The Exploitation of Wetlands: Pt.17 9780860545354, 9781407318042

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
Editors’ Preface
Acknowledgements
Maureen Girling
Fossil Insect Assemblages from the Somerset Levels: The Work of Maureen Girling
Wetland Archaeolog: Teaming with Data
The Use of Peat Chemistry to Interpret Past Wetland Environments
The Application of Multispectral Remote Sensing Techniques to Wetland Archaeology
Slums, Puddles and Ditches: Are Molluscs Useful Indicators?
Taphonomic and Cultural Information from an Assemblage of Neolithic Bird Bones from Orkney
The Case for Wattling — What Tree-Ring Studies Could Reveal
Some Preliminary Thoughts on Coppicing and Pollarding at Etton
Molluscan Evidence for Pasture and Meadowland on the Floodplain of the Upper Thames Basin
Provisional Remarks on Fish Remains from Archaeological Deposits at York
Dry Land to Wet Land: Soil Resources in the Upper Thames Valley
Preliminary Palaeoenvironmental Analyses of Floodplain Deposits from a Section Near the River Exe in Exeter, Devon
The Palaeolimnology of Hoveton Great Broad, Norfolk: Clues to the Spoiling and Restoration of Broadland
Further Aspects of the Buried Prehistoric Soils in the Fen Margin Northeast of Peterborough, Cambridgeshire
Wetland Development and Human Activity in Essex Estuaries During the Holoscene Transgression
A Wetland Resource: The Evidence for Environmental Exploitation in the Somerset Levels During the Prehistoric Period
Economy and Environment in Bronze Age West-Friesland, Noord Holland (From Wetland to Wetland)
A Pollen and Plant Macrofossil Investigation of Oakbank Crainnog, Loch Tay, Scotland
The History of Medieval Settlement in North Holland and the Reclamation of the Peat Areas in Archaeological Perspective
Commentary and Conclusion

Citation preview

The Exploitation of Wetlallds edited by

Peter Murphy and Charles French

Symposia of the Association for Environmental Archaeology No. 7

BAR British Series 186 1988

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR 186, 1988: 'The. Exploitation of Wetlands'

©

The

Individual A.uthors i 1988

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545354 paperback ISBN 9781407318042 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545354 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T his v olume i s d edicated t o t he m emory o f M aureen G irling

i ii

C ONTENTS P age L ist o f c ontributors

v ii

E ditors' P reface

i x

A cknowledgements M aureen G irling P .J . O sborne

1

F ossil i nsect a ssemblages f rom t he S omerset L evels: t he w ork o f M aureen G irling B ryony C oles

5

W etland A rchaeology :

t eaming w ith d ata

F rancis P ryor

2 1

T he u se o f p eat c hemistry t o i nterpret p ast w etland e nvironments S heila M . R oss

2 5

T he a pplication o f m ultispectral r emote s ensing t echniques t o w etland a rchaeology D aniel D onoghue a nd I an S hennan S lums, p uddles a nd d itches:

a re m olluscs u seful i ndicators?

T erence O 'Connor T aphonomic a nd

4 7

6 1

c ultural i nformation f rom a n a ssemblage o f

n eolithic b ird b ones f rom O rkney M iranda A rmourChelu

6 9

T he c ase f or w attling - w hat t ree-ring s tudies c ould r eveal R uth A . M organ

7 7

S ome p reliminary t houghts o n c oppicing a nd p ollarding a t E tton M aisie T aylor

9 3

M olluscan e vidence f or p asture a nd m eadowland o n t he f loodplain o f t he u pper T hames b asin M ark R obinson

1 01

P rovisional r emarks o n f ish r emains f rom a rchaeological d eposits a t Y ork A ndrew K .G . J ones D ry l and t o w et l and : T hames v alley

13 s oil r esources i n t he U pper

S usan L imbrey a nd S imon R obinson

1 29

Preliminary palaeoenvironmental analyses of floodplain deposits from a section near the River Exe in Exeter, Devon c. Caseldine, S. Juggins and V. Straker

145

The palaeolimnology of Hoveton Great Broad, Norfolk: clues to the spoiling and restoration of Broadland Brian Moss

163

Further aspects of the buried prehistoric soils in the Fen margin, northeast of Peterborough, Cambridgeshire C.A.I. French

193

Wetland development and human activity in Essex estuaries during the Holocene transgression T.J. Wilkinson, P. Murphy, S. Juggins and K. Manson

213

A wetland resource: the evidence for environmental exploitation in the Somerset Levels during the prehistoric period 239 Astrid E. Caseldine Economy and environment in Bronze Age West Friesland, Noord Holland (from wetland to wetland) Janneke Buurman A pollen and plant macrofossil investigation of Oakbank Crannog, Loch Tay, Scotland Alan J. Clapham and Robert G. Scaife

293

The history of medieval settlement in North Holland and the reclamation of the peat areas in archaeological perspective 327 Jan C. Besteman Commentary and conclusion J.M. Coles

369

vi

L IST O F C ONTRIBUTORS M iranda A rmour-Chelu O steology R oom , B ritish M useum ( Natural H istory) , C romwell R oad , L ondon 5 BD S W7. J an B esteman I nstituut voor P rae- e n P rotohistorie , N etherlands.

S ingel 4 53,

Amsterdam 1 012 W P,

J anneke B uurman R ijksdienst v .h . O udheidkundig B odemonderzoek , Kleine Haag 2 , 3 811 H E, Amersfoort, N etherlands. A strid C aseldine D epartment o f H istory a nd A rchaeology , U niversity o f E xeter , E xeter E X4 4 QH . C hris C aseldine D epartment o f G eography , U niversity o f E xeter , A mory B uilding , R ennes D rive , E xeter E X4 4 RJ. B ryony C oles D epartment 4 QH .

o f

H istory

a nd A rchaeology ,

U niversity

o f E xeter ,

E xeter E X4

J ohn C oles D epartment o f H istory a nd A rchaeology , U niversity o f E xeter, E xeter E X4 4 QH . A lan C lapham I nstitute o f A rchaeology , U niversity o f L ondon , 3 1-34 G ordon S quare , L ondon W C1H O PY . D aniel D onoghue D epartment o f G eography , U niversity o f D urham , D urham D H1 3 LE. C harles F rench F enland A rchaeological

T rust ,

3 F ountain C ourt ,

U fford ,

n r .

S tamford ,

P E9

3 BJ . A ndrew J ones E nvironmental 5 DD .

A rchaeology U nit ,

U niversity o f Y ork ,

H eslington ,

Y ork Y O1

S teve J uggins D epartment O AP.

o f G eography ,

U niversity C ollege ,

2 6

B edford W ay ,

L ondon W C 1H

S usan L imbrey D epartment o f A ncient H istory a nd A rchaeology , P .O. B ox 3 63, B irmingham B 15 2 TT .

v ii

U niversity

o f B irmingham ,

R uth M organ D endrochronology L aboratory, D epartment U niversity o f S heffield , S heffield S 10 2 TN .

o f P rehistory a nd A rchaeology ,

K atherine M anson S chool 7 TJ.

o f E nvironmental

S ciences,

U niversity o f E ast A nglia ,

N orwich N R4

S ciences ,

U niversity o f E ast A nglia ,

N orwich N R4

B rian M oss S chool

o f E nvironmental

7 TJ . P eter M urphy C entre o f E ast A nglian S tudies, U niversity o f E ast A nglia , N orwich N R4 7 TJ. T erry O 'Connor E nvironmental A rchaeology U nit , U niversity o f Y ork , H eslington ,York Y O1 5 DD . P eter O sborne D epartment o f G eological B irmingham B 15 2 TT.

S ciences ,

U niversity o f B irmingham ,

P .O .

B ox 3 63 ,

F rancis P ryor F enland A rchaeological T rust , S ycamore F arm , S eadyke B ank , W isbech S t . M ary , W isbech , C ambridgeshire . M ark R obinson U niversity M useum , P arks R oad, O xford O X1 3 PW . S imon R obinson 2 19 D awlish R oad , S elly O ak, B irmingham B 29 7 AS. S heila R oss D epartment o f G eography , U niversity o f B ristol, U niversity R oad , B ristol B S8 1 SS. R ob S caife I nstitute o f A rchaeology , U niversity o f L ondon , 3 1-34 G ordon S quare , L ondon W C1H O PY . I an S hennan D epartment o f G eography , U niversity o f D urham , D urham D H1 3 LE . V anessa S traker D epartment o f G eography , U niversity o f B ristol, U niversity R oad , B ristol B S8 1 SS. M aisie T aylor F enland A rchaeological T rust , S ycamore F arm , S eadyke B ank , W isbech S t . Mary , C ambridgeshire. T ony W ilkinson 2 6 A lexandra T errace, L incoln L N1 1 JE.

v iii

E DITORS' P REFACE T he

1 986

a nnual

s ymposium

o f

t he

A ssociation

f or

E nvironmental

A rchaeology w as h eld a t t he U niversity o f E ast A nglia , N orwich o n t he 1 2th1 5th S eptember 1 986 . M ost o f t he p apers p resented a t N orwich o ver t hat w eekend a re h ere p ublished , t ogether w ith s ome a dditional c ontributions w hich, d ue t o l ack o f t ime, c ould n ot b e f itted i nto a n a lready f ull p rogramme . T his v olume i s d edicated t o t he m emory o f M aureen G irling , a f ounder m ember o f t he A ssociation a nd a n i nnovative w orker i n t he f ield o f w etland E nvironmental

A rchaeology ,

a ccount

l ife

o f Maureen 's

p ublications ,

w ill

b e

f ound

w ho d ied

a nd w ork , b elow ,

a t

t he e nd o f

w ith a f ull

1 985 .

A s hort

b ibliography

o f h er

t ogether w ith a n a ppreciation o f h er

p articular c ontribution t o t he w ork o f t he S omerset L evels p roject . W etland

s ites

h ave

f eatured

p rominently

a t

e arlier m eetings

o f

t he

A ssociation , b ut t his w as t he f irst m eeting d evoted s pecifically t o e xamining w etland e xploitation . T he p apers p resented d eal w ith a w ide v ariety o f w etland a nd a ssociated a quatic h abitats ,

i ncluding

b ogs ,

f ens ,

l akes , r iver v alleys , c oastal a nd u rban w etlands , b esides d ry l and s urfaces s ubsequently s ealed b y s ediments . A f ew w ords o n t he s election a nd a rrangement o f t he p apers m ay b e h elpful .

A lthough m any o f t hem e xplore m ore t han o ne t opic i t i s p ossible

t o d istinguish f our g eneral

t hemes .

T he f irst o f t hese i s c oncerned w ith

m ethodology a nd t he i nterpetation o f i n s cale f rom t he l andscape l evel ( peat c hemistry) .

r esults .

T echniques d iscussed r ange

( remote s ensing) t o t he m olecular l evel

P roblems o f t aphonomy a nd p alaeoecological i nterpretation

a re a lso c onsidered , w ith p articular r eference t o a vian b one a ssemblages a nd m olluscs .

A n u nderstanding o f

t aphonomy

o f

a vian b one a ssemblages

i s

c learly a n e ssential p rerequisite f or a ttempting t o r econstruct e arly m ethods o f w ildfowling , a n i mportant f eature o f m any w etland e conomies .

T he

p otential v alue o f m ollusc a ssemblages a s p alaeoecological i ndicators i n m arginal w etland h abitats i s c onsiderable , b ut m uch b asic w ork m ust b e d one b efore t his p otential c an b e r ealised . T echniques f or s tudying w ood , a c onspicuous y et o ften n eglected f eature o f w etland s ites , a re d escribed i n t wo

p apers . A s econd t heme i s t he e xploitation o f s pecific r esources .

w et g rasslands

S easonally

o n f ens a nd i n r iver v alley f loors w ere f ormerly o f g reat

i mportance f or p astoral e conomies . U sing s ubfossil m ollusc a ssemblages f rom s ites i n t he u pper T hames v alley i t h as p roved p ossible t o d istinguish b etween t he e arly u se o f

s uch g rasslands a s p asture o r m eadow .

r etrieval o f f ishbones f rom R oman t o m edieval b asis f or d iscussing f reshwater f ishing , t raditional e conomy) , a nd a ssessing i ts m arine

E xtensive

d eposits a t Y ork p rovides a

( a m ainstay o f t he f en-dweller 's r elative i mportance c ompared t o

f isheries .

T he e ffects o f h uman a ctivities o n r ivers a nd l akes f orm a t hird t heme . R ecent w ork h as s hown t hat i n t he u pper T hames v alley p rehistoric w oodland c learance

a nd a rable i ntensification l ed u ltimately t o r ising g roundwater

l evels a nd d eposition o f f ine s ediment i n t he v alley f loor , r esulting i n t he a bandonment a nd b urial o f l ow-lying s oils o riginally s uitable f or a gricultural u se . Am ore s pecific s ite s tudy o f e arly m edieval f loodplain s ediments i n t he v alley o f t he R iver E xe n ear E xeter i llustrates t he i x

i nformation

t hat

s uch

d eposits

c an y ield o n t he e nvironmental

e xisting c lose t o d eveloping u rban s ites .

c onditions

I n m ore r ecent t imes u rban

d evelopment a nd a gricultural i ntensification h ave r esulted i n e utrophication o f s ome l ake a nd r iver s ystems , a nd t his p rocess i s d iscussed i n a p aper o n t he B roads o f E ast A nglia . F inally t here i s ag roup o f p apers w hich i ntegrate r esults f rom s tudies o f p articular w etland l andscapes a nd s ites .

T hese i nclude l andscape

s tudies d escribing b uried p rehistoric s oils b eneath s ediments o f t he C ambridgeshire f enlands , p rehistoric a nd l ater a ctivity i n t he c oastal w etlands o f E ssex a nd i n t he S omerset L evels , a nd B ronze A ge e conomies i n N orth H olland . P alaeobotanical r esults f rom e xcavations a t O akbank C rannog , L och T ay a re a lso p resented . F inally, e arly p hases o f r eclamation a nd d rainage ,

t he

v ery

p rocesses

w hich

n ow

t hreaten

s o

m any

w etland

a rchaeological s ites , a re c onsidered i n ap aper o n t he m edieval r eclamation o f t he p eat a reas o f N orth H olland . T he c onference b enefited f rom i ntroductory a nd c oncluding c omments b y t wo e xperienced e xcavators o f w etland s ites - F rancis P ryor a nd J ohn C oles . A mongst o ther t horny i ssues, t hey t ackled t he r elated t opics o f t he i ntegration o f e nvironmental s tudies i n a rchaeological p rojects a nd t he c onstant n eed t o a ssess t heir r elevance . I t

i s

h oped t hat

t his

v olume w ill

g ive

s ome

i mpression

o f

t he

e normously w ide r ange o f t echniques n ow a vailable t o w etland e nvironmental a rchaeology , a nd t he u nique t ypes o f i nformation w hich w et s ites c an y ield .

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS W e

a re m ost g rateful t o a ll w ho c ontributed t o t he s uccess o f t he

s ymposium , p articularly t o D r . A . H assell-Smith , M avis B ithray a nd F rances R andell , a ll o f t he C entre o f E ast A nglian S tudies , f or h ospitality a nd s ecretarial a ssistance ; t o J uliet T hompson o f t he E ast A nglian F ilm A rchive f or t he f ilm s how ; t o B rian A yers o f t he N orfolk A rchaeological U nit f or t he g uided t our a long t he w aterfront a t N orwich ; a nd t o F rancis P ryor f or s howing u s r ound t he s ites a t F lag F en a nd E tton . C olleagues t oo n umerous t o m ention i ndividually h elped i n a ssembling t he l ist o f s peakers a nd i n a dvising u s o n e ditorial m atters . W e t hank t hem a ll .

M AUREEN G IRLING P .J . O sborne

M aureen c ame t o t he G eology D epartment a t B irmingham U niversity i n 1 971 a fter t aking a n H onours D egree i n G eography a t R eading , b ut d espite t he i nclusion i n h er u ndergraduate c ourse o f Z oology a nd P alaeoecology h er c ontact w ith a ctual " creepy-crawly" l iving i nsects h ad b een r ather l imited . O n s tarting P ost-graduate r esearch o n P leistocene i nsects s he h ad f irst t o o vercome a n i nbuilt a version t o a rthropods i n g eneral . A lthough , p articularly i n l ater y ears , s he w as p hysically q uite f rail , s he w as a v ery d etermined p erson a nd h er s trength o f m ind w as e vident i n t he w ay s he q uickly o vercame t his i nstinctive h orror o f i nvertebrate a nimals t o b ecome a k een s tudent o f n atural h istory i n m any o f i ts f orms , i ncluding s piders a nd b eetles , a nd t o p ositively r elish h er f inds o f s uch p arasites a s f leas , b edb ugs a nd p ubic l ice . I t w as q uite e arly i n h er t erm o f r esearch a t B irmingham t hat s he s tarted t o p ut t ogether a c ollection o f m odern B ritish b eetles f or u se i n t he i dentification o f f ossils , w hich s he c ontinued t o a mass f or t he r est o f h er l ife . A longside h er g rowing i nterest i n n atural h istory s he d eveloped a k een e nthusiasm f or h er r esearch w hich h ad

t he u nfortunate

e ffect ,

f requently

s een i n e nthusiastic s tudents , o f l eading h er t o c hase s ide i ssues o ut o f i nterest a nd f ailing t o h eed t he a pproaching d eadline . A t t he e nd o f h er t hree y ears h er t hesis w as s till u nfinished a nd h er g rant h ad e xpired .

F or

s ome t ime a fter t his s he p ersevered , a gainst t he o dds , t o f inish , m oving f irst i nto c heap a ccomodation i n B irmingham , f or r easons o f e conomy , a nd f inally i nto t he d epths o f r ural W orcestershire , g etting a l ift i n t o t he U niversity d aily w ith a f riend . T hese e xpedients, h owever , w ere n ot c onducive t o s erious r esearch a nd s he w as f inally o bliged t o g ive u p . L uckily

b oth

f or

h erself

a nd

f or

t he

s cience

o f

E nvironmental

A rchaeology s he h ad , w hile w orking a t B irmingham , b ecome i nterested i n F landrian i nsect f aunas , p articularly t hose i n h abitats a ssociated w ith m an 's a ctivities a nd s he u sed t his i nterest f or t he S omerset L evels p roject . T his l ed t o a n umber o f p ublications, h er f irst a part f rom a s hort c ontribution t o B arbara C layton 's p aper o n C rossnacreevy , C o . D own , w ritten w hile s he w as s till a p ostgraduate s tudent . T hese p apers a nd h er e xperience a t B irmingham , t ogether w ith h er i ntense i nterest i n F landrian f aunas m ade h er t he o bvious c hoice w hen , a t l ast , a p ermanent p ost w orking o n i nsects f rom a rchaeological s ites a t t he A ncient M onuments L aboratory i n S avile R ow w as s et u p . F rom t his t ime o n h er z est f or a rchaeological e ntomology k new n o b ounds a nd s he q uickly b ecame t he f oremost e xponent o f t he s ubject . S he s tarted t o w ork o n a v aried r ange o f m aterial f rom s ites d ating f rom m esolithic t o m edieval t imes , e very o ne o f w hich s eemed t o f ascinate h er . A s w ell a s h er w ork f or t he A ncient M onuments L aboratory s he n ow f ound t ime t o c omplete h er l ong d eferred t hesis o n " Late P leistocene I nsect F aunas f rom L incolnshire" w hich s he s ubmitted i n 1 980 , b eing a warded h er D octorate i n t he s ame y ear .

1

H er l ist o f p ublications c ontinued t o g row , o n m any a spects o f t he s ubject .

A lthough h er f irst i nclination w as t owards b eetles , o n a ccount o f

h er e arly

t raining ,

s he a lso b ecame i nterested i n t he r emains o f s piders ,

a nd s he p ublished a k ey f or t heir i dentification . O ther p apers a ppeared o n s uch d iverse t opics a s a rthropod ( chiefly w oodlouse) c uticle r eplaced b y c alcium c arbonate , 1 8th c entury f leas a nd l ice , a nd i nsects i nfesting a b uried A bbot ! C onsidering t he s hort s pan o f h er w orking l ife , h er t otal o f p ublished w ork , a round t hirty p apers, p lus a s ucessful P hD t hesis, i s i mpressive . A dded t o t hese a re a n umber o f p apers w hich w ere i n v arious s tages o f p reparation a t t he t ime o f h er d eath , s ome o f w hich , i t i s h oped , w ill b e c ompleted b y h er c o-workers i n t he f ield . A s w ell a s c ollecting m odern b eetles M aureen w as a n a ssiduous c ollector o f b ooks o n b eetle a nd s pider t axonomy .

S he w as b uilding u p af ine l ibrary

o n t hese s ubjects a nd s he m ade a h obby o f c ollecting t he t ranslations f rom t he F rench J .H .

b y A .

T eixeira d e M attos

o f

t he Souvenirs E ntomologiques" b y

F abre .

A lthough h er w orked f ormed a v ery l arge p art o f h er l ife i t w as n ot h er s ole i nterest , h er o ther g reat e nthusiasm b eing f or m usic , t o w hich s he w ould l isten w henever p ossible . E ven w hile w orking , i f w hat s he w as d oing w as o f as ufficiently r outine n ature t o a llow i t , s he w ould b e i mmersed i n R adio 3 . H er i nterest w as n ot p assive , h owever : s he w as a c ompetent v iola p layer a nd p layed w ith l ocal a mateur o rchestras a nd , w hen s he h ad t he o pportunity , i n s tring q uartets . A lthough s he e njoyed a w ide s pectrum o f s erious m usic h er c hief l ove w as o pera , p articularly t he o peras o f W agner . M aureen w as a lso d eeply a ttached t o h er f amily , e specially h er v arious n ephews a nd n ieces . B efore h er t ragic d eath f rom p neumonia o n C hristmas E ve ,

1 985 , M aureen

h ad b een i ll f or m any m onths , w ith s everal s pells i n h ospital b ut e ven s o h er f riends w ere q uite u nprepared f or t he s hock . A t h er l ast p ublic l ecture , t o t he R oyal E ntomological S ociety m eeting i n B irmingham l ate i n N ovember , h er h ealth s eemed t o h ave i mproved a nd i t w as t hought t hat s he w as o n h er w ay t o r ecovery a t l ast . L ater s till a c heerful c ard f rom A msterdam , a C hristmas c ard , a r equest f or r eprints a nd a t elephone c all o nly a f ew d ays b efore s he d ied , d uring w hich s he s aid t hat s he w as p lanning aN ew Y ear 's Eve p arty f or h er f amily , d id n othing t o s uggest t hat h er h ealth w as a gain d eteriorating . T he l oss o f M aureen 's e xpertise a nd e nthusiasm i s as evere b low t o t he s till y oung s cience o f E nvironmental A rchaeology a nd i t w ill b e d ifficult i ndeed t o r eplace h er . T o h er m any f riends , h owever , t he g ap l eft b y h er l oss i s o ne w hich i s q uite i mpossible t o f ill .

P ublications G irling ,

M .A . ( 1973-74) F ossil C oleoptera f rom C rossnacreevy . I n : P alaeoecological i nvestigations a t C rossnacreevy , C o . D own . ( Clayton, B . ) U lster J ournal o f A rchaeology 3 6-37 4 9-51 .

G irling , M .A .

(1974)

E vidence f rom L incolnshire o f

o f t he m id-Devensian t emperate e pisode .

2

t he a ge

a nd i ntensity

N ature ( London) 2 50 2 70.

G irling , M .A .

( 1976)

C hanges

r esponse t o f looding . 2 97-299 . G irling , M .A .

( 1976)

i n t he Meare H eath C oleoptera f auna

F ossil C oleoptera f rom t he S omerset L evels :

A bbot's W ay .

i n

P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 4 2

t he

S omerset L evels P apers 2 2 8-33.

G irling , M .A . ( 1977) B ird p ellets f rom a S omerset L evels N eolithic t rackway . N aturalist ( Hull) 1 02 4 9-52. G irling ,

M .A . ( 1977) F ossil I nsect a ssemblages f rom R owland 's t rack . S omerset L evels P apers 3 5 1-60.

G irling , M .A . ( 1978) F ossil I nsect a ssemblages f rom D ifford 's I s ite . S omerset L evels P apers 4 1 07-113. G irling , M .A .

( 1978)

T he a pplication o f f ossil

i nsect s tudies

t o t he

S omerset L evels . I n : R esearch P roblems i n Z ooarchaeology ( eds . B rothwel 1 D .R ., T homas K .D . a nd C lutton-Brock J .) I nstitute o f A rchaeology , O ccasional P ublication 3 p p 8 5-90 . ' G irling , M .A .

( 1979)

C alcium

A rchaeological d eposits .

C arbonate-replaced

A rthropods

f rom

J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 6 3 09-

3 20 . G irling ,

M .A .

( 1979)

V illage . G irling ,

T he

f ossil

i nsect

a ssemblages

f rom t he

M eare

L ake

S omerset L evels P apers 5 2 5-32.

M .A . ( 1979)

F ossil i nsects f rom t he S weet t rack .

S omerset L evels

P apers 5 8 4-93. G irling ,

M .A . ( 1979) T he i nsects . I n : S outhwark E xcavations 1 972-1974 L ondon : J oint P ublication 1 , L ondon & M iddlesex A rchaeological S ociety a nd S urrey A rchaeological S ociety p p . 1 70-172 , 4 14 a nd 4 66 .

G irling , M .A .

( 1980)

T he

f ossil

i nsect

a ssemblages

f rom

t he B aker s ite .

S omerset L evels P apers 6 3 6-42. G irling , M .A . ( 1980) T wo L ate P leistocene i nsect f aunas f rom L incolnshire . U npubl . P h . D . t hesis , U niversity o f B irmingham . G irling , M .A .

( 1981)

B eetle r emains .

I n :

T he B urial o f J ohn D ygon , A bbot

o f S t . A ugustine 's . ( Thorn , J .C .) I n : D etsicas A . ( ed)) . C ollectanea H istorica : E ssays i n m emory o f S tuart R igold Maidstone : K ent A rchaeological S ociety p p . 8 2-84 . G irling , M .A .

( 1981)

T he E nvironmental E vidence .

I n :

T he A ustin F riars ,

L eicester . ( Mellor J .E . a nd P earce T .) L ondon : C ouncil B ritish A rchaeology , R esearch R eport 3 5. p p . 1 69-173. G irling , M .A . ( 1982) T he e ffect o f t he C oleopteran s uccession . G irling , M .A .

( 1982)

t he M eare H eath f looding e pisodes S omerset L evels P apers 8 4 6-50 .

f or

o n

I ndications f rom C oleoptera o f t he l ocal e nvironment

a t T inney 's b rushwood c omplex .

3

S omerset L evels P apers 8 6 4-66 .

G irling , M .A .

( 1982)

F ossil

i nsect

f aunas

f rom

f orest

s ites .

I n :

A rchaeological A spects o f W oodland E cology ( eds . L imbrey . S . a nd B ell , M .) O xford : B ritish A rchaeological R eports S 146 p p 1 291 46. G irling , M .A .

( n .d .

b ut

S pider R emains. G irling , M .A .

1 983)

K ey t o t he I dentification o f S ub-Fossil

A ncient M onuments L aboratory , L ondon .

( 1983) T he E nvironmental

I mplications

o f

t he E xcavations

1 974-76 . I n : E xcavations a t T owcester , N orthamptonshire ; Alchester R oad S uburb . ( Brown , A .E . a nd N orthamptonshire A rchaeology 1 8 1 28130 + f iche . G irling , M .A .

( 1984)

Mynard,

o f T he

D .C .) .

A n A ssessment o f t he R egional R eviews o f E nvironmental

A rchaeology i n E ngland . I n : E nvironmental A rchaeology , ar egional r eview ( ed . K eeley, H .C .M .) L ondon : D irectorate o f A ncient Monuments a nd H istoric B uildings, O ccasional p aper 6 . D . o . E . p p .1 80181. G irling , ( 1984) A quatic C oleoptera i n t he F ossil I nsect a ssemblages f rom A rchaeological S ites i n t he S omerset L evels . B alfour-Browne C lub N ewsletter 3 0 1 11. G irling , M .A . ( 1984) A L ittle I ce A ge e xtinction o f aw ater b eetle f rom B ritain B oreas 1 3 1 -4. G irling , M .A .

( 1984) I nvestigations o f a s econd i nsect a ssemblage f rom t he

S weet T rack .

S omerset L evels P apers

1 0 7 9-91.

G irling , M .A . ( 1984) E ighteenth c entury r ecords o f human l ice ( Phthiraptera , A noplura) a nd f leas ( Siphonaptera , P ulicidae) i n t he C ity o f L ondon . E ntomologist's M onthly M agazine 1 20 2 07-210. G irling , M .A .

( 1985) A n " Old F orest" B eetle F auna f rom a N eolithic a nd

B ronze A ge P eat D eposit a t S tileway . 8 0-83. G irling , M .A .

& G reig ,

J .R .A .

( 1977)

S omerset L evels P apers

P alaeoecological

s ite a t H ampstead H eath , L ondon .

1

i nvestigations o f

a

N ature ( London) 2 68 4 5-47.

G irling , M .A . &G reig , J .R .A . ( 1985) A F irst R ecord f or S colytus s colytus ( F) ( Elm B ark B eetle) ; i ts O ccurence i n E lm D ecline D eposits f rom L ondon a nd t he I mplications f or N eolithic E lm D isease . J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 1 2 3 47-352. G rieg ,

K eepax ,

J .R .A ., G irling , M .A . &S kidmore , P . ( 1982) T he p lant a nd i nsect r emains . I n : H en D omen , M ontgomery . A t imber c astle o n t he E nglish W elsh B order . ( eds . B arker , P . a nd H igham , R .) . L ondon : R oyal A rchaeological I nstitute . p p . 6 0-71. C .A ., G irling , M .A ., J ones, R .T ., A rthur , J .R .B ., P aradine, P .J . & K eeley ,

H .

( 1979) T he E nvironmental A nalysis .

S quare , N orthampton , e xcavations 1 973-1978, N orthampton D evelopment C orporation . p . 3 37 . M usson ,

C .R .,

S mith , A .G . &G irling , M .A .

f rom t he B reiddin h illfort.

S t . P eter 's

( Williams,

J .)

( 1977) E nvironmental evidence

A ntiquity 5 1 1 47-151.

4

I n :

F OSSIL I NSECT A SSEMBLAGES F ROM T HE S OMERSET L EVELS: T HE W ORK O F M AUREEN G IRLING B ryony C oles

I ntroduction I n a d ecade o f p ublishing , f rom 1 976 t o 1 985 , M aureen G irling p roduced e leven r eports f or t he S omerset L evels P roject . T hey r elated t o t he e xcavation o f e ight d ifferent p rehistoric t rackways a nd p latforms a nd o ne s ettlement , p reserved i n t he w aterlogged p eats t hat a ccumulated i n t he l owl ying b asin o f t he S omerset L evels d uring t he l ater m illennia o f p rehistory ( Fig .1) . T he p resent p aper d eals o nly w ith t he w ork t hat r elated d irectly t o t hat o f t he S omerset L evels p roject , a nd i t s hould b e r emembered t hat i n t he s ame y ears G irling w as a ctively e ngaged i n o ther m ajor a nalyses ( e .g . a t H ampstead H eath , G irling a nd G reig 1 977) , i n c ompleting h er P h .D . t hesis , a nd i n p ublishing s hort n otes o n a v ariety o f t opics a rising f rom h er m ain i nvestigations ( e .g . S omerset L evels b ird p ellets , G irling 1 977b ) . M ost o f t his w ork w as c arried o ut a t t he A ncient M onuments L aboratory w here M aureen w orked f rom 1 976 u ntil s he d ied j ust b efore C hristmas 1 985 . W hat f ollows i s a n a rchaeologist 's a ttempt t o a ssess t he i mplications o f G irling 's w ork i n t he L evels , a n a ssessment w hich h as h ad t o b e p remature a nd b y t he w rong p erson , b ut i t w ill g ive a n i ndication , m aybe , o f t he n ature o f G irling 's c ontribution t o t he p rehistory o f t he r egion a nd b eyond . Maureen

G irling

f irst

c ontacted

t he

P roject

i n

r esponse

t o

a n

a dvertisement f or a F ield A rchaeologist . S he w as t hen a r esearch s tudent a t B irmingham , a nd p ronounced h erself i nexperienced a s a n a rchaeologist b ut w ell-suited t o t he r igours a nd i solation o f f ield-work i n a l ocality w here s he c ould p ursue u nhindered h er i nterests i n b eetles a nd m usic . S he w as n ot o ffered t he j ob , b ut i nvited i nstead t o c ome t o t he L evels d uring t he n ext e xcavation s eason , t o d iscuss t he p ossibility o f s pecialist w ork m ore s uited t o h er q ualifications, n amely b eetle a nalyses r elated t o t he c urrent a rchaeological i nvestigations . J uly 1 974 s aw a l arge t eam o f v olunteers i n t he L evels , s everal m ajor s ites u nder s imultaneous i nvestigation , ac rowded c ampsite , a nd M aureen e verywhere , e ither e ncouraging t he h ardy t o c apture s pecimens f or h er o r d ismaying t he f ainthearted b y h er s udden a nd e nthusiastic d iscoveries o f p rize i nsects l urking i n c aravans a nd t ents , w ater t roughs a nd w ashbasins . O n s ite , s he h ad a t endency t o a cquire a v olunteer a nd i n n o t ime a t a ll t hey w ould b e o ver 2 m d own a p it d ug t hrough t he p eat t o t he c lay b elow s o t hat Maureen c ould t ake h er s amples f or a nalysis . B ack o n t he s urface a nd a sked t o d escribe h er w ork t o v olunteers o r t o v isitors o n a n o pen d ay , s he h ad t he k nack o f p icking u p a b lock o f c ut p eat a nd b reaking i t o pen f or d emonstration t o r eveal, n ot a b lank n or e ven a c ommon-or-garden b lue-green b eetle w ing c ase ( most o f u s n ever d id f ind o ut w hat t hese w ere , a s M aureen m aintained s he w as n ot i nterested i n t he b eetles y ou c ould s ee w hilst d igging ) b ut a m agnificent s tag-beetle o r t he c luster o f g leaming f ragments t hat i ndicate a r elict b ird p ellet . P erhaps i t w as o nly t wo o r t hree t imes t hat s he s truck l ucky b ut t hose a re t he o ccasions r emembered . T he s ampling p rogramme ,

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o f

t he

v ery c onsiderable

a mounts o f w ork r equired b efore i dentification o f t he i nsect r emains c ould b egin : ".- a p it w as d ug t hrough t he p eat t o t he u nderlying h orizon o f g rey c lay , 2 .38m b elow t he s urface . b locks o f p eat a pproximately 2 -3kg i n w eight w ere c ut f rom t he s ide a t 5 cm i ntervals . T he ( 48) p eat s amples w ere d isaggregated i n r unning w ater , c ollected i n 3 00 m icron s ieves , d rained a nd m ixed g ently b ut t horoughly w ith p araffin . C old w ater w as a dded , t he s amples w ere a llowed t o s ettle , t hen f lotants w ere p oured i nto s ieves , w ashed i n d etergent a nd a lcohol t hen s orted u nder a b inocular m icroscope . " ( Girling 1 977a : 5 1) . I dentification f ollowed, o ften r equiring d irect c omparison w ith t he r eference c ollections a t t he B ritish M useum ( Natural H istory) . T he w ork w as a ll t he m ore t ime-consuming w hen a s eries o f s amples p roduced l ow n umbers o f i ndividuals f rom a w ide r ange o f s pecies , a s a t S tileway w here 5 93 i ndividuals c ame f rom 18 s pecies ( Girling 1 985a : 8 4) . T he s pecies i dentified , G irling p roceeded t o a nalyse h abitat r equirements a nd t o t he r econstruction o f p robable e cological g roupings . I t w as t his s tage o f h er w ork w hich , n aturally , h ad t he m ost d irect b earing o n t he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological w ork i n t he S omerset L evels , a nd i t i s t his w hich i s l argely d iscussed b elow . I t s hould n ot b e f orgotten , h owever , t hat b ehind e very d iscussion o f a quatic o r f orest f aunas t here l ay m any h ours o f p atient , m eticulous s orting a nd i dentification , t he e xtent o f w hich i s o nly h inted a t i n G irling 's r eports ( see f or e xample G irling 1 984a : 8 48 6) . T able 1 i s av ery i ncomplete a ttempt a t s ummarising t his w ork , a nd i t h ides t he e nthusiasm w hich g reeted e ach n ew i dentification , a n e nthusiasm t hat c ould b e p articularly i nfectious ( Girling 1 984a ; s ee b elow ) .

a s w ith t he d iscovery o f D olomedes

A ll t he s amples f or i nsect a nalysis d iscussed h ere w ere t aken i n d irect a ssociation w ith e xcavated p rehistoric s tructures , a part f rom t he S tileway s amples w hich w ere w ithin 5 0m o f s cattered B ronze A ge m aterial , a nd i n t he g eneral v icinity o f h uman a ctivity . B ut a t S tileway a nd e lsewhere G irling 's s ampling s trategy c overed t he p eats t hat b uilt u p b oth b efore a nd a fter t he l ife o f t he a ssociated s tructures , a nd t he b eetles i dentified t herefore

e nabled

t he a nalysis

l ong p eriods o f t ime .

o f c hanging e nvironmental

c onditions

o ver

T his i s p articularly e vident f or t he A bbot 's W ay a nd

t he M eare H eath T rack , w here t he t wo s eries o f s amples c over t he w hole t ime s pan f rom t he i nitiation o f p eat g rowth c . 3 500 b c t o t he h ighest s urviving p eat a t c . 5 00 a d , w hereas t he t rackwayi- p robably e ach b elonged t o ap eriod a s s hort a s ad ecade : t he A bbot 's W ay c . 2 000 b c a nd t he M eare H eath T rack p erhaps c . 1 200 b c . I n F ig .

2 t he

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s amples

t o s tructure

i s

s hown , a nd a n a ttempt h as b een m ade t o i ndicate t he t ime s pan o f e ach m onolith . T wo t hings a re c lear . F irstly , t hat r ates o f p eat a ccumulation h ave c hanged c onsiderably w ith t ime , t he g eneral t rend b eing f or s lower a ccumulation i n m ore r ecent t imes ( see a lso B eckett a nd H ibbert 1 979 : F ig . 3 ) ; t he e rosion o f d eposits t elescoping u pper l ayers i s ap ossibility w hich e xercises p alynologists , i n r elation t o t he M eare H eath d eposits f or e xample C aseldine ( in p rep .) . S econdly , t he l ack o f c hronological p recision i n t he d iagram d raws a ttention t o t he n eed f or r eliable d ates . I n t his r espect , t he d iagram i s m isleading i n s howing s ome h orizons t o b e f irmly d ated , w hich t hey a re n ot ( Orme 1 982) , b ut i t c an b e u sed a s ag uide t o t he r elative t imespans c overed b y G irling 's a nalyses f rom t he L evels . S upport f or t he r elative d ating c omes f rom p alaeobotanical w ork , s ince m any o f t he i nsect s amples w ere t aken i n c onjunction w ith s amples f or p ollen a nd p lant m acrofossil a nalyses , i n w hich c ase t he i ndividual i nsect s amples c an b e

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c orrelated w ith p ollen z ones i f r equired . I n d iscussing

t he s ignificance

o f

p articular i dentifications ,

G irling

w as a pt t o f orget t hat t he n on-specialist r eader p robably k new v ery l ittle a bout i nsects, a nd m ight n ot d iscriminate b etween C oleoptera a nd H ymenoptera ,

l et

a lone

r ealise w hy N oterus c lavicornis w as

a ' s pecies o f

p articular i nterest ' ( Girling 1 976 : 3 1) . T he a rchaeological r eader , t he a uthor i ncluded , i s t herefore l iable t o m iss m any o f t he f iner p oints o f G irling 's w ork , b ut i s g uided o ften e nough t o t he s ignificance o f b oth i ndividual s pecimens a nd t o t hat o f a ssemblages t o a ppreciate t he v ery c onsiderable c ontributions w hich c an b e m ade t o t he s tudy o f p ast e nvironments a nd h uman a ctivity . T he b rief s urvey b elow h as b een d ivided i nto s everal s ections , b ut t here i s n aturally m uch o verlap , a nd m any a spects h ave b een o mitted . ( see F igs . 1&2 f or s ampling l ocations a nd a pproximate t ime s pans) .

1 .

C hanging w etlands i n t he S omerset L evels

I nsect i dentifications a nd e specially t he i dentification o f b eetles f rom t he d eeper v ertical m onoliths , w ere u sed b y G irling t o d iscuss t he c hanging w etland e nvironment o f t he L evels i n a m anner s imilar a nd c omplementary t o t he s tudies o f p alaeobotanists . H er f irst p ublished r eport, " Fossil c oleoptera f rom t he S omerset L evels: t he Abbot 's W ay" ( 1976) , o utlined t he w ell-established s equence o f c hange f rom r eed s wamp t o r aised b og b ut i n t his i nstance r eflected i n t he c hanging s pecies a nd n umbers o f b eetles, n ot i n p ollen n or p lant m acrofossils . A s imilar s equence w as o utlined i n ' Fossil i nsect a ssemblages f rom R owland 's t rack ' ( 1977a ) , w ith g reater e vidence f or a f en w ood s tage b etween t he r eeds a nd t he r aised b og t han a t t he A bbot 's W ay . T here a re i dentifications i n t hese e arly s equences t hat G irling m ight w ell h ave c ome b ack t o a nd d iscussed f urther i n t he l ight o f s ubsequent w ork , b oth h er o wn a nd t hat o f o ther s pecialists . F or e xample , H eterocerus o bsoletus , w hich o ccurred c l m b elow t he A bbot 's W ay a nd a gain a t t he t op o f t he m onolith , ' lives i n b rackish p onds o r c oastal s ituations , a nd m ay a we i ts o ccurrence a t t he s ite t o t he i nfluence o f t he s ea l ying t o t he w est ' ( 1976 :32) . T hese o ccurrences c an n ow b e s een t o b e r elevant t o a ny d iscussion o f c hanging s ea l evels ( Housley 1 986, a nd s ee b elow) . T he R owland 's r eport, i n p articular , s uggests a c omplex p icture o f l ocal e nvironmental c hange , l atent i nformation w hich l ater k nowledge w ould h ave e nabled G irling t o b ring o ut . S tileway ( Girling 1 985a) , i n c ontrast t o t he A bbot 's W ay a nd R owland 's , a nd i n c ontrast t o t he p alaeobotanical p icture , y ielded a n i nsect a ssemblage t hat c hanged r emarkably l ittle f rom b ottom ( m id 3 rd m illennium b c) t o t op ( date u nknown , b ut p robably a fter 1 000 b c) . T he p icture o f e cological s tability, p ersisting u nexpected .

o f a m arshy d eciduous w oodland o n t he m argin o f d ryland t hrough t he a ges, i s a ll t he m ore i nteresting f or b eing A rchaeologists a re g enerally w ell-attuned , b y n ow , t o t he

p alynologists ' r ise a nd f all o f f orest v egetation , a nd t he S tileway b eetles h ave p rovided a r eminder t hat p rehistoric c learance w as n ot w holesale , a nd o ne a rea a t l east w ithin a r egion t hat s aw r epeated c learances c ould , a nd d id ,

e scape t he f armer 's a xe .

F or h ow l ong w e c annot b e c ertain :

t he

D omesday s urvey r ecorded f orest a t S tileway , b ut u nfortunately t here i s a t p resent n o e vidence t o s how c ontinuity f rom t he u ndated , b ut m ost r ecent , b eetles t o t he 1th c entury A D .

1 0

2 .

F looding h orizons T he M eare H eath ( 1982a) a nd D ifford 's ( 1978) r eports b oth d eal w ith t he

q uestion o f f looding e pisodes i n t he L evels a nd i n b oth c ases t he d ating i s p roblematic .

T he

s tratigraphy

o f D ifford 's w as c omplicated b y a p ool,

w hich c ould h ave b een n atural o r c ould h ave r esulted f rom v ery e arly p eatc utting , a nd w hich l ed t o t he p resence o f R omano-British w ood a t t he s ame l evel a s,

a nd a djacent t o ,

a 2 nd m illennium b c t rackway .

T he i nsect

s amples w ere t aken i n c onjunction w ith p alaeobotanical s amples , w hich w ere t entativeley d ated b y B eckett ( 1978b) b y c orrelation o f t he p ollen z ones w ith t hose f rom t he M eare H eath m onolith c 4 00 m t o t he w est, a nd i n a s imilar p osition , c . 4 00 m t o t he s outh o f Meare i sland . T his c orrelation h as b een u sed f or F ig . 2 . D ating o f t he M eare H eath m onolith h as i ts o wn p roblems , d iscussed v ariously b y B eckett a nd H ibbert ( 1979) , O rme ( 1982) , a nd C aseldine ( in p rep .) . A s a r esult , i t i s d ifficult t o e stablish t he r elationship o f t he t wo D ifford 's f looding e pisodes t o t he t hree i dentified a t M eare H eath . T his w as n ot s omething G irling t ried t o d o , b ut s omething w e c an n ow s ee a s d esirable i n v iew o f

t he m ounting e vidence f or t he

i nfluence o f c hanging s ea l evels p enetrating f ar e astwards i nto t he L evels ( Housley 1 986 ; C aseldine , t his v olume) , e vidence c orroborated b y G irling 's i dentifications o f s pecies o f b rackish w ater a ssociated w ith t he m arked i ncreases i n a quatic s pecies t hat i ndicate t he f looding e pisodes a t b oth s ites . B ecause t here i s r elevant e vidence i n t he b eetle a nalyses , i t i s a ll t he m ore i mportant t o r emember t hat t he d ating i s u ncertain . T urning f rom t hese p roblems o f s tratigraphy , d ating a nd t he c orrelation o f e pisodes f rom s ite t o s ite, t he s equence o f e nvironmental c hange e stablished f rom t he M eare H eath m onolith i s o f p articular i nterest . H ere t he i mpoverished r aised b og f auna o f t he l evels b elow t he Meare H eath t rackway w ere a pparently l iterally f looded o ut b y a n i nflux o f a quatic s pecies d emanding c alcareous w ater . T he c hange b egins j ust a bove t he l evel o f t he p rehistoric s tructure , a nd h elps t o e xplain t he n eed f or t he l atter : b uilt i n r eaction t o i ncreased w etness w hich m ade h azardous a t raditional p ath a crossed t he r aised b og , a bandoned a nd a lso p reserved d ue t o t he f looding w hich f ollowed .

T he d egree o f f looding i s i ndicated . T he p resence

o f C ladium i n t he p lant m acrofossils a t t his l evel i s i tself a n i ndicator o f s tanding

w ater u p t o 4 0cm d eep

( Beckett

1 978a ;

C aseldine ,

i n p rep .) ,

a nd

t he b eetle i dentifications a dd d etail ( summarised i n G irling 1 982a : T able 1 5 c olumn E ) w ith s pecies o f m uddy p ond e dges , f en p ools, r unning w ater a nd o pen w ater . S amples j ust a bove t he t rackway w ere r ich i n s pecies o f p ools a nd s wampy p laces , f ollowed b y am ajor i nflux o f s pecies o f c alcareous w ater a nd i ndicators o f e xtensive a reas o f s urface w ater . T he f looding c learly o verwhelmed t he r aised b og , b ut t he p rocess w as s low a nd m ust h ave m ade human t ravel a cross t he w etland i ncreasingly d ifficult, a nd p erhaps i mpossible

f or a w hile ,

u ntil

s uch a d egree

o f w etness w as

r eached

t hat

b oating w as p ossible . T he u pper

l evels

o f

t he M eare H eath m onolith

s howed ,

i n t he

b eetle

i dentifications, t wo f urther a nd s uccessively s lighter f loodings, a lthough t he d ating o f a ll

a nd

t hree e pisodes i s i mprecise t hey c learly p ost-

d ate t he b uilding o f t he l ater 2 nd m illennium b c t rackway a nd p re-date t he c essation o f p eat g rowth w hich i s g enerally h eld t o h ave o ccurred i n t he m id- 1 st m illlennium A D .

1

3 .

L ocal c onditions T he

i mmediate

i nsect a nalyses .

e nvironment

o f

s tructures h as

a lso b een e lucidated b y

T he f requently-used r econ strucion d rawings

o f

t he A bbot 's

W ay s how t he c orduroy t rack c rossing a b arren r aised b og , s kirting s mall s hallow p ools , w ith a c row-like b ird f lying o verhead ( e .g . F ig . 3 ) . T he v egetation i s b ased o n G irling 1 976 , t he b ird o n G irling 1 977b . A nother e xample o f i mmediate c onditions , a nd a f avourite w ith l ecture a udiences , c omes f rom t he S weet T rack . ' Fossil i nsects f rom t he S weet T rack ' ( Girling 1 979b) d eals w ith s amples f rom t he D rove S ite , n ear t he s outhern e nd o f t he e arly n eolithic S weet T rack , b ut i t i s ' Investigations o f a s econd i nsect a ssemblage f rom t he S weet T rack ' ( Girling 1 984) w hich p articularly c aptures t he i magination i n t erms o f l ocal c onditions , a nd w hich i s o f c onsiderable s ignificance i n o ther r espects a s w ell . T he s econd a ssemblage c ame f rom t he T urbary S ite , a bout h alfway a long t he t rackway a nd t herefore a s f ar f rom d ryland a s c ould b e . T he s amples w ere r ich i n a quatic s pecies , i ndicating ' a v ery s wampy e utrophic f en w ith a bundant s tretches o f o pen w ater a nd l ocally g rowing c arr w oodland ' ( 1984 :79) . T he r emains o f s piders w ere a lso c ommon , a nd a mongst t hem G irling i dentified D olomedes, p robably b oth D . f imbatus a nd D . p lantarius . D olomedes i s t he R aft S pider , a c reature w hose b ody l ength m ay e xceed 2 0mm ; i t l ives b y p ermanent b odies o f w ater , h unting a quatic i nsects a nd s mall f ish s uch a s m innows . T he p icture o f e nough o pen w ater f or l ittle f ish a nd b ig s piders i s c orroborated b y C aseldine 's i dentification o f o pen w ater p lants s uch a s N ymphaea a lba , t he w hite w ater l ily ( Caseldine 1 984:70) . B oth t he i nsect a nd t he p lant i ndicators o f o pen w ater o ccurred a t a p oint w here t he t rackway h ad b een r einforced f rom t he s tart ( Coles a nd O rme 1 984 , F ig . 1 0) a nd l ater r epaired , a ccording t o t he e vidence o f t ree-ring a nalyses ( Morgan 1 984:59) . T he T urbary S ite r esults p rovide a p articularly g ood e xample o f t he a greement o f a rchaeological, t ree-ring , p lant m acrofossil a nd i nsect a nalyses . I n 1 978 , s mall t rial e xcavations w ere m ade a t t he e ast e nd o f M eare V illage W est , a nd s amples t aken f or i nsect a nalysis . A lthough t he P roject u ndertook s everal s ubsequent e xcavations a t M eare , n o f urther i nsect s tudies w ere c arried o ut , p artly d ue t o p ressure o f o ther w ork a nd a lso b ecause t here w as s ome e vidence t hat t he s ettlement l evels w ere d isturbed b y m odern a nimal a ctivity . ' The f ossil i nsect a ssemblages f rom t he Meare L ake V illage ' ( 1979a) i s t herefore t he o nly p aper t hat d eals w ith s amples t aken i n d irect a ssociation w ith a s ettlement , a nd i t o pens : ' K an i s t he d ominant i nfluence u pon t he i nsect f auna . ' T he s ettlement , I ron A ge i n d ate , w as i n t he w et , j ust o ff t he n orthern e dge o f M eare I sland ( for d etailed d iscussion o f t he e nvironment s ee C aseldine 1 986 , E vans 1 986 a nd R obinson 1 986) .

T he

l ocation i s

r eflected i n t he b eetle s pecies ,

w hose

h abitats

i nclude w ater 's e dge , d amp o rganic s oils , t hick r eed a nd r ush , w et l eaves a nd m oss , f lowing w ater a nd c alcareous-rich w ater . T he n earby r aised b og a ccounts f or t he r elative a bundance o f M icrelus e ricae , w hich f eeds o n h eather a nd l ing , a nd w hich w as m ost a bundant i n t he s amples f rom t he n orthern t rial h ole ,

o n t he r aised b og s ide .

C ultivated o r w aste g round w as i ndicated b y an umber o f s pecies , w hich o ccurred e xclusively, o r m ost a bundantly i n t he s amples t aken o ff t he e astern e dge o f t he s ettlement .

I n m ost c ases , n o m ore t han o ne i ndividual

w as i dentified , b ut t he l ist i ncludes S itona l epidus ( associated w ith l egumes) , S itona o nonidis ( restharrow) , C hrysolina b anksi ( horehound), P hyllopertha h orticola ( grassland m iner) , a nd P terostichus m elanarius , C alathus f uscipes, C alathus m elanocephalus, B embidion p roperans a nd D romius l inearis ( open , p robably c ultivated g round a nd m eadows) . T he

1 2

'

t he A bbot 's W ay b y S .E . R oullard , w ith d etails p rovided b y G irling 's i nsect

/ 14 • 1'.

4 4 0

C u

• 4

0 • ' 4 4 4 )

4 3 U )

c Y

• r f

1 3

C i3

0

Q )

•

•

p resence o f t hese b eetles r einforces t he p alaeobotanical e vidence f or c learance a nd c ultivation i n t he v icinity , a lthough M ark R obinson ( pers . c omm .) h as s ince s uggested t hat g rassland o r g rassy waste g round i s i ndicated ,

r ather t han m eadows a nd a rable .

T he m ost d ramatic i ndicator o f h uman i nfluence o n t he e nvironment w as A nobium p unctatum , t he w ood b orer , w hich w as t he c ommonest n amed s pecies f rom t he s ite a nd w hich w as m ost a bundant i n t he s amples d irectly a ssociated w ith o ccupation , t he h ighest n umber c oming f rom t he t rial h ole i n t he m iddle o f t he s ettlement a rea . T here w as a lso " a l arge r ubbish/compost e lement" l arge e nough , G irling a rgued , t o s uggest r eeds f or t hatching . T hese i dentifications a re p articularly i nteresting a s M eare , i n c omparison w ith t he n earby a nd r oughly c ontemporary s ettlement a t G lastonbury , h as n ever y ielded a ny g reat q uantity o f p rehistoric w ood . P ests w hich l ive o n d ry d ead w ood a nd s pecies i ndicative o f r eed t hatch i mply b oth s tructures a nd t heir d ecay , t imbers.

a nd c onditions d rier t han t hose t hat p reserved t he G lastonbury

G irling d iscussed b riefly t he d ifferences i n t he s pecies i dentified f rom t he f our s eparate l ocations s ampled , a nd s he n oted t hat t he c entral a nd n orthern s amples w ere d ominated b y s pecies a ssociated w ith m an ( 1979a :

2 8) .

S he d id n ot , h owever , p oint o ut t hat t he h uman a ssociation w as s trongest i n t he c entral s ample , t he r aised b og a ssociation i n t he n orthern s ample a nd t he f armland a ssociation i n t he e astern s ample . T o s ay t his i s n ot s tretching t he e vidence , a nd i t d oes s uggest t hat t he p atterning o f t he i nsect f aunas c ontemporary w ith t he s ettlement w as r elatively u ndisturbed . F urther s tudy m ight h ave p roved r ewarding .

4 .

D ung b eetles F arming w as i ndicated a t M eare W est b y d ung b eetles ,

a mongst o thers .

A t T inney 's G round, w here a g roup o f l ate 2 nd m illennium b c b rushwood t rackways h as b een e xcavated , n o m arked i ndication o f f arming w as e xpected , f or t he t rackways h ad b een b uilt a cross r aised b og a nd w ere e xamined s ome 5 00 m o ff t he n earest d ry l and , w hich i n t his c ase w ould h ave b een t he n orthern s lopes o f t he P olden H ills . N evertheless, s amples t aken i n a ssociation w ith o ne o f t he t racks y ielded 1% d ung b eetles ( Girling 1 982b :65) , a r elatively h igh p ercentage c ompared w ith t he 3 .5% f rom M eare W est . T he t otals a re h igh e nough t o s uggest a nimals g razing t he r aised b og , r ather t han t he P oldens . T here c annot h ave b een m uch t o e at a part f rom c otton g rass , h eather a nd l ing , a nd i t m ay b e t hat t he a nimals w ere c rossing t he r aised b og t o r icher p astures , a nd p erhaps e ven b eing d riven a long t he t rackways. G irling a lso s uggested t hat a nimals c rossed t he B aker P latform ( Girling 1 980) , g iven t he d ung b eetle i dentifications f rom t his s ite . T he P latform w as i n u se d uring t he t hird m illennium b c ; i t l ay o n t he e dge o f W esthay i sland i n a r elatively w et a nd m arshy e nvironment . D ung b eetles a ppeared i n t he f ossil r ecord b elow t he P latform l evels, a nd a lso i n d irect a ssociation w ith i t . P ossibly d omestic b easts w ere b eing f erried f rom t he i sland t o w etland p astures , o r b rought i n t o g raze t he i sland f ields . T he p resence o f c leared l and w as i ndicated b y p ollen a nd p lant m acrofossil a nalyses ( Caseldine 1 980) a nd b y o ther b eetle i dentifications . F or e xample , i n l evels b elow t he s tructure , c ontemporary w ith p ollen e vidence f or a n e lm d ecline , n umbers o f d ead-wood b orers w ere a t t heir h ighest a nd G irling s uggested t hese s pecies p erhaps f lourished a s f orest c over w as b eing k illed

1 4

o ff f or a griculture . A bove t his, b ut s till b elow t he s tructure , S phaenis a caroides w as i dentified , a ssociated w ith a t hin m ineral l ayer i n t he p eat .

S phaenis a caroides

t he w ater ' ,

a nd G irling a rgued t hat t he m ud c ould h ave b een w ashed i n w ith

l ives ' under s tones o r i n m ud a t t he e dge o f

t he r un-off f rom c ultivated f ields o n t he i sland .

A n a lternative s cenario ,

d eveloped i n r ecent y ears ( for a b eginning , s ee C oles a nd O rme 1 982), a ttributes t he e vidence a s m uch t o b eaver a s t o h uman i nfluence : d ead-wood b orers i n t he t rees k illed b y f looding b ehind a b eaver d am , a nd i n t he v ast q uantities o f f elled w ood t hat b eaver l itter a round t he p lace , m ud p lastering a l odge , a nd w ild h erbivores c oming t o g raze t he c learing a nd t he p ool e dge t hat g o w ith l odge a nd d am . T here m ay a c ase f or r esearch o n b eaver-associated b eetles , b ecause t he p rehistoric p resence o f b eaver i n t he L evels i s n ow w ell-attested . L ikewise , G irling 's i dentification o f d ung b eetles i n d irect a ssociation w ith t he s tructures a t T inney 's a nd B aker h ave h ighlighted t he n eed f or i nvestigation o f w hich s pecies o f d omestic a nimal c an t ravel a long w hat s orts o f t rackway . A nimal t raffic i s n ot s omething w e w ould h ave g iven s erious c onsideration , w ithout t he e vidence f rom t he i nsect a nalyses.

5 .

P rehistoric f orests.

G irling 's w ork i n t he S omerset L evels l ed h er t o i dentify t wo m ajor h abitat l osses , o f u ndisturbed f orest a nd o f n utrient-rich w etland . I t c ould b e s aid t hat b oth w ere k nown b y o ther c hannels , t he f orest l oss b y p ollen a nalysis i n p articular . T he i nsect a nalyses h ave , h owever , a dded g reatly t o o ur u nderstanding o f w hat w as l ost , i n t he c ase o f t he f orest b y p roviding d etails a bout i ts c omposition w hich a re n ot a vailable i n t he p ollen r ecord ( see G irling 1 982b f or a w ider d iscussion ) . O ne a spect o f t he S tileway w ork d iscussed a bove i s r elevant h ere , n amely t he w ay i n w hich t he i nsect f auna d emonstrated c ontinuity o f f orest c over i n o ne l ocation a gainst a p ollen r ecord o f c learance a nd r egeneration . O ther d etails f rom S tileway a re o f i nterest , i n p articualr t he n umber o f d ead-wood s pecies . A s G irling w rote , ' t he i nferred a bundance o f d ead w ood a nd l ack o f g round v egetation s uggest t hat f elling , c oppicing a nd e ven g athering o f f irewood w ere n ot c arried o ut w idely , i f a t a ll' ( 1985: 8 2) . T his, d espite t he e vidence f or h uman a ctivity c lose b y a t o ne t ime a nd t he g eneral e vidence f or l ong t erm h uman e xploitation o f t he i sland o n w hich t he S tileway f orest g rew , m ust i ndicate a r elatively u nstresssed h uman p opulation a ble t o l eave u ntouched s ome o f t heir n ot v ery l arge i sland ( see F ig . 1 ) . T he p rehistoric f orest w as n ot o nly u ndisturbed i n p laces a nd f ull o f d ead a nd d ecaying t rees , i ts c omposition i ncluded s pecies l eft o ut o r u nderr epresented i n t he p ollen r ecord . A t S tileway , t he i dentification o f p otential h ost t rees f or t he r ecorded i nsects g ave b eech a s core o nly o ne p oint b ehind o ak ( Girling 1 985a : F ig . 6 4) . I ts p resence c ould n ot b e p roven a s n one o f t he b eetles w as s pecific t o b eech , b ut i t h as l ong b een s uspected a s am ore s ignificant c omponent o f p rehistoric f orests t han p ollen h as i ndicated ( see O rme a nd C oles 1 985:10 f or a b rief s ummary o f t he p osition a s s een f rom t he L evels) . F urther s upport f or t he p resence o f b eech c omes f rom t he i dentification o f R hysodes s ulcatus a nd I sorhipis m elasoides i n t he B aker P latform s amples ; b oth s pecies f avour d ead b eech , a nd b oth a re n ow e xtinct i n B ritain . D orcus p arallelipipedus, i dentified a t t he S weet T rack , T urbary S ite , a lso i nhabits d ead b eech a s w ell a s w illow a nd o ther s pecies . T hese i dentifications d o n ot , h owever , a dd u p t o p roof p ositive t hat b eech w as p resent, c oncerned c an b e a ssociated w ith o ther t rees .

1 5

a s a ll

t he s pecies

T he

p resence

o f

l ime

i s

w ell

e stablished

b y E rnoporus c aucasicus ,

i dentified i n b oth t he S weet s eries o f s amples , a nd c orroborated b y t he u se o f l ime w ood i n t he t rack s tructure . E rnoporus c aucasicus i s a lso r ecorded a t t he b ase o f t he A bbot 's Way s amples, b ut n ot o therwise . T he i dentifications f rom t he L evels w ere a mongst t he e vidence w hich G reig u sed t o a rgue t he c ase f or a h igh p ercentage o f l ime i n t he m ixed d eciduous f orest , m uch h igher t han i ndicated b y t he s urviving p ollen ( Greig 1 982) .

6 . C hanges i n c limate . I n ' Investigations o f a s econd i nsect a ssemblage f rom t he S weet T rack ' ( 1984) G irling d rew t ogether t he f ossil i nsect e vidence f or c limatic c hange . T his h ad b een a ccumulating s ince h er f irst S omerset w ork o n t he A bbot 's W ay s amples , w here t he p resence o f O odes g racilis a nd A nthicus g racilis w as t aken t o i ndicate a n e arlier n eolithic c limate w armer t han t hat o f t he p resent . B y 1 984, i t h ad b ecome c lear t o G irling t hat t he e xtinction o f c ertain s pecies s uch a s t he a bove c ould n ot b e e xplained s imply b y af all i n t emperature . H owever , b y u sing t he p resent F ennoscandinavian r anges o f t he g round b eetles i dentified a t t he T urbary s ite ( 1984a : F ig . 9 2) i n a ddition t o t he p resent E uropean d istributions o f t he e xtinct s pecies ( 1984a : F igs . 9 0 a nd 9 1) s he a rgued t hat n eolithic s ummer t emperatures i n t he L evels c ould w ell h ave b een a bout 2 ° w armer t han t he p resent 1 5-16 ° C a nd w inter t emperatures 2° c older t han t he p resent 4 -7 ° C , ac ontinental r ather t han a n o ceanic p attern . T he i nference o f c ontinentality h as v ery g reat i mplications f or p rehistorians , w ho h ave l ong a ccepted t hat e arly f armers i n B ritain w ere b lessed w ith a l ong g rowi n g s eason , l ittle n eed f or w inter f odder , ar apidly g rowing p opulation a nd p lenty o f s urpluses o f a ll s orts t o e nable m onument b uilding ( for e xample , s ee c ontributions t o M ercer 1 981) . I f t he w inters a re t o b e c old a s w ell a s t he s ummers h ot , t he p icture w ill h ave t o b e r edrawn i n s ome r espects a t l east .

A lthough t reated o nly b riefly h ere ,

i t m ay w ell b e t hat t he a rgument

f or a c ontinental c limate i n t he e arlier n eolithic w ill p rove t o b e G irling 's m ajor c ontribution f rom t he L evels t o t he s tudy o f B ritish p rehistory .

A s w ith t he d iscussions o f c limate, a nd o f f orest f aunas ,

o ther a spects o f h er w ork w ere b eginning t o b e d rawn t ogether a fter a d ecade o f r esearch ,

a nd s he p repared a p aper o n ' A quatic c oleoptera i n t he f ossil

i nsect a ssemblages f rom S omerset L evels a rchaeological s ites ' f or t he B alfour-Browne N ewsletter ( 1984b) . A r eport o n t he S weet T rack s piders w as t o f ollow .

S he h ad g reat h opes o f i dentifying S colytus s colytus i n t he

S weet T rack e lm w ood , b ut w as n ot t o d o s o , a nd i n t he E lm d ecline d ebate t he H ampstead H eath i dentification w ill b e t he o ne r emembered a nd q uoted ( Girling a nd G rieg 1 985b ) . M ention o f H ampstead H eath c omes

a s a t imely r eminder t hat M aureen 's

W ork w as n ot s olely b ased o n t he S omerset L evels , a nd h er c olleagues w ill b e w ell a ware o f c ontributions t o o ther p rojects . H er c ontributions t o t he s tudy o f t he L evels w ere m any a nd v aried , a nd m uch v alued . a w ealth o f i nformation s till t o e xtract f rom h er w ork ,

T here i s s urely i nformation t hat

M aureen w as j ust b eginning t o p ublish , a nd t he h ope m ust b e t hat s omeone w ith t he n ecessary s pecialised k nowledge w ill n ow t ake u p t he c hallenge .

1 6

A cknowledgements M y t hanks t o J .M . C oles ,

A .E .

C aseldine , H .C .M . K eeley , M . R obinson a nd

P . O sborne f or c omments a nd h elp w ith r eferences . G oddard .

1 7

F igure 2 w as d rawn b y S .

B ibliography B eckett, S .C.

( 1978a)

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B eckett, S .C .

( 1978b)

P alaeobotanical s ite.

B eckett, S .C . a nd H ibbert , F .A .

( 1976)

A bbot 's W ay . B eckett, S .C . a nd H ibbert,

i nvestigations

S omerset L evels P apers

a t

t he

D ifford 's

A n a bsolute p ollen d iagram f rom t he S omerset L evels P apers 2

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I

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i nfluence o f p rehistoric m an i n t he S omerset L evels . N ew P hytologist 8 3 5 77-600 . C aseldine, A .E.

( 1980)

P alaeoenvironmental r econstrurtion a t S ite.

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( 1984)

t he B aker

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( 1986)

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v illages. C aseldine, A .E.

c ontext

( in p rep .) E nvironmental e vidence T rack, 1 985 e xcavations .

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( 1986)

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( 1986)

l ake

f rom t he

Meare H eath

t he S omerset

L ondon : T hames a nd H udson . s ome n ew

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( 1984)

T en

( 3200 b c). E vans, J .G .

Meare

B eaver i n t he S omerset L evels :

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t he

S weet T rack t o G lastonbury :

L evels i n P rehistory . C oles, J .M . a nd O rme B .J .

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S omerset L evels P apers 1 2 7 3-96.

e xcavations

a long

t he

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T rack

S omerset L evels P apers 1 0 5 -45.

Mollusca f rom t he I ron A ge s ites a t M eare , S omerset . S omerset L evels P apers 1 2 9 7-102.

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( 1976)

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C oleoptera

A bbot 's W ay . G irling, M .A .

( 1977a)

F ossil

f rom t he

S omerset

L evels:

T he

S omerset L evels P apers 2 2 8-33 .

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f rom R owland 's

T rack .

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( 1977b)

B ird p ellets f rom a S omerset L evels t rackway .

G irling , M .A .

( 1978)

n eolithic

N aturalist 1 02 4 9-52.

F ossil i nsect a ssemblages f rom Difford 's

1 s ite .

S omerset L evels P apers 4 1 07-113. G irling , M .A .

( 1979a)

T he

f ossil

v illage.

i nsect

a ssemblage

f rom

t he

S omerset L evels P apers 5 2 5 -3 2.

1 8

M eare

L ake

G irling ,

M .A .

( 1979b)

Fossil

insects

from

t he

Sweet

Track.

S omerset L evels P apers 5 8 4-93 . G irling ,

M .A .

( 1980)

T he

f ossil

i nsect

a ssemblage

f rom t he B aker s ite .

S omerset L evels P apers 6 3 6-42. G irling , M .A .

( 1982a)

T he e ffect

o f

t he M eare H eath f looding e pisodes o n

t he C oleopteran s uccession . 84 6-50. G irling , M .A .

( 1982b)

F ossil

i nsect

f aunas

S omerset L evels P apers

f rom

f orest

s ites .

I n :

A rchaeological A spects o f W oodland E cology ( eds . B ell , M . a nd L imbrey , S . ) B ritish A rchaeological R eports S 1 46 1 29-146. G irling , M .A .

( 1984a)

I nvestigations

o f

t he S weet T rack . G irling, M .A .

( 1984b)

a s econd

i nsect

a ssemblage

f rom

S omerset L evels P apers 1 0 7 9-91.

A quatic C oleoptera i n t he F ossi , 1 I nsect A ssemblages f rom A rchaeological

S ites

i n

t he

S omerset

L evels .

B alfour-Browne C lub N ewsletter 3 0 1 -11 . G irling, M .A .

( 1985)

A n

' old-forest '

b eetle

f auna

f rom a N eolithic

Bronze Age peat d eposit S omerset L evels P apers 1 8 0-84 . G irling, M .A .

a nd G reig, J .R .A .

( 1977)

P alaeoecological

a s ite a t H ampstead H eath ,

a t

i nvestigations

L ondon .

a nd

S tileway.

N ature

2 68

o f 4 5-

4 7. G irling, M .A . a nd G reig, J .R .A .

( 1985)

A f irst

f ossil

r ecord f or S colytus

s colytus ( F) ( Elm B ark B eetle) : i ts o ccurrence i n Elm D ecline d eposits f rom London and t he i mplications f or N eolithic e lm d isease . J ournal o f

G reig, J .

( 1982)

A rchaeological S cience 1 2

3 47-352.

P ast

woods

a nd

p resent

l ime

o f

E urope .

I n :

A rchaeological A spects o f W oodland E cology ( eds . B ell, M . a nd L imbrey , S . ) B ritish A rchaeological R eports S 1 46, H ousley, R .

( 1986)

T he

2 3-56 .

E nvironment

U n-published

o f

d octoral

G lastonbury L ake V illage . d issertation ,

U niversity

o f

C ambridge . M ercer , R .

( ed)

( 1981)

F arming P ractice i n B ritish P rehistory .

E dinburgh :

U niversity P ress . M organ , R .A .

( 1984)

T ree-ring s tudies i n t he S omerset L evels : T rack 1 979-1982 .

O rme, B .J.

( 1982)

T he

u se

L evels .

o f

r adiocarbon d ates

f rom t he

S omerset L evels P apers 8 9 -25 .

1 9

t he S weet

S omerset L evels P apers 1 0 4 6-64 . S omerset

O rme ,

B .J . a nd C oles,

J .M .

( 1985)

S omerset

P rehistoric

Levels:

2 .

p rehistoric w oodlands . 7 -24. R obinson ,

E .

( 1986)

f rom

t he

s election

a nd

S omerset L evels P apers

O stracods f rom M eare E ast . 1 2 1 03-105 .

2 0

W oodworking

S pecies

1 1

S omerset L evels P apers

W ETLAND A RCHAEOLOGY :

T EAMING W ITH D ATA .

F rancis P ryor T his s hort i ntroductory n ote o ffers t wo r elated , r andom ,

t houghts

o n

t he

n ature

o f

t heme , w hich i s n ot m ade e xplicit ,

w etland

b ut o therwise f airly

a rchaeology .

T he

u nderlying

i s t hat t here i s ar eal d anger o f w etland

a rchaeology b ecoming a d istinct s ub-discipline w ithin t he w ider f ield o f a rchaeology . Ih ope m ost s incerely t hat t his n ever h appens , a s o ur s ubject h as a lready s hown a n u nfortunate t endency t o b alkanise i nto a p roliferation o f i ntrospective s elf-serving s pecialities . d emanding o f

t he a rchaeologist,

b ut

t hat ,

W etlands a re , i t i s t rue , v ery t o m e ,

i s a p owerful

t hey s hould r emain a t t he v ery c ore o f t he d iscipline .

r eason w hy

O nce w etland

a rchaeology b ecomes h ived-off o r w orse , h ives i tself o ff , t hen t he p rognosis f or i ts l ong-term f uture w ill b e b leak : a s a rchaeologists w e s ometimes h ave a t endency

t o b ury o ur h ead

P lough-damage , f or e xample , l onger c onsistutes a t hreat .

i n t he

s and o nce

p roblems

b ecome

l arge .

i s s o u biquitous a nd d estructive t hat i t n o S omehow ( the L ord a lone k nows w hy o r h ow) w e

h ave l earned , l ike t he B omb , t o l ive w ith i t . T he s ame w ill s hortly g o f or d esiccation , u nless w e d o s omething a bout i t n ow . W etland a rchaeology ,

Iw ill s uggest ,

d iffers f rom o ther v arieties o f

a rchaeology i n t hat i t o ften d emands a l ong-term c ommitment b y a c losely i ntegrated , a nd o ften q uite s mall, t eam o f h ighly m otivated a nd e nvironmentally c ompetent a rchaeologists .

I t

i s

n ot

a ppropriate

t o f und

w etland p rojects w ith s udden , m assive , i nfusions o f m oney a nd t hen v anish , u nless t here i s a n a ppropriate i nfrastructure r eady t o s pend t he f unds p roperly ( as i s t he c ase , f or e xample , i n H olland a nd S witzerland) .

S urely

t he S omerset L evels P roject d emonstrates c learly t he b enefits o f w orking o n ar elatively s mall s cale, b ut o ver a n e xtended p eriod o f t ime. T he s econd p art o f t his p aper d ebunks , Ih ope , t he m yth t hat w etland a rchaeology h as t o b e e xpensive a s I f ear t hat t his m ight w ell b ecome a n e xcuse , i n f uture y ears , n ot t o f und w etland w ork , b e i t r escue o r r esearch . L ike a ll o ther t ypes o f a rchaeology , i n w etland r esearch y ou g et w hat y ou p ay f or . h owever ,

T he t emptation t o p our m oney

i nto w etland w ork

b ecause t he r esults a re s o s pectacular a nd u nexpected .

i s

s trong, Iw ould

s uggest, o n t he o ther h and , t hat e ven r elatively s mall i nvestments o f t ime a nd m oney i nto s maller w etland p rojects c an p roduce r esults t oo . T he i mportant t hing i s t o d o i t a nd t o d o i t n ow , w hile w e s till h ave a f ew w et s ites a nd l andscapes l eft ! My

f irst

t hought ,

t hen ,

i s

t hat w e m ake t oo m uch o f

b etween e xcavation a nd p ost-excavation

o r

b etween

t he d istinction

l aboratory

a nd

s ite

r esearch . ' Coming i n f rom t he f ield ' i s o ften a b ig d eal a ccompanied b y a r eorganisation o f o ne 's d aily t imetable t hat a lmost a mounts t o a c hange i n l ifestyle . I t hink i t i mportant t hat w e t ry t o b e m ore f lexible a nd t his w ill i nevitably l ead t o b etter c ommunication b etween s ite a nd l aboratory . It hought t he p apers b y m embers o f t he Y ork A rchaeological T rust s howed h ow e xcellent t heir l aboratory/site c ommunications a re . I ncidentally o ur a pproach t o s ites i s s omewhat s imilar , i f o n a l ess g rand s cale : a ll o ur s pecialists c onsider t hemselves a rchaeologists f irst a nd f oremost a nd w ould b e

v ery

f ield

f ed-up

f or

t he

i f

I h ad

b ench .

t he

T his

t emerity f lexible

2 1

t o

s uggest

a ttitude

t o

t hat t he

t hey s ite

f oreswear o r

s urvey

t he a nd

t heir d ata i s w hat I m ean b y t eamwork . G ood

t eams

t ake t ime t o b uild-up ,

a nd g ood w etland t eams ,

w here t he

s kills a nd s pecialisms a re s omewhat r econdite, t ake even l onger . C ontinuity o f f unding m ust t herefore b e a imed-for , e ven i n t hese d ays o f P rojects . H ow w e d o i t i s o ur o wn p roblem , b ut d o i t w e m ust . I s imply w ill n ot a ccept t hat o ne c an p ut t ogether a d ecent w etland p roject u sing " off t he s helf" s pecialists , w orking a t i nstitutions f ar r emoved f rom t he s ite , a lone . T he s pecialists, a fter a ll, m ust p lay a c rucial r ole i n p lanning d ata r ecovery a nd s ampling p rocedures b oth b efore a nd d uring e xcavation a nd t hey c an o nly d o t his i f t hey a re a ble t o v isit t he s ite r egularly . B efore I m ove o n , m ay I b e a llowed a m omentary g rouse? I d islike t he t erm ' specialist ' . W hy i s i t t hat s omebody l ike m yself w ho m ay h ave a p articular i nterest i n B ronze A ge f lintwork o r n eolithic p ottery i s n ot a ' specialist '? I s s cience ' special '? I t hink n ot . I p refer t he t erm ' consultant ' i f , t hat i s , o ne c onsults s omebody w ho h as e xpertise ( having s aid t hat , i t w on 't c atch o n !) . M y s econd t hought c oncerns c ost .

a p articular

Ik now t hat w etländ a rchaeology c an

b e a lmost u nbelievably e xpensive - t he f igure o f £ 8 ,000 ,000 f or t wo s easons w ork i n S witzerland i s o ften m entioned . B ut n eed i t b e ( and h ere I c ast n o a spertions a t o ur S wiss c olleagues w ho s pend t heir m oney w isely a nd w ell)? If ear t hat t he s heer c ost o f d oing w etland a rchaeology t o, s ay , S wiss s tandards i s g iving s undry f unding a uthorities c old f eet . I t i s , h owever , p ossible t o e xcavate w et s ites c heaply , p roviding o ne s tates c learly i n a dvance w hat w ill b e l ost i f b udgets a re c ut . Iw ould h ate t o d o i t , b ut i f F lag F en w as t o b e d estroyed i n a y ear 's t ime a nd I w ere t o b e o ffered s ay £ 20 ,000 t o d ig i t , t hen I c ould . F or t hat m oney I w ould m achine-off t he o verlying p eat a nd t he s urviving h ouse u prights , r ight d own t o f loor l evel . W e c ould t hen p lan t he b uildings a nd s electively e xcavate a f ew . W e w ould t hen r emove t he w ood, a fter t aking a n a erial p hotograph a nd c utting a f ew t renches t hrough t he p latform t o d etermine i ts c onstruction a nd t hickness a t v arious p oints . P articularly f ine t imbers c ould b e h eld i n ap olythene-lined t emporary p ond a gainst t he p ossibility o f f inding m oney f or c onservation . F inally w e w ould r otovate a nd f ield-walk t he g round b eneath t he p latform ,

a nd c arry o ut s elective f ine-mesh w et-sieving .

C ertainly w e w ould h ave r ecorded t he b asic l ayout , c ertain b uildings, s ome p latform c onstruction a nd a rtefact d istribution b eneath t he t imbers . H opefully w e c ould a lso f ind t ime t o t ake s uitable s amples ( pollen , i nsects , m acrobotany e tc .) i n a f airly d etailed m anner . W hat w e w ould l ose w ould b e f airly h orrendous : m ost s tructural i nformation , a ny f ine p hasing , i ntrab uilding a ctivity a reas , m ost f aunal a nd d endrochronological d ata , m ost i n s itu a rtefacts a nd f urniture e tc . - a nd I a m s ure t he l ist c ould b e i ndefinitely e xtended . H aving s aid t hat , h owever , I d oubt w hether t he B iskupin e xcavations h ave t aught u s v ery m uch m ore , m ore e nvironmental t echniques a t o ur d isposal . M y p oint

i s

t hat w etland w ork c an ,

a s t oday w e h ave m any

i ndeed m ust ,

b e

c ost-effective .

I t r equires c lose t eamwork i f i t i s t o b e p erformed p roperly , b ut i t n eed n ot n ecessarily b e o utrageously e xpensive ; c ertainly t he t wo l argest r ural e xcavation p rojects i n E ngland i n 1 986 - M aiden C astle a nd R aunds - a re b oth d ry . I ndeed , o n as trictly a nnual b asis , E tton a nd F lag F en t ogether c ost f ar l ess t han e ither ! S trange a s i t m ight s eem , t hat i s n ot a c omplaint : i t m erely i llustrates t he d ifferences b etween t he t wo t ypes o f p roject . I ndeed , i f Iw ere s uddenly o ffered a nother £ 100 ,000 a nd t old t o s pend i t a t F lag F en , Iw ould b e p ushed t o d o s o a t a ll e fficiently , a s i t w ould t ake m e a t

l east a y ear t o e nlarge o ur p resent

2 2

t eam a ppropriately .

W etland w ork

c an b e e xpensive , p otential,

t hem i n h andfuls . o bvious

i f t he s ites a re t o r ealise t heir f ull, o ften m agnificent ,

b ut t here i s n o

v ested i nterest ,

w etlands,

l aw w hich d emands

S peaking p ersonally ,

b efore i t i s

I t hink w e

t oo

l ate .

t hat m oney m ust b e t hrown a t

a nd I a m a c onfirmed ' wet ' w ith a n

o ught

t o

B ut u ntil

p ut m ore

r esources

t hat d ay d awns ,

i nto o ur

w e m ust m ake

t he m ost o f w hat w e h ave , a nd w e m ust l ook t o t he p ublic f or h elp . A fter a ll , w e d o o ffer p eople s omething e xtraordinary t o l ook a t : n ot j ust p osth oles a nd d otted l ines o r s eed i mpressions

i n p ottery .

T his

i s s omething

w e c an e xploit a nd w e o ught t o -i t w ill b enefit u s i n t he s hort-term a nd i n t he f uture . m ore w idely .

W e a lso o we i t t o o thers t o s hare o ur e xciting n ew d iscoveries H aving s aid t hat , H eaven h elp a nyone w ho v isits t he E ssex

f oreshore!

2 3

T HE U SE O F P EAT C HEMISTRY T O I NTERPRET P AST W ETLAND E NVIRONMENTS S heila M . R oss

I ntroduction T he r econstruction o f t he p ast e nvironment o f m an i n k ey s ites s uch a s t hose i n t he S omerset L evels h as b een a ided b y p ollen a nd m acrofossil s tudies w hich g ive a b asis f or r econstructing f ormer p lant c ommunities . I nterpretation o f m an 's h abitation a nd e xploitation o f h is

e nvironment h as

r elied o n t he d iscovery o f w ell p reserved a rtifacts, f ood r emains a nd o ther a spects o f h is i nfrastructure . U ntil r ecently , o nly a f ew s tudies h ad e xamined r arely

r elationships

h ave

c hemical

b etween p alaeoecology a nd p eat c hemistry , t echniques

w ork .

T he p rimary a im o f

p eat

c hemical

w ork

t o

b een

e mployed

t his p aper i s a ssess

t he

i n w etland

t o u se i nterpretations

u sefulness

o f

a nd v ery

a rchaeological

s uch

o f e xisting

t echniques

i n

p alaeoenvironmental r econstruction s O ne o f

t he m ain t ools i n r ecognising ,

d escribing a nd c lassifying p eat

t ypes a nd p eat p rofiles i s t he f loristic c omposition . Most e arly p eat c lassifications w ere b ased e ntirely o n p hytosociological c haracteristics ( eg D u R eitz 1 949) . T he m ajor p roblem w ith t his a pproach i s t hat d ecomposition d uring p eat f ormation f requently m akes i ndividual f loristic r emains u nidentifiable . T o o vercome t his p roblem f or s urvey a nd c lassification p urposes,

a w hole s uite

o f m ethods

f or a ssessing

t he d egree

o f

p eat

h umification h ave b een d evised . O f t hese , t he b est k nown i s t he V on P ost f ield t est , g enerating h umification v alues ( or H -values) o n a1 0 p oint s cale ( Von P ost a nd G ranlund 1 926) . c ontent

a nd

t he

c olour

o f

S ubsequently ,

p yrophosphate

m easures o f

e xtracts

c haracterise f ibric ( fibrous) , m esic ( semi-fibrous) p eat t ypes ( Bascomb e t a l .

1 977) .

h ave

r ubbed f ibre b een u sed

a nd h umic

t o

( amorphous)

T hese a nd o ther a uthors, n otably D ay

( 1974) , s howed t hat d ifferent p eat f loristic c lasses c ould n ot b e a dequately s eparated o n t he b asis o f t heir h umification c haracteristics . T his l ed H eathwaite a nd R oss ( 1987) t o s uggest t hat p eats o f d ifferent f loristic c omposition , a nd ,

l ater ,

c haracterised ,

i n t he f ield ,

m icroscopically ,

u sing t he T roels-Smith t echnique

c ould a lso b e c learly c haracterised o n t heir

t otal i norganic c hemistry . C hemical a nalysis o f p eats c an b e d ivided i nto t wo c omponents: ( i) o rganic

f ractionation

a nd

( ii)

i norganic

e xtracts

a nd

d igests .

T he

m olecular c omposition o f p eat i s v ery c omplex : c ontinually d uring d ecomposition , a nd t he

c hanges i n c omposition o ccur s tructure o f m any o f t he

n itrogenous

a s

a nd

l ignified

c omponents ,

a s w ell

t he s o-called h umic a nd

f ulvic a cids a re , a s y et , u nresolved . F or t his r eason , m ore a ttention h as b een p aid t o v arious a spects o f t he i norganic c hemical c omposition o f p eat . T he i norganic c hemistry o f

p eat

c an b e

( i) w ater s oluble i ons i n t he p orespace,

d ivided

i nto

t hree

f ractions :

( ii) e xchangeable c ations o n

o rganic c olloid e xchange s ites ( peat h as n egligible i norganic a nion e xchange c apacity) a nd m aterial . o f

c hemical

( iii) t he t otal

i norganic c hemical

c ontent o f t he p eat

W e c an c onsider d ifferences i n t he s oluble a nd e xtractable f orms e lements

t o

r epresent

p roducts

2 5

o f

d ecomposition a nd n utrient

T able 1 .

E nvironmental I nfluences o n P eat C hemical C omposition .

C urrent

( a)

N atural

I nfluences

C urrent p eatland v egetation

( i) ( ii) ( iii)

S urface w ater t hroughflow G roundwater u psurges ( fresh a nd s aline)

( iv)

C urrent i n s itu d ecomposition a nd w eathering p rocesses.

( iii)

A gricultural f ield d rainage F ertilizing a nd m anuring P eat c utting

( iv)

P ollution ( atmospheric d eposition)

( b) A nthropogenic ( i) ( ii)

P ast

( a) N atural

I nfluences

( i)

P eat f loristic c omposition

( ii) ( iii) ( iv)

D egree o f h umification F reshwater/saltwater i nundations L ithology F ire

( b) A nthropogenic ( i) ( ii)

T able

2 .

C haracteristics o f F our C ategories o f P eat D eposits i n W est S edgemoor , 1 987).

G roup

D rainage/peat c utting

V on P ost D egree o f

i dentified b y F ield S urvey .

C ategory

( Heathwaite a nd R oss,

T roels-Smith D escription

F loristic C omposition

H umification

1

H P

L d/Ag/Th

h umose/loamy p eat

n ot i dentifiable

2

M (4-6)

L d/Th/Dh

h erbaceous p eat

C ladium ( d)

3

A (7-10)

L d/Dg

h erbaceous / woody

C ladium

L d4/Dh

p eat

P hragmites A lnus

4

Z C/C

A g/As

s ilty c lay , s ilty l oam

ive i n T roels-Smith ( 1955) K ey f or T roels Smith c ategories a re g K ey f or V on P ost c ategories: Z C/C : s ilty c lay/clay H P : h umose p eat M : m esofibrous p eat ( H4 H6) A :

a morphous p eat ( 17-110).

2 6

r elease a s w ell a s i nwash t o p eat i n g roundwater o r s urface t hroughflow f rom t he

s urrounding

c atchment .

D ifferences

i n

t otal

i norganic

c hemical

c omposition o f t he p eat m aterial a re d ue t o f loristic c omposition a nd d egree o f h umification . C learly , b oth c urrent a nd p ast e nvironmental i nfluences a re r esponsible f or t he p resent-day c hemistry o f p eat d eposits . p rocesses ( Table

a nd

1 ) .

a nthropogenic

A t

e ffects

f irst s ight ,

S imilarly ,

c ontribute

i t w ould a ppear q uite

t he c ontribution o f a ny i ndividual e ffect . e cologists

a nd

t o

p alaeoecologists

h ave u sed

c urrent

b oth n atural p eat

i mpossible

c hemistry

t o s eparate

W e s hall s ee t hat, w hile

p eat

c hemistry

i n

i nterpreting

p resent a nd p ast v egetation p atterns, e nvironmental a rchaeologists h ave y et t o a ssess t he v alue o f t hese a pproaches i n e xamining p ast a nd p resent a nthropogenic e ffects o n w etland h abitats . T his a nalysis ,

p aper a ims

t o

o utline

c urrent

t echniques

i n

p eat

c hemical

t o o ffer i nterpretations o f s ome e xample c hemical s tudies a nd t o

e xamine t he l imitations o f t hese i nfluences o utlined i n T able 1 .

a pproaches

i n s tudying

s ome

o f

t he

P eat C hemical T echniques a nd t heir I nterpretation ( i)

D egree o f H umification a nd S oluble O rganic M atter C ontent T he

m ost

c ommon

t echnique

u sed

f or

f ield

a ssessment

o f

p eat

h umification i s t he 1 0-point s cale d evised b y V on P ost ( Von P ost a nd G ranlund 1 926) . I t w orks r ather w ell a s ac rude q ualitative a ssessment o f h umification s tate . S everal l aboratory p rocedures h ave n ow b een d evised w hich m imic t his f ield t est q uantitatively . O ne o f t he m ore s ophisticated t echniques , a nd t hat a dopted b y t he S oil S urvey o f E ngland a nd W ales f or p eat

c lassification

( 1977) .

p urposes ,

T hey a dvocate

i s

t he

p rocedure

t ested

b y

B ascomb

e t a l .

t he c omparison o f p yrophosphate s olution a bsorption

a t 5 50nm w ith t he r ubbed f ibre ( RFm ) c ontent ( Fig . 1 ) a s a u seful c lassifier o f B ritish p eats i nto h umic , m esic a nd f ibric p eat t ypes . I n t he S omerset L evels ( Fig . 2 ) N orth Moor p eats c onsistently s how v ery l ow R Fm v alues , t hough y ielding a w ide r ange o f p yrophosphate e xtract c olours . F ibric p eat t ypes w ill a lways y ield l owest e xtract c olours a nd h ence l owest a bsorbance a t 5 50nm . c ategory

M ost p eat s amples f rom K ings a nd W est S edgemoor s ites l ie i n t he c lassified

a s

m esic .

T he

e xtraction

o f

f ield-moist

p eats

w ith

s odium p yrophosphate a nd t he d etermination o f e xtract c olour u sing v isible s pectrophotometry h as b een s hown b y B ascomb e t a l.

( 1977) t o b e a g ood

i ndicator o f s oluble o rganic m atter c ontent f or a w ide r ange o f p eat t ypes .

t hat

W hile t hese s tudies t ell u s s omething a bout t he a mount o f d ecomposition h as o ccurred i n t he p eat, t hey t ell u s n othing a bout f loristic

c omposition

o r

p eat

c hemistry .

S tudies

o f

p eat

h umification

a nd

r ubbed

f ibre c an , h owever , h elp u s i n s uggesting d ifferences i n p eat h ydrology . W ater i s t he m ain i mporting a nd e xporting a gent f or s oluble i ons i n s oils a nd p eats . T he h ydraulic c onductivity, o r s aturated w ater m ovement, p articularly i n t he m ore h umified p eats, i s u sually a bout s lower t han i n e ven t he m ost f ine-textured c lay s oils .

1 0 t o 1 00 t imes S ince a ny w ater

m oving t hrough p eat h as a l ong r esidence t ime, s o t oo h ave t he s olutes c arried i n t he w ater . I t i s t hus p ossible f or s olutes t o a ccumulate i n p eats a nd c lays t o c oncentrations m uch h igher t han i n m ore c oarse-textured s oils a nd

s ediments .

2 7

. ( > R a ised B og 8

0

0

0

/

•

B as in F en

A

B as in ( a c id )

0

B lanke t P ea t

H UMW P y rophospha te S o lu t ion

6

A bso rbance a t

0

5 50nm

•

/ /

2

0

4

2

0

0/ / 0

/

0

M ES IC

000

8

.

•

t 5 .

• Q

• O

0 ' ir t

B 0

0 O n 0

0 1 5

0

3 0

OA •

A / I

B t .

0

F I BR IC

/ / /

B B

/

/

/A •

4 0

I

.

3

0 6 0

0 7 5

%R ubbed F i b re

F ig. 1 .

P lot o f p yrophosphate s olution a bsorbance a t 5 50nm a gainst % r ubbed f ibre c ontent f or a r ange o f p eat t ypes i n B ritain , c lassified i nto h umic , m esic a md f ibric p eat t ypes . ( modified f rom B ascomb e t a l . , 1 977).

2 8

8

• H UM IC •

A

6 .

P y rophospha te

N o r th M oo r K ings S edgemo o r

7 .

W es t S edgemoo r

•

• 5 -

S o lu t ion A bso rbance a t 50nm

4 . M ES IC

• 3

A

2 -

l b

2 0

i o

% R ubbed F i b re

F ig. 2 .

i o

5 0

( RF m )

P lot o f p yrophosphate s olution a bsorbance a t 5 50nm a gainst % r ubbed f ibre c ontent f or s amples f rom t hree p eat L evels . ( redrawn f rom W oodbridge , 1 977) .

2 9

m oors

i n

t he

S omerset

S ince t he d iffusion o f o xygen t hrough w ater i s a bout 1 0 ,000 t imes s lower t han t hrough a ir , s aturated p eats c ontaining s tagnant w aters s oon d evelop a naerobic c onditions . A ll p eats d evelop e xtremely r educing c onditions a t d epth , r esulting i n t he p roduction o f h ydrogen s ulphide g as M ad e ggs' s mell) , o r m ore r arely m ethane ( marsh g as) . S easonal o r a rtificial ( drainage) c hanges i n w atertable d epth c ause b acterially m ediated r eduction a nd o xidation r eactions t o o ccur . T he p redominance o f i ron c ompounds i n m ineral s oils m eans t hat o ne o f t he m ost i mportant r edox r eactions i s t he r eduction o f f erric i ron t o f errous i ron . I ron r eduction i s r elatively u nimportant i n m any p eats, w ith s ulphur a nd n itrogen r eductions p redominating i nstead . T hese r eduction p rocesses r esult i n t he b uildup i n a naerobic p eat o f h ydrogen s ulphide g as ( H 2S ) a nd a mmonium n itrogen

( ii)

( N iL l 7 N )

r espectively .

S olutes i n P eat P orewaters T he m easurement o f i onic s pecies p resent i n b oth s urface p onded w aters

a nd i n p ore daters e xtracted f rom d epth i s t he s implest , a nd h as p robably b een t he m ost p opular , a pproach t o p eat c hemistry . U nfortunately s uch a nalyses a re f raught w ith d ifficulties . F irstly ,

i t i s r arely p ossible

t o

a nalyse i onic s pecies i n s itu o r i n t he f ield i mmediately a fter s ampling . C hanging r edox c onditions a nd t emperature w ith t ime b etween s ampling a nd l aboratory a nalysis i nvariably r esults i n t he t ransformation o f i onic s pecies . P articularly t roublesome i n t his r espect a re t he i norganic n itrogen s pecies , ( nitrate ( NO 3 ) , a mmonium ( NH4 ) a nd d issolved a mmonia ( NH 3 ) g as , a nd t he i norganic f orms o f s ulphur ( sulphate S O4 ) , t hiosulphate ( S20 3 ) a nd d issolved h ydrogen s ulphide ( H, S ) g as) . B acterial t ransformations o f t hese s pecies a nd b acterial d egradation o f s oluble o rganic m atter b etween s ampling a nd a nalysis c an b e a rrested b y a cidifying t he s olution o r b y t he t he a ddition o f ab actericide s uch a s c hloroform o r m ercuric c hloride . S econdly , t he c oncentrations a nd d ifferential r esidence t imes o f i onic s pecies i n t he p eat p orespace d epend o n r ates o f p lant r oot u ptake , r ates o f c ation a nd a nion e xchange a nd r ates o f e quilibration w ith s ources o f i nput s uch a s p recipitation , s urface a nd g roundwater i nflow , o rganic m atter d ecomposition a nd m ineral w eathering . S olution c oncentrations a lso d epend o n d ilution b y s nowmelt o r f looding a nd o n d ehydration b y e vaporation . D espite

t hese p roblems ,

t he

e xamination

o f

s urface p onded w ater c an

y ield u seful i nformation o n p eatland c hemistry . I n a s mall b asin m ire o n I slay i n t he I nner H ebrides , M ichael P roctor ( pers . c o rm .) f ound s ome v ery c lear c ut r elationships b etween s urface p lant s pecies c omposition a nd s urface p onded w ater c hem istry ( F i .& 3 ) . T he f lushed c entral s ection o f t he m ire ( 150-325m) , c haracterised b y P hragmites , C arex s p . a nd E quisetum , s hows a d istinctly h igher p H ( mean p H 6 .0) a nd h igher l evels o f a ll f our o f t he m easured b ase c ations c ompared t o t he o ligotrophic p eriphery o f t he m ire ,

c haracterised b y C alluna a nd S phagnum

w ith a m ean p H o f 4 .0 .

T he i nfluence o f c urrent p lants a nd r oot u ptake o n p eat w ater c hemistry i s c omplex . P akarinen a nd T olonen ( 1977) c ompared t he n utrient c ontent o f p eat w aters a nd o f S phagnum m osses g rowing o n o ligotrophic ( nutrient p oor) a nd m esotrophic ( medium n utrient c ontent) p eats ( Fig . 4 ) . T he r esults i ndicate a ctive u ptake o f p hosphorus a nd p otassium s o t hat t hey b ecome r elatively c oncentrated i n m oss t issues a nd d ilute i n t he b athing w aters . T his m ay

l ead t o a r elative

e nrichment

o f

t hese e lements

e ventually i n t he p eat , c ompared t o b athing w aters .

3 0

i n p lants ,

a nd

1 0 H e igh t ( m) a bove d a tum

9 8 7 6 O l igo t roph ic b og

MAW&

M esmmph ic Wm

P h ragM ites

S phagnum

6 -

a o

( su r fa ce 'Ma r)

5 «

• 4

3 0

1 2 1 0 . C a / Na (

m

g

2 . 0

8 .

K ( mg

)

0 )

6 1 . 0

4 2 -

o -

6

1 00

2 i 10 D is tance

F ig. 3 .

3 10

4 00

I m

p H a nd c ation c ontent o f s urface p onded w aters a long a t ransect o n L och A If f i ceg ixe l , I sle o f I slay , d ata o f P roctor , p ers . c omm .) .

3 1

I nner H ebrides .

( redrawn f rom t he

D Sphagnum (mg_ g

■

5

4

1)

1 Water (mg I )

� Sphagnum (mg g-l) Concentration

_1

� Water (mg I ) �

/

Oligotrophic Peat

Mesotrophic Peat

2

p

Fig. 4.

K

Na

Ca

Mg

Chemical content of Sphagntnn mosses and bog waters in oligotrophic and mesotrophic peats in Northern Finland. (drawn from the data of Pakarinen and Tolonen, 1977).

32

S easonal i n

p lant

c hanges i n w ater v olume ( due t o s nowmelt o r e vaporation ) a nd

u ptake

o f

n utrients

( generally

h igher

u ptake

i n

s ummer)

i mpose

a dditional p roblems f or e nvironmental i nterpretation f rom s ingle d ate s olute s ampling s chemes .

M uller ( 1973), f or e xample,

r eported c onsiderable

s easonal f luctuations i n s odium a nd p hosphorus c oncentration i n s urface m ire p ools b ut m ore s easonally c onstant l evels o f p otassium , c alcium a nd m agnesium . R egular s ampling t hroughout t he s eason i s r equired f or t he c haracterisation o f s olute d ynamics .

A s w ell a s t emporal

v ariation ,

h eterogeneity i n t he s pecies c omposition o f s urface v egetation a nd h ence i n n utrient u ptake m ay r esult i n s patially v ariable s olute c oncentrations . T his i s a l ess s erious p roblem f or e nvironmental i nterpretation s ince s olutes i n a djacent p ores a nd p ools c onstantly e quilibrating .

( iii)

i n t he p eat a re c onsidered t o

b e

p H o f P eat W aters p H i s am easure o f t he a ctivity o f h ydrogen i ons i n s olution .

t he m ain g roups o rganic a cids ,

o f

e nd p roducts

f rom o rganic m atter

d ecomposition

O ne o f i s

i ncluding c arboxylic a cids , a mino a cids a nd h umic a cids .

t he I n

a queous s olution , a ll a cids d issociate t o f orm h ydrogen i ons a nd a ssociated a nions . A n e xample i s t he d issociation o f t he s imple c arboxylic a cid , a cetic a cid , i n w ater : 0 C H 3 61 a cetic a cid

0 +

H20 w ater

-'

C H 3& 1 ) + 2 1 14 ' a cetate h ydrogen ( anion) i ons

+

O Hh ydroxyl i on

When p orewaters a re f looded w ith h ydrogen i ons i n t his w ay, c ation e xchange s ites b ecome d ominated b y h ydrogen i ons ( 1 -1 -) . W hen t he p H o f t he p eat s olution i s m easured , t he a ctive a cidity i s t hat d ue t o h ydrogen i ons a ctually i n s olution , w hile t he r eserve a cidity i s t he a bility o f h ydrogen i ons

r emoved f rom t he s olution t o b e r eplaced b y h ydrogen i ons e xchanging

o ff c ation e xchange s ites : H + i ons i n s oil

ye

1 1 1

s olution

+ H i ons a ttached t o n egatively c harged c lay c olloid

R ESERVE A CIDITY

A CTIVE A CIDITY

A cid p eats h ave a h igh b uffering c apacity a nd r esist c hanges i n s olution p H b ecause t hey h ave a l arge r eserve a cidity . N eutral t o a lkaline p e ts c an o nly f orm w here i nflux o f b ase-rich w aters c arrying , C a 24 ,

N a+

o r M g 2+

i ons

c ause h ydrogen i ons

t o b e

s ites . E xchange s ites t hen b ecome d ominated b y C a h ydrogen i ons a re d isplaced i nto s olution :

3 3

f or e xample ,

i spll ed f rom gxchange ,N a

a nd M g

w hile

H r

C a 2+

H

C a

N a

I

—ye

M a -

+

m g

2 +

+5 H

— ye

+

M g

T he a bility o f p eat t o r eplace h ydrogen i ons l ost f rom b athing w aters i s r educed b ecause e xchange s ites n ow c ontain f ew h ydrogen i ons . T hus , t he s hort t erm s olution p H f alls t hen r ises d ue t o t he l ow r eserve a cidity a nd i nability o f t he s ystem t o r eplace s olution h ydrogen i ons . T he l ong t erm m aintenance o f b ase r ich a lkaline f ens c an o nly o ccur w here i nput o f b asic c ations

e xceeds

i nput

o f

h ydrogen

i ons

f rom t he

d issociation o f

o rganic

a cids.

( iv)

T otal E lement C ontent o f P eat

T he i nitial e lemental c omposition o f p lant l itter a nd p eat f ormed f rom i t d epends o n t he t ype o f s pecies c olonising t he w etland h abitat . I n F ig . 3 , s pecies c olonisation i s v ery c learly c ontrolled b y p H a nd n utrient c onditions . M ore n utrient—demanding s pecies , s uch a s P hragm ites , t hrive u nder m esotrophic c onditions w hile S phagnum m osses a nd t he b og c otton E riophorum c an s urvive u nder a cid c onditions w ith v ery p oor n utrition . W e w ould t hus e xpect t o f ind t hat P hragmites a nd C arex d ominant p eat w as m ore n utrient r ich t han S phagnum o r E riophorum d ominant p eat .

I n t he c ase o f

p lants r ooted i n m ineral s ubstrates b elow p eat , e lements c an b e b rought u p a nd i ntroduced t o t he p eat l ayers d uring d ecay . T he o nly f actor t o u pset t his f loristic i nfluence o n p eat c hemistry i s n utrient m obilisation a nd r elease f rom p eat d uring m icrobial d ecomposition p rocesses . T hus t he t wo m ain c ontrols o n p eat t otal e lement c ontent a re f loristic c omposition , w hich r eflects t he e nvironment i n w hich t he p lants g rew , a nd d egree o f d ecomposition a nd h umification . T otal p eat e lemental c omposition c an b e d etermined b y d igesting s amples u sing a m odified m icro—kjeldahl t echnique ( Ross 1 979) . O rganic m atter i s w et o xidised b y h ydrogen p eroxide i n t he p resence o f b oiling c oncentrated s ulphuric a cid . A s l ong a s n o c atalysts a re a dded t o s peed u p t he r eaction , t he r esultant d igestion s olution c an b e u sed f or t he a nalysis o f m etal b ases b y f lame e mission o r a tomic a bsorption s pectrophotometry a nd c an a lso b e u sed f or c olorimetric d eterminations s uch a s t hose f or N , Pa nd C l . A v ariety o f t otal c hemical p roperties h ave b een e xamined o n ar ange o f p eat t ypes i n B ritain a nd E urope , a cid e nd o f t he p eat s pectrum .

b ut m ainly r epresenting t he n utrient—poor ,

W hile t he g eneral f loristic c ompositions o f

o ligotrophic ( nutrient p oor ) , m esotrophic a nd e utrophic ( nutrient r ich ) m ire t ypes h ave b een w ell d ocumented , m uch l ess i s k nown a bout c hemical i ndicators o r b oundary l imits f or t hese t ypes . T he i dentification o f k ey m ire s pecies , t hought t o b e i ndicative o f p articular n utrition c onditions , h as n ot p roved p articularly s uccessful . G oreham ( 1950) , f or e xample , f ound t hat i ndividual s pecies w ere o f l imited v alue a s i ndicators o f m inerotrophy o r n utrition . A m ore

s uccessful

a pproach

t o

c haracterising

p eats

o n

t he

b asis

o f

t heir c hemistry l ies i n i dentifying k ey c hemical p arameters r epresentative o f f loristic t ypes .

P lant l itters a nd s oil o rganic m atter , i ncluding p eat ,

3 4

h ave c haracteristic c arbon/nitrogen ( C :N) r atios w hich a id i nterpretation o f d ecomposition s tate . g enerally a re p lant d ecomposed , c arbon M eanwhile , o rganic t o r elease s imple , s imple i ons c an b e

T he m ajor s ources o f n itrogen i n p eats a nd i n s oils l itter a nd o rganic m atter . A s t hese r esources a re

i s l ost a s e volved C O2 g as d uring a erobic r espiration . c ompounds s uch a s a mino a cids a nd p roteins a re d egraded i norganic f orms o f n itrogen s uch a s N H4 a nd N 0 1. T hese t aken u p b y p lants o r l eached o ut o f t he s oil, b ut a re

p referentially t aken u p b y s oil o rganisms t hemselves . c onserved , o r b iologically i mmobilised , i n p eat a nd f raction .

A s

d ecomposition p roceeds ,

c ontinuing

T hus , n itrogen i s i n t he s oil o rganic

C O2

l osses

r esult

i n a

l owering o f t he C :N r atio . I n F ig . 5 , f our p eat f loristic t ypes f rom a e utrophic f en s ite i n W est S edgemoor, S omerset L evels, a nd t hree p eat f loristic I slay ,

t ypes

f rom a n o ligotrophic b og

i n t he I nner H ebrides ,

A part f rom t he d eep p eats ( alder)

r emains ,

( Loch AShogaidh) o n t he i sle o f

a re c ompared o n t he b asis o f p H a nd C :N r atio . i n b oth m oors ( 2 .5-3 .5m) w hich c ontain Alnus

t he a cidic ,

o ligotrophic p eats

h ave d istinctively h igher

C :N r atios c ompared t o t he e utrophic , n eutral f en p eats . T he h igher C :N r atios i ndicate a p oorer s tate o f d ecomposition u nder a cid a nd w aterlogged c onditions .

I t

i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he o nly p eat s amples t o s how

C :N r atios < 2 0 , i n t he r ange m ore c ommonly f ound i n h orticultural p eats a nd s urface s oils , a re t he s ilty c lay/silty l oam a nd h umose/loamy p eat c ategories i n s urface d eposits o f W est S edgemoor .

A lthough n ow w aterlogged ,

m ost o f t hese s ites h ave b een a rtificially d rained i n t he p ast a nd t his h as a llowed p eat o xidation a nd d ecomposition . I nterpretations o f t otal i norganic c hemistry o f p eat r ely p artly o n a n u nderstanding o f t he m ain s ources o f e ach e lement ,

t he m obility o f e lements

w ithin t he p eat a nd o n g eographical l ocation a nd h ence l ikely e nvironmental i nputs t o t he p eat . A w ider s uite o f c hemical e lements w ere e xamined i n t hree B ritish p eatlands r epresenting o ligotrophic , m esotrophic a nd e utrophic c onditions

( Fig .

6 ) .

S ince n itrogen i s

c onserved d uring d ecomposition ,

i t

i s n ot s urprising t hat a ll p eats h ave h igh a nd f airly u niform t otal n itrogen c ontents . W aughman a nd B ellamy ( 1980) h ave a lso s hown t hat s ubstantial r ates o f b acte1r ial n itrogen f ixation c an b e a ttained i n p eat , r anging f rom 2 7 0mg N m y r cid b ogs t o o ver 2 000mg N m- 2 y r1 i n m esotrophic f ens . in a A lthough t he A lnus c ontents,

p eats i n F ig .6

d o n ot s how s ignificantly h igher N

n itrogen f ixation i n r oot n odules o f A lnus

a nd M yrica m ay a lso

e nhance N l evels i n d eposits w here t hese s pecies d ominate . L evels

o f

s odium

i nputs a re m ore s odium c ontent . d ue

t o

i n

t he

t hree

m ires

i llustrate

t hat

e nvironmental

i mportant t han f loristic c omposition i n d etermining p eat T he h igh l evels o f N a i n t he I slay p eats a re u ndoubtedly

a tmospheric

s alt

s pray

i nputs w hile t he f airly h igh N a c ontent

i n

W est S edgemoor p eats a re d ue t o p ast m arine ( saline) i nundations . T he u pland l ocation o f C ors G yfelog o n t he L leyn P eninsula i n N orth W ales h as p rotected i t f rom t he v ery h igh l evels o f i nblown a tmospheric N a s een o n t he i sland o f I slay . c an b e

T hat i nblown s altspray i s i mportant i n w est c oast m ires

s een w hen t he

s odium

t he

c ontent

o f

t he C ors G yfelog

p eats

( 4 .2

-

2 . 3 r ng N a g1 )i s c ompared t o t he s odium c ontent o f i nland p eats s uch a s t hat r eported b y H eal a nd S mith ( 1978) f or M oor H ouse i n t he N orth P ennines ( 0 .1 -0 .2mg N a g1 ) . T he o ther f our e lements , P , K , C a a nd M g , a re m ainly s upplied t o p eats t hrough m ineral w eathering i n s itu , i f t here a re i nwashed c lays a nd s ilts , o r

a s

s olute

i nwash

f rom w eathering

i n

t he

s urrounding

d ifferences i n c alcium c oncentration , w ith h ighest S edgemoor p eats a nd l owest

l evels

i n t he I slay p eats ,

3 5

c atchment .

T he

l evels i n t he W est i s d ue e ntirely t o

4


rn

4

0 .

2 4 W

S U

U

U

U

M

r , C / 1

O

E

U

U CJ

U CJ

O

U

U CJ

U

U CJ

U

U

U CJ

O

U

U

U

U

U

U

U

rC Y\ r 1

N ä

ä

E

g

g

g

c n

H

g

H

M

.

N

N

M

.

N

N

N OI

H r I

N

.

N

N

N

.

N

N

N

N

M

.

N

N

, ,

N

.

" r tää gääää eNä 2eää ä 22 222222e22eee Z 2 eää Nää 2ää.ää

0

E L

N

N

.

3 3

.

N

N

3 33

.

N

N

N

N

N

A

N

N

N

N

N

.

J

,N

N

.

M

N

N

N 4.. T

N

N

J

N

C V

N

N

N

N

N

N

J I

N

N

N

' '

N C1

3 333333333333333 3 3333333333333

33

o e n n 0 0 . . . . . . . 0

U

N

N

N

§ 5 A

§ g5 AP P -9 2§ P§

W5 ,

22

c l i

§92 §

0

nr, • 4 • 0

8 888888888888

5 AA§§§ MA55A M

4 0

8 88§8888888888 "

S omerset L evels .

F IELD S TRAT IGRAPHY

C r 7

O

c o

0

• c a Et ,

U

U

S omerset i nfluence '

( N ,P ,K ) MATTER I NFLUENCE

L ABORATORY ANALYS IS F OR ORGAN IC

C c o

I o

0 U • . 4 •

gg\

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2 22

22, ( ; 3 )

f . 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

( Jc 7

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

U

E

3 C 0

g

C .

1 ° 7 , °

4 27 ä 45 H H 4'1 2

P C

C s 1 ,3 >

% N

' 222 g22 "'. t C ,

. 1 333337 ,3333

Wt 2 t i H3 I .”

U

S7 9

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 , 1

0

0

0 0 t s 4

0 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

.

0 0 0 0 ,s O • •

0 0

0 0 0 0 0 t,4 0

0 0

0

0

1 C g N ,

N

N , I

N

N

N

N C 4 C,

0 0

0 0

0 0 0 0 .—

0 0 N

0 0

23 0

•/4

p .

. 0

0 0

0 0

0 0 0 0 r4

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0 ,—

0 0 ,

0 0

0 0

0 0 0 . —

0 0 0

0 0 0 0 .C r ,

0 0

0 0

0 0 0

0 0 C O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0, 0,

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

H ierarchical

F IELD S TRAT IGRAPHY

O

7 e ' J .

\ 7 3'

-

4 1

W e h ave s een t hat p eat h umification a nd t otal e lemental c ontent a ppear t o b e t he m ost u seful d egree

o f

i ndicators

d ecomposition .

n utrient s tatus o f t he s ite . C yperaceae a nd P hragmites n utrient

d emanding

o f

t he e nvironment o f p eat f ormation a nd

F loristic

c omposition i s c onsequent u pon t he

M ore n utrient

d emanding s pecies s uch a s t he

g enerate m ore n utrient r ich f en p eats , w hile l ess

s pecies

s uch

a s

t he

S phagnum m osses ,

E riophorum g enerate n utrient p oor p eats . T hus ,

T richophorum a nd

t he f loristic c omposition a nd

p eat c hemistry d own a p eat p rofile r eflect c hanges i n s ite ' quality ' t hrough t ime .

T here a re m any i nstances o f c hange o r m ire d evelopment f rom f en t o

a cid b og s uch a s t hose s uggested i n T able 4 b y W alker ( 1980) . T he s equence d epicted i n F ig . 3 f or L och A ' B hogaidh o n I slay a nd t he r aised m oss c omplexes a t S hapwick , Meare, G odney a nd W esthay Moors i n t he S omerset L evels a re a ll e xamples o f m ires b ecoming m ore a cidified t hrough t ime a nd d eveloping a S phagnaceous f lora c onducive t o t he d evelopment o f a r aised b og . E xamples q uoted i n t his p aper i ndicate t hat i t i s o ften d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween p eats o f d ifferent f loristic c omposition o n t he b asis o f t heir c hemistry . T his i s m ainly d ue t o t he e ffects p rocesses s ince t he p eat w as l aid d own . T here

a re

p ossibly

t wo

m ain

a ims

i n

t he

s tudy

o f

o f

d ecomposition

p ast

w etland

e nvironments : ( i) t o r ecreate t he h abitat , i ncluding v egetation , l andscape a nd c limate , a nd ( ii) t o s uggest m an 's r ole i n t he e nvironment, p articularly h is e xploitation o f i t .

T he e xamples o utlined i n t his p aper i llustrate t hat

p eat c hemical s tudies c ertainly a llow u s t o a ttempt o bjective ( i) a bove . A s f ar a s m an 's i nfluence o n p eat c hemistry i s c oncerned , i t i s p ossible t o s uggest l ikely v alues a nd l imitations o f t he c hemical a pproaches o utlined i n t his p aper . I n T able 1 , p eat c utting, p eat d rainage a nd f iring, b oth p resent d ay a nd i n t he p ast , c ause d rying o ut o f t he s urface l ayers o f p eat , r esulting i n a ccelerated d ecomposition

( oxidation),

s hrinkage a nd

o ften

e rosion . I n c urrently d rained p eatlands s uch a s t hose i n t he S omerset L evels , t hese s urface o xidised l ayers a re e asily i dentifiable d ue t o t heir a morphous

t exture

a nd

d ense

b lack

c olouration .

D rainage,

a nd m ore

i mportantly , b urning , c ause i rreversible d rying w hen h ydrophobic c ompounds a re p recipitated o n p article s urfaces . T his m eans t hat c olour a nd s tructure c hanges a re n ot l ost t hrough t ime , e ven w ith f urther w aterlogging . I t i s l ikely t hat a ccelerated d ecomposition o f t his n ature c ould b e d etected t hrough l ower C : IN r atios i n t he p eat . M any p resent

d ay

a gricultural

p ractices o n p eatland c ause i mportant

c hemical c hanges t o o ccur i n t he p eat .

C urrent w ork o n t he e ffects o f p ump

d rainage s chemes i n t he S omerset L evels i ndicates t hat r edox c hanges i n t he p eat a nd i n p eat p orewaters c ause n utrient m obilisation a nd i ncreased s olute c oncentrations i n d rainage w aters . L ong-term e ffects o f t hese p ractices i nevitably r esult i n r educed t otal e lement c ontent i n p eat , a t l east t o t he d epth o f m aximum d rainage . C urrent a gricultural p ractices s uch a s d rainage a nd , m ore i mportantly , f ertilizing , a lmost p eat

c ertainly

m ask p ast

t hrough t heir e ffects o n p eat c hemistry ,

e nvironmental

a nd a nthropogenic

i nfluences

i n

d eposits . P eat c hemical

t echniques w ould a ppear t o o ffer m ost p otential i n

p alaeoenvironmental s tudies w here i n s itu e ffects, s uch a s f loristic c omposition o r w eathering a nd e rosion , a re i mportant . S uch d eposits m ight i nclude t hose i n i nfilled l ake b eds , i n g lacial d epressions s uch a s k ettle h oles a nd i n r aised m ires . W here s ubsequent e nvironmental p rocesses a nd a nthropogenic e ffects m odify p eat d eposits , a s i n e stuaries , r iver v alleys a nd t he p eripheries o f l arge a reas o f w etland , i t i s v ery d ifficult t o i solate t he m any d ifferent i nfluences o n p eat c hemistry b ecause l ater

4 2

p rocesses a nd p ractices t end t o m ask t he e ffects o f e arlier o nes .

A cknowledgements I a m

g rateful

t o D r .

Michael

P roctor ,

D epartment

o f

B iological

S ciences, U niversity o f Exeter f or t he u se o f h is d ata i n F ig . 3 . a lso g rateful

I a m

t o L ouise H eathwaite a nd E lizabeth B otterill f or t he u se o f

t heir d ata i n t he c ompilation o f F ig .

6 .

D r . R ichard S mith m ade v ery

u seful c omments o n t he o riginal d raft o f t his p aper .

4 3

B ibliography B ascomb , C .L ., B anfield ,

C .F . ,

a nd

B urton ,

R .G .O .

( 1977)

C haracterisation

o f p eaty m aterials f rom o rganic s oils ( Histosols) i n E ngland a nd W ales . D ay , J .H .

G eoderma 1 9 1 31-147 .

( ed) ( 1974) P roceedings o f t he O rganic S oil Mapping W orkshop . C anadian S oil S urvey C ommittee , S oil R esearch I nstitute, C entral E xperimental F arm , O ttawa K IA 0 06 , O ntario .

D u R eitz, G . E . (1949) H uvudenheter o ch h uvudgranser i S vensk m yrvegetation . S vensk B otanisk T idskrift G oreham , E .

( 1950) Variations

4 3 2 71-309 .

i n s ome c hemical

c onditions a long t he

b orders o f aC arex l asiocarpa f en c omnunity . O ikos 2 2 17-240 . H eal, O .W . a nd

Smith,

R .A .H .

( 1978)

T he

Moor

I ntroduction a nd S ite D escription .

H ouse

P rogramme:

I n : P roduction E cology o f

B ritish M oors a nd Montane G rasslands . ( eds . H eal, O .W . a nd P erkins , D .F .) E cological S tudies 2 7 3 -16 . S pringerVerlag . H eathwaite , A . L .

a nd R oss, S .M . ( 1987)

Evaluations o f q ualitative a nd

q uantitative c lassifications f or f en p eat i n t he S omerset L evels , E ngland . J ournal o f B iogeography 1 4 1 29-143 . M uller ,

K .

( 1973)

Okologische

Untersuchungen

an

und

Vegetationsgeschichtliche

Niedermoorpflanzen-Standorten

d es

O mbrotrophen M oores u nter b esonderer B erdcksichtigung s einer K olke u nd S een i n N W D eutschland . B eitr . B iol . P flanzen 4 9 1 47-235. P akarinen ,

P .

a nd T olonen ,

K .

( 1977) N utrient c ontents o f S phagnum m osses

i n r elation t o b og w ater c hemistry i n n orthern F inland . L indbergia R oss, S .M .

4

2 7-33 .

( 1979) N utrient Mobilisation i n a C ultivated H eathland S oil . U npublished P h .D . T hesis ,

T roels- S mith ,

J .

U niversity o f E dinburgh .

( 1955) K arakterisering a f

l ose

G eologiske U nersogelse 6 B d .3 N r .10 V on P ost, L . a nd

G ranlund,

E .

( 1926)

S veriges G eol . U nders . W alker ,

D .

( 1970)

D irection

a nd

j ordater .

S odra S veriges C 335

r ate

D anmarks .

1 -10 . t ortillangar .

I

1 -127 . i n

s ome

B ritish

p ost-glacial

h ydroseres . I n : S tudies i n t he V egetational H istory o f t he B ritish I sles ( eds . W alker , D . a nd W est , R .G .) p p . 17-141 . C ambridge U niversity P ress . W aughman , G .J.

( 1980)

C hemical a spects o f t he e cology o f s ome S outh G erman

p eatlands . W aughman ,

G .J . a nd

J ournal o f E cology

B ellamy ,

b alance

i n

D .J .

6 8 1 025-1046 .

( 1980) N itrogen f ixation a nd t he n itrogen

p eatland

4 4

e cosystems .

E cology

6 0

1 185-1198 .

W oodbridge , J .M .

( 1977) P ristine P eat? A S tudy o f C haracteristic H istosols

o f t he S omerset L evels . U npublished D issertation , D epartment o f G eography , U niversity o f B ristol .

4 5

T HE A PPLICATION O F M ULTISPECTRAL R EMOTE S ENSING T ECHNIQUES T O W ETLAND A RCHAEOLOGY D aniel D onoghue a nd I an S hennan

R emote s ensing , b eing t he c apability o f i maging p henomena f rom a far , i s a lready

e mbodied w ithin

t he

d isciplines

o f h istory

a nd a rchaeology .

V ertical a nd o blique p anchromatic , n ear i nfrared a nd c olour i nfrared a erial p hotographs h ave b een u sed e xtensively i n t he r econstruction o f f ormer w etland e nvironments ( Riley 1 945 ; H allam 1 970) . l engths

l onger

t han a bout

12

p m ,

p rovide c onsiderable a dditional e nvironmental

m aterials

t hat

i s

H owever , r adiation a t w ave

b eyond

i nformation f or

( Lynn

1 984) .

T his

t he

n ear

i nfrared ,

c an

d iscriminating b etween r adiation i s b eyond t he

s ensitivity r ange o f p hotographic f ilm a nd s o m ust b e s ampled u sing a n e lectronic s pectrometer . S canning s pectrometers c an r ecord i mages f rom d iscrete p arts o f t he e lectromagnetic s pectrum i n a d igital f orm , t hen b e m anipulated a nd d isplayed b y c omputer .

w hich c an

S uch m ultispectral s canners

t ypically i mage r adiation f rom v isible w avelengths ( see T able 1 )

a nd c an b e

m ounted o n a ircraft o r s atellites . Until

r ecently

t he

p oor s patial

d etail

o f

i mages

o btained

f rom

m ultispectral s canners h as p revented t heir a doption f or d etailed m apping t asks , b ut r ecent t echnical d evelopments h ave c onsiderably i mproved t heir s patial r esolution . I f t he p otential o f a irborne s ensors , a nd u ltimately s atellite s ensors , i n a rchaeology i s t o b e f ully r ealised , t hen r esearch i nto t he q uality a nd q uantity o f i nformation w hich c an b e e xtracted t hrough i mproved s pectral a nd s patial s ampling i s e ssential . T he w ork d escribed i n t his p aper r epresents p art o f ap reliminary i nvestigation

o f

m ultispectral d ata .

a rchaeological

f eature

d etection

u sing

a irborne

T he t est a rea c hosen f or t his r esearch i s M orton F en ,

L incolnshire , f rom w hich a w ide r ange o f w etland a rchaeological f eatures h as b een r eported ( Phillips 1 970 ; L ane 1 985) . T he s ite w as f lown o ver d uring M ay a nd J uly 1 986 b y N ERC u sing a n e leven c hannel D aedalus m ultispectral s canner . F ield s urveys a nd g round d ata c ollection h ave b een c arried o ut s ince M ay 1 985 . T he f irst r esults o btained f rom t hese d ata a re p resented h ere a nd t he f uture p rogramme o f r esearch o utlined . T he r esults p resented a re i n n o w ay c omprehensive : o ur a im i s t o g ive a n e xample o f t he s ort o f i nformation t hat c an b e p rovided b y m ultispectral i magery .

I n a ddition ,

w e

h ave b riefly o utlined s ome o f t he c oncepts w hich u nderpin t he u se o f m ultispectral d ata a nd h ave g iven a f ew k ey r eferences w hich p rovide a f uller d escription o f t heir p hysical b asis .

P hysical B asis o f M ultispectral R emote S ensing T echniques T he d etection o f a rchaeological

f eatures u sing r emote s ensing m ethods

u sually r elies o n i ndirect e vidence o f s ubsurface d isturbance .

T his m ay b e

d etected f rom d ifferential m oisture s tress i n v egetation o r s imply f rom c hanges i n s oil t ype . V ariation i n t he p hysical a nd c hemical p roperties o f t he s oil d ue t o b uried f eatures m ay p roduce s oil a nd c rop p atterns t hat a re s pectrally d istinct f rom t he a djacent g round s urface .

4 7

a nd

c rop m arks a re v isible t o t he h uman e ye d ue t o s patial

v ariation i n t ransmittance ,

S oil

g round s urface r eflectance c aused b y t he a bsorption , p olarisation a nd s cattering o f l ight . W hen l ight e mitted

f rom t he s un s trikes m atter i t f requency , I t i s t he

i s e ither r e-emitted w ithout c hange i n

o r i t i s a bsorbed a nd i ts e nergy t ransformed i nto h eat m otion . i nteraction o f t he e nergy o f a s urface w ith i ncident r adiation

f rom t he s un w hich d etermines t he a bsorptive p roperties o f t hat s urface a nd t herefore i ts c olour . M ultispectral s canners m easure r eflected r adiation f rom t he g round i n d iscrete w avelength r anges , a nd e nvironmental m aterials s uch a s w ater , v egetation a nd c ertain m inerals v ary i n t he d egree t o w hich t hey r eflect , a bsorb a nd t ransmit r adiation a t t hese w avelengths . F or e xample , a bsorption b y w ater i s n egligible i n m ost o f t he v isible p art o f t he s pectrum b ut a bsorption i ncreases i n t he r ed r egion a nd i s v ery s trong i n t he n ear i nfrared r egion ( Weiskopf

1 968) .

O ther m aterials a bsorb l ight b ecause t hey c ontain i norganic a nd o rganic p igments . H ealthy p lants c ontain c ertain p igments , o f w hich c hlorophyll a a nd b a re t he m ost i mport ant . I n v itro , c hlorophyll a a nd b a bsorb l ight s trongly a t a bout 0 .43- 0 .45 p m , a nd a t 0 .64-0 .66 p m , t hat i s , t he b lue a nd r ed p arts o f t he v isible s pectrum , a nd s o h ealthy v egetation a ppears g reen t o t he h uman e ye . I n t he n ear i nfrared , d iscontinuities i n t he r efractive i ndex o f c ell s tructures w ithin t he l eaf c ause s trong r eflectance ( Gausman 1 974) . I ndeed , i f t he h uman e ye w ere s ensitive t o n ear i nfrared w avelengths t hen v egetation w ould a ppear p redominantly i nfrared i n c olour ( Schanda 1 986) . I t w as s tated p reviously t hat w ater m olecules a bsorb r adiation s trongly i n t he i nfrared p art o f t he s pectrum . I n f act t here a re t hree m ain p arts o f t he s pectrum t hat a re f ree f rom s trong w ater a bsorption ( termed a tmospheric w indows) a nd t wo o f t hese o ccur i n t he i nfrared ( 1 .50-80 p m a nd 2 .00-2 .60 p m ) . W ithin t hese w avelength r anges r adiation i s s till a ffected b y v ariations i n l eaf m oisture ( Curran 1 983) . F rom a t heoretical k nowledge o f

t he a bsorptive p roperties

o f m atter ,

a nd a n e mpirical k nowledge o f h ow c omplex s urfaces i nteract w ith s unlight , i t i s p ossible t o u se t he s pectral i nformation p rovided b y a irborne m ultispectral s canners t o i dentify s urfaces w hich m ay b e o f a rchaeological o r p alaeoenvironmental i nterest . T his a bility d epends o n d ifferences o f s urface c omposition , s urface t exture ( e .g . s hadows) , s urface m oisture c haracteristics a nd l eaf p hysiology .

A irborne M ultispectral S canner T able

1 s hows

t he b andwidths

o f

t he e leven c hannels

o f

t he D aedalus

1 268 a irborne m ultispectral s canner u sed i n t his s tudy . D ata a re c ollected i n s ix v isible c hannels , t wo n ear i nfrared c hannels , t wo s hort w avelength i nfrared c hannels a nd i n o ne m iddle i nfrared ( thermal) c hannel. T his c onsiderably e xtends s ampling i n t he s pectral d imension c ompared w ith p anchromatic , i nfrared a nd c olour i nfrared p hotography . W ithin

t he

s canner 's

s pectrometer ,

i ncoming

r adiation

r eflected

f rom

t he g round s urface , a nd r adiation s cattered b y t he a tmosphere , i s s plit b y d ichroic f ilters i nto t he e leven d iscrete b andpasses , a nd f ocused t o i mpinge o n p hotoelectric d etector e lements . T he d etectors r ecord a v oltage f or e ach p icture e lement a s t he g round s urface i s s canned , a nd t his i s c onverted t o a d igital n umber i n a n i nteger r ange ( 0-25 9 .

T he s pectrometer i s m anually

s et d uring t he f light t o r ecord t he m aximum d ynamic r ange f or e ach d etector

4 8

e lement .

T his m anually a djustable g ainsetting s hould r esult i n d ata w ith a

h igher r adiometric

r esolution t han s atellite b orne s ensors w here t he

g ainsetting i s f ixed . T he r esulting d igital d ata a re s tored o n h igh d ensity c omputer c ompatible t ape f or s ubsequent p rocessing . I n t he a ircraft t he s canner i s m ounted o n a r oll c orrection p late a nd i t o perates a t f ixed a irspeed/altitude r atios s o t hat t he p icture e lements a re s quare . I t a lso h as i nbuilt p anoramic c orrection , w hich i s n ecessary d ue t o t he l arge a ngle t hrough w hich t he s ensor m irror s cans . T he l evel o f s patial r esolution o btained b y t he s ensor i s o ptics a nd o f a ircraft f lying h eight .

a f unction o f

t he s canner 's

P anchromatic a erial p hotographs w ere o btained i n c onjunction w ith e ach s canner o verpass, a nd s o d irect v isual c omparison o f p hotographic a nd m ultispectral r emote s ensing t echniques i s p ossible .

S tudy A rea M orton i nclude

t he

F en

a bounds

i nfilled

w ith

i nteresting

B ourne-Morton c anal

a rchaeological w hich ,

i n

f eatures .

t he

a bsence

T hese o f

c rop

c over , s hows a s a d ark l ine o f a h umose-clay-filled c hannel, c ontrasting w ith t he l ight s ilt m aterial o f t he l evees o n e ither s ide , w hich i n t urn c ontrasts w ith t he d arker s ilty c lay s oils o f t he s urrounding a rea ( Phillips 1 970) ; s ee P late 3 . M any i nfilled n atural w atercourses ( roddons) t raverse t he f en a nd t here i s a lso a n i nteresting s election o f s uspected s ettlement s ites a nd f ield e nclosure p atterns t hought t o d ate f rom R omano-British t imes

( Lane T his

1 985) .

a rea w as

c onsidered

s uitable

f or a nalysing

t he

r ole

o f

r emote

s ensing i n a rchaeology b ecause i ts f lat t errain w ith v ery f ew s hadows s implifies s pectral a nalysis y et i t i ncorporates a w ide v ariety o f c rop t ypes a nd f arm ing p ractices . E vans ( 1972) n otes t he d ependence o f a erial p hotography u pon c rop t ype , f arming p ractice a nd s easonality . I n a ddition , l and d rainage a nd d eep p loughing h ave c aused c hanges i n t he s urface s oil, d ue t o p eat o xidation a nd w ind e rosion ( Burton a nd S eale 1 981) . C onsequently , t here h as b een a n o verall r eduction i n a ltitude o f t he

l and s urface a nd ,

w ith t ime ,

f eatures o nce a t d epth a re

l iable t o b e

r evealed a t t he s urface . T hus , t here i s a n u rgent n eed f or r epeated s urvey o f t he F ens s o a ffected , l est i mportant a rchaeological i nformation b e l ost .

I mage E nhancement T he

i nformation

c ontent

o f

i mages m ay b e e nhanced

t o a id

f eature o r

p attern d iscrimination b y s ystematic a lteration o f a n i mage 's c ontrast, c olour b alance a nd e dge d elineation , a nd a lso b y c ombining m ulti-image d ata . P late 1 i s a c ontrast-enhanced i mage o f t he r ed p art o f t he s pectrum ( 0 .63-0 .69 p m) . I mage c ontrast i s s tretched b y t ransforming t he i mage h istogram t o t he f ull d ynamic r ange o f t he d isplay s creen b y s imple r escaling . O ther n on-linear , t ransformations a re u sed t o c ompensate f or n onl inearity o f s ensor r esponse o ver a g iven s pectral r ange . A v ariety o f s oil a nd c rop m arks c an b e s een i n t his i mage b ut t he s trong a bsorbance o f r ed l ight b y w inter b arley c rops ( dark f ields) s everely r educes t he d etail t hat c an b e s een i n s pite o f c ontrast e nhancement . P late 2 s hows t he s ame r egion i n t he n ear i nfrared b and ( 0 .76-0 .90 p m ) a nd c onsiderably m ore d etail

4 9

P late 1 .

C ontrast e nhanced i mage o f M orton F en v iewed i n t he ' red ' p art o f t he s pectrum ( 0 .63-0 .69 pm ) . T he l arge d ark ( winter b arley) f ield i n t he c entre o f t he i mage c ontains a R omano-British s ettlement s ite . e lement.

I mage h as g round r esolution o f 2 m p er p icture

5 0

P late 2 .

C ontrast e nhanced i mage o f M orton F en i n t he ' infrared ' p art o f t he s pectrum ( 0 .76-0 .90 pm ) . T he c rop m arks a ssociated w ith t he s ettlement s ite i n t he B arley f ield h ave h igher r eflectance t han t he n ormal c rop a nd a ppear b righter . I mage h as g round r esolution o f 2 m p er p icture e lement .

5 1

P late 3 .

A erial p hotograph o f M orton F en t aken f rom 8 00m a ltitude . T he B ourne-Morton c anal r uns a pproximately d iagonally f rom t op l eft t o b ottom r ight . N ote t hat t he c anal c annot b e s een i n t he t hree a djoining d ark o il s eed r ape c rop f ields .

5 2

P late 4 .

D irectional e nhancement o f ' near i nfrared ' b and o f a rea d epicted i n

f igure

t hree .

T he

e nhancement

e mployed

a N E/SW d irectional

f ilter a nd t he i mage h as a n ominal g round r esolution o f 2 m p er p icture e lement . T he s mall c ircular f eatures i ndicated b y a rrow h ave n ot b een d etected p reviously .

5 3

P late 5 .

P rincipal

c omponent e nhancement o f M orton F en .

P roduced u sing a

K arhunen-Loeve t ransform o f b ands 7 , 5 a nd 3 . T his c omponent o nly a ccounts f or 1 0% o f t otal s cene v ariance b ut b uried a ncient w atercourses a re m ade c learly v isible . T his i mage h as a n ominal g round r esolution o f 1 0m p er p icture e lement .

5 4

o f t he c rop p atterns c an b e s een .

A gain t he i mage h as b een c ontrast -

e nhanced. B ecause t he g iven s patial

i maging s ensor r ecords a n a verage s pectral

a rea ,

h igh

s pectral f requencies .

s pectral

f requencies

r esponse f or a

a re w eakened m ore

t han

l ow

I mages c an b e s harpened b y m ultiplying t he v alues o f

ak ernal i n as tepwise f ashion t hrough t he w hole i mage , t hereby e mphasising h igher s pectral f requencies i n t he a bsence o f k nowledge a bout t he o riginal a veraging p rocess .

T his

p rocess

i s

t ermed

s patial

f iltering .

F iltering

o perations a re p articularly u seful f or i mage e nhancement p rocedures , s uch a s e dge s harpening , d ependency

o f

b ecause t hey p reserve t he p roperty o f s patial i nter-

p icture

t ransformation o f i nvolves

e lements .

T his

i mage d ata .

c alculating

t he

p roperty

T he u sual

d ifferences

i s

l ost w ith s tatistical

m ethod

o f

e dge

e nhancement

i n r esponse b etween n eighbouring

p icture e lements i n a ny g iven d irection . E dge e nhancement p roduces a n i mage w hich i s b right a t p oints w here r eflectance v alues c hange r apidly o ver a s hort

d istance ,

c onstant .

a nd d ark w here r eflectance

F or a s mall

p art

o f

v alues

r emain r elatively

a n i mage t he g radient

o f

t he r eflectance

v alues f rom n eighbouring p icture e lements i s c alculated . T he p rocess i s t hen r epeated s ystematically u ntil t he w hole i mage h as b een s ampled . T he d irection i n w hich e dges a re s harpened c an b e c hanged, a s o bjects w ith d ifferent o rientations a nd s hapes t o b e d etected .

t his

a llows

P lates 3 a nd 4 s how a p art o f Morton F en t hrough w hich t he B ourneM orton c anal r uns . a erial p hotographs . t he

c entre

o f

O il s eed r ape c rops d o n ot s how g ood c rop m arks i n F or e xample , n ote t he t hree a djoining d ark f ields a t

P late

3 .

P late

4 i s

t he

r esult

o f

a pplying

d irectional f ilter t o t he n ear i nfrared w aveband ( 0 .16-0 .9 p m ) .

a N E/SW

T hese d ata

h ave a n ominal g round r esolution o f t wo m etres p er p icture e lement , w hich i s c onsiderably c ruder t han t hat o f t he c orresponding a erial p hotograph , y et t he s urrounding d etail o f t he c anal i s e nhanced . T he f eature s pectral e xpression o f t he c anal i s n ow r endered v isible w ithin t he o il s eed r ape f ields . l n t his i nstance , c ell s tructure w ithin t he r ape s eed p lants i s b eing a ltered b y t he p resence o f t he b uried c hannel a nd t his r esults i n s ubtle d ifferences i n n ear i nfrared r eflectance . T he e xact p hysical b asis f or s uch s patial v ariation i n r eflectance a ssociated w ith b uried f eatures i s s till u nder i nvestigation . H owever t he d ata f rom P late 2 s uggest t hat p article s ize , o rganic c arbon c ontent a nd t he l evel o f e xchangeable c ations i n t he s oil

c ombine t o p romote d ifferences

i n t he g rowth r ate o f

t he c rop

w hich i n t urn c an b e d etected i n t he n ear i nfrared p art o f t he s pectrum ( Sherman 1 985) . N ote a lso t hat t he e nhancement ( Plate 4 ) h as d etected t wo s mall r ound f eatures , s eemingly a ssociated w ith t he c anal l evees , w hich h ave n ot b een s een p reviously . T he f ilter w as n ot d esigned t o d etect t hese s hapes ,

a f act w hich h ighlights t he e xploratory n ature o f t he w ork a nd t he

n eed f or s ystematic e valuation o f t heoretical e nhancement a lgorithms . C olour d isplay o f i magery i s d esirable f or t wo r easons : b rain

c an d etect m any m ore

c olour h ues

t han g rey

( i) T he h uman

l evels a nd s o m ore

i nformation c an b e d isplayed u sing c olour a nd ( ii) m ultiband i mages c an b e d isplayed b y a ssigning a p rimary c olour i n a v ideo m onitor t o e ach o f t hree b ands , c olour

o r b y a ssigning t hree b ands t o t he i ntensity , d efined

i n s ome

w ay .

C ombining m ulti-band

t one a nd s aturation o f i magery

i nto

f alse

a nd

t rue c olour c omposites c an b e p articularly e ffective f or e nhancing f eatures w hose s pectral r esponse i s c omplex .

F or e xample ,

af alse c olour c omposite

o f s canner b ands 9 , 7 a nd 5 i s u seful, s ince b and 9 ( 1 .55-1 .75 p m ) d etects v ariation i n s urface m oisture o n c rops a nd s oil, b and 7 ( 0 .76-0 .90 p m) e mphasises d ifferences i n l eaf s tructure w ithin c rop c over a nd b and 5 ( 0 .63-

5 5

0 .69 p m ) s hows

v ariation i n s oil

b rightness

i Fsiciated w ith p article s ize

c hange . A ll t hese p roperties a re h elpful f or i dentifying s ubsurface a rchaeeological f eatures . U nfortunateley , c olour i magery c annot b e r eproduced i n t his p ublication . T ransforming a m ulti-band i mage t o i ts p rincipal c omponents r educes t he n umber o f s pectral

c omponents

t o

l ess

t han t he n umber t hat c ontributed

t o

t he v ariance o f t he o riginal i mage s et . T his i s u sed b oth f or o rdination o f d ata a nd f or i mage e nhancement . T his a lgorithm i s t ermed t he K arhunenL oeve t ransform a nd i nvolves l east-square f itting t o d etermine t he u ncorrelated o rthogonal p rincipal c omponents . P late 5 i s as ingle p rincipal c omponent i mage o f M orton F en u sing b ands 7 ( 0 .76-0 .90 p m) , b and 5 ( 0 .630 .69 p m) a nd b and 3 ( 0 .42-0 .50 p m) . T he d ata h ave a n ominal g round r esolution o f t en m etres . T wo m etre p icture e lements r esolution d ata a llowed a ccurate d elineation o f s ites t hought t o r epresent R omano-British s ettlement

a nd

f ield

e nclosure

s ites

( Lane

1 985) .

T hese

f eatures

b ecome

s omewhat b lurred , a lthough s till d iscernable , o n t he t en m etre r esolution d ata . M ore i mportantly , a ll t he m ajor r oddons, c anals a nd o ther p alaeochannels r emain c learly v isible a t t his s cale . T his i s e ncouraging a s t he F rench s atellite b orne s canner S POT h as r esolution o f t en m etres i n p anchromatic m ode .

t he

s imilar n ominal

g round

C oncluding R emarks E nhancement o f t he M orton F en i magery u sing g radient d irectional f ilters a ppears t o b e a p romising m ethod o f a utomating f eature d etection f or a rchaeological a pplications . F uture r esearch a ims w ill b e t o c ombine t he a ttributes o f s everal e nhancement t echniques a s w ell a s t o e stablish a n o bjective m ethod o f c ontrasting t he r elative i nformation c ontent o f d ifferent t ypes o f i mager y . T he D aedalus c hannels

o n

1 268

t he

s canner

s atellite

i s

a lso d esigned

s ensors

L ANDSAT

t o s imulate t he s pectral TM

a nd

t he

n ew

F rench

s atellite S POT ( see T able 1 ) . A irborne S canner d ata w ill t herefore b e u sed t o e valuate s atellite s ensor r equirements b oth f or t he s pectral a nd s patial d etail

r equirements

o f

a rchaeology .

A s atellite p latform

w ould p rovide

e fficient m ulti-temporal d ata c overage , a c onsiderable r eduction i n t echnical p roblems a ssociated w ith w ide s can a ngle s ensors a nd p erhaps m ost i mportantly , ac onsiderable r eduction i n t he r elative c ost o f i magery . U sing s atellite s ensors i t m ay b e p ossible t o i nvestigate l arge a reas , s uch a s t he w hole o f t he F enlands , i f t he r esolution r equirements o f t he d ata d o n ot n eed t o e xceed b etween t en a nd t hirty m etres . T he e conomic v iability o f m ultispectral r emote s ensing m ethods f or a rchaeological a pplications c an o nly b e c ommented o n o nce t he p hysical b asis o f t his a pproach h as b een e stablished a nd t he a dvantages a nd l imitations o f t he m ethods a re k nown . I t

i s h oped t hat t his r esearch w ill a lert a rchaeologists t o t he

p otential o f u sing m ultispectral i magery i n r econstructing p ast w etland e nvironments . W hile w e h ave s hown s ome o f t he b enefits o f m ultispectral d ata , i t m ust b e n oted t hat i ts s patial r esolution w ill u sually b e l ess t han t hat o f o ptical c ameras . H owever , t he r econstruction o f p alae ordrainage p atterns o n M orton F en d oes n ot r equire v ery f ine s patial d etail . I ndeed , s imple

c olour c omposite a nd g radient f ilter e nhancements o f

5 6

t he t en m etre

r esolution i magery h ave a lready p roved v aluable t o a rchaeologists c urrently i nvolved i n r e-mapping M orton F en ( Lane a nd H ayes , p ers . c omm .) .

A cknowledgements W e a re g rateful v aluable c omments . f rom S EW : . p rocessing .

t o D r T .J .

M unday a nd M r S .J . H ook f or t heir h elp a nd

T his r esearch w as s upported b y r esearch g rant G RD22056

N ERC p rovided

v aluable a ssistance w ith d ata a cquisition a nd

5 7

T able

1 .

S ummary o f s ensor s pecifications w ith w avelengths u nits i n m icrometres .

C ompoment e lectromagnetic s pectrum

D aedalus 1 268 A irborne M SS S canner

L andsat 4 & 5 T hematic M apper

' blue '

0 .420-

0 .450

0 .45-

0 .52

' blue/green '

0 .450

0 .520

0 .52-

0 .60

0 .50-0 .59

' green '

0 .605-

0 .625

' red '

0 .630-

0 .690

0 .63-

0 .69

0 .61-0 .68

' red '

0 .695-

0 .750

' near i nfrared '

0 .760-

0 .900

0 .76-

0 .90

' near i nfrared '

0 .910-

1 .050

' short w ave I .R .'

1 .550-

1 .750

1 .55-

1 .75

' short w ave I .R .'

2 .080-

2 .350

2 .08-

2 .35

' m iddle I .R .'

8 .500-

1 3.000

1 0 .40-

1 2.50

S ensor R esolution A ltitude

3 0m

S POT I mage M SS P anchromatic S ensor S ensor

.

0 .51-0 .73

0 .79-0 .89

2 0m

1 0m

3

1

d ependent N o o f S pectral C hanmels

1

7

R eferences B urton , B .G .O .

a nd

S eale ,

R .S .

S heet T L 1 8 E /28W . C urran ,

P .J .

( 1983)

( 1981)

H arpenden :

M ultispectral

S oils i n C ambridgeshire 1 :

S oil S urvey R ecord N o . 6 5 .

R emote

s ensing

f or

t he

e stimation

o f

g reen l eaf a rea i ndex . P hilosophical T ransactions o f t he R oyal S ociety o f L ondon A 309 2 41-264. E vans, R . ( 1972)

A ir P hotographs f or S oil S urvey i n L owland E ngland :

P atterns G ausman H .W . ( 1974)

L eaf r eflectance o f n ear i nfrared .

E ngineering a nd R emote S ensing 4 0 H allam , S .J .

( 1970)

( 1985) L incolnshire : 37 -12.

P hotogrammetic

1 38-191.

S ettlement R ound t he W ash .

T imes ( ed . P hillips C .W .) L ondon : R esearch S eries N o 5 p p . 2 2-113 . L ane , T .

I n : R oyal

T he W estern F ens

T he F enland i n R oman G eographical

( 11 9 .

( 1945) A erial 1 45-153 .

S chanda , E .

( 1986) P hysical Fundamentals o f Remote B erlin/Heidelberg/New Y ork/Tokyo : S pringerVerlag . C anopy r eflectance ,

o f

t he F en B asin .

L ondon : R oyal

R iley D .N .

( 1985)

R econnaissance

S ociety

F enland R esearch

P hillips, C .W . ( ed .) ( 1970) T he F enland i n R oman T imes G eographical S ociety R esearch S eries N o . 5 .

S ellars, P .J .

S oil

P hotogrammetric R ecord 7 3 02-322.

A ntiquity

1 9

S ensing .

p hoto-synthesis a nd t ranspiration .

I nternational J ournal o f R emote S ensing 6 1 335-1372. S hennan , I .

( 1985) R emote S ensing a nd Archaeology: Morton F en, L incolnshire . B ackground a nd P reliminary Results. F enland R esearch 3 5 3-58 .

W eisskopf, V .F . ( 1968) 6 0-71.

H ow L ight I nteracts w ith Matter . S cience 2 19 ( 3)

5 9

S LUMS, P UDDLES A ND D ITCHES: A RE M OLLUSCS U SEFUL I NDICATORS? T erence O 'Connor

T he e veryday l andscape w ithin w hich p eople l ived a nd w orked i n w etland a reas d uring t he p ast m ust h ave b een w ell-supplied w ith s mall f reshwater h abitats . I n a reas o f h igh w ater t able , a nd o n f luctuating l ake o r r iver m argins , m erely d igging a c ess-pit w ould p roduce a s mall, c losed h abitat o f a f ew d ays ' o r w eeks ' d uration . C omfortable s ettlement i n w etland a reas n ecessitates t he d igging o f d rainage d itches a nd l eats , w hich i n t urn w ill b ecame p opulated b y p lant a nd a nimal c ommunities . E ven t he r egular u se o f ap ath b etween t wo p laces m ay c reate a t rampled , m uddy a rea w ith s emip ermanent p ools a nd p uddles . A lthough t hese s mall h abitats m ay b e f ar r emoved f rom t he w ider s ubject o f w etland e xploitation , t hey w ill h ave b een a n i mportant p art o f t he s urroundings a nd l iving c onditions o f h uman c ommunities . I t t hus b ehoves u s a s a rchaeologists t o r esolve , a t l east t o s ome e xtent , t he f ormer c ondition o f t hese f looded p its a nd d itches w hen w e e ncounter t heir r emnants i n a rchaeological e xcavations . I n c ircumstances w here g ood o rganic p reservation p ertains , f ills o f a d rainage m acrofossils , i nsects ,

t he

l ower

d itch m ay p roduce c opious s pecimens o f p lant s hells , e ven s mall b ones . S uch f ossils a re n ot

a lways a vailable , h owever , a nd i n t he a bsence o f w aterlogging i t m ay b e t hat o nly s hell a nd b one w ill b e p reserved . T he s ort o f q uestions w hich w e m ay h ope t o a nswer i nclude : w as t his d itch p ermanently w et o r o nly s easonally s o ;

w as t he w ater c lear o r s tagnant ;

w as

i t v egetated o r c lear o f w eed?

T he a ssemblages o f f reshwater , a nd w hat w e m ay c all w et-terrestrial, m olluscs r ecovered f rom s uch a f eature w ould a ppear t o o ffer a m eans o f a nswering t hese q uestions . I n o rder t o u ndertake s uch a s tudy , w e f irst n eed t o k now w hether s uch s mall f reshwater h abitats m ight b e e xpected t o h ave d eveloped c haracteristic m alacofaunas , a nd t hen t o d efine t he s pecies a ssociations d iagnostic o f p articular c onditions . T his w ill r equire e xamination o f t he e cology o f m odern f reshwater m ollusc c ommunities . A t t he t ime o f w riting ,

i t i s

5 0 y ears

s ince

t he p ublication o f

s ome

t he

f irst c omprehensive s urvey o f t he h abitat p references o f f reshwater m olluscs i n B ritain ( Boycott 1 936) . I n t he i ntervening h alf-century , c omparatively l ittle h as b een a dded t o B oycott 's w ork , w ith l ater s ources s uch a s A dam ( 1960) , S parks ( 1961) , B eedham ( 1972) , a nd M acan ( 1977) l argely r eiterating B oycott 's c onclusions . F reshwater b iology h as c ertainly a dvanced d uring t hat 5 0 y ear p eriod , b ut p erhaps t he t rend h as b een a way f rom t he ' observant f ield n aturalist ' a pproach w hich w ould h ave p roduced c ollections o f r ecords o f w hich s pecies l ive t ogether i n w hat h abitats . C learly t here a re h onourable e xpectations , s uch a s H ingley ( 1979) a nd H am a nd B ass ( 1972) , b ut t hese s tudies s tand o ut a s e xceptions t o t he g eneral t hrust o f c ontemporary f ield b iology . T o a l arge e xtent , t hen , w e m ust c ontinue t o r efer b ack t o B oycott 's s urvey , t hough t here e xists a c lear n eed f or f urther f ield w ork d irectly r elevant t o a rchaeological i nterpretation ; s pecifically t he s urveying o f s mall , s hort-lived , m an-made o r m an-influenced h abitats . W e m ay n ote i n p assing t hat B oycott f requently r efers t o t he w ork o f R eid ( 1894) o n i solated p onds ,

t hus t aking t he s ubject b ack n early a c entury .

6 1

B efore t urning t o a c onsideration o f t he s pecies r ecovered f rom s mall h abitats , i t i s e ssential t o u nderstand h ow t he m olluscs m ay h ave g ot i nto t he p it, d itch o r m uddy h ollow i n t he f irst p lace . D espite e mpirical e vidence t o t he c ontrary , m olluscs d o n ot a rise s pontaneously f rom w aterside m ud , a nd e ither t hey o r t heir e ggs m ust b e i ntroduced f rom a n earby s ource . S mall n umbers o f s hells , a nd d oubtless s ubstantial n umbers o f e ggs , c an b e t ransported i n m ud o r v egetation o n t he f eet o f p eople , l ivestock a nd w aterfowl (Ke w 1 893) , a nd s uch t ransport m ust a ccount f or a p roportion o f t he m olluscs ' seeded ' i nto s mall , c losed h abitats s uch a s p its o r p uddles . D uring p eriods o f w et w eather , p ulmonate a quatic s pecies m ay a lso d isperse o verland , p articularly a cross w ell-vegetated t errain . H owever , s ettlements c lose t o a r iver o f a ny s ize w ill b e s usceptible t o r egular , p erhaps s easonal f looding , a nd i t i s t his m echanism o f t ransport w hich i s m ost l ikely t o i ntroduce s ubstantial n umbers o f m olluscs i nto a s mall h abitat ( Kew 1 893 : 1 38-45) . I ntroduction b y f looding w ill s how c ertain d istinctive c haracteristics . T here m ay b e am arked c hange i n l ithology i n t he s ediments o f t he r eceiving f eature . I n t he c ase o f a d itch c arrying r unning w ater , e arlier s ediments m ay e ven b e s coured o ut , t he f lood d ebris b eing d eposited u ncomformably u pon a n e roded s urface . T he i mportant c haracteristic o f m olluscs i n f lood d ebris i s t hat t hey a re a s ample o f t he m alacofauna o f t he f looding w ater b ody , a nd n ot n ecessarily r epresentative o f t he e cology o f t he f looded f eature . S uch i ntroduction m ay b e r ecognised , t herefore , b y t he o ccurrence i n a s mall f eature o f a s pecies a ssemblage i ncluding t axa n ormally o nly r ecorded i n s ubstantial r ivers o r l akes , s uch a s L ymnaea a uricularia ( -) o r T heodoxus f luviatilis ( -) A g ood e xample o f s pecies i ntroduction a pparently b y f looding o ccurred a t t he A ustin F riars s ite i n L eicester ( Girling 1 981) . S amples r epresenting p hases o f s edimentation o f a d itch ( Ditch I I) s howed a s udden i ncrease i n m ollusc c oncentration a nd d iversity i n o ne p hase ( 9a ) . T able 1 g ives n umbers o f s pecimens r ecovered f rom t his d itch .

T he d ata a re d erived

f rom m icrofiche 1 o f t he p ublished r eport . T he a ssemblage i n p hase 9 a w as d ominated b y B ithynia t entaculata ( I .) , V alvata p iscinalis ( Müller ) a nd L ymnaea a uricularia , a c ombination o f s pecies i mprobable i n a c losed d itch h abitat b ut c ommon i n s low m oving r ivers . B y t he n ext p hase ( 9b) , t he i ntroduced t axa h ad v irtually a ll d ied o ut , e xcept f or t he v ersatile V alvata p iscinalis ,

w hich f lourished .

P its ,

p uddles a nd d itches p rovide u nusual

a nd r ather s pecialised h abitats, s o g reat d iversity i n a utochthonous a ssemblages w ould b e s urprising . T he e xample f rom A ustin F riars p erhaps s hows w hat m ight b e e xpected : a d iverse " riverine" a ssemblage i ntroduced , o f w hich o nly o ne s pecies s eems t o h ave m anaged t o a dapt t o c onditions i n t he d itch s ufficiently w ell t o p roduce a p ersistent p opulation . S imilar f looding p robably a ccounts f or t he a ssemblages d ominated b y V alvata c ristata B ithynia t entaculata , a nd l ymneids r eported b y R obinson ( 1979) f rom I ron A ge a nd R oman f eatures a t F armoor , O xfordshire . T he i mportant p oint h ere i s t hat i n o rder t o i nterpret a ssemblages r ecovered f rom f eatures o n w etland s ettlement s ites , i t m ay b e n ecessary t o s ample c ontemporaneous d eposits a way f rom t he s ettlement s o a s t o u nderstand t he p ool o f s pecies a vailable t o c olonise p its , d itches a nd t he l ike .

6 2

T able 1 . A ustin F riars, L eicester :

m olluscs f rom d itch I I .

D ata f rom G irling ( 1981), m icrofiche .

2 D

3 F

9 A

9 B

T heodoxus f luviatilis ( L .)

1

-

-

-

B ithynia t entaculata ( L .)

1

-

3 2

2

B . l eachii ( Sheppard) V alvata p iscinalis ( Müller) V . c ristata ( Müller) L ymnaea p alustris ( Müller) L . p eregra ( Müller) L . a uricularia ( L .)

1 2 2 3 0 5 4 1 3 1 2 1 6 2 - 2 2 -

A ncylus f luviatilis M üller A croloxus l acustris ( L .) P lanorbis p lanorbis ( L .) A nisus v ortex ( L .)

1 -

A . l eucostoma ( Millet) G yraulus a lbus ( Müller)

-

5 1 1

_ .

-

1

-

_

1

-

9

1

B athyomphalus c ontortus ( L .) H ippeutis c omplanatus ( L .) O xyloma p feifferi ( Rossmässler)

-

-

3 1 0 3

-

S uccinea p utris ( L .)

-

-

-

1

A c omparison o f t he a ssemblages r ecovered f rom a rchaeological f eatures w ith o bservations m ade b y B oycott ( 1936) a nd o thers r eveals s ome p oints o f a greement a nd a f ew a nomalies . T he c ommon p lanorbid A nisus l eucostoma ( Millet) e merges f rom t he l iterature a s t he s lum-dwelling s nail p ar e xcellence , t olerating s tagnant w ater , r ank w eed g rowth , a nd p rolonged p eriods o f d rought . u seful i ndicator o f

O n t he f ace o f i t , A . l eucostoma w ould s eem t o b e a d amp , b iologically p oor , p erhaps i ntermittently d ry

c onditions . C ertainly f rom p its a nd d itches .

T able 2 .

i t

i s a c ommon s pecies i n a rchaeological s amples T able 2 p resents r ecords o f a quatic a nd w et-

1 6-22 C oppergate , Y ork : f reshwater a nd w et t errestrial m olluscs f rom A nglo-Scandinavian p its a nd g ullies .

B ithynia t entaculata ( L .)

1

B . l eachii ( Sheppard) V alvata p iscinalis ( Müller)

1 1

L ymnaea s tagnalis ( L .) L . t runcatula ( Müller) L . p alustris ( Müller) L . p eregra ( Müller)

1 6 4 1

P lanorbis p lanorbis ( L .)

3

A nisus l eucostoma ( Millet) B athyomphalus c ontortus ( L .) S uccinea p utris ( L .) S . o blonga D raparnaud O xyloma p feifferi ( Rossmässler)

1 8 1 3 4 2 1

6 3

t errestrial m olluscs f rom A nglo-Scandinavian f eatures a t 1 6-22 C oppergate , Y ork . T hese a re p ooled d ata f rom a n a ssortment o f p its a nd d rainage g ullies: n o o ne s ample y ielded a u seful a ssemblage o n i ts o wn . A . l eucostoma w as m uch t he m ost c ommon a quatic s pecies , t hough o utnumbered b y t he v irtually a mphibious S uccinea p utris ( I.) . L ymnaea t runcatula ( Müller) a nd L . p alustris ( Müller) s eem l ikely t o h ave l ived a mongst w aterside v egetation , b oth s pecies b eing a lmost t errestrial i n h abit . T he l ist i s e xtended b y o dd s pecimens o f a r ange o f m ore t ruly a quatic s pecies , m ost o r a ll o f w hich w ere p robably d erived f rom t he n earby r ivers O use a nd F oss b y m inor f looding o r h uman a ctivity s uch a s t ransporting w ater i n b uckets . T he t wo s pecimens o f S uccinea o blonga D raparnaud c onstitute a n u nusual r ecord o f ar are s pecies, a nd t his o ccurrence i s d iscussed i n g reater d etail e lsewhere ( O 'Connor 1 986a) . A . l eucostoma i s a lso c ommon i n t he a ssemblage o btained f rom a s ample o f 2 nd c entury A D r iverside d eposit a t t he G eneral A ccident E xtension s ite , Y ork ( Table 3 ) . T his s ample w as n ot f rom a p it , d itch o r h ollow , b ut f rom d eposits a pparently l aid d own o n aw et, p erhaps p oorly-defined , r iver m argin ,

w hich w ere s ubsequently b uried u nder m aterial

d umped

i n o rder

t o

r aise t he g round l evel p rior t o s ettlement . E ssentially, t his i s a c onvincing ' swampy r iverside ' m alacofauna , v ery m uch d ominated b y A . l eucostoma a nd i ncluding A plexa h ypnorum (-) a nd L ymnaea g labra ( Müller ) , t wo s pecies q uite t ypical o f p oor , d rying h abitats t oday , b ut n ot c ommonly r ecorded a rchaeologically . P lanorbarius c orneus ( -) w as r ecorded i n t his s ample . O ur k nowledge o f t he ' natural ' e cology o f t his s pecies h as b een b edevilled b y i ts w idespread t ransport a nd i ntroduction a s a r esident o f a quaria a nd o rnamental p onds . H owever , R eid ( 1894) r ecorded P . c orneus o nly o nce f rom p onds i n S ussex , a nd t he s um t otal o f B oycott 's s urvey o f r ecords ( Boycott 1 936: 1 43-4) w ould s eem t o s uggest t hat i t i s n ot a s pecies o f p oor h abitats , a nd t hus t hat t hese s pecimens w ere d erived f rom t he r iver r ather t han f rom i ts m argins . Am uch l ater , a nd v ery d ifferent , r iverside a ssemblage i s s hown i n T able 4 . T his s ample i s f rom t he S t . G eorge 's F ields s ite i n Y ork , c lose t o t he c onfluence o f t he O use a nd F oss r ivers ,

a nd

a ppears

t o r epresent

r iverside

f looding

i n t he

l ate

1 8th o r

e arly 1 9th c entury ( O'Connor 1 986b) . T he p redominance o f L ymnaea t runcatula i s s triking , a nd i t i s l ikely t hat a ll t he o ther s pecies w ere d erived f rom t he r iver . A nisus l eucostoma i s c onspicuous b y i ts a bsence .

T able 3 . G eneral A ccident E xtension s ite , Y ork : 2 nd c entury A D r iverside d eposits.

V alvata c ristata ( Müller) A plexa h ypnorum ( L .)

1 2

L ymnaea t runcatula ( Müller) L . g labra ( Müller)

8 4

L . p alustris ( Müller)

1

A nisus l eucostoma ( Millet) P lanorbarius c orneus ( L .) S uccinea p utris ( L .)

4 4 2 2 2

6 4

m olluscs f rom s ample 5 22 ,

T able 4 . S t .

G eorge 's F ields , Y ork :

m olluscs f rom s ample 3 ,

p ost-medieval

r iverside f loodplain .

V alvata p iscinalis ( Müller) P lanorbarius c orneus ( L .) L ymnaea p eregra ( Müller) L . p alustris ( Müller) L . t runcatula ( Müller) P isidium c asertanum ( Poll)

Anisus

l eucostoma ,

1 1 2 1 2 1 82 3 9

t hen ,

a ppears t o b e a g ood i ndicator o f p oor ,

i ntermittently d ry , h abitats , a nd t he p resence o f t his s pecies i n a bundance i n a p it o r g ully m ight r easonably b e t aken t o i ndicate a d egree o f d amp s tagnancy . T here a re t wo d ifficulties t o b e n oted , h owever . T he f irst i s t hat A . l eucostoma , u nlike , f or e xample , L ymnaea g labra , i s n ot r estricted t o p oor h abitats b ut m ay b e am inor c omponent o f d iverse m alacofaunas f rom m ajor r ivers o r l akes : M acan ( 1977 : 4 3) r ecords t his s pecies f rom l arge l akes i n C umbria . I t i s t hus o nly a r eliable s lum i ndicator w hen p redominant i n a n a ssemblage . T he o ther d ifficulty i s t he p ractical o ne o f i dentification . A lthough A . l eucostoma i s r eliably i ndentifiable o n s hell c haracters, i t i s v ery s imilar t o A nisus v ortex ( L .), a nd c are m ust b e e xercised i n t heir s eparation . A . v ortex s eems t o b e r arely r ecorded a rchaeologically . T he p resent a uthor h as s een o nly o ne a ssemblage i n w hich A . v ortex r ather t han A . l eucostoma p redominated , t his b eing f rom a m edieval d itch i n B everley , N orth H u t nberside . T he c onclusion i n t his c ase w as t hat t he d itch w as m ore o r l ess p ermanently w et , c arrying r elatively c lean , w ello xygenated w ater . T he q uestion o f d etermining t he e xtent a nd n ature o f v egetation i n a nd a round a w et f eature o r a rea r aises t he p oint o f h ow h azy i s t he d istinction b etween t errestrial a nd f reshwater m olluscs . A s pecies a ssociation c haracteristic o f r ank v egetation g rowing o n w et g round o r i n s hallow w ater w ould p robably b e e venly d ivided b etween t he t wo g roups . P erhaps S uccinea p utris i s t he m ost t ypical m ollusc o f s uch s ituations t oday , a nd i t i s c ertainly c ommon i n a rchaeological s amples f rom w aterside s ites . H erbaceous v egetation ( chiefly n ettles U rtica d ioica L . a nd U mbelliferae) s ubject t o w inter f looding a long t he b anks o f t he R iver D erwent, N orth H umberside , h as a r ich m ollusc f auna d ominated b y A rianta a rbustorum ( 1 -) ( but n ot C epaea s pp .) , S uccinea p utris ( but n ot O xyloma p feifferi ( Rossmässler)), Oxychilus a lliarius ( Miller), An on s pp . a nd D eroceras r eticulatum ( Müller) ( author 's r ecords , 1 981-6) . T he g reater h umidity r equirements c onstitute

a n

o f A . a rbustorum o ver C epaea s pp .

a rgument

f or

a ttempting

s pecies

( Cameron

a ttribution

o f

1 970) m ay

t he

l arger

h elicid a pices i n a s ample , d espite t he d ifficulties . A n a rchaeological s ample o f u ncertain d ate f rom t he C ounty H ospital s ite i n Y ork y ielded a n a ssemblage d ominated b y A shfordia g ranulata ( Alder) a nd D iscus r otundatus ( Müller) , w ith n umerous A . a rbustorum a nd b oth C epaea s pecies f rom w hat a ppeared t o b e c olluvial d eposits i n a n i nfilling r iver c hannel ( O 'Connor 1 985). T o b ring t his b rief f oray t o a c lose , i n t he t itle i s Yes , p erhaps ' .

t he a nswer t o t he q uestion p osed

I n d ue c ourse i t s hould b e p ossible t o u se

f reshwater a nd w et-terrestrial m olluscs t o a nswer s pecific a rchaeological

6 5

q uestions a bout t he c ondition a nd h istory o f f eatures o n s ettlement s ites i n w etland a reas . B efore t his c an b e a chieved , h owever , f ar m ore b ackground i nformation w ill

b e r equired o n t wo f ronts .

T he

m ost o bvious

i s a

c oncerted e ffort t o l earn m ore a bout t he s pecies a ssociations w hich a re t ypical o f s mall t emporary w ater h abitats a nd s wampy l ake o r r iver m argins , a nd t he o nly m eans o f o btaining t his i nformation w ill b e f or m ore p eople t o g o o ut a nd l ook . A n e xcellent e xample o f a n a nalogous s tudy i s E vans a nd J ones ' ( 1973) s urvey o f m olluscs f rom r ock-rubble h abitats . O bserving t he b iome , r ather t han c onducting e xperiments o n i t , m ay b e g oing a gainst t he t rend o f m odern b iology , b ut t his i s t he s tage w hich e nvironmental a rchaeology h as y et t o p ass b eyond . T he o ther n eed i s s imply f or m ore a rchaeological r ecords t o b e p ublished a nd d isseminated i rrespective o f w hether t hey a re i ntensively-studied s equences o f m ollusc-rich s amples , o r j ust t he o dd s mall a ssemblage w hich h appened t o b e r ecovered f rom o ne c ontext o n a n o therwise u nproductive s ite . I ntensive s tudies c an c ome l ater w hen w e k now e nough t o b e a ble t o p lan p roperly . F or t he t ime b eing , s tudies o f m odern m olluscs f rom w et d itches, p its a nd p uddles m ust c oncentrate o n o btaining m ore r ecords, b oth a ncient a nd m odern .

6 6

B ibliography A dam , W .

( 1960)

F aune d e B elgique . M ollusques t errestres e t d ulcicoles B russels : L 'Institute R oyal d e B elgique .

B eedham , G .E .

( 1972)

B oycott,

A .E.

C ameron ,

R .A .D .

E vans,

S ciences N aturelles

I dentification o f t he B ritish Mollusca . H ulton .

Amersham :

( 1936) T he h abitats o f f reshwater m ollusca i n B ritain . J ournal o f A nimal E cology 5 1 66-186 . ( 1970) T he s urvival , w eight l oss a nd b ehaviour o f t hree s pecies o f l and s nail i n c onditions o f l ow h umidity , J ournal o f Z oology L ondon 1 60 1 43157 .

J .G . a nd J ones , H . ( 1973) S ubfossil a nd m odern l andsnail f aunas f rom r ock-rubble h abitats . 1 29 .

G irling ,

H am ,

d es

M .

( 1981)

S . F . a nd

H ingley, M .R .

J ournal o f C onchology 2 8

1 03 -

T he e nvironmental e vidence . I n : T he A ustin F riars , L eicester . ( Mellor , J .E . a nd P earce , T .) L ondon : C BA ' Research R eport 3 5 p p . 1 69172 .

B ass, J .A .B . ( 1982) T he D istribution o f S phaeriidae i n r ivers a nd s treams o f C entral S outhern E ngland . J ournal o f C onchology 3 1 4 5-55 .

( 1979)

T he c olonization o f n ewly-dredged d rainage c hannels o n t he P evensey L evels ( East S ussex) , w ith s pecial r eference t o g astropods . J ournal o f C onchology 3 0 1 05-122.

K ew ,

H .W .

M acan , T .T .

( 1893)

T he d ispersal o f s hells . T rübner a nd C o .

L ondon :

K egan P aul , T rench ,

( 1977)

A ,k ey t o t he B ritish f resh a nd b rackish-water g astrop ods . F reshwater B iological A ssociation S cientific P ublication 1 3 .

O 'Connor ,

T .P .

( 1985) A m ollusc a ssemblage f rom t he C ounty H ospital Y ork ( 1983 .5 X II) . R eport 4 709 .

O 'Connor ,

T .P .

( 1986a)

T .P .

( 1894)

1 801

s ite .

L aboratory

f rom 1 0th

C onchologists ' N ewsletter 9 6 3 42-343 .

( 1986b) P reliminary r eport o n am ollusc a ssemblage f rom S t . G eorge 's F ields , Y ork . R eport 1 /86 .

R eid, C .

Monuments

S uccinea o blonga D raparnaud ,

c entury Y ork . O 'Connor

A ncient

O n

t he

n atural

A ncient

h istory

o f

M onuments

L aboratory

i solated

p onds.

T ransactions o f t he N orfolk a nd N orwich N aturalists' S ociety 5 ( 1892) 2 72-286 .

6 7

R obinson ,

M .

( 1979) Molluscs.

I n:

I ron Age

a nd

Roman r iverside

s ettlements a t F armoor , O xfordshire ( Robinson , N L a nd L ambrick , G .) L ondon : C BA R esearch R eports 3 2 p p . 1 00-102. S parks,

B .W .

( 1961) T he e cological i nterpretation o f Q uaternary n on-marine m ollusca . P roceedings o f t he L innean S ociety o f L ondon

1 72 7 1-80 .

6 8

T APHONOMIC A ND C ULTURAL I NFORMATION F ROM A N A SSEMBLAGE O F N EOLITHIC B IRD

B ONES F ROM O RKNEY .

M iranda A rmour Chelu

I ntroduction Vertebrate

p alaeontologists

i ncreasingly a ware

t hat

b ones

a nd

c ollected

a rchaeozoologists

h ave

b ecome

f rom a rchaeological

s ites

r arely

r epresent a t rue ' death a ssemblage ' b ut a re a v ery b iased a nd d istorted r eflection o f p ast e vents . M any a gencies , a part f rom m an , m ay t ransport a nd d iscard b ones , w hich u ltimately b ecome i ncorporated i nto a rchaeological d eposits .

B ones m ay b ecome i ntroduced i nto c ultural c ontexts d uring

o ccupation

o f

t he

s ite

o r d uring p eriods

o f

a bandonment .

I t m ay

n ot

b e

p ossible t o i dentify a ll

t he a gencies t hat h ave d eposited b ones a t a s ite .

I t i s e ssential,

t hat b efore a ny c ultural s ignificance i s a ttached

h owever ,

t o f aunal r emains , e very a ttempt i s m ade t o i dentify a nd i solate m aterial w hich h as b een a ccumulated b y n on-human a gencies . A rtefactual a nd s tructural e vidence a nd c utmarks

o n b ones

i ndicate

t hat m an w as

p artially

r esponsible a s a p rocessor a nd a ccumulator o f t he f aunal r emains a t as ite . G nawing , p uncture m arks a nd s plinters o f b one i ndicate t hat c arnivores h ave a lso m odified , o r c ontributed t o ,

t he f aunal s ample .

T he p roblem o f d istinguishing b etween c ulturally a nd n aturally d erived b ones w as e specially a pparent d uring t he p rocessing o f al arge c ollection o f b ird b ones f rom t he L inks o f N oltland s ite , O rkney . T his n eolithic s ite , w hich l ies o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he i sland o f W estray , w as e xcavated u nder t he d irectorship o f D r . D .V . C larke f or t hree s easons b etween 1 978 a nd 1 981

( Clarke

e t a l.

1 978) .

T he

s ite

c omprises

a s tone h ouse a nd

a ssociated w ith a s tone f ield b oundary a nd e xtensive m idden d eposits . h as b een d ated t o c irca 2 ,300 t o 1 ,700 b c b y r adiocarbon a ssay .

i s I t

T he s hell

s ands w hich o verlie t he s ite h ave c ontributed t o t he a lkaline n ature o f t he d eposits,

a nd c onsequently t he p reservation o f

e xcellent .

t he f aunal

r emains

i s

A ll e xcavated l evels f rom t he s ite w ere w et s ieved t hrough a

t hree m illimetre m esh , w hich h as e nsured g ood r etrieval o f t he f aunal s ample. A s t he s ettlement s ite i s n ormally t he f ocus o f h uman a ctivity i t m ay b e a ssumed a ssemblage ' .

t hat s ome o f t he b ird b ones f orm p art o f t he ' cultural M ost a rchaeozoologists r ecord t he p resence o f c uts , c hopmarks

a nd b urnt b one , w hich n ormally d emonstrate p reparation f or S uch s ure i ndicators o f h uman i nvolvement a re , h owever , r are . o f p rehistoric b ird

r emains

r igorous

a s

p rocessing

d o n ot

a ppear

t heir m ammal

t o h ave

c ounterparts .

c onsumption . T he m ajority

b een s ubjected L ess

t han

1 0%

t o o f

s uch t he

b ird b ones f rom t he s ite s howed a ny e vidence f or b utchery . B utchery w as r ecorded f rom o nly t en s pecies o f b ird a t t he s ite a nd t here w as a h eavy b ias t owards t he l arger s eabirds s uch a s t he G reater B lack-Backed G ull a nd t he G annet . T here i s n o n aturally o ccurring f lint o n W estray , o ther t han s mall b each p ebbles , s o t he b irds a nd a nimals f rom t he s ite w ere p robably b utchered w ith c rude c hopper t ools . T hese a re k nown a s s kail k nives a nd w ere f ashioned f rom l ocally o ccurring i gneous r ock . r oughly c hopped ,

w ith c ertain e lements,

s uch a s

c hopped t hrough t he p roximal a nd d istal e nds .

6 9

T he b ones a ppear

t he h umerus ,

c onsistently

T he n umber o f m ammalian s pecies l iving i n O rkney d uring t he N eolithic w as f airly l imited . t he

r emains

T hree s pecies o f c arnivore h ave b een i dentified f rom

e xcavated a t

t he s ite ,

a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t hey m ay h ave

c ontributed t o t he f aunal a ssemblage . T hese w ere t he d omestic d og , w hich w as i ntroduced t o t he i sland b y m an ( Clutton-Brock 1 979) , t he o tter , a nd t he p ine m arten . N one o f t he b ird b ones s eems t o h ave b een g nawed b y d ogs a lthough i t i s p ossible , g iven t he f ragile n ature o f t he m aterial , t hat d ogs c onsumed b ird b ones i n t heir e ntirety .

T he f eeding E cology o f t he L ong-Eared O wl a nd S hort-Eared O wl. T here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t he r aptorial b irds o n W estray w ere a s

r estricted i n n umber a s

t he c arnivores .

I n a ll

p robability

t he

c omplement o f s pecies w as g reater t han a t t he p resent d ay . T he S ea E agle w as p resent d uring t he N eolithic : i ts b ones h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he t omb a t I sbister a nd f rom t he L inks o f N oltland . T he S ea E agle b ecame e xtinct i n O rkney d uring t he l ast c entury a s ar esult o f p ersecution b y m an . M ost B ritish r aptors r egularly p rey o n o ther b irds , w ith t he e xception o f t he O sprey a nd t he H oney B uzzard . H owever , m any r aptors c an b e d iscounted f rom t he s tudy a s p otential a ccumulators o f b ird b ones a t t he s ite . T his i s b ecause t he d egree o f a cidity o f t he g astric j uices i n a b ird 's s tomach v aries a ccording t o s pecies . T he g reater t he d egree o f a cidity t he m ore c omplete t he d igestion o f t he b ones .

T hese p owerful

s tomach a cids c an a lso s ignificantly a lter t he s urface a ppearance o f ab one ; t hus t he c ondition o f t he o sseous m aterial e xtracted f rom p ellets i s ag ood i ndicator o f p redator s pecies o r f amily . F alconiformes ( eagles , f alcons , h awks a nd v ultures) h ave a pproximately s ix t imes t he q uantity o f h ydrogen i on p er m illilitre i n t heir g astric s ecretions t han t he o wls ( Strigiformes) ( Duke e t a l . 1 975) . T his i s r eflected i n t he q uantity o f b one r etrieved f rom p ellet m aterial ; C lark ( 1972) f ound t hat t he p roportion b y w eight o f b one i n p ellets w as 4 4% f or S hort-eared O wl p ellets a s c ompared w ith 1 7% f or M arsh H awk p ellets . B oth b irds h ad l argely s ubsisted u pon a d iet o f m eadow v ole ( op . c it . 1 972) . T he b ones o f s mall p asserines e xcavated f rom t he s ite w ere t ypically u nbroken , w ith m inimal s urface a lteration . T his m eant t hat o nly t wo g roups o f r aptors c ould b e i mplicated i n t he d eposition o f t hese b ones a t t he s ite : t he B arn O wls a nd t he t ypical a wls ( Strigidae ) . A t t he p resent t ime , O rkney l ies b eyond t he r ange o f t he B arn O wl, L ittle O wl a nd t he T awny O wl . A lthough b irds c an s hift t heir r ange , t here i s n o e vidence f rom p ast o rnithological r ecords o r f rom f aunal m aterial t hat a ny o f t hese s pecies r egularly o ccurred i n O rkney i n t he p ast . T he L ong-eared a nd S hort-eared O wl a re b oth c ommon i n O rkney t oday a nd b ones o f t he S horte ared O wl h ave b een r ecovered f rom s everal n eolithic s ites L inks o f N oltland .

i ncluding

t he

F rom a n a nalysis o f 5 1 L ong-eared O wl p ellet s amples G lue a nd H ammond ( 1974) r ecorded t hat 1 5% o f p rey i tems w ere f rom b irds . C ommon v ictims w ere t he H ouse s parrow , S tarling , B lackbird a nd w arblers . A dam 's s tudy o f 5 00 p ellets , f rom a w inter r oosting s ite i n B erstane W ood , M ainland O rkney , s howed t hat a vian p rey c an c omprise n early 4 0% o f t he L ong-eared O wls ' d iet d uring t his s eason ( Adams 1 981). T he S hort-eared O wl a lso r egularly c onsumes b irds , t he w inter m onths . c ommonly

e aten ,

T he D unlin ,

a s w ell

a s

S kylark ,

s everal

7 0

e specially d uring

M eadow P ipit

s pecies

o f w ader ,

a nd

S tarling a re

s uch a s

t he S nipe ,

a nd

t he

R edshank

S hort-eared O wl e xcavated

( Glue m ight

f rom t he

a ssemblages

1 970) h ave

s ite .

c reated

b y

T hus ,

i n

c ontributed I t

t he

i s

n ot

s ummary t o

t he

p ossible

S hort-eared

e ither

t he L ong-eared

a ssemblage

o f

t o d istinguish

o r L ong-eared O wl

o n

a vian

o r

b ones

b etween t he t he

b asis

o f

p rey s election a lone .

M ethodology T he a pproach a dopted i n t his s tudy w as t o c onsider w hether n atural a nd c ultural

a ssemblages m ight

b e

s eparated

c ondition o f b one a t am acroscopic l evel .

o n

t he

b asis

o f

t he

s urface

T he p rocesses w hich m odify t he

b ones o f h uman a nd a vian p rey a re d issimilar b oth p hysically a nd c hemically . T herefore , p rovided t hat t here h as b een n o f urther t ransformation o f t he b one b y p ost d epositional

f actors,

s ome o f t he p rocesses w ill b e i mprinted

o n t he b ones ' s urface . R ecording s urface m odification a nd b reakage p atterns s hould a llow t he s ource o f t he m aterial t o b e i dentified f or t he m ajority

o f

s pecimens .

T his m ethodology i s p articularly s uited t o

a ssemblages o f m aterial,

l arge

w here t he u se o f t he S canning E lectron M icroscope

f or s tudying p atterns o f c orrosion d amage w ould b e t oo t ime c onsuming . Most

o f

t he b ones

e xpelled i n p ellets .

t hat

a re n ot

d igested

i n

t he

G lue ( 1977) h as d emonstrated ,

r aptor 's

s tomach

a re

b y X -ray p hotography ,

t hat p ellets t ypically f orm " tightly m assed c ollections o f f ur o r f eathers w ith a c entral

c ore o f m ammal a nd b ird b ones" .

T his a rrangement p revents

" the p ossibility o f s harp i tems p erforating t he g ullet d uring r egurgitation" ( op . c it .: 7 3) . T herefore, i n t aphonomic t erms, t he a wl p ellet c an b e r egarded a s p roviding a n i deally p rotective c ocoon a round t he b one c ontained w ithin . P ellets a re r obust i tems ; e ven s oaking i n w ater f or a y ear m akes n o

a ppreciable

d ifference

t o

t heir

s tructure .

A ny

p ellet

m aterial

r egurgitated a t a s ite h as a f air c hance o f b eing a ssimilated a rchaeological d eposits b efore i ts d estruction b y n atural e lements .

i nto B one

c ontained w ithin a p ellet w ill n ot b e s ubjected t o t he n ormal a ttritional p rocesses t hat h umanly p rocessed b one r efuse u ndergoes . A lthough t he b one f rom a p ellet m ay b e s ubjected t o p ost d epositional, e rosional f actors ( such a s

l ow p H v alues) t heoretically t he d amage s ustained s hould b e o f a n e ven

n ature ,

a ffecting t he b ones t o a n e qual d egree .

M any p rocesses m ay m odify t he c ultural a ssemblage . f rom t he s laughter o f t he a nimal, i ts p reparation ,

T hey r ange t hrough c ooking p rocesses,

c onsumption a nd e ventual d isposal w hereupon i t m ay b e s cavenged b y o ther m ammals o r b irds . N ot a ll t he m aterial w ill b e p repared o r d iscarded i n t he s ame w ay . T herefore , h umanly m odified b one w ill b e i n a v ariable s tate o f p reservation , f rom a v ery g ood c ondition t o s everely a braded a nd w eathered .

T he c ondition o f c ulturally d erived m aterial w ill d epend u pon

t he d egree o f p rocessing , c ircumstances o f b urial .

t he

t ime

l apse

b efore

f inal

d eposition a nd

t he

F rom t he i nitial s urvey o f t he b ird b ones f rom t he s ite i t w as p ossible t o i dentify a ' no r m ' f or s urface c ondition .

B ones w ere n ormally i n f airly

g ood c ondition , w ith t he p roximal a nd d istal e nds o f t he l ongbones s carcely w eathered .

O ther c ategories w ere i dentified a nd a re d escribed b elow .

W eathered M aterial T he m aterial

a ssigned

t o

t his c ategory t ypically h ad a n a braded

7 1

s urface .

T he p roximal a nd d istal e nds o f t he l ong b ones w ere c hipped a nd

r ounded .

O ccasionally t here w as s ome l oss o f c ompact b one a nd e xposure o f

c ancellous t issue .

F resh M aterial B one a ssigned

t o t he

' fresh ' c ategory w as

' greasy ' a nd a ll a natomical

f eatures w ere s harply d efined a nd u nabraded . T he r emarkable c ondition o f s uch m aterial h as r aised d oubts i n t he p ast a s t o w hether i t m ight b e i ntrusive . S imilar m aterial h as b een r ecorded f rom o ther O rcadian n eolithic

s ites,

s uch

a s

t he

c hambered

t omb

a t

Q uanterness,

w here

r adiocarbon d ating a ttested t o i ts a ntiquity ( Molleson 1 981) . T he e xplanation f or t his e xcellent p reservation i s i ncompletely u nderstood b ut i t m ay b e c orrelated w ith t he s peed o f b urial o f t he b one ( Gifford 1 980) a nd s uitable s oil c onditions .

B roken M aterial A ll t he b roken m aterial w as r ecorded . B reaks o f r ecent o rigin w ere r eadily d etectable , a s t he f ractured s urface w as u sually c rumbly a nd w as af ar l ighter c olour c ompared w ith t he r est o f t he b one's s urface. T he b ones f rom t he s ite w ere s orted i nto e ight s ize c ategories .

T his

w as d one b ecause m any o f t he s mall p asserine b ones w ere u nidentifiable t o s pecies, b ut t o e xclude t hem f rom t he s tudy w ould h ave d istorted t he r esults . U nidentified m aterial w as c ompared w ith t he s keletal e lements o f k nown s pecies , i n o rder t o f ind t he b est m atch f or s ize . S keletal e lements d o n ot a lways ' scale u p ' a ccording t o t he o verall l ength o f t he b ird : s ome s pecies h ave p roportionately l onger e lements t han o thers . H owever , t his p rocedure p roved t o b e a n i nformative g uide t o t he s ize r ange o f t he s pecies f rom t he s ite . A ll t he m aterial w as t hen a ssigned t o t he s ize c ategories d efined b y F itter a nd R ichardson ( 1966: 1 4). T hese c ategories a re r eproduced i n T able 1 .

T able 1 .

S ize r ange o f s pecies R ichardson ( 1966 : 1 4)

u sing c riteria d evised b y F itter a nd

W ing L ength G roup

A bbreviation

E xample o f B ird .

1V ery S hort

V S

B lue T it

2S hort 3M edium S hort 4M edium 5M edium L ong

S M S M M L

H ouse S parrow W heatear B lackbird L apwing

6L ong 7V ery L ong 8H uge

L V L H

R ook H eron M ute S wan

T he s urface c ondition o f t he b ones w as g roups o f b irds ( Table 2 ).

7 2

t hen c orrelated w ith t he s ize

T able 2 .

S ize r ange o f s pecies i dentified f rom t he L inks o f N oltland s ite .

S ize R ange ( Fitter a nd

S pecies I dentified R ichardson 1 966)

V ery S hort

W arbler s p .

S hort

W heatear , c f. L innet

M edium S hort

S tarling , S wallow , S kylark , L ittle A uk .

Medium

B lackbird ,

S hort-eared O wl, P uffin ,

M anx S hearwater, K estrel, W ater R ail, G rey P lover , R edshank , S nipe, c f. G reenshank B lack-headed G ull. M edium L ong

F ulmar , B uzzard, c f. R ough L egged, C ommon G ull, R azorbill, G uillemot, H ooded o r C arrion C row .

L ong

S helduck , E ider , V elvet S coter, G oosander , L esser B lack-backed G ull, G reater B lack-backed G ull .

V ery L ong

G reat N orthern D iver , G annet , S hag , C ormorant , * Greylag G oose, S ea E agle, ( Great A uk).

H uge

W hooper S wan .

7 3

C ertain e lements w ere n ot u sed i n t he a nalysis b eing o ver r epresented ( Ericson 1 987) .

t o a void s ome s pecies

T he e lements s elected f or w ere t he

c oracoid , s capula , h umerus , u lna , r adius , c arpometacarpus a nd t he f emur , t ibiotarsus a nd t arsometatarus . T he e ight s ize c ategories w ere t hen m erged i nto g roups t o e ase c omparison o f t he r esults.

R esults o f t he a nalysis. A nalysis o f

t he a ssemblage s howed t hat

t he b ones

o f

t he l arger b irds

( Groups M edium L ong t o H uge i nclusive) w ere m ore b roken a nd w eathered t han t hose f rom t he s maller s ized g roup ( Medium t o S hort s ize c ategory) . T he b ones o f t he s maller s ized b irds w ere m ore c omplete a nd i n b etter a nd f resher c ondition t han t he l arger s ized b ones ( Table 3 ).

T able 3 .

C orrelation

o f

s ize

c ategory w ith

b reakage

p attern a nd

s urface

m odification .

G roup M edium

G roup M edium

L ong t o H uge

t o S hort

%o f c omplete b ones

2 7%

3 9%

%o f a nciently b roken b ones

4 9%

2 5%

%o f w eathered b ones

3 5%

1 3%

9 %

3 0%

%o f f resh b ones

( Note :

P ercentages w ere c alculated f rom a t otal o f 2 11 b ones i n t he M edium

L ong t o H uge c ategory a nd f rom 8 7 b ones i n t he M edium t o S hort c ategory .

A

c omplete S ea E agle s keleton w as e xcluded f rom t he s tudy.)

T he m edium t o s hort s ize g roup a lso r oughly o verlaps w ith t he s ize o f p rey r egularly t aken b y t he S hort-eared a nd L ong-eared O wl, a lthough t he S hort-eared O wl i s k nown t o s cavenge l arger c arcasses o ccasionally ( Glue 1 977).

C onclusions C omparison o f

t he

t wo g roups

o f

b ones

i ndicates

t hat

t hey had a

d ifferent t aphonomic h istory , w hich w as d emonstrated b y t he b reakage p attern a nd m odification o f t he b ones ' s urface . T herefore t he b ird b one a ssemblage c ollected f rom t he s ite w as d erived f rom a t l east t wo d ifferent s ources . O ne o f t hese w as t he d omestic r efuse g enerated a t t he s ite . T he p oorer c ondition o f t hese b ones c ould b e a ttributed t o t he g reater n umber o f p rocesses t hey h ad b een e xposed t o , i ncluding b utchery . T he c ondition o f t he b ones f rom t he s maller s ize g roup i s c onsistent w ith t hat f rom d egraded p ellet m aterial . I t i s s uggested , f or t he r easons d iscussed a bove , t hat

7 4

e ither t he L ong-eared o r S hort-eared O wl m ight b e h eld r esponsible f or t he d eposition o f t hese b ones. F or

a s mall

p roportion

o f

t he m aterial

t here

i s

a p oor

b etween t he d egree o f p reservation a nd s ize c ategory o f b ird . m ay b e d ue t o n atural

d eaths

H ooded/Carrion c row b ones w ere l arger g roup a s aw hole . a nd t hus

o f b irds a t t he s ite . f ar

l ess

b roken

c orrelation I n p art t his

F or e xample,

t han w as

t ypical

f or

t he t he

T his s pecies r eadily o ccupies d erelict b uildings

i ts r emains m ay h ave a cculmulated a t

t he s ite d uring a p eriod o f

a bandonment . T he e vidence f rom t he c ultural a ssemblage e xcavated f rom t he L inks o f N oltland s trongly s uggests t hat t here w as d eliberate s election f or s eabirds, e specially f or t hose o f l arger s ize s uch a s t he G annet . T he s ame c riteria o f s election w ould n ot b e a pplicable t o a ll c hronological p eriods o r e nvironments a nd t herefore t he r esults o f t his r esearch a re n ot a pplicable t o e very a ssemblage o f b ird b ones .

N evertheless t he o rigin o f

a ll

s ites s hould b e c onsidered

b ird r emains

e xcavated f rom a rchaeological

b efore a ny i nterpretations o f h uman d ietary s ignificance a re m ade .

S urface

m odification a nd b reakage p attern a re a r ecord o f t he t aphonomic h istory o f ab one a ssemblage a nd m ay b e f ruitfully e xamined t o a sceitain t he n ature o f i ts

d eposition .

A cknowledgements I a m v ery g rateful t o P eter A ndrews, J uliet C lutton-Brock, G raham C owles, C harles F rench , D avid G lue , C olin H arrison , B arbara W est a nd D erek Y alden f or a ll t heir h elp a nd d iscussion .

7 5

B ibliography A dams R . G .

( 1981)

H igh

i ncidence

O wl p ellets . C lark

D .V ., H ope R . ,

o f

r ing

r ecoveries

f rom L ong-eared

S cottish B irds 2 1 66-167

a nd W ickham-Jones

C .

( 1978) .

T he L inks o f N oltland .

C urrent A rchaeology 6 1 4 4-46 C lark

R .J .

( 1972)

C lutton-Brock J .

P ellets

o f

t he

S hort-eared

O wl

c ompared .

J ournal o f W ildlife Management

( 1979)

R eport

o f

t he m ammalian

r odents f rom Q uanterness . ( Renfrew ,

C . ) L ondon :

I n :

a nd M arsh H awk 3 6 9 62-964

r emains

L off G .

a nd E vanson O .A .

s ome r aptors . 5 0(A) 6 49-656 . E ricson

P .G .P.

( 1987)

t han

R eports o f t he R esearch C ommittee o f

t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon 3 8 p p . D uke G .E., J egers

o ther

I nvestigations i n Orkney 12-134 .

( 1975) G astric d igestion i n

C omparative B iochemistry a nd P hysiology

I nterpretations o f a rchaeological b ird r emains :

t aphonomic a pproach .

a

J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 1 4

6 5-75 F itter

R .S.R .

&R ichardson , B irds .

G ifford , D .P.

R .A .

( 1966) C ollins

P ocket G uide

( Revised E dition) . L ondon :

( 1980) E thnoarchaeological

t o

B ritish

C ollins .

c ontributions

t o t he t aphonomy o f

h uman s ites . F ossils i n t he m aking ( eds . B ehrensmeyer , A .K . a nd H ill A .P .) C hicago : T he U niversity o f C hicago P ress . G lue D .E.

( 1970) T he

p p . p rey

9 4-106 . t aken

b y

S hort-eared

s ites a nd w inter q uarters . G lue

D .E .

( 1977)

F eeding e cology

I reland . G lue D .E. a nd H ammond G .J .

o f

( 1981)

( 1979)

B ritish

b reeding

S hort-eared O wl

i n B ritain a nd

( 1974) F eeding

e cology o f

t he L ong-eared O wl

i n

B ritish B irds 6 7 3 61-369 .

T he r elative d ating o f b ones f rom Q uanterness c hambered

c airn , R enfrew C .

a t

B ird S tudy 2 4 7 0-78 .

B ritain a nd I reland . M olleson T .

t he

O wls

B ird S tudy 1 3 3 9-42 .

O rkney .

A ntiquity 5 5

I nvestigations

1 27-129 .

i n O rkney

R eports

o f

t he R esearch

C ommittee o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon . L ondon .

7 6

3 8

T HE

C ASE

F OR W ATTLING - W HAT T REE-RING S TUDIES C OULD R EVEAL R uth A . M organ

I ntroduction W etlands W illow

a re n ot g enerally a s ource o f w ood f or c onstruction o r f uel .

( Salix

a nd a spen

s pp .) ,

( Populus

a lder

( Alnus

s pp .) w ill

g lutinosa

a ll

G aertn .) ,

b irch

( Betula

s pp .)

t olerate w et o r w aterlogged c onditions ,

b ut n one a re g reatly v alued a s t imber t rees ;

w illow w ithies f or b asketry

a re t he o ne r esource l ong p rovided b y w etlands . T imber t rees g enerally p refer t o g row o n w ell-drained s oils ( see R ackham 1 980 f or d etails) . I t i s t herefore a lmost i mpossible t o d iscuss w etlands i n t he c ontext o f p rovision o f w ood ;

t heir

i mportance

l ies

i n

t he

w ooden s tructures i n t he w aterlogged d eposits . a nd C oles 1 986) a nd t he F ens ( Pryor e t a l.

p reservation

o f

s o m any

T he S omerset L evels ( Coles 1 986) h ave p roduced m any

p rehistoric e xamples i n r ecent y ears, w hile R oman a nd m edieval t imber s urvives i n t he s ame c onditions b eneath o ur u rban e xpansion , w hich w ere o riginally m arshy , O ne

o ften o n s ites

s uch a s a t Y ork ( Hall 1 984) .

c onstruction m ethod w hich i s

c ommon t o a ll

p eriods a nd a reas m ade

u se o f y oung s tems t o c reate a s trong a nd f lexible , y et l ight , w alling a nd" f looring m aterial .

W oven w attling ,

o r h urdle p anels , h ave b een e xcavated

o n m any s ites , u sually a s t he l ower p arts o f h ouse w alls a nd f ences , a s l inings t o p its a nd d rains , o r a s p aths a nd t rackways . A s a t echnique o f u sing s mall r oundwood , i t h as a v ery l ong t radition , b ack a t l east t o t he N eolithic : o ne o f t he e arliest e xamples i s a f ine h urdle t rackway ( Coles a nd O rme 1 977) . I t h as b een f ound o n s ome R oman s ites s uch a s D ragonby ( May 1 970) a nd C arlisle ( McCarthy a nd D acre 1 983) , a nd p articularly i n u rban c ontexts o f t he n inth-thirteenth c enturies A D , s uch a s a t Y ork ( Hall 1 984) o r D ublin ( Murray 1 983) . C rannogs s uch a s M oynagh ( Bradley 1 985-6) p robably r elied h eavily o n w attling .

I t w as a lso w idely u sed i n E urope ,

o n e arly

s ites s uch a s N iederwil ( daterbolk a nd v an Z eist 1 978) o r m edieval s ites s uch a s H aithabu ( Behre 1 969) . H owever , c ontinental e xamples h ave n ot y et b een t horoughly r ecorded i n t his

s tudy ,

a nd

t he e xtent o f k nowledge a bout

w attling i s n ot y et c learly a ppreciated . W hile s tandards o f a nalysis o f t he w ood f rom w attling a re h igh i n a f ew c ases , m any o ther w attle s tructures h ave b een h ardly s ampled o r s tudied , a nd m uch p otential i nformation h as b een l ost a s a r esult . S uch l osses a re s upplemented b y t hose o f

e arly e xcavations ,

s uch a s

t he G lastonbury

l ake

v illage ( Bulleid a nd G ray 1 911) . I n c onsequence , t he a ctual i nformation a vailable o n t he m aterials a nd t echniques o f w attling i s v ery l imited . S ince h urdling

i s

a m ost u seful

a nd

v ersatile m eans

p robably m uch m ore s o t han w e a re p reservation ,

i t

i s

d eplorable

l ed t hat

t o t he

o f

e nclosure

b elieve

o r d ivision ,

f rom i ts

d etailed

s tudy

i rregular o f

w attle

c onstruction h as n ot r eceived h igher p riority . I t

i s

i nteresting t o e xamine t he r easons f or s uch n eglect ,

a lso ( though t o a l esser e xtent) t o

l arge w aterlogged

7 7

t imbers .

w hich a pply T he m ain

r eason m ust b e t he d ifficulty o f m aintaining w aterlogged w ood i n a s table c ondition ; e arly t his c entury , t here w as l ittle p rospect o f p reserving e ven l arge t imbers f or f urther s tudy o r d isplay , m uch l ess s mall r oundwood . A nother r eason m ay b e a l ack o f s pecialists i n w ood i dentification a nd t reer ing a nalysis, s till f ew c ompared t o w orkers i n o ther f ields o f e nvironmental a rchaeology . A nd y et a s tudy o f t he r ange o f w ood s pecies o n as ite o ffers u s av ery p recise i ndication o f l ocal w oodland c omposition a nd e xploitation . S ince a ll p ieces o f w ood u sed m ust h ave b een h andled a nd c ut , a nd p erhaps m odified , b y m embers o f t he l ocal c ommunity , t hey a re n o l ess a rtefacts t han f ragments o f m aterials s uch a s p ottery , w hich a re s o c arefully r ecorded . A nother r eason f or o ur l ack o f k nowledge a bout w attling m ay l ie i n t he b elief t hat t he i dentification a nd s tudy o f a f ew p ieces o f w ood f rom v arious p arts o f as tructure a re r epresentative o f t he r ange o f s pecies u sed i n t he w hole c onstruction . T his i s u nfortunately n ot t rue - t he f ull r ange o f s pecies i s v ery u nlikely t o b e c overed ,

a nd t he p roportions o f e ach m ay

b e u nrepresentative . V ariations i n d ifferent p arts o f a s tructure, o r b etween s tructures , c annot b e m onitored u nless e xamination i s t horough a nd e xtensive . T here i s an eed f or m ore a wareness o f t he c haracter o f w ood a mong a rchaeologists , a nd f or m ore t raining o f s pecialists i n w ood s tudies . I t i s s uggested t hat a n ew l evel o f s pecialist b e t rained i n t his b road f ield , t o a ct a s a n i nformed , co-ordinator b etween a rchaeologist a nd d endroc hronologist ( or o ther r ecipient o f w ood s amples) , a nd t o b e o n s ite t o a dvise c ontinuously o n r ecording ,

s ampling a nd a ll a spects

o f w ood s tudy .

S uch a ' wood c o-ordinator ' w ould h ave t he a bility t o c arry o ut s traightforward i dentification o f s pecies, a s w ell a s m aking g eneral o bservations o f p hysical f eatures o f t he w ood a nd o f t he s igns l eft b y v arious w ood-working t echniques . T hey w ould n eed , i n a ddition , s ome f am iliarity w ith t ree-ring a nalysis a nd d endrochronological d ating , a s w ell a s e xperience i n w oodland e cology a nd m odern f orestry m anagement p ractices . I f s uch ' wood c o-ordinators ' w ere a vailable t o h andle w ood f rom m any o f o ur w aterlogged e xcavations , w e w ould h ave a m uch g reater u nderstanding o f t he c haracter o f t he m aterial , a nd a g reater a ppreciation o f m an 's r elationship w ith w ood , a n atural r esource w hich h as a lways b een s o v ital t o h is e xistence . T he c ollation o f

s ome o f

t he r ecords

o f w attling ,

d escribed i n t his

p aper , h as r evealed s ome o f t hese d eficiencies . T he r ecords a re f ew a nd o ften e xtremely v ague , d espite q uite f requent d iscoveries o f w attling . T hose w ith a ny i nformation a re l isted i n T able 1 . R eports o ften m ention t he s pecies o f w ood u sed w ith n o i ndication o f q uantities e ither p resent o r a nalysed . F urther d etails m ay i nclude a g eneral c omment o n t he s ize o f s tems

u sed . More

t horough

s tudies

h ave

b een u ndertaken

r ecently ,

w hich a re

b eginning t o e xpand o ur k nowledge o f t he n ature o f t he w ood u sed i n h urdling a nd h ow t he p anels w ere w oven ( for e xample P ryor e t a l . 1 985 ; S alisbury 1 981;

W ilkinson a nd Murphy 1 986) .

l earnt , a nd t his p aper s ets g aps i n o ur k nowledge l ie .

T here i s s till h owever much t o b e

o ut t o s ummarise w hat i s k nown a nd w here t he I t i s i ntended a s a g eneral g uide f or t hose

f aced w ith t he p rospect o f e xcavating a nd s ampling w attle . c an b e f ound i n t he e xcavation r eports c ited .

7 8

S pecific d etails

T he s tructure o f w attle W attling c onsists o f t wo m ain e lements : r ods .

t he u prights,

o r s ails ,

a nd t he

T he s ails o r s mall u pright p osts a re e ither p ushed i nto t he g round a t

i ntervals ( for c ontinuous i n s itu

w attling) , o r i nserted i nto a p erforated

p lank ( the s ill-beam o f a h ouse o r a ' brake '

i n t he w oodland) f or t he

m anufacture o f i ndividual p anels ( Edlin 1 973;

C oles a nd D arrah 1 977) .

F ig . 1 i llustrates n eolithic h urdling w ith e venly s paced , s ingle s ails . I n o rder t o m ake a t horough s tudy , t he o verall s pecies c omposition , t he a ge , d iameter a nd l ength o f t he s tems , a nd t he i nterval b etween s ails n eed t o b e d etermined . The r ods a re w oven a round t he s ails, t he t ype o f w eave o ften b eing t raditional t o c ertain a reas o r t o p articular c raftsmen . T he w eave s hould b e c arefully r ecorded i f s till r etrievable , a lthough t he r ods h ave o ften b roken w here t hey c urved a round t he s ails . T he n umber o f r ods m aking u p t he h eight o r w idth o f t he p anel n eeds t o b e d etermined, a nd t he a ge, s pecies a nd d iameter o f t he r ods m ust b e e xtensively r ecorded . T hese f eatures a re s hown i n F ig .

1 .

T he s tudy o f e ach e nd o f v ery l ong r ods a nd s ails c an g ive i nformation o n t he s peed o f h eight g rowth . l ower e nds

o f

s ails a nd r ods ,

A xe m arks o r f acets , a nd a ny o ther s igns

u sually f ound o n t he

o f w oodworking ,

m ust b e

c arefully r ecorded t o r eveal t he m ethods o f f elling a nd p rocessing , a nd e ven t he n ature o f t he t ools u sed ( Coles a nd O rme 1 985) . I t i s c lear t hat t o i dentify a nd m easure a d ozen b its o f w ood f rom a l ength

o f w attling

i s

n ot

g oing

t o g ive a dequate

i nformation .

S ampling

m ust b e e xtensive a nd c omprehensive , a nd s upported b y g ood a rchaeological r ecords . A nalysis o f s mall r oundwood s amples i s n ot a l engthy p rocess , u nlike d endrochronological d ating ( Morgan 1 982) ,

s o t he c ollection o f e ven

h undreds o f s amples i s q uite f easible ; o nly w ith l arge q uantities o f m aterial c an f urther s tudies b e c arried o ut . E xtensive s ampling i s e ven m ore i mportant w here a l arge m ixture o f s pecies o ccurs , s ince e ach h as t o b e t reated i ndependently ; f ewer s amples c ould b e c ollected f rom w attling m ade a lmost e ntirely o f o ne s pecies, a lthough t his i s r arely k nown i n a dvance . T he s ampling p rocedure c an b e s ummarised . e ach e nd o f e very s ail o r u pright p ost ,

S ections s hould b e c ut f rom

a nd e ach l abelled i ndividually ,

t hat t hey c an b e l ocated o n e xcavation p lans .

s o

S ections s hould b e c ut f rom

e very r od a cross t he w idth o r h eight o f t he w attle , k nown a s a t ransect ; t hese s hould b e t aken a t a bout 2 m i ntervals i n c ontinuous w attle , o r o nce f rom e ach p anel . A gain e ach s tem s hould b e i ndividually n umbered , p erhaps A 1-33 , B 1-52, d-44 a nd s o o n , n oting w hich s ide o f t he p anel t he n umbers s tart f rom . T hus a ny v ariations i n a ge a nd s ize o f r ods r elated t o p osition would b e a pparent .

S ince wood s pecialists, a s d escribed e arlier ,

a re

a lmost n on-existent , i t w ould b e a dvisable t o l iaise w ith t he p erson w ho i s s tudying t he w ood f rom a v ery e arly s tage i n t he e xcavation , t o e nsure t hat e very d etail i s r etrieved .

W ood s pecies u sed f or h urdling U sing a f ew e xamples ( Table 1 ) ,

t he k nown f acts a buut w attling c an b e

e xamined . H urdles a re o ften c onstructed w ith h azel ( Corylus a vellana I .) w ood , o f w hich t hey h ave o ften b een m ade s ince t he N eolithic ( for e xample , t rackways i n t he S omerset L evels - C oles a nd O rme 1 977) . H owever , a ny w ood

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CO

V alues f or c hemical c omponents o f t he s ediments a nd f or d iatom n umbers a re e xpressed a s a bsolute s edimentation r ates ( amount p er u nit a rea p er y ear ) . T otal s edimentation r ates w ere r egarded a s c onstant f or t he p eriods b etween a vailable d ates . T his g ives a n a rtefactual s tepped a ppearance i n t he e xpression o f r esults t hough t he s edimentation r ates w ere p robably c ontinuously c hanging . H owever , t hough t he d ata c ould b e s moothed m athematically , t his w ould m ake a ssumptions a bout t he d etailed r ates o f c hange w hich w ould b e a rbitrary . T he s ediment i n c ontact w ith t he b asin p eat i s c onventionally t aken t o d ate f rom a bout 1 400 A D .

R esults T he m ain b asin A ll c ores e xamined s howed p ronounced l ayering , p articularly t hose f rom t he m ain b asin . I n g eneral, l ight-coloured ( br o wn , b eige-grey) s hell-rich s ediments o verlay t he p eat t o b e s ucceeded b y b rown-black s ediments , a lso w ith s hells , i n t he m iddle , a nd t hen a morphous l ighter s hell-free s ediments i n t he u pper l ayers . C ore H GB1

( F ig .

2 ) s hows

t his p attern c learly .

T he p eat w as

1 40 c m

f rom t he s urface o f t he o oze a nd w as o verlain b y a f ew c m o f l ight g rey m arl w ithout m any m acrofossils . G astropod s hells s oon a ppeared w ith a s light d arkening o f t he f resh s ediment . A t a bout 1 00-110 c m ( from t he s urface) t he s ediment m arkedly c hanged c olour t o s hades o f b rown , a nd r emained s o u ntil a bout 6 0 c m , w hen i t l ightened . w as a lso c learly s hown i r r ' t he a shed s ediments .

T he 1 00-110 c m t ransition S ix P b-210 d ates w ere

o btained f or t he c ore ( Fig . 2 ) . T hese s uggest a c hange f rom t he e arly l ight s ediments t o t he d arker m iddle o nes i n t he l ate 1 9th c entury a nd f rom t he m iddle t o t he u pper o nes i n t he 1 950s . T he s ediments h ave b een d ominated b y m arl t hroughout a nd t he d arkness o f t he m iddle l ayers i s n ot a ttributable t o i ncreased o rganic c ontent . S edimentation r ates h ave c hanged g reatly h owever . L inear s edimentation r ates ( cm y r1 )w ere v ery l ow ( about 0 .07 c m y r-11) u ntil t he l ate n ineteenth c entury w hen t hey i ncreased t o 0 .4-1 .1 c m y r T here w as a f urther m arked r ise i n t he 1 950s , b efore a f all i n t he 1 960s t o a bout 1 2 c m y r1 . I n t he l ate 1 970s a v ery m arked i ncrease i s a pparent b ut m ay b e o veremphasised , b ecause t he l ayer i n q uestion i s o f s oft o oze , s till c onsolidating a s s ediment . T he a bsolute r ates c alculated m ay a lso b e t oo h igh b ecause , i n t he d isturbed o oze , t he w ater c ontent m ay h ave b een u nderestimated b ecause o f l oss J f t he m ore f luid s urface l ayers . T his w ould l ead t o a c alculation o f g reater s olid d eposition t han m ay a ctually h ave b een t he c ase . T he a bsolute s edimentation r ates o f g roups o f d iatoms a re s hown i n F ig . 3 . P lanktonic d iatoms w ere a bsent f rom t he e arliest s ediments , w hich w ere c haracterised l argely b y e piphytes , ( particularly B iraphidinean g enera ) . T hese f urther i ncreased i n t he m iddle , d ark l ayers a s p lanktonic d iatoms b egan t o i ncrease b ut d eclined f rom a bout 1 934 o nwards w hen t here w ere m ajor i ncreases i n p lankton ( largely M elosira g ranulata a nd M . i slandica) . M ajor i ncreases i n F ragilaria a ccompanied t he p eriod o f h igh s edimentation r ates i n t he 1 950s b ut , a s t hese d eclined , p lanktonic s edimentation c ontinued t o r ise . T he s ingle p eak i n e piphytes , a t a bout 4 1 c m , a rises f rom a n i solated r elatively h igh c ount o f A chnanthes , aM onoraphidinean g enus , c oupled w ith a h igh s edimentation r ate .

1 71

(c my r1 ) ( ° / 0) 0

I

0

0 D

g ray

I

1 '

b rown G ray

G ray

G ray b rown

b rown

2

E . o . 0

_ 2 _ 1 m y r ) 1 l b I U 1 u 1

1 7 . o E

o ( 7 1

1 9 5 0

B rown 9 raY

1 ' l

i 4s 'r n any s heUs b l ackShe l, s gray b rown

B rown

0 D 0

, 3

4

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3

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1 934

1 4

1 4

2 . 2 1

0 .5

%

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I —1890 0 . 4 L igh t

Gmy

1 853

g ray

/

,

0 . 07

2 -9

1 c )1 . 1 a1 I c2 1 1 °1 , L i r t ; Dark grey ,Brown IVery dark D crk g ray

1 2

1

— 1959

b rown

1 0

1U1

1

5 . 3 , 977 ' u gh 1 _

ü gh , g ray

4

( kg U 1

o rgan ic

I D1

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1 980 B rown

2

I D

U

1 0

P F _AT

C D C D

v ) a )

P e rcen tage c ompos i t ion

C I _ C

A bso lute d r y s ed imen ta t ion r a tes

H GB C o re 1

A ppearance

F ig.

2 .

C haracteristics o f C ore H GB1.

A bso lu te s ed imen ta t ion r a tes- f r us tu les c r i2 y r1 ( m in ions ) 0

0,

14„

6

0 ,

, 2

40

2

4

, 6

1 8 , 11 0

0

, 2

1 0— 2 03 0 — 4 05 0— E 6 0-

7 0 —

. c

9 0 1 00 1 01 201 30—

P l ank ton ic C en t ra les

T o ta l E p iphy tes

F r ag i la r ia s pp

U na t tached B i raph id ineae

C o re H GB 1 F ig. 3 .

A bsolute s edimentation r ates o f d iatom f rustules i n C ore H GB1.

1 72

C ore H GB2

( Fig . 5 ) w as

t aken i n t he n arrow n eck o f

t he m iddle o f t he

m ain B road . T he c ore a nalysed w as n ot d ated , b ut a v ery s imilar c ore , t aken c lose-by , h ad b een r emoved a nd d ated t wo y ears p reviously . T he d ates f or t his h ave b een a pplied w ith r eference o nly t o d epth , a nd n ot t o s tratigraphy . T he f eatures o f H GB2 w ere s imilar t o t hose o f H GB1, e xcept t hat i n t he e arly s ediments, b etween 8 4 a nd 1 08 c m a nd d ating t o b efore 1 861 , C hara r emains w ere v ery p rominent . T he m arl t ubes w hich c oated t he i nternodal c ells f ormed t he b ulk o f t he s ediment . T he m iddle s ediments , o n a shing , h ad a r ed t inge s uggesting a n i ncreased i ron c ontent , af eature a lso s hown i n H GB1; a nd a bsolute a nd l inear s edimentation r ates w ere l ower t han t hose i n H GB1 . C ore H GB3 w as

d eliberately

p laced c lose

t o

t he p resent

e dge o f

t he

B road , w here i t w as l ikely t hat f ormerly t here h ad b een r eedswamp . T he r eedswamp h ad t he e ffect o f s lightly i ncreasing t he o rganic a nd s iliceous c ontents o f t he s urface s ediments t hrough p rovision o f p lant f ragments ( Fig . 6 ) a nd p erhaps r etention o f o ther , h eavier , s ediments . T he g eneral p attern o f s ediments i n c ores H GB1 a nd H GB2 w as p reserved . T he e arly s helly s ediments g ave w ay t o t he m iddle , d arker s ediments b efore t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c entury a nd t he u pper l ighter s ediments b egan i n t he l ate 1 940s . I ncreased s edimentation r ates a ccompanied t he m iddle s ediments , a nd ' siliceous m aterial' f ormed a g reater p roportion o f t hese t han i n t he p revious c ores . T he r ecent ( 1970s) i ncrease i n s edimentation f ound i n H GB1 a nd 2 w as m uch l ess p rominent. T he p attern o f d iatom s edimentation i n H GB3 ( Fig . 7 ) w as, h owever , s lightly d ifferent . I ncrease i n p lanktonic d iatom s edimentation b egan a fter d eposition o f t he d arker m iddle s ediments h ad b egun ( late 1 9th c entury ) , a nd r eached a p eak , a gain l argely o f M elosira s pecies , i n t he 1 940s, f ollowed b y a d ecline , p erhaps a s r eedswamp c overed t he s ite . E piphyte a nd F ragilaria s edimentation w ere a lso h ighest i n t he m iddle p eriod a nd d eclined i n t he u pper s ediments . T he e arlier e piphytes w ere l argely o f B iraphidinean g enera a nd C occoneis,

t he l ater o nes a lmost

e ntirely o f M onoraphidineae . A ll o f t hese f eatures s eem c onsistent w ith t he c olonisation o f a p ossibly f loating m at o f r eedswamp ( hover ) o ver t he s ite b y a bout t he 1 940s . A erial p hotographs s how t hat r eedswamp w as s till e xtant a t t he s ite o f H GB3 i n 1 958 b ut d isappeared s ome t ime l ater . C ores H GB4 a nd H GB5 c ame f rom t he w estern p art o f t he m ain b asin , w hich was r elatively i solated b y r eedswamp f rom t he r est o f t he B road b y t he 1 940s . T his a rea i s a lso c losest t o t he m ain d ykes w hich b ring w ater f rom t he r iver i nto t he B road a nd p robably a ccount f or 9 9% o f t he w ater e xchanges t hrough t idal m ovements . C ore H GB4 ( Fig . 8 ) s howed t he e arly l ight s ediments f rom a bout 9 0 c m ( pre1869) d ownwards a nd t he d ark m iddle l ayers w ith s nail r emains b etween 4 5 c m a nd 9 0 cm. T he e arly s ediments c ontained a bundant C hara r emains . T he s urface s ediments w ere a morphous , a s e lsewhere i n t he B road , b ut d arker , a nd b egan t o b e l aid d own s ometime b etween 1 914 a nd 1 946 . S edimentation r ates i n t he m iddle p eriod w ere l ower t han t hey h ad b een e lsewhere i n t he m ain B road ; t hey i ncreased t o b etween 1 a nd 2 k g m2 y r1 ,c ompared w ith n early 3 k g m2 y r1 a t H GB1 a nd H GB3 . H owever , t he r ates a t H GB4 d id n ot d ecrease a s t he m iddle s ediments w ere r eplaced b y t he u pper o nes , b ut c ontinued t o i ncrease t o c urrent v alues o f n early 3 k g m2 y r1 w hich a re s imilar t o t hose c urrent e lsewhere i n t he B road . M arl f orms m ore t han h alf o f t he d ry w eight o f t hese s ediments a s i t h as d one s ince t he o rigin o f t he l ake . T he p attern o f d iatom s edimentation ( Fi .& 9 ) w as v ery s imilar t o t hat i n H GB1 .

1 73

C o re H GB 2 0

15 0%

7 a

0

i

0

12

r ay

n o

L ight

Wh ite

9, , Y

9, 1 Y

0 c 9 0 . 7 0 U

- -\ --

1 • 3

2 0

3

s he l l s

D 0 -5 C

j i

0 5 0

.

0

r . : . 0

Z

_19 35 G ray —

b ecom

r are s he l ls

t ..•: drc.da r kes tr

8 0_

7

— 186 1

0 . 14

_

0

. 0 _ . _ 0

G r7 ,7 ew . 2e . L i gh ter

L es, Rd

0 08

O HAR A

1 00

( I ) D

— — —

B rovm g ra yF e, s he l l s —

G ray

( 1 )

, .. t _

0 . 9

_

— _ c

— ig i i

,k g

r edde r : 1

6 0

0 8

— 192

d a rker

o rgan ic

40__

s he l ls

s re,

1 20

1 400

-

P eat

_ c

,

w

( I ) o

, 0

A ppearance

C ompos i t ion (% ) A bso lu te d ry s ed imen ta t ion r a tes (k g m-2 y r1 )

3 ;

7 9 « '

F ig. 4 .

C haracteristics o f C ore H GB2.

A bso lu te s ed imen ta t ion r a tes-f rus tu les c m2 y r1 0 I l 2 3 0 1 1 0 1 2 0

( m i l l ions ) 0 .5

2 0 —

1 00

P l ank ton ic C en t r a les

T o ta l e p iphy tes

F ro g i la r ia

s pp

U na t tached B i raph id ineae

C ore H GB 2

F ig. 5 .

A bsolute s edimentation r ates o f d iatom f rustules i n C ore H GB2.

1 74

H GB 3 0 V O oze

1 0

G ray

_ , .. . .

2 0—

P l an t g ray

t i n

0 . 8 o

-1 95 1

1 . 7

m usse I 1 . S te l lS B rown g reye r

I nc rea

_

v

• v

i

v

•

1

« -

I

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-.

i

0 3

. 5

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t r )

1 7

7 0—

9 0

Il i

tI n ge

b rown

—

r t

3 . 0

-1942

b r o w n

D a rke r

8 0

i

V )

U

5 0-

I n g L Y d arker b row ,

w I th s he l ls

3

-

0 • 0 . _

-1927_

I nc rea B l ock

1 00

1.1 C

6 0

Ii i

1 . 8

e

w h i te -

'

M I t e

3 0 4 0

I°

-1 974

B rown/ b e ige

IJ V

1 960

0 5

i

— _

. G-r O-y -.

b Pe 7. , : I ,

-1 877

/

b rown

1 0

-• • . . .• 9" 'wn

, . . . . 1 20 -

0 . 0 5

G ray Gayer

B e1 ge

- MO

1 30 a '

0

0

. 0 0

r 0

A ppea rance

g

( 1 )

2

• . ` ' P e rcen tage 3e c ompos i t ion

F ig. 6 .

A bso lu te 0

0

1 2

A bso lu te d ry s ed imen ta t ion r a tes ( kg m2 y r1 )

C haracteristics o f C ore H GB3.

s ed imen ta t ion r a tes - f r us tu les cm 2 y r1

141 16 ,

1 8

3

0

0

_ 1 20

14 0

( m i l l ions ) I

16 0

' B O i

1 00

0

1 02 03 04 0g

o 7 2

5 0— 6 0—

i 7 0— a 8 09 0-

P l ank ton ic C en t ra les

T o ta l e p iphy tes

F rag i la r ia s pp

1 00 —>

U na t tach e d B i raph i d ineae

1 0-

C o re H GB 3

1 201 30—

F ig. 7 .

A bsolute s edimentation r ates o f d iatom f rustules i n C ore H GB3.

1 75

A ppearance

s m. t0g m

O o ze

b rown-

1 -

U

I1

IL

1i

U

1I

U

j U .

D I

5

0 . 4

C rus ty c r umb .. . .

,D ,.

-, B eI g e g rey -

0 . 4

s p a r s e

s na i ls . . .

- . D a rk b rowry b l ock -

U l

o rgan ic

1 9 1 .6

t o ta l

-

0 . 7 , , Gh r c t Y e-

mar l

4 0

N o s na t s

s d i a t a u s

3 0

m a r l

b rown /b l ack _

— 6 0 r 7 0

A bso lu te d ry s ed imen ta t ion r a tes (k g m2 y r1 )

-

2 0

E5 0

IDU 7 0

U

7

_ , . ` 2

0 1 0

P ercen t a ge c ompos it i on 5

7

0

( 3 • _

1 56 g B rown e r

G reye r c r umb ly

, g h te r b r own .

1 0 0 n O

_

1 3 0

-

/

c reamy

B e ige b r own S ome wa i ls

w h .t e

. , • 1 A .

1 2 0-

0 14 S r rco th

B rown a m or p h ou s

C r umb -I Y9, Y s na 1

0 7 1 3

9 0

d e l, ' s

,--

.1 4 00

F ig. 8 .

C ORE

C haracteristics o f C ore H GB4.

H GB 4

A bso lu te s ed imen ta t ion r a tes-trus tu les cm 2 y r II

H

1 4

1 5 0

°

1

P O

P5

1 2 0

1

( m i l l ions )

°

2 0 —

1 0 0

P lank ton ic C en tra les

T o ta l E p iphy tes

F rag i lar ia s pp .

U na t tached B i roph id ineae

20

F ig. 9 .

A bsolute s edimentation r ates o f d iatom f rustules i n C ore H GB4.

1 76

1.

3 0 4 0

8 0 9 0

B i r cv . re r

R .u s ty

o re ° mo rph m . . . ous c ox, e ted

'

. ---

11 1969

w i th

0 -5

f l ecks o f

—' B a ck i G rey b rown F r iab le w h i te rown •• • . . . •b r ow-e r b 1878 — B ock f i b ro.

. c 5 0 " E i 6 0 7 0

B rown

R ust

I

I L

U

I UD U

0 . 3

_

0 . -0 5

2

1

. 4

0 .6

re t - L igh te r . . . . . . . . .cnc , 57 9r eY B l " oc k 7 2 f i b ras . . . . . .-- b rown B e ige G rey

U

m a r l

2 0

O oze .. . . ..

1 9 80

i n o rgan ic s i l ic ious

1 0-

1\ 1 1 I

IDU 7 o B rown f r iab le

o rgan ic

0

1846

.. f r . ' !9 .1 P Y . L .

-' b r own G rey , . . ., ._ -•s he l ls f r iab l e ` " ' " w h i te . p owdey —

-4

_

1

. . reY . . . B e ige w ith . . .. %a t

G re

y

N 1 e

_ c ( 1 )

0 .07

w h it e

1 . 1

E' ^ 0

( 3 )

C ompos i t ion (% A bso lu te d ry ( ed imen ta t ion r a tes ( kg r n- y r-

u g i

C o re H GB 5

A ppea r ance

F ig.

1 0.

C haracteristics o f C ore H GB5.

1 77

C ore H GB5

( F ig .

1 0) w as t aken f rom t he e ntrance t o ' the D am ' ( fig .

l b )

i n a n a ttempt t o c haracterise m aterial m oving i nto t he B road f rom t he r iver . H owever ,

i t s hows b asically t he s ame p attern o f s ediments, t hough m ore

s ubdivisions c an b e d istinguished , b ased o n t he f inding o f f ibrous m aterial , l argely t he s tems o f t he m oss F ontinalis a ntipyretica L . T he e arly l ight s ediments w ere r eplaced b y d arker o nes b etween 1 846 a nd 1 878 , a nd t he s urface a morphous s ediments a ppeared i n t he 1 940s . T he s edimentation p attern w as a s i n t he w estern p art o f t he m ain B road w ith a p eak i n t he m iddle p eriod a nd a f all i n t he e arly p art o f t he u pper p eriod , f ollowed b y a r ecent i ncrease . T he a bsolute s edimentation r ates , h owever , w ere s imilar t o t hose i n H GB4 . T here w as a s lightly l ower c ontent o f m arl i n t he u pper s ediments b ut t he m arl c ontent w as s till c loser t o 5 0% . D iatoms w ere n ot a nalysed i n t his c ore .

H udsons B ay H udsons B ay i s ac omparatively s mall b asin , c losely h emmed i n b y a lder c arr a nd m ostly c overed w ith w aterlilies . I t r eceives a s mall a mount o f w ater t hrough a c hannel c onnecting i ts n orthern e nd w ith t he r iver , t hough t his c hannel i s n ow v ery o vergrown a nd o nly a bout 1 % o f t he n et i nflow t o H oveton G reat B road c omes t hrough i t . T hree c ores w ere e xamined ( F ig . l b ) . H udl a nd H ud2 w ere t aken w ithin 2 m o f o ne a nother ; H udl w as a nalysed i n d etail ; H ud2 r eceived m uch l ess a ttention . H ud3 , t owards t he l ower e nd o f t he b asin w as s imply d escribed i n t he f ield . N one o f t he c ores r eached t he b asin p eat t hough H udl p enetrated t o 1 30 OIL T he s ediments i n H udsons B ay a re t hus l ikely t o b e d eeper t han t hose i n t he m ain b asin . C ores H udl

( Fig .

1 1)

a nd H ud2

( Fig .

1 2) p enetrated,

h owever ,

t o

s ediments a kin t o t he e arly p eriod o f t he m ain B road , a nd C hara r emains w ere f ound i n t hese s ediments i n H ud2 a nd H ud3 ( Fig . 1 2) . T here w as a t ransition t o d arker s ediments b etween a bout 1 917 a nd 1 935 , a nd t he a shed s ediments s uggest a c hange t o s ediments l ike t hose i n t he u pper p eriod o f t he m ain B road i n t he e arly 1 960s . H owever , t he s ediment s equence i s m odified b y l arge a mounts o f o rganic m atter w hose c ontent h as s teadily i ncreased t hroughout t he h istory o f t he b asin . M arl h as b een a s maller c omponent s ince a bout 1 917, w hen t he d eposition o f t he e arly p eriod s ediments p robably e nded , a nd s edimentation o f s iliceous m atter h ad b een s teady s ince a bout t hem T he v ariability b etween c losely s et c ores c an b e s een b y c omparing t he d ata f or c omposition i n H udl a nd H ud2 , t hough t he 2 c m s pacing i n H udl c ompared w ith 1 c m s paced a nalyses i n H udl g ive a s puriously s moother s et o f c hanges .

( Fig .

T he p attern o f d iatom s edimentation s hows s ome i nteresting f eatures 1 3) . P lanktonic d iatom s edimentation i ncreased t o a p eak , t hough o f

m odest s ize,

b etween 1 944 a nd 1 962 a nd h as l ately d eclined .

T he m ain

g enera w ere C yclotella a nd S tephanodiscus r ather t han M elosira i n t he m ain b asin . M elosira i s s carce i n t he c ontemporary p lankton o f H udsons B ay ( Timms a nd M oss 1 984) . E piphyte s edimentation h as b een g enerally h igh a nd B iraphidenean e piphytes w ere n ot p rominently g rouped i n t he l ower l ayers , b ut w ere p resent s ignificantly t hroughout .

S edimentation o f F ragilaria a nd

u nattached B iraphidineae w as, i n g eneral, h igh .

1 78

I

p o%

1 0

1

1 21

l I

1 6 1

° L

i 2i

0

1

2

. . _ .

-1 974

4 0

--

' 962

s

D k-b ro nmi 'g . ;L es s f i ta -l ic k — lan D a rk- b raw l-g ra y ;g ray less Ij ious f i b r o us N o r ee d t d i b ro L6 s nai l ,- ; S na i ls ' s na i ls

-

2 . 3 j \jc

1 969

1

2 0

;D c rk b rawn/go y r e ed f r agmen ts

1 9%0

w . ---

0

C

1 00

1 20

r f

1 . 2

ö

( 5

M a r l

1 '

0

7 0 . — _

—

S i l ic ious

O rgan ic

8 0

1 . 2

— 19 17

04 A -1 6 72 ; S o

S n a ls

L 1 . 1

r _

-1 94 4

I -

0 .

r 7 ,

6 0

Y . --

0

L .

a

g

m

e

n

1 . 2

( -

. _

« " .--

L . >

s a )

t J f

c u 1 3

c z

C ompos i t ion / o )

A bso lu te d ry s ed imen t a t ion r a tes (k g r i-2 y r1 )

d I 1 .3

C o re H UD 1

A ppea rance

F ig .

1 1.

C haracteristics o f C ore H udl.

C ompos i t ion ( % ) 1 50 O oze B r ae g ray

2 0— 4 0—

w i th p l an t f r agmen ts

B rown ga y f ewer f r c ig ren t ed p l an ts

— C D ( )

6 0

Uc rk er-g r --ay fi b roussna l ls U gh t e r t ro n tn g ra y S ea ls

— 6 0-

2 0-

Amo r 0ouS b rown

4 0-

6 0

J c 7, , ; 1 7 -9 7 c7J -B rown B rOW n S na r ls

G io y- b rown S na , :s

B O— --

G raye r S n a i ls

F o g

1 00 —

G ro / A bundant C hore

e r s

F ibrous

--

B rown f i br ous

C ore H UD 2

C o re H UD 3

CN J

1

( un ) yde

( . 0

CO

CD

1 80

Cv

U na t tached B i raph id ineae

A bsolute s edimentation r ates o f d iatom f rustules i n C ore H udl.

P lank ton ic C en tra les

r a tes- f r us tu les

o r )

a )

D iscussion T he t hree d istinct l ayers f ound i n t he c ores f rom t he m ain b asin o f H oveton G reat B road a lmost c ertainly c orrespond t o t he t hree p hases t hat t he B roads a re b elieved t o h ave p assed t hrough . T he l owermost s ediments , l ight i n c olour , o ften w ith C hara r emains , a nd w ith a bundant e piphyte g enera a nd n o p lanktonic d iatoms , c orrespond w ith t he l ow-growing p lant p hase 1 . T his h as n ot b een d escribed a necdotally f or t he B ure B roads , s ome

T hurne B roads

( Hickling ,

H orsey M ere ) a s

l ate a s

b ut w as n oted f or t he

1 960s .

O ther

T hurne B roads ( Martham , B lackfeet) a nd t he i solated U pton B road a re s till i n t his p hase . T he l atter r eceive r elatively l ow i nputs o f n utrients f rom l argely p astoral l and d rainage o r s emi-natural v egetation . T he m iddle l ayers o f s ediment , d ark i n c olour , a nd w ith s nail r emains , p robably c orrespond w ith t he s econd p hase . I n t his p hase, i ncreasing n utrient i nputs , p artly f rom r unoff f rom m ore i ntensively f armed l and a nd f rom m odest i nputs o f s ewage o r t he e ffluent f rom s ewage t reatment w orks , i ncreased t he g rowth o f e piphytic a nd f ilamentous a lgae o n t he l ow-growing p lants ( Phillips , E minson a nd M oss 1 978) . T his r educed t heir a bilities t o p hotosynthesise a nd c ompete w ith t aller g enera s uch a s C eratophyllum a nd P otamogeton , w hich c ould g row r apidly t owards t he b etter-illuminated w ater s urface . A mong t he g enera o f a lgae a ssociated w ith t his p hase F ragilaria a ppears t o h ave b een v ery a bundant i n H oveton G reat B road . T he d ark c olour o f t he s ediments i n t his p hase w as c aused n ot f rom i ncreased o rganic c ontent o f t he s ediment , b ut p robably b y t he p recipitation o f i ron I I s ulphide . T he s ediments r eleased h ydrogen s ulphide o n t reatment w ith a cid . I ron s ulphide i s p recipitated a s a r esult o f r eduction o f s ulphate b y s ulphur b acteria i n s ediment r eceiving l abile o rganic m atter a t s uch a r ate t hat o xygen d iffusion i s i nsufficient t o s upport a erobic d ecomposition . D ense b eds o f s ubmerged a quatic p lants p rovide s uitable c onditions f or t his , a s o rganic m atter f alls f rom t hem t o t he s ediment s urface . E ven t he w ater i n t he l ower p arts o f s uch b eds m ay b ecome s everely d eoxygenated ( Moss e t a l . 1 986). D uring

p hase

2 i n

H oveton

G reat

B road ,

t he

p lanktonic

d iatom

p opulations w ere i ncreasing . T he m ajor i ncreases o ccur a t t he u pper e nd o f t he p hase a nd h erald t he p hase 3 s ediments , i n w hich p lanktonic d iatoms d ominate a nd g astropod r emains a re a bsent . T he s ediments b ecome l ighter a nd n ot s ulphide-rich d espite e vidence o f i ncreasing n utrient a dditions - f or e xample t he i ncreased r ate o f m arl d eposition ( see b elow) a nd o f c oncentration o f k ey n utrients i ncluding p hosphate a nd n itrate i n t he w ater o ver t he l ast f ew d ecades ( Moss e t a l . 1 984) . T his a nomaly i s p robably b ecause t he h ydrology o f t he B road , p articularly i ts f lushing r ate , w as c hanged a s t he r eedswamp d isappeared ( Fig . l b ) , a nd c irculation a nd w ashout o f o rganic m atter w ere l ess i mpeded t han t hey h ad b een w hen p lant b eds w ere a bundant. R elatively m ore

o rganic m atter m ay

h ave b een p roduced

i n t his

l ast

p hase , b ut i t w as w ashed d ownstream a nd n ot d eposited i n t he s ediment . T he p redominance o f M elosira s pecies i n t he p lanktonic c omponent o f t he s ediment d iatoms , r ather t han t he m uch m ore a bundant C yclotella a nd S tephanodiscus i n t he c ontemporary p lankton s upports t his . M elosira p opulations o ccur o nly i n m id-summer w hen f lushing i s l east a s r iver d ischarge i s l owest . T he o ther g enera f orm l arge p opulations i n s pring a nd a utumn , b ut a re b arely r epresented i n t he s ediments . B ecause e lsewhere i n B roadland t hese g enera a re r eadily p reserved , w ashed o ut .

t his m ust b e b ecause t heir p opulations a re r eadily

1 81

T he d ata i n F igs .

2 -13 c an b e c ondensed i n s uch a w ay a s t o m ake

c omparison e asier b etween c ores . T his h as b een d one i n F ig . 1 4 w hich e xtracts f or c ores H GB1 a nd H udl a nd 2 o nly t he e ssential f eatures w hich i llustrate t he p hase c hanges : t he p resence o f C hara o r r ich s helly m arl a nd a bundance o f b iraphidinean e piphytes ( Phase 1 ) ; t he b uild u p o f F ragilaria ( Phase 2 ) ; a nd t he m ajor i ncrease i n p lanktonic d iatoms ( phase 3 ) e xcept w here r eedswamp ( HGB3) o r p articular c onditions ( Hudl) p reclude t his . H udsons B ay r epresents a v ariant

o n

t he

t heme

f or

i t

s till

r etains

a quatic p lants ( though n ot c ompletely s ubmerged o nes) i n m id-summer , y et h as d ense p hytoplankton p opulations i n s pring a nd a utumn .

I ts p lankton d iatom

s edimentation i s r elatively l ow c ompared w ith t he m ain b asin b ecause s ummer d iatoms a re a bsent, b eing g razed d own b y z ooplankton , a nd t he o nly p lanktonic

r epresentatives

a re

t he

f ew

c ells

o f

C yclotella

a nd

S tephanodiscus d eposited i n s pring a nd a utumn . F or c onvenience t he l atter p hase h as b een c alled 2 b t o d istinguish i t f rom a p resumed P hase 2 a , d ominated b y s ubmerged p lants w hich m ust h ave s hallowing a nd l ily d ominance .

p receded

t he

p resent

T able 2 s hows t he d ates f or t he t ransitions f rom P hase 1 t o P hase 2 a nd P hase 2 t o P hase 3 i n e ach c ore , j udged f rom t he m ain d ata , w ith t he h elp o f d iagrams s uch a s F ig . 1 4 . T he u ncertainties o f l ead-210 d ating , e specially f or d ates i n t he 1 9th c entury , w hen P b-210 c oncentrations r emaining i n t he s ediments a re l ow , m ean t hat t here i s aw ide s catter i n t he d ates f or t he t ransition t o p hase 2 f rom p hase 1 . T he a ttempt t o p lace t he c hange a t a s ingle d ate , w hen i n p ractice i t w as c ertainly m ore g radual , a lso l eads t o t he a nticipation o f an arrow b and o f e stimates w hen a n e xpectation o f s everal d ecades m ight b e m ore r ealistic . T he d ata i ndicate a c hange p robably b etween 1 846 a nd 1 917 w ith m ost d ates p laced i n t he l atter h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury. T his i s m uch e arlier t han a s imilar c hange r ecorded i n t he T hurne B roads ( 1960s) ( Moss 1 983) a nd i n t he R iver A nt ( post-World W ar I I) , a nd p robably e xplains w hy t here i s n o a necdotal t radition o f c lear w ater a nd C hara b eds i n t he B ure B roads . T he f inal l oss o f s ubmerged v egetation ( Phase 2 t o P hase 3 ) i s p laced i n t he c ores b etween 1 935 a nd 1 954 : o bservations o n t he B road i tself s uggest a m ajor l oss o f s ubmerged v egetation b y t he 1 950s . L ambert ( 1965) n oted a n a bundance o f S tratiotes a b ides i n 1 947 w hich h ad g one b y 1 953. T here m ust c learly h ave b een s ome i ncrease i n n utrient s upply t o t he B ure d uring t he l atter h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury , a nd t hen e ither a c ontinued i ncrease , o r ap eriod o f s tability , f ollowed b y a nother m ajor i ncrease a fter t he 1 940s . T he u pper B ure c atchment i s l arge a nd f ertile . M ore i ntense a griculture i s

l ikely t o h ave s tarted i n i t s oon a fter t he p assing o f t he

E nclosure A cts i n t he e arly 1 9th c entury , b ut i t i s n ot p ossible t o b e q uantitative a bout t he c hanges . S ome i nformation i s a vailable a bout t he d evelopment o f p opulation i n t he c atchment , p articularly i n t he t owns , w here , e ven t hough s ewage t reatment w orks w ere n ot t hen b uilt , s ewage i s l ikely t o h ave r eached t he r iver i n t he n ineteenth c entury . T he m ost d etailed i nformation i s a vailable a bout A ylsham ( Sapwell 1 960) , w hich i s a n a ncient m arket t own l ying o n t he R iver B ure a bove H oveton G reat B road a nd c ertainly t he l argest s ettlement c lose t o t he r iver . T hree f eatures o f i ts h istory a re o f

i nterest .

F irst ,

t he

p opulation e ven

i n

1 833 w as

d ense

e nough t o s upport a n e pidemic o f t he w ater-borne e nteric d isease c holera , f or a r ecord i s m ade f or A pril o f t hat y ear i n t he C hurchwarden 's V estry

1 82

W O

o c l ) . - ° c ▪ a • O

1

C U ö

0

C L C l _

C ) u ._ •

. ( . . )

L n

. 0

_ _ -_ , -0

t -3 : c =

> ,E r a _ CL 0

L U 1 00

0

0 1

o

Lt

. C 1 f 1

0

d a100

0

0

1 00

1 0 0 0

1 00

= _ U n

C O

. Q 5 c i

a 5 0

e rrI rr le

5 0 -

. . . . . . . . =.

( N

1 9,7

= _

1 8 90

1 0 0 — -

1 00 C CC 1 8 72 O CC C CC C CCC

c / ) 0o f m ax imum f o r c o re

L Cores H UD 1 /2

F ig.

1 4.

%o fm ax imum f o r c o re

C ore H GB

S ummary d iagrams o f c haracteristics o f C ores H ud1/2 a nd H GB1 u sed t o d etermine t he d ating o f p hases i n t he e cological h istory o f H oveton G reat B road . S ymbol : C , C hara r emains .

1 83

T able 2 .

D ates o f p hases i n t he h istory o f t he H udsons B ay - H oveton G reat B road s ystem d etermined c ores.

b y

t he

H udl

E nd o f P hase 1 ( low-

1 917 o r

g rowing p lants, v ery

1 935

d ating

a nd

a nalysis

o f

s ediment

H GB1

H GB2

H GB3

H GB4

H GB5

1 890

1 861

1 900

1 869

1 846

c lear w ater) P hase 2 ( a) ( tall-growing

1 917 o r

p lants,

1 935-4

1 890b

1 862 4 1 900 4 1 869 4 1 846-4

1 962

1 954

1 935

1 948

1 935

1 941

1 954

1 935

1 948

1 935

1 941

r ank v egetation

a bove a nd b elow w ater) P hase 2 ( b) ( Nymphaeids

1 962

b ut n o s ubmerged v ascular p lants)

p resent

-

P

S tart o f P hase 3 ( phytoplankton d ominance)

1 84

M inutes

o f t he P arish C hurch o f a f orm o f t hanksgiving o n c essation o f t he

e pidemic. S econdly ,

t here a re s ome r ecords o f d rainage i n t he t own .

i t w as h aphazard ,

w ith o pen d itches d raining i nto p onds

B efore 1 900

o r t he r iver ,

b ut

b rick a rch s ewers w ere b uilt f or t he m ain s treets i n t he e arly 1 9th c entury a nd t hese d rained t o t he r iver . 1 851

t o

r eport

u nsatisfactory d rains,

a nd

o n

s tate

t he o f

a ffairs

d ung h eaps

A c ommittee o f

c ondition i n s ome

o f

w ith o f

t he

t he V estry ,

d rains,

n umerous

a ppointed

f ound

u ncovered

" a

i n

h ighly

c esspools ,

o pen

t he m ost d ensely p opulated a reas" .

F urther d rains w ere l aid . P rogressively m ore a nd m ore b aths a nd w ater c losets w ere l inked w ith t hese d rains , a nd e ventually i n 1 952 a s cheme o f n early e ight m iles o f s ewerage a nd a t reatment w orks w as c ompleted . T hirdly ,

t here a re d ata o n t he p opulation o f A ylsham ,

D omesday S urvey ,

c alculations f rom t he b irths

R egisters

1 691

1 801 .

b etween

a nd

1 891

( Sapwell

T hese a re s hown i n T able 3 .

s tability f rom 1 086 t o 1 791,

1 960) ,

d erived f rom t he

r ecorded i n t he P arish a nd

c ensus

A p rominent f eature

i s

r eturns t he

s ince

r elative

a r apid i ncrease i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 9th

c entury t o o ver d ouble i ts p revious n umber a nd t hen a c omparative s tability u ntil t he p resent d ay . T he p resent s ewage t reatment w orks a t A ylsham w as d esigned f or a p opulation o f 6 ,000 w hich i ncludes a dditional v illages , a nd p resently s erves a bout 4 ,800 p eople . ad esign p opulation o f 8 ,000.

I t h as n ow b een e xtended t o c ope w ith

I t i s n ot u nlikely t hat t he i ncreasing p rosperity o f A ylsham i n t he 1 9th c entury, a s i ts p opulation e xpanded, w as r eflected e lsewhere i n t he c atchment a nd i n t his m ay l ie t he i ncreased l oading w hich c aused t he e arly c hange f rom P hase 1 t o P hase 2 i n H oveton G reat B road . W roxham

a nd H oveton ,

W roxham i ncreased

w ere p robably n ot

i n s ize

a s

t he

O ther t owns ,

s o s ignificant

t ourist

i ndustry

a s

t hey

d eveloped

s uch a s

a re

i n

t he

t oday . 2 0th

c entury , a nd a s teady o verall c onversion o f s eptic t ank s ystems t o m ains s ewerage d uring t he 2 0th c entury h as p robably u nderlain t he b eginnings o f c hange t o P hase 3 a fter t he 1 940s. O f

t he o ther m ain s ewage

a bove H oveton G reat B road , 1 951/52,

a nd

t he

B elaugh

t reatment w orks d ischarging t o t he R iver B ure

t he C oltishall R .A .F . s tation w orks w as b uilt i n w orks,

s erving

W roxham ,

H oveton ,

B elaugh,

C oltishall a nd H orsford i n t he m id-1950s . T he b uilding o f t hese w orks c oincides w ith t he a necdotal d escriptions o f c hanges i n t he B roads a nd f alls w ithin t he r ange o f d ates d etermined f or t he s tart o f P hase 3 f rom t he s ediment c ores . T he

s econd

i ssue

o f

i nterest

i n t he

p alaeolimnology

o f H oveton G reat

B road i s t he n ature o f t he s ediments a nd t he r ate o f s edimentation . T hroughout t he B road 's h istory , s ediments h ave b een d ominated b y m arl a nd t he c omposition o f t he d ry s ediment c urrently i s a bout t wo p arts m arl t o o ne e ach o rganic m atter a nd n on-marl i norganic m atter ( ' siliceous m aterial ') . T here i s n o e vidence o f a p roportionately l arge i ncrease i n s iliceous m aterial o r o rganic m aterial i n t he p ost-World W ar I I p eriod , w hich m ight b e a ttributed t o b ank e rosion b y b oats . S edimentation o f m arl a rises f rom i ntense p hotosynthesis i n h igh a lkalinity w aters , s uch a s t hose d erived f rom c halky c atchments . A s c arbon d ioxide i s w ithdrawn b y s ubmerged p lants o r algae , t he p H o f t he w ater i s i ncreased, f avouring t he f ormation o f a g reater p roportion o f c arbonate i ons a mong t he t otal i norganic c arbon c ompounds p resent . I n t urn t he s olubility p roduct a nd t he m arl i s p recipitated .

1 85

o f C aCO 3

i s e xceeded

T able 3 .

C hanges i n t he h uman p opulation o f A ylsham ( from S apwell ( 1960)) .

Y ear

P opulation

Y ear

P opulation

1 086

1 000

1 801

1 667

1 691

8 10

1 811

1 760

1 701

1 290

1 821

1 853

1 711

1 320

1 831

2 334

1 721

1 370

1 841

2 448

1 . 7 31

1 320

1 851

2 741

1 741

9 90

1 861

2 623

1 751

1 230

1 871

2 505

1 761

140

1 881

2 674

1 771

100

1 891

2 533

1 781

170

1 911

2 627

1 791

170

1 921

2 466

1 931

2 646

1 941

N o c ensus

1 951

2 526

1 86

T he

r ate

o f m arl

d eposition

r eflects b oth t he

( supported b y t he s upply o f k ey n utrients

s uch a s

r ate o f p roduction

p hosphorus

a nd

n itrogen

c ompounds) a nd t he d egree o f r etention . A s tagnant b ody o f w ater w ill r etain m ore t han a w ell-flushed o ne . A n a pproximate c alculation c an b e m ade o f

t he r ate o f m arl

g radual

f all i n a lkalinity d uring t he g rowth s eason ( from a bout 4 .2 m equiv

f ormation i n H oveton G reat B road i tself f rom t he

1 -1 t o 1 .5 m equiv 1 - 1) which w as m onitored b etween 1 979 a nd 1 982 ( Moss e t a l . 1 982) , w ith t he v olume o f t he B road a nd t he r ate o f w ater r eplacement d uring

t he p eriod b eing t aken i nto a ccount .

b y d ye

t racing

t imes

d uring

Noss e t a l .

t he

p eriod

T he l atter h as b een m easured

1 982) a nd w as b etween f our a nd a h alf a nd s ix

i n q uestion .

T he

c alculation

a ssumes

t hat

t he

r eplacement w ater c ontains a n a lkalinity o f 4 .2 m equiv 1 -1 w hich i s a n o verestimate b ecause m arl f ormation o ccurs a lso i n t he r iver u pstream . A d eposition o f a bout 0 .6-0 .8 k g m -2 h as

b een

c alculated

f or

p eriod a s a r esult o f m arl f ormation i n t he B road i tself .

t he

n ine m onth

B ecause m ost o f

t he d eposition p robably o ccurs i n t his p eriod ( evidenced b y t he d eposition o f a lmost e xclusively s ummer g enera o f p lanktonic d iatoms) , t his v alue a pproximates t o t he a nnual s edimentation r ate . I t i s c learly l ess t han t he d eposition m easured c urrently i n t he s ediment c ores , a nd t his m ust m ean t hat t he B road i s a cting a s a s ettling b asin f or m arl p roduced i n t he r iver a nd n earby w ell-flushed B roads i ncluding W roxham a nd S alhouse . T he

p attern

B road .

O nly

o f

s edimentation

a t H GB4

i s

i s

d ifferent

t here a s teady

i n

d ifferent

p arts

i ncrease w ith t ime ;

o f

t he

a t t he o ther

s ites t here w as a p eak o f s edimentation i n p hase 2 , t hen a f all b efore a r ise i n r ecent y ears . A erial p hotographs ( e .g . G odwin 1 978) t aken d uring t he

1 940s s how o pen w ater i n t he w estern b asin ,

f rom t he m iddle

o f w hich

c ore H GB4 w as t aken . O ther s ites, i f n ot c overed w ith r eedswamp, s how p atches o f w ater l ilies a nd o ther v egetation . I t s eems l ikely t hat t his d ense v egetation o f p hase 2 w as s o e ffective a t r etaining s ediment t hat a p attern o f s teadily i ncreasing p roduction h as b een m asked , a nd i s s hown c learly o nly a t t he l ess v egetated H GB4 s ite . I ndependent e vidence o f a s teadily i ncreasing p roduction c omes

f rom t he i ncreasing c oncentrations

o f

n itrate m easured i n t he r iver s ince t he 1 940s a nd t he d ecreasing s ummer m inimum c oncentrations o f a lkalinity i n t he r iver w ater d uring t he s ame p eriod ( Moss e t a l. 1 984) . S edimentation r ates i n H udsons B ay, w hich r emains w ell c olonized b y l ilies , h ave a lso s teadily i ncreased a nd a re g enerally B road

h as

h igher b een

t han t hose i n t he m ain b asin . g enerally

u nselective,

v egetation - t he p roportions

o f m arl,

S ediment

d espite

t he

r etention i n t he

m ajor

c hanges

i n

o rganic a nd s iliceous d eposition

h aving r emained a bout t he s ame t hroughout . B ecause t hese d ifferent c omponents h ave p artly d ifferent o rigins t his p robably r eflects t he g eneral l inkage o f

i ncreased p roduction i n t he c atchment ,

s oil

e rosion ,

i ncreased

p roduction i n t he w ater a nd l oss o f t he f ringing r eedswamps a s m uch a s a ny p articular i ncrease i n e rosion b y b oats o f t he r iver b anks d uring t he s ame p eriod . I nsufficient C s-137 w as f ound i n t he c ore i n w hich i t w as s ought t o g ive a d atable p rofile . T his s uggests t hat t he C s-137 s upply c ame o nly f rom d irect r ainfall a nd t hat s ubstantial a mounts o f h eavy s ediment , w ith w hich C s-137 b ecomes a ssociated , a re n ot m oving i nto t he B road . D ateable C s-137 p rofiles h ave b een o btained f or B arton B road w here a r iver r uns t hrough t he m iddle o f

t he b asin ( Osborne a nd M oss

1 978 ;

d oes n ot

e rosion o f

i s n egligible - i t

i mply

t hat

b anks

b y

b oats

c onsiderable ( Broad A uthority 1 982) - b ut i t s till

M oss

1 980) .

i s

r emains a s mall p art o f

t he p roduction-dominated t otal s edimentation r ate , w hich i s v ery h igh .

1 87

T his

S ummary ( 1)

S tudies

o f

d ated s ediment c ores

a nswer t wo q uestions .

i n H oveton G reat B road w ere m ade t o

T he f irst c oncerned t he e cological h istory o f

t he B road . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he B road w as n ever c olonized b y a quatic p lants c haracteristic o f m any o ther o f t he B roads i n t heir l east a ltered s tates ( Phase 1 , w ith d ominance b y C harophytes) a nd t hat i t a nd t he a ssociated R iver B ure h ave a lways b een e utrophicated i rrespective o f h uman a ctivities i n t he c atchment i n t he l ast f ew d ecades .

S uch a f inding w ould u ndermine t he c redibility o f e fforts

n ow b eing m ade t o r estore t he s ystem b y n utrient r eduction . ( 2)

S econdly ,

t here

h ave

b een

s uggestions

t hat

r ecent

i ncreased

s edimentation r ates i n t he B roads h ave a risen f rom e rosion o f t he r iver b anks b y b oats . I nformation o n t his w as s ought f rom e xamination o f t he c omposition o f t he s ediment. ( 3)

H oveton G reat B road w as c olonized b y ac harophyte .community u ntil t he l atter h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury w hen i t r esponded t o i ncreased n utrient s upply b y ac hange t o a n a quatic p lant c ommunity d ominated b y r anker p lants . T his c hange o ccurred e arlier t han i n s ome o ther p arts o f B roadland , p erhaps b ecause o f t he e arly e xpansion o f a r iverside m arket t own (41sham ) a nd d evelopment o f t he f ertile c atchment o f t he R iver B ure .

( 4)

T he

s ediment

c omposition

o f

t he

B road

i s

d ominated

b y

p hotosynthetically-produced m arl . I ncreases i n s edimentation r ate h ave b een u nselective a nd h ave c omprised i ncreases i n m arl , o rganic a nd s iliceous c omponents . R ates h ave c hanged i n r esponse t o t he c hanging f ertility o f t he r iver a nd t he a bility o f d ifferent a quatic c ommunities t o r etain s ediment, b ut t here w as n o e vidence o f d isproportionate i ncreases i n s ediment t hat m ight b e d erived f rom b ank e rosion f rom b oats . T his d oes n ot i mply t hat s uch e rosion i s n egligible , m erely t hat i t r emains a s mall p art o f t he p roductiond ominated t otal s edimentation .

A cknowledgements Ia m g rateful t o M ark T imms f or h elp i n t he t aking o f c ores a nd t o t he N ature C onservancy C ouncil , D epartment o f t he E nvironment a nd A nglian W ater f or g rants w hich m et t he c osts o f d ating t he c ores . I a lso t hank M r . J .D . E akins , A ERE , H arwell f or h is d etermination o f t he i sotope c ontents o f t he s ediment .

1 88

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P .G .

a nd O ldfield ,

F .

( 1978) .

T he c alculation o f

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R .

C atena 5 1 -8 .

R . a nd C rook , C .E . ( 1985) .

B oorman ,

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r eedswamp r egression i n t he N orfolk B roads .

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B .P .L . a nd F unnell, B .M . ( 1981) . B roadland ,

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o f u nsupported 2 10Pb t o t he

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B .

1 23-131 .

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t he N orfolk B roads : C auses , C onsequences a nd S olutions . B roads A uthority R esearch S eries 6 . D arby, H .C . ( 1983) .

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M orrison ,

J .D .

a nd

R .T .

C ambridge :

( 1977) .

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U niversity P ress . p rodcedure

d etermination o f l ead-210 i n l ake a nd m arine s ediments . E nergy R esearch E stablishment R eport 8 475 1 12 . G arrad ,

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G odwin ,

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t he

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r iver .

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L ambert,

J .M . ( 1965) T he v egetation o f B roadland . E .A .) L ondon : C ollins p p . 6 9-96 .

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L ambert,

J .M ., J ennings, J .N ., S mith , C .T ., G reen , C . a nd H utchinson , J .N . ( 1960) . T he Making o f t he B roads : A r econsideration o f t heir O rigin i n t he L ight o f N ew E vidence . L ondon : R oyal G eographical S ociety .

M cWilliam ,

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L ife a nd L andscape : P .H .

E merson . A rt a nd P hotography i n E ast A nglia 1 885-1900 . N orwich : S ainsbury C entre f or V isual A rts , U niversity o f E ast A nglia .

1 89

M iddleton , C .S . M oss,

B .

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( 1977)

T he B roadland P hotographers .

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C onservation p roblems i n t he N orfolk B roads a nd r ivers o f

E ast A nglia , E ngland - p hytoplankton , b oats a nd t urbidity . B iological C onservation 1 2 9 5-114 . M oss ,

B .

( 197 9 .

A lgal

a nd

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f ossil

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( 198 0 .

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ac omplex w etland . B .

l ast

t wo

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5 21-561 .

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i n

Norfolk.

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B iological R eviews 5 8

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B road,

i n

c enturies .

F urther s tudies o n t he p alaeolimnology a nd c hanges

t he phosphorus budget o f F reshwater B iology 1 0 2 61-279 .

M oss ,

t he c ensus o f

f or m ajor c hanges

S trumpshaw B road , N orfolk , E ngland i n t he B ritish P hycological J ournal 1 4 2 63-283 . M oss,

W ensum .

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B radshaw , A .D . , G oode , D .A . a nd T horpe , S ociety S ymposium . O xford : B lackwell

S cientific p p . 3 99-415 . M oss ,

B .,

B alls ,

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M .

( 1984) .

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R iver B ure , U nited K ingdom : P atterns o f c hange i n c hemistry a nd p hytoplankton i n a s low-flowing f ertile r iver . V erhandlungen i nternationale d er V ereinigung L imnologie 2 2 1 959-1984 . M oss , B ., B alls ,

H .R .

a nd I rvine , K . ( 1985) .

t heoretische

u nd a ngewandte

M anagement o f t he c onsequences

o f e utrophication i n l owland l akes i n E ngland - e ngineering a nd biological solutions. In: Proceedings of t he I nternational P hosphorus C onference ( eds . L ester , J .N . a nd K irk , M oss,

B .,

P .W .W .)

B alls , H .R . , o f t wo

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s ources with and without r emoval J ournal o f A pplied E cology 2 3 3 91-414 . M oss,

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a nd M anson ,

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R iver B ure , N orfolk B roads . F inal R eport t he E nvironment a nd A nglian W ater : 2v ols . M oss ,

B ., L eah ,

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l owland l akes b y i solation f rom n utrient-rich w ater

R .T .

a nd C lough ,

B . ( 1979) .

o f

( 1982) . t o

s ediment.

S tudy o f t he

t he D epartment

o f

P roblems o f t he N orfolk B roads

and t heir impact on f reshwater f isheries. In: P roceedings o f t he F irst B ritish F reshwater F isheries C onference U niversity o f L iverpool p p . 6 7-85 . O sborne ,

P .L .

a nd Moss,

B .

( 1977) .

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p hosphorus a nd i ron b udgets o f a n o ld m an-made l ake , B road , N orfolk .

F reshwater B iology 7

B arton

2 13-233 .

P hillips, G .L . , E minson , D . a nd M oss , B . ( 1978) . A m echanism t o a ccount f or m acrophyte d ecline i n p rogressively e utrophicated f reshwaters . A quatic B otany 4 1 03-126 . S apwell , J .

( 1960).

Ah istory o f A ylsham .

1 90

N orwich : R igby.

S tevenson , H .

( 1977) .

T ransactions 2 92-306 . T imms,

M emoir

o f

t he

l ate

R ev .

R ichard

L ubbock .

o f t he N orfolk a nd N orwich N aturalists S ociety

2 (3)

R .M . a nd Moss , B . ( 1984) . P revention o f g rowth o f p otentially d ense p hytoplankton p opulations b y z ooplankton g razing , i n t he p resence o f z ooplanktivorous f ish , i n a s hallow w etland e cosystem . L iminology a nd O ceanography

1 91

2 9

4 72-486 .

F URTHER A SPECTS O F T HE B URIED P REHISTORIC S OILS I N T HE F EN M ARGIN N ORTHEAST O F P ETERBOROUGH , C AMBRIDGESHIRE C .A .I . F rench

I ntroduction T he s tudy a rea i s s ituated i n t he N orth L evel I nternal D rainage B oard a rea i n n orthwestern C ambridgeshire t o t he n ortheast o f P eterborough

1& 2 ) .

( F ig s .

T his p art o f t he f enland i s b ounded b y P eterborough a nd t he l ower

W elland v alley t o t he w est ,

t he R iver N ene t o t he s outh a nd e ast ,

a nd t he

R iver W elland t o t he n orth . T his p aper s erves t o a mplify t he p reliminary s oil m icromorphological e vidence g iven p reviously b y t he a uthor ( French i n G roenman-van W aateringe a nd R obinson , i n p ress) . I n p articular , t he m icromorphology o f t he b uried s oils a t t hree l ater m esolithic/earlier n eolithic s ites o f C rowtree F arm ( site 4 ) , O akhurst F arm ( site 5 ) a nd i n Morris F en ( site 6 ) i s p resented ( Figs . 1 & 2 ) a nd a n i nterpretation o f t he c ontemporary l andscape t o t he n orth o f t he E ye f en g ravel p eninsula g iven ( Fig . A ll

t hese b uried

' i sland '

s ites

a nd

2 . ' site ' 7 ) .

l andscapes

h ave

b een d iscovered

t hrough t he s ystematic s urvey o f m odern c leaned d rainage d ykes u ndertaken b y t he a uthor a nd D r . F . P ryor o f F enland A rchaeological T rust ( see C rowther e t a l . 1 985 a nd P ryor 1 985 , f or t he d yke s urvey r ationale ) . I n b rief t his i nvolves t he e xamination o f d ykes c leaned . , b y t he d rainage a uthorities , w hich g ive l inear keyhole ' s ections , t hus p roviding a r are o pportunity t o s tudy a n o therwise i nvisible l andscape . T he s ections a re d escribed , p hotographed a nd l evelled a t c . 1 50 m etre i ntervals ' off-site ' a nd a t e very 5 o r 1 0 m etres w here a i s s uspected . T he e xtensive a reas o f b uried s oils/landscapes r evealed i n t hese d yke s ections a re u nique a nd h ave r eceived l ittle o r n o p edological o r a rchaeological s tudy i n t he p ast b ecause o f t heir b urial b y t hick f reshwater p eat a ud a lluvium , a nd m arine s ilts a nd c lays . I n g eneral , e arly l owland s oils i n B ritain h ave r eceived s cant a ttention a s o pposed t o t he r elatively e xtensively e xam ined s oils o f e arly m oorland , h eathlands a nd c halklands ( see Macphail 1 987 ; M acphail e t a l . i n p ress) . C onsequently t he d iscovery o f t hese p alaeosols w as o f g reat i mportance a nd w arranted d etailed m icromorphological e xamination b ecause t his i s t he b est m ethod o f c haracterising s oils a nd s oil d evelopment .

T he w ork d iscussed i n t his p aper

i s o nly t he b eginning o f a m uch l arger s tudy o f t he b uried s oils o f t he C ambridgeshire f enland . T he u se a nd m ethods o f s oil m icromorphology h ave b ecome w ell d eveloped i n r ecent y ears ( Courty e t a l . i n p rep . ; G oldberg 1 983 ;

M acphail 1 985 ,

1 986 ,

1 987) . I ntact b locks o f s oil a re i mpregnated, c ut a nd m ounted ( after B ullock e t a l . 1 985b ) , e xamined u sing a p olarising m icroscope , a nd d escribed u sing a u niversal s cheme ( Bullock e t a l . 1 985a) . P re-burial a nd b urial f eatures , a nd p ost-burial e ffects o f b uried s oils m ay b e r ecognised ( Courty e t a l .

i n p rep .) ,

a nd s oil h istory a nd d evelopment c an b e e xplained .

1 93

F ig .

1 .

T he l ocation o f t he s tudy a rea w ithin t he E ast A nglian f enland r egion ( 1: 2 50,000) . T he s ites d iscussed i n t he t ext a re : 1 ) E tton W oodgate , 2 ) E tton , 3 ) M axey , 4 ) C row -tree F arm , 5 ) O akhurst he E ye d ykes . F arm , 6 ) M orris F en a nd 7 ) t

1 94

C V

Z : 1 0 • H

1 95

M orris F en a nd

e xtent o f

T he S ites T he t hree s ites o f C rowtree F arm , O akhurst F arm a nd M orris F en a re b uried b eneath a s uccession o f f reshwater a nd m arine s ediments . T he L ower P eat , a e utrophic w ood/reed p eat w hich f ormed a s ar esult o f t he s ubmerging o f t he B oreal/Atlantic f orest i n t he l ater M esolithic/Neolithic ( Godwin 1 975) , c overs t he m argins o f a ll t hree ' i sland ' s ites , a nd s urvives a s a t hin ,

o ften d iscontinuous ,

c over o ver t he b uried s oils d eveloped o n t hese

' i slands ' . E ach ' i sland ' s ite w as t hen c ompletely c overed b y t he F en C lay ( = O lder B arroway D rove B eds) . T his i s as ilty c lay , d eposited i n o ne o r t wo p hases o f m arine i ncursion d uring t he l ate N eolithic/early B ronze A ge ( Godwin 1 975 ; Z alaciewicz 1 985/6) . T he d eposition o f t he F en C lay m ay h ave o ccurred i n e ither s alt m arsh , l agoonal o r m ud f lat e nvironments ( Zalaciewicz 1 985/6) , d rained b y as eries o f t idal c reeks w hich n ow s urvive a s s ilt-infilled r odhams . T he F en C lay , i n i ts t urn , i s o verlain b y a n u pper , g enerally S phagnum/Calluna , p eat , w hich f ormed f rom t he B ronze A ge u ntil r ecently , o nly c easing w ith t he d rainage o f t he f ens i n t he m id17th c entury A D ( Godwin 1 975) . W hat r emains o f t he u pper p eat , n ow d esiccated a nd m uch r educed b y d eflation , t ends t o b e a v ery h um gied , d etrital/reed p eat , w ith a lluvial m aterial o ften i ntermixed w ith i ts u pper s urface . T he f en ' i slands ' t hemselves a re f ormed o f k nown a s t he f en g ravels ( Booth 1 982) . T he

s ite

a t

C rowtree F arm

i mmediately t o t he e ast

o f

( Fig .

g lacial

2 ,

s and

s ite 4 ;

a nd

g ravel

F ig .

3 ) i s

t he m odern v illage o f N ewborough .

d eposits

s ituated I t

i s

a n

e longated f en ' i sland ' , c . 5 00 m etres w ide , c omposed m ainly o f s and . T he t op o f t he b uried s oil d eveloped o n t he ' i sland ' i s a t c . 0 .2 m O D . T rial e xcavation o f t he b uried s oil r evealed n umerous f lint dj oitage f lakes , s ame b ladelets a nd o ne m icro-burin o f a l ater m esolithic/earlier n eolithic f lint i ndustry . T he f lints w ere p rimarily f ound i n t he u pper 5 10 c m o f t he b uried s oil . F lints i ndicative o f a s imilar i ndustry w ere f ound i n t he e xposed b uried s oil i n t he d ykeside a t t he o ther t wo s ites o f O akhurst F arm a nd Morris F en ( F . P ryor , p ers . comm.). A lthough t he f lints w ere c oncentrated i n t he u pper 5 10 c m o f t he b uried s oil a t t hese t wo s ites , t hey w ere h igher u p t he s oil p rofile t han a t t he C rowtree F arm s ite . T he s ite a t O akhurst F arm

( F ig .

2 ,

s ite 5 ;

F ig . 4 ; F ig .

i s s ituated c . 1k m t o t he e ast o f C rowtree F arm ,

5 , p rofile 2 )

a nd i s a s maller ,

c .

1 00

m etre w ide , s and ' i sland ' w ith t he s urface o f t he b uried s oil a t c . m O D . D yke s urvey i n M orris F en h as r evealed t wo s mall b uried s and ' islands '

( F ig .

6 ) ,

a bout 4 k m t o t he n ortheast o f t he O akhurst F arm s ite ,

b ut

o nly

o ne o f t hese ( the e asternmost ' i sland ' i n F ig . 6 ) h as y ielded a rchaeological e vidence o f i ts u se b y m an i n t he l ater M esolithic/earlier N eolithic ( F ig . 7 ) . T he s urface o f t he b uried s oil i s a t c . 0 .7 m O D a t i ts h ighest p oint .

T he P rofiles A t C rowtree F arm t he b uried s oil c onsists o f a n a pedal, s omewhat p orous ( 10-30% t otal p orosity) ,

p inkish g rey ( 5YR6/2) l oamy s and ,

c .

1 5 c m t hick ,

w hich i s d eveloped o n as tructureless y ellow ( 10YR7/8) s and s ubsoil . w as n o e vident h orizonisation o f t he b uried s oil i n t he f ield .

T here

T he b uried s oil p rofiles a t t he O akhurst F arm a nd M orris F en ' i sland ' s ites a re v ery s imilar t o e ach o ther , a s w ell a s b eing s uperficially s imilar t o t he b uried s oil p rofile a t C rowtree F arm

1 96

T he s oil p rofiles c onsist o f

0 • C . 1 1 4 1 4 ) cl

I - 4

c o

c o

u o g ( 3 . ) C . ) C l ) 0 1 1 r — I

4 3 ,4

C D r . l

c . f

T 1 G . 1 C U 1 1

0

W

C 1 ) • ) I . 5 0 0 C D

C 1 )

C • 1

0 r l 1 •• 4

W

0 c u c a

L i _

> / 1 .

r n

A l luv ium

C O

W

2. 4

12 P ee t

N Peaty

C O

( 1. )

c o

0

d

C O r i 4

4 2

1 1 0

C I )

8

0

r

4 J

C I )

C O 0

W

C O

4 J

C . )

c i )

c s ,

o

C . ) W • ) 1 . 1 • J

e 0. o 0

4 . ,

C Z c O c . ) 0 ec

C U

84 t i

1 97

2 35

.

5 0-

5 0

P3

P 2 i

. 0

' I s land . ' P2 ‘,

P 1 '

-Dyke 4 6-'

. 5, .

O akhurst

F arm P2

r , v i . , c . › , c )

7

4 5

45

P 3

P 1

N ortho lm

P2

F arm

_ > , o

.

P3

_

— P 1

4 0

40

-

c 3 . ,

P 2-

P3

_

P4

P5

_

P 6 3 5 -

35

( Br ick

P i t)

0

5 00 m 2 35

F ig .

4 .

.

. C F

T he l ocation m ap o f t he O akhurst F arm s and ' island ' P rofile 2 ) ( 1:

2 , 500),

p lus

v icinity.

1 98

( Dyke 4 6,

t he o ther s urveyed d ykes

i n t he

—

a

r epresentative

I 1 I

z—

a

E

g ( N 1

( 1 ) r 1 L H 0

W—

a )

z

• r 1 c 2

> .. 2

o2

a .

\\ ,

o 0 I

, \ % k ‘2 .

z—

C I _ C O

I

L U

1 99

— a ;

= o

C

a n

L I —

I

0

a .*

_

•

' islands ' i n M orris F en ( 1 :

G 0 I A C I

.

2 00 T he ' island ' a t P rofile 2 ,

I t

I 1

I M U l a \

IMU

32ä I if

1 . c : u 3

c i

2 01

a n a pedal ,

r elatively n on-porous ( 5% t otal p orosity) , l ight y ellowish b rawn

( 10YR6/4) s andy

l oam t o

l oamy s and w ith a f ew s cattered f lint g ravel

p ebbles , c . 1 5 c m . t hick , d eveloped o n a s tructureless , b rownish y ellow ( 10YR6/8) s and a nd f ine g ravel s ubsoil . A gain t here w as n o h orizonisation o f t he b uried s oils e vident i n t he f ield .

T he M icromorphology A s

t he d etail

o f

t he s oil m icromorphology

o f

t he p alaeosols a t a ll

t hree ' i sland ' s ites i s s o s imilar , t he r esults w ill b e d iscussed t ogether . A t t he O akhurst F arm a nd M orris F en ' i sland ' s ites , t he u pper o ne-third t o o ne-half o f t he b uried s oil p rofile ( c . 5 -7 c m t hick) i s p robably a n E b h orizon .

T his e luvial h orizon i s c haracterised b y :

a c oarse f raction ( c .

2 0-30% ) o f a bundant m edium s and-size q uartz g rains a nd a f ine f raction ( 72 . 7 0-80%) c omprising f ine a nd v ery f ine s and-size q uartz g rains ( c . 7 5-95% )-, w ith s mall a mounts o f s ilt ( c . 3 -10%) a nd c lay ( c . 2 -15%) ; o ccasional ( 5% ) o rganic m atter i n t he g roundmass ; a nd r are t o o ccasional ( c . 1 -5% ) l impid a nd d usty c lay c oatings i n t he g roundmass . T he l ower t wo-thirds t o o ne-half ( c . 8 -10 c m t hick) o f t he b uried s oil p rofile a t t he O akhurst F arm a nd M orris F en s ites , a nd t he c omplete b uried s oil p rofile a t C rowtree F arm s ite , a re p robably i lluvial a rgillic o r B t h orizons o f a rgillic b rown e arths ( Avery 1 980 ; M cKeague 1 983) . A t a ll t hree s ites, t he i lluvial h orizon b ecomes b etter d eveloped a nd m ore p ronounced , i n t erms o f t he i ncreased a bundance o f c lay c oatings , t owards t he l ower h alf o f t he h orizon ( c . 4 -7 c m t hick ) . T hree p ossible p hases o f c lay i lluviation h ave b een i dentified .

I n

t he f irst p hase , t here a re r are t o o ccasional ( < 3%) , m oderately b irefringent l impid a nd l aminated , s peckled d usty c lay c oatings o n g rains , a s i nfills i n t he g roundmass a nd o n t he v oids . I n p articular , t he r elative s carcity o f l impid c lay , w hich i s n ormally a ssociated w ith a n u ndisturbed w oodland c over ( Fisher 1 982 ; M acphail 1 985 ; S lager a nd v an d e W etering 1 977) , s uggests t hat r elatively l ittle c lay t ranslocation h ad o ccurred b efore i nterference b y m an i n t he l ater M esolithic/earlier N eolithic . I t i s g enerally t hought t hat t he m ajor p eriods o f c lay t ranslocation i n t he F landrian w ere t he A tlantic ( Fedoroff 1 969 ; K eeley 1 982) a nd t he s ub-Boreal p eriods ( Keeley 1 982; K waad a nd M iIcher 1 977) . C lay t ranslocation i nvolves t he r emoval o f c lay f rom t he A a nd E b h orizon s a nd i ts d eposition a s c oatings w ithin t he v oids a nd t he b -fabric i n t he a rgillic h orizon ( Bullock a nd M urphy 1 979 ; M cKeague 1 983) . S ome c lay i lluviation m ay a lso h ave o ccurred p reviously i n t he l ate D evensian a nd e arly F landrian ( Bullock a nd M urphy 1 979) . A t t hese t imes , s easonally d ry p eriods a lternating w ith m oist p eriods p rovided o ptimum c onditions f or c lay t ranslocation ( Bullock a nd M urphy 1 979) . I n t he s econd p hase ,

t here a re m any ( c . 5-10%) n on-laminated , w eakly

s peckled d usty c oatings o n g rains a nd a s i nfills i n t he g roundmass .

T heir

p redominance p robably i ndicates f orest c learance a t a ll t hree s ites b ecause s oil d isturbance d amages t he s oil p eds s o t hat c oarse m aterial c an b e m obilised ( MacPhail 1 985 , 1 986 ; S lager a nd v an d e W etering 1 977) . T here a re o ther p edological f eatures t hat a re a lso i ndicative o f s oil d isturbance

a ssociated

V ery f ine s and-size ,

w ith

p ossible

t ree

c learance

a t

a ll

t hree

s ites .

s ub-angular f ragments o f l impid a nd d usty c lay o ccur

r arely a nd r andomly w ithin t he g roundmass a nd v oid s pace .

2 02

T hus c lay

c oatings a ppear t o h ave b een b roken u p .

A lso , l oose a ggregates o f f ine s and

a re o ccasionally f ound a s c hannel i nfills .

I n a ddition , a t t he M orris F en

s ite , t here a re t wo a nomalous f abrics i n t he u pper p art o f t he B t h orizon : f abric ( i) c onsists m ainly o f d isaggregated f ine s and w ith m uch p ore s pace , a nd l ittle c lay a nd o rganic m atter , a nd e xhibits h orizontal l amination , w ith f abric

( ii)

w hich

c onsists

o f

a pproximately

e qual

p roportions

o f

o rganic/sesquioxide-stained f ine s and a nd c lay . T his s uggests t hat t here w ere t wo m aterials i nvolved o r p ossibly t wo p hases o f s oil d isturbance a t t he M orris F en s ite . O n t he o ther h and, a t O akhurst F arm , t here a re s uccessive , o ccasional ( ( 5%) v oid i nfills o f f erruginised d usty/ 'dirty ' c lay , g iving a ' layered ' a ppearance . I n o ne v oid i nfill t hree l ayers o r ' laminations ' a re e vident, w hich c ould i ndicate t hree p hases o f s oil d isturbance , o r v ariations i n t ranslocation , a fter o ne d isturbance e vent . I n t he t hird p hase , m any ( c . 1 5% ) o f t he l aminated a nd n on-lam inated d usty c lay c oatings i n t he g roundmass a nd t he v oid s pace a ppear t o c ontain a morphous o rganic m atter g iving t hem a ' d irty ' a ppearance . T his t ype o f ' coarse ' i lluviation d oes n ot n ormally o ccur u nder s table f orest ( or g rassland) c onditions ( Imeson a nd J ungerius 1 974) . I n t his c ase , t he t ranslocation o f c lay w ith o rganic m atter m ay b e a ssociated w ith f urther d isturbance o f t he p rehistoric s oil . I t i s p robable t hat s ome o f t his l ater ' coarse ' i lluviation m ay b e a ssociated w ith s oil d isturbance c aused b y t ree c learance a nd i n p articular t ree-throw , a s i nterpreted a t H azelton l ong c airn ( Macphail 1 985) . A ll

t his

e vidence

o f p ossible c learance a nd s oil

d isturbance m ay b e

a ssociated w ith t he u se o f t he t hree s and ' islands ' i n t he l ater M esolithic/earlier N eolithic . S imilar m icromorphological e vidence w as f ound i n m esolithic s oils A t S elmeston ( Macphail, i n R udling 1 985) a nd H igh R ocks i n S ussex ( Macphail e t a l . 1 987) f or l ittle c lay t ranslocation u nder a p resumed A tlantic f orest o ccurring p rior t o m esolithic i nterference , f ollowed b y l engthy m inor c learance . O n t he o ther h and , m icrofabric e vidence o f m ore e stablished f orested c onditions f ollowed b y c learance h as b een o bserved i n t hin s ections f rom t he n earby l ower W elland v alley/fen m argin i nterface s ites a t t he M axey n eolithic h enge ( Figs . 1 & 2 , s ite 3 ) ( Pryor a nd F rench 1 985) , t he m iddle n eolithic c ausewayed e nclosure s ite a t E tton ( Figs . 1&2 , s ite 2 ) a nd t he e arlier n eolithic s ite a t E tton W oodgate ( Figs . 1 & 2 , s ite 1 ) ( Pryor e t a l . 1 985) . A fter t hese e vents t he p alaeosols a t a ll t hree ' i sland ' s ites s uffered s oil e rosion . T runcation o f t he A a nd E b h orizons o ccurred a t C rawtree F arm a nd o f a t l east t he A h orizon o f t he O akhurst F arm a nd M orris F en s ites . C ertainly o nce t hese u nconsolidated s and ' i slands ' l ost t heir v egetation c over a fter c learance , t hey w ould h ave b een v ery s usceptible t o e rosion . S uch e xtensive s oil e rosion w as p robably c oincident w ith e ither f reshwater f looding a ssociated w ith t he g rowth o f t he L ower P eat , a nd/or w ith t he s ubsequent m arine t ransgression w hich l ed t o t he d eposition o f t he F en C lay . T he b uried s oil a t e ach s ite e xhibits m any ( 5-10%) i mpregnated ,

n on-laminated ,

w eakly b irefringent

s esquioxide-

d usty/ 'dirty ' c lay c oating

p seudamorphs o f r oots o r s tems . T hey m ay e ither r eflect t he r ooting o f f en a nd s alt m arsh p lants i n t he t runcated s oils o n t hese ' i sland ' s ites , o r p ossibly b e r elics o f p revious v egetation g rowing i n s itu b efore t he f looding a nd s oil t runcation o ccurred . M uch

o f

t he

s oil

f abric

a nd

p re-existing

2 03

c lay c oatings h ave b ecome

i mpregnated b y

s esquioxides .

Many ( 5-10%) d usty

c oatings

i n t he B t

h orizons o f a ll t hree p alaeosols h ave b ecome i mpregnated w ith i ron o xides a nd h ydroxides . T he s oil f abric a lso e xhibits z ones o f s esquioxide i mpregnation ( from c . 5 0-75% o f t he g roundmass) . T his h ydromorphic e ffect ( Duchaufour 1 982) p robably i ndicates a lternating w et a nd d ry c onditions ( Limbrey 1 975) , w hich u noudbtedly r eflects f looding , f luctuating w ater t ables a nd s easonal w aterlogging t hroughout t he l ife o f t he b uried s oils a t a ll t hree s ites . T he E ye P eninsula L andscape T he s urvey o f p eninsula ( Fig .

2 ,

t he f en b asin i mmediately t o t he n orth o f

t he E ye

' site ' 7 ) h as r evealed a n e normous a creage o f e arly

p rehistoric l andscape w hich L ower P eat a nd t he F en C lay .

i s

b uried

b y

v ery t hin ,

o ften d iscontinuous ,

T he b uried s oil e xposed i n c leaned d yke s ections g enerally e xhibits t wo h orizons ( Fig . 8 ) . T he u pper h orrizon c onsists o f a c . 8 c m t hick , a pedal , s lightly p orous ( c . 5 10%) t otal p orosity) , p inkish g rey ( 5YR6/2) g ravel-free l oam . I t h ai— a m erging , u ndulating b oundary w ith t he c . 4 c m t hick , a pedal , s omewhat p orous s andy c lay l oam ( 7 .5YR6/2) l ower h orizon . T his s oil i s d eveloped o n f en g ravel d eposits o f s ilty c lay ( 10YR7/4) , s and a nd g ravel, w ith a rchaeological f eatures o ccasionally c ut i nto t hem . T he m icromorphology o f t he b uried s oil

i s r emarkably s imilar t o t hat

o bserved a t t he O akhurst F arm a nd M orris F en ' i sland ' s ites . T he u pper h orizon i s c haracterised b y a r elatively d ense f abric , d ominated b y v ery f ine ( c . 4 0%) a nd f ine ( c .

2 5%) s and w ith s maller a mounts o f m edium s and

2 0%) , a nd a f ine f abric w ith c . 5 % s ilt a nd c . 1 0% c lay . A lthough t here i ; ag reater o rganic c ontent t han i n t he E h h orizons a t t he o ther t hree s ites , i t i s c omposed m ainly o f a bundant ( 10-20%) m odern r oots o f p lants p reviously g rowing o n t he d yke-edge a nd f ine f lecks o f c harcoal, whereas t he f ine f abric i s g enerally d epleted o f o rganic m atter . T extural f eatures a re r are ( c . 1 %) . T hus , t his h orizon i s p robably a n e luvial E h h orizon . I n t he r are

( 1-2%)

l ower h orizon c lay c oatings s ub-angular f ragments

o f

a re a bundant l impid

( 10-20%) .

T here a re

c lay i n t he g roundmass:

o ccasional ( 3-5%) l aminated , s peckled d usty c lay c oatings a nd m any ( 5-10% ) n on-laminated , w eakly s peckled d usty c lay c oatings , b oth a s i nfills i n t he g roundmass a nd a s v oid a nd g rain c oatings . A gain , t his l ower h orizon a ppears t o b e a n i lluvial B t o r a rgillic h orizon ( Avery 1 930 ; 1 983) , a s a t t he t hree b uried ' i sland ' s ites .

M cKeague

T he l impid c lay ( fragments) a nd t he l aminated d usty c lay c oatings w ere p robably d eveloped u nder s table f orested c onditions ( Fisher 1 982 ;

M acphail

1 985 ; S lager a nd v an d e W etering 1 977) . T he s econd p hase o f c lay i lluviation , r epresented b y t he a bundant n on-lam inated d usty c lay c oatings , m ay i ndicate t hat t he f orest w as s ubsequently o pened-up ( Macphail 1 985 ; 1 986) i n t his a rea o f t he f en m argin d uring t he l ater M esolithic/earlier N eolithic . T hen t here i s a t hird a nd s ubsequent p hase o f p edogenesis i ndicated b y t hree t extural/fabric f eatures .

M any

( 5-10% ) n on-laminated ,

d usty/ 'dirty '

c lay c oatings c ontaining a morphous o rganic m atter o ccur i n d iscrete a reas o f t he g roundmass . B oth l aminated a nd n on-laminated d usty c lay c oatings r arely

(< 2% )

c ontain f ine s and-size m aterial a cting a s i nfills .

A lso ,

s ome o f t he l aminated d usty c lay c oatings c hange t heir o rientation a bruptly .

2 04

I .

S :

Z a > IXO r s , a

. .

_ t ö 7a e xo

25

. -

ea e xo

,

2

,

I

,

'

C . )

0

g

a _

F en G rave l

U pper

P ea t

g

3

a _ 2 •

Eö

c i

2 05

A ll t hese f eatures i ndicate f urther s oil d isturbance , p robably a s a r esult o f t he c ontinued o pening-up o f t he f orest c over a nd p ossibly t ree-throw . I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he c hannel i nfills a nd t he s ideweys t ipping o f c lay c oatings m ay r esult

f rom s oil

d isturbance c aused b y

t he e rosion a nd

t runcation o f t he u pper h alf o f t he s oil p rofile c oincident w ith t he s ubsequent f reshwater f looding a nd m arine i ncursion i n t he N eolithic .

C onclusion

1 )

T he f our f enland p rofiles e xamined e xhibit r emarkable u niformity . I n g eneral t he b uried s oils a re p artially t runcated a rgillic b rawn e arths . I n p rofiles a t E ye , O akhurst F arm a nd M orris F en t he b ase o f t he E b a nd t he u nderlying B t h orizons a re p reserved , a nd a t C rowtree F arm o nly t he B t h orizon r emains i ntact .

2

T hese p alaeosols a re s ealed b eneath t he L ower P eat , F en

C lay a nd t he

U pper P eat . T he f ormer f orms a t hin , d iscontinuous l ayer o ver t he t hree ' i sland ' s ites a nd t he E ye l andscape . C onsequently t hese s oils p robably d ate t o t he l ater M esolithic/early N eolithic . R adiocarbon d ates a re a waited . A ll t he s ites w ould b e u ndetectable b y s urface s urvey . 3 )

T he u pper e luvial E b h orizon o f t he b uried s oil a t E ye , O akhurst F arm a nd M orris F en i s c haracterised b y a n a pedal, r elatively n on-porous , s andy l oam t o l oamy s and , l argely d evoid o f o rganic m atter a nd i lluvial c lay .

4 )

T he l ower i lluvial B i h orizon f ound a t a ll f our s ites b ecomes b etter d eveloped w ith

d epth .

I t

i s

c haracterised

b y

a n a pedal ,

s omewhat

p orous , s andy l oam t o s and , w ith a bundant i lluvial c lay c oatings . 5 )

F our p hases o f p edogenesis a re d iscernable i n t he B t h orizons o f a ll f our p alaeosols .

( 1 )

F irst , t here a re r are t o o ccasional o riented l impid a nd d usty c lay c oatings .

T his m ay s uggest

a r elatively s hort

p eriod

o f

' pure '

c lay i lluviation u nder a p resumed B oreal/Atlantic f orest . T he r elative s carcity o f o riented c lay m ay a lso s uggest t hat t he f orest c over w as n either d ense n or well d eveloped . N evertheless , c onclusions a bout t he c omposition a nd d ensity o f t he f orest c over m ust a wait t he c ompletion o f t he p ollen a nalyses ( Scaife , i n p rep .) . ( ii)

S econd ,

t here a re m any o riented d usty c lay c oatings .

T he

p redominance o f t his ' impure ' c lay t ranslocation i s p robably r elated t o t he o pening-up o f t he f orest c over . T his w as p robably a ssociated w ith t he u se o f t hese a reas b y m esolithic a nd e arly n eolithic M2116 T hese s and ' i slands ' a nd t he h igher ' skirt l and ' a round t he n orthern s ide o f E ye p eninsula w ould h ave b een a reas o f d ry g round a bove t he i nfluence o f t he e ncroaching , g rowing f reshwater w ood/reed f en ( or t he L ower P eat) . T he f elled t rees w ould h ave p rovided v aluable b uilding a nd f uel m aterials . F urthermore t hese s ites w ould h ave b een i deally p laced t o u tilise t he a bundant r esources o f t he a djacent f en , s uch a s f ish , f owl , r eeds a nd f en w ood s pecies . N evertheless , e vidence f or t he e xact n ature o f h uman u se o f t hese s ites c an o nly b e o btained f rom

2 06

f uture e xcavation . ( iii) T here i s

c onsiderable f urther e vidence f or s oil d isturbance a t

a ll f our s ites , p robably a ssociated w ith t he c ontinued o pening-up o f t he f orest c over , a nd p ossibly t ree-throw .

F or e xample , t here

i s ' coarse ' i lluviation o f i mpure c lay a nd o rganic m atter r esulting i n ' d irty ' c lay c oatings ; t he p resence o f f ragments o f o riented c lay ; f ine s and-size m aterial a cting a s i nfills i n o riented a nd u noriented c lay ; a nd c hannel i nfills o f f ine s and s ize m aterial . I n a ddition t here i s p ossible e vidence f or s uccessive p hases

o f

s oil

d isturbance a t t wo o f t he s ites .

A t

t he M orris F en s ite t he p resence o f i ntrusive , ' layered ' f abrics a re s uggestive o f d isturbance c ausing t wo s oil m aterials t o w ash d own . A t O akhurst F arm h owever , a s uccession o f d usty/ 'dirty ' c lay v oid i nfills m ay i ndicate a t l east t hree s uccessive p hases o f s oil d isturbance , o r v ariations i n t ranslocation a fter o ne d isturbance e vent . T ogether t hese p edological f eatures m ay i ndicate m ore s ites. ( iv)

l engthy

c learance

a nd

s oil

d isturbance

a t

t hese

T he b uried s oils a t e ach s ite w ere t hen p artially t runcated , r emoving t he A h orizon a t a ll f our s ites, a s w ell a s t he E b h orizon a t C rawtree F arm . S ome o f t he s oil d isturbance f eatures n oted p reviously ,

a nd i n p articular t he c hannel i nfills o f f ine

s and-size m aterial a nd t he s ideways t ipping o f c lay c oatings a t E ye , m ay p ossibly b e a ssociated w ith t his e rosion e vent o r e vents . T he e rosion a nd c oincident t runcation o f t he m esolithic/early n eolithic s oils m ay b e a ssociated w ith t he s ubsequent f reshwater f looding e pisode r epresented b y t he L ower P eat a nd t he l ater m arine i ncursion w hich d eposited t he F en C lay . 6 )

T hese p alaeosols d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een w aterlogged w hen t hey w ere f requented b y m an d uring t he l ater Mesolithic/earlier N eolithic , b ecause c lay d oes n ot r eadily t ranslocate i n w aterlogged s oils . T he s esquioxide i mpregnation o f t he b uried s oils i s a l ater , s econdary , p rocess p robably a ssociated w ith t he g rowth o f t he L ower P eat .

7 )

I t i s n ow p ossible t o b egin t o e nvisage t he n ature o f t his e arly p rehistoric l andscape .

T he l ow-lying a reas w ould p robably h ave b een

c haracterised b y m eandering s treams a nd g rowing p eat f en . S ome o pening-up o f t he p resumably w ooded , d rier a nd h igher g round o f t he f en m argins

a nd o n t he f en ' i slands ' m ay h ave b egun .

T hese a reas w ere

f requented , a t l east t emporarily , b y m an b ecause t hey w ere d ry g round a s w ell a s f or t heir a ccessibility t o , a nd a bundance o f, n atural r esources . M an m ay n ot n ecessarily h ave b een l iving p ermanently i n t his l andscape . M oreover , t hese s ites w ould h ave b een w ithin s ight a nd c anoeing d istance o f e ach o ther . 8 )

T he m ajor i mplication o f t his w ork i s t hat i t i s p ossible ,

u sing s oil

m icromorphological t echniques , t o m ap t he p rehistoric o r p re-burial s oil t ypes p resent a nd t o d iscern t he n ature o f t he e arly s oil d evelopment i n t he p re-fen l andscape o f C ambridgeshire , a nd i ndeed t he w hole o f t he E ast A nglian f enland .

2 07

P roblems a nd t he F uture M any f enland p rehistoric s ites , a t l east i n t he N orth L evel a rea o f t he C ambridgeshire f ens, w ere p robably n ot w aterlogged when i n u se b y m an , e xcept p erhaps s easonally a nd a round t he l ower-lying e dges o f t he s ites . T herefore , t he w aterlogged a nd c onsequently p reserved , e vidence m ay n ot n ecessarily b e a ssociated w ith t he a rchaeological r ecord , a t l east f or t hese e arlier p rehistoric s ites . Even i f b y c hance , t he t wo r ecords a re a ssociated , t hey m ay n o l onger b e w ell p reserved . T he s tudy o f d e-watering a nd d esiccation a t t he E tton n eolithic c ausewayed e nclosure ( French a nd T aylor 1 985) h as s hown f orcibly h ow a o nce-waterlogged s ite m ay b egin t o d ry o ut i n a f ew m onths a nd b ecome l ike a ny o ther d ry l and g ravel t errace s ite i n t wo t o t hree y ears . D yke s urvey h as a lso s hown h ow a ll t he s ites d iscussed i n t his p aper a re f rom 1 t o 2 . 5 m etres a bove t he a rtificially m aintained w ater t able , a nd h ave b een ' f or a t l east t en y ears . T his d oes n ot b ode w ell f or t he p reservation o f o nce-waterlogged s ites i n t his p art o f t he f enland . I t i s t herefore e ssential t o i nvestigate m arginal t opographical e nvironments , e specially t he e dges o f t he f en ' i slands ' a nd t he m argins o f t he f en p eninsulas . T here m ay b e f ound t he b est s pectrum o f c omplementary e vidence , f rom w et s ediments o ff-site , a nd s lightly d amp ' i sland '/peninsula s urfaces . O nce p otentially w ell i dentified d eterm ined .

p reserved s ites

a nd

d amp m arginal a reas

l andscapes h ave b een

i n t he f ens, a p olicy f or t heir f uture s urvival m ust b e I n v iew o f t he s evere d esiccation , i ntensive a rable p ractices

a nd h igh l and p rices i n t his p art o f t he f enland ,

t he s cheduling o f t hese

s ites a nd l andscapes a s aw ay o f p reserving t hem , i mpossible t ask , a t l east a t p resent . I n a ny c ase ,

i s m ore o r l ess a n t here m ust f irst b e

b etter a ssessment o f t he p otential p reservation , a nd t his m ust b e f ollowed u p b y r egular m onitoring o f t he c onditions o f p reservation t o e nsure t hat t he s ites a re i ndeed p reserved a s w ell a s c onserved . I t i s a lso a pparent t hat m any o f t he b uried s oil l andscapes i n t he f enland h ave o ften s uffered q uite s evere s oil e rosion a s a r esult o f f looding :

m uch m ore s o t han w as

e xpected .

T his

e rosion m ust h ave b een

c atastrophic i n h uman t erms a lone , a nd t herefore o n t he n ature o f t he a rchaeological r ecord . C onsequently , t he i dentification a nd i nterpretation o f

t he n atural

g eophysical

p rocesses m ust b e m ade h and

i n h and w ith

t he

a rchaeological o bservations f or t he l atter t o b e p roperly u nderstood . T hus , d espite t he d etailed d yke s urvey a nd s oil m icromorphological w ork i n t he N orth L evel o f t he C ambridgeshire f enland , t his w ork h as o nly b egun t o s cratch t he s urface o f t he p otential a rchaeological a nd e nvironmental r ecords .

A re

t hese

b uried

' island '

s ites

a ctually

s ites?

H ow

r epresentative o f t he p rehistoric l andscape a re t hey? H ow d o t hey r elate t o t he a rchaeological r ecord o f t he f en m argin a reas s uch a s a t E tton , M axey a nd F engate o n t he w estern f en e dge? O n b alance , t here r eally i s n o a nswer b ut t o e xcavate s ome o f t hese ' sites ' a nd p arts o f t he b uried l andscapes t o s ee w hat w e a re d ealing w ith . O nly t hen m ay a s trategy f or t he f uture o f t his b uried p rehistoric l andscape b e d ecided .

A cknowledgements I w ould e specially

l ike

t o t hank D r .

R .I .

M acphail

o f t he I nstitute o f

A rchaeology , L ondon , a nd D r . F .M .M . P ryor o f F enland A rchaeological T rust .

2 08

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( 1982)

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5 9-76 . P edology . L ondon : G eorge , A llen a nd U nwin .

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Q uaternaires e n F rance . I n : E tude s ur l e Q uaternaire d ans l e Monde . 9 th I .N .Q .U .A . C ongress . F isher , P .F . ( 1982) A R eview o f L essivage a nd N eolithic C ultivation i n S outhern E ngland . F rench , C .A .I .

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W elland V alley a nd t he F en Margin N orth o f P eterborough , C ambridgeshire . I n : Man-Made S oils ( eds . G roenman-van W aateringe, W . a nd R obinson , M .) B ritish A rchaeological R eports. G odwin ,

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I meson , A .C . a nd J ungerius, P .D . ( 1974) L andscape s tability i n t he L uxembourg A rdennes a s e xemplified b y h ydrological a nd ( micro ) p edological i nvestigations o f a c atena i n a n e xperimental w atershed . C atena I 2 73-295 . K eeley, H .C .M .

( 1982)

P edogenesis

B ritain . I n : H arding , A .F .)

d uring t he

l ater p rehistoric p eriod i n

C limatic C hange i n L ater P rehistory p p . 1 03113 .

( ed .

K waad , F .J .P .M . , a nd M ücher , H .J . ( 1977) T he e volution o f s oils a nd s lope d eposits i n t he L uxembourg A rdennes n ear W iltz . G eoderma 1 7 1 3 7. L imbrey ,

S .

( 1975)

M cKeague , J .A .

S oil S cience a nd A rchaeology .

( 1983)

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A cademic P ress . horizons.

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M acphail , R .I. ( 1986) P aleosols i n A rchaeology: Their Role i n U nderstanding F landrian P edogenesis . I n : P aleosols: t heir r ecognition a nd i nterpretation . ( ed . W right , V .P .) C hapter 9 O xford : B lackwell S cientific P ublications p p . 2 63-290 . M acphail ,

R .I .

( 1987)

I n :

H .C .M .) M acPhail , R .I .

A r eview o f s oil s cience i n a rchaeology i n E ngland .

E nvironmental a rchaeology : ar egional r eview 2 ( ed . K eeley , L ondon : H .B .M .C .Occasional

( 1985)

P aper p p . 3 32-377 .

S oil R eport o n H azelton L ong C airn , G loucestershire

U npublished A ncient M onuments L aboratory R eport N o . A rch ( 3SP) 1 86. M acphail , R .I .,

R omans,

J .C .C .

a nd R obertson ,

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( 1987) T he a pplication

o f m icromorphology t o t he u nderstanding o f H olocene s oil d evelopment i n t he B ritish I sles ; w ith s pecial r eference t o e arly

c ultivation .

I n :

S oil M icromorphology

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( eds .

F edoroff ,

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F .M .M . ( 1985) D yke s urvey : A n i mperfect a pproach t o t he i nvisible . A rchaeological R eview f rom C ambridge 4 . I5 -14 .

P ryor , F .M .M .

a nd F rench ,

C .A .I

( 1985)

A rchaeology a nd E nvironment i n t he

L ower W elland V alley . E ast A nglian A rchaeology 2 7/ F enland P roject M onograph I . P ryor ,

F .M .M . ,

F rench ,

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C .A .I .

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Maxey,

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( 1985) S ussex .

S caife , R .

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R ecent A rchaeological R esearch a t S ussex A rchaeological C ollections

( in p rep .) .

S elmeston ,

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1 23 1 -25 .

T he D yke S urvey P ollen Analyses .

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S outh-West F en D yke S urvey P roject , 1 982-6 . ( French , C .A .I . a nd P ryor , F .M .M .) E ast A nglian A rchaeology/Fenland P roject M onograph .

2 10

S lager , S . a nd v an d e W etering , H .T .J . ( 1977) S oil F ormation i n A rchaeological P its a nd A djacent L oess S oils i n S outhern G ermany. J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 4 2 59-267. Z alaciewicz, J .

( 1985/6)

S edimentological E volution o f t he F enland D uring

t he F landrian : P roblems a nd P rospects . 4 5-49 .

2 11

F enland R esearch N o . 3 ,

W ETLAND D EVELOPMENT A ND H UMAN A CTIVITY I N E SSEX E STUARIES D URING T HE H OLOCENE T RANSGRESSION T .J. W ilkinson a nd P . M urphy , w ith S . J uggins a nd K . M anson

I ntroduction A ccording t o C oles ( 1984 :1) ' A w etland i s a ny a rea o f l and c overed b y w ater f or p art o f t he y ear , o r o f e ach d ay , o r w hich h as b een d rowned b y w ater a t a ny t ime i n i ts e xistence ' . H e c ontinues b y d efining f our m ain c ategories o f w etland :

p onds o r l akes ,

m arshes ,

s wamps a nd p eat

b ogs .

I n

c oastal s equences a t l east t wo o f t hese b road c ategories - r eed s wamps a nd s alt m arshes - c an b e d etected . C oles ' a ddition o f af ifth c ategory , n amely a f ormer d ry l and s urface w hich h as b een o verwhelmed b y w ater , c an a lso b e a pplied t o c oastal a nd e stuarine s ites s ubmerged b y r ising s ea l evel. A pplied g enerously , t his c ategory c ould i nclude a ll t ypes o f c oastline , b ut i n t his p aper w e w ill c onsider m ainly t hose a reas o f c oastline w here w aterlogging h as r esulted i n t he p reservation o f e arly o rganic r emains o f e ither n atural o r h uman o rigin . B y e xamining a rchaeological s ites a nd s edimentary s equences w ithin t he m ain e stuaries o f t he E ssex c oast i t h as b een p ossible t o s how t hat w etland d evelopment f ollowed o n f rom a n i nitial d ry l and p hase d uring t he e arly H olocene . S ince t he e arly s econd m illennium , w hen m uch o f t he p resent i ntertidal z one b ecame a w etland , t he t ype o f w etland h as v aried b oth c hronologically a nd s patially . F urthermore w etland c onditions h ave b een a rrested a t t imes b y l arge s cale s tabilisation p hases c haracterised b y s ediment r ipening a nd t he d evelopment o f s oil s tructure . I n t his p aper w e w ill s ummarise t he s edimentary s equences a nd m icro a nd m acrofossil d ata r elevant t o t he s equential d evelopment o f c oastal w etlands i n E ssex . F ollowing a n i ntroduction t o t he H ullbridge P roject ,

f rom w hich t hese

r esults h ave b een d rawn , w e w ill o utline t he e vidence f rom E ssex f or a r ise i n r elative s ea l evel . N ext , t he s tratigraphic a nd b iological e vidence f or t he e volution o f w etlands i n t hree s tudy a reas i s o utlined . T his i s f ollowed b y a g eneral d escription o f t he t ypes o f a rchaeological e vidence f rom s uch e nvironments . F inally , s ome o f t he u nderlying m echanisms o f i ntertidal w etland d evelopment a re c onsidered i n r elation t o t he p hysical g eography o f e stuaries a nd H olocene s ea l evel r ise . T he H ullbridge P roject w as i nitiated i n 1 982 b y J ohn H edges , t he E ssex C ounty C ouncil A rchaeology S ection ,

a nd h as

t hen o f

b een f unded b y t he

D epartment o f t he E nvironment , a nd i n l ater y ears b y H BMC a nd t he B ritish M useum . T he o bjective , i nitially , w as t o f ind a nd r ecord a rchaeological s ites w ithin t he i ntertidal z one o f p art o f t he U pper C rouch E stuary n ear H ullbridge ( Fig . 1 ) a nd t o p lace t hem w ithin a s tratigraphic a nd e nvironmental c ontext . S ubsequently , i t w as d ecided t o e xtend t he s urvey t o i nclude t he e ntire C rouch E stuary a nd e ventually t he B lackwater a nd T hames E stuaries a nd p art o f t he o pen c oast . T his m ore e xtensive a pproach w as j ustified b y i nformation p rovided b y t he e arlier s tudies o f H azzledine W arren ( see f or e x ample W arren e t a l . 1 936) , R eader ( 1911) a nd o thers , w ho r ecorded a rchaeological r emains o f m ajor i mportance o n t he s o-called

2 13

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2 51

c over . S ome

e vidence f or a ctivity i n t he a rea p rior t o

c onstruction o f t he

S weet T rack i s p rovided b y t he t ree-ring s tudies ( Morgan 1 984) .

C omparison

o f t he f loating c hronology f or a sh w ith t hat f or o ak i ndicates t hat s ome o f t he a sh w as c ut 3 1 y ears b efore t he t rack w as b uilt , a nd a lso t hat a sh w as b eing c ut a nd a dded t o t he t rack a fter i t w as c onstructed ( Morgan 1 984 : 5 4) . E xamination o f t he a ge d istribution o f t he h azel s tems f rom t he t rack h as s hown t hat s ome f orm o f c oppicing m ay h ave b een t aking p lace : s ignificant p eaks i n t he n umber o f h azel s tems o ccur a t 7 -year i ntervals a fter 4 /5 y ears o ld , t hat i s a t 4 /5 , 1, 1 8 a nd 2 5 y ears o f a ge . T raditionally h azel i s c ut o n a7 -year c ycle a nd t herefore t he w ood m ay r epresent c oppicing s ome 2 5 y ears b efore t he t rack w as b uilt . H owever , t he p eaks m ay r eflect a n atural d istribution ( Morgan 1 984 : 5 4-55) . F inally , o ak f rom t he s outhern e nd o f t he t rack i s f rom i mmature t rees a nd Morgan ( 1984 : 5 1) h as s uggested i t c ould b e f rom s econdary w oodland .

T he e lm d ecline T he f irst e vidence f or a s ustained a ttack o n t he f orest c over o ccurs a t t he A /B

r egional

m ajor c learance

p ollen z one b oundary , e pisode

w here

t he

i s m arked b y a d ecline

b eginning

o f

t he

i n U lmus p ollen ,

f irst

t he e lm

d ecline , d ated c . 2 800 b c ( Table 2 ) . T he c ause o f t he e lm d ecline r ecorded i n t he p eats a nd l ake s ediments o f n orth-western E urope h as b een , a nd c ontinues t o b e , t he s ubject o f m uch s peculation . A r ecent i nvestigation o f p ollen i n m or h umus p rofiles f rom a w oodland r ich i n U lmus u ntil t he r ecent o utbreak o f D utch e lm d isease , h as g iven r esults c onsistent w ith t hose o bserved i n f ossil p ollen d iagrams d ating f rom t he t ime o f t he n eolithic e lm d ecline ( Perry a nd M oore 1 987) . T he i ncrease i n w eed s pecies a ssociated w ith t he e lm d ecline f its i n w ith a d isease-induced e lm d ecline l eading t o a n o pening o f t he w oodland c anopy a nd t herefore i ncreased l ikelihood o f r epresentation o f w eeds i n t he p ollen r ecord . I t i s a lso c onsistent w ith t he i ncreasing e vidence f or f orest c learance a nd c ultivation b efore t he d ecline

( Edwards

a nd H irons

1 984) .

T he p ossibility t hat

a ctivity b y m an m ay h ave f avoured t he s pread o f e lm d isease , h owever , c annot b e r uled o ut ( R ackham 1 980 : 2 66) , a nd t hat m an w as a ctively i nvolved i n c utting d own e lms a nd o ther f orest t rees b y t he t ime o f t he e lm d ecline i s a mply d emonstrated b y t he w ood i dentifications f rom t he S weet T rack ( see O rme a nd C oles 1 985 T able 3 ) . S tratigraphically , t he S weet T rack o ccurs a round t he t ime o f t he e lm d ecline , i .e . t he A /B p ollen z one b oundary , a lthough t here i s a d iscrepancy b etween t he m ajority o f t he d ates f or t he t rack a nd t he d ates f or t he A /B b oundary . Most o f t he d ates f or t he t rack a re c . 3 200 b c w hile t he A /B b oundary a t S weet T W ( Caseldine 1 984 ) a nd a t o ther s ites , e .g . t he A bbot 's W ay ( Beckett a nd H ibbert 1 979) a nd E clipse ( Coles , C aseldine a nd M organ 1 982) , h as b een d ated t o c . 2 800 b c . H owever , t he e vidence i s n ot i rreconcilable b ecause i t i s d ifficult t o b e a bsolutely c ertain o f t he l evel o f t he c ontemporary m ire s urface , a nd t herefore t he a ppropriate p ollen l evels , w hen t he S weet T rack w as c onstructed , e specially a s t he t rack i s q uite a d eep s tructure . G reater c ompaction o f t he p eat u nprotected b y t he t rack m ay a lso b e p artially r esponsible f or t he d iscrepancy . H ence i t i s p ossible t hat t he t rack d ates f rom e arlier t han t he a ccepted l evel o f t he e lm d ecline , i .e . t he A /B b oundary . I t m ust a lso b e r emembered t hat t he A /B b oundary s imply r eflects t he m oment a t w hich c learance a ctivity w as s ufficiently g reat , o r t he r eduction i n U lmus p ollen w as s ufficiently l arge ,

2 52

e nough t o a llow t he p resence o f P lantago l anceolata t o b e r egistered i n t he p ollen r ecord , a nd d oes n ot n ecessarily m ark t he b eginning o f c learance a ctivity i n t he a rea . I t i s c lear f rom t he p ollen d iagrams c overing t his p eriod , b oth r elative a nd i nflux , t hat t he b eginning o f t he d ecline i n U lmus b egan w ell b elow t he A /B b oundary . F urthermore , a m uch e arlier d ate o f 3 3201 -70 b c ( HAR7064) h as r ecently b een o btained f or t he MVE .1/MVE .2 l ocal p ollen a ssemblage z one b oundary , w hich p robably c orresponds t o t he A /B r egional b oundary , i n a d iagram f rom M eare E ast ( Caseldine f orthcoming a ) . T ogether w ith t he p ollen e vidence f rom M eare W est ( Beckett 1 979b) t he r adiocarbon d ate s eems t o p oint t o a ctivity i n t he a rea , p ossibly o n M eare i sland , a t t he t ime t he S weet T rack w as c onstructed . H owever , t he e vidence f or a griculture a t t his t ime i s r elatively s light , a nd i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he t rack w as b uilt b y ac ommunity t hat d id n ot r ely h eavily o n f arming a nd t hat t he t rack w as c onstructed t o h elp e xploitation o f t he a bundant w etland r esources . O ther e xplanations f or c onstruction o f t he S weet t rack h ave b een p ut f orward, i ncluding t hat i t m ay b e a ssociated w ith r itual a ctivity ( Coles a nd C oles 1 986 : 5 9) , b ut t he p urpose o f t he t rack b asically r emains a n e nigma . F inally , e lm f rom t he S weet T rack d oes n ot s how e vidence o f a ttack b y t he b eetle S colytus s colytus , t he v ector o f t he f ungal s uggest t hat c onstruction o f t he t rack p re-dated t he p rehistoric m an s elected o nly h ealthy e lm f or m aking t he d isease w as n ot r esponsible f or t he e lm d ecline . I t m ay

d isease . T his m ay e lm d ecline , t hat t rack , o r t hat e lm b e t hat t he d isease

w as p resent i n t he e lm p opulation ( Girling a nd G reig 1 985) a nd d id n ot t ake o ff u ntil n eolithic m an b egan t o c ut d own t rees o r b ranches , f or w hatever r eason , e ither t o c lear a reas f or a griculture , t o u se t he l eaves f or f odder ( Troels-Smith 1 96 0 , o r t he w ood f or f ires , t ools o r s tructures s uch a s t he S weet T rack . T he c onstruction o f t he S weet T rack a nd l ater s tructures f rom t he L evels ( see t he S omerset L evels P apers f or a d etailed d escription o f t he a rchaeological e vidence) d emonstrates p rehistoric m an 's a bility t o e xploit t he n atural w oodland r esources a vailable, h is a ttempts a t w oodland m anagement, a nd h is k nowledge o f t he s uitability o f c ertain w oods f or c ertain p urposes . I dentification o f w ood f rom t he S weet T rack h as s hown t hat t he n eolithic c ommunities i nvolved i n c onstructing t he t rack w ere l argely e xploiting a d ryland f orest c ommunity . B oth t he wood i dentifications a nd t he o ak t ree-ring s tudies i ndicate a d ifferent s ource o f w ood f or t he n orthern p art o f t he t rack i n c omparison t o t he s outhern p art , a lthough t he c hanges o ccur a t d ifferent p oints a long t he t rack ( Morgan 1 984 : 5 1; O rme a nd C oles 1 985 : 1 6-18) . I t i s p roposed t hat t he m ature o ak t rees u sed i n t he n orthern s ection o f

t he t rack c ame f rom p rimary f orest ,

w hile

t he y ounger t rees u sed i n t he s outhern 2 00m o f t rack p ossibly c ame f rom s econdary w oodland . C oles a nd C oles ( 1986: 6 3) h ave s uggested t hat two c ommunities m ay h ave b een i nvolved i n e xploiting t he t wo a reas o f w oodlant a nd m aking t he t rack .

T he w ood i dentifications a lso s erve t o i llustrate t he i mportance o f a n umber o f s pecies s uch a s T ilia a nd hex , u sually u nder-represented i n p ollen r ecords, a s c omponents o f t he p rimary f orest c ommunity o f t he A tlantic p eriod . I n t he c omparatively c omplex s tructure o f t he S weet T rack i t i s e vident t hat Q uercus a nd T ilia w ere d eliberately s elected t o m ake p lanks , a nd o ther s pecies s uch a s C orylus , S alix a nd I lex t o m ake p egs . T he t ime r equired t o m ake t he S weet T rack , o nce t he m aterials w ere a ssembled o n s ite , c ould h ave b een a s l ittle a s o ne d ay , a lthough f elling , s plitting a nd t ransporting t he w ood w ould p robably h ave t aken s everal w eeks ( Coles a nd

2 53

C oles

1 986 :

6 3) .

A f ull r eview o f t he a rboreal s pecies u sed i n m aking t he

s tructures f ound i n t he L evels , t heir e cology , a nd w oodworking t echnology i s g iven i n O rme a nd C oles ( 1983 ,

1 985) a nd C oles a nd O rme ( 1985) .

P ost e lm d ecline F ollowing t he d ecline i n e lm a t t he b eginning o f z one B ,

ad ecline i n

T ilia o ccurs . T his s equence i s r ecorded i n m ost d iagrams c overing t his p eriod i n t he L evels , a nd m ay r epresent e ither s elective e xploitation o f T ilia o r t he o pening u p o f a n a rea o f w oodland d ominated b y T ilia . H owever t he p ollen i nflux d iagram f rom t he A bbot 's W ay s ite ( Beckett a nd H ibbert 1 976) i ndicates a d ecline i n T ilia a nd Q uercus, F raxinus a nd A lnus c ontemporary w ith t he e lm d ecline . W hether o r n ot t he p ollen r ecord d uring z one B r eflects c learance o f a reas w hich w ere t hen k ept o pen ,

o r w hether t he e vidence r eflects a m osaic

o f c onstantly c hanging l and u se o f c learance , a griculture , r egeneration i s i ndiscernible f rom t he a vailable e vidence .

a bandonment a nd H owever , i t i s

e vident t hat c learance a ctivity w as s ustained i n t he a rea f or a c onsiderable p eriod o f t ime , u p t o 4 00 y ears ( Table 2 ) . T he p ollen ( Beckett a nd H ibbert 1 979 : 5 95-596 ; ( Girling 1 984 :

B eckett 1 979a : 8 2 ; C aseldine 1 984 : 7 8) a nd b eetle e vidence 8 7) t ends t o s uggest t hat t he n ature o f t he a griculture w as

p redominantly p astoral, a lthough t here i s T he s patial d istribution o f t he a ctivity i s o r t wo o bservations c an b e m ade . F irstly , b urtle d uring z one B i s s uggested b y t he

s ome e vidence f or c ultivation . d ifficult t o d etermine , b ut o ne c learance a ctivity o n S hapwick r elatively l ow Ulmus v alues

r ecorded i n t he f ollowing r egeneration z one , z one C , i n t he d iagram f rom t he S weet T rack F actory s ite ( Beckett 1 979a) . I n c omparison , t his z one a t o ther s ites i s c haracterised b y ar eturn t o h igh U lmus v alues . I t i s a rgued t hat t he l ow U lmus v alues r eflect a f ailure o f e lm t o r egenerate o n t he b urtle i sland a s a r esult o f s oil i mpoverishment f ollowing c learance a nd c ultivation . S econdly , t he r egional n ature o f m ost o f t he o ther d iagrams m akes i t d ifficult t o b e c ertain a bout t he d istribution o f a ctivity e lsewhere i n t he a rea . H owever , t here i s t entative p ollen a nd b eetle e vidence f or c learance a nd t he p resence o f l ivestock o n Meare i sland ( Caseldine 1 980: 3 4; G irling 1 980: 3 7-38) , a lthough a n a lternative i nterpretation h as b een p ut f orward b y C oles a nd O rme ( 1982: 7 3) w ho a ttribute t he e nvironmental c hanges a s m uch t o t he a ctivities o f b eaver a s m an . T he n umber o f t rackways d ating f rom t he m iddle-late N eolithic ( see C oles a nd C oles 1 986 : 6 5-84 f or a d escription o f t he s tructures) s upports t he p ollen e vidence f or c learance a ctivity d uring z one B .

T he c omposition

o f t he t rackways p rovides f irm e vidence o f m an ' s a bility t o a dapt t o a c hanging e nvironment a nd e nvironmental r esources . I n t he s tratigraphic r ecord B etula f enwood i ncreases i n f requency , a lthough n ot e verywhere , a nd a t rend t owards u tilisation o f t his r esource i n t he c onstruction o f b irchwood t rackways ( for e xample t he H oneygore c omplex , J ones ' , G arvin 's a nd B isgrove 's) i s o bservable . A t c ertain s ites t here a ppears t o h ave b een d eliberate s election o f w ood o f ac ertain s ize , a nd f or e xample a t H oneycat , o ne o f t he H oneygore s uite o f s ites, t he p resence o f w ood m ainly o f a s imilar a ge m ay r eflect t he u se o f

l ocal

s econdary w oodland ( Coles ,

O rme ,

C aseldine a nd M organ 1 985a : 5 5-56) . A t o ther m iddle-late n eolithic s ites , d efinite e vidence o f w oodland m anagement i s p rovided b y t he u se o f h urdles m ade f rom c oppiced h azel t o m ake t he t rackways, n amely a t Honeybee a n 1 W alton ( Coles , ( J rme , C aseldine a nd M organ 1 985a ; M organ 1 977 ; R ackham 1 977) .

2 54

M inor f luctuations i n t he C oryloid p ollen c urve ( see , f or e xample , C aseldine 1 984 ( Fig . 7 8) m ay r eflect a s ystem o f c oppicing o n t he d ryland , b ut a s w as d iscussed a bove , i nterpretation o f s pecific l and-use p ractices f rom t he p ollen r ecord i s d ifficult . D irect e vidence

f or e xploitation o f t he l ocal w etland e nvironment

d uring z one B i s p rovided b y u se-wear a nalysis o f f lints f rom t he S weet t rack ( Morris 1 984 , B rown 1 986) . G loss o n s ome o f t he f lints i ndicates t hey w ere u sed f or c utting r eed ( Brown 1 986 : 1 6) , w hich w as p robably a cquired d uring c learing o f a p ath t hrough t he l ocal v egetation , a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat r eed w as b eing d eliberately h arvested . O ne f lint i ndicates h ide s craping ( Morris 1 984 : 1 02) a nd t wo f lint f lakes f rom t he m id-late t hird m illennium B aker c omplex a lso s how e vidence o f h aving b een u sed t o c ut s oft m aterial s uch a s h ides ( Brown 1 986 : 1 7) . T he f lints c ould h ave b een u sed t o w ork d eer h ides b ut c ould e qually h ave b een u sed o n h ides f rom d omesticated s tock , t he p resence o f w hich i s t entatively i ndicated b y b eetle ( Girling 1 980 : 3 7-38) a nd p ollen e vidence ( Caseldine 1 980 : 3 4) . W hile c learance a ctivity w as t aking p lace o n t he d ryland o f t he L evels , t hroughout m ost o f t he N eolithic t he w etland e nvironments o f t he B rue v alley a nd S edgemoor w ere d ominated b y s wamp a nd f en c omnunities . P lant m acrofossils r epresented i n T able 1 , a nd r ecorded a t s ites d ating f orm t his p eriod, i nclude P hragmites, C arex s pp" Menyanthes t rifoliata, E leocharis p alustris , S parganium m inimum , S choenoplectus s p . , N ymphaea a lba a nd

T ypha

s p .

a t

t he S weet T rack D rove

( Beckett

1 979a) a nd T G

( Caseldine

1 984) s ites , a nd E leocharis s p" C arex s pp" T ypha s p" a nd L emna s p . a t t he B aker s ite ( Caseldine 1 980), C ommunities c omprising t hese t axa w ould h ave p rovided n ot o nly s uitable h abitats f or f ish a nd w ildfowl b ut a lso a dditional g razing f or c attle ,

s heep , p igs a nd d eer .

T he L ater N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge T owards t he e nd o f t he N eolithic a r egeneration p hase ,

r egional p ollen

z one C , i s r ecorded . I t i s c haracterised b y a r eturn t o h igh U lmus a nd T ilia v alues , a lthough g enerally n ot a s h igh a s i n z one A . D ates f or t he c ommencement o f t his z one v ary f rom c . 2 700-2350 b c ( Table 2 ) ,

p erhaps

p artially d etermined b y t he s patial r elationship o f t he p ollen s ites t o t he a reas o f r egeneration . A t m ost p ollen s ites , a fter a n i nitial a brupt r ise , U lmus v alues i ncrease g radually , p erhaps s uggesting w idespread a bandonment o f o pen l and f ollowed e ither b y am ore g radual r eduction i n a ctivity o r a g radual i ncrease i n U lmus i n c omparison t o o ther t rees , w hile a ctivity l evels s tayed t he s ame . A t t he b eginning o f t he f ollowing z one , r egional p ollen z one D d ated c . 2 000-2300 b c ( n able 2 ) t here i s af all i n U lmus v alues w hile T ilia v alues r emain h igh . H erb t axa c haracteristic o f c learance a re p oorly r epresented , a s i n t he p revious z one . T he o nly d ifference b etween z one D a nd t he n ext z one, z one E , az one n ot i dentifiable i n e very p ollen d iagram f rom t he L evels , i s as light i ncrease i n U lmus . T he d ecrease i n c learance a ctivity i n z one C , a nd a pparent l ow l evels o f a ctivity i n z ones D a nd E , m ay b e i nterpreted i n o ne o f t wo w ays, o r p ossibly a s a c ombination o f b oth . T he d ecrease m ay r eflect a r eduction i n p opulation l evels i n t he a rea o r a c hange i n a gricultural

p ractices .

T he

b eginning o f z one C b roadly c orresponds w ith a c hange i n t he l ocal e nvironment f rom f en o r f en w oodland t o r aised b og . T he c omparatively

2 55

h umified n ature o f t he r aised b og p eat t owards t he e nd o f z one C a nd d uring z ones D a nd E s uggests t he d evelopment o f r elatively d ry c onditions . C attle a nd s heep , a s w ell a s d eer , a re c apable o f g razing r aised b og ( Table 1 ) . T herefore i n t he l ater N eolithic a nd e arly B ronze A ge , i f t he e conomy w as b ased p rimarily o n p astoralism , t he n eed t o c lear w oodland w ould h ave b een r educed , a s t he r aised b og c ould h ave b een u sed f or g razing . T his i s i n a greement w ith t he s uggestion b y B radley ( 1978 : 5 1) t hat t here i s a m ajor i ncrease i n t he e vidence f or s tock r aising i n t he E arly B ronze A ge . T he c apability o f a b og v egetation c ommunity t o s upport g razing i s d emonstrated b y r ecent i nvestigations o f t he u se o f b lanket b og ( which f loristically c an b e c onsidered t o b e c omparable t o t hat o f t he r aised b og i n t he S omerset L evels i n t he B ronze A ge) f or g razing s heep ( Grant , L amb , k err a nd B olton 1 978) . T he s tudy s howed t hat w hen s heep w ere r estricted t o b og v egetation T richophorum c aespitosum a nd Molinia c aerulea w ere p referentially g razed i n s ummer , a nd C alluna v ulgaris a nd E riophorum v aginatum f ormed t he b asis o f t he d iet i n w inter ( Grant e t a l . 1 978 : 8 608 61) . O n d rier b og, f rom w hich T richophorum a nd Molinia w ere l argely a bsent , C alluna a nd E riophorum s pp . w ere t he m ain d ietary c onstituents t hroughout t he y ear a nd t here w as n o m arked s easonal p attern ( Grant e t a l . 1 978: 8 64) . H owever , H unter ( 1962: 6 55) h as s uggested t hat s heep, i f a llowed t o g raze o n b oth C alluna a nd E riophorum c ommunities , w ill g raze b oth s pecies i n t he w inter b ut E riophorum t hrough t o M arch a nd C alluna m ore h eavily i n S eptember . A dditionally , y oung s hoots o f C alluna a re g razed i n s ummer a nd o lder , m ore v igorous , p lants a re g razed t hroughout t he y ear , a nd t herefore f orm t he b ulk o f t he f ood d uring t he w inter ( Gimingham 1 960 : 4 694 70) . C alluna i s a lso a n i mportant p art o f t he d iet o f h ill c attle , e specially i n w inter . E rica t etralix a lso p rovides s ome f ood f or s heep a nd c attle b ut i s g enerally c onsidered t o b e i nferior t o C alluna ( Bannister 1 966: 8 06) . S tocking r ates o n t he r aised b og o f t he S omerset L evels w ould h ave b een l ow , b ut t he a bility o f C alluna t o p rovide a s upply o f r easonably p alatable a nd n utritious f orage , p articularly i n w inter w hen t he b iomass o f g raminioid p lants i s a t am inimum , c ould h ave r esulted i n am anagement s ystem w hereby t he r aised b og w as g razed i n w inter a nd p asture o n t he s urrounding h ills w as g razed i n s ummer . T he p ollen e vidence ( Dimbleby 1 967 : 1 21) f rom a b uried s oil a t t he P riddy C ircles , a h enge m onument o f s uggested l ater n eolithic d ate o n t he Mendips ( Fratman 1 967: 1 8), i ndicates t hat t he m onument w as c onstructed i n a p redominantly g rassland e nvironment w ith s ome h azel s crub , a nd l ittle e vidence o f c ultivation . Evidence t hat m an w as p resent i n t he w etland a rea, p robably e xploiting t he r aised b og e nvironment,

i s

a nd t herefore

d emonstrated b y

t he

o ccurrence o f f lints d ating f rom t he l ater N eolithic a nd e arly B ronze A ge i n t he p eat i n t he B rue V alley , r ather t han o n t he a djacent h igher l and . A r adiocarbon d ate o f 1 820+90 b c ( HAR 1843) h as b een o btained f or p eat a ssociated w ith t he S kinner 's W ood h oard , a nd p eat a ssociated w ith a f lint c ore f rom M eare H eath g ave a s imilar d ate . A nalysis o f t he d amage p attern o n t he S kinner 's W ood f lints i ndicates a w ide r ange o f u ses, i ncluding c utting s oft m aterial s uch a s s kins, a nd a s h ide s crapers, t hrough t o c utting h arder m aterials s uch a s w ood ( Brawn 1 986 : 1 8) . T hat l ocal w oodland o n t he d ry l and w as b eing e xploited a nd m anaged a t t his t ime i s f urther i ndicated b y t he p resence o f c oppiced h azel i n t he E ast M oors ( Orme , S turdy a nd

M organ

1 980)

a nd

E clipse

t racks

( Coles ,

C aseldine a nd

M organ 1 982) .

T he p resence o f f lints i n t he p eat a nd t he l imited n umber o f t rackways d uring t he e arly B ronze A ge , f urther s upport t he v iew t hat t he e nvironment

2 56

w as

s ufficiently

d ry n ot

t o

r equire

t he c onstruction o f

t rackways .

T hose

t racks t hat d o o ccur p erhaps r eflect r outes t hat w ere m ore h eavily u sed a nd t herefore s ubject t o d eterioration .

T he L ater B ronze A ge a nd I ron A ge Evidence f or r enewed a nd i ncreased e xploitation o n t he d ryland i s i ndicated b y ar eduction i n a rboreal p ollen a t t he b eginning o f p ollen z one F , c . 1 400- 1 700 ( Table 2 ) . U lmus d eclines f or a t hird t ime a nd T ilia f or a s econd t ime . A ccompanying t hese c hanges i s a d istinct i ncrease b oth i n q uantity a nd d iversity o f h erbaceous p ollen . B radley ( 1 978 : 5 3) h as s uggested a m ajor i ncrease i n a rable a ctivity c . 1 200 b c , a s w ell a s f urther d evelopments i n p astoral f arming . T he e vidence f rom t he L evels a ppears t o b e b roadly c onsistent w ith t his . I t

i s

d uring t he

l ater B ronze A ge t hat t here i s p ossible d irect

e vidence f or g razing o f t he r aised b og s urface, p rovided b y t he b eetle e vidence f rom t he t racks a t T inney 's g round ( Girling 1 982b) , w hich w as c onstructed s hortly b efore

t he

c hange

t o

m arkedly w etter

c onditions

d iscussed a bove . T he o verall f auna i s s trongly i ndicative o f r aised b og , b ut a n umber o f o ther s pecies a re a lso p resent , o f w hich t he m ost i mportant a re d ung b eetles . G irling ( 1982b : 6 5) s ugggests t hat t he p resence o f t he d ung b eetles c ould h ave o ccurred i n t wo w ays : e ither a s a r esult o f n atural d ispersal f rom p asture o n a djacent d ryland , a s d ung b eetles a re s trong f liers, o r a s a r esult o f t he t racks b eing u sed b y c attle . T he b eetle e vidence s trongly i ndicates g razing o r b rowsing i n t he v icinity a nd i t s eems f easible t hat c attle , a s w ell a s g razing t he a djacent d rier l and , c ould h ave b een u sing t he r aised b og a s a n a dditional s ource o f f orage . F rom t he c omparatively h igh p ercentage o f d ung b eetles i n t he t otal i nsect a ssemblage , G irling c oncluded t hat a nimals w ere a n i mportant c omponent i n t he B ronze A ge e conomy o f t he a rea . T he c hanges r ecorded o n t he d ryland c oincide w ith t he d evelopments i n t he l ocal e nvironment ,

e vident f rom c hanges i n t he p eat s tratigraphy a nd a n

i ncrease i n t he n umber o f t rackways . I t h as a lready b een s uggested t hat t hese l ocal c hanges, r esulting i n a m uch w etter e nvironment, a re a ttributable t o s ea l evel c hange , b ut i t i s a lso l ikely t hat t he i ncrease i n c learance a ctivity a nd i ncreased p ressure o n t he d ry l and l ed t o i ncreased r un o ff b eing a c ontributory f actor . E qually t he r eduction i n a real e xtent o f t he r aised b og , b ecause o f t he r ising w ater t able f looding t he s urface , m ay h ave p rompted g reater a ctivity o n t he d ry l and . T ree-ring s tudies o f w ood f rom t rackways , f or e xample o ak f rom M eare H eath a nd T inney 's , s uggest t he e xploitation o f s econdary w oodland o n t he d ry l and , w ith r ather m ore m ature t rees b eing u sed a t T inney 's ( Morgan 1 980 : 7 1-72) t han a t M eare H eath ( Morgan 1 982 : 4 3) . H owever , t he e xtensive u se o f A lnus i n c onstructing t he b rushwood T inney 's t racks ( Coles a nd O rme 1 980 : 6 8) a lso i ndicates t he u tilisation o f l ocal a lder c arr , w hich s tratigraphic s tudies s how t o h ave b een p revalent i n t he a rea t o t he w est , i .e . t owards G lastonbury , w here r aised b og h ad n ever b ecome e stablished ( Housley 1 986) . T he u se o f a lder i n an umber o f t rackways , b oth i n t he l ater B ronze A ge a nd e arlier p eriods , i ndicates t he f requency o f a lder c arr h abitats i n t he a rea , p robably p articularly f ringing t he d ry l and o f t he i slands a nd P oldens . T he p resence o f o ther s pecies, s uch a s P runus s pinosa , U lmus , S alix a nd T axus , i n t he l ater B ronze a ge t rackways i llustrates t he v aried c omposition o f t he w oodland c ommunities b eing e xploited ( Orme a nd C oles 1 985 T able 2 ) .

2 57

Am arked e xpansion i n c learance a ctivity i s r ecorded i n p ollen z one G , d ated a t t he A bbot 's W ay a s c ommencing c . 2 50 b c a nd a t M eare H eath c . 1 00 b c ( Table 2 ) . I t i s d uring t his p eriod t hat , f or t he f irst t ime , t here i s d etailed e vidence a vailable o n t he n ature o f

t he

a gricultural

e conom7

s upplementing t he e vidence f or c learance a nd a griculture p erceptible f rom p ollen s tudies . I dentifications o f b one a nd c arbonised g rain f rom t he I ron A ge s ites o f M eare a nd G lastonbury g ive s ome i ndication o f t he l ivestock b eing k ept , t he c rops b eing g rown a nd t he w ild r esources b eing e xploited . E xamination

o f

t he

c arbonised

p lant

r emains

f rom r ecent

e xcavations

s uggests t hat , o f t he c ereals , b oth b arley ( Hordeum v ulgare) a nd w heats ( Triticum s pelta , T . d icoccum , T . c f . a estivum) w ere i mportant a s c rops . S maller a mounts o f o ats ( Avena s p .) a nd r ye ( Secale c ereale ) w ere a lso p resent , b ut t here i s n o d efinite e vidence t hat t hey w ere b eing g rown a s s eparate c rops ( Jones, 1 981, 1 986 ; H ousley a nd C aseldine 1 986 ; H ousley 1 987) . T he i mportance o f C eltic b ean ( Vicia f aba) a s p art o f t he d iet i s d emonstrated b y t he f requent o ccurrence o f c arbonised r emains , a nd t he p resence o f b eetle f ragments o f B ruchus r ufimanus i n a f ew o f t he b eans i ndicates s ome b eetle i nfestation , a lthough t his w as p robably n ot a s erious p roblem ( Caseldine 1 987) . B romus s ecalinus/mollis i s a lso r ecorded b ut i t i s n ot c ertain w hether i t i s p resent a s a c ultivar o r aw eed . T he r ange a nd n umber o f n on-cultivars i s g reater a t t he 1 979 s ite a t t he w est e nd o f M eare W est ( Jones 1 986) t han a t t he 1 984 s ite a t t he e ast e nd o f M eare W est . H ousley ( 1987) s uggests t hat t his r eflects d ifferent p atterns o f a ctivity a nd r efuse d isposal o n d ifferent p arts o f t he s ite . P ollen e vidence f ra i l M eare s uggests t hat c ultivation w as t aking p lace i n t he i mmediate a rea , p robably o n t he a djacent d rier l and o f M eare i sland ( Caseldine 1 986 : 9 2) . I nvestigation o f t he f aunal e vidence f rom t he r ecent M eare e xcavations i ndicates t hat , o f t he d omesticated a nimals , s heep/goat w ere m ost f requent , f ollowed b y c attle a nd p ig ( Bailey , L evine a nd R ogers 1 981, L evine 1 986 , C oles, R ouillard a nd B ackway 1 986) . H orse a nd d og w ere a lso p resent . A lthough t he r esults f rom t he s ites a t M eare W est a nd M eare E ast a re b roadly s imilar t here a re s ome d ifferences . G oat w as d efinitely f ound a t b oth t he 1 979 a nd 1 984 M eare W est s ites ( Bailey e t a l . 1 981 : 4 0 ; C oles e t a l . 1 986 : 4 4) , b ut n o c ertain i dentifications w ere m ade a t t he 1 982 M eare E ast s ite ( Levine 1 986 : 7 1) . A lso , a t b oth t he M eare W est s ites a b imodal k ill-off p attern o ccurs ( Bailey e t a l . 1 981: 4 3 ; C oles e t a l . 1 986 : 4 5) , w ith y oung a nd r ather o lder a nimals b eing s laughtered , w hilst a t M eare E ast c . 5 0% o f t he s heep w ere l ess t han a y ear o ld a nd 6 0-70 % w ere l ess t han t wo y ears o ld ( Levine 1 986: 7 1) . I t i s s uggested t hat t he s heep/goat w ere p robably p astured a way f rom t he s ite i tself , a lthough t he p ollen e vidence i ndicates t hat g razing w ould h ave b een a vailable n earby . A t M eare W est t he b one e vidence i ndicates t hat t he c attle w ere b eing k ept f or t raction b ut a t M eare E ast t he c attle w ere t oo y oung t o b e w ork a nimals ( Levine 1 986 : 6 8) . A t b oth M eare E ast a nd M eare W est p igs w ere s laughtered a t a r elatively y oung a ge , c . 2 -3 y ears, w hich i s c onsistent w ith t hem b eing k ept f or m eat . F urther e vidence f or t he p resence o f l ivestock i n t he a rea i s p rovided b y t he p resence o f d ung b eetles i n s amples f rom M eare ( Girling 1 979b : A lthough

t he

p ollen

e vidence

i ndicates

a m arked

2 8) .

e xpansion

i n

a gricultural a ctivity d uring t he l ater B ronze A ge a nd I ron A ge , t he r ange o f w ildlife r esources a vailable f or e xploitation w as c onsiderable . T he p resence o f e stuarine c onditions i n t he A xe v alley , a nd e ventually i n t he G lastonbury a rea , a nd a ssociated c hanges i n d rainage , w hich c reated a reas o f o pen w ater , r eed s wamp a nd f en , a nd f looded t he f ormer b og s urface,

2 58

i ncreased

t he

d iversity

o f

h abitats,

t ransition a s w ater l evels r ose , a quatic ,

p articularly

d uring

t he

i n t he c entral B rue v alley .

p eriods M ost o f

o f t he

s wamp a nd f en g enera g iven i n T able 1 a re r epresented i n t he p lant

m acrofossil r ecords f rom M eare a nd G lastonbury ( Caseldine 1 986, H ousley 1 986) , i ndicating t he p otentially r ich f ish a nd b ird r esources a vailable l ocally , b efore a nd d uring t he o ccupation o f t he s ites . T he c ontinued e xistence o f a reas o f r aised b og w ould h ave p rovided f orage f or w ild a nimals , s uch a s d eer , a s w ell a s a dditional g razing f or c attle a nd s heep , a s w ould s ome o f t he f en s pecies . T he r ecovery o f b ones o f

r ed d eer ,

M eare a nd G lastonbury d emonstrates f auna

d uring

t he

I ron A ge .

r oe d eer ,

f ish a nd w ildfowl f rom

t he c ontinued e xploitation o f

D uring

t he

r ecent

e xcavations

a t

t he w ild M eare

t he

w ildfowl i dentified h ave i ncluded g rey h eron , m allard , c oot a nd r edwing , a s w ell a s o ther b irds m ostly a ssociated w ith w ater , f rom t he 1 984 M eare W est s ite ( Coles e t a l . 1 986 : 4 9) , a nd s hoveler d uck , g annet a nd c rane f rom Meare E ast ( Levine 1 986: 6 1-62) . O ther w ild m ammals, a part f rom d eer , r epresented a t t he s ites i nclude b eaver a t M eare E ast

( Levine

1 986 :

6 1-62)

a nd o tter a t M eare W est ( Coles e t a l . 1 986 : 4 7) . T he

i ncreasingly h eavy e xploitation o f

t he

l andscape d uring t he

I ron

A ge a nd i nto t he R oman p eriod , c ombined w ith p ossible c limatic c hanges, a nd a lterations i n d rainage d etermined b y c oastal c hange , r esulted i n m ajor e nvironmental

c hanges,

u ltimately

t he d eposition o f e xtensive a reas o f

a lluvium . T he r esulting l andscape w as t o s trongly i nfluence t he p attern o f l and u se d uring t he e nsuing 2 000 y ears t o t he p resent d ay .

A cknowledgements I w ould l ike t o t hank D r . C hristopher C aseldine o f t he U niversity o f E xeter f or c ommenting o n a n e arly d raft o f t his p aper , a nd B ryony C oles o f t he University o f E xeter a nd D r . Martin B ell o f S t . D avid 's U niversity C ollege , L ampeter ,

f or c ommenting o n a l ater d raft .

Ia m a lso g rateful t o

D r . M ichael P roctor o f t he U niversity o f E xeter f or h elpful d iscussions o n t he s uitability o f r aised b og f or g razing . T hanks a re a lso d ue t o M r . S ean G oddard o f t he U niversity o f E xeter f or d rawing F igures 1 a nd 2 .

2 59

R eferences A lderton , A .M .

( 1983)

T he S edgemoor S urvey

1 982 :

e nvironmental r esults .

S omerset L evels P apers 9 9 -15 . A ndersen , S .Th .

( 1970)

T he

r elative

p ollen

p roductivity

a nd

p ollen

r epresentation o f N orth E uropean t rees , a nd c orrection f actors f or t ree p ollen s pectra . D anmarks G eologiske U nders 4else S eries 2 , 9 6 1 -99. B ailey ,

G .N .,

L evine ,

M . a nd R ogers, S . ( 1981) T he f aunal r emains .

I n

O rme , C oles , C aseldine a nd B ailey 1 981 3 8-44 . B annister , P . ( 1966)

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L . J ournal o f E cology 5 4 7 95-813 . B eckett, S .C .

( 1978a) T he

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s etting

o f

t he

M eare H eath T rack .

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( 1978b)

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i nvestigations a t t he D ifford 's 1

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( 1979a) T he e nvironmental

s ite .

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a nd H ibbert ,

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( 1976)

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F .A .

( 1979) V egetational c hange a nd t he i nfluence

o f p rehistoric m an i n t he S omerset L evels . N ew P hytologist 8 3 5 776 00 . B eil, J .N .B . a nd T allis , J .H . ( 1973) B iological f lora o f t he B ritish I sles . E mpetrum n igrum L . J ournal o f E cology 6 1 2 89-305 . B radley , R . ( 19 78 ) T he p rehistoric s ettlement o f B ritain . R out l edge a nd K egan P aul . B rawn , A .G .

( 1986)

F lint a nd c hert s mall

P art 1 : t he B rue V alley .

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f inds f ro m t he S omerset L evels .

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C aseldine , A .E . ( 1980) P alaeoenvironmental r econstruction a t t he B aker s ite . S omerset L evels P apers 6 2 9-36 . C aseldine ,

A .E .

( 1984)

P alaeobotanical

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a t

t he

S weet T rack .

S omerset L evels P apers 1 0 6 5-78 . C aseldine , A .E . ( 1986) T he e nvironmental c ontext o f t he M eare L ake V illages . S omerset L evels P apers 1 2 7 2-96 .

2 60

Caseldine, A.E. (1987) C harcoal patches from Meare Vil lage East 1982 Somerset Levels Papers 13 223-226. Caseldine, A.E. (forthcoming a) A reinterpretation of the pollen sequence from Meare. Somerset Levels Papers. Casel dine, A.E. (forthcoming b) Palaeobotanical investigations at the Honeygore Complex. Somerset Levels Papers. Caseldine, A.E. (forthcoming c) Palaeoenvironmental investigations at Franks' Hurdle. Somerset Levels Papers. The local environment of the Meare Heath Caseldine, A.E. (forthcoming d) Track. Somerset Levels Papers. Chambers, F.M. and Price, S.-M. (1985) Palaeoecology of Alnus (alder): early post-glacial r ise in a valley mire, north- west Wales. New Phytologist 101 333-344. Clapham, A.R.. and Godwin, H. (1948) Studies in the post-glacial history of British vegetation: VIII S wamping surfaces in the peats of the Somerset Levels: IX Prehistoric trackways in the Somerset Levels. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 13 233-273. Coles, B. and Coles, J. (1986) and Hudson.

Sweet Track to Glastonbury.

London: Thames

Coles,

B.J., Rouillard, S.E. and Backway, C. (1986) at Meare. Somerset Level Papers 12 30-57.

Coles,

J.M. (1979) Radiocarbon dates: third list. 101.

Coles,

J.M., Caseldine, A.E. and Morgan, R.A. (1982) The Eclipse Track 1980. Somerset Levels Papers 8 26-39.

Coles,

J.M., Hibbert, F.A. and Orme, B.J. (1973) Prehistoric roads and tracks in Somerset: 3. The S weet Track. Proceedings of t he Prehistoric Society 39 256-293.

Coles,

J.M. a n d Or me, B.J. ( 1 9 8 0 ) Somerset Levels Papers 6 61-68.

Coles,

J.M. and Orme, B.J. (1982) Beaver in the Somerset Levels: some new evidence. Somerset Levels Papers 8 67-73.

Coles,

J.M. and Orme, B.J. (1984) Ten excavations along the Sweet Track (3200bc). Somerset Levels Papers 10 5-45.

Coles,

J.M. and Orme, B.J. (1985a) Prehistoric woodworking from the Somerset Levels: 3. Roundwood. Somerset Levels Papers 11 25-50.

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J.M. and Orme, B.J. (1985b) Radiocarbon dates: Somerset Levels Papers 11 85.

261

The 1984 excavations

Somerset Levels Papers 5

Tinn ey's

G r o u nd,

19 7 8 - 7 9 .

fifth l ist.

C oles,

J .M .,

O rme ,

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n eolithic j igsaw : 1 C oles,

C aseldine ,

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a nd

Morgan ,

t he H oneygore C omplex .

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( 1985a)

A

S omerset L evels P apers

5 1-61 .

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Track:

a

A .E .

B ronze

a nd

Age

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( 1 985 b)

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( 1979)

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D imbleby , G .W .

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( 1985)

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t he A bbot 's

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( 1980)

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o n

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11. H ousley, R .A .

( 1986)

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K idson , C . a nd H eyworth , A . ( 1973) T he F landrian s ea-level r ise i n t he B ristol C hannel . P roceedings o f t he U ssher S ociety 2 (6) 5 65-584 . K idson ,

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9 2 17-

S omerset

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RA ( 1977) T ree-ring s tudies i n t he S omerset l evels : t he h urdle t racks o n A shcott H eath ( Rowland 's) a nd W alton H eath . S omerset L evels P apers 3 6 1-65 .

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M organ ,

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LA . ( 1984) T ree-ring s tudies i n t he S omerset L evels : T rack 1 9791982 . S omerset L evels P apers 1 0 4 6-64 .

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2 63

s tudies

o n

t he S weet

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T rack

N orman ,

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( 1982)

Mesolithic h unter-gatherers

A rchaeology) o f S omerset C ounty C ouncil p p . 1 5-21 . O rme ,

( eds .

A ston ,

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9 000-4000 B C . a nd B urrow ,

I . )

I n :

T he

S omerset

B .J . ( 1982) T he u se o f r adiocarbon d ates f rom t he S omerset L evels . S omerset L evels P apers 8 9 -25 .

O rme , B .J . , C aseldine , A .E . a nd M organ , R .A . ( 1982) R ecent d iscoveries o n W alton H eath : G arvin 's, B isgrove 's a nd J ones' T racks . S omerset L evels P apers 8 5 1-64 . O rme , B .J .

a nd C oles ,

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J .M .

( 1983) P rehistoric w oodworking f rom t he S omerset

1 . T imber . S omerset L evels P apers 9 1 9-43 .

O rme ,

B .J . a nd C oles , J .M . ( 1984) T en e xcavations a long t he S weet T rack ( 3200 b e) S omerset L evels P apers 1 0 5 -45 .

O rme ,

B .J . a nd C oles , J .M . ( 1985) P rehistoric w oodworking f rom t he S omerset L evels : 2 . S pecies s election a nd p rehistoric w oodlands . S omerset L evels P apers 1 7 -24 .

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( 1980) E ast M oors

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( 1975)

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s etting o f Mesolithic m an i n t he

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A .G .

( 1970)

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B ritish v egetation :

a d iscussion .

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( 1984)

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P hytologist 9 8 3 5-55 .

2 64

t ransition .

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T ooley ,

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( 1978)

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W elch , D . ( 1966) B iological f lora o f t he B ritish I sles . J uncus s quarrosus J ournal o f E cology 5 4 5 35-548 .

2 65

E CONOMY A ND E NVIRONMENT I N B RONZE A GE W ESTFRIESLAND, N OORD H OLLAND ( FROM W ETLAND T O W ETLAND) J anneke B uurman

I ntroduction T he h istory o f s ettlement i n W est-Friesland ( Fig . 1 ) h as b een s trongly d etermined b y t he H olocene d evelopment o f t his a rea .

T he e astern p art o f

W est-Friesland w as v ery d ensely i nhabited , e specially i n t he M iddle a nd L ate B ronze A ge . I n r esponse t o a l arge r e-allotment p rogramme , a rchaeological i nvestigation o f t his a rea h as b een a r esearch p riority o ver t he l ast 1 5 y ears f or s everal i n stitutes . F ield s urveys , a erial p hotography , s mall a nd l arge s cale e xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut , i n c lose c ooperation , b y t he R ijksdienst v oor h et O udheidkundig B odemonderzoek ( State A rchaeological S ervice , A mersfoort) , A .E . v an G iffen I nstituut v oor P re-en P rotohistorie ( University o f A mersterdam ), B iologisch A rchaeologisch I nstituut ( University o f G roningen ) , a nd t he I nstituut v oor P rehistorie ( University o f L eiden).

G eology T o g ain a b etter u nderstanding o f t he e nvironment a nd s ubsistence o f p rehistoric m an i n t his

a rea ,

l andscape

h istory

a nd

d evelopment

m ust

b e

i nvestigated . T hanks t o t he g eological i nvestigations b y t he R ijks G eologische D ienst , t he s oil s urveys b y t he S tichting v oor B odemkartering , a nd t he p alynological i nvestigations b y v an G eel ( van G eel e t a l . 1 982/1983 ; P als e t a l . 1 980) , t ogether w ith t he l arge n umber o f r adiocarbon d ates n ow a vailable , o ur k nowledge o n t his s ubject h as g rown e normously i n r ecent y ears. D uring t he C alais I VA2 t ransgression p hase a g ully s ystem r an f rom a l agoon b ehind

t he N orthern i nlet

o f

t he

I J

e stuary

l andwards .

A l arge

t idal f lat a nd s alt m arsh l andscape e xisted a round t his l agoon . T he r est o f N orth H olland w as c overed b y p eat . F rom a bout 4 100 b p* t he i nfluence o f t he s ea d iminished , t he g ully s ystem s ilted u p a lmost c ompletely a nd t he r elief b ecame i nverted b y d ifferential d eposits

s hrinkage

o f

t he s andy a nd

c layey

T he g ullies b ecame s andy r idges i n b etween a reas o f c layey

d eposits ( Fig . 2 A ) . T hese r idges b ecame h abitable i n t he l ate N eolithic , a nd h ave p roduced s ome s tray f inds a nd a f ew s ettlement s ites o f t his p eriod . D uring t he f ollowing C alais I VB t ransgression p hase , e specially i n t he e astern p art

*

F ootnote :

c onvention ,

o f W est-Friesland ,

A ll

r adiocarbon

i n y ears

I v

t idal

d ates

f lats

a re

a nd

p resented

f or u ncalibrated d ates .

d ates w ould b e g iven a s y ears

' BP ' .

2 67

s alt

m arshes

f ollowing

d eveloped .

t he

B ritish

I n t he N etherlands t hese

.5 •4

6

1

2• 03

6•

3 0Km

F ig.

1 .

T he a rea o f W est-Friesland w ith s ites m entioned i n t he t ext . 1 . A ndijk , 2 . B ovenkarspel H et V alkje , 3 . H oogkarspel, 4 . T wisk , 5 . O pperdoes,

6 . E nkhuizen .

2 68

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A fter t his t ransgression p hase t he i nfluence o f t he s ea d iminished a gain , b ut t he a rea p resumably s tayed t oo w et f or s ettlement o n a l arge s cale t o b e p ossible : E arly B ronze A ge f inds a re s carce . H owever , p art o f t he C alais I VA2 r idge s ystem w as n ot a ffected b y t he C alais I VB t ransgression , a nd s ome E arly B ronze A ge s ettlement s ites a re k nown f rom i t . F ig . 2 B s hows t he s urface a t c . 3 600 b p d uring t he B arbed W are B eaker p eriod . D uring

t he n ext t rangression p hase ,

D uinkerke 0 ,

f urther m arine

s ediments w ere d eposited i n p art o f t he s till-existing C alais I VB g ully s ystem i n t he e astern p art o f W est-Friesland . A fter t his t ransgression , t he c onnection w ith t he s ea b ecame b locked a nd t he a rea d efinitively b ecame d ry . I n t he M iddle a nd L ate B ronze A ge t his f ossil m arine l andscape m ust h ave b een v ery a ttractive f or p rehistoric f armers , f or f ield s urveys a nd a erial p hotography i ndicate t hat t he g ully r idges b ecame v ery d ensely i nhabited . A ge .

F ig .

2 C s hows t he s urface a t 3 000 b p d uring t he M iddle B ronze

D uring t he L ate B ronze A ge ,

p eat f ormation b egan i n W est-Friesland a nd

t he a rea g radually b ecame c overed w ith p eat , f orcing t he i nhabitants t o l eave t he a rea . O nly t he C alais I VA2 g ully r idge A artswoud-Medemblik , w hich i s a bout 1 m etre h igher t han t he C alais I VB a nd D uinkerke 0 g ully r idges , c ontinued t o p rotrude f rom t he p eat c over a nd o ccupation w as s till p ossible h ere u ntil t he L ate I ron A ge . F ig . 2 D s hows t he s urface i n t he M iddle I ron A ge . A fter t he I ron A ge ,

s ettlement w as n o l onger p ossible e ven h ere

b ecause p eat g rowth h ad r eached t he h ighest l and i n t he a rea . N ot u ntil t he M iddle A ges w as t he a rea i nhabitated a gain . D ikes* w ere b uilt f or p rotection a gainst t he s ea . C anals w ere d ug t o d rain t he p eat l and , w hich w as t hen t aken i nto c ultivation . S ubsidence a nd o xidation o f t he c ultivated p eat s urface c aused t he p eat t o d isappear a lmost c ompletely . O nly p arts o f t he o riginal p eat h ave b een p reserved , f or i nstance u nder d ikes o r u nder a rtifical m ounds b uilt o n t he p eat i n t he M iddle A ges . E xcavations A n e xtensive s ummary o f t he h istory o f p rehistoric h abitation i n W estF riesland h as b een g iven b y W oltering ( 198 9 .

T he i nvestigations o f t he R OB

f ocused o n B ronze a nd I ron A ge s ettlement . E xcavations w ere c arried o ut a t A ndijk ( 1973) , B ovenkarspel ( 1974-1978) , O pperdoes ( 1978-1980) a nd T wisk ( 1980) ( F ig . 1 ) . T he s ites o f T wisk a nd O pperdoes a re b oth s ituated o n t he C alais I VA2 g ully r idge A artswoud-Medemblik , w here s ettlement w as p ossible e arlier , a nd c ould c arry o n l onger , t han a t t he C alais I VB a nd D uinkerke 0 g ully r idges .

A t T wisk , t he e arliest M iddle B ronze A ge s ettlement s ite h as

b een e xcavated . I t h as t he o ldest r adiocarbon d ate f or B ronze A ge h abitation i n W est-Friesland ( 3350 + 3 5 b p G rN 1 0461) . A t O pperdoes, M iddle

a nd L ate

e xcavated . t he C alais

B ronze A ge

a nd

M iddle a nd L ate B ronze A ge .

s ites

h ave b een

A bout 2 0 h ectares o f l and h ave b een e xcavated

a t B ovenkarspel H et V alkje ( Fig .

F ootnote :

I ron A ge s ettlement

A ndijk a nd B ovenkarspel a re b oth s ituated o n t he m ain b ranch o f I VB g ully r idge . H ere , o ccupation w as o nly p ossible i n t he 3 ) .

H ere a bout 7 0 h ectares o f

D ikes ( in N etherlands) = b anks, o r s ea-walls i n B ritain . C anals ( in N etherlands) = d ykes i n B ritain .

2 70

l and a re

A

5 00 m

F ig . 3 .

S oil m ap w ith e xcavations ; 1 . B ovenkarspel H et V alkje ; 4 . B ovenkarspel M onument . A . s and ; B . s andy l oam ; C . l oam o n c lay ; D . c lay . ( From : I Jzereef 1 981, f ig . 3 ).

2 71

S cale 1 :10 ,000.

2 , 3 a nd

n ow i ncluded o n t he s ites w ill

l ist o f p rotected m onuments , w here t he a rchaeological

r emain u ndisturbed b y

l aw .

W ithin t his p rotected a rea

t hree

s mall e xcavations h ave , h owever , b een c arried o ut a t s ites w here f arms h ad t o b e b uilt .

T he S ettlement o f B ovenkarspel H et V alkje T he

s ettlement

o f

B ovenkarspel

H et-Valkje

i s

r epresentative f or t he M iddle a nd L ate B ronze A ge s ites

c onsidered

t o

b e

i n W est-Friesland

a nd i s d iscussed i n m ore d etail . A t eam o f s pecialists i s i nvolved i n t his e xcavation . T he p roject i s u nder t he d irection o f J an F rancois v an R egteren A ltena . G erard I Jzereef h as a lready p ublished t he a nimal r emains ( IJzereef 1 981) a nd i s n ow p reparing t he p ublication o f t he e xcavation i tself ( IJzereef , i n p rep) . T he m olluscs h ave b een s tudied b y W .J . K uyper ( in I Jzereef 1 981) . T he i nvestigation o f t he p lant r emains i s b eing c arried o ut b y t he a uthor ( hm trman ,

i n

p rep. 2 ) .

I t w ill b e c lear t hat t he l ocation o f t he s ite a nd t he s tructure o f t he s ettlement a re s trongly d etermined b y t he n ature o f t he s ubsoil . S tudy o f t he p lans o f t he e xcavation , a nd t he a nimal a nd t he p lant r emains s how t hat c hanges i n t he s tructure o f t he s ettlement w ere c aused b y c hanges i n e nvironmental c onditions a nd p ossibly a lso b y p opulation p ressure . T wo p hases c ould b e d istinguished i n t he s ettlement a t B ovenkarspel H et V alkje , b ased o n s tratigraphy , p ottery a nd r adiocarbon d ates : t he e arly p eriod ( Middle B ronze A ge , A ge , 2 800-2650 b p).

3 300-2850 b p) ,

a nd t he

l ate p eriod ( Late B ronze

T he e arly p eriod f eatures c omprised h ouse-plans, w ells, f ields ( indicated b y t he p resence o f a rd-traces a nd d itches) , c ircular s tructures , r ows o f p its , a nd t wo r ing d itches o f t umuli ( Fig . 4 ) . T he a rable f ields w ere l ocated o n t he h ighest p arts o f t he s andy r idge , w here t he d rainage w as b est a nd t he l ight s oil w as t he e asiest t o t ill. T he l ower l ying c layey b asins w ere u sed a s p astures a nd/or m eadows . I n t he l owest p arts o f t hese b asins l akes m ay h ave e xisted . T he t hree-ais l ed h ouses , g enerally a ccompanied s urrounding t hem

( F ig .

5 ) ,

b y d itches a longside o r

w ere b uilt a t t he m argins o f t he f ields

o n t he

l oamy f lanks o f t he s andy r idge . M ost h ouse-ditches c ontained l arge a mounts o f r efuse i ncluding p ottery , b ones a nd c arbonized p lant r emains . C harcoal i dentifications s howed t hat t he p osts o f t he h ouses h ad p robably b een m ade o ut o f w illow ( Salix s p .) a nd a lder ( Alnus s p .) . T hese w oods a re o f i nferior q uality f or t imber a nd t he l ife o f ah ouse i s t herefore s upposed t o h ave b een a bout 1 5-20 y ears, a fter w hich i t h ad t o b e r ebuilt . 5 8 " house s ites" h ave b een e xcavated . A t 3 9 o f t hese h ouse-sites t he h ouse h ad b een r ebuilt a t a bout t he s ame p lace o ne o r m ore t imes , a t o ne s ite u p t o e leven t imes .

T he h ouses v aried i n l ength f rom 1 2-32 i n .

T he e arliest

h ouses w ere t he l ongest a nd w ere s ituated h ighest o n t he f lanks o f t he s andy r idge, n ext t o t he a rable . I n t he c ourse o f t ime t here w as a g eneral t endency t owards s horter h ouses , w hich w ere b uilt l ower o n t he f lanks o f t he r idges . N umerous c ircular d itches a nd p it c ircles w ith a d iameter o f a bout 4 m .

o ccurred , m ostly i n c lusters n ear t he h ouses , b ut a lso i n t he a rable o r

p asture

a reas .

s tructure

S ometimes

( Buurman

1 979:

t wo

o r m ore c ircles w ere c ombined

F ig .1) .

2 72

B ased

o n

t heir

c arbonized

i n

o ne

g rain

. . .

I . . . . . .. . . '

a

-

o

° .

/ \

2 73

°

% • , ., •.

F ig . 5 .

B ovenkarspel H et V alkje .

R econstructed s ettlement f rom t he e arly

p eriod a t c a . 1 200 B C . T he ( schematically d rawn) h ouses a re m ostly s ituated o n t he f lanks o f t he g ully r idge . ( From :

I Jereef

i n p rep .) .

S cale

2 74

1 :4 ,000 .

i

1/

CI

f

I

i,

- ' 1

I ! : \

f ]

)

9

.F ig. 6 .

1r m

B ovenkarspel H et V alkje . T erp d itches f rom t he l ate p eriod (NI. 7 50 B C) . T he h ouses o riginally s tood i n t he c entres o f t he b undles o f d itches . ( From :

I Jzereef

i n p rep .) .

2 75

S cale 1 :4 ,000 .

c oncentrations t he c ircles w ere i nterpreted a s t he r emains o f d rainage s tructures a round c orn s tacks . I n t he c layey p asture a rea t hey p ossibly s urrounded h ay s tacks . R ows o f p its w ere o ften c onnected w ith a h ouse d itch . T hey w ere c onsidered t o b elong t o d rainage s tructures a round d ung h eaps n ext t o t he h ouses . W ells w ere f ound m ostly a t t he m argin o f t he l oamy f lank a nd t he c layey b asin .

T hey w ere o ften d irectly a ssociated w ith

t he d itches s eparating t he s ettlement f rom t he p asture . I n t he l ate p eriod t he s tructure o f t he s ettlement was c hanged r adically . T he r ising g round w ater l evel m ade i t n ecessary t o r aise t he s ites o f t he h ouses w ith s oil f rom d eep a nd w ide d itches . T he r emains o f t hese r aised b uildings w ere l ater d estroyed b y p loughing . T he t erpd itches, h owever , w hich c ontained m uch r efuse , i ndicated t he f ormer l ocations o f h ouses ( Fig .6) . S ome w ells a nd a f lat g rave a lso d ate f rom t his p eriod .

C rop c ultivation T he a nalysis o f t he c arbonized p lant r emains r ecovered f rom s ome s ites i n W est-Friesland i s t he b asis f or t he f ollowing c rop p lants ( Table 1 ) .

C rop p lants i n W est F riesland . c i p

C l )

r z 4

> 4

M BA

o

0

M BA

L BA

ee

O PPERDOES

T able 1 .

I A

T riticum d icoccum H ordeum v ulgare v ar . n udum H ordeum v ulgare L inum u sitatissimum C amelina s ativa V icia f aba v ar . m inor

A t B ovenkarspel H et V alkje ( BVK i n T able 1 ) i n t he e arly p eriod ( Middle B ronze A ge) h ulled a nd n aked s ix-row b arley ( Hordeum vulgare L . a nd H ordeum v ulgare

L .

v ar .

n udum )

a nd

e mmer

( Triticum d icoccum S chübl .) w ere

c ultivated . B arley a nd e mmer w ere e qually f requent . N aked b arley , h owever , w as o nly f ound i n s amples d ating f rom t he c olonization p hase a t t he b eginning o f t he e arly p eriod . I n t he l ate p eriod ( Late B ronze A ge) h ulled b arley b ecame t he o nly c ereal c rop c ultivated . I n o ther p arts o f t he

2 76

N etherlands , B ronze A ge

e mmer w heat a nd b arley r emained o f e qual i mportance d uring t he a nd

l ater

( van Z eist

1 968/1970) .

T he

r egional

s hift

i n

t he

c ultivation o f b oth e mmer w heat a nd b arley t o o nly h ulled b arley i n W estF riesland m ight h ave h ad s omething t o d o w ith t he i ncreasing w etness o f t he a rea . L inseed ( Li mn u sitatissimum L .) w as a lso c ultivated , e specially i n t he l ate p eriod ( Buurman a nd P als 1 974) . G rains o f o ats ( Avena s p .) a nd m illet ( Panicum m iliaceum I -) , a nd s eeds o f f ield c abbage o r n avew ( Brassica r apa L .) were a lso f ound . H owever , t he q uantities w ere s o s mall t hat t hese s pecies a re t hought t o h ave b een w eeds i n t he f ields r ather t han c ultivated p lants. A part f rom t he c ereal g rains , a ll o ther p arts o f t he c ereal p lant w ere f ound, e xcept t he c ulm b ases . T hese i nclude f ragments o f h eavy c haff ( culm n odes , r achis i nternodes a nd s pikelet f orks) a s w ell a s f ragments o f l ight c haff ( glume t ips, a wns, g lumes, l emmas a nd p aleas) . T he I nterpretation o f t he a ssemblages o f c harred r emains r ecovered f rom s amples f rom d ifferent c ontexts i n t erms o f c rop p rocessing a ctivities Millman 1 981) h as s hed l ight o n s ome a spects o f c rop h usbandry i n B ronze A ge W est F riesland ( Table 2 ) . I n t wo c ircular s tructures f rom B ovenkarspel H et V alkje ( one c ircular d itch a nd o ne c ircle o f p its) l arge c oncentrations o f c arbonized g rains o ccurred , t ogether w ith c onsiderable n umbers o f f ine a nd h eavy c haff r emains a nd s tem f ragments ( Figs . 7 a nd 8 ) . S eeds o f l ow a nd h igh g rowing a rable w eeds a lso o ccurred . A n u nthreshed h arvest i n s heaves o bviously h ad b een d estroyed b y f ire h ere . T he i nterpretation o f t hese c ircular s tructures a s d rainage c onstructions a round c orn-stacks w as t hus c lear ( Buurman 1 979) . O ne o f t hese h arvests c onsisted o f m ore t han 9 5% h ulled b arley a nd t he o ther a bout 8 0% e mmer ( Table 2 ) . C omparison w ith s amples f rom r efuse c ontexts, i n w hich t hese t wo c ereals w ere a bout e qually c ommon l ed t o t he c onclusion t hat t hese c rops w ere g rown o n s eparate f ields . A lso , a t t he s ite o f T wisk ( Buurman , i n p rep . 1 ) , a d eposit o f c ereal g rain w as f ound i n a c ircular s tructure , c onsisting o f a lmost 1 00% n aked b arley . T his s ite , w ith t he e aliest r adiocarbon d ate f or t he B ronze A ge o ccupation o f W est-Friesland , h ad o bviously b een o ccupied b y t he f irst c olonists o f t he a rea , w ho w ere n ot y et c ultivating h ulled b arley . T he i nterpretation o f t his s ample a s t he r emains o f a n u nthreshed h arvest i n s heaves w as a t f irst u ncertain b ecause c ulm f ragments w ere m issing a nd t he s ample s eemed t o r epresent a h arvest o f p lucked e ars . H owever, e xperimental b urning o f h eaps o f s heaves o f d ifferent c ereal s pecies i n t he o pen a ir s howed t hat t he a bsence o f c arbonized c ulm n odes i n a s ample d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat c ulms w ere n ot p resent b efore t he b urning .

W eak s tems w ith w eak n odes ,

a s f rom n aked

b arley , m ostly b urn c ompletely t o a shes . O nly f rom p lants w ith s tout s tems w ith s olid n odes ( e .g . e mmer) i s t here a c hance t hat c arbonized c ulm f ragments w ill s urvive a f ire . H owever , e ven t hese s touter n odes a re s o l ight a nd v ulnerable t hat a s light b reeze d uring b urning b lows t hem a way , a nd t he s lightest r aking o r o ther d isturbance o f t he b urnt h eap m akes t he c ulm f ragments w ith t heir n odes d isintegrate i nto c arbon d ust . T he s ame h olds f or o ther e lements o f t he c haff , e specially t he h usks , g lume t ips a nd a wns , b ut t o s ome e xtent a lso f or r achis i nternodes . T hese e xperiments s howed t hat e xtreme c are m ust b e t aken i n a pplying t he m odels o f H illman ( 1981) f or r econstructing c rop p rocessing a ctivities f rom c arbonized p lant r emains , e specially i f t hey a re l eft o ver f rom a f ire i n t he o pen a ir . T he p resence o f c arbonized p lant e lements i s o f c ourse r eliable , b ut t he a bsence o f c ertain p arts o f a p lant c an b e d ue t o a l arge n umber o f f actors , f or

2 77

T able 2 .

D istribution o f p arts o f c ereal p lants .

T WISK C IRCLE

B OVENKARSPEL H ET V ALKJE C IRCLE

C IRCLE

C ULM B ASES

-

C ULM N ODES

-

X X

X XX

X XX

.

X XX

X XX

H USKS

X X

A WNS

X X

B ARLEY G RAINS I NTERNODES

E MMER

-

-

-

-

X

X XX

X XX

X X

.

-

X

X X

X XX

.

-

X XX

X XX

.

-

.

G LUME T IPS A WNS

. .X

H ARVEST

H OUSE D

-

G LUME B ./SPIKELET F .

W EED S EEDS

H OUSE-P

-

G RAINS

X X H ARVEST

-

H OUSE P

X XX

.

X X X

X XX

X X

X X

X X

X XX

X

X X

X X

.

-

X

X X

.

-

X

X X

-

X X

X XX

X X H ARVEST

T HRESHED

T HRESHED

R EFUSE

C LEANED

S ymbols m any ;

a nd a bbreviations :

h ouse P

-a bsent ;

h ouse p osthole ;

h ouse D

.v ery f ew/absent ; h ouse d itch .

2 78

x f ew ;

x x m any ;

x xx v ery

F ig . 7 .

1 . B ovenkarspel H et V alkje : r achis i nternodes o f h ulled b arley .

2 -

5 . T wisk : s pikelet f ork o f e mmer ; f ragments o f l emma a wns o f b arley ; g lume t ip o f e mmer ; b asal i nternode o f e mmer .

2 79

F ig. 8 .

T wisk :

F ig. 9 .

r achis i nternodes o f n aked b arley ( magn .

F lint " sickle" f rom W est F riesland.

2 80

5 x).

V

F ig. 1 0.

A ntler f ragment o f r ed d eer , p ossibly p art o f t illing t ool. P roximal f ragment o f m etatarsus o f c attle w ith w ear o n p roximal e piphysis , p ossibly u sed a s p estle . S houlder b lade o f c attle , u sed a s s pade , h igh p olish o n n eck , s pine r emoved , b roken . ( From : I Jzereef 1 981, f ig . 9 0, 8 5a , a nd 7 7).

2 81

e xample

t he c ircumstances

d uring b urning

( such a s w eather ) ,

t he

i ntensity

a nd t he l ength o f c ombustion , t he a ctivities w hich w ere c arried o ut w ith t he b urnt r emains a fter t he f ire , a nd o f c ourse t he c hanges i n t he m aterial d uring d eposition i n t he a rchaeological c ontext . I n t he e astern p art o f t he N etherlands c orn s tacks w ere b eing b uilt u ntil r ecently . A fter f irst d rying t he h arvest i n s heaves i n t he f ield f or s ome

d ays ,

c orn s tacks w ere b uilt .

I f p roperly c onstructed t hese

c ould

l ast f or u p t o a y ear . P ossibly , i n B ronze A ge W est-Friesland t hey s tood u ntil t here w as t ime f or t hreshing . M easurements o f t he g rains f rom B ovenkarspel H et V alkje s howed t he g ood q uality o f t he c rop r aised i n t his a rea .

T he g rains a re r elatively l arge .

H owever , i n o ne o f t he c ircular s tructures o f B ovenkarspel H et V alkje , t he g rains o f b arley w ere u nderdeveloped . T his b ad h arvest c ould h ave b een c aused b y a b ad s ummer . T he r adiocarbon d ate o f t hese g rains m ay p lace t his e vent a t t he e nd o f t he e arly p eriod . H owever , t here a re o ther g rounds f or t hinking t hat a r ise i n t he g round w ater t able c ould h ave o ccurred ,

n otably t he b uilding o f r aised h ouse-sites ( " terps" ) i n t he

l ate

p eriod . T hus t his b ad h arvest c ould h ave b een t he r esult o f i mpeded d rainage i n t he f ield . T he p resence o f s eeds o f t he g reat y ellow-cress ( Rorippa a mphibia ( 1 , .) B esser) i n t his h arvest m ight e ven p oint t o p eriodic i nundation . A t t wo o ther p laces i n t he s ettlement o f B ovenkarspel H et V alkje l arge c oncentrations o f c arbonized g rains w ere f ound , b oth i n p ost h oles o f h ouses d ated t o t he b eginning o f t he e arly p eriod ( Table 2 ) . I n o ne h ouse g rains , h usks , a nd i nternodes o f h ulled b arley , m ixed w ith g rains , s pikelet f orks a nd g lume b ases , g lume t ips a nd a wns o f e mmer , w ere f ound . A lso w eed s eeds o ccurred i n t hese s amples . I n a nother h ouse t hreshed a nd c leaned g rains o f n aked b arley , r eady f or c onsumption o r u se a s s eed g rain , w ere m ixed w ith g rains a nd s pikelet f orks a nd g lume b ases o f e mmer . T hese f inds m ight p ossibly i ndicate t hat e mmer w as s tored a s s pikelets, h ulled b arley a s h ulled g rains a nd n aked b arley a s

n aked g rains ,

p ossibly

i n b ags

i n t he

a ttics o f t he h ouses , a nd t hat t he d ifferent c rops o nly b ecame m ixed a fter t he f ire w hich d estroyed t he b uildings . F urther p rocessing w ould h ave b een d one p iece-meal, w hen n eeded . A nother p ossibility i s t hat w e a re d ealing w ith s owing s eed . W hen s owing , t here i s n o n eed f or d ehusking ; o f e mmer a nd h ulled g rains o f b arley c an b e u sed a s s owing s eed .

s pikelets

T he s amples f rom t he h ouse d itches o f t he e arly p eriod , a nd f rom t he t erp d itches o f t he l ate p eriod c ontained a ll e lements o f t he c ereal p lant , e xcept t he c ulm b ases , b ut f ine c haff a nd w eed s eeds w ere r elatively m ore n umerous t han i n t he s amples f rom o ther f eatures ( Table 2 ) . R efuse f rom d ifferent a ctivities ( threshing , c leaning , c ooking ) b ecame m ixed i n t hese d itches . T he t hreshing m ost p robably o ccurred i n t he v icinity o f t he h ouse , p robably b y l ashing . T hreshing i mplements h ave n ot b een f ound . D ehusking m ight h ave b een d one i n t he h ouse . P ossibly t he s mall q uadrangular s tones , w hich h ave b een f ound i n l arge q uantities , p layed a r ole i n t his p rocessing s tage . C leaning b y w innowing o r s ieving m ust a lso h ave b een d one n ear , o r i n , t he h ouse , a s t he l argest a mount o f r efuse f rom t hese p rocessing s tages h as b een f ound i n d itches a round t he h ouses . R efuse f rom t hreshing a nd c leaning m ight h ave b een u sed i n h ouse-m alls , o ven w alls , a s f uel o r f odder . T he

w eed

s pecies

i dentified,

i ncluding

C henopodium a lbum

L"

C henopodium f icifolium S m . , S olanum n igrum L . , S tellaria m edia ( L) V ill . a n ( '

2 82

U rtica d ioica L .

i ndicate t hat t he s oil w as v ery r ich i n n itrogen ,

a s ar esult o f m anuring .

O n t op o f t he r idge ,

p ossibly

w here m ost o f t he a rable w as

l ocated , s mall q uantities o f f ragmented a nd u nidentifiable b ones a nd c harred p lant r emains, t ogether w ith v ery t iny p ottery f ragments w ere f ound i n f eatures a s a rd t races . T his s uggests t hat d omestic r efuse w as u sed f or m anure . P robably t he h ouse d itches w ere c leared e ach y ear a nd t he c ontents s pread o ver t he f ields . S amples

f rom

t he

s mall

b oundary

o r

d rainage

d itches

i n t he a rable

f ields a nd p asture a rea c ontained m ostly l ess t han 1 0 c arbonized p lant r emains ( cereal g rains , c haff f ragments a nd w eed s eeds) p er l itre o f s oil a nd h ave b een i nterpreted a s ' settlement n oise ' . T he c ircular s tructures a nd

p ostholes

o f

h ouses

o ther

t han

t hose m entioned

b efore ,

c ontain

o nly

' settlement n oise'. A n umber

o f i mplements r elated t o c rop h usbandry h ave b een f ound

0 ' . 1 4 ;s . 9 a nd 1 0) . T he u se o f f lint ' s ickles ' a s a h arvesting i mplement i s n ot c ertain . B ecause o f t heir b luntness, t hey a re m ore p lausibly i nterpreted a s a rd s hares ( 0 1oltering 1 985) . S houlder b lades o f c attle w ere p ossibly u sed a s s pades o r h oes . B one p estles a nd r ubbing t ools m ay h ave b een u sed f or p ounding o r g rinding c ereals . Q uerns a nd t he q uadrangular s tones a lready m entioned w ere u sed f or d ehusking a nd g rinding . F or r eaping b ronze s ickles w ere p resumably u sed .

A nimal h usbandry B ones a re e xcellently p reserved i n t he c alcareous s oil . T hey a re m ainly o f t he d omestic a nimals c attle (BO S t aurus) , p ig ( Sus d omesticus) , s heep ( Ovis a ries) , g oat ( Capra h ircus) , d og ( Canis f am iliar's) , a nd h orse ( Equus c aballus) . C attle w as t he m ost i mportant d omestic a nimal i n b oth p eriods ( Table 3 ) . I n t he l ate p eriod t here w ere m ore s mall a nimals, e specially s heep , i ndicating t hat , d espite t he r ising g round w ater t able , t here w as e nough d ry g rassland f or h erding s heep . T he p ercentages o f c ow , s teer , a nd b ull ( Table 4 ) s uggest t hat t he e conomy i n t he e arly p eriod w as b ased o n m eat p roduction a nd d raught p ower ( ploughing w ith t he a rd) . I n t he l ate p eriod m ilk p roduction p ossibly b ecame m ore i mportant . A c omplete s keleton o f a c ow w as f ound i n s itu , w ith t he c ontours o f t he b ody v isible i n t he s oil . B ased o n t he s ize o f t his a nimal a nd o n c alculations o f b one m easurements

a ccording

t o v on d en D riesch/Boesneck ( cf .

I Jzereef

1 981:

6 4)

a n a verage s houlderheight o f 1 06cm w as d etermined ( Fig . 1) . H orses w ere v ery r are : F ive b ones f rom f ive a nimals w ere f ound , d ating f rom t he e nd o f t he e arly p eriod . T here a re i ndications t hat d ogs w ere o ccasionally c onsumed .

C lay f igures o f d omestic a nimals h ave b een f ound a t G rootebroek ,

c lose n ear B ovenkarspel ( Fig .

1 2) ( van R egteren A ltena e t a l .

1 977) .

T he n umber o f b ones i n t he h ouse-ditches o f t he e arly p eriod w as a lways o f a bout t he s ame o rder . I f o ne a ssumes a y early c leaning o f t he d itches t hen t hey r epresent t he r emains o f t he s laughter i n o ne y ear o f: 1 -7 c attle ; 0 -3 p igs ; 1 -4 s heep/goat ; a nd 0 -2 d ogs .

E nvironment i )

T he P lants I n t he h ouse d itches ,

a part

f rom w eeds

2 83

f rom a gricultural

f ields a nd

T able

3 .

Average p ercentages o f n umbers o f b ones o f d omestic a nimals f rom B ovenkarspel h et V alkje ( after I Jzereef 1 98 9 .

E ARLY P ERIOD

L ATE P ERIOD

7 8.5%

6 2.8%

6 .7%

9 .1%

1 2.7%

2 2.7%

G OAT

0 .8%

1 .6%

D OG

1 .5%

3 .8%

H ORSE

0 .1%

C ArrLE P IG S HEEP

T able 4 .

A verage p ercentages o f c attle f rom B ovenkarspel h et V alkje ( based o n t he n umber o f h orn c ores) ( after I Jzereef 1 981) .

E ARLY P ERIOD

L ATE P ERIOD

C OW

4 4%

7 5%

S TEER

1 9%

5 %

B ULL

3 7%

2 0%

C ROP H USBANDRY

A NIMAL B REEDING

( DRAUGHT P OWER)

( MILK P RODUCTION)

( MEAT P RODUCTION)

F ig .

1 1. A verage B ronze A ge c ow ( 105 c m h igh),

c ompared w ith t he m odern

b rown M aas-Rijn-IJssel b reed ( 135 c m h igh). F rom : W oltering 1 985, f ig . 2 0, a fter I Jzereef 1 981).

F ig. 1 2.

F igure o f b aked c lay p ig , f ound n ear G rootebroek . S cale 1 :1 . ( After : v an R egteren A ltena , v an M ensch a nd I Jzereef 1 977 , f ig . 4 ) .

2 85

w eeds o f r uderal h abitats,

l arge n umbers o f c harred s eeds o f m any s pecies o f

p lants f rom e utrophic b anks a nd m arshes w ere f ound .

T his v egetation ,

w hich o ccurs a t t he m argins o f t he l akes a nd i n t he p ools i n t he l ower l ying a reas o f W est-Friesland, w as p robably u sed f or t hatching, s traw o r f odder . I n a ddition t o s eeds o f a rable w eeds,

i n t he s amples r epresenting

h arvests , s eeds o f s pecies o f t hese e utrophic m arshes a nd b anks s uch a s r eed-grass ( Phalaris a rundinacea L .) a nd r eed ( Phragmites a ustralis ( Cay .) T rim e x S teud . a lso o ccurred . T heir p resence i ndicates t hat t he s oil o f t he f ields w as r ather w et a nd e utrophic . T hese s pecies m ay h ave c rept i n f rom t he s ides o f b oundary d itches i nto t he f ields ; t his p henomenon c an b e s een t oday i n t he p olders i n t he N etherlands . T he c ontents o f t he f ew s amples o f u ncarbonized s eeds f rom t he M iddle B ronze A ge i ndicate t hat t he g roundwater w as a lready t otally f resh a nd t he l andscape w as v ery o pen , w ith o nly a f ew t rees, m ostly w illow ( Salix s p .) a nd a lder ( Alnus s p .) . H azelnuts ( Corylus a vellana L .) , e lderberries ( Sambucus n igra L .) a nd b lackberries

( Ribus f ruticosus I .)

w ere c ollected .

T here w as o pen w ater

i n t he l owest l ying p arts o f t he c layey b asin . A t t he m argins o f t his o pen w ater t here m ust h ave b een e xtensive r eed-swamps i ncluding y ellow f lag ( Iris p seudacorus L .) , w ater p lantain ( Alisma p lantago-aquatica L . ) , b urr eed ( Sparganium e rectum L .) , p urple l oosestrife ( Lythrum s alicaria L . ) , a nd an umber o f C arex s pecies . W ith t he p assage o f t ime t he w ater t able r ose , d rainage w as i mpeded , a nd m arshes g radually e xtended , p ossibly a t t he c ost o f t he p asture . I n s amples f rom t he L ate B ronze A ge m ore m esotrophic p lants a ppeared , s uch a s b ogbean ( Menyanthes t rifoliata L .) , m arsh l ousewort ( Pedicularis p alustris I .) , a nd m arsh c inquefoil ( Potentilla p alustris ( -) S cop .) . F inally t he s oil b ecame r egularly w aterlogged , p eat g rowth s tarted a nd t he p eat g rew u p t o t he h ighest s pots o n t his g ully r idge . O ccupation w as n o l onger p ossible . A t t he s ite o f O pperdoes ,

s ettlement r emains f rom t he E arly a nd L ate

I ron A ge h ave b een e xcavated i n a ddition t o t hose o f t he B ronze A ge .

T wo

n ew c rops w ere t aken i nto c ultivation i n t he I ron A ge a t O pperdoes : g old o f p leasure ( Camelina s ativa ( 1 .) C rantz) a nd h orse-bean ( Vi da f aba L . v ar . m inor ( Peterm . e mend . H arz .) . ( Beck) ( Table 1 ) . H owever , a s p eat g rowth c ontinued , o ccupation w as n o l onger p ossible a t t his s ite . P eople h ad t o l eave t he a rea a nd e astern W est-Friesland b ecame a w etland a gain .

i i)

P ollen A nalysis

T he o pportunities f or p ollen a nalysis i n t his r egion a re f ew , a s m ost o f t he p eat h as v anished . H owever , B as v an G eel w as a ble t o a nalyze t wo p eat s ections : o ne f rom t he K lokkeweel B og , w hich i s s ituated i n t he c lose v icinity o f t he B ronze A ge s ite o f H oogkarspel-Watertoren , e xcavated b y t he I PP ( Pals e t a l . 1 980 ; B akker e t a l . 1 977) ; a nd t he o ther f rom u nder t he W estfriese Z eedijk n ear E nkhuizen , a lso i n t he n eighbourhood o f aB ronze A ge s ettlement ( van G eel e t a l . 1 982-83) . I n t he a nalysis o f t he s ection f rom t he K lokkeweel B og i t w as e stablished t hat t he b og s tarted a s a b rackish e utrophic l ake . P eat f ormation t ook p lace h ere d uring t he B ronze A ge o ccupation o f t he a r ea . T here w as a c hange f rom s hallow , e utrophic , s tagnant , o ligohaline c onditions t o f resh water , w hich d ried o ut p eriodically a nd l ocally , v ia a f loating m at p hase , t o aw illow s crub w ith m uch D ryopteris . A t t he e nd o f t he B ronze A ge t he e nvironment b ecame g radually l ess e utrophic, a nd a b irch c art d eveloped . T he p hase w ith t he b irch c arr s howed t wo p eriods o f w etter

2 86

c onditions :

d ated c . 7 50 b c .

t he d welling s ites) a nd c . a bandonment o f t he a rea ) .

( which p robably c aused t he n ecessity t o r aise 6 00

b c

U nder t he d ike n ear E nkhuizen ,

( which

p robably

c aused w idespread

p eat w hich a ppeared t o h ave d eveloped

b etween t he B ronze A ge a nd t he m edieval r eclamation w as p reserved . T he a nalysis o f t his s ection s howed a s uccession f rom s hallow e utrophic w ater t hrough e utrophic a nd m esotrophic v egetation t ypes a nd b irch c arr t o a S phagnum p eat . T his c onfirmed a gain t he s upposition t hat W est-Friesland w as l argely c overed w ith p eat b efore i t b ecame o ccupied a gain i n t he M iddle A ges . D ue t o t he m edieval r eclamation , t his p eat h as d isappeared a lmost c ompletely t hrough s ubsidence a nd o xidation . A s e xplained b efore , o nly u nder d ikes o r a rtificial m ounds , d ating f rom t he M iddle A ges o nwards , a re p arts o f t he p eat p reserved . T he i ncreasing w etness o f t he p rehistoric s ettlement s ites i s a lso i ndicated b y t he o ccurrence a t t he e nd o f t he B ronze A ge o f l arge q uantities o f R ivularia s pore-type ( a p ioneer o f r egularly w aterlogged s oil) , a nd t he o ccurence o f R iccia c f . s orocarpa w hich m ight h ave c ome f rom n earby f ields, w hose d rainage w as h amrereu b y t he r ising g round w ater t able . i ii)

W ild a nimals

B ones o f w ild m ammals a nd b irds w hich w ere p ossibly h unted a re o f f ox ( Vulpes v ulpes) , e lk ( Alces a lces) , r ed d eer ( Cervus e laphus), r oe d eer ( Capreolus c apreolus) , h are ( Lepus c apensis) , b eaver ( Castor f iber ) , m allard ( Anas p latyrhynchos) , t eal ( Anas c recca) , g reylag g oose ( Anser a nser ) , m ute s wan ( Cygnus o lor ) , w hooper .swan ( Cygnus c ygnus) , c rane ( Grus g rus) , e agle o wl ( Bubo b ubo) , a nd c arrion c row ( Corvus c orone) . B ones o f t hese a nimals a re u ncommon , s o h unting c annot h ave b een o f m uch i mportance . F ish m ay h ave b een m ore i mportant , e specially d uring t he l ate p eriod . I n t he e arly p eriod e el ( Anguilla a nguilla) s eems t o h ave b een t he m ost i mportant f ish s pecies, w hereas d uring t he l ate p eriod b ream ( Abramis b rama), r oach ( Rutilus r utilus) , p ike ( Esox l ucius) , a nd p erch ( Perca f luviatilis) b ecame more i mportant . B ones o f e uropean c atfish ( Siluris g lanis) , b leak ( A b ilburnus a lburnus) , w hite b ream ( Blicca b joerkna) , i de ( L A A JSiSCUS i dus) , t ench ( Tinca t inca ) , r uffe ( Gymnocephalus c ernua) , a nd t he t hree-spined a nd t en-spined s tickleback ( Gasterosteus a culeatus a nd P ungitius p ungitius) h ave a lso b een f ound . A ll s pecies l ived i n f reshwater i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he s ettlement ; m ost i n b ream-zones o f s till o r s low-moving s treams o r l akes . T he o ccurrence o f f ive r odent s pecies i s i ndicative o f f our s pecific h abitats ( Fig . 1 3) : 1 .

P asture o r p eat v egetation v ole

( nordic v ole , M icrotus p economus a nd w ater

A rvicola t errestris) .

2 .

T ransitional z one b etween w etter c layey a reas a nd t he a rable ( common v ole , M icrotus a rvalis) .

3 .

F ields a nd f allow l and ( field v ole, M icrotus a grestis).

4 .

F armhouse a nd f armyard w ith g rain s tacks ( house m ouse, M us m usculus)

D uring t he l ate p eriod t hese h abitats e xisted v ery c lose t o o ne a nother : t he w ater v ole w as b eing f ound i n t he v icinity o f t he h ouses , i ndicating a gain t he i ncreased w etness o f t he s ite. A mphibians

( common t oad ,

B ufo b ufo ,

2 87

c ommon

f rog ,

R ana t emporaria ,

a nd

peat f or mat ion on c lay

nord ic vo le , water vo le

i n t he s urroundings o f t he s ettlement o f B ovenkarspel

•

;

. • • -•

2 88

m oor f rog ,

R ana a rvalis) a nd

r eptiles

( grass

s nake ,

m ore e xclusively i n t he s amples f rom t he e arly p eriod .

N atrix n atrix )

o ccur

T he c ommon t oad a nd

t he g rass s nake p refer d ry s oils . T he m ollusc r emains i ndicate d ifferent w ater-tables i n t he t wo p eriods . T he a ssemblage o f f reshwater s pecies o ccurring i n e arly p eriod d itches i s c haracteristic o f t he t ype o f e nvironment i n w hich t he d itches b ecame p eriodically d ry ( in s ummer ) . M ollusc a ssemblages f rom t he l ate p eriod d itches g ave t he i mpression t hat t hose d itches w ere w ater-filled t hroughout t he y ear .

S ynthesis C ombination o f

t he r esults o f t he a rchaeological,

b otanical a nd

z oological i nvestigations , t ogether w ith t he d ata f rom t he s oil m ap a nd t he f ield s urveys e nabled I Jzereef t o c onstruct a m odel o f s ubsistence i n B ronze A ge W est-Friesland a nd t o c alculate t he p opulation d ensity a t t hat t ime ( IJzereef 1 981). C alculations i ndicate t hat a bout 3 6% o f t he m enu o f a n a verage f amily ( comprising 6 p eople ) , a llowing 2 000 k cal p er p erson p er d ay , m ight h ave b een a ccounted f or b y c alories f rom a nimal f oods , i ncluding g ame a nd f ish , d uring t he m iddle o f t he e arly p eriod . I f m ilk f ormed p art o f t he m enu , t han c . 4 7% o f t he c alories w ould h ave b een a ccounted f or b y a nimal p roducts . D uring t he

W ith a n i ntake o f 3 000 k cal t hese f igures d rop t o 2 4% a nd 3 1% . l ate p eriod , 2 5% ( without m ilk ) o f t he c alorie i ntake a nd 3 2%

( with m ilk) c ould h ave c ome f rom a nimals ( with 2 000 k cal p er p erson p er d ay) . A t 3 000 k cal p er p erson p er d ay t hese p ercentages a re 1 6% a nd 2 2% . I n t hese c alculations o f t he c alories f rom p lant f oods o nly t he c alorie y ields o riginating f rom c ultivated c ereals h ave b een t aken i nto a ccount . W ild p lants , h owever , w ould a lso h ave h ad a p lace i n t he d iet , i n t he f orm o f c ollected f ruits, r oots, t ubers, a nd g reen v egetables. A t f irst t here w ere n o

l imitations

t o t he i ntroduction o f i mmigrants .

T here w as a n i mmense n atural p asture , w hich a ttracted t he s tock-breeding c olonists . T he f arm-houses w ere u p 2 5-30 m l ong . T he l iving a rea i s p resumed t o h ave b een 1 0 m l ong , t he r est o f t he h ouse b eing u sed f or a nimals . I n a 2 5 m b uilding 3 0 c attle c ould b e h oused . T he c olonists n eeded 3 0 h ectares o f l and p er f arm a s p asture , a ssuming 1 h ectare p er h ead o f c attle . C alculations b y G erard I Jzereef s uggest t hat i n a n a rea o f 1 0 s quare k m ( on a 6 km l ength o f r idge) w ith 8 40 h ectares o f g rassland o n t he c layey a nd l oamy s oils a vailable a s p asture , 2 8 f arms c ould e xist , e ach o f w hich p ossessed 3 .6 h ectares o f s andy s oil f or g rowing c ereals . I n t he c ourse o f t he e arly p eriod t he p opulation i ncreased ,

t he h ouses

b ecame s maller , a s d id t he h erds ( 20 c attle p er f arm ) , a nd l ess p asture ( 670 h ectares) , w as i n u se ;

b ut t o f eed t he p eople m ore a rable w as n eeded .

T he

h ouses w ere b uilt l ower o n t he r idge , s o t hat m ore a rable b ecame a vailable . A t o ne t ime 3 3 f arms c ould e xist , e ach w ith 8 h ectares o f a rable . I n t he l atest p hase o f t he e arly p eriod t he h ouses w ere v ery s mall ,

c .

1 5m , a nd w ere b uilt l ower a nd l ower o n t he r idge , w ith s pace f or o nly 1 0 h ead o f c attle . T here w as a bout 5 00 h ectares o f p asture . T here w as t hen r oom f or 5 0 f arms w ith 8 .8 h ectares o f a rable e ach .

2 89

I n t he l ate p eriod t he r ise o f t he w ater t able c aused t he b uilding o f m ounds ,

a nd t he f ormer p asture a rea b ecame t oo w et f or k eeping s tock .

T he

t otal p asture l and d ecreased t o c . 3 40 h a . T he h ouses w ere s mall ( c . 1 5 m ) . T here w ere 3 4 f arms e ach w ith 3 h ectares o f a rable l and . T his w ould n ot h ave b een e nough t o f eed t he m embers o f t he f amily o n m eat a nd c ereals a lone .

T he a ssumed g reater d ependence o n m ilk m ade i t p ossible t o

k eep f ewer c attle a nd r equire l ess p asture a nd a rable . B ased o n t he c alculations a bove ,

t he e astern p art o f W est-Friesland a t

t he e nd o f t he M iddle B ronze A ge m ight h ave i ncluded 1 40 f arms , e ach w ith c . 2 0 h ead o f c attle , s upporting a n a verage p opulation o f 1 .4 p eople p er s quare k ilometre . I t w ill b e c lear t hat t he e nvironmental c hanges a t t he e nd o f t he M iddle B ronze A ge h ad e ffects o n t he s tructure o f t he s ettlement , t he c rop c ultivation a nd s tock f arming . T he i nhabitants o f W est-Friesland a dapted t o t he c hanging l iving c onditions u p t o t he l imits o f t heir p ossibilities a nd t echnical k nowledge , b ut f inally t hey h ad t o l eave . A t f irst i t w as p ossible t o m ove t o t he s omewhat h igher C alais I VA2 g ully r idge , o n w hich O pperdoes i s s ituated , w here t hey c ould s tay u ntil i nto t he I ron A ge . H owever , t his g ully r idge a lso b ecame o verwhelmed b y t he r ising p eat a nd t he i nhabitants h ad t o l eave h ere a s w ell . W est-Friesland b ecame a w etland a gain .

A cknowledgements Many t hanks a re d ue t o G erard I Jzereef a nd F lip W oltering f or t he s upply o f i nformation a nd d rawings , a nd t o G erard I Jzereef , P eter M urphy a nd C harles F rench f or c ritically r eading t he t ext a nd i mproving t he E nglish .

2 90

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J .P .

a nd

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G .F .

( 1977)

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i n

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b ij

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( in p reparation )

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2 92

i n

A P OLLEN A ND P LANT M ACROFOSSIL I NVESTIGATION O F O AKBANK C RANNOG, L OCH T AY, S COTLAND . A lan J . C lapham a nd R obert G . S caife .

I ntroduction T he

l akeside

d wellings

o f A lpine E urope h ave f or

t heir r emarkably w ell p reserved

a rchaeological

a nd

l ong b een k nown f or b iological

r emains

( Schichtherle 1 986) . I n a ddition t o p reservation o f o rganic a rtefacts, p alaeoenvironmental e vidence i s n ow b ecoming m ore i mportant a nd w ell d ocumented ( e .g . B ocquet 1 979; G reig 1 985). O rganic r emains a re s imilarly w ell p reserved

i n s ub-aquatic c onditions

a t C rannogs , b ut t hese s ites h ave h itherto r eceived l ittle a ttention . T his p aper p resents t he r esults o f i nvestigations b eing c arried o ut o n O akbank C rannog, L och T ay ( Dixon 1 981, 1 982a, 1 984a , 1 984b) a nd a ttempts t o h ighlight t he v ery g reat p otential o f t hese t rue l acustrine d wellings f or t he s tudy o f h ighland o ccupation a nd e conomy f rom t he l ate B ronze A ge t o r elatively r ecent t imes .

C rannogs C rannogs

a re a rtificial

S cotland a nd I reland .

i slands w hich a re c ommon i n t he

l ochs

o f

T hese d wellings d iffer f rom t he l akeside d wellings

o f A lpine e astern F rance,

S witzerland a nd

I taly

i n t hat,

u nlike t he

c ontinental d wellings , c rannogs w ere a pparently b uilt u pon p iles i n t he s hallow w ater o f t he l och e dges . I t i s t herefore s omewhat i ronical t hat R obert Munro 's c lassic t ext ' T he L ake D wellings o f E urope ', p ublished i n 1 890 , p ortrayed t he E uropean d wellings i n t his f orm , f or t hey a re n ow k nown t o h ave b een d wellings a t l ake m argins . T he w ord ' Crannog ' i tself c omes f rom t he G aelic f or ' a s mall i sland b uilt t o s upport o ne o r m ore h uts' . S uch s tructures a re n ot , h owever , u nique : t hey a re s till b uilt b y t he C una I ndians o f P anama a nd t he M arsh A rabs o f s outhern I raq ( Munro 1 882) . I t w as

o n

e thnographic p arallels

t hat K eller

( 1866)

r econstructed a t ypical

v illage b uilt o n p iles i n aS wiss A lpine l ake f rom s tructures f ound d uring D umont D 'Urville 's r esearches i n N ew G uinea . C rannogs a re, o r w ere, a ctually s ited i n l acustrine o r o ccasionally e stuarine s ituations ( Morrison 1 980 , 1 985) a nd t heir t imber c onstruction m akes t hem d ifferent f rom t he ' Duns' ( stone b uilt f orts) a nd B rochs ( Iron A ge t owers) o f S cotland, a lthough t he d ating o f t hese s tructures o verlaps . Morrison ( 1980) h as s uggested t hat c rannog c onstruction r epresents a r esponse t o d ifferent l andscapes a nd a vailable b uilding m aterials : p eople n eeded s ecure s ettlement s ites

b ut

t hese h ad t o b e i n c lose p roximity t o a griculturally p roductive

l and o n t he a djacent s hore . A s w ith c ontinental l ake-side d wellings , i nterest i n c rannogs d ates b ack t o t he l atter h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury . H istorical d escriptions o f t he d evelopment o f c rannog s tudies a re g iven i n D ixon ( 1981, 1 982a , 1 982b) a nd M orrison ( 198 9 .

T he f irst

p roper a ssessment w as m ade

2 93

b y J ohn S tuart

i n

F ig.

1 . L ocation o f L och T ay a nd s ite o f O akbank C rannog ( after D ixon 1 981).

2 94

1 865

f or s outh w est S cotland .

R obert Munro 's

c lassic

t exts

' Ancient

S cottish L ake D wellings ' ( 1882) a nd ' The L ake D wellings o f E urope ' ( 1890) a nd F erdinand K eller 's ' Lake D wellings' ( 1866) r epresent t he s tate o f k nowledge g ained b y e arly r esearchers . Munro 's d ata a re b ased u pon e xcavations

o n L ochlee ,

L och S pouts

a nd L och B uston C rannogs

i n A yrshire .

T he w ork o f t he R everend F rancis O do B lundell d uring t he p eriod 1 900-1915 m arks t he b eginning o f m odern e xcavation , w ith h is u nderwater e xcavation o f a c rannog a t E ilean Muireach , L och N ess, a t a d epth o f 1 .5-1 m a nd a d istance o f 2 0-50 m f rom t he s hore . A s a r esult o f h is w ork , t he B ritish A ssociation f or A dvancement o f

S cience w as

s timulated

i nto

p roducing

c ircular a sking f or f urther i nformation r elating t o c rannogs .

a

H ydro

e lectric p ower d evelopment s ince t he 1 930s h as r esulted i n a s ubstantial n umber o f e xcavations o r i nvestigations w hich i ncluded t hose a t L och T reig ( 1933-Ritchie 1 942) ; L och G arry ( 1940s unpublished: s ee D ixon 1 984b) ; M ilton L och ( 1953-Piggott 1 953) a nd L och G lashan ( 1960- S cott u npublished s ee D ixon 1 982b) . U ntil t he 1 973 L och A we s urvey b y McArdle a nd M orrison , c rannogs

w ere

l ong

c onsidered

t o

b e

c oncentrated

i n

s outh w est

S cotland .

L och Awe w as s elected f or t his s urvey , s ince i t w as k nown t o h ave 3 -4 c rannogs . T he s urvey l ocated a t otal o f 2 0 , w hich i n s ome c ases h ad w ell p reserved m iddens , h arbours , j etties a nd c auseways o f s tone a nd t imber . T his s urvey e mphasised t he i mportance , a nd m ore w idespread o ccurrence , o f c rannogs i n u pland S cotland . S ubsequently , a s maller s urvey o f L och T ay ( 1979)

b y

D ixon

e nvironmental

( Dixon

1 982b)

a imed

a t

a ssessing

a nd d endrochronological a nalyses

s elected b ecause o f i ts G illies ( 1938 , i n D ixon

t he

p otential

o f c rannogs .

f or

L och T ay w as

l arge s ize a nd t he k nown o ccurrence o f c rannogs . 1 984 a ) n otes t hat i n t he ' F amed B readalbane ' i s

r ecorded t he l ocal t radition o f 2 4 i slands b uilt i n t he l och b y A lexander I o f S cotland . T he s urvey a ccurately l ocated 1 7 : 5 a re c urrently e xposed a s v egetated i slands ( to 4 m h igh) ; 5w ere j ust e xposed a t l ow s ummer w ater a nd 7w ere w ell s ubmerged i n u p t o 2 m o f w ater . C ombined w ith t he L och A we s urvey, t herefore , at otal o f 3 7 c rannogs w as l ocated, o f which 2 5 a re c ompletely s ubmerged .

D ating a nd f unction . C rannogs b uilt

a re

a nd u sed ,

f rom t he p eriod.

r emarkable

f or

t he

e ither a s p ermanent

l ength o r

o f

t ime

o ver w hich

t emporary h abitations .

t hey w ere T hey d ate

l ate B ronze A ge , a s d escribed h ere , t o t he D ark A ges a nd M edieval O ne e xample o f l ongevity o f u se i s g iven b y P iggot 's w ork o n

M ilton L och ,

1 4 k m w est o f D umfries ,

c entury B C w ere o btained ,

b ut 2 nd

w here r adio-carbon d ates

c entury A D

p ottery w as

f or t he 5 th

p resent

( Piggott

1 953) . S ince t he L och T ay s urvey, a s ubstantial n umber o f d ata a re n ow a vailable f rom t he d etailed e xcavations o f D ixon ( 1984b) o n t wo c losely a djacent c rannogs n ear t o F earnan i n L och T ay . O akbank C rannog , s elected f or a rchaeological e xcavation , i s t he e arliest d ated c rannog k nown a t p resent T he t hat

( Table

f unction

t he f inds

m etalworking c onsidered . b etween w ater . r eason

1 ) . o f

c rannogs

r emains

a n

e nigma .

o f i ron s lag a t B uston C rannog,

M unro

( 1882)

c onsidered

A rgyllshire i ndicated

a ctivities . T he p racticalities o f c onstruction h ave t o b e T he m ajority o f c rannogs w ere p laced a t t he p oint o f c hange

t he s hallow w ater f ringing t he l ochs a nd D istances o ff-shore a re t herefore v ariable . f or c onstruction ,

i t h as

b een n oted

t he s lope i nto d eeper I f d efence w as a p rime

( Morrison 1 980) t hat s ome w ere

b uilt s o c lose t o t he s hore a s t o b e u seless a gainst h uman i ntruders, a lthough p erhaps a ffording s ome p rotection f rom w ild a nimals .

2 95

T able 1 . R adiocarbon d ating o f c rannogs. O akbank C rannog 1 979 s eason

5 95 + 4 06 ; -

5 5bc 6 0bc

G U-1323 G U1325

1 980-1 s eason

4 10 +

6 0bc

G U-1463

4 55 ;

6 0bc

G U-1464

5 25 +

5 5bc

G U-1322

4 00 +

1 00bc

K -1394

4 90: 47

1 00bc

K -2027

F earnan H otel 1 979 M ilton L och

O f a pparent i mportance i s t heir c onstruction n ear ,

o r a djacent t o ,

c ultivable l and , a s a t O akbank C rannog . T his i s e xemplified i n L och A we w here , a t t he n orth e ast e nd , m any n atural i slands r emained u nused y et a t l east 2 0 c rannogs w ere c onstructed a t i ntervals a long t he 4 0 k m l ength o f t he l och ( Morrison 1 98 0 . T he s patial d istribution i s t hought t o r eflect t he f arming p otential o f a reas o f s table s oil . T he p alaeobotanical s tudies p resented h ere i llustrate a m ixed a gricultural s ystem o n t he a djacent, f ertile a lluvial f an o n t he s hore t o t he n orth . T he o ccurrence o f l anding s tages , a s f ound a t O akbank , e mphasises t he e ase a nd i mportance o f w ater t ransport a long t he l och . D ixon ( 1984b) h as a lso p ointed o ut t hat t he a rtefacts r ecovered f rom e xcavations a nd t he r ange o f c rannog c onstruction t echniques i mply a p opulace i ncluding h ighly s killed c raftsmen a nd a rtisans . I n s ummary , t hen , ap icture o f a h ighly p ractical a nd c ompetent c ommunity , p ractising a rable a nd p astoral a griculture o n e nvironmentally s uitable a reas , e merges .

O akbank C rannog O f t hose c rannogs

l ocated o n L och T ay ( Dixon 1 982b ) ,

t wo w ere f ound i n

c lose p roximity t o e ach o ther o ff t he n orth s hore a djacent t o F earnan h otel . T hese a re k nown a s F earnan C rannog ( Oakbank C rannog) a nd F earnan H otel C rannog . B oth w ere r adiocarbon d ated t o t he L ate B ronze A ge . O akbank h ad a n e arly d ate o f 5 95 + 5 5bc ( GU-1323-see T able 1 ) a nd w as s elected b y D r . D ixon f or d etailed u nderwater e xcavation .

S tructure O akbank C rannog i s e ssentially a f lat-topped m ound , 1 4 m etres a cross f rom n orth t o s outh a nd 1 8 m etres f rom e ast t o w est , l ying s ome 5 0 m etres f rom t he s hore .

I t h as a c auseway o n t he n orth s ide a nd a s mall m ound o r

l anding s tage o n i ts w est s ide . w ide a nd 1 5 m etres

l ong ,

T he f ormer i s 0 .5 m etres h igh ,

0 .4 m etres

c omprising 3 4 v ertical o ak p iles d riven i nto t he

2 96

l o ch

b ed

4 -0m

•

' P i le s

M I»

.M•

•

• •,. .

•

tmn

•

•••

•

•

• m e e

s ha l lows

s hore

F ig. 2 .

S ite p lan o f O akbank C rannog ( after D ixon 1 982a).

2 97

l och b ed .

A t i ts m inimum , t he c rannog s tands 1 . 5 m etres a bove t he l och b ed

a nd a t m aximum , 2 .5 m etres ( Fig . 2 ). A s a r esult o f d etailed e xamination a nd r adiocarbon d ating , an umber o f p hases

o f

c onstruction h ave

b een

r ecognised

( Dixon

1 984b ) .

T hese m ay

b e

s ummarised b riefly : P hase 1 :

T he e arliest p iles ( 6 m etres l ong x 0 .5 m etres d iameter ) w ere

d riven i nto t he l och b ed . T hese s upported t he o riginal s tructure a nd m ain h ouse . I n t he c entre o f t he h ouse, t he l iving f loor w as c onstructed o f p arallel p lanking . S takes s upported a n o uter w alkway . R adiocarbon d ating o f t hese t imbers a nd s takes p roduced a n a ssay o f 5 95 + 5 5bc a nd 5 25 + 5 5bc ( Table 1 ) . T his p latform s upported a f ill o f o rganic m aterial, L 35-2 m etres t hick . P hase 2 : S ubstantial s takes w ere d riven i nto t he o rganic m atrix t o a d epth o f 7 5 c m , p erhaps t o s trengthen t he o riginal s tructure . S ubsequent t o t his t here w as t hought t o h ave b een a p hase o f a bandonment r epresented b y l ayers o f s ilt a nd g ravel ( Dixon 1 984b) . H owever , r eappraisal o f t his d eposit a nd t he f ine s andy a nd g ravelly l evels o ccurring i n t he o rganic d ebris s uggests t hat t hey m ay r epresent f loor c overings . S uch s andy s trews h ave s imilarly b een f ound a t F lag F en , P eterborough , C ambs . , a L ate B ronze A ge ' r aft ' s ettlement ( Pryor e t a l . 1 986) . A t b oth s ites t hese l evels a re c urrently b eing i nvestigated p alynologically f or e vidence o f p lant u tilisation i n t he l iving a rea ( floor c overings , f ood p lants , h erbal p lants e tc .) . P hase 3 : T his p hase i s r epresented b y as mall n umber o f s takes s et i nto t he t op o f t he o rganic l evels t o ad epth o f 1 0-20 c m a nd i n a ssociation w ith a c over o f l arge b oulders w hich w ere p erhaps u sed t o c onsolidate t he s takes . T hese s takes p roduced r adiocarbon d ates o f 4 10 + 6 0bc ( GU1 463) a nd 4 55 + 6 0bc ( GU-1464) . A n a ssay o f 4 60 + 6 0bc ( GU-1325) f or t he

l anding

s tage

t imbers

p laces

t his

f eature

i n

t his

l atter

p hase .

T his i ndicates t he l atest o ccupation p hase r epresented a nd i s t hus a gain l ate B ronze A ge , a lthough t here i s t he p ossibility o f s urface m aterial h aving b een e roded a way . E xcavation o f t he c entral a rea ( Dixon 1 981,

1 982a ) e xposed a t otal a rea

o f 6 5 s quare m etres t hat i s , a pproximately 2 0% o f t he t otal a rea a vailable . T horough e xcavation o f t he o rganic c entral a rea r evealed f inely p reserved l eaves o f f erns ( Dryopteris a nd P teridium) , m osses , t imbers , t wigs , l eaves , s eeds a nd c oprolitic m aterial ( sheep/goat , c attle a nd p robably h uman ) . B one w as b adly p reserved , w ith b ovine t eeth b eing t he p rincipal f ind . A rtefacts r ecovered ( Dixon 1 984b) w ere o f l argely w ooden c onstruction a nd i llustrate r efined w oodworking t echniques . T hese i nclude n umerous s takes a nd p iles, a c arved p eg i llustrating t he u se o f as aw , a l arge c oarse d ish , p late , f lagon s tave , c anoe p addle ( 1 .35 m l ong) , b asketwork a nd h urdling . W ood t ypes s o f ar i dentified f rom t he a rchaeological m aterial i nclude o ak , w ych e lm , f ield e lm , r owan , a lder , h azel, p ine , i vy , d og r ose a nd p ear/apple ( Dixon 1 981; i dentification b y A nne C rane , S heffield) . S tone a rtefacts i nclude a j et r ing , f inely p erforated s tone b eads f rom a n ecklace , a p erforated l arge s tone t hought t o b e af ishing w eight , s tone h ammers a nd w hetstones . C oarse p ottery w as a lso r ecovered . T hus , aw ide r ange o f b oth n atural o rganic a nd i norganic r esources w as a vailable a nd a ctively u tilised .

2 98

P ollen a nalysis C omparative d ata o n p ollen f rom S cottish c rannogs a re f ew . ( 1953) ,

h owever ,

K nox

c arried o ut s ome p ollen w ork i n c onjunction w ith t he p lant

m acrofossil i nvestigations o f H ans H elbaek ( 1953) . K nox s tudied C rannog 1 i n M ilton L och a nd n oted t he p redominance o f h erbaceous p ollen t ypes a nd s carcity o f a rboreal t ypes . T he l atter d id , h owever , c omprise B etula ( birch), C orylus t ype ( hazel a nd s weet g ale) , Q uercus ( oak) a nd T ilia ( linden ) , w hich g ive a n i ndication o f t he r egional a nd l ocal v egetation o f t his a rea s ince i t i s l ikely t hat t he o verall i mportance o f t rees i n t he p ollen s pectrum w ill h ave b een s wamped b y t he m assive o ver-representation o f a nthropogenically i ntroduced h erbs . T he h erb p ollen s pectrum w as d ominated b y R anunculaceae ( buttercup f amily) , G ramineae ( grasses) , P lantago l anceolata ( ribwort p lantain ) , E mpetrum ( crowberry) a nd C henopodium t ype ( goosefoots a nd o raches) . W ith t he e xception o f t he

l atter ,

t his i s c omparable w ith p ollen d ata

f rom O akbank C rannog , d iscussed b elow . P reliminary p ollen a nalysis o f s pot s amples o btained f rom O akbank C rannog i n 1 980 w as c arried o ut b y D r . G . W hittington ( University o f S t . A ndrews, D epartment o f G eography) . T his s howed v ery s ubstantial q uantities o f c ereal p ollen . S ubsequent i nvestigation o f p lant m acrofossils b y S tokes ( 1981) , i n c onjunction w ith f urther p ollen a nalysis ( Scaife i n S tokes 1 981) , i llustrated a s imilar s ituation t o t hat o f M ilton L och C rannog . T he s pectrum i s d ominated b y v ery s ubstantial q uantities a nd a w ide d iversity o f h erb p ollen t ypes , w hich i nclude c ereals, a ssociated s egetals a nd r uderals.

a ) M ethodology I n 1 981, a c ore w as o btained b y D r . D ixon f rom u nderwater b y d iving , u sing a 1 . 5 m l ong x 1 5 c m d iameter p lastic t ube d riven t hrough t he o rganic s equence i nto t he s andy b ed o f t he l och . T his c ore w as c ut i nto t wo e qual s ections w hich h ave p rovided s ufficient m aterial f or p lant m acrofossil a nd p ollen i nvestigations. T he t otal t hickness

o f

l ength o f 9 5 c m o f t his c ore d oes n ot r epresent t he m aximum t he

o rganic

l evels ,

s ince

t he c ore w as

t aken f rom n ear

t he

o uter e dge o f t he d eposit . T he p osition o f t he s equence ( Fig . 2 ) w as o n t he i nside o f t he o uter w alkway , c lose t o t he p oint w here t he c auseway a djoins

t he c rannog 's m ain s tructure ( Dixon ,

p ers .

c omm .) .

T he c olumn

c omprised e ssentially t hree m ain t ypes o f d eposits ( Fig . 3 ): i )

B asal s andy s ediments o f t he l och f loor .

i i)

S andy a nd g ravelly f loor l evels.

i ii)

T he o rganic s equences , o rganic m atrix .

S amples

w ithin w hich t here w as

v ariation i n t he

f or p ollen a nalysis w ere t aken f rom t he c ore s amples a t 4 c m

i ntervals . S tandard t echniques w ere u sed t o e xtract a nd c oncentrate t he c ontained m icrofossil p ollen a nd s pores f rom 1 -2 m l v olume s amples ( Moore a nd W ebb 1 978) . W here p ossible , a s um o f 3 00-400 p ollen g rains w as i dentified a nd c ounted u sing b rightfield a nd p hase c ontrast m icroscopy . T he r esults o f t his a nalysis a re p resented i n d iagram f orm ( Figs . 4 a nd 5 )

2 99

A

V VV

Clint artefact

Uood

f ragments.

E traw debris.

Arorrhous o rganic d ebris.

Charcoal.

S mall boulders.

G ravel.

S and.

F ig. 3 .

K ey t o s tratigraphy o f t he m onolith .

3 00

F LOOR 2 I V +

+

•

+

+

+

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+

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1 984 R.G. S CA IFE

F LOOR 2

s pores a nd t otals .

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t> ,_

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1 l i p

•

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w ith a ll p ollen t axa b eing c alculated a s ap ercentage o f t otal p ollen ( TP) f or e ach l evel . S pores w ere c ounted o utside o f t he b asic p ollen s um a nd h ave b een c alculated a s ap ercentage o f t otal p ollen p lus s pores ( % =T P + S PORES) . F our p ollen z ones h ave b een d efined o n t he b asis o f t he i nherent p ollen v ariation i n t he s equence b ut t hese d o i n f act c orrespond w ith t he p rincipal a rchaeological c ontexts r ecognised i n t he c olumn .

b )

R esults

T he b asal g rey s ands o f Z one 1 ( 90-78 c m ) , a lthough o f h ighly i norganic c haracter , c ontained b oth p ollen a nd s pores . A s m ight b e e xpected , t he p ollen w as p resent i n l ower f requencies t han i n s ubsequent , m ore o rganic , l evels . T he d ominant t axa f ound w ere A lnus ( alder ) a nd C orylus t ype i n t he a rboreal/shrub c ategory . T he z one i s, h owever , d ominated b y s pores o f P teridium a quilinum ( bracken ) a nd D ryopteris ( fern ) t ypes . T he l atter a re p resent i n e xceptionally h igh f requencies a nd p ercentages . P ollen a nd s pore p reservation i n t hese l evels w as g ood , a nd d ifferential p ollen p reservation i s n ot t he l ikely c ause o f s uch a h igh r epresentation o f s pores . F urthermore , m any c lusters o f s pores s till e nclosed i n s on i w ere n oted . T he p ollen o f a rboreal t axa p resent u ndoubtedly r epresent t he v egetation m arginal t o t he l och ; t his i s , w ithin t he s phere o f t he p ollen c atchment a nd/or r iver o r s tream i nput i nto t he l och , w hich w ould h ave i ntroduced s econdary p ollen t o t he s ediments . F rom t his i s i nferred a v egetation d ominated b y A lnus w ith s ome Q uercus ( oak ) a nd U lnus ( elm ) . I t i s l ikely t hat A l ms w as p resent i n s uitable h abitats f ringing t he l och , a lthough c omparison w ith p resent d ay s tands m ay i ndicate a m ore w idespread o ccurrence o n e ven r elatively s teep v alley s ides, w here t he t ree 's m oisture r equirements a re m et b y h igh l evels o f p recipitation .

U lmus ,

Q uercus a nd

C orylus w ere u ndoubtedly p resent , g rowing o n d rier s oils . T he e xtent o f t his w oodland i s d ifficult t o a scertain b ecause o f t he e ffects o f t he o verr epresentation o f A lnus i n t he p ollen s um ( Janssen 1 959) a nd t he p ossibility o f d ifferential f iltration t hrough t he f ringing a lder g rowth . C orylus i s s hown i n t his a nd t hroughout s ubsequent l evels a s b eing a n i mportant w oodland o r s hrub s pecies g rowing o n s urrounding d rier s oils . S ince C orylus r equires l ight f or f lowering , i t i s l ikely t o h ave b een p resent i n o pen w oodland o r o n e xposed a reas u nsuited f or f ull d eciduous w oodland . T he h igh f requencies o f D ryopteris s pores, a nd t o a l esser e xtent o f P teridium , i ndicate t hat t his f ern m aterial m ay h ave b een d ominant i n o ne o f an umber o f w ays : i )

I t w as i ncorporated a s b onding m aterial p rior t o c rannog c onstruction .

i i)

T he

b asal

f oreshore .

s and w as

d umped

m aterial

f rom

t he

a djacent

T his a rea m ay h ave h ad s tands o f f erns g rowing o n

i t . i ii) G reater q uantities

o f

s pores m ay h ave b een w ashed i nto

t he l och d uring p eriods o f h igh d ischarge f rom t he s urrounding r iver c atchment ( Peck 1 973) . I f t his w ere t he c ase, h igher f requencies o f p ollen m ight h ave b een e xpected . i v)

I t

i s p ossible t hat t he s pores c ame f rom t he i nitial

f loor

c overing o f t he p lanked f loor , h aving f allen t hrough i nto t he

3 03

w ater b elow . T his w ould a ccount f or t he f ine p reservation o f t he s pores a nd t heir n umerous c lusters . Z one I I ( 78-58 c m ) . i n s ize ,

F loor l evel 1 c omprised s mall b oulders u p t o 1 5 c m

r esting o n t he b asal s and o f p ollen/stratigraphical Z one 1 .

T his

w as o verlain b y c oarse s and a nd g ravel l ayers, a ll o f which w ere i ntercalated w ith d eposits o f o rganic a nd h umic m aterial . P alynologically , t his l evel i s c learly d efined . H igh p ollen p ercentages o f A lnus a nd C orylus t ypes ( which i nclude M yrica ; s weet g ale) d ecline s harply i n r esponse t o a m arked i ncrease i n a n umber o f h erb t axa . T hese l atter a re n otably R anunculus t ype , P lantago l anceolata , A rtemisia, T araxacum t ype ( Liguliflorae) , G ramineae a nd c ereal t ype p ollen w ith a m uch i ncreased d iversity o f o ther h erb t axa . T his d iversity o f h erbs i s m aintained t hroughout s ubsequent z ones . T he p redominant t axa a re t hose a ssociated w ith p astoral a ctivity a nd c ereal c ultivation . T hese h erbs c an a lso b e d ivided i nto t hose t ypes w hich o ccur i n t his z one a nd s ubsequently r emain c onsistent , a nd t hose w hich s how d ominantly h igh v alues o nly f or t his f loor l evel z one . T he l atter a re n otably R anunculus t ype , A rtemisia ( mugworts) , T araxacum t ype ( dandelion g roup) a nd P teridium a quilinum . T here a re i nterpretative p roblems a s t o w hether t hese t axa a re o f ' secondary o rigin ' , i ncorporated w ith t he s and c omponent , a nd , i f s o , w hich p lant c ommunity t hey r epresent . T heir s trong c orrelation w ith t he l evels o f t he f loor s uggests t hat s and a nd g ravel w as t aken f rom d ryish a reas o f n on-wooded , o pen a nd p artially s table s andy a reas a long t he s hore o f L och T ay . S uch a d isturbed h abitat c ould s upport t hese r uderal p lants . A s imilar r epresentation o f t his c ommunity i s s een f rom 4 5 c m i n Z one I II i nto f loor 2 ( 30-22 c m ) w here P teridium a quilinum s pores a nd m acrofossil r emains w ere a bundant . S ome r emains o f P teridium f ronds s howed e vidence o f c harring a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t his p lant w as u sed f or b oth f loor c overing o r b edding a nd a s a d ry t inder m aterial f or f ires ( Rymer 1 976) . T he u se o f b racken a s f ertiliser h as b een s uggested f or p rehistoric l owland E ngland ( Dimbleby a nd E vans 1 974 ; R ymer 1 976: 1 68) a nd t his s hould, t herefore , a lso b e c onsidered a s a p ossible s ource o f t hese a bundant s pore a nd m acrofossil r emains . I t s eems p robable t hat y oung b racken o r i ts r oots w ould h ave b een m ore p alatable a nd s electively g razed o r c ollected r ather t han o lder , d ried o ut p lants g athered i n a utumn w hen s pores w ould h ave b een a bundant . T he s econd g roup o f t axa o f s ubstantial i mportance f rom t hese l evels a re t hose t ypically a ssociated w ith h uman a ctivities .

T hese a re c haracterised

b y P lantago l anceolata , c ereal a nd o ther G ramineae f orming t he d ominant g roup , w ith l esser r epresentation o f L eguminosae ( Trifolium t ype ; c lovers a nd M edicago t ype ; m edicks) , R umex ( docks) a nd S crophulariaceae ( figwort f amily) . T he m ajority o f t hese t ypes r epresent p lant m aterial b rought o nto t he c rannog a nd i ncorporated i nto t he f abric o f t he f loor ( the o rganic c omponent n oted a bove) , o r p ollen w hich h as m oved d own i nto t he c oarse m ineral f loor f rom t he p hase o f o ccupation i mmediately a fter t he f loor w as l aid . I n B ritain n o d irect a nalogy c an b e m ade w ith o ther c rannogs f rom w hich p ollen h as b een s tudied d ue t o l ack o f s tratigraphic c ontrol . S ites w hich m ay y ield d ata i n f uture a re t hose o f t he G lastonbury a nd M eare ' lake v illages ' ( Caseldine 1 983) a nd F lag F en , P eterborough ( Scaife i n P ryor e t . a l . 1 986 : 2 0-21) .

I nterpretation i s t herefore a t p resent p roblematic .

T he n ature o f t he p latform s tructure a nd i ts w idespread o rganic d eposits r esting u pon , a nd i n , t he f loors ( Zones I I a nd I V) , s how t hat p lants w ere u ndoubtedly i ntroduced b y m an o nto t he c rannog . T his a ccounts f or t he m ajority o f p ollen t ypes r epresented . A l esser e lement o f ' natural' d eposition o n t o t he c rannog ( as d iscussed f or Z one 1 a bove) i s r epresented i n t he

t ree a nd s hrub t axa r ecorded .

3 04

T he c losest a nalogy t o s uch a

s ituation w hich m ay h elp

t o e xplain s uch p henomena a s

t he

r emarkably h igh

c ereal c ontent , i s t he a nalysis o f p ollen s pectra f rom u rban e nvironments . W ork i n r ecent y ears ( Greig , 1 982 K rzwynski e t a l . 1 983 ; H all e t . a l . 1 983 ; S caife 1 982) o n m edieval a nd l ater u rban c ontexts h as p roduced m arkedly s imilar r esults i n t hat m ost o f t he p ollen p resent d irectly r epresents h uman a ctivities . H ere a lso , h igh p ollen v alues f or c ereals a nd a ssociated w eeds w ere n oted i n a reas o bviously n ot b eing c ultivated . I t i s i n t hese r esults t hat a n e xplanation o f

t he h igh p ollen f requencies

o f

c ereals

( up

t o 5 0%

t otal p ollen ) a nd o f m any r uderals o f Z ones I I t o I V m ust b e s ought . R obinson a nd H ubbard

( 1977)

r ecognised

t hat

p ollen p roduced b y

i nflorescences m ay b ecome t rapped i n t he h usks o f c ereal e ars . h as p rovided t he k ey t o t he i nterpretation o f

t he h igh c ereal

f requencies f ound i n m any a rchaeological c ontexts .

c ereal

T his f act p ollen

P ollen w hich i s t rapped

m ay b e i ncorporated i nto f oodstuffs c onsumed b oth b y h umans a nd a nimals . I ngestion a nd s ubsequent d eposition i n f aeces r esults i n t he h igh p ollen n umbers o f c ereal a nd a ssociated s egetal w eeds ( which m ay b e s imilarly c aught

i n

t he

a rchaeological

c ereal

h ead)

w aste d eposits

i n

c esspits,

( Greig

1 982,

t hus b e r ecovered f rom c oprolitic m aterial

l atrines

H all

( Greig

e t a l .

1 983) .

( Scaife 1 986) .

1 981)

T he t aphonomy i s

t herefore c omplex a nd p ossible e xplanations f or t he h igh v alues p ollen f ound o n O akbank C rannog m ay b e s ummarised a s f ollows :i )

o f c ereal

O n s ite c ereal p rocessing r esulted i n t he r elease o f p ollen t rapped i n t he

c ereal h eads a nd s ubsequent

o ccupation C Vuorela 1 97 0 .

P ollen m ay

h ave

b ecome

d eposition o n t he a rea o f

C harred c ereal r emains o f T riticum a nd

H ordeum w ere i n f act r ecovered , c ereal p rocessing . i i)

a nd

P ollen m ay

i ndicating s ome d egree o f ' on s ite '

i ncorporated

i nto h uman o r a nimal

f aeces .

B oth h ave b een f ound o n t he s ite a nd h ave b een s ubjected t o p ollen a nalysis .

H owever , t hese p reliminary a nalyses , a lbeit o f as mall

s ample o f c oprolites , h ave f ailed t o s how s imilar s ubstantial s ums o f c ereal p ollen . T hey d o, h owever , i llustrate a m arkedly p astoral h abitat ( Table 2 ) . i ii) T he

o rganic

d ebris

s traw m aterial

c overing

t he

f loor ,

( especially i n Z one

c omprising

V ),

i s

q uantities

e vidence

o f

o f

f loor

c overings , a nimal f eedstuffs o r a morphous c haff r emains f rom a nimal d ung . T his d ebris i s l ikely t o h ave b een v ery r ich i n p ollen o f c ereals a nd s egetals f rom o ne o r m ore o f t he a bove s ources.

O ne o r m ore o f t he a bove f actors c ould h ave r esulted i n t he h igh q uantities o f c ereal p ollen , w hich a re n ot f ound i n n atural S cottish p eat m ire a nd l ake s ediments . E xamination o f t he o ccupation m aterial f or p lant m acrofossil r emains, h owever , r evealed f ew c ereal c aryopses . A ccepting t hat s ome c ereal p ollen m ay h ave a dhered t o s traw , t he d erivation o f t his p ollen i s l ikely t o h ave r esulted f rom s ources i ) a nd/or T he c ereals i llustrate t he i mportance o f a rable f arming i n t he e conomy . T he a rable l and m ust h ave b een o n s urrounding a reas o f g reater s oil f ertility . I t i s h oped t o c arry o ut a ' normal' p ollen a nalysis o f L och T ay s ediments c lose t o , b ut o utside t he a rea o f i nfluence o f, t he c rannog . T his w ould p ermit e xamination o f t he w ay i n w hich c ultivation i s r epresented i n t he p ollen r ecord a gainst a b ackground o f r egional p ollen r ain .

3 05

S uch a n

T able 2 .

P ollen

o btained

f rom

a nalysis

o f

o vicaprid

C alculated a s ap ercentage o f t otal p ollen ; o f t otal p ollen p lus s pores .

C ount

% TP

Q uercus

2

0 .9

A lnus

4

P OLLEN

C orylus t ype

1 .4

5 2

1 7.3

S orbus t ype C alluna

1 2

0 .4 0 .9

C altha t ype A nemone t ype R anunculus t ype

2 1 5

0 .9 0 .4 1 .7

c f. H ypericum D ianthus t ype M edicago t ype T rifolium t ype

1 4 3 2

0 .4 1 .4 1 .0 0 .9

F ilipendula R osaceae u ndiff. P otentilla t ype U mbelliferae R umex

3 1 1 2 2 2

1 .0 0 .4 0 .4 7 .3 0 .9

U rtica t ype R hinanthus t ype O dontites t ype P lantago l anceolata

2 7 1 9 2 0 .4

9 .0 6 .3 6 .7 1 .4

2 2

0 .9 0 .9

2 2 1 04 6 2

0 .9 0 .9 3 4.7 2 .0 0 .9

S uccisa A rtemisia C irsium t ype T araxacum t ype G ramineae C erealia C yperaceae

S PORES

C ount %

T P+SPORES

P teridium

8 6

1 8 .7

D ryopteris t ype P olypodium

7 7 6

1 6 .4 1 .3

1

0 .9

S phagnum

3 06

c oprolites .

s pores a s ap ercentage

a nalysis h as b een s uccessfully c arried o ut b y W elten ( 1967) a nd G reig ( 1985) i n t heir s tudy o f t he I talian l akeside d welling o f F iave . c rannog s ite ,

W ithin t he

t he r epresentation o f c ereals i s s trongest i mmediately a bove

f loor 1 w ith i ts h igh p ollen v alues o f 5 0% N AP . O f t he t axa i dentified f rom p ollen , o nly c ereals c an b e c onsidered e vidence o f ad irect f ood r esource : p ollen t axonomy d oes n ot a llow , i n m any c ases , i dentification t o s pecies o r g eneric l evel . C onsequently , s uch p ollen a s t hose o f U mbelliferae , w hich s imilarly o ccur t o 1 0% ( TP) i mmediately o verlying f loor 1 , m ay b e e vidence o f f oodstuffs o r p lant u tilisation . I nvestigation o f p lant m acrofossils c an i n t his r espect p rovide m ore u seful d ata . C henopodium s eeds h ave b een f ound i n g reat p rofusion ( Stokes 1 981; C lapham 1 986b) . C henopodium i s a nemophilous ( wind p ollinated) a nd p roduces a bundant p ollen . C onsequently , i t c an b e s trongly r epresented i n p ollen s pectra , b ut , d espite t he l arge n umber o f s eeds r ecorded i n t hese c ontexts ( see b elow) , r elatively s mall p ollen p ercentages a re f ound ( 0-2%) . T his l eads t o t he c onclusion t hat C henopodium a lbum w as o ne o f an umber o f p lants u sed a s af ood r esource c ollected f rom e lsewhere . N umerous C orylus n uts a nd an umber o f P runus s tones w ere a lso r ecovered ( see b elow ) f rom t he o rganic f loor c overings . T here i s a s trong p ollen r epresentation o f C orylus ( separated f rom M yrica , a lthough s ome o f t he l atter m ay b e i ncluded i n t he p ollen s um) . T his i s t o b e e xpected i n t he c ase o f t his a nemophilous s hrub, w hich p roduces c opious q uantities o f p ollen . H azel n uts w ere t herefore a vailable a s a f ood r esource a nd , w ith Q uercus a nd A lnus , a s a t imber r esource g rowing i n a reas s urrounding t he l och . I n

a ddition

t o t he

g rassland e lement .

a rable

a gricultural

c omponent ,

t here

i s

a s trong

T his i s d iscernable f rom t he h igh v alues o f G ramineae

p ollen , b oth i n t he l iving f loor ( Zone I I) a nd i n t he o ccupation l evels a nd d umped o rganic l ayers o f Z one I II , a nd m ay b e a ssociated w ith o ther h erbs p resent - n otably P lantago l anceolata . I t i s p lausible t hat t hese a re p ollen e lements i ntroduced o n t o t he s ite d irectly i n a nimal f eedstuffs o r s econdarily i n a nimal d ung . Z one I V ( floor 2 ) a nd Z one V s how b roadly s imilar r esults t o t hose d escribed a bove , w hich r elated l argely t o Z ones I I a nd I II , b ut s ome m inor d ifferences d o o ccur . T he f loor l evel ( 2) o f Z one I V ( 30-22 c m ) c omprised c oarse s and w ith a n umber o f s mall b oulders a nd a s truck w aste f lake . T his h orizon c ontained t he s ame h igh f requencies o f A rtemisia , c ereals a nd P teridium . T he (T erlying o rganic m aterial c onsisted l argely o f s traw a nd u nidentified m onouotyledonous d ebris . P ollen c ontained i n t hese l evels i ncludes b oth a rable a nd p astoral i ndicators . T his p astoral e lement i s m ore s trongly r epresented t han i n p ollen Z one I II , w ith G ramineae , P lantago l anceolata , R umex a nd p ossibly R anunculus t ype a nd P apilionaceae .

( c)

S ummary o f t he p ollen e vidence . T hroughout

t he

p eriod

o f

o ccupation

t he

n atural

r egional

v egetation

a ppears t o h ave r emained c onstant . T he a rboreal v egetation r emained d ominated b y C orylus a nd A lnus w ith l esser q uantities o f B etula , U lmus a nd Q uercus i n s ituations s uited t o t heir g rowth . O ther n atural h erbaceous c ommunities m ay b e r epresented b y T rollius e uropaeus ( globe f lower ) , C altha t ype ( most l ikely t o b e m arsh m arigold) , T halictrum ( meadow r ue ) , L ychnis t ype ( ragged r obin) , F ilipendula ( meadow s weet) , c f . G eum ( avens t ype), S anguisorba o fficinalis ( great b urnet), S cabiosa ( scabious) a nd S uccisa ( devils b it s cabious) . S ome o f t hese t axa a re c haracteristic o f d amp w et f lush a nd f en a reas .

H owever, a s G reig ( pers . c omm .) h as p ointed o ut,

3 07

a lmost

a ll

o f

t hese

t axa

a re

a lso c haracteristic o f u pland h ay m eadows .

T his m ight a lso t herefore p oint t o a nimal d ung a s as ource f or t hese p ollen t ypes . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat p lant c ommunities t ypical o f a cid a nd p oor s oils a re o nly l ittle r epresented . H eathland ( Erica a nd C alluna) p ollen i s o f l ittle i mportance , a s a re S phagnum s pores, i ndicative o f b lanket m ire o r t opogenous m ire p eat g rowth . T his f actor , a llied t o t he r ich h erb f lora a nd t he p redominant e vidence o f m ixed f arming i mplies t hat l ittle s oil d eterioration h ad t aken p lace b y t his d ate . A reas o f p astoral a nd a rable a griculture o ccurred w ithin a r egion s upporting w oodland o f C orylus , U lmus , Q uercus a nd a l ittle B etula a nd A lnus .

T he p lant m acrofossils ( a)

M aterials a nd m ethodology . T he s econd h alf o f t he c ore n oted a bove w as u sed f or t he s tudy o f p lant

m acrofossils . t he

F ive d istinct z ones w ere s imilarly r ecognised ,

l och b ed s ands ,

c overing ,

t he f irst

f loor

l evel s and ,

t hese b eing

t he f irst f loor o rganic

a s econd l ess d istinct f loor l evel ( marked b y t he p resence o f a

l arge s tone) a nd f inally t he s econd o rganic f loor c overing . A s m ost o f t hese u nits w ere m ore t han 1 0 c m i n

l ength

t hey w ere s ub-

s ampled a t 5c m i ntervals . T his w as f ollowed s trictly e xcept i n t wo c ases : f irstly , w here a n o rganic l ens w as n oted i n t he f irst f loor l evel a nd s econdly , w here a l arge s tone a t 2 0 c m m ade i t i mpossible t o s ubsample a t 5 c m i ntervals . E ach s ample w as w eighed a nd i ts v olume e stimated, t hen p laced i n 1 . 5 l itres o f 1 0% 1 00 v olumes h ydrogen p eroxide f or 2 5-40 m inutes . T he m ixture w as t hen p oured i nto a s eries o f s tackable s ieves w ith m esh s izes o f 4m m , 1m m , 0 .5 m m a nd 0 .25 1 1 14 T he s amples w ere t hen w ashed w ith w ater t o r emove a ny r esidual h ydrogen p eroxide a nd t o d istribute t he p lant r emains t o t he r elevant m esh s ize . E ach s ize f raction a nd c lean r esidues w ere w eighed a nd

t heir

v olumes

r ecorded .

E ach

f raction w as

s tored

s eparately i n 7 0% a lcohol . A nalysis w as c arried o ut a ccording t o t he f raction s ize : f or e ach f raction t he n umber o f s eeds p er t axon w as r ecorded . T he r elative a bundance o f f ern f ragments , b uds , m osses a nd f ly p uparia w as a lso r ecorded f or e ach f raction . I n s ome s amples t he f iner f ractions p roduced a l arge a mount o f m aterial . I t w as d ecided t o s ort t horoughly a k nown v olume o f t hese f ractions a nd t o s can t he r est o f t he f raction t o s ee i f a ny n ew t axa w ere p resent ( J . G reig p ers . c omm .; K örber-Grohne e t a l. t otals w ere t hen c orrected f or t hese s amples . I dentifications

o f

t he s eeds

1 983) .

S eed

a nd c ereal r emains w ere c hecked b y u sing

t he m odern s eed r eference c ollections a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology a nd a t t he D epartment o f P lant B iology , B irmingham U niversity . C onfirmation o f t he i dentification o f c ritical s eed t axa w as u ndertaken b y J . G reig a nd c onfirmation o f t he c orrect i dentification o f t he c ereal r emains w as c arried o ut b y G . H illman .

( b)

R esults. T he c ore w as o riginally d ivided i nto 1 4 s amples b ut d ue t o t he r ichness

o f e ach s ample , a nd t he l imited a mount o f t ime a vailable f or a nalysis , t he n umber o f s amples e xamined w as r educed t o 8 . T he f irst 5 s amples w ere

3 08

a nalysed i n o rder t o s ee i f a ny d ifference i n t he p lant m acro-fossil r ecord c ould b e d etected b etween t he l och b ed s ands , s and o f t he f irst f loor l evel , t he o rganic l ens p resent w ithin t he f irst f loor a nd t he o rganic c overing o f t he f irst f loor . T hereafter , i t w as d ecided t o a nalyse t he s amples o f t he o rganic f loor c overings w ith t ime o ccurred .

a t t he b ase ,

m iddle a nd t op t o s ee i f a ny c hange

T he s amples f rom t he l och b ed a nd f irst f loor ( samples 1 , 2a nd 4 ) a ppeared t o h ave a h igh m ineral c ontent , w hilst t hose o f t he o rganic l ens a nd f loor c overings h ad a v ery l ow m ineral c ontent . T he o rganic l ayers c ontained n ot o nly l arge q uantitites o f w ood c hips a nd o ther l arger p ieces o f w ood b ut a lso q uantitites o f f ern , m osses a nd i n s ome s amples w hat a ppeared t o b e d ung . T his d ung m aterial w as p resent a s a morphous l umps , t he c omponents o f w hich s howed n o c lear o rganisation .

T he p ieces v aried i n

s ize f rom a pproximately 1 0 m m d iameter t o l ess t han 5 I TR I . T his m ay h ave r esulted f rom t he t reatment o f t he s amples w ith h ydrogen p eroxide , f ollowed b y w ashing w ith w ater , w hich w ould b reak u p t he l arger p ieces o f d ung . T he p reservation o f t he s eeds i n t he s amples w as e xcellent a lthough i n t he c ase o f s elf h eal ( Prunella v ulgaris) t he o uter s eed c oat w as s tripped o ff . T he f ragments o f f erns a nd m osses w ere a lso w ell p reserved a nd i n s ome c ases s on i a long t he f ern p innae m argins w ere v isible a nd c ould b e u sed a s a n a id t o i dentification . O ne n oticeable f eature o f a ll o f t he s amples w as t hat t here w as v ery l ittle c harred m aterial p resent .

( c)

T he s eed d iagram . I t w as d ecided t o p resent t he r esults o f t his w ork i n af orm s imilar t o

ap ollen d iagram ( F iss . 6a nd 7 ) f or t wo r easons : f irstly , t o a llow a d irect c omparison w ith t he p ollen d iagram ( Figs . 4 a nd 5 ) a nd s econdly , t o p resent t he d ata i n a n e asily a ccessible f orm . I t m ust b e s tressed t hat t his s eed d iagram o nly r epresents t he l and t axa . T his i s b ecause t he l arge n umbers o f J uncus s pp . ( rush) s eeds i n t he t otals w ould h ave r esulted i n t he p ercentages f or t he o ther t axa b eing s uppressed . O ther w etland s pecies h ave b een o mitted , w ith t he e xception o f M ontia f ontana ( blinks) w hich c an o ccur a s a n a rable w eed . T he d iagram ( Figs . 6a nd 7 ) s hows t hat w ithin a ll o f t he s amples t here a re t hree d ominant s pecies . T hese a re S tellaria c f . m edia ( chickweed) , C henopodium c f . a lbum ( fat h en ) a nd U rtica d ioica ( stinging n ettle) . O ther t axa t hat w ere a lso c ommon f inds b ut i n l esser q uantities i nclude b uttercup , R anunculus ( section R anunculus) , P runella v ulgaris ( self h eal) , s pp . ( hemp n ettle) a nd L apsana c ommunis ( nipplewort) .

G aleopsis

F igures 6 a nd 7 a lso s how t hat t he b asal l och s ands h ave a r elatively p oor f lora c ompared t o t hat o f t he o verlying o rganic l ayers . I t w ould b e e xpected t hat t his l ayer w ould c ontain a s eed a ssemblage t hat r eflected t he n atural e nvironment a round t he s ite . L ooking a t t he d iagram , h owever , i t c an b e s een t hat t here a re h igh p ercentages o f S tellaria c f . m edia , C henopodium c f . album , Rubus i daeus ( raspberry), Urtica d ioica, G aleopsis

s peciosa/tetrahit a ggregate a nd L apsana c ommunis .

W hat i s

s urprising , i s t hat f our o f t hese s ix s pecies h ave t heir h ighest v alues f or t he w hole c olumn w ithin t his s ample . T his m ay b e e xplained b y am ovement o f m aterial i nto t he b asal s ands f rom t he l ayer a bove . T he s eed t axa f ound i n s ample 1 a re r epresentative o f a rable a nd w aste l and e nvironments . S ample 3 , t he o rganic l ens , i s d ominated b y U rtica d ioica a nd a lso h as h igh v alues

3 09

s oc t , v7 so

f rso/ v /

E

c y , s •s o 4 ,

s i s s , 1% 16 ,f r

f r 7 s 2 , y, E

r s

o c s ,E [ b . j s ,4 s4f r , s , c y t , t y ,6, 2, _1 , f rO f r ty E f r . i j. . . e ; , , , ,) 74 Q ,

1/

,2 7 /, . BI M

04 /:

, ,s ' oeo e , E . 1 / 2 ' ' ' 's 'oe .0 6 , E r y0/ soz i v o , , , i s s _ so 1 i , "

• / . 1t > ." •,s ,

'0

t Y , < Q t y3

_H

6 '

'

iv ,

E i t yE i v o& 2 f r . . Y3

4/

d y

' Y f r ' i4w I _ 1 , . 7 _ G 's , 1 7° ' 1 , .

0 ' Yj

f r

l cYt y

/ 0

e cs • S

1

DRY

s i s ' i v .4 1 7t r

L AND TAXA

kw o , 0 0 0 , 0

, La im

77 . i sE

B oa t y

O f r o 1 e , .. . ,f r , 1 „s b . . . 07 0 J 3 e4 ,s t >; & e E am m i n

0 4 /4 1 S • 4&3 t y S S O2 034 7 )4 / 1 " ; 2 y r L - N s

/ ? 4 /f r ,E

J 0

0

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3 10

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o c ,

i n c d ,

0 4 . 0

1 0

S eed d iagram .

o so

• C D

-0 ^ -

L C I

•

am

M

0

m a

a im

I»

LAND T AXA

-

u m

DRY

• 4

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-

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a

1 0 1

4I—

1

I

1 • 1 I 2 1 L . ) 0

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0 U )

3 11

I

i i 0 ( . 0

i 0

c o

0 r -

f or S tellaria c f . m edia , C henopodium c f . a lbum , P runella v ulgaris a nd L apsana c ommunis ; a gain t hese s pecies a re i ndicative o f a rable a nd w asteland h abitats. C henopodium c f . a lbum r eaches i ts h ighest p eak i n s ample 1 1, b ut s urprisingly , a lthough S tellaria c f . m edia h as s till a r elatively h igh p ercentage , U rtica d ioica d rops t o l ess t han 5 % . I n f act , i t a ppears t hat , a fter p eaking i n s ample 3 , U rtica d ioica b ecomes l ess i mportant t owards t he t op o f t he c olumn w ith a s light r evival i n s ample 1 4 . T he s ame p attern c an b e s een w ith R anunculus s ect . R anunculus . T he o pposite s eems t o b e t rue o f C henopodium c f . a lbum w hich a fter s ample 3 , h as a n i ncreasingly h igher v alue u ntil s ample 1 4 , w here i t d eclines . S tellaria c f . m edia s hows n o d efinite p attern t hroughout c onstant

t he w hole c olumn ,

w hilst S onchus a sper s eems t o r emain

t hroughout .

P runella v ulgaris s hows a b imodal d istribution p attern ,

r eaching a p eak

i n s ample 2 t hen d eclining i n v alue u ntil s ample 5 w here i t r epresents l ess t han 1 % o f t he a ssemblage . I t t hen s hows a s teady i ncrease u ntil i t p eaks a gain i n s ample s pp .

T he

1 4 .

m ost

A s imilar p attern s eems t o b e e xhibited b y G aleopsis

c ommon

P olygonum

s pecies

i s

P .

l apathifolium

( pale

p ersicaria).

( d)

N otes o n t he u tilisation o f p lant r esources .

i ) T he c ereals C ereal r emains o ccur i n f ew s amples ( Table 3 ) . P reservation o f t hese r emains w as c onsiderably p oorer t han t hat o f t he o ther p lant t axa . T he s pikelet f orks , i n p articular , s eemed t o b e d istorted b y f lattening . G lume b ases w ere a lso d ifficult t o i dentify d ue t o t he d ecomposition o f t he t issues b etween t he v eins . T his m eant t hat i t w as i mpossible t o t ell i f t he n erves p resent w ere o riginally v isible f rom t he f ront o r t he b ack o f t he g lume . T he m ajority

o f

t he

r emains

a re

u ncharred ,

a lthough

s ome o f

t he

i ndeterminate T riticum g lume b ases s how p artial c harring : t he g lumes h ave b een s corched a nd a re s lightly d arker i n c olour , w hile t he g lume b ases r etain t heir n atural c olour . F rom t he a ppearance o f t hese p artially c harred T riticum g lume b ases, i t c an b e s uggested t hat s pikelets o f T riticum d icoccum ( emmer) a nd T riticum s pelta ( spelt) w ere p erhaps f irstly p arched b efore t hey w ere p ounded t o r elease t he g rain . I t a ppears t hat i n t his c ase t he c haff w as n ot t hrown o n t he f ire o r u sed a s t inder , b ut t hrown d irectly o n t o t he f loor o r m idden . O nly a f ew c harred g lume b ases w ere f ound a nd t hese w ere o f T riticum d icoccum . S everal c harred b arley r achis f ragments w ere d iscovered , b ut t hese w ere o f t he l ower p art o f t he r achis a nd t herefore n o f urther i dentification w as p ossible . B oth g lume b ases T riticum d icoccum a nd T riticum s pelta w ere f ound .

a nd

s pikelets

o f

T he m ost i nteresting f inds a mongst t he c ereal r emains a re t hose o f s pelt w heat ( Triticum s pelta ) s pikelet f orks a nd g lume b ases . T hese f inds r epresent t he e arliest r ecords o f s pelt w heat i n S cotland s o f ar . A ccording t o D ixon ( 1984a) t he s ite w as f irst c onstructed i n t he l ate B ronze A ge a nd t he f inal p hase o f b uilding w as s omewhere i n t he e arly I ron A ge . A bandonment i s t hought t o h ave o ccurred s oon a fter t he f inal p hase o f

3 12

T able 3 .

T he c ereal r emains.

S AMPLE N UMBER 1

2

3

4

5

8

1

1 4

T riticum d icoccum s pikelet f ork .

5

T riticum d icoccum g lume b ase .

1 ( charred)

1

1

1

1

2

1

3

4

T riticum s pelta s pikelet f ork .

3

T riticum s pelta g lume b ase . T riticum i ndet.

2

T riticum i ndet.

1 7

2

1 2

3 6

2 0

1 2

T riticum i ndet. g lume b ase c harred .

1

1

H ordeum s ativum g rain c harred .

1

H ordeum s ativum 6 -row r achis f ragment.

5

4 1

1 0

1 20

1 4

8

H ordeum i ndet. r achis f ragment .

6

2

H ordeum i ndet. r achis c harred .

2

A vena s p . p edicel .

1

1

A vena s p . f loret c harred .

1

C harred c ereal i ndet.

1

3 13

1

building. site .

This gives a range of some 200 years for the occupation of the

Triticum spelta has been reported from the Bronze Age in England at Runneymede (J. Greig pers. comm.; Clapham 1987 in prep.), at Black Patch, Sussex (Hinton in Drewett 1982) and at Springfield, Chelmsford, Essex and Lofts Farm, Heybridge, E ssex (P. Murphy pers. comm.). Spelt wheat was formerly thought to have been introduced into Scotland in the late Iron Age and Roman periods. Further work on the plant remains from other Scottish crannogs wil 1 help to complete our knowledge of when certain crops were first introduced into Scotland. Rachis fragments of six-row barley, (Hordeum sativum) were also discovered but it was noticeable that most of the barley rachis fragments were very thin and transparent. This condition suggests that they may have been used in some sort of animal fodder or may have been more susceptible to decomposition. Some of the barley rachis fragments were found to be associated with, or embedded in, the amorphous dung-like material. A charred oat floret, (Avena sp.) was also found, but the diagnostic 'sucker mouth' was badly damaged, preventing any further identification. A charred barley, (Hordeum sativum), grain was discovered and its twisted appearance suggested that it was of the 6 row type; it also appeared to be hulled. From inspection of the cereal remains, it can be suggested that some threshing took place on the crannog itself. As only glume bases and spikelet forks of wheats have been found, it is more difficult to determine whether the crop was threshed on site or on the mainland: it may only have been stored on the crannog as spikelets (Hillman 1981). ii)

Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) .

The presence of bracken in large quantities may indicate that this fern was being harvested and used by man on 0akbank Crannog. Bracken frond is a valuable plant ma· erial (Rymer 1976). There is evidence for its having been used as a fuel, thJtching material and as human and animal bedding. Finds of bracken remains from southern England led Dimbleby and Evans (1974) to suggest that it had been used as compost. It is possible that, although the primary use of bracken may have been as thatch or bedding, soot-enriched old thatch and bedding soaked in urine and caked in dung may wel 1 eventually have found its way onto compost heaps and subsequently onto fields. Stokes (1981) recovered charred bracken from the site so its use at least as fuel is probable. iii) Fat hen (Chenopodium album) Seeds of fat hen were abundant in the deposit. Thi s plant can be found growing on waste land, arable land, dung heaps and wherever there is disturbed ground. Helbaek (1950) suggested that seeds were part of the staple diet of the Iron Age bog men of Demnark. Hillman (1981) believes that the seeds were a component of famine food or used as food for condemned men. Dimbleby (1978) suggests that, in Bronze Age Europe, fat hen may have been cultivated as a source of greens. It must, however, be remembered that, if the site was abandoned for just one season, plants such as fat hen

314

w ould g row u p r apidly a round t he s ite . C henopodium p ollen i n t his c ase d eliberately b rought o nto t he s ite .

i v)

H owever ,

m ay

s uggest

t he c omparative r arity o f t hat

t hese

s eeds

w ere

S tinging n ettles ( Urtica d ioica). O ne o f t he m ore c ommon t axa i dentified o n O akbank w as s tinging n ettle

( Urtica d ioica) . N ettles t oday a re

c onsidered

t o b e

t heir e radication i s u ppermost i n m ost p eople 's m inds .

o bnoxious w eeds

a nd

A ccording t o G rieve

( 1931) n ettles h ave b een u sed a s ag reen v egetable , af ibre p lant , o il s eed , f odder a nd a s a d ye p lant . A s w ith f at h en , h owever , t here i s t he p ossibility t hat i f t he s ite w as a bandoned , e ven f or a v ery b rief p eriod , t his p lant w ould h ave b ecome v ery c ommon o n t he s ite .

v )

R ushes ( Juncus s pp .). S eeds

o f J uncus s pp .

w ere m ore c ommon t han t hose o f a ny o ther t axon .

F ruits o f J uncus e ffusus , t he s oft r ush , w ere a lso f ound i n s ome s amples . R ushes a re u sually a ssociated w ith w et a nd d amp p laces b ut t hey a lso h ave a v ery i mportant r ole t o p lay i n p rotecting m an f rom t he e lements . D imbleby ( 1978) h as s uggested t hat r ushes w ere u sed a s a t hatching m aterial a nd H elbaek , w orking o n t he p lant r emains f rom a 2 nd c entury A D c rannog i n M ilton L och , K ircudbrightshire ( PUggot 1 953) s uggested a s imilar s ource f or t he J uncus s eeds f ound o n t hat s ite .

v i)

M ugwort ( Artemisia c f. v ulgaris). T he s urvival o f s eeds o f t his t axon , r arely r eported f rom w aterlogged

a rchaeological d eposits ( Greig 1 981) , i llustrates t he e xcellent p reservation c onditions a t t his s ite , b eneath c old , p eaty a nd o ligotrophic w aters . A . v ulgaris h as a v ariety o f u ses ( Grieve 1 931) ,

b oth m edicinal a nd a s

af lavouring f or b eer , b ut i s a lso a c ommon r uderal .

v ii) W ild f oods ( Fruits a nd n uts). S everal t he w ild .

o f t he t axa i dentified p robably r epresent f oods g athered f rom

R ubus i daeus a nd R ubus f ruticosus

a re

t o b e

f ound

i n S cotland

t oday g rowing i n aw ide v ariety o f h abitats, r anging f rom w oodland t o h edgebanks a nd s crubland . E ven t oday , r aspberries c an b e s een g rowing a long L och T ay a nd w ere c onsumed w ith r elish b y t he e xcavators o f O akbank C rannog. T wo s pecies o f P runus w ere p resent o n t his s ite : s loe ( Prunus s pinosa) a nd b ird c herry ( Prunus p adus) . B oth o f t hese s pecies p roduce e dible f ruits b ut t hey c an b e q uite s harp t o t he p alate . I t i s l ikely t hat t hey r epresent w ild f ood g athered f rom t he l ocal w oodland a s a lso p erhaps d oes h azel ( Corylus a vellana ) . S trawberry s eeds ( Fragaria v esca) , w ere a lso f ound o n t he s ite a nd a gain p robably r epresent w ild f ood . T he

f ruits

o f a ll

o f t hese s pecies ,

w ith t he e xception o f h azel ,

s oft f ruits a nd t herefore t hey n eed t o b e c onsumed q uickly .

3 15

a re

v iii)

O ther p lant f oods ( cultivated).

F lax ( Linum u sitatissimum ) h as a lso b een r ecorded f rom t his s ite .

F lax

c an b e c ultivated f or i ts s eeds a nd i ts f ibre . I t m ight e ven h ave b een g rown f or b oth p urposes b ut t his t ype o f c ultivar i s t hought t o h ave e volved a t a l ater d ate ( Clapham u npublished) . T he s eeds f ound were v ery b adly p reserved a nd t herefore i t m ay b e s uggested t hat t hey h ave b een p ressed f or t heir o il a nd/or p erhaps t hen f ed t o c attle .

( e)

E vidence f or t he l ocal e nvironment. F rom t he s eed d iagram ( Figs .

6 a nd 7 ) a nd t he s pecies l ist ( table 4 ) i t

c an b e s een t hat t he p lant m acro-remains f rom t his c rannog r epresent a v ariety o f d ifferent h abitats . T here a re i ndicators s crubland , a rable l and , w aste l and , g rassland a nd w etlands .

o f

w oodland ,

i ) W oodland . T he p resence o f w oodland h as b een s hown f rom t he p ollen d ata ( above) b ut i s a lso i ndicated b y t he o ccurrence o f s everal t ree a nd s hrub m acror emains . T hese i nclude B etula s p ., A lnus g lutinosa , C orylus a vellana , P runus s pinosa a nd P runus p adus .

P ossible n on-tree i ndicators o f w oodland

a re a lso p resent : P teridium a quilinum , S ilene d ioica , F ragaria v esca a nd A juga r eptans . T he o ccurrence o f A juga r eptans m ay s uggest t hat p arts o f t he w oodland c ould h ave b een w et , d amp g rassland .

a lthough t his s pecies c an a lso o ccur i n

S crubby s pecies s uch a s R ubus i daeus , R ubus f ruticosus a nd R osa s p . m ay b e s uggestive o f a w oodland e dge h abitat w here t here w ould b e p lenty o f l ight t o a llow t hese s pecies t o f lourish . T his c ould a lso b e t he c ase f or C orylus a vellana w hich r equires s ufficient l ight t o f lower , p roduce p ollen a nd t herefore s et f ruit . H eracleum s phondylium i s a lso c apable o f g rowing i n w oodlands b ut o nly i n o pen s paces w here t here i s p lenty o f l ight . A ll t hese p lants c ould h ave b een g rowing w ithin w oodlands .

i n n atural

o r a rtificial

c learings

A lnus g lutinosa s eeds m ay i ndicate t hat p arts o f t he w ood w ere d amp b ut a re m ore l ikely t o h ave c ome f rom a lder t rees g rowing a long t he l och s hore . H igh p ollen p ercentages a nd t he p resence o f A lnus s eeds a ttest t o t his , a lthough t he c ontemporary g rowth o f A lnus o n t he s teep m ountain s lopes m ay b e n oted a s a nother l ikely s ource .

i i)

G rassland .

L inum c atharticum a nd P runella v ulgaris a re g ood i ndicators o f g rassland . T he f ormer i s c haracteristic o f b ase-rich g rassland s uch a s o ccurs o n l imestone o r o n s table c alcareous s hell d unes .

T he l atter

c ommunity i s l ikely t o h ave b een t he s ource o f t he L inum c atharticum s eeds f ound h ere . O ther p ossible i ndicators i nclude P otentilla e recta , c f . D aucus c arota , B ellis p erennis a nd H eracleum s phondylium s eeds a nd n umerous p ollen

t ypes

t ypical

o f

g rassland h abitats .

W ith

t he

p resence

o f

R anunculus a cris a s w ell a s R anunculus s ect . R anunculus i t a ppears t hat s ome o f t he g rassland m ight h ave h ad a r easonably h igh w ater t able a nd t hat i t

3 16

T able 4 .

L ist o f p lant m acrofossil t axa r ecovered .

cris L . R anunculus a

P olygonum a viculare a gg .

R anunculus s ection R anunculus R anunculus f lammula L .

P olygonum p ersicaria L . P . l apathifolium L .

R anunculus i ndet. R anunuclus s ubgenus B atrachium i ndet.

c f. P . h ydropiper L . P olygonum i ndet.

B rassica s p . C apsella b ursa-pastoris ( L .) M edicus S isymbrium o fficinale ( L .) S cop .

F allopia c onvolvulus L . R umex a cetosella a gg . R umex c rispus R umex i ndet. U rtica d ioica L . B etula s p .

V iola s p . S ilene d ioica ( L .) C lairv . S tellaria c f. m edia ( L .) V ill. S tellaria c f g raminea L . S agina s p . S pergula a rvensis L . M ontia f ontana L . C henopodium c f a lbum L . A triplex s p . L inum c atharticum L .

A lnus g lutinosa ( L .) G aertn . C orylus a vellana L . c f. A nagallis s p . P runella v ulgaris L .

L inum u sitatissimum L . R ubus i daeus L . R ubus f ruticosus a gg .

A juga r eptans L abiatae i ndet. P lantago m ajor L .

R ubus i ndet . P otentilla e recta ( L .) R ausch

B ellis p erennis A rtemisia c f. v ulgaris L . L apsana c ommunis L . L eontodon i ndet S onchus a sper ( L .) H ill T ubuliflorae i ndet. J uncus e ffusus L . J uncus s p . c f L uzula s p .

S tachys s p . G aleopsis t etrahit L ./G . s peciosa M ill

P otentilla i ndet. F ragaria v esca L . A phanes a rvensis L . R osa s p . P runus s pinosa L . P runus c f p adus L . R osaceae t horn .

C arex s p .

c f. T orilis j aponica ( Houtt.) D C c f. D aucus c arota L .

F ERNS P teridium a quilinium

3 17

c ould t herefore h ave b een s ituated c lose t o t he l och s hore .

T he p resence

o f g rassland i s s upported f urther b y t he r easonably l arge n umbers o f s mall G ramineae c aryopses , s ome o f w hich a re o f P oa s pp . S trong i ndication o f a p astoral h abitat h as a lso c ome f rom t he p ollen d ata , w ith p ollen v alues o f u p t o 4 8% T P b eing r ecorded f or G ramineae , a nd 1 5% T P f or P lantago l anceolata . M any p ollen t axa n ot d efinable t o s pecies r epresentative o f ap astoral h abitat.

i ii)

l evel m ay a lso b e

A rable w eeds. O f t he 8 1

t axa i dentified ,

o nly a p ossible 1 8 a re l ikely t o h ave b een

a rable w eeds . E ven t hen , s ome o f t hese c an b e f ound j ust a s c ommonly i n o ther h abitats , a s , f or e xample , S tellaria c f . m edia , C henopodium c f . a lbum a nd C apsella b ursa-pastoris . M ost o f t hese t axa a re c apable o f g rowing i n a w ide r ange o f c onditions b ut S pergula a rvensis i s ac alcifuge a nd i s ag ood i ndicator o f s andy s oil

c onditions .

W asilykowa ( 1981) s uggests t hat

L apsana c ommunis c ould b e u sed a s a n i ndicator o f c alcareous s eems u nlikely i n t his c ase .

s oils b ut i t

T he P olygonaceae a re f airly w ell r epresented i n t he s amples a nd t he m ain h abitat o f m ost m embers o f t he f amily i n t he B ritish I sles i s t hat o f t he a rable f ield . A lthough t hey a re p rimarily i ndicators o f d isturbed g round , i n t his c ase t hey m ay b e r epresentative o f t he l och s hore a nd d une c omplex f lora . P olygonum a viculare c an o ften b e f ound o n s ea s hores a nd P olygonum h ydropiper m ay a lso b e i ndicative o f t his e nvironment a s i t h as a p reference f or w ater a nd i s a c alcifuge ( Lousley a nd H unt 1 981) . P ollen d ata s imilarly s how a s ubstantial . p ercentage o f s egetal i ndicators .

i v)

W etlands. T he m ain

i ndicators

o f w etlands

i n t he s amples

a re

t he f amilies

J uncaceae a nd C yperaceae a s w ell a s R anunculus s ubgenus B atrachium s p . a nd Montia f ontana , a lthough t he l atter s pecies c an b e s een g rowing i n w et a rable f ields .

I t

i s

l ikely

t hat

t he m embers • o f

t he Juncaceae a nd

C yperaceae w ere u tilised b y m an a nd t heir p resence o n s ite i s a r esult o f t his a ctivity .

T his w ill b e d iscussed f urther b elow .

M odes o f a rrival. F ro m t he p receding d iscussion , i t i s p ossible t o s uggest h ow c ertain e lements o f t he p lant m acro a nd m icrofossil a ssemblages a rrived o n t he c rannog s ite . F igure 8 p resents a s ummary o f s ome p ossible m odes o f a rrival f or b oth p ollen a nd m acrofossils. B ecause t he s ite w as a n i sland w ith o nly o ne s tructural c onnection w ith t he s hore ( the c auseway) , i t i s c lear t hat t he t otal o rganic ( macrofossil) r emains f ound h ad b een i ntroduced b y m an o r a nimal . I t i s m ost l ikely t hat a ll t he c omponents o f t he m acrofossil a ssemblage w ere b rought o n t o t he s ite i n c onsequence o f m an 's s ubsistence r equirements w ithin t he s urrounding a rea . H owever , s eeds a nd o ther p lant r emains i n f aeces , o r o n h ooves o r f eet , c annot b e r uled o ut a s p ossible m odes o f a rrival ( Hillman 1 984) . P ollen , b ecause i s i s m ore r eadily t ransported b y w ind o r i nsects f urther c omplicates t he i nterpretation : b oth p urely a nthropogenic a nd ' normal' t ransfer m odes m ust a lso b e c onsidered . A n o verall p icture o f r egional

3 18

Med ic ine

F ibres

Weed 1 S eeds

C haff

F uel

R eg ional P LANT

F OSS IL

ASSE MBLAGE R oof ing

R efuse

W iI d

D ung

[ Fodder

C rops

F ood B edd ing

F ig. 8 .

Model o f p roposed m acrofossils.

s ources

3 19

o f

a rrival

o f

p ollen

a nd

p lant

v egetation c haracteristics c an b e e stimated f rom t he n atural p ollen i nput , b ut i n a rchaeological c ontexts a nthropogenic e ffects s wamp s uch b ackground p alynological r ecords . F or t his r eason i t i s h oped t o u ndertake a n i nvestigation o f t he b asal l ake s ediments a way f rom t he c rannog 's i nfluence . I t i s c lear t hat , a re a nalagous i ndicators ,

-a s ,

w ith

t he

i n m any c ases , f or e xample , a bundant

t he p ollen d ata a nd m acrofossil r ecord

i n t he h igh c ereal

s traw/monocotyledonous

a nd

p astoral

r emains ,

a nd

p ollen i n

t he

h igh f requencies o f P teridium s pores a nd b racken f rond r emains . I n c ertain c ases , h owever , t his i s n ot s o . N otable i n t his r espect i s t he r arity o f C henopodium ( type) p ollen w hich c ontrasts w ith t he l arge n umbers o f s eeds o f C henopodium c f . a lbum r ecovered d uring t his s tudy a nd t hat o f S tokes ( 1981) . S ince t his t axon i s ah igh p ollen p roducer , i t c an b e p ostulated t hat s eeds o f C henopodium w ere h arvested a nd s eparated f rom t he v egetative m atter a way f rom t he c rannog . M any o f t he p lant r emains i dentified f rom t his s ite m ay h ave b een u tilised f or m ore t han o ne p urpose ( or i ndeed m ay n ot h ave b een u tilised a t a ll) . I t i s t herefore d ifficult t o a ssess w hich u se , i f a ny , t heir r emains r epresent . I nterpretation c an b e v ery c onfusing a nd t his i s o ften b ecause o f t he n ear t otal p reservation o f p lant r emains f rom a d iverse r ange o f h uman a nd a nimal a ctivities . T he p resence o f w ild a nd c ultivated p lant f ood r emains m ay l ead t o t he c onclusion t hat t he s amples r epresent a B idden , o nto w hich a ll m anner o f s ubstances h ave b een d umped , i ncluding f ood , f ood p rocessing d ebris , s table s weepings a nd o ld r oofing m aterial , a ll o f w hich m ay h ave b een d estined a s m anure f or t he l ocal f ields . T he p resence o n s ite o f s pelt w heat a nd b arley c haff m ay i ndicate t hat t he o ccupants g rew t heir o wn c rops o n t he s urrounding c ultivable l and o f t he a lluvial f an a nd p rocessed t hem o n t he c ra m p& T he h igh p ollen v alues o f c ereals , a s n oted a bove , m ay a lso b e r elated t o c rop p rocessing . H owever , am ore l ikely t aphonomic e xplanation i s t he a ssociation w ith s traw b edding , a nimal f eed o r h uman a nd a nimal e xcreta , a ll o f w hich w ould c ontain c opious q uantities o f c ereal a nd s egetal p ollen . O ther c omponents o f t he m acrofossil a ssemblages , s uch a s t he a ssociation o f b racken f ronds w ith d ung , m ay r epresent t he p resence o f s table s weepings o r f loor c overings .

T his u ndoubtedly g ave r ise t o t he e xtremely h igh s pore

t otals a nd m acrofossil d ebris . T he e xistence o f a g rassland/pastoral e lement i n t he p ollen a nd m acrofossil a ssemblages a nd t he c oprolites c ertainly i ndicate o ne s ource . P ollen a nalysis o f c oprolites r ecovered i s c urrently b eing c arried o ut . T hese i nclude a s uspected ' cow p at ' c ontaining h igh p ercentages o f G ramineae a nd o ther p astoral t axa . A n o vicaprid c oprolite a lso i ndicates a d iverse p astoral f lora o f d ifferent c haracter t o t hose p ollen s pectra o btained f rom t he a morphous o rganic d ebris o f t he c rannog 's f loor c overings. I nterpretation o f s uch a ssemblages i s t hus c omplex a nd e nigmatic .

I t

c an , h owever , b e c oncluded t hat w hen s tudying s uch s uperbly p reserved o rganic d eposits w e a re d ealing w ith t ypical m aterials a nd b y p roducts o f h uman o ccupation a ctivity . D ry-land a rchaeological s ites, w ith o nly l imited m acro/microfossil p reservation , g ive o nly a l imited p icture o f t he f ull r ange o f h uman e ndeavour .

C onclusions P lant m acrofossil a nd m icrofossil ( pollen ) a nalyses w ere u ndertaken o n a c ore o btained f rom O akbank C rannog ,

i n L och T ay ,

c ut

t hrough a n umber o f

a rchaeological c ontexts c omprising f loor l evels , f loor c overings a nd d umped

3 20

o rganic m idden d ebris .

A n e xceptionally d iverse a ssemblage o f v ery w ell

p reserved p lant r emains w as o btained . T his c ase s tudy i llustrates t he c omplexity o f i nterpretation o f s uch a ssemblages f rom a rchaeological c ontexts i n t erms o f t he n atural v egetation o f t he l och 's s urrounds , t he n ature o f f ood r esources , a gricultural p ractices a nd t he u tilisation o f p lant r esources. S uch s ubstantial q uantities o f h erbaceous p ollen a nd s eeds a re u nlikely t o b e r ecovered f rom n atural l ake o r p eat s equences a way f rom a reas o f h abitation . T hese h igh t otals m ake t he r econstruction o f t he o verall v egetation o f t he L och T ay a rea d ifficult . I t h as , h owever , b een s uggested t hat t he l ocal w oodlands c omprised Q uercus, U lmus, a nd C orylus . H ow e xtensive t his w oodland w as c annot b e e stablished f rom t his c urrent i nvestigation , a lthough t he m assive t imber c onstruction o f t he c rannog i mplies s trong r eliance u pon l ocal w oodland . T he c ommunity l iving o n t he l ake d welling , f or r easons o f t ransport o r s afety ( Morrison 1 985) , u ndoubtedly a lso u sed t he a djacent h igh q uality s oils o f t he a lluvial f an f or a griculture . H owever , f rom t he f act t hat t he c rannog i s a n i sland ( albeit m an m ade) ,

i t c an b e p ostulated t hat a ll

o f

t he p lant m aterials ,

w ith t he e xception o f a s mall n umber o f n aturally-derived p ollen a nd w indborne s eeds, w ere i ntroduced d irectly o r i ndirectly b y m an a nd h is a nimals . F rom t he c ombined i nterpretation o f p ollen a nd p lant m acrofossils , i t i s c lear t hat t here a re s trong i ndicators o f a rable a nd p astoral f arming a nd t he u tilisation o f p lant r esources i n a v ariety o f w ays . T hese i nclude t he u se o f t imber i n t he c rannog s tructure a nd f abrication o f a rtefacts ( not d iscussed h ere) ; s and , p ossibly o btained f rom l och f ringing d eposits , u sed a s f loor m aterial ; a nd f loor c overings a nd b edding c omprising l arge q uantities o f s traw a nd b racken . T he l atter m ay a lso h ave b een d erived f rom r oofing m aterial ( along w ith r ushes) , t inder f or f ire a nd f rom d ung . F aecal c oncretions w ere f ound b oth d uring t he e xcavation ( Dixon p ers . c omm .) a nd i n t he d isaggregation o f t he c ore s amples , i mplying t hat a nimals w ere k ept o n t he c rannog . O ther w ild f ood r esources o f i mportance i nclude s loe ( Prunus s pinosa ) , b ird c herry ( Prunus p adus) , w ild s trawberry ( Fragaria v esca) , r aspberry ( aams i daeus) a nd h azel n uts ( Corylus a vellana) . F rom t he a rtefactual

r ecord ,

D ixon ( 1982b) h as c oncluded t hat t he

o ccupants s howed a s trong d egree o f a rtisan c raftsmanship . T he e nvironmental d ata p resented h ere , i llustrates t hat t hey a lso h ad a d iverse s ubsistence b ase .

A cknowledgements T he w riters

e specially w ish

t o

t hank D r .

N .

D ixon ( University o f

S t .

A ndrews) f or o btaining t he c ore s ample w hich a llowed u s t o c arry o ut t hese a nalyses a nd f or h is c ontinued a ssistance . W e a re a lso g rateful t o G . H illman ( University C ollege , L ondon , I nstitute o f A rchaeology) f or h is i dentification o f t he c ereal c haff r emains a nd t o J ames G reig f or t he u se o f h is s eed r eference c ollection a nd v aluable c omments

o n t he m aterials

a nd

m anuscript . T he s tudy o f t he p lant m acrofossils w as u ndertaken b y A lan J . C lapham , a s p art o f t he r equirement f or a n M .Sc . i n B ioarchaeology a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology , U niversity o f L ondon .

3 21

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u nderwater .

M orrison ,

B . )

M cGraw-Hill, p p .

( ed .

1 51-156 .

l .A . ( 1985) L andscape w ith l ake d wellings . T he c rannogs S cotland . E dinburgh : U niversity P ress . ( 1882)

o f

A ncient S cottish l ake d wellings o r c rannogs E dinburgh :

D avid D ouglas . M unro , R . P eck ,

( 1890)

T he L ake-Dwellings o f E urope .

R .M . ( 1973) I n :

O xford :

( 1953)

B lackwell p p .

F ., F rench ,

( eds .

c atchment . a nd W est,

P roceedings o f t he S ociety o f

8 7 1 34-152 .

C . a nd T aylor , M .

d iscovery ,

B irks, H .J .B .

4 3-60 .

M ilton L och C rannog I .

A ntiquaries o f S cotland P ryor ,

i n a s mall Y orkshire

Q uaternary P lant E cology

R .G .) P iggott , C .M .

P ollen b udget s tudies

L ondon .

( 1986)

r econnaissance a nd

F lag F en , P eterborough :

i nitial

e xcavation ( 1982-1985) .

P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 5 2 1 -24 . R itchie,

J . ( 1942) i ts

T he L ake-dwelling o r c rannog i n E adarloch ,

t raditions

and

i ts

c onstruction .

o f S cottish S ociety o f A ntiquities R obinson ,

M .

a nd H ubbard ,

b racts

R .N .L .B .

( 1977)

o f h ulled c ereals .

1 97-199.

3 24

L och T reig :

Proceedings

7 6 8 -78 .

T he t ransport o f p ollen i n t he

J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience

4

R ymer ,

S caife ,

L .

( 1976) T he h istory a nd e thnobotany o f b racken . J ournal o f t he L innean S ociety 7 3 1 51-176 .

B otanical

R .G . ( 1982) P ollen r eport . I n : E xcavations a t B road S anctury , W estminster . ( Mills, P .) T ransactions o f t he L ondon a nd M iddlesex A rchaeological S ociety 3 3 3 45-365 .

S caife,

R .G .

( 1986)

P ollen i n h uman p alaeofaeces;

a nd a p reliminary

i nvestigation o f t he s tomach a nd g ut c ontents o f L ind m M an . L indaw M an . T he b ody i n t he b og . ( eds . S tead , r a L , Bourke, a nd B rothwell, D .) L ondon : B ritish M useum P ublications 1 26-135. S chlichtherle,

M .

( 1986)

I n : J .B . p p .

A rchaologie i n S een u nd Mooren T heiss .

S tuttgart. S tokes,

J . ( 1981)

T he p otential o f u nderwater e nvironmental a rchaeology :

O akbank C rannog a s ac ase s tudy . U npublished B .A . U niversity o f L ondon , I nstitute o f A rchaeology . S tuart, J .

( 1865)

N otices o f ag roup o f a rtificial i slands i n t he L och o f

D owalton . 6 14-178 . V uorela ,

I .

( 1970)

P roceedings o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland

T he i ndication o f f arming i n p ollen d iagrams f rom

s outhern F inland . W asylikawa K .

( 1981)

a griculture . W elten ,

M .

d issertation .

A cta B otanica

F ennica 8 7 1 -40 .

T he r ole o f f ossil w eeds f or t he s tudy o f f ormer Z eitschrift f ur A rchaologie 1 5

1-13 .

( 1967) B emerkungen z ur p aläobotanischen U ntersuchung v on v orgeschichtlichen F euchtobodenwohnplätzen u nd E rgänzungen z ur p ollenanalytischen

Untersuchung

A cta B ernensia 2 9 -20 .

3 25

von

B urgaschisee-Sud .

T HE H ISTORY O F M EDIEVAL S ETTLEMENT I N N ORTH H OLLAND A ND T HE R ECLAMATION O F T HE P EAT A REAS I N A RCHAEOLOGICAL P ERSPECTIVE J an C . B esteman

I ntroduction N orth H olland ( Fig . 1 ) i s a lmost e ntirely b elow s ea l evel, a s a re t he o ther c oastal p rovinces o f t he N etherlands .

O nly t he n arrow c oastal s trip

o f d unes a nd t wo i solated P leistocene a reas , o n t he i sland o f T exel a nd o n W ieringen , a nd t he i ce-pushed r idge o f t he G ooi i n t he e xtreme s outheast a re a bove s ea l evel . T he s oil o f t he l ow-lying p arts o f N orth H olland c onsists m ainly o f p eat a nd y oung m arine c lay , a nd e xtends d own t o 6m etres b elow s ea l evel . H ere t he l and i s f lat a nd o pen , a n a rtificial l andscape w ith r egular f ield b oundaries a nd a w ater b alance e ntirely c ontrolled b y m an . A n u nstable b alance h as b een a chieved i n t hese l owlands, a fter c enturies o f e xertion , i nterrupted b y l osses o f l and a nd , e ventually , i ts r ecovery . O riginally ,

t he p otential

f or s ettlement i n t his a rea w as c ompletely

d ependent o n c hanges i n t he n atural e nvironment , b ut , f rom t he e arly M iddle A ges o nwards , m an i ntervened . H elped b y f avourable n atural c onditions , t he whole c oastal s trip w itb t he e xtensive p eat a rea b ehind i t w as s ystematically r eclaimed . T he n ewly-reclaimed a rea w as m ade v ulnerable b y t he d eforestation o f t he d unes a nd b y d rainage , a nd a lso b y t he i ncreased i nfluence o f t he s ea v ia t he V lie i nlet a nd t he n ew t idal i nlets o f t he M arsdiep a nd t he Z ijpe . Much l and w as l ost d ue t o s and d rifts, d une f ormation a nd c oastal a nd r iver e rosion . I t w as a l ong t ime b efore t he i nhabitants w ere a ble t o c heck t he l oss o f l and b y b uilding d ikes ( i .e . b anks) a nd a rtificially d raining t he l and . T he l ost a reas w ere n ot , i n m ost c ases , t o b e r ecovered u ntil a fter t he M iddle A ges . T he l andscape l eft a fter t he M iddle g es h as r emained t he s ame t o t his d ay : a l andscape m ade b y m an , a nd e fficien_ly m anaged . T his i nteraction b etween n atural p rocesses a nd h uman i ntervention i n t he e nvironment d ominates t he h istory o f s ettlement i n N orth H olland , a nd m akes a ny r econstruction i mpossible w ithout t he c ooperation o f h istorians, p edologists a nd g eologists .

h istorical

g eographers , a rchaeologists ,

C hanging i deas o n t he r econstruction o f t he l andscape , t he d istribution a nd r eclamation o f t he p eat a nd o n w ater m anagement i n N orth H olland i n t he M iddle A ges h ave d etermined t he c ourse o f a rchaeological r esearch , w hich c onsisted o f s ystematic f ield s urvey t ogether w ith e xcavations a t s elected s ites ( Borger 1 975; P ons a nd Van O osten 1 974; S choorl 1 973, 1 980 , 1 982; W estenberg 1 974 ; H allewas 1 984a , 1 984b ; B esteman a nd G uiran 1 983 , 1 986 , 1 987 ; B os 1 984) . T he e mphasis i n t his p aper w ill b e o n t he r eclamation o f t he l ow-lying a reas

o f N orth H olland w ith p articular a ttention t o

t he

r esults

o f

s ome

a rchaeological i nvestigations w hich a re r epresentative o f s ettlement h istory . B ecause o f t he i nteraction b etween n atural d ynamics a nd h uman i ntervention , i t i s n ecessary t o c onsider f irst o f a ll t hose a spects w hich a re m ost i mportant f or s ettlement : t he s oil c onditions a nd t he w ater b alance .

3 27

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3 28

T he n atural l andscape i n N orth H olland :

t he d istribution o f t he p eat a nd

t he f ormation o f t he Y ounger D unes. T he b ackbone o f t he w estern c oastal

r egion i s m ade u p o f c oastal

b arriers f ormed b etween 5 000 B C a nd 3 000 B C , o n w hich l ow d unes , t he s oc alled O lder D unes , d eveloped u p t o t he R oman p eriod . O riginally , t his z one e xtended m uch f urther t o t he w est . I n t he n orth t he c oastal b arriers h ave a ctually d isappeared d ue t o e rosion . A t t imes w hen t here w as l ittle m arine i nfluence t he b arrier e nclosed a l agoon , g iving r ise t o t he f ormation o f p eat i n s tagnant f resh w ater . H owever , e very t ime t he s ea f orced i ts w ay t hrough t he i nlets i n t he c oastal b arrier , s edimentation i n t he l agoon w as a ffected , c ausing a c hange t o m ud-flats a nd s alt m arshes, i n w hich t he d eposition o f m arine d eposits t ook p lace . r egion w as v ery a ttractive t o p rehistoric

T his e xtremely

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I n t he e arly M iddle A ges ( Fig . 2 ) t he c oast w as a lmost c losed , i sland o f T exel w as s till c onnected t o t he m ainland .

a nd t he

O nly a t E gmond w as

t here a s mall g ap , a ll t hat w as l eft o f a l arge t idal i nlet w hich h ad s ilted u p i n R oman t imes a nd t hrough w hich t he s urplus w ater f lowed o ut t o s ea . T here w as n o m arine i nfluence b ehind t he b arrier c oast, a nd s tagnating d rainage l ed t o h igh w ater l evels , g iving r ise t o e xtensive p eat a reas , a nd c ausing a s harp d ecrease i n s ettlement . I n t he h interland i mmediately b ehind t he f ormer t idal i nlet t here w ere s imilar c onditions : f avourable f or t he g rowth o f p eat , b ut u nfavourable f or s ettlement . I n m any a reas i n t he c oastal r egion t he p eat s pread o ver p laces w hich h ad b een i nhabited i n R oman t imes . S even h undred y ears l ater , w hen t he g roundwater l evel s ank , t he g round s urface a lso b ecame l ower b ecause o f t he s hrinkage , a eration a nd o xidation o f t he p eat . T his p rocess o f s ubsidence a nd p eat w astage c ontinued u ntil, o nce a gain , t he g roundwater l evel i n t he p eat o r e ven i n t he m ineral s ubsoil w as r eached . T hus, c ontinuous d rainage l ed t o t he d estruction o f t he p eat c over . T his w as a ccelerated b y t he f act t hat t he s ubsiding p eat a reas b ecame m ore a nd m ore v ulnerable t o d estruction b y f looding , s alination o r e rosion . S choorl ( 1982 : 1 4) d escribes a m odel o f a s imilar p eat a rea i n w hich t he p rocess o f d estruction c an b e o bserved . H owever i t i s c lear t hat b efore t he m edieval r eclamations , l ow-lying p arts o f N orth H olland w ere

l argely

c overed w ith a l ayer o f

p eat ,

v arying

i n

t hickness , i ncluding t he a reas w hich w ere l ost i n t he K op o f N orth H olland , t he w est W adden S ea , t he I Jsselmeer a nd t he l akes o f N orth H olland ( F ig . 3 ) . A rguments f or t he d isappearance o f t his p eat c over w ere f irst p ut f orward b y E delman ( 1958) , a nd a dditional e vidence g ained m ore r ecently , s uch a s t he r emains o f s ettlements , p eat p its a nd p atterns o f l and d ivision , s upports t his v iew . R emains o f p eat f ound u nder o ld c hurches , f arms , r oads , d ikes a nd t erps , p rovide f urther e vidence f or t he f ormer e xtent o f t he p eat . I n t he m any s o-called ' daliegaten ' i n W estfriesland , w here c lay w as f ormerly d ug , p eat , w hich o riginally o verlay t he c lay , w as d umped b ack i nto t he c lay p its . B orger ( 1975 : 1 99-202) s howed t hat t he m edieval w ater t able i n p art o f W estfriesland w as s everal m etres h igher t han a t p resent, a nd h e r econstructed o ne o f t hese

l ost a reas o f p eat c over .

O n t he b asis o f t he

s trip-shaped f ield s ystems w ith p arallel d itches , w hich a re c haracteristic o f p eat r eclamations, D e C ock ( 1969) c ame t o t he s ame c onclusion . T he d isappearance o f t he p eat p oses p roblems f or a rchaeologists . A t b est , o nly t he d eeper t races o f s ettlement , d ug a s f ar d own a s t he m ineral s ubsoil, s uch a s w ells, a re p reserved . O therwise o nly t he i mperishable a rchaeological e vidence, s uch a s p ottery a nd f ired c lay , r emain i n a n a morphous h umous l ayer o n t op o f t he m ineral s ubsoil . T he c oastal

b arrier a lso u nderwent m any c hanges

3 29

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3 30

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3 31

1 . R econstructed 4 . L and

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T he c oast r eceded a long i ts e ntire l ength , c ausing t he b each b arriers i n t he n orth t o d isappear c ompletely .

F rom R oman t imes t hey h ad b ecome c overed

w ith t hick d eciduous f orest , b ecause t he g roundwater l evel h ad r isen a nd t he p ressure o f e xploitation h ad l essened d ue t o d ecreasing s ettlement . D uring t he l atest f ormation o f t he O lder D unes ( phase I II) ,

i n t he 8 th-9th c entury ,

w hen s ettlement i ncreased a gain i n t he c oastal r egion , s and d rifts o ccurred o nce m ore . I n t he s ubsequent f irst p hase o f t he f ormation o f t he Y ounger D unes t his s and d rifting a ssumed d ramatic p roportions , l evelling t he r elief o f t he O lder D unes a nd c reating a " sea o f s and" w hich w as o riginally d ated b y J elgersma e t a l . ( 1970 : 1 20) t o t he 1 2th c entury . H eidinga ( 1984 : 2 47 ; 1 987 :

1 43-144) c orrectly p ointed o ut t hat t he a rchaeological e vidence c ould

a ctually i ndicate a n o lder d ate , w hich w ould m ake i t l ink u p b etter w ith t he r adiocarbon d ating . K lijn ( 1981) a rgued t hat t he d ating , w hich r efers t o a l ocation s ituated f ar f rom t he c oast , m ust b e m uch l ater t han t hat o f a s imilar l ocation o n t he c oast w here t he s and d rifts f irst o ccurred . O n t he b asis o f t he s peed a t w hich t he d unes s hifted i n c omparable c ircumstances , h e d ated t he b eginning o f t he f ormation o f t he Y ounger D unes t o t he 9 th o r 1 0th c entury . F inally , Z agwijn ( 1984 : 2 67-8) c oncluded , o n t he b asis o f f ossilised g roundwater l evels a nd t he m ovement o f t he " sea o f s and" , t hat t he f ormation o f t he Y ounger D unes m ust h ave s tarted i n a bout 1 000 . E ven i n t he s canty h istorical e vidence s ome i ndication i s g iven o f t he b eginnings o f a d rift p hase i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 0th c entury ( Rentenaar 1 977 : 3 73) . T he f ormation o f t he h igh p arabolic d unes w ould n ot b egin u ntil t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 3th c entury . I n t he i ntervening p eriod t he l ow c oastal b arrier w as l ost t o a l arge e xtent , a nd a ll t hat w as l eft w as a n arrow s trip s outh o f B ergen t o t he e ast o f t he u nusable Y ounger D une r egion , w hich h ad m eanwhile b een d eforested a nd b rought u nder c ultivation .

I nfluence o f s ea , c limate a nd r eclamation o n t he m edieval l andscape a )

T he i ncrease o f m arine i nfluence ,

t he e xpansion o f t he V lie i nlet a nd

t he l ake A lmere a nd t he d evelopment o f t he M arsdiep a nd Z ijpe t idal i nlets. I n t he n orth , t he i ncreasing i nfluence o f t he s ea i n t he M iddle A ges w as f irst a pparent i n t he e nvirons o f t he V lie i nlet . I ncreasing f looding o n T exel w as l inked , t o as ignificant e xtent , w ith a n e astern c hannel , d ated t o a bout 5 00 , ( Woltering 1 979 : 1 3) w hich f ormed p art o f t he V lie s ystem . T his i nfluence, h owever, was a pparent even f urther s outhwards . P alaeoecological r esearch o n e arly m edieval s ettlements h as s hown t hat t he e nvironment i mmediately s urrounding M edemblik a nd t he s o-called L ake W ervershoof m ust h ave b een i nfluenced b y s alt w ater ( Cremer 1 985 : 1 7-19) . T he r apid d evelopment o f t he I Jssel d elta a fter a bout 1 000 p roved t hat d rainage t o t he s ea v ia t he V lie i nlet m ust h ave i mproved c onsiderably ( Ente 1 984) . T he h istorical m ention o f t he r ight o f w reck o n W ieringen b efore 8 60 s hows t hat t he l ater i sland m ust a t t hat t ime h ave l ain o n o pen w ater ( Blok 1 974a) . C oncurrently , a s econd t idal i nlet d eveloped i n t he w est , t he Z ijpe , w hich h ad p reviously e xisted o nly a s aw ide s hallow c hannel , b ut w hich h ad b ecome i ncreasingly i mportant a fter t he 1 0th c entury A D . I t a ffected t he r egion b ehind i t , c ausing s ea w ater t o p enetrate f ar i nto t he s outh , p ast t he c oastal s trip o f K ennemerland v ia t he o ld d rainage r iver , t he R ekere , w hich b ecame a d eep t idal c hannel a nd t hus f ormed t he n ew d ivision b etween W estfriesland a nd K ennemerland . F inally , t he M arsdiep , s till c alled a r iver i n t he 9 th c entury A D , a nd i nto w hich t he p eat b ogs o f T exel a nd W ieringen d rained t heir w ater , w idened t o s uch a n e xtent i n t he 1 0th c entury A D t hat t he s ea w as a ble t o f lood t he p eat a rea .

3 32

b )

C limatic c hanges:

t he d ry 1 0th c entury

C limatic c hanges c an a ffect t he vulnerable b alance o f n ature i n a c oastal r egion i ncluding e xtensive p eat m oors d ependent o n r ainwater . T he r elation b etween m ore f avourable w eather c onditions ( that i s, a h igher a verage a nnual t emperature) a nd t he 1 0th-12th c entury A D p opulation g rowth i n W estern E urope h as o ften b een e mphasised ( Lamb 1 977) . 1 8) d iscusses t his c lose c onnection b etween c limate a nd

S choorl ( 1982 : r eclamation w ith

p articular r eference t o N orth H olland . H e a sssumes t hat i t w as m ainly a h igher a verage a nnual t emperature , h ot s ummers a nd i mproved d rainage w hich m ade t he p eat a reas r eclaimable . F or p eat t o c ontinue g rowing , h owever , t he p roportion o f r ainfall t o e vaporation i s o f p articular i mportance . T he e xceptionally c lear e vidence a bout r ainfall a nd e vaporation w hich H eidinga ( 1984) o btained d uring a n a rchaeological i nvestigation i n t he V eluwe r egion i n t he C entral N etherlands m ay b e o f r elevance i n t his r espect . H e e stablished t hat t here w as a l ong p eriod o f d rought i n t he 1 0th c entury A D w hich m ust h ave r esulted i n t he d essication a nd h umification o f t he p eat , m aking i t m ore a ccessible . H eidinga c oncludes t hat t his m ay h ave b een a n a dvantage d uring r eclamation . I n t he d une r egion , h owever , t he d rought m ay h ave h ad a n a dverse e ffect o n t he p ossibilities o f e xploitation . I t m ay h ave r esulted i n a bandonment o f f armland , p lay s o t hat t he f ormation o f d escribed a bove .

c )

t hus g iving w ind a nd s and f ree

t he Y ounger D unes

c ould s tart ,

a s w e h ave

T he e ffects o f r eclamation o n t he e nvironment

T oday , m ost o f t he m an-made l andscape i n t he l ow-lying p art o f t he N etherlands s till r esembles t he l andscape m ade b y m edieval m an . R eclamation , l and d ivision a nd , l ater , d ike-building g ave t he l andscape a n a rtificial a ppearance . T he c onsequences f or t he s oil a nd t he w ater b alance w ere t he s ame a s t he e ffects o f i ncreasing m arine i nfluence a nd d rought : l owering o f t he g roundwater l evel,

s ubsidence a nd d isappearance o f t he p eat

c over . N ot u ntil t he 1th c entury w ere t he f irst m easures , i n t he f orm o f d ike-building , t aken t o c ombat f looding . T he g roundwater l evel o f t he b arrier c oast m ust a lso h ave s unk , d ue t o t he d rainage o f t he s trips o f p eat s ituated b etween t he b arriers , a nd t hrough w hich t he O lder D unes d rained t heir w ater . T his m ade t he O lder D unes e ven m ore v ulnerable t o t he s and d rifts w hich i ncreased a fter t he 1 0th c entury A D . M oreover , p opulation g rowth m ay h ave l ed t o o verexploitation a nd d eforestation o f t he c oastal s trip , t hus c ontributing t o t he s and d rifts i n t he 1 0th c entury A D , a fter w hich r eclamation o f t he p eat a rea c ompensated f or t he l and l ost . T he e ffects o f t he i ncreased i nfluence o f t he s ea , t he c hange i n c limate a nd l arge-scale r eclamations r einforced o ne a nother . T he i nteraction b etween n atural f orces a nd h uman i ntervention c hanged t he f ace o f N orth H olland i nto a n o pen a nd d isintegrated c oastal r egion w here i t w as d ifficult f or t he i nhabitants t o h old t heir o wn a fter l arge a reas h ad b een l ost ( Fig . 3 ) . T he

f act

t hat

t he

e arliest

r eclamations

t ook p lace

i n t he n orth o f

N orth H olland m ay i ndicate t hat t he c hanges i n t he V lie d etermined t he r eclamations t here . T he l oss o f a gricultural l and d ue t o c oastal e rosion a nd s and d rift m ay h ave p layed a p art . T he d ating o f t he i ncreased i nfluence o f t he s ea v ia t he V lie t o c . 5 00 A D , a nd o f t he e arliest p eat r eclamations i n t he T exel r egion a nd i n W estfriesland t o s hortly a fter 8 00 A D , e xcludes

3 33

t he c hange o f c limate i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 0th c entury a s t he p rimary f actor c ausing r eclamation t o b egin .

T he

s ettlement

o f N orth H olland i n t he e arly M iddle A ges a nd t he e arliest

p eat r eclamations W hen w e

t ry

t o f ollow t he h istory o f

s ettlement

i n r elation t o t he

v ariables o f l andscape a nd c limate d escribed a bove , w e m ust s tart f rom t he s ituation a s i t w as i n t he R oman p eriod . T he c oastal b arriers a nd t he P leistocene s oils w ere d ensely s ettled , a s w ere t he s ilted u p s alt-marshes o f t he s till-functioning t idal i nlet o f E gmond a nd e ven t he m arginal z one o f t he p eat b og b ehind i t. S ettlement w as also p ossible i n t he G eestmerambacht , a nd a round S chagen . I n t he R oman p eriod , t he e stuary o f t he t idal

i nlet o f E gmond s tarted t o s ilt u p a nd d rainage s tagnated .

S ettlement d ensities i n t he t hen-marginal a reas , t he s alt-marshes a nd t he p eat , d ropped . A s w as t he c ase e lsewhere i n N orth H olland , t he g rowth o f p eat i ncreased o nce m ore . F or 5 00 y ears t here i s l ittle i nformation a bout t his r egion , b ut i ncidental a rchaeological f inds f rom t he 4 th-6th c entury A D a t V elzen , U itgeest a nd T exel, t ogether w ith t he o ccurrence o f l ate p rehistoric p lace n ames w ould i ndicate a t l east s ome c ontinuity o f s ettlement. T he s ituation i n N orth H olland i s c learer f rom t he 7 th-8th c entury A D t hanks t o i ncreasing a rchaeological f inds a nd s ome h istorical d ata . B y t hen t he p eat h ad s pread s o f ar a s t o c over s ome o f t he p laces w hich h ad b een i nhabited i n R oman t imes .

T he h igher l ocation o f t he e arly m edieval

s ettlements o n T exel i ndicates t hat c ircumstances w ere s till m ore u nfavourable a t t hat t ime t han t hey w ere i n t he R oman p eriod ( Woltering 1 979 :

1 3 ;

1 975 :

3 1) .

N evertheless,

t he a rchaeological

e vidence a nd

t he

l arge n umber o f p lace n ames e nding i n -heem ( cf . ham i n E ngland) , s uggest t hat t he p opulation i ncreased . T he F risians w ere s ubjected i n t he 8 th c entury A D b y t he F ranks , l ed b y C harles M artel . W ith t he i ntegration o f F risia a nd , c onsequently , o f N orth H olland i n t he K ingdom o f t he F ranks , t he h istorical e vidence a bout t hese r egions i ncreases . C harles Martel's e ndowments o f prperty i n K ennemerland i n a bout 7 23 f urnish u s w ith t he f irst s ettlement a mes . M oreover , an umber o f p lace n ames w hich c annot b e d ated o n h istorical g rounds c an b e d ated t o t he e arly Middle A ges o n t oponymical g rounds ( Blok 1 974a : 1 27) .

a )

T he s ettlement o f t he c oastal b arriers, T exel a nd W ieringen I n t he e arly Middle A ges

s ettlement s till

a ppears

t o h ave

b een

r estricted t o t he c oastal b arrier a nd t he P leistocene s oils o f T exel, W ieringen a nd t he G ooi . A s ignificant n umber o f s ettlements i n t he c oastal s trip w ere c oncentrated o n t he g eesten , o val a nd r ectangular f ield s ystems w hich o ften h ad a r oad e ncircling t hem . T he f arms o ften l ie o utside t he f ield s ystem , w ith t heir b acks t o t he g rassland . D e C ock ( 1965: 2 72) r econstructed t hree s ettlement a reas i n K ennemerland , a t V elsen , H eiloo a nd P etten ,

e ach o f t hem s ubdivided i nto t hree o r f our h amlets .

H e e stimated

t he t otal n umber o f i nhabitants a t t hree t o f our t housand . H owever , h e d id n ot t ake i nto c onsideration s ettlement o n t he w estern b each b arriers , w hich l ater d isappeared i nto t he s ea , o r u nder t he Y ounger D unes , a n a rea w hich c ertainly w as o ccupied , j udging b y t he e vidence o f e arly m edieval h ouses a nd f ields a t d ifferent s pots c overed b y t he d unes . S ettlement c oncentrated i n h amlets ,

a s p ut f orward b y D e C ock , a ppears a lso t o h ave o ccurred o n T exel ,

3 34

w here t he a rchaeological f inds o ccur i n g roups, p rehistoric p eriod ( doltering 1 979 : o f f inds, ( Fig . 4 ) .

1 07) .

i n c ontrast t o t hose o f t he

Y et a ccording t o t he d istribution

i t a lso a ppears t hat p eople l ived a nd w orked o utside t he ' g ; eests ' A g reat n umber o f p laces m entioned i n t he h istorical s ources

w hich c annot n ow b e l ocated w ere p robably o n t he b each b arriers, w hich w ere s ubmerged o r c overed w ith s and , e specially i n t he n orth w here t he b arriers h ave c ompletely d isappeared . T he s urvival o f s everal o ld p lace-names t here i ndicates

t hat

t here i s

i ndeed

c ontinuity

o f

n ame

b ut

n ot

o f

p lace .

A rchaeological e vidence f rom t he n orthern c oastal s trip i s t herefore l acking . O ne e xception i s t he s upposedly e arly m edieval s ettlement o f T orp n ear D en H elder w hich p recedes t he r aising o f t he 1 0th c entury A D d welling m ound , f inds . r egion

t he t erp , a nd w hich c an b e d ated t o t he 7 th-8th c entury A D b y t he H owever , a rchaeological i nformation f or t he r est o f t he c oastal o f N orth H olland i s s parse . W oltering 's i nvestigation o f T exel

( 1979) i ndicates w hich a rchaeological s ites s till s urvive a nd a re a ccessible . W ith a pproximately 1 4% o f t he o ld l and s urveyed b y 1 979 , s ome 5 0 s ettlements

f rom t he M erovingian o r C arolingian p eriod w ere d iscovered

( Fig . 5 ), a n umber w hich i s s till g rowing . Excavations a t D en B urg o n T exel r evealed 1 5 e arly m edieval h ouses a nd o utbuildings, d ating f rom t he s econd

h alf

o f

t he

6 th c entury A D

o nwards ,

a lthough

s ome

5 th

c entury A D

p ottery w as f ound ( Woltering 1 975) . J ust a s e lsewhere o n T exel, t he e arly m edieval h ouses w ere s ituated o n h igher g round t han t hose o f t he R oman p eriod o r o f i ncreased.

t he

l ate Middle A ges .

T his

i ndicates

t hat f looding h ad

T he p icture o f s ettlement o n T exel i s c ompleted b y t he p resence a t D en B urg ( burg = f ortress) o f a c entrally s ituated l arge r ound f ortress w ith a d ouble d itch a nd a d iameter o f 2 00 m . ( Woltering 1 980) w hich m ay h ave b een l inked w ith d efence a gainst t he V iking r aids .

S imilar r ound f ortresses i n

Z ealand a nd F landers h ave a r ampart a nd d itch b ut u p t o n ow n o r ampart h as b een f ound i n D en B urg . Tb e e xistence o f a l arge c entral f ortification p oints

t o d eveloped

s tructures o f r egional o rganisation .

t hat t here m ay h ave b een t wo f ortresses: W esterburghem a nd O osterburghem ( = D en B urg?) . l ost t wo

t o

h istorical s ources m ention W esterburghem m ay h ave b een

t he s ea t ogether w ith t he w estern p art

' ambachts '

( shires) ,

a s

e arly a s

7 72

I t i s p ossible

o r 7 76

o f T exel . A D a rgues

T he m ention o f i n f avour o f a

d eveloped o rganisation s tructure . I s i t c oincidence t hat t here s hould b e t wo? We k now t hat t he ' ambachts' o f N orth H olland w ere l ater p ublic d istricts , a nd t hi. w ould a ppear t o b e t he e arliest m ention o f t hem ( Koch 1 970 : n o . 6 ; B lok . t1 74a : 9 0) . T he f act t hat T exel b elonged t o t he k ing m ay h ave

i nfluenced

i ts

h igh

l evel

o f

i nstitutional

o rganisation »

O n

t he

f ormer i sland o f W ieringen w e f ind a s imilar s ituation : a n i ncreasing n umber o f a rchaeological s ites, r oyal e states a nd e ven s igns o f a m anorial o rganisation .

b )

E arly m edieval s ettlement o f t he l ow-lying a reas i n N orth H olland F or a l ong t ime M edemblik w as a s olitary d ot o n t he d istribution

m ap

o f e arly m edieval s ettlement i n t he l ow-lying p arts o f N orth H olland ( Fig . 4 ) . T he b ishop o f U trecht o wned t here t he r egalis d ecima , t he k ing 's t ithe , t hat i s t o s ay o ne t enth o f t he r oyal p roperty a nd i ncome , a r ight w hich h as i ts o rigins i n a n e ndowment b y P ippin I II i n 7 53 A D ( Besteman 1 974 :

4 7) .

I n

9 85 A D t he r emainder o f t he r evenue i s d escribed a s t oll, m int a nd t ax . E xcavations a t M edemblik m ade i t c lear t hat t he l ow s andy r idge a t t he s outh b ank

o f

t he

r iver M iddenleek w as

( Besteman 1 974,

1 979) .

i nhabited f rom t he e arly 8 th c entury A D

T here n eed b e n o d oubt a s t o t he i mportance o f

3 35

S

2

2 -c i0 3

F ig . 4 .

0

1 0

20k m

N orth H olland ; d istribution o f e arly m edieval f inds ( 6th-9th c entury ) . I . I solated f inds ( not s hown i f t here a re a n umber o f s ites i n t he i mmediate v icinity ) . 2 . S ites . 3 . B each b arriers a nd o ther s andy d eposits, o r P leistocene d eposits a t s urface . 4 . E astern b oundary o f Y ounger D unes .

3 36

0 r d • r 4

0 r d e i

. 1 4

4 I

0 › 4 0 Z

0 > 4 1 4 C O a ) 'V Z

a ne( t i

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Ln 0 4 . ) 0 I • . I • , 1 N A ( I ) . 4 - 4 4 C l ) C D C . ) Ln m i _ . C O 4 . 4 • 0 %Q C O $ . 4 C O 4 . 1 W z e t 0 C O C O e l , . . 4

r . .

,

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c i 3

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c n o ,

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0

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C I )

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us )

f, 2 1C oC o0 > 4

• an

3 7

M edemblik i n v iew o f t he g reat v ariety o f i mported p ottery a nd g lass ,

i ts

f avourable p osition n ear t o t he t rade r oute f rom D orestad t o F risia a cross L ake A lmere , a nd a lso t he f act t hat t here w as r oyal p roperty w ith r evenues f rom t rade .

T he p art p layed b y Medemblik h as b een e mphasised b y t he

m apping o f a l arge n umber o f s cattered e arly m edieval s ettlements b etween M edemblik a nd E nkhuizen , t o t he s outh o f t he s o-called L ake W ervershoof , s ome o f w hich h ave b een e xcavated ( iallewas 1 977 , 1 978) . F urther w est a round S chagen s everal C arolingian s ettlements h ave b een f ound .

E ven f urther w est i n t he G eestmerambacht , t here a re t races o f e arly

m edieval s ettlement u nderneath t he t erpen , w hile a s eries o f f indspots h ave b een d iscovered d uring r ecent l and c onsolidation a ctivities , w hich m ay i ndicate t he p resence o f s ettlements . I f w e

l ook a t t he e xtensive ,

p artly o pened u p a rea f rom a l andscape

p oint o f v iew , w e a re m ostly f aced w ith p eat r eclamations .

F urther n orth ,

a round T exel , an umber o f p lace-names e nding i n more ( = m oor) a re m entioned f rom t he e arly 9 th c entury A D o nwards a nd m ust b e h ave b een i n t he p eat a rea . A s ubmerged C arolingian s ettlement i n t he p resent m udflats n ear D en H elder , w ith t races o f p eat c utting , h as b een f ound ( Snit 1 972 ) , i ndicating t hat t he p eat b og n ear T exel w as a lready i nhabited i n t he C arolingian p eriod . T he s ame a pplies t o t he n orth o f N orth H olland , ( Where a rchaeology c an o nly p rovide s poradic e vidence , s ince t he l and w as l ost i n t he M iddle A ges) , t o t he p eat a rea o f W estfriesland w ith M edemblik , a nd t o t he r egion a round L ake W ervershoof a nd t he e nvirons o f S chagen . T he n ewly-reclaimed a reas w ere n ot i solated . T he i mportant t rade r oute f rom D orestad t o F risia a nd t he n orth w ent v ia A lmere a nd t he e nlarged Vlie . T he e xistence o f r oyal p roperty a t M edemblik a nd o n W ieringen a nd T exel i n t he v icinity o f t his r oute i s s ignificant . T he n orth o f N orth H olland , W estfriesland a nd p ossibly a lso t he c oastal r egion w ere m ore d ependent o n t he r oute a cross A lmere a nd t he V ile v ia M edemblik f or t he s upply o f t rading p roducts t han o n ar oute a long o r a cross t he b arrier c oast . T he s ettlements i n t he G eestmerambacht i n t he w est w ere a lso b uilt o n p eat . T he p eat h as b een p reserved u nder s ome o f t he t erps b ut e lsewhere o nly i mperishable r emains s uch a s f ired c lay a nd s herds r emain a fter t he p eat c over d isappeared . I n t he s outhezn p eat b ogs o f K ennemerland r eclamation m ust h ave e xtended 3 0 k m f rom t he c oastal s trip i n t he m iddle o f t he 1 0th c entury A D , a ccording t o r ecords a nd p lace-names . A rchaeological s urvey i s o f n o h elp a s f ar a s t he 1 0th c entury i s c oncerned d ue t o t he d ifficulty i n i dentifying 1 0th c entury p ottery . T he

p eat

r eclamation

i n

N orth

H olland :

t he

b eginning

o f

t he ' great

r eclamation ' O ur t hinking o n m edieval

r eclamation o f t he p eat a reas h as b een

d ominated b y h istorians . U sually t hey d escribe t he ' great r eclamation ' , f ocussing t heir a ttention o n t he w ell-documented a nd r egulated l ate m edieval p eat a reas o f S outh H olland a nd U trecht ( Van d er L inden 1 982) .

T hey

c onjure u p t he i deal p icture o f t he s o-called c ope r eclamation i n w hich g roups o f r eclaimers u nder a c ontractor s ystematically r eclaimed t he p eat , s tarting f rom t he b anks o f t he n atural w atercourses .

T he c olonists

r eceived p ermission f rom t he C ount o f H olland o r t he B ishop o f U trecht t o r eclaim a w ilderness o f f ixed d imensions , t he c ope , i n r eturn f or a s mall

3 38

a nnual r ent w hich w as m erely a f ormal r ecognition . E ach p articipant w as a llocated a f ixed s tarting-point f or r eclamation ( mostly a bout 3 0 r oeden = c . 1 05 m .) i n w idth , w hich h e w as a ble t o r eclaim u p t o a n a greed l ength ( 6 o r 1 2 f urlongs = c . 1 ,250 o r 2 ,500 m ) . S een f rom t he a ir , t his p roduced a v ery r egular p attern o f s ystematically d ivided b locks o f l and . T he f arms , o ne t o e ach u nit o f l and , w ere i n a l ine, s o t hat l ong l inear v illages d eveloped . T his p icture i s t rue o f t he 1 2th-15th c entury A D r eclamation , a bout w hich w e a re w ell-informed, t hanks t o t he h istorical e vidence . H owever i t h as p roved t o b e t oo s tatic f or e arly r eclamations . O ur c hanged o pinions a bout t he i nteraction b etween c hanges i n t he n atural e nvironment a nd h uman i ntervention , t ogether w ith t he i ncreasing a rchaeological e vidence f or r eclamation a nd s ettlement f rom t he C arolingian p eriod o nwards , e nable u s t o m ake a r ough s ketch o f am ore d ynamic p icture o f e arly r eclamation i n N orth H olland , w hich p receded t he s o-called ' great r eclamation '. T he p eat a rea o f N orth H olland h ad a lready b een i nhabited o ccasionally i n t he I ron A ge a nd i n R oman t imes, b ut t here w as n o q uestion o f a ny c ollective s ystematic r eclamation , c omparable t o t hat o f t he " great r eclamation" . H owever , i n t he l ate R oman p eriod a ttempts h ad a lready b een m ade t o d rain t he a rea s ystematically b y d igging p ar allel d itches ( Besteman a nd G uiran 1 987 ; s ee a lso F ig . 8 ) . P opulation g rowth i n t he e arly M iddle A ges l ed t o t he f irst p eat r eclamations , s tarting i n t he n orth i n t he e arly 9 th c entury A D o r e arlier , a round T exel, t he n orth o f N orth H olland a nd W estfriesland ( especially r ound M edemblik a nd L ake W ervershoof) , i n t he S chagen a rea a nd i n t he G eestmerambacht . T he

i mproved

d rainage

o pportunities f or r eclamation , s alination .

v ia

t he

Vlie

i n

t he

n orth

h ad

o ffered

b ut a lso i ncreased t he r isk o f f looding a nd

P eople c ould n ot y et c ombat s oil s ubsidence a nd f looding ,

a nd

n either d id t hey h ave t o : t hey c ould a lways r etreat t o t he h igher p eat b ogs b ehind . T hese i n t urn h ad m ore p otential f or d rainage i nto t he p reviouslya bandoned r eclamations , d ue t o t he l owering o f t he g roundwater l evel a nd b ank e rosion . I n t his w ay , t he m ore r eclamations w ere l ost i n t he n orth , t he m ore n ew p eat b ogs w ere r eclaimed s outh o f t hem A t t he s ame t ime , t he i nfluence o f o pen w ater e xtended s outh , c ausing t he M arsdiep t o d evelop i nto at idal c hannel a nd t he Z ijpe i nlet t o c ome i nto b eing . I n t he

1 0th c entury A D ,

w hen t he r eclamation o f t he g reat p eat

a rea s outh o f W est r iesland b egan , t he s upposed d ryness o f t he c limate m ay h ave b een a f actor e ncouraging r eclamation . T he r apid r eclamation o f t he n orth K ennemerland p eat b ogs w as c ontinued s hortly a fter t his i n as outherly d irection , w ith t he r eclamations o f A ssendelft a nd t hree o ther v illages i n t he n eighbourhood , t he c hurches o f w hich a re m entioned i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 1th c entury A D . O ther r eferences m ake i t c lear t hat t he r eclamations o f A ssendelft a nd s even o ther v illages i n t he s outh o f N orth H olland p robably d ate f rom b efore 1 018 A D ( Van d er L inden 1 982 : 5 6) . F inally , f inds o f P ingsdorf p ottery i ndicate 1 0th-12th c entury A D d ates f or a lmost a ll o f t he p eat r eclamations i n N orth H olland , i n c ontrast w ith t hose o f t he p rovince o f S outh H olland . T his c annot b e a ccounted f or b y t he i ncreased a rchaeological s urvey i n N orth H olland , b ut r eliably i ndicates a g enerally e arlier r eclamation i n t he n orth . T hus

We

c an s ee t hat , a lthough r eclamation i n H olland i n t he e arly M iddle

A ges s tarted f rom t he r egions w hich h ad l ong b een i nhabited , ( i .e . i n t his c ase m ainly f rom t he c oastal s trip), a n orth-south s hift c an a lso b e o bserved r oughly s peaking a ll o ver N orth H olland .

3 39

T his w as e ventually t o

e nd i n t he " great r eclamation" i n t he s outhern p eat a rea o f a nd U trecht i n t he l ate M iddle A ges . b ack t o t he

S outh H olland

T here , t he e arliest r eclamations d ate

l ate 1 0th a nd t he 1th c enturies A D ,

c ope r eclamations u p t o t he 1 2th-15th c entury A D .

b ut t he m ain p art o f t he I t i s s uggested ,

a s a n

e xplanation f or t his l ater d ating , t hat t he p eat a reas i n t he s outh w ere g enerally e utrophic a nd m ore l ow- l ying , s o t hat t hey c ould o nly b e r eclaimed a fter t he c onstruction o f d ikes ( Berendsen 1 984) . F rom t he a bove e vidence , t he c hronology o f t he r eclamations h as b een e stablished . H owever , t he p ractice o f t he e arly r eclamations i s , f or t he m ost p art , s till u nknown . W e m ay i nitiative o f t he l ocal p opulation o r W ieringen . T he n ames g iven t o s ettlements i n t he o ld l and . T he

a ssume t hat t he r eclamations w ere t he o f t he n eighbouring c oastal a rea , T exel t he n ew r eclamations o ften r efer t o g rowth o f p opulation a fter t he e arly

M iddle A ges p rovided t he n ecessary p ressure f or r eclamation ; i mproved o pportunities f or d rainage , a nd t he d rought i n t he 1 0th c entury A D , p rovided t he n atural c onditions t o d o s o . T here w as a s hortage o f a rable l and i n t he c oastal s trip d ue t o e rosion , f looding a nd s and d rifts, e specially i n t he n orth , b ut b efore l ong i n t he o ldest p eat r eclamations a s w ell,

f or w ant o f p rotective m easures a gainst f looding .

T his i ncreased t he

p ressure o f p opulation o n t he n ew r eclamations s ituated f urther i nland , a ffecting n ot o nly t he l ocal p opulation b ut a lso t he e xperienced r eclaimers f rom o ther a bandoned a reas . T he o rganisation o f t he r eclamations w as p robably i n t he h ands o f t he f ree v illage c ommunities , a lthough t he e xistence o f r oyal p roperty o n T exel, W ieringen a nd i n M edemblik m ay h ave p layed a p art i n t hose a reas . D espite t he d ecreasing i mportance o f r oyal p roperty a nd t he f ailure o f t he c ounts o f H olland t o g et W estfriesland f irmly u nder c ontrol b efore t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury A D , t he r eclaimers w ere c apable o f m anaging t heir a ffairs p roperly . S ince t hey w ere u nable t o c ontrol t he W estfrisians, t he c ounts o f H olland h ad t ransferred t he c entre o f t heir p ower i n t he 1 0th-llth c entury A D t o t he s outh a nd t he e stuaries o f t he R hine a nd t he M euse . T here t hey g radually e xtended t heir t erritory a nd d irected t he p eat r eclamations, g iving r ise t o t he s trictly-regulated s ystem o f t he " great r eclamation" ( see a bove) . I n t he p ractice o f t he o lder r eclamations i n t he n orth w hich w ere n ot u nder t he a uthority o f t he c ount, w e c an s ee t he b eginning o f t he t echnical d evelopment o f ac ollective s ystem o f w ater m anagement w hich h as f unctioned u p t o t he p resent d ay .

M ethods o f p eat r eclamation f rom a n a rchaeological p erspective L ittle i s k nown o f t he m ethods o f e arly m edieval r eclamations , b ecause t he o ldest r eclamations h ave o ften d isappeared ,

p artly

p artly b ecause t he

p eat c over w as s ubsequently l ost , a nd w ith i t m any a rchaeological f eatures w ere l ost o r a t l east s ubsided w ith t he s oil .

I t h as n ot b een p ossible t o

d etermine w hether , i n t he e arly m edieval r eclamations , s ystematic l andd ivision w ith p arallel d rainage d itches s o t ypical o f l ater m edieval r eclamations, w as a lready u ndertaken . A f urther p roblem i s t hat i t i s v irtually i mpossible t o e stablish t he a ge o f ad itch s ystem w hich h as r emained i n c onstant u se i n a s ubsiding p eat b og , s ince t he d itches w ere r epeatedly d redged a nd d eepened . F or t his r eason d itches l ike t hese a re a rchaeologically s terile . Y et t here d oes a ppear t o b e a c onnection b etween t he C arolingian

3 40

r eclamation

s outh

o f L ake W ervershoof

i n W estfriesland a nd t he p arallel

s trip l and-division ( Besteman a nd G uiran 1 986 : 2 04-6) . T he C arolingian s ettlements i n t he n orth h ave a l ogical c ontinuation i n t he a djacent n orths outh p arallel l and-division i n t hat a rea a nd i n t he l oth-12th c entury A D s ettlement a nd r ecently d iscovered c hurches a long t he K adike b elonging t o i t ( Fig . 6 ) . I n t he 1 3th c entury A D s ettlement m oved f urther s outhwards a s r eclamation p rogressed t o t he p resent r ow o f v illages w est o f E nkhuizen . W e t hen f ind t hat t he c hurches o f t he o ld s ettlements w ere r elocated w ithin t he s ame b oundary d itches a nd t hat l ong l inear v illages d eveloped o n t he s ame a xis a s t he n ew c hurches , i n c ontrast t o t he C arolingian s ettlement w hich w as s till s pread a ll o ver t he r eclaimed a rea . L ittle i s k nown a bout t he d wellings o f t he f irst r eclaimers d ue t o t he u nfavourable c onditions f or e xcavation a lready m entioned i n a reas w ith a l ost p eat c over . N ear Medemblik ( Besteman 1 974) , i t w as p ossible t o r econstruct a h ouse p lan o f p erhaps 6 b y 2 0m f rom t he s pread o f d aub . R emains o f w ells w ere f ound, o nly 4 0 c m d eep, s howing t hat p art o f t he o riginal s ection h ad d isappeared ( F ig . 7 ) , a s i s a lso s uggested f rom t he l ow e levation o f t he a rchaeological f eatures a nd f inds w hich w ere a pproximately 1 . 50 m b elow N AP ( Normal A msterdam L evel) . T he d isappearance o f p art o f t he s ection o riginally c aused d ifficulties i n p alaeoecological r esearch , o ccurred . P eat i ndicators i n C arolingian

s ite

b efore t his p rocess w as k nown t o h ave t he p ollen a nd d iatom s pectra o f t he

o f Medemblik w ere

s aid

t o h ave b een i mported f rom

e lsewhere , s ince t here w as n o p eat i n t he s urroundings , a nd s alt i ndicators w ere t hought t o h ave b een d eposited f rom o lder m arine s ediments b ecause a griculture w ould o therwise h ave b een i mpossible ( Voorrips a nd J ansma 1 974) . N ow i t i s a ppreciated t hat a p eat c over m ight h ave o xidised a nd s hrunk u ntil i t b ecame a s trongly m ineral, a morphous h umous l ayer , t he r esearch m ust b e r e-interpreted . T he o ccurrence o f p eat i n W estfriesland n o l onger p oses p roblems , n or d oes t he c ultivation o f c ereals o n t he p eat . S alination o f t he e nvironment a round M edemblik w as s hown t o h ave o ccurred b y C remer ( 1985 :

1 719) a nd w as o bserved e lsewhere ,

e ven i n e xisting a rable l and ( Van

G eel e t a l . 1 983 : 3 08) . I t w ould a ppear t hat c ereals c an s ometimes t olerate a c ertain a mount o f m arine i nfluence . At

s imilar

s ites

i n Westfriesland

a lso,

r emains

o f

d eeper

a rchaeological d eposits w ere o nly f ound a t c . 2 .30-2 .50 m b elow N AP . I n t his r espect t he e xcavations o f t he 1 3th c entu r y A D s ite a t M idwoud w ith i ts m any r emains o f w ells i s s pectacular ( Guiran a nd H allewas 1 979 ; G uiran f orthcoming) . U nderneath t hese w ells , n arrow w ell s hafts h ad b een d ug t o a d epth o f u p t o 8m , f rom w hich c an b e c oncluded t hat t he s urface w ater a nd h igher g roundwater h ad b ecome l ess f it f or c onsumption i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 2th c entury a s ar esult o f s alination . C omparison w ith a s imilar a nd b etter-preserved w ell d ated t o c . 1 200 A D a t M edemblik m akes c lear h ow m uch o f t he o riginal s ection a nd a rchaeological d eposits i n M idwoud m ay h ave b een l ost ( Fig . 7 ) . F or a b etter v iew o f t he m ethods o f p eat r eclamation w e h ave t o t urn t o t he a reas w here b oth t he p eat a nd t he o rganic r emains o f s ettlement h ave b een p reserved . T he r ecent r esults o f t he i nvestigation c arried o ut i n t he p eat a rea o f A ssendelft , w hich h as b een p ublished ( 1987) , g ive s uch a d etailed p icture .

3 41

i n B esteman a nd G uiran

tb 3

F ig . 6 .

- - -4

//

/ / 6

M ovement o f s ettlements i n t he f ormer p eat a rea o f e astern W estfries a nd ( after B esteman a nd G uiran 1 986) . 1 . P ossible l ocation o f a n lth-12th c entury c hurch i n G ommerkarspel . 2 . L ocation o f c . lth-12th c entury c hurches . 3 . L ocation o f c hurches l ater t han c . 1 3th c entury . 4 . S treekweg : s ettlement a xis f rom c . 1 3th c entury . 5 . C oncentration o f s ettlement i n t he C arolingian p eriod a long t he b order o f t he f ormer " Lake W ervershoof" . 6 . " Lake W ervershoof" . 7 . G eneralised p attern o f m edieval a llotment .

3 42

3m-

1M,

2m,

4m-

2m.

3 rn

5 4 1,

\ \N

2

V

4

3 rn e

V 6

3

1

[ 1 7 1 1

6m > erne 4 rn4

7m-

sm -

9 r n-

F ig. 7 .

W estfriesland w ells . M edemblik ,

O ude

h aven .

Mixed h umic c lay .

1 . Medemblik , 3 .

M idwoud .

4 . S oft C lay .

W ood i n s ection .

3 43

S chuitenvoerderslaan . 1 . F ine

5 . S and .

s and .

2 .

2 .

C lay .

3 .

6 . P eat . 7 . W ood .

8 .

A ssendelft A ssendelft l ies o n t he N orth S ea C anal , k m f rom t he c oast .

I t i s a t ypical p eat

1 6 k m w est o f A msterdam a nd 8

r eclamation w ith i ts

1 0 k m l ong

s ettlement a xis , a t r ight a ngles t o t he e ast-west o riented p attern o f l and d ivision c omprising l ong , a nd o ften p arallel, d itches . T he s oil s till c onsists m ainly o f p eat a nd , a s p asture .

i n t he w est ,

o f y oung m arine c lay , a nd i s u sed

T he a rchaeological i nvestigation o f A ssendelft i nvolved t he e xtensive s urvey a nd e xcavation o f 7h ouses a nd t he o ldest c hurch o f A ssendelft ( F ig . 8 ) . S ome f ifty h ouses w ere l ocated b y f ind-scatters , f ield n ames , s light d ifferences i n h eight a nd i rregularities i n t he s hape o f t he l and a llotments , a nd s mall t renches w ithin t he a llotments . F ig . 9 s hows t he r elation b etween d ifferences i n h eight a nd t he s ites o f m edieval h ouses o n t he i rregularly-shaped p lot o f l and a t t he s ite o f t he o ldest c hurch . A ll t he h ouses e xcavated w ere s ituated w est o f t he p resent v illage a nd d ate f rom t he 1 0-12th c entury A D . O ne h ouse-site w as i nhabited i nto t he 1 3th c entury A D . T hey a ll h ad t he s ame o rientation a s t he b oundary d itches , w hich c onfirms t he m edieval a ge o f t he p resent p attern o f l and d ivision . T he w ooden h ouses p robably h ad a c ombined d welling-stabling f unction . T hree a re s hown i n F ig . 1 0 . T hey w ere l ight s tructures a pproximately 5 -6 m w ide a nd 2 6 m l ong , w ith s ingle-aisled t russed c onstruction . F oundation a nd c onstruction w as a dapted t o t he l ow c arryingc apacity o f t he p eat . U prights w ere p laced o n wood l aid h orizontally ( F ig . 1 ) t o i ncrease t he c arrying c apacity . H orizontal f oundation b eams , p ost-pads o f h orizontally-piled w ood o r s leeper b eams o r s ills w hich w ere n ot d ug i n , t he l atter a lso s upporting t he w alls , w ere a ll i n u se . T he s agging , s ometimes b roken s leeper b eams , t he c ompressed p ost-pads a nd t he s ills w hich w ere p ushed a side , a ll s how t hat h orizontal f oundations w ere i ndispensable i n t he s oggy p eat . T he s hort s ides o f t he h ouses w ere o ften c losed b y aw all o f t urves , o r b y a s mall t rench . T he w alls o f t he h ouses c onsisted o f n on-supporting w attle a nd d aub a nd s tood e ither o n s leeper b eams o r i n s mall t renches . H ouse 1 p robably a lso h ad a w all o f t urves o utside t he w attle w alls ( Fig . 1 2 a nd r econstruction F ig . 1 3) . T he h ouse s ites w ere a lmost a lways

r aised o n p eat s ods ,

a nd t here w ere u sually c lay

f loors i nside t he h ouses . N o t races w ere f ound o f a ny k ind o f d ivision , b ut t he p osition o f t he h earth p oints t o a l iving s ection a t o ne o f t he s hort s ides . I n o ne h ouse , a s upposed m anure t rench w as f ound , w hich m ay i ndicate a b yre . I n a nother c ase , t he p resence o f l arge q uantities o f m anure o utside t he w all o f t he p robable b yre a lso s uggests t his . O ne b uilding h ad

t wo e ntrances

o pposite e ach o ther i n t he m iddle o f t he s ide

w alls. T he m aterial u sed w as o ften o f l ocal o rigin .

T urf s ods a nd c lay c ould

b e f ound o n t he s pot o r o nly a s hort d istance a way . A l ogboat l oaded w ith s ods a nd d ated t o c . 1 000 A D w as f ound 0 .5 k m f rom h ouse 1 ( De W eerd 1 987) . W ood f or w ickerwork a nd g eneral u se w as a vailable n earby . H owever , e xcept f or o ak , l ocal w ood w as u sed f or t he m ain s tructural t imbers . d iversity o f t he w ood u sed i s s triking : a lder , a sh , o ak , b irch ,

T he w ild

c herry , b eech a nd p oplar ( identification b y M rs E . v an H oorn-van B erkel , I nstituut v oor P rae- e n P rotohistorie , A msterdam ( IPP)) w ere u sed i n t he c onstruction o f h ouse 2 . N o o utbuildings w ere f ound . T he r emains o f w ells , i n s ome c ases w ith a t urf w all, w ere s ituated c lose t o t he h ouses ( see f or e xample F ig . 1 2) .

3 44

N KLA M -

•

/ V00 ,90 zeE . . ,r44 ,44i

• • I• e• 1 * 4

2

F ig . 8 .

3

• 4

05

•6

A7

t 8

9

4 — —B

0

500

1 000 m

A ssendelft . 1 . W atercourse . 2 . B end i n t he a llotment p attern . 3 . A llotment p attern - R oman p eriod . 4 . lth12th c entury h ouse-site . 5 . 1 2th .-13th . c entury h ouse s ite . 6 . l lth-13th c entury p ottery ; i solated f inds . 7 . T he ' A ssendelft H ouse ' . 8 . C hurch . 9 . F ield n ames i ndicating d eserted h ouse-sites . 1 0 . T he l ocation o f t he s ection i n F ig . 2 0 . a = e astern b oundary o f D unkirk 1 B d eposits . b=w estern b oundary o f e xtant c ontinuous o ligotrophic p eat a rea .

3 45

>1 60 m- NAP

F ig . 9 .

B lock o f

1 ,-1 80 m- NAP

l and

a t

t he

I

f l ao

Z uiderweg

>

40 m ,

i n A ssendelft

a fter

r eallotment

( location p ee F ig . 8 ) . C ontours a nd t he l ocation o f t he e xcavated h ouse 2 , 5 8a nd 9 ; t he l ocation o f t he c hurch a nd c hurchyard d itches ; m inor i nternal b oundary d itches a nd t he l ocation o f t he n ow—infilled K aaik .

3 46

c 'e s -

—1 ;

-

0

I i

N

Hu is 3 3

I

H y is 2

H u rs

F ig . 1 0 .

2

01

N

—%

5

6 9

6

0

3

7

CD

-

4

8

1

H ouses

1 ,

2 a nd 3 ;

s implified p lans .

1 .

P its a nd d itches .

2 .

h earth . 3 . P osthole . 4 . C lay p atch a t t he l ocation o f p osts . 5 . W ood l ying h orizontally a s a f oundation f or w all a nd p osts . 6 . P arts o f f allen o r d isplaced p osts . 7 . P osition o f p osts f rom p eriod 1 . 8 . P osition o f p osts f rom p eriod 2 .

3 47

h u is 2 , a .

b .

F ig . 1.

h u is 3

R econstruction o f t he d ifferent m ethods o f f oundation o f u pright p osts o f h ouses 1 , 2a nd 3 .

3 48

CD

! « . I

1

F ig .

1 2.

P lan o f h ouse 1 .

3 49

F or k ey s ee F ig .

1 0.

3 50

T he o ldest c hurch o f A ssendelft , l ike t he o ldest s ettlement , w as f ound 1 200 m . n orthwest o f t he p resent v illage , w ithin t he s ame a llotment b oundaries a s t he p resent c hurch , a p henomenon w hich i s w ell-known i n p eat r eclamations . E xcavations r evealed t he r emains o f ac hurch s ituated i n t he c entre o f a r ectangular c hurchyard e nclosed b y a d ouble d itch . T he c hurchyard l ay i n a r emarkable b end i n t he K aaik , a n i mportant t ransverse d itch , w hich , t ogether w ith t he p resent s outhern p lot b oundary d itch , p robably f ormed p art o f t he o uter c hurchyard d itch ( Fig . 1 4) . O f t he c hurch i tself , o nly t he r aised l ayer o f t urves i n a nd a round t he c hurch , t he t urf f oundation o n t he s hort s ides , a nd t he f oundation b eams o n t he l ong s ides r emained . F rom t hese , a r econstruction c ould b e m ade o f a r ectangular b uilding m easuring 6 b y 1 2 m ( Fig . 1 5) . I ts e ast-west o rientation m eant t hat i t d eviated b y a bout 1 5 d egrees f rom t he p resent b oundary d itch s ystem , u nlike t he h ouses . I t w as a ssumed

t hat

t he c hurch w as m ainly b uilt

o f w ood .

T he s hort

w alls were p robably e ntirely o r p artially b uilt o f t urf s ods, a nd a re u nlikely t o h ave h ad a s upporting f unction . I n t he m iddle o f t he h eavier s od f oundation o f t he w est w all a f oundation o f s hort h eavy b eams f or a c onstruction d iscovered .

w ith

a n

a dditional

c arrying

f unction

( belltower?)

w as

T he f oundations o f t he s ide w alls c onsisted o f r e-used b eams ,

m ostly o f o ak , f rom a nother b uilding , a nd s howed e vidence o f h igh q uality c arpentry , w hich g ives s ome i nsight i nto t he m ethods o f c arpentry u sed ( F ig . 1 6) . T he f oundations w ere l aid i n t he o ligotrophic p eat w hich h ad a lso b een r aised w ith ' f resh ' S phagnum p eat . A r adiocarbon d ate o f 195+45 b p ( GrN 1 3031) w as o btained f rom a s ample o f t he t op o f t his p eat . T his e stablishes f oundations. I n

t he

t he

t est

g ood

s tate

t renches

o f

i n t he

p reservation

o f

t he

p eat

u nder

t he

c hurchyard a pproximately 8 0 g raves w ere

d iscovered ( Fig . 1 4) . T hose b est-preserved w ere f ound i n t he i mmediate s urroundings o f t he c hurch w here m ost o f t he p eat i s a lso p reserved , d ue t o t he w eight o f

t he c hurch a nd t he a rtificial

r aising o f t he s ite .

M ost o f

t he c offins w ere m ade o f p lanks , a nd a l arge n umber o f t hem w ere r emarkably w ell-constructed , w ith o pen ' slatted ' b ases t o p revent t hem f loating i n t he w aterlogged s ubsoil . F or t he s ame r eason , a h eavy o ak c offin w hich h ad b een m ade f rom a t ree-trunk h ad a h ole i n i ts b ase T he d ating c

( F ig .

1 7) .

t he o ldest c hurch o f A ssendelft n eed n o l onger b e b ased

s olely o n t he h ibtorical r ecord f rom t he f irst h alf o f t he 1th c entury . A part f rom t he r adiocarbon d ate f or t he t op l ayer o f t he p eat t o 7 45 + 4 5 A D , w e a lso h ave d endrochronological d ates b y M rs E . J ansma ( IPP) f rom s ome o f t he f oundation b eams a nd t wo o f t he c offins . T hree o f t he b eams , w hich w ere s econdarily u sed , w ithout s apwood , p roduced d ates o f 8 98 , 8 93 a nd 9 13 A D r espectively . T he w ood o f t he t wo c offins g ave a n a bsolute d ate o f 1 006 A D a nd a d ate o f p ost-979 A D . S ince i t i s i mprobable t hat t he f irst r eclaimers c ame t o A ssendelft o nly i n o rder t o d ie t here , w e m ust a ssume t hat r eclamation i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 0th c entury A D h ad p rogressed c onsiderably . T here w ere n o t races o f a ny b uildings o ther t han t hose b elonging t o t he w ooden c hurch s o t his w ould a ppear t o b e t he o ldest c hurch o f A ssendelft , b uilt i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 0th c entury A D . I n t he l ate 1 2th c entury A D t he c hurch a nd c hurchyard m ust h ave f allen i nto d isuse . B ecause a ll b ut o ne o f t he e xcavated h ouse-sites w ere d eserted i n t he 1 2th c entury A D , a nd s ettlement m oved u p t o t he p resent v illage a nd t he z one 2 00 m w est o f i t , i t i s l ikely t hat t he c hurch m oved t o t he c hurchyard i n t he p resent v illage i n t he l ate 1 2th o r e arly 1 3th c entury

3 51

F ig .

1 4.

A ssendelft-Zuiderweg ; e xcavated a rea a nd s implified p lan o f c hurch , g raves , a nd c hurchyard d itches ( reconstruction ) . B oundary d itches ( shaded) f rom b efore r eallotment .

3 52

0 -

c s ,

b 1 )

3 53

5 0c m

F ig .

1 6 .

A ssendelft-Zuiderweg .

T wo e xamples o f v ertical p osts o f a n o lder

b uilding , r e-used f or t he f oundation o f t he c hurch .

,

J .

—E s S 3—

K ‘ 1 : 1 ,== s

"

F ig.

1 7.

A ssendelft-Zuiderweg . A ' dug-out ' t ree t runk c offin a nd a c offin w ith a n o pen ' slatted ' b ase .

3 54

• ,

F ig.

1 8.

l e *

I N A,, e 1 .10. 11 i en , ,l eeW f

.

SI AM bu t

:\

-

f

e e

Z2, 2

41, 44 7 4 t y re

R ustic d ance a round t he c hurch o f A ssendelft . b y J an S aenredam , 1 596.

3 55

A llegoric e tching

A D .

P ottery f inds t here d ate b ack t o t he 1 3th c entury .

I n a ddition ,

t he

l ow d ensity o f b urials i n t he o ld c hurchyard s uggests i t w as i n u se f or n o m ore t han 2 00 y ears . T he 1 3th c entury c hurch o f A ssendelft , a s y et n ot e xamined a rchaeologically , w as s ucceeded i n t he 1 5th c entury a nd a t t he s ame s ite i n t he v illage b y t he l ate G othic c hurch , w hich i s o nly k nown f rom t he 1 6th c entury e tching b y J an S aenredam a nd t he f amous p ainting b y h is s on , P ieter S aenredam , o f 1 626 ( Fig . 1 8) . T his 1 5th-16th c entury c hurch w as d emolished i n t he 1 9th c entury t o m ake r oom f or t he p resent s maller D utch R eformed c hurch . T he c hurch o f A ssendelft i s f irst m entioned a s b eing a d aughter c hurch o f V elzen , 8k m . t o t he w est , a f act w hich p oints t o r eclamation f rom t he n earby c oastal s trip . T he r eclamation o f t he p eat a rea o f A ssendelft t ook p lace i n d ifferent s tages , s tarting i n t he 1 0th c entury A D f rom t he c urved b anks o f t he f ormer V elsermeer w hich g ave r ise t o a s omewhat i rregular s ystem o f b oundary d itches . T o e nsure t hat a ll p lots h ad a s f avourable a n o rientation a s p ossible , t he d irection o f a llotment d ivision w as l ater a djusted t wo o r e ven t hree t imes , p roducing a n i ncreasingly r egular p arallel p attern t owards t he e ast . I mportant c ross c hannels a t t he b ends w hich t hus a ppeared i n t he s ystem m ark t he b oundaries o f t hese s tages o f r eclamation . A s r eclamation a dvanced , s ettlement m oved o n w ith i t . M ost o f t he e xcavated h ouses a nd t he c hurch , b elonging t o t he 1 0th-12th c entury A D p eriod o f s ettlement, w ere f ound n ear t he K aaik d itch , t he f irst b oundary o f r eclamation . T he h ouses w ere n ot a t t his p eriod s ited l inearly , b ut s pread o ver n aturally f avourable s ites w ithin t he p lots . I n t he 1 2th-13th c entury A D s ettlement m oved u p t o t he z one 2 00 m w est o f t he p resent v illage , a nd e ven a s f ar a s t he v illage i tself . H ouse s ites a nd a nd p lot n ames r eferring t o d evelopment .

f ormer h ouse s ites s till s howed n o p attern o f l inear A fter t he M iddle A ges, s ettlement w as o nly g radually

c oncentrated a long t he l ine o f t he f ormer r oad d itch i n t he p resent v illage . I n A ssendelft ,

t he p eat b og w as r eclaimed w ith a v iew t o c ultivating

c ereals ( Fig . 1 9) a nd t he i ncidence o f s eeds o f f ield w eeds , t ypical o f t his e nvironment i n d eposits o f b arley f rom t he s ite ( J .P .Pals ( IPP) p ers . c omm .) s upport t his a rgument . T he m ention o f g rain t ithes i n r elation t o n earby p eat r eclamations p rovides a dditional c onfirmation . A rable f arming w as o nly p ossible o n p eat b ogs w hich c ould b e d rained w ell . H owever , t his i nevitably r esulted i n s oil s ubsidence . B y d raining a f urther a rea o f t he u nreclaimed b og n ew w orkable f ields c ould t emporarily b e w on . T his p rocess p artly e xplains t he a dvance o f r eclamation i n A ssendelft i tself : s ettlement w as m oved t o t he e ast t o k eep c lose t o t he f ields , t he c entral p oint o f f arming . T hose f ields w hich h ad s unk d own t o g roundwater l evel w ere f urther e xploited a s p asture . I n t he l ong r un , h owever , a griculture b ecame i mpossible e verywhere, a nd f looding b ecame a n i ncreasing p roblem , I n A ssendelft t he h ouse-sites w ere r aised f rom t he 1 2th-13th c entury A D s ettlement p eriod , a nd d ike-building b ecame a n ecessity . B ecause t he s oil i n t he c entre o f t he p eat b og e ast o f t he v illage w as a ble t o s ubside m ore t han t he t hinner p eat l ayer o n t he m ineral s ubsoil w est o f t he v illage , t he o riginal e ast-west i ncline , a nd t herefore t he d irection o f d rainage i n t he n atural p eat a rea , r eversed i n t he c ourse o f t ime t o b ecome a w est-east i ncline . T his c aused e ven m ore d rainage p roblems . T he p roblem w as e ventually s olved b y d igging n orth-south d rainage d itches s uch a s t he K aaik a nd f inally b y b uilding w ind p umps i n t he e ast i n t he 1 6th c entury A D . F igure 2 0 s hows t he d ifferent s tages o f r eclamation a nd s oil s ubsidence .

3 56

F ig . 1 9 .

A ssendelft : p loughmarks d ating t o b efore t he 1 2th c entury .

3 57

A

S E

NAP

NAP 2

- 2

4

- 4

-6

2 NAP 2 4 1 050 AD

• 2 NAP 2 4 -6

* 2 NAP 2 4 -6

2

F ig . 2 0.

3

4

-- - - 5

1 km

T he r eclamation o f A ssendelft ; l andscape d evelopment a nd t he l ocation o f s ettlement . A fter V os 1 983 , a nd B esteman a nd G uiran 1 987 . L ocation o f .A -B i n F ig . 6 . 1 . C alais-Dunkirk 1 d eposits . 2 . P hragmites p eat . 3 . O ligotrophic p eat . 4 . D unkirk I II d eposits . 5 . S torm s urge l evel .

• 1m

NAP.

NAP X IV / .

t r

X IV

-7 - 7777 , - 7 , - 7 7-7-7 7 7 77-7-7-7 7 v

v

X h IB

5 .

F ig.

2 1.

M arken/Moeniswerf . E ast/West s ection t hrough t he t erp .

1 . D ated r aised l ayers .

3 58

2 . P eat .

T he e ffects o f t he m edieval p eat b og r eclamations o n l andscape a nd s ettlem ent I n N orth H olland , t he t ransformation o f an atural p eat a rea i nto r igidly s ub-divided p asture l and , a rtificially m aintained a bove t he w ater l evel, w as o nly a chieved v ery g radually , a s h as a lready b een s een i n t he e xamples g iven f rom W estfriesland a nd A ssendelft . T he

o ldest

r eclamations w ere

s till

b eing

e xploited

f rom

t he g eest-

s ettlements i n t he c oastal r egion . T he s wampy w ood a nd m arsh z one b etween t he b each b arriers a nd t he p eat b ogs w as p ossibly u sed a s s easonal p asture . T here a re v irtually n o a rchaeological f inds . T he r eclamation o f t he o ligotrophic p eat b ogs s ituated f urther t o t he e ast w ent h and i n h and w ith t he d evelopment o f n ew s ettlements . T he m otive f or t his l arge-scale r eclamation w as t he p otential o f t he w ell-drained p eat f or c ereal c ultivation . T his m eant t hat t he m arshy e utrophic a nd m esotrophic b order z ones o f t he b ogs w ere l ess i ntensively u tilised , a nd p erhaps n ot w holly r eclaimed, u ntil l ater . H istorical e vidence a nd p alaeo-ecological r esearch h ave c onfirmed t he i mportance o f a griculture i n m ost o f t he r eclamations , a nd h ave s hown t hat o ats , b arley a nd , f rom t he C arolingian p eriod , r ye ( Voorrips a nd J ansma 1 974) w ere c ultivated e ven w hen t he l and w as o ccasionally f looded b y s alt w ater ( Van G eel 1 984 ; V an G eel, H allewas a nd P als 1 983 : 3 08 ; V an Z eist 1 973 : 3 51) . F rom r ecent e xperiments o n t he c ultivation o f f ood p lants i n t he s alt-marshes i t a ppears t hat b arley a nd o ats c an t olerate a c ertain d egree o f s alinity ( Van Z eist e t a l . 1 976; B ottema e t a l . T he s oil

1 980) . s ubsidence r esulting f rom d eep d rainage o f t he p eat b ogs f or

t he p urpose o f a griculture l ed t o t he r egular s hifting o f f ields t o n ewlyr eclaimed p eat b og . I t i & n ot c ertain w hether t he s ystem o f p arallel d itches w as u sed f rom t he s tart t o d rain t he p eat ,

b ut

i t

s eems

p robable

w hen o ne c onsiders t he c ourse o f t he r eclamations f or e xample i n W estfriesland . C ertainly , f rom t he 1 0th c entury A D o n , i t w as g eneral p ractice . T he m ovement o f f ields a nd h abitation u sually r esulted i n m ore r egular r eclamations . I n A ssendelft t he r eclamation t ook p lace i n s tages i n w hich , b y c orrecting t he d irection o f t he b oundary d itches, a m ore r egular s ystem d eveloped , w hich w as b etter d ivided . S ettlement , w hich a t f irst w as s cattered , s hifted u p w ith t he r eclamation a nd w as f inally c oncentrated a lon , o ne l ine . P rocesses s uch a s t his , w hich l ed t o g reater r egularity i n l anu d ivision a nd s ettlement , c an b e s een e verywhere a s l ong a s a grarian i nterests w ere a ble t o i nfluence r eclamation u ndisturbed . H owever , a s r eclamation p roceeded , n atural f actors , s uch a s f looding a nd l oss o f l and b ecame r elevant . N on-agrarian s ocial e conomic f actors s uch a s g eographical p osition w ith r espect t o r oads a nd w aterways a nd r elations w ith d eveloping t owns i ncreasingly b rought a bout g reater d ifferentiation i n t he f urther d evelopment o f t he p eat a rea .

D efence a gainst f looding , t he c onstruction o f d ikes E ventually ,

t he a dverse e ffects o f l arge-scale s oil s ubsidence b ecame

a pparent . U nder l ess f avourable c onditions , t he p roximity o f o pen w ater , s o c onvenient f or d rainage , t hreatened t he s inking r eclamations w ith f looding a nd s alination . T hose i nhabitants w ho w ere u nable o r n ot p repared t o p ut u p a f ight e vaded t he p roblem b y f leeing t o u nreclaimed p eat b ogs a t h igher e levations , a bandoning l arge a reas i n t he n orth . T he r apidly-increasing i nfluence o f t he s ea , w as f urther s trengthened b y t he d isastrous s torm

3 59

s urges i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 2th c entury A D , w hich c aused t he t idal i nlets o f t he M arsdiep a nd Z ijpe t o e nlarge , t he W adden S ea t o d evelop a nd L ake A lmere t o g row i nto a n e normous i nland s ea , t he Z uiderzee , l eaving W ieringen a nd T exel b ehind a s i slands . T his r esulted i n t he l oss o f m ost o f t he r eclamations i n t he n orth .

V ia t he Z ijpe/Rekere i nlet i n t he n orth , a nd

f rom t he Z uiderzee/IJ i n t he s outh , W estfriesland a nd m ore s outherly r eclamations , w ere a lso t hreatened . T he l akes o f N orth H olland , i nsofar a s t hey a lready e xisted , b ecame m uch l arger , a nd a l ayer o f m arine c lay w as d eposited i n m any p laces . A s f ar b ack a s t he C arolingian p eriod ,

t here i s e vidence f or m easures

a gainst f looding , s uch a s t he r aising o f d wellings, a s s een o n T exel ( Woltering 1 975: 3 0-1) a nd i n Medemblik ( Besteman 1 974: 9 4) . T his was f ollowed b y t he c onstruction o f h ouse t erpen f rom t he 1 0th t o t he 1 2th c entury i n t he W armenhuizen ( Woltering 1 983) , T orp ( Van E s 1 973) a nd t he S chagen a reas .

T hese o ften g rew i nto l arge , s ometimes e longated , s ettlement

t erpen a s , f or e xample , a t M edemblik . A ttempts t o p rotect t he l and f rom f looding w ere f irst s uccessful i n t he c oastal s trip . I n t his a rea , t he s tate o f w ater m anagement h ad c ompletely c hanged . D rainage v ia t he o ld t idal i nlet a t E gmond h ad b ecome s ilted u p , a nd i n t he 1 1th c entury A D t here w as d rainage v ia t he R ekere a nd t he Z ijpe i nlets t owards t he n orth a nd i ncreasingly v ia t he I J a nd t he l ake o f A lmere i n a n e asterly d irection . A ccording t o t he h istorical e vidence , t he l owl ying a reas b etween t he b each b arriers w ere p rotected , f rom t he 1th c entury A D o nwards b y l inking t he b arriers b y m eans o f s mall d ikes o r f rom t he 1 2th c entury o nwards , b y e nclosing a reas f rom t he b each b arrier . B y j oining t ogether t he v arious s ections e nlarged ( Westenberg 1 974) . P robable

o f

d ike

t he

d iked-in a rea w as

c ontinually

r emains o f a d ike i n t he s ubmerged r eclamations n orth o f

S chagen p oint t o f utile a ttempts t o p rotect t he l and f rom f looding . Many o ld d ikes d iscovered a round S chagen m ake i t p ossible t o r econstruct a c onstantly-growing c luster o f d istricts p rotected b y d ikes ( Hallewas 1 984b : 1 9-20) . F inally , o n t he c ompletion o f t he W estfrisian r ing-dike , o ver 1 00 k m l ong , i n t he 1 3th c entury A D , t he w hole o f W estfriesland w as p rotected , a s w ere , t o a c ertain e xtent , t he v ulnerable s outhern r eclamations . B ut t here , t oo , f looding f rom t he Z uiderzee a nd t he I J m ade p rotective m easures i ndispensable . R ecent p alaeo-ecological s tudies s how i ncreasing s alination i n t he s outhern p art o f t he Z uiderzee i n t he 1 2th a nd 1 3th c enturies A D , w hich i s 3 00 y ears e arlier t han w as t hought u p t o n ow ( Van G eel , B os a nd P als 1 983 : 4 42) . F rom t his t ime o nwards t he h ouse-sites i n t he s outh w ere r aised , s ometimes b y a s m uch a s 3m , a fter w hich , i f t here w ere s everal h ouses , t he n uclei g rew t ogether t o f orm l arger d welling t erpen . T he t erpen o n M arken , w hich w ere i ndispensable u ntil t he c onstruction o f t he I Jsselmeer D am i n 1 932 , a re i n s ome c ases 6 m t hick ( Besteman a nd H eidinga 1 978 : 9 2-94) ( Fig . 2 1) .

7 8 ,

A lmost a t t he s ame t ime a s t erpen w ere b eing b uilt , d ikes w ere b eing c onstructed i n t he s outhern p eat r egion , w here t here w ere m any r ivers a nd l akes .

T he s ea ,

h owever ,

s till

h ad f ree a ccess

t o

t he w aters

o f N orth

H olland u ntil, i n t he l ast s tage o f d ike-construction , t he l ate 1 3th a nd 1 4th c enturies A D , m ost o f t he l inks w ith t he Z uiderzee a nd I J h ad b een d ammed u p . M eanwhile , i mportant .

t he

i nfluence

o f

t he C ounts

I n t he u nfortunate f ight

3 60

a gainst

o f H olland h ad t he

a gain b ecome

' a trocious ' W estfrisians ,

t hey g ained

t he u pper h and

i n t he s econd h alf

o f t he 1 3th c entury .

T he

W estfrisians h ad t o s ubject t hemselves t o t he C ount 's a uthority . H e k new w here h is i nterests l ay , a nd e ncouraged t he b uilding o f d ikes w herever p ossible , b oth i n W estfriesland a s w ell a s i n t he r est o f h is t erritory .

L ate m edieval d evelopments i n t he p eat a rea :

c hanges i n l and u tilisation

a nd c ompletion o f t he i nfrastructure D ue

t o

c ontinuous

s oil

s ubsidence

i n

t he p eat

a rea ,

a rable

f arming

c eased t o b e t he e conomic b asis o f t he p eat r eclamations w hen , i n t he 1 2/13th c entury A D , t here w as n o l onger a ny r eclaimable r aised p eat b og a vailable . T he r eclamations, w hich h ad s unk a lmost a s f ar d own a s t he g roundwater l evel, c ould n ow o nly b e e xploited a s p asture . A s r eclamation p roceeded i n t his w ay w ithin t he v illage t erritories , t he p roportion o f c attle-raising o n f arms i ncreased a long w ith t he c ontinuing s oil s ubsidence . T his c hange f rom a rable f arming t o c attle-breeding w as c ompleted i n t he 1 4th c entury A D a ccording t o t he d rop i n t he c ount 's i ncome f rom c orn t ithes ( De B oer 1 978 : 2 18) . T he i ncreasing u se o f m anure a s m aterial i n t he l ater s tages o f t erp-building a lso p oints t o as urplus o f m anure ,

d ue t o t he f act

t hat c ereal f arming h ad a lmost c eased . O nly i n t hose p laces w here t he p eat c over h ad n ot b een a s t hick , f or e xample i n l arge a reas o f W estfriesland , a nd h ad d isappeared b y o xidation , w as i t p ossible t o c ontinue a griculture o n t he m ineral s ubsoil . T his a lso a pplied t o t he b anks o f d itches w hich h ad b een r aised w ith d redgings , o n w hich o ats a nd b arley w ere o ccasionally g rown i n t imes o f n eed ( Van d er W oude 1 972 : 3 40-1) . T he f inal s tep i n t he e xploitation o f t he p eat w as p eat-cutting t o m eet t he f uel r equirements o f t he n ew t owns . A lthough i t r esulted i n f urther l ake-formation , i t w as e conomically w orthwhile . W ith t he t ransition f rom a rable t o c attle-farming w e h ave n ow r eached t he l ast s tage o f r eclamation . T he i nfrastructure o f t he r eclamations e ventually r eached c ompletion i n t he

s ettlements

w hich

g rew

u p

a long

p articularly a t t rans-shipment p laces a t m erchants s ettled t here , g oods n eeded b y p roduce o f t he l and s uch a s m eat, d airy L abourers w ho h ad b ecome r edundant i n t he

t he

i mportant

w aterways,

a nd

d ams a nd d ykes . C raftsmen a nd t he v illages w ere i mported , a nd p roducts a nd p eat, w ere t raded . v illages b ecause c attle-farming

w as l ess l abour-intensive f ound w ork t here . A ccustomed a s t hey w ere t o w ater t raffic i n t he p eat a rea w ith i ts m any r ivers a nd l akes , t hey n ow s pecialised i n t he t ransport o f g oods b y w ater . T he m any t owns i n t he p eat a rea w hich f lourished i n t he 1 4th c entury A D , w ith t he c ount 's s upport , b ear w itness t o t he s uccess o f t he r eclamations . T he d evelopment o f t owns , w ith t heir e conomy o nly p artly b ased o n a griculture , h ad a g reat i nfluence o n t he c ountry . A lthough t he l andscape d id n ot r adically c hange , s ettlement w as c ontinually r elocated , s ometimes t o t he s afer d ikes , a nd s ometimes b ecoming c oncentrated . T he l ocation o f t he s ettlement w ith r espect t o t he l and e xploited n o l onger s eems t o h ave b een t he d ecisive f actor b ut r ather t he p roximity o f w aterways a nd r oads . I n W aterland , t he r egion n orth o f A msterdam , t his s econdary p rocess o f s hifting s ettlements c an b e s een m ost c learly . I n c urrent f ieldwork m ore t han 6 00 a bandoned h ouse-sites h ave b een d iscovered t o d ate , w hich c an b e a ttributed t o 2 5 c ompletely o r p artially d eserted p redecessors o f t he s even p resent v illages

( F ig .

2 2) .

T he s hifting s ettlement p atterns s een h ere w ere

a t f irst c onnected w ith t he p rogress o f r eclamation a nd l ater w ith t he d ecline o f t he o riginally r eclaimed r egion t hrough l oss o f l and , w hich

3 61

F ig .

2 2.

W aterland . 1 . D eserted s ettlement . s ettlement . 4 . D ike . A fter B os 1 984 .

3 62

2 . C hurch .

3 . P resent

c aused t he s ettlements t o m ove t o l ess t hreatened l and a nd l ater t o b ecome s maller a nd t o c oncentrate . F inally t hey b ecome f ocused o n r oads , d ams a nd d ikes ( Bos 1 984 : 6 8-7 0 . T he v arying i ntensity o f t he r elation b etween t own a nd c ountry c an b e t raced a rchaeologically i n t he v illages o f W aterland u ntil a fter t he M iddle A ges . W ith t his , w e h ave r eached t he c ompletion o f t he c onversion o f a n u ninhabited n atural p eat a rea i nto a m echanically-drained

l andscape w hich

h as b een well p lanned e nvironmentally a nd w hich i s d ensely p opulated . F urther c ollaboration b etween a rchaeologists a nd w orkers i n o ther d isciplines w ill r efine a nd e xtend t his p icture . H owever , a rchaeology h as b een g ranted l ittle t ime t o d o s o . L and c onsolidation a nd l arge-scale m odern m anagement i n p eat a reas i nvolve a s ignificant l owering o f t he w ater l evel. T he a ccelerated o xidation o f t he p eat a nd t he a rchaeological e vidence i n i t i s a n i mmediate t hreat t o w hat i s c alled o ur ' soil a rchive ' . I t i s, t herefore , o f t he u tmost i mportance t hat r esearch s hould b e a ccelerated i mmediately a nd t hat s ites s hould b e p rotected i n t he p eat a reas , w hich a re r apidly l osing t heir a rchaeological p otential .

A cknowledgements D rawings b y A .M . N uman , t ranslation b y C .P .

J efferis ,

I PP ;

p hotographs b y F . G ijbels I PP ;

A msterdam

3 63

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I n :

E en k ijkje i n d e

K uiper N . a nd V .J .

N obel)

E en r egionaal-historisch

o nderzoek i n d e d emografische e n e conomische g eschiedenis v an d e n egentiende e e uw . 3 v ols . W ageningen : d octoral t hesis U niversity o f U trecht . Z agwijn W .H .

( 1984)

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( 1973) T he e nvironment o f ' Het T orp ' i n i ts e arly p hase . B erichten v an d e R ijksdienst v oor h et O udheidkundig B odemonde rzoek 2 3 3 47-353 .

3 67

Z eist W . v an , T .C .

v an

H oorn ,

S .

B ottema

a nd

H .

W oldring

( 1976)

A n

a gricultural e xperiment i n t he u nprotected s alt m arsh , I . P alaeohistoria 1 8 11153.

3 68

C OMMENTARY A ND C ONCLUSION J . M . C oles

" When y ou 've s pent h alf y our p olitical l ife d ealing w ith h umdrum i ssues l ike t he e nvironment . i t 's e xciting t o h ave a r eal c risis o n y our h ands" . S o

s aid

a w ell-known

p olitician d uring

t he F alklands

c ampaign ,

a nd

t his

u nfortunately s ums u p a l arge b ody o f o pinion a bout o ur e nvironment t oday i t i s v isible y et i nvisible , a nd t he r elevance o f i ts c ondition t o o ur l ives i s o ften u nappreciated . I n t erms o f w etland e nvironment , t he s ubject o f t he c onference , i n n o o ther c ase i s t he n eed f or ' image e nhancement ' s o g reat .

W etlands

d estroyed

b y

t hroughout

d rainage ,

t he w orld

d redging

a nd

a re

i n d anger a nd m any

2 0th

c entury

a re

d evelopment .

n ow W hat

a rchaeologists c an d o t o a ddress t his p roblem i s , i n i solation , v ery l ittle , a nd t he t heme i mplicit b ut u nstated i n m any o f t he c onference p apers w as t he n eed t o c ollaborate w ith o thers n ot o nly i n s tudying w etlands b ut i n e fforts t o p reserve w etlands f or t he f uture . a nd a mongst

t he

p apers g iven a nd p rinted h ere w ere s ome d ecidedly u nwet , e ven u ndamp ; m any e nvironments a ppeared t o h ave b een ' exploited ' i n t erms o f

T he

s ubject

n ot t he

c onference

o f

t itle,

w etland

a nd

e nvironments

p erhaps

i s

a b etter

a v ast

t itle

o ne ,

w ould

h ave

b een

' The

e nvironmental a rchaeological e xploitation o f w etlands a nd o ther d amp p laces ' . W hatever t he a pproach , i t s eems i mportant t o r ecord t hat i n 1 986 t he a rchaeological r esources o f t he U nited K ingdom w ere s till q uite c learly d irected

t owards

r escue b udget o f

e nvironments

o ther t han w etlands ;

p erhaps

t he v arious a rchaeological a gencies

o nly 6 % o f t he

i n E ngland ,

S cotland

a nd W ales w as f irmly a ssigned t o w etland p rojects, a nd N orthern I reland s eems t o h ave b een e ven l ess w ell-supported , o r r ather e ven m ore p oorlys upported .

W here p rojects h ave g ot o ff t he g round ( or i nto t he w et) ,

t he F enlands

a nd

t he

S omerset L evels ,

s upport w as g enerous .

I t i s

a s i n i n t he

r ecognition o f t he a rchaeological p otential, a nd i n t he i nitial s tages o f e stablishment o f p rojects , t hat w etlands s eem t o d eter f unding a gencies , a nd t he c onference m ade s everal r eferences t o t his f undamental p roblem . D ryland p rojects c an o ften b e c losely a ssessed f or y ield a nd c osts ; w etlands c an b e f righteningly e xpensive i f a ll o f t he e vidence i s t o b e r etrieved a nd s tudied , a ccepting

a nd t hose w ho h ave t o a ssign f unds s eem t o b e h esitant a bout t he

f act.

T he c onference p rogramme c ontained a w ide r ange o f p apers c overing m any t opics, l oosely g rouped i n s essions, b ut m ost, n ot a ll, s howed t he o verlapping n ature o f s tudies c oncerned w ith b oth h umanly-induced a nd n aturally-progressive c hanges i n t he e nvironment o f w etlands o ver t ime . T he d ependence o f a rchaeology o n t he n atural s ciences, a nd t he b lurring o f d istinction b etween a rchaeology a nd e nvironmental s tudies ,

a re n owhere m ore

e vident t han i n w etlands . Ic onfess t hat a t t imes i t w as d ifficult t o f ollow t he a rgument a nd t he d etail i n s ome o f t he p apers . A ll t hose b eetles , b ones , s nails , s eeds a nd p ollen g rains , i n a ll t hose m uds , s ilts , s umps, b ogs a nd p its , o ccasionally l ost t heir r elevance b ut i t i s i mportant t o a ccept t hat d etail, t he p recision e xpressed t hrough s ystematic a nalyses, i s t he k ey t o c lose e nvironmental u nderstanding . F or t oo l ong w e h ave p erhaps a ccepted t he

3 69

g eneralised

e nvironmental

' the

l andscape ' ,

f orest

w ithout

c learance ' ,

' the

r eed s wamp ' ,

' the

d etail .

l ack o f c omprehension a t t imes w as n ot a s d ispiriting a s i t

S o m y

o pen

s cene ,

' the w oodland ' ,

a ctually k nowing

a nything

i n

m ight h ave b een i n o ther c ircumstances , a nd w e c an a lways f all b ack t o I rene P eters ' p osition - ' Today i f y ou a re n ot c onfused y ou a re j ust n ot t hinking c learly'. T he c ase c ould h ave b een a rgued a t t his c onference t hat a g ood w et a rchaeological s ite n eeds o nly t wo k inds o f s cientists, a n e nvironmentalist , a nd a c onservator ,

w ith t he a rchaeologist s .s . o nly o bserving a nd n ot

a llowed t o t ouch a nything . N ot t rue I t hink , b ut t he p rimary r oles o f o ther t wo h ave t o b e a ccepted . Y et i s e ither i n a p osition t o a ssume r ole?

t he i ts

N ot i n t he c limate o f t oday , a nd I d o n ot s ee a ny e nvironmental,

c onservation , w etlands

s trategy

e merging

a t

p resent .

E nvironmental

w ork

h as a n u nusual p roblem - t he a bundance o f e vidence .

i n

o r t he

T he s mallest

s ample o f p eat o r m ud c an c ontain e nough w ork f or m onths o f i nvestigation , y et t here i s s till n o a greed s ampling s trategy f or w et d eposits, a nd a lthough

t he

a chievements

i n e nvironmental

a nalyses

h ave

b een v ery

c onsiderable , t he c omparability o f r esults , i nter-and i ntra-site , c annot b e a ssessed d ue t o t he i mposition o f p erfectly r easonable y et s till a d h oc s ampling a nd a nalytical s trategies o n am ajority o f i ndividual s ites . T he

r ole

o f

e nvironmental

s tudies

i n

a rchaeology

a mplify t he r ecord , t o g uide a rchaeological a pproaches , w orking h ypotheses ,

i s

p resumably

t o

t o c orrect a nd a mend

t o a ssist i n i nterpretations . T he s ubject d oes n ot e xist

i n i solation f rom i ts s urrounds , a nd c annot p retend t o o perate b y i tself a s a n i nternally s elf-satisfying s tudy . I t i s p robably t empting t o c arry t hrough e nvironmental a nalyses t o t heir f inest d egree , t o c omplete t he v ery l ast i dentification , t o c reate c omplex a nd m ulti-dimensional m odels o f i nterrelationships . W etland e nvironments a re s o r ich , h owever, t hat r elevance m ust a ssume a p aramount i mportance , p articularly f or e nvironmental a rchaeologists .

I p ersonally

d espair

o f

E nvironmental

A ppendices ,

t he

b urial o f i nformation i n t he s mallest r eadable t ype a t t he e nd o f ar eport , o r e ven w orse ( ?the u ltimate i ndignity) o n m icrofiche .

Many o f

t hese

d ecisions o n a ppendices , d ecisions t aken b y t he a rchaeologists w ho d ug t he s ites a nd s aw t he s amples b eing e xtracted , a re w rong o n p urely p hilosophical g rounds,

b ut

s ome m ay h ave b een i mposed b y t he a bundance o f u nneeded

e nvironmental d etail o r i ts l ack o f r elevance t o t he a rchaeological r eport . E nvironmentalists h ave t o b e p ithy , a pposite , p roblem-solving , q uestiona nswering , i n aw ord , r elevant . A lthough J oseph A ddison w rote ' A uthors h ave e stablished i t a s a k ind o f r ule t hat a m an o ught t o b e d ull s ometimes ' , t here i s n o n eed f or a n e nviromnental a rchaeologist , m an o r w oman , t o b e d ull s o l ong a s h e o r s he i s r elevant . T he c onference p apers w ere w idely s pread a cross

t he w etland r egions ,

s ites a nd d eposits . O f t he m any i ndividual s ubjects , t hree o r f our s eemed t o m e t o b e o f w ider c oncern . O ne e mphasised t he n eed t o e xperiment a nd t o d evelop n ew t echniques a nd a pproaches ;

t he

r emote

s ensing

e xperiments

a t

Morton F en , L incolnshire, c ould b e o f c rucial i mportance f or w etland s urveys i n t he f uture , b ut o nly i f t he a rchaeological w orld a t l arge i s c onvinced

o f

t he

i mportance

o f

s uch e xperimental

n eed t o f ind n ew i deas a nd t echniques .

a pproaches ,

A s econd i mportant

a nd o f

t he

c oncern i s

t he

n eed t o c omprehend a nd e xplain t he p rocesses a t w ork i n w etland d eposits s ince a ncient o ccupation o r a ctivity o ccurred . A nimal b one t aphonomy i s w ell-known ,

o r

i s

a t

l east

b ecoming b etter-known ;

a pplies t o w etland a rchaeological d eposits i s m ostly u n-appreciated ( because n ot u nderstood)

3 70

s oil

t aphonomy

a s

i t

a lso n ot u nknown b ut i s o r i gnored b y e xcavators

( because

i nconvenient?) .

T he

c onference p apers

a nd o n t he N orth H olland m edieval i mportance

o f

a n u nderstanding

o n F enland b uried s oils,

r eclamations,

o f w etland

s oils

i nterpretations; w ithout s uch u nderstanding, c ontextual a rchaeology i s t hreatened . O f m ore a nalyses

t o

g eneral

a cceptance w as

a ncient

l andscapes,

s howed

f or b oth t he

w hole

t he a pplication o f

b ut

t he

p aper

t he

o n

c rucial

s trategies

a nd

c oncept

o f

e nvironmental

W est

F riesland

d emonstrated h ow m ultiple a nalyses o f m any k inds , a llied t o i nnovative a nd a daptable p ractical t echniques ,

c ould l ead t o t heoretical

r econstructions

o f t he d ynamics o f a ncient l andscape e xploitations ; t his w as p erhaps o ne o f t he f ew p apers t hat a ddressed t he t itle o f t he c onference . One o ther m essage w as c learly e xpressed b y s everal s peakers - t he n eed f or m odern e cological s tudies t o b e f ocussed u pon t he f ragmentary e vidence f rom t he p ast .

E xplanations

o f

i nsect

r emains

f rom w et

d eposits m ust

b e

b ased

o n

w ide o bservations o f l iving s pecies, p artly t o r educe t he i mpact o f a ccidental s urvivals o r m isunderstood p ost-depositional f actors ; i n t he s ame w ay ,

t he

c ontextual

s ignificance

o f

s nails

a ccessible e cological w ork o n l iving a nimals .

i s

d ependent

u pon

g ood

W oodland m anagement s tudies

c an o nly b enefit f rom b etter a nd m ore r elevant k nowledge o f f orest e cology , a nd e ven e thnographic e vidence e ntered t he d iscussion , o n t he a ncient r oofing o f s tructures . T hroughout

t he p apers

t here s eemed t o b e s trong s upport f or b ulk

s ampling , s ometimes m assive s ampling a t s peed ( the S AS a pproach?) i n o rder t o r eap s ome o f t he b enefits o f w et d eposits - b asically, q uantifiable r esults ,

a voiding ( by o verwhelming) a ccidental

i ntrusions ,

m issing c ertain

d etails , b ut p roducing a v isibility o f r esult t hat c an o nly i mpress b oth p ublic a nd f under a like . A n i nteresting d iscussion m ight h ave b een h eld b etween t hese p roponents a nd t hose f avouring a k eyhole s ampling a pproach , i n d epth a nd d etail . W e w ill n ot o ften h ave b oth s ets o f d ata f rom t he s ame s ite . T he q uestion

c onference d id

n ot

a ddress

o f w etland p rotection .

c onference ,

o ne

t he

c rucial

Although n ot

s atisfaction o f

p roblem ,

a nd

t he m ajor

c omparing

t hat

i s

t he

i ssue

o f

t he

w etlands a nd w et d eposits e verywhere h old t he k inds o f e vidence

m odern a rchaeology s eeks , a nd t he c urrent t hreats t o t heir s urvival c an o nly b e a m atter o f T he b asis

c oncern t o a ll w ho h ave s tudied o r w ho h ope t o s tudy t hem .

f or t he f unding o f w etland a rchaeology i n t he U nited K ingdom i s

i nevitably l inked w ith t he ' R escue ' v ote , a nd e nvironmental a rchaeologists a re u niquely q ualified t o a dvise a nd t o r ecommend o n s uch a n i ssue , a nd t o b e i dentified w ith c onservation a gencies i n e fforts t o r etain w etlands f or t he f uture . T he A ssociation m ight w ell c onsider i f i t s hould a dopt a m ore v isible p osition o n t he p reservation o f o ne o f i ts p rime s ources o f e vidence .

Y et s omeone o nce s aid ' A c onference i s a g athering o f

p eople w ho s ingly c an d o n othing , b e d one ' . C an n othing b e d one?

i mportant

b ut t ogether c an d ecide t hat n othing c an

3 71