess 5:4-​5 is one of the texts in the Pauline corpus where φῶς and σκότος are applied in the context of “light-​darkness symbolism” whereby “light” is said to be distinct from “darkness”, and this text (1 Thess 5:4-​5) mirrors a fact of human condition or existence that there are two ways of life between which a person can choose, i.e., the way of light and the way of darkness. Hackenberg observes that: “In the eschatological paraenesis in 1 Thess 5:1-​11 Paul uses the contrast between light and darkness (verse 5) to describe the two kinds of existence of Christians. Verse 4 exhorts Christians not to remain in darkness”1428.

1 424 This word γνόφος is a hapax legomenon in the NT and it appears only in Heb 12:18. 1425 Confer also Isa 29:15 (LXX). 1426 See also Ps 106:14 (LXX). Job 3:5 (LXX) also speaks of “darkness and shadow of death” (σκότος καὶ σκιὰ θανάτου). 1427 See also Mt 4:16. Such expressions are OT quotations par excellence. 1428 Cf. W. Hackenberg, “σκότος”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), pp. 255–​256.

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Apart from 1 Thess 5:4b, Paul uses the expression ἐν σκότει (εἶναι) in Rom 2:19 and as Hackenberg correctly remarks, in Rom 2:19 “those in darkness” (οἱ ἐν σκότει) refer to “those without any real knowledge of God”1429. While in Rom 2:19 Paul uses this expression ἐν σκότει (εἶναι) to talk about lack of real knowledge of God, in 1 Thess 5:4b the expression is rather used with the negative particle οὐ (“not”), i.e., “you are not in darkness” (οὐκ ἐστὲ ἐν σκότει). By this formulation (οὐκ ἐστὲ ἐν σκότει) Paul negates any proposition that the believers are ignorant about God and rather affirms that the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica have acquired real knowledge of God. The conviction that the believers are not living in ignorance is again emphasized in 1 Thess 5:5b by the words: “We are neither of the night nor of the darkness” (οὐκ ἐσμὲν νυκτὸς οὐδὲ σκότους), and through the use of the 1st person plural personal pronoun “we” Paul and his co-​missionaries identify themselves here with the community of believers in Thessalonica. In 1 Thess 5:5a, Paul explains why the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica are not in darkness (1 Thess 5:4b) by the words “for you are all sons of light and sons of day” (πάντες γὰρ ὑμεῖς υἱοὶ φωτός ἐστε καὶ υἱοὶ ἡμέρας). The particle γάρ (“for”) is “a marker of cause or reason” and it functions here not only to introduce the reason or the affirmation for the assertion Paul has just made in 1 Thess 5:4b that the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica are not in darkness but also it emphasizes the contrast between those “in darkness” (ἐν σκότει) and the “sons of light” (υἱοὶ φωτός). Here the terms φῶς (“light”) and ἡμέρα (“day”) are to be seen as synonymous just as the opposite terms νύξ (“night”) and σκότος (“darkness”) in 1 Thess 5:5b are similar in meaning. The use of the expression “for you are all sons of light and sons of day” here in 1 Thess 5:5a has, in fact, affinity with “you are all sons of God” (πάντες γὰρ υἱοὶ θεοῦ ἐστε) in Gal 3:261430 where Paul uses the expression “to describe his converts’ relationship with God” by asserting that they are “sons [or children] of God”1431. In the phrase “sons of God”, the substantive “sons” (υἱοί) is understood as a generic term which includes males and females, i.e. the singular υἱός or the plural υἱοί in such expressions does not only mean a male-​child but also the female-​child, and so “sons of light” (υἱοὶ φωτός) in 1 Thess 5:5a (see also Lk 16:8; Jn 12:36) are equivalent to “children of light” (τέκνα φωτός) in Eph 2:3; 5:8, and “sons of God”: υἱοὶ θεοῦ (Rom 8:14) mean

1 429 See op. cit., p. 256. 1430 See also “you are all one in Christ Jesus” (πάντες γὰρ ὑμεῖς εἷς ἐστε ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ) in Gal 3:28. 1431 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294.

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“children of God”: τέκνα θεοῦ (Rom 8:16; Phil 2:15; also Jn 1:12) who are supposed “to shine as lights in the world”: ὡς φωστῆρες ἐν κόσμῳ φαίνειν (Phil 2:15). The term υἱοί (the plural of the noun υἱός) is used here in 1 Thess 5:5a with nouns in the genitive case (i.e., φωτός [the genitive of φῶς], and ἡμέρας [the genitive of ἡμέρα]) in the expression υἱοὶ φωτός καὶ υἱοὶ ἡμέρας (“sons of light and sons of day”). Such constructions in which “son(s)” is used with the genitive of a thing (i.e., son[s]‌of …) are typical Hebrew (or Semitic) formulations whereby “son” (υἱός) translates the Hebrew ‫“( ּבֵ ן‬son”)1432, and in such instances “son(s)” is used in a metaphorical sense1433 and the genitive describes quality1434. Thus, such a formulation denotes one who shares in the thing (physical or abstract) or who is worthy of it, or who stands in some other close relation to it; and it is often made clear by the context1435. In the NT, such constructions are found mostly in the gospels. They include: οἱ υἱοὶ τῆς βασιλείας: “sons of the kingdom” (Mt 8:12; 13:38), υἱὸν γεέννης: “son of hell” (Mt 23:15), οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ νυμφῶνος: “literally, ‘sons of the wedding hall or bridal chamber’, i.e., ‘the wedding guests’ ” (Mt 9:15; Mk 2:19; Lk 5:34), υἱοὶ βροντῆς: “sons of thunder” (Mk 3:17), υἱὸς εἰρήνης: “a son of peace” (Lk 10:6), οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ φωτός: “the sons of light” (Lk 16:8, i.e., in contrast to οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου: “the sons of this age” in Lk 20:34), υἱοὶ φωτός: “sons of light” (Jn 12:36), ὁ υἱὸς τῆς ἀπωλείας: “the son of destruction”, i.e., in reference to Judas Iscariot (Jn 17:12), and οἱ υἱοὶ τῆς διαθήκης: “sons of the covenant” (Lk 16:8; Jn 12:36, also Acts 3:25). Elsewhere in Acts 4:36, one finds “a son of encouragement” (υἱὸς παρακλήσεως) which is the Greek translation of the name Barnabas. Apart from 1 Thess 5:5a where υἱοὶ φωτός and υἱοὶ ἡμέρας appear, there are other passages in the Pauline writings where such formulations are found. In 2 Thess 2:3, “the son of perdition or destruction” (ὁ υἱὸς τῆς ἀπωλείας) is used in reference to “the lawless one” (ὁ ἄνθρωπος τῆς ἀνομίας)1436. In the NT, υἱοὶ φωτός (or τέκνα φωτός) refers especially to those “instructed in evangelical truth and devotedly obedient to it”1437. While in Eph 2:3 the author 1432 See, for example, “sons of his [i.e., God’s] goodwill”: ‫ ְּבנֵי־ ְרצֹונֹו‬in the Qumran text 1QH 4.32 ff. 1433 Cf. BDF, p. 89 § 162 (6). 1434 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294. 1435 Cf. BDAG, p. 1025 § 2β. 1436 See also “the sons of disobedience” (οἱ υἱοὶ τῆς ἀπειθείας) in Eph 2:2. In Eph 5:6, the author who writes in place of Paul stresses that “God’s wrath comes upon the sons of disobedience” (ἔρχεται ἡ ὀργὴ τοῦ θεοῦ ἐπὶ τοὺς υἱοὺς τῆς ἀπειθείας). See also Col 3:6. For more details of these formulations, confer BDAG, p. 1025 § 2cβ. 1437 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 635 § 2.

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describes the previous life of the newly converted Christ’s faithful as equivalent to that of “the rest” (οἱ λοιποί), the “children of wrath” (τέκνα ὀργῆς), who are also “the sons of disobedience”: οἱ υἱοὶ τῆς ἀπειθείας (Eph 2:2), he describes the new status of the Christ’s faithful in Eph 5:8 as “light in the Lord” (φῶς ἐν κυρίῳ), and the responsibility that accompanies “this privilege” is that the believers are “to live or conduct their life as children of light” (ὡς τέκνα φωτὸς περιπατεῖν). Luckensmeyer remarks that here in 1 Thess 5:5 Paul uses this construction of genitive of quality, i.e., υἱοὶ φωτός (“sons of light”) and υἱοὶ ἡμέρας (“sons of day”) “to identify his readers (the Thessalonian community) as insiders in contrast to outsiders”1438. Thus, in contrasts to “the others”: οἱ λοιποί (1 Thess 4:13, 16), the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica are “the sons of light” and “the sons of day”, i.e., “enlightened sons”, “sons who dwell in the light” and “sons characterized by light”1439. Such a marked contrast between “sons of light” (‫)ּבנֵי אֹור‬ ְ and “sons of darkness” (‫)ּבנֵי חֹוׁשֶ ְך‬ ְ is found especially in the Qumran scrolls1440. There are, however, differences between the use of these terms (“sons of light” and “sons of darkness”) in the Qumran writings and in the Pauline literature. Benoit notices that though the use of such terms have eschatological motifs in both the Qumran and in the Pauline writings, while the Qumran writings lay emphasis on eschatological moment for the full determination of the “children of light” or the “children of darkness”, Paul believes that the day remains uncertain (1 Thess 5:2) but it is near (Rom 13:12), and he (Paul) emphasizes that the Christ’s event has been the determining factor because Christ has conquered the “darkness” (Rom 13:12, 14; 1 Thess 5:8-​10)1441, and the Christ’s faithful are already “sons of light” (1 Thess 5:5; see also Eph 5:8)1442. Benoit indicates that members of the Qumran community also describe themselves already as “children of light” but this description is defined in a different manner because the members, by definition, are assigned by a divine predestination to a camp that exists from time immemorial (1QS 4.24-​25; 1QM 13.9-​12)1443. He explains further that from the creation of

1 438 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 297. 1439 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, op. cit., p. 297. 1440 See, for example, 1QS 1.9, 10; 2.16; 3.13, 24, 25; 1QM 1.1, 3, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16; 3.6, 9; 13:16; 14.17; 16.11; 4QFI 1.9. 1441 See also 2 Cor 4:4, 6. 1442 Cf. Pierre Benoit, “Qumrân et le Nouveau Testament”, in: NTS 7 (1960–​1961) 276–​ 296, here page 289. 1443 See op. cit., p. 289. Thus, there is an aspect of determinism in the Qumran teaching which is implied, for instance, in 1QH 15.14-​17 that God chooses persons to belong either to the “sons of light” or to the “sons of darkness” right from the mother’s womb.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

things, God has established the two camps or parties of “light” and “darkness” with their two chief rivals (1QS 3.25). While the members of the Qumran community believe in the near approach of the decisive moment but are still waiting for the final battle and the victory of the “sons of light”, there is the conviction (in the Christian realms or communities) that the battle has been fought and won by Jesus Christ, and Christ has transferred his followers from “darkness” to the kingdom of “light” (see Col 1:13)1444. The uniqueness of Paul’s use of υἱοὶ φωτός in 1 Thess 5:5a is evident in his addition of υἱοὶ ἡμέρας (“sons of day”) to υἱοὶ φωτός (“sons of light”)1445. Some commentators prefer to associate the phrase “sons of day” (υἱοὶ ἡμέρας) in 1 Thess 5:5a with “the day of the Lord” (ἡμέρα κυρίου) in 1 Thess 5:2b1446. Lövestam, for one, maintains that “… in 1 Thess 5:5 those who in the present nightly existence share the light [in Christ] are indicated by the expression υἱοὶ ἡμέρας as sons of the eschatological day to come”1447. Though Lövestam differentiates “the day” from “the night”, for him while “the day” refers to the eschatological day, “the night” refers to the present sphere which is prevailed by the night1448. Luckensmeyer considers Lövestam’s assertion as an over-​interpretation of the motif of “night” (νύξ) in 1 Thess 5:5 because, for Luckensmeyer, “the night is no more present than the day is future”1449. He remarks then that there is no need to distinguish between “night” as present and “day” as future, as Lövestam does, because such a distinction is not supported by the text1450. Roose shares the opinion that unlike in Rom 13:12-​13 where one can contrast the terms “night” and “day” on chronological grounds and can mean that while the “night” refers to the present world and the “day” to the time of salvation, in 1 Thess 5:5 the terms “night” and “day” are not to be understood timewise but on ecclesiological basis because the terms 1 444 Cf. Pierre Benoit, “Qumrân et le Nouveau Testament”, pp. 289–​290. 1445 Many exegetes are of the view that “sons of day” (υἱοὶ ἡμέρας) is Paul’s own formulation. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294; Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 210; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 297; Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 158; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 302; Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Th 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 338. 1446 For examples of the commentators who connect “sons of day” (1 Thess 5:5a) with the “day of the Lord” (1 Thess 5:2b), confer Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 302 footnote 363; Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 161 footnote 746. 1447 Cf. Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, pp. 52–​53. 1448 See op. cit., p. 53. 1449 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 302. 1450 See op. cit., p. 299 footnote 99.

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talk about the contrast between the ungodly and the Christ’s faithful as diametrically opposed in their present situation, and this distinction also has effect on their respective fates at the end of time1451. Luckensmeyer again asserts that: “By including the singular phrase, υἱοὶ ἡμέρας, Paul cleverly incorporates the eschatological image of the day of the Lord into his pattern of exhortation. In so doing, he brings to bear a powerful and negative (judgment) image onto the social situation of the Thessalonians but inverses it. They escape the destruction of the day of the Lord precisely because they belong to the day”1452.

Such interpretations, of course, seek to emphasize the dominant influence of the day of the Lord on this entire text of 1 Thess 5:1-​11, but the main or primary focus of the addition of “sons of day” (υἱοὶ ἡμέρας) here in 1 Thess 5:5a is its relation to the parallel expression “sons of light” (υἱοὶ φωτός) in the identification of the Thessalonian community as distinct from “the others” (οἱ λοιποί) in so far as the Christ’s faithful belong to those to be saved while the outsiders are considered to be destined for destruction. Thus, the terms “sons of light” and “sons of day” are synonymous expressions which seek to emphasize the salvation associated with the state of being in the light1453. Hoppe shares the view that in 1 Thess 5:4-​5 both the experience of salvation in the present state and eschatological orientation come into play1454, and that the term “day” in the phrase “sons of day” (verse 5a) does not refer to the eschatological day but the present sphere of salvation1455. Nonetheless, the emphasis on the present situation of the Christ’s faithful is not a question of present or realized eschatology (over against future 1451 Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 91. Konradt also interprets the term “day” in 1 Thess 5:2; 5:5 in connection with Rom 13:12 f. He lays bear the implications and the marked differences between the use of the term “day” in these contexts (1 Thess 5:2, 5; Rom 13:12 f.) by stressing that the term “day” in 1 Thess 5:5 (also in 5:8a) is not primarily about the eschatological time but the present moment and the situation the addressees find themselves as worthy of salvation. Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, pp. 161–​163. 1452 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 299. 1453 Hoppe is very emphatic that the decisive factor here is the sphere of salvation as a symbol of light because the conjunction καί (“and”) that precedes the phrase υἱοὶ ἡμέρας gives the clue that υἱοὶ ἡμέρας (“sons of day”) is to be understood on the level and in close connection with υἱοὶ φωτός (“sons of light”). Hoppe writes thus: … das Entscheidende ist die Heilssphäre des Lichtes, denn die Zusage υἱοὶ ἡμέρας ist durch das vorausgehende καί auf einer Ebene und in enger Verbindung mit υἱοὶ φωτός zu verstehen. Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 302. 1454 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 302. 1455 See op. cit., p. 303 footnote 365.

318

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

eschatology) but the description of the present situation of the community of believers which serves as the condition and assurance of their full participation in the salvation that comes at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. Thus, their present situation not only prepares them for their future expectations but it is also a “foretaste” of the eschatological salvation1456. Though the contrast between darkness and light is attested in the NT (see 1 Pt 2:9; and especially in the Johannine literature: Jn 1:5, 9; 12:351457)1458, the expression “sons of light” (υἱοὶ φωτός) and its parallel “children of light” (τέκνα φωτός) are perhaps not nearly so well attested because apart from Lk 16:8, Jn 12:36 and Eph 5:8, the phrases appear nowhere else in the NT nor in the LXX1459. There is consensus among exegetes, therefore, that Paul’s use of the expression “sons of light” (υἱοὶ φωτός) traces its source to the Qumran writings or scrolls. Kuhn, for one, asserts that: “There is no clear evidence that the expression ‘children of light’ is used in any early Jewish writings other than the Qumran library. To the best of my knowledge, this genitive construction also does not appear in the rabbinic literature. In fact, apart from Gnosis, i.e. Gnosticism, only the texts from the Qumran library offer any extra-​Christian parallels. This is not usually recognized clearly enough”1460.

In reaction to Kuhn’s findings, Luckensmeyer remarks that although there are a few gnostic references1461, these appear in an entirely different context, and for him (Luckensmeyer) the extensive parallels in the Qumran literature are much nearer in context to Paul’s use1462. Malherbe also indicates that the term “sons of

1 456 Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 163 footnote 753. 1457 See also Jn 12:46a; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8, 9; Rev 8:12. 1458 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 293. 1459 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 297. 1460 Cf. Heinz-​W. Kuhn, „Die Bedeutung der Qumrantexte für das Verständnis des Ersten Thessalonicherbriefes. Vorstellung des Münchener Projekts: Qumran und das Neue Testament“, in: Barrera/​Montaner (1992) 339–​353, here page 341. 1461 For examples of the gnostic references, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 297 footnote 95; Otto Böcher, Licht und Feuer II. Altes Testament und Judentum, III. Neues Testament (TRE 21), Berlin. New York, 1991, pp. 88f. 1462 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 297–​298; also Heinz-​W. Kuhn, „Die Bedeutung der Qumrantexte für das Verständnis des Ersten Thessalonicherbriefes…“, p. 252; Reicke I. Bo, „Paulus über den Tag des Herrn. Homiletisch orientierte Auslegung von 1 Thess 5,1-​11“, in: TZ 44 (1988) 91–​96, especially page 94.

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light” is a common term applied in the Dead Sea writings to describe members of the (Qumran) community (1QS 1.9; 2.16; 1QM 1.90)1463 over against the “sons of darkness”, i.e., the outsiders who are under the dominion of the spirit of darkness (1QS 3.25-​27)1464. For Malherbe, Paul shared this dualism of “light” and “darkness” or “night” and “day” (Rom 13:12; 2 Cor 6:14-​7:1)1465. He explains that: “For him [Paul], ‘sons of light’ is an eschatological term, as appears from his further specification of his readers as ‘sons of day’, a phrase that appears nowhere else and may be Paul’s formulation to describe vividly the eschatological quality of their lives. The phrase has a studied ambiguity, having an eschatological sense of the Day of the Lord and referring to daylight, with its implicit moral dimension, which Paul will play on in the exhortation that follows”1466.

Luckensmeyer shares opinion with Koester and maintains that: “… it is impossible to escape the conclusion that Paul uses υἱοὶ φωτός and υἱοὶ ἡμέρας in a similar way with the Qumran community”1467, and he explains that: “The War Scroll, in particular, emphasizes a definitive separation between the ‘sons of light’ and the ‘sons of darkness’. The identities of each group are characterized by their differences, especially with regard to their respective destinies”1468.

1 463 See also 1QS 3:13, 24, 25. 1464 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294; also David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 298. 1465 Thus, in contrast to the commentators who share the view that Paul’s use of this dualism “light” and “darkness”, “night” and “day” might have been influenced by the Jesus tradition (cf. Lk 16:8; Jn 12:36), or even by gnosticism, Malherbe is of the opinion that this usage rather traces its source to the Qumran community. Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294. Hoppe also maintains that the contrast between “darkness” and “light” in 1 Thess 5:5 is a distinct character of the ethical dualism of “light” and “darkness” in the Qumran community where the pious ones are said to be in the light and are expected to walk in the light (1QS 1.9; 3.25; 1QH 20.4; 1QM 1.9, 11). Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 301 footnote 360. For an elaborate discussion of the dualism of “light” and “darkness” in the Qumran scrolls or writings, confer Hans Conzelmann, “φῶς, κτλ”, pp. 317–​318. Confer also Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, pp. 158–​165 for an extensive discussion of “light” and “darkness” in the OT, early Jewish and early Christian traditions. 1466 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294. 1467 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 298; Helmut Koester, “From Paul’s Eschatology to the Apocalyptic Schemata of 2 Thessalonians.” In: R. F. Collins (editor), The Thessalonian Correspondence (BETL 87), Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1990, pp. 450–​451. 1468 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 298.

320

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

Unlike the “sons of light” (1QS 3.13, 24-​25) who are obviously identical with the members of the Qumran community in so far as their way of life in the light (1QS 3.3, 20), in truth, in righteousness and in moral perfection (1QS 4.6) is synonymous with walking in the way of God (1QS 3.9-​10) and leads to salvation and everlasting joy (1QS 4.7), the “sons of darkness” form a sinful rank (1QM 15.9). They are the sons of injustice and lawlessness, their deeds are darkness and evil and under the leadership of the Angel of Darkness (1QS 3.20-​21), and their way meanders and leads into everlasting ruin and destruction (1QS 4.12-​14)1469. Excursus II: Identification of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls with the Essene Religious Community. Some exegetes are not comfortable with the identification of Qumran and the Dead Sea scrolls or manuscripts with the Essene religious community, and they even claim that it is no longer plausible in modern or recent research to associate Qumran and the scrolls with the Essene group. Peetz, for one, writes that: “The thesis that Qumran was a settlement of the Essenes is controversial in recent research. Jürgen Zangenberg, for instance, has concluded –​on the basis of archaological surveys which cover the entire region of the Dead Sea –​that the settlement was not a religious centre but rather a Jewish commercial area. The texts in the caves were not produced in the settlement but they originated presumably from different libraries in Jerusalem and in other places. In the course of the immediate threat by the Romans from 66 CE, the manuscripts were brought from Jerusalem to the Dead Sea in order to hide them there in the caves” (Die These, dass Qumran eine essenische Siedlung gewesen sei, ist in der neueren Forschung umstritten. Auf der Basis archäologischer Untersuchungen, die sich auf die gesamte Region des Toten Meers beziehen, schlussfolgert zum Beispiel Jürgen Zangenberg, dass die Siedlung kein religiöses Zentrum gewesen ist, sondern vielmehr ein jüdischer Wirtschaftsbetrieb. Die Texte in den Höhlen seien nicht in der Siedlung produziert worden, sondern stammten vermutlich aus unterschiedlichen Bibliotheken aus Jerusalem und aus anderen Orten. Im Zuge der unmittelbaren Bedrohung durch die Römer ab 66 n. Chr… seien die Handschriften von Jerusalem an das Tote Meer gebracht worden, um sie dort in den Höhlen zu verstecken)1470. The question that remains for the commentators who share this thesis to answer is: Where specifically –​apart from Jerusalem –​are the other places from where the Qumran scrolls or manuscripts originated? Their thesis seeks to contradict that of 1469 Cf. Ingeborg Burkard, “Licht”, in: Herbert Haag (Hrsg.), Bibel-​Lexikon (Zweite, neu bearbeitete und vermehrte Auflage), Zürich, Köln: Benziger Verlag, 1968, pp. 1047–​ 1050, here page 1048. 1470 Cf. Melanie Peetz, Das biblische Israel: Geschichte –​Archäologie –​Geographie, Freiburg. Basel. Wien: Verlag Herder, 2018, pp. 226–​228, here page 228. Confer also Jürgen Zangenberg, „Die hellenistisch-​römische Zeit am Toten Meer: Kultur, Wirtschaft und Geschichte“, in: Jürgen Zangenberg (Hrsg.), Das Tote Meer: Kultur und Geschichte am tiefsten Punkt der Erde, Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 2010, pp. 39–​52, especially pages 49–​52.

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the archaologists like Roland de Vaux, Józef T. Millik, and Eliezer Sukenik who, based on their archaological findings, propounded the thesis that Qumran was a religious centre which was inhabited by an isolated Jewish religious sect or community called the Essenes, and that the manuscripts or scrolls which were discovered in the caves at Qumran by the Dead Sea in 1947 were a heritage of the Essene religious community. The thesis of Roland de Vaux et al. has, nonetheless, not been thrown overboard in modern or recent research. There are, in fact, exegetes in modern times who find de Vaux’s thesis plausible and hold on to it. Humbert, for one, affirms in his article1471 that: “R. de Vaux is absolutely right. It is most likely that it is a matter of an establishment of a sect. There is no doubt that it is about a Jewish sect …. In this respect one must actually interpret the place within the framework of a strict Jewish context in the turn of time” (R. de Vaux hatte durchaus Recht: Am wahrscheinlichsten ist, dass es sich um die Einrichtung einer Sekte handelt. Es gibt keine Zweifel, dass es sich um eine jüdische Sekte handelt …. Insofern muss man die Stätte in der Tat im Rahmen eines strikt jüdischen Kontextes um die Zeitenwende deuten)1472. Humbert, therefore, concludes that: “In all probability or likelihood, the Essenes were the inhabitants of Qumran in its second phase” (Mit größter Wahrscheinlichkeit waren die Essener die Bewohner von Qumran in seiner zweiten Phase)1473.

What is implied in 1 Thess 5:5 is basically a call to holiness (see also 2 Cor 6:14-​7:1; 1 Pt 2:9). That the state of being in the light or in the day has moral consequences which demand the Christ’s faithful, “the sons of light and sons of day”, to lead upright life is also evident in Rom 13:11-​14 and in Eph 5:6-​20 where this moral and religious responsibility is summed up in terms of “living or comporting oneself as children of light”: ὡς τέκνα φωτὸς περιπατεῖν (Eph 5:8) or “conducting one’s life appropriately as in the day”: ὡς ἐν ἡμέρᾳ εὐσχημόνως περιπατεῖν (Rom 13:13a). Some exegetes have tried to find the affinities or otherwise between 1 Thess 5:4-​8 and Rom 13:11-​14. Lövestam, for one, asserts that: “In both places, one finds a clearly eschatological orientation; in Rom 13 the mind is directed towards the time of definite and final salvation, which has drawn near, and in 1 Thess 5 towards the day of the Lord, which will come as a thief in the night, besides which, in the context, is pointed out that the Christians are destined for salvation (verse 9). In both places, the concepts of the day and the night are found. In both places, the idea of wakefulness is used in association with it as an expression for the right state of the Christians in the present age. And in both places in connection with this, it tells

1471 For more details of Humbert’s article, confer Jeane-​Baptiste Humbert, „Ist das ‚essenische Qumran‘ noch zu retten“?, in: Jürgen Zangenberg (Hrsg.), Das Tote Meer: Kultur und Geschichte am tiefsten Punkt der Erde, Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 2010, pp. 63–​74. 1472 Cf. Jean-​Baptiste Humbert, „Ist das ‚essenische Qumran‘ noch zu retten“?, pp. 70–​71. 1473 See op. cit., p. 74.

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about armour, which the Christians have to put on (ἐνδύω). Thus, there is a striking correspondence between Rom 13:11-​14 and 1 Thess 5:4-​8”1474.

Malherbe rightly observes that here in 1 Thess 5:5, unlike in Rom 13:11-​14, it is neither the nearness of the day of the Lord nor the salvation of the Christ’s faithful which impels them to moral life, but who and what they in fact are1475. It is by virtue of their new status of being “sons of light and sons of day” and how they lead their life in conformity with their call to holiness that the Christ’s faithful (i.e. both the dead and the living) stand a better chance (i.e. over against “the rest”: οἱ λοιποί) of being saved from the wrath of God at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. In 1 Thess 5:5ab, one identifies a chiastic structure and antithetic parallelism1476. Luckensmeyer indicates that the post-​positive conjunction γάρ (“for”) in 1 Thess 5:5a introduces, by way of clarification, the chiastic structure of verse 5 which is clearly observable in the arrangement: φῶς (verse 5a) /​σκότος (verse 5d); ἡμέρα (verse 5b) /​νύξ (verse 5c)1477. The terms “night and darkness” (verse 5b) contrast with the terms “light and day” (verse 5a)1478. It is observed that σκότος (“darkness”) is mentioned not only in 5:5b but also in 5:4b, and ἡμέρα (“day”) appears both in 5:4c and in 5:5a1479, and so a chiastic arrangement can be found also in 5:4-​5 and be presented as follows:

1474 Cf. Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, p. 50, also the references in the respective footnotes. 1475 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294. 1476 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 303 and footnote 365; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 280. 1477 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 279–​280, 282; also Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 296 footnote 3. For more details of the chiastic arrangement of 1 Thess 5:5 as demonstrated by Luckensmeyer, cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 282. 1478 It is evident in Gen 1:5a that the term “light” = “day” just as the opposite term “darkness” = “night”. Gen 1:5a (LXX) reads thus: “God called the light ‘day’, and the darkness he called ‘night’ ” (Καὶ ἐκάλεσεν ὁ θεὸς τὸ φῶς ἡμέραν καὶ τὸ σκότος ἐκάλεσεν νύκτα). 1479 It must be stressed once again that while ἡ ἡμέρα in 1 Thess 5:4c refers to the “day of the Lord” (ἡμέρα κυρίου) in 1 Thess 5:2, the term ἡμέρα in 1 Thess 5:5a is connected with the status of the believers as “sons of day”.

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Greek text A     ὑμεῖς δέ, ἀδελφοί, οὐκ ἐστὲ ἐν σκότει, B      ἵνα ἡ ἡμέρα ὑμᾶς ὡς κλέπτης καταλάβῃ· B’      πάντες γὰρ ὑμεῖς υἱοὶ φωτός ἐστε καὶ υἱοὶ ἡμέρας. A’    Οὐκ ἐσμὲν νυκτὸς οὐδὲ σκότους· English text A     But you, brethren, (you) are not in darkness, B      for the day to overtake you like a thief; B’      for you are all sons of light and sons of day. A’ We belong neither to night nor darkness.

The chiastic structure can actually be extended to the entire passage of 1 Thess 5:4-​8 in order to demonstrate the unity in the passage insofar as this entire text (1 Thess 5:4-​8) talks about the need for the Christ’s faithful to know themselves as children of light and of day who are distinguished from “the others” who rather belong to “night and darkness”. It appears, however, that unlike in 1 Thess 5:5 and in 1 Thess 5:4-​5 where one can demonstrate a “perfect” chiastic structure, in 1 Thess 5:4-​8 such a precise chiastic arrangement cannot be shown without any defects. Hurd, for example, presents a chiastic arrangement of 1 Thess 5:2-​81480, and Luckensmeyer correctly observes that: “The chiastic arrangement as set out in English by Hurd is hardly defensible, but in Greek it is obvious that no such structure exists in the text (regardless of whether Paul was conscious of it or not….) None of the stichoi match very well, and some not at all….”1481

It suffices here, therefore, to present only a chiastic structure of 1 Thess 5:4-​5. While the terms “night and darkness” represent “the moral realm” for those who are not in the light and are, therefore, in danger of being overtaken or surprised by the day of the Lord (1 Thess 5:4)1482, the terms “light and day” symbolize the moral realm for the believers who are in the light and are destined to be saved. Moreover, the change from the 2nd person plural (“you”) in 1 Thess 5:4-​5a to the 1st person plural (“we”) in 1 Thess 5:5b can be described as a movement from the particularity of the Thessalonian situation to a general statement about all believers in Christ1483 who are in a state of uprightness and are hoping for the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. 1480 Cf. John Hurd, The Earliest Letters of Paul –​and Other Studies. Studies in the Religion and History of Early Christianity 8. Frankfurt am Main, et al., Peter Lang, 1998, p. 68. 1481 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 282, and also footnote 14. 1482 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 294–​295. 1483 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 294.

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3.1. (iii). 1 Thess 5:6-​7 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:6-​7 (with Notes) 6a. ἄρα οὖν 6b. μὴ καθεύδωμεν ὡς οἱ λοιποὶ 6c. ἀλλὰ γρηγορῶμεν καὶ νήφωμεν. 7a. Οἱ γὰρ καθεύδοντες νυκτὸς καθεύδουσιν 7b. καὶ οἱ μεθυσκόμενοι1484 νυκτὸς μεθύουσιν

6a. 6b. 6c. 7a. 7b.

So then, let us not sleep like the others do but let us be on the alert and be sober. For those who sleep, sleep at night and those who get drunk, are drunk at night.

Notes: The particle ἄρα in verse 6a can be seen as both a transitional and inferential particle. It can stand on its own as a “marker of an inference made on the basis of what precedes” or “to express result”, and in such instances the particle can be rendered as “then”, “so”, “consequently”, “as a result”1485. Here in verse 6a, emphasis is on the combined form of ἄρα and the inferential and transitional conjunction οὖν (“so”, “therefore”, “consequently”, “then”, etc.)1486. Thus, ἄρα οὖν (“so then”) can be described here as a consecutive conjunction because though it marks a transition here1487, it draws inference from the preceding statements and continues with the exhortation. With the conjunction ὡς (“like”, “as”), a comparison is drawn once again between the believers and “the others” (οἱ λοιποί). The conjunction ὡς, therefore, functions here in the same way as καθὼς καί (“just like”) in 1 Thess 4:131488. The hortatory subjunctive “let us not sleep” (μὴ καθεύδωμεν) in verse 6b is connected with the other hortatory subjunctive “but let us be alert and sober” (ἀλλὰ γρηγορῶμεν καὶ νήφωμεν) because in verses 6bc one identifies the expression

1 484 The manuscript B reads μεθύοντες instead of μεθυσκόμενοι. 1485 Cf. BDAG, p. 127 §§ 1, 2. 1486 For more details of the conjunction οὖν, confer BDAG, pp. 736–​737, especially §§ 1, 2. 1487 There is, for instance, a change from the indicative mood to the subjunctive mood which is seen in the hortatory subjunctives καθεύδωμεν, γρηγορῶμεν, and νήφωμεν. 1488 Some manuscripts (i.e. ‫א‬2 D F G K 0278. 81. 104, etc.) even add καί to ὡς here in verse 6b and read ὡς καί (“just as”).

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“not…but” (μὴ… ἀλλά) which has the effect of denying one thing in order to affirm the other. In such constructions, emphasis is laid not on the clause introduced by the marker or particle of negation (οὐ, οὐκ, μή, etc.) but more on the second clause introduced by the adversative particle ἀλλά1489. The conjunction γάρ (“for”) in verse 7a is a “marker of clarification” (see also verse 5a) which makes clearer what has been said in the preceding verses. It functions also as a narrative marker to express the continuation of the text, and in this sense γάρ is stronger than a particle such as δέ1490. The participles “those who sleep” (οἱ καθεύδοντες) in verse 7a and “those who get drunk” (οἱ μεθυσκόμενοι) in verse 7b refer to “the others” (οἱ λοιποί) in verse 6b (see also 1 Thess 4:13); and the genitive νυκτός (from νύξ [“night”]) which appears twice in verses 7ab is an adverb of time that indicates the time when “the others” (οἱ λοιποί) sleep and get drunk.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:6-​7 The expression “so then” (ἄρα οὖν) in 1 Thess 5:6a introduces the exhortation that follows the distinction Paul makes between the believers in Christ who are identified as the “sons or children of light” and the outsiders (the others or the non-​believers) who are described as belonging to “darkness” and the “night” (1 Thess 5:5). In the NT, the consecutive conjunction ἄρα οὖν appears in this combined form only in the Pauline writings (Rom 5:18; 7:3; Gal 6:10)1491. This conjunction can be used with the imperative to introduce paraenesis (see 2 Thess 2:15) or with the hortatory subjunctive (Rom 14:19; Gal 6:10; 1 Thess 5:6)1492, and it is placed always at the beginning of a sentence or a verse1493. Though with the combination ἄρα οὖν Paul now moves directly to paraenesis1494, this expression ἄρα οὖν marks the continuation of what has been said in the earlier verses (i.e. 1 Thess 5:4-​5) and it has not only a connective function, but it also gives more

1 489 Confer also οὐκ…ἀλλά (“not…but”) in 1 Cor 15:10; 1 Thess 4:8. 1490 Cf. BDAG, p. 189 § 2; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 280. 1491 The texts include Rom 7:25b; 8:12; 9:16, 18; 14:12, 19; 1 Thess 5:6. See also 2 Thess 2:15; Eph 2:19. 1492 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 295. 1493 Confer Rom 7:25 where ἄρα οὖν rather begins a sub-​verse, i.e., verse 25b. 1494 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 211.

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explanation for the aforementioned statements1495. Thus, the exhortations in 1 Thess 5:6ff. flow from the preceding verses (i.e. 1 Thess 5:4-​5). By content, however, 1 Thess 5:6 ff. is distinct from 1 Thess 5:4-​5 because despite the inferences made from 1 Thess 5:4-​5, each sub-​section of the subsequent verses (i.e. 1 Thess 5:6-​10) presents its own topic or paraenesis for discussion. Collins remarks correctly that the entire section (i.e., 1 Thess 5:4-​10) revolves around three traditional antitheses: “light-​darkness”, “being awake-​being asleep”, and “sobriety-​drunkeness”1496. The exhortations on the antitheses of “being awake-​being asleep” and “sobriety-​drunkenness” result from the antithesis of “light-​darkness” because it is by reason of the description of the Christ’s faithtful as “sons of light” who are not of “darkness” that they (the believers) are demanded or required to stay awake and be sober and not to sleep and to get drunk like “the others” or those described as being of darkness. Thus, the exhortations introduced here by ἄρα οὖν –​which of course are given in antithetical forms –​are the consequences of Paul’s convictions and of the preceding statements on the present status and the fate of the believers as distinct from the present status and the fate of the outsiders or the others. The hortatory subjunctives that follow ἄρα οὖν in verse 6bc, i.e., “let us not sleep” (μὴ καθεύδωμεν), “let us be alert” (γρηγορῶμεν), “let us be sober” (νήφωμεν) are imperatival in force1497, and through these hortatory subjunctives Paul tries not only to draw a distinction between the outsiders (i.e. οἱ λοιποί) and the believers in Christ, but he also appeals to the entire members of the community of believers to lead their life in conformity with their status as “sons or children of light” so as to be worthy of the salvation that comes through the Lord Jesus Christ. All the verbs in the subjunctive case with which Paul and his co-​authors begin the content of their exhortations in verse 6bc are in the 1st person plural (cf. μὴ καθεύδωμεν, γρηγορῶμεν, νήφωμεν), and it becomes crystal clear that Paul

1495 Cf. Raphael Kühner, Bernhardt Gerth, Ausführliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache (zweiter Band), Hannover und Leipzig: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 1904, § 542, i.e., pp. 317 ff. 1496 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Th 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 337. These three “traditional antitheses” are, nonetheless, not helpful in dividing verses 4-​10 because the antitheses are so interwoven in verses 4-​10 that while the antithesis of “light-​darkness” can be located exactly in verses 4-​5 (also verse 8a) that of “being awake-​being asleep” echoes in verses 6-​7 (cf. also verse 10b), and the antithesis of “sobriety-​drunkenness” is scattered in verses 6c, 7b, 8b; and verse 9 appears to say nothing about such antitheses. 1497 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 295.

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and his co-​missionaries continue to identify themselves with the community of believers in Thessalonica, and they direct the exhortations to every believer in Christ. Malherbe shares the opinion that here Paul expresses solidarity with his readers and the preaching style he adopts has a pastoral effect1498. The first among the hortatory subjunctives in verse 6bc is καθεύδωμεν (present active subjunctive 1st person plural of the infinitive καθεύδειν, “to sleep”, “to drop off ”, “to fall asleep”, etc.) which is found in the expression μὴ καθεύδωμεν ὡς οἱ λοιποί. The verb καθεύδειν, in fact, appears 5 times in the Pauline writings, i.e. including the letters ascribed to Paul (see 1 Thess 5:6b, 7a [2x], 10b, also Eph 5:14), and there are variations in meaning as regards the use of the verb καθεύδειν in the letters. While in Eph 5:14 and in 1 Thess 5:6b καθεύδειν is used in the metaphorical sense to describe the state of “spiritual indolence”1499, in 1 Thess 5:7a the verb καθεύδειν means “to sleep” in the natural or literal sense, and in 1 Thess 5:10b the verb is used euphemistically (just like the use of κοιμᾶσθαι in 1 Thess 4:13b, 14b, 15b) to describe physical death or the “sleep of death”1500. It is evident, however, that in all the passages where Paul uses the verb καθεύδειν (whether in the literal, figurative or in the euphemistic sense) the verb is used in contexts where he talks about the present status of the believers and their relationship with Christ Jesus who has called them from the “darkness of sin and death” into the “light and a life of holiness” and through whom their salvation is assured.

1 498 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, op. cit., p. 295. 1499 Cf. BDAG, p. 490 § 2. A difference between 1 Thess 5:6b and Eph 5:14 is that unlike in 1 Thess 5:6b, in Eph 5:14 the author cites an unknown source, probably a (baptismal) hymn, to talk about spiritual death or death associated with the state of being in the darkness of sin. When it is said in Eph 5:14: “Awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead …” (ἔγειρε, ὁ καθεύδων, καὶ ἀνάστα ἐκ τῶν νεκρῶν …), “the sleeper” (ὁ καθεύδων) is identified with “the spiritually indolent”, and the exhortation to “the sleeper” to awake (from sleep) and “to rise from the dead” means “the sleeper” who is dead by virtue of being in the darkness of sin should “bid farewell to the works of darkness and sin”. The exhortation in Eph 5:14 also has a bearing on Rom 13:11 where it is rather said: “It is now the hour for you (or us) to awake from sleep” (ὥρα ἤδη ὑμᾶς [ἡμᾶς] ἐξ ὕπνου ἐγερθῆναι). Some exegetes are of the view that these passages (Eph 5:14; Rom 13:11) rather have something to do with baptism. Confer, for example, M. Völkel, “καθεύδω”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), pp. 221–​222, especially page 222. 1500 Confer also the euphemistic use of καθεύδειν in Dn 12:2 and in Ps 87:6 (LXX). For more references to the use of καθεύδειν to refer to death, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, page 300 footnote 106.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

The metaphorical use of καθεύδειν in 1 Thess 5:6b (just as in Eph 5:14) actually means “to yield to sloth and sin, and be indifferent to one’s salvation”1501. Especially in Eph 5:14 καθεύδειν describes metaphorically the contrast between being dead and being truly alive1502. The figurative sense of the verb, therefore, expresses the situation of spiritual death, laxity or inactiveness with regard to the practice of living the Christian faith. Best indicates that the metaphorical use of the verb καθεύδειν here in 1 Thess 5:6b rather “suggests an unawareness of what is happening, an unconsciousness of the coming of great events, an insensitivity to redemption ….”1503 Such a situation of spiritual indolence does not only call for the need to enkindle one’s faith in God and one’s hope for the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ, the saviour, but also the need to cultivate the attitude of practising the Christian faith through works of charity (see Gal 5:6). It is in the light of this attitudinal change or renewal of one’s attitude towards the Lord’s coming that in 1 Thess 5:6bc καθεύδειν (“to sleep”) is contrasted not only with γρηγορεῖν but also with νήφειν and, of course, the meanings of such antonyms (γρηγορεῖν and νήφειν) in 1 Thess 5:6c help to explain further the metaphorical meaning of καθεύδειν in 1 Thess 5:6b. 1 En 39:12-​14, for example, employs the metaphorical meaning of sleep to talk about the attitude of those who do not sleep in the words: “Those who do not slumber but stand before your glory, did bless you. They shall bless, praise and extol (you), saying, ‘Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord of the Spirits; the spirits fill the earth.’/​And at that place (under his wings) my eyes saw others who stood before him sleepless (and) blessed (him), saying, /​‘Blessed are you and blessed is the name of the Lord of the Spirits forever and ever ….”1504

Thus, those who sleep are not in the mood to praise the Lord. Pss.Sol 3:1 emphasizes this attitude in the words: “Why do you sleep, soul, and do not praise the Lord? Sing a new song to God, who is worthy to be praised.”1505

1501 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 313 § 2c. 1502 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 295. 1503 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 211. 1504 Quoted from: E. Isaac (transl.), 1 (Ethiopic Apocalypse of) Enoch, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 31. Other metaphorical meanings of sleep are found in Isa 51:20; Ps 120:4 (LXX); also in Philo, De Somniis 2.162. Confer also Pss.Sol 3:1-​2. 1505 Quoted from: R. B. Wright (transl.), Psalms of Solomon, in: OTP 2 (1985), p. 654.

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Pss.Sol 16:1 goes further to identify the situation of being asleep with that of being far away from God. Pss.Sol 16:1 reads thus: “When my soul slumbered, (I was far away) from the Lord, wretched for a time; I sank into sleep, far from God”1506.

When Paul and his co-​missionaries identify themselves with their addressees and exhort them in the words: “let us not sleep” (μὴ καθεύδωμεν), “but let us be on the alert and be sober” (ἀλλὰ γρηγορῶμεν καὶ νήφωμεν), they call for spiritual activeness in one’s call and ministry as a believer in Christ, and in one’s relationship with God. In the NT, the verb γρηγορεῖν can mean “to be watchful or alert”, “to stay awake”, etc. in the literal or figurative sense, and it can also be used euphemistically to mean “to be alive” (see 1 Thess 5:10b). The purpose of the watchfulness or alertness varies from one context to another in the NT. In some contexts, the verb γρηγορεῖν means keeping watch or being vigilant while one awaits an imminent fate (see Mt 26:38, 40; Mk 14:34). It is also used to describe the waiting of servants for the return or arrival of their master (see Mk 13:34; Lk 12:37). How active the disciples should be in this period of alertness is made explicit in Mt 26:41 and in Mk 14:38 where the disciples are told to “watch and pray” (γρηγορεῖτε καὶ προσεύχεσθε)1507. Paul’s use of the term γρηγορεῖν in 1 Thess 5:6c, 8a entails no sense of inactivity or indolence but activeness on the part of the Christ’s faithful as they wait for the Lord’s second coming. In 1 Thess 5:6c, the verb γρηγορεῖν is used metaphorically to mean “to be watchtful”, “to be on the alert”, “to be in constant readiness” or “to be active”1508. In some other passages in the NT where γρηγορεῖν is used in the figurative sense, emphasis is on the need to be alert or watchful “lest through remissness and indolence some destructive calamity suddenly overtake one” (Mt 24:42; Mk 13:35; Rev 16:15)1509, or lest one is led to forsake Christ (Mt 26:41; Mk 14:38), or lest one falls into sin (1 Cor 16:13; 1 Thess 5:6; 1 Pt 5:8)1510, or be corrupted by errors (Acts

1 506 Cf. R. B. Wright (transl.), op. cit, p. 664. 1507 The author who writes in place of Paul also echoes this imperative of “watch and pray” in Col 4:2 by exhorting his addressees to be devoted to prayer (τῇ προσευχῇ προσκαρτερεῖτε), and to be wide awake or watchful in it (γρηγοροῦντες ἐν αὐτῇ). Confer also Eph 6:18 where the participle ἀγρυπνοῦντες (from ἀγρυπνεῖν, a synonym of γρηγορεῖν) is used. 1508 Cf. BDAG, p. 208 § 2. 1509 See also Mt 25:13; Mk 13:37. 1510 See also Rev 3:2-​3.

330

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

20:31)1511. It is evident in the NT that the metaphorical use of the verb γρηγορεῖν is mostly found in apocalyptic and eschatological contexts where the verb implicitly or explicitly directs attention to the unpredictable day or hour of the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ and the need for the believers in Christ to be alert by being ever ready and being steadfast in faith as they prepare in constant hope and in holiness for the Lord’s parousia (see Mt 24:42; Mk 13:35; Lk 12:371512)1513. The alertness or watchfulness Paul talks about here in 1 Thess 5:6c by the use of the verb γρηγορεῖν in the metaphorical sense can, therefore, be said to trace its source to early Christian (apocalyptic) literature1514 as presented not only in the NT (especially in the Jesus or the gospel tradition) but also elsewhere in the Didache (i.e. The Teachings of the Twelve Apostles). Didache 16:1 also echoes the exhortation thus:

1511 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 122 § 2. 1512 See also Mt 25:13; Rev 3:3; 16:15. 1513 Collins rightly observes that: “The characteristic literary context for the NT use of γρηγορέω is a firm indication that in verses 6-​7 [i.e. 1 Thess 5:6-​7] Paul is drawing on traditional apocalyptic material”. Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Th 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 338. 1514 Though in Judaism the motif of “watchfulness” and “sobriety” is present, the source of Paul’s combination of the verbs γρηγορεῖν and νήφειν in 1 Thess 5:6 cannot be traced directly to the OT or early Jewish apocalyptic literature because while in the LXX γρηγορεῖν appears, for instance, in Neh 7:3; Dn 9:14 (Theodotion); Jer 1:12; 5:6; 38:28; Lam 1:14; 1 Macc 12:27; Bar 2:9; Pss.Sol 3.2 [cf. also the substantive γρηγόρησις in Dn 5:11, 14; Pss.Sol 3:2; 16:4), νήφειν never appears in the LXX except for its cognate ἐκνήφειν (Gen 9:24; 1 Kgs 25:37; Joel 1:5; Hab 2:7, 19; Sir 34:2). A commom expression found in the passages where ἐκνήφειν is used is “to sober up or recover from wine”: ἐκνήφειν ἀπὸ (ἐκ/​ἐξ) τοῦ οἴνου (Gen 9:24; 1 Kgs 25:37; Joel 1:5). Though the verb γρηγορεῖν appears in the LXX and the verb νήφειν also appears in Jewish apocalyptic literature (e.g., T. Jud 16.3), in such writings these verbs do not describe the situation of being watchful or sober in preparation for the coming or appearance of the Lord God. Konradt remarks that in the LXX (and in other Jewish literature), γρηγορεῖν is used either in the real sense to mean the “wakefulness on the part of persons” (Neh 7:3; 1 Macc 12:27; Jer 5:6; then T. Benj 10.1; Jos.Asen 10.1) or the “watctfulness of God whom the deeds of persons cannot elude” (Jer 38:28; Bar 2:9; Dn 9:14 [Theodotion]). Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 166 footnote 760. For more details of the distinction between the use of the motif of “watchfulness” or “wakefulness” in the Pauline letters and in some Judaic literature, confer Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, pp. 40–​41.

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“Watch over your life; your lamps must not go out, nor your loins be ungirded; on the contrary, be ready. You do not know the hour in which our Lord is coming” (Γρηγορεῖτε ὑπὲρ τῆς ζωῆς ὑμῶν· οἱ λύχνοι ὑμῶν μὴ σβεσθήτωσαν, καὶ αἱ ὀσφύες ὑμῶν μὴ ἐκλυέσθωσαν, ἀλλὰ γίνεσθε ἕτοιμοι· οὐ γὰρ οἴδατε τὴν ὥραν, ἐν ᾗ ὁ κύριος ἡμῶν ἔρχεται)1515.

The figurative use of the verb γρηγορεῖν in this pericope (1 Thess 5:1-​11) also emphasizes the present status of the Christ’s faithful as sons or children of light (verses 4-​5) who are waiting for the Lord’s coming at a day that can be very destructive and disastrous for those who are not prepared for it; a day which is unpredictable but very certain (verses 1-​3). Thus, such exhortations in the early Christian literature which are mirrored here do not only have eschatological character but they basically have something to do with the present life situation of the Christ’s faithful in regard to the need for them to live virtuous life presently while they await the Lord’s second coming. In 1 Thess 5:6c, the verb νήφειν is paired with γρηγορεῖν and both verbs (νήφειν and γρηγορεῖν) serve as antonyms of the verb καθεύδειν in verse 6b. Νήφειν appears 6 times in the NT. While half of its appearances is found in the Pauline writings (1 Thess 5:6c, 8b; 2 Tim 4:5), the other half is located in 1 Peter (i.e., 1 Pt 1:13; 4:7; 5:8). Apart from 2 Tim 4:5 where νήφειν is used to talk about the need to be steady always and endure suffering and hardship in the fulfilment of one’s evangelical ministry, in all the other contexts the verb νήφειν is mainly used in relation to the call of God’s people to holiness and as such to the inner life of the (eschatological) community of believers who are waiting in hope for the Lord’s parousia and are required presently not to be spiritually indolent but active in their preparation for the final coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. This activeness is expressed in terms of seriousness, sobriety, prayer, and love or charity. Thus, the verb νήφειν which literally means “to be sober” can also be rendered figuratively (especially in the NT) as “to be calm and collected in spirit”, “to be temperate, dispassionate, and circumspect”1516, “be well-​balanced” and “be self-​ controlled”1517. Malherbe stresses that: 1515 The translation is quoted from: James A. Kleist (transl.), The Didache, the Epistle of Barnabas, the Epistles and the Martyrdom of St. Polycarp, the Fragment of Papias, the Epistle to Diognetus: Newly translated and annotated by James A. Kleist, in Johannes Quasten, Joseph C. Plumpe (editors), Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation (No. 6), Westminster: The New Press; London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1948, p. 24. 1516 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 425. 1517 Cf. BDAG, p. 672. In the NT, the adjective νηφάλιος which appears in 1 Tim 3:2, 11, Tit 2:2 means sobriety in the sense of being moderate, temperate and self-​controlled.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

“The verb [νήφειν] and its cognates are always used in the figurative sense in the NT: in 1 Cor 15:34, in 1 Peter (1:13; 4:7; 5:8), and in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tim 3:2, 11; 2 Tim 2:26 …1518), in the latter instances reflecting a moral philosophical perspective”1519.

The motifs of “watchfulness” and “sobriety” used in the metaphorical sense also appear in the writings of Philo1520, in some syncretistic and Gnostic writings1521, in ancient Greek philosophy1522, etc. Nonetheless, much as the nuance of these motifs (“watchfulness” and “sobriety”) in these writings (i.e. both religious and pagan) may relate to one another and have something to do with exhortation on morality especially in regard to persons’ way of life and their relationship with the supernatural being, there can still be a distinction drawn between the

Moreover, the cognate ἐκνήφειν is a hapax legomenon in the NT. It appears only in 1 Cor 15:34 where Paul uses it in the metaphorical sense to mean “to return to soberness of mind” or “to come to one’s senses”. Another cognate ἀνανήφειν also appears in the NT but once (see 2 Tim 2:26), and it appears there to convey a similar meaning to that of ἐκνήφειν in 1 Cor 15:34 because ἀνανήφειν in 2 Tim 2:26 also means “to return to a sound mind”, i.e. “to return to one’s sober senses”. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 40. 1518 See also 2 Tim 4:5; Tit 2:2. 1519 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 295. 1520 Confer, τυφλὸν γὰρ ὕπνος, ὡς ὀξυωπὲς ἐγρήγορσις in De Migratione Abrahami 222; Ἀοκνότατον γὰρ ὁ ἐπιστήμης ἔρως, ἐχθρὸς μὲν ὕπνου, φίλος δὲ ἐγρηγόρσεως in De Ebrietate 159; ὃς εἴπερ ἀπήμων εἴη καὶ ἀζήμιος πρὸς μηδενὸς τῶν μέθην … ὕπνῳ μὲν ἀποτάξεται λήθην καὶ ὄκνον … ἐγρήγορσιν δὲ ἀσπασάμενος πρὸς τὰ θέας ἄξια πάντα ὀξυδορκήσει …. in De Sobrietate 5; οἱ παρ᾽ ἡμῖν ἐγρηγορότες τῶν κοιμωμένων …. in De Josepho 147; ὕπνος γὰρ νοῦ ἐγρήγορσίς ἐστιν αἰσθήσεως, καὶ γὰρ ἐγρήγορσις διανοίας αἰσθήσεως ἀπραξία in Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit 257. It becomes evident from the passages cited here that Philo mostly uses the substantive ἐγρήγορσις (from the verb ἐγρηγορεῖν, a cognate of γρηγορεῖν) and its synonym ὕπνος. Elsewhere in his works, Philo also uses the verb νήφειν (De Ebrietate §§ 131; 147-​148; 151-​153; De Posteritate Caini § 175). 1521 Confer, for instance, Corpus Hermeticum 1.27; 7:1f; “The Hymn of Judas Thomas, the Apostle” or the “Hymn of the Soul” in The Acts of Thomas 108-​113, where one reads: “… and because of the burden of their oppressions I lay in a deep sleep” (109.35); “Up and arise from thy sleep, and listen to the words of our letter!” (110.43); “At its voice and the sound of its rustling, I started and arose from my sleep” (111.53). The translations are quoted from: A. F. J. Klijn, The Acts of Thomas: Introduction-​ Text-​Commentary, Leiden: Brill, 1962, pp. 122–​123. 1522 Cf. Plutarch’s Moralia II 781D where one finds the combination of being sober (νήφειν) and awake (ἀγρυπνεῖν). The verb ἀγρυπνεῖν (a synonym of γρηγορεῖν) also appears in the NT (see Mk 13:33; Lk 21:36; Eph 6:18b; Heb 13:17).

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application of these motifs in the NT (e.g. 1 Thess 5:6-​7, 8a; Rom 13:11-​14) and in the writings of Philo, the Gnostics, Aristeas, Plutarch, Epictetus, etc.1523 In the NT, these verbs are applied basically in eschatological contexts coloured by apocalyptic imagery with the main focus on the need for the Christ’s faithful to be alert and sober in their preparation for the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. In the Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates 209, Aristeas uses the infinitive νήφειν in the expression “to be sober for the greater part of [one’s] life” (νήφειν τὸ πλεῖον μέρος τοῦ βίου). Here in Aristeas letter, this expression is an answer to the question: “What is the most necessary habit [or quality] of a king [or kingship]?” (Τίς ἀναγκαιότατος τρόπος βασιλείας)1524. Thus, the habit or quality of being sober for the greater part of one’s life is laid down in Aristeas’ work as one of the qualities of a ruler1525, and in this context it describes nothing but “kingly behaviour”. Konradt also observes that in Philo’s writings, while “watchfulness” (ἐγρήγορσις) is used metaphorically in the sense of attentive perception or recognition and clear discernment of the (nature) of things, sleepiness describes the lack of such perception and clear discernment1526. It is worthwhile to emphasize here that Philo and other Hellenistic writers such as Plutarch, Epitectus, etc, as well as the Gnostics basically talk about watchfulness and sobriety in relation to one’s intellectual or mental disposition in regard to how capable a person is to perceive and understand the nature of things or creation and even the supernatural being (God). Thus, while γρηγορεῖν and νήφειν are positive aspects which point to one’s intellectual and mental alertness and soberness which help one to perceive and understand the nature of God and creation in all clarity, καθεύδειν and μεθύσκεσθαι or μεθύειν emphasize the mental and intellectual dullness which rather hinders persons to perceive and understand the nature of God and

1523 For an elaborate discussion of the differences between Paul’s use of the motifs “wakefulness” and “sobriety” and the application of these motifs especially in the writings of the Gnostics and of Philo, confer Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, especially pages 35–​36, 39–​40. Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 304–​305 and the references in the respective footnotes. 1524 For the translations, confer Benjamin G. Write III, The Letter of Aristeas: ‘Aristeas to Philocrates’ or ‘On the Translation of the Law of the Jews’, in: CEJL (2015). 1525 Cf. James Hope Moulton, George Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament: Illustrated from the Papyri and other Sources, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1930, p. 426. 1526 Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 166 and the references in footnote 762.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

creation1527. Hoppe remarks that both Philo and Plutarch emphasize the aspect of clarity in contrast to intellectual or mental (or spiritual) dullness in their metaphorical usage of νήφειν. He explains further that one can, for instance, read in Philo’s De Ebrietate § 131 that it is not possible to honour the Almighty and Creator God in the mood of Drunkenness because it is rather the watchful soul or mind that has access to a liberated, unattached and clear sense (see De Ebrietate §§ 151-​153), and it is for this reason that “sobriety” is rather suitable for the recognition or acknowledgement of God as the creator and “Father of All” (see De Posteritate Caini § 175)1528. In De Ebrietate §§ 151-​153 and in De Posteritate Caini § 175, Philo actually considers νήφειν (“to be sober”) and μεθύειν (“to be drunk”) as opposite terms. Nonetheless, in De Ebrietate § 146 he equates μεθύειν (“to be drunk”) with being in the mood of “enthusiastic ecstacy” to describe the condition of the soul or person who rejoices with a cheerful heart because the soul (or person) is inspired by God and his gift of mercy. In the subsequent paragraphs (De Ebrietate §§ 147-​ 148) Philo continues to say paradoxically that though the persons inspired by God in this way may be said to be drunk, they are only sober because they are drunk with pure wine of goodness and of virtue. Thus, in such passages (De Ebrietate §§ 146-​148) Philo does not draw a line between “drunkenness” and “sobriety” as such. In 1 Thess 5:6-​7 (8a), Paul does not talk about a situation of drunken-​soberness like what Philo describes in De Ebrietate §§ 146-​148 in his (Philo’s) interpretation of 1 Sam 1:13-​15 (or 1 Kgs 1:13-​15 LXX). Paul rather talks about spiritual soberness (and watchfulness), and he is very emphatic that watchfulness and sobriety are direct antonyms of sleepiness and drunkenness. In 1 Thess 5:6-​7, Paul seems to echo the exhortation in T. Jud 16.3 which reads:

1527 For an elaborate deliberation on the application of such terms and their meanings and implications in religious and pagan writings, confer Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, pp. 166–​170 and the references in the footnotes 759–​782; confer also Evald Lövestam, “Über die neutestamentliche Aufforderung zur Nüchternheit”, in: ST 12 (1958) 80–​102, especially pages 81–​83 for the use of the terms by Philo; and pages 83–​87 for the use of the terms by the Gnostics. 1528 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, pp. 304–​305. For a detailed discussion of Philo’s application of νήφειν and its cognates as basically something to do with the mind or intellect with regard to its ability or otherwise in the acquisition of real knowledge, confer Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, pp. 168–​169 and the respective references in the footnotes 771–​778.

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“But if you would live soberly do not touch wine at all, lest you sin in words of outrage, and in fightings and slanders, and transgressions of the commandments of God, and you perish before your time”1529.

For Paul, sobriety is connected with holiness or a good way of life, and that is the reason why he continues to explain in 1 Thess 5:8 the kind of soberness he is talking about by appealing to the believers, the children of light and day, to put on the breastplate or armour of faith, love and hope. The exhortation to the Christ’s faithful on sobriety and watchfulness is, therefore, not only a matter of being awake and sober in the literal sense of stopping sleeping and boozing, but it is more a kind of a wake-​up call to the community of believers to be spiritually active and awake to their religious duties and responsibilities. Luckensmeyer rightly remarks that although νήφειν is well represented in antiquity to express literally, “sobriety”, and figuratively, “self-​control”, the NT use of the verb νήφειν is quite narrow and refers to the predicament of being a Jesus-​follower, with associated imperatives1530. Paul undoubtedly knew the tradition in religious and pagan writings which talks about the contrasts of “sleepiness-​wakefulness”, “drunkenness-​sobriety” in the figurative sense with emphasis on the mental, intellectual and spiritual aspects of persons. However, such an emphasis on the intellect and mind (or soul) is not primarily the focus in the exhortations found in 1 Thess 5:6-​81531. The emphasis on the intellectual and mental watchfulness or sobriety in the Pauline writings can be seen, for example, in Rom 11:8 where Paul talks about spiritual blindness by quoting from Isa 29:10 (LXX)1532. Moreover, through the imperative

1529 Confer the translation of R. H. Charles, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs /​ “The Testament of Judah”, in: APOT 2 (1913), p. 320. 1530 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 300, and the reference in footnote 110. 1531 Confer also Evald Lövestam, “Über die neutestamentliche Aufforderung zur Nüchternheit”, p. 84. 1532 In the MT, Isa 29:10 talks about “a spirit of deep sleep” (‫ )רּוחַ ּתַ ְרּדֵ מָ ה‬that the Lord has brought over the people (i.e. the prophets, seers, etc.). The Isaiah Targum 29.10, however, speaks of “a spirit of error or deception”. The rendition of Isaiah Targum 29.10 is taken up in the LXX and so in Isa 29:10 (LXX) one reads πνεῦμα κατανύξεως (“a spirit of stupor, torpor, error, etc.”) Lövestam explains that Paul applies that passage (Isa 29:10 LXX) in Rom 11:8 to the obduracy of the apostate Israel in combination with other spiritual words that speak of blindness and deafness. Cf. Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, p. 37.

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Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

ἐκνήψατε in 1 Cor 15:34 Paul appeals to his addressees “to return to soberness of mind” or “to come to their senses”1533. Konradt correctly remarks that: “The fact that Paul himself knows the metaphorical meaning of soberness in the sense of clear mind, especially, the correct knowledge of God, is evident in 1 Cor 15:34 where Paul –​in the context of his reply to those who deny the resurrection of the dead –​appeals categorically to his addressees not to be led astray (1 Cor 15:33) but rather to be sober and come to their minds” (Dass Paulus selbst die übertragene Bedeutung von Nüchternheit im Sinne eines klaren Verstandes, insbesondere der rechten Kenntnis Gottes kennt, zeigt nachdrücklich 1 Kor 15,34: Im Kontext seiner Replik auf die Leugnung der Auferstehung fordert Paulus die Adressaten auf, sich nicht in die Irre führen zu lassen [15,33] und nüchtern zu werden (ἐκνήψατε); die Auferstehungsleugner aber gelten ihm als Menschen, die durch ἀγνωσία θεοῦ gekennzeichnet sind)1534.

The goal or purpose of the believers’ watchfulness and sobriety is the pivot on which the distinction between the application of such terms in 1 Thess 5:6-​8 and in other religious and pagan writings turns. In his teachings on the role of a philosopher in his work Orations 49.1-​13, Dio Chrysostom stresses in Orations 49.10 that the philosopher must be alert or watchful day and night so as not to stray from the proper way. Thus, in Greek Philosophy watchfulness or alertness is not necessarily focused on a kind of preparation for the arrival of somebody. In 1 Thess 5:6-​8, the believers in Christ are to be alert and sober by way of living moral and upright life in preparation for the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. It is to be understood here that both verbs γρηγορεῖν and νήφειν are synonymous1535. Malherbe shares the opinion that here in 1 Thess 5:6, Paul forms a hendiadys, with νήφειν strengthening γρηγορεῖν, to express sober vigilance1536. The need or 1533 The imperative ἐκνήψατε is from the verb ἐκνήφειν, a cognate of νήφειν. This verb ἐκνήφειν is a hapax legomenon in the NT and it appears only here in 1 Cor 15:34. 1534 Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 171. Elsewhere in 2 Tim 2:26 the author who writes in place of Paul also uses another cognate ἀνανήφειν in the sense of “to return to a sound mind” or “to return to one’s sober senses”, i.e. so as to be able to come to the knowledge of the truth. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 40. 1535 Milligan makes effort to draw a distinction between γρηγορεῖν and νήφειν by maintaining that unlike γρηγορεῖν which denotes a “mental attitude”, νήφειν “points rather to a condition of moral alertness, the senses being so exercised and disciplined that all fear of sleeping again is removed …”, and he identifies καθεύδειν in 1 Thess 5:6b (also in Mk 13:36, Eph 5:6) with the ethical sense of moral and spiritual insensibility. Cf. George Milligan, St Paul’s Epistles to the Thessalonians: The Greek Text with Introduction and Notes, pp. 67–​68. 1536 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 296.

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reason for the believers to be alert and sober is based on their conversion to God who has revealed himself in his son Jesus Christ, their new status as children of light and day, and their relationship with Jesus Christ whose definitive manifestation they are waiting for at his parousia1537. The attitude of “the rest”: οἱ λοιποί here in 1 Thess 5:6 (see also 1 Thess 4:13) is described in terms of a quality of life that is in contrast to the sober vigilance of the believers who do have hope of salvation (see also 1 Thess 5:8-​10)1538. In 1 Thess 5:7a, Paul explains the condition or character of “sleepers” in the words: “For those who sleep, sleep at night” (Οἱ γὰρ καθεύδοντες νυκτὸς καθεύδουσιν). The conjunction γάρ (“for”) functions in verse 7a not only to introduce “a self-​evident fact” but also as a marker of clarification to elaborate further and to confirm what is mentioned in the previous verse 61539. Unlike in verse 6b where καθεύδειν is used metaphorically, here in verse 7a the verb καθεύδειν is rather used literally and it bears the nuance of normal experience of sleep. In the NT, the literal meaning of καθεύδειν can also be found in some passages in the synoptic gospels (see Mt 8:24; Mk 4:27; Lk 22:461540)1541. Among these passages, the literal meaning of καθεύδειν (“to sleep”) is very evident in Mk 14:40 where it is reported that Jesus found them (the disciples) asleep (εὗρεν αὐτοὺς καθεύδοντας), and in that condition their eyes were said to be very heavy, weighed down or fell shut (ἦσαν γὰρ αὐτῶν οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ καταβαρυνόμενοι), and they did not know what answer to give to Jesus’ question. Thus, in Mk 14:40 the literal meaning of καθεύδειν is identified with the state of the eyes being heavy or being weighed down with sleep. An aspect in 1 Thess 5:7a that determines Paul’s use of καθεύδειν in the literal sense is the use of the adverb of time νυκτός (i.e. the genitive singular of νύξ, “night”). Here, the genitive is genitive of time and

1 537 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 298. 1538 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 295. 1539 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 296. 1540 See also Mt 13:25; 25:5; 26:40, 43, 45; Mk 4:38; 13:36; 14:37, 40-​41. 1541 There are also passages in the MT and in the LXX where “sleep” means normal sleep (see Gen 2:21; 31:40; 1 Kgs 3:2, 3, 9; 26:12; 3 Kgs 19:5; Ps 3:6; 120:3; 126:2; Prov 3:24; 4:16; 6:4, 9; [also 10:5 MT]; 20:13; Eccl 5:11; Jon 1:5), etc. In the LXX, verbs used to describe the act of sleep include καθεύδειν (1 Kgs 3:2, 3, 9; 26:7; 2 Kgs 4:5); ὑπνοῦν (Gen 2:21; 20:3; Ps 3:5; Prov 3:24; Jdt 12:5), καροῦσθαι (Jer 28:39), νυστάζειν (2 Kgs 4:6; Ps 120:3, 4; Isa 5:27), etc, and they translate the Hebrew verbs ‫( ׁשָ כַב‬in the modification qal), ‫( יָׁשַ ן‬in the modification qal), ‫( לין‬in the modification qal), ‫( נּום‬in the modification qal), ‫( ָרדַ ם‬in the modification nif ‘al), etc.

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νυκτός is to be translated as “at night” or “in the night”1542. It is, of course, natural to understand that normal sleep takes place mostly in the night1543, and so in verse 7a Paul writes simply “those who sleep, sleep at night” (οἱ καθεύδοντες νυκτὸς καθεύδουσιν) whereby καθεύδοντες (present participle active 3rd person plural of the infinitive καθεύδειν) is identified with “those who sleep” and the verb καθεύδουσιν (present indicative active 3rd person singular of the infinitive καθεύδειν) describes their action. Thus, in verse 7a καθεύδειν appears in two forms (i.e. the participle and the predicate forms) to identify “sleepers” and also to describe the act of normal sleep which naturally takes place at night. With the words “those who get drunk are drunk at night” (καὶ οἱ μεθυσκόμενοι νυκτὸς μεθύουσιν) in 1 Thess 5:7b, Paul adds another event which takes place in the night, i.e., the activity of “drunkards”. The word μεθυσκόμενοι is perfect participle passive 3rd person plural masculine of the infinitive verb μεθύσκεσθαι (“to get drunk”, “to become intoxicated”, or “to cause to become intoxicated”). The verb appears 5 times in the NT, i.e. here in 1 Thess 5:7b and elsewhere in Lk 12:45; Jn 2:10; Eph 5:18; Rev 17:21544. In all its appearances in the NT, the verb μεθύσκεσθαι is never used in the active but always in the passive voice. There is hardly any marked difference between the verbs μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν1545. In the LXX, any of the verbs μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν can be the rendition of the Hebrew verb ‫ ׁשָ כַר‬which in the modifications qal, pi‘el, hif ‘il, or hitpa‘el can

1542 Other passages in the NT where νυκτός is used as genitive of time include: Mt 2:14; 28:13; Jn 3:2; 19:39; Acts 9:25; cf. also Mt 25:6. 1543 It is also noticeable in some of the synoptic passages where καθεύδειν is used in the literal sense that the “sleepers” sleep at night (e.g. Mk 4:27; cf. Mt 13:25; 25:5-​6). There are also passages in the OT which talks about normal sleep which takes place in the night (e.g., 1 Sam 26:7; also Gen 20:3 LXX). Confer also Jos.Asen 10.1 (2) which reads: “The night approached and everybody in the house slept; and she (Aseneth) alone was awake ….” (Καὶ ἐπῆλθεν ἡ νὺξ καὶ ἐκάθευδον πάντες οἱ ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ· καὶ ἦν αὐτὴ [Ἀσενὲθ] γρηγοροῦσα μόνη ….) This does not suffice to say, however, that every normal sleep takes place at night. 2 Sam 4:5, for example, talks about normal sleep which rather takes place at noon or noonday, i.e., siesta. 1544 In the NT, the other verb μεθύειν can be found in Mt 24:49; Acts 2:15; 1 Cor 11:21; Rev 17:6. 1545 In the BDAG, μεθύσκεσθαι is described as “the causal of μεθύειν” and it is translated as “to cause to become intoxicated” or “to get drunk”. The verb μεθύειν is then translated as “to drink to a point of intoxication” or “to be drunk”. See BDAG, pp. 625, 626. Luckensmeyer tries to clarify such definitions by emphasizing that while μεθύσκεσθαι describes the process of becoming drunk, μεθύειν points to the state of being drunk. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 300–​301.

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mean “to be drunk”, “to be merry (with others) as a result of drinking”, etc. (see Gen 43:34; Isa 19:14; Joel 1:5)1546. It can be said, therefore, that μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν appears here in 1 Thess 5:7b as synonymous terms. While in verse 7a the participle καθεύδοντες and the predicate καθεύδουσιν stem from the single verb καθεύδειν, in verse 7b μεθυσκόμενοι and μεθύουσιν rather stem from two synonymous verbs i.e., μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν respectively. Though the word wine (οἶνος) is not mentioned here in the application of the verbs μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν –​ unlike in Eph 5:18 and elsewhere in the NT where the verbs appear –​it is to be understood here that the people get drunk with real or normal wine1547 at night. In his work Jewish War 2.29, Josephus also uses the participle μεθυσκόμενος to describe how Archelaus drinks excessively at night. The passage reads thus: “A further charge which Antipater brought against Archelaus [cf. Jewish War 2.26] was that even in his mourning for his father he had played the hypocrite, in the day-​time

1 546 See also 1 Sam 1:13, 14; Isa 28:1; Nah 3:11. 1547 There are passages in the OT (e.g., Prov 23:30) and in Jewish apocalyptic literature (e.g., T. Jud 11.2; 14.1, 3) where it is categorically stated that people get drunk with real wine, but in Isa 29:9-​10 (also Isa 51:21), for instance, it is evident that persons can get drunk and stagger and fall into deep sleep but not with wine. In Isa 28:1 (LXX), one finds the expression: “Those who are drunk without wine” (οἱ μεθύοντες ἄνευ οἴνου). Elsewhere in Odes.Sol 11:7 the speaker became intoxicated not with wine but with “living or immortal water” (ὕδωρ τὸ ἀθάνατον) which is further described as “speaking waters” (τὸ ὕδωρ τὸ λαλοῦν) from the Lord’s spring (Odes.Sol 11:6). The speaker then explains further that his “drunkenness” (ἡ μέθη) was “divine” because it was not filled with ignorance but through this intoxication he abandoned vanity and turned towards the Most High God (Odes.Sol 11:8-​9). Odes.Sol 11:7-​9 reads thus: ἔπιον καὶ ἐμεθύσθην ὕδωρ τὸ ἀθάνατον /​καὶ ἡ μέθη μου οὐκ ἐγένετο εἰς ἀλογιστίαν ἀλλ᾽ ἐξετράπην τῶν ματαίων /​ἐπὶ τὸν ὕψιστον θεόν μου. Quoted from: Michael Lattke, Die Oden Salomos: Griechisch-​koptisch-​syrisch mit deutscher Übersetzung, Darmstadt: WBG (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft), 2011, p. 52. Confer also Pss.Sol 8.14. It appears that in all the contexts in which people are said to get drunk but not with real wine, emphasis is placed on the metaphorical use of μεθύειν or μεθύσκεσθαι and their cognates. Paul uses μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν here in 1 Thess 5:7 to imply getting drunk with real wine and for this reason μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν is not to be understood in the figurative sense but in the literal sense. Paul’s use of the forms of μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν in 1 Thess 5:7b is, therefore, not to be equated with the application of the verbs in the context of Odes.Sol 11 but with the related passages in the NT, elsewhere in the LXX and in early Jewish apocalyptic literature (e.g. T. Jud 14.1) where it is specified in context that the “drunkards” get drunk with normal or real wine.

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assuming a pose of grief, at night drinking to riotous excess” (προσωνείδιζεν δ᾽ ὡς καὶ τὸ πένθος κατειρωνεύσατο τοῦ πατρός, μεθ᾽ ἡμέραν μὲν ἐπισχηματίζων τὸ πρόσωπον εἰς λύπην, νύκτωρ δὲ μέχρις κώμων μεθυσκόμενος)1548.

Josephus’ report gives the clue that the participle μεθυσκόμενος alone (i.e., without necessarily mentioning wine [οἶνος]) talks about drinking in connection with wine, and it becomes evident in the description of Archelaus’ attitude or behaviour that the appropriate or normal time for people to drink to riotous excess or to booze is not in the day-​time but at night. This is also emphasized in the words of Peter in Acts 2:15 where it is evident that it is not normal to be drunk in the morning (or during the day-​time). Acts 2:15 reads thus: “These people are not drunk, as you suppose, since it is only the third hour of the day” (οὐ γὰρ ὡς ὑμεῖς ὑπολαμβάνετε οὗτοι μεθύουσιν, ἔστιν γὰρ ὥρα τρίτη τῆς ἡμέρας)1549. All these texts suggest that the normal time for people to get or be drunk is at night, i.e., the period between sunset and dawn1550. The conjunction καί in 1 Thess 5:7b can be a marker of connection which functions to link both sentences in verse 7a and verse 7b. Nonetheless, the καί can also be seen as a “marker to indicate an additive relation that is not coordinate to connect clauses and sentences”1551. When the particle καί is taken to function here in 1 Thess 5:7ab as indicating an additive relation between verse 7a and verse 7b, the particle καί can mean here “also”, “likewise”1552, and in that case verse 7b which contains the particle καί can be rendered as: “likewise those who get drunk, are drunk at night”. Such a translation would rather place the role of the adverb of time νυκτός (“at night”) at the center of the interpretation of both verse 7a and verse 7b so far as the activities of these categories of persons (i.e., sleepers and drunkards”) are concerned. Best remarks correctly that here “the

1548 Cf. Josephus II, in: LCL 203. Cambridge.London: Havard University Press, 1927, pp. 332–​333, 334–​335. 1549 The time (of day) expressed in the Greek ὥρα τρίτη τῆς ἡμέρας translates literally as “the third hour of the day” and it means “nine o’ clock in the morning”. The NAB translates the text (Acts 2:15) as: “These people are not drunk, as you suppose, for it is only nine o’ clock in the morning”. 1550 Isa 5:11 (MT), however, emphasizes how people begin to drink wine to excess from morning until evening or night, i.e., before dawn (see the Hebrew ‫)נֶׁשֶ ף‬. Confer also 2 Pt 2:13. For more references in Greco-​Roman literature, confer Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 299 footnote 1. 1551 Cf. BDAG, p. 495 § 2. 1552 Examples of texts in which καί functions in this way and means “also”, “likewise” are Mt 5:39, 40; 6:21; Mk 1:38; 8:7.

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controlling thought is the night: the Thessalonians must beware of the activities, metaphorically interpreted, which belong to it [i.e. the night]”1553. It appears that most “unchristian” or evil activities take place in the night. Lövestam rightly observes that: “… it is a recurrent theme that the deeds of evil belong to the night and are hidden in darkness and that they are revealed by the light and are judged”1554. It is possible that with this adverb of time νυκτός (“at night”) Paul would like not only to echo here how “night” (νύξ) –​just as “darkness” (σκότος) –​ is associated with evil deeds but also to give examples of those who belong to night and darkness (cf. verse 5b) and the kind of activities they engage in (doing) in their everyday life. Thus, what is expressed here in verse 7ab so literally actually have something to do with the category of persons whose ways are diametrically opposed to the believers’ way of life because the persons described here, i.e., sleepers (or sluggards) and drunkards, and their daily nocturnal activities reflect the deeds of people who belong to the night and are living in darkness (cf. verses 4b, 5b), those who have no hope (1 Thess 4:13; 5:6b), and, of course, those who say peace and security but live in illusion (1 Thess 5:3)1555. It is worthwhile to note that the substantive “drunkenness” (ἡ μέθη) appears 3 times in the NT (see Lk 21:34; Rom 13:13; Gal 5:21)1556. In Gal 5:21, Paul identifies “drunkenness” (ἡ μέθη) with “the works of the flesh” –​τὰ ἔργα τῆς σαρκός (Gal 5:19) which the believers should avoid and rather “live by the Spirit”: πνεύματι περιπατεῖτε (Gal 5:16) so that they would be able to inherit the kingdom of God. In Rom 13:13, Paul associates “drunkenness” (ἡ μέθη) with “the works of darkness” (τὰ ἔργα τοῦ σκότους) which the Christ’s faithful are to cast off and rather “put on the armour (or works) of light”: ἐνδυσώμεθα τὰ

1 553 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 212. 1554 Cf. Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, p. 47, and the reference in footnote 4. 1555 Luckensmeyer shares opinion with Yoder-​Neufeld that with the motif of “night” (νύξ) and the use of the metaphors of “to sleep” (καθεύδειν) and “to be drunk” (μεθύειν) in 1 Thess 5:6-​7, Paul relies, at least, indirectly on traditional material to identify those who are under judgement (see Isa 19:14; 24:20; 28:1, 3, 7-​8; 29:9, 10; 51:17, 21-​22; 63:3, 6; 65:11; Joel 1:5; Amos 6:4). Cf. Yoder-​Neufeld, R. Thomas, ‘Put on the Armour of God’: The Divine Warrior from Isaiah to Ephesians (JSNTSup 140), Sheffield: Academic Press, 1997, pp. 82–​83; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 301 and footnote 114. 1556 While Luke uses the singular μέθη in Lk 21:34, Paul uses the word in the plural in Rom 13:13 and in Gal 5:21 in the Greek text.

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ὅπλα (ἔργα1557) τοῦ φωτος (Rom 13:12) so as to conduct themselves properly as people in the day (Rom 13:13) but not in darkness. In Lk 21:34 and in Rom 13:13 “drunkenness” appears in contexts which speak about the need for the believers to be vigilant in their expectation of the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ so that the day of the Lord’s parousia will not suddenly fall on them (cf. especially Lk 21:34-​36). Already in the previous verse (i.e., 1 Thess 5:4), Paul emphasized that the believers in Christ cannot be overtaken by the day of the Lord because they are not (living) in darkness. Thus, the use of the forms of the verb καθεύδειν here in 1 Thess 5:7a and the forms of the verbs μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν in verse 7b actually seeks to stress the attitude and behaviour of people who are of darkness. Malherbe remarks correctly that: “Paul continues the deliberate ambiguity that began with his introduction of the term ‘sons of day’ in verse 5 to describe both eschatological and moral dimensions of Christian existence. What is important here is that it is the quality of life, moral somnolence and drunkenness that demonstrates whether one belongs to the night”1558.

The two groups of people Paul talks about here in 1 Thess 5:7ab (i.e., sleepers and drunkards) are seen to belong to a category of people whose ways are not to be emulated by the Christ’s faithful, the children of light and children of day. Lövestam explains that: “Sleep and drunkenness belong to the night. But for those who are not of the night or of the darkness, but are instead sons of the light and sons of the day, it is fitting not to sleep as others do, but to keep awake and be sober ….”1559

Drunkenness and sleepiness naturally go hand in hand, and there are a number of writings (both religious and secular) in which the motifs of “drunkenness” and “sleepiness” or “drowsiness” are combined. In a syncretistic writing ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, i.e., Corpus Hermeticum 1.27, one reads: “And I began to preach to men [i.e. people] the beauty of piety and of knowledge of God, saying: ‘Hearken, ye folk, men [or people] born of earth, who have given yourselves up to drunkenness and sleep in your ignorance of God; awake to soberness, cease to be sodden with strong drink and lulled in sleep devoid of reason’ ”1560 (καὶ

1557 The manuscripts A D read ἔργα (“works”, “deeds”, “acts”) instead of ὅπλα (“tools”, “weapons”, “shield”, “armour”). 1558 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 296. 1559 Cf. Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, pp. 45–​46. 1560 The translation is quoted from: Walter Scott (editor), Hermetica: The Ancient Greek and Latin Writings which contain Religious or Philosophic Teachings ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus (Volume I), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924, pp. 129, 133.

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ἦργμαι κηρύσσειν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις τὸ τῆς εὐσεβείας καὶ γνώσεως κάλλος, Ὦ λαοί, ἄνδρες γηγενεῖς, οἱ μέθῃ καὶ ὕπνῳ ἑαυτοὺς ἐκδεδωκότες καὶ τῇ ἀγνωσίᾳ τοῦ θεοῦ, νήψατε, παύσασθε δὲ κραιπαλῶντες, θελγόμενοι ὕπνῳ ἀλόγῳ)1561.

Lövestam remarks that in such syncretistic (or gnostic) passages (Corp. Herm.1.27; 7.1 f), just as in the works of Philo, drunkenness is linked with “ignorance” (ἀγνωσία) which is also an expression of mental derangement (geistige Umnachtung) which leads the divine origin of the soul to fall into oblivion and causes persons to surrender themselves to the powers of the mundane world and the realm of evil deeds1562. Lövestam further explains that it is in this light that the motifs of drunkenness and soberness are combined with the motifs of sleepiness and wakefulness1563 because for the Gnostics, the souls of persons are of divine origin and nature and it is through soberness and watchfulness that persons are able to become conscious not only of their divine origin and their situation as strangers in this world but also of the correct behaviour which corresponds to their divine nature1564. He maintains that the gnostic teaching about the motifs of drunkenness and soberness are basically grounded on the dualistic view of the divine and the mundane spheres of human existence1565. Another religious context –​apart from the syncretistic teachings (see Corp. Herm.1.27; 7.1 f; and Acts of Thomas 108-​113) –​where such combinations of drunkenness-​soberness, sleepiness-​wakefulness are found is in Philo’s work De Somniis 2.160 which reads: “For indeed he who gives way to the intoxication which is of folly rather than of wine bears a grudge against upright standing and wakefulness, and lies prostrate and sprawling like sleepers with the eyes of his soul closed, unable to see or hear aught [i.e. anything] that is worth seeing or hearing”1566 (…Τῷ γὰρ ὄντι ὁ μὴ τὴν δι᾽ οἴνου μέθην μᾶλλον ἤ τὴν δι᾽ ἀφροσύνης ἐπιτηδεύων, ὀρθότητι καὶ ἐγρηγόρσει δυσχεραίνων, ὥσπερ

1561 The Greek text is quoted from: A. D. Nock, A. –​J. Festugière (editors), Corpus Hermeticum (Tome I, Traités I-​XII), Paris: Société d’edition “Les Belles Lettres”, 1945, p. 16. Confer also Corp. Herm. 7.1f; “The Hymn of the Soul” in Acts of Thomas 108-​113. 1562 Cf. Evald Lövestam, “Über die neutestamentliche Aufforderung zur Nüchternheit”, pp. 84, 86. 1563 Cf. Evald Lövestam, op. cit., p. 84. 1564 Cf. Evald Lövestam, “Über die neutestamentliche Aufforderung zur Nüchternheit”, p. 87. 1565 Cf. Evald Lövestam, “Über die neutestamentliche Aufforderung zur Nüchternheit”, p. 87. 1566 For the translation, confer Francis H. Colson, George H. Whitaker (transl.), Philo, 10 volumes plus 2 suppl. Volumes, in: LCL 226, 227, 261, 275, 289, 320, 341, 363,

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οἱ κοιμώμενοι καταβέβληται καὶ παρεῖται καὶ καταμέμυκε τὰ τῆς ψυχῆς ὄμματα, οὐδὲν οὔθ᾽ ὁρᾶν οὔτ᾽ ἀκούειν τῶν θέας καὶ ἀκοῆς ἀξίων οἷός τε ὤν).

There is also an exhortation in an ancient fragment which reads: “Wake up, bright soul, from the sleep of drunkenness, into which you have fallen”1567; and in a Zarathustra hymn one reads: “Shake off the drunkenness into which you have slumbered, wake up ….”1568 Other passages in the OT too show how the motifs of “drunkenness” and “sleep” are intimately connected (see Prov 4:16-​17; Isa 19:14; 29:9-​10)1569. The attitude of “being fond of sleep” is described in Prov 23:21 by the word ὑπνώδης (from the verb ὑπνοῦν) which is figuratively associated with “laziness”, and those who clothe themselves (ἐνδύειν) with “drowsiness” (ὑπνώδης: cf. also the Hebrew: ‫ )נּומָ ה‬clothe themselves basically with nothing but rags. The lives of habitual sleepers or sluggards and drunkards (as well as glutons) end up miserably without any success (Prov 23:20-​21). Prov 6:4, therefore, appears to counter “fondness for sleep” or “laziness” (ὑπνώδης) with the exhortation: “Give your eyes no sleep and your eyelids no slumber” (μὴ δῷς ὕπνον σοῖς ὄμμασιν, μηδὲ ἐπινυστάξῃς σοῖς βλεφάροις) so as to be able to free (yourself) like a gazelle from the snare or as a bird from the hand of the fowler1570. Konradt notices that in sapiential tradition or literature “sleepiness” is identified with laziness (Prov 6:4-​10; 24:30-​33; 26:14-​16) and idle persons are described as dormant persons (Sir 22:9-​10), but the habit of waking up early and abandoning sleep in order to acquire wisdom is extolled (Prov 8:34-​35; Wis 6:14-​15)1571. Isa 5:11-​12 too emphasizes categorically that those who are in the habit of drinking excess wine throughout the day and night have no regard for the deeds of God, and in their daily activities they do not even praise God for the beauty of his creation.

379, 380, 401, London: William Heinemann /​Cambridge: Havard University Press, 1929–​1962. 1567 Cf. Richard Reitzenstein, Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium: Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen, Bonn, 1921, p. 13. The translation is quoted from: Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, pp. 55–​56 footnote 10. 1568 Cf. Richard Reitzenstein, Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium: Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen, p. 55. The translation is quoted from: Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, p. 55. For more examples of texts that bring out the connection between “drunkenness” and “sleepiness”, confer Richard Reitzenstein, Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium: Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen, pp. 26, 55 and the respective references in the footnotes. 1569 See also Prov 23:21, 29-​30; Isa 51:17-​52:2, and also Isa 19:14 (MT). 1570 Confer also Prov 6:6, 9-​11. 1571 Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 166 footnote 761.

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The combined usages of drunkenness-​soberness and sleepiness-​wakefulness are also found in Greco-​Roman literature (or Greek and Latin ancient texts) such as that of Plutarch’s Moralia II 781D which reads: “When all the Thebans crowded to a certain festival and gave themselves up utterly to drink, Epameinondas went alone and patrolled the armouries and the walls, saying that he was keeping sober and awake1572 that the others might be free to be drunk and sleep”1573 (Ὁ δ᾽ Ἐπαμεινώνδας, εἰς ἑορτήν τινα καὶ πότον ἀνειμένως τῶν Θηβαίων ῤυέντων, μόνος ἐφώδευε τὰ ὅπλα καὶ τὰ τείχη, νήφειν λέγων καὶ ἀγρυπνεῖν ὡς ἄν ἐξῇ τοῖς ἄλλοις μεθύειν καὶ καθεύδειν).

Thus, the activities described in 1 Thess 5:7 as sleeping or getting drunk in the night are to be seen as real events which actually serve as a symbol of an inappropriate life or existence. The fact that drunkenness, especially, is associated with a slovenly way of life is attested not only here in 1 Thess 5:7 but also elsewhere in the OT (e.g., Prov 23:29-​31), in other Jewish literature (e.g., T. Jud 16.2-​3) as well as in non-​Jewish writings1574. Much as Paul also makes use of the combination of the motifs “sleepiness-​alertness” and “drunkenness-​soberness” in 1 Thess 5:6-​8a, he does not apply such motifs in the same way as they appear in other religious and pagan writings which seem to have been influenced by ancient Greek philosophy. Lövestam rightly observes that unlike the application of such motifs by the Gnostics who emphasize on the dualism of the divine and the mundane, physical or material things, the use of such motifs in the NT does not base on any such dualism because in the NT God and the world of the divine is not seen as diametrically opposed to the mundane world and physical things since God is the creator of material things (e.g. Jn 1:1-​3; Col 1:16; Heb 1:21575) and everything created by God is good (1 Tim 4:4 [see also Gen 1:31 in the OT])1576. He indicates 1572 Unlike in 1 Thess 5:6c, Plutarch uses here ἀγρυπνεῖν, a synonym of γρηγορεῖν, for the verb “to awake”. Thus, in this passage one finds νήφειν and ἀγρυπνεῖν as antonyms of μεθύειν and καθεύδειν. 1573 Confer Frank C. Babbitt, in: Frank C. Babbitt, et al. (transl.), Plutarch’s Moralia. 16 volumns, in: LCL. London: William Heinemann /​Cambridge: Havard University Press, 1927–​1976; also David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 301 footnote 112. 1574 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 305. For more details of the references to the passages and texts in which the negative aspects of drunkenness are highlighted, confer Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 305 footnote 381. 1575 See also Heb 1:10; 2 Pt 3:4-​6; Rev 4:11. 1576 Cf. Evald Lövestam, “Über die neutestamentliche Aufforderung zur Nüchternheit”, p. 87. Lövestam, again, emphasises elsewhere that in Rom 13:11-​14, for example, the intended wakefulness “is not based on Gnostic-​dualistic conditions, nor is it

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that in the NT, the power and the reign of sin and death in human existence are not grounded in the material world as such but in a historical event which is the fall of man through disobedience to God whereas the salvation of humankind is based on a historical event which is the Christ-​event par excellence (Col 1:14); the accomplishment of the Christ-​event is linked with his parousia and that the salvation of humankind –​which is not only about the soul, the mind or the intellect but the totality of a person –​depends solely on Jesus Christ, and this salvation is explained in terms of one’s relationship with Christ1577. The motif of soberness is used in the NT, therefore, to talk about the salvation through Christ (1 Thess 5:8f), about the grace that is offered in and through the revelation of Jesus Christ, and about the need to be steadfast in faith (1 Pt 5:8-​9)1578, i.e. in the present time and in preparation for the Lord’s coming at the end of time1579. In the verse that follows (i.e. 1 Thess 5:8), Paul and his co-​missionaries actually continue to emphasize the proper way or manner the believers should lead their lives by exhorting them rather to be “sober” (νήφειν) and clothe themselves (ἐνδύειν) with the “cardinal virtues” of faith, love and hope, so that they (the believers) can work for their salvation by living as children of light and children of day as they await the coming of the day of the Lord and the Lord’s parousia.

3.1. (iv). 1 Thess 5:8 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:8 (with Notes) 8a. Ἡμεῖς δὲ ἡμέρας ὄντες νήφωμεν 8b. ἐνδυσάμενοι θώρακα πίστεως καὶ ἀγάπης καὶ περικεφαλαίαν ἐλπίδα σωτηρίας·

8a. But since we are of day, let us be sober 8b. by having put on a breastplate of faith and love, and as a helmet the hope of salvation.

seen from the perspective of devotion to the Law, but is completely linked with communion with Christ”. Cf. Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, p. 41. 1577 Cf. Evald Lövestam, “Über die neutestamentliche Aufforderung zur Nüchternheit”, pp. 87–​88, 91. 1578 Cf. Evald Lövestam, “Über die neutestamentliche Aufforderung zur Nüchternheit”, p. 92. 1579 Cf. Evald Lövestam, op. cit., pp. 89–​90. For more details of the differences between the uses of such motifs in the NT on the one hand and in the Gnostic literature on the other hand, confer Evald Lövestam, “Über die neutestamentliche Aufforderung zur Nüchternheit”, pp. 89–​93.

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Notes: In verse 8a, ὄντες (present active participle 1st person masculine plural of the verb εἶναι [“to be”]) is an adverbial participle, and it functions as adverb of reason to tell about the reason or cause for the believers “to be sober” (νήφειν). The word “since”, therefore, has to be supplied in the translation of ἡμεῖς δὲ ἡμέρας ὄντες … to render the translation as “but since we are of day ….” The Christ’s faithful are once again exhorted here in verse 8a with the hortatory subjunctive “let us be sober” (νήφωμεν), and the reason for them to be sober is that “they are of day” (ἡμέρας ὄντες). Thus, ἡμέρας (the genitive singular of the noun ἡμέρα [“day”]) is combined with the adverbial participle ὄντες to express that the believers belong to day (and not to darkness), and their condition of belonging to day is the reason or cause for them to be sober. The particle δέ seeks to draw a distinction between the characters in verse 8 (i.e. ἡμεῖς: “we”, the Christ’s faithful) and the characters in the preceding verses such as “the outsiders” or “the others” (οἱ λοιποί) in verse 6b who are referred to as “those in darkness or night” (cf. verses 4b; 5b) or as “sleepers and drunkards” (cf. verse 7ab). The word ἐνδυσάμενοι which begins verse 8b is aorist middle participle 1st person nominative masculine plural of the infinitive ἐνδύειν (“to put on”, “to clothe oneself in/​with”, “to wear”, etc.), and the noun θώρακα in verse 8b is the accusative singular of θώραξ (gen. sing.: θώρακος): “breastplate”. While πίστεως is the genitive singular of πίστις (“faith”), ἀγάπης is the genitive singular of ἀγάπη (“love”). Both the genitives πίστεως and ἀγάπης can be described here as epexegetical genitives because they function as additional words to explain clearly the single word θώρακα. Hence, the expression θώρακα πίστεως καὶ ἀγάπης is to be understood as “breastplate which is faith and love”. The noun ἐλπίδα (accusative singular of ἐλπίς [“faith”]) is, however, combined with σωτηρίας (genitive singular of σωτηρία [“salvation”]). In the expression ἐλπίδα σωτηρίας, σωτηρίας is rendered in the genitive of destination or purpose to indicate the purpose of the head noun ἐλπίς and so ἐλπίδα σωτηρίας (“hope of salvation”) actually conveys the nuance: “hope which leads to salvation”1580. While περικεφαλαίαν is the accusative singular of the noun περικεφαλαία (“helmet”), ἐλπίδα is the accusative singular of ἐλπίς (gen. sing.: ἐλπιδος). In the construction καὶ περικεφαλαίαν ἐλπίδα σωτηρίας, one finds a double accusative

1580 For more details of the use of the “genitive of purpose or destination”, confer Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, p. 100.

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(i.e. περικεφαλαίαν and ἐλπίδα) in apposition. Such a formulation has the character of an “object-​complement accusative construction” in which one accusative substantive (here περικεφαλαίαν) is the direct object of the verb (here ἐνδύειν) and the other accusative (here ἐλπίδα) complements the direct object in that it predicates (something) on the direct object. In the translation of such a construction, even if the particle ὡς (“as”) or the preposition εἰς (“for”) is lacking, one needs to supply either of them1581. Hence, the formulation καὶ περικεφαλαίαν ἐλπίδα σωτηρίας can correctly be rendered as: “and as a helmet, the hope of salvation”. The object ἐλπίδα which is combined with the genitive σωτηρίας throws more light on περικεφαλαία (“helmet”)1582. Thus, the military tools mentioned here in 1 Thess 5:8b are mainly “breastplate” (θώραξ) and “helmet” (περικεφαλαία), and these two ammunitions are explained metaphorically in terms of “faith” (πίστις), “love” (ἀγάπη), and “hope of salvation” (ἐλπις σωτηρίας) which the Christ’s faithful are exhorted “to put on” (ἐνδύειν). The participle ἐνδυσάμενοι (see verse 8b) is described as “adverbial participle” (just as ὄντες in verse 8a) because it tells how the exhortation “let us be sober” (νήφωμεν) in the preceding verse 8a is to be carried out1583. The adverbial participle ἐνδυσάμενοι, therefore, functions as adverb of manner. Thus, in verse 8a the reason for the believers to be sober is that “they are of day” (ἡμέρας ὄντες), and in verse 8b the steps or measures to be taken so as to be sober is expressed in terms of “having put on a breastplate of faith and love, and as a helmet the hope of salvation”.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:8 The expression ἡμεῖς δέ (“but we”) in verse 8a sounds emphatic, and with this expression Paul and his co-​ missionaries continue to stress the distinction between the believers and the outsiders (οἱ λοιποί) who are considered in the preceding verses not only as those belonging to darkness (1 Thess 5:4b, 5b) but also as sleepers and drunkards who carry out their activities in the night (1 Thess 5:7b). The particle δέ which goes with the personal pronoun ἡμεῖς should be taken for an adversative δέ. The statement to which the particle δέ is added here 1581 In Isa 59:17, for example, ὡς (“as”) is provided in the construction: Καὶ ἐνεδύσατο δικαιοσύνην ὡς θώρακα (“and he put on righteousness as breastplate”). For further details of the “double accusative of object-​complement”, confer Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, pp. 182–​184. 1582 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 281. 1583 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 280.

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is in contrast to the statements made in the preceding verses and so the particle δέ is used here by way of opposition and distinction: it actually opposes persons to persons and things previously mentioned with strong emphasis1584. In 1 Cor 1:23 and in 2 Cor 10:13 too Paul uses ἡμεῖς δέ this way1585. In 1 Cor 1:23, Paul uses ἡμεῖς δέ to distinguish himself and the Christ’s faithful who proclaim (κηρύσσειν) Christ crucified (Χριστὸν ἐσταυρωμένον) from the Jews who demand signs and the Greeks who look for wisdom (1 Cor 1:22), and in 2 Cor 10:13 Paul employs ἡμεῖς δέ to draw a line between himself and his co-​missionaries on the one hand, and those who boast and “recommend themselves”: ἑαυτοὺς συνιστάνειν (2 Cor 10:12) on the other hand. Malherbe stresses that the exhortation introduced by the adversative δέ here in 1 Thess 5:8a contrasts positively behaviour that is appropriate to the day with behaviour that belongs to the night1586. The present state of the Christ’s faithful is such that they belong to day and not to darkness, and it is for this reason that they are required to abide by such a behavioural attitude which is described here as νήφειν (“being sober”). The noun ἡμέρα (“day”) here in 1 Thess 5:8a is, once again, to be interpreted in connection with ἡμέρα in 1 Thess 5:5a which identifies the present situation of the believers as “sons or children of light and of day” who are due to be saved and whose fate is in contrast to that of the others (οἱ λοιποί) who are in darkness and are doomed for destruction1587. Just like in 1 Thess 5:6 where γρηγορεῖν and νήφειν serve as antonyms of καθεύδειν, here in 1 Thess 5:8 the verb νήφειν (“to be sober”) alone contrasts especially the verbs μεθύσκεσθαι and μεθύειν and by extension the verb καθεύδειν in the preceding verse, i.e. in 1 Thess 5:71588. Malherbe observes correctly that 1584 Confer the explanation of the use of δέ in this way by Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 125 § 1. 1585 Elsewhere in the NT, one finds other combinations such as: ἐγὼ δέ (Mt 5:22, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44), σὺ δέ (Mt 6:6), ὑμεῖς δέ (Mk 8:29; 1 Thess 5:4a), οἱ δὲ υἱοὶ τῆς βασιλείας (Mt 8:12), πᾶς ὁ λαὸς … οἱ δὲ Φαρισαῖοι καὶ οἱ νομικοὶ τὴν βουλὴν τοῦ θεοῦ (Lk 7:29-​30), ὁ δέ πνευματικός (1 Cor 2:15), etc. 1586 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 296. 1587 Confer also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 306 and footnote 382. 1588 Emphasis should be placed here more on the contrast beween νήφειν and μεθύσκεσθαι/​ μεθύειν because, generally speaking, sobriety is more about abstinence from wine. Texts which suggest this include T. Jud 16.3, the use of ἐκνήφειν in Gen 19:24 and in 1 Kgs 25:37 where the emphasis is on “to sober up or recover from wine”: ἐκνήφειν ἀπὸ τοῦ οἴνου. See also Joel 1:5 (LXX). It is, however, evident in some passages cited earlier (i.e., Corp.Herm 1.27, Plutarch’s Moralia II 781D) that sobriety can mean abstinence from sleep. The use of the cognate ἐκνήφειν in Sir 34:2 also gives the clue

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unlike in 1 Thess 5:6 where both γρηγορεῖν and νήφειν appear, in 1 Thess 5:8 only νήφειν is repeated while γρηγορεῖν falls out, and for him Paul prepares here in 1 Thess 5:8 to end his exhortation on the note of the sober life1589. This kind of sober life, of course, begins here and now, but it has it focus finally on the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. Lövestam rightly remarks that: “When the Christians are admonished to keep awake and be sober because they are children of the day and belong to the day, this means they should not allow themselves to be spiritually stifled by absorption in the present age with its nature, but live in a manner that agrees with the eschatological day to come. Γρηγορεῖν νήφειν have thus a clear eschatological orientation here … the wakefulness and sobriety referred to imply readiness for the parousia of the Lord. This is clearly expressed in verses 8f: ‘Since we belong to the day, let us be sober ….”1590

Unlike in 1 Thess 5:6c where the exhortation is simply given as νήφωμεν (“let us be sober”), here in 1 Thess 5:8 Paul actually describes the nature of this soberness, what it entails and how the believers are to go about this sobriety (see verse 8b). Paul has time and time again emphasised that the Christ’s faithful (unlike the outsiders [οἱ λοιποί]) shall be saved from God’s wrath (1 Thess 1:10; 5:9), and that the day of the Lord shall not be a day of judgement and destruction for the believers in Christ but a day of salvation (cf. 1 Thess 5:4; 5:9). Nonetheless, his conviction does not imply that salvation would be granted or obtained on a silver platter. The new status of the believers as children of light and of day by virtue of their conversion alone does not suffice to grant them salvation. This new status is rather a precondition for the acquisition of salvation through Christ. Paul now takes the opportunity to explain further to his addressees what it means to be children of light and of day, and how one should lead his/​her life in conformity with this new status so as to be worthy of the salvation to be obtained through Jesus Christ, the son of God. Thus, the exhortation which began in 1 Thess 5:6 with “so then” (ἄρα οὖν) is further elaborated here in 1 Thess 5:8. One observes that here in 1 Thess 5:8 –​just as in 1 Pt 1:13; 5:8-​9 –​the verb νήφειν is used with military overtones or martial imagery1591, and this military imagery is

that the attitude of being alert or sober contrasts the mood of sleepiness. Thus, the use of νήφειν here in 1 Thess 5:8a can be said to contrast both μεθύσκεσθαι/​μεθύειν and καθεύδειν in 1 Thess 5:7. 1589 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 296–​297. 1590 Cf. Evald Lövestam, Spiritual Wakefulness in the New Testament…, pp. 56–​57. 1591 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 297. Malherbe traces other passages in the Pauline writings where Paul uses military language

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applied by Paul “to give specificity to and dramatize the nature of eschatological soberness”1592. The verb ἐνδύειν appears 28 times in the NT in addition to ἐνδύνειν (which appears only in 2 Tim 3:6 and rather conveys the meaning: “to slip into”, “to break in”, etc.) In the NT, the verb ἐνδύειν can be understood literally (e.g. in Mt 6:25; Mk 1:6; Rev 1:13)1593 or in the metaphorical sense (cf. Rom 13:12; 1 Cor 15:53; 2 Cor 5:3)1594, and in Lk 24:49 (see also 1 Cor 15:53-​54), the verb ἐνδύειν is applied in eschatological sense and it has eschatological character1595. It becomes evident that in all the instances where the verb ἐνδύειν appears in the Pauline writings, it is used in the figurative sense. Paulsen identifies three distinct metaphorical usages of ἐνδύειν in the Pauline writings, i.e. the use of ἐνδύειν connected with “baptism and christology” whereby the baptized person is said to be a “new creation” by virtue of being covered by the Lord Jesus Christ in baptism (Gal 3:27-​28; Rom 13:14; 2 Cor 4:16)1596; the use of ἐνδύειν in specific paraenetic statements with emphasis on putting on spiritual weapons (1 Thess 5:8; Rom 13:12)1597; and the use of ἐνδύειν with eschatological character in 1 Cor 15:53-​54 where it is said that “the new garment (of life) is put on over the old garment (of death), and death is ‘swallowed up’ by life”1598. Unlike in 1 Cor 15:53-​54 where the use of ἐνδύειν directs attention precisely to the end of time where the transformation of the dead would take place (cf. 1 Cor 15:52), in 1 Thess 5:8b the use of ἐνδύειν emphasises principally the present life situation of the Christ’s faithful insofar as they need to arm themselves spiritually in preparation for the Lord’s parousia in the future. Best notices that in 1 Thess 5:8b the aorist ἐνδυσάμενοι appears to be one of “identical action” with the main verb νήφωμεν (“let us be vigilant”) in verse 8a, and must also be taken inceptively, i.e. “take up the armour [now] and continue to wear it”1599. Thus, the exhortation on the putting on of the spiritual ammunitions in 1 Thess 5:8 has both present and eschatological dimensions. The need for the Christ’s

metaphorically in a variety of ways (e.g., Rom 6:13; 13:12-​14; 1 Cor 9:7; 2 Cor 6:7; 10:3-​5; Phil 2:25; Phlm 2, etc.) Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, op. cit., p. 297. 1592 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 298. 1593 See also Mt 22:11; 27:28, 31; Mk 6:9; 15:20; Lk 8:27; 12:22; Acts 12:21; Rev 15:6; 19:14. 1594 See also Rom 13:14; 1 Cor 15:54; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:24; 6:11, 14; Col 3:10, 12; 1 Thess 5:8. 1595 Cf. Henning Paulsen, “ἐνδύω”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), pp. 451–​452. 1596 See also Eph 4:24; Col 3:10. 1597 See also Eph 6:11, 14; Col 3:12. 1598 Cf. Henning Paulsen, “ἐνδύω”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), p. 452. 1599 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 215.

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faithful to clothe themselves with this spiritual ammunition in the present time is not an end in itselt but a means to an end. This exhortation prescribes how the believers can live the Christian life with its moral and religious obligations here and now and be worthy to meet the Lord when he comes. In 1 Thess 5:8b, Paul actually stresses on the need for the members of the community of believers to be warriors. Best observes that the image of the Christ’s faithful as a warrior is also found elsewhere in the Pauline writings (Rom 16:7; 2 Cor 10:3-​5; Phil 2:251600)1601. The use of ἐνδύειν in 1 Thess 5:8 has close parallels with the verb’s usage in Eph 6:11, 14, in Rom 13:12, and in Col 3:12 where the verb is used in contexts where the Christ’s faithful are called upon to put on “spiritual tools or weapons”1602. Just like in Eph 6:11, 14, the use of ἐνδύειν in 1 Thess 5:8 is associated with traditional material from the OT because the texts (Eph 6:11, 14; 1 Thess 5:8) echo the images described in Isa 59:17 and in Wis 5:181603. Unlike in 1 Kgs 17:38 (LXX), for example, where ἐνδύειν is used literally in the active voice to talk about military or physical armament which Saul “put on” David1604, in Isa 59:17 and in Wis 5:18 ἐνδύειν is used figuratively in the middle voice to talk about moral or spiritual armaments with which the Lord clothes himself. In both Isa 59:17 and Wis 5:18, there is the military metaphor which is evident in the mention of “breastplate” and “helmet”1605, and both texts describe “breastplate” as “righteousness”. Nonetheless, whereas Wis 5:18 equates “helmet” with “true judgement”, Isa 59:17 takes “helmet” for “salvation”. Thus, while Wis 5:18 (LXX) reads: 1 600 See also 2 Cor 6:7; Phlm 2; and Eph 6:11 ff; 2 Tim 2:3-​5. 1601 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 213. 1602 Elsewhere in Gal 3:27 and in Rom 13:14 Paul uses the verb ἐνδύειν as a baptismal imagery to describe the believers as persons who have “put on Christ” or “clothed themselves with Christ” by virtue of their baptism. Confer also Eph 4:24; Col 3:12. This baptismal imagery is traceable to the OT (see Job 29:14). 1603 Confer also Apocalypse of Elijah 30.31 which reads: “And they [i.e. the sixty righteous ones] will gird on the breastplate of God ….” Quoted from: O. S. Wintermute, Apocalypse of Elijah, in: OTP 1 (1983), p. 749. 1604 1 Kgs 17:38 (LXX) reads thus: “And Saul clothed David with a military coat, and put his brazen helmet on his head” (Καὶ ἐνέδυσεν Σαουλ τὸν Δαυιδ μανδύαν καὶ περικεφαλαίαν χαλκῆν περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν αὐτοῦ). The translation is quoted from: Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 380. Confer also the use of ἐνδύειν in Jer 26:3-​4 (LXX) or the use of the Hebrew ‫ לָבַ ׁש‬in Jer 46:3-​4 (MT). 1605 In Rev 9:9, for example, only θώραξ (“breastplate”) is mentioned and the word is used in the context of military warfare which is eschatological by nature (cf. Rev 9:7-​11).

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“He shall put on righteousness as a breastplate, and true judgement instead of a helmet” (Ἐνδύσεται θώρακα δικαιοσύνην, καὶ περιθήσεαι κόρυθα κρίσιν ἀνυπόκριτον)1606,

Isa 59:17 (LXX) reads: “And he put on righteousness as a breastplate, and placed salvation as the helmet on his head; and he clothed himself with the garment of vengeance, and wrapped himself in a mantle of fury/​zeal” (Καὶ ἐνεδύσατο δικαιοσύνην ὡς θώρακα, καὶ περιέθετο περικεφαλαίαν σωτηρίου ἐπὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς, καὶ περιεβάλετο ἱμάτιον ἐκδικήσεως, καὶ τὸ περιβόλαιον αὐτοῦ, ὡς ἀνταποδώσων ἀνταπόδοσιν ὄνειδος τοῖς ὑπεναντίοις).

It becomes evident that the formulation in Isa 59:17 has closer affiliation with that in 1 Thess 5:8b. The table below demonstrates how the words are presented in the texts: Isaiah 59:17 (LXX)

1 Thess 5:8b

Wisdom 5:18 (LXX)

ἐνεδύσατο δικαιοσύνην ὡς θώρακα

ἐνδυσάμενοι θώρακα πίστεως καὶ ἀγάπης

Ἐνδύσεται θώρακα δικαιοσύνην

καὶ περιέθετο καὶ [ἐνδυσάμενοι]1607 περικεφαλαίαν σωτηρίου περικεφαλαίαν ἐλπίδα ἐπὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς σωτηρίας

καὶ περιθήσεται κόρυθα1608 κρίσιν ἀνυπόκριτον

It is clear from the table that the words ἐνδύειν, θώρακα and περικεφαλαία or κόρυς appear in the three texts (Isa 59:17; Wis 5:18; 1 Thess 5:8b) but over and above those words, the term σωτήριον and σωτηρία appear in Isa 59:17 (LXX) and in 1 Thess 5:8b respectively. Paul’s redaction is, however, seen in how he replaces “righteousness” (δικαιοσύνη) in both Isa 59:17 (LXX) and Wis 5:18 (LXX) with “faith” (πίστις) and “love” (ἀγάπη) in 1 Thess 5:8b1609. Moreover, Paul does not simply talk about “a helmet of salvation” as found in Isa 59:17, but he rather identifies “hope” (ἐλπίδα) with “helmet” (περικεφαλαίαν) and talks about “the hope of salvation as a helmet”. Thus in 1 Thess 5:8b, the triad of “faith”, “love” and “hope” (see also 1 Thess 1:3) replace the two items of “righteousness” and 1606 Quoted from: Lancelot C. L. Brenton (editor and translator), The Septuagint with Apocrypha…, p. 60. 1607 The participle ἐνδυσάμενοι has to be repeated here because it functions as the verb περιτίθημι in Isa 59:17b and in Wis 5:18b. 1608 The word κόρυθα is the accusative singular of the noun κόρυς (κόρυθος), “helmet”. Thus, κόρυς is synonymous with περικεφαλαία. 1609 A verbatim quotation of “to clothe oneself with a breastplate of righteousness” (ἐνδύειν θώρακα τῆς δικαιοσύνης) is rather found in Eph 6:14.

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“salvation” found in Isa 59:17. Though the use of the “triadic formula” of faith, love, and hope in place of righteousness and salvation “is awkward because of the disproportionate elements in the trito-​Isaian text”1610, the verbal dependence of 1 Thess 5:8b on Isa 59:17 is likely because “Paul has three interpretations [i.e. faith, love, hope] to attach to two items [i.e. righteousness and salvation] and it would have been easier for him to have used three items of equipment”1611. Malherbe rightly remarks that Jewish literature provided Paul with the military imagery, and he explains that: “In the OT, Yahweh is described as a man of war (Isa 42:13; Hab 3:9-​15), and in Isa 59:17, a passage important for the NT’s use of the (martial) imagery, God’s armament is described as a breastplate of righteousness and a helmet of salvation. According to Wis 5:17-​22, with the creation as an ally, God will battle his enemies, clothed with righteousness (δικαιοσύνη) as his breastplate, impartial judgement as a helmet, holiness as a shield, and wrath as a sword. In the Qumran War Scroll (1QM) the community’s eschatological existence is described in martial terms ….)”1612

Collins also observes that the metaphor of the moral armament of the Christ’s faithful which appears here in 1 Thess 5:8b actually derives, at least in part, from the same metaphor which is applied to the Lord himself in Isa 59:171613. He stresses further that by Paul’s adoption of the military metaphor, he is making use of this traditional motif in order to underscore the eschatological quality of the believers’ condition and the conduct which corresponds thereto1614. The application of this traditional material in 1 Thess 5:8 does not only touch on the eschatological condition of the believers in Christ but also their current situation and how they should conduct themselves presently. It becomes evident in how Paul replaces “righteousness”: δικαιοσύνη (Isa 59:17; Wis 5:18) or even “true judgement”: κρίσις ἀνυπόκριτος (Wis 5:18) with faith, love and hope in 1 Thess 5:8 that he redacts this traditional material in such a way that it conforms to his exhortation and theology so far as the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s

1 610 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 302. 1611 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, pp. 213–​214. 1612 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 297. 1613 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Th 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 339 and the note in footnote 100. Luckensmeyer also maintains correctly that “Paul uses the imagery of the divine warrior in Isaiah 59, including various elements of armour, but reapplies those elements with the triad of faith, love and hope”. Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 303. 1614 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Th 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 339.

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parousia is concerned. It is to be stressed here that the Lord Almighty arms himself with the military tools (which are to be understood in the figurative sense) to be at war with the wicked for the salvation of his people (Hab 3:13). In Isa 59 and in Wis 5 God uses such military armaments offensively. In 1 Thess 5:8, the Christ’s faithful are likewise called upon to arm themselves with spiritual ammunition but defensively to protect, to work and to fight for their salvation which comes through Jesus Christ (see 2 Tim 4:7-​8). Malherbe asserts correctly that: “The influence of the Jewish tradition on Eph 6:10-​20 is clear, and this passage has influenced the way in which the imagery in 1 Thess 5:8 is viewed. According to Ephesians, the cosmic battle with Satan and his agents, conducted in hand-​to-​hand combat as well as from a distance, is both defensive and offensive, and requires six pieces of armor (i.e. ‘truth’, ‘the breastplate of righteousness’, ‘the gospel of peace’, ‘the shield of faith’, ‘the helmet of salvation’, and ‘the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God’ [Eph 6:14-​ 17]). This armor now belongs to God’s people rather than to God”1615.

Malherbe explains further that: “What 1 Thess 5:8 shares with this passage [Eph 6:10-​20] is not the details about the armor or the battle, but the eschatological nature of the battle …. With Isa 59:17, 1 Thess 5:8 shares the breastplate and the helmet (the hope) of salvation, but now as qualities of the faithful rather than of God. Unlike Eph 6, the armor here [in 1 Thess 5:8] is defensive”1616.

Luckensmeyer also adds that in 1 Thess 5:8 the “contemporaneous quality” of the “day” comes to the fore because: “The Thessalonians are exhorted to act out the day through the metaphor of battle. Despite the presence of faith, love and hope, the Thessalonians are still undergoing considerable affliction. Therefore, such soldier imagery in verse 8 reinterprets, in eschatological language, the social, political and theological realities of being a Jesus-​follower and serves to augment Paul’s positive pattern of exhortation”1617.

Scholars have tried over the years to trace the tradition behind Paul’s usage of the triad of faith, love and hope: whether the triad in the Pauline letters is associated with a pre-​pauline tradition in the early Christian communities or elsewhere, or that it is a formulation which originates from Paul himself1618. It is possible 1 615 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 297. 1616 See op. cit., p. 297. 1617 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 302. 1618 For an elaborate discussion of this subject and the opinions shared by scholars, confer Thomas Söding, Die Trias Glaube, Hoffnung, Liebe bei Paulus: Eine Exegetische Studie (SBS 150), Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1992, pp. 38–​63.

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that the formulation of the triad of faith, love and hope in the Pauline corpus originates from Paul himself1619. One notices in the Pauline application of this triad that he has his own special way of arranging the triad with emphasis to suit the purpose of or the reason for the application of the triad in a particular context. Apart from 1 Thess 5:8, Paul talks about the triad of faith, love and hope in 1 Thess 1:3 and also in 1 Cor 13:1-​13, in Rom 5:1-​10 and in Gal 5:5-​61620. While 1 Thess 5:8b and 1 Thess 1:3 have the same order of arrangement, i.e faith, love and hope, 1 Cor 13:13 rather reads faith, hope, love (see also Rom 5:1-​10)1621, and in Gal 5:5-​6 faith, hope and love also appear. Though the appearances of the triad in these Pauline texts are to be interpreted in association with the life or qualities of the Christ’s faithful, it is evident that based on the arrangement of the triad, 1 Thess 1:3 and 1 Thess 5:8 can be said to follow a similar trend which is distinct from that of 1 Cor 13:13, Rom 5:1-​10, and Gal 5:5-​6. It is also evident that by content, whereas in 1 Cor 13:1-​13 “love” (ἀγάπη) is the main subject and in Gal 5:5-​6 “faith” (πίστις) is the topic for discussion1622, in 1 Thess 5:8 and in 1 Thess 1:3 (see also Rom 5:1-​10) the main focus is the “hope” (ἐλπίς) of the Christ’s faithful for salvation. One notices, for example, that in 1 Cor 13:1-​13 Paul has been talking about “love”, and in the concluding verse (i.e., in 1 Cor 13:13) Paul associates “love” with “faith” and “hope” but stresses that “love” is the greatest among the three because –​as it is evident in 1 Cor 13:7 –​love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, and endures all things. The triad is considered, therefore, as three interrelated features of Christian life, and in 1 Cor 13:7 love is seen to be operative even within the other members of the triad, 1619 Confer also Thomas Söding, Die Trias Glaube, Hoffnung, Liebe bei Paulus: Eine Exegetische Studie, p. 63. Söding maintains that the Pauline formulation of the triad of faith, love and hope can be interpreted and understood from the background of Hellenistic-​Judaism and literatur. See op. cit., p. 63. 1620 For an elaborate discussion of the triad of faith, love and hope in the Pauline letters, confer Thomas Söding, Die Trias Glaube, Hoffnung, Liebe bei Paulus: Eine Exegetische Studie, especially pages 65–​144. 1621 This arrangement of the triad of “faith”, “hope”, and “love” is presented in Rom 5:1-​10 such that Paul first talks about faith (verses 1, 2), then about hope (verses 2, 4, 5) and lastly about love (verses 5, 8). Thus, the three themes of faith, hope and love appear to be discussed separately in Rom 5:1-​10 but the unity of the three is noticed in the chain of arrangement which reveals that in the same verse where Paul ends the talk about one theme, he begins the talk about the next (cf. verses 2 and 5). 1622 Gal 5:5-​6 is a follow-​up to Paul’s teaching in Gal 2:16 that a person is not justified or made righteous “by the works of the law” (ἐξ ἔργων νόμου) but “through faith in Jesus Christ” (διὰ πίστεως Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ).

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so that love has a certain primacy or prominence among the three fundamental charisms1623. In 1 Thess 5:8, however, Paul places great emphasis on hope, i.e., the hope of the believers in Christ for salvation. Malherbe observes correctly that: “Of the three [qualities of faith, love and hope in 1 Thess 5:8], Paul displays hope most prominently in four ways. First, it is identified alone with a piece of armor. Second, its syntax is different in that it is an accusative in apposition to περικεφαλαίαν (‘helmet’) rather than a genitive. Third, by ending the series it is in the most prominent position. Fourth, it is further specified as being a hope that has salvation as its object, which conforms more closely to Isa 59:17”1624.

It is the salvation brought about through the death and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ and granted to the believers in Christ. This hope is basically eschatological by nature because the ultimate fulfillment or realization of this hope lies in the future, at the Lord’s parousia. The eschatological nature of this hope in 1 Thess 5:8 is mirrored in Rom 5:10. That is: “The ultimate aim of God is to liberate believers from the pre-​Christian self … Since this liberation will first find completion in the believer’s resurrection, salvation is described as future in Rom 5:10. Because this fullness of salvation belongs to the future it is called the Christian hope. Paul’s Greek term for hope does not, however, suggest a note of uncertainty, to the effect: ‘I wonder whether God really means it.’ Rather, God’s promise in the gospel fills believers with expectation and anticipation for the climatic gift of unalloyed commitment in the holy Spirit to the performance of the will of God”1625.

In 1 Thess 1:3 too, the order of the “theological virtues” of faith, love, and hope “stresses eschatological hope, in line with the letter’s emphasis on the Lord’s second, triumphal coming, or parousia (1 Thess 1:10; 2:12; 3:131626)”1627. Thus especially in 1 Thessalonians, the proper conduct of the believers in Christ has its focus on the Lord’s parousia because they are required to remain blameless and in holiness for the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ (see 1 Thess 5:23). The order of arrangement of the “theological virtues” of faith, love, and hope in 1 Thess 1:3 is also found in 1 Thess 5:8b but the nouns which are combined with the triad in 1:3 are different from those in 5:8b. Whereas 1 Thess 1:3 reads 1623 Confer the notes on 1 Cor 13:13 in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 268. 1624 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 298. 1625 See the notes on Rom 5:1-​11 in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 236. 1626 See also 1 Thess 2:19; 4:13-​5:11; 5:23. 1627 Confer the notes on 1 Thess 1:3 in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 325.

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“work of faith” (τό ἔργον τῆς πίστεως), “labour of love” (ὁ κόπος τῆς ἀγάπης), and “perseverance in hope” (ἡ ὑπομονὴ τῆς ἐλπίδος) “of our Lord Jesus Christ” (τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ), 1 Thess 5:8b reads “a breastplate of faith and love” (θώραξ πίστεως καὶ ἀγάπης) and “hope of salvation” (ἐλπίς σωτηρίας). Unlike in 1 Thess 1:3 where with the triad of faith, love and hope Paul and his co-​workers give thanks and emphasize how the Christ’s faithful are living together in the community, in 1 Thess 5:8 the collective expectation of the end-​time prior to which the believers have to defend themselves against the dangers which may hinder their salvation at the Lord’s parousia is the focus of attention1628. Best maintains correctly that: “By setting ‘faith’ and ‘love’ together and therefore isolating ‘hope’ and by placing it last Paul succeeds in stressing it: to the apocalyptic situation of the Thessalonians it [i.e. hope] is the most relevant; this emphasis is further extended in verses 9f which develop this phrase. ‘Hope’ is directed towards ‘salvation’ (objective genitive)”1629.

When in 1 Thess 5:8b Paul and his co-​missionaries talk about “faith and love” as a breastplate, they refer to the spiritual weapons with which the believers in Christ can defend themselves –​through God’s help or grace –​against the hostilities and hardships associated with the practice of the gospel message they received (see 1 Thess 2:13-​16)1630. Their faith is supposed to work through love or charitable deeds (see Gal 5:6) and to endure all hardships until Christ’s second coming. The hope, which is described as “hope of salvation”, is another spiritual or moral armament that describes the eschatological hope of salvation which is to be seen as the goal and purpose towards which all the efforts of the Christ’s faithful as pilgrims on this earth head. Roose rightly remarks that with the expression “hope of salvation” (ἐλπίς σωτηρίας), Paul and his co-​authors call to mind that the present status of the believers as “children of light and of day” is closely linked with a hope in the fate of the Christ’s faithful as partakers in eschatological salvation (1 Thess 1:10; 4:13-​18; 5:5)1631. It is also clear in the pastoral letters that all the endeavours of the Christ’s faithful –​i.e. in their struggle or fight to keep the faith, to do the will of God,

1 628 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 306. 1629 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 214. 1630 Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 93. 1631 Roose writes thus: Die Hoffnung ist zudem präzisiert als ‚Hoffnung auf Rettung‘. Dadurch rufen die Verfasser in Erinnerung, dass der gegenwärtige Status als ‚Kinder des Lichts und des Tages‘ mit der Hoffnung auf ein heilvolles eschatologisches Schicksal eng verbunden ist. Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 93.

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etc. –​are ultimately geared to the “crown of righteousness” (ὁ στέφανος τῆς δικαιοσύνης) or salvation which they hope to acquire at the end of their days on this earth or at the end of time. This conviction echoes in 2 Tim 4:7-​8 where the author (probably a student of Paul) says: “I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith /​From now on the crown of righteousness awaits me, which the Lord, the righteous judge, will award to me on that day, and not only to me but also to all who have longed for his appearance” (τὸν καλὸν ἀγῶνα ἠγώνισμαι, τὸν δρόμον τετέλεκα, τὴν πίστιν τετήρηκα· /​ λοιπὸν ἀπόκειται μοι ὁ τῆς δικαιοσύνης στέφανος, ὃν ἀποδώσει μοι ὁ κύριος ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ, ὁ δικαιος κριτής, οὐ μόνον δὲ ἐμοὶ ἀλλὰ καὶ πᾶσιν τοῖς ἠγαπηκόσιν τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν αὐτοῦ).

The “crown of righteousness” (ὁ στέφανος τῆς δικαιοσύνης) which finds an echo in 2 Tim 4:7-​8 is by nature a post-​humous reward for exceptional service or conduct1632. It is the “crown or reward of righteousness” which the Paul portrayed by Luke in the Acts of the Apostles awaits at the end of his sufferings and missionary accomplishments here on earth, because it had been promised to him at his conversion by the Lord Jesus Christ (see Acts 9:16). This is the salvation he hopes for at the end of time, and it is also the hope of all the believers in Christ, especially those in Thessalonica, who have been converted by way of turning away from the worship of idols to serve the living and true God, and are waiting for the appearance or the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 1:9-​10) on that day or the day of the Lord (1 Thess 5:1-​3). In 1 Thess 4:16-​17; 5:9-​10, the salvation which the Christ’s faithful hope for (see 1 Thess 5:8b) is described in terms of resurrection from the dead and living together with the Lord always. This hope of salvation motivates and drives the believers in Christ to be steadfast in faith and fight diligently and defensively ahead towards the eschatological day of the Lord, the day of the full attainment of salvation.

1632 The genitive τῆς δικαιοσύνης (“of righteousness”) in the expression ὁ στέφανος τῆς δικαιοσύνης (“crown or reward of righteousness”) is epexegetical genitive which functions as additional term or word to explain clearly “the crown” in question, and it becomes evident in this context that the crown, which is righteousness, is posthumous in nature (cf. 2 Tim 4:6). Such a usage is also found in T. Levi 8.2 which reads: “Arise, put on the robe of the priesthood, and the crown of righteousness, and the breastplate of understanding, and the garment of truth, and the plate of faith, and the turban of the head, and the ephod of prophecy”. Confer also “the crown of life” (ὁ στέφανος τῆς ζωῆς) in Jas 1:12, Rev 2:10. 1 Pt 5:4 also talks about “the unfading crown of glory” (ὁ στέφανος ἀμαράντινος τῆς δόξης) which the “presbyters” will receive at the revelation of Jesus Christ, the chief shepherd.

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It is the salvation brought about through the death and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ and granted to believers and followers of Christ. The word of God, on which our faith is grounded (see 1 Thess 4:15a), promises us this hope of salvation and through love we work diligently or serve God and humankind wholeheartedly in order to reach or attain this salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ. The salvation for which the Christ’s faithful hope can be described as being partakers in the death and resurrection of Christ because through their conversion and baptism the believers die with Christ and they are raised either from a spiritual death of sin into a new life or creation (2 Cor 5:11-​20) or from physical death into eternal life (1 Cor 6:14; 2 Cor 4:14; Rom 8:11; 1 Thess 4:14). The Paul presented by Luke in the Acts of the Apostles himself considers his conversion on the way to Damascus (Acts 9:1-​19; 22:3-​16; 26:2-​18) as a crucial and turning point in his entire life and ministry as “an apostle to the Gentiles”. Through this conversion Paul came to know Christ and the power of his resurrection (Phil 3:3-​10) and belonged to Christ Jesus (Phil 3:12), and above all, this conversion was for Paul a resurrection into a new and everlasting life (Phil 3:10-​ 11). Nonetheless, like an athlete or a sportsperson, Paul struggles and pursues further because he has not yet attained the final goal or reward which is “God’s upward calling in Christ Jesus” (Phil 3:14; 1 Cor 9:25-​27). This Pauline theology echoes also in 1 Thess 1:9-​10. The conversion of the believers in Thessalonica is also a major turning point in their lives as “new converts”. They came to know God and his son Jesus Christ and served this living and true God (1 Thess 1:9). They are now waiting hopefully for the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ, the son of God, who will save them from God’s impending wrath (1 Thess 1:10). Thus, the believers’ hope of salvation does not end with their conversion and baptism but it goes beyond that. The triad of faith, love and hope is mentioned explicitly in 1 Thess 1:3 and it can be said, based on thematic considerations, that the entire letter of First Thessalonians ends in 1 Thess 5:8b because these three qualities or (theological) virtues here in 1 Thess 5:8b form an inclusio with those in 1 Thess 1:3, and it appears that after 1 Thess 5:8 the themes touched on are merely repetitions of themes that have already been dealt with earlier in the letter1633. Nonetheless, much as 1 Thess 5:8b has a lot to do with 1 Thess 1:3, the interpretation of 1 Thess 1633 For instance, the divine wrath mentioned in 1 Thess 1:10 and Christ’s mediatory role in the attainment of salvation on the part of the Christ’s faithful is reflected in 1 Thess 5:9-​10a. Moreover, the expression ἅμα σὺν αὐτῷ ζήσωμεν in 1 Thess 5:10b is seen as an elaborate interpretation of the expression πάντοτε σὺν κυρίῳ ἐσόμεθα in 1 Thess 4:17. The hortatory imperative παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους in 1 Thess 4:18 also

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5:8b should be done also in connection with 1 Thess 1:9-​10. What 1 Thess 1:3; 1:9-​10 and 5:8 have in common is that they all speak about the believers’ eschatological hope of salvation which will be fully realised at the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ1634. This theme continues into 1 Thess 5:9-​10, and in these verses one notices that Paul actually repeats what has already been said in 1 Thess 1:9-​10 concerning the conversion of the believers in Thessalonica, their service to the living and true God, and their waiting in hope for their salvation through Jesus Christ, the son of God, who died and was raised from the dead for their salvation. Thus, what has already been emphasized in the letter thanksgiving in 1 Thess 1:3, and by extension in 1 Thess 1:9-​10 concerning the qualities of faith, love and hope is further developed at the end of the letter with focus on the believers’ hope of salvation which has eschatological dimension. Paul himself stresses that the goal of his preaching and evangelization is “salvation”: σωτηρία (Rom 10:1; 1 Cor 9:22; 1 Thess 2:16)1635. For the believers in Christ, this salvation coincides with the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the Lord’s parousia is for the Christ’s faithful first and foremost salvation1636. It is, however, paradoxical that this hope on which the life of the members of the community is focused turns out to be a cause of their anxiety because they are confronted with the question as to whether the faithful who have already died would have the opportunity to meet the Lord and be part of this salvation at the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. The reassurance about the believers’ hope of salvation and its nature and about the fate of both the living and the dead as partakers in this salvation (see 1 Thess 4:15-​17) is further emphasized in the subsequent text of 1 Thess 5:9-​10.

appears in 1 Thess 5:11, and the theme of “mutual charity” or love and communal life in 1 Thess 4:9-​12 resumes in 1 Thess 5:12 ff. 1634 The collective nature of the texts is evident in the expressions (“steadfastness of hope in our Lord Jesus Christ” (τῆς ὑπομονῆς τῆς ἐλπίδος τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ) in 1 Thess 1:3, “to wait for his son … Jesus, who will deliver us from the wrath to come” (ἀναμένειν τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ … Ἰησοῦν τὸν ῥυόμενον ἡμᾶς ἐκ τῆς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐρχομένης) in 1 Thess 1:10, and “hope of salvation” (ἐλπίδα σωτηρίας) in 1 Thess 5:8 which is explained further in 1 Thess 5:9 as “salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ” (σωτηρίας διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ). 1635 See also Rom 11:14. 1636 Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, pp. 300–​301.

362

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

3.1. (v). 1 Thess 5:9 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:9 (with Notes) 9a. ὅτι οὐκ ἔθετο ἡμᾶς ὁ θεὸς εἰς ὀργὴν 9b. ἀλλ᾽ εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ.

9a. For God did not destine us for wrath, 9b. but for the attainment of salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ.

Notes: The conjunction ὅτι which begins verse 9 functions as a causal conjunction to indicate the reason for the statement or the exhortation in verse 8 which precedes verse 9, hence the translation of ὅτι in verse 9a as “for”, “because”. In this way, ὅτι functions here just like the conjunction γάρ which also can be used in a statement to indicate the cause or to give the reason for a preceding statement or opinion. The verb ἔθετο is aorist indicative middle 3rd person singular of the infinitive τιθέναι (see middle infinitive: τίθεσθαι), and it is used here in verse 9 with a double accusative in the form τίθεσθαι τινὰ εἴς τι, i.e. “to destine or to consign someone to something”1637. In such formulations, there is the subject who causes the change in experience or condition which the object undergoes, or the subject who destines or consigns someone to something. Here in verse 9, such a formulation reflects clearly in the arrangement “God did not destine us for wrath but for the attainment of salvation” (ὁ θεὸς οὐκ ἔθετο ἡμᾶς εἰς ὀργὴν ἀλλ᾽ εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας) where “God” (ὁ θεός) is the subject or the causative agent, “us” (ἡμᾶς) the accusative object, and both prepositional phrases in the accusative –​“for wrath” (εἰς ὀργήν) and “for the attainment of salvation” (εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας) –​serve to indicate on the one hand what the believers are not destined for and what they are fated to attain on the other hand. The negative particle οὐκ in verse 9a is used here in disjunctive statements (i.e. the statements in verses 9a and 9b) where one thing is denied so that another may be established. That is, here the statement in verse 9a is denied while the statement in verse 9b is affirmed or established. The adversative particle ἀλλά in verse 9b is, therefore, to be translated in relation to the negative particle οὐκ in verse 9a. Thus ἀλλά is seen here to be preceded by a negation and must be translated as “but”, precisely in tune with the expression “not … but” (οὐκ … ἀλλά).

1637 Cf. BDAG, p. 1004 § 5.

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The preposition εἰς governs the accusative, and it appears here in the prepositional phrases εἰς ὀργήν (verse 9a) and εἰς περιποίησιν1638 (verse 9b), and in both instances εἰς functions to indicate the end or goal which the Christ’s faithful are destined for or are not fated to attain. In this context, “God” (ὁ θεός) has not destined “us” (ἡμᾶς) “for wrath” (εἰς ὀργήν), but “to attain” (εἰς περιποίησιν) salvation. The salvation that is to be attained is rendered here in the genitive, i.e. σωτηρίας (“of salvation” or simply “salvation”). This means that the formulation εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας can be rendered either as “for the attainment of salvation” or “to attain salvation”1639. The preposition διά in verse 9b governs the genitive and it functions here as the efficient cause of an action or as the means or instrument by which anything is effected, hence the translation of διά as “through”. Thus, the prepositional phrase εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας (“to attain salvation”) is to be translated in connection with the prepositional phrase διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (“through our Lord Jesus Christ”). This means that our attainment of salvation is not effected by or through ourselves but through our Lord Jesus Christ.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:9 Unlike in 1 Thess 5:2b where the conjunction ὅτι functions as a marker of narrative or discourse content and hence translates as “that”, here in 1 Thess 5:9a the conjunction ὅτι serves as a marker of causality and it introduces a subordinate, causal clause which supplies the reason for the preceding exhortations which remind the believers in Christ of their status as children of light and day (see 1 Thess 5:4-​5), and call on them to be especially alert and sober (see 1 Thess 5:6-​7) by putting on the spiritual ammunitions of faith, love and hope of salvation (see 1 Thess 5:8). The statements in 1 Thess 5:9 and also in 1 Thess 5:10 are, therefore, added to the preceding statements or exhortations to revitalize the basis or grounds for Paul’s convictions and exhortations. That is, Paul is very convinced that the believers in Christ are not destined for God’s wrath but their fate is to 1638 The Greek word περιποίησιν is the accusative singular of the noun περιποίησις (“that which is attained, acquired, gained, obtained, possessed; or “attainment”, “acquisition”, “possession”, etc.) 1639 Confer also εἰς περιποίησιν δόξης in 2 Thess 2:14 which can be translated as “for the possession of the glory” or “to possess the glory”. Περιποίησις is the substantive of the verb περιποιεῖσθαι which in the middle voice can mean “to preserve for oneself ”, “to gain possession of something”, i.e. “to attain”, “to acquire”, “to obtain”, “to gain for oneself ”, “to get/​to have for oneself ”, etc.

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attain salvation through the Lord Jesus Christ. Thus, through the negative particle “not” (οὐκ) used in the disjunctive statements (cf. “not … but” [οὐκ … ἀλλά]), Paul denies one thing or possibility –​i.e. the possibility of the Christ’s faithful being destined for God’s wrath and destruction –​in order to establish his deep conviction that they are rather destined for the attainment of salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ. The verb ἔθετο is used here in 1 Thess 5:9a in connection with the fate or the destiny of the Christ’s faithful. Already in the LXX, the verb τίθεσθαι (or τιθέναι) can simply mean “to place”, “to put”, “to set”, etc. but it can also be used either as a causative transformation of εἶναι (“to be”) plus double accusative to mean “to cause to be” or “to render” (see the LXX of Isa 28:15c; Zech 12:3a); or as a causative transformation of the verb γίνεσθαι (“to become”) plus accusative and the preposition εἰς (“to”, “into”, etc.) to mean “to cause to become” (cf. the LXX of Hos 2:12; Mic 1:6). The verb also appears sometimes in the LXX with the accusative and ὡς (“like”, “as”) to mean “to make as” (cf. Hos 2:3; Amos 8:10; Zeph 2:131640)1641. In all the texts cited here from the LXX, the causative usage of the verb τίθεσθαι is found in contexts where the Lord God almighty pronounces or passes judgement on his (disobedient) people “on that day” (ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἐκείνῃ) or on the last day of judgement; and apart from Isa 28:15c, the causative agent or the subject of the verb τίθεσθαι is the Lord himself (see Hos 2:3; Amos 8:10; Mic 1:61642)1643. The Lord God determines salvation and judgement both of the individual and of the nation as a whole (cf. Ps 11:6 LXX; Amos 8:10; Mic 1:71644)1645. While Mic 1:7 (LXX), for example, reads: “And I shall consign [or condemn] his idols to destruction” (καὶ πάντα τὰ εἴδωλα αὐτῆς θήσομαι εἰς ἀφανισμόν)1646, in Nah 3:6 (LXX) one reads: “And I will subject you to a public disgrace” (καὶ θήσομαί σε εἰς παράδειγμα), and in Ps 43:15 (LXX) one finds: “You have made us a mocking speech among the nations, a laughing stock among the peoples” (ἔθου ἡμᾶς εἰς παραβολὴν ἐν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν, κίνησιν κεφαλῆς ἐν τοῖς λαοῖς). In such passages, τίθεσθαι translates the Hebrew ‫ ׂשים‬which in the modification qal or 1 640 See also Hos 11:8; Zech 12:6. 1641 Cf. T. Muraoka, A Greek-​English Lexicon of the Septuagint, pp. 679–​680, II §§ 3, 4. 1642 See also Hos 2:12; 11:8; Zeph 2:13; Zech 12:3a, 6. 1643 Schramm observes that: “In more than a fourth of the OT occurrences God is the subject of τίθημι. The order for creation is set by him, as are both salvation and judgement”. Cf. Tim Schramm, “τίθημι”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), p. 356. 1644 See also the LXX of Ps 20:10; 65:9; 89:8; Mic 4:7; Ezk 37:14. 1645 Cf. Tim Schramm, “τίθημι”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), p. 356. 1646 Confer also Joel 1:7 (LXX).

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hif ‘il (plus the preposition ְ‫ )ל‬can mean “to make someone into” (Ezk 14:8) or “to destine someone for something” as found in Hab 1:12 where a nation is said to have been destined by the Lord God for judgement1647. Such passages actually lay bare the fate or condition to which the Lord himself subjects persons or nations. In the OT, the use of τίθεσθαι/​τιθέναι in the causative sense is found mostly in the prophetic literature, and such a usage in the OT talks mainly about the pronouncements of the Lord God almighty on the fate of persons (or nations) which are announced to the people or nations by (or through) his prophets. This usage of τίθεσθαι/​τιθέναι in the OT has both present and eschatological character because while the fate of the people may be said to have been decided and takes effect presently (see Ps 43:15 LXX), in other contexts the destiny of the people is already pronounced, but the people shall finally meet or be subjected to this fate in the future (Mic 1:7; 4:7; Nah 3:6)1648 or on the last day of judgement (cf. Amos 8:9-​10; Zech 12:3, 6). The use of τίθεσθαι/​τιθέναι or the synonym τάσσειν in the LXX as a rendition of ‫ ׂשים‬in the Masoretic Text in connection with the destiny or fate of individuals, group of persons and nations –​ as pronounced, decreed or consigned by the Lord almighty –​ is carried over into the NT. The verb τιθέναι or τίθεσθαι is used more frequently also in ancient Greek literature where the verb can be applied much the same way as ποιεῖν or ποιεῖσθαι (“to make”), and in such contexts τίθεσθαι/​τιθέναι can mean “to make” in the sense of “to put in a certain state or condition”, “to make someone something”, etc. A marked difference between the use of τιθέναι/​τίθεσθαι in ancient Greek writings and that in the LXX is that while in ancient Greek literature τιθέναι/​τίθεσθαι in such formulations is mostly followed by an attributive substantive with the predicate accusative in apposition (i.e., without any preposition which governs any of the accusatives), in the LXX the predicate accusative in apposition most often contains the preposition εἰς, and that instead of the formulation τιθέναί/​τίθεσθαί τινά τι (“to make someone something”) which frequently appears in ancient Greek writings1649, 1647 In Hab 1:12 (LXX) it is not the Greek τιθέναι/​τίθεσθαι which translates the Hebrew ‫ ׂשים‬but τάσσειν which is a synonym of τιθέναι, and so in Hab 1:12 (LXX) one rather reads: κύριε, εἰς κρίμα τέταχας αὐτόν (“Lord, you have destined it for judgement”. Confer also Zech 7:14; Mal 1:3. 1648 See also the LXX of Jer 25:12. 1649 For elaborate references to such formulations in ancient Greek literature confer, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott (compilers), A Greek-​English Lexicon (A new edition /​revised and augmented throughout by Henry Stuart Jones 1869–​1939), p. 1791 § B.

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one finds mostly in the LXX the formulation τιθέναι/​τίθεσθαι τινὰ εἴς τι (“to make someone into something”). Thus, in the LXX the aspect of change or transformation associated with the use of τιθέναι/​τίθεσθαι is more clearly expressed by the insertion of the preposition εἰς. It is a metaphorical change or transformation which ushers the persons –​who are identified with the predicate accusative –​into a new condition or status that can be described as their fate or destiny as caused or ordained by God. It is, in fact, the formulation τίθεσθαι τινὰ εἴς τι in the LXX which is mirrored in the NT in the contexts where one reads or hears about the fate or destiny of individuals as decreed by God1650. This is not to rule out the fact that the typical Greek formulation τίθεσθαί τινά τι also appears in the NT. In 1 Cor 12:28, for example, Paul applies τίθεσθαί τινά τι to talk about how God has made or appointed some people in the community of believers as apostles, prophets, teachers, etc. (καὶ οὕς μὲν ἔθετο ὁ θεὸς ἐν τῇ ἐκκλησίᾳ πρῶτον ἀποστόλους, δεύτερον προφήτας, τρίτον διδασκάλους, κτλ.) In most cases in the NT, however, the formulation τιθέναι/​τίθεσθαι τινὰ εἴς τι is used typically with regard to the destiny of persons as ordained by God1651. In 1 Pt 2:8, one reads: “They stumble for disobeying the word just as they are destined to do” (οἳ προσκόπτουσιν τῷ λόγῳ ἀπειθοῦντες εἰς ὃ [ὃν1652] καὶ ἐτέθησαν). Acts 13:47 also reads: “For so the Lord has commanded us: ‘I have made you a light to the Gentiles to be instruments of salvation to the ends of the earth’ ” (οὕτως γὰρ ἐντέταλται ἡμῖν ὁ κύριος· τέθεικά σε είς φῶς ἐθνῶν τοῦ εἶναί σε είς σωτηρίαν ἕως ἐσχάτου τῆς γῆς)1653. In Acts 13:48 τάσσειν also appears in the words: “And as 1650 Collins notices that in his exposition of the christological foundation of Christian existence in 1 Thess 5:9, Paul uses Semitic expression to indicate that the Christ’s faithful are destined for salvation (as distinct from eschatological wrath). Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 778. Légasse, however, maintains that the verb ἔθετο is purely Greek and that the root of its application here in 1 Thess 5:9 should not be traced to Semitism despite the similarity of its usage in certain formulations in the LXX. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 301 footnote 5. 1651 It is evident in 1 Cor 12:28 that τίθεσθαι is applied to mean “to appoint” or “to designate” in the sense of occupying an office or being handed an official assignment or duty in the church (see also Acts 20:28). Such a nuance of appointment or designation in 1 Cor 12:28 (also in Acts 20:28) can be differentiated from the meaning τίθεσθαι bears in 1 Thess 5:9 because the salvation for which God has destined the believers is not an official duty but a situation or condition of living together with the Lord always (see 1 Thess 5:10b). 1652 The manuscripts 1448. 1611 read ὃν instead of ὃ. 1653 Confer also Isa 49:6.

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many as were destined [by God] for eternal life believed” (καὶ ἐπίστευσαν ὅσοι ἦσαν τεταγμένοι εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον). In our context of 1 Thess 5:9a, one also finds the use of τίθεσθαι plus accusative and the preposition εἰς to mean “to destine someone for something” or “to consign someone to something”, and God is the subject of the verb τίθεσθαι. Another verb which is synonymous with τίθεσθαι and means “to destine” in some contexts in the NT is κεῖσθαι (Lk 2:34; 1 Thess 3:3; cf. Phil 1:16). It becomes evident in such texts where the verb τίθεσθαι and its synonyms τάσσειν, κεῖσθαι mean “to destine or to be destined for” that God is the subject of the action, and it can be said that in such contexts the verbs describe God’s action1654. In Rom 9:22, Paul describes “those who are lost” as “vessels or instruments of wrath made or destined [by God] for destruction” (σκεύη ὀργῆς κατηρτισμένα εἰς ἀπώλειαν), and they serve as a contrast to “those who are saved” or “the vessels of mercy he [i.e. God] prepared beforehand or predestined for glory”: σκεύη ἐλέους ἃ προητοίμασεν εἰς δόξαν (Rom 9:23)1655. The use of the verb τίθεσθαι in 1 Thess 5:9a is not to be interpreted as “predestined” for salvation1656 to create the impression that the believers have no need to make strenuous efforts to achieve their salvation. There is, indeed, the need to rule out the claim that the Christ’s faithful must strive for their salvation –​salvation is God’s free gift to his people effected out of his love, grace and mercy through his Son, Jesus Christ; and it is to be attained with gratitude to God and his Son Jesus Christ. Nonetheless, one learns already in 1 Thess 5:81657 that by remaining sober and steadfastly keeping the faith and living by the gospel message as children of light and day, the believers play their part or role in the attainment of the salvation for which God has destined them. The noun περιποίησις in the prepositional phrase εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας in 1 Thess 5:9 is, therefore, to be understood in the active sense and be translated as “for the attainment of salvation”, and it implies that the believers too need to play a part in their attainment of salvation through the Lord Jesus

1 654 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 298. 1655 Elsewhere in Rom 8:29, 30; 1 Cor 2:7 Paul uses the verb προορίζειν (“to predetermine”, “to foreordain”, “to decide beforehand”, etc.) to talk about “the predestination of events and peoples by God before all time or before their concrete historical time” (cf. also the use of the verb in Acts 4:28; Eph 1:5, 11). Especially in Eph 1:5, 11 the author specifically emphasises the divine predestination of the faithful to salvation. This verb προορίζειν never appears in the LXX. 1656 Confer also Raymond F. Collins, “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, p. 778. 1657 See also 1 Thess 3:5.

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Christ1658. Thus, God’s offer of salvation allows room for subjective or personal decision1659. This salvation is God’s precious gift to his (own) people but every individual person can decide to take it or reject it, and it depends largely on the individual persons with regard to the disposition they show to allow God in their lives and to live their lives in accordance with God’s will. The “wrath” (ἡ ὀργή) here in 1 Thess 5:9a refers to the wrath of God which has been mentioned already in 1 Thess 1:10. Pesch rightly remarks that: “In the NT ὀργή usually expresses the judgement of God (Rom 3:5 f.), in part using traditional formulas (Rom 2:8 together with θυμός [‘fury’]) and older conceptions (Rom 2:5: ‘day of wrath’ [ἡμέρα ὀργῆς]). As the proclamation goes, Christians are saved from ‘the judgement of the wrath of God through Jesus Christ (1 Thess 1:9 f.; Rom 5:9; [cf. also 1 Thess 5:9-​10a])’ ”1660.

God’s wrath is for destruction and ruin (Rom 9:22). In the Pauline writings –​just like elsewhere in the NT –​both the present and the eschatological dimensions of the wrath of God are stressed. Pesch observes correctly that: “In his theology of ὀργή of God, Paul takes a twofold position: on the one hand he holds to the future character of the eschatological wrath and to the expectation of the judgement of God ‘according to works’ (Rom 2:5 ff.); on the other hand he can speak of the present revelation of wrath (Rom 1:17-​18; 13:4-​5; 1 Thess 2:16)1661, which is contrasted with the revelation of δικαιοσύνη (‘righteousness’, ‘justice’)”1662. Pesch adds that in 1 Thess 1:10 –​just as in 1 Thess 5:9 –​“we are dealing with the eschatological wrath of God” because for Paul the wrath of God will be borne out in the final judgement (Rom 2:5; 2:8; 3:51663)1664. Pesch maintains further that

1658 Confer also Norbert Baumert /​Maria-​Irma Seewann, In der Gegenwart des Herrn…, p. 74; Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, pp. 93–​94. 1659 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 308 and footnote 390. 1660 Cf. Wilhelm Pesch, “ὀργή”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), pp. 529–​530. 1661 See also Rom 4:15. 1662 Cf. Wilhelm Pesch, “ὀργή”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 530. 1663 See also Rom 5:9; 9:22; also Col 3:6; Eph 5:6. 1664 Cf. Wilhelm Pesch, “ὀργή”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 530. Konradt also associates the divine wrath in 1 Thess 5:9 with the “negative dimension” in the last events on “the day of the Lord”. Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 175. Confer also Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 216. Collins also observes that the Pauline theme of wrath here has connection with the traditional theme of wrath in the OT which is basically an aspect of the day of the Lord (Isa 2:10-​ 22; Zeph 1:15, etc.) Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Th 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 340.

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what remain the keys to understanding Paul’s conception of the wrath of God are the cross of Jesus Christ and the salvation effected by his resurrection1665. For Paul “the wrath of God is not a divine property, but the judgement of God on sin that humans now recognize through Jesus Christ, when they encounter the crucified one in the kerygma [i.e. the ‘proclamation of the gospel message’], and that human beings are saved from this wrath not only through faith in Christ (Rom 5:9; cf. Rom 10:4) but also through faith in the gospel, and beyond faith in the gospel, there is only ὀργή (cf. Rom 3:9-​20, 23)”1666. The emphasis on “faith” here does not, however, suffice to maintain that Paul bases the attainment of salvation through Christ on “faith alone” (sola fide). In Rom 2:7, Paul is emphatic that it is also “through perseverance or endurance in good works or deeds” (καθ᾽ ὑπομονὴν ἔργου ἀγαθοῦ) that persons can have eternal life through Christ, and in Rom 2:8 he describes the category of persons who will incur God’s wrath and fury as those who disobey the truth and obey wickedness1667. That is, the followers of Christ are required not only to believe in Jesus Christ or the gospel message but also to practise their christian faith, and as children of light and day to let their light shine in the world through good works or deeds so as to be worthy of the salvation effected by God through Jesus Christ presently here on earth and in the future at the end of time. In 1 Thess 5:9b, Paul affirms that God has destined us (the Christ’s faithful) for the attainment of salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ. This statement in 1 Thess 5:9b –​i.e. but for the attainment of salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ (ἀλλ᾽ εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ) –​seeks to contrast the statement in 1 Thess 5:9a which translates: “For God did not destine us for wrath”. One finds, therefore, an antithesis in the formulation of the statements in 1 Thess 5:9ab. Malherbe correctly remarks that with the power of antithesis in 1 Thess 5:9 Paul defines the object of the Christian hope of salvation as “the culmination of God’s plan”1668. The preposition εἰς which precedes περιποίησις is identified as a marker of goal or purpose involving suitability aspects1669, and so the expression “for the obtaining of salvation” (εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας) can otherwise be rendered precisely as “purposely for the attainment of salvation”. Since the verb ἔθετο and its subject ὁ θεός in 1 Thess 5:9a also apply 1 665 Cf. Wilhelm Pesch, “ὀργή”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 530. 1666 See Wilhelm Pesch, “ὀργή”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 530. 1667 See also Rom 1:18; 2 Thess 1:8-​9; 2:12. 1668 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 299. 1669 Confer the use of εἰς in this way in Mt 6:13; 25:46; Lk 24:20; Rom 11:32; 2 Cor 4:11; 1 Tim 3:6-​7; 6:9; Rev 2:22; 17:8.

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in 1 Thess 5:9b, the expression in verse 9b is to be understood as: “God has destined us purposely for the attainment of salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ” (ὁ θεὸς ἔθετο ἡμᾶς εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ), and not as: “God has destined us (the Christ’s faithful) to be his possession”. In the NT, the substantive περιποίησις (“possession”, “keeping safe or preserving”, “acquisition”, “attainment”, “obtaining”, etc.) appears 5 times (Eph 1:14; 1 Thess 5:9; 2 Thess 2:141670)1671. While in Eph 1:14 and in 1 Pt 2:9 the word περιποίησις is used to describe the Christ’s faithful as people who have been chosen or called to become “God’s own possession” through Jesus Christ, περιποίησις is applied in Heb 10:39 to describe the believers as those who do not draw back and perish but those who have faith and will possess life or preserve their soul. In the letters to the Thessalonians, περιποίησις is used either to describe the believers in Christ as people who have been called by God through the gospel to obtain the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ (2 Thess 2:14), or as people who have been destined (by God) to attain salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 5:9). Thus, the use of περιποίησις in 1 Thess 5:9 and the nuance it bears is very close to how the word is applied in 2 Thess 2:14 because in both contexts the Christ’s faithful are described as people who are either destined by God (1 Thess 5:9) or called by God (2 Thess 2:14) for the attainment of salvation (1 Thess 5:9) or of the divine glory (2 Thess 2:14). The word περιποίησις is used in the Pauline writings (including the letters ascribed to Paul) only in contexts where the Christ’s faithful are described not only as God’s own possession but also as beneficiaries of the divine glory or of the salvation effected by God through the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 5:9; 2 Thess 2:14; also Eph 1:14). The use of the noun περιποίησις and its verb περιποῖειν or περιποιεῖσθαι in the LXX throws more light on their application in the NT because their meaning in the LXX bears on NT theology. In Mal 3:17 (LXX), for example, one reads: “And they shall be mine, says the Lord almighty, my [own special] possession, on the day I will act; and I will make choice of them as a parent makes choice of a son who serves him” (καὶ ἔσονταί μοι, λέγει κύριος παντοκράτωρ, εἰς ἡμέραν, ἣν ἐγὼ ποιῶ εἰς περιποίησιν, καὶ αἱρετιῶ αὐτοὺς ὃν τρόπον αἱρετίζει ἄνθρωπος τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ τὸν δουλεύοντα αὐτῷ).

What is meant in Mal 3:17 is that it is by choice that Israel becomes God’s own special possession. This choice is “in preference to all the [other] nations” (παρὰ 1 670 See also Heb 10:39; 1 Pt 2:9. 1671 The verb περιποιεῖσθαι (“to preserve”, “to acquire”, “to gain”, “to attain”, etc.) also appears 3 times in the NT (Lk 17:33; Acts 20:28; 1 Tim 3:13).

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πάντα τὰ ἔθνη), and this is made clear in Exod 19:5, Dt 7:6; 14:2, and also in Pss. Sol 9:91672 which reads: “For you chose the descendants of Abraham above all the nations, and you put your name upon us, Lord, and it will not cease forever”1673.

God chooses people for his own so as to save and preserve their lives from death and destruction (Isa 31:5; Ezk 13:18-​21; 2 Macc 3:35)1674. In such contexts in the OT where Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession distinct from the Gentiles or other nations, what marks Israel out as people especially chosen by God to be peculiarly his own possession (Dt 32:9; Ps 135:4 MT) is Israel’s obedience to God and his preparedness to keep God’s covenant and commandments (Exod 19:5; Dt 26:16-​19), and especially Israel’s abandonment of other gods or the gods of the nations to serve the Lord, the one almighty God (Dt 7:5-​9, 11). If Israel and his descendants should turn away from God to serve other gods, they too would face God’s wrath and destruction (Dt 7:4; cf. 1 Kgs 11:1-​40). In the NT, the believers in Christ are identified as the new people of God who have become God’s possession by a divine election through the Lord Jesus Christ (see 1 Pt 2:9-​10). Thus, “The prerogatives of ancient Israel mentioned here [in 1 Pt 2:9-​10] are now more fully and fittingly applied to the Christian people: ‘a chosen race’ (cf. Isa 43:20-​21) indicates their divine election (Eph 1:4-​6); ‘a royal priesthood’ (cf. Exod 19:6) to serve and worship God in Christ, thus continuing the priestly functions of his life, passion, and resurrection; ‘a holy nation’ (Exod 19:6) reserved for God, a people he claims for his own (cf. Mal 3:17) by virtue of their baptism into his death and resurrection. This transcends all natural and national divisions and unites the people into one community to glorify the one who led them from the darkness of paganism to the light of faith in Christ. From being ‘no people’ deprived of all mercy, they have become the very people of God, the chosen recipients of his mercy (cf. Hos 1:9; 2:25)”1675.

Paul echoes the prophecy of Hos 2:25 in Rom 9:25-​26 where one reads: “As indeed he says in Hosea, ‘those who were not my people, I will call my people, and her who was not beloved, I will call my beloved’1676 /​And in the very place where it

1672 Confer Muraoka’s explanation of the use of the verb αἱρετίζειν (“to choose as desirable”, “to prefer”) in Mal 3:17 and its connection to Pss.Sol 9:9 in: T. Muraoka, A Greek-​English Lexicon of the Septuagint, p. 15. 1673 Cf. R. B. Wright (transl.), Psalms of Solomon, in: OTP 2 (1985), p. 661. 1674 See also 2 Macc 15:21; Jos 9:17-​21; 2 Chr 14:10-​13; Ps 90:3-​4 (LXX). 1675 See the note on 1 Pt 2:9-​10, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 378. 1676 Confer the translation in the RSV.

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was said to them, ‘You are not my people’, they will be called sons [i.e. children] of the living God’ ” (ὡς καὶ ἐν τῷ Ὡσηὲ λέγει· καλέσω τὸν οὐ λαόν μου λαόν μου, καὶ τὴν οὐκ ἠγαπημένην ἠγαπημένην· /​ καὶ ἔσται ἐν τῷ τόπῳ οὗ ἐρρέθη αὐτοῖς οὐ λαός μου ὑμεῖς, ἐκεῖ κληθήσονται υἱοὶ θεοῦ ζῶντος).

Best notices that “election” is a conception allied to “salvation”1677. In 1 Thess 1:4, Paul and his co-​missionaries express their conviction that the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica have been loved by God and chosen by God (see also 1 Thess 2:12; 4:7; 2 Thess 2:13-​14)1678. 1 Thess 1:4 reads thus: “We know, brethren beloved by God, that he [God] has chosen you” (εἰδότες, ἀδελφοὶ ἠγαπημένοι ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ, τὴν ἐκλογὴν ὑμῶν).

Roose rightly remarks that the statement about the election or choice (see also 1 Thess 4:7) which provides the basis for the fate of the Christ’s faithful as destined for something (i.e. for the obtaining of salvation) serves to draw a boundary between the Christ’s faithful and “the others” (οἱ λοιποί) who are not chosen and for that matter are destined for a different eschatological fate (i.e. destruction)1679. For Konradt, the antithetical structure or formulation found in 1 Thess 5:9 (i.e. “not … but” [οὐκ … ἀλλά]) points to the election statement in 1 Thess 4:71680 where it is evident that the addressees (the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica) are clearly differentiated from “the Gentiles” (see 1 Thess 4:5)1681. In 1 Thess 1:9, Paul and his collaborators thank God that the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica have turned away from idols to serve this living and true God, and so by virtue of their faith in Christ, their conversion from paganism and their service to God (and humankind) they have become God’s own possession and recipients of God’s mercy. This gives grounds for the authors to emphasize that the believers in Christ will surely not face God’s wrath and judgement but they will obtain salvation through the Lord Jesus Christ (see 1 Thess 1:10; 5:9). It is crystal clear also in the use of the verb περιποιεῖσθαι (“to acquire”, “to obtain”, “to win”, “to attain”, etc.) in Acts 20:28 that the “church of God” (ἐκκλησία

1 677 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 216. 1678 Confer also Eph 1:11-​14. 1679 Cf. Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 93. Confer also Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 175; Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 308. In 1 Thess 5:9, it is not explicitly stated that “the others” (“οἱ λοιποί”) are destined for destruction but it is implied. 1680 1 Thess 4:7 reads thus: “For God has not called us to impurity but to holiness” (οὐ γὰρ ἐκάλεσεν ἡμᾶς ὁ θεὸς ἐπὶ ἀκαθαρσίᾳ ἀλλ᾽ ἐν ἁγισμῷ). 1681 Cf. Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 175 footnote 806; also p. 174.

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τοῦ θεοῦ) and the entire flock or members of the congregation belong to God, and that God acquired them and they became God’s own possession through the blood of his own Son Jesus Christ. Acts 20:28 reads thus: “Take heed to yourselves and to all the flock, in which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to care for the Church of God which he obtained with the blood of his own Son”1682 (προσέχετε ἑαυτοῖς καὶ παντὶ τῷ ποιμνίῳ, ἐν ᾧ ὑμᾶς τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον ἔθετο ἐπισκόπους ποιμαίνειν τὴν ἐκκλησίαν τοῦ θεοῦ, ἣν περιεποιήσατο διὰ τοῦ αἵματος τοῦ ἰδίου [αὐτοῦ1683]).

The use of “a chosen people” (λαὸς περιούσιος) in Tit 2:14 also describes the believers in Christ as a people elected or chosen and redeemed through the blood of Christ, people who belong to Christ as his special possession; and it is the faithful God who have called the believers into the fellowship of his Son Jesus Christ (cf. 1 Cor 1:9)1684. God chooses, calls or elects people for his own and he destines them for salvation or eternal life through his Son Jeus Christ out of his steadfast love (Rom 8:28-​35; Jn 3:16). The goal of God’s plan of salvation is that every human being could be saved through Jesus Christ. God did not send his Son Jesus Christ into the world to condemn the world but that through Jesus Christ the world might be saved (see Jn 3:17). However, the root of the verb κρίνειν in Jn 3:17 means both “judgement” and “condemnation”. That is, Jesus’ purpose is to save, but at the same time his coming provokes judgement, and that some people condemn themselves by turning away from Jesus Christ, the light of the world1685. This means that it is by choice that persons incur divine wrath, judgement, condemnation and destruction because the moment they decide to turn away from God and his ways and refuse to lead upright life pleasing to God they destine themselves for the divine wrath, judgement and destruction (cf. 1 Thess 2:16). The believers in Christ attain salvation through God’s initiative. Malherbe correctly remarks that in 1 Thess 5:9 Paul picks up the theme of God’s initiative which began already in 1 Thess 1:4 and has continued throughout the entire letter (e.g. 1 Thess 1:4; 2:2, 41686), and even at the beginning of the letter in 1 Thess 1 682 The translation is quoted from the RSV. 1683 Many manuscripts: txt, ‫ק‬41.74, ‫א‬, A B C D E Ψ 33. 945. 1175. 1739. 1891. 2818, etc. read διὰ τοῦ αἵματος αὐτοῦ (“through his blood” [i.e. through Jesus’ blood]) instead of διὰ τοῦ αἵματος τοῦ ἰδίου (“through his own blood”, [which could mean: through God’s own blood]). 1684 See also 2 Tim 1:9. 1685 Confer the note on Jn 3:17-​19 in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, p. 152. 1686 See also 1 Thess 2:12, 16; 3:3; 4:7, 9, 14.

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1:2 there is an emphasis on God1687. In 1 Thess 1:2, all thanks are directed towards God. The fact that God himself takes the initiative and makes it possible for his people to attain something –​be it salvation, peace, security, etc. –​is clearly evident also in the use of περιποίησις in Hg 2:9b (LXX) where one reads: “And in this place I will give peace, says the Lord almighty, peace of the soul as such for a possession to every person who builds to raise this temple” (καὶ ἐν τῷ τόπῳ τούτῳ δώσω εἰρήνην, λέγει κύριος παντοκράτωρ, καὶ εἰρήνην ψυχῆς εἰς περιποίησιν παντὶ τῷ κτίζοντι τοῦ ἀναστῆσαι τὸν ναὸν τοῦτον).

Thus, it is the Lord almighty who makes peace available to be possessed or attained by his people –​peace of mind, body and soul. In the NT, Jesus Christ becomes the instrument or agent through whom God effects and fulfills his salvation plan on behalf of his new people: the church or the believers in Christ. The place where God grants this peace to be obtained by his people in the NT is Jesus Christ himself because he is God’s new temple (Mk 14:58; Jn 2:19; Mt 26:61), and through his death on the cross (“destruction”) and his resurrection (“raising”) on the third day, a new people –​the community of believers or the church –​has been won for God (Rev 21:2) and for Christ himself (Tit 2:14)1688. Christ is also the prince of peace1689 whose name Jesus means salvation. Thus, through his Son Jesus Christ, God effects salvation, peace, security, reconciliation, etc. on behalf of his new people, the Christ’s faithful (see 2 Cor 5:18-​19). In 1 Thess 5:9, the connection between the eschatological dimension of the believers’ hope of salvation and the role of God and his Son Jesus Christ in effecting and completing the salvation of the Christ’s faithful come to the fore. Malherbe rightly observes that: “Paul grounds his statement about the eschatological dimension of their hope of salvation by placing it in the soteriological purpose of God. The reason they must put on their armor and be sober is that God does not want them to experience his wrath, but to

1 687 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 299. 1688 The church is identified here as “the bride” whose bridegroom is Jesus Christ (see also Eph 5:23-​24; 2 Cor 11:2). It is specifically stressed in the NT that Christ is the head of the church (Eph 1:22; 5:23; Col 1:18), and the church is Christ’s own body (Eph 1:23; cf. Rom 12:4-​5; 1 Cor 12:12-​27). 1689 Confer the riding of Jesus on a “foal” (πῶλος) or on a “donkey” (ὑποζύγιον) as a symbol of “peace” in his (triumphal) entry into Jerusalem as quoted in Mt 21:1-​11; Jn 12:12-​15 from Zech 9:9. See also Isa 9:5-​6 (MT).

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obtain salvation. Their end is to be different from those who will not escape judgment because they are not eschatologically alert (1 Thess 5:3)”1690.

There are other texts in the Corpus Paulinum where Paul emphasizes that the believers’ hope (of salvation or resurrection) is not something that can be realized in our lives here on earth but in the hereafter. Paul writes, for instance, in 1 Cor 15:19 that: “If for this life only we [the Christ’s faithful] have hoped in Christ, we are more pitiable than all people” (εἰ ἐν τῇ ζωῇ ταύτῃ ἐν Χριστῷ ἠλπικότες ἐσμὲν μόνον, ἐλεεινότεροι πάντων ἀνθρώπων ἐσμέν)1691. In Rom 8:18-​27 too Paul teaches about how believers are destined for a share in the divine glory with Christ and their redemption which is yet to be completed, and also how the Christ’s faithful are presently awaiting with patience or endurance the fulfillment of this future glory and redemption. He actually stresses in Rom 8:24-​25 that it is in this hope (of salvation or redemption: cf. Rom 8:23) that we the believers in Christ are saved (τῇ γὰρ ἐλπίδι ἐσώθημεν), but since this hope is not yet seen or realized “we are waiting with endurance” (δι᾽ ὑπομονῆς ἀπεκδεχόμεθα) for the fulfillment of this hope in the future1692. Paul assures the Christ’s faithful in 1 Thess 5:9b that they will not hope in vain because God has made it possible that

1690 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 298. Confer also Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 175. Collins too stresses in his interpretation of 1 Thess 5:9-​10 that “salvation” (σωτηρία) is the event and gift of the “final times”. Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Th 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 339. On the contrary, Baumert and Seewann maintain that the salvation Paul talks about here in 1 Thess 5:9 –​just like the spiritual ammunitions of faith, love and hope of salvation in 1 Thess 5:8 –​is not something to hope for but something that is realised in the present life situation of the addressees (or the Christ’s faithful). Cf. Norbert Baumert /​Maria-​Irma Seewann, In der Gegenwart des Herrn…, pp. 73–​74. Confer also Jacob W. Elias, “Jesus Who Delivers Us from the Wrath to Come” (1 Thess 1:10): Apocalyptic and Peace in the Thessalonian Correspondence, SBL.SP 31 (1992), 121–​132, especially page 124. 1691 This statement in 1 Cor 15:19 has a parallel in 2 Bar 21:9 which reads: “For if only this life exists which everyone possesses here [on earth], nothing could be more bitter than this”. 1692 Confer also the entire pericope of Rom 8:18-​27 for the details of Paul’s teaching about how believers are destined for a share in the divine glory with Christ and their redemption which is yet to be completed, and how the Christ’s faithful are presently awaiting with patience and endurance the fulfillment of this future glory and redemption.

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they attain salvation “through our Lord Jesus Christ” (διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ)1693. In the NT, God’s act of salvation on behalf of his people is carried out and completed through his Son Jesus Christ. It becomes evident that 1 Thess 5:9-​10a is to be interpreted in connection with 1 Thess 1:9-​10 because they have much in common so far as the teaching about the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians is concerned. Both pericopes emphasize especially how the believers are not meant to face the eschatological divine wrath and destruction but will be definitely saved by God through his Son Jesus Christ, who died on the cross and was raised by God from the dead (see also Rom 5:8-​ 9). Thus in both pericopes, the death of Jesus Christ on the cross and his resurrection –​through which his mediatory role in the salvation of the believers comes to fulfillment –​are stressed. Christ saves believers through his death on the cross and through his resurrection. With the prepositional phrase “through our Lord Jesus Christ” (διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ) in 1 Thess 5:9b, Paul not only brings out the close relation between the condition of being saved from the wrath of God and the believers’ attainment of salvation but he also stresses on the instrumental role which Jesus Christ plays in the salvation of the Christ’s faithful. In 1 Cor 15:57, Paul uses this prepositional phrase διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ to emphasize the victory that God gives us (the Christ’s faithful) through Jesus Christ over “the sting of death” (τὸ κέντρον τοῦ θανάτου). This mediatory role of Jesus Christ in God’s salvation plan has already been stressed in 1 Thess 4:14b where it was pointed out that God will gather those asleep (i.e. the dead) with himself “through Jesus” (διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ). Malherbe notices that: “Paul began the larger eschatological section by referring to what God would do for those who had fallen asleep and then turned to Christ’s role in the eschatological drama (1 Thess 4:14). Here too [i.e. 1 Thess 5:9b] he moves from God’s design to Christ as the medium of salvation [This is evident in the use of διά both in 1 Thess 4:14 and in 5:9]”1694.

1693 Apart from 1 Thess 5:9, Paul uses the prepositional phrase διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ also in Rom 5:1, 11; 1 Cor 15:57 to stress the instrumental role Jesus plays not only in reconciling the Christ’s faithful with God (Rom 5:1, 11) but also in God’s salvation act on behalf of his people (1 Cor 15:57; 1 Thess 5:9). Confer also “through Jesus” (διὰ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) in 1 Thess 4:14. 1694 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 299. The mediatory role of Jesus Christ in the salvation of believers from God’s wrath is also emphasized in 1 Thess 1:10; Rom 5:9.

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Hoppe also shares this opinion and he maintains that much as the believers are required to lead a life corresponding to God’s will (1 Thess 5:6-​8), the attainment of salvation does not depend so much on the deeds of the believers but rather on Christ’s mediatory act1695. The interpretation of the prepositional phrase “through our Lord Jesus Christ” (διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ) here in 1 Thess 5:9b is not complete and exhaustive without its relation to the participial clause “who died for us” (τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν) in 1 Thess 5:10a because the participial clause τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν and the prepositional phrase διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ are in apposition. This apposition will be discussed in more detail in the following text of 1 Thess 5:10, precisely in verse 10a.

3.1. (vi). 1 Thess 5:10 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:10 (with Notes) 10a τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ1696 ἡμῶν, 10b ἵνα εἴτε γρηγορῶμεν εἴτε καθεύδωμεν ἅμα σὺν αὐτῷ ζήσωμεν.

10a who died for us, 10b so that whether we are awake or asleep we might live together with him.

Notes: The preposition διά which takes the genitive case in 1 Thess 5:9b (see διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ) continues to function here in 1 Thess 5:10a in the participial clause τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν (“who died for our sake”). Thus, the complete sentence which begins with the preposition διά should

1 695 Cf. Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 309. 1696 Many manuscripts: ‫ א‬B 33 txt ‫א‬2 A D F G K L P Ψ o278. 81. 104. 365. 1175. 1505. 1881. 2464 etc. read περὶ ὑμῶν instead of ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν. Best remarks correctly that the meaning of τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν (“who died for us”) is not affected whether we read περί or ὑπέρ here in 1 Thess 5:10a because “in Hellenistic Greek these prepositions had become interchangeable, as it is demonstrated by the different ways in which they appear as variants of one another”. Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 218. See also Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 299; David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 305 footnote 127.

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read: διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν (“through our Lord Jesus Christ who died for us”). The conjunction ἵνα functions here in verse 10b as a marker which denotes purpose, aim, or goal in a final sense, and it can be translated here as “so that”, “in order that”. This ἵνα-​clause introduces the purpose of Christ’s death on (the cross) for us1697. The ἵνα-​clause in verse 10b renders the verbs that follow, i.e. γρηγορῶμεν, καθεύδωμεν, and ζήσωμεν in the subjunctive mood. While γρηγορῶμεν and καθεύδωμεν are precisely present subjunctive active 1st person plural of the infinitive verbs γρηγορεῖν and καθεύδειν respectively, ζήσωμεν is rather aorist subjunctive active 1st person plural of the infinitive verb ζῆν. Best notices the inceptive meaning of the aorist subjunctive ζήσωμεν, and so he translates ζήσωμεν as “we may begin to live”, and he explains that it is at the Lord’s parousia that “we may begin to live simultaneously [i.e. together] with the Lord Jesus Christ”1698. Thus, the aorist subjunctive ζήσωμεν has a futuristic meaning and this is even attested by the manuscript A which has a variant reading of ζήσομεν (future indicative active 1st person plural of the verb ζῆν)1699. The presence of εἴτε … εἴτε (“whether … or”) in verse 10b indicates another antithetical formulation in 1 Thess 5:9-​10 (see the other antithetical structure οὐκ … ἀλλά in verse 9ab). The εἴτε … εἴτε functions here like the conjunction εἰ (“if ”, “whether”, etc.) in a conditional sentence with protasis and apodosis1700, and in this sentence εἴτε … εἴτε is more a disjunctive conjunction, hence its rendition as “whether … or”1701. While εἴτε … εἴτε with the present subjunctives γρηγορῶμεν and καθεύδωμεν form the conditional clause or the protasis, the

1697 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 300. See also the use of ἵνα as a final clause which introduces the purpose of Christ’s death and resurrection in Rom 14:9. 1698 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, pp. 218–​219. 1699 The manuscript D rather reads another variant ζώμεν (present subjunctive active 1st person plural of the verb ζῆν). The futuristic nuance as presented in the aorist subjunctive or the future indicative is to be preferred in this eschatological context. 1700 There are two main clauses in conditional sentences, i.e. the conditional clause or the protasis which is usually introduced by the conjunction “if ”, “whether”, “when”, etc. to express a condition, a proposition or an assumption; and the main, leading or consequent clause or apodosis which conveys the main idea. For an elaborate discussion of the “structure” of conditional sentences and the relation of the protasis to the apodosis, confer Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics, pp. 682 ff. 1701 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 172 § III, 15.

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following aorist subjunctive ζήσωμεν in the sentence ἅμα1702 σὺν αὐτῷ ζήσωμεν (“we might live together with him”) forms the apodosis, i.e. the leading or main clause in the (disjunctive) conditional sentence1703. Verse 10b can, therefore, be reconstructed and translated as: ζήσωμεν ἅμα σὺν αὐτῷ· εἴτε γρηγορῶμεν εἴτε καθεύδωμεν –​“We might live together with him; whether we are awake or we are asleep”. Meanwhile, the verb καθεύδειν here in verse 10b is applied euphemistically to mean “to be dead”1704, and since it is the opposite of the verb γρηγορεῖν in this context, γρηγορεῖν is to be rendered metaphorically as “to be alive”. Thus, ἵνα εἴτε γρηγορῶμεν εἴτε καθεύδωμεν ἅμα σὺν αὐτῷ ζήσωμεν in verse 10b is to be understood as “so that whether we are alive or dead, we might live together with him”, i.e. with the Lord Jesus Christ.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:10 With the expression “who died for us” (τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν) in 1 Thess 5:10a, Paul continues to emphasize the mediatory or instrumental role our Lord Jesus Christ plays in our attainment of salvation. This expression is to be interpreted together with “through our Lord Jesus Christ” (διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ) in 1 Thess 5:9b so that the complete expression shall read: “through our Lord Jesus Christ who died for us” (διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν)1705. The participial clause “who died for us” (τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν) brings into focus the death of Jesus Christ on the cross which has been referred to already in 1 Thess 1:10; 2:14-​15, and expressed also in 1 Thess 4:14. Unlike in 1 Thess 4:14 where Jesus’ mediatory role in our salvation is seen to be accomplished explicitly through both his death and resurrection, here in 1 Thess 5:10 the emphasis is solely and vividly on Jesus’ death, but his resurrection may also be implied1706. With the prepositional phrase “for us” (ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν) in 1 Thess 5:10a, Paul indicates in concrete terms the beneficiaries of Jesus 1702 The adverb ἅμα functions here in 1 Thess 5:10b as “a marker of association” and it can be translated as “together”. Confer also the use of this adverb ἅμα in 1 Thess 4:17a where it functions more as “a marker of simultaneous occurrence” and could be rendered more appropriately as “simultaneously”, “at the same time”, etc. 1703 Hoffmann notices correctly that εἴτε γρηγορῶμεν εἴτε καθεύδωμεν is a parenthetic clause (Zwischensatz). Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 231. 1704 Confer also Dn 12:2 (Theodotion) and Ps 87:6 (LXX) where καθεύδειν is used in the euphemistical sense. 1705 Confer also Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 303 footnote 1; Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 177. 1706 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 218.

380

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

Christ’s death, and that is “us”, the believers in Christ. The phrase ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν is, therefore, understood as “for us” in the sense of “for our sake”, “on our behalf ”, “in the interest or benefit of us”, etc1707. Apart from 1 Thess 5:10a, there are other passages in which Paul uses such an expression –​i.e. “Jesus Christ died for us” (Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἀπέθανεν) or similar formulations –​to emphasize the significance of Jesus’ crucifixion or Jesus’ death on the cross for us, the Christ’s faithful1708. Jesus Christ died for us in order that we may be reconciled with God and have salvation. Christ died “for the ungodly”: ὑπὲρ ἀσεβῶν ἀπέθανεν (Rom 5:6), he died for us “while we were still sinners”: ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν (Rom 5:8), he died “for our sins”: ὑπὲρ τῶν ἁμαρτιῶν ἡμῶν (1 Cor 15:3), he died for “each of our brethren” (cf. ὑπὲρ οὗ Χριστὸς ἀπέθανεν in Rom 14:15)1709, “he died for all”: ὑπὲρ πάντων ἀπέθανεν (2 Cor 5:14, 15)1710 so that those who live might live no longer for themselves but for him (Christ) “who for their sake died and was raised”. Thus, Christ died for all: sinners, the ungodly, the weak, etc. It is out of love that Christ died for us (Rom 5:8; Gal 2:20, also Eph 5:2, 25)1711, and for Paul the Christ Jesus, who died and was raised, is the one who intercedes for us (Rom 8:34). Though the cross is mentioned neither in 1 Thess 5:10 nor in 1 Thess 4:14, the participial phrase “who died for us” (τοῦ ἀποθανόντος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν) makes an indirect reference to Jesus’s historical death on the cross (see Phil 2:8) through which humankind was granted forgiveness of their sins (1 Cor 15:3)1712, peace and reconciliation with 1707 The preposition περί with the genitive case can also have such meanings which the preposition ὑπέρ with the genitive case conveys. In Eph 6:18-​20, for example, the author uses both prepositions περί and ὑπέρ with the genitive case alternatively or interchangeably to mean “for” in the sense of “on account of ”, “for the benefit of ”, etc. See also the use of περί with the genitive case in Mt 26:28; Jn 16:26; 17:9, 20; Gal 1:4; Heb 5:3; 11:40; and the use of ὑπέρ with the genitive case in Mk 14:24 //​Lk 22:19; Acts 12:5; Col 1:3; Rom 10:1; 15:30; 2 Cor 1:11. 1708 Such texts include: Rom 5:6, 8; 8:32; 14:15; 1 Cor 15:3; 2 Cor 5:15; also 1 Cor 11:24; Gal 2:20; 3:13. Confer also Eph 5:25; 1 Tim 2:6; Tit 2:14. Elsewhere outside the Pauline writings (and the letters ascribed to Paul) too the importance of the suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ for the salvation of the Christ’s faithful and the entire human race echoes in Heb 2:9; 1 Pt 2:21; 3:18; 1 Jn 3:16a; confer also Mk 14:24 //​Lk 22:19 f. 1709 See also the parallel expression “for whom Christ died” (δι᾽ ὅν Χριστὸς ἀπέθανεν) in 1 Cor 8:11. 1710 Confer also Heb 2:9 which reads: He [i.e. Jesus] tasted death for everyone (ὑπὲρ παντὸς γεύσηται θανάτου). Confer also 1 Tim 2:5-​6. 1711 See also elsewhere in the NT 1 Jn 3:16a. 1712 See also Col 2:13-​14.

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God (Rom 5:10)1713, and salvation (1 Cor 1:18; Gal 3:13) from God’s wrath (Rom 5:9; 1 Thess 1:10; 5:9-​10a). Malherbe rightly indicates that “Paul has received and preached the tradition that Jesus died for sins (1 Cor 15:3)” and this “formulation is prominent in Paul’s reflection on the saving work of Christ (e.g. Rom 4:25; 2 Cor 5:14, 21 ….)”1714 The authors who write in place of Paul also stress that the elect or God’s chosen ones obtain salvation and eternal glory in Christ Jesus (2 Tim 2:10) who (died and) was raised from the dead (2 Tim 2:8), and that while the believers have experienced the reconciling effect of Christ’s death, the effect of the cross is seen in the entire salvation history of humanity (cf. Col 1:21-​23). It is important to point out here that in the passages where Paul talks about the suffering, death and resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ as the basis of our reconciliation with God and of our redemption or salvation, Paul also emphasizes the effect of this “paschal mystery” of Christ in the present life situation of the Christ’s faithful and humanity as a whole. In Gal 1:3-​4, for example, Paul stresses forcefully –​as part of his greetings at the beginning of the letter –​that our Lord Jesus Christ gave himself (or died) for our sins in order to deliver us from the present evil age, in accord with the will of our God and Father. Nonetheless, the salvation effected through the suffering, death and resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ is most times talked about also as something or an event whose full accomplishment or fulfillment lies in the future (see 1 Thess 1:10; 4:14; 5:9-​10). For Paul, Jesus Christ overcame and destroyed death through his death on the cross so that, among other things, humanity might experience “the eschatological new creation, an event that will occur with the destruction of death (1 Cor 15:26, 541715)”1716. Anyone who believes and follows Christ may be like Christ in his death (Phil 3:10) and may attain the resurrection from the dead (Phil 3:11). The salvation effected through Christ’s death and resurrection (Phil 3:10-​11; 1 Cor 15:20; 1 Thess 4:14) is hoped to be obtained in full at the parousia of our Lord Jesus Christ (Phil 3:20-​21; 1 Thess 4:15-​16; 5:1-​2, 4)1717. Best remarks correctly that: 1 713 Confer also Eph 2:16; Col 1:20, 22. 1714 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 299. 1715 See also 2 Tim 1:10. 1716 Cf. W. Bieder, “θάνατος”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), pp. 129–​133, here page 131. 1717 Elsewhere in 2 Tim 2:18 the author who writes in place of Paul stresses that those who teach that the resurrection of the dead has already taken place deviate from the truth, and in 2 Thess 2:2 the Christ’s faithful are exhorted not to let anyone deceive them who claim that the day of the Lord or the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ is at hand or already present.

382

Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11

“The new life of Christians is associated with Christ’s risen life and therefore implies their resurrection; their new life is sometimes viewed as existing in the present and sometimes as one which is only completely fulfilled in the future (Rom 6:8; 2 Cor 4:14; 13:4 ….)”1718

Our attainment of salvation can be interpreted in 1 Thess 5:10a certainly on the basis of Christ’s death for us but especially also on the grounds that God has destined us to obtain salvation (1 Thess 5:9) in the future1719. When Paul says, for example, in Gal 1:4 that Christ gave himself for our sins (τοῦ δόντος ἑαυτὸν ὑπὲρ τῶν ἁμαρτιῶν ἡμῶν) to rescue us from the present evil age “according to the will of our God and Father” (κατὰ τὸ θέλημα τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ πατρὸς ἡμῶν), it becomes evident that Christ’s expiatory death is carried out according to God’s purpose and will. In 1 Thess 5:9-​10a too, it is according to the purpose and will of God that Christ died for us so that we can obtain the salvation for which God himself has destined us. It is, in fact, the eschatological salvation mentioned in 1 Thess 5:9-​10a that is further explained in more detail in the subsequent verse of 1 Thess 5:10b which is introduced by the conjunction ἵνα (“so that”). With the formulation “whether … or” (εἴτε … εἴτε) in 1 Thess 5:10b Paul indicates the relationship between the condition of the Christ’s faithful and their ability to obtain the gift of God’s salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ who died for us (see 1 Thess 5:9-​10a). This condition or state of the believers in Christ is described here in 1 Thess 5:10b in terms of the expression “whether we are awake or asleep” (εἴτε γρηγορῶμεν εἴτε καθεύδωμεν). It could have been the case that we can obtain salvation only on condition that we are awake, and when we are asleep there would be no possibility for us to attain this divine gift of salvation. Paul is, however, very emphatic that we might obtain this salvation “whether we are awake or asleep” (εἴτε γρηγορῶμεν εἴτε καθεύδωμεν). It is significant to know exactly what Paul means by his application of the verbs γρηγορεῖν and καθεύδειν here in 1 Thess 5:10b. Unlike in 1 Thess 5:6 where καθεύδειν precedes γρηγορεῖν and both verbs are applied in the metaphorical sense to mean “to be spiritually indolent” and “to be spiritually active” respectively, here in 1 Thess 5:10b apart from the fact that γρηγορεῖν comes before καθεύδειν in the order of arrangement, γρηγορεῖν is used figuratively but with the meaning “to be alive” and καθεύδειν is applied euphemistically to mean “to be dead”. Thus, in both contexts (1 Thess 5:6, 10) the verbs are seen as opposite terms. However, while in verse 6 every emphasis is placed on persons and their present condition

1 718 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 219. 1719 Confer also Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 177.

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on this earth in regard to whether they are spiritually awake and active or spiritually asleep and indolent, in verse 10 the stress is on people who are alive as opposed to those who are dead1720. In the NT, the figurative use of γρηγορεῖν in the sense of “to be alive (on earth)” appears only here in 1 Thess 5:10. This meaning of γρηγορεῖν, i.e. “to be alive (on earth)” in opposition to “to be dead”, developed “in association with the popular consolatory motif of death as a sleep”1721. Nützel maintains correctly that: “In 1 Thess 5:10 the reference to ‘whether we wake or sleep’ is, as the wider context indicates, to living or dying”, and he explains that: “Christ died for us so that whether we continue to live in this world or have already died we might live with him”1722. The verb καθεύδειν is used here in 1 Thess 5:10 as a euphemism for “death” or “to die” because it describes here the “sleep of death”, and this verb καθεύδειν is to be understood as synonymous with the euphemistical use of κοιμᾶσθαι in 1 Thess 4:13, 14, 15 and with the condition of those described in 1 Thess 4:16 as “the dead in Christ” (οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ)1723. The euphemistical use of καθεύδειν here in 1 Thess 5:10b with the meaning “to die” serves then as the basis for the rendition of the metaphorical meaning of γρηγορεῖν as “to be alive” because in this context γρηγορεῖν is clearly the exact opposite of καθεύδειν, and in the antithetical formulation εἴτε γρηγορῶμεν εἴτε καθεύδωμεν the concepts are seen to be diametrically opposed. That is, once καθεύδειν means “to be dead” in this antithetical expression, γρηγορεῖν should definitely mean “to be alive”. The verb καθεύδειν is applied euphemistically also in Dn 12:2 (Theodotion) which reads: “And many of those who sleep in the dust [or mound] of the earth shall awake; some to everlasting life, and some to disgrace and everlasting shame” (καὶ πολλοὶ τῶν καθευδόντων ἐν γῆς χώματι ἐξεγερθήσονται, οὗτοι εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον καὶ οὗτοι εἰς ὀνειδισμὸν καὶ εἰς αἰσχύνην αἰώνιον).

In Dn 12:2b (Theodotion), it becomes crystal clear in the statement “many of those who sleep in the mound of the earth” (καὶ πολλοὶ τῶν καθευδόντων ἐν γῆς

1720 Confer also Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Th 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 341; Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, pp. 178–​179. 1721 Cf. BDAG, p. 208 § 3. See also Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 122 § 1. 1722 Cf. Johannes M. Nützel., “γρηγορέω”, in: EDNT 1 (1990), pp. 264–​265, here page 265. 1723 For an elaborate discussion of the Pauline usage of κοιμᾶσθαι and καθεύδειν as synonymous terms which describe “death”, confer Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, pp. 186–​206, especially pages 204–​205.

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χώματι) that the “sleep” means here “death” because it is described as “sleep in the mound of the earth”1724, and the expression “they shall awake” (ἐξεγερθήσονται) certainly means “they shall rise to life” or “they shall be alive”. It is in a similar vein that εἴτε γρηγορῶμεν εἴτε καθεύδωμεν in 1 Thess 5:10b should be understood and be rendered as “whether we are alive or dead”. The significance of the contrast between the believers’ state of being “alive” or “dead” is to be interpreted not only in relation to the mediatory or instrumental role Jesus plays in effecting salvation on behalf of God’s people (see 1 Thess 5:9b-​10a), but also in connection with the statement “we might [begin] to live together with him” (ἅμα σὺν αὐτῷ ζήσωμεν) because this statement actually forms the main clause or the apodosis of the conditional sentence in 1 Thess 5:10b. The question then is together with whom might we live? There is a consensus among exegetes that in 1 Thess 5:10b –​just like in 1 Thess 4:17 –​it is together with the Lord Jesus Christ that the living and the dead shall live. Much as this shared view or opinion holds good, it is about time we as interpreters became aware that this statement ἅμα σὺν αὐτῷ ζήσωμεν in 1 Thess 5:10b brings into focus the future life or existence of “the living” and “the dead” not only with the Lord Jesus Christ but also with God, the Lord almighty. Paul indeed speaks here also about the ultimate goal of human existence which is geared to the eternal union with God, the creator (see e.g. 1 Thess 4:14). In their interpretation of 1 Thess 4:14, Baumert and Seewann agree that the goal of the whole salvation process and its completion is the union of the Christ’s faithful with God, the Father, to whom Christ leads us1725. They, however, interpret ἅμα σὺν αὐτῷ ζήσωμεν in 1 Thes 5:10 as “living together with Christ here and now”1726. Such an interpretation does not bring out the aspect of the believers’

1724 In Ps 87:6 (LXX), the dead are described as “those who sleep in the tomb” (καθεύδοντες ἐν τάφῳ). In his work De Somniis 1.150, Philo uses the adverb ἐγρηγορώς as a synonym of ζῶν, and it is used as the antonym of τεθνεώς which is synonymous with κοιμώμενος. The terms ἐγρηγορώς and ζῶν are seen there in Philo’s work to be diametrically opposed to τεθνεώς and κοιμώμενος. One reads thus: “At one time one is alive and awake, at another time one is dead or asleep” (ἄλλοτε μὲν ζῶν καὶ ἐγρηγορώς, ἄλλοτε δὲ τεθνεὼς ἢ κοιμώμενος). For more references to the euphemistical use of καθεύδειν to describe “the sleep of death”, confer David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 307. 1725 They write thus: Ziel des ganzen Heilsprozesses und seine Vollendung ist die Gemeinschaft der Christusgläubigen mit Gott, dem Vater, zu dem uns Christus hinführt. Cf. Norbert Baumert /​Maria-​Irma Seewann, In der Gegenwart des Herrn…, p. 57. 1726 Cf. Norbert Baumert /​Maria-​Irma Seewann, op. cit., p. 77.

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final union with God, the creator. A variant reading of σὺν κυρίῳ (“with the Lord”) in 1 Thess 4:17 is found in the manuscript B which rather reads ἐν κυρίῳ (“in the Lord”). This suggests that this manuscript B understood πάντοτε σὺν κυρίῳ ἐσόμεθα (“we shall always be with the Lord”) in 1 Thess 4:17 as πάντοτε ἐν κυρίῳ ἐσόμεθα (“we shall always be in the Lord”). If we go by this variant reading “in the Lord” (ἐν κυρίῳ), we shall realize that for Paul the purpose of living in the Lord Jesus Christ is also to remain in union with God. That is exactly what Paul echoes in Rom 6:11 when he says that “we [believers] live for God in Christ Jesus [our Lord]” (τῷ θεῷ ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ ζῆν). In the pericope of Rom 6:1-​11, Paul actually expresses himself in a style of diatribe and stresses that through baptism believers share in the death of Christ. For “having died with Christ” (ἀπεθάνομεν σὺν Χριστῷ), “we believe that we shall also live with him, i.e. with Christ”: πιστεύομεν ὅτι καὶ συζήσομεν αὐτῷ (Rom 6:8) because God’s love and grace promise eternal life to all believers in Christ (cf. Rom 5:8, 21)1727, and through the resurrection of Christ the power to live anew becomes a reality for believers here and now, but the fullness of participation in Christ’s resurrection still lies in the future, and so the life of the believer –​that is lived in dedication to God here and now –​is part and parcel of that future1728. This future hope of salvation is stressed in 1 Thess 5:9-​10 because –​as Best puts it –​in 1 Thessalonians the death of Jesus on the cross receives little attention, and since the problem in Thessalonica which Paul addresses is eschatology, attention is directed towards the end and so salvation is related to the end and not to the present1729. It should also be made clear in the interpretation of 1 Thess 5:9-​10 that the final fulfillment in life is eventually found not only in the presence of Jesus Christ but also in the presence of God, the Lord almighty, because the fullness and the end of creation is in God (1 Cor 15:28). By a close study of the Pauline texts that talk about the effect of Christ’s paschal mystery (i.e. his suffering, death on the cross and his resurrection) in relation to the justification, the new life and salvation of the believers in Christ and of all humanity, one finds out that the salvation of humankind remains the focus of attention, and while Jesus Christ is the mediator whose role is very instrumental, God himself is the initiator and the ultimate goal of this salvation plan on behalf of humankind (see 1 Cor 15:1-​58; Phil 3:7-​21; 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11). It is

1 727 See also 1 Tim 1:16. 1728 Confer the note on Rom 6:1-​11 in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible, pp. 237–​238. 1729 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 221.

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also evident in the specific roles alloted to God and his Son Jesus Christ in salvation history that God remains “supreme” because it is God who even empowers Christ so that Christ can subject all things to himself (Phil 3:21; cf. 1 Cor 15:27-​ 28ab)1730. This means that even though those who belong to Christ shall always be with him at his parousia (1 Thess 4:17) and live with him (1 Thess 5:10), at the end of the day it is God who appoints Christ as judge of the living and the dead (Acts 10:42)1731, and Christ will hand over the kingdom to God, his Father (1 Cor 15:24), and Christ himself will be subjected to God so that God will be all in all (1 Cor 15:28) as a manifestation that God is the ultimate agent and end. It is God who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ (1 Cor 15:57), and he is the one who has destined us for the attainment of salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ who died for us (1 Thess 5:9-​10a). Since “our citizenship [or home] exists in heaven”: ἡμῶν γὰρ τὸ πολίτευμα ἐν οὐρανοῖς ὑπάρχει (Phil 3:20)1732, the abode of God1733, from where we await the coming of our saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ (Phil 3:20; 1 Thess 4:16; cf. 1 Cor 15:23)1734, it follows that though we shall always be with the Lord Jesus Christ and live together with him (1 Thess 4:17; 5:10), it is in heaven, in the presence of the almighty God, that we shall always be with the Lord Jesus Christ1735, and it is God who calls us to himself in or through Christ Jesus (Phil 3:14; cf. 1 Thess 4:14). It is worthwhile to clarify here that “heaven” is not to be defined on the basis of spatial or geographical considerations to describe or talk about a place that is located somewhere in the air or above the earth. Heaven is to be understood as a reality which can be explained in terms of a situation of life in which one may find him or herself. It is the experience of being in the divine presence. The situation of life described as “being in heaven or paradise”1736 can also be defined 1 730 See also Eph 1:22. 1731 See also Rom 14:19 where Paul stresses that by his death and coming to life (or resurrection) Christ is Lord of both the dead and the living. 1732 See also 2 Cor 5:8. 1733 Cf. Mt 6:9; 7:21; 23:22; Col 4:1. 1734 See also 1 Cor 15:47; 1 Thess 1:10. 1735 One reads in Acts 7:55-​56; Mk 14:62; Lk 22:69 that it is in heaven where Jesus stands (or sits) at God’s right hand (i.e. the place of honour next to the royal throne [see 1 Kgs 2:19]) to share in the glory and power of God in fulfillment of the prophecy in Ps 110:1 (MT). Paul echoes this belief in Rom 8:34. See also Eph 1:20; Col 3:1. 1736 The Greek term παράδεισος (“paradise”) appears 3 times in the NT (Lk 23:43; 2 Cor 12:4; Rev 2:7) to mean basically “a transcendent place of blessedness”. Cf. BDAG, p. 761 § 2. Some commentators are of the view that Paul’s use of παράδεισος in 2 Cor 12:4 is equivalent to ὁ τρίτος οὐρανός (“the third heaven”, i.e. “an upper region in the

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as the attainment of salvation, eternal life, eternal communion with God, everlasting bliss and everything that we can imagine to be associated with the full realization of one’s hope for a fulfillment in life in the presence of God and his Son Jesus Christ in whom and through whom the salvation of God’s people is effected. Schoenborn rightly indicates that: “Heaven is wherever Jesus finds a follower and gathers him or her into the grace of the righteous God”1737. Baumert and Seewann also remark correctly that the divine presence can be attained here on earth, and it is not a situation of life that must be expected or waited for until the hereafter, but rather since Christ has already died for us, we are already living with Christ and experiencing the divine presence, and so we can (begin to) hope and work for that heaven, paradise or the divine presence here and now1738. Heaven becomes a reality here on earth when people comply with the will of God (see Mt 6:10; 7:21; 16:19)1739. The present dimension of the Lord’s parousia –​which is described mostly and especially in the gospel tradition –​ teaches that the Lord Jesus Christ has already come, and with his coming the kingdom of God (or the kingdom of heaven1740) has already dawned, and “a new reality breaks in in the words and deeds of Jesus Christ” (see Mt 4:17; Mk 1:15; Lk 11:20). At the same time, the reality of heaven or the attainment of salvation remains a “hidden” concept which will be fully realized in the future or in the eschaton (see Heb 13:14) at the Lord’s second coming (1 Thess 1:10; 4:16-​17; see also Heb 9:28). When he comes back, both the living and the dead shall have the opportunity to be with him always (1 Thess 4:17) and live together with him (1 Thess 5:10) and thus partake in his glory in the presence of his Father, God almighty (see Heb 9:24). It is clear, for example, in 2 Cor 5:1-​10 that Paul actually talks about both the present and the “future destiny” of the Christ’s faithful. In this passage (2 Cor 5:1-​ 10), he does not only stress on the spiritual death to sin1741 and the resurrection heavens”) mentioned in 2 Cor 12:2 which describes “the abode of God and heavenly beings, to which true Christians will be taken after death”. Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 480 § 4. When in Phil 1:23 Paul says that he longs to depart this life and be with Christ, he probably means to be with Christ in paradise, the abode of God. For an elaborate discussion of Paul’s use of παράδεισος in 2 Cor 12:4, confer Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, pp. 185–​186. 1737 Cf. Ulrich Schoenborn, “οὐρανός”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 547. 1738 See Norbert Baumert /​Maria-​Irma Seewann, In der Gegenwart des Herrn…, pp. 73–77. 1739 Cf. Ulrich Schoenborn, “οὐρανός”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 545. 1740 See Mt 7:21. 1741 See also Rom 8:2.

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to new life in baptism, but he also emphasizes on physical death (2 Cor 5:4)1742 and a resurrected bodily life. The tension between the present existence and the future destiny of the believers in Christ is, therefore, evidently expressed in 2 Cor 5:6-​9 where it is stressed that the Christ’s faithful are presently like exiles here on earth and that our final and distant homeland is the Lord Jesus Christ (2 Cor 5:8), but it is God himself who has created and prepared us for this fate of resurrected bodily life (2 Cor 5:5) and also to live with him eternally in heaven after our life here on earth (2 Cor 5:1). In 1 Thess 5:10, Paul speaks primarily about the future salvation that the believers shall attain in the hereafter, and this is evident in the fact that from the very beginning of this entire pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​ 5:10), his exhortation is not focused only on those who are alive and are living presently here on earth, but especially on those who have died or those who have fallen asleep (see περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων in 1 Thess 4:13 and οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ in 1 Thess 4:16). If one should explain salvation in this context by focusing only on the salvation obtained here and now, can that mean that those who have already died experienced the totality of their salvation here on this earth before they died? Why then would the living, i.e. the community of believers in Thessalonica worry about the fate of the dead at the Lord’s parousia (see 1 Thess 4:13)? The uncertainty about the fate of the dead with regard to the possibility for them to attain salvation at the Lord’s parousia on the day of the Lord in the future is one of the main aspects that form the basis of the entire pericope of 1 Thess 4:13-​ 5:11. Paul addresses not only the salvation of the living, but also the salvation of “the dead in Christ” whose resurrection will take place in the future at the Lord’s parousia (See 1 Thess 4:14, 16-​17). The eschatological salvation is explained in 1 Thess 5:10 (and also in 1 Thess 4:17) in terms of the “everlasting life” or the “eternal communion” with the Lord Jesus Christ1743 and also with God (1 Thess 4:14) because Jesus is the image of God (2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:15), and he is with God, the Father (see also Jn 14:2-​3; 12:26; 17:24), and he shares in the Father’s glory (cf. 2 Cor 3:18; Rom 8:28-​30). A study of history of religion throws more light on what Paul means by the expression “whether we are alive or dead, we might live together with him” (εἴτε γρηγορῶμεν εἴτε καθεύδωμεν ἅμα σὺν αὐτῷ ζήσωμεν). This statement in 1 Thess 5:10 explains the salvation he mentioned in the previous verse of 1 Thess 5:9. Schottroff asserts that in early Christianity, just like in other ancient religions, “life” is used to characterize “salvation”1744. She explains further that: 1 742 In Rom 5:12 too, Paul speaks about both spiritual death to sin and physical death. 1743 Confer also Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, pp. 304–​305. 1744 Cf. Luise Schottroff, “ζῶ, ζωή”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 105.

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“Common to the OT, Judaism, and Christianity is the term ‘living God’ … [and] in each context there is a specific nuance to this term, e.g., that he is the (one) living God in contrast to the dead idols, i.e., the other gods (e.g., 1 Thess 1:9). As in apocalyptic Judaism, which awaited the resurrection, NT Christianity hopes for ζωὴ αἰώνιος ‘eternal life,’ after the resurrection of the dead, the life of the coming aeon (Mk 10:17, 30)”1745.

Paul too talks about “eternal life” (e.g. Rom 2:7; 6:22-​23; Gal 6:8) which is linked to “resurrection of the dead” (1 Cor 15:21). Paul himself believes in the resurrection of the dead, and it is evident in Acts 23:6 that the Paul of Luke inherited this belief in the resurrection of the dead from Judaism because he traces his ancestry to the Pharisees who (unlike the Sadducees) believed in the resurrection of the dead. The reason why the Paul according to Luke is being on trial (see Acts 23:6) is, in fact, his “hope of the resurrection of the dead”. Schottroff stresses correctly that in most times when Paul speaks of “eternal life” he thinks apocalyptically but then “present and (apocalyptically conceived) future in Paul cannot be separated temporally or materially” because just as we are already raised from the dead to life (Rom 6:13) for having died to sin through baptism and living for God in Christ Jesus (Rom 6:2, 11), we at the same time live in the hope of the resurrection of the dead (Rom 8:23-​25), and so it comes back to the fact that “we live and will live (i.e. present ζωή: Rom 6:4, 11; 8:10; and future ζωή: Rom 1:17; 2:7; 5:21…”1746)1747. She further explains that the fulfillment of the will of God, the life in hope and the victory over the actual tribulations concretize the believer’s life, and that life in the Spirit (Gal 5:25) and walking or living in a newness of life after baptism (Rom 6:4) in our present life as believers in Christ here on earth is the beginning of the future, of the resurrection of the dead1748. The aorist subjunctive ζήσωμεν (“we might live”) in 1 Thess 5:10b is actually the antithesis of the participle ἀποθανόντος (“died”), and ζήσωμεν is understood as the life for which Christ died because it is through Christ’s death (on the cross) and his resurrection that we live (Rom 5:12-​21; 1 Cor 15:22; 1 Pt 2:24). Thus, in 1 Thess 5:10b, Christ’s death is contrasted with the life attained by humanity because Christ died for us all in order that we might live (Rom 14:8-​9; 2 Cor 5:15)1749, i.e. together with him1750. Much as the life we obtain through the death 1 745 Cf. Luise Schottroff, “ζῶ, ζωή”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), pp. 105–​106. 1746 See also Rom 8:11, 13. 1747 Cf. Luise Schottroff, “ζῶ, ζωή”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 107. 1748 Cf. Luise Schottroff, op. cit, p. 107. 1749 See also Paul’s use of the contrast between “death” (ὁ θάνατος) and “life” (ἡ ζωή) in 2 Cor 4:12 where he means that their (i.e. the missionaries’) death is life for others. 1750 Cf. Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, p. 230 and the reference in footnote 122.

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of Christ is effective in our present life situations, it is also described as the future life and the salvation which Paul, for one, hopes to attain (cf. Rom 13:11; Phil 1:19, 23)1751. Malherbe shares the opinion that with the final clause introduced by ἵνα (“so that”, “in order that”) in 1 Thess 5:10b, the purpose of Christ’s death for us is presented as “whether (ei) we are awake or (ei) asleep we might live with him [i.e. with Christ]”1752. He explains further that a similar connection of “to live” (ζῆν) is made in Rom 14:9 and in 2 Cor 4:15, and that the use of “whether” (ἐάν τε) in the context of Rom 14:7-​8 and also the form of the antithesis “whether … or” (εἴτε … εἴτε) used in the context of 2 Cor 5:6-​9 talk about “maintaining a relationship with Christ whether living or dead”1753. It becomes evident that 1 Thess 5:10 and 1 Thess 4:17 have much in common in so far as they talk explicitly about the fate of the living and the dead at the Lord’s parousia1754. The group of people Paul describes in 1 Thess 4:16-​17 as “the dead in Christ” (οἱ νεκροὶ ἐν Χριστῷ) and “the living” (οἱ ζῶντες) are referred to in 1 Thess 5:10b by the use of the verbs καθεύδειν and γρηγορεῖν respectively1755. Moreover, what is said in 1 Thess 4:17 with the expression “to be always with the Lord” (πάντοτε σὺν κυρίῳ εἶναι) is further explained elaborately in 1 Thess 5:10 as “to live together with him” (ἅμα σὺν αὐτῷ ζῆν)1756. Best rightly remarks that: “Paul is reaffirming here [in 1 Thess 5:10] his argument in 4.13-​18 that Christians who are alive have no advantage over those who have died when the Lord comes and it is to this that simultaneously [ἅμα] refers. Both the living and the dead will then begin to live …. With the parousia Christians enter into a new quality of life; as we saw at 4:17 this life is more than existence in fellowship with Christ. In our verse [i.e. 1 Thess 5:10] we move paradoxically from the death of Christ to the life of the believer; the same paradox is present in 2 Cor 5.14 f though there it relates to present and not future existence as here [in 1 Thess 5:10])”1757.

1 751 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 300. 1752 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, op. cit., p. 300. 1753 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 300. 1754 Confer also Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 179. For references to the numerous exegetes who share the view that γρηγορεῖν and καθεύδειν in 1 Thess 5:10 are to be interpreted in relation to 1 Thess 4:17, confer Matthias Konradt, Gericht und Gemeinde…, p. 179 footnote 831. 1755 See also Paul Hoffmann, Die Toten in Christus…, pp. 229, 231. 1756 Légasse indicates that in 1 Thess 5:10b the verb ζήσωμεν (“we might live”) replaces the verb ἐσόμεθα (“we shall be”) in 1 Thess 4:17. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 304. 1757 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, pp. 218–​219.

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As indicated earlier, the exhortation on the believer’s hope of salvation in the future as emphasized in 1 Thess 5:9-​10 can be interpreted from and in connection with the Jewish apocalyptic perspective mirrored in 2 Bar 21:13 which reads: “For if only this life exists which everyone possesses here [on earth], nothing could be more bitter than this”.

It is this saying in 2 Bar 21:13 which Paul echoes in 1 Cor 15:19 in talking about resurrection and life after death as part of the believer’s hope (of salvation). It is made clear in 2 Bar 21:9-​10 that God, the Lord almighty is the only Living One, the Immortal One and the Inscrutable One who “can sustain those who exist, those who have gone [or died] and those who will come, those who sin and those who have proved themselves to be righteous”. Thus when it is about salvation which is explained in terms of eternal or everlasting life in the divine presence, it means living together with the Lord Jesus Christ and at the same time living with God. It is through Jesus that we have access to God’s presence (Jn 14:6; Heb 7:25). The Christ who died and was raised from the dead by God intercedes for us, and he is at the right hand of God (Rom 8:34). Just as Christ lives for God (Rom 6:10), so do we live in Christ for God (Rom 6:11); and just as Christ lives “by the power of God” (ἐκ δυνάμεως θεοῦ), so shall we live with Christ “by the power of God” (2 Cor 13:4). The God who has destined us for the attainment of salvation through Christ (1 Thess 5:9-​10a) is the one who calls us into his kingdom and (eternal) glory (1 Thess 2:12) through our Lord Jesus Christ (see 1 Pt 5:10).

3.1. (vii).  1 Thess 5:11 A. Organisation and Translation of the Text 1 Thess 5:11 (with Notes) 11a Διὸ παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους καὶ οἰκοδομεῖτε εἷς τὸν ἕνα, 11b καθὼς καὶ ποιεῖτε.

11a Therefore, encourage one another and build one another up, 11b just as indeed you are doing.

Notes: The inferential conjunction διό (“therefore”, “for this reason”, etc.)1758 functions here in verse 11a to introduce the exhortation that follows as an inference

1758 See also the note on the conjunction ὥστε in 1 Thess 4:18a above.

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from what has already been said in the preceding verses, i.e. it coordinates what follows with what precedes, and it indicates that the inference or conclusion is self evident1759. Thus, διό introduces the conclusion to the exhortations in 1 Thess 5:1-​111760 and the entire pericope of 1 Thess 4:13-​5:11. The word ἀλλήλους is accusative of the reciprocal pronoun ἀλλήλων (genitive) which can be translated as “one another”, “mutually”, or “reciprocally”. The expression εἷς τὸν ἕνα is a special combination of the cardinal numeral or the numerical term εἷς, μία, ἕν (“one”) to mean “one another”, or “each other”1761, and here in verse 11a εἷς τὸν ἕνα is synonymous with ἀλλήλους and may have Semitic background1762. While ἀλλήλους serves as the direct object of the imperative παρακαλεῖτε (i.e. present imperative active 2nd person plural of the infinitive verb παρακαλεῖν [“to encourage”, “to strengthen”, etc.]), εἷς τὸν ἕνα is direct object of the imperative οἰκοδομεῖτε (i.e. present imperative active 2nd person plural of the infinitive verb οἰκοδομεῖν [“to build up”]). The verb οἰκοδομεῖν literally means “to build a house”. The adverb καθώς is to be combined with the conjunction καί, i.e. καθὼς καί (“just as”, “as indeed”, “as”, etc.)1763, and this expression is applied here in verse 11b in relation to the verb ποιεῖτε (i.e. present indicative active 2nd person plural of the infinitive ποιεῖν [“to do”, “to carry out”, “to practise”, etc.]) to emphasize the present life situation of the community of believers in Thessalonica in regard

1759 Cf. BDF 451 § 5 and footnote 11; BDAG, p. 250. Paul uses διό elsewhere in Rom 1:24; 2:1; 1 Cor 12:3; 2 Cor 6:17. In 1 Cor 8:13; 10:14, he employs διόπερ in place of διό while in 1 Cor 14:13 διόπερ is used as a variant reading in some manuscripts (e.g. ‫א‬2 K L Ψ 104. 1505, etc.) 1760 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 313. 1761 Confer, for example, T. Job 27.3 where one reads: “And one threw the other down” (καὶ εἷς τὸν ἕνα κατέρρηξεν), i.e. in wrestling where the parties threw each other to the ground. 1762 See BDF 247 § 4 and footnote 10. Confer also Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 220. 1763 In the Pauline writings, the use of καθὼς καί (“just as”) is also found elsewhere in Rom 15:7 which reads: “Welcome one another, therefore, as Christ has welcomed you, for the glory of God” [RSV] (Διὸ προσλαμβάνεσθε ἀλλήλους, καθὼς καὶ ὁ Χριστὸς προσελάβετο ὑμᾶς εἰς δόξαν τοῦ θεοῦ). See also 2 Cor 1:14; 1 Thess 4:1, 6, 13, and also Eph 4:17. Légasse maintains that the καί here is a pleonastic καί whose meaning is contained in καθώς. Cf. Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 145 footnote 1. See also the use of καθάπερ καί (“just as”, “as”) in Rom 4:6; 1 Thess 3:6, 12; 4:5.

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to how they are actually carrying out their obligations and responsibilities by encouraging and building one another up mutually and in solidarity.

B. Exegesis of 1 Thess 5:11 By the use of the inferential conjunction διό (“therefore”) at the beginning of 1 Thess 5:11, Paul draws conclusion not only to the exhortations in 1 Thess 5:1-​ 11 but also to the entire pericope of 1 Thess 4:13-​5:111764 which primarily form the exhortations on the fate of the dead and the living in relation to the day of the Lord or the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ. This final conclusion to the pericope (1 Thess 4:13-​5:11) comprises of two main exhortatory imperatives in 1 Thess 5:11a –​i.e. “encourage one another” (παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους) and “build one another up” (οἰκοδομεῖτε εἷς τὸν ἕνα). The exhortatory imperatives are then followed by a positive remark in 1 Thess 5:11b, i.e. “just as indeed you are doing” (καθὼς καὶ ποιεῖτε). This positive remark seeks to emphasize that the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica are presently doing exactly what is required of them in their preparation for the Lord’s parousia. The imperative παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους in 1 Thess 5:11a appears also in 1 Thess 4:18. Nonetheless, the entire exhortation in 1 Thess 4:13-​18 is primarily “about those who have fallen asleep”: περὶ τῶν κοιμωμένων (1 Thess 4:13b) –​and with regard to those who mourn or grieve over their dead ones (1 Thess 4:13c) –​ παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους in 1 Thess 4:18 is to be rendered appropriately as “console or comfort one another”, but the παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους in 1 Thess 5:11a is used with οἰκοδομεῖτε εἷς τὸν ἕνα (“build one another up”) and so it is rather to be rendered as “encourage or strengthen one another” so as to bring out vividly the communal living portrayed in this text of 1 Thess 5:11. In his effort to differentiate between παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους in 1 Thess 4:18 and in 1 Thess 5:11, Luckensmeyer writes: “Although there is similar wording … the differences between the verses are important. In 4:18b, Paul includes the instrumental phrase, ἐν τοῖς λόγοις τούτοις, which appears to be a very specific reference to his argument in 4:14-​17. Likewise, in 5:11a, b, Paul adds, καὶ οἰκοδομεῖτε εἷς τὸν ἕνα, καθὼς καὶ ποιεῖτε, which may also be a vey specific reference to the exhortations in 5:1-​11. The phrase also looks forward to further exhortations in 5:12-​22”1765.

1 764 Confer also Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 300. 1765 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 313; confer also Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 220.

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While the παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους in 1 Thess 5:11a is to be understood as being a conclusion to the exhortations on the day of the Lord in 1 Thess 5:1-​11, it is also to be translated and interpreted in relation to the exhortatory imperative “build one another up” (οἰκοδομεῖτε εἷς τὸν ἕνα). The use of the imperatives παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους and οἰκοδομεῖτε εἷς τὸν ἕνα can, therefore, be seen as hendiadys because the building up of the church is carried out through words of encouragement and words of consolation which are expressed to strengthen one another to be steadfast in faith (see Rom 1:11-​12; 14:19)1766. That is, by encouraging and strengthening one another (παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους), the members of the community build one another up (οἰκοδομεῖτε εἷς τὸν ἕνα). The goal and purpose of such a communal life in solidarity is that the believers may be in a proper position to meet the Lord Jesus Christ when he comes back. The application of παρακαλεῖν in Isa 35:3-​5 is helpful in understanding παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους here in 1 Thess 5:11. Just as in Isa 35:3-​5 God’s people are to be strengthened and to be strong without having any fear while they await their God who comes in judgement but to save his people, so is here in 1 Thess 5:11 the people of God, i.e. the community of believers, are exhorted to strengthen and encourage one another (and be spiritually strong: see 1 Thess 5:8) as they await the coming of their Lord Jesus Christ who comes in judgement but to save his followers (i.e. those who believe in him) from God’s wrath (1 Thess 1:10; 5:9)1767. Other passages in which Paul uses παρακαλεῖν in the sense of “to strengthen” or “to encourage” include 2 Cor 1:3-​7, 1 Cor 14:31, 1 Thess 3:71768. This meaning of παρακαλεῖν, i.e. “to strengthen”, is more evident in the passages where στηρίζειν (“to strengthen”) is used together with παρακαλεῖν (see 1 Thess 3:2; 2 Thess 2:17). In 2 Thess 2:17, the object of the verbs στηρίζειν and παρακαλεῖν is “the heart” (ἡ καρδία) –​the center and source of the whole inner life of a person –​and thus the concept “to strengthen” is understood there as “to cause to be inwardly firm or committed”1769. In 2 Cor 1:3-​7 alone, the verb παρακαλεῖν and its substantive παράκλησις appear 10 times, and Paul uses them in the sense of “to encourage” 1 766 Confer also the use of εἷς ὑπὲρ τοῦ ἑνός (“one over against another”) in 1 Cor 4:6. 1767 The use of παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους in 1 Thess 4:18 can also be understood in relation to how παρακαλεῖν is used in the sense of “to console” (God’s people) in Isa 40:1-​11 in the face of the coming or appearance of God, the Lord almighty, with power to save and gather his people who are “mourning” in exile back to himself. 1768 See also Col 2:2; 4:8; Eph 6:22, and the use of παράκλησις in Rom 15:5-​6; 2 Cor 7:4; Phlm 7. 1769 In Acts 14:22, “the spirits of the apostles” (τὰς ψυχὰς τῶν μαθητῶν) are to be strenghtened.

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and “encouragement” respectively to emphasize that God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, is the God of all encouragement, and it is through God –​the divine source of encouragement –​that members of the community can strenghten and encourage one another in times of afflictions and sufferings1770. The goal and purpose of this encouragement –​which mostly echoes the message of salvation (2 Cor 5:20)1771 –​is the attainment of salvation (see 2 Cor 1:6). In 1 Thess 5:11, Paul employs παρακαλεῖν with οἰκοδομεῖν (“to build up”, “to edify”, etc.) in order to stress the ecclesiastical dimension of the community of believers in Thessalonica. By his ecclesiastical use of οἰκοδομεῖν in 1 Thess 5:11, Paul draws much orientation from early Christian tradition (and also from the traditions of the OT and Judaism) in regard to how the early believers defined and understood the church and its members or structures1772. It is noticeable that the word οἶκος is hidden in the verb οἰκοδομεῖν and its substantive οἰκοδομή. This word οἶκος can mean not only “house” (see e.g. οἶκος πνευματικός [“a spiritual house”] in 1 Pt 2:5) but also “household” or “family” (see 1 Cor 1:16; Tit 1:11; 1 Tim 3:4-​5). In 1 Tim 3:5, the author who writes in place of Paul sees some connection between οἶκος (“a household” or “a family”) and ἐκκλησία θεοῦ (“God’s church”). 1 Tim 3:5 reads thus: “If someone does not know how to manage his own household, how can this person take care of God’s church?” (εἰ δέ τις τοῦ ἰδίου οἴκου προστῆναι οὐκ οἶδεν, πῶς ἐκκλησίας θεοῦ ἐπιμελήσεται;).

Best indicates that the verb οἰκοδομεῖσθαι was used literally but it quickly took on a metaphorical meaning. For him, “this was made especially easy for Jews because of the description of the people of God as the house of Israel; Jeremiah speaks of God’s building up the people as carried out through his own prophetic activity (Jer 12:16f; 31[38]:4)”1773. He stresses further that Paul later used the concept “building up” –​almost certainly in imitation of Jeremiah –​of his own apostolic activity (2 Cor 10:8; 12:19; 13:10)1774. In 1 Thess 5:11, the main focus is not on the church as a building or an edifice (οἰκοδομή) per se but as a household or a family, and the exhortation to build

1 770 Confer also 2 Cor 5:20; Phil 2:1. 1771 See also Acts 13:15; 15:31-​32. 1772 For elaborate references to the ecclesiastical usage of οἰκοδομεῖν and its substantive οἰκοδομή in the NT and also in the OT and in Judaism, confer Simon Légasse, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens, p. 306 footnotes 4 and 5. 1773 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, pp. 219–​220. 1774 Cf. Ernest Best, op. cit., p. 220.

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one another up here in 1 Thess 5:11 is grounded on the fact that the community of believers is like a household or a family (of God) whose individual members have the duty or responsibility to reciprocally build one another up (see also 1 Cor 3:9-​14; 8:1; 10:23, etc.)1775 Thus in the Pauline letters, οἰκοδομεῖν (“to build up”, “to strengthen”) and the substantive οἰκοδομή (“buiding”, “edifice”, “construction”) as well as other compound verbs such as ἐποικοδομεῖν (“to build upon”) and συνοικοδομεῖν (“to build together”) can be used ecclesiologically to talk about the church and its members. The object of οἰκοδομεῖν is ἡ ἐκκλησία: “the church” (1 Cor 14:4b)1776 and its individual members (1 Thess 5:11)1777. In 1 Cor 3:9, for example, Paul uses the substantive οἰκοδομή to describe the community of believers as “God’s building” (θεοῦ οἰκοδομή). Those who help to build the church are “God’s co-​workers” (θεοῦ συνεργοί). While Paul helped to lay the foundation of the church in Corinth, Apollo helped build upon it (1 Cor 3:10). In Eph 2:19-​22, the author who writes in place of Paul also describes the Christ’s faithful as “members of the household of God”: οἰκεῖοι τοῦ θεοῦ (verse 19) who are “built upon” (ἐποικοδομηθέντες) the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Christ Jesus himself as the cornerstone (verse 20) in whom “the whole structure” (πᾶσα οἰκοδομὴ) is joined together and grows “into a holy temple” (εἰς ναὸν ἅγιον) in the Lord (verse 21) in whom the believers in Christ are also built together (συνοικοδομεῖν) into “a dwelling place of God” (εἰς κατοικητήριον τοῦ θεοῦ1778) in the spirit (verse 22). A picture of this building up of the church and its individual members is painted, for example, in Jude 20-​21 where one reads: “But you, beloved, build yourselves up [ἐποικοδομοῦντες ἑαυτούς] in your most holy faith, pray in the Holy Spirit /​Keep yourselves in the love of God and wait for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ that leads to eternal life” (NAB). In 1 Cor 14:3, Paul also uses the substantives παράκλησις and οἰκοδομή (together with παραμυθία) to stress that the words of a prophet in the community of believers are words for the “edification or building up” (οἰκοδομή), for “encouragement” (παράκλησις), and for the “consolation, comfort, or solace” (παραμυθία) of members of the community because “the one who prophesies builds up the church [of God]”: ὁ δὲ προφητεύων ἐκλλησίαν [θεοῦ1779] οἰκοδομεῖ (1 Cor 14:4b1780. Malherbe observes 1 775 Confer also Hanna Roose, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief, p. 95. 1776 See also Mt 16:18. 1777 Confer also Acts 20:32; 1 Pt 2:5; Jude 20, and 1 Cor 8:1; 10:23; 14:17. 1778 The manuscript B reads τοῦ Χριστοῦ (“of Christ”). 1779 Some manuscripts, i.e. F G vgcl, add θεοῦ (“of God”). 1780 See also 1 Cor 14:5.

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that in 1 Thess 2:11-​12 Paul has already exhorted and encouraged each (ἕνα ἕκαστον) of the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica to lead a life worthy of God who calls them into his own kingdom and glory, and in 1 Thess 5:11 he rather exhorts the Thessalonian community to reciprocally and mutually build one another up as individuals within the community of believers1781. For Malherbe, the practical aspect or what the exhortation “build one another up” (οἰκοδομεῖτε εἷς τὸν ἕνα) in 1 Thess 5:11 consists of is specified in 1 Thess 5:12-​22 “where Paul heaps up terms from the lexicon of exhortation that he uses pastorally [e.g. beseech, labour, care, admonish, exhort, comfort, help, be patient, test]”1782. Thayer remarks correctly that: “Since both a Christian church and individual Christians are likened to a building or temple in which God or the Holy Spirit dwells (1 Cor 3:9, 16f; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21), the erection of which temple will not be completely finished till the return of Christ from heaven, those who, by action, instruction, exhortation, comfort, promote the Christian wisdom of others and help them to live a correspondent life are regarded as taking part in the erection of that building, and hence are said οἰκοδομεῖν … to promote growth in Christian wisdom, affection, grace, virtue, holiness, blessedness … [Acts 20:32; 1 Cor 14:4; 1 Thess 5:11]”1783.

The verb οἰκοδομεῖν can, therefore, mean “to help improve ability to function in living responsibly and effectively”1784. In effect, the ecclesiological use of οἰκοδομεῖν in 1 Thess 5:11 is more about an exhortation which particularly demands that members of the community of believers in Thessalonica –​and by extension all believers in Christ –​live in solidarity by strengthening one another, by being one another’s keeper and standing by each other in faith, in prayer, in life of holiness, and “in every good work and word” (see 2 Thess 2:17). They are to enable each individual to grow in faith, hope and love1785, and also as believers in Christ, to be conscious of their responsibilities in the world in which they live and the need for them to extend their charitable deeds to the needy and most especially to develop a strategy for the proclamation of the gospel message to every person in the world.

1 781 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 301. 1782 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 301; confer also Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 220. 1783 Cf. Joseph Henry Thayer (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 440 § bβ. 1784 Cf. BDAG, p. 696 § 3. 1785 Cf. Ernest Best, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 220.

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It is known in Acts 9:31 that the church throughout Judea, Galilee and Samaria had and enjoyed peace because the church was being built up and walked in the fear of the Lord, and with the comfort of the Holy Spirit the church grew in numbers. Thus God leads the building up of the church, but on the part of the individuals or the Christ’s faithful the process of building up the community is accomplished through the “ethical attitude, in practical life” (see 1 Cor 10:23) which has its source and is oriented towards the word of God (Acts 20:32)1786. By the use of the compound verb ἀνοικοδομεῖν (“to build on”, “to build up again” or “to rebuild”) in Acts 15:161787 in James’ speech (see Acts 15:13-​21), it becomes obvious that the building up of the church here and now is also in preparation for the rebuilding of God’s people at the end of time. Pfammatter remarks correctly that: “The eschatological rebuilding of the people of God is already under way: the name of the Lord was to be spoken first over Israel, and then over all the nations (Acts 15:17)”1788.

The church, whose membership comprises of people of diverse cultures who have come to know God and have decided to worship and serve this one, living and true God (See Acts 15:19-​20; 1 Thess 1:9) lives, in fact, in the hope of its eschatological or final realization and completion in God in the heavenly kingdom or in the New Jerusalem (Rev 21:9-​27)1789. Thus God has loved us (both Jews and Gentiles) and has chosen us for salvation (2 Thess 2:13; cf. 1 Thess 1:4), and through his words of encouragement –​that we too need to extend to one another –​God gives us courage for the future when our attainment of salvation will be fully realized (see 2 Thess 2:13-​17). The term παρακαλεῖν is, therefore, “the bridge that spans the gap between the saving call and the future glory, combining and holding in tension doubt and faith [see 2 Cor 4:13-​17]”1790. For Malherbe, “it is in consequence of being the eschatological community that the Thessalonians are to edify each other”1791. The act of encouraging and strengthening one another, especially in the face of sufferings and tribulations (1 Thess 2:14; Rom 8:35), is a daily activity that must be done in the present life situation of the believers (Heb 3:13). Paul speaks

1 786 Cf. Joseph Pfammatter, “οἰκοδομή, οἰκοδομέω”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), pp. 497–​498. 1787 Acts 15:16 is actually a quotation from Amos 9:11-​12. 1788 Cf. Joseph Pfammatter, “οἰκοδομή, οἰκοδομέω”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 498. 1789 See also the vision of the New Israel or the New Temple in Ezk 40:1-​48:35. 1790 Cf. Johannes Thomas, “παρακαλέω, παράκλησις”, in: EDNT 3 (1994) 23–​27, here page 26. 1791 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, p. 300.

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about the present life situation of the members of the community (1 Thess 5:4-​8) and compliments them on their present good conduct (1 Thess 5:11b). With the expression “just as indeed you are doing” (καθὼς καὶ ποιεῖτε) in 1 Thess 5:11b, Paul stresses that the believers in Christ are actually strenghtening and building one another up just as it is expected of them (see 1 Thess 5:11a). That is, the word of God which the community in Thessalonica heard and received from Paul and his co-​missionaries has already taken root, and it is effective in the community (see 1 Thess 2:13). Collins rightly remarks that: “The future of divine salvation is impinging on their [i.e. the believers’] present. They are to put on faith, love and hope which together describe the vital situation of Christian existence. Evidently the Christians of Thessalonica had done just that. They were living according to their condition since the final exhortation (verse 11) suggests that Paul’s addressees build one another up just as they had been doing”1792.

In 1 Thess 4:1 too καθὼς καί is found in the expression καθὼς καὶ περιπατεῖτε (“just as indeed you are conducting yourselves”) to talk about the present conduct of the Christ’s faithful. Schottroff indicates that: “The new life is thus presently experienced in the practice of community life, which is required in Romans 14 and 15, in the power to resist in the presence of sufferings, and in the hope that sees in this daily worship [of God] the beginning of the resurrection of the dead for the entire creation”1793.

The mutual encouragement and building up are a daily task which the members of the community of believers must carry out until the second coming of God’s Son, the Lord Jesus Christ, whom they await to save them from the divine wrath (1 Thess 1:10), and through whom they will attain the salvation for which God has destined them (1 Thess 5:9-​10).

1792 Cf. Raymond F. Collins, “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Th 4, 13 –​5, 11”, p. 341. See also page 342 where Collins stresses that the triad of faith, love and hope describes adequately the eschatological existence of the Christ’s faithful, and that it is according to their eschatological condition that they must live. 1793 Cf. Luise Schottroff, “ζῶ, ζωή”, in: EDNT 2 (1991), p. 107.

GENERAL CONCLUSION It was made clear in the General Introduction to this work that Thessalonica was a gentile city. Paul and his co-​missionaries Silvanus and Timothy brought the gospel message of salvation to the entire gentile region and founded the community of believers in Thessalonca. Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians can be said to have been written not only by Paul but in collaboration with Silvanus and Timothy, his co-​workers. The profuse usage of the personal pronoun 1st person plural (i.e., “we”) in the letter attests to this fact. Just as Paul’s conversion from Judaism (see Gal 1:13-​17)1 marked the turning point in his life and made him become “Christ’s slave” (Gal 1:10c) and an apostle to the Gentiles, the conversion of the Christ’s faithful in Thessalonica from polytheism (or the worship of many gods and idols) to serve the one, living and true God was a significant event in their lives because their conversion paved the way for them to know God and his Son Jesus Christ, and to be beneficiaries of the salvation to be attained through the Lord Jesus Christ whose parousia or second coming they await (see 1 Thess 1:9-​10). By virtue of their status as “children of light and of day” who do not belong to “night or darkness” (1 Thess 5:5), the believers in Christ are not destined for God’s wrath but for salvation (1 Thess 5:9) which is explained in terms of “being with the Lord Jesus Christ always” (1 Thess 4:17) and “living together with him” (1 Thess 5:10). This salvation will not be to the benefit of only the believers who will be alive in the event of the Lord’s parousia but also “the dead in Christ” who shall be raised from the dead (1 Thess 4:14, 17). Both the living and the dead shall have the opportunity to meet the Lord Jesus Christ and live together with him when he comes back. The main texts under discussion, i.e. 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11, have been interpreted with numerous references to passages from the Jewish Scripture, Jewish apocalyptic and prophetic literature, early Christian apocalyptic writings, etc. as well as a number of references to texts and passages from “pagan” or Greco-​Roman literature. The overwhelming influence of eschatology and apocalyptic motifs on the content of the passages in question suggests that it is better to interpret such texts concerning the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia not from the perspective of Hellenistic philosophy or the Greco-​Roman view of the afterlife but rather from the Jewish worldview and in 1 Paul prefers to describe his “conversion” as “revelation” because Christ revealed himself to him (1 Cor 15:8; Gal 1:16; see also Gal 1:12).

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connection with the eschatological and apocalyptic motifs in Jewish and early Christian apocalyptic literature. The eschatological motifs such as the day of the Lord, the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ, the resurrection of the dead, salvation and the wrath of God, everlasting union with the Lord Jesus Christ, eternal life in God’s kingdom, etc, and the numerous apocalyptic imageries in the texts actually developed from Judaism. The concept of the Lord’s parousia plays a key role in First Thessalonians because Paul refers to this theme “in every major transition of the letter” (see 1 Thess 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23)2. The word parousia is a kind of transcription of the Greek noun παρουσία which is derived from the Greek verb παρεῖναι (“to be present” [Gal 4:18, 20], “to have come” [Mt 26:50], or “to come again [Rev 17:8]). The noun παρουσία is, therefore, defined in the dictionaries as: “presence”, “arrival” or “coming (back)”. In 1 Thessalonians, Paul applies parousia to describe especially the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ at the end of time (see 1 Thess 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23). This meaning of parousia in 1 Thessalonians corresponds to the general interpretation of the term parousia in the NT3. The Lord Jesus Christ has come already, but the Christian faith teaches us that he will come again. His second coming is what we are waiting and hoping for as believers in Christ. In his writings, Paul stresses the present aspect of eschatology (see 2 Cor 5:14-​6:2), but for him the new life that is a reality in the present “in Christ” (2 Cor 5:16-​17) will be a reality “with Christ” (Phil 1:23; 1 Thess 4:17; 5:10; also 2 Cor 5:8) in the future4. Paul, therefore, shares the horizon of apocalyptic hope and he appropriates the corresponding formulas of church language by his use of the terms such as “parousia” (1 Cor 15:23; 1 Thess 2:19; 3:13; 4:15)5, the “day of the Lord or of Christ” (1 Thess 5:2, 4)6, etc. In 1 Thessalonians, the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ is connected with the apocalyptic motif of “the day of the Lord” which Paul elaborates in 1 Thess 5:1-​11 (see also 1 Thess 1:10). The parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ in First Thessalonians ought to be seen, therefore, as a future event, and it is one of the important moments in which the fate of the dead and the living shall be determined (see 1 Thess 4:15-​17). Radl rightly stresses that in the NT, the parousia 2 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, p. 17. 3 In the NT, the term parousia means “presence” only in 1 Cor 16:17; 2 Cor 10:10; Phil 2:12 (see also Phil 1:26). Cf. Walter Radl, “παρουσία”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), pp. 43–​44, especially page 44. 4 Cf.Walter Radl, “παρουσία”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), pp. 43–​44, here page 44. 5 See also 1 Thess 5:23. 6 Confer also 1 Cor 1:8; 3:13; 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14; Phil 1:6, 10; 2:16.

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itself –​which is described more specifically in Mk 13:24-​27 and parallel (i.e. Mt 24:29-​31/​Lk 21:25-​27) and in 1 Thess 4:16-​177 –​accompanies events such as the resurrection of the dead or world judgement, and the motifs treated in these texts are derived from OT and Jewish salvation expectations which anticipate an earthly personality such as the messianic king8, or Yahweh himself9, or a transcendent redeemer figure with human features10 whose arrival is portrayed especially in the apocalyptic writings in vivid colours11. Radl emphasizes further in this connection that the figure of the coming son of man is of decisive influence12, and his advent (or his coming) from heaven (see Acts 3:20-​21; Phil 3:20; 1 Thess 1:10)13 is “the heart of the NT concept of parousia”14. In 1 Thessalonians, Paul talks specifically about the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ in the future, and with regard to the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia, he stresses that the dead in Christ will not taste death forever and remain lying in their tombs and be cut out of the salvation that the Son of God, our Lord Jesus Christ brings. The dead in Christ too shall meet the Lord face to face when he comes back because they shall be raised from the dead (see 1 Thess 4:14-​17). This teaching seeks to exhort the believers in Christ not to grieve so much over community members who die before the Lord’s parousia (see 1 Thess 4:13). The exhortation on the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians is a kind of consolation which provides comfort to those who grieve and mourn for the dead, and it assures the Christ’s faithful and especially “mourners” and “bereaved families” that the physical death of persons is not the end of their life; the dead shall be raised from the dead to meet and live forever with the Lord. Nonetheless, the entire letter of First Thessalonians cannot be considered as a “letter of consolation” that has been influenced by pagan

7 See also 2 Thess 1:7-​10; 2:8; Rev 14:14-​16; 19:11-​16. 8 Cf. Nm 24:7, 17 (LXX), then T. Jud 24:1; 1QM 11.6; 2 Sam 7:12-​13, 16; Jer 23:5; Mic 5:1; T. Levi 18:2; Pss. Sol 17:21; 18:5. 9 Cf. Mic 1:3; Isa 59:20; 63:19-​64:4; 66:15-​16. 10 Cf. Sib.Orcs 3.49-​50, 286f, 652-​654; 2 Esdras 7:28; 12:31f; 2 Bar 29:3; 53:8-​11. 11 Cf. Walter Radl, “παρουσία”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), p. 44. 12 Cf. Dn 7:13 (LXX); 1 En 46:1; 53:6; 2 Esdras 13:3-​4, 32. It has already been indicated above in this work that “the son of man tradition” plays no significant role in the passages under discussion in First Thessalonians. 13 See also 2 Thess 1:7. 14 Cf. Walter Radl, “παρουσία”, in: EDNT 3 (1993), p. 44.

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consolation letters as Malherbe, for one, claims15. The consolation Paul describes in First Thessalonians is solely based on “the word of the Lord” (see 1 Thess 4:15a), and not on “human words”. The believers in Christ are to console one another reciprocally with this word of the Lord (1 Thess 4:18) which Paul and his co-​missionaries proclaimed to the Thessalonian community and was heard and received by the Christ’s faithful; the word of God which is at work in the believers (1 Thess 2:13) in the way they are indeed strengthening and building one another up (1 Thess 5:11). Moreover, “Consolation” is not the only theme treated in First Thessalonians. Apart from exhorting the Christ’s faithful to console one another, Paul also talks about other themes such as “holiness in marriage” (1 Thess 4:3-​ 8), “mutual charity” (1 Thess 4:9-​12), and “life in the community of believers” (1 Thess 5:12-​22). Even in 1 Thess 5:1-​11, Paul treats the subject of the “times and the seasons concerning the day of the Lord” (1 Thess 5:1-​3) and the need for the believers in Christ to be sober and alert in their preparation for the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 5:4-​8). Thus the theme of “sanctification” or “holiness” of the Christ’s faithful especially in regard to the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 3:13; 5:23; see also 4:15) or the day of the Lord is also a matter of concern in the letter. Some exegetes are of the opinion that the thesis which seeks to pay more attention to the influence of Paul’s Jewish background on his teachings about the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in 1 Thessalonians is not so plausible because Paul has also a Greco-​Roman background, and his addressees in First Thessalonians are pagans (1 Thess 1:9). The fact, however, remains that –​ unlike in 1 Cor 15 where Paul not only employs early Jewish ideas about the afterlife but also colours his writing with ancient Greek philosophy in his teachings about the believers’ participation in Jesus Christ’s resurrection –​, in 1 Thess 1:9-​10; 4:13-​18; 5:1-​11 Paul principally makes use of early Jewish conception of life after death in answering the question about the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia. It is worthwhile to indicate here that First Thessalonians is indeed the first and oldest letter in the Pauline corpus written around 50 CE. Though in this letter Paul addresses (mostly) pagans who have come to believe in God and his son Jesus Christ (see 1 Thess 1:9-​10) and their situation (1 Thess 4:13), he employs motifs which his pagan addressees in the Hellenistic era are

15 Cf. Abraham J. Malherbe, “Exhortation in First Thessalonians”, p. 254; Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians, pp. 278–​280. For a counter-​claim to Malherbe’s assertion, confer Juan Chapa, “Consolatory Patterns: 1 Thess 4:13.18; 5:11”, pp. 220–​228. See also Rudolf Hoppe, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief, p. 60.

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not used to or familiar with. It is exactly this fact which Söding makes known to readers of 1 Thessalonians when he writes: Though Paul takes the question of the resurrection very serious (1 Thess 4:13), yet in 1 Thess 4:13-​18 he does nothing else than to impart a knowledge of faith about the last events based on the apocalyptic fundamental structure from his Pharisaic time which might have been familiar to him, and was known in the early Christian eschatology even before him, and –​for whatever reasons –​the pagan Christians of Thessalonica had no real insight into that knowledge of faith (Die Auferstehungsfrage nimmt Paulus zwar sehr ernst (4, 13); aber er tut in 4, 13-​18 nichts anderes, als ein Glaubenswissen über die letzen Dinge zu vermitteln, das ihm der apokalyptischen Grundstruktur nach schon aus seiner pharisäischen Zeit vertraut sein konnte, das der urchristlichen Eschatologie bereits vor ihm bekannt war, zu dem die Heidenchristen Thessalonichs aber –​aus welchen Gründen auch immer –​keinen rechten Zugang gefunden hatten)16.

Paul’s theology in 1 Thessalonians is actually distinct from the theology of his main writings or letters which came after 1 Thessalonians because in 1 Thessalonians major decisive themes and concepts or headwords in Paul’s later writings are absent17. For example, in 1 Thessalonians Paul is not only silent on the concept “flesh” or “flesh and blood” but also on the dichotomy between the body and the soul of human beings. In 1 Thess 5:23 (i.e., in the “final commendations and instructions” in the conclusion of the letter, see 1 Thess 5:23-​28), Paul only mentions “spirit” (τὸ πνεῦμα), “soul” (ἡ ψυχή), and “body” (τὸ σῶμα) in passing with regard to the sanctification of the Christ’s faithful and the Lord’s parousia, but he does not present any detailed teachings on the “spirit” (τὸ πνεῦμα), “soul” (ἡ ψυχή), and “body” (τὸ σῶμα). It should be noted that in 1 Thess 5:23 “Paul is not offering an anthropological or philosophical analysis of human nature. Rather, he looks to the wholeness of what may be called the supernatural and natural aspects of a person’s service of God”18. It is later in 1 Cor 15 where Paul speaks expressly about these concepts in regard to the composition of persons; and there (in 1 Cor 15) one can well notice that Paul makes use of both Judaic and Greco-​Roman traditions and cultural spheres in his reflections and teachings. In his oldest letter of First Thessalonians, Paul answers and treats in detail

16 Cf. Thomas Söding, „Der Erste Thessalonicherbrief und die frühe paulinische Evangeliumsverkündigung. Zur Frage einer Entwicklung der paulinischen Theologie“, in: Biblische Zeitschrift, Neue Folge 35 (1991) 180–​203, here page 183 footnote 12. 17 Cf. Thomas Söding, „Der Erste Thessalonicherbrief und die frühe paulinische Evangeliumsverkündigung…“, p. 184. 18 See the note on 1 Thess 5:23, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible (Third Edition), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016, p. 1680.

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the question of the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia, and he allows himself to be influenced more by his orientation to the Jewish conception of the hereafter, and so his teaching on this theme is firmly grounded on the hope and belief in the resurrection of the dead which he actually valued and shared as a (Jewish) Pharisee. Zugmann shares opinion with Gnilka and other exegetes that: Paul “as a Pharisee from Tarsus” (cf. Acts 21:39; 22:3; [Phil 3:5-​6]), whose intellectual climate could be regarded as a microcosm of the Hellenistic Mediterranean region, is mainly comprehensible in Hellenistic Judaism of the Diaspora: “Though Paul speaks and writes in Greek, the way and manner he argues and theologises, even his interpretation of the Scriptures is principally jewish-​like. The pillar of his belongingness to both the cultural groups of Hellenism and Judaism is anchored in Judaism”. (Paulus „als Pharisäer aus Tarsus“ (vgl. Apg 21,39; 22,3; [Phil 3,5-​6]), dessen geistiges Klima als ein Mikrokosmos des hellenistischen Mittelmeerraumes gelten könnte, ist großteils aus dem hellenistischen Judentum der Diaspora verständlich: „Paulus redet und schreibt zwar griechisch, aber die Art und Weise seines Argumentierens und Theologisierens, auch seines Umgangs mit der Schrift ist vornehmlich jüdisch. Seine Zugehörigkeit zu den beiden Kulturkreisen des Hellenismus und des Judentums hat das tragende Standbein im Judentum“)19.

Considering Paul’s treatment of the fate of the dead and the living at the Lord’s parousia in First Thessalonians, one can see that the assertion of these exegetes is very plausible and tenable. It is also without doubt that Paul inherited the concept of sanctification he talks about in 1 Thessalonians from the Pharisaic movement which emphasized that holiness is not limited to the holy land, the holy city (Jerusalem), the priests and the temple, but that the entire members of God’s people are required to be holy20. The OT too is not silent on the need for the holiness of God’s people. Frechette indicates that: “For the older Priestly tradition, holiness is a communicable effect of the Lord’s presence concentrated in the Tabernacle and the priesthood. However, the Holiness school expanded its concept of holiness from the sphere of sanctuary and sacrifice to ordinary life; not just the priests but the entire of people of Israel are to be holy by the way they

19 Cf. Michael Zugmann, Missionspredigt in nuce: Studien zu 1 Thess 1,9b-​10, Linz: Wagner Verlag, 2012, p. 28, and the references in the footnotes 128–​131. See also: Joachim Gnilka, Paulus von Tarsus: Zeuge und Apostel (Herders Theologischer Kommentar Zum Neuen Testament, Supplementband VI), Freiburg. Basel. Wien: Verlag Herder, 1996, p. 32. 20 Confer, for example, Leo Baeck, Paulus, die Pharisäer und das Neue Testament, München. Frankfurt am Main: Ner-​Tamid-​Verlag, 1961, pp. 49, 81–​82; also Melanie Peetz, Das biblische Israel: Geschichte –​Archäologie –​Geographie, Freiburg. Basel. Wien: Verlag Herder, 2018, pp. 237–​238.

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live. The great commandment, ‘You shall love your neighbour as yourself ’ (Lv 19:18), expresses this view of holiness”21.

The hope of being with the Lord Jesus Christ at his second coming in the future, indeed, calls for holy living in the here and now. Although the Christ’s faithful –​ who are described as “sons of day” and “sons of light” (1 Thess 5:5) –​are not destined for the wrath of God but for salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ (see 1 Thess 5:9), it is imperative for each and every one of the believers in Christ to lead a holy and upright life (1 Thess 3:13; 4:3-​8; 5:8, etc.) in their preparation for the parousia of the Lord Jesus Christ22. Ware sums it all up by stating that: “Because of the death and resurrection of Jesus, Christians can be assured that those who die in Christ will join him in the παρουσία. As they await for the παρουσία, they must live holy lives with the power provided by God himself. They can be comforted at the death of beloved Christian brethren knowing that both the living and the dead in Christ will share in the events of the παρουσία and go to be with the Lord always. For Paul the παρουσία was an imminent hope on the horizon, which offered comfort for those in sorrow and motivation for right living for those in a pagan world”23.

The Lord’s parousia which is discussed in connection with the day of the Lord in First Thessalonians focuses attention on the future at the end of time, but this future also has implications for the present because the addressees are to make sure that they prepare themselves adequately for the future so that this future event will not take them unawares. The believers in Christ are to lead holy and upright life here and now, a life which corresponds to their call into the light and their status as “children of light” and “children of day” so that in the event of the Lord’s second coming they shall be worthy to meet the Lord simultaneously with the dead in Christ and live together with the Lord forever. With these exhortations, Paul and his co-​authors tried to implant in his addressees (i.e. the Thessalonian community of believers) the firm hope and belief that the living shall meet the dead in Christ again in the presence of the Lord Jesus Christ in the kingdom of God, and the addressees were expected to change their negative attitude to death as an event which calls for grief, loss of confidence, hope and all sense of perspective. As a believer in Christ, I can identify myself with the Thessalonian community and count myself among Paul’s

21 Cf. Christopher Frechette, “The Pentateuch”, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible (Third Edition), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016, p. RG 111. 22 Cf. David Luckensmeyer, The Eschatology of First Thessalonians, pp. 231–​236. 23 Cf. Phil Ware, “The Coming of the Lord: Eschatology and 1 Thessalonians”, ResQ 22 (1979), p. 120.

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numerous addressees today –​ despite the fact that the issue of death in Ghana, my homeland, may be different from that of the Thessalonian community of old. In the Ghanaian community today, the fate of the dead per se may not be the source of worry or anxiety of bereaved families but the question of how to raise funds to cover the (huge) costs of the burial and funeral ceremonies. The Ghanaian already hopes and beliefs that the dead person shall travel to “the other world” (the world of spirits) to continue his or her existence there. The departed person, however, needs to be given a “befitting” burial to qualify him or her to become an “ancestor” (Nana) and to join the “ancestors” (Nananom Nsamanfo‫)כ‬ in the other world (Asamando). As Sarpong rightly puts it: “The Ghanaian lays much store on the way in which his funeral or the funeral of his relative is observed. A ‘bad’ funeral is a disgrace as much to the dead person as it is to his living relatives. A ‘good’ funeral on the other hand is prestigious. Everybody speaks about it long after it has been observed”24.

Sometimes it becomes a burden on poor families to organize such “good” and “prestigious” funeral ceremonies. They borrow monies and at the end of the day they might incur huge debts which might be very difficult for them to settle. People should, therefore, see the need to tone down the extravagant funeral rites. Befitting burial and funeral rites do not necessarily have to be expensive ceremonies. Some bereaved families and loved ones mourn and grieve so much for the dead because the vacuum that might have been left in the family or in the community by the demise of the dead person could never be filled. The dead person might have been the one who supported the family, or a philanthropist in the community, and so his or her demise could actually mean a tragedy that has struck the family and those who were beneficiaries of his or her benevolence. The downhearted who consider that the death of persons very dear to them has caused their life and entire existence to crumble away or to disintegrate can find solace in the Pauline exhortations on the fate of the dead and the living. They may rest assured that these Pauline exhortations do not serve as a kind of “placebo” to just soothe their pains and sorrows in the face of the death of a person. These exhortations are based on the word of God (see 1 Thess 4:15), and they rather seek to help believers gather courage to face death whenever it comes. The divine words are powerful enough not only to effect a change in my situation but also to give me a new perspective on life. They can be the source of hope and a new strength to help me get back on my feet and carry on with my life even in 24 Cf. Peter Sarpong, Ghana in Retrospect: Some Aspects of Ghanaian Culture, p. 29.

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the face of the demise of a person who means a lot to me. I can be strengthened not only by the acceptance that death is part of human existence but also by my hope and belief that the death of a believer in Christ rather opens the way to a new life in Christ, i.e. the everlasting union with Christ in the kingdom of God.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS i.  Old Testament Gen Exod Lv Nm Dt Jos Jdg Ruth 1 Sam 2 Sam 1 Kgs 2 Kgs 1 Chr (or 1 Par) 2 Chr (or 2 Par) Ezra Neh Esther Job Ps(s) Prov Eccl (Qol) Song Isa Jer Lam Ezk Dn Hos Joel Amos Obd Jon Mic Nah

Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Ruth 1 Samuel 2 Samuel 1 Kings (or 3 Kgs [i.e., 3 Kings] in the LXX) 2 Kings (or 4 Kgs [i.e., 4 Kings] in the LXX) 1 Chronicles (1 Paralipomenon [in the LXX]) 2 Chronicles (2 Paralipomenon [in the LXX]) Ezra Nehemiah Esther Job Psalm(s) Proverbs Ecclesiastes (Qohelet) Song of Songs Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum

412 Hab Zeph Hg Zech Mal

List of Abbreviations

Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi

ii.  New Testament Mt Mk Lk Jn Acts Rom 1 Cor 2 Cor Gal Eph Phil Col 1 Thess 2 Thess 1 Tim 2 Tim Tit Phlm Heb Jas 1 Pt 2 Pt 1 Jn 2 Jn 3 Jn Jude Rev

Matthew Mark Luke John The Acts of the Apostles Romans 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus Philemon Hebrews James 1 Peter 2 Peter 1 John 2 John 3 John Jude Revelation to John (or the Apocalypse)

iii.  Deuterocanonical Books of the Old Testament Tob

Tobith

List of Abbreviations

Jdt Wis /​Wis.Sol Sir (1) Bar 1 Macc 2 Macc

Judith Wisdom /​Wisdom of Solomon Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) (1) Baruch 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees

iv.  Old Testament Pseudepigrapha 3 Macc 4 Macc Apoc.Ab T. Ab LetAris 2 Bar 3 Bar 4 Bar 1 En 2 En 3 En 4 Ezra GkApEzra T. Job Jos.Asen Jub Apoc.Mos T. Mos PJ Sib.Orcs Sib.Fragm Odes.Sol Pss.Sol T. 12 P T. Reub T. Levi T. Jud T. Naph T. Gad T. Jos

3 Maccabees 4 Maccabees Apocalypse of Abraham Testament of Abraham Letter of Aristeas 2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) Baruch 3 (Greek Apocalypse of) Baruch 4 Baruch 1 (Ethiopic Apocalypse of) Enoch 2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch 3 (Hebrew Apocalypse of) Enoch 4 Ezra Greek Apocalypse of Ezra Testament of Job Joseph and Aseneth Jubilees Apocalypse of Moses Testament of Moses Paraleipomena Jeremiou Sibylline Oracles Sibylline Fragment Odes of Solomon Psalms of Solomon Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Testament of Reuben Testament of Levi Testament of Judah Testament of Naphtali Testament of Gad Testament of Joseph

413

414 T. Benj

List of Abbreviations

Testament of Benjamin

v.  New Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha ActsThom GThom

Acts of Thomas Gospel of Thomas

vi.  Writings of Apostolic Fathers I Clem 2 Clem Did ShepHerm

1 Clement 2 Clement Didache Shepherd of Hermas

vii.  Other Writings Ant. Corp.Herm

Jewish Antiquities (by Flavius Josephus) Corpus Hermeticum

viii.  Modern Publications AB APOT

AThANT BDAG

Anchor Bible A  pocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English: With Introductions and Critical and Explanatory notes to the Several Books. Edited in conjunction with many scholars by R. H. Charles. 2 Volumes. Volume 1: Apocrypha; Volume 2: Pseudepigrapha. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913. A  bhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments A  Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament and other Early Christian Literature (3rd edition). Revised and edited by Federick William Danker. Based on Walter Bauer’s “Griechisch-​deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Literatur”, Sixth Edition, ed. Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, with Viktor Reichmann and on previous English editions by W. F. Arndt, F. W. Gingrich, and F. W. Danker, Chicago. London: The University of Chicago Press, 2000.

List of Abbreviations

BDF

BETL Bib BNTC BWANT BZ BZNW CBQ CDCH CEJL

ConBNT CR:BS DCH

ÉBib. EDNT

EHS.T EKKNT ExpTim FB

415

A  Greek Grammar of the New Testament and other early Christian Literature. By F. Blass/​A. Debrunner. A translation and revision of the ninth-​tenth German edition incorporating supplemently notes of A. Debrunner by R. W. Funk, Chicago.London: University of Chicago Press, 1961. B  ibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium Biblica Black’s New Testament Commentaries B  eiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament Biblische Zeitschrift B  eiheft zur Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche Catholic Biblical Quarterly C  oncise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew. Edited by Clines, David J. A., Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2009. C  ommentaries on Early Jewish Literature. Edited by Loren T. Stuckenbruch, Pieter W. van der Horst, Hermann Lichtenberger, et al., Berlin/​Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2015 –​. Coniectanea Biblica. New Testament Series Currents in Research: Biblical Studies D  ictionary of Classical Hebrew, 8 Volumes (with Index/​ Word Frequency, i.e. Volume 9). Edited by Clines, David J. A., et al. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press/​Sheffield Phoenix Press, 1993–​2011 (2016). Études Bibliques E  xegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by H. R. Balz/​G. Schneider. Vol. 1 [1990] transl. by V. P. Howard/​ J. W. Thompson. Vol. 2 [1991] transl. by J. W. Thompson/​J. W. Medendorp. Vol. 3 [1993] transl. by J. W. Medendorp/​ D. W. Stott. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990–​1993. Europäische Hochschulschriften. Reihe 23: Theologie E  vangelisch-​katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament Expository Times Forschung zur Bibel

416 FRLANT FS FS Greeven

FS H. Koester

FS Stanley

GTA HTR ICC IG IG X 2/​1 JBL JSNT JSNTSup JTS KEK LB LCL LD LV NewDocs NJBC NovT

List of Abbreviations

F  orschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments Festschrift (= commemorative publication) F  estschrift Greeven, i.e., Schrage Wolfgang (Hrsg.), Studien zum Text und zur Ethik des Neuen Testaments: Festschrift zum 80. Geburtstag von Heinrich Greeven (BZNW 47), Berlin. New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1986. F  estschrift Helmut Koester, i.e., Birger A. Pearson, et al. (editors). The Future of Early Christianity: Essays in Honor of Helmut Koester. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991. F  estschrift Stanley, i.e., Joseph Plevnik (editor), Word and Spirit: Essays In Honor of David Michael Stanley, S.J. on his 60th Birthday. Willowdale, Ontario: Regis College Press, 1975. Göttinger theologische Arbeiten Harvard Theological Review International Critical commentary Inscriptiones Graecae. 14 volumes. Berlin, 1873 –​ I nscriptiones Graecae Epiri, Macedoniae, Thraciae, Scythiae. Pars II.: Inscriptiones Macedoniae. Facsimile I: Inscriptiones Thessalonicae by C. Edson, Berlin: 1972. Journal of Biblical Literature Journal for the Study of the New Testament J ournal for the Study of the New Testament/​Supplement Series Journal of Theological Studies K  ritisch-​exegetischer Kommentar über das Neue Testament (Meyer-​Kommentar) Linguistica Biblica Loeb Classical Library Lectio Divina Louvain Studies New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity N  ew Jerome Biblical Commentary. Edited by Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Roland E. Murphy, London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1990. Novum Testamentum

List of Abbreviations

NTAbh NTD NTOA NTOA/​StUNT NTS OCD OGIS ÖTK OTP

PG RAC ResQ SacPag SANT SAPERE SBL.SP SBS Semeia SHCT SNTU.A ST STDJ

417

Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen Das Neue Testament Deutsch Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus N  ovum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus/​Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments New Testament Studies O  xford Classical Dictionary (3rd edition). Edited by Hornblower, Simon/​Spawforth, Anthony, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. O  rientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae. 2 volumes. Edited by W. Dittenberger, Leipzig, 1903–​1905. Ö  kumenischer Taschenbuchkommentar zum Neuen Testament O  ld Testament Pseudepigrapha. Volume 1 (1983): Apocalyptic Literature And Testaments. Volume 2 (1985): Expansions of the “Old Testament” and Legends, Wisdom and Philosophical Literature, Prayers, Psalms, and Odes, Fragments of Lost Judeo-​Hellenistic Works. Edited by J. H. Charlesworth, New York: Doubleday & Company. P  atrologia Graeca (= Patrologiae Cursus Completus: Series Graeca) Edited by J.-​P. Migne. 162 volumes. Paris, 1857–​1866. R  eallexikon für Antike und Christentum. Edited by Theodor Klauser et al. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1950 –​ Restoration Quarterly Sacra Pagina (Series) Studien zum Alten und Neuen Testament S cripta Antiquitatis Posterioris ad Ethicam Religionemque Pertinentia Society of Biblical Literature: Seminar Papers Stuttgarter Bibelstudien Semeia: An Experimental Journal for Biblical Criticism Studies in the History of Christian Theology S tudien zum Neuen Testament und seiner Umwelt: Serie A (= Aufsätze) Studia Theologica Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah

418 Str-​B TDTN TF ThWNT

TRE TZ UTB WBC WUNT ZBK ZNT ZNW ZRGG ZST

List of Abbreviations

S track, H. L./​Billerbeck, P., Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrash. 6 Volumes. München: Oskar Beck, 1922–​1961. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Theologische Forschung Th  eologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. 10 Bände. Bände 1-​4 herausgegeben von Gerhard Kittel; Bände 5-​10 begründet von Gerhard Kittel, herausgegeben von Gerhard Friedrich. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer Verlag, 1933–​1979. Theologische Realenzyklopädie Theologische Zeitschrift Uni-​Taschenbücher World Biblical Commentary W  issenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament: 1st Series (= I); 2nd Series (= II). Zürcher Bibelkommentare Zeitschrift für Neues Testament Z  eitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche Zeitschrift für Religions-​und Geistesgeschichte Zeitschrift für systematische Theologie

ix. Additional Abbreviations Acc. Accusative (case) A.D. Anno Domini AfTR African Traditional Religion Aufl. Auflage (= edition) BCE Before Common Era CE Common Era cf. confer (= compare) Cop. Coptic Comp. Compiler(s), compiled Dat. Dative (case) ed. edition, edited, editor e.g. exempli gratia (= for example) et al(.) et alii /​et alia (= and others) Eth. Ethiopic

List of Abbreviations

419

esp. especially etc. et cetera (= and the rest, and so on.) f. /​ff. folios (= following [pages, verses, etc.]) Gen. Genitive (case) Hrsg. Herausgeber (= publisher[s]‌/​editor[s]) ibid. ibidem (= in the same [book, chapter, passage, page, etc]) i.e. id est (= that is to say) Lat. Latin LXX Septuagint MS(S) Manuscript(s) MT Masoretic Text NAB New American Bible NEB New English Bible NIV New International Version NRSV The New Revised Standard Version NT New Testament No. Number Nom. Nominative (case) op.cit. opere citato (= in the work already quoted) OT Old Testament Pa. Pennsylvania P/​pp Page/​pages par. (or //​) parallel pl. /​plur. plural N.B. nota bene (= note well, observe what follows, take notice) ref. reference, references rev. revised, revisers, revision RSV R  evised Standard Version, i.e. The Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments. Translated from the Original Languages, being the Version set forth A.D. 1611, Revised A.D. 1881–​1885 and A.D. 1901, Compared with the most Ancient Authorities and Revised A.D. 1952, Second Edition of the New Testament A.D. 1971, New York: American Bible Society. sic. So, thus (thus used, spelt, etc.) Sc. S cilicet (= that is to say, namely. From scire licet: “one is permitted to know”). Sing. Singular Syr/​Sy Syriac

420 transl. u.a. Vat. vgl. viz. Voc. vol(s).

List of Abbreviations

translation, translator(s), translated und andere /​unter anderen (= and others /​among others) Vatican vergleiche (= compare) videlicet (= that is to say, in other words, namely) Vocative (case) volume(s)

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Sources 1 (i) Bible Aland, K./​Aland, B./​Karavidopoulos, J./​Martini, C. M./​Metzger, B.M. (Hrsg.), Novum Testamentum Graece, 28. Revidierte Auflage, hrsg. vom Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung Münster unter Leitung von Holger Strutwolf, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2012. Aland, K./​Aland, B./​Karavidopoulos, J., et al. (editors), The Greek New Testament (Fifth Revised Edition), Stuttgart, 2014. Brenton, Lancelot Charles Lee, (ed. & transl.), The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English, Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2003. Die Bibel: Einheitsübersetzung der Heiligen Schrift, Gesamtausgabe (1. Aufl.), Stuttgart: Verlag Katholische Bibelanstalt, 2017. Fischer, Bonifatius/​ Weber, Robert (editors), Biblia Sacra: Iuxtam Vulgatam Versionem (3rd Edition), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1983. Holy Bibel: NRSV [New Revised Standard Version] with Deuterocanonical Books, New York: Bible Society Resources Limited, 2008. Kohlenberger, John R., (editor), The NIV Interlinear Hebrew-​ English Old Testament: Four Volumes in One /​Genesis-​Malachi (Volume Four /​Isaiah-​ Malachi), Michigan: Zondervan, 1987. Rahlfs, Alfred/​Hanhart Robert (editors), Septuaginta: Id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes: Duo volumina in uno (2nd edition), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2006. Senior, Donald, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible: New American Bible, Including the Revised New Testament, Translated from the Original Languages with Critical Use of All the Ancient Sources, New York. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Senior, Donald, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible (Third Edition): The New American Bible (Revised Edition): Translated from the Original Languages with Critical Use of All the Ancient Sources. Authorized by the Board of Trustees of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine and Approved by the Administrative Committee of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. New York. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016 The Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments. Revised Standard Version. Translated from the Original Languages, being the Version set forth A.D. 1611,

422

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Revised A.D. 1881–​1885 and A.D. 1901, Compared with the most Ancient Authorities and Revised A.D. 1952, Second Edition of the New Testament A.D. 1971, New York: American Bible Society. The New American Bible: Translated from the Original Languages with Critical Use of all the Ancient Sources by Members of the Catholic Biblical Association of America. Sponsored by the Bishops’ Committee of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, New Jersey: St. Anthony Guild Press, 1970. Zodhiates, Spiros (Hrsg.), Elberfelder Studienbibel mit Sprachschlüssel und Handkonkordanz (3. Aufl.), Witten: SCM R. Brockhaus, 2012.

1 (ii) Judaism Arnaldez, Roger/​Jean Pouilloux/​Mondésert, Claude (editors), Les Oeuvres de Philo d’Alexandrie: Publiées sous le patronage de l’université de Lyon par Roger Arnaldez, Jean Pouilloux, Claude Mondésert. 36 Volumes. Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1961–​1988. Charles, Robert Henry, et al. (editors), The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English: With Introductions and Critical and Explanatory notes to the Several Books. 2 Volumes. Volume 1: Apocryph; Volume 2: Pseudepigrapha. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913. Charlesworth, James H. (editor), The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Volume 1: Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments. Volume 2: Expansions of the “Old Testament” and Legends, Wisdom and Philosophical Literature, Prayers, Psalms, and Odes, Fragments of Lost Judeo-​Hellenistic Works, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1983–​1985. Colson, Francis H. /​Whitaker, George H., (transl.), Philo in 10 volumes and two Supplementary volumes, LCL 226, 227, 247, 261, 275, 289, 320, 341, 363, 379, 380, 401. London: William Heinemann /​Cambridge: Havard University Press, 1929–​1962. Feldman, Louise H. (transl.), Flavius Josephus: Judean Antiquities 1–​4, Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, Inc., 2004. Kraft, Robert A., Ann-​ Elizabeth Purintun (ed. & transl.), Paraleipomena Jeremiou, Missoula, Montana: Society of Biblical Literature, 1972. Metzger, Bruce M., et al. (editors), The New Oxford Annotated Apocrypha: The Apocryphal/​Deuterocanonical Books of the Old Testament (New Revised Standard Version), New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Niese, Benedictus (editor), Flavii Iosephi Opera (Vol. 1, Libri 1-​V), edidit et apparatu critico instruxit par Benedictus Niese, Berolini: Apud Weidmannos, 1887. Nock, Arthur Darby/​Festugière A. –​J. (editors), Corpus Hermeticum (Tome I, Traités I-​XII), Paris: Société d’edition “Les Belles Lettres”, 1945.

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Reinmuth, Eckart, et al. (Hrsg.), Joseph und Aseneth (SAPARE 15), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009. Ryle, Herbert Edward/​Montague, Rhodes James (editors), Psalms of the Pharisees commonly called the Psalms of Solomon, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1891. Thackeray, Henry St. J., et al. (transl.), Josephus. 9 volumes. Volumes 1–​4 translated by H. St. J. Thackeray; volume 5 translated by H. St. J. Thackeray/​Ralph Marcus; volumes 6–​7 translated by Ralph Markus; volume 8 translated by Ralph Marcus/​Allen Wikgren; volume 9 translated by Louis H. Feldman. LCL 186, 203, 210, 242, 281, 326, 365, 410, 433, London. Cambridge: Havard University Press, 1926–​1965. Winston, David, The Wisdom of Solomon (AB 43), New York: Doubleday & Company, 1979. Write, Benjamin G. III, The Letter of Aristeas: ‘Aristeas to Philocrates’ or ‘On the Translation of the Law of the Jews’, (CEJL), Berlin/​Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2015.

1 (iii) Selected Hellenistic Greek and Roman Literature Campe, Johann Friedrich Christian (transl.), Polybius, Polybios Geschichten: übersetzt von Johann Friedrich Christian Campe (Band 3, Abteilung 1), Stuttgart: Metzler, 1863. Deissmann, Adolf, Licht vom Osten: Das Neue Testament und die neu entdeckten Texte der hellenistisch-​römischen Welt, (4th edition), Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1923. Diodorus: Biblilotheca Historica, edidit Curtius Theodorus Fischer (Volume IV), in: Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana, Lipsiae: in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1906. Dittenberger, Wilhelm (editor), Orientis Graeci Inscriptionis Selectae: Supplementum Sylloges Inscriptionum Graecarum (Volumen Alterum), Lipsae: Hirzel, 1905. Ebert, Theodor (translator), Phaidon (Platon Werke: Übersetzung und Kommentar 14), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004. Edson, C, Inscriptiones Graecae Epiri, Macedoniae, Thraciae, Scythiae. Pars II.: Inscriptiones Macedoniae. Facsimile I: Inscriptiones Thessalonicae, Berlin: 1972. Epictète: Entretien (Livre I); Tecte établi et traduit par Joseph Souilhé, Paris: Société d’édition “Les Belles Lettres”, 1943. Gaebler, Hugo, Die antiken Münzen von Makedonia und Paionia (Die antiken Münzen Nordgriechenlands III) 1. Abteilung, Berlin 1906, 2. Abteilung, Berlin 1935.

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Goelzer, Henri (transl.), Tacite, Annales (Livres I-​III), Texte Etabli et Traduit par Henri Goelzer, Paris: Société d’Edition “Les Belles Lettres”, 1923. Homer, Odyssee: Griechisch und Deutsch. Übertragen von Anton Weiher. Mit Urtext, Anhang und Registern. Einführung von A. Heubeck (Sammlung Tusculum) (12. Auflage), Düsseldorf. Zurich: Artemis & Winkler Verlag (u.a.), 2003. Hude, Carolus (editor), “Thucydidis Historiae” (Volume I., Libri I-​ IV), in: Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (Editio Minor), Lipsiae: Typis B. G. Teubneri, 1905. Hude, Carolus (editor), “Herodoti Historiae” (Editio Tertia, Tomus Prior), in: Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis, Oxonii: E Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1960. Kleist, James A. (transl.), The Epistles of St. Clement of Rome and St. Ignatius of Antioch, in: Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation (No. 1), London: The Newman Press, 1946. Kleist, James A. (transl.), “The Didache, the Epistle of Barnabas, the Epistles and the Martyrdom of St. Polycarp, the Fragment of Papias, the Epistle to Diognetus: Newly translated and annotated by James A. Kleist”, in: Johannes Quasten, Joseph C. Plumpe (editors), Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation (No. 6), Westminster: The New Press/​ London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1948. Latimore, R. Themes in Greek and Latin Epitaphs, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1962. Migne, Jacques-​ Paul (editor), Patrologia Graeca, i.e., Patrologiae Cursus Completus: Series Graeca. 162 volumes. Paris, 1857–​1866. Plato (427-​347 BCE), Platons Phaidon: Griechisch und Deutsch mit kritischen und erklärenden Anmerkungen (Dritte verbesserte und vemehrte Auflage) (Platons Werke 2), Leipzig: Engelmann, 1852. Scott, Walter (ed. & transl.), Hermetica: The Ancient Greek and Latin Writings which contain Religious or Philosophic Teachings ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus (Volume I), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924. Sutherland, C. H. V., Münzen der Römer, München: Ernst Battenberg Verlag, 1974. Theodoret of Cyrus, Historia Ecclesiastica, V, 17, in: Patrologia Graeca (Tomus LXXXII), Paris, 859. Theodoret of Cyrus, Interpretatio Epistolae I Ad Thessalonicenses, in: Patrologiae Gracae (Tomus LXXXII), Paris, 1859. Villeneuve, François (transl.), Horace (Tome 1): Odes et Epodes: Textes établi et traduit par F. Villeneuve, Paris: Société d’édition “Les Belles Lettres”, 1927.

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Vretska, Helmut (transl.), P. Cornelius Tacitus/​Historien: Lateinisch/​Deutsch, Stuttgart: Reclam, 1984. Weil, Raymond/​ de Romilly, Jacqueline (transl.), Thucydide: La Guerre du Péloponnèse (Livre III), Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1967.

2. Dictionaries, Grammars, Concordances and Lexicons Aland, Kurt, Vollständige Konkordanz zum griechischen Neuen Testament (Teil 2), Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1983. Aune, David Edward, The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric, Louisville. Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2010. Balz, Horst/​ Schneider, Gerhard (editors), Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament (EDNT), Volumes 1–​3, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1991–​1993. Balz, Horst/​Schneider, Gerhard (Hrsg.), Exegetisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament Herausgegeben von Horst Balz und Gerhard Schneider (Zweite, verbesserte Auflage mit Literatur -​Nachträgen). 3 Bände. Stuttgart. Berlin. Köln: Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 1992. Bauer, Johannes B., Bibeltheologisches Wörterbuch/​vierte völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage, herausgegeben in Gemeinschaft mit Johannes Marböck und Karl M. Woschitz, Graz. Wien. Köln: Verlag Styria, 1994. Blass, F./​Debrunner, A., A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and other early Christian Literature (BDF): A translation and revision of the ninth-​tenth German edition incorporating supplemently notes of A. Debrunner by R. W. Funk, Chicago.London: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Chamberlain, Gary Alan, The Greek of the Septuangint: A Supplemental Lexicon, Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2011. Clines, David J. A., (editor), The Concise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2009. Clines, David J. A., et al (editors), The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, 8 Volumes (with Index/​Word Frequency, i.e. Volume 9). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press/​Sheffield Phoenix Press, 1993–​2011 (2016). Collins, John J. (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature, Oxford. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. Danker, Frederick William (rev. & ed.), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament and other Early Christian Literature. Third Edition. (BDAG) revised and edited by Federick

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William Danker. Based on Walter Bauer’s Griechisch-​deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Literatur, sixth edition, ed. Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, with Viktor Reichmann and on previous English editions by W. F. Arndt, F. W. Gingrich, and F. W. Danker, Chicago. London: The University of Chicago Press, 2000. Haag, Herbert (Hrsg.), Bibel-​Lexikon (Zweite, neu bearbeitete und vermehrte Auflage), Zürich, Köln: Benziger Verlag, 1968. Hawthorne, Gerald F., et al. (editors), Dictionary of Paul and his Letters, Leicester: Inter Varsity Press, 1993. Helbing, Robert, Die Kasussyntax der Verba bei den Septuaginta: Ein Beitrag zur Hebraismenfrage und zur Syntax der Κοινή, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1928. Hornblower, Simon/​ Spawforth, Anthony (editors), The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd Edition), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Kittel, Gerhard/​ Friedrich, Gerhard (Hrsg.), Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. 10 Volumes. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer Verlag, 1933–​1979. Kühner, Raphael/​Gerth, Bernhardt, Ausführliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache (zweiter Band), Hannover und Leipzig: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 1904. Liddell, Henry George/​Scott, Robert (compilers), A Greek-​English Lexicon (A new edition/​revised and augmented throughout by Henry Stuart Jones 1869–​ 1939), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. Muraoka, T., A Greek-​English Lexicon of the Septuagint, Louvain: Peeters, 2009. Muraoka, T., A Greek-​Hebrew /​Aramaic: Two-​Way Index to the Septuagint, Louvain: Peeters, 2010. Newman, Barclay M. (editor), A Concise Greek-​English Dictionary of the New Testament (Revised Edition), Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2010. Spicq, Ceslas, Notes de Lexicographie Néo-​ Testamentaire (Tome II), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1978. Spicq, Ceslas, Lexique Théologique du Nouveau Testament: Réédition en un volume des Notes de lexicographie néo-​testamentaire, Fribourg: Editions du Cerf, 1991. Stone, Michael E. (editor), Concordance and Texts of the Armenian Version of IV Ezra (Oriental Notes and Studies 11), Jerusalem: The Israel Oriental Society, 1971. Thayer, Joseph Henry (editor), A Greek-​English Lexicon of the New Testament: Being Grimm’s Wilkes’s Clavis Novi Testamenti. Translated, Revised and Enlarged by Joseph Henry Thayer (Fourth Edition, Reprint), Edinburgh: T & T Clarke, 1908. Wallace, Daniel B., Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament, Michigan: Zondervan, 1996.

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3. Commentaries on First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians Baumert, Norbert/​Seewann, Maria-​Irma, In der Gegenwart des Herrn: Übersetzung und Auslegung des ersten und zweiten Briefes an die Thessalonicher, Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 2014. Best, Ernest, The First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians (BNTC 9), London: Adam & Charles Black, 1986. Bruce, F.F., 1 & 2 Thessalonians (WBC 45), Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1982. Earl, Richard J., First and Second Thessalonians (SacPag 11), Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1995. Fee, Gordon D., The First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2009. Frame, James Everett, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians (ICC 13), Edinburgh: T & T Clarke, 1912. Friedrich, Gerhard, „Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher“, in, Becker, J./​Conzelmann, H./​Friedrich, G. Die Briefe an die Galater, Epheser, Thessalonicher und Philemon (NTD 8), Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1976, pp. 203–​251. Holtz, Traugott, Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher (EKKNT 13), Köln: Benziger Verlag, 1986. Hoppe, Rudolf, Der erste Thessalonikerbrief: Kommentar, Freiburg. Basel. Wien: Verlag Herder, 2016. Keck, Leander E., “The First Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians”, in: The Interpreter’s One-​Volume Commentary on the Bible […] London. Glasgow: William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd., 1972, pp. 865–​874. Laymon, Charles M. (editor), The Interpreter’s One-​Volume Commentary on the Bible: Including all the books of the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha, together with forty-​three General Articles, London. Glasgow [et al.]: William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd., 1972. Légasse, Simon, Les Epîtres de Paul aux Thessaloniciens (LD 7), Paris: Les Edition du Cerf, 1999. Marxsen, Willi, Der erste Brief an die Thessalonicher (ZBK 11.1), Zürich: Theologischer Verlag, 1979. Milligan, George, St Paul’s Epistles to the Thessalonians: The Greek Text with Introduction and Notes, London: McMillan and Co., 1908. Rigaux, Béda, Saint Paul: Les Epîtres aux Thessaloniciens (ÉBib. 10), Paris: Gembloux, 1956.

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Roose, Hanna, Der erste und zweite Thessalonicherbrief (Die Botschaft des Neuen Testaments), Neukirchen-​Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlagsgessellschaft, 2016. Schreiber, Stefan, Der Erste Brief an die Thessalonicher (ÖTK 13/​1), Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2014. von Dobschütz, Ernst, Die Thessalonicher-​Briefe (KEK 10 /​7th edition) Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1909.

4. Other Books and Articles Ascough, Richard S., “The Thessalonian Christian Community as a Professional Voluntary Association”, in: JBL 119 (2000) 311–​328. Ascough, Richard S., Paul’s Macedonian Associations: The Social Context of Philippians and 1 Thessalonians (WUNT II 161), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003. Askwith, E. H., “The Eschatological Section of 1 Thessalonians”, in: The Expositor. 8th Series. 1 (1911) 59–​67. Askwith, E. H., “ ‘I’ and ‘We’ in the Thessalonian Epistles,” in: Expositor, 8th Series, 1 (1911) 149–​159. Baeck, Leo, Paulus, die Pharisäer und das Neue Testament, München. Frankfurt am Main: Ner-​Tamid-​Verlag, 1961. Balz, Horst, Article: “λύπη, λυπέω”, in: EDNT 2 (1991) 362–​364. Barclay, John M. G., “That you may not grieve, like the rest who have no hope” (1 Thess 4:13), in: ΘΑΝΑΤΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΠΡΩΤΗ ΧΡΙΣΤΙΑΝΙΚΗ ΤΑΥΤΟΤΗΤΑ (“Death and Early Christian Identity”), (Ερμηνεία του Α᾽ Θεσσαλονικείς 4:13-​5:11). Deltio biblikōn meletōn 19 (2000) 26–​53. Barrera, Julio T./​ Montaner, Louis V. (eds.), The Madrid Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid 18–​21 March, 1991. Vol. 1 (STDJ 11). Leiden: E. J. Brill /​ Madrid: Editorial Complutense, 1992. Bauckham, Richard, The Fate of the Dead: Studies on the Jewish and Christian Apocalypses, Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1998. Baumgarten, Jörg, Article: “καιρός”, in: EDNT 2 (1991) 232–​235. Becker, Jürgen, „Die Erwählung der Völker durch das Evangelium: Theologiegeschichtliche Erwägungen zum 1 Thess“, in: Schrage, Wolfgang (Hrsg.), Studien zum Text und zur Ethik des Neuen Testaments: Festschrift zum 80. Geburtstag von Heinrich Greeven (BZNW 47), Berlin. New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1986, pp. 82–​101. Becker, Jürgen, Paulus: Der Apostel der Völker (UTB 2014), Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), 1998.

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429

Becker, J./​Conzelmann, H./​Friedrich, G., Die Briefe an die Galater, Epheser, Thessalonicher und Philemon (NTD 8), Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1976. Benoit, Pierre, “Qumrân et le Nouveau Testament”, in: NTS 7 (1960–​1961) 276–​296. Bertram, George, Article: “στρέφω κτλ.”, in: ThWNT 7 (1964) 714–​729. Bieder, W., Article: “θάνατος”, EDNT 2 (1991) 129–​133. Böcher, Otto, Licht und Feuer II. Altes Testament und Judentum, III. Neues Testament (TRE 21), Berlin. New York, 1991. Borse, Udo, Article: “ἄγω“, in: EDNT 1 (1990) 24–​25. Brown, Raymond E./​Fitzmyer, Joseph A./​Murphy, Roland E. (editors), The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1990. Βüchsel, Friedrich, Article: “εἴδωλον”, in: ThWNT 2 (1935) 373–​377. Bultmann, Rudolf, Die Geschichte der Synoptischen Tradition (FRLANT/​Neue Folge 12), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1964. Bultmann, Rudolf, Article: “λύπη, λυπέω κτλ.”, in: ThWNT 4 (1942) 314–​325. Burkard, Ingeborg, Article: “Licht”, in: Bibel-​Lexikon (1968) 1047–​1050. Bussmann, Claus, Themen der paulinischen Missionspredigt auf dem Hintergrund der spätjüdisch-​hellenistischen Missionsliteratur (EHS.T 23 /​vol. 3) Bern: Herbert Lang/​Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1971. Cadoux, Theodore John/​Lintott, Andrew William, Article: “Triumviri (or tresviri)”, in: OCD (1996), p. 1555. Carey, Greg, “Introduction: Apocalyptic Discourse, Apocalyptic Rhetoric”, in: Carey, Greg/​Broomquist, L. (eds.), Vision and Persuasion: Rhetorical Dimensions of Apocalyptic Discourse, St. Louis, MO: Chalice, 1999, pp. 1–​17. Chapa, Juan, “Consolatory Patterns: 1 Thess 4:13.18; 5:11”, in: Raymond F. Collins (editor), The Thessalonian Correspondence (1990) 220–​228. Christ, Karl, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit: Von Augustus bis zu Konstantin, München: Verlag C. H. Beck, 1988. Collins, Raymond F., “Tradition, Redaction, and Exhortation in 1 Thess 4, 13 –​5, 11”, in: Jan Lambrecht (editor), L’Apocalypse Johannique et l’apocalyptique dans le Nouveau Testament (BETL 53), Leuven: University Press, 1980, pp. 325–​343. Collins, Raymond F., Studies on the First Letter to the Thessalonians (BETL 66), Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1984. Collins, Raymond. F. (editor), The Thessalonian Corespondence (BETL 87), Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1990.

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Collins, Raymond F., “The First Letter to the Thessalonians”, in: NJBL (1990) 772–​779. Conzelmann, Hans, Article: “σκότος, σκοτία, σκοτόω, σκοτίζω, σκοτεινός”, in: ThWNT 7 (1964) 415–​446. Conzelmann, Hans, Article: “φῶς, κτλ”, in: ThWNT 9 (1973) 302–​349. Cross, Frank Moore (editor), A Commentary on the Book of Fourth Ezra, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990. Crüsemann, Marlene, Die pseudepigraphen Briefe an die Gemeinde in Thessaloniki: Studien zu ihrer Abfassung und zur jüdisch-​ christlichen Sozialgeschichte (BWANT 191), Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 2010. Daube, David, The Sudden in the Scriptures, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964. Daube, David, “Suddenness and Awe in Scripture”, in: Calum Carmichael (editor), Collected Works of David Daube (Volume 3): Biblical Law and Literature, Berkeley, California: University of California, 2003. Davies, J. G., “The Genesis of Belief in an Imminent Parousia”, in: JTS/​New Series 14 (1963) 104–​107. Denny, James “Factors of Faith in Immortality” (Vol. I), in: Robertson W. Nicoll (editor), The Expositor (Eighth Series, Volume I), London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1911. Derow, Peter Sidney, Article: “Tribuni plebis (or plebi)”, in: OCD (1996) 1549–​1550. Dibelius, Martin, Der Brief des Jakobus (herausgegeben und ergänzt von H. Greeven) (KEK 15), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1964. Donfried, Karl P., Beutler, Johannes (editors), The Thessalonians Debate: Methodological Discord or Methodological Synthesis? (The Thessalonians Correspondence Seminar of the Studiorum Novi Testamenti Societas [SNTS] 1995–​1998), Grand Rapids, Michigan /​Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000. Duane, Watson F., “Paul’s Appropriation of Apocalyptic Discourse: The Rhetorical Strategy of First Thessalonians,” in: Carey, Greg/​Broomquist, L. (eds.), Vision and Persuasion: Rhetorical Dimensions of Apocalyptic Discourse, St. Louis, MO: Chalice, 1999, pp. 61–​80. Dunn, James D. G., “Prophetic ‘I’-​Sayings and the Jesus Tradition: The Importance of Testing Prophetic Utterances within Early Christianity”, in: NTS 24 (1978) 175–​198. Dunn, James D. G., “Κύριος in Acts”, in: Landmesser, Christof/​ Eckstein, Hans-​Joachim/​Lichtenberger, Hermann (Hrsg.), Jesus Christus als die Mitte der Schrift: Studien zur Hermeneutik des Evangeliums (BZNW 86) Berlin. New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1997, pp. 363–​378.

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Dupont, Jacques, Σὺν Χριστῷ: L’union avec le Christ suivant Saint Paul, Louvain: E. Nauwelaerts/​Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1952. Eberhard, Faust, Pax Christi et Pax Caesaris: Religionsgeschichtliche, traditionsgeschichtliche und sozialgeschichtliche Studien zum Epherserbrief (NTOA 24), Fribourg und Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994. Edson, Charles, “Cults of Thessalonica (Macedonia III)”, in: HTR 41 (1948) 153–​204. Elias, Jacob W., “Jesus Who Delivers Us from the Wrath to Come” (1 Thess 1:10): Apocalyptic and Peace in the Thessalonian Correspondence, SBL.SP 31 (1992), 121–​132. Elliger, Winfried, Paulus in Griechenland: Philippi, Thessaloniki, Athen, Korinth (SBS 92/​93), Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1978. Elliger, Winfried, Article: “ἐν”, in: EDNT 1 (1990) 447–​449. Faw, Chalmer E., “On the Writing of First Thessalonians”, JBL 71 (1952) 217–​225. Fitzmyer, Joseph A., “Pauline Theology”, in: NJBL (1990), pp. 1382–​1416. Frechette, Christopher, The Pentateuch, in: Donald Senior, et al. (editors), The Catholic Study Bible (Third Edition): The New American Bible (Revised Edition): Translated from the Original Languages with Critical Use of All the Ancient Sources. Authorized by the Board of Trustees of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine and Approved by the Administrative Committee of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. New York. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016. Furnish, Victor P., II Corinthians: Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Commentary (AB 32A), New York: Doubleday & Company, 1984. Gathercole, Simon J., The Gospel of Thomas: Introduction and Commentary, Leiden: Brill, 2014. Gewalt, Dietfried „1 Thess 4, 15-​17; 1 Kor 15, 51 und Mk 9, 1 –​Zur Abgrenzung eines ‚Herrenwortes‘ “, in: LB 51 (1982) 105–​113. Giesen, Heinz, “Naherwartung des Paulus in 1 Thess 4, 13-​18?” SNTU.A 10 (1985) 123–​150. Gillman, John, “Signals of Transformation in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-​18”, in: CBQ 47 (1985) 263–​281. Glasson, Francis T., “Theophany and Parousia”, in: NTS 34 (1988) 259–​270. Gnilka, Joachim, Paulus von Tarsus: Zeuge und Apostel (Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, Supplementband VI), Freiburg. Basel. Wien: Verlag Herder, 1996. Greshake, Gilbert/​Kremer, Jacob, Resurrectio Mortuorum: Zum theologischen Verständnis der leiblichen Auferstehung, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1986.

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INDICES A.  INDEX OF BIBLICAL AND OTHER ANCIENT REFERENCES i)  Old Testament Genesis (Gen) 1:3 1:4 1:5 1:24 1:31 2:17 2:21 2:23 4:3 5:18 5:24 6:5 8:11 9:10 9:24 11:5 11:5-​9 13:8 14:17-​20 15:2 15:6 16:4, 5, 11 18:10, 14 19:19 19:24 20:3 22:16 24:48 25:21 26:8 28:12 28:21

311 304 322 25 345 111 111, 337 237 236 208 206, 207, 210, 212 236 237 25 330 188 188 106 89 208 82 291 238 301 349 337 160 77 290 236 188 268

29:4 29:34-​35 31:27 31:40 37:34 37:35 38:24-​25 41:1 42:38 43:34 44:4 44:29 46:4 46:15 46:17 46:29 47:30 49:18 50:21

106 237 252 337 224 25, 224 291 236 25 339 301 25 188 25 208 218 110, 111 88, 89 224

Exodus (Exod) 1:5 2:2 2:11 3:7 3:8 4:28 4:31 5:20 5:22 7:23 8:28 9:14 12:4.19 13:3, 9, 11 13:9

25 290 106 286 188 160 77 218 71 72 238 238 25 148 148

440 13:21 14:20 15:1 15:9 15:20-​21 19:5 19:6 19:9 19:10-​18 19:10, 14, 22 19:11, 16 19:11, 18, 20 19:12ff. 19:12, 21-​23 19:13 19:13, 16, 19 19:14ff. 19:15 19:16 19:16ff. 19:16, 19 19:16-​20 19:16-​25 19:17 19:17ff. 19:18 19:18f. 19:18, 20 19:24 20:2-​5 20:3-​5 20:5 20:5f. 20:8 20:11 20:18 20:19 21:22 23:33 32:8-​10 32:10-​11

Indices

210 311, 312 295 301 295 371 371 188 219 191 191 191 190 189 196, 199 189, 190 188 191 189, 196, 199, 210, 220 189, 220 189 190 219 169, 189, 219 219 188, 189 189 136-​137 188, 190 73 76 73 74 288 111 196, 199 111 286, 291 76, 78 79, 280 93

33:5 34:5 34:34 40:34-​35

277 188 68, 69 210

Leviticus (Lv) 9:22 11:44 11:46 16:2 19:2 19:4 19:13 19:18 20:7 26:1 26:4

188 32 25 210 32 72, 76 207 407 32 76 237

Numbers (Nm) 6:9 6:26 11:1 11:1, 33 11:9 11:17 11:17, 25 11:24-​30 11:25 12:5 16:21 16:30, 33 17:10 19:20 20:12 21:32 21:33 23:3 23:3-​4 24:7, 17 LXX 25:3 32:13 35:22-​23

277 268 93 93 188 188 93 160 188 188 277 188 277 25 280 301 72 218 219 403 93 93 277

Index of biblical and other ancient references

Deuteronomy (Dt) 1:37 280 2:3 72 3:25-​26 280 4:15-​19 76 4:19 78 4:21-​22 280 4:23-​24 74, 76 4:25-​26 280 4:27-​30 73 4:27-​31 81 4:28 78, 81 4:37 LXX 186 5:6-​9 73 5:9f. 74 5:12 288 6:4 73 6:5 273 6:13 78 6:13-​15 76, 280 6:15 93 6:24 131 7:4 93, 280, 371 7:5-​9, 11 371 7:6 371 7:9 82 9:19 238 10:10 238 10:17 86 11:14 237 11:16-​17 280 11:17 93 14:2 371 15:3 106 17:2-​3 76 17:3 78 17:15 106 18:15 106, 160 18:15, 18-​19 160 18:20 161 19:6 301 26:10 77

26:16-​19 27:15 28:20 28:29 28:32-​33 28:45 29:17 30:2, 8-​10 30:10 30:17 31:8 31:17 31:18 31:18, 20 31:20 32:9 32:21 32:22 32:39 32:50-​52 33:2 33:2-​3 33:12 34:4-​5

371 76 280 304 236 301 72 72 71 72 81 93 72, 76 72 72 371 83, 86, 94 25 129, 131 280 219 189 236 280

Joshua (Jos) 7:1 8:29 9:17-​21 10:9 10:9-​10 10:21 10:27 11:7 11:7-​9 20:4 23:16 24:14

93 237 371 277, 284 277 268 236 277, 284 277 112 93 83

Judges (Jdg) 1:5B 2:13-​14

301 78, 79

441

442

Indices

2:14 2:14, 20 3:8 5:13 6:24 10:17 13:3, 5, 7 13:8 16:28 20:34 21:21

93 93 93 188 269 149 148, 149, 241 149 149 181 207, 213

Ruth 2:13

224

1 Samuel (1 Sam) 1:13-​14 339 1:13-​15 334 2:6 129, 131 2:30 160 3:21 162 4:9 78 15:27 72 20:29 106 22:18 72 25:12 72 25:20 218 26:7 338 2 Samuel (2 Sam) 4:5 338 7:12-​13, 16 403 12:17 129 14:24 72 22:6 287 24:15 237 1 Kings (1 Kgs) 1:13-​15 LXX 2:10 2:19 3:1ff.

334 110 218, 386 170

3:2-​3, 9 3:15 7:3-​4 8:10-​11 11:1-​40 11:5-​6 11:9-​10 13:1 13:30 13:33 14:19 14:29 15:7, 23 15:8 15:24 15:31 16:6 17:22 17:38 LXX 17:48 LXX 19:5 19:10, 14 20:35 22:40 25:20 LXX 25:37 26:7 26:9-​10 LXX 26:12

189 112 72, 73 210 371 76 79 162, 171 106 72 236 236 236 111 111 236 111 129 352 218 111 175, 176 162 111 218, 219 330, 349 337 188 337

2 Kings (2 Kgs) 2:9 2:11 4:5 4:6 4:7 4:43-​44 5:7 9:25 10:2 LXX 10:13 12:17 LXX

206, 207 206, 207, 211 337 337 131 175 196 160 224 106 129

Index of biblical and other ancient references

17:18 17:36 19:35 22:6 LXX 22:10 LXX 23:16 23:24-​25 23:25 25:11

175 77 277 287 188 72 73 73 176

3 Kings (3 Kgs [LXX]) 1:38 188 2:4 307 3:15 112 8:33 72 13:1ff. 162, 170 13:33 72 15:8 111 15:24 111 16:6 111 19:5 337 21:35 162 22:40 111 4 Kings (4 Kgs [LXX]) 2:9 206 2:9-​10 207 2:11 210, 211 6:33 188 8:12 291 15:16 291 17:15 82 20:3 307 1 Chronicles (1 Chr) 4:18 208 7:22 224 7:30 208 16:25 86 16:26 86 28:2 106

443

2 Chronicles (2 Chr) 9:12 72 10:4 78 14:10-​13 371 15:3 81 15:3-​4 81 15:4 81 15:5 268 18:31 72 18:34 236 29:15 162 30:6 71 30:12 162 34:21 175, 176 1 Paralipomenon (1 Par [LXX]) 19:2 224 28:2 106 2 Paralipomenon (2 Par [LXX]) 15:3-​4 81 24:18-​19 73 30:6 72 34:21 175 36:13 72 Ezra 10:13 10:14

237 236

Nehemiah (Neh) 1:3 175, 176 1:9 147 2:6 236 7:3 330 9:6 86 9:13 188 10:35 236 13:6 236 13:31 236

444

Indices

Esther 9:27

236

Job 1:19 2:11 3:5 LXX 3:13 3:26 5:13 7:6 8:13 9:22 9:22-​23 9:23 10:21 10:22 LXX 14:12 14:14 15:22 17:13 21:9 21:10 LXX 22:9-​11 22:10 22:11 24:2 24:9 24:14 29:2-​3 29:3 29:14 30:5 31:26-​28 33:4 33:22 LXX 34:20 38:7 LXX 42:11

276, 277 224 312 111 111 301 124 124 275 275, 277 275, 277 311 312 112 89 71, 72 88 268 291 303 277 304 207 207 252 304 303 352 252 76, 78 131 24 277 197 224

Psalms (Ps/​Pss) 2:11 78 3:5 337

3:6 6:11 8:5 8:7 11:6 LXX 14:1-​2 LXX 15:10 LXX 16:10-​11 17:3 LXX 17:5 LXX 17:6 LXX 18:5 18:5-​6 18:5-​20 18:6 18:6 18:6-​7 20:10 LXX 21:28 LXX 22:11 22:27 24:3 LXX 24:5 LXX 25:3 25:5 26:14 29:11 30:4 30:7, 15, 25 LXX 30:25 LXX 31:25 32:6 33:22 36:9 LXX 36:34 LXX 37:9 37:34 38:8-​9 LXX 39:8-​9 43:15 LXX 44:24 47:6 48:6

337 277 151 151 364 191 25, 26 26 124 287 287 287 24 188 287 287 25 364 72 290 72 89 89, 236 89 89, 236 88 268 25, 129 124 89, 124 89 162 88 89 89 89 89 89 89 364, 365 111 291 286

Index of biblical and other ancient references

54:3 LXX 54:23 LXX 55:22 58:11 LXX 59:11 64:8 65:9 LXX 66:3 LXX 67:26 LXX 68:7 LXX 68:26 69:7 69:14 70:20-​21 71:14 73:18-​19 73:19 74:20 77:14 LXX 82:5 87:6 LXX 89:8 LXX 90:3-​4 LXX 94:2 LXX 94:6 LXX 95:2 96:7 LXX 98:5, 9 LXX 101:13 LXX 101:14 LXX 102:14 102:20 LXX 104:39 LXX 106:10 LXX 106:14 LXX 106:40 110:1 112:4 113:17-​19 LXX 113:19 LXX 114:3 LXX 115:2-​7 115:4-​8

119 294 294 181 181 277 364 89 181 89 181 89 237 224 88 277 277 303, 304 210 303, 304 327, 379, 384 364 371 181 77 181 77 77 80 237 237 197 210 307, 312 312 93 386 311 81 75 287 81 86

115:13 116:2 LXX 116:3 117:2 117:4 LXX 117:8 LXX 118:4 118:49-​50 LXX 118:126 LXX 119:126 120:3 120:3-​4 120:4 LXX 125:5 LXX 126:2 128:6 129:5-​8 LXX 130:5-​8 132:17 134:13 LXX 134:19-​20 LXX 134:20 LXX 135:4 135:5 135:15-​18 135:20 139:8-​9 143:5 LXX

75 82 24, 287 82 75 294 75 224 237 237 337 337 328 120 337 268 88 89, 90 311 80 81 75 371 86 81, 86 75 25 188

Proverbs (Prov) 3:18 LXX 3:24 3:25 3:26 4:16 4:16-​17 6:4 6:4, 9 6:4-​10 6:6, 9-​11 6:12 6:15 8:34-​35

272 337 277, 284, 285 296 337 344 337, 344 337 344 344 296 277, 284 344

445

446

Indices

10:1, 10 119 10:5 337 10:28 124 11:7 124 11:23 124 14:13 119 15:11 LXX 24 15:13 119 20:13 337 23:20-​21 344 23:21 344 23:21, 29-​30 344 23:29-​31 345 23:30 339 24:22 276, 277 24:22 LXX 280 24:30-​33 344 24:62 (30:27) LXX 192 25:20 119 26:14-​16 344 27:20 24 28:6 LXX 307 29:1 277 30:16 24 Ecclesiastes (Eccl) = Qohelet (Qol) 1:6 72 3:1 237, 238, 240 3:4 119 5:11 337 7:2f. 119 9:2 275 9:11 275 9:11-​12 275 9:12 277 12:7 71 Song of Songs = Song of Solomon (Song) 8:5 286

Isaiah (Isa) 1:24 2:5 2:10-​22 2:11, 17, 20 2:20 4:3 5:7 5:11 5:11-​12 5:25 5:27 6:9-​10 6:10 7:3 7:14 LXX 8:1 8:3 8:22 9:1 9:2 9:5f. 9:22 10:20 10:22 10:24 11:10 LXX 11:12 13:4-​6 13:6 13:6ff. 13:8 13:9 14:1 14:3 14:7 14:9 14:10-​11 14:22-​23 15:2

160 303, 307 368 241 241 176 88 340 344 93 337 239 72 160, 171 290 160 290 312 89, 310, 311 312 374 295 176 176 160 128 145, 146 242 241, 242 242 286 241, 242 242 243 111 24 25 160, 171 119

Index of biblical and other ancient references

17:14 19:2 19:4 19:14 20:2 21:3 23:4 24:16 LXX 24:20 25:9 25:19 26:8 26:8-​9 26:17 26:18 26:19 27:13 28:1 28:1, 3, 7-​8 28:15 28:16 28:24 29:9-​10 29:10 LXX 29:13 29:15 LXX 30:13 30:26 31:4 31:4-​5 31:5 35:3-​5 35:10 37:3 LXX 38:9-​20 38:17 38:18-​19 40:1 40:1-​11 40:5 LXX 40:11 LXX 40:29

237, 277 286 160 339, 341, 344 161 286, 291 286 124 341 89 88 88 89 286, 287 286 30, 112, 128 196, 199 339, 341 339, 341 364 82 236 339, 344 335 75 312 277 303 188 188 371 394 119 292 24 25 25 227 227, 394 89 291 120

40:31 41:14 42:6 42:6-​7 42:7 42:13 42:16 43:5 43:10 43:11 43:12 43:15 43:17 43:20-​21 44:6-​20 44:9-​21 44:22 45:14 LXX 45:18-​20 45:20 45:21-​22 45:22 47:8 47:9 47:9, 11 47:11 48:3 49:1 49:6 49:8 49:13 49:7 51:1 51:5 51:12 51:13 51:17, 21-​22 51:17-​52:2 51:20 51:21 52:10 54:1

447

89 80, 96 310, 311 304 307, 312 354 311 145, 146, 147 160 80 160 86 111 371 76 86 80 77 83 80 80 72, 80 269 277, 284 284 277, 284 277, 284, 285 171 89, 310, 311, 366 237 224 81, 82, 96 120 89 227 236 341 344 328 339 89 286, 291

448 54:5 54:9 54:17 57:15 57:18 LXX 59:9 59:11 59:17

Indices

59:20 60:1 60:1-​2 60:1-​3 60:2 60:19-​20 60:22 61:1-​3 61:2 63:3, 6 63:8-​9 63:9 63:11 LXX 63:19-​64:4 65:5 65:11 65:16 66:7 66:7-​9 66:8 66:13-​14 66:15-​16 66:22

96 237 160 227 227 88, 89 87, 88, 89 348, 352, 353, 354, 355, 357 71, 92, 160, 403 128 310 89 311, 312 303, 304 237 227 224, 227 341 186 186 140 403 236 341 82 295 296 287 224 403 160

Jeremiah (Jer) 1:5 1:7 1:8, 15 1:12 2:5 LXX 2:19 2:26

171 160 160 330 82 160 252

3:10 3:17 4:20 4:31 5:6 5:12 6:13 6:13-​14 6:14 6:24 6:26 8:11 8:12 8:19 10:1-​16 10:3 LXX 10:5.9-​12 10:10 10:11 10:19 LXX 12:5 12:12 12:16f. 13:1 13:6 13:16 13:25 14:13 14:13-​16 14:19 15:8 15:18 16:19 17:7 18:8 18:21-​22 18:22 20:16 21:4 22:23 23:5 23:30-​31

72 145, 146 277 286, 291 330 270 269 270 269, 270, 272 286, 291 277, 284 269 237 83, 86 82, 83 83 83 83 83 302 268 268 395 161 236 88, 89 76 269, 270 270 88, 89 277, 284 119 76 124 72 277 284 236 146 287 403 159

Index of biblical and other ancient references

23:31 23:33 24:7 25:11 25:12 LXX 26:3-​4 LXX 27:4 28:39 30:7 30:8 31(38):4 31:8 31:13 31:26 32:37 33:6 37:23 LXX 37:24 LXX 38:7ff. 38:10 LXX 38:28 39:16-​18 42:7 46:3-​4 49:5 49:9 50:16 50:31 50:43 51:8 51:33 51:39, 57 52:8

159, 160 160 72 78 365 352 237 337 94 160 395 147 224 112 93 268, 269 95 94 208 146 330 208 236 352 160 252 237 160 286, 291 277 237 111, 112 301

Lamentations (Lam) 1:3 301 1:12 249 1:14 330 1:22 119 2:1, 21-​22 241, 249 2:22 241, 249 3:25-​26 89

Ezekiel (Ezk) 3:27 4:1 6:1 7:14 7:16 7:19 10:11 11:17 13:5 13:6 13:10 13:10, 16 13:18-​21 14:8 16:43 21:30 22:27 30:2 30:3 30:3-​4 30:9 33:3ff. 33:14 34:1 34:1-​2 34:13 34:26 35:1 35:5 36:24 37:1-​14 37:11-​12, 14 37:14 37:21 38:18 40:1-​48:35 42:19

160 161 160, 171 196 176 241 72 145, 146 241 249 269, 270 270 371 365 119 237 207 241 241, 242 242 241 196 72 160 161 147 237 160 237 147 176 176, 364 176, 364 147 288 398 72

Daniel (Dn) 2:21 3:88 LXX

240, 241 96

449

450

Indices

5:11, 14 330 5:19 131 6:27-​28 LXX 80 7:12 240 7:12-​14 169 7:13 LXX 403 7:16 58 8:17 237 8:19 237 9:14 (Theodotion) 330 10:5-​6 169 11:35 308 11:40 237 12:1-​3 30 12:2 21, 25, 110, 112, 113, 327 12:2 (Theodotion) 379, 383 12:4 237 12:9 237 12:12 178 12:13 111, 236 Hosea (Hos) 1:9 2:3 2:12 2:20-​25 2:25 5:4 5:8 6:1 6:2 7:1 7:10 8:5 10:12 11:5-​6 11:8 12:15 13:8 13:9

371 364 364 242 371 72 196 72 129, 131 252 72 93 237 280 364 93 218 218

13:12 13:13 13:14 14:1 14:2 Joel 1:5 1:7 1:15 2:1 2:1-​2 2:1, 11 2:1, 15 2:2 2:9 2:11 2:12-​13 3:1 3:1-​5 3:4 3:5 4:1 4:14 Amos 3:4 4:6, 9 5:1 5:3 5:13 5:18 5:18, 20 5:19 5:19-​20 5:20 6:4 7:14-​15 8:9-​10

288 286, 287, 288, 291 24, 287 291 72 330, 339, 341 364 241, 242 196, 197, 241 242 94, 196, 197, 241, 242 196, 197, 241 242, 311, 312 252 94, 241, 242 72 237 161 94, 243 243 238 241 207 72 161 175 237 94, 241, 242 94, 237, 241, 242, 311 237, 242 237, 241, 242 237, 241, 242, 311 341 160 365

Index of biblical and other ancient references

8:10 9:2 9:2-​3 9:11-​12

364 25 25 398

Obadiah (Obd) 15 241 Jonah (Jon) 1:5 2:3 2:7

337 25 25

Micah (Mic) 1:3 1:6 1:7 2:12 3:5 4:6 4:7 4:9 4:9-​10 5:1 5:4-​5 6:14 7:8

188, 403 364 364, 365 146 269, 270 146 364, 365 286, 291 286, 287 403 268 176 303, 304

Nahum (Nah) 1:8 3:6 3:11

312 365 339

Habakkuk (Hab) 1:12 111, 365 2:4 82 2:5 24 2:7 277, 330 2:7, 19 277, 330 2:18 81 3:9-​15 354 3:13 355

451

Zephaniah (Zeph) 1:4 94 1:7, 11-​16 241, 243, 364 1:7, 14 242 1:9 241, 242 1:9-​10, 15 18 1:12 275 1:14 94, 241, 242 1:14-​15 242 1:14-​16 199 1:14-​18 94 1:15 94, 241, 242, 311, 368 1:15-​18 288 1:16 196 1:18 94, 241 2:2-​3 241 2:13 364 2:15 269, 275 3:8 146 3:10 146 3:16 237 Haggai (Hg) 2:4 2:9

160 160

Zechariah (Zech) 1:3, 16 72, 160 7:14 365 8:1ff. 160 8:6, 11 160 8:10 268 9:1 160 9:9 374 9:14 196, 198 10:1 237 10:10 147 12:3 145, 146, 365 12:3, 6 145, 146, 364, 365 12:6 364, 365 12:14 175

452

Indices

13:2 14:1 14:2 14:7

131 241 146 241

Malachi (Mal) 1:3 3:1 3:7 3:17 LXX 3:19-​24 3:20 3:23 4:2 4:5

365 276, 277, 284 72 370 94 243 213, 241, 242, 288 243 213

ii) New Testament Matthew (Mt) 1:2, 11 1:23 2:8 2:14 2:18 2:19 3:7 4:16 4:17 5:14 5:14, 16 5:16 5:22ff. 5:39-​40 6:6 6:9 6:10 6:13 6:21 6:23 6:24 6:25 7:21

106 290 247 338 117 110, 111 93, 95 310, 311, 312 387 308, 311 308, 311 308, 311 349 113, 340, 349 349 386 387 96, 306, 369 340 308 78 351 386, 387

7:22 8:12 8:24 8:34 9:15 9:24 10:10 11:14 11:17 11:22 12:28 12:36 12:46 13:11 13:19 13:25 13:38 13:55 15:8-​9 16:14 16:18 16:19 16:28 17:5 17:10-​13 17:25 21:1-​11 22:11 23:15 23:22 24:6-​7 24:6-​8 24:8 24:19 24:23-​27 24:26-​27 24:29-​31 24:30-​31 24:31 24:32-​36 24:36 24:37-​39

245 314, 349 337 202 314 113 166 213 117 245 181 245 106 121 306 337, 338 314 106 75 213 17, 396 387 209 210 213 182 374 351 314 386 286 286 286, 287, 288, 289 290 245 245 403 150, 165, 168 151, 199 197 231, 240, 248 231

Index of biblical and other ancient references

24:42 24:42-​44 24:43 24:43-​44 24:45-​50 24:49 24:50 25:1 25:1, 6 25:5 25:5-​6 25:6 25:13 25:46 26:28 26:38, 40 26:40-​45 26:41 26:50 26:61 27:28, 31 27:52 27:53 28:9, 17 28:10 28:13 28:19 28:20

329, 330 231, 253 278 253 231 338 278 218 218, 338 337 338 218, 338 329, 330 369 380 329, 337 329, 337 329 402 374 351 104, 112, 114 129 77 106 110, 114, 338 37 221

Mark (Mk) 1:6 1:15 1:38 2:19 2:20 3:17 3:32 4:11 4:27 4:38 5:38-​39 5:39

351 387 340 314 207 314 106 121 337, 338 337 117 113

5:41 5:42 6:9 7:6-​7 8:7 8:29 8:31 9:1 9:7 9:8 9:9 9:9-​10 9:10 9:18 10:9 10:17, 30 12:25 12:26 12:30 13:7 13:7-​8 13:8 13:13 13:17 13:24 13:24-​27 13:26-​27 13:27 13:28-​32 13:32 13:33 13:34 13:35 13:36 13:37 14:24 14:34 14:37, 40-​41 14:38 14:40 14:58

453

194 194 351 75 340 349 129 165, 167, 168, 209, 215, 217 210 278 129 129 129 303 166 389 129 57 273, 274 286 286 286, 289 180 290 304 403 150, 165, 168 151 197 57, 58, 240 332 329 329, 330 278, 336, 337 329 380 329 337 329 337 374

454

Indices

14:62 15:20 16:9-​20 16:15 16:19

386 351 37 37 201, 207

Luke (Lk) 1:3 1:17 1:31 1:47 1:67-​80 1:77 1:78 1:78-​79 1:79 2:9 2:9, 38 2:13 2:30-​31 2:32 2:34 2:38 3:6 3:7 4:39 5:34 7:29-​30 7:32 8:10 8:20 8:27 8:52 9:27 9:35 9:39 10:6 10:7 10:40 11:20 11:22 11:35

247 213 290 90 312 311 312 312 310, 312 282 90, 282 278 89 89, 310 367 90, 282 89 93, 95 282 314 349 117 121 106 351 113 209 210 278 314 166 282 181, 387 282, 285 308

12:22 12:37 12:39 12:39-​40 12:42-​46 12:45 12:46 14:21 15:29 16:8 16:13 17:22-​26 17:22-​37 17:26-​30 17:33 18:33 20:1 20:34 21:23 21:25-​27 21:26, 35 21:29-​33 21:34 21:34ff. 21:34-​36 21:35 21:36 22:19 22:19f. 22:45 22:46 22:69 23:43 24:4 24:7, 46 24:9 24:20 24:46 24:47

351 329, 330 278 231, 253 231 338 278 65 78 308, 309, 313, 314, 318, 319 78 245 245 231 370 129 282 314 290 403 281, 282, 285 197 278, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 341, 342 281 231, 280, 281, 342 281, 282, 285 332 380 380 110, 114 337 386 386 282 129, 130 65 369 129, 130 37

Index of biblical and other ancient references

24:49 24:52

351 77

John (Jn) 1:1-​3 1:1, 14 1:5, 9 1:8 1:9 1:12 1:21, 25 2:10 2:19 2:21-​22 3:2 3:14 3:16 3:17 3:17-​19 3:36 4:42 5:19-​27 5:25 5:28-​29 5:35 6:39-​40 7:39 8:3, 4 8:12 8:28 9:5 10:12, 28-​29 10:17-​18 10:28-​29 11:11 11:12 11:43 11:44 12:12-​15 12:16, 23, 28 12:26 12:32

345 159 308, 311, 318 311 308, 311, 318 314 213 338 374 131 338 201 373 373 373 93 89 21 194 21, 195 311 165 201 303 89, 307, 308, 311 201 89 213 131 213 112 110 194 194 374 201 388 201

12:35 12:36 12:40 12:46 13:31 14:2-​3 14:6 14:15 14:19 16:11 16:20 16:21 16:23 16:26 17:1 17:9, 20 17:12 17:24 19:39 20:9 20:17

455

303, 318 313, 314, 318, 319 309 89 201 388 391 237 115 57 117 290 290 380 201 380 314 221, 388 338 129 106

The Acts of the Apostles (Acts) 1:4 88 1:7 58, 239, 240 1:8 37, 282 1:9 207 1:9-​11 188 1:11 187 1:14 106 1:22 37 2:2 278 2:15 338, 340 2:17-​18 161 2:20 243 2:24 26, 129, 130, 133, 286, 287 2:24.27.31-​32 26 2:24, 32 26, 133 2:25-​32 26 2:32 37, 129, 130, 133 2:33 187, 201

456 2:36 3:11-​26 3:15 3:17 3:19 3:20 3:20-​21 3:21 3:25 3:26 4:1 4:1-​2 4:10 4:12 4:28 4:33 4:36 5:30 5:31 5:32 5:42 6:12 7:7 7:42 7:55-​56 7:60 8:14-​17 8:16 8:24 8:39 9:1-​19 9:2 9:3 9:16 9:22 9:23-​25 9:25 9:31 9:35 10:17 10:40 10:42

Indices

201 109 26, 37, 130 109 69, 109 37, 69 403 240 314 130, 133 282 37 26, 37, 130 38 367 37 314 130 201 37 37 282 77 77 386 114 161 161 282, 285 204 311, 360 38, 54 278 359 37 297 338 398 69 282 130 89, 98, 386

11:11 11:13 11:18 11:21 11:26 11:27-​28 12:5 12:6 12:7 12:14 12:21 13:1 13:1-​2 13:11 13:15 13:30-​35 13:30, 37 13:33-​34 13:34 13:35-​37 13:40 13:46, 48 13:47 13:48 14:15 14:19 14:22 14:25 15:13-​21 15:16 15:17 15:19 15:19-​20 15:21 15:26 15:27 15:31-​32 15:32 15:40-​41 16:1-​10 16:9-​10, 12 16:11ff.

282 65 38 69 21 161, 172 380 110, 114 282 65 351 161 172 304 395 26 26, 130 130, 133 129 26 282, 285 38, 366 311, 366 38, 366 38, 63, 69 285 394 66 398 398 398 69 398 138 114 65 395 161, 164 157 157 38 39

Index of biblical and other ancient references

16:14 16:16-​40 16:17 16:26 16:37 17:1 17:1-​2 17:1-​9 17:2 17:3 17:4 17:4, 17 17:5 17:5-​10 17:10-​13 17:10-​15 17:14-​34 17:18 17:19 17:16-​34 17:31 17:31-​33 17:32 18:1-​3 18:1-​17 18:5, 28 18:7 18:11 18.12 18:13 18:25 18:25-​26 19:1-​6 19:4 19:6 19:8 19:9 19:9, 23 19:10, 22-​31 19:21 19:21, 29

48, 75 54 38 278 28 54, 75, 76 54 39 55 37, 130 54, 75, 76 54, 75, 76 282 55 55 39 55 38 38, 54 34, 39 26, 38, 89, 98, 129, 130, 133, 158 24, 34 129 48 39, 55 37 75 55 38 75 38, 58, 247 38, 58 161 38 161 55 38, 54, 55 38, 54 54 38 38

19:27 20:4, 16, 18 20:5, 23 20:21 20:28 20:31 20:32 20:33-​35 20:35 21:9-​11 21:11 21:25 21:27 21:39 22:3 22:3-​16 22:4 22:6 22:13, 20 22:25-​29 22:28 23:6 23:11 23:11, 27 23:15, 20 23:16 24:14 24:14, 22 24:15 24:19 24:21 24:22 26:2-​18 26:5 26:6-​8 26:8 26:17-​18 26:18 26:18, 20 26:20 26:23 26:28

457

38, 75 38 88 38 366, 370, 372, 373 330 396, 397, 398 48 165 161, 172 161 57 38 406 26, 406 311, 360 38, 54 278 282 28 28 26, 38, 389 282 282 247 65 38, 54, 77 38, 54, 58, 77, 247 26, 38 38 38 38, 54, 58, 247 311, 360 26 38 130, 131 69 69, 306 38, 69, 306 38, 69 310 21

458 27:2 27:9, 22 28:2 28:6 28:15 28:20 28:26-​27 28:27 28:28 Romans (Rom) 1:1 1:4 1:5 1:7 1:9 1:11-​12 1:13 1:14 1:16 1:17 1:17-​18 1:18 1:18-​24 1:18-​32 1:21 1:24 1:25 2:1 2:3 2:4 2:5 2:5ff. 2:5, 8 2:7 2:8 2:10 2:16 2:19 3:5

Indices

38 99 282 278 218 38 69 69 89

3:5f. 3:9-​20, 23 3:17 3:26 4:3 4:6 4:8 4:15 4:17 4:17, 24

78 87, 129, 201 166 272 77 394 107, 108 139 127 82, 389 368 93, 96, 369 62 125 304 392 76, 77, 107, 307 392 297 143, 144 94, 95, 244, 368 94, 95, 244, 368 93, 94, 95, 244, 307, 368, 369 88, 369, 389 93, 94, 95, 307, 368, 369 272 89, 98, 138, 244 304, 311, 313 95, 368

4:19 4:24 4:25 5:1 5:1-​10 5:1, 11 5:2-​8, 15-​16 5:6 5:6, 8 5:8 5:8-​10 5:8, 21 5:9 5:9-​10 5:10 5:11 5:12 5:12-​21 5:15 5:18 5:21 6:1-​11 6:2, 11 6:4 6:4, 9 6:4, 11 6:6, 16 6:8

95, 368 369 272 239, 249 82 392 149 368 91, 131, 195, 196 90, 91, 130, 131, 132, 134, 195, 196 110, 111 90, 91, 130, 132, 134, 195 130, 381 272, 376 356 158, 272, 376 245 239, 249, 380 239, 249, 380, 385 380, 385 96 138, 380, 385, 389 93, 95, 138, 158, 368, 369, 376, 381 158 87, 158, 357, 381 158, 376 388 389 151 325 138, 385, 389 385 139, 385, 389, 391 129, 130, 195, 389 130, 195 195 78 127, 148, 221, 382, 385

Index of biblical and other ancient references

6:9 6:10 6:11 6:13 6:22-​23 7:3 7:4 7:24 7:25 8:2 8:10 8:11

8:11, 13 8:11, 34 8:12 8:14 8:16 8:18 8:18-​27 8:19, 23 8:23 8:23-​25 8:24-​25 8:25 8:28-​30 8:28-​35 8:29 8:29-​30 8:31-​39 8:32 8:34 8:35 9:3 9:9 9:16, 18 9:17 9:22

129, 130, 195, 201 139, 391 139, 385, 389, 391 351, 389 389 325 130, 134 92 78, 325 387 389 26, 27, 90, 91, 97, 98, 115, 130, 131, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 195, 199, 360, 389 360 195 325 143, 313 314 239, 249 375 88, 375 88, 375 389 90, 375 88, 89 388 373 106, 148, 367 106, 148, 367 62 380 130, 187, 195, 380, 386, 391 398 107 238, 239 325 129 367, 368

9:23 9:25-​26 9:27 9:28 sq. 9:30 9:31 9:33 10:1 10:2-​3 10:4 10:5-​17 10:7 10:8 10:7 10:9 10:11 10:13 11:1 11:1-​24 11:3 11:5 11:8 11:14 11:25 11:26 11:32 11:34 12:1-​15:13 12:3 12:4-​5 12:10 12:19 13:1-​7 13:4-​5 13:5 13:11 13:11-​13 13:11-​14

459

367 371 175, 176 149 303 178, 181 82 361, 380 309 369 64 140 127 140 90, 127, 130, 132, 134, 140, 195, 196 83 37 26, 28 62 175, 176 239, 250 335 361 92, 108 71, 92, 201 369 149 99 166 374 234 93 260 368 93 130, 239, 246, 327, 390 304 231, 245, 321, 322, 333, 345

460 13:12 13:12f. 13:12-​13 13:12-​14 13:12, 14 13:13 13:13ff. 13:14 14:7-​8 14:8-​9 14:9 14:12, 19 14:14 14:15 14:17, 19 14:18 14:19 15:4 15:5-​6 15:6 15:7 15:12 15:15 15:19 15:30 15:31 15:33 16:7 16:18 16:20 16:23

Indices

309, 315, 317, 319, 342, 351, 352 309, 315, 317, 319, 342, 351, 352 316 351 315 309, 341, 342 321 315, 351, 352 390 225, 389 97, 128, 130, 134, 378, 390 272, 325, 386 166 380 272, 325, 386 78 272, 325, 386 89 394 87 392 128 166 38 380 92 272 352 78 272 106

1 Corinthians (1 Cor) 1:2 37 1:3 272 1:7 88 1:8 243, 402 1:9 82, 373 1:10 107

1:16 1:18 1:21 1:22 1:23 1:24 1:31 2:2 2:4-​5 2:7 2:15 2:16 3:9 3:9-​14 3:9, 16f. 3:10 3:13 3:20 4:5 4:6 4:6-​15 5:4 5:5 5:8 5:12-​13 6:1-​8 6:14

7:1 7:1, 25 7:5 7:5, 29 7:10 7:10-​11 7:15 7:25 7:30 7:39

247, 395 381 127 349 127, 349 127 149 87 127 367 299, 349 149, 166 396, 397 396 396, 397 166, 396 402 149 185, 239, 304 394 62 146 185, 243, 244, 288, 402 223 121 260 26, 27, 90, 97, 98, 129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 195, 199, 360 57, 58, 233 57, 58, 233 238, 239 238, 239 166 166 272 57, 58 117 109, 114

Index of biblical and other ancient references

8:1 8:1, 4 8:4 8:5 8:6 8:11 8:13 9:1-​18 9:7 9:14 9:19 9:22 9:24 10:1 10:1ff. 10:14 10:14-​22 10:19 10:19-​20 10:21 10:22 10:23 10:26 11:21 11:23-​25 11:24 11:26 11:27 11:30 12:1 12:2 12:3 12:10, 28 12:12-​27 12:28 13:1-​13 13:7 13:13 14:3 14:4 14:5 14:8

57, 58, 233, 396 58 58, 85, 86 85 85, 86, 87, 138 380 392 62 351 166 79 361 303 108, 210 108, 210 76, 85, 392 85, 86 85 76 162 86, 94 396, 398 149 338 166 380 185 162 108, 109 57, 58, 108, 109 76, 143, 144 392 161, 366 374 161, 366 356 356 356, 357 396 397 396 197

14:13 14:17 14:25 14:29 14:31 14:33 15:1-​58 15:3 15:3-​4 15:3-​5 15:3-​7 15:4, 12 15:4, 12-​13 15:6 15:6-​7 15:8 15:10 15:12 15:12ff. 15:12-​13, 21 15:12-​13, 35 15:12-​14, 35 15:12-​16, 20 15:13ff. 15:13f, 23 15:14 15:14ff. 15:15 15:15ff. 15:17 15:18 15:18, 20, 51 15:19 15:19ff. 15:20 15:20-​23 15:20.23 15:20-​28

461

392 396 66, 203 161 161, 394 272 385 380 126 171 134 130 129, 130 109, 114 202 401 325 62, 115, 129, 130, 135, 215 135 129 130 24 130 129, 130, 195, 215 215 128, 130 128, 130 90, 130, 132, 195, 199 90, 130, 132, 195, 199 82, 130 109, 112, 113, 114, 137, 138 108, 111 91, 375, 391 91, 375, 391 104, 112, 201, 381 26, 115 26 91, 260

462 15:21 15:21, 47 15:22 15:23 15:23-​52 15:23, 52 15:24 15:24-​26 15:26, 54 15:26, 54-​55 15:27 15:27-​28 15:28 15:29-​49 15:33 15:34 15:35 15:35-​44, 50-​53 15:35, 52 15:35-​54 15:42 15:44-​45 15:45 15:46 15:47 15:51 15:51f. 15:51-​52 15:51-​53 15:52 15:53 15:53-​54 15:54 15:54-​57

Indices

129, 138, 151, 195, 389 151 27, 131, 389 27, 202, 215, 386, 402 27 253 386 260 201, 351, 381 201, 381 151 386 234, 385, 386 22, 62 215, 336 332, 336 22, 130, 195, 199, 215 28 199 22 129, 195 17 87, 131, 201 202 151, 386 109, 114, 168, 215, 217 109, 114, 168, 215, 217 27, 138, 168, 197, 215, 216, 217 23 27, 130, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 212, 217, 351 351 351 351, 381 24

15:55-​56 15:57 15:58 16:1, 12 16:12 16:13 16:15 16:17

195 138, 376, 386 223 57, 58, 106 57, 58, 106 329 107, 247 402

2 Corinthians (2 Cor) 1:3 87 1:3-​7 394 1:4 223 1:6 395 1:8 108 1:9 92, 130, 131, 195 1:9-​10 92 1:10 91 1:11 380 1:14 392, 402 1:19 390 1:20 90 2:1 63 2:5-​11 288 2:7 223 3:16 68, 69, 71 3:18 388 4:3 309 4:4 309, 315, 388 4:4, 6 304, 309, 311, 315, 388 4:5 79 4:1-​6 87 4:5-​6 311 4:6 304, 311, 315 4:8f. 120 4:11 369 4:12 389 4:13-​17 398 4:14 26, 27, 90, 97, 98, 130, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140,

Index of biblical and other ancient references

4:15 4:16 5:1 5:1-​10 5:3 5:4 5:5 5:6-​9 5:8 5:10 5:11-​20 5:14ff. 5:14-​15 5:14-​6:2 5:14, 21 5:15 5:16-​17 5:18-​19 5:19 5:20 6:2 6:7 6:7ff. 6:10 6:14 6:14-​7:1 6:16 6:17 6:17 sq. 7:1 7:4 7:6 7:7 7:9-​11 7:10 8:14 9:1 10:3-​5 10:8 10:10

195, 199, 220, 221, 360, 382 390 351 388 387 351 388 388 388, 390 386, 388, 402 89, 98 360 380, 381, 390 308 402 380, 381, 390 130, 380, 389 402 374 90 395 239 120, 351, 352 120, 351, 352 120 304, 309 319, 321 397 392 149 309 394 223 117 120 120 239, 250 58 351, 352 395 217, 402

10:12 10:13 10:14 10:17 11:2 11:20, 25 11:22 11:23 11:33 12:2 12:2, 4 12:4 12:10 12:19 13:4 13:10 13:11

463

349 349 181 149 374 260 26, 28 120 297 204, 211, 387 204, 211, 386, 387 204, 211, 386 234 395 90, 128, 221, 382, 391 395 272

Galatians (Gal) 1:1 90, 130, 132, 134, 195 1:3 272 1:3-​4 381 1:4 380, 382 1:10 78 1:11-​12 171 1:12 401 1:13-​17 28, 401 1:15 171 1:16 171, 401 2:16 356 2:20 380 3:6 82 3:11 82 3:13 380, 381 3:26 313 3:27 351, 352 3:27-​28 351 3:28 313 4:8 76, 85 4:9 68, 76

464 4:10 4:18, 20 4:27 5:1-​6:10 5:5 5:5-​6 5:6 5:8 5:13 5:13-​6:10 5:16 5:19 5:21 6:8 6:9 6:9-​10 6:10 6:14 6:16 Ephesians (Eph) 1:4-​6 1:5, 11 1:11-​14 1:14 1:20 1:22 1:23 2:1-​10 2:2 2:3 2:5 2:6 2:7 2:12 2:16 2:19 2:19-​22 2:21 3:18 4:1-​6:20

Indices

238, 239 402 291 99 88 356 328 309 78 99 341 341 341 389 239 130 238, 239, 325 120 272 310, 371 367 372 370 130, 132, 187, 195, 386 374, 386 374 97 314, 315 96, 97, 121, 313, 314 148, 195 129, 148, 195 282, 285 121, 124 381 325 396 397 303 99

4:17 4:18 4:19 4:21 4:24 4:31 5:2, 25 5:6 5:6-​20 5:8 5:8-​11 5:9 5:10-​11 5:11 5:14 5:15 5:18 5:23 5:23-​24 5:25 6:5 6:6-​7 6:7 6:10-​20 6:11ff. 6:11, 14 6:12 6:13 6:14 6:14-​17 6:18 6:18-​20 6:22

310, 392 304, 310 310 310 310, 351, 352 93 380 93, 95, 314, 336, 368 321 306, 309, 313, 315, 318, 321 304 309 309 308 113, 128, 130, 327, 328 58 338, 339 30 374 380 78 78 78 355 351, 352 351, 352, 353 304 106 351, 352, 353 355 329 380 394

Philippians (Phil) 1:1 78 1:2 272 1:6 243, 244, 402 1:6, 10 138, 243, 244, 402 1:10 138, 243, 244, 402

Index of biblical and other ancient references

1:11 1:16 1:19, 23 1:23 1:26 2:1 2:7 2:8 2:12 2:15 2:16 2:22 2:25 2:27 3:1 3:3 3:3-​10 3:5 3:5-​6 3:7-​21 3:10 3:10-​11 3:11 3:12 3:12-​13 3:14 3:16 3:20 3:20-​21 3:21 4:4-​9 4:7, 9 4:15-​16

138 367 125, 222, 387, 390, 402 125, 222, 387, 390, 402 402 395 88 380 217, 402 308, 314 243, 402 78 351, 352 120, 122 272 77 360 26 406 385 148, 381 360, 381 129, 195, 381 303, 360 303, 360 360, 386 178, 181 88, 90, 96, 260, 386, 403 381 148, 386 99 272 55

Colossians (Col) 1:3 92, 380 1:5 90 1:12 92 1:12-​14 306 1:13 92, 304, 309, 316

1:13-​14 1:14 1:15 1:16 1:18 1:20, 22 1:21-​23 1:27 2:2 2:4-​15 2:12 2:13 2:13-​14 3:1 3:1-​4:6 3:5-​4:6 3:6 3:8 3:9-​10 3:10 3:10, 12 3:12 3:24 4:1 4:2 4:5 4:8

465

307 346 388 345 374 381 381 90 394 147 90, 130, 132, 148, 195 148, 195 380 148, 187, 386 100 99 93, 95, 314, 368 93 307 351 351, 352 351, 352 78 386 329 121 394

1 Thessalonians (1 Thess) 1:1 60, 153, 157, 164, 272 1:1-​10 59, 61 1:2 374 1:2-​10 59, 60, 61 1:2-​3:13 60 1:2-​5:22 60 1:3 89, 97, 125, 353, 356, 357, 358, 360, 361 1:4 53, 244, 372, 373, 398 1:5 58, 67, 127

466 1:6 1:6-​10 1:7 1:7-​8 1:8 1:9

1:9f. 1:9-​10

1:10

2:1 2:1-​12 2:1-​16 2:1-​3:10 2:1-​3:13 2:1-​5:11 2:1, 17 2:2 2:2, 4 2:2, 5 2:4, 16

Indices

67, 224 54 65 54 64, 65, 205, 234 34, 53, 63, 66, 68, 76, 81, 85, 86, 199, 234, 256, 296, 307, 311, 360, 368, 372, 389, 398, 404 64, 65 18, 21, 22, 27, 28, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 53, 56, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 67, 75, 76, 97, 107, 115, 141, 231, 265, 359, 360, 361, 376, 401, 404 30, 61, 79, 84, 87, 88, 95, 96, 97, 98, 102, 125, 126, 129, 130, 132, 134, 135, 138, 149, 172, 196, 199, 224, 235, 244, 250, 251, 296, 307, 350, 357, 358, 360, 361, 368, 372, 375, 376, 379, 381, 386, 387, 394, 399, 402, 403 63, 97, 105, 234 63 60 59 59 59 63 54, 58, 260, 373 54 54, 58, 260, 373 31

2:9 2:11 2:11-​12 2:11-​13 2:12 2:12, 16 2:12, 16-​20 2:13 2:13-​16 2:14 2:14-​15 2:14-​16 2:15-​16 2:16 2:17 2:17ff. 2:17-​3:8 2:17-​3:13 2:18 2:19 3:1 3:1-​3 3:1-​5 3:2 3:3 3:4 3:5 3:6 3:6, 12 3:7 3:9-​13 3:10 3:11-​13 3:13

48, 58 58 397 225 30, 53, 223, 246, 357, 372, 373, 391 53 53 67, 172, 225, 227, 399, 404 358 53, 55, 56, 274, 285, 398 379 121 55 30, 31, 93, 96, 125, 181, 250, 285, 361, 368, 373 56, 105, 238, 239 56, 105, 238, 239 394 60 155 88, 125, 187, 217, 251, 357, 402 56, 175 157 56 56, 64, 106, 107, 223, 394 224, 234, 367, 373 53, 58 155, 367 57, 58, 59, 392 57, 58, 59, 392 223, 224, 394 396 59 59 30, 32, 88, 185, 187, 199, 217,

Index of biblical and other ancient references

4:1 4:1ff. 4:1-​12 4:1, 6, 13 4:1-​5:22 4:1-​5:24 4:3-​8 4:3-​12 4:5 4:5, 6, 8 4:6 4:7 4:7, 9, 14 4:8 4:9 4:9-​12 4:9, 13 4:10 4:11-​12 4:12 4:13

4:13ff. 4:13-​15 4:13, 15 4:13, 14, 16 4:13, 16

224, 251, 357, 402, 404, 407 100, 105, 223, 392, 399 100, 105, 223, 392, 399 99, 191 48 59, 60, 100 100 32, 53, 404, 407 97 31, 105, 121, 124, 309, 372, 392 105 30, 31, 107, 392 147, 372, 373 331 31, 222, 223, 325 57, 58, 59, 234, 247, 373 361, 404 57 105, 223 48 121, 122, 246 10, 18, 24, 31, 57, 58, 104, 105, 108, 109, 114, 117, 118, 121, 125, 133, 141, 200, 224, 225, 226, 227, 233, 234, 256, 296, 315, 324, 325, 337, 341, 383, 388, 392, 403, 404 107, 108, 157 18, 109, 115, 324, 383 154 224 315

4:13, 18 4:13-​5:10 4:13-​5:11

4:13-​18

4:14

4:14-​15 4:14-​15, 17 4:14, 16 4:14, 16-​17 4:14-​17

467

225, 226, 227, 404 30, 388 31, 58, 101, 102, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 157, 166, 168, 216, 224, 232, 235, 240, 245, 246, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 316, 326, 330, 354, 357, 368, 375, 383, 385, 388, 392, 393, 399 18, 21, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 53, 57, 60, 61, 88, 97, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105, 109, 115, 120, 133, 138, 141, 154, 170, 202, 213, 214, 216, 217, 220, 222, 226, 229, 231, 232, 235, 358, 393, 401, 404 26, 27, 31, 90, 91, 97, 104, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 125, 126, 128, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 150, 151, 152, 187, 194, 195, 199, 202, 215, 220, 227, 360, 373, 376, 379, 380, 381, 383, 384, 386, 388, 401 113, 114, 195 195 139, 140 403 403

468 4:14, 17 4:15

4:15ff.

4:15-​16 4:15, 17 4:15-​17

4:15, 16, 17 4:16

4:16ff. 4:16-​17

4:17

Indices

195, 403 10, 31, 104, 108, 109, 112, 114, 117, 152, 154, 163, 166, 168, 175, 183, 243, 244, 383, 402, 404, 408 10, 149, 150, 154, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 185, 223, 225, 360, 404 27, 381 31, 175 27, 141, 150, 152, 154, 159, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 173, 180, 185, 215, 217, 221, 244, 245, 251, 361, 402 55, 159, 168 10, 31, 91, 110, 114, 122, 128, 130, 133, 136, 137, 185, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195, 198, 199, 202, 227, 244, 265, 315, 383, 386, 388 149, 185, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198 28, 34, 150, 183, 190, 194, 197, 199, 201, 205, 209, 210, 214, 215, 216, 217, 219, 253, 359, 387, 390, 403 10, 24, 31, 120, 141, 144, 147, 150, 151, 152, 157, 175,

4:18

5:1 5:1-​2 5:1-​2, 4 5:1-​3

5:1-​3, 6-​7 5:1, 4, 12, 14 5:1-​8 5:1-​10 5:1-​11

5:1, 12 5:1-​22 5:2

179, 185, 189, 190, 191, 194, 202, 203, 204, 205, 207, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 244, 360, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 390, 401, 402 11, 102, 108, 118, 161, 172, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 232, 360, 393, 394, 404 31, 57, 58, 59, 105, 107, 233, 235, 239, 247, 248, 255 231 231 11, 28, 231, 232, 235, 240, 241, 245, 249, 280, 281, 282, 297, 359, 404 231 376 231 57 11, 18, 21, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 53, 57, 58, 60, 61, 88, 97, 101, 103, 133, 209, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 247, 248, 250, 251, 253, 255, 272, 278, 279, 281, 312, 317, 318, 331, 392, 393, 394, 401, 402, 404 56, 103 99 30, 58, 94, 149, 185, 186, 191, 231, 243, 244, 245, 247,

Index of biblical and other ancient references

5:2-​3 5:2, 3 5:2, 4 5:2, 5 5:2-​8 5:2, 9 5:3

5:4

5:4ff.

5:4, 5 5:4-​5

5:4-​5, 9-​11 5:4-​6, 8 5:4-​8 5:4-​10 5:4-​11 5:5

249, 253, 254, 255, 279, 301, 315, 317, 322, 402 251 246 227, 246, 276, 399 246 323 323 34, 44, 231, 234, 248, 249, 251, 253, 255, 256, 259, 260, 262, 264, 266, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272, 273, 274, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 289, 292, 297, 341, 375 30, 105, 191, 231, 239, 245, 255, 256, 279, 312, 323, 342, 350, 381, 402 30, 105, 191, 231, 239, 245, 255, 256, 279, 312, 323, 342, 350, 381, 402 256, 300, 309, 348 11, 231, 251, 298, 300, 303, 304, 309, 312, 317, 323, 325, 326, 363 363 191 32, 321, 322, 323, 399, 404 296, 326 33 30, 305, 307, 315, 316, 317, 319, 321, 322, 323, 325, 358, 401, 407

5:5ff.

5:6

5:6f. 5:6ff. 5:6-​7 5:6-​7, 10 5:6-​8 5:6, 8 5:6-​10 5:6, 10 5:7 5:8

5:8f. 5:8-​10 5:8, 22 5:9

469

30, 305, 307, 315, 316, 317, 319, 321, 322, 323, 325, 358, 401, 407 121, 157, 254, 256, 281, 296, 309, 325, 326, 329, 330, 336, 337, 349, 350, 382 254, 256, 325 327, 328, 336, 341 11, 28, 231, 325, 330, 333, 334, 341, 363 231 231, 335, 336, 377 239, 254 326 380 296, 339, 345, 349, 350 11, 30, 31, 97, 157, 191, 335, 346, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 360, 361, 363, 367, 375, 394, 407 329, 333, 334, 349, 350 315, 337 30 11, 30, 79, 95, 96, 97, 98, 125, 139, 149, 157, 199, 235, 244, 250, 296, 350, 361, 363, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 382, 388, 394, 401, 407

470 5:9-​10 5:10

5:11

5:12 5:12ff. 5:12, 14 5:12-​22 5:12-​28 5:14 5:19 5:23 5:23-​27 5:23-​28 5:24 5:27 5:28

Indices

231, 251, 359, 361, 375, 378, 381, 383, 385, 391, 399 11, 61, 110, 111, 113, 114, 120, 126, 147, 150, 151, 152, 157, 194, 203, 217, 232, 363, 377, 379, 380, 382, 383, 384, 386, 387, 388, 390, 401, 402 12, 102, 172, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 231, 232, 361, 391, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 404 57, 105, 361 115 57, 105, 107, 223, 361 397, 404 59 105, 107, 223 112 30, 32, 187, 217, 272, 357, 402, 404, 405 30 59, 60, 405 82 337 195

2 Thessalonians (2 Thess) 1:2 272 1:7 403 1:7-​10 403 1:8-​9 369 2:1 146 2:2 239, 243, 381 2:2, 6 238, 239, 243, 381

2:3 2:5 2:6 2:8 2:11-​12 2:12 2:13 2:13-​14 2:13-​17 2:14 2:15 2:16 2:17 3:1, 13 3:2 3:3 3:16 3:17

314 155 238, 239 403 307 369 97, 398 372 398 363, 370 325 89 394, 397 105 92 149 272 314

1 Timothy (1 Tim) 1:1 90 1:2 272 1:10 350 1:16 385 2:3 90 2:5-​6 151, 380 2:6 380 3:2, 11 331, 332 3:4-​5 395 3:5 395 3:6-​7 369 3:13 370 4:1 239 4:4 345 6:1 78 6:9 288, 369 6:13 131 2 Timothy (2 Tim) 1:3 77 1:9 373 1:10 90, 381

Index of biblical and other ancient references

1:16, 18 2:3-​5 2:8 2:10 2:11 2:18 2:19 2:22 2:26 3:6 3:11 4:1 4:2 4:2, 6 4:5 4:6 4:7-​8 4:11 4:17 4:18

149 352 130, 381 381 148 381 149 272 332, 336 351 92 89 281, 282 281, 282, 359 331, 332 281, 282, 359 355, 359 143, 144 92 92

Titus (Tit) 1:1 1:3 1:4 1:11 2:2 2:10 2:13 2:14 3:4 3:6

78 90 90, 272 395 331, 332 90 88, 90 91, 373, 374, 380 90 90

Philemon (Phlm) 2 351, 352 3 272 7 394 Hebrews (Heb) 1:2 345 1:10 345 2:6 151

2:9 5:3 7:2-​3 7:25 7:27 9:7 9:9 9:14 9:24 9:28 10:2 10:19 10:39 11:5 11:40 12:7 12:18 12:19 13:1-​19 13:14 13:17 13:20

380 380 89 96, 391 202 109 78 77 387 387 78 63 370 206 380 120 312 196 99 387 332 140

James (Jas) 1:2 1:12 1:26 2:14-​16 5:1

120 359 82 62 117, 282, 285

1 Peter (1 Pt) 1:6 1:13 1:16 1:18 1:20 1:21 2:5 2:8 2:9 2:9-​10

471

120 331, 350 32 82 240 91 395, 396 366 304, 306, 310, 318, 321, 370 371

472

Indices

2:11-​5:11 2:19 2:21 2:24 3:18 3:22 4:7 4:16 5:4 5:8 5:8-​9 5:10

99 120 380 389 380 187 331 21 359 329, 331 346, 350 391

2 Peter (2 Pt) 1:1, 11 1:11 2:9 2:13 2:20 3:2, 18 3:4 3:4-​6 3:7 3:10 3:12 3:15-​16

63, 90 63, 90 244 340 90 90 114 345 94, 244 94, 253, 279 253 253

1 John (1 Jn) 1:5 1:5-​7 1:6 1:6-​7 1:7 2:8, 9 2:9 2:9, 11 2:10 2:11 2:21, 27 3:16 4:14 4:17 5:20-​21

318 308 308 308 308 318 318 307, 308, 318 308 307, 308 307 380 89 244 85

2 John (2 Jn) 4

308

3 John (3 Jn) 3-​4

308

Jude 9 20 20-​21 25

198 396 396 90

Revelation (Rev) 1:3 161 1:12-​16 169 1:13 351 2-​3 167 2:7 386 2:10 359 2:22 369 3:2-​3 329 3:3 253, 254, 278, 279, 330 4:11 345 5:2, 11-​12 197 6:16 93 6:17 94, 95, 244 7:2 197 8:6 197 8:12 304, 318 8:13 197 9:1, 13 197 9:7-​11 352 9:9 352 10:7 197 11:1-​14 210 11:3 210 11:3, 6, 10 210 11:7 210 11:11-​12 210 11:12 207, 210, 211 11:15 197 11:18 93, 94, 95

Index of biblical and other ancient references

12:2 12:5 14:9, 15, 18 14:14-​16 15:6 16:15 17:2 17:6 17:8 18:11 19:11-​16 19:14 19:15 19:17 20:14 21:2 21:9-​27 21:24 22:3 22:7, 10, 18-​19

290 204 197 403 351 253, 254, 279, 329, 330 338 338 369, 402 117 403 339 93, 95 197 17 374 398 311 77 161

iii) Deuterocanonical Books of the Old Testament and Other Books in the Septuagint (LXX) Bel and Dragon (Theodotion) 4 80 5 80 Tobith (Tob) 2:5f. 3:3 3:5 3:6 7:17 13:2 14:6

119 109 307 120 120 131 72

Judith (Jdt) 5:19 8:17 12:5

72 87, 88 337

Wisdom (Wis) = Wisdom of Solomon (Wis.Sol) 3:11 124 3:18 124 4:6 30 5:17-​22 354 5:18 352, 353, 354 6:8 283 6:13 182, 183 6:14-​15 344 7:23 273 8:9 120 13:10 86, 124 14:8 86 14:12 76 16:13 129, 131 16:28 182 17:15 276 19:7 210 Ecclesiasticus = Sirach (Sir) 2:6-​8 88 2:7 87 3:12 119 4:1 119 4:2 119 4:31 165 5:7 72 5:15 109 7:1 302 11:10 293 12:9 119 16:13 294 18:1 80 18:15 119 18:21 68 19:11 286 22:9-​10 344 23:2 109 26:28 119 30:21, 23 119 34:2 330, 349 34:13 124

473

474 42:15 44:16 45:18-​19 48:4-​10 48:5 48:9 48:24 49:2 49:14 50:20

Indices

162 206, 207 93 206 129, 162 206, 207 224 68 206, 207 188

(1) Baruch ([1] Bar) 2:9 330 1 Maccabees (1 Macc) 12:27 330 13:39 109 2 Maccabees (2 Macc) 1:1 106 1:31 173 2:7, 18 146 3:35 371 5:5 276 6:7 75 7:5 226 7:9, 14, 23-​29, 36 25 7:14 26, 124, 227 7:20 227 7:23 131 7:25-​26 99 7:34-​35 296 8:14 173 9:22 295 12:39-​46 25 12:43-​44 25 12:44-​45 110, 113 14:17 276 14:22 276 14:33 75 14:46 25 15:11-​16 25

15:21 19:5, 11 19:28

371 295 295

2 Esdras (LXX) 7:28 403 12:31f. 403 13:3-​4, 32 403 v)  Old Testament Pseudepigrapha 3 Maccabees (3 Macc) 2:29 75 3:24 276 4:16 81 5:17 99 6:28 80 6:29 295 6:30 295 6:31-​32 295 4 Maccabees (4 Macc) 12:6 173, 174 13:18 173, 174, 177 15:24 65 16:22 65 Apocalypse of Abraham (Apoc. Ab) 31:1 198 31:1-​4 196 Testament of Abraham (T. Ab) 9:8 212 10:1 212 15:9 193 16:3-​5 193 16:4-​5 193 2 Baruch (2 Bar) 11:4 112 13:3 208

Index of biblical and other ancient references

21:8 21:9 21:9-​10 21:13 21:23 25-​30 29:1-​2 29:3 30:1 30:1-​3 30:2 42:8 48:32 48:32-​33 48:33 49:2-​3 50:1-​3 50:1-​4 50:2-​3 51:1 53:8-​11 71:1 76 76:2 85:3

241 375 391 391 17 240 179, 180 403 201 181 113, 168 17 270 270 270 216 217 168 216 216 403 179, 180 207 208 112

3 Baruch (3 Bar) 6:13 304 1 Enoch (1 En) 1:1 1:8 1:8-​9 5:7 10:7 19:1 25:3 39:6-​7 39:12-​14 41:8 46:1 49:3

243 243 243 243 180 243 188 31 328 304 403 112

53:6 62:4 62:13-​14 70:1-​4 71:16 84:4 91:10 92:3 99:4 100:5 102:7 103:7-​8 108:11-​14 108:11-​15

403 286 31 207 31 243 113 110, 113 286 112 304 304 304 307

2 Enoch (2 En) 30:15 304 67:1 210 4 Ezra 4:33-​37 4:44-​47, 51 4:36 5:41 5:41f. 5:41-​45 6:25 6:25-​26 6:26 7:13 7:26-​44 7:27-​29 7:32 7:67 8:53 12:34 13:16-​18 13:24 13:26 13:48-​49 14:9 14:20

240 240 198 168, 177 168 181 180 178 31 120 180 187 110, 113 179 17 179, 180 178, 180 180 179 179 31, 211, 221 304

475

476

Indices

Greek Apocalypse of Ezra (GkApEzra) 4:36 196 5:7 207, 212 Testament of Job (T. Job) 27:3 43:5, 17 43:6 43:9 43:10-​11

392 306 306 306 307

Joseph and Aseneth (Jos.Asen) 8:9 305, 306 8:10 306, 307 10:1 338 10:1-​2 349 11:7-​8 74 11:10 83 11:10-​11 73, 80 12:5 74 12:6 109 13:11 74, 109 15:12 306 24:9 87 Jubilees (Jub) 23:1-​3 36:18 45:15

112 112 112

Apocalypse of Elijah 2:40 269 30:31 352 Apocalypse of Moses (Apoc.Mos) 33:2 198 37:1-​6 198 37:3 198 37:5 198

Testament of Moses (T. Mos) 1:15 112 10:14 112 Paraleipomena Jeremiou (PJ) 9:2 308 Sibylline Oracles (Sib.Orcs) 3:8-​45 84 3:20-​28 84 3:29-​33 84 3:34-​35 84 3:36-​45 84 3:49-​50, 286f. 403 3:308 188 3:545-​572 94 3:548, 554 94 3:556 94 3:560 94 3:561 94 3:571-​572 94 3:652-​654 403 Sibylline (Oracles) Fragment (Sib.Fragm) 1:25-​30 76 1:25-​34 305, 306, 307 3:1-​45 84 3:3-​7, 16-​17 84 3:8-​10, 34 84 3:15-​16 84 3:18-​20 84 3:27-​33 84 3:41-​42 84 3:43-​45 84 3:46-​49 84 Odes of Solomon (Odes.Sol) 11:6 339 11:7 339 11:7-​9 339

Index of biblical and other ancient references

11:8-​9 11:19 42:6

339 304, 305, 306, 307 163

Psalms of Solomon (Pss.Sol) 3:1 328 3:1-​2 328 3:2 330 3:12 297, 304 4:13 24 5:11 124 8:14 313 8:18 265 8:31 124 9:9 371 11:1 196 11:2 196 13:11 297 14:9 312 14:10 297 15:8 297 15:9 297 15:10 297 15:12-​13 297 15:13 297 16:1 329 16:4 330 17:3 124 17:21 403 17:34 124 17:44 180 18:5 403 18:6 180 18:6-​7 177 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (T. 12 P) Testament of Reuben (T. Reub) 3:1 112

477

Testament of Levi (T. Levi) 8:2 359 18:2 403 19:1 304, 307 Testament of Judah (T. Jud) 5:3-​4 305 11:2 339 14:1 339 14:1, 3 339 16:2-​3 345 16:3 330, 334, 349 24:1 403 25:4 120 Testament of Naphtali (T. Naph) 2:7, 10 304 2:7-​10 304 2:10 304 Testament of Gad (T. Gad) 5:6 306 5:7 305, 306 Testament of Joseph (T. Jos) 19:3 305, 306, 307 20:2 307 Testament of Benjamin (T. Benj) 5:3 304 10:1 330 Dead Sea Scrolls = Qumran Writings 4QFI 1:9 315 1QH 4:32ff. 314 9:26f. 305, 306, 307 15:14-​17 315 20:4 319

478 1QM 1:1, 3, 7-​13, 16 1:9, 11 1:90 3:6, 9 11:6 13:4-​5, 9-​12 13:9-​12 13:15-​16 13:16 14:17 15:9 16:11 1QS 1:9 1:9, 10 2:16 3:3, 20 3:9-​10 3:13, 24-​25 3:13-​4:26 3:20-​21 3:25 3:25-​27 4:6 4:7 4:12-​14 4:24-​25

Indices

315 315, 319 319 315 403 304, 315 304, 315 304 315 315 320 315 315, 319 315, 319 315, 319 320 320 315, 320 304 320 315, 316, 319 319 320 320 389 315

Rabbinic Literature and Other Books in Judaism Derech Erez Zuta I 208 Isaiah Targum 29:10 335 v) Non Canonical Early Christian Literature Didache (Did) 16.1

330

Ignatius Letter to the Smyrneans (Sm) 2.1 131 Shepherd of Hermas (ShepHerm) Visions 3.2-​5 294 4.2.4 294 4.2.5 294 Theodoret of Cyrus Historia Ecclesiastica 5.17 45 Interpretatio Epistolae I Ad Thessalonicenses PG 82   648 225 Acts of Thomas (ActsThom) 108-​113 332, 343 109.35 332 110.43 332 111.53 332 Gospel of Thomas (GThom) Logion 21 253 Logion 103 253 1 Clement (I Clem) 9.3 208 59.2 308 2 Clement (2 Clem) 1.4, 6 306 vi) Non-​Christian, Greek and Latin Literature Aelian Miscellaneous Stories 2.35 110

Index of biblical and other ancient references

Aelius Aristides Eulogy of Rome 104 262 Anthologia Palatina (Antipater) 1X, 428 46 Aristobus 8.10.13, 16-​17

196

Aristophanes Ach. 1185

305

Catullus 5.4-​6

110, 111, 123

Cicero On Old Age 81

110

Democritus Fragment 11

304

Dio Chrysostom Orations 49.1-​13 336 49.10 336 Diodorus Siculus Greek World History 17.112.1 293 17.112.2 293 17.112.3 293 Epictetus Discourses 1.9.7

264

Euripides Alc. 237 Hec. 1 Iph. Aul. 1506ff. Phoen. 376f. 1453 1533ff.

304 304 304 304 304 304

Flavius Josephus Contra Apionem 1.34-​35 174 1.35 174 2.17 58 2.75 58 Jewish Antiquities (Ant.) 2.341 294 6.228 183 7.9 174 7.64 183 7.176 182 7.176.247.263 183 7.247 183 7.263 183 9.28 209 9.55 217 9.70 183 14.110 75 14.156-​157 262 14.247-255 267 17.98 200 17.140 192 17.199 192 The Jewish War 1.65 293 2.26 339 2.29 339

479

480 4.92-​94 6.287

Indices

262 234

Hermes Trismegistus Corpus Hermeticum (Corp.Herm) 1.27 332, 342, 343, 349 7.1f. 332, 343 Herodotus Historiae (Histories) 1.34 282, 283 1.34.3-​4 283 3.31-​32 289 3.32.4 289 4.141 192 Homer Iliad 4.461 6.6 10.496 15.191 18.10f. 18.61.442 21.56 Odyssey 6.43ff. 11.57 11.130-​151 11.130-​151 11.210-​224 11.210-​224 23.371 Horace Odes 3.14.14-​16 4.15.17-​20

304 305 282 304 305 305 304 305 304 14, 23 14, 23 14, 23 14, 23 305

263 263

Letter of Aristeas (LetAris) 209 333

Parmenides Fragment 1 8.54

305 305

Philo of Alexandria De Ebrietate 131 332, 334 146 334 146-​148 334 147-​148 332, 334 151-​153 332, 334 159 332 De Josepho 145 303 147 332 De Migratione Abrahami 222 332 De Posteritate Caini 175 332, 334 De Praemiis et Poenis 19 (ii. P. 928 M) 193 De Sobrietate 5 332 De Somniis 1.150 2.160 2.162

384 343 328

On the Life of Abraham 268 65 271 65 273 65 On Virtues 179

306

Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit 257 332

481

Index of biblical and other ancient references

Plato Phaedo 64 64-​67 66-​67 67 70 80 105 106 107 113-​114 114 115-​166 Resp. 6.500a 6.508b 7.518a

22 14 14 22 14, 22 23 14, 23 14, 23 23 23 23 23 182 305 305

Plutarch Antonius 40.4 257 Aud. 17 305 Col. 24 305 Consolatio ad uxorem 8 305 Otho 16 223 Moralia (= II) 781D 345, 349 Polybius Histories 3.4.5 18.48.4

279 221

Pseudo-​Philo Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum (LAB) 3.10 17

Sallustius On the Gods and the Universe 21 221 Seneca Epistles 91.2 Sophocles Elektra 419 509 Oedipus Rex 777 Oed. Tyr. 419 Phil. 624f. Ajax 832

262

305 110 282 304 305 110

Strabo 7 Fragment 10 45 7 Fragment 13 45 7 Fragment 21 41 7 Fragments 21, 24 7.7.4

45, 46

Tacitus Cornelius Annales (Annals) 1.2 258 1.2.1 259 Histories 2.12.1 261 2.21.1-​2 260 2.21.2 261 Theocritus Idylls 4.42

123

41, 45, 46

482

Indices

Thucidides Historiae (Histories) 2.92 192 3.82.2 282 Virgil Aen. 6.264ff.

304

vii) Inscriptions Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum 4896, 8f. 221 Inscriptiones Graecae (IG) X, 2, 1 49, 53 X, 2, 1, Nr. 259 48 X/​2, Nr. 821 48

OGIS 613

261

SEG 46, 1565

266

Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum 495, 85f. 221 741, 21, 30 221 viii) Papyri PGiess 82, 23

175

Papyrus Oxyrhynchus (POxy) 115 123

B. INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS, COMMENTATORS, EDITORS AND TRANSLATORS Aland, Barbara  62, 98, 144, 298 Aland, Kurt  62, 91, 98, 144, 298 Allison, Dale C. (Jr.)  33 Ascough, Richard S.  52, 53, 75, 76 Askwith, E. H.  108, 138, 155, 156, 158, 164 Aune, David Edward  62, 63, 99, 100, 157, 169 Babbitt, Frank C.  345 Baeck, Leo  406 Balz, Horst  117, 119, 120, 122 Barclay, John M. G.  121 Bauckham, Richard  14, 17, 18, 26 Bauer, Johannes B.  242 Baumert, Norbert  143, 249, 368, 375, 384, 387 Baumgarten, Jörg  238, 239, 249 Becker, Jürgen  79, 87, 140, 230 Behrmann, Ingrid  49 Benoit, Pierre  315, 316 Bertram, George  69 Best, Ernest  57, 58, 67, 159, 161, 165, 166, 168, 185, 186, 187, 188, 191, 199, 200, 248, 249, 255, 298, 303, 304, 309, 316, 325, 328, 340, 341, 351, 352, 354, 358, 368, 372, 377, 378, 379, 381, 382, 385, 390, 392, 393, 395, 397 Beutler, Johannes  7, 60 Bieder, W.  381 Billerbeck, Paul  208, 227, 287, 288, 292 Bo, Reicke I.  318

Böcher, Otto  318 Box, G. H.  177, 178, 179, 180, 187 Brenton, Lancelot Charles Lee  94, 109, 192, 272, 275, 280, 293, 294, 302, 352, 353 Bruce, F. F.  108, 110, 113, 114, 115, 123, 124, 128, 186, 187 Brytenbach, Cilliers  49 Büchsel, Friedrich  86 Bultmann, Rudolf  118, 163, 166, 167 Burchard, C.  73, 74 Burkard, Ingeborg  320 Bussmann, Claus  68 Cadoux, Theodore John  258 Campe, Christian  279 Carey, Greg  29 Chamberlain, Gary Alan  68 Chapa, Juan  225, 226, 227, 404 Charles, Robert Henry  179, 306, 335 Christ, Karl  38, 39, 46, 48, 50, 51, 52 Clines, David J. A.  72, 77, 78, 82, 88, 89, 93, 94, 106, 112, 145, 149, 160, 176, 188, 206, 224, 236, 237, 238, 241, 252, 302 Collins, John J.  29, 30, 33, 84, 94 Collins, Raymond F.  58, 71, 76, 77, 82, 86, 87, 91, 96, 134, 169, 225, 229, 232, 235, 240, 245, 246, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 316, 319, 326, 330, 354, 366, 367, 368, 375, 383, 399

484 Colson, Francis H.  343 Conzelmann, Hans  230, 304, 305, 319 Cross, Frank Moore  177, 178, 179, 180 Crüsemann, Marlene  255, 256, 259, 260, 265 Daube, David  276, 277, 278, 279, 283, 284, 285, 286 Davies, J. G.  161, 162, 164, 165 De Romilly, Jacqueline  283 Deissmann, Adolf  123 Denny, James  13 Derow, Peter Sidney  259 Dibelius, Martin  99 Dittenberger, Wilhelm  261 Donfried, Karl P.  60 Duane, Watson F.  59 Dunn, James D. G.  149, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167 Dupont, Jacques  219, 220 Earl, Richard J.  114, 115, 119, 120, 122, 123, 125 Eberhard, Faust  265 Ebert, Theodor  23 Edson, Charles  49, 51, 52, 53 Elias, Jacob W.  375 Elliger, Winfried  39, 40, 41, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 53, 157 Faw, Chalmer  57 Fee, Gordon D.  55, 56, 57, 59, 75, 269 Feldman, Louis H.  295 Festugière A. –​J.  343 Fischer, Bonifatius  83 Fischer, Curtius Theodorus  293 Fitzmyer, Joseph A.  87, 90, 93, 94, 96, 132 Frame, James Everett  120

Indices

Frechette, Christopher  406, 407 Friedrich, Gerhard  229, 230, 304 Friedrich, Johann  279 Furnish, Victor P.  69 Gaebler, Hugo  49, 50 Gathercole, Simon J.  253 Gerth, Bernhardt  326 Gewalt, Dietfried  167, 168, 215, 217 Giesen, Heinz  141 Gillman, John  103 Glasson, Francis T.  189 Gnilka, Joachim  406 Gyekye, Kwame  15 Haag, Herbert  320 Hackenberg, Wolfgang  309, 312, 313 Hahn, Ferdinand  151 Hanhart, Robert  80, 280 Harnisch, Wolfgang  230, 253, 254 Hartman, Lars  281 Hasler, Victor  181, 183 Haufe, Günther  205, 206, 207, 213 Hawthorne, Gerald F.  79, 90, 91 Helbing, Robert  182 Hendrix, Holland Lee  257, 259, 267 Henneken, Bartholomäus  161, 162, 163 Hoffmann, Paul  114, 119, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 145, 232, 235, 248, 254, 256, 379, 383, 387, 389, 390 Holmes, Samuel  273 Holtz, Traugott  64, 65, 67, 255, 268, 269 Hoppe, Rudolf  40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 75, 103, 105, 108, 120, 121, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 158, 164, 165, 167, 169, 170, 171, 182,

Indices

185, 193, 195, 200, 201, 204, 212, 216, 217, 225, 232, 235, 240, 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 260, 264, 265, 266, 269, 270, 281, 282, 299, 300, 316, 317, 319, 322, 333, 334, 345, 349, 358, 368, 372, 377, 404 Hornblower, Simon  258 Horrell, David G.  107 Horsley, Richard A.  141 Hübner, Hans  238, 240 Hude, Carolus  192, 289 Humbert, Jeane-​Baptiste  321, 432 Hurd, John  323 Isaac, E.  188, 328 Ishai-​Rosenboim, Daniella  241, 243, 249 Jeremias, Joachim  165, 254 Jewett, Robert  56, 59 Jones, Henry Stuart  283, 365 Jones, Horace Leonard  40, 41, 45, 46 Karavidopoulos, Johannes  62, 98, 144, 298 Keck, Leander E.  119, 120, 121, 152 Kim, Seyoon  150, 151, 166, 168 Kittel, Gerhard  304 Kleist, James A.  208, 331 Klijn, A. F. J.  201, 208, 216, 270, 332 Kobel, Esther  33, 34 Koester, Helmut  30, 49, 50, 51, 52, 257, 294, 319 Kohlenberger, John R.  275 Konradt, Matthias  257, 267, 268, 271, 273, 306, 316, 317, 318, 319, 330, 333, 334, 336, 344, 368, 372, 375, 379, 382, 383, 390 Köster, Helmut  141 Kraft, Robert A.  308

485

Kremer, Jacob  129, 130, 131, 132, 135, 201, 220 Kuhn, Heinz-​Wolfgang  128, 318 Kühner, Raphael  326 Latimore, R.  110 Lattke, Michael  339 Laymon, Charles M.  119 Légasse, Simon  100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 122, 125, 132, 133, 137, 144, 145, 154, 157, 162, 226, 232, 244, 247, 249, 250, 251, 255, 272, 281, 292, 296, 299, 322, 337, 340, 361, 366, 379, 388, 390, 392, 395 Liddell, Henry George  283, 365 Lightfoot, Joseph Barber  138 Lintott, Andrew William  258 Lofthouse, W. F.  155 Lohfink, Gerhard  204, 207, 208, 209, 210 Lövestam, Evald  244, 298, 316, 321, 322, 330, 333, 334, 335, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 350 Luckensmeyer, David  29, 30, 32, 58, 60, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 77, 79, 85, 86, 87, 97, 98, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 144, 145, 153, 181, 182, 185, 186, 188, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 212, 216, 217, 219, 220, 222, 223, 226, 230, 231, 232, 239, 240, 243, 244, 245, 246, 249, 250, 251, 260, 297, 299, 300, 309, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 322, 323, 325, 327, 335, 338, 341, 345, 348, 354, 355, 377, 384, 392, 393, 402, 407 Lüdemann, Gerd  216, 220

486

Indices

Malbon, Elizabeth S.  248 Malherbe, Abraham J.  29, 31, 33, 39, 43, 45, 46, 51, 52, 56, 57, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 77, 79, 80, 87, 88, 91, 93, 96, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 129, 130, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 145, 150, 154, 155, 156, 157, 179, 180, 181, 185, 186, 187, 204, 214, 215, 221, 222, 223, 225, 232, 240, 243, 244, 245, 250, 300, 301, 304, 309, 313, 314, 316, 318, 319, 322, 323, 325, 326, 327, 328, 331, 332, 336, 337, 342, 349, 350, 351, 354, 355, 357, 367, 369, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 381, 390, 393, 396, 397, 398, 404 Marböck, Johannes  242 Martini, C. M.  144 McGrath, Brendan  148 Meeks, Wayne A.  32 Merklein, Helmut  164, 166 Metzger, Bruce M.  72, 98, 104, 144, 208, 221 Milligan, George  193, 197, 333, 336 Montague, Rhodes James  178 Morgenthaler, Robert  91, 128 Moulton, James Hope  333 Münch, Christian  35 Muraoka, T.  224, 236, 237, 273, 275, 284, 302, 364, 371 Newman, Barclay M.  75, 208 Nicoll, Robertson W.  13 Niese, Benedictus  295 Nock, Arthur Darby  70, 343 Nützel, Johannes M.  383 Oakes, Peter  274 Osiek, Carolyn  294

Papazoglou, F.  47 Paulsen, Henning  351 Pearson, Birger A.  257 Peetz, Melanie  7, 320, 406 Pesch, Wilhelm  368, 369 Peterson, E.  214, 220 Pfammatter, Joseph  398 Plevnik, Joseph  57, 58, 120, 194, 202, 209, 210, 212, 213, 214, 217, 219, 220, 229, 230, 232, 245, 247, 251, 253, 255, 272, 281 Plumpe, Joseph C.  331 Porter, Stanley E.  116 Pryor, J. W.  196 Purintun, Ann-​Elizabeth  308 Quasten, Johannes  331 Radl, Walter  402, 403 Rahlfs, Alfred  80, 280 Reinmuth, Eckart  74 Reiser, Marius  62, 99 Reiterer, F. V.  242, 243 Reitzenstein, Richard  344 Rigaux, Béda  57, 107, 122, 123, 124, 137, 142, 144, 147, 229, 230, 232, 235, 240, 244, 252, 253, 254, 272 Ritt, Hubert  308, 310, 311 Roose, Hanna  244, 256, 257, 269, 276, 280, 281, 288, 289, 316, 317, 358, 368, 372, 396 Rose, Herbert Jennings  257 Rubinkiewicz, R.  198 Ryle, Herbert Edward  178 Sakellariou, M. B.  47 Sanders, E. P.  193 Sarpong, Peter  15, 16, 17, 408 Schade, Hans-​Heinrich  140 Schmid, Lothar  222 Schmithals, Walter  230 Schnackenburg, Rudolf  132

Indices

Schneider, Gerhard  21 Schneider, Sebastian  138, 139, 143, 148, 159, 162, 168, 169, 170 Schnelle, Udo  55 Schoenborn, Ulrich  387 Schottroff, Luise  388, 389, 399 Schramm, Tim  364 Schreiber, Stefan  257, 260 Scott, Robert  283, 365 Scott, Walter  342 Seewann, Maria-​Irma  143, 249, 368, 375, 384, 387 Sellin, Gerhard  115, 117, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, 151, 152 Senior, Donald  85, 86, 92, 161, 176, 240, 242, 253, 270, 288, 292, 296, 308, 310, 311, 357, 371, 373, 385, 405, 407 Siber, Peter  151, 152, 169 Söding, Thomas  35, 56, 57, 355, 356, 405 Souilhé, Joseph  264 Spicq, Ceslas  173, 174, 175, 276, 277, 279, 289, 291, 292 Spittler, R. P.  306, 307 Stone, Michael E.  187, 196 Strack, Hermann L.  208, 227, 287, 288, 292 Strecker, G.  204, 216 Sutherland, C. H. V.  258 Tafrali, Oreste  39, 40, 45, 46 Thayer, Joseph Henry  67, 74, 78, 81, 83, 87, 93, 94, 106, 110, 118, 143, 148, 149, 154, 157, 158, 171, 184, 192, 204, 212, 218, 222, 223, 224, 233, 238, 247, 268, 282, 283, 287, 289, 303, 314, 328, 330, 331, 332, 336, 349, 378, 383, 387, 397

487

Thomas, Johannes  398 Thomas, R.  341 Ukwuegbu, Bernard O.  99 Vacalopoulos, A. E.  41, 47 Van der Horst, P. W.  201 Villeneuve, François  263 Völkel, Martin  327 Vom Brocke, Christoph  39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54 Von Dobschütz, Ernst  63, 124 Von Gebhard, Löhr  169, 189 Von Rad, Gerhard  162 Vretska, Helmut  261 Wallace, Daniel B.  70, 95, 96, 97, 154, 155, 156, 173, 347, 348, 378 Ware, Phil  407 Weber, Robert  83 Weil, Raymond  283 Weima, Jeffrey A. D.  266, 267, 268, 271, 272, 273, 274 Wengst, Klaus  257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 274 Whitaker, George H.  343 White, Joel R.  261, 262, 265, 266, 267, 268, 271 Winston, David  182 Wintermute, O. S.  352 Woschitz, Karl M.  242 Woyke, Johannes  74, 83, 84 Wright, R. B.  328, 329, 371 Write, Benjamin G. III.  333 Yoder-​Neufeld  341 Zangenberg, Jürgen  320, 321, 432 Zodhiates, Spiros  90, 91 Zugmann, Michael  406

New Testament Studies in Contextual Exegesis Neutestamentliche Studien zur kontextuellen Exegese Edited by / Herausgegeben von Johannes Beutler, Thomas Schmeller und Werner Kahl Band 1

Joseph Osei-Bonsu: The Inculturation of Christianity in Africa. Antecedents and Guidelines from the New Testament and the Early Church. 2005.

Band 2

Werner Kahl: Jesus als Lebensretter. Westafrikanische Bibelinterpretationen und ihre Relevanz für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft. 2007.

Band 3

Fergus J. King: More Than A Passover. Inculturation in the Supper Narratives of the New Testament. 2007.

Band 4

Anthony Iffen Umoren: Paul and Power Christology. Exegesis and Theology of Romans 1:3–4 in Relation to Popular Power Christology in an African Context. 2008.

Band 5

Solomon Wong: The Temple Incident in Mark 11, 15-19. The Disclosure of Jesus and the Marcan Faction. 2009.

Band 6

Johannes Beutler: Do not be afraid. The First Farewell Discourse in John’s Gospel (Jn 14). 2011.

Band 7

Birgit Opielka: „Leidender Gerechter“ und „Diener aller“. Der Tod Jesu in Mk 8,27-10,52 im Gespräch mit Oscar Romero und Emmanuel Lévinas. 2012.

Band 8

Thomas Kattathara S.J.: The Snag of The Sword. An Exegetical Study of Luke 22:35-38. 2014.

Band 9

John Chijioke Madubuko: The "Pauline" Spirit World in Eph 3:10 in the Context of Igbo World View. A Psychological-Hermeneutical Appraisal. 2015.

Band 10 Zakali Shohe: Acceptance Motif in Paul: Revisiting Romans 15:7–13. 2017. Band 11 Benjamin Ogechi Agbara: Universal Mission: The Climax of Matthew’s Post-Resurrection Account. An Exegetical Analysis of Matthew 28. 2018. Band 12 Livinus Okey Maduadichie: A Study of the Johannine Symbol of the Good Shepherd (Jn 10:1-18) with Particular Reference to Ofo Symbol in Igbo, Nigeria. A Biblical Inculturation Approach. 2019. Band 13 Eric Owusu: The Fate of the Dead and the Living at the Lord’s Parousia: Exegesis of 1 Thessalonians 1:9-10; 4:13-18; 5:1-11. 2021.

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